The Commercial Program of Studies for HIGH SCHOOLS By ARNON W. WELCH THE GREGG PUBLISHING COMPANY New York Chicago Boston San Francisco London • •*••*•••• ri,,;,*«* • , Copyright, 19 22, by the Gregff Publishing Company £55— K-10 Printed in the United States of America THE COMMERCIAL PROGRAM OF STUDIES FOR HIGH SCHOOLS Purpose of This Monograph This monograph makes no pretense of blazing a new trail in the development of commercial education. It has been prepared in response to the numerous requests received by the Gregg Publishing Company for a suggested arrangement of commercial courses of study. Such requests are usually received from those who are organizing for the first time a commercial program; in many cases, however, requests are received from those in charge of departments already organized. In both cases they are seek- ing some authoritative statement for their guidance. It is not possible to lay down any one type of commercial program with authority and say that that is the only way. As in other things, there are a number of types in use, and there are many arrangements of the commercial program throughout the country apparently producing equally good results. However, there have been enough surveys, articles, bulletins, addresses, and discussions in the last few years to give, in a general way, a fairly definite idea of the advanced thought on this subject. We have attempted to present in a concrete way this advanced thought, and to suggest types of commercial programs of study that may be adapted both to large and to small high schools, and to suggest safe guides for those organizing new departments and standards of comparison for departments already organized. If the sug- gestions contained in this monograph are at all helpful in this respect, they will have served their purpose. Meaning of High School The term high school, for the pui-poses of this discussion, will be considered to include two distinct types of organization : 1. The usual organization under the 8-4 plan, the high school comprising the ninth, tenth, eleventh, and twelfth years; 2. The organization under the 6-3-3 plan, the high school being organized in two groups, the junior high school, comprising the seventh, eighth, and ninth years ; and the senior high school, comprising the tenth, eleventh, and twelfth years. 3 519188 Commercial Education Commercial education involves more than a training in certain technical subjects, although this is an essential part. It involves the development of the mind to see cause-and-effect relations, and to have a point of view^ supported by a knowledge of economic and commercial life. This is not accomplished by annexing a commercial course at the end of an academic course, but by organizing the program of studies, beginning with the first year in high school, so that each year a part of the student's work is definitely commercial. The time element is as essential in any commercial training that is really educational as in other phases of education. Objects of Commercial Program of Studies The arrangement of a commercial program of studies should be designed to attain certain definite objectives. In order to have an intelligent understanding of the arrangement, it is neces- sary to know and to understand the objectives. These are : 1. Each year's work should he a complete unit, giving the student / the kind of training that .will be most useful to him should he leave school at the end of that year, and also that will prepare him for the succeeding year's work should he remain in school. This should be considered from a broad rather than an ultra utilitarian point of view. / 2. The complete high school course should give specialized voca- v/ tional training in one technical group, such as secretarial, accounting, or retail selling. 3. The required work and the electives of the complete high school course should meet the entrance requirements of such colleges as New /' York University, School of Commerce, Accounts, and Finance ; The Wharton School of Finance and Commerce, of the University of Penn- sylvania ; the University of Wisconsin ; and the University of Cincinnati. 4. The commercial program in common with the other programs ^ of a school will of course have the aim to make good, intelligent citizens. There is developing a strong current of opinion among leaders of thought in commercial education to the effect that, as a rule, commercial programs of study have been too weak in general knowledge subjects. It is practically impossible to give specialized training in two distinct groups, the auxiliary subjects and a sufficient number of general subjects, without overloading the student. Moreover, business has become so highly specialized that in the larger cities one is seldom required to be both book- keeper and stenographer. Consequently, it is urged that more general subjects, especially the social sciences, should be required, and the technical subjects should be divided into elective groups, such as secretarial, accounting, and retail selling, and should allow only one group to be elected. It is generally conceded, however, that secretarial students should have a modicum of bookkeeping, and that all commercial students should learn how to operate the typewriter. Content The content of the commercial program of study may be classified in a very general way under four headings : 1. English 2. General Subjects 3. General Commercial Subjects 4. Technical Commercial Subjects Subjects for the Four-Year Program of Studies English There has been more or less discussion pro and con the subject of ''Business English." The academic teachers of Eng- lish tell us that there is no such thing as "Business English." "English is English" is the final statement that precludes argu- ment. Without contradicting our friends in the profession, even admitting the truth of their statement, it is nevertheless true that there is an adaptation of the means of expressing thought, appli- cable to commercial life, that is not sufficiently developed in academic courses in English. The special study of composition as applied to business letters and other forms of communication has been called, for convenience, ''Business English." The differentiation in English for commercial students should be for at least two years (third and fourth), and it is better that it be for four years. What are the points of this differentiation, and wherein is English for commercial students different from that for other students ? The principal differences are three, and cover about the entire work : 1. Grammar and spelling. These subjects are supposed not to be in the high school, but surely some drill in them is necessary for com- mercial students in order better to prepare them for the work that they must do. It will be asked, "If this is really true of commercial students, why is it not equally true of other students?" And we answer that it may be, but that is not what concerns us in this discussion. It is suffi- cient to maintain the contention of the commercial group that they have learned by experience that by such instruction the commercial students are considerably improved in their ability to write and to speak for commercial purposes. 