CELEBRITIES OF THE CENTURY. C. K. OGDEH Celebrities of the Century. BEING a Dictionary of flDen anfc Women IFUneteentb Century EDITED BY LLOYD O. SANDEKS NEW AND REVISED EDITION. CASSELL & COMPANY, Limited: LONDON, PARIS AND MELBOURNE. 1890. [ALL EIGHTS KESEliVED. ] cr m S3 LIBRARY UNIVERSITY OF CATJ^ORNIA fiANXA EAflfiAftA PREFACE. The present publication attempts to make good a real deficiency — existing ah any rate in this country — namely, that of a fairly adequate and exhaustive Dictionary of Recent and Contemporary Biography, including foreign as well as national celebrities. The greater lights of the century have been treated with some fulness ; in the case of those of minor importance, it was Unneces- sary to do more than give a concise summary of the leading events of their lives. Again, the introduction of contemporaries necessarily implied two standards of criticism. In their case the aim has been to make the articles something better than mere strings of facts and dates, while avoiding on the one hand flippant expressions of individual opinions, on the other empty eulogy. A few words as to the scope and arrangement of the book. It was of course inevitable, where a purely arbitrary frontier line, such as that of the century, was selected, that there should be a considerable number of subjects lying partly within and partly without it. As a rule those who merely survived the year 1800, without making any material addition to the land- marks of their lives, have been altogether excluded, or treated with great brevity ; even in cases like those of Fox and Pitt, the earlier part of their career has been shortly summarised. Within the compass of eleven hundred pages of a moderate size, utility rather than completeness was the object chiefly kept in view. In drawing up the lists of names, the wants of the average reader were consulted as far as possible, and an effort was made to avoid serious omissions by a diligent consultation of standard works and the catalogue of the British Museum. Also, inasmuch as the world has not stood still while the work was in progress, care has been taken in the case of living men to include occurrences of consequence down to the eve of going to press. In order to give a connected idea of the leading facts in the annals of minor nationalities, their potentates have been treated under the heading of the country over which they rule. Thus, the ax-ticle on " Egypt, The Khedives of," may be of some value as a commentary on what has taken place in that country within the last few years. To save the reader the trouble of hunting up and down the book, authors who have written under a nom de plume of European celebrity, such as George Eliot, VI PKEFACE. George Band, and Mark Twain,are dealt with under the title by which they have chosen to be known to the world at large. Living people are indicated by an asterisk. Such value as this volume may be found to possess, is due for the most part to the able staff of contributors who have given it their invaluable aid, and have constantly supplied useful suggestions and much zealous co-opera- tion. To all • of them the Editor renders his most grateful thanks, but especially to Mr. H. W. Nevinson, B.A., who has been his right-hand man throughout, and given him much sound advice upon matters on which he was insufficiently informed. His thanks are also due to the great band of men of mark who have been kind enough to give information about themselves, or to revise the notices that were sent to them. The Editor has met witli few refusals, and the ready courtesy of his correspondents has made his labours far lighter than they would have been otherwise. LIST OF PRINCIPAL CONTEIBUTOKS. H. T. MACKENZIE BELL. WILFRID S. BLUNT. ROBERT BROWN, M.A., Ph.D., F.L.S. The BARONESS S. BLAZE DE BURY. MLLE. Y. BLAZE DE BURY. R. HALL CAINE. T. HALL CAINE. MISS A. M. CORTHORN. F. J. CROWEST. H. SUTHERLAND EDWARDS. H. BUXTON FORMAN. F. J. FURNIVALL, LL.D. R. GARNETT, LL.D. A. EGMONT HAKE. J. A. HAMILTON, M.A., Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. EDWARD J. HARDING. DR. G. K. HOSMER. T. E. KEBBEL, M.A. LIEUT. -COL. C. COOPER KING, Late Pro- fessor at the Royal Military College, Sand- hurst. H. LALLEMAND, B.-es-Sc, Professor of the French Language and Literature at Univ. Coll., London. S. J. LOW, B.A., late Lecturer on Modern History at King's Coll., London. W. MACKENZIE, M.A. The late J. COTTER MORISON. A. F. MURISON, M.A., Trofessor of Roman Law at Univ. Coll., London. H. W. NE VINSON, B.A., Professor of History at Bedford Coll., London. . A. OLIVIERI, LL.D. The late Rev. Sir F. A. GORE OUSELEY, Babt., Mus. Doc, Professor of Music in the University of Oxford. S. LANE-POOLE, M.A., F.R.A.S. J. FORBES ROBERTSON. W. B. ROBERTSON, M.A. J. D. ROGERS, B.C.L., M.A., Fellow of Univ. Coll., Oxford. LLOYD C. SANDERS, B.A. ANDREW SETH, M.A., Professor of Philo- sophy at South Wales University. G. BARNETT SMITH. The Rev. S. A. SWAINE. T. F. TOUT, M.A., Fellow of Pembroke Coll. , Oxford, Professor of History at Owens College, Manchester. H. WALKER, M.A., Lecturer in the English Language and Literature at St. David's Coll., Lampeter. F. WEDMORE. MRS. C. M. WILSON. ROBERT WILSON. Celebrities of the Century. The biographies marked loith an asterisk are those of persons still living. A'ali Pasha (*. 1815, d. 1871) was a Turkish statesman, who on five occasions filled the post of Grand Vizier. A'ali Pasha, who was a zealous advocate of reform, first entered the service of the Sultan in 1830, and was subsequently transferred from one diplo- matic cost to another. He was accredited Ambassador to England from 1841 to 1844. On his return to Constantinople he was made a member of the Council of State. In 1846 he received the portfcT'o of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and in i852 filled the office of Grand Vizier for six months. In 1854 he was nominated President of the Council of the Tauzimat ; and, as Foreign Minister, he took part in the deliberations of the Confer- ence at Vienna in 1855, convened fqr the purpose of terminating the Crimean War. A'ali also represented Turkey in 1856 at the Paris Conference, at which the Declaration of Peace was signed, and presided over the Congress at Paris of 1864, called to settle the affairs of Roumania. When the Sultan visited the Courts of Europe in 1867, A'ali was appointed Regent. His tenure of the office of Grand Vizier in no instance lasted more than a few months. * Aarifi, EfFendi (*. 1830) is the son of a distinguished Turkish diplomatist, by whom he was introduced at an early age into political life. His knowledge of languages gained him the post of Interpreter to the Divan, which ho held for many years. In 1872 he became Ambassador at Vienna, and two years later he held successively the offices of Minis- ter of Public Instruction and Minister of Justice. When in 1876 an attempt was made to stave off the intervention of the Powers in Turkish affairs by the promulgation of a now Constitution, Aarifi Pasha became the Presi- dent of the Senate. In 1879 ho was ap- pointed Prime Minister, the Grand Vizierate having been temporarily abolished by decree. His Ministry, which included Safvet Pasha, only lasted, however, for a few months. Aarifi Pasha became President of the Council in the new ministry of Oct., 1885. Abascal, Jose Fernando (b. 1743, d. 1821), after rising to the rank of Brigadier- General in the Spanish army, was appointed commander of the island of Cuba in 1796, and defended its capital, Havannah, against c.c. — 1 the English. In 1804 he became Viceroy of Peru, and in the face of the general revolt of the Spanish possessions, he managed to keep that colony faithful to the Government. In 1816, however, owing to several reverses suffered by his troops, both from the insur- gents and the English, he was recalled to Spain. W. B. Stephenson, Twenty Tears' Residence in South America. Abbas Pasha. [Egypt.] Abbot, Charles. [Colchester, Lord.] Abbott, Charles. [Tenterden, Lord.] ♦Abbott, Evelyn, M.A., LL.D. (!>. March 10th, .1843), was educated at Ballioi College, Oxford, and obtained the Gaisford Prize, 1864, and a first-class (classics) in 1866. He became a fellow of the college in 1874, and subse- quently classical tutor and librarian. Mr. Abbott is well known as a classical scholar. Perhaps his most useful work is his mastorly translation of Professor Duncker's History of Antiquity (1877). He has also edited, in con- junction with Professor Lewis Campbell, an admirable edition of the plays of Sophocles for the Clarendon Press. Among his other works are Selections from Lucian (1872), A History of Greece, Part I. (1888), and he has edited a collection of essays on Greek subjects, styled Hellenica (1881). *Abbott, The Rev. Edwin Ahbott, D.D. (b. 1838), became a Fellow of St. John's Col- lege, Cambridge, in 1861. After being for three years Assistant Master of King Edward's School, Birmingham, he was from 1865 to 1888 Head Master of the City of London School. He has been Select Preacher at both the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge, and Hulsean Lecturer in the latter University in 1876. Dr. Abbott is understood to be the author of two remarkable religious romances, published anonymously — ■ Fnilochristu* i Me- moirs of a Disciple of our Lord (1878), and Onesimus : Memoirs of a Disciple of St. Dan! (1882). His religious works include Bible Lessons (1872), and Through Xature to Chris' (1877). His educational works are : — a Shakc- sperian Grammar (1870), an edition of Bacon's Essays (1876), and an English Grammar (3rd edition, 1877). He has also written a sketch 'IP Abd (2) Abd of Bacon's earlier life, entitled Bacon and Estex (1877] . Mid Trtmeit Hucon (1885). • ' Abd-el-Al Pasha, an Egyptian officer, was identified with the nationalist movement of 1881 and the following years. An attempt y the Egyptian Governmentin February ie him and his fellow-officers, Ali Bey i Arabi Bey, was followed by a mutiny of the trap, and he played a pminm- ent part in the measures taken by Arab] for tli- eoorcion of the Government. In 1882 he was appointed commandant of Damietta by aional Council, and some days after the of Tell-el-K.-bir, surrendered there with ■ousand hliick troops. He was tried with the other leaders of the rebellion and oced to death, a punishment subsequently . uted for perpetual banishment in Ceylon. A.M. Broadley, Hove we Defended Ai-abi and hi* Friends. 'Abd-el-'Aziz [ u Servant of the Mighty"), thirty-second Sultan of Turkey (b. 1830, d. 1876), succeeded his brother, 'Abd-el-Mejid, June 25th, 1861. Unlike his humane and kindly predecessor, 'Abd-el-'Aziz was of a gloomy, morose disposition, more interested in cock-fights than in the soft delights of the harim which entranced 'Abd-el-Mejid. The vents of his reign, which was not marked hv the reforming tendencies of the preceding (unless his visit to London in 1867 — an event unprecedented in Turkish annals —is to be euimted as a reform), were the Cretan revolt, which was brought to an end in 1869 by the remonstrance of the Powers addressed to Greece, who had assisted the insurgents ; the withdrawal of the garrisons on the Servian frontier, whereby that principality beeame virtually independent; the insurrection in Herzegovina in 1875, which was followed by disturbances in most of the Christian provinces of the Empire, where Russian agents fomented the discontent of the rayahs and eventually- brought about the now celebrated Bulgarian "atrocities," and the Servian, Montenegrin, and finally the Turco-Russian War ; but these dis- turbances and their momentous consequences overran the reign of this Sultan. The great external event was the repudiation by Russia of the provision of the Treaty of Paris Which guaranteed the neutrality of the Black Sea. This breach of international faith was suc- cessfid mainly because France was exhausted by the struggle with Germany ; Austria and Germany were indifferent, and England, with- out an ally, was under the direction of the government of Mr. Gladstone, which was not nmirkable for its interference in foreign questions. Hence, by a treaty signed at London, Feb. 13th, 1871, Russia was per- mitted to violate the laws of nations An- other serious occurrence in the reign of A). l-el-'Aziz, was the insolvency of Turkey, whieh impended during the latter years of his rule, an<£ was actually announced under his successor in July, 1876, when the Porte- declared itself unable to make any pay- ments on its national debt, and thereby lost the confidence and favour of the English middle class. On May 30th, 1876, 'Abd-el- ' Aziz was deposed, ostensibly because his reason had given way, and on the 4th of June he was- found murdered, probably to prevent his being used as an excuse for risings among the disaffected ; but by whom the deed was com- mitted is still a matter of dispute. [S. L.-P.] * 'Abd - el - Hamld (" Servant of the Praised"), the reigning Sultan of Turkey (b. 1842), thirty-fourth of his line, .son of 'Abd - el - Mejid, succeeded his brother, Muiad V., on Aug. 31st, 1876. He found the internal affairs of the Ottoman Empire in a calamitous condition ; the Christian pro- vinces were either in open insurrection or teem- ing with' revolutionary societies, who received their inspiration and the sinews of war from Russia ; Servia and Montenegro declared war in sympathy with the already revolted Herzegovina ; Bulgaria, stirred by the agents of the Panslavists, attempted to throw off the yoke of the Turk, and the wanton cruelty which was then shown in reducing a peasantry of which stupidity was the chief crime did more to weaken the Ottoman Power in the eyes of civilised Europe than centuries of bad government could have effected. The Bul- garian " atrocities " led to the Turco-Russian War in 1876, which ended in the defeat of the Turks, the reconstruction of the Christian provinces, and the permanent weakening of the Ottoman Empire. By the treaties of St. Stefano and Berlin, Turkey was virtually shorn of her northern provinces, and Russia became more influential than ever in the councils of the Porte. A little later, the dis- turbances caused in Egypt, partly by mis- government and debt, and partly by r the in- trigues of the Khedive Ismail, led to his deposition, and the consequent reinforcement of the disaffected, who found the new Khedive Tawfik (or Tewfik) powerless to contend with the factions that were destroying his do- minions. The result was the insurrection of 'Araby, and the interposition of England, in the bombardment of Alexandria, the defeat of the Egyptian rebels at Tell -el - Kebir, and the practical administration of Egypt by England with exceedingly scant success ever since. The Sultan could scarcely regard those operations with favour ; he was' forced to look on whilst his most important province was placed in the hands of English officials, and a dangerous religious movement in the Sudan was fostered by official incom- petence. In 1885 came the revolution in Eastern Roumelia. . His acquiescence in these and other shocks to his empire is the result of policy, and not of indifference. On the contrary, he is devoted to the business of Abd ( 3) Abd his position, does an immense amount of work personally, and takes a keen interest in all matters that concern his country. That he indulges dreams of the restoration of the ancient power of Turkey and of Islam is well known, and should the Pan-Islamic movement ever come to anything, 'Ahd-el-Hamid will be its head. But with all his zeal for his creed and nation, he is no fanatic, and produces a very favourable impression upon Christians. Lord Duft'erin said of him that he " excels all the monarchs of the day in the urbanity and charm of his manners, and in the gracious consideration he shows to those who have the happiness of being admitted to his presence ; " and the universal opinion is that he is no less capable as a ruler than personally engaging. [S. L.-R] 'Abd-el-Xadir (" Servant of the Power- ful"), (b. 1807, d. 1883), Algerian patriot, belonged to a family of rank and influence in Oran, and was himself as much renowned in youth for intelligence as for athletic ac- complishments. The Dey of Algiers foresaw danger in the young man, and sought to kill him; so 'Abd-el-Kadir fled into Egypt, and performed the pilgrimage to Mekka. When he returned to Algiers he found the French in possession of his country, and forth- with set about turning them out. The people of Oran rose in 1831, and made him king, or at least Emir of Mascara, his birthplace, and he preached the Holy War, and led the tribes against the French with so much success that he concluded a favourable treaty, in 1834, with the French general, which recognised him as absolute Emir of Mascara. In the fol- lowing year 'Abd-el-Kadir again raised the cry of the Holy War, and the conflict lasted ten years, and cost France more men and money than she cares to own. 'Abd-el-Kadir's brilliant tactics won the admiration of the Duke of Wellington, and baffled all the marshals and royal princes of France. Mar- shal Bugeaud and 40,000 French troops, however, at length set themselves deter- minedly to subdue the Arabs, and suc- ceeded, after an heroic resistance, in com- pelling 'Abd-el-Kadir to surrender in 1847, on condition that he should be allowed to retire to Alexandria or Acre. This promise w 7 as broken by the French Government, and the Arab hero was imprisoned in the castle of Pau, and afterwards at Amboise, till 1852, when Napoleon III. restored him to liberty upon condition of never returning to Algiers. 'Abd-el-Kadir thenceforward lived, a pen- sioner of the Second Empire, at BrQsa, Constantinople, and Damascus, and died at Mekka. He was an Arab of the best type : generous, hospitable, frank, with a quick and vivid temperament, and a devotion to his country. During the Syrian massacres, in 1863, he befriended the Christians publicly, for which he received the Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour. He came to Paris to see the 1867 Exhibition, and on the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian war, the old chief begged to be allowed to lead an Arab army against the Germans. [S. L.-P.] *Abd-el Kerim Pasha(*. circa 1817), after a distinguished career in the Turkish army, was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the army of the Danube on the outbreak of war with Russia in 1877. He proved, how- ever, exceedingly unequal to the occasion ; the Russians crossed that river without being- compelled to strike a blow, and the line of the Balkans was speedily penetrated at several parts. In September he was accordingly re- called in disgrace, and succeeded by Mehemet Aly Pasha. 'Abd-el-MejId (" Servant of the Glori- fied "), thirty-first Sultan of Turkey (b. 1823, d. 1861), succeeded his father, the famous Sultan Mahmud II., July 2nd, 1839. At the time of his accession to the throne the youth- ful Sultan found the very existence of his Empire menaced by the successful advances of the Egyptian army under Ibrahim Pasha, the son of Mohammed 'Aly. On June 25th, 1839, the Turkish troops had been disastrously routed at the battle of Nezib, when many of the officers were induced by bribes to go over to the enemy ; and in July . the Turkish fleet was traitorously surrendered to the Egyptians. In the midst of these calamities Sultan Mahmud died, and left his young son to meet what appeared to be the probable dissolution of the Empire. Such a catastrophe, however, was not to be contemplated by the great Powers, who, with the exception of France, now came to the rescue of the Porte. The bombardment of Beyrut and Acre in August and November, 1840, proved to Mohammed 'Aly that the warn- ings of the four Pow r ers were not to be disre- regarded ; the Pasha yielded, and the firman of Feb. 13th, 1841, laid down the future relations of Turkey and her rebellious province, fixed the annual tribute, made the viceroyalty hereditary to the descendants of Mohammed 'Aly, and regulated other disputed matters. - Another outcome of the war was the celebrated Convention of London, July 13th, 1841, whereby the right of the Sultan to control the navigation of the Dardanelles was recog- nised by the 6ve Powers, who bound themselves to respect the Porte's right to refuse passage to- foreign ships of war. Twelve years of peace, broken only by insignificant insurrec- tions, which were ably subdued by the Otto- man general, 'Omar Pasha, enabled the Sultan to carry r out some of the reforms which had been initiated by his great father. In the first year of his reign he promulgated the famous Hatti-sherif of Giilhane, whereby equal rights and liberties were decreed to all his subjects, without distinction of nationality or religious belief ; the law, especially with regard to public trial for capital offences, was Abd (*') Abe re-uaerted : and regulations for the iinprove- ini nt of the military system and the collection uf t.ixis were introduced. The Sultan him- self was generally a passive agent in these affairs, for his disposition was that of a refined voluptuary, and his devotion to the pleasures of his harim left him little energy to expend on public concerns, which he was content to leave to his ministers. His kindly, gentle nature, however, was completely in accord with the civilising policy inaugurated by his father. In his advisers he was singularly fortunate ; for not only was Rcshid Pasha an enlightened and able statesman, but during most of his reign the Sultan had the priceless advantage of the counsels of Sir Stratford Canning, afterwards Lord Stratford de Red- cliffe, who was in effect the Prime Minister of Turkey so long as he remained at Con- stantinople, i.e. from 1842, but with brief in- tervals, to 1858. He it was who kept the more enlightened school of Turkish ministers in power, and enforced the detailed application of the provisions indicated in the Hatti-sherlf ; obtained the formal renunciation of the old system of torture, of the execution of rene- gades ; insisted on the practical adoption of the principles of religious toleration which had been enounced in the Hatti-sherlf ; pro- cured a just revision of the commercial treaties, and secured the rights of trade and other advantages for English merchants, to the benefit of both countries ; and steered the Porto through the complications of 1849, when 'Abd-el-Mejid courageously refused to give up Kossuth and the other Hungarian patriots who hud taken refuge in Turkey, in spite of the menaces of Russia and Austria. Under 'Abd-el-Mejid's rule, or that of his ministers, guided by Lord Stratford, the Ottoman Empire made real progress, and the reform of the army, the new system of recruiting, and the reduction of the local feudatories, rendered the Porte the better prepared to carry out the successful campaign on the Danube which preceded the Crimean War. Of that war, which was the great event of 'Abd-el-Mejid's reign, it is not necessary here to relate the incidents. Russia had before attempted to force the Porte, in 1850, but diplomacy had then averted the extremity of war. In 1853, however, in pursuance of an intolerable demand for the virtual sovereignty of the thirteen million subjects of the Porte who belonged to the Greek Church, Russia poured her troops into the.Danubian Principalities, by way of securing " material guarantees" for a totally unjustifiable claim. The result is familiar to all. The capture of Sevastopol in September, 1855, terminated the war, and the Treaty of Paris of March 30th, 1856, pro- vided for the settlement of the Danubian Prin- cipalities, the neutrality of the Black Sea, and the internal administrative independence of the Turkish Empire; while a convention of the same date re-asserted the closing of the Darda- nelles to ships of war so long as the Porte was at peace, and proclaimed the adhesion of the six Powers (Sardinia included) to this principle. By a separate treaty of the 15th of April, 1856, England, France, and Austria guaran- teed the independence and integrity of the Ottoman Empire, and bound themselves to treat any infraction of the treaty of March as a casus belli. In the same year 'Abd-el- Mejid promulgated the Hatti-Humayiin, which confirmed the reforms of the Hatti- sherlf, and recapitulated many of the conces- sions which Lord Stratford had obtained with respect to the liberties and legal privileges of the Christian rayahs. In 1858 the Princi- palities were finally settled, and united as the kingdom now known as Roumania. In 1860 massacres of Christians in the Lebanon and Damascus were near exciting a general confla- gration, and a French expedition was, with the apjiroval of the Powers and the consent of Turkey, despatched to restore order. The Porte, however, misliking the interference of foreign troops in Ottoman territory, managed to pacify the distm-bed districts by the firm hand of Fuad Pasha before the French arrived on the scene, and the expedition shortly re- turned home. This was the last important event of the reign of 'Abd-el-Mejid. On the whole, his rule was signalised by many valu- able reforms, some of which, in Turkish manner, remain more effective on paper than in practice, but many have been really carried out, and his period, thanks in a large degree to Lord Stratford, was marked by progress and enlightened ideas. [S. L.-P.] 'Abd-er-Rahman Khan. [Afghani- stan.] *Abdy, John Thomas, LL.D. {b. 1822), an English barrister and author, son of Lieut. - Colonel J. N. Abdy, took his degree from Trinity Hall, Cambridge. Three years later (1S47) he obtained the degree of LL.B.; in 1850 was chosen Fellow of his college, and called to the bar. In 1852 he was created LL.D., and in 1854 was appointed Regius pro- fessor of civil law at Cambridge University, which post he held for nineteen years. Dr. Abdy was appointed Recorder of Bedford in 1870, and a County Court Judge in the fol- lowing year. Among his legal works may- be mentioned annotated translations of The Institutes of Justinian (1876), and of the Commentaries of Gaius (1870), an edition of Kent's Commentary on International Law (1878), and a Sketch of Civil Procedure among the Romans (1857). *A'Beckett, Akthvr William (b. 1844), journalist, author, and dramatist, son of Gil- bert Abbot A'Beckett, was (1862-64) a clerk in the War Office, an appointment he left to edit the Gloicivorm, a London evening paper. Sub- sequently he devoted himself chiefly to period- ical literature, and in 1870-71 officiated as war correspondent for the Globe and Standard. Abe (5) Abe Ho joined the Punch staff in 1874, and is the author of several successful novels and plays. Among his works are : — Fallen Among Thieves, Our Holiday in the Scottish Highlands, The Modem Arabian Nights, 'The Ghost of Grey- stone Grange, and The Mystery of Mostyu Manor. He is also the author of the plays L. S. D. (1872), About Town (1873), On Strike (1873), Faded Flowers (1873), and long Ago (1883). In conjunction with Mr. J. Palgrave Simpson, he dramatised the novel Fallen Among Thieves, which was acted under the title of From Father to Sou (1883). A'Eeckett, Gilbert Arbot (b. 1811, d. 1856), comic writer, was educated for the har, to which he was called at Gray's Inn in 1841. When quite a hoy he was connected with the newspaper press, and became the editor of the Figaro in London, which was illustrated by Cruikshank, and was one of the numerous predecessors of Punch. When that paper was founded (in 1841) A'Beckett was a member of the original staff ; but for a short period, when Mark Lemon was appointed sole editor, he ceased his con- tributions, and started a comic paper of his own, called the Squib, which had a brief career. After this short secession he con- tinued to contribute to Punch until his death. He also contributed to the Times (the whole of the leading articles of which are said to have been written by him on one occasion), the Morning Post, and the Illustrated London News. His principal publications are the exceedingly popular Quizziology of the British Drama and the Comic Blackstone (1846) ; the Comic History of England (1847) and the Comic History of Rome (1852). He was also the editor of the Table Book, which contained Thackeray's Legend of the Rhine, and wrote numerous plays, which in their day were very successful. In conjunction with Mark Lemon, he dramatised several of Charles Dickens's nevels, at the request of their author. In his legal capacity A'Beckett was made a Poor - Law Commissioner, and his reports were made the basis of poor-law legislation. In 1849 he was made a Metro- politan Police magistrate, and discharged his duties very efficiently. Abeken, Berxhard Rudolph (b. 1780, d. 1854), a German writer, was tutor to the children of Schiller, and professor in the College of Osnabruck. He wrote Studies on the Divina Commcdia of Dante (1826), and Cicero in Seinen Driefen (1835), a bio- graphy of Cicero, which has been translated into English. Abel, Niels Henrik (b. 1802, d. 1829), though little known to the world at large, was one of the ablest and most acute of modern mathematicians. He was bom at Findoe, in Norway. Though his career extended over little more than twenty-seven years, in that period his great powers of generali>ation were displayed so remarkably in the develop. ment of the theory of elliptic formation that Legendre, who had occupied all his life with similar investigations, exclaimed, when he- read for the first time Abel's investigations, " Quelle tete celle du jeune Norvogien ! " In 1839 Abel's works were published by the Swedish Government, with the editorial care of Holmbro, under whom he had studied at Christiania, and several of the papers haw at subsequent dates been reprinted in the mathematical journals of Germany, France, and Great Britain. *Abel, Sir Frederick Augustus, C.B. , D.C.L., F.R.S. (b. 1827), is a native of London. Chiefly known in connection with explosives, his researches have been pub- lished in The Modern History of Gunpowder (1866), Gun Cotton (1866), On Explosive Agents (1872), Researches in Explosives (187 5) , Electricity Applied to Explosive Purposes (1884). He is also the author, in conjunc- tion with Colonel Bloxam, of a Handbook of Chemistry. Sir Frederick has been at various times President of the Institute of Chemistry, of the Society of Chemical Industry, and of the Society of Telegraph Engineers and Electricians. In 1867 he was appointed Associate Member of the Ordnance Com- mittee, a post which he still holds, together with those of Chemist to the War Depart- ment and Chemical Referee to the Govern- ment. He sat on the Royal Commission on Accidents in Mines in 1883, was Commis- sioner to the Electrical Exhibition at Vienna, and in 1887 Organising Secretary of the Imperial Institute. He was created C.B. in 1877, and Hon. D.C.L., Oxford, in 1883, in which year he was knighted. Abercorn, James Hamilton, Duke of, statesman (b. 1811, d. 1885), was the head of the Irish Hamiltons. His father, James Vis- count Hamilton, died in 1814, and his mother married secondly Lord Aberdeen, afterwardl Prime Minister. In 1818 he became Marquis of Abercorn, on the death of his grandfather. Lord Abercorn was educated at Christ Church, Oxford. In politics he was a consistent Conservative. He was made K.G. in 1844. and was for fourteen years (1846-59) attached to the household of the late Prince Consort as Groom of the Stole. The Marquis claimed the Dukedom of Chatelherault in France, bat the Emperor Napoleon III., in 1864, decided the matter in favour of the Duke of Hamilton, a descendant of the Grand Duchess of Baden, who belonged to the Beauhamais family. In 1866 the Marquis went to Ireland ns Viceroy, an appointment which was well received. The chief incident of his administration waa the visit of the Prince and Princes* of Wales to Ireland, and during its whole period the executive had to contend with agrarian disturbances and Fonian move- Abe (6) Abe mints which compelled the Government to suspend the Habeas Corpus Act. In August, 1808, ho was raised to a dukedom, and re- signed his office after the Conservative defeat at the general elections. On the return of the Conservatives to power in 1874, the Duke was agtin appointed Lord-Lieutenant of Ire- land, and, after an uneventful tenure of office, signed in 1876, and was succeeded by the Duke of Marlborough. He moved several important amendments to the Irish Land Bill of 1880, some of which were accepted by the God rnment. The Duke of Abercom was Lord - Lieutenant of Donegal, and Grand Master of the Irish Freemasons. He was also one of the largest landowners in Ireland. Abercrombie, John- {!>. 1781, d. 1844), name now rapidly fading from the memory of the younger school of psychologists, though at one time no works were more exten- sively read and admired than those of the accom- plished Edinburgh physician. Born in Aber- deen in 1781, he was carefully trained by his father, the Rev. George Abercrombie, and subsequently attended the Grammar School and Marisehal College of that city. He after- wards studied medicine at Edinburgh, gradu- ating M.D. in 1 803. After a year's attendance on the practice of St. George's Hospital, London, he returned to Edinburgh, became a Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons, and began practice as a general practitioner. In a few years his acuteness in detecting disease, and the reputation which he ob- tained for sagacity in its treatment, gained for him a wide circle of patients, and eventu- ally raised him to the first place in his profession. In 1824 he became a Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians, and after the death of Dr. Gregory in 1822 he was con- sidered the first physician in Scotland. At a time when pathological anatomy was almost neglected, Abercrombie cultivated the habit of noting all the special features of the cases which came before him, and endeavoured at a subsequent period to compare the state of the organs after death with the condition which they normally possess during life. By B sedulous perseverance in this habit he ac- cumulated in time a more minute and ex- tensive acquaintance with disease than was possessed by most of his contemporaries. The result of these observations began to be recorded in the Edinburgh Medical and Sur- gical Journal in 1816, in his essays on diseases of the spinal cord and brain, and on diseases of the pancreas, spleen, and intes- tinal canal, which formed the basis of his Put Iiological and Practical Researches in Diseases of the Brain and Spinal Cord, and Researches in (he Diseases of the Intestinal Canal, Liver, and other Viscera of the Abdomen, both of which were issued in 1828. These purely medical works led to others more metaphysical, for, in spite of his large and lucrative practice, there appeared two years later the Inquiries Concerning the Intellectual I'oucrs of Man and the Investigation of Truth, and in 1833 a sequel, entitled The Fhilosophg of the Moral Feelings. In neither work is there exhibited the original observation so amply displayed in the more professional treatises above- mentioned ; and, indeed, the author made no pretence of their containing more than a popular digest of the chief facts of the science of mind, and its connection with the doctrines of revealed religion. Indeed, no one was more astonished than Dr. Abercrombie at the success which his books met with. They are still read, for the sound information they contain, and the pleasing style in which they are written. But the more critical students of these times no longer hold these works in the same esteem as the admiring generation which ran them into eighteen and fourteen editions respectively. It is, indeed, not quite easy nowadays to understand the lavish praise heaped upon them by the thousands of readers who bought them ; by the University of Oxford, which conferred an honorary Doctorate on their author : by the students of Marisehal College, who elected him Lord Rector ; and by the Royal Society of Edin- burgh, over which he ruled as Vice-Pre- sident. He was also, it may bo added, Physician to the Queen of Scotland. No doubt, apart from his scientific merits, much of Abercrombie's unwonted success was due to the suavity of his mariners, his unvarying kindness of heart, and the benevolence and unaffected piety which distinguished him in every walk of life. [R. B.] Abercromby, J. [Dunfermline, Lord.] Abercromby, Lieutenant-General Sir Ralph, K.C.B. (b. 1734, d. 1801), was the son of George Abercromby of Tullibody, in Clackmannan. He was educated at Rugby and at Edinburgh University, and though sent to Leipzig to study civil law in 1754, he selected the military profession, and was in 1756 gazetted to the 3rd Dragoon Guards. He became lieu't.-colonel of the regiment in 1773, and in 1781 was appointed colonel of the 103rd; but when the battalion was dis- banded in 1783 he was placed on half-pay. During his retirement from the military pro- fession he was (in 1773) elected to represent his native county in the House of Commons, but on the dissolution he did not seek re- election. His retirement may have been partly due to political reasons, for his sym- pathy with the American colonists in the War of Independence was great, and freely expressed. Nevertheless, his value as a soldier could not be altogether ignored, so that in 1793 he was appointed to the com- mand of a brigade under the Duke of York, in the expedition to Holland. He was en- gaged in the action at Cateau, and received his first wound at the battle of Nimeguen. Abe ( 7) Abe He commanded the rear-guard in the disas- trous retreat from the Netherlands in 1794, and his services were rewarded hy the Knight Commandership of the Bath, followed by the appointment to the West Indian command. Here he was not idle. In 1796 he success- fully organised the attack on Grenada, and, later on, directed the operations that re- sulted in the capture of Demerara, Essequibo, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, and Trinidad. Re- turning to England in 1797, he was made colonel of the Scots Greys (2nd Dragoons), and with the rank of lieut. -general received the appointments of Governor of the Isle of • Wight, Fort George, and Fort Augustus. He commanded in Ireland in 1797-98, at a time when the invasion of the island by the French was threatened, and did his utmost to suppress the rising rebellion of the people, and to curb the consequent tendency to mili- tary oppression. His clemency, though greatly to his credit, was not much appre- ciated at the time, and receiving little assist- ance from the Government, both to effect these objects and to improve the lax discip- line of the army, he resigned his command, and,' after holding the position of Com- mander-in-Chief in Scotland for awhile, joined for a second time the army of the Duke •of York in Holland in 1799. The country was fated to be a scene of British disaster, not merely from the inclemency of the season, but from the ill-conduct of the Russian and Dutch allies ; but Sir Ralph's own energy and ability were so apparent, even under the disadvantageous circumstances of such a campaign, that, though the army returned without laurels, his own reputation had not suffered. When, therefore, the expedition to Egypt in 1 80 1 was decided on, his appointment in chief command met with general approval. The debarkation of the army at Alexandria, in face of stout opposition, was fully success- ful. It was followed by a decisive battle under the walls of Alexandria, on March •21st, 1801, when the general was mortally wounded by a musket ball in the upper part of the thigh, and was conveyed on board H.M.S. Foudroyant, where he died on the 28th. Major- General T. H. Hutchinson, who succeeded him in chief command, echoed the feelings of the army in the order of the day in which he said, " Were it permitted to a soldier to regret any one who has fallen in the service of his country, I might be ex- cused for lamenting him more than any other person ; but it is some consolation to those wbo tenderly loved him, that as his life was honourable, so was his death glorious." His monument in St. Paul's Cathedral was erected in accordance with a vote of the House of Commons, and his widow was cre- ated a peeress, with a pension of £2,000 a year .settled on her and two successors to the title. Lord Dunfermline, Memoir of Sir R. Aber- cromby. [C. C. K.] *Aberdare, The Right Hon. Hexhy Austin Bruce, Baron, statesman {b. 1815), is the son of John Price Bruce, of Duffryn St. Nicholas, in Glamorganshire. In 1832 he came to London, and was for some time in the chambers of Lord Justice Knight Bruce. In 1837 he was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn, but only practised a few years, retiring in 1843. He entered Parlia- ment in 1852, as Liberal member for Merthyr-Tydvil, and sat as its representa- tive for twelve years. The general elec- tion of 1868 compelled Mr. Bruce to look out for a new constituency, and in January, 1869, he was elected to represent the county of Renfrew. Mr. Bruce's ministerial career began in 1862, when he was appointed Under- Secretary for the Home Department ; in April, 1864, he became Vice-President of the Council on Education, an office which he held until July, 1866.