-NRLF B ^ 501 631 ^kfi/M:: . :i^ ^M / / '// // M / y y J /, A HISTORY OF ART FOR CLASSES, ART-STUDENTS AND TOURISTS IN EUROPE BY Wir.LIAM HENRY GOODYEAR, M.A. CURATOR OK FINE ARTS IN THE MUSEUM OF THE BROOKLYN INSTITUTE OF ARIS AND SCIENCES FORMERLY CURATOR OF PAIN TINGS IN THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART, NEW YORK HONORARY MEMBER, ROYAL ACADEMIES OF VENICE AND MILAN ; OF THE SOCIETY OF ARCHITECTS OF ROME ; OF THE ARCHITECTURAL ASSOCIATION OF EDINBURGH; AND CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF ARCHITECTS TWENTIETH EDITION RE\isED AND enlar(;ei:), w iih ni:\v u.i.rsrRArioNs U « ■ > • J I » > • » » Copyrig;)*," ^88!l,"l8S5, aWd- 1:89(5 .;'ty THE A. S. JiARxNES COMPANY NEW YORK. '300 \m 29 191 ■Wi ' I I t c c c t ' c t t c ^7/P The study of historical art may appear to be impractical, or, at least, of very limited use, in a country where, relatively, few remains of the older European art are preserved, and where the interests of the nation are attached to the future rather than the past. Hence a few remarks as to the practical uses and bearings of this study are in place here. The training of the taste is not purely a matter of ornamental education ; nor does it imply, even indirectly, an affectation of luxury, or of the expenditure of wealth. In most branches of trade, and in many branches of manufacture, an artistic taste is a matter of practical importance in tlie gaining of one's livelihood. There are few kinds of handiwork in which the element of design does not enter, and wherever the arts uf design are in question, taste has to be exercised. The general tendency to introduce the practice of drawing into elementary school instruction, results from a public recognition of these practical uses of art instruction. If, t)n the other h;nid, wo take tlie stand-point of the consumer, the question of ''household art" is one of coiuprehensive impor- tance, and the education of taste with regard to it has great value, even as a matter t)f economy. The tendency to rate things by their expense, or money value, is a very common and very mistaken one. The first condition of g(wd taste is t*^ know how much may be done with little money, and to undcistaiid that the manifestation of utility in forms is an elementary principle of art. Moreover, the most practical and hard-working lives ought not to be deprived of mental and spiritual stimulus; and this is to be found in colors and in forms, no less than in iiuisic and in books. If we consider the training of taste in art from the stand-point of polite education, there can be no question that, in this sense, it is becoming an undisputed essential. 2U)H94 iV ' PREFACE. If it be admitted that the direction and instruction of artistic taste are matters of practical and economical importance, as well as of polite education, the study of the history of art needs no further apology. Although the most widely spread and most necessary exercise of taste relates to ornamental design and to objects of "household art" rather than to architecture, sculpture, and paint- ing, the training of taste must be largely attained through these latter arts. Modern ornamental art depends on that which went before it, and has been even too dependent on the past. The use of historic ornamental forms, both in good and bad directions, is so absolutely universal that the history of ornament is unavoid- ably essential to the comprehension of our own. This history is again connected with the great periods of architecture, sculpture, and painting, in such a way that neither the phraseology nor the facts of the subject can be understood without reference to these other arts. The study of historic art is also made advisable by the con- sideration that contact with the best examples is the one important thing in the training of the taste. The greatness of the past in all departments of art is as generally admitted as our own pre- eminence in purely mechanical and material civilization. The study of art history is simply, then, the study of good examples of art, considered in their most natural arrangement and sequence — that of time. Finally, however much our own immediate interest may turn to the present and to its own art productions, we must re- member that even in the strength of our sj^mpathy as moderns for modern things lies an important reason for seeking standards and principles of taste in other works. In literary training, for instance^ it is generally admitted that modern authors, however excellent, are not the best standards of instruction. General principles of taste in literature are best founded on works which have been tested by time and the criticisms of more than one generation. Personal tastes, one's own chance acquaintances and surroundings, or the fashion of the hour, are apt to be disturbing elements when we use modern work as the standard of appeal for educational purposes. In dealing with the past, we stand on firmer ground. The weight of authoritative criticism is such, and its verdicts are so well known, that the individual instructor becomes the exponent of these, and must be judged by his own rendering and appreciation of them. PKEFACE. V The learner tlion stanrls m face, not of an individual teacher, but of the criticism ol' art as dctorminod by its standard authorities. To develop and form an orij^iiial and independent taste is the object of the learner. To offer a lirni basis for this development by the suppression of individnal views and by attention to tlio most gent-ral principles must be the object of the teacher. On the whole, the matter of fact is the main thing. The eye can be trained oidy through the objects which it sees, not through theories or intel- lectual process. To present the most important works of art in the most natural arrangement and let llifm work Iheir own results, is the purpose of art history. To this ond there is only one thing more important than abundant illustration in the hand-book itself, viz., faithful study of all the originals, casts, photographs, and copies which can be made accessibU> outside of it. The specific aim of the present book has been to present such an amount and choice of illustration as have never l»een previously attempted in similar works, and as a class-book to present the sub- ject in such a way that the use of still further illustration f()r the combined class Avill be easy and desirable. The Soule Photograph Company of Boston have made it their mission to supply, at very cheap cost, complete sets of photographic illustrations in all depart- ments of art history, and a choice from their catalogue, suggested by the unillustrated notices of this book, will greatly add to its usefulness. For the definitions of technical terms and for the pronunciation of foreign words, attention is called to the Index. Pronunciation and definition have generally been entered in the text once, but without subsequent repetition. The Index gives the page on which the pronunciation or definition may be found, as well as the usual matter for reference. ARCHITECTURE. Eelations ot Architecture, Sculpture, and Painting, in Historic Studies^ ^_ ^ of Art 3_ 28 Historic Styles in Modern Architecture ^ ' ^ .29-42 Ancient Oriental Nations ^ ^g_ g^ Architecture of the Greeks , . 65- 80 Eoman Imperial Period ^ 81-92 4- Byzantine Period ^ ^ 92-101 Romanesque Period 101-110 Gothic Period 117-126 Period of the Renaissance SCULPTURE. 127-130 Introduction 131-136 Chaldean and Assyrian Sculpture ' ' ^^^^^.^g Egyptian Sculpture * , ' . . 139-143 Early Greek Sculpture * ^ 143-148 preek Architectural Sculpture 148-154 Roman Copies and Greek Originals ' ' ^^^ ^g^ Types of the 5th Century B.c * . * . 101 160 Types of the 4th Century B.c ' ^ ICO- 170 Alexandrine Period 180-188 ^Roman Historical and Portrait Sculpture ' ' ^^^_^^^ Byzantine and :Medieval Sculpture ' ic^^.jos Revival of Sculpture in Italy ^ 199-204 15th Century Renaissance Sculpture ^ ^ 204-212 16th Century Renaissance Sculpture ' 213-215 17th Century Renaissance Sculpture ^ ^ 215-216 18th Century Sculpture ^ ^ 216-222 I9th Century Sculpture .* ' * V'^lll CONTENTS. PAINTING, Introduction Assyria, 'Egypt, Qr^ece, and Rome . Early Christian'^^. Byzantine Mosaics . Revival of Italian Painting in the 14tli Centmy Jtalian Painting. 15th Century Renaissance ItaUan Painting. 16th Centurj' Renaissance Italian Paintmg. l?th Century Renaissance Netherlands and Germany, 15th Centmy German Painters, 16th Century . . . . Dutch Painters, 17th Century .... Flemish Painters, 17th Century . . . . Spanish School, 17th Century .... French Painters ... ... . The 18th Century (Enghsh School) . Modern Painting D • 223-224 225-230 231-237 237-246 246-257 257-297 297-314 315-321 321-327 327-335 S35-342 336-347 347-348 348-352 352-371 HISTORY OF MUSIC. Introduction Historical Survey .... Music of the ISth Century in Germany German Music of the 19th Century Modem Italian Opera Modem Music in France and England 372-373 373-377 377-381 381-387 388-389 389 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. MODERN ARCHITECTURE NO. i.— St. Patrick's Cathedral, New York 2. — ^Votive Church, Vienna . S. — Girard College, Philadelphia 4.— Church of the Madeleine, Paris 5. — City Hall, Boston .... 6. — New Opera House, Paris 7. — Masonic Temple, Philadelphia . »5.— Quentiu Matsys. " Pieta." Munich 326 DUTCH PAINTING. 17TH CENTURY. f5C— Rembrandt. Portrait of an Unknown ^Van. St. Petersburg . . 329 ;?5i.— Jacob Ruysdael. The Swamp 330 S52.—Pan\ Potter. Young Bull. The Hague 331 f55.— Terburg. The Trumpeter. Dresden 332 ?54.— Adrian Van Ostade. The Smoker. Dresden 332 i?55.— Adrian Van Ostade. Landscape 333 ^'Je.— Solomon Koninck. Tlie Hermit. Dresden 334 i'^?.— Schalken. Girl with Candle. Dresden 334 FLEMISH PAINTING. 17TH CENTURY. f5.9.— David Teniers the Younger. Village Tavern. Schwerin . . . 337 *5£>.— Jacob Jordaens. Family Concert. Berlin 338 XVI LIST OF ILLUSTRATIOifS. NO. PAGE. £60.—SnjderSi. Lioness and Wild Boar. Florence 339 f6i.— Rubens. Christ and the Magdalen. Munich 340 ^6^.— Rubens. Portrait of Maria Medici, Madrid 341 263. — Van Dyck. Portrait of Gustavus Adolphus , . 342 SPANISH PAINTING. 17TH CENTURY. £64. — Velasquez. The Infanta Marguerita. Louvre 343 S:65. — Mujdllo Detail of the " Immaculate Conception." Louvre. . . . 344 ^66.— Mmilio. Vision of St. Francis. Museum, Seville ..... 345 FRENCH PAINTING. 17TH CENTURY. ^6'7o— Pcussm. " The Seasons Dancing before Time " 346 S!6S. — Claude Lorraine. " Evening. Acis and Galatea" . . . , . 346 18TH CENTURY PAINTING. S69. — Watteau. Bust of a Girl (Drawing). Louvre 349 270. — Greuze. Head of a Girl. National Gallery , 349 S71. — Sir Joshua Rejoiolds. Age of Innocence. National GaUery . . . 350 S72.— Thomas Gainsborough. Portrait of Mrs. Siddons. National Gallary . 350 MODERN PAINTING. 273.— John Constable. The Corn Field ...» 355 274.— J. M. W. Turner. Hastings 356 275. — Theodore Rousseau. Landscape = .361 276.— J. F. Millet. The Gleaners 361 277.— J. B. C. Corot. Landscape 382 $78.— C. Troyon. The Shepherd's Dog 362 LIST OF TEXT ILLUSTRATIONS. Architecture, Sculpture, and Painting (vignette) . vi Medusa (tail-piece) , viii Relief from the Colunxn of Trajan (tail-piece) xvii Three Orders of Grecian Architecture c . 6 Court of a Modern Oriental House. Arab Style c 28 Temple of Khons, Karnak ... 38 Rock Tombs of Beni Hassan . c . . . 41 Proto-Doric Column, Beni Hassan 41 Lotus-bud Capital, Beni Hassan .- ^41 Ruins of the Great Hall of Karnak, Thebes 42 Doric Capital, Parthenon . . = 60 Ionic Capital, Erechtheimn 60 LIST OF 1 LLLSTi; ATIOXS. XVI 1 PAGE. Coriothian Cajjilal, Clioragic Monuinont of Lysicrates . .... 60 Scheme of Doric Temple Construction, Parthenon 61 Acroterium of the Parthenon . 61 Ionic Entabhiture, Priene , 62 Ionic Cuhiiiniar liases, Athens 63 Conventional Lotuses and '* Palmettes," and Greek "Fret" or "Meander." From the Parthenon 6-4 Egg and Dart ^Molding. ..... 64 Apartment in a l\)inpeian House 79 Plan of a Pompeian House 79 Theater of Marcellus, Rome 80 Byzantine Capital, liavenna, Sixth Century ... .... 110 Byzantine Capital, Ravenna, Sixth Century ....... 113 Romanesque Capitals, Limburg 113 Type of Romanesque Cube Capital 113. Romanesque Pier Capital, Gei-nrode , . .113 Romanesque Pier Capital, Hacklingen 113 Romanesque Pier Capitals, Northampton 114 Typical Gothic Capital, Esslingen 114 Typical Gothic Capital, Cologne 115 Typical Gothic Capital, Rheims 115 Typical Gothic Finial. Troyes 115 The Cathedral of Florence 116 The Arch of Titus . . 122 Temple Bar, liondon 126 The Scribe, Louvi-e . . o . . 136 Assyrian Human-Headed Winged Bull . 136 Assyrian Lion-Hunt (from the sculptures) 225 Egj-ptian War Chariot (Thebes) .... 226 Greek Yase, Munich 230 Cai-lo Dolce. St. Cecelia, Dresden 314 Kelicf from the Column of Trajan. XVI LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. NO. PAGE. 260. — Snyders. Lioness and Wild Boar. Florence 339 S61. — Rubens. Chi-ist and the Magdalen. Munich 3-10 ;?6^.— Rubens. Portrait of Maria Medici Madrid 3-il 263.— Van Dyck. Portrait of Gustavus Adolphus o . 342 SPANISH PAINTING. 17TH CENTURY. 864. — Velasquez. The Infanta Marguerita. Louvre 343 ^65. — Mujillo Detail of the " Immaculate Conception." Louvre .... 344 266.—lLm-iho. "V.sion of St. Francis. Museum, Seville ..... 345 FRENCH PAINTING. 17TH CENTURY. S67. — Pcussin. " The Seasons Dancing before Time " 346 263. — Claude Lorraine. " Evening. Acis and Galatea" . . . , , 346 18TH CENTURY PAINTING. 269. — Watteau. Bust of a Girl (Drawing). Louvre 349 S70. — Greuze. Head of a Girl. National Gallery , 349 S71. — Sir Joshua Reynolds. Age of Innocence. National GaUery . . . 350 S72. — Thomas Gainsborough. Portrait of Mrs. Siddons. National Gallary . 350 MODERN PAINTING. 273.— John Constable. The Com Field ... o ..... 355 27^.-3. M. W. Turner. Hastings 356 275. — Theodore Rousseau. Landscape » . 361 276.— J. F. Millet. The Gleaners 361 277.-3. B. C. Corot. Landscape 382 978.— Q. Troyon. The Shepherd's Dog 362 LIST OF TEXT ILLUSTRATIONS. Architecture, Sculpture, and Painting (vignette) . vi Medusa (tail-piece) , viii Relief from the Column of Trajan (tail-piece) xvii Three Orders of Grecian Architecture » . 6 Court of a Modern Oriental House. Ai'ab Style o 28 Temple of Khons, Karnak 38 Rock Tombs of Beni Hassan . » . . . 41 Proto-Doric Column, Beni Hassan 41 Lotus-bud Capital, Beni Hassan . , , 41 Ruins of the Great Hall of Karnak, Thebes 42 Doric Capital, Parthenon . . , 60 Ionic Capital, Erechtheium 60 LIST OF ILLUSTKATION'S. xvn and Greek Corinthian Capital, Choragric ;^^onument of Lysicrates Scheme uf l)(>ric Temple Construction, Partlienon . Acroterium uf the Pai'thenon Ionic Entablature, Priene .... Ionic CoUunnar Bases, Athens Conventional Lotuses and " Palmettes," From the Pai'thenon .... Egg and Dart ^Molding. Apartment in a Pompeian House Plan of a Pompeian House Theater of Marcellus, Rome Byzantine Capital, Kavenna. Sixth Century Byzantine Capital, Kavenna, Sixth Century Romanesque Capitals, Limburg . Type of Romanesque Cube Capital . Romanesque Pier Capital, Cernrode Romanesque Pier Capital, Ilacklingen Romanesque Pier Capitals, Noi'thampton Typical Gothic Capital, Esslingen Typical Gothic Capital, Cologne . Typical Gotliic Capital, Rheims T}-pical Gothic Finial, Troyes The Cathedral of Florence .... The Arch of Titus Temple Bar, liOndon The Scribe, Louvre Assyrian Human-Headed Winged Bull Assyrian Lion-Hunt (from the sculptures) Egj-ptian War Chariot (Thebes) . Greek Vase, Munich .... Carlo Dolce. St. Cecelia, Dresden . Fret "■ or Meander, e • • • PAGE. 60 61 (U 62 63 64 64 79 79 80 nn 113 113 113. 113 113 114 114 113 115 115 116 122 126 136 136 225 226 230 314 ^^v ><=53v '^^&f ^y r^ff Kelief from the Column of Trajan. ARCHITKCTURK. I. RELATIONS OF ARCHITECTURE, SCULPTURE, AND PAINTING IN HISTORIC STUDIES OF ART. JT has just been noted that a systematic knowledge of ornamental art is dependent on a knowledge of the history of art as a whole — of its epochs, and styles, and of the terms which are used to explain and designate them. It is the aim of this work to present such a sketch of the history of art as a whole. lu tlie matter of ornamental design considered as a specialty (as distinct from that general education of taste which is necessary to good perceptions about it), special works of illustration devoted to it must be con- sulted;* but these can only be used to advantage by possessing the preliminary knowledge here in (question. AYith regard to the history of art (conceived in the sense of design, as distinct from music, poetry, etc.), the three subjects of Architecture, Sculpture, and Painting are those to be first considered, but whether together or separately is a matter to be determined by circumstances. In the study of historic art, the facts and con- nections of history itself are of supreme importance. There is indeed no more agreeable and instructive approach to history than that offered ])y its actual relics and monuments. From the historic point of view, the method which considers all the arts in question in combination, and which unites the description of all for each epoch, is the most natural mikI .satisfactory. The treatment of these topics has, however, been separated in the present b(wk on account of its necessary brevity, and l)ecau.se that kind of knowledge which is most directly applicable to modern art can be most directly pre- sented in this Avav. • Owen .Tones, '•(rrainmar of Ornament"; Racinet, " Pnlyrhroinatic Ornament," etc. Tlicse and similar works are too large and expensive for private ownership in general, but may be found In most public librai-ies. ARCHITRCTURE. I. RELATIONS OF ARCHITECTURE, SCULPTURE, AND PAINTING IK HISTORIC STUDIES OF ART. IT has just been noted that a systematic knowledge of ornamental art is dependent on a knowledge of the history of art as a whole — of its epochs, and styles, and of the terms which are used to explain and designate them. It is the aim of this work to i3resent such a sketch of the history of art as a whole. In the matter of ornamental design considered as a specialty (as distinct from that general education of taste which is necessary to good perceptions about it), special works of illustration devoted to it must be con- sulted;* but these can only be used to advantage by possessing the preliminary knowledge here in question. "With regard to the history of art (conceived in the sense of design, as distinct from music, poetry, etc.), the three .subjects of Architecture, Sculpture, and Painting are those to be first considered, but whether together or separately is a matter to be determined by circum.stances. In the study of hi.storic art, the facts and con- nections of hi.story itsolf are of supreme importance. There is indeed no more agreeable and instructive approach to history than that offered by its actual relics and monuments. From the historic point of view, the method Avhich considers all the arts in question in combination, and which unites the description of all for each epoch, is the most natural and satisfactory. The treatment of these topics has, however, been .separatc'(l in the present l)()ok on account of its necessary brevity, and because that kind of knowledge which is most directly applicable to modern art can be most directly pre- sented in this wav. • Owen .Tones, ''Qi-animar of Onianient " ; "R-arinet, "Polyrhromatic Ornament," etc. These and similar works are too larye and expensive for private ownership in general, but maybe found in most public libraries. I HISTORIC STUDIES OF ART. If the subjects of Architecture, Sculpture, and Painting are to be separately treated in the historical sketch proposed, the question rises which shall be treated first. The following reasons for gi\nLng the first attention to architecture are important. It is the subject through which all the epochs of art history, taken as a whole, may be most readily specified and distinguished and treated in their proper sequence. As far as the history of painting is concerned, attention must be given especially to the Italians, and to certain particular centuries of their history, especially the 14th, 15th, 16th, and 17th centuries. As far as the history of sculpture is concerned, preponderant attention must be paid to the ancient Greeks. But in the history of architecture, all the great his- toric nations have been, in their individual ways, almost equally great. Every epoch claims a nearly equal amount of interest and attention. Thus the sequence, distinction, and designations of the epochs of art history in general are most easily and clearlj^ studied in architecture. Architecture is the art in connection Vvith which sculpture and painting took their rise, and with which they have always been, in the greatest times, very closely related. The most famous works of sculpture in existence are the Elgin ]\Iarbles in the British Mu- seum in London, Avhich were the architectural decorations of a Greek temple. The most famous pictures in existence are the wall paintings by Michael Angelo and by Raphael in Rome— the archi- tectural decorations of the Sistine Chapel and of the Palace of the Vatican. The most famous sculptures of Greek antiquity were the colossal gold and ivory statues, to hold which the ancient temples were erected. The most important ancient paintings now in exist- ence are the wall paintings of the houses in Pompeii. It is evident, then, that architecture should, if studied separately, be studied first. Architecture is the most practical and necessary of the three arts, and the one which may be most readily studied by examples, since these surround us on all sides. Some slight knowledge as to the so-called "styles" of modern buildings is, moreover, a matter of almost necessary education. Finally, since historical forms have had an overwhelming influence on the " styles " of modern buildings, the necessity for a historical treatment of the subject of art in general is here the most obviously apparent; and the general history of art may be most easily ap- proached in this way. I. ST. PATRICKS CATHEDRAL, N. Y. r~- ■. ,-,-f.- il 2. VOTIVE CHURCH, VIENNA. B U T T 11 E S S E D G O 1' U I G STYLE. 5 HISTORIC STYLES" IN MODERN ARCHITECTURE. It is a very general presuinpiion, or at least a prejudice constantly apparent, that our modern buildings, if pretentious of artistic char- acter, must exhibit or belong to some "style." The prejudice is a manifest mistake to every artistically educated person, and is only a result of the fact that, for several centuries, imitations of historic buildings have been the rage. As a matter of fact, many or most of the best modern buildings do not belong to any "style" at all, mdess it be one of which we, as moderns, are iniconscious, but which may be seen, at some future time, to represent the peculiar needs and conditions of the century, by general resemblances which are not now apparent. To devote attention first to the modern Imildings which are imi- tations of historic styles, is not to imply that such imitations are especially to be commended. It is, however, a matter of general knowledge, essential to the comprehension of the latest tendencies of modern art, to imderstand what these modern historic stjdes have been, and especially because these latest tendencies are more or less antagonistic to them. Three of these "styles" are especially jironounced in character, and have been especially affected — each to an extent that in some cities, fifteen or twenty years ago, scarcely a building could be found which did not show the influence of some one of them. These three stvles mav be designated as the Greek, the Renais- Banco, and the buttressed Gothic. There are many instances where a spectator, standing in one place, may jjoint to examples of all three. The Buttressed Gothic Style.'' — The Catholic Cathedral of Xew York and the famous Votive Church in A'ienna have been chosen as examples of the modern buttrossod Gothic (Illustrations 1 and 2). The traits of the stylo, as foimd in the exterior appearance, are the pointed arch (frequently surmounted by an acutely angled gable ornament) ; the tracery of masom-y divisions in the windows in manifold geometrical patterns; the use of similar tracery (originally imitated from that of the windows) on the masonry surface ; the use of ornamental carvings based on forms of natural foliage, and • The word " Gothic " 13 coniraonly used alone, but the words " buttressed Gothic ' are used in order to distinguish it from the " Italian Gothic " stylo subsequently mentioned. 6 GREEK AND RENAISSANCE STYLES. the use of the buttress— z. e., a perpendicular masonr}' abutment placed at the corners of the towers, and at equidistant intervals along the walls — in the latter case frequently surmounted by a pin- nacle with its top decoration or "finial." The Greek and Renaissance Styles may be, for the moment considered together as regards their characteristic forms. In both styles the so-called "classical orders of architecture" are used.* We may notice what the elements of the classical orders are, by com- paring the view of Girard College in Philadelphia with the Church of the Madeleine in Paris (Illustrations 3 and 4). In these buildings, '']pjj|l|l|!i!»{i|!||||||l||{|l|!{||!l||i|l| Doric. Ionic. Three Orders of Grecian Architecture. Corinlhian. (i, shaft I 2, cajntal ; 3, architrave ; h, frieze ; ,', cornice. The entire part above the capital is the entablature. M the bottom of the shaft is the base.) a portico or colonnade may be observed, which has become so familiar in modern architecture that its frequent appearance seems a mattex- of course. The columns belong to one of three classes, "Doric,'"' "Ionic," or "Corinthian" (see text-cut), which are most easily dis- tinguished by their capitals, i. e,, by the upper terminal ornament of the column.^ Two lines of beams with certain typical and un- varying decorations (see the ornaments on the Doric "architrave" and the horizontal lines on the Ionic and Corinthian " frieze ") are * The -word " Order " is applied in Classical and Renaissance architecture either to a single column and immediate superstructure, to a series of coltunns and immediate superstructure, or to the general Mecorative system therewith connected. > D o o r r K O r > D w r t J CO »-• Di < On « 2 Q < M H o B o K u GREEK AND RENAISSANCE STYLES. 9 surinoimted b}^ a "cornice."* At the ends of the buildings the Unes of the roof form a gable, or "i^ediment." The traits of the classic orders need not be more closely described ;U present, because they will be considered under the chapter for the Greek Temple Archi- tecture, but they will be immediately recognized as familiar appear- ances iti modern buildings from the diagrams and illustrations. Distinction between the Greek and the Renaissance Styles. — This lies in the use made of the forms and "orders" in (luestion. If the forms and "orders" are portions of the necessary construction of the building, the style is Greek. For instance, in the Girard College, and the Madeleine (3 and -1), the gable results from the construc- tion of the roof; but in the Boston City Hall (5) the same form is an ornament above the upper central window, Avhich could be removed without destroying the essential parts of the building. In the Renaissance style there are also jiK.difications, or rather varia- tions, of the gable ornament, which may be observed in many examples in every city, as well as in many pieces of fiu'niture. The triangular gable is frequently broken at the center. Its lines rise toward the upper angle, but do not meet it. This variation would be impossible or very imnatural in the gables of 3 and 4, because the angle is there formed, as in other similar roofs, by beams which lean against and support one another ; whereas in the smaller and purely ornamental use of the same form, this construction is only imitative, and the modification of the original form is not i)hysically difficult. The same remarks apply to two other modilications of the gable ornament which are equally familiar, in which the arc of a circle is used : sometimes broken at the center and sometimes un- broken. The unbroken arc appears in the Paris Opera House (6). Once more it may be observed that such a curved line would not naturally appear at the ends of a building as the result of the con- struction of its roof ; and that it is a purely ornamental modifica- tion of the original constructive triangular shape. It sometimes happens, however, that buildings have the ornamental variations noticed, built on to their own roof construction, rising above it or covering it up. Such buildings are also Renaissance in style; but * A cornice is the horizontal molding or series of moldings crowning the top of a building or of the walls of a room. The words " arfhitnive " and " frieze " are toolinically applied to distinguish the lower and upper beam of the classic ordei-s, but the word " ardiitrave " may also mean any line of beams, and the word "frieze" also means a horizontal band of sculptured ornament in any use or position. 10 GREEK AND REXAISSAXCE STYLES. these are instances where the ornamental style has reacted on the construction and disguised it. We will now apply the distinction between Greek style and Re- naissance, as to use of the similar forms in each, to the cornice and double line of beams. In 3, 4, and similar examples, the cornice is seen to be the decorated projecting line or edge of the roof (which continues also in a straight Ime under the gable angle). The lines of beams are portions of the portico and essential parts of it. If they were removed, a part of the building Avould fall down. On the other hand, compare the double line of beams with con- nected cornice as they appear in 5 and 6, and on other examples of the Renaissance, as found in all modern cities. Here they are seen to l^e decorative imitations, connected with the columns or pilasters, Avhich are also imitative. Such columns attached to a wall surface for a decorative purpose, without constructive necessitj^, are some- times called "engaged" columns. In Example 5 of Renaissance herewith, the jutting back and forth of the beam lines is seen to be the result of the fact that the columns or pilasters are not em- ployed for uses of support, in which latter case the beams, running above them, would be necessarily straight. Thus the jutting or "breaking" back and forth of such lines is also a trait of Renais- sance style, as distinguished from the Greek. (The term pilaster generally applies to the j)rojected imitation of a square pillar, but is also sometimes used of "engaged" rounded columns. Both forms are seen in 5.) Order in which the Historic Styles were Revived. — Although the three architectural styles just specified are found at present in con- temporaneous examples, they did not all come into use at the same time. For several centuries the Renaissance was used exclusively. This was the first of the modern styles. It first appeared in archi- tectural examples about and soon after the middle of the 15th cent- ury in Italy. It spread thence quite rapidly to all countries of Northern Europe, about the beginning of the 16th century, and soon after the beginning of the 16th century was universally and exclusively employed in all European countries. This universal and exclusive use continued till about the middle of the 18th century; after which the first examples of the Greek Temple style began to appear. This largely supplanted, although it by no means entirely replaced, the Renaissance style, during the last quarter of the 18th 5. CITY HALL, BOSTON. TILE ITALIAN li K -N A 1 SS AN C E. I'o century and the lirst quarter of the li'th criiiury. In its turn the Greek Temple style was then largely supplanted, especially iu churches, by the buttressed Gothic, wliit-h (with some extremely rare and local exceptions) had not been previously used since the close of the Middle Ages, This succession of styles corresponds to certain phases of modern literary and historic study, and was occasioned by it. As far as the Renaissance stjde is con- cerned, its appearance is also related to the broadest and most general aspects of modern history — those which relate to its Italian origin and first develop- ment. At the close of the Middle Ages a civilization had developed in Italy which, spreading thence, replaced the medieval and became the modern. The word "Renaissance," in its broadest sense, applies to this movement of history and civilization, and is used with the meaning that it was connected with a re-birth or revival of the ancient Greek and Roman culture. In matters of litera- ture and art, especially, the Italians of the period in question were profoundly sensible of their debt to the ancients and copied them in every possible way. The word "Renaissance" is thus, in the next narrower sense, applied to the revival of letters, which at this time was distinctly dependent on the studies of the ancient authors. The word is, then, also appliccl to tlic general art of the period — which was that of Raphael, Michael Angelo, and contemporaries, and the other great Italian artists who preceded and followed them. Finally it is applied to the architectural style of the period. This plainly reflects the general char- acter of the movement in letters and civilization — being a copy of the orna- mental details of the Roman ruins. Hence the use of the Greek forms in the Renaissance already illustrated. These had been adopted by the Romans from the Greeks with the modifications pointed out, and icere copied from them. The Renaissance style is .simply a revival of the Roman ornamental style, and the distinctions made between Renaissance and Greek style are also the distinctions between Greek and Roman. The Renaissance style is thus of peculiar historical interest by its relations to the origins and beginnings of modern history and modern civilization in general. The Italians of the 15th and Kith centuries were more enthusiastic tlian critical in their historical and literary studies, and were not themselves at all attentive to the existence of Greek elements and influences in the Roman art and literature. They took these last as they found them, without inquiring into their derivation. National patriotism led them to exalt their own country r.s having been the center and motive power of the Roman Empire. The derivation of their own language from the Latin made its study especially easy and natural for them. The Roman Imperial periotl was the latest period of antiquity, and the earlier Greek culture had been so absorbed and a.ssimilated by it as to have lost the apparent evidences of its own independent and earlier character. At the time of the Renaissance the Turks were in pos.session of the Greek territories. Travel in them was rarely undertaken, and never for puiT^oses of historical study. Many learned Italians were acquainted with the Greek language, but still the relations of Greek and Roman civilization were not critically studied. All these points serve to explain why the copies of the Greek Temple style 1-1 rHEGREEKEEYIV>4L. which began to be made in the last half of the 18th century nad not been made before. It was not until this time that the prejudice in favor of the study of Latin in preference to the study of Greek was overthrown, and that the disposi- tion to regard all relics of antiquity found on Italian soil as relics of Roman civilization was abandoned. Meantime, from the beginning of the 16th century to the middle of the ISth century, all Europe had been controlled by the Italian taste and fashions, and by the prejudices and peculiar historical misconception just explained. The beginning of the Greek movement, as distinguished from the Renaissance, dates from the Prussian John Winckelmann and his studies, made at Rome after 1756, in ancient sculpture. The statues, then so abundant in Rome, were first proven by him to be in general copies of Greek originals. But this discovery reacted at once on questions of literature and history. If the Roman sculpture had been Greek in its influences and subjects, it was apparent that the Roman literature must have the same dependence. So far, literary taste in Europe had been unanimous (at least in the 17th and 18th centuries) in pronouncing the Latin authors superior to the Greek.* But the absurdity of considering a copy superior to an original was apparent. Hence a revolution in taste, from which the 19th century art and literature took their inspiration. The study of Greek authors, Greek art, and Greek history became the fashion, and the first systematic journeys for purposes of study were undertaken in the Gi'eek territories. Many other manifestations of the Greek movement might be pointed out besides that one A\ith which we are immediately concerned, in the copies of Greek Temple architecture. The most imi^ortant was the liberation of Greece from Turkish rule in 1829 and the foundation of the modern independent kingdom of Greece. This was due to the sympathies and support of European diplomatists under the in- fluence of the favorable sentiments awakened by the studies of Greek antiquity. An interesting instance of the enthusiasm of the time is offered by the poet Lord BjTon, who went to Greece to take part in the war against the Turkish rule, but died soon after. Another important phase of this movement is found in German literature as developed by Lessing, Goethe, Schiller, and their contemporaries. This is univer- sally known to have had as inspiration the Greek studies inaugurated by Winckel- mann. In female dress, the style known as that of the Directory or of Martha Wash- ington was again an effort to return to Greek simplicity. In music, the operas of Gluck are glorious examples of a revival of the Greek spirit. As regards the genei'al relation of the Greek architectural revival to these other phases of interest in ancient Greek history and literature, it may be noticed that travel in Greek countries for j^urposes of study was first undertaken as a result of this general interest. Until travel for such purposes was thus under- taken, no publications had been made as to the Athenian or other Greek ruins, and there was no general knowledge about them. An interesting evidence of this ignorance is offered by an incident in the life of Winckelmann. During his residence in Rome, it was proposed that he should undertake a journey with Italian friends around the coasts of Southern Italy to inspect the Greek ruins which were supposed to be there. It was not known in Rome in the middle of * Compare Macaulay's Essay on Addison. THE GREEK KEVIVAL. 15 the 18th century that no Greek ruins were to be found in Southern Italy, except- ing those already known at Paestum. If explorations on the site of ancient Greek settlements were thus backward even in Italy, it may be argued how little was known then of the ruins in Sicily and in Greece. Since the " Greek Revival " was especially vigorous in the last quarter of the 18th century and in the early 19th century, and since this period is the first to which early American buildings of importance now standing belong — the Greek style is the oldest apparent in American public buildings. It is represented by numerous examples in cities like Philadelphia, which were of great national im- portance in the Revolution and the period following — and in Washington, where the traditions of this period have continued to influence the later buildings. The Greek revival was, in fact, very closely connected with the movement which caused the American Revolution and the French Revolution. Both revolutions were very largely inspired by republican ideals drawn from the study of "Plu- tarch's Lives." This work was universally read at the time, under the influence of the newly-rising studies of Greek authors. It appears from the foregoing matter that the revival of Greelc Temple archi- tecture was the result of a literary impulse, and of historical studies, which showed the Greeks to be the real originators of that Roman civilization which had so filled men's minds in the earlier Renaissance or Italian stage of modern history. The Italians having set the fashion of copying ancient buildings, the habit con- tinued — Greek ruins, instead of Roman, being taken as models. The study of the original Greek monuments of architecture showed that the columns, capitals, and other details were of much greater beauty, in general, than the Roman copies of the same. The proportions of the original Greek monuments were more refined and the execution of the details was more vigorous. It was still further observed that in Greek architecture each part had a structural meaning ■ and a necessary constructive function. The gable was the expression of the roof lines ; the cornice was a similar expression ; the beams were a necessary portion of the portico ; the columns were structural supports ; the capital and base were structural elements at the points of support and pressure. It was observed that the ornamental diversion of these structural forms from their natural meaning and use was a departure from the Greek ideal of relation between form and design, ornament and construction. The Gothic Revival. — Toward the close of the first quarter of the 19th century a new reaction, however, set in, which found its expression in the buttressed Gothic. The word "Gothic" was first used by the Italians of the Renaissance as applied to architecture, and they used the word, as we still do when we speak of the "Goths and Vandals" as barbarian; of "the act of a Vandal," etc. The Italians applied the word "Gothic" to all North European architecture, meaning that it was a barbaric style. As the buttressed Gothic was the latest of the medieval styles, and most numerously represented by existing structures, the word Gothic became attached to it especially. * It was the spread of Italian Renaissance civilization over Northern Europe in the 16th century which stopped the work on the old medieval cathedrals of which so many — for instance, the Cologne cathedral — were left unfinished. The same Italian influence, which carried with itself the Renaissance architecture, carried with itself the prejudice against the earlier style as being ugly and barbaria 16 THE GOTHIC KEVIVAL. Thus, in the diary of the English author Evelyn, who traveled through France and Italy in the 17th century, we find him constantly noting of such and such a building, that it was " only Gothic." This prejudice continued in the 18th century. The copies of medieval buildings which began in the 19th century with revivals of the buttressed Gothic were like the preceding copies of Greek temples, the result and expression of a newly-developed historic study. The standards of taste which had been drawn from the Greeks, being those of nature and of natural vigor, proved effectual in vindicating the greatness of art and of civilization in the Middle Ages. The movement began with the revival of interest in Shakespeare, who, though not medieval in point of fact, had been so regarded by the ISth century. Contempt for Shakespeare as a barbarian was the almost universal verdict of the 18th century — for instance, of the English King George the Third, of the Prussian King Frederick the Great, etc. The German Lessing was the first in the 18th century to insist on Shakespeare's greatness and to critically demon- strate it {Hamburg ische Dramatiirgie), and in this line he was followed and sup- ported by the German poet Goethe. With both these critics, by whom especially, next to Winckelmann, the taste of the earlier 18th century was overthrown, the standards of Greek taste had been the inspiration. From the appreciation of Shakespeare, attention turned to the still earlier time of the Middle Ages proper. In England the medieval movement appears especially in the novels of Sir Walter Scott. The popularity of these novels, when published, was due as much to their novelty of subject as to their artistic merits. So we find that Goethe's first dramatic success, the " Goetz von Berlichingen," owed its fabulous success to its choice of a medieval subject. The translation of this drama into English was the first literary work of Sir Walter Scott. From the attention which was thus devoted to the history, literature, and art of the Middle Ages, which had been so long despised under the Renaissance influences, the buttressed Gothic dates its rise as a modern architectural style. Mixture of Renaissance and Greek Temple Styles. — Although iP is apparent from the foregoing explanations that the Greek Temple style was originally a reaction against the Renaissance, it has since its rise been very frequently mixed with it. We may always separate the two elements, when found in one building, by understanding that the forms are Greek if used structurally in the dimensions of the whole of any one part of a building. Thus in the White House at Wash- ington, the projecting portico shows the Greek influence, and the sides of the building itself are in Renaissance style. Such cases are every-where to be observed. It is true that this mixture was also found in the Roman buildings, and that the forms of the Greek Temple construction proper, also continued in use in the ancient Roman period. But as far as the ruins in Rome and Italy are concerned, there were no remains of this construction which attracted the general attention of the Renaissance imitators, and the combination in question, with rare exceptions in the old Italian Renaissance, is not found in modern times, until after the time of the Greek revival. In the old Italian Renaissance style, structural colonnades and porticoes are common, but almost invariablj' in the minor dimensions of the individual stories of the building, and the columns frequently support arches, which they never do in the Greek Temple construction, or in the Roman style, where arches are always supported by masses of masonry (piers). Examples of Renaissance. — The old Italian Renaissance, of which the 19th century Renaissance in America is a continuation, through the later European copies, will M O D E R X G K ]•: E K S T 'i' T. E . 17 be illustrated ami explaiin^l in a latiT historical section. Some examples of the 1 !>th century Renaissance in America may now be noted. In Xeiv York, one of the best artistic examples is the old City Hall ; the most pretentious examples are tha new Post-otlife and the new City Hall. Most of the "brown-stone fronts," and a very larg<> proportion of the business buildings of New York, are in this style. In Philadelphia, the new "Public Buildings" and the new Post-office are pretentious examples of Renaissance ; in Chicago, the new City Hall ; in Boston, the City Hall; in Brooklyn, tlie City Hall; in Montreal, the Cathedral, are of the same style. A large proportion of the business structures in most American cities belong to it. In Europe, the new Opera Houses of Paris and Vienna are noted and conspicuous examples of the 19th century period. Critical Notes on the 19th Century Renaissance. — Although the Renaissance has outlived the reactions of the Greek and Gothic revivals, as apparent in the recent dates of the structures named, it has no hold on the best artistic taste of the day. Some critical reasons for this decline in favor will be noted in the later historical account of the style, but it may be at once said that the 19th century examples {of (his style) do not remotely approach the excellence of the older Italian and other older Renaissance European buildings. The lOth century examples are generally over-ornamented, uneasy in effei;t and mechanical in detail — wanting in large proportions and simplicity of composition. The Vanderbilt mansions in Xcw York may, however, be quoted as notable (exceptions to this general rule, and ther^ are, of course, other exceptions. Critical Notes on the Modern Greek Style. — In the early days of tlie Greek Temple copies, the presumption existed that they were to be considered as true revivals of Greek art, and that the imitation of Greek art was the true mission of the modern. A more dispassionate and later attitude of taste has concluded that the best imitation of Greek art is that which strives for a similar fidelity to the surrounding conditions of time, place, and civilization — that the only way for the moderns to rival the Greeks is to be equally true to themselves. In richer words, t!io Greek art is now .studied for its own independent beauty and as a means to general principles rather than as offering examples for imitative repetition. The later modern studies in Greek Temple architecture have also resulted in discoveries which shov/ that the modern copies are, and must of necessity be, lacking in most important peculiarities of the originals. The examination of these differences ■will be one aim of the historic sketch of the old Greek tenijiles in subsequent pages. It can not be denied, on the other hand, that the modern Greek Temple copies are interesting and effective buildings ; /. e., those of the late 18th and early lOtn century. Their simplicity of taste is not affected. It really existed in the time which produced them, and the sjTnpathy with Greek art which they represented, though less sci 'utific and less well-informed than our own, was in its way, perhaps, more thoroughly genuine. "With the general liiffusion of the studies and discoveries of the Greek revival, the impulse which had produced the temple copies died away — especially as the style of the Greek temples was by no means adapted to the general uses and necessities of the modern buildings which took on their guise. They were also thrown into the background by the later fashions of the Gothic revival. Examples of the Greek Temple Style. — The Rush Library, in Philadelphia, is a rare instance of a fine recent construction in this style. Aside from the common- place porticoes of Renaissance public buildings, constructions of the Greek Temple 18 MODERN BUTTRESSED GCTHIC. style will generally date earlier than 1850 or 1840. Among the examples in Nem York, are the Custom-house, Sub-treasury, the old St. Paul's, the facade of the old Columbia Law School in Lafayette Place, and a number of old churches. Among the examples in Philadelphia are the Rush Library, the old Post-office, the Mint, and Girard College. In Washington, the Capitol, "White House, and other public buildings are examples with more or less Renaissance mixture. In Boston, the Custom-house is an example ; in New Haven, the old State House and many of the older private dwellings. In Europe, the British Museum, Bank of England, and Church of St. Pancras, London — the Church of the Madeleine, Paris; the Museum, Berlin; and the Bank of Ireland, Dublin — may be mentioned as among important examples. Other fine examples in Munich. Critical Notes on the Modern Buttressed Gothic. — As a revolt against the' ab- surdity of making Christian churches in the likeness of pagan Greek temples, the Gothic revival did good work, and its influence has been much more wide-spread in ecclesiastical than in secular architecture. In this last field, the buttress con- struction is rarely convenient. As compared with the old cathedrals, whose style is imitated, there are many inferiorities in the modern copies. These are all a result of the one fact that the most independent art is the best, and that attention to the style of an old building is apt to withdraw • attention from the conditions and necessities of a modern construction. In the opening of the Gothic revival, the same slavish subservience to the theory that modern buildings must of neces- sity exhibit a "style," which had so long been prevalent, was apparent. The historic study of the old Gothic buildings is especially valuable by reason of the light thrown on their methods as being those of common sense and con- structive necessity in their own time. Thus, for instance, these studies have shown that the buttress construction was originally designed to withstand the thrust of a stone or brick vaulting (an arched interior roofing), and that the "flying" buttress especially had this use and necessity. As in our own time, so in the Middle Ages, but less frequently than now, the buttress was subsequently used to strengthen a wall which had not this upper pressure of a vaulting t'^ resist. Although there is no objection to a buttress construction for the p'orpose of strengthening a wall, the modern copies frequently imitate that use which was intended for vaulted buildings, and which is otherwise unnecessary. The criticism of the modern buttressed Gothic depends on the special example, and the best standard of criticism is found in the study of the old examples — the modern building being judged, not by the faithfulness of imitation, but by similar adherence to constructive necessities. The changed conditions and arrangements- of modern churches will naturally involve important departures from the older style. The freedom and independence with which this style is employed, rather than literal exactness of imitation, are the test of excellence. Examples of the Modern Buttressed Gothic. — These are so universal in modern church architecture that special mention is unnecessary. In Burope, the most noted example is the Votive Church at Vienna. Among important secular build- ings of the buttressed Gothic style may be mentioned the Houses of Parliament in London. The Memorial Hall of Harvard University is a fine American example. As an example of the Gothic without buttresses, the church of the Paulist Fathers in J7ew York is a fine example, and within the observation and personal tastes of the author, this church and Trinity Church, Boston (the latter not Gothic), are the ^nest modern, examples of ecclesiastical architecture, especially as regards interiors. ^- ''!''• ''"'^ ' ^\V^ CO < ta 2: o S W M D s 2 O c/J O . ,v VN 1. n \ 1.1 AN C.OTHIC. 21 KoMAN KSIJL L AN 1' \l,out iSr.O, an,l sinrc tho uMd]e of our The R°™^""''"'=~, ;: 1 Vistoric stvlos brgan to exhibit greater .er^tuvy, the influence "' *e h tone st^l _ J^_.^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^^^^^^^^^ t-d Cevtniu "-7 ;Xn1 1.U, .i..u. and these styles n,or. auctly ava.al.lo oi •«^^' ,„ ,,„„M„ati.,ns, of distinctly V, i..„»n „«,.(1 wu 1 luo.lilication;-, anu have been nsiU K^.uianesque. modern character. One of tl esc . ^^ ^^^^^^^^^^ ,^, „^^ medieval buikbugs, that ">^ S''- consequently less attracted attention first, ;"" /"^ / ^l;;-; ^,,„ ,„,„.„ as n,o,lcls ,,,,mero«s constructions s,,,., .^^.^^^^ _^^ ^^^_^ ^^^^.^,,^, ,^„,, .. ;t7t:cohKua:\:!;;. the tenacucy to greater freea,„u , oacrn instructions, f. — to -J--'— ^que.-Thc old Koman- Ornamental Traits 01 tne ^^^^^ ^__ explainea as to name esque l.erioa, prcccanig tl.e ... ^^^^^^^^^^ ^^^i^.^_ .,3 and characf.r in the proper - " " ;'^^;^;^^„„j, Temple in Philndcl- iudicated by Illustrations 7 -"\8' J''.^^ j^ f \,,„,, ,,rtain orna.ueutal pWia, and All Souls' Ch-'f^.'^^^^'l.^'^t modern constructions- traits, which are thoroughl, ^f^ ^^ ^^^U ,om,a arches. plain masonry pilasters ^;°™ , ^^^ ^ L, arches.* and galleries or arcades o -^« ''"^ ^,,^ 3,,,,^ date, falls in the The Italian Gothic, mtroduced after tl ^,^.^.„bility. The ^;:tS';ir:a;^y ^tt. abo. --^-:zTTi:tz::2 and is especiaUy fstingu.^^^^^^^^ ^^^ „, ^, „, ::rm Xor::- V rrr;h^::e~rrr:s .hite and black, -'/"'-J"; ' ^j::,, natation of the old courses of --"V^ Th Boln M scunr of Fine Arts (9), and Italian G,>th.c P^rta s. JThe Bos o ^^^^ ^^^^^^^ ^^ .^^^^^_ the New York Acadenn ot Design \s. ) U-ations. Their general appearance .ul ^^^'^^^J^,^ ,, ^molcs- for instance, the building of the \. -M. ^. , Fine Arts, and Peun. K. R. Station in PhUadelpnia. • ■, a .n^ -ire easilv distinguished fr.>m , Medieval Komancsduo columns and their modern •^-^ ^^ ,,,,• ,,e genen^Uy short the cl^c when a little attention ha.s l^on ,xud U, ^^^J>^ ,^ ,l,e old Italian and P.san - ^?^i;.et^^cm - a^ -^^^^ -« - «T^"^! ' l^l "l^a^s he found in the capitals. rr^C^Z:;::-- in the capita., 2*2 QUEEN ANNE. Criticism of the Modern Romanesque and Italian Gothic. — The traits of these styles are combined, variouslj- omitted, or developed in such modern and original ways that they offer in this respect a peculiar contrast to the three styles first con- sidered. Another distinction from the three s^-yles first considered lies in the ex- amples which grade over toward buildings which show little or no influence of Wstoric style. These last are as praiseworthy as any, frequently the best. The great value of a critical education in such matters, is to free the judgment from the supposition that the building is to be judged by conformity to an old model. The exact contrary is the case. Criticism of Architecture Distinct from the Question of "Style." — The true crit- ical stand-jjoint in modern building will become apparent, when we remember that the essential featm'e of a building is the use of its interior apartments. The build- ing is the shell or envelope of an interior. Study of the old styles will show that they are all exhibitions of work in which this shell or envelope was the expression and result of the interior construction, or intimately related to it. AVe may as well esteem a person for the ornaments or for the clotliing worn, as judge a building solely by the exterior ornament, and this is all there is of "style" in modern Romanesque and modern Italian Gfothic. Thus the modern Romanesque and Italian Gothic buildings are to be critically considered, according to the feeling apparent in their construction for the construction itself. The introduction of these styles marks an advance in taste, simply because the ornament used is at least susceptible of this constructional I'elation. As in dress, so in buildings, the best taste is often apparent in the quietest and simplest appearance. Buildings may have the greatest artistic value, in which only plain brick or rough stone surface is employed. The Italian Gothic and the Romanesque exhibit a return to plain surface (as regards projections), in opposition to the expensive and decoratively overloaded buildings of the modern Renaissance. Thus, it is rather for their want of "style," as com- pared with the three styles first mentioned, than for any thing else that the modern Romanesque and modern Italian Gothic deserve praise. " Queen Anne." — The modern prejudice in favor of historic styles has frequently led decorators and artists to emploj^ names or desig- nations, to Avhich they themselves are really indifferent or superior, and the influence of fashion has often created or spread a designa- tion, and attached it to many objects to which it reallj' does not belong at all. This has been the case with the so-called style of "Queen Anne." The early 18th century (the time of Queen Anne) is, in the architecture and decoration, both of England and the Co'itinent of Europe, part of the Renaissance period ; but very many domestic buildings were made which had little or no Renaissance ornament. In inany cases where the Renaissance form appeared, it was in the window-gable or roof-gable only, not in the columnar ornaments. The old " Queen Anne " buildings in question, i. e., those which gave rise to the modern designation, were of brick or of wood, and hence not adapted to the columnar surface ornaments c o in c •a o Z tr ^ •< O X > O > O W S •< o ti D XT. O z o o 11. "Queen Ahhe" Building, Newport, R. I. 12. 'Queen Anne" Country House, Lawrence, L. I. SUMMAUr OF HISTORIC STYLES. 25 which were used in the same period for pretentious stone structures. From the imitation of these brick or wooden structures, frequently without any ornament whatever, and only distinguished by pictur- esque irregularity of construction, has grown the modern style of "Queen Anne," and also the modern habit ut calling every thing "Queen Anne" which is new and picturesque. Hundreds of build- ings are termed "Queen Anne" by the public for Avhich the archi- tects themselves would refuse to give the name of any style as designation. The so-called " Queen Anne " is only a furtlicr develop- ment (but more especially in domestic and country-house architect- ure) of the tendencies anIucIi Romanesque and Italian Gothic first exhibited in imblic and city buildings — of the tendency toward modern freedom and modern independence, Ilhistrations 11 and 12 may serve to indicate the class of buildings in question. Criticism of the "Queen Anne" Style. — Queen Aime buildings are therefore to be judged not by resemblance to any set type, but by the common sense and good taste shown in the exhibition of the construction, and by the correspondence of the building in outer forms to its interior arrangements. The influence of fashion has led many builders to adopt the "Queen Anne" style from the outside, so to speak, and to force the interior aiTangement to coiTespond to preconceived and manufact- ured picturesque effects of the outside. This is an exact contradiction of the true spirit of the Queen Anne movement. Irregular arrangements, giving a picturesque effect, are always artistic when they spring from necessities of consti'uction, or from later additions to an earlier plan. If the irregular arrangements are manufactured purposely, they are almost certain to do violence to convenience, and to betray a want of structui'al feeling in tne design. Summary of the Matter Relating to Historic Styles in Modern Architecture. — It appears from the foregoing brief sketch, that some acquaintance with the old historic buildings is essential to a knowl- edge of the merits and demerits of the modern copies; that many modern buildings maybe su[)posed to derive their value from imita- tion of an old model, Avhen their merit really lies in independence of it — that the latest and best tendency of modern taste is toward complete modern independence; but that this tendency is often dis- guised under names like "Queen Anne," "Italian Gothic," etc. AVliat has been said of the con.structional r>tand-point in criticism, implies that a person, passing an opinion on the artistic merits of a building, should have some knowledge of its uses and purpose, and some perception as to the necessary interinr arrangements connected therewith. This knowledge or perception must be largely connned 26 CRITICISM IN" ARCHITECTURE. to persons of mature years. But this does not invalidate the posi- tion that art education in such matters is desirable for young people. They are not expected to exercise an independent taste at the beginning of their studies, Ijut to learn such matter of fact about the history of styles as will guard them from a mistaken stand-point when they reach years of discretion. Principles or Stand-points of Criticism in Architecture. — These are entirely inde- pendent of the question whether fidelity to a historic style has been observed, and in each particular case the use and nature of the building must be considered. It is not, therefore, easy or desirable to define abstract principles apart from good examples, which are abundantly found, both in modern and in old historic struct- tn"es. Some hints as to criticism may, however, be indicated. For instance, in applying the stand-point of interior construction to the exterior ornament and appearance, it is not necessary to confine one's self to the jDhysical facts, but these may be ideally indicated also. In a stone building the lines of the divisions of the stories do not appear on the outside, but these may be indicated be a "string- course"* of another color or by a projected molding, and this would still be a case of constructional decoration — an ideal indication of the construction. To take another example from old palaces in Florence ; for instance, the Riccardi, Pitti (front view), and Strozzi palaces — these do not derive any greater security of con- struction from the fact that the blocks of stone are largest and roughest in the lower story. But the appearance of strength thus given is an ideal expression of the actual facts ; viz., that the lowest story carries the greatest weight, and must be of corresponding strength. (A similar grading and distinction may be observed in comparing the second story with the third in the palaces named.) In other cases, the actual construction maj^ give of itself an ornamental aspect ; for instance, in brick buildings where a wooden frame-work is used, this frame-work may be made apparent. So in wooden buildings the frame-work of the beams may be a decorative element. Much artistic effect may be oljtained from rough or unpolished surfaces — which are generally, or very often, preferable to smoother ones of the given texture. The verj' general absence of large and undecorated surfaces in modern architecture, has tended to make us somewhat unrestful in taste, and to find in buildings which exhibit them an appearance of gloom and heaviness. G-ood taste is, however, not at all averse to large effects of undecorated or rough surface in biulding. (A fine example is the Tiffany mansion in New York.) In the old Roman ruins, and in all periods of historic buildings, these effects may be abundantly studied. It does not, however, follow that the same taste would not take pleasure in a profusion of surface ornament, such as is found in Moresque decoration. The same lady may wear on one occasion a plain tailor-cut dress ; on another, a ball-dress covered with lace, and the same taste may find pleasure in both. As regards plainness of construction in modern architecture, it may, however, be noted that good criticism ranks among the best productions of modern art, its great engineering construe- * A 'string-course," or "course," is a horizontal line of masonry, distinguished by material or color from the general wall I'J-i-aje. It may, or may not, have projection. NOTES OX TllK ILLUSTRATIONS. 