, CALifOBNIA Sm f'E?" 'J,'5y"n0753 0595 1 [^B A A ■-' c 1 JJ 1 4 o 1 6 LIBI ' ■ ~D 1 r ,■ ^ S ^f 4/Jz CENTRAL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY University of California, San Diego DATE DUE 1 ir^n U.V-.O.Uf..- JUL 1.2 1992 iNltNL^w^"^* LwXN IVIAY n q RFC'D 3 1822 AM™gQ753 0595 PHILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY, RATIONAL GRAMMAR. PHILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY, RATIONAL GRAMMAR. By JAMES GILCHRIST. All hitherto accomplished is iiisufticient to prevent the seducing- incantation of names in numerous respects, their doing' violence to tlie understanding-, and recoiling- upon it from whence they proceeded : this evil kequires a new a>"D a DEEPFK REAIEPY. BacOil. LONDON : Printed bi/ George Snialljield, Hachiey ; FOH ROWLAND HUNTER, (SUCCESSOR TO J. JOHNSON,) ST. Paul's churchyard. ISlo. ADVERTISEMENT. IN presenting the following work to the pub- lic, the author has but one wish to express — that the subject of his book may meet with the attention which its importance merits, and that the book itself may be rigorously examined — well and truly tried. He has no professions of modesty and diffi- dence to lavish on better judgments — no apolo- gies to make to candid readers — or favours to solicit of indulgent critics. He thinks he has made some important discoveries ; but perhaps they will prove in the end like many other sup- posed discoveries — only ingenious fancies. Be- lieving that his opinions and reasonings rest on fixed and certain principles, he has proceeded in a firm and fearless manner ; but a clearer VI ADVERTISEMENT. and j)rolouuder pliilologer may be able to over- Inn i ill! liis doctrines. ''J'jjis, liowc^vcr, lie can sincerely assure the public. Ibal iJ' his work shall in the smallest degree serve as scaffoldhuj to raise a solid sys- tem of Pljilosophic Etymology or Rational Grammar^ he will not regret, but rejoice to see il thrown down to make room for works of hi y her reach and more utility. New'mgton Greeti, London, June 26, 1816. CONTENTS. Introduction. 1 PART I. The Nature and Origin of Alphabetic Signs 23 The Connexion between Alphabetic Signs and Intelli- gible Sounds considered 30 FART II. The canon of etymology 35 PART III. The Component Parts of Speech unfolded 87 Connectives 89 The Verbal Terminations merely connective 09 The Substantive Verb merely connective 102 The Terminations of Nouns ending in eth, en, on, &c. merely connective 104 Augmentives 116 Negatives or Disjunctives 127 Diminutives , 13(5 PART IV. THE COMMON SYSTEM OF ENGLISH GRA3IMAR CON- SIDERED ..,,., , , 139 VIII CONTENTS. The Syntax of Pronouns considered 143 The Verb considered 130 The Qualities of pood Composition considered 205 The r()])ular ami Fashionable Doctrines on the Sub- ject to be disregarded 220 A Kythnuis or Tune of Composition incompatible with good Style 233 The Study of Language a necessary Preparative to good Composition 235 One Rule of Coniposition necessary and that one Rule sullicient 248 PART V. A STANDARD Or OIITHOGK APIIY ESTABLISHED 253 INTRODUCTION. ▼ViiEX the author of the following work began to study philology, it was with a logical rather than grammatical view. He had found his learning, such as it was, an inconvenience and intellectual cum- brance : nor was it merely foreign speech that he found as a vail of obscurit}'' or net of entanglement upon his understanding ; even the English language tvas to him as Saul's armour to David — cumbersome because it had not been proved. He had wandered ten years (for he became a student somewhat late in life) in the wilderness of words ; often looking Avist- fully up the hill of knowledge, but as often despair- ing of climbing to the summit. Frequently indeed he returned to his fruitless efforts with a kind of desperate courage ; but as frequently did he retire from the hopeless contest, under a mortifying sense of disappointment and useless effort. The truth is, he at last sunk into despair of ever knowing even the English language to his own satis- faction ; or so as to be able to experiment \\\\\\ it accurately as an instrument of science ; and it had actually become one of his fixed opinions, that man 11 INTRODUCTION. is fated lo he the dupe of liis own inventions ; that Inniruarfc of which lie so much boasts is the greatest of all impostors ; and that no remedy con Id be found for verbal, that is metaphysical deception and mis- cliicf. Thus for a considerable time he heartily despised not only the systems of learning that owe their origin to language, but language itself, as a mere Babel-jargon inrended or calculated to be a curse rather than a blessijjg — the parent of error, metaphysical nonsense, false-reasoning, endless con- troversy, contention and animosity. With this opinion and contempt of language, it is probable that the author would have been content to pity and deride the learning that prevails, without endeavouring to rectify it, had not an incident which it is unnecessary to name, roused him into a resolu- tion of attempting to rid the world of intellectual bondage and metaphysical imposture. He had always (he means from the time he became a 'student) a kind of intuitive perception and convic- tion that all the systems of grammar, rhetoric, logic, &c. which prevail, are wrong; but believing the origin of all learned absurdities to be language itself, he perceived not, how the evil could be remedied ; and supposed that learned men must go on as they had done, boasting of their technical nonsense. He at last, however, perceived, he thought, how the laby- rinth might be demolished, and the Babel-systems confounded into silence. As the radical evil was perceived to be in language, it was evident that there INTRODUCTION. Ill the remedy must be applied. He resolved therefore to create another kind of grammar and lexicography than had hitherto prevailed ; in attempting which, the principles he laid down were as follow : — 1 . That language was a human invention. 2. That it was a simple invention. 3. That the true nature of true philology must lie on the very surface of obviousness. 4. That all the dialects must be essen- tiallv but one laneuasre. 6. That the whole wilder- ness of words must have arisen from a few expressive signs originally connected with sensible objects. 6. That therefore the whole multitude of parts and varieties in language, or that all words must be re- solvable into a few simple elements, indicating by resemblance visible objects. 7. That there could be nothing arbitrary about language. 8. That no words could be primarily or properly insignificant. These principles were drawn from his o^yn reflec- tions, and to serve in the mean time as guides till enquiry had disproved or superseded them. The author was, if not sagacious, at least fortunate in his conjectures (and he considered them at first only conjectures), for after three years' habitual reflection and toilsome enquiry, there is not one of them which he has been obliged to abandon, as unsound or un- important—as contradicted or unverified by experi- mental evidence. Much progress was soon made in diminishing the mass of words and simplifying the nature of speech ; which became progressively more intelligible and B 2 iv IMilODUCTION. maiia,[;ea1)le ; though no other principles of philology were vet ohtaincd from investigation, in addition to those which the author had drawn from his own reflections. He had proceeded some way in identi- fying even abstract terms, as they are called, with the names of sensible objects, and classifying their numerously-varied forms under their primitives, when accident threw in his way the writings of Mr. Home Tooke and Mr. Whiter.* As for Etymolo- gicon Magnum, the author could never prevail with himself to read it till he actually began to write the present work ; yet he believes, that though he only glanced over it for a short time in a bookseller's shop, he must have derived some benefit from it. The work of Mr. Home Tooke he read and studied with much care, yet knows not how to estimate its in- struction. He was confirmed by the reasonings of tiiat author in the truth and soundness of his own principles and discoveries ; and received from him some useful hints, and many just derivations ; yet that the writings of Mr. Home Tooke supplied him with any important discovery or principle in philo- logy, is more than he can affirm. The truth is, all the writings of that author are more imposing, smart and witty, than sound and solid, just and profound. * The author Ind froqiiciitly heard of Home Tooke's ingenions work on language; but tliiiiking if ^vas like the other works on language he had seen, only ingenious mystieism, he felt no desire to see it, till being on a visit about forty miles from London, the diversions of Piirley were brought from a literary institution and put into his h.uids by a friend as ■1 book suited to his taste. INTRODUCTION. V It is with regret that the author has thus to charac- terize the labours of his meritorious predecessor, almost the only philosophic philologer of modern times ; but truth requires him to make abatements where he had wished to give unqualified praise; and it must be remembered that the philological labours of Mr. Home Tooke were performed in the evening twilight of life. " He has done that best which no one ever did well." If he did not actually lay the foundation of philosophic grammar, he cleared away much of the rubbish of grammatical absurdity ; and if vulgar grammarians and lexicographers have con- tinued to adhere to the old system, it only proves that they are too dull to profit by the instructions of Mr. Home Tooke. As the author continued to study his subject, it became progressively more simple to his perceptions than he thought it could possibly be in its own na- ture ; for we are so educated and disciplined into the belief of abstruseness and ingenious mysticalness, connected with learned and philosophic questions, as to be constantly overlooking obvious truth, or deeming it not worth finding and raising into the dignity of science. Every man of any pretension to philosophic thinking, would blush to refuse for his motto: Simplicity is the seal of Truth. But who does not seem to consider it the badge of intellectual poverty ? Frequently has the author felt over his discoveries as Bruce did at the source of the Nile. Frequently has he been ready to exclaim with the Vi INTIJODUCTION. crood Parisians, who had auLicipated a grand spectacle at the entree of the allies : Is this all ! As maybe supposed, the more that he studied words in different dialects, the more did he ascertain their true nature and origin. It was not, however, till he analized the alphabet and resolved its diversities into their primary form, that he could experiment with certainty on etymology. It was now discovered and proved at every step, that as men have few ideas, few senses, and are familiar with few objects, so there are few primitive words. The author presumes that the utility of the follow- ing work w ill not be denied by any competent judge, whether viewed in reference to the acquisition of langur.ge, or to clear perception and correct reason- ing. It contains, however, only the first fruits of an abundant harvest of knowlegde and utility that may- be derived from philosophic etymology ; and as this is a new field of literary exertion, the author hopes the labourers will be many. He trusts that the world will soon be presented with rational grammars and dictionaries of all the ancient and modern dia- lects. He is willing to set an example of labour and industry ; and intends to prepare as soon as possible an EnL;lish dictionary, — a Hebrew grammar and dictionary, — and a Latin grammar and dictionary. These will not take twenty years' labour ; but they are quite enough for one man. It is to be hoped that some one will unfold the nature of the Chinese characters more simply and INTRODUCTION. Vll intelligibly than has yet been done ; and that a Greek grammar and dictionary, on the plan of lexicography adopted by the author, will be presented to the world by some philosophic philologer. Here, if the author might with propriety call on individuals to come for- ward, he would name Dr. Crombie ; but whether that gentleman shall choose a lexic^igraphic depart- ment in the field of philology, it is at least to be hoped that he will attempt something in language more worthy of his intellect than he has yet per- formed. It is to be hoped too, that Mr. Whiter will return to etymology and create the matter of Etymo- iogicon Magnum, into a simpler, more useful, and attractive ibrm. It is to be hoped, that all who per- ceive the nature and importance of true philology, will lend their assistance in promoting its interests. There must be many in this country, though un- known to the author, who have juster notions of the subject than those which prevail ; and it would give him infinite pleasure to see them united into one great Philological Society. As the author has mentioned Mr. Whiter, he takes an opportunity of recommending Etymologicon Magnum ; for with all its mysticism and confusion, ^and he is sorry to say it contains both,) it is calcu- lated to be a useful ally in the cause of philology ; ,and he knows no works fitter to be read as prepara- tory to Philosophic Etymology, than Etymologicon Magnum and the Diversions of Purley. Every reader of the present work may not have seen that Vlll IMUODLCTION. of Mr. Wliitor, and therefore the author takes occa- sion to introduce a few quotations from it as a speci- men of tlie principles on which it proceeds, or rather to show how much tiiey coincide with the principles of the following;- work. " Here then, (siiys Mr. Whiter,) we obtain at once a species of uniformity which leads directly to the hopes of forming a regular system. Even this in- stance alone (of the name father) would be sufficient to convince us, that some controuling principle pre- dominated in languages by which they might readily be submitted to the laws of a general theory. Words uttered by the passing breath we have ever been accustomed to consider as the most fleeting, change- able, inconstant and capricious of all the objects with which man is conversant, [so they would have been if originally the creatures of breath :] yet we perceive that a word most liable to change and perversion has remained invariably the same through a period of at least three thousand years ; if we consider only its existence from the time of Homer, without involving ourselves with the remote periods of the Sanscrit Language. This instance I must again repeat, would alone be sufficient to convince us, that uniformity of some sort perpetually prevailed ; and the same fact we accordingly find in all the instances afforded by every etymologist who has collected the same words as they appear in difterent languages." " Surely the contemplation of these facts will im- press on every mind a similar train of ideas ; and the INTRODUCTION. IX reader has already anticipated my reasoning and my conclusion on this subject. He will be struck with the deepest astonishment, that facts like these per- petually passing before the eyes of the etymologist, should never have suggested the principles of a theory and the laws of a system. Among objects liable to the influence of chance and change it is not possible to conceive a species of uniformity so full and im- pressive as that model of regularity which is here exhibited. The varieties of mutation are bounded by limits of controul almost incompatible with the vicissitudes of change ; and nothing but a fact so striking and unequivocal would have persuaded us to believe that such constancy could have existed in a case where disorder and irregularity might be alone imagined to predominate. These words after having passed through mJUions of mouths in remote ages and distant regions of the world, under every variety ot appearance and symbol, still continue to be re- presented by the same cofisonants — not indeed b\ consonants bearing the same name, for that perpe- tually varies with the form of the symbol ; but by those consonants which grammarians have always considered to be of the same kind and invested with the same power." " On every fresh view of the question, we siiajl still more and more be lost in wonder,* when we cast * Jt is to be \visht'd that Mr. ^^'lliter would deal less in such phrases iis wonder, aslouishmfut, marvellous, &c. : a philosopher is seldom lost in wonder or struck \Mtli astonishnieut, aud he seldom deals in exclama- tion. INTRODUCTION our eyes over the present state of etymolo:^y, and consider tliiit in the eoiijeeturcs of those who profess this art all is caprice and uncertainty, while in the art itself, every thing is constancy and uniformity. It is assuredly marvellous, that no conclusion of this sort has been regularly established as a general princi- })le for the foundation of a theory, when the fact itself is thus gross and palpable — operating on ail occa- sions — and universally displayed in its fullest point ofviewbythe etymologist himself, in every detail of parallel, or of the same words as they appear in different languages. To a fact like this it was im- possible to be blind : — our etymologists have seen and acknowledged it ; and even some hardy theorists have ventured to assert^ from time to time, that con- sonants only were the radicals of words. Still, how- ever, nothing was accomplished on this foundation : — no regular system w^as formed on such an idea, illus- trated by facts and confirmed by a series of examples. Nay, on the contrary, the operations of the etymo- logist appear to have been conducted as if by a kind of instinctive impression, he had even shrunk from the adoption of this principle as from a notion abhor- rent to his art. Without any clue to direct his foot- steps in the great labyrinth of language, he has wholly surrendered up his reason to the guidance of chance; and yet in the wildest wanderings of his erring and extravagant spirit, which has aflbrded so fertile a topic to the powers of ridicule, he seems as it were almost cautiously and purposely to have avoided the INTRODUCTION. XI application of such an idea, as an insurmountable barrier to the progress of his enquiries. The etymo- logist is perpetually employed in deriving words from each other, which are totally dissimilar in form and appearance, unguided by any constant or general principle, which he had before established ; but prompted only by the instant and accidental sugges- tion of whim and caprice. Still, however, when the dissimilarity has arisen from a cause which is alone connected with a principle of uniformity, there and there only (as it should seem) the wildness of con- jecture has seldom ventured to interpose. The dis- similarit}'- of words arising at once from different vowels and from consonants, bearing a different name and form, though of the same kind, has ever pre- sented before the view of the etymologist a deep and dark veil through which his eyes have been unable to penetrate. Thus it has happened, that words rendered dissimilar by the effect of a certain process from which alone they can be proved to be alilce^ have remained in our conceptions, toto ca;lo^ removed and distant from each other. The boldest among the tribe of conjecturers have rarely ventured to imagine that any affinity existed among words disguised by this peculiar dissimilarity ; and when even the dif- ference arising from difierent vowels only was the object of their meditation, they failed not to proceed with due caution in detailing the progress of these mutations, and to assure us with great solemnitv that A. became E. in one nation and I. in another." Xii INTRODUCTION. " Having thus riideavourcd briefly to explain tlizocAmen/ and operations of language — thepower of the original symbols — of letters being impregnated with ideas — of w^ords being instinct with the energies of mind — in short, he often writes in the manner of Dugald Stewart, rather than that of Plorne Tooke, Hobbes, or (if we may name on the occasion the philosopher of philosophers) the great Yerulum. Still, however, Mr. Whiter deserves well of man- kind, and is to a certain extent entitled to the praise of original thinking and discovery. It is presumed that the work of Mr. Home Tooke has been not only read, but studied by every one who makes any pre- tension to philological knowledge, and therefore * It is presumed that Mr. Wliiter will have the candour to acknowledge, that he only almost discovered the clue whidi is now altogether put into riie hand of the philological student. XVI INTIlODtTTION. ir. is unnecessary to quote from it in tliis introduc- tion. I\rli;ii)s tlic reader may wish to know what dialects tlic author has had recourse to and found most sub- servient to ])hilological purposes. The Hebrew, Greek, Latin, Itahan, Spanish, French, Gothic, Saxon, German, Dutch, Welch, Scotch, and of course English have been all consulted. The Welch has been referred to merely by means of a grammar and dictionary ; but has been found very useful even in this way. The Greek has been very little attended to, being in reality the unfittest dialect in the world for philological purposes. The Gothic of Codex Argentum, like the Saxon of the Durham Book, is after all the talk about it no dialect whatever, except a Babylonish one — a sort of mongrel lingo of the monks. Even Alfred's Saxon translations from Latin are, as to termination, structure, &c. more Latin than any thing else ; and therefore (except the radicals which are common to the dialects in general) cannot be regarded as of any authority, or trusted to for direction in philological questions The fault of grafting Greek and Latin idioms and terminations, &c. on the native dialect has always been the vice of translators. It is justly remarked by Adclung, " that for several centuries the Latin was rendered so literally, that even the article was left out ; and the whole construction of the Latin with the participles and many other peculiarities were rigourouslv ob- served. It is for this reason that we ou^ht not tp INTRODUCTION. XVII judge of the spirit (he might have added the letter) of a language from such translations." Mr. Ilorne Tooke has flourished rather too much (for the lasting- reputation of his research) about Gothic and Saxon. The dialects in which the author has most studied the nature and origin of words, are the Hebrew, Latin, Dutch and English. The English he is best acquainted with, and therefore found it most suitable for his purpose, after he learned to consider every letter significant, and to resolve every variety of every letter into its primary form. Previously to such a state of philological progress, no language is so un- suitable for etymological experiment and research as the mother tongue. Next to the English, the author has to make his acknowledgements to the Dutch. This is the plainest speaking, most intelligible and sensible (that is, it appeals most to the senses) of all the dialects. Few events would cause to the author so much regret, as to see this good, plain dialect su- perseded by snivelling, flippant, senseless French. It is a shame to an English and especially a Scotch philologer to be unacquainted with Dutch ; for it is so nearly the same as his native dialect, that he has hardly any thing to learn in becoming acquainted with it ; and, as the author of the Recovery of De- cayed Intelligence has justly remarked, it is the oldest Gothic remaining. It is low German, or tlie language of the vulgar ; and the vulgar are always the last to change their opinions, habits, customs, and above all their language. It would be easy to prove c Xviii INTRODUCTION. iiidoed, that Dutch is in reality older and truer Cotliic than that of Codex Argentum. Tiie dialect after the Dutch and English, in which the author has most studied philology, is the Latin ; and next to them, (if we do not except the Hebrew) it is the fittest for the purpose. When he first re- solved to create a rational system of grammar and lexicography, he pitched upon the Latin, as both by its sturdy, masculine character, and its extensive dif- fusion, (for it evidently constitutes much of the modern dialects) entitled to preference above the Greek ; in which the real alphabetic signs — the con- sonants, have been as in a kind of euphonic spite gnawed down into musical notes — or evanescent, uncertain, ever-changing vowels. A Latin grammar and dictionary containing the same words in all their variety of spelling, in all the varieties of dialect, are in a state of considerable forwardness, and were in- tended to be published before any other of the author's projected philological works ; but his opinions and manner of writing being likely to unite the learned casts against him and provoke classic hostility, he thought it necessary to gain his primary object by the circuitous course of an English grammar and dic- tionary. He has never even in his gloomiest mo- ments, when exhausted with anxious reflection and toilsome enquiry, despaired or doubted of ultimate success ; but he has always expected the fate of a Reformer — he has always anticipated resistance and hostility ; and therefore without praising folly or INTRODUCTION. XIX flattering prejudice, wished to adopt such modes of attack as would enable him most certainly and speedily to triumph over ignorance and bigotry, and put down learned absurdity. As certain persons have been very loquacious about the greatness and inipossibleness of his under- takings, he may be permitted to inform them that he wrote every word of the present work within the space of five weeks, in the midst of many inconve- niences, interruptions and distractions ; spending six hours of the day too in school,- besides attending to other duties. The truth is, he had intended not to send his promised work to the press for several months, but finding that some were prophesying that it could not be performed, he thought the best me- thod of terminating all doubt about the question, was to sit down at once and write the book. It is to be hoped that henceforth certain persons will not mea- sure every one by themselves. Works which they suppose would take such a mighty number of years, the author will pledge himself to perform in as many months. It takes much time and labour to construct labyrinths and Babel-sj'^stems ; but the energy of original thinking can easily and speedily create the chaos of learned absurdity into light and simplicity, order and utility. The author has to regret, that prejudice operated so as to make him neglect the Hebrew for several years after he had succeeded in teaching himself to read it with considerable facility. He had despised c i? XX INTRODUCTION. i( as poor and dctcrtivo, liarsli and uncertain ; and it was not till lately that he had recourse to it for ety- mological purposes : he found, as he had uniformly found, in every examination of new dialects, (dialects new to liim) all his philological principles confirmed and illustrated ; — he found not only that Hebrew and J'^nglish are essentially the same language, but that the former, if not the oldest, is one of the ancientest dialects, and one of the fittest for etymology. He concludes this introduction by giving an analysis of his philological principles, that they may be seen and examined in their most naked form. 1. There is nothing arbitrary about language. 