L 
 
MODERN SEAMANSHIP 
 
 
 BY 
 
 AUSTIN M. KNIGHT 
 
 HEAR- ADMIRAL, UNITED STATES NAVY. 
 
 EIGHTH EDITION 
 REVISED AND ENLARGED 
 
 199 FULL PAGE PLATES 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
 D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY 
 EIGHT WARREN STREET 
 1921 
 

 : -'Copyright, 1901, 1910, 1914, 1917, 1921, by 
 D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY 
 
 AH right* reserved, including that of translations into 
 foreign languages, including the Scandinavian. 
 
 PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 
 
PREFACE TO EIGHTH EDITION 
 
 A large part of the present edition of Modern Seamanship has 
 been entirely rewritten and the remainder carefully revised. At 
 all points it has been as completely as possible brought up to date. 
 
 A comparison with the Seventh Edition will indicate that the 
 most extensive changes are, as would naturally be expected, in 
 the earlier chapters ; that is to say, in the chapters which deal 
 with materials, rather than with principles. Important changes 
 have, however, been made in the later chapters and considerable 
 new matter has been added. The chapters on Submarines and 
 Submarine Chasers and the final chapter, on " Assistance by 
 Public Vessels to Vessels in Distress " are entirely new, and that 
 on Destroyers is practically so. 
 
 The Rules of the Road have been re-arranged to provide for 
 easy comparison of the Inland with the International Rules. 
 
 Much care has been taken in the arrangement of plates to 
 bring each one as close as possible to the text with which it is 
 associated. 
 
 In the preparation of this, as in that of other editions, assist- 
 ance has been sought from many sources, and the author ac- 
 knowledges with high appreciation the help received from a 
 large number of his brother officers of the Navy, the Coast 
 Guard, and the Merchant Marine. , 
 
 The Officers of the Seamanship Department of the. Naval 
 Academy have contributed suggestions of much value* based 
 upon experience in the use of the work as a text book. 
 
 Captain W. L. Littlefield of the Bureau of Construction and 
 Repair has been untiring in his interest and helpfulness. A large 
 part of the material in the chapters on Ground Tackle and Boats 
 has been supplied by him, with the approval of the Chief of 
 Bureau. 
 
 The Chapter on Destroyers, in its new form, is chiefly the work 
 of the Lieutenant Commander W. W. Smith ; that on Submarines 
 is by Lieutenant Wilder D. Baker, and that on Submarine Chas- 
 ers, by Captain A. J. Hepburn. It is believed that these three 
 
 iii 
 
IV PREFACE TO EIGHTH EDITION. 
 
 chapters will be recognized as among the most interesting and 
 valuable in the book. 
 
 It is a pleasure to acknowledge the generous co-operation of 
 Commodore W. E. Reynolds and other officers of the Coast 
 Guard, and the very valuable assistance received from them, in 
 connection, especially, with "Boats" (Chapter IX) and "As- 
 sistance to Vessels in Distress" (Chapter XXIX). 
 
 Valuable information and suggestions were received from 
 Rear Admiral W. S. Sims, Rear Admiral H. B. Wilson, Rear 
 Admiral J. A. Hoogewerff, Rear Admiral H. P. Jones, Rear 
 Admiral L. H. Chandler, Captain C. T. Vogelgesang, Captain 
 W. A. Moffett, Captain T. T. Craven, Captain C. T. Owens, 
 Captain C. S. Kempff, Commander R. S. Holmes, Commander 
 J. P. Lannon, Commander S. C. Hooper, Lieutenant T. A. M. 
 Craven and Lieutenant G. D. Barringer, all of the Navy, and 
 from Captain B. H. Camden, Commander H. G. Hamlett, Lieu- 
 tenant-Commander F. C. Billard, and Lieutenant-Commander H. 
 C. Roach, of the Coast Guard. Also from Captain E. K. Roden 
 of the International Correspondence Schools, and Captain Felix 
 Reisenberg, recently Editor of " The National Marine." 
 
 Information was courteously furnished by the American Steel 
 and Wire Co., The Columbian Rope Co., The Waterbury Co., 
 The Plymouth Cordage Co., The John T. Roebling's Sons Co., 
 The General Electric Co., The Sperry Gyroscope Co., The Amer- 
 ican Balsa Co., The Steward Davit and Equipment Co., The 
 American Engineering Co., The Hyde Windlass Co., The Kel- 
 vin and Wilfred O. White Co., T. S. and J. D. Negus, and John 
 Bliss & Co. 
 
 AUSTIN M. KNIGHT. 
 WASHINGTON, 
 
 August 30, 1921. 
 
PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION. 
 
 An attempt is made, in the following pages, to cover a wider 
 field than that covered by most of the existing works* on Sea- 
 manship. 
 
 The admirable treatises of Luce, Nares, and Alston, origi- 
 nating in the days when seamanship was almost wholly con- 
 cerned with the fitting and handling of vessels under sail, have 
 preserved through later editions the general characteristics which 
 they naturally assumed in the beginning. These treatises will 
 never be out of date until the time, still far in the future, when 
 sails shall have been entirely driven out by steam. It will 
 hardly be denied, however, that the Steamer has long since 
 established its claim to consideration in Seamanship, and that 
 there is room for a work in which this claim shall be more fully 
 recognized than in the treatises above referred to. The excel- 
 lent work of Captains Todd and Whall, " Practical Seamanship 
 for the Merchant Service,'.' deals more fully than either of its 
 predecessors with the handling of steamers j but its point of view 
 is, as its name implies, primarily and almost exclusively that of 
 the Merchant Service. 
 
 Shortly after the present work was begun, a circular letter 
 was addressed to officers of the merchant service and extensively 
 circulated through the Branch Hydrographic Offices at New 
 York, Philadelphia, Baltimore and Norfolk, requesting the views 
 of the officers addressed. 
 
 The answers received to these questions were unexpectedly 
 numerous and complete. More than forty prominent officers of 
 the Merchant Service replied, many of them writing out their 
 views and describing their experiences with a fullness of detail far 
 beyond anything that could have been anticipated. 
 
 The thanks of the author are due particularly to the following 
 for letters or for personal interviews covering the above points : 
 Capt. W. H. Thompson, S. S. Belgenland; Capt. T. Evans, S. S. 
 Runo ; Capt. J. Dann, S. S. South wark j 1st Officer T. Anfind- 
 sen, S. S. Southwark ; Capt. J. C. Jameson, S. S. St. Paul ; 
 Capt. H. E. Nickels, S. S. Friesland j Capt. G. J. Loveridge, 
 S. S. Buffalo j Capt. F. M. Howes, S. S. Kershaw ; Capt. T. J. 
 Thorkildsen, S. S. Trojan j Capt. Otto Neilsen, S. S. Pennland ; 
 
Vi PREFACE. 
 
 Capt. H. Doxrud, S. S. Noordland ; Capt. C. O. Rockwell, Clyde 
 S. S. Co. ; Capt. S. W. Watkins, S. S. Montana ; Capt. Anders 
 Beer, S. 'S. Nordkyn ; Capt. J. M. Johnston, S. S. Sardinian ; 
 Capt. A. R. Mills, S. S. Westernland ; Capt. J. S. Garvin, S. S. 
 Cherokee ; Capt. Robt. B. Quick, S. S. El Cid ; Capt. Wm. J. 
 Roberts, S. S. New York ; Capt. T. Richardson, S. S. Noran- 
 more ; Capt. E. O. Marshall, S. S. Maryland; 1st Officer H. S. 
 Lane, S. S. Maryland ; Capt. W. F. Bingham, S. S. Marengo ; 
 Capt. R. Cowing, S. S. Greathani; Capt. H. J. Byrne, U. S. A.T. 
 McPherson ; Capt. Paul Grosch, S. S. Stuttgart ; Capt. Geo. 
 Schrotter, S. S. Belgravia ; Capt. F. C. Saunders, S. S. English 
 King ; Capt. Chas. Cabot, S. S. Venango j Capt. Chas. Pink- 
 ham, S. S. Queen Wilhelmina ; Capt. A. Traue, S. S. Miinchen ; 
 Capt. W. Thomas, S. S. Quernmore j Capt. H. O. Nickerson, 
 Fall River Line ; Capt. Geo. Lane, Baltimore Steam Packet Co. 
 
 Important assistance was received from Naval Constructor W. 
 J. Baxter, U. S. Navy, who prepared Chapters I and XVIII; 
 and from Lieutenant E. E. Hay den, U. S. Navy, who contri- 
 buted several Charts and much valuable information upon Meteor- 
 ology, for Chapter XIX. 
 
 Chapter V was suggested by a paper, " Mechanical Appli- 
 ances on board Ship," by Captain Thomas Mackenzie, issued by 
 the London Shipmasters' Society as No. 29 of their valuable 
 series of publications. 
 
 It would be impossible to mention all the naval officers who 
 have assisted the author with criticism and suggestions ; but 
 acknowledgment is especially clue to Lieut.-Commander A. W. 
 Grant, Lieut. John Hood, Lieut. W. R. M. Field, Lieut. John 
 Gow, Lieut.-Commander W. F. Worthington, Commander J. 
 E. Pillsbury, Lieut. V. S. Nelson, Lieut. Ridgely Hunt, and 
 Chief Boatswain W. L. Hill, all of the United States Navy. 
 
 Above all, acknowledgment is due to Chief Boatswain C. F. 
 Pierce, U. S. Navy, who not only assisted in the preparation of 
 many parts of the text, but prepared sketches for fully one-half 
 the illustrations of the volume. 
 
 AUSTIN M. KNIGHT. 
 UNITED STATES NAVAL ACADEMY, 
 APRIL i, 1901. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 THE SHIP. 
 
 Types of Ships. Fighting Ships. Auxiliary Ships. Battleships. Battle 
 Cruisers. Scout Cruisers. Light Cruisers. Destroyers. Submarines. 
 Sailing Ships. Naval Aviation Page i 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 THE HULL AND FITTINGS OF A SHIP. 
 
 Construction and Parts of Hull. Keel. Frames. Double Bottoms. 
 Longitudinals. Stem and Stern. Rudder. Propellers. Drainage. Ven- 
 tilation. Steering Gear. Telemotor Page 15 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 ROPE. 
 
 Fibres for Rope. Manila Rope Hemp Rope. " Small Stuff ". Manu- 
 facture of Rope. Wire Rope. Types of Wire Rope. Characteristics of 
 Various Types. Types Suited for Various Purposes. Galvanizing Care 
 and Handling of Wire Rope. Notes on Wire Rope. Wire Hawsers. 
 
 Page 33 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 KNOTTING AND SPLICING. 
 
 Working in Hemp and Manila Knots and Splices in Hemp and Man- 
 ila. Working in Wire Rope. Splicing Wire Rope. Appliances for Use 
 with Wire Rope Page 48 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 MECHANICAL APPLIANCES ON SHIPBOARD 
 The Composition and Resolution of Forces. Analysis of Forces in Me- 
 chanical Appliances. Mast and Boom. The Derrick The Span. The 
 Lever , Page 65 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 BLOCKS AND TACKLES. 
 
 Blocks. Types of Blocks. Tackles. Principles of Tackles Power of 
 Tackles. Effect of Friction in Tackles. Types of Tackles. Practical 
 Rules for Strength of Rope, Blocks, and Tackles Page 77 
 
Viii CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 HANDLING HEAVY WEIGHTS. 
 
 Rigging Yards and Derricks for Handling Heavy Weights. Analysis of 
 Forces Involved. Use of a Span. Use of a Derrick. Use of a Boom-- 
 Boat Crane. Practical Examples in Handling Weights Page 97 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 THE COMPASS LOG AND LEAD-SUBMARINE SIGNALS. 
 The Magnetic Compass The Gyroscopic Compass. The Radio Com- 
 pass. The Pelorus. Bearings. Measurement of Speed. Patent Logs. 
 Revolutions of the Screw. Sounding. The Hand Lead Sounding Ma- 
 chines. Principles of Sounding Machine. Types of Sounding Machines. 
 Sounding by Machine. Submarine Signals. Principles and Applica- 
 tions of Submarine Signals Page 116 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 BOATS. 
 
 Construction of Boats. Types of Boats. Metallic Boats. Buoyancy of 
 Boats. Classification of Boats. Self-Bailing Boats. Self-Righting Boats. 
 U. S. Coast Guard Boats. Man-of-War Boats. The Stowage and 
 Handling of Boats. Davits. Cradles. Detaching Apparatus (Releasing 
 Gear). Lowering Boats. Hoisting Boats. Handling Heavy Boats. 
 Notes on Care and Handling of Power Boats. Diseases of Steamers and 
 Motor Boats, and Remedies. Rig of Boats for Sailing. Handling Boats 
 Under Sail. Handling Boats Under Oars. Towing Boats Page 147 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 HANDLING BOATS IN A SURF. 
 
 Preliminary. Rules of Royal National Lifeboat Institution. Rowing to 
 Seaward. Running before a Surf to the Shore. Beaching or Landing 
 Through a Surf. Practical Notes on the Management of Boats in a Surf. 
 
 Page 219 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 GROUND TACKLE. 
 
 Anchors. Types of Anchors. Old-fashioned and Patent Anchors. Ad- 
 vantages and Disadvantages of Different Types. Housing in Hawse-pipe. 
 Chain Cables Details of Cables. Manufacture of Cables. Stowing 
 Cables. Overhauling Cables. Make-up of Cable. Weight and Strength 
 of Chain. Windlasses. Details of Ground-Tackle. Letting-go Anchor- 
 Speed of Ship in Letting-go Anchoring in Squadron. Anchoring in 
 Deep Water. Weighing. Stowing Anchors. Foul Anchor. Anchoring 
 by the Stern. Riding at Single Anchor. Advantage of Long Scope. 
 Dragging. Mooring. Advantages and Disadvantages of Mooring, To 
 Moor. A Flying Moor. Clear and Foul Hawse. The Mooring-Swivel. 
 Putting on the Swivel. Taking Off the Swivel Tending Ship . . Page 231 
 
CONTENTS. IX 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 CARRYING OUT ANCHORS. 
 
 Occasions for Carrying out Anchors. Difficulties. Methods of Carry- 
 ing On. Fittings Required. Floating Power of Boats. Strength of 
 Spars. To Pick up an Anchor. Dragging for Anchor or Cable. Weigh- 
 ing by Ship or With Boat. Lost Bower or Sheet Page 301 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 THE STEERING OF STEAMERS. 
 
 New Terminology of United States Navy as to Helm and Rudder. The 
 Elements Entering into the Steering of Steamers. The Rudder. The 
 Screw Current. Analysis of the Screw Current and its Effects. The Side- 
 wise Pressure of the Screw Blades. The Wake Current. Ship and Screw 
 Going Ahead. The Turning of Ships. The Turning Circle. Ship and 
 Screw Going Astern. Effects of Rudder and Screw Currents. Ship Going 
 Ahead, Screw Backing. Forces Involved and their Effects. Behavior of 
 the Ship under Various Conditions. Ship Going Astern, Screw Going 
 Ahead. Forces Involved and their Effects, To Turn in a Limited Space. 
 Twin Screws. Advantages of Twin Screws. Turning of Twin-Screw 
 Ships under different Conditions. Additional Notes upon Steering. 
 Effect of Wind. Effect of Sea. Effect of Shallow Water. Heeling of 
 Ships in Turning. Importance of Knowing the Manoeuvring Power of 
 Ships Page 320 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 THE RULES OF THE ROAD. 
 
 Various Sets ot Rules for Preventing Collision. Authorities to be Con- 
 sulted upon Rules. International and Inland Rules (United States) in 
 Parallel Columns, with Notes. Vessels' Lights. Sound Signals for Fog, 
 etc. Speed in a Fog. Steering and Sailing Rules. Sound Signals for 
 Vessels in Sight of each other. Miscellaneous Rules. Remarks on Rules 
 of the Road. Decisions of the Courts upon Rules of the Road. Deci- 
 sions upon Speed in a Fog. Laws Relating to Rules of the Road. Rules 
 of other Nations than United States Page 360 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 MANOEUVRING TO AVOID COLLISION. 
 
 Preliminary. Steamers Meeting. Steamers Crossing. Relative Speeds 
 of the two Vessels as Affecting the Point of Meeting. Discussion of the 
 Manoeuvres proper for Avoiding Collision (with diagrams). Manoeuvre 
 for Giving-way Ship Manoeuvre for Holding-on Ship. A Steamer and 
 a Sailing Vessel. In a Fog. General Discussion. Manoeuvres Proper 
 under Various Conditions. Speed in a Fog. The Law as to Moderate 
 Speed. Reasonableness of the Law. Fallacy of the Arguments in Favor 
 of High Speed Page 44* 
 
X CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 PILOTING. 
 
 1 ixing the Ship's Position. The Chart. Bearings. Danger Angle- 
 Distance of an Object in the Horizon Distance of an Object by Two 
 Bearings. Bow and Beam Bearings. Currents. Danger Due to Currents. 
 Tidal Currents. Slack Water Distinguished from High and Low 
 Effect of Local Conditions upon Tidal Currents. Navigating in a Fog 
 Speed in a Fog. Navigating by Soundings. Use of Sounding Machine. 
 I'.u.u age. General Rules as to Buoyage. Buoyage of United States 
 Waters Page 4^5 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 HANDLING A STEAMER ALONGSIDE A DOCK. 
 Preliminary. The Effects of Lines, Helm and Currents. The Effect of 
 a " Spring." Advantages of Twin Screws. Practical Cases. Handling 
 Steamers without Tugs.. Putting a Right-handed Screw Vessel Along- 
 side under Various Conditions. Head Tide. Fair Tide. Working into 
 a Restricted Berth. Working into a Slip. Use of a Spring. Use of the 
 Helm. A Head Tide. A Fair Tide. Hauling into a Dry Dock. To 
 Wind a Steamer at a Dock. To Wind a Steamer in Making a Landing. 
 Getting Clear of a Dock. Handling a Large Vessel with the Aid of 
 Tugs. Docking of a Large Ocean Liner at New York. Undocking. 
 
 Page 487 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 PLACING A SHIP IN DRY DOCK. 
 
 The Docking Plan. Fittings of a Dock. Preparations for Docking. 
 Floating the Vessel in. Pumping Out the Dock and Securing the Ship. 
 Precautions. Inspection of Underwater Hull Flooding the Dock and 
 Floating the Ship Page 516 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 WEATHER AND THE LAWS OF STORMS. 
 
 Weather, Winds, Clouds and Rainfall. Weather Maps of the World 
 for January and July Isobars. Highs and Lows. Cyclones and Anti- 
 cyclones. Weather of Cyclones and Anti-cyclones. Velocity of Wind De- 
 pendent upon Barometric Gradient Moisture and Precipitation. General 
 Wind Circulation. Explanation of the Motion of Rotation in Cyclones 
 and Anti-cyclones. Buys-Ballots Law. Trade Winds. Westerlies Gen- 
 eral Eastward Movement of the Atmosphere in High Latitudes. Weather 
 Changes and Weather Prediction. Weather Maps of the United States. 
 Temperature Changes. Precipitation Monsoons. Land and Sea Breezes. 
 The Barometer. Clouds. The Law of Storms The Origin of Trop- 
 ical Hurricanes. Air and Cloud-Circulation in a Hurricane. Motion of 
 
CONTENTS. xi 
 
 Rotation. Motion of Translation. Chart Illustrating the Progress of a 
 Hurricane. Shifts of Wind The Storm Wave. Indications of an Ap- 
 proaching Hurricane. Rules for Manoeuvring in a Hurricane. Difference 
 between a Steamer and a Sailing Vessel Page 522 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 HANDLING STEAMERS IN HEAVY WEATHER. 
 
 Lying-to. Lying-to with Sea on the Bow. Objections to the Preceding 
 Method in a Modern Steamer. Drag of the Propeller. Lying-to with 
 Engines Stopped. Running Slow before the Sea. Rolling of a Ship in 
 Waves. Relation between the Period of the Ship and That of the Sea. 
 Importance of Breaking up Synchronism between Periods of the Ship and 
 the Waves. Bringing a Steamer up Head to Sea and Holding Her There. 
 Sea-Anchors. Anchors for Large Ships. Riding Out a Gale at Anchor. 
 The Use of Oil. Advantages of Oil Method of Using under Different 
 Conditions. Opinions of Shipmasters upon Lying-to in Modern Steam- 
 ers Page 5^5 
 
 CHAPTER XXI. 
 
 THE HANDLING OF DESTROYERS. 
 
 Design and Characteristics of Destroyers. Types of Destroyers. Mo- 
 tive Power. Manoeuvring. Handling Alongside Docks. Handling Along- 
 side other Vessels at Anchor. Alongside other Vessels Underway. Re- 
 ceiving Stores or Passengers from Vessels Underway. Behavior at Sea. 
 In Heavy Weather Navigation. In Restricted Waters Towing. As- 
 sisting Vessels in Distress Page 579 
 
 CHAPTER XXII. 
 THE SUBMARINE CHASERS. 
 
 Development. Characteristics. Employment of. Handling. Perform- 
 ance at Sea Page 621 
 
 CHAPTER XXIII. 
 
 SUBMARINES. 
 
 General Features of Design and Construction. Interior Arrangements. 
 Ventilation Operating on Surface. Diving. Preparation and Orders 
 for Diving. Handling Submerged Periscopes." Do's " and " Don'ts ". 
 Turning Circles. Emergencies. Heavy Weather Towing . . Page 630 
 
 CHAPTER XXIV. 
 KEEPING STATIONS AND MANCEUVRING IN SQUADRON. 
 
 Difficulty in Keeping Station. Use of Instruments. Importance of Uni- 
 form Speed. To Regain Position In a Fog. Danger of Collision with 
 Vessel outside of Fleet. Breakdown. Man Overboard Steaming in Line. 
 
xii CONTENTS. 
 
 Steaming in Echelon. To Change Course Rules for Turning. Turn- 
 ing Inside. Turning Outside Turning More than Eight Points. Turn-- 
 ing Simultaneously. Anchoring. Getting Underway. Handling Turbine 
 Ships. Handling a Ship Propelled by Electric Drive. Duties of Officers 
 of Deck. " Notes B, Handling Ships" Atlantic Fleet '. . . . Page 653 
 
 CHAPTER XXV. 
 
 TOWING. 
 
 The Towline Should be Long and Heavy Chain-cable. Wire-rope 
 Manila and Coir. Advantage of Keeping Ships "In Step "Securing the 
 Line on the Towing Vessel. Securing the Line on the Tow. Towing in 
 Smooth Water. Tow-rope Resistances. Starting a Tow. Taking a Dis- 
 abled Vessel in Tow at Sea. Importance of Considering the Drift of the 
 Vessels. Most Favorable Positions for Running Lines. Use of a Boat. 
 Use of a Float. Code of Signals. Rocket Gun. Running Lines. Casting 
 off Standard Towing Equipment, United States Navy. Towing Engines. 
 Towing Alongside. Advantages of Towing Engines. Use of Wire- 
 rope with Towing Engines. Towing Alongside. Making Fast Along-* 
 side Page 695 
 
 CHAPTER XXVI 
 RESCUING THE CREW OF A WRECK. 
 
 Manoeuvring. Lowering the Boat. Communication between the Boat 
 and the Wreck Danger of Going Alongside to Leeward. Dropping 
 Down with a Line The Use of Oil. Signals. If a Boat Cannot be 
 Lowered. Examples of Rescues Page 725 
 
 CHAPTER XXVII. 
 MAN OVERBOARD. 
 
 Danger that Man will be Struck by Screw. Engines should be Stopped 
 at Once. Lookout from Aloft. Life-buoys. Importance of Having a 
 Good Marker. Use of a Light for a Marker. Manoeuvring to Pick up 
 the Man. Stopping and Backing. Turning the Ship. In Case of Fog. 
 
 Page 733 
 
 CHAPTER XXVIII. 
 STRANDING. 
 
 Backing or Pulling off. Possible Danger of Backing Immediately. 
 Precautions to be Taken. Sounding. Laying Out Anchors. Tidal Cur- 
 rents. Lightening Ship. Assisted by Another Vessel. If Assisting Ves- 
 sel Cannot Anchor. If Beach is Steep and not Rocky Page 737 
 
CONTENTS. xiij 
 
 CHAPTER XXIX. 
 
 ASSISTANCE BY VESSELS TO VESSELS IN DISTRESS. 
 
 Work of U. S. Coast Guard. Calls for Assistance. Doctrine of Coast 
 Guard in Rendering Assistance. Attitude in Cases where Commercial 
 Assistance is at Hand. Removal of Derelicts. Rescuing Crew of Ship 
 in Danger of Foundering. Taking a Disabled Vessel in Tow. Floating 
 a Stranded Vessel. Coast Guard Stations. Coast Patrol. Assisting 
 Stranded Vessels. Line-Throwing Gun Breeches Buoy. Life Car. 
 Directions to Mariners in Case of Shipwreck Page 745 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 I. SAILING SHIPS. Various Rigs. Details of Rigging. Sails. Can- 
 vas. Running Gear. 11. TONNAGE OF SHIPS 111. SHIP'S PUMPS AND 
 THEIR USES. IV. PERMITTED DRAFT OF SHIPS. PLIMSOLL MARK. V. 
 DETAILS OF NAVY BOATS. VI. ROPE. U. S. NAVY. V1I. NOMENCLA- 
 TURE OF DECKS. VIII. PRESERVATION OF SHIPS. IX. DIRECTIONS FOR 
 OBTAINING TACTICAL DATA OF MEN-OF-WAR. X. BUOYAGE XL DI- 
 RECTIONS FOR RESTORING THE APPARENTLY DROWNED. Instructions for Sav- 
 ing Drowning Persons by Swimming to their Relief Page 765 
 
(I) 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 THE SHIP. 
 
 The size, form, speed, power, armor, armament and rig of a 
 ship depend upon the nature of the services she is expected to 
 perform. Whatever her design may be, she must have ample 
 stability, strength, habitability, and a complete outfit of all appli- 
 ances, fixed and portable, necessary to ensure her efficiency under 
 all service conditions. 
 
 The broadest classification of ships is that which distinguishes 
 them as Ships of War and Merchant Ships. Ships of War in 
 turn may be distinguished as Fighting Ships and Auxiliaries. 
 Our principal concern is with fighting ships; but it must not be 
 forgotten that in these days of large naval and military opera- 
 tions, often at great distances from home ports, the life of the 
 fighting fleet depends very largely upon its auxiliaries fuel 
 ships, supply ships, repair ships, etc. forming the complex 
 organization known as the Train. 
 
 Fighting Ships are of many classes, used for widely varying 
 purposes calling for widely varying designs designs which, start- 
 ing from certain definite limitations of size and cost, must be 
 developed along such lines and with such a balance of the factors 
 of offensive and defensive power involved as shall give maximum 
 weight to the factors most important for the purpose in hand 
 without unduly sacrificing the remaining factors. 
 
 Modern warships are usually classified as follows : 
 
 FOR SERVICE WITH THE FLEET. 
 
 Fighting Units. Auxiliary Units (the Train). 
 
 Battleships Fuel ships 
 
 Battle cruisers Transports 
 
 Scout cruisers Supply ships 
 
 Light cruisers Repair ships 
 
 Destroyers Mine laying and 
 
 Submarines Mine sweeping ships 
 
TIII-: si i ii'. 
 
 ; ;\ , ^ FOR INDEPENDENT SERVICE. 
 
 Cruisers Training ships, etc. 
 
 Gunboats 
 
 FOR COAST DEFENSE. 
 
 Second-line battleships Mine layers 
 
 Second-line destroyers Patrol ships and scouts 
 
 Monitors Aircraft 
 
 Battleships. (Plate 1.) A battleship, being designed to take 
 a place in the line of battle, meeting the most powerful ships of 
 the enemy and exchanging blow for blow, must have defensive 
 qualities to resist the heaviest blows she is likely to receive. 
 Hence her armor must be heavy. But more important than the 
 power to resist, is the power to strike. It is an axiom that " the 
 best defense is a vigorous offense." Thus, for a battleship the 
 first requisite is a heavy armament ; the second, heavy armor. 
 Speed is not here of maximum importance, although by no means 
 negligible. In the design of a battleship, then, we sacrifice some- 
 thing in weight of armor for weight of armament, and something 
 in weight of boilers and engines that is to say, in speed for 
 armament and armor combined ; while for these three primary 
 factors taken together armament, armor, and speed we sacri- 
 fice much in the important factor of fuel-endurance and in other 
 less significant factors which need not be enumerated here. 
 
 Up to the time of the Russo-Japanese War, 1904-5, and for 
 some years thereafter, the common type of battleship carried 
 a mixed armament of heavy, light, and intermediate guns. As a 
 result of experience gained in that war, Great Britain in 1906 
 laid down, with much secrecy, a new type, the distinguishing 
 feature of which was that it carried only guns of the heaviest 
 caliber and all of these protected by the heaviest armor. The 
 first of these " all-big-gun " ships was named the " Dreadnought " 
 and this name was immediately seized upon as the name of the 
 type, so that "Dreadnought" came to signify, at first an all-big- 
 gun ship, and, later, a powerful battleship of any type without 
 reference to the character of the armament. More recently, we 
 have had " Super-Dreadnoughts," the term being used in a popu- 
 lar way to designate a ship which is assumed to be more powerful 
 
Plate No. 1 
 
THE SHIP 
 
 than any of its predecessors. The pendulum whose swing from 
 too great diversity of armament led for a time to the removal 
 of all except the heaviest guns has swung back to some extent, 
 and even the super-dreadnought of today carries a battery of 
 light guns for defense against torpedo craft and submarines, 
 while ships of every class carry " anti-aircraft guns " capable of 
 firing almost directly upward. 
 
 Battle Cruisers. (Plate 2.) In a battle cruiser, the require- 
 ment of high speed comes first, accompanied by that of large 
 fuel supply, or, what is the same thing, large radius of operations. 
 Next in importance comes armament ; while armor protection 
 drops to third place with an importance much below that of the 
 other factors. While the battleship holds its place in the battle 
 line, the battle cruiser may range far afield searching for the 
 enemy thus playing the part of an advanced scout or take ad- 
 vantage of its high speed and heavy armament to turn the enemy's 
 flank or throw itself upon some part of the line where its weight, 
 coming perhaps as a surprise, may produce decisive results. A 
 force of battle cruisers may be described as the heavy cavalry of 
 the sea. Such a force gives flexibility to the fleet of which it 
 forms a part and lends itself to combinations which afford scope 
 for a high order of tactical skill on the part of the commander- 
 in-chief. 
 
 Of late there has been a tendency to combine the character- 
 istics of the battleship and the battle curiser in a single design. 
 This tendency, if carried to full realization, would result in a ship 
 having the armor and armament of the " California " with a speed 
 30 per cent, higher. Such a combination is possible only by an 
 enormous increase in displacement, and would result in a ship of 
 approximately 60,000 tons, a little short of 1,000 feet in length 
 (to admit a passage through the locks of the Panama Canal) and 
 with a draft of nearly or quite 40 feet. It may be that such a 
 ship will be the next development in fighting-ship design, but it 
 can hardly be said to be in sight today. The British fast battle- 
 ship "Hood" is the nearest approach to it thus far attempted, 
 and the "Hood" is recognized as an experiment of doubtful 
 success. 
 
 Scout Cruisers. 1 (Plate 3.) A scout cruiser needs, first of 
 
 1 In the United States Navy, Scout Cruisers are now called " Light 
 Cruisers of the First Line." 
 
Plate No. 2. 
 
THK SHIP. 
 
 all, high speed, which, however, must be accompanied by large 
 fuel capacity and a high degree of seaworthiness, both of which 
 characteristics are necessary to make high speed available for 
 distant scouting under all conditions of weather. The armament 
 is light, though one long-range gun may be very useful ; and little 
 or no weight can be spared for armor except for an armored deck. 
 The function of a scout is sufficiently defined by the name. The 
 scouting area that can be covered is rapidly being extended by 
 the development of aircraft, which can now be carried by ships 
 and launched from their decks, while the power of keeping in 
 touch with the commander-in-chief and sending in reports of 
 observations is being coincidently extended by improvements in 
 radio-telephony. 
 
 All this makes of the scout of today a vastly different craft 
 from that of only a few years ago and promises to revolutionize 
 all those phases of naval warfare which precede and lead up to 
 the actual contact of opposing fleets. 
 
 Light Cruisers (Plate 3) usually operate with the fleet, espe- 
 cially in the preliminary stages of contact with the enemy. It is 
 their function to keep touch with the enemy, reporting his move- 
 ments, his forces, etc., to the commander-in-chief and driving 
 back the opposing cruisers and destroyers if these attempt an 
 attack. Their armament, especially designed for stopping other 
 cruisers and destroyers, consists of a large number of light rapid- 
 firing guns ; and as they carry torpedoes and have high speed and 
 great flexibility of maneuvering, they have a wide range of use- 
 fulness within limits which do not take them far from base or 
 from support. 
 
 Destroyers. (Plate 4.) The destroyer has passed through 
 many phases of evolution since it was first conceived as a craft 
 designed to " destroy " the torpedo boats by which torpedo war- 
 fare was chiefly conducted forty years ago. The earlier torpedo 
 boat rapidly gave place to the larger but very similar craft that 
 had been called into existence to oppose it, and the name " tor- 
 pedo-boat destroyer" soon gave place to the abbreviated form 
 now in every-day use. Primarily, then, the destroyer is a torpedo 
 boat large, heavily armed, and the fastest type of warship 
 known. The light guns with which it was originally equipped 
 for use against the thin plating of other torpedo craft have grown 
 to a size and power that place the destroyer offensively, and with- 
 
Plate No. 3. 
 
 to 
 
8 THE SHIP. 
 
 out reference to its torpedoes, in a class with large gunboats and 
 light cruisers, while its great speed and the large number of 
 torpedoes that it carries place it distinctly in a class by itself. 
 
 The World War of 1914 to 1918 resulted in great develop- 
 ments in the characteristics of the destroyer and a wide extension 
 of its field of usefulness. It proved the most efficient opponent 
 of the submarine and the most successful protector of commerce 
 from submarine and other forms of attack. Among the many 
 novel features that were developed as weapons during the war, 
 the most interesting were the depth bomb and the direction- 
 listcnittf/ device, both of which found their most important and 
 successful application on destroyers. 
 
 Submarines. (Plate 4.) The submarine, in principle, goes 
 back to the inventions and experiments of Bushnell (1775) and 
 Fulton (1801), both of whom had a fairly complete conception 
 of the possibilities of warfare under water. In its modern and 
 successful application, it dates from the pioneer work of Holland 
 (1875) arj d Lake (1895). Even today, submarine navigation, 
 whether for naval or for commercial purposes, is unquestionably 
 in the early stages of development, in spite of the tremendous 
 significance of its operations in the recent war. 
 
 By devices which vary with different types, the submarine can 
 pass from the surface of the water to a depth which is limited 
 only by the power of the hull to withstand the pressure of the 
 water, and can maneuver there at the will of those in control. 
 While there are important differences between the various types 
 of submarines which have had more or less success within the 
 last thirty years, the essential principle of the most successful 
 types may be stated as follows: Under normal conditions, the 
 boat floats like any other craft. Certain compartments are fitted 
 for the admission of seawater through valves operated by the 
 person in charge of maneuvering. With these compartments 
 filled, the boat still has sufficient buoyancy to remain on the sur- 
 face although very deeply immersed. In 'other words, the boat 
 has a certain small amount of reserve buoyancy when all her sink- 
 ing tanks are filled. To submerge, it is necessary that she should 
 be steered under water, by going ahead, with her horizontal fin- 
 like rudders technically known as " hydroplanes " swung down- 
 ward, in which position their action is to steer the craft down ex- 
 actly as an ordinary vertical rudder, when swung to the right, 
 
Plate No. 4. 
 
 A LIGHT CRUISER. (SECOND LINE) 
 
 A DESTROYER. 
 
 A SUBMARINE. 
 
IO THE SHIP. 
 
 steers the boat to the right. Conversely, of course, the hydro- 
 planes, when swung upward, steer the boat toward the surface. 
 The moment that the rudders are brought to the midship (hori- 
 zontal) position, the reserve bouyancy asserts itself, and the 
 boat rises. The same result occurs, of course, if the headway is 
 stopped. Thus there is always a tendency, inherent in the craft 
 itself, to seek safety by rising to the surface, and a positive force 
 must be applied, by the motion of the boat combined with the ef- 
 fect of a " down rudder," to maintain submersion. In this lies 
 the characteristic feature of the modern type of submarine. In 
 operating on the surface, the power^used is that of gas engines ; 
 under water, that of electric storage batteries. When completely 
 immersed, the submarine is not only invisible to others but is it- 
 self blind, since practically nothing can be seen from it through 
 the water. At moderate depths this difficulty is met by the use 
 of the periscope, a long tube which, at depths up to about 30 feet, 
 projects above the surface, with lenses which give a good view 
 around the horizon. 
 
 Contrary to the general impression, the normal life of a subma- 
 rine is on the surface, where she navigates freely under her gas 
 engines and where the crew have opportunities for rest and fresh 
 air and a limited amount of exercise on deck. Both the speed 
 and the distance which can be run when submerged are very 
 limited, owing to the limitations of the electric batteries. After 
 a few hours of running submerged the power of these becomes 
 exhausted and the submarine must return to the surface, where 
 the gas engines can be used to recharge the batteries, after which 
 another period of submerged running becomes practicable. It 
 follows from this that the submarine is by no means the always- 
 invisible enemy that it is generally considered. Unless the peri- 
 scope at least is above water, the submarine is blind. And if the 
 periscope is exposed, small as it is, it is open to detection by a 
 lookout sufficiently keen. To this danger of detection by sight 
 is added an equally serious danger of detection by sound; for 
 devices by which the noise of a propeller can be detected and its 
 direction and approximate distance determined are now installed 
 on all vessels designed to cope with submarines. It is found, 
 moreover, that an aircraft flying at a height of a few hundred 
 feet can see to a considerable distance below water, especially if 
 the water is smooth, and can locate a submarine even when the 
 
THE SHIP. U 
 
 periscope is not exposed. A submarine once detected and ap- 
 proximately located is in very serious danger. If she exposes 
 herself on the surface she is subject to attack by gun-fire. If she 
 remains submerged, she is in almost equal danger of attack by 
 depth-bombs, which, loaded with heavy charges of high explosive, 
 are dropped overboard as near as possible to the spot where she 
 is supposed to be, with fuses adjusted to produce explosion at a 
 depth of 100 feet or thereabouts below the surface. Approxi- 
 mately fifty German submarines are reported to have been de- 
 stroyed by depth-bombs during the last year of the World War. 
 
 From what precedes it may be concluded that while the sub- 
 marine is probably destined to play an important part in future 
 wars, it will be a part lacking much of the stealthiness and mys- 
 tery which characterized its operations in the early months of 
 the recent war. To a large extent, its fangs are drawn. It re- 
 mains a serious danger, but a danger which does not differ greatly 
 from the other dangers with which modern naval warfare 
 abounds. 
 
 Naval Auxiliaries. Space does not permit a description of 
 these, nor is such description necessary. But no list of types 
 would be complete which did not recognize their importance and 
 the highly specialized characteristics which they have taken on in 
 recent years. It is no longer felt that the upkeep of the fleet can 
 be left to the chance of finding merchant ships which at need 
 can be utilized to carry fuel, ammunition, provisions, etc., for 
 fifty or a hundred men-of-war of various types acting in distant 
 waters, whether in peace or war. 
 
 Cruising Ships. The desirability indeed the necessity of 
 keeping the fighting fleet together, to be constantly in training for 
 operations as a unit, makes it necessary for Governments having 
 interests in distant quarters of the world to maintain a certain 
 number of ships for independent service in foreign waters. As 
 a rule, the ships employed in this service are unarmored cruisers 
 or gunboats of moderate size, preferably armed with many guns 
 of medium and small caliber, and carrying crews large enough to 
 permit the landing, in case of necessity, of an effective force 
 of men. 
 
 Coast Defense Ships. For the "Second Line of Defense" 
 reliance is placed upon battleships and destroyers a little out of 
 date for the "First Line" (the fleet), associated with such other 
 
12 THE SHIP. 
 
 craft, usually rather heterogeneous in character, as may be avail- 
 able. Mine-layers are likely to develop into a definite and useful 
 type as a rr-ult of the experience gained during the World War; 
 and air-craft, operating far to seaward from a land base, or from 
 a new type of ship the " Sea-plane Carrier" of good size, 
 high speed and ample deck space, equipped with elaborate facili- 
 ties for the stowage, handling, launching and landing of air-craft, 
 will be a feature of all future defensive operations. Small, light, 
 fast craft of the general type known during the recent war as 
 "submarine chasers" will patrol the coast, and, in connection 
 with destroyers, convoy merchant vessels through regions where 
 submarine activities are to be feared. 
 
 Although the Monitor type of coast defense ship is nearly 
 obsolete, it is worthy of mention here, if only because of its 
 relation to the Dreadnought of today. The Dreadnought is, in 
 fact, the logical outgrowth of the American Monitor of 1862. In 
 the original Monitor we have a typical " all-big-gun " ship, with 
 all (both) of its guns of the heaviest caliber known at that day, 
 and all (both) of these guns carried in a revolving turret behind 
 heavy armor. The hull, too, was protected as completley as pos- 
 sible, and the ship was maneuvered from an armored conning 
 tower. From the Monitor to the Super-Dreadnought the road is 
 long, but direct; or, if the road has sometimes deviated from a 
 straight line, it has been only to come back to the line marked out 
 by Ericsson. 
 
 Merchant Steamers (Plate 5) are of many types, varying in 
 their characteristics even more widely than men-of-war. They 
 may be broadly divided into freight carriers and passenger 
 carriers, although most passenger carriers carry freight also. In 
 time of war they may carry guns, usually for defensive purposes 
 only. They are never armored. While a first-class passenger 
 steamer will cross the ocean at a speed of from 20 to 25 knots, 
 the average "Tramp" makes from 8 to n knots only; economy 
 of fuel and personnel being of the first importance to such ships. 
 The interior arrangements and the division of space are deter- 
 mined by the necessities of the service ; the handling and storage 
 of cargo being among the vital factors considered. In steamers 
 carrying passengers, modefn laws require that great attention be 
 given to boats and other life-saving apparatus. 
 
 In merchant ships, as in men-of-war, water-tight subdivision 
 
Plate No. 5. 
 
 A MERCHANT STEAMER. (TRANSPORT). 
 
 A SAILING SHIP. 
 
!4 THE SHIP. 
 
 and integrity are vitally important. As merchant ships habitu- 
 ally, though not invariably, lie at a dock when in port, while men- 
 of-war commonly ride at anchor, the sides of merchant ships are 
 clearer of projecting obstructions than those of men-of-war, the 
 guns of the latter alone often proving an embarrassment in going 
 alongside a dock or another vessel. 
 
 Sailing Ships (Plate 5), which a few years ago seemed likely 
 to disappear from the seas, are increasing in number, and appear 
 to be entering upon a new, though limited, career of usefulness 
 in the transportation of non-perishable cargoes. They are often 
 equipped with engine power sufficient to drive them at a moderate 
 speed when the wind fails. 
 
 Naval Aviation is yet in its infancy and no one can say what 
 lines of technical development it is to follow. Whatever these 
 lines may prove to be, the resulting machines must be small, com- 
 pact and strong, capable of being assembled and disassembled 
 simply and quickly. They must stow in a small space, must be 
 easily handled for launching and hoisting in, even under unfavor- 
 able conditions of weather, and must be fitted to withstand the 
 severe strains incident to landing on rough water and riding out 
 a gale if necessary. These requirements are radically different 
 from those involved in the design of land planes and far more 
 difficult of realization. They account fully for the backwardness 
 of naval, as compared with military and commercial aviation. 
 
 The principal fields of Naval Aviation are Scouting, Bombing, 
 and Spotting (Fire Control). 
 
 In Scouting, sea-planes, sent out either from individual fighting 
 ships or from specially designed "Sea-Plane Carriers" accom- 
 panying the fleet, will cover a wide area of vision, keeping in 
 touch with the commander-in-chief by wireless telephone, and 
 giving notice of the appearance and the movements of an enemy 
 force many hours before contact can be made in any other way. 
 Attacks by bombing will be directed not only against capital ships, 
 but aganist destroyers and submarines. Planes of special types 
 will carry torpedoes to be launched at high speed and from con- 
 siderable elevation. Finally, spotting by air-planes or by captive 
 balloons will make it possible to direct the fire of the heavy guns 
 against targets far beyond the ship's horizon. 
 
d5) 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 THE HULL AND FITTINGS OF A SHIP. 
 
 The principal parts of the hull of a modern ship are named 
 below, and the locations of many of them are shown on Plates 
 6, 7, 8. These are views of the midship section, bow and stern 
 of a battleship. 
 
 The Keel in a large ship is usually composed of the outer keel, 
 the inner keel, the vertical keel, and the middle strake of the inner 
 bottom plating, called the keelson, with their accompanying angle 
 bars. In some merchant ships a vertical outside keel, or bar keel, 
 is fitted. At its forward end the keel joins the stem, which is of 
 great strength, and at its after end joins the stern-post, also very 
 strong and arranged to carry the propellers and rudder. 
 
 To the keel are attached the frames, built up of main frame 
 bars, floor-plates, and reverse-frame bars, all of which are 
 strengthened and stiffened by longitudinals of various types. To 
 the framing, the outside or shell plating is secured, the garboard 
 strokes being adjacent to the keel plates and the sheer strokes 
 being adjacent to main or upper deck beams. 
 
 An inner bottom is fitted on all large ships ; this extends up the 
 ship's side to the armor shelf on armored ships, and to the margin 
 plates on other vessels. 
 
 It is subdivided into small compartments by water-tight floors 
 and longitudinals, so that leakage is reduced to a minimum if the 
 ship touches bottom. The frames near the bow and stern are 
 sometimes spaced more closely than elsewhere to provide local 
 strength, and breast hooks, panting stringers, transom plates and 
 counters are fitted for like reasons. 
 
 Bulkheads are used to vertically subdivide the ship's interior 
 into water-tight compartments for the preservation of buoyancy 
 and stability ; oil-tight bulkheads are fitted to form the necessary 
 fuel oil tanks, and non-water-tight bulkheads are fitted to provide 
 stowage and living spaces where water-tightness is not essential. 
 
 Decks are used primarily to provide shelter, working ^spaces 
 and living quarters ; and secondarily to horizontally subdivide the 
 
i6 
 
 Plate No. 6. 
 
 Lightening Holes 
 
 Decking 
 over Steel Deck 
 
 -Deck 
 
 Stanchion 
 -Deck 
 
 Plating 
 .-Deck 
 
 Beams 
 
 Armored Deck 
 
 Covered with 
 
 Linoleum 
 
 Armor Belt 
 (Tapered) 
 
 Center line 
 or Long. 
 Bulkhead 
 
 a-lnner Strokes 
 b- Outer Strokes 
 Armor Sheff . 
 
 Stringer or 
 Tie Plate 
 
 Flat 
 Keelson 
 
 Longmjdinal---- 
 Reverse Frame - - - 
 Lightening 
 
 Angle Clip- 
 
 p*~ Longitudinal 
 
 Mctin Frame 
 Coql Bunkejr 
 
 MIDSHIP SECTION OF A BATTLESHIP 
 
Plate No. 7. 
 
 Warping 
 
 afock 
 
 Wood T)eck Plank 
 Deck Plating ... 
 
 Deck Beam- 
 
 -fr B 
 
 (Rabbet 
 \ ftr Side 
 
 \Armor 
 
 i\ and 
 Plating. 
 
 T^evnhardtr 
 
 Bow OF A BATTLESHIP., 
 
i8 
 
 Plate No. 8. 
 
THE HULL AND FITTINGS OF A SHIP. 19 
 
 hull into a still greater number of water-tight compartments. 
 Those used for the latter purpose are of steel, and may or may 
 not be covered with planking or linoleum. Other decks may be 
 planked and calked only ; but in this case, deck stringer plates and 
 tie-plates are used to stiffen the deck beams. Deck beams are 
 supported by stanchions, giving the decks support additional to 
 that afforded by the bulkheads, and are fastened to the frames by 
 means of beam arms or beam knees. In addition to providing 
 subdivision, decks are absolutely necessary to ensure the ship's 
 structural strength, both longitudinally and transversely. (For 
 Nomenclature of Decks, see Appendix.) 
 
 To .secure accessibility to all parts of the ship, numerous 
 hatches, doors, scuttles and manholes are provided; these are 
 water-tight where necessary, and those on the upper decks are 
 always fitted for battening down to prevent the entrance of water 
 to the interior of the ship in the event of the decks being swept 
 by heavy seas. 
 
 Fighting Ships are provided with protective decks of steel to 
 protect the propelling machinery and other objects below the 
 water-line ; and even on gunboats it is not uncommon to find 
 a steel water-tight deck, which assists in preventing loss of 
 stability if the outside plating should be penetrated near the 
 water line. 
 
 Ventilation is provided to secure a circulation of air within 
 the hull's interior and to replace foul air by fresh air taken from 
 the outside atmosphere. Natural ventilation is provided by cowls 
 and windsails, which, when trimmed to the wind, send fresh air 
 below to replace foul air which is forced outboard through 
 hatches, air-ports, etc., or through exhaust cowls which are 
 trimmed from the wind to increase the rapidity of air circulation. 
 Artificial ventilation is provided by steam or electric blowers, 
 which drive fresh air from outboard and discharge it through 
 ducts and louvres into the ship's interior; or which draw foul 
 air from the interior and discharge it outboard. In large ships, 
 both of these artificial systems are frequently combined ; one set 
 of blowers supplying fresh air, and another set exhausting foul 
 air. In all ships, natural ventilation is extensively provided, and 
 careful attention to apparently small details is necessary to secure 
 efficient circulation. 
 
 In modern ships the ventilation is accomplished by means of a 
 
2O THE HULL AND FITTINGS OF A SHIP. 
 
 large number of independent systems so distributed that water- 
 tight bulkheads are seldom pierced by the piping. 
 
 Earlier ventilation systems provided cold air only. Later ships 
 are equipped with combined heating and ventilating systems for 
 living spaces. 
 
 Coal Bunkers must be ventilated on account of the gases 
 formed in them, which, when mixed with air, may cause an ex- 
 plosion. Exhaust piping is led from the upper part of the 
 bunkers to the smoke-pipe uptakes, and fresh air is supplied from 
 the boiler rooms. In some cases a small exhaust pipe from each 
 bunker is led to the vicinity of the bridge. Smoke escaping from 
 such a pipe would give warning of fire in the bunker. 
 
 Drainage. To provide for the removal of large quantities of 
 water from the bilges, the main circulating pumps are provided 
 with bilge suctions and are also usually connected with a main 
 drain pipe of large size which generally extends from the forward 
 fire-room bulkhead to the after engine-room bulkhead, with suit- 
 able valves permitting the inlet of water from any main compart- 
 ment which is to be drained. In recent battleships, the boiler 
 rooms have independent motor-driven pumps with independent 
 outboard discharges. The pumps are of the centrifugal type and 
 are capable of operating submerged, as the motors for driving 
 them are placed on a higher deck-level than the pumps, and the 
 valves opening into the sea-valves can also be operated from a 
 higher deck. 
 
 There is also a secondary drain connected to numerous pumps, 
 which enables small quantities of water to be removed from any 
 compartment in the following manner: A metal chest called a 
 manifold, containing a number of suitable valves, is located in a 
 convenient position. One of these valves is connected by piping 
 to an adjacent pump, another to the secondary drain, another to 
 the sea, and each one of the remainder to some particular com- 
 partment above or within the double bottoms. To remove water 
 from any compartment containing water, it is only necessary to 
 open the valve connecting the compartment with the manifold, 
 and the valve connecting the manifold with a convenient pump, 
 and then to operate the pump. 
 
 The Firemain usually consists of a lead-lined steel pipe running 
 fore and aft nearly the whole length of the ship, and placed, on 
 
THE HULL AND FITTINGS OF A SHIP. 21 
 
 warships, underneath the protective deck. It is connected to the 
 fire and bilge pumps and is maintained full of water at a pressure 
 of one hundred pounds per square inch. Numerous branches are 
 located in suitable positions on the various decks, to which are 
 attached hose plugs to furnish water for fire and wash-deck 
 purposes. On recent warships the various upper outlets are con- 
 nected by vertical branches or risers to the firemain below the 
 protective deck, each having a stop valve by which it may be cut 
 off from the rest of the systems ; so that any one set of outlets may 
 be disabled without disabling the others. Fire hose ready for 
 instant use is stowed near each plug. Branches from the fire- 
 main are frequently led into the coal bunkers for use in ex- 
 tinguishing fires caused by spontaneous combustion. The salt 
 water required for flushing the heads and lavatories is sometimes 
 supplied from the firemain direct, and sometimes by a separate 
 system of flushing pipes which are filled by certain special steam 
 and hand pumps. 
 
 The Sanitary and Flushing System provides a supply of salt 
 water for use in toilets, washrooms, laundries, galleys, ash 
 chutes, sick bay, etc. In a battleship, the flushing main is about 
 six inches in diameter and is carried underneath the second deck 
 beams, being supplied by risers from the sanitary pump and cross- 
 connected to the fire and bilge pumps. Branches as required lead 
 to the various compartments. The crew's lavatories on recent 
 large battleships are often flushed by an independent system sup- 
 plied by motor-driven pumps. 1 
 
 Fresh Water for use in the boilers and for drinking purposes is 
 carried in steel tanks which can be filled from shore, from water 
 boats, or from the ship's own distillers. For a battleship with a 
 crew of 1,000 men, the capacity of the evaporating and distilling 
 plant is about one hundred tons of fresh water every twenty-four 
 hours. 
 
 Magazines are flooded when necessary through pipes connected 
 to the sea, one or more flood cocks being provided in each ammuni- 
 tion room, so arranged that they can be opened from the handling 
 space and also from an upper deck. 
 
 Propellers for warships (Plate 9), are generally of the three- 
 
 1 See Appendix for " Pumps and Their Uses." 
 
22 
 
 Plate No. 9. 
 
THE HULL AND FITTINGS OF A SHIP. 33 
 
 bladed type, while for merchant ships, four blades are generally 
 used. The three-bladed propeller is lighter and of higher effi- 
 ciency, but many engineers prefer the four-bladed propeller on 
 account of the reduced tendency to vibration in rough water. 
 Propellers for high speed turbine installations are characterized 
 by their small diameter. Propellers are now ordinarily made of 
 manganese bronze, as more strength and a much better surface 
 can be obtained with this material than with cast-iron or cast steel. 
 When bronze propellers are used, however, it is generally neces- 
 sary that zincs be fitted to the ship's hull in their vicinity to pre- 
 vent galvanic action upon the steel of the hull. 
 
 The Propeller Struts are used for supporting the propeller and 
 tail-shaft outside the hull, and in recent ships are of pear-shaped 
 or oval section to diminish the resistance to their passage through 
 the water. In addition to having this shape of section, the longi- 
 tudinal axes of the strut-arms are placed in the path of the 
 stream-lines at the stern of the ship, to still further decrease their 
 resistance. 
 
 Steering Gear. The rudder of a warship (Plates 9 and 10) is 
 unusually large and the steering gear unusually strong, in order 
 that such a vessel may be under more perfect control than is con- 
 sidered necessary in merhantmen. The rudder-stock is made of 
 special forged steel, its size depending upon the speed and size 
 of the ship and the rapidity with which it is necessary to put the 
 helm hard over when the ship is at her maximum speed. The 
 rudder-frame is usually of cast steel, which is filled in with wood 
 and covered with steel plating. On most ships, the weight of the 
 rudder is taken on a suitable carrier within the ship, firmly sup- 
 ported by the hull structure and so arranged that the stuffing box 
 and gland attached to the rudder-post casting may be accessible. 
 (Plate 9.) 
 
 The rudder is attached to the stern-post by "pintles" and 
 " gudgeons " in such a way that it can be unshipped in drydock. 
 The pintles are forged pins on the forward edge of the rudder. 
 The gudgeons are the lugs on the after side of the stern-post into 
 which the pintles are engaged. 
 
 Rudders may be either balanced or unbalanced, the balanced 
 type being used principally on men-of-war, the unbalanced on 
 merchant vessels. When a balanced rudder is put over, the water 
 
Plate No. 10. 
 
 Spaces around bolts connecting 
 rudder stock to frame to be 
 packed with fallow. 
 
 -Stock 
 
 ^ Cover Plate 
 
 FIG. i. RUDDER OF A BATTLESHIP. 
 
 UNSHIPPING 
 OF RUDDER 
 
 1. Remove casing 
 around space 
 between p!ntle9 
 and turn hard 
 over. 
 
 2. Remove filling, 
 loclc ing plates, 8e 
 lifting eye from 
 lower pintle. 
 
 \Drivedown upper 
 pintle (thru hole 
 in stock) and sup* 
 port same by 
 blocking when- 
 attaching sling 
 for removal. 
 ^.Reinsert lifting 
 eye in lower pin* 
 
 upper and lower tie, remove cover 
 pintles to be filled plate, and drive 
 with spruce and up lower pintle ' 
 interstices poured thru tube prov/'d* 
 full of tallow. "d for this pur* 
 pose. When 
 raised about 9* 
 remove eye bolt, 
 and raise and 
 remove by sling 
 fitted around 
 exposed part of 
 pintle. 
 
 ^.Block up rudder, 
 and remove up 
 per bearing and 
 stuffing box on 
 sternfrarpe offer 
 dismounting cross* 
 head, etc* 
 6. Swing rudder aft 
 as tar as possible 
 and lower at the 
 
 W. T. Armored Hatch Cover 
 
 (5 
 
 Ring for Lift ing Tack/e 
 
 Bearing Ring.^\^-' 
 
 \ 
 
 Act/osteble Glanc/-..?- 
 Stuffing-Box Casting^.. 
 
 Rue/c/er Stock- ~ 
 
 - Connecting Rod 
 Bushing 
 ~ Cast/ng 
 /--/%?/ 'form or F/at. 
 
 Packing Space 
 Outer 6 fan of 
 
 ~ ~ Shrunken Jacket 
 
 Cast Steel 
 
 FIG. 2. SECTION THROUGH RUDDER STOCK. 
 
THE HULL AND FITTINGS OF A SHIP. 25 
 
 pressure on the part forward of the rudder-post acts with the 
 tiller and greatly reduces the power required to put it over and to 
 hold it in position. (Plates 9, 10.) 
 
 To the rudder head, the rudder cross-head or the tiller is firmly 
 secured. Sometimes both are fitted. 
 
 It frequently occurs that the run of the ship is so fine that it is 
 necessary to fit a secondary cross-head placed further forward, in 
 order to provide space for the steering gear and its connections, 
 the two cross-heads being connected by suitable rods. It is not 
 uncommon, where space permits, to use a straight tiller or quad- 
 rant which is connected to the steering mechanism by chain or 
 wire rope. The rudder is thus turned through an angle of about 
 35 degrees on each side of the centre line, hard-over stops being 
 fitted to the rudder post and the rudder frame to limit the amount 
 of travel should accidents occur to the steering mechanism. The 
 motive power is usually steam, hydraulic or electric, hand power 
 being always provided for use in cases of complete breakdown. 
 
 Where a rudder cross-head is used (Plate 11), the engine 
 turns a shaft having a right and left-handed thread which drives 
 two nuts connected to the cross-head by side rods. By turning 
 the engine in one direction the nuts recede from each other and 
 the cross-head turns in one direction, and by turning the engine 
 in the reverse direction, the nuts approach each other and the 
 cross-head is turned in the reverse direction. When hydraulic 
 power is used, the side rod from each side of the cross-head con- 
 nects with a suitably guided piston rod, having a piston within a 
 cylinder, each end of which permits the entrance of water at high 
 pressure, and also its exhaust. By admitting water at the for- 
 ward end of one cylinder and the after end of the other while at 
 the same time opening the exhausts at the opposite ends, the 
 cross-head is turned in one direction, and will be turned in the 
 opposite direction by reversing the operation. 
 
 With quadrants and tillers, the chain or wire rope is wound 
 around a drum which can be turned in either direction, suitable 
 provisions being made to prevent any slack occurring. 
 
 The hand gear consists of steering wheels of large size located 
 in various parts of the ship, which by shafting, chain, or wire- 
 rope, operate the rudder in the manner shown on the plans. 
 
 Arrangements are provided for shifting quickly from power 
 to hand gear, and from hand to power. 
 
26 
 
 Plate No. 11 
 
Plate No. 12. 
 
28 THE HULL AND FITTINGS OF A SHIP. 
 
 Steering wheels are usually provided in the conning-tower, in 
 the " Central Station," and on the bridge ; and where practicable 
 arc arranged with clutches so that any one wheel can be turned 
 without turning the others. From the conning-tower stand, a 
 steel rod extends downwards through the armored tube and below 
 the protective deck, where it rotates a transmission drum, which 
 in turn rotates a second drum located in the steering room, the 
 two being connected by the steering rope. The valve controlling 
 the admission and exhaust of steam or water is automatically 
 operated by the transmission drum so that the rudder is turned 
 whenever the helmsman turns the power steering wheel, and re- 
 mains stationary at any angle when the wheel is kept stationary 
 at the corresponding position, the helm indicator showing at each 
 instant the actual position of the helm. Various electric and 
 hydraulic appliances are also used to accomplish these same 
 purposes. 
 
 The application of electricity has passed beyond the experi- 
 mental stage, and in recent ships the steam steering engine is 
 replaced by an electric motor. In the very latest dreadnaughts, 
 the power used for steering is electro-hydraulic, 
 
 ELECTRO-HYDRAULIC STEERING GEAR. 
 
 The electro-hydraulic steering gear which is being installed 
 on the latest vessels consists essentially of a hydraulic steering 
 gear of the usual type which takes its supply of operating fluid 
 from a variable stroke pump connected to a continuously run- 
 ning electric motor, instead of taking its supply from a constant 
 pressure source, such as the ship's hydraulic mains or an ac- 
 cumulator supplied by steam pumps. 
 
 Plate 12 shows the principles of operation. Two hydraulic 
 plungers p and P' have connecting rods to the rudder cross-head 
 and operate in double opposed hydraulic cylinders A, B, c, and D. 
 The cylinders are connected by piping to a variable stroke pump, 
 s, operated by a continuously running electric motor M. It 
 is seen that if the operating fluid (oil) is pumped out of cylinders 
 A and D and into cylinders B and c the rudder will be moved to 
 starboard ; and correspondingly if pumped from cylinders B and 
 c into A and D the rudder will move to port. 
 
 The pump s, is the pump end of a Waterbury Hydraulic 
 Speed Gear, which has been used on all late vessels .for turret 
 
THE HULL AND FITTINGS OF A SHIP. 2Q 
 
 turning and gun elevating. The amount of oil pumped and the 
 direction of its flow is controlled by a control shaft E. When 
 the control shaft is in its neutral position no fluid is pumped, 
 when it is turned in either direction from neutral the flow is 
 in a corresponding direction, and the amount of oil pumped 
 is proportional to the amount the control shaft is moved from 
 neutral. Thus the control shaft performs all the functions of 
 the reversing valve ordinarily used on hydraulic steering gears, 
 and by turning it the rudder is moved. The speed of the rudder 
 is proportional to the amount the control shaft is moved from 
 its neutral position, and when the control shaft is at neutral the 
 rudder is held stationary. The control shaft is connected through 
 a follow-up mechanism (not shown in sketch) to a trick wheel 
 and also to some part which moves with the rudder, so that the 
 rudder follows the movement of the trick wheel. Connection 
 between the steering wheel on the bridge and the trick wheel 
 (actually the trick wheel shaft) can be made by any desired 
 method, such as : wire rope transmission, hydraulic telemotor, 
 or electric pilot motor and controller. If either of the first two 
 methods is used there is an actual steering wheel on the bridge 
 with follow-up control between it and the rudder. If the electric 
 pilot motor is used its controller is placed on the bridge and 
 non- follow-up control is obtained of the same nature as the 
 present straight electric steering gears. 
 
 The efficiency of the hydraulic cylinders and the variable stroke 
 pump is very high, while the efficiency of the right and left 
 hand screw (usually used with the straight electric steering gear) 
 is very low. Thus the amount of power required is much less 
 with the electro-hydraulic than with the straight electric gear. 
 Also by limiting the amount that the control shaft may be 
 turned when the rudder is nearly at the hard-over position the 
 maximum peak of the power required during the cycle of hard- 
 over to hard-over can be considerably reduced. The combina- 
 tion of these two properties results in a very much less demand 
 on the ship's electric generators when the electro-hydraulic de- 
 sign is used. 
 
 The Steering gear for the most recently designed Battleships 
 and Battle Cruisers of the United States Navy (North Carolina 
 and Lexington Classes) will consist of hydraulic rams directly 
 connected to the rudder and operated by motor-driven variable- 
 
3O THE HULL AND FITTINGS OF A SHIP. 
 
 stroke-pump equipment, essentially like the gear above described. 
 
 The Telemotor is a device for furnishing a connection between 
 the steering engine and the steering wheel, such that the wheel 
 shall not only control the engine but indicate at all times the posi- 
 tion of the rudder. In vessels of early design this connection was 
 made by wires, chains, or shafting, with a complicated lead which 
 involved many joints and turns. In the telemotor, the connection 
 is sometimes electrical but more often hydraulic. 
 
 In some ships the Telemotor System is doubled throughout so 
 that in case one line of piping is out of commission the other may 
 be used. 
 
 The hydraulic telemotor used in battleships of recent design is 
 shown on Plate 13. 
 
 Fig. i shows the vertical section of a pump, A, fitted with the usual 
 piston, B, which is moved up and down by a rack, C, into which gears a 
 pinion, D, the shaft of which is made to revolve by the wheel, F, the pinion, 
 G, and the hand-steering wheel. The cylinder A, when the piston is where 
 shown on the drawing, i.e., in mid-position, admits of a free passage of 
 water above and below the piston, so that there are two cylinders, the 
 upper one and the lower one. 
 
 From the by-pass valve, S, which is connected to the top of cylinder by 
 pipe H, and directly to the lower cylinder, two pipes, H and I, Fig. i, pass 
 and join up to a cylinder K, Fig. 3. These pipes correspond to pipes M 
 and L, Fig. 3. The cylinder K is fitted with a piston N and with the usual 
 piston rod and connecting link O, which is attached by a lever to the 
 follow-up mechanism of the steering engine. The piston rod has cross- 
 heads P and P, between which are two spiral springs Q and Q, the object 
 being to cause the piston end to fly into mid gear, unless put out of that 
 position by pressure of water on either side. 
 
 As the diameter of the cylinder on the bridge is in every respect the 
 same as that aft, it follows that when the apparatus is fully charged with 
 fluid, any movement of the steering wheel will bring about a similar move- 
 ment 1 of the aft motor-piston and the valve gear of the steering engine. 
 Inputting the wheel over, it will be felt to become sensibly stiffer until 
 it is hard over, and on letting it go it will run back of its own accord 
 amidships. 
 
 The telemotor on the bridge is fitted with an indicator shown in Fig. 2, 
 which shows the actual position of the helm. 
 
Plate No. 13. 
 
 FIG. I 
 
 FI6.3 
 
 FIG. 2. 
 
 TELEMOTOR. 
 
Plate No. 14. 
 
 FIG. i. THE HEMP PLANT. 
 
 FIG. 2. THE ABACA PLANT. 
 (Manila Fibre.) 
 
 FIG. 3. HEMP FIBRE. FIG. 4. MANILA FIBRE. 
 
 ROPE FIBRES. 
 
(33) 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 ROPE. 
 
 I. FIBRE ROPE. 
 
 The rope commonly used on shipboard is of three kinds: 
 Hemp, tarred and untarred, Manila and Wire. Ropes are made 
 also of flax and cotton, but these are not suitable for use at sea. 
 
 Full particulars as to rope of all types used in the United States Navy 
 are given in tables in the Appendix, which tables should be consulted in 
 connection with this Chapter. 
 
 Much confusion results from the common practice of designat- 
 ing all ropes made from vegetable fibre, as "hemp." This mis- 
 take is almost universally made by other than sea-faring people in 
 referring to manila, which is sometimes called " manila hemp," 
 but oftener simply "hemp." 
 
 Hemp rope is made of fibres from the stalk of the hemp plant, 
 which is cultivated extensively in many parts of the world, but 
 especially in Italy, Russia and the United States. American hemp 
 is very generally used for cordage in the United States. 
 
 Manila rope is made from the fibre of the " abaca," or wild 
 banana, and comes principally from the Philippine Archipelago. 
 As has been noted above, it is commonly designated as " Manila 
 hemp." It has to a great extent displaced the true hemp for gen- 
 eral purposes, especially on shipboard. 
 
 How wide is the difference between Manila fibre and true 
 Hemp is indicated on Plate 14, where both the plants and the 
 fibres are contrasted. In spite of this difference and of all that 
 can be said in favor of a more correct nomenclature, Manila rope 
 will doubtless continue to be called " Manila Hemp," but it is 
 desirable that sea-faring men should know the difference, even 
 though they may find it convenient to fall in with the commercial 
 practice of ignoring the distinction. 
 
 Rope is sometimes made of Coir ("Kyar"), the fibre of 
 cocoanut husks. This rope is light and permanently buoyant; 
 that is to say, it does not become water-logged. It is thus well 
 suited for running lines over water, and while only about half as 
 
34 
 
 ROPE. 
 
 strong as Manila, is strong enough for hauling-lines and might 
 well be supplied to ships for that purpose, in sizes of three inches 
 or thereabouts. 
 
 In the manufacture of rope from the original fibres, the fibres 
 are twisted into yarns, which, in turn are twisted into strands. A 
 number of strands are twisted into a rope and sometimes several 
 ropes are twisted into a cable. Plate 15, Fig. 3. 
 
