^o5n!a^e! :-'^^ '£-1»f'' ■ -■ \ V >*■ '''tii^.l,- ■ - ■ . '■■. '"^-i- ' ^ : : '•■■•'■ '-■':- J/- ■' ■-i'- ■■'^\*''--'^H-r)»:i«'" .y,:. UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. SAN DIEGO 3 1822 02375 7875 — ' h'f' *-*■- ■.- v* '^ ■ *. ». 1 . '. .TB^rof/i'-.''^; >,• - • '■••';> '^ ■-= - ''^J^^^i^ ' ' J -. . ■^.r:M'.'^'':- ' ^w^&-' '.'^^M^ ■V: V'n-y ;■' ' i"'''/ ■ •.V X.,-' » i •■■■'■ 'Irf^'u ' •''.C'j''^*:^^"r''i/ .'' / /7 77 iGElSa LIBRARY * ^ ^ XV KAMBLES AND STUDIES IN BOSNIA-HEEZEGOYINA AND DALMATIA % 6-in'aki'-Dwelliugs of Europe.' BOSNIA-HEEZEGOYINA AND DALMATIA. CHAPTER I. TO AND AT SAIIAJEVO. The provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina are situated in the mountainous regions of the north-west corner of the Balkan peninsula. The fact that they are separated by the backbone of the Dinaric Alps — the watershed of the Adriatic and the Pontus — furnishes an explanation of the marked contrast observed in their respective natural productions and scenery. To the north-east of this range lies Bosnia, whose deep glens, broken ridges, and beautifully wooded liills stretch away till they finally merge into the plain of the Save. The country is traversed from south to north by four main rivers — viz., the Una, the Vrbas, the Bosna, and the Drina, all tributaries of the Save. These long-winding watervva3's here and there expand into alluvi.il bnsitis wliifji yield good crops of maize; while on the dc- A 2 TO AND AT SARAJEVO. clivitics are cultivated, often to a great height, wheat, barley, rye, oats, millet, and other cereals. Herze- o-ovina, on the other hand, slopes towards the south- west in a succession of broad ridges of Karst (lime- stone), with intervening valleys generally running parallel with the coast. The last and lowest ridge almost disappears in the Adriatic, only the higher points being visible in the long line of islands which skirt its eastern shore. These rugged plateaux are utterly destitute of vegetation, and from the more commanding view-points they look like a tumultuous sea of bare, bleak, and desolate rocks. A remarkable feature of the rivers and streams of these regions is that, with few exceptions, they eventually lose them- selves in underground passages {ponors) ; while others, in an equally mysterious manner, suddenly appear on the surface. But however long or short the course of a stream may be, it invariably gives rise to a most luxuriant vegetation — a veritable oasis in the desert. Another noteworthy feature of the country is that during late autumn and winter many of its confined valleys {polje) become extensive lakes or swamps. In early summer these accumulated surface-waters gradually disappear by means of evaporation and the underground passages, and as they retire their former slimy beds are made to yield, with little labour, an abundant crop of maize. Of the rivers of Herzeg-ovina the famous Narenta is the only one of magnitude which finds its way to the sea entirely above ground. Rising on the flanks of some of THE NAEENTA. 3 the higher ridges of the Dinaric Alps, it at first takes a northward course, and then, after a sudden semi- circular sweep to the west round the Prenj group of mountains, flows due south throuoh one of the g;randest defiles in Europe. Beyond this the Narenta comes into more open ground and passes through some alluvial plains, where the olive, the fig, and the pomegranate find a congenial habitat side by side with fields of maize, rice, and tobacco. Although, as one approaches the sea, the higher mountains are left behind, the general configuration of the country is still lofty, and presents the same parched, sunburnt appearance as the interior. The special geographical conditions wdiich gave rise to the diversified flora and fauna of these provinces had also a considerable influence in modifying, from time to time, the racial characters and social life of their inhabitants. Open, on one side, to the fluctuating civilisations which successively flourished on the shores of the Mediterranean, and, on the other, easily accessible to the nomadic hordes from Asia and the north-eastern regions of Europe, it is probable that from the earli- est times the Balkan peninsula was inhabited by a mixed population. The varied ethnological elements thus imported from all sides readily took root in Bosnia and Herzegovina, whose woods and mountain recesses afforded a safe retreat in times of persecution. Of the pifliistoiif iiilKil>itaiits of the country little information has come down to us either tlnough tradition or written records. To Herodotus and some of the classical authors 4 TO AND AT SARAJEVO. the western half of the Balkan peninsula was known under the name Illyricum. Although the territory thus desionated was more restricted in Roman times, it still included the whole of Dalmatia, part of modern Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Montenegro, and part of Albania. With the downfall of the Roman Empire, the country became an easy prey to the advancing Slavs, who speedily established themselves as its domi- nant people. The various branches of these northern wanderers— Avars, Slavs, Serbs and Croats — who found a footing within the confines of Illyricum, by degrees became consolidated into independent groups, who were governed by p)rinces called Bans or Way wodes. Almost at the first onset of the invaders the old Romans were driven to the islands and towns on the coast of the Adriatic, and even there, for a long time, were not safe from their fierce enemies. But at no time were the Slavs of Bosnia sufiiciently powerful to occupy a commanding position among the social organisations which were developing around them, and so they became dependent first on Byzantium and then on Hungary. Christianity was introduced among the Slavish races about the middle of the seventh century, and it was a couple of centuries later before the new doctrines superseded the paganism of the Narenta valley. But scarcely had this faith been established in the Balkan peninsula ere it gave birth to a mystic creed called Bogomilism, which seems to have taken an unusually strong hold on the minds of the people of Bosnia END OF TURKISH RULE. 5 and Herzesfovina. This new creed was condemned as O heresy by the Church, and consequently its public pro- fession was followed by long-continued religious perse- cutions of unheard-of severity. Finall}^, owing to these and other internal dissensions, the two provinces fell into the hands of the Turks, and in 1463 they became incorporated with the Ottoman Empire. Henceforth Bosnia and Herzegovina vanished from the current of European civilisation, and for upwards of 400 years scarcely a ray of Western thought penetrated the intel- lectual gloom which settled over these beautiful lands. Repeated but fruitless insurrections only intensified the grindiDg spirit of Turkish rule. At last, in 1875, goaded by extortionate taxation, as well as by the fanatical persecutions of Mohammedans, the Christians once more made a determined effort to throw off the yoke of their oppressors. On the failure of the Turks to restore order, the provinces were invaded by the Austro-Hungarian army. A strenuous resistance offered by the supporters of Turkish supremacy was soon put down, and since then, in accordance with the provisions of the Berlin Treaty of 1878, Bosnia and Herzegovina have been governed under the administration of the Austro - Hungarian Empire. In proceeding to give a short account of tlio present condition of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and of some of the scenes and incidents which attracted my attention during a recent visit to these singularly picturesque regions, I have to [)remise that my i)rimary object was to take part in a special Congress of anthropologists and 6 TO AND AT SARAJEVO. arclia3ologists, held at Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia. Foreseeing from the comprehensive programme sub- mitted to the members in advance that during the sitting of Congress there would be little time for any- thing but archaeology, my wife and I determined to visit the country before the meeting began. Hence the materials of the following sketches are gathered, partly from wanderings made on our own hook, and partly from archaeological excursions specially arranged by the authorities at Sarajevo, which afforded glimpses of scenery and social life of exceptional interest. Before leaving, I received an official letter {Offene Oj^dre) from his Excellency Herr von Kallay, Finance Minister of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and head of the adminis- tration of Bosnia-Herzegovina, commanding all public authorities to protect and assist us during our travels in the country. Armed with these credentials and the above-men- tioned programme, we started on our journey in high spirits, and, on the afternoon of the 3d of August, left Buda-Pest on the final railway journey which was to bring us to Sarajevo. The Belgrade express conveyed us as far as Szabadka, a prosperous town prettily situated in the middle of the richest corn district in Hungary. Its appearance is more emphasised on my memory by the information, vouchsafed by a fellow- traveller, that it is the great centre for the export of eggs to the English market. On alighting here another train was in readiness to take us to Bosna-Brod, the first station of the Bosnian railw^ay, as well as being the BOSNA-BROD. 7 terminus of the Hungarian State railway. The discom- fort of this monotonous journey through the great plain of Hungary, with its hot sun, parched fields, and dusty atmosphere, is almost indescribable. The drought was so great that villages were taking fire, as if from spon- taneous combustion, and before the close of the day we passed two blazing hamlets. The only event of rousing interest was the passage of the Danube by means of a chain ferry, which transported the entire train without any more disturbance to the passengers than if it had been shunted into a siding-. Bosna-Brod is situated on the Bosnian side of the Save, immediately after crossing the fine railway bridge which here, in three arches, spans the river. We arrived at the station about midnight, where — the Bosna-hahn beinof a narrow- cjauoe line — an hour w^as allowed for transference from the one system to the other. A restaurant adjacent to the railway station was largely patronised by beer- and coffee-drinkers, but its commis- sariat resources at such an unseasonable hour were very limited, and so our long-desired Ahendessen had to be restricted to tlie plainest fare. As soon as I took tickets for Sarajevo an official in uniform, who was standing near, demanded my passport. I at once handed him my OJf'ene Ordre, and upon scanning its contents he very politely tonclicd liis en]) ;ui ■Si a; < ■u w M THE BAZAARS. 13 Here, in open wooden booths, native goods may be seen in the act of beins; manufactured. Indifferent to the gaze of onlookers, the busy artisans ply their work from morning till sunset, when they retire to their villas and gardens in the suburbs. The different trades are gov- erned by guilds, as was formerly the case throughout Europe, and each guild has its patron saint and the usual Ions: list of officials. Most of these trades have some special locality where the workers congregate, and whole streets are almost exclusively occupied by their work- shops. The stranger, if he is not already conversant with oriental ways, is apt to linger long watching the execution of the more delicate processes, such as the inlaying of silver wire in tasteful designs on iron or wood. Towards the east end of the Carsija there is a Turkish reading-hall (Kiraet-Han), built in the oriental style, the most common place of resort for the better- class Mohammedans, who are often to be found there louno-in*-*- on the divans serenely smokino- chibouks or cigarettes. They are pleased to see strangers, whom they entertain to coffee and the finest tobacco. It is, however, in the provision market that tlie most lively scenes take place. Here, during the fore- noons, exposed in stalls along the streets, may be seen poulU)', Ijutchers' meat, fish, vegetables, fruit, &c. Bakers, pastry-cooks, and vendors of sweets of unknown composition, have then a busy time of it, now watching tlieir ]i;uis, now l);i\vling for tlie patron- age of the passers-by. Nor are the etlinological elements and varied costumes 14 TO AND AT SARAJEVO. displayed by the to-and-fro crowds less novel. To dis- tinguish between the representatives of the different races and religions requires some local experience and historical knowledge. The confusion of racial charac- ters, so far as these may be indicated by dress and general appearance, is increased by the fact that most of the present-day Mohammedans are Slavs by blood. Formerly Christians, of the sect known as Bogomiles, they ultimately adopted Mohammedanism in self-defence in preference to Roman Catholicism. But whatever be the race or creed of the modern Bosniac, — Slav, Semite, or Turk ; Christian, Jew, or Moslem, — he still lives, moves, and has his being in the traditional world of his forefathers. Hence, as might be expected, the cos- tumes seen in Sarajevo are somew^hat bewildering. Of the men, some wear the fez or turban, along with a tight jacket, loose knickerbockers, stockings, and pointed slippers. Others have costumes which appear to have borrowed their individual elements from mixed sources. Almost every man w^ears round his waist a sash or leathern girdle, in the folds of which he carries such necessary objects as tobacco, knife, &c. The Mayor of Sarajevo wears European dress and a fez. Women also adhere to their traditional costumes. Veiled or unveiled, they strut along on wooden slippers and the divided skirt a la Turque. Mussulman women seldom appear on the streets ; but a Catholic or a Jewish girl may be seen wearing a fez, or a small round cap ornamented with coins, by way of setting off her coquettish face. Serbian women of the peasant order wear loose gar- DIFFERENT RACES. 15 ments made of a coarse white material, and a head-dress somewhat resembling that worn by the Neapolitan women (Fig. 1). l-lg. I. — ^LKblA.N I'liAbA.NTii, liObMA. V Returnin«j; in o;ood time lioni our stroll in the Car- .sija, we secured a convenient table for the evening mf;il in tlie rest.-iuiaiit. Tfcrc the military, as well as the civilian, element was wcj] represented, nnd as the 16 TO AND AT SARAJEVO. officers came in we watcliecl the punctilious etiquette witli which they greeted each other according to their respective ranks. By-and-by two young officers en- tered looking somewhat perplexed, noticing no one and unnoticed by anybody. They were Austrian civ- ilians, ordered to Sarajevo for a month's drill, but as ignorant of the country as ourselves. Being our fellow- travellers from Bosna-Brod, we had already made their acquaintance. On seeing us they at once came forward and asked permission to sit at our table. One of them spoke good English, and both were extremely pleasant and full of fun, and our table by no means failed to supply its quota to the babel of mirth and laughter which resounded through the supper-room. We had our first general view of Sarajevo from that magnificent view-point the castle rock, which, rising some 500 feet above the bed of the river, commands an extensive survey of the town and its surrounding hills (Plate III.). Starting from the hotel by the Franz Josephstrasse, we entered the gorge of the Miljacka by a road which winds round the base of the precipitous clifi" ^ on its right bank, and, after a short walk, ascended, by a branch road on the left, to the front wall of the Citadel, where, suddenly, we came upon a panorama of surpassing grandeur. I have seen many cities renowned for their beauty — Damascus and Jerusalem, Cairo and Constanti- nople, the Venice of the North and the Venice of the South — but none of them excited within me such admi- ration as Sarajevo. Thickly j)lanted in this undulating sea of cjuaint-looking houses, so diversified in form and < H O a: X X' VIEW FROM THE CASTLE. 17 material, ^Ye^e mosques ami minarets, churches and spires, offices, barracks, and sepulchres. Indeed, wher- ever the eye wandered, it was a perfect study in black and white. On the outskirts, to right and left, were the suburban villas and gardens, some nestling in secluded hollows, others clinging to the higher slopes among rocks and woods. The j\Iiljacka having emerged from its rocky bed, appeared now as a silvery streak dividing the town into two nearly equal portions, but connected by nine bridges placed at convenient distances. Immediately below us was the liewRathhaus, a prominent but half-finished building of splendid dimensions ; and a little to the right, on a conspicuous eminence, stood the handsome Scheriatschule. Of the hundred mosques said to be in Sarajevo, we could count only about forty tall minarets — sufficient, however, to give the scene an unmistakably oriental aspect. The only distant view was towards the west, over the town and plain of Ilidze, which extended as far as the outlying ridges of the Dinaric Alps. In all other directions tlie valley is closed in by the surrounding hills, with the exception of the ^liljacka defile, which winds far into the moun- tains ; but beino- narrow and tortuous, it becomes al- most l(;st in the general landscape. The Citadel or Castle, now occupied Ijy a large garrison of Imperial troops, is an irregularly shaped enclosure containing a heterogeneous mass of buildings, walls, bastions, forts, and barracks, of many ages and of many ardiitectural styles. By a footpath on the right we descended the grassy B 18 TO AND AT SARAJEVO. slope between us and the town, and, threading our way throuoli the crooked streets, soon reached the Schertat- schiile, or college for teaching Mohammedan law. This is a large rectangular building in the oriental style, havino; its walls faced with horizontal bands of black Fig. 2.— Well in the Coukt of Begova-Dzamia, Sarajevo. and white stone. It is approached by a broad stone stair, with flower parterres on each side, and the en- trance, surmounted by a lofty arch, is in the middle of the facade. As we reached the front of the edifice the janitor, who was smoking a cigarette at the gate, THE NATIONAL MUSEUM. 19 at once stepped forward and invited its to enter. We gladly followed him, first through an open court containing a central fountain and surrounded by a colonnade ; then through a series of apartments — lecture -rooms, dormitories, refectory, bath-rooms, lib- rary, council-room, chapel, &c. — all constructed on the most approved sanitary principles. Coming back through the Carsija, we passed by the Begova-Dzamia (Plate IV.), the largest and finest mosque in Europe, next to those of Constantinople and Selim's mosque in Adrianople. In its court stands a venerable Linden-tree, under the shade of which there is a hand- some stone fountain with twelve basins, destined for the ablutions of the faithful (Fig. 2). After a few days I called for the Director of the Bosnisch-Herzegovinisches Landesmuseum, Counsellor Constantin Hormann, to whom was intrusted the duty of making all necessary arrangements for the ensuing Congress, and throuoh him I was introduced to the other officials in the institution. The antiquities and scientific objects to be seen in this truly national museum are located in suites of rooms occupying one corner of a larger building called Bcamten - Pensionsfonds. A portion of the ground llooi- and the first storey are exclusively oc- cupied with the natural science collections, which are thus distributed : — (1) (ieological and mincralogical collection (5 rooms). (2) Ijotanical specimens, incluiling several Ik rl»aiiuius by eminent botanists. 20 TO AND AT SARAJEVO. (3) Zoological collection, with a laboratory for the preparation of specimens (7 rooms). (4) Entomological collection (4 rooms). On the second floor are the well-arrang-ecl culture- historical collections, illustrating the various phases of civilisation through which the country has passed from prehistoric times down to almost the present day. Of the dozen rooms or so set apart for this purpose, two are devoted to j^rehistoric objects, chiefly of the Stone and Early Iron ages. Other three rooms contain Roman, early Christian, and medieval antiquities, including inscribed and decorative stones, or casts of them, vari- ous kinds of armour, &c. In another room are displayed a collection of ancient coins numbering nearly 6000 specimens, a case of gems, impressions of seals, and some early documents. But the most attractive depart- ment is the ethnographical. Here, distributed over six rooms, are groups of life-size costume-figures, showing the styles of dress and ornaments formerly worn in the country. The walls and ceilings of the rooms are so constructed as to illustrate the characteristic woodwork of some of the earlier periods. Besides these figures there are numerous isolated articles of furniture, dress, and personal ornaments. Altogether this department gives a most instructive pictorial representation of the customs and habits prevalent among a people so singu- larly divided in rank, race, and religion. Mr Radimsky, Chief Inspector of Mines in Bosnia and Herzegovina, and a most enthusiastic investigator of the anticj^uities of his country, showed me two large PILE-STRUCTURES IN" THE RIVER UNA. 21 collections of prehistoric objects wliicli were not yet exhibited in the public part of the Museum. One of them was from the neolithic station at Butmir, of which I will have much to say in future chapters of this work, as it falls to be one of the most important discoveries on which the opinion of Congress was asked. The other greatly interested me, as it was supposed to be the debris of an ancient pile-structure situated in what was for- merly part of the bed of the river Una, near Bihac. From the numerous photographs, plans, and sections so carefully prepared by Radimsk}^, there can be little doubt that he is right in regarding this habitation as a veritable pile-structure. To this opinion the character of the remains lends support. Among the food-refuse and relics collected were the broken bones of a variety of domestic and wild animals ; some cereals, seeds, and fruits ; fragments of pottery, spindle - whorls, and a number of stone moulds for casting bronze celts ; vari- ous implements, weapons, and ornaments of metal, — all of whicli prove that the inhabitants had prosecuted the usual arts and industries of pre- and proto- historic times. Among the relics are a few characteristic speci- mens of La Tone culture, as well as uljjccts of Koman and medieval times. The area investigated was thickly studded witli the stumps of piles, and its extent was too great (some 30 yards long by 20 l)road) to give countenance to the suscostion that it formed the basis of some special building such as the corn-giaiHliii,<4 mills, still constructed on piles, and common along the streams of the country. 22 TO AND AT SARAJEVO. Travellers who visit Sarajevo having a little time to spare, will find, in an examination of the older ec- clesiastical buildino-s and traditions of the different religious denominations, many objects and scenes of curiosity and interest. A little to the west of the Scheriat College is the Logavinastrasse, which leads up to the Sinan Tekke, where on Thursday evenings the peculiar religious ceremonies of the Howling and Danc- ing Dervishes may be witnessed. Having seen such exhibitions in other parts of the Mohammedan world, and having, during my stay at Sarajevo, more urgent duties to attend to, I am unable to give an account of this performance as an eyewitness. Here, however, is Mr Asboth's description of it : — The most frequent meetings of the Dervishes also fall during the time of Eamazan : one Friday we witnessed the ceremonies of the Howling Dervishes. Towards ten o'clock in the evening we started for Sinan-Thekia, which is situated tolerably high up upon the hillside on the right bank of the Miliaska. This Thekia — Dervish monastery — takes its name from its founder, the celebrated Bosnian Dervish Sheik, who was held in great respect, and was even credited with being a sorcerer. We found a quiet, deserted place, a building in ruins. We were cautioned to mount the wooden stairs with care, and to take our places quietly in the broad wooden gallery ; not only because the ceremonies had already commenced, but also that the rotten timbers might not give way. The broad, dome-covered hall was only dismally lighted by a few tapers. Opposite to us there stood, in front of the Kibla (the niche for prayer), which faced towards Mecca, a haggard old man, with a white beard and gloomy visage, in a pale, faded caftan, and the green turban of the sheiks. Before him stood a circle of about twenty men in the dress usually worn by the Mohammedan middle classes HOWLING DERVISHES. 23 in Sarajevo ; respectable water-carriers, merchants, and artisans. For just as Islam knows no ecclesiastical hierarchy, so the dervishes form no particular order, as our monks do, for ex- ample, even though they, like them, reply upon mysticism and asceticism. . . . The "Dzikr" commenced. The sheik sung with a penetrating, tremulous voice the same declaration of faith which the Muezzin proclaims from the top of the minaret : ''Allah akbar ! " he called three times (God is the greatest !) ; and twice : " Ashhadu anna : la illah ill Allah, Ashhaclu anna, — Muhammed rasidu 'llah " (I bear witness that there is no God but God ; I bear witness that Muhammed is God's messenger). In the meantime the dervishes began to sway their heads slowly and shortly, whilst they accompanied every bend with a deep-drawn breath. " Hajja allahsalahl" (Come to prayer !), the old man called out twice. "Hajja allahfallali!" (Come to the worship of God !) " Allahu akMr — la illah ill Allah ! " By the time the last sentences had been repeated, the der- vishes had had time to gradually attain to a quicker motion, deeper, more rapidly bent their heads, which by that time were followed by the whole upper part of the body, and the breathing grew ever louder and louder, and the movements ever more violent, and then the breathing into panting. Both occurred at the same moment, and by all together in unison. The suspended arms already touched the ground, the panting grew to a loud " Hu," equivalent to " He," God. The ecstasy had begun. Some of the fezzes and turbans flew off, and the long hair or the tuft left on tiie shaven scalp was thrown back- wards and forwards over their heads. In the unison of " Hu " in the chorus, which had now grown to a roar, was bleiuled the ecstatic "Allahu" of one or the other enthusiast. The per- spiration was streaming down their faces, many were foaming at tlie mouth, one was as red as a brick, another as white as a corpse. Then a lad l)Ounded into the centre of the half-circle and began to twist liimsclf round willi niiistretched arms, like a spindle, ever quicker, and yet more cpuckly. The lialf-circle iiiterrni>ted its genuflexions ; for a moment they recovered their breath, and then turned first the head, then the whole of the 24 TO AND AT SARAJEVO. upper part of the body, in jerks, to the left and right alter- nately. They performed this movement with increasing rapidity, led by wild cries of " Hu, Hu ! " whilst the youth, with gaze directed heavenwards, and with outstretched arms, turned un- ceasingly. He grew paler and paler, and was soon as pale as death. His eyes closed. He had already been spinning for half an hour, and now at the rate of sixty evolutions per minute. Each moment one thought he must collapse. Again rose the monotonous song of the old man, the roar ceased simultaneously with the movement, some of the dervishes fell to the ground — the "Dzikr" was over.^ On the left bank of the Miljacka, a little higher up than the Careva-Dzamia, amidst rich gardens and shrub- bery, is the Konak, the official residence of the military Governor of Bosnia-Herzegovina. It was built in 1858 for the Valis of Bosnia, and is therefore an interesting relic of later Turkish times. A little farther west, near the great infantry Kaserne, also taking origin in Turkish times, there is a mosque in front of which may be seen the Tekija of the seven beheaded brethren (Fig. 3). The tradition is that, some 200 years ago, seven dervishes were beheaded by a pasha for having committed a great theft. After their heads were struck off, each body took the head under its arm and walked into the mosque, where they w^ere all buried. Meanwhile the innocence of the unfortunate dervishes was clearly established, w^hereupon they were declared saints (Ileilige Mdnner), and as such have been venerated to this day by the Mohammedans. The accompanying illustration gives a view of their graves. ^ Bosnia and Herzegovina, p. 206. HEILIGE MANNER. 25 With tlie exception of an excursion to Jajce, the time at our disposal before the meeting of Congress was devoted to archaeological studies and occasional rambles to the more accessible spurs of the surround- ing hills, which afforded exquisite views of Sarajevo — a never- failing object of delight. The steep lanes l-lg. 3— lEKIJA OF THE Seven 15K1IEA1)KI) liKKllll^l-.N, SAkAJEVi in and leadiiiij; to the suljurljs fi-()ni the country are narrow, and roughly paved with large stones, among wliif^'li not unfrequently a carved "Turk's head" may be seen, strayed from one of the numerous cemeteries wliidi an; almost everywhere to lif met with — the little plots beside tlic d\vclIiii'4-]ious('s being oflcii used as such. 26 TO AND AT SARAJEVO. The most fashionable place of resort is Ilidze, eight miles distant, but easily accessible by train and carriage (Plate VI.). Of the more extended excursions the ascent of the Trebevic is the most interesting from a scenic point of view. Having myself failed to accomplish this almost dutiful task, I take the liberty of quoting the words of M. de Blowitz, who visited Bosnia a few weeks earlier : — Bosnia, like every country wliich aspires to become a goal of travel, has its mountain. It is called Mount Trebevic, and is 1700 metres above the level of the sea. Some 100 metres below the summit is a pavihon constructed by the Alpine Club, and at the summit, from the top of a sort of stone table, the traveller has a most extended view of Bosnia ; indeed, the view embraces almost the entire country, with its constant circles of mountains, its lakes and rivers, its green hills and arid rocks. The splendour of this view, after a three hours' scramble up the slope on the backs of the sure-footed little Bosnian horses, and the sight, I might add, of the cloth laid in that high air, were equally rewarding. One has there no re- pugnance for the kid's meat roasted between two stones, and which an old Albanian carves with infallible sabre, and with which, I imagine, he has in his day and generation cut up meat of quite another flavour.^ 1 Nineteenth Centiuy, October 1894. 27 CHAPTER 11. EXCURSION TO JAJCE AND THE LAKE OF JEZEKO. The journey to Jajce, occupying from 9 a.m. till nearly 10 P.M., was accomplished as far as Travnik by railway, and thence by diligence : now (1895) the entire journey may be made by railway. The branch line, part of that which eventually goes to Spalato, diverges from the main line at Lasva, and ascends the valley of the same name amidst scener}^ equally charming as that of the Bosna. A break-down of some part of the machinery by the way caused a delay of half an hour, so that by the time we got to Travnik the diligence was already awaiting the arrival of the train. This diligence proved to be the very opposite of the ordinary stage-coach. It was, in fact, a substantial Jaiidni, willi the addition of a covered coupe immediately Ijchind the driver's Ijox, and was drawn by four horses. We mounted into the coupe, and a native gentleman, the only otlicr ti-avellei', had the body of the carriage entirely to hini.scir. The horses were eao;er foi- lli<' start, and wo drove oil' ;it once. Above the narrow pass into whicli the town of Travnik 28 EXCURSION TO JAJCE. is huddled (Plate VIL) the valley widens considerably, and afforded a full view of the range of mountains to- wards which we were driving. Here the Lasva breaks up into a number of rivulets which collect the surface- waters from different directions. Shortly after leaving the town we passed on the left a huge poplar-tree, 9 feet in diameter, and said to be 360 years old, under the shade of which is the grave of the famous dervish Ismail Baba, a much-frequented place of resort for the ]\Iohammedans of Travnik. Farther along, some Bogo- mile gravestones lay on a prominence to the right. For the first hour we drove at a rattling pace. By-and-by we skirted a succession of beech-clad ridges ; then zig- zagged the mountain-side amidst lofty trees. A few drops of rain, at first welcomed as an alleviation of the stifling heat, soon developed into a heavy thunderstorm. We had just got to the summit when the climax was reached, and for the next half-hour it rained a perfect deluge. Truly the flowing tide was with ns, and soon both ditches and road became one great torrent of muddy water. Yet within another half- hour' the sun was shining in a blue sky, and by the time we got to Dolnji Vakuf the roads were as dusty as before. Dolnji Yakuf, a town of some 2000 inhabitants, lies on the right bank of the Vrbas, in the midst of highly romantic scenery (Plate VIII.). Here were changed both drivers and horses, and even our fellow-traveller dis- appeared, with no one to take his place. Though a pretty town, with charming gardens and orchards, it cannot boast of an hotel, and the miserable inn, or han, DILIGENCE TO JAJCE. 29 at wliich we halted could scarcely supply a piece of bread. From this onwards it was a gradual descent, and only two horses were requisite. The route lay on the right bank of the Yrbas, so close to the turbulent stream that the sound of its noisy waters never left our ears till we reached Jajce, a distance of some twenty miles. Our new driver spoke German, and appeared anxious to communicate his knowledge of the country. About six miles beyond Yakuf he pulled up at a Bogo- mile gravestone close by the roadside, and notable as having sculptured on it both the cross and the crescent (a bent arm, the hand grasping a cross, and beneath it a crescent). Below this the valley narrowed ; but dark- ness soon put an end to all sight-seeing. Crossing the Yrbas for the first time, after a run of three hours from Yakuf, and skirting some rocks on the farther side, we found ourselves suddenly in the proximity of a roaring waterfall. From the sound made by the horses' feet we recognised that we were now crossing a wooden Ijridge ; after which, a sharp turn to the right brought us to a lofty arched gateway, seen through the dim light. Cautiously clearing the narrow entrance, tlie driver made a grand flourish with his wliip, and in less than a minute we were at tli<' ifja, or an imitation of it in a later age. From the lirand-new carriage which Ijrouglit us to Jajce, and in wliic]) we had driven to Jezero, to this extraordinary \ehicle, was too violent a sliock to be endured with (Hi1w;inl composure. (h\v amnscnicnl was (luickly iii- 1rr|iictc(l liv llic landlady, who iviii;irkc(l th.il uooil carriaf^es couM not Ix- lidccii o\ci' ihc mountains, and 44 EXCURSION TO JAJCE. that we slioukl find this one, though not elegant in appearance, very comfortable — a prediction which I am bound to say our experience amply justified. Confi- dence was also partly restored by noticing that under the primitive harness were two smart-looking ponies. It is at such moments that a smattering; of loo;ic comes usefully into requisition. After some deliberation the net result was that there w^as no alternative but to proceed, as this was the only carriage to be had. So we humbly took our seats, bade adieu to our smiling landlad}', and drove off" in a dense mist, into which the keenest eyesight could hardly penetrate beyond a few yards. Our driver was a tall, gaunt-looking fellow, with Avhite trousers, insufficient to cover his brawny legs, and a grey waistcoat, from which protruded two white sleeves. A pair of wooden slippers and a head- covering, which might once have been a fez, completed his outward attire. His professional capacity was sig- nalised by a remarkable product of native industry in the form of a whip, clearly designed more for use than for ornament — an inference which I deduced from watching the lively effect its appearance had on the ponies. His mental endowments were to us an unknown quantity, as we could not furbish a single vocable for the interchange of ideas. After crossing the Vrbas we deviated to the left of the diligence route and entered a narrow valley, having on one side a gurgling stream almost invisible by a line of thick alders and willows, and on the other an inde- finable forest of underwood — hazel, blackthorn, beech, A MISTY MORNING. 45 oaks, &c. Here and there were to be seen liuo-e trunks of decayed trees whose secondary foliage gave them the appearance of gigantic Brussels-spronts. Every leaf, twig, and blade of grass was enveloped in a dew}^ mantle. Above this mantle was a vast aerial network of cobwebs tied with nautical skill to points far and near. But what gave an unusual charm to these won- derful contrivances that morning was that ever}^ fila- ment looked like a string of tiny pearls. For the first couple of hours, with the exception of some cattle being- driven to pasture and a few men loading a waggon with great logs of wood, we saw no signs of human activity, nor was there much stir among the animal world. A sudden opening in the mist, though only for an instant, Ijrought a ray of hope that this nebulous dreariness was about to vanish, as it disclosed the top of a wooded hill seemingly far up in the blue sky. But soon another rift appeared, which gradually widened until the whole cleared ofi". Witli tlie return of extended vision we found ourselves in an open valley with sloping fields and a sprinkling of farmhouses. For the first time the driver made a sign of inward intelligence by ])ointing to a white streak zio-zan-oino; a lofty ridoe riijlit ahead of US. It was the road we had to traverse. The day now Ijccame glorious and the road decidedly accidente. The trees grew larger, and to tlie usual oaks and beeches were added some specimens of the fir, the spruce, and Noi-- wciriaii })ines. At last, at the cud of a long descent through a maf^nificent forest, we came to a halt at a road- side cottajje. The driver dismounted, and we Ofatliered 46 EXCURSION TO JAJCE. from his movements that the horses were to be fed, and so we also dismounted. The owner of the cottaQ-e, dressed in a garb that might pass muster among Scottish peas- ants, sat at the door grinding coffee by means of one of those pretty handmills so common among the Turkish people, but he took no notice of us. The approach of the carriage, however, roused the wife and daughter, who quickly appeared on the scene. The latter, an extremely 23retty girl of about eighteen or so, was neatly dressed in the divided skirt, and walked in wooden slippers. Coming at once towards my companion she scanned her closely up and down, felt the material of her dress, examined her ornaments, and compared them with her own. With an inquiring gesture I asked if she were a Mohammedan, but the very word made her shrink with horror. No I she was a Catholic — a fact which I might have known from her unveiled face. Whereupon the mother stepped forward, pulling up the sleeve of her dress to show me a cross tattooed on her forearm as proof that they were Christians. It seems to be an almost universal custom anions the Catholic women of the peasantry throughout Bosnia and Herzegovina to have themselves tattooed on the breast and forearms, and even sometimes on the fore- head, with a cross, associated with some other fanciful ornaments, as seen on Fig. 11, taken from the photo- graph of a girl from the neighbourhood of Zenica.^ At the end of a log-house on the opposite side of the 1 On this curious custom see an article by Dr Gliick of Sarajevo in ' Wissenschaftliche Mitt, aus Bosnien und der Herzegovina,' Bd. ii. p. 455. TATTOOING AMONG THE PEASANTS. 47 road was a square platform, with a small table and j?^ 1 }: 'A. r ^ Fip. ir.— Catholic Peasant Gikl wnii r.\ ikioMarks. seats, well shaded hy a group of leafy beech-trees. It 48 EXCUKSIOX TO JAJCE. was signalled to us by some gestures of the driver that here we might sit down and take our breakfast, and so to this balcony I carried the paper parcel, which con- tained some bread and a roasted chicken. Coffee was the only refreshment the establishment could supply. Behind the log-house, and within a few yards of our breakfast-room, were three young dogs tethered to a stake, who gave us a warm and friendly greeting. Also two cats from the cottage came tripping across the road, and in an unceremonious way intimated that they would have no objection to share the chicken with us, a compliment which the dogs would willingly have paid us were it not for their tethers. The girl brought us a supply of coffee, served in a pretty metal coffee- pot on an ornamental tray. It was then I had an opportunity of observing that her white hands and tapering fingers were quite in keeping with the classic beauty of her face. The fragments of the chicken were collected and replaced in the paper, a performance which the dogs watched with wistful eyes. To the nearest I pitched a bone, but it fell short of the circle of his gyrations, and with a frantic effort he broke his cord, and in a twinkling was making free with the parcel ; and it was with great difficult}^ I rescued some of the spoil for his less audacious companions. Meantime I missed our Jehu, but he now reajDpeared from the cottage carrying a black pan and a wooden spoon, and took his seat beside the coffee-grinder. The pan con- tained some kind of pottage, which he forthwith pro- ceeded to sup. The old woman — whose hands, by the MAGNIFICENT LANDSCAPE. 49 way, were of a ditierent calibre from those of the clauofhter — had a few words of German, and with these and some expressive gestures she manifested the usual feminine inquisitiveness. In answer to an inquiry as to our nationality, I said we were from " Schottland," but she had never heard the word before, and did not know that such a place was in existence. The cottage had only a "but and a ben," but yet it offered lodgings to travellers in this lonely place, having a signboard with the word Einraumer on it. Matters beiug settled to the satisfaction of all parties, we again mounted into the shandrydan. Oar surround- ings henceforth assumed a more Alpine character, and tall coniferse, instead of being stragglers, now dominated the forest. Occasionally the route was over an open ridge, with far-reaching views, and deep glens fearful to look down upon. At last we came to the highest point, which, according to a signpost on the roadside, was 3907 feet. For some distance on the heio-hts the trees almost entirely disappeared, and the open ground was carpeted with a thick layer of grass. The view over and a long way beyond the valley of the Lasva was magnificent. For a moment it reminded me of some of the more picturesque parts of our Scottish Highlands. The cool breeze and some broken clouds contril)uted to make the parallel more striking ; but , on analysis of their component elements, one single fact was sufficient to dissipate the entire fabric of resemblance. On these mou)itains there was no lifntlicr to be scon, noi- in nil my rambles in Bosnia have 1 observed a single sprig of D 50 EXCURSION TO JAJCE. it. AVliat ^YOuld Scotland be were it deprived of its great heather mantle? Then, again, Bosnia has not been subjected to the polishing and moulding influence of glaciation. How much this has to do with the general features of a country I will allow geologists to say. The steepness of the side of the mountain, which we had now to descend to reach the basin of the Lasva, necessitated long windings in the road ; so w^e preferred to walk by a footpath which joined the carriage-road in the valley below. During the descent we came upon a number of corn-mills, placed at intervals on a gradu- ally increasing rivulet. The water arrangements of one were interestino;. Close to the horizontal wheel was a long stout log of wood, perforated lengthwise, and poised at an angle of about 45°. At its lower extremity the perforation slanted so as to bring the direction of the orifice into the horizontal line. A rudely-constructed wooden conduit, supported on stakes, conveyed the water to its other extremity. If the conducted current contained more water than was necessary to keep the tube full, the surplus just spluttered over. Such was the ingenuity of this simple arrangement that it secured a propelling power of nniform strength. It did not matter how much water was conveyed, as it could do no more than fill the tube ; and hence the velocity of the wheel was regulated by a force which always re- mained constant. It was, in fact, a pure turbine. Before reaching Travnik we passed through a richly cultivated district, with groups of houses here and there, at one of which we were forced to take refuoe from a TRAVXIK. 