- In 1864, Mr. Bruce was also made a Privy Councillor and a Charity Commissioner for England and Wales; in 1865, he filled the office of Second Church Estates Commissioner. After the Liberal victory of 1868, he entered the Cabinet as Home Secretary, and while in that position he successfully carried the Act amending the' licensing laws, generally known as " Brucv's Act," which received the royal assent in 1869; in 1873 he was created Lord Aber- dare, and appointed Lord President of the Council, but the result of the general elections of Feb., 1874, caused his tenure of office to be brief. Lord Aberdare has published some of his speeches and addresses on educational topics, and a Life of General Sir William Xopier, K.C.B. (1864). He has been promi- nent in his efforts to relieve the Welsh miners in times of distress, and has at various times arbitrated in disputes between masters and men. Aberdeen, George Hamilton Gordon, 4th Earl of (b. 1784, d. 1860), was educated at Harrow School and St. John's College, Cam- bridge, where he took his degree in 1804. He had succeeded to his grandfather's title in 1801, and for some time he occupied himself chiefly in the study of Hellenic antiquities, a subject in which throughout his life he took the utmost interest. His political career began in 1806, when he was elected one of the representative peers for Scotland, and he took his seat upon the Tory side of Hi" House. His ability soon became recognised, and in 1813 he was sent on a special mission to Vienna, with the object of inducing the Emperor of Austria to join the coalition against Napoleon,' and the Treaty of To) lit/, crowned his efforts with success. After Ins return he was raised to the English peerage with the title of Viscount Gordon. Lord Aberdeen was a member of the Duke of Wellington's Cabinet of 1828-30, and daring most of the time held the office of Foreign Abe (8) Abe Secretary. During 'that period he was in favour of a policy of neutrality ; he refused to employ the English power to dispossess Don Miguel of the throne of Portugal, and he strongly objected to the Quadruple Alliance negotiated by Lord Palmerston. He took, however, a prominent share in the formation of the Greek kingdom, recognised by the Towers in 1829. When his party, now calling itself Conservative, returned to a brief spell of power in 1834, under Sir Robert Peel, he was Secretary of State for the Colonies, but he again received the office of Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs when Sir Robert Peel formed his second administration in 1841. Through- out the six years during which our relations with the Continental Powers were in his hands, Lord Aberdeen pursued, as before, a uniformly pacific policy, which was the subject of much bitter comment in this country, but which may perhaps on the whole be defended. The difficulty with France about Tahiti and Queen Pomare was most satisfactorily ar- ranged, and Lord Aberdeen's compromise of 1846 (the Oregon Treaty), by fixing a bound- ary between English and American dominions west of the Rocky Mountains, closed a dis- pute which many in the United States were anxious to settlo by an appeal to the sword. Upon home affairs his views were of a de- cidedly Liberal character : the causes of Catholic emancipation and of the repeal of the Corn Laws were advocated by him in all sin- cerity, and in 1843 he made a well-intentioned but futile attempt to avert the schism in the Scottish Church by a Bill to remove doubts respecting the admission of ministers to benefices, commonly known as " Lord Aber- deen's Bill." He did not receive office again until 1852, when the collapse of Lord Derby's ministry left parties so evenly divided that a coalition of some sort was evidently impera- tive if affairs were to be carried on at all. Lord Aberdeen's extremely moderate views on most subjects, and the general popularity he had acquired as the leader of the Peelites after the death of that statesman, indicated him as the man who would most competently fill the delicate position of leader of a motley ministry. He obtained the support of Lord John Russell at the Foreign Office : Lord Palmerston became Home Secretary ; and Mr. Gladstone was Chancellor of the Exchequer. In quiet times all might have been well ; but the Eastern question began to burn again, and the Government, when its most able dip- lomatist, Lord Palmerston, declined to come to its assistance, and expressed his contempt for his colleagues by a temporary resignation, proved unequal to the crisis. From simple want of nerve. Lord Aberdeen and his fellow- ministers allowed England to "drift" into the Crimean "War. Their management of the war was even worse than their conduct of the negotiations that preceded it. Confusion reigned over all the preparations, particularly in the commissariat, and, in spite of its large majority of two years before, the ministry at the beginning of 1855 was evidently ex- tremely unpopular. Mr. Roebuck gave the coup de grace by his motion for a Select Committee to inquire into the condi- tion of the army before Sebastopol, which was carried by no less than 157 votes — 305 to 148. Lord Aberdeen wisely regarded the vote as one of want of confidence, and promptly resigned. During the remainder of his life he took very little part in public: affairs. It may perhaps be said of him that he was a man of decided ability, and with generous sympathies ; but lacking in spirit, and decidedly unfortunate in being., at the head of a divided ministry at a time when unity of councils was of the utmost necessity. Kinglake, Invasion of the Crimea, ii. 62 and passim. [L. C. fc?.] Abernethy, John (Ik 1764, d. 1831), an eminent surgeon, and a scarcely less celebrated humourist, was born in London on April 3rd, 1764. His father was a London merchant. but some of his peculiar traits of character may have been derived from his grandfather, who was a Protestant dissenting clergyman, famous all over Ireland as a ready-witted controversialist whom it was prudent to leave in possession of the field. The future surgeon was educated at Wolverhampton Grammar School, and in 1779 apprenticed, as was then the custom, to Sir Charles Blicke, an operator in extensive practice. Besides the private in- struction of his master, young Abernethy attended the lectures of Sir William Blizzard at the London Hospital, where he acted as " demonstrator " in anatomy ; also those of Potts, surgical lecturer at St. Bartholomew's; and for a time the still more important dis- courses of John Hunter. On Potts' resigna- tion, Sir Charles Blicke, who had been as- sistant, became full surgeon of St. Bartho- lomew's, and Abernethy was elected to the vacant post. He now began to lecture, and proved so successful that a new theatre had to be built in order to accom- modate the crowds of students who flocked to hear him ; Abernethy thus becoming the actual founder of the flourishing school of . St. Bartholomew's. For twenty-eight years (from 1787 to 1815) he held office as assistant surgeon, but in the latter year -ho»was chosen as principal surgeon. Two years before he had been appointed surgeon to Christ's Hospital, and in 1814 professor of anatomy and surgery to the Royal College of Surgeons. His fame as a skilful practitioner was now well estab- lished, and for many years his income was one of the largest ever known in the profes- sion. Blunt almost to rudeness, full of biting sarcasm, he was more feared than loved by his patients. But they bore with his peculiar manner out of regard for the consummate skill which accompanied it, and the punc- Abi (9) Abo tihous sense of honour which distinguished him in all the dealings of his life. For years Abernethy anecdotes were the stock- in-trade of medical diners-out, but now- adays the more refined taste of the age enjoys these somewhat full-bodied tales less readily than did the men who had been reared in a more pungent atmosphere. In his family circle, however, and among his personal friends, Abernethy was quite another person- age, for there he was as noted for his courtesy and affection as in his public career he was notorious for a brusque independence, which was often bearish. "I suppose you want my vote ? " the pompous grocer-governor of St. Bartholomew's blustered out when the assistant surgeon came into his counting- room on the eve of an election. " No," was the sharp reply, "I want a penn'orth of figs and be quick about them ! " A lady had a tumour in her throat which could not be reached by the knife. But by making a feint of tossing her tray of precious china out of the window he succeeded in evoking a ter- rified scream, that did all that was required. These are types of many tales of the same description. Abernethy was too busy a prac- titioner to write much. Indeed, the only im- portant contribution to surgical literature which he left behind him was "my book"— viz. his Surgical Observations on the Constitutional Origin and Treatment of Local Diseases (1809). It was his manifesto. Whenever he was un- willing to waste time by going over the old ground he referred his students to my book. "J/// book," in fact, was his legacy to the world. In 1827, he resigned his chair at St. Bartholomew's, and two years later his pro- fessorship at the College of Surgeons, and on the 20th of April, 1831, he died at Enfield. His scattered papers were collected in 1830, arid published in five volumes, and in 1853 his Memoirs, by George Macilvain, appeared, though a, satisfactory biography of Abernethy and his tunes has still to be written. [RBI Abinger, James Scarlett, Baron (b. 1769, el. 1844), was born in Jamaica, and having come to England for his education, took _ ni _ s de & r °e at Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1785. He was called to the bar in 1791, and soon obtained a very large practice. Scarlett's political career began in 1818, when, after two defeats at the hustings, he was returned for Peterborough, a borough of the Fitzwilliam family. At first he voted regularly with the Whigs, and was in particular a powerful advocate of the amelioration of the criminal code. ^ On the breaking up of the Liverpool administration in 1827 he became Attorney- General, and was knighted. Gradually Sir James Scarlett adopted Conservative views, and in 1829, as Attorney-General in the Wellington administration, he conducted the ill-advised press prosecutions caused by com- ments passed on the Cabinet's change of front with regard to Catholic emancipation. On c.c. — 1* the formation of the Reel Ministry of 1834 Sir James Scarlett was made Chief Bu-on with a peerage As a judge he was hardly* so successful as he had been as an advocate lie had not self-command enough to he absolutely impartial, and sometimes lectured juries with undue severity. lI-dMh) "er ° f t1U J " d3eg • Scarlett ' *««<>»> of Abington, Frances, actress (b. 1737 d 1815), was of obscure origin, and during her early life was a flower-seller, a milliner's apprentice, and subsequently a cookmaid Her first appearance (under her maiden name of Barton) on the stage was at the Havmarket theatre in 1755, and in the following year she became a member of the Drury Lane company. In 1759 she married her'musie- master, but soon separated from him. She afterwards went to Dublin, and there laid the foundations of her reputation. On her return she was at once engaged by Garrick (1764), and continued a member of his company until 1782, when she went to the rival theatre of Co vent Garden. In 1790 she retired from the stage, but reappeared for a season in 1797, and played for the last time two years later. Mrs. Abington, in spite of her origin, was popular in society, and Dr. Johnson testified to the favour she enjoyed with the general public. Her business rela- tions with Garrick were not of the most cordial, the manager complaining of her peevishness, the actress imagining that she was the victim of intrigue and slander. Mrs. Abington was equally at home in high or low- comedy ; she was the original Lady Teazle, in 1777, and her Beatrice was considered un- equalled; while upon occasion she would assume a part like that of Scrub in the Beaux's Stratagem. Genest, History of the Staje; Dutton Cook, Hours with the Players. About, Edmond Francois Valentin (A. 1828, d. 1885), novelist, essayist, and author of a few not very successful plays, was bom at Dieuze in 1828. After distinguishing himself at school, he entered in 1848 the j3cole Normale, whence he was sent with a travelling allowance in 1851 to the French school at Athens. On his return he published /.» Grice Contemporaine, in which the Greek- people, and especially Greek politicians, were treated with humorous severity. Soon after- wards he published, in the Revue des I)eu.< Mondes, his first novel, called To/la. which drew upon the author accusations of pla- giarism. Nor, from his friends, did he seek to conceal the fact that the story of To/la was in substance borrowed. A comedy in three acts, called Guilhrg. was M. A bout's next work. Produced at the Theatre Franeais, it failed to please ; and Gaetana, by which it was followed at the Odeon, caused so much dissatisfaction that it was hissed and hooted. Abr ( 10) Aby From this time the author of Tolla occupied himself chiefly with literature in narrative form, and never again ran the risk of a dramatic experiment without some experienced playwright as his associate. In Le Roi des Montagues M. About gave an amusing account of the transactions supposed to be carried on between a Greek brigand and his business correspondent, a Paris banker. Germauie, which belongs to the same period, is based on the supposition that, arsenic being a specific for consumption, a murderer endeavouring to poison a consumptive girl by repeated and constantly increased doses of arsenic, would not kill but cure his intended victim. This tale, founded on a fantastic idea, but developed seriously, was followed by purely fantastic tales, such as L' Homme a V Oreille Cassce, in which a man's ear freezes, and in its frozen condition gets chipped ; and Le Net d'un Notaire, wherein a notary, having replaced a lost nose by that of a dissipated man, finds his newly acquired proboscis grow compromisingly red whenever its original owner has been in- dulging in drink. This idea seems, as an idea, to have been borrowed from Swift, by whom, however, it was never developed in narrative form. In 1863 About published JIade'on, one of his most successful, though not in a moral point of view one of his most commendable, novels. Le Mari Lmprevu, Les Vacances de la Comtesse, and the Marquis de Lanrose, were published collectively under the title of La Vieille Roche. Les Mariages de Province must be mentioned among About's best novels of observation, and Le Capitaine Bitterlin as one of his most amusing tales. It has been seen that M. About's first work was not a story, but an essay ; and he continued through- out his life to publish studies as well as tales. His Question Romaine, written after a brief residence at Rome, and full of clever, biting remarks on the shortcomings of the papal government, obtained great success ; and Le Progres, in which the writer contrasts the present with the past, and shows on how many points progress of a most undeniable kind has been made, produced as great an impression, and a more durable one, than his pamphlet on what was only a question of the day. Soon after the war of 1870 Edmond About, who was at that time a regular con- tributor to Le Soir, was sent as correspondent of that journal to the headquarters of Marshal 3IacMahon. He does not seem to have been jpresent at any engagement; but he wrote .several letters on the military situation, and the aspect of the theatre of war. After the peace he published a volume called Alsace; and as he was now living in the newly annexed territory, where his wife had an estate, his attacks on the Prussians caused him to be arrested, though after a few days' imprisonment he was set at liberty. During the last years of his life this charming writer produced very little. [H. S. E.] Abrantes, Hue and Duchesse de. [Jl'NOT.] Abt, Fkanz (b. 1819, d. 1885), German composer, was educated chiefly for the clerical profession at the University of Leipzig. After the death of his father, however, in 1841, ho devoted himself entirely to music, and resided first at Zurich (1841), where he became kapellmeister, and, after 1852, at Brunswick, where he was first engaged at the Hof-theater, and in 1855 became kapellmeister. Abt's musical publications include pieces for the pianoforte of a light character, which are not well known. His fame rests almost entirely on his songs, some four hundred and fifty in number, and of the most various kinds. These, as for instance, " When the swallows home- ward fly , ' ' are almost as popular in England as in Germany, and although destitute of feeling, and therefore not of the most perfect art, they are eminently graceful, and devoid of meretricious trickery. They have been published in this country in many col- lections, among whicb may be mentioned that called German Xational Songs, by J. E. Carpenter. Abyssinia, Kings of. (1) Theodore (b. circa 1818, d. 1868) was the son of noble parents. His original name was Lij Kassa. He succeeded, on the death of his uncle, to the governorship of Kuara, to which he added Dembea at the expense of the puppet king, Ras Ali, and compelled the latter to give him his daughter in marriage. Shortly after- wards, having been taunted by a member of the royal family for a defeat by the Turks, he proclaimed his independence, and in 1855 had deposed Ras Ali, and caused himself to be crowned Emperor of Ethiopia, under the title of Theodore III. At first he proved an admirable ruler, merciful to the conquered, and excessively generous, but full of religious fanaticism, and exceedingly passionate. Want of money, however, caused by his extensive military expeditions, of which the most im- portant is that against the Gallas, and which resulted in the capture of Magdala, made him oppressive, and after the death of his first wife his character rapidly degenerated. In 1860, Plowden, the English consul at Massowah, who had been his attached friend, was killed by a rebel chief, and Captain Cameron was sent out as his successor, with instructions to refrain from taking as active a part in Abyssinian politics as his predecessor had done. Theodore imagined himself to be slighted by the British, a suspicion confirmed in his mind by the accidental neglect of the authorities of the Foreign Office to answer one of his letters. He further imagined Cameron to be intriguing w r ith Egypt, and accordingly, in January, 1864, seized him and his suite, and threw them into prison. A mission of conciliation, at the head of w 7 hich was Mr. Hormuzd Rassam, shared their fate ; Ace ( 11 ) Ach and as Theodore showed no disposition to release his captives, war was declared against him in July, 1867. The expedition, com- manded by Sir Robert Napier (afterwards Lord Napier of Magdala), penetrated into the country without mishap, and Theodore, •deserted by his army, shut himself up in his fortress of Magdala. After attempting in vain to avert ruin by the liberation of the captives, he died by his own hand shortly before Napier stormed the position (April 13th). His son, Prince Alam-ayahu, was taken to England, where he died in 1869. H. Rassam, Narrative of the Mission to Theo- dore ; C. E. Markham, Abyssinian Expedition ; Holland and Hozier, Record of the Expedit on to Abyssinia. (2) Johannes II., originally known ■ as Prince Dejach Kassai, was appointed •Governor of Tigre by Wagsham Gobaze, King of Amhara, who had thrown off the yoke of Theodore in 1867. He speedily, however, rebelled, in turn, against his master, and having rendered valuable assistance to the British against Theodore, was rewarded by them, on their departure, by a present of •arms. In 1872 he was crowned King of Abys- sinia, with the title of King Johannes II., and has proved an able ruler. His relations with the Khedives of Egypt have not been satis- factory. Shortly after his accession he had to oppose an armed force, which, after he had appealed to several of the Powers in vain, was withdrawn; and again in 1875 he was attacked, but utterly repulsed the enemy. In 1877, after the Abyssinians had been defeated, Colonel Gordon, the Governor of the Soudan, succeeded in negotiating a peace, and in 1879, when he attempted to conclude a new one, he was treated by the king with gross indignity, but nevertheless made King Johannes come to terms. During the troubles in the Soudan Abyssinia preserved neutrality, but in 1886 his forces defeated the Mahdi, and in 1887 the Italians near Massowah. An English mission, sent to mediate between King John and the Italians, was unsuccessful. [L. C. S.] Accum, Frederick Christian (b. 1769, d. 1838), chemist, was a native of "Westphalia, and came to London in 1793. After being engaged for several years in the writing of manuals of chemistry and mineralogy, he became associated with Ackermann (q.v.) in the introduction of gas for the lighting ■of towns. His Practical Treatise on Gas Lights (1815) is said to have led to the adoption of that improvement in London, and the work was promptly translated into several languages. He was made librarian of the Royal Institution, Albemarle Street, but was dismissed on a charge of embezzlement. On being brought to trial he was acquitted, but immediately left London for Berlin, where in 1822 he became a professor at the Technical Institute. Accum wrote numerous treatises on chemical subjects, among which may be mentioned Chemical Reagents (1813) and Culinary Chemistry (1821). Achard, Franz Karl, a German chemist (b. 1753, d. 1821), was elected a member of the Royal Academy of Science at Berlin in 1776. He devoted himself especially to the extraction of sugar from beetroot, and it was chiefly through his writings that that industry was introduced into France. Acharius, Erik (b. 1757, d. 1819), was a Swedish botanist of the first rank, but owing to the extremely technical character of his researches, he is very little known out- side the circles of the speciality to which he devoted himself. From manhood to the period of his death, all his industry, learn- ing, and acuteness were bestowed on the study of the minutest forms of vegetable life, and more particularly on the forms of lichens, with which his name must ever be honour- ably connected. Otherwise his life was singularly uneventful. Born at Gefle in 1757, the son of a Comptroller of Customs, he studied first at the gymnasium of his native town, and then left (1773) for the University of Upsala, where, among other lectures, he attended those of Linnaeus, then iii the heyday of his fame. In 1782, con- trary to the custom which compelled the physician who desired the cachet of fashion to graduate abroad, he took the degree of M.D. in the University of Lund, and tried to practice, with indifferent success, in various parts of his native country. But a physician he was destined to be in name only, for in 1801, through the posthumous influence of Linnaeus, who had expressed a favourable opinion of his researches, he was enabled to devote him- self to science by obtaining the chair of botany in the Wadstena High School. Five years before, his merit had been recognised by his election into the Academy of Sciences, while his now classic treatise, the Lichcnographia Universalis, published at Gfittingen in 1804, and a number of other works and memoirs on the lichens, made him the indisputable ruler of this branch of botany, at a time when specialism in this science was little known. His name has been given to a genus, Achana, and to more than one species of plant . [R. B.] * Achenbach, Andreas, landscape painter (b. 1815), was born at Cas.-el. and through business journeys with his father, early acquired a knowledge of nature. In 1823 the family settled in Piisseldorf, and Achenbach studied in the academy tin re from 1827 to 1835. In his earlier works, which chiefly represent Rhineland scenery, traces are still perceptible of the sentiment- ality of the romantic Ihisseldorf school, hut these disappeared after his travels in Holland, Norway, and the Baltic, in the years 1833 Ack ( 12) Act and 1835, during which he began the series of marine pictures in which, perhaps, his real strength lies, notwithstanding the general admiration for his mountain studies in Nor- way and the Tyrol. In 1843 he visited Italy, hut, in spite of industrious efforts, he was unable to treat southern scenery with the truth and vigour he could display in the wilder scenes and mistier skies under which his youth had been spent. His genius is never- theless very versatile, and has even shown itself in architectural interiors and in carica- tures. The best collection of his works is in the modern Pinakothek at Munich. He has often exhibited in the Paris Salon, and though of late years the copiousness and facility of his execution have too often rendered his colouring garish and crude, he will be re- membered as one of the most conspicuous leaders of the modern realistic schoo 1 . of land- scape painting. Ackermami, Rudolf, art publisher and bookseller (b. 1764, d. 1834), was born and educated in Germany. His first occupation was that of a coach-builder, but in 1795, after he had come to London, he set up a print shop in the Strand, in connection with which was a very successful drawing school, which had to be closed in 1806, in consequence of the pressure of other business. Ackermann's most important publication was the Registry of jLrts, Literature, Fashions, Manufactures, etc., from 1809-28, which was very popu- lar in its day. He also published illustrated descriptions of the universities and public schools, and a series of Picturesque Tours. His illustrated annuals, entitled Forget-me- nots, were an entire novelty. In his publica- tions Ackermann made a large use of litho- graphy, and was the first to introduce that invention as a fine art into England. He was also among the first to encourage the use of gas for the lighting of streets and private houses. Poverty and distress always found in him a warm sympathiser; ho promoted several subscription lists for the German sufferers in the Continental war against Napo- leon, and frequently assisted French and Spanish emigres. Acland, Sir Hexry Wextworth (b. 1815), is an English physician and scholar. He is the fourth son of the late Sir Thomas Dyke Acland, Bart., and was educated at Harrow and Christ Church, Oxford, where he graduated in 1841, and was elected to a fellowship at All Souls' College. In 1848 he took the degree of M.D., and after filling for a time the office of Lee's Reader in Anatomy, and adding extensively to the Christ Church Phy- siological Series, now the University Museum, he was elected Regius Professor of Medicine (1858) and Radcliffe Librarian, which office he still holds. He has filled various other positions of dignity, such as that of a member of the " Cubic Space Commission " (1866) and Royal Sanitary Commission (1869-72) ; he was. president of the Physiological Section of the British Association, and, after being from 1858 to 1875 the representative of Oxford on the Medical Council, president of that body. His chief works are 'The Plain of Troy (1839), Memoir on the Visitation of Cholera in Oxford in 1854, and various medical, sanitary, and scientific memoirs. In 1860 ho accompanied the Prince of Wales to America, and since his return in 1861 has been His Royal Highness' s Honorary Phy- sician. He is F.R.S., LL.D. Edinburgh and Cambridge, Hon. M.D. of Dublin, and in addition to being a Dignitary of the Rose of Brazil, was created K.C.B. by the Queen on the recommendation of Mr. Gladstone, whose intimate friend he has been ever since they were fellow-students at Oxford. * Acton, John* Adams, sculptor (b. 1833), was admitted to the Royal Academy in 1853, and gained the gold medal for original 'Com- position in sculpture. Being elected to a travelling studentship, he went to study in Rome. He has produced several works in ideal sculpture, such as The First Sacrifice, Zenobia, Pharaoh's Daughter, and Psyche ; also several busts and portrait statues of eminent modern statesmen and men of letters for public buildings, and. some monuments in cathedrals and churches ; for instance, the memorial to the Wesleys in Westminster Abbey. He became a member of the Society of British Artists in 1883. Acton, Sir John Francis Edward, ad- ministrator and statesman {b. 1736, d. 1811), born at Besancon, 1736, entered the Tuscan navy, and took part in an expedition against Algiers in 1775. Through the influence of Caramanico, and Queen Caroline of Naples, he was appointed to reorganise the Neapolitan navy in 1779, and even before the death of Caramanico in 1794 he had gathered all the actual power of the state into his own hands. His expenditure as generalissimo of the large land and sea forces which he had himself created, was so great that he was appointed Minister of Finance to superintend the taxa- tion, and finally Prime Minister of Naples. Popular discontent at the appointment of Nelson to command the fleet drove him and the royal family to Palermo for a short time in 1798, but on his return he crushed the rebellion with cruel severity. In 1804 he was removed from power by French influence, was recalled for a time, but was finally driven to take refuge in Sicily by the entrance of the French into Naples in 1806. He died at Palermo. His brother, Joseph Edward Actox, born at Besancon in 1737, also entered the Neapolitan service, was governor of Gaeta, and d;ed in 1808. *ACton, The Right Hox. John Emerich Dalberg Actox, Barox, D.C.L. (b. 1834), studied for a few years under Dr. (afterwards- Ada ( 13 ) Ada Cardinal) Wiseman at the Catholic College of St. Mary's, Oscott, near Birmingham, and afterwards in Munich under the celebrated Catholic historian, Dr. Dollinger. In 1856 he accompanied his stepfather, the second Lord Granville, to Moscow to witness the coronation of Alexander II. From 1859 to I860 ho was member of parliament for Carlow. In 1862 he edited the Home and Foreign Review, a quarterly magazine in the " Liberal Catholic " interest, but it was condemned by the priest- hood, and expired in 1864. Next year he stood as a candidate for Bridgnorth, hoping to represent, as he said in a famous phrase, " not the body, but the sjiirit of the Catholic Church." He was elected by a majority of one, but unseated after a scrutiny. In 1869 Mr. Acton was raised to the peerage under the title of Baron Acton of Aldenham, and in the same year ho was present at the assembling of the (Ecumenical Council in Komc, where, by his powers of organisation as well as by his writings in his own organ, the North British Review, and, it is supposed, his contributions to the Allgemeinc Zeitung, he did much to strengthen the opposition of the minority to the definition of papal infalli- bility, and to support the views of Dr. Dollinger and the other subsequent leaders of the " Old Catholic " party. In September, 1870, he published a Letter to a German Bishop of the Vatican Council, advocating the same cause. In the next year he also pub- lished an eloquent and perspicuous account of the Franco-German war, its causes and pro- gress. In 1872 he received the honorary degree of Doctor of Philosophy from the University of Munich. He was among the first to attempt an answer to Mr. Gladstone's pamphlet on The Vatican Decrees; but it is, perhaps intentionally, an answer that makes for the opponent's cause, inasmuch as it maintains that it is still open to good Catholics to set aside the decrees of Pius IX., just as they have in fact disregarded the political mistakes and moral shortcomings of the popes of former ages. Lord Acton- also wrote the article on JVolseg and the Divorce of Henry VIII. in the Quarterly Review for January, 1877. Adair, Sir Rohert, English diplomatist (b. 1763, d. 1855), was the son of a medical attendant of George III. He was educated at Westminster School and the University of Gottingen, where Canning, in one of his satirical poems, represents him as falling in love with "Sweet Matilda Pottingen." He entered political life under the auspices of Chailes James Fox, and became one of his most intimate friends, but he devoted his attention to foreign rather than home affairs. The story that he was sent by Fox to Russia to intrigue against Pitt will not bear examina- tion ; and his first important mission seems to have been in 1806, when he was sent to Vienna to warn Austria against Napoleon, and on his return to England he was de- spatched by his old enemy, Canning, to Con- stantinople to negotiate the peace of the Dardanelles with the Porte. In 1831 he waa sent to the Low Countries in order to stare oft a war between Flanders and the Dutch, and his successful labours were rewarded by the title of Privy Councillor and a considerable pension. Sir Robert Adair outlived his friends, but to the last he wus extremely popular in London society. Sir R. Adair, Two Letters to the Bishop of Win- chester; Memoir of a Mission to the Court qf Vienna; and Negotiations for the Peace of tin- Dardanelles; Lord J. Eussell, Memorials of C. J. Fox. Adalbert, Heixrich Wilhelm, Prhtee of Prussia, cousin of Friedrich Wilhelm I V. (b. 1811, d. 1873), entered the army at an early age. Between the years 1826 and 1837 he visited all the principal nations of Europe, and in 1842 sailed from Italy down the Medi- terranean for South America, where lie ex- plored the coast of Brazil and parts of the course of the Amazon. In 1847 he published a largo work on his voyage, Atu meiftem Reisetagebuche, with a few illustrations and copious carefully drawn charts. Next year he was appointed to organise a national German navy, and published a pamphlet, Denitekrift iibcr die Bildung einer deutschen Flotte, in which he critically surveyed the possibilities of the- formation of a German fleet of steamships of war, and maintained its necessity for the cause of German unity. In 1856 he was wounded in an engagement with the pirates of Morocco. During the Danish war of 1864 he acted as admiral of the Austro- Prussian fleet. Adam, Adolphe Charles, French dra- matic composer (b. 1803, d. 1856), received his earliest instruction from his father, also .t notable musician, till ho entered the Conserva- toire, and became a pupil of Reicha and Boiel- dieu. In drawing room fantasias and piano variations he early gave signs of the extreme and almost dangerous facility that distin- guished him through life. In 182!), a short opera by Adam was accepted by the Opera Comique in Paris, and from this tame forward his works succeeded one another with bewil- dering rapidity. He produced four operaa in the eighteen months before his journey to London in 1832, where another open, entitled Hit First Campaign, and ■ ballet on Faust, were well received. His return to Paris in the next year was marked by a ohang| in style, which showed itself in l.e Frosnit amllc Chalet, in which he departed to noe extent from the manner of Aulx r ami Bofcd- dieu. His masterpiece, l.e l'ost,ll yield extreme deference to European opinion. In 1828 he offered himself for re-election, but was defeated by a crushing majority by General Jackson. In 1830 he was elected ;i member of Congress, and " the old man eloquent " distinguished himself till his death by his ardent advocacy of the Abolitionist cause. He was the author of Letter$ ou Ada ( 16 ) Adl ~Sik*ia (1804) ; Lectures on Rhetoric (1810) ; Dermot MacMorrogh, a poem (1832). Jared Sparks, Diplomatic Corresp. of the tinier. Rev., Bib'iotheca Americana, Letters of Mrs. Adams (1840) ; Seward, Life of J. Q. Adams. Adams, William, author of the Sacred Allegories (b. 1814, d. 1848), was educated at Eton and Morton College, Oxford, of which he became a fellow and tutor. In 1840 ho was appointed to the living of St. Peter's-in-thc- East, in Oxford, but two years later, owing to an accidental chill, he incurred the lung disease that ultimately proved fatal. After a winter passed in Madeira he resigned his living, and settled at Bonchurch, in the Isle of Wight, where, with the exception of the Shadow of the Cross, written in 1842, he pro- duced the series of sacred allegories by which his name is known. These are The Distant Hills, The King'* Messengers, and The Old Man's Home, the last being by far his most beautiful work, both by the delicacy of its pathos and the reality of its form, in which the ordinary allegorical methods are, for the most part, abandoned. It is the story of an aged lunatic who puzzles his well-meaning keeper, and, to some extent, his sympathising friend, by the simplicity with which he acts upon the literal interpretation of the laws of life inculcated by Christianity. Besides these, Adams wrote Warnings of the Holy Week, a series of lectures delivered in 1842 ; Cherry Stones ; or, Charlton School, a book for boys; and Silvio, an early allegory. Addington. [Sidmouth, Viscount.] Adelaide, Princess (b. 1777, d. 1847), the daughter of Philippe Egalite, Due d'Orleans, and sister of Louis Philippe, after her father's execution in 1793 remained in exile in various parts of Switzerland and Hungary, and was at length able to rejoin her brother at Portsmouth in 1808, after which they were never separated again for any length of time. After living for some years in Italy and Sardinia, she returned to Paris in 1814, was in England for two years in consequence of her brother's quarrel with Louis XVIII. , but returned to France in 1817, and was living ;it Neuilly when M. Thiers and M. Scheffer came, in 1830, to urge upon her brother the acceptance of the crown. She received them in his absence, and it was partly through her influence that Louis Philippe complied with their request. Adelaide, Queen of England (b. 1792, d, 1849), was the eldest child of George Duke of Saxe-Meiningcn and Princess Louisa of Hohonlohe-Langenburg. After the death of her father, in 1803, she was carefully educated by her mother during the disturbed years of the French occupation, years which increased her natural horror of progressive or revolu- tionary ideas. On the death of the Princess Charlotte, a marriage was arranged between her and the Duke of Clarence, third son of George III., and, after some difficulties, owing to the opposition of Parliament to the required grants, the alliance was concluded in 1818. None of the children of the marriage survived more than a few months. The duke and duchess resided chiefly at Bushey till they suc- ceeded to the crown on the death of George IV., 1830, the coronation ceremony being conducted with such thrift that it was called the " half- crownation." Owing to the revolutionary spirit of the time, the queen was thought to be in danger of her life at intervals during the next few years, and her unpopularity was further in- creased by her real or supposed opposition to the passage of the Reform Bill, till on the resigna- tion of the Melbourne Ministry of 1834 it reached a climax in the famous words of the Times, " The queen has done it all." But her devotion to the king during his fatal illness in 1837 restored her to public favour, and for the remaining twelve years of her life she lived in respected retirement, moving from one country seat to another, and occasionally undertaking longer journeys for the sake of her health, as to Malta and Madeira. She was known for her simplicity of life and manners, and for her charitable liberality, especially to seamen. She died at Bentley Priory, near Stanmore, and was buried at Windsor. Doran, Life of Queen Adelaide. * Adeler, Max, the pseudonym of Charles Heheh Clark, American humourist, first be- came known by his humorous sketches of American life, entitled Out of the Hurly- Burly (1874). These were succeeded in 1876 bv Elbow Room, in 1879 bv Random Shots, in 1881 by An Old Fogey, and in 1883 by Trans- formations. His humour is of the genuine American type, revealing the quaint situations of ordinary life, and abounding in startling exaggerations and no less startling simplicity of bathos. Adler, Jakor Geoug Christian (b. 1755, d. 1805), Orientalist, son of Georg Christian Adler, a theologian of repute, was born at Amis, in Schleswig, studied Oriental lan- guages at Rome, where ho found a patron in Cardinal Borgia, and, on returning to Den- mark, was appointed professor of Syriac in 1783, and subsequently, in 1788, professor of theology at Copenhagen, in which capacity he preached and published many sermons. He was only seventeen when he published a col- lection of contracts in rabbinical Hebrew and German (1773), which went to a second edi- tion in 1792. His chief talent was in Oriental palaeography and numismatics, of which last he may almost be regarded as the parent. His Musamrn Cuficum Borgianum (1782) is in- deed full of mistakes, but it is the first of the long lino of catalogues of Arabic coins, which have extended from Adler's time to the pre- sent day with increasing numbers and ac- curacy. Adler also published descriptions of Adl ( 17 ) Ady Kufic MSS., and assisted in the great trans- lation of Abulfeda's A/males, 1790-4, which was the stock authority .for Oriental history until the publication of Ibn-al-Athir's Kamil, by Tornborg, superseded it. B. Schmidt published an eloge on Adler, at Altona, 1805. Op. Lexicon d. Schlesu-ig-Holstein- ischen Schriftsteller, s.v. ro t p -i * Adler, The Rev. Dr. Nathan Marcus, Chief Rabbi (b. 1803), born at Hanover, studied at Giittingen, Erlangen, and Wiirzburg. After being Chief Rabbi of Oldenburg and Hanover, he was created Chief Rabbi of the United Congregations of the British Empire in 1846. Besides some Hebrew Commentaries, he has published several sermons, such as his farewell sermon to his congregation at Hanover, and The Jewish Faith, a clear and brief exposition of the unchangeable doctrines revealed to his nation at Sinai. * Adler, The Rev. Dr. Hermann* (b. 1839), son of Dr. Nathan Marcus Adler (q.v.), was born in Hanover, and studied in London, Prague, and Leipzig. He became Principal oi the Jews' College in London in 1863, and Minister of the Bayswater Synagogue in 1864. He has published several lec- tures, such as a Short History of the Jews in England, a course of Sermons on the Passages in the Bible adduced by Christian Theologians in support of their Faith (1869), in which he ex- poses certain errors of the common interpre- tation that disregards context ; and a sermon, entitled, Is Judaism a Missionary Faith ? a reply to Professor Max Muller, who, in a course of lectures on religion, had maintained that it was not. It is noteworthy, how- ever, that in the sermons of 1869 Dr. Adler had himself admitted that Judaism seeks no proselytes. He became Delegate Chief Rabbi in 1879, taking part of his father's duties. Adolphus, John (b. 1768, d. 1845), his- torian, was the grandson of a physician to Frederick the Great, but born in England, where his father resided. After passing a year in the island of St. Kitts, Adolphus returned to England, and in 1790 was admitted as 'an attorney. In 1793 he married a Miss Leycester. He soon abandoned law for literature. The friendship of Archdeacon Coxe, whom he assisted in preparing his Me- moirs of Walpole, turned Adolphus' attention to recent history. After several lesser works, he published in 1802 his History of England from 1760 to 1783. It proved very successful. Its conservative tone won the favour of a public strongly alarmed at the excesses of the French Revolution. His command of fresh materials enabled Adolphus to describe the early history of George III.'s reign with an accuracy that extorted praise from the king himself. A dash of vigour in its style atoned for the pomposity and hollowness that now make the book intolerably dull reading. Adolphus next won the patronage of Addine- ton, and devoted himself to writin»- and electioneering in favour of the Government which liberally rewarded him. In 1807 he became a barrister, and while still continuing his literary work, soon won a foremost place at the criminal bar; his defence of the Cato Street Conspirators in 1820 being especially famous. In his old age he devoted himself to the continuation of his History, and had published as far as the fall of Addinglon when, in 1845, he died, at the ripe age of 77. His History has several times been reprinted. Still occasionally useful as a storehouse of facts, it has been, for most purposes, quite superseded by later works of fuller knowledge and wider views. Dictionary of National Biography; Recollections of Adolphus, by his Daughter, 1871 ; Frascr's Magazine (May and July, 1832). ['p. F. T.1 *Adye, General Sir John Miller, G.C.B., soldier (b. 1819), is the son of J. P. Adye, Major in the Royal Artillery. He passed out of the Royal Military Academy in 1836. He served in the Crimea, was present at the affairs of Bulganac and McKenzie's Farm, at the battles of the Alma, Balaclava, and Inker- man, and at the capture of Balaclava Castle and the fortress of Sebastopol. For these ser- vices he received the medal with four clasps, a Companionship of the Bath, a Companion- ship of the Legion of Honour, the fourth class of the Medjidie, and the Turkish medal. He occupied a position on the staff of the Royal Artillery in the Indian Mutiny during the years 1857-58. He was three times mentioned in despatches, and received the Indian war medal. In 1863 he was employed in the Sitana expe- dition against the tribes on the north-west frontier of India, and was present at the storming of Laloo, the capture of Fmbeylah, and the destruction of Mulkah ; for this lie received the medal with clasp. He received promotion in the Order of the Bath, by being made a Knight Commander in 1873, and the following year was made a Commander of the Legion of Honour. In 1875 he was appointed Governor of the Royal Military Academy, and became Lieut.-Gencral in 1879. In 1880 lie was appointed Surveyor-General of the < lid- nance, and in 1884 Colonel Commandant of the Royal Artillery. When the Egyptian ex- pedition was formed in 1882, Sir John was up- pointed Chief of Staff to Sir Garnet "Wolscley. He took part in the actions at Mahs-iinch and Tell-el-Kebir. For these services he received the thanks of the Houses of Parliament, the war medal, and the bronze star presented by the Khedive of Egypt, and was promoted to the Grand Cross of both the Medjidie and Bath. From 1883 to 1886 he was Governor and Com- mander-in-Chief of Gibraltar. Sir •';>"" written several military works, including nj Jlrf/nre of Cawnpore, A ltciuic if tin Om irar to the Winter of 1854-5, and SWWHI Aff 18 ) Afg Mountain Campaign on the Borders of Af- ghanistan. Afire, Denis AUGUSTS, Archbishop of Paris (6. 1793, d. 1848), received his early edu- cation at the seminary of St. Sulpice, studied philosophy at Nantes, and returned to finish his theological course in Paris, where he was ordained, 1820. As a priest at Amiens he did much to improve the education of the country people, and besides several branches of literary study, such as the Egyptian hieroglyphics and questions of ecclesiastical law, he was engaged in a controversy in which he resisted the revival of the doctrine of the Pope's tem- poral power. Appointed Canon-Titular and Vicar-General of Paris in 1834, after five years of quiet literary life he became Assist- ant-Bishop of Strasburg, and Archbishop of Paris in the next year, 1840. In this capacity he distinguished himself by his personal be- nevolence and philanthropy, as well as by dignity and moderation in dealing with oppo- nents. But the rigour of his system of theo- logical training led to a disagreement with the Abbe Dupanloup, and his tenacity of the rights of his Church on the question of free- dom of education led to a coolness between him and Louis Philippe, in spite of their former intimacy. On the outbreak of the Revolution of 1848 he was, for the most part, content to support the Provisional Government, and it was with the sanction of General Cavaignac that on the third day of the Workmen's Re- bellion (June 23th) he endeavoured to act as mediator with the insurgents ; but they, owing to a mistaken suspicion of treachery, opened fire as he mounted the barricade in the Faubourg St. Antoine, and he fell, mortally wounded, to the common regret of both parties. Abbe Bruice, Vie de Denis Auguste Affre, 1849. Afghanistan, The Ameeks of. (1) Mahmud Shah (d. 1820) succeeded to the throne of Afghanistan in 1800, after deposing and blinding his half-brother, Shah Zeman. He was, however, speedily overthrown by his half-brother, Shah Shuja (1802), but in 1808 he escaped from prison, and was restored, through the influence of his power- ful vizier, Futteh Khan. A poiiod of credit- able rule followed, during which Cashmere was re -conquered ; this was brought to a close by the brutal assassination, in 1816, of the able Futteh Khan, by the orders of feeble and unprincipled Mahmud. Two years afterwards he was driven out of Cabul, and died in exile. (2) Shah Shuja {b. circa 1780, d. 1842) was the brother of Shah Zeman, and half- brother of Mahmud Shah (q.v.). After his brother's overthrow he escaped to the Khyber Pass, and two years later succeeded in estab- lishing himself on the throne of Cabul. His first period of government is remarkable chiefly for the first English mission to Af- ghanistan, that of Mountstuart Elphinstone in 1809, to counteract the intrigues of Napo- leon in Persia. Soon afterwards he was expelled by Mahmud Shah, and took refuge with Runjet Singh, the ruler of the Punjab, who deprived him of the precious Koh-i-noor. Thence he escaped to the British territories, which formed the basis of two unsuccessful attempts to recover the throne, the second of which was defeated by Dost Muhammad in 1834. In 1838 came the rash resolution of the British Government to restore him to the throne, and Shah Shuja. re-entered Cabul in August, 1839. Soon after occurred the mur- ders of Burnes and Maenaughten (q.v.), and the consequent evacuation of Afghanistan by the British garrison, and Shah Shuja, left ■ utterly without support, was assassinated. (3) Dost Muhammad Khan (b. 1806, d. 1863) was the brother of Mahmud Shah's able minister, Futteh Khan, the chief of the Barakzdi tribe. He early attracted the notice of his brother, and, in spite of a youth of vice, became his chief confidant. At the time of the death of Futteh Khan he had fled for safety into Cashmere ; but two years after- wards, after the flight of Mahmud Shah (1818), he returned to make himself master of the whole of Afghanistan, with the excep- tion of Herat and Candahar. His rule was one of very great ability, and the attempts of Shah Shuja to recover the throne were frustrated with ease. About 1837, however, his relations with the English Government began to be strained. Dost Muhammad was believed by the British Government to be intriguing with Russia, and partly to counter- act those intrigues, partly to keep an eye on the Persian attack on Herat, Burnes (q.v.) was sent as British Resident to Cabul. He failed to impress his superiors with his own be- lief in the sincerity of the Ameer, and the rash resolution was taken by Lord Auckland to depose Dost Muhammad, and replace Shah Shuja on the throne. The " army of the Indus," under Sir J. Keane, speedily accom- plished its mission, and Dost Muhammad fled over the Hindu Kush. He joined the first insurrection of his son Akhbar (q.v.), but,, seeing the futility of resistance, surrendered, and was deported to India. He was thus guiltless of any share in Akhbar's atrocities, the murder of Maenaughten, and the massacre- of the retiring English ; and after the war of vengeance was at an end, Lord Ellenborough determined to restore him to the throne of Cabul. During the remainder of his active life, Dost Muhammad remained on the most friendly terms with the English Government, except during the Sikh War of 1848, when he sent reinforcements to the enemy. In 1855 his independence was recognised by the Treaty of Peshawur, an arrangement followed up by an annual subsidy of twelve lakhs of rupees (£120,000) for military purposes. Its Afg ( 19 ) Afg value was seen when, during the Indian Mutiny, he remained faithful to us. His ex- traordinary military ability was displayed by his capture of Candahar in 1855, and his re-conquest of Herat from the Persians a few days before his death. Kaye, History of the War in Afghanistan. (4) Shir Ali (b. circa 1809, d. 1879) was the second son of Dost Muhammad, and suc- ceeded him in 1863, in preference to his elder brother, Afzul Khan. A civil war imme- diately broke out between the two, during which Shir Ali was at one time so reduced as to give up Cabul and Candahar ; but in . 