 The fibres of the hemp or manila having been separated by 
 appropriate mechanical processes from the woody matter with 
 which they are associated in the plant, are inspected, graded as to 
 quality, and baled for shipment. At the factory, they are passed 
 through processes of carding and spinning from which they 
 emerge as long yarns, wound on bobbins. The yarns are twisted 
 into strands and the strands into ropes, by machinery of the gen- 
 eral character illustrated in Plate 16. 
 
 The individual fibres of manila have a tensile strength of 
 approximately 30,000 Ibs. to the square inch. Something of the 
 strength is lost by the twisting processes of manufacture but the 
 twisting reduces the tendency of the fibres to slip, one upon 
 another, and in this way adds to the strength of the rope as a 
 whole. It adds also to the elasticity of the rope, giving it, in fact, 
 something of the character of a spiral spring. 
 
 To counteract the tendency to unlay, the successive twists are 
 taken in opposite directions ; yarns being usually right-handed, 
 strands left-handed, ropes right-handed, and cables left-handed. 
 The above rule may be reversed, producing " left-handed " or 
 " back-handed " rope. 
 
 Rope is commonly made with three strands, but four are some- 
 times used. 
 
 Hemp Rope is now but little used. When used it is almost 
 invariably tarred. In this form it is used on shipboard for such 
 of the standing rigging as is not of wire and for the heaviest of 
 the running rigging of sailing ships. The tar preserves the rope 
 from deterioration due to dampness but reduces its strength and 
 flexibility. Untarred hemp is the strongest rope made except 
 wire. 
 
 In present United States Naval practice, hemp is used only for 
 "small stuff " : roundline, houseline, etc., all rope larger than 
 "24 thread stuff" (1% inch circumference) being made of 
 Manila. 
 
Plate No. 15. 
 
 35 
 
 FIG. i. MANILA FIBRE, BALED. 
 
 FIG. 2. ROPE IN COIL. 
 
 yarns 
 
 Fibres-* 
 FIG. 3. MANILA ROPE. 
 
 FIG. 4. CROSS SECTION, 3-SiRAND ROPE. 
 
 MANILA ROPE. 
 
Plate No. 16. 
 
ROPE. 37 
 
 g 
 
 Both the manila rope and hemp rope of commerce vary greatly 
 in quality. At their best, both should show a smooth, even sur- 
 face when laid up, with few projecting ends of the fibres. When 
 unlaid, the strands should show long and glossy, without admix- 
 ture of short ends or " tow." 
 
 For special purposes, rope is sometimes plaited instead of laid. 
 This does away with the tendency to kink. 
 
 Fibre Rope is designated as to size by its circumference, and 
 runs from about three quarters of an inch to sixteen inches and 
 even more ; but the largest sizes are never seen on shipboard, 
 twelve inches in manila and seven inches in wire being about 
 the maximum that even the largest ship would carry. The length 
 is measured in fathoms of six feet each. For shipment it is made 
 up in coils. (Plate 15.) 
 
 Small cordage is usually known on shipboard as " small-stuff," 
 and designated either by the number of threads that it contains, 
 as "i8-thread stuff," " 15-thread stuff," etc. : or as "Ratline 
 stuff," " Seizing stuff," " Marline," " Spun-yarn," etc. These are 
 usually of American hemp, tarred, and are measured in some 
 cases by the fathom, in other cases by the pound. 
 
 The following are the most common varieties of small-stuff 
 used on shipboard. 
 
 Spun-yarn. A rough and comparatively cheap stuff made 
 from long tow and loosely laid up, left-handed, of two, three or 
 four strands. It is more used on shipboard than any other 
 variety of small-stuff, being convenient for seizings, service, etc., 
 where great neatness is not required. 
 
 Houseline, Roundline and Marline are used for the same pur- 
 poses as spun-yarn, but make neater work, being laid up more 
 smoothly and of better material. 
 
 Marline is 2-stranded left-handed, Houseline 3-stranded left- 
 handed, and Roundline 3 : stranded right-handed. All of the 
 above are used for seizings, but where a heavier and stronger 
 material is needed, a higher grade of stuff is used, laid up by rope- 
 making machinery and finished like the larger sizes of rope, 
 although classed as small-stuff. This is called Seizing Stuff. It 
 is usually 3-stranded, right-handed, and may have 2, 3 or 4 
 threads to the strand, making 6-thread, Q-thread or 12-thread 
 seizing stuff. 
 
 Ratline Stuff does not differ from seizing stuff in its general 
 
38 ROPE. 
 
 characteristics, but is larger. It is 3-stranded, right-handed, and 
 may have 4, 5, 6, 7 or 8 threads to the strand, making " 12- 
 thread," " 15-thread," " i8-thread" Ratline Stuff, and so on. 
 
 Rope-yarns are used for many purposes on board ship, and a 
 good supply of them should always be on hand. They are made 
 by unlaying condemned hemp cordage, tarred. 
 
 Two yarns twisted up together by hand, or single yarns twisted 
 up against their natural lay and rubbed smooth, are called 
 " foxes " and are often used for light seizings, being much neater 
 than spun yarn. (For further details as to Cordage, see Ap- 
 pendix.) 
 
 Rope tends to contract when wet, and unless allowed to do so 
 freely may be injuriously strained. It is for this reason that 
 running gear is slacked in damp weather. On the other hand, 
 advantage may be taken of this tendency for tautening lashings, 
 etc., by wetting the rope. 
 
 As rope deteriorates rapidly from continued dampness, it 
 should never be stowed away unless perfectly dry. This caution 
 is especially important in the case of hawsers, which are rarely 
 used without being wet. It is a reason also for the rule that 
 hemp and manila should not be covered except when absolutely 
 necessary, as the covering not only holds the moisture but pre- 
 vents the deterioration from being seen. 
 
 Unlike the metals and other similar substances, rope made of 
 vegetable fibre has not a permanent elastic limit within which it 
 may be worked indefinitely without injury. Owing to the tend- 
 ency of the fibres to slip one upon another in spite of the twist, 
 the rope gradually loses its cohesion under repetition of very 
 moderate tensions, and may be seriously weakened by constant 
 working, without ever having been subjected to anything ap- 
 proaching a breaking stress ; while if subjected even once to a 
 stress approaching that of breaking, its strength is permanently 
 reduced and it may be expected to give way under a very moder- 
 ate pull. 
 
 While the thought of lubrication is not usually associated with 
 the thought of hemp or manila rope, it is a very important factor, 
 making for preservation as against both excessive dampness and 
 excessive heat. From eight to ten per cent, by weight of the 
 finished rope consists of oil, which is sprayed upon the fibres 
 before the process of manufacture begins. 
 
|PE - 39 
 
 II. WIRE ROPE. 
 
 Wire rope (Plate 17) is made of steel or iron wires laid up like 
 yarns to form strands, which strands are in turn laid up to form 
 a rope. The characteristics of the wire and the manner of 
 making it up vary within wide limits in accordance with the pur- 
 pose for which the rope is intended. Where great flexibility is 
 wanted, as in the case of rope to be worked over pulleys, this 
 quality is secured at some sacrifice of strength. Such rope should 
 not be galvanized unless it is to be exposed to the weather or 
 to extreme dampness. Where a steady stress is to be provided 
 for, as in the case of standing rigging, the tensile strength is of 
 maximum importance; and in this particular instance (standing 
 rigging), galvanizing is essential because of the necessary ex- 
 posure to weather. The number of strands will depend upon the 
 purpose for which the rope is designed, as will also the nature of 
 the heart. As a rule, six strands are used, laid up around a 
 hempen heart. The number of wires to a strand varies widely 
 but the two most commonly used types consist of 6 strands of 19 
 and 37 wires to the strand. In both of these types, known as 
 the "6x19" and the "6x37" types, the strands have wire 
 hearts and the rope a hemp heart. Approximately 75 per cent, 
 of the wire rope used in the United States is of the 6x 19 type, 
 this being considered to give the best all-around combination of 
 qualities and the best balance of strength and flexibility. Where 
 greater flexibility is required, the 6x37 type should be selected, 
 or the 6x24; or, if strength is not important, the 6x12. Both 
 the 6x24 and the 6x 12 types have a hemp heart for each strand 
 as well as for the rope. (Figs. I, 2, 3, 4, Plate 17.) 
 
 The use of hemp for the heart of the rope not only contributes 
 to flexibility but has the further advantage that the hemp forms a 
 cushion upon which the strands close in as the rope contracts 
 under a heavy pull, thus acting with the elasticity of the wire and 
 the " give " which results from the spiral lay, to reduce the effect 
 of sudden stresses. If it happens that the hemp heart has ab- 
 sorbed its share of the lubricant which should be used upon the 
 rope from time to time, this cushioning will result in a lubrication 
 of the interior wires and greatly reduce the interior friction. 
 
 Manufacturers commonly designate the size of wire rope by 
 the diameter and this designation is used in circulars and in 
 specifications of the United States Naval authorities; but sea- 
 
4 o 
 
 ROPE. 
 
 men adhere to the habit of designating it, like Hemp and Manila, 
 by circumference. This difference sometimes leads to confusion, 
 but as the ratio of circumference to diameter is approximately 3 
 to I, no serious misunderstanding is likely to result as to the size 
 of rope referred to in any individual case. It is well, however, 
 to take the precaution of stating whether the size mentioned 
 represents diameter or circumference. (See method of measur- 
 ing diameters in Plate 18.) 
 
 Galvanising is the simplest and most efficient means known for 
 preserving wire from corrosion, but it involves exposing the wire 
 to a high temperature, which reduces the strength by something 
 like 10 per cent. The process of galvanizing consists of draw- 
 ing the wire slowly through a bath of molten zinc, from which 
 it takes on a thin but very tenacious coating, sufficient to protect 
 it from the corrosive action of moisture. Such protection is 
 especially important for wire which is to be exposed to salt water. 
 
 As a general rule, galvanized rope should not be used for 
 working over sheaves except in cases where the sheaves are large 
 and the motion slow. Under other conditions sheaves small 
 or motion rapid the zinc coating wears off in a short time, fre- 
 quently breaking and peeling, and corrosion at points thus exposed 
 to moisture, and especially to salt water, proceeds more rapidly 
 (through electrolytic action) than if no zinc were present. 
 
 Wire rope, galvanised, is used for the standing rigging of 
 ships, and for spans, slings, ridge-ropes, topping lifts, guys, etc. 
 It is used also for running gear in special cases where exposure 
 to weather is involved and where the sheaves are large ; as in 
 single pendants and in the slow-running tackles of cranes. 
 
 Wire hawsers are always galvanized. 
 
 Wire rope ungalvanized is used for a great variety of purposes, 
 especially for work over sheaves comparatively small, and for 
 general work, without reference to the size of sheaves, in places 
 where no excessive exposure to moisture is involved. 
 
 Where there is a conflict between the rules laid down as to the use of 
 galvanized and ungalvanized rope, it will not usually be difficult to decide 
 which rule should prevail. 
 
 It will be clear from what precedes, that the suitability of a 
 rope for any given purpose depends not only upon its strength but 
 upon several other qualities. For many purposes, flexibility is 
 more important than strength. In cases where much wear is in- 
 
ROPE. 4 , 
 
 volved, it is desirable that the individual wires should be fairly 
 large, so that the outside wires shall not wear through too quickly. 
 For standing rigging, a wire core is admissible, while for running 
 rigging of all kinds, a hemp core is absolutely necessary. If a 
 rope is to be exposed to the weather it must be galvanized ; other- 
 wise, not. 
 
 It is important, in ordering wire-rope, to specify the purpose 
 to which it is to be applied and as many of the conditions of its 
 use as practicable. 
 
 Plate 17 shows various types of wire rope suitable for different 
 purposes. As a rule these types are made in the following 
 grades of material, with tensile strength in the wire used, ap- 
 proximately as indicated. 
 
 1. Wrought iron, 85,000 Ibs. per square inch. 
 
 2. Crucible Cast Steel, 150,000-200,000 Ibs. per square inch. 
 
 3. Extra Strong Crucible Cast Steel, 180,000-220,000 Ibs. per 
 square inch. 
 
 4. Plow Steel, 200,000-260,000 Ibs. per square inch. 
 
 5. Monitor Steel, 220,000-280,000 Ibs. per square inch. 
 
 The types illustrated are those specified for use in the United 
 States Navy but they are standard commercial types and cover 
 practically all the demands of seafaring practice in general and 
 all but a few highly specialized demands of industrial practice 
 on shore. 
 
 Naval specifications call for a minimum strength in all types, 
 of 220,000 Ibs. per square inch in the wire from which the rope is 
 made. The grades used are 3 and 4 above. 
 
 6 X 19 Type (Fig. i). This is the stiffest and strongest type manufac- 
 tured for use on ship-board. It is especially suitable for standing rig- 
 ging, guys, boat slings, topping lifts, etc. It may be used over sheaves 
 of large diameter where the speed is moderate, but has not the flexibility 
 required for running rigging in general. 
 
 This type is issued to the Navy both galvanized and ungalvanized. 
 
 6X37 Type (Fig. 2). This type combines strength with flexibility to 
 a degree which makes it especially valuable for work on shipboard. It 
 is much more flexible than the 6 X I9 type and much stronger than the 
 6 X 12 or the 6 X 24 type. It may be used over sheaves smaller than 
 those for which the 6 X iQ type is practicable, and is especially suitable 
 for cranes and other machines where sheaves are necessarily rather 
 small and where heavy weights are to be handled. 
 
 It is the best rope for heavy towing, whether with or without an auto- 
 
Plate No. 17. 
 
 6 STRANDS OF 19 WIRES (6X19). 6 STRANDS OF 37 WIRES (6X37). 
 
 6 STRANDS OF 12 WIRES (6X12). 6 STRANDS OF 24 WIRES (6X24). 
 
 ARMORED ROPE. 
 
 FIBRE CLAD ROPE. 
 
 WIRE ROPE UNLAID, SHOWING HEMP CORE. 
 
 TYPES OF WIRE ROPE. 
 
43 
 
 matic towing machine. When designed for towing it is galvanized and 
 should be fitted with a thimble eye at each end. As more than 50 per 
 cent, of the wires in a strand are on the inside, it follows that the outer 
 wires may be considerably worn before the strength of the rope as a whole 
 is seriously impaired. 
 
 This type is issued to the Navy both galvanized and ungalvanized. 
 
 6X12 Type (Fig. 3). This is the most flexible rope made for ordi- 
 nary purposes, but has only two thirds the strength of the 6 X IQ ad 
 6 X 37 types. It is used for most of the running gear which is made of 
 wire (except as already specified for the 6 X 37 type) and for life-lines, 
 guys, ridge-ropes, etc. It is used also for mooring hawsers in cases 
 where no great strength is required. It is sometimes used for towing 
 but is not recommended for this unless with an automatic towing machine, 
 and not then for heavy work. 
 
 6X24 Type (Fig. 4). This type, while inferior in strength to the 
 6 X37 type, resembles the latter in that it represents a convenient bal- 
 ance of strength and flexibility. It is designed primarily for mooring 
 hawsers to be used where greater strength is needed than that of the 
 6 X 12 type. It has also an advantage over the latter in that it is better 
 fitted to stand the abrasive effect of snubbing through chocks and around 
 bollards, because 30 per cent, of its strength is in the inside layers of its 
 strands. 
 
 Armored Wire Rope (Fig. 5). In this type each strand is wrapped spirally 
 with flat strips of steel which protect the wires from abrasive wear. The 
 wrapping contributes nothing to the strength of the rope but by deferring 
 the time when the strands begin to wear, prolongs the life of the rope in 
 some cases by as much as 50 to 75 per cent. The increase in weight and 
 the reduction of flexibility are unimportant. 
 
 Fibre Clad Rope (Fig. 6). In this type each strand is served with tarred 
 hemp marline, which protects the wire from wear and from corrosion. It 
 has about one-third the diameter of Manila rope of the same strength and 
 is only slightly less flexible; admitting of coiling, belaying, and knotting, 
 without danger of kinking. This makes it suitable for running rigging, 
 especially for boat and crane falls, anchor gear, etc. 
 
 The Manufacture of Wire Rope. The manufacture of wire 
 rope follows closely the process already described for fibre ropes, 
 the individual wires corresponding with the yarns of hemp and 
 manila. The wires are twisted into strands and the strands into 
 rope, by methods which do not differ materially from those illus- 
 trated in Plate 16. 
 
 The wire used for rope is made from special ores, which are 
 reduced by the open-hearth process to eliminate as thoroughly 
 as possible all traces of sulphur and phosphorus, both of which 
 impurities make for brittleness. In the various processes which 
 follow, the metal is subjected to carefully controlled heat-treat- 
 
44 
 
 ments and is finally drawn down, cold, to the desired size, after 
 which it is subjected to bending and torsional tests, and tests for 
 elongation and tensile and elastic strength. It is also carefully 
 examined, visually, foot by foot, to make sure that it is free from 
 surface defects. It is the fact that these tests can be made, and 
 are made, upon every individual wire entering into the finished 
 rope, which gives to wire rope its most valuable characteristic, 
 reliability. 
 
 Notes on Wire Rope. 
 
 Wire rope needs in some ways better care than hemp or manila 
 and far better care than it generally receives on shipboard. It 
 should be kept on a reel when not in use. A single kink in the 
 finest wire rope practically ruins it at once. 
 
 In receiving a line and transferring it from one reel to another 
 care should be taken to unreel it, instead of slipping off the suc- 
 cessive bights over the end of the reel, as is sometimes done. 
 
 Plate 18 illustrates the right way and the wrong way of dealing with 
 wire rope under various conditions. 
 
 A wire hawser should be gone over thoroughly every month or 
 two with linseed oil; or, better, if it is not to be used for some 
 time, with crude petroleum or some heavy lubricating oil to which 
 a small quantity of lampblack has been added. If the lubricant 
 used is inclined to be stiff, it is better used hot. Neither oils nor 
 tars can be regarded as perfect preservatives, as they all contain 
 more or less acid, which attacks the steel. The principal reliance 
 must therefore be upon the galvanizing. If the rope is to remain 
 under water for some time, the best preservative is made by 
 adding to one part of Stockholm tar, one part of fresh slaked 
 lime. Boil well and use while hot for saturating the rope. 
 
 It is important that the lubricant, whatever its composition, 
 should be thin enough to penetrate into the interstices of the rope 
 and yet that it should have consistency enough to adhere to the 
 wire for a reasonable length of time, after which it should be 
 renewed. Care must be taken to insure covering the rope all 
 around. A hawser used for towing should be relubricated after 
 use while being reeled up. 
 
 Wherever wire rope is to be worked over a sheave, the diameter 
 of the sheave and the speed of running become very important 
 factors. The larger the sheave and the lower the speed, the 
 
Plate No. 18. 
 
 45 
 
 Right Way. Wrong Way. 
 
 To TAKE ROPE FROM REEL. 
 
 Right Way. Wrong Way. 
 
 To TAKE ROPE FROM COIL. 
 
 AN OVERWORKED ROPE. 
 
 Right Way. Wrong Way. 
 
 To MEASURE DIAMETER. 
 
 Right Way (U-bolt on Dead End). 
 
 Wrong Way (U-bolt on Tension End). 
 WIRE ROPE CLIPS, 
 
 HANDLING WIRE ROPE. 
 
46 ROPE. 
 
 better. All manufacturers of wire rope prescribe a minimum 
 diameter for sheaves, and their guaranteed breaking strains and 
 estimated safe-working loads are for these minimum diameters, 
 and for moderate speed. A high speed increases the wear upon 
 the rope, not only by the friction on the pulley but still more by 
 the friction of the wires upon each other a point which is often 
 overlooked. 
 
 The importance of this interior friction will be realized if we 
 consider the " play " which necessarily goes on between the fibres 
 of a rope which is being alternately bent and straightened in 
 running over a pulley. This play of course increases with the 
 speed and is greater with a small sheave than with a large one. 
 The same consideration enters in where a rope is alternately 
 stretched and relaxed under a straight but varying pull ; as, for 
 example, in towing. This emphasizes the importance of interior 
 lubrication. 
 
 The diameter of the sheave over which the rope is worked 
 should never be less than twenty times that of the rope itself; 
 and the less flexible the rope the larger should be the sheave. 
 (See 11, Chapter VII.) 
 
 It is important that the score of the sheave should be of such 
 size as to carry the rope without excessive play, and, above all, 
 without friction against the sides of the score. Metal sheaves 
 should be lined with wood or leather. 
 
 The turns of the rope should never be allowed to overlap on 
 the drum of the winch. 
 
 As the wear of a rope over a pulley increases more rapidly with 
 the speed than with the load, it is better, when an increased output 
 is demanded, to increase the load than to increase the speed. 
 
 In addition to the question of friction in running over a sheave, 
 the distortion of the rope wherever it passes around a relatively 
 sharp bend, whether on a moving sheave or on a stationary chock 
 or bollard, is a factor of great importance. Those fibres which lie 
 farthest from the centre of the curve are stretched, while those 
 which hug the round of the bend are more or less compressed. 
 Thus the outer fibres may give way before the inner ones begin 
 to feel the strain. 
 
 By far the most unfavorable conditions to which wire rope 
 can be subjected are those in which it runs over pulleys which 
 give it a reverse bend, like the letter S, such that it passes over 
 
ROPE. 
 
 47 
 
 one pulley with a bend to the right and immediately afterward 
 swings around another with a bend to the left. 
 
 While the strength, lightness and durability of wire rope are 
 important factors in its favor, its most valuable characteristic, 
 as compared with hemp, manila, and chain, is its reliability. 
 Within its proper working limits, it almost never fails. Hemp 
 and manila may be rotten at the core and show no sign, or they 
 may have been weakened by excessive strains and give no indica- 
 tion of it except, perhaps, that they are a little " long-jawed." A 
 chain may be made of worthless material, or, if of the best 
 material and made with every care, it may have flaws which no 
 inspection can reveal. 
 
 Hemp and manila ropes are made up of a great number of 
 fibres from a few inches to several feet in length. Wire rope is 
 made of small numbers of wires of the full length of the rope, 
 each of which is manufactured, inspected, and tested, individually, 
 throughout its full length before it goes into the rope. The in- 
 spection is so simple that a flaw can hardly be overlooked and it is 
 most improbable thaf any number of wires can have flaws which 
 in the end appear at the same point of a strand. Thus it is 
 almost impossible that any serious flaw should exist in a wire 
 rope as manufactured. 
 
 A flaw due to kinking can always be seen. 
 
 An accident with wire rope is almost necessarily due to care- 
 lessness. 
 
 Assuming the rope to have a well-lubricated hemp core, and 
 to be used over properly proportioned sheaves, the outside strands 
 will be the first to wear out, and the reduction in their diameter 
 becomes the measure of the wear of the rope as a whole. 
 
 Wire rope should be condemned when the outside wires are 
 worn down to one-half their original diameter, or when it is ap- 
 parent from broken wires or other abnormal indications that it 
 has been subjected to danger or by excessive strains, or to a sharp 
 bend resulting in a pronounced kink. 
 
 When wire rope is to be cut, a whipping of small soft (an- 
 nealed) iron wire should be wrapped on each side of the point 
 where the cut is to be made, to prevent the rope from unlaying. 
 If suitable annealed wire is not available, a fairly heavy seizina 
 stuff may be used, the turns being passed very taut. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 KNOTTING AND SPLICING. 
 
 The art of working in rope cannot be learned from a book, but 
 the illustrations which accompany this Chapter will give an idea 
 of the most common knots, splices, etc., in general use and should 
 be helpful up to a certain point in making them. 
 
 WORKING IN HEMP AND MANILA. 
 
 Plate 19. This plate shows a number of simple knots all of 
 which are made with the end of a single rope. 
 
 An Overhand Knot. Fig. i. This is the simplest possible knot 
 and is the beginning of many of the more complicated knots, 
 bends and hitches which follow. 
 
 A Bowline. Fig. 2. One of the most common and useful 
 knots known to seamanship. It forms a loop, which may be of 
 any length and which cannot slip, as the heavier the pull upon it 
 the tighter it jams. Moreover, it does not form so sharp a nip 
 as to weaken the rope. It is used for lowering men over a ship's 
 side, for slinging them from stays, etc, while working aloft, and 
 for a great variety of similar purposes. A common use of it is 
 to form a loop in the end of a hawser to be thrown over a bollard, 
 in working a ship alongside a dock. 
 
 A Running Bowline. Fig. 3. A convenient form of running 
 loop. The loop of the bowline proper is usually smaller than that 
 shown in the figure. 
 
 A Bowline on a Bight. Figs. 4 and 5. Used in place of a 
 single bowline where greater strength is needed, or an increased 
 number of parts. 
 
 A Cats-paw. Fig. 6. A double loop for hooking a tackle into 
 the end of a rope. Convenient and secure. 
 
 A Sheep-Shank. Fig. 7. A quick and convenient way of 
 temporarily shortening a rope. 
 
 A Figure of Eight Knot. Fig. 8. Turned in the end of a 
 rope to prevent it from unreeving. 
 
 A Blackwall Hitch. Figs. 8 and 9. Used like the cats-paw for 
 hooking a tackle to the end of a rope. The holding power of the 
 Blackwall comes from the jamming of one part upon another. 
 The single Blackwall cannot always be trusted. 
 
 48 
 
Plate 3STo. 19. 
 
 49 
 
 Fig. 5. 
 Bowline on a Bight (2.) 
 
 Figure-of-Eight Knot, 
 
 Fig. 9. Rg.10. 
 
 Single BlacUwatt Hitch. DoobleBiackwall Hitch. 
 
 KNOTS IN THE END OF A ROPE . 
 
KNOTTING AND SPLICING. 
 
 Plate 20. This plate shows a series of knots for joining the 
 ends of the two ropes or the two ends of the same rope. This 
 is perhaps the most important group of knots with which we have 
 to deal. 
 
 A Square-Knot or Reef -Knot. Fig. i. This is the simplest 
 knot of the series and the most useful. But it cannot be used 
 where the ropes to be joined are of different sizes unless the ends 
 are stopped down to their own parts, as otherwise the ends will 
 slip and draw apart. 
 
 A Granny-Knot. Fig. 2. Frequently confused with the 
 Square-Knot, but is less neat and does not hold so well. More- 
 over it jams and is hard to untie. Is much despised by seamen. 
 
 A Sheet or Becket Bend. Fig. 3. Called by landsman a 
 Weaver's Knot because used for knotting yarns. Is especially 
 suited for use with small lines, like fish lines, but works well with 
 ropes of any size. It can be used where the lines are of different 
 sizes, and does not weaken the rope. Divides with the Square 
 Knot the claim to be the most generally useful knot known. 
 
 A Sheet Bend, Double. Fig. 4. Here the end of the bending 
 line is passed twice around the standing line and twice through 
 its own part, giving added security. 
 
 A Single Carrick Bend. Figs. 5 and 6. Compare with Single 
 Sheet Bend. 
 
 A Double Carrick Bend. Figs. 7, 8 and 9. More secure than 
 the Single Carrick, but with both it is well to stop down the ends 
 to their own parts. This is especially necessary where the ropes 
 are of different sizes. 
 
 Two Bowlines. Fig. 10. A safe and convenient way of bend- 
 ing two hawsers. Will not slip. Is somewhat bulky for use 
 where the lines are to be veered out through a chock. 
 
 A Reeving Line Bend. Fig. 11. Neat and secure, but not as 
 quickly made as the junction of two bowlines. Convenient for 
 reeving through a chock. 
 
Plate No. 20. 
 
 Square or Reef Knot. 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 Granny Knot. 
 
 Sheet or BecVet 
 Bend Double. 
 
 Sheet or Becket 
 bend Single. 
 
 V. 
 
 Single CarrickBend 0-) Single Carried Bend(Z, 
 
 Double Carnck Bend 00 Double Carrick Bend (2.) Double Carrick Bend. 
 
 JSSSSSE^ ^^gvs^vp^^^ _____ 
 
 Q'itt ^*,- 
 
 Reevmg-Line Bend, 
 
 BEND\NG Two ROPES TOGETHER 
 
KNOTTING AND SPLICING. 
 
 Plate 21. This plate shows various ways of securing lines to 
 spars, posts, rings, etc. 
 
 A Studding-Sail Tack Bend. Fig. i. A useful bend for a 
 variety of purposes where it is important to have no danger of 
 coming adrift through the flapping of a sail. 
 
 A Studding-Sail Halliard Bend. Fig. 2. The greater the 
 pull on the halliards, the more tightly the parts of the bend are 
 jammed against the spar. With regard to this and the preceding 
 (Fig. I ), it is interesting to note that the " Stunsails " of a sailing- 
 ship are peculiarly difficult to handle if anything goes wrong witH 
 their gear. For this reason it is especially important that all their 
 gear should be so secured as to reduce to a minimum the danger 
 of coming adrift. 
 
 A Fisherman's Bend. Fig. 3. May be made more secure by 
 taking another turn with the end around the standing part before 
 stopping down. 
 
 A Timber Hitch. Fig. 4. The greater the pull, the more 
 tightly the turns are jammed. 
 
 A Timber Hitch and Half Hitch. Fig. 5. For towing a spar. 
 The half hitch is taken first and the timber hitch afterward 
 formed with the end. 
 
 A Rolling Hitch. Fig. 6. Very useful where one rope is tq 
 be bent to a spar or to the standing part (not the end) of another 
 rope, or to a chain (as in Clearing Hawse). 
 
 A Round Turn and Two Half Hitches. Fig. 7. For making a 
 hawser fast to a bollard. For greater security, the end should 
 be stopped down to the main part. If the part A is taken up 
 under B as well as under c, we have a Fisherman's bend, which, 
 with a half hitch outside it as at D, is often used for this purpose. 
 A more convenient way is to turn a bowline in the end of the 
 hawser and throw it over the post. 
 
 Two Half Hitches. Fig. 9. Another way of bending a rope's 
 end to a spar, a bollard, or a ring. 
 
 A Clove Hitch. One of the most common of hitches for at- 
 taching a rope to a spar or to the standing part of a rope. Used 
 in hitching ratlines to shrouds. 
 
Plate No. 21. 
 
 53 
 
 Fig. I. 
 Studding Sail Tack Bend. 
 
 Fig, 2. 
 
 Studding- Sail 
 Halliard bend. 
 
 Fig.3. 
 Fisherman's Bend. 
 
 Fig.4-. 
 Timber Hitch, 
 
 Fig- 5. 
 Timber and Half Hitch. 
 
 Round Turn and Two Half Hitches. 
 
 Hitch. 
 
 Fig. 9. 
 Two Half Hitches. 
 
 Fig. 10. 
 C\ove Hitch, 
 
 BENDING A ROPE TO A POST, SPAR OR RING. 
 
54 KNOTTING AND SPLICING. 
 
 Plate 22. This Plate shows a series of knots which are 
 worked in the end or the body of the rope by unlaying the rope 
 and using its own strands. A whipping is usually put on below 
 the point where the knot is to be. Knots of this kind are some- 
 times used to give a finish to the end of the rope, sometimes to 
 prevent it from unreeving, and sometimes merely for ornamental 
 purposes. 
 
 A Wall-knot. Fig. i. 
 
 A Wall and Crown. Fig. 2. 
 
 A Double Wall and Single Crown. Fig. 3. 
 
 A Double Wall and Double Crown or " Man-rope Knot." Fig. 
 4. Used on the ends of "man-ropes" (trailing-lines over the 
 sides) to give a good hold for a man overboard. 
 
 A Matthew- Walker Knot, double and single. Figs. 5 and 6, 
 7 and 8. 
 
 Whipping the end of a Rope (Figs. 10, 11, 12) to prevent un- 
 laying or fraying out. Lay the end of a length of stout-twine 
 along the rope and pass a number of turns around the rope and 
 over the end of the whipping, hauling each turn taut. Fig. 9. 
 Then lay the other end of the whipping along the rope in the 
 opposite directions from the first end, and pass a number of 
 turns, on the bight, over this end. Fig. 10. Haul the end 
 through and trim off. 
 
 SPLICING. 
 
 There are various forms of splices for joining the ends of two 
 ropes permanently, or for bending back the end of a rope upon 
 itself to form a permanent eye. In making these, when the 
 strands of a rope are to be tucked, the lay of the rope where they 
 go through is opened out by means of a marline-spike, and the 
 strand tucked through once in its full size, then reduced in size 
 by cutting away a certain number of threads, tucked a second 
 time, reduced once more in size and tucked again. It is thus 
 tucked once full size, once two-thirds, and once one-third. This 
 produces a tapered and much neater splice than if it were tucked 
 three times in full size. 
 
Plate No. 22. 
 
 55 
 
 Wall Knot. 
 
 Wall and Crown . DoubleWall and Sinq\eCrown. 
 
 Fig. 5. 
 
 DoubleWall and Double Crown Double Matthew Walker(l) 
 or "Man Rope Knot." 
 
 Single Mcrtthew Walker (2.) 
 
 Fig.6. 
 
 Double Mcrtthew Walker (2.) 
 
 taniard Knot (I) 
 
 Fig.lO F; 9 
 
 Whipping the End of a Rope 
 
 Fig.12 
 
 KNOTS WORKED IN THE END OF A ROPE. 
 
56 KNOTTING AND SPLICING. 
 
 Plate 23. This plate shows splices in Manila or Hemp, and 
 Tools for Splicing. 
 
 An Eye-Splice. Figs. 2, 3 and 4. The rope is unlaid for 
 perhaps a foot from the end, and the strands brought back upon 
 the body of the rope at a point which will form an eye of the 
 size that is wanted. Beginning with any one strand, this is tucked 
 from left to right, through the strands of the rope (which are 
 opened by a spike), being passed over one and under the next. 
 The other two strands are similarly tucked, always from right to 
 left. All three are then trimmed down to two-thirds their ori- 
 ginal size, tucked again, trimmed to one-third size and tucked a 
 third and last time. 
 
 An Eye-Splice in four-stranded rope. Here the first strand is 
 tucked under two ; but this for the first tucking only. 
 
 A Short Splice. Figs. 5, 6 and 7. Two ropes are unlaid for 
 a short distance and married together with strands interlacing 
 (Fig. 5). The strands of each rope are then tucked through the 
 lay of the other rope exactly as has been described in the case 
 of an eye-splice. 
 
 A Long Splice. Figs. 8 and 9. Here the ropes are unlaid 
 for a greater distance than for a short splice and the ends brought 
 together as before, with strands interlacing. Instead now of 
 tucking at once, we proceed as follows: Unlay a : one of the 
 strands of A, for a considerable distance, and in place of it lay 
 up &! the adjoining strand of B, thus working a strand of B into A, 
 for, say, a foot and a half or two feet. For convenience now 
 twist up G! and b : together temporarily, as in Fig. 9. Turn the 
 rope end for end, unlay b 2 one of the strands of B, and in place 
 of it lay up a 2 the adjoining strand of A. a 3 and fr 3 are left lying 
 beside each other without being unlaid. We now have three pairs 
 of strands at different points of the rope. Beginning with a 2 and 
 b 2 (for example) separate each of these strands into two parts, 
 and taking one-half of each strand, overhand knot these together 
 (K, Fig. 9) and tuck them as in a short splice, over one and 
 under one of the full remaining strands in the rope. (M, 
 Fig. 9-) 
 
 The other pairs of strands (cj b t ) (a 2 b 2 ) are similarly re- 
 duced, knotted, and tucked. The spare half of each strand is 
 trimmed off smooth,, as are the ends of the other halves after 
 they have been tucked. 
 
Plate No. 23. 
 
 57 
 
 FIG. 1. 
 TOOLS FOR SPLICING 
 
 FIG. 2. 
 EYE SPLICE (1) 
 
 FIG. 3. EYE SPLICE (2) 
 
 FIG. 4. 
 EYE SPLICE (3) 
 
 'FIG. 5. FIG. 6. FIG. 7. 
 
 SHORT SPLICE (1) SHORT SPLICE(2) SHORT SPLICE(3) 
 
 'a z 
 
 FIG. 9. LONG SPLICE (2) 
 
 SPLICES, HEMP AND MANILA. 
 
58 KNOTTING AND SPLICING. 
 
 WORKING IN WIRE-ROPE. 
 
 As already stated, wire-rope is usually six-stranded, with a 
 hemp heart. In splicing, we may work with the strands sepa- 
 rately or in pairs. The work calls for special appliances and for 
 a degree of skill such as can be acquired only by long practice 
 under expert instruction. Something may be learned from care- 
 ful description, and much more from an occasional visit to a 
 rigging loft; but the facilities which are available on ship-board 
 do not admit of doing such work as is possible with a rigger's 
 bench, a turning-in machine, etc. Where a heavy rope is to be 
 bent around a thimble or the parts otherwise brought together for 
 splicing or seizing, a rigger's-screw is needed. In the absence 
 of this, a vise may be used, but less conveniently. 
 
 In tucking the strands of a splice, the lay of .the rope is opened 
 out and the spike left in, holding the strands apart, until the tuck 
 has been made. For dragging the strands through, a jigger is 
 used on each one, the body of the rope being held by another jig- 
 ger or a lashing. After a tuck, the parts of the ropes are ham- 
 mered down tightly upon each other. Wire-cutters are used for 
 cutting off ends. 
 
 PLATE 24. A Long Splice in Wire. Figs, i and 2. Put on a 
 good seizing six to ten feet according to the size of .the rope 
 from the end of one of the ropes to be spliced, and a similar seiz- 
 ing one to two feet from the end of the other rope. Unlay, open 
 out the strands, cut out the heart, and marry the ends together 
 with strands interlacing. Cut the seizing on the short end. 
 Unlay one of the short strands, following it up in the same lay 
 with the opposite long strand, leaving end enough to .tuck. Con- 
 tinue in the same manner with the remaining strands, except as 
 to the distance to which they are laid up, this distance being 
 varied in such a way as to leave the successive pairs an equal 
 distance apart, as shown in Fig. 2. Commencing with any two 
 strands, half knot them together (full size), then divide each 
 into three parts, and tuck these parts separately as shown ; or, 
 cut out a few inches of the heart and insert the ends of the 
 strands in its place in the centre of the rope. When a splice is to 
 be served, the latter way of finishing it off answers very well. 
 
 Second Method (Figs. 3 and 4). Will be clear from Plate. 
 
Plate No. 24. 
 
 59 
 
 Fig.1. 
 
 I** Method, 
 long Splice in Wi re Rope.0) 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 ^Method. 
 longSplicein Wire Rope. (2) 
 
 
 Rg.3. 
 
 ^^Aeth 
 Long Splice in Wire. 
 
 
 FigA 
 
 2^ Method, 
 long Splice in Wire. 
 
 LONG SPLICE m W\RE. 
 
60 KNOTTING AND SPLICING. 
 
 PLATE 25. A Short Splice in Wire. Fig. i. Put on a good 
 seizing two or three feet according to the size of the rope 
 from the end of one of the ropes to be spliced, and a similar seiz- 
 ing one or two feet from the end of the other rope. Unlay the 
 ends" and open out the strands, cutting out the heart close to the 
 seizings. Marry them together and clap on a temporary seizing 
 around the short ends and the body of the rope, to hold the parts 
 close together. Commencing with any one of the long strands, 
 tuck each in succession over one and under two strands, opening 
 out the lay with a spike. Tuck the remaining strands in the 
 same manner; twice whole strands, once one-half, and once 
 one-quarter, hauling through with a jigger each time. Then 
 turn the splice around, cutting the temporary seizing on the short 
 ends, and tuck the short strands once one-half and once one- 
 quarter, heaving them through with a jigger. Hammer down 
 all parts and trim off the ends. 
 
 An Eye-splice in Wire. Fig. 2. Get the rope on a stretch, 
 allow from 18 to 24 inches from the end for splicing, and put 
 on a mark with a couple of turns of twine. Measure along the 
 rope from this mark the length of the eye (once and one-half 
 the round of the thimble) and put on another similar mark. 
 Paint with red lead, worm, parcel, paint again, and double-serve 
 between the marks. Now come up the stretch and seize the 
 thimble in, breaking the rope around by the rigger's-screw and 
 putting on a good racking seizing around both parts. Come up 
 the screw, unlay the end of the wire, and cut out the heart close 
 to the service. Now, with the thimble toward you, counting 
 from right to left I, 2, 3, etc., stick No. 4 strand from right to 
 left under the upper strands of the rope just clear of the service, 
 opening the strands by a spike. Haul through by hand. In the 
 same manner under two and over one strand tuck the remain- 
 ing strands, in the following order: 3, 5, 2, 6, I. Now, commenc- 
 ing with any strand, tuck again whole and haul through by means 
 of a jigger. Hammer the strands down in place, cut each strand 
 down to one-half size and tuck again, hauling through with a 
 jigger as, before. Cut the strands down to one-quarter and tuck 
 again. Hammer down all strands -and cut off the wire with a 
 wire-cutter. 
 
Plate No. 25. 
 
 61 
 
 ig. l 
 
 A Short Splice in.Wire 
 
 5th 
 
 Fiq.Z 
 An Eye -Splice in Wire 
 
 Round Seizing 
 
 Fig.4 
 Round Sfeizincj 
 
 Fig.5 
 
 Round Seizing Crossed 
 Clove Hitch Finish 
 
 Fig.6 . 
 
 Rackmg Sei^ng Racking Seizing 
 
 . 
 Throat Seizing 
 
 Parcelling-' ^ .^ Serving; 
 
 Fig.10 Worming, Parcelling and Serving 
 
 SPLICES SEIZINGS. 
 
62 KNOTTING AND SPLICING. 
 
 Figs. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8. Seizings for binding together two ropes 
 or two parts of the same rope. The manner of passing them is 
 made clear by the figures. With heavy ropes, the parts must be 
 hove together by power of some kind, such as a Spanish Wind- 
 lass, a rigger's-screw, or a turning-ill machine. 
 
 Worming, Parcelling, and Serving. Fig. 10. Rope which is to 
 be exposed to the weather or to exceptionally hard usage is pro- 
 tected by worming, parcelling, and serving. 
 
 Worming consists in following the " lay " of the rope, between 
 the strands, with small-stuff, tarred, which keeps moisture from 
 penetrating to the interior of the rope, and at the same time 
 fills out the round of the rope, giving a smooth surface for the 
 parcelling and serving. 
 
 Parcelling consists in wrapping the rope spirally with long 
 strips of canvas, following the lay of the rope, and overlapping 
 like the shingles on a roof to shed moisture. 
 
 Serving consists in wrapping small-stuff snugly over the par- 
 celling", each turn being hove taut as possible so that the whole 
 forms a stiff protecting cover for the rope. A " serving-mallet " 
 is used for passing the turns, each turn being hove taut by the 
 leverage of the handle as illustrated in Plate 25, fig. 9. 
 
 Fig. 9. A Spanish Windlass, for drawing two taut ropes 
 together. 
 
 PLATE 26. Appliances for use with Wire Rope. Most of the, 
 appliances for use with wire rope are designed to provide some 
 sort of an eye on the end of the rope, by which it can be connected 
 with another rope or with a tackle, or otherwise secured. Plate 
 26 illustrates a number of these. It will be seen that any two 
 of the ends shown can be joined together, either directly or by 
 the aid of a shackle. Fig. 2 shows a handy clip and the manner 
 of applying it. These clips, when made of drop-forged steel and 
 properly applied, are little if at all inferior to a splice. And 
 they can be applied in a few moments where a splice would take 
 as many hours. In the emergencies which sometimes arise on 
 shipboard, as in handling anchors, taking a vessel in tow, etc., 
 when an eye is needed in a hawser and there is not time to make a 
 splice, these clips would be invaluable. They can be removed as 
 quickly as they are applied, breaking down the eye at once. 
 
 A set of these in sizes to fit any hawser on board might well 
 
Plate No. 26, 
 
 FIG. 1 
 THIMBLE EYE, SPLICED AND SERVED 
 
 FIG. 2 
 THIMBLE EYE WITH WIRE ROPE CUPS 
 
 FIG. 3 
 OPEN END SOCKET 
 
 FIG. 4 
 CLOSED END SOCKET 
 
 FIG. 5 
 SHACKLE 
 
 FIG. 6 
 HOOK AND THIMBLE 
 
 FIG. 7 
 TURNBUCKLE 
 
 FIG. 8 
 JOINING THE ENDS OF ROPE 
 
 APPLIANCES FOR USE WITH WIRE ROPE. 
 
64 KNOTTING AND SPLICING. 
 
 be issued to all ships. Note that the U-bolt is always applied to 
 the " dead " end of the rope. 
 
 The socket shown in Figs. 3 and 4 is the strongest attachment 
 known for use on the end of a wire rope. The interior of the 
 base of the socket is coned and the bare end of the rope is bedded 
 in and sealed with molten zinc, which forms a head that holds 
 without distortion of the wires. 
 
(65) 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 MECHANICAL APPLIANCES ON SHIP-BOARD. 
 
 The successful use of mechanical appliances on ship-board 
 calls for a familiarity with certain elementary principles of me- 
 chanics which may thus be properly regarded as a part of Sea- 
 manship. 
 
 From this point of view they will be treated here as pre- 
 liminary to the handling of heavy weights. 
 
 The popular conception of forces and of the manner of meas- 
 uring them may be accepted as sufficiently exact for our present 
 purpose. 
 
 THE COMPOSITION AND RESOLUTION OF FORCES. 
 
 For every force acting upon a body there is a certain " line 
 of action " along which it tends to move this body. If several 
 forces act upon the same body at the same time, the total effect 
 produced will be, both in magnitude and in direction, a combi- 
 nation of the effects of the individual forces ; and it is found that 
 we may substitute for any such combination of forces, a single 
 force of definite magnitude and direction; and that the magni- 
 tude and direction of this " resultant force " as it is called, may 
 be deduced from the original forces by a very simple construc- 
 tion. 
 
 The derivation of a single resultant from several distinct 
 forces is called " The Composition of Forces." 
 
 It is found also that we may reverse the above process, and, 
 from a single given force, find two or more forces acting along 
 given lines which may be substituted for the one original force 
 without any change in the effect produced. This process is 
 called " The Resolution of Forces " ; and the forces resulting 
 from it are " components " of the original force from which 
 they are derived. In discussing these principles and applying 
 them to practical problems, we may conveniently denote a force 
 by a line of a certain length, the number of units of length taken 
 
66 MECHANICAL APPLIANCES ON SHIP-BOARD. 
 
 being equal to the number of units of force to be represented. 
 Thus a force of 5 tons may be denoted by a line five units in 
 length; the units being feet, inches, tenths of inches, or any- 
 thing else that we like to use. The scale is merely a matter of 
 convenience, but the same scale must of course be used in all 
 parts of the same problem. 
 
 We proceed to illustrate the Resolution and Composition of 
 Forces. 
 
 In Fig. i, Plate 27, suppose OA and OB to represent two 
 forces acting along the lines o x and o Y, and suppose it is desired 
 to find a single force which may replace these without change in 
 effect upon o. We construct the parallelogram A o B c and draw 
 the diagonal o c. This diagonal represents, in direction and in 
 length, the desired resultant ; its length being measured, of 
 course, in the same units that have been used in laying off o A 
 and o B. In this case, if o A = 6 tons and o B = 9 tons, o c, the 
 resultant = 13 tons. That is to say, a force of 13 tons acting 
 along o z, will produce exactly the same effect as six tons acting 
 along ox and nine tons acting along OY. If we have to deal 
 with three or more original forces, we may couple two of them 
 and find a resultant, then couple this resultant with another one 
 of the original forces and proceed as before to find the resultant 
 of these, and so on. 
 
 It is clear that, by reversing the above process, we may re- 
 solve a single given force into two or more others acting along 
 certain lines. Having given 13 tons acting along oz, suppose 
 we are called upon to find two forces which, acting along o x and 
 OY, shall be equivalent to this original force. As before, we 
 construct the parallelogram A o B c. Then the sides o A and 
 o B represent by their lengths the forces which, acting in these 
 two directions, are equivalent to o c. o A is found to be 6 tons 
 and OB, 9 tons. Similarly in Fig. 2, suppose we have a force 
 denoted by the length of o c acting along o z, and wish to re- 
 solve this along the lines ox and OY, making angles of 45 
 and 60 with o z. Constructing the parallelogram o B c A as 
 before, we have the lengths o A = 4% tons, and o B = 5^ tons, 
 for the forces required. 
 
 Evidently, if a point is at rest, the forces acting upon it must 
 balance each other. Consider the case illustrated in Fig. I, 
 Plate 28, of a weight suspended from a boom, the heel of which 
 
Plate No. 27. 
 
 9 tons 
 
 Fig. 2 
 
 THE COMPOSITION AND RESOLUTION OF FORCES. 
 
68 MECHANICAL APPLIANCES ON SHIP-BOARD. 
 
 is attached to the mast while the other end is supported by a 
 topping-lift from the masthead. The forces acting here are the 
 downward pull of the weight, the tension on the lift, and the 
 resistance of .the boom to compression (Fig. 2, Plate 28). As 
 the point o remains at rest, these forces must balance each 
 other; that is to say, each force considered by itself must be 
 balanced in magnitude and direction by the resultant of the other 
 two forces. If this were not so, motion would result. Suppose 
 we wish to find the tension on the topping-lift. We lay off o c 
 on any convenient scale to represent the downward pull of the 
 weight, and on oc as a diagonal, construct the parallelogram 
 
 B c A (Fig. I, a), o A is the measure of the tension on the top- 
 ping-lift, and o B that of the thrust along the boom. If the weight 
 is 9 tons, o A is 6^4 tons and o B is 4^2 tons. 
 
 There follows from the above a simple and convenient rule 
 for determining the relative stresses on the various parts of the 
 system from a simple comparison of their relative lengths. The 
 sides of the triangle o A c are parallel to the sides of the triangle 
 formed by the mast, the boom, and the topping-lift. 
 
 These two are therefore " similar " triangles in the geometrical 
 sense of the term, and it follows that the same relations exist 
 between the sides of one of them as between the corresponding 
 sides of the other ; that is to say, the side o A, which represents 
 the tension on the topping-lift, is the same proportion of o c, the 
 downward pull of w, that the length of the topping-lift is of the 
 length of the mast. From which we have the convenient rule 
 expressed by the following proportion. 
 
 Tension on Topping-lift _ Length of Topping-lift 
 Weight Length of Mast 
 
 If the boom is stepped at a distance from the mast, this rule 
 may be applied by prolonging the line of the boom until it inter- 
 sects the mast, and using in calculation, the lengths given by 
 this construction (Fig. 5, Plate 28). 
 
 Similarly we may deduce the rule: 
 
 Thrust on boom _ Length of boom 
 Weight " Length of mast 
 
 It will be understood that the lengths given above for mast 
 and boom are those actually included in the triangles of Figs. 
 
 1 and 5. 
 
Plate No. 28. 
 
 69 
 
 Length of mast -30 feet 
 Length of llft-22% feet 
 
 \ft Length of lift- 22^ 
 Weight = Length of mast 30 
 Tension on lift -6 % tons 
 
 THE COMPOSITION AND RESOLUTION OF FORCES 
 APPLIED TO A DERRICK. 
 
7O MECHANICAL APPLIANCES ON SHIP-BOARD. 
 
 This leads to a further important deduction with regard to 
 the most favorable relation between the mast, the boom, and the 
 topping-lift, as follows : 
 
 For a fixed length of mast and boom, we cannot change the 
 thrust on the boom by any change in its angle ; but we may vary 
 the tension on the topping-lift within wide limits. Since this 
 tension depends upon the length of the topping-lift, it grows 
 less and less as the boom is topped up, becoming a minimum 
 when the boom is as nearly vertical as it can be made. It is, 
 at this point, very much less than the tension on o w due to the 
 direct downward pull of the weight; but if we lower the boom 
 toward the horizontal we presently reach an angle, depending 
 upon the length of the boom, at which the length of the lift is 
 equal to the length of the mast. At this point, then, the ten- 
 sion on the lift is equal to that along o w. If we lower still 
 further, the tension on the lift increases beyond that on o w and 
 may become very much in excess of it. For a given length of 
 mast and boom, then, the more nearly vertical the boom can be 
 used the better. If we are at liberty to vary the length of the 
 mast and boom to attain a given reach, we shall find that a short 
 boom, nearly level, gives a minimum strain on the boom and a 
 maximum strain on the lift ; while a long boom, well topped-up, 
 gives a maximum strain on the boom and a minimum strain on 
 the lift. 
 
 Suppose the boom is half as long as the mast. The thrust 
 on it will be one-half the weight, no matter what the angle of 
 the boom may be. The tension on the topping-lift will be about 
 i l /4 times the weight when the boom is level, and rather less 
 than 24 of the weight when the boom is topped up to 45. 
 
 The practical conclusion from this is that if we are called upon 
 to rig a derrick we should consider carefully the relative trust- 
 worthiness of the materials with which we have to work. If we 
 have a topping-lift which is abundantly strong, to be used with 
 a boom about which we are not so sure, it is w^ll to make the 
 boom as short as possible and keep it nearly level. If on the 
 other hand the boom and its fastenings are known to be safe but 
 the topping-lift is not entirely satisfactory, we should use the 
 full length of the boom (or choose a longer one if we have a 
 choice) and top it up as far as possible, to give the required 
 reach. If the reach is such that a long boom must be used and 
 
MECHANICAL APPLIANCES ON SHIP-BOARD. 71 
 
 kept nearly level, we have the maximum of unfavorable con- 
 ditions as regards both boom and lift. In this case all .that we 
 can do is to lead the lift from a point as far up the mast as is 
 practicable. This increases the absolute length of the lift, but 
 decreases its relative length as compared with the mast; and, 
 as we have seen, it is the relative and not the absolute length 
 that determines the proportion of strain to be borne by the lift. 
 
 This case of a long boom nearly level is the ordinary one 
 of a lower yard used for handling weights. 
 
 If the weight is suspended from the boom (or yard) outside 
 or inside of the point at which the lift or burton is made fast, 
 the situation is somewhat modified, as will be explained in con- 
 nection with the Lever. 
 
 If we wish to find .the tension on the guys or shrouds sup- 
 porting the mast, we start with the tension on the lift, and re- 
 solve this along the lines of the guy and the mast, exactly as 
 we have already resolved the downward pull of the weight 
 along the line of the boom and the lift. In Fig. I, b, Plate 25, 
 the tension on the guys is found by this method. In the par- 
 ticular case there illustrated it proves to be 4^ tons. If we 
 vary the lead of the guy, we shall find that, by bringing it closer 
 to the mast, as in Fig. 3, we increase the tension on it, exactly 
 as we do in the case of the topping-lift when we bring this down 
 the mast and make it fast only a little distance above the heel 
 of the boom. 
 
 If there are two guys (or shrouds) in use, we have only to 
 resolve the tension above found for a single guy along the lines 
 of the two which replace it, as in Fig. 4. In this particular case, 
 assuming the angle between the guys to be 40, we find the 
 tension on each to be 2 1 /^ tons. 
 
 There is an important difference between the case in which 
 the derrick is used with a fixed elevation and that in which it is 
 to be topped up or lowered with the weight hanging from it. 
 In the first case, the only demand upon the parts of the topping- 
 lift is that arising from the downward pull of the weight, this 
 pull being resolved along the line of the topping-lift as above 
 described. In the second case, there is added to this an im- 
 portant percentage due to the resistance of friction, as is ex- 
 plained in the Chapter on Tackles. 
 
 (See Practical Examples at the end of Chapters VI and VII.) 
 
72 MECHANICAL APPLIANCES ON SHIP-BOARD. 
 
 THE SPAN. 
 
 As another practical example of the resolution and composi- 
 tion of forces, we may consider the Span (Plate 29). 
 
 Suppose first that this is rigged between two masts for plumb- 
 ing a hatch. If the two parts of the span make equal angles 
 with the vertical, they will bear equal strains ; otherwise the 
 one which hangs more nearly vertical takes the greater strain. 
 In Fig. I, if .the length oc represents the number of units of 
 force in the downward pull of w, we find the tension on the two 
 parts of the span by constructing the parallelogram of forces as 
 in the cases already considered ; o A giving the tension on one 
 part and o B that on the other. It will be noted that if the parts 
 of the span are opened out, increasing the angle A o B, as in Fig. 
 2, the parallelogram is flattened out, with a rapid increase in the 
 length of the sides which represent tensions on .the parts ; whereas 
 if they are brought together, as in Fig. 3, the tensions indicated 
 on the parts are reduced. When the angle of the span is 120, 
 the tension each part is equal to .the direct downward pull of the 
 weight ; or, in other words, the span is just equal in strength to 
 the single part o w. If the angle is reduced below 120, the 
 tension on each part decreases, until, when they are parallel, they 
 divide between them the total tension due to the weight; in 
 other words, the two parts are now twice as strong as .the single 
 part ow. On the other hand, as the parts open out beyond 120, 
 the essential weakness of the span becomes more and more ap- 
 parent, the tension on the parts increasing enormously as the 
 angle between them approaches 180. 
 
 ^ It is evident from the above that the use of a span is objec- 
 tionable unless the angle between the parts can be made small ; 
 and that in any case where it is to be used, the higher up the 
 masts the parts can be made fast, the better. 
 
 A familiar example of a span is furnished by the cables of a 
 vessel moored and riding with an open hawse. If in Fig. 4, 
 Plate 29, the parts of the span represent the. cables of such a 
 vessel, making an angle of I7 o with each other, it can be shown 
 that for a force of 10 tons acting along the keel line, we have a 
 tension of 57.3 tons on each cable. In other words, two cables 
 1 in this way are only about one-sixth part as strong as one 
 cable laid out ahead. (See Chapter on Ground Tackle.) 
 
Plate No. 29. 
 
 73 
 
 Fig- 1 
 
 Fig. 2 
 
 Fig. 3 
 
 THE COMPOSITION AND RESOLUTION OF FORCES. 
 
 Anni \t-r\ ~rr\ A 
 
74 
 
 MECHANICAL APPLIANCES ON SHIP-BOARD. 
 
 THE LEVER. 
 
 Another important principle of Mechanics which is involved 
 in work on ship-board is that of the Lever. 
 
 A lever is a rigid bar movable about a fixed point called the 
 " fulcrum." 
 
 It is a matter of every-day experience that two equal forces 
 applied at equal distances from the fulcrum of a lever will bal- 
 ance; and that a small force applied at a considerable distance 
 on one side will balance a greater force applied at a shorter dis- 
 tance on the other side. We have here illustrated, the principle 
 of the lever; or, as it is sometimes called, the Principle of Mo- 
 ments ; a " moment," in the mechanical sense, being the product 
 of a force acting on a lever multiplied by .the length of the arm 
 with which it acts. 
 
 The Principle of Moments is expressed in the following state- 
 ments. 
 
 ist. The tendency of a force to produce motion about an 
 axis is measured not by the magnitude of the force alone, but 
 by the product of the force into the distance of its line of action 
 from the axis. 
 
 2d. If any system remains at rest, the sum of the moments 
 tending to turn it in any direction about any axis must be equal 
 to the sum of the moments tending to. turn it in the opposite 
 direction about the same axis. 
 
 In Fig. i, Plate 30, the moments of the forces opposed to each 
 other are respectively 4 X 100 foot-lbs. and 2 X 200 foot-lbs. ; 
 and as these balance, the system remains at rest. 
 
 It is by creating a difference between opposing moments that 
 force is multiplied by means of a lever ; a small force being ap- 
 plied with a long arm to overcome a large force acting with a 
 short arm. 
 
 It should be noted that the forces whose moments are opposed 
 to each other may act on opposite sides of the fulcrum, as in 
 Fig. i or on the same side, as in Fig. 2. 
 
 Perhaps the most familiar example of a lever on ship-board is 
 the old-fashioned capstan (Fig. 3), the principle of which is pre- 
 served in the winches and windlasses of modern steamers. An- 
 other example of the lever, though one not always thought of as 
 such, is the sheave of a block turning upon a pin by the tension 
 
Plate No. 30. 
 
 75 
 
 .Fulcrum 
 
 
 2 feet 
 
 4 feet 
 
 200 
 
 /6s. ... ">* 
 
 Fig. 1 
 
 Fig. 2 
 
 Fig. 3 
 
 Fig. 4 
 
 Pouter 
 
 THE LEVER 
 
7 6 MECHANICAL APPLIANCES ON SHIP-BOARD. 
 
 of a rope passing over its periphery (Fig. 4). Here the friction 
 between the sheave and the pin constitutes a force opposing the 
 tension of the rope, and we have two moments as indicated in the 
 figure. This is (in part) the reason for the rule that sheaves 
 should be as large as is conveniently practicable. 
 
 The principle of the lever is involved in all cases where a 
 force is applied to a rigid body at a point other than the point 
 of support ; as for example, in the case of a weight suspended 
 from a yard or a derrick at a point inside or outside the lift or 
 burton. In Fig. 5 the weight is hung inside the lift and the 
 downward pull is divided between the lift and the truss. To 
 find the tension borne by each, we must apply the principle of 
 moments. Considering the axis of the system as at c (the truss), 
 we have for our equation of moments ap = bit, where a and b 
 are the two arms, p the downward pull of the weight, and T the 
 tension on the lift. 
 
 If the weight is suspended outside the lift, as in Fig. 6, the 
 equation is, as before, ap = br ; and since in this case a is greater 
 than before, while p and b are unchanged, it follows that T must 
 be greater than before. That is to say, the farther out on the 
 yard a weight is hung, the greater the resulting tension on the 
 lift. 
 
 THE TACKLE. 
 
 There is no mechanical appliance of greater importance than 
 the tackle, but as this is fully treated in the next Chapter, it will 
 be omitted here. 
 
 It is important to note that in all mechanical appliances by 
 which power is multiplied/ the gain in power is purchased by a 
 proportional sacrifice of speed. Thus in the capstan (Plate 30), 
 the power applied at A is multiplied five times at B, but B moves 
 only one fifth as fast as A. So in a tackle, as will be explained 
 hereafter. And so in all cases where power is multiplied. 
 
 In all cases where yards, derricks, tackles, etc., are used for 
 handling weights, it must not be overlooked that the weights of 
 the spars, blocks, ropes, etc., are to be reckoned with in our calcu- 
 lations ; the weight of each of these constituting a downward 
 force acting at its individual centre of gravity. 
 
(77) 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 BLOCKS AND TACKLES. 
 
 (Plates 31 and 32.) 
 
 1. BLOCKS. 
 
 A " Block/' in the nautical sense, consists of a frame of wood 
 or metal within which are fitted one or more sheaves or pulleys 
 over which a rope may be led for convenience in applying power. 
 If the block is properly used, it multiplies the power as explained 
 in connection with Tackles. ( II.) 
 
 As a rule, blocks are built up of several pieces of wood or 
 metal riveted or bolted together. 
 
 Sheaves may be of metal or lignum-vitse. If of the latter, 
 their bearings are boushed with metal. 
 
 The swallow of the block is the space between the sheave and 
 the frame, through which the rope passes. The side pieces of 
 the frame are the cheeks, and the end of the block opposite the 
 swallow is the breech. 
 
 A score is cut around the outside of the block to take the strap, 
 which may be of wire rope or of wrought iron or steel. A hook 
 or shackle is usually attached to the strap at one end of the block. 
 The friction of a sheave upon the pin is an important factor in 
 the efficiency of the block, as all power expended in overcoming 
 this friction is wasted. For this reason blocks are often fitted 
 with rollers or balls in the bearings for the pins. 
 
 The subject of friction will be treated at considerable length under the 
 head of tackles, where it will be shown that a large sheave is essential for 
 efficiency, and that the swallow should be large enough to prevent the rope 
 from touching any part of the block except the sheave. 
 
 Special types of blocks are made for use with wire-rope. 
 
 Blocks take their names from the purposes for which they are 
 used, the places which they occupy, or from some peculiarity in 
 their shape or construction. They are further designated as 
 single, double, treble, and four-fold, according to the number of 
 their sheaves. 
 
7 g BLOCKS AND TACKLES. 
 
 Various types of blocks are illustrated in Plates 31, 32, 33 
 
 [ Snatch-blocks are single iron-bound blocks, hooking to bolts 
 on the deck to give a fair lead for boat-falls, topsail halliards, etc. 
 The frame and strap are cut and hinged in such a way as to 
 admit of " snatching " the fall, on the- bight. 
 
 Gin-blocks, or gins, are iron pulleys (single) of large diameter, 
 mounted in skeleton frames also of iron. Used chiefly for hoist- 
 ing cargo, commonly with a wire-rope pendant. 
 
 Strapping Blocks. Rope is very little used on modern ships 
 for strapping blocks, but wire-rope may sometimes be used with 
 advantage, as being more reliable for a given calculated strength, 
 than the iron work usually fitted. There is an especial advantage 
 in this where very heavy weights are to be dealt with. For such 
 work, a strap fitted with long lashing-eyes is recommended. 
 Plate 35. 
 
 As to the strength of blocks, see IV of this chapter. 
 
 11. TACKLES. 
 
 A combination of ropes and blocks for the purpose of multi- 
 plying power constitutes a tackle. 
 
 If we reeve a rope through a fixed block and apply power at 
 one end to lift a weight at the other, we have a " Single whip," 
 which is usually classed as a tackle, but gives no gain of power. 
 If the block instead of being fixed is attached to the weight t< 
 be lifted, and one end of the rope made fast while power is 
 applied to the other end, we have a tackle proper in its simplest 
 form. Here (disregarding friction) the power applied to ttu 
 hauling part is doubled at the movable block because it is trans- 
 mitted around the sheave and so acts along both parts upon the 
 mass to be moved. In the same way, the tension may be trans- 
 mitted around any number of sheaves with a gain of power at 
 each sheave of the movable block. 
 
 It should be noted that the tension is transmitted around the sheave of a 
 fixed block exactly as it is around that of a movable one ; but with no other 
 effect in the case of the fixed block than to increase the pull upon the block 
 and its supports. This point is often overlooked, but it is very important. 
 If a weight of 100 Ibs. is hanging from a yard-arm by a single whip with 
 both ends made fast to the weight, the pull on the yard-arm is 100 Ibs. If 
 now we leave the weight hanging by one part of the whip and man the 
 other part, or hold on to it, or make it fast to some other point than the 
 weight, the pull on the yard is 200 Ibs. The same point comes in with all 
 
Plate No. 31 
 
 79 
 
8o 
 
 Plate No. 32. 
 
 I sis si 8 21 a ?* 
 
Plate No. 33. 
 
 81 
 
 Standing Part 
 red to 
 
 \\ Orommet 
 with Sheet 
 Bend. 
 
 intoStnap. 
 
 Fig.l. 
 SingleWhip. 
 
 ARunneror 
 SingleWhip Reversed. fjg.3. 
 
 Gun Tackle 
 Purchase. 
 
 Bowline 
 
 Fig.4. 
 Luff Tackle. 
 
 Fig. 5. 
 
 Cask Slung with the End 
 of a Single Whip. 
 
 Cask Slungwitfi Can Hooks. 
 
 TACKLES IN USE. 
 
82 
 
 Plate No. 34. 
 
 
Plate No. 35. 
 
 Iron 
 Plate 
 
 Shears 
 Supported 
 byGuys. 
 
 SHEARS WITH DOUBLE THREE-FOLD PURCHASE FOR 
 
 HANDLING HEAVY WEIGHT. 
 
 NOTE. The rope straps shown in use for very heavy work should pref- 
 erably be of wire. Even where iron-strapped-blocks are available they are 
 less reliable than if strapped with wire rope, though they are, of course, 
 more convenient. 
 
8 4 
 
 BLOCKS AND TACKLES. 
 
 purchases, but with less proportionate effect. If we have to find the tension 
 on a yard or derrick to which a fixed block is made fast, we must add the 
 tension on the hauling part to the direct downward pull of the weight. 
 
 Evidently, if we could neglect friction, we should have the 
 simple rule that the power at the movable block is to the power 
 on the hauling part, as the number of parts at .the movable block 
 is to one ; but in practice this rule is modified by the work 
 absorbed each time the rope passes over a sheave. This work is 
 accounted for principally by the friction of the sheave upon its 
 pin ; but the bending of .the rope around the sheave with the ac- 
 companying deformation of the fibres counts for something, and 
 in wire-rope may be an important part of the total loss. 
 
 The stiffer the rope, the greater the loss from this source. 
 
 It results from .this loss of power in passing around the sheaves 
 that the tension on the successive parts of the fall grows less and 
 less as we advance from the hauling toward the standing part 
 and that the effective power of the tackle must be found by sub- 
 tracting from the theoretical power, the proportion wastefully 
 absorbed as above described. This proportion varies within wide 
 limits ; but it is always larger than is commonly supposed, in- 
 creasing with the speed of working and with a decrease in the 
 diameter of the sheave. It is reduced by low speed, and by the 
 use of flexible rope and well-made patent blocks, having sheaves 
 of large diameter as compared with the ropes they are to carry 
 and kept in good order by frequent overhauling. If the rope 
 touches the side of the block there is introduced a wholly un- 
 necessary amount of friction with corresponding waste of power. 
 
 A small sheave, in addition to wasting power and increasing the wear 
 upon the rope, introduces a direct and often fatal source of weakness by 
 the difference in tension which it puts upon the successive layers of fibre 
 from the inside to the outside of the bend, the outer layers being sub- 
 jected to extreme tension while the inner ones are actually compressed. 
 The result is that the outer layers give way and are followed by the others 
 in succession toward the inside. This is the explanation also of the weak- 
 ness in a sharp nip of any kind, whether due to a splice, a hitch, a bad lead 
 or .a bend around a pin or post. 
 
 Observe that whereas in hoisting, the maximum tension comes 
 on the hauling part, in lowering, it comes on the standing part. 
 