51 passing shower. A few yards from a roadside cottage there w-as a cafe of simple construction, merely a rect- angular pen with benches all round, and a lofty roof supported on wooden posts. While my wife took shelter under the projecting eaves of the cottage, I entered the cafe and sat down among some dozen bearded and tur- baned men who appeared to be quietly regaling them- selves with cojffee and cigarettes. As usual, in one of the corners there w^as a large clay oven -like fireplace with a charcoal fire for making; the coffee. Cofi"ee is always made fresh to order, and the process is both simple and speedy. Measured quantities of coff"ee, sugar, and water are put into a small pan and the whole heated to boiling point, a few drops of cold water being after- wards added. It is then poured out, grounds and all, into small cups. Each cup cost little over a halfpenny, l)Ut being small I repeated the order several times, much to the amusement of the company, who seemed greatly astonished at my capacity for cofi"ee-drinking. It was market-day at Travnik, and its one long street was literally swarming with country people. In the gorgeous costumes in which they were clad, white was decidedly the predominating colour. Having a couple of hours to spare Ijefore the train left for Sarajevo, wr mingled with the fjood-natured crowd and watched their iK^isy transactions. iu Britain and otlicr countries, wliere time is considered equivalent Lu uiouey, iiiiuli of the business transacted would be of less value than the time spent over the bargain. But at Travnik it is not an uncommon thing' for a strong; ar-tivc ni.iii to cnine a 52 EXCURSION TO JAJCE. jouriie}^ of four or five hours for the sole purpose of selling or buying an article, the value of which might not exceed a shilling — a sum, however, which in that part of the world represents a fair living wage for a day's work. The value of money can only be ascer- tained by estimating the amount of the comforts of life which can be procured for a given sum. Yet how seldom is this primary element in the science of econ- omy considered in our modern labour disputes ! Long before train-time there was a crowd of people at the station pressing forward for tickets. I did not care to mingle in the fray, and so hung back, waiting for an opportunity to be served. But the longer I waited the laro;er became the crowd. At last a burly man in military dress came in and quickly forced his way to the front. After securing his ticket he noticed me, and, intuitively grasping the situation, at once turned round and addressed a few forcible words to the bystanders, which, whatever their meaning, had a magic effect, for immediately a way was opened for me to the ticket window. AVe arrived at Sarajevo at nine o'clock, tired but immensely delighted with our experience of Bosnian life and scenery. 53 CHAPTER III. THE CONGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGISTS AND ARCHAEOLOGISTS AT SARAJEVO (AUGUST 1894). OccuPYiXG the borderland between the highly differ- entiated civilisations of the West and the East during historical times, Bosnia-Herzegovina could not fail to have been affected more or less by influences emaiiat- ino- from both directions. Accordinoiy, we now know that the provinces are extremely rich not only in the class of historical remains, but also in that relating to prehistoric times. Under the application of the scien- tific methods of modern archaeology no past civilisa- tion, however far its limits may lie beyond those of history, is likely to escape detection sooner or later ; and however meagre the traces of that civilisation may l)e, they often disclose a story of humanity more reliable than could be constructed from written records. The materials with wliich the archaeologist deals are abso- lulf'l}- free from the bias and ignorance wliicli so fre- quently distort the statements of llie liistoriaii. Recognising the importance of the iiunierous discov- 54 CONGKESS AT SARAJEVO. ories which have been made in the field of prehis- toric researcli since the establishment of the Bosniscli- Herzegovinisches Museum and its staff of experts, the Government invited a number of archseoloo-ists and anthropologists to visit Sarajevo, for the purpose of examining and pronouncing an opinion on the remains already brought to light, and b}?- this means to make their archaeolooical value better known throug-hout the scientific world. Now that the " Congres International d' Anthropologic et d'Archeologie Prehistoriques," which held its eleventh session in Moscow in August 1892, is practically defunct, owing to the hesitation or inability of European Govern- ments to supply the large money subsidies requisite to keep it in life, the constitution and scientific results of the Sarajevo Congress, differing, as it did, both in its inception and mode of procedure, from all previous gatherings of the kind, will be scrutinised with keener interest, inasmuch as it will probably form a precedent for similar archaeological meetings in future. It was held during the week from the 15th to the 21st August, 1894, and included among its members a number of well-known European archaeologists. Of the twenty-six gentlemen invited, the following accepted the invita- tion : — Dr Otto Benndorf, Vienna. Dr Eugen Bormann, Vienna. Dr Edmond von Eellenberg, Berne. Dr Joseph Hampel, Buda-Pest. Dr Jakob Heierii, Zurich. Dr Oscar Montelius, Stockholm. MEMBERS OF CONGRESS. 55 Professor Gabriel de Mortillet, Paris. Dr Eobert ]\Iunro, Edinburgh. Professor Luioi Pio-orini, Eome. Julius E. Pisko, Vice-Cousul, Janiua. Dr Johannes Eanke, Munich. M. Salomon Eeinach, Paris. Herr Josef Szombathy, Vienna. Dr E. Yerneau, Paris. Professor Eudolf Yirchow, Berlin. Dr Albert Voss, Berlin. These sixteen gentlemen, together with Dr Moriz Hoernes, Vienna (Secretaiy), and the local men, chiefly officials of the museum — viz., Messrs Hormaun (Direc- tor), von Thalloczy, Radimsky, Fiala, Patsch, Truhelka, Gltick, Eeiser, Apfelbeck, Weisbach, and Ballif — con- stituted the Congress. Except a carefully prepared programme of each day's work, and the questions suggested for discussion in regard to some special antiquities, there were no rules laid down for the conduct of business. Professor \ irchow was unanimously elected President, and each speaker was allowed to express his opinions in the lanfuasre most convenient to himself. During the week of the Congress the members were the guests of the Government at the Hotel Europa, where they were accommodated with rooms, and had their meals /'// fiiniilh' at a specially reserved tal)l('. This was not oiilv an ac;reeable Ijut a valuable feature of tlie (Joni^ress, as ill a short time the members became mutually ac- "jujiinted with each other's ( nullifications. At five o'clock of the evening of the lotli, a reception 56 CONGRESS AT SARAJEVO. of the guests by the Government representatives, the ^luseuni officials, the Mayor and other authorities of Sarajevo, was held in the large hall of the handsome new Government offices. At eight o'clock a grand l)anquet was given, under the presidency of Baron Appel (Landeschef) and Baron Kutschera (Civil- Adlatus), in the military casino, at which the principal civil and military authorities and the foreign consuls were present. The actual business of the Congress was begun at nine o'clock next morning, when Baron Appel, after thankino; the strano'ers for comino; so far to take part in the investigation of the antiquities of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and wishing them success in the important deliberations in which they would be shortly engaged, called on Herr Hormann, director of the museum, to read a paper on " Das bosnisch-herze- govinische Landesmuseum, seine Organisation und Ziele." Then followed another paper by Dr von Tlialloczy, director of the archives, on " Die Cultur- perioden Bosniens und der Herzegovina, mit besonderer Hlicksicht auf ihre monumentalen Ueberreste." Afterwards the members were invited to adjourn to the Museum to inspect its treasures, under the guidance of Mr Hormann (early Christian and other monuments of the middle ages), Dr Patsch (Roman antiquities), ^\v Fiala (the prehistoric discoveries at Glasinac and ►Soljunar), Dr Truhelka (the collection of costumes), and Dr Gllick (anthropological collection). On this occasion, however, the visit was only introductory, but ample RELICS FROM BUTMIR. 57 opportunities were subsequently given for a more care- ful study of its contents. ^leantime, special attention was directed to a group of antiquities of the Stone Age, consisting of an immense quantity and variety of fragments of pottery, flint and other stone implements, arrow-heads, scrapers, tools, &c., arranged by Berghauptmann Eadimsky in one of the rooms of the ground floor of the Museum, as in the afternoon the locality was to be visited where these remarkable objects had Ijeen found. The excavations which yielded this assortment of early relics were still conducted by Eadimsky, at a place called Butmir, in the vicinity of Ilidze. The fertile plain of Ilidze, which oc- cupies a wide basin, some 11 Jdlometres long by 7 broad, has been formed by the debris of streams and rain- washed materials from the surroundino- hills. The river Bosna, the main branch oi which suddenly springs out of the earth some two miles to the south of Butmir, is virtually formed by the junction of a number of streams meandering through the plain from different directions (Fig. 12). In earlier times it is probable that this basin was more or less a lake ; and, indeed, ill winter portions of it still become submerged. Almost in the centre of the plain, and only separated from the grounds of the modern baths of Ilidze by the sluggish waters of one of these meandering streams, there is a portion of land covering several acres which, on careful inspection, is seen to be more elevated than the part of tlie plain ill its immediate proximity. Tiiis elevation was selected Ijy the (jlovernnient as the site of offices 58 CONGRESS AT SARAJEVO. for a model agricultural farm ; and when, in 1893, the excavations for these buildings were begun, it was dis- covered that all this raised area was composed of the refuse of early human occupancy. Part of this pre- historic settlement, or workshop, as some suppose it to have been, is now occupied by a large dairy and other Fig. 12. — Sarajevsko-Polje. buildings, but the larger portion of it is simply arable land, and could be readily excavated at any time. Such is a general idea of the neolithic station of Butmir, to which the members were now conducted. A perpendicular section, showing the nature and posi- tion of the materials of which this elevation was com- 230sed, had been previously prej^ared ; and Mr Eadimsky, who superintended the excavations, was there to explain VISIT TO BUTMIE. 59 the details of what had already been done. His Ex- cellency Minister von Kallay, with Frau von Kallay, and a number of visitors from Sarajevo and the hotels of Ilidze, were present, and Avatched the eager disputa- tions of the savants with much interest, if not even amusement — for no sooner had they scanned the sec- li,'. I j. --.Mkmhkks ok Congress at the Neolithic Station OF Butmir, Aug. i6, 1894. tion than a difference of ojjinion as to tlie nature of the settlement Ijecame manifest among them (Fig. 13). The perj)endicular section showed the following de- posits arranged in successive beds from above down- wards : First, 12 to i(; inches of a clayey soil ; secondly, a blackish streaky mixture of clay, mould, cliarcoal, &c.. 60 CONGEESS AT SARAJEVO. arranged in strata more or less parallel. The depth of this heterogeneous mass was from 3 to 5 feet ; and it was in it, dispersed apparently throughout its contents regardless of depth, that all the relics were found. Beneath this again was a natural bed of fine yellowish clay, very adhesive and homogeneous, and acknow- ledged by all to have been the virgin soil before the relic-bed had been deposited. I may observe that there w^as no clearly defined line of demarcation between the relic-bed and the virgin clay, as bits of charcoal were frequently seen embedded in the former to a depth of several inches. The discover}^ of occasional hollows in this underlying clay suggested to Mr Eadimsky that they might be the foundations of the original huts of its inhabitants, and that in the course of time the debris had so accumulated as to force them to build, from time to time, new huts at higher levels. Radimsky's theory of this settlement was generally adopted by the members of Congress, except by Pro- fessor Pigorini and myself, who argued that the entire phenomena, especially the stratification of the Cidtur- schichte, could only be explained on the supposition that the huts stood on platforms supported by wooden piles, and that the refuse, too-ether with the lost and worn-out implements, had gradually accumulated in the vacant space underneath. Hence the "find" at Butmir be- came the subject of an animated controversy at the congressional sederunt next day. Pigorini opened the discussion by a long speech, in which he advocated that there was a precise analogy between the deposits at THE BATHS OF ILIDZE. 61 Butmir and those of the Terremare of Italy. The prin- cipal objection to this theory was the absence of piles, of which hitherto not a trace had been observed, nor, indeed, of any wood whatever. In offering a probable explanation of the absence of piles I pointed out that, although the actual piles were not now to be seen, all the woodwork having completely decayed, traces of the holes in which tliev stood niioiit be found — a fact which was clearly established on the next visit by the dis- covery of several round holes, one nearly 10 inches in diameter, penetrating into the underlying virgin clay. On section these holes were seen to have become filled with clay and charcoal. But, of course, it had yet to be proved that the wooden upriglits which had formed these holes had been part of a general system of pile- structures. The result of the discussion was that fur- ther excavations were considered necessary, particularly in the direction of the limiting margin of the mound, before a decided opinion coukl be arrived at in regard to the structure of this remarkable settlement.^ After inspecting the excavations at Butmir the party crossed the river by a w^ooden bridge to Ilidze, with its fashionable and elegantly laid-out grounds, baths, hotels, playgrounds, lawn-tennis court, flower-beds, promenades, aviaries, &c. (Plate VI.). The primary motive for all this display is its celebrated suli)hurous spring, the curative qualities of which had been known to and lariielv taken advantaQ;e of l»v llie Komaiis — a state- mcnt which is clearly proved 1)}' the remains recently ' See chap. iv. 62 CONGRESS AT SARAJEVO. uncovered around the spring — viz., foundations of houses, mosaic pavements, baths, water-conduits, together with an assortment of the usual industrial remains of Roman civilisation. Some of the mosaic pavements are care- fully preserved in situ, but many of the smaller objects have been removed to the Museum at Sarajevo. For a long time the actual source of the spring had been lost, but after a careful study of these Eoman remains they have succeeded recently in tracing it to its primary out- let, which is now surrounded by a massive stone reser- voir within which the hot water may be seen gurgling and bubbling up in large volumes. One of the attractions at Ilidze, outside the extensive Q;rounds of the establishment, is the new" promenade to the Bosnaquelle, which, when the trees grow larger, will be a great acquisition to visitors on a hot day. It consists of a carriage-drive, a riding-alley, and a foot- path bordered with rows of trees. In visiting the source of the Bosna by this avenue, we drive directly towards the beautifully wooded Igman, at the foot of w^hich the river suddenly makes its appearance. Here is to be seen, in a slight hollow overgrown with bushes and rank vegetation, the curious spectacle of a number of bubbling centres, some say sixty, all within a stone's- throw of each other, which, cj^uickly uniting, form a tolerably large river — too large and deep to be waded. At eiaiit o'clock his Excellencv Minister von Kallav and Frau von Kallay hospitably entertained the mem- bers at supper in one of tlie private dining-rooms of the restaurant which serves as a common dining- JEWISH CEMETERY. 63 place to tlie tliree hotels at Iliclze, and to wliicli they are attached by covered promenades. In front of the restaurant there is a bandstand and a beautifully kept flower-o-arden. The forenoon of Friday the 17th was devoted to an examination of the pre- and proto-historic collections in the Museum, under the guidance of the special experts, as alread)^ detailed. In the afternoon the members met in the hall of the Government offices to discuss the general problems arising out of the materials sub- mitted to them, but more especially those from the neolithic station at Butmir. A detailed account of the opinions then enunciated, together with further developments about Butmir, will be given in the next chapter. Afterwards, in the cool of the evening, an excursion was made, partly by carriages and partly on foot, to Sobunar and Debelobrdo, situated on the lower flanks of Trebevic and overlooking Sarajevo. Half-way up we passed the Jewish cemetery, conspicuous by its thickly placed gravestones of white limestone. These are merely oval-shaped blocks lying on the ground, each having one end Ijrought to a fiat perpendicular surface, on which the name of the deceased is written — sometimes in Hebrew characters. All these pre})ared surfaces look in tlic same direction across the valley of the .Miljarka, a circumstance wliich gives them the ap})earance of a numl)er of hog-backed animals in an expectant, semi -r;mi[»a)it attitude. Tliougli nunicnnis and closely set, they are without any i)rotecting wall, G4 CONGRESS AT SARAJEVO. but ill this respect are not different from the turbaned pillars of Mohammedan graveyards. On reaching the top of a conspicuous ridge, right above the cemeter\% we inspected the remains of a prehistoric fortification, the foundations of which had been recently exposed at several points to show the structure of the walls. This was Debelobrdo, the site of an oval -shaped Wallhurg, measuring 110™- in length by 35™- in breadth. The fort was accessible only on the west and south sides, and here the sur- rounding walls were in doul:)le line. From this com- manding outlook we were enabled to comprehend at a glance the situation of the other two localities which yielded the prehistoric remains. In ascending from Sarajevo one reaches first, after a short climb, an un- even terrace (Sobunar) stretching east and west, at the base of some precipitous cliffs which form the face of the higher ground beyond. At the west end this ridge terminates in the prominence on which we then stood. Standing on its eastern brow, the ter- race of this undercliff, with all its irregularities and sheltered corners, lay before us like a map. There, on a raised platform behind some rocks at the base of the steep wall of cliffs, and in the vicinity of a copious spring, the remains of prehistoric huts contain- ing relics of different ages have been found. Casting now our view on the right-hand side, we see that the ground rises gradually into another prominent point (Zlatiste), on which remains of ancient fortifications have also been observed (Fig. 14). These three local- EMPEROE S BIRTHDAY. 65 ities Mr Fiala considers to have been parts of the same system of habitation. In time of peace the occupants of the hill -forts lived in the hut -dwellings and rock-shelters at Sobunar, where they had plenty of water and shelter from storms ; and only when danger was suspected did they go to the forts. Debelobrdo just overlooked the hut-village, and afforded immediate protection in the event of a sudden attack ; whilst the Fig. 14. — SoBUNAk, Zlatiste, and Debelobrdo. ]»eople when hard pressed would convey themselves, their cattle and efi'ects, to the more distant Zlatiste. Saturday the 18tli was a holiday, Sarajevo being en fete in lioiKuir of the Emperor's birthday; and as special services were held in the principal churches and mosques, the members took advantage of the privilege extended to them to attend. We first visited the Cathedral — a large new l»iiil(liiig in lliu Romano- Gothic style, close by the ]S'aliunal Museum — con- E 66 CONGRESS AT SARAJEVO. spicuoiis by two lofty and symmetrical spires ^Ybicll surmount its frontal facade. Inside there was a large congreo'ation, includino- a number of officials both civil and military, who, as well as a crowd outside, were awaiting tbe arrival of the Laudesclief and bis mili- tary staff. After a short time we left, and went into the Oriental Orthodox Metropolitan Church. Here was a still larger crowd of worshippers, among whom w'as Baron Kutschera occupying a prominent place under a gorgeous canopy near the centre of the church. He, as also representing the Government, received the address in honour of tbe Kaiser's birth- day. But the most novel of the special services was that held in Careva - Dzamia, the official mosque of the Mohammedans, and one of the oldest in tbe town, having been built by Sultan Mabmud, the conqueror of Bosnia, Strangers were admitted by a side door to a small back gallery overlooking the body of the mosc[ue, without, however, having to take off their shoes. Each jMohammedan as he entered deposited his slippers in a hollow or slit which ex- tended along the floor parallel w^ith the gallery, and stepping forward began muttering his prayers with the usual bodily prostrations. iVmong the worshij3pers was Mehmed Beg Kapetanovic, Mayor of Sarajevo. As soon as Baron Appel appeared in the gallery the address to the Kaiser was read, and the service came to a close. This mosque is situated on the left side of the river, in front of the Konak, the official resi- dence of Baron Appel. OLD SLAVISH WEITING. 67 Notliino- o-ives a better idea of the diversified elements which ramify through the community than their relig- ious doctrines and ceremonies. Christianity spread amono- the Slavs from two o-reat centres — viz., Rome and Constantinople. Coincident with the introduction into the country of the religious rites and ceremonies peculiar to each of these centres, came also their re- spective methods of writing. From the AYest came the Latin alphabet, and from the East a set of char- acters known as Glagolitic, which are clearly seen to be mere variants of the Greek letters. About the middle of the ninth century, Cyrill of Thessalonica translated the Bible into the Slavonic tongue, invent- ing for this purpose an alphabet which still bears his name ; and there can be little doubt that it also eman- ated from the same source as the Glagolitic. It would appear, too, that the Bosnian alphabet, the chief medium in which the national literature has been transmitted, is a combination of these two early forms of writing, with such alterations as might be expected from the modifying influences of time and current events. At an early period the Catholics admitted the national language, side by side with the Latin, in the service of the Church, just as we find in other Popish coun- tries. ]jut the Orthodox Church would not brook any interference witli her traditionary customs, and she still adheres to the old Slavonic language and the Cyrillic writings. The Turks, naturally, introduced their own language and religion ; and, Ijeing more conservative than any 68 CONGEESS AT SARAJEVO. other people, have stereotyped the civil and religious laws of the Koran throughout the country. The " Spagnols " are the descendants of Jewish re- fugees who fled from Spain in the sixteenth century, during the persecutions of the Inquisition of Philip II., and found here an asylum. They still speak Spanish, and write it in Hebrew characters. Thus, there is in Sarajevo a melange of races, creeds, and languages, which constitutes a formidable barrier to foreigners who wish to investigate the country and its people from a historical point of view. In the afternoon the members were conducted throuoh some of the Government factories and technical schools, instituted for the instruction of the rising generation. First in importance among them may be mentioned Das Kunstgewerhliclie- Atelier, where apprentices re- ceive technical instruction, under qualified masters, in various kinds of decorative metal - work, such as damaskeenino- enoraving;, and embossino; designs, &c. Some of the pupils live in the establishment, which for this purpose contains, besides the workshops, a school-room, dining-room, and sleeping accommodation for 50 boys. For the sale of the articles manufac- tured in the establishment there is a fine mao-azine in the town, which is kejDt well stocked with a variety of objects decorated with designs, chiefly of an oriental character. Similar schools are being; established in some of the provincial towns, as at Foca and Livno. We next visited the Atelier filr Teijpichiveherei, where carpets after A^arious oriental patterns — Persian and GOVERNMENT FACTORIES. 69 Smyrna — and some home designs, are manufactured under the guidance of experienced \Yorkmen. Associ- ated with this factory are departments for spinning and dyeing the wool. A considerable amount of weavino- in fine silks and cloths is done in the harems, and women thus occupied are supplied by Government with the prepared yarn at a less cost than they could spin it for themselves. One of the most attractive of these Government institutions is the Tahnl'-Fahrik, a group of buildings among; the first seen on the rio-ht hand as we enter the town from the railwa}^ station. Here are storage magazines and a number of workshops for the manu- facture of cigars and cigarettes. This factory has greatly stimulated the growth of tobacco throughout the country, as the farmer is sure of a ready sale for the raw material. Indeed, it has done good in many ways : not only is employment given to some hundreds of girls, but Government realises a considerable income from the monopoly, and so indirectly helps to relieve the pockets of the taxpayers. The most excitinsr of the field excursions was a visit to the high plateau of Glasinac, situated among the mountains some sixteen miles to the east of Sarajevo, and entailing two days' hard work with carriages and riding-ponies. Tlic party, numljering twenty-five per- sons, including two ladies, started at G a.m. in ten carriao;es. The local i^-entlemen distriljutcd themselves judiciously among the foreign nicnibcrs, and llius kept the latter an courant with the features of the country 70 CONGRESS AT SARAJEVO. as they j^assed along. We had the company of Mr Fiala, one of the JMuseum experts in botany and arch- aeology, under whose superintendence the prehistoric tumuli at Glasinac were then beino- investigated. In- timately acquainted with the language of the country people and with the objects of interest on the way, our delightful companion was a complete encyclopaedia of information on every subject that cropped up. On the previous day and night a violent thunderstorm, accompanied with much rain, had passed over Sarajevo, but this morning the leaden sky was broken up into passing clouds and the air was fresh and invigorating. Forecasts of the weather by local meteorologists were also pronounced to be favourable ; and as to the gener- ally hilarious mood of this polyglot party, there could be no dubiety. Leaving the town by the Miljacka gorge, under the deep shadow of the castle rock, we soon began to climb the mountains by an excellent road which winds over the heights of Han Bulog, on the north side of the river. A considerable portion of this ascent was made on foot, which was rather an advantao-e, as it o-ave the company a better opportunity of scanning the wild scenery around them. After a time we again came into the valley of the Miljacka, and on emerging from it had a splendid view of the white-crested ridge of the Eomanja Planina, which, rising like a giant wall far above the dark pine-forests, stretched away into the undefinable distance. A halt of half an hour was made at the village of Mokro, where, in consequence of the ON THE EOAD TO GLASIXAC. 71 keen morning air, a second breakfast of tea, coffee, and bread was well patronised. The village loungers, won- dering what was in progress by such a cavalcade, crowded around us ; and in the hands of one of them I had an opportunity of examining the double whistle, a favourite musical instrument among the country people. It has the advantage over the single-tubed instrument of in- creasing the number of notes by supplying seven holes, four on the right tube and three on the left. The road over the Romanja Planina begins to ascend at Mokro, and, after a series of wide serpentine bends, enters the forest and soon reaches a pass 1376°^- in height. As we were about half-way up there appeared to be great commotion among the atmospheric elements congregat- ino' on the hioher summits, and it looked as if a storm were brewing ; but after a few drops of rain the clouds mysteriously vanished, and for the rest of the journey there was no occasion to mention the word weather except by way of commendation. The wilds of the Romanja have always been the headquarters of the roljber - world ; but robbery, though once the normal industry of the people of jMokro, no longer flourishes among them except in the legendary ' Cycle of Novak,' a complete set of robber-songs. Almost at the higliest })oint there is a substantially - 1)uilt liouse and a shop well stocked with the knick-knacks and articles used by the country people. Here Dr von Fellenberg fell in witli a tarnhourica, which he at once purchased and -lung over liis shoulders. This is ;iii instrument not unlike a guitar, with a short oval body, a long neck. 72 CONGEESS AT SARAJEVO. and four strings (Fig. 15). B3"-and-by, through an opening in the forest, we came in sight of a wide expanse of bare uplands known as the " Hochebene Glasinac." But it presented no striking feature, be- yond the open view and girdle of hazy mountains in the distance. The most conspicuous object was a large white many-windowed building, whose walls, sparkling Fig. 15. — A Native Musician, Mokku. under a brilliant sunshine, at once caught the eye. It was the military Kaserne of Podromanja — our destined quarters for the night — which was reached shortly after mid-day. The hosj^itality extended to us here was on a princely scale, and with little delay we sat down to a sumptuous dinner, served by the soldiers in excellent style. After- IX MILITARY QUARTERS. 73 wards we made a tour of investio-ation in the neioli- o O bourhood, visiting in succession a Bogomile cemetery, a group of prehistoric tumuli, a hill-fort, and the cave of Megara. These hill-forts are called Wallhurgen or Ringwalle , and the one visited by the party gets the name Hreljingi'o.d am Plje^. As it is situated some distance from the carriage-road, the country people assembled at Han Sarenac with some thirty riding-ponies to con- vey the party thither. In returning to the carriages some of the members, unaccustomed to rough riding, lingered far behind, and so a few of us, pour passer le temps, wished to enter one of the neighbouring cottages to see its interior. The occupier of the one selected was a \'ounQj woman who, like all her neiohbours, stood at the door wondering what so many strangers were doing in the district. She had a distaff stuck on the left shoulder and a spindle in her hand ; but when asked to o-ive an exhibition of her skill she looked shy, and appeared highl}^ indignant when one of the party offered her money. Mr Hermann, however, then came forward and explained the object of our visit ; wlicreu^^on she became more amiable, and graciously welcomed us into the cottage. Two wooden stools of l»rimitive construction, a small chest in a corner, some bowls and crockery on a wooden shelf, a salt-box and a baking-tray — the latter two hanging on the wall — were all the furniture to be seen. In the smoky rafters was a large dome-shaped basket for keeping grain. Tlie lu'arth was a semi-disc of linrdenod r-lay, raised a few 74 CONGRESS AT SARAJEVO. inches above the clay flooring. On it were some glowing embers, and suspended over them b}^ an iron crook was a heavy plate of iron, about eighteen inches in diameter, and shaped like the segment of a sphere having the hollow side downwards. I had never seen an apparatus like this in rural life before, but its object was apparent. When lowered so as to nearly cover the Fie. i6. — A CuiTAGE at Mukku. fire, it concentrated the heat on anything placed on the embers for the purpose of being cooked. There was a second apartment, entered by a door in the mid-wall, Ijut it contained no movable furniture — a divan placed round the wall and heap of wool in the middle of the floor being all I could see. Nor did this bareness of furniture appear exceptional, as it was much the same in other THE HOME OF A PEASANT. 7o cottages whenever I had an opportunity of getting a peep of their interior (Fig. 16). The Meo-arahohle is the entrance, in continuation of a former water-course, to one of the mysterious under- ground passages which are so frequently met with in these rocky regions, especially in Dalmatia and Herze- govina (Fig. 17). The Bogomile cemetery and Buvg- wiiUe will be subsequently noticed. Fig. 17. — .Mk(;.\i<.\ii6hi.i:, Glasinac. Before we got Ijack to the Kaserne it l)ecame bitterly cold, and we were glad to i^ct under slicltcr. Here tlio ]>iirty was reffaled witli another suiupluous nieal, under the presidency of tlic tli.strict governor, Gesa von Jjarcsay, who ]»;iid us every attention. 7 6 CONGRESS AT SARAJEVO. The Kaserne generally contains a garrison of 250 men, but the soldiers were then at drill in a different part of the country, and only fifteen men, under Lieutenant Novacek, remained to take charge of the place ; hence there was abundant sleeping accommodation for the party notwithstanding that it numbered some thirty persons. Next morning at dawn we were again in our carriages, and, in a thick cold mist, the mufHed-up cavalcade wended its way to the prehistoric cemetery of Rusanovici, near Han Senica, where Mr Fiala and his trained workmen were making preparatory excavations in three selected tumuli, leaving; the actual burials undisturbed until the arrival of the members. A couple of officers on horse- \ back accompanied the party by way of a friendly escort, which by-and-b}^ became increased by some thirty or forty gaily-dressed peasants, mounted on the ponies in- tended to carry the visitors over the final stages of the journey. A few hundred yards from the site of the excavations a deputation of the surrounding inhabit- ants, at the head of whom were the Bin-germeister of Rogatica and five or six other local authorities in their official costumes, was w^aiting to welcome the strangers. In a short speech the Bilrgermeister expressed satisfac- tion that the prehistoric remains of this romantic dis- trict were considered so important as to induce learned o-entlemen to come from distant lands to see them. After Professor Virchow^ had suitably replied, a gipsy band played some of their plaintive airs, and a number of gaily-dressed girls stepped forward and presented THE TUMULI OF RUSAXOVICI. 77 each member with a bouquet of sweet-smelling flowers, at the same time kissino- the hands of the two ladies of the party. The excavations were so carefully arranged that the merest working with the fingers and a spud was sufti- cient to expose the interments — an operation in which Montelius, Szombathy, and a few others displayed that l-ig. i8. — Exi'LOKiNG A Tumulus, Glasinac, Aug. 20, 1894. nicety of manipulation which can only be acquired by practical experience. Hence there was no time lost in bringing the eagerly-looked-for treasures to light (Fig. 18). (Jiie body was that of a female, which had on the l)ones of each arm ;i l)ronze bracelet. On its u})per [);iii lay two four-lobed fibuhe, like Fig. 44. and a hollow bead — all of Ijrunze. The bracelets and iil»Ldtu were 78 CONGRESS AT SARAJEVO. ornamented with incised lines and concentric circles. The pins of the fibulse had been of iron, but of them nothing remained except a little mass of the oxide of that metal at the points of attachment. Among the other grave-goods were a couple of fibulse of the usual bow-shaped form, a diadem of thin bronze plate, and a peculiarly shaped stone implement. After this interest- Fig. 19. — Astonished Natives, Glasixac, Aug. 20, 1894. ing object-lesson in practical archaeology, and a hasty view of the situation of some of the other tumuli in this cemetery — said to number over one thousand — the party adjourned to the corner of a plantation, close to where the interview with the deputation took place. Here, within a shady bower constructed of branches and leaves, and richly carpeted, dinner was served al fresco THE ■• KOLO. 79 — the manner of sitting being sur le tapis. Meantime, to the strains of a varietv of musical instruments, the peasants, who had congregated in great numbers, dressed in their holiday costumes, entertained the company by dancing the Kolo and other national dances, the \Yhole culminating in a scene of singular interest and novelty to the eyes of Western Europeans (Figs. 19 and 20). iig. -^o. — In HiJUD.W Co^iLML, OI.ASINAC, ALG. 20, IB94. While the excavations were o-oino; on nn nmnsino- inf'ident occurred. Among the country visitors was a dwarf of tlie name of Ivan Dobraca, a ji^erfcct model of symmetry and manliness, though only 3 feet 8 inches in lieight (Fig. l' 1 ). Wlien Professor A'irchow's atten- tion was directed to tlic little man — for he was truly a 80 CONGRESS AT SARAJEVO. man, being fifty-six years of age — lie expressed a wish to examine liim for anthropological purposes. To this J proposal Ivan readily consented, and so he and thej Professor, along with Herr Hormann, who acted as interpreter, became a rival attraction to the bystanders. The Professor carefully inspected his head, limbs, throat, eyes, hair, &c., jotting down the result in a note-book. Fiij. 21.— Ivan Dobkaca, Glasixac. All this personal distinction made Ivan Dobraca feel very proud, and he became, especially in the eyes of his country friends, the hero of the day. When the inspection was over, by way of showing his delight, he suddenly turned topsy-turvy, and, for nearly a minute, stood on his head and hands, wildly kicking his little leofs in the air. The country people seemed delighted to rub shoulders THE RETURN JOURNEY. 81 with the savants, and the only drawback to much inter- course was the want of a mutually intelligible language. However, when o-oodwill really exists, a smiling; face and a few impromptu signs go a long way towards the removal of linguistic and other social barriers. While coming down the hill to the place of rendezvous for dinner, I o-ot along;side a handsome young; fellow, whose lieaming; face left no doubt that Ijehind it there was a fund of good nature. By way of showing friendli- ness, I interested him by inspecting the contents of his leathern g;irdle, in which, among; other thing;s. was a tiint-lock pistol. The result was that I purchased the pistol at his own price. As soon as the bargain was completed he discharged the weapon and handed it to me : we then cordially shook hands, and for the rest of the day continued on the most friendly terms. I was afterwards introduced to the young man's mother 'and sweetheart, the latter being one of the most conspicu- ous among the danseuses. By way of return for this compliment I introduced my wife to the whole family — a ceremony which had to be performed in accordance with the pantomimic rites of pre-linguistic times. i)iil there was not much time to ling;er among; these g;«»()d-iiatured people, as Sarajevo had to be reached that night; and so we reluctantly left the festive scene, and bade farewell to our most hospitable friends. The rctuiij journey was over the same route, and by the time we crossed the Romania rang;e of mountains and readied .Mokro the shades of evening; were fast g;ather- iiig arouiMh Here we chaiigvtl horses, a fresh relay of F 82 CONGRESS AT SARAJEVO. wliieli had been sent the night before from Sarajevo. From this the descent was ahnost continuous, but the narrowness of the road entailed on the coachmen the utmost caution in driving ; and the lights only intensi- fied the effect of the awe-inspiring precipices and defiles through which we passed. As if to increase these difti- culties, w^e encountered no less than four waggons, with three and sometimes four horses abreast, thus occupying almost the entire breadth of the road ; and it was with much difiiculty and no small danger that we i passed them. The fellows had prudently taken advan- tage of the coolness of the night to mount these steep defiles ; l)ut in doing this they violated the rules of the road by not showing lights. We reached Sarajevo about 10 P.M., having travelled something like 100 miles in forty hours, and it was with a sense of relief we heard of the arrival of the last carriage, which, though half an hour late, fortunately met with no serious mishap. On Tuesday the members again met to continue their archaeological discussions, the problems on this occasion having reference to the tumuli and WaUhurgen of Glasinac.^ In the evening the Mayor gave a farewell banquet at his private residence in honour of the Congress, which, Ijeing served a la Tiirqae, greatly amused the foreign members, most of whom were unacquainted with the primeval simplicity which still governs prandial etiquette in oriental countries. On enterino; the court the Quests ' See chap. v. DINNER A LA TUEQUE. 83 were received by the host under a blaze of torchlight. The court was in reality a small garden, interspersed with grassy plots and a few trees. The trees and sur- rounding wall were tastefully decorated with Chinese lanterns in various colours, which at the outset o-ave the scene a fairy-like appearance. At one side was a small richly-carpeted summer-house, and near it a table on which were laid out a few tall glasses of beer and cigarettes. For some time the company was highly entertained by the spirited strains of a gipsy band conducted 1;>}' an amusing Spassmaclicr, who wore a long conical hat made of skins, the extremity terminat- ing in a Ijushy tail. This comically got-up wag imitated with vocal sounds the different noises to be heard on tile Ijattle-field — the roar of cannon, the hissino- sound of Ijalls passing through the air, the rattle of musketry, &c. In about half an hour a servant came round with a laro;e silver dish and a iuo' of scented water for the guests to dip their lingers in, and wliile this was being done he tlirew over the shoidders of each a serviette IjcautifuUy embroidered at both ends. The gentlemen then entered the house and, having passed across a .small court paved with ])('bbles, ascended to the dining- room. At the top of the stair there was a roomy lo]3by fitted \\\) for coats and hats. The dining-room contained three (circular tables, nuide lt\' [)lacing three large metal trays on movable su})ports, and around each were placed ten chairs. Tliciv was no picaiTanu'dl or (•ci-cnionious order for taking }>laces, so we sat down anywhere. Each guest had before him an ordinary t li ice-pronged metal 84 CONGRESS AT SARAJEVO. fork, a wooden spoon of simple workmanshi}), and a beer-ooblct. Half-wav between the centre and margin of the tray there was a circle of small plates containing pickles, cheese, and other condiments. Beer was handed round at once, while a large tureen of thick soup was being placed on the centre of the table. From this common dish each guest helped himself, a process which required both a long and a steady arm, and brought vividly to my mind the true force of the adage, " There is many a slip betwixt the cu]) and the lip." The next course was the fore-half of a sheep, beautifully roasted, and stuft'ed with rice. How to get a piece of this tempting viand with the implements at our disposal — there being no knife of any sort on the table — was a problem not so easily solved. A fork and a wooden spoon, even when supplemented by one's fingers, would not avail much. I took hold of one of the lee'-bones which projected over the dish before me, and a gentle- man opposite caught the other, and in this way we tried to tear the roast asunder ; but our combined efforts were futile, and all we did was to expose the smoking rice in its interior. Whereupon one of the guests, not a member of Congress, Ijut evidently more versed in the practical anatomy of the sheep than either of us, took the leg-bone out of my hand and, by a few rapid twists, quickly separated it at the knuckle- joint. This skilfully performed operation afforded an opening for several lingers, and I saw some substantial morsels being abstracted. By this time champagne- glasses had taken the place of the beer-goblets, and A POLYGLOT COMPANY. 85 during the rest of the dinner the sparkling beverage went merrily round. Following the j)iece cle resistance came eleven other courses, which I will not attempt to describe, as, I am sorr}' to say, I could not read the menu, though written in a couple of languages — viz., Serbo-Croatian and Turkish. Generally speaking, they consisted of various kinds of jellies, sweet cakes, and small o-Qurds stuffed with mincemeat. The last course before dessert was a dish of quails, served with a bowl of what looked like " curds and cream." As soon as the champagne-glasses were filled the host rose and dedicated a bumper to his foreign guests, whom he warmly welcomed to his table. The speech was translated into German by State-Counsellor Hor- mann, the learned director of the IMuseum. After this each succeeding course was interlarded Ijy a speech from one or other of the guests ; nor was the polyglot composition of the company exhausted until speeches were made in the following nine languages — viz., French, Swedish, Turkish, Hungarian, English, Italian, Albanian, Gernnin, and Latin. But probably not a single person ] "resent understood them ;i]I. Meantime the comic Spdssmacher and liis 1)and of musicians had transferred themselves to a corner near tlie door of the dinin,o--room, and played, at suitable intervals, selections ol" ilnir native airs, Bcfn-e rising ln>m (liiiinT, ilie sil\'i'i' l)asiii .ind I lie ju;.!,' with scented water again went round litis lime a li\' no means unnecessary coi-cmony^ — and tlie embroidered towels were gathered up. 