2. Composition. Subjects for oral and written compositions are taken more from commercial life than is customarj' in academic English. Description, narration, exposition, and argumentation are illustrated by catalogue descriptions, sales letters, business reports, and other forms of composition found in commercial offices and magazines. Some time can be spent profitably on advertising copy and street car cards. Every effort should be put forth to make the composition work as practical as possible. At least two periods a week should be devoted to this work. Consideral)le practice should be given on the different kinds of letters found in books on Business English. Business and professional men and women need skill in quick composition — especially brief composi- tions — and the habit of accuracy. 3. Literature. For the majority of commercial students, who are not going to college, considerable freedom may be used in varying the literature so as to introduce verj^ helpful reading, supplementary to com- mercial training. However, if any of them should plan to enter college, they will find that college entrance requirements are such that there will be little tim.e for other reading. General Subjects Among the general subjects from w^hich selection should be required are : Modern languages, algebra, plane and solid geom- etry, trigonometry, general science, English history, modern history, American history, civics and economics, biology, chem- istry. If offered, cooking and sewing should be elective for girls and manual training and printing for boys. General Commercial Subjects Elementary economic geography, commercial geography, transportation and markets, business organization and adminis- tration, credits and collections, commercial law, history of com- merce, commercial arithmetic, economics. Technical Commercial Subjects Shorthand, typewriting and ofhce training, bookkeeping and accounting, business writing, retail selling and advertising, junior office occupations, business procedure. Limitations of Small Schools It must be borne in mind that the number and variety of commercial courses will depend upon the size of the school and local conditions. In the smaller schools the enrollment is not large enough to make it possible to offer a large variety of courses. Retail selling courses may be profitably conducted only in the larger high schools where the enrollment is sufficiently large, where expert teachers are employed, and where the com- mercial environment lends itself to the practical development of this kind of training. While this work is to be encouraged wherever it can be profitably developed, for most of the schools the commercial subjects that have been standard for so many years will continue to be standard. The mechanical processes of bookkeeping in large commercial houses are being done more and more by machines, but the principles of debit and credit are ADDENDA— Page 7 (Add to the Commercial Program of Studies, page 7, under "Gener Commercial Subjects," following paragraph on "Commercial law.") History of Commerce, when taught, usually appears in the third or fourth year. The subject of Economics presents a problem. There is almost com- plete uniformity in offering the subject in the fourth year. But in a great many cases the course presented is merely a diminutive university course in economic theory, giving too much attention to abstractions in the doctrine of rent and other theories that are over the heads of high school students, and, indeed, of little practical value. A few school principals and teachers of economics have had the courage to attack the problem from a different angle, present the subject matter in an entirely different way, and make it one of the foundation stones of the commercial program, running through the entire four years. The approach is made through the concrete and applied phases of the subject rather than by trying to modify and reduce to the comprehension of high school students a course in economic theory that the teacher learned in college or university. This new method will undoubtedly be the next development in the teaching of economics in high schools. A logical way to approach the subject under this plan is from the standpoint of the course pursued and the instruments used in the conversion of raw materials into finished products and getting them into the hands of ultimate consumers. Raw materials must be manufactured into finished products ; these products must be transported to and sold in a market ; something must be given in exchange for them — money or some form of credit ; all of these processes must be so organized that the work will be done efficiently, and in all of these processes, also, two points of view must be harmonized; namely, the individual point of view and the social point of view. In these processes, therefore, we have suggested the main divisions of the subject around which the courses should be developed. The first year would be devoted to a study of raw materials and manufactured products with especial reference to place, and might properly be called "Elementary Economic Geograhy." The title for the second year's work suggests itself, i. e., "Transportation and Markets." Although logically the next course would pertain to money, banking, credits, and collections, in practice it is better to defer these studies until a foundation has been laid in commercial law. Consequently, the third year would be given to business organization and the applications of commercial law to the various rela- tions of parties. In the first