27 tions, railway bridges, suspension bridges, and other works, where the simple engineering construction is the only element of effect. The "Decorative Art" Movement corresponds in time and in its inspiration to the rise of the modern Romanesque, Italian Gothic, and Queen Anne "styles." In the so-called "Eastlake" and "Queen Anne" furniture, there is the same tend- ency to emphasize the lines of natural constrxiction and develop the ornament in connection with them. But hero, as in the architectural "styles" in question, the intluence of fashion has often led to external imitations which lack the merits and idea of the original designs. The Modern Moresque Style. — The Arab styles of ornament and building were introduced into Spain by the Arab Mohammedan Conquest in the 8th centuiy, a.d. The Moors of North Africa had become amalgamated with the Arabs ; had adopted their religion and culture at this time, and participated in this invasion. Hence the word Moresque is often applied to the Arab style in Spain. Of all modern imitations of historic styles, the imitations of the Arab or Moresque have been hitherto the least important in number and influence. The copies confine themselves to a revival in ornamental use of the horseshoe arch, and of the peculiar columns and capitals of Arab style (especially those used in the Alhambra Palace of Granada, in Spain, dating from the 14th century), and to imitations of the "Arabesque" surface decoration, of which abundant illustration may be found in all works or photographs relating to modern Egypt, a prominent seat of Arab civilization from the 7th century on (see especially views from Cairo"). The climate and civilization in which the Arab style developed render modern imitations of Arab construction almost impossible. The modern copies are scarcely worthy of serious consideration, if considered as copies. In all cases the modern character is predominant, and some slight ornamental influence is all that really allows the use of the word "Moresque" or "Arab" in relation to them. Criticism of the Modern Moresque. — Such buildings are to be judged on inde- pendent grounds, and without any reference to fidelity of imitation. The slender proportions in the Arab and Moresque columns make them especially available for free reproduction in inm. Tn iniMlcrn terra-cotta or brick decoration, Arab or Moresque motives have been very successfully employed. The "Casino," in New York, is a fine example of th^s use. The interi^-4 2. The Period of the existing Egyptian ruins is generally much * A molding is a line of projected or recessed masonry cutting— generally, i. f., in Greek and subsequent use, the moldins is composed of alternately projected and recessed parts The " profile " is the contour of outline or moldings as they would appear if sawn across at right angles to their lentrtK 34 EGYPTIAN RUINS AND PYRAMIDS. later than that of the isolated columns of Beni Hassan just men- tioned. Between 1800 b.c. and 1200 B.C., a period of great building activity, were erected most of the temples, now in ruins, at Thebes. These are variously known, from the sites of modern Arab villages erected at various points of the ancient city, as the ruins of Karnak^ of Luxor, of Medinet Habou, and of Gourneh. Important Ruins. — The most famous Egyptian temple ruin is the "Great Hall"" of Karnak, built in the 14th century B.C. by the kings Seti I. and Ramses II. (father and son — the mummy of Ramses II. has been discovered and unrolled, and is in the Museum of Gizeh near Cairo). The temple at Abydus is a- construction of Seti I. The "Ramesseum" at Thebes (17) dates from Ramses II. There is a famous rock-cut temple in Nubia, at Ipsamboul (80) dating from this last king. On this upper portion of the Nile, above the limits of Egypt proper, there are many other Egj^ptian ruins. After the time of the ruin at Medinet Habou, Thebes, about 1270 b.c, many- centuries passed of which no remains are now known. The temple of Edfou dates from the Greek rule over Egypt, b.c. 332-b.c. 30. Of the same time are the tem- ple of Deuderah (16) and the temples at Philee. The temples at Esneh and Kom Ambos belong to the period of Roman rule. This rule lasted after 30 b.c. till the Arab conquest in the 7th century a.d. (But pagan temples were not built after the triumph of Christianity in the 4th century, a.d.) Capitals with sculpt- ured leaf decoration, like those at Philas (19), indicate the Greek or Roman period. The same holds of the capitals with heads of Hathor (Egyptian Venus) (16). Returning to the Edfou temple as the general type of all others, it is to be- observed that the entire wall, roof, beam, and column surface of the temple was. covered with carved inscriptions and decorative or pictorial designs ; all in brilliant color. Stucco of a very durable quality was laid on the stone surface and received the coloring. If the pylons now destroyed are restored in imagination, the ruins, 16, 17, and 18, may be connected with the typical temple of Edfou for an idea of their original general effect. The Pyramids. — Of a still older period than any of the temple ruins now stand- ing, and not later than 3800 B.C., are the royal pyramid tombs near Cairo. The largest pyramid, that of Shufu (Cheops [keeops] as Grecianized in pronunciation), covers nearly thirteen acres of ground, and was once over four hundred and eighty feet high. The adjacent pyramid of King Shafra (Chephi'en) (both are illustrated at 20) was four hundred and seventy feet. Beside it is the colossal Sphinx, with human head and lion's body, possibly of still more ancient date, now buried to the shoulders in sand, sixtj-five feet high, and one hundred and forty-two feet long. This Sphinx is an emblem of the Egyptian Divinity Horus, one of the forms of the Sun-god. The religion of the Egyptians taught or admitted the existence of a Supreme Being (disguised under various forms and attributes, and giving rise to a variety of subordinate personifications, which were also worshiped as correlated divinities). It taught the immortality of the soul and a state of rewards and punishments after death. The immense size of the royal p^Tamid tombs was connected with a general habit of emphasizing the importance of the tomb, which, in the case of the king. 17. The Ramesseum, Thebes. i3. Ruins of Hermopolis. < -r fa o Q 2 < K e* O 2 OS CU A 1,1) i: A N AND ASSYUIAN A l{ (' II IT E CTU R E. 3.7 found an extraordinary development. The Egyptian idea of the future life con- ceived of the continued existence of the soul and of the "vital spark," and also of a spectral shadow or essence of tlic body, maintaining-its guise. This specter, at least in the earliest jieriod known, was conceived to depend for its well-being and activity, on a corporeal form to which it might attach itself. Hence, one reason for the embalmment of the mummy, and in many cases for the placing of statues in the tomb to which the spirit might attach itself. Such statues (Nos. 77 and 79) are found in many tombs near the pyramids, though not in the pyramids them- selves. Great care was taken to avoiil the possibility of destruction, and to con- ceal them in deep wells which formed part of the tomb. The galleries leading to the tomb chambers, within the pyramids, which contained the stone cottins and mummies, were closed at the entrance by immense blocks of stone. Chaldean and Assyrian Architecture. — The various ancient Empires of the Tigris-Euphrates Valley, Chaldean, .\ss\nan, Babylonian, and Persian, were suc- cessive governmental forms controlling one single civilization, which changed in the coui'se of successive centuries in many ways, but which still retained its unity in spite of the change of rulers implied by the above succession of empires. On account of the material used in the Chaldean and Assyrian constructions, which was brick, whereas the Egyptians used stone for their most important buildings, the ruins are now so shapeless that only ground plans and restorations can be used for illustration. The older (Chaldean) period is distinguished by im- mense heaps of bricks, which are the ruins of its temples. These were built in fashion of high platforms ascended by winding staircases on the outside. At the summit was the altar for sacrifice and the space on which the priests made their astronomical and astrological observations. Many of the Chaldean ruins date before 2000 b.c. In the later (AssjTian) period, tlie ruins of palaces predominate over those of temples. These are also reduced to shapeless heaps and mounds. Laborious excavations are required to reproduce the plan and construction of the original monuments. The Babylonian Empire di\-idcd the spoils and territories of the Assj-rian state with the Medes after 6:i5 ».c. The Persian Empire reunited these teiTitories about 550 B.C., and added Egypt to them about twenty-hve years later. The Persian conquests extended to the Indus on the east and to the shores of Asia Minor. The great capitals of this state, Persepolis and Tarsagada?, lay east of the Tigris- Euphrates Valley, in the province of Persia proper, and here palaces were erected by the Persian monarchs, whose ruins show that tlie Eastern world was already beginning to feel the influence of Greek art. This Greek influence became ascend- ant after Alexander the Great's conquest of the Persian Empire, about 330 B.C., and continued ascendant over Western Asia till the rise of the ^Mohammedan Arabs in the 7th century A.n. Egypt alone maintained her indcjiendent art forms in this Greek period after Alexander's conquest (which included Egypt). . In speaking of the a.scendancy of Greek civilizaiion as continuing till the time of the Arab conquests, it is to be remembered that the rule of the Roman p]mpire over the Oriental Mediterranean countries, which began shortly before the Christian Era, did not change their civihV.ation. The Grci-k Oriental culture rath-r became that of the Romans. The Practical Influence of Chaldean and Assyrian Architecture on the Greek was mainly in ornamental forms and designs. The use of the arch was practiced 38 CHALDEAN AND ASSYRIAN ARCHITECTURE. in Chaldea and Assyria. In Egypt, it was also used, though not in temples. It appears very probable that the vaulting (roofing) arch and the dome were also employed in the former countries. It has long been known that the arch did not originate with the Roinans of Italy, who obtained it from the Etruscans. The theory which derives the Etruscans of Italy, or a portion of them, from Asia Minor, where Assyrian influence was much felt, is held by good authorities. Or the arch may have passed to Italy by Phoenician transmission, since the Phoeni- cians of the Syrian coast were in active intercourse with both Egj-pt and Assyria. Enameled tiles were used in elaborate compositions of beautiful color effects, especially for the exteriors of the buildings. The most remarkable known exam- ples of this architectural tile-work (placed in the Louvrs Museum, 1886) are- from Susa. (Persian period; life-size procession of the royal guard, known as the "Im- mortals," and other subjects.) The tile decoration of the Arabs and Saracens is undoubtedly a continuation of this art, and the art of our own enameled tiles descends in various channels from the same original source. NOTES ON THE ILLUSTRATIONS FOR EGYPTIAN" ARCHITECTURE.* (13-21, inclusive.) Nos. 13, 14, and 15 offer in combination typical examples of the front exterior view, side section, and ground plan of an Egyptian temple. Different buildings vary as to the number of courts and apartments, but correspond as to general Temple of Khons, Karnak. plan and arrangement. All the ruins represented at 16, 17, 18, 19, may be re^ stored in imagination by the assistance of the first three typical views, and con- nected vsdth some portion of the general plan of a temple as there shown. Obelisks or statues were frequently placed in pairs flanking the entrances of the pylons. a: > r a o •»3 X a o m m 3 bjb cr V X a o *^ (d u o- d < < m DJ O- o o as < to o z < oi M < O- a < < CHALDEAN AND ASSYRIAN A H C H I T ECT U RE. 41 - «=^-^-_ Rock Tombs of Beni Hassan, The interior Court of the Temple of Khons (text-cut, p. 38) should be compared with the plan, 15, and section, 14.* The -.-i-^ relation of the view from Denderah, 16, to the original entire building will thus also become apparent. It is designed to show in larger dimensions the Egyptian system of construction as regards the col- umn, capital, roofing blocks, lines of beams in exterior view, and cornice. • Nos. 17 and 18 will now be understood as fragments of constructions similar to the text-cut, p. 38, or to Fig. 16, and as having a similar relation to an entire temple as indicated by the typical views 13, 14, 15. Finally, Fig. 19 illustrates the general appearance of Egyptian ruins in their relation to the surrounding landscape. No. 20 shows part of the "Pyramid field" of Gizeh, near Cairo, with the two largest pyramids of the IVth Dynasty, which antedate by many centuries any temple ruins known at present. 'I'liey are probably not later than 4000 b.c. To the same period of the "Ancient Empire" (as contrasted with the "New Empire" beginning about 1800 B.C.) belong the rock-tombs of Beni Hai^san, Xllth Dynasty (text-cut, p. 41). The architectural details, columns, and capital, here illustrated, have been noted in text. The walls between the columns, as found at Denderah (16), are not typical for early Egyptian monuments, and are only found in the period of decadence, during the rule of the Greeks and Romans, 'i'hc true Egj'ptian feeling admits either an open colonnade or a solid en- tire wall, but no compromise between the two. Imitation gate- ways, with side pilasters inserted against columns, as seen at 1() and 18, are also confined to the period of decadence. The original Egyptian construction does not tolerate any break in the outline of the column. The shattered pilaster figures in 17 are representations of the God Osiris (the Sun during the night conceived as God oC the dead and of the Lower World, and thus luning the fonn of a mummy). Similar "Osirid" pillars are frequently found in Eg>-ptian construction. The capitals in 16 .show heads of the Goddess Hathor, a double or count<'rpart of Isis, the spouse of Osiris and personification of the fertile earth. The winged disk seen over the portal at Denderah. anrl generally found in corresponding positions elsewhere (see Court of the Temple of Khons), is one of the forms of the God Horns (the Rising Sun, child of Osiris and Isis). The sun has the wings of a hawk to indicate the swiftness of its course. Proto-Doric Col- umn, Beni Hassan Lotus-bud Capital Beni Hassan. * Khons is a Theban form of the G. o a '3 a V c E 3 C o bo ct u o U IONIC RUINS. ^"^ the Persians captured Athens in 480 B.C., and destroyed the old buildings on the Acropolis. The new Erechtheiuni was thus erected on the site of an older building, whose kregular grounel plan was followed in the new structure from a sentiment of reverence and reh-ious tradition. The name of the temple is derived imm an Athenian king and hero of the mythical period, whose tomb was beneath the structure. ,, The Little Temple of Nike Apteros, or "A\mgless Victory, generaUy so called, but now known to have been a temple of Minerva, has been chosen as type of the Ionic in illustration (2 7) because the small size of the building allows a larger view c.f i s details. It appears in the restored view 30, on the right. This little temple, also on the Acropolis, was built about twenty years before the Erechtheium. Its small dimensions show how modestly tne style first made its appearance beside the older Doric at Athens. Historical Explanation of the Corinthian Order, so called.-The overthrow of Greek Historical cxpiauciL u t3u;k,-, wn^ iniinediatelv followed by a independence by the Macedonian Kuig Phi ip ^^as ^'"^^^^^ ^^^^J Alexander the Macedonian-Greek conquest of the Persian Empire, '^'^^'^Jl^f;;^^^^^^ e Great. Tl.is empire, reaching from the shores of ^-%^^^"°^ „^^,^/^ "l^' ,^ Indus (p. 37), and including Eg,Tt, 1-ul its center in the home of I'^^^/^^'^l and cLJ; States, the Tigris-Euphrates ^^^^^^ ^^^ ^t^'Z^^ pared by a gradual introduction and spread of ^^VfZll^^to the Eastern countries, and it was followed by a heavy migration of Greek mto world First as -overnors and soldiers, then as men of ait and science, ana m TbtinL t^ Sreeks spread through the West Oriental countries^ fcmndmg .v Lependeni Greek cities, li.e Antioch in ^^ia^^^ Ale— ^^ intermarrj-ing and amalgamating with the ^^"f^ J^^^;;" ^ ^^,^^ ^.f^re the grew up on the ruins of the Persian Empire, ^^^^^^^^ ''^\. Roman beginning of the Christian era ^a.l -arly f /^ ';7.^^f ^^;^^t,,i,, ,,,,,,,, East Empire. (The Greeks of the Tigns-Euphrates \^^lle> an I coum were, however, subdued by the Parthian heir, of the P-^-^^^^^;^,^ "^ ,,,,,^ I. this period of Gr^ek history, the mother country was -'^^^'[fl^^^^^^ but the Greek language, art, and science had begun t -- -^^^^^^^^^^^ ^ -hze^^ world. Under the Roman rule they were to conquer Italy ^"f ^^'^ J^^ the Western Mediterranean, and then descend tolater ^^ ^^ ^ /^f Gr fife of the Roman name and period. The earlier simplicity ami pun > ^^ and taste were, however, replaced by more luxurious tastes, and more corrupt nation. i.„„/i,-r.o- r,f the word " Corin- These explanations are necessary to an "-^^^f"^"^^ of the w r thian" as applied to the luxurious Ionic order of ! ^ ^ ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ Alexander the Great, and from the great Greek ^^^J^^J;:^^,^ I the Alexandria, the period is so -^^^^\''''^^'\}^.,^'^^^^^ Isthmus, through which passed so much of ^^^^ ^I^l^^"^^^"^^";;^"'"^^^ .^ ^^^^ ^^^^ a rich and luxm^ous city in days before the Alexandrine penod. and 58 CORINTHIAN RUINS. when riches and luxury were the rule, "Corinthian" was the adjective naturally used for the taste of the time. It may be also that a Corinthian architect perfected or beautified the capital so named, but there is evidence to show that it has an Oriental origin. The Corinthian Capital has a body corresponding to the shape of the column itself, but this is overlaid and concealed by leaves (p. 00). In general proportions and essential details the Corinthian order, as already noted, is simply the Ionic ; but generally with ornamental details somewhat more elaborated (text-cut, p. 6). - The Choragic Monument of Lysicrates at Athens (31) is the earliest known, and also the most beautiful example of the Corin- thian order, as respects the capitals ; but these capitals have been so damaged that restored drawings are necessary to an appreciation of their former beauty. This little building is a round structure, of slender proportions, erected to support a bronze tripod, which has disappeared. The tripod was a form consecrated by sacrificial uses in the Greek religion, and hence was one of the usual prizes in the contests of Greek dramatic choruses. The tripod in question was a prize won by the chorus Avhich was supported by the Athenian Lj'sic- rates. Hence the name "Choragic Monument." The date (334: b.c.) of this building marks the general introduc- tion of the Corinthian style into Greece and into the Greek countries. It corresponds nearly to the general date for Alexander the Great's conquest of the Persian Empire (about 333 B.C.), and to the date for the battle of Cheronsea, just noted. Later Architectural Remains of the Corinthian order, between the time of the Choragic Monument and the period of the Roman Empire are almost absolutely unknown, owing to the wholesale destruction of the ancient monuments. This latter period has however, left abundant remains of the Corinthian order, and manj of great beauty. These belong to the early centuries of the Christian era. The general use of the Corinthian order in the Roman imperial period, in all countries of the Empire, is onp phase of the general fact that the culture of the Roman Empire, which comprised so many countries which had been previously Alexandrine Greek, had also in general an Alexandrine Greek origin. The Ruins of the Olympian Jupiter Temple at Athens (32), may be mentioned as among these later monuments, dating from the U K i«; i!- K U K I) E K S CO M T A 1< K I) . 59 Roman Emperor Hadrian, and the second century after Christ. Other remains of the Jiomau period will bo noted in the corresponding section. Details of the Doric and Ionic Orders Compared. — Having considered, first, the general plan and use of the Greek temple, and second, the historical sequence of the Greek orders and tlieir correspondence, as to time and taste, with the broadest facts of Greek history, we may now notice the contrasts of the orders in detail. These orders, as already noted, are essentially only two in number, and the folhnv- ing matter applies eijually to the Corinthian and the Ionic, with exception for the capitals alone. Contrast in Proportions of the Column. — For following matter compare 27 with 24 and 28. (See also text-cut at page 6.) The proportions of the Doric column are hea\'y', and those of the Ionic are light and slender. This distinction has no reference to the actual size, but to the relations of height and diameter. Tlie average height of the shaft of th'3 Doric column is from 5 to 5i diameters. The average height of the Ionic shaft is from 8i to 9i diameters. The Doric Order has no Base, and its shaft rests directly on the platfonn of the stnicture. This absence of bases enhances the effect of the heavy proportions in the columns, which would gain in height, and therefore in appeai-ance of slen- derness, if supported by such a member. The slender proportions of the Ionic shaft are, on the other hand, enhanced by the additional elevation which the base gives to the column^ The Intercolumnar Distances, or spaces between the columns, are narrow in the Doric order, and do n(jt much exceed the diameter of the column itself (average, 1^ diameters). This contributes also to the massive effect of the order. The Ionic columns, although more slender, are also spaced in relatively wider distances (average, 2^ diameters). Diminution of the Shaft. — All Greek columns diminish slightly in size from the foot toward the neck. In the Doric order this diminution is quite emphatic ; the converging sides of the shaft give an effect of steadfastness and security, tending to that seen in the form of the pyramid. The diminution from below upward in proportions of the Ionic shaft is so slight, that the reduced size of a picture will not show it. It is none the less, here as in the Doric, a delicate indication of that natural physical law that pressure increases from above downward, and that physical resistance must also increase from above downward. As in the case of the Florentine palaces noted at page 26, there is no physical necessity for this construction. It is an artistic and {esthetic emphasis for the satisfaction of the eye. Curves of the Shaft. — The diminution inentioned is not produced by straight lines, but in the outlines of all Greek columns there is a delicate convex curve. This curve is called the Entasis. On account of the marked diminution of the Doric shaft, the convex curves in the rising lines of the shaft are most pronounced in the Doric. The curves may be conceived as representing an ela.stic and %igorou3 supporting power against the weight above, as opposed to one of dead resistance. It may be that the converging lines of the Greek column were intended to enhance the perspective diminution and consequent appearance of size. The cux-ves would assist this perspective illusion. It has been supposed by some authorities that the curves are intended to correct an optical appearance of inward deflection toward the center in the exterior hues of the shaft. 60 GREEK ORDERS COMPARED. Doric Capital, Parthenon. M^ifraprawEfCTifj^ Flutings of the Column. — All the orders, as far as the Greek monuments are concerned, have fluted columns. That is, the shafts are channeled in the perpen- dicular direction by a series of curved grooves or furrows. These flutings have partly the pu?.- pose of uniting the various " drums " or pieces of the shaft into a single whole, and of prevent- ing the cross-sections of tlie joints of the various pieces from breaking the effect of perpendicular unity. But in cases where a relatively small size of the shaft allowed it to be quarried in a single block the flutings are also found, so that this could not be the sole explanation. The flutings may then be also understood as a deco- ration emphasizing the perpendicular line, and l^leasing the eye by an agreeable and regular variation of lights and shadows on the sur- face of the shaft. There is a distinction in the character of the flutings of the two orders. The Doric flutings are wide and shallow, and are sep- arated only by the sharp edges formed by the meeting of two concave curves. The Ionic flutings are narrow and deep, and are separated by intervals of plane surface, form- ing a series of perpendicular bands. This distinction is explained by its results in the effects of the shadows which the flutings cast. The deep and narrow flutings cast a heavy shadow, and each perpendicular dark line of shadow is emphasized by its distinct separation from tlie others. The slender effect of the Ionic is much increased by these perpendicular shadow stripings. The shallowness of the Doric flutings is such, that the shadow lines, falling mainly only at the sharp edges of separation, do not essentially detract from its heavy proportions. Thus, too, would be explained the fact that the flutings are more numerous in the Ionic (twenty-eight flutings) and less numerous in the Doric (twenty flutings ; in early temples, sixteen). That is, the slender shaft has heavier perpendicular shadows and more of them, while the thick-set shaft has lighter perpendicular shadows and less of them. The Doric Capital. — At the neck of the shaft, and just below the capital, the Doric column is cut by one or more incisions hori- zontally, giving the effect in shadow of a ring about the neck of the shaft. This cut is intended to mark off and distinguish the capital from the shaft. The Doric Ionic Capital, Erechtheium. Corinthian Ca-pital, Choragic monument of Lysicrates. G H E E K () U D E R S COMPARED. 61 capital was called by the Greeks the Echinus, from its resemblance to a kettle or caldron. Its shape is best de- scribed by the illustration of the text-cut, p. 60, or by the col- umns seen in 25 and 26. The Ionic Capital is also best described by the text-cut (p. 60). Tlae volutes, which are its dis- tinguishing feature, are derived from the downward curling calyx leaves of a conventional form of lotus used in ancient Oriental decoration, and derived from Egypt. The entire flower is found on Cypriote vases, and on Cj'priote tombstones, dating from the 6th and 7th centuries B.C. The Corinthian Capital lias already been described (text-cut, p. 60). In Greek use, there was much freedom and variety in the treatment and details of the capitals of the various orders. No two buildings of the same order are exactly alike in this, or in any respect. The Abacus is the square plate of stone which rests on the capital and supports the beam above. In the Doric order, the abacus is a large and prominent member. In the Ionic, the abacus is represented only by a thin plate of stone, or disappears entirely. The Beams are Distinguished as Architrave and Frieze. — Both taken together, are called the "entab- lature." The lower line of beams is called the architrave. The word frieze is applied to the upper Line of beams, but the same word is also used to define a horizontal band of decoration in general, whether it be on the inside or outside upper portion of a wall, or elsewhere. The Architrave has an undecorated surface in the Doric order. The Ionic architrave has three horizontal divisions. Each one of the two upper divisions juts forward a little over the one beneath it. The effect, as seen from the front, is that of a beam divided into three sections by two horizontal lines. The divisions are said to be imitations of the overlapping l»oards of an ancient style of wooden construction. This resemblance is an assistance to a verbal description of Scheme of Doric Temple Construction, Parthenon. Acroterium of the Parthenon. 62 GREEK ORDERS COMPARED. '^M,MMMM^^.-^M.'mM'i^J^^M^ n n ^MkMMhMUk ^^^ the Ionic architrave, and may explain its origin, but it is not likely that imitation of wooden consti'uction was the motive of this use in the perfected stone Ionic. The motive was, doubtless, to relieve the surface of the beam of a bare appeai'- ance, which, on the other hand, was easily tolerated by the spirit of the Doric order. In Certain cases, however, the Doric architrave was decorated by affixed gold or gilded shields. The Doric Frieze is spaced in sec- tions by a series of triglyphs (28 and text-cut), arranged, one over each- col- umn, and one over each intercolumnar space. Thus the triglyphs duplicate the number of the columns. The triglyphs consist of perpendicular bands of stone, three in number, separated by grooves. The spaces between the triglyphs are called Metopes. They are generally decorated with sculpture in relief. The Cornice has a more elaborate outline in profile, and a more decora- tive molding, in the Ionic and Corin- thian styles ; a simpler and heavier character in the Doric. The under sur- face of the Doric cornice is decorated with a series of m^ules, flat, rectangu- lar, projected suiWces on which are drops, or guftce. The Pediment or Gable is distin- guished in all the Greek orders by its low (wide or obtuse) angle. This angle is more acute in the Boman period (coinpare the Pantheon, 39). The space within the lines of the gable was deco- rated with sculpture. Ornaments, called Acroteria, were placed on the summit of the gable and at the lower extremities of its sides. Irregularities of Construction. — A remarkable featui'e of Greek Temple archi- tecture is the general absence of rectilinear and of exactly perpendicular lines. Irregularities in the sizes of corresponding members — columns, capitals, abaci, triglyphs, and metopes, and in the spacings between them, are also general. The peculiar delicacy of the masonry construction has admitted of an examination in detail, which proves that these various irregularities of size, proportion, and align- ment were a part of the intended construction. The observation of these pecul- iarities is comparatively recent, and their purpose is still in debate. The first noted and most curious of these refinements is that relating to the deviations from rectilinear alignment. The Horizontal Curves. — It was observed, in 1837, by Mr. Pennethome, an English architect, that the steps of the substructure (stylohate) of the Parthenon, and the substructure itself, are constructed in curved lines rising from the corners Ionic Entablature, Priene. TllK lUHdZuNTAL CUllVES. 63 toward the center of each side. Corresponding but not exactly parallel curves are found in the upper lines of the buiUling. Tlie amount of the curve on the long sides of the Parthenon is only about four and a half inches in about two hundred and twenty feet. That is to say, this is the amount of deviation upward from an Imaginary exactly horizontal line, at the center of the curve. The measurements which demonstrated the intentional construction of these curves were made by the English architect, Mr. Penrose, in 184G. A passage directing the construction of such curves is found in the ancient author, Vitruvius, wlio wrote a work on archi- secture in the 1st century of the Christian era, at Rome. Although the work of "Vitru\aus had been well known to modern students since about loOO a.d., this passage had attracted no attention before the date of the discovery of the curves in the ruins themselves — another illustration of the very recent origin of the interest in Greek art (see page 8). Vitruvius adds the explanation that the lines of the building would otherwise appear deflected in the downward direction (from the ends toward the center). In the case of a gable, there is no doubt an optical appearance of deflection downward in the straight line under it. As regards the main horizontal lines of the temples, when seen from below and in the neighbor- hood of the angles, there may be a similar optical effect of downward deflection in th« direction away from the angle.* Consequently, it has been supposed by some writers, that the curves were intended to counteract an illusion of this kind, which would have tended to an appearance of sagging downward and weakness in the building. Tn this connection it may be observed that the Greek temples were generally placed on an elevation, and they were always on a raised plat- form, so that even the lines of the substructure were frequently above the level of the eye of an approaching spectator. "With other authorities, especially with those inclined to consider the taste and knowledge of the ^rie of Vitruvius as inferior to that of the Greeks in the 5th century B.C., and thus inclined also to consider his explanation as only partially "T ?.«. i' 5.S Ionic Columnar bases, Athens. adequate, various other theories have been advanced. One of these supposes that the curves were intended to enhance the effects of size in the Vmildings according to the principles of curvilinear perspective. Another view holds that the curves of the substructure were intended to offer an appearance of elastic resistance to the weight resting on them, and that the upper lines were curved to correspond. • Thiersch, "Optische Taxischungen aiif dem Qebiete der Architectur" ("Optical IlltiBions in Architecture "). 64 GREEK TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE. Still another theory regards the curves as an expression of Greek distaste for stiff and formal lines, and for exactly mathematical forms, and connects them with the other irregularities above mentioned, which are supposed to indicate, and result from, a similar feeling. It is quite likely that all these different views are correct. It may be, however, that the Greeks themselves were not very distinctly con- scious of having any \'iews whatever on the subject. The delicacy of their taste may have led them to prefer the curved Hnes without formulating any prin- ciple or theory about them. NOTES ON THE ILLUSTRATIONS FOR GREEK TEMPLE ARCHITECTXTRE. (22-32, inclusive.) Illustrations for the Doric Order.— See Nos. 22, 24, 25, 26, 27. Illustrations for the Ionic Order.— See Nos. 28, 29. Illustrations for the Corinthian Order. — See ISTos. 31, 32. Restorations.— See Nos. 25, 26, 28, 29, 30. No. 30 shows the Propyleea in front, the Erechtheium on the left, the Parthenon in the center, and the temple of "Wingless Victory" on the right. The restorations of interiors at 25 and 26 offer suggestions as to mode of lighting the temples, which are not to be con- sidered as conclusive (see p. 44). The Text-cuts are intended to supplement and illustrate the foregoing mat- ter relating to the details of the orders. The " Egg and Dart " molding herewith in the text-cut is an enlarged view of a common Ionic molding seen on the Ionic s FEl Ej mJ s rnJ El m pMrRJIffit IrMJ ISirS Typical surface ornament in color. Conventional lotuses and " palmettes," and Greek "fret" or "meander." From the Parthenon. Egg and Dart Molding. capital and on the Ionic entablature in text-cuts. This molding is also very com- mon in modern decoration, as borrowed from the ancient Greek. Still more famil- iar in modern surface ornament are the patterns of conventional lotuses and "palmettes," and the ornament known as the Greek "fret," "meander," or "key pattern," herewith in text-cut. Compare the "palmette" in text-cut for the Aero terium of the Parthenon, also a typical Greek and modern form. ROMAN IMPERIAL PERIOD. Deficiency of Earlier Monuments. — In all aspects of Roman life and history, it is inipurtant to separate tlie views based on existing remains from the facts relating to earlier periods which have left little or nothing to later times. For the history of art, and for studies which are not distinctly arcluuological in pm'pose, the Impe- rial period is the only one to be considered, as it is also the one which has left by far the largest amount of material for studj^ Greek Influence. — Remembering that the Alexandrine Greek his- tory, after 330 B.C. (see page 51), embraces a number of countries which subsequently became portions of the Roman Emoire, that Italy had been under mediate Greek influences from an early time, and that the Roman countries of the Western Mediterranean largely owed their civilization to Greek Oriental sources, we shall be pre- pared to understand that the history of Imperial Roman art is in sequence to the Greek, and describes the continuation of it, and its ultimate mixture Avith foreign elements. A Sketch of Italiacuand Roman History before the Imperial period and the time of existing reihains is also essential to exact views of the subject. Down to the time of Ale^fander the Great and the close of the history of the ^ Greek republics, the Roman territory was onh' a small portion of Italy, south of the lower Tiber. The Latin tribe over which the Roman city (founded about 750 B.C.) Iiad extended its rule, and which had also been admit te(l to Roman pi'ivileges and citizenship, was distinguished b}^ great political and practical virtues, and by capacity for military discipline, but in comparison with other Italian nations, was backward in culture and art, and in these respects was dependent on them. Tims. t(^ understand the later Roman art, we have first to understand that of the rest of Itah', especially as the rest of Italy ultimately became Roman in government and name. Italy did not, for ancient geographers, comprehend the Northern 66 ROMAN IMPERIAL PERIOD. Po Valley above the Apennines, until shortly before the Christian era. Its most important nations were the Etruscans and Samnites. These may be considered, broadh^, as controlling tke most fertile parts of Italy above and below the Latin tribe, respectively. Around the South Italian shores was a line of Greek colonial cities of great wealth and importance. Before the date of these Greek settlements (mainh' of the 7th and 6th centuries B.C.), the Etruscans and Sam- nites had been largely dependent on the Oriental civilizations, through the medium of Phoenician commerce. After this time, the same influences continued, but were colored and overlaid by Greek characteristics. Thus, for instance, the Etruscan alphabet was bor- rowed from the Greek. So intimate were the commercial rcla-tions, that the multitude of Greek vases found in Etruscan tombs formerly led to the presumption that the Greek vases were Etrliscan: Conquest of Italy. — In fifty years after the time of Alexander, the Romans had mastered the Etruscan, Samnite, and Greek terri- tories. Their policy was to adopt a portion of the conquered popu- lations into their own political system, and also to spread through the conquered territories colonies of their own citizens, which thus came under the Italian influences of their immediate neighborhood. Thus, for a double reason, the later "Roman" art was that of Italy in general. The Roman Empire. — Carthage had become mistress of most of the West Mediterranean shores and islands, about 300 B.C., and had controlled parts of them for many centuries before this time. In the third century B.C., the Romans began a contest with Carthage for the jpossession of Sicily, which finally ended in the Roman con- trol of all the Western Mediterranean, about 200 b. c. At this time, the Phoenician culture and art had already adopted a Greek color- ing, and had at least a superficial Greek character. Thus, under "Roman" influences, viz., those of Italy in general, the Western Mediterranean countries continued in that path which thej^ had already entered before the Roman conquest. The extension of Roman government over the Greek States of the East began soon after 200 b.c, and continued until shortly before the time of the Christian era. At this time, under the first Emperor Augustus, the boundaries of the Empire were nearly those of later time. Roman Art. — In the "Roman" art of the Imperial time, we include the remains of all these various countries. In all of them, the same 33. Hall in the Baths of Caracalla, Rome. Restored vicA-. 34. Ruins of an Aqueduct, near Rome. C ' , c c c^ c c • 35, THE ROMAN RUM. Restored view. 35. The Porta Maggiore, Rome. 37. Basilica of Constantine, Rome. KOMA.N 1 M I'KlliAL i'EKiOD. 71 general character prevails. It would be a mistake to suppose that, in all these cases, this " Roman " art was transported bodily, by Roman intervention, to these countries. The Roman art is that of the countries which became Jioman, and this art was a general expression of the civilization in the Mediterranean basin at this time. As Spain, Britain, Frauci', and Soutli Germany were lirst generally brought within the area of Mediterranean civilization by the Roman conquests, these are the countries in which a distinct ''Roman" introduction and dissemination of this civilization took place. But in these countries, also, an earlier Phoenician or Greek influence had prepared the way for the "Romans," and was in no way antagonized or overthrown by the inlkience which succeeded. It is true, however, for all i)ro\inces, Eastern as well as Western, that the Empire had a capital of great importance and far-reaching influence, and that the great force and practical nature of the original Roman blood stamped a certain element of its own charac- ter on the remotest portions of its provinces, and on their art. The General Use of the Arch is a striking feature in remains of "Roman" architecture. In Italy, the remains prove that the arch was used by the Etruscans, at an early date, for city gates, sewers, and drainage constructions, and it was emploj^ed probably in build- ings as well. The intimate relations of the Etruscans with Egypt and Assyria, through Phoenician commerce, would explain this use. It was from the Etruscans that the early Romans adopted the arch, as well as other elements of art and culture. The great sewer {Cloaca Maxima) in Rome is a monument of this early Etruscan influence. Ruins of aqueducts (3-1) or bridges, in which the arch was employed, are scattered over all fonticr ]»rovincL's of tlie Emx>ire. (The earlier Greek aqueducts were tunneled under ground.) There are apparently no existing remains of arched constructions in the Grecianized Oriental countries positively dating earlier than the rtoman conquests, aside from those of the earlier Assyrian and Egyptian time; but the later destruction has been so absolutely sweeping in these countries, that negative evidence is of no great value. The probability is, that the arch continued in use in the Oriental world down to its Roman period, without intermission, and that the arched and domed constructions of the Imperial period in the Eastern provinces are simply direct continuations of this earlier use. At least two instances of ai"ch construction are now known ia 72 PUBLIC BUILDINGS. Q-reece, dating from the Greek period proper. It is clear that the Greek use was quite Hmited, but rather from national prejudice than from ignorance of the principles of this construction. In the Roman Baths (33), both the vaulting or roofing arch and the dome were emjjloyed. The bath constructions in the city of Rome were of vast extent, comprising not only bathing accommo- dations, but also lounging-rooms, reading-rooms, libraries, and gym- nasiums. Works of sculpture were so lavishly used in decoration, that the baths were also veritable museums of art. The Basilicas were the meeting places of the merchants and men of business, and here also were the courts and halls of justice. The most noted remains of a Basilica in which the roof was vaulted, is that known as the Basilica of Constantine, in Rome (3 7). The ruin has preserved only one side aisle of the original construction. In this case, and quite generally, the vaulting is formed of concrete, which was cast in a mold of plank construction. This was removed when the mass became hard and solid. By this method, the ten- dency of the arch to thrust the supporting walls outward was avoided. (There were two vaulted apartments in the baths of Caracalla, each as large as the central nave of the Basilica of Con- stantine.) Another class of Basilicas was constructed with a timber roof, and having the upper walls of the central nave supported by colunms. In the ruins of the Basilica Ulpia at Rome, time of Tra- jan, second century a.d., we can trace the general plan of these constructions. Their arrangements were subsequently copied in one class of early Christian churches, thus named after them. In the Amphitheaters for the games of the gladiators, the fights of animals, and similar amusements of the populace, Roman en- gineering skill is again displayed in marvelous ways. The Colos- seum at Rome is the most famous example of this class of con- structions. The gladiator games were a phase of the corruption of ancient civilization In the Imperial period, and were unknown at Rome in the early days of Roman republican simplicity. The Greeks never admitted such spectacles. They were a concession to the coarse and cruel tastes of the populace, whose favor was essen- tial to the security of the Emperor's person. Triumphal Arches (41) marked the avenues through which the triumphal processions, in celebration of foreign conquests, were conducted, and served as memorials of them. The triumphal arches 38. The Maison Carrce, Nimes. 29. The Pantheon, nomc. ?£ssd ( ^Ci . c 40. PORTAL or ROMAN TEMPLE, BAALBEC, SYRIA. T? () M A X O n X A M K X T A L S Y S T K M . 75 of the Emperors TiUis, Septiiuius Severus. mid (lonstantine are still standing at Rome. The Ornamental System. — In ;ili the various Roman construc- tions so far nameil (excepting the timl)er-roofed Basilicas), the arch, "arched ceilings, or domes, and supporting piers or walls, are the structural elements ; but their ornamental traits have still t(j be considered. In some cases, the marble casing on which these ornar mental details were carved has been destroyed (for instance, in 37), but all Roman buildings affected the same style of ornament. Ex- amination will show I hat these ornamental traits are Greek, univer- sally, but that, in cases where arches are used, the columns and beam entablatures are not elements of the construction itself, as they are seen to be in the illustrations of the Greek temples. This purely ornamental use of Greek forms, which were originally purely structural, is the distinguishing feature of the Roman style. Broken Lines of the Ornamental Entablature. — A peculiar feature frequently appears in tlu; lines of the ornamental imitations of the entablature, viz., the projections of the entablature over the columns, making a series of breaks in its lines (41). In the Greek structural use, the lines of the entablature are necessarily straight. A curious exaggeration of these projections is found in the part of the surrounding wall of the Roman Forum, known as the Forum of Nerv^a, where the columns are really a surface ornament rather than supports of a portico, although they are entirely freed from the wall. Ornamental Gables. — Another phase of this Roman use of Greek form is found in the ornamental gables which surmount doors, win- dows, and niches (36). These are imitations in reduced size of the gables of the Greek temj^les. There are four varieties in the ornamental gable. -V curved form was introduced to vary the mo- notony of the triangle.* Both curve and triangle are occasionally found with a break at the center above or below. In the rock- carved Roman structures of Petra, in Southern Syria, there are remarkably fine illustrations of these various uses. Others may be seen in the Roman ruins of Baalbec, in Syria. The plain, triangular niche gable is seen in the interior of the temple at 40, and on the Porta Maggiore, at Rome, the best preserved of Roman • Seen at 6 in a modem copy. M.iny designs in modem furniture show variants of these omameuts 76 THE roma:n" temples. city gateways (36). (Above it are portions of an aqueduct in two sections.) Use of the Ruins as Quarries. — It has been observed, that brick constructions, like the Batlis of Caracalla, were originally decorated with marble casing, in which the Roman-Greek ornamental forms were employed. These casings have been torn off, and burned into 2ime for mortar in the Middle Ages. In fact, the destruction of ruins for this purpose, and the use of them as quarries, did not cease in Rome till the middle of the 18th century. It still con- tinues in the Oriental countries, which were once Roman prov- inces. In many Roman provinces, for instance, in Britain, an almost absolute destruction of the ruins has resulted from the habit of using them as quarries. Thus we have explained the singular fact that the most remarkable series of ruined Roman cities is found in Eastern Syria, along the edge of the northern continuation of the Arabian desert. Only in this one portion of the old Ron:an Empire has the later population spared its remains. The Bedouins, who subsequently occupied the country, live in tents, and hence the r:ins have been preserved. The Roman Temples of early dates imitated those of the Etrus- cans. No remains of either are preserved. Ancient descriptions show that they had a general resemblance to the Greek temples, without their refinement or beauty of proportions. The Roman temples of the Imperial period (38) are Greek in details and plan. Many of them, however, abandon the surrounding colonnade, only retaining the portico in front. The temple known as the liaison Carrie (square house) at Nimes, in Southern France, is a well- preserved example. It thus appears that the distinctive Roman ornamental use of the Greek columns did not exclude the continu- ation of the Greek structural use. The Order Generally Employed in the Imperial period is the Corinthian. The Roman preference for this order is an illustration of the origins of the Imperial civilization, which was essentially a continuation of the Alexandrine or Asiatic-Greek (p. 57). When the Doric or Ionic forms are employed, the details are relatively inferior. The so-called " Tuscan " order is an Etruscan modification of the Doric which continued in the Imperial period. The so-called " Com- posite" order has a capital combining details of the Ionic and Corinthian forms. 41. TRIUMPHAL ARCH OF TRAJAN, BENEVENTO. 42. Ruined houses and colonnades, Pompeii. 43. The Porta Nigra, Trier. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. 79 The Domestic Architecture (,ontiiiiied as in earlier antiquity, and in modern Oriental countries, without external ornament or arehi- Apartment in a Pompeian House. tectural pretensions. Dwellings of six and seven stories were l)uilt in Rome. Those preserved in Pompeii have only two stories. This town, in the vicinity of Naples, was buried under a shower of ashes from the volcano of Mt. Vesuvius in 79 A.n. The various apart- ments of a Pompeian house are centered about an open court, into Plan of a Foiiipeian House. p, 77i<=yestibulum, or /ic///; /. r//« Ostium ; .?, T/ie Ainiun, off ir/iir/i are Mj- ci\hU-»\n. nr nhfpinff-rootm ; 3, 'Hit Impluvium, before ichlch stomU the pedesfal, or nlfar, of t/i^ hofehnlil gods ; h. Tn. Tabliniini. or cJiUf room ; 5, The Pinacotheca. or lihranj a nf I picture (;tdJ>r>/; 6, The Fauces, or corridor; 7, The Pirisiyliiiin, or court, with (4() itn central fountain ; 0, The .Ecus, or xiafe-room ; lo. The Triclinium; 11, The kitchti. : IS, The traiiKverse corridor. %cith garden beyond ; and IS, The Larnrluin, a receplacU for the more favorite gods, and for statues of illustrious personagea. which they open. The wealth and luxury were exhibited in the in- terior decoration and domestic furni.shin,f,^ Th.- Avails facing the street are bare ; often even without windows. The Pantheon. — Of all Roman buildings, the Pantheon at Rome claims precedence by its complete preservation (No. 30). The in- terior is a single domed apartment, lighted by an opening at the 80 ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. center. The exterior is of brick, with a stone portal in the form of a temple gable and portico. It is generally supposed that the use of this building as a temple for the gods of the conquered nations was not the original destination, and that it was originally part of the plan of a bath construction, subsequently separated during erec- tion from the main building. This has been recently disputed by high authority, but it is at least true that the Pantheon offers a fine illustration of the immense domed apartments which were one feature of the Roman baths. JSrOTES ON THE ILLUSTRATIONS FOB ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. (65-80, inclusive.) Kos. 33, 34, 37, are chosen as types of the arch construction and of arched vaultings. Nos. 86, 39, 40, 41, 43, show the as- sociation of the arch or dome with G-reek structure used for decoration. No. 38 illustrates the continuance of the Greek temple form under the Roman Empire. The Theater of Marcellus, in text-cut showing a section of construction, offers an excellent type of the Roman combination of the arch with Greek forms. The entire building, begun by Caisar and finished by Augustus, held thirty thousand spectators. The restored view of the Ro- man Forum shows several in- stances of the continuance of the Greek construction proper. At p. 72 reference is made to the Basilica, or Business Ex- change, built by the Emperor Trajan, as belonging to the class of timber-roofed Basilicas. The broken columns of this structure are seen at No. 125 (p. 180) in front of the column erected by the same emperor. The division of nave and aisles, which con- , . ^, ^, 1, -r> -T Theater of Marcellus, Rome. tmued m tne Church Basilicas, as explained in the next section, can be seen in the lines of the broken columns. ARCHITECTURE OF THE MIDDLE AGES. BYZANTINE PERIOD, A. D. 300-1000. In the 5th century of the Christian era, the Western provinces of the Koman Empire were overflowed by an armed migration of German tribes, wliich liad been previously settled in Central and Eastern Europe beyond the Danube and the Rhine. They were a simple agricultural people, of warlike ferocity and unlettered tastes, seeking new homes remote from the pressure of a Mongolian inva- sion from Asia, which was thrcatcnini'- tlich- own security. In the preceding centuries, contact with Roman traders, or service as soldiers in Roman pay, had partially familiarized the Germanic tribes witli the civilization into which they now rudely entered as conquerors and masters. They had already, in general, adopted the Christian faith from Roman missionaries, or became converts soon after the invasion. During the 4th century, liie one preceding the German inva- sions, Christianity had escaped the persecutions of the first three centuries. Under the Roman Emperor Constantine it was protected and fostered by the State. Under thc^ Roman Emperor Theodosius it became the State religion, and pagan worship was forbidden. Thus in the 5th century the Roman Church became the connecting link between the conquered provinces and their German invaders, the power ruling both. For many centuries the efforts to revive the culture of Western Europe, or to protect that culture Avhirli had escaped the wreck of the invasions, were entirely the work of the clerg}' and of the Church. Thus the continuation of the Roman architecture under new conditions and in now uses may bo studied in the early Christian churches. The Byzantine Empire. — In Eastern Europe, and in the countries of Asia and Africa bordering the Eastern ]\Iediterranean, the Ro- man Empire continued without any break of continuity or character, 82 BYZANTIXE ARCHITECTURE. aside from those most important changes, introduced by the domi- nance of the Christian rehgion. The new name apphed, in modern historic usage, to this Eastern portion of the Empire sometimes obscures its identity and tlie continuity of its existence. The Em- peror Constantino had transferred the Imperial residence from Rome to Constantinople. Constantinople was the site of an earlier Greek colony Byzantium. Hence the use of the term " Byzantine EmjDire," as applied to this Eastern continuation of the Roman Empire. It is also called the "East Roman Empire" and the "Greek Empire." The use of this latter term emphasizes the fact that the population of the East Mediterranean countries was Greek in culture and lan- guage, and largel}^ Greek in blood after the time of Alexander's con- quest of the Persian Em^Dire (p. 3 7). Byzantine Architecture. — The best, because the most comprehen- sive, term for all early Christian architecture is the term Byzantine. This term covers both the Christian churches of the East Roman Empire and of the Germanic States, founded, on the ruins of the Roman Empire in Western Europe, because Western Europe, in its backward condition, subsequent to the invasions, was very largely dependent on East Roman art and influences. The name is, however, a matter of indifference, provided a single one is used to comprehend the period, during which the Churches of Western Europe and those of the Byzantine Empire had the same general forms and plan,* Basilicas and Baptisteries. — There were two types of churches in use during the period in question, one founded on the plan of the timber-roofed Roman Basilica, or Business Exchange, the other founded on the plan of the large-domed apartments of the Roman Baths (ISTo. 39). In both cases, the names Basilica and Baptistei^y {Baptisterium) were retained. The Periods of Church Architecture. — The first (Bj'zantine) period of architecture lasted in Western Europe about seven centuries ; from the triumph of Christianity under Constantino to about the beginning of the 11th century. New methods of construction, * Classifications -wliicli designate as distinct styles the " Early Christian " and " Byzantine " are confusing because they are not founded on facts. So too are the classifications which intro- duce the term "Romanesque" in the sense of "debased Roman," as co-extensive with "Early Christian." Such classifications obscure the sense of the word Romanesque, which in archi- tecture implies simply a return to certain Roman featxires of construction, and leave us without a term for the real Romanesque period, which lies between the Byzantine (or "Early Christian") and the Gk)thic. 44 BASILICA OF SAN APOLLINARE NUOVO, RAVENNA. 45« Basilica of San Apollinare in Classe, Ravenna. C c c c c t c t ' I I « 46. Basilica of San Apollinare in Classe, Ravenna. ]?YZ AN'I'I X K ARCHITECTURE. 