1868 he drove his nephew, 'Abd-er-Rahman, the present Ameer, into exile, and established himself on the throne. He was recognised by the English Government, and in 1869 was splendidly received at Umballah by Lord Mayo. In 1872 Afghanistan was declared by Prince Goitschakoff to be an "intermediary zone " between Russia and India. In 1873 came Shir Ali's effort to obtain a British guarantee for his sovereignty and family succession ; and in 1876 Lord Lytton's eiforts to obtain the establishment of a British Resident in Cabul, which were repeated at the futile Peshawur Conference of 1877. In July, 1878, after a long series of communica- tions, a Russian mission, under General Stolietoff, was received with honour at Cabul, and when a similar British mission was stopped on the frontier, war with Afghanistan was declared by England. After a series of defeats had been indicted on his troops in the Khyber Pass and the Kurum Valley, Shir Ali fled from his capital in December, 1878, and being informed that- he must ex- pect no help from the Russian Government, he died, worn out by disappointment and fatigue, at Mazar-i-Sherif, near Balkh, on Feb. 21st. An unfortunate man, he inherited much of the military ability of his father, and is said to have displayed zeal for reform. The relations between Shir Ali and the British Government are clearly described, from a party point of view, by the Duke of Argyll, in The Eastern Question. (5) * Yakub Khan, the son of Shir Ali (b. circa 1847), distinguished himself in 1867 by jntiicting a considerable defeat upon his cousin, the present Ameer. Finding his claims ignored in favour of his younger brother, Abdulla Jan, he rebelled against his father in 1870, and was in prison when the Ameer, in 1879, resolved, in consequence of his defeats by the English, to abandon his capital. Acknowledged by the people, he hastened to conciliate the advancing enemy, . and by the Treaty of Gandamak (May 26) ho agreed to place his foreign policy in tho hands of the British, and to accept a British Resident at Cabul. On Sept. 3rd the Resi- dent, Sir Louis Cavagnari, with his escort, was murdered, in a religious riot, and tho war was renewed. Without making an attempt at resistance, the Ameer placed him- self in the hands of General Roberts, and soon afterwards resigned. It boing held that owing to his criminal weakness, if not to actual sympathy with the rioters, he was responsible for the massacre of the British mission, he was deported to India as a prisoner of State. *(6) 'Abd-er- Rahman Khan, the present Ameer (b. circa 1830), is the son of Azful Khan, and the grandson of Dost Muhammad. Azful Khan was the elder brother of Shir Ali, and was accordingly the natural successor to the throne, but the latter was tho fnoceaa- ful candidate. A civil war immediately broke out, in which 'Abd-er-Rahman took a promi- nent part in his father's behalf ; in 1865 he seized Balkh, and in the following year Cabul surrendered to him, and he proclaimed Azful Ameer. Azful, however, died after a reign of a few months, his death being hastened by his drunken habits, and was succeeded at Cabul by his brother Azim, to whom 'Abd-er- Rahman swore allegiance, but soon quitted the capital in disgust, and retired to Turkestan. His most able opponent out of the way, Shir Ali promptly made an effort to recover his lost territory, and lived for ten years at Bokhara. A pension of £3,000 a year, which he carefully husbanded, was given him by the Russian dominions, and though 'Abd-er-Rahman hur- ried up to the assistance of his uncle, Azim, he was defeated with loss by Yakub Khan (q.v.) in 1867, and again in 1868 at Tinah Khan. With the last battle the civil war came to an end; 'Abd-er-Rahman took refuge in Russian government, but his requests for assistance in men and arms was steadily refused. In 1880, when war broke out between Shir Ali and the Indian Government, he repaired to Balkh, to watch the progress of affairs ; and when the English Government, in March, 1880, decided that his claims to the vacant throne were superior to those of the other competitors, ne- gotiations were opened with him by Lord Lytton, and continued by Lord Ripon. On his side, 'Abd-er-Rahman displayed the utmost caution, but at length he closod with tho overtures made through Mr. Lepel Griffin (who was much impressed by his ability), and in July was recognised by the British Govern- ment as ruler of Afghanistan, with the excep- tion of Candahar. On the evacuation of Cabul, in September, he immediately occupied it, but for awhile his position was most in- secure. Nevertheless, whan it was decided by the Liberal Government to abandon ( 'andahar. ho determined to occupy that city also, and did so in April, 1881. His governor, Mu- hammad Hassan Khan, was driven out by Ayoub Khan (q.v.) in August ; but the Am.-, i arrived with an army from Cabul, defeaM his cousin outside the walls of Candahar, and re-occupied it. The year 1882 was also ono of trouble, caused chiefly by ' Abd-er-Rahman a Afz ( 20) Aga efforts to collect revenue in advance, and in the following year there were several outbreaks, particularly of the Shinwari tribe. Neverthe- less, his position was immensely improved by an arrangement made by the British Govern- ment of the payment to him of an annual subsidy of twelve lakhs of rupees (£120,000), Shortly afterwards the southward advance of Russia, culminating in the seizure of Penj- deh, in April, must have been a cause of much anxiety to him. But his northern frontier was defined by the Anglo-Russian commission in 1886. In 1888 he crushed the rebellion of his cousin Ishak Khan. [L. C. S.] Afzelius, Adam, a Swedish naturalist (b. 1750, d. 1836), was one of the most distin- guished of the pupils of Linnaeus, under whom he studied, at Upsala. At first, however, his bent was not for science. For a time he was a teacher of Oriental languages in the Uni- versity, and eight years later (1785) became Demonstrator of Botany to his famous master. Between the years 1792-94 he resided on the west coast of Africa as botanist to the Sierra Leone Company, and then, after acting for a short period .as secretary to the Swedish Em- bassy in London, he resumed his duties as a botanical teacher in Upsala, where, in 1812, at the mature age of sixty-two, he was ap- pointed Professor of Materia Medica. In 1823 he edited the Autobiography of linnccus, and, in addition to his works on the plants of Guinea and Sweden, contributed a large number of papers to the Transactions of the Linnean Society of London and the Royal Academy of Stockholm. He bequeathed his extensive collection of dried plants to the University Herbarium, where it is still pre- served. Afzelius was a man of fine culture, and capable of excelling in almost any depart- ment of intellectual life. His name is per- petuated in the genus Afzelia, and in the " trivial " name of several species of plants. Agardh, Carl Adolf [b. 1785, d. 1859), celebrated at once as a botanist and as a politi- cal economist, was born in Bastad, in the pro- vince of Scania, Sweden, and after a course of study at the University of Lund, was elected Professor of Botany in the same insti- tution in 1812. Agardh was the first botanist who devoted his attention to the scientific study of Algie, and his great works on the subject may be regarded as the foundation of all our present knowledge in regard to these sea plants and their fresh-water allies. A keen patriot, he took an active part in all the stirring events of the Napoleonic regime, and the replacement in Sweden of the old line of kings by the Bemadotte dynasty. Latterly, however, his politics took the more practical shape of trying to develop the natural re- sources of his native land, and from this point of view hisForsok till en statsekonomisk Statistik 6/ver Sverige (Parts 1-3, Karlstadt, 1852-59 ; Ljungberg added a fourth part in 1863) may be regarded as his legacy to Sweden. But Agardh's fame, rests on his botanical works. These, in addition to many memoirs in the "Transactions" of learned societies and in scientific journals, are : — Systema Algarum (Lund, 1824); Species Algarum (3 vols., Lund and Greifswald, 1820-28); Icones Algarum Europaarum (Leipzig, 182S-35) ; Larebok i Botanik (2 vols., ilalmo, 1830-32 ; translated into German by Meyer and Von Creplin) . Agardh, Jakob George (b. 1813), a Swedish botanist, son of C. A. Agardh, was born at Lund, and after assisting his father, succeeded him in 1854, retiring as Emeritus Professor in 1879. The younger Agardh's botanical labours may be regarded as simply a continuation of those of his father, for he devoted his life to the same studies as he, and to the collection of the same plants, and those of which the elder savant had accumulated so vast an herbarium. His chief works are :- — Species, Genera, et Ordincs Algarum (4 vols., Lund, 1848-1863); Synopsis generis Lupiui (Lund, 1835); llecensio generis Iteridis (Lund, 1839) ; Algce Maris Jlediterranei et Adrialici (Paris, 1842) ; In Systema Algarum Hodierna Adversaria (Lund, 1845) ; and Theoria Systv- malisXaturalis Plantation (Lund, 1858), besides many memoirs in " Transactions " and journals. Like his father, Professor Agardh writes Latin with an case and an elegance fast becoming one of the lost arts. >S1Z, Alexander (b. 1835), an American zoologist, son of Louis Agassiz, was born in Switzerland, but went to the United States with his father in 1846, and may now be regarded as American, both by training and by sympathy. The son of such a father could scarcely have avoided being a na- turalist. Yet, knowing the uncertainty of the life scientific, the elder Agassiz sent Alexander, soon after he graduated at Harvard in 1855, to study civil engineering in the Lawrence Scientific School, where in 1857 he received the degree of B.Sc. The engineers were, how- ever, not destined to shine in the reflected light of the younger Agassiz, for he began to teach chemistry in the lady's school which his father had established in Boston. In March, 1859, more congenial work was found for him in the United States Coast Survey of Cali- fornia, where for some time he was occupied in collecting and studying marine animals for the Harvard Museum of Comparative Anatomy, then in charge of his father. On his return to Cambridge Agassiz became connected with the Museum, and henceforth devoted most of his time to its development. In 1865 he be- came " interested " in the Pennsylvania coal mines, and subsequently in the copper mines of Lake Superior. These proved the El Do- rado of the younger Agassiz, for by a lucky hit, due in part at least to his geological knowledge, he succeeded, in the two and a half Aga (21) Aga years he spent in that region, in developing the richest copper lode in the world, and in becoming one of the wealthiest of naturalists, just as his father had been one of the poorest. Freed from any future care regarding the wherewithal to live, Agassiz now devoted himself to unremunerative researches, and, as a preliminary training, visited the principal museums of Europe, resuming, however, on his return in 1871, his duties as Assistant Cura- tor of the Harvard collections. In 1873, after the death of his father, Mr. Agassiz succeeded him as head of the museum, and to his muni- ficent endowments and labours- the establish- ment, in a certain degree founded by his father, may be said to have been raised to its present stage of excellence. Some years ago it was estimated that Alexander Agassiz's gifts during a single decade had amounted to 230,000 dollars in money, besides numerous donations to the other departments of the Uni- versity ; and in lSSo, when he retired from active connection with the University, it was estimated that he had endowed his alma mater to the extent of half a million of dollars. But this expresses very imperfectly the munificence of Mr. Agassiz, for in 187o he visited Peru and Chili, in connection with his copper mining " interests," and as the scientific result of his journey, enriched the museum with a fine collection of antiquities. For several succes- sive seasons he engaged in deep-sea dredging expeditions, akin to those undertaken by the Challenger and the Porcupine, the tangible harvest of which labours found their way into the Natural History Museum over which he presided; while the School of Zoology, after the model of Anton Dohrns at Naples, which he founded at his own cost on the terminus of the Neck, at Newport, Ehode Island, close to his summer residence on the crest of Castle Hill, has given a stimulus to biological study which can- not well be over-estimated. Hen.-, again, ho followed his father's lead, though with resources which his father never could com- mand. Louis Agassiz had, with some assist- ance from friends, fixed on Penikese Island, below New Bedford, Massachusetts, as the site of his " Summer School." But it was soon discovered that the inaccessibility of the situation, and other circumstances, would ren- der the establishment unprofitable from every point of view. The school was accordingly closed, and the present more useful building erected, though it is quite a mistake to suppose that it is only a "weak perpetuation" of the Penikese laboratory. Mr. Agassiz's numerous papers are, for the most part, on the embryo- logy of fishes, radiates, erustacea, annelids, and " pelagic tunicates." Several of his contribu- tions to the National Academy of Sciences and American Academy of Arts and Sciences have grown out of his work at " the School :•" such as those on the young stages of the flounder, goose-fish, and other genera; embryological observations on the ctenophoric jelly-fishes, on the garpike, and on Balanoglossus. For some years past Mr. Agassiz has been engaged in working at the sea-urchins brought home by the Challenger, and now that he is at perfect leisure, his literary labours may be expected to be even more abundant. A list of his papers may be found in the Royal Society's Catalog* , and among the publications of the Cambridge (U.S.) Museum of Comparative Anatomy ; though "rushing into print" is rather frowned upon by the cautious coterie who work at Newport, some of their tentative ob- servations lying so long in note-books that they are anticipated by more precipitate workers. Agassiz, Louis Johann Eudolph (b. 1807. d. 1878), one of the most eminent naturalists of the nineteenth century, was the son of a Swiss Protestant clergyman, pastor of the small town of Motiers, not far from the eastern ex- tremity of Neuchatel Lake, where, on May 28th, 1807, his distinguished son was born. Educated at home and at the Gymnasium of Biel, he completed his elementary training at the Academy of Lausanne, where he was noted for his love of the natural sciences, and the talent he displayed for their study. Adopting medicine as his profession, he en- tered himself successively at the Universitii ■ of Zurich, Heidelberg, and Munich, gradua- ting M.D. in the latter seat of l earn ing. Hitherto botany had been his favourite science, and it is possible that ichthyology might have lost one of its principal cultivators had not tin- death of Spix made it necessaiy for some one to finish the work which he had begun in the great collection of fishes made by himself and Martius during their journey in Brazil. For this task, Agassiz, though little more than a student, was selected, and during many sub- sequent years ichthyology was his chief occupation. The Brazilian species were de- scribed, figured, and published by 1829 ; but in 1830 appeared, as the result of his studies on those of Europe, and especially of Switzer- land, the prospectus of a History of the Frcxh- water Fishes of Europe, of which the first pari was issued in 1839, though not until the eager young naturalist had involved himself in what were to him serious financial responsibilities. The fossil species next claimed his attention, and between the years 1833 and 1844 appeared, as the result of his labours in that then alatoel untrodden field, the Ste k$n k $ i ■■<">• l. The cost of producing this monumental work was so great that he had to apply to the British Association for aid, and Lord Fraaek Egerton. afterwards the Earl of Ellesmere. ren- dered him the most timely help in defraying the cost of what was too much for the itendei resources of the author. "While prosecuting Aga (22) Aga this work he visited England, and immediately detected in the Scottish hills those signs of ice action which proved the foundation for that generalisation regarding an ice cap, like that of Greenland, having at one time covered the north, which is still almost universally held. Quick in assimilating the observations of others, and with a memory singularly re- tentive, and an industry which never tired, he was soon after, in Paris, working at the star- fish and sea-urchin order of animals, though, from his residence in an inland country, his acquaintance with these marine subjects was mainly from museum specimens. Notwith- standing his poverty, he managed by 1838 to publish the first part of a monograph on the re- cent and fossil Echinodermata, and in 1839-40 two quarto vols, on the fossil species of Swit- zerland, besides numerous papers and elaborate memoirs on other subjects. The Echinoder- mata, indeed, were always favourites with him, for almost to the close of his life he was engaged in studying them, and the taste for the group was inherited by his son, who is now one of the best authorities on his father's early theme of research. But wide though the field of fishes and sea-urchins is, it was far too cir- cumscribed for Agassiz, for the history of the Belemnites, the classification of the animal kingdom, the muscular system of shell-fish, the genera of fossil mollusca, the development of salmon, and the collection of specimens for the Neuchatel Museum during his frequent journeys in the interests of science, engrossed him, either consecutively or occasionally, at one and the same time ; and the fossil fishes of the Scottish Devonian beds formed the theme of a separate monograph (1844). Between the years 1840-46 he was eagerly occupied in studying the glaciers of his native land, and, with the assistance of Buckland, in applying this knowledge to the elucidation of the traces of extinct ones in North Britain and other parts of Europe. His Etudes sur les Glaciers, issued in the usual sumptuous form of all Agassiz's works, laid the foundation for a nota- bly fresh departure, and may be said to have been the parent of Forbes' s still better-known "travels, though possibly modern investigators have not adopted in toto the conclusions of either. In 1838 he had been appointed to the Chair of Natural History in Neuchatel, and though the emoluments of the office were small, it seemed that henceforward his life was to be that of the frugal Swiss professor. In 1846, however, began a second career for Agassiz. In that year he crossed the Atlantic, to deliver some lectures before the Lowell In- stitute, but was induced to remain as Professor of Zoology and Geology in the University of Cambridge (Harvai-d College). In 1851 he accepted a Chair of Comparative Anatomy in Charleston (S.C.) Medical College, but two years later he returned to Cambridge, and there remained as professor and director of the museum which he organised. In due time he was also naturalised as a citizen of Massachusetts, and appointed a Regent of the Smithsonian Institution. As a "Lyceum" lecturer he might have earned a large income, but, to use his own expression, " he could not afford to make money." Still he found that in America there was a remunerative sale for books which in Europe would never have paid the printer, and post hoc, propter hoc, volume after volume poured from his tireless pen. Among these may be enumerated his Lake Superior, Contributions to the Natural History vf the United States (4 vols.), Introduction to the Study of Comparative Physiology, Geo- logical Papers, Zoologie Generate et Psquisses Generates de Zoologie, &c. (1854), his vast Cata- logue of Scientific Memoirs {Bibliographia Zoologies et Geologic), &c, &c. The Museum of Comparative Anatomy was a still greater work, and in 1865, at the expense of Mr. Thayer, a Boston banker, he, his wife, and a staff of assist- ants, made a voyage to Brazil, as a means not only of adding to his second-hand knowledge of that region, but of recruiting his waning health. The result was published in various works, and a popular account of the expe- dition in a book by Mrs. Agassiz. In 1871 he visited the Pacific shores of the United States, and shortly before his death succeeded, by the liberality of Mr. John Anderson, a New York tobacconist, in founding a School of Practical Natural History at Penikese. [Agas- siz, Alexander.] Another friend presented him with a steam yacht for dredging pur- poses, and in short, it had become the fashion to " help Agassiz," when he died, full of work and of extensive plans for the future. In private life he was one of the most amiable of men. His enthusiasm was contagious ; and though boundless in his con- tempt for the "Philistines" who could not appreciate science, the range of his studies was so wide that he was saved from the narrow- ness which specialism is apt to induce in the votaries of a little by-way of Nature, to the dimensions of which the mind of the special- ist shrinks. He estimated his own work at its full value, but he never exaggerated its importance over that of other men. Sometimes, by taking too broad an • area for examination, he was inaccurate in little details, and occasionally failed in his deduc- tions, as in his idea regarding the Brazilian plains having been covered with a glacier sheet, just as Switzerland and Northern Europe had been. But these drawbacks scarcely, if at all, detract from the vast services which he rendered to natuial history, and the indelible mark he has left on the intellectual life of his age. He was not apt to change his opinions with every wind that blew. Hence, to the last he was a disbeliever in Darwinism, and in glacial doctrines held to his own early theory, uninfluenced by the " discoveries," which he not unjustly regarded as the guesses of men whose acquaintance with the Agu ( 23) Am Arctic ice action which they invoked was nil, and with that of the Alps much less than his own. It may be added that though he took no part in politics, his views were so decided that ho refused to settle in Paris at the invi- tation of the French Emperor, and that though he would fain have taken office in Edinburgh, he was not fated to be an orna- ment of that University, or to return, as he always hoped he would, to his native land, ■even when, as Longfellow puts it, his heart at times beat wildly " for the beautiful Pays deVaud." Louis Agassiz: his Life and Work, by his Wife (1885) ; Processor Williamson's article on Agassiz in the Encyclopaedia Britannic*. [R. B.] Aguilar, Grace (b. 1816, d. 1847), authoress of moral tales and religious tracts, was a J ewess of Spanish extraction. For the shortness of her life, her works are very numerous. They may be divided as follows : Two historic novels, The Vale of Cedars, a story •of the Jews in Spain during the fifteenth century, and The Days of Bruce, which re- mains the most popular of her works ; they are written in the heroic style fit for the mouths of the knights of bygone days or the heroes of modern melodrama, and, but for the entire absence of humour, would recall Ivanhoe •and the Talisman; three domestic stories, Home Influence, The Mother's Becompente, and Woman' s Friendship ; and a collection of short stories, Home Scenes and Heart Studies, the general character of which is like Miss Edge- worth's tales, though again the style is for the most part heroic, and humour absent ; The Women of Israel, a series of short sketches of some of the notable women in ancient Jewish history ; and a few religious treatises, the most important' being The Spirit of Judaism, in which she defends the purity of her religion against the perversions and persecutions of Christianity. She died at Frankfort. *Ahmed-Vefik Pasha (b. circa 1818), Turkish statesman and politician, was edu- cated for some years in Paris. Having been appointed to a post in the Ottoman Civil Ser- vice on his return, he founded the Salaame, or Annuary of the Ottoman Empire, in 1847. He was Commissioner to the Principalities in 1849 and 1850, and in the following year was sent as Ambassador Extraordinary to Persia, where his firmness and diplomatic skill with- drew the Shah from the alliance of Russia. After his return in 1866, he became in succes- sion member of the Council of State, of the Council of War, and the Tanzimat, and in 1857 he was Minister of Justice for a few months. In 1860 he was sent on a special embassy to Paris relative to the French occupation of Syria, and was' created Pasha. Since 1871 he has held various important positions in the administration. *Aide, Hamilton, novelistand song-writer, is the author of several novels, such as Carr of Carlyon (1841), The Marstons (1868), Morals and Mysteries (1872), Poet and Teer (1880), and Introduced to Society (1884). He also published a book of verses, Eleonore and other Poems, in 1856 ; and is well known as the author of the words of several popular drawing-room songs, such as Bride, with thy truthful eyes ; Close thy eyes, the day is done ,- Lie at peace, little one ; Morniny star, that shin'st above her ; and When tie are parted, the last two of which are set to music by Blumenthal. *Aikins, The Hon. James Cox (5.1823), Lieutenant-Governor of the province of Mani- toba, was born in Toronto, and educated at Victoria College, Cobourg. From 1854 to 1861 he represented County Peel, Ontario, in the Canadian Assembly. In 1862 he was elected member of the Legislative Council, on the abolition of which he obtained a seat in the Senate. From 1869 to 1873 he was Privy Councillor and Secretary of State under the Macdonald Government, and during this time he passed the Public Lands Act, and organised the Dominion Lands Bureau for the manage- ment of lands acquired in the North-West. In 1878 he again became Secretary of State, two years later Minister of Inland Revenue, and Lieutenant-Governor of Manitoba in 1882. Aimard, Gistave (b. 1818, d. 1883), novel- ist, lived for many early years an adventurous life, chiefly in America and among savage tribes. Travelling subsequently in Spain and Turkey, he was much concerned in conspira- cies of a doubtful character. At thirty years of age he was appointed to an office of credit in Paris, and eventually settled down to the life of an author, employing his own varied experiences in the production of romances full of extraordinary incidents. He published about twelve stories, the most popular being Les Tr appears de V Arkansas. Several of his works have beeen translated into English by Sir F. Wraxall. Ainmiiller, Max Emaxiel (ft. 1807, d. 1870), artist and painter on glass, studied at the academy in Mimich. He turned his attention to glass under the direction of S. Frank. He executed the new windows in Ratisbon Cathedral, and in the church of Au, a suburb of Munich. In 1844 hi came inspector of thonew Royal Qlaaa W at Munich. Several of the new win. lows at Spires, Cologne, and in St. Paul's, in L on don, are by his hand, though the ligures are often painted by other German mast. is. lie may thus be regarded as the leader of the Ifunicfi School of Glass Painting, which has done so much to ruin the interiors of so many Euro- pean churches and cathedrals. He was also an architectural painter of some merit. Ain ( 24 ) Ain *Ainsworth, William Francis (/>. 1807), an English naturalist, traveller, and litter ateur, and a cousin of the novelist. Bom in Exeter, he studied medicine in Edinburgh, receiving when barely of age the diploma of the Royal College of Surgeons. But medicine was not his profes- sion — it was only a means towards an end, which was the study of natural history. Soon after leaving the University, he travelled in Auvergne and the Pyrenees in search of data in support of the Huttonian theory, which in those days divided with the doctrines of the Wernerians, of whom Jameson was the high priest, the allegiance of the northern geologists. Returning (1828) to Edinburgh, he edited for a short time — indeed, during its brief career — Cheek's Journal of Natural and GcOf/raphical Science, which, though rather a poor affair, combining, towards the close of its career, coloured plates of birds and other animals as a pictorial bait to purchasers, was the hist attempt to found a geographical magazine in this country. In 1835 Ainsworth was attached as physician and naturalist to Chesney's Euphrates Expedition, returning home two years later through Kurdistan, the Taurus, and Asia Minor. In 1838, in com- pany with Rassam and Russell, he was sent by the then young Geographical Society and the Society for the Diffusion of Christian Knowledge into Asia Minor, with the object of exploring the course of the Halys, and ascertaining the condition of the Christians in Kurdistan. On his return, in 1841, he pub- lished his Researches in Kurdistan, and, during the years which followed, a variety of other works touching on the countries he had visited. The chief of these are : — Claims of the Christian Aborigines in the East ; Travels in the Track of the Ten Thousand, &c. lie also edited Lares and Penates, and advocated an Indo-European telegraph by way of the Tigris Valley, a project which has since been carried out. Latterly he devoted himself to general literature, writing and editing All Hound the World, a popular work on travel and geography (1859-60) ; The Illustrated Universal Gazetteer, kc. ; and latterly became the proprietor and editor of the now extinct New Monthly Magazine. For his eminent services to Oriental research he received the honorary degree of Ph.D. from Jena, and be- sides being one of the founders of the Royal Geographical Society, and one of the six sur- viving Fellows who appear in the list for 1830, he is a member of many English and foreign associations. His Personal Narrative of the Euphrates Expedition appeared in 1888. Ainsworth, William Harrison-, novelist {b. 1805, d. 1882),was the eldest son of a Man- chester solicitor. He was educated at the Man- chester Free Grammar School, and articled to a local solicitor. In 1824 he removed to London, where, two years later, he married a daughter of a Bond Street publisher, and abandoned law in order to devote himself to literature. His first important work was the romance entitled Sir John Chiverton, which was written in his twenty-hrst year. It won the admiration of Scott. The most popular of his stories was also an early work. Pookuood appeared in 1834, and at once established his reputation. The story of Jack Sheppard, only less popular, appeared first in lientley's Mis- cellany in 1839, Mr. Ainsworth having newly accepted the editorship of that periodical, in succession to Dickens. Following these stories came The Tower of London, Old Saint Paul's, and The Miser's Daughter. Subsequent romances are too numerous for particular mention. In 1841 Mr. Ainsworth retired from the editorship oiPentley, and established a magazine under his own name. In 1845 lie became proprietor and editor of the New Monthly Magazine. In 1854 ho purchased lientley's Miscellany, and conducted it afresh. His life was purely literary, being almost devoid of any interest except such as is in- cident to the production of books. He was a friend and companion of some of the most popular writers of the time, Dickens among others. Respected and beloved, he passed through life without more than a single mis- understanding with any brother of the craft. In 1870 George Cruikshank, who had then newly surprised the world with a claim to be accounted the originator of Oliver Twist, wrote a letter to the Times asserting his right to be considered the creator of Ainsworth's. Old Saint T'auVs, The Tower of London, and The Miser's Daughter. The romancist con- tented himself with giving the statement of the artist an unequivocal denial, and the facts subsequently made public were not such as seriously disturbed that repudiation. It is just possible, however, that some central idea may have originated with Cruikshank in each of the cases cited by him. Ainsworth's place as a writer of romance is distinctly in the school of Mrs. Radcliffe. Picturesque, dis- tinguished by light and shade, not above the little tricks of artificial effect, by no means eminent in naturalness or a nice sense of fidelity to life, almost destitute of humour as understood by the true humourists, yet full of rollicking fun, and with a method of narration that was at least direct, spirited, and vigorous, Ainsworth was a writer of distinct though limited quality. His sympathies were with the past, mainly perhaps because the past appeared picturesque. Gloomy, lurid, grue- some effects suited best with his idiosyncrasy, but he was capable of racy, bracing writing. With the niceties of human character his art had small commerce ; and with the subtleties of metaphysical or physical intention it had no dealings at all. His plots were rarely or never constructed with any endeavour after symmetry or unity, but they were often in- genious and surprising. Where the romances of the eighteenth century find favour the Air ( 25 ) Air author of Bookwood and Old Saint Paul's will not fail of his measure of fame ; but where psychology or philosophy, metaphysics or unadorned human passion are most in re- quisition, the name of Harrison Ainsworth will be placed side by side with that of Monk Lewis, or perhaps that of his acknowledged mistress in fiction. Some of Ainsworth's novels enjoyed an extraordinary popularity, being translated into half the languages of Europe, and dramatised again and again. In his later years he departed from his early practice, and wrote two or three novels of modern life, Hilary St. Ives being one of them. He was a rapid writer, and produced about thirty volumes in all. His long account of Dick Turpin's ride to York, embodied in Book- wood, was written in as short a time as the ride itself is described as occupying. [T. H. C] Aird, Thomas, poet and journalist (b. 1802, d. 1876), was born at Bowden, Roxburghshire, and his university was that of Edinburgh. He contributed both poetry and prose to B lack wood's Magazine. Religious Character- istics he published in 1827 ; The Old Bachelor in the Old- Scottish Village, a volume of tales and sketches, in 1845 ; and a collected edition of his Poetical Works, including most of his con- tributions to Blackwood, in 1848-56. Of these, his poem of The DerWs Bream is best known. After the death of James Ballantyne, Sir Walter Scott's friend, he edited for a year the Edinburgh Weekly Journal, and in 1835 he was appointed editor of the Dumfries Herald, a Conservative journal of considerable in- fluence. In 1852 he brought out an edition in two vols, of the select poems of D. M. Moir (the "Delta" of Blaektvood), with a memoir prefixed. Personally, Thomas Aird was a man of nice culture and gentle manners, and was held in high esteem by all his contemporaries. He died at Castle Bank, Dumfries. Rev. Jardiue Wallace, Aird's Work*, with a memoir. Airey, Richakd, Baron, General (/>. 1803, d. 1881), was educated at Sandhurst, and entered the army in 1821. From 1827 to 1830 he was aide-de-camp to Sir Frederick Adam in the Ionian Islands, and for the next two years to Lord Aylmer in British North America. During the Crimean War he acted as quartermaster-general in the critical years 1854, 1855, in which capacity his industrious energy won him the admiration of his superior officers ; but partly owing to his undisguised contempt for war-correspondents, the whole blame for the inefficiency of the commissariat was thrown on his shoulders. On his return to England he demanded a military inquiry. According to the old ideas of a quartermaster- general's duties, his defence was complete, and he remained quartermaster - general at the Horse Guards till 1865, when he became Governor of Gibraltar. In 1871 he was raised to the rank of general, and was adjutant- general at the Horse Guards till 1876, when he retired from service, with the title of Lord Airey. In 1879 he was president of the Airey commission to inquire into the new short service system, which he strongly condemned. He died at the seat of Lord * Wolsuli y at Leatherhead. Kiuglake, Invasion of the Crimea. *Airy, Sir. George Biddell (b. 1801), a distinguished English astronomer, a native of Alnwick, was educated principally at I 'ol- chester Grammar School and at Trinity College, Cambridge. In 1822 he was elected scholar, and in 1823 graduated li.A. as senior wrangler, and was duly elected a follow. In 1826 he proceeded to the degree of M.A., and in the same year was appointed to the Lucasian Professorship of Experimental Science, which, though formerly held by liar- row and Newton, had for long been little better than a sinecure. Airy, however, re- deemed it from this reproach by delivering an annual course of lectures, until in 1828 he was made Plumiau Professor of Astronomy, and director of the newly erected Cambridge Observatory. This establishment now became one of the finest in England, and the improve- ments made by Airy in the methods of calcu- lation and the publication of observations were soon adopted by Greenwich and other obser- vatories {Astronomical Obsercat ions, Cambrid ge, 1829-39, 9 vols.). In 1835, the office of As- tronomer-Royal falling vacant, the Plumian professor was selected for the post by Lord Auckland, then First Lord of the Admiralty, as the most fitting successor of John Pond. To him the observatory is indebted for the introduction of the altazimuth, the water telescope, the transit circle, and the large equatorial, which was erected from his plans in 1859. Under Dr. Airy's superintendence more rapid methods of calculation were put in opera- tion. Nor were his labours solely confined to the mere routine duties of his office, for he was for fully half a century the recognised adviser of the Government on nearly every scientific question of general interest. In 1834, when the old standards of weights and measures were destroyed by the tire at the lion Parliament," he was chosen chairman of th<- commission charged with the construction of new ones, and, among other public measures, headvocated a decimal coinageandtheadopt ion of the railroad gauge of four feet eight inches instead of six feet. In 1838 he investigated the disturbance of the compass in iron ships, and devised means to correct the irregularity. The preliminary observations necessary RW fixing the boundarv between Canada and the United states were conducted by him. and he also aided in tracing the North- Western boundary. Many of the data at present relied on for determining the waigW "t the earth and the theorv of gravity were obtained by his experiments, while ancient chronology Ait ( 26) Ake has been rendered more exact by his compu- tation of the exact time of the most important «clipsea on record. In 1842 he went to Turin, in 1861 to Gothenburg, and in 1868 to Spain, for the purpose of observing solar eclipses, and in 1874 organised the British expedition for observing the transit of Venus. More re- cently he has given attention to the lunar theory, in regard to which he has proposed a new method ; and in 1 869 he communicated to the Royal Astronomical Society an interesting discovery on " Atmospheric Chromatic Disper- sion, as affecting Telescopic Observation, and the mode of correcting it." In 1881, owing to the weight of advancing'years,he resigned in favour of the present Astronomer Royal (Mr. Christie), and has ever since lived in retire- ment. Sir George's career, though not dis- tinguished by any great discoveries, has been a remarkably industrious and meritorious one, highly honourable to himself and useful to the science of astronomy. He has published Mathematical Tracts, Lec- tures on Astronomy; treatises on Sound, Mag- netism, Gravitation, Tides, and on Errors of Observation, besides many technical papers in the Philosophical Transactions, the Cambridge Philosophical Society s Transact ions, the Memoir ■« of the Royal Astronomical Society and the Philosophical Magazine, and an antiquarian work on The Invasion of Britain by Julius Ckumr (1865). Besides receiving numerous medals and other marks of honour, he is a D.C.L. of Oxford, and an LL.D. of Cambridge. In 1871 he was made C.B., and next year K.C.B. In 1851 (Ipswich meeting) he was President of the British Association, and from 1871 to 1877, when he resigned, was President of the Royal Society, of which for nearly sixty years he has been a fellow. He is also, among other distinctions of a like order-, an honorary member of the Institute of Civil Engineers, and a corresponding member of the Institute of France. Aitcliison, George, B.A., A.R.A., architect (b. 1825), was born in one of the north-west suburbs of London. His general education was commenced at Merchant Taylors' School, and continued at University College, London, and his professional train- ing was obtained at the Royal Academy, which he entered as a student in 1847. He graduated B.A. in 1850, and in 1853 he pro- ceeded to the Continent, and spent nearly two years studying art in France and Italy. In 1862 he was elected a fellow of the Royal Institute of British Architects, and afterwards was placed on the Council. He was also appointed examiner for the Volun- tary Architectural Examination and for the National Art Prizes at South Kensington. He gained medals at the Philadelphia, Sydney, and Melbourne Exhibitions, and in 1877 read an important paper before the Social Science Congress at Aberdeen on " The Principles which should govern the Restora- tion of Ancient Buildings." In 1879 he was made an officer of Public Instruction by the French GoVemment, and on June 2nd, 1881, was elected an Associate of the Royal Academy, in the place of the late William Burges. He has lectured on architecture at the Royal Academy since 1882, and the prac- tical results of his professional knowledge are to be seen in many large warehouses in the City, and at the London and St. Katharine Docks. Like the Brothers Adam of last century, he regards house decoration as an essential part of the architect's business, and his taste and judgment in this respect are manifested in alterations and decorations of such houses as those of the Princess Louise, Sir F. Leigh- ton, Lord Stalbridge, and other members of the aristocracy. He was also the designer of the fittings and furniture for the British Art Section of the Paris International Exhi- bition of 1878. Akerman, John Young {b. 1806, d. 1873), antiquary and numismatist, was bom in London, June 12th, 1806. He was successively secretary to Cobbett, the Greenwich Railway Company, and Lord Albert Conyngham ; and, after being elected a fellow, became secretary to the Society of Antiquaries in 1848, at first jointly with Sir H. Ellis, but from 1853 alone, until his health compelled him to resign in 1860, after which he retired to Abingdon, where he died. As editor of the Archceologia , Akerman was interested in antiquities gene- rally, and his Archaeological Index for Celtic, Romano- British, and Anglo-Saxon Remain* (1847), and Glossary of Provincial Words and Phrases in Use in Wiltshire (1842), together with his Wiltshire Tales (1853), bear witness to the varied character of his learning. But his special study was numismatics, and in 1836 he filled an acknowledged void in English periodical literature by starting the Numisma- tic Journal, which, after two years, was merged in the Numismatic Chronicle, or Journal of the Numismatic Society of London — a soci- ety he was largely instrumental in found- ing in 1836, and of which he was secretary. His Numismatic Manual appeared in 1832, and again in 1 840 ; Descriptive Catalogue of Rare and Unedited Roman Coins, 2 vols., 1834 ; Coins of the Romans in Britain, 1836. enlarged 1842, and again 1844; Ancient Coins of Cities and Princes, 1846; Numismatic Illustra- tions of the Netc Testament, 1846 ; Introduction to the Study of Ancient and Modem Coins, 1848. He also wrote a book on angling (1850). He was rewarded for his many ser- vices to numismatics— not the less deserving because they are now superseded — with the gold medal of the French Institute, and was elected an honorary member of various learned societies abroad. See a list of his works and an account of Lis life in the Numismatic Chronicle, new series, xiv. 13-19. hg, L.