'Idii- companx' tlicn adjoiirnod to 80 CONGRESS AT SARAJEVO. an adjacent room, opening off tlie dining-room, where cigarettes and handsomely mounted narghiles and chibouks were handed round. Coffee was then served, and the conversation became general. By-and-by a young pale-looking lad was ushered in, who repeated, or rather sang, with a melancholy intonation, a portion of the Koran. Before parting, a few of the younger guests — among whom was young Fritz von Kallay— gave an exposition of a Hungarian dance in the dining- room, which by this time had been cleared of its tem- porised tables. Altogether it was a most enjoyable entertainment, and a fitting conclusion to a week of surprises. The most unaccountable feature of this ceremonial dinner was, undoubtedly, the absence of any kind of knife — a fact which some people may attribute to a want of taste and refinement. But this is by no means a legitimate conclusion. For an explanation of the continuance of the custom, we must rather look to the conservatism of the Mohammedan religion. The Koran defines not only the jirinciples of religion and moral conduct, but also those which regulate the entire social organisation in its commercial, military, and legal as- pects. But the precepts in this book can only refer to customs j)revalent in Arabia about the beginning of the seventh century^ — a time long prior to the introduction of the refined accessories of the modern dinner-table into the social life of Western Europe. What struck me as most curious was the fact that we were furnished with a fork and not a knife, as the latter is of much LACEOIX OX CELTIC HABITS. 87 greater antiquity tliaii the former. According to La- eroix (Arts in the Middle Ages, p. 13), the fork is onlv mentioned in history for the first time in 1379, so that up to that date there is no evidence to show that the fingers in eating had been superseded by any arti- ficial implement. On the other hand, the knife is one of the earliest tools invented by man, and goes back to the very orioin of civilisation. Bavao-e man always carries his knife on his person; and, indeed, it is not so long ago since guests were in the hal)it of carrying their own knives and forks to public feasts — a custom which no doubt is a survival from prehistoric times. Nor is this theory without some historical evidence in support of it. Posidonius, a >Stoic philosopher, who wrote about 100 years B.C., in speaking of the Celts (quoted by Lacroix in his above-mentioned work, p. 13) says : — They eat in a very slovenly manner, and seize with theii- liands, like lions with their claws, whole quarters of meat, which tliey tear in pieces with their teeth. If they find a tough morsel, they cut it with a small knife wliieh they always carry in a sheath at their side. On this iiassao-e Lacroix commonts as follows : — Of what were these knives made? Our author docs not tell us; hut we may assume that they were of flint or oi polished stone, like the hatchets and arrow-heads so frequently tound where tliese ancient people dwelt, and wliich Ijear testimony to their industry. Tlif Moliammedan custom of not su])plyiiig guests with knives at the dinner-ial.de would a[)[)car, there- 88 CONGRESS AT SARAJEVO. fore, to be the mere survival of a custom once universal ; and, to he in keeping with the etiquette of these earlier times, the archaeologists at Sarajevo ought to have car- ried their own knives. But considerins; that the occa- sion was a banquet to gentlemen specially dealing with the prehistorit- remains of the country, would it not , have been still more appropriate had the Government 1 lent the requisite number of flint knives out of the 988 specimens (with more to follow) ^ recentl}' trans- mitted to them as a legacy from their neolithic pre- decessors at Butmir ? 1 Die Neolithische Station von Butmir, p. 34. 89 CHAPTER iV. THK NEOLITHIC STATION OF BUTMIIJ. The arcliaeolooical discoveries in reoard to which the opinion of Congress was especially . desired were the following : — (1.) The great neolithic; station of Biitmir. (2.) The fortified camp and hut-dwellings at Sobiuuir (Debelobrdo and Zlatiste). (3.) The cemeteries and liill-forts [BurgwaJh') distri- Ijuted over the high plateau of Glasinac. (4.) The i)rehistorico-Ptomano necropolis at Jezerine. The facilities and means afforded to the members for c(jming to a decision in roa;nrd to the various materials submitted to them were all that could be desired. Not • >idy had they been shown the entire collections of relics discover il ;it these respective localities, l>iit also, as regards the first three, they lind an ()])portunity of iiis])ecting the actual conditions and (circumstances in wliicli tlicy liad Ix-cn fnund l)y having fi'csh excava- tions carried out, as far as practicabh', in Ihcii- [)resence. Two special sederunts wtTf devoted to the considcra- 90 THE NEOLITHIC STATION OF BUTMIR. tion of the arcbgeological problems suggested by tliese oTeat discoveries. The discussions were conducted under the presidency of Professor Virchow, in the presence of a select audience assembled in the larg;e hall of the Gov- ernment offices. Owing, however, to the want of time, only the questions relating to Butmir and Glasinac were actually discussed in this official way. This chapter will therefore be confined to the controversies and opinions to which the archreolooical remains from the former locality gave rise. As mentioned in the previous chapter, the formal discussion on the neolithic station at Butmir was opened by Professor Pigorini, who expressed the opinion that it had been a pile-structure, analogous to the terra - 1)1(1 ra deposits so numerously found in the eastern portion of the Po valley. To test this theory he sug- gested that a trench should be run out beyond the margin of the mound, in order to ascertain if it had been surrounded by a dyke and a ditch, as was almost invariably the case with the terramara settlements. In reply to Professor Pigorini's theory, Mr Eadimsky, who superintended the excavations on behalf of the Government, gave a lucid and comprehensive statement of the facts he had observed, and the grounds on which he based his o|)inion that the settlement was not of the nature of a pile-structure. He contended that the huts, to begin with, had been placed on the actual clay lying underneath the relic - l>ed — which at that time would be the natural surface of the ground — while those subsequently constructed would be placed at eadimsky's hut-theory. 91 higher levels, gradually rising in the strata in propor- tion to the ao-e of tlie settlement and the amount of debris which had accumulated in the interval, I do not consider it advisable to bring into promi- nence the aro-uments then advanced for and ao;ainst these respective opinions, because we have now more precise information in regard to the real points at issue than could be gathered from an}- thing then said, however carefully reported. This additional source of evidence, which has so opportunely come to hand, consists of a magnificently illustrated monograph on the station at Butmir, just issued by the Government. The work is the joint production of Dr Moriz Iloernes, wlio writes an introduction, and of Kadimsky, who describes the excavations and the objects collected ill them up to date. To this Professor Schrotter, of Zurich, adds a report on tlie plant remains. With regard to what took place at the Congress, I will merel)^ say that the opinion and arguments so ably set forth by ^Ir Eadimskv had the effect of influencing the large majority of the members to adopt his views. This effect was greatly strengthened when, a few days later, it became known that the trench suoo-ested bv Professor Pigorini had been executed, wit1i tlio result that it showed that tliere had been no circumvalkition of the deposits at Butmir either in tlie form of a dyke or a ditcli.' It would appear tliat tliis result was re- ' I'rot'e.'^.sor I'l^'oiini, after returning' from Mostar, ii;,'aiii visitcil llie ex- cavations, aii'l al'terwanls wrote to iiie that he hail abaiidoiicil tlic idea that tliere had been a dyke surrounding the settlenient at Butmir. Mr 92 THE NEOLITHIC STATION OF BUTMIR. garded by some of the members as a crucial test to settle the general question at issue. Thus M, Reinach, writing in ' L' Anthropologic,' No. 5, 1894, p. 8, says : — En continuant les fouilles, en presence de jNIM. Pigorini et Munro, on decouvrit les traces evidentes de phisieurs pilotis, dont I'un etait iin tronc epais d'environ 0'"- 25 ; mais les ad- versaires de la theorie de la terramare iirent observer que Temploi de pieux et de supports en bois, dans la construction des cabanes, ne determinait pas le caractere de la station. Les cuvettes dessinees dans le sol vierge etaient un indice favorable a I'existence de cabanes etablies directement sur le lehm ; or, rhypothese de M. Pigorini laissait ce detail inexplique. II fut decide qu'on pousserait une tranchee jusqua la limite de la couche archeologique, pour voir si la station se terminait brusquement par nne digue ou si les couches a debris s'abais- saient progressivement vers le sol vierge. Les travaux accom- plis a cet effet montrerent que cette seconde hypothese etait exacte et que la coupe horizontale presentait I'aspect d'un tertre surbaisse. II semblait done, sous reserve de decouvertes ulte- rieures, que la maniere de voir de ]\IM. Pigorini et Munro devait etre abandonnee. As, however, neither a dvke nor an external ditch is an essential part of a pile - structure (there being- more pile-structures without such circumvallations than with them), this phase of the argument is, in my opinion, of little importance. Xo doubt the existence Radimsky also wrote, about the saine time, to the etl'ect that Professor Pigorini bad now agreed with his views that the settlement had not been a terramara, but a Landansiedelutig. A similar opinion was conveyed to Professor Virchow, who reiterated it a few days later at the Archreo- logical Congress at Innsbruck. It would therefore appear as if I now stood absolutely alone among the members of the Sarajevo Congress in supporting the theory that the station at Butniir was a veritable pile- structure. ABSENCE OF SURROUNDING DYKE. 93 of a suiToimding dyke, with an external ditch or moat, of gigantic proportions, was a feature of these structures in Italy ; but it was a local peculiarity, acquired at a later period in the history of the development of the primitive pile-structures, and may probably be regarded as the primary germ of the protective walls of the Italian towns of later times. Had a dyke been found at Butmir. it would have been a discovery of the high- iest significance, as sliowing some intimate relationship |l.)etween its founders and the Ternimaricoll of the Po valley. In the Terp-mounds of Holland, the surround- ling wall of mud was a sine qua non, essentially con- structed as a bulwark aoainst the inroads of the tides. But no dykes of earth were, or could be, used in lakes and marshes. The application of the word terramara to the discovery at Butmir was perha})s somewhat unfor- tunate and misleading, inasmuch as it seemed to convey tlie idea that it was identical both in structure and clironolooy with its analog-ues in North Italy. From Itliis point of view tlie President ruled that the exist- j ence or non-existence of piles in liutmir was abso- Jlutely of no importance: " Es ist dahcr absolut ohne t iuteresse, olj wir Pfiilile finden und wenn wir sie finden, -" wiire liiedurcli noch nichts fiir die Chronologie j'scliaffen." He also pointed out that the BurgwUlh' of Nortli Germany liad often underneath tlitin pile- iructures, wliicli could not therefore be older than the iiicominn- of the Slavs. No one has written in a strouger strain in supp<»it <»! Mr Radimsky's f>]>inion than Mr Szombath}'. He has h 94 THE NEOLITHIC STATION OF BUTMIR. ventured to assert that the six or seven holes of the piles found in the clay belonged to the ground huts, of which the hollows in the clay were the floors. Here are his words : — • •' Mit Eecht hat Virchow vorlier betont, dass der Nachweis von Pfiihlen liberhaupt nichts t'lir Pigorini's Auflassung beweise, da diese doch audi zur Errichtung primitiver Hauser gedient haben konnten. Die Anorchiung unserer sieben Pfiihle zeigte auch deutlich ihre Zugehorigkeit zu den Wohngruben. Munro erkannte nun auch, dass die Ablagerungen nicht horizontal geschichtet sind und trat der allgemeinen Ansicht bei." ^ Now that the entire facts are before the scientific world by the publication of the above-named monograph, it becomes more imperative on me to vindicate the cor- rectness of my own opinion than to enter upon a long disquisition of the views of my opponents. The contro- versial matter is clear and precise, and the only issue is Yea or Nay. As a preliminary, let me just say that I accept the entire body of facts as stated by Mr Radimsky in his report. Indeed it is a singularly clear and lucid state- ment, and bears unmistakable evidence of beina; the production of an impartial observer. It is only as regards the interpretation put upon the facts that I venture to differ from him and the other members of Congress. Let us, therefore, first of all endeavour to o-et a clear idea of the nature and details of this discovery. From a glance at the accompanying plan (Fig. 22) 1 Mitt, der Antlirop. Gesellschaft in Wien, Baud xiv., Sitz., p. 208. SIZE OF THE SETTLEMENT. 95 it will be seen that the outline of the settlement is an irresular oval, measurino- 185"^- in lenoth and 155"'- Fig. 22, I 'I. \\ AM) S|( ll()\s ul' I UK I'KEIIIsroUK SlAI'ION UV HUTMIK. in its greatest Itiradlh. Its >ii[»crlici;il ,ii-ca is 19,170"'-- (al)ont 5 acres), an«l its aAerage height 2'"- a1)0V(' the surioinidino; pljiiii. Of this area 1.'}5G"'- have been 06 THE NEOLITHIC STATION OF BUTMTR. excavated, and 9280'"- still remain untouclied but capable of being excavated — the rest being occupied with Imildings, roads, &c. A section from above downwards shows the followino- separate beds : — (1.) A superficial humus, 30 to 40*^"'- in depth, similar to the ordinary clayey soil on the surrounding- cultivated fields, (2.) A dark bed of charcoal, ashes, clay, mould, &c., containing pottery, stone implements, and other industrial remains, uniformh^ distri- buted throughout the entire mass (Die zahJ- reichen Thon- unci Steinartefacte sind in der Calturschichte ilirer ganzen Hohe nach vertheilt). Its depth varies from 110 to 140^^^-, but at the margin it thins off. (3.) Underneath this lies a deposit of reddish-brown clay of a fine adhesive quality, having a thick- ness of 90 to 110*^™- As already observed (p. 60), there was no clear line of demarcation between it and the relic-bed, as Ijits of char- coal, and, according to Mr Radimsky, portions of burnt clay, were sometimes found embedded in its upper part (zuweilen audi einzelne Stuckchen gebrannten Lekmes). Otherwise this clay is a homogeneous compact mass, which must have been deposited prior to the occupancy of the locality. The excavations were conducted by a body of work- men who first removed the upper layer of soil, and then CLAY-PITS. 97 threw the contents of the relic-bed a few yards behind them, where they were subjected to further inspection. Thus they always worked in face of a perpendicular sec- tion of the retreatinor relic-bed, as shown in the illustra- tion in the Frontispiece. The exact position of the more important finds was carefully noted on a plan. At an earlv stage of the excavations certain troug-h- shaped hollows were encountered in the underlying clay which every one acknowledged to have been the work of man, and consequently attracted much attention, as they must have been made before the relic-bearing debris commenced to accumulate above them. The sides of these hollows sloped at an angle of 45°, and the centres were lower than the margins. The depth varied from 40 to 80^^"^- They were all filled with stuff similar to that in the relic-bed, and it had been frequently remarked that the relics were most numerous within their boundaries. During the progress of the excava- tions carried on in 1893, twelve such hollows were met with, all of which have been carefully measured and marked on the plan. ]Moreover, five are illustrated witli plans and sections on a larger scale. A short descrip- tion of a few of them will suftice to give an idea of the kind of evidence they supply ; and for tliis purpose I select those mnnbered in the re})ort 1, 2, 4, 8, 10, .ind 11 (c, {, m, p, r and t on tlie plan), the last li\e being selected because they are accom^janied with enhirged ground plans, so as to give a better idea of llnii- various forms and sizes : — No. 1 (c) — rounresence of grain and domestic animals implies the use of agri- cultural implements. Moreover, there can be little doubt that in the manufacture of so many ornamental dishes the potters used a variety of tools of wood, bone, and horn. Yet, of all these not a sino;le frao;ment has hitherto come to light. All the organic remains, even tlie Ijones, teeth, and horns of animals, with few ex- ceptions, have in this singular locality completely LIABILITY OF WOOD TO DECAY. 119 succumbed to the o-nawiucv tooth of time. Almost nothing remains but the objects made of stone and burnt cLay — materials which are little affected by the elements of decay. It is as if in this great library of the unwritten records of the Butmirians a whole de- partment had been consumed by a conflagration. But this merely shows that these ruins have been subjected to conditions unusuall}' favourable to decomposition. If natural decay be the correct explanation of the scarcity of organic remains at Butmir, then no argu- ment bearing on the civilisation of its inhabitants or the structure of their dwellings can be based on the peculi- arity of their absence. This disposes of the suggestion that Butmir was merely a workshop, as well as of ^Ir .Szombathy's additional argument ^ against the pile- structure theory of the settlement. As this question is of more than passing interest, it may not be out of place to inquire if analogous phenomena liave occurred (.'Isewhere. This is not by any means the first time the problem lias attracted my attention, and the ex- ])erience gained in previous studies leads me to believe tliat wood and other organic materials, when alter- nately exposed to the extreme conditions of wetness and dryness, such as at the present time obtain at IJutmir, are peculiarly liaLlc to dccoiiijtosition. ' " Uebrigens Kitraclien nocli aiidore Umstandu ^,'e;^'('U l'i;,'<)riiii'.s Auiriis.sunj^, l»eson(icr.s der, (lass es in Butmir ausserordcntiicli weiii<^ Ueljerrt-ste von miinali.sclier Nalininj,' gibt, was sclioii friiher zu dcr (auch von Mortillcl -peciell anerkannten) AufTasaung j^efiihrt liat, dass in^in rs da iiltcrhanpt nicht niit eincni Wohnplatze, sondem niit eineni Wt-rkstallcnidat/.e' zii thun haltc."— Aor. rii., y.. 208. 120 THE NEOLITHIC STATION OF BUTMIR. I remember being present on one occasion with Canon Greenwell and others at the opening of a baiTow in Yorkshire, and when the central interment was reached it turned out to be apparently nothing more than a larg^e empty hole, so that to inexperienced persons the investigation might have been passed over as of little scientific value. But wdth the experience, of the famous barrow-explorer it proved a highly in- structive object-lesson in practical archseology. He explained that this was a burial in a wooden coffin, and although not a single particle of the wood re- mained, he show^ed the impressions of its fibres and the form of the l)oard on the clay facings of the cavity. Of the body only a very few fragments of the skull remained. The following remarks, while pertinent to the question at issue, may be quoted as showing that the views now advocated are not new to science : — Those who, like Professor Pigorini, are acquainted with the structural features of the tcrremare of Northern Italy, will not be surprised at the comparative rarity with which piles are met with in the Terpen, because of the rapidity with which timbers, when buried in dry earth, decay and disappear alto- gether, leaving in many instances no traces whatever behind them. This fact was strikingly shown by Chierici, who pro- duced positive evidence of the former existence of piles in the upper strata of some of the terremctre by showing that the holes left by the piles, after the woody fibre had completely disappeared by decomposition, had become subsequently filled up by dust and unfiltrated material, which ultimately became hardened and so retained the actual form of the original piles. In short, natural casts of the original piles were accidentally DIVISION OF LABOUE. 121 formed, and thus disclosed a knowledge of their former existence which otherwise might never have been suspected. To the soundness of this deduction I have myself unconsciously con- tributed by an observation which I made some years ago, while digging at the crannog of Lochspouts ; and having recorded it, I may perhaps here be allowed to repeat my words : " One day I was greatly puzzled by finding what was evidently a portion of a birch-tree, from six to nine inches in diameter, quite flat, and with scarcely any wood left inside the tliick bark. In no instance previously had I seen the evidence of pressure on logs of this size ; but after carefully considering the point, it was ascertained that such effects occurred only in the upper portion of the mound, and above the log-pavement, where the wood had been exposed to atmospheric influences, so that when the woody fibres rotted away, the flattening of the bark was easily pro- duced. All the lon[S found buried in water or mud retained their original dimensions, and sliowed no trace of having yielded to superincumbent pressure." ^ 1 -dOToc vitli the suQ-gestion tluit the inhabitants of the neolithic station at Butmir carried on, as special industries, the manufacture of pottery and stone imple- ments; but I find no reason to suppose that the locality was exclusively confined to ^vorkshops. The workmen lived where they practised their respective trades and industries. Moreover, 1 tliink the evidence is sufHcieiit to warrant the inference that they were acquainted wiih ;iii(l [jractised the principles of the division of lal)Our, as it would appear that they y ilifiii. This Ijusiiie.ss could be more cconomi(t;dly done in (h(^ localitil'S where the Speei;il stones Were loliud m st/it. just foi- tlie same reasoji thai the inanulacLuic oi putter) ' bak(-T)welliiigs of Europe, p. .3.'{7. 122 THE NEOLITHIC STATION OF BUTMIR. would be restricted to the locality v,diere a suitable supply of clay was to be found. It is, therefore, not improbable that a system of barter went on among the inhabitants of neio-hbourino; villao;;es. That the colonists had livin^' amono; them the ascriculturists and shepherds who supplied the necessaries of life, it is difficult to say. I find no mention made of the drop- pings of animals being found in the debris. Those of the sheep and goat, if present, could not be readily overlooked. Either the domestic animals were housed elsewhere, or if the inhabitants had none, they ex- changed the products of their own industry for dairy produce. The village appears to have been unpro- tected by any kind of rampart, a fact which suggests peaceful times. The large assortment of arrow-points and spear-heads shows that hunting was not neglected ; and we have already seen, by the finding of net-sinkers and loom- weights, that they were fishers and manufac- turers of cloth. It is therefore evident that the But- niiiians were a civilised people, and practised not only the principles of the division of labour in their own social organisation, but had commercial inter- course with neisjhbourino' communities. Evidence of such relationship among the neolithic inhabitants of Europe has been found in several places, as for example at Wallhausen and Maurach, both stations of the Stone Age in tlie Ueberlingersee. In- deed it would seem that in some villao;es the different trades had separate (quarters assigned to them, precisely as is the case at the j^resent time in Sarajevo. A A A 4 V '\^ ; ; vl 5 ■ '^ ;■ 1- '_ '. iN(j5. J7 and 3«-i, :>ii'l ;'" il><; rtfil - J rc;il size. OliJIiCTS KkO.M I'Or.AUA (kok coMrAUibON). I'lAil. W. BUTMIR, A PILE-STRUCTURE. 123 111 conclusion, it only remains for me to say that the hypothesis, which represents the station at Butmir as a typical example of a pile-structure, analogous to the early Pfahlhauten of Central Europe, leaves not a single fact hitherto ohserved during the excavations unex- plained. The vacant s[)ace underneath the comniou platform would be very naturally used as a place of concealment. It would thus satisfactorily account for the incident of the workman who laid aside his unfinished stone implements and the tool with which he worked till a more convenient time — a time which for some reason or other never came, and so these ob- jects remained unclaimed. The hardening of grain for mealing purposes can be readily effected by holding a bundle of the ears of corn for a few minutes over a white Hame made from withered straw or other combustible materials. In this manner corn can l)e dried, ground, and leaked within an hour from the time it was growing in tlie field. T]iis method was on emergencies practised in Scotland up to recent times. ^ Such a method, if prac- tised in Butmir, would account for the cliarred grains found here and there associated with slight iv mains of fires. The so-called fireplace, described by Mr Radimskv as a bed of ashes and charcoal Iving inniKMli- ately ovei- the chvy ([). '.)S), was pr(.l)ably "I" llii> kind, or it miirht have occurred befon; the cnniiUMn nlallcrni extended so far. Tlie portions of buint ••la\- ImiukI scattereouL Mr Jiadinisky's hut-theory of the hoi- 12(1 THE NEOLITHIC STATION OF BUTMIK. lows, and he directed attention to the fact that no member offered any other explanation of them. He did not, however, think that Biitmir had been a terra- rnai-a, but a workshop (Fahril-ationsort), which lasted for a long time and was latterly abandoned. Professor Kanke informed the members that he saw a neolithic station at Tordos, near Broos, Pennsylvania, which was very like the station of Butmir. Among its relics were clay figurines, but not so well formed as the best of the Butmir idols, a fine black pottery orna- mented with spirals, and a coarse kind very simply ornamented. The impression which I formed as to the origin of these settlers at Butmir is, that they were a stra}' branch of the original colonists who founded the lake- dwellings of Central Europe. It would appear that they found their way from the south side of the Danubian valley into the plain of Ilidze by way of the Bosna river, much about the same time that others reached Switzerland and North Italy. The grounds for this opinion are based on the resemblance between the relics of Butmir and those of certain lake -dwellings, such as Polada in Italy and Laibach in Carniola (Plates XY. and XVI. ).^ According to the general system then in vogue, they built their huts on wooden platforms raised above the ground, manufactured their own clothing, utensils, implements, and weapons. The remains of burnt huts described by Mr Padimsky as lying near the surface of the relic-bed, were in all prob- ^ See chap. ix. BUTMIRIANS CONTEMPORARY WITH LAKE-DWELLEES. 127 ability the first constructed b}' tliem. Nor is it unlikel}" that the village came to a sudden end by a conflagra- tion, either through accident or design. At any rate, it does not ajjpear to have had a very long duration, nor was it rebuilt. Hence its o-reat archfeoloojical value in furnishino" such a large collection of relics belong-in q- to a limited but tolerabh^ well-defined period. 128 CHAPTER Y THE PEE HISTORIC CEMETERIES OF GLASINAC AND JEZERINE. Ix the previous chapter we have got a glimpse of pre- historic man as an intellio-ent and industrious workman fashioning his implements, tools, and weapons from the stones found in his immediate neighbourhood, or, some- times, importing them ready-made from distant parts. In the fragments of broken dishes and terra -cotta imag-es collected from the refuse accumulatino; around him, we have positive proof that he possessed a taste for decorative art and some decree of refinement. But in all these remains indicative of so much handicraft skill there is no evidence of his religious beliefs, with the ex- ception of the ido]s, which do little more than suggest the idea of his recognition of higher powers. This de- ficiency is no doubt due to the fact that we are as yet ignorant of the method by which he disposed of his dead. But in the chapter we are now entering upon the materials of the story are entirely different. Here we see Prehistoric man inspired with hopes and convic- tions which evidently carry his mental vision beyond GLASINAC. 129 the affairs of active life. The remains of his deceased friends are ceremoniousl}^ deposited in the earth, and efficiently equipped with such necessaries of this life as he thinks essential, accordino- to their rank and station, for their career in a future existence. The Q-rave itself was therefore a reflex of the current civilisation, and to it was often consigned, as a tribute of respect and honour, the highest art products of the age. Hence, to protect these treasures from sacrilegious hands was often as much the motive in rearins; an endurable sepulchre as anything else. But however this may be, it is certain that the custom of raising a mound of earth or stone to mark the resting-place of the dead can be traced back to the remotest times. In the ages of Stone and Bronze this custom ma)^ be said to have attained its highest development. The pyramids of Egypt, the mighty mounds of New Grange and Silbury, and the thousands of minor tumuli and cairns scattered over Europe, bear striking testimony to this phase of prehistoric civilisation. In the recently investigated cemeteries of Glasinac and Jezerine we have examples of various kinds of interments, which I will now en- deavour very briefly to describe. A. GLASINAC: ITS CEMETERIES AND WALLBURGEN. Tlie forenoon of Tuesday the 21st was devoted to a discussion on the cemeteries of Glasinac, tlie relation- slii[) between them and the adjoining WnllJyavgcn, or hill -forts, and the place of their antiquities in the I 130 PEEHISTORTC CEMETERIES. prehistoric civilisation of Europe. At the outset Mr Franz Fiala epitomised the general results of the sys- tematic excavations which have been carried on during the last few years, from which, as well as from the official reports already published, I have compiled the following summary of the discoveries in question. AVhen the highway from Sarajevo to Visegrad was being constructed in the year 1880, the workmen found Fig. 26. — Bronze Waggon, 6 inches high. convenient material for road-makino; in the contents of some large tumuli situated a few miles to the east of the Kaserne of Podromanja, in the Glasinac district. In one of these mounds they found a number of relics, among them being a small bronze chariot (Kessel- wagen) in the form of a bird (Fig. 26), together with a beautiful Oinochoe, a stout armlet, a couple of fibulse. GLASINAC. 131 ornamented discs, &c. This discovery was recorded by Dr Ferdinand von Hochstetter in the Proceedings of the Anthropological Society of Vienna for 1881.^ The interest excited by these discoveries induced some of the officers stationed in the district to open other tumuli in the neighbourhood, and in this way a further collection of relics was made and sent to the Natural History Museum in Vienna. A description of these objects was published by Dr Moriz Hoernes in the Proceedings of the same Society for 1889.- In 1888 systematic excavations of these tumuli were begun by the authorities of the Landes museum at Sarajevo, which have been continued yearly since, and of which the following reports are now publislied in the splendid serial work entitled ' Wisscnschaftliche Mittheilungen aus Bosnien und der Herzegovina': — 1. ' Huo-eloriiber und Rino^walle auf der Hochebene Glasinac' By Dr Ciro Truhelka. This report, containing 52 pages and 238 illustrations in the text, embraces a period of four years, from 1888 to 1891, during which 374 tumuli were opened. I may mention that the report for 1888 was also published in the Proceedings of the Anthropological Society of Vienna.'^ 2. ' Auso-rabunfjen auf der Hochebene Glasinac im Jahre 1891.' By Georg Stratimirovic Ritter von Kulpin. » Mitt, der Anth. Gesell. Wien, vol. x. \u 28!). - Ibid., vol. xix. p. 134. 3 Ibid., vol. xix. p. 24. 132 PREHISTORIC CEMETERIES. This is a proliminary report, and extends over 13 pages, with 33 illustrations. 3. ' Die Ergebnisse der Untersuchung priihistorischer Grabhuo'cl auf dem Glasinac ira Jahre 1892.' By Franz Fiala. Contains 43 pages, and 11 illustrations in the text. 4. ' Die Ergebnisse der Untersuchung priihistorischer Grabhiio-el auf dem Glasinac im Jahre 1893.' By Franz Fiala. Contains 36 pages, 1 plate, and 81 illustrations in the text. The elevated upland region to which the name Glas- inac is given occupies a superficial area of about 30 square miles (Austrian), with an average elevation of about 900 metres above the level of the sea. It is sur- rounded almost on all sides by mountainous ridges, which in some places attain an elevation of 1300 and even 1600"^- The surface of this confined plateau rises here and there into hills and stony uplands, sometimes wooded, but always afibrding good pasture for cattle and sheep. Only portions of the lower lands are cultivated, so that its inhabitants depend for their living mainly on the produce of their domestic animals. The tumuli are situated on the slopes of the rounded hills, where they are distributed in some twenty or thirty groups or cemeteries, each group numbering several hundreds. Their total number is estimated at 20.000 — an estimation which is now reo;arded as com- ing far short of the real number — of which about 1000 have already been explored. They vary in length and GLASINAC. 133 breadth from 2™- to 20 or even 40™-, and in height from 0.35"^- to 4™- — a maximum -svhich, however, is seldom reached. They are constructed of earth and surface stones gathered from the vicinity. Tumuli of earth alone are occasionally met with ; but these, ac- cording; to Mr Fiala, are of later construction. The builders of these burial-mounds practised both inhumation and cremation, the former being in tlie proportion of 60 per cent and the latter 30 per cent, while the remaining 10 per cent were of a mixed char- acter — i.e., contained both kinds of interments. As a rule, the remains of the body were found resting on tlie natural surface of the earth surrounded by a circle of stones ; but, sometimes, a pavement of stones was laid on tlie earth, on which the body was deposited. In one or two instances the body was protected from the superincumbent mass Ijy a rude stone cist. Some tumid i contained more than one burial, even as many as eleven havino; been recorded from a tumulus at Bradva, and nine in each of the tumuli at Taline and Ilijak. No classification of grave-goods having as its basis the method of interment could Ijc made out, so that the two systems must have l)een ])ractised con- temporaneously — probaljl}' representing diti'crcnt Cults among the same people. Mr Fiala expressed the opin- ion that inhumation was earlier in use, and in su})- l)ort of this liii observed tliat the few bui'ials willi ]tr('- Hallstatt grave-goods were all of this kiml. Soiiif of the tumidi contained ol)jccts of llic latut tlic vast ma- 134 PREHISTORIC CEMETERIES. jority, indeed to \Yithin two or three per cent of the whole, belonged to the Hallstatt period. The WaUhurgen or RingwiiUe are enclosures analo- gous in many respects to our Scottish hill-forts. About thirty of them have been discovered throughout the Glasinac district, as may be seen by reference to the accompanying map, page 135. They are always situ- ated on commanding elevations, more especially along the routes by which access can be had to the plateau from bevond the surrounding; mountains. Their form generally assumes that of a circle, ellipse, trapeze, or rectangle, except when it is determined by the con- figuration of the site, in which case it may be ex- tremely irregular. But, as a rule, it is a circular wall of small stones enclosing an area varying in extent from 10™- to 100™- in diameter, or some- times much more. The heioht and thickness of the surrounding wall or rampart also vary much. Dr Truhelka describes the Gradac hei Kusace as liav- ing a diameter of 84™-, with a wall 7™- broad at " the base and 0.8™- high. The Ringwall at Puhovac, measurino; 105™- in lenoth and 75™- in breadth, is surrounded by a double wall. By digging into the interior of these fallen ramparts, they were found to have been occasionally built with a wall-facing. Gen- erally they had only one entrance, which sometimes showed evidence of having been guarded by special means, such as a detached fortlet. But these WaU- hurgen have not yet been sufficiently examined to furnish archaeologists with final results, although, so GLASINAC. 135 136 PREHISTORIC CEMETERIES. far, they point to one or two important conclusions. Mr Fiala maintains that they were contemporary with the tumuli, and that both are the work of the same people. In support of this view, he points to the fact that the tumuli are always grouped in the close vicinity of a Wallhurg. In one or two instances he observed a large tumulus, supposed to have been the grave of a chief, in which the feet of the skeleton or skeletons were directed towards the Wallhurg. But the strong- est evidence in favour of their common origin is that the relics from both belonged to the same class of archseological remains. So far as the Wallburgen have been explored, 10 per cent of them appear from posi- tive evidence to have been dwelling - places, as they contained relic -beds from 0.5™- to 1.5™- thick which yielded remains characteristic of the Hallstatt period. Of 43 human skulls collected from the cemeteries of Glasinac, only 32 were in a sufficient state of preser- vation to furnish anthropological data of any signifi- cance. Their cephalic indices varied, according to Dr Gllick, from 73 to 82, of which 76 per cent were dolicho- or meso - cephalic, and 24 per cent brachy- cephalic. The only safe conclusion which can be drawn from these data is that the population was of a mixed character. It is interesting to compare Dr Gliick's measure- ments of these prehistoric skulls with those taken by Dr AVeissbach from 2000 persons throughout Bosnia and Herzegovina. Thus, of 1500 Bosniac heads, 7 per cent were dolichocephalic and 93 per cent brachycephalic ; GLASINAC. 137 wliile in Herzeo-ovina, over an averao-e of 500 individ- uals, these cephalic proportions were still more exag- gerated, only 6 per cent being dolichocephalic. It would therefore appear that a large majority of the pres- ent inhabitants of Bosnia and Herze2;ovina are round- heads, whereas the reverse was the case with the people w^hose remains have been examined in the prehistoric cemeteries of Glasinac. This deduction derives some significance from the fact that it is in accordance with the historical records which relate that a steady immi- gration of Slavs, who are a round-headed people, has taken place into the Balkan, peninsula from the earliest times. It would be useless to attempt to give a systematic account of the remarkable assortment of relics collected from the tumuli of Glasinac without a full complement of illustrations. Such a desirable work would be best accomplished by a translation of the original reports of the investigators — an undertaking which, on the present occasion, is manifestly out of place, as it would occupy more space than is at my disposal for this entire volume. My efforts in this direction must, therefore, be restricted to a few notes and illustrations of some of tlie more characteristic objects from among the various grou})S into whicli tliey fall to be classified. For this pui'pose it will sufiice to take a Itricf sur\ry •>! lliciii uihIci; the common categories of implements, weapons, and ornaments. 138 PREHISTORIC CEMETERIES. I. Implements, Utensils, and Objects of General Industry. As might be expected, industrial remains are not Fig. 27.— Ikox Knives and Sword-Blades (about \). the most frequently met with in these ceremonial inter- ments, but as they belong to a time when prospective GLASINAC. 139 success in a future world was the chief object aimed at, there is practically no restriction to the class of objects deposited with the dead. By this time it would appear that iron had almost entirely superseded bronze in the manufacture of cut- ting tools, and hence we have to note the presence of a score or so of knives (Fig. 27), three double- edged axes, two celts (Fig. 28), two gouges, a chisel -like tool, a curious knife - handle (Fig. 29)— all made of iron. We have also to note a num- ber of bronze needles, pincers, whorls, &c., a perforated stone axe-hammer, and some sharpening-stones, per- forated at one end for suspension. One remarkable ob- ject, of which there are several examples, consists of a cylindrically shaped hone in a Ijronze setting (Fig. 30). Pottery is very much broken, and few vessels could be restored ; but nevertheless tlie fra,<]jmcnts indicate a consideral)l(; variety of" loriii ami oi'ii;iiiiriit;ition — the latter being lonned, tlilher Fig. 28. — Iron Si'ICAR (§) and Ci^lts (i). 1J:0 PREHISTORIC CEMETERIES. forms are after the Greek drinking-cup or shyi^hos (Fig. 32). Vessels made of bronze are not iinfrequently met fe Fig. 29. — Iron Spear-Head (J) AND Iron Handle of Clasp-Knife (§). Fig. 30. — Sharpening Stone in Bronze Handle (^). with (Fig, 33), among them being a percokator with a long handle as shown on Fig. 32. IT, Weapons and Military Accoutrements. Among the warlike materials, iron lances occupy the first place in point of numbers. They vary in length from 12 to GO^"^- The very large ones show a strongly G LASIX AC. 141 Fi g. 31.— A.N Eakthexvvare Jug {^). marked midrib (Fig. 34), but there are others quite flat and broad-leafed (Figs. 28 and 29). There is also part of a bronze spear, with a sharply raised midrib (Fig. 35), Among the objects which may be naturally associated with lance- heads are some conical butt - ends of iron like those from La Tene,^ and others greatly elongated, as seen in Fig. 34. The short flat daoo-er - blades, with rivet marks at the end, are found made of bronze as well as iron. Arrow-points are also made of bronze in the form of a small three-sided object, with a socket for the shaft (Fig. 34). Swords are of two kinds. The one is a short one- edged Ijlade, more like a bent knife, from which, indeed, it is only distinguished by its greater size (Fig. 27). The other is a double-edged weapon, witli an ornamental pommel (Fig. 34). Tlie large iron axes, with two cutting edges like the copper implements of Hungary, and the perforated stone axe-hammer head, might Ijc regarded as l)attle- axes. As a military relic, great interest is ;ill;iclicd lo a helmet (Fig. 3G) found in the Arareva tumulus, which has its margin set witli a row of l)n)tizc studs, mid shows 1 See 'Lake-DwellingH ol' Europe,' Fig. 88, Nos. 7 and 10. 142 PREHISTORIC CEMETERIES. traces of La vino- been still more ornamented with silver bands. In one or two interments the head was found to have been covered with a large bronze dish of pecu- liar shape and form (Fig. 37). The umbo of a shield was among the relics in a Fig. 32. — Bronze Cup, diameter 8i^^'"- ; Skyphos, 7' "'• in diameter, with traces of painting ; Bronze Percolator, i8<;in- long. V tumulus at Citluci, which shows ornamentation of con- centric lines and dots around the central point (Fig. 38). That the Glasinac heroes were in the habit of protecting their persons from the blows of the enemy was first suggested by the finding of some seventy bronze studs in a tumulus at Koracev, which were supposed to have GLASINAC. 143 been sewn on leather and used as a cuirass or some kind of breast protector. This idea has since been greatly strengthened, if not confirmed, by similar finds coming to light in several other tumuli. In Mr Fiala's first report on the investigations at Glasiuac he figures one of a pair of greaves found on the leg - bones of a skeleton in a tumulus at Citluci made of beaten bronze "von griechischer Arbeit" (Fig. 39). But the most remarkable discovery of this nature was in 1893, when three pairs of greaves, curiously constructed of Fig. 33. — Bkonzk Basin (§) and Cup {^). bronze plates and ornamented in various ways, came to liglit in a group of tumuli near the Burgwall of Ilijak (Fig. 40). Girdles or waistljands, to which tlie sword could l)e attached, must have been largely used — a fact wliich may be deduced from tlie presence among grave-goods of lunidicds of clasps, Ijuckles, studs, discs, pendants, &(•., witli \vlii(;h tliese articles of dress were wont to be adorned. Fig. 41 sliows one of llie earliest specimens, being made witli siii;ill solid studs ;ii-i-.'ni2;<^d in vdws. 144 PKEHISTOPJC CEMETERIES. I Fig. 34. — Iron Weapons (^) and a Bronze Arrow-Point (f). GLASIXAC. 141 Portion of an iron bridle-bit, with a division in the middle and large side -rings, reminds one of the La Tene examples. III. Articles of Dress and Personal Adornment. 1. Fihuhe. — Among the many articles of ornamental use which have come down to us from prehistoric times, there is none which has played a greater part in the successive phases of civilisation than the brooch or fibula. Since the prin- ciple of what is known in modern times as the " safety-pin " was in- vented — and that was in the Bronze Age — every nation, in every age, seems to have exhausted its ingenuity in devising methods by which this essential article of dress could be made as ornamental as possible. The common straight pin is as old as the invention of clothing itself, and tlic material of which it was first made must have been wood or bone. But no sooner was the art of making bronze known in a c(^nimunity lliaii the superiority of this material would commend itself to the [tin manufacture)-. The sliaip points of long ])ins protruding here and there from one's garment, even were it a coat of skins, would l)e as awkward in ancient as in modern times; and licncc the ui'gency to have not onlv tlx- point covci-ed n]», but also some K ^'S- 35- — I'ORTION OK A Bkonzk Lanck (g). 