85 to be subsequently specified, were then gradually adopted for the cathedrals and larger churches of the new period, which is desig- nated as the liunianesqiic, and which lasted till about the close of the 12th century. The style now characterized as the Gothic then succeeded, and lasted till the close cf the Middle Ages, about 1500 A.D. History of the Word "Basilica." — The Basilica, as Christian Church (33, 34, 35, 3(5), retained the name and mainly retained the plan of the buildings thus previously named (p. 72). The name dates from a very early event in Athenian history — the overthrow of the rule of the king {Basileus). His duties were divided among a series of elective officials {Archons). One of these Archons retained the title of Basileus, and after him was named th(^ building which served for his judicial sessions, and which was devoted to other public uses. The use of the term spread to other Greek cities, and finally became that of the Roman Empire. In the Christian period, the term gained a new meaning, the '' Royal House," «*. c, the dwelling of the King of Kings. Early Christian Churches. — For obvious reasons, there was no development of Christian ai'cliitccturo mitil the close of the persecu- tions at the opening of the -Ith century. The earliest Christian Basilica still in use, is the Chui-ch of the Manger at Bethlehem (early 4th century). The two great Roman Basilicas of the 4th century, those of St. Peter and St. Paul, have been destroyed. The St. Peter's Basilica was pulled down in the early 10th century to make place for the new St. Peter's Church. The St. Paul's Basilica was niiiiuly destroyed by fire in 1828. It has been rebuilt on the old plan. Some other early Basilicas in Ronie have been trans- formed by restorations in the taste of later times, so that they have lost their ancient character and effect. The most important ones have suffered the most in this way, but there are still several Roman Basilicas of the 5th and (Uh centuries which are substantially intact, aside from the loss of important mosaic decorations. The City of Ravenna, on the Adriatic shore of Northern ' Italy, has the most remarkaljle series of well-preserved early Chi'istian buildings of the 5th and (Ith centuries. Ravenna was a place of great importance during the period of the German invasions. Sur- rounding swamps and lagoons were a protection against the attacks of the Germanic invaders, and its position made it an imnortant 86 BYZAXTIXE ARCHITECTURE. commercial port, and, consequently, a connecting link with the East Roman countries. On the other hand, it has been isolated, by the same position, from the march of progress in later times, and its later poverty has been the real protection of its interesting monuments. It was not till the 19 th century that the dawn of revived interest in medieval history led to an interest in the preser- vation of medieval buildings (see page 16), and the early ones which have been preserved, owe this preservation to isolation or to chance. Plan of the Church Basilicas. — As studied in the examples just mentioned, the early Christian Basilica has an oblong and rectan- gular x^lan terminating at one end in an apse or semicircular niche — the origin of the Choir. This apse was the seat of the magistrate in the Pagan Basilica, and a portion of the building before it, railed off by a transverse line of columns, was the court of justice. When we remember that the clergy were the main supporters of public order in the period of the invasions, and the mediating power be- tween conquerors and conquered, and that the bishop was generally the leading city magistrate, it will appear that there was a natural logic in the arrangement which turned the apse of the Roman magistrate into the choir of tne Christian bishop and the Christian clergy. Details of Construction. — In the early monuments this apse, or choir, corresponds in width to the central nave. The division of the building into nave and aisles (44, 47) was also a feature of the Pagan Basilica, and so becomes one important feature of arrange- ment in all the later cathedrals. This division is connected with the method of roofing the building. The outer portions, the aisles, are covered with a separate roofing considerably lower than that of the nave. The nave rises above the aisles by walls supported on columns, and these columns form the separation between nave and aisles. The Clerestory. — The method of elevating the nave above the aisles, also found in all the important later cathedrals, where this upper part of the nave is called the Clerestory, admits of roofing, with more convenience, a wider space, and it also admits of a method of lighting by upper windows, which has great advantages of effect. Large apartments are most successfully lighted from above. The eye thus enjoys tne effects of light illuminating the > o > o w H > C r c o 2 r M c > 70 o 31 j'c'^ J! f." ;," * "'c<48. (thufcii'of San Vitale, Ravenna. Cross-section showing construction. 49. Mosque of St. Sophia, Constantinople. BVZAXTTXK A I! C IT I T E CT U H E. 89 building and cast on the objects in it. without l»ring strained by the glare of direct horizontal rays, li lias been nuted (page -±4:) that the Greek temples were probably lighted from above. The Pantheon owes its wonderful interior effect to the same method of lighting. The Basilica Roofs vrere of limlttT (not vaulted), an important distinction as compared with the important cathedrals of the Ro- manesque and Gothic times, whose use of the arched ceilings of brick or stone (vaultings) led to most of the other distinctions from the earh^ Basilicas. Columnar Supports as Distinguished from Piers. — Another char- acteristic is the use of columns, as distinguished from piers or pillars, as supports for the upper walls of the nave. In Greek and Roman antiquity, columns were always composed of a single block of stone as regards the diameter. In the perpendicular line, the larger columns were generally composed of a series of " drums," or cylindrical sections. Piers or pillars, on the other hand, are com- posed of aggregated masonry. The}- may be of cylindrical shape, but rarely are. (Compare columnar supports of the Basilica with the piers of the Romanesque and Gothic, 50, 53, 56.) The Combination of Column and Arch (as seen at -i-i, 4 7), by which the upper walls of the nave are supported, was one devel- oped into a permanent system by the Christian Basilicas. This combination appears in some few Pagan structures, for instance, the palace of the Emperor Diocletian, at Spalatro, in Dalmatia, which slightly antedate the general period of Church Basilicas, but is otherwise tmknown in ancient architecture. In tlie Greek con- struction, either of Greek periods or as copied by the Romans, the column invariably supports a straight beam, and in Roman use the arch is supported by a pier. In Roman ornamental use of Greek forms, the column frequently decorates the front of the i)iei- (see, for instance, the Theater of Marcellus), but it is always connected with a projected imitation of the beam entablature above, and has nothing to do with the structural support of the arch. Development of Interior Perspective Effects. — The column and arch construction, as introduced in the Christian Basilicas, has a considerable influence on their perspective effect, and on the appear- ance of length in the interior. The eye is arrested at each succes- sive arch in its computation of dimension. The straight beam line 90 BYZANTIXE ARCHITECTURE. would be detrimental to the appearance of interior size, as tiie eye is led by it directly to the extremity of the line. It may be remem- bered that Greek temple interiors did not affect an appearance of size. This would have been prejudicial to the effect of size in the statue. The Greek temple was essentially only the shrine or casket of the temple statue, not a building for a congregation of worshipers. In the Christian church, an appearance of size is consonant with the uses of the building, and the later cathedrals owe much of their power to the perspective • effects introduced by the sequenx3e of arches, which continued in the later periods, although the columnar supports were then replaced by piers. Some few Basilicas in Rome retain the straight beam line of the ancient columnar style, an interesting illustration of the superior power of the ancient traditional style in this particular city. The Interior Decoration of the Basilicas was like that of the Baptistery churches, and will be noticed after these are described. The Exterior Appearance was bare and undecorative (45, 46). The walls are frequently ornamented by arcades in relief (46). Under roof lines and cornice lines is occasionally found an orna- mental frieze of small round arches in relief. The Bell Tower [Italian, Campanile (cam pa nee' la)] was a separate structure (45, 46). In all medieval periods, the Italians continued to make a distinct structure of the bell tower (see 54). In the architecture of the Northern Romanesque, the tower became a por- tion of the building, sometimes in double, sometimes in quadruple use (51, 53). The spires of the Gothic (57, 58) are a later develop- ment of this use, continued in the modern steeple. Baptisteries and Baptistery Churches. — It was customary through- out the Middle Ages, in Italy, to construct in each city an especial building for use as a Baptistery. This custom began in the By- zantine period, which also constructed churches proper on the same plan. The Dome Plan. — This plan, adopted from the large domed apartments of the Roman Baths, and retaining the same name, is entirely distinct from the Basilica plan. As opposed to the oblong elongated plan of the Basilica, that of the Baptisterj'- (48, 49) radiates from a center. (The exterior outline may be octagonal, round, -a combination of circles, or of a circle and half circles ; so that the term of "radiating" plan is the only one that is compre- BYZANTINE A KCHITECTU RE. 9i hensive.) Correspond lug to tliis aspect of the plan, is the use of a dome, or series of domes, for ceiUng and roofing. The Pantheon (No. 39) has been noted at page 80 as the one building of ancient Roman times, in modern preservation, which gives an idea of the character of these domed constructions in the Paga n Bap t iste i 'ia. The Word "Baptistery," — The retaining of this word in Christian usage has an interesting relation to the baptismal rites of the Church, the Greek word from which our word " baptism " is taken, iiieaning originally "to bathe," Byzantine Preference for the Dome, — Churches of the Baptistery or dome construction, as distinct from Baptisteries proper (for bap- tizing purposes), ,were more numerous in the Byzantine provinces than in the countries of Western Europe, where the Basilica type was more generally affected. Existing Monuments in Western Europe. — In existing remains, there are only three important churches of this type in Western Europe — San Vitale (vee tah'la) at Ravenna (48), St. Mark's at Venice, and the Cathedral of Charlemagne at Aix-la-Chapelle. Mosques of Omar and of St. Sophia. — Among many notable churches of this type in Eastern Europe, two are specially famed — the Mosque of Omar at Jerusalem, and the Mosque of St. Sophia at Constantinople. The Mosque of Omar was originally a Christian church of the 4th century. The Mosque of St. Sophia was originally a Christian church of the Gth century, and was Imilt by the Emperor Justinian. In their use as mosques, these buildings date respectively from the Arab ]\rohammedan conquest of Syria in the 7th century and the Turkish Mohammedan conquest of Constantinople in the 15th century. The Interior Decoration of both Basilicas and Bapti.stery churches yras of the most costly and ^'orgeous character. Mosaics, marble paneling, and elaborate stucco ornament, were employed. For some additional notice of the mosaics, see the "Ili.story of Painting." Limits of the Byzantine Period.— Before pa.ssing to the develop- ment of the Romanesque and Cfothic cathedrals in Western Europe, it may be oKserved that this develo]iment is quite foreign to the Byzantine world. The limit fixed for the Byzantine period, i.e., about 1000 A.D., has reference only to We.stern Europe. In the Byzantine provinces, architecture continued to exhibit substantially the sarr.e 92 ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE. general character till the final overthrow of the Byzantine power in the 15th century. The Turkish conquerors made this architecture their own model. Most of the mosques of Constantinople, for instance, have been based on the plan of the St. Sophia. Russian civilization owes its origin to Byzantine influence, and in Russia, also, Byzantine architecture continued down to recent times. The Church of St. Basil, at Moscow, built by Ivan the Terrible in the 16th century, is a notable example of this fact. NOTES OiV THE ILLUSTRATIONS FOR THE BYZANTINE PERIOD, (44-48, inclusive.) Nos. 44 and 47 are types of Basilica interiors. Nos. 45 and 46 are types of Basilica exteriors. Nos. 49 and 48 represent, respectively, an exterior and interior of the Baptistery or Dome type. For Byzantine Capitals see pp. 110 and 113. THE ROMANESaUE PERIOD, A.D. 10001200. The New Features of the Romanesque period (types at 50, 51, 52, 53) are most easily understood by reverting to the description of the Basilica type, noting especially its use of a timber roof and of columnar supports for the walls of the nave. In distinction from these characteristics, the word " Romanesque " has been used to indicate the return, in the second period of Church Architecture, to the Roman elements of the pier, and the vaulting arch. The Pier, consisting of a mass of aggregated masonry, thus dif- fers from the column in its capacicy for indefinite increase of bulk and height. For the "drums" of a column (see p. 89), being mono- lithic in the diameter, can not be quarried with facility beyond a certain limit. Substitution of Piers for Columns. — Tlio Basilica period had drawn its supplies of columnar supports mainly from the porticoes and temple colonnades of the Pagan Roman period. The rise of the new style, as regards the use of piers, is mainly a result of the exhaustion of this supply of columns from the ruins. An increase in the average size of the important cathedrals, and the introduc- tion of the vaulting (arched ceiling of brick or stone), were also causes for the use of piers in preference to columns. A column is too slender a support for the heavy walls and ceiling of a vaulted construction. xVEoreover, the period which, for seven centuries, had o X c JO o X o > z > a o o r > z f o o o c c * c c <- c "c c c I t C <^ C C c . . c c c C c etc 51. CATHEDRAL OF SPEYER, ROitANESQUE ARCHITECTURE. 95 drawn its supplies of columns frotu the ancient ruins, had lost the habit of quarrying columns of the larger size. The Vaultings. — Thus the cxhaustiiui of tlic supply of columns, the increase of average dimensions in tliu churches, and the intro- duction of vaulted ceilings, are all causes explaining the use of the pier. The introduction of the vaulting (53) Avas not instantaneous. It made its appearance gradually. It was u.sed at lirst in the side aisles of certain churches. Then churches were built in which the nave also was vaulted. Finally, the method became general for all important cathedrals. (Contrast timber construction in 17.) Use of Vaultings Explained. — ^The use of vaultings in preference to timber roofs was probably favored by various considerations, among Avhich the superior permanence and non-inflammable char- acter were doubtless the first. As the cities and religious com- munities of the Middle Age grew in size, power, and wealth, there was a constantly increasing tendency to spare no efforts and stop at no expense which might promote the splendor of the religious edifices. They were shrines of the State, public resorts of the popu- lace for p(jlitical meetings and other purposes, the buildings devoted to the spectacular representations of the Passion Plays, and ]\liracle Plays, and even, on occasion, fortresses and treasure houses. The union of roof and wall in one continuous curving line gave the buildings a unity and rhythm of effect which was preferred to the simpler and more rigid interior lines of the Basilica construction. Basilica Features Retained. — On tlie other hand, important ele- ments of the Basilica plan Avere retained ; the division of nave and aisles, the extra height of the nave, the perspective effect of the succession of arches, and the choir. The choir began to develop in size in relation to other parts of the building (51). The Transept. — The plan based on the form of the cross had already appeared in the Basilica period, but it now obtained wider use and greater extension in the individual cases. The form of the cross, as used in the form of the church, had imdoul)tedly a sym- bolical reference, but it served to increase interior dimensions and exterior effects of picturesque variety at the same time. The por- tion of the church at right angles to its main lines, and making the cro.c!S form, is railed the transept (52). New Use of the Dome. — Over the junction of the main building and transept a dome was constructed. Such domes, during the 96 EOMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE. Romanesque period, iiad an exterior pointed roof ; and it is to be noticed, also, that the interior vaultings were likewise covered and protected by exterior gabled roofings. Occasionally, apse? or transepts (see 62) were constructed at both ends c^ the building. The Towers. — The picturesque and massive effect of the exterior was generally emphasized by heavy square towers with conical or pointed roofs. Sometimes these towers, two in number, formed a portion of the front (facade) of the cathedral. Sometimes four such towers were constructed in the angles formed by the intersection of the double transepts with the main building, or otherwise flank- ing the two extremities. These towers were a development from the bell tower, which, in the Byzantine period, was generally sepa- rate from the building (45, 46). They were used for bells or chimes, but they illustrate the civic pride and rivalry of the me- dieval communities, and a disposition to build up an imposing- exterior effect, which is not generallj' apparent in the earlier Chris- tian time. They also had reference to the occasional use of the cathedrals as fortresses and treasure houses, which has already been noted, serving as watch-towers, as places of refuge and resistance, and for the storing of valuables. Exterior Ornamental Traits. — These are the least important aspects of the style, but they are the aspects in which the modern revivals of the Romanesque (see p. 21) are most clearly apparent. In fact, they are generally the only claim of a modern building to be designated as Romanesque. These ornamental traits are — friezes of small round arches under the roof lines, or at the horizontal courses marking the different stories of the towers, etc. ; masonry pilasters i^rojected from the wall, but in the same plane with the cornice and plinth lines ; and galleries of columns and arches on upper exterior ijortions of the building (52). The Round Arch Frieze, or cornice decoration, is also found in the Byzantine (early Christian) period, but not in such "laborate and constant use. The Perpendicular Masonry Pilasters strengthened the wall and admitted an otherwise thinner construction. They are distinguished from Gothic buttresses (see later matter) by the point just noted, that they do not project beyond the plane of the upper connecting horizontal cornice, or the horizontal plinth line at the base of the o n a p o 2 o c c •0 o n < c t 54. Cathedral of Pisa. 55. Cathedral of Pisa. K O -M A N E S Q U E A li C II 1 T E C T UK. 99 wall,* and the}' have no capitals or bases in the Northern style. These pilasters are found, also, in the Byzantine period, Init in this period they usually ternunate in round arches, forming with these a series of blind arcades. In the Romanesque period, they generally connect with an up[)er straight horizouial band, or frieze, ^ of small round aiilies. These flat pilasters are to bo distinguished from the columnar pilasters, also found as surface ornaments in the same time (54). Flat pilasters terminaLing in capitals, and having also a base profile, are also found, especially in Italy. The Galleries of Columns and Round Arches used on the upper portions of the exterior (.")!, 5-i) show the continuation of the structure which was used in the earlier Basilica interiors, now con- verted to semi-ornamental uses. Of course, these exterior galleries may also be conceived as structural adjuncts of the building. Medieval "Styles" Determined by Construction. — A descriptive summary of the distinctions between the different medieval periods is of special value in breaking down the prejudices on the subject of styles v.hich have been considered at pages 5-28. Such summaries show that the general changes in "style" were changes in structure for which definite reasons can generally be given now, and which always existed originally. Ornamental traits may be more profuse ami elaborate at one time than at another, but they generally reflect, imitate, or assist the stinactural uses. From this point of view, it \\ ill l)e understood that the words "Byzantine," "Romanesque," "Gothic," indicate certain broad distinctions as to constructions and i:)eriods, and it will also be understood that there are many local or special exceptii)ns to the facts indicated by this use of words. Vaultings Used before the Romanesque Period. — One of these exceptions relates to the use of arched vaultings earlier than the date fixed for the R(.)manesque. Especially is this use demonstrated for certain early Chi'istian constructions in S\Tia (now in ruins, and in districts which at present are almost inaccessible on account of banditti. Bedouins, or ^Mohamniednn prejudice). Timber Roofs Used in the Romanesque Period. — ^^Vnother exception relates to the Romanesque period itself. It has been already implied that the now methods of construction (that is, new for the Middle Ages) indicated by the term Romanesque, hold f)f the larger and more important cathedrals. Timber roofs were always the rule for humble churches, and tlie Basilica construction and arrangement long survived, in some localities, the date fixed for the Romanesque. This is especially true in Italy. The "Italian Romanesque" (5-4, 55) very generally continued to prci.'er the Basilica con.struction of columns, arches, and timber ceilings, as opposed to i)iers and vaultings, throughout the Roman- * A plinth is either a block of stone placed under the base of a column, or pier, or a line of foundation masonrj- projecting slightly beyond the wall which it supports. 100 ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE. esque period. The reason was, at least partly, that the supplies of ancient columns from the Roman ruins held out longer in Italy. Thus, also, the "Italian Romanesque" frequently lacks (on account of the absence of interior vaultings, or from a difference of taste) the Aiassive towers and generally heavy appearance of the Northern Romanesque. On the other hand, it carried the decorative traits of the Romanesque to an unusual degree of elaboiation and profusion. Thus, the "Italian Romanesque" frequently showed Basilica con- struction combined with Romanesque decoration. •These Exceptions assume their proper place when the examination of a number of cathedrals makes it clear that the individual distinctions of one from another are even more interesting than the points of correspondence. For purposes of classification, we need systems and terms, but the exercise of a free individual taste, by the artisans and builders, in the various parts of single medieval bmldings, was alone sufficient to constitute a never-ending variety as between different buildings. Picturesque Variations in corresponding parts, both of ornament and construction, are a general rule. It is clear that exact sym- metrical regularity was often neglected, because it was not conceived of as necessary- -also clear that symmetrical regularity was frequently avoided by preference. It is probable that the conscious study of picturesque effects in architecture is apt to lead to mannerisms and eccentricities ; but in contrast to such ■ conscious striving after the picturesque, the medieval builders had a happy preference for variety in ornamental details, and a thorough independence of the prejudice that regularity is a necessary standard of taste in construction. The So-called Norman Style. — The Romanesque period corresponds to that of the so-called " Xorman " style. Mr. Freeman, the standard English historian of the "Norman Conquest" in England, never speaks of "Nonnan" architecture, but always of the Romanesque. The Normans conquered England in the 11th century, during which the Romanesque had become general on the Continent of Europe, and it was they who mtroduced it into England. Hence many English writers speak of the "Norman" style. There is, however, nothing distinctively Norman about it, and the use of local terms is almost certain to create confusion as to the broad and simple facts controlling the history of medieval architecture. Similar objections apply to the conception of a " Lombard " style, which is simply the Romanesque of North Italy. GOTHIC ARCHITECTTXSJ!; 101 • ♦• -. " ' • ; I* '. I ,\ The Finest Examples of Romanesque* CafhecfraW ^iivip^f-'^^s dis- tinct from the Italian variation) arc, generally speaking, in German}', and especially in the Rhine countries. The cathedrals of Speyer, Worms, and Mainz are especially celebrated. The size and grandeur of the German cathedrals of this time indicate the power and ascend- ency of Germany in Europe in the earlier Middle Age. In the later ^Middle Age, France took the place of Germany in this respect, and the subsequent ascendency of the Gothic style, which developed in France, throughout the whole of Europe, indicates this fact. NOTES ON THE ILLUSTRATIONS FOB, THE ROMANESQUE PERIOD. (50-55, inclusive.) Nos. 50, 53, are types of vaulted lioiuanesque with piers. Contrast 44, 47. Nos. 51, 52, are types of Northern Romanesque exteriors. Contrast 45, 46. Nos. 54, 55, are types common in Italian Romanesque, showing Basilica construction with Romanesque ornament. For Romanesque Capitals see pp. 113, 114. Dis- tinguish those for columns and for piers. Columns frequently alternate with piers in early Northern Romanesque, and the capitals frequently show Byzantine influ- ence. But it is impossible to understand Gothic construction without considering the pier and vaulting as the essential Romanesque elements. THE GOTHIC PERIOD, A.D. 1200-1500, The Word "Gothic" was originally used by the Italians of the earh' Renais- sance (see p. 15, and later matter), to indicate their distaste for what they con- sidered the barbaric architecture of Northern Medieval Europe. In this sense, and at the time of the Renaissance, the word "Gothic" was applied indiscriminately to all Northern medieval buildings. This Italian taste and fashion carried with it the Renaissance style (p. 13), and replaced and overthrew the medieval civilization, and the medieval styles of architecture. First Use of the Word Marks Overthrow of the Style. — Hence, in depemlence on this Italian taste, influence, and style, the Northern I'^ur pean nations, after a.d. 1500, adopted this use of the word "Gothic," as applied to their own earlier archi- tecture. The word still had simply the meaning of "barbarian," ns we still speak of "Goths and Vandals." It continued to have this meaning, and to be applied indiscriminate! J-" to a'.l Northern medieval buildings until the opening of the 19th centurj'. Modern Revival oi the Gothic. — A.s has been explained at pp. 15, 16, the revival Di the medieval styles in the 19th century was due to iiistoric and literary studies which overthrew the Italian Renaissance ta.ste and prejudice of the three preceding centuries. During this movement, as the distinctions Ix'tween medieval periods became apparent, the word "Gothic" was gradually conflned to the litest medieval period and style, which naturally required a distinctive name. The odious signifl- cation of the earlier use of the word has, of course, entirely disappeared. Of THf UNIVERS/TY OF e t -. _c c c r •' ^ , * <" 102 ' '•.•' . '-' : '^OTJIIC ARCHITECTURE. I , f ' fill ( f ,,','<'' tt r. ( , Th3). This elevation has a tendency to dwai-f the spectator, and to increase by contra.st the effect of magnitude beyond the point whirh any mere expansion of area could attain. The Gothic Pier.* — The intention of this construction is made apparent in the treatment of the Gothic pier (No. At)). This differs from the "Romanesque pier in the character of its ribbings, which are produced by vertical channels or furrows. The heavy shadows resulting, emphasize the rising lino and tend to exaggerate the already disproportionate height. The related ribbings of the Ro- manesque pier are pilaster-like additions to its exterior mass (58). • A variety of piers used in the early Gothic period do not come under the description given. Various modifications of construction show the development from, and the connection with, the Romanes 3 O 3" C 1 o 3" O 3* O 5* ? 9 3" n ° V' . ; '- • '55.. CJiURCH OF SANTA CROCE, FLORENCE. G U 1' 11 1 C A K C II 1 T E C T V H E . 113 contrast in exterior appearance of a Basilica and a Romanesque Cathedral. Note the text-cuts illustrating types of Byzantine capitals. Romanesque Period. — Compare 50, 53, with 56 for distinction between liomanesque and Gothic vaulting. Compare 50, 53, with 56 for distinction between Romanesque and Gothic piers. Compare 51, 52, with 57, 58, for contrast of Romanesque and Gothic exteriors. Compare 52, 5-4, with 60-63, for contrast of ornamental details. Compare 55 with 50. 53, for contrast of Italian and Korthern Romanesque interiors. Compare 54 with 52, for contrast of Italian Hnd Northern Romanesque exterioi^s. Byzantine Capital, Ravenna, 6th Century. kurnanesque Capitals, Limburg. Compare 46 and 52, for the Romanesque development of the transept. Note the text-cuts illustrating types of Romanesque capitals. Such capitals as those from Limburg (Germany) are developments from earher Byzantine forms. Type of Romanesque Cube Capital. Romanesque Pier Capital, Cernrode. Romanesque Pier Capital, Hacklingen. 114 GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE. Contrast the capitals for piers (Gernrode, Hacklingen, iu Germany, and North, ampton). Romanesque Pier Capitals, Northampton. Gothic Period. — Note the development of the Gothic tower over the unioa oi transept and nave (57) from the dome at corresponding points J,- — — -r^iT '^^''Mi in 52 or 51. This dome in the north is always covered orig- inally by a pointed roof. The dome roofs of 51, with convex lines, belong to the 18th cent- ury. Compare the Gothic choir in 57 with the Romanesque choir (51) and the Basilica choir (46). No. 63 is a highly impor- tant illustration for the scheme or skeleton of a Gothic vaulted construction and the connection between the exterior buttress and "flying buttress" and the interior arched ceiling. Ob- serve, as illustrated by the side aisle, how the vaulting is al- ways protected by a timber roof. In this view the ribs of the vaulted ceiling are appar- ent. The vaulting between the ribs is so arched as to bring the pressure upon them. These •'**" MtlliUI ., J. J.1 • Typical Gothic Capital, Esslinffen. carry the pressure to the pier, ^*^ ^ ' ^ and this is held up by the outside buttress. Notice here and in other Gothic GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE. 115 cathedrals the origin of the system of nave and aisles, and of the higher elevation of the nave, as shown in 44, 45, 46. For details of Gothic ornament in windows, gables, tinials, crockets, and carved borders, see Nos. 59-02. No. 64 illustrates the frequent mixtures of styles which are formed in buildings of the transition periods, and in cases where an older building has been subsequently restored and reconstructed. The illustrations have been other- wise confined to central types in order to avoid confusion as to the principles and sequence of construction. In actual fact the instances of transition and mixture are quite as frequent as cases corresponding to the illustrations of- fered and no less beautiful. In 64 we see the Gothic buttress construction connected with the Homanesque round arch and Romanesque ar- cades — a building of the transition period. No, 65 illustrates the occasional or frequent use of timber ceilings during the Gothic period, even for large churches ; but this use as regards Cathedral churches was confined to England. The Florence Cathedral, text-cut, p. IIG, illustrates the rudimentary buttress, small windows, and paneled ornamentation, gen- erally characreristic of the Italian Gothic. Contrast witli ~->7. Typical Gothic Capital, Cologne. Typical Gothic Capital, Rheims. Typical Gothic Finial, Troyes. 116 GOTHIC ARCHITECTUKE, Compare types of Gothic capitals in text-cuts with Eomanesque and Byzantine types. All similar ornament based on natural forms (see also 59-62) was aban- doned by the Renaissance, to be next considered, which returned to the use of the classic details, as illustrated at pp. 60-64. The Cathedral of Florence. PERIOD OF THE RENAISSANCE. A.D. 1450 19TH CENTURY. The Absence of Gothic Tiaits in the so-called Italian Gothic (p. 109) shows a growing national di .-ergen.ce in Italy from the styles and influences of Northern medieval civilization. Italy was about to experience a resurrection of her ancient past as far as the enthusiasms and studies of her people could make this possible. The feudal system of teiritorial baronial independence had never taken deep root in this country. The civic communities had absorbed these feudal territorial rights and powers at an early day. Italy was thus divided in the later Middle Age into a series of civic republics, or of States headed by important cities, in which the rulers, however apparentlj- despotic, represented the interests and advantage of the commercial class. In these States, nearly connected as they had been with the more ancient civilization of the Byzantine Ivapire (conquered by the Turks, 1453), modern civilization took its rise. Influence of Antiquity. — During the loth century, patriotism led the Italians to cultivate with futhusiasni the language and litei'ature of their ancient past. The remains of ancient art began likewise, and in no less degree, to attract attention. Excavations of buried ancient statues were not undertaken till, the 16th century, but the ornamental forms of ancient Roman ruins were alreadj- copied by archi- tectural students in tlii' middle of the 15th century. This Italian "Renaissance" (rebirth), also known as the time of the " Revival of Letters," was contemporaneous with the great maritime discoveries and first colonial settlements in America and India, with the invention and use of printing, with the general application of gunpowder to artillery and fire-arms, and the related rise of the modern military system. It was also contemporaneous with the development in Northern Europe of the modern nati(^nal States, which were welded together by the power of the kings from the chaotic territorial elements of the feudal period. The Style of the Renaissance in architecture (67, 68, 5, 6) is easily comprehended by noting the peculiarities of the Koman archi- tecture, which It revived and copied (pp. 65, 80, and related illus- trations), and by observing that the decorative forms of the Romans were copied from the Greeks. As has been explained in related sections, the Roman ornament was Greek structure. Details of the Style. — The engaged classic columns (p. 75), sur- face imitations of the Greek entablature (p. 75), and the various forms of the decorative gable (p. 75), applied by the Romans over 118 RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE. doors, niches, etc., and derived by them from the gable of the Greek temple, are the still familiar traits of the Renaissance style. This style still continues in modern use, not as a revival, as in the case of the Greek temples and Gothic cathedrals, but as a direct continuation of the Italian style. 19th Century Renaissance. — An account of the 19th century Renaissance, and of the late revivals and movements in opposition to it, has been given at pp. 6-13. The Corinthian Greek Forms are those commonly used, although the Tuscan Doric (p. 76) and the debased Roman Ionic are also found. The prevalence of Corinthian Greek forms during the Ro- man Imperial period has been explained (pp. 58, 76). This accounts for their prevalent use in the modern Renaissance. Absence of Structural Characteristics. — The Italian Renaissance style has no distinctive structural characteristics. It is purely a style of ornament, not a style of construction. St. Peter's at Rome (No. 6Q) is the largest and most elaborate example of the style. Its date (begun in 150 6) indicates the time at which the style had become general throughout Italy, There are, however, many examples of the Renaissance which have more vigorous and more spirited ornamental details. The building was not completed till the 17 th century, when the ornamental style had already stiffened into conventional forms. The engineering talent displaj^ed in the construction of the famous dome is worthy of all admiration. The name of Michael Angelo is connected with this achievement, although he did not live to see it completed. The Rapid Diffusion of the Renaissance Style over the rest of Europe, during and after the first quarter of the 16th century, is a notable illustration of the equally rapid spread of all other Italian tastes and fashions at the same time. The overthrow of the Gothic by the Renaissance was rapid and complete, but the change of architectural styles was only one phase of a sweeping revolution in European civilization. The Elizabethan period of English literature, in the later 16th century, the literature of France, as represented by Corneille, Racine, and Moliere, in the 17th century, are derivatives of this same Italian movement. The culture of Milton, of Addison, and of Samuel Johnson has the same common origin. Not till the times of Winckelmann (p. 14) and the revival of Greek studies in the ->k,-v^-li,^ Pg! .ii' ti^ l'. 24.) The Renaissance Decadence. — An important point in the his- tory of the Kenaissance stj'le is the distinction between the early examples, whether in Italy or in northern countries, and those of the time of decadence. This decadence began to show itself soon after the first quarter of the 16th century, and developed in a de- gree corresponding generally to the order of time. Generally speak- ing, Renaissance buildings of the 19th centur}^ are inferior to those of the 18th century; the 18th century examples are generally inferior to those of the 1 7tli century, and so on. The early Renais- sance vras distinguished by remarkably vigorous and spirited oi-na- mental details, borroAved in general outlines from the Antique, but developed with independence and individuality. Traits of the Decadence. — The early decline of the style is marked by cold, formal, and conventional ornamentations, which are exter- nal imitations of the Antique patterns, lacking their vigorous beauty; by a tendency to arbitrary' and broken lines in construction, and l)y the increase of projections and broken surfaces. The later Renai.^ sance decadence of our own century shows finally a diminution of dimensions as regards the relation of parts to the whole and an 122 RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE. overloading of details, i.e., a Aveakness of composition, scarcely found in the most " Rococco " Italian examples.* Comparison of the Church of St. John Lateran at Rome (68) with countless examples of 19 th century Renaissance, will illustrate the difference in pro- portions just indicated. The rapid deterioration of the early Italian Renaissance is connected with the elemental criticism to which the Roman-Greek ornamental style is open, viz. : that it has no struct- ural significance. Wherever ornamental forms grow - out of structure or relate to it, decided and characteristic effects and bold proportions are a necessary result. In the Roman period, these were,, however, rarely lacking, not- withstanding the absence of a necessary connection be- tween structural forms and ornament. The Arch of Titus, shown in the text-cut, may serve to mark this fact, as well as to illustrate once more the ornamental system which the Italians revived from the Roman ruins. The origmal use of the Greek forms is shown by contrast at pp. •45-64, The Increase of Projections and Broken Surfaces which char- acterizes the Renaissance decadence is connected with this fact, that the Greco-Roman or Renaissance ornamental style has no structural character. It was only a question of individual taste how much projection should be given to the engaged columns, entabla- tures, and gables, and how many repetitions of breaks in the entablature should be introduced. The decline of taste carried with it an ever-increasing excess in this direction. These Various Traits of the Renaissance decadence are all re- TUE aBCU OF TITUS. * "Rococco" is an adjective applied to the IStli century Renaissance decadence. There ia uo distinct " Rococco " style. The word simply indicates the excessively arbitrary and broken outlines of this period of the Renaissance style. See, for example, the Dresden "Zwinger " ea. CHURCH OF ST. JOHN. LATERAN, ROME. 69. WINDOW OF THE PITTl PALACE, FLORENCE. RENAISSANCE A K (' !M T K (" T I' I{ K. l25 lated to pfciicral liistoric causes, ami to tlie decline of taste in Italy, which iiiiinediately followed the greatest period of Italian painting and sculpture in the first quarter of the 16th century. This was owing to social revt)Iutions in Italy, and to the overthrow by foreign European nations of the independence of the Italian Civic States and Republics, and the establishment of foreign ascend- encies and dynasties over most of them. This political revolution is, on the other hand, an indication of tlu' perfection of the Italian civilization which preceded tliis subjugation, as showing that fon^ign countries wished to possess themselves of the wealth and resources of Italy. The general spread of Italian taste and culture over Xorthern Europe, Avhich was a uatm-al result, was naturally attended by deterioration of its original force and quality. Principle for Comparative Study. — As regards the difference be- tween late and early lienaissance ornamental patterns and details, illustrative comparisons may be based in personal study on the comparison of dates, and the general rule that designs after 1530 are inferior to those A\'hich are earlier. The Influence of the Renaissance Style on Furniture ami the late effort to overthrow this intiuencc have special interest for students of decorative art. Down to 1870, the furniture designs of Europe, and hence of America,- had been based on Renaissance patterns for over three centuries, with slight breaks during the Greek and Gothic revivals. Examples to be studied in most modern houses, show deriva- tions from the ornamental gables, which are still familiar to all of us. The dete- rioration of design induced by the use of machinery for carved patterns, and by tlie consequent decline of the art of wood-carxnng, had brought these motives* to the lowest depth of debasement in the years just preceding the "Eastlake" and "Queen Anne" revivals. The Rise of the "Eastlake" Style was due simply to the large sale of ^tr. Charles Eastlake's book on "Household Taste," a highlj' valuable and commend- able work. Mr. Eastlake had supplied some original designs in this work to show that economy in furnishing was compatible with good taste. The exlremt'ly sim- ple forms used to emphasize this point became the rage, and were copied by the furniture trade in general. They were frequently misunderstood as a fnak of fashion, and were often caricatured, in consequence, by the supposed copies. The So-called "Queen Anne" Style in furniture may be considered, as in architecture (p. 22), simjily as an tlfort to be .structural and straightforward in design, but this effort has disguised itself under the name of a style because the public is in the habit of a.sking for one. Explanation of the Reaction toward Straight Lines. — Both "Ea.stlake" and " Queen Anne " may be summarized as efforts to design furniture simply, conse- • A " motive " is the fundamental or elementary scheme of a pattern, its basis, or typical idea. ■126 EENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE. quently in straight lines and in dependence on the frame-work and skeleton of the natural construction. They are, moreover, reactions against the wild extravagance of arbitrary lines which has characterized the C3ath agonies of the Renaissance style. The deterioration in workmanship and solidity which went hand in hand with the decline of ornamental design, is also an element explaining the severe outlines of the new taste in fiu-niture, because the expense of good workmanship was such as to preclude any great amount of decoration. These explanations may serve to vindicate the good sense of the original "Eastlake" and "Queen Anne" designs, but also to show that a more elaborate ornamental style is compatible with good taste, provided wood-carvers and hand- workers are not fettered by the competition with machinery, and by formulas of the fossilized Italian style. On the other hand, some of the most beautiful deco- rative work of the late art revival has been inspired by the ornament of the early Renaissance. \ NOTES ON THE ILLUSTRATIONS. (66-69, inclusive.) Compare 66-69, inclusive, with 5 and 6 of the same style. All of these relate to 33-43, inclusive, for method of using the ornament, and to 22-32, inclusive, for the forms of the ornament. The architectural details at pp. 60-64 are espe- cially in point, if it be understood that the distinctive Roman and Italian use is to divorce them from the original structural relation and significance. The fagade of St. John Lateran dates from the 18th century, although it is characteristic, as regards composition, for the virtues of an earlier time. Temple Bar was taken down some years since as an impediment to traffic. It dates from the 17th cent- ury. The window of the Pitti Palace has been chosen as type of the Renaissance gable, derived through Roman copy from the Greek temple form 27, 28. Temple Bar shows the alternating curved variant. Compare p. 75 and p. 9. Temple Bar, London. SCULPTURE. INTRODUCTION. Elementary Instruction in the Criticism of Sculpture is at present almost in- separable I'mni a historic review of the subject. Individual genius, armed by hai'd study in original design, may be superior to any such instruction, but the related historic knowledge is a valuable thing for the most gifted talent. In cases where tne interested person is not an educated artist in design, the standards obtained from a historic review of the subject are absolutely essential. They will, at least, promote modesty in the formation, and reticence in the expression, of opinions. Rfspect for the superior technical knowledge in which the least successful profes- sic.nal artist must always excel the most cultivated amateur, is the first step toward independence of opinion in matters of subject and conception. In these matters the professional artist should be the minister and agent of a ctiltivated public taste, which has no necessary relation with a pui'ely technical knowledge of design. Modern Sculpture as Influenced by the Antique. — An additional reason which mjikes some historic knowledge essential to the criticism of modern sculpture, is foimd in the fact that this sculpture has been largely inspired by the Antique art, and has been in many ways dependent on it. In fact, the modern school of ta.'tte in literature and art owes its origin to the same studies of Greek art and literature which have been already mentioned in connection with the re\'ival of the Greek forms of architecture (pp. 5-18). It has been explained that this revival was not infallible in its conceptions of what was appropriate in modern ar\'hitpcture (p. 17), and it is also true that the influence of the Ajitique in sculpture has by no means been an unmixed good. This only makes the review of its influence the more necessary. Thus a sketch of the rise of modem interest in Antique Greek art is a natural introduction to the subject. Casts from the Antique are generally found in Art Institutions. Collections of such casts are already widely distributed in this country. For this rea,son, also, some acquaintance with the history of .sculpture is a matter of necessarj' popular edjcation. Antique Collections Enumerated.— There are, at present, seven especially im- portant centers in Western Europe for the study of Antique originals — London, Paris, Jlunirh, Eorlin, Florence, Naples, and Rome. Before the Middle of the i8th Century, Rome was, strictly speaking, the only center tor Anticjue studies. The collections of the British Museum in London, of the Tiouvre Museum in Paris, and of the Glyptothek (glyp'to take) in Munich, were 128 ANTIQUE SCULPTURE COLLECTIONS. first formed in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Most of the important Antique originals owned by the Berlin Museum are of very recent acquisition. The leading statues of the Florence collection in the palace of the Ufflzi (yoo feet' see; were transported from the Medici (ined'e chee) Villa at Rome toward the close of the 18th century. (Hence the name of the Medici Venus in Florence.) The Museum of Naples owes its important statues to two sources. Some pieces, like the Farnese (far neez' or farna'sa) Hercules, Farnese Bull Group, Farnese Flora, etc., were transported to Naples from the Farnese Palace at Rome toward the close of the 18th century. The remainder came from excavations at Poinpeii (pompa'ee) and Herculaneum. These excavations had begun a little before the middle of the 18th century, but no results had been made public at that time, and the statues found had not been exhibited. Roman Collections before 1750. — Thus it appears that Rome w^as in reality the only point at this time where studies of the Antique art were possible. Collec- tions of casts were still unknown, and individual casts were a rarity in Northern Europe.* Excavations, and even journeys of scientific observation, had not yet been undertaken in Greek territories (p. 14). Roman Collections Enumerated. — The collections of statues in Rome were not then conceived of from the stand-point of Museums. Three of the five present great collections in Rome are Villa collections — those of the Albani (al bah'nS), Borghese (bor ghay'sa), and Ludovisi (loo do vee'se) Villas. The collections now arranged in apartments of these villas, were then scattered through their grounds. The collection of the Capitol Museum, then recently founded, had been the original collection of the- Albani Villa. After its sale, the present Albani Villa collection was begun. Finally, the Vatican Museum had for its starting-point the collection known as the Belvedere, from the Belvedere Garden of the Vatican Palace, where these statues were exposed down to the beginning of the 18th century. After this time they were protected by sheds, but not till after 1750 were they removed to a gallery in the Vatican Palace. Errors of Italian Students. — By understanding that at this time Antique statues were almost exclusively known as scattered through the gardens of Roman palaces and villas, it will be apparent from what stand-point they were viewed and studied. Italian patriotic pride in the ancient glories of the Roman Empire led to the natural presumption that objects found on the soil of Rome were of Roman crea- tion as regards subject and origin. That these objects were generally ancient copies or importations of works of Greek art, was absolutely unknown (p. 13). The interpretations and designations were a series of errors based on the erroneous- hypothesis of a Roman origin, and were derived from Latin literature and Roman history. Artistic Appreciation. — As regards the artistic appreciation of the Antique sculpture, that had still, on the whole, to be developed. The general prejudice and presumption were that the sculpture of the 18th century was superior to the An- tique. Certain ancient statues had, from the time of Michael Angelo (16th cent- ury), been much admired, but the general superiority of modern art to the ancient was supposed to be axiomatic. The ancient statues were valued and studied rather as local relics than as works of art. It was at this time (1756), ♦ It is a disputed point whether the German critic Lessing had ever seen a cast of the Laocoon Group when he wrote his famous essay on it. TIIK HEKK UKVIVAT.. 120 that a poor German student came to Rome, who was destined to revolutionize the ruling conceptions of ancictii liistdiv, ami the ruling taste in literature, and to create the criticism and history of art. John Winckehnann was born at Stendal, in Brandenburg (Prussia), in 1717, at a time when Genuany was in a most backward condition of culture as compared with France, England, Spain, or Italy, of the same date. The German culture of this period was borrowtni troin tlie French, but Xorth Germany in general, and the province where Winckehnann was born in particular, were especially rude and uncultivated. Winckelmann's origin was humble, and his early career was har- assed by extreme poverty. He studied, as a young man, successively, theology, medicine, and mathematics. He made his living first as a tutor, then as teacher of a village school; finally as ])ri\ate librarian and secretary to a gentleman of rank. He had reached the age of thirty-eight without having even seen the few ancient statues then in Dresden, near which place he was then residing. He was equally devoid of acquaintance with works of i)aintings, but ho had always been an enthusiastic student of Greek literature. As explained at ]>!). 13, 14, Greek studies had been for some centuries much neglected, and Winckehnann had been unable to secure a footing through his proficiency in this direction. Winckelmann in Dresden. — Contact with an artist named Oeser, who valued his genius and tTuditiun, taught Winckelmann to appreciate the virtues of Raphael. The Sistine Madonna by Raphael had just then been purchased for the Dresden Gallery. The same painter taught Winckelmann the artistic worth of the ancient statues above mentioned. These statues had coiiic from Herculaneuni by way of Vienna, and formed a rare exception to the general absence of Antique statues in Northern Europe, in the 18th century. The ruling taste of the time was for theatrical and extravagant art. The virtues of repose and simplicity which distinguish Raphael among artists, and which characterized the Antique in con- trast with the emotional sculpture of tlu- 18th century, appealed to AVinckelmann's native good taste as soon as they were pointed out tn him. Thus was prompted a pamphlet "On the Imitation of the Ancient Greeks," which found approbation with the King of Saxony, and procured "Winckelmann a pension wliich enabled him to go to Rome. Winckelmann in Rome. — Winckelmann lived thirteen years in Rome, till his death in 1768. He published in 1763 the famous "History of Art," which is still the basis of modern art studies and art criticism. Originally deficient in all detail knowledge of the subject which he made his own, his Greek erudition, and the tenacity with which he exalted the ideal of "Repose" as the true standard of taste, gave him success. The latter principle appealed to the good-breeding of society, which saw that the theatrical and sentimental behavior .shunned by well-bred indi\'iduals was equally out of taste in sculpture. His Greek erudition enabled him to overthrow, one by one, the interpretations and de.signations which had been suggested by the false theory of the Roman origin of Antique art.. Distinction between the Roman Portraits and Greek Antiques. — One class of works was proven by Winckelmann's indication of the Greek subjects to be dis- tinctively Roman — \iz., the Roman portrait-busts and statues. Thus, for the first time the ideality of the Antique Greek art was established by the elimination of the Roman portraits. Its sentiment for beauty was now also, for the first time, apparent. For as long as the realistic works of Roman portraiture were con- 130 INFLUENCE OF WINCKELMANN. sidered as an integral part of Antique art as a whole, this sentiment could not be distingtiished. The Periods of Greek Art. — Finally the standards of simplicity and repose were demonstrated for the G-reeks by a curious revelation of historic insight. The statues which had, since Michael Angelo's time, been most admired were proven to be works of the Greek decadence. Individual pieces of ancient sculpture had been admired before the time of Winckeimann, but always those which tended toward the pathetic, theatrical, or realistic tendencies of the 18th century. Winck- elmann was thus the first, not only to indicate the existence of an independent Greek art, but also to demonstrate the divisions of periods and styles within its general limits. These periods are still divided according to the outlines which he indicated. The First Direct Result of Winckelmann's Career was the reversal of the taste which had so far pronounced the Latin literature to be superior to the Greek. It was impossible to assert the superiority of a copy as against an original. The Roman sculpture had been proven (aside from its portraits) to be copy from the Greek, and this involved the whole Roman literature and Roman civilization in the same argument. Hence that sudden expansion of interest in Greek literature, Greek history, and Greek territories which still continues (p. 17). A temporary influence on the styles of modern architecture has been already indicated (p. 6, and Xos. 3, 4). In Modern Sculpture the names of the Italian Canova, and of the Dane Thor- waldsen (resident in Rome) are the external landmarks of what may be called the Winckelmann revival. Winckelmann himself did not exercise a direct personal influence on modern sculpture. The tendency to affect an imitation of the Greek art was rather a result of the Greek literary and historic studies which were prompted by his discoveries. Influence of the Greek Revival. — From the time of the artists named (late 18th and early 19th centuries), inodern sculpture has been, till recently, almost exclu- sively controlled by an external imitation of the Antique, either in form or subject. At present, corresponding to the art revival in other directions, already mentioned in architecture and decoration, a parallel and praiseworthy tendencj' to modern free- dom and modern independence is apparent in sculpture. But while the imitation of Greek forms and subjects must be ephemeral, the standards of taste drawn from Greek sculpture must always remain authoritative. Hence the great impor- tance of this subject for students. It is not as works of sculpture alone, but as standards of taste, that the Greek statues are valuable. Casts of these statues are universally employed by schools of design as models of exercise for technical instruction. This fact alone would make some knowledge of the history of ancient art a matter of necessary and useful information. The Greek Sculpture Developed from the Oriental. — This, then, must be first briefly considered both as a matter of history, for the understanding of Greek art, and for its own independent interest. ANCIENT ORIENTAL NATIONS. CHALDEAN AND ASSYRIAN SCULPTURE. Chaldean Sculpture. — As a matter of aieliaeologic interest, cer* tain recent discoveries of ancient Chaldean statues have great value. They demonstrate a fact which has also recently been made known as to Egyptian art, ^iz. : that the oldest known works are the best ; possessing qualities of verisimilitude and faithful science which have not been previoush^ credited to the ancient Oriental art. The later, more schematic and conventional, works of the ancient Orien- tals were those first known to modern discoverers. The statnes in question are of high antiquity (about 3800 B.C.). Nos. 70 and 71 are specimens of this sculpture. The few Assyrian statues known, of much later time, but derived from the early Chaldean, have no great importance or interest. The Assyrian Sculpture, as known to us, was almost entirely in relief, on the stone slabs with which the walls of the Royal palaces (p. 3 7) wrix' decorated (No. 21). The scenes from the lives and wars of the kings are frequently designed with great vigor and fidelity to nature. As befitting a style of architectural surface design, perspective was ignored. The Oriental taste regarded art rather as a means to symbolize ideas or facts than as a literal imi- tation of nature. It Avas pictorial writing rather than pictorial art. Large numbers of the slabs in question are in the British ^Museum. The best designs belong to the 7th century B.C. The later Babylonian and Persian periods of sculpture were continuations of the Assyrian as regards historic derivation (74, 75). EGYPTIAN SCULPTURE. The Earliest Known Egyptian Statues have been founa m hid- den well-like recesses connected with tombs (70, 7^, and p. 3 7). They are portraits of the deceased persons buried in these tombs, or of attendants, the latter represented occasionally in various 132 EGYPTIAN SCULPTURE. menial occupations. These figures belong to a stage of the Egyp- tian belief in immortality which conceived of a spiritual " double," which was dependent on the preservation of the mummy, or on an effigy in default of this preservation, for well-being in its spiritual existence. The statues of attendants represent the assistants whom this " double " existence was supposed to need, according to the station held in life. This early class of statues has been known for a comparatively short time onh'. The first examples were shown in Europe, at Paris, in 186 7, and most of them are at present in the Boulak Museum, near Cairo. Characteristics of Early Egyptian Sculpture. — These statues ex- hibit frequently a supple and highly realistic art absolutely foreign to the generally preconceived opinions of Egyptian sculpture. Com- pare "The Scribe" (p. 136) with 79, as tj'pical for later periods of Egyptian art. Although the chronolog}" of the remoter periods of Egyptian history is not definitely settled, the date of the latest of this particular class is at least earlier than 2 300 b.c. The Later Eg-yptian Sculpture after 1800 b.c. (example at 79) is far from lacking science and the sentiment of realism, but its atti- tudes are conventional and the outward formalism is such that the distinctions between superior and inferior Avork require exact atten- tion and some sympathy with Egyptian types of art. This sympathy depends again on comprehension of the character of the people and of their history, but this comprehension is easily acquired from the works of art themselves, if they be viewed as expressions of char- acter. The attitude which regards all expressions of art of novel aspect simply as targets for criticism and ridicule, is as fatal to independence in modern art as it is to comj)rehension of any other. The Formal Attitudes of this later and more generally known Egyptian sculpture mainly exhibit the figure standing erect with pendant arms and the left leg advanced, or seated, with body faced exactly to the front and stiffly posed, the arms and hands resting on the knees. The portrait statues of the kings are the most numerous, and the statues are otherwise portraits, or representa- tions of divinities. The illustration, 79, offers a better idea of the peculiarities of the Egyptian style than description conveys. Once observed, the general resemblances are unmistakable and in sin- gular contrast with the freedom and realism of the earlier statues mentioned. TO. Chaldean Statue, Louvre. 71. Chaldean Sculpture, Louvre. 72. Tiglath Pileser II. besieging a town. Assyrian relief from Nineveh. British Museum. c M M •a JS a o 4) 0. t 0) < u 0) t3 0- C 111 H- SI « S 51 •c CO 2; c (t be C u K ^ ■n *» o p. J3 0) 3 Q V-r o o u u X! «l >. rt ^ 0. w .2 ho c 2 K r EGYPTIAN SCULPTURE. 