2. All the dialects as Hebrew, Celtic, Greek, Latin, &c. are essentially but one language. They have such diversities as may be termed idioms ; but with all their circumstantial varieties, they have substantial uniformity : they proceed on the same principles and have the same origin. The philosophic grammar and lexicography of one, is in reality that of all. 3. There are no words primarily and properly insig- nificant. 4. There are many words that have ceased to be significant, as they are commonly employed. Many of the particles, including affixes and prefixes, conjunctions, prepositions, articles, &c. are of this description, and may be termed the mummies of laneuao-e. 5. Every word that cannot be identified with the name of a sensible object, is either partly or wholly mummified. 6. The use of insignificant words, or using words insignificantly, is the chief, if INTRODUCTION. XXI not the only cause of verbal, that is metaphysical imposture ; and all unintelligible or false reasoning- is merely metaphysical imposture. Metaphysics as a science could have never existed but for the mum- mies of language, and the relics and ghosts of meaning. 7. AH words are primarily and properly metaphorical ; or to vary the expression, — language whether spoken or v/ritten, originated in simile ; and metaphor is com- monly explained to be — " a simile comprised in a word." The author does not wish to dispute about such unmeaning or half-meaning terms as metaphor, &c. ; but he wishes it to be distinctly understood, that the vulgar errors — he means the errors of the literary vulgar, respecting metaphorical and literal terms, are the cause of much metaphysical imposture, much critical, logical, grammatical and rhetorical nonsense. What are called literal terms, such as time, space, mind, spirit. Sec, are like worn out coin, or effaced inscriptions, the meaning or value of which, being never ascertained, occasions everlasting conjecture and controversy. 8. Almost every sentence is ellip- tical. 9- Almost every word is put elliptically. 10. Almost every word is a compound of two or more words. 11. All words are resolvable into a few primitives ; or thus, all the seeming multitude of words are merely various spellings and pronuncia- tions of the names of a few striking and familiar objects ; as the head, foot, hand, eye, ear, mouth, &c. 12. As all words are resolvable into the letters of the alphabet, so all the letters of the alphabet are resolv- XXll INTRODUCTION. al)l(' into one primary form. ]3. That primary form was ('mj)Ioyed as a sign or representation of visible ol)jocts. 14. This method of significancy by simili- tude, is the orifi-in of all written lanGfuaJi•(^ 1.5. There are very few words, which were primarily unwritten, or which oriijinatcd in an imitation of natural sounds. If these principles can be overturned, the philo- logy of the author will prove of course a baseless fabric. PHILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY. PART I. THE NATURE AND ORIGIN OF ALPHABETIC SIGNS. It will be admitted by all who have thought suffi- ciently on the subject, that the letters of the alphabet must have been originally as significant as the figures or signs of arithmetic ; and as there is a relation between these two methods of significancy, the one may be emploj^ed to explain the other. Every person possessed of sight can see how and why i. signifies one; ii. two; iii. three: it is equally intelligible how V. 5, should signify Jiue ; because though somewhat altered from its original shape for the sake of easy formation, it was a sign or representation of the hand consisting of five fingers or digits : so X. which is a compound sign, consisting of two of the other, (in other words, two signs for two hands with ten fingers) signifies ten. If instead of putting the two signs of the two hands or semicircles (the original form) back to back, (dc changed into x.) we put them face to 24 nilLOSOPIIIC ETYMOLOGY. face, (co. or joi)ic(l into a circle o.) then we have what is called a cipher^ which so far from being a nought or insignificant, is the same as X. ; only it is always accompanied by another sign.* Thus 10 is one-ten ; 20 is two-ten, or twice-ten contracted into twenty ; 30 is three-ten or thirty, &c. As each of the arithmetical signs is encreased or multiplied ten- fold, when removed a degree towards the left, 100 is ten times ten, or one hundred ; 1000 is ten times a hundred, or one thousand ; hence the reason why x is the sign of multiplication : + plus is (as will be shown under conjunctives) the Samaritan -f , answer- ing to the Hebrew n, the Saxon ^, our own T. t., &c. ; being a conjunction which is found in all the languages, or rather dialects. It would be equally easy to explain the significancy of every arithmetical sign, but my present business is with alphabetic signs. It is hoped that the intelligent enquirer is already prepared to consider the alphabet as consisting of real signs, and to resolve all its letters into their pri- * In the Po////)/if;»jrt?j Diciioriary, a cipher is exphiined to be "An arithnicticiil mark, which standing for nothing itself, encrcases the value of the other figures ! !"" So it appears that nothing can create something; according to tlie popular doctrine of all things being made out of nothing, in spite of all that the logicians have said about nihil begetting nihil. The common mistake, however, respecting the cifjher as ii it were a nought, is not so surprising as a thousand other mistakes on familiar subjects, con- cerning which men have been always accustomed to rote and repeat, but seldom stop to think or reflect; and the author shall not wonder if some controversy be necessary before tlie poor cipher obtain justice. PHILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY. 25 mary forms. Several, if not all the letters of the alphabet, are evidently varieties of the same forms or fio'ures, and therefore our shortest method in treating of them, is first to resolve all the varieties or deriva- tives into their primary forms. It is presumed that for analysing the alphabet the following principles w^ill be admitted by all sound philologers: 1. Letters of smoother and easier utter- ance are to be considered as growing out of those of harsher and more difficult utterance, but not vice versa. Thus gutturals (or letters formed in the throat) become dentals (letters formed by putting the teeth together) ; dentals become labials (letters formed by closing the lips); consonants become vowels; but vowels do not become consonants, nor labials gutturals. The reason of the foregoing principle is, all men, — savages, philosophers and musicians, prefer smoothness to harshness, facility to difficulty, and ease to labour. The evidence of the principle is, the history of all the dialects of the world. There is not a single instance of vowels becoming consonants, or labials gutturals ; but there are multitudes of in- stances of gutturals becoming labials, and labials becoming vowels. Second principle. Those forms of letters most speedily and most easily written, or rather graved, (for graving on leaves of trees, on stone, wood, lead, brass, &c., was the first mode of writing and print- ing,) are to be considered as derivatives, varieties, or corruptions of those forms graved most slowly and of) I'JI J L0S01>IUC IITYMOLOGV. (liffirultly, I)Ut not vice versa. This matter may be <:isily ascertained. Let any one cut out of wood witii liis penknife all the letters of the alphabet, and ho will be convinced that the more circular any letter is it is graved with more difficulty, and the less cir- cular, it is graved with the greater facility. In this view, the hardest letter in the alphabet is O., and the easiest I. ; the Samaritan V is much easier than O. ; and the Greek A is much easier than D. ord. ; the Saxon C is easier than C. ; and G than G., &c. It folloAvs from the first principle, that vowels are to be resolved into consonants, and that all consonants are to be resolved into gutturals ; and it follows from the second principle, that straight-lined and angular letters are to be resolved into circular letters. Thus I. grew out of J., which arose out of G. ; V. from U., which is merely a slight variety of C, or the He- brew D ; w. from uu ; M. m. from CO (being merely w. or uu. reversed) ; N. is V. both upwards and down- ward ; n. is u. reversed ; A. is the same as V., only with the angle upwards and a stroke across ; which stroke constitutes the only difference between it and the Greek A. ; and when we come to the canon of etymology, we shall have occasion to show the con- nexion between A. changed into L. contracted into 1. and V. or U. ; Y. like t. v. is primarily the same form ; E, e. e. is obviously resolvable into C. ; and O. is so plainly the same letter as to render any remark snpcrfluous; X. as we showed when glancing at arithmetical signs, is two V.'s or two C.'s ; Z. is a PHILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY. 2/ variety of ^, which like S. is a double form of C. exactly like the French and Spanish c. both in form and sound : T. t. r. t. D. ^. C with several other varieties are resolvable into D. d. b. o. ©. ^. 9. ; which are as plainly resolvable into C. G. Q, q. D. (changed into H.) ; the sameness of form is evident in d, b. (B. is two half circles), p. q. ; F. f. digamma or double gamma, is resolvable into F. f. 7. which is merely a variety of D. or C. G., &c. ; il. r. (p. p. p. Greek, n. Hebrew), is also like L. 1. C?. Hebrew), radically the same as D. C. G., &c. ; K. is properly «. or %• being merely a different form of X. %. or ra- ther 3C. We shall treat more minutely of the primary form of the letters when instituting the canon of etymo- logy ; but it is evident from the foregoing analysis, that there is in reality but one figure or form in the whole alphabet; and that the first alphabetic signs were circles or circular marks ; they were the kind of hieroglyphics which the Egyptians very properly named Curiologic. " The hieroglyphics of the Egyp- tians were distinguished into Curiologic and sym- bolic ; for instance, in the Curiologic way to express the sun, they made a circle (or O.), the moon a crescent," (or D. G. C). The Q\\Y\o\o'^\c ov circlegraphic method of signi/i- cancy, may be considered as the short-hand of hiero- glyphics. The first representation of the sun, was such a picture of him as we sec painted on a sign- post^ called the sign of the sun ; so of the moon, the 1>8 I'Hir.OSOPIIIC ETYMOLOGY. i^lobc, &r. ; but as this was tedious and difficult, tlic roj)r('ScntatioM was abridged — the rays of the sun were left out, and lie was represented by a circle : so of all other circular objects respectively ; as the heaven, the earth, a millstone, an ear, an eye, mouth, &c. There can ])v no doubt, however, that in the first instance even the abridged representation would as uiuch as possible indicate the particular circle or round object intended. Thus, to denote the horison, world, [cr-alt great circle) or globe, a very large circle would be drawn; to indicate a drop of dew or any other very minute round object, a very small circle would be made : and here let me observe, that the period ( , ) is a diminutive circle or o. ; the colon (:) is two diminutive circles ; and the comma ( ) hemi or semi^ is half a little circle or o, and the very same as the Greek ' ' and Hebrew "» (of which T is a some- what larger form) ; hence jW changed into^'o^, again changed into dot is employed to signify diminutive- ness ; and hence too, the reason why the comma and period are both employed to indicate contraction ; as Dr. or Dr, &c. The largest circular form or sign in the Hebrew alphabet is Q, and the smallest is >. The above representation of alphabetic signs, as originating in curiology, and of curiology as a con- tracted form of hieroglyphics, will, I fear not, stand the severest scrutiny ; but it is natural for the investigator to enquire first, why should circular representations only be employed as signs; and secondly, are they competent to all the purposes of language ? In reply PHILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY. 99 to the first question, the only reason which I can assign is, the prevalence of the circular form in the objects both of nature and art. The sun, moon, heaven, earth, and most objects in it, as hills, trees, &c. are of a round form ; so also is the human body and all its members, as limbs, fingers, toes, eyes, ears, head, &c. If, therefore, a representation of objects was adopted as a sign, it must of necessity be round or roundish to be like them. 1 shall not be surprised, however, if the inquisitive philologer is not at first satisfied with the above reason of the fact, (fact, I scruple not to name it, being established by every experiment I have made in Hebrew, Celtic, Gothic, Greek, Latin, &c.) for it was long before I could be myself content with it. I could easily resolve all the letters of the alphabet into a circular form ; I could easily find a reason why the circular form was a real sign in most of the instances upon which I ex- perimented ; but I could not be persuaded that the circular figure was sufficient or competent, and was determined if possible to find the straight line form ( — or I ) ; the angular (V.) ; the triangular (a.) ; the quadrangular (d.), which with the circle (O.) would have fully satisfied me. It was my misfortune as a theorist, actually to find all these forms in the He- brew, Greek and Roman alphabets (which are only however corruptions of the circular form) ; and though I have been a philologer onh^ three years, my affection for the above theory — my unwillingness to be convinced that the first written language was 30 PIl 1 LOSOPJIIC KTYMOLOGY. Curi()h<>ic, caused mo to lose half my time; besides occasioning- much toil and distracting anxiety. As to the competentncss of the curiologic method of significancy, it cannot be rightly judged of a priori : indeed none are competent to judge of it, but those who have studied deeply the nature of words and their connexion with ideas ; most scholars (for there is a wide difference between a scholar and a philoso- pher) would stare incredulously if we were to state to them what we consider the clear amount of their words and ideas ; they would think it impossible for the human mind to have so few ideas, or for so few words to accomplish the purposes of speech : small objects seem great in a mist, and a few seem an in- finite multitude in a wilderness of confusion. Who that has not previously considered it, would believe how many changes can be rung with four or five bells — how much variety of music can be brought out of a few notes or produced on three or four strings ? TJIE CONNEXION BETWEEN ALPHABETIC SIGNS AND INTELLIGIBLE SOUNDS CONSIDERED. A proper enquiry here is, whether there be a spoken language wholly independent of the icritien one. '" I see, (said Mr. Home Tooke, in a letter to Mr. Shaw, of Hanley,) by the general contents of your plan, that you are aware that when we speak of the Eng- lish language, we speak in fact of two distinct lan- guages ; 1 mean a system of signs addressed to the ear by sounds, and a system of signs addressed to the PHILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY. 3i eye by written characters/* It is impossible to as- certain now precisely what this acute philologer meant by a system of signs addressed to the ear ; for the few sounds employed as imitations and repre- sentations of sounds, (and sound can properly re- present nothing- but sound) are not entitled to be called a system. It is admitted that all such words as hiss, whisper, croak, crash, howl, (formerly hul) cuckoo, (coo — coo or cul — cul), coo, chirp, (or chirr) turtle, (or tur — tur) ; and in short, all words whose import appeals primarily to the ear, originated in sound — are intended to imitate and therefore represent sound ; and that in committing them to writing those letters, were chosen (without any regard to figure) which were best calculated when pronounced to give the sound intended. Some, indeed, have denied that there is any such thing in language as imitation of sound, or of designating living creatures by their cry ; as crow, (a softened pronunciation of croak) cuckoo, owl, (contraction 'of howl or hul) ; and the reason assigned for their opinion, is, that if the name or word were copied from the sound, it would be the same in all languages : but there is no reasonableness in the foregoing reason ; for the same word is not onlv liable to be much changed both in pronunciation and spelling, in passing along through different dialects, but even in the same dialect at different periods of time ; and the same object or creature has frequently different names founded on different reasons. Thus lapwing, (a contraction of flapwing) plover, teewheet. 32 PHILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY. peewheet, are difTercnt names of the same bird ; the first originating' in the flapping of its wings, the second in its frequenting wet or marshy places (plu- vier, French ; pluvialis, Latin) ; and the two last names are evidently imitations of its cry. But though it is unreasonable to affirm that no words are imitative representations of sound, it is yet more un- reasonable to affirm that written language originated in spoken language ; or that signs addressed to the ear generated the signs which are addressed to the eye ; or that there is any mode of significancy merely by sounds entitled to be considered a system. This is one of the most difficult and controvertible parts of philology, and not absolutely connected with the general principles of the present work ; but having touched upon it I shall communicate the result of uiy reflection ; persuaded that it will be found essen- tially correct when philology is advanced to a much higher state of discovery than it has ever yet at- tained. 1. Significancy by signs (that is, as the word im- ports what are seen; sign being from sig see) was prior to any significancy by sounds : the language of signs is the language of nature ; the language of a man born deaf w^as before that of one born blind.* Secondly, the same system of curiology must have prevailed at a very early period, before the human family was scattered abroad in the world ; for it can * See more of this in Reason the Arbiter of Langusue. PHILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY. 33 be shown that Hebrew, Gothic, Celtic, Greek, Latin, &c. are radically the same language ; and that they not only proceed on the same principles, but contain the same words. The Chinese cannot be admitted in evidence on this subject till it be better understood, and more rationally explained. 3. The first attempt at articulate sounds or speech, was by expressing with the mouth the form of curiologic signs. The shape of the mouth in pronouncing many of the letters is still of a circular form, as the broad a, the u, the o, as well as all the gutturals : this the enquirer may ascertain by observing the mouth of a friend in form- ing the letters ; or his own mouth before a looking- glass. It is probable that in the first instance men conversed w^holly by looking, not by listening even in employing the mouth ; and that the different mo- difications of sound emitted from the mouth, (which modifications of sound result from the modification in the form of the organs of speech,) were a subse- quent step of improvement and conveniency, not contemplated when the mouth was first applied to curiologic signs ; which application of the mouth was not anticipated when these signs were first em- ployed ; and which signs were not contemplated when hieroglyphics were invented : thus, in the use of signs, men were led on step by step from hiero- glyphics or picture-writing, tocuriologics, an abridged form of the former ; from curiologics engraved or drawn on any substance, to the expression of them by the mouth ; and from the expression of them by D 3-1 I'll rLOSOI'JllC ETYMOLOGY. the iiiniitli to the eye, to the expression of them by sou 11(1 to the ear. Tlie last was a great improvement, enabling- men to converse in the dark as well as in the light ; as the preceding step of improvement enabled them to interchange thought with a degree of facility and expedition, which no dexterity in graving or writing could ever rival. The above explanation may not perhaps convince and satisfy every enquirer ; but I am bold to say it is the simplest, most intelligible and philosophic representation that has ever yet been given : as for those who still continue to consider language as arbi- trary, or as invented and taught by the Deity, they must not be offended if I tell them that they are un- worthy of notice. It is as justly as wittily remarked by Mr. Home Tooke, that the assigning of a divine origin to the invention of letters, is a short cut which saves much trouble, but perpetuates much ignorance. It is far more reasonable, however, to consider lan- guage as a super-human invention, than to speak as some yet do of words being arbitrary signs. Perhaps the author has not successfully explained the origin of language, but it will be admitted, he presumes, that in the space of a few pages he has pushed the subject further than any other writer, and put it in a train of being at last well understood. ( 3d ) PART II. THE CANON OF ETYMOLOGY. This is by far the most important part of the present work, being the foundation of all rational and useful philology ; and as nothing of the kind has been attempted, (for whatever may have been said about etymology, no one will affirm that it has been reduced to a certain science,) I shall therefore be more full and minute than is absolutely necessary to the more advanced and philosophic philologer. I shall endeavour as much as possible to supply illustrations and proofs from the English language ; but it must not be considered as unsuitable to the nature of this work, and especially this part of it, if I sometimes avail myself of appropriate instances from other dialects. The following principles, it is presumed, will reduce etymology to a certain science. 1. Meaning, rather t\\^\\ pronunciation and spelling, is to be considered as the great guide of etymologic investigation.* • The above principle ought to be carefully considered by tlie young etymologer ; it was long the only guide the author could trust to: by this alone he was frequently preserved from being lost in the wilderness of words, and was safely conducted through the labyrinths of Babel- graminars and dictionaries. D 2 36 Ml r i.osorii ic etymology. Gr. Lat. It. Fr. Sp. Ger. KefaXij, rap-ut. cap-o, chef, cab-eza, kopf haupt Dutrh. Sax. Eng. Welch. ll(M)l'tl, heafod, head. siad. Iltl). Gr. Lat. It. Fr. Sp. rV, OyixA;j.os, oculus > occhio, ceil, ojo, Ger. Dutch. Sax. Eng. auge, oog, ea?, eye. Gr. Lat It. Fr. Sp. Uovs \ pes ped- 4 pie pie del^ pie j Ger. Dutch. Sax. Eng. fuss. voet. fot. foot. The similarity of spelling and pronunciation is not very obvious in these different forms of the same word, but the idea is manifestly the same. The identity of idea furnishes a presumption that the names for it are merely varieties of the same word, which differs from itself only as the same person dif- fers from himself at different periods of life, and in different countries according to variety of habit, &c. It will be presently seen that all those varieties of guises and disguises of the same word, as it appears in Judea, Greece, Italy, &c. are accountable for on certain and regular principles ; but prior to the knowledge of such principles, it ought to be consi- dered as an axiom : — Ideas, rather than Words, are the guides of Etymology. And it ought to be admitted as an etymological postulate : when two or PHILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY. 3? more words have the same idea, the presumption is, that they are radically and truly the same word under different forms of spelling. This, indeed, holds so generally and uniformly, that it may safely be con- sidered an axiom ; and those instances wherein it is contradicted by investigation, will amount to no more than a few exceptions to a general rule, if in- deed any exceptions can be found. 2. Every word is to be considered significant. Unmeaning words, that is insignificant signs, are fic- tions of brainless metaphysicians.* It will be seen hereafter that some words are applied insignificantly, but in treating of them etymologically, or what they are primarily and properly, every word is to be con- sidered significant. 3. Every syllable of every word is t9 be considered significant. 4. Every letter of every syllable is to be considered significant. The two last positions must be restricted ; for though every letter be properly significant, yet letters through ignorance, carelessness, mistake, haste, de- * Tliat no words are absolutely insignificant in any language, lias been fully proved by Mr. Home Tooke, and admitted bv all the soundest plii- losopheis ef Europe; yet Dugald Stewart lias committed the reputation of his understanding, by asserting in opposition to the New Philosophy, (as he cniitingly writes, ) thai many words are as insignificant as the letlcrs of which they are formed. If lie means that words may be used insignifi- cantly or abused, his own writings supply abundant proof of his position; but no one except a mere pretender to philosophy would say, that either words or letters are primarily and properly insignificant. J8 PHILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY. fcctive organs of hearing and speaking, are frequently used insignificantly or improperly. Almost all the double letters in every language come under the fore- going remark, as bb, dd, 11, rr, ss, tt, &c. The French and English (for the latter through the fop- pery of courtiers and travellers has been long dangling after the former) languages have been grossly mispelt, especially during the last two hundred years. Almost all that has been done to fix (as it is called) our orthography, has been an ignorant effort to pervert it. Rational etymology ought to fix the meanings, ap- plications, spellings and pronounciations of words ; but such men as Dr. Johnson were ignorant of true etymology. They had only power to do evil — suffi- cient knowledge to construct a Babel of confusion and labyrinth of perplexity. Whenever letters are introduced for the sake of easy utterance or smooth sound, (commonly called euphony) they are to be considered as employed insignificantly. This is often the case with the vowels. N.B. The languages which have fewest vowels are fittest for etymological purposes, as the Hebrew,* * The Hebrew is admitted by all the soundest Jewish aud Oriental grammarians to liave no vowels. Mr. Wilson and others are very angry at them for it, and absurdly rave about absurdity. " The greater part of Jewish grammarians have had the audacity or rather absurdity to afhrm, that all the letters of the Hebrew alphabet are consonants and not one of them a vowel: — an opinion which, it is astonishing that many learned men well skilled in oriental antiquities, and no ways indulgent to Jewish fables, have adopted aud maintained." Wilson's Hebrew Grammar. PHILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY. 39 &c. ; and those which have most vowels or use vowels most frequently, as the Greek and French, arc fitter for musical petits maitres than any etymological, or indeed any philosophical purpose. 