 If the system is at rest, friction will tend to keep it at rest and 
 
BLOCKS AND TACKLES. 85 
 
 will reduce the power needed at either end to maintain equilib- 
 rium. Thus if we have a mass of 800 Ibs. hanging from the 
 lower block of a two-fold purchase, we should require 200 Ibs. 
 on the hauling part to maintain equilibrium if there were no 
 friction ; but since in practice there is and must be friction, we 
 shall be able to prevent motion by much less than 200 Ibs. As 
 an extreme case, we may imagine the friction so great that 
 nothing is needed on the hauling part to prevent the lower block 
 from moving ; the weight of 800 Ibs. not being sufficient to 
 " overhaul " the tackle. Similarly a mass of 200 Ibs. on the haul- 
 ing part may be held at rest by much less than 800 Ibs. on the 
 lower block, the friction acting as before to prevent motion. 
 
 If we attempt, as a matter of convenience, to assign an ap- 
 proximate numerical value to the loss by friction, we shall find 
 it convenient to represent this loss as a percentage added to the 
 load; and experience shows that it is a safe general rule to in- 
 crease the load by 10 per cent for each sheave over which .the 
 fall leads and then to consider that this increased load is being 
 lifted by a frictionless purchase. Accordingly, to find the power 
 required on the hauling part, or (what is the same thing) the 
 maximum tension on the rope, we add the percentage for fric- 
 tion as above, and divide by the number of parts at the movable 
 block. (See IV.) 
 
 No attempt is made, in the above " Rule-of-Thumb," to take account of 
 variations in speed due to variations in power applied, or of the fact that 
 friction increases with the speed. The rule is for average working condi- 
 tions, and includes a sufficient margin of safety to cover all practical cases. 
 
 It will be clear from the preceding that much power is wasted 
 where the hauling part of a purchase is taken through an extra 
 (fixed) sheave merely to give a fair lead. A familiar case of 
 this is that in which a fall leading from aloft is taken through 
 a block on deck to be manned or led to a winch. Such leads are 
 often unavoidable ; and even where net so, the gain in conven- 
 ience may more than offset the loss of power ; but it must not be 
 forgotten that this loss of power is considerable. The same 
 reasoning applies to an unnecessary sheave in the fixed block of a 
 purchase, which has of course the same effect as an unnecessary 
 sheave anywhere else. 
 
 If one tackle is attached to the hauling part of another, the 
 power of the combination is the product, not the sum, of the 
 powers of the tackles composing it. 
 
g BLOCKS AND TACKLES. 
 
 It is important to observe .that in tackles as in all other me- 
 chanical appliances, " what is gained in power is lost in speed/' 
 This is clearly brought out by a comparison of Figs. I and 2 of 
 Plate 32. In Fig. I, a single whip, if the hauling part moves 
 through one foot, the weight at the other end moves through the 
 same distance. Both space and power are equal at the two ends 
 of the rope. In Fig. 2, a runner, the power is doubled at the 
 block, but the block moves through only half the distance mover! 
 by the hauling part. And so at every sheave of a movable block. 
 If the power is multiplied six times, as by a three-fold block, the 
 hauling part must move through six feet to move the block one 
 foot. This may be a very important point where space is limited. 
 Tackles are of value not only as multiplying power but as 
 applying the power more smoothly and uniformly. So, too, in 
 easing away, they prevent the surging which is almost unavoid- 
 able with a single part, and at the same time make it possible to 
 lower more slowly and with much more exactness ; since, as has 
 been explained, the motion at the block of a purchase is only a 
 fractional part of what is given on the fall. The greater the 
 number of parts to the tackle, the greater the gain in this respect 
 as well as in the power. 
 
 For heavy work with a three- or four-fold purchase, it is well 
 to reeve the fall with the hauling part leading from the middle 
 sheaves of the blocks instead of from the outer ones. This in- 
 volves a turn in the parts,, but reduces the tendency of the 
 block to cant. The hauling part of a tackle should be kept as 
 nearly as possible parallel to the other parts. A divergence from 
 this line means a loss of power. 
 
 As the power of a tackle depends upon the number of parts 
 at the movable block, we have the rule that whenever circum- 
 stances permit, the block having the greater number of parts 
 or in other words, the block from which the hauling part leads 
 should be attached to the weight to be moved. This rule is 
 often disregarded because it is usually impracticable to take the 
 hauling part from the lower block directly to the winch ; and the 
 most natural way of giving it a lead from the derrick-head is to 
 place there the block of the tackle from which this part leads. 
 A better plan is to let the hauling part come from the lower 
 block, and to take it up through an independent leading block 
 at the derrick-head ; thus preserving the full power of the tackle. 
 
BLOCKS AND TACKLES. 87 
 
 In many cases it is necessary to use still another leader at the 
 heel of the derrick. 
 
 111. 
 
 Tackles as used on shipboard may be designated either accord- 
 ing to the number of sheaves in their blocks ; as, single, double, 
 three-fold, etc. ; or according to the purpose for which they are 
 used ; as, Yard-tackles, Stay-tackles, Fore-and-aft-tackles, etc. 
 Still other designations, not so easily accounted for, are luff- 
 tackles, gun-tackles, Spanish-burtons, etc. 
 
 Tackles are almost invariably rove of manila rope. 
 
 Plate 32 shows various forms of tackles with the theoretical 
 gain in power due to each and the approximate actual gain when 
 friction is taken into account. Plates 33 and 34 illustrate certain 
 common applications of tackles on shipboard. 
 
 A Single-whip (Fig. i, Plate 32). A single block, fixed. 
 
 A Runner (Fig. 2, Plate 32). A single block, movable. 
 
 A Whip and Runner would be a whip hooking to the hauling 
 part of a runner. 
 
 A Gun-Tackle Purchase. (Fig. 3, Plate 32.) 
 
 A Luff -Tackle (Fig. 4, Plate 32). A single and a double 
 block. 
 
 A Luff upon Luff. The double block of one luff-tackle hooked 
 to the hauling part of another, thus multiplying the power. 
 
 A Two-fold Purchase. (Fig. 5, Plate 32.) Two double- 
 blocks. 
 
 A Double-Luff. A double and a treble block. 
 
 A Three-fold Purchase. Two treble-blocks. (See Plate 35, 
 in which two purchases are shown.) 
 
 A three-fold purchase is the heaviest purchase commonly used 
 on shipboard. 
 
 The above are all the purchases in common use. The designa- 
 tions above given are descriptive of the character of the pur- 
 chases, not of their use. It will be noted that in all cases where 
 the two blocks of a purchase are alike, the hauling part leads 
 from the block to which the standing part makes fast, while in 
 cases where one block has an extra sheave, the hauling part leads 
 from this block and the standing part from the other. To get 
 the full power of any of the purchases, the block from which the 
 hauling part is led must be secured to the object to be moved. 
 
88 BLOCKS AND TACKLES. 
 
 The following are some of the purchases commonly used, 
 designated by terms descriptive of their use, without reference to 
 the blocks or sheaves involved. 
 
 Relieving-Tackles are used to assist or replace the tiller ropes 
 in steering. One block hooks to the tiller, the other to the ship's 
 side. 
 
 Stock- and Bill-Tackles are used in getting the anchors on and 
 off the bows in old-fashioned ships. They hook to straps on the 
 stock and bill of the anchor respectively, and lead across the deck. 
 
 Thwartship-Tackles are used on the heads of boat-davits for 
 rigging in. In a more general sense the term is applied to any 
 tackle leading across the deck. Similarly, a tackle for hauling 
 out the backbone of an awning or for any other purpose where it 
 has a fore-and-aft lead is a fore-and-aft tackle. 
 
 Hatch-Tackles are used at hatches, for hoisting, lowering stores, 
 etc. 
 
 Jiggers are small light tackles used for miscellaneous work 
 about the ship. 
 
 A Deck-Tackle is a heavy purchase, usually two-fold, used in 
 handling ground-tackle, mooring ship, and, generally, for heavy 
 work of any kind about the decks. 
 
 Plate 35 shows a special purchase which ma^ be used for very 
 heavy weights. The tension on the various parts of the fall is 
 partially equalized, by applying the power to both ends. 
 
 Yard and Stay Tackles take their names from their application 
 on ships with masts and yards, where they were used together 
 for transferring stores from a boat alongside, to the deck or 
 hatch of the ship. The " yard tackle " was hooked at the yard 
 arm, where it could plumb the boat, and the " stay tackle " was 
 hooked to a strap aloft and amidships, usually on the collar of 
 the mainstay, from which point it plumbed the main hatch. Plate 
 34, Fig. 3. 
 
 The general principle involved in the "yard and stay" is of 
 wide application not only on shipboard but elsewhere, in cases 
 where a weight is to be lifted and transferred to a point at no 
 great distance. Assuming two points favorably placed for carry- 
 ing the upper blocks of the purchases (Fig. 3) the weight is 
 hoisted by the "yard tackle" (so called for convenience), to a 
 suitable height, the slack of the "stay tackle" being taken in (by 
 one man) and the fall belayed. The yard tackle is then slacked 
 
BLOCKS AND TACKLES. 89 
 
 away and the weight swings in and hangs by the stay tackle, ready 
 to be lowered away. 
 
 Modifications, applications and extensions of this principle 
 will readily suggest themselves. 
 
 Mechanical Purchases. (Plate 36.) 
 
 In a differential purchase (Fig. 6) an endless rope is taken 
 over two sheaves of slightly different diameters which are keyed 
 to the same shaft and revolve together. A movable block to 
 which a weight may be attached is hung in the bight of the end- 
 less rope. If power is applied to one of the parts leading from 
 the larger sheave, the rope is unwound from the sheave, but 
 is at the same time wound up on the slightly smaller sheave 
 alongside. Thus the change in the length of the bight which 
 carries the movable block is very slight, for a great distance 
 moved by the hauling part. By a simple mathematical demon- 
 stration, which would be out of place here, it can be shown that 
 the ratio of the power applied, to the power on the movable 
 block, is equal to the difference in the diameter of the sheaves of 
 the fixed block divided by the larger diameter. 
 
 A Duplex Purchase (Fig. 5) consists of two wheels at right 
 angles to each other, one of which has a cogged rim engaging a 
 series of cams on the face of the other wheel. The details are 
 made clear by the figure. The power here may be made almost 
 anything that is desired, by proper design of the cams and gear- 
 ing. In any given case it may be determined theoretically (with- 
 out friction) from the ratio of the distance moved by the power 
 to that moved by the weight. 
 
 Still another type of patent pulley is illustrated in Figs. 1,2,3. 
 This type is much used in the Navy. Its working is as follows : 
 
 The lift wheel, that is the sprocket wheel which carries the lift 
 chain, is cast in one piece with the spur-wheel that drives it. 
 (Fig. 2.) This double wheel turns freely upon a hollow shaft 
 rigidly supported at both ends in the frame. The spur-wheel is 
 encircled by a yoke having internal teeth meshing into the spur- 
 wheel teeth and driven with a gyrating movement about it by 
 two eccentrics placed diametrically opposite (Fig. 3). The hand 
 wheel shaft passes through the hollow main shaft, carrying at 
 the further end a pinion which drives two spur-wheels, one on 
 each of the two eccentric shafts (Fig. 4). 
 
Plate No. 36. 
 
 FIG.1 
 
 FIG. 2 
 
 CYCLONE CHAIN 
 HOIST. 
 
 FIG. 5 
 
 DUPLEX 
 PURCHASE. 
 
 FIG. 4 
 
 FIG.6 
 
 DIFFERENTIAL 
 PURCHASE. 
 
 MECHANICAL PURCHASES. 
 
BLOCKS AND TACKLES. QI 
 
 The number of the teeth in the spur-wheel divided by the differ- 
 ence between the number of the spur-wheel teeth and the number 
 of the internal teeth of the yoke equals the number of revolutions 
 of the eccentric necessary to turn the lift wheel once. (In .the 
 one-ton size, the spur-wheel has twenty-one teeth, the yoke 
 twenty-four internal teeth, and the eccentrics .turn seven times 
 to each revolution of the lift wheel.) The eccentric shafts have 
 bearings at both ends and roller bushed connection with the yoke. 
 
 The friction loss of this movement is so slight (the efficiency 
 is about 80 per cent) that it has been found practicable to gear 
 the hoists to a very high speed without increasing the hand wheel 
 pull above that of other slower hoists. 
 
 The automatic brake permits the spinning of the hand wheel 
 in either direction when there is no load, locks the load with per- 
 fect safety, and yet permits its free lowering by a very slight 
 reverse pull on the hand chain. 
 
 IV. STRENGTH OF ROPES, BLOCKS AND TACKLES, ETC. 
 
 When definite information is at hand with regard to the 
 strength of the rope in question, it should of course be utilized. 
 In the absence of such definite information, the following rules 
 are convenient and safe : 
 
 B = Breaking stress, Ibs. or tons (of 2240 Ibs.). 
 P=Safe working load; viz., safe tension for 
 
 single part of rope. 
 C = Circumference (inches) . 
 Rule 1. Strength of manila or hemp. 
 
 B = - tons = C 2 X 900 Ibs. 
 Rule 2. Strength of wire. 
 
 B = C- X 2.5 tons = C 2 X 5600 Ibs. 
 
 The breaking stress being known either from the above for- 
 mulae or from other sources (see appendix), the working load 
 adopted as safe for a single part of the rope (P, Plate 32) will 
 depend upon the factor of safety which we adopt after con- 
 sideration of the condition of the rope itself and the use to be 
 made of it. 
 
 The factor of safety may be taken as follows : 
 (a) Under average conditions, 
 
 Working load, P, = y 6 breaking stress, B. 
 
Q 2 BLOCKS AND TACKLES. 
 
 (b) Under best conditions new rope to be used occasion- 
 ally, 
 
 Working load, P, = M breaking stress, B. 
 
 (c) Under unfavorable conditions, where rope is used fre- 
 quently and for an indefinite period, as in the case of running 
 rigging and boats' falls, 
 
 Working load, P, = % breaking stress, B. 
 
 If, without knowing the breaking stress in a given case, we 
 wish to derive the safe working load directly from the circum- 
 ference of the rope, we have the following: 
 
 Rule 3. Safe working load for manila or hemp. 
 Under average conditions: 
 
 P = - tons = C 2 X 150 Ibs. 
 
 Rule 4. Safe working load for wire. 
 Under average conditions: 
 
 P = * tons = C 2 X 900 Ibs. 
 
 Under best conditions, add 30% to above values of P. 
 
 Under very unfavorable conditions, subtract 30% from above 
 values of P. 
 
 NOTE. Observe that the working load for wire is the same as 
 the breaking stress for manila. 
 
 Rule 5. Strength of blocks. 
 
 It may generally be assumed that the safe load for a well-made 
 block is in excess of that of any hemp or manila rope that it will 
 reeve. This, however, is not always true of the hook, which is 
 almost invariably the weakest part, and often gives way under 
 strains for which the block is otherwise amply strong. The 
 strength of the hook is therefore the measure of the strength of 
 the block. The difficulty here comes from the tendency of the 
 hook to open out ; a tendency which should be guarded against, 
 in heavy work, by careful " mousing " of the hook preferably 
 by an iron link. 
 
 For heavy work, shackles are fitted to blocks in place of hooks 
 and are very much to be preferred, as will be apparent from the 
 rules and tables which follow. 
 
 (a) Hooks. 
 
 D = Diameter at back of hook. 
 P = y 3 D 2 tons. 
 
 (b) Shackles. 
 
 D = Diameter at sides. 
 P = 3 D 2 tons. 
 
BLOCKS AND TACKLES. 
 
 93 
 
 NOTE. For a given diameter of material, a shackle is approximately 
 5 times as strong as a hook. 
 
 The following table gives the results of practical tests made at 
 the Watertown Arsenal. The hooks and shackles tested were of 
 the ordinary commercial form. The diameter given is that of 
 the metal at the back of the hook and the sides of the shackle. 
 TFST OF HOOKS. 
 
 Diameter 
 of metal. 
 
 Broke at 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 y^ inch 
 
 2,385 Ibs. 
 
 - 
 
 
 K 
 
 
 4,130 
 10,315 
 
 
 
 
 
 % 
 
 
 14,510 
 20,940 
 27,420 
 
 
 
 -Hook partly straightened, then fractured across 
 the back. 
 
 2 
 
 
 38,100 
 55,380 
 
 
 
 
 TEST OF SHACKLES. 
 
 Diameter 
 of metal. 
 
 Broke at 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 % inch 
 
 20,700 Ibs. 
 
 Eye of shackle parted. 
 
 H 
 
 
 38,100 
 
 
 U U U 
 
 i 
 
 
 51,900 
 
 
 U (( U 
 
 \\ 
 
 
 75,200 
 
 
 U {( U 
 
 \y z 
 
 
 119,980 
 
 
 U U 11 
 
 1% 
 
 
 146,400 
 
 
 Sheared shackle-pin. 
 
 2 
 
 
 196,600 
 
 
 Eye of shackle parted. 
 
 2/^ 
 
 
 210,400 
 
 
 i < < 
 
 Rule 6. To find the size of manila rope to lift a given load 
 (in tons). 
 
 From Rule 3, above, we have 
 
 C (inches) = V 15 X P, (tons). 
 
 Hence, multiply the load in tons by 15 and take the square root 
 of the product for the circumference of the rope in inches. 
 
 Rule 7. To find the size of wire rope to lift a given load. 
 
 (6 X 12 type, Plate 17.) 
 From Rule 4, above, we have 
 
 C (inches) = V 2.5 X P, (tons). 
 
 Hence, multiply the load in tons by 2.5 and take the square root 
 of the product for the circumference of the rope in inches. 
 
94 BLOCKS AND TACKLES. 
 
 Rule 8. To find the size of rope when rove as a tackle to lift 
 a given weight. 
 
 Add to the weight one-tenth of its value for every sheave to 
 be used in hoisting 1 . This gives the total resistance, including 
 friction. Divide this by the number of parts at the movable 
 block, for the maximum tension on .the fall. Reeve the fall of a 
 size to stand this tension as a safe working load. 
 
 EXAMPLE : 
 
 To lift 10 tons with a three-fold purchase, the fall of which, 
 coming from the upper block, is takeri through an extra sheave 
 on deck for a fair lead. Required the size of fall needed. 
 
 Total resistance, including friction = IO + 7X \J tons. 
 
 Maximum tension on fall =~ = 2.8 .tons. 
 
 o 
 
 Size of fall (Rule 2) = V 15x2.8 6 l / 2 inches (nearly). 
 
 Rule 9. To find the weight which a given purchase will lift 
 with safety. 
 
 Find the safe-working load for the rope to be used (Rule i). 
 Multiply this by the number of parts at the movable block. 
 This gives the total resistance including friction. 
 
 Multiply the total resistance by 10 and divide by io+.the 
 number of sheaves used. The result is the weight that may be 
 lifted. 
 
 EXAMPLE : 
 
 To find the weight which may be lifted by a fall of 6>^-inch 
 manila rove as a three-fold purchase, the fall of which leads 
 from the upper block through an extra leader on deck. 
 
 Safe-working load, - = 2.8 tons = P. 
 
 Total resistance, including friction, 6X2.8=16.8 tons. 
 
 Weight to be lifted, *'*X=^*= 10 tons approximately. 
 
 Rule 10. To find the strength of a spar to resist compression 
 (derrick or shears). 
 
 T= Safe thrust in tons. 
 
BLOCKS AND TACKLES. 95 
 
 R Radius of spar in inches. 
 L Length of spar in feet. 
 
 T 4j^ 
 ' L 2 ' 
 
 NOTE. The multiplier 4 in this formula is safe for all ordinary kinds of 
 wood. For very strong woods, like oak, mahogany, etc., it could be in- 
 creased 50 per cent without danger. 
 
 EXAMPLE : 
 
 To find safe thrust for a spar 10 inches in diameter, of fir, 17 
 feet long. 
 
 T=-=8.6 tons. 
 
 NOTES. Rule 6, above, gives an unnecessarily large factor of safety for 
 the stronger types of wire, but it is convenient and safe. 
 
 A well-made splice weakens either manila or wire by from 5% to 10%. 
 
 A sharp nip may weaken manila or wire by from 25% to 50%. 
 
 Manila deteriorates rapidly if stowed away wet, or if exposed, either wet : 
 or dry, to continued high temperature. 
 
 Wire-rope should be discarded when its outer wires are worn down to 
 one-half their original diameter. 
 
 The strength of two ropes of different sizes but similar construction 
 is proportional to the squares of the circumferences. Thus a 2-inch rope 
 is to a 3-inch as 4 to 9. 
 
 As a working rule, wire-rope is 6 times as strong as manila of the same 
 size. 
 
 In cases where a load is applied suddenly, with a blow or a jerk, its effect 
 is doubled, and this should be allowed for in calculating the size of rope 
 required. 
 
Plate No. 37. 
 
 OLD-FASHIONED MAST AND YARD RIGGED FOR HANDLING 
 VERY HEAVY WENGHT. 
 
 Note. The material here shown is obsolete, but the principles involved 
 are clearly indicated and of universal application. 
 
(97) 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 HANDLING HEAVY WEIGHTS. 
 
 L 
 
 Where masts and yards are available, as in sailing ships anxl 
 steamers with auxiliary sail power, the problem of handling 
 weights presents no great difficulty. The lower yards are used 
 as derricks, with suitable support from the mast by lifts and 
 tackles. The principles which govern the rigging of these are 
 identical with those discussed theoretically in Chapter V, and 
 practically in 2 of the present Chapter. Unfortunately no such 
 facilities as are here assumed exist on modern ships. Yards are 
 non-existent and masts are not always so placed as to be avail- 
 able. When they are available, they are in some ways more 
 useful than the masts .of sailing ships, because so much stiffer. 
 A span can often be used between the masts to furnish a point for 
 hooking a tackle just where it is wanted (Plate 29) ; and the 
 place of the old fashioned yard, for carrying a tackle that shall 
 hang clear of the ship's side, may in many cases be supplied by a 
 cargo boom or a boat-crane. 
 
 In spite of the fact that masts and yards of the type shown on 
 Plate 37 are not found on modern ships, the plate has been re- 
 tained because it illustrates principles which are as significant 
 to-day as they were half a century ago and shows them more 
 clearly than they could be shown by almost any other sketch that 
 could be devised. Every tackle and every spar shown in the 
 plate represent a force either of action or of re-action. The 
 downward pull of the weight W is met by the upward reaction of 
 the tackles, a, from the mast head, assisted by the spar, S, whose 
 heel rests upon the deck, supported by shores from the decks 
 below. The tendency of the spar to buckle is met by a brace B 
 from its midship point to the mast. The inward thrust of the 
 yard resulting from the horizontal component of the forces rep- 
 resented by W and a is met by the rolling tackles cc, the lower 
 one of these contributing at the same time, through the leverage 
 of the yard, to the support of W. The inward thrust of the 
 yard is of course still further met by the cross-lashing which 
 binds the yard to the mast. Of especial significance is the hawser 
 
9 g HANDLING HEAVY WEIGHTS. 
 
 on the off-side, leading from the topmast-head to the side of the 
 ship and in through a port to the mast between decks, and acting 
 against the tendency of w and a to pull the mast to their side. 
 The shores which brace the bulwarks against the thrust of this 
 hawser are also to be noted. 
 
 An application to this case of the rules and examples .given 
 in II of this Chapter will be found extremely instructive ; and 
 while the materials here shown may never be duplicated in prac- 
 tical experience, the principles (or some of them) will be dupli- 
 cated in every problem that presents itself where .heavy weights 
 are to be handled. 
 
 Parbuckling (Plate 38). Where the object to be handled is 
 of such a nature as to admit of parbuckling, this is a simple and 
 convenient method to use, especially on a ship of low free-board. 
 This is a characteristically naval method, and comes in conveni- 
 ently in any case where an object of generally cylindrical shape is 
 to be hoisted or dragged. A typical example is that of landing 
 guns on a shelving beach, the guns being carried into shallow 
 water by boats and rolled overboard onto hawsers which have 
 been laid off at right angles to the beach, the ends of the hawsers 
 being then brought ashore, over the gun, leaving the gun in the 
 bight. The operation will be much simplified if the chase of the 
 gun is built up by some convenient method to the diameter of the 
 breech. 
 
 Cargo Booms (Plate 39) are secured to a mast by heavy pivot- 
 bolts and supported by topping lifts and guys which admit of 
 plumbing any point within a considerable range on deck and 
 alongside. There is no difference in principle between such a 
 boom and a yard rigged and used as in Plate 38, except that the 
 yard has the characteristics of a long boom used nearly level. 
 The cargo booms of merchant vessels and the boat-booms or 
 cranes of men-of-war, are usually heavy enough for weights up 
 to three or four tons, while the cranes of a Dreadnought are 
 designed to handle boats weighing as much as 25 tons. 
 
 The range of power of such a boom may be considerably ex- 
 tended by the use of a spar as in Plate 39 to take the direct 
 downward thrust, the deck under the shoe of the spar being well 
 shored up. This takes a large part of the tension from the 
 topping-lift. For very heavy weights, it is well to block up 
 under the pivot-bolt, or to unkey the boom and step the heel upon 
 
Plate No. 38. 
 
 99 
 
 FIG. 1. 
 PARBUCKLING A SPAR ON BOARD SHIP 
 
 FIG. 2. 
 PARBUCKLING A GUM UP A BEACH 
 
 PARBUCKLING. 
 
IOO 
 
 Plate No. 39. 
 
 (Dotted Lines Show a Spar 
 Used as a Shore to 
 
 Support Head of Boom 
 
 in Extreme Case. ) 
 
 Hauflng part of 
 
 Boom Topping Lift 
 
 BOOM FOR HEAVY WEIGHTS. 
 
Plate No. 40. 
 
 101 
 
 RIGGING A DERRICK FOR A HEAVY WEIGHT. 
 
HANDLING HEAVY WEIGHTS. 
 
 ___cl /The boom itself may be strengthened by "fishing"; 
 that is, by placing lighter spars along its length and lashing all 
 securely together. If the boom is not conveniently situated for 
 the work to be done, it may be transported to the point where it 
 is needed and supported there by topping-lifts and guys, the heel 
 being placed in a shoe and the deck below shored up as in all 
 similar cases. (Plate 40.) 
 
 If the boom is to be topped up or lowered with the weight 
 hanging from it, the strength of the topping-lift must be calcu- 
 lated for the lowest position the boom will occupy, as this is the 
 one in which the demand upon it will be a maximum. It must 
 be remembered also that in actually moving the boom there will 
 be a much greater tension on the fall of the topping-lift than if 
 the boom were fixed. This is due to the resistance of friction 
 which must be added to the theoretical load as soon as the system 
 is set in motion. (See Chapter VI.) 
 
 The anchor-davit may sometimes be utilized, assisted by a 
 topping-lift from aloft if the fore-topmast is so situated as to 
 make this feasible. 
 
 Where the ordinary resources of a ship are insufficient for the 
 work in hand, a derrick or shears must be rigged, the materials 
 being obtained where they can be found. Plate 40 shows the 
 details of a derrick and Plate 41, those of shears. 
 
 The heels of such derricks and shears are stepped in shoes, 
 which must be large enough to distribute the weight over a 
 number of beams, and the decks below are well 'shored up. The 
 shoes are lashed to prevent slipping, and in the case of shears 
 are held from spreading by a thwartship tackle. The shear-head 
 lashing is sometimes passed with figure-of-eight turns, but the 
 method shown in Plate 41 is better. The lashing, being- passed 
 with the legs laid alongside each other, tautens as they are opened 
 out. The shear-head is supported by topping-lifts and inclined 
 as much as may be necessary. The more nearly upright the legs 
 can be kept, the greater will be the proportion of the weight sup- 
 ported by the thrust of the spars and the smaller the demand 
 upon the topping-lifts. The greater the distance from the heel 
 of the derrick to the point where the guys set up, the less the 
 strain upon the guys. 
 
 If .the weight has first to be lifted from between-decks and 
 afterward put over the side, it will usually be necessary to land 
 
Plate No. 41. 
 
 103 
 
 SHEARS FOR HANDLING A HEAVY WEIGHT, 
 
104 HANDLING HEAVY WEIGHTS. 
 
 it between the two operations. It is true that derricks (not 
 shears) are constantly used to lift weights and swing them 
 around, but these are derricks properly fitted and supported for 
 it. With improvised arrangements and a heavy weight, it is 
 wiser to land the weight and move the derrick or shears. 
 
 If it becomes necessary to rig the shears or derrick at a. point 
 where no mast is available for giving a lead to the topping-lift 
 or guys, a mast may be improvised; the topping-lift being se- 
 cured to this or led over it (through a good block) and set up 
 as far from the mast as possible. Where the guys are to lead 
 athwartships, an outrigger may be used on the off side of the 
 ship, secured by a hawser dipping under the keel, and steadied 
 by good lines forward and abaft. 
 
 // not entirely sure that everything is going to hold, it is well 
 
 r to block up from deck to deck with heavy planks crossing the 
 
 hatches under the object as it is hoisted from below, and follow- 
 
 ing up as close to it as possible, so that it cannot drop more than 
 
 a few inches if anything gives way. So in transporting it from 
 
 the hatch .to the rail it should be lifted only just high enough to 
 
 clear the deck. If it must be raised for the purpose of clearing 
 
 the rail, skids may be used from the hatch and the weight partly 
 
 lifted and partly skidded across. 
 
 If the blocks and falls that must be used are not heavy enough 
 for the work required, with the fall rove in the usual way, re- 
 sort may be had to the form of a tackle shown in Plate 35. 
 Here we have two tackles so far as power is concerned, but by 
 making the fall continuous and using both ends of it for hauling, 
 'we distribute the friction more uniformly, since there is no 
 " standing part." Another advantage is, that in cases where two 
 distinct tackles are used there must be times when one will lag 
 behind, leaving the weight entirely on the other. This cannot 
 happen where the fall is continuous, as in Plate 35. It is thus 
 possible with blocks and falls of a given size, .to handle a weight 
 considerably heavier than would otherwise be safe. 
 
 All blocks should be thoroughly overhauled, and careful cal- 
 culations made of the stresses to which all parts of the system 
 are to be subjected. Shackles or lashings should be substituted 
 for hooks whenever it can be done, and in other cases the hooks 
 should be securely moused. Particular attention should be given 
 to the running of winches to see that no surging is- allowed in 
 
HANDLING HEAVY WEIGHTS. IO5 
 
 either hoisting or lowering. A heavy surge will nearly or quite 
 double the strain. 
 
 Finally, in reeving the purchases, leading the falls, etc., atten- 
 tion should be given to the principles explained, and the rules 
 laid down, in Chapters V and VI. 
 
 Plate 33 illustrates a variety of methods of slinging weights, 
 hooking tackles, etc. 
 
 Plate 42 shows a number of Stoppers and Strops for use in 
 connection with ropes and tackles where heavy stresses are to be 
 dealt with, whether for handling weights or for other purposes. 
 
 Fig. i. A Manila stopper on a Manila rope, to take the strain 
 while the rope is being belayed. The end of the stopper is usually 
 held against the rope by the hand but it may of course be secured 
 by a few turns of small stuff. 
 
 Figs. 2 and 3. A Racking stopper, binding the parts of a 
 tackle together and jamming them. This is a handy method for 
 stoppering a boat's fall for belaying. 
 
 Fig. 4. A Manila strop on a manila rope, for hooking a 
 tackle. 
 
 Fig. 5. A Chain Stopper on Wire Rope. One of the most 
 serious problems connected with the use of wire rope is that of 
 holding a large rope (a hawser) by means of a stopper. Where 
 the diameter of the rope does not much exceed an inch, it can 
 be held against a moderate pull by a good manila stopper as in 
 figure i, but the strength of manila does not approximate that of 
 wire and this will not do for holding against a really heavy 
 strain. 
 
 A stopper of chain, like that of Fig. 5, is stronger than manila 
 but does not grip so tightly. 
 
 Fig. 6. A Ring Stopper is sometimes useful, especially when 
 the wire is to be checked while running out, but it has a tendency 
 to put a kink in the wire. 
 
 Another problem connected with the use of wire rope, and 
 especially of hawsers, is to provide a strop for hooking a tackle 
 to the body of the rope. Here again the methods used with 
 manila will answer fairly well for a small line and a moderate 
 pull. With these conditions a manila strop may be used with 
 wire in the same way as with manila. (Fig. 4.) But no manila 
 strop will hold a large wire hawser under a very heavy pull, 
 whether for hooking a tackle or for stoppering. It may be that 
 
io6 
 
 Plate No. 42. 
 
 FIG. 1. 
 A STOPPER 
 ON A ROPE 
 
 FIG. 4. 
 
 STRAP 
 
 ON A ROPE 
 
 (For Hooking a Tackle) 
 
 FIG. 3. 
 A RACKING STOPPER 
 
 FIG. 5. 
 CHAIN STOPPER ON WIRE HAWSER 
 
 FIG. 6. 
 
 RING STOPPER 
 ON WIRE HAWSER 
 
 STOPPERS AND STRAPS. 
 
HANDLING HEAVY WEIGHTS. IO7 
 
 the fibre-clad wire-rope shown in Fig. 6 of Plate 17 would be 
 found effective. 
 
 11. PRACTICAL EXAMPLES IN HANDLING WEIGHTS. 
 (See Rules of Chapters V and VI.) 
 
 As the Rules above referred to are only approximations, it is 
 unnecessary in applying them to work with mathematical exact- 
 ness. In the solutions which follows, small fractions are neg- 
 lected, but care is taken to keep, upon the whole, on the side of 
 safety. 
 
 In many cases, a close estimate of the stresses can be made by 
 the eye, without calculation, and it is well to accustom the eye 
 to such estimates by an occasional test. Most of the calculations 
 which are required can be made mentally, if the rules are well 
 in mind. In important cases, however, it is worth while to make 
 a careful sketch, to scale, and this will be found to involve very 
 little trouble in comparison with the importance of the results 
 depending upon it. 
 
 It is very important to remember that the sudden application 
 of a load causes strains which may be double those produced by 
 the same load applied gradually, or supported statistically. A 
 rope that is capable of handling a steady load with perfect safety 
 may give way at once, if, the rope being slack, the load is 
 dropped, bringing up with a jerk on the suddenly tautened line. 
 A case in point is that where a boat, having been hooked on for 
 hoisting, is lifted by a wave, slacking the fall, and then drops back, 
 tautening the fall with a jerk. A similar effect results when the 
 slack of a crane-pendant is suddenly taken up by throwing the 
 throttle of a winch wide open, or where a rapidly moving load is 
 suddenly arrested. 
 
 The shorter the rope the greater the danger in cases like those 
 cited above. In a very long rope, the "give" of the successive 
 coil-like turns is cumulative and affords a relief which is lacking 
 in a shorter rope. Similarly, the "give" of a tackle affords 
 relief which is lacking in a single pendant. 
 
io8 
 
 Plate No. 43. 
 
 HANDLING WEIGHTS BY A YARD. 
 
HANDLING HEAVY WEIGHTS. IO9 
 
 I. 
 
 A weight of 4000 Ibs. is to be lifted by a yard, as in Plate 43, 
 the yard-tackle to be a two-fold purchase, with the hauling-part 
 leading from the upper block to the deck. Two top-burtons of 
 3-inch manila are available for supporting the yard. It is re- 
 quired to calculate the size of rope required for the yard-tackle, 
 and to determine whether the top-burtons are heavy enough for 
 the work. 
 
 (a) Total resistance of main purchase including friction = 
 
 4000+^-40006000 Ibs. 
 10 
 
 Maximum tension on fall = ( ^^r= 1500 lbs. = ^ ton (nearly). 
 
 4 
 Size of rope for ^ ton = V 1 5 X 0.75 = $ l /2. 
 
 (b) The load on the yard is the actual dead weight, plus the 
 tension on the hauling part. 1 = 4000+ 1500 5500 Ibs. 
 
 To find the tension on the lift, we construct the parallelogram 
 of forces, as in the figure. 
 
 Tension of the topping-lift = 6660 Ibs. 
 
 Or we may note the length of the lift and of the mast (from A to C), 
 and determine the tension by a proportion, thus : 
 
 Length of mast, AC == 19. 
 Length of lift, BC = 23. .. 
 Downward tension at B = 5500 Ibs. 
 Tension on lift _ 23 . 
 5500 ~ 19. 
 
 Tension on lift = 6660 Ibs. 
 
 It should be possible to estimate this tension rather closely by the eye, 
 without calculation, since it is easily seen that the lift is not far from i 1 /^ 
 times as long as the mast. 
 
 The tension will be divided between two top-burtons, each of 
 which has three parts. As the yard is not to be moved, friction 
 does not enter the problem. Each part will have to support 
 one-sixth of the total tension, or, 1110 Ibs. (*/> ton). 
 
 To find the safe load for the rope of which the burtons are 
 
 rove. Safe load for 3" rope= = T T ton. (IV, Chap. VI,) 
 
 As this is more than the tension found above for each part, 
 the burtons are heavy enough for the work. 
 
 1 Strictly speaking, only the vertical component of the tension on the 
 hauling part should be included here, but it is convenient and safe to count 
 it as if the lead of the hauling part were vertical. 
 
IIO HANDLING HEAVY WEIGHTS. 
 
 (c) To determine .the thrust on the yard. 
 Referring to the parallelogram of forces in Fig. 2, we have, 
 Thrust = 3800 Ibs. 
 
 Or we may calculate it by proportion, as follows: 
 Thrust on yard _ AB _ 13 
 5500 ~AC~I9 
 
 Thrust = 3800 (about). 
 
 Here again it should be possible to make a close estimate by the eye, 
 without calculation. 
 
 This thrust is supported by the truss, the lift, and the rolling 
 tackle. By unkeying the truss and slacking the lift we may 
 throw it entirely on the rolling tackle, which we will assume to 
 be a two-fold purchase with the double block hooked to the yard. 
 This gives 5 parts to divide the thrust. 
 
 Tension on each part = 760 Ibs. = 0.33 ton. 
 
 Size of fall for this tension = V 1 5 X 0.33 = 2^ inches (about). 
 
 NOTE. This assumes that the rolling tackle is parallel with the yard. 
 If the strap on the mast is below the yard, we find the tension on it by the 
 parallelogram of forces. 
 
 2. 
 
 To lift 12 tons by sheers, as in Plate 44. 
 
 Sheer-head Purchase. Three-fold, with the hauling part lead- 
 ing from the upper block, parallel to the sheer legs, and through 
 a leader on deck. Two (single) guys are used, making an angle 
 of 30 with each other. 
 
 Total resistance =12+ ?- 12 = 20. S tons. 
 10 
 
 Maximum tension on fall = ^=3. 5 tons. 
 
 Size of fall required = V 15 X 3.5 = ? J 4 inches (nearly). 
 To find the tension on the sheer-head, we neglect the tension 
 on the hauling part of the sheer-head purchase, because this part 
 leads parallel to the sheer-legs (where it adds to the thrust). 
 
 Load on the sheer-head = 12 tons. 
 By the parallelogram of forces we find, 
 
 Total tension on the guys =15 tons. (Fig. 2.) 
 
 The tension on each guy = 8.5 tons. (Fig. 3.) 
 The size of rope to support this tension, 
 
 = ViSX8.5=iii4 inches for manila = 5 inches for wire, 
 i 2-inch hawsers are required for the guys by the above rules if 
 
Plate No. 44. 
 
 in 
 
 Fig. 3 
 
 t5to|?s 
 
 '' Fig. 2 
 
 Shear head 
 purchase 
 Three-fold 
 
 HANDLING WEIGHTS BY SHEARS 
 
H2 HANDLING HEAVY WEIGHTS. 
 
 of manila. It should be noted, however, that these rules are 
 formulated for conditions very different from those of the present 
 case and that they involve a factor of safety which is unneces- 
 sarily large for a standing rope to be used for a short .time. For 
 a case of this kind, we may safely reduce our multiplier to 8. 
 Thus: 
 
 Size of rope= V8x8.5 = 8 inches (about), for manila = 4 
 inches for wire (approximately). 
 
 3- 
 
 It is required to lift a loton boiler by a derrick as in Plate 45, 
 
 the boom to be topped up for landing the weight on deck. 
 
 Main purchase. Three-fold, the hauling part leading from the 
 lower block, up through a leader at the boom end, then through 
 a leader at the masthead, then through a leader on deck. 
 Total number of sheaves = 9. 
 Number of parts at the movable block = 7. 
 Topping-lift. Three-fold, the hauling part leading from the 
 upper block, and through a leader at the foot of the mast. 
 Total number of sheaves = 7. 
 Number of parts at the movable block = 6. 
 (a) To find the size of fall for the main purchase. 
 
 Total resistance including friction^ lo-f -^- 10=19 tons. 
 Maximum tension on fall=^2 = 2. tons. 
 
 Size of fall required = V 1 5 X 2.75 = 6 l / 2 inches (nearly), 
 (b) To find the size of fall for topping-lift. 
 The load on the boom is the dead weight of the boiler alone, 
 diminished somewhat as a result of the fact that the standing 
 part of the main purchase leads up to the masthead. It is safe 
 and convenient, however, to consider the whole weight as hang- 
 ing from the boom. In resolving this along the lines of the lift 
 and the boom we take the boom at its lowest point, this being 
 the point at which the load on the lift will be a maximum. 
 Resolving the forces (Fig. 2). 
 
 Load on topping-lift due to weight = 9 tons. 
 .Or thus, 
 
 Load on lift Length of lift 25 
 
 Weight ~~ Length of mast 28 
 Load on lift = 9 tons. 
 
 This could be estimated closely by the eye. 
 
Plate No. 45. 
 
 Fig. 1 
 
 HANDLING WEIGHTS BY A DERRICK. 
 
114 HANDLING HEAVY WEIGHTS. 
 
 As the boom is to be topped up, we must add the resistance 
 due to friction, in calculating the strength of fall required. 
 Total resistance on topping-lift including friction, 
 
 = 9+ .7.9=16.3 tons (nearly). 
 10 
 
 Maximum tension on fall of topping-lift^-^ 3 =2.75 tons. 
 
 Size of fall required for topping-lift = V 15 X 2.75 = 6^ 
 (nearly). 
 
 (c) To find the tension on the gitys. 
 
 The pull on the masthead is the load on the topping-lift (9 
 itons) plus the tension on the part, BC, of the main purchase fall 
 leading from the boom-end to the masthead. 
 
 We have found the tension on the hauling part DE, to be 2.75 
 itons. The tension on BC is considerably less than this, being 
 Ireduced by the friction of two intervening sheaves ; but for con- 
 'venience we may neglect this difference, and take 2.75 .tons for 
 the tension on BC. This gives, for the pull to be resisted by the 
 guys, 9 + 2.75 = 11.75 tons. The tension on the guys is found 
 from this as in other examples preceding. 
 
 Tension on guys = 8^2 tons. 
 
 (d) To find the thrust on the boom. 
 
 This is the resolved component along the line of the boom = 6 
 tons. 
 
 (e) To determine what thrust the boom will safely stand. 
 Diameter of spar 10 inches; length 17 feet. 
 
 By Rule 9, IV, Chap. VI. 
 
 = 8.6 tons. 
 
 L, 17 
 
 Hence the boom is strong enough to stand this thrust and also 
 the increased thrust (about 20 per cent) which will result from 
 topping up the boom to land the boiler on the deck. 
 
HANDLING HEAVY WEIGHTS. 
 
 Plate No. 46. 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 00 
 
 o 
 
 z 
 
 ^-J, 
 
 8 
 
Plate No. 47. 
 
 \ \ 
 
 ' 
 
 o 
 
 tn 
 " ' in 
 
 S 
 
 *-J 
 
 X> 
 
 9 A *>%,,; 
 
 A \ 
 
 *o >,, 
 
 r\ 
 
 -h 
 
 -C W5 
 
 u ^ 
 
 ? = CL, 
 
 ill 
 
 Wl 
 
 -s ffi 
 5 CO 
 
 T 
 
(n7) 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 THE COMPASS, LOG AND LEAD SUBMARINE SIGNALS. 
 
 1. THE MAGNETIC COMPASS. 
 
 The essential part of the compass is a magnetic needle which 
 turns freely on a pivot, and which, if unaffected by local disturb- 
 ing influences, would point due north and south (magnetic). 
 The local influences which necessarily exist on ship-board and 
 which on steel ships are very large, are more or less fully neu- 
 tralized by the methods used to " compensate " the compass ; and 
 the needle does, in general, point approximately to the magnetic 
 poles. 
 
 A recent experience in which a ship was stranded because a small piece 
 ol iron had been carelessly left near the compass suggests the necessity 
 for a warning on this point. Iron or steel, even in masses as small as a 
 pocketknife, if brought near the compass, may affect it. Helmsmen and 
 quartermasters should understand this. 
 
 Stanchions, railings and other metal fittings near a compass should 
 preferably be of bronze or other non-magnetic substance. If made of 
 iron, they should never be absent, while the compass is in use, from the 
 positions occupied when observations for deviation are made. 
 
 Attached to the needle and moving with it, is a circular card 
 marked around its circumference with two graduations ; one of 
 points, half-points and quarter-points, the other of degrees. 
 (Plate 47 and 48.) 
 
 The. card with the attached needle (or needles) is floated in a 
 liquid composed of 45 per cent pure alcohol, and 55 per cent dis- 
 tilled water, within a chamber, where it is pivoted upon a jewel- 
 led bearing which keeps the card centered and supports a small 
 fraction of its weight. On the inside rim of the card-chamber is 
 a vertical mark known as the " lubber's point," which, in install- 
 ing the compass, is carefully adjusted in the fore-and-aft line of 
 the ship with reference to the. center of the card. In steering, 
 this mark is held in coincidence with the point of the card indi- 
 cating the course to be steered. The lubber's point is the thing 
 that moves. The card is stationary. 
 
Il8 THE COMPASS, LOG AND LEAD SUBMARINE SIGNALS. 
 
 The graduation of the card in points and half-points runs as 
 follows, beginning" at North : 
 
 North. 
 
 N. y 2 E. 
 - N. by E. 
 
 N. by E. y*E. 
 
 NNE. 
 
 NNE. y 2 E. 
 
 NE. by N. 
 
 NE. ^N. 
 
 NE. 
 
 NE. V3L. 
 -NE. by E. 
 
 NE. by E. y,E. 
 ENE. 
 
 ENE. J4E. 
 _ K. by N. 
 
 E. y 2 N. 
 East. 
 
 E. y 2 s. 
 
 -E. by S. 
 
 ESE y 2 E. 
 
 ESE. 
 
 SE. by E. y 2 E. 
 
 SE. by E. 
 
 SE. y 2 E. 
 
 SE. 
 
 SE. #S. 
 
 SE. by S. 
 
 SSE y 2 E. 
 SSE. 
 
 S. by E. y 2 E. 
 
 S. by E. 
 
 S. / 2 E. 
 South. 
 
 South. 
 
 s. y 2 w. 
 
 S. by W. 
 S. by W. 
 SSW. 
 
 ssw. 
 
 SW. by S. 
 SW. ^S. 
 SW. 
 
 sw. y 2 w. 
 
 SW. by W. 
 
 SW. by W. y>W. 
 WSW. 
 
 wsw. y 2 w. 
 
 W. by S. 
 
 w. y 2 s. 
 
 West. 
 
 W. ^N. 
 W. by N. 
 
 WNW. y 2 w. 
 
 WNW. 
 
 NW. by W. y 2 W. 
 
 NW. by W. 
 
 NW. y 2 w. 
 
 NW. 
 NW. y 2 N. 
 
 NW. by N. 
 
 NNW. y 2 w. 
 
 NNW. 
 
 N. by W. y 2 \V. 
 N. by W. 
 N. HW. 
 North. 
 
 NOTE. For convenience the J4 points between the y 2 points are omitted 
 in the above. They appear on the compass-card and are always given in 
 Boxing the Compass; i.e., in enumerating the points and fractional parts 
 of points from North around by way of East, South and West, back to 
 North. 
 
 North, South, East and West are called "Cardinal Points"; 
 Northeast, Southeast, Southwest and Northwest, " Intercardinal 
 Points." 
 
Plate No. 48, 
 
 119 
 
I2O THE COMPASS, LOG AND LEAD SUBMARINE SIGNALS. 
 
 The delicacy with which steamers can be steered by means oJ 
 the arrangements now employed for the purpose is leading to 
 the disuse of points and quarter-points for compass work and 
 the custom is becoming general of shaping courses and noting 
 bearings, in degrees. The seemingly trifling error that may be 
 involved in attempting to steer by fractions of a point, while of 
 little consequence to a slow vessel in a short run, may be vital 
 to a steamer making four or five hundred miles a day. 
 
 As there are 32 points in the circle, each point evidently repre- 
 sents iij4 (11 15'). 
 
 On the compass-card which has been in use until very recently, 
 the graduation by degrees begins at North and at South and runs 
 90 to right and left toward East and West. Thus on this card 
 we have, in the North-east quadrant, N. i E., N. 2 E., etc., up 
 to N. 90 E.; and in the South-east quadrant, S. i E., S. 2 E., 
 etc., up to S. 90 E. East may be regarded, therefore, as either 
 N. 90 E., or S. 90 E. 
 
 Similarly we have in the North-west quadrant, N. i W., N. 2 
 W., etc., up to N. 90 W.; and in the South-west quadrant, S. i 
 W. ; S. 2 W., up to S. 90 W., so that West may be regarded as 
 either N. 90 W. or S. 90 W. 
 
 Thus courses may be designated either in points or in degrees. 
 NE. is N. 45 E. ; ESE. is S. 67 30' E. ; SW. by S. is S. 33 45' 
 W.;etc. 
 
 COMPASS CARD U. S. NAVY. 
 
 Plate 47 shows a new form of compass-card which has lately 
 been adopted in the United States Navy. On this card the degrees 
 run in a continuous graduation (to the right) completely around 
 the circle from North to North again, through 360. With this 
 card, bearings and courses may be designated simply by the num- 
 ber of degrees from North. Thus North-east is "45"; East is 
 "90"; South-west is "225"; North-west is "315"; etc. 
 
 11. THE GYROSCOPIC COMPASS.* 
 
 This type of compass has been developed to a very high degree 
 of accuracy and reliability during the last few years and is now 
 extensively used on war vessels in the United States and in Europe. 
 It is also in use on a few of the large Trans-Atlantic Liners. 
 This compass is entirely independent of magnetism and is there- 
 fore not subject to the disturbing magnetic influences always 
 
 1 By Lieut-Commander Charles T. Owens, U. S. Navy. 
 
THE COMPASS, LOG AND LEAD SUBMARINE SIGNALS. 121 
 
 found on board ship which often render the magnetic compass 
 unreliable and for which careful compensation is required. It 
 points to the true geographical pole instead of to the magnetic 
 pole, thus eliminating the variation of the compass. As its 
 directive force is very much stronger than that of the magnetic 
 compass, errors due to lag and sluggishness of the compass are 
 also eliminated. 
 
 A gyroscope, if so mounted as to have freedom of motion about 
 three rectangular axes, will maintain its axis of rotation fixed in 
 space, unless it is acted upon by some externally impressed angular 
 force. Since it maintains its axis of rotation fixed in space, this 
 axis will have an apparent motion relatively to the earth's surface, 
 which is evidenced by its continually changing its inclination to 
 the horizontal plane. To illustrate this, let it be supposed that the 
 gyroscope is spinning with its axis pointing directly at a star in 
 the horizon whose bearing is due East. It will soon be observed 
 that the axis is following the star in its apparent diurnal move- 
 ment. If in the Northern hemisphere it will gradually rise and 
 turn toward the South, reaching its highest elevation in six hours 
 when the star is on the meridian, and returning to the horizontal 
 again in twelve hours when the star is bearing due West. That 
 extremity of the axis pointing to the star will continue to follow 
 the latter as it falls below the horizon, reaching its greatest depres- 
 sion in 1 8 hours and returning to the horizontal in 24 hours as 
 the star again appears in the horizon. During this 24 hours the 
 earth has completed one revolution on its axis while the star and 
 the gyroscope have remained fixed in space. Had the axis of 
 the gyroscope initially pointed to the celestial North pole (the 
 North Star, approximately) its inclination to the horizontal would 
 have remained unchanged throughout the 24 hours. 
 
 In the gyro-compass the spinning wheel or gyroscope is mounted 
 in a casing on ball-bearings and is made to rotate at the highest 
 practicable speed by an electrical alternating current induction 
 motor. It is so suspended as to have freedom of motion about 
 three rectangular axes, and would if not acted upon by any 
 externally impressed angular force, have motion relatively to 
 the earth's surface exactly as described above. By means of a 
 weight applied to the casing carrying the gyroscope, however, 
 gravity is made to impress an external angular force as soon as 
 the axis of the gyroscope begins to tilt above the horizontal and 
 the result is that the axis of the gyroscope is drawn toward the 
 
122 THE COMPASS, LOG AND LEAD SUBMARINE SIGNALS. 
 
 meridian and is held pointing steadily to the North. This is in 
 accordance with the following law discovered by Foucalt : " Any 
 revolving mass such as a spinning wheel, tends to swing around 
 so as to bring its axis of rotation parallel to the axis of any 
 externally applied angular force and in such a relation that the 
 direction of rotation is the same as the direction of the said applied 
 or impressed force." 
 
 Combined with the gyroscope casing is a compass card gradu- 
 ated in a similar manner to the card of a magnetic compass, hav- 
 ing its North-South line parallel to the axis of rotation of the 
 gyroscope, and the entire structure is suspended from gimbal 
 rings mounted in a binnacle or stand. 
 
 The mechanical devices employed to render the compass accu- 
 rate and reliable not only on shore but on a moving ship where it 
 is subject to the motions of rolling, pitching and yawing, are much 
 too complicated to be described here. It may be stated, however, 
 that the readings of the compass card must be corrected for 
 certain errors due to the fact that on a moving ship the gyroscope 
 is acted upon not by the simple Easterly motion of the earth alone 
 but by the resultant of the earth's motion combined with the 
 ship's and the axis will therefore be deflected from the true North 
 by an amount depending upon the course and speed of the ship 
 and the latitude. The correction may be made by mechanical 
 correction devices attached to the compass which move the lub- 
 ber's line by the proper amount to make the course as read off 
 from the card, the true course, or it may be taken from tables or 
 charts especially prepared for the purpose. 
 
 From the above description it will be seen that whenever the 
 axis of rotation of the gyroscope in the gyro-compass is not point- 
 ing North and South, the rotation of the earth will cause an 
 apparent tilting of the axis with relation to the horizontal plane, 
 thus bringing gravity into play to swing the compass in to the 
 meridian. In reality it is the horizontal plane of the earth which 
 is constantly changing its inclination in space and it is this which 
 gives the compass its directive force. It follows therefore that 
 at either of the earth's poles where the horizontal plane remains 
 fixed in space the compass has no directive force and at the equator 
 where the inclination of the horizontal plane is changing at the 
 most rapid rate, the directive force is a maximum. This may be 
 compared to the magnetic compass which has a maximum directive 
 force at the magnetic equator and none at the magnetic poles. In 
 
Plate No. 49. 
 
 123 
 
 Repeater Compasses 
 No.l No? No3 No.4 No 5 
 
 A /arm Bell 
 
 nO 
 
 iP ^i O ^ 
 
 ShifHSvpply - 
 
 o o 
 
 Motor ' Storage 
 
 Generators Battery 
 
 To Fire Con fro/ 
 Apparatus 
 
 D D 
 D D 
 D D 
 D D 
 P. 
 
 *\ A farm 
 Baffery 
 
 Fig. I 
 
 Motsfer 
 Compass 
 
 ' Repeafer Panel 
 
 Lower Conning-' 
 Tower 
 
 Telephone 
 Exchange 
 
 * Transmifffng 
 5 fat ion A ft 
 
 GYRO COMPASS-BATTLESHIP EQUIPMENT. 
 
(124) 
 
 Plate No. 50. 
 
 A Master Compass. 
 B Storage Battery. 
 
 C Repeaters. 
 
 D Repeater Connection Boxes. 
 E Generators. 
 
 F Supply Panel. 
 
 G Repeater Panel. 
 
 H Repeater with Cover for 
 
 Steering Station. 
 
 MASTER GYRO COMPASS, REPEATERS AND SWITCHBOARD 
 
THE COMPASS, LOG AND LEAD SUBMARINE SIGNALS. 125 
 
 this connection it is interesting to note that the directive force of 
 the gyro-compass is not only many times greater than that of the 
 magnetic compass at the equator but that on going into higher 
 latitudes the directive force of the magnetic compass tends to 
 decrease much more rapidly than that of the gyro-compass. 
 
 The Gyro-Compass equipment of a Battleship consists of a 
 Master Compass which is usually installed in a protected position 
 below decks, with controlling switch-board, motor-generators, 
 storage battery and repeater-panel for controlling any number 
 of "repeaters" in different parts of the ship: Conning tower, 
 Bridge (Steering and Pelorus stands), Steering Engine Room, 
 Fire Control Station, etc., all of these repeaters being electrically 
 connected with the Master Gyro and governed by it. The re- 
 peaters resemble in external appearance the ordinary magnetic 
 compass and are so designed that they can be shipped in gimbal 
 rings in place of peloruses for use in taking bearings, or rigidly 
 mounted in front of the helmsman for steering purposes. Plates 
 49 and 50. 
 
 While the gyro-compass has practically replaced the magnetic 
 compass wherever it is installed, it is considered necessary to 
 retain the magnetic compass as a check on the gyro and for use in 
 case of casualty to the latter. It is doubtful if the magnetic 
 compass will ever be dispensed with on any ship. 
 
 The gyro compass is a highly specialized mechanism which requires in- 
 telligent care for successful operation. Instructions for the care and 
 operation should be rigorously carried out. The navigator should fre- 
 quently inspect the switch panels, generating sets, and master, to insure 
 that the parts are kept free from dust', rust and verdigris. It is a matter 
 for emphasis that untrained personnel should not tamper with the equip- 
 ment or attempt alterations; and in case that any but minor repairs are 
 necessary, the services of a gyro compass officer from the fleet or Navy 
 Yard should be called upon. 
 
 The compass should be started up at least four hours before sailing as 
 the normal settling period of the gyro compass is three hours. Latitude 
 dials should be set and the compass checked before getting under way. 
 While under way changes of speed and latitude should be communicated 
 to the gyro electrician on watch in order to keep the dial settings for the 
 speed and latitude so that at all times the gyro bearings and courses may 
 agree with true bearings and courses. 
 
 The Pelorus or Dumb Compass is a circle marked with the 
 graduation of a compass-card, but without a needle, which may 
 be mounted at any part of the ship for use in taking bearings. 
 A zero-line on this instrument is permanently fixed parallel to 
 
126 THE COMPASS, LOG AND LEAD SUBMARINE SIGNALS. 
 
 the fore-and-aft line of the ship, and a movable sighting bai 
 admits of measuring at any instant the angle between the head 
 ing of the ship and an object sighted upon. This instrumen 
 may therefore be used for determining the compass-bearing o 
 any object, the ship's-head by compass and the bearing of th< 
 object by the pelorus being noted simultaneously. Bearings 
 may thus be taken of objects which cannot be seen from th< 
 compass. A convenient form of the pelorus is one in which th( 
 graduated circle can be turned inside of the fixed rim which 
 carries the zero-mark, while the sighting-bar turns independently 
 of both. In this form of the instrument, the point of the movable 
 circle corresponding with the compass course of the ship is made 
 to coincide with the zero-mark, so that the compass bearings o 
 objects sighted upon are read off directly, provided that the ship 
 is exactly on her course at the instant of making the observation 
 If it is necessary to make the observation while she is not on the 
 course for which the pelorus is set, the difference must be notec 
 and applied to the bearing observed. 
 
 Suppose the pelorus is set for a course West, and an observation taken 
 when the ship is actually heading to the left of this course: say WJ 
 The bearing given by the pelorus must be corrected by ^ point appliec 
 to the left (like westerly deviation). If, the pelorus being set as before 
 for West, the ship actually heads to the right of this course say W}N 
 the correction must be applied to the right, like easterly deviation. 
 
 The accuracy of the adjustment of the zero-line in the keel- 
 line of the ship may be determined by setting the circle to the 
 compass course and taking simultaneous bearings with the com- 
 pass and pelorus of a distant object. If an error is found to 
 exist, it may be noted and applied as a permanent correction to 
 all observations taken with the instrument ; or the adjustment 
 may be corrected. 
 
 Evidently, if the pelorus is set for the magnetic instead of the 
 compass course, the bearings observed with it will be magnetic. 
 
 PLATE 51 shows a convenient type of pelorus which is used to 
 a considerable extent in both the Navy and the Merchant Service. 
 One of its distinctive features is that the dial and the sight-vanes 
 can be clamped together at a known bearing of an object so that 
 when directed at the object it immediately gives the ship's 
 heading. 
 
 A gyro-compass repeater may be shipped in the pelorus stand, 
 where it becomes itself a pelorus. 
 
 Bearings. The bearing (or direction) of an object from the 
 
Plate No. 52. 
 
 129 
 
 ''-Antenna 
 
 Insulator 
 
 Compass 
 Coils 
 
 (Amplifier S.EJOOO 
 
 60V. 6V. 
 
 "B"Bc*ffery "A" Battery 
 
 
 RADIO COMPASS. 
 
130 
 
 Plate No. 53. 
 
 FIG. 1 
 
 BEARING BY 
 RADIO COMPASS 
 
 {From "Tht Speriyscopt 1 
 Apr,/ 19?0. 7 
 
 FIG. 2 
 
 PLOTTING OF LOCATION 
 BY RADIO COMPASS 
 
 \Ship being located 
 ( sending out radio 
 1 checking signa/s. 
 
THE COMPASS, LOG AND LEAD SUBMARINE SIGNALS. 131 
 
 bearing having been received is plotted like any other line of 
 bearing. If bearings are received from two or more stations, 
 the result is a cut which fixes the ship's position. In a more 
 complete application of the system, two stations which have de- 
 termined the bearings of a ship report these to a Central Station, 
 which plots the lines, establishes the cut and gives the ship its 
 position instead of its bearings. (Plate 53.) 
 
 IV. THE MEASUREMENT OF SPEED. 
 
 The speed of a ship may be measured by a Patent Log, of 
 which there are many types, or by the revolutions of the pro- 
 pellers. It may also, of course, be determined by running over a 
 measured course or between bearings of charted points on shore. 
 Whatever method is used, due allowance must be made for cur- 
 rents, and the distinction recognized between speed through the 
 water and speed over the ground. The speed indicated by a log 
 is speed through the water. That determined by any one of the 
 other methods mentioned is speed over the ground. 
 
 Patent Logs. With few exceptions, these consist of a " ro- 
 tator," in principle like the propeller of a ship, which is towed 
 through the water and thus made to rotate with a velocity varying 
 directly with the speed, and a series of gears and dials to which 
 the motion of the rotator is transmitted by a cord, the dials regis- 
 tering the distance corresponding to the revolutions of the rotator. 
 In a " tafFrail " log, the registering mechanism is on the taffrail 
 and a long line is used between it and the rotator ; in a " harpoon " 
 log, the registering mechanism is towed astern with the rotator 
 and must be hauled in for reading. As the record of a patent log 
 is one of distance and not of speed, we must, to find the speed, 
 note the run for a given length of time. 
 
 Plate 54 shows several types of patent logs in common use. 
 By a simple " make-and-break " attachment, the record of the 
 rotator can be transmitted electrically to a dial in the chart-house 
 or elsewhere. 
 
 A patent log should be given the same care that is accorded 
 to other mechanical devices from which accurate working is 
 expected. It should be oiled daily when in use and kept in a 
 dry place at other times. Logs of the harpoon type should be 
 washed in fresh water before being stowed away. 
 
 When a log is first put in service, care should be taken to de- 
 termine accurately its percentage of errors. This will be found 
 
132 
 
 Plate No. 54. 
 
 Reproduced oy courtesy of Messrs Negus and Sons, and John Bliss and Co. 
 
 PATENT LOGS. 
 
THE COMPASS, LOG AND LEAD SUBMARINE SIGNALS. 133 
 
 to vary considerably with the speed, a log which runs correctly 
 at ten knots, being, perhaps, materially in error at fifteen. 
 
 The only way to determine the error satisfactorily is by runs 
 of some length between known points where the effects of wind 
 and tide are small. As some effect must always be expected 
 from such causes, a number of runs will be needed to get a 
 reliable error; and for every run that is made, a record should 
 be kept of the comparison between the distance made good by 
 chart and that recorded by the log, a distinguishing number or 
 letter being assigned to each rotator and each register so that 
 their identity may be preserved throughout the record. 
 
 If the record shows also the draft of the ship, the revolutions 
 of the engines and the details of wind and sea, it may be of great 
 value in checking the calibration of the ship's screws as herein- 
 after described. 
 
 The length of log-line used has much to do with the working 
 of the log. The proper length to use under ordinary circum- 
 stances is that issued with the log by its makers ; but it is found 
 that a greater length is needed for a high than for a low speed. 
 Logs are commonly accompanied by instruments for changing 
 the pitch of the rotator-blades to correct an error in running, but 
 unless the error is very great it is better to leave it and apply the 
 correction found from observation. 
 
 A disadvantage of logs which depend upon a towed rotator 
 is that the rotator is often fouled by refuse from the ship, or by 
 sea-weed, which vitiates the record transmitted to the recorder, 
 and makes it necessary to haul in and clear the rotator, thus losing 
 the record for an appreciable period. It is principally because of 
 this inconvenience that rotator logs are falling into disuse in spite 
 of their many advantages when used at moderate (cruising) 
 speeds. 
 
 The revolutions of the screws afford a very convenient indica- 
 tion of the speed of the ship but are subject to certain corrections, 
 nearly all of which are matters of estimate rather than of exact 
 determination. As a starting point, the revolutions are calibrated 
 with reference to speed under standard conditions, draft and 
 trim normal, the bottom clean, and weather moderate. Under 
 these conditions curves are constructed for several speeds by 
 running over a measured course, runs being made in both direc- 
 tions to eliminate the effect of wind and current. It is desir- 
 
!^4 THE COMPASS, LOG AND LEAD SUBMARINE SIGNALS. 
 
 able that these runs be repeated with varying conditions of draft 
 but this is not always practicable. 
 
 For ideal results, runs should also be made with varying condi- 
 tions of trim and fouling of bottom; but data of this character 
 can be gradually accumulated as experience with the ship pro- 
 gresses. Advantage should be. taken of opportunities, such as 
 are constantly arising, for checking the calibration on runs 
 between light-houses and other fixed and charted points, always 
 keeping in mind the possible existence of a current, and noting 
 always the estimated conditions of draft, trim, and bottom. 
 
 If the length of time out of dock were an approximately accu- 
 rate measure of the degree of fouling, the condition of the bottom 
 would always be approximately known, but this is very far from 
 being the case and this element in the problem must be estimated 
 from what is known of the facts. The fouling will be greater in 
 the tropics than in temperate waters ; much greater in salt water 
 than in fresh; much greater for time spent at anchor than for 
 time under way. A foul bottom tends to clean itself in steaming 
 at high speed. A ship badly fouled at sea, lying for a long time 
 in fresh water, rids itself of barnacles but may take on grass. 
 
 The result of what precedes is that the navigator who relies 
 upon revolutions for his dead-reckoning must apply to his 
 standard calibration curve a correction which at any given time is 
 an estimate of the percentage of speed lost or gained by the 
 conditions which he knows to have existed since the last docking 
 of the ship; taking account also of the temporary draft and trim, 
 as well as of the direction and condition of wind and sea. It is 
 the great advantage of a good patent log, carefully calibrated for 
 various speeds, that it gives the actual distance run (through the 
 water) with no other correction than that based upon its own 
 error. 
 
 Vessels like the Trans-Atlantic liners, which make long trips at 
 high speed (and almost unvarying speed) depend, for their dead- 
 reckoning, upon revolutions alone, relying largely upon soundings 
 for checking their positions when approaching land in a fog. 
 So, too, vessels like the Sound and River steamers of the United 
 States, when running in a fog, depend upon revloutions and rarely 
 come to grief. 
 
 "Rut it must be remembered that the masters of these vessels 
 spend years in running over the same routes, with the same ships, 
 
THE COMPASS, LOG AND LEAD SUBMARINE SIGNALS. 135 
 
 under conditions which vary but little from trip to trip ; so that 
 they are able to estimate the factors involved in their navigation 
 with almost perfect confidence. 
 
 It must be understood that all the methods which have been 
 described above give the speed through the water, not over the 
 ground. To get the speed over the ground, use is sometimes 
 made of a "ground-log" consisting of a moderately heavy lead 
 on the end of a log-line. The lead is thrown over and allowed to 
 sink to the bottom, after which the line is paid out and the time 
 noted, exactly as in the case of the chip-log, care being taken not 
 to drag the lead. This method not only gives the speed over 
 the bottom but shows the direction of the set. Its availability is 
 confined to rather shallow water and to very low speeds, but it 
 is often very valuable, especially in confined waters, in a fog, 
 where the force and direction of the current may be of vital im- 
 portance and where the speed is necessarily low. 
 
 To stop the ship dead in the water and put over a ground-log 
 may give information of the greatest possible value as to the 
 direction and force of the current. 
 
 The records given by the logs which have been described above 
 are records of distance and not of speed. From the distance re- 
 corded in any given interval of time we can find the average speed 
 during that interval, but not the actual speed at any instant. 
 
 There are on the market several types of patent logs which 
 depend on the pressure of the water resulting from the speed of 
 the ship. Such a log is the Nicholson, which aims to give both 
 the instantaneous speed and" the distance run. It gives also, in 
 connection with a clock, a continuous graphic record of speed. 
 
 In principle, this log consists of a vertical tube passing through 
 the bottom of the ship and projecting several inches below. The 
 lower end of the tube is closed, but an opening in the forward 
 side gives free entrance to the water, which accordingly rises, 
 when the ship is at rest, to a level corresponding with the level of 
 the water outside ; that is to say, with the momentary water-line 
 of the ship. As the ship moves ahead, the pressure due to her 
 speed is communicated to the column of water in the pipe, where 
 it is added to the pressure due to the " head " of water outside ; 
 with the result that the column rises in the tube to a height which 
 becomes a measure of the speed. Inside the tube is a float, con- 
 nected through suitable gearing with a pointer which indicates 
 
136 THE COMPASS, LOG AND LEAD SUBMARINE SIGNALS. 
 
 the fall and rise of the float, and the corresponding speed. A 
 counter-weight at the other end of the chain balances the float. 
 