135 Explanation of the Conventional Egyptian Style. — It is clear that the representations of kings ami tlivinities were the all- important ones, and that a style was gradually created for these which reacted on all other statues. The effort was to present the king or divinity in a solemn and imposing mminor, unaffected by the transient emotions and momentary gestures and attitudes of daily life. The ideal of uuapproachability, of authority, of dig- nity, was conveyed by tho fixed attitude and the magisterial pose. The relation between the style of temple architecture (pp. 29-42) and the style of sculpture is unmistakable. The same conditions created both. Influence of the Priests. — Much stress has been laid on the pre- scriptions and formulas of the priests as confining Egyptian sculpture to certain fixed proportions, methods, and attitudes. This influence of the priests is doubtless to bo admitted, l)ut it is also clear that the tendencies of national character and national history created the priestly caste and determined its general administration. The conservative nature of the Egj^ptians, their tenacious regard for the external conditions of solidity and durability, both of aspect and of the material itself, their reverence for tradition, and their indiffer- ence to casual and accidental aspects of nature, are all apparent in their later sculpture. They chose to represent the general rather than the particular and their art is clearly monumental in its mission. Its greatest interest is the light which it throws on the Egyptians themselves. The Period of Ramses II., about 1350 B.C., was the most prolific in monumental art, and at this time the enormous amount of pro- duction is thought to have promoted a superficial and conventional execution, wanting that mastery of details (within the limits of the conventional style) which characterizes earlier statues. The Decline in historic force and vitality which appears in Egypt after 1200 b.c, undoubtedly is reflected in tlu' character of the later sculpture as regards its minor details ; but the general re.sem- blances and general character of I^lgyptian art remained ahsolutely unchanged throughout the Persian, Greek, and fJonian conquests (pp. 3 7, 57, 6()). In tho Roman Imperial period the .style of its Egyptian province i)enetrated even to the capital of the Empire, and distinguishes some of the latest efforts of the Greco-Roman sculpture. 136 EGYPTIAN" SCULPTURE. NOTES ON THE ILLUSTRATIONS FOR CHALLEAN, ASSYRIAN, AND EGYPTIAN SCUIiPTURE. (70-79, inclvisive.) The specimens of earlj- Chaldean art at TO, 71 are from excavations at Telle, carried on by M. De Sarzec, the French Consul at Bagdad, between and since the years 1877-1881. jSTos. 72, 73, are AssjTian re- liefs, and Nos. 74, 75, represent the later Persian continuation of the Assyrian art. At 76 is shown the celebrated wooden statue of Ea-em-ka, ' ' Governor of Provinces " — time of the Fifth Dynasty. The period of King Shafra (78) was probably about 4000 b.c. (Fourth Dy- nasty). His pyramid is showm at 20. Both statues were found by the French Egyptologist Mariette. The period of Ramses II. (79) was about 1350 B.C. King Menephthah (77) was his son. The same Egyptian style continued till the 4th centur\- a.d. The statues at Ipsamboul are seventy-five feet high, and flank the entrance to a rock-cut temple one hundred and fifty feet in Statues of even larger size were also cut out in The Scribe, Louve. depth and thirty-five feet high. the sohd block, and transported hundreds of miles. An illustration of Egj-ptian sculpture in relief is shown at 169. King Seti I., whose portrait in relief is there shown, was father of Ramses II., and Lived about 1400 B.C. (Nineteenth D^masty). Assyrian Human-Headed Winged Bull. n o o 2 o O a o -0 3" p> jr •0 er B "1 t> O »• a- o « X o c 9 (7) 3" P ca o '9. COLOSSAL STATUE OF RAMESES IL. IPSAMBOUL GREECE. EARLY GREEK SCULPTURE. Early Period.-There are ii- aat^.l examples of Greek sculpture earlier than the 0th century B.C., antl its line.st examples are of the following century. Apparently the Greeks did not generally practice sculpture in stone before the 7th century B.C. The famous T.,n„- cate" of Jlycena. is the only existing work which is defmitely ascribed to "an earlier time, and this belongs to the prehistoric period before 1100 B.C., and is apparently of foreign (Lycian or Carian) workmanship. Oriental Influence through Asia Minor.-The eastern and south- eastern pl•o^dnces of Asia Minor (Phrygia, Lydia, Lycia, Caria, etc.) were among the connecting links between Oriental art and history and that of the Greeks. Greek colonies lined the shores of Asia Minor, and the adjoining Lydian Empire was an Assyrian depend- ency as regards its civilization. This Empire, in its greatest devel- opment (6th and 7th centuries B.C.), comprehended all the provinces inst named. . . .^ -i ■ Oriental Influence through Cyprus. -More nuportant, because more direct, points of contact with the Oriental civilizations-Chal- d,.o-Assvrian and Egyptian-were the Vhcenician colonies estab- lished on the Greek Islands and ar.,una the shore of Greece in the times before Greek civilization l,«oame powerful, but the.se had been mainlv expelled before the date of the development of Greek sculpture. "The Island of Cyprus, colonized in various distinct quarters both bv Greeks and Phoenicians, was a place where they continued in dir"ect contact during and after this tin.e, and thus was a most important spot for the development of Greek art. A glance at the map of the Eastern Mediterranean will show how the Phoenicians of the Syrian coast naturally amalgamated u, their own civilization influences from Egypt on the one hand, and from the Tigris-Euphrates Valley on the other. These influences 1-10 EARLY GREEK SCULPTURE. operated on the Greeks in Cyprus in a most decided manner (80, 81, 82). Direct Influence from Egypt. — The most important point of con- tact between the civilizations of the ancient East and the rising culture of the Greeks was in the delta of the Nile, during and after the 8th century B.C. In the decline of the Egyptian Empire at this time, the earlier policy of exclusion was abandoned. Greek merce- naries became the military force of the Egyptian kings. Greek colonies were consequently established in the Nile Delta. The inter- course between these Greeks in Egypt and the mother country was constant and intimate during the 8th, 7th, and 6th centuries e.g. Recent excavations at Naukratis, in the Nile Delta, have substan- tiated the natural hypothesis of an Egyptian influence on Greek art, spreading from this point. Cypriote Greek Art. — Among the statues from Cyprus in the Metropolitan Art Museum of New York, are a number illustrating the various stages of transition between Oriental art and the fully developed Greek. It is quite probable (almost positively certain), that even the absolutely Oriental types in this series are Greek works under Oriental influence, and imitating their external appear- ance (80-82). No. 80 shows Egyptian influence; Nos. 81, 82 show Assyrian influence. Compare 73. The Style of Greek Sculpture about 500 B.C. — that is, about ten years before the birth of Phidias — is still archaic, and shows palpable reminiscences of Egyptian influence — in the stiff pose, and in a fre- quent adherence to the Egyptian attitude in erect statues, which places the left leg in advance, etc. In the figures of this period there are also reminiscences and influences of the Greek statues, which preceded the period of the stone figures, and which continued to be reverenced even during the time of fully developed art — viz., the wooden puppets and wooden figures which were dressed in garments, and which served as the earliest temple statues. The garments of these figures were plaited in a set, quaint fashion, which is imitated in the zigzag drapery lines of the early works in stone. The Subjects of Early Greek Sculpture. — As to the subjects and use of the Greek statues about 500 B.C., it maybe said that the most important were those made for temples and shrines. The Tiythology underlying these statuary subjects is a most important element in the perception of their relation to Greek life and art. ? o «< ■a n n W r* S) r» C o v: •1 a O •t n n ff CO B B n z o o O n n n PC CO p r* C p ss a, Hercules carrying off the Cercopes. b. Perseus and the Medusa. 84. Apollo of >'enca, Muuich., , 53^ a. b. Metopes Selinus. 85. Tomb-stone of Aristion, Athens, "■ •■ (* c"' , ♦. " GKEEK AKflilTECTUKAL SCULriLKE. 143 Probably the study of niytholdgic art may be made more success- fully at first, in connection wiili examples of the perfected art, and thus we may, for the moment, overlook this aspect of the subject. Nos. 83a and h illustrate the rude Greek art of the Gth century B.C., from the metopes of a temple at Selinus, in Sicily; No. 85 is an illustration of the style about 500 B.C. — all interesting as con' trasts with the developed art Avhich followed. The Gymnastic Culture of the Greeks, and the connection of this culture with their military system, had already produced a statuary type of athletes. The distinction between the early Apollo type and the early type of athlett^'^ is not clear, and it is probable that the same type served occasionally for either subject (84). GREEK ARCHITECTURAL SCULPTURE. Reliefs from Selinus. — The temple architecture had begun to em- ploy sculptured decoration at this time. The metopes from the temple at Selinus, in Sicily, above referred to (now at Palermo), probably date from the earlier part of the Gth century B.C.* They are the only remaining temple architectural sculptures of the Gth century. Reliefs from Assos. — The style of sculptured temple decoration soon after 500 i?.c., is indicated by the frieze and metopes from the Temple of Assos, in Asia Minor, which are partly in the Louvre, partly in the Boston Museum of Fine Arts. These again are a unique monument of the early 5th century style. As provincial work, remote from the active progressive movement of Greek art at this time, these sculptures may, however, individually date as lat« as those next mentioned. The iCgina Marbles. — The style of Greek Temple architectural sculpture about 4 70 li.c, is indicated by the noted gable sculptures, in Munich, from a Temple of Minerva, on the Island of -.^gina (6 ^r nah), West of Attica, representing combats <«f Greeks and Trojans. Certain figures of this series from the angle of one of these gables are shown at No. 8 7. The warriors' figures exhibit a fully developed mastery of technical knowledge and execution in sculpture, and it must be obsei'ved that they are only a quarter of a century later than the type represented by the illustration for 500 B.C. (85). Although the faces have .still an archaic character, any greater detail or refinement of facial expression would have ♦ For the location of the metopes in a Greek temnle, aee p. 61. 144 GREEK ARCHITECTUKAL SCULPTURE. been lost at the elevation where the figures were placed, and at the distance from which they were necessarily viewed. Sculpture of the Jupiter Temple at Olympia. — The next step in the development of architectural sculpture decoration, as far as existing remains are concerned, is found in the gable and metope sculptures from the Jupiter Temple at Olympia. With exception of one or two metopes in the Louvre, these have been excavated since 1875, and are still at the site of discovery. Their date is about twenty years later than the ^gina figures, i.e., about 450 B.C. The tinge of archaic influence coloring the style of the ^gina sculpture has disappeared in these works. Elgin Marbles. — A final landmark in the development of Greek sculpture is the work of the Parthenon frieze and Parthenon gables (p. 51). The metope sculptures of the Parthenon have an analogous but not quite equal importance. The general date may be fixed in round numbers as 440 B.C. The Parthenon was finished in 438. The well-known masterpieces of this series, now in the British Mu- seum of London, are named from the English Minister to Turkey, who procured their removal from Athens, at the beginning of the 19th century— the "Elgin Marbles" (illustrations at 88-90). The scientific and technical perfection of these works is characterized by a simple dignity and unaffected grace, peculiar to all original statues of the great Greek periods. Subjects Represented. — The subject of the group to which the figure 90 belonged, was the birth of Minerva from the brain of Jupiter. The figures preserved represent divinities and heroes of the Greek mythical series. The designations are uncertain, but the usually quoted names are sufficient for specification. The absence of expression in the face of the "Theseus" befits the distance from which the gable was necessarily viewed. The sharp cutting of dra- pery folds in other figures, and the generally bold and vigorous methods of execution, are all related to the effects of distance and of elevation. The Parthenon Frieze. — The location of the frieze was at the top of the exterior temple wall under the portico ceiling. Its sub- ject, as generally interpreted, is the Panathenaic Procession, which every fifth year celebrated the gift of a new mantle to the ancient wooden Minerva statue of the Erechtheium (p. 52). The treat- ment of the frieze is decorative, without details, and in sympathy 86. Gable Sculpture of ^gina. Restored view. 87. Gable Sculpture from i'Egina, Munich. P5T 88. Section of the P-^-thenon Frieze, British Museum. "ol' • ' to c ^^89. Metope Sculpture from the Parthenon, British Museum, go. Theseus of the Parthenon Gable, British Museum. GREEK ARCHITECTURAL SCULPTURE. 147 with the architi'Ctuial purpose. In its design, vigor and vitality of feeling are combined with simplicity. Illustration 88 shows a small portion of this frieze. Parthenon Metopes. — The subjects of the Parthenon metopes are mainly combats uf Greeks with Centaurs. These again must be studit'd with reference to tlu'ir architectural location and effect (80). Balustrade Reliefs of the Temple of "Wingless Victory." — In the order of time, as regards the most important existing remains, the balustrade reliefs of the so-called "Wingless Victory Temple (p. 57 and Xo. 2 7) come next, dating altoul 400 B.C. The temple s built on a projecting spur of the Acropolis, and the balustrade was a solid wall of marble slabs decorated with reliefs. The best preserved figures are two "Victories," one loosening her sandal (92), now kept inside the little temple. The comparison of this cele- brated figure with 89 and 00 shows a difference of style analogous to the distinction between the Doric and Ionic orders, which reflects the same changes in taste and history (p. 52), Reliefs from Halicarnassus. — The same distinction appears, by contrast with the Parthenon frieze, in the more rapid movement of the frieze reliefs (combats of Greeks with Amazons) from the tomb monument of the Carian ruler, ]\Iausolus — the "Mausoleum," located in South-western Asia ]\Iinor, and dating from the -Ith century b.c. These are in the Britisli ]\Iuseum.* Reliefs from the Lysicrates Monument. — The related contrast between the tastes of the Doric and Ionic periods, appears once more in the frieze reliefs of the Choragic ^Monument of Lysicrates (p. 58 and No. 31), still in position. The sul)ject is the transforma- tion into dol{)hins of pirates assailing the train of Bacchus. Reliefs from Pergamus. — A more violent and extravagant art appears in the immense frieze relief from which the best fragments are now in Berlin, and which decorated the great altar of Zeus (Jupiter) at Pergamus, in Asia Elinor. The subject of the largest frieze is the combat of the gods and giants. The change of style again indicates a succession in time, otherwise attested (2d century B.C.), and is related to the general development and subsequent decadence of the Greek sculpture, presently to be sketched. No. 93 is a fragment of this frieze. (Restoration of the altar at 04.) ♦ As remarked in the Preface, the Soule phototjraphs offer cheap and easily obtainable illus- trations of all objects mentioned in text without illustration. 148 ROMAN COPIES AND GREEK ORiGINALS. The Foregoing List presents, in sequence of time, most of the fairlj- well pre- served and important works of Greek architectural sculptured decoration which have been so far made known to students. The subjects constantly re-appearing in Greek art of the combats of the gods and giants, combats of Greeks and Ama- zons, combats of Greeks and Centaurs, etc., all relate to that contest between brutal elemental forces and civilization, which was so prominent an aspect of life to the delicate cultivation of the Greeks. Dates of Excavation or Discovery. — Without exception, the works mentioned have only come under the close attention of students since the opening of the present centurj', and they have added many new conceptions to the views of Greek art propounded by "Winckelmann, but they have been especially of vajue in verif}i.ng the position taken by him as to the distinction between original Greek works and those copies of the Roman Imperial period which had been almost the only Greek statues previously known. In this sense, Winckelmann was the prophet of these later discoveries of the original Greek sculptures, which were unknown to him. On the other hand, the colder and more mechanical work of the Roman Imperial period had influenced the tj'pes of imitativ^e modern art before the superior vitality and vigor of the original Greek art had been appre- ciated, and this influence was not easily supplanted. If the history of art had no other value for modern sculpture, it would be something to show that the modern Antique art, dating from Canova and Thorwaldsen, had drawn its Antique aspects rather from the colder and more formal art of the Roman copjang period than from Greek originals. ROMAN COPIES AND GREEK ORIGINALS. Distinction between Ancient Originals and Ancient Copies. — The attentive studj' of the Greek architectural sculpture, and of the qualities of original Greek execution, has led to the identification of various original Greek statues scattered through European muse- ums, Avhich had been imported into Italy from Greek countries during or just before the time of the Roman Empire. Others have been discovered, of late years, on Greek soil. Two of these, the "'Victory" by Pseonius (95) and the Mercury by Praxiteles (96), are especially famous. See also the Milo Venus (106). Again, the num- ber of these original Greek statues is considerable, though (as far as remains are concerned) not considerable in relation to the immense number of copies made in the Roman Imperial time. It is thus highh' important to understand the distinction between certain famous statues which are admired for the motive,* pose, conception, and because they are known to be copies of famous lost originals — and others which are admired not only for such traits, but, also, for the qualities of original Greek execution. The Apollo Belve- * 7. e., the action or aspect of the subject chosen. gi. "Victory," Athenian Acropolis. 92. "Victory," Athenian Acropolis. 93. From the Battle of the Gods and Giants at Pcrgamus, Berlin. oi o *> 01 10 CO H 2 3 Q < CO Q O o o H < n X H O w U fa X CO D < o Bi H D ►-> b O < H TYPleAL GKEKK STATL'KS. 151 dere (118) and the so-called Marble Faun (ilu) may be mentioned as types of the llrst class ; the Theseus, ]\lilu Venus, '* Victory '' by Pceonius, and ]\Ieivurv by Praxiteles are types of the second. Another Distinction to be made is that between original Greek statues by unknown artists, and those to which the name of a famous Greek artist can be definitely fixed. The ]\Iercury and "Victory" are, so far, the only works known of the latter class, dating from the originating periods of Greek art, aside from some architectural sculptures. The " Elgin Marbles " are works of the school of Phidias, n(U actually creations of his chisel. Typical Subjects. — in architectural sculptures the subjects were restricted to the Greek myths, and in all statues that character of Greek art must be especially noted which led it to be content with the constant repetition of a certain series of tj^pes. These represent the well-known m\i:hological personifications of Greek belief, and only in exceptional cases did Greek art go outside of or beyond them. Statues of athletes are the only important additional class. In this sense, the Greek scnlj^ture appears as the expression either of the gymnastic life or of the religious beliefs of the people, and is especially interesting for this relation to them. Belief in the gods as spiritual beings, generally ceased, or seriously declined, in the 4th century B.C., but the statues of them continued to be made as ideal personifications of the qualities, virtues, and activities which they had previously symbolized. Enumeration of Certain Types. — Thus, statues of Vulcan as the artificer, of Venus (lOG and 120) and Cupid (108) as personifications of the passion of love, of Bacchus (l'U>) as harvest divinity, of the Fauns (10 7, 113) as types of a natural animal existence in the woods and fields, were equally significant for Greek feeling, whether the actual belief in the divinity had, or had not, disappeared. From this point of view, an enumeration of some other Greek types is of value. The Hercules ideal (117) represented physical energy de- voted to the cause of civilization. The Amazon statues (102) were personifications of heroism and martial valoi-. The Jupiters (100) and Junes (101) personified the power of the Avill. The Apollos (111, 112, 118) were types of musical and gymnastic cultivation. The Mercuries (96) also personified gymnastic cultivation. The Dianas (119) were types of female chastity. The ]Minervas (98, 99) symbolized intellectual enlightenment, etc. Ib'Z TYPICAL GREEK STATUES. Repetitions of Typical Subjects. — Each one of these types was reproduced in hundreds and thousands of examples. The individual statues varied, one from the other, in attitude or in motive (com- pare 98 Avith 90, 10 7 with 113, 106 with 120), yet each concep- tion was stamped by certain simple attributes and peculiarities. Thus, the Yenus is the only female tj'pe which is represented un- draped, a curious contrast to the multitude of nude female statues in modern art. The Amazon is indicated by the attire and the weapons, etc. A very slight familiarity with the statues is sufficient to the distinction of the various types. Repetitions of Individual Statues. — Aside from the variations within a given type, we must also note the cases in which a given famous original was reproduced individually in hundreds of subse- quent repetitions. The so-called Marble Faun (113) of the Capitol Museum in Rome is a statue in point. In the middle of the 18th century there were already thirty-two statues in Rome of the same attitude, all copies of a lost original, probably by Praxiteles. As these statues were found by chance, and as the destruction of Antiques has been incomparably greater than the preservation, this argues a much larger number of copies of this one original as having existed in ancient Rome alone, to say nothing of other cities. In the same way, there are a number of repetitions of the ''Apollo with the Lizard" (112) in various luuseums. The Belvedere Apollo is known in three repetitions — a head in Basle, which once .belonged to an entire statue, and a bronze in St. Petersburg, beside the statue in Rome (118). Exceptions to the Typical Character of Greek Sculpture, and to its tendency to free repetition of the same mythological subjects, are mainly of the period of decadence, after the overthrow of the independent Greek States (p. 57). Of this class are statues like the so-called Dying Gladiator in Rome (12 2). These exceptional cases as to subject are generally characterized by remarkable science of execution, but of a more minute and pretentious character thiin that usual in earlier Greek art. Designations of the Greek Divinities.— When the Romans came under the influence of the Greek art and culture, their divinities were assimilated with those of the Greeks, and Latin designations were applied to them. It is by these Latin designations that the Greek deities and statues of deities have been currently known in modern use. The Greek name of Vulcan was Hephaestus ; of Venus— Aphrodite ; of Cupid— Eros ; of Bacchus— Dionysus ; of Jupiter— Zeus ; of Juno— Hera ; of Mercury— Hermes ; of Diana— Artemis ; of Minerva— Athene. Apollo and Her- cules were known by these names to the Greeks (with sUghtly different spelling). 95. "VICTORY" BY PiCONIUS, OLYMPIA. w w l'*^-^3 1 1 1 -.M T3 "Wgfl f/l#"" lliiiii„„.'uiM :l!i^ .S 'q E >. 5 0* p JS u u a m a 3 U I'll 1 n I AS. 155 TYPES OF THE FIFTH CENTURX- B.C. Historical Review. — Wo are now x^reparod to follow a snnimary historical review of the mi)st quoto(l Greek sculptors and llie-ir works, as known by later copies. The valnc of these later copies for this review, as re[)etitions of Inst originals, is apparent. The periods in question correspond to those already indicated for the orders of Greek Architecture, to wliich periods reference should now be made (p. 52). The Rapid Development of the perfect Greek art in the 5th century B.C. has been already apparent in the contrast between the art dating about 500 B.C. and that of thirty years later. The })er- fection of this art had its parallel in Greek literature and its cause in Greek civilization. The victories of the Persian wars, dating 490— iSO B.C., made the Greeks fully conscious of their own supe- riority to the Eastern civilization, from which their earlier art had borrowed so much, and promoted an independent national art ex- pression. Athens, as the leading Greek State of this period, was the center of political activity and of greatest wealth. The native artistic tendencies of its population were headed b}' the genius of Phidias and supported by the favorable disposition of the statesman Pericles. Works of Phidias. — Beside the sculptures of the Parthenon already noted — probably the works of scholars after models by this artist — the especially famous works of Phidias were his colossal Jupiter in the temple at Olympia and his colossal ]\Iinerva in the Parthenon. Both were "Chryselephantine," that is. Avorks in gold and ivory, and these were the usual materials employed at this time in similar temple figures. A wooden scaffolding, or skeleton form, was first erected, on which plates of ivory were laid and joined to represent the fiesh. Gold was used for the hair, draperies, and accessories. Destruction of the Chryselephantine Statues. — No statue of this class survived the devastations of the otli century A.n. Tlie antagonism of Christianity was as fatal to Greek art at this time as the ravages of the barbarians, and these last were not confined to Western Europe, although they were not as lasting io the East. (See the Restorations at 25 and 26.) Copies of Works by Phidias. — A statuette recently discovered at Athens (98) appears to be a late copy of the Parthenon IMinerva. 156 POLYCLETUS AND MYRON. The later Minerva type in general, as illustrated by 99, seems to have been founded by this artist. The Jupiter bust of the Vatican, known, from the place of its discovery, as the "Otricoli Jupiter" (100), is not thought to be an exact copy of the head of the Olympian statue, but it is the finest example of the large number of Jupiter types which date their general conception from the Jupiter of Phidias. Works of Polycletus. — A famous contemporary of Phidias was Polycletus. The greatest work of this artist was a colossal gold and ivory Juno (Hera), made for the temple at Argos, in the Pelopon- nesus. The bust named the Ludovisi Juno, from its location in the Ludovisi Villa at Rome, is thought to be a later copy from this work (101). The later Juno type in general is related to the epoch- making original. The Type of the Amazon in several variations dates from the same period of Greek art. The Temple of Diana at Ephesus insti- tuted a contest between seven Greek sculptors for the statue of an Amazon. Among the sculptors who entered this contest are named Phidip^s, Polycletus, and Crosilas. Polycletus is recorded to have been the victor. The Amazon statue of the Capitol Museum in Rome (102) is a noted copy of a work by one of these artists, and there are a number of repetitions in several variations which are ascribed to originals dating from the same contest. The "Doryphorus" and the " Diadumenus." — Various copies are extant of two statues of athletes by Pcjlycletus, which are quoted by ancient writers — one of a youth bearing a spear, one of a gymnast binding about his head the fillet which was the trophy of victory in a gymnastic contest. The most noted copy of the first-mentioned statue, the "Doryphorus" (spear-bearer), is in Naples. One of the copies of the second work, the "Diadumenus," is in the British Museum. Myron was a contemporary, but of somewhat earlier date. One of his quoted statues, that of a gymnast throwing the discus (a species of quoit), is known in two copies — one till lately in the Palace Massimi at Rome, the other in the Vatican (103). Another Statue of a Disk-thrower, known in various copies, represents the gymnast as holding the disk in an attitude just be- fore undertaking the throw. These copies are thought to date from an original of the Phidian period. "& /\c o o •a ■3- 3 s 3 n p IB ^ ^ c iro. OTRICOLI JUPITER, VATICAN. 101. JUNO OF THE LUDOVISI VILLA. > O c o N a 6 < PK AXITKLKS. iOl Traits of Greek Art of the Fifth Century B.C. — A coiiiparisou of the copies known to date from originals of the generation of Phidias (5th century B.C.) with one another and with the original archi- tectural works of the same time, shows tliat ility unite in certain qualities of style. All have a serious and earnest tendency. The conceptions especially affected are of the most serious types of Greek Mythology — thi' Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva. The types of the Amazons and Athletes have the same serious and virile qualities. A related taste appears in the attitudes and styles of the sculptures of the Parthenon and of the Jupiter Temple at Olympia. TYPES OF THE FOURTH CENTURY B.C. Style of the 4th Century. — As compared with the above-mentioned statues, the style of the 4th century has a more graceful and less serious character, both in the re-treatment of subjects previously affected and in the choice of new ones. The names of Praxiteles and Scopas are especially famed in this period, and the copies of works ascribed to these artists varj' from those just indicated as the Ionic order differs from the Doric. The same general historical causes produced a change of social conditions and of taste which are reflected both in scidpture and in arrhitccnire {[>. ')2). Works of Praxiteles. — A quoted work by Praxiteles, the Lizard- slaying Apollo (Sauroktonos), is known in a number of copies. The one illu.strated is in the Capitol Museum at Rome (112). The play- ful conception and slender effeminate proportions are characteristic both of the artist and of the period. The relation of the act repre- sented to the character of Apollo is not clear, although the lizard is known to have been associated with soothsaying superstitions, to which the conception of Apollo was also related. The Venus Type. — Equally significant for the taste of the -Ith century, and e(jually in contrast with the taste of the 5th century, are the types of Venus (Aphrodite), most of which, in the countless later copies, are more or less connected with lost original works by Praxiteles and Scopas. The most quoted example of the Venus type, in the Louvre, is named from the Greek island on which it was discovered in 1810 — the Venus of Milo, or Melos (106). It was made by Alexander of Antiocheia on the Meander, 2d century li.c. The Cupid (Eros) types are equally significant for th<^ taste of 162 PKAXITELES AND SCOPAS. this century, in contrast witli the style of the Phidian time. Again, the names of both Praxiteles and Scopas are quoted for famous works, by which the numerous Cupids of later antiquity were more or less directly inspired. A Cupid in the Vatican is a well-known illustration (108). Type of the Faun. — Praxiteles was famed for the statue of a Faun, of which the statue in the Capitol known as the " Marble Faun" is generally conceded to have been a copy (113). Similar graceful and playful tendencies appear in numerous other statues of Fauns. As regards execution, the "Barberini" (bar be re' ne) Faun, in Munich, and the Faun of the Borghese Villa, are far superior to the so-called "Marble Faun." The names of specific artists are not connected with these works. The Bacchus (Dionysus) type (109) is also a creation of this period. The multitudes of statues of this class, are only equaled in number by the Fauns. As regards execution, the finest example is a torso* of the Naples Museum. A bronze head of the same Mu- seum has so serious a character that it is incorrectly designated as the philosopher Plato. The head of the Capitol Museum, com- monly known as "Ariadne," is also one of Bacchus.f A fine group in Florence, shows the god with his attendant, Ampelus (personifi- cation of the Vine). Works of Scopas. — The "Niobe Group," in Florence (110), belongs to a series of copies, the lost originals of which are generally ascribed to Scopas. The myth of Niobe relates that she had roused the jealousy of Apollo and Diqna, and that her children were slain by their arrows. The largest statue is that of Niobe endeavoring to protect her youngest daughter from the impending death. Other statues show her children in attitudes of flight, terror, or suffering. The location of the original group is uncertain, and no satisfactory arrangement to correspond with the natural supposition that this was a temple gable, has been offered. Some arrangement connected with architecture appears certain. The copies were found in Rome. A torso of the Vatican belongs to a similar series, but is of far superior execution and a work of Greek chisel, possibly belonging to the original group. The pathetic tendencies apparent in this group are not exhibited by the Phidian period. * Torso is the word used to define tlie broken trunk of a statue without head or limbs, t See Preiderichs' " Bau-steine," and other authorities. An illustration at 135. s p a n < n S3 c .-^^ 3- O o a- n *■•* 3, "1^ )■ :1 ^ • - • • io5. THE MILO VENUS, LOUVRE. <3^^. tKTT.- ^ ' '• O (I o O O O O ** O I07. DANCING FAUN. FLORENCE. (4 > en > 3 o a- a a o a > o Mid O r < a o a 3 a u Si H a 3 u 10 3 a o ■M "3 < ALEXA X I-i; I XE SCULPTURE, 169 An Apollo of the A'aticaii playiMg on the lyre, has been classified as the copy of a work l)y Rcopas. The attn])iition is doubtful (111). The Mercury (Hermes) of Praxiteles.— In 1»75, the German exploring expedition sent to excavate at Olynipia, found an authen- ticated original statue by Praxiteles, of Mercury holdincr the infant Bacchus (HI his arm. This statue is still at Olympia. Two views of this fi<,'ure are shown at 9(), 9 7. ALEXANDRINE PERIOD OF GREEK SCULPTURE. Correspondence with the History of Architecture. — The sketch of the history of Greek architecture has noted (p. 5 7) some of the conditions of Greek culture after the Macedonian overthrow of the independence of the Greek Republics. The Corinthian order has been explained as a continuation of the Ionic, and the general character of its period has been explained as connected with ■'the expansion and diffusion of Greek culture over many foreign coun- tries. For the adjective "Alexandrine," see p. 5 7. Characteristics of Alexandrine Art. — Tt was not a creative time in other respects, ami in sculpture its leading claim to attention is that it began to multiply and si^read the copies of earlier works or conceptions borrowed from them. lis own independent productions show generally a tendency to elaboration of detail in execution, to the minutice of naturalism generally avoided li\' the earlier Greek art, sometimes to a relatively pompous or theatrical style, as com pared Avith the extreme simplicity of the earlier Greek works. Connection with Greco-Roman Sculpture. — There is no distinct separation between the art of the Alexandrine time proper and the Roman-Greek art of the Imperial time. Direct influences of Greek art at Rome were quite pronounced as early as the 2d century B.C. Works of Greek sculpture began to be carried to Rome in great numbers then. The p]mpire itself, founded at a later time (31 B.C.), simply continued the civilization of the late Republi<'. This was already that of the Alexandrine Greeks. Side by side with this continuation of the Greek art rose the independent Roman sculpt- ure of portraiture. This, in its turn, spread to Greece and the Oriental Greek countries. All territories of the Eiupire thus united in producing, side by side, the ideal types of the Greek Antique and the realistic types of "Roman"' portraiture. 170 ALEXANDRINE SCULPTURE. Works of Lysippus. — The name of Lysippus introduces the new period. He was a contemporary of Alexander. The colossal ''Farnese" Hercules of the Naples Museum (117) is considered a later copy of a bronze by this sculptor. Various other typical conceptions of the Hercules do not, as far as known, antedate his time. The Athlete in the Vatican, called the Apoxyomenus, is copy of a work by this artist. The " Mars " of the Ludovisi Villa prob- ably dates, in conception, from his period (116). The "Belvedere" Apollo of the Vatican (118) is considered to be the copy of an Alexandrine work. The pose shows more calculation for striking effect than appears in any statue known to date from an earlier time than that of Alexander. This statue is more celebrated for its striking pose and conception than for its execution. The arms are restored, and the presump- tion of the restorer that the figure held a bow has been subse- quently abandoned. Correct Restoration of the Belvedere Apollo, — It is probable that the left hand held an ^gis. The ^Egis was a shield of goat's skin, to which was affixed the head of the Gorgon or Medusa, As an emblem of the powers of darkness and evil, the Gorgon's head is the trophy of the sun-god who triumphed over them. So terrible that it turned to stone those who gazed upon it, it was conceived also as a weapon of the god. The JEgis is also an attribute of Minerva and of Jupiter, divinities who also i^ersonify the triumph of light over darkness. The supposition that the Belvedere Apollo held an ^-Egis has been suggested by a bronze statuette in St, Petersburg, exactly corresponding in pose to this statue, and holding an object thus interpreted. The Diana "of Versailles," now in the Louvre, is one of the many fine copies to which no artist's name is attached (119), The character of pose and conception justify an ascription of the original to the Alexandrine art. The "Medici" Venus, in Florence (120), is an original work of the 2d century b,c. Its qualities of execution are far superior to those of the ordinary Roman copies. The conception lacks the ideal nobility and grandeur of the Venus of Milo, The inscription recording Cleomenes of Athens as the artist is a forgery. The "Dying Gladiator." — A similar tendency to realism, but in a different vein, appears in the famous "Dj'ing Gladiator" of the Capitol (122), This statue is probably one of a group which w^as placed on the Acropolis, at Athens, by an Alexandrine Greek sever- O. DC > o n g 5' u o * 4 J J » • • ' • ' 1 , 1 ' J ' . » » • ' 2 a: C9 > o •a 3 ►J C C C , C C c r «l f < <» DO n <* n a n > o B . * i «> ■ "^ ■■ c' t c c c /■ c c.c etc' c' I /?wirar. i2q. Caligula, Vatican. 130. Scipio Africanus, bronze, Naples. 131. Nero, Vatican. 132. Hadrian, Vatican. 133. STATUE OF AUGUSTUS, VATICAN. C « i ■} -i ^ J ) o Q u 3 U c f- u E U >» Xi •a u c« xt b» a 'S» G XI n o +4 u D O Ci. 2 < O _) u w a 01 < K n » W »> c to W o o CI. to a a o •a \ i y>'^ ';rft o p p. > 5' o c: O (0 ^^^^s^^#^gllj^feljls^^ 137. FROM THE DESTROYED TRIUMPHAL ARCH OF THE EMPEROR MARCUS AURELI JS» The Ejn^eror grants terms of peace to conquered Germans, » f c , < « I . < < < » * I c Aii^'i V;*.,' ':;..i .'".•/ THE MIDDLE AGE. BYZANTINE AND MEDIEVAL SCULPTURE. The Connecting' Link between Antique and early Christian sculpture is found in the stone sarcophagi just mentioned. Some of the ancient myths commonly represented on sarcophagi were susceptible of Christian interpretation ; for instance, those relating to Psyche (the Soul), and the decoration of the stone coffins with Scriptural subjects was, of course, an admissible branch of Chris- tian art. Christian Antagonism to Pagan Art. — Although Christianity first developed within the limits of the Roman Empire, and had existed in it since the time of the first Emperors, its antagonism to ancient art was almost absolute. This antagonism is explained by the subjects which ancient art affected. As these were representations of Pagan beliefs, the early Christians found themselves in bitter opposition both to these beliefs and to their external representations in art. The main field of Greco-Roman sculpture was the Greco- Roman Mythology, and thus the art of sculpture was destroyed in the downfall of Paganism. The statues of Pagan divinities were melted when they were of metal, broken up when of stone, or burned in the lime-kilns if they were of marble. It was impossible to accomplish this wholesale destruction without detriment to the art of design, and this did not recover itself entirely until the Italian Renaissance. The sarcophagus represented at 138 (with re- liefs of the Story of the Passion) is a fair type of the short-comings of early Christian art during many centuries. As noted under the history of architecture (p. 81), Christianity became the favored religion of the Roman State soon after the opening of the 4th century a.d., and Pagan worship was made illegal at the close of the same century. It was, therefore, in the 4th century that the Christian destruction of Pagan art was mainly accomplished. The ravages of the German invasions in the 5th century (p. 81) com- pleted this destruction. 190 BYZANTINE SCULPTURE. Christian Art Affected by Decline of the Antique. — Before this active destruction, which was so detrimental to the arts of design, the Antique sculpture and art in general, had entered its period of decay. This decline of ancient sculpture Avas one result of the waning moral and physical forces of Antiquity in its dotage and old age. But above all, the decline of the Empire and of its art is ex]3lained by the expansion of its civilization. Such immense num- bers of foreign tribes were brought under its influence, both within and without the geographical boundaries, that they ultimately re- duced this civilization almost to the level of their own barbarism. This, at least, was the condition of Western Europe for some time after the 5th century a.d. In the Byzantine Countries (pp. 81, 82), this barbaric influence is not in question, and we must look to the spirit of early Chris- tianity for the essential explanation of the nature of their art. Antiquity, especially in its later days, had found its ideals of hap- piness in the well-being and beauty of the bodily form. Christianity was inspired by the consciousness of a conflict between the flesh and the spirit. It could not exalt the former without detriment to the latter, as long as the physical and unspiritual stand-point of "^agan antiquity continued to have influence in the world. Influence of Mosaic Decoration on Design. — The history of me- dieval sculpture is, therefore, for many centuries, rather a blank than even an account of deflciencies. As will appear in the history of painting, the art of mosaic decoration in glass, which was used for the inner surfaces of the churches (see also p. Ul), influenced the minor and less practiced arts of design, including sculpture. The set, stiff formulas of mosaic design repeat themselves in the elongated forms and lifeless execution of the scanty sculptural works. Sculpture sank mainly to the level of decorative carving, but in this fleld produced many beautiful works. The Period of Absolute Decadence, as characterized by Nos. 138 and 140, lasted from the -Ith to the 13th century. In its earlier time it is relieved by a survival of Antique beauty in some of the ivory carvings (No. 139), book-covers and writing tablets especially. At a later period of this decadence, Byzantine art experienced a partial revival, which has only in the last few years attracted the attention of students. In spite of this x)artial revival, the bronze doors of certain cathedrals, which were monuments of the best effort > r ■< n X :« t— < CO H > z > O O 13 DC > CT C U) t-t Z c H » r :? > 3 H ? > o W o • 3 W o > z o > > o o 2 w m 1) o s in'iuii!iiiiiiin;irTKniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiffliiii,i;iii!iiiiiiiiiTMiiriTMii^^i'ii:!i!l||i!in!:!!i!i^ 139. IVORY DIPTYCH AT MONZA. ., Oalla Placidia and her son, Valentinian III. Fifth Century. I I ' I,' I c ( I ■ » a < a ( 140. IVORY TABLET IN THE HOTEL CLUNY, PARIS. Emperor Otto II. and wife, Theophano, blessed by Christ., Tenth Century. u o E o it a i' C £3 u o 3 « > 3 H. o E « o >-l be 3 J3 C 3 c o E S 0) •o o XI B o u 3 z So ■5 -^ 3 -M <9 C V u m u E o MEDIEVAL SCULPTURE. 195 of the 11th and 12 th centuries, are characterized by absokite bar- barism of design. The Revival of Sculpture in the 13th century finds its earliest monuments in France and Germany, in the cathedral sculptures ; especially those of Rheims and of Chartres in France, and of Freiberg (Saxony) in Germany. Throughout the Gothic period in Northern Europe (Wells Cathedral in England, and elsewhere), there are many monuments of sculpture interesting for their fresh and innocent character and for spiritual beauty. These are almost uni- versally of an architectural and decorative character. The immense amount of sculptured decorations usual in the later Gothic cathe- drals, was often detrimental to the perfection of individual pieces. In many localities, the earlier medieval ignorance of design and indifference to the study of the human form continued through the Gothic period, and were not overcome till the time of the influence of the Italian Revival (pp. 13, 117) over Northern Europe. REVIVAL OF SCULPTURE IN ITALY. Importance of the Italian Revival. — Although dating also in Italy from the 13th century, the revival here was later than in France or Germany, but it has always attracted more attention because its subsequent development in the works of Ghiberti and Michael An- gelo far surpassed any thing produced by Northern Europe. Nicolo of Pisa. — The revival in Italy is connected with the name and work of a single artist, Nicolo of Pisa. His most famous work is the marble pulpit of the Baptistery in Pisa (Nc 144), dating from the third quarter of the 13th century (12 60). A less quoted but also beautiful work by the same artist, is the pulpit of the Siena Cathedral. These pulpits are unique monu- ments. Aside from a pulpit in Pistoja (pes to' ya) by Nicolo's son, Giovanni (jo van' e), and a now destroyed pulpit of the Pisa Cathe- dral, nothing of the same character or quality was subsequently accomplished. Details of the Pisa Baptistery pulpit at 145, 146. Influence of the Antique. — The citizens of Pisa were among the earliest to cultivate that interest in antiquity which afterward grew into the Renaissance. Their enthusiasm led them to collect the sculptured coffins of the Greco-Roman art, and the art of Nicolo was inspired by antique reliefs still shown in Pisa. 196 MEDIEVAL SCULPTURE. Italian Sculpture in the 14th Century. — Nicole's son, GTiovanni, did not reach the distinction of his father, but was a superior artist for his time. Other Pisan sculptors produced interesting works during the 1-ith century. Andrea Pisano (peesah'no) is a leading name (bronze door of the Florence Baptistery). The reliefs of the Florence Campanile (p. 116), from designs by the painter Giotto (jot'o), are of classic reputation. In general, however, the art of sculpture subsided into comparative quiescence or neglect during the llrth century in Italy. This was the period of the first devel- opment of Italian painting, and this art more especial y absorbed the interest of the time. The Renaissance in Sculpture. — Notwithstanding the quiescen e of Ttahan dcuipture in the 14th century, it attained the full perfection of modern art in the century following. The later modern sculptiu^e has never subsequently rivaled the Italian works of the 15th and 16th centuries. From the point of view which considers all modern civilization as a development of the Italian Renaissance, and which unites the 15th, 16th, 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries in one single period, having its starting-point in Italy, there is nothing surprising ia this early perfec- tion of modern sculpture. For a definition of the "Renaissance," and for the inspiration and tendencies of its historical movement, see pp. 117-126, where the history of modern architecture is shown to have been dependent on it (see, also, p. 13). The Antique influences apparent in Renaissance architecture were no less prominent in the art of sculpture, and were equally connected with that Itahan interest in the ancient classic languages and history, which was the most remark- able feature of Italian culture in the 15th century. Distinction between the Renaissance and the Greek Revival. — It is important to 'understand that the remains of ancient art in Italj^ were not the less enthu- siastically studied because there was a mistaken theory as to their origin (p. 117). The virtues of the ancient art were credited to the Romans rather than to the Greeks, but they were not on that account the less admired. No attention was paid, it is true, to those aspects of the Antique Greek art which were first insisted on by Winckelmann. The Italian interest of the Renaissance was centered I'ather on the technical perfection of execution and natural appearance. By contrast wicn the barbarism of medieval design still general in Northern Europe (p. 197), ali ancient statues were revelations v^f an interest in beauty and nature which the Italians were struggling to revive. It was especially this interest in nature and in the beauty of the human form which was the bond of sympathy between the art of the Renaissance and that of the ancients. 144- PULPIT IN THE PISA BAPTISTERY. NICOLO PISANO. Thirteenth Century. 145- Nicolo Pisano. The Nativity. Detail of 144. i/fi Nicolo Pisano. Adoration of the Magi. Detail of 144. si^t\t^Msi}^miiSfxisisfM^^ %/AK\K\fX/jkyMX>jaMXtMjajctj>(0yn\K'ie(xwixf.%t^^ 147. ANDREA DELLA ROBBIA. ,^ : ' ^;\ ",*.,"■.,.. .*. Enameled Relief. Coronation of the Virgin. Fifts'erri'ib' i^cn&ryv,,' * '• " , * "•* iiliisiiiiiyiiiiiililM ■ 149. EQUESTRIAN STATUE OF GUATAMALATA, BY DONAT ,i.XO. PADUA. e e ,* e •• a n ^ • «••.:• • • c a c c a * •.'• . ITALIAN RENAISSANCE. 15TH CENTURY SCULPTURE. The Bronze Doors of the Florence Baptistery, by Lorenzo Ghiberti (ge ber' te), are the epoch-making works of modern sculpture (No. 148). Not begun till after l-iOO, not finished till after 1450, the gap between them and the work of Kicolo covers nearly two centuries. The door by Andrea Pisano has been mentioned ; there are two by G-hiberti. The one most quoted is that illustrated. The illustrations of these designs are more elo- quent than description could be. A curious feature is the absence of related works of even approximate perfection. Similar bronze doors Avere not again attempted in Italy till the Italian decadence (p. 121) had set in, Ot this later time are the doors of the Pisa Cathedral, by John of Bologna. Luca della Robbia. — During the 15th century, the Florentine sculptors were by far the most noted of all Europe. Most of them were assistants of Ghiberti in the work on the doors in question. Luca della Robbia (look' a del' la rob' e a) is famed for his reliefs of a marble choir railing for the Florence Cathedral, which was never placed in position, but which is still preserved in Florence. This artist devoted himself especially to the designing of reliefs in enameled terra-cotta, and this art was continued after his death by other members of his family. The secrets of the family manu- facture perished with its last member. The works of ''Robbia" ware are spread all over Tuscany. They are inainly altar-pieces and lunettes* for architectural decoration (147). There is a fine Robbia altar-piece in the Art Museum of New York. Donatello was another famous 1 5th century Florentine. Lack- ing the tendencies of Ghiberti and of Luca della Robbia toward * liUnettes are the curved spaces arranged above the top straight beam of a door. 204 RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE. ideal beauty, he is distinguished by nervous vigor and by honest veracity of design. His most noted work is shown at 149. The Florentine Verocchio (varok'yo) had a related character, tending sometimes to an appearance of quaintness by the rigor and sincerity of his effort. A noted work at 150. PoUajuolo (p6l ah- you o' lo) was a Florentine of similar tendencies. Mino da Fiesole (mee' no da fe a' so la) and Desiderio da Setti- gnano (set in yah' no), of the later 15th century, are known for reliefs of Madonnas, etc., of peculiar purity of sentiment. Leonardo da Vinci (laonar'do da vin'che). — The connecting link between the studies of these sculptors and those of Michael Angelo, in sequence of time, was furnished by Leonardo da Vinci, but there are no preserved works of sculpture by this artist. A colossal equestrian statue of his i^atron, the Duke of Milan, was twice completed in model, but these models were destroyed before casting in bronze. One of them was probably destroyed by acci- dent, the other by the French invaders of Milan in 1499. 16TH CENTURY ITALIAN RENAISSANCE. MICHAEL ANGELO (1475-1564.) Early Works. — Michael Angelo was born near Florence, in 1475, and grew up as a native of that city and Republic. Although dis- tinguished as architect (p. 118) and painter, his original and peculiar profession was that of sculpture. Ghiberti and Donatello were his models. The earliest work of the artist's youth, a Faun's mask, is still preserved in Florence. The much quoted Cupid, his next effort, which was buried and then sold as an Antique, has disappeared, (Other Cupids by Michael Angelo — one in the South Kensington. Museum of London and one in Turin — are of later date.) He next executed, 1494, an Angel for the tomb of St. Domenic, in Bologna, still to be seen in that city. The "Bacchus" of the Flor- ence Uffizi dates from the year 1494. The Piet^. — In 1499 was finished the group of the Virgin hold- ing the dead Saviour, now in St. Peter's, at Rome (156). The technical Itahan name for this subject is Pietd (pee a tahO. The Colossal Statue of "David," in Florence (151), was set up in 1504. A year later, Michael Angelo went to Rome to under- take the future tomb of the then reigning Pope Julius II. tjo. EQUESTRIAN STATUE OF COLLEONI, BY VEROCCHIO. VENICE, J J -^ , jBJ> 4 =»»> r'J 151. MICHAEL ANGELO. DAVID. FLORENCE. 152. Michael Angelo. "The Day." Florence. ,33. Michael Angelo. " The Night." Florence. V » ' < 154. MICHAEL ANGELO. MOSES, ROME. MICHAEL ANGELO. 20b The "Moses." — He began, as part of this monument, the statue of "Moses" (154), which was not finished till forty years later. In 1507 he finished a bronze statue of Julius II. for the town of Bologna, which was destroyed during a revolt in this town a few years later. After this time, from 1508 to 1512, he was engaged on the ceiling frescoes of the Sistine Chapel, to be subsequently noticed. The Two " Captives," now in the Louvre, were finished before or about 1513 (illustrations 155 and 157). They belong to a design for the tomb of Julius II., which was abandoned after the Pope's death. The statues were originally intended for an allegor- ical series, representing the arts and sciences as held captive by the Pope, and expiring with him. The date of the "Madonna" in Bruges is uncertain — the same holds of the "Adonis," in Florence. Tombs of the Medici. — No important sculpture commission was undertaken after this time until 1519, when the "Tombs of the Medici" (may' dUchy), in Florence, were undertaken (details at 152, 153), but the work on these was so deferred that the comple- tion of the groups was not undertaken till 1530, and not finished till 1534.* These tombs are in a chapel of the Church of San Lorenzo, in Florence. The commission for the picture of the "Last Judgment," in the Sistine Chapel, was undertaken in 1534, and finished in 1542, as mentioned later. In 1546 Michael Angelo was made architect of St Peter's. The building had been begun in 1506 (p. 118). In 1545 he finished the colossal "Moses" (154), the greatest of his works — which forms the most important portion of the tomb of Julius II., in the Church of San Pietro in Vinculi (peeay'tro in vin'quly), at Rome. Contrast between the Art of Michael Angelo and the Antique. — The foregoing list includes the more imjoortant statues by Michael Angelo, excepting the statue of the Saviour in Santa Maria sopra Minerva, in Rome (1521). They are at once monuments of his individual genius and of the greatness of his period (see matter for the " Renaissance," p. 196). The influence of the ancient statues, which began at this time to be excavated from the ancient ruins, was an important element in Michael Angelo's studies, but he was most attracted by those Antiques which coincided with the realistic tastes of his own time, especially the "Belvedere Torso," the " Laocoon," and the "Dying Gladiator " (pp. 170-178). The realism of * They were never quite finished. 210 KENAISSANCE SCULPTURE. Renaissance Italian sculpture is in strong contrast with the idealizing tendeucies of the Greek Antique. Each method was best for the time which chose it. The Greek statues which represented personifications rather than persons, could not imitate literally an individual form without losing their ideal meaning. The statues of the Renaissance Italians were vigorous studies of individual models, and did not pretend to be more. Statues were a natural expression of Greek religious beliefs and Greek ideals of culture, and hence their ideal form corresponded to an ideal meaning, but with the Italians they were one phase of the re-awakened interest in nature and in natural form which succeeded to the medieval civilization. And this realism is the spirit which makes them interesting as works of modern art, and as foils and contrasts to the Antique. The Influence of Italian Renaissance Sculpture spread over Northern Europe, together with its style of architecture and its Ht- erary taste. It followed the same course as regards the decadence of the 17th and 18th centuries, and for shnilar reasons (pp. 121-12 5). It was antagonized by the Winckelmann Revival (p. 130), at the close of the 18th century, just as the Greek Temple style sought to overthrow the Renaissance in architecture (p. 15), but with much greater success. Without attempting to enumerate many names and works of the Renaissance, or of its Northern development, which would lead to confusion as to the simple fundamental facts, the following are Avorthy of special distinction. Sansovino (san so ve' no), contemporary of Michael Angelo. The bronze doors of the sacristy of St. Mark's, at Venice, are a much quoted and characteristic work. Benvenuto Cellini (benvanoo'to chel lee' ne), the famous Flor- entine goldsmith and sculptor, was born twenty-five years later than Michael Angelo. His great Avork, the "Perseus," in Florence, is characteristic for the middle portion of the 16th century (158). John of Bologna, a Fleming of Italian education, is the leading name in Italy for the later portion of the 16th century. His "Rape of the Sabines," in Florence, is an important work. His "Fljang Mercury," in Florence, has been made familiar by many modern repetitions (160.) i6th Century Renaissance in Northern Europe. — Germany slightly preceded France, in time, in the development of a national Renais- sance style. Peter Vischer, in Germany (Tomb of St. Sebald, in Nurem- berg, 163), and Jean Goujon, in France ("Diana," in the Louvre), are leading names. A characteristic work, by Germain Pilon (159), 3" > 3 TO O u •o < a r o C < » n > a 2 a' o 3 n a* » n> > a o n r o c < o u a o IS 9 it c C3 bA o o m c O 5 > 3 4> 0] o u c o (« B u u o •> u o 3 0. L> 3 e v > C a a > o 3 D » EP D o a o rr 50 o 3 o CO n 1 D 3' n' o to ID 3 o 3 O i63. PETER FISHER. TOMB OF ST. SEBALD. NUREMBERG. RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE. 215 has been chosen as illustration for this French art developed from the Italian Renaissance. The Italian influences in England are attested and illustrated by the tomb of Henry VIIL, in Westminster Abbey, by the Florentine Torrigiano (tor ej a' no). 17TH CENTURY RENAISSANCE SCULPTURE. Bernini. — The name of the Italian Bernini (ber ne'ne) is the most important for this period, but his style is that of countless contemporaries. This style had lost the masculine character of the 16th century. It is theatrical, affected, overstrained, and senti- mental. Compare his Pieta (162) with that of Michael Angelo (156), observing that the cherubs over the latter, in photographs, are a later addition. Bernini's style is also realistic to that extreme which contradicts reality of effect by unnatural imitations in one material of the texture and surface of another. Bernini, like many other artists of his time, was a man of great genius, but from the statuesque stand-point his works have met general condemnation since the time of Winckelmann. His group of " Apollo and Daphne " (161), in the Borghese Villa, at Rome, is another characteristic work. (Daphne, to escape the pursuit of Apollo, transforms herself into a laurel tree.) In Germany, the name of Andreas Schliiter (schle^v' ter) marks an exceptional artist for such a period. His statue of the "Great Elector," in Berlin, is universally quoted as a successful and serious work. 18TH CENTURY SCULPTURE. Before Winckelmann. — Before the Winckelmann revival this century continued in the lines of the preceding time, but with still inferior force. The straining and overstraining for effect is a constant trait of the period. Some of its most remarkable works, as regards technical execution, are wanting in every quality of good taste. After Winckelmann. — In external repose and simplicity, the art of the Italian Canova (ca no' va) and of the Dane Thorwaldsen (tor'vai zen), offers a refreshing contrast to the style which pre- ceded (Nos. 164-168). The relation of this latter art to the studies and influence of Winckelmann has been described at p. 130.* * See also p. 14, for matter concerning tlie Q-reek revival, of whicli this sculpture was one phase. 210 JCULPTUKE OF THE GREEK REVIVAL. Canova (1757-1822). — In many cases the works of Canova bor- der on the extravagance of the ante-Winckelmann time, and the change of style in tliese cases is mainly apparent in a method of execution supposed to oe that of the Greek Antique, but which was really more allied to that of the Roman copies. It can not be said, however, that Canova's execution of details ever reached the vigor even of these. An illustration of his departure from Antique con- ceptions of repose in the subject of Hercules is found in his group of " Hercules and Lichas," in Venice. He was most successful in subjects where a tender or delicate sentiment harmonized with his refinement of execution and his native predispositions in art. The i'lustrations (16-i, 166) are examples of this character. Thorwaldsen (1770-1844). — As far as a later time could go in re- viving the style of Greek sculpture, Thorwaldsen probably went. But this revival was wanting in the spontaneous and popular elements which inspired the early Italian Renaissance. A comparison of Thorwaldsen with Ghiberti will show that the latter, with less appearance of external imitation, much more nearly apnroached the ingenuous simplicity of the Greek art. Thorwaldsen was born at Copenhagen, but was enabled to study in Rome, and subsequently resided there. Many of his works are in Copenhagen, and others are scattered through Europe (illustrations 16 7, 168). During the Early 19th Century, sculpture followed, in general, the Antique style, represented by the two leading names just recorded. Next to these, the German, Dannecker ("Ariadne," in Frankfort, at 165), and the Englishman, John Gibson ("Cupid Disguised as a Shepherd," now a loan in the Metroj)olitan Museum of Art, in New York), are the most prominent. The name of Hiram Powers has been much quoted for American sculpture, but there are many living American sculptors whose work is vastly superior to his. Powers also reflects in weaker execution the imitative "Grecianiz- ing" sculpture of the moderns above named. A fine example of the more independent tendencies of the later 19th century is offered by the recently deceased French sculptor, Car- peaux (car po') ("Group of Dancers" of the Paris Opera House, etc.). There is no affectation of Antique resemblances in the work of this artist, and yet his execution has related merits of vigor, and his conceptions have a similar power of honesty and directness. The names of Daniel C. French, E. C. Potter, Augustus St. Gaudens, Olin i64. CANOVA. HEBE. BERLIN. o ►J 'a. 3 o > o c c« O c 15 c o c IS c c a Q NINETEENTH CENTURY SCULPTURE. 