half of the fourth year money would be introduced, banking, credits and collections, and in the second half of the fourth year it would be well to give a summary of the entire situation by means of a general course in economics. This will allow all the time that can profitably be spent in high school on economic theory, and will be all the more effective because the student has as a foundation three and one-half years' study of concrete situations. The social viewpoint, however, should not be deferred until the course in general economics is given. It is an essential element in all of the rela- tions presented in the concrete situations, and its significance will be more readily grasped in connection with the concrete situation than in connection with abstract theory. Consequently, the social viewpoint should have a place in the discussions from the beginning of the first year until the end of the fourth year. I al the same. Throughout the entire civiUzed world records and correspondence are coexistent with commercial transactions and are used in various ways other than commercial. In fact, the time has arrived when instruction in keeping simple accounts, the general principles of business and the use of the typewriter should be a part of the education of every boy and girl, and comparatively few there are who enter commercial life who, at some point in their career, will not find shorthand useful in their progress, if not, indeed, all their lives. The use of these subjects is universal ; instruction in them should be equally universal. Place of Subjects in Curriculum Four Year — High School General Subjects The place of general subjects in the commercial program of studies will be determined by their place in other programs of the school. General Commercial Subjects In some schools commercial geography is given in the second year and in others in the first year. It is the writer's opinion that this subject should be broken up into two courses, giving elementary economic geography in the first year and transpor- tation and markets in the second year. A large amount of laboratory work should be given in these courses. Commercial arithmetic is usually given in the first or second year. It is well also to give some advanced commercial arithmetic and review in the senior year. Commercial law may be given profitably either in the junior or senior year, likewise business organization and administration, and credits and collections. However, it is preferable to have commercial law precede credits and collections. Technical Commer-cial Subjects Typewriting may be off"ered as early as the seventh year, and at least one year of it should be required of all commercial students. If it is begun in the seventh year, more than one year of typewriting should be required. In the secretarial course typewriting should be taken each year that shorthand is studied. The year in which shorthand is introduced will depend upon the purposes to be served and local conditions. In some schools it is begun in the ninth year, in others the tenth, and in still others in the eleventh year. As a vocational subject it should not be begun later than the tenth year, giving two full years to short- hand, typewriting, and transcription, and the twelfth year fewer periods of instruction, with at least two periods a week devoted to stenographic practice. For the latter, students may be assigned to teachers, may assist in the principal's office, and, where possi- ble, arrangements should be made with commercial offices for co-operative work. Office training and secretarial studies should be introduced at this time. It is not sufficient that typewriting be taught in the type- writing room, shorthand in the shorthand room, and leave the student to develop transcription alone. Transcription should be made a part of the course of instruction and some of it should be done under the supervision of the teacher. For this purpose it is well for teachers to combine the teaching of shorthand and typewriting. Bookkeeping, office practice, and junior office occupations should be begun in the first year of the four year course. The principles of bookkeeping that are taught should be taught thor- oughly, but in this year general information, knowledge of com- mercial papers, and office procedure are even more important than technical bookkeeping. Office procedure should include the following topics : Telephone practice, express, post-office facilities, railroad services, banking practices, insurance, merchandising practices, commercial agencies, and how to use business reference books. By junior office occupations is meant such occupations as the following: "Messenger, mail clerk, file clerk, receiving clerk, stock clerk, shipping clerk, cashier, office machine operator, entry clerk, order clerk, billing clerk, timekeeper, and pay-roll clerk." (F. G. Nichols.) Practice is an essential part of this training. Business writing should be given in the first year. Retail selling is given in the third and fourth years. Part- time store practice is a vital element in making this instruction effective. Junior High School The organization of junior high school courses of study has been, and is, a matter of experimentation. In no phase of the work are ideas more unsettled than with regard to commercial subjects. In some cases failure has resulted because too much was attempted, and equally unsatisfactory results in other cases because of a lack of the proper kind of teaching. It is useless to expect satisfactory results unless teachers thoroughly qualified by training and experience are employed to teach commercial subjects. 