 This instrument was at one time very generally used in ships of 
 the United States Navy but it has not proved satisfactory in 
 practice and has been removed from most of the ships. It is 
 described here because the principle upon which it is based is 
 unquestionably sound and one which may ultimately find a more 
 successful application. 
 
 The Forbes Log, which has for some years been used in the 
 British Navy, has recently been supplied to several battleships of 
 the United States Navy. It resembles the Nicholson log in that 
 it uses a tube projecting through the bottom of the ship, with 
 mechanism running from this tube to the chart house and actuat- 
 ing a recorder there. It differs from the Nicholson in that the 
 record of the speed depends not upon the pressure of the water 
 but upon the velocity of a screw rotator carried below the bottom 
 of the ship in the lower end of the projecting tube. The end of 
 the tube is open on both the forward and after sides so that the 
 water has a free course through the orifice in which the rotator 
 is carried. 
 
 V. SOUNDING. 
 
 THE LEAD. 
 
 The ordinary method of getting the depth of water is by 
 means of a "lead" and line. A hand-lead, used for moderate 
 depths, may weigh anywhere from 7 to 14 Ibs. and a good leads- 
 man will get soundings in depths up to 5 fathoms with the ship 
 going 8 knots. If reliable soundings are wanted in depths 
 greater than this, the speed must be reduced or the sounding- 
 machine used. 
 
 The old style of marking the lead-line was as follows : 
 
 At 2 fathoms, with 2 strips of leather. 
 " o " " ? " " " 
 
 " a white rag. 
 | 7 "a red rag. 
 
 " I0 a piece of leather with a hole in it. 
 
 " T 3 the same as at 3 fathoms. 
 
 " je " " - <( 
 
 "17 " j 
 
 " 20 with 2 knots. 
 
 "25 i knot. 
 
THE COMPASS, LOG AND LEAD SUP.MARINE SIGNALS. 137 
 
 The above are called the " marks." The intervening depths 
 are " deeps." 
 
 The old style of reporting the soundings was : 
 
 "By the mark, three!" 
 "By the deep, four!" 
 " A quarter less, three ! " 
 " And a quarter, four ! " 
 etc., etc. 
 
 This method of marking the lead-line and of reporting sound- 
 ings is antiquated and should be obsolete. A lead-line should 
 have a mark for every fathom and half -fathom up to 10 fath- 
 oms; and for a considerable range covering the depths that 
 are critical for the ship using it it should be marked in feet. 
 Thus, if a ship draws 20 feet of water, there should be a mark 
 at every foot between 20 and 30. The soundings should be 
 reported by the leadsman, sharply and clearly, in fathoms and 
 fractions for depths exceeding, say 6 fathoms, and in feet for 
 depths below this. 
 
 The lead-line should be of some material that will neither 
 stretch nor shrink excessively as it is alternately wet and dried. 
 An ideal material for this purpose has yet to be proposed. It 
 may be that wire-rope of sufficient flexibility will some time be 
 put on the market. 
 
 The lead-lines (wet) should be carefully measured and re- 
 marked, each time they are to be used. 
 
 As the mark at the water's edge cannot be seen at night, some navi- 
 gators like to mark their lines in such a way that the depth is indicated 
 by the mark in the leadsman's hand when the line is up and down. This 
 calls for a length of stray line equal to the drift from the water's edge to 
 the leadsman's waist; this distance being laid off on the line before begin- 
 ning to measure for the marks. 
 
 Sounding Machines. There are several types of sounding ma- 
 chines on the market, all depending upon the same principle and 
 differing but little in details. The original machine of this type 
 was invented many years ago by the great Scotch scientist, Lord 
 Kelvin (then Sir William Thomson), and all later machines are 
 based upon the principle which he first applied, the principle of 
 determining the depth of water by the pressure of the water at 
 the depth in question, this pressure being regisered on the inside 
 of a glass tube open at one end and closed at the other. If such 
 
138 THE COMPASS, LOG AND LEAD SUBMARINE SIGNALS. 
 
 a tube, with the closed end up, is lowered in the water, the 
 pressure of the water, acting upon the air with which the tube is 
 filled, compresses the air and forces the water up into the tube to 
 a height which depends upon the pressure and therefore upon the 
 depth. This is the first part of the problem involved. The 
 second part is to find a method of automatically registering the 
 maximum height to which the water has risen in the tube. 
 
 The tubes issued by the maunfacturers for use with the Kelvin 
 Machine are coated on the inside with chloride of silver, a sub- 
 stance which changes color on contact with salt-water. Thu* 
 in taking a sounding the lower part of the tube, up to a point 
 depending upon the depth reached, changes color, leaving a line 
 of sharp demarkation at the point to which the water has risen 
 inside the tube. The height of this mark, measured by a special 
 scale provided with the machine, becomes the measure of the 
 maximum depth to which the tube has sunk. 
 
 For the Tanner-Blish machine, which is very generally used by 
 American ships and especially by the United States Navy, the 
 glass sounding tubes are ground on the inside so that they show 
 clear glass when wet, this being a peculiarity of ground glass. If 
 such a tube is perfectly dry in the beginning, it will, after sound- 
 ing, show clear glass up to the point to which the water has 
 risen, with a sharp line of demarkation between this part and the 
 dry (and clouded) part above. The upper end of the tube is 
 closed by a water-tight cap which can be removed after each 
 sounding to admit of drying the tube quickly, after which the 
 tube is again ready for use. This results in a considerable econ- 
 omy in the expenditure of tubes. 
 
 The Kelvin and Tanner-Blish tubes may be used inter- 
 changeably. 
 
 Whatever type of tube is used, great care should be taken to 
 keep the closed end upward after sounding. If it is capsized, a 
 little water may run into the upper end of the tube and spoil 
 the record. 
 
 Plate 55 shows the Kelvin and Tanner-Blish Machines. Fig. 
 2 shows mechanical details of the Kelvin. The corresponding 
 details of the Tanner-Blish, while differing somewhat from those 
 here shown, are similar in principle. In each machine we have 
 a drum carrying a coil of light but very strong wire rope about 
 200 fathoms in length. The drum is controlled by a brake by 
 which the rate at which the wire runs out can be regulated. Fig. 
 
Plate No. 55. 
 
 139 
 
 SSD& pdpno/0 * 
 
 CD, 
 
I4O THE COMPASS. LOG AND LEAD SUBMARINE SIGNALS. 
 
 5 shows the machine in use. The tube is carried in a metal 
 cylinder for protection and a heavy sinker of lead or iron insures 
 its rapid sinking. 
 
 All being in readiness as shown in the figure, the brake is 
 released and the wire runs out, trailing far astern if the ship is 
 moving at high speed. 
 
 A dial shows the length of wire out at any given instant and the 
 speed of running out is regulated as desired by manipulation of 
 the brake. If the sinker finds bottom, the wire slacks suddenly 
 and the brake must be applied immediately to prevent kinking of 
 the wire. As a further insurance against kinking, it is well to 
 use the brass finger-pin supplied with the machine, keeping a light 
 pressure on the wire as it runs out, and standing by to press down 
 quickly upon the bight of the wire as it slacks. 
 
 The wire should always be stopped while an ample length 
 remains on the drum. 
 
 The length of wire that has run out would be a measure of 
 the depth if the speed of the ship and the friction of the machine 
 were constant. In practice, a quartermaster who is accustomed 
 to his machine and uses his brake uniformly can make a fair 
 estimate of the depth without waiting to reel in and read the tube. 
 Such an estimate may often give an instant warning of danger. 
 In some types of the Kelvin Machine an effort has been made 
 to provide for constant friction on the brake, and a table is issued 
 with the machine giving the depth for different speeds cor- 
 responding to the length of wire out as indicated by the dial. 
 This is valuable, but not sufficiently reliable to replace a careful 
 reading of the tube as soon as this is available. 
 
 For large ships motors are fitted for reeling in the wire. 
 
 It is convenient to mount the sounding machine on the bridge, 
 with an outrigger and a fair-lead block to carry the wire clear of 
 the ship's side. (Plate 55, Fig. 5.) With such an arrangement 
 everything is under the eye of the officer of the watch. 
 
 VI. SUBMARINE SIGNALS. 
 
 This is a system for transmitting sound signals through the 
 water, and receiving them by special instruments on shipboard, 
 the receiving arrangement being of such a nature as to admit of 
 determining, at least approximately, the direction from which the 
 sound is received. It is in fact a system of " Direction Finding " 
 
THE COMPASS, LOG AND LEAD SUBMARINE SIGNALS. 141 
 
 applied to sound closely resembling, in principle and in operation, 
 the Radio Compass as applied to radio waves. 
 
 In its original and simplest form, the form which admits of 
 both sending and receiving from a fixed station but of receiving 
 alone from a moving station, the system is as follows : 
 
 A bell, immersed as far as is convenient below water, is so 
 placed as to mark a danger or a point of importance in piloting, 
 and is automatically sounded at certain intervals with a character- 
 istic signal which fixes its identity. The sound of the bell is trans- 
 mitted through the water, and experiments show that it can be 
 heard without instruments at a distance of several miles, by a lis- 
 tener whose ear is held against the inner skin of a ship below the 
 water-line. It seems to be established that even with this crude 
 arrangement for receiving, sound-signals transmitted through the 
 water are superior in range and reliability to those transmitted 
 through the air. With the special apparatus shown in Plate 56 
 for receiving the sound and transmitting it, magnified, to the ear, 
 the range of audibility is from 10 to 30 miles, depending upon 
 conditions ; that is to say, upon the speed of the ship and the 
 bearing of the bell. High speed is to some extent unfavorable, 
 doubtless because the wash of the water along the side inter- 
 feres with the sound. The bearing of the bell with reference to 
 the ship's head determines the angle at which the sound-waves 
 strike the receiver, the result being that a signal on the beam can 
 be heard much farther than one which is forward of or abaft the 
 beam. 
 
 It the submarine did nothing more than to announce with 
 certainty the proximity of the danger which it marks, it would be 
 a very valuable aid to navigation. But it does much more than 
 this. It fixes the direction of the danger within narrow limits; 
 and in those waters common enough on irregular coasts where 
 the zones of two or more signals intersect (or will intersect when 
 the use of the system becomes more general), the position of 
 the ship may be plotted with considerable accuracy by the cross- 
 ing of the lines of bearing, exactly as in the case of visible bear- 
 ings, though not with the same degree of accuracy. 
 
 The receiving apparatus (Plate 56) consists of a small iron 
 tank attached to the side of the ship, wholly on the inside, and 
 filled with salt water. In this tank is a delicate receiver which 
 takes up the sounds as they come to it through the water and 
 
142 
 
 Plate No. 56. 
 
 Transmitter Case in Hold of Ship. 
 (Connected Electrically with Receiving Telephones in Pilot-House.) 
 
 Direction Indicator and Receiving Telephone. 
 
 SUBMARINE SOUND SIGNALLING APPARATUS. 
 
 Old Type. 
 
THE COMPASS, LOG AND LEAD SUBMARINE SIGNALS. 143 
 
 transmits them through an electric circuit to a telephone in the 
 pilot house or on the bridge. 
 
 A switch admits of throwing in either the starboard or the 
 3ort receiver. If it is desired to listen to both sides, the receivers 
 ire thrown in alternately, by a movement of the switch. If the 
 sound is heard more clearly in the starboard than in the port 
 receiver it is known that the signal lies to starboard. If it is 
 squally clear in both receivers, the signal is directly ahead (or 
 astern). If, as the ship swings, the sound grows fainter in one 
 transmitter and clearer in the other, the signal is drawing toward 
 that beam from which it is heard more clearly. When it is at a 
 maximum it is approximately abeam. 
 
 A signal which is decidedly on one side of the ship will hardly 
 ever be heard through the opposite receiver; but when only a 
 little on one bow, it can usually be heard in the receiver on the 
 opposite bow. Thus, as has been explained, a signal which is 
 nearly ahead and not very far distant may be heard through both 
 receivers. 
 
 If the signal is more distant, the sound will be lost, even in the 
 near receiver, as the ship's head swings up to it, and will not be 
 picked up on the other side until perhaps a point or more on the 
 bow. In this case, its bearing may be taken as approximately 
 midway between the heading en which it is lost and that on which 
 it is again picked up. 
 
 A ship picking up a signal through the starboard receiver 
 knows that the bell lies to starboard and in all probability for- 
 ward of the beam. The sound may be expected to grow clearer 
 until the bell is abeam, and then to grow fainter as it draws abaft. 
 
 If its approximate bearing is wanted before it comes abeam, 
 the course may be changed toward it and the speed reduced if 
 necessary. The bearing is then determined as has been explained 
 above. 
 
 While it is net claimed in the present development of the 
 system that the signals can be heard beyond about 15 miles, 
 there are many cases recorded in which they have been heard 
 at more than twice this distance. Vessels carrying their receivers 
 well below the water-line can hear to a greater distance than 
 others. A vessel at rest hears farther than one that is moving. 
 And certain configurations of the bottom seem to have the effect 
 of gathering up and concentrating the waves of sound and trans- 
 mitting them to a distance, like a megaphone. 
 
144 THE COMPASS, LOG AND LEAD SUBMARINE SIGNALS. 
 
 It is evident that the receivers of a ship can pick up other 
 sounds than those from. a bell and that they may thus be useful 
 for example, in giving notice of the proximity of another ship 
 whose propellers are turning over. The noise of the propellers 
 might in many cases be heard much farther than a fog-whistle 
 When the arrangements described below for transmitting fron 
 vessels underway have been fully perfected, vessels in a fog wil 
 be able to communicate at much greater distances than at pres- 
 ent, and there seems no reason why there should not be devisee 
 some plan perhaps by revolving the receiving instrument for 
 determining the direction from which the signals come, withou 
 the inconvenience and delay incident to such changes of course 
 as have been described in connection with piloting. 
 
 The following is an interesting example of a practical applica- 
 tion of the system : 
 
 Approaching Nantucket light vessel on a west course in a dense fog with 
 a light S. S. E. breeze and smooth sea on May 5, 1906, we heard the sub- 
 marine signal very slightly on our port side in a distance say about 4 
 to 6 miles. When the sound ceased at o.io p. m., I put the vessel on 
 South course and heard the signal then again till 0.45 p. m. I was then 
 sure that I had the light vessel to the eastward and put my course direc 
 for Fire Island light vessel. During all the time we never heard a single 
 sound of the Nantucket light vessel's steam whistle. 
 Yours very truly, 
 
 (Signed) CAPT. R. SAURMANN, 
 
 5. 5. Amerika. 
 
 o.io P.M. West Course 
 
 X 
 
 11.50 A. M. 
 
 * 
 
 Course t, FTC M-d & Nintuckct Light Vtssel 
 
 0.45 P. M. 
 
 With the above apparatus, as has been explained, a ship can re- 
 ceive signals but cannot send them. The Submarine S'.gnal 
 Company has long been engaged in an effort to develop a system 
 which should make sending possible from a moving ship. The 
 Fessenden Oscillator, recently perfected, promises a. solution of 
 the problem. This is both a sending and a receiving instrument. 
 For sending it greatly surpasses the submarine bell both in power 
 and in speed of operation. It can be readily mounted on ship- 
 board and produces signals equally effective whether the vessel 
 is in movement or at rest, gives a signal of full power for any 
 desired time (as contrasted with the bell, the vibrations of which 
 
Plate No. 57. 
 
 145 
 
 LIU UU U U LHUULJ UUU U 
 
 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N 
 
 ODD 
 
 
 
 e 
 
 
 
 PsC.riD. 05C.FLD. Motor Motor 
 40.2 No.l Line Start 
 O O O O 
 
 nnnnnn nil 
 
 PORTOSC. STAR.OSC. 
 
 SWITCHBOARD SUBMARINE SIGNAL SYSTEM. 
 
146 THE COMPASS, LOG AND LEAD SUBMARINE SIGNALS. 
 
 lose their power rapidly), and can start or stop almost instan- 
 taneously. 
 
 As a receiving instrument it is quite as effective as the micro- 
 phone used in the earlier submarine signalling apparatus. 
 
 It is unnecessary to dwell upon the advantages connected with 
 a system like this which makes it possible for a ship to -inter- 
 change signals with another ship or with a shore station, and this 
 without regard to weather conditions, "zones of silence" or 
 "interference." 
 
 Like the microphone tanks of the earlier signalling apparatus, 
 the box containing the oscillator is bolted to the inner skin of the 
 ship well below the water-line, but whereas the tanks containing 
 the microphones of the earlier system were filled with water, the 
 box containing the oscillator is filled with air, and, as it is of the 
 first importance that this air should be dry, it is given a pressure 
 of twenty-five pounds to the square inch before the box is sealed 
 up. 
 
 The oscillator is attached to the skin of the ship in such a way 
 that its diaphragm actually constitutes a part of the ship's plating, 
 a circular hole being cut in the side to admit of this. 
 
 The action of the oscillator is in many respects similar to that 
 of a telephone receiver. The diaphragm is vibrated, as in the tele- 
 phone, by rapid variations in the polarity of an electro-magnet. 
 But as the diaphragm is enormously larger and thicker than that 
 of the telephone, its operation calls for the use of powerful elec- 
 tric currents. The standard type takes a direct current of seven 
 amperes through the main magnetic coil and an alternating cur- 
 rent of eleven amperes through the core. The instrument is 
 operated from a switchboard shown on Plate 57. Sending is done 
 by an ordinary telegraph key ; receiving, by telephone receivers. 
 
 The method of locating the direction of a signal received is 
 exactly the same as with the earlier microphone system which has 
 been fully described. 
 
 There is every reason to believe that the oscillator system will 
 before many years be required as a part of the safety outfit of 
 every seagoing vessel. 
 
(H7) 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 BOATS. 
 II. 
 
 Boats designed to be carried on shipboard are subject to many 
 conditions which define their characteristics within narrow limits, 
 especially as regards their size and weight. These limits are de- 
 termined, first of all, by the specific purposes for which the boats 
 are to be used ; and next by the facilities available for stowing 
 and handling them. 
 
 The boats of a merchant vessel are intended almost exclusively 
 for saving life in circumstances of emergency, when they must 
 be handled by a small number of men and usually under condi- 
 tions of more than ordinary difficulty. It is therefore as im- 
 portant for them to be light and handy as to be roomy and sea- 
 worthy. The boats of men-of-war are used for a great variety 
 of purposes, of which life saving is by no means the first, and 
 in design are necessarily a compromise between conflicting 
 demands. 
 
 Merchant Steamers, and especially passenger steamers (in- 
 cluding transports), are required by law to carry a number of 
 boats proportioned to the maximum total personnel which they 
 are authorized to carry. Moreover, the law prescribes with much 
 detail the character of the boats and the facilities which shall be 
 provided for their stowage and handling. These facilities are 
 directed almost exclusively toward getting the passengers safely 
 away from the ship in case of necessity and ensuring their safety 
 so long as they may be obliged to remain in the boats. Thus the 
 question of lowering the boats and getting them clear of the ship 
 receives vastly more attention than that of hoisting them. In 
 the matter of stowage, also, questions of convenience must be 
 sacrificed wherever necessary for quick and safe handling in an 
 emergency. 
 
 Conditions are entirely different on men-of-war, where every- 
 thing else gives way to military efficiency. Here the boats are 
 stowed and handled as best they may be after every possible 
 
148 
 
 BOATS. 
 
 facility has been provided for pointing and firing the guns. 
 Moreover, since the boats of a man-of-war, instead of being 
 reserved for some special emergency, are designed and used for 
 scores of purposes connected with the everyday life of the ship, 
 the question of hoisting is quite as important as that of lowering. 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF BOATS. (Plates 58 and 59.) 
 
 Boats are made of both wood and metal and by a great variety 
 of systems. In wood, three general types of construction are 
 common: Carvel, Clinker and Diagonal. (Plate 58.) 
 
 In Carvel building (Fig. i), the planks lie alongside each other 
 without overlapping, the seams being calked. Where the build is 
 too light to admit of calking, a narrow batten or riband is run 
 along the seams inside, the calking being in this case limited to the 
 garboard seams and the butting ends of the planks. 
 
 Where heavy boats are built on this system, a second layer of 
 planking is sometimes used inside the frames. 
 
 In Clinker building (Fig. 2), the planks overlap at their edges 
 like the clapboarding on a house, and are fastened to each other 
 as well as to the frames. As the planks thus support each other, 
 this system has greater strength for a given weight than Carvel 
 building and the frames can be placed farther apart. On the 
 other hand, the planks are liable to split along the line of fasten- 
 ings, and repairs called for by this or other injuries to the boat 
 are made with some difficulty because of the necessity of remov- 
 ing several planks to repair one. The seams are not calked, the 
 swelling of the planks causing them to bind tightly upon each 
 other. To keep them tight, the boat should be put in the water 
 frequently, or, if that is impracticable, well wetted with a hose 
 from time to time. 
 
 In Diagonal building (Fig. 3), the planks run diagonally at an 
 angle of 45 from the keel to the gunwale and two thicknesses of 
 planking are used, at right angles to each other. No frames are 
 needed. This is a strong system of building, but necessarily a 
 heavy one. As a rule it is used only for large boats carrying 
 heavy weights. 
 
 The Carvel and Diagonal Systems are sometimes combined, two 
 layers of planking being used, one Carvel laid, the other Diagonal. 
 
 The parts of a boat are shown on Plate 59. 
 
 Metallic Boats. Metallic boats are preferable to wooden ones 
 when they are to be carried in such positions that they are of 
 
Plate No. 58. 
 
 149 
 
150 
 
 Plate No. 59. 
 
BOATS. 151 
 
 necessity exposed to excessive heat and moisture and when they 
 are not to be often used. They are especially desirable for ships 
 which are to spend much time in the tropics. If subject to the 
 sort of treatment that the boats of a man-of-war necessarily re- 
 ceive they would quickly be battered out of shape, and sooner or 
 later punctured, when the problem of repair on shipboard would 
 become a difficult one. 
 
 The plating of metallic boats is of sheet steel, galvanized. The 
 keel, stem and stern-post are sometimes also of steel but more 
 commonly of wood. Especial precautions should be taken in 
 the design to make all parts accessible for inspection, drying, 
 cleaning and painting, to prevent damage from rusting and gal- 
 vanic action, the danger of such damage being the principal ob- 
 jection urged against- this kind of boat. Another objection is, 
 of course, that unless buoyancy is provided by air tanks or other 
 artificial means, the boat will sink immediately if it fills or cap- 
 sizes, whereas a wooden ,boat under these conditions will not 
 only float itself but provide a limited degree of support for the 
 crew. 
 
 Buoyancy of Boats. As a rule, boats carried on shipboard, 
 whether of wood or metal, are fitted with air-tanks for reserve 
 buoyancy. Such tanks are of wood, copper, or galvanized sheet 
 steel. In the United States Coast Guard Service, which probably 
 has as much experience with boats as any other organization in 
 the world, metal has been entirely discarded for wood, the tanks 
 being built-in and made of two layers of planking, tongued and 
 grooved, with canvas and white lead between the layers. 
 
 The position of the air-tanks, especially as regards height, is 
 an important consideration. If carried high, they tend to keep 
 the boat from capsizing and help to right it if it is capsized ; but 
 if above the thwarts, they reduce the space available for pas- 
 sengers and interfere with the handling of the oars. If carried 
 low, they keep down the center of gravity of the boat, not only by 
 their own weight but by lowering the seating space for passen- 
 gers, but this advantage is offset by the fact that they actually 
 increase the difficulty of righting the boat if it is capsized. The 
 general practice is, nevertheless, to place them below the thwarts 
 (Plate 60), but it will be explained later how and to what ex- 
 tent the arrangement is modified in what are specifically de- 
 signed as Self-righting boats. 
 
152 
 
 BOATS. 
 
 CLASSIFICATION OF BOATS. 
 
 . Regulations as to ship's boats are established for United States 
 merchant vessels by the Steamboat Inspection Service under the Depart- 
 ment of Commerce and for British vessels by the Board of Trade. 
 
 Ship's boats are classified as follows: 
 Class I. Rigid-Sided Life boats. Plate 60. 
 
 II. Collapsible-Sided Life boats. Plate 64. 
 " III. Open Boats without Air-tank Buoyancy. 
 
 Classes I and II are sub-divided according to variations of 
 construction into I A, I B, I C and II A, II B and II C, and are 
 required to have air-tank buoyancy proportioned to the number 
 of passengers they are designed to carry. 
 
 Class I A, Plate 60, may be regarded as the standard life boat 
 of the merchant service. It may be eitheit metal or wood ; and if 
 of wood, of either Carvel or Clinker construction. 
 
 The required buoyancy may be given either by tanks running 
 along the side or by compartments at bow and stern, or by a 
 combination of these systems. 
 
 The law requires that a wooden boat of Class I A must have 
 an internal buoyancy by air tanks of at least 10 per cent, of the 
 cubic capacity of the boat, and that a metal boat shall have suffi- 
 cient air-tank buoyancy to make its total equal to that of a cor- 
 responding wooden boat. 
 
 The number of persons that may be carried in a I A boat is 
 found theoretically by allowing 10 cubic feet of space for each 
 person. The practical way of determining this is to decide upon 
 a safe minimum of freeboard for the service required, and then, 
 the boat being in the water, to load to this line with men dis- 
 tributed as they would be distributed in actual service. Nine 
 inches is a fair allowance of freeboard for boats up to 30 feet in 
 length and twelve inches for larger boats. 
 
 Self-Baling Boats. (Plate 61, Figs. 3, 4, 5.) In a self-baling 
 boat, a water-tight deck runs throughout the length of the boat 
 slightly above the load water-line. The space below this is thus 
 converted into a water-tight compartment or a series of such 
 compartments. Extending from the deck down through the 
 bottom of the boat are several water-tight trunks, open at top 
 and bottom, through which any water which accumulates on the 
 deck is carried off. The trunks are in effect neither more nor 
 less than scuppers, or freeing ports. Evidently they cannot take 
 
Plate No. 60. 
 
 153 
 
 FI6.1 
 
 Boats.Chocks, Davits, Lashings 
 
 Buoyancy 
 Tank> 
 
 Buoyancy 
 Tank 
 
 w 
 
 FI6.2 
 
 Box Buoyancy Air-Tank 
 
 Y 
 
 FI6.3 
 
 Cylindrical Buoyancy Air-Tank 
 
 Stern Buoyancy Compartment 
 
 Bow Buoyancy Compartment 
 
 FIG.4 
 
 Buoyancy Air Tank Bow and Stern 
 
 STANDARD SHIP'S LIFE BOAT (CLASS I A). 
 
154 
 
 Plate No. 61. 
 
BOATS. 155 
 
 care of any water which may enter the compartments below the 
 deck from leaks in the side or bottom of the boat. Such water 
 is pumped out by hand-pumps and if discharged on to the deck, 
 flows off through the trunks like water from a breaking sea. 
 
 Self -Righting Boats. (Plate 62.) It is evident, as already 
 explained, that if the buoyancy of a boat can be carried very 
 high there will result a tendency for the boat to right itself if it 
 is capsized, and that this tendency will be increased if the keel is 
 made as heavy as practicable. Self-righting boats are accord- 
 ingly built of such a shape as to admit of carrying the bow and 
 stern air-tanks very high, and are fitted with a heavy keel of iron 
 or lead. 
 
 The self-baling and self-righting features are sometimes com- 
 bined, but only in large boats. (Plate 62, Figs. 4, 5, 6, 7.) 
 
 United States Coast Guard Boats. 
 
 Plates 61 and 62 show a very interesting and instructive group 
 of boats, representing the standard types which have been de- 
 veloped, after many years of experiment, by the United States 
 Coast Guard Service As has been already stated, all air-tanks in 
 these boats are of wood ; two layers of planking being used, with 
 canvas and white lead between the layers. The boats themselves 
 are also of wood. 
 
 Surf Boat. (Plate 61, Fig. i.) Coast and Ship Type. 
 
 Length 26 ft. Weight 2,100 Ibs. For oars and sails. 
 
 Neither self-righting nor self -baling. Air tanks bow and stern. 
 
 This is the so-called " Monomoy " whale boat which has long 
 been used as a surf-boat in the Cape Cod region, one of the 
 wildest parts of the Atlantic Coast. It is light and handy enough 
 to be transported along the beach on a carriage and launched 
 through the surf. Fig. 2 Plate 67 shows this boat fitted for 
 running in through a surf, with a drogue (drag) to prevent 
 broaching to. 
 
 In addition to its use as a surf boat, this type is carried by 
 vessels of the Coast Guard for use as a life boat (hanging from 
 davfts) and for general service such as running lines, com- 
 municating with other ships, etc. 
 
 Self-Baling Surf Boat. (Plate 61, Figs 3, 4, 5.) 
 
 Coast and Ship Type. 
 
 Length 25 ft. 6 in. Weight 2,200 Ibs. For oars and sails. 
 
 Self-baling features : Water-tight deck above load water-line. 
 
156 
 
 Plate No. 62. 
 
BOATS. 157 
 
 Water-tight compartments below deck. Freeing trunks. 
 
 Other features : Water-tight compartments at bow and stern, 
 above deck. Tank near midship section which may be filled with 
 water-ballast by a hand-pump. 
 
 This type is used for the same purpose as that of Fig. I and 
 like the type of Fig. i can be transported on a carriage and 
 launched through the surf. It is sometimes issued to vessels 
 for use as a life boat and is not too heavy to be carried at davits. 
 
 Motor Surf Boat. Self-baling. (Plate 62, Figs, i, 2, 3.) 
 Coast Type. 
 
 Length 26 feet. Weight 3,300 Ibs. Gasoline engine, oars and 
 sails. 
 
 Self -baling and other features as in preceding type. Engine 
 compartment water-tight. 
 
 NOTE. Several boats of this type have been issued to ships of the 
 Navy for test as to their suitability for use as life-boats, replacing the 
 whale boat which has long been the standard Navy Life Boat. 
 
 The motor surf boat, if adopted, will probably be carried on the 
 upper deck to be handled by a crane, special arrangements being made for 
 getting it into the water quickly. 
 
 Motor Life Boat. (Plate 62, Figs. 4, 5, 6.) Self-Baling and 
 Self-Righting. Coast Type. 
 
 Length 36 feet. Weight 14,300 Ibs. 
 
 Self-baling features same as* the other types. 
 
 Self-righting features: High bow and stern air-tanks. High 
 engine compartment, water-tight. Cast-iron keel, 1,800 Ibs. 
 
 This type is too heavy to be launched from an exposed or 
 shallow beach. It is designed for use in localities where sheltered 
 inlets are available as bases from which to operate alone: a con- 
 siderable stretch of coast. This is an extremely capable boat and 
 when once launched will go through practically any surf and live 
 in any sea. 
 
 Shipping Board Boats. The standard boat of the United 
 States Shipping Board and Emergency Fleet Corporation is a 26- 
 foot metallic boat, with sharp bow and stern, with cylindrical air- 
 tanks of galvanized steel running fore and aft under the thwarts. 
 The keel and stem and stern posts are also of steel. 
 
 Steward "Deadrise" Boat. (Plate 63.) This is a metallic 
 boat manufactured by the Steward Davit and Equipment Cor- 
 poration. The flat floor of this design makes it possible to carry 
 the air-tanks lower th'an in a boat with a round bilge and admits 
 
158 
 
 Plate No. 63. 
 
 STEWARD LIFE BOATS, DAVITS AND LOWERING DRUM. 
 
BOATS. 159 
 
 of lowering the thwarts and thus the center of gravity of the 
 loaded boat. The elimination of many of the curves which are 
 involved in the conventional full-bilge design reduces the number 
 of plates and therefore the number of seams and rivets ; and with 
 these, the danger of leakage. Experience appears to justify the 
 further and more important claim that the design has advantages 
 in the matter of seaworthiness. 
 
 The author is in receipt of the following statement from the Third 
 Mate of the Steamer "Liberty Glo " which was cut in two by a floating 
 mine off the coast of Holland, in December, 1919. The boat mentioned 
 was the Steward boat of Plate 63. 
 
 " The boat in which I left the ship proved to be a remarkable sea- 
 boat. We went through breakers that looked miles high, rushing 
 along at express speed, combers covering our boat with a smother of 
 white water, yet at no time did we ever broach. When we had landed, 
 the people of Schiermonnikoog would hardly believe that we had 
 come in through the breakers from the North Sea in an open boat" 
 
 Plate 64 shows the Lundin decked life boat, with col- 
 lapsible sides, capable of carrying 60 passengers with ample re- 
 serve buoyancy. The boat is decked throughout its length and 
 fitted with trunks for self-baling. It will be seen that the col- 
 lapsible feature of the bulwarks adds greatly to the compactness 
 of stowage. The hinged weather boards fold down upon the 
 deck when not needed, but can be quickly raised when the boat is 
 to be used, and lock securely into their places. The space below 
 the deck is divided into water-tight compartments which are in 
 reality air-tanks placed in the very bottom of the boat. This type 
 of boat, in which the buoyancy is secured by a water-tight subdi- 
 vision of the hull of the boat, and not by the addition of air-tanks, 
 is called the Pontoon type. 
 
 It is claimed that the characteristic spoon-shaped bow and stern 
 of the Lundin boat add much to its seaworthiness. 
 
 Life Rafts. Plate 67, Fig. 3, shows an Elliptical Life Raft of 
 a type approved by the Steamboat Inspection Service and by the 
 Navy Department. The elliptical cylinder is sometimes a tubular 
 copper air-tank covered with cork and sometimes is of "balsa" 
 wood, a strong wood lighter than cork, which does not become 
 water-logged. 
 
 The elliptical body carries a net, which, when passengers are on 
 the raft, sinks to $y> feet. In the larger sizes, which are capable 
 of supporting 60 men, a wooden platform is attached to the net 
 to give a more comfortable footing. The smallest size weighs 
 
i6o 
 
 Plate No. 64. 
 
BOATS. l6l 
 
 only 40 pounds, can be launched overboard by one man, and is 
 capable of supporting five persons. 
 
 Man-of-War Boats. 
 
 The boats carried by Men-of-War of the United States Navy 
 are classified as follows : 
 
 Steam Launches ("Steamers"). 
 
 Motor Boats. 
 
 Sailing Launches (with or without motor propulsion). 
 
 Barges (flag ships only). 
 
 Cutters. 
 
 Whale boats. 
 
 Dinghies. 
 
 Motor Dories (Destroyers and Gunboats). 
 
 Steam Launch. (Plate 65, Fig. i.) (Technically called 
 merely a " Steamer.") . A large and very heavy boat, formerly 
 the standard working boat of the Navy but now used principally 
 for towing. This type is recognized as unnecessarily heavy and 
 more or less out of date. It is gradually being replaced by the 
 Motor Boat described below. The 5o-ft. steamer at present car- 
 ried by Dreadnoughts will not hereafter be issued, the 4O-foot 
 steamer being the largest boat of this type to be hereafter con- 
 structed. 
 
 Motor Boat. (Plate 65, Fig. 2.) To replace the Steam 
 Launch. A light, roomy, capable boat, well suited for the gen- 
 eral work of the ship. In the 5o-foot size, weighs 18,000 pounds 
 as against 50,000 pounds for the 5o-foot steamer. 
 
 Sailing Launch. A large, roomy boat, of good beam, flat 
 floor and rather shallow draft, designed for handling men and 
 stores and fitted to carry one or more light guns. Equipped with 
 spars and sails, which however are seldom used although the 
 name " Sailing Launch " continues in use. In modern practice, 
 boats of this class are usually fitted with motors capable of giving 
 a speed of from six to eight knots. As thus fitted, the motor 
 launcJi is the general utility boat of the ship and is to a great 
 extent taking the place of other types for miscellaneous work in 
 port and at sea. (Plate 65.) 
 
 Barge. Any boat, without reference to its type, assigned to 
 the personal use of a Flag Officer, The barge of the present day 
 
1 62 
 
 Plate No. 65, 
 
 FIG. i. STEAMER. 
 
 FIG. 2. MOTOR BOAT. 
 
 FIG. 3. MOTOR SAILER. 
 
 U. S. NAVY BOATS. 
 
BOATS. 163 
 
 is usually a fast, comfortable motor boat of appropriately hand- 
 some appearance. (Plate 66.) 
 
 Gig. Any boat, without reference to its type, assigned to the 
 personal use of a Commanding Officer. 
 
 Cutter. Practically a small launch, though of slightly different 
 build from standard launches. Cutters are being replaced by 
 motor launches. 
 
 Dinghy. A small, square-stern boat, pulling four oars, used 
 for light work in port. 
 
 Whaleboat. A light carvel or clinker built boat, with sharp 
 bow and stern, with a flat floor and considerable sheer, designed 
 to ride over the waves rather than to cut through them. (Plate 
 66, Fig. 2.) A very handy boat and the standard type of life- 
 boat for the Navy, using the term " life-boat " in the narrow 
 sense of a boat carried at davits, swung out-board, and kept 
 always (at sea) in readiness for immediate lowering to pick up 
 a man overboard. Carried in this way, a light handy boat is very 
 convenient, not only for life saving but for use in any emergency 
 calling for quick action. There are, however, serious objections 
 on a fighting ship to carrying boats on davits ; and in view of the 
 facilities now available for handling boats when stowed in-board, 
 there is a growing belief that all boats, at least in battleships, 
 should be carried on an upper deck. It is probable that davits 
 will soon be banished entirely from righting ships, life-boats 
 being carried in-board like other boats, with special arrangements 
 for getting them into the water quickly. 
 
 Motor Dory. This boat is sufficiently described by its name. 
 It is the handy boat of destroyers and gunboats, supplementing 
 the motor sailor, but is badly adapted for its manifold duties. 
 Its speed is low, its capacity limited, and the protection from 
 weather inadequate. 
 
 MODERNIZATION OF NAVY BOATS. 
 
 The movement toward modernizing Navy boats is progress- 
 ing rapidly. The 5o-foot steamer is already being replaced by 
 the 50-foot motor boat. The 4O-foot steamer, while not officially 
 abolished, will gradually be replaced by the 35-foot motor boat. 
 
 The 3<>foot steamer now carried by gunboats and small 
 cruisers and the motor dory carried by destroyers and other 
 small craft will be replaced by a 26-foot motor boat especially 
 designed to meet the needs of these vessels. 
 
1 64 
 
 Plate No. 66, 
 
 > FIG. i. MOTOR BARGE. 
 
 FIG. 2. WHALE BOAT. 
 
 FIG. 3. 26-FT. MOTOR LIFE BOAT. 
 
 U. S. NAVY BOATS. 
 
Plate No. 67. 
 
 165 
 
 FIG. i. NAVY 26- FOOT MOTOR LIFE BOAT. (SPECIAL TYPE) 
 
 FIG. 2. SURF BOAT WITH DROGUE, STEERING OAR, ETC. 
 
 FIG. 3. LIFE RAFTS. 
 
BOATS. 
 
 Most important of all, perhaps, the whaleboat which has long 
 been the standard Navy life boat, as above described, is being re- 
 placed on large ships by the 26-foot motor life boat shown in 
 Fig. 3, Plate 66, which is to be carried on the upper deck and 
 handled by a boat crane. To make it instantly available, the en- 
 gine is turned over daily and a man is kept on watch at the boat's 
 crane at all times (at sea). 
 
 For smaller vessels, the whaleboat will for the present con- 
 tinue in use as the life boat and it is possible that one or two of 
 this type will be carried on battleships in time of peace for pur- 
 poses of exercise and recreation. 
 
 11. THE STOWAGE AND HANDLING OF BOATS. 
 
 Merchant Steamers and Transports usually carry their boats 
 in-board under their davits and resting on chocks, with gripes 
 (lashings) holding them securely and with canvas covers to 
 protect them from the weather. (Plates 60 and 70.) The tackles 
 are kept hooked and hauled taut, with the falls coiled down either 
 inside or outside the boat, preferably outside. If outside, they 
 are usually coiled in a container of some kind to insure their 
 being always clear for running. A better way is to carry the falls 
 on a drum, controlled by a brake, with both falls handled from 
 the same shaft and controlled by the same brake. (Fig. 3, 
 Plate 68.) This makes it possible for one man to lower the boat, 
 keeping it under perfect control, and insures both falls being 
 lowered together. A further advantage of the arrangement, and 
 one which is not always realized, is the smoothness with which the 
 boat can be lowered from a drum as contrasted with the jerkiness 
 which often accompanies the lowering of a boat by easing the fall 
 around a cleat. It has been explained (Chapter VII, 2) that the 
 sudden application of a load greatly increases the effect of the 
 stress and may even double it, a serious matter where the load 
 consists of a life-boat filled .with people. 
 
 Davits. The old-style curved iron davit (Plate 68) is still in 
 very general use although it is being gradually replaced on pas- 
 senger steamers and transports by the patent davits to be here- 
 after described. It rests in a shoe, usually bolted to the side of 
 the ship, and swings on a radius with this shoe as a center. In 
 order that all shall work smoothly, careful attention must be 
 given in the design to the relative positions of the heel of the 
 davit, the head of the davit, and the lifting hook of the boat. 
 
Plate No. 68. 
 
 167 
 
!68 BOATS. 
 
 Also to the distance between the forward and after lifting hooks, 
 and the forward and after davits. The relations of all these 
 features to each other should be such that while the boat is be- 
 ing swung outboard and lowered, the falls shall at all times 
 hang vertically, the ends of the boat being swung, one at a time, 
 in a perfect circle around the heel of the davit. 
 
 In all cases where the boats rest in chocks, it is important to 
 avoid the necessity of lifting the boats to clear them from the 
 chocks. A common arrangement is one in which chocks are 
 used on the in-board side of the boat only ; an iron rod, running 
 along the side of the chock, serving to hold the boat on the out- 
 board side. Plate 70. The gripes by which the boat is held down 
 to the chocks are secured by lashings but can be released instantly 
 by tripping a slip-hook such as is always interposed between the 
 deck lashing and the clamp on the gunwale of the boat. It is not 
 difficult to devise a method by which the canvas cover may be 
 secured so that it can be cast adrift quickly. 
 
 There are several patented systems of boat control, two of 
 which are described below :n which all of the above details are 
 covered by methods which have been carefully worked out and 
 found efficient in practice. The important point is that none of 
 the details should be overlooked ; for any one of them may be of 
 vital significance in an emergency. 
 
 It is of course necessary that the boat-falls should be taut and 
 belayed before the boat is released. 
 
 Attention has already been called to the importance of lowering 
 the boat smoothly and to the fact that this can best be done by 
 a drum controlled by a brake. Where no such arrangement is 
 provided, the fall may be led through a snatch-block and taken 
 to a bollard or bitt around which it will run smoothly. The 
 snatch-block must be as near as possible to the heel of the davit, 
 especially if the davits are of the old fashioned type. 
 
 Where it is necessary to lower from a cleat, the fall should be 
 belayed in such a way that when it comes to lowering there will 
 be no danger of jamming by reason of one turn riding over 
 another. If, in belaying, the first turn is taken around the shank 
 of the cleat and the later turns in figure-of-eight fashion around 
 the horns, the fall can be eased away in lowering without any 
 turn binding upon any other. 
 
 Mechanical Davits. Plates 63 and 68 show two of the best 
 known and most efficient types of mechanical davits, the 
 
Plate No. 69. 
 
170 BOATS. 
 
 Steward* and the Wclin.- While resembling each other in many 
 respects, they differ in the principle utilized for multiplying 
 power ; but in both cases the result is that the boat can be cleared 
 away, swung out and lowered by two men, and in a very short 
 time. 
 
 Nesting Boats. (Plate 70.) With certain types of boats and 
 davits it is possible to carry two boats under a single set of 
 davits. This is a great economy of space and where the space 
 gained is utilized to increase the number of boats carried, it is a 
 very desirable feature. But a given number of boats will be 
 more accessible when each boat has its own davits. 
 
 Many seamen contend that the boats of passenger steamers and 
 transports should be carried hanging at their davits and swung 
 out, under all ordinary circumstances, and rigged in only in very 
 bad weather. The fact that all well-organized steamers habitu- 
 ally carry one or two boats in this way is sufficient evidence that 
 it is not impracticable, although the wear and tear upon blocks 
 and falls would doubtless entail considerable expense. 
 
 Captain Mills of the Steamship Westcrnland writes to the author in 
 reply to the question whether he considers it practicable to carry the 
 boats of an ocean steamer swung out. " Yes, I have carried this ship's 
 largest boats (548 cubic feet) swung out in several heavy gales and I 
 think they are safer there than "in chocks unless the vessel is very low in 
 the water." 
 
 Whatever may be thought of the feasibility of this plan in 
 general, there can be no question that all the boats of a passenger 
 steamer should be cleared away and kept ready for lowering at 
 certain times of exceptional danger; as, for example, when run- 
 ning through crowded waters in a fog, or through a danger zone 
 in time of war. 
 
 The photograph of the Olympic from an air-plane reproduced 
 in Plate 71 shows the practice followed by transports during the 
 World War. 
 
 Unless the boats and all their fittings are inspected frequently 
 and thoroughly, there will be trouble when they are wanted. The 
 custom in well-ordered vessels is to overhaul everything when 
 preparing for sea and at regular and frequent intervals afterward ; 
 examining and oiling all parts of the disengaging gear and all 
 blocks, swivels, etc. The boats are swung out before starting 
 
 1 Steward Davit and Equipment Corporation, New York. 
 
 2 American Balsa Company, New York. 
 
Plate No. 70. 
 
172 
 
 Plate No. 71. 
 
 S. S. OLYMPIC FROM AN AIRSHIP. 
 
BOATS. 173 
 
 on a trip, and, if possible, lowered and hoisted to make sure that 
 everything is in good working order. All the fittings and equip- 
 ments of the boats (see list below) are inspected, water-breakers 
 and bread-tins emptied, cleaned and refilled. Both at sea and in 
 port, wooden boats are wetted frequently to keep the seams tight, 
 but are never allowed to lie for long periods of time with water in 
 them, as this rots the wood and rusts the fittings. 
 
 Plugs, if removable, are habitually kept out, but especial care 
 must be taken to insure that they are secured in such a way that 
 they cannot be lost. In modern practice boats are required by 
 law to be fitted with automatic plugs. 
 
 DETACHING APPARATUS (RELEASING GEAR). 
 The most important requisite for a detaching apparatus is that 
 it shall be incapable of releasing one end of the boat before the 
 other. 
 
 There is much difference of opinion whether the boat should 
 be detached while it is still clear of the water or not until it is 
 " waterborne," but there can be little doubt that the ideal mechan- 
 ism is one which may be operated under either of these condi- 
 tions and which, in addition to releasing both ends of the boat 
 simultaneously, makes provision for lowering the boat on an 
 even keel. 
 
 The following are the requirements of the United States and 
 British Governments in the matter : 
 UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT: 
 
 The life-boats shall be provided with suitable boat disengag- 
 ing apparatus, so arranged as to allow such boats to be safely 
 launched while such vessels are under speed or otherwise, and 
 so as to allow such disengaging apparatus to be operated by 
 one person disengaging both ends of the boat simultaneously 
 from the tackles by which it may be lowered to the water. 
 BRITISH BOARD OF TRADE : 
 
 All disengaging gears must be so arranged as to ensure si- 
 multaneous release of both ends of the boat. 
 
 The means of effecting release must be placed aft so as to 
 be under the personal control of the coxswain in charge of the 
 boat. 
 
 The action should be such that the hook offers no resistance 
 to release should there be a towing strain on the falls. 
 
 The hooks must be suitable for instant unhooking by ha.nd % 
 
174 
 
 BOATS. 
 
 The gear and mechanism for effecting release must be sucl 
 and so arranged as to insure the safety of the boat indepen- 
 dently of any " safety pins." 
 
 No part of the gear taking the weight of the boat is to 
 made of cast metal. 
 TESTS : 
 
 Boat fully waterborne. 
 
 Boat partially waterborne, one end being out of the water. 
 
 With the keel of the boat just clear of the water. 
 
 Automatic Releasing Hooks. 
 
 Plate 72 shows a form of releasing hook used in the United 
 States Navy. The hook is in two parts, hinged one upon the 
 other with a double joint. The outer part, which forms the point 
 cf the hook, is weighted, and falls down when free to do so, dis- 
 engaging itself from the link in the boat. The release can act 
 only when the boat is waterborne, as the weight of the boat at 
 other times holds up the other part of the hook. For hooking 
 on, a lanyard attached to the point of the hook is rove through 
 the link in the boat, and the hook is pulled through with this 
 and held up in place until jammed by the weight of the boat. 
 
 To insure detaching both ends together, the falls are rove of a 
 single length of rope " on the bight." This being the case, as 
 soon as one hook is disengaged the slack is communicated to the 
 other fall and the second hook released also,. 
 
 The following directions are from a pamphlet issued by the 
 manufacturers of the device: 
 
 Mode of Reeving the Falls. " If the boat is always carried out- 
 board two single swivel blocks should be seized to the cranes about 
 six inches from the upper blocks at the davit heads. The falls must 
 be in one piece, and should be passed through the two single blocks 
 until the same amount of rope is on each side of the davits, then go 
 to the lower and upper blocks, the same as if reeving off a set of 
 davit falls ordinarily, with this exception bring the hauling part of 
 the forward fall through the forward sheave of the upper forward 
 block, and the hauling part of the after fall through the after sheave of 
 the after upper block. A piece of ' ratlin stuff ' spliced around a 
 bull's-eye and rove in the bight of the falls between the two single 
 blocks, so that it will play freely between them, will enable one to 
 secure the bight and control it if necessary, and by setting a strain on 
 it hoist the hooks clear of the boat when they are detached. Keep- 
 ing a strain on the bight and the falls, after the boat is hooked on, 
 takes up whatever slack there is when the sea lifts the boat. By 
 
Plate No. 72. 
 
 175 
 
 FIG. t. 
 
 FIG. 2. 
 
 FIG. 3. 
 
 AUTOMATIC RELEASING HOOKS (U. S. NAVY), 
 
176 BOATS. 
 
 stopping the bight between the two single blocks, the falls will act in- 
 dependently of each other and are similar to an ordinary set of davit 
 falls. 
 
 " If the boat is carried inboard, the single blocks should be made 
 fast around the necks of the upper blocks with a grommet strap, so as 
 to allow them to swing in and out with the cranes; by doing this the 
 bight of the falls will swing clear of the upper blocks," 
 
 The Rottmer Detaching Gear. 
 
 Plate 73 illustrates this gear, which is used in the United 
 States Transport service, where it is viewed with much favor. 
 
 A rod, made in sections connected by knuckle joints, runs 
 along the keel of the boat, and ends, forward and aft, in a con- 
 nection, also by a knuckle joint, to an upright locking bolt which 
 carries the detaching hook and mechanism. The upper end of 
 this bolt is a cup, open on one side. 
 
 The detaching hook is pivoted; and when turned down, en- 
 gages the cup on the end of the locking bolt. 
 
 If this bolt is so turned that the opening in its cupped upper 
 end is in line with the point of the detaching hook, the hook 
 is free to open, and the boat, if hooked on, is at once released. 
 
 If, the hook being turned down, we turn the locking bolt in 
 'such a way that the wall of the cup holds it from swinging clear, 
 the hook is closed, and the boat may be hooked on. 
 
 Thus the key to the working of the gear lies in the position 
 of the cupped head of the locking bolt ; and this is regulated by 
 the position of the rod, which, as already stated, runs the length 
 of the boat and connects the mechanism at the two ends. 
 
 The turning of the rod, and hence of the locking bolt, is de- 
 termined by the position of a lever, shown in the sketch. When 
 this lever is in the upright position, where it is secured by a pin, 
 the locking bolt is in the locking position, the point of the de- 
 taching hook is held secure, and all is ready for hooking on. 
 
 If the lever is turned down, the locking bolt revolves, bringing 
 the open section of the cup in line with the point of the hook, 
 which is thus released. 
 
 Steward Releasing Gear. (Plate 74.) 
 
 In this device, the boat is held by a lifting hook, A, which 
 hangs eccentrically on the pivot-bolt B, between the side-plates 
 of the frame C. The hook is extended beyond and below the 
 pivot bolt by the shank, D, which, in the normal position of the 
 
Plate No. 73. 
 
 177 
 
 o: 
 < 
 
 UJ 
 
 O 
 
 x 
 o 
 < 
 
 UJ 
 
 Q 
 
 QC 
 LU 
 
 O 
 
 cr 
 
178 
 
BOATS. 179 
 
 gear, is prevented from swinging (to capsize the hook) by the 
 clevis bolt F. With the gear in this position (Fig. i) the link of 
 the lower tackle-block may be engaged in the hook by slipping it 
 past the retaining pawl, G, which lifts freely but drops back im- 
 mediately and holds the link from unhooking. Fig. I shows 
 the condition of the gear when the boat is hooked on, either for 
 hoisting or for lowering. 
 
 To release the link (and the boat) it is necessary that the 
 clevis bolt F should be withdrawn sufficiently to let the shank of 
 the hook swing clear, permitting the hook to capsize (Fig. 2). 
 The withdrawal of the clevis bolt is effected by the vertical shaft, 
 H, which is drawn downward through the slot K by the turning 
 of the eccentric M, on the end of the horizontal shaft, P. The 
 horizontal shaft is held against turning by the lever, L, which is 
 normally turned doivn and securely engaged in a casting bolted 
 to the bottom of the boat (port side) (Fig. 3). 
 
 To release the boat, the toggle pin holding the lever in " secure '* 
 position is withdrawn, and the lever thrown to starboard, turning 
 the horizontal shaft P and with it the eccentric, M. The throw 
 of the eccentric draws down the vertical shaft, H, and with it 
 the clevis bolt, F, releasing the shank of the hook, and allowing 
 the hook to capsize and throw off the link of the tackle-block and 
 release the boat. 
 
 To hook on, the hook A is turned down to its normal position, 
 the releasing lever thrown down to port and secured, carrying 
 the clevis bolt up to the point where it engages the shank of the 
 hook. The link of the tackle-block is snapped in, past the retain- 
 in pawl, and all is ready for hoisting. 
 
 The parts of this gear are strong and rigid, and the mechanism 
 direct acting. It appears to comply with the rules which have 
 been quoted as those of both the United States Steamboat In- 
 spection Service and the British Board of Trade. 
 
 The Mills Releasing Gear. (Plate 75.) 
 
 In this gear the lifting-hook A is pivoted in the forked upper 
 end of a lifting-bolt strongly secured to the keel of the boat. On 
 the reverse shank of the hook is a heavy metal ball B, the weight 
 of which tends to keep the hook upright at all times, whether 
 the hoisting tackle is hooked or not. The apparatus is mounted 
 in the boat in such a way that the hook stands approximately 
 
i8o 
 
 Plate No. 75. 
 
BOATS. l8l 
 
 flush with the bow (or stern) sheets of the boat, with a slot 
 through which the gear is operated. The link L on the lower 
 tackle-block engages the lifting hook in the usual manner, and 
 so long as the weight of the boat is supported by the link and 
 hook, the hook cannot be turned to release the link. This means 
 that the boat can be released only when it is water-borne, and 
 then only by the actual lifting of the ball B by an applied force. 
 A chain leads from the ball B at each end of the boat to a sheave 
 attached to the structure of the boat above the ball, and thence 
 along the side to a releasing handle, where the chains from bow 
 and stern are coupled up in such a way that the pulling of this 
 handle lifts both balls (bow and stern) simultaneoulsy releasing 
 both ends of the boat. 
 
 The Broady Releasing Gear. (Plate 75.) 
 
 This gear, like the Mills, which it somewhat resembles, is much 
 used in the American Merchant service and by the Shipping 
 Board. Its details and operation are made clear in the illustra- 
 tion. It can be worked with the boat either waterborne or clear 
 of the water. 
 
 Carrying a Life-boat Rigged Out. (Plate 68.) 
 
 As has been already explained, most ships, and practically all 
 men-of-war, when at sea, carry a life-boat hanging from davits 
 on the quarter, ready for lowering in the event of a man over- 
 board (Plate 68). The boat is griped in, to prevent swinging, 
 the gripes being secured by a slip-hook which can be released in 
 an instant. A sea-painter, from a point well forward on the ship, 
 is taken into the boat through a. rowlock on the in-board side and 
 made fast to a thwart in such a way that it can be quickly cast 
 adrift, leaving a turn around the thwart. Life-lines are hung 
 from a span between the davit heads. The falls are kept clear 
 for lowering and should be belayed on their cleats (if cleats are 
 used) in such a way that they will not jam. If the boat is not 
 fitted with an automatic plug, two plugs should be at hand and 
 secured by lanyards to avoid possibility of loss. The rudder 
 is shipped, or, better, a steering oar ready in its crutch. Life 
 belts should be in the boat for the whole crew, and water, pro- 
 visions, compass, lanterns, signals, etc., in place. 
 
1 82 BOATS. 
 
 To Lower a Boat at Sea in Bad Weather. 
 
 Having to lower a boat at sea, a lee boat is always selected, a 
 lee being made, if necessary, by changing the course of the ship. 
 
 It is customary to bring the sea a little on the bow, but in this 
 position the lee for the boat is very far from perfect. The ship 
 will roll and pitch considerably, and waves will wash along to 
 leeward, making things very ugly at times. Some seamen prefer 
 to bring the sea on the quarter rather than the bow. Others 
 advise lying in the trough of the sea notwithstanding the heavy 
 rolling. 
 
 The best position will doubtless depend upon the build and 
 trim of the ship and the nature of the sea. In any case, oil 
 should be used both ahead and astern of the boat. The ship 
 should be kept moving slowly ahead. A sea-painter from well 
 forward in the waist of the ship should be brought into the boat 
 through the inboard bow rowlock and tended by the second bow 
 oarsman with a turn around the thwart. It must not be made 
 fast. 
 
 To keep the boat from swinging, frapping-lines may be passed 
 around the falls, the ends leading inboard and holding the boat 
 close in to the side as it is lowered. In some ships jackstays 
 are fitted from the davit-heads to the side of the ship, with 
 lanyards travelling up and down. A turn is taken with the 
 lanyard under a thwart or around the standing part of the fall 
 and the boat is held in, near the side, as by the frapping-line 
 above described. Under no circumstances should the lanyard be 
 secured to the boat otherwise than as described (by passing it 
 under the thwart and holding on by hand). Life-lines hanging 
 from the davit-head and from the span assist in steadying the 
 boat and give the crew something to hold on to in case of acci- 
 dent. A hatchet in the boat is handy if anything jambs at a 
 critical moment. 
 
 The great danger, both in lowering and immediately after- 
 wards, is that the boat will be dashed against the side. The 
 painter brought in on the inner bow as already described helps to 
 sheer her off as she strikes the water, and the helm may be lashed 
 hard-over toward the ship for the same purpose. 
 
 A steering-oar is better than a rudder, and where it is used 
 the coxswain sheers the bow out by throwing the stern in as the 
 boat strikes the water. 
 
BOATS. 183 
 
 The after fall is always unhooked first, except when a detach- 
 ing apparatus releases both ends simultaneously. 
 
 Under no circumstances short of the most imperative necessity 
 should a boat be lowered while the ship has sternway, and it is 
 always desirable to have a little headway. There is much differ- 
 ence cf opinion as to the speed at which it is sate to lower a boat, 
 an important question in picking up a man overboard. Many 
 officers, having seen boats lowered without accident at speeds as 
 high as eight and ten knots, maintain that it is perfectly safe to 
 lower at this speed. A more conservative view fixes the maxi- 
 mum at something like half this speed. It is safe to say that 
 there is far less danger at five knots than ten, and most practical 
 men would prefer to wait a little longer rather than to take the 
 chance of having to deal with a whole boat's crew in the water. 
 
 Lowering a Stern Boat. 
 
 Here, as soon as the boat touches the water, the after fall is 
 1 ^t po altogether and the boat allowed to swing at once parallel 
 to the course of the ship, towing by the forward fall, which is 
 then unhooked or, in an emergency, allowed to unreeve. 
 
 Hoisting. 
 
 To hook on and hoist a boat in a seaway is quite as difficult as 
 to lower and detach it. The ship is handled in such a way as to 
 make a good lee, and it is well that she should be moving very 
 slowly through the water, but the screws should be stopped while 
 working with the boat. The falls are overhauled ready for hook- 
 ing on, but it is a good plan to have a hand at each davit-head 
 holding the blocks clear as the boat comes alongside to avoid 
 danger of hitting the men in the boat. The falls are well manned, 
 with force enough to run away when ordered to do so. If a 
 winch is to be used, the proper turns are taken loosely around 
 the drum and the winch is started. The sea-painter, from well 
 forward, is led aft and held in a coil by a good man who stands 
 by to throw it to the bow oarsman in the boat at just the right 
 instant. It is convenient to have a light line bent to the painter 
 near the end for hauling it in for another throw in case of miss- 
 ing the boat. 
 
 The officer who is to direct the maneuvre should take his 
 
i& 4 BOATS - 
 
 place on the rail as close as possible to the point where the boat 
 is to be hoisted. 
 
 The boat pulls near the ship abreast of her falls or a little 
 astern of them, and waits to receive the line, the bow oarsman 
 laying in his oar and standing by. The line is thrown and caught, 
 and a turn is taken around the forward thwart. The oars are 
 then laid in as quickly as possible and the boat is dropped in 
 alongside the ship and under her falls by careful use of the steer- 
 ing oar; being hauled ahead slowly, if necessary, by the sea- 
 painter, which is manned on board the ship by a few men only. 
 If the coxswain is skilful, he will work her slowly in, first canting 
 her head slightly toward the ship and then catching her before 
 she can touch, by -throwing her stern in enough to straighten her 
 up parallel to the ship. 
 
 Two men stand by to breast her off with boat-hooks if neces- 
 sary. 
 
 If the ship is making way through the water, a line should be 
 used from the stern of the boat, leading well aft on the ship, to 
 hold the boat from launching forward as she leaves the water. 
 
 The men who are to hook on forward and aft see the links in 
 the boat ready and stand by with the lower blocks. Oil should 
 be used to calm the sea if necessary. When all is ready in the 
 boat and on deck, watch for a smooth time and as the ship starts 
 to roll toward the boat, hook on forward, then aft ; then, " Set 
 taut!" "Hoist away!" 
 
 Man-of-War Rules with Regard to Life-Boats. 
 
 At Sea. When at sea, every ship shall at all times keep on each 
 side, ready for lowering, a boat which is best adapted for a life-boat. 
 
 At the beginning of every watch at sea, the officer-of-the-deck shall 
 have the life-boat crew of the watch mustered abreast the lee boat, 
 and the coxswain of the life-boat crew of that watch shall satisfy 
 himself by personal inspection that both life-boats are ready for lower- 
 ing, and shall report the fact to the officer-of-the-deck. 
 
 A life-boat is secured for sea, i. e., ready for lowering, when in the 
 following condition : Boat at the davits, griped in, falls clear, detach- 
 ing apparatus ready for detaching at the word, steering-car shipped in 
 crutch, oars fitted with trailing lines and ready for getting out quickly, 
 rowlocks shipped and fitted with lanyards, plug in, sea-painter half- 
 hitched around forward thwart, life-lines bent to span, life-belts in boat, 
 lantern filled and trimmed (and at night, lighted), and all other articles 
 of the boat-equipment in the boat and ready for use, with two days' 
 water and provisions for the crew. When the coxswain of the life-boat 
 
BOATS. 185 
 
 crew of the watch reports a life-boat ready for lowering, it is under- 
 stood that the boat is in the above condition and that the crew of the 
 watch have been mustered, each man abreast his own thwart (or sta- 
 tion) of the lee boat, and that each man understands his duties at 
 " Man-overboard." In lowering, the officer or coxswain in charge of 
 the lifeboat will give the command for detaching. 
 
 EQUIPMENT OF BOATS. 
 
 In preparing a list of articles for the proper equipment of a 
 boat, it is necessary to consider the service for which the boat 
 may be needed. One which is to be carried at the davits ready 
 for lowering at a moment's notice to pick up a man overboard 
 calls for a very different outfit from one which is never to be 
 used except in case of disaster to the ship. 
 
 The following list includes all articles of ordinary equipment ; 
 others may be needed for special service of various kinds : 
 
 1. Set of oars, with spare for one thwart, with trailing lines if used. 
 
 2. Set of rowlocks, if used, secured by lanyards, with two spare. 
 
 3. Set of stretchers. 
 
 4. Plug, secured by lanyard, unless boat fitted with automatic plug. 
 5- Rudder and tiller, with lanyards. 
 
 6. Three boat-hooks. 
 
 7. Breaker, kept filled with good drinking water and cairying three 
 days' supply for crew. 
 
 8. Fenders. 
 
 9. Compass. 
 
 10. Lantern. 
 
 11. Bucket. 
 
 12. Boat-box containing tools and material for meeting emergencies 
 which may arise on distant service. 
 
 Items i .to 12 are, as a rule, kept in all boats at all times, except that 
 the compass and lantern may be removed for safe-keeping when the 
 boat is not to be used for some time. 
 
 13. Anchor, with chain or good line. 
 
 14. Sails and spars, or sea-anchor. 
 
 15. Tarpaulin. 
 
 16. Boat's ensign, with staff. 
 
 17. Hand grapnels, with light chain or line. 
 
 18. Rifle and shot gun, with ammunition. 
 
 19. Provisions; usually bread and canned meats, and emergency rations. 
 
 20. Night signals or other fire-works of some satisfactory kind for at- 
 tracting attention at night. 
 
 21. Hand signal flags. 
 
 22. Crutch and steering oar for boats using them. 
 
 23. Life belts (life boats only). 
 
 Items 13 to 23 are kept in the boat whenever they are likely to be 
 needed. 
 
1 86 BOATS. 
 
 24. Package medical and surgical "First Aid" supplies. 
 
 25. Sextant and general chart. (Put in at time of emergency if indi- 
 cated by conditions.) 
 
 The English Board of Trade rules require sails and spars, and 
 a sea-anchor. The insistence upon sails and spars clearly con- 
 templates the possibility of a trip of some length after leaving 
 the ship. No doubt such trips have been made by boats under 
 sail, but in a great majority of cases the space occupied by the 
 sails and spars could be utilized to better advantage for passen- 
 gers, even if the boat were reduced to waiting helplessly for a 
 passing vessel. A sea-anchor would be useful in a gale, but need 
 only be carried if sails are omitted, as these two would never 
 be wanted at the same time and the sails and spars lashed 
 together (with sails loosed) make a perfectly efficient sea-anchor. 
 
 Handling Heavy Boats by a Crane. 
 
 The heaviest boats carried by merchant vessels do not as a 
 rule exceed about 5 tons in weight, and the problems of lower- 
 ing and hoisting them present no serious difficulties except such 
 as arise from unfavorable conditions of weather, collision, etc. 
 They are in practically all cases handled by davits ; and the me- 
 chanical davits and releasing gears already described have solved 
 many of the problems connected with their use. 
 
 The steamers and motor boats carried by men of war may 
 weigh as much as 20 tons. They are handled by booms or cranes 
 of special design, and extra heavy fittings are provided for hoist- 
 ing and lowering. 
 
 Plate 76 shows the boat-crane of a battleship and the slings and 
 other fittings for hoisting a 2O-ton boat. As the slings and the 
 crane-block are heavy and unwieldy, the matter of handling them 
 is always difficult and becomes not only difficult but dangerous 
 when the boat is tossing about in a rough sea. The matter is 
 greatly simplified by the use of the safety runner^ shown in Plate 
 76, which has been officially adopted as an attachment to all 
 boat-crane hooks. 
 
 The following description of the runner and its uses is from 
 a circular issued by the Bureau of Construction and Repair under 
 date of May 2, 1916. 
 
 1 Devised by Captain W. L. Littlefield, U. S. Navy. 
 
Plate No. 76. 
 
 187 
 
 Method of Lowering 
 Boat Slings 
 
 FIG. 2 
 
 Slmgsfor Hoisting a. Heavy Boat 
 (Steam Launch, Unfted States Navy) 
 
 FIG. 3 
 
 HANDLING A HEAVY BOAT. 
 
1 88 BOATS. 
 
 "The device consists of a wire about 3*4 fathoms long made fast to 
 the hook of the lower crane block. The wire has an eye splice worked 
 in the free end and the standing part is rove through a l /z inch hole 
 drilled about three inches long, axially, in the point of the hook, and the 
 end knotted. The sketch shows a more flexible fastening to the point of 
 the hook. 
 
 "It is useful in hoisting boats in a heavy seaway as the wire may be 
 rove through the ring of the slings, and a heaving line bent to the eye 
 splice, the other end of the heaving line being kept on deck. The ring of 
 the slings and the crane block remain above the heads of the crew and 
 clear of such parts of the boat as might be damaged, until a compara- 
 tively calm spell presents an opportunity for hoisting, when, by quickly 
 taking in the slack of the heaving line, the wire will run the ring on to 
 the hook. 
 
 " It is particularly serviceable in lowering the slings of steamers into 
 a boat for hooking on. In this case the wire is rove through the ring of 
 the slings, and a line from deck bent to the wire, before the slings are 
 sent down to the steamer. The crane block is lowered just far enough to 
 permit the wire to take the weight of the slings while they are being 
 made fast, the end of the line on deck being hauled in and paid out just 
 enough to keep control. 
 
 "As before, when a comparatively calm spell presents itself, lowering 
 the block slightly and heaving in on the wire will run the ring onto the 
 hook and the boat can be hoisted. 
 
 " This arrangement also serves for quick detachment and is better than 
 a toggle and strap for this purpose. In this case, the ring of the slings 
 is put over the point of the hook and the bight of the wire. Hauling on 
 the wire will straighten the bight and lift the ring clear of the hook as 
 soon as there is the least slacking of the slings." 
 