219 Warner, and Edwin Elwell are among those which represent the best tendencies of contemporary American sculpture. Hamo Thornycroft is one of the leading names in England. Notes on the History of Sculpture. — It appears from the foregoing sketch that the history of sculpture is mainly a history of the influ- ence of Q-reek art on later times. In the late 18th and early 19th century, it was a model of external style; in the 15th and 16th centuries, it was a model for the study of nature ; in the centuries of the Roman Empire, it was a universally dominant model as regards its mythological subjects. It is clear that these phases of the history of statuary are only special phases of the general his- tory of culture and civilization, which has shown at the times speci- fied a corresponding Greek influence, either consciously or uncon- sciously, in many other ways. As the unanimous verdict of artists and critics has given the preference to Greek art, over modern, in j)oint of style and execu- tion, and as the Greco-Roman art is also admitted to have been gen- erally superior to that of later periods, some matter-of-fact explana- tion of this perfection is desirable. This is to be found, especially as regards mechanical excellence, in the enormous numbers of statues which were made in Antiquity. The number of artisans and artists employed in this branch was infinitely more numerous than at any later time, and there was a corresponding facility in the manual dexterity of production. The habits of Greek life corresponded to those in which the sculptor's art would most successfully flourish. Gymnastic exercise was a matter of compulsory State education, on which the military system of the Greek Republics depended. Hence, the study and knowledge of the human form were a matter of unconscious and natural education. The religious system was a polytheism of divinities, which were really personifications of human virtues and human perfectibility, and admirably adapted for repre- sentation through bodilj* forms. Aside from these conditions, which made sculpture the natural art expression of Greek life, it is undeniable that the general refine- ment and nobility of Greek taste were also important factors in its excellence. Kotwithstanding the difficulties which beset the modern sculptor in rivaling the perfection of the Greek art, it must be remem- bered that an unpretentious modesty is its greatest charm. Wherever a similar refinement of nature and taste favor a similar unpreten- 220 NINETEENTH CENTURY SCULPTURE. tious expression in art, tlie Greek style will be fairly rivaled and achieved without the toil of ineffectual imitation. The peculiar interest of the Greek sculpture, from a historical stand-point, lies in the meaning of its mythological subjects (p. 151) as formal personifications of human emotional and intellectual activ- ities ; as ideals of human perfectibility in bodily beauty and in spiritual excellence. As regards its dignity of pose and expression, it must also always be a source of enjoyment and admiration, and a model of all the virtues of good-breeding in deportment. The revolution in literary taste Avhich closed the ISth century, and subsequently inspired the poets and authors of ah modern nationalities, had for its starting-point the study of the Greek statues (pp. 1-1-16). This fact gives them an interest for modern times which may fairly remove the last vestige of any prejudice consider- ing the subject of Greek art as foreign to the interests of the 19th century. NOTES ON THE ILLUSTRATIONS FOR MEDIEVAL, RENAISSANCE, AND MODERN SCULPTURE. (Nos. 138-168, inclusive.) No. 138 represents the early Christian art as reflecting the decadence of the last period of the ancient. No. 139 illustrates the isolated survivals, which oc- casionally appear in the ivory carvings, of a style more nearly approaching the ancient classic art. No. 140 shows the elongated figures, and stiff, formal char- acter of the Byzantine style, as copied by a contemporary artist of Western Europe. Nos. 141, 142, 143, are typical illustrations for the better class of Northern Gothic sculptures, dating between the 13th century and the Northern Renaissance. Compare with 159, for the North European style after 1500. This developed under Italian Renaissance influence, whose rise and culmination are represented by the series of I'eliefs and statues 144-157. Nos. 161, 162, represent the sentimental, theatrical style of the 17th century, common to the whole of Europe, but inspired by the ruling Italian taste of the time. Nos. 164-168 show by contrast the works affecting the simpler Greek style and dating after the Greek revival of the 18th century. l67. THORWALDSEN. VENUS. COFEIIHACEri. j6d. THORWAL DSEN. MERCURY. COPENHAGEN, PAINTINO. INTRODUCTION. Modern Painting has asserted far greater independence of historical art than either modern architecture or modern sculpture. In these latter arts, even the latest modern efforts at free modern expression have developed from historical influences which were still dominant within the life-time of the present generation. But modei'n jjainting has developed many schools which may claim almost entire independence of historic influences, and which show absolute novelty of stand- point, methods, and aims, as compared with older painters. The "Old Masters." — On the other hand, the general modern interest in his- torical painting is much greater than that in histoiical architecture or in historical sculpture. Most of the difficulties in the study of historic paintings are connected with this fact, that modern interest in them is so general, while modem pictures are so different. The Old Masters can not be viewed or criticised from the stand- point which applies to 19th century pictures, and when this stand-point is taken, the result is disappointment to the student. Scarcity of Originals in America.— The peculiar impediment for an American book to even a brief essay on the subject of historic painting, is found in the scarcity of well-known and generally quoted good originals in this country.* Casts and photographs may go far to supply the absence of original works of sculpture, but copies or photographs of paintings have relatively inferior value. Although acquaintance with the originals is, of course, the main object of the study in question, sozne matter of fact concerning them is also a department of general education. For students contemplating European travel, it is an essential thing to have in mind a, scheme of the subject, a knowledge of the places and objects to be seen. Moreover, the literary outline of the subject is an interesting aspect of history, and a matter of necessary education for many persons. The Closing- Period of Historic Art. — Broadly speaking, the great periods of historic painting ended in the 17th century, and the 18th century is almost a blank in this field. This gap is closed by the 18th century painters of England, their still later outgrowth * The best accessible examples of the Old Masters in America are in the collections of the Historical Society, Kew York, Metropolitan Museum, New York, and Boston Museum of Fine Arts. In all ifGese collections there are some fine examples. 224 PERIODS OF HISTORIC PAINTING. in artists like Rembrandt Peale, Copley, and Charles Gilbert Stuart in America, during the later 18th and early 19th centuries. The Last Historic Italian School is that of the 1 7th century. Of the same time are the leading Spanish artists like Velasquez and Murillo (mooreryo), the best known Flemings, like Rubens and Van Dyck (van dike'), and the Dutch school, headed by Rembrandt. The First Quarter of the l6th Century is the greatest period of Italian painting — the time of Leonardo da Vinci (vin'che), Michael Angelo, Raphael Correggio (cor red' jo), and Titian (tish'an). The German artists, Albert Diirer (dew' rer) and Holbein (bar bine), flour- ished at the same time. The period of these artists is that of the early Renaissance (pp. 117, 118, 204, 209). 15th and 14th Centuries. — The painters above named were all born in the 15th centur}", and had for teachers men of its distinct and earlier style. This, again, is quite different from the art of the 14th centmy, the earliest in the development of modern painting. The Four Centuries of Historic Painting. — Thus the scheme of this subject comprises four centuries, in each of which a different style prevailed, and these centuries were (aside from the history of English painting) the 14th, 15th, 16th, and 17th centuries. The English school produced its leading painters in the 18th century, as above mentioned. Lely (lee'iy) and Kneller, generally quoted for English portrait art in the 17th century, were Germans. The Art which Preceded the development of painting in the 14th century needs some preliminary mention, and this maj^ include, also, a brief notice of painting in Antiquity, although the remains of Greek and Roman art in this field are scanty. The ancient Oriental painting was mainly limited to the decoration of mural surfaces in tombs, palaces, and temples. ANTIQUITY. ASSYRIAN LION -HUNT (PKOM THE SCULPTUKBS}. ASSYRIA, EGYPT, GREECE, AND ROME. Assyrian Painting. — Our knowledge of Assyrian design is bounded by the reliefs already described, such as 72, 73 (p. 131), and by remains of decorated objects largely of Phoenician manufacture, but supposed to be based on As- syrian models. The reliefs mentioned were colored, and belong as much to the do- main of painting as of sculpt- ure. The decorated objects are mainly of metal (with embossed or repouss^* de- signs) or of pottery (Phoe- nician or Greek manufacture) decorated with Assyrian emblems and patterns.! From the stand-point of decorative art, these Assyrian emblems and patterns are extremely interesting, because they ex- hibit such fine decorative qualities, and because they have not unfre- quently been adopted as models by the Greeks and moderns. Egyptian Painting of Architectural Reliefs.— Much of the Egyp- tian painting was also the coloring of architectural carved reliefs (169). These were associated with the carved hieroglyphic inscrip- tions of the temple walls, and, in a sense, formed a portion of them. They are characterized by the same schematic and conven- tional character. These carved relief designs were stuccoed and then colored. Very slight attention to the external forms of Egyp- tian hieroglyphic Avriting will show that the signs for the syllables, * HepoussS is a word used to indicate embossed designs in metal wMcli are hammered out, or "pushed out," from the inside. + Recent investigations show that much that has been called Assyrian style in early Greek and Italian art is Egypto-Phoenician and G-reco-Egyptian. 226 ANTIQUE PAINTING. letters, and ideas, which are variously conveyed by them, are pict- ures, or have a pictorial origin. The reasons why these pictures should have been abbreviated and simplified for the convenience of carving or writing are apparent; hence, a schematic style which reacted on the pictorial art connected with them. Characteristics of Egyptian Painting.— The wall paintings of the Egyptian tombs, among which those of Beni Hassan (p. 41) are especially famed, exhibit in some of the earliest known examples a freedom and nat- ural verity parallel with that of the early statues al- ready mentioned (p. 132). They are always, however, in outline, without perspective effects or elaborated de- tails. This simple and typical method of Egyptian paint- ing had great value as a system of surface decoration. Some of its peculiarities are manifestly national and characteristic expressions of the tendencies otherwise apparent in the Egyptian architecture and sculpture. The rigid outlines of the pictorial figures, the fixed pose of the statues, and the solemn massiveness of the temple constructions, are related facts. The peculiar Egyptian method of drawing face, legs, and feet of the human figure in profile, combined with a front view of the body and shoulders (16 9), shows an unwillingness to break the appearance of surface solidity by the slightest appear- ance of recession or projection. Egyptian Use of Color. — From a decorative stand-point, the Eg3'iitian use and combinations of color were extremely harmo- nious and ofi'ective.* The durability of their paints, plastering, and stuccoes has been such as to leave abundant remains for modej^n study. The scheme and tones of the Egyptian colors can be noted EGYPTIAN WAR CHARIOT (THEBES). * See Owen Jones' "Grammar of Ornament," and Prisse d'Avenne's "Histoire de TArt Egyptien." j.6g. TYPE OF EGYPTIAN PROFILE DESIGN. KING SETl' I.' ABYDUS". "" ' " a, 2 o 6 < o 03 D CO CO )-« o H < oa ANTIQUE PAINTING. 229 in the mummy cases and in the minor objects of Egyptian deco- rative art commonly exhibited in Museums.* Origin of Greek Art. — Historically speaking, the Greeks developed their art of surface design, as well as their sculpture, from Egj-p- tian and Oriental sources (pp. 139, l-iO), The Greek Vases, found in tomb excavations, have been preserved in such numbers as to furnish a record of the development of the independent Greek style from these influences. The paint- ings of the great periods of Greek art have all perished, but there is no doubt that they rivaled in excellence the statuary art, which has been more fortunate as regards preservation. Large mural decorative pictures were the most important works ; as in the C8*^ of the later Italian art. The Greco-Roman Art, — The general dependence of the art of the Roman Empire on earlier Greek sources, has been already indi- cated (pp. 128-130). The copies of the Roman period, which have been preserved in painting, were made by ordinary house decora- tors, and are the only remains (aside from some mosaics) which give an idea of an otherwise lost Greek art. These works, notwith- standing the relatively humble character of the artisan designers, are wonderfully beautiful in color, and often vigorous in drawing. Pompeian Frescoes. — The most abundant remains are on the plastered walls of the Pompeian houses (p. 79). Many of these fres- coes have been removed from Pompeii to the Naples Museum. In many cases the colors are still vivid and fresh. Some similar works of great beauty have also been found in Rome. The photographs of these Greco-Roman frescoes are peculiarly unfavorable copies of the originals, and much allowance must be made^ — as always in photographs of originals in color — for their necessary short-comings. The ** Aldobrandini Wedding," — A small fresco in the Vatican, known as the " Aldobrandini Wedding," is thus named from the villa near which it was found. It is supposed to be a copy of a Greek work of reputation, representing an antique marriage scene. The " Battle of Issus." — The mosaic in the Naples Museum, known as the "Battle of Issus," is also supposed to be a copy of a Greek original. This mosaic was a floor decoration in Pompeii. These are the two most generally quoted Antique pictures, but there are hun- * Abbott Collection of the New York Historical Society, Collections of the Metropolitan Mu- seum, N. T., Boston Museum of i'ine Arts, etc. 230 ANTIQUE PAINTING. dreds of others of almost equal interest. Both the designs mentioned show that method of foreground composition, and of decorative effects based on the outlines of the human figure, which re-appears in the best period of Italian art. This was, partly at least, inspired by Antique originals. Panel Pictures of the Greeks and Romans. — In otner cases, tlie realistic and illusive effects so highly prized by the taste of the 19 th century, were successfully attained. Paintings of the latter class were generally on panels, like the pictures of our own time, and have consequently perished, but some Antique mosaics show that this realistic art was extremely successful. The mosaic of the "Drinking Doves," in the Capitol Museum at Rome, is a well-known example of this class. Greek Vase, Munich. ITALIAN PAINTING. EARLY CHRISTIAN ART. Pictures of the Catacombs. — The art of mosaic decoration forms the comiecting hnk between ancient and modern painting. The wall paintings of the Catacombs of Rome (the underground cemeteries of the early Christians) are of the greatest interest from the stand-point of Christian archseology, but they did not develop into any later school of painting. They exhibit, in Christian sub- jects, a continuation and late survival of the ancient Greco-Roman wall pictures, as regards method and design. ^Yhen Christianity was relieved from persecution, and the consequent necessity of using these underground cemeteries as places of refuge and places of worship, this method of wall decoration was generally abandoned for the more sumptuous and more lasting art of mosaic. Mosaic Pictures were made in_jVntiquity both from cubes oi colored glass and from cubes ot colored stone. The Antique remains are generally of the latter material, and they are generally found in use for floorings, although they were also occasionally em- ployed for wall decorations. In early Christian art, on the other hand, the mosaics were used preferably for wall decoration, and were constructed from small cubes of colored glass. The upper interior wall surfaces of all important Christian churches were decorated with mosaics during many centuries. The art was ;prac- ticed mainly by Byzantine artists (pp. 81, 82), as well in Western Europe as in the B3^zantine countries (North Africa, Egypt, Syria, Asia Minor, and territories of later European Turkey). Remains. — In many of the early Roman Basilicas remains of these mosaics, dating from the 5th, 6th, and later centuries, may still be seen. St. Mark's, at Venice, offers the best existing example of the original effects of many other churches. As far as the Basil- icas are concerned, only one of them has retained its side-wall mo- 232 BYZAXTIXE MOSAICS. saics down to the 19th century, the Church of San Apollinare Nuovo (a po lena'ra noo o' vo), at Ravenna (i4, p. 83). This church has lost the mcsaic of its apse. • The designs date from the 6th century. Mosaic Style and Methods. — The mosaic pictures (examples 171, 17-i, 175, 176) were constructed from an architectural and decora- tive stand-point. Gorgeous effects of color were the main object. The backgrounds were of gold — that is, cubes of glass in this color. The figures were of stiff and formal outline, but in brilliant colors, relieved and set off by the gold backgrounTI. The influence of earh' Christian feeling and surroundings on the arts of design has been explained under the section for sculpture (p. 189). The Technical Construction of the mosaics necessitated the employment of a multitude of artisans, working from patterns which could not be accurately copied in the coarse material (as illustrated by details of No. 175). This intractability of the material used, as regards refinement of expression or delicacy of outlines, tended to create a schematic, formal style. Much of the stiffness and formalism of Byzantine art in general is doubtless owing to the reaction of mosaic art on other branches of design. The Byzantine Panel Pictures were painted in similar set and formal outlines, and the style thus formed has continued in the ter- ritories of the Greek Church, and in Russia, down to a recent time. The Influence of Religious Tradition, and the conservative spirit of Byzantine history, which was in many Avays a sort of petrified survival of ancient civilization, were also influential in Byzantine style. It may be finally observed that Oriental infiuences are very apparent in Byzantine art and history, and that Oriental art has generally shown a tendency to the decorative in color, with comparatively little feeling for beauty of outline in form. NOTES ON THE ILLUSTRATIONS FOR THE BYZANTINE MOSAICS AND EARLY CHRISTIAN ART. (171-176, inclusive.) No. 172 shows a typical fresco from the Roman catacombs. The mosaic represented at 171 dates from the 5th century ; subject — Christ with His flock conceived as the Shepherd guarding his sheep. It is one of tlie interior decorations of the tomb of Galla Placidia, in Ravenna. Galla Placidia was the sister of the Roman Empei'or Honorius and wife of the Visigothic Chieftain Athaulf. The period is that of the overthrow of the Roman Empire of the West. w o o o D 03 w "O ac w JO p o w > o w o > r r > r > o D > 172. The Lpst Supp-^r, FreE-co; v'atacombs of San Calisto. Rome. Third Century. I7J. N';n!at.a-e ^ain'.iAg. ' The 'Apostle Matthew. Fron: the Evangelasium of the Emperor Chane- magne. Vienna. 174. Empeior Justinian and Courtiers. Mosaic. San Vitale. Ravenna. 175. Christ before Pilate. Mosaic. San Vitale. Rayennt.. '■ '^Jiii^'H/^' D OS o < O d 2 < Q w O o p 2 < O DC o « D X o o < O 2 ft! D O > CO REVIVAL OF ITALIAN PAINTING. 237 The mosaics from San Vitale (vee til' la), represented at 174, 175, date from the 6th century. The interior of the Church of San Vitale is shown at No. 48, p. 88. The mosaic 174 is in the choir seen at the left of this picture. The church was bmlt by the East Roman Emperor Justinian, whose territories included Italy, after his armies had expelled the German Ostro-Goths from the country. As specified in the title of the illustration, it represents the Emperor and his courtiers. The ■original of 176 is the grandest and most imposing work of early Christian art. I'he figures are of colossal dimensions. The above illustrations are typical in a broad way for the Byzantine mosaic art during the entire period of its continuance in Italy, viz., from the 4th to the 14th century. It was not till the 14th century and the time of Giotto, that there was any substantial change in the pictorial art of Italy. These illustrations are there- fore intended to contrast broadly with those which follow for the 14th century. (133-136, inclusive.) The brilliant colors and gold backgrounds of the originals compensate for the coarseness of the work and for the stiff attitudes and formal expressions. The manuscripts of the period were written on vellum, and frequently deco- rated with carefully executed paintings in miniature (173). REVIVAL OF ITALIAN PAINTING IN THE 14TH CENTURY. Earlier Wall Paintings. — Byzantine mosaic decoration was still habitually em- ployed in Italy during the 13th century. There are some remains of wall paint- ings preceding the 14th century, but they are of barbarous character. In Northern Europe, the Romanesque period (pp. 92, 99) had produced a school of decorative wall painting, whose scanty remains bespeak great power and simplicity of com- position and fine effects in color. But this school of art had been swept away by the rise of the Gothic style. The large stained glass windows of the Gothic (p. 106) were as detrimental to design outside of decoration as the Byzantine mosaics had been, and for similar reasons. Precedence of Italy in Modern Art. — The indisposition of the Italians to adopt the Gothic style of architecture has been already noticed (pp. 109, 110). The pre- cedence of Italy in the history of modern painting is especially explained by this fact. Italian painting first developed in the decoration of the wall surfaces which were left intact by the non-adoption of the Gothic style, and its large surfaces of stained glass. After two centuries of practice, Italy so far surpassed Northern Europe in design that when the Gothic style was overthrown, at the opening of the 16th century, the expansion of Italian style and influence over Europe was inevitable. This expansion was assisted by the general causes already ex- plained (p. 118). Thus Italian painting precedes and influences that of the rest of Europe, as far as its modern development is concerned. T'le exceptions to this general law, found in early German and in early Flemish art, will be subsequently noticed. Influence of Nicolo of Pisa. — As usual in the history of art, so at this time in Italy, the study of concrete form preceded that of surface design and color. ISTicolo of Pisa (p. 195) is recognized as 238 FOURTEENTH CENTURY ITALIAN PAINTING. the predecessor, and in some sense, as the inspirer of the Florentine painter Giotto (jot'o). School of Giotto. — The 14th century style of painting in Italy is headed by the name of the Florentine Giotto (12 76-133()), in the sense that his works were the first to create a wide-spread move- ment, and to produce a new school of art, and the first to show thorough independence of the Byzantine style. Cimabue (chee inah boo'a) was the teacher and earlier contempo- rary of Giotto, and is usually quoted as the first who overthrew the Byzantine style. It is true that his few remaining Avorks show some deviations from Byzantine models ; also true that they con- tinue to resemble them in general aspect. The contrasts and simi- larities will speak for themselves in illustration (Soule photographs). There is a mosaic of Byzantine style by Cimabue in the apse of the Pisa Cathedral. His best remaining paintings are Madonnas in the Church of Santa Maria Novella, and in the Academy at Florence, ana frescoes in St. Francis, Assisi. The Lives of the Italian Painters have been written by Yasari (va sii' re), an Italian who lived in the 16th century. There is an excellent English translation in " Bohn's Library." All that is known of these lives, in the way of anecdote and detail, may be found in Vasari's work, which is extremely readable. As regards criticism, his book is not now rated as of great v.-orth, but this does not affect its value as regards the biographies themselves. Although the book reaches the extent of six volumes, the choice of the reader may select the more important names, and it may in this v/ay be abridged at discretion. Giotto's Epoch-making Work was the decoration in fresco of a small building, in Padua — the Chapel of Santa Maria deU'Arena* (a ra' na). The subjects of the side-walls are from New Testament ♦Presco is the Italian word applied to paintings oa plaster, that is, on wall surfaces. The word itself relates to the method generally employed., which colored the plaster while it was wet or "fresh." In this method, an amount of plastering sufficient for one day's work was laid on the wall each day. The surface in question naturally did not favor deep shadows or dark colors, nor was it adapted to minute finish of minor details. The dictates of decorative feeling relating to the use of color on large surfaces, therefore, coincided with the methods naturally employed on a plaster surface. Thus the old Italian frescoes are distinguished by a gay, light tone, and also by the decided outlines most favorable in figure compositions to decorative effects. The painter was obliged to work with a certain rapidity. Colors or outlines once laid on, could only be changed by removing the plaster surface affected, and renewing the work. Thus the art tended to broad methods in coloring, and to vigorous and correct off-hand design. For the first two centuries of Italian painting, nearly all the leading works were wall-paintings. The same holds of many of the greatest Italian pictures of the 16th century. The wall decoration of churches and public buildings demanded subjects and conceptions corresponding to the inrportance and Bignificance of the structures themselves. The external conditions were thus highly favorable to 177- Giotto. The Birth. Fresco. Padua. 178. Giotto. Presentation of the Virgin. Fresco. Padua . 179. Giotto. Flight into Egypt. Fresco, Padua. 180. Giotto. The Flagellation. Fresco, Padua. FOURTEENTn CENTURY ITALIAN PAINTING, 241 history, arranged in four lines, one set above the other. (Nos. 177-18S are examples.) At the ends of the building are larger compositions. These are less successful and less quoted. Frescoes of Santa Maria dell'Arena. — In the illustrations 177-183, may be noticed the features which distinguish the style of Giotto from that of the Byzantine mosaics, and the abandonment of their stiff attitudes and rigid pose. When com- pared bluntly with 19th century pictures, much that is curious and quaint will appear, but it was impossible that one artist, or one generation, should entirely conquer the Byzantine formalism which had been dominant in Italy for ten cent- uries. Moreover, some departures from the style of our own time are related to ths decorative necessities of wall-painting. An elaborate execution of landscape background would have broken the effects of the color scheme employed, and would have interfered with the outlines of the figure compositions. In the original Dol.ors these pictures are still very effective architectural decorations. Characteristics of 14th Century Style. — The most important aspect of the 1-ith century art is the sincerity and depth of its religious feeling. No other period, except that of the Christian paintings of the Catacombs, has shown more reverence for the worth of the subjects themselves, as distinct from the effort to impress the spectator with a display of technical skill, or to interest him in the mere reproduction of natural forms and appearance. Subjects. — The art of the time was confined to the traditions ot Christianity, and to the illustration of the Bible events and stories. An attitude which considers the gravity of the subject first, and then fairly weighs the difficulties to be overcome, and the actual success achieved, will have no diflficulties in respecting and admiring the art of Giotto and his school. There are many other wall pict- ures by Giotto, especially in Florence and at Assisi (assee'zy), but those in Padua are the most famous and the most characteristic. The Scholars of Giotto. — A peculiar feature of the 14th cent- ury Italian art, is the general correspondence in the appearance and quality of pictures by many distinct individuals. So marked are the resemblances that much confusion has crept into the records connecting individual names with individual works. There is no period of art in which the name of the artist is so unimpor- tant. The leading scholars of Giotto, and all Italian artists of the century were his scholars in one sense or another, often rival his the development and tlie support of artistic genius. Public sympathy and popular approval were • the sure reward of every success. The work of the artist in fresco was not concealed in a private studio, or sold to a private individual. 242 FOURTEENTH CENTURY ITALIAN PAINTING. greatness, and rarely fall below it, Xone of them introduced any manifest departure from the style which he had created. Frescoes of the Capella Spagnuoli. — Among many interesting works, there are two groups of wall-paintings, which require especial mention beside those of the Paduan Chapel. One of these is tiie series of the Capella dei Spagnuoli (day ee span you o'lej, in Flor- ence. This " Chapel of the Spaniards " adjoins the famous Church of Santa Maria Novella. The chapel dome and walls are decorated with frescoes, by artist whose names are not certainly known. Combinations of Subject in One Field. — The four triangular sections of the doine ax'e best adapted for complete photographic rerjroduction. The compositions of the side walls are too extensive for reproduction in a single photographic pict- ure. In one of these dome frescoes, that representing the Resurrection, a feature appears, which is a constant occurrence in Italian art, viz., the union of various related subjects in a single field. For instance, in this case, the women coming from Jerusalem to visit the Tomb, are in one angle, the Resurrection is in the center; in the other angle we see the ineeting of Christ and Mary Magdalen after the Resurrection. This association of related subjects v/ithout indications of local separation, is partly a result of the large spaces to be decorated, which could not artistically be subdivided into minor separate panels, but it also belongs to the ideal spirit of an art whose mission was rather Biblical instruction, or illustration, than realistic illusion. Such instances are of constant occurrence in the best periods of Italian art. They assist to comprehension of the absence of local details in the individual scenes, which has a similar explanation. Frescoes of the Pisan Campo Santo. — A third series of 14tb centur}' frescoes, in Pisa, claims equal rank with the works of the Chapel in Padua, and with those just mentioned in the Capella dei Spagnuoli. Although there are many other Avall-x^aintings of the same school and period, there are none quite equaling the quality and reputation of those mentioned. Near the Cathedral and Baptistery of Pisa, stands the Cemetery, or Campo Sento. The interior is an oblong quadrangular open space, surrounded by open arcades, and a cloistered gallery. The inner walls of the gallery are covered with frescoes of 14th and 15th century art. Among the former are two of special note — the "Triumph of Death," and the '' Last Judgment " — both of uncertain authorship. The " Triumph of Death " combines a series of episodes in one moral. At the lower left of the painting we see a group of coffins, which suddenly block the path of a hunting party. Beyond them a group of cripples, so miserable that i8i. Giotto. The Judas Kiss. Fresco, Padua. 182. Gictto. The Deposition. Fresco, Padua. i33- G:o*.to. . Th-; Resurrection. Fresco, Padua, ■-lit 284. Giotto. St. Francis of Assisi preaching before Pope Honorius III. Fresco, Assisi. FOURTEENTH CENTURY ITALIAN PAINTING. 245 they can not endure life, hold out their arms in appeal to the Angel of Death to release them. The latter, without regarding this appeal, hovers over a pleasure party seated in a garden. In the upper part of the picture angels and demons contend for the soula ot the dead, which are represented by small, nude bodies. In the upper left section of the painting we see a monk's cell, and its tenants near at hand, — a. representation of the life which is spent in contemplating the moral which is the subject of the rest of the picture. The " Last Judgment." — Immediately adjacent to this composition is one of nearly equal size — the "Last Judgment." Christ and the Virgin enthroned are sur- rounded by apostles and prophets. On the left of these the lost souls bewail their fate ; on their right, those who are saved look upward toward the Redeemer. In the center, yawning tombs give up their dead, and the angels of the Judgment separate and assign to either side those who are rising from them. Fra Angelico (1387-1455). — The style of the 1-ith century is so v distinct from that of the 15th, that it is best to include with the former one xjarticular artist of the 15th century who adhered to the earlier style. Fra Angelico da Fiesoli (ahn jay'iee ko dah fe ay' so le), whose last name indicates his birthplace — a mountain village near Florence — was a monk of the Dominican Convent of St. Mark's, of this latter town. His most important works were a series of frescoes in the cells of this convent. Frescoes of St. Mark's Convent, Florence. — This series shows the spirit of the time of Giotto and similar methods of art. These inethods are especially inter- esting here, since a new and naturalistic style was already current, of which the monk could have easily availed himself if it had belonged to the spirit of his work to do so. Fra Angelico is otherwise best known l)y the copies in color of the Angel Musicians .which surround one of his Madonnas in Florence. In this and other oil-paintings his coloring is remarkably delicate and vivid. The expres- sions of his faces are pure and soulful to a degree scarcely otherwise known to art. (A picture of the Madonna at 191.) NOTES ON THE ILLUSTRATIONS FOR ITALIAN PAINTINGr OP THE 14TH CENTURY. (Nos. 177-184, inclusive.) As compared with Byzantine mosaics (171-176), we observe some elementary efifoits at depicting backgrounds and natural scenery. These are, however, kept in strict subordination to the figure compositions, i.e., to the essential facts of the Scripture stories. In the figure compositions there is a dramatic element of action and expression wholly wanting in the Byzantine period. The grouping of the figures (" composition " of the picture) is frequently carried to a high pitch of per- fection. 182 has been almost universally selected by compendiums of art history as an example of this quality. The faces have frequently a typical resemblance 246 FIFTEENTH CENTURY ITALIAN PAINTING. (179, 182). Individual portraiture was not geni>rally attempted. Facial expres- sions are more or less rigid or contorted if emotion is depicted (180, 182). For the use and contrasts ol color tlufing this period, the reproductions of the Arundel Society, " Arundel Chromos," may be consulted. Owen Jones' " Gram- mar of Ornament " gives examples in color of the decorative borders in common use at the time. The compositions can be fairly judged only in the original colors and architectural location, and the short-comings of photographic reproduction must be kept in view. ITALIAN PAINTING OF THE 15TH CENTURY RENAISSANCE. The Revolution in Italian Art Avhich distinguishes this century did not begin till its first quarter had passed away. The 1-ith cent- ury style lasted a full century and a quarter, without reference to the still later isolated case of Fra Angelico. Influence of Ghiberti.— The changes effected in the 15th century are nearly all summed up in the designs of the bronze doors by Ghiberti, which have been illustrated (148, pp. 200, 201), and which are equally important monuments for the history of painting and of sculpture. They are an astounding monument of genius when we observe their pictorial character, and then compare them with the pictorial art of the 14th century style just illustrated. The designs of the Baptistery doors first made by Ghiberti (not illus- trated) are a connecting link and transition from the one style to the other, but otherwise the step taken by Italian art under the direction of this one genius is as sudden and complete as the illus- trations would make it appear. AYe pass, almost without warning, from a style Avhich is in many ways awkward and quaint for mod- ern feeling, to another thoroughly allied to our own. The doors by Ghiberti are thus a monument of history, as well as a monument of art. They show where, when, and how "modern" feeling first de-yeloped — in the Italian Renaissance. A Similar Suddenness of Development has already appeared in the contrast between the style of Giotto and that of the Byzantine mosaics. Another parallel between 14th and 15th century art lies in the similar rapidity with which l)oth new styles mastered the whole of Italy as soon as they came into existence. Among the artists employed to assist Ghiberti was one named Masaccio (masat'cho), and in the field of painting proper the new revolu- tion first took shape in his works. The Giottesque style was defi- nitely and decisively displaced by it. iSe. MASOLiNOo Fresco from Soeoes in the Life of the Virgin. Castigiione d'OIona. FIFTEENTH C E N T U II Y ITALIAN I' A I N T I N G . 249 Masaccio (1402-1429). — The only well-authenticated pictures attributed tc this artist are the famous ones in the Brancacci (bran kat' Che) Chapel, in Florence. This chapel is a portion of the Church of Santa Carmine (san'tah karme'na). Among these pict- ures, that of the "Tribute Money," painted about 1426, is espe- cially distinguished (185). The "Tribute Money." — Comparison with the works of Giotto and of his century will show a new facility in the disposition, action, and grouping of the figures, and an ability to portray faces and facial expressions, quite lacking in the earlier period. The introduction of landscape backgrounds, and of other naturalistic acces- sories, is in remarkable contrast to earlier works, but photographs are too feeble to portray faithfully these distinctions. The colors, already well-combined and contrasted by Giotto's period, are still more successfully harmonized by Masaccio and his followers. Characteristics of Masaccio.— In addition to these points of contrast with 14th century art, we may observe a quiet reticence and dignity of feehng, and an elevation of conception which grow on tlie observer (of the originals at least), until Masaccio's distinction in the history of art becomes quite comprehensible. Many later contemporaries, scholars, or rivals, of the same century, equaled him in naturalistic details, but none of them attained his composure and his reserve. In all the compositions, so far in question, of either period, the life-size scale of the individual figures, and large dimensions of the entire works, are very important elements of the effect. Other Frescoes of the Brancacci Chapel.— Two of the frescoes, in the Brancacci Chapel, are by Filippino Lippi (fs IB pS'no lep'5). Others are ascribed traditionally, but without exact certainty, to an artist named Masolino (mii so le' no). Masolino.— Certain pictures by Masolino, little known to art students, and rarely quoted (at Castiglione d'Olona [ciis teel yo' mT ddlo'mTl, near Milan), show him to be a predecessor of Masaccio in many of the innovations ascribed to the latter, and furnish a connecting link in the curious gap between the styles of the 14th and 15th centuries (186). Benozzo Gozzoli (1424-1496 ?). — We may now return to the Campo Santo, in Pisa, to notice other works of the 15th century style. Among these, and among the most famous in Italy, are the frescoes by Benozzo Gozzoli (ban of so got' so le), a Florentine. The much quoted "Story of Noah," is a fine illustration of the art of the period. Although many years later than the "Tribute Money," it shows no advance as to methods, and in some Avays is a retro- gression, as compared with the work of Masaccio's superior person- 250 FIFTEENTH CENTURY ITALIAN PAINTING. ality. The same remark applies to the illustration 18 7, a fair t\'pe in photograph of 15th century Italian style. Characteristics of 15th Century Style.— It is a general charac- teristic of loth century frescoes, aside from Masaccio's works, to overload the foreground with figures, and to overload the back- ground with details. The delight in the newly discovered arts of naturalistic detail, is an apparent cause of this excess, and atones for it. The vigorous design of some figures contrasts with a quaint awkwardness in other cases. Bible Scenes in Local Costumes. — Bible scenes are represented Avith the costumes and local surroundings of the contemporary Italian x:)eriod. This habit, although foreign to our own concep- tions, illustrates an interesting phase of Italian Biblical art. The subjects were so much a part of the every-day life and learning of the people, that they did not care to give them foreign costumes and foreign local surroundings. It apx^ears also that the artists found in the traditional subjects an excuse for painting the life around them ; and certainly one great interest of the Italian j3ictures of this time is the knowledge they afford of the period itself. The Frescoes by Ghirlandajo (gheer lan da'yo) (1119-14:94), in Santa Maria Novella, in Florence, are another important series of this j)eriod. Aside from many other works of importance, may be mentioned the series of frescoes bv 15th centurv artists, which decorate the lower walls of the Sistine Chapel, in the Vatican. At 206, the location of these pictures in the Sistine Chapel may be seen just above the painted tapestries. The Following Additional Names of the Florentine School are too important to be passed without mention : Filippo Lippi (1412-1469) ; Verocchio (1432-1488), also a sculptor (p. 205, and Xo. 150) ; Lucca Signorelli (loo' kah seen yo rel'l?) (1441-1524) ; Perugino (per 00 jee' no) (1446-1524); Sandro Botticelli (bot e cliel'le) (1449-1510); Filippino Lippi (felepS'nO) (1459-1504). V(*rocchio was the master of Leonardo da Vinci. A painting is shown at the Academy in Florence in which an angel's head is said to be the work of the pupil. Perugino, the master of Eaphael, is represented by 188. The view is especially important as reminder of the archi- tectural place and significance of all Italian frescoes. Ghirlandajo, above men- tioned, was the master, in painting, of Michael Angelo. One of his frescoes is shown at 189. 190 is a Madonna by Filippo Lippi. It is a general law of art development .that the study and knowledge of con- crete form have preceded that of surface design as regards modeling, and shading. Should any one be disposed to doubt the science in design of the 15th century Italians, let the equestrian statues by Donatello and Verocchio be considered i88. FRESCOES BY PERUGINO, MERCHANTS' EXCHANGE (Cambio), PERUGIA. FIFTEENTH CE:NTLrRY ITALIAN PAINTING. 253 (Nos. 149, 150). Let it also be remembered, aside from photographic short-comings, that any reproductions, in small size and without color, must be unfair to the original paintings. The illustrations of nil-paintings are, however, superior in eflfect to the views of larger pictures, whose details are more diminished by the reproductions. A picture of small dimensions appears to better advantage in a small printed illustration than a life-size composition. Oil-paintings began at this time to be more generally made. The art of oil-painting found its way to Italy by way of Naples from the Flemish School of the Van Eycks (ikes). Oil had been used as a medium for color before this time, and the invention of the Van Eycks apparently related to a mixture with elements which made the art more practical by causing the colors to dry more rapidly. This Increased Use of oil-painting is especially related to a larger demand for panel pictures — that is, for portable paintings, as distinct from wall decorations. This again may find its explanation in an increased production for private ownership. Panel pictures were, however, painted for altar-pieces in all periods. Wood was more generally employed than canvas for the panel pictures of this time, but both surfaces were used. Comparative Merits of Oil-paintings and Frescoes. — The oil- paintings of the 15th century (examples at Nos. 190, 191) are gen- erally religious in subject. Their smaller dimensions, and the inex- perience in the technical methods involved, render these paintings relatively inferior to the wall-paintings of the same period. School of Padua. — During the later 15th century the town of Padua produced a remarkable school of art, headed by Andrea Mantegna (man tan' ya) (1431-1506). His greatest work is the series of nine canvases representing " The Triumph of Caesar," now at Hampton Court Palace, in England. Mantegna's art is some- what hard in its outlines, but is otherwise a wonderful revelation of the science and study of the 15th century. School of Venice. — During this same period, and largely under Paduan influence, the beginnings of the later Venetian School were made, but these so immediately preceded the higher development of Venetian art, that brief mention of them may be connected with it subsequently. The Venetian, Giovanni Bellini (jo van'e bel le'ne), was a scholar of Mantegna, and the illustration at 2 1 1 will indicate some qualities of the work of that master, as well as those of his pupil. 2b i FIFTEEXTK CENTURY ITALIAN FA INT I XG. Importance of Florence. — Aside from the schools just named, Italian art in gen- eral converged toward Florence in the 15th century, and also radiated thence. Siena had rivaled the precedence of Giotto for a moment with the name of Duocio (dew'chi yd), but did not subsequently equal the promise given by this isolated genius. Perugia, where Raphael's teacher was long resident, became in art pi dependency or connection of Florence. At this time there were no artists of gi'eat distinction in Rome, in Southern Italy, or in Northern Italy, aside from the Schools of Padua and A'enice.* Rome, at all times in the history of Italian art, has owed her great artists to the surrounding Italian States. It was from the Florentine School of the 15th century that the great artists developed who made the glory of Roman art at the beginning of the 16th cent- ury. As there was no later important development from the Paduan School of the 15th century, except influences on Venice, and as the Venetian painters only begin to assume importance toward the opening of the 16th century, it is clear that the Florentine art is that to which a summary view of the 15th century should especially attach itself. To appreciate its virtues and beauties, the student should especially consider the reliefs of the Robbias and of Ghiberti (147, 148). Engrav- ings of these are free from the unfair impressions which engravings of colored paintings must necessarily convey. Of coui'se, the word "Florentine" covers the Tuscan district of which this city was the capital and center, and the works of artists of the school wherever they were summoned in Italy. NOTES ON THE ILLUSTRATIONS FOR ITALIAN PAINTING OF THE 15TH CENTURY. (185 191, inclusive.) In contrasting 185-191 with types for the 14th century, 177-184, the essential distinction lies in the effort of the loth century to realize a naturalistic effect. In facial expressions, posing of the figure, and accessories of all kinds, this one dis- tinction is the important one, however quaint the imitation of nature may appear in certain cases. Compare the backgrounds of 187, 189 with those of 177, 179. In oil-paintings (Xos. 190, 191) the hard outlines, absence of shading, etc., are to be understood as characteristics of a school of art developed from the practice of wall decoration. Considering that the school of art in question directly preceded the perfection of the 16th century (types 192-221, pp. 225-263), the illustrations may also serve, by contrast with these, to explain its merits, and the inventive genius of its great artists. Much of the science of this greater period was, however, laboriously developed in the 15th century, and lies hidden under the frequently quaint and sometimes awkward appearance of its paintings. For this science the works of * The word " school " is used by ooinmoii consent to indicate a group of artists centering about some one locality, to which a distinct style can be attributed. The "style" is, of course, a general resomblanco resulting from local methods and tastes, which influenced all the artists 01 the locality, and go produced some traits of general resemblance distinct from the individual character of each particiilar artist. Sometimes such a style or scliool was produced by the indi- vidual genius of some one artist of such influence and popularity that others attached them- selves to his studio, became his assistants, and reflected his peculiarities. In such cases the word " school " explains itself, and from these cases it has extended and expanded to the broader and more important sense, often covering an entire century or an entire district. iCq GHIRLANDAJO. THE VISITATION. From the Frescoes in Santa Maria Novella, Florence- o > c o n c s o •o S •a c < c a o « S o SIXTEENTH CENTURY ITALIAN PAINTING. 257 the sculptors are especially significant. The real founders of the painting art of the 16th century were Ghiberti, Donatello, Verocchiu, and Luca della Robbia (pp. 203, 204). Leonardo da Vinci, Michael Angelo, and Raphael were all expert sculptors. The most satisfactory representations of the Italian art of the 15th century are the reliefs of the Ghiberti Gates. This is not only on account of their indi- vidual perfection, but also because engravings of reliefs are more satisfactory illustrations than engravings of paintings. ITALIAN PAINTING OF THE 16TH CENTURY RENAISSANCE. LEONARDO DA VINCI (1452-1519). The Transition. — It has been observed that the 15th century style did not develop till the close of the first quarter of the century. The development of the loth century style slightly anticipates, in its earliest examples, the beginnings of the 16th century. Some artists of the older generation continued to work in the older style after the new one had developed. Others of the older generation, who survived, were more accessible to the new influences. In this case, the transition epoch has the complex and manifold aspects which the individual details of a transition naturally exhibit, and which are so strikingly absent in the rise of the 14:th century and 15th century styles. Still, on the whole, the art of Leonardo da Vinci may be considered as an abrupt and rapid development of all that subsequently distinguished the art of the 16th century from its predecessor. Leonardo da Vinci was a Florentine, whose birth-year falls just &rter the middle of the 15th century, 1452. His studies were not confined to painting alone, and in this art also he was given to exercises and problems distinct from the creation of works for the public, which occupied him for many years of his life. His greatest and epoch-making picture, the "Last Supper" (192), was not finisiied till 1-498. This date, which so closely approaches the opening of the 16th century, allows us to consider the picture as the first great work of tlu lOth century ctyle. The " Last Supper." — For the interesting details of Leonardo's life, reference should be made to the " Lives of the Painters," by Vasari (p. 238). Leonardo had been for some time in the service of the Duke of Milan, Ludovico Sforza (loodo'veeko sfort'sa), when this picture was undertaken. It is in the refectory (dining-room) of the Convent of Santa Maria delle Qrazie (del lay gratze'a), in Milan. In Italian frescoes, the individual figures are usually life-size. Here they are double life-size, and the composition has corresponding .ttimensions. The picture has suffered to sych an extent from sub- / 258 SIXTEENTH CE.VTUliY ITALIAN PAINTIXG. sequent restorations, that none of the faces can nuv.- be considered as original work Notwithstanding this damage, the general scheme hL'tff"? ' T, «-«P°^ition, is well preserved and of astound- mg eftect. The ongmal designs for most of the heads of the head of the Saviour is m the Gallery of Milan. «uin„ perioa, is leplaced by a clear and dignified comnositinn n^. ■ . ^ mgnu,- ancT repose couirCa,^;/T„;i.ttrr5 " --;~^. ■"'^ attempted to represent the dramatic atritaftrl, f / '' "° """ ''^'' as the one chosen h, the " LasrCpe^ tZe r^^^"""' "' "^'" ^ '"°'"^"' The Battle of the Standard.- The "Last Supper" is the only w^l-pamting which Leonardo completed. A commission which w^ ecut d, but part of the design of the cartoon which was made for t has been preserved by a later copy (193).* The decoration of fnd Mich °T'',"" '""''•''"' "* *'"^ *'™^' ^"'' ^°th Leonardo and Michael Angelo were con. missioned with designs for it Polit- ical troubles intervened which prevented the execution of the paintings. has'^a'lto" f "'"^ So.diers."-The design of Michael Angelos cartoon has also been partially preserved by a subsequent copy icnown as the "Bathing Soldiers." These cartoons were publicly e!iibited, and gave a powerful impulse to the studies of the Florentine artists. The final per ection of the Italian painting may be dated from them, as the "Last Supper" was remote in localitv from the most active center of Italian art. A comparison of the illustration for Leonardos cartoon with that for the fresco of Benozzo Gozzoli (lb.), will .show Its epoch-making character. The latter had been executed not many years before. i-anfor""'! ""'' f "T' ^"^''"-^^ «"'='''»<=• Angelo was twenty-thi^e years the jan.or .. Leonardo, it occas.on,,-, the latter great chagrin after this contest, that r w o z > o o o > o o > o ffi r > CO H CO c •I) 13 W JO r > Q Qi < Q Z < H CO a X H o Cil < z < Q O Q < Z a SIXTEENTH CENTURY ITALIAN PAINTING. 261 his own art should have been approached or equaled. He was doubtless conscious that the progress made by the Florentine artists in general, during the preceding twenty-five years, was directly or indirectly largely owing to his own studies ; in other words, that he himself had made the weapons for his rivals. Subsequent Career. — A visit soon after made to Rome, found Michael Angelo also engaged here in important commissions, which were lacking at the time in his own case. It was only a few years later that Raphael's light also began to shine at Rome (1508), and Leonardo ultimately left Italy for France, probably because he felt slighted by the preference accorded the younger men, who had profited by his epoch-making studies. Life and Pursuits. — This great artist was distinguished by proficiency in almost all the branches of science cultivated by the 16th century. Much of his time was also devoted to literary labor. His work on the theory of painting and of colors is still considered, in our own times, the masterpiece of related literature. He was especially distinguished as a civil and military engineer. It is probable that Leonardo's wonderful versatility explains the deficiency of important commissions in painting after the time of the "Last Supper." As he was actively engaged in many studies and pursuits besides that of painting, those who were more con- stantly devoted to the one pursuit were probably more quoted at the moment in connection with it. The Duke of Milan, who had been his patron, was expelled by a French invasion, in the year after the "Last Supper" was finished ; and this personal misfortune which obliged Leonardo, as a man of mature age, to seek new connections and employment, is also an explanation in this connection. He went to France by royal invitation, and lived there till death in the king's service, but no important works are quoted for these last years of his life. Portrait of " Mona Lisa."— The most famous panel-painting by Leonardo, is the portrait of " Mona Lisa," in the Louvre. This pict- ure was purchased by the French King Francis I. during the artist's hfe-time. The portrait represents the wife of one of Leonardo's friends. Her family name, Gioconda (jo con' da), has given a second name to the picture which is thus known as "La Joconde," "the joyous one," a French mistranslation, based on the family name. The colors in this painting have darkened to an extent peculiarly disadvantageous to photography. There are other famous Leonardos in the Louvre, but the whole number in Europe is small. Technical Improvements.— These are apparent in all ways when Leonardo's pictures are contrasted with those of earlier date. The hard outlines and un- shaded designs of the earlier Italian oil-paintings are supplanted by the arts of modeling, shading, and fusion of coloring which through him became the com- mon property of later art, our own included. (Compare 187 with 194.) Even the photographs of his oil-paintings exhibit these distinctions from earlier works. A picture by his pupil Luini (loo'ne) (194) shows the improvements of Leonardo's Works in oil. 2 62 SIXTEENTH CENTURY ITALIAN PAINTING. RAPHAEL SANTI (1483-1520). The year 1508, ten years after the date of the "Last Supper," and four years after the date of the celebrated cartoons just men- tioned, was the thue Avhen Pope Juhus 11. caused to be undertakei the waU-paintings executed by Raphael and by Michael Angelo it^ the Papal Palace of the A'atican at Rome. The Sistine Chapel b the Pope's chapel in this palace, and here are found the celebrated frescoes by Michael Angelo — on the ceiling the " Story of Genesis," and at the chancel end of the chapel the "Last Judgment," which was painted under a later Pontificate. Raphael's work was the decoration in fresco of the Papal office and adjoining rooms on the third story of the Vatican. He subsequently decorated one of the galleries opening on the court about which the palace is built. Both series of frescoes were completed under the Pontificate of the fol- lowing Pope, Leo X. Although generally quoted as the greatest patron of Italian art, Julius II. deserves this distinction. Raphael's Period. — The time of these jDictures corresponds, in English history, to the period of Henry YIII. ; in Spanish history, to the period of Ferdinand the Catholic ; in French history, to the period of Louis XII. and of Francis I. ; in German history, to the period of the Emperor Maximilian. It is the time just after the first maritime discoveries in America and India, and just preceding the Spanish colonial conquests in Mexico and Peru. The j)eriod corresponds in its vitality and productive spirit to the somewhat later time of Shakespeare in England, which was largely influenced and inspired by it.* Raphael was Born in 1483, at Urbino (c5or be' no), a citj^ heading a small civic principality in central Itah', but his earh' instruction at Perugia (pa rc5o' ja) was under an artist of Florentine connec- tions and tendencies (Perugino, see p. 250, and No. 188), and he lived himself at Florence some years, completing there his artistic development. His authenticated wall-pictures, aside from one fresco in Perugia, all date after the beginning of this Roman residence, and are all in Rome. Raphael's Three "Manners." — His oil-paintings (panel pictures) are divided into three classes, corresponding respectively to his succes- * The matter relating to the general history of the Italian Renaissance, and to its influence 04 Europe, is especially in point here (pp. i;{, 117, 118, 196). r c o > d -3 > o w r r > If 1, a u O a a a o ■V n 3 •O a a u O Q. a di 0) 3 T3 U 0) a c o •o s «> a Si CD SIXTEENTH CENTURY ITALIAN PAINTING. 