6. All words are primarily and properly the signs of visible objects. This proposition must be restricted and explained. I mean not that such combinations or uses of letters as are employed merely to represent or imitate sound as hiss^ bark, bray, (brack,) howl, (hul,) &c. have any connexion with visible objects. Sound cannot be seen or painted ; we cannot, properly speaking, have an idea or image of sound. Locke and others speak of words as signs of ideas ; but I prefer the more definite and more just expression, signs of visible objects. The expression being new, though very intelligible, may want explaining. Sign I use ac- cording to its proper meaning, as the past participle of sig (now spelt see,) sign (or sigen now contracted into seen) ; it is only a different spelling and pronun- ciation oi token, being formed of and ^' \ (t^ye) to eye or be eyed. Signs therefore have to do properly only with visildc objects. It amounts to the same meaning, whether we say words are signs of objects or ideas, that is, the images of the objects ; for what is like the ori- 40 piii rosopri Tc etymology. ginal must be also like the copy. Tlius, when you look into a mirror, there is an image or idea (the word is radically the same as idol from gj^-f^u video,) ot your face in the mirror ; there is another in your imagina- tion (from image) or fancy, (from (^aciv—) : you might make a picture of your face from the mirror or from your fancy ; which picture would correspond at once to the face, its image in the mirror, and the idea of it in the mind : and if that picture were shortened or contracted in the manner of curiology, (the short- hand of hieroglyphics or picture-writing,) it might be properly called a sign of the visible object, the face, or of the image of it in the mirror ; or of the idea of it in the mind ; for being a resemblance (how- ever distant and imperfect) of the one, it is also a resemblance or sign of the other. I mean not to go further into this important subject here ; but what I have said will sufficiently open the nature of signs and ideas to intelligent enquirers. The language of Mr. Locke and all our metaphysicians is exceedingly indistinct and indefinite ; as for good Mr. Dugald Stewart, always the friend of the true nature of the soul, its laws, data, phenomena, and always the enemy of infidel philosophy ; if he makes use of a little metaphysical mistiness, it is to be charitably interpreted into a pious fraud : he only endeavours to escape infidel detection (for the worst of all atheists is the Neio Philosophi/), by concealing his theory in the vacuo of abstraction or insignificant phraseology: ideas he has discovered are very bad to deal with and PHILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY. 41 must, therefore give place to jiotions. If the worthy professor has any regard for the safety of the true theory of the mind, he will take up a new position as speedily as possible; for notions are too nearly re- lated to note and notice to be long tenable against the assaults of the new philosophy, and especially the new etymology. N.B. The preceding or fifth proposition, is implied in the second, third and fourth, but I wished to express my meaning so definitely as to leave no doubtfulness. 6. Every word is primarily an adjective ; that is expressive of some quality, circumstance, or manner of being. This proposition is in reality the same as the second ; for no word could be truly significant with- out expressing some quality, circumstance, &c. of that to which it is applied. Mr. Home Tooke has hinted, that all words are resolvable into the noun or najne ; but if there be in the name a reason for its im- position or application, (and without a reason of some kind or other, it could never have become a name,) then it is resolvable into what has been called an adjective ; for we must use the best grammatical terms we have, though there is hardly one of them fit for our purpose. Illustration of the proposition. Urbs is orhis, that is, surrounded, encircled (namely, with a wall so as to be fortified), houses or habitations being under- stood. Roma, Rome is merely a softened and more musical form of the same word. City contraction 42 I'll I r.OSOPlIIC KTYMOLOGY, of citnfas is also an adjective signifying a chief or capilal, somelhing- more Ijcing understood (which was originally expressed) to make the sense complete. When we say the capital, it is an abridgment of the capital, or head town of all the towns in England, Town, which is used as a substantive in the above sentence, is also resolvable into an adjective, signi- fying primarily like urbs, an encircled or enclosed place ; and was formerly' not confined to habitations, but applied to gardens, [garded places) parks, &c. (the same as burgs which also are the same as towns), and in Dutch a garden is still called tuin. Head contracted from heafd, hafd, from caput, cop, top, (the regular change of c. into t. will be noticed here- after,) is an adjective, signifying like heaven, (hof is a garden in Dutch,) hoop, coop, cup, round; only what round or circular form intended in every particu- lar instance, was originally as much as possible indi- cated by other w^ords. The above are sufficient illus- trations of the proposition: — Every word is primarily an adjective : and it will receive illustration and con- firmation from all the subsequent parts of this work. 7. Almost every word is a comjjound ; for as will be hereafter clearly shown, there are very few simple words. Count is compounded of con, com, and put-o, (computo, compute, com-pon-o, compound, combine, composite, &c.) put with or join together. Aid, It. ajuto, Fr. aide, Sp. ayudo, Lat. adjut-us, a, um is compounded of ad, and juveo (a variety of help), each of which separate parts is itself a com- PHILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY. 43 pound ; so that the investigator must not hastily suppose himself arrived at the simple primitive, even when he has analysed a long word into a single sylla- ble or single letter.* N.B. Every simple word consists only of one syl- lable, but every monosyllable is not a simple or un- compounded word. 8. The constant tendency of words in passing from mouth to mouth is to contract, not to dilate — to lose, not to assume letters. Speech is a contraction of sprech (Ger.), not sprech a dilatation of speech ; seek is a contraction of search, (k. and ch. will be hereafter proved one and the same letter.) not search a dilatation of seek. Alum, is a contraction of alumen ; ambry, of almonry ; as, of als ; each, of ilk, ealk, &c. ; bay, of bark ; daggle, of draggle; guide, of gelead ; behoof, of behalf; speckl, spangle, of spreckle, sprinkle, &c. ; palsy, of paralysis ; (hence paralytic,) big, (magn, &c.) of bulk, bulge ; bishop, of episcopus ; chit, of child ; bust, of breast ; (a statue representing a man, to the bust or breast ; speaking of an antique, we say the head is marble and the bust or breast is porphyry or bronze) ; corse, (hearse also) of corpus ; catch, (also cat, katz. Teuton. kite,) of clutch, clinch, &c. ; caw, of croak, crow, craw, &c. ; chime, of chirme ; cit, of citizen, (of civitatisen) ; coach, (coche, i^/-.) of carriage ; couch, of crouch, curve ; covenant, of convenant ; (so Co- * See more of this in the Pioneer of Rational Philology. 44 Plir LOSOI'IIIC ETYMOLOGY vent-garden is a contraction of Convent-garden, Coventry of Conventry) ; mock, of mimic ; mite, moth, mote, of minute ; moan, of mourn; mule, of mingle. The reader will perceive how much the mass of words may be thus diminished, and the wil- derness of language simplified by resolving the numerous synonimes, that is various spellings, into one word. The author is not speaking extravagantly, though somewhat paradoxically, when he tells the reader that he could put all the matter of Johnson's dictionary — the whole of his copia verborum into a nutshell. A thousand instances might be added to those above given, not only from the English, but from all the dialects of Europe. The enquirer will observe, that the letters which chiefly fall or fly off, or melt away, are those most difficult to the mouth and grating to the ear ; as the guttural c, k, g, but especially 1. and r. These letters (1. and r.) have been called ironically, perhaps, liquids. They are never easy to the mouth and seldom pleasant to the ear. When suffered to stretch out between long vowels, as in Ahnora, Alara, they are musical enough; but when wedged in between two stubborn con- sonants, no hedgehog is harsher to the mouth of dog than these same liquids are to the mouth and ear of man. Hence they are employed to express harsh sounds ; as croak, creak, bark, bray, growl, groan, grunt, grumble, &c. The principle contained in the above proposition and signijicancy seem to have been the only etymo- PHILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY. 45 logical rules and principles in possession of Mr. Hornc Tooke, though he does not adhere uniformly and consistently even to these (scanty as they are) ; for he unreasonably supposes that r. the most difficult and repulsive letter to the organs of speech in all the alphabet, to have been assumed in such words as bridegroom, &c. ; though he had previously entered his protest against such arbitrary assumptions. Observe : while the orthography of any people is not fixed by acknowledged standards, the spelling follows the pronunciation ; every writer expresses, or attempts to express the prevailing sounds by the most appropriate letters : hence, first the variety of spelling among our old authors, which variety how- ever prevailed chiefly with the -v^owels which ever have been, (and from their nature ever must be,) changeable as the cameleon and uncertain as the wind ; and secondly, the reason why many of our pronunciations are more contracted than our spel- lings, as calm, calf, chalk, talk, Holborn ; pronounced as if spelt cam, (or caam) caf, chak, tak, Hoburn, &c. Those words most frequently in use are most liable to be contracted ; and they contract more rapidly in the mouth of the illiterate vulgar, — mincing courtiers and insects of fashion than in the mouth of the learned,— professional men, — and the middle class of the people. Extremes, it is often said, meet, and when my ears were lately saluted with such pronun- ciations as Lunun, (for London) ; gemtnen, (or some- thing more like it than gentlemen,) from the mouth 46 Plin-OSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY. of a royal duke, I could not help reflecting how very nearly high life and low life, the Court and Wapping (or Tetticoat Lane) are related. Jt is to he hoped, however, that the good sense of the English people will prevent them from capering after the mincing, frisking imitators of France and Italy ; who, like the flippant Greeks before them, are always pleasing their ears at the expense of their understanding : smooth sound is nothing, (except to musical asses,) distinct and forcible expression is every thing in language : the composition of a Frenchman or Italian can neither be distinctly profound nor powerfully expressive ; for in a kind of musical spite he has gnawed down the real alphabetic signs into a cluster of vowels, which he can breath or snivel out with a face as composed as if he were blowing into q. pandeaji or through the French-horn. Let it be observed once more, that the preceding proposition (the tendency of all words is to contract) applies rather to consonants than vowels ; and that the cases in which words elongate even for the sake of easy utterance and pleasant sound, or by the stut- tering pronunciation which some combinations of letters produce, (as the 1. and r. when occurring near each other,) are extremely rare. N. B. No one is fully qualified for etymology, who cannot satisfactorily or systematically account for the insertion or omission of every letter of every syl- lable. 9. The tendency of all words is to become PHILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY. 47 smoother ; those letters and combinations which are more harsh, changing into such letters and combina- tions as are easier to the mouth and pleasanter to the ear; not vice versa. The smoothest letters in the alphabet both to mouth and ear are vowels ; there- fore consonants often change into vowels, but vowels never change into consonants.* The easiest and smoothest consonants are s, n, m, p, b, v, f, (all these are interchangeable, and as we shall show presently to be considered only varieties of one letter,) z, t, d, (varieties of the same letter next in smoothness to those that precede) ; the hardest consonants both to mouth and ear, are r, 1, g, k, c, h, th, with their va- rieties : therefore the last enumerated often chansre into the first, but not the first into the last. Remark : the above statement is made in reference to the proper primitive guttural sound of g. and c. ; for as to their modern sounds (the same as j. and s. before e, i, and y,) they range under s. ; being among the easiest pronunciations that are found in the whole compass of speech, and therefore we find in Italian, (as also in Spanish,) d. passing into g. as : * For the same reason agreeably to a principle laid down when treat- ing of the nature and origin of alphabetic signs, all the vowels originated in consonants. Some Oriental scholars affirm, that there are no vowels in the Hebrew alphabet ; otliers as strenuously contend that it contains five (the usual quota) vowels. The truth lies between them, for there are five lettei-s in the Hebrew alphabet, that may like our v, u, y, j, i, &c. be called half vowels, lialf consonants. They had already though slowly journied from the bottom of the throat to the extremity of the lip, and were become little more than an emibsion of breath. 48 PHILOSOPHIC KTYMOLOGY. Lat. diurnus, It. giorno; hodie, oggi ; modius, mog- gio ; radius, raggio, &c. The easy and soft utterance of g. and c. before e. i. and y. shows the tendency, and as we may say, con- stant effort of letters to assume a more pleasant form to the organs of speaking and hearing ; and how from one figure proceeded all the variety of the alphabet. The r, and the s. may be considered as the two extremities ; the first being the most diffi- cult, and the last the easiest letter in the alphabet ; and yet the first frequently passes into the last with- out any intervening letters. Thus, from ure, is use ; from ur-o urere, is iissi ustum ; and frequently r. passes into s. in all the dialects. The next letter in smoothness to s. is n., and we frequently find the more difficult letters first passing into n. and from n. into s. At one time our genitive (as it is called) and plural termination (for it will be seen that the same word has always as a termination performed both offices) w^as er ; a few relics of which yet remain : as our., that is, we-er ; your., you-er ; their they-er : afterwards the er was softened into ew, a few relics of which yet remain, as gold-en ; mine or me-en ; thine, corruption oi thoiv-en or thee-en ; oxen, plural of ox. In a few instances we have a double termination, the new form not having supplanted but having been grafted upon the old ; as child-er-en (which is still pronounced child-er in many country places,) wester-en, south-ern, &c. In process of time the s. superseded the w., as the n, had ejected PHILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY. 49 the r. ; and it is now our regular genitive and plural termination : as bo3% boy's (or of boy) boys, the plural of boy ; girl's (or of girl) girls, the plural of girl ; * formerly it would have been boy, boyen (of boy), boyen the plural ; or further back still, it would have been boy, boyer (of boy), boyer plural. The above are sufficient illustrations of the prin- ciple ; but that it may be made more certain and familiar to the reader, that harsh words tend to be- come smooth, the following instances are annexed: Curt, short; kirk, church; dash from ding, (from dring, Dutch) ; dag, from dirk ; dagger, from dirker ; discure, discern, descry, &c. from discover ; discuss, from discurs-o, discourse ; dredge, from dreg or drag ; burrow, from burgh ; brig, bridge ; sample, from ex- ample ; cutlass, from curtelass, curtelax ; dusk, from dark ; feat, from fact ; fast, (also fist, the fixed, fast, or closed hand,) from fixt, fixed ; forfeit, j* forfault ; goss, gorze, furze ; maxim, softened from magnum, and also contracted into axiom ; mess, from meat, (from mouth,) and contracted into eat ; much, mass, many, from magn — ; musty, fusty, from mouldy, &c. * The intelligent reader will be before hand with my explanation, in discovering the real nature both of the plural and genitive termination, (which is in reality also the termination of the infinitive, as it is called, of verbs and the termination of adjectives, participles, &c.); he will perceive that the only difference between them is, that the genitive has the apos- trophic ' ; which difference is rather capricious than reasonaljle, for there is the same reason for its insertion in both caseS| namely, the elision of the e. es. being contracted into *. t Forfault an estate is the expression in Scotch writings; that is, an abridged or elliptical phrase for to lose an estate, for, per, or hy fault. E 50 PHILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY. 10. The vowels are so inconstant that they cannot be much regarded in etymology, but they are ever to be considered as proceeding from and resolvable into the guttural C. G. or circular sign. Thus air is to be considered as a softened form of ^^V, cor, &c. (a circle), what encircles, surrounds, or encompasses the earth ; it is the same as the first syllable in hor- izon, {o§-iZu.'y) only the last is applied more technically or with more limitation ; all is the same as *? 3 whole; a wheel or circle being originally the symbol of com- pleteness, perfectness, and totality. Era, sera, is the same as '^p* xai^-os, yj-ovoi; as also o{ year, hora, hour, &c. ; which all signify primarily a circle, like tvhile, which is merely a varied spelling and pronunciation o^ wheel * Observe, that dipthongs as in nera, gene- rally indicate that a consonant has been in the place which they occupy. Ire, as also ir-on, ore, &c. (ur-o) is properly fire, or rather cr. (first of all the circular sign) : let it be remembered, that the first I. was J. and that the first J. was G. or C. ; A. is V. with the angle upwards ; and V, W, Y, U, and O . all originated in C. or G. Observe, that of the vowels, (as they are termed,) o. and e. are nearest the primary form ; and I. i. is furthest from it. The dot above i. j. as above y. in Saxon and Spanish, &c. was originally (like the marks in Greek, called accents, circumflexes, &c, &c.) * Tlie intelligent philologer will perceive liovv easj- it were to multiply instances from the different dialects, but I wish to confine myself in this ivork as much as possible to the English language. PHILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY. ol significant ; that is, it denoted as it does under Dr. Mr. contraction. 1 1. The letter s, is to be considered as only a sub- stitute for the other consonants, especially the gut- turals C, G, R, L. Illustrations of the above propo- sition : — Ort-us is softened into east, rising — supply part, quarter, &c. ; caster, [er is a usual adjective affix) the rising or resurrection — supply time ; the day on which Catholics and Episcopalians comme- morate the resurrection of Christ : choice, (for when c. has the sound of s. it is to be considered as the same in all respects,) is from keur, Dutch ; resolvable into %s'? the instrument of taking or choosing : the noted word heresy is primarily the same word with the same meaning. Castle, Bastile, caster, Chester, castrum, is properly Car-tal, tel, ter, great circle or fortification ; whatever is walled or fenced round, as a camp, town, or garrison (Fr. garnison) ; son like zon in horizon, (the same word as garrison) is, as we shall show, the same as tal, tel, tor or ter, which occurs so often as a termination. It follows from the foregoing proposition, that in etymological investigations, the s, is to be resolved into other letters, especially r. .• thus glass, gloss, glister, glare, gloria, clear, &c. are all primarily one word: they have different applications, and ap- pear to have different ideas ; but they have, after all, only one and the same idea. 12. The nearest consonant to the s. in smoothness and easy utterance, is n.; and it is difficult to conjecture Eg J2 PII I LOSOI'IIIC ETYMOLOGY. how French noses would manage to speak without it and its nasal twin tn. ; for they only require a gentle grunt through the snivelling organs, to soothe dainty ears with much sweet melody.* The n. like s. is to be regarded as merely a substi- tute for other letters, (that is, a varied form of them having an easier and smoother utterance,) especially /. and r. Illustrations of the proposition: — Kind (Dutch,) is a softened form of cild, now spelt child ; kind-er, of child-er ; all the following words are merely varied spellings, answering to varied pronunciations. Fool, fou, butfoon, (Fr. buffon,) that is, big fool, (hence fun) fond; male, man; sol, (Lat.) son, (Dutch,) sun ; can, cal, col, hence could is the imperfect (as it is called) of can ; it is resolvable into goll changed into bond, hand ; as 2 ^ is resolvable into *? 3 iden- tical with %£'? ; which, as we shall see, performs many offices in speech, and if it were not that such terms are prostituted, we would call it the prime minister of language. What the hand is among the members of the human body, the name of it is among words — almost the factotum of significancy. If the principals displace the substitutes in man-us, it will be cl, cr, or gr. ; hence ger-o, fer-o, &c. In the fol- * The author trusts that he is above any silly national antipathy; but he thinks it right to supply an antidote to French vanity, and that mawk- ish aftectation of the French language, (the very worst in Europe for the real purposes of speech,) which prevails among our frivolous race of fash- ionable literati. PHILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY. 63 lowing words /. and 7i. are evidently to be considered as one letter. Can, con, cane, col, core, cir, some- thing round ; cancel, carcel, to cross a writing ; cand-eo, cal-eo ; can-o, softened into si?ig from car-o ; hence carol, carmen, charm ; cingle, circle ; clean, clear ; con, know, ken, that is, col or cul, contraction of ocul-us ; the literal meaning of Aew, is to see or eye ; gnash, clash ; hand from goll, hence hold, help, &c. ; sheer, sheen, contraction of clean, clear ; hone, keen ; gar, cer ; hence sharp, sour, &c. Vinegar is literally sharp or sour wine ; alegar is sharp or sour ale. Observe, that n. is merely u. reverted or turned upside down, and like u. it is used chiefly as a sub- stitute or smooth expression of /. and r. ; and like ii. it is both prefixed and affixed to^. to express a varied sound of that letter : thus, as zig. and gu. occur fre- quently, merely for the sake of utterance, so ng, gn, occurs frequently for the same reason. Thus, pang-o, was anciently pag-o; magn-us, magus, (r. frequent- ly becomes ?ig. and gn. in Welsh ; as gwas ffyddlon, a faithful servant ; fy ngwas, my servant ; ei gar, his kinsman ; fy nghar, my kinsman. 13. The ni. is the next letter to the n. in smoothness and in frequent occurrence, as a substitute for other letters, especially for the r. and /. As n. is u. turned upside down, (or u. n. turned upside'down, for pro- bably the n. was before the u.),' so m. is w. turned upside down. The sameness of form (for u. is a reverted n, and w. is a double u., and in. is a reverted w.), the similarity of sound and their frequent inter- ^4 PHILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGV. changes, prove that they are only slight varieties of the same letter. Thus, the m. of the Hebrew ter- mination, is n. in the Chaldee ; the termination c-v, or on in Greek, is in Latin um; av, is am ; as^xou/av, musam ; but no one acquainted in the smallest de- gree with language, wants instances to prove that w. and m. like v, u, and w. frequently interchange. When Alfred wrote, and long after, the w. and m. were employed indifferently, without any distinction: thus, in the second line of the Preface to the Para- phrase of Boethius, we find both with and mith. " On thaere tide the Gotan of Siththiu maegthe, with Ro- manaricegewin upahafon and mith heora cyningum." Though with only remains in our dialect, niet^ mede, is the Dutch form of it ; and I need scarcely remark on the following as slight varieties: ^^^a, m-^^'j ^=^'' mith, with, met, mede, (Dutch,) meet, met:* to match is the same as to wecl^ only custom has given a more confined application to the latter than to the former; mad, was formerly spelt wud, wood ; a contraction of wild, an adjective from wold, wald, &c. now con- tracted into wood. M. is the substitute of 1. as in moon from lun-a, contracted from o-sx^vr^ ; hence maniac (rather mooniac) and lunatic are synonymous. 14. All the labials, b, p, f, v, &c. are to be consider- ed as substitutes, or rather varieties of the gutturals. We have already shown that these letters originated * We shall ht^rcafter show, that what is calloil the conjunction n^fK, the termination nun, mcnt, &c. are all only varieties of the same word. PHILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY. 55 in the gutturals or rather guttural ; for there was originally but one form of letter, the C. or circle, pro- nounced gutturally or in the throat ; but for the satisfaction of the reader we shall give further proof. The form and nameofF. {he'ingcaiieddigamma,) show that it is resolvable into r. the Greek, form of G. ; V. which interchanges with F. is a different form of U. a contraction of C. or D ; b. and p. are like the Hebrew Koph p. a variety of Caph 2. The sameness of form in b, d, p, q, is evident from this, that a piece of paper cut into the shape of any one of them, may merely by position become all the rest ; and any per- son who chooses to examine 2. J. D. S. p. carefully, will be convinced, I presume, that there is hardly any diversity to the eye; so little diversity indeed, that learners can hardly discriminate them ; and per- sons not much in the practice of forming Hebrew letters, can hardly make them distinguishable ; and the Hebrew letters are evidently the parent forms both of the Greek and Roman letters. The reader will observe, that '?, is only a slight variety of D ; and that "|. is merely a contraction of ^ ; that a. is a reverted v. o. v. or u. ; and that P. the Greek R. is exactly the same as our P. ; therefore they are all in reality but one letter.