 Where a heavy boat is to be lowered or hoisted at sea in bad 
 weather, the ship brings the sea a little on the off bow to give a 
 lee, and uses oil if necessary, making a " slick " in which the 
 boat will be comparatively quiet. The ship may be stopped, or 
 making just enough way through the water to maintain the 
 course that is found best for the boat. If the ship is moving it 
 must be remembered that the boat will tend to surge forward 
 as it leaves the water. This calls for a good stern line leading 
 well aft, in addition to the regular steadying lines, bow and stern, 
 which are always used in hoisting a boat at sea. If the ship is 
 rolling enough to involve danger that the boat will swing in 
 against the side, special fenders should be provided. For im- 
 provised fenders, hammocks answer very well. 
 
 All preparations having been made, including hanging the 
 slings from the bight of the safety runner, the boat is brought 
 
BOATS. 189 
 
 under the crane, the boat rope and steadying lines are passed, and 
 the crane-block is lowered. The slings hang slack in the bight of 
 the runner while their lower ends are hooked in the boat, Fig. I, 
 Plate 76. When all is ready, advantage is taken of a quiet 
 moment to run the ring of the slings into the hook of the crane- 
 block and start the winch: 
 
 In getting out the boat (at sea), the ship makes a lee as for 
 hoisting, the boat-rope and steadying lines are passed as before, 
 except that no special stern line is needed. The boat is lowered 
 until just clear of the water, and at a favorable moment 13 
 lowered quickly. As soon as it is waterborne, slacking the slings, 
 the ring of the slings is run clear of the hook by a pull on the 
 runner, which in this case is rove as in Fig. 4. 
 
 It will be noted that the safety runner as thus used is a simple 
 and very efficient releasing apparatus. 
 
 IIT. NOTES ON THE CARE OF STEAM LAUNCHES AND 
 MOTOR BOATS OF MEN OF WAR.* 
 
 Each steam launch should have two crews, assigned to dif- 
 ferent watches in the engine room, so that there will always be 
 one crew off duty and ready to go in the boat when the ship en- 
 ters or leaves port, without calling upon men to leave their 
 stations in the engine room. Any man of ordinary intelligence 
 can soon be taught how to do the routine work required of the 
 fireman and coal passer, provided that one of the mechanics of 
 the ship exercises strict supervision of the machinery and keeps 
 it in repair. 
 
 When a vessel is about to enter port notice should be given 
 one-half hour or more in advance to the fireman in charge of 
 the launch, who should see that the boat is supplied with fuel 
 and fresh water, that all parts of the machinery are connected, 
 that bolts, nuts, keys, split pins, oil cups, steam- and water-gauge 
 lamps are in place, all usual and necessary tools on board, the 
 boiler filled to proper level with fresh water, the cocks at the top 
 and bottom of the water gauge open, and the engines oiled and 
 turned by hand. 
 
 The water used in the launch boiler should always be ob- 
 tained by distilling on board. Fresh water from shore often 
 
 1 Although steam launches are being gradually replaced by motor boats, 
 large numbers of them will continue in use in the Navy for many years. 
 
I go BOATS. 
 
 contains corrosive ingredients or lime salts, and should never 
 be used unless chemical tests show that it is free from these 
 impurities. 
 
 When the launch is about to be lowered it will often be 
 practicable to start fires at once and to have steam ready by 
 the time the boat is in the water. As soon as the launch is in 
 the water, if not before, the feed pump or pumps must be 
 worked by steam, the engines turned back and forth, the 
 whistle, safety valve and bell tried. If at such times any of the 
 machinery fails to work it is better to try to discover the cause 
 by reasoning and by simple experiments rather than to use up 
 time taking the machinery apart to see what is wrong inside, 
 and to run the risk of twisting off studs, losing nuts and spoil- 
 ing gaskets. 
 
 Reciprocating Engines. If an engine or pump stop-valve is 
 detached from its stem, and steam-pressure is on top of the valve, 
 no steam gets to the engine and none comes out of either cylin- 
 der drain. 
 
 If steam comes out of both cylinder drains at the same time, 
 the slide valve must leak. 
 
 If opening the drains shows that there is a good head of 
 steam against one side of a pump piston and the piston does not 
 move, then there may be a stop valve shut in some part of the 
 exhaust pipe, or a stop valve in the exhaust pipe may be off 
 its stem and kept shut by the pressure of the exhaust steam. 
 
 If on opening the drains it is found that there is a good head 
 of steam acting against the piston and the piston does not 
 move, shut off steam and open the drains on the water end and 
 let out the water, then use a lever and try to move the pump 
 piston by hand and see if it is stuck. It may be stuck from the 
 steam piston being rusted in place, or from the piston rod stuf- 
 fing box being set up too tight when the rod is worn unevenly, 
 or the packing in the water cylinder may be too tight when the 
 water cylinder is worn barrel shape. 
 
 If the pump starts, makes a few strokes and stops, it would 
 indicate a valve in the exhaust closed, or a check closed. 
 
 If the pump runs but does not throw water, the causes may 
 be: 
 
 (a). The water in the feed tank is too hot so that vapor forms 
 in the pump. The vapor can be condensed by pouring cold 
 water over the pump. 
 
BOATS. 
 
 191 
 
 (b.) One or more of the suction or delivery valves may be 
 unseated or stuck open by waste under them. In this case it 
 will be necessary to remove one or more bonnets to get at the 
 valves. 
 
 The pump may run and throw water so that a strong jet 
 comes out of the pet cock on the discharge side and yet no 
 water gets into the boiler. This may be due to the pump piston 
 or valves leaking under boiler pressure, yet not so much as to 
 prevent the pump throwing water under atmospheric pressure, 
 or even a little above. If such leak is suspected, try reducing 
 the boiler pressure to see if the pump will feed at any pressure 
 and thus enable the boat to continue in service until opportu- 
 nity occurs to repack the piston or refit the valves. 
 
 The pump may make a few strokes then gradually slow down 
 and stop. This would indicate that the boiler check valve was 
 stuck, or the stop valve at the check was detached from its stem. 
 If the check is stuck, it can often be loosened by rapping on the 
 valve chamber with a light hammer or bar of iron or by pouring 
 cold water over it. If the stop valve is off the stem, nothing can 
 be done until the fires are hauled. 
 
 A common cause of the failure of naval pumps is the slipping 
 of ther valve tappets, and this is the first thing to be looked for. 
 
 Each type of engine and pump has its own peculiarities, which 
 must be learned by experience. No pains should be spared 
 to get all parts into thorough repair, and when the boat is not 
 required for service no temporizing with machinery which 
 works imperfectly should be tolerated. The labor required to 
 go through the routine overhauling of all parts of the machin- 
 ery is far less than the labor of repairing breakages which 
 are sure to result from neglect of such systematic overhauling. 
 
 While the launch is alongside the ship the furnace should be 
 fired as lightly as possible to avoid blackening the ship by the 
 smoke that is given off when firing heavily. For the same 
 reason the use of the steam jet is to be avoided at such times. 
 
 When the launch shoves off and gets fairly under way, the 
 first point to notice is the vacuum, and if that is below normal, 
 search must be made to ascertain the cause. The feed water 
 should also be tasted to see if it is salt and this test repeated 
 from time to time while the launch is in use. The firemen 
 
1 92 BOATS. 
 
 should carry a uniform steam pressure, fully up to that pre- 
 scribed for the boat. Inability to do this shows something 
 wrong with the engine, boiler, the fuel, or with the men ; and 
 the exact reason should be discovered and the difficulty over- 
 come. The most common causes of low steam are too heavy 
 firing, too high water in the boiler, and tubes which require 
 cleaning. Any kind of coal likely to be bought by men-of-war 
 will burn well if lumps are selected for use in the launch. As 
 the men gain experience and confidence in themselves and the 
 feed pump, they are inclined to carry water lower than the 
 normal level because they find that the boilers steam more 
 freely. The principal danger to be anticipated from this is that 
 a temporary failure of the pump may result in the water disap- 
 pearing from the glass, in which case, there is no way of know- 
 ing how little water may be in the boiler, and it might therefore 
 become necessary to haul the fires. While under way the water 
 in the gauge generally rises and falls with the motion of the 
 boat. If it remains motionless, it would indicate that the gauge 
 was choked. If the water in the gauge shows a muddy color, 
 or a drop of oil floating on the surface, it would be an indica- 
 tion that the boiler needed cleaning badly. Absolutely no oil 
 should be used in any steam cylinder except when the machin- 
 ery is to be laid up for an indefinite time, say not less than sev- 
 eral months. In this case it should be applied by removing the 
 cylinder and valve chest covers, wiping over the surfaces with 
 waste dipped in mineral oil and replacing the covers. A groan- 
 ing noise, which often occurs in the L. P. cylinder of a com- 
 pound engine, especially when the engines are slowed after 
 running full speed, is not an indication that oil is needed in the 
 cylinder. When the engines are in free route, a sudden slow- 
 ing down is sometimes noticed. It may be due to an increased 
 resistance encountered by the boat from changing the course 
 bringing the wind from astern to ahead; or to the boat leaving 
 deep water and running into shoal water; or to the propeller 
 fouling or the helm being suddenly put hard over; or some bear- 
 ing, especially a crank pin, may be heating, or the water in the 
 boiler going over into the engine, or the vacuum may be spoiled 
 by an air pump valve carrying away, or there may be a drop in 
 steam pressure from improper firing, or the water in the boiler 
 may be run up too high and too quickly. A hot crank pin or 
 
BOATS. 193 
 
 other bearing should never occur with such engines as are now 
 used in launches. If water gets into the cylinder to any extent 
 a knocking sound will be heard, and the drains cannot be 
 opened too quickly. Such an accident ought to be most care- 
 fully guarded against as it is very apt to cant the piston and 
 bend the rod. It is caused by irregular firing, carrying the 
 water too high, the steam too low, or suddenly speeding up 
 the engines. 
 
 If when the engines are in free route a sudden great increase 
 in the number of revolutions is noticed, it is an indication that 
 the propeller is lost or one or more blades are broken off. 
 Slight increases may be due to the wind and change of depth 
 of the water, &c. 
 
 In case the water cannot be kept in sight in the glass owing 
 to failure of the pump or a leak in the boiler, it will be neces- 
 sary to haul the fire. In this event a shovelful of live coals 
 may be left in the furnace to start a new fire with. If the leak 
 is so great that fires cannot be hauled without risk of scalding 
 the fireman, there is no objection to putting out the fire with 
 a bucket or two of water. 
 
 Every effort should be made to avoid the necessity for using 
 salt water in the boilers, and to prevent it getting in from a 
 leaky condenser. If the condenser leaks, the mixture of salt 
 and fresh water from the air pump may be allowed to go to 
 waste and fresh water from the reserve tanks used exclusively 
 for feed provided those tanks carry enough water to last until 
 the boat returns to the ship. If, however, it is necessary to 
 use salt water, the boiler should be emptied and washed out 
 with fresh water at the earliest opportunity, and if much salt 
 water has been used it may even be necessary to use kerosene 
 to remove the lime scale from the tubes. 
 
 Although- the tubes of launch boilers are not found to cor- 
 rode to anything like the extent that the tubes in the main boil- 
 ers do, it is well always to keep the water in the launch boiler 
 slightly alkaline by use of a small quantity of caustic soda or 
 caustic potash in the feed from time to time when the launch 
 is in use, and especially when the launch is hoisted; except that 
 when the weather is so cold that there is danger of the water 
 freezing, the boiler must be kept empty. The amount of alkali 
 used should be just enough to turn red litmus paper blue. 
 
194 
 
 BOATS. 
 
 In a seaway the water gauge glass must be screened, as cold 
 spray striking the hot glass is apt to crack it. If the glass is 
 broken the water level can be judged by using the pet cocks, 
 or if none are provided, then by allowing the lower cock of the 
 water gauge to drip slightly. A thumping sound is sometimes 
 heard under the stern when the engines are running and the 
 helm is suddenly put hard over or if the water is rough. This 
 indicates that the bushing in the stern tube is much worn and 
 needs renewal. 
 
 When a launch returns alongside of the ship the fireman 
 should report to the coxswain before the latter leaves the boat 
 what repairs or supplies are needed in order that the officer of 
 the deck may get prompt information on these points. 
 
 When a launch is to be hoisted on board all necessary pipe 
 joints must be broken and preparations made for removing the 
 engine or boiler or both if the amount of repair work required 
 renders it necessary. As soon as the boat is hoisted in, an in- 
 spection is made of the propeller to see that none of the blades 
 are bent, that the nut is secure with its split pin, and that there 
 has been no corrosion of the shaft close to the propeller hub. 
 It frequently happens that the shaft corrodes deeply at this point 
 and then a slight blow from the propeller striking a piece of drift 
 wood or other obstruction breaks the shaft, disabling the boat and 
 causing the propeller to be lost. If any blades are bent they can 
 be hammered out to their proper form. If a blade is broken off 
 it is sometimes practicable to have a new one cast on. 
 
 An examination must be made to see if the lignum vitae bush- 
 ing of the stern tube is worn down, and if it is a new spare 
 bushing should be fitted. If there is no spare bushing or lig- 
 num vitse block in store, a temporary bushing may be made of 
 anti-friction metal. 
 
 All the under-water fittings of the rudder should be exam- 
 ined and put in good order. The keel condenser can be tested 
 for leaks by filling with water and afterwards draining by re- 
 moving the plug provided for that purpose. A question arises 
 as to whether or not the keel condenser should be painted. It 
 is inconvenient of access when the boat is hoisted, and unless 
 cleaned daily it is an unsightly object if left unpainted when the 
 bottom of the launch is painted. Paint protects the copper 
 from corrosion when the boat is in the water but diminishes its 
 conductivity to some extent. 
 
BOATS. 195 
 
 The following spare parts are usually provided: Boiler 
 tubes, grate and bearing bars with their patterns, water-gauge 
 glasses, brasses for the engine, propeller shaft, propeller, keel 
 condenser. Except the special tube expander and steam-tube 
 sweeper, such tools and stores as are found in the ship's store- 
 room will do for the launch. It is convenient to have on board 
 in or near the machine shop, suitable pipe and connections ar- 
 ranged to facilitate testing the engines, boilers and pumps after 
 they have been repaired and before they are replaced in the 
 boat. 
 
 A water-tube launch boiler using only distilled water should 
 be cleaned at least every three months. If, however, the boiler 
 gets much scale or oil in it, the most effective way to clean it is 
 to pump into the boiler with the feed water a few pints of kero- 
 sene lamp oil while the boiler is in use. The first effect of this 
 will be to loosen up the dirt, and the water in the glass will ap- 
 pear very cloudy. Then blow down to the bottom of the glass 
 and repeat the operation until the water in the glass gets clear. 
 
 When the engines and boilers are removed for repairs, an 
 opportunity is offered for thoroughly cleaning and painting the 
 bilges, repairing floor plates, water tanks, coal bunkers and 
 such parts as are inaccessible at other times. New bearing 
 bars and grate bars are to be fitted when required. The pro- 
 longed use of bent bars wastes coal and makes it difficult to 
 keep up steam. 
 
 After the engines and boilers are repaired and replaced all 
 bright work should be kept clean, the polished steel being cov- 
 ered with the thinnest possible coat of mineral oil, all oil holes 
 plugged, and the engines and pumps moved by hand every day. 
 The boiler may be painted with asphaltum or brown zinc. If 
 the latter is used, it can be kept in excellent condition by wip- 
 ing it over from time to time with oily waste. The best way 
 to preserve the boiler is to keep it completely filled with water 
 made slightly alkaline with caustic soda (or caustic potash) ex- 
 cept in freezing weather, when it must be kept empty and as 
 dry as possible, all openings being closed to prevent access of 
 air and thus retard corrosion. 
 
 If the boiler is of such a type that it cannot be completely 
 drained, it may be dried out by using a very light wood fire or 
 large lamp, at the same time raising the safety valve and noting 
 
196 
 
 BOATS. 
 
 when vapor ceases to come off. In cold weather the engines, 
 pumps, pipes and condenser must also be kept drained. It is 
 well to provide tarpaulins for engines and boilers, putting them 
 on in wet weather and removing them promptly when the 
 weather clears. Launch machinery being out of sight when the 
 boat is at the davits or on the skids, it is apt to be neglected in 
 this as well as in other respects. At sea it is preferable to cover 
 the polished steel-work of launch machinery with a mixture of 
 white lead and tallow instead of the thin coat of oil, as in stormy 
 weather it is often difficult to clean the machinery, and salt spray 
 washes off the oil. 
 
 The officer in charge of a launch will find it convenient to 
 keep for reference a memorandum of the size and weight of the 
 boat, the type, weight and number or other distinguishing marks 
 of engines, boilers and pumps, a list of necessary tools, stores, 
 amount of coal, water and oil usually carried, the maximum 
 speed of the boat and revolutions of engine, the steaming ra- 
 dius, amount of extra coal, water and oil required to cover a 
 given distance at the desired speed, the allowable steam pres- 
 sure, the usual vacuum attainable when all parts are in good 
 order, and the greatest number of passengers the boat can 
 carry. This data will be found convenient when about to order 
 stores or spare parts, when instructing a new crew, or fitting 
 out for a long trip. 
 
 Special Notes for Turbine Engines. The coxswain should re- 
 member that turbines have not the backing power that a recip- 
 rocating engine has, and should come alongside of the landing 
 very slowly and not depend on his engines for checking his speed 
 too much, when making a landing. 
 
 The valve to the scoop should be opened as soon as the boat 
 has headway, but kept closed at all times when backing or the 
 boat is stopped. 
 
 The lubricating oil pumps should be running before any attempt 
 is made to start the turbine, and the oil circulating to all bearings 
 and the gear. 
 
 The turbmes should be warmed up well before the engine is 
 started. 
 
 The drains from the turbines should be opened to the con- 
 denser, at all times when the engine is not running or the engine 
 is being warmed up. 
 
BOATS. 197 
 
 When starting to warm up, steam should be opened to the 
 glands, and after the boat is under way, the steam to the glands 
 should be turned off, and turned on again when the boat is 
 stopped. 
 
 The speed of the air pump should be so regulated to give a 
 vacuum of 25 inches or more. 
 
 The air ejector should never be used except as an emergency, 
 as it heats the feed water to such a high temperature that the feed 
 pump takes its suction with difficulty, and vapor forms in the 
 water seal to the turbine and causes the vacuum to fall. 
 
 If, after getting under way, the vacuum does not increase to 
 25 inches, examine the glands, and see they are getting plenty of 
 water, and that the condenser is cool and the air pump is running 
 at proper speed; then if the vacuum does not increase there are 
 air leaks in either the turbine or exhaust lines. 
 
 When running, always keep about 5 inches back pressure on 
 auxiliary exhaust line, as this is necessary to prevent air leaks 
 into the condenser, and to heat the feed water and fuel oil. 
 
 When the boat is hoisted in for overhaul, the gear case should 
 be opened up, gear examined and smoothed up with a file or oil 
 stone by an experienced machinist. 
 
 The lubricating oil should be taken out of the system fre- 
 quently and thoroughly cleaned, as more trouble is caused in a 
 geared installation by improper lubrication, than for any other 
 cause. The forced lubricating system should be thoroughly ex- 
 amined and cleaned out at the time. 
 
 The clearance on the turbine should also be taken and the 
 thrust block properly set. 
 
 If the fuel oil burner should go out, it would probably be 
 caused by either the burner tip being covered with carbon, or 
 water in the oil. In such case, clean burner and shift the fuel oil 
 supply to another tank, until the water can be drained out of the 
 tank. 
 
 If, after getting under way, the boiler smokes, it will probably 
 be caused by forcing the boiler too much ; the blower not supply- 
 ing sufficient air ; cold fuel oil supplied to the boiler ; or the fire 
 side of the boiler being dirty. 
 
 To overcome the smoke, see fuel oil at proper temperature, and 
 speed up the forced draft blower and slow down slightly if 
 necessarv. 
 
BOATS. 
 
 
 When stopped, the vacuum can be kept fairly high, if proper 
 attention is given to the steam glands, and shifting from the 
 scoop injection to the circulating pump; but when backing, the 
 vacuum will of necessity drop somewhat. 
 
 In getting up steam from a cold boiler, turn steam on atomizer 
 for steam atomization until boiler is hot, then close off steam and 
 use atomizer as continuous flow pressure atomizer. 
 
 Motor Boat Engines. There are now in the naval service 
 numerous types of internal combustion engines installed in ships' 
 boats. The standard types van, in 2-cycle construction, from the 
 small 5 horse-power dory engine to the 20 horse-power engine 
 used in sailing launches. In 4-cycle construction, engines of 100 
 to 150 horse-power are used in motor " speed-boats." 
 
 The 2-cycle engines operate at revolutions per minute up to 600. 
 The 4-cycle speed boat engines are of the light high speed type 
 and operate at revolutions per minute up to 1,500. 
 
 Besides the standard types mentioned above there are numer- 
 ous commercial engines in service of various types and sizes. In 
 general, a " heavy duty " engine of rugged construction, low 
 speed, goodly reliability with average attendance, are required for 
 general utility and varied service. A " light duty " engine of light 
 weight, high rotative speed, with reliability rather dependent on 
 expert attendance, is used for express service. 
 
 In handling a boat fitted with internal combustion engines, 
 care should be taken in making landings, the speed being so 
 regulated in coming alongside as to prevent the necessity of 
 throwing- out the clutch when the engine is running at full speed, 
 as to do this would cause the engine to race and in time to tear 
 itself to pieces. 
 
 The fuel generally used is gasoline, for which tanks are pro- 
 vided in the boat. Any commercial grade of gasoline running 
 from 62 to 70 proof will work satisfactorily. In cold weather 
 there may be a little difficulty in starting on a low proof gasoline, 
 but if a high grade is used for priming, the engine should start, 
 and after it is warmed up the low grade fuel can be used. 
 
 The supply .tanks should always be above the carburetor, so 
 that the fuel will flow by gravity. The tanks should be thor- 
 oughly tight and fitted with a drain to lead overboard. All joints 
 in the fuel line must be thoroughly tight and should be soldered. 
 Strainers should be fitted in the fuel tanks and a separator in the 
 fuel line to prevent any dirt reaching the carburetor. 
 
BOATS. 199 
 
 Extreme care is needed in the handling of gasoline, as its 
 vapor is explosive. It begins to vaporize at low temperatures 
 and the rate of vaporization increases with the temperature, so 
 that it vaporizes much more rapidly in the tropics than in cooler 
 climates 
 
 The two most important factors in the running of an internal 
 combustion engine are : 
 
 The ignition on the engine and the mixture entering the cylin- 
 der. 
 
 If both of these work properly, the engine is bound to run. 
 
 The ignition is always high-tension, jump spark. All wiring 
 should be heavily insulated and protected. 
 
 It is of the greatest importance to keep the ignition perfectly 
 watertight. No wiring should ever be run in the bilge of the 
 boat. All ends of the wiring should have permanent marks to 
 show where they connect, and the connections to the engine 
 should be marked to correspond. 
 
 The plugs must be frequently examined and kept scrupulously 
 clean. 
 
 The magneto should be placed high up on the engine to keep 
 it out of the dirt and water of the bilge. 
 
 The engines, whatever their size, should have a covering which 
 is perfectly watertight, as it is very important that they should 
 be kept absolutely dry. For small engines a detachable covering 
 may be fitted which can be easily removed when the necessity 
 arises for overhauling the engine. The larger engines should be 
 placed in a separate watertight compartment. 
 
 In cold weather the carburetor and the inlet pipe are liable to 
 freeze as a result of the vaporization in the pipe. If the air to 
 the carburetor is warmed and the inlet pipe is jacketed by warm 
 water or heated air, no trouble will be experienced. The jacket 
 on the inlet pipe should be so arranged that it can be cut out in 
 warm weather and a shutter should be fitted in the hot air pipe 
 to the carburetor for regulating the temperature. 
 
 Three pumps should always be used in connection with an 
 internal combustion engine equipment ; one circulating, one bilge, 
 and one air pump. No bilge water should ever be pumped 
 through the jackets. 
 
 No chain, belt, or friction drive should ever be used in any 
 engine equipment. 
 
20O BOATS. 
 
 The engine should be kept well lubricated and should never be 
 allowed to run above the rated number of revolutions or to race 
 when coming alongside. 
 
 Handling a Launch or Motor Boat Underway 
 and Alongside. 
 
 The laws governing the steering of a power boat are identi- 
 cal with those laid down in Chapter XI for the handling of 
 single-screw steamers. 
 
 When running in a seaway, speed should be reduced some- 
 what, not only, to avoid shipping seas, but to reduce the strain 
 on the machinery due to the " racing " of the screw. In run- 
 ning into a sea, it is possible by careful nursing to make fair 
 speed, watching the seas and slowing or even stopping for a 
 moment as heavy ones are seen bearing down upon the boat. 
 If the man who is running the engine has sufficient intelligence 
 and experience to regulate the speed in this way (assuming 
 that he can see) it is convenient to leave it to him. If running 
 more or less across the sea, it is well to head up momentarily 
 for a heavy wave. 
 
 In towing, the stern of the boat should be kept well down by 
 shifting weight aft if necessary. This keeps the propeller well 
 immersed and gives it a good hold on the water. 
 
 In making a landing, whether at a dock or at a ship's gangway, 
 it is a common mistake to keep too much way and to rely upon 
 backing full speed to stop the boat at the proper point. This 
 is bad seamanship. The engines may and often do fail to re- 
 spond promptly, and when they do respond, the sudden backing 
 throws an undue strain upon the engines and upon the rudder- 
 stops. Moreover, the backing throws the stern off to one side 
 or the other according as the screw is right- or left-handed. 
 In coming alongside a ship's gangway, in a current, care must 
 be taken not to catch the tide on the outboard bow, as this will 
 sweep the bow in, forward of the landing platform and perhaps 
 underneath it, with the result that the boat may capsize or be 
 swamped. The landing should be made by the aid of a boat- 
 line from forward, the boat being kept off a little from the side 
 until the line is fast and then sheered in by the helm. 
 
Plate No. 77. 
 
 201 
 
 Fig.l. 
 
 Fig.Z. 
 
 Fig. 4. 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 Fig. 5. 
 
 Fig. 6. 
 
 HANDLING A BOAT ALONGSIDE 
 UNDER 5TEAM OR SAIL. 
 
202 
 
 BOATS. 
 
 A launch coming alongside in rough weather or in a strong 
 tide-way should always be required to take a boat-line, whether 
 the coxwain and bowman think it necessary or not. It has 
 come to be the custom in the navy for the crews of steamers 
 to make their landings at the gangway by the aid of boat- 
 hooks alone, taking hold with these of anything which may 
 chance to be within reach, and holding on, often with great diffi- 
 culty and more or less danger. This entirely eliminates the helm, 
 which is the one factor by which the whole situation could be and 
 should be controlled. A boat lying at the gangway in a tide-way, 
 holding on by a line from some distance forward made fast to a 
 cleat on her inboard bow, can be controlled perfectly by a touch 
 of the helm, throwing the stern out or in a little and thus catching 
 the current on one bow or the other. Plate 77, Figs. I and 2. 
 
 Boat-hooks are helpful and perhaps necessary, at bow and 
 stern, to complete the control ; but they are of altogether second- 
 ary importance if the coxswain understands that he can sheer his 
 boat when lying in .this way in a current, exactly as if she were 
 making way through the water. It is desirable to have the cleat 
 for use with the boat-line as far around on the turn of the bow 
 as is practicable, as this gives a better turning leverage for the 
 helm and the current than if it were near the stem. 
 
 If the boat is to lie at the gangway for some time, it is con- 
 venient .to use a breast line from the bowcleat to a point a little 
 forward of the accommodation ladder, as in Fig. 2. A boat will 
 lie like this in a tide-way with the helm half over to the side 
 toward the ship as long as the current runs. 
 
 If for any reason it is desired to hold the bow up to the gang- 
 way, a spring may be taken from .the bowcleat to any suitable 
 point, as in Fig. 3. Then, by putting the helm over and keeping 1 
 the engine ahead slow, she can be held in position without diffi- 
 culty. A stern line is convenient, but is only necessary in the 
 rather unusual case when the wind or current is from aft so that 
 it would tend to throw the stern off too far. This plan is often 
 convenient when we have to hold the launch at some other point 
 than the gangway, for giving her coal which it is desired to land 
 on the forecastle, or for putting in or taking out stores. 
 
 A fender is always fitted to the lower platform of the accom- 
 

 BOATS. 203 
 
 modation-ladder to keep the boat off and prevent danger of her 
 being caught under the platform. Another fender is usually 
 fitted forward of this to prevent boats from being set in under the 
 ladder and athwart the lower platform (Fig. 4). A boat in this 
 situation is in danger of being swamped. The situation is brought 
 about by the boat having run too far ahead and being caught by 
 the tide on the outer bow. It is a common thing to see a launch 
 come charging up to the gangway under such speed that she 
 cannot be stopped until she has run far ahead of the point where 
 she should have landed, crashing against the fender and scraping 
 along the side, while the men at the bow and stern attempt to 
 catch something with their boat hooks by which they can check 
 her. All this is lubberly in any case and may be very dangerous 
 (especially when the forward fender is not in use) if there is a 
 current tending to set her in under the ladder as above described. 
 
 It should never be forgotten in making a landing, that the 
 engine may be slow in responding to signals, and the signal to 
 stop should be given in time to come up to the gangway with 
 very moderate speed. 
 
 A good coxswain, in handling a boat in a strong tide or a 
 moderate sea, lands his boat near the gangway platform, but not 
 against it, and having caught and made fast the boat line, drops 
 in, by skilful use of his helm, 'and holds her just where he wants 
 her while his passengers enter or leave the boat. 
 
 For details of United States Navy boats, see Appendix. 
 
 IV. RIG OF SHIPS' BOATS FOR SAILING. 
 
 It is not to be expected that a boat built for a great variety of 
 purposes, of which sailing is by no means the most important, 
 should sail as if designed for that purpose alone. Not only must 
 the lines and dimensions of the boat be regulated by the de- 
 mands of general utility, but even the rig for sailing must be fixed 
 by quite other considerations than those of speed and weatherli- 
 ness. The spars and sails must be light and easily handled, and 
 must stow compactly when the boat is under oars. They must 
 admit of carrying passengers and stores, of coming alongside 
 safely, of hooking on and hoisting conveniently. The fewer, 
 shorter and lighter the spars, the better. Masts, especially, 
 should be short and light, easily stepped by a few men, and call- 
 ing for little support from shrouds and stays. Bowsprits and 
 
2O4 
 
 Plate No. 78. 
 
 Launch -U.S. Navy. 
 (Gaff and Boom Rig). 
 
 Fig. 1 
 
 Launch British Navy. 
 
 (Full lines show service rig; dotted lines 
 
 additional rig for racing). 
 
 Fig. 2 
 
 Sprit Rig. 
 Fig, 3 
 
 Dipping Lug Foresail and 
 
 Standing Lug Mainsail. 
 
 Fig. 4 
 
 Dipping Lug Foresail and 
 Standing Lug Mizzen. 
 Fig- 5 
 
 RIG OF BOATS FOR SAILING. 
 

 BOATS. 205 
 
 booms are particularly inconvenient, as are also the bumpkins 
 which in some rigs project beyond the stern. A rig which en- 
 tails danger cf capsizing if it chances to be caught aback is of 
 course objectionable. 
 
 Of the rigs considered suitable for man-of-war boats, the most 
 common are the following : 
 
 1. A gaff and boom mainsail with bowsprit and jib. Used in 
 the United States Navy for launches (Plate 78, Fig. i). 
 
 2. A gaff mainsail without a boom and a jib without a bow- 
 sprit. Used in the English Navy for launches, and called, from 
 the admiral who introduced it, the " De Horsey " rig ( Plate 78, 
 Fig. 2). A topmast is sometimes added to this rig, making it 
 possible to carry a gaff-topsail and another jib. 
 
 The arrangement devised by Admiral de Horsey for handling the mast 
 of this rig is of such convenience that it might well be adopted for all 
 boats having rather heavy masts to be stepped and unstepped. The 
 mast is mounted on trunnions at the height of the thwarts and as it is 
 lifted, turning about these trunnions, the heel is guided into the step by 
 a light frame shaped to the arc about which the heel moves. 
 
 3. The dipping-lug. Used in the English Navy for pinnaces 
 and cutters, usually in combination with a standing-lug main or 
 mizzen (Plate 78, Fig. 4). 
 
 4. The standing-lug. Used in the United States Navy for 
 cutters, and in the English Navy for the main and mizzen of 
 cutters and whale-boats. (Plate 79, Fig. 4). 
 
 5. The balance or French lug. Used in the French Navy for 
 cutters (Plate 79, Fig. 3). 
 
 6. The sliding-gunter. Formerly used in the United States 
 Navy for cutters, whale-boats and gigs (Plate 79, Fig. i). 
 
 7. The sprit. Used very generally for dinghys and other small 
 boats (Plate 78, Fig. 3). 
 
 Of these rigs, the dipping-lug is commonly regarded as the 
 best for speed and weatherliness, but it is hard to handle and 
 even dangerous with any other than a very smart and well-drilled 
 crew. 
 
 The standing-lug is safe and convenient to handle, but lacks 
 something of the driving power of the dipping-lug. 
 
 The. French lug is a compromise between the two preceding 
 
 rigs and combines many of their advantages. It may, in fact, 
 
 1 be used either as a standing- or as a dipping-lug, the forward 
 
 yardarm being dipped if either. If it is not dipped, the yard lies 
 
206 
 
 Plate No. 79. 
 
 Sliding Gunter 
 Fig. 1 
 
 
 Low Dipping Lugs 
 Fig. 2 
 
 
 
 Balance (French) Lug 
 Fig. 3 
 
 Fig. 4 
 
 RIG OF BOATS FOR SAILING 
 
BOATS. 2O7 
 
 to windward of the mast on one tack and to leeward on the other. 
 This rig perhaps combines as many points of excellence as any 
 that could be named.. 
 
 The details of rigging for lug sails vary considerably, but the 
 yard is always attached to the mast by a traveller moving freely 
 up and down. The halyards are usually rove through a sheave 
 in the mast, but sometimes through a block at the mast-head. 
 A down-haul should always be fitted and it is convenient to use 
 for this the bending end of the halyards. As a rule, no shrouds 
 are used, but the halyards are set up to windward and abaft, and 
 serve to support the mast, except in cases where the forward yard- 
 arm dips; in which cases the halyards lead down forward of the 
 mast amidships. The most convenient way to fit the halyards 
 is to use a pendant with a single block at the end, through 
 which a fall is rove. 
 
 In the English Navy the larger cutters carry a dipping-lug 
 foresail and a standing-lug mainsail, the latter being replaced in 
 cutters cf twenty-seven feet and under, by a mizzen stepped at 
 the extreme stern cf the boat with a bumpkin rigged out beyond 
 the stern for the sheet. As the mizzen is of necessity a small 
 sail, the foresail must be large, to give a fair spread of canvas, and 
 being a dipping-lug it is not convenient to handle. In spite of 
 this and the seeming clumsiness of the mizzen, with its boom 
 and bumpkin projecting from the stern, this rig is much liked in 
 the English service. It involves very little gear, and is quickly 
 and easily rigged. The greater part of the sail area, being in a 
 single sail reaching well out to windward and with nothing for- 
 ward to becalm it, is favorably placed for holding a wind; and 
 boats with this rig sail faster on a wind than those with their can- 
 vas divided between a fore and main; but they are at a disad- 
 vantage in reaching, and they do not lie-to well. The forward 
 part of the foresail acts as a jib, but with greater pull and 
 smaller leverage ; and the absence of a bowsprit is an advantage 
 in going alongside and in plunging into a head sea. 
 
 The halyards of a dipping-lug are bent one-third of the length 
 of the yardarm from the forward end. The tack is usually hooked 
 to the stem, except in sailing free, when it is shifted to the weather 
 bow. Some seamen prefer to hook it always to the bow, but the 
 boat will not point quite so high with it there. The most serious 
 danger connected with the lug arises from the fact that if the sail 
 
2O8 BOATS. 
 
 gets aback, it binds against the mast and cannot be lowered. In 
 this situation, in a fresh breeze, there is serious danger of cap- 
 sizing. It is a good plan to make the tack fast with a " slip- 
 hitch," which admits of casting it off in an instant, when the sail 
 immediately spills, as it is a characteristic of the lug that its sta- 
 bility depends entirely upon the tack. 
 
 1 he dipping-lug sometimes takes the shape of Fig. 2, Plate 79, 
 which, it will be seen, :.s :n approach to the latteen rig. Here 
 the forward yardarm is the one to be dipped, and the luff is short 
 enough to admit of dipping without lowering the yard. The tack 
 makes fast amidships, a light jigger being used to get it well 
 down. The halyards are led down forward, close in to the mast, 
 and, as in all cases where the halyards are not available for sup- 
 porting the mast, the mast must be stout and well secured at the 
 partners. Like the French rig already described, this rig, 
 although designed for dipping, will work fairly well as a standing- 
 lug. It is well suited for boats like gigs (old style) which are not 
 built for sailing and have not the stiffness to stand up under a rig 
 whose center of effort is high. 
 
 The tack of a standing-lug is made fast to the mast, and the 
 halyards are bent one-fourth of the length of the yardarm from 
 the end. With the balance-lug, the tack may conveniently be 
 fitted to travel across on an iron rod or " horse " just forward of 
 the mast. The point for bending the halyards varies. 
 
 The sliding-gunter is one of the safest and most convenient of 
 rigs for boats of small and medium size, but it has comparatively 
 little driving power, particularly on a wind, and for all-around 
 work is distinctly inferior to several of the rigs that have been 
 mentioned above. Safl is reduced in an instant by letting go 
 the halyards, and taken in altogether by tricing up the boom (or 
 clew) as the topmast comes down, brailing up at the same time. 
 This is done as easily with the sails aback as when they are full. 
 On the other hand, the spars are awkward to handle, and still 
 more awkward to stow, since the lower mast, topmast, and sails 
 are usually made up together. This makes it inconvenient to 
 carry the rig in the boat when under oars and impossible 
 to do so if the oars are to be used in rough water. It is a 
 great improvement to make the gunter-irons with clamps so 
 that the top-mast and sail can be stowed separately from the 
 lower mast. A good deal of power is required to step the 
 
BOATS. 2O9 
 
 masts in shifting from oars to sail, particularly if the boat is 
 rolling. 
 
 The halyards of the sliding gunter are bent to the neck of the 
 upper gunter-iron and lead through a sheave in the mast. The 
 clewrope leads from the clew to the proper point on the mast 
 for tricing up the boom snugly. 
 
 V. HANDLING BOATS UNDER SAIL. 
 
 TRIM. To do her best under sail, a boat must be trimmed in 
 accordance with her build and rig. 
 
 If she carries considerable head sail, she will need to be deeper 
 forward than would otherwise be desirable. If she has little or 
 no head sail, she should trim by the stern. The build and rig 
 are fixed upon with reference to each other, due consideration 
 being given to the purpose for which the boat is designed. Once 
 fixed, these characteristics are practically permanent. The trim 
 of both boat and sails, on the other hand, can be varied within 
 rather wide limits ; but they, too, must be considered with refer- 
 ence to each other. Most boats when on the wind sail best when 
 carrying a little weather helm; that is to say, when they have a 
 slight tendency to come into the wind. Too much weather helm 
 may be corrected by shifting weights aft; too much lee helm, by 
 shifting forward. 
 
 The weights should be kept out of the ends of the boat, with- 
 out being unduly crowded together amidships,. It is especially 
 important to keep heavy weights out of the bow. The only bal- 
 last, as such, that should be carried, is water in breakers. Under 
 no circumstances should "sinking" ballast be allowed; ballast, 
 in other words, which is heavier than water. The lower the 
 weights can be stowed, the better; but care should be taken to 
 keep the well clear for baling. Ballast and cargo must be 
 secured against the possibility of shifting. The crew should be 
 kept well down and nobody allowed to stand on the thwarts or to 
 sit on the gunwale. If the men are sitting to windward in a fresh 
 breeze, they should move amidships for passing under the lee of 
 a vessel or other object, where the wind may fail or even shift in 
 an eddy. The mast should be properly stayed, up and down or 
 with a slight rake aft, and the halyards taut up. 
 
 In a lug rig, the halyards act as a weather shroud, the tie being 
 
2IO 
 
 BOATS. 
 
 led down to windward and abaft, and set up by a purchase. 
 In most other rigs, shrouds are fitted. 
 
 On the wind, as has been said, a boat should carry a little 
 lee rudder. 1 The sails should be kept well full, sheets not too 
 flat, but everything drawing and the boat alive. It is a common 
 mistake to get the sheets so flat that the boat, while pointing 
 high, actually makes a course to leeward of that which she would 
 make if kept away a little with sheets eased accordingly; and it 
 is of course clear that if kept away, her speed will be greater than 
 when jammed up into the wind in the hope of stealing a fraction 
 of a point. A boat of good draft with a deep keel or center- 
 board, and yachts designed for racing, with fin-keels hanging 
 ten feet below their normal draft, will lie amazingly close to the 
 wind with little, or no leeway. Ship's boats, however, are not 
 constructed on yachting lines and cannot be held up in the same 
 way. 
 
 Sheets may be hauled flatter in smooth water than in rough, 
 and the sheets of standing lugs, gaff- and boom-sails, sliding- 
 gunters and the like, may be hauled flatter than those of dipping- 
 lugs. The sails being properly set, the weather cloths of the 
 sails are kept just trembling, with weather helm l enough to let 
 the helmsman " feel " that she wants to come into the wind. As 
 the wind will vary more or less (in apparent, if not real, direction), 
 it is necessary to be watchful and to bring her up or keep her 
 away from time to time in order that she may be always at her 
 best. The sails should be kept fuller in rough than smooth 
 water, and it is more important that the boat should be kept 
 going so as to be always under command of the rudder. If a 
 heavy breaking sea is seen bearing down upon her, she should be 
 luffed to meet it and kept away again as soon as it has passed. If 
 she loses way she becomes helpless at once. It is dangerous to 
 be caught by a heavy sea on the beam; and if the course to be 
 made in rough water would bring the boat into the trough of it, 
 the best plan is to run off for a time with the sea on the quarter, 
 then bring her up with it on the bow, and so to make good the 
 course desired without actually steering it at any time, 
 
 It is a universal rule in boat sailing that the sheets should 
 never be belayed in any weather. 
 
 For a moderate squall, the boat should be luffed sufficiently to 
 shake, without spilling, the sail, thus keeping headway enough 
 
 i weather helm. 
 
BOATS. 211 
 
 to retain control, but with the sheet (as always) in hand. If it 
 comes stronger, she must be luffed more decidedly and the sheet 
 slacked more or less. The sheet may of course be let go, and in 
 a sudden emergency this must be done at once in addition to 
 putting down the tiller, 1 and, if necessary, reducing sail ; but the 
 longer she can be kept under control the better, and to let go 
 the sheet is to give up control. 
 
 The situation is quite different in running free. Here the sail 
 cannot be spilled by a touch of the rudder, 1 and the only prudent 
 thing is to slack the sheet while luffing. The force of the wind 
 would be much reduced by running off, but the trouble with this 
 is that if it comes too strong there is no resource but to lower 
 the sail, and the chances are that it will bind against the shrouds 
 and refuse to come down. Moreover, there is always danger that 
 the wind will shift in the squall, and the mainsail may gybe with 
 dangerous force. 
 
 REEFING. 
 
 When a boat begins to take in water it is time to reef. And 
 she should never, even in smooth water, be allowed to heel too 
 much. A boat that is decked over may run with her lee rail 
 awash; but when an open boat is approaching this point it must 
 be remembered that a fresher puff may bear the gunwale lower 
 without warning, and that the moment it dips, the boat will almost 
 certainly fill and capsize. The details of reefing will depend upon 
 the rig, but a few general rules may be laid dowa The men 
 should be stationed before beginning, and should all be required 
 to remain seated. One hand lowers the halyards as much as 
 may be necessary, another hauls down on the luff and shifts 
 the tack. The sheet is hauled in a little to let the men detailed 
 for the reef points get hold of and gather in the foot. The sheet 
 is then slacked and shifted, the points passed, the halyards 
 manned, the sail hoisted and the sheet trimmed. It is important 
 to keep the boat under command while reefing, and for this she 
 must have way enough to obey her helm. 1 If she can be luffed 
 a little and still kept going through the water sufficiently to obey 
 her helm, 1 then it is unquestionably wise to luff, but not suf- 
 ficiently to risk losing control by the rudder. 1 
 
 If the boat has more than one sail, it is a good plan to reef 
 them one at a time. 
 
 I. helm. 
 
212 
 
 BOATS. 
 
 RUNNING BEFORE THE WIND. 
 
 This is the most dangerous point of sailing in a fresh breeze 
 because of the chance of gybing. The danger increases if the 
 boat yaws, as she will have a tendency to do if trimmed at all by 
 the head; from which follows the rule, in running, to keep the 
 weights fairly well aft, though never at the extreme after end. 
 Very careful steering is required; and if the sea is really heavy, 
 the chances are that the boom will gybe in spite of all the care 
 that can be taken, unless lashed to the rail or a shroud by a 
 " lazy guy/' 
 
 Squalls are not so dangerous before the wind as when close- 
 hauled, unless they are accompanied by a shift of wind. 
 
 If they call for any reduction of sail, it may be made by drop- 
 ping the peak of the mainsail (if a gaff sail) or, more satisfac- 
 torily, by reefing. 
 
 The foresail is sometimes set on the side opposite the main- 
 sail, in running before the wind, a temporary boom being rigged 
 by using a boat-book or an oar. A boat sailing in this way is 
 going " wing and wing/' 
 
 If the sea is rough, it is well to avoid running with the wind 
 dead aft. To make a course directly to leeward, the wind may 
 be brought first on one quarter and then on the other, the main- 
 sail being clewed up or the peak dropped each time the course is 
 changed, if the breeze is strong enough to make gybing dan- 
 gerous. 
 
 A serious danger in running before a heavy sea is that of 
 " broaching-to." The boat will yaw considerably, the rudder will 
 be often out of water when it is most needed to meet her, and 
 the sails will be becalmed in the trough of the seas. The situa- 
 tion here is much like that of a boat running in a surf; and, as in 
 that case, the yawing will be reduced by keeping the weights aft 
 and by steering with an oar. The jib should always be set, with 
 the sheet flat aft. It helps to meet and pay her off if she flies to 
 against the helm. A drag towed over the stern is also helpful. 
 
 Another danger in running is that the boom may dip as she 
 rolls and thus capsize the boat. 
 
 TACKING. 
 
 In tacking, the same principles apply to a boat as to a ship. 
 After-sail tends to bring her head to wind, head-sail to keep her 
 
BOATS. 213 
 
 off ; but all sails, so long as they draw, give her headway and so 
 add to the steering power of the rudder. 1 
 
 It is clear that a short full boat will turn to windward better 
 than a long- and narrow one and will require a much shorter 
 distance for coming round. Thus a short boat is preferable to 
 a long one for working up a narrow channel. 
 
 Under ideal conditions, a boat close-hauled but with good 
 way on, shoots up into the wind as the tiller 1 is eased down, mak- 
 ing a good reach to windward and filling away on the new tack 
 without for a moment losing headway. The main boom is hauled 
 amidships, and, as the jib and foresail lift, their sheets are let go. 
 The boat comes head to wind and as she pays off on the new tack 
 the sheets are hauled aft and she is steadied on her course. 
 Under less favorable conditions, tacking is not so simple. If 
 there is a sea on the bow advantage must be taken of a smooth 
 time to ease the tiller 1 down ; the main boom must be hauled amid- 
 ships gradually, and the foresail kept full as long as it will draw. 
 If the boat loses headway, the jib sheet is held out on the old lee 
 bow (not too far) to pay her head around, and care must be taken 
 not to make a " back-sail " of the mainsail. As she gathers stern- 
 way, the rudder 1 is shifted, and, if necessary, an oar is gotten out 
 to help her around. Carrying the weights forward is favorable 
 for tacking, but when a boat has sternboard she may be helped 
 around by putting a few of the crew on the (new) lee quarter, 
 where, by increasing the immersion of the full lines of the 
 counter, they add to the resistance and cause the bow to fall off. 
 
 If she gets " in irons," either an oar must be used or the jib 
 and fore sheets must be hauled over on the old tack, flat aback, 
 to give her stern board. This last is a dangerous maneuver in a 
 strong breeze and rough sea. 
 
 The statement is sometimes made that it is lubberly to use an 
 oar in a boat under sail. The lubberly part is the getting into a 
 position where an oar is needed. Being in such a position, it is 
 proper to use the oar for getting out. 
 
 Attention may again be called to the fact, already mentioned 
 more than once, that in squally weather, a boat is in a dangerous 
 position whenever she is without headway, because she can 
 neither be luffed nor kept away in the event of being struck by a 
 heavy puff. If, through ignorance or carelessness, the sheets are 
 belayed at such a time, the danger is enormously increased. 
 
214 BOATS. 
 
 On July 17, 1902, a sail-boat full of people, in charge of an expe- 
 rienced fisherman, was capsized near the Isles of Shoals, off the coast 
 of New Hampshire, under the following circumstances: 
 
 The weather had been stormy, but had moderated. The wind was 
 light but puffy, and there was a rather heavy sea running. The boat 
 had tacked, but had not gathered headway and was lying in the trough 
 of the sea when a squall struck her. The sheets were belayed. The 
 helm was put down, but the boat, having no way, could not answer it. 
 A sudden dash of spray caused the passengers to crowd hastily to 
 leeward, and this, added to the effect of the squall and the sea, cap- 
 sized the boat. Fourteen lives were lost. 
 
 Some years ago a schooner yacht was lying at anchor in New York 
 harboi, with foresail and mainsail set and the sheets belayed to prevent 
 the sails from slatting about. A sud'den squall came up, on the beam, 
 and the yacht capsized before she had time to swing. 
 
 WEARING. 
 
 In wearing, the rudder is put down and the main sheet slacked 
 away roundly The boat goes off before the wind, the mainsail 
 is either gybed or clewed up and shifted over (preferably the 
 latter) and the boat is hauled up on the new tack, losing more 
 or less ground to leeward according to circumstances. The de- 
 tails of the maneuver may vary considerably according to the 
 conditions of wind and sea and the peculiarities of the boat as 
 to rig and trim. In a light breeze, the main sheet is slacked 
 away roundly until the wind is aft, then hauled in smartly for 
 rrbing and eased away steadily on the new lee quarter. In a 
 fresh breeze, as gybing would be dangerous, the mainsail is 
 clewed up just before the wind comes aft, and set again in time 
 to bring her to the wind on the new tack ; or, in the case of a 
 " cat " or other rig where the head of the mainsail sets on a gaff, 
 the peak is dropped to reduce sail temporarily. 
 
 The fore and jib sheets are shifted when nearly before the 
 wind. As she comes to on the new tack, they are left flowing; 
 until hauled aft to meet her by the wind. 
 
 REMARKS ON GYBING. 
 
 A sail is " gybed " when it is allowed to swing from one side to 
 the other, the wind being aft or nearly so, and the sail full first 
 on one side and then on the other. This may be done inten- 
 tionally, as in wearing or in changing course, or it may come 
 
BOATS. 215 
 
 unexpectedly from a shift of wind or from the yawing of the 
 boat. As it necessarily involves a violent swing of the sail, it 
 puts a heavy strain upon the spars and fittings and causes the 
 boat to lurch more or less deeply to leeward. Moreover, the 
 violent sweep of the boom across the stern endangers everybody 
 in its path. 
 
 In a light breeze, these dangers are perhaps not serious 
 enough to justify the rule that a mainsail should never be gybed, 
 but in a fresh breeze it should not be thought of ; and the fact 
 .that it is often done by experienced boatmen does not make it 
 any more seamanlike. 
 
 When a necessary change of course in a fresh breeze will bring 
 a shift of wind from one quarter to the other, the sail should be 
 lowered or clewed up for a moment before putting down the 
 rudder, and then set again on the other quarter. If this cannot 
 be done and it is still necessary to gybe, the peak should . be 
 dropped, the boom hauled in slowly and eased away on the new 
 tack. 
 
 With a sliding-gunter rig the mainsail should be brailed up 
 for gybing. 
 
 VI. HANDLING A BOAT UNDER OARS. 
 
 There is perhaps quite as much art in handling a boat under 
 oars as in handling it under sail, but comparatively little of this 
 art can be taught by precept. There is of late years a tendency in 
 all navies to rely very much upon steamers and motor boats, and 
 as a consequence of this it has become rare to see man-of-war 
 boats handled with the smartness which characterized the best 
 of them not many years ago. Yet the need of just such train- 
 ing as produced this smartness is greater now than ever before, 
 because of the changes which are making of the modern man- 
 of-war's man a mechanic and a soldier rather than a sailor. 
 
 In going into a crowded or difficult landing, pull easily 
 and keep the boat under control with the oars as long as pos- 
 sible. 
 
 In going through a narrow entrance, get good way on the 
 boat, then trail or toss the oars. 
 
 Remember that a loaded boat holds her way much longer than 
 a light one. 
 
216 BOATS. 
 
 In pulling across a current, try to get a range of two objects 
 in line and steer by these to avoid being set down by the cur- 
 rent. 
 
 Having a long pull against the tide, run inshore where the tide 
 is slacker than in midstream. 
 
 If the weather is thick or may become so, make sure you have 
 a compass in the boat, and note the course you must make com- 
 ing and going. 
 
 There should always be a lantern, filled and trimmed, in the 
 boat, and boats should never leave the ship for a trip of any 
 great length without a compass. Weather is liable to thicken 
 at any time, and a boat without a compass would have dif- 
 ficulty in reaching a landing or returning to the ship. For 
 this reason, boat-officers and coxswains of running-boats should 
 at all times know the compass course between the ship and 
 landing, and if they are away from the ship and it begins to 
 thicken, they should at once observe the compass course before 
 the ship is shut in, and note the direction and force of wind 
 and current. 
 
 If taken in tow by a vessel, make her give you a line instead 
 of taking your painter, and keep this clear for letting go in an 
 instant. If towing astern, hold on with a short line close up 
 under the counter; if towing alongside, have a long line and watch 
 your steering. 
 
 Never go alongside a vessel when she has stern way. In a 
 seaway always board a vessel to leeward, unless there is wreckage 
 floating alongside. 
 
 (See Chapter " Rescuing the Crew of a Wreck.") 
 
 In coming alongside in a seaway or a strong tide, warn the 
 bow oarsmen to look out for the line which will be thrown from 
 the ship. 
 
 Caught in a Gale in a Boat. 
 
 Rig a sea-anchor by lashing the spars and sails together, the 
 sails loosed. Fit a span to this and ride by the painter. If there 
 is oil in the boat, use a bag of it on the sea-anchor. 
 
 Running a Line. 
 
 Coil the greater part of the line in the stern sheets, but take 
 end enough in the bow to make fast when you reach the landing. 
 
BOATS. 217 
 
 Pull away and let the ship pay out more line until you are sure 
 of having enough in the boat to reach, then pay out from the 
 boat. Always have plenty of good seizing stuff for making all 
 secure, and if you are to stand by the line, have an axe for cut- 
 ting if ordered. 
 
 If laying out with the tide, take less line in the boat than 
 otherwise ; if against the tide it will save work to take all the line 
 in the boat, pull up and make fast, then bring the end back to the 
 ship. With a long line to be laid out in a strong current, it will 
 usually be necessary to have several boats, one to run away with 
 the end, the others to underrun at intervals, floating the line and 
 pulling up stream with the bight. 
 
 If the line is to be secured to a post, put a bowline in the end 
 before starting, and throw this over the post. Bend on a heav- 
 ing line and let the bow man throw this if hands are standing by 
 to take it, or jump ashore with it himself if necessary. 
 
 The running of lines is now usually done by a power boat. 
 
 Towing. 
 
 In ordinary cases of towing an unladen boat in a smooth sea 
 the towing boat passes clear of the oars of the tow (oars of 
 tow should preferably be tossed to facilitate this), placing her- 
 self in line ahead, receives painter from the tow, secures it to 
 ring-bolt in stern-post, and starts ahead immediately she has 
 hold of the painter. 
 
 The bowman in the tow must not give the towing boat his 
 painter until she is in line ahead ; he will then take in the slack 
 of the towline, keeping a strain on it, and gradually pay it out, 
 thus getting way on the tow gradually. This latter precaution 
 is particularly necessary if the tow is at all heavy. 
 
 Though it is frequently impracticable, it is always preferable 
 for the towing boat to give the tow a painter (instead of vice 
 versa), which the tow should tend and keep ready for letting go 
 in an instant. If this is not done, and the tow gives the towing 
 vessel her bow painter, which is shackled in the bow, a hatchet or 
 sharp knife should be kept at hand for cutting the towline in an 
 emergency. 
 
 If the tow is heavily laden, or the sea rough, the above method 
 
218 BOATS. 
 
 brings too much strain on the stem and stern-posts of the boats ; 
 hence in such a case the painter should be toggled to a stretcher 
 between the two after thwarts of the towing boat and to the 
 forward thwart of the tow. To steer a boat that is towing- in this 
 manner, bear the towline over on the quarter toward which it is 
 desired to turn, for the helm will be of little use. 
 
 Towing of ship's boats is now usually done by the steamers, 
 which are frequently fitted with a span the ends of which are 
 secured to either quarter. This facilitates steering and is in all 
 respects preferable to securing the towline to the shackle in the 
 stern-post. 
 
 When being towed astern of a large vessel, use a short scope 
 so as to remain close under the counter, with the bow partly out 
 of water. In casting off when there are other boats towing 
 astern, be careful, before letting go, either to drop clear of them 
 all with your towline, or be handy with your oars to avoid getting 
 athwart the hawse of some of them. 
 
 Except in the case of unladen boats in smooth water, a number 
 of boats should never be towed tandem by their painters, for in 
 a long tow this brings a considerable strain on stem and stern 
 timbers of the foremost boats. To avoid this strain, the towing 
 vessel should pay out sufficient line to reach the bow of the last 
 boat, the other boats being secured to it by slip-lines at bow and 
 stern. 
 
 If towing alongside, have the towline from as far forward on 
 the towing vessel as possible ; either toggle it to the forward 
 .thwart (steadying it over the stem with a bight of the painter), or 
 pass it through the forward rowlock on the side nearest the tow- 
 ing vessel. Pay particular attention to the steering. 
 
(2I 9 ) 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 HANDLING BOATS IN A SURF. 
 
 1. PRELIMINARY. 
 
 The handling of boats in a surf is an art in itself, calling for 
 special knowledge and skill such as can be acquired only by 
 practical experience. When undertaken by those who have 
 not this experience, the danger involved can hardly be over-esti- 
 mated. 
 
 Of the various methods of landing on a flat beach which are 
 described in the Rules of the National Life-boat Association 
 quoted below, the safest is probably that of backing in, keep- 
 ing the bow toward the surf, pulling out to meet each breaker, 
 then backing in as fast and as far as possible on its back. 
 
 A surf never looks as dangerous when seen from seaward as 
 it really is; and a boat having to land through it, should, if there 
 is a possibility of help from the shore, await such help before 
 attempting to go in. As, however, it is often necessary to attempt 
 a landing where no expert assistance is available, the following 
 rules have been drawn up and published by the Royal National 
 Life-boat Institution of Great Britain: 
 
 11. RULES PUBLISHED BY THE ROYAL NATIONAL 
 LIFEBOAT INSTITUTION, ON THE MANAGEMENT OF OPEN 
 ROWING BOATS IN A SURF; BEACHING THEM, ETC 
 
 IN ROWING TO SEAWARD. 
 
 x 
 
 As a general rule, speed must be given to a boat rowing 
 against a heavy surf. 
 
 Indeed, under some circumstances, her safety will depend on 
 the utmost possible speed being attained on meeting a sea. 
 
 For, if the sea be really heavy, and the wind blowing a hard on- 
 shore gale, it can only be by the utmost exertions of the crew that 
 any headway can be made. The great danger then is, that an 
 
22O HANDLING BOATS IN A SURF. 
 
 approaching heavy sea may carry the boat away on its front, 
 and turn it broadside on, or up-end it, either effect being imme- 
 diately fatal. A boat's only chance in such a case, is to obtain 
 such way as shall enable her to pass end-on, through the crest of 
 the sea, and leave it as soon as possible behind her. Of course 
 if there be a rather heavy surf, but no wind, or the wind off shore, 
 and opposed to the surf, as is often the case, a boat might be pro- 
 pelled so rapidly through it, that her bow would fall more sud- 
 denly and heavily after topping the sea, than if her way had been 
 checked; and it may therefore only be when the sea is of such 
 magnitude, and the boat of such a character, that there may be 
 chance of the former carrying her back before it, that full speed 
 should be given to her. 
 
 It may also happen that, by careful management under such 
 circumstances, a boat may be made to avoid the sea, so that each 
 wave may break ahead of her, which may be the only chance of 
 safety in a small boat; but if the shore be flat, and the broken 
 water extend to a great distance from it, this will often be im- 
 possible. 
 
 The following general rules for rowing to seaward may there- 
 fore be relied on: 
 
 1. If sufficient command can be kept over a boat by the skill 
 of those on board her, avoid or " dodge " the sea if possible, so as 
 not to meet it at the moment of its breaking or curling over. 
 
 2. Against a head gale and heavy surf, get all possible speed 
 on a boat on the approach of every sea which cannot be avoided. 
 
 If more speed can be given to a boat than is sufficient to pre- 
 vent her being carried back by a surf, her way may be checked 
 on its approach, which will give her an easier passage over it. 
 
 ON RUNNING BEFORE A BROKEN SEA, OR SURF, TO THE SHORE. 
 
 The one great danger, when running before a broken sea, is 
 that of broaching-to. To that peculiar effect of the sea, so fre- 
 quently destructive of human life, the utmost attention must be 
 directed. 
 
 The cause of a boat's broaching-to, when running before a 
 broken sea or surf, is, that her own motion being in the same 
 direction as that of the sea, whether it be given by the force of 
 oars or sails, or by the force of the sea itself, she opposes no 
 resistance to it, but is carried before it. Thus, if a boat be run- 
 ning with her bow to the shore, and her stern to the sea, the 
 
HANDLING BOATS IN A SURF. 221 
 
 effect of a surf or roller, on its overtaking her, is to throw up 
 the stern, and as a consequence to depress the bow; if she then 
 has sufficient inertia (which will be proportional to weight) to 
 allow the sea to pass her, she will in succession pass through the 
 descending, the horizontal and the ascending positions, as the crest 
 of the wave passes successively her stern, her midships, and her 
 bow in the reverse order in which the same positions occur to a 
 boat propelled to seaward against a surf. This may be defined 
 as the safe mode of running before a broken sea. 
 
 But if a boat, on being overtaken by a heavy surf, has not 
 sufficient inertia to allow it to pass her, the first of the three posi- 
 tions above enumerated alone occurs her stern is raised high in 
 the air and the wave carries the boat before it on its front or 
 unsafe side, sometimes with frightful velocity, the bow all the 
 time being deeply immersed in the hollow of the sea, where the 
 water, being stationary or comparatively so, offers a resistance, 
 whilst the crest of the sea, having the actual motion which 
 causes it to break, forces onward the stern, or rear end of the 
 boat. 
 
 A boat will, in this position, sometimes aided by careful oar- 
 steerage, run a considerable distance until the wave has broken 
 and expended itself. But it will often happen, that if the bow be 
 low, it will be driven under water, when the buoyancy being lost 
 forward, whilst the sea presses on the stern, the boat will be 
 thrown (as it is termed) end-over-end; or if the bow be high, or 
 it be protected, as in most lifeboats, by a bow air-chamber, so 
 that it does not become submerged, that the resistance forward, 
 acting on one bow, will slightly turn the boat's head, and the 
 force of the surf being transferred to the opposite quarter, she will 
 in a moment be turned round broadside by the sea and be 
 thrown by it on her beam-ends, or altogether capsized,. It is 
 in this manner that most boats are upset in a surf, especially on 
 flat coasts, and in this way many lives are annually lost amongst 
 merchant seamen when attempting to land, after being com- 
 pelled to desert their vessels. 
 
 Hence it follows that the management of a boat, when landing 
 through a heavy surf, must, as far as possible, be assimilated to 
 that when proceeding to seaward against one, at least so far as to 
 stop her progress shoreward at the moment of being overtaken 
 by a heavy sea, and thus enabling it to pass her. There are dif- 
 ferent, ways of effecting this object: 
 
222 HANDLING BOATS IN A SURF. 
 
 1. By turning a boat's head to the sea before entering the 
 broken water, and then backing in stern foremost, pulling a few 
 strokes ahead to meet each heavy sea, and then again backing 
 astern. If a sea be really heavy, and a boat small, this plan will 
 be generally the safest, as a boat can be kept more under com- 
 mand when the full force of the oars can be used against .a heavy 
 surf, than by backing them only, 
 
 2. If rowing to shore with the stern to seaward, by backing all 
 the oars on the approach of a heavy sea, and rowing ahead again 
 as soon as it has passed to the bow of the boat, thus rowing in on 
 the back of the wave; or, as is practised in some lifeboats, plac- 
 ing the after-oarsmen with their faces forward, and making them 
 row back at each sea on its approach. 
 
 3. If rowed in bow foremost, by towing astern a pig of ballast 
 or large stone, or a large basket, or canvas bag termed a 
 " drogue " or drag, made for the purpose, the object of each be- 
 ing to hold the boat's stern back, and to prevent her being turned 
 broadside to the sea or broaching-to. 
 
 Drogues are in common use by the boatmen on the Norfolk 
 coast; they are conical-shaped bags of about the same form and 
 proportionate length and breadth as a candle extinguisher, about 
 two feet wide at the mouth and four and a half feet long. They 
 are towed with the mouth foremost by a stout rope, a small line, 
 termed a tripping line, being fast to the apex or pointed end. 
 When towed with the mouth foremost, they fill with water, and 
 offer a considerable resistance, thereby holding back the stern; 
 by letting go the stouter rope and retaining the smaller line, their 
 position is reversed, when they collapse, and can be readily hauled 
 into the boat. 
 
 Drogues are chiefly used in sailing-boats, when they both serve 
 to check a boat's way and to keep her end on to the sea. They 
 are, however, a great source of safety in rowing-boats, and the 
 rowing lifeboats of the National Lifeboat Institution are now 
 all provided with them. 
 
 A boat's sail bent to a yard, and towed astern loosed, the yard 
 being attached to a line capable of being veered, hauled or let go, 
 will act in some measure as a drogue, and will tend much to 
 break the force of the sea immediately astern of the boat. 
 
 Heavy weights should be kept out of the extreme ends of a 
 boat ; but when rowing before a heavy sea the best trim is deepest 
 by the stern, which prevents the stern being readily thrown on 
 one side by the sea. 
 
HANDLING BOATS IN A SURF. 223 
 
 A boat should be steered by an oar over the stern, or on one 
 quarter when running before a sea, as the rudder will then at 
 times be of no use. If the rudder be shipped, it should be kept 
 amidships on a sea breaking over the stern. 
 
 The following general rules may therefore be depended on 
 when running before, or attempting to land, through a heavy 
 surf or broken water: 
 
 1. As far as possible avoid each sea by placing the boat where 
 the sea will break ahead or astern of her. 
 
 2. If the sea be very heavy, or if the boat be very small, and 
 especially if she have a square stern, bring her bow round to 
 seaward and back her in, rowing ahead against each heavy surf 
 that cannot be avoided sufficiently to allow it to pass the boat. 
 
 3. If it be considered safe to proceed to the shore bow fore- 
 most, back the oars against each sea on its approach, so as to 
 stop the boat's way through the water as far as possible, and if 
 there is a drogue, or any other instrument in the boat that may 
 be used as one, tow it astern to aid in keeping the boat end-on, 
 to the sea, which is the chief object in view. 
 
 4. Bring the principal weights in the boat towards the end that 
 is to seaward, but not to the extreme end. 
 
 5. If a boat, worked by both sails and oars, be running under 
 sail for the land through a heavy sea, her crew should, under all 
 circumstances, unless the beach be quite steep, take down her 
 masts and sails before entering the broken water, and take her 
 to land under oars alone, as above described. 
 
 If she has sails only, her sails should be much reduced, a half- 
 lowered foresail or other small head-sail being sufficient. 
 
 BEACHING OR LANDING THROUGH A SURF. 
 The running before a surf or broken sea, and the beaching or 
 landing of a boat, are two distinct operations; the management of 
 boats, as above recommended, has exclusive reference to running 
 before a surf where the shore is so flat that the broken water 
 extends to some distance from the beach. Thus on a very steep 
 beach, the first heavy fall of broken water will be on the beach 
 itself, whilst on some very flat shores there will be broken water 
 as far as the eye can reach, sometimes extending to even four or 
 five miles from the land. The outermost line of broken water, 
 on a flat shore, where the waves break in three or four fathoms 
 water, is the heaviest, and therefore the most dangerous, and 
 
224 HANDLING BOATS IN A SURF. 
 
 when it has been passed through in safety, the danger lessens as 
 the water shoals, until, on nearing the land, its force is spent and 
 its power harmless. As the character of the sea is quite different 
 on steep and flat shores, so is the customary management of boats 
 on landing different in the two situations. On the flat shore, 
 whether a boat be run or backed in, she is kept straight .before 
 or end to the sea until she is fairly aground, when each surf 
 takes her further in as it overtakes her, aided by the crew, who 
 will then generally jump out to lighten her, and drag her in by her 
 sides. As above stated, sail will, in this case, have been pre- 
 viously taken in if set, and the boat will have been rowed or 
 backed in by oars alone. 
 