265 sive residences in Perugia, Florence, and Rome, and designated as belonging to the " Peruginesque," " Florentine," and " Roman " man- ners. On account of the great number of Raphael Madonnas, these styles are most easily noted and distinguished in this class of works. The Peruginesque Manner exhibits in. some cases somewhat childish or youtli- ful expressions in the faces, and in its later works (196) has a peculiarly solemn and serious religious character, which reflects the tendency of the period in cen- tral Italy, remote from the more worldly interests and stirring life of Florence. Here established in 1506, * Raphael executed a large number of pictures during the two years preceding the beginning of the Roman period. The Florentine and Roman Manners. — The Floi'entine manner is more vivacious and less serious than the Peruginesque. The large architectural commissions of the Roman joeriod show their influence in the somewhat more staid and mature character of the Madonnas in the ' ' Roman " manner. The difl'erences are not always marked, but pictures like the Sistine Madonna and the Foligno (fo leen' yo) Madonna were not painted before the Roman period, and in these the distinction is quite clear. Notes on the Raphael Madonnas. — The only Raphael Madonna in Rome is the "Foligno," or Madonna del Donatore (don a to' ra) of the Vatican Gallery of oil- paintings. Its names are derived from the town for which it was originally painted, and from the donor {donatore), whose portrait appears in the picture. The introduction of such figures in paintings of the Madonna corresponds to the ideal stand-point of the Christian Italian art. The "Sistine" Madonna — in the Dresden G-allery since the middle of the 18th century — was originally painted for the Convent of San Sisto, in Piacenza (p5 a chen' zil), whence its name. The picture represents an apparition, or dream, in which the Virgin, attended by Saint Barbara, was said to have revealed herself to Pope Saint Sixtus IV. The most important Madonnas in Florence are those known as the " Granduca " (grandoo'kii) and "Seggiola" (sej 6 o'lii), in the Pitti Palace, and the " Cardellino " (car del le' no), in the Uffizi. The "Granduca" (196) is thus named after a Grand Duke of Tuscany, who carried this painting with him on his journeys as his altar- picture. The word "seggiola" means chair. The same Madonna (195) is indifl'er- ently called the Madonna della Sedia (sa'de a), or "of the Chair." The "Cardel- lino " Madonna is thus named from the goldfinch held by the Infant Saviour. A picture similar to the last is the "Belle Jardiniere" (zhar din yar' ) of the Louvre. The Madonna "with the diadem" is another famous Raphael of the Louvre. There are several fine Raphael Madonnas in England ; that of the Bridge water Collection is the most quoted. In the gallery at Madrid is the "Pearl"; in St. Petersburg is the " House of Alba." Several Madonnas are named like this one, from the house or family which formerly owned them; thus, the "Colonna" , >.o ?0 > > r o IS H JO < > n > Z CO o O o a 2 < o < > M a; o Q O a X o o X H a; a > o a «: X a. < SIXTEENTH C E N T U li Y ITALIAN PAINTING. 269 foreground. The architectural symmetry of arrangement is varied by natural poses and well-studied diversity of action. The "Poetry," chosen for illustration (197), is also known as the "Parnassus" (the Mountain of the Muses). Apollo, in the center, is playing the violin. This snows that he is introduced as a symbol of musical inspiration and culture for modern times, whereas the classic lyre would associate him with the extinct beliefs of Paganism. Around him are grouped the Muses. These also are designed without reference to external imitations of Antique conceptions. On the left. Homer is recognized by his evident blindness, and Dante by his profile and cowl. Some other names are indicated for certain figures, but it is evident, from the small number introduced, that a pictorial catalogue is not intended. The Two Rooms Adjoining' the Camera della Segnatura are also decorated with frescoes by Raphael. In the " second " room we find the subjects known as the "Overthrow of Heliodorus" (198), the "Miracle of Bolsena," the "Meeting of Pope Leo I. and Attila," and the "Liberation of Peter." The most important fresco of the "third" room is the "Incendio del Borgo " (199). The last three mentioned were executed during the pontificate of Leo X., who suc- ceeded Julius II. in 1513. The Story of Heliodorus (198) is found in the Second Book of the Maccabees, in the Apocrypha. It relates to the attempt of the Gx'eek ruler of Syria to intro- duce the Pagan Greek worship into the Hebrew Temple. Heliodorus was the agent employed to accomplish this profanation. The attempt was foiled, and led to a revolt of the Jews, by which the independence of their State was established under the rule of the Maccabees, as High-priests. On one side we see the appari- tion described in the Apocrypha, and the overthrow of Heliodorus ; on the other, Pope Julius II. is borne in a sedan-chair and, with his attendants, beholds the miracle. The picture is an allegory relating to the efforts of the Pope to protect Italy from the invasions of the French. The " Incendio del Borgo," or Pire of the Borgo (199).— The Borgo was a district of the city of Piome. Tradition related that a conflagration had been extinguished here by Pope Leo IV. in a miraculous manner. The choice of sub- ject had reference, as had also the fresco "Leo I. and Attila," to the name of the reigning Pope, whose predecessors of the same name were thus commemorated. The literary enthusiasms of the Italians of the Renaissance are curiously illustrated by this picture, which contains a group on the left representing Aeneas bearing off his father, Anchises, from the burning ruins of Troy. The Stanze. — The above list relates to the noted works by Raphael, which are generally known as the Vatican " Stanze " (stan'zay).* The "Battle of the Milvian Bridge," representing the triumph of the Emperor Constantine over his rival Licinius, is an * The Italian word stanza (f:ta.n' zah) means room. Stanze is the plural. 270 SIXTEENTH CEXTURY ITALIAN PAIXTIXG. Important composition of this series, in an adjacent department. It was designed but not colored by Raphael. "Raphael's Bible." — On the same stor\^ of the Vatican, near to the apartments just described, are the fresco decorations known as the "Loggie" (lod'ja). The Italian word "loggia" (plural, loggie) is frequently applied in the plural use to a galler}^ of which one side is open to the air. Such galleries surround the court of the Vatican Palace on all its stories, but only the gallery of the second story, facing one side of the court, has the decorations in question. The wall opposite to the open arcades, which were subsequently glassed in, is decorated with world-renowned arabesques which were in- spired by Antique designs, still to be seen at that time in the ruins of the Baths of Titus, and since destroyed. The walls are faced by pilasters at distances corresponding to the width of the gallery, thus dividing it into a series of square compartments, which are vaulted with small domes. In each of these domes are four x)ict- ures — making in all a series of fiftj^-two — treating subjects mainly from Old Testament history. The execution of the arabesques and of these pictures was done by Raphael's assistants, from his draw- ings. The x^ictures of the domes are known as the "Loggie" pict- ures; also as "Raphael's Bible." They are famed for their graphic simplicity and unpretentious, explicit design (illustrations 200, 201). The Cartoons. — Another important commission executed iindei' Leo X. was a series of Cartoons for tapestries ; ten subjects from the New Testament. (One of these is illustrated at 202.) The^apes- tries were executed in Flanders, and were hung on the lower portion of the wall of the Sistine Chapel, where the painted tapestry deco- ration is now seen (No. 206). The set was removed to Paris during the French Revolution, and is now placed in another portion of the Vatican. The tapestries show those deviations from the original Cartoons which artisan copies made in a coarse material must necessarily exhibit. The Cartoons themselves, being Raphael's own work, have consequently a much higher value. Seven of the original ten have been preserved, and are now exhibited in the South Ken- sington Museum, in London. They were formerly in Hampton Court Palace, and were purchased by the English King Charles L, through the mediation of the painter Rubens. They had meantime been for a century in Brussels, where the original tapestries were JO > X > r z o w z D O o fl r t3J O 73 O p < > o > Z *i3 JO W O o 200. Raphael. Abraham and the Angels, Vatican Loggie. 201. Raphael. Jacob and Laban, Vatican Loggie. ?0 > > r n EC > JO o w o w w o G H 7i R Z CO s o 203. RAPHAEL. POPE LEO X. WITH CARDINALS, PITTI GALLERY, FLORENCE. 204. RAPHAEL. ST. CECILIA, BOLOGNA. 205. RAPHAEL. TRANSFIGURATION, VATICAN, SIXTEENTH CENTURY ITALIAN PAINTING. 277 made, and where some subsequent reproductions were also executed, which are now scattered between Berlin, Dresden, and Madrid. In the Church of Santa Maria della Pace (paiVcha), in Rome, is a single fresco by Raphael, the "Four Sibyls," a picture of great beauty. The Farnesina Villa. — The list of Raphael's mural paintings is closed by mention of the series in the Villa Farnesina (far na se'na), at Rome. One apartment of the Villa Farnesina contains the famous fresco of " The Triumph of Galatea." This work is by Raphael's own hand. In the adjacent gallery is the series of frescoes from the " Story of Cupid and Psyche," executed by scholars from his designs. Of Portraits by Raphael there are several fine examples. One of the most noted is that of the " Violin-player," in the Sciarra-Co- lonna (sha' ra-co lo' na) Palace at Rome. See also 203. The " Transfiguration." — Beside the Madonnas and portraits, there are many oil-paintings by Raphael of great celebrity. His latest work, not entirely finished at his death, was the "Transfiguration," now in the Vatican Gallery of oil-paintings. The coloring of the lower portion is by a scholar (205). Criticism of the " Transfiguration." — The composition has been criticised as having a divided interest, because the story of the possessed boy attracts more attention than the "Transfiguration" itself. Tliis is doubtless because Raphael felt the latter subject to be beyond the powers of art. He, therefore, chose rather to present in a single picture, the two events described by the Bible narrative as having occurred at the same time — the ' ' Transfiguration " and the episode of the possessed boy from whom the disciples could not cast out the devil while the Saviour was on Mount Tabor. The dependence of the Apostles on Christ's bodily presence thus symbolizes the dependence of His disciples on His spiritual aid. The Picture of St. Cecilia, in Bologna (bo ion' ya), is another fine illustration of the nobility of Raphael's conceptions (2 04). The musical saint is not playing on her instrument. It is the music of the angelic choir which absorbs her attention, and that of her com- panions, St. Paul, St. John, St. Augustine, and Mary Magdalen. Musical instruments which lie disregarded under the feet of this group, emphasize the moral conveyed — the music of Heaven excels that of earth. Other Noted Oil-paintings.—" Christ Bearing the Cross," is a notable Raphael, in Madrid. Other specially notable works are the 278 SIXTEENTH CENTURY ITALIAN PAINTING. "Entombment" (Borghese Gallery, in Rome); "Coronation of the Virgin" (Vatican G-allery) ; "Vision of Ezechiel" (Pitti Palace, Flor- ence); "Betrothal of Mary and Joseph" (Milan), also generally known as the "Sposalizio" (spo sa leets' yo). MICHAEL ANGELO (1475-1564). The Frescoes of the Sistine Chapel by Michael Angelo are, broadly speaking, his only work in painting (206, 207).* He had no predilection for painting in oil, and his few efforts in this direc- tion are regarded rather as interesting curiosities than as character- istic works of art. There is, moreover, only one finished panel picture in existence by his hand — the " Holy Family," of the Uffizi G-allery, in Florence. Cartoon of "The Bathing Soldiers." — A memorable work which did not attain completion, was foreshadowed by the Cartoon of " The Bathing Soldiers." This was designed under the conditions noted at p. 258. The Cartoon itself was destroyed, but survived through a copy, subsequently lost, which was engraved in the 17th century. Description of the Cartoon. — The choice of the episode is significant for the tastes and studies of the artist. In the wars between Florence and Pisa, a troop of Florentine soldiers had been surprised, while bathing, by a Pisan force. Michael Angelo's proficiency in the design of the nude form, and his interest in anatomic study, led him to select this incident for his subject, and the same proficiency and interest are equally apparent in his works of sculpture, and in the frescoes of the Sistine Chapel. The contorted and twisted attitudes which characterize this Car- toon, are also found in his sculptures, and in the frescoes named. This tendency to twisted attitudes is partly explained bj' the desire to exercise the knowledge of foreshortening, and develop the science of anatomy which he possessed to such a wonderful degree, but also resulted from an uneasy and misanthropic nature which found vent in those unrestful and violent explosions of creative power. Character of Michael Angelo. — Michael Angelo is famed for an imperious and noble spirit, for an impatient hatred of the base and petty failings of human nature, for devout, religious character, and for a tendency toward the colossal and the grandiose in his artistic conceptions. These characteristics are as apparent in the details of his life as in the works of his brush and chisel. The passionate individuality of nature which his statues exhibit (pp. 204-211), is at once their greatest charm, and the feature which separates them * The Sistine Chapel is the Papal Chapel in the Palace of the Vatican. o k-t M H Z O X > w r > > o w o >^ W < > H O > S2 a < X o w 2 H M O O Ui V. o U o 2 o o Q 2 < 2 D CO U X b O o < o: O d u o 2 < < o SIXTEENTH C E N T U R T ITALIAN PAINTING. 281 from the simple and reposeful conceptions of the Antique. The reliefs of Greek sculpture frequently exhibit violent attitudes and subjects, and in this sense are remarkably different from the ma- jority of Antique statues, but the general result of these Antique figure compositions in relief is always one of architectural balance and repose. The " Story of Genesis." — In the frescoes of the Sistine Chapel, Michael Angelo's tendencies toward the sublime and the grandiose in art coincided with the dimensions of the work and with the sub- ject chosen. The subjects of the " Story of Genesis," which decorate the ceiling, were peculiarly allied to his own individual sympathies and character (detail 207). Subjects of the Ceiling Frescoes. — Panels of alternating sizes are ranged along the center of the ceiling with the following subjects : The Creation of I^ight. The Creation of the Sun and Moon. The Separation of the Waters of the Firmament. The Creation of Adam. The Creation of Eve. The Temptation and Expulsion. The Sacrifice of Cajn and Abel. The Deluge. The Drunkenness of Noah. The male figures at the angles of the panels (207) are supposed to symbolize the architectiaral forces of the vault, or may be purely decorative adjuncts. They are in general remarkable examples of the tendency to twisted attitudes which has been noted. The vault of the Sistine Chapel is constructed with a series of triangular reces- sions corresponding in position to the round arches of the side-windows. In these recessions are groups representing the " Forefathers of Christ," i. e., symbolical forms through which the Old Dispensation is represented as the preparation for the New. In the angular spaces of the vaulting which separate these recessions are repre- sented, in alternate arrangement, "Prophets" and "Sibyls." The " Sibyl " type had been adopted by the Italians from the ancient historical mythology, as a personifi- cation of prophecy. At the four corners of the vaulting, where it descends into the angles of the walls, are represented the "Four Salvations of the Children of Israel " — the stories of the Brazen Serpent, of David and Goliath, of Judith and Holofernes, and of the punishment of Haman. The Year 1508 has been already indicated (p. 2 6 2) as the time of the beginning of these ceiling frescoes. They were completed about 1512. No assistants whatever were employed. " The "Last Judgment." — Of much later date, and materially different character, is the picture of the "Last Judgment," at the 282 SIXTEENTH CENTURY ITALIAN PAINTING. chancel end of the Sistine Chapel. This was begun in 153-1 and finished in 15-1:2, under the pontificate of Pope Paul III. Personal History. — As a patriot, Michael Angelo liad meantime lived to see the overthrow of his native Republic of Florence (in 1530), and to witness the social revolutions and the decline of Italian civilization, which internal dissensions, com- mercial causes, and the invasions of foreign powers had combined to produce (p. 125). He himself had been the engineer of the fortifications and chief con- ductor of the defense of his native city during the devastating siege which pre- pared and preceded its overthrow (1529-1530). The tombs of the Medici (Xos. 152, 153) were conceived by Michael Angelo and by his time as the tombs of the Flor- entine Republic. In the gloom which these disasters had produced, Michael Angelo undertook the "Last Judgment" in a spirit which conceived his country's doom as having befallen it in recompense of its sins and in judgment of its iniquities. With access of trouble and disappointment in life, the contortion of the human figLu-e had become an almost constant phase of his art. With access of years, the exer- cise and exhibition of anatomic science had become a species of mania. Criticism of the " Last Judgment." — Thus we observe peculiarities in the " Last Judgment," which are explained by earlier tendencies, and by subsequent personal and national trials. In studying this joicture, some allowance must be made for the Italian habit of using bodily forms for the expression of spiritual ideas. It must also be remembered that where pictorial art was so constantly devoted to Biblical illustration, the necessary inconsistencies between spiritual conceptions and physical i"epresentations were more easily overlooked than they could be in our own time. There is not, however, any more of this incongruous character in the "Last Judgment" than there is in the "Paradise Lost" of Milton. The Arrangement of the Painting conceives the Saviour as the Judge, and places the Virgin by His side. In the upper angles are groups of Angels with the instruments of the Passion, the Cross, and the Pillar of Scoui'ging. A group of Martyrs suri'ounds the Sariour and the Virgin. To the left and right are groups of the Saints. At the base of the picture we see the Resurrection and the Ferry of Charon, the Angels blowing the trumpets of doom and a group of lost souls bewailing their fate. ^o Place of the "Last Judgment" in Itahan Art. — The "Last Judgment" is tlie last great monumental work in fresco of 16th century Italian art,, and closes the period which opened with the "Last Supper." The Venetian colorists alone offer a striking excep- tion to the general law as to the dates of works of art of the great period. Venice alone continued to develop a great school of art after 1530, and it was the only important Italian State which pre- served its independence after this date. Venetian painters, how- ever, confined themselves to canvas painting in oil. In the case of architectural decorations, canvases were painted and subsequently fastened directly to the walls which were to be decorated. The SIXTEENTH CENTURY ITALIAN PAINTING. 283 Venetians did not affect, or succeed in, the great monumental style of the Florentines. Harmonious and beautiful coloring was their special gift, and in this they were and have been unrivaled. Before naming the artists of the Venetian School, it will be advisable to mention artists of other portions of Italy, who did not outlive the limit fixed by the "Last Judgment," and by the national misfortunes which immediately preceded its creation. The Later Years of Michael Angelo were especially devoted to the construction of St. Peter's Church (p. 118), and to the com- pletion of the statue of "Moses" (p. 181 and No. 154). CORREGGIO (1494-1534\ The Most Important Contemporaries of the three great Floren- tine artists already mentioned * are, by common consent, Correggio (cor red' jo) of Parma, and the Venetian Titian (tlsh'an). Titian, as a member of the Venetian School, will be subsequently mentioned. Correggio died in 1534, and the limit of his life corresponds in time to the general rule outside of Venice. The Baptismal Name of this artist was Antonio Allegri (al la'gre). Correggio, a sixiall town in the civic Principality of Parma, was his birthplace. Frescoes in Parma. — There are frescoes by Correggio in Parma, which have furnished subjects for attractive engravings (by Toschi), but his style of design and methods in color were more especially adapted to oil-paintings, and these are his most important works. Oil-paintings. — Being portable, these paintings have been dis- persed through all the Galleries of Europe. Thus Correggio may be known without visiting Italy. This holds as well of the Venetian art, which also affected the portable canvases. For obvious reasons the same rule does not hold of the Florentines, whose greatest works can only be seen in the buildings for which they were designed. Correggio's Method in oil-painting was based on a use of lights and shadows (" chiar-oscuro ") (chi ar'-os cu' ro), of which Leonardo da Vinci was the originator, and which spread through North Italy from his scholars and his Academy in Milan. Correggio developed this method as a means to the representation of sudden expressions and rapid movements of face and gesture. In his conceptioup of ♦ Raphael was a Florentine as regards his School. 2S-i SIXTEENTH CENTURY IiaHAN PAINTING. religious subjects, he is not as serious or as thoughtful as the Flor« entines. In realistic representation of details, he went much farther than the Florentine art. His composition and arrangement of fig- ures are not as symmetrical. His pictures are not distinguished by the varied yet balanced arrangement of Raphael, and the types of his figures and faces have not the same elevation and nobilit}'. On the other hand, Correggio's paintings have a beauty and grace peculiarly their own, and in mythologic subjects especially, he is only rivaled by Titian. His pictui'es appeal readily to the modern eye, and there is no artist of the IGth century who will more easily find and hold modern admiration (2 08, 209), Important Works. — Among many notable paintings by Correggio may be mentioned "The Holy Night," and '^The Penitent Magda- len,"* in Dresden; the ''Madonna della Scodella,"t in Florence; the " Mystical Marriage of Saint Catharine," in the Louvre at Paris ; the " Education of Cupid," in the National Gallery of London ; "Leda and the Swan," in the Museum of Berlin, and the "Danae" (dana'e), in Rome. OTHER 16TH CENTURY ITALIAN" ARTISTS, NOT VENETIANS. The Catalogue of Names and works belonging to the first quarter of the IGth century might be extended indefinitely. There is scarcely an Italian artist of the period who did not occasionally rival the greatest masters in certain individual works. There are many artists who are only placed in the second rank because of the su- preme genius of their great rivals. Of these, Sodoma (so do' ma; (1480-1 519), a resident of Siena; Andrea del Sarto (sar' to), of Florence (1487-1531), and Sebastian del Piombo (pe oin' Ido) are especially noteworthy (aside from the A^enetians). Sodoma's works are rare, but he is distinguished by a most peculiar beauty of outlines and of color. Del Sarto's best work is the series of frescoes in the court of the Church of the Annunziata in Florence. No. 210 shows one of his "Holy Families." Sebastian del Piombo is especially famed for the " Resurrection of Lazarus," in the National Gallery of London. * Eiigi-avings are frequently seen ia pail's, one of which is from the Magdalen by Corresgio. The other is from a picture, also in the Dresden Gallery, a much larger and a much more coarsely painted picture of the 18th century, by an artist named Battoni (bat to' ny), of no great distinction. t Thus named from the plate held by the Virgin— the subject is the repose of the Holy Family during the Flight into Egypt. 5 ) -i i 2o8. CORREGGIO. "THE HOLY NIGHT," DRESDEN. < cu Z 2 < > O o 2 < o a w OS Ci. a Ci] O o mMimismim 'l ^ J ^ *.-. ^ > ^ ^ 2X0. ANDREA DEL SARTO. HOLY FAMILY, MUNICH- 211. Giovanni Beilini. The Dead Christ, Milan. 212. Carpaccio. Presentation of the Infant Christ to Simeon, Venlcfr. SIXTEENTH CENTURY ITALIAN PAINTING. 289 THE 16TH CENTURY VEHSTETIAN SCHOOL. The Beginnings of the Venetian School were connected with the School of Padua (p. 253), but diverged from it rapidly. As distinct from works whose mention belongs to the local history of NTenice, the first important A^enetian names are those of the brothers Bellmi (bel lee' ne)— Giovanni (jova'ne)and Gentile (jentee'le). These art- ists flourished in the later 15th and eariy 16th centuries. Giovanni Bellini (1426-1516) is the more important of the two. Among the works of this one artist may be found some which have the harsher qualities and stiffness of the older style (211), and others which are abreast with the perfected style of the 16th cent- ury (213). His works are especially to be studied in Venice. An- other artist of special note, belonging both to the 15th and 16th centuries, was Vittore Carpaccio (vit to' ra car patch' yo) (212). Venetian Color.— The Venetians had long been familiar with the gorgeous colors of Oriental decorative art, and their main occupation was the trade in Oriental fabrics and luxuries. Hence, doubtless, the development of that taste in color for which they have a supreme distinction! The cUmate and atmosphere of Venice also led its artists to observe objects rather in masses of color than in distinct outlines. Hence the preference for oil-painting in opposition to the more rigid outlines of fresco. Giorgione (jorjo'na) (I477-I5ii).-The first artist, in point of time who reached the whole perfection of all the later Venetian art was Giorgione. His works are extremely rare. An important pict- ure is represented by the illustration 214. Titian (1477-1576), the great head of the Venetian School, was the scholar of Giorgione. His greatest picture is probably the " As- sumption of the Virgin," in Venice. His leading picture in Dresden is the " Christ and the Tribute Money." In Beriin, the " Daughter of Titian"; in Florence, the "Bella"; in Rome, the "Venus Blind- ing Cupid," of the Borghese Gallery, are noted works. Individual mention is, however, at the expense of the pictures excluded from the list. Characteristic works are shown by the illustrations 215-217. Palma Vecchio (vek' yo) and Paris Bordone (bor do' na) were contemporaries and, occasionally, equals of Titian in quality, though not in productiveness. Palma's most quoted picture is the "St. 290 SIXTEENTH CENTURY ITALIAN PAINTING. Barbara," in \^enice (218). Another illustration (219) is a fine ex- ample of the noble qualities of the Venetian School. Tintoretto* (1512-1594) is an artist especially exalted by Ruskin, and with justice. The dates show that, as regards time, he is some- what later than the artists so far mentioned. Tintoretto is distin- guished among Venetian painters for his intellectual qualities. His execution w^as occasionally hasty, and occasionally lacking in the finish of his great contemporaries. Important works by Tintoretto are among the decorations of the Doge's Palace in Venice (220), where all the painters named are also represented. Paul Veronese f (1528-1588) was the last, in point of time, of the great Venetians. His favorite pictures were immense canvases, in which, under the guise of Scripture subjects, the Venetian life of his own time was portrayed. Such are the ''Marriage of Cana," in the Louvre, and the "Feast of the Levite," in the Academy at Venice. Among other important works in this latter gallery is the one shown by illustration 221. During the 17th Century, the School of Venice did not flourish. The decay of the State and of art went hand in hand. Meantime a revival took place elsewhere, especially in Bologna and in Naples. Venice produced, in the 18th century, some exceptions to the general dearth of illustrious artists at that time (p. 223). In religious art, two painters of the same family and name, Tiej^olo (tee ay' po lo), produced fine works, which do not, however, rival those of earlier date. Canaletto and Guardi (g^va^'de) were successful portrayers of views of the citv of Venice. NOTES ON" THE ILLITSTRATION'S FOR ITALIAN" PAINTING OP THE 16TH CENTURY. (192-221, inclusive, pp. 257-297.) The "Last Supper," l)y Leonardo da Vinci, lias been included in these illustra- tions for reasons mentioned in text, although its date of completion preceded by two years the opening of the 16th century. In the arrangement of matter and of illustration, the precedence given Leonardo indicates his relation to the period in general, as regards precedence in time and general influence. Otherwise the order of arrangement has no reference to order of time (the painters being contempo- raries), with exception that the Venetian school is placed last because it continued in a flourishing condition after the decline had begun elsewhere. Tintoretto and Paul * The 'baptismal name of this artist was Jacopo Robusti (ro biKis'te). + The baptismal name of this artist was Paolo Caliari (calyahrS). 213. Giovanni Bellini. Madonna and Saints, Venice. 214, Giorgione. Head of the Madonna, at Castelfranco, near Venice. a a (/i u Q > w 2 O § a H £ S H Q 2 < w 5 X o b O < a Q 2 < H H 2i6. Titian. "Earthly and Heavenly Love," Rome. 217. Titian. Venus and Bacchante, Muniib..' o o o ■ o„ o ee ® *> o ° aooo oo 218. PALMA VECCHIO. SAINT BARBARA, VENICE. aig. Palma Vecchio. Christ and the Widow of Nain, Venice, 320. Tintoretto. Mercury and the Graces, Ducal Palace, Venice o 2 > z o X H 2 < W Q 2 <; < 2 2 O Q < H a w (4 2 O w > D < 0< .• C_CC€« • . "^ . " t C-- « • • e« cc«i ctctitt SEVENTEENTH CENTURY ITALIAN PAINTING. 2 1) 7 Veronese are also placed last among the Venetians, because they especially repre- sent the best work of the Venetian School in the later part of the 16th century. Raphael and Michael Angelo are associated in arrangement with one another, because they were the two artists by whom the great moniimental works in liome were executed, and they are associated in arrangement with Leonardo, because all were of the Florentine School. A fair idea of the general distinctions between the style of Italian painting in the 16th century and that of the 15th century may be obtained by comparing iu bulk the entire illustration 192-221 (pp. 257-297), with the Nos. 185-191 (pp. 246- 257). A fair comparison of the two centuries can not, however, be made without including the pictorial relief compositions of the Ghiberti Gates in the contrast (p. 200). A summary review of the typical illustrations for the 16th century may serve to show that its distinction is by no means founded on purely mechanical and technical perfection, in which, however, its productions have been rarely rivaled and never excelled — but more especially on a thoroughly honest, worthy, and dig- nified treatment of the most exalted subjects which have ever been represented by pictorial art. For the contemporary art of Northern Europe, see Nos. 245-249 (pp. 321-327). ITALIAN PAmilNG OF THE 17TH CENTURY RENAISSANCE. SCHOOL OF BOLOGNA. A General Decline of the Italian art, aside from the School of Venice, had begun directly after the death of Raphael in 1520, with the opening of the wars, in 1521, which were fought on Ital- ian soil between Charles V. of Spain and Germany, and Francis I. of France. The fourteen years which intervened between 152 and 1534 (the time of Michael Angelo's "Last Judgment") witnessed the death of nearly all contemporary artists who were not them- selves affected by the decline of style which began for the new generation. A most important episode and cause of this decline was the sack of Rome, in 152 7, by the troops of Charles V. The Papal city has never recovered the loss of material splendor which it suffered at this time, and the artists congregated there who were dispersed and ruined b}' this disaster, never found a parallel center of encouragement and support. The fate of individuals, as influ- enced by this event, may easih^ be followed in the "Lives" bv Yasari (p. 2 38). The Sieg-e and Capture of Florence (1529-1530) by the same army (p. 282), consummated the misfortunes which had been caused by the sack of Rome. The relations of Italy with the rest of Europe were much promoted by these wars and foreign con- 298 SEVENTEENTH CENTURY ITALIAN PAINTING. quests, especially as the Italian States were by no means united against their foreign foes, and because each one of the rival foreign antagonists had allies and supporters among them. The decline of Italian culture is thus contemporaneous with its spread over North- ern Europe (p. 125). Although the cupidity of the Northern Pow- ers had first been roused by the more material aspects of Italian wealth and civilization, they could not resist the insensible influ- ences of the Renaissance culture, which rapidly mastered the whole of Europe. We have seen that the history of modern architecture offers a curious illustration of this influence. Nearly Three Quarters of a Century had succeeded the great period of Italian painting, Avhich were an almost absolute blank as regards the i)rod action of meritorious works, aside from the School of Venice. Some of the portraits of this time, especially those of the Florentine Bronzino (bron zee' no), ]nake an exception to this rule. The most characteristic name for this later 16th century period, is that of Baroccio (ba rot' cho). His pictures are extrava- gant as regards pose and expression, and weak as religious concep- tions — they are characteristic of the general style of a large number of pictures belonging to this period which are scattered through Italian churches, and which have never received attention, even from the worst subsequent taste. The Caracci. — Toward the beginning of the 17th centurj', a revival of taste and of art made itself felt in Italy, which found its centers of activity especially in Naples and in Bologna. The School of the latter town deserves, as a whole, the pre-eminent mention. Three artists of one family, an uncle, Agostino (a go ste' no), and two nephews, Ludovico (lc5o do ve' ko) and Annibale (an ne ba' la), of the same family name, Caracci (ca rat'che), were its leaders. Their Scholars. — They were themselves more especially Academic instructors, and their own paintings are not numerous. Their scholars were more prolific and, as painters, are more generally cel- ebrated. Three of them are especially prominent in the history of art, Guido Reni (g\A^ee' do ray' ne), Domenichino (do men e ke' no), and Guercino (g^A^e^ che'no). The School of Bologna. — The School is indifferently known as the School of Bologna, or School of the Caracci. It is also called sometimes the School of the Eclectics, or Imitators. These latter names indicate the self-confessed dependence of its artists on the i -» i 3 a"*-, 3 3 3 3 ^ J 3 3 3 3 3 O C 1-4 D O fO B > c JO o > fo o CO ■n o r o CO r r > ?o o 3S 3 d 3 £ •J. Id o Hi o n 3 CO n s o o O c a o W a s D Q. £. 3 » O 3 o • • /• • • • •• •.•••• • :• :.• : •• 227. DOMENICHINO. LAST COMMUNION OF ST. JEROME, VATICAN. SEVENTEENTH CENTURY ITALIAN PAINTING. 30b models of the early 16 th century, and their effort to be universal or eclectic in this dependence or imitation, and to combine the virtues of the various great artists of the former period. Guide Reni (1575-1642). — Of the three scholars of the Caracci just named, Guido Reni was much the most prolific, and in some ways the most gifted. His Famous "Aurora " is a fresco on the ceiling of an apartment in the Rospigliosi (ro spel yo' se) Villa, at Rome, of very effective coloring, especially resplendent in the yellow hue (indicating the dawn) which forms the background on the left, and spreads over the painting from that point in gradually lessening intensity. The composition is an effective decoration, although the details of the execution will scarcely compare to advantage with the great works of the 10th century. This remark applies to the original. As far as engravings are concerned, the distinctions are not apparent. Guido is otherwise well known for a large number of pictures, several of which are used as illustrations in the subsequent notes on the 17th century types (Nos. 22 2-2 2 6), His most universally illustrated picture, aside from the " Aurora," is the fine portrait of Beatrice Cenci (chen' che), in the Barberini {bar ba re' ne) Palace, at Rome. Domenichino (1581-1641) was a more conscientious artist than Guido in his nature and in his pictures. As usual in this period, his more attractive works are rather from the field of mythology than of religion. His Noted Works, — A fine example of this class of painting is his " Diana and ISTymphs," of the Borghese (bor ga' sa) Gallery, in Rome, one of the best works of the century. His pictures of a "Sibyl" are known in several exam.ples. His "St, Cecilia," in the Louvre, is also a quoted work. The " Last Communion of St. Jerome/' in the Vatican Gallery of oil-paintings, is noted for its CJonscientious and able execution (22 7), Its choice of subject illustrates a general tendency of the time to views of imaginary episodes in the lives of the Saints, whereas the earlier tendency was, by preference, rather to Biblical history, at least in the greatest masterpieces. The subject and moment chosen in this picture also illustrate a general tendency to realistic and tragic effects. These contrast again with the more sedate and serene aspects of earlier paintings. Compare, for instance, the 304 SEVENTEENTH CENTURY ITALIAN PAINTIXu^. motives and subjects of Ghiberti's doors. The pictorial charactei of the work justifies this reference. It may be noted here that paintings of martyrdoms, in their more revolting aspects, were not congenial to the earlier classic period of Italian art. The illustration chosen for Ribera (23 0) has this bearing for the new period.* Guercino (1590 1666) f was the least important of the three painters named, but is also distinguished for exceedingly fine paint- ings. His "Abraham and Hagar," in the Milan Gallery, is a weU- known example. As is the case with Domenichino, his most a1> tractive subjects are mythological (228-2 30). The Name of Carlo Dolce (doi'cha) (1616-1686) is not attached to any particular school, but it is one of the best known and n^ost characteristic of the time. He was a native of Florence. Noted Works. — Ilis well-known " St. Cecilia," in the Dresden Gallery (repetitions elsewhere), may be contrasted with the picture by Raphael (p. 2 77, and No. 204) as significant for the general distinction between the 16th and 17th century art. The latter rarely reaches the nobility of conception which is found in the 16th century, but it can not be denied that its pictures are beau- tiful and attractive. A Madonna by Carlo Dolce is illustrated a\i 2 32. The "Annunciation," or "Angel Gabriel," in Florence, by the same artist, is also a typical example (2 33). The "Annunciation" is treated in earlier art as an historical event. Here the subject is indicated by a picture which is more satisfactory as a painting than as a definite reminder of the Biblical account. THE SCHOOL OF NAPLES. The School of Naples is headed by artists who are more distin- guished for their great mastery and power of technique than by elevated art. Caravaggio (ka ra vad'Jo) (1569-1609) was one of its leaders. His pictures are fine works of brush painting, but frequently ignoble in choice of subject or in conception. His Works. — Pictures of Martyrdoms are much affected by him, and they are characteristic for his time, as previously observed. * The real name of this artist was Domenico Zampieri (do i.ieu'f kO dzam pS 5' re). The nif' .ame used is that by which he is generally quoted. t The real name f)f this artist was Fraricesco Barbicri (frftu digs' ko bar bee a' r6). G-uerfine was the name of his birthplace. o c w o z o > w o p r c D o < r r > o 2: < < a < X a 2 < < X < oi m <: d 2 O o SEVENTEENTH CENTURY ITALIAN PAINTING. 307 Martyrdoms are rarely represented in the earlier Italian art, because its good taste disliked the repulsive details which attend such sub- jects. Caravaggio's "Entombment" (2 3 7), in the Vatican Gallery, is an illustration of his fine technical ability, and also of the vul- garity of the types which are common in his pictures. His "Gam- blers," in the Sciarra (sha' ra) Palace at Rome (repetitions else- where), illustrates the rise of a new class of subjects, distinct from the ideal tendencies of both Italian Mythologic and Scriptural art. Ribera (re ba' ra), also called Spagnoletto (spa nyo let' o) (1588- 1656), was a scholar of the foregoing. One of his finest paintings is the " St. Mary of Egypt," in the Dresden Gallery. See also illustra- tions (235, 236). Ribera was a Spaniard, and may with equal justice be classified with the Spanish School. Salvator Rosa (1615-1673) is one of the greatest artists of his time in landscapes and battle scenes. These are scattered through various European galleries. Two of his best landscapes are in the Pitti Palace at Florence. The sketch illustrated (238) is also in Florence. CHARACTERISTICS OF 17TH CENTURY RELIQIOUS ART. Typical Subjects. — More important than a catalogue of names is some knowledge of the general conditions by which the 17th century art differed from the preceding periods, and of the peculiar types which it iDroduced. To the hints on this matter already offered some additional points may now be added. Changed Political Conditions. — The Italian Civic States, whose rivalry and active political life had stimulated the earlier Italian art, had been su^Dplanted by petty despotic governments of foreign blood or connection, ruling in the interest of the trading class. Art was therefore dependent on the patronage of rich and in- fluential individuals, rather than on commissions of general public interest, as in earlier times. Architectural decorations were occa- sionally undertaken, but with one exception — the well-known "Au- rora," by Guido Reni — few works of this kind achieved distinction. Frescoes Replaced by Panels. — The period is mainly one of port- able panel pictures on wood or canvas, as far as characteristic and important works are concerned. This x>ortability explains the fact that the picture galleries of Northern Europe are so largely filled with 308 SEVENTEENTH CENTURY ITALIAN PAINTING. 17th century pictures. The history of Italian art should preferably be studied first in Italy, as this preponderance of the later works in Northern Europe is apt otherwise to give erroneous views. Preference for Heads, Busts, and Half-figure Compositions. — This appears to result from a wish to xjreserve a large scale of propor- tions, notwithstanding an average diminution in the size of the paintings. In the l B TO o 3. o' 3 'li o D o to O o a o c a c c H o Q a a E o o o Q a U 234- Carlo Dolce. Magdalen, Florence. 2^S- Ribera. St. Bartholomew, Madrid 1 - - -, • i p ^ 3 J 236. Ribera. Martyrdom of St. Bartholomew, Madrid 53 3 a a K V c o o v. a _> "(3 M > c V Si g o c > u O ( «(.<.( '.r "^ » "^ «. t t i i' I .^ . ^e' . . .11 . .SEVENTEENTH CENTURY ITALIAN PAINTING. 313 » "Assumptions" of the Madonna and "Immaculate Conception" are also characteristic. Aside from Titian's famous "Assumption," they were rarely attempted in earlier art. The ecstatic character of these subjects explains their frequency at this time (2 65), The Subject of the " Penitent Magdalen " is again character- istic for the new period, and for its sentimental tendencies (2 2 6). The single pictures by Correggio and by Titian treating this subject, are rare exceptions to its earlier absence. Half-figures of Saints, or Apostles, are also typical subjects (2 35). Here again the point applies, that in earlier art the separa- tion of a character from the Scriptural historical incidents through which it is known, was uncommon except in altar-pieces. In altar- pieces of earlier art full figures were the rule. Half-figure Pictures of Scriptural Events and stories, are com- mon in the 1 7th century, and were not previously affected, except by the Venetians, as above noted. The Sibyl Type.— It has been observed (p. 2 81) that the Sibyl subject in earlier Italian art was one adopted from the ancient . mythology as a personification of inspiration and of prophecy. The "Sibyl" of the 17th century is rather the portrait of an interesting model beautifully painted, as, for instance, in the picture by Guido Reni (22 5), than an attempt to realize this earlier ideal. The Sibyls of Michael Angelo, on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, or by Raphael, in Santa Maria della Pace (p. 2 77), are interesting contrasts. Mythological Subjects. — In other mythological subjects (220, 222, 22 8, 2 30), the Italians had never been intent on classical or critical accuracy. These subjects were suggested by Italian interest in ancient literature, but were, notwithstanding, treated without reference to archaeological considerations, and were rather excuses for beautiful paintings or decorative compositions than efforts to be consistent with Antique representations of similar subjects. Italian Influence on Europe. — II was in the 17th century that Italian painting (both of this and of the earlier time) began to exer- cise a decisive influence on other European Schools. Thus painters like Murillo, Van Dyck, and Rubens exhibit many parallels, in choice and treatment of subject, to the points above indicated. For artists of distinction outside of Italy, study in this country had now become a matter of course. bl4 SEVEN'TEEXTH CEXTURY ITALIAN PAIXTIXG. NOTES ON THE ELLITSTIIATIONS FOR ITALIAN PAINTINa OF THE 17TH CENTURY. (222-238, inclusive, pp. 297-313.) To obtain a fair general idea of the art of the 17th century as a whole, the above numbers should be immediately associated with Xos. 250-268, inclusive, ob- serving that the intervening illustrations necessarily make a break in the order of time. As regai'ds Xos. 222-238, it must be observed that thej- have been chosen especially to represent certain broad contrasts with 16th century Italian art, and that they can not be considered fairly representative, as regards number and variety of choice. They have been more especially designed to represent the sen- timental and realistic traits considered in the text. Comparison with Xos. 192-221 (pp. 257-297) will probably make clear the difference of taste in the 16th centurj". As regards conceptions of the Saviour, compare 219 (p. 295) with 223 (p. 300). For the Madonna type, compare 195, 196, with 231, 232. For the general attitude in religious art, compare 200-202 with 227, 236. Carlo Dolce. St. Cecilia, Dresden. HISTORIC PAINTING IN NORTHERN EUROPE. NETHERLANDS AND GERMANY. Schools in Question. — The influence of Gothic architecture on painting in Northern Europe has been noticed (p. 237). Although the local studies of specialists reveal the existence of painters in all parts of Europe during the 15th and 16th centuries, those of Ger- many and the Netherlands are the only ones whose Schools, for these two centuries, are now generally known by large collections in modern galleries. In the 1 7th century the Spanish art, whose earlier work is mainly of local interest only, is the only notable addition to the Schools of the Netherlands, that of Germany having meanwhile almost disappeared. England first makes her appearance as the home of native painters of great reputation in the 18th century.* As for France, there are some few notable names scattered through these various periods, but her distinction begins more especially at, and after, the time of the French Revolution, at the close of the 18th century. Distribution of Paintings. — In the double order of time and im- portance, attention must therefore be first paid to the Netherlands and to Germany. The galleries of Munich, Berlin, and Cologne offer, in the order named, the best large collections extant of early Ger- man and Netherland art. Pictures of the 17th century Dutch and Flemish Schools have been so widely distributed through the various galleries of Europe, that all of them offer many good examples. Dresden is the richest in works of these Schools, next to the collections which are in Belgium and Holland. Relation of Netherland Art to German. — In. the most compre- hensive historical point of view, all Netherland art is a branch of the Germanic, and the modern Netherland territories of Belgium and Holland were actually portions of the Germanic " Empire " until 1648. * Lely and Kneller, of the 17th century, were German foreigners. o 16 FIFTEENTH CEXTUKY FLEMISH PAINTING. In the Early German Art there was no question, as in Italy, of large fresco decorations and inonumental paintings. Pictures were confined to altar-pieces and small panels of religious subjects, for Church decoration. The rivalry of the stained glass art (p. 106) was one element contributing to this relative backwardness, but there were other causes. Ital}' far surpassed Germany in the 15th century in wealth and culture, in the physical beauty of its popu- lation, and therefore of the types and models at disposal of the painter — and above all in the sense for beauty of form, which in Italy at this time closely approached that of the ancient Greeks. 15th Century. — The Van Eycks. — In the 15th century the Dukes of the French Duchy of Burgundy had, by purchase and conquest, extended their territorial rule over nearly all the Netherland prov- inces. For these territories, which were in no way connected with France, they owed feudal allegiance to the German Emperor, but this allegiance was nominal. The "Burgundian" Dukes were really independent princes of vast wealth and possessions. Corresponding to this importance of the Burgundian Dukedom is the development in painting of the School of the two brothers Van Eyck (ike), cen- tering about the towns of Bruges and Ghent (in modern Belgium).* Quantities of the works of this School have been dispersed and destroyed, especially during the religious troubles and wars of the Reformation, and in the wars of the Netherlands with Spain, which inherited these territories in the 16 th century, but enough remains to demonstrate a rare science and perfection in the paintings of the Van Eycks themselves. Their leading work is an altar-painting, ^'The Adoration of the Lamb," of which the center piece remains in the Church of St. Bavo at Ghent (finished m 1432). Smaller panels, which closed on hinges over the central picture, were deco- rated with paintings on l)oth sides, so that, whether the panels were <)l)en or shut, pictures were visible. These smaller panels are an important possession of the Museum of Berlin (239, 2-10, 241). These and other paintings of the brothers Van Eyck are character- ized by a wonderfully conscientious execution of minute details, by great warmth of color, and by a serious and noble conception of the subjects themselves. The precedence of these artists in the successful use of oil-colors has been noted at p. 253. The School of Cologne was contemporary with that of the Van ♦ Hubert Van Eyck. 1366-1426 ; Jan Van Eyck, 1390-1440. o c o a bft S a. < o a O < X H a 2 O H < o Q < 2 < u c/> a H w < £.1 o o m IS o z O S H w o :o o w 2 > o JO a44. HDL3EIN THS 2LDER. THE PRESENTATION. M'jmZH. FIFTEENTH CENTUKY FLEMISH PAINTING. 321 Eycks and represents the wealth and importance of this city at the time Its greatest pictm^e is the altar-piece oi the Cologne Cathedral, known to Germans as the '' Kolner Dom-bild" (kei'ner dome-bildt), i.e., the "Cologne Cathedral picture" (242). The Kolner Dom-bild.-The subject of the central panel is the " Adoration of the Wise Men." Panels which close over this, relate to the patron Samts of the citv St Ursula and St. Qereon. This painting (dating about 1426) has a truly wonderful perfection of execution and purity of feeling which no reproductions can approach It is the work of a Master Stephan. A contemporary Master William was also distinguished. Many works of the School are preserved in Cologne. Roger Van Der Weiden (i400-i464).-The later art of the 15th century does not rival the perfection of these masterpieces. Roger Van Der Weiden (vide' en) is a noted Fleming of the middle period of the century. Characteristic works in the Berlin Gallery show the small dimensions and stiff design usual in Germanic art of this time but they have the deep warm colors and devout spirit which are also its characteristics. A painting in Madrid (243) is an ex- cellent illustration of Van Der Weiden's art. Hans Memling * is the most important name in Flemish art for the later 15th century. His pictures are generally of smaU size and remarkable for delicacy of spirit and perfection of color. As compared with contemporary Italian pictures, they illustrate, how- ever the backwardness of Germanic art. The same may be said of the South German artists of this time. Of these, Martin ^Schon- gauer (shem'gow er) and Michael Wohlgemuth (vole' ga moot) are among the most noted. Hans Holbein the Elder (1460-1524) is a less quoted name, but an illustration from his work (244) has been chosen as a good typical picture. GERMAN PAINTING OF THE 16TH CENTURY. Albert Diirer (dew' rer) (i47i-i528).-The greatest of German artists, Albert Durer, was a native of Nuremberg, m South Ger- manv. He was a scholar of the art and period just named, and must be judged by the progress which he made beyond it, as well as by actual worth. This actual worth is, however, very great. A certain quaint and fantastic quality, which inspires much of his art, belonged to his individual nature, and not to any inadequacy or ignorance of methods. Diirer's works in oil-painting are not numer- * Died about 14.95. 322 SIXTEENTH CENTUKY GEKMAN PAINTING. ous, and among these his portraits are most renowned. His own portrait (2-16) is especially famed. He was especially devoted to the art of engraving, and in this field his productions are still ranked among the very greatest ever produced (245). Hans Holbein the Younger (1495-1543), of Augsburg, in South Germany, stands next to, and beside, Diirer as the greatest of Grer- man painters. He was more successful in obtaining commissions, and has left a much larger number of works. His most renowned picture is the large Madonna of the Dresden Gallery, known as the " Meyer Madonna." It was painted for a Burgomaster Meyer, in Basle, whose family appears at devotion in the painting. The gallery in Darmstadt possesses a duplicate of this work. Holbein's life as a painter was spent mainly at Basle, in Switzerland, and in England, where he died, as court painter of Henry VHI. The gallery in Basle is thus an important center for the study of his works. Many others, mainly portraits, are in England, and represent leading En- glish persons of the time. The ''Meyer Madonna" is illustrated at 247. Lucas Cranach (1472-1553) was a German artist (Saxon) of im- portance, subordinate to the above named, but known to history as a friend of Luther, and of Frederick the Wise of Saxony (248). Limits of the Period. — Diirer died in 1528; Holbein left Ger- many permanently soon after 1530. Thus it appears that the dates which limit the productivity in Germany of her greatest artists correspond very nearly to those which close the great period in Italy (p. 282). The religious wars and social revolutions which attended the Reformation are an explanation of the sudden decline of German art in painting after 1520. It must also be remembered that the Protestant movement was long antagonistic to the pictorial embellishment of churches. This involved an antagonism to religious subjects, and these were almost the only paintings at this time. In the Netherlands the productivity was not quenched so sud- denly, but it experienced influences which prejudiced its value and interest. The style of the Italians was long imitated before it could be absorbed and digested. Meantime, an unhappy combination of unassimilated Italian traits with national characteristics was so detrimental to Netherland art that most of its paintings in the later 16th century are only valuable as historic memoranda, and for contrast with the later successes of Rembrandt and Rubens. 245. ALBERT DURER. ELECTOR FREDERICK THE WISE OF SAXONY. Engraving on Copper. 246. ALBERT DURER. HIS OWN PORTRAIT, MUNICH. J J J 247. HANS HOLBEIN. THE "MEYER MADONNA," DRESDEN. CD <9 o •o 3 3 SEVENTEENTH CENTURY DUTCH PAINTING. 327 Netherland Artists of the i6th Century frequently exhibit in earlier works the independent Netherland style developed from that of the 15^Ji century, and subsequentlj^ illustrate the inharmonious mixture with Italian traits. Their two styles are thus absolutely unresemblant. Among artists showing this transition may be named Jan Mabuse (14:9 9-156-2). Quentin Matsys (1466-1530) was the most distinguished Flemish artist of the 16tli century (2-i9). Antwerp was his home. 17TH CENTURY DUTCH PAINTERS. Political and Religious History. — At the beginning of the 17th century the Netherland artists liad succeeded in acquiring all that could be learned from technical studies in Italian art without sacrificing, as in the 16th century, their own native tastes in conception and in choice of subjects. Meantime, the divis- ions of religion and of politics had separated the Protestant Dutch Republic (Holland) from the Southern Belgic Netherlands. (The latter remained a territory of Spain until they were returned to Austrian rule in 1713 by the treaty of Utrecht.) Hence the division between the "Dutch School," headed by Rembrandt, and the " Flemish School," headed by Rubens and Van Dyck. This division is not always distinct, and it sometimes disappears. The Dutch painters were, how- ever, foremost in the choice of a class of subjects especially affected by the 19th century, viz., landscapes, cattle-pieces, and domestic scenes. The Dutch Republic. — After separation from Spain during the later 16th cent- ury, the Dutch Provinces became the commercial carriers and sea-traders of the world. They were especially active in the trade with India and the East. A period of almost fabulous prosperity ensued, in which the common people became the patrons of a domestic art which contrasts in every possible way with the styles and school of the Italians. Technically, however, it had drawn much from these. Rembrandt Van Ryn (1606-1669), generally known as Rembrandt, was resident at Amsterdam. He is distinguished from the Dutch artists in general by the larger size of his paintings, and by a less trivial class of subjects, and is noted, like them, for the realism of his methods and the absence of ideality in his conceptions. His subjects, when religious, have none of the traditional character, and are frequently lacking in the dignity which a traditional religious type is apt to possess. His " Christ," in the Louvre, and his " Sam- son," in the Berlin Museum, are instances of this class. In Technical Methods Rembrandt continued, and elaborated the " chiar-oscuro " of Correggio (p. 283), but in thoroughly independent and masterly execution. His preference for contrasts of deep gloom and dark background, with some few salient points of bright 328 SEVENTEENTH CENTURY DUTCH PAINTING. light, was such that photographs of most of his pictures are almost useless as illustrations. Rembrandt's Portraits are world-renowned examples of masterly- execution, as well as of perception of character. Only three other artists of the 1 7th century — viz., Rubens, Van Dyck, and Velasquez- can claim to he his equals in portraiture. Compared with the EarHer Italians, for instance, with Raphael, Rembrandt must yield the distinction which belongs to the superior nobility of their subjects and conceptions ; although standing on equal ground as regards execution and science "Of design. His Most Noted Painting is the "Street Patrol," at Amsterdam. The popular title of this painting, which is generally known as the " Night Watch," is an illustration of his preference for strong effects of light and shadow, as this title is attached to the picture of a scene by day-light. An important work in the Dresden Gallery is the " Portrait of the Artist with his Wife." All the leading galleries of Northern Europe contain important works of the artist. Among these is the one chosen for illustration (250). Other Painters of the Dutch School. — The multitude of Dutch painters is great, and familiarity with their works is the best means to memorizing their names. Each artist was mainly distinguished for some special class of subjects, so that the mention of the list is a means also to the specification of important types of paintings. In Landscapes, the leading names are : Meindert Hobbema, Jacob Ruysdael, and Aldert Van Everdingen. Ruysdael is especially distinguished for the mysterious gloom and tragic wildness of his storm-tossed skies and mountain scenery and for somber mood (251). In Cattle-pieces, Albert Cuyp and Paul Potter (252) are the rep- resentative names. In Marines, William Van de Velde and Ludolf Backhuysen are most quoted. Genre Paintings. — Domestic, anecdotal, and other trivial subjects are generally classified under the French word "Genre." Many Dutch artists were distinguished in different specialties of this field. The most noted are Franz Hals, Adrian Van Ostade (2 54, 2 55), Franz Von Mieris, William Von Mieris, Gerard Terburg (253), Gabriel Metzu, Adrian Brouwer, Caspar Netscher, and Jan Steen. The illustrations chosen for some of these artists will give an idea of the subjects affected by them. The pictures of the Dutch © 9 » » _ « > j 250. REMBRANDT. PORTRAIT OF AN UNKNOWN MAN, ST, PETERSBURG. la •0 > c r o H H W JO >< o c z o CO c r r > O c a u u o E 03 > > z < > Z o w H > O W r > z u to o > w CO H ♦d H B JO w tD c JO o Hiiiiii a u •o •o c a (J a o c o E o "5 w SEVENTEENTH CENTURY DUTCH AND FLEMISH PAINTING. 335 School are generally characterized by small size, carefully elaborate execution, and apt preceptions of character. On the other hand, none of its painters rival or approach the great Italians, as re- gards elevation of subject and conception, unless it be the artists in landscape. In Paintings of Flowers and Still Life, which are also character- istic works of the Dutch art, Jan David De Heem and Jan Van Huysum are most quoted. The latter belongs to the 18th century. Adrian Van der Werff was almost the only Dutch artist who affected Bibhcal and mythological subjects. The peculiar finish of his pictures makes them available subjects for photograph copy, but this finish is cold and over-refined. Battle-pieces and equestrian scenes have a noted illustrator m Philip Wouvermans. Tavern Scenes are a favorite subject of the Dutch School, Adrian Van Ostade, already mentioned, an artist of German birth, belongs to the Dutch School by residence and studies, and is one of the distinguished names in this field (254). Solomon Koninck (256) and Godfrey Schalken (257) are less distinguished names. 17TH CENTURY FLEMISH ARTISTS. Flemish Painters achieved distinction in all the classes of sub- jects just enumerated, but, as rated by relative importance, only the following need be mentioned in a brief summary : David Teniers (the Younger) was a noted painter of tavern scenes and peasant life (258). Jan Fyt and Franz Snyders were noted painters of ammaJs, hunting scenes, game, and still life (2 60). All other Flemish names are, however, thrown into shade by those of Jordaens, Van Dyck, and Rubens. Peter Paul Rubens (1577-1640) was an artist of remarkable fer- tility, surrounded by many pupils, and exercising wide-spread inflv.