* Hence b, p, v, w, f. like * Tlie author is more uiiiiute fliaii lie wishes to be; but thouc^h he might have contented himself witli simply referring the acute philologer to an inspection of the alphabet, yet his principles could not have been made intelligible and evident to all readers without a more tedious pro- cess. The intelligent enquirer already perceives, no doubt, that all the letters of the alphabet are in reality resolvable into cue. ^6 PHILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY. m, n, and s. which wc liiive already considered, in- terchange with tlie otiier letters and are resolvable into the gutturals ; only it must be remembered that the more difficult forms change into those that are more easy, not vice versa; gutturals change into la- bials, &c. but not labials into gutturals. Illustrations : bell-um, (from pell-o, to strike or beat,) duelUum ; bell-iis, duell-us;* don-um, bon- um ; bis, from duo, &c. Frequently as a termina- tion b. and d. interchange: thus verb, word, barb, beard. Ge and be used to be indiflferently prefixed to words, (as they are still in the Dutch,) but the be being the easier and smoother form, ge has wholly disappeared ; betoken would have been formerly be- token, Z»cspatter, ^espatter, &c. All the termina- tions in ive (a Latin termination) were previously ic or ig ; thus, such words as digestive were digestic like domestic. ■]- In the same manner such words as gall, are softened into bile ; but the most important remark respecting the labials is, that like the letters we have already noticed, they are to be considered as representatives not only of C. and G., but also of R. and L. \6. The dentals, or those letters which in pronun- * The author has wished as much as possible to illustrate and confirm his principles from (he English; but they are equally applicable to, and demonstrable from the Hebrew, l^reek and Latin dialects. t Thus all the tcrmiiiations in y. were in ic or ig, as frosty, frostig, or frostic: in other words, the c. or g. has gradually softened into y, v, &c. PHILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY. 5? ciation require the action or shutting of the teeth, are also resolvable into the gutturals. That they are radically the same appears from their form ; the only difference in form between D. d. and C. or D. is the straight line conjoining the extremities of the semi- circle ; D. ^. is a slight variety of the D. and it seems to have originated T. ; unless, indeed, as the form of the last letter seems to indicate, it was at first merely a double r. having the projecting top both to the right and the left ; the Saxon t. and old English C^. are scarcely distinguishable from C. or C. : the Hebrew "T. and "i. are hardly distinguishable, and £0, n, n, n, are obviously the same letter. The radi- cal identity of the dentals and gutturals is apparent from their frequent interchanges ; many words are spelt both in Latin and modern dialects with ci, si ti, di, indifferently ; and the most legitimate modern dialect of the Latin gives Giorno for Diurnus, Oggi for Hodie. Observe, that the soft sound of c. is to be considered as s. and the soft sound of g. as j. or di. ; and when the C. and G. have this sound, they interchange indifferently with s. and t., &c. or these with them ; but when the C. and G. are pronounced with their proper guttural sound, the rule holds that has been so often repeated — difficult and harsh letters change into such as are smooth and easy ; and there- fore I). T., &c. are resolvable into C. G., &c. ; not ?7ce versa. It is unnecessary to give instances of d, t, th, &c. sliding into the easier and smoother forms of n, z, s, ; my object is to show, that they are truly 6S PHILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY. substitutes or varieties ot'C, G, L, 11.: thus yvopos, darkness ; yAuxu^, Skvkv;, dulcis, (connected with yXocraa, lingua, touguc, (the 1. being dropped) talky &C.) 5. Ulysses, Oovaa-tvr, //-sAsraw, meditor ; y-vSaXeof, madidus. " The ancients, (remarks Ainsworth,) said dingua, (answering to our tongue) for lingua ; sedda, for sella ; cadamitas, for calamitas ; arventus, for adventus." Such was really the fact, that some whose organs of speaking and hearing had been trained into smooth- ness among the Greeks, attempted by spelling as they pronounced to introduce greater smoothness into the Latin language ; but they could not prevail against general practice. If such spellings (answering to the mode of pronouncing) as dingua, sedda, cadamitas, had been the ancient primitive forms, which in pro- cess of time changed into lingua, sella, calamitas, they would have supplied the most anomalous and unaccountable phenomenon in the whole history of language. What people ever preferred labour to ease, difficulty to facility } We might as well sup- pose that a savage would prefer the gnawing of an acorn to the sucking of a grape, as believe that any people ever changed smooth and easy for difficult and harsh letters, or combinations of them. " No circumstance (says Eustace, in his Classical Tour) relative to the Italian language, is so singular and so unaccountable as its softness. The influence of the peasantry as well as that of the northern bar- barians, must have tended to untune the language, PHILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY. 69 and fill it with jarring and discordant sounds ; yet the very reverse has happened, and the alteration has been conducted as if under the management of an academy, employed for the express purpose of rendering the utterance distinct and easy as well as soft and musical." The author from whom the preceding quotation is taken, was something of a polite scholar but no- thing of a philosopher. The circumstcnice which ex- cited his wonder, is neither singular nor unaccount- able. The voicelized softness of Greek, Italian, French, and of all languages in the old age of refine- ment, proceeds from the same cause, uniformly pro- ducing the same effect. Besides, the Italians, unlike the old Romans, but like the Greeks and the French, have always been an effeminate, sing-song generation. Had the first letters been (as many have absurdly supposed) vowels, we should have never known any thing about consonants. It is, indeed, one proof among many others, how little men study subjects which they pretend to treat of philosophically, that it never occurred to those who have written on phi- lology, that vowels are to be resolved into consonants, and easy consonants into those that are more difficult ; seeing both the nature of the thing and the evidence of all etymology were calculated, if I may so speak, to compel them into that perception and conviction. Almost the whole of the useful, useless and mis- chievous varieties of words originated in the constant tendency of the mouth and ear, to adopt a softer, 60 PHILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY. smoother and easier mode of pronouncing ; and as we have before remarked, the mode of pronouncing draws the mode of spelling after it, so long as no standard of orthography has been established. 16. As all the letters of the alphabet are resolvable into gutturals, so all the gutturals are resolvable into one character. 1 am aware that this is the most startling of all my propositions ; and I hesitated for some time whether to venture all the way in what I deemed the true theory of language at my first ap- pearance before the public ; for if it was not till after long vexatious controversy, that the discoveries of Bacon and Newton were admitted ; — if none of Harvey's contemporaries could perceive that he had demonstrated the circulation of the blood ; an humble individual giving a theory of language entirely dif- ferent from all ancient and modern systems of esta- blished reputation, and so simple as to appear at first sight absolutely naked, might well fear that by at- tempting too much he should perform nothing. But I could not reconcile myself to the idea of doing my work by halves ; or of employing the artifice of Mr. Home Tooke, of keeping, or seeming to keep the important secret and proof in reserve. I was resolved to be frank and explicit, and to succeed to the full extent of my wishes, or entirely fail. I must endea- vour, however, to obtain a gracious reception for the last proposition, by offering some explanation ; for it will be asked, (as the author asked himself a hundred times,) how can one character perform all the numer- ous and complicated offices of speech } PHILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY. 6\ When I say one character, I mean one form of character or kind of sign, namely, the circular form ; but there might be originally many sizes, bearing some proportion real or supposed to the magnitude of visible objects, with other contrivances to distinguish one particular visible object from another, as a whole circle to represent the sun, and a half circle to repre- sent the moon ; and the sign might be repeated or compounded into two, three, or any number. Thus to express one hand, D. Caph might be employed, (which is still the name and sign of hand in Hebrew) because of a resemblance in it to the human hand in its usual form : to express two hands, two D. D. ; or C. C/s might be employed; or thus, oc. As the hand consists of five distinct parts or divisions, ^. which slightly altered, is 5. and V. would represent or signify five ; X. would signify ten ; XV. fifteen ; XX. twenty ; XXX. thirty, &c. To represent the mouth one C. or O. might be employed; to re- present the two eyes, oy seeing, &c. two OO.^s might be employed ; or thus joining them together O— O. or o* ; and I am inclined to think that this was the real origin of the combination of letters (or of the letter) into syllables ; as also of such letters as as B. ^ S. (or c.) X. and in short, of all the variety in the alpha- bet ; for however convenient that variety might be found as diversifying and multiplying sounds, and by consequence enabling the ear to follow a tnore abridg- ed language; yet, very probably, that variety was in 62 PHILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY. the first instance intended for the eye rather than the ear. I am persuaded, that an intelligent and philo- sophic analysis of the Chinese characters, will both illustrate and confirm the foregoing principle. 1 re- collect in particular, (for I have not access at the present moment to a Chinese alphabet^ if 1 mtiy so term it,) tnat several small circles joined together, are employed to represent or signify the stars. 1 do not stop here to show how many purposes of speech could be accomplished by the sign of the hand, or the eye, the mouth, or the ear, taken literally and figura- tively, ^1 suspect the two last terms convey no very distinct and true meaning, but I must put up with the use of them in this place). I have sufficiently, I trust, opened the business of signs, to remove idle wonder and ignorant incredulity. But after all, in- stead of putting the question how one character should be competent to the purposes of speech, it would be equally proper to enquire how a few cha- racters should be competent. Let it be supposed, for the sake of argument, (though disproved by fact) that there are ten, fifteen, or even twenty-six primary and originally distinct characters, still they could not be competent to the purposes of language, if lan- guage were what it is generally supposed to be ; or if it proceeded on the principles generally assigned ; or rather if it consisted of the infinite (almost at least) multitude, and wild wilderness of words piled up in sublime confusion by laborious lexicographers, and PHILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY. 63 like a mountainous cairn reared by classic industry on true philology, boasted of by brainless pedants as among the greatest achievements of human intellect. But 1 am averse to any thing in the shape of mere theory, and shall therefore proceed to resolve the gut- turals into their simple primary character. I have repeatedly intimated that C, G, Q, K, H, or D, are in reality but one letter. Of this I shall not stop to bring proof, because I believe it will not be questioned by any one who has passed beyond the threshold of philology. This letter being difficult of utterance, besides sliding into the sound of s. (for before e, i, and y, c. is s., and g. is j., &c.) j, b, d, &c. constantly tends towards other easier enuncia- tions, which have been marked and indicated by other letters, (or forms of this same letter,) as ng, gn, ug, gu, qu, gh, sh, th, ch, dg. A few instances will suffice here : magus became magnus ; pago, pango ; gust-o us, &c. (changed into taste) became guest (ghost is of the same origin — the mouth, breath, &c.) softened into hospes, &c. ; fashion from facio ; church, kirk ; {xvcixy.y)) chaise from car ; aci-es, edge ; axe, adze, any edge-tooX ; brig, bridge; rig, ridge. The following quotation from Richards's Welsh Grammar will give a clear and short view of the changes of the guttural. " Words primarily beginning with C. have four ini- tials, viz. G, ch, g, ngh ; as, Car agos, a near kins- man ; ei char, her kinsman ; ei gar, his kinsman ; (54 PHILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY. i'y nghar, my kinsman. Words beginning with g. have three, viz. G, ng, w, and the first vowel in the word casting away the g. ; as gwas ffyddlon, a faithful servant ; fy ngwas, my servant ; ei was, his servant. Words beginning with p. have four initials, p, b, mh, ph ; as pen gwr, a man's head ; ei ben, his head ; fy mhen, my head ; ei phen, her head. Words with t. have also four initials, t, d, nh, th ; as tad y plenty n, the child's father ; ei dad, his father ; fy nhad, my father ; ei thad, her father. Words be- ginning with b. have three, b, f, m, as bara cann, manched bread; ei fara, his bread ; fy mara, my bread. Words beginning with d. have likewise three d, dd, (th) n ; as Duw trugarog, a merciful God ; ei Dduw, his God ; fy Nuw, my God." The above instances show not only the changes which take place upon the guttural C. or G. (which changes follow the various modifications of utterance, and merely indicate diversity of sound, not of sign : they are to be regarded by the eye of the et3'mologer as various guises and disguises, garbs and masks of the same actor) but how and why the gutturals have in so many instances changed into dentals and la- bials d, t, z, s, b, p, m, &c. It was remarked under the propositions — Words constantly tend to contract — Words constantly tend to become more smooth — That our pronunciation is, in many instances, more contracted and more smoothed than our orthography. Thus cough pronounced as PHILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY. Oo if spelt cof ; enough, enuf ; bright, sight, night, hght, sought, daughter, nought, naught, &c. pronounced as if spelt brite, site, nite, lite, saut, dauter, naut. Grammarians have uttered (the first inventor was probably an Egyptian mystagogue, or Grecian sophist) many profound doctrines about * and h. being merely an aspirate and breathing and no letter ; and Dr. Gregory Sharp in his wise says accounts for the prevalence of it among the northern tribes by suppos- ing their organs of speech so contracted with chilli- ness, or so frozen up as to be unable to give the true sounds to the letters, which require the genial warmth of Greece and Italy. But after all, this same aspirate is one of the most difficult letters in the al- phabet ; so difficult that no Englishman can pro- nounce the sound which the Celts, (the native and original Irish, the Welsh, and Highlanders of Scot- land) the Goths comprehending the Germans, Dutch, Danes, Scotch, &c. (and I may add, the Jews,) give to ch, gh, &c. : as in night (or nicht), lough (or loch, lake,) laigh, now spelt in modern Eng- lish low, &c. Observe, that many words containing the guttural letter, are still more contracted and softened in the pronunciation than the instances given above : as slough, pronounced slow or sluf ; dough, pronounced do; doughty, pronounced douty. Observ'e, once more,* that in this manner the guttural changes into * The philologer of more rapid and intuitive perceptions, will bear with my prolixness in this part of my work : it is as irltsome to me as it P OG TMITLOSOPIIIC ETYMOLOGY. (li|)l hongs, or single vowels : as lig, into ly, lie, low ; hark, into bay ; bough, (Sax. bog, bug,' and meaning simply roundish or circular,) into bow, bay, as a hough, bow or bay window, a bay or concave shore ; to be at (or in) bay, or stand at bay — to be surrounded as a stag by the hounds, a warrior by assailants. 17. The L. and R. are in reality but one letter, and that one letter is essentially the same as C. or G. or any of its varieties.* I shall precede my illustra- tions and proofs of this proposition, by quoting the remarks of Ainsworth, (I do not mean that he in- vented them, for he was only a roter,) on the letters L. and 11. in his Latin Dictionary. " The Latin L. is formed from the Greek A. by straightning one of the acute legs, (I know not what the good man means by acute leg,) and turning the other into the basis. j* It has the first place in the can possibly be to him ; but he must remember what sort of understand- ings r\k\ faiths I liave to deal with: any thing traditional and customary lliey understand, or think they understand, merely because it is customary ; every thing new is strange to them and st.irtles all their orthodox preju- dices. * It ^^ ould be a waste of lime to enter into a confutation of the non- sense of grammarians respecting L. and It. as being liquids, semi-vowels, and the god of mystery knows not what all. L. and R., as I have already ihown, are musical and pleasant to the ear, when served np on broad softr vowels as in Almoraj but when squeezed up between two sturdy consonants, (and originally there were no rowels,) no braying of ass or squeaking of pig is more grating to the ear than these same semi-votiel liquids J and they are always so difficult to the mouth, that some defec- live organs never acquire the pronunciation of them. t The meaning intended is very correct. The Greek A. is evidently convertible into T, the Greek G. and into L. (which is nothing but a re- PHILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY. ^^ order of the liquids; [tliis remark has the first place in the order of absurdity,] and is as Plato, [one of the god's of classic mystery, absurdity and supersti- tion,] in Cratyl, has observed, the sweetest of them, and is suited to soft and easy descriptions, [hurly, burly, belch, bellow, brawl, and all such words as talk, walk, calm, in which the 1. is harshly silent in pronunciation, are suited to soft and easy descrip- tions]. It w^as usually sounded by the old Britons with a kind of aspiration, and was writ in many words with 11, as afterwards with Ih, as in llan or Ihan, a temple ; llau or Ihau, an hand, [loof, in Scotch? &c. a contraction of cloof, cluf, clif, &c.] ; which sound is made by hissing 1. obliquely through the teeth.* Thus, the oldest Greeks sounded its sister p. when initial ph. ; as phome, Roma ; which in lat- ter times, after h, was exterminated being supplied by a note of aspiration prefixed, though pronounced after it, was writ as now 'Pwp/; ; and this aspiration is still kept in some Latin words of Greek extraction, as in Rhamnus, Rhetor. All the liquids by gramma- verted gamma, or a gamma turned upside down,) merely by changing the acide into a rectangle, which is that, no doubt, intended to he expressed by Mr. Ainsworth; but Hke many other makers of great book*, his' lexi- cography beclouded his understandings and except Johnson's Dictionary, there never was such another Babel-building or cairn of learned lumber as his dictionary. * " LI. is L. aspirated and has a sound peculiar to the Welsh. It is pronounced, by fixing the tip of the tongue to the roof of the mouth, and breathing forcibly through the jaw-teeth on both siilos, but more on the right; as if written in English llh." Richards' Welsh Grammar. F 2 68 PHILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY. riaiis arc called immutables ; as indeed they are with respect to the mutes, but not in regard to themselves, as wc locirn from No,a(?5>j, lympha ; ager, agellus ; xsioiov, lilium, naufof, paulus. lu some few words* the liquid mky seem substituted for d. ; as lacryma for ^ax^uaa, alacris for cc^a>i§vg. Jn numeral notes, L. is put for fifty, the half of C, or as anciently made by the Saxons E. making the curve angular [false] analogi- cally to V. as being half an X."| " R. Greek 'p, [r. seems to be p. and ' united as R.] Hebrew i. The most ancient Greeks had both 'p. and R. in their alphabet : witness the Baudelotian monument and the pillars of Herodes Atticus, where we find R. at least seven times ; to omit what both Pliny and Tacitus acquaint us with, that the figure of the Latin letters was almost the same as that of the ancient Greeks. This letter R. is in the alphabet put last of all her sister liquids undeservedly, and might pretend to the first place, since though not * In no word is I. substituted for d.,but in many words d. is substituted for 1. ; and so of n, m, i), and all the letters : what the grammarians mean by sayini^ that 1. and r. are liquids, and that they are immutable I cannot guess, unless tlicy be supposed to speak ironically ; for no letters are so unliquid, if liquid means soft and smooth, and no letters are so mutable as 1. and r. t Wholly error, though not far from the truth : \^. is not half X., but X. is double V. or two ^'s; that is! he sign of tlie hand repeated or added to itself, to express ten : and L. is not the half of C. but merely V., as has been shown above with its acute angle turned into a rectangle : it is not the half, but the whole of C. or 7. slightly varied •, which is also 5. that is, the Hebrew 7, Jj. L. denotes 50, merely by abridgment, as C. denotes a hundred or centum. PHILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY. 69 fully, yet more of it may be sounded without a vowel than any of the rest.* Add to this, that in the Greek tongue it makes a syllable pure, and takes before it an aspiration ; both which privileges [gram- marians and lexicographers have always had the pri- vilege of doating and raving] belong to vowels. Whe- ther the aspiration ought to be sounded before or after this letter is not agreed on ; reason and the cus- tom of the yEolians, who sometimes prefixed j. [the reader will remark, that this is our F. in a different position, or what amounts to the same, our F. is i^. in a different position] and sometimes /3. before it makes for the former opinion ; and the use of the Latins who write rhamnus, rhetor, rhinoceros, rhom- bus, &c. may seem to countenance the latter. But, I observe, that in words of Greek extraction, the Latins often neglected this aspiration, as in radix, rigeo, rosa, and in other words at pleasure, either omitted or inserted it, as in raphanus and rhaphanus, romphaea or rhompheea. The Hebrews gave this letter the right of a guttural, [it is primarily nothing but aguttural,]and indeed this sound is formed in the upper part of the throat, but so vibrated by a quaver of the tongue and allision on the teeth, that it makes a sound like the grinning of a dog, [yet it is entitled, the * This is like the other doctrines of the grammarians, mystical and unmeaning: they talk of vowels and consonants; of vowel.s bring in- cluded in. or essential to the consonants, without knowing what they say or whereof they affirm. If they mean that no letter can be pronounced without emitting sound, a child might well deride the information. '70 PIIILOSOI'IIIC ETYMOLOGY. author says, to the first place of all its sister liquids : grinning or grunting is no doubt a liquid sound,] whence it is called the canine letter : but the Ro- mans, on the contrary, gave it so soft and lisping,* a sound that in writing they sometimes omitted it, calling the Etrusci, Thusci or Tusci, [the reader will recollect the propositions : words constantly tend to contract : words constantly tend to be- come more smooth, &c.] and especially before s. ; thus Ennius writ prosus, rusus, for prorsus, rursus : which is less to be wondered at, because the most ancient Latins doubled not their consonants, [this remark is true, but wholly irrelative and impertinent to the subject]. Yea, the sound of the lisped r. was so near that of its neighbour s. [if he must personify them, he should have said daughter or grand-daugh- ter, for s. like all the other letters, is merely a soft- ened form of the guttural, or more accurately a dif- ferent form consociated with a softer and easier utterance], that they writ asa, casmen, Papysii, for ara, carmen, Papyrii ; and we find the termination os as well as or in good writers still, as particularly in the prince of poets, (of poetae minores,) arbos and honos frequently occur ; and labos, vapos, &c. in others. "I* But the soft sound of this letter is in no- * The author's understanding lisps about this matter ; the reason of r.'s being dropped or changed into s. is not its softness but its harshness or difficulty of utterance: r. is never interposed to hinder the collision of two vowels, and we might os well suppose the grinning of a dog or bray- ing of an ass introduced for the sake of euphony : j^ua^ and vvo$ are con- tractions of murex and nurus, not the latter elongations of the former, t It may appear to some as if arbos, honos, labos, vapos, actually pre- PHILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY. 71 thing more plain than its interposition, [false] to hinder the collision of two vowels, as if it had been little more than a breathing, as in murcx, nurus, from [^voc^, vvos [false]. Though the grammarians call all the liquids immutables, they are often changed reciprocally into one another ; and to say nothing of the rest here, this has not only an intercourse with the sisterhood, but often with several of the mutes. First with her sister 1. as from puer, puera, puella ; so from >'.av9>]X(o;, is cantherius ; and as caelu- lius was anciently writ for caerulius, so on the con- trary latiaris for latialis. With her sister m. the instances are more rare [they are not rare] ; but common enough with n. : for as from ^«^f5y and 7J'xrf';j> are donum and plenus ; so from /xevo? and t^^ova, are merus and mora ; [false r. is softened into -'. in all such words as [^evos,iJ.oya, not vice versa ; but such philologers ceded arbor, honor, labor, vapor, and tlierefore as if s. had diaiiged into r. not r. into s. : but the fact is simply this, (a fact which can be verified in the history of all dialects, and in none is it more evident than our own,) there had been for a considerable time two pionunciations, the smooth and the harsh, the new and the old ; and before a standard of orthography was admitted, writers spelt differently, some following the conversational pronunciation of the fashionables, as the little poets, dramatists, novelists, &c. ; others spelt according to the more solemn and ancient pronuncia- tion. Proofs could be given of two pronunciations and spellings being co-existent in the same country for several centuries The enunciation of the Tuscans is much more harsh and guttural than that of the otiier Italians, and has been reasonably supposed to be a faint remnant of the ancient Etrurian, the oldest dialect of Latin. In the Etrurian and other ancient inscrij tions, the terminations or, er, 6cc. are regularly found, which were afterward softened into us, es, ; hence the termination us, was originally or, &c. 72 PHILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY. as Ainsworth suppose that the Greek spelling must have been the parent of the Latin spelling]. In some words r. or n. are writ inditferently, as in aereus or aeneus. 1 will instance, as briefly as I can, the inter- course of this liquid [liquid he is determined it shall be] with some of the mutes [another intelligible race of grammatical beings]: with c, as paucos nom irai^os [hence poor] ; with d., corium from y^^iov [i". is nom p. not f . or r. from J., and that invariably] ; meridies from medidies; querquedula for querquerula; -ind anciently ar. in many [originally «r. or «/. in all words; ar. oral, existed long before a, a vulture, &c. (Gups is a contraction of gulp, softened also into vulpes, vulture, &c. a proper name for voracious or devouring animals from de-vor-o ; vor, cir, gor, &c. we have shown to be mouth ; hence for, far-i, fat-us, contraction of fora- tus, verb, word, &c.). 