8 But the junior high school has come to stay, and some kind of commercial training is adaptable to that state of education, just as other subjects are adaptable. The adaptation challenges all our training, experience, and best thought. The suggestions herein contained are based upon the results of experimentation in various parts of the country and the "raison d'etre" of the junior high school. It is earnestly hoped that they may be useful to those who are responsible for the organization of such courses. Fundamental Considerations The junior high school program of studies must be arranged to meet the needs of two classes of students — those who will leave school at the end of the junior high school course and those who will go to the senior high school. While commercial education is essentially vocational, the instruction in commercial subjects given in the junior high school is not highly specialized, because the employment of boys and girls of that age does not require highly specialized work, but rather work that requires a knowledge of office details and general intelligence. It should be borne in mind that all of the English, mathe- matics, and social studies that a great many of these boys and girls will get under instruction will be that given in the junior high school. In view of this fact, the very best training for citizenship that is possible should be given. In addition to preparation for intelligent citizenship, the junior high school commercial program should attempt as thor- ough preparation as possible in the simple details of office pro- cedure for which boys and girls of that age are employed. One of the principal functions associated with the junior high school has been that of offering an enriched curriculum — try-out courses — for the purpose of determining special aptitudes of students and assisting in the work of vocational guidance. These four objectives, therefore — citizenship, elementary commercial training, contemplation of senior high school, and vocational guidance — are the starting points for organizing the junior high school commercial program of studies. Subjects English. The courses in English should emphasize oral as well as written expression. In the latter half of the junior high school period emphasis should be put on word study, the sentence, the paragraph, simple unit compositions, such as business letters, brief narratives and descriptions; parts of speech, punctuation, and capitalization. The courses should be replete with drills. 9 Social Studies. Emphasis should be put upon American history and civics, with special attention to local affairs. Some industrial and commercial history should be given, and enough English political history for an intelligent understanding of American history. Geography. Commercial or economic geography will not take the place of the regular geography taught in the grades. Elementary economic geography should be preceded by sufficient physical geography to give that knowledge of the planet on which we live that every intelligent perscjn should have. These courses should cont-ain a great deal of laboratory work. Mathematics. In mathematics it is especially important to bear in mind that many boys and girls will not continue their school education beyond the junior high school, and that they should have an appreciation of special relations and a knowledge and an understanding of simple algebraic formulae. Conse- quently, they should be taught not only the applications of arith- metic to commercial problems, but also intuitive geometry and elementary algebra. Moreover, they will be getting the mathe- matics that they should have in case they go to the s-enior high school. Business Writing and Spelling. Practice should be given in neat, legible, rapid handwriting for business purposes, which should include writing figures in bookkeeping columns. While spelling should be taught with English, it is a simple matter to combine this work with penmanship ])ractice on words and sen- tences, thereby supplementing the English work. There is no danger of too much duplication of any of the English subjects, which should have the co-operative efforts of all teachers. Drawing. Drawing is useful in developing perspective and control of the arm, and should be included in the course. Manual training and printing for boys, and domestic science and art for girls are among the established courses in the en- riched program of studies of the junior high school. Typewriting. In some schools typewriting is introduced in the eighth year and in others in the seventh. At all events, enough practice should be given to develop a speed of from thirty to forty words a minute. Business Procedure and Junior Office Occupations. In the junior high school organization it is well to introduce business procedure in the seventh year and follow this in the eighth year with junior office occupations. Bookkeeping. Bookkeeping should be introduced in the ninth year and should include supplementary work in applied 10 business arithmetic and business writing. In the bookkeeping work, in addition to instruction in keeping simple accounts, emphasis should be placed upon the relations of parties in commercial transactions and commercial papers. The applied business arithmetic should be that which is necessary in the book- keeping operations, and should cover rapid calculation, percentage and its applications to interest, discount, marking goods, profit and loss. Some practice in business writing should be given, which will not only prevent a deterioration of the handwriting acquired in previous years, but may result in material improve- ment. Shorthand. In an article on "The Junior High School Movement and Its Relation to Modern Education" in The Inter- Mountain Educator, Principal S. A. Slack says : "It is generally conceded by educational authorities that the junior high school through its prevocational work will tend to fit each indi- vidual at least in a general way to become efficient in any vocation which he may follow in later years." Stenographic work is a vocation which a great many follow in later years, and it is difficult to see how the junior high school can completely fulfill its mission of offering try-out courses if shorthand is not offered as a prevocational subject. If this is not done those who want to try shorthand must do so either in the senior high school or in other schools after they leave the junior high school. In this respect, these students are no better off than they were before the junior high school was organized, and the new organization will, to some extent, fail in reducing the mor- tality that it is supposed to reduce. The opinions of some of the authorities on this subject are clearly indicated in the following quotations : "I know of no better place to begin the teaching of shorthand than in the seventh grade unless, possibly, it would be in the sixth. The children are better adapted to the study at this time and it would be a great help to them in their study of languages and other subjects in the future." — J. H. Francis, formerly Superintendent of Schools, Colum- bus, Ohio, and Los Angeles, Cal. "1 