-P.] Akh ( 27) Alb Akhbar Khan (d. 1847) was one of the three sons of Dost Mahomed, the ruler of Cabul. He supported his father in the nego- tiations with Captain Alexander Burnes, at the time when Persia was besieging Herat, and the Russian agent, Vitkovitch, was intriguing to extend Russia's influence in Afghanistan. When, after the dispute about Peshawur, Lord Auckland determined to restore Shah- Shuja to power, and the British troops entered Cabul in 1839, Akhbar retired till the outbreak of the rebellion in the following year. Though his father surrendered early in the movement, Akhbar remained at lar°-e, and was able to take command of the Afghans' blockading the British division in Cabul after the murder of Sir Alexander Burnes. Durin»- a conference on the proposed evacuation of the city, the envoy, Macnaughten, was treacher- ously murdered in Akhbar's presence, some say by his own hand (Dec, 1841). A few weeks afterwards the British army began the fatal retreat from Cabul, which ended in the exter- mination of the whole force, except Dr. Brv- don and a few hostages, chiefly ladies, given up at Akhbar's demand, and restored by him at the end of the war, after fairly generous treatment. Akhbar next proceeded to besiege Jellalabad, but was defeated in April by Sir Robert Sale. Soon afterwards Jellalabad was relieved by General Pollock, who defeated Akhbar in two successive battles on his way to Cabul in September, 1842. After the evacua- tion of Afghanistan by the British, Dost Mahomed returned to his capital, and Akhbar died there. [Afghanistan.] *Alard, Jean Delphin, violinist (b. 1815), was a native of Bayonne, and early be- gan the study of his instrument. Already fairly proficient at the age of eleven, he was sent to the Paris Conservatoire, and became.a pupil of Habeneck. In 1843 he was appointed solo violinist in the Tuileries Chapel, and three years later professor of the violin in the Con- servatoire. Soon afterwards, in conjunction with M. Franchomme, he began the series of concerts for classical chamber music that maintained their popularity in the musical world till their close, in 1872. In 1875 he resigned his professorship in the Conservatoire. One of the most skilful violinists of the cen- tury, he has also written a School for the Violin. ' Albaili, Emma (b. circa 1847), whose real name was La Jeunesse, is a native of Canada, and the descendant of French settlers. ' She was educated at the Convent of the Sacre < 'ii'iir at Montreal, and later went to Europe for her musical education. She studied in Paris under Duprez, and at Milan under the ■old maestro Lamperti. Her debut was made at Albany, whence she took her name. In 1870 she appeared at Messina with success; also at Malta, and at La Pergola, Florence. •She first sang in London at the Italian Opera in 1872 where she has been a favourite M since. Her most successful r6U$m ''Arnina/' Marguente ,» " Mignon," and "Ophelia"' I m the last of which she made tWriM success. A landmark in her career was her appearance as « Elsa," in Lohmgrin (1873) She married Mr. Ernest Gye, formerlv man- ager of the Italian Opera in London. Albany, Louisa, Countess of (b 1753 tf. 1820), was a cousin of the last roi men and 60,000 horses to Khiva, with instruc- tions to raise the Central Asian tribes, and advance through Khiva and Bokh.ua. the Oxus, to Afghanistan and India. Alrxan- der hastened to recall this expedition ; and Orloff, Hetman of the Cossacks of the Don, under whose command it had started, was obliged to retrace his steps before he had ad- vanced a quarter of the way. Ah ■x.tiidcr I remained the enemy of Napoleon until aftci the battles of Eylau and Friedland, when, abandoning his Prussian ally, he made terms with the conqueror, and held with him (1807) the celebrated interview of Tilsit. A secret treaty was the result, having for its object the partition of Europe between the two sove- reigns. Napoleon, at the Russian Emperor's request, abstained from giving the name of Poland to the Polish provinces taken from Prussia, which he collectively designated the Ale ( 32 ) Ale Duchy of Warsaw. Alexander, on his side, entered into the continental system, as main- tained against England. But the friendly meetings of the two great European monarchs at Tilsit, and afterwards at Erfurt, gave no permanent results, and the Emperor Napoleon had been personally hurt by the refusal of the Emperor Alexander to accept him as the hus- band of a Russian grand duchess. The pro- ject of invading India with a combined French and Russian force, originally proposed by Paul to Napoleon, was now pressed, but in vain, by Napoleon upon Alexander, and the Fiench Emperor found the Russian Emperor such a lukewarm friend and such a feeble ally, that in order to bring this ' ' Greek of the Lower Empire," as he called him, to terms — perhaps also to give himself the opportunity of planting the French standards in the only continental capital whore they had never yet been seen — he undertook the campaign against Russia : so formidable in its conception, so fatal in its results. Alexander I. will be re- membered as the sovereign under whom Russia was invaded by the French and their allies, and under whom, in due time, the Rus- sians, forcing the French to retrace their steps, and constantly strengthened by defec- tions from Napoleon's army, pursued them from Moscow to Paris. " Napoleon," says the inscription on the national monument which marks the battle-field of Borodino, . March 10th, 1845), married, in Nov., 1866, the Princess Maria Sophia Frederica Dagmar of Denmark, aster to tho Princess of Wales. He had not beta educated with a view to tho throne, and beyond military exercises, had learned very little. To give" him full knowledge, from tho Russian point of view, of contemporary European politics, an elaborate " Diplomatic Study on tho Crimean War," its causes and its consequences, was prepared for his benefit Ale (34) Ale by the Russian Foreign Office, under the di- rection of Prince Gortschakoff, at that time Minister of Foreign Affairs. He was present during the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78, hut did not play a very prominent part. On the death of his father Alexander II., with whom he had been somewhat at vari- ance, he succeeded to the thi'one. In con- sequence of the unsettled condition of the Empire, and the danger of attacks from the more fanatical of the Nihilist party, the coro- nation of Alexander III. was delayed until 1 883. His reign has not been signalised by any reforms. Everything, on the contrary, has been maintained in Russia as it was at the time of his father's assassination in March, 1881. As regards foreign affairs, the reign of Alexander III. has hitherto been remark- able for the progress made by the Russian arms in Central Asia. Soon after the acces- sion of the new sovereign it was rashly stated in the British Parliament that the young Emperor had abandoned his Central Asian policy, when all he had done had been to recall the troops which had just taken Geok-Tepe, a strong post on the road to Merv. Assurances were still given that to Merv itself the Russians had no intention of advancing. But this quasi-promise — not, it is true, made in categorical form or as bind- ing for an indefinite time — was possibly not intended to be kept. On a certain number of the elders of Merv petitioning that their territory might be received under Russian protection, their request was very readily granted (Jan., 1884). From Merv, the Russians pushed on towards the Afghan frontier : and a question was now raised as to where the frontier of Afghanistan should be drawn. A discussion on this very subject had been kept up from 18G9 to 1872. In 1882, Lord Granville informed M. de Giers that he regarded the course of the boundary as marked by a straight line between the two points already agreed upon — Sarakhs and Khoja-Salee. No answer was received to this communication ; and it was proposed in 1885, on the part of England, that the frontier should be traced by a joint commission of English and Russian officers. After a period of exceedingly strained rela- tions, owing to the non-arrival of the Russian commission, and the attack of the Russian General Komaroff upon Penj-deh, the frontier was successfully delimitated in 1886. The vast accessions to the Russian Empire were no sooner occupied than they were reduced to order, and the construction of their connect- ing line, the Trans-Caspian railway, is one of the greatest of engineering feats. In Europe Russia has shown a disposition to coquette with France from time to time, and to oppose the further advance of Austria towards the East. Nevertheless, at the im- portant meeting of the three Emperors at Skiornievice, in Russian Poland (Sept., 1884), it was understood that the Triple Alliance had been re-established in its integrity. This harmonious state of affairs was dis- turbed again by troubles in the Balkan penin- sula, where Austria regarded Russia's inter- ference with a jealous eye. Unable to endure the Czar's displeasure, Prince Alexander of Bulgaria abdicated in 1886, but his successor, Prince Ferdinand, was hardly more acceptable. During the autumn of 1886 and the greater part of 1887, the Czar's attitude towards Austria, and, though in a less degree, to- wards Germany, was one of undisguised hostility, and those Powers retaliated by ostentatiously inviting Italy to join the Austro- German alliance (Oct., 1887). On the accession of William II. of Germany, however (q.v.), the situation was improved by a visit paid by him to St. Petersburg. In November, 1888, the Czar and Czai-ina nar- rowly escaped destruction in a railway acci- dent which occurred during a tour in the Caucasus. This may, or may not, have been one of the numerous attempts on his majesty's life which have been instigated by the relent- less hatred of the Nihilist party. Alexander, Genekal Sir James Edward, C.B. (b. 1803, d. 1885), the eldest son of the late Edward Alexander, of Powis, Clackman- nan. Having entered the army at an early age, lie held several appointments in India, the Cape, and North America, and took part in the Burmese, Persian, Portuguese, and Kaffir Wars. In 1836-7 he conducted an ex- pedition of discovery into Central Africa, and he also explored New Brunswick. In the Crimean War he commanded the 14th regiment, and was commander in New Zealand during the war with the Maoris, of which he has written an account, entitled Bush Fighting. He has also published several books of travel, besides a Life of the Duke of Wellington (1840), Passages in the Life of a Soldier, and an account of the removal and transport of Cleopatra's Needle, which he was appointed to superintend in 1875. He is a Fellow of, the Royal Geogra- phical and Royal Asiatic Societies, and has been frequently decorated by foreign Govern- ments. Alexander of Servia. [Servia.] Alexander, Stephen (b. 1806, d. 1883), was born at Schenectady, New York, and was appointed adjunct professor of mathematics in the College of New Jersey in 1834, and pro- fessor of astronomy on the creation of the Chair in 1840. In 1845 he was transferred to the professorship of mathematics, which he ex- changed again for the professorship of me- chanics and astronomy in 1854. He retired from this position in 1878. He was appointed to conduct the expedition to Labrador to ob- serve the solar eclipse in 1860, and a similar ex- pedition to the west in 1869. Among his numer- ous scientific writings are : — Physical Pheno- Alf (35) Alf mena attendant upon Solar Eclipses, Funda- mental Principles of Mathematics, and On the Origin of the Forms and the Present Condition of some of the Clusters of Stars. Alfieri, Vittoiuo, Count, poet (b. Jan. 17th, 1749; d. Oct. 8th, 1803), was the son of rich and nohle Florentine parents. At the age of sixteen he was left master of a considerable fortune, and plunged into dissi- pation. He travelled in various European countries, and made some acquaintance with their literature. In 1775 he returned to Italy, and composed his tragedy of Cleopatra, which was acted at Turin the same year. He now devoted himself to severe study, and wrote several tragedies. He formed a cele- brated liaison with the Countess of Albany, the wife of the Young Pretender, Charles Edward Stuart, which lasted till the end of his life. The Pretender died in 1788, but it does not appear that his widow was ever legally married to the poet. After composing fourteen dramas, which included Maria Stuart, Philip II., Antigone, and Polynices, Alfieri issued two political treatises, both of them marked by strong sentiments in favour of civil liberty and the reformation of abuses. Alfieri was at Paris with the Countess of Albany when the French Revolution broke out. Though at first an ardent partisan of the Revolution, he was obliged to quit Paris secretly, losing a large part of his fortune. He now established himself with the Countess at Florence, where he lived till his death. In 1798, he published a volume of satires directed against the French, called Misogallo. His hatred against the French continued till his death, but he was not molested during the French occupation of Florence. He died in 1803, and was buried in the church of Santa Croce. The Countess of Albany caused a fine marble monument, by Canova, to be placed over the poet's remains. She also published a complete edition of Alfieri's works in 35 vols. (Pisa, 1805-1813), which includes a curious and interesting autobiography, which gives much information on the literary and political society of the Continent in the eighteenth century. The best authority is the Vita di Vittorio Alfi- eri, written by himself. See also Teza, Vita di Alfieri (Florence, 1861); Sismondi, Litterature du Midi; Lombardi, Storia delta Letteratura ltaliana. Alfonso XII., King of Spain (b. 1857, d. 1885), eldest son of the ex-Queen Isabella II., on the revolution of 1868, accompanied her to Paris, where he remained till 1872, when he visited Vienna. In 1870 the ex- Queen abdicated her claims in his favour. He was styled Prince of the Asturias, but no immediate movement was made. In 1874 Alfonso came to England, and entered the Military College at Sandhurst, where, in the autumn, loyal addresses reached him from several of the nobility and upper classes of Madrid. On Dec. 31st it was announced that General Martinez Campos had proclaimed him King at Valencia, and that the armies of the North and Centre had joined his cause. The Prince started almost immediately from Paris, and was received with the greatest enthusiasm in Barcelona, Valencia, and Madrid. He at once repaired to the army of the North, but as the paroxysms of the Carlist War still continued, he was obliged to return to Madrid, and it was not till the spring of 1876 that, after the defeat at Tolosa, Don Carlos, in despair of his cause, fled to France, and the King was able to enter his capital in triumph. A few months later his mother, Isabella, returned to Spain. Besides the pro- longed troubles of the Carlist War, the open- ing of the young King's reign was clouded by disturbances in the Basque Provinces, and the continuation of the insurrection in Cuba, which very nearly led to a rupture with the United States. The history of the Cortes under the monarchy was a series of conflicts and intrigues among the Clericals, the Conservative or Government party, and the Liberals. Crisis succeeded crisis, but on the whole power re- mained with the Conservatives (Moderados), and government was secured, in spite of occasional mutinies in the army, and more serious outbreaks among the socialistic work- 'ing classes. The King was twice shot at — in 1878 and in the following year. In Jan., 1878, he married his cousin, Princess Maria de las Mercedes, daughter of the Due de Montpensier. But this union of the two branches of the House of Bourbon was cut short in June of the same year by the Queen'3 death. In Nov., 1879, he married secondly Maria Christina, daughter of the late Archduke Charles Ferdinand of Austria. In the autumn of 1883 he visited Berlin, and was presented by the German Government with a colonelcy in a Uhlan regiment then stationed at Strasburg. Certain French Irre- concilable journalists represented this as an insult to their nation, and upon the King's entry into Paris, a few days afterwards, he was received by the howls and execrations of the assembled mob, and the matter was with difficulty adjusted, after an apology from the French Government. A few weeks later the King received a return visit from the Crown Prince at Madrid. During the outbreak of the cholera epidemic in 1885 he courageously visited the affected districts, and later on confronted with valour the popular outburst which followed the annexation of the Caroline Islands by Germany. By his death on Nov. 25th, 1885, Spain was threatened with the dangers of a minority reign. Alford, Thb Very Rev. Henry, D.D. (b. 1810, d. 1871), was bom in London, where his father had obtained some success as a special pleader. He was educated at Charmouth and Ilminster, and afterwards at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he began a friendship with Alf 36 ) Ali Tennyson and Arthur Hallam. Ho took the Bell scholarship, and afterwards a fel- lowship. In 1833 he published some poems. When he left Trinity he took pupils, and was ordained soon after, becoming curate of Ampton. In 1835 he was presented with the living of Wymeswold, and married his cousin, Fanny Alford. In 1841 he became Hulsean Lecturer at Cambridge; in 1853 minister of Quebec Chapel ; in 1857 Dean of Canterbury. He published many works, chief of which is his edition of the Greek Testament (1849- 61), which is*written in a liberal spirit, and is full of much independent judgment. He was also the author of the New Testament for English Readers, a translation of the Odyssey, The Queen's English, several articles in the Contemporary, and many sermons. In 1869 he gave some lectures at Liverpool, Leeds, and Bradford. Soon after this, failing health ob- liged him to give up literary work, but he continued to do duty and to preach till almost the last day of his life. His doctrinal views were of an Evangelical nature. Life of Dean Alford, edited by his widow. Alfred, Prince. [Edinburgh, Duke of.] Ali Pasha. [Aly Pasha.] Alice Maud Mary, Princess of Great Britain and Ireland, Duchess of Saxony, Grand Duchess of Hesse-Darmstadt (b. April 25th, 1843; d. Dec. 14th, 1878), was the third child of Queen Victoria and the Prince Consort, and was highly accomplished, and of a sympathetic and affectionate character. In Dec, 1861, she greatly endeared her- self to the nation by the devoted way in which she nursed the Prince Consort. In 1862 she married Frederick William Louis of Hesse, nephew of the Grand Duke of Hesse, whom he succeeded in 1877. The Princess identified herself with German in- terests, and she showed much taste for art and literature, being able to model and paint with skill. She became intimate with Strauss, and permitted him to dedicate to her his Life of Voltaire, which he had read to her in MS. During the Franco-German War she nursed the sick and wounded (French as well as German) at the Darmstadt Hos- pital and in the field. Her name was given to the Women's Union for Nursing, which she then founded. In 1871 she nursed the Prince of Wales during his severe illness. She died of diphtheria, which she caught while nursing her husband and children. Life and Letters of the Princess Alice ; Memoir by Dr. Sell of Darmstadt, translated 1884. *Alikhanoff-Avarsky {b. circa 1838), Russian officer, a Daghestani by birth, was originally known as Ali Khan. Degraded from the rank of major for insubordination, he served in the expedition of 1879 against the Akhal Tekke-Turcomans. Early in 1882 he entered Merv disguised as a Russian mer- chant accompanying the Konshin caravan. He has written many letters and despatches on Central Asia, and several of his own sketches have been published. As colonel acting under General Komaroff, he led the attack on Penj-deh, March, 1885. * Alison, Lieut. -General Sir Akchikald, 2xd Bart.,G.C.B.,D.C.L, F.R.S. {b. 1826), was educated at the Universities of Glasgow and Edinburgh, and entered the army on Nov. 3rd, 1846. He was gazetted lieutenant 1849, cap- tain 1853, brevet-major 1856, lieut. -colonel 1858, brevet-colonel 1867, major-general 1877, and lieut. -general 1882. His first active service was with the 72nd Highlanders in the Crimean campaign, when he took part in the expedition to Kertch, and was pre- sent during the siege of Sebastopol, taking part in the attack on the Redan. For this he received the Crimean medal, with clasp, and the Turkish medal. When the Indian Mutiny broke out he was appointed military secretary to Sir Colin Campbell, afterwards Lord Clyde, and during the campaign of Aug., 1857, to March, 1858, was so severely wounded at the Relief of Lucknow as to lose his left arm. In addition to the war medal, he was created a Companion of the Bath at the termination of hostilities. In 1872 he was appointed Adjutant-General in the South- western district, but in December the follow- ing year he assumed command, as brigadier, of the European Brigade in the expedition to Ashantee, and was present in that capacity at the battles of Amoaful, Becqua, Ordahsu, and at the capture of Coomassie. The medal, with clasp, and the promotion to a Knight Commandership of the Bath, were the rewards for his distinguished service in this war, and the thanks of Parliament were conveyed to him and those under his command. On his return from Ashantee, he became Deputy Adjutant- General in Ireland, a position he retained until 1877, shortly after which he was appointed Commandant of the Staff College, and in the same year (1878) to the important post of Deputy Quartermaster- General at the head of the Intelligence Department of the Horse Guards. The out- break of active operations in Egypt in 1883 commenced with the bombardment of Alex- andria by Sir Beauchamp Seymour (Lord Alcester) and the occupation of the town. Sir Archibald took command of the British force there, successfully checking the army of Araby Pasha, which was opposed to him, and on the arrival of Sir Garnet Wolseley he was transferred, with his brigade, to Ismailia, and shared in the operations which culminated in the capture of Cairo. He commanded the Highland Brigade, composed of the 42nd, 74th, 75th, and 79th regiments, at the decisive battle of Tell-el-Kebir. After his return he AH (37) All was appointed to the command of the Alder- shot division. Alison, Sir Archibald, Bart. (b. 1792, d. 1867), historian, was horn at his father's parsonage at Kenley, in Shropshire, on Dec. 29th, 1792. His father, an Edinburgh man by birth, was famous as a preacher and as the author of the Essay on Taste, and became in 1800 minister of an Episcopalian chapel in his native city. There Archibald was brought up. In 1805 he became a student of the University. In 1814 he was called to the Scottish bar, and rapidly acquired a large practice. He spent his leisure in systematic travelling to places of historical interest in Western Europe, an account of which he pub- lished in 1815. Always a staunch Tory, the fall of his party in 1830 deprived Alison of an almost certain prospect of theSolicitor-General- ship of Scotland. This misfortune, coinciding with a loss of practice at the bar, drove him towards literature. He published in 1832 and 1833 two valuable treatises on the Prin- ciples and Practice of the Criminal Law of Scot- land. He became a contributor to Blackwood's Magazine, and soon planned the History of Europe from the French Revolution to the Fall of Xapohon, that was to make his name famous. In 1833 vols. i. and ii. appeared. In 1834 he got from Peel's short-lived ministry the post of Sheriff of Lanarkshire, and went to live at Possil House, near Glasgow. There "he resided for the remainder of his laborious life, arranging each hour of his day with a precision that enabled him to get through a vast amount of legal and literary work. His fame as an author gradu- ally increased. Each successive volume of the History of Europe was received with greater favour by the public. Other books on various subjects flowed from his fertile pen, though they never attained the suc- cess of the History. They include an Essay on Population (1840) ; a Life of Marlborough (1847); the Lives of Castlereagh and Sir Charles Stewart (1861) ; Collections of Essays (1845 and 1849), largely consisting of re- prints from Blackwood; and two economic works, called England in 1815 and 1845, or a Sufficient and a Contracted Currency (1845), and Free Trade and a Fettered Currency (1847). In 1845 he was made Lord Rector of Marischal College, Aberdeen, and in 1851 Rector of Glasgow University. In 1852 Lord Derby made him a baronet. He died May 23rd, 1867, after a singularly robust and active old age. He had married, in 1825, Miss Elizabeth Tytler, and left a family. The absence in English of any really good books that cover the ground of Alison's great work makes it still of some use to the student, while the interest of the subject, and its possession of some of the more superficial qualities of popular history, make it attractive to the general reader. But its style is bad, its arrangement faulty, its political prejudices most violent, and its statements often inaccu- rate or based on insufficient authority. In some parts of the History— as, for example his account of German affairs— he is seriously misleading, while his conception of the Revolution as a whole is ludicrously in- adequate. Written, as Disraeli said, to show that "Providence was on the side of the Tories," the shortcomings of the original work were intensified in the Continuation from 1815 to 1852, which was the work of Alison's old age. In his Autobiography (1883). Alison has fully revealed himself to posterity, with his prejudices, his honesty, his kindli- ness, his geniality, and calm self-confidence. Autobiography ; Dictionary of National Bio- graphy, rip Y. T.l Alison, William Pulteney (l>. 1790, d. Sept., 1859), an Edinburgh political econo- mist, physician, and physiologist, was the elder brother of Sir Archibald Alison, the historian (q.v.). His philanthropical efforts to relieve the suffering's of the poor were the principal means of bringing about an improved Poor Law for Scotland. As a physician he was also held in high esteem, while as Professor of the Institutes of Medicine (Physiology) in the Uni- versity of Edinburgh, from 1820 to 1855 (when he resigned), he was regarded with peculiar affection by a long succession of students. In addition to a treatise on the Reclamation of Waste Lands, with a view to their colonisation by paupers and criminals, which he published in 1850, Dr. Alison's principal works were the Outlines of Physiology, the Outlines of Pathology, and the Practice of Medicine, which for many years were favourite text-books. Allan, Sir William, R.A., P.R.S.A., and Limner to the Queen in Scotland (b. 1782, d. 1830), was born in Edinburgh. He commenced life as a coach-painter, but after- wards studied several years at the Trustees' Academy of his native city under John Gra- ham, having for fellow-pupils David Wilkie and John Burnet, the engraver and writer on art. He was the first of the three to find his way to London, and studied for a short time at the Royal Academy. Imitating the manner of Opie, he painted a Gipsy Boy and Ass, which was exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1803. Not meeting, however, with the success he expected, he went to St. Petersburg, and, through the influence of his countryman, Sir Alexander Crichton, physician to the Imperial family, obtaim d con- siderable practice as a portrait painter. He afterwards visited the interior of Russia, Turkey, and Tartary, gathering materials for his works. He returned to London in 1814, and in the following year exhibited Cirau- sian Captives, which was followed by A Circassian Chief selling to a Turkish Pasha C'ptirrs takni in War. and other subjects equally Oriental in character. The* pictures All ( 38) All failed to attract buyers, and, disheartened thereby, he would have abandoned his pro- fession altogether and retired to the wilds of Circassia, as Henry Ottley tells us, had not Sir Walter Scott started a lottery for the pur- chase of the last-named work. After this Allan adopted quite a different class of sub- ject, and painted such pictures as The Parting between Prince Charles Stuart and Flora Macdonald, and Jeanie Deans' First In- terview with her Father of ter her Return from London. Still Allan failed to secure public favour, but the kindly intervention of the great novelist again not only saved him from despair, but helped him to fame. The latter saw his sketch of The Murder of Archbishop Sharpe on Jlagus Muir, and urged him to make a picture of it. The work was pur- chased by John Lockhart, and when engraved, it met with unquestionable success. He now devoted himself to subjects of Scottish history, and his Regent Murray shot by Hamilton of Bothwellhaugh procured him, in 1825, the Associateship of the Academy. Allan re- visited the Continent in 1830, and again in 1834, when he sojourned in Spain. The year afterwards his Moorish Love Letter, and other works, procured for him the full mem- bership of the Academy;. in 1838 he was chosen President of the Royal Academy of Scotland; and in 1842 he succeeded his old fellow - student, Sir David Wilkie, as Her Majesty's Principal Limner for Scotland, an office which entitles the holder to the honour of knighthood. In 1844 he re-visited St. Petersburg, and on his return painted for the Emperor Nicholas Peter the Great Teaching his Subjects the Art of Shipbuilding. Sir William died in his painting-room at Edin- burgh before a large unfinished picture of The Battle of Bannockburn. As a painter, he could project his subject on the canvas with dramatic power, but there was not a corre- sponding force in his colouring. [J. F. E.] * Allen, Charles Grant (b. at Kingston, Canada, 1848), was educated at Merton Col- lege, Oxford, where he graduated in 1870. He has ever since contributed largely to periodical literature, besides publishing some important books. The best known of these are: — Physiological Aesthetics (1877) ; TheColour Sense (1879); The Evolutionist at Large (1881); Vignettes from Nature ; Colours of Flowers, some Biographies of Working-men, and a Life of Charles Darwin (1885). He is also the author of many novels, of which Babylon (1885) and The Devil's Die .(1888) are the best. * Allen, Joel Asaph (b. at Springfield, Massachusetts, 1838), is one of the best known of American ornithologists and mam- malogists. Early in life he became a pupil of Louis Agassiz at Harvard College, and three years later (1865) accompanied him on his expedition to Brazil. On his return he as- sisted in the preparation of the scientific report of the expedition, and until he was appointed (in May, 1885) Curator of Ornithology and Mammalogy in the American Museum of Natural History in New York, filled a simi- lar position in the Museum of Comparative Zoology in Cambridge. Mr. Allen was elected a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, Boston, in 1873 ; of the National Academy of Sciences, Washington, in 1876 ; and of the American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia, in 1878. He has beer President of the American Ornithologists' Union since its organisation (1883), and editor of its organ, The Auk, as well as of the prede- cessor of The Auk, from its inception in 1876. In addition to many separate papers and memoirs, Mr. Allen is the author of a work on The Buffalo (Mem. Mus. Comp. Zoology, Cam- bridge,- U.S., 1876), A Catalogue of the Mam- mals of Massachusetts (1869), History of North American Pinnipeds (U.S. Geological and Geographical Survey of the Territories, Mis- cellaneous Publications, No. 12, 1880), and, in partnership with Dr. Coues, of a series of Monographs of the North American Rodvntia (U.S. Geol. Survey, 1877, 3 vols. 4to), all distinguished by great knowledge and cai*e, and written with much literary attractiveness. Allen, William, chemist and philan- thropist (b. 1770, d. 1843), in 1802 was ap- pointed chemical lecturer at Guy's Hospital, and was elected F.R.S. in 1807. He was on intimate terms with Sir H. Davy and W. H. Pepys, the latter of whom he assisted in his researches on animal respiration and the for- mation of atmosphere. He was also the first President of the Pharmaceutical Society. A member of the Society of Friends, he was a warm supporter of the abolition of slavery, and of many philanthropic schemes for the educa- tion and improvement of the poor. In 1820 he traversed Russia from north to south, besides visiting several towns in Turkey and Italy. Two years later he had an interview with the Czar Alexander in Vienna on the questions of schools, the slave trade, and the Greeks. In 1832 and 1833 he again visited the Continent on philanthropic missions. *AUibone, Samuel Austin (b. 1816, in Philadelphia), was engaged in his youth in mercantile pursuits, but soon acquired a re- putation in literature. He has been for many years connected with the American Sunday- school Union, of which he has edited the publications. He is best known by his Critical Dictionary of English Literature and Authors. This great work took seventeen years in preparation, and shows immense labour and research. *AUingham, Mrs. Helen (b. 1848), painter, is the best living exponent of the school of the late Frederick Walker and George Pinwell. She is the eldest child of the late All (39) All Alexander Henry Patersoh, M.D. On her father's death, she came, early in 1867, to reside in London with her aunt, Miss Laura Herford, an artist, who for many years had successfully laboured to promote the artistic education of women. In the April of the same year in which she took up her abode in London, Miss Paterson herself entered the schools of the Academy. She very soon began to acquire fame by working in black and white for the Corn/Ml Magazine, and several other period- icals, especially the Graphic, of whose staff she became a distinguished member. Mean- while, in the intervals of drawing on wood she addressed herself to water-colour painting, and her pictures at the Dudley and the Royal Academy attracted the admiration of all com- petent judges. She was married, Aug. 22nd, 1874, to William Allingham, the poet, and in the following year she was elected an Associate of the Royal Society of Painters in Water- colours. English rural life and (/cure subjects generally are her chosen themes. Among her pictures may be named The Harvest Moon, The Lady of the Manor, The Children's Tea, Children's Lessons. She has executed also several portraits of her friend Thomas Carlyle. * Allingham, William, poet (J.1828), is a native of Ballyshannon, in the north-west of Ireland, of old Anglo-Irish family. Mr. Allingham had contributed to the Athenccum, Household Words, and other periodicals prior to 1850, when his first volume of poems ap- peared. In 1854, The Music Master, and Dai/ . 1824), is the younger son of Dr. Wm. Allman (q.v.). Hfl entered Trinity College in 1839, and grudu- ated B.A. 1844 and LL.D. 1853, and m December of that year was appointed pro- fessor of mathematics in the Queen's College, Galway, a post to the duties of which hfl hai ever since devoted himself. Dr. Allman WM, in addition, appointed Bursar of Qn College in 1864, member of the Senate of the Queen's Universitv in Ireland, 1877, and in 1880 was nominated by the Crown one of tho All ( 40 Aim first senators of the Royal University of Ireland. He is F.R.S. (1884), LL.D. ad t'undem of the Queen's University (1863), and D.Sc. honoris cansd (1882). His re- searches have been almost solely confined to the higher branches of mathematics. A list of them will be found in the Royal Society's Catalogue; but since 1873 he has published memoirs on Some Properties of the Parabol- oids (Quart. Journal of Mathematics, 1874), and Greek Geometry, from Tholes to Euclid (ILrmatJuna, vol. iii., No. 5, 1877 ; vol. iv. No. 7, 1881 ; vol. v., No. 10, 1884 ; No. 11, 1885). Allman, William (b. 1776, d. 1846), an Irish botanist and mathematician, was born at Kingston, Jamaica. Before he was four years old his parents went to live in Ireland, near Waterford, his mother being a native of that county. He entered Trinity College, Dublin, where he graduated B.A. 1796, M.A. 1801, and M.D. 1804. He practised physic at Clonmel until 1809, when he was elected professor of botany in the University of Dub- lin. Soon after his appointment he became acquainted with Robert Brown, the eminent botanist, by whom he was highly esteemed. Brown (q.v.), the first volume of whose Prodromus F/orce Novce Rollandiee was pub- lished in 1810, was the first English botanist to write a systematic work of any extent according to the natural method of Jussieu, and William Allman, incited by him, was the first professor of botany in the British Isles to introduce (1812) and teach at his lectures the natural method. He was the first observer of a peculiarity (not noticed by De Candolle) in the growth of ferns and some other acotyle- donous plants, which he denominated Enecagene (rtvtKayevai), which have been named by later botanists Acrogens and Telogens. In addition to the two mathematical papers by him entered in the Catalogue of Scientific Papers of the Royal Society of London, he was author of the paper On the Mathematical Relations of the Forms of the Cells of Plants (Brit. Assoc. Rep. 1835, p. 2), which is erroneously attri- buted in the Catalogue to Dr. George James Allman. William Allman was also author of a memoir in which he attempted to illustrate a mathematical connection be- tween the external organs of plants and their internal structure, which was read before the Royal Society in the year 1811. A brief abstract of this memoir was printed for private circulation in 1844. He was also author of a plan for the Arrangement of Plants according to their natural affinities, which was submitted at the meeting of the British Association held in 1835, and pub- lished in the Proceedings of that meeting (Dublin : Philip Dixon Hardy, 1835). A more developed plan, entitled Familia Plantarum (Dublin: William Curry, jun., and Co.), was published in 1836, and used by Professor All- man in his lectures in that and subsequent years. He was also author of Analysis per differentia* constantes viyinti, inchoata, Generum Plantarum, quce in Britanniis, Gallia, Helvetia, ultraque hos fines sponte sua crescunt. He held the Chair of Botany in the University of Dublin from 1809 to 1844, when he was succeeded by Dr. George James Allman (q.v.). * Allon, The Rev. Henry, D.D. (b. 1813). Congregational minister, was in June, 1844. elected assistant to the Rev. T. Lewis, of Union Chapel, Islington, and in 1852 suc- ceeded him in the pastorate. In 1864 he was appointed Chairman of the Congregational Union; in 1865 editor of the British Quarterly Review ; in 1871 was made a D.D. by Yale College, Connecticut; and in 1881 was again Chairman of the Union. Dr. Allon con- tributes articles to various magazines, and has published The Vision of "God and Other Ser- mons (1876). A handsome chapel was built for Dr. Allon in Upper Street, Islington, and opened for worship in 1877. Allston, or Alston, Washington, American artist (b. 1778, d. 1843), was born at Waccamaw, in South Carolina, graduated at Harvard College in 1800, and the next year sailed for England with his artist friend Malbone. Having exhibited in London and visited Paris, he settled for four years in Italy, where he became acquainted with Coleridge. Returning to America in 1809, he married a sister of Channing. In 1811 he came to England again, and became an Associate of the Royal Academy in 1818, but in the same year was obliged to return to America, where he died. The subjects of his pictures are generally taken from ancient Jewish history. The most celebrated are The Dead Man revived by Elisha's Bones and Elijah in the Desert. He also published a small book of rather conventional verses, The Sylphs of the Season, and other Poems, which have little poetic value, but contain the line quoted by Emerson, " Into paint will I grind thee, my bride" (The Paint King). *Aliiia-Tadema, Laurence, R.A., the eminent painter (b. at Dronryp, in Fries- land, 1836), took eagerly to the ancient classics in his education, which was liberal, and this early love has made itself manifest in almost every one of his many works. In 1852 his professional education commenced in the Royal Academy of Antwerp, one of the best schools in Europe. Afterwards he became a disciple of Baron Henry Leys, and assisted him in painting several of his large works. Mr. Gambart, of the French Gallery, was the first to bring his works before the British public, and so much were they appreciated that Mr. Alma-Tadema soon made London his home, and England his adopted country, Aim ( 41 ) Aly receiving letters of denization from the Queen in 1873. From his first entrance into art, Mr. Alma-Tadema has made a special study of the times when art held its highest place in human life ; the epoch of Athenian great- ness, or the later years when Greece led her captor captive. The first and second centuries of the Roman Empire especially seem to exercise an irresistible influence on his mind, similar in charm to the tone of much recent literature and speculation. As to his choice of subject, two things may be noticed : first, that his theme is seldom historic in the ordinary sense of the word; no crisis of recorded history is represented ; and if some statesman of Greece, some Caesar or minister of Home be introduced, it is usually in one of those uneventful moods and happy days that have no history. And secondly, the artist appears at times careless of emotional effect, and indifferent to studied composition and arrangement. As often as not there is neither story nor drama in these scenes, nor any human interest beyond their own beauty. They are mere glimpses into the daily life of a time long past, a time with passions and problems for the most part different from our own. Endowed with a realistic exactness that connects him with the Pre-Raphaelites, and a minute archaeological knowledge that would furnish out the professors of a whole German university, Mr. Alma-Tadema sets before us with unrivalled power, alike of colour and form, some quiet corner of a Roman street, the half-closed door of a marble shrine, cool marble seats for resting youths and girls, a Pompeian mother with her child, a Maenad dancing on the marble floor or brandishing her torch before the brazen gates. Of what dramatic intensity he might also be capable the artist has shown in his well-known picture called A Roman Em- peror (1871). With the minor qualities that go to make a great painter, such as the power of giving depth to colour — witness his skies — and the power of giving life to drapery and reality to textures, Mr. Alma-Tadema is also richly endowed. Beyond his special province, in which a school of imitators has already arisen, he is known as a portrait painter, the best examples of his power being the portraits ot Dr. Richter, the conductor, and of Herr Barnay as Mark Antony. He was elected A.R.A. in 1876, and R.A. in 1879, and is also a member of the principal academies on th* Continent. Of his extremely numerous works, we may further mention the follow- ing: — Phidias and the Elgin Marbles, and A Hainan Amateur (1868); A Pi/rrhic Dance (1869); The Mummy and The Death of the Firstborn (1872) ; The Picture Gallery (1874) ; 27k* Sculpture Gallery (1875) ; An Audience at Ayrippa's and Cleopatra (1876); A Sculptor's Model (1878) ; In the Timeof Conslantine (1879) ; Fredeyonda (1880) ; Sappho (1881) ; Oleanders (1883); Hadrian in Britain (1884); and A c.c—2* Study w Homer (1885). These are perhaps his masterpieces ; and of recent years he has also exhibited After the Dance (1876) ; The Sea- sons and Between Hope and Fear (1877) ; A Love Missile (1878) ; Down at the Hirer and' Pomona Festival (1879) ; Spring Festival (1880) ; The Way to The Temple (1883) ; An Apodyterium (1886) ; and The Roses of Helioyabalus (1888). Almqvist, Karl Jonas Lvdwig, Swedish author (b. 1793, d. 1866), was a man of extra- ordinary versatility. His first exploit was to lead a colony to Wermland, but the experi- ment failed, and he devoted himself to litera- ture. His reputation was made by his novel. The Book of the Thorn Rose, a perfect speci- men of Swedish prose, but he was unable to adhere to one branch of literature or to one occupation, and, already unpopular for his socialist opinions, he ruined his career in 1851 by forgery and murder. He escaped to America, and under a feigned name became secretary to President Lincoln. Again on account of some offence against the law, he was compelled to fly to Europe, where shortly afterwards he died. *A. L. O. E. ("A Lady of England ") is the nom de plume of Miss Charlotte Tucker. She has written some sixty books for children, in prose and verse, chiefly story-books with a religious point, which are extremely popular. Among them may be mentioned Thoughtful Alice (1864), Anyus Tulton (1877), Daybreak in Britain (1880), Hours u-ith Orientals (1881). Althorp, Loud. [Spencer, Earl.] Altcn-Shee, Edmund Comte d' (4. 1810, d. 1874), French politician, was the son of Baron d'Alton and Francoise Shee, daughter of Count Henri Shee. By special decree he united the titles of the two families, and entered the Chamber of Peers as a Conservative in 1836, but suddenly, in 1847, he changed his convictions, and lavished all the abuse of a renegade on M. Guizot, at the same time declaring himself neither Catholic nor Christian. He took an active part in the revolutionary movements of the following year, and was a Democratic Socialist candi- date for the elections of May, 1819, but was not returned. In 1869 he reappeared as the Socialist candidate in opposition to M. Thiers, but was again defeated. After the fall of the Empire he took part in the publica- tion of Le Penple Sourerain, and the reel before his death founded ■ IlepuMicsin half- penny paper, Le Suffraye I'nirer.-rl. Gainhctta wrote a discourse on his funeral. * 'Aly Fehmy Pasha, in company with 'Abd-el-Al Pasha (q. v.), was one of Aral.v Pasha's chief supporters in the insurrcetion of 1880 and the following jean. 1" Feb. 1881, he, being colonel of the 1st Kegiin Guards, was arrested, with his associates, m consequence of a strongly weeded remon- strance sent to Riuz Pasha complaining ot uu- Aly ( 42 ) Ama favouritism shown to Circassian officers, but his regiment mutinied, and set him free. He supported Araby in his various measures for coercing the Khedive, and in his resistance to the English. Ho was sentenced, after the defeat of Tell-el-Kebir, to perpetual banish- ment, but was subsequently pardoned, and took service under the Egyptian Government. 'Aly Pasha, " the Lion of Joannina " (b. 1741, d. 1820), was born at Tepelini, in Albania, where his family, who belonged to tho Tosk tribe, had long held the hereditary rank of beys, though 'Aly's father, who is described as a man of a pacific disposition, had lost most of the ancestral possessions before his death, which occurred when the boy was but fourteen years old. His mother, Khamko, however, was of the true Albanian mettle, and brought up the lad to designs of vengeance and restitution. He soon adopted the profession which comes by nature to men of his race, and, having gathered a band of freebooters, entered upon a career of plunder and rapine, which quickly made his name a byword for daring and ferocity. After a few years of brigand- age, he succeeded in recovering the ances- tral territory at Tepelini, and at once pro- ceeded to aim at higher things. He was able to be of service to the Porte against the Austrians, and helped the Sultan to reduce the revolted Pashas of Scutari and Delvino, for which he was duly rewarded with an official recognition of his title to the Beylik of Tepelini, and was also appointed to the post of lieutenant to the officer whose duty it was to suppress brigandage in Albania. The efficacy of the maxim, " Set a thief to catch a thief," however, was not realised in this instance. 