146 PREHISTORIC CEMETERIES. means to prevent the pin dropping out. The first step Fig. 36. — Bronze Helmet from Arareva Tumulus. in this direction was to bend the wire so as to bring both ends together, and then to apply some movable Fig- 37.— Bronze Dish (about ^). Fig. 38. — Shield Ornament of Bronze (|). adjustment for securely fastening them in this position GLASIXAC. 147 — a purpose most effectually carried out by attaching a hook or clasp to the head of the pin. The next pro- gressive step was to subject the stem to one or more twists (Fig. 42), so as to give it greater elasticity. The subsequent modifications and im- provements introduced into the structure of this primitive ap- pliance are well illustrated in the array of specimens collected from tlie cemeteries of Glasinac. As a rule, these fibulae are made of bronze, but examples made of iron are not uncommon, though in a much more decayed condi- tion than the former. In order to distino-Liish the varied forms of fibulae from each other, archse- olocjists are in tlie liabit of classi- fying them into groups, naming each group after some well- known object which they may liappen to resemble, or on ac- count of some special peculiarity in t!ieir structure. Thus we have the spectacle- fdmla, wliicli is made of a round wire twisted into two spiral roils, witliout an intermediate body (Fig. 4,3). Of tliis kind some tlirec (»i- I'lnir do/i.-n specimens li.ivc been found. The disc-jihald , a foi-m ]t('('uli;ir f(» Olasinac, consists of an orriMmental pl.ilc of bioii/c, generally two or four discs uiiih'il, iindci- wlii<'li the ]ii?i is concc.-ilcil ^■'g- 39- — BRON'Zli GUEAVIi (J). 148 PREHISTORIC CEMETERIES. (Fig. 44). TJiis type seems to have been developed from the former by merely converting the coiled wire into a solid plate. In support of this view it has been pointed out that the prevailing ornamentation — -viz., concentric circles — is merely a survival of the spirals in the earlier form. The example illustrated by figure 44 has six lobes of uniform size ; but this is exceptional, as Fig. 40.— Bronze Greaves (J-). generally there are but two large and two small ones arranged alternately, the former corresponding with the spiral coils in figure 43, and the latter merely filling in the diverging spaces. In the centre of each lobe there is a knob, around which the inscribed circles are disposed concentrically. Bow - shaped fibulce may be divided into two classes, according as they have the GLASIXAC. 149 twisting of the stem at one or two points. Those having a doubly twisted stem are by far the most nu- merous in Glasinac, amounting m ■* ' ' t ^ ,-■ ;5 -^ i- -i f ^ .1^ ^ JSf?|jc| to not less than 44 per cent of the whole (Fig. 45). Formerly it was maintained that this type was pecu- liar to the reo;ions north of the AIjds ; but in face of the discoveries at Glas- inac this opinion must now be aban- doned.^ Those with only one twist are said to be more allied to Greek forms (Fig. 4G). Other filjulse in this collection Ijclono; to foreign types, and are named accord- ingly ; such are the " Peschiera," " Cer- tosa,"and" Romano- provincial" types (Fig. 47). Aiintlici- Iniiii, most abun- dantly mot with ill tlio ncrTojiolis of S;int;i Liici;i ;iihI > See Dr Iloenies, Mitt. Antlirop. (Jesel. Wieii, vol. xix. p. 135. J J ig. 41.— Huon/;k Gikdlk ikom Akakkva Tumulus. 150 PREHISTORIC CEMETERIES. Fig. 42.— Bronze Fibula. ill some of tlie lake -dwellings in North Italy, is the Seiyentine fibula.^ 2. Phcderce. — Disc-shaped ornaments, either flat or slightly convex, are of vari- ous sizes, and usually carry on the back or under-surface one or more clasps or hooks for attachment. Their orna- mentation consists of Q;eomet- rical figures engraved in lines and clots, or symmetrical per- forations (Figs. 48,49, and 50). 3. Diadems, &c. — The head of the corpse was some- times found surrounded by a fillet or narrow band of bronze with linear ornamentation, often in diamond- shaped spaces — probably ordinary diadems, more for the use of the livino- than for the dead. 4. Rings. — Next to the fibula, the armlet was the most common article of per- sonal adornment amonp; the ancient people of Glasinac. The prevailing form was that of a massive ring with punctured and linear ornamentation, whose ends over- lapped and terminated occasionally in ornamental knobs ; but the most remarkable is that made of a spiral band 1 Examples of both the Peschiera and the Serpentine fibulae are figured in the ' Lake-D\velling.s of Europe/ the former in Fig. 64 (Nos. 22, 23, and 24), and the latter in Fig. 50 (Nos. 11, 13, and 15). Fig. 43.— Bronze Fibula {\) GLASINAC. 151 developing at one end into a broad spatula as shown in Fig. 51. That represented by the lower figure in the illustration is interesting as an example of the process of repair resorted to when broken. Brace- lets and hano-inQ- ornaments were also made of bronze wire, and rarely of silver wire, in the form of coils, with or without twisted knots (Figs. 52 and 53). Finger- rings were equally varied in form, the most common being the spiral, which in one instance had l)otli ends Fig. 44. — Bronze Plate of A Fibula (§). Fig. 45.— Bko.nze FiHUL^i wnii two Ski'AUATe Twists (§). terminating in large l)alls. Anotlicr exceptional form was that of a simple ring with an urnamciitcd expan- sion plate. 152 PREHISTORIC CEMETERIES. 5. Pins. — It need liardly be said that ornamental pins are both abundant and varied in form, the head being round, oval, twisted, or curved. Some have a double stem, and there are others with a peculiar curve in the middle like those from the terremare. A few curious examples found in the Arareva tumulus have a thimble-like protector on the point (Fig. 54). Fig. 46. — Bronze Fibula with one Twist (about §). G. Buttons, Pendants, &c. — In this category may be placed a promiscuous assortment of knobs and discs perforated with symmetrical apertures, buckles, small crosses, and star-shaped objects. A form which appears to be peculiar to Glasinac is an equal-armed cross, each end terminating in a transverse catch. Pendants seem to be the embodiment of the metallurgical skill and art GLASINAC. 15; of the period, appearing as hollow pear-shaped drops of open work, small jugs, bird -shaped objects, miniature celts and spears, &c. (Figs. 55 to 57). 7. Among MiscellaneoKS objects ma}' be mentioned some novel articles made of a hollow cross, one arm of which is attached to a crescent-shaped expansion (Fig. 58). There is also a massive neck -ring or toRjue over 5 inches in diameter, with a running spiral orna- Fig. 47.— RoMAx Fibula (|). Fig. 48,— Engraved Bronze Pendant {}). mentation (Fig. 59). lieads are of jjronze, amljcr, glass, ennmol, stone, ;iii(l Ijomc TIh' motallic s])r('iiiiens sliow the Lireatest diversity in fonn, Ix'iii'j, wheel - sjiaped. 154 PREHISTORIC CEMETERIES. cylindrical, conical, &c. There are also a few bear- teeth, perforated for nse as hanging ornaments. Such is an epitome of the facts and materials re- Fig. 49.— Bronze Buckle and Disc Ornament (§). garding the tumuli and hill-forts of Glasinac submitted to the assembled Congress for their deliberation. Discussion, Dr Montelius, in opening the discussion, observed that the Hallstatt remains from these tumuli repre- sented a long period of time, as they contained ex- GLASINAC. 155 ainples of tlie successive stages iu the development of the fibula from an early age down to that known as the Certosa fibula, w^hich had already been accur- ately dated to a period four centuries before Christ. In some of these forms he saw a strong resemblance to those of Italy and Greece. As Glasinac did not lie in the direct line from Trieste or Fiume to the Danube regions, it was difficult to explain how the Hallstatt civilisation had become so highly de- veloped there. Agriculture would not afford a livelihood to such a large -, ,. • ^■ 1 ^ ^ j i Fig. 50. — Bronze] Hook population as was nidicated by these pqk suspension {\). extensive cemeteries. He would like, therefore, to know if any traces of mining operations liad been observed, as was the case at Hallstatt, which would account for the populous state of this poor dis- trict. He had heard it stated that manganese was to l^e found in llie iron ore of the neighbourhood; if so, could it not be determined by analysis if the iron objects collected from the Glasinac tumuli contained traces of this mineral, and thus prove that they were made in tlie locality ? Mr Kadimsky statfcl, in reply to Dr INIontclius, that no positive evidence of prehistoric mining had ])QO.n observed in Bosnia, but that traces of iron -smelting iu the form of slag and scoriae had been found at several places. His opinion was, tliat the ironstone often found on the surface had been collected in small open furnaces. ^oQ> PREHISTORIC CEMETERIES. ]\I. Reinacli considered Glasinac to have been a sacred burial-place, to which, for religious reasons, a number of Illyrian tribes, from a distance, were in the habit of sending their dead for burial. He also sugo-ested that the Wallhurgen might have been places of worship in- stead of habitations. In reply to these criti- cisms, Mr Fiala produced statistics to show that there was nothing so remarkable about the number of the tumuli as to demand such far - fetched explanations. Allowing three burials for each tumulus, a number which he thought was about the correct average, it gave a total of 60,000 interments, and spreading this over a period of GOO years — i.e., from 1100 to 500 B.C. — we had only 100 deaths a-year. With a death-rate of only 10 per cent, a population of 10,000 would account for the entire burials in all the cemeteries of the Glasinac district. That it contained a population of this number was not unlikely, seeing that at the present time it amounted to 25,000. Professor Virchow saw nothino;, either in the osseous Fig. 51.— Two Bracelets of Sheet Bronze (§). GLASINAC. 157 Fig. 52. — Bronze Armlkt {{). remains or in the relics of the people, which would lead him to suppose that iu Glasinac we had a iwimaren Culturcentrum. He agreed with Dr Mon- telius that the for- eign influence had come, by way of the sea, from Italy and Greece, which led to new developments of culture in the inte- rior ; and, as a proof tliat it was not by land that this influ- ence had come, he instanced the necropolis of Santa Lucia. On the other hand, Professor Hampel, ad- mittins: the existence of tliis foreign influence, advocated its extension into Bosnia by a land route, and pointed to several localities in the I )anuljian valley where fibulae, armlets, &c., had l^een found similar, both in lorni an(i ornamenta- tion, to those of Glas- inac. Similarly, but at a later time, the T.a 'I'eiic fivilisatirm Imd extended l(j Bosnia from nii opposite direction — viz., ikhIIi-wcsI. F'g- 53. — Bkonzk Bk.\celet (j). 158 PREHISTORIC CEMETERIES. Dr Verneau pointed out that there was a strong like- ness between the skulls from the tumuli of Glasinac and those found in the graves at Hallstatt, the majority in both places being dolichocephalic — a cranioloo-ical phenomenon which was reversed in the case of the Swiss lake-dwellers. ii 1 1 il ' tfi nil " ^ n Fig. 54. — Ornamental Bronze Pins (§). The discussion was brought to a close by Dr Hoernes, who remarked that though Glasinac was now poor in agriculture it might not have been so in former times. At all events it was then, as it still is, excep- tionally rich in grazing - lands. Some years ago he entertained the idea that Glasinac was a Campus sacer, GLASINAC. 159 but he had since given it up. The district occupied an important strategic position between the Adriatic and the Danube. This fact was corroborated by Mr Ballif, who had recently traced the Eonian road from Sarajevo through Ghxsinac to tlie Drina, as well as a ^ ."1'' "I ^^ '-' ' If ^ ',:* Fig. 55.— Various Bronze Objects (|). side branch to JJomavia, and had proved from its structure that it had Ijeen a main tlioroughfare. ])r Hoernes did not tliink there was nny mystery at all about Glasinac. It w;is merely rirli in burials, ]>ut not exceptionally so, as lie liad seen llinn in ('(ni;!! ;il(uii- ■dancc in several other localities, as, for example, in 160 PREHISTORIC CEMETERIES. the neighbourhood of Yisegrad, Foca, Plevlje, &e. At Imocki, between Mostar and Ljubnski, the tumuli were as numerous as at GLasinac, but Larger and more difli- Fig. 56. — Bronze Pendants {{] cult to explore. On the road from Kagusa to Bilek, Gacko, and Foca, they were also to be found on the barren Karst, but not in such striking numbers. jB. the necropolis of jezepjxe. In 1890, while some workmen were searching for stones for the construction of the now newly - built Oriental Orthodox Church of Pritoka, situated 6 hilo- metj^es to the east of Biliac, on the road to Petrovac, they came upon nine human interments, eight burnt and one unburn t, containing grave -goods which were considered by the clergyman so interesting that they were sent to the Museum at Sarajevo (Figs. 60 and 61). Later on, three more burnt interments were found which NECROPOLIS OF JEZERINE. IGl yielded similar remains, and ultimately led to the inves- tigation of the locality by the Government. System- atic explorations were begun on July 16, 1892, by eight men under the direction of Mr Radimsky, and completed on the 26th August followino;. After the first week the supervision of the work was intrusted to Mr Peter jNIirkovic, who, according; to his chiefs report, carried it out with great skill and precision. The cem- etery was situated some 200 yards from the church, on a slightly elevated portion of land which insensibly merges Fig. 57.— bronze ornament (§). into the plain of the Una. The graves were irregularly placed over a space measuring 60™- by 34°^- The number examined is 541, making, along with the dozen previously opened, a total of 553, being 328 (59.3 per cent) burnt and 225 (40.7 per cent) unburnt interments. The monograph Ijy ^Mr Kadimsky on this remark- able cemetery is now published,^ and it is illustrated by 588 figures in the text, 3 coloured plates, and a plan on which all the graves are numbered and shown in their relative positions. By a convenient system of signs one sees at a o-lance the character of eacli burial, and in the case of simple iuliuniation an arrow shows the direction in which the body lay. The peculiarities » Wissen. Mitt., vol. iii. \>\k GO-218. L 162 PREHISTORIC CEMETERIES. and contents of each grave are described and illustrated separately. Indeed a more comprehensive and masterly report of a special archaeological find I have seldom seen. Eelics were sometimes found without beincr associated with any kind of burial, and at five different points throughout the sepulchral area remains of pyres were Fig. 58.— Bronze Ornaments— Right (|) ; Left (§). exposed : only in three cases was there evidence to show that the body had been cremated in the grave itself. The two kinds of burial were thoroughly inter- spersed among each other, both as regards extension and superposition, and their depth varied from 0.25™- to l.oO'"-, or even more in a few instances. As a rule, NECROPOLIS OF JEZEPJNE. 163 Fig. 59.— Bronze Necklet {§) the cremated remains were enclosed in urns, but some- times they were laid on the earth and protected by stones. The urns were usualh^ placed on the bare earth, but, in exceptional instances, they rested on a stone pavement or on a flat dish. They were either coA^ered with a stone flag or a saucer-shaped lid of pottery, or altogether uncovered. Three of these stone covers had Roman inscriptions. A few of the urns, supposed to belong to later times, were made of stone. They have a circular shape (ex- cept one which is square), and w^ere al- ways covered witli a round lid, mid often enclosed a clay urn which con- tained the inter- ment. The cremat- ed human remains appear to have been carefully separated from the ashes and charcoal of the pyre, and, when tlius Fig. 60.— Roman Fibula with three Armlets OF Bronze (J). 164 PREHISTORIC CEMETERIES. collected and deposited in the tomb, the grave-goods — often including a small urn or shallow dish (the so- called food-vessel) — were placed along with them. Only in the case of the stone urns were the grave-goods ever found laid on the outside cover. In two instances an unburnt skull was discovered along with the cremated remains. The skeleton, when ordinary burial was resorted to, lay on the back on the bare earth with a stone under Fig. 6i. — Fibula (J) and Amber Bead (|). the head. The direction of the body was, in 75 per cent, with the head to the north, in 12 per cent to the east, and in 7 per cent to the south. The few re- maining bodies lay in other directions, or their position was not determined. In whatever direction or position the body was placed, prone or face upwards, the hands were always stretched alongside it ; and the grave-goods occupied the same place in respect to it as they were worn by the living. Above the head was generally placed a small vessel of clay or bronze. NECROPOLIS OF JEZERINE. 165 Without couutiuo- the urns, 193 burnt and 202 un- burnt interments were accompanied with more or fewer grave-goods. These relics were made of various materials, and distributed amono- the graves accordino- to the fol- lowino" table : — Objects. Iron. Swords Knife- sword Knives Spurs . Fibulae Armlets Diverse rings, and a nail BrouTjt. Needles .... Pincers .... /Hallstatt tibulae \Late do. do. (Early La Tene fibulaj Middle do. do. Late do. do. Two-spiral fibuko JEarly Roman Provincial fibular I Roman filjulaj . Bow - shaped fibulie without attached .... Chains, wire pendants, &c. . Ornamented pins Double-spiral discs Necklets .... Ear-rings .... Ring armlets Spiral armbands Finger-rings Anklets .... Rings (various kinds) . pin Burnt Inter- ments. Unburnt Inter- ments. Not in Graves. Total number. 3 3 1 "l ... 2 11 6 1 18 1 2 3 2 3 ... 5 2 1 • • • 3 2 1 1 4 8 2 10 19 2 21 2 9 11 3 20 23 6 12 18 29 13 42 f) 1 6 17 12 29 22 1 23 4 1 5 1 53 54 2 29 31 15 (i 21 2 6 8 1 1 1 11 o 12 14 ,s 1 2:{ 4 12 1 17 5 4 9 ... 6 • • • 6 <;.s 1 60 1 119 166 PREHISTORIC CEMETERIES. Objects. Burnt Inter- ments. Unburnt Inter- uients. Not in Graves. Total number. Bronze — continued. Disc-rings, discs, plates, and perforated bands ...... 152 19 • . . 171 Round knobs ..... 8 11 ... 19 Cross-shaped knobs .... 59 21 . . . SO Beads ....... 3 1 4 Pendants ...... 11 64 ... 75 Diverse objects, spiral tubes, buckles. &c. ....... 11 21 1 33 Silver. La T^ne fibulae ..... 3 ... ... 3 Chains (different kinds) 8 1 . . . 9 Arm- and finger-rings .... 3 • . . • • • 3 Diverse rings, beads, pendants, &c. 18 3 2 23 Tin (or White Metal). Disc ornaments (2) pendant . 2 1 ... 3 Amher. Disc ornaments ..... 1 6 7 Beads ....... 661 617 3 1281 Glas.i. Arm-ring ...... 1 1 2 Beads (enamelled) .... 20 39 ■ . . 59 Do. (blue) 1247 242 2 1491 Do. (yellow) ..... 141 128 • • • 269 Do. (white) 370 3 • . . 373 Do. (green) ..... 12 11 ... 23 Bone. Beads, discs, one hollow cylinder, and horn handles ..... 16 3 • • • 19 Teeth " 5 4 ... 9 Vitreous Paste. Red beads and discs .... 22 ... 22 Stone. Disc and fragment .... 2 ... ... 2 aay. Spinning-whorls ..... 2 ... ... 2 NECROPOLIS OF JEZERINE. 167 Rearrano-ino- tlie relics accordiuo; to the materials of which they were made, and counting undetermined objects, Mr Eadimsky gives the distribution of these materials as follows : Iron was found in 66 graves ; bronze in 331 ; silver in 9 ; tin in 3 ; amber in 109 ; glass in 71 ; bone in 17 ; vitreous paste in 3 ; stone in 2 ; and a clay- whorl in 2. The so-called swords are short one-edged weapons, the longest of the three being only 16 inches in length. They, apparently, had handles of wood or horn attached bv rivets, but no trace of the material now remains. Similar blades have been found in Hallstatt and St ^lichael in Carniola.^ The only dijfference between them and the knife-swords is that the latter are only about half the length of the former. The characteristic La Tene sword is awanting, and we may note also the absence of lances. Somewhat startling is the presence in this collection of a couple of strike-lights — " steels " — not unlike those that may still be seen used by the jjeasants of Scotland. Mr Radimsky states that a simi- lar implement has been found among the Roman remains recently discovered at Ilidze. Lindenschmit also figures two from Merovingian graves.^ Bronze was the predominant metal used in the manu- facture of ornaments, which, as may be seen from the classified list, are numerous and varied. Among them the fibulae are of the greatest in)[»ortance, inasmucli as we have a large numljer of tlic various intcrniediute 1 Mitt, (let Anth. Gesell. in Wien, vol. xviii. p. 230. - Alterthiimer unser heid, Vorzcit, B«l. iv. Taf. 40, fi^s. 7 ami 8 168 rREHISTORIC CEMETERIES. forms which were evolved in this locality during the interval between the earliest Hallstatt and the Roman periods, representing an unbroken continuity of some four or five centuries. Of the 157 fibulge collected, 95 are assigned to the La Tene civilisation. Eoman fibulae are too well known to re- Fig. 62.— Bronze Early La Tene quire illustrated examples here, but a few of the special forms may be given. Fig. 62 is an early La Tene type. Of peculiar interest are the 29 specimens having a cross band of spirals at both ends (Fig. 63). The bow is either adorned with a row of amber or glass beads or with elegant convolutions of the stem itself {Fig. 64). Another form, which seems to be characteristic of Jez- erine, is represented by Fig. 65, and of which no fewer than 54 examples have been collected. It is the ordi- nary bow-fibula of earlier times, with the peculiarity of having the pin unattached. The very remarkable fibula (Fig. 66) is merely the Certosajibida, having the turned-up foot converted into a ram's head, and the head into that of an ox, while the stem passes through an ornamented piece of amber. Among the other relics may be noted a twisted torque and a necklace made of ten large oval rings connected by small chains. Anklets were found on three occasions with unburnt interments ; and it is worthy of note that they occur always in pairs, while armlets are generally single. NECROPOLIS OF JEZERINE. 169 Clasps, bands, and ornamental studs for girdles were distributed among both kinds of graves. These were sometimes ornamented with human and animal forms. Fig. 63. — Bronze Fibula with Row of Amber Beads and Chain Pendants (J). Oninmonts mado of silver aro r'om])nvntivoly rare, bcini; confined to ei^dit oraves. Anionic them aic five O Co O small r.;i Tciic fi1iul;u, a wire armlet, portions of chains, 170 PREHISTORIC CEMETERIES. Fig. 64. — Bronze Fibula with Compound Spirals and an Amber Bead (h). beads, a button, and a few pendants. One of the pen- dants had been gilt, and two are in the form of a human head. Of the three specimens of tin, one is a pendant orna- ment in the shape of a human foot. A special feature of this necropolis is the number of amber and glass beads — the latter being of various forms and colours — which it has yielded. Among the other glass objects there is a remarkably fine circular bracelet externally ornamented with flutings along the circum- ference. From a vast quantity of broken urns and other vessels about 100 have been restored. A few dishes are wheel-made, presum- ably Roman, and others are supposed to be of Greek or- Fig. 65. — The Jezerine Fibula (|). igm but the great majority, represent- ing many forms and sizes, are hand-made. Of the osseous remains from Jezerine only eight skulls were sufficiently well preserved to supply cranial measurements. According to Dr Gliick, they resemble those from the tumuli of Glasinac in being large and NECROPOLIS OF JEZERINE. 171 capacious, but differ from them in having a smaller breadth towards the frontal region. From their ceph- alic indices he classifies three as mesocephalic and five as brachycephalic. Two fragments of flat stones have a few incised letters, evidently portions of Roman inscriptions. Fig. 66.— Bronzk Fibula with two Animal Heads and a Body of .■Xmbkr (i). A third fragment is of special interest in luuiiig llic ligure of a helmeted warrior, holding a spear in the right hand, deeply incised on it. It forms the corner of a rectangular slab, which pi-obably originally stood as a steh or headstone. The accompanying illustration (Fig. Q7) is a reduced copy of lli.it in ILidimsky's mono- 172 PEEHISTORIC CEMETERIES. graph, but Dr Hoerues^ gives iu the same volume a photographic representation of it. In some critical remarks on this sepulchral monument the latter char- Fig, 67. — Pee-Roman Gravestone (about J). acterises it as a pre-Roman gravestone, and assigns it to the late Hallstatt or early La Tene period. 1 "Wissen. Mitt., vol. iii. p. 516. 173 CHAPTER VI. MOSTAE AXD ITS NEIGHBOURHOOD. For the homeward journey we had a choice of two routes — either to return vid the Danube, the w'ay we had come, or, in accordance with our original intention, to cross the Dinaric Alps by the recently constructed railway to jMetkovic on the Adriatic, and thence by one of the frequently plying boats to Trieste or Fiume. Had the selection depended merely on the attractions presented by these respective routes there could have been no hesitation in the matter, as unquestionably the latter was the more interestinjr of the two. But sinister rumours of the great heat then prevalent on the other side of the mountains were just sufficiently alarming to throw in a disquieting element as to the prudence of carrying out this part of the programme. However, after deliberation with some other members of Congress, it was decided to run all dimatological risks, and so the Adriatic route was finally fixed upon. Wlion the party mustered at the railway station, we liad tlie pleasure of fliMliiig among our compcKjnons tie voij- 17-i MOSTAR AND ITS NEIGHBOURHOOD. LUjc :\1. and Madame Reinach, Von Fellenberg, Mon- teliiis, aud Pigorini. Dr von Thalloczy and a few local members were also going part of the way, and, as some friends had come to see the strangers off, the farewell oreeting-s were of the warmest and liveliest description. Mr Hermann, to whose excellent manage- ment the Consjress owed much of its success, was most indefatigable in his attentions, and spared no effort to secure the comforts of the party so long as they were to be on Bosnia-Herzegovinian soil. We left Sarajevo at 11.40 a.m., August 22d, and, quickly traversing the plain of Ilidze, entered the out- liers of the Dinaric Alps by the bed of a stream which comes winding from the higher hills beyond. As the train crept along the declivities, or swept round the ter- minal ends of the side valleys, we had some charming peeps of the country — village, farm, forest, rock, and peak blending in ever-changing combinations. About twenty-two miles from Sarajevo we reached the foot of the Ivan Sattel, which forms the watershed between the Save and the Narenta. Here the conductor looked into the compartments and informed their occupants that the windows must for a time be closed. Shortly after- wards we passed on to the rack-and-pinion portion of the line — a fact which, but for the slanting position of the carriage, misrht have been unobserved. Then fol- lowed a succession of tunnels, deep cuttings, and chasms spanned by iron bridges of peculiar construction — the arches being turned downwards. The highest point — 2867 feet above sea-level — was attained at Ivan station THE DIXARIC ALPS. 175 immediately after emerging from the Ivan Battel tunnel. About three-quarters of a mile from this station there is a village of wooden houses ensconced within the sombre shade of a beech-forest, and much frequented in summer on account of the magnificent mountain scenery in its immediate environments. The Ivan tunnel is over 700 yards in length, and before reaching Konjica on the Narenta — a distance of some thirteen miles — other five tunnels, from 100 to 200 yards in length, were encoun- tered. The descent afi"orded some striking glimpses of the barren Karst mountains of Herzegovina, and espe- cially of the peaks of the Prenj group, which loomed right ahead of us. As we turned into the Narenta valley the most noticeable change in the scenery was the appearance of the Spanish chestnut among the forest trees. Konjica is charmingly situated on both banks of the Narenta, and for its size, some 1600 inhabit- ants, makes a great display of mosques, minarets, and other conspicuous-looking buildings (Plate XVII.). The river, having previously traversed rough ground, here assumes a placid appearance, and is crossed by a fine antique bridge of several arches. Now that the rail- way has brought the town in direct communication with Sarajevo and .Mostar, it is expected that it will speedily retrieve some of the trade prosperity it jjos- sessed in pre-Turkish times. From Konjica the iron- way follows tlic right bank of the Narenta tliroiigh scenery of the most romantic character, and after crossing a few turbulent tributaries by handsome iron Ijridgcs, especi- ally that over the entrance to the magnificent gorge of ITG MOSTAR AND ITS NEIGHBOURHOOD. the Rama, it s\Yeeps round to Jablanica, where it takes a southward direction. Jablanica lies in the hollow of a rocky basin in the midst of vineyards, orchards, clumps of green foliage, and patches of cultivated land. But it is in the con- templation of the surrounding amphitheatre of fantastic peaks, fringed with streaks of snow of dazzling whiteness, that the real grandeur of the locality comes home to one (Plate XVIII. ). In a glance the eye bounds from vegetative luxuriance to arid desolation. To scan the horizon in this world of rocks is to follow a sprawling outline far up in the blue vault of heaven ; and in the contorted shapes of the weathered sunburnt crags and scars half-way up, one is excused if he sees the ruined castles and forts of a race of antediluvian oiants. When the works of these titanic rock-carvers come to be widely known, Jablanica cannot fail to become a rendezvous for the true lovers of the sublime in nature. The towm contains a good hotel under Government surveillance, and is the starting-point of the diligence route to Jajce — a journey proverbial even in Bosnia for its splendid scenery. The road ascends the wild glen of the Rama, and then over a lofty ridge to the valley of the Vrbas. The whole neighbourhood as far as Konjica is rich in Bogomile gravestones and other medieval antiquities. The tenets of this unfortunate sect have survived here longer than anywhere else, and, indeed, it is said that they still lurk as secret and sacred traditions among some families. This is said to be the reason why the Mohammedan women of Jablanica have never adopted > X a H < < U a: < NARENTA DEFILE. 177 the custom of veiling their faces, like the other Bogo- mile converts throughout the provinces. Sceptics, how- ever, find a more ready explanation in the fixct of their being the owners of exceptionally pretty faces. The inhabitants seem to have little of the Slavish blood in their veins, as their dark features betray a Southern origin. In Jablanica one sees for the first time a purety Herzegovinian town. The wooden houses, so common in Bosnia, entirely disappear, and give place to substan- tially built stone dwellings. Shortly after leaving Jablanica we came to the en- trance of the famous Narenta defile (Plates XIX. and XX.), a rocky gorge, some twelve miles in length, separ- atingj mountains which rise on each side to the heio^ht of 6000 or 7000 feet. Almost at the commencement of the defile the river is crossed by a splendid iron bridge, and the line is continued for a few miles on the left bank ])y a series of short tunnels, galleries, and viaducts. It then re-crosses to the right bank, which it follows to its termination at Metkovic. For a distance of about a mile and a half the precipitous banks of this waterway are almost perpendicular, rising to a height of over 1 000 feet, but yet in one place the river-bed is so narrow that a sudden spate raises the level of the water some 40 or 50 feet. The denuding power of the current lias worn down every obstacle so uniformly tliat there are scarcely any waterfalls along its course — at any rate not sufficiently large to prevent fiat- bottomed Ixjats laden with fruit from going down all the way lixiin Kj Aiu.stiir, u mode uf cun\e)unce M 178 MOSTAll AND ITS NEIGHBOUEHOOD. customary in j)re-railway times. From its steep banks now and again a miglity spring gushes forth and dashes its contents in foaming stream or cascade into the Narenta. Of these the Kommadine-quelle is the largest. It is seen on the right side emerging from under a couple of strongly built stone arches over which the carriage -road passes. It is not till the traveller escapes from the overhanging rocks of this marvellous defile that he realises the complete trans- formation that has taken place in everything around. The dark sylvan scenes of Bosnia have given way to dry barren rocks, and, with the exception of a few favoured localities and some green fringes along the water's edge, there is little sign of vegetation. It was dark by the time we reached Mostar station, and so there was a little bustle before our party and baggage got accommodated in the hotel omnibus. On arrival at the hotel we found our rooms already en- gaged (thanks to the foresight of M. Hormann), and so we speedily met in the verandah of the restaurant, where supper was served. Afterwards, when the tem- perature became modified to a more endurable pitch, we essayed a stroll into the town under a glorious moonlight. But the streets were too lonely to entice us far, and so, returning to the grounds of the hotel, we smoked cigarettes and discussed how to see Mostar and as much of its environments as the fierce sun of the morrow would permit of. A STROLL IX THE TOWX. 179 Mostar '•' Half oriental, half Italian, and altogether Herze- govinian, picturesque and monumental. Every stone declares war and fighting. No city in the world pro- claims so loudly as this one does that she owes herself, her origin, her very being, to battle, war, fortifications, and mighty aggression." Such are the words with which Mr Asboth, the author of an ' Official Tour through Bosnia and Herzegovina' shortly after the occupation of the provinces by the Austro-Hungarians, opens a chapter on Mostar. To these pithy words — descriptive, truthful, and exhaustive — I have little to add. During a stroll along its one long thoroughfare on the left bank of the Narenta, one sees amono- the houses abuttino- on the rocky bed of the river a s^^rinkling of decayed keeps, turrets, bastions, and prison-like enclosures — all grey and hoary as the surrounding Karst mountains. Just where the protruding elbow of the Podvolez l)e- o;ins to recede towards the south-east the distribution of houses acquires a greater breadth, and a second or third street may be seen running more or less parallel to the former. In tliis upper portion of the town stands the large handsome Orthodox cathedral, con- spicuous by its tall spires. The Catholic church is on tlie other side of the river; and, of course, mosques arc everywhere. But who cares to look iuLu llie iutciior <)f these buildings, whether medieval or modern ? Time this 180 MOSTAR AND ITS NEIGHBOURHOOD. moniiiio- was too short to be wasted on details which iiKTcly re-echo the already well-known tale of war, strife, and religious persecutions of Turkish rule. Nor is there anything very novel to be said about the people of Mostar. With a physiognomy indicative of a Southern origin, they are, and have always been, impulsive, proud, and combative. Their manners, and even the structure of their houses, betray an Italian influence. In addition to the usual multifarious objects exposed in the bazaar and in the oj)en shops along the main street, fruit and vegetables hold a prominent place. Fruit worth eating can hardly be got in Sara- jevo, but here we jDurchased over a dozen large delicious figs for 10 kreuzers, and grapes equally cheap. A considerable portion of the town lies on the right bank of the Narenta, some of the houses creeping far back along the road to the Eadobolja- quelle. Im- mediately to the south of the Polje, which forms the embouchure of the stream issuing from it, rises the elevated ridge of Hum, whose bold front protruding on the bed of the river afiibrds a magnificent view of the town and the two adjacent Polje. To the passing tourist there is really but one lion in the town of Mostar — viz., its so-called Roman bridge (Plate XXI), remarkable alike for boldness, elegance, lightness, and durability. It comes as near solving the famous mathematical problem worked out by the honey-bee in the construction of its cell as anything of the kind I have ever seen — viz., how to produce a maximum result with a minimum amount of material. X THE OLD BRIDGE. 181 Since the erection, in 1882, of the modern iron bridge all heavy traffic on the old one is forbidden, and only foot-jDassengers are allowed to cross it. To gaze from the top of this bridge at the water of the Narenta as it swiftly glides past in its rocky channel beneath, is a favourite pastime of the philosophic idlers of Mostar. I do not blame them. Mnstapha Hilmi Muhibbic, writing- in 1893, thus refers to this bridcre : — Die alte Briicke in Mostar gilt rait Eecht fiir eines der hervorragendsten Bauwerke der Hercegovina luid beschaftigt als solches audi vielfach die Gedanken des Volkes. War den " Garten Edens " (so nennt das Mostarar Kind, der beriihmte Dichter Derwisch-Pascha, seiuen Geburtsort) betritt und die Briicke das erste Mai erschaut, der wird hingerisseu von der kiihnen Wolbung ihres Bogens ; und wer das erste Mai seinen Blick von der Briicke hinabsendet, der wird von Schauer ergriffen iiber den Anblick der tief unter ihm dahinbrausenden Xarenta.^ An archaic inscription in the middle of the arch reads '' Kudret kemeri" (the arch of Almighty God). Thongli now proved to be of Turkish origin, dating from the time of Suleiman IT. (15GG), it is not unlikely that a Roman T)ridge preceded it on the same site, and so gave rise to the tradition that this one is of Roman construction. Some say that in Roman times there was a wooden bridge here, and that the two towers still standing, one at each end, were constructed for its defence. The aivli, wliidi is only faintly pointed, Jias a spun of SIJ^ fcut, and a. height of 61 feet above tlic ordinary level of the water. The ' Wisson. ^[itt. au.s Bosnicn, &c., vol. i. )>. niO. 182 MOSTAR AND ITS NEIGHBOURHOOD. l)roadtli of tlie bridge is only 14 feet 9 inches. By way of comparison, I may state that each of the four arches of the Dean Bridge, Edinburgh, has a span of 96 feet. The famous Ponti di Eialto consists of one marble arch of 74 feet span. A tradition exists among the Mohammedan natives to the eifect that the bridgCj as soon as it was com- pleted, fell in again, and that this mishap was repeated until, on the advice of the Villa, the fairy of the moun- tain forest, a pair of lovers had been walled up in the foundations. Similar traditions are current throuohout the countr}^ in regard to many other public buildings. A shocking suspicion that these survivals of superstition may have some basis of truth creeps over one when he learns that, as late as 1870, the corpse of a child was ceremoniously buried under the foundations of the bridge at Trebinje. Verily the ladder of human civi- lisation contains some strange runorg 1 The Source of the Buna. After our morning stroll the programme for the rest of the day was finally adjusted at breakfast, served under cover of the foliage of a wide-spreading tree in the grounds of the hotel — for even at 8 a.m. it was a relief to be in the shade. The result of our delibera- tions was that the entire party — now reduced to six persons by the early departure of Dr Montelius— would visit the Buna-quelle in the forenoon and the Radobolja-quelle, which supplies the town of INIostar B1«CEP0LJE. 183 with water, in the tifternooii. To the former we started at once in a couple of fiacres, each drawn by a pair of sturdy ponies whose normal life - element seemed to be broilino- sunshine. The first item of the journey was to drive direct to Blagaj, a village in the farthest-away corner of the Biscepolje, from which the Buna-quelle is readily accessible on foot in about five minutes (Plate XXII. ). Passing amidst a crowd of bus}^ artisans through the main street of Mostar, Ijoth sides of which were lined with open booths and workshops, we soon cleared its last straggling houses. Just beyond them, and between us and the Narenta, we caught sight of a group of dilapidated buildings of considerable dimensions — the Turkish barracks de- stroyed during the War of Occupation. In striking- contrast to these ruins are the militar}^ quarters of the present Government, seen on the left, with shooting- ranges on the heights above. Farther along we passed in front of the Government vine3^ards and a model training-school for the cultivation of fruit. The vine- yards cover an area of 32 hectares of land, and the array of buildings erected for carrying on these in- dustries reminds one of western European enterprise. We were informed that the undertaking, at first insti- tuted as an experiment, is now a commercial success, as well as a great boon to tin- inliabitants. The wines produced from these vineyards arc considered excellent and in great demand. During llic rest of llic way the most attractive object was the ruined castle of Stjepangrad, [ucLurcs'jUci}' situated on the last peak 184 MOSTAR AND ITS NEIGHBOURHOOD. of the Poclvelez. It stands 600 feet above the plain, on a spur of the same rock from under which the Buna emerges, and, as if to enhance its grandeur, a couple of eagles were seen planing and circling with great majesty high above its hoary walls. The follow- ing remarks by Mr Asboth on this interesting vestige of medieval times may be read with advantage : — An extensive, many-towered royal castle, built many cen- turies ago, at the time when the Counts of Chlum or Chelm, who ruled this laud, were at the height of their glory. Built from the stone found upon the spot, and long since transferred — nay, centuries ago — from the hands of men into those of Nature, this vast mountain fortress has, in form and colouring, grown so much like its rocky foundations that from below it is hard to distinguish where the handiwork of man begins and ends. The solid rock looks like bastion and tower, the ruined watch-tower and bold walls like a heap of stones and cliff'. Eough and desolate and dead does the fortress seem, though once so gay with princely glory, like the sunburnt, torn, bare peak itself, which it crowns ; like the mountain, it stands there, however, even in its decay, in massive grandeur, proudly and defiantly, upon its unapproachable, dizzy heights. From this fortress the mountain-side falls sheer down at a sharp angle with those which meet it here. From the perpen- dicular sides huge blocks project and threaten to crush any one who shall dare to roam here. And that their threat is no empty one is amply proved by the fragments, blocks, and moraines which cover the ground far and wide, and constantly force the rushing torrent into new and tortuous channels. And to this the solitary mosque, built into the narrow angle, and now lying dashed to pieces by falling masses of rock, also testifies. Ali Pasha Piizvanbegovitsh built it, and destiny crushed his work as it crushed him himself. That ancient and smaller building at the back of the ruins is all that remains : it conceals the grave of a Turkish saint, and is a favourite place of pilgrimage of the < O z < a, W H CO O ;/: 5 X a H STJEPANGRAD. 185 Mohammedan population. A sworcl and war-club are painted on the outer wall ; in the interior, in the dark vault, there rest in two simple, carpet-covered wooden coffins the saint and his faithful servant. Upon the wall hang the sword and club themselves. This saint was a hero, who fell fio;htin2; for Islam ; these were his weapons. The watchman who dwells near the vault, each evening places a water-jug and a towel within, for tlie dead saint still nightly performs his religious ablutions. Morning after morning the towel is damp, and the water in the jug has dimin- ished. Among these projecting, moss-grown crags, eagles build their nests, and fly about high overhead, the sentinels of Step- anograd; and from the jutting rocks long points of fantastic drop-stone hang down, genuine stalactite ornaments, just like those in a Moorish buildinc;. Close by the shattered mosque an enormous cavern opens into the wall of rock. It is richly covered both outside and inside with these stalactites ; and as we gaze into the cavern from a wooden balcony belonging to the mosque, a mystic, fairy-like, bluish light glimmers within : the bottom, however, which is large enough for a ball-room, is a deep, quiet mirror of glass, bright, blue, and motionless as steel. Trom out of this still mirror of water springs the restless Buna stream, full of red-and-silver trout ; and if one casts a stone into the cavern, whole armies of pigeons fly up, fluttering in fear before the eagles who are circling above.^ The Dubrawa rido-e strikes off from the Podvclez to the west, witli a Ijold and almost straight front looking towards the Bi.sc'opolje, and in tlie angle tlms formed lies the source of the Buna, so graphically described in the above f[uotation. Leaving the carriages at Blagaj, now a mere village, but in pre-Turkish times the capital of the district, we proceedetl (jn fuoL tu inspect tliis ' Bosnia and Herzegovina, pp. 204-206. 