believe that there can be no good argument used against short- hand introduction in the ninth year of the course, and for my part, I would go even further and introduce it at the beginning of the eighth year for those who wish to take a short course in commercial subjects and leave school at the end of the ninth year, "The work in stenography in the eighth year is partly prevocational in that it makes it possible to separate those who have real ability for shorthand from those who have little ability for it, and this can be accomphshed quite early in the school course, and it eliminates much waste of time in a student's preparation for shorthand. After the course has been given in the eighth year those who take it have real abiHty and are able to go faster with their work in the ninth year. 11 • "You will find many teachers who object to teaching shorthand to students so young as those of the eighth and ninth years, but I believe that you will find that the difficulty rests not with the subject or the students but with the inability of the teacher to teach students so young and immature as those we find in the eighth and ninth years. Given a well prepared and properly trained teacher of shorthand, one who knows the psychology and pedagogy necessary to teach eighth year boys and girls, and I feel quite sure of the success that can be gained by teaching shorthand in the junior high school. "If I had my choice between a course in ancient language in the eighth year and stenography in the eighth year for my boy or girl, I should choose stenography rather than the language, for I feel quite certain more valuable training and information will be received from the former than from the latter." — B. G. Graham, Superintendent of Schools, New Castle, Pa. "We are not attempting to teach shorthand in the junior high schools primarily from the vocational point of view and so pay little attention to that part of our senior high school course of study which has to do with advanced dictation and the technical training of a stenog- rapher. Those persons who are at present arguing against the introduc- tion of shorthand in the junior high schools appear to me to be arguing from the vocational point of view solely and are overlooking objectives that are just as important, if not more important, than the vocational. "We find that, if we do not give shorthand to those junior high school students who practically demand it of us, we lose them to the commercial schools, thereby losing the opportunity to make shorthand a feeder for the senior high school. We have noticed no tendency on the part of the junior high school graduates to drop out of school at the end of the ninth year because of the fact that they have been given some shorthand. On the contrary, our tenth-year promotions are increasing and the number of our commercial students who graduate from the senior high school is growing." — Clyde I. Blanchard, Director of Com- mercial Education and Practice, Berkeley, California. Professor George Archibald Clark of Leland Stanford Junior University has ably discussed the subject in a paper from which the following is quoted : "The business man has no monopoly on the need which the stenog- rapher meets. His mother, wife, daughter, all his relatives, male and female — the rank and file of humanity who write and receive letters — experience the same need. Each individual cannot have a stenographer at hand, but each individual, by possessing this mere brief form of writing, can be his or her own stenographer. The art which saves time and labor to the employer will also save time and labor to the individual. "We have not confined the use of the telephone to business matters — to communications between business men and business houses. We have taken it into the home and the club and have utilized its services in all social and friendly as well as business intercourse. The same is true of the telegraph, forms of rapid transit, and labor-saving devices of all kinds. Why should we limit the usefulness of shorthand to business? "The place of the work is in the sixth, seventh, and eighth grades of our public schools. Boys and girls at that age are best adapted to the work. Few boys, at least, pass through that age without inventing some form of secret writing resembling shorthand. Reading and writ- ing by means of the ordinary alphabet will have been acquired, elim- inating possible confusion from the phonetic form of shorthand. Longhand penmanship is still a subject of practice. The routine move- ments and drills would be practically the same for the new form of 12 writing. The work of instruction would be taken up very gradually, covering a period of three years. The intention would not be to discard longhand. Longhand would remain, but as a luxury, not a necessity. Those preferring it could use it, just as those who prefer walking or the horse as a means of locomotion are at liberty to use them, eschewing the steam cars or the automobile. "What I am suggesting is not the inlliction upon the pupils of the sixth, seventh, and eighth grades of what we know as the technical train- ing of the stenographer. It is merely the task of learning a new alpha- bet of forty characters and some simple rules for its use, the whole thing not exceeding m complexity or extent the present instruction in long- hand penmanship. The practice Hke that of longhand would be on the two or three thousand common words, the vocabulary of these grades and of ordinary intercourse. It is a fact that two thousand of the most common words of the English alphabet can be written and are written, even by the most expert stenographer, with no other principles of shorthand than those comprised in the simple alphabet. "The early introduction of shorthand in its simpler aspects into the grades would eliminate this difficulty and lay a foundation for more rapid advancement in the professional side of the art when the high school work is reached. On this ground alone, if no thought of possible introduction of shorthand as a means of general writing entered into the matter, it would be the part of wisdom to begin the work of instruction and practice on the alphabet of shorthand in the grades. "I have purposely left little space for the purely educational value of shorthand. This has been emphasized over and over again. I yield to none in appreciation of its discipUnary