'Aly connived at the escape of the brigands, his former colleagues, for a proper considera- tion, and when the scandal reached head- quarters, he contrived to throw the guilt on his superior officer, and to exculpate himself by a process familiar at Stambul, and briefly described as bakhshish. The bribes acted so well that 'Aly succeeded to the place of his disgraced superior, in whose capacity he speedily put a stop to unlicensed brigandage by the simple expedient of enlisting all the cul- prits under his own banner. This successful career went on without a check ; he was made Pasha of Tricala, and eventually seized Joannina (or Janina), which he made his capital, and adorned with many sumptuous palaces. Unscrupulous and cruel as he was, and commonly credited with the murder of his mother and brother, to say nothing of the forcible removal of other impediments, he must be allowed to have turned Albania from a land of anarchy into a prosperous and tran- quil country, and tho Porte saw that its • interest lay for the present in supporting the redoubtable chieftain. He was confirmed in his titles, and allowed to seize Livadia and reduce Epirus, in spite of the heroic resist- ance of the Suliots, who were at last treacher- ously massacred by the relentless Pasha. His territory already extended from Epirus to Montenegro, and he was forming designs of a union with Napoleon, with a view to obtaining .the Venetian ports. The negotiations came to nothing, but 'Aly revenged himself by driving the French garrison out of Prevesa. While continuing to treat with the French, he remained on the best of terms with the Porte, and was even appointed Governor of Rtunili for a time in 1799, when he did not fail to turn his power in the home province to excellent financial account. So great was his influence in the west, that not long after the English capture of Parga from the French, in 1814, the Sultan handed over the city to 'Aly, whoso dominions now extended over Albania, Epirus, part of Thessaly, and the western portion of Northern Greece, while his son governed the Morea. Mahmiid II. was well aware of the danger of allowing so powerful a feudatory to exist, and was only waiting for a favourable opportunity to destroy him. The excuse presented itself in 1820, when 'Aly's agents attempted to assassinate one of the Sultan's officers at Constantinople. He was imme- diately outlawed. For nearly two years he withstood the collected strength of Turkey, and then, deceived by false promises of par- don, surrendered, only to be overpowered — though the " old lion " of eighty years fought hard — and executed, Feb. oth, 1820. He was a good example of the strength and the vices of the Albano-Turkish character, of which another notable specimen was seen in Mo- hammed 'Aly of Egypt. [S. L.-P. j * Amadeus, Pkince (b. 1845), Duke of Aosta, formerly King of Spain, is the second son of the late Victor Emmanuel, King of Italy. He served in the Italian army, and in 1869 was also appointed Vice-Admiral. In 1870, at the invitation of Marshal Prim, he became a candidate for the crown of Spain, which had been already rejected by many to whom it was offered. He was elected in the Cortes by a majority of seventy-one, and landed at Cartagena Dec. 30th, 1870, the very day that Prim died of his wounds, received from assassins two days before. The young kint, bravely fronted tho difficulties and dangers of his position, but his courage could not long secure popularity. The opposition brought him into contempt as a rey intruso. In the Cortes he was but feebly supported. No per- manent ministry could be formed. Republi- can and Communistic insurrections broke out in various parts. In 1872 the new Carlist "War burst into flame in the North, and, though apparently quenched, continued to smoulder. The same year, the king and his wife were shot at by a gang of assassins in the streets of Madrid. At length, in Feb., 1873, despairing of order, the king submitted Ama (43) Ame his abdication to the Cortes, and it was accepted in graceful terms by Sehor Castelar. Next day the royal family quitted Madrid, and returned by Lisbon to Florence, where the Prince resumed his former position. In 1888 he married his niece, Princess Letitia, the daughter of Prince Napoleon. • Amari, Michele (b. 1806), the his- torian of mediaeval Sicily, was born at Palermo, where, at the age of eleven, he entered the University. Before he had attained the age of fourteen he was appointed by the Government a supernumerary clerk for the publication of despatches, etc. His father joined the Carbonari in the Revolution of 1820, and, having engaged in an abortive conspiracy, was in 1822 condemned to death — a sentence, however, that was commuted to penal servitude for thirty years, and even- tually reduced to sixteen. Michele held much the same views as his unfortunate father, and longing for vengeance, began to train himself in martial exercises, and harden himself to exposure and privation. Mean- while, he worked hard at the editorial de- partment of the Government, and while rambling among the hills, he amused himself with translating Marmion into Italian verse (Palermo, 2 vols., 1832). Other fugitive efforts led the way to more serious work. An unfinished history of the Bourbons' rule in Sicily was laid aside for what proved to be his most successful work, the History of the Sicilian Vespers. His political opinions were well known in the ministry, and promotion was persistently withheld. In spite of his courage and presence of mind during the terrible ravages of cholera in 1837, when the other officials fled for their lives, he, in common with many of the patriotic party, was banished, though the form of exile was courteously concealed in a post in the Minis- try of Justice at Naples. His zeal for official work had cooled by this time, and his energies were wholly absorbed in his History, for which the archives at Naples furnished valuable materials. The book was published in 1842, Un Periodo delle Istorie Siciliane del seeolo XIII., and the official censor gave his imprimatur without suspicion. There was, indeed, no direct attack upon the Govern- ment, but the unvarnished tale of the causes of the revolutions of 1282 read like a chapter of contemporary history, and cast a lurid light on the rule of the Bourbons. . The skilful and patriotic narration took not only Sicily, but Italy, and even Europe, by storm. It was suspected that the chief personages of the day were hinted at in the delineations of thirteenth century oppressors ; and the King and Government took alarm, deprived Amari of his office, and ordered him to repair from Palermo to Naples. Knowing the fate that in all probability awaited him there, the his- torian secretly took ship for France, and arrived at Paris at the end of 1842. There for six years he lived the quiet life of a student, attended Reinaud's Arabic classes, and be- came himself an Orientalist ; brought out a new edition of his History, with many ad- ditions from the Paris manuscripts, in 1843 (La Guerra del Vespro Siciliano), and wrote papers on Arabic scholarship and literature for the Journal Asiatique and other learned periodicals in France and Italy. In 1848 he was back again at Palermo" in the thick of the revolution, member of the National Committee, deputy for Palermo in the Sicilian Parliament, and Minister of Finance in the Provisional Government. Going out with the other ministers in August, he was sent to England and France on a special mission, to conciliate Cavaignac and Palmer- ston. But on the renewal of . hostilities in Sicily in 1849, he quickly repaired to the scene of action. In vain he urged the towns- people to resist : they were discouraged by the defeat at Novare and by the French expedition to Rome ; Amari returned in dis- gust to Paris and scholarship. His Vespers had proved a remarkable success ; they were destined to reach an eighth edition in 1876, and were translated into English (1850), French, and German. He published in 1849 La Sicile et les Bourbons ; in 1854 appeared the first volume of his greatest work, the Storia dci Mitsui mdni di Sicilia (vol. ii., 1858 : " hi., 1872), which was at once recognised as the first authority on this important and in- teresting subject. In 1856, after long re- searches in national and other libraries, he brought out at Leipzig the Bibiliotem Arabo-Sicula, a collection of Arabic texts relating to Sicily. Appointed by the Pro- visional Government of Tuscany in 1859 professor of Arabic in the Imperial Institute at Florence — a post he still retains — Amari continued to share the hopes and endeavours of the national party. He joined Garibaldi at Palermo in 1860, and was placed in charge of the secretaryship of Education and Public Works, which he shortly exchanged for the portfolio of Foreign Affairs, but retired when Garibaldi refused to countenance an im- mediate annexation of Sicily. Amari baa since been Professor Emeritus at Palermo, Senator of Rome, Minister of Education (1862), correspondent of the Institute of France, member of the Academies of Turin, Naples, Munich, etc. During the put twenty years he has published many \alu- able memoirs, and edited documents relating to the place of the Saracens in Italy and Sicily. ^ . , ,. , See G. Dugat's B'utoirt dc* OritnialitUi jagv to the Mouth of the 1SI«'. [D' Anethan.] Anglesey, Henry William Paoet, 1st Marquis of (b. 1768, d. 1854), was the eldest son of the first Earl of Uxbridge. Edu< atid at Westminster School and Oxford, where he took an M.A. degree, he entered Parliament in 1790, and represented the Carnarvon Boroughs for six years. On the outbreak of the French Revolution he raised on his father's estate the regiment of Staffordshire Volunteers which eventually became the 80th Foot. Entering the army, he rapidly rose, and by 1794 had attained the rank of lieutenant- colonel, and served under the Duke of York in the Flanders campaign. On his return to England he joined the 16th Light Dragoons, and in 1797 was appointed to the command of the 7th Light Dragoons, with the rank of colonel. He again served under the Duke of York in the campaign in Holland of 1799, and behaved with great gallantry on several occasions. Promoted major-general in 1802, and lieutenant-general in 1808, he was s.nt in command of two cavalry brigades to join Sir David Baird's Division in Portugal on the outbreak of the Peninsular War. He landed at Corunna, and effected the junction with his chief after some difficulty. He was engaged in the first skirmish with the French at Rueda, and distinguished himself by his skill and bravery in covering the disastrous retreat to Corunna. At the battle of Corunna he com- manded the reserve, and saved the fortunes of the day for the British. With this expedition his military career for a time terminated. He again returned to Parliament as member for Milbome Port, and in 1811 he succeeded his father, and took his teat in the House of Lords as Earl of Uxbridge. On the despatch of the army under Wellington to Belgium, in 1815, his services were again required, and he took command of the cavalry at the battle of Waterloo. The most brilliant charge of the day was dcliv, and by his direction with Lord Edward Soin and General Ponsonby's Brigade I ceived no wound until nearly the termination of the battle, when he was struck in the knee by a shot— one of the last fired and to severely injured th*t the limb had to Ikj amputated. With this campaign his w-tiv.- military career terminated, though ha ■ ■ appointed to the Horse Guards in 14(1, and gazetted field-marshal in 1846. II- *M created Marquis of Anglesey, and decorat^l Ang (50) Ans with the Grand Cross of the Bath for his war services, and in 1818 was elected a Knight of the Gaiter. His energy was as much dis- played in civil life as in the more active duties of his profession. He was Lord High Steward of England at the coronation of George IV., Master-General of the Ordnance in 1827, sworn in as a member of the Privy Council the same year, and became Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland in 1828. He threw himself earnestly into his new government, and was instru- mental in creating the " Board of Education," and in promoting the cause of Catholic emancipation, owing to which he was speedily recalled; but after that measure had been carried, and he returned for the second time as Viceroy (1830-3), the agitation created by O'Connell compelled him to demand Coercion Acts for the security of public peace, and so his popularity waned. Subsequently he was advanced to the rank of field-marshal, and from 1846-52 was again Master- General of the Ordnance. He was thoroughly Liberal, and had some knowledge of statesmanship, which a lack of oratory caused to be under- valued by the world. [C. C. K.] ' Angouleme, Louis Antoine, Due d', Dauphin of France (b. 1775, d. 1844), was the son of Charles X. He married his cousin, the daughter of Louis XVI. When, on the news of Waterloo, the mob rose at Marseilles and Nismes, the Due d' Angouleme had much to do with restraining its ferocity. In 1823 he led an army into Spain against the Con- stitutionalists. He passed through Madrid, and arrived at Cadiz with but little resistance. He stormed and carried the Spanish batteries, showing great coolness and gallantry. His success was received in France with the greatest enthusiasm, and on his return to Paris he was accorded a triumphal procession. On his father's death in exile he resigned his right to the succession in favour of his nephew, the Duke of Bordeaux. Angouleme, Marie Therese Char- lotte, Duchesse d' (b. 1778, d. 1851), was the daughter of Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette. "When about fourteen years old, she was imprisoned with them in the Temple, and shared their miseries. During this time she kept a diary, from which we know much of their lives during their confinement, and of the ill-treatment they received. After the execution of her parents and of her aunt, the Princess Elizabeth, she remained in solitary confinement for six months, but was then sent to Vienna, in exchange for the Commis- sioners of the Convention, whom Dumouriez had betrayed to the Austrians. In 1799 she married her cousin, the Due d' Angouleme. "When Louis XVIII. made his public entry into Paris, in 1814, she accompanied him, but in spite of her misfortunes, she failed to enlist the sympathy of the French people. Angstrom, Anders Jonas (b. 1814, d~ 1874), a Swedish physicist, born at a country parsonage in Wester-Norrland. Up to the year 1858 he was known only as an astro- nomer, but in that year he exchanged his post in Upsala for the Chair of Physics. As Direc- tor of the Observatory, he did some service to science, but the reputation of Angstrom most rests on his discoveries in optics. In his treatise entitled Optiska TJndsrsokuingar ( "Optical Researches," 1853), he showed that the fixed lines of spectra produced by elec- tric flames are due to the different substances burned or evaporated. This observation is now generally regarded as the basis of spectrum analysis, from which so much gain to science has been obtained within the last twenty years. About the same time it called attention to the so-called " Fraunhofer Lines," in the solar spectrum, though it was reserved for later investigators to discover their real import. His other works, in addition to several memoirs in journals and transactions, are : — Pecker dies tur le Spectre Solaire (1868) ; Sur les Spectres des Gens Simples (1871) ; Me- moire sur la Temperature de la Terre (1871), etc. * Anker, Albert (b. 1830), Swiss painter in genre, was born at Anet, in the canton of Berne. He intended becoming an evangelical minister ; but, on the conclusion of his theo- logical studies, he gaA'e way to his natural aptitudes, and took lessons of the famous French painter, M. C. G. Gleyre, who, like himself, was by birth a Swiss. M. Anker soon became a regular exhibitor at the Salon, and in 1866 he obtained a medal. Among his more famous pictures are Enterrement d'ttu Enfant, Les Marionnettes, Les Fetites Brodeuses, and La bonne Petite Fille, and several of his works have been engraved. *Annandale,THOMAs,F.R.C.S.,M.R.C.S, a Scottish surgeon (b. 1838), after gradu- ating in the University of Edinburgh, be- came private assistant to Professor Syme,. demonstrator of anatomy in the University, and at a later date lecturer on surgery in the Extra-academical School, and surgeon to the Infirmary. In 1877 he was elected Regius professor of clinical surgery in suc- cession to Lister, and enjoys an extensive practice as an operating and consulting surgeon. In addition to numerous papers m medical journals, Professor Annandale is the author of the Jacksonian Prize Essay on Malformation, Diseases, and Lnjuries of thr Fingers and Toes (1865) ; Abstracts of Surgical Principles (1868-70), etc. Ansdell, Richard, R.A. (b. 1815, d. 1885), was educated at the Bluecoat School, Liverpool. His first subjects in the profession which he had adopted were animals and field sports, and to these he adhered more or less closely throughout his life. His earliest Ans (51 ) Ant pictures, for example, exhibited at the Royal Academy | 1840, were Grouse Shooting and A Galloway Farm, the property of the Marquis of Bute ; and his last, in 1885, Off for the Jloors, A Highland Mother, Shooting the Covers, and The Slackened Girth. Although Mr. Ansdell had exhibited many pictures between 1840 and 1856 — such as The Drover's Halt, The Stag at Bay, its companion The Combat, and The Battle of the Standard — it was not till the last-named year, when he accom- panied John Phillip to Spain, that he had an opportunity of putting forth his full powers. The influence of Phillip in the matter both of colour and texture was manifest in the works exhibited by Mr. Ansdell in 1857. These were The Water Carrier and Mules Drinking. Again he went to Spain, and in the following year (1858) he exhibited The Road to Seville ,tnd The Spanish Shepherd; in 1859, Isla Mayor — Banks of the Guadalquivir, and The Spanish Flow er- Seller. On three occasions Mr. Ansdell received the Heywood medal for his exhibits at Manchester, and his Wolf- Slayer and Turning the Drove procured him a gold medal at the Paris Exhibition of 1855. In the year 1861, in which he exhibited at the Academy Hunted Slaves — a large canvas — and Old Friends, he was elected an A.R.A., and in 1870 a full Academician. Among his later works are After a Spate, The Home of the Red Deer, Collecting Sheep for Clipping, and Hunting the Boar. His practice as a painter was, from the very nature of his subjects, one of the most remunerative in England, but he thoroughly deserved his success. Anson, George (b. 1797, d. 1857), English general, was the second son of the first Viscount Anson. He entered the army at an early age, and served at Waterloo. In 1818, while still in the army, he was re- turned to Parliament, and was for many years a member of the House of Commons. In 1854 he was appointed to command the Madras army, and two years later he became commander-in-chief in India. He was thus at the head of affairs on the outbreak of the Mutiny, and was perhaps hardly equal to the emergency, although it is true that he was handicapped hy the laissez-faire of Lord Canning. On hearing of the outbreak at Delhi, he collected a force at Umballah, hut refrained from disarming the disaffected native regiments there, in order to free his hands for immediate action. While on the march he was seized hy cholera at Kurnaul, and died on May 27th. J. W. Kaye, Sepoy War; T. E. E. Holmes, Indian Mutiny. Anspach, Elizabeth Berkeley, Mar- gravine of (b. 1750, d. 1828), better known as Lady Craven, was married to her first husband, Lord Craven, in 1767, but the union proving unhappy, she separated from him in 1781, and travelled in Western Europe. After her husband's death she married her friend the Margrave of Anspach (1791) ; and it was when a widow a second time that she gave shelter to the unfortunate Queen Caro- line of England in 1821. The Margravine wrote some indifferent comedies, a lively satire on the little German courts, and some amusing memoirs (1825). Memoirs of the Margravine of Anspach, written by herself. Ansted, David Thomas (b. 1814, d. 1880), a geologist of some repute as a teacher, expert, and writer, was bom in London, and in 1836 graduated at Jesus College, Cambridge, of which he was subsequently elected a fellow. For some years he acted as assistant secretary to the Geological Society, and filled the Chairs- of geology at King's College, London, at the Military College at Addiscombo, and at the Civil Engineering College at Putney. The last thirty years of his life were, for the most part, devoted to the more lucrative work of a consulting geologist, his services being in good demand as an adviser in questions of water supply, mining, and so forth. Original research, though he was an F.R.S., obtained almost no place in Ansted's career. But he did much by his writings to popularise geology. However, unless we except his- volume on the Channel Isles, written in co- partnership with Dr. Latham, none of his- many books have kept their place in the market. Anster, John (b, circa 1806, d. 1867), was born at Charleville, in Cork County, Ireland. In 1819 he published a volume of Poems and Translations from the Go-man, and in 1855 his English version of Faust, from the German of Goethe, was commended by the Edinburgh Review, and also hy Coleridge. Anster was a constant contributor to B/ack- tvood's Magazine; he held for many years the post of Regius professor of civil law in the University of Dublin. Anthon, Charles, LL.D. (l>. 1797, d. 1867), an American classical scholar, graduated with honours in 1815, and was called to the New York bar in 1819. He, however, for- sook law for the classics, and in 1820 ac- cepted the post of adjunct professor ^ of ancient languages in Columbia College, «< W York. In 1830 he published an edition of Horace, and became rector of the grammar- school attached to the college; and in 1885 principal professor of languages, on tho resignation of Professor Moor. Dr. Anthon was a voluminous writer, having prepared about fifty volumes, chiefly on classical sub- jects. In 1841 his Classical Dictionary and a Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities ap- peared. A number of his ctowifjl text-books- have been reproduced in England, but are now rather out of date. A.nt ( 52 ) App Antonelli, Giacomo, Cardinal and states- man (b. 1806, d. 1876), was born at Sonnino, a small village near Terracina, on the Pontine Marshes. The account of his parentage varies according to the Liberal or Ultramontane opinions of the writer, but the truth seems to be that his father was a large timber merchant, of ancient family. He was educated from boyhood at the Grand Semi- nary of Rome. After entering the priesthood, he became a favourite of Gregory XVI., and occupied various subordinate positions in the Papal Ministry. A year after the accession of Pius IX. he was created Cardinal (1847), and next year, at the outbreak of the revolu- tion, was appointed Secretary of State and President in the Liberal Cabinet, that drew up the famous Statuto, so soon to be repealed. b"or a time he was even regarded as a popular leader, but though he promised to put a small army into the field against Austria, he found that the progress of the revolution was making his position untenable. Accordingly he resigned office to Mamiani, and, after the assassination of Rossi, fled with the Pope to Gaeta. During the exile he acted as Papal representative in the conference of the Powers for armed intervention, and on the Pope's return, in 1850, he became Foreign Minister, and practically retained the position till his death, though he proffered his resig- nation in 1863. Though his administration of the Papal States was deplorably unsuccess- ful, his appeal to Catholics throughout the world saved the Vatican from bankruptcy. Throughout his long tenure of power he showed himself a determined opponent to Italian unity, and to all other Liberal pro- posals. In 1867 he raised 12,000 troops to oppose Garibaldi, and appealed in vain for the assistance of the Powers. He took a leading part in assembling the Oecumenical Council of 1869, but did not often join in its deliberations, and it was noticed that he abstained from voting on the Infallibility. Since the decline of Austria, Antonelli had heen forced to place all his hopes in the protection of France, and when, at the beginning of the Franco-German War, the French troops were withdrawn from Rome, he recognised that the work of his life had been undone. He continued to raise protest after protest, and for a moment Count Arnim's mission may have awakened a glim- mering of hope. But the inevitable was met with dignity. He refused to accept any concessions from the Government, and strenuously opposing the advisers who urged the Pope to abandon Rome, he turned the palace into a voluntary prison. His oppo- sition to the Old Catholics, and his support of Alfonso XII. of Spain, were the last efforts of his unwearied activity. He died, leaving vast possessions, the inheritance of his heirs being afterwards disputed by his supposed daughter, Countess Lambertini. He was the last of the Cardinal-statesmen, and we cannot but admire the unyielding determination with which he championed a desperate cause. See Cardinal Antonelli, yon Dr. A. de Waal ; also Vapereau, Dictionnaire Univer&el dis Contem- poraines. Antraigues, Emmanuel Louis Henri pe Launay, Comte d' (b. 1755, d. 1812), French political adventurer, was born in Vivarais, and was nephew of Saint Priest, Minister of Louis XVI. In 1788 he pub- lished a Memoir* but les Mtats QmSraux, a revolutionary pamphlet, which created some sensation. Nevertheless, on his return next year as Deputy to the States General, he espoused the royalist cause with ardour, was driven into exile in 1790, received large pensions from foreign courts for his efforts in behalf of the Bourbon family, and became a centre of royalist intrigues at Venice and elsewhere. Shortly before Austerlitz he was arrested by Napoleon's army, hut escaped into Russia, where he joined the Greek Church, and received a pension. Afterwards, having become acquainted with some secret clauses in the Treaty of Tilsit, he came to London and sold his information to the Government. But at the moment when his intrigues pro- mised success, his correspondence with Can- ning was betrayed to Napoleon by his servant, who soon afterwards, supposing that his treachery had been discovered, murdered the Count and Countess and committed suicide. The seizure of his papers by the English Government gave rise to a suspicion that they had even brought about his assassination. Nouvelle Biographie Generate. Apperley, C. J. [Nimrod.] *Appert, Benjamin Nicholas Marie, French philanthropist {b. 1797), was horn in Paris, and as early as 1815 turned his' atten- tion to the education of the poor. He applied the principle of mutual instruction to the military schools, and receiving special powers from Government, he caused more than 100,000 soldiers to be educated in reading and writing within a few years. In 1822 he was imprisoned for having assisted two political prisoners to escape, and during his confinement he determined to devote his life henceforth to prison reform. With this object he visited the galleys and chief prisons in France, and in 1846 made a tour through the prisons of Belgium and Germany. Be- sides numerous works on this and kindred subjects, such as Voyage en Belgique, Voyage en Prusse, Hambottrg, ses Prisons et Hospices, he also published in 1846 an account of part of the reign of Louis Philippe {Dix Ans a la Cour da Roi 'Louis Philippe). *Appian, Adoi.phe, French painter and engraver [b. at Lyons, 1819), showed a predisposition for art, and became a pupil of App (53) Ara Curot and Daubigny. His first appearance at the Salon was in 1835 with Boches dans tile d" 1 Alelne, and then was absent from its walls for ten years, when he exhibited, in 1855, line Idylle. After that he was a constant exhibitor. He has seldom quitted his native town, unless for short excursions into Savoy, and he appears to derive special inspiration from the region watered by the Rhone. He obtained a medal in 1868 for two paintings and two charcoal drawings. These were : — Temps Gris, Marais de la Burbanche, J lords de Furon en Octobre a Rossillon, and Emnrwu lb Ruchefort and Marais de Virieu- le-Grund. Many of his etchings have been engraved. Appleton, Charles Edward Cutts Birch [b. 1841, d. 1879), first editor of the Academy, was born March 16th, 1841, and educated at the grammar-school at Reading, where his father was head-master. He went to Oxford in 1859, where he became succes- sively scholar and fellow of St. John's College, and graduated B.A. 1863, and D.C.L. 1871. After his Bachelor's degree he spent some years in foreign travel and study at German universities, and on his return was appointed lecturer on philosophy at St. John's. He was then and always a great reader, and his special delight was the philosophy of Hegel, viewed from an English theological stand- point ; but his energies were most strenu- ously devoted to the encouragement of learn- ing for its own sake, and he was the chief promoter of the movement for the " endow- ment of research," on which he and some kindred workers published a volume of Essays in 1876. In 1869 he founded the Academy, " a monthly record of literature, learning, science and art," of which the first number appeared Oct. 9th, and of which Appleton remained editor till his death. In 1875 he visited America, where he interested himself in the question of international copy- right. His health, however, was, already suffcring from the heavy strain of his editorial and other labours connected with the Academy, and he was ordered to travel. A tour in Egypt and the Levant in 1877-8, much as he enjoyed it, aid him little good, and on a second visit to Egypt in 1879, he died at Luxor, Feb. 1st. The authority for the life of Appleton is J))". Appleton,: his Life and Literary Relics, by J. H. Appleton and A. H. Sayee ; and an appreciative article by J. S. Cotton, his successor in the Academy, in the Dictionary of National Bio- graphy. * 'Araby, Ahmed Pasha. 'Araby the Egyptian (b. 1839), the son of the Sheykh of Horriet Rizk, a village of the Sharkiyeh province, in the Delta, claims descent from the Prophet Mohammed. Educated first at a school founded by his father in his own village, 'Araby entered the military school at Cairo in 1853, whence he passed into the army under Sa'id Pasha, and, after serving in Ab3 r ssinia and Soudan, was rapidly promoted to be lieutenant-colonel — a rank which no native Egyptian had before attained -and full colonel at the beginning of Tewfik's reign, in 1879. 'Araby took part in the early national movement of 1880. With two other colonels — 'Aly Fehmy and 'Abd-el-Al — he led the first military demonstration in support of army reform, in Jan., 1881. Arrested by Riaz, and forcibly release 1 by his fellow- soldiers (Feb. 1st), he became the acknow- ledged spokesman of the National party, and was charged in the following September to demand a constitution for the people of Egypt. He headed the second military demonstration of Sept. 9th, when his three demands — for the fall of Riaz, an increase of the army, and a liberal constitution — were accepted by the Khedive. Now master of the situation, he was named Under-Secretary for "War in January, 1882, and on the resignation of Sherif Pasha, Feb. 2nd, he became Chief Secretary for "War in the new Consti- tutional Ministry, which resigned office May 27th, but he was reinstated two days later, in deference to the popular feeling, as Minister of "War— a post he held till after the bombardment of Alexandria. At this time the Khedive's acceptance of the ultima- tum created a good deal of popular excite- ment, and 'Araby made himself responsible for the maintenance of order. His services were recognised by the Porte in the promotion to marshal's rank and the decoration of the Order of the Mejidiyeh, Garter of Islam, from the Sultan. From July 15th to Sept. 13th, 'Araby Pasha conducted the defence of Egypt, as commander-in-chief, under authority from the Provisional Government of Cairo. !!■ defended the line's of Kafir Dowar, raised an army of 60,000 zealous but untrained volun- teers, but (it is said, from public-spirited motives) neglected to block the Sue/. Canal, from which side Sir Garnet Wolseley attacked and defeated him, carrying his lines of Tell-el- Kebir, Sept. 13th, 1882. On the arrival of a troop of English horse at Cairo, 'Aiah\ surrendered to General Drury Lowe, was thrown into prison, and arraigned for trial ; but by arrangement with Lord DuflVrin the case was not heard out. 'Araby was indue, d to plead guilty to rebellion, and to accept perpetual exile, on parol*, to Ceylon. tts Mt Egypt with five of his fellow-National- ists on Dec. 24th, 1883. 'Araby possesses many of the qualities of the true jut riot His "official career was unstained by selfish motives. Neither he nor any of the M leaders of his party plotted pecuniarily by their tenure of power. He had the patriot's tongue, and was never weary of discoursing, with rare eloquence, of abem and justice and the brotherhood of man. B ■ unprecedented popularity in Kgvpt. too, is evidence of his sincerity and earnestness. A Ara ( 54 ) Ara peasant born, he sympathised throughout with the fellaheen, and took to himself as his noblest title the surname of El-Masry, "the Egyptian," and he is the first true-born Egyptian who has held office under the Turkish rigitne. In character he has shown himself humane, large-minded, and sincere. A devout Mohammedan, he is yet no fanatic, and he belongs to the school of practical politicians who look to social reform rather than to conquest for the restoration of Mohammedan prosperity. He has expressed himself in favour of the education of women, the abolition of slavery, and universal toleration for all creeds. From personal knowledge, and information supplied by 'Araby. [W. S. B.] 'Arago, Etienne (b. 1802), French dramatist and politician, is a brother of the celebrated astronomer. He has written a large number of pieces, principally vaude- villes, with collaborateurs, and in 1829 be- came director of the Theatre de Vaudeville, but the experiment was financially disastrous. He also took part in several journalistic ven- tures, and was editor of the old Figaro. He played a prominent part in the revolutionary movements of his time, and in the course of that of 1848 he, as the head of the Post Office, introduced the cheap postal system into France. Owing to his opposition to Louis Napoleon, he was compelled to fly into exile, and was sentenced, in default, to transporta- tion. He returned to France in 1859, and in 1870 was nominated Mayor of Paris by the Government of National Defence, but resigned on the occasion of the riot of Oct. 31st, having unwisely promised the mob, in the name of the Government, that the municipal elections should speedily take place. In 1871 he declined to take his seat as deputy for the Pyrenees Orientales, on the plea of age, and retired into private life. He was appointed archivist to the Ecole des Beaux- Arts in 1878. Arago, Fkaxcois (b. 1786, d. 1853), a celebrated French astronomer, physicist, and politician, was bom at Estagel, near Per- pignan, in the department of the Eastern Pyrenees. After a preliminary training at the Municipal College of Perpignan he was sent to the Polytechnic School of Paris. In 1804 he was appointed secretary of the Observatory, and two years later was deputed to assist Biot in measuring that portion of the arc of the meridian between Bar- celona and the Balearic Isles. To accomplish this task, the two savants established their camp on the summit of Mount Galatzo, in the Eastern Pyrenees, and lived there for many months, communicating with their Spanish collaborateurs across the Mediterranean in the Isle of Ivica by means of signals. Before their labours — which were frequently inter- rupted by storms — were quite completed, Arago had to return to France. But by this time war bad broken out between Spain and France, and the ignorant country people began to suspect that the beacons lighted on the mountain summit were signals to the invading army. So infuriated, indeed, did this suspicion make his neighbours, that it was with great difficulty he succeeded in reaching Majorca. At last, escaping from the island in a fishing-boat, he reached Algiers in the guise of a pedlar, and, by favour of the Dey, procured a passage for Marseilles. But on the passage he was captured by a Spanish cruiser and sent to the hulks at Palamos. After a time, however, through the intercession of the Dey of Algiers, he was freed, and sailed once more for France ; but almost as he was entering the port of Marseilles the vessel on which he was a passenger was drawn across the Mediter- ranean to the coast of Algeria. But the former Dey who had befriended him was dead, and his successor, a ferocious tyrant, received the Christian by putting him on the list of his slaves, intending to employ him as interpreter. By the intercession of the French Consul he was freed from a bondage which was, however, only nominal, and once more set out for France. While in quarantine at Marseilles he received a letter from Hum- boldt congratulating him on the end of his labours, which communication was the begin- ning of a friendship which lasted for forty years without a break. As a reward for his sufferings, the Academy of Sciences suspended their rules, in order to elect him, though only twenty-three, a member in place of Lalande. while the Government appointed him professor of analytical mathematics in the Polytechnic School. For the next twenty years his career was comparatively tranquil. Astronomy, mag- netism, galvanism, and the polarisation of light, were among the subjects investigated, and in 1812 he commenced a course of lectures on as- tronomy which created quite a furore in Paris. In 1816 he joined Gay-Lussac in establishing the Annalcs de Ckimie et de Physique, and in the same year visited England, where his re- searches, and especially the confirmation of the undulating theory of light which he had just made, enabled him to make the acquaint- ance of the principal men of the day. His attention was now turned to electricity, and in 1825 his discover}*- of the "development of magnetism by rotation " obtained for him the Copley medal of the Royal Society of London, and in 1834, when he next visited us, still more signal honours from the Universities of Edinburgh and Glasgow; for during the years 1818-19 he had, again in company with Biot, executed along the coasts of France, England, and Scotland, certain geo- detic observations ordered by the Board of Longitude. They also measured the length of the seconds pendulum at Leith and in Unst, one of the Shetlands, which ser- vice led to Arago's being chosen a member of the Board of Longitude. In 1830 he was Ara (55) Arc elected Perpetual Secretary of the Academy, and during his twenty-three years' tenure of that office wrote the eloquent iiloges of the deceased members. Arago was always a keen politician, but up to the year 1830 he had not interfered much with the affairs of State. The first Emperor had bestowed on him special marks of favour, and at a time when Napoleon proposed that he and Monge should explore the New World he pointed out to the Emperor that the inevitable march of the allies on his capital was a matter worthy of far more con- sideration. As for himself, he absolutely refused to study science so far from home at a time " when France might perhaps lose its independence." But in 1830 he took a pro- minent part in the July revolution, and was elected a member of the Chamber of Deputies for Perpignan, and took his place there as an adherent of the Extreme Left. In 1 848 he was appointed Minister of War and Marine in the Provisional Ministry. Nevertheless,during its life of four months, he vigorously resisted the proposed measures of the Socialists, preferring the Constitution of the United States as the model for the new Republic, and by his popu- larity in the districts of the Eastern Pyrenees, prevented an uprising of the discontented populace. After the Coup iVEtat he refused to take the oath of allegiance, and the Emperor, in a letter of the most compli- mentary character, declined to permit this fact to in any way affect the position he occupied. He did not, however, long survive the end of his dream. Energetic, social, and fond of fame, dictatorial in his conduct in the Academy, apt to be almost unfair where the rival claims of a Frenchman and of a foreigner were concerned, Arago was eminently un- selfish. With ample opportunities to become rich, and to amass offices on his person, he was all his life poor, his income never, it is said, exceeding £500 per annum. Money he cared for only in so far as it helped him to educate his family and' to. pursue his chosen labours, and he refused to accept any pay for the period in which he was minister. Arago's (Euvres in 17 vols. (1854-1862), edited by J. A. Barral, contain all that he cared to pre- serve, while there are English translations of many of his memoirs and eloges. See also his Autobiograi>hy, translated by Baden Powell (!855)- [E. B.] * Arago, Francois Victor Emmanuel (b. 1812), French politician, is a son of the famous astronomer. At first he tried his hand at literature, but afterwards took to the law, and was called to the bar in 1837. He played a prominent part in the Revolution of 1848, and was despatched to Lyons with the title of Commissary- General of the Republic. The tax that he levied there for the support of the national workshops made him extremely un- popular. In 1849 the Executive Commission sent him as plenipotentiar)' to Berlin, and he exerted himself on behalf of the Poles of ?°f^o- A fter lhe Cou » d ' £lat of Dec 2nd, 18o2, he retired for the time from public lite, in 1809 he was returned to the Legis- lative Assembly, and after the fall of the Empire m 1870 he became a member of the Government of National Defence as Minister of Justice, and continued to hold office until Jbeb., 18(1, when he was dismissed by M Ihiers, whom; however, he subsequentlv supported in the Assembly. In 1876 he was elected a Senator for the Pyrenees Orientales. Arany, Janos (b. 1819, d. 1882), Hun- garian poet, was the son of a peasant, and was educated for the Church, but in 1840 was appointed notary at Szalonta. His satire on *„ °, St CoHstituti <>» (1843), followed by Toldi (1847), a trilogy on a purely Hun- garian subject, soon made Arany the idol of the populace. His subsequent efforts, how- ever, among which was the Conquest of Marany (1848), were not so successful. He became successively professor of literature at Nagy Koros, and editor of a paper at Pesth, and was a member of the Academy of Hungary. *Arch, Joseph (b. 1826), the leader of the. agricultural labourers' movement, was born at Barford, in Warwickshire. His boy- hood was spent in the fields, and he was almost entirely self-educated. At the instiga- tion of his wife, the daughter of a mechanic, he acquired some knowledge of logic, men- suration, and surveying. He preached for some years among the Primitive Methodists. When, in 1872, the agricultural labourers' movement for higher wages began in War- wickshire, Arch was requested to become its leader, and in the same year he was chosen the first president of the Agricultural La- bourers' Union. After a tour through Eng- land, during which he addressed an enormous number of meetings, he went to Canada with Mr. A. Clayden, with the object of making arrangements for extensive emigration, and next visited the United States. In 1880 Mr. Arch unsuccessfully contested the borough of Wilton, but in 1885 he was elected M.P. for North- West Norfolk. He lost his seat in 1 886. P. G. Heath, The English Peatantry. Archer, Thomas (rf. 1848), actor and dramatist, made his first appearance at Drury Lane in 1823, after some experience in toe provinces. He began with subordinate cha- racters in revivals of Shakespeare and in melodrama. After two years in London he went to the United States, where he became manager of several theatres in succession. After returning to England, ho conducted a company through Belgium and Germany. He was afterwards employed at Drury Lano and Covent Garden. Ho wrote several fairly successful dramas and extravaganzas, such as Asmodeus, an adaptation from the French of Scribe, The Colours of Margaret, and Blood Royal ; or, the Crown Jewels. Arc ( 56 ; Arg ♦Archibald, Hun. Sih Adams George, K.C.M.G., D.C.L. (b. 1814), having attained high distinction at the bar, was delegate to England in 1857, on the question of the union of the North American Provinces ; and again in 1866, to arrange the terms of Confederation. From 1870 to 1873 he was Lieut.-Governor of Manitoba and the North-West Territories, and from 1873 to 1883 was Lieut.-Governor of Nova Scotia. *Arditi, LciGI, musical composer (b. 1822), studied music at the Conservatoire of Milan, where he learned the violin. In 1839 he began to play at concerts, and in 1841 he succeeded in getting his opera, I Briganti, played at the Conservatoire, Milan. lie led the orchestra in several Italian opera-houses, and afterwards in America, where he also gave concerts, at . llavannah and New York. Here he also wrote his opera La Spii, which came out in 1856. His next move was to London, where he conducted at Her Majesty's (from 1857 to 1 878), which was considered to have, under his baton, one of the finest orchestras in Europe. He gave several successful concerts in London. He has published some duets for violin and piano, a sextuor for stringed instruments, etc. His waltzes, especially // Bacio, have been exceedingly popular. Areschong, Johan Ekhakd ('. 