14. Names for the Mouth, food, eating, drinking. Names for the Tongue, language, talk, &c. G 82 I'HirOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY. 1^. Names for the Head, top, eminence. 1 6. Words expressing a quick, rapid motion. (Mr. AV^liitcr ought to have known that quick and rapid are synonymous, though indeed the composition of those called good writers, is often rendered full and round to the eye, the mouth and the ear, by such tautologies and elegant expletives. Quick or rapid motion has been already shown to come not from hand but iving^ wind, icheel and the like.) 17. The name of Man or Woman. (What the author says of male and powers of virilitt/ is imper- tinent here. The name is simply that of the hand, for chap, vir, man, homin — (that is, geman, &c.) are all resolvable into v\p, man-us, yji^, the hand ; as if we would say the hand-animal or handed animal, &c. : hence hand in English denotes a human being, though usually confined to one employed in manual labour.) Among the other forty-seven meanings given to hand in the Polyphemian Dictionary are the following: — '■' 36. Agent, person employed. — Swift. 37. Giver and receiver. — Tillotson. 38. An actor, a workman, a soldier. — Locke.'* My respect for Mr, Whiter will not allow me to make any remark on his conjecture respecting the origin of the element CB. or indeed any of his conjectures respecting the origins of any elements. I shall only run hastily over a few parts of his Index. BL. is a variety of CL. ; and therefore as he remarks, very properly, supplies the name, or ra- ther a name of the hand. — Any thing swelling PHILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY. 83 out (or convex.) — The mouth, talk, &c. — An en- closure. CL. relates not to powers of verility, but is ap- plied to the organ of generation in both sexes ; and hence child, chit ; fili-us, foal ; veal, (originally the name of a calf) ; and many other words, or rather va- rieties of the same word, denoting something j/o//;?^, little^ &c. But it would not be proper to etymologise too much or too minutely on some words ; and for the sake of modest eyes and ears, I promise seldom or never to follow derivation, so far towards the con- fines of indelicacy as in the above instance ; into which I was unintentionally drawn by the misrepre- sentation of Mr. Whiter. CM, CR, &c. are not different elements, but varie- ties of the same sign. Fr. which he considers the element for fire, was first of all applied to the sun so/, from which is Cal-eo, Cand-eo, Can-eo ; the radical part of all these and many more are merely varieties. GN. which he says supplies the name of woman^ being (though generally in a low, gross, or obscene way, as quean from cunn-us, cunio, to the first of which cunae is closely related), the name of a cavity, the hollow or cavity of the mouth, &c. is merely a variety of CL. GVL, GV. GL, BL. KL, VL. are well put to- gether, as merely varieties of the same sign, repre- senting or indicating the hand ; only let it be once more remarked, that they signify any curve. LM, LF, LP, LV. (and he might have given more G 2 ^4 I'll Il.OSOPlllC ETYMOLOGy. varieties,) which he says supplies a race of words denoting the hand, and its actions is merely a variety of CL. or rather of LG., the L. being in the one case (the general order however) first, and in the other last : hence Haw, llofen, Welsh ; loof, Scotch, &c. KS, BS, as in kiss, buss, &c. are resolvable into gor, cor, vor, (contracted into os, or-is, &c.) from which, as we have seen, are for, fari, fatus, verb, word ; hence also jeer, as gibe is from gab, that is to mouth or mock. MN, which he says is an element signifying enclo- sure, as of the hand, &c. is merely a variety of the primary sign, denoting roundness or roundishness ; hence mons, mont-es, mount ; mond, Sax. mouth, &;c. ; as also fons, font-is, fount. As to MND, MNT, (and he should have added MN, or men,) which is, as he justly remarks, a ter- mination ; we shall consider it when we come to the terminations. R. Mr. Whiter remarks, (as Mr. Home Tooke and others had done before,) is oftentimes not to be considered as a part of the element. This is without exception the falsest proposition in all the writings of Mr. Home Tooke and Mr. Whiter, and would of itself have convinced me that they were but half- formed etymologers. Spr. which Mr. Whiter says is an element for the sky, (a softened sound of skir, skirig, skig, originally cir,) is merely like sphere a softened sound of cir. The names of the Sun and Moon, he says, (almost PHILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY. 85 truly,) are derived from the idea of an enclosure or circular fence. Their name signifies neither enclo- sure nor fence, but simply a circle ; yet there is a connexion between their name and that of an enclo- sure or fence, because an enclosure or fence surrounds or encircles. TB. which he says is the element of hollow, (as tub^ &c.) like top, cop, cob, cup, tr, tor, cr, cir, cor, &c. (of all which it is only a variety) means simply round TR, TM, &c. are not dilFerent elements, but the same sign of anything round; hence it is properly applied to the earth, V")t^ in Chaldaic «r/c or «/r/t ,• in some of the northern dialects yerd, yert ; in Greek Ttj, a contraction of Tf^, r^jj, &c. ; in Latin terr-a. TR. to devour, is a variety of vor-o, from which is devor-o, devour, &c. Thus it appears how near Mr. Whiter was to the truth in every element, (as he has termed it,) above given. I am afraid, however, of tiring the reader with too much of that, whose proper place is a dic- tionary, only I wished to give a sufficient number of instances to prove how very easy and how very cer- tain true etymology is. 1 leave the Canon of Etymo- logy by subjoining a proposition that had escaped me ; namely, that r. or 1. (which we have considered as one letter,) from its difficulty of enunciation, (especially when it was pronounced gutturally,) and vibratory motion on the tongue, has shifted from its proper primary position in some words : thus Atlas, Atlantis, from Altas Altantis, a high hill in Mauri- 86 PHILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY. tania; Atlantic or Altantic, is properly an adjective from the former name, and as applied to the ocean means that part of it which lies towards or in the direction of Atlas or Altas. Metal is a corruption or mispronunciation (which drew a mispelling after it), of melt : metals are substances that have been or may be melted; as gold, silver, copper, tin, iron and lead. PART III. THE COMPONENT PARTS OF SPEECH UNFOLDED. JLT has been sufficiently shown, I trust, that C L. C R. L C. or R C, is the primary simple word of written language, and that all the copi(B verborum are merely varieties and combinations of that one simple word, or rather «%/*. * It will be not expected that all the varieties and combinations of that simple word or sign, should be treated of or even noticed in this work. Only those simple words, more important in the system of speech with the manner of their com- binations, are intended to be explained here. I shall begin this subject with what have been termed par- ticles, including the article, conjunction, preposition, pronoun, verbal, adjective and substantive termina- tions, and in short all affi.ves and prefixes. The dis- cussion of these component parts of speech shall be as much as possible strictly English; not excluding * The sign existed before the word: sign has reference to visible objects; word is so denominated because of its connexion with vor, cor, &c. the mouth; a sign is seen, a word is spoken. If the >i;j;n and word (that is, enunciation of the sign) be so well associated that the sound of the latter excites the idea of the former, Ihe word is correct; if not, i( is incorrect. 88 PHILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY. such remarks, however, on other dialects as are likely to illustrate the subject ; for the reader will perceive, that what holds of English, applies equally to He- brew, Greek, Latin, &c. : true grammar is not local but universal — not peculiar to any one of the dialects, but common to them all. I have always found this the most difficult and perplexing part of philology, (it comprehends the whole of what is commonly called grammar, concern- ing which there has been so much mysticism and nonsense, and so little intelligibleness and rationality) and shall think myself fortunate if I can treat of it with tolerable clearness and precision. Particles are in truth the mummies of lano^uasre, and it is almost impossible to ascertain their true nature and origin. It has been justly remarked by Home Tooke, " that words most frequently in use, are most subject to contraction and corruption." The article, conjunc- tion, preposition, pronoun and all the terminations are frequently in use, and therefore they are much corrupted from their original form : they have occa- sioned much mistake, mysticism and absurdity ; and I shall think myself abundantly rewarded for all my anxious reflection and toilsome enquiry, if successful in putting down a set of contemptible systems, tech- nical terms and mischievous arts, which have so long befooled and enslaved the disciples of learned autho- rity, and stunned the world with the noise of their pretensions. All the words now particularly in view, may be PHILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY. 89 conveniently treated of under the following deno- minations : — 1. Connectives. 2. Augmentives. 3. Negatives. 4. Diminutives. CONNECTIVES. A connective word is like + plus^ the sign of addition or of conjoining ; as 2 +2 are 4 — two and two are four : — The word and (or one equivalent to it) is sometimes prefixed or postfixed to another word, but it retains the very same meaning it had when put separately. Thus, the Latin que (the same as y-a-h eke, eek, ic, ig, &c.) is often put in com- position as a separate word, and often postfixed to another word ; but it has the same meaning or use in both positions : the conjunction and (spelt en m Dutch) which is often put separately, is as often joined to other words. What is called the participle used to have and^ ende^ en, an, and some other slight varieties for its termination : as lovayid man ; lovende man ; loven man ; that is, loving man, or love and man, or love add man, love eke man, love join man : golden watch, frosty night, misty doctrine. Here the y. which is a contraction of ic, eke, que, x-^^, &c. is merely + or vinculum between mist and doctrine, indicating that they are to be conjoined in the ima- gination, or conceived of together ; such also is the use of en, an, ende, and, eke, and all connectives. Observe, that the connective is frequently dropped, 90 I'HILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY. the connexion between the words b^ing sufficient!} indicated and understood by then' position or construc- tion : thus, instead of golden watch, we write gold — ■ watch or goldwatch. The same relation is denoted by the preposition of, as by the termination ic^i/, en, &c. : golden watch, or watch of gold ; bloody man, man of blood, &c. have respectively the same meaning, only the one mode is not quite so customary or familiar as the other. Of was formerly og, oc, ac, &c. which are all merely various spellings of ac, eke, our ancient conjunction, and of ac, que, &c. the Latin conjunc- tion. The genitive or possessive (as it is called), and the plural termination of nouns is (for it is one and the same word), merely the connectiv^e or con- junction. Thus boy's book, is book of the boy, or book belonging to the boy ; so also in the plural, boys s. means merely + plus, or add. The gramma- rians knew not the nature of the plural number, but it means precisely what they have said — more than one ; for as a, ane, an, or one, preceding or succeeding a noun, prefixed or postfixed to it, (for it has been put in all these different manners ; we say a pen, the Latins said penna — we say a, or one measure, the Greeks said //-fT-fov, the Latins metrum, &c. for all the Greek and Latin terminations are thus easily ac- counted for,) indicates that there is but one of the kin'd intended ; so es (or any equivalent affix), that is, + plus must as infallibly indicate that more than one is intended, which is precisely the meaning of the plural termination. Observe, when our plural tcr- PHILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY. ^1 mination was lIII,OS()P]nc KtVMOLOGY. is called superlative, (as strongest) is merely a soft- ened manner of ard, which was formerly spelt ord, crd. Sec. and signified top, beginning, &c. ; being re- solvable into arch, which still signifies head, chief, &c. ; as arch-angel, arch-apostate : er (as in stronger) is merely a contraction of ard, &c. Some, is spelt in German sam ; in Latin sim, ssi?n, (what is called the superlative) siimma : it is the same as sum, summit, ship, scape, skip, dom, signifying properly top, head ; metaphorically great or much : darksome is much dark, troublesome is much trouble. Some signifying great and some signifying little, are resolvable into the same origin, which Would seem to justify the doctrine of the Stoics, that every word is equivocal ; and would seem also to justify Dr. Johnson and his chap- lain Dr. Todd, in giving the same word different and opposite meanings. No object in nature or member of the human body, except the hand, has originated so much metaphor, (in other words supplied so much language,) as the head: among many other uses, it denotes metaphorically high, great, &c. : its name as we have before intimated, is used to denote the nu- meral one ; hence, in old Saxon some or sum denoted one, an which was used laxly and diminutively as we now use one, an, any, (aneig) ; thus he will come some time or other, is equivalent to he will come one time or other : will heads of colleges give some en- couragement to philological reform ? is equivalent to — will heads of colleges give ani/ encouragement to philological reform.^ It is true that we cannot PHILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY. 11? always, (as Dr. Crombie remarks, of my and mine,) according to present usage, put some instead ol" one, or one instead of some ; but this is wholly an affair of the ears, in whicii the understanding has no concern. The termination ous is a different spelling of the Latin OS, softened from ox, ax, or, contraction of arch, &c. Full is the same as the Hebrew cl. and our own whole, &c. : it is corrupted into ible, (as forcible instead of forceful,) which as Home Tooke justly remarks, is calculated to cause confusion of ideas or displace a veiy useful termination : changeable is properly that tnaij he changed, though it is commonly used to de- note changeful ox frequent change. The primary idea of dom is dome, cupola, top, cap- ut ; it is in fact, like , merely a variety of cope, cape, cap-ut ; and is affixed to words as an augmen- tive. Freedom, wisdom, thraldom, are literally much free, much wise, much thral ; so that such words are properly adjectives put elliptically : all their abstrac- tion consists in ellipsis. The Latin termination answering to dom, &c. is tas, tat, tud,; which we have in such words as liberty, rectitude: tat, tud, are merely varieties of tot-us, &c. which is the same \vord originally as tat, dad, tata. Our own ness has the same use and is a softened form of rick, resh, (Hebrew) signifying head ; and is yet applii^d to capes or headlands on the sea-shore : — Blackness, is blackhead; Sheerness, is Shore-head. Like arc?, dom, &c. ness is merely an augmentive : darkness, brightness, are properly much dark, much bright, 118 PHILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY. some other word being understood : drunkenness, for instance, is no more abstract than drunkard ; both signifying merely much drunk. Drunkenness is in- jurious to health, is neither more nor less than — being much drunk is injurious to health. I am more p'lr- ticular with what arc called abstract nouns, that the understanding of the reader may not get entangled among metaphysical cobwebs or lose itself in "he Scotch mist and German darkness. Insignificant words may be very necessary to authors of true theo- ries ; but do not let them make a fool of you, bv pre- tending to open your eyes while in the very act of blind-folding you with the old night-cap of the school- men : do not let them put the extinguisher nn the true knowledge of words and ideas, and quacki^'ly boast of new light and great discovery ; or vail your understanding with fine-spun nonsense under the name of common sense. Rick^ which is contracted into ry, is the sime as rex, rich, rank,origo, origin, arch, apv^, rask^ Hebrew. Affixed to words it is simply an augmentive : Bishop- rick, is literally great bishop, though put ellipiically to denote what belongs to him. x\s contracted into ry, the word seems merely augmentive ; bravery, much brave ; bribery, much bribing or great bribe. Observe, that as ry is augmentive, it is not usual to give it a plural form, (for the plural termination is in a certain sense augmentive,) being itself in many in- stances equivalent to the plural : imagery, is equiva- lent to images ; yeomanry, to yeomen ; cavalry, to PHILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY. 119 horse troops ; only the termination ry presents the objects more as one — more in a mass than the plural termination, which always excites simply the idta of more than one. The reader will likewise observe, that rivalry and rivalship are precisely of the same import ; so that ship and ry are terminations of the same use ; and therefore such terms as lordship, friendship, landskip, &c. fall respectively under the same remarks. Head and hood are both from heafod^ like sJiip, &c. a variety of caput. Godhead, is great chief or head God ; maidenhood, is great maiden, put elliptically, and therefore like other words put elliptically, it is taken with some latitude : so manhood, which liter- ally means great man, high or wdiole man, is taken in allusion to virility., full age., courage., &c. All w^ords put elliptically, are exceedingl}^ apt to become indefinite if not insignificant ; and it is ellipsis that gives to one and the same word the appearance of different and opposite meanings ; though it is evi- dent, as Home Tooke justly remarks, that a sign with diff'crent and opposite significations, would be in fact no sign whatever, and could signify nothing whatever. I have given the above view of such terminations as seem to be au2:mentive ; but whether thev are truly augmentive or merely connective when affixed to nouns requires to be considered. It has been re- marked, that junction and augmentation are insepar- 120 PHILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY. able ideas : * hence eek or eke, means to join and to augment. Which of these twin ideas is primary, and which is secondary it is somewhat difficult to ascer- tain : in other words, it is dilHcult to ascertain whe- ther the term expressive of joining, be resolvable into that expressive of augmenting, or the latter be re- solvable into the former ; hence it is also dilhnilr, to ascertain, whether the same terminations be always truly augmcntive or sometimes only conjunctive. I have pointed to a very probable origin of the conjunc- tion or copula ; namely, achd, yek^ etk^ ek^ &c. (all which I take to be contractions of arc/i, rick, or CR, RC,) the name of the numeral one. The name of the numeral (it has been remarked) is as well asgreaty much, more, &c. resolvable into head, cope, top, ca- put, copula, Caliph, Caleb, crop, or any other spel- ling of the word signifying head or top. It is this coincidence that gives existence to contending pro- babilities ; and it is such coincidence (for all the varied modes of expression are like so many diverging streams, traceable to one origin), that occasions the chief difficulty of etymology; which difficulty is of such a nature, that none but philosophic thinkers can possibly unfold the true principles of language : hence all that has been hitherto published on the subject, (if we except some of Home Tooke*s reasonings,) is * Metaphysicians \voiild call them a complex idea; an expression as incorrect as to call a body and its shadow a complex object ; or light and heit a complex idea connected with fire. It is evident that the same sign for fire must sometimes denote heat and sometimes hght. PHILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY. 121 more allied to alchymy than chymistry. It were as^ vain, indeed, to expect true etymology from such men as Parkhurst, as it would be to expect a true system of nature from such men as Hutchinson ; and Harris was as incapable of true grammar as Lindley Murray and his disciples are of true philosophy. The same instrument must be applied to diiicrent uses, (and in reference to intellect especially, there are but few instruments,) and the name of it must be employed for diflorent purposes : the name of the head or top, denotes in all the dialects, heap, chief, great, much, more, addition, encrease, &c. ; all whicli words necessarily connect with them the idea of junc- tion or joining. It frequently, happens that words thus having a primary and secondary idea, come in process of time to be employed merely for the pur- pose of exprcssincr the secondary idea, though they were at first employed solely for the purpose of ex- pressing the primary idea. Heafod, heafyd, (it has many spellings,) denotes heap, much, augment, a ug- mentation, &c. ; but as the idea of conjoining is inse- parable from that of encreasing heafyd, is in Welsh, simply a conjunction like our own and, a different spelling of ac?c? .• eke or eek, og, (in Welsh) ac, ax, ox, as, on, or, age, ic, &c. (it has many spellings,) denote in some cases augmentation, in others simply conjunction. Eek or che, (as has been repeatedly remarked,) signifies to augment and to unite ; og, in Welsh, has also both uses : ral yeXr, eei-, achd or one ; so the negatives or disjunc- tives may be supposed to originate in the numeral duo, two. What seems to countenance this suppo- sition, twain, tween, or twin is still used as a verb in Scotland, to denote to separate, to disjoin, or the like. This view of the subject has appeared at times with considerable force of evidence to my perceptions ; but after much reflecting and enquiring (for the negatives, like the conjunctives, have cost me much anxious thinking) I am not satisfied ; and the prin- cipal reason of dissatisfaction is, that it looks too metaphysical — too ingenious — too much like a fme theory, to suppose that the makers of language would uniformly say one for unite, and two for disjoin. They were self-evident, ready-work disciples of ne- cessity, and took whatever came first in their way fittest for their purpose. There are different words employed to denote negation and disjunction. The following modes of expression are equivalent : They were all happy hut (be out) the stranger — all except the stranger — all save the stranger—all unless the stranger. It is evident that but, except, save, miless, in the foregoing instances amount to wo/ or a negation. Observe : unless is a different spelling of unloose, a softened form of un- loek, unlink, unlatch ; and therefore unloose, which K KK) PHILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY. occurs not only in our common translation of scrip- ture, but in all our old authors, is not, as Johnson says, an improper expression ; but this is always the manner of ignorant critics. If they meet with me- thinketh, unloose, or any other term which they do not understand, they have only to call it ungramma- tical, or a solecism, and there is an end of the matter. The author of the Classical Tour has, with other false criticism, said, Avhen speaking of the Latin as cor- rupted into Italian : " The most material change took place, not in the sound but in the sense of the words : thus laxare to loosen, unbind, has become lasciare to let go, let in general." The meaning of the word is what it ever was ; nor is loosen different from let go in any other respect than the more gene- ral is different from the more particular meaning : whatever is loosed or unbound is, of course, let go. The reader will perceive that as loose is a contrac- tion of unloose ; so less (a termination) is a contrac- tion of unless : beardless, fearless, are without beard, without fear ; or take away beard, take away fear : beardless boy, fearless man, are just the opposite of bearded boy, fearing man. The following modes of expression are equivalent: without a sound philology §ound logic is hopeless — without sound philology sound logic is without hope : unless there were much philological ignorance the Dictionary of John- son and Grammar of Murray would not have become popular— but for much philological ignorance the PHILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY. 131 Dictionary of Johnson and Grammar of Murray would not have become popular. As out is a negative which nuUiJies the positive or conjunction in such expressions as hut^ (beout) \cilh- out ; so off^ froni^ contracted into fro are equivalent to out : he went off, or he went out for India, is equivalent to — he went/rom England for India : so, far off 2Lt sea, or far out at sea, is equivalent to far at sea from land ; for off and out have the same rela- tion to land 2is from has, though in the one case it is expressed and in the other it is only implied. I came out of London — came off from London — came from London — or went out of London — went off" from London — went/rom London, are plainly equivalent, though we may not be accustomed to hear such modes of expression interchanged as of the same im- port ; but custom (as has been often intimated) is the arbiter not of language, but of arbitrary systems and distinctions in language : — custom which gives law to slavish souls is the scorn of wise men and idol of fools. If language be considered an affair of the ears merely, it is abundantly unreasonable to attempt to reason on grammar. Home Tooke, whose philological foible was that of affecting a northern origin, says, thdtfrom is the Anglo-Saxon and Gothic noun frum, beginning, source, origin; thus, figs came //om Turkey; that is, figs came — the source or beginning Turkey. This seems no very convincing, though a very convenient mode of experimenting to establish a favourite hy- K 5 I.'j^i I'llILOSOPIIlC ETYMOLOGY. potliesis ; and yet it seems to have passed as quite satisfactory with Dr. Crombie and many others. We may say, in Home Tooke's own words, "Allow him to choose his instances, and they run on ail four^ (though as in this case of the figs and Turkey they hobble awkwardly,) but choose instances for him and they limp most miserably." It is not worth while, however, to set his theory a limping on dif- ferent instances than those which he adopted : it is most important to the enquirer to notice the unwar- rantableness of Home Tooke's resolving difficult words into Gothic verbs and abstract nouns ; a kind of philological manoeuvre, unfavourable to fair en- quiry and utterly unworthy a profound enquirer. Be it so, thaty*rom is the GothicyrM?/i .