value. An adequate course of instruction in the art is a liberal course in English. Such a course enforces in an effective manner attention and concentration. It quickens the senses of sight and hearing. It compels prompt decision and instant action. These are elements of the highest educational value. "This is the age of manual training. Shorthand is a form of manual training. The hand and brain are trained together. The effort to gain speed, to equal the rate of a speaker, has in it for the young the inspira- tion, the fascination, of the racing contest. And there is the accompany- ing art of typewriting which is pure manual training. A room full of typewriters would be as attractive to the boy or girl of the sixth, seventh, or eighth grades as a room full of benches and tools, and the boy or girl who is going out into the business world has as much right to such training as the boy who is going out to a trade has to the training of the workshop with its tools." Miss Elizabeth Starbuck Adams of San Francisco, writing in the American Shorthand Teacher, gives a very clear analysis of the value of "Gregg Shorthand as a Language Study." "Has the study of Gregg Shorthand in the high school any value other than as a vocational subject? From a careful analysis of the essential elements of French and Shorthand, I am convinced that in a high school course in Gregg Shorthand, lasting two years, the training of the mental and physical powers of the student is quite equal to the training from a two-year course in a foreign language. "The language study trains eye, ear, and vocal cords to form new- associations for the expression of ideas through a new medium. Short- hand study trains eye, ear, and hand for a similar purpose, to express ideas or spoken words in a new medium. In both cases there is the common element of changing language from one form to another: English to French, French to English; speech to shorthand, shorthand to the written transcript. 13 The process of learning and applying rules of French grammar is almost identical with the process of learning and applying the principles of Gregg theory, "In both studies many new associations must be established in the beginning, associations that have strong similarity in their fundamental elements. In French (I use French rather than Spanish to illustrate my points because I am more familiar with that language) the beginner has to acquire a whole new field of memory facts and associations, new phonetics for the alphabet, new vocabulary with new pronunciations, and new rules for grammatical constructions. In shorthand the beginner has to acquire a new alphabet, a combination of phonetics associated with the shorthand outline, and new rules or principles for the use of this new alphabet of symbols, all these facts to be assimilated and co- ordinated to give the power for a quick, automatic response to the stimulus of the spoken words. The complexity of this process taxes the student to a greater degree than the demands made in the early stages of learning a foreign language. There is a definite standard of accom- plishment set by the nature of shorthand that is lacking in the language study. "Both studies help establish more firmly principles in English, idioms of good usage, spelling, punctuation, and precision in the use of words. Shorthand has a v/ider range in this particular than is possible in a two-year course of language. In French the reading and writing exer- cises are confined to the simplest sort of content by the limited vocabu- lary. In shorthand, on the contrary, once the theory of Gregg is learned, the content of the reading and dictation matter has no limita- tions. A glance over the table of contents of Speed Studies or the list of classics now published in Gregg Shorthand outlines will convince the most skeptical that there is a distinct cultural value in the type of English selections used, "That shorthand, well learned, is an invaluable tool to the learner is outside the question under discussion, as is the fact that two years of French has little value unless the study of the language is pursued longer. But, if my conclusion is sound that the training received from a two-year course in shorthand is on a par with the training from a two- year course in a foreign language, we may look confidently forward to the day when educational authorities will recognize shorthand as a language study with a value quite apart from its vocational nature, a specific, correlated value in helping to establish better usage of English. "The following outline presents the similarities of the two types of studies through a comparative analysis of their common elements." Gregg Shorthand as an Equivalent of Two Years' Course in a Foreign Language Content Foreign Language Gregg Shorthand I. Alphabet I. Alphabet (symbols) a. Phonics a. Phonics b. Spelling b. Spelling c. Penmanship II. Vocabulary Building TI. Vocabulary Building a. Words in lists a. Words based on phonics b. Idioms b. Phrases c. Verb drills c. Wordsigns d. Words in context d. Words in context III. Rules of Syntax III. Principles of Shorthand IV. Exercises IV. Exercises a. Writing words and sentences a. Writing words and sentences b. Reading in foreign language b. Reading in shorthand outlines 1. Sentences 1. Sentences 2. Simple stories 2. Simple stories 3. Easy classics 3. Classics of any degree of difficulty, once the theory of shorthand is learned 14 Training I. Physical a. Ear and vocal powers through oral drills II. Mental a. Through development and ap- plication of rules of syntax, drills in vocabulary, and trans- lation, the following powers are developed 1. Memorizing 2. Analysis 3. Discrimination III. Cultural a. A foundation vocabulary in a foreign language with slight increase in English vocabulary. The selections used for trans- lation are limited to simplest kind of language content b. An intensive knowledge of grammatical values Value I. Physical a. Ear and hand through dictation drills II. Mental a. Through the development and application of the principles, dictation and transcription, the following powers are de- veloped 1. Memorizing 2. Analysis 3. Discrimination 4. Quick decision III. Cultural a. An enlarged vocabulary in Eng- lish. The matter used in read- ing and dictation is selected informative content and liter- ary value with no limitations imposed by complexity of vo- cabulary b. A