186 MOSTAR AND ITS NEIGHBOURHOOD. curious sight. By a road between a massive hedge of wikl pomegranates and a canal for watering some richly stocked gardens we reached, in a few minutes, the bank of a broad river, sparkling and clear as cr3''stal. Farther along we passed a corn-mill whose clattering wheels were propelled by the first broken current from the great pool. A few yards from the mill there are some ruins, and beyond them a white mosc[ue-like building which entirely blocks the view of the cavern. M. Reinach and I, who were in advance of the party, stood for a moment in front of the house wondering where to go. From the little court where we stood a stone stair almost hidden with walls leads down to the water's edge, and here we noticed a rather comely woman in the act of filling a couple of buckets of water. Coming upon her unawares, she seemed greatly startled b}^ our pres- ence, and at once hurried up w^itli her buckets and wad- dled to the door with extraordinary energy. As soon as she got inside the house, the door of which she opened by a violent kick, and had deposited the buckets, she turned fiercely round and closed the door with a bang. The expression of mingled scorn and anger which flashed from her dark eyes, as she cast a furtive glance at us, was quite appaUing, and I wondered what it was all about. The poor woman it seems had been caught without her veil, and the fact that the Giaour had cast eyes upon her was a dreadful misfortune. We soon detected a small side-gate which led to the wooden balcony over- hanging the pool, and from this excellent view-point had the satisfaction of gazing into the 3^awning cavern, THE SOURCli Ol" Tllli KIVEK UUNA. Plate XXI 1 1. SOURCE OF THE BUNA. 187 now only a few j^ards aliead of us (Plate XXIII. ). The balcony contained seats and a table, and when all the party assembled coffee was handed round by a hand- some young fellow, the occupier of the house, and prob- ably the husband of the hare-faced lady with whom M. Reinach and I had such an amusinor rencontre. The accuracy of Mr Asboth's description was there and then verified to the very letter. We had alread}'' seen and watched a couple of eagles circling high above the lonely ruins of Stjepangrad as we drove along the dusty plain ; and here, without any stone-throwing, we saw. numbers of pigeons quietly gliding in twos and threes from the depths of the cavern, apparently un- aware of our presence till they came outside. Nor did the red-and-silver trout fail to exhibit themselves as, now and again, one turned on its side, as if to show off the variegated hues of its glistening scales. Half-way up the overhanging precipice was a large leafy fig-tree, mysteriously holding to the bare rock with its gnarled stem and twining roots without one visible particle of soil to nourish it. But more striking than anything to me was the reflection of the rocks in the pool below. The points thus seen were far more beautiful than the reality as they a23peared clothed with the deep azure- green of the water. The Buna is supposeil to be the continuation of the Zalomska, which disappears into a mountain-cleft on the border of thf Ncvesinsko - poljc, some thirteen miles east of Blagaj ; in proof of wliicli tlic following story is recorded. (Jnc (hiy a shepherd from Nevesinje threw his 188 MOSTAR AND ITS NEIGHBOURHOOD. staff into the Zalomska, and his father, a miller at Blagaj, accidentally found it in the Buna. Father and son then determined to put this discovery to a profitable use. The shepherd each day killed a sheep and threw it into the river ; this the father next day picked up in the Buna. The shepherd, when questioned about the mysterious diminution of his flock, always blamed the wolf; but at last the proprietor became suspicious and watched him. One day he detected the shepherd in the act of throwing the sheep into the river ; and the next morning the miller at Blagaj, instead of the usual sheep, fished out of the Buna the body of his son. The Mostar Water Supply. The account of the drive to the Eadobolja-quelle will not occupy us long. The stream of this name issues from a cavern at the foot of a lofty ridge called Cim, some seven miles to the west of Mostar. In size it is not to be compared with the Buna, but it is sufficient to mark its entire course with the greatest vegetative lux- uriance. Among a number of fruit-trees may here be seen the fig and the almond tree. Before the stream falls into the Narenta, close by the old bridge, its waters become almost dissipated in the irrigation of the sur- rounding gardens. But the greatest demand on its usefulness is to supply the people of Mostar with re- freshing water; and for this purpose pipes have been laid from the mouth of the cavern all the way to the town. At the present time the entrance to the cavern MOST A R WATER SUPPLY. 189 is filled up witli angular stones, and only one small hole remains, through which the water is visible. The pipes are underneath these blocks of stone, and the surplus water percolates through them into the former bed of the stream. The effect of abstractiuQ- such a laro^e vol- ume at the fountain-head becomes strikingly manifest by a conspicuous zone of dark withered aquatic vegeta- tion on the larger stones in the bed of the now dim- inished stream. I have not heard any sug-o-estion as to the origin of the Eadobolja. At no great distance from it on the south side of the mountains there lies an extensive plain called Mostarsko Blato — i.e., the marsh of Mostar — which during the greater part of the year is an exten- sive lake and never altogether dry. This lake has no visiljle outlet, and its w^aters in the summer-time dis- appear through unseen channels or 20onors. Possibly the underground course of the Eadobolja may be one of them. About 200 yards or so from the cavern there are some stone buildings, half buried in the earth, for regu- lating the supply of w\ater into the pipes. Also, close by, a neat refreshment - room has just been erected, and the grounds around it are prettily laid out with walks, shrubs, and rockeries. The hill scenery and mountain walks in the vicinity add to the attractions of the locality, so that it is rapidly coming into repute as a fashional)le place of resort. Here we lingered so long that Ijefore fjettin'j; Ijack to ^lostar several twink- ling stars Ijccame visil)l(,' in llic inlcnsely l)hie vault above. But previous to this we bchcitl the grc}' ridges 190 MOSTAR AND ITS NEIGHBOURHOOD. of limestone bathed in a flood of golden light, and watched its changing hues till it insensibly vanished into moonshine. Spinning seems to be a regular occupation of all shepherds and herdsmen in this district, several of whom we met driving home their herds and carrying about with them a distaif and spindle. They re- minded me of an old cattle herdsman whom I once saw in the Highlands of Scotland busily exercised in knitting, dancing, and singing, while no doubt at the same time his eye wandered to his browsing herd. Groups of cottages dotted the roadside, and here and there were bundles of trimmed and assorted leaves of tobacco hung upon the walls to dry in the sun, preparatory to being sent to the Government factory. The Narenta Valley. The river Narenta, after finding its way through the mountain barrier of Karst to the south of Jablanica, passes through an alluvial plain (Bjelopolje) which stretches southwards as far as Mostar, a distance of about eight miles. This plain is formed by the rocky heights diverging to the left, and then again converging at Mostar. Here, on the east, the Podvelez protrudes its rugged slopes down to the river, and on the west the massive Hum rises from the water to a commanding height. But this encroachment of the Podvelez is only for a short distance, as it soon again recedes in another wide sweep to form the eastern boundary of the second XAEEXTA VALLEY. 191 alluvial plain (Biscepolje), which likewise terminates by a rapprochement of the hills. Through the southern barrier thus formed the Narenta has lono; ag-o forced a passage by a rock-cut channel known as the defile of V Zitomislic. Thus, from the lower end of the defile of V Jablanica to the commencement of that of Zitomislic, a distance of sixteen miles, there is a stretch of alluvial deposits which in form may be roughly compared to the figure 8. The point represented by the crossing of the lines is a short pass between the two Polje. It is here that the town of Mostar is situated, a position which commands the only gateway in this direction to the interior. Hence the importance of the situation, especially in the eyes of the Turks, under whose domi- nation Mostar came into prominence. The Eoman road from the Adriatic to Bosnia passed this way, and there can be little doubt that in pre - Eoman times it was likewise the great highway for communications with the interior. Indeed, the whole district around Mostar is virtually strewn with the industrial and art remains of the various races who formerly inhabited it. But, independent altogether of its strategic advantages, the locality must have been at all times a favourite one on account of the rich agricultural lands in its vicinity. Of the many points calling for the attention of the visitor, the story which the Narenta itself discloses of its past operations is by no means tlie least interesting. 1 have already descriljcd its gigauLic work ni excavating a passage through tlic mountains of tJie interior ; and we now feee before us liow the excavated materials were 192 MOSTAR AND ITS NEIGHBOURHOOD. disposed of. These alluvial plains were at one time lakes, but now tlieir beds have become filled up with tlie detritus carried down by floods from the moun- tains. The surplus water from them was also continu- ally wearing down the rocky barriers which separated them, till ultimately, by the combination of these two processes, their entire drainage was efi'ected. At Blagaj, on the south-east border of the Biscepolje, I noticed portions of an old lake-beach at a considerably higher level than the present surface of the plain. There is a leo-end to the eff"ect that the Zitomislic defile is the work of man's hand, executed for the purpose of drain- in o- the lake ; and marks of the old water-line are said to be still visible on the surrounding hills, and even " iron rings are mentioned to which the dwellers on the shore of the lake fastened their boats." But this tra- dition must have originated in the brain of some one who had a glimmering of the geological changes the country has undergone, as the lake had disappeared long before man took to engineering channels of this mao-nitude. But it would be in existence until the river had excavated its bed sufiiciently deep to carry ofl" the accumulated waters of the Biscepolje. This process was necessarily a very slow one ; and it is not likely, even had man been on the scene during any period of the lake's existence, that he would have re- cognised the fact that any diminution in its area was in progress. The river Buna, whose entire bed lies within the boundaries of this ancient lake, would not have begun its course till the drainage of the latter DETRITUS OF THE NARENTA. 193 had been well-uigii completed. It would therefore be interesting to ascertain, if practicable, what amount of excavatino; work is to be attributed to the Buna during the shorter period it has been flowing. The amount of detritus carried down by the Narenta and deposited in its successive Polje and delta proper is enormous. For a considerable portion of its course its bed is excavated in an ancient deposit of gravel, apparently that of a river of much greater volume than the Xarenta of to-day. These old sedimentary and water-worn gravels have become in several places con- solidated into a cong-lomerate so hard and tou2;h that it seems to defy the ordinary weathering processes. At the lower end of the Jablanica defile the river may be seen flowing in a narrow channel between perpendicular banks, 10 or 20 feet high, showing in their clean-cut sections almost nothing but round white pebbles of a uniform size. They looked just as if they had been recently thrown down by a flood, and the wonder to me was how they kept together. But the wonder soon vanished when I came to experience the amount of hammering necessary to detach a pebble. The cement- ing element was a mere film not always filling the interstices. Sections of these ancient confjlomerates are seen at the old bridge in Mostar, the span of which rests on this substance. But its composition here is somewhat difl'erent fi-om tliat above descri1)e(l, in hav- ing more of the calcareous matrix and fewer pel)l)]('s. It also contains fossil shells, apparently of a marine sj^ecics. A curious result of its consistency and ilura- 194 MOSTAR AND ITS NEIGHBOURHOOD. l>ility may be seen a little above the town, where the Narenta runs into a number of narrow, almost subter- ranean channels excavated in the rock, leaving the intervening ridges as stepping-stones by which people are in the habit of crossing; at low water. This formation, however it may be accounted for by geologists, slopes towards the sea at the same uniform rate as the fall in the river, and its surface everywhere remains at a considerable height above the present bed of the river. In the narrower portions of the valley it is seen to occupy the whole space, resting unconformably on the limestone beds beneath. Its de- velopment in such masses suggested to me that the Xarenta had been formerly fed by glaciers, but I am informed that no traces of giaciation have hitherto been observed in these regions. I may say, however, that while crossing the Dinaric Alps we saw some moraine- like deposits along the railway cuttings, in regard to which De Mortillet and Yon Fellenbero- differed, the former denying, and the latter affirming, their glacial origin. But, indeed, the whole district is bristling with geological problems not less novel than speculative. Few localities present, prima facie, more promising- materials for determining, with some prospect of success, the chronological value of the geological phenomena of tertiary and post-tertiary times than the thirty miles of the Narenta bed which lies between Jablanica and the river Buna. A young active geologist who could spare a few weeks in spring or autumn would find it a splen- did field for a holiday ramble. The excessive heat in ARCHAEOLOGICAL JOTTINGS. 195 August prevented us from making any practical inves- tigation, and I offer these remarks merely by way of directing attention to the subject. Archceological Jottings. As regards archaeology we are, in the neighbourhood of Mostar, on cLassical ground. In the alluvial deposits around the town, or along the highways and byways leading to it, the keen eye of Mr Eadimsky has recentl}^ detected numerous remains of the successive civilisations which have flourished in the district. The accompany- ing sketch-map (p. 196) will enable us to follow his footsteps in his archaeological investigations over the Biscepolje and its environments. Starting from Mostar, we note as we pass along the west bank of the river, in the direction of the railway station at Buna, a great tumulus on a hill to the west of the village Rodoc, and, farther along, several other tumuli, of various sizes, scattered over the plain. Tn the vicinity of Jasenica are sixteen Bogomile grave- stones, some of which arc ornamented with half-moons and stars — emblems originally emanating from the southern Slavs. Another interesting group of antiqui- ties lies ill the vicinity of Bacevici, consisting of a few Bogomile gravestones, four tumuli, a prehistoric fort subsequently utilised l)y the Komans, and the ruins of a lioman settlciiKiit. The remains of the Kunuin seUlcim-iiL extend aluiiiJ' the left bank of the Jasenica, in the angle formed by its 196 MOSTAR AND ITS NEIGHBOURHOOD. \ .<'' / '.--•^ sii A Cjnojyii-(^ ^ ^'J- 65 1 7> -■-^i*. ''A ^ - "'I A ^ ■■ * 'JODO rs M'o o ft in I I ■ I i i 1 73 OOO. "ST'yiZZ^ A6Ktr,. ARCHAEOLOGICAL JOTTINGS. 197 junction witli the Narenta. Here various antiquities characteristic of Roman civilisation have been dug ujd from time to time, such as coins, pottery, tiles, fragments of sculptured stones, &c. In 1891 two sarcophagi were exposed, the largest of which measured 2°^- in length, 1.18™- in breadth, and 0.8 o"^^- in heidit. One side only was ornamented with sculptures. The heavy lid was in its place when the sarcophagus was uncovered, but the centre panel of the sculptured side had been rudely perforated, probably for the purpose of abstract- ing its contents, as only a portion of an iron sword was found in its interior. The other sarcophagus had also one side sculptured, but its lid had been previously removed (Fig. 68). Stones with Roman dressing and sculptures may be frequently seen in the walls of the houses of the village — a fact which accounts for the destruction of these remains. Mr Radimsky states that, about GOO™- to the north of the Buna railway station, a Roman bridge, 100'"- in length and constructed of wood, crossed the Narenta ; in proof of which he instances the holes in which the piles stood, some straight and some slanting, still to be seen in the confjlomcratc sandstone. On the top of a hill, 200'"- high, near the station, there is a large stone tumulus [Vdika (jradina), and on the flanks of the same a stone fort {Mohi gradimi). The latter is an intricate structure, consisting of tumuli, primitive fortifications, and Roman Ijuildings, the ex- planation of which seems to 1)c tliat a preliistoric fort on this site had been suljsequcntly utilised 1>}' the 198 MOSTAR AND ITS NEIC4HB0URH00D. ■SI O < X o « z < o < ho APX'H-EOLOGICAL JOTTINGS. 199 Romans for their own military purposes. A glance at Fig. 69 shows the relative positions of these different structures. The o-round on which the fort stands falls away precipitously on all sides, except on the north, where in pre-Roman times it appears to have been pro- Fig. 69. — Plan ok thk Mala Graulna. tectcd hy an (juter, t/, and an inner, c, dry-stone vallum. Inside this are the remains of three stone cairns, ct, 6, c. Wlu'n tlin Romans came to occupy the locality they fortified it hy rnnninc^ a wall of stone and lime over and through tll(^'^o earlier structures, as indicated by the dark line m, /, 7, //, /, /•, o, n. Tliis wall was from 200 MOSTAR AND ITS KEIGHBOURHOOD. !"'• to 2'"- thick, and stretched continuously across the neck, joining the fort ^Yith the rest of the hill, but else- where only in interrupted portions, as shown at in, I and I), 0. In the mortar used in its construction, as well as in the interior of the enclosure, fragments of roofing-tiles were observed — thus proving the chrono- logical sequence of the two occupations. To the south of this fort, for a distance of 500"'- or 600"^-, the ground is strewn w^ith indications of a Roman settlement. On the left bank of the Narenta, and guarding the entrance to the defile, was another Roman settlement, the ruins of wdiich have been traced on the south side of the Buna, in the angle formed by its junction wdth the Narenta. About a mile north-east of this, the Buna is crossed l)y a handsome old bridge of fourteen arches, over which passes the highroad betw^een Mostar and Met- kovic (Plate XXIV.). This bridge is 111 yards long and 18 feet 6 inches broad. From it to Mostar the road runs almost in a straight line, and at Mukos- Han, about half-w^ay, the remains of a temple, con- sisting of mouldings, columns, and Corinthian capitals, have been discovered, some of which are preserved in the garden attached to the Government ofiices at Mostar. On the same road, near Ortjes, there may be seen in the village graveyard a large prehistoric tumulus covered with gravestones of modern burials. At some distance to the south of the Buna brido-e, in the vicinity of Hodbina, there is a group of antiquarian ARCH^OLOGICAL JOTTINGS. 201 remaius of special interest. First we come to a flat tumulus 30^^- ill diameter and 1.20^"- in heioht, and Td"^- farther there is a second tumulus with dimen- sions a little less. The latter was excavated by Mr Eadimsky, but only a much-decayed skeleton, without grave-goods, was found. Immediately to the east of this, while a new vineyard was being laid out in 1888, a cemetery of urn-burials, extending over an area of several acres, was discovered, which yielded fragments of urns in great quantities. The urns were mostly I'ig. 70. — I'ljiiKKY WITH Wavy Okxamentatiox. unornamented, and contained only pieces of bone and charcoal. The few fragments of ornamented pottery found, especially those with wavy lines (Fig. 70), are of extreme importance, inasmuch as they point to a Slavish origin. Pottery with this peculiar ornamen- tation {WcUenlinic) is laro;olv found in North Ger- many, in association witli tlie Buiyivdlle. Tlic same kind of wnre lias also Ijcen rniiiiil in ilic Sl;i\i>li lake- dwellings, as at Alt Fricsjick.^ ' Lakt-Dwellinga of Europe, p. 318, fiy. 9C. 20: MOSTAR AND ITS NEIGHBOURHOOD. About a Imndred paces or so south of the excavated tunuihis, some three or four bodies were found interred in soil aboundina: with frasf- ments of tiles and other Roman debris. One of these graves contained, alons; with a skeleton, a bronze fibula of unusual form (Fig. 7l), a spear - head, a knife - blade, and some nails — all of iron (Fig. 72). Another of these graves contained frag- ments of pottery, an iron sickle (Fig. 73), and a few Fig. 71. — Roman Fibula with TWO Pins (§). Fig. 72.— Iron Knife and Lance (|). Fig. 73. — Iron Sickle [\). large iron nails. Mr Radimsky remarks on the fre- quency with which iron nails are found in Roman ARCHAEOLOGICAL JOTTINGS. 203 graves, a fact which he also observed in his investi- gations in Steiermark. Still proceeding southwards, w^e come next to an interesting specimen of a Eoman bridge, in three small arches, crossing^ the rivulet Pasina. Its entire leuQ-th is 18"^- and breadth 4™- (Fig. 74). On tlic lii'jh '.^I'oiiiid to the south-cast is tlie very remarkal)le iniliistoric loii <»f Ograc, a ground-})lan and section of w luCli ure ,[i;iven on l''ig. 75, after a }>lan made by Jlcrr Hugo Jt-dlicka of Mostar. It is a greatly 204 MOSTAR AND ITS NEIGHBOURHOOD. elongated enclosure, which, conforming to the direction of the hills, runs from south-east to north-west. Its wall is composed of irregularly shaped stones, collected from the surface and heaped up, like the Valiums of so many of our prehistoric British forts. The enclosure m e a s u r e s 397™- in length, 118™- in great- est breadth, and covers an area of 3 hectares (about 7 acres). The following references to the different parts, as marked in the plan, will oive some idea of this extraordinary structure : — (a.) A stone cairn, 92™- long, 23™- wide, and 6.50™- high (the surface measures 70™- by 12™-). It contains 6960 cubic metres of material, and is supposed to have been a cemetery. (d.) A connecting partition between the walls of the enclosure. (h.) An elliptical ring-wall, probably for the purpose Fig. 75. — Plan and Section of the Prehistoric Fort at Ograc. ARCHAEOLOGICAL JOTTINGS. 205 of defending the entrance y'. Its major and minor axes measure respectively 49™- and 33'^- Tiie breadth of the wall (base) is 6°^-, and its height 2™- The total lenoth of wall is 1246™-, and the amount of solid material used in its entire construction is esti- mated at 16,674 cubic metres. Eetracing our footsteps, and passing to the right in the direction of the Suhopolje, we traverse the site of a Koman town, covering some 8 hectares. Here amouo- the foundations of building-s were found frao- ments of tiles, broken columns, iron slag, and a portion of a hand-millstone, 12 inches in diameter. Near this is the old Roman bridge (Kosorbriicke) over the Buna, which stands on seven arches of various spans, and measures 60 yards in length and 13 feet 6 inches in breadth (Plate XXV.). The mortar used in its con- struction has become so hard as to unite the stones into a consolidated mass. About 300™- to the south- east of this bridg-e are the ruins of a rectanoular l>uild- iug measuring 31 feet by 24 feet, which Mr Eadimsky holds to be Koman. About 250™- beyond it there is a tumulus, 15™- in diameter, bearino; three medieval gravestones in the form of a sarcophagus, two of which are ornamented. About a quarter of a mile still fiirther east there is another tumulus with Boo-omile 2[rave- stones. South of this, Mount Gorica rises to the heio-ht of some 200 feet above th(' plain, and JVoiii it ;i low lidge runs eastwards U) tht; still higher liill of Kiriii. The antiquities observed on these hills are of various ages, find their entanglements require to be treated with care. 206 MOSTAR AND ITS NEIGHBOURHOOD. The plateau of Gorica is crowned witli four tumuli, and at its base, on the south-west side, two fragments of a Eoman millstone, part of a key and the tip of a weapon — both made of iron — were picked from among the usual debris of roofing-tiles indicative of Roman settlements. The hill Kicin, rising to the height of about 400 feet over the plain, has on its summit the remains of another remarkable prehistoric fort, which, though differing materially from that on Ograc, is not less interestino' to the archseoloo-ist. It exhibits the follow- ing constructive details, as shown on Fig. 76. The centre is occupied by a circular area, 17°^- in diameter, and surrounded by a wall or rampart, a, external to which there is a second circular rampart, h, 73^- in diameter. On its northern slopes, distant from the central fort about 150™- and 300™- respectively, are two portions of similar ramparts, c and d, which also appear to have been used for defensive purposes, as they are constructed on the weakest side of the hill. Along both sides of the low ridge between Kicin and Gorica are the remains of defensive walls, as shown at On the western flanks of this hill, as well as on the ridge connecting it with Gorica, are the ruins of hut- circles, scattered in groups here and there, and having portions of their walls still remaining above ground. They are dry-stone buildings 9 feet to 12 feet in diam- eter, with walls from 3 feet to 5 feet thick. The width of the entrance varied from U foot to 3 feet 9 inches. X Z 3 o is o Pi ARCHAEOLOGICAL JOTTINGS. 207 Among the liuts immediately to tlie west of the pre- historic fort, g to .tin<'i kinds. The one, badly fired, porous, and ivadil}' weathered, has a red- 208 MOSTAR AND ITS NEIGHBOURHOOD. dish, yellowish - brown, grey, or black colour. The frairments indicate vessels of various forms with small handles or projecting ears and flat bottoms {Figs. 11 and 78). The other is wheel-made, and is believed to be of Roman origin (Fig. 79). Fig. 77.— Fragments of Hand-made Pottery, Kicin. Traces of Roman buildings have also been observed in many other places in this neighbourhood, as, for example, by the hill Gradina near the source of the Bunica, and at the village of Berberovici. . Among the antiquities from this latter place are Greek and Roman AECH.EOLOGICAL JOTTIXGS. 209 coins. On the top of the hill ^latera, to the east of Berberovici, there is a cairn. Crossino- now to the rio-ht bank of the Buna bv the Roman bridge, already described, we come upon another Fig. 78.— Kkagmknts of Hand-mauk Pottkkv, Kicin. groii[» of Itoniau ruins in ihc \icinity of the village of Kosoi'. At some distance to the north of this vjllao-c there fi)rmerly stood in ihe garden of a dwelliug- o 210 MOSTAR AND ITS NEIGHBOURHOOD. house a reniarkabli! stone cliair, now transferred to the Museum at (Sarajevo, with an Althosnische inscription, tluis transLated by Kadimsky : " Stein, gedenke, ^■^■T'5i!liS!=;f Fig, 79.— Fragments of Wheel-made Pottery, Kicin. wessen du gewesen, wessen du bist, wessen du sein wirst ! " Several stone chairs of a similar character have been found throughout Herzegovina, as at Kljuc, ARCHAEOLOGICAL JOTTINGS. 211 near Gacko, and hj the Ortliodox cliurcli of Osanic at Stolac, According to Dr Moriz Hoernes, two were found in the ruins of Vratar in the district of Eooa- tica (Fig. 80).^ Immediately below the village of Blagaj the Buna is crossed by a very dilapidated old bridge of two arches, ■' -k^ I' -M Srv.v ^^£5^ Fig, 8o.— The " Hkkzogsstuhl" at Kosok. of which only the central pillar now remains ; but their place is taken by wooilcn beams, and so the bridge is still serviceable. Altove this, however, there is a well - preserve. 137, fip^. 30, No. !>. • Die Giiiberfelder von Kesztliely, ]i. 'JO. •216 MOSTAR AND ITS NEIGHBOURHOOD. Konigsberg, in Lis description of an urn cemetery at Daumen, East Prussia, in which many examples of this fibuha were found, calls them Gothic.^ Lindenschmit appears to favour the same opinion, as he gives a draw- ing from an early diptych, showing that the form in question had been used by Romans of the highest stand- ing about the end of the fourth century.- iVll, how- ever, admit that it was under a Germanic or Gothic influence that this special form became developed. Its area of distribution extends from the Caucasus by way of the Danube to Central Europe, Scandinavia, and Anglo-Saxon England.'^ The discovery of such grave- goods in the vicinity of Mostar betrays, therefore, a Northern influence which must have entered the coun- try in pre-Slavish times, probably before the fall of the Roman empire, Procopius informs us that there was a colony of Goths in Dalmatia at the time of the war of Belisarius and Narses. But these archseological jottings are merely specimens of what this land is capable of yielding under systematic methods of investigation. Imj^erfect as they are, they bring before us in a striking manner some of the features of the successive whirlwinds of so - called civilisation which have swept over the land, each leaving its quota of devastation behind it. The prehistoric, Roman, and 1 Alterthumsgesellscliaft Prussia Sitz, 19 Heft, p. 41. - Handbuch der Deutschen Alterthuniskunde, p. 426. ^ On the geographical distribution of this type of fibula, see an article by Dr Montelius, ' Congres International d'Anthropologie et d'Archeologie prehistoriques,' Session VIII., 1876, vol. i. p. 490. ARCHAEOLOGICAL JOTTINGS. 217 medieval remains, with which we have come m contact, are so well defined that their overlappings and en- tanglements can be easily deciphered by the general reader. Those who wish more precise and fuller de- tails are referred to Mr Radimsky's original articles.^ 1 Wissen. Mitt, aus Bosnien unci der Herzegovina, Band i. p. 30.3, and Band ii. pp. 3-34. 218 CHAPTER VII. FROM MOSTAR TO THE ADRIATIC, SPALATO AND SALONA. As a lengthened stay at Mostar at that season of the year was out of the question on account of the heat, our party (except Professor Pigorini who returned to Sara- jevo), now increased by the arrival of MM. de Mortillet and Yerneau, decided to leave by the early train on Friday morning for Metkovic, so as to catch the Fiunie boat at 8 A.M. of the same day. Our first stoppage w^as at the station Buna, just opposite to where the river of the same name discharo;es itself into the Narenta. The latter CD here flows in a narrow channel with perpendicular banks, as if artificially cut down in the solid rock to a depth of several feet. As the water of the Buna comes splutter- ing over this ledge it presents the curious sight of a low waterfall stretching for more than 100 yards along tin- bank of the Narenta. In the vicinity of the village, at the farther end of the l)ridge over the Buna, may be seen the ruins of the famous Summer Palace of Ali Pasha Rizvanbegovic, in the midst of its once carefully tended but now neglected gardens. The picturesque OMER PASHA. 219 castle of Stolac, the hereditary seat and l;)irthphice of this mighty pasha, which still defiantly crowns a lofty rock on the bank of the Breo-ova a few miles to the south-east of this, is a striking testimony to the power he held in the country. Here the usual antiquarian label — sic transit gloria rauncli — may be most impres- sively studied in the light of comparatively recent events. Havino; countenanced in a somewhat under- hand way the rebellion of 1848, Ali Pasha became a suspected jjerson, and, on the decisive defeat of the insurgents by Omer Pasha in 1850, his tragic end soon followed. This is how ]Mr Asbotli describes it : — Ali Pasha, upon learning the result of the battle, left the castle of Stolatz under strong cover, and hurried, with a portion of his troops, to Buna, in order that he might await, in his country seat, whatever he had to expect from Omer Pasha, should he be treated as a rebel, or offered a friendly settle- ment. But Omer Pasim was no less sly than he. With a great .show of respect, he sought the governor of Herzegovina in his country-house at Buna, and in person invited him to a banquet at Mostar, whither he accompanied him. Whilst the banquet was proceeding, the imperial troops advanced on Buna and Stolatz, with the announcement that the governor had been deposed, and was a prisoner of the Serdar-Ekrem. Two native historians have published Ali I*asha's biograpliy ; one appeared in Vienna, the other in St Petersburg. The latter describes his end as follows : — "They dragged old Ali I'asha, who from the infirmities of age couM hardly walk, to the Xarenta bridge, and tlicrc jilaced him upon a dcjidvcy, and thus did Ouier Pasha take him with him to the Kraina, whither he w;is piuceeding against the insurgent.s. .\li I'asha, embittered by this disgrace, burst out 220 FROM MOSTAR TO THE ADRIATIC. against the Serdar-Ekrem : ' Why dost thou trouble me ? Thou, too, art a Wallach, the son of a Wallachian. . . . Whence dost thou arrogate to thyself the power to treat me thus ? Even had I taken up arras against the Sultan himself, thou wouldst not be worthy to associate with me as though thou hadst taken me captive in battle, even if thou wert the Serdar- Ekrem three times over. Oh, thou unclean Wallachian, send me rather before the Padishah, that he may pass judgment upon me, and do not thou insult me in mine old age.' Omer Pasha now began to be alarmed, for Ali Pasha had many and powerful friends at the Padishah, to whom he had always been careful to send enormous sums of money from Herzegovina. So Omer Pasha turned the matter over in his mind, until he discovered that it would be better if Ali Pasha were to die, and so at two o'clock in the night a shot was heard, and the news was brought to Omer Pasha that a gun had accidentally gone off, and that the bullet had passed through Ali Pasha's head. Thus died Ali Pasha Pdzvanbegovitsh, on March 20, 1851." ^ V On leaving Buna station the train entered the Zitlo- mislic defile, where again the river, for five or six miles, becomes encroached upon by the Karst rocks on both sides. Here were to be seen fruit-trees in great variety — the fig, the vine, the almond, the mulberry, &c. — • scattered over patches of cultivated land, or clustering on ledges among weathered crags and bushes of wild pomegranates. While these ever-changing scenic de- tails were riveting attention, there suddenly came into view, on a declivity among the wild rocks on the left, a city panorama of startling appearance. Whatever impression a closer inspection of Pocitelj (the name of this reputed former nest of robbers) might produce on a more inquiring visitor I will not stop to iucpiire, but to 1 Bosnia and Herzegovina, p. 270. A ROMANTIC TOWX. 221 the passing railway traYeller it appears a veritable gem amono- tlie romantic habitable sites of the world. Its curious horse-shoe shape, imposingly outlined with forts and turreted walls, and its terraced buildings stretching from the green waters of the Narenta to the ridge above, present a most enchanting tout ensemble. The next halt was at Capljina, on the border of the delta of the Trebazat — a seat of the tobacco industry of the district. From the station an omnibus plies to Ljubuski, a town of considerable importance, situated some 18 kilometres to the east, near the commencement of the Trebazat delta. It takes a couple of hours to reach the town, by a level road through luxuriant fields of rice. On the opposite side the Xarenta is also joined b)' a stream — the turbulent Bregova — which comes down from Stolac. After crossing the Trebazat we came to Gabella, near which are some dilapidated walls and towers, the remains of a former stronghold of the Ven- etians. A little to the west of this was the once flour- ishing Koman town of Narona, destroyed by the Avars and Slavs in the year 639 a.d. On its ruins there sub- sequently sprang up a pirate town, which for centuries became a terror to the entire .Vdriatic. Its site is now represented by the village of \ii[, so called from the Slavonic god Viddo, to whom a temple had been here reared by the cfjiirpierors of Narona. From Gabella the line passes through a spur of Karst by a tunnel, and on emerging into the alluvial plain, Metkovie, picturesquely situated on a ])i()jection from the hills on the opposite side of the Narenta, comes 222 FROxM MOSTAR TO THE ADRIATIC. into view (Plate XXVL). The Fiume steamer was moored at the quay, just opposite to the railway ter- minus, but on the other side of the river, so that to set on hoard we had to be ferried across. A little higher up the town can be reached in twenty minutes b}' a long wooden bridge. Metkovic has the repu- tation of being infested with malaria, owing to the extent of swampy land in its neighbourhood ; but ap- parently this does not interfere with its popularity, as it contains over 4000 inhabitants. Having got clear of the clamouring porters, it was with a feelino- of relief that we found ourselves loung-insj under the deck-awning of a comfortable-looking steamer, with no further anxiety till we reached Spalato, our next halting-place for the night. To be occupied, as we had been during the last ten days, with a prescribed pro- gramme of work of absorbing interest, without even a momentary pause for reflection, was a considerable strain both on body and mind. The materials brought before us, too, were so abundant, novel, and varied, that it was difficult to grasp their full import at the time. Hence the prospective dolce far niente of a ten hours' voyage was as welcome as a holiday to a schoolboy. The passage from ]\Ietkovic to the Adriatic, a distance of 19 kilometres, is made by the right branch of the Xarenta, which, in consequence of extensive dredgings (1882-89), is now sufficiently deepened and en regie to give access to the larger boats ptying on the Adriatic. The delta extends far and wide, partly as marsh or pool, and partly as rich cultivated land. " In firmer parts," ON THE ADRIATIC. 223 says Mr Asbotli, " maize grows into real forests, the vine fiourislies luxuriantly nntended, and the mulberry- tree grows to such a size that four men can hardly clasjD it round. The fevers, however, which each summer attack every single inhabitant, destroy the people, and the marshes of the Xarenta the soil. For a long time efforts have been made to drain it ; l)ut the undertaking is a colossal one, and the outlay still to be met enormous." Touching at Fort Opus, half-way down the delta, w^e next called at Trappano, a village prettily situated on the peninsula of Sabioncello, directly opposite the mouths of the Narenta, This was our first contact wdth the olive-tree, and its characteristic appearance in the land- scape seemed to have breathed a new^ influence into everything around us. Not only w^as the Italian lan- guage occasionally sj^oken, but the architectural style of the buildino-s, and even the dress and manners of the people, assumed more of an Italian character than we had hitherto encountered. From one point of view — viz., that of the weather, which is generally uppermost in the thoughts of travel- lers bent on a sea voyage — our first day on the Adriatic was perfect. The sea was like a mirror of glass, its surface broken only by the ripples which, in divor- f£ent streams, followed in the wake of the boat, but which served no hiLdier ])iirpose than to remind us tliat l)ehind the awning lliere was a glaring, liot sun. At first every rock, village, and bay we passed, woe scanned througli tlie ex[)ectant halo which novelty always adds to a scene. Ikit witli tlie best field-glass the Dalmatian 224 FROM MOSTAR TO THE ADRIATIC. coast offers but little variety, and its monotony soon becomes tiresome. The eye, too, gets wearied, and seeks relief, but in vain, from the everlasting background of oiarino- limestone that looms behind the green streak of too ^-' shoreland. Except table d'hote, which was comfortably served on deck, and a call now and again at a trading port, there was nothing to vary the charming dreami- ness of the situation. One of the party went ashore and came back with a huge water-melon. It was in capital condition, but its delicious qualities soon deterio- rated by exposure to the hot sun. On another occasion two of the o'entlomen bouoht the entire stock-in-trade of a fruit-vendor, with which they came marching on board, and, like the spies of old, presented to us as evidence of the richness of the land. But their trophies, instead of being carried as the grapes of Eshcol, were borne by a smiling, fat woman, who came staggering between them with her baskets of grapes and peaches. On arrival at Spalato, to our astonishment and great delight, we beheld on the pier the commanding figure of our Scandinavian colleague, Dr Montelius. He had arrived at Spalato the day before, too late to see the an- tiquities, and so was obliged to remain over night, and arranged to continue his journey by the Fiume boat. As the boat did not leave till a late hour at night, he devoted his whole time to the Museum, and obligingly deferred his visit to Salona until our arrival. Carriages were then in readiness to conduct the whole party thither under the guidance of Professor Buiie, the director of the ^Museum. In the course of conversation SPALATO. 225 with the professor I learned that the members of a congress, who had assembled here for the study of Christian archaeology, were to bring their labours to a close on the following day by an excursion to Knin to see some remarkable remains of ecclesiastical architec- ture recently discovered in that neighbourhood ; and he very kindly suggested that our part}^ might join them. Dr von Fellenbero- and I took advantag;e of this privilege, and so we had reluctantly to part with our friends of the Sarajevan Congress, who continued their journey northwards that same night. Spalato, one of the most important towns on the Dalmatian coast, is beautifully situated on a small semicircular bay on the south side of a peninsula, which projects some five miles from the mainland in a westward direction (Plate XXVIL). On the north side of this peninsula is a small land-locked bay, at the head of which w^as situated the ancient town of Salona. The land lying immediately between Spalato and the Salonic bay sinks into a low ridge, which, however, again rises into a hill (Marjan), some 600 feet in height, with which the promontory terminates. The site of Salona lies three or four miles to the north-east of Spalato, in a fertil(i hollow along the north bank of a rivulet which rises higher up, near Fort Clissa. This picturesque fort crowns a conspicuous rock standing in the middle of a remarkable gap in the Karst ridge. The gap is evi- dently due to the denuding agencies of primeval times, and the rock is a mere vestige of the material which once filled it ami made the great vid^fQ continuous. 226 FllOM MOSTAR TO THE ADRIATIC. To the north of Salona the precipitous heading of this broken ridge (Kozjak) is 2000 feet high, and its corresponding part (Mosor) to the south - east at- tains to even a greater height, though not rising so abrupt!}^ as the former. Thus situated in the midst of a rich vegetative luxuriance, and commandino; an extensive view of the bay, which, like an inland sea, extends westwards for 19 kilometi'es, the amenities of ancient Salona could hardly be excelled. The posi- tion is thus described by the authors of ' Guida di Spalato e Salona ' : — La posizione e incantevole ; 1' orridezza romantica delle scos- cese e verticali rupi coronanti la cima del Kozjak, contrasta vivamente con la sottoposta verdeggiante vallata, ove ai tremuli pioppi dei prati si frammischiano i salici piangenti ed i platani ; iiel mentre snlle giogaje soprastanti a piani orrizontali si avvi- cendano i vigneti a basso fusto, dei quali la monotonia verde chiara e rotta dal verde carico dell' ulivo e del fico, e dalle roccie, che qua e la fanno capolino dal suolo lussureggiante. II terreno e della formazione del carso comune alia Dalmazia : roccioso con leooero strato di humus. From historical documents we learn that when Salona was captured by the Avars the Romanised Illyrians fled to the islands for protection, but subsequently return- ing, and finding that the walls of the abandoned palace of Diocletian were impregnable to the attacks of their enemies, they took possession of it and made it a forti- fied town. The common opinion that Salona became a complete ruin immediately after its capture is j)roved by modern discoveries to be erroneous. It has been shown that some of its public buildings continued in SITUATION OF SALONA. 