• what isfrum? Of what sensible object is it the sign ? Or into the name of what sensible object is it resolvable ? And how did the name of the sensible object come to signify beginning, origin, &c. } These are the pro- per enquiries unless we would continue to grope and Avander in metaphysical obscurity and confusion from theory to theory and /rom conjecture to conjec- ture, in a wilderness of idle controversy and unpro- fitable verbosity. It has beefi already remarked, that no sensible object — that no member of the human body, except the hand, has originated so much metaphor or sup- plied so much language (for language is made up of metaphor) as the head ; and the following are a few of the many words, or rather spellings, resolvable PHILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY. 133 into its name : Caliph, calph (contracted into alp, ab, ob, up, off, &c.) scalp, cap-ut, cope, copula, cape, chief", &c. ; graf, greeve, crop, cream, (head or top of milk, &c.) foam, froth, barm, fore, far, forth, from, fro, for, &c. These and many other diversities of the same word that misj-Jit be aiven may in one view be considered more literal, in ano- ther more metaphoric — in one respect as concrete, in another as abstract ; only it is hoped the reader will not suffer his understanding to be mistified, bewil- dered, and befooled » by unmeaning or wrong-mean- ing terms. The reader will perceive that though 1 have grouped a few different forms of the same word together it would be aside from my immediate ob- ject to trace them up to their origin, or outwards in their diverging directions : it is from that requires to be explained in this place. Frum signifies, as Home Tooke has said, beginnings origin, source, because, as I have remarked in the Pioneer of Rational Phi- lology, the name of the head denotes in all the dia- lects origin, &c. ; but this though true does not ap- pear to explain/ro»/, which is equivalent to forth or out, not to beginning ; thus figs came out of Turkey — or forth of Turkey is the same meaning i\s from Turkey ; but it makes a very forced signification to say, figs came beginning, origin, or source Turkey: from seems not only equivalent to but merely a dif- ferent form o^ forth, which is closely relatc^d to porth (Welsh), port, porch. The following modes of ex- pression are not in use, but I presume they would J3t I'JIlLOSOPlirc ETYMOLOGY. be intelligible to persons accustomed to take a wide range in English reading : Figs oiUed Turkey — figs 0^66? Turkey — figs proceeded Turkey — figs forthed Turkey — hgs fared or fared Turkey. We have fare still both as a verb and noun, denoting foreing or going forth ; and forewell is still the compliment at parting when a friend, neighbour or acquaintance leaves, goes off, from or out of the place, country, &c. Observe : farewell was originally said to the person departing, expressing a wish that he might fare, fore, go, or travel well or safely, prosperously, &c. The intelligent reader will perceive the connexion among the following word : forts, forest, foreign, fro, from, forth, ^up, SupS.-v, door, through, thorough &c. Many words beginning with for or fore will appear more intelligible by spelling them ^rom or fro : as forego, frogo ; forget, froget ; forsake, froseek ; for- bear, frobear ; forbid, frobid ; forgive, frogive ; par- don, perdon or prodon ; — forlorn, frolorn ; forswear, froswear, &c. It will be perceived also thato^'and out are contractions resolvable into the same origin as from, fro, forth, &c. Dr. Crombie, repeating after Home Tooke, says, '' or is a contraction of oder, a Saxon word signify- ing contrary, or sometimes merely different." It is really to be wished that authors would think more and rote less. 1 would if possible give the Doctor the respect due to a philosophic scholar, but there is so much in his grammar constantly rising up in judg- ment against him that I have much difficulty to re- PHILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY. 135 strain the force of my convictions. Home Tooke had a reason for resolving words into Saxon or Gothic nouns and verbs. His favourite theory— the north- ern origin, was ever and anon running away with his understanding ; but why should sincere worshipers of mother Rome dance after northern lights, or wan- der in Gothic darkness ? Odeiy other, either, e^ff'^f, or, else, &c, are all contractions oi alter, whose ety- mology will be given when we come to treat of the Latin language. Custom may have given different offices, or rather posts in composition to different forms of the same word ; but or, else, othencise, &c. are plainly synonymous : thus, the tender ears and manners ot accomplished petits maitres would go into hysterics with rough handling, or I would speak more plainly and pointedly to them of their silly systems of learning — else I would speak more plainly and pointedly — otherwise I would speak more plainly and pointedly. In all such exceptive modes of ex- pression or, else, otherwise, &c. are evidently nega- tive, and might be changed into — if not — were it not — but for, and the like. Dr. Crombie tries his microscopic skill at hair-splitting on or by repre- senting it as sometimes disjunctive and sometimes sub-disjunctive ; but my poor understanding is not metaphysical enough for such nice, vacuous dis- tinctions. 136 PHILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY. DIMINUTIVES. The class of words included under this denomina- tion will not detain us long. We have not now any regular diminutive termination in the English lan- guage ; but ling might be restored to its wonted use without much violence to present usage or English ears : as grammaticling, philosophling, thinkiing, criticling, &c. The conveniency and expressiveness of such a termination is evident: one of the greatest charms of the Scottish dialect is the diminutive ter- mination ock or y : as lassock or lassy ; laddock or laddie for little lad, little lass. Burns addressing the mouse, says : " Timorous beasty, what a panic's in thy breasty." In this age of little maitres I should be glad to see some form of our ancient diminutive revived ; and indeed we cannot speak appropriately on many oc- casions without saying metaphysicling, authorling, hireling, lordling,dukeling, squireling, priestling, &c. Observe : all the diminutive or diminishing ter- minations of our language are like lyie^ lit, little, &c. contractions of klein, which yet remains in Dutch and German as a separate word signifying little. Contracted into ock it appears in such words as bullock, hillock : softened into isli it is affixed to adjectives ; saltish, a little salt ; sweetish, a little PHILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY. IS? sweet ; blackisli, a little black : it is contracted into kin in mannikin, &c. ; into ket (as ch'ld into chit) in pocket, a little pouch, poke, bag, &c, ; or quet^ paroquet, pacquet or packet ; en in kitt-^n, which is kitlin in Scotch ; ling \\\ gosling, properly gooseling ; firstling, yearling, &c. Observe : child, chit, kid, foal, filius, r'f/, the Latin diminutive, culex, o'^'y-of» and a hundred other words are all expressive of the same idea, and all re- solvable into child, or any creature newly born ; the reason of whose name is sufficiently obvious. Men who are constantly talking without thinking, speak of this idea being relative, and that idea being rela- tive ; but all ideas are relative ; and the relative lit- tleness of calf, foal, child, &c. is so obvious and striking that their name could hardly fail to be em- ployed to denote diminutiveness and diminution in general, or in the abstract as a metaphysician would term it. The name of any other object (and all writ- ten language originated in visible objects) remarkably and proverbially little, might be employed for the same purpose : as mite, minnow, shrimp, shrub, mouse, wren, jot, dot, tittle: or as the name of the head or highest member, or part of the human body is employed in all the dialects to denote highness and greatness in general ; so the name of the foot, or low- est member, might be employed (and has been em- ployed) to denote lowness and littleness in general. Still, however, it would be proper to enquire how these or any objects remarkably and proverbially lit- J3S PIIILOSOPIIIC ETYMOLOGY. tie came to receive their names ; in other words, it would be proper to enquire into the reason or cause of their name ; but this enquiry, though important would take us too far from our immediate purpose : enough has been said to unfold the nature of dimi- nutives in general, and to show that the usual and as it were universal diminutive, is resolvable into the name of child, cild, &c. ; the etymon of which is sufficiently obvious. Thus I have finished what I intended concerning the component parts of speech : every word which may be considered as belonging to this classification has not been particularly noticed : but I have brought all those words into view which I thought most likely to be mistaken or to occasion difficulty. My English Dictionary will be the proper place for ex- plaining fully and minutely the whole of the English language ; which with the other philological works contemplated by me, and in a state of progress, will, I trust, completely unvail the nature of language in general, as well as the Hebrew, Latin and English languages in particular. ( 139 ) PART IV. THE COMMON SYSTEM OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR EXAMINED. ' English grammar (it is said) is the art of speaking and writing the English language with pro- priety." What then is the standard of propriety ? " Usage (Dr. Crombie says) is in this case law ; ksus Qiicm penes arhitrium est, etjus et norma loquendi. If it were now the practice to say ' I loves' instead of ' I love/ the former phraseology would rest on the same firm ground on which the latter now stands: and ' I love' would be as much a violation of the rules of grammar, or, which is the same thing, of established usage, as ' I loves' is at present." I thank the Doctor for this candid admission : if the doctrine be not worthy a philosopher the confes- sion is worthy an honest writer. But if usage merely be the standard of right language, why all this noise about grammar ? Why attempt to reason concerning the matter ? Why bring a large assortment of gram- matical doctrines, rules and technical terms from Greek and Latin into the English language ? Why publish an expensive book on the subject ; for sure the usual violations of usage might be put into a siv- 1 U) I'lIILOSOPIIIC ETYMOLOGY. penny piece to be roted offI)y the grammatical disci- j)Ic ? And what is far more important, said grammati- cal disciple might learn in a very few days or weeks to say after usage instead of wasting his time and ruining his understanding with unintelligible terms and absurd doctrines. This indeed is in every view of it a more serious aft'air than cither pedagogues or parents are generally aware. Considering Dr. Crombie as a philosophic scholar, I did not expect that he would back absurd posi- tions in philology with silly school-boy quotations from Horace. " This, it must be confessed, is a short way of ending the controversy, and by virtue of a Latin quotation we may become critics in lan- guage without the trouble of studying it." More- over it is according to reputable usage, and it has a show of learning to put old Latin patches on Eng- lish composition ; or to conceal learned mysteries and absurdities in classic vacua ; but a philosopher should despise pedantry, affectation and quackery. Dr. Crombie's great forerunner on Philosophic Ne- cessity did not pollute his compositions with classic crudities; but remarked, as justly as wittily con- cerhins: these favourite morsels that their comina; so often up again proves them never to have been well di- gested. It will go down to posterity that I considered Dr. Crombie's Grammar the most philosophic in the English language ; but what will posterity think of English grammarians, Avhen they find the same Dr. PHILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY. 141 Crombie writing in the following ntanncr: " Usage is law ;" " the usage which gives law to language must be present, national and reputable \' then ad- mitting that there is no uniform, standard usage ; and last of all giving canons to supply the want of unquestionable authority ? It were unreasonable to argue these points ; but there is one remark whicli the author seems to have considered argument which must therefore be reasoned with. *' The philosopher 'does not determine (says Dr. Crombie) by what laws the physical and moral world should be governed ; but by the careful observation and accurate compa- rison of the various phenomena presented to his view, he deduces and ascertains the general principles by which the system is regulated. The province of the grammarian seems precisely similar. He is a mere digester and compiler, explaining what are the modes of speech not dictating what they should be." It is humiliating to think how little true reasoning there is in the world ; and it is with regret 1 remark that the above quotation is one of the most specious specimens of reasoning in Dr. Crombie's grammar. " The philosopher does not determine by what laws the physical and moral world should be governed ;" but why ? Because he cannot determine. He can neither make nor mend the laws of the world, not to mention that he can never fully comprehend them. But could he suggest a new and improved code of laws even for the government of the world — could he clearly prove wherein the old laws are wrong, cor- 14'2 J'JII LOSOPIIIC ETYMOLOGY. ruptcd or perverted, and wliat they ou^^ht to be, it would he riglit to do so. But though men can nei- ther make nor alter the laws of the physical and mo- ral government of the world, they can make modes of speech and are constantly changing their modes of speech either for better or worse. It would be just as reasonable to say that those who treat of juris- prudence, political economy, &c. are mere digesters and compilers, explaining what laws, institutions, customs, &c. are^ not determining what they ought to be as to make the same assertion concerning the grammarian. Had Dr. Crombie forgot that through the greater part of his book he had been trying to determine not only what modes of expression are but what they ought to he P Had he forgot that he had spoken of those " who have dispensed the laws of grammar in our language ?" Or rather, conscious of the unreasonableness of the grammar he had writ- ten, did he intend this story about the digester and compiler as a saving clause for all the contradictory evidence he had given respecting present usage ? No wonder that the patch or plaster from Horace was thought necessary on this part of the author's sub- ject. The reader has always a right to presume that there is something unsound under a Latin patch in English composition ; or that it has been stuck on by vanity and affectation, merely for show, like the black beauty spots which folly sometimes puts on fashionable faces. PHILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY. 1 4.> THE SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS CONSIDERED. The wholeof" arbitrary grammar may be considered ys centring in what are called pronoun and verb, and therefore it is sufficient to consider these ; for such rules as the following are too silly to merit particular notice : " The article a or an is joine;d to nouns of the singular number only ; or nouns denoting a plu- rality of things in one aggregate." It would be just as important to remark, that the numeral one is joined to nouns of the singular number only, for an or a is merely a contraction of one or ane : the supposed excellence of the article, as spelt differently from the numeral, is wholly visionary ; unnecessary varieties of spelling and pronunciation are not excellencies, but faults. As if it were on purpose to outrage sense and significancy, the grammarians have called an or « the iwrf^wiVe article ; which is just as absurd as as it would be to call one an indejinile numeral. The following rules are so abstrusely significant and im- portant, that I am not qualified to judge of their merits : " Substantives signifying the same thins^ agree in case." " One substantive governs another, signifying a different thing in the genitive case," &c. &c. It is only such great grammarians as Lindley Murray, that have capacity to comprehend and ex- plain sueh wonderful rules ; for I will not insult the 141 PHJLOSopiiic etymoloc;y, undcrstaiiclino- of Dr. Crombie, by supposing that iie will ever attempt to explain them again. In treating; of the pronouns, I shall deem it suffi- cient (for they have been already explained), to en- quire whether they have what are called gender and case. We have seen that pronouns are properly con- junctions, and therefore neither gender nor case can properly belong to them. It may be asked, has not the third personal pronoun plainly the distinction of masculine, feminine and neuter } No : they or them is applied equally to men, women, and even imper- sonal objects : zV, called neuter, is frequently applied to children who are either masculine or feminine : he and she are applied to objects wholly destitute of masculine or feminine attributes ; as, the sun rises at six and he sets at six — I saw him rise yesterday ; the moon appears and she shines, but the light is not her own. Such profound grammarians as Harris and his disciple Lindley Murray, have published sublime doctrines about objects being personified, and that those which are remarkable for causing and giving are considered masculine— those feminine which are re- markable for receiving and containing : the sun gives — the moon receives light, therefore the sun is to be considered husband and the moon wife. This is all so very wonderful and philosophic, that w^e w^onder Dr. Crombie tried to confute it. Every person acquainted w^ith the English language (I mean beyond the threshold of present usage), knows that till very lately there were not separate PHILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY. \\5 pronouns for masculine, feminine and neuter objects. Sucii distinctions, whether good or bad, have been created by those " who have dispensed the laws of English grammar," so as to make it conform to that oi Greece and Rome. It ma^ be asked, are not such distinctions useiul.^ The utility of them is very questionable. We have no distinction of masculine, feminine and neuter, in wha^ is called the third per- son plural, and i do not find any inconveni^ncy arising from this deficiency. It would be precisely the sane case if we h id but one word, or spelling, for the third person singular. It is with superfluous words, as with all superfluities, we get used to them and fancy we could not do without them. It would be easy to prove, that except when he and she are used adjectively, as a. he-goat, s. she-goaf, &c. the dis- tinction is an inconvenience rather than advantase ; but this is not a matter of miirh importance, and I wish to reserve my reasoning for successfn! attacks on tlie more mischievous parts of arbitrary grammar. The present grammarians are all busy at work to establish a useless, embarrassing and enslaving dis- tinction between who and which, as if the former were appropriate only to grown persons — the latter to children and other little things. I do not wonder that such great grammarians as Lindley Murray, should tliink themselves capnble of mending our standard compositions, and of barbering them into the fashion ; but 1 was rather surprised to find Dr. L 146 PHILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY. Crombie as valet de chamhre to that great personage, Present Usage, clipping and shaving at the composi- tions of our best wrli:ers. Those who wrot6 a hun- dred iind fifty years ago were poor ungrammatical men, for they lived too soon and lost all the benefit of present usage, and those grammatical rules and doctrines which swarm as plentifully as insects in all the schools of the three kingdoms. What would our old authors think, if they were to come back to this world and find all the grammatical masters, mistresses, journeymen, journey women and apprentices, busy clipping up their compositions into good grammar ! Shakespear would group them more humorously than the Merry Wives of Windsor, for everlasting sport to laughing multitudes. Bacon would think it neces- sary to write a profound treatise on the prevalence of false, foolish, childish learning. Hobbes would con- tent himself with putting a few shrewd remarks into a Tojn Thumb volume, proving that false, foolish grammar was originally spun out of the spider brains of Egyptian mystagogues and Grecian Sophists ; and that it is fit only for finical fingers, or to entangle literary insects. In reply, our grammatical Doctors would say, that good usage gives law to language ; and that usage to be good must be present, national and reputable. It was right to sayOwr Father ichich art in heaven, when our translation of the Scriptures was made, but it would be very wrong to say so now : nay, it were a kind of insult to apply which to a person, for accord- PHILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY, 14? ing to good grammar or present usage, it is appro- priated to children, beasts and insects. Dr. Crombie has sense enough to admit that some ridicule was due on this topic, and that it would be a mockery of reasoning to apply argument. It is sufficiently evident that the distinction made between wlio and ichich^ is not only arl>itrary and useless, but inconvenient and embarrassing. How often is every writer obliged to employ the cjiijunction that, merely to avoid making bad grammar ! Thus, were I to say the man and his horse wlio fell into the ditch — the man and his horse which fell into the ditch, I should be supposed to make bad grammar, because who is considered inapplicable to the horse and which to the man. All such grave and wise grammatical objec- tions I happily get rid of, by adopting: a conjunction that has not yet been perverted from its proper cha- racter ; saying — the man and his horse that fell into the ditch. Because Greek and Latin have destinctions in the termination of pronouns called cases, our grammatical legislators have laboured to establish similar distinc- tions in English pronouns. It is not my present business to consider such distinctions, as they exist in Latin and Greek ; such distinctions may perhaps be necessary and useful in these dialects, but they are wholly unnecessary and useless in our own lan- guage ; for what is an-ent or what is subject is indicated hy position not termination. Wlien a plain ungram- matical man says, 1 saw hi\ or qhv saw he no one can L 2 IIS PIirLOSOPlIIC ETYMOLOGY. doubt for ii moment respecting the meaning ; or who saw and who reus seen. Even when English words are forced into a Latin arrangement, the distinction of nominative and accusative case is not wanted : " Arms and the man I sing." Here there is no change in man answering to virion, to denote its being the object of the verb ; and for the reason that such change is unnecessary in the noun the principal, it is unnecessary in the pronoun the substitute : arms and he I sing, is as intelligible and definite as arms and him I sing. The truth is, that notwithstanding many long-continued efforts to force English into a Latin structure, it retains so much of its own idiom, (or rather of its Gothic simplicity,) as to indicate what is nominative and what is accusative without the assistance of termination. For the same reason that different terminations were given to the Greek and Latin noun, it might be proper to give different terminations to the pronouns ; but for the same rea- son that Ens^lish nouns have no accusative case, English pronouns ought to have none. In spite of all the efforts of grammaticlins, there are two of the pronouns which have still no change of termination ; namely, i/ou and it. But is there any inconvenience attendino; their single form ? Is it not evident that this simplicity is an excellence rather than defect.^ It may be said, that me thinks, thee thinks, him thinks, them thinks are not grammatical, that is, not according to present usage ; but they are according to ancient usage, and it is unreasonable to interpose PHILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY. 149 any arbitrary authority to establish distinctions which have no utility, and which tend only to embarrass and enslave English composers. This, indeed, is all so plain, that I shall leave the pronouns by showing first how they came to be so irregular, and secondly what they ought to be it" rectified from all corruption and irregularity. It has been shown that / is a contraction oi' ick or if, which is the same word as eek or eke, ge softened into he, me, &c. Mine is a corruption of meen ; thine of thouen or theen ; he, him, she, her, it (formerly hit), are all varied spellings of the same word, which like the, this, thir, (Saxon and Scotch) was originally Cr. or Gr. &c. His, is a contraction of he's; vur, is a a contraction of ii'eer; their, of thei/er ; your, oti/oucr. It has been sufficiently shown that er. and £n. were usual affixes before they were softened into es. or 's. If our pronouns were according to the analogy of the language they would run thus : — / I's, or me 7ne*s ; thou thous, or thee thee's ; he lie's, or fiim him's ; she she's, or her hers ; it it's ; we we's ; you you's ; they they's, or them them's ; who who's, or which which' s. Persons who consult their eyes and ears more than their understanding would smile at such modes of speech ; and so would they at o.ves instead of oxen; childs instead of children ; ?