practical working knowledge of nales of syntax and punctua- tion Accomplishment The pupil has gained a foundation merely. Unless the study is cari-ied beyond, the two years are practically wasted. Three to four years are needed to acquire a reading ability sufficient to permit ap- preciation of the literature of a foreign language The pupil has gained in English a good working vocabulary which he can spell correctly. He has learned to apply the rules of punctuation and syntax. He has gained a skill of practical value that empowers him to earn his living, or, if he is to take up college work, he has a skill that may be of infinite ser- vice, applied to any subject. With specific skill in shorthand, the pupil has gained, through a fine co-ordina- tion of mind and body, a certain poise and power of endurance well worth while. If shorthand is elected in the junior high school and con- tinued in the senior high, three problems will arise : 1. There will in all probabiUty be some students in the secre- tarial course in the tenth year who have some knowledge of shorthand by reason of their study of it in the junior high school, and others who have no knowledge of it. This will require a separate organization of classes. 2. A problem also arises with regard to the amount of time to be devoted to shorthand. Where shorthand is begun in the junior high school fewer periods a week may be devoted to it so that the total number of points of credit accumulated in both junior and senior high schools will not exceed the total that the student would be allowed if he commenced the study of short- hand in the senior high and had a more intensive course. 3. It is necessary to consider carefully the problem of transi- tion from the junior to the senior high school. In order that this may be done most advantageously and satisfactorily the shorthand work in the latter part of the last year of the junior high school should be so organized that it will connect easily and naturally with the shorthand work in the first part of the first year of the senior high school, 15 Separate Organization Not Required It is not necessary that there be a separate organization of the junior high school in order that commercial work may be introduced in the seventh and eighth years. The kind of com- mercial work that is given in these years in the junior high school can be, and often is, given in the same years of the elementary school without a separate organization. Provision for Students Not Enrolled in the Commercial Department It frequently happens that there are a number of students who do not want to take the entire commercial program of studies, preferring to take the major part of their work in an academic department, but desiring certain commercial subjects in conjunction with their academic work. Commercial subjects should be made elective in their appropriate years for such students. In the case of shorthand and typewriting the writer's experi- ence and observation have led to the conclusion that it is better to allow these subjects to be elected for two years than to provide an intensive one-year course. The one-year course has been used as an expedient for academic students who desire some com- mercial work either before or immediately after graduation. It has, however, some disadvantages that are obviated by allowing shorthand and typewriting to be elected as a part of the student's work for two or three years. The situation may be summarized as follows: 1. A one-year intensive course, if complete, requires so much work of the student that it leaves little or no time for school activities and becomes a grind. 2. Such a course requires double periods of shorthand and type- writing. One year of double periods is not equivalent in results to two years of single periods. This is probably because of the part that the time element plays in any kind of education. 3. A minor consideration is that, if commercial subjects are elective in their appropriate years, the organization of the program is simpler and easier and the program itself is more elastic than is the case with an intensive course where double periods are required. In order to give a concrete idea of the organization of com- mercial programs of study and the time and credit allowed various subjects, some of them actually in use are printed below. 16 TENTATIVE COMMERCIAL CURRICULUM Pittsburgh Public Schools 9B REQUIRED English 1 and "Word Study Business Arithmetic 1 (Math. 10) Handwriting Science 1 MAY ELECT ONE Music Mechanical Drawing Art Crafts Shop Cooking Sewing **Bookkeeping 1 ** Shorthand *Typewriting 9A REQUIRED English 2 and Word Study Business Arithmetic 2 (Math. 11) Bookkeeping 1 Science 2 MAY ELECT ONE Music Mechanical Drawing Art Crafts Shop Cooking Sewing **Bookkeeping 2 **Shorthand ♦Typewriting 10 B REQUIRED English 3 Commerce 1 Bookkeeping 2 European History 1 MAY ELECT ONE Science Language Mathematics Music Mechanical Drawing Art Crafts Shop Cooking Sewing **Bookkeeping **Shorthand *Typewriting lOA REQUIRED English 4 Commerce 2 and Social Problems One elective t European History 2 ELECT ONE OR MORE Bookkeeping 3 Science Language Mathematics Music Mechanical Drawing Art Crafts Shop Cooking Sewing **Bookkeeping **Shorthand ^Typewriting ACCOUNTANCY GROUP 11 B REQUIRED English 5 Business Law Bookkeeping 4 Typewriting 1 MAY ELECT ONE Language Mathematics Chemistry Physics ♦Shorthand 1 Music Mechanical Drawing Art Crafts Shop Cooking Sewing SECRETARIAL GROUP 11 B REQUIRED English 5 Business Law Shorthand 1 Typewriting 1 MAY ELECT ONE Language Mathematics Chemistry Physics Bookkeeping Music Mechanical Drawing Art Crafts Shop Cooking Sewing SALESMANSHIP GROUP 11 B REQUIRED English 5 Business Law Artl Typewriting 1 MAY ELECT ONE Language Mathematics Chemistry Physics ♦Shorthand 1 Music Mechanical Drawing Crafts Shop Cooking Sewing t Note : Students taking the Accountancy course must elect Bookkeeping 3. * No credit will be given toward graduation for less than two credits in this subject. ** May be elected by permission of the Superintendent of Schools. 