227 use for ceutniies afterwards ; not only so, but others were beiuo- erected at the same time. Thus the Basilica Urhana remained uninjured, and continued to be used for religious purposes till its restoration in the middle of the ninth century. Such was also the case with the theatre and amphitheatre, both of which remained standing to a still later period. The former was de- molished about the end of the tenth century for the purpose of building a new church (St Michele), and the latter survived to the close of the thirteenth cen- tury. Nor are these exceptional instances. Recent excavations incontestablv show that Salona was more or less continuously inhabited till the middle ages ; l)ut upon the extinction of the Croatian dynasty, in 1102, it rapidly declined, and with the appearance of the Turks on Dalmatian soil, in the sixteenth century, it became a nes:lected ruin. Spalato and Salona are thus so intimately connected in their historical associations that, chronologically, the former may be regarded as a continuation of the latter. In proportion as the one fell into decay, the other in- creased in power and importance till its establishment as the leadinii town of Dalmatia. Indeed the whole story of this small district, from the foundation of Salona some six centuries before the Christian era down to the present time, is full of interest to the archaeologist, the epigraphist, and the historian. Over and above the Roman antiquities, which are exception- ally interesting to those who make Roman art and history a special study, there arc other remains, more 228 FEOM MOSTAR TO THE ADRIATIC. particularly those which relate to the Early Christian period, which claim the attention of scholars in general Before, however, passing to their consideration I should like to make a few observations on the palace of Dio- cletian — the largest and best preserved Eoman ruin of the kind now extant — the ruins of Salona, and the Museo archeologico Salonitano in Spalato. The Palace of Diocletian. It seems that Diocletian was so enamoured of the scenic attractions and amenities of his birthplace that he resolved, at an early stage in his career, to build in its vicinity a palace in which he could sjDend his later years in philosophic retirement. At what time this Ijuilding was actually begun, and who were its archi- tect and builders, are questions which have not yet been solved by the written records of the period. One thing, however, is certain, that, when the Illyrian emperor abdicated at Nicomedia, the palace was in an advanced state of completion ; and as it took several years to build, some say twelve, it must have been begun in the closing decade of the third century. It was constructed after the manner of a Roman camp, having four sides and four gates, and included c[uarters for soldiers and other officials (Fig. 86). Strange to say, it is not an exact rectangle, as the following- precise measurements of its sides will show : West, 216n^-; east, 215. lO^"- ; south, 179.48°^-; and north, 17 b^'- According to these data, the palace covered PALACE OF DIOCLETIAN. 229 an area of 38,236 square metres, or about 9^ Eiigiisli acres. The parcelling of this large area into streets and dwelling-houses, which took place when the Roman- Fig. 86.— Plan ok Diocletian's Palace. iscd l]lyri;iiis converted it into ;i fortified town, remains to the present day, no donlit lia\'inu' niidcru'onc many alterations lioth of a constructive and destructive char- acter; but the palace still continues to be the centre 230 FROM MOSTAR TO THE ADRIATIC. and most crowded part of the town. Many of the details of its interior — avenues, arches, peristyle, &c, — are, however, either covered up 1)y these subsequent Fig. 87.— Peristvle of Diocletian's Palace (I. ox Plan). huildings or partially destroyed (Figs. 87 to 91). The most interesting portions of the building still extant, or visible, are the Mausoleum (now the Cathedral), the PALACE OF DIOCLETIAX. 231 Capella palatina (now the Baptistery), certain vestibules Fig. 88.— DooK OK Capkm.a Pai.atina (\I. on I'i.a.n). (Fig. 87), and tlircc of tlie gates. Tiie two former 232 FEOM MOSTAR TO THE ADKIATIC. buiklings stand right antl left of the peristyle on rect- anoular elevations, constructed of massive blocks, and to which a stone stair of twenty-two steps leads up. In its orio-inal condition the Mausoleum consisted of a chamber, circular inside and octagonal outside (each side being 8™- in length), surrounded by a colonnade of twenty-five Corinthian columns supporting an en- Fig. 89. — Sphinx in Front of the Mausoleum (V. on Plan). tablaturo, and entered by a handsome portico. Adorn- ing this portico were two sphinxes brought from Egypt, which, it appears, remained in situ till the erection of the Campanile, when the Mausoleum was shorn of much of its external architectural embellish- ments. One of the sphinxes may still be seen near its original site, reposing on a modern basement. It is PALACE OF DIOCLETIAN. O o o Zoo sculptured out of a Syenite block, and measures 2,50^^- I ig. >/j.— N'uKiii (jaii. oi- iiii; I'ai.A' !■; iJ'ukia Alkka;. in length (Fi,i(. 80). The otlier, minus the head, is jire- .served in tlnj .Museinn, ;iud bears an inscription in 234 FROM MOSTAR TO THE ADRIATIC. hieroglyphs which assigns it to the time of Memnon (Ameuhotep) some 1500 years B.c.^ The principal gate of the palace, porta aurea (Fig. 90), was highly adorned, and measured 4™- in height and 3.50'"- in breadtli. In the course of time alluvial de- posits accumulated to such an extent as to block it up — a depth of 15 feet being attained close to the wall — and it was not till 1830 that the way was cleared. A striking feature of Spalato is its Eomanesque cam- panile, a work of the fourteenth century. Its artistic details, as might be expected, are modelled largely after the Koman remains of the third century with which it is surrounded. It is now (August 1894), and I believe has been so for the last dozen years, so completely encased in a mass of scaffolding that no general view of it can be had (Fig. 91). Art critics say that the ornamental details of Diocle- tian's palace are more after the Greek than the Romano- Italo style. But however this may be, it is remark- able as forestalling by its series of pillared arcades the basilicas of Early Christian times. On this point Mr T. J. Jackson wTites thus : — The history of Dalmatian architecture is an epitome of southern Europe. In the palace of Diocletian at Spalato we have one of the earhest, perhaps the earliest step towards that new departure in architecture which resulted in the develop- ment of the styles of modern Europe. Here we see the first relaxation of the strict rules of ancient classic art; the pro- 1 The statue of Jupiter Capitolinus, which formerly occupied the Capella, was removed to Venice during the first half of the fifteenth century. — Guida di Spalato, p. 116. ROMANESQUE CAMPANILE. 235 portions of the difterent members of the order are varied and arbitrary; some members are omitted entirely; new [forms of ornament, such as the zigzag, which was to play so large a part in Xorman architecture, make their first appearance ; and the arches are made to spring immediately from the capitals with- I-'ig. 91. — TlIK CaTIIKUKAL (MAUSOLFCL'M) and CAMrAMI.K IKdM TlIK S(JCI'II. out an intervening entablature. Other irregularities occur in this l>uilding which sliow the decline of the acje towards bar- Itarism, antl for perhaps the first time in classic arcliitecture colunnis and fragments of older Imihlings are adapted and used up second-hand in the new one. It is impossible to overrate the interest of this Iniildinu' tu the student either of ancifni 236 FROM MOSTAR TO THE ADRIATIC. or modern art. To the one it will be the last effort of their dying art of antiquity, still majestic in its proportions, still dwarfing into insignificance by its huge masonry the puny works of later ages, which are already crumbling into ruins. while it seems destined to stand for eternity, but at the same time fallen from the perfection of the classic age, and stamped with the seal of returning barbarism. To the other it will seem the new birth of that rational and unconventional mode of building in which the restless and eager spirit of the re- generated and repeopled Eoman world has found free scope for its fancy and invention; which places fitness before abstract beauty, delights to find harmony in variety, and recognises grace in more than one code of proportions. Both will be right; the palace of Spalato marks the era when the old art died in giving l)irth to the new.^ Nor w-as this palatial residence deficient in any of the external accessories which Eoman civilisation and luxury could contribute to the pleasures of life. An abundant supply of excellent water was conveyed to it by means of an aqueduct from the source of the Jader, situated on tlie western flanks of the Mosor mountains, near Fort Clissa, at an altitude of 108 feet. The course of this artificial w^aterway was sometimes through rock cuttings 40 feet deep, and sometimes across valleys sup- ported on arches in the usual manner of Roman aque- ducts. These latter portions have for a long time been in ruins (Fig. 92). In 1878 a new canal was constructed by utilising the ancient course as far as possible, and it now supplies Spalato with water of great purity. Men called the house of Diocletian a palace [says Mr Free- man] ; but it was in strictness a villa, a country-house, not a 1 Dalmatia, the Quarnero, and Istria, vol. i. p. 206. PALACE OF DIOCLETIAN. O '> ^7 seat of rule, but the home of the man who had withdrawn from ruling. Constantine reigned at Trier ; Theodoric reigned at Eavenna ; but Diocletian at Salona lived in the enjoyment of dignified ease, and bade those who would have had him go back and reign again to look at the cabbages which he had planted with his own hands. Trier and Eavenna are the me- morials of an epoch ; Spalato is the memorial of a single man. Xo emperor ever ruled the world from among the arches of the Fig. 92. — Ruins of the Aqueduct to the Palace. great peristyle. If the palace was ever the seat of rule, it was at most the seat of local rulers of Dalmatia only. Among the stately columns of its court, beneath the cunningly-wrought cupola of its mausoleum, we think of Jovius, and we think of Jovius alone.^ After the death of Diocletian, in the spring of tlu' year 313, the palace became State property, but no subsequent emperor made it his altodc. The suite of ^ Essays, Third Series, p. 46. 238 FROM MOSTAR TO THE ADRIATIC. sumptuous rooms at the south end was reserved for distinguished visitors, and the northern portion became an imperial cloth factory, where numbers of women were engaged in the manufacture of military garments for the Eoman soldiers. Hence the palace became known as the GyncBceum till, as already mentioned, it was converted into a fort and became the original nu- cleus of the present town of Spalato. Ruins of Salona. Before taking a passing glance at the collection of antiquities disinterred from the ruins of Salona, and now preserved in the archaeological museum at Spalato, it is desirable to have some knowledge of the present state of the ruined city, and of the efforts that have been made to bring to light its buried treasures. To the visit of the Emperor, Francis I., to Salona, in 1818, may be ascribed the initiatory movement which led to the various excavation schemes which have been since carried out. The operations w^ere first begun under the care of Dr Lanza (1821-27), then discontinued for a time, and subsequently resumed by Dr Carrara (1842-1850). Since the last date they were carried on with some interruptions, owing to the want of funds, till 1877. From that year, in consequence of an annual grant to the excavation committee, the works have been prosecuted continuously up to the j^resent time. They are now being conducted under the guidance of the accomplished director of the Museum, Professor Fr. RUIXS OF SALONA. 239 Bulic, to whose kindness and courtesy I am mainly indebted for my knowledge of tlie subject. Salona may be easily visited either by rail, by car- riage, or on foot. Its present surface is so overspread with vineyards and the products of rank vegetation that it is somewhat difficult without a guide to find the situation of some of the exposed ruins. They lie on the further side of the Jader, to the north and west of the village of Solin. Immediately after crossing the Jader by a small Turkish bridge, the road from Spalato divides into two branches. That on the rig-ht leads to Fort Clissa and Livno ; that on the left passes along the north shore of the bay, and is the highway to Trau and Sebenico. We follow the latter, which at once traverses part of the site of the ancient city. The principal ruins hitherto exposed are those of a theatre, amphitheatre, baths, city walls and gates, pagan and Christian cemeteries, basilicas, aqueducts, &c. (See Sketch Map, p. 240.) Aljout four liundred yards from the bifurcation of the Spalato road traces of the ancient walls may be seen, and scattered at various points on the right hand are fragments of arches, walls, &c., the remains of batlis [therince), or of water conduits (rudera). Further along we come to the ruins of the theatre, which, before being excavated in 1850, were Ituricil to the deptli of ten or twelve feet, and can now unJy willi difficulty be traced among creeping vine - stocks. The orchestra, through which the modern road actually passes, was of a circular .slia[»e and, like tlic .'ini]»hit1icatrc, surrounded 240 FKOM MOSTAE TO THE ADRIATIC. RUINS OF SALOXA. 241 by a corridor. Xumerous remains of columns, capi- tals, and some fragments of exquisite sculpturings, show that it was highly ornamented. Its dimensions were small, the diameter of the orchestra being only 10™-, and that of the entire theatre 25™- Passing some gardens enclosed with stone walls built from the ruins of ancient buildiuo-s, we soon arrive at the western wall and gate of the city — Porta occi- dentale. For several hundred yards beyond this oate, and on both sides of the highroad, are groups of pagan tombs, among which may be seen a portion of a so- called Cyclopean wall constructed of colossal stones, squared and well fitting into each other. ^ Returning to the Porta occidentale, and thence passing along the wall which runs almost due north, we come, at its north- west angle, to the ruins of an oval-shaped amphitheatre which were so completely buried that to reach the original floor the excavations attained a depth of 7™- The dimensions of the amphitheatre arc also small when compared with those of structures of this kind ' Oil this point Mr Fieeinau -writes : " To one who comes to Salijna al- most fresh from the hill-cities of Central Italy, from the strongholds of Volscians, Hernicans, and Old-Latins, from Cora and Signia and Altarium, it hecomes matter of unfeigned surprise to find Dalmatian antiijuaiies speaking of these walls as ' Cyclopean.' The name ' Cyclopean,' thougli as old as Euripides, is as dangerous as ' Pelasgian ' or ' Druid ' ; but, if it means anything, it must mean the first form of wall-building, the irregular .stones heaped t. Q 242 FROM MOSTAR TO THE ADRIATIC. ill other Eomaii towns, being only 65™- long by 47°^- broad. Some three-quarters of a mile to the north of this, at a place called Marusinac, is the site of an ancient Christian cemetery. From the amphitheatre the city wall turns eastward, and its structure now discloses a regular series of square turrets projecting from the main wall. It appears that the front wall of these turrets had been altered in the year 535 by adding to each a prism-shaped block — thus converting a straight line into an angle — for the purpose of offering a better defence. Outside the wall sixteen sarcophagi, partly Christian and partly pagan, were discovered in 1870. We now come to a second gate — Porta suburbia — situated at an angular point in the wall, and from which an older wall has been traced southwards for a short distance, in w^iicli have been found the remains of another gate — Porta Ccesarea. The excavations which brought this gate to light were made by Dr Carrara in 1844. The entire width of the entrance (7.90™-) is divided into three parts by four pillars of large sc[uare stones. The middle passage, which is wider than the two lateral ones, was evidently intended for car- riages, as the ruts made by the wdieels may still be seen in its stony pavement. The adjacent portions of the wall are of extraordinary thickness, but beyond this they run so deeply as to render further investiga- tions impracticable. It is probable that, at an early period in the history of Salona, this was the eastern boundary of the city which, subsecpiently, owing to increase of population, had to be enlarged by another THE SPALATO MUSEUM. 243 wall wliicli ran northu'ards from the Porta sulnirhia and encompassed a large additional area. Ketiirning now to the Porta suburbia, and pnrsning our course along the line of this outer wall, we come on the rioht-hand side to the ruins of an ancient Chris- tian church (basilica antica cristiana urbana), only partially explored, and near it a baptistr}^, interesting not only for its structure Ijut as beino- the oldest building of the kind known. Directly north of this there is a small gate — Porta Cajyraria — and, about 100 yards beyond it in a northern, direction, there is another ancient cemetery, called cimitero antico cristi- ana cli Manastirine. As these Christian cemeteries and churches will be discussed in the next chapter, it is unnecessary here to do more than point out their sites. Along the south side of the wall are to be seen re- mains of aqueducts, and at its north - eastern corner a new defensive feature appears in a " vallum," or fossa, excavated in the solid rock. A few paces further south is the eastern gate — Porta Andetria. From this point the wall runs alongside of the Clissa road till its junction with that from Trau — the starting-point of our peripatetic tour of inspection of the ruins. The Museum. Coincident with the commencement of the excava- tions at Salona was tlic founding of the Museo Archeo- lofjico SaJonitano at tSpalato, the materials of wliicli have now so increased that they have to l)e i)acked in 244 FKOM MOSTAK TO THE ADRIATIC. tliree separate houses in clifFerent parts of the town. Professor Bulit' gives the following classified summary of their contents : 2034 inscriptions, 387 sculptures, 176 architectural pieces, 1548 objects or fragments of terra- cotta and vases, 1243 objects of glass, 3184 of metal, 929 of bone, 1229 gems, 128 objects from prehistoric times, 15,000 coins ; also a library of 1377 works. Pendino- the construction of a o-rand new museum now contemplated, it is unnecessary to specify in which of the three sectional divisions the few objects I may refer to are placed. Of the inscriptions 80 per cent bear the name of one or other of the divinities, anion"' them beino; two re- lating to Mithras, in one of which the god is styled Sol Deus, in another Petra Genetrix. Many of the inscrip- tions relate to events in the history of the early Chris- tian Church at Salona. One, a fragment, bears the name of Diocletian, others refer to Greek colonists, and one is bilinoual. The sculptures consist of statues, torso!^, heads, and groups of figures in bas-relief. It would appear that the best of these were carried away in the preceding centuries to Venice, and, in more recent times, to A^ienna, Buda-Pest, and Agram. Among the more interesting of the bas-reliefs remaining may be noted those on several sarcophagi. One sarcophagus, on which is re- presented the hunt of the Caledonian boar (la caccia del cinyhiale caledomo), up till the year 1886 adorned the front of the Ccqjella ijcdatina (Baptistery) ; another shows the legend of Hippolytus and Phaedra (Fig. 93) ; THE SPALATO MUSEUM. 245 others, the Good Shepherd (Phate XXYIIL), the Cross- ing; of the Red Sea, &c. The terra -cotta objects include bricks, tiles, lamps, and pottery. The lamps are numerous, and extremely interesting on account of the variety of objects and scenes with which they are ornamented. Those bear- ing Christian symbols will be afterwards referred to. Of the vases there is one, a small pot with a lid, of Fig. 93. — Sarcophagus (Hippolytus and Ph/Euka), Salona. exceptional interest. It is ornamented with figures of difierent animals — stag, tiger, ass, goose — painted in black and violet on a yellow ground. It was found in a grave at Salona, and is reckoned the oldest object in tho ^[iisciim, bcinii; of ( 'oriiitlii;ni orit;-in, and dating as i';\v b;ick' as the sixth century li.c. The assortment of articles made of (Aass is laro-e and v;iii<lace of a Pietas, &c. As the 2)rofession of Christianity during the first three centuries was contrary to Eoman law, which forbade the worship of strange gods under penalty of death, the adherents of the new faith had to perform their rites in secret. To suffer martyrdom was, however, considered by some converts so glorious a termination to their earthly career, that they actually courted j^er- secution by making public display of their faith in open defiance of the law ; in which case the law had to bo r-jinicd out. It w;is ;il.s(j tliis enforced secrecy which, ill the first place, stimulated the early Church to the adoption rivate villa, situated on the north side of the town at the place now oallod ^lanastirine. The descendants of Ulpius, continuing in like manner to favour tlie Cliristians, permitted the buri.il (.(" some martyrs on tlieir premises, and commemorative shd)s were attached to their graves, (»i- in some instances an 256 EARLY CHEISTIAN REMAINS. o < z 5 ■•J Z < b/D -.: u." Is six I s- ^ --go* I s 5^ -6. . > § 2 II. ^ I !> ! J 13 I I I I I CEMETERY OF MANASTIRINE. 257 inscription was carved on the sarcophagus. Other persons belonging to the powerful family of the Valerii, who had been persecuted by Diocletian for professing Christianity, were also buried in the same place by " Matrona Asclepia," a descendant of L. Ulpius. On the plan the dotted portions represent the remains of the buildings on the property of Ulpius — the family sepulchre, A, an atrium in front of it, B, and various other buildings, outhouses, &c., C, D, and E, in con- nection with the establishment. The family tomb, a, consisted of an underground chamber (still extant), and an overground structure which had been destroyed in ancient times. The interior of the former had been richly decorated with painted walls and a floor of marble slabs. Here, it is supposed, was originally placed an inscription, fragments of which are now in the Museum at Spalato, to the effect that L. Ulpius was the founder of the monument, as well as the proprietor of the ground at the beginning of the second century. An exceptionally handsome specimen of these under- ground chambers was divided into three loculi by marble slabs (Nos. 11, 12, and 13), and contained the remains of three illustrious martyrs who were put to death during the reign of Diocletian. One of them was St Domnius, who is known from historical documents to have suffered martyrdom in the year 299. A citizen of Aquileja by name Anastasius, hearing of Diocletian's relentless persecution of the Christians, and being desirous of martyrdom, came to Salona making public profession of his faith. The Emperor summoned R 258 EARLY CHRISTIAN REMAINS. him to appear before him in his great palace at Spalato, and condemned him to be drowned in the sea.-* The " Matrona Asclepia " begged for his body, which being secured, she temporarily buried at the wine-press of her establishment, D ; but when, shortly afterwards, the 1 Mr Freeman, after pleading in mitigation of tlie dark stain whicli rests on the fame of Diocletian on account of these persecutions, writes thus : — "Diocletian, like Julian, might have said with his dying breath, ' Galila\an, Thou hast con(|uered.' For ten j'ears the Sulla of the Church had withdrawn from persecuting and from ruling. For ten years he had paced that stately gallery which looked forth on the sea, the hills, the islands, which had been familiar to the eyes of his childhood. For ten years he had gazed on the matchless peristyle of his own rearing ; he had prayed to the gods of Rome in the temple on his left hand ; he had looked — with what faith or hope we cannot guess — on the cupola on the riglit, girt with surrounding columns, where his own ashes were to rest. In the course of those ten years another Emperor, sprung, if not from his own Dalmatia, at least from Illyria in tlie wider sense, had arisen at once to finish and to undo his work. Constantine had come to cement yet more iirmly his fabric of despotic rule ; but he had come also to take the faith which Diocletian persecuted into close partnership with the polity which Diocletian founded. He had come to take Diocletian's great artistic inven- tion as the model of new temples of that hated faith, to supply the place of its earlier temples which Diocletian had swept from off the earth. In those ten years Constantius had reigned in our own island, and Constantine had gone forth from York to Trier, and from Trier to Eome. The perse- cutor Maxentius had fallen by the Milvian bridge, and his mighty basilica by the Sacred Way had learned to bear the name of his conqueror. The persecutor Galerius, he who had goaded the unwilling Diocletian to deeds of blood, had confessed his error, and had joined with Constantine in pro- claiming toleration for the Christian faith, in asking Christian prayers for the safety of the Empire. All tliis Diocletian lived to hear of : he lived, too, to see his order of succession set aside ; he lived to see his images over- thrown ; according to some accounts, he lived to receive yet deeper wounds in his dearest relations. It is certain that the daughter of the abdicated emperor, herself the wife of his successor, that Valeria in whose honour a province had been named, was persecuted and put to death by the malice in turn of i\Iaximin and of Licinius. Certain it is that the man to whom so many princes owed their greatness lived to be treated with scorn by men who owed all their power to him, and to ask in vain for a milder treatment of his own guiltless child." — Historical Essays, 3d Series, p. 52. CEMETERY OF MANASTIRINE. 259 persecutions came to an end, slie built a small basilica (iv.) in honour of the martyr and transferred his bodily- remains to it. The ruins of this hasilichetta have been recently exposed, and the tomb, occupying the place of honour (No. 7), is supposed to be that of Anastasius. In support of this opinion are two fragments of an inscribed stone which were found here, and which in- dicate the date of the martyr's death. This hasilichetta was built in imitation of the ordinary Constantinian basilicas, having a narthex, nave, and apse — the latter being approached by a few steps. It was in this narthex (as was proved by later investigation) that the sarcophagus (Plate XXVIII.) ornamented with the figure of the Good Shepherd, in- cidentally discovered in 1872, as already mentioned, was situated ; and the pedestal on which it stood still remains. Unfortunately it had been rifled In ancient times, a fact which was proved by damaging marks on the cover. It is made of white marble streaked with veins of blue, and has accommodation for two bodies — as indicated by a longitudinal ridge in its interior — supposed to have been those of " Matrona Asclepia " and her liu.sl)iind. It measures 2.65°^- in height to the highest point of its massive cover, 2.50"'- in lenrjth, and 1.33"'- in breadth. The cover is in the form of a sloping roof with four corners {acroterii). This colossal tomb is ornamented with figures sculp- tured in bas-relief on Ixjth ends and one side. The absence of ornamentation on the other side suggests that it was intended to be placed close to a wall. 2G0 EARLY CHRISTIAN REMAINS. The division of the front ornamentation into three arched 2:)anels is very remarkable. The symbolism of the central human figure with the sheep and trees is unmistakable, but in regard to the interpretation of the lateral groups, the woman and suckling infant and the dignified-looking man carrying a book in his left hand, there is no general agreement among antiquarians. The monument dates from the earliest Constantinian period, and is a good example of the hybrid Greco- Eomano style then prevalent. In the same place (No. 22) was found the other beautifully sculptured sarco2:)hagus — Hippolytus and Phsedra (Fig. 93.) The erection of the basilichetta over the tomb of the martyr Anastasius was the commencement of a new phase in the develojDment of Christianity — viz., that of doing honour to the martyrs by rearing commem- orative basilicas, mausoleums, or chapels, over their graves ; and it would appear that the whole of the property of L. Ulpius, or of his descendants, had been occupied by one or other of such monuments. These are shown on the plan by the Roman numerals I. to X. The small numbers 1 to 66 indicate special graves in or adjacent to them. A large portion of the area thus occupied has now been explored, but it is un- necessary to dwell on the particular details of each dis- covery. No. V. was a basilichetta, like that adjacent to it, and contained the sarcophagus of S. Acidus. The mausoleum (No. VL), built in the year 360, was the last of the series. It is square outside (the others being all circular), and shows, by being j)ressed be- BASILICA OF MANASTIRIXE. 261 tween Nos. V. and YIL, that space in the cemetery was then becoming scarce. Nos. VII., VIII., and IX. were obliterated when the o-reat basilica was built. No. 28 contained the sarcophagus of a little girl, Flavia qme sana mente saliitifei^o die Paschce gloriosi fontis gratiam consecuta est. Several of the inscriptions on these sarcophagi are in Greek, and one is bilingual — viz., Latin and Greek. Several of the sar- cophagi are quite plain, others have the sacred mono- gram [Chi-Rho), or the Alpha and Omega, or, in a few- instances, a raised cross. One shows the letters D. M. (a sure sign of a pagan grave) deleted and replaced by the Chi-Rho monogram. Everything tends to show that at this period the cemetery extended to vast dimensions, of which only a portion has as yet been explored. The original property of L. Ulpius seems to have l)een gifted to the Church l)y the sons of " ^latrona Asclepia" about the middle of the fourth century. From the inscriptions it is also proved that the cemetery became so crowded that during the latter half of the fifth century burials were entirely discon- tinued and only partially resumed after the great basilica was built. The third pliase in the history of this remarkable locality was the erection of the basilica in the sixth century, outlined on the plan in broad l)lack lines. It extended over the larger part of the ground previ- ously occupied by the graves of the martyrs, and its construction necessitated tlic dcsti-nction of a number of religious and sepulchral buildings. The exact date 262 EARLY CHRISTIAN REMAINS. of this event is not known, but its restoration could not have been posterior to the time of Justinian (555). From a careful study of collateral circumstances, and especially of the inscription on the architrave of the 23rincipal entrance to the basilica — Deus noster projntius esto Q'eiiniblicce Romce — the authors of ' Guida di Spalato e Salona' adoj)t the year 532 as that of its probable completion. Between this date and 555 its restoration must have taken place. At the capture of Salona by the Croats in 639, this basilica was destroyed by a con- flagration, but not, it is said, before the remains of its most famous martyrs w^ere carried off to Kome "per sanctissimum et fidelissimum Martinum abbatem." The illustration (Fig. 94), taken from a recent photograph, shows the exposed ruins of the basilica with some of its ornamental columns still standins;, toofether with a few a' O sarcophagi in the foreground. Basilica Cristiana Urhana. But the Manastirine necropolis, wdtli its basilica and marvellous array of mausoleums, sarcophagi, chajDcls, &c., is by no means the only evidence of the rapid develop- ment of Christianity at Salona. Near the summit of its ancient Acropolis, the most conspicuous part of the town, there was erected in the beo^inninsf of the fourth century the majestic Basilica cristiana urhojia "dedi- cata alia Beata Vergine." In the times of persecution the Christians had a meetinQ;-house, domus orationis, on the Acropolis, and it is supposed that it was on its BASILICA UEBAXA. 263 site that the basilica was erected. Its ruins, still largely imexplored, and the explored baptistery adjacent to it, are now imperfectly visible, as the locality for many years has been a congenial home for the vine and the olive. It was indeed while planting a vine that a peasant Baptisterium antiquum cliristianum Salonis. } ^/ww/mmmmy/m^^^^^^ A. Vcstibalom cz Basilica Episcopii io B4ptiateriDai. B. Baptisterium cam funU; baptismali. C. PorticuB inter Bapti8t«riam et Consigoatoriuta. D. Consi^atoriom (vel lociu coDfirmatioaie). E. G. Secrplaria. F. PorticiiB H. Apodyterina. L CatecbumeDioa (vel Scbola Catecbetica) aa. caoalis io piscinam ex aquaeductu urbia. \>. piscina cc caoalls d Opoa masiTum. Cervi dao ad sqaam cam inscHptiooe: sicfut ceTjvus desiderai ad fontes (Ujuarum ita desiderai anima mea ad te Deus. Fig. 96.— Ground Plan of Baptistery, Salona. one day struck his mattock through a mosaic pa\ uuicnt. This led to the discovery of the baptistery, perhaps the most interesting of early Christian times of which we hnvc nny knowledge. Its position is near tlic nortJicrn wall of the basilica, and its investigation by I)r Carrara, 264 EARLY CHRISTIAN REMAINS. in 1842/ disclosed the following details. The plan (Fig. 96) shows the form of the building and its internal arrangements so far as they could be made out from the actual remains. From the basilica a door led to a tetrastylic vestibule, A, having a piscina, h, on the left. From this another door conducted to an octagonal-sha^Dcd apartment, the walls of which contained eight semicir- cular niches — three of wdiich, however, were open, and Opus musivum (d). Cervi duo ad aquam Fig. 97. — Mosaic Work in Baptistery, Salona. used as doorways. Polished marble slabs covered the walls, and in front of them, over a mosaic pavement of singular splendour, was a circle of six marble columns bearing floriated capitals of the sixth century, after the style of those found at Eavenna. In the centre, on a small platform, was a rectangular marble font, B, approached by a few steps ; and at its four corners were the remains of slender columns of red marble which had ^ Denkschriften der Phil. Hist. Classe, vol. ii. 2d part, pp. 1-16. CEMETERY OF MARUSINAC. 265 probably supported a canopy. A door led to the cliam- bers G, H, and J. In the corridor, C, there was ob- served a small water canal, a a, excavated in the rock below the pavement, which connected with the piscina, h ; other similar channels or gutters were at c c. From tliis corridor a tripartite entrance, formed b}^ four marble columns, led into the large chamber, D. This was the consignatorium, or room for the administration of the chrisma {cresma), the whole of which was covered with a mosaic pavement " con bellissimi disegni." Opposite the tripartite entrance, at the point marked d in the plan, was the celebrated mosaic representation of the two stags with the following inscription : Sicut cervus desiderat ad fontes ciquarum ita desiderat aniiiw mea ad te Deus^ (Fig. 97). The Cemetery at Marusinac. The existence of another ancient Christian cemetery at ^larusinac was first proved by excavations made by Dr Carrara in 1852, which revealed the ruins of Iniildings, extensive mosaic pavements, fragmentary inscriptions, sculptures, &c. In 1890 the proprietor, Nicolo Milisic Dodig, observed traces of a Ijuilding, and a tomb with the inscription, IIlc jacet Joannes peccator et uidirother to the proconsul .Marcellinus for tlie year G05. Since this discovery systematic excavations liave liocn carried on here with good results, and, being still in progress, ^ Psalm .\lii. 266 EARLY CHRISTIAN REMAINS. further important disclosures may be expected. The building investigated by Mr Dodig has turned out to be the ruins of a villa erected in the first century. At a distance of about five paces from the tomb a square mausoleum was met with, in which there was a portion of a stone vase {lumlnare), ornamented with upright curved grooves. Similar objects were found in the cemetery of Manastirine. Other discoveries recorded from Marusinac comprise a stone pilaster decorated with a Latin cross in alto-relievo of the sixth century, fragments of a stone chair, "cattedra di pietra asfaltoide," portions of greatly damaged mosaic pavements, with designs in three colours, and an inscription to the efiiect that in the fifth century a place of worship had been erected here. Christian Sijmhols at Salona. Of the symbolism prevalent among the early Chris- tian community at Salona there is a number of illustra- tions. Most interesting is a stone sarcophagus, on which Christ is represented as an Agnus Dei, without the nimbus, but surmounted with the Chi-Rho mono- gram and the Greek letters a and w. Disposed in groups around the central figure are twelve lambs having the names of the twelve apostles written below. Beside the symbolic figure of Christ the following words are written: (E)cce agnus (D)ei qui tollit {pec)catum' seculi. Another fine marble sarcophagus, representing the passage of the Ked Sea, was transported from CHKISTIAN SYMBOLS. 267 Fig. 98. — Fragment of Sarcophagus (Buox Pastore), Salon a. Salona some 3'ears ago, and is now preserved in the convent of S. Francesco in Spalato. Of all tlie figures made to represent Christ that of the Good Shepherd {Buon Pastore) is the most touching;, the most ancient, and the most frequently adopted during the earlier period of Christian- ity, but after the peace of the Church this symbol gradually gave way to the Agnus Dei. As representing the Saviour of men, it held among the early Christians much the same place as the crucifix now holds among the members of the Catholic Church. It has been observed on all classes of monuments, statues, bas- reliefs, medallions, pictures, lamps, &c. Among the Christian relics from Salona it occurs as bas-reliefs six times on sarcophagi (mostly fragments) (Figs. 98 and 99), once on a carved stone (Fig. 100), and foui- times on gems. Originally the fish was the image of the conquered soul — " I will make of you fishers of men " — but it soon came to be syinbuli'- of the Savioiii' liiiii-flf. Ihii-iiig 1'^ . Fig. 99. — Fragment of Sakcoi'Iiagus (Buon Pastork), Salona. 2G8 EARLY CHRISTIAN REMAINS. Fig. loo. — Sculptured Stone (38J inches high), showing Buon Pastore on Left Corner. tlic third and fourth centuries (the first dated example is of the year 231) it was a very common symbol of Christ, and continued to be so regarded till about the ninth century, but after the middle of the fourth it became comparatively rare. The acrostic Ix0v<;, the initial letters of Irjcrov? Xptcrro? (Bfeov Tios S(0T7]p, is first re- corded in 384 A.D. to have originated with the dialecti- cians of Alexandria. The fish, both in outline and name, has been frequently found in the Catacombs sculptured on stones, and more rarely in the shape of small bronze models. A silver fibula of this form, and a gem with the word " Ichthys " on it, may be seen in the Spalato Museum. Among the relics from Salona the fish appears singly, or in combination with loaves, six times on terra-cotta lamps, once on a sarcophagus from the cemetery of Manastirine, and once (that above referred to) in the form of a silver brooch. The terra-cotta lamps, so numerously found in the cemeteries of Salona, are of the ordinary well-known Roman types. Of special interest is the fact that a score or so of them are ornamented with various Chris- tian symbols, of which the following are the most sig- nificant : — One, wdth four beaks, shows two fishes and five loaves (Fig. 101); another of fine terra-cotta has also two CHRISTIAN SYMBOLS. 269 fishes, one being twisted (Fig. 101) ; and two more have single representations of this symbol (Fig. 102). Fig. loi. — Terka-cotta Lamps with Christian Symbols, Salona. One bears the sacred monogram {Chi-Rho) betw^een two lambs (Fig. 103) ; another shows it with an a and cu : and four others have the monooram alune. I 1/ Fig. 102. — Tkkka-cotta Lamps wiiii f'in L i O slabs, many of wliicli were ornamented with a variety of interlaced patterns formed of raised bands intertwin- ins with reo-ularitv, somewhat after the manner of the interlacements on some of the early Christian monu- ments of Great Britain and Ireland. These architec- tural relics are j^reserved in the Museum at Knin ; and it was to enable the "Archeoloo-i cristiani" to see them, Fig. 107.— Sculptured Stone from Kapitul, Knin (1). as well as the place where they were found, that the excursion to Knin was organised (Fi,fi:s. 107-100). Professor Buli(', in the work al)Ove referred to, sliows, from tlie study and comparison r)f local recoi'ds, ihat Knin during the Croatian dynasty was a royal resi- dence and tlic seat of tli(; courts of justice. lie states that about the middh' <>i' I lie eleventh century Peter J. S 274 EAELY CHRISTIAN EEMAIXS. Kresimir made tlie Bishop of Knin not only Primate of Croatia, but also one of the king's counsellors and Minister for Home and Foreign Affairs, He thus shows that Knin was a place of great importance, which, as ■»m^fr'T'^™r'-*T«rr»rTTfTn'^^5WTr- mmmm Fig. io8. — Two Sculptured Stones from Kapitul, Knin (i). the headquarters of ej^iscopal authority, necessitated the construction of an ecclesiastical building worthy of the nation. The result was the cathedral church of St Mary on the Kapitul, the ruins of which were now exposed EXCURSIOX TO KXIN. 27i Fig. 109.— Fragments of Sculptured Stone from Biskui'ija, Knin (f). 276 EARLY CHRISTIAN REMAINS. by tlic railway excavations. The date of its erection he puts before the year 1042. Dahiiatia fell into the hands of the Turks in 1522, and remained in their possession till 1G88, during which time the cathedral and all its associated buildings were burned. When Knin came under the sway of Venice, in 1688, the cathedral was found in so ruinous a con- dition that all idea of its restoration was abandoned. From that time the Kapitid was used as the cemetery of the inhabitants of Knin, and the ecclesiastical ruins upon it became a quarry to the Venetians for building their fortresses. Another locality w^hich has yielded sculptured remains of a similar character is Bishupija, situated 8 kilomeU-es to the east of Knin. What form of structures stood here no one seemed to have any idea of, beyond the fact that they were ecclesiastical. Le Pere Vinjalic, who saw" them in 1746, states that there were three distinct ruins then visible — viz., (1) a " rotonda ottangolare," wdiich he believed to have been a church ; (2) a build- ing, then called the Church of St Luke, but which he considered to have been a bishop's palace ; and (3), at some distance from the former, the traces of a second church. In the vicinity of the second of the above- named ruins there was a cemetery " con pietre cli straor- dinaria grandezza sopra sepulture," in which fragments of sculptured stones with interlacements were disin- terred from time to time (Fig. 109). These monuments have also been deposited in the museum at Knin. On the morning of the day of the excursion to EXCURSION TO KNIN. 277 Kniii, Dr von Felleuberg and I were introduced to the "Arclieologi cristiani," a company of about twenty gentlemen, mostly priests or other church dignitaries, who received us most cordially as their guests for the day. The country through which the railway from Spalato to Knin passes is in many parts a wilderness of sun-burnt rocks, and at that season of the year even the Polje and patches of cultivated land looked ecjually parched. As the railway journey alone {tour et retour) occupied nine hours, it may be easily imagined that under a broiling August sun the trip to Knin was not accomplished without some personal discomforts. While traversing the north coast of the Salonic bay the vines and olives, with which the district is studded, gave the landscape a fresh verdant aspect. After cross- ing the Cikola stream at Dernis, the country also looked fertile, and as we approached Knin arboreal growth was a conspicuous feature of the environments. From the railway station we walked in a body to the Museum, where Professor Bulic described, in Croatian and French, the more important objects in this strange collection. The Museum consists of two large rooms with a wide passage between them. The walls of one of the rooms were entirely covered with the fragments of sculptured stones, columns, pedestals, panels, cornices, &c., collected on the Kapitid and Blskuplja. The inter- laced patterns were the most common ornamentation ; but other designs were also present, such as Ijirds, rosettes, foliage, spirals, &c. (Jne stone I noticed li.nl a grotcs(jue animal with great fore-claws represented on it. But 278 EARLY christian' REMAINS. illustrations are more serviceable than words in couvey- ino- an accurate idea of interlacements, and so without further descriptive details I refer my readers to the three specimens figured. Mr Bulic thinks that the two stone slabs from the Kcqntul, which are nearly of the same size, formed part of a Ciborium belono-ino; to a church of the ninth or tenth century ; and with this idea he attempts to read the letters on them as part of the same inscription. The following; is the readins; he sugsjests, the italics showinsc the letters he supplied to complete the words : — {Suatas) CLaVDVX HEOATOEnm IN TE??iPVS J)(omini ? 7'egis ? imperatoris ?) . , . (D)IRZISCL aYum DYCEM MAGNUm. In the other room were a few objects illustrative of the general archaeology of the district, among which was a sword, characteristic of the Viking period, said to have been found in a o;rave in the neio-hbourhood of Knin. This sj^oradic example of a weapon from the Scandinavian area is interestino; in showins; the wandering^ tendencies of the ag;e, and sug-orests the Adriatic as one of the more distant parts of Europe to which a Viking fleet paid a visit. After the examination of the objects in the Museum the members dispersed with a request to meet at a definite time at the railway station, whence, by walking along the line, they could most conveniently visit the Ka]pitul. Having half an hour to spare, Dr von Fellen- berg and I sauntered through the town. It was market- MUSEUM AT KXIX. 279 day, ami the long tliorouglifare, which forms its only street, was crowded with country - people and cattle, too-ether with a heteroQ-eneous mixture of native snoods thrown pell-mell along both sides of the road. We were greatly struck with the elegant, almost classical, forms of some of the home-made earthenware. Another object which attracted my attention was a large kind of handbarrow made entirely of wood, without a nail or any trace of iron about it. The wheels w^ere con- structed in a very primitive manner. Instead of spokes radiating from a central nave, there was in the inte- rior of the wheel a stout rectangle, the four corners of which just touched and supported the surrounding rim. The segments thus formed were its only open spaces. Wheels constructed on somewhat similar principles have been found in a lake-dwellino- at Mercurao-o in North Ital}'.