/iaw5 instead of men, &c.; but instead of ridiculing foreigners and children, who in such instances follow the analogy of our language, they ought to blush at their own folly in pronouncing wrong right, and right wrong — consecrating corrup- loO riui.osopnic etymology. tions and detects into excellencies, that they may be perpctuaU'd tor ever. The truth is, had ignorant graininaticlins let our language alone, it ^^ ould have been, in all probability, pretty regular, but they must legislate and Jix our speech ; and instead ot freeing it from corruptions and irregularities, which is the pro- per office ol" special grammar, they have only endea- voured to render absurdity eternal. The reader will perceive, that though the gramma- tical laws which perpetuate irregularities are arbitrary, the irregularities themselves are not arbitrary: they are merely relics of what were regular terminations ; which relics were in the very act ot passing away into a new regular form, when they were seized upon is suitable materials for the superstructure of an arbi- trary system of grammar. All that is aimed at in these remarks is, to counteract absurd, despotic prin- ciples and rules : either let us have no grammatical laws, or let them be what all laws ought to be — rea- sonable and uselul. It is manifest that all the rules given concerning the pronouns, are not only arbitrary but absurd ; and instead of serving any important purpose, only perplex and enslave. , THE VERB CONSIDERED. It is said, " A verb is a word, which signifies to be, to do, or to suffer ;" and that " to a verb belong num- ber, person, mood and tense ;" every syllable of which PHILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY. 151 is absurd. What is called a verb is not one word, but two or more words conjoined, and this is the whole mystery of the matter. Of any two nouns you may form what is called a verb : as, men hand, men foot, men mouth, men eye ; or by prefixing what are called pronouns: I hand, thou hand, he hand, we hand, you hand, they hand : I eye, thou eye, he eye, we eye, you eye, they eye, &c. Observe, every word called a verb is primarily as truly a noun as the instance above given ; but having been mummijiedoi: detached from the sensible object to which it belongs, by such variety of spelling and pronouncing as in /itar, ear; mouthy iiieat^ eat, &c. men in a kindof2;acM0 of perception have fancied and written wonderful metaphysical doctrines concerning grammar, rhetoric, logic, and such other matters as come under the superintendence of the god of mys- tery ; and such great philosophers as Dugald Stewart, have publicly rejoiced at the thought, that the ety- mology of many words is irrecoverably lost ; intimat- ing at the same time, that the true intellectual phi- losophy will never do any good till more words are mummified into elegant expletives, or reduced to their true, spiritual, disembodied character; when, se- parated from all sensible objects, they will be mere abstract notions^ or true metaphysical ghosts. It is always important to put down learned absur- dity ; and therefore before proceeding to the weightier considerations connected with the verb, I shall briefly notice the doctrine of Modes and Tenses, which though 142 PIIir.OSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY. false, is ill itself of so little consideration as not to merit much attention. We cannot expect signin\ay, and allows every singularity to show itself; and which for one less agreeable oddity it may bring to light, gives to the world ten thousand great and useful examples." Before arbitrary principles and rules have become despotic original thinkers can be nobly singular with- out fear and without censure ; but after tyranny is fully established and generally acknowledged, even they must submit in the prescribed, the established, the authorised manner. Originality cannot exist un- 939 PHILOSOPHIC etymology. der the deadly shade of despotism : slaves can neither think nor feel nor speak as free men. Mr. Stewart would not only have us abandon etymology, he would refine us out of the best half of our language : he would not only strip words of their original import, when wild in the woods of Germany ; he would banish many of them from good composi- tion for rudeness and vulgarity. Handle, he says, has not sufficient lightness and delicacy for fine writ- ing, and ought to be superseded by that fine, smooth Italian word treat, that can nicely touch the finest nerves of the most delicate ears, without causing the slightest jar or discord among their notions. *' In short, (to adopt the words of a writer as sen- sible as original, when he does not plunge into unexamined depths or strut after Johnson) he would proscribe literary genius from every walk but high life ; which, though abounding in fools as well as the humblest station, is by no means so fruitful in ab- surdity, (or the means and materials of wit and hu- mour.) Among well-bred fools we may despise much, but have little to laugh at ; nature [art] seems to present a universal blank of silk, ribbons, smiles and whispers." Our polite literature is a mere silken blank of thin, polished, worn-out senti- ment and expression. PHILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY. ^33 WHOEVER WOULD WRITE WELL MUST HAVE NO RHYTHMUS OR TUNE OF COMPOSITION. The rhymers are all pretty singers, who soothe dainty ears with much sweet melody ; and in pro- portion as the art of rhyming is improved and refined, the sense is lost in the sound ; for you cannot get the meaning of the song from the mouth of a fine singer. Pope is one of the sweet singers of polite literature ; and Wordsworth puts the dear baby to bed with such a sweet and sovereign lullaby^ that 1 should wonder if it waked again before the morning of the resurrec- tion of genius : the mysticism of German and Scotch metaphysics, has been already introduced to give effect to the music of poetry, (for music has most effect in the stillness and darkness of night,) and the mists and clouds have only to thicken round the intellectual horizon, to involve the understanding in eternal night ; when the ghosts and dreams of diseased fancy will hold their uninterrupted revellings, mas- querades, balls, concerts, or literary converzationcs. The music and harmony of composition are not wholly monopolized by the elegant rhymers — the prosers too have their favourite airs and respective tunes. Most of our historians have rhyme as well as reason in their composition. There is much of the roundelay in the far-famed pages of Robertson ; and not a little of the clinkum clankum in the profound 2,T4 nill.OSOPHIC ETYxMOLOGY. compositions of Gibbon. Addison's composi- tion, the model of the middle style, is, in the Italian manner, very intricate, and as it were, carelessly irregular, (as meretricious charmers affect a careless, easy manner) ; but nevertheless much-laboured and fingered. The music of Johnson's composition is formed on one of the martial airs or inarches of old Rome ; it strides and struts along with the true goose-step : it is high and sonorous — full of clattering arms and bristling spears. You might suppose, in- deed, the writings of Johnson to be the move pointed passages of Tacitus, Seneca, Sallust and Justin, done into English. The tune is a very easy and perhaps a very good one ; — but according to the common say- ing, there is too much of a good thing : the ears are constantly consulted, but they are surfeited and sickened with the author's fiivourite measure. We have no objection to be pricked on now and then with the point of antithesis, but it is rather too bad to be constantly goaded, as if we were dull, sluggish*^ literary asses. Such great masters of composition as Johnson, are not content to nail rare thoughts into our memory with pointed sentences, but treat it as if it were merely pincushion to the toilet of polite literature, which they might stick full of all sorts and sizes of useless points and conceits. The above is not, however, the greatest objection to a tune -composed style ; or a diction in which the words are set to music : — the rhythmus affects the veracity and credibility of the composition. Socrates PHILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY. 935 is reported to have exclaimed on reading the dialogues of Plato : — " Ye gods, how many fine things has this young man made me say that I never uttered !" How many fine words are put into fine compositions merely because they were wanted to point or round the sen- tences to the fancy of the author ! as unmeaning particles and elegant expletives are put into sublime poesies, merely to supply them with beautiful chime that the rhyme may beat time ; or to make up the full complement oifeet, to enable them to hobble or crawl along the straight line of euphony. Perhaps the reader will say — is it not possible to make good sound an echo or companion to good sense ? Just as impossible as it is to secure equal attention to the meaning of the song and the tune to which it is sung. The tune was originally shade, echo, or accompaniment to the meaning, but continued to gain ascendency till sound became, instead of echo, extinguisher of the sense. Meaning and euphony arc like the two opposite scales of a balance — as the one rises the other sinks. THE STUDY OF LANGUAGE IS A NECESSARY PRE- PARATIVE TO GOOD COMPOSITION. This is so self-evident, that had it not been for some remarks of the rhetorical metaphysicling, I should have deemed the statement wholly superflu- ous, as a mere truism. It would be as reasonable, 936 PHILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY. indeed, to deny that the study of telescopes is of any utility to the science of astronomy — that an acquaint- ance with philosophical instruments is at all subser- vient to philosophical discovery — or that a thorough knowledge of the tools of any art facilitates practical skilfulness and expertness, as to question whether philology be subservient to good composition — and what is far more importaiit, true knowledge and sound opinion. It is true that some very ready per- formers may not know much of the principles of music or nature of musical instruments ; so some may play very dexterously with words in making rhetori- cal harmony or pretty composition, who know no- thing of the principles and structure of language : the Blairs^ Beatties and Stewarts are performers of this description ; but the question is, did they ever do any thing but jjlay with language ? Could they ever experiment with it as an instrument of science ? Were they to cant about composition to eternity, would they be able to compose a single paragraph in the style of Bacon, Hobbes, or Home Tooke ? Not only is language in general an instrument of science — words are intellectual tools by which the business of thinking and communication of thought is performed : this seems now pretty well understood by real thinkers : Locke was fully aware of it, though rather too late to render his Essay as clear, definite and useful as it might have been. " When, (says Mr. Locke) I first began this discourse of the un- derstanding, and a good 'while after, I had not the PllTLOSOPinC ETYMOLOGY. 237 least idea that any consideration of icords was at all necessarij (it is strange that this mistake has been so general, for it is stumbling at the very threshold of philosophy) ; but when having passed over the ori- ginal and composition of our ideas, I began to exa- mine the extent and certainty of our knowledge, I found that it had so near a connexion with words, that unless their force and manner of signification were first well observed, there could be very little said clearly and pertinently concerning knowledge/' *' I am apt to imagine, that were the imperfec- tions [and perfections] of language, as the instrument of knowledge more thoroughly weighed and more duly considered, a great many of the controversies that make so much noise in the world, would of themselves cease, and the way to knowledge and perhaps peace too lie a great deal opener than it does. 'The consideration then of ideas and words, as the great instruments of knowledge, makes no despicable part of their contemplation, who would take a view of human knowledge in the whole extent of it. And perhaps if they were distinctly weighed and duly considered, they would afford us another kind of logic and critic than we have hitherto been acquainted with." Had Locke made the important discovery relative to the medium of thought, the instrument of know- ledge ; or rather had he attended to the doctrine of Bacon, Hobbes, Wilkins and others on the subject before he began his Essay, it would have been more 238 PHILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY. valuable to the world and a nobler monument of his correct judgment, patient reflection, and persevering industry.* The defects of his workmanship are solely owing to the defectiveness of his instrument, or rather his unskilfulness in the nature and use of the intel- lectual tools. He had the stamina of a o:ood writer as well as sound thinker ; but he did not sufficiently study the signs of ideas — the medium of thought ; and he ended his Essay at the beginning of his subject. Yet strange as it is, and though Mr. Locke like many of his readers was not aware of it, his Essay on the Understandino- was more a treatise on words than ideas. The truth is, they cannot be treated of apart: we might as well attempt to take the soul and body asunder and dissect them separately, to discover the principle of life and the nature of mind, as attempt to treat intelligibly of ideas apart from words, or of words apart from ideas. Mr. Home Tooke pronounces the Essay concern- ing the Human Understanding a treatise on grammar; and it is certainly as much entitled to that denomina- tion as an other ; but (as he justly remarks), who would have read it or talked of it, (for I fear there is much mere talk in the business,) had it been called by a more proper name — had it not professed to con- tain the noble theme of the Understandino- ? Such 'O * Mr. Stewart and similar critics speak of Mr. Locke's wonderfirl originality — ^powerful and creative genius ! But the first article of their creed is, that words are arbitrary, insignificant signs — unmeaning patches : and their practice proves their faith. PHILOSOPHIC ETY.MOLOGY. $39 dignitaries of intellect as Dugald Stewart would have considered it below the digniti/ of philosophy ; and " be>- longing to the same branch ofliterature with that which furnishes a large proportion of the materials of our com- mon lexicons and etymological dictionaries." These giants oi Belles Lettres and Fathers of Orthodox meta- physics can reach the airy summits of intellectual/>Aeno- mena^ and the cloud-capt pinnacles of the philosophy of mind without being indebted to hard clindbing and sure footing : they are as light and vacuous as they are tall and powerful, and can trip over the vasty deep of unideal vacuity without sinking to the bot- tom ; Avhile their delicate fingers are bus}^ putting insignificant words into pretty composition, as un- meaning patches are formed into a beautiful anamor- phosis. And what is more, they can make a furious outcry about religion, like their master Plato and his frothy, raving discipleTully, who, like Dugald Stewart, was so outrageously mad at the idea of the true theory of the soul being 2w danger^ that he could not write sensibly on the subject. Every one who has compared them must have perceived how inferior Locke is to his great original ; for though he was a judicious borrower, he-was no- thing of an inventor : his inferiority to his original may be partly attributed to his copying instead of inventing, for the borrower must be poorer than the lender; but I apprehend the chief cause of the difference in question to be, that the one had stu- died language deeply — the other, for a long time 240 PIJILOSOPIIIC ETYMOLOGY. at least, wholly neglected this study of studies — this fundamentally essential and important kind of learn- ing. Among all our original thinkers, no one was a more determined and formidable adversary to the mysticism and jargon of the schoolmen, than the philosopher of Malmsbury. Mr. Stewart, with all the littleness of a college monk, brings the old ever- lasting charge (with which true philosophers have been persecuted), o^ atheism against him, and espe- cially against his etymologt/. We have nothing to do here with his aberrations^ (and w^iat human mind was ever infallible?) but it is evident that he could not have been so clear a thinker and definite a writer without the help of etymology ; for as he justly re- marks, " the most necessary and important study is the study of words :" — " etymologies are not defini- tions, but the best helps to definitions.'' Persons of crude knowledge and ill-digested opi- nions, think to proclaim their philosophic sagacity by exaggerating the importance of the study of thmgs^ and depreciating the dignity and value of the study of words. Johnson, in his usual antithetic manner, thought himself repeating (for he was saying after an ancient authority), a sentiment exceedingly profound, supremely excellent or extra-superfine, when ar- guing that we ought to pay more attention- to thought than expression, he said : " JVords are of earth but things are of heaven." But for the very reason that words are not divine but humati^ much attention to them is necessary ; because being, like every thing PHILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY. 241 human, imperfect and liable to corruption and per- version, they occasion, without constant care, much mistake, deception, absurdity, folly and mischief. Things themselves are in general simple and uniform : it is the 7nedium through which they are viewed that renders them obscure, or shows them crooked, — double — in false colours, magnitudes and relations : it is the medium of vision or perception that occa- sions all our illusions, false opinions, mental misti- ness and confusion ; and therefore it is more neces- sary to study the mediums than the objects of our knowledge. The words of the Philosopher of Malmsbury, are so much to the present purpose, that I shall not hesi- tate to quote them ; for I should despise myself if I could be deterred from receiving the sound opinion and solid reasoning of a true philosopher, by any bi- goted clamour of blind zealots : — " Seeing then, that truths (says Hobbes) consisteth in the right ordering of names in our affirmations, a man that seeketh pre- cise truth had need to remember what every name he uses stands for, and to place it accordingly ; else he will find himself entangled in words, as a bird in lime twigs ; the more he struggles the more belimed. And therefore in Geometry (the only science it hath pleased God hitherto to bestow on mankind), men begin at settling the significations of their words ; which settling of significations they call dcjinitions^ and place them in the beginning of their reckoning. " By this it appears how necessary it is for any R 242 PHILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY. man tliat aspires to true knowledge to examine the definitions of former authors ; and either correct them where they are negligently set down or make them himself. For the errors of definitions multiply them- selves as the reckoning proceeds ; and leads men into absurdities, which at last they see but cannot avoid witiiout reckoning anew from the beginning; in which lies the foundation of their errors. From whence, it happens, that they which trust to books, do as they that cast up many little sums into a greater, without considerii^g whether those little sums were rightly cast up or not ; and at last finding the error visible, and not mistrusting their first grounds, know not which way to clear themselves ; but spend time in fluttering over their books, as birds that entering by the chimney and finding themselves enclosed in a chamber, flutter at the false light of a glass window for want of wit to consider which way they came in. So that in the right definition of names lies the first use of speech, which is the acquisition of science. And in wrong or no definitions lies the first abuse ; from which proceed all false and senseless tenets, which make those men that take their instruction from the authority of books and not from their own meditation, to be as much below the condition of ignorant men, as those endued with true science are above it. For between true science and erroneous doctrines, ignorance is in the middle. Natural sense and imagination are not subject to absurdity. Na- ture itself cannot err : and as men abound in copious- PHILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOr.Y. 24,'3 ness of language, so they become more wise or more mad than ordinary. Nor is- it possible without let- ters, for any man to become either excellently wise or (unless his memory be hurt by disease or ill-con- stitution of organs), excellently foolish. For words are wise men's counters ; they do but reckon by them: but they are the money of fools that value them by the authority of an Aristotle, a Cicero, or any other Doctor." The importance of this subject could not escape that clear, comprehensive and profound thinker, I had almost said, that omniscient philosopher, Bacmi. " The idols of the market, (says that wonderful intel- ligence,) give the greatest disturbance ; and from- a tacit agreement among mankind, with regard to the imposition of ?t"0>r/5 and names, insinuate themselves into the understanding : for words are generally given according to vulgar conception, and divide things by such differences as the common people are capable of: but when a more acute understanding, or a more careful observation would distinguish things better, words murmur against it. The remedy of this lies in definitions, but these themselves are in many cases irremediable, as consisting of words : for words ge- nerate words, however men may imagine they have a command over words ; and can easily say they will speak with the vulgar and think with the wise. Terms of art also, which prevail only among the skilful, may seem to remedy the mischief; and defi- nitions premised to arts in the prudent mathematicul R ^2 244 PIIILOSO^illC ETYMOLOGY. uranner, to correct the wrong acceptation of words : yet all this is insufficient to prevent the seducing incantation of names in numerous respects, their doing violence to the understanding and recoiling upon it from whence they proceeded. This evil, THEREFORE, REQUIRES A NEW AND DEEPER RE- MEDY." Every sentence of this great master of wisdom, proves him to have studied words as much as thoughts and things ; and that he employed words as honest interpreters of nature — not as false witnesses against truth, or pretty play-things to amuse childish under- standings ; for he was not a bigoted theorist employ- ing pious frauds, or finical rhetorician playing with words as babies with insects. It were as vain, indeed, to expect true philosophy or substantial good writing from men who neglect and depreciate the study of language, as it would be to expect mathematical science from persons that have never attended to ma- thematical signs and instruments. The opinion of a rational dignitary on this subject deserves to be quoted. " This design (says Wilkins in his Inquiry into a Real Character) will likewise contribute much to the clearing of some of our mo- dern difiTerences by unmasking many wild errors that shelter themselves under the diso;^uise of affected phrases ; which being philosophically unfolded ac- cording to the genuine and natural import of words will appear to be inconsistencies and contradictions : and several of those pretended mysteries and profound PHILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY. 24iD notions expressed in great swelling words, whereby some nnen set up for reputation being this way ex- amined will appear to be either nonsense or very flat and jejune. And though it be of no other use but this, yet were it well worth a man's pains to study language considering the common mischief that is done, and the many impostures and cheats that arc put upon men under the disguise of affected, insigni- ficant phrases." The sentiments of the ingenious and original Tuck- er are worthy of appearing in the same pasfes with those already given. " I am persuaded (says Tucker) that in cases of the highest importance we may often arrive, if not at mathematical demonstration, yet at a degree of evidence that shall command as full and merit as unreserved an assent. This persuasion will lead me now and then to bestow more time than I could wish upon the signification of words : such disquisitions I fear may appear tedious to many not- withstanding that no pains in my power shall be spared to render them easy, smooth and palatable ; but I hope to find excuse in the absolute necessity of the thing. For without accuracy of language it is impossible to convey a chain of close reasoning to others, or even to be sure of carrying it on unbroken ourselves ; because we must always deliver our con- ceptions in words, and foj the most part we think in words." " Wherefore in these sciences philology must go along with philosophy, not as partner or companion, but attendant or handmaid. For the 2A6 I'll 1 LOSOI'HIC KTYMOLOGY. kr.owlcdgc of things is our principal aim, and criti- • cisin no further than shall be found expedient to secure our meditations against confusion, and our discourses against misapprehension." The Kmits and Stewarts are not worthy of appear- ing in company with the above philosophers, else I would now introduce some of their cobweb notions to show how soon their light, exquisite, delicate con- texture is completely spoiled by a mere straw or breath of argument. If they would have the true theorij exempted from the certain danger of being brushed out of existence, they must keep it snug in the vacuo and mistiness of abstraction ; weaving it round with metaphysical composition made up of words as insignificant as the letters of the alphabet : if they creep out into broad day-light, they will be seen and caught as sure as they are metaphysical spiders and rhetorical silkworms. The meaning of words is evidently of great impor- tance in every department of knowlege : etymology is to the meaning of words w^hat chemistry is to the qualities of substances. Chemical experiments are not always absolutely certain, but they are the surest means of arriving at certain knowledge of the proper- ties of substances : etymological investigation may not in every instance dissipate the obscurities of words ; but it is the surest means of rendering their signification clear and certain. No one that wishes to be considered a thinker would hazard the reputa- tion of his understanding by disputing or depreciat- PHILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY. 247 ing the utility and dignity of chemistry : etymology is equally important to science while it is equally susceptible of absolute certainty ; at least, though much neglected hitherto, it is already more allied to chemistry than to alchymy. Etymology has been the alchymy, but shall be the chemistr}- of language; whose experimenting processes will refme away the dross of philosophy — purify intellect — simplify and abridge the methods of learning and acquisition of knowledge — expose the gilded basencsss of counter- feit eloquence — detect the pious frauds of the school- men — the verbal tricks of the sophists — the subtle imposture of juggling metaphysics — displode and dis- sipate the stagnant vapours and mistiness which have so long hung around the mental atmosphere — car- rying a blaze of light into every corner of every de- partment of science and region of discovery. All this and much more than can be expressed in a brief, rapid sketch would be accomplished by a proper Etymological Dictionary, which petty thinklings — quackish pretenders affect to despise as a mere school-book below the dignity of philosophy. i^48 PIULOSOPIIIC ETYMOLOGY. ONE RULE OF COMPOSITION IS NECESSARY, AND THAT ONE RULE IS SUFFICIENT : LET THE COMPOSER CONSTANTLY ENDEAVOUR Tp EX- PRESS HIS MEANING IN AS FEW WORDS AS POSSIBLE. This rule is so useful and necessary that I cannot conceive it possible for any one to compose readily and excellently without its assistance. The con- ceptions of the author are exceedingly apt to be en- tangled and oppressed by verhality ; and the best means of obtaining a clear, full view and firm hold of an idea is to throw away as mere incumbrance every word and syllable not necessary to its existence. When I find my thoughts less free and distinct — more confused and oppressed than usual, I am im- mediately convinced that there is too great a crowd of words around them ; — and the moment I begin to disperse the multitude, I see my way clear — I feel as if coming out of a thicket into the open plain, or as when my view is gradually brightened and en- larged by the melting or rolling away of the mists that had hung around the atmosphere. It is with conceiving and expressing thought as it is with tra- velling : the shortest cut is the straightest direction ; and he who takes the straightest course proceeds to the point proposed with most ease and certainty : in- direct and meandering paths are most apt to bewil- der and mislead the steps of the passenger. PHILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY. 249 What tends to clear and simplify the conceptions of the writer must tend also to assist the perceptions