1811, d. 1887), was a Swedish botanist of the first rank. After studying and graduating Ph.D. in Lund, he was in 1858 appointed to succeed the elder Fries as professor of botany in Upsala. His researches are purely technical, and relate for the most part either to Scan- dinavian botany — for the purpose of studying which he made many journeys through Sweden and Norway— or to the Marine Algae. The chief of his separate works are : — Sym- bols AJgarum Scandinavia; (1838) and Phycrte Marina (1850). He subsequently retired with the rank of Emeritus Professor, and at his death lived in Stockholm. There is another Professor Areschoug, a son of the preceding, who fills the botanical Chair in Lund. Arezzo, Tommaso, Cardinal and statesman (b. 1756, d. 1833), was the grandson of Arezzo (Aretius), historian to Charles V. Having l>een educated in Rome for the Church, he held various positions under Pius VI.. was appointed Archbishop of Seleucia, in Syria, in 1S00, and next year sent as Ambassador- Extraordinary to theCourt of St. Petersburg, in order to effect a union with the Greek Church. Negotiations were cut short by the death of Paul I. of Russia, and Arezzo retired to Dres- den, whence he was summoned by Napoleon in 1807 to act as mediator between France and the Vatican. Being unsuccessful, he was accused of treason, and four years later con- demned to death. But having escaped to Sardinia, he became the intimate friend of Victor Emmanuel I. In 1815 he was created Cardinal by Pius A T II.,and in 1831 he became Vice-Chancellor of the Church. Argelander, Frieduich Wilhelm August, German astronomer (b. 1799, d. 1875), and in 1820 became the assistant of Bessel, the astronomer, at Konigsberg. He was after- wards director of the observatories at Abo and Helsingfors (1832), and was appointed professor of astronomy at Bonn in 1837. Six years later he published Urvnamelria Xova, a celestial atlas of all the stars visible to the naked eye. In continuation of Bessel's work he further fixed the position of 22,000 stars in the zone 45° to 80° [Beobachtutujeh aufder Sternwarte zu Bonn, 1846). He devoted his later life to observing the variation in the brilliancy and apparent magnitude of stars, and to the demonstration of the theory that the solar system has a progressive motion through absolute space. *Argyll, His Grace George Douglas Camphell, 8th Duke of, K.G., K.T. (b. 1823), was born at Ardencaple Castle, Dumbarton- shire. As Marquis of Lome, he eai'ly be- came known for his strong personal in- terest in the controversy about patronage, which for years divided the Presbyterian Church of Scotland, and finally resulted in the secession of the Free Kirlc. The Marquis belonged to the " Evangelical " part}', and gave a general support to Dr. Chalmers in a series of pamphlets, whilst at the same time he hoped to avert the rupture. On his fathers death, in 1847, he became Duke. In 1848 he published Presbytery Examined, the last and fullest of his ecclesiastical works, being a critical and historical account of the Scottish Church in the past, together with a few words on its mission and probable future. Turning from theology to politics, the Duke became, and has since remained, one of the most prominent figures in the House of Peers, all the more prominent because it is difficult exactly to define his position. Perhaps he might be described as Whig" by family, Liberal by intellect, Independent by nature, and Conservative by inclination. At first he interested himself chiefly in Scottish affairs, especially ecclesiastic, but also spoke on the Jewish emancipation, the Corrupt Practices Bill, and the Repeal of the Paper Duties. In 1851 he was elected Chancellor of the Uni- versity of St. Andrews, and in the following year took office as Lord Privy Seal under the Earl of Aberdeen, and retained the same position under Lord Palmerston, but at the end of 1856 became Postmaster-General. In 1854 he was elected Rector of the University of Glasgow, and was again Lord Privy Seal in Lord Palmerston's Cabinet of 1859. During the whole of Mr. Gladstone's ad- ministration from 1868 to 1874, the Duke was Secretary of State for India ; and in the following session he again turned his atten- tion to the ecclesiastical government of, Arg ( 57 ) Arm Scotland, giving his earnest support to the Conservative measure for the transfer of the patronage in that Church from individuals to congregations. On the return of the Liberals in 1880, he for the third time held the position of Lord Privy Seal, but earl} - in' the following year felt himself obliged to resign owing to disagreement with the Government on certain clauses of the Irish Land Bill, which he maintained tended to destroy ownership altogether. In the land question the Duke, guided by his large experience as an extensive landowner, has always displayed keen interest. In 1877 he wrote for the Cobden Club some observations On the Import- ant Question involved in the Relation of Land- lord and Tenant. In 1883 he published a letter to Lord Napier and Ettrick, as Chair- man of the Itoyal Commission (Highlands and Islands), containing a full and valuable ac- count of the management of his estates in the Hebrides, especially in the island of Tiree, and in the next year he published an article from the Nineteenth Century, on The Prophet of San Francisco, which attracted consider- able attention by its vehement denunciation of Mr. Henry George's j>roposed land reform. His Grace has also written a full account ot The Eastern Question, from the Treaty of Paris (1856) to the Berlin Conference (1878). But it is perhaps in the field of religious and scientific inquiry, rather than in the field of politics, that the Duke of Argyll's work chiefly lies. His most celebrated book, The Reign of Laic, was published in 1866, and obtained a wide circulation, being one of the first and most able attempts to reconcile the popular doctrines of Theism, Teleology, and Free Will, with the new scientific method usually ' connected with Darwin's name. But though the author, accepting certain minor points as beyond dispute, aims at a reconciliation on these, his book is a distinct attack on the main posi- tions of the Darwinian theory, and was replied to as such by Darwin himself in succeeding editions of his works. The prin- cipal contentions of the Reign of Law were further expanded and illustrated in The Vjiity of Nature (1884), whilst the differences from the extreme Darwinian and Agnostic positions are even more distinctly emphasised. What- ever may be thought of the scientific value of the Duke's conclusions, it is certain that he has done much for the cause of science by his powers of careful observation, and his wide knowledge of the animal kingdom, especially of birds. He has also written a minor work entitled Primeval Man ; an Examination of some Recent Speculations, and a treatise on The History and Antiquities of Iona. Scotland as It Was and It Is (2 vols.) was published in 1887. He married the eldest daughter of the second Duke of Sutherland in 1844 (she died in 1878) ; and, secondly, in 1881, the widow of Colonel Anson. *Armand-Dumaresci, Charles Edou- ako, French painter (b. 1826), studied under Thomas Couture, and made his debut m ;i painter_ of religious subjects. Among these were his Christ des Naufrages, Saint Bernard Prechant la Croisade. and a great canvas in which he has represented I.e Martyr* de Saint Pierre. This work adorns the cathedral of Caen. He has painted also a Christ for the Palais de Justice of Paris. He then turned his attention to military subjects, and, with the object of familiarising himself with times of war, he accompanied the French troops in their various expeditions to Italy, Africa, and elsewhere. He painted various subjects from Napoleon's wars, also an Episode from the Battle of Solferino, which is placed in the gallery of Versailles. The Return from Elba, The Defence of St. Quentin in 1870, The Watch at Auster- litz, Cambronne at Waterloo, are the names of a few others. He produced also a collection of designs for military uniforms, which has been placed in the Museum of Versailles. M. Aimand-Dumaresq obtained a medal of the third class in 1861, mi rmppti in 1863, and the decoration of the Legion of Honour in 1867. Armansperg, Josei-h Ludwig, Count oi- [b. 1787, d. 1853), Bavarian statesman, was born at Kotzing, in Lower Bavaria. Having taken part in the War of Liberation, 1813-14, he was appointed Director and Vice-President of the Rhine District. On the accession of Ludwig I. to the throne of Bavaria, Armans- perg was" chosen Councillor of State, and next year Minister of Finance (1826). By the severest economy he re-established the financial credit of the country, but, owing to his Liberal proclivities, he was dismissed from office at the beginning of the re- actionary period, 1831. Nevertheless, when Otho, Lud wig's second son, was appointed King of Greece by the London Conference, Armansperg sailed in charge of the young Prince as President of the Regency (1833). His administration has been severely criticised for corruption, favouritism towards Bavarians, and dependence on England, but it is certain that, during this period Greece as a whole recovered its prosperity with greater rapidity than was expected. In 1837, however, Otho found himself obliged to dismiss his powerf ul minister, who retired to his estates in Bavaria, where he died. Allegemeine-deutsche Biograjihie. Armellini, Carlo (b. circa 1780, d. 1863), Italian patriot and lawyer, was born in Rome. Throughout life an ardent Repub- lican, he was appointed member of the Triumvirate in Rome (1849), Ma/.zini and Saffi being his colleagues. When this Pro- visional Government was overthrown, and the Pope's authority restored through the Arm ( 58) Arm treachery of the French troops under General Oudinot, he was driven into exile. "Armitage. Edward, R.A. (b. 1817), historical and mural painter, was educated in Germany and France. His most eminent English contemporary in Paris was the late John Cross. Mr. Armitage worked under Paul Delaroche, whose studio he entered in 1837. The master selected him as his assistant in the production of the famous Hemicycle, which adorns the Itcole des Beaux-Arts. His first independent picture was a large canvas, Prometheus Bound, which was exhibited at the Paris Exhibition of Living Painters, in 1842. To the Cartoon Exhibition at Westminster Hall in 1843, he sent The Landing of Julius Cessar in Britain, which carried off a first-class prize of £300. At a third competition in the same place in 1845, he won a £200 prize for his Spirit of Religion. In 1847 Mr. Armitage was again a candidate for honours, and his Battle of Meanee carried off a first prize of £500. This picture is the property of the Queen. Mr. Armitage then spent a year in Some, and during our war with Russia he went to the Crimea, and the result of his visit was The Heavy Cavalry Charge of Bala- •clava, and The Stand of the Guards at Inkennan. In 1858 he produced a large figure called Retribution, symbolical of the suppression of the Indian Mutiny. In all these pictures, boldness and breadth of .style are the characteristics. In the Upper Waiting Hall of the Palace of Westminster, he has executed two experimental frescoes, The Thames with its Tributaries, and The Death of Marmion. He decorated the apse ■of the Roman Catholic Church of St. John at Islington with noble figures of Christ and the Twelve Apostles, and represented in the same church St. Francis and his Early Followers before Pope Innocent III. In 1869 he pro- duced the monochromic series of mural paintings which occupy the walls of Univer- sity Hall, Gordon Square, in memory of the late Crabb Robinson. In 1867 Mr. Armitage was elected A.R.A. ; in December, 1872, R.A. ; and in 1875 he was appointed pro- fessor and lecturer on painting to the Royal Academy. The following are the names of a few of the many works Mr. Armitage has exhibited on the walls of that institution: — The Mother of Moses Hiding after having Ex- posed her Child on the River's Brink (1860), Pharaoh's Laughter (1861), The Burial of a Christian Martyr in the Time of Nero (1863), Ahab and Jezebel (1864), Esther's Banquet (1865), The Remorse of Judas, and The Parents of Christ Seeking Him, (1866) ; and so on every year, religious subjects predominating over secular, up to the exhibition of 1885, when his Academy contributions comprised After the Arena, Arcadia, and Suggestions for the Decora- tion of St. Paul's. In 1876 he exhibited Phryne, and in 1878 Pygmalion's Galatea. The only year in which he was absent from the walls of the Academy was that of 1880, owing to a winter in Algeria; but the following year he resumed his place upon the walls of the Academy with a large picture of Samson and Lion, and an altar-piece in compartments, representing the Acts of Mercy. His learning in all that pertains to his profession is of a most exhaustive kind, and his ideas of art are altogether broad and comprehensive. Saul Witnessing the Death of Stephen was exhibited in 1886, Institution of the Franciscan Order in 1887, and A Siren in 1888. *Armstead, Henry Hugh, R.A., sculp- tor (b. 1828), obtained his artistic training at the School of Design, Somerset House, Leigh's School, Carey's School, and the Royal Academy. Long before Mr. Armstead worked monumentally in stone, he enjoyed a well-earned reputation as a designer, modeller, and chaser in silver, gold, and jewellery, as well as a draughtsman on wood. Among his productions in silver, the most important are the Charles Kean Testimonial, the St George's Vase, the Doncaster Race Plate, and the Tennyson Vase. For this last and some other works he obtained a silver medal at the Paris Exhibition in 1855. He designed also the Pakington Shield, and for his Outram Shield which is always on view at the South Kensington Museum, he obtained the medal from the Exhibition of 1862. His chief work in marble occupies the south and east sides of the podium of the Albert Me- morial, Hyde Park, in which he has repre- sented in high relief the chief painters, musicians, and poets of Europe. He has also on the same memorial four large bronze figures of Chemistry, Astronomy, Medicine, and Rhetoric ; and that he might the better prepare himself he visited almost every capital in Europe. He also designed the external sculptural decorations in relief of the New Colonial Offices, and statues of Earl Grey, Lord Lytton, Duke of Newcastle, Earl of Derby, Lord Ripon, Sir William Molesworth, and Lord Glenelg. His also are the designs of the carved oak panels beneath Dyce's frescoes in the Queen's Robing Room in the Westminster Palace, illustrating the life of King Arthur and the story of Sir Galahad. The large fountain in the forecourt of King's College, Cambridge, the marble reredos of the Entertainment of Our Lord in Hythe church, Kent, the marble effigy of the late Bishop of Winchester in Winchester Cathe- dral, and many other works, are the fruit of his skill and invention. He was elected an Associate of the Academy in 1875, and an Academician in 1879. In 1887 he exhibited a fine statue of Ladas the Spartan Runner. * Armstrong, George Francis (b. 1845), Arm (59) Arm "born in the county of Dublin, was educated partly at Dublin University and partly in Jersey. In 1865, on the death of his brother Edmund, he was appointed to succeed him in the Presidential Chair of the Philosophical Society. In 1871 he was appointed professor of history and English literature in Queen's College, Cork, and in 1882 he was presented with the degree of Doctor of Literature, and was elected a Fellow of the Royal University of Ireland. Mr. Armstrong has published The Life and Letters of his brother, Edmund John, and also his Poetical Works. He himself has written a volume of Poems, Lyrical and Dramatic, amongst which is the profound love-poem called Sundered Friendship; also Ugone: a Tragedy, The Tragedy of Israel, A Garland from Greece. Armstrong, John (b. 1784, d. 1829), an eminent physician and medical writer, was the son of the superintendent of some glass-works in Ayres Quay. He studied medicine in Edinburgh, and in June, 1808, took the degree of M.D., when he began practice at Bishop Wearmouth. In 1811 he was elected physician to the Sunderland Infirmary, and in 1816 published a work on fevers, which so established his reputation as a sound physician that in 1818 he was induced to settle in London. Here he soon obtained a large practice, and was elected physician to the Fever Hospital, and on the foundation of the Webb Street (Borough) School of Medicine, he gave lectures on " Materia Medica " and the " Practice of Physic." In 1826, having differences with the other lecturers at Webb Street, he joined Dr. Boot and Mr. Bennett in establishing a rival school in Dean Street, though soon afterwards he relinquished all connection with it, the acute consumption under which he was labouring putting an end to his career at the age of forty-five. In diagnosis Dr. Armstrong acquired a great reputation, and the works in which his observations are recorded may even yet bo studied with advantage. His prelections, which originally appeared in the Lancet, Aug., 1825, were reprinted in 1834, under the title of Lectures on the Morbid Anatomy, Nature, and Treatment of Acute and Chronic Diseases. In some bio- graphical accounts he is confounded with another John Armstrong (1709-1779). * Armstrong, Sir Alexander, K.C.B., LL.D.,F.R.S. {b. 1822), was educated at Dub- lin and Edinburgh Universities. In 1842 he entered the medical department of the Navy, and served for many years in various parts of the world, and for five consecutive years in the arctic regions, being surgeon of H.M.S. Investigator during the discovery of the North- West Passage by Sir Robert McClure in 1853-54. Sir A. Armstrong has been pre- •sented with the Arctic and Baltic medals, and also with Sir Gilbert Blane's medal, and for some years was Director-General of the Navy Medical Department. He was knighted in 1871, and is honorary physician to the Queen and Prince of Wales. He has written A Personal Narrative of the Discovery of the North-West Passage (1857), and Observations on Naval Hygiene and Scurvy, more particu- larly as the latter appeared during a Polar Voyage (1858). * Armstrong, William Geoege, Baron, English mechanical inventor and engineer (b. 1810), is the son of a merchant and alder- man of Newcastlc-on-Tyne, and though the boy's inclinations were all for mechanics, he was persuaded to adopt the law as a profession, and, indeed, soon entered a firm of solicitors. By 1838, however, the natural bent of Arm- strong's mind was bursting the bonds of red tape, for in the Mechanics' Magazine in the course of the year appeared a suggestion by him for an important improvement in hy- draulic machinery, which he called an " ac- cumulator." The hydraulic crane was another of his inventions, first explained in a lecture delivered before the Literary and Philo- sophical Society of Newcastle, in Nov.. 1845. He now, by the aid of some friends, erected one of his hydraulic cranes on New- castle qua}*, and so speedily demonstrated its superiority to all others in existence that almost before knowing it he had become a professional engineer, though still retaining a nominal connection with the law. Five years earlier he had invented the hydro- electric machine, which in 1846 procured his admission into the Royal Society, and has ever since, in one form or another, proved a powerful means for producing fric- tional electricity. In that year the die was cast, and the Elswick Engineering Works established. Henceforth the law knew the amateur mechanician no more, and in future the manufacture of heavy ordnance and hydraulic cranes claimed his attention. The Crimean War turned the minds of engineers to lethal weapons, and in Armstrong's case re- sulted in the invention of the breechloading cannon so widely associated with his name. This gun was finally adopted by the Government, though not before the inventor had to surmount vexatious delays and the vis inertia: of voted interests and official dislike to an " outsider." On Armstrong presenting the patents to the State he was knighted, and appointed chief engineer of rifled ordnance. The next few years of his life were engrossed in improv- ing his gun, and extending the principle on which it was constructed to cannon of all sizes. The result was that three thousand of them were, between 1859 and 1862, introduced into the service. But by 1861 there began to be a revolution in favour of the old muzzle-loading smooth-bore guns, which at short ranges, and when of less Arn (60) Arn Calibre, were discovered by Armstrong him- self to be more effectual in penetrating iron plates than the rifled cannon, and, moreover, it was complained that in actual warfare the Armstrong gun often caused injury to those serving it. The result was that the Govern- ment ceased to use it. Armstrong then re- signed his appointment, and, returning to Elswick, has ever since contrived to turn out heavy ordnance for all who choose to buy ; his guns, despite the dislike of the English official class to them, being in daily use in all countries, from Russia to the Bonney Elver, where they may be seen in possession of the palm-oil potentates of that unhealthy region. In 1863 he presided over the Newcastle meet- ing of the British Association, delivering on that occasion an address on the exhaustion of the coal fields, which led to the appointment of a Royal Commission on the subject. The Elswick works extend for nearly a mile along the Tyne, cover forty acres of ground, and employ more than three thousand workmen. His lordship is a C.B., an LL.D. of Cam- bridge (1862), a D.C.L. of Oxford (1870), and is a knight of various foreign orders, and member of several Continental academies and learned societies. He has also filled the office of president of the Institution of Mechanical Engineering. He was created a peer in 1887. Arnand, Fanny (b. 1802, d. 1870), better known in this country under her married name of Mme. Charles Reybaut. Her husband was an author of some note, and when in Paris she contributed stories to the feuilleton of his journal, the Constitutionnel, and also to the Revue des Deux Mondes. Her chief works are Le Moine de Chablis, La Derniire Bohemienne, Le Cabaret de Caubert, and Les Anciens Convents de Paris, the last of which has been translated into English. Arndt, Eknst Moritz (b. 1769, d. 1860), German poet, became professor at Greifswalde in 1806. He set himself, in company with many other thinkers, to work at this time to form a national resistance to Napoleon, and his patriotic songs, The Spirit of the Age, Where is the German Fatherland? and many others, were immensely popular. In 1812 he publisbed a tract on the Landwehr and Land- sturm (the militia and levi'e en masse). In 1818 he was appointed professor of history at the University of Bonn, but was soon sus- pended because of his liberal opinions. In 1840, however, he was restored to his Chair, and in 1848-9 was a member of the National Assembly at Frankfurt. E. M. Arndt, Autobiography ; W. Neumann, E, M. Arndt; eine Biographie. Arnim, E. vox and L. A. von. [Bettina.] Arnim, Harry Karl Edouard, Cot:nt von (b. 1824, d. 1881), Prussian diplomatist, was theson of CountHeinrichvonArnim(q.v.), and was born in Pomerania. Having studied at the University of Berlin, he entered the diplomatic service, and after occupying sub- ordinate positions at Munich and Vienna, and being sent as extraordinary envoy to Lisbon in 1862, he was in 1864 appointed ambassador and plenipotentiary at Rome, a position which he held till the fall of Pius IX.'s tem- poral power in 1870. During the time of the OEcumenical Council he made himself pro- minent by his support of Dr. Dollinger and his party, and by his resolute opposition to the doctrine of Infallibility. For these ser- vices his Government bestowed on him the title of Count, and in March, 1871, he was summoned to Brussels, to take part in the negotiations which resulted in the Peace of Frankfurt. In the same summer he acted as the first representative of Germany in France since the war, and early in the following year was appointed Ambassador of the German Empire in Paris. It soon became evident, however — and the evidence is confirmed by published correspondence — that, in spite of their early friendship, the Count was no longer in favour with Prince Bismarck. The alleged causes of offence were mainly the three following : obstruction to the immediate payment of the war indemnity ; connivance at the warlike manifestoes of certain French prelates ; and, above all, intrigues with the Royalist parties, tending to bring about the fall of Thiers and the ministry in May, 1873. There can be no doubt that Bismarck feared that the success of his extremely difficult line of policy towards France at this time was being frustrated by the independence of a man who was likely to be a dangerous rival. Whatever was the reason, in tbe spring of 1874 Arnim was recalled from Paris, and sent into honourable exile at Constantinople. But he never entered upon his new position, for during the summer his Roman despatches and correspondence with Dr. Dollinger four years before were published in Vienna, and, in spite of denials, he was detained in Germany on half-pay. Soon afterwards, Prince Hohen- lohe, his successor in the Parisian Embassy, accused him of having purloined a large number of important State documents, refer- ring to the Papal succession, from the archives of that embassy. In October he was arrested near Stettin, and imprisoned at Berlin. The trial lasted three months. The Count pro- duced some of the documents, and pleaded that others were his own private property, but was condemned to three months' imprison- ment and costs. He appealed against the sentence, but on a second trial in June, 1875, the term of imprisonment was increased to nine months. At this time Count Arnim was living at Lausanne, ostensibly for the sake of his health. A few months later, a pamphlet entitled Pro Nihilo appeared anonymously, and it was at once assumed that he was the author. It is an elaborate defence of his conduct during his tenure of office in Paris. It is written in a tone of violent abuse, and Am (61) Am attributes his fall entirely to Bismarck's irritable jealousy and petty spite, basing its accusations chiefly on an account of a stormy interview in Sept., 1873, during which Bismarck is said to have charged Arnim with conspiring with the Empress to thwart his policy. Such an attack upon the Government naturally attracted much attention at the time, and in the spring of 1876 the Count was prosecuted on the charge of high treason and insolent libel against the Emperor and Chancellor. The trial lasted till October, 1877, when Count Arnim was sentenced, in absence, per contumaciam, to five years' penal servitude. After this he prudently continued to live in exile. In the two following years, 1878 and 1879, he published two pamphlets, Der Nuntius kommt and Quid faciamus nos ? in which he criticised the attitude of Prince Bismarck towards the Ultramontane party during the Kulturkampf, after the enactment of the Falk Laws. But the change of tone in these works from the animus of the earlier pamphlet is so marked that they seem almost intended to prepare the way for a reconcilia- tion. All his appeals, however, were in vain ; even his offer to return and stand his trial in person was refused, and he died in exile. Chas. Lowe, Prince Bismarck : an Historical Biography. Arnim, Heinkich Alexander, Count von (b. 1798, d. 1861), Prussian statesman, entered the diplomatic service in 1820, and was attached to the legations of sevei-al European countries. In 1834 he was attached to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs at Berlin. In 1840 he was sent as ambassador to Brussels, in 1846 was transferred to the embassy at Paris. In 1848 he came to Berlin, and tried to get Prussia to take the lead in proclaiming the unity of Germany, find summoning a German Parliament. In March of this year Arnim was made Minister of Foreign Affairs. His tenure of the office, however, lasted only a few weeks. In 1849 he was chosen to represent the Schleweidnitz district in the Prussian Chamber, where he joined the Ger- man Opposition party. Amim-Boytzenburg, Adolf IIein- rich, Count (b. 1803, d. 1868), Prussian states- man, born at Berlin, early distinguished himself by his administration of minor pro- vincial offices, and on the accession of Fried- rich Wilhelm IV., in 1840, was appointed President of Posen, in the hope that he might conciliate the religious and national mal- contents of Poland. Though his endeavours were not altogether successful, he was raised in 1842 to the position of Prime Minister of the Interior, and for the next three years was the king's chief adviser, and the princi- pal, though often unwilling, agent of his projected reforms. But under a master who theorised and hesitated, who rejected his scheme of constitution, strove after ideals no longer possible, and showed his sentimental affection for his subjects by measures of despotic repression, the Count found his position growing daily more difficult, and though he bore the brunt of increasing un- popularity with generous self-denial, he was obliged in 1846 to give in his resignation. Next year the king was forced to issue his patent offering a Constitution, but it was now too late. The revolutionary movements of 1848 began. The king issued his patent of March 18th, and, abandoned by his Minis- ters, appealed again to Count Arnim. Whilst awaiting his decision the king gave the order for the withdrawal of the troops, an order that dealt the death-blow to the old Prussian monarchy. Next day the Count took office, and though the refusal of Camp- hausen and the Liberal leaders to act in concert with him allowed him to hold it for only ten days, he secured tie maintenance of the popular Constitution by the " Pledges " of March 22nd. Summoned to the National Assembly in Frankfurt, he declared the im- possibility of Prussia's entrance into a Germau Confederation on terms of mere equality or subordination. At the end of the year, and again in 1849, he was elected to the Second Chamber, taking his seat on the Right Centre. He became a member of the Upper House (Herrenhaus) in 1853, and the rest of his life was chiefly occupied in defending the just rights of the landowners (Junkers) and defin- ing their duties. *Amold, Arthur (J, 1833), poli- tician and social reformer, first became prominent during the period of the cotton famine, being appointed assistant commis- sioner under the Public Works Act (1863), and continuing to reside in Lancashire for the next three years. In 1864 he published a large work on the History of the Cotton Famine. He then travelled for two years in the east of Europe and in Africa, and on his return published an account of his tour, entitled From the Levant. Having been ap- pointed first editor of the Echo, he succeeded in raising his new paper to a large circula- tion and wide influence. In 1873 he con- tested Huntingdon unsuccessfully. In the following year he was invited to become a candidate for Northampton, but declined; and in 1875, having resigned his position on the Echo, he undertook a journey thr. ugh Russia and Persia, of which he published ar account, Through Persia by Caravan, in 1877. In 1879-80 he published Social Politics, a reprint of articles for magazines, advocating the main reforms of the Liberal programme ; and Free Zand, in which he urges the abolition of the custom of entail, and of all difficulties in the way of land transfer and registration. In 1880 ho was returns I as member for Salford, and was elected chair- man cf the Greek Committee, to extend tho Arn (62) Arn boundaries of the Hellenic Kingdom, and in 1882 he brought forward in Parliament the resolutions in favour of uniformity of fran- chise and redistribution of political power. In 1885 he was defeated for the North division of Salford. ♦Arnold, 8» Edwin, K.C.I.E. (i. 1832), famous as a poet and a journalist, was educated at King's School, Rochester ; King's College, London; and at Oxford. He won the Newdigate prize in 1852, and graduated in honours two years later. He was soon afterwards appointed principal of the Govern- ment Sanscrit College at Poona, in the Bom- bay Presidency. He resigned the post in 1861. From that time forward he con- tributed largely to periodical literature, often on Indian questions and Sanscrit literature. His connection with the Bally Telegraph began on his return from India in 1861. Of this newspaper he was editor for many years, and as editor enjoyed the distinction of having ar- ranged, on behalf of the proprietors, the ex- pedition of Mr. George Smith to Assyria, and that of Mr. Henry Stanley to Africa. His articles, particularly at the time of the Russo- Turkish War, have attracted great attention. His chief claim to public notice is in the cha- racter of a poet. Opening up — for the first time since Sir William Jones, with any large- ness of research or popularity of treatment — the vast treasures of Sanscrit poetry, he has acquired an individual reputation, not only as a writer of melodious English verse, but as an imaginative poet of fine feeling and rare culture. His Light of Ana (1st edition 1879) very speedily passed through no fewer than twenty-six editions, in England alone, and its popularity in America has been no less remarkable. Only second to the success of this extraordinary book has been that of its companion volumes. Judged by the popular voice, there can be no question that Mr. Arnold's place is in the front lunk of modern poets. Among his other works are Griselda : a Tragedy (1856), The Poets of Greece (1869), Pearls of Faith (1883), Indian Idylls (1883), The Secret of Death, and other Poems (1885), Lotus and Jewel (1887). Arnold, Matthew (b. 1822, d. 1888), the eldest son of the famous teacher, the late Dr. Arnold of Rugby (q.v.), and famous himself as poet, scholar, critic, and theologian, was born at Laleham, near Staines. He was educated at Winchester, Rugby, and Balliol College, Oxford. Winning the Newdigate prize for English verse in 1843, he graduated in honours a year later, and was elected Fellow of Oriel College in 1845. From 1847 to 1851 he acted as private secretary to the late Lord Lansdowne. In 1851 he was ap- pointed Lay Inspector of Schools under the Committee of Council on Education. In 1859, as foreign assistant-commissioner to the commissioners appointed to inquire into tho state of education on the Continent, he travelled in France, Germany, and Holland, and submitted a report to the Government in 1860. The following year his records were published. His official duties took him to the Continent again in 1865, to procure in- formation respecting schools for the middle and upper classes. In 1868 Mr. Arnold pub- lished the results of his researches in a volume entitled The Schools and Universities of the Continent. He resigned the official position held with honour for nearly thirty- five years in 1886. Mr. Arnold's activity as a poet began and ended somewhat early in his career. His Newdigate poem, Cromwell, was printed in 1843. Five years later the Strayed Reveller appeared, signed simply " A." In 1853 the volume Empedocles, and other Poems, was published anonymously. The following year a volume, consisting of poems selected from the two earlier volumes, appeared under the author's name. A second series was pub- lished somewhat later, and then the volumes of 1848 and 1853 were withdrawn from circu- lation. The reception given to tho new poet was at first cordial, but not enthusiastic. The .Athenaeum in 1854 judged his narrative poems to be better than his lyric poems. In some of the latter he was said to have aimed at a simplicity which on proof turned out to be puerility. The Edinburgh Beview in 1856 was more friendly. For combined culture and fine natural feeling in the matter of versification, the northern critic found no living poet superior to Mr. Arnold. His reputation as a poet grew so rapidly that in 1857, three years after his first acknowledged volume, he was elected professor of poetry at Oxford. He held the Chair until 1867. A tragedy after the antique, Merope, published in the year of his election to the Oxford pro- fessorship, makes up, with Xew Poems (1869), almost the whole sum of his poetic labours. As a poet his rank is undoubtedly high. Distinctly a Wordsworthian, not unin- fluenced by the neo-romantic movement of the century, he is by no means destitute of individual claims. Perhaps, when the sum of other labours can be justly and impartially computed, it will be a subject of regret that Mr. Arnold's period of poetic activity was almost as brief, and quite as early, as that of Coleridge. In his professorial capacity he produced two series of lectures, which served to establish his position as scholar and literary critic. The first was On Translating Homer, published in 1861. The second was on The Study of Celtic Literature, published in 1868. Between these two, in 1865, a series of Essays in Criticism appeared. A second series, edited by Lord Coleridge, was published in 1888. As a critic Mr. Arnold probably ranks with the best of our literature. He has faith in fixed principles, but is not without the insight and sympathy that are necessary to the just application of Arn (63) Arn rigid canons. In 1870 Mr. Arnold published an essay on political and social criticism, entitled Culture and Anarchy, in which, even more than in his other works, his genius for definition is displayed. In 1882 he published Irish Essays, and Others. His political sym- pathies are not with the cause of the people as the people's advocates understand it. With mingled ridicule and indignation he exposes what he deems to be the emptiness of the "middle-class" ideals, the want of delicacy and " sweet reasonableness " in the battle-cries and watchwords of orthodox Liberalism, the paltry insignificance of aim in all party politicians. For relief from political and social evils he chiefly looks to " culture," especially in the form of a higher education for the middle classes, and to a breaking-down of all exclu- siveness, whether of dissent or professional caste. It is clear that the vigour of his pro- posals, especially in later years, freed him from the charge of political quietism. In 1871 he published an essay on Puritanism and the Church of England, entitled St. Paul and Protestantism ; in 1873, Literature and JJogma; in 1875, God and the Bible ; andin 1877, Last Essays on Church and State. These writings on theological subjects were put forth as helps towards a better apprehension of the Bible. Dealing with the supernatural aspects of Christianity from what was con- sidered a rationalistic standpoint, they were fiercely assailed and ardently defended. No longer able to rest content with the earlier dogma and interpretation, but sensitively shrinking from the blundering assurance of an unsympathetic rationalism, he, in his own words, wanders " between two worlds, one dead, the other powerless to be born." The keynote of his work is a yearning for calm peace and beauty in a restless and hideous world ; but trusting to the gradual increase of sweetness and light, and to the final authority of the remnant or elect, he refuses either to despair or to close his eyes to the reality of things as they are. A lec- turing tour in America in 1883-4 resulted in two lectures, one on Emerson and the other on the principle and value of Numbers. Mr. Arnold received the honorary degree of Doctor of Laws from Edinburgh in 1869 and from Oxford in 1870. He died very suddenly on April 15th, 1888. Arnold, Thomas (b. 1795, d. 1842), head- master of Rugby, was born at East Cowes, in the Isle of Wight, and was sent to Win- chester College at the age of twelve. Four years later he was elected to a scholarship at Corpus Christi College, Oxford, where he joined a small clique of friends, of which John Keble and John Taylor Coleridge were also members. In 1814 he obtained a first class in classics, in 1815 a fellowship at Oriel and the Chancellor's prize for the Latin essay ; and in 1817 the Chancellor's prize for the English essay. He continued to reside on his fellowship till 1819, when, having been or- dained, he retired to Laleham-on-Thames, purposing to devote his life to the prepara- tion of young men for the universities. Next year he married Mary Penrose, daughter of the Rev. John Penrose. The eight quiet years at Laleham were chiefly marked by his increasing knowledge of men, especially of the poor, and his introduction to German literature, through Niebuhr's History of Pome. In 1827, the head-mastership of Rugby having fallen vacant, Arnold was with difficulty induced to become a candidate, and was elected on the strength of the famous letter from Dr. Hawkins, in which it was prophesied that " he would change the face of education all through the public schools of England." He removed to Rugby in 1828, and this was the centre of his work for the remaining fourteen years of his life. His extraordinary success as a head-master was due first to his wide sympathies and high vitality, secondly to a few simple principles that his example has changed from paradoxes into truisms. His constant en- deavour was to raise the standard of duty, and by teaching and example to encourage the pursuit of a healthy religious life. Morality, and not cleverness, was the final aim of education. But the best memorials of his thoughts on Virtue and her all-import- ance are the six volumes of sermons, pub- ' lished at intervals from 1829, and for the most part preached in Rugby chapel. As a teacher, he looked for promise rather than performance, joyfully welcoming the smallest sign of original thought. He rarely imparted information, but taught by questioning. Whilst strenuously supporting the study of classics as the best basis of education, he was the first to introduce modern languages, modern history, and mathematics into the regular and necessary school course. In his management of the school his first principle was to place entire confidence in the boys themselves. At the same time he gave large powers into the hands of the sixth-form boys, who came more directly under his own influence, and he maintained an organised system of " fagging." Unpromising boys, or those whom he suspected of exercising an evil moral influence, he did not hesitate to remove at the end, or even in the middle, of term. This apparent harshness in individual cases, added to his breadth of mind, raised distrust in the minds of parents and the guardians of the school, so that for a time the numbers diminished. But the chief cause of this temporary unpopularity was his attitude on political and ecclesiastical questions. His views on religion in relation to society were no doubt largely influenced by his long and intimate friendship with Chevalier Bunsen, whom he met in Rome in 1827. In 1829 Dr. Arnold published his Am { 64 ) Arn first pamphlet, entitled The Christian Duty of Conceding the Roman Catholic Claims. Two years later he started a journal called The Enylishman's Register, in the interest of the poor, but it was unsuccessful. In 1833 he issued a pamphlet on the Principles of Church Reform, hoping to suggest a means of escape from the " calamity " of disestablishment, then thought to be imminent. As a step in the right dii - ection, he proposed the use of the national churches by different sects in succession, an unimportant detail seized upon and magnified by his opponents with j ubilant hostility. He watched the growth of the " Oxford party " with apprehension, though interested in it as involving so many of his former friends ; but when the movement suddenly developed (about 1836), interest was converted into alarm and disgust, and in an article called The Oxford Malignants, for the Edinburgh Review, he attacked the Judaisers, as he delighted to name them, with unusual vehemence and bitterness. At the same time his dissatisfaction with Benthamism and the so-called political economy of the day, his opposition to the admission of Jews to the Government of England, his hatred of the impartial infidelity that can afford to patronise the Christian doctrines, his recog- nition of the narrowness which he thought characteristic of Dissenters, tended to separate him altogether from the main Liberal body. Hence he was assailed from both sides, from Oxford and from London, where he had been invited to become a member of the new University's senate ; but, after the rejection of his proposal for a compulsory religious though unsectarian examination, he withdrew with disappointment in 1838. In the midst of his cares of school work and the bitterness of controversy, he never- theless found time to publish his edition of his favourite author, Thucydides (1830- 35), valuable alike for its text and its geographical annotations, and to elaborate the first three volumes of his projected His- tory of Rome (1838-43), the two first being chiefly based on Niebuhr, besides several articles on later Roman history pub- lished after his death. He also found relief front present troubles in frequent travels abroad and visits to his holiday home of Fox How, near Rydal, where he enjoyed the friendship of Wordsworth. About 1840, partly owing, no doubt, to the extraordinary success of his pupils at the universities, the tide of his unpopularity began to turn. The surest sign of the revulsion was his appoint- ment in 1841 as Regius professor of history in Oxford, and the unusual enthusiasm aroused by his inaugural address. But he had not completed his first year's course of lectures, when, on the last Sunday of the Rugby term, he arose " to tread, in the summer morning, the road of death, at a call unforeseen, sudden ! " He died of angina pectoris, on the last day of his forty-seventh year. See Stanley's Life of Br. Arnold j and Tom Brown's Schooldays, by Thomas Hughes. [H. W. N.] Arnold, William Delafield (b. 1828, d. 1859), was a son of Dr. Arnold of Rugby. He became a soldier, and was afterwards appointed director of public education in the Punjab. He published a volume of essays On Social and Indian Subjects, and is also the author of a novel — Oakjield; or, Fellowship in the East, an account of the trials of a young soldier, who in the army endeavoured to live in accordance with the principles of Chris- tianity. He died at Gibraltar on his home- ward voyage from India. Some beautiful lines have been written on his death by his brother, Matthew Arnold. Amott, Dr. Neil (b. 1788, d. 1874). phy- sician, philosopher, and inventor, was a native of Arbroath. He was educated at Aberdeen, first at the grammar-school (1798-1801), and then at Marischal College, where he graduated M.A. in 1805. During his Arts cour.se he served as shop-assistant to a druggist, and in the year after graduating he acquired what scanty medical knowledge he could find at the ill-equipped college. In 1806 he came to London, and attended classes at St. George's Hospital. In 1807-11 he made two voyages to China as surgeon in an East Indiaman. In 1811 he commenced practice in London. In 1813 he obtained the diploma of membership of the College of Surgeons, and in 1814 he received M.D. from his Alma Mater. Ho became physician to both the French and Spanish embassies, retaining the latter post to the close of his life. In 1838 he was appointed physician extraordinary to the Queen, and he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society. In 1855 he retired from practice. In 1813 Amott delivered a course of lectures on natural philosophy and chemistry at the Philomathic Institution, and in 1825 he gave a course on medical physics in his own house. In 1827 the first volume of the Physics appeared, and, being received with unprecedented favour, was soon translated into the principal Continental languages. In 1836 Arnott was nominated by the Crown to the senate of London University, and he took an active part in planning the examina- tions for degrees in medicine (1836) and in science (1859). In 1838 he published Warm- ing and Ventilation, in the preface to which he states why he declined to take out a patent for any of his inventions. Above all, he consistently maintained advanced views on education generally. In his Survey of. Human Progress (1861) he set forth his views on the subject, and followed this up in 1870 by a clever pamphlet. In 1864-65 appeared a thoroughly revised edition of the Physics Arn (65) Art (the sixth), with additional chapters. A separate work on Medical Physics, intended to contain his medical inventions and views, was never completed. In 18.67 he pub- lished a remarkable tract on the simplifi- cation of arithmetic. Dr. Arnott's numerous inventions grew out of the exigencies of his practice, and his steadily philanthropic atti- tude of mind. The heat-transferrer was de- scribed in the Physics (1827). The hydro- static bed was devised for the relief of a lady patient (1832). The famous close stove was described in a lecture before the Royal Institution in 1836. In 1842 the chimney ventilating valve, the most widely adopted of his inventions, was in extensive use. In 1846 he secured a fresh atmosphere of uniform temperature in Brompton Hospital for Con- sumption, and in 1849 he devised a ventilating gasometer pump for the new York Hospital. In 1854 he expounded to the Society of Arts the principle of the smokeless grate, and exhibited its working ; and he gave a full description of the invention in the new edition of Warming and Ventilation (1855). For this invention the Royal Society awarded him the Rumford medal. His improved methods in surgery and medicine, and his inventions for the relief of pain^ were numer- ous and important. In 1855 he was awarded the gold medal in hygiene, etc., at the Paris Exhibition of that year, for his dis- coveries, the Emperor adding the Cross of the Legion of Honour. We may adopt the words of the committee of jurors:— "Dr. Arnott, by his inventive genius, by his profound knowledge of the physical sciences, of which his useful applications to medicine and to hygiene exceed those of any other man, by the originality of his views and the fruitfulness of his methods, has made for himself a place apart." Dr. Amott was a zealous pioneer of sanitary reform. He munificently contributed to the promotion of the study of experimental physics in the four Scottish Universities, and in London University (£2,000 each). He was an ex- cellent linguist, and could play on a variety of instruments. Biographical Memoir of Vr. Neil Arnott, by Professor Bain, in the Transactions of the Aberdeen Philosophical Society, vol. i. (pri- vately printed). [A. F. M.] Arnott, James Moxcuieff, F.R.S. (!