^ But the ordinary method of constructing wheels — I.e., by radial spokes — has been known and practised since the bronze and especially the early iron age, as may be seen in the Kesselwagen from Glasinac (Fig. 26). Near the station w^e met a vara avis of the district, viz., a gaily-dressed girl, who carried on her head, neck, and upper part of the body, an extraordinary numljcr of silver coins, being probably her entire fortune. One of the costume-fijzures in the National Museum at Saniicvo commemorates this custom, once common, but now almost extinct throughout the Balkan ])eninsula. Tlic visit to the Kapitul was madi- under a scorcliing sun, Init after all there w\as little 1<> be seen Ijcynnd the 1 Lake-Dwellings of Euroi.e, pp. 208, 209. 280 EARLY CHRISTIAN REMAINS. foundation outlines of a chnrcli and some other build- ings. Over the church area the square bases on which the columns stood were exposed, but not a fragment of architectural ornamentation remained. On returning to the station we were entertained by our kind hosts to an excellent dinner, served in the shade on the railway platform — the station being also the chief hotel of the place. A great military review had been held in the neighbourhood, and as the officers had made the hotel their temporary headquarters, we were soon in the midst of a laro;e and distinguished company. The appearance of the Governor of Dalmatia on the scene w\as the occasion of a loyal bumper in his honour, which was received with the greatest applause. Interlaced Ornamentations. Of the many interesting memorials of the 23ast met with in this part of the Balkan peninsula, not the least important are those interlaced slabs from the early churches of Knin. They belong to a style of deco- rative art once common amono; Christian communities throughout Europe and some parts of Asia and Africa. In the course of the distribution of this style over such an extensive area its details naturally under- went various modifications in the hands of difierent artists, esjjecially those inhabiting countries far from the centre of its jDrimary development, such as the Saxons, the Celts, and the Scandinavians. Nowhere has this divergence been more marked than within the INTERLACEMENTS. 281 British Isles — so much so that, at one time, it was a current belief that interlacements were a creation of the Celtic mind. But wider observation has proved this to be erroneous, and shown that interlaced patterns were introduced from the East by the same channels which gave access to Christianity. iVt the same time, it is not denied that in the hands of the Celts these designs, especially in combination with the pre-exist- ing spirals and trumpet - shaped spaces, have been manipulated in such a manner as to give their pro- ductions a remarkable individuality of character. Dr Joseph Anderson thus defines the specialism of inter- lacements in Celtic art : — " It [interlaced work] was thus a common form of decorative ornament applied to many and various purposes, in many differ- ent parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa, both before and after the time when, in this country and in Ireland, it became one of the prevailing and dominant characteristics of Celtic art. But while it was thus used by other peoples as an occasional element of decoration, or as a style of ornament suitable for special pur- poses, it was nowhere developed into a systematic style of art, applied alike to manuscripts, metal-work, and stonework, unless in this country and in Ireland. In other words, it never gave a distinctive character to any art but Celtic art." ^ This, however, is stating the case strongly. As a matter of fact, interlacements were used >o- --2- i Fig. 113.— Two Stone Panels of the Font in Baptistery, Spalato. nastri piu volte doppiati ed intrecciati di cosidetto stile langobardo." From the collection of medieval niunuinenis in the Museum of St Donatus in Zara, Professor Smirich gives illustrations of a number of stone fragments, ornamented with interlacements taken from some of tlic earliest churches in the town.^ Among llicni ;ii'r fnur aiclics of ' Ephemcris Biliatensis, pp. 17-20, niul Plate MX. 288 EARLY CHRISTIAN REMAINS. a baklacliin found while demolishing some old build- ings attached to the campanile of the Duomo. These are ornamented after the style of Fig. 114, which rep- resents one of the arches of a similar canopy in the church of St Appollinare in Classe, in Ravenna. Two other monuments, with groups of figures in bas-relief representing incidents in the life of Christ and bor- Fig. 114.— One of the Arches of a Baldachin in the Church of St Apollinare in Classe, Ravenna. dered with interlaced patterns, are from the church of St Domenica in Borgo. Besides these, there are num- erous fragments of crosses, slabs, pillars, &c., all of which, according to Professor Smirich, are products of the ninth century. Miss Stokes ^ gives an illus- tration of a portion of a font belonging to this class 1 Pilgrimage to the Apennines. INTERLACE MEXTS. 289 of work found at Pola. It would therefore appear, although I cannot assert this from actual observation, that similar remains mio-ht be found in manv other towns on the Dalmatian coast. When we enter Italy these peculiar art remains are met with in the greatest profusion almost ev^erywhere. I have noted examples on stone at Rome, Venice, Murano, Trieste, Cividale, Ravenna, Ancona, Bologna, Verona, Parma, Milan, Genoa, Turin, Como, Pisa, Lucca, &c. They are to be seen, sometimes in mu- seums as fragmentary relics from old churches, and sometimes as disused materials rebuilt into the walls of later churches, or in situ, as in the church of St Ambrogia, Milan, and other instances. That interlaced patterns were used without any acces- sory elements, being themselves the chief ornament, is proved by figs. 115 and IIG, the former representing a circular ornament in the north wall of the church of St Mark in Venice, and the latter a free-standing cross now in the church of St Petronio, in Bologna. Figs. 117 and 118 show interlacements in combination with other Christian symbols, tlie former from a nKtiiiiineiil nu\v in the Museum at ^luianu, but previously in the Abbey of St Cipria, and the latter from a sarcophagus in the church of St Apoilinare in Classe, Ravenna. Fig. 119 represents a pozzo (well -head) saiiibHcly us(m1 on one of tlie wells In tlie town of \'( nice. 1 mxa this illustration as an example of a pattern sliowing two ridges in the interlacing band, a rare occurrence in 290 EARLY CHRISTIAN REMAINS. Italy. It has tlie peculiarity of being placed topsy- turvy, a circumstance which probably suggests that the people who fixed it in its present position no longer paid any deference to its symbolism. Looking into its . f ^ Fig. 115.— Cross in North Wall of the Church of St Mark, Venice. interior, I noticed on its under side the old tracks of the bucket-rope, showing it had been in use elsewhere. In the cathedral at Chur, in Switzerland, are some beautiful slabs of interlaced work which belonged to the ambo of the old church. A few of them are now used in the construction of an altar, and others are INTERLACEMENTS. 291 iu the sacristy and in a small museum. They are de- scribed and illustrated in four plates, by Dr Keller, in the Proceedings of the Antiquarian Society of Zurich, vol. xi. The first plate shows an entire cross covered with interlacements and a couple of lions beneath the H <^. X ^P^^^r^^v^*^ ■ ^^^^ 1 Fig. ii6. — Sculptured Cross .now in tiii; Ciilkch ok St Petro.nio, Bologna. arms. The workmanship is ver}' similar to that on the specimens at Knin. In the sacristy ma\- ;ilso be seen a bronze casket willi laisccl interlacements o|" plain bands, said to Itc a work of' llie eighth century and of Irish origin. Il ;dso is tigurcd and des(.'ribc--> VAfi. V--'-' ..X^^ /^:^ H ]ii /u^ '— --Till re III mill II I ril iimiil'iflttiii.iiiiiiriii iilii Immm^MA Fig. 117.— Part of the Decoration on a Stone Monument in the MUSEO CiVICO, MURANO. ments, the intervening spaces being filled in with drag- onesque work. The cup is separated from its lower part by a string of pearls. The total height is ten inches. The illustration of it here given (Plate XXIX.) is from a photograj)h kindly taken for me by Professor Sebas- tian Mayer of Kremsmiinster. This chalice has also been claimed as a work of Irish art.^ I will conclude this short review of interlacements by directing attention to a remarkable example in ^ See Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland, vol. i., 1870. INTERLACEMENTS. 293 woodwork — viz., the door in the north transept of the church of St Maria im Capitol, in Cologne (con- secrated in 1041) l)\' Pope Leo IX.) This door is divided into a number of panels, each containing a Fig. ii8. — End ok a Sarcophagus in tiik Chlkcii of St .Ai'oi.i.inaki: IN Cl.ASSK, RaVICNNA. group of figures in carved wood representing scenes in the life of Christ. Tli-' ]);in('ls arc surrounded hy l)ordcrs of interlaced work iiiinlc, hy the intertwining of three or foiii- liands into a variety of patterns, each band bcinji ornamented bv the three ridges so iier- 294 EARLY CHEISTIAN REMAINS. sistently adhered to in this class of work throughout Southern Europe. But the imperial sway of fashion influences not only the doctrines, but the external manifestations of religion, and so the time came when the interlaced ornament ceased to occupy even a secondary jDlace in the culture Fig. 119. — A Poz/.o IN AN Open Court in Venice. of the Christian faith. This wave of nedect seems to have spread over Europe with great rapidity, as we find, in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, monuments which a few generations earlier were landmarks in the Christian world, now utterly discarded and treated as if they were mere stone rubbish. On the 14th August 1891 1 had an opportunity, on the occasion of the visit of ^>^ '\-Mm^^:-:-:^ I'l.ATK XXIX. CII.M.lCi: IKOM KKEMSMUNSIEU. IXTEELACEMEXTS. 295 the Royal Archaeological Institute to 8t Andrews, of inspecting certain fragments of early scnlptiired crosses, with interlaced patterns, which had iDeen built into the foundation g-able of the Cathedral church of that town — a buildino- erected about the middle of the twelfth century. Such discoveries are notoriously fre- r[uent, not only in Scotland, but over a large part of Europe. In the atrium of St Mark's Church, A^enice, may be seen a huge stone lintel stretching across the doorway, having its under side ornamented with inter- laced work which is partly concealed l)y the capitals, thus showing that it was not specially executed to adorn its present position. Such memorials, wlion subsequently utilised, are sometimes placed as if the builders had a liuQ-erino; tradition of their former im- portance. Thus, in the south wall of the Cathedral of Parma are two quadrants of circles with this kind of ornamentation conspicuously displayed. Also, in tlie Cathedral of Pisa are two stones witli interlacements, built into the gable, one of which, undoubted!}', liad served some previous purpose, as it Ijears an inscrip- tion which breaks off abruptly. Similar observations could be greatl\' multiplied if necessary. But enough has lieen said to sliow tliat whatever might liave V)ecn tlic j-disan uly 6'6, and consisted of cuprous oxide to tlie extent of ab(Uit 25 per cent. This oxide, no doubt, gave the desired hardness to the cop])er. In the strata, dating from 14.00 B.c to 800 B.C., occurred many arrowdieads and (jther objects made of bronze. In the upper Israelitish jinrtion the bronze; imple- ' See an article in I-ungperier'H Works, vol. iii. ji. :J3:J. o 00 SKETCH OF THE UNWRITTEN EECORDS. ments were gradually replaced by iron. At Lachish there were also found a wire of almost pure lead, and what seemed to be a bracelet of silver. The latter was coated with chloride of silver, doubtless from the chlorides in the soil, and contained 6"5 per cent of copper and 1"44 per cent of gold. At Illahun, in Egypt, some beads or buttons were found which proved to be of metallic antimony badly reduced from the sul- phide. They date back to about 800 b.c} At wliat period iron was first used as a substitute for bronze in the manufacture of cutting implements is, however, a cjuestion still shrouded in mystery. Less attractive than bronze for the manufacture of ornamental objects, and, in its j)riniary condition, too soft to compete with the former for cutting purposes, iron might have been known for ages before it came into o;eneral use. On this point the following remarks by Professor Eolleston may be quoted with interest : — • I am inclined to think that the Iron Age would be better spoken of as the " Steel Age." For there is no reason why we should not suppose that iron, as distinct from steel, may have been in the hands of many tribes before they came into the possession of bronze ; and if the iron was soft iron merely, bronze would be much more useful and trustworthy for the purposes of war and the chase, for which so many ancient and modern races have mainly lived. A very striking instance from lioman history of the comparative uselessness of untempered iron tools for such purposes is given us by Polybius, Hist., ii. c. 33. There we read, in a probably somewhat unjustly unfavourable account of that somewhat rare animal, a liberal military com- mander, that liis colonels saved him, as colonels have in later times saved other generals from disasters, by the following 1 Report of B. A., 1893, p. 715. INTRODUCTION OF BRONZE AND IRON. 301 tactics. The Gauls came to the fight armed with long point- less soft iron broadswords. These, the Roman tribunes had observed, bent after each blow delivered on to a sufficiently re- sistant body. Such a body they sought and fdund in the 'pilum — that best of pikes or bayonets, with which a man could parry or thrust, but with which he could not strike or slasli. The brave barbarian came up, /b-ox' virihus, brandishing his broad- sword ; its downward strokes were parried, and the malleable iron, glancing downwards, bent as malleable iron will do, and left its gigantic owner at the mercy of an Italian, some 5 feet 6 inches in stature, who then brought into this sword-play a weapon which he had been taught to use punctim, non cccsim. The same tactics succeeded at Cullodeu, as the tactic of thrustinrj and giving point always will succeed when masses of men in rows, not isolated individuals merely, are pitted against each other on the thrusting versus the slashing plan, thougli the slash- ing sword at Culloden was of good steel enough. The point for our present purpose in this story of the victory of Flaminius over the Isumlirian Gauls lies in the proof it gives us of the ex- istence, so lately in the world's history as B.C. 224, of a warrior- race fi"htin!]f with soft iron instead of steel swords.^ It would jippear from a passage in Trerodotns (]i1). ii. c. 152) that in Egypt iron had supersedtMl lironze for military purposes some time piioi' Id tlie seventh century B.C., while at the same date the Carians and lonians were armed with lironze. We know also tlial in the time of tlie historian himself (400 B.C.), iron had everywhere come into cremial use aiiioiiii; the (creeks. On tin- olh(,T hand, Trofessoi' \ iichow ni.idi' the astoundiiiii' statement at the Iiito-nat ional ( 'oiii-rcss of Archaeologists at Bud.i-I'cst that ihe Tyramidsof l<'nypt 1 Reidint from TiaiiHactions of tliu liriHtol and Gloucestcrsliire Arcliiv< logical Society, p. 2. 302 SKETCH OF THE UNWRITTEX RECORDS. liad been constructed by means of iron tools. "Jusqiie dans CCS derniers temps," says he, " on croyait qu'en Egypte le fer avait ete employe fort tard et que les pyramides ont ete construites sans I'emploi d'instru- ments en fer. Mais enfin on a trouve ces instruments, et maintenant tout le monde est convaincu que les pierres des pyramides ont ete travailles avec du fer," ^ As the manufacture of bronze implies a previous kno\Yledge of its component metals, we might have to inquire — had the actual dates of the discovery of the metals been the important point at issue — if there had been a Copper, if not also a Tin Age. A few orna- mental objects made of the latter metal have been found in the Swiss lake-dwellings and in various other localities, but no archaeologist has advocated that they are of such a character as to constitute a Tin Ao:e. It is different, however, with copper ; and as its claim to the distinction of being the first metallic age in Europe is supported by such distinguished archaeologists as Dr Much- of Vienna and Von Pulszky^ of Buda-Pest, it is desirable, as an opponent to that theory, that I should here devote a few words to its consideration. The finding of so many copper objects (among them 1 Congres International d'Anthropologie et d'Archeologie prehistoriques, 8* Session, 1876, vol. i. p. 251. In answer to a question Dr Flinders Petrie stated at the Ipswich meeting of the B.A. that the ancient Egyptians sculp- tured granite by copper tools and emery. For the method of perforating and sawing stone with sand and soft wood see ' Lake-Dwellings of Europe,' p. 504. - Die Kupferzeit in Europa und ihr Verhiiltniss zur Cultur der Indo- germanen. 3 Die Kupferzeit in Ungarn. Buda-Pest, 1884. COPPER AGE IX EUROPE. 303 being a variety of cutting tools) in Hungary and on the sites of some lake-dwellings in Central Europe, especially that at Vinelz on the shore of Lake Bienne, has been regarded by some as conclusive evidence that Europe passed through a Copper Age before either bronze or iron came on the field. I have elsewhere discussed the bearing of these objects from the lake-dwellings on the problem at issue, and, having no modification to make on the conclusions arrived at, I may as w^ell repeat the words with which I then summed up the argument : — ■ I fancy the true explanation is that the lake-dwellers became first acquainted with metal instruments in the form of imported bronze objects, especially swords and daggers, and that this suggested to them, and directly led to, the discovery of the art of reducing the pure metal from the copper ore. Local or peri- patetic coppersmiths, in trying to imitate these imported imple- ments, went on manufacturing copper objects until they learned the art of hardening the metal by the proper admixture of tin. This knowledge might have been originally kept a great secret. But, however this may be, it is certain that the secret was not long kept, as we soon find tlie lake-dwellers in full possession of the art of manufacturing all manner of bronze objects. Ignor- ance of the nature of the alloy, or perhaps the scarcity or dear- ness of tin, leading sometimes to wilful deception on the part of the fabricators, may partly account for the production of some of these copper implements. It has also been suggested that the repeated melting of bronze causes the tin to disappear, and that in this way copper objects may have come about. But this explanation is inapplicable to those from the lake- dwellings, as they are all of the most primitive type, and were undoubtedly manufactured during tlie initiatory stages of the metallurgic art. — Lake-Dwellings of Europe, j). 515. It is quite possilth' that c()])[)ei' and tin, as imlix ichial 304 SKETCH OF THE rXWPJTTEX RECORDS. metals, were known long before the lucky hit of mixing them in the proportions which made metallic instru- ments immensely superior to those of stone. But, in calling this great discovery a " lucky hit," I may be injuring some unknown philanthropist who, by the exercise of pure synthetic reasoning, arrived at this result. Seeing that a knife made of copper was too soft for cutting purposes, and that one of tin w\as too hard and brittle, I do not think it would have been beyond the reasoning capacity of an observant man of the Stone Age to have suggested and completed the experimental problem which so successfully solved the difficulty. Another thing we must bear in mind is, that the primary dispersion and wanderings of mankind took place bv land and not bv sea. The invention of the " dug-out "' as a means of transport by water forms therefore an important event in the progress of man towards civilisation. This primitive boat was known to the inhabitants of Europe from the very beginning of the neolithic age, as may be shown from the fact that remains of canoes have been found amono; the debris of the earliest lake-dwelling;s. But lono- and extensive voyages could hardly have been undertaken with " dug-outs," so that their use was probably re- stricted to crossing rivers, lakes, and l^ays along the indented shores of the mainland. The oriQ;in of navioa- tion goes, however, so far back that its rudiments are lost in the dim vista of })rehistoric ages, and by the time boats are first mentioned in history they had already acquired the essential parts of the ship of PALAEOLITHIC MAX. 305 moderu times — a statement which finds some corrobor- ation in the pictorial representation of the ancient Nile boat on the tombs of Thebes. There can be little doubt that modem civilisation has its rootlets in the Old World developments which took place in the regions around the eastern portion of the Mediterranean, and that Western Europe came ulti- mately under their influence. But social improvements emanating from Egypt, Assyria, Phoenicia, Greece, and Eome, took a long time to become absorbed by the inhabitants of the more distant parts of the world, and hence, while some people still lingered in the Stone Age, those of the more central regions were already in full possession of the advantages of the Bronze Age. As the means of communication by sea extended, the products of the later Iron Age would find their way to distant countries in a much shorter time than b}' the old land routes. The duration of the Bronze Age in different countries was therefore subject to great varia- tions, being shorter along the sea routes and the great commercial highways, and more persistent in out-of-the- way places. One other preliminary topic remains to he brirlly noticed — viz., the relation between (^)uaternar}' and Neolithic man in Europe. That tlic former lived in the valleys of the Thames, the Rhine, the Klionc, and the Danube, as well as in Italy, Algiers, Egypt, an>l other parts of the worl.i, (■(], would have been, like NCili's flood, a diri' calamity to Man (or the being which was his precursor) 1 Collecte. 29!). ■•' Cave-Hunting, p. 382. n 10 SKETCH OF THE UNWRITTEN RECORDS. and to his mammalian associates wlio lived within the Mediterranean basin. Pressed on the north by a grad- ual encroachment of the ice and a colder climate, those occupying European territory would have been driven southwards. But, alas ! to find the old highways be- tween the two continents demolished by submergence, and so they would be caught, as it were, in a trap, like animals driven into an artificial pen. Similar causes would have cut ofi" the Paleeolithic colonists, who had found their way into Britain, from intercourse with their Continental congeners. The striking contrast which has been proved to have existed between Quaternary man, his works and methods of living, and the parallel phenomena of neo- lithic civilisation, is thus admirably put by Professor Boyd-Dawkins : — If, however, the results as I read them, over the whole of Europe, point to the great interval dividing the Palaiolithic from the Neolithic age, and to the great geographical break be- tween them, still more shall we find these conclusions confirmed by the contrast between the Pakeolithic and Neolitliic civilisa- tions. On the one hand — it is unnecessary to labour the minute details — tlie Palseolithic man Hved by hunting the wild animals on the Pleistocene continent, armed with rude implements of stone and bone, and ignorant of all the domestic animals, in- cluding the hunting-dog. He was a fire-using nomad, without fixed habitation. On tlie other hand, the Neolithic man appears before us a herdsman and tiller of the ground, depending upon his domestic animals and the cultivated fruits and seeds rather than on hunting ; master of the potter's art, and of the mysteries of spinning and weaving, and seeking the materials of his tools by mining. He lived in fixed habitations, and buried his dead THE HIATUS. 311 in tombs. There is obviously a great gulf fixed between the rude hunting civilisation of the one and the agricultural and pastoral civilisation of the other, a gulf which has not yet been bridged over by discoveries in any part of the world.^ When Neolithic man appeared in Europe the physical causes which were slowly affecting the land distribution had already moulded this continent to much the same limits as it now possesses. This indicates a recent and very short period of occupancy in comparison with the range of Palaeolithic man. The important question then arises, AVhat became of llic latter during post-glacial times ? Did he become extinct in Europe, like so man}' of the contemporary mammalia, or did he live on to shake hands with his Neolithic brother, who, meantime, had found means elsewhere of betterino- his condition O in life ? The view generally held by some of our ablest palae- ontologists is that the continuity of human life in Europe has been l^roken by a long interval of time. ^I. Gabriel de ^Nlortillet characterises this interval by such expressions as " une grande lacune," " uu hiatus," "une veritable revolution."^ Sir John Evans is equally emphatic in regard to the extinction ol' j'ahi'i.lit liic )n;in in Britain;'' nor does Professor lluxlcy do nioiv than express caution against a hasty conclusion.' On tin- otlioi- hand, those who aim at provinii; a direct development from tlir . 24H. ■■' ]j(' Pri'liistoriiini', |>. 47!>. •' Ancient Stune Inipicnn-nts, ]>. OIK. * Collected Essays, vol. vii. ji. ."ilH. 312 SKETCH OF THE UNWRITTEN RECORDS. other ill Western Europe seem to me to be working on a false principle.^ No legitimate inference can be drawn from a graduated series of stone implements, picked up on the surface, by way of bridging over the acknowledged hiatus in the two civilisations, as in all large finds and workshops of neolithic imple- ments a sufficient number of unfinished, or roughly- made specimens, may be readily found which, in ap- pearance, can be ^^aralleled with later palaeolithic types. As evidence of the truth of this assertion I may in- stance the station of Butmir, previously described, where a large quantity of such rudely-made implements has been collected and partly figured in the monograph on this find just published.- It appears to me that the difficulty about this so- called hiatus arises partly from a misconception of the facts. All are ao;reed as to the leng;th of time which has intervened since the appearance of Palseolithic men in Europe. Although their progress to a higher civilisa- tion had been extremely slow, still the handicraft objects picked up along the path pursued by them indicate, to- wards the end of the journey, not only an advance in mechanical skill, but a deeper insight into the pheno- mena around them. Hence the magnitude of this hiatus depends on the point of time in their career with which the products of Neolithic man are com- pared. It is not an uncommon occurrence to come 1 See .J. A. Brown, " On the Continuity of the Pala3olithic and Neolithic Periods," 'Journal of Anth. Institute,' vol. xxii. p. 66. - Die Neolithische Station von Butmir, PI. XV. NEOLITHIC MAN. 313 upon a cave containing neolithic and palaeolithic re- mains separated from each other by a thick stratum of stalagmite — in which case we can liave no doubt that the facts prove a hiatus, often representiug a period of time which can only be estimated by great physical changes in the environments, and the extinc- tion of some of the local fauna. Were it proved that the palaeolithic remains in question belonged to tlic last individuals of the doomed race, I would join issue with the advocates of the hiatus theory. But, sup- pose that we found the two culture-beds without an intervening stalagmitic layer at all, and tliat we had satisfactory proof that the owners of the respective relics had been almost contemporary with each other — that, in short, the one race had supplanted the other — how would such a condition of thino-s attect the hiatus theory :* In this case the hiatus would re- main precisely as Ijefore, or very nearly so, only the element of time would be reduced to the vanishing point. The difference in technique disclosed by these respective remains constitutes, in some eases, the oidy impassable gulf which has not hitherto heeu Ididged over b)'' discoveries in any part of the woild. Indeed it is the absence of a transition pei-iod l)etween the two civilisations wliicli f'oi-nis ilie st longest argiuneiit in favour of tlie theory tliat is'eoliiliic man is .m im- migrant into Western Imii-o|)c. I am not aware of any evidence which actually foil .ids the idea that the (,)uaternar}- men of lOiirope snr\iveauine- Chaudes (Lozere),^ Tertrc-Guerin (Seine-et-Manic),' kc. Hence it has been suggested that tlic dolichocephalic I'ace may have been a sui-vival of I'ala-nli! hie man. ' La Grotte de Reilhac, p. 27. - Revue d'AntliroiJolo^'ie, 1873. •'■ Bull, (le la Soc. iillirifntly dcscribccl at pp. 58-01, an. :i7!). 2 W. Mitt. au8 Bosnien uml
  • . :!3. 318 SKETCH OF THE UNWRITTEN RECORDS. B. Soh'imar, Zhitike, and Dehelohrdo. The situation of these localities has also been fully described (p. 63), and it now only remains to say a few words on the character of the relics found on the sites of the huts of Sobunar. Fig. 14 represents a view of their relative positions as seen from Sarajevo. The small cross in the centre of the drawing shows the position of Sobunar ; the site of the Wallhunj of Debelobrdo is on the summit of the elevation to the right ; and the heights in the middle and farthest back part of the picture represent Zlatiste — the upper cross indicating the position of the line of circumvallation, and the lower the spot where Dr Truhelka discovered some further indications of ancient habitations. The valley to the left separates these outlying heights from the mass of Trebevic. Of the Sobunar huts little remained except their sites ; and these were covered with debris varying in thickness from a slight covering of mould and grass to upwards of a metre of fallen rubbish — the maximum depth being found over those situated close to the pre- cipitous cliiFs. Mr Fiala relates how in one place he was guided to one of the richest finds by observing on the face of a perpendicular rock a darkly stained band, as if made by the smoke of a chimney. Here, about a foot from the surface, in a layer of ashes 9 or 10 inches thick, he found glazed pottery, a silver ring, a Hun- garian coin of the sixteenth century, and other medieval relics. Beneath this there was a second layer of fallen debris of about the same thickness as the former, and SOBUNAR. 319 under it was a relic-bed, one metre thick, containing various prehistoric remains. In another phice, about 3 feet below the surface, the workmen exposed the ruins of a potter's workshop containing, among other things, fifteen perforated clay weights for weaving. In all about thirty sites were uncovered, and on some of them were found portions of the burnt clay castings of the timbers which formed the walls of the huts — thus indicating that the dwellings had been destroyed b)^ fire. In some of these clay masses the charred wood still remained. As might be expected, the relics arc of a mixed character, and represent various periods from the Stone Age downwards. Among the former the following may l)e mentioned : Several worked flakes, spear - points, arrow-points, and nuclei, made of such varied materials as chert, flint, chalcedony, clay-slate, and obsidian. Of polished stone implements there are only an axe and two perforated axe-hammers (fragments). Tlie arrow- heads include one or two specimens of a type which is not represented in the collection from Butmii-. These are triangular in shape, with a deep recess at the liase instead of a stem. There are also sevenil iiii|il('iiiiiils and tools of l)one and honi, «ucJi ;is |i(»iiiU'rs, iicciUcs, pins, a broken comi), and fragments of otlit-r Koim; objects, o)-ii;mientcd in some instances willi conccnlric circles. Bronze ajjpcars in tlic Inrni of ,1 (iluil.i with |H'ii(lanfs. needles, 01 luiniented pins, pinci is. ;i ,s|tiriil linger-ring, one or two small socketed spear-iiead.s, I)ntt(tiis, .v]iirals, 320 SKETCH OF THE UNWRITTEN RECORDS. c'v:c. (Fig. 120). Prehistoric objects of iron are less com- mon, but in this category at least one fibula falls to be reckoned. Fig. 120. — Bronze Objects from Sobuxar (f). Fragments of pottery are very abundant, and sliow that they belonged to a variety of well-formed vessels ; some of the handles being particularly noteworthy, BRONZE HOARD. 321 inasmuch as they resemble the anm lunata, so well known in the terramara deposits of Italy. A number of spindle -whorls, loom- weights, mealing -stones, kv., testify to the pursuit of industries by the inhabitants. All the ordinary domestic animals and a goodly number of wild ones are represented by more or less of their osseous remains. Among the latter are the roe, red-deer (now extinct in Bosnia for upwards of twenty years), wild boar, brown bear, wolf, &c. Of special interest is a portion of the under jaw of a beaver {Castor fiber). Mr Fiala remarks on the frequency with which the word DaJ>er (beaver) is found in place- names.^ To disentangle the overlappings of the several civilisations here indicated would be a difficult and somewhat hazardous task. Equally confused are the few remains found on the adjacent hill - forts, which anions; other thino-s include Eoman remains, and hence no reliable deductions can be based on the results of their investiffiition. O y C. Bronze Hoard at Sumetac. A bronze-founder's hoard, discovered in I8S'.) in ;i cultivated field at Sumetac, in IIk^ district Cazm, is described by Dr 'rrulidka.- It consists of a iiiiiiibcr (tf objects typical of those oF tin' Winw/r. Age in liungaiy ' III the lake-dwellings at Jjaibacli the remains of the beuver were reprcseiiteil Ly portion.s ol" the bones of at least 1-40 individuals. — Lake- Dwellings oi Europe, p. IS"). See also discussion on otter and beaver traps in ' Proceedings of Society of Antiquaries of Scotland,' 18!K)-!)I, jip. 73-8!>. ■i W. M., vol. i. p. :i5. X 322 SKETCH OF THE UNWRITTEN RECORDS. — viz., twenty-four sickles (ten complete) ; five socketed celts (two complete) ; three palstaves (two complete) ; fragments of a lance-head, a dagger, and a hammer- axe ; one socketed chisel ; two portions of wire which probably bound the hoard together ; and fifteen lumps of bronze castings (Fig. 121). Fig. 121. — Bronze Sickles (Portion of a Hoard). D. Skeleton Graves at Sretes and Catici. Mr Radimsky describes the discovery of some bronze relics in graves at Sretes and Catici, in the district of Visoko. These localities lie a few miles to the east of the railway station of Kakanj-Doboj, and about an hour's walk from each other. The interments were without tumuli, or other surface-markings, to distinguish them. The principal relics consist of an ear-ring with a double spiral pendant, a couple of bow-shaped fibulae, two spiral arm-bands with many windings, and a few HOCHEBEXE RAKITNO. 323 buttoDs, spiral tubings, and fragments of pottery witli finger-nail markings. These objects were at first sup- posed to indicate a pure Bronze Age, but, as pointed out by Dr Moriz Hoernes,^ analogous objects have l)een found in the early Iron Age cemeteries of Glasinac- E. The Cemeteries and Hill Forts of Glasinac. For a description of these remains see chap. v. F. The Hochehene Rahitno and its Antiquities. The plateau so named lies in the north corner of the district Ljubuski, at an elevation of some 800 or 900 yards, where, even in summer, the climate is compara- tively cool and agreeable. According to evidence still existing the advantages of this localit}^ did not escape the Romans, who have left behind them numerous remains, especially two fortresses which dominated the district and guarded its passes. The ruins of the largest, called Romerhimi von Petroiuci, occupy the top of a conspicuous height, some 200 feet above the surrounding ground. A'arious Roman anticjuities have from time to time been found on and around it, such as coins, pottery, swords and spears of iron, and a fragment of thin bionze plate ornamented with a ]un- ning scroll, and bordered on eacli side with a row ol small circles. The ruins of the second foiiios, Unnlina con Zagradina, are situated G ki/om. lo ihc south-cast of the former, on an (-(lually j)roniinent and roninianding ' W. M., vol. i. 1-. •.illi. - Ih'nl, p. Of). 324 SKETCH OF THE UNWRITTEN RECORDS. situation, and its neiglibourliood has also yielded a similar variety of Eoman remains. As a result of a visit to this locality and inquiries of the inhabitants, Mr Eadimsky has brought to light the existence of several groups of interments with well- marked relics, notably a collection of La Tene objects from graves situated a little to the south of the fortress of Zagradina, Other graves contained characteristic objects of the Hallstatt period ; so that in this locality the two great pre -Roman civilisations would appear to have come into contact. Objects of La Tene types have also been discovered in the vicinity of the fortress of Petrovici.^ G. La 2'ene Objects at Majdan. A few miles to the north of Jezero, and a little to the west of the road to Varcar Vakuf, at the village of Majdan, Mr Eadimsky has procured some evidence to show that both La Tene and Eoman civilisations once flourished here. Li the vicinity of the ruins of mortar- built walls (Eoman) he gathered fragments of pottery, iron slag, and masses of burnt clay smoothed on one surface. He also ascertained that some twenty years previously many bronze articles were discovered in the locality, but being considered of no value they became playthings to the children, and so were irretrievably lost. Eecently, however, in 1891, a fibula of early La Tene type was found, which is now figured in Mr Eadimsky 's article. Copper and iron mines abound in this neigh- 1 W. M., vol. i. p. 169-179. MAJDAN. 325 bourhoocl, and the hypothesis is that they -were worked before as well as duriiiir Roman times. It is also on record that the old Bosniacs, durino- the middle ag;es, carried on mining operations in the locality — operations which have been again recently started and are now g;oino- on/ Subsequently it was ascertained that in this neigh- bourhood there were several places in which fragments of tiles, pottery, and iron slag were to be found scat- tered on the surface of the fields. On niakino; excava- tions on one of tliese localities the ruins of a Koman villa were exposed. The building was a rectangle, 18'"- by IG'"-, having a small apse projecting from one end. The internal area was divided into a central hall and five small apartments symmetrically arranged, one at the end and two on each side. The relics consisted of broken columns, sculptured capitals, fragments of an inscribed monument with figures in bas-relief, portions of stucco -plaster with coloured designs in linear pat- terns — one being the common meander, an iron plough- share, a silver stilus, &c. The distance between tliis settlement and Sipovo is 18 hUometres, and (••)ni[)ar- incj this with statements in the T((hii]t( PcalnKjcn- anrx, Kadimsky identifies it with the Koman station "Baloie."- Jl. Tlw Xccropo/is <>/' ./('lerinc. Described in cha]»ter v. |i]i. I CO- 17_'. ' W. M., vol. i. ].].. 180-183. - Il'i'l., v..l. iii. j-p. :>48-2rj(5. 326 SKETCH OF THE UNWRITTEN RECORDS. J, The Vrankamcr Hoard of Corns. Ill the year 1887 a shepherd discovered an earthen pot in the cleft of a rock, at a place called Vrankamer, near Krupa, which contained a remarkable hoard of coins, together with some bronze castings, apparently part of a bronze-founder's stock-in-trade. The larger portion of this hoard was sent to the Museum at Sarajevo, where it was examined, and found to consist of ninety-eight coins of African origin, the oldest dating back to 300 B.C. and the most recent to 118 B.C. ; also 28 I'ilogrammes of irregularly shaped pieces of bronze, some of which retained the form of the vessel in which the molten bronze was allowed to cool. The earthen pot in which this treasure had remained concealed, probably for more than 2000 years, was hand-made, badly burnt, and when touched at once crumbled into minute frao-ments.^ K. Miscellaneous Finds. In addition to the above list of discoveries throughout Bosnia and Herzeo-ovina there fall to be mentioned a few sporadic specimens of prehistoric objects which, being surface or isolated finds, carry little evidence beyond wdiat may be inferred from their composition and technique. 1. A bronze axe of unusual form found in surface earth at Debelobrdo. Objects belonging to various ages were discovered in the vicinit}' 1 W. M., vol. i. pp. 184-188. MISCELLANEOUS FINDS. 327 of this hill - fort, including Roman remains. (See p. 63). 2. A double axe of copper, like those of Hungary, and a Hat copper celt, both found while the road between Doboj and Banjaluka was Ijeing made. 3. A perforated stone axe-hammer (Fig. 122), a bronze lance-head (Fig. 123), and one valve of a stone mould for a socketed celt of l)ronze. These latter relics were discovered Fig. 122.— feki-orated J.1 -J. 1-111 r /-i ^ Stone Hammer (3). on the picturesf[ue hillock oi Crkven- ica near Doboj associated with Roman buildings — a fact which suggests that the site, like so many localities in Bosnia, had been occuj)ied as a fortress in pre-Roman times.^ 4. j\Ir Hormann describes a double- edfred sword-blade dredo^ed from the bed of the river Drina hav- ing a flat tang perforated for the rivets wliich fixed on it n wooden liandle.- 5. A number of bronze objects usually ascribed to the Ijronze Age have been found in the mixed stations of Sobunar-Debelol)rdo. .Also, in the Museum of Sarajevo may lie seen ;i few • W. M., vol. i. p. 262. '^ Ilji'I., I'. -'ilT. V\g. 12}. — Mko.n/.i: Sn:AK-Hi;Ai) (J). 328 SKETCH OF THE UNWRITTEN EECORDS. aiTow-lieads and about a dozen socketed celts found at various places throughout the country. They are all of the same types as the Hungarian examples of these implements. Story of the umuritteji Hecords. In presenting to my readers as much of the details of the archaeological materials recently discovered through- out the provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina as was possible without unduly encroaching on the limits and popular character of this work, I have not adhered to any system of classification. Our next point will therefore be to indicate the natural and chronological sequence of the events which these materials represent. xlll past phenomena have been stereotyped in the book of Time, whether they have left in the mate- rial world any discernible trail or not. Hence, chron- ologically and relatively, every single event bears to every other event an unalterable position, the deter- mination of which is one of the main objects of archae- ological science. But the problem is a difficult one, and in many cases absolutely insoluble l^y human ingenuity. As the materials of archaeology lie, for the most part, outside the scope of written records, the ordinary methods of historical research are inappli- cable, and consec[uently others have to be resorted to. In the present advanced state of the science of pre- historic archaeology it is hardly necessary to explain what these methods are. When an architect, well ARCHAEOLOGICAL METHODS. 329 versed in tlie developmental stages of his art, comes upon a ruined cluircli or some other building of note, he can generally tell after a slight inspection to wliat period and st3de it belongs. He forms his opinion on some of the characteristic details of the ruins — a piece of sculpturing, the shape of a window or moulding, or some other apparently insignificant feature. Art, like fashion, is a reflection of its ever-chanoino- envi- ronments, and hence the products of every age have special peculiarities by which, within certain areas, they can be recognised. The art products of the old-world civilisations of xVssyria and Egypt were as higldy diffei-- entiated from each other as those of China and England are at the present time. The consecutive phases of this evolution in luunan civilisation have occasionally left traces behind them, in the form of relics, whicJi mny be compared to instantaneous photos of phenomena which can never be repeated. The recurrence of a combination of circumstances, wliidi would evolve a style of art tliat could be mistaken for that of ancient Egypt, would be as improbable as the rcappeai-ance of the extinet Dorlo among the w^orld's fauna of tlie future. An animal, a [)lanl, <>i' a civilisation, il matters not wliich, once extinct, never again ap[)ears on the stage of current organic life. It is this gi-eat law of evolution wliieh enables tlie arclueologist to prosecute liis studies with confidence. lb- gathers the waifs and strays of 2)ast liunianil\- IVoin ihe (Inst-l)in <•! ages and, l;y a comparison of their reseinblances ami tlifliT- ences, determines appi-o\iniatel\ their di.