- €nce. His greatest picture is conceded, by universal consent, to be the "Descent from the Cross," in Antwerp, where he was resident. All the important gaUeries of Europe contain notable examples of his work, in religious art, in mythological subjects, and in portraits. Examples at 261 and 262. 836 SEVENTEENTH CENPrRY FLEMISH PAINTING. Characteristics of Rubens.— In both Dutch and Flemish art there was an ele- ment of coarseness in the models who served as types for the artist. This coarse- ness was the result of life in a climate where much eating and diinking are essential to existence. Rubens' spirit was vivacious and exuberant, and his colors are ruddy and warm. Under these conditions, the Flemish models lost none of their own abundance of flesh and hearty life. Thus the pictures of this artist constantly find themselves subject to criticism by delicate natures who have not ^earned to condone this element of coarseness, or who have not seen the greatest works of the master. The authoritative criticism of experts is agreed, however, in placing Rubens beside Rembrandt and Velasquez, as one of the greatest artists of the century, wdien judged by his best works. The points which give him this standing, aside from his fine technical qualities as a painter, lie in his vigoi'ous and powerful spirit, and in a serious nature which rarely deserts him in religious subjects. This serious element is otherwise very generally lacking in the religious pictures of the century, aside from tliose of the Spanish School. Anthony Van Dyck (i 599-1641) was a pupil of Rubens, and as a technical expert may bo placed beside him. In the matter of con- ception he was by no means his equal. This appears in his relig- ious subjects, which are weaker in sentiment. As paintings, these works are also remarkably fine, and as a portrait-painter Van Dyck is among the greatest of all time. The portrait of Charles I., in the Louvre, is a well-known work. The "Children of Charles I.," in the Dresden Gallery, is also one of his best. A good example at 2 63. Jacob Jordaens (1593-1678) also belonged to the School of Rubens. The Flemish coarseness, which has been noted, appears to excess in his Avorks, and they are only relished by those who can excuse this quality on account of the exuberant vigor and vitality of the artist. Jordaens was an excellent colorist and painter, but not distinguished for elevation of conception or serious qualities. A very fine Jordaens, "The Triumph of Bacchus," is owned by the Museum of New York. A characteristic picture at 259. SPANISH SCHOOL OF THE 17TH CENTURY. Political Connections with Italy. — Flanders, Naples, and JMilan were all Spanish provinces at this time. Italian influences in Spain are easily understood through this political connection, Avhich also reached m indirect ways over other Italian States. As with Rubens and Rembrandt, so with Velasquez and Murillo (mcDo rel' yo), the art was technically drawn from Italian sources, modified by the national and individual genius and surroundings. There are other > < K 2 l-H H EC B ►< O c z o w so r r > o B H > < w jZ en O Oi w CQ H Oi o 2 O o > < b w Z < Q 05 O -^ CQ O o 9 CO Z (/] r O z w CO > z r o u o > to r o !« W z o 26i. RUBENS. CHRIST AND THE MAGDALEN, MUNICH. 262. RUBENS. PORTRAIT OF MARIA MEDICI, MADRID. 263. VAN DYCK. PORTRAIT OF GUSTAVUS ADOLPHU& 264. VELASQUEZ. THE INFANTA MARGUERITA, LOUVRE. 36s. MURILLO. DETAIL OF THE "IMMACULATE CONCEPTION," LOUVRE. 366. MURILLO. VISION OF ST. FRANCIS, MUSEUM, SEVILLE. 267. Poussln. "The Seasons Dancing before Time. 253. Claude Lorraine. Evening. Acis and Galatea. SEVENTEENTH CENTURY SPANISH AND FRENCH PAINTING. 347 Spanish painters of distinction beside the two just named, but none who are as generally quoted, or who are as well known in Toreign galleries. Velasquez (1599-1660), a resident of Madrid, is especially well known for his portraits (264). These rank among the greatest pictures in existence, but the Gallery of Madrid contains a number of fine pictures in other fields of art. His masterpiece is the " Sur- render of Breda," in this gahery. Murillo (1618-1682) was resident at Seville. His talent was first perceived and encouraged by Velasquez. His most generally quoted painting is the " Immaculate Conception," in the Louvre. The Gal- lery of Madrid is rich in his best pictures, and aU the European collections contain good examples. Religious subjects were his pref- erence, and thev have no equals, for warmth of feeling, durmg the same period. The illustrations (265, 266) are indications of his style. Next to, or beside, Rubens ho was the greatest rehgious artist of his day. FRENCH PAINTERS. Early Period.-Aside from names known to local and specialist investigations, French painting has not left much of renown dating from the 15th and 16th centuries. The 17th Century is especially distinguished by the name of Nicholas Poussin (1594-1665).-With this artist, classical tendencies in composition and subjects are very apparent (267). His genms was of superior order. Jaques Cahot (zhak ca lo') was a contem- porary famed for his sketches and caricatures. Claude Lorraine (1600-1682), whose specialty was landscape painting, occupies an exceptional position in the art history of the 17th century. The province from which he is named was then, as regards government, a Germanic territory, although French ten- dencies and culture were already dominant in it. Claude is gener- ahy numbered with French artists. His residence was, however mainly in Italy, and his influence was most apparent on scholars ot the Netherlands. As an artist, Claude also occupies an exceptional ^""'ciaude's Landscapes (2 67) reflect the classical atmosphere of Italy in details and surroundings, and are distinguished for their effects of hazy golden sunlight. There is no other landscape artist who is 348 EIGIITf^KXTn CE^'TUliY TAINTING. SO generally quoted by the history of art, and ])y popular reputa- tion, and in his peculiar field he is unrivaled. There are important works by this painter in neai-ly all the European galleries. Other Landscape Artists. — Ruysdael and Hobbema (jj. 328) may probably be considered his equals in their own peculiar and different sphere. The whole cent- ury is, however, especially distinguished by its landscapes, and independent land- scapes as distinct from the backgrounds of other subjects had rarely been painted befoi'e this time. In this field, many Italians of the period were very success- ful ; for instance, Domenichino, in the landscapes of his mj-thological pictures. The name of Salvator Rosa has already been mentioned in this connection (p. 307). Rubens and Rembrandt were also very great landscape painters, although their works of this class are rare. The landscapes of Nicholas Poussin are also of great excallence. THE 18TH CENTURY. Historical Review. — The middle of the 17th century is, gener- ally speaking, the limit of its best works in Italian painting. Not many of the greater artists mentioned, either of the Italian, Dutch, or Flemish schools, lived beyond the third quarter of the century. Important dates, nearly contemporary with the decline in painting, may be noted to advantage. This decline begins about the time of the opening of the reign of Louis XIV., of France, during the period of the English Charles II., and after the Peace of Westphalia in German history. This peace (in 1648) established the petty des- potic sovereignties of Germany as independent States, and in all European countries this was the time when the courts of the des- potic sovereigns became the centers of national life. It is true that these despotisms had been established in the interest of the trading and. commercial classes, but they produced or reflected an artificial condition of society which continued during the 18th centurj' until the Greek Revival (p. 130) and the French Revolution. Probably the deficiency of vital art during the 18th century has a related explanation. Germany. — Some few names, aside from the greatiM- ones of En- glish art, may be quoted for this period. In Germany, Denner rep- resents a minutely realistic art, in which the microscopic imitation of details is carried to the extreme pitch. Angelica Kaufmann and Raphael Mengs, Germans long resident in Rome, were superior artists ; both representatives of the purer and nobler tendencies which were beginning to be manifest. P rt o c CO c to o IB s r o e < ^ O ►t n c N n p. o a O S. u "3 O "3 a '** s: H O "3 c o d 2 o a a o a >» u 3 CO & EIGHTEENTH CENTUKY PAINTING. 351 France. — In the French art of the 18th century, Antony Watteau is especially celebrated (2 69). Most of his pictures represent the court life and court amusements of the time. Besides this historic interest, they are by no means destitute of fine qualities. The name of Greuze holds the next place in popularity (2 70). Italy. — The Tiepoli,* of Venice, have already been mentioned (p. 290), with the names of Guardi and Canaletto. ENGLAND. Reynolds and Gainsborough. — England was the most important center of the art of painting in the 18th century. Sir Joshua Keynolds (1723-1792) and Thomas Gainsborough (1727-1788) revived or kept alive the great traditions of earlier masters with independent spirit and individual genius. It is for their portraits especially that these artists are renowned (271, 2 72).f CONCLUSION. The study of historic painting is a branch of polite culture which may, and must, be followed up without close reference to technicaJ criticism. We may, with equal justice, occasionally criticise the grammar of Shakespeare, or the drawing of Michael Angelo, but the quality of the art is not affected thereby. With modern paintings, also, it is desirable that we should be able to rise above the elemen- tary principles of technical instruction, that we should understand how to look for ideas, how to weigh the spirit of the work. In order to aim at, or reach, this standpoint in a spirit of modesty, of catho- licity, of forbearance, and of appreciation, the preliminary study of his- toric art is an almost essential or highly desirable preparation. NOTES ON THE ILLUSTRATIONS FOR HISTORIC PAINTING IN NORTHERN EUROPE. (239-272, inclusive; pp. 315-351.) For the 15th century, see ISTos. 239-244. For the 16th century, see Nos. 245-249. For the 17th century, see Nos. 252-268. For the 18th century, see Nos. 269-272. *Pluralof Tiepolo. lOne of the very finest works of Sir Joshua is in the Metropolitan Musevim, N. Y. NINETEENTH CENTURY PAINTING. In all summaries of important subjects where space is restricted and the details are numerous, the first thing to consider is the perspective of the subject as a whole. We need to maintain such a balance in the presentation of the facts that the most im- portf nt do not escape us in the multitude of details. In condensed summaries regard- ing modern art, our task is especially difficult, and the arrangement of facts must be carefully considered. The names of many painters claim equal attention, if strict justice is to be done. American art deserves special attention from Americans. In addition, each European country must have some special mention. We shall, there- fore, adopt the following plan of treatment. First, the broadest and most important facts in the history of modern painting will be sketched. The claims of American art will next receive attention. Then, a brief summary regarding important artists, not previously mentioned, will be given. Although all divisions either of general history, or of art history, according to centuries, are to some extent arbitrary, the beginning of the 19th century affords a fairly definite starting-point for an account of modern painting. At this time, the French Revolution and the events which centered around it were controlling factors, not only in general history, but also to some extent in the history of Art. The breaking down of aristocratic and social distinctions, and the gift of legal equality to all citizens, were the inspiring ideas of all that was good in this Revolution, and these ideas con- tinued to make their way over Europe under the ascendency of Bonaparte, whose military despotism continued to represent all the essential ideas of the Revolution and contributed v^ery much to their spread beyond France. The political ascendency of France in Europe was opposed by England, which represented conservative resistance to the excesses of the Revolution and to the personal ambition of Bonaparte, without ultimately antagonizing the social and intellectual changes which were going on in Europe. These had, in fact, as far as liberal government is concerned, been so far especially active in Great Britain. But if the openly manifest political and material forces of Europe are seen in their greatest activity in the rivalry of France and Eng- land, Germany played a still more important part in the intellectual movement of the period, and in the later part of the 18th century produced the greatest leaders in liter- ature, in music, and in science. Now the history of art is only a reflex of the society which produces it, and it is no accident that we find in the three countries of Germany, Englard and France the first important activity of 19th century painting. T^'^ activity and the success of Germany were however greatest in literature and music. In the arts of design her studies were especially those of the antiquarian and historian, and in this field she then outranked every other country, and has since continued to be preeminent. France, in the time of Bonaparte, had need of painters to celebrate his victories, to feed the French love of military glory, and to represent the great historic characters of his time. But of all these countries England was in closest touch with traditions of the older historic painters; for in the ISth century the EngUsh Schoc^l undoubtedly took the lead in European art. In the early 19th centur^^ it 6t\ll held this position. MODERN TAINTING. 35 i ENGLISH PAINTING — FIRST QUARTER OF THE 19th CENTURY. If we wisn to present in a few words a clear idea of 19th century painting, we must begin by accenting the superiority of English art during the first thirty years of the century. The names of Constable and Turner certainly outshine those of all Continental artists during that time. In their own department of landscape painting, they may also be regarded as the rivals or equals of their great prede- cessors of the 17th century. Next to them in importance comes the name of Etty, while Benjamin Robert Haydon deserves mention for his powers as «, draughtsman. Sir David Wilkie was another important artist. John Constable was born at East Bergholt in Suffolk in 1776. His predilections for studying design were not encouraged by his father, who was a yeoman farmer and miller. His first instruction in this field was obtained from a plumber. It is said that his wide knowledge of atmospheric effects was acquired in one of his father's windmills, in which he was employed as a workman. His first en- couragement as an artist came from a certain Sir George Beaumont, who owned a very important painting by Claude Lorrain. It is certain that Constable's early work was inspired by Claude, by Ruysdael, and by the earlier English landscape painter, Wilson. Constable began art study in London in 1795, but was obliged to return to work in his father's office two years later. In 1799 he returned to London and to the study of art, and in 1802 he exhibited his first picture. It was, however, nearly forty years after beginning art studies that he sold a picture outside of his circle of friends and immediate ac- quaintances, and late in life he was still obliged to depend on portrait- painting for a living, although landscape was always his true field. His pronounced success as an artist in the estimation of later criticism dates from his picture of "Dedham Vale," painted in 1811. It was on the continent of Europe that Constable found the greatest appre- ciation. Eugene Delacroix and the French Romantic School were outspoken in their admiration of him. He was first known in France by a painting, "The Hay-wain," exhibited at the Paris Salon of 1821 by a French purchaser, and he subsequentlj^ became still more cele- brated by the success of his " White Horse," exhibited at Lille in 1825. Constable was made a Royal Academician in 1829, but died in 1837 without having achieved either fame or fortune in his own country. Although disparaged by Mr. Ruskin, his standing is now indisputably equal to that of Turner. Two of his greatest pictures were presented to the Louvre in 1873. He is well represented in the National Gallery of London, and in the South Kensington Museum. Two of his greatest works are in the Metropolitan Museum of New York. One of these, " A Lock on the Stour," was exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1824 and was sold 354 MODERN PAINTIXG. on the first day of the exhibition for iS7"'5. The other painting is called " The Valley Farm." J. M. W. Turner. — It has just been said that Constable cannot be considered the inferior of Turner, but there is no doubt that as a matter of popular fame and of every-day popular quotation, the naine of Turner is the most famous in the annals of English art. His complete name was Joseph Mallord "William, but he signed himself invariably as J. M. W., and is thus generally known. Turner was born in London in 1775. His father was a barber. The boy had no advantages in the way of book education. His English was ungrammatical thi'oughout his life. He never knew a foi'eign language and had the slightest possible acquaintance with, history and literature, as far as the student's point of view is concerned. In person he was unattractive, in manners he was almost boorish, as regards social intercourse he always lived a life of complete isolation. This is the man who left a fortune of $600,000 at his death, for the support of decayed artists, and bequeathed more than one hundred of his own pictures to the British Nation. Most of these pictures were worth large sums on the open market, and many of them he had himself repur- chased from the original buyers with a view to this bequest. Turner acquired fame early in life. He Avas recognized by the Royal Academy and was made an associate member as early as 1799, and was elected to full membership four years later. We may explain this early success by noting that Turner's early work did not exhibit the imaginative daring of his later life. It was, on the con- trary, rather commonplace, and not calculated to rouse that jealousy on the part of inferior men which is generally the real obstacle to the success of a great artist. Having a sure standing, to begin with, he continued throughout his life to hold the highest rank, not only in the estimation of critics like Ruskin, but also in the esteem of his fellow artists and of the picture-buying public. It was certainly the power of genius and of imagination which thus conquered the world, in spite of social and personal disadvantages. But this genius was not simplj^ that of imaginative power ; it was also the genius of dogged hard work, of pitiful economy, of slavish labor, of constant self-denial, and of patient observation. Turner's early artistic work was mainly that of a hack illustrator employed to do topographical illustration for magazines, and in this occupation, Avliich led him to visit many parts of England on foot, he acquired his wide experience with visible nature. He subsequently gave much attention to the works of the older landscape masters, but alwaj's with the idea of rivalling or excelling them, rather than for the purpose of imitation. In spite of the roughness of his manners and his indifference to ap- pearances, he had a kind heart, in evidence of which man}- touching incidents are related, and the general nobility of his character is ap- parent in the peculiar disposition made by his will of his fortune 00 t 373 JOHN CONSTABLE, THE CORN FIELD. -idi^ en a z H < oi « 2 MODERN PAINTING. obll and of the large collection which he had made of his own pictures. He died in 1851. After 1845 his works showed a degeneration in quality due to old age and possibly to his interest ia problems of color and atmospheric effect which are more or less beyond the ca- pacities of pictorial art. Owing to the bequest mentioned, the largest collection of Turner's work is that in the National Gallery of Lon- don, but there are very fine examples in the Metropolitan Museum and in the Lenox Library of New York. The Metropolitan Museum purchased in 1896 the magnificent Turner Ivuown as the "Whale Ship," or "The Good Ship Erebus." The other great Turner of this Museum is a view of " Saltash," with the river Tamar in the foreground. The " Slave Ship," now owned by the Boston Museum of Fine Arts, is a noted picture, but not one of the best. Ruskin's "Modern Painters" is a work in five volumes largely devoted to the laudation of Turner. This whole work developed from an essay on Turner's greatness. Turner was proficient in water colors, and in etching and engraving, as well as in oil-painting. His "Liber Studiorum" is a series of sketches published between 1807 and 1819, which were professedly issued in rivalry of a similar work of Claude Lorrain, the "Liber Veritatis." It is known that prints from these plates were, at the time of issue, so little valued that some of them were used for lighting fires. They are now worth f 1000 apiece. As regards the points of relation and of contrast in Turner and Constable, it may be said that both were masters of design, and of broad and effective method, and that both were men of great imaginative and intellectual capacity, but Con- stable was more evenly successful as a colorist, and more strictly attentive to the reproduction of what the eye actually sees. Turner, on the other hand, was rather bent on the use of the matter-of-fact as a starting-point for purely imaginative conceptions. In these imaginative creations he was not uniformly successful from the standpoint of color harmony in a decorative sense ; but the masterly quality of his execution as regards design is utterly beyond cavil. So are the true poetic insight and imaginative power of his ai^t. In the numerous cases where his color scheme is irreproachable it is not easy to consider any other landscape or marine painting as superior to Turner's. William Etty takes the third place in order of distinction among the English painters of the early nineteenth century. Historical compositions and figure pieces rather than landscape were his spe- cialty. As a colorist pure and simple he has had no English superior or rival. His best works are in the National G-allery of Scotland, and it was the Scottish Academy which first discerned his genius. He was born at York in 1787. His father was a miller and baker. He began life as an apprentice to a printer in Hull, in which situation he spent seven years. Although he began work as an art student in London in 1806, he did not achieve any success with his exhibited pictures until 1820, and was not elected a member of the Academy until 1824. 358 MODERN PAINTING. Etty \isited Italy on two occasions, and was a faithful student of the old Venetian painters. In his later life he was successful in obtaining appreciation and commissions, and was able, in the year before his death, to make a collection exhibit of his works in London. He died in 1849. The finest Etty in the United States is owned by Mr. Hem-j' T. Chapman of Brooklyn. In London the National Gallerj^ and the South Kensington Museum possess good examples. Benjamin Robert Haydon was born at PljTHOUth in 1786. His father was a book- seller, stationer, and publisher. The literary tastes which the son thus imbibed re- mained with hhn through life. Haydon's associations with men of letters were subsequently wide-spread and intimate ; for example, with Sir "Walter Scott, with Leigh Hunt, and with Wordsworth. The biography published by Haydon's son, which contains his correspondence and table-talk, is the most valuable extant work for a general knowledge of the literary celebrities of that day. Sir Joshua Reynolds had once attended the school in Plymouth at which Haydon was educated, and on the ceiling of the school-room there was a sketch in burnt-cork by Reynolds, to which the boy gave constant attention. He was also drawn to the study of art by the perusal of Reynolds' lectures. Haydon began studies at the Royal Academy in London in 180-i. In isou his picture of "Dentatus" was excluded from the main exhi- bition of the Royal Academy and was hung in a small ante-room. This was the beginning of a quarrel with that bod}' which lasted through his life. About the same time his great interest in the Elgin Marbles, which had recently been brought to London, involved him in controversy with the fashionable critics of the day. This artist was for several years, and until 1815, the sole English appreciator of Phidias. The subsequent purchase of the Elgin Marbles for the British Museum vindicated his judgment, but did not win back to him the friends he had lost by this controversy. His pictures were generally great suc- cesses as exhibition pieces, and for several of them he received very high prices, but he was, notwithstanding, alwaj's involved in debt and never achieved pecuniary independence. His financial troubles ulti- mately drove him to suicide, 1846. Haydon's tragic life and fate wei'e due to a somewhat imperious disposition, and to an impatience of neglect or opposition. He placed a very Mgh estimate on his own abilities, and in this he was undoubtedly right as regards his powers as a draughts- man. Few men since Michael Angelo have possessed equal possibilities as regards mastery of the figure ; but his accessible pictures are in other respects not such as to make his failure in life incomprehensible. His "Entry of Christ into Jerusalem" is now owned by the Cincinnati Museum of Fine Arts. It Avas for many years in Philadelphia. His "Resurrection of Lazarus" is a large canvas in the National Gallery. His best work is said to be the "Judgment of Solomon" in the Ashburton Collection. David Wilkie was the son of a Scotch clergj-man, and was born at Cults, in Fifeshire, in 1785. At school he used to barter sketches for slate-pencils and mar- MODERK PAINTING. ood bles, and although his strong bent for design was combatted by his father, it led to his beginning art study in Edinburgh in 1799. Wilkie exhibited his "Village Politicians" at the Royal Academy in London in 1806, and from this time till his death he enjoyed a career of uninterrupted success. The scope of his art is well de- scribed by the titles of his pictures, and we will therefore mention a series, all of which have become famous through engravings. Such are the "Card Players," "Rent Day," "Blind Man's Buff," "Reading the Will," "The Blind Fiddler," etc. Wilkie's forte, as here indicated, was the study of every-day humble life, especially from its humorous or serio-comic side. Plis pictures are generally crowded with figures of small dimensions, of which each one is a study of character. His execution was minute and conscientious, rather than powerful, but was not ill-adapted to the nature of his subjects. The matter of his art is well represented by the engrav- ings of it which have been so popular. He was a student and con- tinuer of the old Dutch and Flemish genre-painters, especially of Teniers and Ostade, but not a wholly brilliant rival of these painters in matters of execution. Wilkie received 1200 guineas, in 1820, from Lord Wellington for his j^icture of "The Chelsea Pensioners listening to the News of Waterloo." In later life his opportunities for foreign travel, and contact with the masterpieces of Spanish and Italian art, led to a change of style, tending to more ambitious and ideal subjects and broader methods of execution. The pviblic was not prepared for this change, and did not approve it, nor does it appear that Wilkie possessed the power of exe- cution and thought which this change should have demanded. There was, however, no particular resulting detriment to his financial success or general career. In 1830 he succeeded Sir Thomas Lawrence in the position of Painter in Ordinary to the King. Wilkie died at sea in 1841 during his return from an Oriental trip. He had been a constant sufferer from ill health since 1824. FRENCH PAINTING — SECOND QUARTER OF THE 19tli CENTURY. During the first quarter of the 19th century the productivity of the French had been great, especially in portraits, in battle-scenes, and in historic compositions. We find the names of David, of Gerard, and of Gericault of main importance during the period of Bonaparte. Without denying the occasional power and constant con- scientious care of the French painters of the first quarter of the century, we must still place Constable and Turner immeasurably above them ; but now the tide turned, and France became what England had been. The direct influence of Constable, and ir a less direct sense that of Turner, on the rise of the French School " of 1830," the " Fontainebleau " or "Barbizon" School, as it is sometimes called, is a most in- teresting and frequently neglected fact. Constable was better understood at this tiwi in France than in England. His direct spiritual heir was the French painter T' eodore Eousseau. 360 MODERN PAINTING. Rousseau may be considered, on the whole, as the founder of the most important modern school in French art. This was again in large degree a school of landscape. Its representatives generally made their first appearance in public about 1830, whence the name some- times applied to them and above quoted. They were, however, not considered as men of mark until a much later date, and an official or academic account of French painting written at the time when their best works were being produced would have entirely ignored their names. Beside Rousseau stands a group of painters among whom we name as especially prominent : Michel, Corot, Dupre, Troyon, Diaz, Decamps, Millet, and Monticelli. Theodore Rousseau, the son of a tailor, was born at Paris in 1812. He first exhibited at the Salon of 1831. His most important early teachers were the Old Masters of the Lou^Te. He did not, however, neglect nature for these models, and in this case, as in others, when the influence of the Old Masters on modern art is cited, it will simply appear that the great artists of all times see nature more or less in the same way. Although Rousseau traveled and painted in all parts of France, he had an especial predilection for the Forest of Fontainebleau near Paris, and lived in its neighborhood after 1833. The artists asso- ciated with him are thus often known as the Fontainebleau School or the School of Barbizon, the village in which Rousseau lived. In 1835 the pictures which Rousseau offei'ed for exhibition at the Salon were rejected by the academical authorities in charge, and during the next twelve years he suffered neglect and want, being all this time excluded from the Salon exhibitions. The Revolution of 1848 changed the inanagement of the Salon, and Rousseau became a member of its jury. In the year of his death, 1867, he was president of the jury. His pictures now command enormous prices, and are largely owned in the United States. One of them sold for $21,000 at a New York auction in 1887. Rousseau's strong point was that of all gi-eat landscape artists ; the abilitj' to seize the broad essential facts without being led astray by a minute rendering of minor details which really escape the eye in open-air vision. '^ Jean Baptiste Camille Corot is more wideh^ known and more uni- versally popular than Rousseau. He combines the broad treatment of that great landscape artist with a tender and poetic feeling and a certain delicacy of rendering which have made him more compre- hensible to the world at large. On the other hand his range of subjects was not wide. Mist effects, or the atmosphere of earh^ morning and of tAvilight, nearly always engrossed his attention. He was born in Paris, 1790, and was the son of a clerk. After an elementary education at Rouen he was apprenticed to a draper in Paris and did not begin life 275- THEODORE ROUSSEAU. LANDSCAPE. 276. J. F. MILLET. THE GLEANERS. 277. J. B. C. COROT. LANDSCAPE. 278. C. TROYON. THE SHEPHERD'S DOG. MODERN PAINTING. 363 as an art student until the age of twenty-six. In 1825 he visited Italy and Rome, where he remained two years. He first exhibited at the Paris Salon in 1827. He reached the age of seventy without attaining wealth. Not till his declining years did he reap his deserved reward in fame and money. He is said to have ultimately earned an annual income of 200,000 francs. The broad style by which Corot is now generally known was not achieved till 1840. He died in 1875. His paintings Jean Fran9ois Millet was born of a French peasant family in the hamlet of Gruchy near Greville in ISl-i. He spent his boyhood ■working in the fields. His bent for design was assisted only by the study of the engravings in the illustrated family Bible. His educa- tion was aided by the village priest, who taught him Latin. Th^ boy's talent for drawing was recognized by his family as a special calling, and he was committed to the instruction of a painter at Cherbourg with their cooperation. His talents here shown procured a small pension from the municipality for his support as a student in Paris ; this was not, however, long continued. Millet's talents were recognized by his Paris master, Delaroche, but his wholly unconven- tional style was against him. He worked in great poverty, painting portraits for two dollars apiece, and selling small copies of two eighteenth-century artists, Watteau and Boucher, whose art was at- tractive to the public but extremely distasteful to him. After a first success as an exhibitor in 1844, his pictm-e of 1845 was rejected by the Salon, His poverty at this time was such that he was obliged to use the rejected canvas for his next painting, and he actually painted over this rejected painting his " CEdipus Unbound." During one absence in Normandy Millet was obliged to paint sign-boards for a living. It is also related that he fought at the barricades in the Paris revolution of 1848. Having received $100 for his picture of the "Winnower," he moved to Barbizon in 1849, and lived there for twenty-seven years in a three-roomed cottage. Here he was be- friended by Rousseau, and was buried beside him in 1875. Millet's picture of "The Angelus " was sold in Paris in 1889 for $116,000. The ultimate triumph of this painter, much greater since his death than when living, was wholly due to his true soul and simple honesty. He had known the want and the toil of the peasant, and he painted what he knew. The titles of his famous pictures will best exhibit his bent in art — "The Peasant Grafting a Tree," "The Gleaners," "The Sower," "Sheep-shearing," "The Potato-planters," "The Knitting Lesson," "Bringing Home the New-born Calf," etc. The finest Millets are at present generally to be found in the United States, and the American loans at the World's Fair in Chicago comprised several of the most important. 3G4 MODEKX I'AIXTIXG. Alexandre Gabriel Decamps (1803-1860) is another artist of the great group in question. He was an Oriental traveller, and devoted much of his art to corresponding subjects. He is said to have been the first to study in Oriental life the true background and accessories of Biblical subjects. Diaz de la Pen a (Narcisse Virgile) (1809-1876) was of Spanish parentage and was born at Bordeaux. He was a pupil of Rousseau. At his best he ranks with the greatest colorists of the 19th centur}' {as regards color), having a rival or superior only in Monticelli. Diaz is occasionally frivolous or careless, and at times somewhat mechanical, but he was strong both in landscape and figure composition. In the former class the Forest of Fontainebleau usually furnished his sub- ject, and there is no great variet}' in his choice of view. On the whole he takes a very high place, but not the first place, in the School of Fontainebleau. We will not attempt elaborate accounts of Michel, Troyon, Dupre, or Monticelli. Of all great artists of the French School the latter is least known, and yet he is one of the greatest, when known at his best. Dupre (Jules) and Troyon (1810-1865) belong to a class of whom we feel that mercantile success has occasionally led to self-repetition or to work which does not equal their best. At his best it is difficult not to place Troyon as high as any cattle-painter or landscape artist who ever lived. The powers of Dupre in execution and in composition are magnificent when he has chosen to exert them. Michel is less known, but he takes us back to that atmo- sphere of unselfish art, working for results and not for money, which seems to inspire every canvas of Millet, of Corot, and of Rousseau. Among the more or less mer- cantile imitators of the School of 1830, Daubigny comes nearest to sincerity. It is doubtful if he has ever reached it. Beside the Fontainebleau School and its affiliated painters, there are two other French painters who deserve especial mention for the period, closing soon after the first half of the 19th century, Eugene Delacroix and Couture. Their distinction from the painters just named lies partly in their choice of subjects, which were mainly historical and ideal compositions. They were like them in opposing the smooth finish and conventional characteristics of the academical artists of that day. Delacroix had a romantic tendency, instanced by his pas- sion for Byron and for the tragic characters of Shakespeare. He was vehement and powerful in his nature and in his art. In the Louvre are his " Dante and Virgil," " Massacre of Scio," etc. Couture's greatest vvork is his " Romans of the Decadence," in the Luxembourg Museum. MODERN PAINTING. 365 RECENT FRENCH PAINTING. After the death of the great painters just named, during or after the sixties, we find none of equal importance to take their place. French art now moved in various directions, of which three may be specified here. In one of them we find the name of Meissonier (Ernest) as a leading representative. Minutely painted, gayly colored, and generally insignificant subjects were his forte. Considered as costly decorations of luxurious apartments they certainly had their place, but they made no contribution to the intellectual wealth or spiritual force of their time. In cases where Meissonier entered the field of historic composition, as in his "1807," now in the Metro- politan Museum of New York, he departed from his usual choice of subjects without pronounced success. Meissonier best represents that recent class of French pictures which are care- fully executed and well adapted to please fashionable taste, but which are of such frivolous subject-matter that no very serious importance can be given them. A second direction may be named as that of the correct Academi- cians, careful in drawing and fairly serious in purpose ; but lacking in power, in breadth, and in harmonious color. In this group we may place Bonnat, Cabanel, Carolus-Duran, Bouguereau and others. An artist holding with the Academic School as regards methods of execution, but far outranking them in intellectual power and in the choice of significant and epoch-making subjects, is Gerome. Puvis de Chavannes has taken high rank as a decorator, but his composition is formal and his color cold. We cannot overlook the name of Rosa Bonheur in view of the fame of her " Horse Fair," now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Excellent in drawing and splendid in composition, it lacks only boldness of execution and color. Without detracting from the great- ness of Rosa Bonheur, we must award the palm to Troyon among modern cattle-painters. A third division is that of the Impressionists (so called), a much- abused and much-talked-of group of artists, of whom it is impossi- ble to speak collectively. Among the Impressionists may be ranked some of the most talented draughtsmen and most gifted painters of our day. Such would be Courbet, Degas, Manet, and Monet. As a School it is, however, impossible to pass judgment upon them, and most advisable to comment on the individual artist or the individual picture. No 366 MODERX PAIXTING. methods are successful when practised by unskilful hands. All methods are poten- tially successful which aim at representing serious thought or carefully studied facts. In oiir estimate of the Impressionist School we must be careful to distin- guish theories of method in technical execution from the success of a given artist in using these methods, or of a given picture in representing them. AMERICAN PAINTING. In the days of the American Revolution and of our early independence, the art of America was naturally an outgrowth of that of England. The English eighteenth- centiiry School had been mainly active in portraiture, a field in painting which has always appealed to the practical taste of the Anglo-Saxon, as it appealed in sculpture to the practical Roman. Our earliest American painters of greatest renown are also portrait-painters. Charles Wilson Peale, Rembrandt Peale, and Gilbert Stuart are leading names, but the greatest name is that of Copley. The Peales, father and son, hold, then- rank mainly by virtue of the historic importance of their sitters. Of the two, the son, Rem- brandt, was undoubtedly superior to his father ; but Charles Wilson Peale's portraits of Washington will always keep his name before the American public, and they are by no means wholly inferior works. This artist was born in Maryland, but became a Philadel- phian by residence. He commanded a corps of volunteers in the Revolutionary War, and was distinguished for skill in various me- chanical pursuits and for versatility in various professions. In early life he studied his art, during four years, in England. He was born in 1741 and died in 1826. Rembrandt Peale (1787-1860) also owes his fame especially to his portrait of Washington, which was purchased in 1832 by the United States Senate. The artist was only eighteen years old when Washington sat for the original sketch, and although the picture was completed after Washington's death, with the assistance of other portraits and a bust, it is certainly superior, as a work of art, to the portraits done by the father in Washington's life-time. Several of Rembrandt Peale's portraits are in the Gallery of the New York Historical Society. Gilbert Charles Stuart ranks far higher than the Peales. He was born in Rhode Island in 1756. As a youth, Stuart accompanied a Scotch artist to Scotland and received lessons from him, but returned home after his death, and was educated at the Grammar School of Newport. At the age of eighteen he returned to Edinburgh, and in 1781 began a successful career in London, where he painted the por- traits of many famous persons. He was also employed in Dublin and in Paris, where he painted a portrait of Louis XVI. He returned to MOUEUN PAINTING. <"" America in 1793, and after residing in New York, Philadelphia, and Washington, moved to Boston in 1806, and died there in 1828 Once more it is the portraits of Washington which have drawn most atten- tion to the artist. Of these, there are said to have been three origmal paintings and twenty-six copies. The finest is generally conceded to be the one owned by the Boston Athenseum. Stuart was a man o£ much wit, and of genial nature, able to draw his patrons into conversation, and to make tl^em lose the selt-oonscionsness which people sitting o their portraits are apt to exhibit. The ability to read character must precede he ability to depict it, and it holds of artists as it does ot actors and novehsts that he study of temperament and of human nature is the essential study of art. In the capacity to represent character, which is the true test of the portrait-painter, Stuar t"wgh pLe tor his time, and the highest place among American painters next to Copley. As a colorist he was not Copley's interior. John Singleton Copley was born in Boston in 17.S7. He was the leading portrait-painter of New England until 1774. In this year he went to Italy and remained there two years. In 1 7 7 6 he began living in London, and was joined there by his wife and children, who sailed from Boston on the last New England vessel which bore the British flag He remained in London until his death in 1 8 1 .!,, and was to the last in high favor as a painter of portraits and historical subjects.^ The Boston Museum of Fine Arts affords the best exhibit to be seen in this country of his works, which are, however, widely scattered among the descendants of the old New England families. His portraits are distm- guisned for their solidity of execution and strongly-defined character. Much-quoted names, but of tar less ™P°-^»<=««-° Stuart ;nd ^opley. are tlio- of Beniamin West, Washington AUston, and Jonathan Trumbull. The lattei seivea t fn offll in the War of the Revolution, and deserves mention as the leading pam er as an o™':^ ' ^ important works are in the New Haven Yale Art Cat^ and oTI wal^ot the Eotunda of the Washington Capitol. Washin,.o„ tlls.on(17791843) spent much time in England, and achieved distinction here a tSas n MS owVcouiitry. but ha. higher standing as a man oi r.^^^-^^^^^l"^ letters than as a painter. As a colorist he ranks fairly well. One »"- ^-' P ^I!" • +1. .< -Po.ii Pnrl ^ilfls in Prison" of the St. Louis Museum. His Propnet jeienudu, is "Belshazzar's Feast," owned by the Boston Athen^um. ^-J^^\"^^^;*J^.;',^, 1820) was a native of Pennsylvania, who studied m England aM--^^^^^^ ™^^ nf its Roval Academy, in which oflace he succeeded Sir Joshua Reynolds. ±iis wor was L^llt but is Mstorically interesting as that of an early American painter. The Secord Quarter of the nineteenth century would be almost a blank in American art were it not for the great name of Thomas 368 MODERN PAIXTIXG Cole. His five pictures of the " Course of Empire," now in the col- lection of the Historical Society of New York, are among the greatest works of the century. His " Voyage of Life," in four scenes, is well known by engravings, and shows a tender and poetic spirit. Cole was bom in England in 1801, and was taken to America as a young child His parents settled in Ohio, and he was originally employed in a wall-paper factory, which was established by his father. He subsequently studied in Philadelphia and New York, and was able to travel abroad extensively. He was ultimately estab- lished in New York. Toward the time of the Civil War American landscape art had begun to develop considerable activit}^ Its coloring was, however, generally garish, and its execution rather mechanical. Representa- tive names for this period are Albert Bierstadt and F. E. Church, Bierstadt's "Rocky Mountains" and Church's "Heart of the Andes" are typical paintings. Both are enormous canvases illustrating the artistic error of overcrowding large pictures v/ith small details, but valuable as panoramas. Church's " Niagara Falls " was another am- bitious picture which acquired great reputation, A more notable artist was William Page, who was born in Albany in 1811, spent many years in Italy, and ultimately settled in New York, He ranks as one of the most serious and able of all American painters. Portraits and ideal subjects were his chosen field. Rapid strides were taken by American painters during the seven- ties. Study abroad became general. Exhibitions began to multiply, and buyers to grow more numerous. Among those who appeared at this time as Americans of marked genius we may mention Wm. M. Hunt, George Fuller, Homer Martin, Winslow Homer, Elihu Vedder, and John La Farge. Hunt's influence was especially important as trans- ferring to America the standards which he had drawn in France from the teachings of Millet and Couture. In later life he was head of a School of Art in Boston. George Puller was one of the most wholly original and intellectual painters that this country has produced. He passed many years of his life as a farm-laborer in Massachusetts, and died before achieving recognition. Homer Martin has been a pioneer among the painters of landscape. Winslow Homer is especially re- markable for his virile and sturdy thought, and his wholly frank and spirited rendering of nature. He is equally strong in figures and in landscape, which is a rare quality among American painters. In recent years a very important school of American painters has S(i9 MODERN PAINTING. developed from the teachings and h.fluence of ^n.M chase, a na- tive of Indiana, whose studio is in New York. Another h.ghly grfted American, James M. Whistler, has spent most of h.s Me ur London, and ranks among the first modern artists. The most thoroughly ^ cessful and famous of recent American pamters is probably J. S. &ai- gent whose portraits are worid-famous, and who has recently executed a series of very important decorations for the Public Library building " Tothe above names we must add those of Abbott H. Thayer, whose "Virgin Enthroned" was an important exhibit at the Chicago Fair, and George De Forest Brush, whose fine picture of ancient Mexican life "The Sculptor and the King," was seen at the same exhibit Wordsworth Thompson and Frederick James are the most successful painters of Colonial scenes. No mention of American painters can !flord to omit the names of Albert Ryder, of R. A. Blakelock, and of George Inness. The latter, recently deceased, has a reputation m land- scape which stands higher than that of any other American pain er. Magnificent specimens of his art maybe studied in the Metropolitan Museum of New York. Walter Shirlaw and Edward E. Simmons have been very successful in figure compositions for architectural decora- tion, as well as in oil painting. ^ . , +„ I have endeavored in this brief mention of American pamters to include only those of pronounced intellectual quaUty, men who are thinkers and students as well as painters. There are, however, many such whose names have not been mentioned, and many others whose technical powers entitle them to high rank in their profession. RECENT ENGLISH AET. From our short account o£ American artists we return to England In order to spealonts more recent painters. Since the days of Constable, Turner, and Etty re^ en.ha.e.a. reany^^^^^^^^^^^ =rtSrurBtr4s^e, had ^'i:;^^:r^^z:rs^ human nature, following a hne comparable to that of Dickens novels. Landseer, were successful painters of animals. Toward the middle of the century (1849) the so-called school of the Pre-Raphaelites became prominent. Its leaders were Holman Hunt John MiUais, and Dante Gabriel Rossetti. These were all quite young men when their association was founded. Hunt was nineteen. 370 MODERN PAIXTIXG. Millais was twenty, and Rossetti was twenty-one. The essential aim of these young painters was to strengthen serious art, and all of them, especially Millais, became men of prominence. The name which they chose to attach to themselves has, however, no great significance. It denoted, among other things, an appreciation for the humihty and purity of early Italian art on the part of these apostles of reform. The fact that men who were not painters became members of this brother- hood is an indication that the title had no especial reference to methods in art. It is, however, true that the want of atmosphere and of chiar- oscuro which we find in old Pre-Raphaelite painters did to some extent appear in the works of their spiritual imitators, and in so far their pictures can hardly be commended for abandoning an improvement of technical method which has been the common property of civilization since the 16 th century. Holman Hunt, however, takes high rank as a serious artist. Dante Gabriel Rossetti never achieved the rank of a wlioUy successful professional painter, and is best known as a poet and a man of letters. Some few of his works, widely known by engravings, show tender and beautiful ideals. The most famous man of the group is Sir John (Everett) Millais, and it may be added that he is the one who, in later life, abandoned the technical methods alluded to. These methods may, in fact, be considered utterly out of date at present, and they never had wide vogue. The esthetic and literary atmosphere of this school was its really important feature. Hence we may connect with it some artists who have widely departed from its presumed technical methods, and who do not strictly belong to it. Edward Burne- Jones (born 1833) was originally a pupil of Rossetti. He has become one of the most important representatives of the imaginative and romantic school in recent English art. He has also done much in designing for stained glass. Among these designs are the windows of Christ Church in Oxford. Ford Madox Brown (born 1821) is distinguished for his series of mural decora- tions for the history of ^Manchester in the town-hall of that city. Sir Frederick Leighton, the recently deceased president of the Royal Academy, was a most successful artist in imaginative and classic subjects, a fine draughtsman and an able colorist. A wholly exceptional position is occupied by George F. Watts, whose greatness as an allegorist is incontestable. A very complete exhibit of his works was made at the Metropolitan Museum in New York some years since. Another famous painter, long resident in England, is the Belgian Alma-Tadema. His pictures bring enormous prices. They are most MODERN PAIXTING. 371 carefully but rather coldly executed, and are generally devoted to archpeologic subjects. ^ MODERN GERMAN PAINTING. The history of modern German painting begins with the names of Carstens and Cornelius. The former was a Dane and a native of Sleswick (1754-1798). His works are remarkable for their compo- sition and quality of balance in arrangement. The best collection of them is in the Museum of Weimar. The distinction of Cornelius (1783-1867) is that of a mural painter. His frescoes in the Campo Santo of Berlin and in Munich are especially noteworthy. The great- est of modern German artists, all things considered, was Wilhelm von Kaulbach (1805-1874), whose six great frescoes on the walls of the New Museum in Berlin are his most celebrated work. In the second quarter of the 19th century the town of Diissel- dorf, near Cologne, became the Academic centre of German art. Hence the name of the " Dlisseldorf School," which had, however, no really distinctive traits and did not produce any especially note- worthy artists. The leading landscape painters of Germany are the Achenbachs — two brothers named Oswald and Andreas. In genre painting Knaus and Meyer (Yon Bremen) are the leading names. In historical compositions, and also as an Academic teacher, Carl von Piloty (182 6-1886) of Munich held high rank. The greatest mod- ern German colorist was Hans Makart of Vienna (1840-1 88-1). Of late years the Scandinavian painters have developed great power, and among these the name of Zorn is most eminent. His pictures at the Chicago Fair attracted much attention. In Russian art the works of Verestchagin are especially remark- able. No other modern painter has so demonstrated the didactic power of art. His pictures of battlefields are the most powerful ser- mons which have ever been preached on the horrors of wars, A not- able Russian picture at the World's Fair in Chicago was the "Cos- sack's Answer to the Sultan of Turkey" by Repine, To the foregoing brief mentions we must add the names of Mun- kacsy and Fortuny. The former, a Hungarian by birth, made his success in Paris. His method is broad, but cannot be called power- ful. His large picture of " Christ before Pilate " was widely exhibited in the United States some few years since. A much more distin- guished artist was the Spaniard Fortuny (1839-1874). HISTORY OF MUSIC. INTRODUCTORY. Although the arts of design vary fundamentally from that of music in the form of expression, there are still certain points of view from which the history of all these arts may be united in study or considered in association. The art of music is in many ways the most promising art of the present and the future. Its greatest masters have flourished in recent times. Its development is of recent date as regards the perfection of its instruments and the size of its orchestras. Music of the highest classical quality has been written within the limits of the present century. Hence the undeniable relative inferiority of the architecture, the sculp- ture, or the painting of the 19th century, as compared with the past, is offset and made good by its great success in music. The value of art history is the opportu- nity it offers for a broad philosophy of history, in which the importance of each epoch is accented and expressed by its ideal art. In a proper presentation of such a philosophy music must be included, if recent modern times and the 19th century are to hold their own in contrast with the past. Cxluck may be compared with Phidias, Beethoven may be comjDared with Michael Angelo, Mozart may be com- pared with Raphael, and wiien the great galaxy of musical composers which has flourished in the last two centuries is considered, our period may claim equality with others whidi have done greater work when the arts of form alone are con- sidered. The ascendency and superiority of music in modern art correspond to ceitain obvious facts in modern civilization. Never has there been a time in history when civilization was sj^read so widely over the earth's surface. Never has there been a time when the size of individual civilized countries was so large. Sculpture and painting appeal to comparatively small audiences. Only in so far as their works are individually accessible can they wield an influence. If copied they lose much of their original power. The classic quality of music, on the other hand, is not damaged by repetition. The same opera, the same symphony, or the same sonata may be I'epeated a thousand times, or in a hundred places at one time, without loss of spontaneous quality or of original power. The statues of Phidias can now be seen only in London, the Parthenon can be known only in Athens, the SiStine Madonna can be viewed only in Dresden. Photographs and casts are valuable references, but no one considers them equal to the originals. But the works of Beethoven may exert to-day the same influence in Australia or in India that they exert in Germany. Mozart can be studied in New York as easily as in Vienna A little thought will show that in so far as art may be considered as an ideal expression of that which is best and greatest in human nature, music has possi- bilities of influence which can never be claimed for architecture, sculpture, and painting. It is, for instance, the most universally refining of all the arts, because it is an art which most universally appeals to everyday people in advance of spe- HISTORY OF MUSIC. 373 cial educational training. Special education is certainly needed for the comprehen- sion of many masterpieces, and yet the music of the people and the ballads of the people are everywhere recognized as important factors in culture and of really classic value. Scotch ballads, German songs, Irish melodies, Hungarian dances, and last, but not least, the airs of the negro plantation hands, have their own place and their own importance beside Italian operas and classic symphonies. Still farther, it holds true that the works of the greatest composers have been largely based on themes drawn from these simple sources. The standards of classic quality in musical art are essentially the same as those which we apply to literature, to painting, or sculpture. There is music which simply pleases the ear without ennobling results, just as there are pictures which have no higher aim than to please the eye, or books wliich leave us no better than they found us. Then there is music which teaches self-denial and lofty purpose, which stirs the heart, and excites the nobler passions. As connected with poetry and liter- ary dramatic art in the field of opera, music again comes into play as an accessory of vast importance. Music is a rest for the weary brain, and even for the tired body. It softens the heart, stii's the soul, and unlocks pent-up emotions. As the aid and ally of religion it figures in the stirring songs of the Salvation Army, in the hymns of the church, in the Masses of the Catholic ritual. It has led armies to victory, and it has led souls to God. It has been the stay of the patriot and the solace of the wandering beggar. It has thrilled the spectators of the Greek tragedies, and has been united with many of the greatest dramas and greatest poems of modern literature. If we consider such works as the overtures to Goethe's "Egmont" and to Shakespeare's "Coriolanus" by Beethoven, the music of the "Midsummer Night's Dream" by Mendelssohn, the Passion Music by Bach, the biblical oratorios by Handel, the histoi'ical operas of Meyerbeer, the preludes and nocturnes of Chopin, the songs of Schubert, and the musical dramas of Wagner, — we shall need no argu- ment to show that the share of music in tlie history of modern art is the weightiest and the raost important. HISTORICAL SURVEY. That music played an important part in the Hfe and in the edu- cational systems of the ancients we know well, but we know little more than this. The harp, which is the parent of the modern piano, is figured in an Egyptian tomb at Thebes of the largest dimensions now known to a modern orchestra. The lyre, a smaller kind of harp, is the typical instrument of the Greek god Apollo. Music, both vocal and instrumental, was used throughout the performances of the Greek drama, which prefigured in many ways the modern opera. The trumpet and the flute (double and single) were well known to antiquity. The organ can be dated back at least to Roman an- tiquity, and the violin had a primitive predecessor among the musi- cal instruments of the early Celts. It is supposed that the hymns of the Russian church, as handed down from the Byzantine (Greek) Empire, have preserved some sur- 374 nisTORY OF music. viving traces of old Greek music. That this music was the greatest known to antiquit}' is generally conceded ; also that it passed with other forms of Greek culture to the Romans, and so became the basis of the early Christian science in this art. But as to the exact char- acter of Greek music the most learned theorists are in doubt. That it was simpler than ours is certain. It was, of course, lacking in the complex variety and startling (Effects which are within the scope of the modern orchestra. There is a clearer knowledge of the music of the Middle Ages, but as regards its simplicity and comparatively undeveloped forms, the statement made above again holds true. We may most easily date the development of music by the invention or perfection of the mod- ern instruments, and the average dimensions of an orchestra. The violin was perfected in the 1 7th and 18th centuries by the Amatis and Stradivarius of Cremona; the piano dates from the early 18th cen- tury, when it was developed from the spinet and harpsichord, which in their origin go back to forms of the harp. In the late 18th century the symphonies of Haydn were written for an orchestra of about twenty performers. A symphony orchestra now consists of sixty- four musicians. Organs of large dimensions were used in the Middle Ages, but it is not probable that they had any wide range of capacity. The perfected opera dates from the times of Gluck (late 18th cen- tury) ; the perfected symphony and piano sonata date from Bee- thoven (early 1 9th century) ; the perfected oratorio dates from Handel (18th century). All this shows the comparative^ recent development of modern music. Church music, as is natural, was the first to reach perfection. The Masses of Palestrina, which were written in the latter part of the 16th century, are still considered the noblest models of church music. The history of church music, before this time, centres in the Flemish composers during the 14th and 15th centuries, and before these dates is rather vague. Guido of Arezzo, an Italian monk who flourished in the 12 th century, is generally quoted as the inventor of the present system of musical notation. For a still earlier time, historians em- phasize the importance of the solemn Gregorian chant, which carries us back to the beginnings of Christian history and the connecting links with that now forgotten music of the Romans and the Greeks. For the period of the Middle Ages we must not forget, however, the minstrels of the Scotch, "Welsh, Irish, and English, the troubadours HISTORY OF MUSIC. 