>. 1794, d. 1885), a well-known physician, was born at Chapel, in the county of Fife. He was for many years surgeon to the Middlesex Hospital, and professor of surgery in King's College, London. He was one of the council of the Royal College of Surgeons, and also a member of the Court of Examiners of that body, and in 1860 was elected representative of the College in the General Council of Medical Education and Registration of the United Kingdom. Mr. Arnott was the author of various papers upon medical subjects ; the c.c— 3 most valuable is one on the Secondary Effects of Inflammation of the Veins (1829). Arrest, H. L. p\ [D'Arrest.] Arrow smith, John- (b. 1790, d. 1873), was one of a family of professional geographers, whose name has been connected with charto- graphy in England for upwards of a century. The first of the name was Aaron Arrowsmith, born at Wenston, in Durham, in 1750. When young, Aaron Arrowsmith came to London, and was employed by Carey the engraver, but soon entering on business for himself, attracted attention by his large chart of the world on Mercator's projection, and by the map on the globular projection, which he produced four years later, accompanied by a volume of explanations. • From this period to his death in 1823 his name was regarded as a guarantee of sound work, a fact recognised by the Admiralty in appointing him Hydrographer. At that period the office was not as it is at present — one bestowed on the head of the Naval Department, charged with the production of sea charts. His sons, Aaron and Samuel, kept up the traditions of their father, the elder being the compiler of the Eton Comparative Atlas, of a Biblical atlas, and 6f various text-books of geography at one time extensively used in schools. John, who was for so many years so familiar a personage to all members and habitues of the Royal Geographical Society, was their cousin. Like his uncle, he was bom at Wenston, and in 1810 joined him in London. In 1834 he issued the London Atlas, then the best collection of its kind in existence, and in the course of the next thirty years followed it up with several other excellent publications. Most of the maps in the Geographical Society'.- publications were by him, and for John Arrow- smith to draft the map of, an explorer's travels was regarded as giving his work an additional claim on the regard of the world. His house in Soho, where he resided nearly all his life, was a spot well known to Living- stone and other travellers. Here the genial old gentleman, tall and vigorous, dispensed an unassuming hospitality, and was held in great esteem. He was one of the founders of the Royal Geographical Society, and in 1863 received the patrons* gold medal "for the very important services he had rendered to geo- graphical science." Almost to the last he was at work, and never for a day abated his interest in his beloved science. Arthur, Chester Allan (b. 1830, d. 1886), twenty-first President of the Unite, 1 States, was bora in Franklin County. Yn- mont. After taking his degree at Union College Mr. Arthur commenced the practice of law in New York, where he soon became prom- inent in the Republican party, of which he was one of the original members. On the outbreak of the Civil War, General Morgan entrusted Art (66 ) Asb him with the armament and commissariat of the New York troops, a duty which he ful- filled with such promptitude that he rapidly became engineer-in-chief, inspector-general, and quartermaster-general. From 1871 to 1878 he was Collector of the port of New York City. When the Republican party split during the canvass for the next election, Mr. Arthur adopted the "Stalwart" side, and when General Grant was defeated bj- the " Anti-Stalwart " Mr. Garfield, as Republican candidate for the presidency, Mr. Arthur was nominated Vice-President, that both divisions of the party might be represented on the ticket. Hence, the Republicans having been successful in the election, and President Gar- field having died at the hands of an assassin, Mr. Arthur succeeded to the presidency, Sept. 19th, 1881, not without grave mis- givings amongst his opponents in his own party and throughout the country in general. After an uneventful tenure of office, he was succeeded in 1885 by Mr. Cleveland. Arthur, Prince. [Con-naught, Duke of.] Arzout, Antoine Mauhice Appollinaire Count, French statesman and financier (b. 1782, d. 1858), though he served in a civil capacity in Belgium and on the Rhine under the first Empire, found no difficulty in trans- ferring his support to the Bourbon cause after its triumph, and in 1819 he was ap- pointed Councillor of State and Peer of France. On the outbreak of the revolution of 1830, hoping to prevent further bloodshed, he accompanied M. de Semonville to St. Cloud, and induced Charles X. to repeal the ordinances. But it was too late. Neverthe- less, he held several important positions in the administration of the new Government, and in 1834 was appointed Governor of the Bank of France, a post which he continued to occupy after the revolution of 1848. In 185 1 he was a member of the Deliberative Assembly to supersede the Council of State, and in the next year he became a senator. The five different Governments which he faithfully served owed much to his diligence, integrity, and knowledge of finance. Asbjornsen, Peter Christian (b. 1812, d. 1885), famous as a collector of folk-lore, a political economist, and a zoologist, was born at Christiania, of parents so poor that they were able to give him only the barest educa- tion. In 1833 he had managed to scrape together sufficient means to enter the Univer- sity of Christiania, but did not graduate for some years later, being obliged to intermit a .semester or two in order to earn, as a private tutor, the means with which to pursue his studies. During this time he picked up many traditional tales from the peasantry, but it was not until 1838 that the fruits of these labours were brought before the world. Then, for the first time, he dis- covered that Jorgen Moe, a rural "pastor," had been engaged in the same task. Hence- forward the two friends worked in partner- ship, and in 1842 appeared the first joint collection of the now celebrated Norwegian folk-lore. At first the publishers looked askance at these " nursery tales," while the critics were only too ready to confirm the public in their indifference ; but once the merit of the new writer was recognised, con- tempt gave place to admiration. Asb j ornsen's next work was his Xorske Hiddre-Eventyr (1845-8), or Mountain Spirit Stories, designed as much to exhibit the romantic scenery and hardy life of his countrymen as to embalm the floating literature of spirits, and fairies, and " nisser," and as such they are still valued in Norway. In 1849, as the result of a cruise which he took to the Mediterranean on board a warship, Asbjornsen published some sketches of sea life, which were well received, and during the next two yean? added still further to his reputation by some zoological researches which he made on the Norwegian coast, aided by a grant from the university. Among these discoveries was the Brisinga endecacnemos, a deep-sea star- fish, which afforded one of the earliest ink- lings of the relationship of the cretaceous echinodermafa, and may be said to have suggested those deep-sea dredging expeditions of thirty or forty years later. In 1856 Asbjornsen entered on a new department of study, for he left for Germany to study forest science, and on his return was appointed forest inspector, during his tenure of which office he did much to draw general attention to the necessity for attending more carefully to the wealth which Norway possessed in her rapidly decreasing fir woods. Next year he was sent to Denmark, Holland, and Germany, to investigate the peat industries of those countries, and on his return was appointed peat commissioner, which post he retained till 1876, when he retired on account of advancing years, and was pensioned. In 1878, the zoological collection which he had made during his travels, and not secured by the nation, was purchased for the Dublin Museum of Science and Art. In 1871 ap- peared a new collection of Norwegian stories, with additions by Moe, and in 1879 a com- plete edition of the Norske Folke-og Huldre- Eventyr, with illustrations by the best Nor- wegian artists. This collection and the previous one have been translated into Swedish, German, and French, and various editions have appeared in English by Dasent, Gosse, Brakstad, and Andersen. His Juletrwt or Christmas Tree, a series of stories for children, were issued in 1850, 1851, 1852, and 1866, but though good of their kind, they were eclipsed by the vastly superior work in the same line by H. C. Andersen. The Danish creator of fairy tales was his master in literary skill, dramatic power, and wcirdness Ash ( 67 ) Ash of imagination. But from a scientific point of view Asbjbrnsen stands on a distinctly different, and perhaps higher, level. The Dane created beings out of his own dreams; the Norwegian collected the history of those who had, from the remotest ages, been float- ing about in the unwritten literature of the peasants. He was thus almost the founder of a new science. In addition to the books already mentioned, Asbjbrnsen translated several popular treatises from English and German, and published in what may be called bis official line of life. Natural History for Children, in 6 vols. (1839-49), On Woods and on Grazing Places (1861), and Peat and Peat Catting (1868). Asbjbrnsen was a man of the kindest disposition, genial to all, and notable for his English-looking face. Vie et les (Euvrex de P. Chr. Asbjornsen, par Alfred Larseu (1873), and, in addition to a pre- face by Brsekstad to his translation of the folk tales, a sketch by Gosse in Round the Yule Log (1881). [R. B.] Ashantee, The Kings of :— ( 1 ) Osai Tutu Qiamina (d. 1824) ascended the throne in 1800. A man of great ambition, he main- tained a large army, with which ho ravaged Fanteeland, and even ventured to attack Cape Coast Castle (1817). An embassy was sent to him and friendly relations established. In 1824, however, in consequence of our informal protectorate over Fanteeland, we were com- pelled to declare war against him, in which Sir C. McCarthy, the Governor of Capo Coast, was utterly defeated and slain at Esmacow. Osai Tutu died on the same day. Bowdicb, Mission to Ashantee (1819). (2) Osai Okoto (d. 1838) continued 1 the war until he was utterly defeated atDudowah (1826), and compelled five years afterwards to renounce by treaty his claims to the lands south of the Prah. The remainder of his reign was peaceful. (3) Osai Quaku Duah (d. 1867) was at first on friendly relations with the British, and made no objection to their formal accept- ance of the Fantee protectorate in 1852. In 1862 came a quarrel with Governor Pine about a runaway slave, and, in consequence, a renewal of hostilities. The Cape force, however, consisting of West India negroes, was decimated by dysentery, and the enter- prise was abandoned. (4) * Coffee Calcali {b. 1837) succeeded to the throne of his father in 1867. Shortly before, the Gold Coast territory had been redistributed between England and Holland, and the town of Elmina, over which King Coffee claimed a protectorate, passed into the hands of our Government, which refused to pay the tribute ho demanded. Relations wore further strained when the Ashantee king, acting under the advice of a war party, seized some missionaries and refused to give them up. In January, 1873, an Ashantee force invaded the British protectorate and attacked Elmina, from which they win- driven off by Colonel Festing, R.M.A. An expedition was organised by the English Government, and Sir Garnet Wolseley sent out as Administrator in October, while Cap- tain Glover, R.N., with native troops, effected a diversion from the Volta. King Coffee's demands were at first couched in terms of arrogance, but his troops having been de- feated at Abracrampa on Nov. 5th, and when in the following year the Prah was crossed (Jan. 18th), and the last stand at Amoaful (Jan. 31st) was a failure, he fled from his capital, Coomassie, which human sacrifices had turned into a charnel-house. It was fired and then evacuated. On Feb. 13th peace was concluded at Fommanah, by which King Coffee agreed to pay a war indemnity, to respect the British protectorate, to keep the road between Coomassie and the Prah open, and to put an end to human sacrifices. In 1874 he was deposed by his subjects, and his brother Wemsah became king in his stead, nor were hia subsequent efforts to regain the throne successful. Wemsah in 1881 sent a gold axe to the Queen, in token of friendship. Captain Brackenbury, The Ashantee War, and accounts of the war by F. Boyle, Winwood Eeade, and H. M. Stanley. [L. C. S.] 'Ashbourne, The Right Hon. Edward Gibson, Baron, LL.D. (b. 1837), is the son of the late William Gibson of Rockforest, Tip- perary. He was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, where he obtained the first gold medal in history, English literature, and political science ; graduated B. A. 1858, M.A. 1861, and Hon. LL.D. 1881. He was called to the Irish bar in 1860, and in 1872 took silk. After unsuccessfully contesting Water- ford in 1874, he was returned for Dublin University in 1875, and again in 1877 and 1880. Mr. Gibson was Attorney-General for Ireland from 1877 to 1880 ; and, on the fall of the Conservative ministry, he became one of the leaders of the Opposition, being chosen, in particular, to lead the attack on Mr. Glad- stone's Irish Land Bill of 1882. In 1885 he became Lord Chancellor of Ireland and a member of the Cabinet in Lord Salisbury's administration, and was raised to the peerage. He carried an Act to facilitate the purchasing clauses of the Irish Land Act (1885), and was re-appointed Sept., 1886. Ashburton, Alexander Baring, Baron (*. 1774, d. 1848), financier and politician, was the' son of Sir Francis Baring (q.v.). He passed several years of his early lite in America conducting the transatluntn business for his father. In 1812 he entered parliament as memlwr for Taunton. Ho was a Whig in politics until at the tune of the Reform Bill he joined the side of the Tories, and he supported all the measures Ash (68) Atk of Sir Robert Peel, with the exception of the repeal of the Corn Laws, to which he was strongly opposed. In 1 835 he was raised to the peerage, and in 1842 was sent by Sir R. Peel as special commissioner to the United States to settle the disputes about the Maine boundary, Daniel Webster being the representative of the United States. His mission was highly successful, and the treaty was signed that same year. It is generally known as the Ashburton Treaty. Lord Ashburton was a great lover of the fine arts, and amassed a very valuable col- lection of pictures. Ashburton, William Bingham Baring, Baron (b. 1 799, d. 1 864) , was eldest son of Alex- ander Baring Lord Ashburton. He entered the House as M.P. for Thetford, and held the posts of Secretary of the Board of Control and Pay- master of the Forces. In 1855 he was made a Knight of the Legion of Honour, and in 1 860 was appointed president of the Geographical Society. Lord Ashburton was head of the great house of Baring Bros., and is well known for the energy and earnestness with which he advocated the teaching of " Common Things " in the national schools. *Ashley, The Hon. Evelyn (b. 1836), son of the seventh Earl of Shaftesbury, educated at Harrow and at Trinity College, Cambridge. In 1874 he was elected to represent Poole in the Liberal interest, and in 1880 was returned for the Isle of Wight, the same constituency rejecting him in 1885. He was appointed Parliamentary Secretary to the Board of Trade, and in 1882 he succeeded Mr. Courtney as L T nder-Seoretary of State for the Colonies. Mr. Ashley has published the concluding volumes of Lord Dalling's Life of Henri/ John Temple, Viscount Palmcrston, and an abridged edition of the work in 1879. Assolant, Jean Baptists Alfred (b. 1827, d. 1886), French writer, was born at Aubusson (Creuse), and at the age of about twenty-five made a visit to the United States, which supplied the subject of his first note- worthy appearance in literature, three bril- liant, if rather exaggerated, sketches of American life, entitled Acacia, Les Butterfly, and Une Fantaisie Americaine (1858). After this, romances, novels, and fairy tales succeeded each other with great rapidity. But his real strength lies in the brilliant wit and pun- gency of his social and political articles and pamphlets, published for the most part in La Presse, which was suspended for two months owing to his attacks upon the Govern- ment in 1864. His description of British policy in Canonniers a vos Pieces in 1861, when an Anglo-American war seemed inevitable, is a model of sarcastic invective, as is the pam- phlet, A Geux qui Pensent Encore (1861), an appeal for liberty against the tyranny of the Empire. Together with M. Raspail ho con- tested a division of Paris in the Republican interest in 1869, but failed, and in the elections of 1871 he was again unsuccessful. In be Mar- seillaise he resolutely opposed the oppoi*tunist Government of the succeeding years. Astor, John Jacob (b. 1763, d. 1848), was an American merchant prince. He came from Walderf, in Germany, in 1779 ; he joined his elder brother as a dealer in musical instruments in London. When he was twenty, he purchased a small stock of furs, and began business on his own account in New York. He traded in furs with the Indians, and pushed his business as far as the Columbia River, on which he founded the City of Astoria in 1811. He also engaged in the Canton trade, and bought land in New York. He realised an immense fortune, to which his son suc- ceeded. He left $400,000 to the famous Astor Library, which he founded in New York, and $50,000 to the poor of his native village. The incidents of the founding of Astoria are related by Washington Irving in his Astoria and Life of Captain Bonneville. Drake, Dictionary of American Biography. Atherton, Charles G. {b. 1804, d. 1853), was an American Democratic politician. In 1837 he was elected to Congress, and in the following year introduced the resolution de- claring that "Congress has no jurisdiction over the institution of slavery in the several States of the Confederacy, and that all peti- tions relating to slavery or to its abolition be laid on the table without debate." These rules, forming the basis of the " gag-law," were in force until 1845, when their repeal was brought about by the exertions of John Quincy Adams. Athlumney, The Right Hon. William Meredyth Somerville, Baron (b. 1802, d. 1873), politician, was a native of co. Meath, and was educated at Harrow. In 1837 he was returned as Liberal member for Drogheda. He held the post of Under-Secretary for the Home Department from 1846 till 1847, and that of Chief Secretary for Ireland from 1847 till 1852. He became a peer in 1863. Atkinson, James (b. 1780, d. 1852), Persian scholar, was born in the county of Durham, March 9th, 1780, studied medicine at Edinburgh and London, and was in 1805 appointed assistant-surgeon in the Bengal service, with the post of medical officer at Bakirganj. Lord Minto brought him to Cal- cutta, with the appointment of Assay- Master at the Mint (1813-28), combined with that of editor of the Government Gazette, from 1817 to 1828, when he took furlough for five years to England. On his return to India he resumed his professional duties, and was appointed superintending-surgeon to the army of the Indus in 1838, and joined in the march to Cabul, but, being relieved in ordinary coarse soon after the surrender of Dost Muhammad, he escaped the fate which awaited the English Att (69) Aub force in Afghanistan. He was appointed a member of the Medical Board at Calcutta in 1845, resigned after forty-two years of service in 1847, and died of apoplexy. The leisure spared from his official duties was devoted to Eastern languages, in which he became so proficient that he was appointed professor of Persian at P'ort William in 1818. His prin- cipal work was his select translation of the Shah-Nameh of Firdausy (1832), the first worthy attempt to introduce the Epic of Kings to English readers. He also translated in verse Nizamy's Leyla and Mejnun (1836), and, in prose, a curious treatise on The Customs and Manners of the Women of Persia (1832) : edited the Persian Romance of Hfilim Tax (1818) ; and published in early life (1801-25) various translations from the Italian, and some volumes of original verse. His Sketches in Afghanistan (1842), and Expedition into Afghanistan (1842), are valuable records of the ill-fated campaign of 1839-40. See the notice of Atkinson in the Annual Report of the Royal Asiatic Society^ for 1853. Attwood, Thomas, M.P. {b. 1783, d. 1856), founder of the Birmingham Political Union, was the third son of Matthias Attwood. In 1804 and 1811 he originated agitations against the monopoly of the East India Com- pany and the American orders in Council. In 1815 he commenced to write on the cur- rency, and being unable to influence the Government on the subject founded on Jan. 25th, 1830, the famous Birmingham Political Union for the purpose of obtaining a reform of Parliament. The influence of that organ- isation on the passing of the Bill was immense, and Attwood was presented in 1832 with the freedom of the City of London. He was elected in the same year one of the first members for the borough of Birmingham, but resigned his seat in 1839 without having made a great name in Parliament. In 1844 he was seized with a lingering illness, which rele- gated him to obscurity until his death at Malvern on the 6th of March, 1856. Attwood, Thomas {b. 1767, d. 1838), organist and composer, when quite a child became a chorister in the Chapel Royal, and in his sixteenth year, at a concert in Buckingham Palaca,- his singing attracted the attention of the Prince of Wales (afterwards George IV.), who sent him to be educated in Italy. He studied at Naples, and also at Vienna, under Mozart. On his return to England he became suc- cessively organist at St. George the Martyr, Queen Square, at St. Paul's Cathedral in 1796, and at the Chapel Royal in 1836. He was one of the first members of the Philhar- monic Society, and occasionally acted as conductor of their concerts. Attwood has left some operas, besides songs, glees, sonatas, a,nthems, and church music. Of his songs, The harp's wild notes and In this fair vale are the most popular, and of his anthems The King shall rejoice, composed for the corona- tion of George IV. Auber, Daniel Francois Esprit (b'. 1782, d. 1871), was the first French composer whose music became popular throughout Europe. His father was a fruit-seller at Paris, but apparently a man of artistic tastes. Artists and amateurs, especially musicians, were in the habit of meeting at his house ; and it was here, no doubt, that young Auber had his musical instincts first brought into activity. He appears at an early age to have composed a few songs; but it was not until he had reached a comparatively advanced age that he adopted music as a profession. His father intended him for a business career ; and with this view — probably, too, in some degree, by reason of the revolutionary troubles — sent him to London to learn the business of a merchant's clerk. Of Auber's stay in London little seems to be known. But it is certain that when, immediately after the rupture of the Peace of Amiens, he was recalled by his father to Paris, he brought back with him some quartets for strings, which he had com- posed during his absence from his native land. He now began to study music more syste- matically than heretofore, and took lessons regularly in harmony and orchestration from Lamare, a distinguished violoncellist of that day. French music in the early part of the present century was not in a very flourishing condition, and Auber had probably but little difficulty in getting his first work accepted — Le Sejour Militaire it was called, and it was brought out in 1813, when the composer was just thirty-one years of age. So little pro- mise did the work give of future excellence that it failed completely. So great, indeed, was the fiasco that Auber seems for some con- siderable time to have abandoned all thoughts of achieving a position as an operatic com- poser. He went on, all the same, with his musical studies, and for a time directed his energies towards the composition of church music. An Agnus Dei, which he composed soon after the failure of his first opera, was some dozen years later to become the melo- dious and impressive prayer in La Muette de I'ortici, or Masanidlo, as that work is called in the English, as also in the Anglo-Italian version. In 1819 Auber's father died, leav- ing so little money that his son was obliged, in self-defence, to turn his attention once more towards what he still considered to be his vocation. He addressed himself to the manager of the Opera Comique, where he produced two works, the Testament and Let Billets-doux. Even now, at the age of forty- one, he had made no great mark ; and it was not until 1823, when he had the good for- tune to meet with Scribe, that he began that long series of successes which was not to terminate until his death, nearly fifty years Aub ( 70) Auc afterwards. Leicester, a comic opera in three acts, was the first result of the new collabora- tion ; and this was followed three years after- wards, in 1825, by Lc Macon, a work of similar character and dimensions. Auber, in company with Scribe, was now invited to turn his attention towards grand opera, and in 1828 he brought out at the Aeademie Poyale de Musique — the old historic title of the national French opera-house — the before- mentioned Muette de Portici, generally known in England as Mamniello. La Muette de Portici met with the greatest success that had yet been obtained at the theatre where it was brought out, and its fame soon spread through Europe. It was produced in several foreign countries ; and at Brussels had such an effect in rousing the patriotic spirit of the inhabit- ants that it may be regarded as the im- mediate, though not, of course, the substan- tial, cause of the revolution which in 1830 caused the separation of Belgium from Hol- land. The duet Amour sacre de la patrie ex- cited the audience to the highest point of enthusiasm ; and numbers of those present at the performance rushed, at the end of the duet, into the street and at once took up arms. The revolutionary character of the work was not, however, conducive to its general success, and in the despotically governed countries, especially after what had taken place at Brussels, Auber's great work was looked upon with disfavour, and even prohibited, and it was not until a compara- tively recent period that Auber's masterpiece in the serious style could be played freely in any part of Europe. In Gmtave LLL. (pro- duced 1833) Auber had again chosen a subject which again could not commend itself to the tyrannies of Europe ; and the representation of the assassination of Gustavus III. by Angerstrom was, after a few nights, deemed objectionable in France itself. This subject was afterwards treated by Verdi in his Hallo in Maschera. Among Auber's works for the Opera Comique may in pai'ticular be men- tioned Le Domino Noir, Fra Diavolo, and Les Diamants de la Couronne, all of which enjoy a European reputation. Auber's last work was Le Mere d' 'Amour, produced in 1870, just before the Franco-German War, which its composer, much affected by the troubles of his country, survived only a few months. [H. S. E.] *Aubert, Jean Ernest (b. 1824), French engraver and lithographer, was born in Paris. He entered the Ecole des Beaux-Arts in 1841, and became a pupil of Paul Delaroche and Achille Martinet. He carried off the grand prize for engraving in 1844, and then spent live years in Italy. After having accom- plished many important works in engraving, lie turned his attention in 1853 to lithography. He produced many works after Raphael, Hamon, Heilbuth, Jobbe-Duval, and others. He obtained three medals: in 1844 for en- graving, in 1857 for lithography, and in 1861 for painting. Axibigne, J. H. Merle d'. [D'Auhigne.] Anchmtity, Sir Samvel (b. 1756, d. 1822), was the son of a clergyman of New York. He graduated at the college at New York, and joined the 45th Regiment in 1776, seeing much service as a loyalist under Sir William Hqwe during the American revolu- tion. On the return of the army to England he served in the Mysore and Pohilla campaigns. Lord Cornwallis soon afterwards appointed him Deputy Judge - Advocate - General of Madras, a post he held for some years. Returning to England in 1797, he two years later proceeded to Suez and joined the Indian army under Sir David Baird as adjutant-general. In 1802 he returned to England, and saw no further service until 1806, when he sailed with an expedition to reinforce General Beresford in Buenos Ayres. The force, under the supreme com- mand of General Whitelocke, determined on the investment of Monte Video. The bombardment soon produced a practicable breach, and the place was carried by assault. Reinforcements arriving under Craufurd, an attempt was made to retake Buenos Ayres. The operations were unskilfully conducted, for though the place was partially taken, the position of the Bi-itish was so unsatisfactory that it w r as arranged with the Spanish general to evacuate Monte Video and the whole of the Piver Plate after a mutual exchange of prisoners. This capitulation caused great indignation in England, and Whitolocke was dismissed the service; but Sir Samuel was held blameless, and was appointed, in 1811, commander-in-chief in Madras. In that capacity he commanded the expedition which took Java. A few months before his death he was appointed commander-in-chief in Ireland. Auckland, George Edex, Earl of (b. 1784, d. 1849), statesman, was the second son of William Eden Lord Auckland, the diplo- matist, who died in 1814, and whose work lies outside the century. On the death of his elder brother (1810), George Eden succeeded him as member for Woodstock, and on the death of his father took his seat in the House of Lords. He was a steady supporter of Whig principles, and in 1800 became Pi-esi- dent of the Board of Trade and Master of the Mint in Earl Grey's ministry. At the end of 1834 he was appointed Governor-General of India, and his administration was marked by the disastrous Afghan War of 1839-42. For that war, into which he plunged from simple want of nerve, Lord Auckland must bear the chief responsibility, and it is the great blot on an administration remarkable for some excellent legislation, particularly with And ( 71 ) And the view of developing . trade and improving the native schools. It is extremely improbable that there was much truth in the story about Dost Muhammad's intrigues with Russia, and Barnes (q v.), from Cabid, did his best to impress upon Lord Auckland his belief in the sincerity of the Ameer. The rash decision of the Viceroy to restore Shah Shu j ah has since been emphatically condemned, and its folly was at the time hidden from' the public only by garbling Burnes's despatches. It was one thing to dethrone Dost Muhammad; it was another to make Shah Shujah popular; and the murder of Barnes in 1841 was the begin- ning of the end. The rebellion of Akhbar (q.v.) followed his assassination of Mac- naughten, and the disastrous retreat of the English from Cabul in 1842. Lord Auck- land, a kindly man, was broken-hearted. In the latter year he was recalled owing to the change of ministry of 1841, and suc- ceeded by Lord Ellenborough ; and on the leturn of his party to power in 1846 he became First Lord of the Admiralty, a position which he had held for a few months in 1834, and now continued to hold till his sadden death three years later. Kaye, Afghanistan. *Andiffret-Pasqnier, Edme Akmand Gaston, Due i>' (b. 1823), French politician, was the son of Comte d'Audiffret, Receiver- General under the Restoration. His title as Due de Pasquier was derived from his mother's uncle, who died childless in 1844. Next year young Audiffret entered the Council of State, but his political career was for a time cut short by domestic losses and the revolution of 1848, and for the next twenty years he lived, with but few inter- ruptions, in the intellectual retirement of his castle at Sacy. In 1871 he was elected to the National Assembly, and voted with the Right Centre. As president of the commit- tee of purchases he inveighed eloquently against the late Emperor, " the author of the demoralisation of his country," in opposition to M. Rouher (May 22nd, 1872). As president of the Right Centre in the next year he was one of the chief agents in bring- ing about the downfall of M. Thiers. When his hopes of a restoration of the legitimist monarchy under the house of Bourbftn were frustrated, he gave his support to the Septen- nate of Marshal MacMahon, and was soon afterwards elected president of the National Assembly amidst general enthusiasm, espe- cially from the Left (March 1 oth, 1875). In the autumn of the same year he was elected life senator by a very large majority, and president of the Senate on March 13th, 1876, a position which he continued to hold till the return of the Republican majority in 1879, though he was opposed to MacMahon's coup of May 16th, 1877, and used his personal influence with him to conclude the long crisis in December of that year. At the end of 1878, though he had published no writings, the Duke was elected member of the French Academy in place of Mgr. Dupanloup. Andoin, Jean Victor (b. 1797, d. 1841), a distinguished French entomologist, first began to study law, but was early diverted from this career, by his love of natural history, into the adoption of medicine as a profession. Medicine, however, was never more than the nominal mistress of Audoin, for in 1824 he was appointed assistant to Latreille in the entomological Chair of the Jardin des Plantes School of Natural History, and nine years later succeeded his master in the full labours of this post. Before that date, however, he had become a man of eminence, and in conjunction with Dumas and Adolphe Brongniart established the Annates des Sciences Naturelles, and at a later period the Societe Entoniologique, to the trans- actions of which he made many contributions. After serving for a term as president of the Entomological Society, Audoin was elected a member of the Academy of Sciences, and was on the fair way to become one of the most famous biologists of France, when he died at the age of forty-four, worn out with the unremitting labour of his busy life. His writings have never been collected, but the main results of his researches may be found in his Hi.stoire des Insectes Kuisiblvs a la Vigne, which was continued after his death by Milne-Edwards and Blanchard(1842),and still continues the chief authority on the subject. Audubon, John James (b. 1780, d. 1851), an American naturalist of French extraction, is celebrated for his beautifully illustrated works on the birds and mammals of the New World. His parents had settled on a plantation in Louisiana. But displaying a taste more marked for art than for commerce, Audubon was sent to Paris, where he remained for two years, studying under David and other masters. On his return he began life as a planter, and married. However, the passion he had early acquired for natural history soon again gained the upper hand, and for the next fifteen years his time was almost wholly occupied in ex- ploring the forests of the West, and filling portfolio after portfolio with the most vivid representations of birds, mammals, and the vegetation among which they move. Hitherto he had never dreamt of publishing. His sole object was the gratification of his love of nature. Indeed, it was only on re- moving with his family to the village of Henderson, on the Ohio, that he began to regard the idea of authorship with any seriousness. In 1824 he visited Philadelphia, considering the timo had now come for realising tho idea of a book which had for some time past been gradually shaping it si If, and meeting there Prince Charles Lurien Bonaparte, was warmly encouraged by him in Aud 72 A ne his design. Here also he met for the first time with the woi-ks of Alexander Wilson, the Paisley weaver, who had for years heen engaged in labours very similar to his own. The work in which he had figured and de- scribed his collections, though unfinished (the continuation being by George Ord and Prince C. L. Bonaparte), displayed so much talent, that Audubon despaired of ever excelling it. He nevertheless determined to make the at- tempt, meantime leaving his portfolios in charge of a friend. On returning, he was horrified to find that the rats had converted them into waste paper. This blow threw him into a fever which nearly cost him his life ; but he recovered, and again, after three years' renewed roamings, more than recouped his losses. He now resolved to have his paintings reproduced in Europe, each bird the size of life. Herschel, Brewster, Wilson, Humboldt, and Sir Walter Scott, warmly espoused his plan. Cuvier declared that his work would form "le plus magnifique monument que l'Art ait encore eleve a la Nature," while William Macgillivray, then the most accom- plished ornithologist in Britain, aided him with his scientific knowledge. Indeed, it is still a moot point how much of the four volumes of the Ornithological Biography (1831-9) was the work of the ostensible author, and how much of his Scottish co- adjutor. The plates appeared in 87 parts, elephant folio, containing 435 plates, each sheet containing a representation, in most cases of one bird only. At last (in 1838) it was finished, but the enormous cost of the issue left him a very inadequate return for many years' labour. Nor, in truth, was the result quite worthy of the toil. The text is, on the whole, very creditable, but the drawing is defective. Between 1840-4 he published an octavo edition in 7 vols., under the title of The Birds of America, in which the large plates were reduced by means of the camera lucida. The text was also revised, and the whole systematically arranged. Other reprints have since been issued, but without an exception they are much inferior to the original. Elliot and Cassin have also published what may be regarded as continua- tions of Audubon's works. After his return to America he did not intermit his labours, for, accompanied by his sons and other friends, he continued his excursions, and in 1840-50 issued, with the assistance of Dr. Bachman, The Quadrupeds of America (atlas folio) and The Biography of American Quadruped.", which in some respects is superior to its companion work in ornitho- logy. Audubon was a man of great intelli- gence, and his powers of observation, naturally strong, were strengthened by long practice. In manner he was unassuming, in conversa- tion instructive and animated. Life and Adventures of J. J, Audubon, by Robert Buchanan (1868). Auerbach, Berthold (b. 1812, d. 1882), novelist, was of Jewish extraction. His parents lived at Nordstaten in the Black Forest, and it was in this district that he passed his early years. He studied at Tubingen, Munich, and Heidelberg, and was intended by his parents to devote him- self to theology ; but he quitted this study for literature. In 1836 he published an essay on The Jewish Nation and its Recent Literature. ■ He was devoted to the writings of Spinoza, and in 1841 published a life of the philosopher and a translation of his works, having previously published an " Historical Komance " on the same subject. His true powers, however, were hot displayed till he published, in 1843, his Dorfgeschichtoi, or Village Tales from the Black Forest, which immediately became popular. Auerbach's tales are remarkable for their intimate and life-like pictures of peasant life in Southern Germany. From this time he published a number of novels which attained a wide circulation. The most popular of all are Barfussele (1856), Auf dvr H'ohe (1865), and Das Landhaus am Rhein (1869), which have been translated into English and most European languages. His patriotic sympathies were deeply stirred by the war of 1870, and after its close he wrote a short history of the cir- cumstances connected with it, and a new series of village stories (Xach dreissig Jahren, 1876) exhibiting the change of the temper of the people. His last novel, Brigitta, appeared in 1880. He died at Cannes. Auersperg, Adolphus William, Prince (6. 