17 ACCOUNTANCY GROUP 11 A REQUIRED English 6 Business Organization Bookkeeping 5 Typewriting 2 MAY ELECT ONE Language Mathematics Chemistry Physics * Shorthand 2 Music Mechanical Drawing Art Crafts Shop Cooking Sewing 12 B REQUIRED English 7 American History Salesmanship 1 One elective SECRETARIAL GROUP llA REQUIRED English 6 Business Organization Shorthand 2 Typewriting 2 MAY ELECT ONE Language Mathematics Chemistry Physics Bookkeeping Music Mechanical Drawing Art Crafts Shop Cooking Sewing 12 B REQUIRED English 7 American History Shorthand 3 Typewriting 3 ELECT ONE OR MORE MAY ELECT ONE Language Mathematics Chemistry Physics Expressional English Bookkeeping 6 Shorthand 3 Typewriting 3 Music Mechanical Drawing Art Crafts Shop Cooking Sewing Language Mathematics Chemistry Physics Salesmanship Expressional English Music Mechanical Drawing Alt Crafts Shop Cooking Sewing SALESMANSHIP GROUP 11 A REQUIRED English 6 Business Organization Commercial Design Typewriting 2 MAY ELECT ONE Language Mathematics Chemistry Physics ^Shorthand 2 Music Mechanical Drawing Art Crafts Shop Cooking Sewing 12 B REQUIRED English 7 American History Salesmanship 1 One elective ELECT ONE OR MORE Language Mathematics Chemistry Physics Expressional English ''Shorthand 3 Typewriting 3 Art Music Mechanical Drawing Crafts Shop Cooking Sewing 12 A REQUIRED English 8 American History and Civics One elective Economics 12 A REQUIRED English 8 American History and Civics Stenographers' Office Practice (2 periods) Economics 12A REQUIRED English 8 American History and Civics Salesmanship 2 and Advertising Economics ELECT ONE OR MORE MAY ELECT ONE Language Mathematics Chemistry Physics Music Mechanical Drawing Art Crafts Cooking Sewing Language Mathematics Chemistry Physics Expressional English Shorthand 4 Salesmanship 2 and Advertising Handwriting and Text Lettering Music Mechanical Drawing- Art Crafts Shop Cooking Sewing * No credit will be given toward graduation for less than two credits in this subject. 18 MAY ELECT ONE Language Mathematics Chemistry Physics Expressional English Typewriting Art Handwriting and Text Lettering Music Mechanical Drawing Crafts Cooking Sewing FOUR-YEAR In COMMERCIAL New York City SECRETARIAL COURSE Terms 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Required hours 30 25 18 18 15 20 23 15 14% units required Elective houi-s 3 1^ units elective Total hours 18 units to graduate English 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 Civics .■ . . 5 N, Y. Industries 5* Economic Geography 5* 5* Commercial Law ^ 5* . . Secretarial Studies 5 .. Economics 5 Current Economic Probl's Stenography 5 5 5 5 Typewriting 4 4 4 4 2 2 .. Problems in Office Prac- tice and Management General Science or House- hold Arts 5* 5* Accounting 5 5 5* 5* American History . . . • 5 5 Drawing 2 2 Commercial Art Music 1 Physical Training....... 3 Commercial Mathematics . Modern Language 5 Chemistry Physics Materials of Commerce Salesmanship Household Arts Modern European History (Steno. & Typewr. to be programmed as one sub- ject in the 5th and 6th terms) 5* 5* 5'' 5* 5* 5* 5* 5* 5* 5=! , . 5=" ACCOUNTING Terms 1 2 3 Required 30 25 14 Elective 4 5 6 7 8 14 13 23 23 13 15 3 units required units elective Total 18 units to graduate English Music Drawing Physical Training Typewriting Civics N. Y. Industries Economic Geography Commercial Law Business Procedure Economics Current Economic Probl's Accounting General Science or House- hold Arts American History Commercial Mathematics . Modern Languages Mod. European History. , Chemistry Physics Commercial Art Statistics Math, of Investment Materials of Commerce. . . Salesmanship Household Arts (One-half unit of N. Y. 5* Industries or Economic 5 5 .. 5 5* 5* Geography required) .. .. 5 5 .. 5* (One unit of Commercial 5* 5* 5* 5* 5* Mathematics required) 5* 5* .. .. .. 5* 5* 5^ 5* .. 5* 5^ 5* 5" * Elective. Note 1. Only pupils whose general rating in the eighth grade is "A" or those whose rating is "B" plus, and who are certified by the principal as having especial language ability, may elect a modern language in the first term. If a modern language is offered for credit toward graduation, not less than two units will be accepted. Note 2. Pupils whose rating in English is below 70 per cent may not take Stenography. 19 . SALESMANSHIP Terms . . Required Elective 12 3 4 30 25 14 14 5 6 7 8 13 18 23 15 15 units required units elective Total English Civics N. Y. Industries Economic Geography Commercial Law Economics Current Economic Probl's Merchandising Textiles... Merchandi'g Non-Textiles Salesmanship & Manag'nt Accounting General Science or House- hold Arts American History Drawing Commercial Art Music Physical Training Commercial Mathematics. Modem Languages Chemistry Physics Household Arts Mod. European History. . Business Procedure Stenography Typewriting 5 5 5* '.'. 5* 5* 5* 18 units to graduate (N. Y. Industries or one- half unit of Economic Geography required) 5* 5* 1 .. 5* 5* 5 5 .. '5* "5* 3 "3 "3 '3 5* '5* *5* '5* 5* '5* !! '.'. 5* .. 5* 5* (One unit of Chemistry or Physics required) (Stenography may not be elected without Typewr.) FOREIGN TRADE Terms 1 30 2 25 3 14 4 14 5 8 6 13 7 23 8 18 Required li^/2 units required Elective •• •• •• 314 units elective Total 18 units to graduate English 5 5 5 5 5 «> 5 fi Civics 5 N. Y. Industries 5* Economic Geography 5 5 Economics 5 Current Economic Probl's 5* Modern Language 5 5* 5* 5* s* 5* 5* 5* Commercial Mathematics. 5* 5* 5* (One unit of Mathematics Foreign Exchange & For- required) eign Trade Procedure . . 5 5 American History ■ 5 5 Accounting 5 5 5* 5* Typewriting 4 4 4* 4* 2* 2* Drawing 2 2 Commercial Art 5* 5* 5* 5* 5* 5* Music 1 1 1 1 Physical Training 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 General Science or House- hold Arts. 5 5 •• '5* 'h* Mod. European History. . Chemistry 5* 5* Physics 5* 5* Household Arts 5* 5* Materials of Commerce. . . 5* 5* Salesmanship 5* 5* Commercial Law 5* Stenography 5* 5* 5* 5* (Stenography may not be Math, of Investment 5* 5* elected without Typewr.) Statistics 5* 5* Marine Insurance •• •• •• •• 5* 5* - * Elective. Note. Only pupils whose general rating in the eighth grade of the elementary school is "A" or those whose rating is "B" plus, and who are certified by the princi- pal as having especial language ability, may elect a modern language in the first term. If a modern language is offered for credit toward graduation, not less than two units will be accepted. 20 FOUR-YEAR COMMERCIAL COURSE— SUMMARY REQUIRED UNITS Accounting Secretarial Salesmanship For Trade English 4 4 4 4 American ilistorj 1 1 1 1 Civics Vz Vs y% ,Y? Physical Training, Drawing and Music... l^^ 1% 1% 1^ Economics and Economic Geography \y