of the reader : as clear expression is inseparably con- nected with distinct conception ; so a quick and just perception of the meaning is as certainly connected with perspicuous composition as a distinct and bold image of our face is with a bright mirror or pure fountain. Many mistakes respecting concise and diffuse styles are afloat on the current of common, traditionary , authorised 'opinion. Of all these errors that is the most erroneous which supposes the short-cut of style most liable to obscurity, and the long round-about style most likely to be clear and definite ; for it is evident in almost every page of every book that ob- scureness, equivocalness, and indefiniteness are the natural offspring not of conciseness but diffuseness. It is true that lawyers who have been always iaw- framers proceed on the principle, that the more words the better, as if they could prosecute and com- pel composition into perspicuity and definiteness by a crowd of tautologies and circumlocutions ; but af- ter all, their craft would be in no small danger if le- gal writings were made to lean as much to the ex- treme of brevity as they have hitherto done to that of prolixity. True, indeed, composition maybe ob- scure and even unintelligible because too concise ; for who will deny that there may be a deficiency as well as superfluity of words ? The question is, on what side do writers most frequently err? It re- 2J0 PHILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY. quires very little attention to the subject to perceive tliat the general fault is that of verbosity. Some concise styles are bad (this has nothing to do with the question) ; yet the advantages of a con- cise over a diffuse style are many: brevity and di- rectness save time and labour and expense, which are no unimportant considerations where there is much writing, transcribing, printing, reading, re- peating and roting. It is presumed that the last re- mark will rivet conviction in the voters ; for they must have experienced how difficult and laborious it is to commit and retain the diffuse and straggling sentences of the favourite models. I would rather rote off all the volumes of Bacon and Hobbes than a single chapter of Locke or page of Addison. A skilful builder can construct a good, sufficient, well- proportioned, well-compacted edifice out of few ma- terials : a good packer can put much value, and even much quantity into little bulk ; and in proportion to the smallness of the bundle or parcel, is it more conveniently handled and carried. Quantity and value, bulk and strength, or solidity, are so differ- ent as to be in most instances contraries. Chaff, straw and stubble are bulky commodities, (and useless Avords in composition are as chaff in grain) pure grain, gold, silver and precious gems are com- prehended in small compass. Johnson's composi- tion will perhaps be referred to as a specimen of con- ciseness and strength ; but it is not a fair example : it has more sound than sense — more bulk than PHILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY. 9.51 Strength : it is ponderous rather than sohd, and clum- sy rather than well-compacted ; and its eternal mo- notony of cmtithetic chime indicates humming rather than thinking. If the ear or undcrstandinu: be once surfeited with the style of Johnson, perpetual dis- taste is the certain consequence. I gave at onetime my days and nights to the volumes of Johnson : fre- quently have I attempted to revive my first fondness — the love of my youth : but I could not succeed — my taste or distaste, my ears, eyes, understanding, or something in and about me, absolutely kecks at the Doctor's doses. It has been justly remarked by Home Tooke, that a concise style serves the purposes of a map on a re- duced scale, which enables us to take in numerous particulars and important relations at one view that would wholly escape our notice if spread out on a wide surface ; but what is most important to remark on this subject : brevity or directness is the NATURAL ALLY OF TRUTH ; DIFFUSENESS IS THE NATURAL ALLY OF ERROR: truth is simple and direct as a straight line : error is involved and crooked as the windings of the serpent. Verbality is the covering which such quack philosophers as Kant and Stewart put over their poor, naked, false theories ; simplicity is the seal of truth. My onlv regret at hurrying the present work (for I have com- posed much of it at full speed, with the compositors at my heels) is, that 1 have not had time to discover and strike out some hundreds more of unnecessary 252 PHILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY. words. As to the opinions, reasons and reasonings of the work, I should despise them if they were such as to require much guarding, with that finical kind of accuracy which consists in many careful touches and cautious retouches of the composition. ( 553 ) PART V. A STANDARD OF ORTHOGRAPHY ESTABLISHED. This part win not detain us long ; for I mean to confine my proofs and illustrations within the com- pass of a few instances. Perhaps, indeed, some are already alarmed lest the established order of English Orthography be disturbed, unsettled and overturned ; but a very little reflection (if any reflection be neces- sary), will convince them that whatever may be established there is no order, simplicity, regularity or reasonableness in English Orthography ; — all is wildly irregular and capriciously absurd. At one time there was something like simplicity and uni- formity in English spelling ; but later authors and lexicographers seem to have thought that they could not pursue too devious a course, or adopt too capri- cious a mode. The only question is, shall their ab- surdity be consecrated into immortality .? Shall that usage which has been introduced and established be rendered perpetual ? I wish, if possible, to accom- plish a needful reform in our orthography ; and if men are so bigoted to present usage or establisheil folly, as obstinately to refuse any alteration even in these matters, any important improvement is hope- 254 PlIILOSOl'lIIC ETYMOLOGY. less : the slaves of authority — the disciples of cus- tom — the literary bigots are not worth reasoning with. I do not pretend to legislate but to point out the true principles of legislation. True etymology ought to regulate orthography ; and the intention of my reasonings is to unfold the nature and establish the authority of true etymology. Perhaps no one has studied the pronunciation and spelling of the English language so much as Mr. Walker ; and that author has justly remarked : " Our orthography is not only an insuperable difficulty to foreigners, but an eternal source of dispute and per- plexity to ourselves ; and though it would be in vain to think of removing every intricacy [why vain ?] that is constantly arising from indolence and caprice, yet that a considerable number may be remedied by a view of the general laws of formation will be read- ily conceived by those who enquire into the origin of the difficulties complained of. By an affectation of approximating to the orthography of the learned languages we have rooted out many useful letters that sprung up naturally with exotic words, and have been led to exclude all letters in our compounds which are not actually pronounced, though their ex- istence in these words is often no less necessary to prevent ambiguity than in the simples themselves. Thus the useful servile e. is hardly ever suffered to have a place in composition, though from a feeling of its importance we are almost intuitively tempted to let it remain in the branches whenever we rccol- PHILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY. 2o3 lect it in the root. The omission or insertion of this occasions a numerous catalogue of rules and excep- tions. The other serviles /, s, &c. are no less ab- surdly omitted in composition, though their power remains, and by this means both orthography and pronunciation arc confounded. The duplication of consonants when an additional termination is assum- ed forms another difficulty in our terminational or- thography, as it may be called, which has embar- rassed the most correct and accurate writers." This is the lano'uasfe of sense and reflection. It is surprising (if indeed any kind of human folly can sur- prise one who has looked long and much around him in the world) how absurdly men persevere in perplex- ing methods without ever stopping to enquire where- in the evil consists, or how it may be rectified. Boys are actually several years in learning to spell the English language (what with a simple, uniform, ra- tional orthography might be learned in a few weeks, or at most, a few months) ; nor are they then, or indeed to the end of life, certain about the proper spelling of some words. As if it were of no impor- tance to prevent useless learning, and render language simple and easy ; we seem to think it cannot be ren- dered too perplexing and difficult. The evil com- plained of indeed is like all the other evils connected with mistakes concerning language — wholly attribu- table to the neglect of rational etymology. " To detect (says Mr. Walker) the orthographical irregularities of our language il will be necessary fust 266 PHILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY. to lay down such general maxims in spelling as have almost universally taken place. By these we may judge of the impropriety of those deviations which are owing perhaps to a want of seeing the laws of formation as here exhibited, and knowing how far the irregularity extends." The aphorisms laid down by the above sensible and meritorious author I shall examine ; for though he thought the evil he complained of too deep to be remedied, and there- fore endeavoured to bring the absurdity into a fixed and regular shape, I cannot perceive why it may not be cut up by the roots at once instead of being established for ever. " Monosyllables (says Mr. Walker) ending with/, /, or 5, preceded by a single vowel, double the final consonant ; as sta,^\ inill^ pass, &c." This is according to general practice ; but there is no reasonableness or utility in the practice : double /. and double /, &c. used to be pronounced differ- ently (as they still are in some dialects) from" single /. and single /, &c. ; but as there is now no differ- ence whatever in the power of the double and single form of the same letter, why double it uselessly ? If it were for no other purpose than to save time, labour, trouble and expense, it would be of impor- tance to drop the superfluous letter ; and as the omis- sion of it would greatly simplify the orthography of our language, it ought manifestly to be omitted. There is something like a reason indeed for retain- ing the double ss. as it is usually pronounced differ- PHILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY. 257 ently from the single form of the same letter ; as his, /iiss ; as, ass. It should be observed, however, that either z. or single s. is superfluous, as they have both one sound ; thus is has the same sound as if it were spelt iz, &c. The z. is rather an alien than a native in the English language, and might be very easily expelled as a nuisance or cumberer : and I would move (hoping the practice of every good writer will second the motion) that the following be adopted as the principles of English orthography. FIRST PRINCIPLE OF ENGLISH ORTHOGRAPHY. THAT NO SUPERFLUOUS LETTER IN ANY SYLLA- BLE OF ANY WORD BE RETAINED. Thus instead of 5/a^spell staf ; and for inill put mil J &c. SECOND PRINCIPLE OF ENGLISH ORTHOGRAPHY. THAT THE SPELLING OF THE SAME WORD BE NOT CHANGED IN ANY CONNEXION. Why should y. be changed into i. in so many words ; as spi/ into spies, instead of spt/s ; carry into carrier, instead oi carry er, or rather carycr ; pay into paid, instead of /?aj/ef/, &c. ? Mr. Walker justly calls this an unaccountable caprice. It is a caprice that s 2.5S PHILOSOPHIC ETY.MOLOCV. serves no one purpose whatever but to render or- thography difficult and perplexing. THIRD PRINCIPLE OF ORTHOGRAPHY. LETTERS OUGHT NOT TO BE DROPPED OR SUPPRESSED WHEN THE WORD TO WHICH THEY BELONG IS COMPOUNDED WITH OTHER WORDS OR PAR- TICLES. The following instances are all at variance with the above principle: dull/, truly, instead of truely duely ; wholly instead of wholely ; chastly, chastness, for chastely, chasteness ; blamahle, curable, sensible, for blameable, cureable, &c. &c. The reason of the above principle is obvious : such capricious and irregular omissions of letters, as in duly, truly, wholly, &c. can serve no purpose what- ever but to render spelling difficult and perplexing. FOURTH PRINCIPLE. Letters OUGHT NOT TO BE NEEDLESSLY ASSUMED. The general practice of spelling on which the fol- lowing Aphorism of Mr. Walker is founded, is at variance with the foregoing principle : — " Words ending with a single consonant, preceded by a single vowel and with the accent on the last syllable, upon assuming an additional syllable beginning with a PHILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY. 559 vowel ory, double the consonant, as to abet, an abet- tor ; to begin, a beginning' ; a fen, fenny ; thin, thin- nish, &c." This is a most uncertain and perplexing rule, which not only occasions much trouble to learners, but even to old practitioners in the business of ortho- graph}^ ; hence some spell worshipping, counselling, bigotttd, &c. instead oi worshiping, counseling, bigoted, though the accent be not on the syllable in which the letter is doubled. " Why, (says Mr. Walker) we should write libelling, levelling, revelling, I am totally at a loss to determine ; and unless /, can give a better plea than any other letter in the alphabet, for being doubled in this situation I must, in the style of Lu- cian, in his trial of the letter 7'., declare for an expul- sion." This is all very good so far as it goes, only it does not go far enough Why not declare for an ex- pulsion of all supernumeraries, idlers, and cumberers } The reason why the consonant was ever doubled in such instances as abettor, beginner, &c. is obvious enouo'h : it was intended to indicate the accent or stress laid on that syllable, but such indication is wholehj unnecessary ; for the accent was sufficiently understood to be on that syllable before the consonant was doubled. s 2 260 PHILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY. FIFTH PRINCIPLE. THE FINAL C. SHOULD BE EM- PLOYED SOLELY FOR THE PURPOSE OF LENGTH- ENING THE PRECEDING VOWEL AND SOFTEN- ING^, c. ; as in matc^ niite^ note, inute, mete, &c. ; bulge, mince, &c. In such instances as the foregoing, the final e. has real use ; in all other instances it is worse than use- less ; such as love, give, &c. In almost every case when /. occurs in the last syllable of a word e. is ab- surdly enough put after instead of before it ; as battle, trouble, dribble, &c. ; instead of battel or batel, trou- bel, dribbel or dribel. The reason of the thing, as ^vell as regard for learners, especially foreigners, plainly shows what mode ought to be adopted. SIXTH PRINCIPLE. — SUPERFLUOUS SPELLINGS FOR THE SAME SOUND SHOULD BE AVOIDED. The above principle is exceedingly comprehensive, having relation to vowels and diphthongs the ever- teeming sources of useless, troublesome variety — that gouty, dropsical copies verborum, which corrupted dialects and disordered dictionaries exhibit so pom- pously. It will require a dictionary to show the full extent and importance of the principle above stated ; for I do not write unadvisedly in addina:, that two- PHILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY. S>6l thirds of Johnson's mountitudinous pile of lexicogra- phy are merely useless spellings. I object not to such varied spellings as serve the purpose of ellipsis ; head^ heed., hood, hat^ hvd, and many others are merely varied spellings (answer- ing to varied pronunciations) of the same word, taken in different views and relations, or employed for dif- ferent purposes: in a proper dictionary, however, all such forms of the same word would be collected or grouped into one view. It is well known to those who have attended in the slightest degree to the subject, that when the final syllable of a word is unaccented, the quality of the sound is so indeterminate as to be indicated v/ith equal precision by any of the vowels : * thus lover might have been spelt lovar, lovor, lovij\ lovur ; reason might have been spelt reasan, reasen^ reasin, reasun ; servant might be spelt servent^ sercont, servint, servunt. The quality of the sound being in all such cases so uncertain, that it cannot be expressed to the eye with more definiteness by one vowel than another ; the only consideration is to adopt a certain uniform manner of spelling, to render the orthography of the language simple and easy. We have ««, en, on ; ar, cr, or, ir, ur, &c. ; ad, ed, id, &c. as terminations ; * The reader may consult the Principles of English Pronunciation, prefixed to Walker's Pronouncing Dictionary ; where he will find the subject as philosophically treated, as it is possible to treat the Proteus of pronunciation: the only fault of the author's reasonings is, that they arc not suflicieutly etymological. 2()!2 PHILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY. but as 6r, c«, ed, are the general^ they ought to be the uniform manner: beggar should be spelt heggei\ or rather heger like lover\ baker ^ bretver, &c. ; author, acior, and such words should also be spelt auther, acter. Instead of some terminations being ant, and others ent, as servant, regent, they ought to be uni- formly servenl, regent, &c. ; instead of some being on and others en, as blazon, blazen, they ought to be uniformly en, as in leaven, golden, &c. The only reason that can be given for the above useless, troublesome diversity, is far from being rea- sonable. Foreign words, it seems, must be spelt and pronounced in a foreign manner. They may have been settlers in the English language a thousand years ; but they are on no account to be naturalized: they have, like parsons and Jews, an indelible cha- racter ; they are to be aliens in English to all eternity. In no dialect has there been so much of this foolish affectation (for it is like our other literary absurdity — a bastard propriety begot by vanity on superficial knowledge,) as in English ; to which ignorance and senselessness have given the whimsical appearance of a harlequin's jacket, or rather the wretched cha- racter of a beggar's coat, bunglingly pieced up of patches from ail the dialects of the world. In this view it may be considered the Clootz, (or Clouts) — the orator of the human race come to harangue mo- dern philology in the name of all the dialects of the earth. It may be said — our language is actually made up PHILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY. 263 of all languages ; and much nonsense has been retailed concerning this matter, some boasting of it as an excellence, and others deploring it as a fault. Both these extremes of silly criticism meet in the point of ignorance concerning the subject. 1 mean not to rectify vulgar errors on the subject in this place ; it is sufticient to remark, that the sole reason why the English language has a more grotesque, harlequin, beggarly, borrowing, patched-up appear- ance than its neighbours is, that it has been more absurdly treated — more whimsically pronounced and spelt. As to substantial excellence — true greatness, the English language can look down on the petits tnaitres of France, Italy and Greece, like Hercules on Adonis, and scornfully say, " There is no divinity in thee." There was something of Doric dignity that might have vied with the Gothic, about the old Roman in his freest republican age; but the Corin- thian graces and airs of the little things that play' about the lap of Venus — that strut about the stage of life with true elegance, and buzz about the Jine arts, the Belles Lettres, and the easiest manner of running in the harness of rules, and bearing the burden of op- pression and the lash of criticism, — the language of the musicians, dancing-masters, perfumers, frizzlers, gilders, picture-connoisseurs, farce-amateurs, doll- dealers, &c. &c. &c. is so very different from the rude, barbarous style of Gothic or Herculean think- ers, that it would not be fair to contrast their differ- ent excellencies. 2()4 J'llILOSOlMllC ETYMOLOGY. Among the numerous and almost innumerable su- perfluous spellings of the same sound, the following deserve to be noted with a view to salutary retreuch- ment : «?/, ey^ at, ei, as in prai/, prct/, vail, veil, &c. None but those who have looked only a little way into language, will think such varieties useful. In dropping superfluous forms of words we should be guided by etymology : that for7n only should be re- tained which indicates most distinctly the derivation of the word, or the tribe of words to which it belongs: «?/ is the general form in our language, rather than cy, ai or ci, and it is more nearly related to the parent form ag than any of the other kindred forms of the same descent : oi/ and ol come under the fore- going remarks : ee, ea, ie, eo, are employed to denote the same sound ; the fust is the general, and there- fore most rightful form ; and it is the most rational, because the most certain and intelligible method of expressing long e, is ee ; the letter being doubled, which is pronounced emphatically. It would render our orthography far more simple, uni- form and certain, to spell all such words as treat, receive, believe, people ; treef, receev, beleev, peepel, &c. : oa, ow, oe, are employed to express the same sounder long a., as in coat, grott),doe; the first is the general and therefore ought to be the only form : oii\ oa express the same sound, but the first only ought to be retained ; aw, au, express the same sound ; one of them should be dropt : ew, eu, ue, express the same sound ; the first only should be re- PHILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY. 26o tained : oo, ow, u^ express the same sound ; the first only should be retained : oii^ properly a French spell- ing of the above sound, is most absurdly sprinkled over our whole Ian2rua2,e, and almost incurablv fixed in it by the towering authority of our lexicographic Pol3^phemus. Why should we write labour instead of labor, or rather laber ; and piteous instead ofpiteos, or piteus P The truth is, our orthograpluj is com- plete moileij-graphy — a tissue of the most capricious absurdity that was ever put into a dictionar}'. I have remarked in a preceding part that pronun- ciation draws orthography after it so long as there is no orthographical standard generally acknowledged : it is evident, however, that both the pronouncing and spelling ought to follow the guidance of etymo- logy, else they will proceed in no certain direction. There has been much grave debate among men, nei- ther qualified forjudging nor legislating whether or- thography ought to be brought to pronunciation or pronunciation to orthography. It requires, how- ever, no profound study of language to perceive that both ought to be regulated and fixed by rational ety- mology : any other standard of propriety is worse than none. It is to be regretted that Mr. Walker did not venture (for he was well qualified) to dig a little deeper, and lay a firmer foundation of English pronunciation and spelling. Th;it he perceived the absurdity of setting \x^ custom as the arbiter of lan- guage is evident from the following quotation : " Bur what is this custom to whicli we must so implicitly 266 PHILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY. » submit? Is it the iis^ge of the multitude? This has never been asserted by the most sanguine abet- tors of its authority. Is it the usage of the studious in schools and colleges, with those of the learned professions, or that of those who, from their eleva- ted birth and station, give laws to the refinements and elegancies of a court ? To confine propriety to the latter, which is too often the case, seems an in- jury to the former ; who from their very profession appear to have a natural right to a share, at least, in the legislation of language, if not to an absolute sove- reignty. The polished attendants on a throne are as apt to depart from simplicity in language as in dress and manners ; and novelty is too often the jus et nor- ma loqiiendi oi a court." "But alas! reasoning on language, however well-founded, may be all over- turned by a single quotation from Horace. This it must be confessed, is a short way of ending the con- troversy, and by virtue of this argument we may become critics in language, without the trouble of studying it." This is all very sensible, yet he was so much over- awed by that kind of criticism which is exempted from the trouble of studying language., as to say, "If once custom speak out, however absurdly., I sincere- ly acquiesce in its sentence." This acquiescence in absurdity has unfortunately rendered all his labour a baseless fabric ; for the evil requires a deeper remedy than he ventured to apply. After all the talk about ^.I'iwo* language, no one surely needs to be convinced PHILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY. 267 that if it be absurdit/ fixed more harm than good is done. The instances of superfluous forms of spelling above given are connected with vowels and diph- thongs—the great innovators, changers and corrupt- ers of language ; constantly tending to render it a Proteus or chameleon, subject to no fixed principles or certain reasoning : instead of idolizing these mis- chievous letters in the manner of ignorant grammatic- li?igs, they ought, as much as possible, to be expel- led or suppressed. Among other superfluous spell- ings of the same sound the following are of frequent occurrence; shi, ci, ti^ si; as in fashion, occasion, vexation, special, &c. All these forms arose out of o?ie ; and o)ie form would be in every respect a great advantage over the several that now exist. The following principle is of so much importance that I shall put it into a peculiar form for the pur- pose of exciting attention. THE GREAT CANON OF SPELLING AND PRO- NUNCIATION. T/iai mode of spelling and pronouncing should he adopted which indicates most effectuality the denta- tion and primanj meaning of the word. The following arc a few of the many words that might be given to show the importance of the above ca7i07i : height should be spelt hight, being high and '■2i)b IMIILOSOPHIC ETYMOLOGY. the affix l. contracted from ed, eth, &c. : neighbour should he pronounced and spelt nighhour, or rather ?iio/ibcr, he'mg ftigh prefixed to ^er, or nigh with an affix : butler should be pronounced and spelt boUler^ or rather boiler^ being the word bottle (which should be botel) with the affix er : loadstar, loadstone, should be leadstar, Icadstone ; load, (the leading vein of a xnino) loadsman ; lead, leadsman: wardtnote should be wardmeei : hoe should be hew. If the above principle were steadily kept in view our language might soon be rendered much more simple, uniform and intelligible. In all such double or many forms as bale, bane, baleful, barieful ; fur- ther, farther ; blanch, blench, flinch ; jjlain, plane ; deal, dole ; jail, gaol ; fly, flee, &c. only one form and that which has the best recommendation ought to be retained in good writing : and in dictionaries all those words ought to be grouped into one view that are closely related ; as die, dead, (which should be died) death ; ichole, ivell, weal, wealth ; probe, prove, proof (the last should be spelt />ro/