1821, d. 1885), statesman, served in his youth in the Austrian army. In 1868 he was chosen a member of the Bohemian Diet, and soon afterwards was appointed governor of the kingdom. In 1871 (Nov.), on the fall of the Hohenwart ministry, he was appointed by the Emperor the head of the Austrian (Cisleithan) Cabinet. His policy was Liberal and constitutional. In 1873 he carried out the great Electoral Re- form, which caused the members of the Austrian parliament to be chosen by direct popular election. During the greater part of his premiership, Prince Auersperg was en- gaged in a constant struggle with the Federal- ist party, and with the extreme Clericals. Over the latter he was successful, and com- pelled (1874) the Church to acknowledge the supremacy of the State in matters connected with marriages and wills, and to adopt the Confessional Law, formulated by his Minister of Public Worship, Herr Stremayr. The German Constitutional party was in a per- manent majority in the Cisleithan parlia- ment until 1879, when the Czech party, who had previously abstained from attendance at the House, returned and strengthened the Slavonic and Autonomist side ; and in August Prince Auersperg resigned. Aue ( 73 ) Aug Auersperg, Anton Alexander, Colnt (b. 1806, d. 1876), perhaps better known under his pseudonym of Anastasius Griin, was descended from an ancient and noble family of Carniola. He studied at the Universities of Vienna and Gratz, and published his first poems at an early age. He became closely connected with Lenau, Grillparzer, and other poets, and in his earlier poems attacked Metternich and the Absolutist regime. In 1832 he entered the Laybach Provincial Chamber, and was a prominent champion of liberty and progress. In 1839 he married the Countess Maria Attems. In 1848 Auersperg was sent to the Frankfurt Diet as deputy from his native province. In 1860 he was summoned to the Austrian Eeichsrath, and remained an active and influential member of that assembly till his death. His body lies in a stately mauso- leum at the ancestral seat of his family, Thurn-am-Hart, in Carniola. As a poet Count Auersperg is better known than as a politician, though the part he played in the latter character was by no means unimport- ant. His chief works are his early lyrics (col- lected in 1837) ; Schutt, a satire (1835); several metrical romances, such as Der letzte Ritter (1830) ; his Carniolan Volkslieder, a " ballad- cycle " on Robin Hood (1864) His beautiful poem In der Veranda was completed on his death-bed. His satires are lively, but appeal chiefly to a Viennese audience. His lyric poems are entitled to a high— perhaps the highest — place in the literature of German Austria. Eadics, Anastasius Griin (1879). *Aufrecht, Theodor, LL.D., M.A. (b. 1822), an eminent Sanscrit scholar, was born at Leschnitz, Silesia. He studied at the University of Berlin, and in 1862 was ap- pointed professor of Sanscrit and comparative philology in the University of Edinburgh. Here he remained until 1875, when he left Scotland to return to his native country, having been appointed professor of Sanscrit at Bonn. Professor Aufrecht has written many valuable works upon the Sanscrit language and literature. Among the most important are : Fj/valadatta's Commentary on the Und- disutras (1859) ; Hablayudhd's Abhidhana- ratnamala : a Sanscrit Vocabulary , edited with a Complete Sanscrit- English Glossary; and the Hymns of the Rig Veda Bonn (1877). Augereau, Pierre Francois Charles, Duke of Castiglione (b. 1757, d. 1816), was of obscure birth, and served for a short time in both the French and Neapolitan armies, before the outbreak of the revolution. He joined the Bepublican army of France in 1792, and was first engaged on the Pyrennean frontier. He rapidly rose, and commanded a division in the army of Italy in 1796. He took active part in the actions at Millesimo, Dego, c.c— 3* and Castiglione, which resulted in the with- drawal of Beaulieu and the Austrian army into Venetia, and personally led the charges over the bridge of Lodi and at Areola. In 1797 he joined Barras and the Directory, and took part in the revolution of the 16th Fructidor (Sept. 4), but he was jealous of Bona- parte, and for some time received no important command. Finally, he was appointed to the command of the army of Holland and the lower Rhine, but was superseded in 1801. He was not employed again until 1804, when he was made Marshal of France, and was sent in command of the expedition against the Vorarlberg, which he subdued. He was present in the campaign of 1807 against Prussia, and fought at Jena and Preussisch- Eylau, where he was wounded. So severe was the loss his corps received, that after the battle it was broken up and distributed among other corps. In 1809 he commanded the French army in Catalonia, where he dis- played great cruelty towards the Spaniards. In 1813 he did good service at the battle of Leipzig. In 1814 he commanded the reserve army at Lyons, and displayed great vigour in preparing for the defence of the district, and in the minor operations against the Austrians under Bubna, who, however, finally c unpolled him, after a battle on March 21st, to abandon the town. But his feel- ings towards Napoleon were lukewarm, so he readily submitted to the Bourbons and retained his command. He would not at first join the Emperor on his return from Elba, so that he received no appointment on the restoration, nor did he get military command after the deposition. He served on the commission which tried and condemned his old comrade Ney, and returning to his estate died there. *Augier > Glillaume Victor Emile (b. 1820), French dramatist, was educated for the bar, but soon turned to literature. His first, and perhaps his best, piece, La CiguS (1844), was rejected by the directors of the Theatre Francais on account of the author's youth, but. was accepted at the Odeon, and proved a great success. It is a carefully finished satire on the decadence of the moderns, and still holds the stage. His next great triumph was a five-act comedy, entitled Gabrielle (1849), which was awarded the Montyon prize at the Academy. In 1853 La Pierre de Touche, written in conjunction with Jules Sandeau, was a new departure, inas- much as it was concerned with the intrigues and manners of the day. In that line his best pieces have been Le Gcndre de M. Pouter (1855), also written in conjunction .with Sandeau, Les Lionnes Pauvres, in which M. Foussier was his collaborateur, Les Effrontes (1861), LeEih de Giboyer (1862), Matlre Giterin (1864), Paul Eorestier (1868), a piece, liko some of the others, of somewhat questionable taste. Among his later works, which show little or Aug (74) Aus no sign of waning powers, may be mentioned Les Lions et les Jicnarih (1871), Mademoiselle de In lteynie (1876), and Les Fourchambaidts (1878). M. Augier has published some rather pretty verses (1856) and a collection of his works. He was elected to succeed Salvandy in the French Academy in 1858, and received the Legion of Honour in 1850. Angustenburg, Schleswig-Holstein- SoNDERBUKG-, DUKES OF ! — (1) CHRISTIAN AU- GUST (b. 1798, d. 1869). born at Copenhagen, was chief of the younger branch of the royal line of the house of Holstein. Hav- ing succeeded to the dukedom in 1814, he spent some years in travelling through Europe. After the revolution of 1830 he took a prominent part in the Diet of Stadt- holders as a champion of liberty and advance- ment. During the three years war of 1848- 1851 he was a leader in the rebellion of Schleswig-Holstein against the Danish crown, but, being obliged to submit after the with- drawal of Prussian assistance, he undertook, in his own name and the name of his family, never to disturb the tranquillity of Denmark again. In 1852 he sold his property in the Duchies to Denmark for about £500,000, and retired for a time into Silesia in 1853. Some time after this he abdicated his claims in favour of his son Frederick, but no doubt gave him moral support in his unsuccessful breach of faith in 1860. (2) Friedrich Karl (b. 1829, d. 1880) was the son of Duke Christian mentioned above. Having entered the Prussian army, he became Major in the First Infantry Regiment of the Prussian Guards. In 1863, vyhen the dispute between Denmark and the German Confederacy with regard to Schleswig-Holstein was again coming to a head, he issued a manifesto to the Duchies, claiming the rights which his father had solemnly renounced by special treaty for himself and his heirs. Neverthe- less, he was supported by the smaller German States, was received with enthusiasm at Kiel as the rightful Duke, and during the next year was spoken of as Friedrich VIII. After Denmark, deserted by her natural allies, had been compelled to surrender the disputed provinces to the victorious arms of Prussia and Austria, the Prussian Crown lawyers were commissioned to examine the Augusten- burg claims, and decreed that since the Treaty of 1852 the Augustenburg family had receded behind the Danish king, and that, therefore, Prince Friedrich, after his father's decease, could not lay claim to a right of succession to the Duchies. (3) * Ernst Gonthier (b. 1863) succeeded his father, Friedrich Karl, in 1880. Augustus, Prince. [Sussex, Duke of.] Aumale, Due d'. [D'Aumale.] Aurelles de Faladiue, Louis Jean Baptiste d' (b. 1804, d. 1877)^ French general, w r as educated at the school of St. Cyr, and entered the infantry as sub-lieu- tenant in 1824. He served in Africa in 1841 and 1848, at Pome in the latter year, and during the Crimean War. At the beginning of the Franco-German War he was stationed at Marseilles, but in November was sum- moned to take command of the army of the Loire, which he tried to organise with the strictest discipline. He forced the enemy to evacuate Orleans, but, on the arrival of Prince Frederick Charles with the troops from Metz, was himself compelled to retire upon Sologne. As an inquiry into his conduct was threatened, he resigned his command, and took no further part in the war. In Feb., 1871, he was chosen Deputy for the National Assembly by two departments, and was one of the fifteen appointed to negotiate terms of peace with Germany. In the Assembly he voted with the Eight Centre, and having been chosen life senator in 1875, he supported the monarchical majority of Aug., 1876. He published an account of his campaign on the Loire. Austen, Jane (b. 1775, d. 1817), a novel- ist of the utmost eminence, was born at the parsonage of Steventon, in Hampshh-e, where her father lr.ed as rector -for many years. Little is known of her domestic life. That it was tranquil and happy, and that neither her domestic circumstances nor her literary sur- roundings gave rise to an unusual incident, is almost the full sum of her personal record. Down to 1870, the facts of her life made public were so few and meagre that a rumour became current that no single letter written by her was known to exist, and that the materials for a biography were at least as sparse in her case as in the case of the great poet with whose name her own name was constantly coupled. But when the memoir by her nephew, the Rev. J. Austen-Leigh, was published (1870), it was found to contain many letters which threw light on the read- ing and literary opinions of the novelist, if they added but little to the slight stock of personal incidents. Jane Austen's beginnings in literature appear to have dated from her twelfth year, and to have been continued with constancy down to the production of Pride and Prejudice in her twenty-second year. Of her early efforts only a few are extant, and though distinguished by clear literary talent, they are hardly such as would have justified a confident prophecy of future distinction. Their merit is, however, identical with the merit of the maturer work, namely, naturalness, fidelity of delineation, and a total absence of the meretricious arts which were in vogue at the time of their production. As far, therefore, as a daring originality was a sign of genius, these fragments were pro- mising. Pride and Prejudice, the author's first important novel, was written in ten Axis (75) Aus months of 1796, but was not. published until seventeen years later. The novelist's father appears to have offered it in vain to more than one publishing house, and to have attempted, with as little success, to have it produced at his own risk. It was published anonymously in 1813, but in the meantime, in 1811, a later work, Sense and Sensibility, was put forth with a measure of success. This second novel had shared the neglect of the first one, having been written as early as 1797. In 1798 JSorthanger Abbey was written, and this third story achieved the dubious success of being sold for £10 to a publisher in Bath, who, however, had so little con- fidence in his bargain that he never printed the novel. The work was eventually bought back by the author, and was published post- humously in 1818. The success of the two earlier stories was at first no more than moderate ; but fully satisfied with her re- ception, the novelist produced two further stories, Mansfield Park (published in 1814) and Emma (published in 181 G). It is said that the author received £150 for Sense' and Sensibility, which was a fair payment ior a first novel. From 1801 to 1805 Jane Austen resided with her family at Bath. In 1817 her health began to break, and she was removed to Winchester for a change of air. She died there on July 18th, 1817, and was buried in Winchester Cathedral. In per- son she is described as tall and attractive, and of a gentle disposition. Though possess- ing few modern accomplishments, she is said to have been well educated, reading French well and Italian slightly. This statement does not agree with her own account of her attainments, as given in a letter to a friend, who recommended a character-study requir- ing larger culture than she felt herself to possess. She there speaks of herself dis- tinctly as a woman who knew only her mother-tongue. Jane Austen's favourite poets were Crabbe and Cowper, the insight into character possessed by the one, and the love of natural beauty in the other, appealing strongly to her idiosyncrasy. Her favourite novelist was Richardson. Her fame grew slowly, but there is evidence enough in her letters that she was fully sensible of her place in literature, and very much in the habit of measuring herself, within the limits of modest3 r , against her contemporaries. A limited circle of eminent men and women discovered her merit before her death, but the acknowledged guides of public opinion were tardy, and perhaps grudging, of recog- nition. The Quarterly Review, which was loud in its praise of one of her books, vexed her by ignoring another of them. It was not until 1830 that any complete and ade- quate estimate of her claims was put forth. The Edinburgh Review in that year placed her almost, if not quite, at the head of modern fiction. Earlier than this, JMacau- lay had said that though Shakespeare had neither equal nor second, Jane Austen approached nearer than any other to the manner of the great master. Scott had re- peatedly spoken of her to Lockhart, Joanna Baillie, and others, as emineut in correct drawing and masterly in detail. Coleridge had found her full of nature; and of later critics, George Henry Lewes ranked her among the greatest painters of human character. If before 1830 she had not been as popular as she deserved to be, neither has she since enjoyed any distinctly popular fol- lowing. It is hardly in the nature of her genius that she should appeal .to the average temperament. Not that she is too much above it, but that the love of qualities such as hers — naturalness, fidelity, and closeness of observation — is never strong. She has not, however, lacked worshippers in later days. Following Macaulay, Tennyson, as reported by Sir Henry Taylor, placed her,' in 1862, next after Shakespeare. There are not a few competent critics of fiction who are totally at a loss to understand what a judgment like this can mean. Variety, and perfect dis- crimination of the shades of character, Jane Austen shares with the master of human portraiture ; but it is difficult to see how this claim can place her even at the feet of Shake- speare, except by a total disregard of the many other great qualities that went to the making of the greatest of dramatic creators. When a friend recommended Charlotte Bronte to avoid melodramatic effects and study the arts of Jane Austen, the younger novelist found the model to be no more than shrewd and observant. In force of passion, the author of Jane Eyre was as much beyond the author of Pride and Prejudice as Scott was- beyond Mrs. Radcliffe in human nature or Fielding beyond Richardson in humour. But Charlotte Bronte came to see that though,, like Scott, she could manage the " big bow- wow " style with as much success as any modern writer, the niceties of Jane Austen's quieter and subtler method mado'demand of an acuteness which she did not possess. In 1811 Jane Austen came as a river of morning air after the nocturnal vapours of the school of Mrs. Radcliffe and " Monk " Lewis, admir- able as these writers are of their kind. In our own time she is still refreshing for her quick- ness of insight and truth in drawing. Her characters are commonplace, and her inci- dents and emotions live, not on the heights of sentiment, but in the plains of everyday experience. Nevertheless, there is a sense in which it is true that within her range of human life she is with Shakespeare. Jane Austen'* Letters, edited by Lord Bra- bourne : Eev. J. Austen-Leigh, Memoir of Jan$ Austen. [T. H. C] * Austin, Alfred (b. 1835), is a critic, journalist, and satiric poet. His parents being Roman Catholics, he was educated at Aus ( 76) Aus Stonyhurst, and at St. Mary's College, Oscott. He took his degree at London University, and in 1853 entered the Inner Temple. In 1854 he began his literary career by publish- ing an anonymous poem called Randolph, showing great sympathy with the Poles. His first important publication was The Season : a Satire (1861). This work showed consider- able satirical powers, but its individuality of form and bitterness of tone were so severely criticised by the press that Mr. Austin re- torted in a small book, called My Satire and its Censors. At this date he had entirely given up the bar for literature. In 1862 he pub- lished The Unman 'Tragedy, which he soon withdrew in order to reconstruct and amplify it. The poem reappeared in its altered form in 1876, and in 1871 another satire, called The Golden Age. He has written three novels, Five Years of It, An Artist's Proof, and Won by a Head. His remaining poems are : — Interludes, a volume of poems (1862) ; The Poetry of the Period, a collection issued in 1870 ; Home or Death (1873) ; The Tower of Babel, a drama (1874) ; Leszko the Bastard : a Tale of Polish Grief (1877) ; Savonarola, a tragedy (1881); Soliloquies in Song (1882); At the Gate of the Convent (1885) ; Prince Lucifer (1887). He is chiefly popular as a poet, and his works, though sometimes deficient in melody, are instinct with much passion. Mr. Austin is leader- writer and has acted as correspondent to the Standard. For some years past he has entered the field of politics, and is a strong Conservative. He has written many political letters and essays, of which the most import- ant are: — Russia before Europe (1876); Tory Horrors, an answer to Mr. Gladstone's Bul- garian Horrors ; England's Policy and Peril, a letter to Lord Beaconsfield (1877) ; Hibernian Horrors (1880). He was a candidate for Taunton in 1865, and for Dewsbury in 1880, but was unsuccessful on both occasions, and refused to stand at the election of 1885, because he felt out of sympathy with the party. He is one of the editors of the National Review, which was founded as a Conservative publication in 1883. Austin, John (b. 1790, d. 1859), jurist, was the eldest son of Jonathan Austin, of Greeting Mill, Suffolk, a Government con- tractor during the French War. After five years' soldiering, from his sixteenth to his twenty-first year, he quitted the camp for the bar, and was called by the Inner Temple in 1818. He is said to have gone the Nor- folk circuit. In 1821 he became acquainted with James Mill, and in 1821-2 he read Blaekstone and Roman Law three or four hours daily with John Stuart Mill, who was then studying for the bar. To the West- minster Review for October, 1824, he con- tributed a remarkable article on Primogeniture. In 1825 he gave up practice. In spite of his intellectual power, his mental acuteness, and his faculty of clear exposition, his " over- scrupulous and over-sensitive spirit " unfitted him for the rough-and-ready activity of suc- cessful pi-actice. His health, also, was delicate and uncertain, and his heart was not in the work. On the establishment of the University of London (now University College) in 1826, Austin was appointed to the congenial Chair of jurisprudence. His first lecture was not due till October, 1828, and in the meantime he went to Germany, to study jurisprudence there. Through the winter of 1827-8 he settled at Bonn, then the residence of Niebuhr, Schlegel, Arndt, and other eminent men. He entered on his professional duties with the highest conception of the importance of his work, and with the utmost enthusiasm, yet not without intrusive anticipations of chilling indifference on the part of the public. At first he ' ' had, perhaps, the most dis- tinguished attendance that ever honoured any lecturer" (Bain, James Mill, p. 329). But the numbers fell away dishearteningly, and in June, 1835, he delivered his last lecture. The failure of his professorship was " the real and irremediable calamity of his life." In the year 1832 he published The Province of Jurisprudence Determined. Next year he was appointed by Lord Brougham a member of the Criminal Law Commission, but he soon resigned the position, through hopeless disappointment with the probable results of the Commissioners' labours. In 1834 he was engaged to deliver a course of- lectures on j urisprudence at the Inner Temple, but here also failure attended his efforts. Depressed in mind and shattered in health, he retired to Boulogne for about a year and a half. In 1836 he went out to Malta, with Mr. (afterwards Sir) George Cornewall Lewis, as Royal Commissioner, to inquire into the nature and extent of the grievances that the natives complained of; and although the Colonial Office eventually closed the commis- sion abruptly, and without a single word of recognition of his services, the Maltese were not unmindful of the vast improvements in their institutions that they owed to his re- commendations. He returned from Malta in 1838, with greatly enfeebled health. From 1840 to 1844 he resided in Germany. In 1844 he went to Paris, and shortly after was elected by the Institute a corresponding member of the Moral and Political Class. Soon after the breaking out of the revolu- tion of 1848 he retired from Paris, and settled finally at Weybridge, in Surrey. Here he died in December, 1859. In the last twenty years of his life Austin had published nothing, except one or two articles in the Edinburgh Review and A Plea for the Constitution (1859), a rejected review article on Earl Grey's Par- liamentary Reform, in which he showed that, under German and French influences, he had strayed far from the political views of his early Aus (77) Ayr associates. In 18G1 Mrs. Austin brought out a second edition of The Province of Jurisprudence Determined, with biographical preface; in 1863 she published his remaining Lectures on Juris- prudence, in two volumes ; and on her death, in 1867, she left in preparation another edition, which was completed by Mr. R. Campbell (1869), by help of J. S. Mill's copious notes. " I was born out of time and place," said Austin ; " I ought to have been a schoolman of the twelfth century, or a German professor." " If John Austin had had health, neither Lyndhurst nor I would have been Chan- cellor," was Brougham's friendly exaggera- tion. But Austin has achieved a distinction that any Lord Chancellor might envy, for he introduced into jurisprudence precision and clearness in thought and in expression. He defined with elaborate precision the lead- ing terms of jurisprudence, and he marked a clear boundary between law proper and other matters, more or less similar or analog- ous, that had previously been, and too often are still, confused with law. J. S. Mill re- lates that Austin himself said, that if he had any intellectual vocation, it was that of " untying knots." " The untying of intel- lectual knots," says Mill ; " the clearing up of the puzzles arising from complex combina- tions of ideas confusedly apprehended, and not analysed into their elements- the building up of definite conceptions where only in- definite ones existed, and where the current phrases disguised and perpetuated the in- definiteness ; the disentangling of the classi- fications and distinctions grounded on differ- ences in things themselves, from those aris- ing out of the mere accidents of their history, and, when disentangled, applying the distinctions (often for the first time) clearly, consistently, and uniformly — these were, of the many admirable characteristics of Mr. Austin's work as a jurist, those which most especially distinguish him " [Edinburgh Review, Oct., 1863). Austin further pointed out the conditions of successful codifica- tion. He also urged the importance, and indicated the lines, of a comprehensive legal education. And it may be fairly said that, in spite of sharp criticism, his main positions yet stand practically untouched. In 1820 Austin married Miss Sarah Taylor, of Nor- wich. [Austin, Mrs. Sarah.] Their only child, Lucie, became Lady Duff Gordon. Advertisement and preface toLectures on Juris- prudence (R. Campbell's ed.). [A. F. M.] Austin, Mrs. Sarah (b. 1793, d. 1867), an English writer and translator, was a daughter of Mr. John Taylor, yarn maker, of Norwich. In 1820 she married John Austin (q.v.). Mrs. Austin translated Ranke's History of the Popes, for which she was warmly praised by Macaulay ; Characteristics of Goethe, from the German of Folk, Von Midler, and others ; and The Story without an End, by Carove, and was, besides, the author of many original compositions, the best known of which ig Germany from 1760 to I8I4. Austin, Stephen T. (d. 1836), was the founder of the State of Texas. His father, Moses Austin, had made an application to the Mexican Government for permission to estab- lish an American colony in Texas, and in 1822 the grant was confirmed to the son. In 1833 Austin went to Mexico to obtain the ratifica- tion of the State Constitution, which the Texans had formed for themselves. He was unsuccessful in his mission, and was detained there as prisoner. In 1835 the Texans took up arms to drive the Mexicans out of Texas, and Austin was appointed commander of the army. Shortly before his death he went as Commissioner to the United States, to further the liberation of Texas from the Mexican Government, and to obtain the recognition of Texan independence. Austria, The Emperors of. [See under Christian names. ~\ Auzoux, Theodore Louis (b. circa 1797, d. 1880) , was a French anatomist. He took p uns to popularise the study of anatomy by means of casts made from a paste, which dries very hard. This paste, applied to the organs of dead bodies, gives a most perfect fac-simile of the formation of every vein and fibre; the models are then coloured, and so an exact representation of nature is obtained. Each part of the cast is separate, to represent dis- tinct organs, or distinct portions of the same organ, and it can be taken to pieces at pleasure, to show the relation of the different organs to each other. Hence the name of "anatomie clastique" (Greek, K\du, to break). M. Auzoux had a large factory for the manufacture of the casts in his native town of Aubin d'Ecroville (Eure). Awdry, Sir John Wither (b. 1795^ d. 1878), Indian judge, was educated at Win- chester, and elected to a fellowship at Oriel College, Oxford. After being called to the bar in 1822, he was appointed a puisne judge and commissioner of the Insolvent Debtors' Court in Bombay (1830), and subsequently Chief Jus- tice of the Supreme Court of that presidency (1839) He resigned in 1842.and wa< appointed one of the commissioners of the University of Oxford in 1852. Avrton, The Right Hon. Acton Sjieb, F.R.G.S. {b. 1816, d. 1886), was called to the bar in 1853, and elocted M.P. for the Tower Hamlets in 1857. On the return of a Liberal administration in 1868 he was appointed one of the Joint Secretaries to the Treasury, and in 1869 was created tiret Commissioner of Works and Public Build- in^ In 1872 he exposed himself and the Government to much unpopularity by his Parks Regulation Bill. In the following year, when the ministry was reconstructed Ayt ( 78 ) Aze after the resignation of Mr. Lowe, which was partly due to differences with Mr. Ayrton, the latter was appointed Judge- Advocate-General. Having failed to secure his return for the Tower Hamlets in 1874, he took no further part in public life till 1885, when he became a candidate for Mile End, but without success. Aytoun, William Edmonstoune, D.C.L. (b. 1813, d. 1865), poet, and professor of rhe- toric and belles-lettres in the University of Edinburgh, was a native of that city. He was educated for the law, and was called to the Scottish bar in 1840, and in the same year he published The Life and Times of Richard I., a work in perfect harmony with his heroic nature. In 1848 he was appointed Regius professor of English literature in his native university. In 1848 he published The Lays of the Scottish Cavaliers, which established his fame as a poet of the Walter Scott school. This collection, in which of all his works his chivalrous ardour is most contagious, the im- petuous swing of his muse most felt, has required about thirty distinct issues to satisfy the crav- ing of readers. In 1852, during the Derby ad- ministration, he was promoted to the shrievalty of Orkney and Shetland. He found in 1849 a genial helpmate in the youngest daughter of "Christopher North" (Professor Wilson), in whose person he saw an ideal combination of the athlete, the scholar, and the gentleman. Aytoun added to his poetic gifts a fine sense of irony and humour, and when his Firmilian : a Spasmodic Tragedy, appeared in 1854, some London critics treated the work quite seriously, not perceiving that Aytoun was all the while launching shafts of ridicule at the subjective school of poets, who at that particular time, he thought, were rather loud in their wailings, and in their writhings too spasmodic. Bothwell, a long narrative poem, in the simple measure and direct manner of Scott, appeai'ed first in 1856, and his edition of the Scottish Ballads, in two volumes, came out in 1858. In the following year, he, in conjunction with his friend Sir Theodore Martin, brought out translations of various minor poems of Goethe. The two also co- operated in producing Bon Gaultiers Book of Ballads, and some of the raciest of those most humorous productions are understood to be from Aytoun's pen. This volume has gone through thirteen editions. In his tales, his peculiar humour is best seen in The Glen- mutchkin Railway and How L became a Yeoman. Mr. Aytoun was, till his death, which took place on Aug. 4th, 1865, one of the most brilliant of the contributors to Blackwood, and he was equally happy whether he was dealing with politics or with matters of pure literature. He took for his second wife Miss Kinnear, shortly before his death. Sir T. Martin, Life of W. E. Aytoun. [J. F. E.] Ayub Khan (b. circa 1849), son of Sheer Ali, Ameer of Afghanistan, and thus brother of Yakub Khan, had long been an exile in Persia, when his father, driven from his king- dom, died in despair near Ealkh (1879). Imme- diately after, or even before, this event, Ayub entered Herat, and was soon recognised as governor of the city. His patriotic detestation of the English caused him to disapprove of Yakub's policy during the latter's short tenure of power, but he does not seem to have taken any definitely hostile steps till after Yakub's abdication and detention, when Abd- er- Rahman was appointed his successor (1880). It was then rumoured that Ayub was advan- cing from Herat upon Candahar, and in July General Burrows, with a small force, was despatched to check his progress. Unfortu- nately, on the 27th of that month General Burrows was induced to offer battle on disadvantageous ground near a village called Mai wand, about fifty miles from Candahar The British force was almost annihilated, the survivors retreated to Candahar, and after some delay Ayub began the siege of the city, but was compelled to withdraw to the neighbouring village of Mazra, where he was completely defeated by General Roberts, who arrived for the relief of Candahar after a forced march from Cabul. Ayub fled to Herat, where he spent several months in consoli- dating his power. In the summer of 1881. after the British had evacuated Afghanistan, Ayub once more began a cautious advance upon Candahar, and the history of the previous year almost repeated itseif. Ayub gained a brilliant victory over the Ameer's troops near Maiwand, and on the anni- versary of that battle, but on the arrival of the Ameer himself from Cabul, he was again defeated near Candahar, and again fled to Herat, but was afterwards compelled to take refuge in Persian territory. For the next few years he remained in Persia, living chiefly at Teheran, engaged in unsuccess- ful intrigues. Hearing of the Russian ad- vance upon Penj-deh, in 1885, he meditated joining it, but was made a prisoner of state at Teheran. Thence he escaped in 1887, but was recaptured and sent to India. Azeglio, Massimo Tapparelli, Marquis d' {b. 1800, d. 1866), Italian novelist and patriot, son of Cesare Azeglio, Sardinian ambassador and minister, was born at Turin, and in 1821 went to study art in Rome, where he gained considerable distinction as a land- scape painter and musician. Some of his pictures are in the Louvre. In 1830 he met Manzoni in Milan, and married his daughter. By his advice he turned to literature, and produced two novels, somewhat after his master's manner, namely, Ettore Fieramosco (1833), and JVicolo d'Zappi (1841), a tale of the siege of Florence under Charles V. Both were received with great enthusiasm Azi ( 79 ) Bab by the patriotic party, whose cause he also furthered by a pamphlet, Degli Ultimi Casi di Romagna (On the Hecent Events in the Komagna), 1846. Two years later he joined the patriot army against Austria, and was wounded at Vicenza. In 1849 Victor Em- manuel appointed him President of the Council (Prime Minister), but he was sup- planted by Cavour in 1852, having failed to gain the favour of the extreme liepub- licans. Gentleman's Magazine, March, 1866. Azimrnollali Khan (d. circa 1860), was sent to London by the Nana Sahib in 1854, to push his master's claims to a pension, which he claimed as the adopted son of the Peiswah of Poonah. Having previously acquired some knowledge of languages as a servant in an English family, he became very popular in London society. Failing to per- suade the Government to accede to his repre- sentations, he returned to India via the Crimea, where he became impressed with the idea that England was plunging into in- evitable ruin. By him the Nana is believed to have been instigated to the treacherous attack on Cawnpore, and the infamy of the massacre is generally ascribed to his advice. His ultimate fate, like that of his master, is wrapped in mystery. Babbage, Charles (/;. 1792, d. 1871), an •eminent mathematician and mechanician, was born near Teignmouth. Being a delicate child, he received his early education in private schools, passing from thence to Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1811. There he became the fellow-student of Herschel and Peacock, with them and others founding, in 1812, the Ana- lytical Society, for the promotion of pure mathe- matics. The three friends conjointly published, in 1816, a translation of Lacroix's Elementary Treatise on the Differential and Integral Calculus, .•and two volumes of Examples in 1820. Bab- bage graduated in 1814 (without, however, competing in the Mathematical Tripos, not- withstanding his great reputation at the University), was elected F.R.S. in 1816, and took the degree of M.A. in 1817. In 1820 he assisted in founding the Astronomical Society, and in 1825 joined Herschel in repeating Arago's experiments on the magnetisation of rotating plates; what is known as the "astatic" needle was invented during these researches. He was Lucasian professor at Cambridge for eleven years. Among the eighty works pub- lished by him are a Comparative View of the Different Institutions for the Assurance of Life ; A 'Table of the Logarithms of the Natural Numbers, from \to 108,000; Economy of Manu- factures and Machinery, called by Blanqui a hymn in honour of machinery ; and the Ninth Bridgewater Treatise, defending mathematical studies as serviceable to religion, and not as tending to infidelity. He became celebrated as the inventor of the calculating machine, constructed, as its name implies, to aid the practice of arithmetic by machinery. To the perfecting of this ingenious idea he devoted a large portion of his life and fortune, while the Government, at various periods, contributed £17,000 of public money. A portion of the machine is in the South Kensington Museum. •In reality it was never completed. The inventor desiring to adopt a now principle when the first specimen was nearly completed, in order to make not a "difference," but an "analytical" engine; the Government declined to accept further risk. As a man, his habits were rather peculiar, and in his Tassages from the Life of a Philosopher (1864) we have some curious glimpses of the great mathematician living in London, surrounded by his workshops, and waging undying warfare against the street musicians. Only once, in 1832, he attempted to enter public life. But as Finsbury pre- ferred to be represented in Parliament by a more " practical " politician, he never again offered his services to the nation in that ca- pacity. C. Babbage, Passages from the Life of a Philosopher. Babinet, Jacques (b. 1794, d. 1872), a French physicist and astronomer, was a native of Lusignan. In 1811 he entered the Lycee Napoleon, in the following year the Poly- technic, and, after further training at Metz, the Imperial army, as a sub-lieutenant of artillery. His military career' terminated with the downfall of the Empire in 1815, after which he was successively professor^ of mathematics at P'ontenoy, of physicsat Poitiers, and again, in 1820, of physics in the College of St. Louis, at Paris, a position held by him for forty-nine years. In 1825 he lectured at the Athenaeum on meteorology, and, indeed, claimed the titleof thatscienceas his invention. He was elected member of the Academy of Sciences in 1840. He improved many scientific instruments, including the pneumatic machine, and invented a hygrometer, a goniometer, to measure the refraction of transparent bodies, and a photometer, still used to measure the intensity of illuminating gas. His lectures were celebrated for their easy and attractive style, and were familiarly known in Paris as the Causer ies du The Babinet. Some unfortunate predictions of his in regard to tin; failure of the Atlantic cable have been much ridiculed. One of his best known works is Etudes et Lectures sur les Sciences d'Obsi real ion et sur Uur* Applications 1'ratiqucs. Babinet also designed an atlas of Cartes Ilomolographiqucs, as ho termed them, in which a new system of pro- jection is utilised. Bab ( 80) Bac * Babington, Charles Cardale, F.R.S. (b. 1808j, a botanist, antiquarian, and scientific writer, was born at Ludlow, and educated at St. John's, Cambridge, taking his B.A. degree in 1830, and that of M.A. in 1833.' His botanical works have brought hiin con- siderable reputation, his Manual of British Botany having reached an eighth edition, though now somewhat superseded by the Floras which do not adopt so hair-splitting a method as that favoured by the pre-Darwinian school of systematic writers. Other published contributions to this science include Flora Bathonicnsis, The Flora of the Channel Islands, The Flora of Cambridgeshire, The British Rubi, and* The Flora of Iceland, besides numbers of papers in the Transactions of the Linnean Society, and in those of the Edinburgh Bo- tanical Society, of which he was one of the earliest members and principal supporters. He is professor of botany in the University of Cambridge (succeeding Henslow), and holds a professorial fellowship at his own college, of the chapel of which he has published a history. Mr. Babington has also identified himself with his university and Cambridgeshire generally by the cpntribution of various papers to the publications of the Cambridge Antiquarian and other learned societies. His brother, the Rev. Professor Churchill Babington has a high reputation as an antiquarian and a botanist. Baclie, Alexander Dallas (b. 1806, d. 1867), an American hydrographer, was a native of Philadelphia, and in his fifteenth year was appointed a cadet at West Point, where he graduated with high honours in 1825, becoming a lieutenant of Engineers, though retained at the academy as an assistant- professor for some time afterwards. He was professor of mathematics in the University of Pennsylvania from 1827 to 1836, when he was appointed president of the Board of Trustees of Girard College, and was immediately there- after, prior to the organisation of that insti- tution, despatched to Europe to examine the educational systems of England, France, Ger- many, and other countries. On his return, in 1838, he submitted a full report, which contributed much to improve the American system of public instruction. On the death of Professor Hassler, in 1843, he was appointed superintendent of the Coast Survey, and the results of his work in this department secured him a high place in the scientific world. Con- gress aided the survey with liberal grants, and he was enabled, not merely to map out the coast-line with great accuracy, hut to collect an enormous mass of valuable magnetic and meteorological observations. He was also super- intendent of weights and measures, light- house commissioner, Regent of the Smithsonian Institution, and vice-president of the United States Sanitary Commission, hesides heing a leading spirit in several scientific societies. He bequeathed about 42,000 dollars (over £8,000) to the National Academy of Sciences. His scientific writings are for the most part embodied in his official reports and in the Transactions of various scientific societies. But his claim on the gratitude of his country, and of the world at large, was due quite as much to the services which he rendered by stimulating that appreciation of science which the United States Government has ever since so keenly cherished. In America he was also regarded with a sort of personal affection, owing to the fact that he was a great-grandson of Benjamin Franklin. Bachman, John (b. 1790, d. 1874), an American naturalist and clergyman, was born in Dutchess County, New York. At the age of twenty-three he was licensed to preach, and in 1815 became pastor of the German Lutheran Church at Charleston (S.C.), a position he held to the date of his death, in 1874. He was long an enthusiastic collaboratcur of Audubon, the great ornithologist, assisting the latter materially in the preparation of his magnificent monograph on The Birds of America, while he was the principal author of The Quadrupeds of North America, the pictorial portions being due 'to Audubon and his sons. He published several other works, among which are numbered a Defence of Luther and the Reformation, The Doctrine of the Unity of the Human Race exemplified on the Principles of Science, and Characteristics of Genera and Species as applicable to the Doctrine of the Unity of the Human Race. Back, Sir George (b. 1796, d. 1878), admiral and Arctic navigator, was a native of Stockport, and entered the Royal Navy as midshipman in 1808. The following year he was taken prisoner by the French, and when sent across the Pyrenees to St. Sebastian, was so small that he was carried in one of the panniers of a pack-mule. He remained a prisoner-of-war for five years. In 1818 he volunteered for service under Franklin, and the next year set out with that commander on his land expedition from Hudson's Bay to the Coppermine river. The party reached Fort Enterprise in July, 1820, and a little later Back was de'spatched on a long journey to obtain supplies. In five months he travelled 1,200 miles on snow-shoes in the severest weather, and often himself on the verge of starvation. To his energy and courage on this, and a subsequent expedition, the sur- vivors, including Franklin himself, owed their lives. Back served with Franklin's expedi- tion to the Mackenzie river, and in 1833 took charge of the party sent out in search of Sir John Ross, when he travelled by land and rivers 7,500 miles, making several discoveries of importance. On his return, he was awarded the Geographical Society's gold medal, and promoted to the rank of captain. In June, 1836, he took command of the Terror on a new Arctic expedition, which accomplished Bad (81 ) Bag little, and nearly came to a disastrous end on two occasions. He published two "narratives" of his expeditions, and the suf- ferings and privations described therein fully account for his health being much broken after his return from the latter one. He was knighted in 1837, and made rear-admiral in 1859. Sir George for many years took an active part in the affairs of the Royal Geo- graphical Society, and was a leading adviser in all the Arctic expeditions, from that of Franklin in 1846, to Nares's in 1875 ; and left the "Back Bequest" for the advance- ment of exploration. * Baden, Frederick William Louis, Grand Duke of (b. 1826), became regent in place of his elder brother Louis, who was insane, in 1852, succeeded him in 1856, and married in the same year a daughter of King William I. of Prussia. As a confederate of the North German Bund, the Duke always endeavoured to check in his dominions the power of the Church of Rome, and in 1855 the Jesuits w«re banished from the duchy. He took part in the Franco-German War of 1870-1, and was one of the chief advocates of a German Empire. Badger, The Rev. "George Percy, D.C.L. (*. 1815, d, 1888), Oriental scholar and diplomatist, was born at Chelmsford, Essex. His early life was spent at Malta and at Bey rout. In 1 84 2 he took holy orders, and was appointed by the Primate delegate to the Eastern Churches, and more especially to the Nestorians of Kurdistan. Mr. Badger was subsequently appointed Government Chaplain at Bombay, and afterwards at Aden. Dr. Badger frequently acted as interpreter to Sir James Outram, Sir William Coghlan, and Sir Bartle Frere, during their various diplomatic expeditions in Arabia, Persia, East Africa, and Egypt. Dr. Badger is also the author of many works upon the history and literature of Arabia and the East : — The Nestorians and their Rituals (1852), History of the Imams and Seyyids of' Oman (a translation from the ori- ginal Arabic of Salil-ibn-razik) (1871), Travels of Ludovico di Yarthema in India and the East, A.d. 1503-8 (1863), An English-Arabic Lexi- con (1881). Among his minor writings are treatises upon education in India, and a description of the Suez Canal works. Mr. Badger received the degree of D.C.L from the Archbishop of Canterbury in 1873 ; he has also been created Companion of the Gleaming Star by the Sultan of Zanzibar, whoso suite he attended as confidential adviser during their stay in England in 1875. Baer, Karl Ernst von (*, 1792, d. 1876), a Russian naturalist, was a native of Esthonia He entered the University of Dorpat, in 1810, as a medical student, graduated in 1814, and practised for a short time subsequently in Vienna. He afterwards gave up the medical profession, finding natural science more con- genial, and in 1817 proceeded to Koiiigsberg, where he remained till 1834, filling, in the interval, several Chairs and other positions. His studies there were mainly devoted to the elucidation of animal development, of which he is regarded as one of the greatest exponents. He has been often described as the " father of comparative embryology." In 1834, Von Baer received the appointment of librarian to the Academy of St. Petersburg, and, soon came to be regarded as one of its* most eminent members. In 1851 he commenced an investigation into the Russian fisheries,' and the unscientific modes employed in them, which resulted in the publication of an im- portant work on the subject in 1859, and much practical good to the fisheries themselves. He made an expedition to the Caspian, described in his Kaspiche Studien, and his treatises on the zoology and botany of Northern Russia are greatly esteemed. The subjects he treated include glacial action, river-beds, the Siberian mammoths, and the potato disease. Bagehot, Walter (b. 1826, d. 1877), was a Somerset man, born at Langport, where he was connected with the Somersetshire Bank, and eventually succeeded his father as vice-chairman. He was educated at Bristol, and then at University College, London, where he had the advantage of De Morgan's mathematical and George Long's classical teaching; he took his B A. London degree with the mathematical scholarship (1846), and his M.A. with the gold medal in moral philo- sophy, etc. (1848). He studied law, but though called to the bar in 1852, he deter- mined not to pursue the profession, and returned to Langport to his father's bank and shipping business. He was not, however, the man to allow business to absorb all his energies. He was a considerable writer, and besides contributing to the quarterly National Review from 1855, he was one of its editors throughout its existence. His essays were often very brilliant ; he had, as Mr. Hutton says, "a very curious combination of dash and doubt, great vivacity in describing the super- ficial impressions produced on him by every subject-matter with which he wa3 dealing, and great caution in yielding his mind to that superficial impression." His most popular work undoubtedly is Lombard Street, a vivid account of the money market, which has reached its seventh edition, though The English Constitution stands very near it in general estimation, and has been translated into French, Italian, and German. His political views here expressed are sometimes original and worth considering, though his friends perhaps exaggerate their importance. l'tn/sics and Politics, which has also proved verv popular, is "an attempt to apply the principles of natural selection and inheritance Bag ( 82 ) Bai to political society." Long and deep-rooted tendencies he regarded as the spring of efficient political life, and therefore preferred the stupid but healthy uniformity of the English mind in politics to the will-o'-the- wisp uncertainty and variety of the French. For the last seventeen years of his life he edited the Economist, a paper founded by his father-in-law, the Right Hon. James Wilson. Bagehot was an economist of the Iiicardo school, but had his independent views on this, as on most subjects. Two volumes of Literary Studies and one of Biographical Studies were collected and published after his death, and these six volumes, with a Treatise on the Depreciation of Silver between 1865 and 1875, some essays on Parliamentary Reform, and a volume of Economic Studies, constitute his literary effects. See an interesting memoir by E. H. Hutton in the Dictionary of National Biography, s.v., and a memoir prefixed to ilagehot's Literary Studies. Bagration, Pkince Petek (b. circa 1765,