 On the other hand, on the steep beach, it is the general practice, 
 in a boat of any size, to retain speed right on to the beach, and in 
 the act of landing, whether under oars or sail, to turn the boat's 
 bow half round towards the direction from which the surf is run- 
 ning, so that she may be thrown on her broadside up the beach, 
 when abundance of help is usually at hand to haul her as quickly 
 as possible out of the reach of the sea. In such situations, we 
 believe, it is nowhere the practice to back a boat in stern fore- 
 most under oars, but to row in under full speed as above de- 
 scribed. 
 
 fill. NOTES ON THE MANAGEMENT OF BOATS IN A 
 SURF.' 
 
 From the ship a mile or two off shore, the surf may seem uni- 
 form, with no sign of a choice for making a landing. Looking 
 at the backs of the breakers, as to leeward over the waves at sea, 
 gives an inadequate idea of their height and abruptness. In fact, 
 what appears to be a mere swash on the beach, may involve much 
 danger to a carelessly handled or deeply-laden boat. Careful 
 study will often give hints of important differences in the nature 
 of the coast. 
 
 There may be stretches of sand beach backed by trees, the 
 lights and shadows of which, according to their relative distances, 
 indicate low-lying points, shallow bays, sand-choked river 
 mouths, or even the lateral entrance of a lagoon into which the 
 ship herself may safely pass. There may be bluffs, below which 
 doubtless lie rocks, sometimes only shown in the churned-up surf 
 
 1 By Lieutenant A. A. Ackerman, United States Navy. 
 
HANDLING BOATS IN A SURF. 225 
 
 when dangerously near. There is often a current along the 
 shore, and this should be studied before attempting to land. 
 Sometimes its direction changes with the tide; again it is of the 
 nature and perhaps part of an ocean current flowing constantly 
 in one direction. Where there are cliffs, their debris is often 
 swept into the form of an irregular breakwater towards the lee 
 side. This shoal, being of varying height and lacking continuity, 
 may be of little help when covered by high water, but at low 
 water it sometimes affords all the lee required to make an easy 
 landing. 
 
 Narrow canons in long stretches of bluffs, or pockets in a rocky 
 coast, sometimes mark quiet spots; the swell flowing in through 
 deep water and breaking directly on the beach. Such places 
 should as a rule be avoided until carefully studied. It may be 
 possible to make use of them to land behind detached rocks or 
 pass behind the breakers of the adjacent bluffs, but there are 
 always sunken rocks to be feared; and the fall of the tide, or the 
 setting in of a heavier swell, may suddenly turn the smooth seas 
 at the entrance into heavy breakers. 
 
 A single rock, hardly far enough off shore to be shown on the 
 chart as separated from the beach, will frequently have a quiet 
 place in its lee, although the approach to it may at times be dan- 
 gerous. 
 
 It is more difficult to choose a landing on a long stretch of 
 sand beach; but wherever a shoal appears, or the surf stretches 
 far out, a comparatively light surf, and perhaps even a smooth 
 way in, should be looked for on the lee side. 
 
 Confused surf off the mouth of a lagoon or river, or the slant- 
 ing breakers which sometimes run along the beach, as a rule 
 indicate strong currents. When these are understood, a handy 
 boat may sometimes dodge the breakers and work into smooth 
 water with surprising ease. There is always danger, however, 
 that the stranger may be swept down into heavy surf, or while 
 heading up against the current or main breakers, have the boat 
 filled by cross-seas. 
 
 Often a number of the heaviest swells follow each other in 
 succession, after which there is a short and comparatively mild 
 interval. Such a recurrence of quiet spells, as well as the point 
 at which the swells become dangerous by commencing to break, 
 and that at which they fall into harmless confusion, should be 
 watched for and taken advantage of in landing. 
 
226 HANDLING BOATS IN A SURF. 
 
 The number of lines of breakers or width of surf does not 
 always determine the difficulty of landing, as the outer lines will 
 be much the heaviest; and if these can be avoided or passed with- 
 out shipping too much water, the others will probably not be 
 dangerous to a well-handled boat. Notice should always be 
 taken before entering the surf, especially where it is wide, of the 
 probable drift of the boat. It may be set by the current down 
 among rocks or into heavy breakers. 
 
 The beach, too, may present obstacles to a safe landing, apart 
 from the surf. At high water, it may break directly on a steep 
 shingle beach which would be difficult to climb, even without 
 being obliged to drag the boat clear of the breakers. If assist- 
 ance could be had from on shore, such a beach might be charged 
 on the back of a breaker and the boat hauled up clear before the 
 next one filled it. Working with the crew alone, however, the 
 depth of water and poor foothold would usually prevent any but 
 the most active crew in a light boat from landing without being 
 swamped. At the same point, an easy landing might be made 
 on the sloping sand beach below the shingle by waiting an hour 
 or two for lower water. 
 
 Before entering the surf at a strange locality, it is well to lie 
 off it for awhile, noting its peculiarities and accustoming the 
 crew to them. Dangerous breakers may form and pass, but 
 the quieter intervals are very encouraging. 
 
 Speaking generally, a very light and buoyant boat, with a crew 
 cf as small a number as possible to handle it, will pass in an.d out 
 through moderate surf with ease, while a heavy ship's boat with 
 a powerful crew would at least take on board considerable water. 
 Beyond a certain point, the added strength of a man does not 
 begin to compensate for the increased weight. The require- 
 ments of a good surf-boat differ materially from those of a deep- 
 sea life-boat, yet they are alike in some particulars. The differ- 
 ence lies mainly in the fact that the latter is designed to ride in 
 a rough sea, which, since the boat rises and falls with it, does not 
 have the battering force of a breaker. The surf-boat, on the 
 other hand, perhaps while lying dead in the water, or carried 
 out by oars and undertow, must meet and pierce or surmount a 
 wall of water advancing with great velocity. 
 
 A very light and broad-beamed, single-banked, six-oared 
 whale-boat is perhaps the type of ship's boat in which the best 
 
HANDLING BOATS IN A SURF. 227 
 
 proportion of power to resistance and weight moved is likely to 
 be obtained. 
 
 If time permits, a towing-post should be fitted in the bow for 
 veering the surf-line and this may be suddenly required to take 
 great strain when the boat is struck by a breaker. 
 
 Besides possessing the buoyancy due to lightness of material, 
 it would be a great advantage for the boat to be fitted with light 
 air-tanks filling all unoccupied space and so reducing to a min- 
 imum the capacity for shipping and holding water. In fact, an 
 extreme type of surf-boat would somewhat resemble the Esqui- 
 mo's kayak, in which the boat has a cover, the only opening of 
 which is gathered tightly around the occupant's waist. 
 
 Great sheer is important, and the upper strakes should flare 
 somewhat at bow and stern to prevent their dipping under when 
 ihe opposite end of the boat is lifted high on the side of a breaker. 
 The flare of upper strakes, however, should not amount to such 
 bluffness as will increase resistance to cutting through the crest 
 cf a wave. To permit the boat to rise and fall quickly in response 
 to the swell, weights should be kept out of the extreme ends.. 
 
 The underwater body of the boat should offer as little lateral 
 resistance as possible to the water. Should she, in pulling out 
 to meet a breaker, be inclined slightly from the normal and be 
 carried back, however little, her keel, rudder-post and run would 
 be resisted and retarded by the dead water on the front of the 
 breaker, while the bow would be swept rapidly around turning 
 the boat more and more broadside on, until the gunwale dips and 
 it finally rolls over. The coxswain must in such a case attempt to 
 pry the stern around with his steering-oar and the crew make 
 every effort to get way on the boat and surmount the breaker 
 before the turning action has culminated in a capsize. If the 
 bottom of the boat is rounded and smoothed off in every direction, 
 the water has very little hold 'either for turning it against the 
 leverage of the steering-oar, or to roll the boat over should it 
 broach-to. In fact, a light dory has been known to be swept 
 broadside on for a long distance before a breaker without cap- 
 sizing. The smooth bottom offered so little resistance to the 
 dead water on the shore side of the breaker that there was very 
 little tendency to trip the boat up. 
 
 High freeboard, high roomy thwarts and favorable positions 
 for oarsmen and coxswain to exert their strength, are all im- 
 portant qualities. The modern navy whale-boat is a great im- 
 
228 HANDLING BOATS IN A SURF. 
 
 provement over the old one in these respects. It is, however, 
 necessarily a compromise; and with very little alteration it could 
 be greatly improved for passing the surf. Its propelling power 
 should be nearly equally spaced about the center of buoyancy, 
 which may be accomplished by placing an additional thwart in 
 the stern sheets and leaving the forward thwart vacant. Pas- 
 sengers should sit on the bottom of the boat between thwarts; 
 all unnecessary weights and gear should be removed. The 
 coxswain should have a grating lashed over the stern sheet 
 benches to give him a good foothold. Swivel rowlocks should 
 be used; there is great danger of fouling the oars in the surf 
 and it would then be very difficult to free one from an inserted 
 rowlock before it had caused the boat to broach-to. Stretchers 
 and boat-breakers should be lashed down and all other unneces- 
 sary gear dispensed with. 
 
 The subject of oars merits consideration. The steering-oar 
 should be broad, stiff and not too long. Its exact length de- 
 pends upon the boat and the height of the coxswain's platform; 
 eighteen feet may be regarded ordinarily as a good length. A 
 longer oar may be used to advantage at sea and its need may be 
 felt at times in the surf; for example, when the stern is raised 
 on the crest of a breaker and the blade of the oar barely reaches 
 the water in the trough. On the other hand, when the boat 
 is in a dangerous position and being carried back, a long oar is 
 worse than useless, as it is almost impossible to keep its blade 
 from catching in the dead water, where it tends to turn her broad- 
 side on. The other oars should also be light and stiff to permit 
 easy handling and quick application of power. On troubled 
 water, either at sea or in the surf, oars which exceed a certain 
 length dependent upon the beam and freeboard of the boat are 
 a nuisance. They cannot be handled quickly, wear the men 
 out and are certain to strike on the back stroke or foul each other. 
 If, in addition, they are springy, by the time the power is well 
 applied in one direction, the boat may be turned or tilted and most 
 of the stroke lost. No hard and fast rule can be given for the 
 length of oars; that had better be determined by actual test in 
 each particular boat. It will seldom, if ever, however, be found 
 advisable to employ in a single banked boat, an oar longer than 
 twice the beam at the thwart plus the freeboard at the oarlock. 
 
 Whichever way of landing is adopted, a conical drag, towed 
 ten to twenty fathoms astern, will be of great assistance. It 
 
HANDLING BOATS IN A SURF. 22Q 
 
 should have a tripping line to invert it when it is not required to 
 check the boat. Too much reliance should not be placed upon 
 the drag, however, for though it will always assist to keep the 
 boat pointed fair to the breakers when the line is hauled in briskly 
 by a couple of men, there is not the positive assurance of holding 
 the boat that is given by a surf-line attached to a well-bedded 
 anchor planted outside the surf. 
 
 There are occasions when the use of such a surf-line and anchor 
 is invaluable. Among them may be noted the landing in a large or 
 unwieldly boat; landing with a weak or inexperienced crew, or 
 in high surf where it is necessary to return, or in any case where 
 it seems pretty certain that the crew will be unable to maintain 
 control over the boat with their oars. On the other hand there 
 are certain disadvantages connected with the use of the surf- 
 line. There is a current along almost every beach and if the 
 surf is wide, a boat going out may drift down so far that when the 
 dangerous breakers are reached, the line to the anchor leads 
 broad off the bow and tends to turn the boat rather than steady 
 it head-on to the breakers. Should a boat using a surf-line be 
 capsized in the outer surf, the coils of line will probably knot and 
 tangle so as to prevent the boat from drifting in. 
 
 Whenever the line is used, a hatchet should be kept close to 
 the bowman's hand with which to cut the line should it become 
 necessary. In going in where the surf is wide or there is a cur- 
 rent, the line may be used to pass the outer breakers and then 
 abandoned. If a bucket is tied to the end, it may be picked up 
 again and used on going out. The anchor should be buoyed with 
 spare oars or other gear so as to recover it should the boat be 
 obliged to abandon the line or to cut it in coming out. 
 
 All unnecessary articles are taken out of the boat. The 
 water-breaker is tightly plugged and lashed down, as are the 
 stretchers and buckets for bailing. The men shift into light 
 clothes without shoes. If the weather is sufficiently cold to 
 require it, dry clothing may be carried in the air-tanks, which 
 should, however, be carefully inspected and all unnecessary 
 articles removed. A hatchet, copper tacks, sheet lead, and 
 roll of felting should also be carried for use in case the boat 
 is stove. If the beach is distant, it may be possible to go under 
 sail, or to be towed by another boat so as to keep the men 
 fresh. The presence of a second boat would also be of great 
 assistance, if it was used to distribute oil over the water abreast 
 
23O HANDLING BOATS IN A SURF. 
 
 the landing, for although the quieting effect of oil is much less 
 marked upon a surf than upon deep sea waves, there is abundant 
 evidence that its value is considerable, especially in the compara- 
 tively deep water where the outer and most dangerous breakers 
 form. 
 
 A second boat lying outside would be an encouragement to a 
 crew pulling out from shore, and might be of great assistance to 
 the probably exhausted men after their trip through the breakers. 
 
 In going out, the time of start, though important, is less so than 
 when coming in, as it may be possible to pull half-way out with- 
 out taking water on board or meeting dangerous surf. If 
 a surf-line is used, take the boat up the beach until it appears 
 that when carried down by the current and hauled out at the 
 same time it will reach the dangerous space with the line fair 
 to the anchor. Station two active, powerful men to haul in the 
 line, as more progress will be made in this way than if they took 
 oars. The four after-oarsmen steady the boat, standing in the 
 water opposite their thwarts, oars apeak. Put the passengers 
 aboard, haul taut the line, and commence walking out the boat, 
 the coxswain at the stern. As soon as the boat leaves .the bottom 
 the men climb in and take their oars, pointing them to prevent 
 drift until ready to start. The intention is to so time the arrival 
 of the boat at the outer line that no heavy breakers will be met 
 at that point. Varying width of surf and speed of boat may make 
 this difficult of attainment. 
 
 At the start the men, pulling and hauling, force the boat rapidly 
 through the water. Irregular waves splash into the boat; later 
 they become too large to be pulled through without taking much 
 water on board. It is then best to check headway, tauten the 
 line, and peak oars as the breaker passes. So the boat works 
 out, obviously passing many more breakers than when coming 
 in. Gradually the filling boat becomes sluggish, difficult to pull 
 and steer. In this condition it may be capsized if only slightly 
 turned, and it may now be better to go back, bail out, and try 
 again, than to struggle on and risk an almost certain capsize in 
 the heavier breakers. 
 
 A properly pointed boat may succeed in passing through a 
 breaker that it cannot hope to ride. The water may fill it to the 
 thwarts, in which condition it will capsize at a touch, but once 
 clear of the breakers it may be bailed out and enabled to meet 
 the waves of any ordinary sea in safety. 
 
CHAPTER XI. 
 GROUND TACKLE. 
 
 I. ANCHORS. 
 
 The form of anchor commonly used throughout the world 
 from the beginning of the last century up to about 1875 was, 
 in most essentials, that shown in Plate 80. It is true that double- 
 fluked anchors resembling those now so familiar were proposed 
 as early as 1850, but they were slow in making their way, and it 
 was not until about the year above-named that they began to 
 come into anything like general use. They are now almost uni- 
 versally used by steamers, and the prejudice which long existed 
 against them in the minds of seamen is rapidly dying out. 
 
 When an old-fashioned anchor is let go in water fairly deep, 
 it strikes the bottom crown first, and immediately falls over until 
 it rests on the end of the stock, the arms lying horizontally. 
 From this position any drag of the chain to one side capsizes or 
 "cants" it, pulling the stock down horizontally upon the bottom 
 and pointing one of the flukes fair for biting. As the drag con- 
 tinues, the fluke is forced into the ground, and if the anchor is 
 well designed, the heavier the pull the deeper the fluke goes down 
 provided sufficient length of chain is given to keep the pull 
 approximately parallel to the bottom. For this reason, quite as 
 much as because of the "cantenary" that comes from a long 
 scope, it is important to use plenty of chain, particularly when the 
 anchor is taking the first hold. In good holding ground, anchors 
 frequently bury themselves completely. This tendency of the 
 old-fashioned anchor to work into the ground under a pull is 
 one of its most valuable characteristics, and one not possessed 
 by any of the " double-fluked " types, using this term to designate 
 the general type in which the two flukes are in the same plane and 
 act together in holding. 
 
 The principal advantages of the double-fluked type are, first, 
 an enormous gain in convenience of handling and stowing, and 
 second a freedom from danger that the ship may ground on 
 some part of the anchor when swinging over it in shallow water. 
 
2 3 2 
 
 Plate No. 80. 
 
 King orJews~Harp 
 
 Arm- 
 
 Palm or 
 "Fluke "^ 
 
 "Arm 
 
 Shank -> 
 
 <-Sfock 
 
 Crowns' 
 
 Crown 
 
 OLD FASHIONED ANCHOR. 
 
Plate No. 81. 
 
 233 
 
 "-Balancing Band 
 
 DUNN 
 
 BALDT 
 
 BALDT 
 
 PATENT ANCHORS. 
 
234 GROUND TACKLE. 
 
 The anchor shown in Plate 80, represents fairly well the 
 most approved design of the old type. The palm is of medium 
 size, the arms shaped to the angles most favorable for biting, 
 and the cross-section of each part carefully designed for maxi- 
 mum strength in the direction of the strain to which it will be 
 subjected. All edges are chamfered off to reduce the wearing of 
 the chain as its bight rides over the anchor, and all re-entering 
 angles are rounded as much as possible. 
 
 This type is nearly obsolete and within a few years will prob- 
 ably have disappeared altogether. At present its use is confined 
 to sailing ships and to small steamers and motor boats, except 
 that in the Navy it is retained on some of the older cruisers and 
 gunboats which are themselves rapidly becoming obsolete. 
 
 Plates 81 and 82 show several of the best known types of 
 double-fluked anchors. The following features are common to 
 them all. 
 
 1st. The arms are pivoted upon the shank and can swing 
 from thirty to forty degrees on either side. 
 
 2nd. The palms are in the plane of the arms instead of at 
 right angles to it. 
 
 3rd. It results from this construction that both flukes should 
 bite if either one does. 
 
 4th. To insure that the flukes shall bite, the arms carry, at the 
 crown, a projecting shoulder with a sharp edge, which takes on 
 the bottom and throws the arms downward. 
 
 The anchors principally used in the Navy are the Dunn and 
 Baldt. Others sometimes used in the Navy and very frequently 
 used in the American Merchant Service are the Allison, Eels 
 and National. 
 
 It may be laid down as a rule that the patent anchor always 
 needs a longer scope of chain to bite and hold than does the old- 
 fashioned one. This is because a slight upward pull on the ring 
 drives the old-fashioned fluke into the ground but breaks out the 
 flukes of the other type. 
 
 Anchors are usually made of cast steel, recent improvements in 
 the manufacture of that metal having made it sufficiently reliable 
 to justify its employment for this purpose. But the stocks, rings, 
 pins, shackles, balancing bands and other fittings should in all 
 cases be forged, and in the case of housing anchors, the shanks 
 also. 
 
Plate No. 8. 
 
 235 
 
 PATENT ANCHORS. 
 
236 GROUND TACKLE. 
 
 In ships of the early design, anchors were stowed on a bed 
 (technically a "bill-board") built on the bow of the ship a little 
 distance abaft the hawse-pipe, where they were secured as in 
 Plates 83 and 84. Anchors designed to be stowed in this way 
 are fitted with a "Balancing-band" on the shank (Plate 81, 
 Fig. i) and are handled by a purchase or a pendant from a heavy 
 iron davit, shown in Plate 83. This davit turns about a vertical 
 axis, plumbing the proper point of the bill-board at one part of 
 its train and swinging out well clear of the bow at another part. 
 In men-of-war it is hinged to turn down flat upon the deck, out 
 of the way of gun-fire. 
 
 At the davit head may be hooked either a heavy single block, 
 swivelled and carrying a pendant, or the upper block of a heavy 
 purchase, usually three- fold. 
 
 Where a pendant is used, it leads down to a block at the heel 
 of the davit and then aft. In some cases a thimble is turned in 
 the end and a deck tackle hooked to this, the fall going to a 
 capstan or a winch; in others, the pendant is taken direct to the 
 capstan, the length being such that there are several turns around 
 the barrel when the pendant is hooked and set taut ready for 
 surging chain. 
 
 If a pendant is used, it may be either chain or wire. The 
 latter is to be preferred, and for several reasons. It works more 
 smoothly on the barrel of the capstan, and is better adapted, by 
 its elasticity, to stand the sudden jerks which are unavoidable 
 in stowing anchors. For a given size of sheave, a stronger 
 pendant may be used of wire than of chain; and a flaw in wire 
 can be seen at once, whereas in chain I' can never be detected 
 until it gives away. 
 
 At its outer end the pendant carries a large hook which is 
 hooked to the balancing-band when the anchor is hove up to the 
 hawse-pipe. The pendant having been set taut, the winch is 
 started, the chain veered, and the anchor swings to the pendant 
 and is run up and landed on the bill-board and secured as in 
 Plate 84. To let go, the releasing-bar to which the ends of the 
 stoppers are secured, is tripped, allowing the anchor to slide off 
 of the sloping bill-board. 
 
 Plate 83 shows a patent anchor stowed in this way and Plate 
 84 an old-fashioned anchor. Plate 83 shows also a patent anchor 
 with the shank housed in the hawse-pipe with the flukes lying 
 
GROUND TACKLE. 
 
 Plate No. 83. 
 
 237 
 
 \ 
 
 
 o 
 
 ffi 
 u 
 
 < 
 o 
 
GROUND TACKLE. 
 
 Plate No. 84. 
 
GROUND TACKLE. 239 
 
 against the side plating. If designed to be stowed in this way an 
 anchor must be very strong in the shank to stand the strain which 
 comes from canting over the lip of the hawse pipe as it is dragged 
 inside. The strain is especially serious in men-of-war of recent 
 date, in which the hawse pipes are made almost horizontal with 
 a view to getting the anchor, when housed, so high above the 
 water that it will not drive a cloud of spray on board when the 
 bow is pitching into a head sea. This strain, although a maxi- 
 mum on the shank, which has to bear the leverage of lifting the 
 flukes, is very great also on all other parts of the ground tackle, 
 including the windlass. 
 
 In very recent battleships, a third hawse-pipe is fitted at the 
 stem (Plate 85). This not only provides a third anchor avail- 
 able for immediate use but makes it possible for the ship to ride 
 with her stem true to the tide or wind, thus doing away with the 
 annoying and often dangerous yawing which is common where 
 the riding chain leads from a hawse pipe at a considerable dis- 
 tance abaft the stem. 
 
 Men-of-War usually carry the following anchors: 
 
 Three Bower Anchors, one of which may be called a " Sheet 
 Anchor " as a convenient method of identifying it. The bower 
 anchors of the Massachusetts and Lexington classes will weigh 
 24,000 Ibs. 
 
 One Stream Anchor of approximately one third the weight of 
 a bower. This is often carried astern. 
 
 Three or more Kedges, the heaviest of which may weigh a ton. 
 
 Boat Anchors, as required. 
 
 A Sheet Anchor was formerly an anchor heavier than the bowers, 
 kept in reserve for an emergency. The term has now no significance 
 except as a matter of convenience, the anchors being designated as: 
 " Starboard Bower," " Port Bower," " Sheet.*' 
 
 A Stream Anchor, in days when men-of-war were frequently called 
 upon to navigate rivers, was carried at the stern (originally) for use 
 on occasions when it became necessary to drop an anchor astern to 
 avoid swinging to the current or for any other reason. Later the 
 term came to mean an anchor of medium weight, wherever stowed 
 and for whatever purpose used. In this sense, the designation is con- 
 veniently retained. 
 
 Any. anchor carried at the stern is conveniently designated as a 
 " Stern Anchor," without reference to its weight, or purpose ; as a 
 boat carried on the quarter is called a "quarter boat." 
 
240 
 
 GROUND TACKLE. 
 
 Plate No. 85. 
 
 BOW OF U. S. S. IDAHO. 
 
GROUND TACKLE. 24! 
 
 11. CHAIN-CABLES AND APPENDAGES. 
 MATERIAL. Until very recently all chain-cables for ships were 
 made of wrought-iron. Experiments had from time to time 
 been made with steel, in some cases with promising results ; but 
 even where greatly increased tensile strength was in evidence, 
 there remained a suspicion in the minds of seamen that the in- 
 crease in strength had been purchased by a sacrifice of the trust- 
 worthiness that had long been associated with the ductility of 
 wrought-iron. 
 
 It is doubtless true that when wrought-iron and steel are of 
 approximately equal strength the ductility of the iron gives it an 
 advantage for many purposes, and especially for chain cables 
 first because the absence of brittleness makes it safer under the 
 shocks to which cables are often subjected, and again because the 
 elongation before rupture which results from ductility serves as 
 a warning of overstrain. In cases, however, where the tensile 
 strength of steel is greatly in excess of that of wrought-iron, it is 
 clear that the gain in strength may much more than offset the 
 loss in ductility. It happens, moreover, that certain important 
 factors other than strength and ductility enter into the efficiency 
 of a cable, and that several of these are more easily secured in 
 steel, and especially in cast steel, than in iron. Among these may 
 be mentioned uniformity of size and shape and resistance to defor- 
 mation, ensuring a good fit on the lugs of the windlass wild-cat. 
 The first attempts to manufacture chain-cables of steel were 
 necessarily made with mild steel because high carbon steel does 
 not weld securely, and the only process available for large chains 
 involved leaving each link open until it could be threaded through 
 the link which preceded it, and then welding the ends of the new 
 link together. Moreover, it was felt, as has been explained 
 above, that the quality of ductility, which is common to both 
 wrought-iron and mild steel, was essential. Recent improve- 
 ments in the characteristics of steel and in the methods of cast- 
 ing, added to the exigencies of the World War, have resulted in 
 the development of a cast-steel chain-cable which has 40 per cent, 
 greater strength than the best wrought-iron. This chain can be 
 cast complete in any desired length ; but the following process is 
 found more convenient: 
 
GROUND TACKLE. 
 
 n are 
 n the 
 
 One half of the links for a complete length of chain 
 cast separately and allowed to cool. These are to form 
 odd-numbered links of the chain. They are ranged in a 
 row in mould cavities, with intervening spaces left for the 
 even numbered links. Patterns representing the missing 
 links are threaded through the finished links and a continu- 
 ous mould constructed by means of which the missing links 
 are cast in their proper places, the result being a complete 
 and continuous chain of interthreaded links. Plate 91. 
 This chain, of " Naco " cast steel, has been approved by the 
 British and American " Lloyds " and is coming into very general 
 use in the Merchant Service. It has been subjected to severe 
 tests by the Bureau of Construction of the Navy Department 
 and issued to a number of battleships for test under service con- 
 ditions. In tests made at the Boston Navy Yard the average 
 breaking load of 2-)4 inch " Naco " chain was found to be 700,000 
 pounds as against 506,000 pounds for the best wrought-iron. 
 
 As a result of these tests, it has been decided that the future 
 standard chain-cable of the United States Navy of 2 inches and 
 above shall be of cast steel, except the shackles and swivels, which 
 are to be drop-forged of a special grade of steel having a high 
 tensile and elastic strength combined with good ductility. As 
 these parts (shackles and swivels) are not subject to limitations 
 either of casting or of welding, it is possible to use a steel which 
 will give almost any combination of characteristics which may be 
 desired. 
 
 SIZE OF CHAIN. Chain is designated as to size by the diameter 
 of the iron of which the common links are made; standard sizes 
 running by sixteenths of an inch from }/\ inch to $]/2 inches, this 
 last being the size issued to the largest battleships of the United 
 States Navy. 
 
 LENGTHS OF CHAIN. Chain is manufactured in comparatively 
 short lengths, known as " shots." The standard length of an 
 ordinary shot in the United States Navy is 15 fathoms. In the 
 present Naval practice, the first or outboard shot is of approxi- 
 mately 5 fathoms, and the second of 40 fathoms, the object of 
 this arrangement being to prevent the possibility of having a 
 shackle on the windlass while breaking out the anchor. The 5- 
 fathom shot is % inch larger, and its two outer links from *4 of 
 an inch to a full inch larger, than the other parts of the cable, 
 
GROUND TACKLE. 243 
 
 this having been found necessary to provide for the shock to 
 which this part of the cable is subjected in letting go. 
 
 As a result of the adoption of the new type Navy Shackle de- 
 scribed below, and illustrated in Plate 87, it is probable that a uni- 
 form length of 15 fathoms will ultimately be adopted for all shots 
 in new cables, except that the 5-fathom shot at the bending end 
 may be retained as a matter of convenience for bending and un- 
 bending, and followed by a 10 fathom length ; these two together 
 making a shot of 15 fathoms to correspond with the rest of the 
 cable, 
 
 SHACKLES. (Plate 86.) In present practice, the shots of chain 
 are joined by " connecting shackles," the bowed end of the 
 shackle being always placed forward (toward the anchor). This 
 helps it to engage the ribs of the windlass wild-cat and prevents it 
 from catching on the controller and hawse-pipe as it runs out. 
 
 The bolt of the shackle is sometimes round, but more often 
 oval in section. In the latest United States Naval practice it is 
 egg-shaped. This shape gives an increased bearing surface for 
 a given cross-sectional area, and also makes it impossible to put 
 the bolt in the wrong way an important consideration in hand- 
 ling ground-tackle at night. The bolt is held in place by a fore- 
 lock pin driven in a hole through the bolt and the enlarged ends 
 of the shackle. This forelock pin is sometimes of wood pre- 
 ferably hickory well coated with white lead and driven home 
 tightly. For unshackling, these pins are either backed out, or 
 sheared by a smart tap of a hammer on the end of a bolt. A 
 better practice is to use a forelock pin of steel, which should be- 
 tinned to prevent corrosion. A common practice for securing 
 the forelock pin is to jam it at each end by a pellet of soft lead 
 upset into the hole in the shackle. 
 
 The practice in the United States Navy is to use a forelock 
 pin made of steel, tinned, and held in place by a keying ring of 
 lead, which is upset, by a special tool, into a groove around the 
 end of the forelock pin, the other end of this pin having a 
 countersunk head. Plate 90 shows the details of the bolt and 
 pin. In unshackling, the key ring is sheared. To admit of 
 slipping the shackle into place, the end link of each shot of 
 chain is made without studs. 
 
 Shackles should go to the capstan flat, so that the strain is 
 taken equally on the two sides with no tendency to open the 
 
244 
 
 FIG.1. CONNECTING SHACKLE 
 
 FIG. 2. 
 CONNECTING SHACKLE 
 
 flG.3. BENDING' SHACKLE 
 
 FIG. 4. BENDING SHACKLE 
 
 DETAILS OF GROUND TACKLE. 
 
Plate No. 87. 
 
 245 
 
 FIG.1. ASSEMBLED 
 
 H 
 
 FIG. 2. PARTIALLY ASSEMBLED 
 
 FIG.3. DIS-ASSEMBLED 
 
 NAVY STANDARD KENTER SHACKLE. 
 
246 
 
 GROUND TACKLE. 
 
 shackle. The eye of the shackle has been designed so that it is 
 stronger than the round. 
 
 NEW TYPE NAVY SHACKLE. It is desirable for many reasons 
 to have a shackle which shall correspond in external shape and 
 size with the links of the chain to which it belongs. Plate 87 
 shows the new " Navy Standard Kenter Shackle " which fulfils 
 these conditions, and has been adopted for use in the United 
 States Navy. With this shackle all difficulties resulting from an 
 imperfect fit on the wildcat will disappear, and the cables of a 
 ship can be made up of uniform shots of any length desired. 
 The frequent accidents to bending shackles, due to fracture or to 
 the opening of the sides as they pass over the lip of the housing 
 hawse-pipe will be much reduced if not entirely eliminated. It is 
 found that the new shackle can be assembled and disassembled as 
 quickly and conveniently as the older type, and can be given the 
 full strength of the standard links. 
 
 A very interesting suggestion has recently been made, which, 
 if it proves practicable, will revolutionize the manufacture and 
 character of chain-cables. It is proposed to build up every alter- 
 nate link into a construction closely imitating the new shackle 
 which has been described; the remaining links to be dropped 
 forged of the same grade of steel that is used for the shackles 
 and swivels. In this construction every second link would be 
 in effect a shackle, and the links would be connected up exactly 
 as the shots are now connected. Here again we should get 
 away from the limitations of welding (as in wrought iron chain) 
 and of casting (as in cast steel chain) and could secure prac- 
 tically any desired combination of strength, ductility and other 
 characteristics. In the absence of service tests, which would 
 necessarily be prolonged and should be widely varied, there is 
 some doubt as to the trustworthiness of 'a chain in which half of 
 the links are built up of several parts connected by mechanical 
 methods. If this doubt is ultimately removed, it will be possible 
 to manufacture chain of at least double the strength of the 
 wrought-iron cable which has heretofore been the standard of 
 the seafaring world. 
 
 BENDING SHACKLES. The cable is bent to the ring of the 
 anchor by a bending shackle, similar to the connecting shackles 
 used between the lengths of chain, but somewhat larger and 
 differing in the method of securing the bolt. (Plate 86.) It 
 
Plate No. 88. 
 
 
 SWIVEL. 
 
248 
 
 GROUND TACKLE. 
 
 will be noted, by reference to the official drawing of chain cables, 
 Plate 91, that whereas all connecting shackles are placed with the 
 bowed end forward, the bending shackle is placed with the bowed 
 end aft. The reason for this is that the bending shackle never 
 comes to the wildcat and that it is never in danger of catching 
 on anything as it runs out. On the other hand, it is subjected to 
 its greatest stress in passing over the lip of the hawse-pipe as it 
 is hauled inside for housing, and it will pass over more smoothly 
 if its bowed end is aft. It is found, also, that the tendency of 
 the shackle to open as it passes over the lip is much less with the 
 bowed end aft. 
 
 The new "Navy Standard Renter Shackle" (Plate 87), has 
 been authorized for Bending Shackles as well as for Connecting 
 Shackles. 
 
 SWIVELS. To prevent the accumulation of turns as the ship 
 swings about her anchor, swivels are used (Plate 88). For- 
 merly there was one of these in every length of chain, but they 
 gave much trouble in passing around the capstan (being too large 
 to take the sprockets), and their number has been gradually re- 
 duced until now not more than three or four are used in the cable, 
 and in United States Naval practice only one is used, this being 
 placed in the first (5-fathom) shot. 
 
 LENGTH OF A CABLE. 1 The total length of a cable may be 
 anywhere from 90 to 200 fathoms. In the United States Navy 
 the standard length has long been 120 fathoms, but this has 
 recently been increased for battleships and large cruisers to 150 
 fathoms, and for the bower cables of the latest Dreadnaughts to 
 180 fathoms. 
 
 STOWAGE. The cables are stowed in " chain lockers " which 
 are usually in the hold, below the windlass. The inner, or 
 " bitter " end of the cable is first of all rove through a ring in the 
 lower part of the locker and brought up and shackled to a beam 
 or other accessible place by a sliphook or some other arrange- 
 ment which, while holding securely, shall admit of easy slipping, 
 or of bending on an additional length. 
 
 The chain is stowed, as it is paid below, by "tierers," with the 
 aid of chain-hooks, hook-ropes and, in the case of heavy chains, 
 of tackles hooked in eye bolts in the deck above the chain-locker. 
 
 1 A " Cable's Length " as a unit of measurement is always 100 fathoms, 
 this being 8 shots of 12^ fathoms each, the standard length of a shot in 
 the British Navy. 
 
GROUND TACKLE. 
 
 Plate No. 89. 
 
 249 
 
250 GROUND TACKLE. 
 
 This operation of "tiering" the cable is of very great impor- 
 tance as the cable if paid down rapidly, and stowed carelessly is 
 likely to kink in running out and may jam in the chain pipe, with 
 very disastrous results. It should be stowed regularly and sym- 
 metrically in long flakes fore and aft, without kinks. 
 
 Watchfulness must be observed to make sure that no one is in 
 the locker when the anchor is let go or the chain veered, and that 
 no gear of any kind is in the way. 
 
 The cables of the largest men-of-war are too heavy and cum- 
 bersome to be handled by tierers. They are accordingly stowed 
 in deep and very narrow lockers, where there is little chance of 
 kinking, and tierers may be dispensed with. (Plate 89.) A re- 
 liable man should, however, be stationed at the locker both in 
 heaving in and in letting go, to make sure that all goes clear. 
 
 STOPPERS (Plate 90), of which there are many different forms, 
 are used to hold the chains when the anchor is down, to relieve 
 the strain on the windlass, and for securing the anchors and 
 cables at other times. For the largest ships they are of chain, 
 with slip-hooks for holding the cable, and are hooked or shackled 
 to heavy ring-bolts on the deck. When fitted in this way they are 
 known as " slip-stoppers." In smaller ships they are sometimes 
 of rope, usually hemp, with a " stopper-knot " or an iron toggle 
 in the outer end and a lanyard for lashing to the cable. 
 
 SLIP-STOPPERS, in addition to their use for holding the cable 
 when riding at anchor, are used with " housing anchors " for 
 securing the anchors in their housed positions in the hawse-pipe. 
 When used in this way the stopper usually has a screw turn- 
 buckle for drawing the anchor close up into the hawse-pipe. In 
 this case it is called a " screw-stopper," or " housing-stopper." 
 
 In large ships, with housing anchors, the anchor is usually 
 let go from the slip-stopper by knocking off the link of the slip- 
 hook. 
 
 MAKE-UP OF CABLE. The make-up of a chain cable for the 
 United States Navy is as follows (Plate 91) : 
 
 Beginning with the outboard, or anchor end: 
 
 (a) Bending shackle. 
 
 (b) First shot of cable, five fathoms in length, of material ^ 
 inch larger than that used in other lengths of the cable, with a 
 swivel near the inner end. The three outer links of this length 
 
Plate No. 90. 
 
 251 
 
 FIG. 1. 
 DETAILS OF FORELOCK PIN AND LEAD KEYING RING FOR SHACKLES 
 
 FIG.2. SLIP STOPPER 
 
 ?%"Acme Thread, 2% "Acme Thread, 
 
 Left Hand Right Hand 
 
 FIG. 3. 
 HOUSING CHAIN STOPPER, U.S. NAVY. 
 
 FIG. 4. 
 DECK STOPPER, (ROPE) 
 
 STOPPERS. 
 
252 
 
 Plate No.. 91. 
 
 COMMON LINK ENLARGED LINK LONG END LINK 
 
 SHACKLE 
 
 (TV! 
 
 SHORTENDL1NK ENLARGED LINK END LINK 
 
 EBAAABCD E BAA 
 
 U-- Balcinceof Cable ISFM.rioinShots-^ Y"40 FM. Plain -- 
 Bending Shackle G F A A B Swivel 
 
 MAKE-UP OF CABLES 
 
 -Link- 
 
 MOULD FOR CAST- STEEL CHAIN 
 
GROUND TACKLE. 
 
 253 
 
 are larger than the others by an amount varying with the size of 
 the cable. 
 
 (c) Second shot of cable, of forty fathoms, connected with (b) 
 by a shackle. 
 
 (d) Other shots of cable, each of fifteen fathoms, in number 
 sufficient to make up a total length of 120, 135, 150, or 180 
 fathoms, and connected by shackles. 
 
 The arrangement of the first two shots, of five and forty 
 fathoms respectively, prevents danger of having either a swivel or 
 a shackle on the windlass during the heavy heaving connected 
 with breaking ground. 
 
 The use of 150 or 180 fathoms on each of the bower cables 
 makes it practicable to moor with 60 fathoms on each cable, and 
 this is the length now commonly used in mooring. 
 
 In handling the anchors, bending and unbending chain, etc., 
 the five- fathom length which comes next to the anchor is usually 
 not unbent, as it is easier to work with the end of this than with 
 the ring of the anchor direct. 
 
 WEIGHT OF CHAIN. 
 
 Diameter of Material 
 
 Weight per Fathom 
 
 Diameter of Material. 
 
 Weight per Fathom. 
 
 liuhcs 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Indies 
 
 Lbs 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 Z\ 
 
 2 
 
 240 
 
 \ 
 
 15 
 
 af 
 
 300 
 
 I 
 
 34 
 
 2? 
 
 360 
 
 I 
 
 58 
 
 2\ 
 
 440 
 
 I j 
 
 90 
 
 3 
 
 500 
 
 i 
 
 130 
 
 3^ 
 
 680 
 
 if 
 
 180 
 
 
 
 MARKING CABLES. Cables are marked by turns of wire on the 
 studs of certain links, the number of the link, counting studded 
 links only, from the shackle on each side, indicating the length. 
 Thus at the end of the first length from the anchor there is one 
 turn of wire on the stud of the first studded link from the 
 shackle on each side ; at the end of the second length, two turns 
 on the second studded link, etc. 
 
 In United States Naval practice, the turns of wire as above 
 described are usually supplemented by painting one or more links 
 with some light color, usually white. The paint shows up well 
 at night and can often be seen at some distance below water. 
 While the practice varies on different ships, the following is a 
 common and convenient system : 
 
254 
 
 GROUND TACKLE. 
 
 At 15 fms. (No shackle), I white link. 
 " 30 " " 2 " links. 
 
 " 45 " 3 r d studded link each side of shackle, white 
 
 Studs of painted links wrapped with 3 turns of 
 
 wire. 
 " 60 " 4th studded link each side of shackle, white 
 
 Studs of painted links wrapped with 4 turns oi 
 
 wire. 
 " 75 " 5 tn studded link each side of shackle, white 
 
 Studs of painted links wrapped with 5 turns of 
 
 wire, etc. 
 
 In weighing, as the chain is hove in, the painted links are 
 wiped dry and re-painted. 
 
 OVERHAULING A CABLE. Cables should be overhauled fre- 
 quently, the chain being roused up on deck, and each shackle, 
 link, and swivel carefully examined. Flaws may be detected by 
 the ring of the metal when struck with a hammer. A defective 
 shackle may be easily replaced by a spare one, but a bad link con- 
 demns the whole length of chain in which it occurs except that 
 a missing stud may be replaced without much difficulty. Every 
 length should be unshackled, and shackle bolts and pins cleaned 
 and coated with white lead and tallow. If a pin is found rusted 
 in, the rust may be cut with turpentine, or the pin broken. 
 Swivels should be well oiled, and worked until they turn freely 
 and without grinding. All marks should be verified, and re- 
 newed if necessary. 
 
 Perhaps the most favorable of all opportunities for overhaul- 
 ing the cables is when a ship is in drydock. Here the anchor and 
 cables may be lowered into the dock, where they can be handled 
 much more easily than on the forecastle. 
 
 The cable having been thoroughly overhauled and the chain- 
 lockers cleaned and painted, the bitter end is made fast, and 
 the chain is paid below and carefully stowed, 
 
 EXTRACT FROM UNITED STATES NAVY REGULATIONS. 
 
 " On all vessels the Commanding Officer will have made at least once 
 a year a careful examination of the bower and sheet chains throughout 
 their entire length. They will be ranged on deck by shots, cleaned, 
 
GROUND TACKLE. 255 
 
 scaled .and inspected for defects, shackle and forelock pins refitted 
 and greased or white leaded, and identification marks restored if 
 necessary. 
 
 The chain will then be carefully painted. As the shots nearest the 
 lockers are the least used, one of them, or two in the case of battleships 
 and cruisers, providing the shots are in good condition, should be shifted 
 at these times to a position inboard of the 40 fathom shot, in order to 
 distribute the wear more uniformly along the entire length of the chain. 
 If serious defects are discovered they should be brought to the attention 
 of the Bureau of Construction and Repair, and if it is not practicable to 
 make immediate replacement, the defective shots should be shifted to 
 the bitter end of the cable. A note of this examination should be entered 
 on the next following quarterly report." 
 
 Not all officers are aware that every shot of navy chain bears 
 upon the side of its forward link a serial identifying number 
 and the year of manufacture. 
 
 One of the most frequent and serious accidents to which cables are sub- 
 ject is the springing of a shackle by a strain tending to open out the end. 
 
 Such a strain may come from a bad fit on the windlass in heavy heaving, 
 or from the accident of the shackle being subjected to a heavy stress while 
 lying across the outer lip of the hawse-pipe. A pin may be broken in some 
 such way as this, and the bolt loosened, without the injury becoming ap- 
 parent on casual inspection. 
 
 It is a good rule to have not only every shackle but every link examined 
 each time the anchor is weighed. If time does not admit of a careful examina- 
 tion of the individual links, these may be struck with a hammer. The sound 
 will tell if any flaw exists. Time can always be found to look carefully over 
 the shackles. 
 
 III. HANDLING GROUND TACKLE. 
 
 WINDLASSES. There is a great variety in the windlasses used 
 for handling anchors and cables in modern steamers, almost every 
 firm of shipbuilders having a type of its own. Certain general 
 features, however, are common to them all. A steam-engine or 
 electric motor turns a shaft, either horizontal or vertical, on 
 which is mounted a " wildcat," or " chain-grab," over which the 
 chain passes and by which its links are engaged. The wildcat 
 turns loosely on the shaft, but may be rigidly secured to it by 
 some form of connection, and much of the individuality of dif- 
 ferent types of windlasses lies in the nature of this connection. 
 The wildcat is secured to the shaft for heaving the chain in or 
 out, but is disconnected in veering chain and in riding by the 
 
256 
 
 GROUND TACKLF. 
 
 windlass; being controlled, when so disconnected, by a friction 
 brake. 
 
 Plate 92 shows the electric windlass to be installed in the new 
 battleships and battle cruisers of the North Carolina and Lexing- 
 ton classes, and Plate 93 the steam windlass for the latest type 
 of Destroyers. Plate 94 shows an earlier type of windlass 
 (horizontal) carried by some of the older battleships which are 
 still in service. The drawings have been prepared with a view 
 to illustrating the details of interior mechanism, especially the 
 arangements for locking and unlocking the wildcats. 
 
 Directions for Keeping Windlass in Order. 
 
 Keep all the bearings well oiled. Oil holes and automatic lubricators 
 are provided for all the bearings. They should be kept free from dirt 
 and regularly inspected. Use none but the best sperm oil for bearings. 
 A mixture of equal parts of black lead and tallow makes the best 
 preparation for the worm-wheel and worm to prevent cutting and 
 wear. 
 
 The windlass should never be run without the gear teeth and worm 
 being well slushed with black lead and tallow, a can of which is sent 
 with every machine, and which should be replaced with more of the 
 same material. 
 
 When the windlass is not in use, the cylinders and steam-chest drips 
 should be left open, so as to drain all the condensed steam from the 
 engines. 
 
 When starting a windlass for the first time it should be handled 
 carefully and under the direction of an experienced person. Run it at 
 first without any load till the bearings and worm and worm-gear teeth 
 are perfectly lubricated. 
 
 LETTING Go. In modern ships with heavy ground tackle, the 
 anchors are commonly housed in the hawse pipe and secured by 
 slip-stoppers which engage the chain by a slip or " Pelican " hook. 
 (Plate 90.) In preparing to let go, all but one of these stoppers 
 are cast off and the windlass brake slacked, leaving the anchor 
 hanging by one slip-stopper immediately abaft the hawse-pipe. 
 
 If the drift between the hawse-pipe and the chain-locker is 
 considerable, it is well to rouse up a few links of chain, lighting 
 the slack forward to a point just abaft the stopper. 
 
 Care must be taken that all is clear below decks and in the 
 chain-locker. A reliable man should be stationed near the locker 
 and made responsible for this. 
 
 To let go, the link of the slip-stopper is knocked loose with 
 a sledge. 
 
Plate No. 92. 
 
 257 
 
 k ..*tf 
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 C:s: ^ 
 
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 1-^ 
 
 ^-S 
 
 Hill 
 
 BE -*l 
 
 S^St^ 
 
 go<^^ 
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 ^^'^^ 
 
 8| 
 
 ^> ts 
 
 H^S 
 
 r^l ss> 
 
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 M t W 
 
 ^ ^^ | 
 
 ^S* 1 ^ ^.^ (A f\ J " V)'-^ ^"^l 
 
 ^rhllill^ 
 
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 sig 
 
 BS^igs-?5-e 
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 OfeS 
 
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 sK^'Sl 
 
 lllil'vl 
 
 *5l4S|t 
 
 Illilll 
 
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258 
 
 Plate No. 93. 
 
 DIRECTIONS FOR 
 
 OPERATING 
 
 Joggle A - locks gypsy to shaft 
 Joggle B- locks wildcat to shaft 
 Toggle C- locks engine to shaft 
 Pawls D- hold 'load on wildcat 
 
 Jo operate wildcat ''by engine, toggles 
 
 ' B and C must be inserted. 
 
 Jo operate wildcat by hand 'power, toggles 
 A and B must be inserted and toggle C re- 
 moved. Pawls D should be dropped in place 
 SO as to hold load when heaving. 
 
 Jo operate gypsy by hand, see that toggfe A 
 is removed. 
 
 To operate gypsy by engine, toggles A andC 
 should be jnserted. 
 
 DESTROYER'S WINDLASS. 
 
Plate No. 94. 
 
 259 
 
 Friction Band Brake, 
 
 Wheel for 
 
 Operating 
 Friction Brake^ 
 
 Worm Shaft^ ^ 
 
 Locking Ring 
 Block Key 
 
 Friction Band Brake 
 
 Eccentric Rib on Locking Ping 
 
 Locking Ping 
 Block Key *:"" 
 
 FIG. 3 
 
 FIG. 2 LOCKING GEAR 
 
 HORIZONTAL WINDLASS 
 (EARLY TYPE) 
 
 VERTICAL WINDLASS 
 (EARLY TYPE) 
 
 WINDLASS ON OLDER BATTLESHIPS. 
 
26O GROUND TACKLE. 
 
 As the anchor may hang in spite of the slack links above 
 mentioned, it is well to have an anchor-bar at hand for shaking 
 up the chain, especially if anchoring in formation when a delay 
 of a few seconds may be serious. 
 
 Where the anchor is carried on a bill-board, as in Plate 84, 
 the lashings used in securing the anchor for sea must first of 
 all be cast off, leaving the anchor hanging by two chains, each 
 secured at one end by a lashing and at the other by a link which 
 engages a trigger-bar, by tripping which both chains are released 
 simultaneously. 
 
 In some cases anchors carried on a bill-board are lifted by a 
 "fish-tackle" hooked to a swinging davit and lowered until they 
 hang by the cable from the hawse-pipe, from which position they 
 are let go from a slip-stopper exactly like the housing anchors 
 already described. 
 
 The anchor should always be let go with the ship moving 
 slowly, either ahead or astern, to avoid paying the cable down on 
 top of the anchor. 
 
 With the old-fashioned anchor, it is generally better to be 
 going astern, at least when anchoring head to tide or wind, as 
 otherwise the bight of the chain is likely to foul the anchor as 
 the ship drops back. If conditions are not such that she will 
 drop back over the anchor, this point is of no consequence; and 
 with a patent anchor (which has no projecting fluke to be 
 fouled) it is not important in any case. There are some advan- 
 tages about letting go with headway on, especially when it is 
 desired to anchor at a definite point standing in, for example, 
 on a given bearing and anchoring when another bearing is on. 
 It is much easier to do this With the ship going ahead and thus 
 under control ; and no other way is practicable if it happens that 
 the line on which we run in is more or less across the wind or 
 tide. 
 
 In case of a number of vessels anchoring together in forma- 
 tion, it is essential that all should let go while going ahead with 
 some speed, and it becomes a matter of considerable interest to 
 know what speed is safe under these conditions. It will be found 
 that almost any ship with reciprocating engines or electric drive, 
 running at a speed of four or five knots with steam available for 
 twelve knots, and backing with full power as the anchor is let 
 go, can be brought up at 45 fathoms without undue strain on 
 the cable. With turbine engines even this speed is too high be- 
 
GROUND TACKLE. 2 6l 
 
 cause of the limited power available for backing. Here the 
 maximum permissible speed is believed to be not in excess of 
 three knots. 
 
 If obliged to let go at a higher speed, or if for any reason it 
 does not seem safe to check her with so short a scope, the chain 
 should be allowed to run until she loses her way sufficiently to 
 make it safe to snub her. There is no great harm in running out 
 75 or even 90 fathoms of chain and afterward heaving in to a 
 shorter scope; and it should be remembered that even in cases 
 where the headway has to be checked by bringing up on the chain, 
 the danger is less with a long scope than with a short one, for 
 the same reason that makes a long scope safer in riding to the 
 anchor. 
 
 The danger connected with letting go while under con- 
 siderable headway is often overlooked, for the reason that 
 the damage resulting from it does not necessarily show itself 
 at once. The excessive strain may distort and weaken the 
 links of the cable, without actually parting them. The result 
 is that the cables may give way at some future time under 
 a comparatively moderate stress. In the British Navy it was 
 long the custom to let go with considerable headway, espe- 
 cially in mooring ; but in October, 1908, an order was issued 
 by the Admiralty forbidding this practice and stating thai- 
 experience has shown that the parting of cables in H. M. 
 ships has been clue mainly to the gradual weakening to which 
 they are subjected by anchoring and mooring with too much 
 way on. 
 
 It is a general practice for ships approaching an anchorage to 
 slow to half or two-thirds speed when some distance from the 
 point for letting go and later to stop their engines and let the speed 
 drop as it may, the actual speed at which the ship is moving when 
 the anchor is let go being a matter of guess-work within rather 
 wide limits. It would seem more reasonable to slow to the 
 speed which is considered safe for letting go, while far enough 
 from the anchorage to be sure of settling down to this speed (as 
 definitely fixed by the number of revolutions) by the time the 
 anchorage is reached, and to stop the engines as the anchor is let 
 go. This is especially advisable where ships in squadron are 
 anchoring together, as it not only fixes definitely the conditions 
 
262 GROUND TACKLE. 
 
 for anchoring but makes it far easier for the ships to keep their 
 distance from eagh other. (See Chapter on "Keeping Station 
 and Manoeuvring in Squadron.") 
 
 Where it becomes necessary to anchor in very deep water, it is 
 absolutely essential that the ship should be going dead slow. If 
 several ships are anchoring in formation, they should anchor in 
 succession, not simultaneously. As the anchorage is approached, 
 at very slow speed, the anchor may be lowered gradually until it 
 is within a few fathoms of the bottom, and then let go, only 
 enough headway being maintained to avoid paying the chain 
 down on top of the anchor. The details of handling the windlass 
 for anchoring in this way will vary with the type of windlass 
 used, but it will be found that even where the ship is dead in the 
 water, and where the anchor is let go with only a few fathoms 
 of drop, the weight of the chain alone will cause it to run out very 
 violently. In extreme cases, where the depths run, as in Puget 
 Sound ports for example, up to 40 and 50 fathoms, it is advisable 
 not to "let go" at all, but to "back out" the chain by the wind- 
 lass engine, until the anchor is on the bottom and the necessary 
 scope of chain out. 
 
 While the danger of fouling the anchor by paying the chain 
 down on top of it is not as serious in the case of a patent anchor 
 as in one of the old type, it is much better to avoid this if prac- 
 ticable, by having a little way on the ship at the instant of actually 
 placing the anchor. The sooner the way can be checked after 
 this instant, the better. 
 
 WEIGHING. In heaving in, the windlass and the cable may be 
 relieved by a judicious use of engines and the helm, and the 
 officer on the bridge should be kept informed of the direction in 
 which the chain "tends" or "grows" on the bow, and whether 
 it is taut or slack. Report is also made when the chain is " up 
 and down " from the ring of the anchor to the hawse-pipe and 
 when the anchor is " a-weigh " ; that is to say, when it has been 
 broken out from the bottom. 
 
 In a ship with a ram bow, the chain will sometimes get across 
 the ram. It may be cleared by stopping the windlass and going 
 astern a few turns with the proper engine. 
 
 If there is much tension on the chain when a shackle or swivel 
 comes to the wildcat, there will be trouble from the slipping of 
 the chain, as swivels and shackles are necessarily larger and 
 
GROUND TACKLE. 263 
 
 longer than the links, and cannot take the lugs of the chain-grab 
 so securely. This trouble may always be expected when the 
 depth of water is such that a swivel or a shackle is on the wildcat 
 in breaking ground or after the anchor is aweigh. It may be 
 met by clapping a "hook-rope" on the cable at once and taking 
 this to the "gypsey" or the capstan. If neither of these is con- 
 venient, a deck tackle may be hooked on and well manned. If 
 the drift between the windlass and the locker admits of such a 
 thing, a tackle abaft and below the wildcat is very helpful, tend- 
 ing not so much to relieve the stress as to jam the chain down 
 into its place on the wildcat, and so to prevent slipping. In ships 
 where this difficulty is to be anticipated, it should be prepared for 
 as part of the regular preparations for getting underway. 
 
 Shackles and swivels, with the links adjoining them, are, in 
 cables of standard mai? ufacture, made of lengths and sizes care- 
 fully proportioned to tli i rest of the chain and to the cable-holders 
 with which they are td be used. Improvements in this direction 
 and in the design of 1 le cable-holders have greatly reduced the 
 difficulties described above. In cables like the latest ones for the 
 United States Navy, where there is neither a shackle nor a swivel 
 between five fathoms and forty-five, it is unusual for either of 
 them to come to the windlass in breaking ground. 
 
 The new type of shackle adopted for the Navy (Plate 87), 
 will do away with difficulties of this kind, as the shackle, in its 
 external size and shape, will be a duplicate of the links. 
 
 FOUL ANCHOR. The old-fashioned anchor often comes up 
 with one or more turns of the cable around the stock, the shank, 
 or the flukes. 
 
 The conditions here may vary so widely that only very general 
 rules can be laid down for dealing with them. The anchor is 
 usually hoisted to the davit-head and cleared by dipping the 
 chain, unshackling if necessary. Slack chain is of course paid 
 out, and the bight is hung by slip-ropes to take the weight. If 
 the tackle cannot be hooked in its proper place, it must be hooked 
 to a strap. Slew-ropes on the stock are helpful in clearing the 
 turns. 
 
 If the anchor comes up crown first, a strap is used around the 
 arms and shank, and the crown is run up to the davit head. It 
 may be hung there by a hawser, the tackle shifted to the balancing 
 link, and the anchor capsized by slacking the hawser and hauling 
 on the tackle. 
 
264 GROUND TACKLE. 
 
 Sometimes a turn around the stock can be cleared by hooking 
 the tackle with a turn in the opposite direction to that of the 
 chain, while the anchor is at the hawse-pipe. As the chain is 
 surged and the tackle run up, the anchor slews and the chain falls 
 clear. 
 
 In all cases of unshackling, a hawser should be secured to the 
 ring of the anchor, as something may give way when least ex- 
 pected. Much labor in lifting and dipping the chain may be 
 saved by the use of two pendants, the anchor hanging by one, as 
 usual, the bight of the chain by the other. The bight being thus 
 held, the anchor is lowered, slewed clear of the cable, and again 
 run up. By this method, the anchor is dipped, instead of the 
 chain, and the heavy work of clearing is all done by the winch 
 instead of by hand. 
 
 Whenever possible, the anchor should be landed in its place 
 and secured before the work of clearing begins. Where circum- 
 stances do not admit of this, it should at least be run well up to 
 the bow and above the rail, where it can be reached conveniently. 
 An anchor bar or small "crowbar" is very handy in opening 
 out the parts of the chain when jammed one upon another. 
 
 Perhaps the most difficult case of fouling that can arise is 
 one in which the chain is found hitched around the stock or the 
 arm, with the hauling part coming out from the inside of a round 
 turn, and with this turn jambed .hard upon it. Here it is par- 
 ticularly important to get the anchor close in to the forecastle. 
 The parts may be pried apart a little at a time by means of a 
 small, flat-pointed iron bar, and the hauling part dragged through 
 the bight by a jigger on the end of the stock, the amount gained 
 at each fleet of the jigger being lashed before the strap is shifted 
 for a new pull. In this way, inch by inch, enough slack is 
 accumulated on the bight to admit of lowering it over the end of 
 the stock or fluke, where it will fall clear. 
 
 While modern double-fluke anchors are much less likely to 
 foul than the old type, they occasionally give much trouble in this 
 way and a ship whose anchors house in the hawse-pipes may be 
 greatly embarrassed by the lack of facilities for lifting the anchor 
 to a point where it can be hung securely and where the chain can 
 be handled conveniently. 
 
 As a rule, the best that can be done in such a case is to hang 
 the anchor by straps and stoppers, and send men over the bow to 
 clear the chain as best they may, assisting them from the fore- 
 
Plate No. 95. 
 
 265 
 
266 GROUND TACKLE. 
 
 castle by lines and tackles to take the weight of the bight. A davit 
 which can be shipped above the hawse-pipe, plumbing the anchor 
 as it hangs outside, is very helpful here. 
 
 If it becomes necessary to unshackle the cable, ample precau- 
 tions must of course be taken to secure the anchor. 
 
 Under conditions such that the anchor may be expected to 
 foul, it is a good rule to " sight " it frequently ; and indeed this 
 is advisable tinder any conditions when a ship remains at single 
 anchor for a long time. It is especially important if, after lying 
 for some time under circumstances which makes it probable that 
 the anchor may be foul, bad weather is found to be approaching. 
 
 For sighting, the anchor may be lifted just far enough to be 
 seen, or, what is usually more convenient, it may be weighed com- 
 pletely and another anchor let go when the cable of the first one 
 is " up and down " ; that is to say, just before the first anchor is 
 broken out from the bottom. 
 
 ANCHORING BY THE STERN. 
 
 It is often convenient and sometimes necessary for a small 
 vessel to anchor by the stern. For this an anchor of moderate 
 size is usually sufficient, and it is an excellent plan to carry such 
 an anchor at the stern ready for letting go in a hurry. If a 
 shackle is kept at hand, and if a thimble is turned into the end 
 of the best wire hawser, this hawser can be shackled up to the 
 anchor and all made ready for letting go in a very short time. 
 The ability to anchor in this way is so valuable under many 
 circumstances, that it is surprising how rarely it is thought of or 
 prepared for. In coming to, in a narrow or crowded anchorage 
 with a fair tide where perhaps difficulties are found which had 
 not been anticipated it might be of the greatest possible value. 
 So, too, in going alongside a dock or into a slip, with a fair 
 wind or tide, as it is sometimes necessary to do, a stern anchor 
 such as has been described (not a mere kedge) might make a 
 perfectly simple situation out of one which would otherwise be 
 very difficult. A stern anchor of about one fourth the weight 
 of the bowers is issued to men-of-war. 
 
 A 6000 pound anchor at the stern would not be of much value 
 to a Lexington (874 feet long). And yet a ship of this length is 
 more likely than a short one to need a stern anchor, not only 
 for manoeuvring in restricted waters but for lying at anchor 
 where the space for swinging is restricted ; as, for example, in the 
 
GROUND TACKLE. 267 
 
 North River (New York Harbor). The latest ships designed 
 exceed 900 feet in length. Such a ship, moored in the North 
 River, or in almost any other harbor that could be named, would 
 sweep practically the whole width of the navigable channel if al- 
 lowed to swing. And she could be, kept from swinging only if 
 moored head and stern. 
 
 In some harbors permanent buoys are planted to which ships 
 can tie up, head and stern, but such buoys are themselves a serious 
 obstacle to navigation and they are rarely used except in harbors 
 controlled by naval authorities. In commercial harbors docks 
 and slips are provided for merchant vessels, but men-of-war must 
 usually lie at anchor in whatever berths may be considered 
 available by the authorities of the port. 
 
 If we imagine a division of Lexingtons seeking an anchorage 
 in New York Harbor, it is easy to understand how enormously 
 the problem would be simplified if each ship could lay out anchors 
 from bow and stern and hold herself practically parallel with 
 the axis of the River. 
 
 This would call for the equivalent of a bower anchor at the 
 stern (and the bowers of the latest ships may weigh as much as 
 30,000 pounds), with all facilities for handling it, including a 
 cable standard as to weight and length, a hawse-pipe, windlass, 
 and chain locker. 
 
 It is clear that there are very serious objections to this, not the 
 least of these being the proximity of the propellers. But it is 
 not clear that something of this sort is not an inevitable devel- 
 opment of the future. The problems of construction involved, 
 although embarrassing, are not difficult. The problems of seaman- 
 ship, such as those connected with a gale on the beam, making it 
 necessary, perhaps, to bend a wire line to the stern cable and veer 
 away, do not differ in principle from those connected with other 
 emergencies which seamen are necessarily prepared to meet. 
 
 The matter is at least deserving of consideration. 
 
 In the event of stranding, such an anchor can be laid out very 
 quickly, and while it probably would not serve to heave the ship 
 off, it might very well hold her from driving farther on with a 
 rising tide and at the same time prevent her from swinging 
 around, broadside on, to the beach. 
 
 If it becomes necessary to use a bower anchor over the stern, 
 the simplest way to deal with the situation is to ease the anchor 
 
268 GROUND TACKLE. 
 
 down until it hangs outside the hawse-pipe with its ring just 
 clear, at the same time making preparations for unshackling at 
 the 5-fathom shackle, and holding the chain outside of this 
 shackle by a good slip-stopper. Pass the end of the best wire 
 line out through the stern chock, take it forward and shackle 
 securely to the ring of the anchor. In this as in all other cases 
 where the anchor is to be used without its own cable, it is very 
 important to use a "weighing-line" and buoy-rope on the crown 
 of the anchor. (Chapter XII, Sec. 2.) 
 
 Let go when ready by knocking off the link of the slip-stopper. 
 
 If it is desired to ride by the bower cable rather than by the 
 wire-line, pass the line forward from the stern-chock as before 
 and stand by to shackle it to the chain when ready. Run in at 
 slow speed to the point where the anchor is to be placed, keeping 
 the ship under control ; let go, and veer to 60 or 90 fathoms as 
 desired, bringing-to with the shackle well inside. Pass the end 
 of the wire line inside the hawse-pipe. Stopper the chain well, 
 and bend on an easing-out line just forward of the shackle. 
 Take the easing-out line to the capstan and take the strain on it. 
 Shackle the wire line to the shackle of the chain. Unshackle 
 the chain. Take the after end of the wire line to the after 
 windlass. Ease out forward, heave in aft. Let the easing-out 
 line go with the chain, standing clear of the end. Heave the 
 line and cable in aft, and secure. 
 
 In many harbors, a swell sets in on the beam of vessels riding 
 to the wind, causing them to roll incessantly. In such cases, a 
 stream anchor planted off the bow, with a line from the quarter, 
 admits of springing around, head to the swell. In the tropics, a 
 similar plan adds much to the coolness of the ship by bringing 
 the wind abeam. 
 
 When anchoring in a narrow river or harbor where there is 
 little room for turning and where occasion may arise for leaving 
 hurriedly, it is well to keep a hawser triced up along the outside 
 from the warping chock on the quarter to the hawse, ready for 
 clapping on the chain. If an emergency arises while the ship is 
 heading in, the spring is bent to the cable, and the cable un- 
 shackled. The ship then swings, the line is buoyed and cast off 
 and all is clear for standing out. 
 
GROUND TACKLE. 
 
 269 
 
 Plate No. 96. 
 
270 
 
 GROUND TACKLE. 
 
 IV. RIDING AT SINGLE ANCHOR. 
 
 Modern ships usually ride by one or more slip-stoppers on the 
 chain, and with the wildcat of the windlass unlocked and the 
 brake set up. If it becomes necessary to veer, the stoppers are 
 cast off and the chain veered by slacking the brake. It is well 
 to give plenty of chain in the beginning rather than to take a 
 chance of dragging. 
 
 The advantages of a long scope of chain are universally recog- 
 nized, but probably few seamen realize in just what ways such a 
 scope contributes to the safety of the ship and the ease with 
 which she rides. 
 
 Perhaps the most obvious gain is in the angle at which the 
 pull of the cable comes upon the anchor. The longer the scope, 
 the more nearly parallel to the bottom this pull will be ; and the 
 smaller, therefore, will be the tendency to break the anchor out. 
 If the length and weight of the chain are such that any part of it 
 rests upon the bottom, then the weight of that part is added to 
 the weight of the anchor, and helps in this way to hold the ship. 
 It has been found, however, that in the case of a ship riding to a 
 moderate gale in ten fathoms of water and with 100 fathoms of 
 chain, not a single link of the chain rests undisturbed upon the 
 bottom. It is therefore clear that this point is not of as great 
 importance as is commonly supposed. It is only in the two 
 ways above described that a long scope is of value to a ship 
 which is pulling steadily at her cable; but the moment she begins 
 to sheer about, or to rise and fall in a seaway alternately rang- 
 ing up toward her anchor, then driving heavily back upon her 
 cable the value of a long scope makes itself felt in the elasticity 
 of the bight, which prevents the rapidly varying tensions from 
 being thrown upon the cable and the anchor in a succession of 
 violent shocks. The cable never leads in a straight line from 
 the hawse-pipe to the anchor, but dips downward in a curve, the 
 degree of curvature depending upon the depth of water, the 
 length and weight of the cable, and the tension to which it is 
 subjected. With a long scope of chain, under a moderate ten- 
 sion, the curvature is very marked. If, now, a ship riding in this 
 way begins to drive astern before a heavy squall, she must lift the 
 bight of her cable as she moves ; and the longer and heavier the 
 bight, the more work will be involved in lifting it, the more 
 slowly the ship will move astern, and the more gradually the ten- 
 
GROUND TACKLE. 271 
 
 sion on the anchor and the chain will reach its maximum. It 
 is one of the commonplaces of mechanics that a force has far less 
 destructive effect when exerted gradually, than when exerted 
 suddenly ; and all experience confirms this principle in its appli- 
 cation to a vessel riding at anchor as above described. 
 
 It is a common rule to give, under ordinary circumstances, a 
 length of cable equal to six times the depth of the water. This 
 is perhaps enough for a ship riding steadily and without any great 
 tension on her cable, but it should be promptly increased if for 
 any reason she begins to jump or to sheer about ; for it is always 
 easier to prevent an anchor from dragging than to make it hold 
 after it has once begun to drag. 
 