-t rihiil mn in 330 SKETCH OF THE UNWRITTEN RECORDS. space and time. Although these old things have no labels affixed to them they present special characteristics — certain marks or symbols, unconsciously impressed on them by their original owners or manufacturers — which become leo-ible in the hands of the initiated. So much is this the case that Scandinavian experts would have no difficulty in picking out from a mixed assortment of stone implements ever}' one that was of Scandinavian origin. But the principles by which this brilliant result can be accomplished are the same as those practised by a dealer in old furniture when he excludes from his collection this or that article as a foro-erv. In accordance with these principles I think that the inhabitants of the neolithic station of Butmir represent the earliest settled people of Bosnia. Their handicraft products show that on their first appearance in the locality they had already attained to a comparatively advanced state of civilisation and culture. Their pot- tery, stone implements, and other industrial objects, disclose not only efficiency of purpose, but some taste, if not beauty, of design. They lived in houses, manu- factured garments of woven cloth, bartered domestic commodities, and conducted their social affairs on the principle of the division of labour. As a means of livelihood, the produce of the chase had already occu- pied a secondary place to that derived from the rearing of domestic animals and the cultivation of cereals. They were religionists, and put their religious ideas into practice by worshipping rudely made images or idols. BUTMIK AND THE PFAHLBAUTEX. 331 Owing to the exceptional causes, already explained, which destroyed almost every trace of relics made of perishable materials, the reconstructed picture of the social condition of the Butmirians is to this extent less copiously illustrated than those of analogous sta- tions with which comparisons might be invited. But, notwithstanding this defect, there still exists a sutlicient amount of evidence to prove that between the But- mirians and the more ancient lake-dwellers there was a striking similarity as regards culture, civilisation, polity, and mode of living. As examples for compari- son I would direct special attention to the adjacent stations of Laibach in St3'ria, and Polada in North Italy ; and for this purpose I liave here reproduced Plates XV. and XVI. from the ' Lake -Dwellings of Juirope.' From these it will Ijc seen that among the large assortment of objects found at Laibach there are clay images of man and beast, j^rccisely analogous to those from Butmir. But iu addition to these figuriues (Nos. 5 to 8, Plate XVL), other two from the same locality are represented on Fig. 42 (Nos. 1 I and 23) of the above-named work. Nor are such objects, be they idols or playthings, by any means exceptional relics among the neolitliic PfnliJUdnfcH tliroiiLrhoiit Oentral Europe. But if tlic Butmirians, wlicn tliey founded their settlement, were so well equip]M(l fur tlic (bitics o( communal lifr, oih- ii.itiiially asks, WIktc did they ;ic(juire their jircparatory training:* Su\- aidijuo- 334 SKETCH OF THE UNWRITTEN RECORDS. logical (Tediictions. Mr Eadimsky informed me that he had observed indications of analogous stations at one or two other points in this neighbourhood. If so, we may reasonably expect that further researches will yield evidence of a civilisation similar to that of Butmir. How lono- the villao-e of Butmir continued to be inhabited it is difficult to conjecture from the data now before us. If the opinion which I have advocated in regard to its structure be well founded on fact, a century or so of continued occupancy would suffice to account for the accumulation of debris amassed on its site, as the empty space underneath the huts would soon become filled up with rubbish. In any further investigations that may be undertaken special attention ought to be given to the ruins of burned huts observed by Mr Eadimsky, near the surface of the mound, as it may turn out that the entire settlement came to a sudden end by a conflagration. Although, hitherto, no trace of metal of any kind has been found among the relics, there are gi'ounds for believing; that the settlement flourished during the period when the art of substitut- ing bronze for stone in the manufacture of cutting im- plements was spreading over Europe, As previously mentioned, Professor Virchow was not convinced from anything he had seen that, eventually, metaJ objects would not be found at Butmir. Such a discovery w^ould he in perfect harmon}^ with the insidious manner in which bronze was introduced throug-hout the lake- dwellings. Nowhere does the aj)pearance of the earlier EARLY IRON AGE CIVILISATIOX. 335 objects made of this metal suggest violence towards pre-existing social conditions. They seem to have been imported into the different localities by merchants, or peripatetic bronze-founders, whose motives were merelj' commercial gain. It, therefore, seems to me that a knowledge of this metal came first into Europe by the same route which gave access to the people who founded the pile-structures. Bosnia, being out of the way of the direct commercial stream to the AVest, it was later than the shores of the Baltic in comino- under the influence of the new civilisation. Hence, while a con- siderable traffic in bronze objects was carried on along the Danubian route, it still remained to a laro-e extent under the sway of the ohl neolithic regime — tliu,^ accounting for the ftict that that part of the Balkan peninsula has not passed through a Bronze Age in the ordinary sense of the term. The few objects ty})i('al of this age, which have been discovered on the soil of Bosnia-Herzegovina, are mere stragglers imported IVciii the Hunfjarian archseolooical district. While this commercial intercourse Ix'tween Asia .Miimi- and the JjaltiC was k('])t u]) foi- iiiaiiv centuries along the old lanil-r(jLitt's, llwic suililro- ducts were dispersed throughout a large part of Muin|M'. But this result was effected tlnouuli a sy.stem wliirh had more the character of a niilitai-}' winl to those who offered to take them willi I 1m- least ainoiiiit of money.^ Strabo, liowever, gives nioi-.' drfinitr iiilnr matioii. He describes tlir .I;i|n)dc8 as a mixviiia, 1877. 3 Altertluimer il(;r Iltr/.ci^'oviiia, 1H«2 ; and in Sitz. (' a luoiize statu- ette ; different kinds of bronze fibuhc ; the head of a statue made of trachyte, and the foot of another of stone resting on a portion of its pedestal ; also pottery, nule smelting-furnace represented on Plate XXX., which he (u^n'mm to the period between tlie thirteentli and fourteenth ct-nturicH— a peri-.d wliidi, jucordinf; to Profewsor C. Jirecck, waH the moht flouiifhiiiK' in llie liihtory of Bo.inia.— W. M., vol. ii. p. 150. 350 BOSNIA-HEEZEGOVINA IN PREHISTORIC TIMES. iron implements, &c. Of special interest is a elieese- sliaped Roman leaden weight weighing 1024 grammes} The number of coins collected amounts to 61 — 3 of silver, 2 of a mixed metal (Billon), and 56 of copper or bronze. They range over the time from Trajan to Constantiue II. — i.e., from 98 a.d. to 340 a.d.^ The same archaeologist describes and figures two Roman stones with human figures in relief subse- quently found in the same place. ^ Also Dr Truhelka, in noticino- various discoveries made alono; the Roman road to the Drina valley and its side branch to Domavia, mentions the discovery, in 1891, of a hoard of coins consistino; of 866 of bronze and 4 of a mixed metal (Billon), and dating from 200 a.d. to 250 A.D.* B. In 1889 there were exposed in a field in the vicinity of Laktasi, between Banjaluka and Gradiska, the foundations of a rectangularly shaped house 21.20"^- Ions and 17.60^- broad. The internal structures were symmetrical on both sides, and separated by two par- tition-walls, enclosing a passage 1.60^^- in width. In this passage were two foundation-walls and a series of three canals running alongside of them, which are sup- posed to have been used for heating the establishment.^ 1 A similar but smaller leaden weight (4 ounces and 229 grains) has been found in the Glastonbury lake village.— Proceedings of the Royal Society, Edinburgh, vol. xx. p. 408. 2 W. M., vol. i. pp. 218-253. ^ ibid., p. 329. ^ Ibid., p. 310. '" It may be interesting to note that during the excavation of the Roman camp at Birrens in Scotland, now going on, a very similar system of heating has been observed. \\\ kUINS Ol" AN ANCIKNT SMIil.TINGFURNACE, IIOSNIA. ROMAN REMAINS. 351 Among the relics collected in the debris were the following : various kinds of tiles, some being rect- angular hollow tubes, one fragment having; on it the impression of the fore-half of a naked human foot ; some nails, a key, and a knife — all of iron ; a few fragments of glass ; four portions of an ornamental plate made of zinc ; and a copper percolator, the i)er- forations being neatly arranged in concentric circles. This discovery is recorded by Mr J. Kellner.^ C. On the top of the isolated limestone rock called Crkvenica, situated on the left bank of the Bosna, near Doboj, some 40™- above the level of the river, Mr Radimsky has investigated the ruins of an ancient fortress. The presence of graves and the remains of obscure buildings in this locality gave rise to the tra- dition that it was the site of an ancient churcli. In some of the graves, previously opened from time to time, were found a few Ijeautiful ear-rings and finger- rings made of silver and copper wire, the former metal being sometimes gilt, and the latter silvered. Investigations showed that it was a fort, which Jiad been occupied successively in [)rehistoric, Koman, and medieval times. A massive wall, whieli followed the irregular contour of the summit, eiicloseil ;iii .ire.i of 11,200 square metres. The Roman remains consist of fragments of seiil|)t ured stones (some bearing inscriptions), pottery, a bronze stilus, and various objects of iron — a key, knives, nails, ' W. M., v.il. i. pp. 254-2G1. 352 BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA IN PREHISTORIC TIMES. and a portion of a sickle and of an axe. The prehistoric remains are noticed at p. 327. Those of medieval times are t^Yo large copper pans, together with a tripod, a ladle, and a gridiron all of iron. About a Idlometre north of this fort there is to be seen, in the plain, the remains of a pure Roman castrum. It is of a rectan- gular shape, mea- surino- 160°^- in lenoth and 120™- in breadth, and is surrounded by a stone wall now nearly covered over with soil and bushes.^ D. Of sino;ular interest is the discovery of the ruins of a Eoman house in the grounds of the State prison at Zenica, which when cleared out revealed the foundations of a double basilica, having a common hall in front and three apses, as shown on the plan (Fig. 124). Dr Truhelka, who de- scribes these remains, observes that there can be no doubt, from the peculiarity of its construction and the number of inscriptions found on the site, that this 1 W. M., vol. i. pp. 262-272. Fig. 124.— Plax of a Roman Building at Zenica. ROMAN REMAINS. 353 building dates from Romciu times. Its special interest lies in the fact that, subsequent to its erection, the por- tion marked C was converted into a Christian church. An altar, /, was placed in the apse, D, and rows of columns were introduced into the part marked (t — the square bases on which they had stood being still extant. It would appear, however, that this arrangement for some reason or other was discontinued, and that then the outer hall, B, was used as the church, as evidence of which he observes that all the columns which formerly stood in the hall, C, were found here. Ultimately the building appears to have come to an end by means of a conflagration which unfortunatel}' destroyed all cumlms- tible relics. Attention is also directed to fracjments of gravestones with relief -figures which are assigned to the transitional period between the Classical and the Byzantine styles of art. One of the fragments has four draped figures, two males and two females, three of which show a fibula on the right shoulder and the sign of the swastica [crux cinsata) tui the folds of the toga. The filjuhe are similai- to a well- known late Roman type whicli has a cross-bar at one end of the arc, and the other running into a long stem generally ornamented. In descrilting a (iotliir fibula (Fig. 84), found near Mostar, 1 ?ic(' n'iiiiiidc(l nic of the illustrations from tlic I l;ill)er.stadt (li|)ly
  • iili't»|ilUr I'Ig. 120. — UllJI.< 1 '^ IKOM (Jl<.\l».\<. (The fir'-t fvwi :itul M i.illir Siiinil ^ : lli.' rcsl^^.l separated from it only l)y a .slin;|it licdlow, iIktc is anotlier hill ciilrd Kuliii;i, which i.s provc(I tu l»r ihe 360 BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA IN PREHISTORIC TIMES. site of a Eoman camp. This enclosure is egg-shaped (100™- by 70"'-), and the walls were constructed of roughly hewn stones and mortar. Only tentative ex- plorations have as yet been made here, but enough to show that, previous to its occupation by the Romans, it had been a prehistoric stronghold.^ G. More recently (1893), Roman remains have been exposed at Mali Mosunj, Puticevo, and Varosluk in the valley of the Lasva. At the first-mentioned place were exposed the ruins of a private villa, consisting of a hall and four rooms. The principal relics are a small hand-bell of sheet-iron, like those used in early Christian times in Scotland and Ireland, some iron nails, a few fragments of glass and pottery, and six coins dating from 235 a.d. to 363 A.D. The second site was a mere relic -bed, composed of dark earth and charcoal lO^"^- to 30^™- thick, exposed in a railway cutting at a dejDth of 1.50°^- ; but of the precise circumstances of this find no information has been procured. The relics, however, are of the greatest significance, and include bronze coins of Maximianus and Constantinus I., two fibulae, one Roman and the other a La Tene type, and a small bracelet of sheet bronze ornamented with the herring-bone pattern. Of iron there is an assortment of weapons and tools — knives, a hammer, an awl, a couple of hatchets, keys, a spear-head, several shears like those found on the Brit- 1 W. M., vol. iii. pp. 257-272. CHRISTIAN BASILICA. 361 isli crannogs,^ and a square bar of copper euelosed in an iron shell (Fig. 127). There were also some wide- mouthed earthenware dishes, some of which had been jDainted with linear designs. The third discovery in the valley of the Lasva was the foundation of a 1)uildino- which is of sinejular inter- est as being that of an undoubted Christian basilica. It was known to the country people under the name Yarosluk, and like the previous find, was exposed while the railway to Travnik was being constructed. The buildino; measured 40'"- in leno;th and IG.Go"'- in Itreadth, and contained various compartments as shown on the plan (Fig. 128). In the apse, E, immediately l)eyond the nave, l>. was an altar formed of a square slalj of polished white marble supported on four small pillars. What the rooms, A and K, which entered from the narthex, C, were used for is not known, but the others are supposed to have been chapels. The relics found here are a Roman lamp ornamented im the surface, a L!;lass cup studded over with small knobs, an iron ki-y, a knife with loose rino- attached to it, and a few iron nails.- Dr Truhelka notifies the discovery of anoilx r luiiM- ing which he considers to liave been an early Clirisiian church.'^ The locality is 4 kilometres norlli of ilic Koman ruins of Vitimi, in tlic noitli-west corner ..I Ibi-- zegovina. The ground-])l.in of this cliun-li is a simple 1 Lal<(!-I)\vc]liii;^.H (jn'Jiioiic. Ii;:-. I'lC dinl 1 J7. 2 W, M., vol. iii. p].. -I-ll-lXl. ' Il'i'I., I'- W''. 362 BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA IN PREHISTORIC TIMES. rectangle, from one end of which an apse projects. Its greatest length is 8.20"^- and breadth 5.70™- The place ^ ''„ .r ^iti M Fig. 127.— iKOx Implements from Puticevo (f). where the altar stood within the apse still remained, and showed the sockets in which its supporting pillars MISCELLANEOUS OBJECTS. ODD were inserted— one of the pillars being actuall}' found. Round tlie apse there was a stone bench, and at its end, on the left, a massive square block which might have served as an ambo. From the structure of the pave- ment and fragments of roofing-tiles it was proved tliat this chapel was in existence durino- Koman times. Jt y// j/^^vm B I ^ m [■' y/j/z/j /j^nj yj//fjjfjjf///// 51 I wniniMvm wmmninmm I '/^IllfK/lnmuiOOV i H '[((((urimutndntn/i Fig. 128. — Ground Plan ok tiik Basilica ok VakuSi.uk. may also be noted that in tin- ^■il•illi(y was found the fragment of a tile stamped witli the letters I.I'< M< > I \'. It is unnecessary to tabulate llic minor discoveries made throughout tlie provinces since iIk- (lovernmcnt took archaioloo-ical researches into their mvn liands. ►Scarcely an agricultural operation involving excava- tions can be execufi-d \vitli(»iit revealing Konian an- tiquities. lJalt's lias IimmkI 364 BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA IN PEEHISTORIC TIMES. them almost everywhere, generally mixed pell-mell with those of the prehistoric inhabitants. Of this kind of research we have had already a striking example in the Mostar district. Nor can there be any doubt that this commingling of the products of past civilisations is the normal state of matters throughout the length and breadth of the land. We find that such has been the case at several places in the neighbourhood of Bihac/ and at Grahovo in the district of Livno. The most interesting objects described from this latter locality are a clay ring for supporting round- bottomed dishes, and a clay reel (Spule), both common objects in the Swiss lake-dwellings. Also two socketed bronze celts (Fig. 129), one with the ordinary side loop, and the other with two solid projections from its body.^ A curious association of Eoman remains with objects of the Stone Age, mostly flint-flakes, of which one is obsidian — the first of the kind found in Bosnia — has been observed near the villao-e of Kalesia, in the district of Zvornik. The situation is an isolated hillock with a small plateau on the top, measuring 40™- by 20™- ^ 1 W. M., vol. iii. pp. .39-60. - Ibid., p. 291. ^ ibid., p. 287. Fig. 129. — Bronze Socketed Celts EROM Grahovo (§). A REMARKABLE SPEAR-HEAD. 365 From the village of Hatelj, in the vicinity of Bilek, there is figured ^ a peculiar spear-head, said to be found in a field associated with Roman remains, which I re- produce (Fig. 130), to show by comparison its simi- larity to one found in Lake Bour- get, and figured in the ' Lake- Dwellings of Europe,' p. 544. The area of distribution of these weapons is in Western Europe. Lindenschmit fio;ures four ex- amj)les of the same class of weapon among Merovino-ian remains, two from the Museum in Mayence and two from that in Darmstadt.^ One was found in the excavations for the " Correction des eaux du Jura," at Pont de la Thiele ; and another is at Namur. Bonnstetten figures an example found in a Burgundian grave at Senery,^ the Abbe Cochet ^'s- '3o.-an iron spkak- & *' ' HEAD TKOM MATKI.J (J). records five from graves in Nor- mandie,'* and Baudot two from the graves at Clianiay.'' As the Romans utilised the forts and roads ol" ihrir predecessors, so their successors utilised the orna- mental buildings and sculptured monunnMits wliidi ' W. M., vol. iii. p. 297. - Handbuch der Deutschen Altertluin»»kunde, p. 17(), (iKK- 71-71. " Receuil des Antiquit^s sui.i.ses, jilaU" .\,\iii. •* La Noiniandie .s(jutt'rraim-, j). 2H'.i. '■■ Mc'ni. sur Iom .Sepultures de rEpo'iuc nierovingic-nno, plate ii. lige. H and 1 1 . 366 BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA IN PREHISTORIC TIMES. they found in the laud, just as it suited their own tastes, often by ruthlessly demolishing them for the sake of the stones, many of which may still be found in the walls of medieval buildiuo;s. Notwithstanding; the wealth of Roman art and civilisation scattered over this corner of the Balkan peninsula, it was little known till quite recently. True, we had here and there a few weathered monuments, such as the baths of Banjaluka and Vishegrad, the tower of Livno, a few bridges, portions of the military roads, some coins and inscrip- tions, the amphitheatre at Pola, and, of course, the palace of Diocletian, in itself a priceless monument of the architecture of the period. Not, however, till the spade was freely wielded by the officials of the National Museum had Eoman arch geology in Bosnia and Herze- govina taken a foremost place in European research. Hie Bogomiles. I have now and again incidentally referred to some of those large hoary-looking gravestones so profusely scat- tered over the lands of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and commonly assigned to the Bogomiles. They are called by the country people " Mramorovi," " Stecci," or "Maseti." The first of these desig-uations is derived from the material (limestone) of which the monuments are usually made, the second from their sarcophagus-like shape, and the third from the tradition that they are the sepulchral memorials of ancient heroes. They are met with singly or in groups, comprising in some instances THE BOGOMILES. 367 several hundreds, not only in the vicinity of the pres- ent villages and highways, but also in the more unfre- quented places — lonely hill-tops, secluded valleys, and even in the impenetrable depths of primeval forests. Some, rolled off their pedestals or broken bv rude hands, are partly or entirely sunk in the earth ; others are closely set in rows in confined areas, or irregularly scattered over the bleak moor. Unlike the dolmens and rude stone monuments of Western Europe, they are hewn into rectangular blocks, varyinir in size from about 6 feet in length by 3 or 4 feet in breadth and height, to huge masses so heavy as to make it a puzzle how they had ever been transported from the quarry in which they were hewn. Some of the larger examples are like tall cubes, with the peculiarity of Ijeing narrower at the base than at the top, a feature which gives them a very original and striking a})- pearance (Plate XXXI.). Others have the aspect of roof -shaped sarcophagi, a form probably Ijorrowed from the Romans ; but if so, the resemblance lias not been carried beyond the external configuration, as none of the Bogomile stones arc hollow, ;iiid llic interment is always in the earth beneath. In a few instances the top takes tlie sha])c of a doubl.- roof, indicating thereby a twin - burial. (Iciicrall\ ihesc megaliths are supported on large ll.it stones which actually cover the graves, and in which (here is usu- ally a shallow bed r'liisclied out lo recrivc (In- upiier stone. Not unfrefpiently tiie ni.iniiini nt ronnbh-H two stones so placed but liewn in one s(.iid block. 368 BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA IN PREHISTORIC TIMES. Although only one in thirty is found with any kind of ornamentcation, the actual number so characterised, when collected over the entire area of their distribution, amounts to something like two thousand. This orna- mentation may be architectural only, or it may be com- bined with floral decorations and figure designs. The architectural elements most commonly met with are the arch and columns, rope -pattern borders, spirals, zigzag and wavy lines (Fig. 131). Floral decorations Koi w 1«c A- Fig. 131.— Various Architectural Designs on Gravestones. appear as borders of running trefoils, tendrils, sexfoil- stars, the lily, and other foliage {Fig. 132). The cross, plain or ornamental, stars and half - moons, are occa- sionally represented. The frequency of the half-moon or crescent on these stones has given rise in the minds of some people to the idea that they owe their origin to the Mohammedans. But it must be remembered — a fact which may not be generally known — that the crescent THE BOGOMILES. 369 is a pre-Turkisli symbol, prevalent among the southern Slavs long before the taking of Constantinople, when it was adopted by the Mohammedans. Shields and swords, especiall)' the double-handed weapon so charac- O^O ^xG> W^<^.KZJA _> <^ ^<5^ ^^ \ _ Fig. 132.— Gkavkstoni: i iuai thi: Cemetekv oi- niir////// #////// /////>» 't,ntf,tf^m»i .SI Q ?i a_il_fl DOOOOOn Fig. 135. — Convex iiuNAi, Kolo D. VNCL. male and female, are also depicted singly, possil>ly an attempt at portraiture (Fig. 136). Mythical subjects are represented by the winged horse, flying dragon, and fBTm- Pi Fig. 136. — Gkavkstonks neak Stoi.ac anij Hoi.juni. .5fe.>!^3" >J other fanciful animals; also by geom('tii(;il designs of a bizarre character. Tiie artistic skill lac<' of a French crusadci'. Its style of art, \\liirati<»n. says Asbotli, "all testify to tli.- fa.t iliat wr liavo Fig. 137. — Pll.l.AK IN GVAUKSKO-W^I.JK. 374 BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA IN PREHISTORIC TIMES. before lis the tomb of a Bosnian maonate of the Boo;o- miban faith." It has been observed that the sepulchral representa- tions on these monuments have no tendency to sadness, but, on the contrary, are selected from the gayest scenes of life, such as hunting tournaments, dancing, &c. This is supposed to emanate from the peculiar religious ideas of the people, who looked upon the grave as the happy home which freed them from all worldly troubles. Death to them was a welcome deliverance, and conse- quently a matter of rejoicing to their friends. Dr Truhelka states that this opinion is borne out by the tenor of the short epitaphs which are occasionally to be seen on some of them. For example, here are two of his translations culled from his admirable article on the subject: " Hier wollen diese Knochen ruhen." "Ver- dammt und abermals verdammt sei, wer micli beriihrt." ^ The inscriptions being in Glagolitic letters, are not readily deciphered ; but about a hundred examples ha^^e already been collected, which, however, do not a^jpear to me to have as yet thrown much light on the Bogomilian controversy. The area of their geographical distribution extends but slightly beyond the present limits of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Examples have been found as far south as the borders of Albania, and as far east as the right bank of the Drina.- They are not, however, equally distributed within this area, being less numerous in the 1 W. M., vol. iii. p. 419. ^ See F. Kanitza in 'Mitt, der Anth. Gesellschaft in Wien,' 1889. THE BOGOMILES. 375 northern parts of Bosnia, and most numerous in the district of Vlasenica, where not less than 6325 liave been counted. In Herzegovina their number amounts to 22,000, and the entire number in both provinces is estimated at 60,000. On the other hand, they are most sparsely met with in the north-western parts of Bosnia bordering on Croatian lands, as in the fourteen depart- ments belonging to Banjaluka and Bihae only 706 are known. It will thus be seen that the area of distribution of these monuments coincides almost exactly with that of the people who professed the Bogomilian faith ; and this is the main argument in support of the current opinion that they were erected by that peculiar sect. But in more recent years this theory has been con- troverted, on the ground that the cross is occasionally to be seen on them ; and in face of a tradition that the Boo;omiles hated the cross, it is considered verv im- probable that they w^ould adopt this sign as an emblem of their ftiith. Dr Truhelka observes that there is no evidence to show that tlie liogomiles really objcctrd to the cross, except tradition, whii-h comes through the Church, their bitter enemies and i)ersecutors. The sanu' author points out another cltjniL'iit whi'li r.niiiilicatcs the question — viz., that the cross was us.d simply as an ornament, without the symbolic meaning altathcd to it l)\- Christians; and as a jiroof of this he th-siTibes a number of sculptured crosses Irnni the eemctery of Milaviei, in Dabar-polje, wlii< li ;iiv clearly nide re|.re- sentations of tin' huniaii lorm (l-'i-j. I Ms). < >iir >|Mci- 376 BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA IN PREHISTORIC TIMES. men rudely resembles a human body with outstretched arms ; other two retain the rotundity of the head, while Fig. 138. — Gravestones from the Cemetery of Milavici, one also shows a prominence over the chest ; and another indicates the bifurcation for the lower limbs — all suQ-gest- ing the evolution of the cross from the human form. THE BOGOMILES. 377 It is universally admitted tliat Bogomilian art, as represented on their sepulchral stonework, was in its most flourishino- stao;e from the beo-iiiniuo- of th«' fourteenth century till the conquest of the country by the Turks in 1463. Accordino; to the more recent ob- servations, the monuments of that period were restricted to the flat, the tall cube-shaped, and the sarcophaous- like forms, so that all those which deviate from these three types must be of a later date. At the close of this period, the standing cross, the pillar, stele, &c.. were introduced ; and hence the presence of any of these forms amono; the older monuments indicates Turkish influence. The opinion which now flnds most acceptance among native scholars is, that the so-calleil Bogomile gravestones represent the work of all the Christian denominations then known in the country — viz., Catholic, (Jrthodox, and Bogomile. The voluminous article of Dr Trulielka, entitled " Bosnian Sepulchral ^lonuments of the Middle Ages," ' is supplemented by a second from the pni of Director Hermann un the "Epigrapiii<;il .M(.numents of the Middle Acres."2 Neither of these writers has said inn.-li nn ilir structure and contents of the graves, dwilling rather on the form, senlptures. and inscrijitions ol" llie external stone monuments; bnl lliis omission may be tbn- t(» the fact that no systematic exi-ioialion nf ihe interments has yet been nn i lU. I 4 t , *>l .' I M » N < »l .>l I'l I ' I I K \ J. Mf)NeMKNT (Si AKO-M I i> . 380 BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA IN PKEHISTOEIC TIMES. away by a stranger. This stone lias an incised in- scription (Fig. 142), thus rendered into German by Mr Hermann : — Iin Namen des Vaters, des Sohnes und des lieiligen Geistes, Amen. Dies ist der Grabstein des Eadojica Bilic. Durch die Gnade Gottes iind mit Hilfe meines Stammes habe icli bei Lebzeiten diese vielverehrte Gruft erbaut und auf ihr diesen Stein gesetzt und dieses Haus der Ewigkeit — so es der Wille des Herren und Gottes ist — flir mich und meine Gefahrtin vorbereitet. Ich bitte Euch, Brlider, Tanten, und Schwiiger- innen : kommt und betrauert mich, tretet mich aber nicht mit den Fiissen ! Denn ihr werdet sein wie ich, ich aber kann nicht wieder werden, was ihr seid ! Dies schrieb Veseoko Kukulamovic. In looking over the extensive collection of inscrip- tions as arranged and translated in the articles of Her- mann and Truhelka, one is struck with the intense religious fervour and strong family likeness which run through them all. The majority begin with " Hier ruht" [hie jacet), and, after curtly stating one or two events in the deceased's career, or a pithy moral sentiment, they generally end by giving the name of the person who erected the monument. A typical ex- ample is that on the stone figured on p. 369 (Fig. 132), thus translated : — Hier ruht Eadic Yladisalic, und den Stein schnitt (sein) Yater. Gott, sei Du ihm gniidig ! The stone which bears the above inscription is from the necropolis of Boljuni, some two hours' walk south of Stolac. A large number of the gravestones here are THE BOGOMILES. 381 o ••• Id as be 382 BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA IN PREHISTORIC TIMES. ornamented with shields, conventional animals, or other designs, and not fewer than twelve bear inscriptions, most of which give the name of the artist or scribe, as in the following : — Hier ruht das gute Weib, Stana Gjurenovica. Zelija schnitt es, Eatko schrieb es. During the excursion to Glasinac we had an oppor- tunity of inspecting a Bogomile cemetery at Han Fig. 143. — Bogomile Cemetery, Crkvina, Glasinac. Sarenac, situated on a plateau on the right-hand side of the road from Podromanja to Eogatica. The plateau, which is connected with the higher hills beyond, ter- minates at the roadside in a steep declivity, on the edge of which there has been erected a tall obelisk in com- memoration of a battle fouoht in the neiofhbourhood at the time of the War of Occupation in 1878. Upon as- THE BOGOMILES. » o ■■> )00 ceuding to this monument we almost immediately came upon the gravestones scattered over the plateau (Fio-s. 143 and 144). The}' have a dilapidated appearance, many of the larger ones being off the straight or lalh-n from their original positions. They are all niadr ..t limestone rock, and, thougli greatly weathered, appear to have been hewn with much precision and skill. They are mostly rectangular blocks with a Hat ur roof-shaped Fig. 144.— AkCJi/KULOGLlia AMO.no lllK lu.Mh.-., AVO. lij, loy^. surface; but none of tliem li,i\c ilic ^i-anlir |>iii one we were shown a doiil'li'-li.iinlcd swmd, >niiir 1 feet long, sculptured in iclid' ..n iis n|»|»er surface. Tlir cross-guard was about as long as tie- L:ii|». wlii
  • j nwonl in 384 BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA IN PREHISTORIC TIMES. characteristic of the hxtest period of Bosnian indepen- dence — viz., fourteenth and up to the middle of the fifteenth century — and it is the most common on the Bogomile gravestones. Specimens of the actual weapon are very rare. One has been found under a gravestone at Kupres, which is now placed in the Museum at Sarajevo. Mohammedans show great respect for these ancient monuments, and turbaned pillars may not unfrequently be seen side by side with them — a reverence probably due to the fact that many of the present inhabitants are the descendants of the people who erected them, and who merely changed their creed to preserve their lives. Indeed, if my information be correct, it would appear that four hundred years of the outward pro- fession of Mohammedanism have not sufficed to entirely extinguish this ancient fliitli from the hearts of the people. The exact nature of the religious principles held by the Bogomiles is a problem still enveloped in mystery. Persecuted by Catholics and Mohammedans alike, these unfortunate victims of the religious intolerance of the age have left little literature behind them ; and even such documents as did escape the ravages of the period have been dispersed among foreign nations. The ascetic and morose aspect of their creed, which has so long found currency in European literature, has come through the writings of their enemies, and of course paint the Bogomilian heresy as diabolical as possible. "The rise of the Bogomile sect," writes Mr Asboth, THE BOGOMILES. 385 '■ imder the soiitliern Slavs occurred simultaneous! v with the introduction of Christianity, and niav be traced back to three causes. The heathen traditions and the apocryphal books had called forth the inclin- ation ; Armenian Manichaeans gave the inciting impulse ; and the spread of the sect was promoted by the ex- crescences of the Byzantine Church itself and of its followers." As to the orioin of the name, one account states that a priest called Bogumil preached the new doctrines with much acceptance among the southern Slavs, and so gave his name to the sect ; and it has been surmised from a reference to the " Bulgarian priest Jeremias," in one of the Christian documents of the sixteenth century, as Bogu lie mil — not beloved by God — that lie and this Bogumil priest were one and the same person. Others, however, derive the word from Bog z milui — God have mercy. Their creed, like that of the ]Manicha3ans, turns on the dualism of the principles of good and evil in the scheme of creation, and is thus described by Neamh-r : — Satanael they regarded as the lirst-liorii son of ihc .siiinviiie God— in which they agreed witli the Kudiites, and with luie particular view of the Parsic dualism— who sat at the right hand of God, armed with divine power, and holdinj,' the second Ijlace after him. To each of the hi^dier spirits (Jod had com- mitted a particular department of administration, while Saliiiuicl was placed over all, as his universal viccKi-'rent. Thus he was tempted to become proud; and, intoxicated with the sens(! of his i^ower and dif,Miity, was for making' himself indei»endent of the supreme God, and foundin-,' an empire of his own. Ho endeavoured also to lead away fnun their allegiance the nnneU to whom God had intrusted the management of the dill'eront 2 B 386 BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA IN PEEHISTORIC TIMES. ]iortions of the world ; and he succeeded with a part of them. The Bogomiles believed they found Satanael described in the unjust steward of the parable, and they expended much labour in expounding the several points in the parable in accordance with this notion. Satanael now called together the angels who had apostatised with him, and invited them to join him in laying the groundwork of a new creation, independent of the supreme God, a new heaven and a new earth ; for the Father had not yet deprived liim of his divine form, he had not as yet lost the El, but still possessed creative power. He let himself down, therefore, with his apostate companions, into chaos, and here laid the foundations of this new empire ; with his angels he created man, and gave him a body formed out of the earth. To animate this being, he meant to give him a portion of his own spirit ; but he was unable to carry the work to its comple- tion. Therefore he had recourse to the supreme God, beseeching him to have pity on ]iis own image, and binding himself to share with him in the possession of man. He promised that, by the race proceeding from man, the places of those angels should be made good who had fallen from God in heaven. So the supreme God took pity on this image, and communicated to it a portion of his own spirit, and so man became a living soul. But now, when Adam and Eve, who had been created with him, became radiant with splendour, in virtue of the divine life that had been communicated to them, Satanael, seized with envy, resolved to defeat the destination of mankind to enter into those vacant places of the higher spiritual world. For this purpose he seduced Eve, intending by intercourse with her to bring forth a posterity which should overpower and extinguish the posterity of Adam. Thus Cain was begotten, the rej)resentative of the evil principle in humanity; while Abel, the offspring of Adam and Eve, was the representative of the good principle. Satanael ruled in the world he had created. He had power to lead astray the majority of mankind, so that but few attained to their ultimate destination. It was he who represented himself to the Jews as the supreme God. He employed Moses as his instrument ; giving him the law, THE BOGOMILES. 387 which in fact the apostle Paul describes as begetting sin; he bestowed on Moses the power of working miracles. ^lauy thousands were thus brought to ruin by the tyranny of Satan- ael. Then the good God had pity on the higher nature in humanity which had proceeded from himself and was akin tit his own, in that humanity which had become so estranired from its destination by the crafty plots of Satanael. He determined to rescue men from the dominion of Satanael, and to deprive the latter of his power. For this purpose, in the 5500th year after the creation of the world, he caused to emanate from himself a spirit who was called the Son of God, Logos, the archangel Michael, exalted above all the angels, the angel of the great council, Isaiah ix. 6, who was to overthrow the empire of Satanael and occupy his place. Tliis being he sent down into the world in an ethereal body, whicli resembled an earthly body onh' in its outward appearance. He made use of Mary simply as a channel of introduction. She found the divine child already in its swaddling clotlies in the manger, without knowing liow it came there. Of course, all that was sensible here was merely in appearance. Satanael, who held Jesus to be nothing more than a man, and saw his kingdom among the Jews drawn into apostasy and endangered l)y liim, plotted his death. J5ut Jesus ballled him; in reaUty he could not be affected by any sensuous sufferings. He who, though supposed to be dead, was exalted above all suffering, appeared on the third day in the full vigour of life ; when, laying aside the veil of his seeming earthly body, he showed himself to Satanael in his true heavenly form. The latter was forced to acknowledge his sui)remacy, and being deprived by Christ of his divine power, was obliged to give up the name Kl, and remain n(jtliing but Satan. Christ then a.scended t<» the right hand of God, to be the second afier him, and to occupy the place of the ruined Satanael. When Christ was now re- moved from the earth, and taken uj) into heaven. God caused a second power, the Holy Ghost, to emanati- from himself, who took the place of the now risen and exalted Christ, by liin inllu- ences on individual souls and the community of the faithful. o 88 BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA IN PREHISTORIC TIMES. In their efforts to reconcile these doctrines with the actual phenomena of life in the material world thus created, the Bogomiles recognised the existence of an invisible Supreme Being from whom emanated all good- ness. The Biblical account of creation they rejected as. being inspired by the Evil One ; also the Lord's Supper, the worship of images of every kind even to the cruci- fixion, mariolatry in all its forms, and baptism by water — for which they substituted prayer and the laying on of hands. Ecclesiastical ceremonies and church dio;nities were reviled, and orthodox jDriests they called " blind pharisees." En revanche the Church accused the Bogo- miles of every kind of misdemeanour — of disobedience to authority, dishonouring the aged, insulting the rich, &c. Even the worship of demons was included in the list of charsfes brought against them — declarino; that they made the Devil the creator of all visible things, and taught that by his command men took wives, ate flesh, and drank wine. " Everything," says Cosmos, "exists, according to the Bogomiles, of the will of the Devil, The sky, the sun, the earth, men, churches, crosses, and all that is God's, they give over to the Devil." ^ They were scoffed at for their slovenly ap- pearance, and letting their beards grow. Altogether, they were regarded as hypocrites, who went about with bowed head, groaning in spirit, caring for nothing, beg- ging their bread from door to door, and sleeping in the open. Of the Christian articles of faith, the Lord's Prayer alone was accepted by them, and this and ^ Quoted by A. J. Evans, ' Through Bosnia and Herzegovina,' j). xxix. THE BOGOMILES. ^80 Other forms were repeated several times a -day. For such an array of iniquities they were condemned as heretics by a synod assembled at Constantinople in 1140, and persecuted till they finally abjured Christianity. Such being the materials out of which Booomilism was developed, we need not wonder if it gave birth to the peculiar doctrines in regard to the principles of good and evil, the creation of the world, &c., attributed to its devotees occupying the isolated mountains of Bosnia and Herzegovina. One tliinu'. liowever, is evi- dent, that the chief element of their creed was a strong- objection to the growing ritualism of the Church, and a desire to go back to the simpler and purer forms of worship, such as were practised by the early founders of Christianity. If so, the desjDised Bogomiles must be regarded as the precursors of the licfonnation in Europe. A searching investigation of the social and religious principles held b\ this almost forgotten sect is tin ivlore greatly to be desired, not only because of the i»arl it has played in the history of the country, but oji acrtinnt of its relationship to Protestantism. For sneli .111 in- vestigation the se})ul'iuti. della Heat* Ace. dei Lincei. " Wir empfehlen das Bucli alien denjenigen, die sich Tiir die Pfahlbauteii und die Kultur ihrer Bewohner interessiren, aufs Wiirniste." — Netic Zilridu-r-Xeituuij. "His labours have been great, his travels extensive, and their results an' lom- mensurate in interest and importance." — The Times. "The book l>efore us is a worthy result of this great expenditure of l«lK)ur on the part of .so highly skilled an investigator, and will be absolutely in.li-i.cns.ilib' tn nil students of prehistoric \Tc\iaio\o^y."— Academy. " Dr Munro's book is infinitely ritli in detail, is very char and \\ ^iiiii.iin-, mid im- every aid tliat can be given by illustration, index, ami Inbliok'niphv. It In n jm-nl atldition to the valuable series of Riiind Lectures, and tlie S ■ • • ♦ m excellent examjile to our own and to the Knglish l'ni\ 'y Itevieiv. " It is impossible to exaggerate tlie importance and intere-t i.r Di Mnnro'i. vr drawingH are cnnMidered." Alhf, CASSELL & rOMI'.XNV (i-iD.j. London, I'ahi.s, anl» .MKi.iiofKNE. PREPARIXG FO^ PUBLICATION. THE COUNTY HISTORIES OF SCOTLAND. In Demy 8vo Volumes of about 350 pp. each. With two Maps. Price 7s. 6d. net. In order to limit the Series to a convenient number of volumes it has been thought desirable to group together, in the iollowing order, counties which have a common historical connection. BERWICK AXD HADDINGTON. By John Skelton, C.B., LL.D., Author of ' Maitland of Letliington, and the Scotland of Mary Stuart,' &c. EDINBURGH AND LINLITHGOW. By P. 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Ey ROBEKT IMUNRO, MX)., F.K.S.E., Author of ' Ancient Scottish Lake-Dwellings,' ' The Lake-Dwellings of Europe," &c. This work will be a popularly written sketch of the successive civilis^i- tions which obtained in Scotland in prehistoric times, bringin*,' tlie sub- ject down to the sturtin^^-point of true history ; and will thus litly form un introduction to the County Histories Series, or a companion to any une of the volumes. It will be fully illustrated from Drawings by the author and from other sources, and in all respects uniform with tlie County History volumes. WILLIAM liLACKWoOD .t SON.S, Elimilkum a.nu Londo.v. ^?^^ *' .t-' • '\ 't \- v^'^->n*,vtrJ%^mTc|:• ■ -...-.•i.-V :,.^-' ■;:.;j»^?..-/-.-,:7.-,v,i,,.vS-.v-.j.?S ■ ' <- . ■ 1, .f -»,•*«♦;;■ i ;*V 'v.fe. -^ « ••tH*; ■•^%i4f(i^-it