375 of the French, and the minnesingers of Germany. The history of Vocal part-music has its most distinct beginnings in the glees and madrigals of the 16th century in England, which were, however, by no means the earliest. The beauty of these may still be enjoyed in the revivals of certain Shakespearian plays. The fugue was a familiar form of composition to the Flemish musicians whom we have just cited. We shall begin our biographical accounts of the composers with Palestrina — first noting that the invention of movable types for printing music was made in 1502 in Italy, and that this invention was of epoch-making importance for the development of the art. Palestrina is named from his birthplace near Rome, and was born in 1524. He became a singer in the Sistine Chapel at Rome, which for centuries had the finest choir in Christendom. Previous to this time, its singers had been very largely drawn from Flanders for reasons just explained. During the Council of Trent, held for the reform of the Catholic Church, the question of church music was one of the points considered, for scandal had been caused by the introduction of secular music and words in the singing of Mass. It was con- sequently proposed to abolish all music excepting the plain chant, but decision was reserved subject to the success of Palestrina in composing church music which should be deemed worthy of its sacred mission. Palestrina submitted three Masses to the Commission appointed to decide the question, and these were unanimously ap- proved. The most celebrated of all church Masses is still Palestrina's "Missa Papse Marcelli," a Mass so named in honor of the Pope Mar- cellus. The date of these compositions is 1575. The introduction of congregational singing in Protestant churches is another important fact for the 1 6th century, the finest forms being the German " chorals." In order of time we may next emphasize the production of the earliest modern opera. This took place at Florence about 1600. The composer was Jacopo Peri, and his work was entitled " Euridice." The accompaniments were written for four instruments ; a primitive kind of piano known as a clavichord, a guitar, a viol, and a lute. The pro- duction of this work was due to a circle of students interested in old Greek culture, and aiming to revive its musical methods. These students were among the heirs of that Greek learning which had trav- elled to Italy, after the Turks had occupied the capital of the Byzan- tine (Greek) Empire in 1-158. It is not clear that the attempted 376 HISTOUY OF MUSIC. revival had any direct analogy with the original Greek music, but the general resemblances between modern opera and the old Greek drama, with its musical accompaniment, are none the less certain, and the relations of the two at the very beginning of modern opera are clearly established. This first opera was mainly composed in recitative, but a more elaborately musical style of opera was introduced by Monteverde of Venice, soon after 1600. Monteverde is considered the father of modern opera. Only one of his operas, " Orfeo," is now known to print. As a result of his activity there was built in Venice the first public theatre used for opera. This was opened in 163 7. Before this the operas had been given only as private entertainments. Many other opera-houses were rapidly opened in Venice, and they spread thence to other Italian cities, as well as to France and Germany. Ope- ratic performances were not introduced into England until the 1 8th century, and there they long continued to be regarded as a foreign exotic. The first theatre for the performance of opera in Paris was founded in 16 71. The cradle of opera in Germany was the city of Hamburg. The year 1600 is the date of the first oratorio, as well as of the first opera. The word is derived from the Religious Order of the Orato- rians, founded at Rome by St. Philip Neri. This Order was so-called because its members were wont to stand outside their church exhort- ing the by-standers to come and pray (Latin orare). The oratorio was originally a religious drama, accompanied by music, and given after the church services on a regular stage. This and other musical attractions were offered in order to draw in an audience to the services, and sustain the interest in them. The oratorio was in reality only another form of the Passion Plays and Miracle Plays by which religious instruction had been given in the Middle Ages. To the 17th century also belong the names of the famous composers Alessandro Scarlatti and Pergolesi, active at Naples, which was a very important centre of musical culture at this time. The form of the violin concerto^ which gives a leading part to the^ first violin, and uses the other instruments as accompaniment, was also developed in the later 1 7th century. The use of the term sonata also first appears at this time, and its introduction is ascribed to an organist at Venice, Giovanni Gabrieli. From che foregoing account of musical terms, of the inventions of musical in- struments, and of the names of early composers, it appears that Italy was the centre from which the art of music spread in modern times. This fact is in line with the HISTORY OF MUSIC. 377 general influence of the Renaissance. During the 17th century the accounts of music in north European countries point generally to Italian influence. The great- est activity of the art during this century, outside of Italj-, was in France, and this was the northern country whose general relations with Italy were most intimate. The Italian Cardinal Mazarin, who succeeded Cardinal Eichelieu as Prime Minister in the times of Louis XIV., brought a company of Italian singers to Paris and spent vast sums in supporting their entertainments. The entertainment known as the Ballet was here developed in great magnificence, but the performers were originally people of distinction and not hired. The Ballet was originally a com- bination of a Masque, or performance in which people of quality appeared in alle- gorical costumes and characters, with dance music and movements. The still cele- brated gavotte, known as that of Louis XIII. , dates from one of these performances, although the music was not composed by that king. The greatest French composer of the 17th century was an Italian by birth, who was brought from Florence when a boy. His name was Jean Baptiste Lully. He began life in Paris as a scullion, but gained the favor of King Louis XIV. by his performance on the violin. He obtained the right to organize an operatic com- pany, composed many operas and much church music, and until his death was the master of the world of music in Paris. The triumph of the Puritans in England during the time of the Commonwealth was very detrimental to the progress of music in that country. The church choirs were dispersed and the organs were generally destroyed. After the Restoration the choir of Charles II. produced many fine voices and composers. Among these Henry Purcell ranks as one of high distinction in modern times. He composed, for instance, music for Shakespeare's "Tempest" with the still familiar songs, "Come unto these yellow sands" and "Full fathom five." In Gei-many the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648), and the period of distress which followed, were depressing influences for music as well as for other arts. Here was developing, nothwithstanding, the greatness of the following epoch, when the sceptre was to pass from Italy and the whole world was to acknowledge that German music had become the greatest of modern arts. But we again find in G-ermany a historic continuity as regards development from Italian influence. This appears in the leading position taken by Vienna as a musical centre ; for this was the German city to which Italian teachers and performers first naturally gravitated, as being of all German cities the one in closest local relations with Venice and with Italy. Here (in Vienna) flourished a court composer (1698-1740), who is known to have travelled in Italy. Although his musical compositions were numerous, few- were published, but his great work on the theory of music called " Gradus ad Par- nassum" was the authority of the 18th century, and the basis of the studies of all its great composers. MUSIC OF THE 18TH CENTURY IN GERMANY. In the same year, 1(385, were born Johann Sebastian Bach and George Frederic Handel. Their careers open, therefore, soon after 1700, and begin the history of 18th century music. Handel was born at Halle, the son of a barber and surgeon, two professions which were often united in those days. The father destined Handel for the law, and forbade the study of music. The child studied m.usic in secret, and practised on an old 378 HISTORY OF MUSIC. cla^-ichord in the garret, where he could be out of hearing. His father had occasion to ^'isit a certain German nobleman, and having declined to take his son with him, the latter, who was then a boy of seven, ran after the carriage on foot for such a distance that his father finally relented. The cause of this persistence, unknown to the father, was the child's desire to play on the Duke's organ. On the next Sunday he obtained access to the instrument, and was caught playing on it. This was the beginning of his career as a musician. Instead of the paternal punishment, about to be visited on him, he received the commendation of the Duke, who declared him to be a genius, and induced his father to place no farther obstacles in the way of his musical studies. Handel began his career in 1703 as a second violinist in the or- chestra of the Hamburg Opera. After composing several operas he visited Italy in 1707, and spent three years in Florence, Rome, and Venice. He was warmly received and highly appreciated in Italy. He next obtained the position of Choral Director to the Elector of Hanover, but with the permission to visit England, which he imme- diately did in 1710. From this time on most of his life was spent in England. His long absences from his post in Hanover estranged him from the Elector, and when the latter became King of England, as George I., Handel's jDosition at the English court seemed to be en- dangered. But he Avas able to make his peace by the composition of some music for a Royal fete and water party. Down to 1720 Handel's work was mainly that of an operatic composer and manager. The many operas thus produced have been supplanted by later works, and are now almost forgotten, bi^t as a composer of oratorios Handel still leads the world, and his productions of this class are as popular to-day as when they first excited the enthusiastic plaudits of an English public. Among these oratorios may be mentioned "The Messiah," "Israel in Egypt," "Saul" (which contains the famous " Dead March "), and " Samson." Handel died in 1 7 5 9. xt was a remarkable fatality which led Handel to England as a musician holding office undt-r the House of Hanover, which itself subsequently succeeded to the English throne. The favor and support of the English court were his through life. Handel thus became in music the connecting link between Germany and England, and has exercised a vast influence on the later history of English music. His personal charac- ter was choleric but lovable, and many curious stories are told of his petulance, and also of his amiability. Johann Sebastian Bach died nine years before Handel (1750). He was born at Eisenach, in Thuringia, and belonged to a family whose members had been musicians for several preceding generations. His favorite instrument was the organ. He occupied positions succes- HISTORY OF MUSIC. • 379 sively at Weimar, at Ooethen, and at Leipzig. Being, in his capacity of organist, a director of church choirs, he wrote much church music. His " Passion Music " belongs to a type which was in general use in Germany for the services of Holy Week. It still ranks as the grandest of all religious music. The later pianoforte sonata has developed from the suites, or compositions, with a series of movements, which he wrote for various instruments, hut especially for the harpsichord (the predecessor of the piano). These suites were originally combinations of dance tunes of different measures. The sons of Johann Sebastian were all eminent musicians, and one of them, Carl Philip Emanuel, ranks as the predecessor, in pianoforte compositions, of Haydn and Mozart. In order of time we must, however, emphasize the importance of Gluck, the first and among the greatest of all operatic composers whose works still hold the modern stage. Christopher Willibald Gluck was born in Bohemia in 171-i. As an Austrian subject he made his way to the Austrian capital, Vienna, and thence to Milan, where he completed his musical education. The operas which he composed here secured him an invitation to London. He next dsited Paris, and then returned to Vienna. In 1762 he brought out his immortal opera of "Orfeo" (Orpheus). This was followed in 1772 by "Iphigenia in Aulis," which was first produced in Paris, through the favor of the Queen of France, the Austrian Marie An- toinette. Gluck died in Vienna in 178 7, having spent most of his life after 1772 in Paris. His "Iphigenia in Tauris " is another opera which still holds the modern stage. The astounding wealth of melody in the "Orpheus" is such that, to one who hears it for the first time, it almost seems as though all later music had been drawn from it. The overture to "Iphigenia in Aulis" is still considered one of the best of operatic overtui'es. To fully appreciate the greatness of G^uck we must, however, have some knowledge of the general conditions of operatic composition in his own day. We have seen that Italy was the birthplace of the opera, but during the 18th century the Italian operatic style had fallen more and more into artificial and con- ventional trammels. The development and display of the voice of the singer had become the test of success in writing opera. The operatic singers had become the despots and lords of the composers, dictating their style of music, and frequently refusing to sing any song which did not suit them. The habit of composing music to display the gifts of individual singers was, of course, fatal to true music ; for no art can maintain its greatness when technique and mechanical execution are con- sidered more important than meaning and inspiration. The story told of Handel is doubtless true, that he once seized and was about to throw out of the window an Italian prima-donna who had refused to sing one of 380 HISTORY OK .Ml SIC. * his songs because she conceived that it did not display her voice to advantage. Tiiis stoiy illustrates the tyranny to which all composers had been subjected. It was the greatness of Gluck to abandon absolutely all the tricks and decorations of vocal gymnastics which had thus become the ruling fashion. In other words, he wrote music for music's sake, and not for the sake of personal display. But there was still another conventional weakness in the ruling stjde of Italian opera. Its choice and development of plot and story were hampered by a rigid system of musical conventions as to the number and style of arias, duos, and trios to be sung. This system had also developed from the habit of making concessions to the singers, and of avoiding that jealousy of one or the other of them which might result from an unequal distribution of the opportunity to make a display before the audience. As a consequence once more of this conventional system of arranging operas, the story or libretto had grown to be a matter of complete indifference. Gluck set his face against this system by insisting on the value of the libretto, and the necessity of having an intrinsic worth in the subject-matter of the opera. But to all this common sense of theory and justice of reason, we must add that he was a composer of melody whose only rivals have been Mozart and Schubert. "We may venture to break with the strict sequence of time, ac- cording to which Haydn's name should next appear, in order to place in immediate connection with Gluck his great successor and rival in operatic composition, Mozart (Johann Chrysostom Wolfgang Amadous). His father was a professional musician in the employ of the Prince- Archbishop of Salzburg, where the composer was born in 1756. The precocious ability of yoimg Mozp.rt is still the won- der of the world. He was a performer qnthe harpsichord at the 9? of three, and a composer at five years of age. At the age of &^ . ^.- he was taken by his father on a starring tour through Europe as a performer on the harpsichord and violin. His first published work, four sonatas for violin and harpsichord, appeared in Paris at this age. This tour had lasted five years when Mozart wrote his first opera, at the age of twelve. The tour was subsequently continued in Italy, the same phenomenal success being met with everywhere. In spite of this success, the finances of the Mozart family ulti- mately became straitened. A new Prince- Archbishop of Salzburg succeeded in 1772. He treated the young composer, Avho held the place of music-master in his service, with great unkindness and neglect A new position was therefore sought, but could not im- mediately be obtained. Having moved to Vienna, Mozart made a precarious living by teaching juusic, and w^as best known there as a pianist. His early operas were highly successful, artistically speak- ing, but did not relieve him from want. He married in 1782— hap- pily -as regards association, but unhappily as regards matters of HISTORY OF MUSIC. 381 domestic eco.ioray, and died in 1791, aged thirty-six. His three im- mortal operas are "Don Giovanni" (or "Don Juan"), the "Marriage of Pigaro," and the "Magic Flute." Tliese still hold the stage as unex- celled masterpieces. Three or four other operas have great excellence but are now rarely performed. Several of Mozart's symphonies have high reputation, especially the "Jupiter" sym- phony ; but the supreme master of the symphony was Ludwig von Beethoven, who was twenty-one years old when Mozart died. We must, however, before speaking of the greatest of orchestral symphony composers, go back to Haydn, the father of the symphony, who in time preceded both Mozart and Beethoven, but outlived the former eighteen years, although born twenty-four years before him. Franz Joseph Haydn (1732-1809) was born at Rohrau, on the borders of Austria and Hungary. His father was a wheelwright. As a boy Haydn was a chorister in Vienna, and he subsequently entered the service of a famous Italian singing-master (Porpora) as accom- panist. He first made a reputation as a composer of string quartettes for first and second violin, viola and cello, and so obtained the direc- tion of a small orchestra in the service of an Austrian Count. From this employment he passed to the service of Prince Paul Anton Es- terhazy, whose death, however, soon followed. Under the Prince's successor, Prince ISTicolaus, he became sole director of his orchestra, spending his time partly in Vienna and partly at the summer resi- dence of the Pri::ce. Thirty years of Haydn's life were passed in '"■•^ service of the EsterhLzys, and this entire period was one of un- interrupted activity in iiiusical composition. He subsequently made two visits to London. During these visits, and for English produc- tion, he wrote the twelve symphonies which are considered by some his most important works — the Salainon set, so called from the name of the violinist and manager who induced him to come to London. "The Creation," an oratorio composed for production in England, is still second in popularity only to Handel's "Messiah." The French bombardment and occupation of Vienna in 1809 are thought to have hastened his death, which occurred at that time. The character of Haydn's music corresponds to the peaceful and serene tenor of his life. Without great climaxes or strong dramatic power, it is a wholly simple and wholly classic flow of melodious measures. His art prepared the way for the still more beautiful works of Mozart and the still sublimer style of Beethoven. GERMAN MUSIC IN THE 19TH CENTURY. Ludwig von Beethoven was born at Bonn in 1770. His father was a singer in the choir of the Archbishop of Cologne, whose residence 382 HISTORY OF MUSIC. was at Bonn. The boy's education in music was pushed, by the father, who hoped to profit by his precocious talents. At the age of twelve, Beethoven was harpsichord player in the orchestra of the Opera. At the age of seventeen he was enabled to visit Vienna and to make the acquaintance of Mozart. In 1792 he made another visit to Vienna in order to study under Haydn. His connection wdth this master was not of long duration, but after this time Vienna w^as his place of residence. His first compositions show very close relation to those of Haydn and Mozart, but they subsequently develop an originality of massive and overwhelming power. Among his early works are the first and second symphonies, the sonata " Pathetique " and the "Moonlight" sonata. The third symphony (dating 1804), called the " Eroica " (the Hero sym- phony), w^as w^ritten to celebrate the greatness of Bonaparte, for wiiom Beethoven had a passionate admiration ; but the coronation of Bona- parte as Emperor shattered his idol, for Beethoven was a republican, and the dedication to Bonaparte was abandoned. There are nine of the sym- phonies in all. These are generally known by their numbers, which specify the order of production. All of them are sublime masterpieces. The ninth symphony has as a finale a choral setting of Schiller's "Hymn to Joy." Beethoven's life was embittered by deafness, which grew on him rapidly after 1801. The calamity was not only a bitter trial to him as a musician, but he felt his resulting isolation in society deeply, and has recorded his suffering in words that show a breaking heart. In matters of worldly welfare he was not subjected to the tortures of pecuniary want, but his life was one of continued domestic discomfort, and also of domestic loneliness. Changes of lodgings and servants were a constant source of petty annoyance, and another cause of unhappiness was the ungrateful behavior of a scapegrace nephew to whom the composer devoted his thoughts and all his savings. "When these life trials are made known lo us, the whole significance of Beethoven's music begins to dawn upon us — it is the music of self-conquest, of sublime resignation, of the triumph of the spirit over matter. It could have been written only by a man of very great intellect and of a very pure soul, but it is also the music of strength and power and vigor. There is a creative Titanic quality in Beethoven which can be compared only with that of Shakespeare. Beethoven's death took place in 1827. In his last hours his thoughts were still devoted to his unworthy nei)hew, and to him were left all his savings. This musician's greatness was that of an instru- mental composer for the piano and the string quartette, as well as for the orchestra. His sole opera, " Fidelio," has never been popular. This is due partly to the lack of dramatic interest in the libretto ; the music is of great beauty, but belongs rather to the sphere of symphony than that of opera. The history of instrumental music in Germany after the death of Beethoven centres especially in Mendelssohn, Schubert, and Schumann. HISTORY OF MUSIC. 383 Felix Mendelssohn Bartholdy was a Hebrew, born in Hamburg in 1809. His family was well-to-do, and of wide literary culture. His early life was spent mainly in Berlin. Here he developed precocious talents as a musician and composer which were stimulated and en- couraged in every possible way. At the age of twenty he visited London and then travelled in Italy. He subsequently settled as Musical Director in Dlisseldorf, but in 1835 became Conductor of the famous Gewandhaus concerts in Leipzig. In 1841 Frederick William IV., the Prussian king, invited Mendelssohn to Berlin with appointment of Musical Director in a new Academy of Art. The position proved uncongenial, and the result was a partial return to the work in Leipzig without abandoning that in Berlin. The found- ing of the famous Leipzig Conservatory was due to Mendelssohn, who persuaded the king of Saxony to apply a legacy which had been left the town of Leipzig to this purpose. The death of the composer occurred in 1847, and seems to have been hastened by his grief at the sudden decease of his gifted and favorite sister. Mendelssohn made, in all, ten visits to England, where he was much appreciated, and many of his works were composed during or for these English visits. Since his death his reputation in England has continued to hold its own. His music is generally admitted to' be that of a most refined and cultivated nature, with wide know- ledge of harmony and of technical problems. It is as a composer for the piano that he ranks best ; for instance, in the famous " Songs without Words." His symphonies are classic compositions, without rising to the heights of his great forerunners. His most ambitious works, the music to "Midsummer Night's Dream," and the oratorios *'St. Paul" and "Elijah," still enjoy great popularity, especially in England and the United States. Mendelssohn's music is generally that of a highly refined, but not of a powerful personality. It has, however, undoubted original value, and it is music. The "Scotch"' symphony is the most popular. The "Fingal's Cave" overture and the overture to " Ruy Bias" are great works. The instrumental compositions of Robert Schumann (1810-1856) are of a somewhat dreamy and introspective character, not very defi- nite in form, or strong in their organism. They may be regarded as the fireveries of a man of genius, and so regarded they must take high rank. Schumann was born in Saxony in 1810. He studied law in Leipzig and Heidel- berg, but drifted gradually into musical composition, after so injuring one of his iJ84 HISTORY OF MUSIC. fingers that he could not aspire to success on the piano in the way of public perform- auce, which had been his ambition. He also founded a journal in Ijeipzig for musical criticism, and contributed to it many notable articles. He was for a short time a Professor in the new Leipzig Conservatory founded by Mendelssohn (1843), but was too shy for success in this capacity. Overwork also produced nervous exhaustion. Hence a removal to Dresden for rest and seclusion. He remained here till 1850, and then took a position as musical conductor in Diisseldorf. He failed in this capacity^ and his mind gave way. His madness took the shape of a delusion that he beard constantly a particular musical note, and that the spirits of Mendelssohn and Schu- bert were about him. He died in an asylum in 1856. Schumann attempted all fields of musical composition, and succeeded in all excepting opex'a. His piano compositions, symphonies, string quartets, quintets, and especially his songs, are his best works. Next to and after Beethoven the greatest musical geniuses of Germany in the 19th century have been Carl Maria von Weber and Franz Schubert. In order of time Meyerbeer follows, and to his appearance succeeds that of Eichard AVagner. Carl Maria von Weber was born in 1786. His father had been a soldier and courtier in the train of the Elector of the Palatinate, at whose court he was a famous musical amateur. Late in life the father undertook to recruit his fortunes by man- aging a travelling operatic company. The son thus grew up in contact with the ma- chinery and life of the stage. He wrote an opera at the age of fourteen, and became a pianist of renown. After many changes of position and residence Weber was made Director of the Opera in Prague (1813), and he subsequently^ occupied a similar po- sition in Dresden. Weber's world-renowned opera, " Der Freischiitz," was first pro- duced in Berlin in 1821. It had an instantaneous and wide-spread success, and has ever since ranked as the greatest of romantic operas. This was followed by the production of " Euryanthe " at Vienna ; the libretto was less successful, but the music not less beautiful. "Oberon" was produced in London in 1826, under the personal di- rection of the composer, who was, at the time, in the last stages of consumption, and died immediately afterward. He had been crippled at birth by hip disease, and was an invalid through life. Weber's nature was as refined, as imaginative, and as lovable as his music. His " Invitation to the Waltz " is a well-known piano composition, brilliant and sparkling, but also tender and pathetic. The wide range and subtlety of Weber's perceptions in art suggest a comparison with the qualities of Leonardo da Vinci, and all these great qualities cul- minated in the romance of " Der Freischiitz." Giacomo Meyerbeer (179-4-1864), the greatest of all composers of opera on historic subjects, was five years the junior of Weber, whose romantic tendencies he continued, and whose acquaintance he had enjoyed. It is somewhat suggestive of this composer's char- acter that his real name was Jacob Meyer Beer, but Giacomo Meyer- beer was a more romantic and a more euphonious name, which he OQK HISTORY OF MUSIC. .1 orinr^TPrl There is no doubt that there is an element •'riT. rhaps evt o^ t nsel, occasionally to be found in Meyer- W?s work He oved effect, Ind popularity, and success, crashmg beers ^"k.Jl'^ '"J ^^^ situations, fine ballets, and gorgeous :~^ trthLtrin He lived to attain; but Ire atso .ad an imalative insight into the forces and vast mazes of history. In magmative ins g ^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^^ p^^^^^^ ^^^^ ,„„,^<, t: rf the Nor' ns in Sicily. " L'Africaine " represents the whole : -o'SVe Maritime ^^^f ^.J ^ ^e "fth^lTeaTa" 71 rL:L:S."C/nr^P- ".r; m the t.. century. i::^eerU-P<.ver,a^^^^^^^^^^^^^ ^^ersirThatlrr t:Ses of a Parisian public demanded H^rre :=of rXe^Ttre-rp -t s ^ni wielded all the vast machinery of that stage at will. Meyerbeer wa. bom in Bertin In 1794 (or 1701 n^ He w,. *e -n o, a neb ^^^^^^ isb banker, and l^a. 'hroughouUi e lul oon,™a^^^^^^^^ ^^ ^^ ^^^^^ ana became a great pianist. His niusical ea ^^^ ^,ber. He then and was completed in Darmstadt under ten^^^^^^^ ^^^_^^^ ^„ ^^^ pl,„„. appeared in Vienna as an »?«''"'= J^"^^^^; *f„^,y. ^^re he won great fame: His iirst success in wntmg °I»J- J^^^' "^ J i" t£ to„,e subsequently achieved but the worlcs tliere produced are """.'"^SOtte Parisian success dates in Paris, where he lived from 1826 '" h-^-fn 1831 He lo wrote lighter operas ,.o,n the appearance of "Robert eDb 11^^^^^^ ^^^ ..^,^^_^„^ ^„ for the Opera Comique ot t'aris amuug '^^^^•" ^ ^ ^ wi 7Q7 1 S2S^ carries us once more to Vienna, where his The life of Fran. Schuben (179,-1828) car™ t ^^ ^ .^ ^^^ j_^^^^^ father was a sclioolmaster. He had a «>™ ™ice „ compose at an early age. choir. He had no regular musical ^^^^^^.'^'^UeT^"; ^^Lr schoolboy, when His great embarrassment for ™^= ^P^;^;; X7„y Jut in the choir ended with his own pocket-money was exhausted After h« ™p y ^^^^ ^.^^ ^^ the change of voice, he became an assistant m h,s father s schoo one of scanty means and small encouragement. He died at the age Schuberfs first song was published when he was twent,--for.n This was the now famous "Erlkonig," ™-f "^^f Jf/^.f ^^ter eighteen, which was brought out by the assistance of " f - refusal by a publisher. Some other songs were also ?"<'''''/ subrription with fair success, and it began to appear that theie was a market for them. From this time he spent his life in working for his publisher as a song-writer, for such small remuneration that 38G HISTORY OF MUSIC. the highest income he ever reached was $500 a yeai. Only after his death did the world realize his true greatness. His now famous symphonies, string quartets, etc., had, at the time of his death, never been given either in public or in jjrivate. Schubert is now known as the greatest song-writer who ever lived. He wrote over 600 songs, and many of them, like the "Serenade," " Haidenroeslein," the "Muel- lerlieder," " Winterreise," and the " Swan Songs," are still universal favorites. Without dwelling on the names of other great Germans like Spohr (opera of "Jessonda") Nicolai, ("The Merry Wives of Windsor"), Flotow ("Martha"), Franz Lachner (fine orchestral works), Katf (symphony " Im Walde," etc.), Robert Franz (the successor of Schubert and Schumann in the realm of song), and Johannes Brahms, who is considered by many to be the greatest living composer, we come now to the epoch-making name of Richard AVagner. Richard Wagner was born at Leipzig in 1813, and was the son of a clerk in a police court. His father died in the year of his birth, and his mother soon remarried an artist and actor named Geyer. A removal to Dresden resulted. Young Wagner's early tastes were literary. He studied the piano, but never succeeded in mastering this instrument. At the age of fourteen he wrote a tragedy for which he conceived a musical accompaniment to be necessary ; hence he began to study composition. His studies in music were continued at Leipzig, and were devoted especially to Beethoven. At the age of twenty he became chorus-master in the theatre at Wiirzburg, on a very small salary. After various wanderings and struggles (Mag- deburg, Konigsberg, Riga, London), Wagner made his way to Paris and lived there from 1839 to 1842 without securing anj- sort of I'ecognition or foot-hold. Wagner's first success was his opera of "Rienzi," which was pro- duced at Dresden in 1842. He left Paris to superintend the per- formance of this opera. It was written in Meyerbeer's style, and does not represent the later tendencies of the composer. These began to appear in the "Flying Dutchman," a marvellous piece of imagin- ative music, which was brought out at Dresden in 1843. "Tann- hauser" followed in 1845. In 1849 Wagner was- involved in the revolutionary troubles which then afflicted Dresden, and was obliged to take refuge in Paris and ultimately in Zurich, where he lived for several years. It now happened that Wagner was passing through Weimar on an occasion when Liszt, who was condactor of the Court theatre, was producing " Tannhauser." This led to the revival of ian acquaintance first begun m Paris, and to a close friendship be. tween the two. Thus was brought about, under Liszt^s encourage- ment, the completion and j^roduction of "Lohengrin" (1850). Work on the "Ring of the Nibelungon" was now undertaken in Zurich. HISTORY OF MUSIC. 387 The scope of this work, which consists of four separate operas in- tended for performance on consecutive days, seemed destined to prove fatal to a public production. But the publication of the poem of the libretto attracted the attention of the King of Bavaria, who invited Wagner to Munich, gave him a pension and a residence, and engaged him to complete the " Ring of the Nibelungen." The king's enthusiasm created an opposition to the composer, which obliged him to leave Munich, but the pension was increased, and the royal favor was continued. A special theatre was completed at Baireuth in 18 76 for the performance of this work, consisting of four operas — "Das Rheingold," "Die Walkiire," "Siegfried," and "Gotterdam- merung." Meantime "Tristan and Isolde" and the " Meistersinger " had been produced. The last of Wagner's operas was "Parsifal," which was brought out in 1882. The composer died in 1883 at Venice, and was buried at Baireuth. The standing and quality of "Wagner's art are still u subject of contention. His theory of opera was to make the subject-matter, as developed by the hbretto, the main feature. All music was destined to support and express the meaning of the text. The theory was impregnable, and makes it difficult to understand the number of "Wagner concerts in which the music is given without the text — for which incon- sistency the author of the music is, of course, in no wise responsible. In spite of brilliant exceptions, "Wagner's music is generally wanting in conventional melody, but it always faithfully interprets his idea. His power, versatility, and mastery of instrumentation are beyond cavil. "What is needed for comprehension of this master's work is strict attention to his literary idea and literary method. There is no other case known to the history of opera in which the composer has been himself able to create his subject-matter and cast it into literary and poetic form. "Wagner's ad- miration for the great masters who preceded him was passionate and sincere, espe- cially for Gluck, Mozart, and Beethoven. In so far as some of his supporters have tended to ignore these masters, their- influence is not to be commended. The name of Liszt has been mentioned as that of Wagner's great friend and supporter. Franz Liszt (1811-1886) was a Hungarian by birth, who studied in Paris, and became one of the greatest pianoforte players of our time. In an age when the piano is so popular, and when critics and appreciators are so numerous, it is not difficult to understand the adulation and worship which were lavished on one of the most successful masters of the instrument. After an extraordinary success in Paris, Liszt became conductor of the Court Theatre in "Weimar. He resigned this position in 1859, and subsequently distributed his time between "Weimar, Pesth, and Rome. In later lite he became a priest, but without abandoning his musical career, and is known as the AhU Liszt. His compositions, especially those for the piano, are noted for their daring harmonization, and their difficult "bravura" embellishments which tax to the utmost the technique of the pianist, but which are in great favor with virtuosos who use them in order to give a brilliant conclusion to their pro- grammes. His personal character was of marked nobility. 388 HISTORY OF MUSIC. MODERN ITALIAN OPERA. We have given due weight to the precedence and greatness of Germany in modern music. In songs and in oi'chestral compositions there is scarcely a sliow of successful rivalry by other nations, but in the field of opera both France and Italy have done great work. Little of it will, however, bear comparison with the opera of Germany. The ai'tificiality into which Italian opera had fallen in the 18th century, and its causes, have been explained in our account of Gluck. From this condition of decadence it again rose to gi'eatness in the 19th century with the names of Che- rubini, Rossini, Donizetti, Bellini, and Verdi. Paisiello (1741-1815) and Cimarosa (1754 ?-1801) were, however, notable 18th-century composers. Boccherini (1740-1805) takes high rank as a composer of instrumental chamber music. He was a resident of Madrid. Cherubini (1760-1842) was a native of Florence, but finally re- sided at Paris. His great surviving opera is "Les deux Journees" (otherwise named in Germany the "Water-Carrier" — " Der Wasser- trager"), a rarely simple and classic work. He stands (with Boccherini) nearest of all Italians to the classic style of German music. Gioachino Rossini (1792-1868) was born at Pesaro, and studied music in Bologna. The " Barber of Seville " is his world-renowned work, full of movement, vitality, and good music. "Serairamide" was produced in 1823. The first act is one of colossal power; the second act is weaker. After this production Rossini visited England with brilliant success, and then settled in Paris, where he became Director of the Italian Opera. Here he wrote "William Tell" (182 9), of which the famous overture is the best feature. Rossini's character was pleasure-loving and jovial ; he was not fond of work, and after writing this opera preferred to rest on his laurels for the remainder of his> life. In church music he, however, subsequently, w^rote his famous " Stabat Mater." Gaetano Donizetti (1798-18-1:8) was born at Bergamo. The fa- miliar titles of "Lucrezia Borgia," "Lucia di Lammermoor,'" "La Fa- vorita," " La Figlia del Reggimento," " Linda da Chamounix," and **Don Pasquale" all belong to his creations. Donizetti's music is light, but catching and vigorous. The frequency of repetition which these operas liave enjoyed is due to the fact that they are not especially serious, either as regards music or libretto, or as regards connection between the two. In 80 far as some fashionable people have felt bound to attend the opera, without very much caring to do so, Donizetti has not been too taxing to their patience. For peo- ple who go to the opera because they are ashamed to stay away, Donizetti is a good programme. Schumann characterizes his "Lucia" as " Puppenmusik " (puppet- show music). HISTORY OF MUSIC. 389 Vincenzc Bellini (1802-1835) was a native of Sicily. He wrote "Norma," "I Puritani," and " La Sonnambula," all of them sonorous and meritorious works. Bellini shows gravity and capacity for climax in his methods of composition, together with the melodious quality which is the charm of all the Italian operas. Giuseppe Verdi was born in 1814. He is the composer of the familiar works, "Ernani," "II Trovatore," "Rigoletto," "La Traviata," and lately the more serious operas " Aida," " Otello," and " Falstaff." The most recent success of the Italian opera is the "Cavalleria Rusticana" of Mascagni, which has found wide appreciation in America. MODERN MUSIC IN FRANCE AND ENGLAND. Fran9ois Frederic Chopin (1809-184:9) was born in Poland, but being the son of a French father and having spent his art life in France, his name may be entered here. From the age of nineteen this famous pianist was generally a resident of Paris. His delicate health and tender nature unfitted him for public appearance, but in private circles he became the idol of all who knew him. As a composer for the piano, Chopin wrote down what he was himself — heart-weary, pleading, romantic, tender, and deli- cate compositions. He cannot be called capricious, but his compositions are full of moods and changes of mood. Chopin has, in a word, written down the music of life's emotion, as felt by a highly nervous and delicate organism. He is considered by many as the greatest master of pianoforte composition, and his works appear in the programmes of every " virtuoso." The leader in modern French opera is Auber (1782-1871), a disciple of Cherubini, and author of the " Mute of Portici " or '* Masaniello " (the name generally adopted in England). Beside this great and serious work, he is known for his " Fra Diavolo " and other light operas. Charles Francis Gounod was bom in 1818. His " Faust " was produced in 1859. It is one of the most deservedly popular of recent operas. Bizet (1838-1875) born at Paris, is famous for his "Carmen," which was brought out in 1875. Massenet, Thomas and Saint-Saens are recent composers of distinction. One of the greatest French composers was Hector Berlioz (1803-1869). In the recent light operas and comic operas of France there is much that is tuneful and charming. Planquette's "Chimes of Normandy" may be quoted as an illustration. Adam's "Postilion de Longjumeau," of earlier date, is almost a classic. In the field of light opera Sir Arthur Sullivan has made a name vdth " Pinatore," "The Pirates of Penzance," "Patience," " lolanthe," "The Gondoliers," "The Mi- kado," etc. The high literary quality of the librettos of these operas, as furnished by Mr. John Gilbert, has not always been appreciated, and it can be fairly said that the music of Sullivan is worthy of these clever librettos. Balfe's " Bohemian Girl" (1843) and Wallace's "Maritana" (1845) are earlier operas of very light quality, which have had a certain kind of popularity. Sir Wilham Sterndale Bennett (1816-1875) was the greatest of modem English composers. He was proffered in 1853 the appointment of Conductor of the Gewandhaus Concerts at Leipzig. Orchestral composition was his specialty. INDEX AND CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER. Where more than one page reference is given, the fir>if reference is that for pronvncia/ionx and dejlnltlonf,^ whensiipplkdbij Ike text. Reference nximhers for illustrated subjects reftr to the page, not to thi niwiber of the illustration. Abacus, 33, 60. AcUeubacIis, The, 371. Acroteria, 61. Adam, operatic composer, 389. ^giua Maible-s, 143, 145 (ill.). ^Sis. 1"0. Aisles, 86 95. Albaiii Villa, Collection of, 128. Al(liibrau(liiii Weddinsr, 229. Alexandrine, Art and Period, 57; Aicliitectiire, 57; Sculpture, 169. Alleirri, .Antonu). See Correggio. Allston, 367. Alnia-Tadrma, 370. Amazon type, Sisuificance, 151; of Polycletus, 156, 160 (ill.) ; wlien created, 161. Ampliitlieaters, Roman, 72. AuKcl. by Michael Angelo, 204. Annunciation, by Carlo Dolce, 303, 310 (ill.). Antinoiis type. 181. 187 (ill.). Ai)lir()dite. See Venus and, 152. Apollo and Dajiline. Group, b.v Bernini, 213 (ill.), 215. Al)ollo Belvi'dtre, 148, 151, 152; Kepetitions of, 152; Period, 170; Correct Restoration, 170, 173 (ill.). Ai)olloniu.s of Athens, 178. Apollo type, .Signiticance, 151. Apollo with the Lizard, 152, 161, 168 (ill.). Apoxyomenus, by Ly.sii)pus, 170. Apse, 86, 96. Aqueducts, Roman, 67 (ill.), 71. Arch, in Chaldea and As.syria, 38 ; Etru.«ican use of, 71; Roman use of, 71; in (Jreece. 71, 82 ; Pointed, 102. Architectuie, relations to the study of art, 1, 2 ; liis- toric st3'les in modern nse, 5 ; Eg.vptian, 29-42 ; Chaldean, 37; Assyrian, 37, 38; Ancient CJreek, 43-64; Alexandrine, 57; Roman, 05 80; of the Mid- rtle Ases. 81-110; Byzantine, 81-92; Early Chris- tian, 81-92; Romanesque, 92-101; Gothic, 101-110; Renaissance, 117-126. Architrave, 9, 61 ; Doric .ind loinc distinguished, 61. Arch of Constantine, 75. Arch of Titus, 75, 122 (ill.); Reliefs from, 181, 183 (ill.). Ariadne, by Dannecker, 216, 218 (ill.). Ariadne Head, -so-called, 162. Artemis. See Diana and, 152. Assos reliefs, 143. Assumptions of the Madonna, 308. Athene. See Minerva and, 152. Auber, 3S9. Aurora, by Guido, 299 (ill.), 303. BACCHUS type. Significance, 151 ; Greek designation, 152; when orifrinated, 102, 166 (ill.). Bach, John .Sebastian, 377, 378, 379. Balfe, 389. Baptisteries, 82, 90,91. Barbieri. See Guercino. Ba.se, 6, 33, 59. Basilica of Constantine, 70 (ill.), 72. Basilicas, Roman, 72; Roman jilan copied by Christian chuiches, 72 ; Christian, 82-92 ; History of the word, 85. Bathing Soldiers, Cartoon of, 278. Baths, Roman. 62, 80; of Caracalla, 67 (ill.), 76 Battle of the .stamlaid, 258, 260 (ill.). Beethoven, 381, 382. Bellini, 389. Bellini, Gentil'j, 289. Jiellini, Giovanni, 25.3, 288 (ill.), 289, 291 (ill.). Bell Tower, 90. Belvedere Apollo. See Apollo. Belvedere ToTso. See Hercules. Bennelt, Sir William Sterndale, 389. Berliiiz, 389. Bernini, 213 (ill.), 215. Bierstadt, 368. Bizet, 389. Blakelock, 369. Boccheriui, 388. Bonheur, Rosa, 365. Bonnat, 365. Borirhese Villa Collection, 128. Botticelli. 250. Botiguereau, 365. Boxer, The, 178. Brahms, 386. Brancacci Chapel, 249. Brouwer, 328. Brown, Fold Madox, 370. Bru.sh, G. DeF., 369. Buiiie-.Icuu'S, 370. Butlre.ss, 6, 106: Flying, 106. Byzantine architecture. See Architecture. Byzantine mosaics. See Mosaics. Byzantine sculpture. See Sculpture. Byzantine style in Russia, 92. Byzantine, word defined, 82 ; period, 91. Cahaxki., 365. Caliari. See Veronest Callot, 247. Campanile, 90. INDEX. 391 Cauipo Santo, Pisa, 195, 242. Caualetto, 290, 351. Cauova, 130, 148, 215, 216, 217 (111.), 218 (ill.). Capella Spagnnoli, 242. Capital, 6, 33, 60. Capitals— Byzantine, Eomanesque, Gothic, 113-116 (ill.). Captives, by Micliael Angelo, 209, 211 (ill.). Caiacci, The, 298. Caravaggio, 304. Carolus-Duran, 365. Carpaccio, 288 (ill.), 289. Oarpeaux, 216. Carsteus, 371. Caryatids, 52. Casino, New York, 27. Cathedral of New York, 3, 4 (ill.). Cellini, 210, 212 (ill.). Chaldean architecture. See Architecture Chaldean sculpture. See Sculpture. Chase, Wm. M., 369. Cherubini. 388. Chiar-oscuro, 282, 327. Choir, 86, 95. Chopin, 389. Choragic Monument of Lysicrates, 56 (ill.), 58 ; Beliefs of, 147. Clirist and the Widow of Nain, by Palma Vecchio, 295 (ill.). Chryselephantine statues, 44, 155. Church, F. E., 368. Cimabue, 238. City Hall, Boston, 11 (ill.). Classical Orders, 6 (ill.), 47-64. Claude Lorraine, 346 (ill. ), 347. Clerestory, 36. Cole, 368. Colleoni, Statue of, 205 (ill.). Cologne Cathedral, 109. Colonnade, Greek, 33, 44-47. Colosseum, 72. Column, Greek; details of the shaft, 59; distin- gui.slied from piers, 89. Composite Order, 47, 76. Constable, 353, 357, 359. Copley, 351, 367. Corinthian Order, 6 (ill.) ; identical with Ionic, 47, 57; History of, 57; Details of, 59; in Roman use, 76; in Renaissance use, 118; Relation to Alexan. drine sculpture, 169. Cornelius, 371. Cornice, 9, 10; Egyptian, 33; Greek, 62; Roman. esque, 96. Corot, 360. Correggio, 283, 285 (ill.), 286 (ill.). Courbet, 365. Course of Masonry, 26. Couture, 364. Cranach, 322, 326 (ill.). Cresilas, 156. Criticism of architecture distinct from questions of style, 22. Crocket, 108 (ill.). Cnpid and Psyche, by Canova, 218 (ill.). Cupid, by Micliael Angelo, 204. Cupid tj'pe. Significance, 151; Greek designation, 153 ; when originated, 161, 166 (ill.). Curves, Greek horizontal, 61. Cm-ves of the Greek shaft, 59. Cuyp. 328. Danxeckeu, 216, 218 (ill.). Daubigu}', 364. David, by Michael Angelo, 204, 206 (iU.). Da Vinci, 257, 259 (ill.), 260 (ill.). Dawn, The, by Michael Angelo, 207 (ill.), 209. Day, The, by Michael Angelo, 207 (ill.), 209. Decamps, 364. Decorative Art Movement, 27, 125. Degas, 365. De Heeni, 335. Delacroix, 304. Del Piombo, 284. Del Sarto, 284, 287 (ill.). Deudcrah, 32, (ill.). Denner. 351. Descent from the Cross, by Van Der Weiden, 319 (ill.) ; by Rubens, 336. Desiderio da Settignano, 204. Diadumenus, by Polycletus, 156. Diana of Versailles, 170, 171 (ill.), 173 (iU.). Diana type. Significance, 151 ; Greek designation, 152, 173 (ill.). Diaz de la Pena, 364. Dionysus. See Bacchus and, 152. Disk-thrower, 156, 160 (ill.). Dolce, Carlo, 303 (ills.)., 309, 310. Domenichino, 298, 302 (ill.), 303. Domes, Roman, 80 ; Byzantine, 90-92 ; Romanesque use, 95. Donatello, 202 (ill.), 203. Donizetti, 388. Doric Order, 6 (ill.) ; Egj'ptian, 33, 41 (ill.) ; History of, 47 ; compared with Ionic, 59 ; Roman iise, 76. Dorypliorus, by Polj'cletus, 156. Dupre, 364. Diirer, 321, 323 (ill.), 324 (ill.). Dutch School, 327. Dying Gladiator, so-called, 152, 170, 176 (ill.). Eastl.\kr style, 27, 125. Ecce Homo, by Guido, 300 (iU.). Ecce Homo type, 308. Echinus, 61. Edfou Temple, 31 (ill.). Egg and Dart Molding, 64. Elgin Marbles (pronounced el'ghin), 144, 145 (ill.), 146 (ill.), 151. Elizabethan style, 121. Elwell, 216. Endymion, Sleeping, by Guercino, 309 (ill.). Engaged Columns, 10, 117, 122. English School, 351. Entablature, broken lines in Renaissance style ex- plained, 10 ; Origin of the double beam line, 30 ; Do- tails, 61, 62 ; Roman modification, 75, 117. Entasis, 59. Ephesus, Temple of, 51. Erechtheium, 52, 53 (ill.). Eros. See Cupid and, 152. Etty, 357. Facade, 109. Farnese Bull Group, 177, 179 (il'.) ; Hercules, 170. Farnese Collection, 128. Faun, Barberini, 162 ; of the Borghese Villa, 162. Faun, Marble, 151, 162, 168 (ill.). Faun, type, 151, 162, 168 (ill.). Finial, 6, 108 (ill.). Flemish School, 315-336. Florence Cathedral, 116 (ill.). •393 INDEX Florence, School or, 254. Flotow, 386. Flutiiigs, Coliimuar, 60. Fortuuy, 371. Poiiiin of Xei'Mi, 75. Fni .Mificlico, 245. Fnuiz, 386. Fresco, 238. Frescoes, Sistine Chapel, 279 (ill.), 280 (ilL). Frescoe.s, Vatican, 267 (ill.), 268 (ill.), 271 (ill.). Fret, Greek, 64. Prieze, 6, 9, 61, 62. Fuller, George, 368. Fyt, 335. Cables, 9, 62 ; Roman ornamental use, 75, 117. Gaiu.shorough, 350 (ill.), 351. Geroine, 365. Ghiberli, 198 (ill.), 203. ■Ghirlaiulajo, 250, 255 (ill.). •Gibson, 216. Giorgione, 289, 291 (ill.). Giotto. 177-184 (ill.s.), 196, 238. Giovanni Pisano, 196. Girard College, 7 (ill.). Gluck, 379. Gothic, Modern, 5-18; Medieval, 101-110; Englissh, 105, 109 ; Modern Italian, 21; Italian, 109. Goiijon, 210. Gounod, 389. Gozzoli, 249, 251 (ill.). Greek ornament. Structural meaning, 15. Greek Revival, 14, 129. Greek style in modern architecture, 6-17. Greuze, 349 (ill.), 351. Guardi, 290, 351. Guatanialata, Statue of, 202 (ill.). Guercino, 298, 303, 305 (ill.), 306 (ill.), 309 (ill.). Guido of Arezzo, 374. Guido Reni. See Eeni. Guttii', 62. Halicaknassus, Reliefs from, 147. Hal.s, 328. Han. lei, 377, 379. Handkcichief of St. Veronica, 308. Haydn, 381. Hay don, 358. Heliodorus, hy Raphael. 268 (ill.). Hera. See Juno and. 152. Hercules, Farnese, 170, 172 (ill.); Belvedere Torso, 178; Canova's Treatment, 216. Hercules type, Signilicance, 151. Hermes, See Mercurji and, 152. Historic styles in modern architecture, 15-28. Hohhema, 328. Holbein, Hans, the Younger, 322, 325 (ill.). Homer, AVinslow, 368. Hunt, Holman, 369, 370. Hunt, Wm. JI., 368. IMMACL'LATE CONCEPTION, type, 308; by Murillo, 344 (ill.). Imprea.sionists, 365. Incendio, del Borgo, by Raphael, 271 (ill.). Inness, George, 369. Ionic Order, 6 (ill.); history, 48-51; details, 59; Ro- man, 76 ; origin of capital, 61. Italian Gothic, See Octhic. James, Frederick, 369. J.ihii of Rologna, 203. 210, 212 (ill.). Joniaens, 336, 338 (ill.). Juilith, by Cranach, 326 (ill.). Juno Ludovisi, 156, 159 (ill.). Juno type, .Sigiiilicance, 151 ; Greek designation. 15% 159 (ill.); when originated, 161. Jupiter type, Signiti(!ance, 151 ; Greek designati'^ 152; Otricoli, 156, 158(111.); when originated, 161. Kaufmann, Angelica, 348. Kaulbach,371. Key I'attern, 64. Knaus, 371. Kolncr Dom-bild, 318 (ill.), 321. LACllNEli, 386. La Farge, John, 368. Laocoon Group, 176 (ill.), 177. Last Communion of St. Jerome, l)y Domenichino, 302 (ill.), 303. La.st Judgment, by Michael Angelo, 279 (ill.), 281. Last Supper, by Da Vinci, 257, 259 (ill.). Leigliton, Sir Frederick, 370. Leonardo da Vinci, 204, 257. Lion-Gate of Myceme, 139. Lippi, 249, 256 (ill.)T Liszt, 387. Lombard style, 100. Lotus, forms of capitals, 33, 61- Luca della Robl)ia, 199 (ill.), 203. Ludovisi Villa Collection, 128. Luini, 261,263 (ill). Lully, 377. Lunette, 203. Luxor, 34. Lysiiipus, 170. Mabuse, 327. Madeleine, The, 8 (ill.). Madonna, by Fii.^^)o Lippi, 256 (ill.); bj' Fra Angel- ico, 256 (ill.); by Raphael, 264 (ills.) ; by Del Sarto, 287(111.); by Giorgione, 291(111.); by Veronese, 296 (ill.) : by Carlo Dolce, 309 (ill.), 310 (ill.). Madonnas of Raphael, 265. Magdalen, by Corieggio, 284; by Guido, 301 (Ul.). Maison Canee, 73 (ill.), 76. Makart, 371. Manet, 365. Mantegna, 253. Marble Faun. See Faun. Mars, Ludovisi, 170, 172 (ill.). Martui, Homer, 368. Masaccio, 247 (ill.), 249. Mascagni, 389. Masoliiio, 248 (ill.), 249. Masonic Temple, J'liiladclphia, 19 (ill.). Massenet. 389. Master Stephaii, of Cologne, 318 (ill.), 321. Master William, of Cologne, 321. Mater Dolorosa, by Carlo Dolce, 309 (ill.) Mat.sys, 326 (ill.), 327. Mausoleum Reliefs, 147. Meander, 64. Medici Collection, 128. INfeissonier, 365. Mcmling. 321. Menihlssolm, 383. Mengs, 348. Mercuiy and Graces, by Tintoretto, 295 (ill.). Mercury, by Praxiteles, 148. 151, 154 (ill.), 160. INDEX 393 Mercury type, Significance, 151 ; Greek designation, 152, 154 (ill.). Metopes, 62. Metzu, 328. Meyerbeer, 384. Msyer, Von Bremen. 371. .hael Angelo, architect, 118; sculptor, 204; painter, 278. Michel, 364. Millai.s, 369, 370. Millet, 363. Minerva type, Significance, 151 ; Greek designation, 152, 157 (ills.) ; when originated, 161. Mino da Fiesole, 204. Molding, 33. Mona Lisa, Portrait of, 261. Monet, 365. Monteverde, 375. Monticelli, 364. Moresque style, 27. Mosaics, Byzantine, 91, 233-236 (ilia.). Moses, by Michael Angelo, 208 (iU.), Mosque of Omar, Jerusalem, 91. Mosque of St. Sophia, 91. Motive, 148. Mozart, 380. Munkacsy, 371. MuriUo, 313, 336, 344 (ill.), 345 (ill.). Museum of Fme Arts, Boston, 20 (UL). Mutules, 62. Myron, 156, 160 (Ul.). Nave, 86, 95. Nicolo of Pisa, 195, 197 (ill.), 198 (ill.), 237. Nike Apteros Temple, 50 (ill.), 57. Niobe Group, 162, 167 (ill.). Norman style, 100. Oil-painting introduced into Italy, 253. Olympian Jupiter, temple, Athens, 56 (ill.), 58; tem- ple, Olj'mpia, 144. Opera House, Paris, 12 (ill.). Orders, Classic, 6 (ill.), 47-64. Padua, School of, 253. Page, 368. Painting, Assyrian, 225 ; Egyptian, 225 ; Greek, 229; Roman, 229; Italian, 231-314; German, 315-322; Flemish, 315-336; Dutch, 327-335; Spanish, 336- 347; French, 347, 348; English, 351. Paisiello, 388. Palestriua, 374, 375. Palma Vecchio, 289, 294 (ill.), 295 (Ul.). Palmette, 64. Pantheon, 73 (ill.), 79, 89. Parthenon, 45 (ill.), 51; Frieze, 144, 145(111.); Meto- pes, 146 (ill.), 147. Peale, Rembrandt, 366. Peale, Wilson, 366. Pediment, 9, 62. Pergamus, Reliefs from, 147, 149 (ill.), 150 (ill.). Pergoli-.si, 376. Peri, Jacotio, 375. Perseus, St.atue of, by Cellini, 212 (ill.). Perugiuo, 250, 252 (ill.). Phidias, 51, 155. Piers, distingui.slied from columns, 89 ; Romanesque, 92; Gothic, 105. Pietil, by Michael Angelo, 204, 211 (ill.) ; by Bernini, 213 (ill.), 215 ; by Matsys, 326 (ill.). Pilasters, 10, 96. Pilon, 210, 212 (ill.). Piloty, 371. Pinnacles, Gothic, 6, 106. Plinth, 99. Poetry, by Raphael, 267 (ilL). Polycletus, 156. Pompeii, 79. Porta Maggiore, 70 (ill.). Potter, Paul, 328, 331 (ill.). Poussin, 346 (ill.), 347. Powers, Hiram, 216. Praxiteles, 161. Pre-Raphaelites, 369. Presentation, by Carpaccio, 288 (ill.); by Holbein the Elder, 320 (ill.). Profile, 33. PropyU-ea, 51, 52, 54 (ill.). Purcell, 377. Piivis de Chavaunes, 366. Pylon, 30. Pyramid of Shafra, 39 (ill.). Pyramids, 34-37. QUEEN ANNE Stj'le, 22-25, 24 (ill.), 121, 125. Ra-EM-KA, Statue of, 136, 137 (ill.). Rafif, 386. Ramesseum, 35 (ill.). Ramses II., Colos.si of Ipsamboul, 138 (ill.). Rape of the Sabines, by John of Bologna, 210. Raphael, 262-278. Raveua churches, 85. Rembrandt, 327, 329 (ill.). Renaissance architecture, 6-17, 117-126; sculptuMb 196-215; painting, 246-314. Renaissance, word detiued, 13. Reni, Guido, 298, 299-301 (ills.). Repine, 371. Reynolds, 350 (ill.), 351. Rheims Cathedral, 107 (ill.). Ribera, 304, 311 (ilLs.). Robusti. See Tintoretto. Rococco style, 122. Roman arch, 65-71. Roman domestic architecture, 79. Romanesque, Modern, 21, 22 ; Medieval, 82, 89, 92- 100; Italian, 99. Roman ornament, derived from Alexandrine Greek, 58. Roman portrait sculpture, 181. Roman ruins in .Syria, 76. Roman temples, 76. Rossetti, 369, 370. Rossini, 388. Rousseau, 360. Ruben.s, 313, 335, 340 (ill.), 341 (iU.). Ruysdael, 328, 330 (ill.). Ryder, Albert, 369. ST. Cecilia, by Rai)hae], 275 (ill.); by Domenichino, 303 ; by Cailo Dolce, 304 ; by the Van Eycks, 317 (ill.). St. Gaudens, 216. St. John Lateran, Rome, Church of, 122, 123 (ill.). St. Ouen, Rouen, 103, 104 (ills.). St. Paul's, London, 121. St. Paul's, Rome, old Basilica, 85, 87 (ill.). St. Peter's, Rome, 118, 119 (ill.). St. Peter's, Rome, old Basilica, 85. Saint-Saens, 389. Salvator Rosa, 307, 312 (ill.). 394 INDEX, San ApolMnare in Classe, Ravenna, 84 (ills.). Sau Apollinare, Nuovo, Raveiiua, 83 (ill.). Sansoviuo, 210. Santa Croce, Florence, Chnrch of, 112 (ill.). Santa Maria dell' Arena, fre.scoes, 238, 239-244 (ills.). San VJtale, Ravenna, 88 (ill.). Sargent, J. S., 369. Scarlatti, Alcssanilro, 376. Scliluter, 215. School, wont defined, 254 : of Padua, 253, 289; of Flo- rence, 254; of Venice, 253-289; of Bologna, 297; of Xaples, 304 ; of Cologne, 316. Schubert, 385. Scluiniann, 383. Scopa.s, 162. Sculpture, Clialdean, 131; Assyrian, 131; Egyptian, 131-136; Greek, 139-178; Roman, 181, 182; Byzau- tine, 189-195; Medieval, 181-196; Renaissance, 196- 215. Selinus, Metope reliefs, 143. Seti I., Relief portrait, 136, 227 (ill.). Shirlaw, Walter, 369. Sibyls, by Raphael, 277; by Michael Angelo, 281 ; by Doraenichino, 303; by Guido, 301 (ill.). Sibyl type, 308. Sioiiuous, Edward E., 369. Si-stine Chapel, 250, 262, 278, 279 (iU.). Snyders, 335, 339 (ill.). Sodonia, 284. Spagnoletto. See Rtbera. Sphinx, 34, 39 (ill.). Spires, 90. Spohr, 386. Stained Glass, 106. Bteen, 328. Steeples, Origin, 96. String-course. 26. Stuart, 366, 367. Stylobate. 62. Sullivan, Sir Arthur, 389. Sj'nagogue, New York, 27. Temple. See Architecture. Temple Bar, London, 126 (ill.). Tenier.s, 335, 337 (ill.). Terburg, 328, 332 (ill.). Thayer, Abbott H., 369. Theseus, Temple of, 43 (ill.); Statue of, 146 (ill.), 151. Thompson, Wordsworth, 369. Thornycroft, 219. Thorwaldsen, 130, 148, 215, 221 (ill.), 222 (UL). Tiepolo, 290, 351. Tiffany Mansion, New York, 26. Tintoretto, 290, 295 (ill.). Titian, 283, 289, 292 (ill.), 293 (Ul.). Tombs of Beni-Hassan, 35. Tombs of the Medici, by Michael Angelo, 807 (ills.), 209. Torso, 178. Towers, Roniane.sque use, 96, Transepts, 95. ""'Tglyphs, 62. - - lumphal arches, 72. Troyon, 364. Trutr- -11, 367. T — . Tu e.,47, 76. UFFIZI Collection, 128. Vaxderbilt Man.sions, New York, 17. Van Der Weiden, 319 (ill.), 321. Van Der Werff, 335. Van de Velde, 328. Van Dyck, 313, 336, 342 (ill.). Van Everdingen, 328. Van Eyck.s, The, 253, 316, 317 (iU.). Van Iluysum, 335. Van Ostade, 328, 332 (ill.), 333 (iU.). Vaulting, Roman method, 72; Komanesqoe, OG-vtf; Gothic, 105, 106. Vedder, Eliliu, 368. Velasquez, 343 (ill.), 347. Venice, School of, 253. Venus and Bacchante, by Titian, 293 (iU.). Venus, Medici, 170, 174 (ill.). Venus of Milo, 148, 151, 163 (iU.), 164 (ill.). Venus tj'pe. Significance, 151 ; Greek designation, 152, 163 (ill.) ; -wlien originated, 161, 174 (ill.). Verdi, 389. Verestchagin, 371. Verocchio, 204, 205 (ill ), 250. Veronese, 290, 290 (ill.). Victory reliefs, Athenian AcropoU.s, 147, 149 (UIs.). Vischer, Petei-, 210, 214 (ill.). Von Mieris, 328. Votive Church, Vienna, 4. Wagner, 216. Wallace, 389. Warner, 386, 387. Watteau, 351. Watts, George F., 370. Weber, 384. West, 367. Whistler, James M., 369. Wilkie. 358, 359. Wiuckilmann, 14, 129, 130, 148, 178, 2ia Wingless Victory, Temple of, 50 (UL), 57; Balnstrade reliefs, 147, 149 (ills.). Wooden Man of Boulak, 136, 137 (ill.). Wouvermans, 335. Wrestler Group, 175 (ills.), 177. Zampieui. See Domcnichino. Zeus. See Jupiter and, 152. Zorn, 371. UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY BERKELEY RETURN CIRCULATION DEPARTMENT TO--^ 202 Main Library LOAN PERIOD 1 HOME USE 2 3 4 5 ( 5 ALL BOOKS MAY BE RECALLED AFTER 7 DAYS Renewals and Recharges may be made 4 days prior to the due date. Books may be Renewed by calling 642-3405. 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