 A vessel at single anchor in a strong tide-way is likely to sheer 
 considerably, bringing the current first on one side and then on 
 the other, and driving across the stream until brought up by her 
 chain, often with a violent shock. This may be prevented in a 
 great measure by holding her with a steady sheer away from her 
 anchor. This is accomplished by putting the rudder over as far 
 as may be necessary, and keeping it there. The stern is driven 
 over to one side and she is canted across the current and held 
 there. She is thus in more " stable equilibrium " than when 
 riding with the tide nearly or quite ahead; and while she puts 
 a heavier tension on her cable, it is a steady tension, which, as 
 already explained, is not a dangerous one. 
 
 The tendency to sheer rankly from side to side under the influ- 
 ence of wind or tide is especially marked and especially danger- 
 ous in destroyers and other small craft. A number of plans 
 have recently been devised for providing methods of handling 
 the cables of these vessels in such a way that the cable shall lead 
 directly from the stem instead of from a hawse-pipe some dis- 
 tance abaft the stem. (Plates 97 and 98). Reports of experi- 
 ments with the new arrangement are very favorable. 
 
 A similar arrangement applied to the latest battleships is shown 
 in Plate 85, a mid-ship hawse-p'pe being fitted in the stem. 
 
 Plate 97 also shows a new construction recently approved for 
 the bows of destroyers, by which the anchor will be completely 
 housed inside the hawse-pipe. 
 
 It is always advisable to keep a shackle where it can be gotten 
 at conveniently for slipping suddenly if an emergency arises, and 
 to be sure that the pins can be driven out without difficulty. 
 Tools for unshackling should be kept in a convenient place and 
 
272 
 
 Plate No. 97. 
 
Plate No. 98. 
 
 273 
 
 Lead to Winch- 
 
 ' When ready to ride from bull nose 
 slip messenger hook over cable 
 and haul in on lead from davit 
 head until cable is over chock. 
 Press cable into- opening and 
 lock gate. 
 
 1-Davit-- 
 Socket, Port&Starb'd-^rt 
 
 T-6"W.L 
 
 EAGLE BOAT. 
 ARRANGEMENT FOR RIDING FROM STERN, 
 
274 
 
 GROUND TACKLE. 
 
 never removed. A buoy and a buoy-rope at hand complete the 
 preparations for slipping at short notice. In an exposed an- 
 chorage, subject to sudden gales, these precautions are of course 
 especially important. 
 
 If, when lying at anchor in a tide-way, a vessel or other danger 
 is seen drifting down upon you, you may, by giving the ship a 
 cant with the helm, bringing the current on the bow, and veering 
 away roundly, sheer well over across the tide and probably clear 
 of danger. 
 
 If an anchor is known to have dragged, in a clayey bottom, it 
 should be picked up as quickly as possible ; for it is certain to be 
 "shod," and to have lost much of its proper holding power. In 
 letting go where the bottom is of this kind, it is important to give 
 a good scope in the very beginning, to prevent even the little 
 dragging that is commonly to be expected as the anchor digs 
 down to gets its hold. 
 
 In riding out a gale, it may often be necessary to let go 
 second anchor, but there can be no question that where unlimitec 
 space is available, a ship is safer and easier with a single anchoi 
 and a long scope of chain; and by a "long scope" is not meant 
 45 or 60 fathoms, but twice that length, or even more. Two 
 cables will hold a ship longer if bent together and veered out to 
 the double length on a single anchor, than if used separately 
 each with its own anchor down. It must not be overlooked 
 however, that a defective link or shackle may result in disaster 
 where a single cable is in use; and this may make it wise, apart 
 from other considerations, to let go a second anchor in cases 
 where no chances can be taken. Some seamen veer to a long scope 
 and drop a second anchor under the forefoot, leaving the brake 
 fairly slack. If the riding-chain parts or the anchor drags, the 
 slack chain on the other anchor will run out, giving warning of 
 the danger and affording a means of bringing the ship up with- 
 out the delay necessary for letting go the second anchor. If 
 the ship swings, the anchor with the short scope of chain can 
 be hove up before the chains foul. 
 
 A ship is never in greater danger of dragging her anchor or 
 parting her cable than when driving down with a slack chain, 
 broadside ori, or partially so, to wind or tide. Such a situation 
 may of necessity arise in anchoring, or may come about in sheer- 
 ing, as above described. It not infrequently happens in squally 
 weather, where a ship swings in one direction during a lull, just 
 

 GROUND TACKLE. 275 
 
 in time to be caught by a strong squall on the beam and driven 
 bodily off, to bring up, it may be, with the chain taut across the 
 stem. 1 
 
 In lying at an achorage where such situations may arise, the 
 greatest watchfulness should be exercised, steam being kept on 
 the steering engine, and a man at the wheel, 2 an ample scope 
 of chain veered, and a second anchor ready for letting go at a 
 moment's notice. The last-named precaution should in fact be 
 always taken ; that is to say, a second anchor should always be 
 ready, even though there seems no chance of its being needed. 
 
 When the conditions are such that there is a possibility of 
 starting the anchor, a lookout should be kept which will insure 
 instant notice if she begins to drag. The drift lead is useful, 
 though not always to be trusted. This is a heavy lead, kept on 
 the bottom, with its line made fast to some place convenient for 
 observation and left hanging with considerable slack. If the 
 ship drags, the line tautens and tends ahead. 
 
 So long as a ship is fairly steady, a drift lead will usually give 
 notice in case of dragging, but if she sheers about considerably, 
 it cannot be relied upon. The farther forward it is used the 
 better, as the bow moves much less than the stern in sheering. 
 
 Good bearings of objects on shore are more reliable than the 
 drift lead, and a range is best of all ; but these, also, are less trust- 
 worthy when the ship is sheering about than when she is steady; 
 for a range will open out when the ship swings, and may seem to 
 indicate that she is dragging. Its indications may be checked by 
 watching the heading. 
 
 Where no range can be picked out on shore, two single marks 
 on opposite sides of the ship answer well, if the observer takes his 
 stand at some spot to which he can return from time to time, and 
 notes a point on the ship itself in line with each of the points on 
 shore. 
 
 Suppose, for example, that from a certain point- on the bridge or deck, 
 a shore mark to starboard is in range with a swifter of the rigging, an awning 
 stanchion, or some other conspicuous point of the ship; while another object 
 
 1 A cable or a hawser is greatly weakened by a bend or "nip," such as will 
 exist at the hawse-pipe if the cable leads off at a sharp angle from the pipe. 
 
 2 If a ship parts her cable and starts unexpectedly on a cruise, she may 
 be in a measure controlled by the helm if actually moving through the water, 
 and so saved, perhaps, from going ashore or fouling other vessels, until she 
 can be brought up by another anchor. 
 
2/6 GROUND TACKLE. 
 
 to port is similarly in line with something on the ship along the port side. 
 As the ship swings, one object will draw ahead and the other will draw aft. 
 If she drags, both will draw ahead. 
 
 If the compass is conveniently placed for observation, a single 
 bearing upon an object near the beam and at a reasonable dis- 
 tance, will give all that is needed, although here, also, allowance 
 .must be made for swinging. 
 
 It sometimes happens that the ship can be felt to start, by a 
 slight jar due to the sudden slacking of the chain as the anchor 
 lets go its hold; and if she drags for any distance, there will 
 almost always be a tremor in the chain, perfectly perceptible 
 to the hand, due to the variation in resistance which the anchor 
 meets as it moves along the bottom. This is a good thing to 
 know in cases where no other indications are available. 
 
 V. MOORING 
 
 A vessel is moored when she has two anchors down at a con- 
 siderable distance apart and with such a scope of chain on each 
 that she is held with tier bow approximately stationary on the 
 line between them. 
 
 A vessel so placed may head in any direction, but will swing, 
 roughly speaking, about her own stem as a pivot; the amount 
 by which she deviates from this depending upon the tautness 
 with which she is moored. 
 
 The advantages of mooring are that a vessel takes up com- 
 paratively little space in swinging and that she cannot foul 
 her anchors by dragging the bight of the chain over them. 
 The disadvantages are that she must often ride to a span, and 
 must either be hampered by a mooring swivel or have constant 
 difficulty and annoyance from a foul hawse. So long as she 
 rides to a wind or current setting along the line on which her 
 anchors are laid out, she is practically at single anchor, though 
 she may of course drop down beyond the leeward anchor and 
 hold on with both cables taut ahead. But if a gale comes up 
 from any direction athwart the line between her anchors, she 
 rides to a span, and the tension on the cables will be alto- 
 gether out of proportion to that utilized in holding the ship. In 
 Fig. i, Plate 99, suppose A riding to a gale from the east, her 
 anchors being laid out on a north and south line and the cables 
 making an angle of 10 with this line. If the force acting on the 
 
Plate No. 99. 
 
 277 
 
 FIG. 1. 
 OPEN HAWSE 
 
 FIG. Z. 
 OPEN HAWSE 
 
 FIG. 3. 
 A CROSS IN THE HAWSE 
 
 FIG. 4. 
 A CROSS IN THE HAWSE 
 
 A 
 
 FIG. 5. 
 AN ELBOW 
 
 FIG. 6. 
 A ROUND TURN 
 
 SHIPS MOORED. 
 
278 GROUND TACKLE. 
 
 ship along A c is 20 tons, the tension on each cable will be 
 tons. 
 
 Thus, under conditions such that a single anchor and cable 
 ahead would have to bear a tension of only 20 tons, two cables 
 in a span are subject to a total tension of 115 tons. If the angle 
 N A s is more obtuse, the tension is increased. If the ship veers 
 and drops to leeward, bringing the cables more nearly ahead, 
 the demand upon them becomes less; and when the angle N s A 
 is 30, the two cables together have exactly the holding power 
 that one would have if laid out singly ahead. As the ship con- 
 tinues to drop down, the cables act more and more efficiently, 
 and if a long enough scope is given, their holding power becomes 
 nearly double that of either one alone. 
 
 It will be clear from this that in riding out a gale with open 
 hawse it is even more important than with a single anchor, to 
 veer as long a scope as may be possible. If such a situation is 
 anticipated at the time of mooring, the anchors should be laid out 
 closer together than they otherwise would be; indeed, there is 
 always an advantage in mooring with rather a short scope on each 
 chain (provided such a length is used that she cannot swing over 
 her anchors) ; for if a gale comes up along the line of the anchors 
 it is easy to veer the riding cable and drop down to leeward, 
 bringing both anchors ahead, where they will act better the closer 
 they are together ; and in riding with open hawse, the same point 
 gives the advantages which has been illustrated above. 
 
 If a mooring swivel is to be used, these remarks as to the advantage 
 of a short scope do not apply, since it is impracticable to veer away 
 on both cables as above recommended. 
 
 There are many situations in crowded harbors where mooring 
 is a necessity, especially if a number of ships are together in 
 squadron. When this is not actually necessary, it is safer and 
 more convenient and therefore more seamanlike, to use one 
 anchor, with a good scope of chain which can be practically indefi- 
 nitely increased if necessity arises, and with the second anchor 
 ready to be let go on the line where it will be most effective. 
 
 TO MOOR. 
 
 In mooring in a tide-way, where it is desired to lay out the 
 anchors along the line of the tidal current, as is usually done, the 
 simplest way of maneuvring is to head up against the current, 
 
GROUND TACKLE. 2/Q 
 
 stopping at the point where the "weather" anchor is to be 
 planted and letting go as the ship begins to gather sternboard, 
 backing the engines if the tide is not strong enough to insure 
 laying out the chain properly. It is better not to use the engines 
 unless necessary, because to do so is almost certain to cut the 
 ship across the current and off the line on which the anchor 
 should be laid out. 
 
 The weather chain is veered away as the ship drops down, 
 care being taken to lay it out fairly taut, until the point is reached 
 where the leeward anchor is to be placed. If we are to moor with 
 45 fathoms on each chain, we must veer to a little less than 90 
 fathoms before letting go the second anchor, keeping the 90- 
 fathom shackle inside the hawse by an amount which will depend 
 very largely upon the method which is to be used for putting on 
 the swivel. The farther inside the hawse we leave the shackle, 
 the slacker will be the moor, and as the putting on of the swivel 
 in itself slacks the cables materially, care should be taken not to 
 keep the shackle farther inside than is absolutely necessary. No 
 rule can be given here, but experience has indicated that if the 
 first chain is laid out properly, and if the 9O-fathom shackle is 
 held about 2 fathoms inside the hawse (counting from the out- 
 board face of the pipe), when the second anchor is let go, the 
 resulting moor will be about right, with most types of ships and 
 in ordinary depths of water. 
 
 A FLYING MOOR. 
 
 Iri making a flying moor, the first anchor is let go with the 
 ship going ahead at considerable speed, and the first chain laid 
 out as she ranges ahead. This calls for good judgment with 
 regard to the initial speed, and with regard also to the use of 
 the chain and the engines for checking the speed. 
 
 It has been already stated in connection with "Anchoring" 
 that almost any ship, except one with turbine engines, running at 
 a speed of from 4 to 5 knots, with steam available for 12 knots, 
 and backing with full power as^the anchor is let go, can be brought 
 up at 45 fathoms without undue strain. Since for mooring we 
 wish to run out double this length of chain (assuming that we 
 want 45 fathoms on each anchor), we may back with half power 
 in the beginning and be governed by conditions as to using more 
 power or less, as the chain runs out. It will probably be found 
 
28O GROUND TACKLE. 
 
 under average conditions that by continuing to back with half 
 power and gradually snubbing the chain toward the end of its 
 scope (never in the beginning) she can be brought up with about 
 90 fathoms. 
 
 It is very important not to begin to snub her with the chain 
 until at least 45 to 60 fathoms has been laid out, as to do so is 
 almost certain to start the anchor or part the chain, or at least 
 to strain it injuriously. After laying out a good scope 45 
 fathoms or more the danger of this is greatly reduced and a 
 little snubbing helps to lay the chain out taut. 
 
 As a very rough rule, then, to be modified by actual experience 
 for each ship, we may say, let go the first anchor at a speed of 
 from 4 to 5 knots and at once back the engines at half speed, 
 letting the chain run out freely. After about 60 fathoms has 
 gone out, snub her from time to time with the chain, but without 
 putting a dangerous strain on it, and regulate the engines (stop- 
 ping, backing faster or slower, or if need be going slow ahead) 
 so as to be sure of bringing her up in the end (the 90- fathom 
 shackle inside) with a moderately taut chain. Then let go the 
 second anchor, heave in on the first chain, veer away on the 
 second, and drop down to a point midway between the two 
 anchors, when both shackles should be somewhat inside the 
 hawse, giving drift enough for working the chain as described 
 below for clearing hawse or for putting on the swivel. 
 
 For a ship with turbine engines, the initial speed should be 
 lower than with reciprocating engines or electric drive. 
 
 Note the remarks upon the method of governing speed in approaching 
 an anchorage in the section of this chapter on " Anchoring." 
 
 CLEAR AND FOUL HAWSE. 
 
 A vessel moored has a " clear hawse " when her cables lead off 
 on their respective sides, clear of each other. She has a " foul 
 hawse" when they are crossed or otherwise foul of each other. 
 
 In Fig. i, Plate 99, A rides with an "open hawse," heading 
 west, her starboard anchor being to the north and port anchor to 
 the south. She may swing through eight points to either side 
 without crossing her cables (Fig. 2) ; and so long as she swings 
 backward and forward, her stern going each time to the eastivard, 
 the hawse will remain clear. The moment her stern swings to 
 the westward of the north and south line, however, the chains 
 
GROUND TACKLE. 28 1 
 
 begin to cross (Fig. 3). Here she has swung through half a 
 circle from an open hawse, and has now a " cross " in the hawse. 
 If before swinging to the westward she was riding to the star- 
 board anchor, the starboard chain will now be on top ; and to 
 swing clear, her stern should go back to starboard. It is a rule 
 easily remembered, that to clear the hawse by swinging, the stern 
 must always go toward the side of the cable that is on top. 
 
 If, having swung in such a way as to put a cross in the hawse, 
 she continues swinging in the same direction, she puts in, suc- 
 cessively, an "elbow" (Fig. 5), a "round turn" (Fig. 6), a 
 " round turn and an elbow," and so on. 
 
 It is evident that a foul hawse will be cleared if the ship can 
 be made to swing back in the direction opposite to that in which 
 she has swung in fouling ; and with a little watchfulness this may 
 often be done, by giving her a cant with the rudder on the last 
 of a tide. The hawse may often be kept clear in this way when it 
 would otherwise foul ; and the situations are frequent when a 
 cross or an elbow can be swung out. In the case of anything 
 more than this, it is better to proceed at once to "clear hawse," 
 as follows; 
 
 TO CLEAR HAWSE. 
 
 This should be done if possible at slack water, preferably just 
 after the ship has finished swinging and before the new tide 
 begins to run strongly. The lee chain is always the one to be 
 unshackled, never the weather one. The clear-hawse gear (Plates 
 100, 101, 102) consists of: 
 
 1. The clear-hawse pendant, of open-link chain, 6 fathoms in 
 length and of metal one-half the diameter of the chain with which 
 it is to be used. The outer end of the chain is fitted with a slip, 
 or pelican hook. The inner end is fitted with a shackle having a 
 round bolt and a solid thimble into which is spliced a tail of wire- 
 rope about 30 fathoms long. 
 
 2. The dip-rope, of open-link chain or, still better, of 3-inch 
 circumference wire, about 6 fathoms in length, the outer end of 
 which is fitted with an eye carrying a shackle large enough to 
 engage a link of the cable. To the other end is fitted a tail of 
 7-inch manila about 30 fathoms in length. The outer end, of 
 chain or wire, takes the chafe in the hawse-pipe, and the manila. 
 tail goes to the wild-cat, where it is found to work more smoothly 
 than if made of wire as was formerly the practice. 
 
 3. A hawser to be bent to the chain above or below the slip- 
 
282 
 
 Plate No. 100. 
 
 CLEARING HAWSE. 
 
Plate No. 101. 
 
 283 
 
 DIP ROPE 
 
 r/2-inch,14fms. 
 
 MOORING 
 SWIVEL 
 
 CLEAR-HAWSE PENDANT 
 
 CLEAR HAWSE GEAR. 
 
284 GROUND TACKLE. 
 
 hook of the clear-hawse pendant, as a preventer, in the event of 
 parting the pendant. 
 
 4. A line on the chain from the inside, for easing out after 
 unshackling. This is not always used, but is convenient and may 
 be necessary with a heavy chain. 
 
 5. Deck tackles, hook ropes, chain hooks, straps, rope for lash- 
 ing, tools for unshackling and shackling, etc. 
 
 If the turns in the cables are below water, they must be brought 
 above by heaving in the riding cable. If they are inclined to 
 slip down as may be the case if the chains are slack they must 
 be lashed; and many officers prefer to lash them in all cases. 
 There is no question that this reduces the chance of accident, 
 both to the cables, and, what is more important, to the men work- 
 ing them. 
 
 A ship with a ram-bow, having a foul hawse, will sometimes 
 forge ahead, bringing the turns below the ram so that the cables 
 lead up and down and seem to be clear ; and in any type of ship, 
 if the moor is rather slack, there are chances that the hawse will 
 look clear, when it is in fact very badly foul. If proper entry has 
 been made in the log of the swinging of the ship, this should 
 not lead to misunderstanding, but it may cause considerable 
 difficulty. If steam is available, a few turns of the screw astern 
 will bring the turns up where they can be gotten at. In other 
 cases, it will usually suffice to heave in on the riding cable and 
 veer on the lee one. Much depends upon the shape of the ram 
 and the position of the hawse-pipes, but there is always some 
 way of handling the chains to meet this and other difficulties 
 which arise in working ground-tackle. 
 
 The turns being above water, the clear-hawse pendant is passed 
 out the sheet hawse-pipe or through a warping chock, and secured 
 to the lee cable below the turns, after which it is taken to the 
 capstan or a winch, hove taut and secured. 
 
 In a ship with a ram-bow, the turns usually come up on one 
 side of the ram; the side of the riding cable (Plate 102). In 
 this case, the clear-hawse pendant, although still used on the 
 lee cable, is passed out on the side of the riding cable. 
 
 The preventer hawser is also passed out, bent to the cable, 
 hauled taut and secured. 1 If the turns are to be lashed, this 
 is done now. 
 
 1 This supposes that the preventer hawser is to hold the chain in case the 
 pendant fails. If it is intended only for weighing the chain, it is left slack 
 but the end is made fast. The latter is the better plan. 
 
Plate No. 102. 
 
 285 
 
 Note: The starboard anchor lies to starboard of the ship. 
 
 CLEARING HAWSE. 
 BOTH CHAINS ON WEATHER SIDE OF RAM. 
 
286 GROUND TACKLE. 
 
 The dip-rope is passed out of the hawse-pipe alongside the lee 
 cable, taken around the riding cable in a direction opposite that 
 of the turns to be taken out, and brought back inside, where it 
 is secured to the cable forward of the shackle; preferably to 
 the end link. 
 
 The dip-rope is often made fast to the second or third link forward of the 
 shackle, to leave slack on the end for convenience in shackling and unshack- 
 ling; but this makes trouble when it conies to hauling the end in through 
 the hawse-pipe; and the better way is to bend it to the end. Then, after 
 the turns have been cleared and the end hauled in again ready for shackling, 
 the chain is secured with a stopper, leaving plenty of slack end for working, 
 and the dip-rope is cast off altogether. 
 
 The lee chain is secured by a stopper and the end of the 
 "easing-out" rope made fast a few links forward of the shackle 
 and stopped to the end link. The cable is then slacked up and 
 unshackled, the controller released, and the chain hauled out by 
 the dip-rope, the end of which is taken to a winch. 
 
 The lead of the dip-rope is unfavorable for hauling out, and with a heavy 
 chain it may be necessary to lead a line out on the side of the riding cable, 
 and take it in through the lee hawse-pipe to assist in hauling out the end 
 of the cable (Plate 102). Chain-hooks, hook-ropes, etc., are used inside for 
 lighting the chain forward. 
 
 The dip-rope, assisted as before described if necessary, takes 
 out the turns and brings the end inside the hawse-pipe, where it 
 is secured by a stopper and shackled. The chain (lee) is then 
 hove moderately taut, the controller released, the preventer 
 hawser cast off, and the clear-hawse pendant tripped by means 
 of the lanyard on the link. 
 
 On large ships the chains usually cross below the water-line, 
 even although they are hove taut; and to put on the heavy 
 clear hawse-pendant and secure a preventer hawser over the 
 bow is very difficult. This difficulty is overcome by securing the 
 lee chain on deck, by stoppers, rousing out sufficient chain to 
 reach around the riding chain as many times as there are turns 
 in the foul hawse and back on deck, and unshackling. The dip- 
 rope is rove around the riding chain in the proper direction for 
 clearing the hawse, hooked to the end link of the outboard part 
 of the lee chain and hauled taut. An easing-off line is secured 
 to the bight to be eased out, and a heavy hook-rope and a line 
 for hanging the bight are put over the bow. When the lee 
 chain is eased out, it is lighted around the riding chain by means 
 of the hook-rope and hanging line, while at the same time the 
 
GROUND TACKLE. 2 8/ 
 
 dip-rope takes in the slack. When enough slack is on deck to 
 shackle up, the lee chain is again connected, the clearing gear 
 gotten out of the way, and the lee chain hove in by the windlass 
 until it is clear of the riding chain. 
 
 In small ships the hawse is often cleared from a boat under 
 the bow, the shackle being veered out into the boat and there 
 unshackled, dipped, and shackled again. It is well in this case 
 to lash the turns and to take the weight of the chain by slip-ropes 
 from the bowsprit or forecastle. 
 
 Some ships have a light davit which can be stepped at the stem 
 when needed for working chains. This is a great convenience 
 and in many ships almost a necessity. 
 
 A cross in the hawse cannot be cleared, as the chains lead off 
 on the wrong sides, the starboard anchor being on the port hand 
 and the port anchor on the starboard hand. The chains may be 
 unshackled and shifted, the former starboard chain becoming the 
 port one and the port becoming the starboard, provided this does 
 not interfere with stowing the anchors. 
 
 As modern ships carry three anchors* all of which are in 
 effect bowers, two of these must necessarily be carried on the 
 same bow, except that in the latest ships, one is carried at the 
 stem (Plate 85). The difficulties of clearing hawse are much 
 reduced by mooring with the two anchors on the same bow, or 
 one on the bow and one on the stem. 
 
 If it becomes necessary to weigh when there is a cross, the 
 anchor belonging to the cable underneath must be picked up 
 first; as the upper one, if picked up, would foul the other chain. 
 
 It is clear from what has been said about the hawse, that it is 
 not a matter of indifference in what way the anchors are laid 
 out. In Fig. 2, Plate 99, for example, they are properly placed 
 provided the probability is that the wind, in the event of bad 
 weather, will haul to the westward, thus keeping the hawse open. 
 If the wind is more likely to haul the other wa}', the starboard 
 anchor should be to the southward. 
 
 THE MOORING SWIVEL. 
 
 A vessel moored may avoid the necessity for clearing hawse 
 by using a mooring swivel (Plate 101). This is much like 
 an ordinary swivel, but larger and heavier and with two links 
 and shackles attached to each of its parts. It is shackled upon 
 the cables just forward of the stem in such a way that the parts 
 
288 GROUND TACKLE. 
 
 of the cables leading from the hawse-pipes are connected to the 
 inner shackles, and the parts leading off to the anchors, to the 
 outer shackles. As the ship swings, the swivel turns and keeps 
 the cable clear. It should be put on with the cup up. 
 
 There are some disadvantages connected with the use of the 
 swivel. It is very inconvenient in veering, and still more so in 
 weighing, as it must be taken off before either anchor can be 
 picked up. In spite of these disadvantages, it is almost invari- 
 ably used by men-of-war. 
 
 In view of the difficulty in veering where the swivel is used, a 
 vessel proposing to use it should moor with a good scope on each 
 chain in the beginning. The conditions here are quite different 
 from those where a ship is moored without a swivel and free to 
 veer at any moment. Under the last-named conditions, as has 
 been explained, there is a certain advantage in having the anchors 
 not too far apart, but this reasoning does not apply if the swivel 
 is to be used. 
 
 As both clearing hawse and putting on the mooring swivel 
 involve unshackling, the scope on each cable in mooring must 
 be made such as will bring a shackle near the hawse. Where 
 the cables are made up of 15 fathom shots, we may use 30, 45, 60 
 or 75 fathoms on each. In the United States Navy, the latest 
 Cables issued to ships have no shackle between five fathoms and 
 forty-five, so that nothing less than forty-five fathoms can be 
 used on either cable (in mooring). 
 
 It is usual in laying out the cables to bring the shackles a little 
 inside, but not so far as in cases where the swivel is not to be 
 used. This is because the insertion of the swivel slacks the cables 
 considerably, and with a slack moor there is danger that the 
 swivel will not turn. The exact position for the shackles will 
 depend upon the depth of water and the construction of the ship. 
 
 It is a common and convenient practice in using the swivel 
 to connect only one cable from the hawse, the end of the other 
 being kept inboard. This does not involve any loss of holding 
 power, for the reason that, so long as the ship rides to one cable 
 only, the single part leading inboard is as strong as that from 
 the anchor; and when she rides with an open hawse, the parts 
 beyond the swivel form a span, which, as has been shown, has 
 actually less holding power than a single part acting along the 
 line on which the ship is pulling. 
 
 Some ships shackle both chains from inboard to the swivel, 
 
GROUND TACKLE. 
 
 Plate No. 103. 
 
 289 
 
29O GROUND TACKLE. 
 
 and to prevent them from sawing across the stem leave one of 
 them slack and dip the bight of it down under the forefoot. 
 They thus ride to a single part, but have the other to rely upon 
 in case of accident and can heave the swivel up to either hawse- 
 pipe for taking it off. 
 
 PUTTING THE SWIVEL ON. 
 
 It was formerly the rule to put the swivel on the lee chain first, 
 then to wait for the ship to swing before putting it on the other 
 one. This is still the rule in cases where the swivel is put on 
 outside the hawse. But many modern ships have hawse-pipes 
 large enough to let the swivel and several parts of chain pass 
 freely; and in such ships it is put on inside, and on the riding 
 cable first, the lee cable being afterward secured by the clear- 
 hawse pendant as in clearing hawse, unshackled, and the end com- 
 ing from the anchor hauled around the stem and inside the riding 
 hawse-pipe, where it is shackled in its place on the swivel. 
 
 First Method. The details of this method are shown in Plate 
 103. 
 
 The first thing to be done is to heave in on the riding cable 
 until the shackle is inside and at a convenient point for working, 
 when the chain is secured by one or more stoppers, all of course 
 forward of the shackle. The riding cable is then slacked abaft 
 the stoppers and unshackled, and the swivel shackled in place. 
 In the meantime, the clear-hawse pendant has been put on the lee 
 cable and hove taut, and a preventer hawser made fast, as in 
 clearing hawse. The dip-rope is passed out through the riding 
 hawse pipe, brought in the lee hawse pipe, and made fast to the 
 lee cable just forward of the shackle. 
 
 The lee chain is next unshackled inside, and the end of it 
 leading from the anchor is hauled out by the dip-rope, across 
 the stem and in through the riding hawse-pipe, where it is 
 shackled to the forward end of the mooring swivel. The riding 
 chain is then veered away until the swivel is outside. 
 
 If, now, it is proposed to connect the other part of the lee cable 
 (from inboard), this part is hauled out by the dip-rope and 
 shackled in its proper place on the swivel, 
 
 Second Method. If the hawse-pipe is large enough to take the 
 swivel, but not large enough to take the two cables alongside each 
 other, the swivel is put on the riding cable as just described and 
 
Plate No. 104. 
 
 291 
 
 QJ 
 
 Q 
 CO 
 
 UJ 
 
 > 
 
 CO 
 
 cr 
 O 
 
 ID 
 CL 
 
292 GROUND TACKLE. 
 
 then veered outside, before connecting up the anchor end of the 
 lee cable; the clear-hawse pendant, dip-rope, etc., being used as 
 before, except that the dip-rope in this case would be rove a little 
 differently ; perhaps through a link of the riding cable just below 
 the swivel, or even through the swivel itself ; the idea being to get 
 the end of the chain to the point where it is wanted, by whatever 
 means is most convenient (Plate 104). In this case also it is 
 necessary to bend the dip-rope to the lee cable several links for- 
 ward of the end, to give the slack required for shackling. The 
 men handling the chain work either in a boat under the bow or on 
 a stage slung over from the forecastle, such lifting as is required 
 being done by slip-ropes, and all shackles, mauls, etc., being slung 
 by lines to avoid danger of their being lost. This method gives 
 a tauter moor than either of the methods, already described, in 
 which both chains are shackled to the swivel inside the hawse. 
 
 Third Method. 1 Plate 105. This resembles the First Method 
 above, but with several important points of difference, the most 
 important being the following: all gear is kept inside and no one 
 is sent over the bow at any stage of the operation; wire- rope 
 pendants are substituted for chain as being more reliable, and 
 two-fold purchases are used with the pendants, giving a gain not 
 only in power but in smoothness of working; work proceeds on 
 both chains simultaneously, giving a marked gain in time; the 
 chains are under perfect control at all times, all violent "surg- 
 ing" being avoided. 
 
 The gear consists of: a clear-hawse pendant, two preventers, 
 a dip-rope, an easing-away line, and deck-stoppers as required. 
 
 The clear-hawse pendant and both preventers are of 3^2 -inch 
 wire, with a pelican-hook at one end for engaging the chain and an 
 eye in the other end, to which is shackled the block of a heavy 
 two-fold purchase. The dip-rope is in two parts connected by a 
 swivel to prevent the accumulation of turns as the chain is hauled 
 around, the outer part, of 3-inch flexible wire, about seven 
 fathoms in length, shackling to the lee chain ; the inner part, of 
 7-inch manila, leading to the winch. The size of gear required 
 will' of course vary for different ships. The dimensions given 
 are suitable for ground-tackle such as is used by the "Rhode 
 Island" class of battleships. 
 
 This method was worked out by chief boatswain J. P. O'Neill, U. S. 
 'Navy, and used with excellent results on the U. S. S. " Rhode Island." 
 
Plate 3STo. 105. 
 
 293 
 
294 
 
 GROUND TACKLE. 
 
 The dip-rope is rove off as the anchorage is approached, out 
 through the forward hawse-pipe and in through the after one 
 (assuming that the after anchor is to be the first let go). The 
 dip-rope is made fast at some convenient place on deck and 
 hauled taut to keep it clear as the chains run out when the 
 anchors are let go. 
 
 All gear is broken out and each part is placed as nearly as prac- 
 ticable where it is to be used ; the blocks of the clear-hawse pend- 
 ant and the two preventers being hooked to their respective pad- 
 eyes or straps, and the falls overhauled to the proper length, but 
 all placed carefully where they will be clear of the cables. If a 
 bitt is conveniently placed for the purpose, it is well to take a 
 turn around it with the clear-hawse pendant, as shown. 
 
 One great advantage of this method is that both cables may be 
 handled at practically the same time; and all preparations, in- 
 cluding the assignment of men to the various duties, should be 
 planned with this in mind. 
 
 The lee anchor having been let go, the riding chain is hove in 
 until the shackle is at the proper point, which on the "Rhode 
 Island" is found to be just forward of the bitt. 
 
 Both cables are now secured as shown in the plate ; the riding 
 cable by the deck-stopper and the preventer, and the lee one by 
 the clear-hawse pendant and preventer, the purchases of the 
 clear-hawse pendant and both preventers being hauled taut and 
 belayed. 
 
 In securing the riding chain, about three links are left between 
 the deck-stopper and the preventer. The point for the clear- 
 hawse pendant and preventer on the lee chain is determined by 
 the consideration that this point must be far enough outside the 
 shackle to give a length of chain sufficient to lead out through its 
 own hawse-pipe and in through the other pipe to the point where 
 it is to be shackled to the swivel, which will be a short distance 
 inside the other hawse-pipe. Both chains are now broken at the 
 shackles and the riding chain is connected up to the swivel. At 
 the same time, the lee chain is hauled around by the dip-rope, the 
 bight of the chain being eased out by the bight of the hook- rope, 
 as shown. The chain is thus kept under control and the heavy 
 surge on the clear-hawse pendant which would result from letting 
 the bight go out by the run, is avoided. 
 
 As soon as the riding chain is shackled up to the swivel, the 
 strain of the chain is taken with the anchor-engine. The slip- 
 
GROUND TACKLE. 295 
 
 hooks of the deck-stopper and the preventer are knocked clear, 
 and the chain is eased out until the swivel is just inside the hawse. 
 This reduces the length required on the lee chain to reach the 
 swivel, and so gives a tauter moor. The lee chain having been 
 hauled inside is shackled to the swivel. 
 
 The slip-hooks of the clear-hawse pendant and the preventer 
 are now knocked clear of the lee chain, allowing the bight to run 
 out, after which the swivel is veered outside. 
 
 Fourth Method. Plate 106. This method was developed by 
 Chief Boatswain M. H. Eldridge, and used by him on the U. S. S. 
 Wyoming. It goes farther than either of the preceding methods 
 in reducing the amount of gear that must be used, and, what is 
 more important, provides for doing most of the work required 
 in advance of the time of actual mooring and while the ship 
 is approaching the point where the first anchor is to be dropped. 
 
 The starboard anchor is lowered and hung by one slip-stopper, 
 ready for letting go. The port anchor is lowered and hung by 
 two slip-stoppers and the port chain unshackled at five fathoms, 
 after which the after-length of the chain is dipped outside the 
 port riding-bitt and hauled across the forecastle to a point near 
 the starboard hawse-pipe. The dip-rope is rove out through the 
 port hawse-pipe, across the stem, and in through the starboard 
 hawse-pipe, where it is bent to the free end of the port chain. 
 The port chain is next hauled by means of the dip-rope out 
 through the starboard hawse-pipe, across the stem and in through 
 the port hawse-pipe, where it is shackled up to the five-fathom 
 length which has remained attached to the anchor. The port 
 anchor is then eased down until the after-stoppers take the 
 strain. The dip-rope is unbent and gotten out of the way, and 
 all is ready to moor without the further use of a single piece of 
 gear. 
 
 When in position for dropping the first anchor, if a flying 
 moor, the starboard anchor is let go and the chain laid out. 
 While the starboard chain is running out, a sufficient length of 
 the port chain is roused out through the starboard hawse-pipe 
 to insure the port anchor reaching the bottom without a sudden 
 jerk of the chain. The forward stopper is now taken off the 
 port chain, leaving the anchor hanging by one slip-stopper ready 
 for letting go. 
 
 As the ninety-fathom shackle comes to the proper point (de- 
 pendent upon the depth of water and the tautness of moor de- 
 
296 
 
 Plate No. 106. 
 
 fc> 
 
 >*&* 
 
 $8- 
 
 it>i^ 
 
 ii tit* 
 6*1 el* 
 
 ,,S|5| 
 
 *-a 
 
GROUND TACKLE. 297 
 
 sired) the port anchor is dropped, and the chains are adjusted 
 to forty-five fathoms on deck. Two stoppers are now put on 
 each chain, the cables are unshackled, and the two forward 
 lengths shackled to the forward links of the mooring swivel. 
 The after-length of the starboard chain is shackled to one of 
 the after-links and the mooring swivel is veered outside. 
 
 If, instead of making a flying moor, the ship is to back away 
 from the first anchor dropped, the port anchor must be let go 
 first, the rule being that the anchor let go "on the bight" should 
 always be the one to tend ahead. 
 
 The convenience of the method above described is even greater 
 in cases where the two anchors to be used are on the same side 
 of the bow, than in the case above described where they are on 
 opposite sides, for the reason that in this case there need not 
 be any large bight of chain hanging over the bow while the ship 
 is approaching her anchorage and while she runs out the first 
 chain. Plate 107. 
 
 A trifling inconvenience connected with the Eldridge method 
 is the fact that the port chain lies in the starboard hawse-pipe, 
 alongside the starboard chain, during the time that the starboard 
 chain is running out. This is not at all a serious matter, but a 
 hawse-pipe has been designed and is under consideration for 
 installation in future ships, which includes a lip on the inside 
 of the hawse-pipe by which the chains can be held clear of 
 each other. The details of this design are shown on Plate 107. 
 
 If the swivel cannot be put on either cable inside, it must be 
 put on the lee cable first, the shackle being veered outside, the 
 cable secured by the clear hawse-pendant and a hawser, and the 
 swivel lowered over the bow and put on by men working in a 
 boat or on a stage. When the ship has swung, bringing the 
 other cable to leeward, this is handled exactly as has been 
 described for connecting the lee cable in the case where the swivel 
 was put on the riding cable inside and veered outside. 
 
 TAKING OFF THE SWIVEL INSIDE. This is practically the re- 
 verse of putting on. In most cases the operation is simplified by 
 first unshackling the inner part of the lee cable from the swivel, 
 outside, and heaving the end inside its own hawse-pipe. The rid- 
 ing cable is then hove in, bringing the swivel and the outer parts 
 of both chains inside the hawse, where both chains are well stop- 
 pered. The clear-hawse pendant is bent to the lee cable, outside, 
 
2 9 8 
 
 Plate No. 107, 
 
GROUND TACKLE. 
 
 and hauled taut, and a preventer hawser used as in putting the 
 swivel on. (Plate 103.) 
 
 The two parts of the riding cable are unshackled from the 
 swivel and shackled together. The dip-rope is rove out through 
 the lee hawse-pipe, in through the riding hawse-pipe and bent to 
 the end of the lee cable just forward of the swivel, ready to haul 
 the end around. The easing-out rope is bent to the same end, 
 hauled taut and belayed. The lee cable is then unshackled from 
 the swivel and the end hauled around and in through its own 
 hawse-pipe (being eased away to avoid surging), and shackled 
 up to its own part. 
 
 TAKING OFF THE SWIVEL OUTSIDE (Plate 104). Secure the 
 lee chain as for clearing hawse ; that is to say, put the clear- 
 hawse pendant and preventer hawser on that part of the lee chain 
 leading from the anchor and heave in on the clear-hawse pendant 
 until there is slack enough between it and the swivel for unshack- 
 ling. If the inboard end of the lee chain is shackled to the swivel, 
 stick out slack enough for unshackling it also. If this end is 
 not attached to the swivel, haul it out by the dip-rope leading 
 from the weather sheet pipe. Hang both parts of the lee chain 
 by good lines from the forecastle. Unshackle both ends from 
 the swivel and shackle them together. Heave the lee chain taut, 
 take off the hawser and slip the clear-hawse pendant. Heave in 
 on the riding chain until the swivel is abaft the controller. Secure 
 the chain by stoppers, unshackle the ends from the swivel and 
 shackle them together. 
 
 If the swivel will not go through the hawse, it is desirable to 
 wait for the ship to swing before taking it off the second chain. 
 Thus each chain is a lee chain when it is disconnected. 
 
 If it is impracticable to wait for this, handle the riding cable 
 as already described for the lee one, but with extra precautions. 
 The clear-hawse pendant may still be used, but the preventer 
 hawser must be a good one and must be hove taut. The ship 
 in fact rides by this hawser and not by the clear-hawse pendant, 
 while the chain is slacked for unshackling. Steam should be 
 ready, and an officer should be on the bridge ready to work the 
 engines. By giving a turn ahead from time to time the tension 
 on the hawser can be relieved and there should be no danger in 
 the operation. 
 
 All working of chain where unshackling is necessary should 
 be done at slack water or as near it as possible. 
 
300 
 
 GROUND TACKLE. 
 
 TENDING SHIP. 
 
 When the swivel is not used, it is very important to "tend 
 ship"; that is, to watch the swinging at each turn of the tide, 
 note the direction in which the stern swings, always recording 
 this in the log, and, taking advantage of any conditions , which 
 may be helpful, try to make the ship swing to that side which 
 will keep the hawse clear, or clear it if it has already fouled. 
 
 It is well to give some attention to "tending ship" even when 
 the swivel is in use. The purpose of the swivel is to prevent the 
 hawse from fouling, but unfortunately it does not always work. 
 It is especially likely to fail if the moor is slack, and in this case 
 the chains may foul so far below water that it will not be known 
 that they are foul until the ship starts to get underway. It is not 
 unusual to find cables very badly fouled when every confidence is 
 felt that they are perfectly clear. It is very important to watch 
 the swivel while the ship is swinging and to note zvhether it works 
 or not. If it does not, it may be practicable to heave it around 
 by a purchase hooked to that part of the chain which should be 
 lifted. To assist in keeping track of the working of the chains, 
 it is a good plan to paint a few shackles of each chain just outside 
 the swivel, using red for the port and white for the starboard 
 cable. 
 
 If there is any room for doubt as to the cables being clear, it 
 is a good plan to underrun the riding cable for some distance 
 ahead of the swivel with the bight of a boat chain. 
 
(30i) 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 CARRYING OUT ANCHORS. 
 
 1. 
 
 Important changes have been introduced into all problems con- 
 nected with the handling- of anchors, by changes within recent 
 years in the character of the anchors themselves and in the meth- 
 ods of stowing and handling them. 
 
 All ships of recent design carry double-fluked anchors, and the 
 bowers and sheets of this type are, in a great majority of cases, 
 housed in the hawse-pipes, although on older ships one sheet 
 anchor is still carried on an anchor-shelf. Plate (83.) Where this 
 last arrangement exists, an anchor-davit is necessarily provided ; 
 and even where all of the anchors house in the pipes, a davit is 
 sometimes fitted, for general convenience in the handling of 
 ground-tackle. 
 
 Anchors which stow in the hawse-pipes are not fitted with 
 balancing-links and must be handled by straps. These may be 
 placed at the balancing point, thus serving the same purpose as 
 the usual link, or they may be passed around the crown, where 
 they allow the anchor to hang more or less " ring-heavy." The 
 last arrangement has some advantages, as will be explained here- 
 after. 
 
 Most men-of-war carry "stream" and "stern" anchors, of 
 from one-fourth to one-third the weight of the bowers. These 
 are not too heavy to be carried out by a single boat, and the prob- 
 lem of handling them presents no great difficulty, provided the 
 method to be used has been thought out beforehand and all the 
 fittings prepared. 
 
 It is quite a different proposition to deal with a bower anchor, 
 weighing from fifteen to twenty-four thousand pounds, and 
 stowed without any thought of the possible necessity for carrying 
 it out by boats. 
 
 It is held by some seamen that the necessity for carrying out a 
 bower is so unlikely to arise under modern conditions that it is 
 not worth while to prepare for it. In support of this view, it is 
 pointed out that the engines of modern ships are so powerful in 
 comparison with any pull which could be put upon a line for haul- 
 
3O2 CARRYING OUT ANCHORS. 
 
 ing off a stranded vessel, that they are, and must be, the main 
 reliance; and that if they do not suffice there is little hope of ac- 
 complishing anything without help from sources outside the ship. 
 
 It is true that the main reliance of a ship which goes aground 
 will be upon her engines and upon outside assistance, provided 
 the engines can be used and that outside assistance is available. 
 But the engines can only be used while the stern is tailing off into 
 deep water ; and in many, perhaps in most, cases, there is a ten- 
 dency to swing around broadside on to the beach, when the en- 
 gines immediately become worse than useless and the problem to 
 be dealt with by outside assistance, if at hand, is of enormously 
 increased difficulty. 
 
 As is pointed out in the chapter on " Stranding," the first thing 
 to be done when a vessel goes aground and refuses to back off at 
 once is to hold her from being set farther up by a rising tide, and 
 to hold her stern off from the beach so that her engines may con- 
 tinue available for use. Under reasonably good conditions, an 
 anchor of medium weight may suffice for this, but there are many 
 conditions where nothing short of the bower or sheet will answer. 
 It is not here a question of hauling off the winches would 
 hardly furnish power enough for this but only of holding 
 against wind and tide ; although it is by no means unusual for a 
 ship to yield to the steady strain of a taut line and to come off 
 altogether unexpectedly. 
 
 If proper preparations have been made beforehand and tested 
 by frequent drills, it should be possible to carry out the stream 
 or stern anchor within ten minutes, and to follow this by a bower 
 within from thirty to forty-five minutes more. 
 
 H. 
 
 First Method. The simplest way to carry out an anchor is to 
 hang it from the stern of a launch as in Plates 108 and 109, but 
 this utilizes only a part of the floating power of the boat and is not 
 practicable with a very heavy anchor. The weight which can be 
 carried in this way may be much increased by adding weight at 
 k the bow, thus counterbalancing the weight at the stern and bring- 
 ing the boat more nearly onto an even keel. In this way the boat 
 may be made to carry at the stern approximately one-half of its 
 total floating capacity, whereas it would not carry anything like 
 this at one end without a compensating weight at the other. 
 
 A convenient way of hanging the anchor and letting it go is il- 
 lustrated in Plate 108, where one end of the wire strap is shackled 
 
(303) 
 
 Plate No. 108. 
 
304 CARRYING OUT ANCHORS, 
 
 to the ring of the anchor, while an eye in the other end engages 
 a slip-hook secured to a ring-bolt in the keel of the boat. 
 
 NOTE. In all cases where an eye is to engage a slip-hook, the eye must 
 be made large enough to allow the tongue of the hook to run through it 
 freely when released. The eye is better without a thimble. 
 
 For a light anchor, a manila strap may be used and secured 
 with a toggle as in Plate 109. 
 
 To provide for weighing, a weighing-line, usually of wire, is 
 bent to the crown of the anchor, and fitted with a buoy-rope and 
 buoy. 
 
 The hauling line, of manila or wire, is bent to the ring of the 
 anchor and leads to the ship. 
 
 Running the Line. With a light anchor it may be assumed that 
 a manila hawser will be used for a hauling line. In this case the 
 end of the line is bent to the ring and the line is payed out from 
 the ship as the boat pulls away ; a considerable length of the line, 
 however, being coiled in the stern-sheet ready to be thrown out 
 from the boat as the point is approached where the anchor is to 
 be planted. The throwing over of this part of the line at the last 
 gives freedom of control to the boat at a point where the long 
 bight of the line, dragging astern, would otherwise be embar- 
 rassing. 
 
 In some cases, with a manila line, it is better to coil the whole 
 length of the line in the boat and carry it out with the anchor, 
 paying it out as the boat returns to the ship after planting the 
 anchor. This is especially convenient when the anchor has to be 
 carried out against or across a strong wind or tide. In this case 
 it is a good plan to let the boat hold on to the anchor after drop- 
 ping it and to send out another boat from the ship with the end of 
 a 3- or 4-inch manila line, the other end of which is taken to the 
 winch. The first boat can then be hauled back to the ship by the 
 small line, paying out the hawser from the anchor as she comes. 
 
 In all cases where any part of the line is carried in the boat, enough of it 
 must be thrown over before letting go, to make it certain that the anchor 
 will reach the bottom with plenty of slack line to spare. 
 
 Where a imre line is to be run, it is always better to send the 
 end away with the anchor, and pay out the line from the ship, 
 although here, as in all other cases, a few fathoms should be 
 coiled in the boat. The difficulty in dealing with a large coil of 
 wire-rope in the boat is connected in part with its stiffness and its, 
 
Plate No. 109. 
 
 305 
 
 CARRYING A KEDGE WITH A CUTTER. 
 
306 CARRYING OUT ANCHORS. 
 
 tendency to kink, and in part with its disposition to " take charge " 
 if the stops by which it is being towed should part. 
 
 A convenient way to secure the line to the boat v/hen paying 
 out from the ship is shown in Fig. 2, Plate 111. The stopper 
 used may be either a single line or a span with one part leading to 
 each quarter of the boat. 
 
 It is sometimes practicable to take a wire line in a boat, on 
 its reel, the reel being lashed very securely in place on a temporary 
 platform. The line can then be payed out directly from .the reel. 
 
 It is important in running a line to head well up against any 
 wind or current which may be setting across, and to remember 
 that the boat will not steer if her stern is bound by a taut line. 
 
 If a long scope of line is to be run out, one or more boats 
 should take the weight of the bight, holding it by slip-ropes from 
 the bow and stern ring-bolts. 
 
 In all cases of carrying out an anchor except when dealing with 
 a light kedge, it is well to tow the boat from which the anchor is 
 hung, even though the latter may be a power-boat, as will usually 
 be the case. The reason for this is that a boat carrying an anchor 
 hung over the stern or under the bottom is not free to manoeuvre 
 and will obey her rudder sluggishly or not at all. A still better 
 plan is to lay out a kedge some distance beyond the point where 
 the anchor is to be planted and to haul out by a manila line bent 
 to the ring of the kedge. 
 
 Second Method. Plate 110. This is a very convenient method 
 provided preparations have been made for it in advance. In the 
 British Navy the straps and other fittings are issued to ships and 
 are kept ready for use at a moment's notice. 
 
 A " spreader " is called for here, to relieve the crushing strain 
 on the sides of the boat. This may rest on blocking, as in Plate 
 110, or, if the anchor is not too heavy, on the gunwales of the 
 boat. It is well to lash the spreader to a thwart and also to seize 
 the " belly-strap " temporarily to the spreader, taking care to cut 
 the seizings before letting go. 
 
 The anchor may be hung by the balancing-link if one is fitted, 
 or better, by a strap around the shank and crown as shown in the 
 plate. With this strap the anchor will hang more or less " ring- 
 heavy," which makes the strap available for breaking out and 
 weighing the anchor, crown first. 
 
 It is often practicable to break out the anchor and drag it home, crown 
 first, by a line from the crown to the ship. (See III of this Chapter.) 
 
Plate No. 110. 
 
 307 
 
 Steadying Line from 
 Stern Rina-Bolt to take 
 
 CARRYING OUT ANCHOR SECOND METHOD. 
 
CARRYING OUT ANCHORS. 
 
 The hanging-pendant must be long enough to reach from the 
 ring under the keel to the water's edge, where it is shackled to 
 the anchor-strap. 
 
 The use of the lowering-rope between the fish-pendant and the 
 anchor-strap admits of unhooking the fish-pendant after the 
 anchor is lowered into place under the boat. 
 
 The weighing-line is shackled to the end of the lowering-rope 
 after the fish-pendant is unhooked, or sooner if the eye is large 
 enough. 
 
 As the weighing-line will, in most cases, be of wire, a buoy 
 rope is needed for recovering the end. 
 
 In all cases like the present one, where the hanging-line from 
 the boat leads off at an angle at the time when it begins to take 
 the weight of the anchor, a strong pull will be exerted dragging 
 the boat toward the anchor. This is not necessarily a matter of 
 great importance, but is a factor to be reckoned with. As its 
 tendency is to draw the boat against the lowering-rope, it is well 
 to use a chafing-spar alongside to protect the bilge. The launch's 
 mast may conveniently be used for this. Plate 110. 
 
 The hauling-line leads from the ring of the anchor to the ship. 
 It is usually bent to the ring and run out with the anchor as has 
 been described in connection with the First Method above. A 
 better way, with a heavy anchor, is to use a hauling-pendant on 
 the ring of the anchor, long enough to reach well above water 
 when the anchor is let go. The boat holds on by this pendant 
 (or by a lighter line bent to the eye), and the real hauling-line is 
 sent out by another boat and shackled on. By thus carrying out 
 the anchor and the line separately much trouble is saved. 
 
 Ten fathoms is a convenient length for the hauling-pendant, 
 and should answer for all ordinary demands, although it may, 
 of course, become necessary to lay out an anchor in water much 
 deeper than this. 
 
 If it is preferred not to let the anchor hang " ring-down," a 
 manila line may be bent to the ring and brought in over the stern 
 of the boat, holding the ring well up under the keel. A 5-inch 
 manila line should be large enough for this, even with a heavy 
 bower. Or the hauling-line may be utilized for this purpose, the 
 bight being stopped up to the boat and holding the ring up. 
 
 Of course, if the anchor has a balancing-link it may be handled 
 altogether by this ; in which case, however, the weighing-line 
 
CARRYING OUT ANCHORS. 309 
 
 must be bent independently to the crown to admit of breaking out 
 the anchor crown first. In this case the lowering-rope and hang- 
 ing-pendant are shackled to the balancing-link. 
 
 In the absence of a balancing-link, the anchor may be balanced 
 perfectly by a strap passed around the shank at the balancing 
 point which is never more than a few inches from the crown 
 and held from slipping by a lashing around the crown. No lash- 
 ing from the ring is necessary as the very short distance which 
 the strap could slip toward the crown would be of trifling im- 
 portance. 
 
 Under ordinary conditions, however, there is no disadvantage 
 in allowing the anchor to hang ring-heavy, supporting the ring if 
 necessary as in Plate 110; and the arrangement of lines and straps 
 there shown will in general be found convenient. 
 
 In dealing with a bower or sheet anchor, it is necessary to pro- 
 vide for unbending the chain. It is convenient to disconnect at 
 the 5-fathom shackle, and to bend the hauling-line to the end of 
 the length of chain which remains on the anchor instead of di- 
 rectly to the ring. 
 
 The shackle may be veered outside and handled there or we 
 may bend a wire hawser to the cable inside, just forward of the 
 shackle, take it to the winch and haul taut, after which we un- 
 shackle and veer away by the line. 
 
 In handling the chain outside, the weight is taken by slip-ropes 
 and jiggers from the forecastle. 
 
 It is often very difficult to handle a boat under the bow ; as for 
 example, when there is a heavy sea running, or a strong current. 
 Under such circumstances one or more kedges may be laid out 
 and the boat controlled by lines from these, and from the ship. 
 
 If the ship is not fitted with an anchor-davit, or if for any rea- 
 son the anchor cannot be handled under the bow, the boat-crane 
 must be used, a heavy block being lashed to the head of the crane 
 and a wire line led through this and taken to the bow, or wher- 
 ever else the anchor is stowed. If dealing with a bower or sheet, 
 the line is bent to the anchor-strap on the crown, and the anchor 
 is let go and hove up to the crane, crown first, where it is handled as 
 may be desired. Under many circumstances this plan is more con- 
 venient than any other, even though an anchor-davit is available. 
 
 It would probably be practicable under favorable circumstances 
 everything being quiet under the bow to take the anchor 
 
CARRYING OUT ANCHORS. 
 
 i the 
 
 rash. 
 
 directly from the hawse-pipe, as follows : A strap is put on 
 crown and the anchor is eased down until the crown is awash. 
 The hanging-pendant is brought around the bilge of the boat 
 and shackled to the strap. A large kedge is planted off the bow 
 with a good line for holding the boat clear. A wire-hawser, 
 technically a veering-line, is shackled to the cable just forward 
 of the 5-fathom shackle, taken to the winch and hauled taut. The 
 chain is now unshackled and the anchor is eased down by the 
 wire line until it hangs by the crown under the boat. 
 
 In lowering away under these circumstances, the force tending 
 to drag the boat toward the anchor and against the chain will be 
 very strong, and a good chafing-spar will be needed to protect the 
 bilge of the boat. 
 
 The wire line may be left shackled to the chain from the anchor 
 and be sent out with the anchor as a hauling-line, or it may be 
 unbent and replaced by another line. The length of cable which 
 remains bent to the ring of the anchor takes the place of the 
 lowering-rope and gives drift enough to admit of unbending the 
 veering-line. 
 
 Third Method. Plate 111. This resembles the Second Method, 
 but with the difference that the hanging-pendant slips on the 
 bight of the belly-strap and may thus be made very much shorter, 
 as it can be slipped up to the water's edge, or above, and need 
 only be long enough to admit of convenient handling for shack- 
 ling to the eyes of the anchor-strap. 
 
 As the anchor is lowered away, the eye of the hanging-pendant 
 slips down until the anchor hangs below the keel. It is well to 
 leave the belly-strap rather slack so that the eye may slip down 
 freely. 
 
 The spreader is lashed to the thwart and the belly-strap seized 
 temporarily to the spreader as in the Second Method. 
 
 To make sure of recovering the belly-strap which might un- 
 reeve after letting go a light manila doubling-line may be passed 
 around under the boat and bent to the ends of the belly-strap. 
 
 Fourth Method. Plate 112. When it becomes necessary to 
 carry out a very heavy anchor, like the bower or sheet of a battle- 
 ship, the only practicable method is to put two launches alongside 
 and hang the anchor between them from a spar. 
 
 Here it is convenient to handle the anchor (stockless) by the 
 ring, bending the weighing-line independently to the crown. 
 
Plate No. 111. 
 
 Fig. I. 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 CARRYING OUT ANCHORS; THIRD METHOD. 
 
312 
 
 Plate No. 112. 
 
CARRYING OUT ANCHORS. 313 
 
 Except for this change, the anchor is handled substantially as in 
 the methods already described. 
 
 The anchor is eased outside the hawse-pipe until the fish- 
 pendant or lowering-rope can be shackled, to the ring. The strap 
 is put on the crown at the same time, and the weighing-line 
 shackled to it. The chain is then veered, and the anchor swings 
 to the fish-pendant. 
 
 In the meantime the boats have been prepared and hauled for- 
 ward and two kedges have been planted where they will give the 
 best control, with a line from each to the bow of one of the boats. 
 A line from the stern of each boat to the ship completes the ar- 
 rangement for holding the boats stern-on to the ship's side; pro- 
 vided, of course, that conditions make it desirable to hold the boats 
 in this position. In any case, it will be well to have at least one 
 good kedge for holding off, as the drag of the anchor on the hang- 
 ing-pendant while being lowered into place will be very strong. 
 
 Assuming that the boats are held stern-on, the hanging-pen- 
 dant is passed aft between them and shackled to the ring of the 
 anchor at the water's edge. The chain is then unshackled, as has 
 been described in connection with the Second Method, and the 
 anchor is eased down into position, the fish-pendant passing 
 between the boats, which will have a strong tendency to surge 
 aft in obedience to the drag on the pendant. 
 
 The anchor may, of course, be handled by the crown instead 
 of by the ring, without changing any principle of this method, 
 and it will be convenient to adopt this plan if the water is rather 
 shallow. 
 
 If the boats cannot be held stern-on, the hanging-pendant must 
 be dipped under the inner boat, as in the Second Method. Here 
 a long pendant will be needed, and the anchor will necessarily 
 hang rather deep. Assuming 10 feet for the beam of the boat, 
 the pendant from the spar to the crown of the anchor would be 
 approximately 16 feet, and allowing 4 feet more for the anchor 
 we have a total depth of 20 feet. As a ship carrying a boat of 
 10 feet beam would draw at least 28 feet normally, this would 
 probably be all right ; but if not, measures must be taken to in- 
 sure holding the boat stern-on, when the anchor, if handled by 
 the crown, can be hung well up under the boats. 
 
 In an extreme case, the water being very shallow, the hanging- 
 spar may be put well aft on the boats (sacrificing something in 
 
314 CARRYING OUT ANCHORS. 
 
 flotation), and the boats backed in against chafing-mats on the 
 ship's side, directly over the anchor, which in this case must be 
 well below water; the hanging-pendant (not yet passed around 
 the spar) having been already shackled to the strap on the crown. 
 
 The hanging-pendant is then passed around the spar, shortened 
 in as much as possible, and secured ; after which the anchor is low- 
 ered into position where it will hang only just clear of the boats. 
 
 In some cases it may be well to drop the anchor from the bow 
 and pick it up on the boat-crane, where it can be held in any 
 desired position, suitable lines for weighing by the crane being 
 bent to the anchor before it is let go, or eased down, from the 
 bow. An anchor .hanging from the boat crane can be controlled 
 more easily than by means of any device available at the bow. 
 
 The plan shown in Plate 112 for securing the hanging-pendant 
 and letting- go is very convenient, but it must be remembered that 
 unless a turn is taken with the pendant around the spar, the strain 
 on the spar ivill be approximately double the weight of the anchor, 
 as the spar will in such a case play the part of a pulley. By tak- 
 ing a turn, this effect is practically annulled. 
 
 It is well to make the slipping end of the pendant as short as 
 possible, to avoid the dangerous " whip " which would result 
 from a long end when released. 
 
 Steadying-lines may be used from .the flukes of the anchor, but 
 must be cast off before letting go. 
 
 The plan described in connection with the Second Method for 
 taking the anchor from the hawse-pipe is equally applicable with 
 the present method, subject to the limitations which have been 
 pointed out with regard to the depth of water. 
 
 The boats may be towed out by a steamer, or a kedge may be 
 planted beyond the point where the bower is wanted, and the 
 boats hauled out by a line from the kedge. Where conditions 
 are unfavorable, as for example where the boats must be hauled 
 out against a strong wind or tide, it is a good plan to lash a large 
 single block to the ring of the kedge and reeve through this a 
 good manila line, bringing both ends of the line back to the ship. 
 By bending one end to. the spar across the bows of the boats or 
 to a span from the bows, and taking the other end on board, the 
 boats may be hauled out by the winch. 
 
CARRYING OUT ANCHORS. 
 
 315 
 
 DIAMETER IN INCHES OF A ROUND SPAR OF A GIVEN SPAN, TO CARRY A 
 GIVEN LOAD AT THE MIDDLE POINT. 
 
 
 
 
 Span in 
 
 inches. 
 
 
 
 
 18 
 
 24 
 
 30 
 
 36 
 
 42 
 
 48 
 
 6 000 
 
 G' .8 
 
 7 .4 
 
 8" 
 
 8' 3 
 
 8" 8 
 
 an o 
 
 8 000 
 
 7' .2 
 
 7 .9 
 
 8" 5 
 
 9' 
 
 9" 5 
 
 Q" Q 
 
 10,000 
 
 7' .7 
 
 8 .5 
 
 9".l 
 
 9' 7 
 
 10" 2 
 
 10" 7 
 
 12,000 
 
 8' .2 
 
 9 .0 
 
 9". 7 
 
 10' 3 
 
 10" 9 
 
 11' 4 
 
 14,000 
 
 8' .6 
 
 9 .5 
 
 10". 2 
 
 10' 9 
 
 11" 5 
 
 12' 
 
 16,000. 
 
 9".0 
 
 9". 9 
 
 10". 7 
 
 11" 4 
 
 12" 
 
 12' 5 
 
 18 000 
 
 9". 4 
 
 10" 3 
 
 11" 1 
 
 11" 8 
 
 12" 5 
 
 i or o 
 
 20 000 
 
 9" 7 
 
 10" 7 
 
 11" 5 
 
 12" 2 
 
 12" 9 
 
 tor K 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 A square beam the side of which is equal to the diameter of a round 
 spar in the above table will support 1.7 times the load of the round spar. 
 
 Conversely, a square beam to support a given load must have -Ar the 
 thickness given above for a round spar. 
 
 The preceding table shows the size of spar required to carry a 
 given weight, with a given distance between points of support. 
 There is of course a difference in the strength of different varie- 
 ties of wood, but the spars which are likely to be available on 
 shipboard are of about the same general character, and the figures 
 here given, which are for good sound pine or spruce, may be 
 used with confidence for all ordinary woods. 
 
 The weight which can be carried varies directly with the cross- 
 sectional area and inversely with the span; that is to say, the 
 distance between points of support. A given spar spanning 24 
 inches between supports will carry twice as much as if the span 
 were 48 inches. 
 
 Safe Floating Power of Navy Boats for 2d, 3d, and 4th Methods 
 
 Preceding. 
 
 Boat. 
 
 Floating power. 
 
 Remaining freeboard. 
 
 50-fo 
 40 
 36 
 33 
 30 
 30-fo 
 28 
 26 
 24 
 
 ot lau 
 ot cu 
 
 nch 
 
 Lbs. 
 24,000 
 16,000 
 12,000 
 10,000 
 7,500 
 7.000 
 6,000 
 4,500 
 4,100 
 
 Inches. 
 28 ) 
 28 
 24 Load may be safely increased 
 23 in smooth water. 
 21 
 16 
 14 
 12 
 12 
 
 , 
 
 ter 
 
CARRYING OUT ANCHORS. 
 
 Safe Floating Power at Stern with Compensating 
 Weight at Bow. 
 
 Boat. 
 
 Load at 
 stern if bow 
 is loaded. 
 
 Load at 
 forward end 
 of boat. 
 
 Number of 
 men required 
 at forward 
 end. 
 
 Approximate 
 remaining 
 freeboard at 
 stern. 
 
 50-foot launch 
 40 ' 
 
 Lbs. 
 12,000 
 8,000 
 
 Lbs. 
 12,000 
 8,000 
 
 90 
 65 
 
 Inches. 
 24 
 24 
 
 36 ' 
 
 6000 
 
 6000 
 
 45 
 
 20 
 
 33 ' 
 30 ' ... 
 
 4,500 
 3 000 
 
 4,500 
 3 000 
 
 35 
 22 
 
 18 
 16 
 
 30-foot cu ter 
 
 2500 
 
 2,500 
 
 18 
 
 13 
 
 28 ' 
 
 2,000 
 
 2,500 
 
 18 
 
 11 
 
 26 ' 
 24 ' 
 
 1,500 
 1.000 
 
 2,000 
 1.500 
 
 15 
 12 
 
 9 
 9 
 
 The weights in the bow should, if possible, be men, and these 
 should be grouped as far forward as is practicable. When the 
 anchor is let go, the men must be prepared to move quickly aft, 
 as the bow will dip suddenly. 
 
 8 III. 
 
 To Pick Tip an Anchor. 
 
 Where an anchor has been carried out for any purpose, it may 
 be assumed that a weighing-line has been bent to the crown 
 either as described in the preceding section or in some other 
 efficient way. ; In this case the simplest way to pick up the anchor 
 is to run a line from the ship to the end of the weighing-line and 
 drag the anchor home crown first and run it up to the hawse- 
 pipe. This plan very greatly simplifies the matter of using an 
 anchor for such temporary purposes as hauling the stern around 
 for bore-sighting, for sub-caliber target practice, or for improv- 
 ing ventilation in a tropical climate. 
 
 If conditions are such that the anchor cannot be hauled home 
 by the ship, it must be weighed by a boat, and this will not be 
 very difficult if the anchor is of moderate size, and if it can be 
 broken out by the crown. If no line has been provided from the 
 crown, a diver should be sent down to bend one on. 
 
 To Weigh an Anchor by a Boat. An anchor of medium size 
 may be weighed by a boat by bringing the line in over the stern 
 roller and applying a purchase of any convenient kind; a luff 
 upon luff, an improvised windlass, or any other device which 
 may be suggested by the conditions. The flotation of the boat 
 
CARRYING OUT ANCHORS. 317 
 
 can be utilized to start the anchor, a convenient way being to 
 fill the stern-sheets with men and heave the line well taut, then 
 to shift the men forward to the bow. By letting them "sally" 
 forward on the run, the anchor may sometimes be jumped out. 
 It is only necessary to lift the anchor far enough to admit of 
 carrying it back to the ship. 
 
 If there is no weighing-line from the crown of the anchor, and 
 if circumstances do not admit of sending down a diver to bend 
 one on, the anchor must be broken out by the ring. In such 
 a case it is especially important to use a line from the ship, 
 although a small anchor can, of course, be handled, even in this 
 way, by a good-sized launch. A battleship's launch, for example, 
 should be able to deal with a 3OOO-pound anchor very easily, and 
 in some cases when the anchor is not holding very strongly 
 with one of double this size; that is to say, with the "stream" 
 anchor which is now supplied to all battleships. 
 
 In cases of especial difficulty it might be well to put two 
 launches alongside, connecting them with a spar as in Plate 112, 
 and make use of their power of flotation by loading them deeply 
 with men, hauling taut the line from the anchor to the spar, and 
 then removing the men. Two 4O-foot launches, holding 100 men 
 each could be made in this way to exert a pull of 40,000 pounds. 
 
 LOST BOWER OR SHEET. 
 
 Where a bower or sheet anchor has been lost by the parting 
 of a cable, the problem is quite different from that of dealing 
 with a lighter anchor such as might have been carried out by 
 the ship's boats. 
 
 Here it will usually happen that a certain length of chain is 
 attached to the anchor. The problem is, in this case, for the 
 ship to get hold of this chain and weigh the anchor with her 
 windlass. This means, first of all, that the ship must place her- 
 self near the anchor, but of course not close enough to interfere 
 with working lines from a boat. If the anchor is buoyed, it is 
 located without difficulty. If not, it must be found, and the 
 easiest way to find it is to drag for the chain across the line on 
 which it is supposed to lie. A grapnel may be used for dragging 
 but it is better to take a kedge anchor, to the stock of which a 
 capstan-bar is lashed to keep the fluke down. 
 
318 CARRYING OUT ANCHORS. 
 
 The chain having been grappled, it may be possible to lift the 
 bight or the end and bend on a line from the hawse-pipe, by 
 which the ship can haul over at once and pick up the anchor. 
 For this the boat that has found the chain would lift the bight 
 or hold on by the grapnel and send down a diver to bend a 
 6-inch or 7-inch manila line to the chain near the end. Such a 
 line should answer for lifting the chain and probably for hauling 
 the ship into position, but it would not weigh the anchor. If 
 the chain is not long enough to admit of bringing the end inside 
 the hawse, the end of a good wire line is sent out to the boat 
 and shackled by the diver to a link near the end, but not to the 
 end link. 
 
 Where the anchor to be dealt with weighs upward of ten tons, 
 as do the bower and sheet anchors of a superdreadnaught, it is 
 out of the question to weigh it with any line which could be 
 handled by a diver. The heaviest manila hawsers supplied to 
 ships are 10 inches in circumference and are not strong enough 
 to break out the anchors in question. Nor could any diver hitch 
 a line of this size to the crown of an anchor. A wire hawser 
 would be strong enough, but wire does not work well on the 
 nigger-head of a winch. 
 
 The following plan combines several advantages. It provides 
 a perfectly manageable wire line to be shackled (not hitched) 
 to any part of the anchor that can be reached. It provides a 
 length of chain-cable for shackling to the ship's cable, belonging, 
 it may be, to the lost anchor, and it provides an ample length 
 of manila hawser for weighing the cable and the wire and for 
 hauling the ship into place over the anchor. The plan is as 
 follows : 
 
 A 5-fathom shot of chain is shackled at one end to a pennant 
 of 4 l /2 -inch wire eight or nine fathoms long, and at the other 
 end to a 6 or 7-inch manila hawser. The shot of chain and the 
 wire pennant are slung outside a motor sailing launch, the 
 manila line is coiled in the stern sheets, and the boat proceeds to 
 a point near the anchor. Here enough of the manila line is 
 thrown over to reach the bottom, the chain is paid down on top 
 of this, and lastly the wire pennant is paid down on top of all, 
 where it is easy for the diver to handle it ; the diving boat gets 
 into position, and the diver goes down and shackles the wire 
 pennant to any part of the anchor that he can reach conveniently. 
 
CARRYING OUT ANCHORS. 319 
 
 The motor-sailer takes the manila line back to the ship and it is 
 hauled in through the hawse-pipe and taken to a winch. 
 
 The ship manoeuvres into a position as nearly over the anchor 
 as is practicable, and heaves in the line. When the chain comes 
 in it is shackled to the free end of the cable on board and the 
 anchor is hove up and hung by a stopper, after which the cable 
 is bent to the anchor in place of the wire pennant. 
 
 If the water is too deep for diving, and if the chain is not long 
 enough to be picked up by grappling, the chances of recovering 
 a stockless anchor are hardly worth considering. 
 
 With an old-fashioned anchor the case is quite different. Here 
 we may hope to catch the upper fluke by dragging the bight of 
 a light chain, or of a rope weighted at two or more points, across 
 the place where the anchor is known to lie. When the fluke is 
 caught, a shackle may be put around the two parts of the drag- 
 ging rope and allowed to slip down, binding them so that they 
 cannot become disengaged. 
 
 If the anchor is not buoyed, we may assume that its position 
 can be fixed within narrow limits by bearings, and the first thing 
 to be done will be to locate it exactly and to mark it by a buoy. 
 
 We then proceed as before, utilizing a diver if practicable, or 
 dragging for the bight of the chain. 
 
 NOTE. In all cases of dragging for an anchor or a chain, it is important 
 to mark by floats the area covered as the work progresses. 
 
(320) 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 THE STEERING OF STEAMERS. 
 1. TERMINOLOGY. 
 
 The United States Navy has in recent years adopted a new ter- 
 minology in connection with the steering of ships, substituting 
 " Right 'Rudder " for " Port Helm " and " Left Rudder " for 
 " Starboard Helm." There is a certain inconvenience resulting 
 from this change, due to the fact that the older terms continue in 
 use in other Navies and in the Merchant Service. The change 
 is, however, logical and reasonable. When the operation of steer- 
 ing was a matter of actually putting the helm (tiller) to port for 
 swinging the ship's head to starboard, it was natural and reason- 
 able that the command should coincide with the act to be per- 
 formed, even though it was as true then as now that the governing 
 influence in the movement of the ship was the starboard rudder, 
 not the port helm. But in a modern ship, not only is it true that 
 the rudder and the ship's head both go to starboard, it is true that 
 the steering wheel (or lever) also goes to starboard. And it is 
 certain that the helmsman gives no thought to the fact that (pos- 
 sibly) somewhere in the remote recesses of the ship, his action in 
 moving the wheel to starboard has caused a tiller to move to port. 
 
 In this and succeeding chapters, the terms "Right Rudder" 
 and "Left Rudder" have been adopted, with a footnote indi- 
 cating the older (and commoner) terminology where this is con- 
 sidered necessary. 
 
 11. SINGLE SCREW. 
 
 The elements which enter into the steering of a screw steamer 
 are so many, and their effects are so varied and conflicting, that 
 any attempt at an exhaustive analysis of them would be alto- 
 gether out of place in a work on practical seamanship. It is 
 proposed here merely to name and briefly discuss the most im- 
 portant of them and to explain such of their effects as enter prac- 
 
THE STEERING OF 
 
 tically into the handling of a ship. In this discussion it will be 
 assumed, where not otherwise stated, that all conditions are nor- 
 mal and average; that is to say, that the ship is of medium size 
 and draft and loaded to her mean water-line; that she has no 
 unusual features of design; that she draws rather more water aft 
 than forward; that her rudder is of the ordinary type and of 
 medium size, and fitted to a rudder-post immediately abaft the 
 propeller-well. It will be assumed also, except where the con- 
 trary is stated, that the weather is calm. 
 
 For simplicity, the discussion will be confined to a right-handed 
 screw, so that all which is said of the effects of the screw upon the 
 steering must be exactly reversed for a vessel with a left-handed 
 screw. 
 
 Twin-screws will be treated in a separate section.. 
 
 The factors which we shall consider as entering into the steer- 
 ing of a steamer are the following: 
 
 1. The ordinary direct influence of the Rudder. 
 
 2. The Screw Current, which we shall find to be made up of 
 two distinct parts. 
 
 3. The Force exerted by the revolving blades of the Screw to 
 drive the stern to one side or the other by their direct Sidewise 
 Pressure upon the water. 
 
 4. The Wake Current. 
 
 1. THE RUDDER. The effect of this is simple and well under- 
 stood. It calls for no explanation here, except in so far as it is 
 complicated by the screw current, in connection with which it 
 will be fully treated below. 
 
 2. THE SCREW CURRENT. As the screw turns, it draws in a 
 current from one direction and forces it out in the other. In 
 going ahead, the current is drawn in from forward and forced out 
 aft. In backing, it is drawn in from aft and forced out forward. 
 
 It is found that the in-rushing " suction " current may be con- 
 sidered as flowing parallel to the line of the shaft, but that the 
 current driven off from the screw partakes to an important de- 
 gree of the rotary motion of the blades and moves diagonally 
 to the shaft and keel. 
 
 (a) If the screw is turning ahead, the inflowing 
 
322 
 
 suction current from forward moves along the lines of the run 
 toward the screw and has no appreciable effect upon the steering. 
 
 It is different with the outflowing current thrown off and 
 driven aft by the screw. This current, by reason of the rotary 
 motion which has been referred to, strikes diagonally upon the 
 rudder-post and the rudder (which we will for the moment sup- 
 pose to be amidships) and exerts a distinct force tending to throw 
 the stern to one side. We must recognize here, however, two 
 factors opposing each other. The upper blades of our right- 
 handed screw move over from port to starboard and drive their 
 current against the port upper side of the rudder-post and rudder. 
 At the same time, the lower blades drive in their current upon 
 the starboard lower side. As the lower part of the rudder is 
 commonly larger than the upper part, it is natural that the cur- 
 rent from the .lower blades, tending to drive the stern off to port, 
 should more than overcome that from the upper blades, and that 
 the resultant of these two forces should tend, upon the whole, to 
 move the stern to port (in going ahead, with helm amidships). 
 The conclusions of theory in this matter are confirmed by an 
 interesting experiment in which the rudder was divided into two 
 parts by cutting it horizontally. With the two parts left free to 
 move and the screw turning ahead (the ship being at rest), the 
 upper part took up a position at an inclination of nearly 10 on 
 one side of the keel, while the lower part stood at an equal angle 
 on the other side. In other experiments, where the full rudder 
 was left free to move under the influence of the screw current 
 alone, it took a position at a small but distinct angle with the 
 keel on the side toward which the current from the lower blades 
 tended to deflect it. 
 
 If the rudder, instead of being kept amidships, is put over to 
 one side, the sternward velocity of the current will, have its 
 effect, as well as the rotary velocity. 
 
 With the ship and screw both going ahead, this part of the 
 current will add its effect to the ordinary steering effect of the 
 rudder, and simply produce a greater turning force than would 
 otherwise exist. It may happen, however, that the screw is mov- 
 ing ahead and sending its current aft against the forward side of 
 a hard-over rudder, while the ship is moving astern and devel- 
 oping its ordinary effect upon the after side. This is the case 
 .when -a ship, while moving astern with some velocity, suddenly 
 
THE STEERING OF STEAMERS. 323 
 
 puts her helm hard over and throws her engines full speed ahead. 
 This case, which is one of special importance, will be treated at 
 considerable length in a later section. 
 
 (b) If the screw is backing, it draws in a current 
 from aft and forces it out forward, where it strikes against the 
 sides of the afterbody with the diagonal velocity given by the 
 rotary motion of the blades. In this case, the " suction " current, 
 coming from aft, will have no effect as long as the rudder is amid- 
 ships, since its motion is parallel to the keel; but if the helm be 
 put over to either side, this current assumes great importance 
 and may even become the controlling factor in the steering of 
 the ship. So long as the ship is moving astern, this factor acts 
 with the ordinary resistance of the water and simply increases 
 the rudder's turning power. But in the case where the engines 
 are suddenly backed while the ship has headway, this " suction " 
 current opposes and reduces the natural steering power of the 
 rudder, and may altogether overcome it and throw the ship's 
 head to the opposite side from that to which the rudder would 
 throw it under ordinary conditions. This case is the converse 
 of that described under (a) and is one of the most important 
 with which we shall have to deal in the later sections of this 
 chapter. 
 
 We have now to consider the effect of that part of the screw 
 current which, in backing, is thrown off from the screw and 
 driven forward against the afterbody of the ship. Since this 
 current partakes of the rotary motion of the screw, it will strike 
 the stern at a considerable angle to the keel line and will pro- 
 duce a pressure tending to force the stern off toward the side 
 to which the blades are moving. It is clear that the upper blades 
 of our right-handed screw will be moving over from starboard to 
 port and sending their current against the upper starboard side 
 of the stern, while the lower ones send theirs against the port 
 side in the neighborhood of the keel. We have thus two forces 
 acting against each other; but a little consideration of the shape 
 of the stern and the position of the screw will make it clear that 
 the upper blades are much more favorably situated than the 
 lower ones, so far as this effect is concerned, and that we may 
 fairly expect their current to prevail over that from the lower 
 ones. Not only are they closer to the body of the stern, but they 
 drive their current against it at a much more effective angle, 
 
324 THE STEERING OF STEAMERS. 
 
 owing to the fullness of the upper, as compared with the lowe 
 run. We might then expect that the effect of this part of th 
 screw current would be, upon the whole, to force the stern t 
 port; and this is found to be the case in practice. 
 
 If the helm be kept amidships, so that the effect of the rudder 
 is eliminated, the stern of a right-handed screw steamer,, in back- 
 ing, works off to port. It does not follow that this is entirely due 
 to the screw current, for we shall find that the factor we are next 
 to consider the sidewise pressure of the blades may have much 
 to do with it; but experiments show that the screw current is 
 an important factor in the matter and that its action is as above 
 described. 
 
 3. THE SIDEWISE PRESSURE OF THE SCREW BLADES. As the 
 blades revolve, they exert a force tending to drive the stern off 
 to the side opposite that toward which they are moving. Since 
 the upper and lower blades move toward opposite sides, we have 
 here two forces acting against each other which would exactly 
 balance but for the fact that the lower blades, moving under 
 greater pressure than the upper ones, meet with greater re- 
 sistance and exert a greater force. The result is that the 
 pressure of the lower blades preponderates; and in any given 
 case, the stern tends, so far as this element is concerned, to work 
 off to the side from which the lower blades are moving. In 
 going ahead, then, the tendency of the stern is to starboard, 
 whereas in backing, it is to port. 
 
 It is found that this factor is not of great practical importance 
 under ordinary circumstances, but that it becomes so whenever, 
 from imperfect immersion or from any other cause, the upper 
 blades " churn " the surface water. It is a fact of every day ob- 
 servation that when a steamer is starting from rest, either going 
 ahead or backing, the screw, even though well immersed, usually 
 " churns " more or less until the ship has gathered way. Under 
 these circumstances, therefore, this factor has maximum effect. 
 Its effect is also important even when the ship has way, if the 
 upper blades are only partially immersed. The fact that it does 
 not count when the ship has headway and when the screw is well 
 immersed is due to the factor which we have next to consider. 
 
 4. THE WAKE CURRENT. This is a current which the ship 
 carries with her as she moves ahead through the water, by reason 
 
THE STEERING OF STEAMERS. 325 
 
 of the friction between the water and the hull. The body of 
 water involved in it extends to a considerable distance on either 
 side, but attains its maximum volume and velocity immediately 
 under the stern; that is to say, in the vicinity of the screw and 
 the rudder; where it breaks up the water, and, by its forward 
 velocity, materially adds to the pressure on the upper blades of 
 the screw. It is essentially a surface current, and experiments 
 show thaUit decreases as the depth of water increases and that, 
 at the level of the keel, it is practically imperceptible. 
 
 It is difficult to assign any definite value to the velocity of this 
 current, but it has been assumed in certain investigations by 
 Professor Rankine at 10 per cent of the speed of the ship. It 
 enters into our problem only in cases where the ship is moving 
 ahead. 
 
 The effect of the wake current upon the rudder is to reduce 
 the steering power. Its effect upon the screw is to increase the 
 resistance to be overcome by the upper blades, and thus to offset 
 the advantage of the lower blades in direct turning effect due to 
 the greater depth in which these blades move. 
 
 We proceed now to consider the effect of the elements which 
 have been described, upon the behavior of a steamer under vari- 
 ous conditions. 
 
 This subject will be treated under the following heads: 
 
 1. Ship and Screw going Ahead. 
 
 2. Ship and Screw going Astern. 
 
 3. Ship going Ahead, Screw Backing. 
 
 4. Ship going Astern, Screw going Ahead. 
 
 SHIP AND SCREW GOING AHEAD. 
 
 Here the rudder is the great controlling factor, and the prob- 
 lem of manoeuvring under these conditions may be treated prac- 
 tically with very little reference to the effects of the screw. It 
 would not be exact to say that these effects are wholly inappreci- 
 able, for there are conditions under which they become clearly 
 apparent; but they are rarely important and it would be almost 
 impossible to lay down satisfactory rules with regard to them. 
 All that need be said of them may be summarized as follows: 
 
326 THE STEERING OF STEAMERS. 
 
 If the rudder is kept amidships, the screw has a slight tendency 
 to throw the head to port while the ship is gathering way and 
 moving slowly ahead. As the speed increases, this tendency 
 gradually disappears and at medium speeds the screw seems to 
 have no steering effect whatever. Finally, at high speeds, there 
 seems to be with some ships a slight tendency of the head to 
 starboard. 
 
 // the rudder is put over to either side while the screw is turn- 
 ing but before the ship has gathered way, the discharge current 
 from the screw exerts a powerful steering effect, driving the stern 
 off exactly as if the ship were moving ahead ; and this effect con- 
 tinues in a gradually decreasing degree as the ship gathers way 
 and works up to the speed which is properly due to the revolu- 
 tions of the screw at the time. Thus, if the rudder is put to the 
 right, and the screw started ahead with a number of revolutions 
 corresponding normally to a speed of ten knots, the head will turn 
 at once to starboard, as if the ship were moving. As the ship 
 gathers way, the steering effect of the screw gradually falls off 
 and is replaced by the normal steering effect of the rudder for 
 headway. We may put this differently by saying that the steering 
 effect of screw current is due to the " slip " of the screw. 
 
 We proceed to consider the steering of a ship when steaming 
 ahead, as affected by the rudder alone; beginning with the case 
 in which the ship, while running at fair speed, puts the helm 
 suddenly hard over, without reversing or stopping the en- 
 gines. This case presents certain points the examination of 
 which will be helpful in dealing with other cases to be taken 
 up later. 
 
 In Plate 113 are shown the curves traced out in this way by a 
 number of ships of widely different types. Some of these ships 
 had twin-screws, but it is found that so long as both screws are 
 kept turning ahead, there is no important difference between the 
 curve of a single screw and that of a twin-screw ship. 
 
 It will be noted that, the helm being put hard over as rapidly 
 as possible (position A), the ship begins to turn at once and turns 
 with increasing rapidity up to about the point B, from which point 
 onward she turns uniformly in a path which is practically a 
 circle. As she swings around the circle, her bow points steadily 
 
 " Right rudder " is port helm. 
 "Left rudder" is starboard helm. 
 
Plate No. 113. 
 
 327 
 
 6. 
 
 I 
 
 
 - 
 
 o 
 
 I 
 
 1 
 
 o <5 
 
 w S 
 
 QJ J 
 > W 
 
 h/) o 
 
 .E _J 
 c ^ 
 
 C/) 
 UJ 
 
 C 
 
 O 
 
 O 
 
 z 
 
 z 
 o: 
 
 H 
 
 
328 THE STEERING OF STEAMERS. 
 
 inward while her stern sweeps out a circle considerably larger 
 than that traced by her bow. She does not, that is to say, follow 
 her own keel line, but presents her bow and side to the water 
 through which she moves. 
 
 The first effect of putting the rudder over is to throw the whole 
 mass of the ship off to leeward, so to speak ; that is to say, to the 
 side opposite that toward which it is desired to gain ground. The 
 stern goes off most; but the whole ship, except the extreme bow, 
 is thrown more or less to this side, and some experiments have 
 semed to show that even the bow goes off at first. 
 
 The ship ranges ahead nearly along the line of her original 
 course, but slightly to leeward of it, for a distance which may be 
 roughly stated as from two to three ship's lengths, before she 
 commences to gain ground in the desired direction. 
 
 The momentum of the ship along her original course persists for 
 a time and drives her on along this line in spite of the forces which 
 are turning her head away from it. 
 
 The stern does not finally clear the line of the original course 
 until it has covered from two to three lengths measured along 
 that line. In the meantime, the ship's head has changed by more 
 than three points. 
 
 The salient features of the turning curve are the following : 
 
 The Advance. The distance gained parallel to the original 
 course at that point of the curve where the tangent to the 
 curve has swung through 90 from the original course. 
 
 The Transfer. The distance gained to the right or left of 
 the original course at that point of the curve where the tan- 
 gent to the curve has swung through 90 from the original 
 course. (In British nautical literature, the tactical diameter 
 is called the transfer.) 
 
 The Tactical Diameter. The distance gained to the right 
 or left of the original course at that point of the curve where 
 the tangent to the curve has swung through 180 from the 
 original course. 
 
 The Final Diameter. The perpendicular distance between 
 the tangent to the curve at the point where it has swung 
 through 1 80 and that where it has swung through 360. 
 
 The Drift Angle. The angle at any given point of the 
 curve, between the tangent to the curve and the heading of 
 the ship. 
 
THE STEERING OF STEAMERS. 329 
 
 The Kick. The sweep of the stern toward the side away 
 from the rudder when the rudder is put over to begin the 
 turn. 
 
 The Pivoting Point. The point in the length of the ship 
 about which the ship swings as on a pivot when the rudder 
 is put over. The position of this point depends upon the build 
 of the ship and especially upon the comparative draft for- 
 ward and aft, and upon the distribution of weights. It may 
 be assumed for the average ship as located from one-fourth 
 to one-third of the length of the ship from the bow. Where 
 the draft forward is much greater than aft and where the 
 rudder is large, the pivoting point is farther forward and in 
 an extreme case it may be actually at the bow or even a little 
 ahead and outside of the ship. 
 
 All of the above features are brought out in a very striking way 
 in the turning curve of the Yashima, a ship of very exceptional 
 manoeuvring power, built many years ago for the Japanese Navy 
 (Fig. i, Plate 114). Although the Yashima is out of date as a 
 fighting ship, the characteristics of design and manoeuvring power 
 which are here illustrated are as interesting and instructive as 
 ever. 
 
 The features which have been noted in the other curves are all 
 present here in an exaggerated form. It will be seen that if two 
 Yashimas, sighting each other dead ahead, should put their rud- 
 ders hard over while separated by a distance of 650 yards (5 
 ships' lengths) their sterns would collide (Fig. 2, Plate 114). 
 
 The remarkable manoeuvring power of the Yashima is due to 
 the fact that her after deadwood is cut away to a very unusual 
 extent. This reduces the resistance of her afterbody to lateral 
 motion, and as a result the stern is thrown off much more rapidly 
 and to a greater distance than would ordinarily be the case. This 
 illustrates very strikingly the fact that it is the stern and not the 
 bow of the ship that moves In turning. 
 
 Plate 115 shows the curves of the super-dreadnought New 
 Mexico, recently added to the United States Navy. 
 
 With regard to the speed involved in these curves, this begins 
 to fall off, as might be expected, the moment the rudder is put 
 over, the reduction being due to the resistance of the rudder and 
 the sidewise motion of the ship. It continues to fall off until the 
 point is reached where the turning curve becomes uniform and 
 
330 
 
 Plate No. 114. 
 
 hfl E 
 u. b 
 
 - 
 
THE STEERING OF STEAMERS. 33! 
 
 circular, at which point it has fallen off to something like 60 per 
 cent of its original value. From this time on, it remains con- 
 stant as long as the turn continues with the same rudder angle. 
 
 It is found that the speed at which a ship is moving when her 
 rudder is put over does not greatly affect the space in which she 
 will turn. A ship running at ten knots speed, putting her rudder 
 over suddenly, follows very nearly the same track as if she were 
 running at twenty knots. This is a result which would perhaps 
 hardly have been anticipated, but it has been demonstrated by 
 too many experiments to be called in question. As regards the 
 time of turning, there is, of course, a great difference in favor of 
 high speed. 
 
 It follows that if a ship is attempting to clear a stationary object 
 by putting her rudder hard over, it makes little difference with re- 
 gard to her success whether she slows or continues at full speed, 
 though it will make much difference in the force with which she 
 strikes, if strike she must. If the object to be avoided is another 
 ship under way, there will be an advantage in gaining time by 
 slowing, as this will give an opportunity for both ships to recog- 
 nize the situation clearly and to act accordingly. It is important 
 to remember, moreover, that during the time actually occupied in 
 putting the rudder over, a steamer running at high speed will 
 cover a greater distance than if she were running slow. 
 
 We do not here deal with the question of reversing the engines. 
 This will be considered in a later section. 
 
 We have thus far confined our attention to the effects of a rud- 
 der put suddenly hard over. This is an exceptional case, but it 
 brings out very clearly the points that are involved in the more 
 common case in which a small angle of rudder is used generally 
 for a short time only and a small change of course effected. 
 In this case, also, the stern is thrown off, and for some time the 
 body of the ship moves along a line to leeward of the original 
 course. This should always be taken into account. It becomes 
 of great importance when manoeuvring in crowded waters, and 
 in all cases where the danger to be avoided is close aboard. The 
 realisation that the stern moves and not the bow, will often make 
 all the difference between a close shave and an Inevitable disaster. 
 
 We have seen that the effect of speed upon the space in which 
 a ship will turn with a given angle of rudder is not great. It 
 
332 THE STEERING OF STEAMERS. 
 
 should, however, be remarked, that a fair speed is essential for 
 the proper handling of any ship. Not only is a ship when mov- 
 ing very slowly through the water at the mercy of the wind and 
 sea and tide, which under such circumstances have an undue 
 effect upon her, but all the varying and conflicting elements that 
 have been described in I are liable to manifest themselves in 
 unexpected and seemingly erratic ways. It is therefore important 
 always to keep up a reasonable speed; and while this term is 
 hardly susceptible of exact definition, it will probably be agreed 
 that such a ship as we are at present considering of average 
 size and manoeuvring powers will not handle with certainty at 
 speeds much below four knots. 
 
 We shall discuss in another chapter the theory held by many 
 seamen, that it is safer to run at maximum speed through a fog 
 than to slow down. 
 
 Although it is found, as has been explained, that when a ship 
 is going ahead, the rudder so far outweighs all other elements 
 involved in the steering that these other elements may in general 
 be neglected, it is nevertheless true that hardly any ship turns 
 with exactly the same readiness to port and to starboard; and 
 it appears from experiments to determine the. tactical diameter 
 of men-of-war that the circle made in turning to starboard may 
 differ from that in turning to port, by as much as ten per cent. 
 
 Although we are dealing at present with the turning of ships, 
 it may be well to add a word with regard to the power of stopping. 
 
 It is found that a ship with reciprocating engines steaming 
 ahead with the rudder amidships, and suddenly reversing her en- 
 gines without moving the rudder, will stop in from three to five 
 times her own length ; and that this distance is practically inde- 
 pendent of the size and speed of the ship. 
 
 This supposes the same power used m backing as in going ahead. 
 If there is a reserve of power available for backing, a ship should be 
 stopped in twice her length. 
 
 The space in which a ship can be stopped, as compared with 
 that in which she can be turned, becomes important when danger 
 is suddenly discovered ahead and on both bows; as, for example, 
 when a ship finds herself heading for a coast or a line of reefs, 
 and dangerously close. We have seen that she may, by putting 
 her rudder hard over, turn through eight points with an "ad- 
 vance" in the direction of the original course, of about four 
 lengths. This would seem to show ihat it is at least as safe for a 
 
Plate No. 115. 
 
 333 
 
 5 pee of 21 Knots 
 Rudder Right 35 
 
 -Advance 665 Yards- 
 FIG. 1 
 
 put over 
 erf this 
 point. 
 
 Note: 
 
 Dotted Circfe shows 
 x 2 1- Knot Circ/e from 
 V Fig. /, compared 
 \ with 10-Knot Circle. 
 \ 
 \ 
 
 Speed fO Knots 
 Pucfcfer Left 3S 
 
 Rudder put .' ' 
 over a f this 
 point. 
 
 Advance 35 fcr 
 FI6. 2 
 
 TURNING CIRCLES, U. S. S. NEW MEXICO. 
 
334 THE STEERING OF STEAMERS. 
 
 single-screw steamer to try to clear such a danger by means of the 
 helm, as by stopping the ship. 
 
 This was the conclusion of the Committee of the British Asso- 
 ciation (see Report British Association 1878, page 422). 
 
 It will be shown later that probably the safest course of all is 
 to combine both methods, putting the helm hard over (preferably 
 to port)-, and when the head has begun to swing decidedly, 
 reversing full speed and immediately afterward shifting the helm. 
 
 The time and space in which a ship may be brought to rest when 
 moving at a given speed are matters of great practical importance. 
 The time may be determined by the very simple experiment of re- 
 versing the engines and noting the number of seconds required to 
 come to rest. Observations upon the space are not so easily made, 
 but experience shows that the space may be determined with con- 
 siderable accuracy from the observed time, by the simple formula: 
 
 D = 7/10 ST. 
 
 Where D = Distance in feet required to stop. 
 S Speed in knots and tenths. 
 T = Time in seconds (observed). 
 
 For turbine ships the distance and time required to stop by backing the 
 engines are approximately doubled. 
 
 SHIP AND SCREW GOING ASTERN. 
 
 (Plate 116.) 
 
 This case is more complicated than the preceding one, for the 
 reason that the effects of the screw, which in going ahead are so 
 far overpowered by those of the rudder that they may usually be 
 neglected, become, in backing, quite as important as those of 
 the rudder, and in many cases much more important. 
 
 The forces involved in the steering of a steamer in backing are : 
 
 1. The Sidewise Pressure of the Blades, driving the stern to 
 port 
 
 2. The " Discharge " current, thrown forward and inward 
 from the screw, against the sides of the run, and tending also 
 to drive the stern to port. 
 
 3. The " Suction " current, drawn in from aft against the after 
 side of the rudder, and acting to throw the stern to starboard or 
 to port according to the way the helm is put. This factor does 
 not enter into the problem with the rudder amidships. 
 
 4. The ordinary steering effect of the rudder, tending to throw 
 
Plate No. 116. 
 
 335 
 
 Ship and Screw going Astern. Ship beginning to back. 
 
 Fig. 1 
 
 Stern usually goes to Port, Head to Starboard. 
 
 Ship and Screw going Astern. Ship Moving Astern, 
 Fig. 2 
 
 Stern may go to Starboard, Head to Port. 
 
 Ship and Screw going Astern. Ship Moving Astern, 
 
 2 T 
 
 Stern goes rapidly to Port, Head to Starboard. 
 
 EFFECTS OF SCREW UPON STEERING 
 
336 THE STEERING OF STEAMERS. 
 
 the stern toward the side to which the rudder is put. This factor 
 does not enter into the problem with the rudder amidships. 
 
 3 and 4 above are closely related and act together, but 4 is de- 
 pendent upon the motion of the ship through the water, while J 
 is independent of this motion and connected only with the action 
 of the screw. For this reason, we must distinguish between the 
 case in which the ship is just starting astern from rest, and that 
 in which she is moving astern with considerable velocity. In 
 the first case we may ignore 4, while in the other we must con- 
 sider it. In both cases, we shall find an inclination for the stern 
 to back to port, due to the fact that 1 and 2 always act in thai 
 direction, while 3 and 4 act with or against them according as 
 the rudder is put to starboard or to port. 
 
 (a) If the ship is just beginning to back, 
 may be neglected, and 3 will tend to drive the stern to the side 
 to which the rudder is put. If, then, the rudder is to the left, 
 will act with 1 and 2, and the tendency to port will be very marked 
 If the rudder is to the right, 3 will oppose 1 and 2, but will no' 
 usually overcome them ; and the tendency of the stern to port 
 though very much reduced, will still exist. In other words, a 
 steamer just beginning to back from rest will in general throw 
 her stern to port even against a hard-over right rudder. 1 
 
 (b) As the ship gathers speed astern, 4, the 
 steering effect of the rudder, becomes of greater and greater im- 
 portance. It always acts with the suction current (3) upon the 
 after side of the rudder; and if the rudder is put to right, these 
 two forces (3 and 4) may ultimately overcome i and 2 and give 
 the stern a slight tendency to starboard. If, on the other hand, 
 the rudder is put to left, all four of the forces involved act to- 
 gether and throw the stern rapidly to port. 
 
 It results from the above, that when a ship with a single right- 
 hand screw is beginning to back but has not yet gathered decided 
 stern-board, it is difficult, if not impossible, to prevent her stern 
 from working off to port; and that after she has gathered consid- 
 erable speed astern, she will still have a decided inclination to 
 back to port, but may usually be made to back to starboard by 
 hard-over right rudder. 
 
 If it is desired to back as nearly straight as possible, the rudder 
 must be put hard right. 
 
 " Right rudder " is port helm. 
 " Left rudder " is starboard helm. 
 
THE STEERING OF STEAMERS. 337 
 
 The effect of a breeze is not great upon a vessel moving slowly 
 astern, but becomes important as the speed increases; so much so 
 that, with a moderate breeze, a vessel going astern at a speed of 
 three knots or more will back up into the wind in spite of all that 
 can be done to prevent it. It follows that, in spite of the ten- 
 dency to port which has been insisted upon above, a ship may be 
 backed to starboard, if the breeze is from that side, provided that 
 the circumstances admit of going astern for some time and at 
 fair speed. It follows, also, that if it is desired to back to port while 
 the breeze is from the starboard side, the more slowly we go 
 astern the better, and if the breeze is fresh, it will probably be 
 impossible to avoid backing into it. 
 
 Generally speaking, a ship is backed only when working along- 
 side a dock or into a slip, or when manoeuvring in crowded waters; 
 conditions which do not admit of backing for a long time or at 
 any considerable speed; and under these circumstances, it is 
 desirable to plan all manoeuvres in such a way as shall involve 
 the throwing of the stern to port in backing. 
 
 SHIP GOING AHEAD. SCREW BACKING. 
 
 This is in some respects the most important case with which 
 we have to deal, for the reason that it is the one most frequently 
 connected with the emergency of danger suddenly discovered and 
 close aboard. The cause of many collisions can be traced to a 
 widespread ignorance of the rules which govern the steering 
 when the engines are suddenly reversed while the ship is going 
 ahead. Yet these rules are simple and have been stated 
 many times. 
 
 It is assumed, naturally enough, by those who have not studied 
 the many practical experiments which have been made in con- 
 nection with this matter, that so long as the ship has headway she 
 will continue to obey her helm in the usual way, even though the 
 screw is backing and gradually reducing her speed. 
 
 This is so far from being the case, that in many instances ex- 
 actly the opposite occurs ; the matter being complicated, from the 
 instant the engines are reversed, by the " screw current " which 
 has been described in I as being drawn in against the after side 
 of the rudder and driven forward against the afterbody of the 
 ship. 
 
 "Right rudder" is port helm. "Left rudder" is starboard helm. 
 
338 THE STEERING OF STEAMERS. 
 
 The forces involved in the steering under these conditions are 
 the following: 
 
 1. The direct steering effect of the rudder, tending, as in all 
 cases of headway, to throw the stern away from the side to which 
 the rudder is put. 
 
 2. The "Suction" current, drawn in from aft by the screw, 
 against the after side of the rudder, and forcing the stern toward 
 the side to which the rudder is put. 
 
 3. The " Discharge " current driven forward and inward 
 against the stern, forcing the stern to port, without reference to 
 the rudder. 
 
 4. The Sidewise Pressure of the blades, also forcing the stern 
 to port, without reference to the rudder. 
 
 (Plate 117.) 
 
 We have here a number of conflicting elements, the final result 
 of whose action it would be useless to attempt to predict from 
 theoretical considerations. Since, however, there are two of them 
 which always act to throw the head to starboard, we may be sure, 
 at least, that the ship will turn much more readily to that side 
 than to the other. 
 
 We proceed now to consider the matter from the point of view 
 of practice, and we are fortunate in having the result of several 
 very complete series of experiments, from which to draw our con- 
 clusions. 
 
 In 1875, Professor Osborne Reynolds communicated to the 
 British Association for the Advancement of Science, the results 
 of certain experiments made with models for the purpose of 
 determining the effect of the screw upon the steering of steamers; 
 and for several years after this time, he was engaged, as Secretary 
 of a committee appointed by the Association, in experiments and 
 investigations upon the same subject. The reports of this Com- 
 mittee are to be found in the Proceedings of the Association for 
 1876, 1877, and l8 7 8 - 
 
 Since these reports were made, much additional evidence has 
 become available, and it is now possible to lay down fairly definite 
 laws with regard to the behavior of ships under the circumstances 
 we are now considering, although it must never be forgotten that 
 exceptional conditions, especially of weather and of the draft and 
 trim of a ship, may modify all such laws in ways which can only 
 be foreseen by an officer thoroughly familiar with the peculiarities 
 of his ship and her temporary condition as regards draft and 
 trim. 
 
Plate No. 117. 
 
 339 
 
 Ship going Ahead. Screw Backing. 
 
 Fig. 1 
 
 Head goes to Starboard. 
 
 Ship going Ahead. Screw Backing. 
 
 Head goes to Starboard decidedly, May go slightly to Port at first. 
 
 Ship going Ahead. Screw Backing. 
 
 Fig 3 
 
 Forces nearly balance. Head will usually go a little to Port. 
 
 OF SP.RFW UPON STEERING 
 
340 
 
 THE STEERING OF STEAMERS. 
 
 The following rules will usually be found to hold for our 
 right-handed single screw steamer, of average characteristics, 
 when the engines are suddenly reversed from full speed ahead to 
 full speed astern. 
 
 (a) The rudder kept amidships. 
 
 The head will fall off to the starboard, and the ship will gain 
 ground to the right before losing her way. The stern will, in the 
 beginning, go off slightly to the left, and the mass of the ship 
 will range along the line of the original course or a little to the 
 left of it (Fig. i, Plate 117). 
 
 (b) The rudder put hard left at the same instant that the 
 engines are reversed. 
 
 The head will usually go to port at first, but neither very rapidly 
 nor very far; it will then begin to swing to starboard and will 
 fall off more or less to that side. The ship will gain ground to 
 the right of her original course, before losing- way (Fig. 2, 
 Plate 117). 
 
 (c) The rudder put hard right at the same instant that the 
 engines are reversed. 
 
 The head will at first go to starboard and may in some cases 
 persist in swinging to that side, though not nearly so fast or so 
 far as in (b). In a majority of cases, after swinging somewhat to 
 starboard, it will stop and swing slowly back to port, and the ship 
 w r ill come to rest with her head from one to two points to port of 
 her original course. She will not gain ground materially to either 
 side (Fig. 3, Plate 117). 
 
 The more slowly the ship is moving ahead, and the faster the 
 screw is backing, the more confidently may we expect her to 
 behave as above described. The rules that have been given, and 
 indeed the whole preceding analysis, suppose the screw to be 
 backed at full speed from the first instant, as it should be in all 
 cases where certainty of manoeuvring is important. 
 
 If the ship is running slowly, but with a reserve of. power im- 
 mediately available for backing at high speed (as should always 
 be the case in a fog), the rules which have been laid down may be 
 relied upon with especial confidence, since they are based upon 
 the power of the backing screw to overcome the steering effect 
 of the rudder due to the speed of the ship. So in the other im- 
 portant case of turning or manoeuvring in a limited space 01 
 working alongside a dock, where the power available for backing 
 will always be great in proportion to the speed of the ship. 
 "Right rudder" is port helm. "Left rudder" is starboard helm. 
 
THE STEERING OF STEAMERS. 341 
 
 If, on the other hand, while the ship is moving ahead at high 
 speed, the engines should be reversed with only half power, the 
 ship would unquestionably obey her rudder for headway ; a right 
 rudder throwing her head to starboard in spite of the slowly back- 
 ing screw. 
 
 The case with which this section has chiefly dealt that in 
 which the screw is backed with power equal to or greater than 
 that corresponding to the speed of the ship is the ordinary case of 
 practical seamanship, covering both the situation where the screw 
 is backed for manoeuvring a ship in harbor, and that where it is 
 suddenly reversed when going ahead at some speed, to avoid 
 danger suddenly discovered. 
 
 As the whole question herein dealt with is one of opposition 
 between the steering effect of the rudder due to the speed of 
 the ship and the steering effect due to the screw current, it will 
 be easily understood that there may be cases in which the balance 
 of these forces will be different from that which is here described 
 for " average " conditions, and in which, accordingly, the be- 
 havior of the ship will differ from that described. But while we 
 may admit that in some cases a ship backing her screw with full 
 power will still obey her rudder for headway, it must be insisted 
 none the less strongly that the screw current will have a powerful 
 effect in the direction herein described and that if the ship obeys 
 her rudder for headway it will be with greatly lessened effect. 
 
 The time of putting over the rudder exercises an important in- 
 fluence upon the behavior of the ship. If it is put over before 
 reversing the engines, the ship's head will of course commence to 
 swing in direct obedience to it (for headway), and the screw can- 
 not be expected to overcome this and to produce the same effect 
 as if it were reversed simultaneously with the putting over of the 
 rudder. 
 
 // the ship has actually begun to swing in obedience to a hard- 
 over rudder before the screw is reversed, she will in most cases 
 continue to swing the same way in spite of the screw, although 
 much less rapidly than if the screw were not reversed. 
 
 If, on the other hand, the engines are reversed before the rud- 
 der is put over, then the rules laid down above are emphasized; 
 and it should be noted that the rudder can be put over more rapidly 
 after the screw is reversed than before. This may be a very im- 
 portant point with ships steering by hand-power. 
 
 "Right rudder" is port helm. "Left rudder" is starboard helm. 
 
342 THE STEERING OF STEAMERS. 
 
 It is probable as already intimated that some ships will, for 
 a very short time, continue to obey the rudder as for headway, 
 even though the rudder is put over at the same time that the 
 screw is reversed ; but as they will shortly begin to act in accord- 
 ance with the above rules, there are very few cases in which we 
 can run into any danger by considering the rules to hold. 
 
 We may usually remove all question with regard to the move- 
 ment of the ship by putting the rudder to one side before revers- 
 ing the screw, thus getting a swing on the ship in the desired 
 direction, then reversing the screw, and following this up by re- 
 versing the rudder. Suppose, for example, we wish to throw the 
 head to starboard. We stop the engines and put the rudder hard 
 right, and when the head has begun to swing to starboard, re- 
 verse the engines and immediately shift the rudder to hard left. 
 If we wish to turn to port, we stop, put the rudder to right, and 
 wait a little longer than in the preceding case (since the head 
 does not turn to port as easily as to starboard with engines back- 
 ing) then throw the engines to full speed astern and follow this 
 by putting the rudder hard right. By this means we shall remove 
 all doubt about casting to port, although the turn to that side will 
 be made slowly, even under these conditions. 
 
 The rules laid down above are summarized in the statement 
 that, in general, a ship tends to obey her rudder with reference to 
 the way the screw is moving, not with reference to the way the 
 ship is moving. 
 
 SHIP GOING ASTERN. SCRE.W GOING AHEAD. 
 
 This case closely resembles the preceding one and is subject 
 to the same general law : viz., the ship obeys her rudder with 
 reference to the motion of the screw, not the motion of the ship. 
 
 The forces involved in the steering of a ship with a single right- 
 hand screw are: 
 
 1. The direct Steering effect of the Rudder due to sternboard, 
 acting to starboard or to port according to the way the rudder is 
 put. 
 
 2. The Sidewise Pressure of the Blades, acting to drive the 
 stern to starboard. 
 
 3. The Discharge Current thrown off by the screw, and con- 
 
 " Right rudder " is port helm. " Left rudder " is starboard helm. 
 
THE STEERING OF STEAMERS. 343 
 
 sisting of two components; (a) acting directly astern, and (b) 
 acting inward against the starboard side of the rudder post and 
 tending always to force the stern to port. 
 
 If the rudder is amidships, I and 3 (a) are elimi- 
 nated from the problem, and only 2 and 3 (b) are to be consid- 
 ered. These two oppose each other, and it is impossible to fore- 
 see, in any given case, which one will prevail (Fig. i, Plate 118). 
 
 If the rudder is to right, we shall have I and 2 forcing 
 the stern to starboard, and opposed by both components of 3 
 (Fig. 2, Plate 118). 
 
 It is found in practice that, under these conditions, the effect 
 of 3 greatly exceeds that of the other factors, and that the stern 
 goes off decidedly to port. 
 
 If the rudder is to left, we have 2 acting as before 
 to force the stern to starboard, and assisted now by 3 (a), while 
 3 (b) acts with I, to force it to port. In practice, the forces 
 acting to starboard commonly prevail, and the stern goes to that 
 side (Fig. 3, Plate 118). 
 
 A comparison of the figures illustrating this case will show that 
 i and 3 (a) are in every instance opposed to each other, as are 
 also 2 arid 3 (b). Of these forces, i and 3 (a) are by far the 
 most important, and the course of the ship is usually determined 
 by their relative values. 
 
 It is found in practice that, as a general rule, 3 (a) (the screw 
 current acting against the forward side of the rudder), over- 
 powers i (the resistance of the water on the after side), and, as 
 already stated, the ship obeys her rudder with reference to the 
 motion of the screw, not of the ship. This assumes that the stern- 
 ward velocity of the ship is not great, and that the screw is turn- 
 ing ahead full speed the usual conditions when manoeuvring in 
 this way. If the opposite conditions exist, that is to say, if the 
 ship is moving rapidly astern and the engines are turning slowly 
 ahead, it may be found that the natural steering power of the 
 rudder will overcome the feeble screw current, and that the ship 
 will obey her rudder as in ordinary cases of sternboard. 
 
 While the resemblance between this case and that of " Ship 
 Going Ahead, Screw Backing " is very close, one important 
 difference should be noted. The discharge current driven aft 
 when the screw goes ahead is more directly localized in its effect 
 
 " Right rudder " is port helm. " Left rudder " is starboard helm. 
 
344 
 
 Plate No. 118. 
 
 Ship going Astern. Screw going Ahead. 
 Fig. 1 
 
 Stern may go either way. 
 
 Ship going Astern. Screw going Ahead. 
 Fig. 2 
 
 Steering 
 
 Stern goes decidedly to port, Head to Starboard: 
 
 Ship going Astern. Screw going Ahead. 
 
 Component / \ 
 of Discharge ! \ 
 
 Inner Component ofTDischarge ' ' 
 
 Fig. 3* I-/* 
 
 Stern usually goes to Starboard, Head to Port. 
 
 EFFECTS OF SCREW UPON STEERING 
 
THE STEERING OF STEAMERS. 345 
 
 upon the rudder than is the suction current which is drawn in 
 from aft by the screw when backing. While the suction current 
 comes in a general way from abaft the screw and the rudder, only 
 a part of it moves directly in line of the shaft, the remainder being 
 sucked in from all sides more or less radially. The discharge 
 current, on the other hand, although partaking to a certain ex- 
 tent of the radial motion of the blades, is localized upon the 
 rudder as a distinct and powerful stream. 
 
 It results from this that the turning effect of the screw when 
 the ship is going astern and the screw going ahead, is usually 
 more pronounced than the corresponding effect when the ship is 
 going ahead and the screw going astern,. 
 
 TO TURN IN A LIMITED SPACE. 
 
 For reasons which have been already explained, it is difficult 
 to turn a right-handed single screw steamer to port under any 
 circumstances, where backing is necessary, and almost impos- 
 sible to do so in a limited space. Under these conditions, there- 
 fore, the turn should, if possible, always be made to starboard, 
 even if a little preliminary manoeuvring is needed to place the 
 ship in a position permitting this. 
 
 The ship being at rest, proceed as follows: 
 
 I st. Put the rudder to hard right and go ahead with the en- 
 gines. The stern will swing off to port immediately. As she 
 starts ahead, she will turn more and more rapidly. Allow her to 
 gather as much way as is safe, and to forge ahead as far as space 
 permits ; then 
 
 2nd. Reverse the engines full speed, and at the same time shift 
 the rudder to hard left. The suction current against the after 
 side of the rudder, assisted by the discharge current acting 
 against the run, and by the pressure of the blades, will keep the 
 stern swinging to port; and as she gathers sternboard (if allowed 
 to do so), the direct steering action of the rudder will help in the 
 same direction. 
 
 Let her gather such sternboard as is safe, and back as far as 
 space permits ; then 
 
 3rd. Go full speed ahead and shift the rudder to hard right. 
 
 "Right rudder" is port helm. "Left rudder" is starboard helm. 
 
346 THE STEERING OF STEAMERS. 
 
 It is at this point that the most pronounced turning effect is to 
 be anticipated. The whole power of the screw is producing a 
 screw current and driving this current against the hard-over 
 rudder. 
 
 4th. If necessary, continue going ahead and backing as above 
 (Plate 119). 
 
 If more convenient to make a sternboard first, begin by back- 
 ing with rudder hard left. 
 
 If there is a fresh breeze on the starboard hand, avoid gather- 
 ing any considerable sternboard, or she will back into the wind in 
 spite of all that can be done. If the breeze is on the port hand, 
 there will be an advantage in going astern as fast and as far as 
 the surrounding dangers permit. 
 
 If the space, although limited, is sufficient to admit of going 
 ahead and astern for a considerable distance and at fair speed, it 
 will not be so difficult to turn to port, although the turn to star- 
 board will always be more easily and rapidly made. Having 
 decided to turn to port under these circumstances, stand well 
 over to the right-hand side of the channel, and go ahead with 
 hard-over left rudder. Having got good way on her, stop the 
 engines and let her run. So long as she holds her headway, she 
 will turn without difficulty. 
 
 Having run as far over as is safe, back the engines at full speed 
 and put the rudder hard right. As she is starting to back from 
 rest, or nearly so, she will probably throw her stern the wrong 
 way. Continue backing hard in spite of this, and as she gathers 
 speed astern the right rudder will probably stop her turning the 
 wrong way, and, if it does not turn her the right way, may at 
 least hold her straight until you can afford to go ahead again. 
 Then start the engines at full speed, put the rudder hard left, 
 and, as before, run as far as space permits. If necessary, back 
 again, and repeat the tactics as above. 
 
 If the tide is running out strong and setting you down toward 
 danger, you should, in the early part of the turn, while heading 
 more or less up stream, manage to gain ground against the tide 
 while going ahead; and from the time when you have turned 
 athwart and are beginning to throw the stern up stream, you 
 should take on more sternboard (through the water) than you 
 otherwise would, to hold her up against the current. 
 
 " Right rudder " is port helm. " Left rudder " is starboard helm. 
 
Plate No. 119. 
 
 347 
 
 Ship stopped N 
 Screw ahead 
 
 Ship stopped 
 Screw baching 
 
 B 
 
 Ship ahead 
 Screw baching 
 (Shift helm) 
 
 Shtp stopped 
 Screw ahead 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 TURNING A STEAMER IN A LIMITED SPACE. 
 (SINGLE, RIGHT HANDED SCREW.) 
 
348 THE STEERING OF STEAMERS. 
 
 A vessel drifting in a current and making no way through the 
 water will usually fall athwart and end by drifting broadside on. 
 This may be a serious danger. In going through Hell Gate, for 
 example, a steamer should never be allowed to lose headway, 
 as she will be beyond control if she gets athwart. On the other 
 hand there are cases in which, with a little space for working 
 ahead and astern, this tendency might be utilized to make a 
 turn which, without it, would be impossible. 
 
 A similar but still more pronounced tendency to fall athwart 
 exists where a vessel which is making no way through the water 
 is subjected to a breeze. A vessel so placed will almost always 
 fall off and bring the wind abaft the beam. Advantage may often 
 be taken of this fact to turn a ship in a space in which turning 
 would otherwise be almost impossible. In Fig. 2, Plate 119, for 
 example, A, wishing to get underway and stand out, weighs and 
 cants his head a little to one side preferably to starboard if the 
 screw is right-handed (Position 2). Then, with the engine 
 stopped, he waits for the bow to fall off, under the influence of 
 the wind, to Positions 3, 4, 5. At 5, the engines are backed and 
 the stern swings up with the wind. 
 
 This manceuver is so simple, and applies to so many situations 
 of turning in a limited space, that it is surprising how rarely it 
 is used. It applies to twin-screw steamers as well as to those 
 with single screw. 
 
 It often happens, where a current runs rapidly through a more 
 or less narrow channel, that there is a perfectly marked eddy 
 along the shore running in the opposite direction. This is the 
 case in the East River, where, from the old Brooklyn Bridge 
 to Corlear's 'Hook, an eddy current of considerable width runs 
 up along the face of the New York docks while the ebb tide is 
 running out with full force in mid-stream. A steamer coming 
 down stream and having to turn to make a landing may run well 
 over toward the Brooklyn side, then turn across with right rud- 
 der, ranging over and putting her bow in the eddy. In this way, 
 she will turn with great ease. A similar phenomenon exists in 
 the Mississippi at New Orleans, and ships may be turned there 
 in the same way. 
 
 It is always worth while to post one's self upon such local 
 peculiarities when likely to have occasion to deal with them. 
 
 " Right rudder " is port helm. " Left rudder " is starboard helm. 
 
THE STEERING OF STEAMERS. 
 
 349 
 
 III. TWI-N SCREWS. 
 
 Twin screws have been used for many years, but did not come 
 into general use, either for men-of-war or for merchant steamers, 
 until about 1870, since which date they have been steadily grow- 
 ing in favor. Their advantages are to a great extent connected 
 with the smaller size of screws required for a given power this 
 reduction in size over that of a single screw permitting large 
 power to be utilized on a small draft, and preventing the racing 
 of the screw as the ship pitches in a seaway. Moreover, the divi- 
 sion of power between two screws and two sets of engines per- 
 mits the use of smaller parts in the machinery, and especially in 
 the shafts. This reduces the danger of flaws and of breaking in 
 these parts, and minimizes the disastrous consequences if such 
 breakage occurs ; since a twin-screw ship with one shaft broken 
 or one engine disabled is still perfectly under control and loses 
 only a moderate percentage of her speed. 
 
 On the other hand, there is a certain weakness, which becomes 
 important in a modern steamship with a fine run, in the great 
 length of shafting, which, with twin screws, must project outside 
 the ship, supported by struts from the hull. There is also, no 
 doubt, some danger of damage to the screws, which would not 
 exist with a single screw, in entering and leaving docks. 
 
 The point in connection with twin screws with which seaman- 
 ship is principally concerned, is the remarkable gain in ma- 
 noeuvring power which results from their use, and which is prin- 
 cipally connected with the turning-leverage resulting from their 
 position off of the midship line. It is clear that this must be 
 very great in almost any case, though it will differ widely with 
 different ships ; being dependent, broadly speaking, upon the 
 distance. between the shafts at the center of gravity relatively 
 to the length of the ship, and upon the angle at which the shafts 
 are placed with each other. 
 
 In a ship of small beam as compared with her length, the shafts 
 necessarily approach each other at a rather sharp angle ; whereas 
 with plenty of beam they can be kept nearly parallel and sepa- 
 rated by a distance which gives a good turning moment. 
 
 In all cases where twin screws are used, one is right-handed 
 and the other left-handed, the right-handed screw being placed 
 to starboard and the left-handed screw to port, with the result 
 
35O THE STEERING OF STEAMERS. 
 
 that in going ahead the upper blades of each screw turn outward. 
 
 There is an indirect, but very important gain in certainty of ma- 
 noeuvring power, where twin screws are used, resulting from the 
 more or less complete elimination from the problem of the rather 
 baffling steering effects of a single screw. We must still take 
 account to some extent of the current which is driven aft by each 
 screw in going ahead, and drawn from aft in backing; but the 
 axes of these currents will be well clear of the keel-line and will 
 not materially affect the steering unless the helm is hard over, 
 or nearly so. In .the case in which the ship is moving rapidly in 
 one direction and the engines are suddenly thrown the other way, 
 these currents will greatly reduce the steering power of the rud- 
 der, but will not reverse it, as in the case of a single-screw ship. 
 Similarly, in turning with one screw going ahead and the other 
 backing (the ship having headway) the suction current from the 
 backing screw reduces the steering power of the rudder but does 
 not entirely overcome it. 
 
 The steering effect due to the sidewise pressure of the blades, 
 which, as we have seen, is often a very important factor in the 
 handling of a single-screw ship, disappears with twin screws 
 when both screws are going ahead or backing together. In other 
 cases it may be very important, and the more so because it acts 
 with and is added to the turning effect arising from the leverage 
 of the screws. Suppose the port screw going ahead. The lever- 
 age due to its position on the port side of the center-line throws 
 the ship's head to starboard. At the same time the sidewise pres- 
 sure of the lower blades, which, as has been explained, greatly 
 outweighs that of the upper blades, drags the stern to port, thus 
 acting with the leverage of the screw to throw the head to star- 
 board. 
 
 If, now, the starboard screw is backing, its leverage and the 
 pressure of its lower blades also act to throw the stern to port, 
 and the head to starboard. Moreover, the discharge-current 
 from the upper blades of the backing screw is driven in against 
 the starboard run and adds its effect to that of all the other 
 forces which are acting to turn the ship to starboard. 
 
 It is evident then, that all the factors which have any real 
 moment, act together toward turning the ship, in the one impor- 
 tant case in which the attempt is made to turn by going ahead 
 with one screw and backing with the other. 
 
THE STEERING OF STEAMERS. 35! 
 
 We proceed to consider the turning of twin-screw ships under 
 various conditions : 
 
 We shall deal with the following cases : 
 
 1. Going Ahead. 
 
 2. Backing. 
 
 3. One screw going Ahead, the other Backing. 
 
 4. Ship going Ahead, both screws Backing. 
 
 5. Ship going Astern, both screws going Ahead. 
 
 i. GOING AHEAD. So long as both screws are making the 
 same speed, the ship should steer with helm amidships, unless 
 affected by wind or sea. 
 
 If one screw is stopped, there should be no difficulty in steer- 
 ing a straight course with a moderate amount of helm. 
 
 Tf the steering gear is disabled, there should be no difficulty in 
 making a reasonably good course, steering by the screws, unless 
 .the sea is heavy ; but this supposes good and rapid communication 
 between the bridge and the engines. In a seaway, there may 
 be some difficulty about steering in this way, but not enough to 
 prevent a ship from proceeding with perfect safety as long as she 
 has sea-room ; but we must, of course, recognize the fact that 
 even under the most favorable conditions the screw can never 
 give the sensitiveness of control that comes from a rudder gov- 
 erned by steam-power. Experience shows that it is best to keep 
 one engine turning over at a constant rate, somewhat less than 
 the maximum available, and to steer the ship by varying the num- 
 ber of revolutions of the other screw. 
 
 If the rudder be put hard over when going ahead at full speed, 
 the result will be practically the same as in the case of a single 
 screw. In fact, as already stated, the curves of Plate 113 have 
 in some cases been derived from experiments upon twin-screw 
 ships; and the discussions of these curves already given are entirely 
 applicable to the case we are now considering. We have to 
 recognize the same sweep of the stern to leeward, the same 
 ranging ahead, along, and even to leeward of, the original course, 
 before beginning to gain ground in the desired direction, and 
 the same loss of speed while turning. 
 
 It is found that the revolutions of the inner screw are somewhat 
 reduced in turning, the change amounting to perhaps 10 per cent. 
 
 From causes which cannot be clearly defined, and which are 
 
352 THE STEERING OF STEAMERS. 
 
 probably different with different ships, it usually happens that a 
 twin-screw ship turns somewhat more readily to one side than 
 to the other; but the difference is less than with single screws, 
 and is of practical importance only in the case where a full turn 
 is to be made as in the tactical manoeuvring of men-of-war. 
 
 2. BACKING. A twin-screw ship, starting from rest with both 
 screws backing, should be entirely under the control of the rud- 
 der, though she will steer with much less ease and sensitiveness 
 than when going ahead. If necessary, the rudder may be assisted 
 by a variation in the speed of one or other of the two screws. 
 
 3. ONE SCREW GOING AHEAD, THE OTHER BACKING. (a) I f 
 the ship is just starting from rest, with rudder 
 amidships, she will turn rapidly to the side of the backing screw. 
 
 If the screws revolve at equal speed, the one going ahead will 
 gain slightly upon the other, since less power is required to drive 
 a ship ahead than to drive her astern, and the ship will turn in a 
 circle of small radius, but not on her heel. 
 
 If it is desired to turn her as nearly as possible on her heel, 
 the screw going ahead should be kept at somewhat lower speed 
 than the other, the exact relation between the two being deter- 
 mined experimentally for each ship. 
 
 The time of turning under these conditions is considerably 
 greater than where both screws are kept going ahead and the helm 
 put hard over, although the space required is much less. 
 
 Many ships will not turn from rest by going ahead on one 
 screw and backing on the other. With such a ship, it is neces- 
 sary to gather a little way and commence turning by the rudder 
 before backing the inner screw. 
 
 In the special case where the ship is to be turned without gath- 
 ering headway, the rudder should be kept amidships. To make 
 this clear, let it be assumed that the turn is to be made to star- 
 board. The starboard screw will be backing and the port screw 
 going ahead. To starboard of the rudder, then, we shall have a 
 suction current moving forward, and, to port, a discharge current 
 moving aft. If, now, we put the rudder hard right, the suction 
 current will strike against the after side and tend to throw the 
 head to port; while if we put the rudder to left, the discharge 
 current will act against the forward side and will also tend to 
 throw the head to port. 
 
 (b) If the ship is moving ahead at fair speed 
 
THE STEERING OF STEAMERS. 353 
 
 when one screw is backed for the purpose of turning, the rudder 
 should be put hard over as if the engines were both continued 
 ahead. Wishing to turn to starboard, we put the rudder hard 
 right, and reverse the starboard screw. 
 
 In this case, the suction current of the backing screw, acting 
 upon the after side of the rudder, will oppose the turning, but 
 not sufficiently to deprive the rudder of all steering power, as it 
 often does in the case of a single screw. There are several rea- 
 sons for the difference. In the first place, only half the power 
 of the ship is involved in the backing, whereas with a single 
 screw, the whole power is involved. Again, the suction current 
 in the present case is at some distance to one side, and affects 
 only the outer part of the hard-over rudder; and, finally, the 
 headway is prolonged by the other screw, and this tends to con- 
 tinue the normal action of the rudder. 
 
 In turning, then, with considerable headway, and wishing to 
 get the maximum effect, the rudder should be used as in ordinary 
 turning, and the inner screw reversed. 
 
 As regards the track of the ship in turning under these condi- 
 tions, we have seen that the curve of a twin-screw ship with both 
 screws going ahead and rudder hard over, does not differ materi- 
 ally from that of a single-screw ship ; but it would be natural to 
 suppose that the case must be greatly changed when the inner 
 screw is reversed to help the rudder. There is, in fact, a consid- 
 erable difference, but it is far less than is commonly supposed ; at 
 least in the first brief interval after the turn begins ; in the in- 
 terval, that is to say, during which the emergency for which the 
 action is taken must work itself out. The complete turning 
 circles will be widely different, but the track of the vessel for 
 some time will be but little modified. The stern will, as in all 
 other cases, go off to leeward, and the ship will gain nothing to 
 the side toward which her head is thrown, until she has covered 
 from two to three lengths along her old track. She will, however, 
 gradually lose her speed, and will throw her head around rather 
 more sharply, with the result that, by the time she does begin to 
 move away from her old line of advance, she will do so at a con- 
 siderably greater angle than if her rudder were merely put over 
 without reversing the inner screw. 
 
 " Right rudder " is port helm. 
 " Left rudder " is starboard helm. 
 
354 THE STEERING OF STEAMERS. 
 
 4. SHIP GOING AHEAD, BOTH SCREWS BACKING. In this case, 
 if the rudder is kept amidships, the ship may be stopped in from 
 three to five lengths, or double this for turbine ships. 
 
 If the rudder is put hard over to either side, we have a case 
 resembling that in which the screw of a single-screw steamer is 
 suddenly reversed ; but with some points of difference. In the 
 present case, we shall have a suction current on each side drawn 
 forward by the screw of that side. Whichever way the rudder is 
 put, its direct steering action for headway will be opposed by the 
 suction current of that side alone; that is to say, by only half the 
 power of the total suction. Moreover, this current is so far to 
 one side that its effect will be confined to a small part of the area 
 of the rudder. 
 
 Thus the twin screws, in backing, will have much less tendency 
 than a single screw, to reverse the ordinary steering effect of the 
 rudder ; and it is found that so long as the headway continues, 
 the ship steers normally (for headway), but turns less rapidly 
 under the influence of the rudder than if the screws were going 
 ahead ; in other words, the screws in this case reduce, but do not 
 reverse, the normal effect of the rudder. 
 
 There is an important gain in the rapidity of turning if the 
 rudder is put hard over before the screws are reversed, thus 
 starting the head to swinging in the right direction. 
 
 5. SHIP GOING ASTERN, BOTH SCREWS GOING AHEAD. In this 
 case, the ship will obey her rudder for sternboard, although the 
 power of the rudder will be materially reduced by the discharge 
 current of the screws. 
 
 If necessary, the rudder may be helped, and the ship ma- 
 nceuvred with ease and certainty, by varying the speed of the 
 screws. 
 
 IV. ADDITIONAL NOTES UPON STEERING. 
 
 EFFECT OF WIND. 
 
 : If a steamer is lying in a smooth sea, with her engines stopped 
 and .with the wind abeam, she will gradually fall off and bring 
 the wind abaft the beam; this for the reason that the draft is 
 usually less forward than aft, so that the bow has less hold on 
 the water than the stern; that, usually, the bow is higher than 
 
THE STEERING OF STEAMERS. 355 
 
 the stern and so presents a greater surface to the wind ; and that, 
 above all, the screw acts as a drag holding the stern up to the 
 wind. 
 
 In going ahead, the wind has no important effect. In backing, 
 there is a marked tendency for the stern to back up into the wind. 
 This tendency increases with the force of the wind and the speed 
 of the ship, and differs greatly with different ships. Some ships 
 cannot be backed at all, even in a light breeze, without throwing 
 their sterns up to it, even though all other forces are acting to 
 turn them the other way. 
 
 It will be clear from the above that advantage may be taken 
 of the wind in manoeuvring, and that its effect will be felt much 
 more decidedly in backing than in going ahead. We shall have 
 the maximum of favorable conditions for turning with a single 
 screw, when the wind is fresh on the port hand. Under these 
 conditions, everything favors turning to starboard ; and it will be 
 difficult, if not impossible, to turn to port. 
 
 The problem of handling a ship becomes one of especial diffi- 
 culty when she is flying light. In this condition, she has less hold 
 on the water and exposes more surface to the wind. Moreover, 
 the effective rudder area is reduced, and the steering effect of the 
 screw, due to incomplete immersion, is very greatly increased. 
 Thus everything acts to minimize the control of the ship by the 
 rudder. Under these conditions, a single-screw steamer may 
 steer fairly well so long as she is in the. open sea and under full 
 speed, but she will handle very badly in a harbor, where she has 
 no opportunity to get up speed ; and if the breeze is fresh she will 
 be nearly or quite unmanageable. The effect of the screw is to 
 throw her stern off to the side from which the lower blades are 
 moving; so that the bow falls off to port in going ahead, and to 
 starboard in backing. If the wind and screw act together in any 
 given case, the rudder will be practically useless if acting against 
 them; if they oppose each other, it may have some power to con- 
 trol the ship, but the power will, at best, be far below what it is 
 in ordinary conditions of trim. The conditions above described 
 are much less important to a twin-screw ship than to one with a 
 single screw, but they must still be recognized and allowed for. 
 
 It can hardly be necessary to state that the ship when flying 
 light will drift bodily to leeward much more rapidly than under 
 
356 THE STEERING OF STEAMERS. 
 
 ordinary conditions ; and that the tide is of relatively greater 
 importance than usual, because of the comparative helplessness 
 of the ship. 
 
 EFFECT OF SEA. 
 
 A ship lying at rest in a seaway will gradually fall off into the 
 trough of it, and some effort will be required to hold her up. If 
 going ahead, she will tend to keep in the trough, ?jid lee helm 
 will be needed to bring her head to it; but if the engines are 
 backed, she will throw her stern up to the sea exactly as she 
 would to the wind, and this in spite of all that can be done to 
 prevent it. 
 
 The longer the ship, the more decided will be the tendency to 
 lie in the trough of the sea. 
 
 There may be special features of design or of the trim which 
 will materially affect the steering of the ship. If she trims by the 
 head, she may, when lying at rest with a beam wind, gradually 
 throw her head up to it instead of her stern, although the chances 
 are that the drag of the screw will prevent this. 
 
 If her after deadwood is cut away somewhat more than in 
 ordinary designs, her hold upon the water will be reduced and 
 there may be difficulty in holding her to a straight course. On 
 the other hand, she will be very sensitive to small changes of 
 rudder, and will turn in small space, her stern being thrown off to 
 leeward very decidedly by hard-over rudder. 
 
 EFFECT OF SHALLOW WATER. It is well known that ships do 
 not manoeuvre as well in shallow as in deep water, and it not in- 
 frequently happens that a vessel which steers perfectly in the open 
 sea becomes very wild in channels where she has only a few feet 
 of water under her keel. The explanation lies in the fact that 
 the displaced water cannot flow off freely along the natural wave 
 lines due to the shape of the under-water body. For similar 
 reasons, the speed is reduced in shallow water as compared with 
 that due to the same power in water deep enough to allow a free 
 flow of the displaced water. 
 
 * * ***** 
 
 The preceding sections, as carefully explained in the beginning, 
 relate to ships of average characteristics in all respects. They 
 illustrate principles which are broadly true of all ships, but which 
 
THE STEERING OF STEAMERS. 357 
 
 must be modified in one direction or another if we seek to apply 
 them to ships of exceptional build, speed, trim or manoeuvring 
 power. This is illustrated in the turning curve of the Yash- 
 ima, already referred to. The facts that her after deadwood 
 is cut away much more than is usual, that her rudder is excep- 
 tionally large, and that her steering-gear admits of putting the 
 helm over very quickly, result in an excessive " kick; " and this, 
 coupled with the momentum due to high speed, results in the 
 peculiarities which have been noted in her turning circle. If, in 
 addition to the features just detailed, she were of light draft and 
 flat bottom, certain of her peculiarities would be exaggerated still 
 further, the conditions in such a case approximating to those in- 
 volved in certain types of speed boats which have very high 
 speed and extraordinary turning power associated with light 
 draft and a floor comparatively flat. Such a boat, upon putting 
 her helm hard over at full speed, turns sharply, but may drive 
 along her original line even after she has turned her broadside 
 nearly full towards it. In the manoeuvring of such a craft as 
 this, there is brought out strikingly another point which to a 
 greater or less degree appears in all cases of turning. This is 
 the outward heel of the ship, due to the momentum and the 
 centrifugal force acting outward from the center, and to the 
 lateral resistance of the water, which acts inward, but usually 
 below the center of gravity, so that it adds to outward heel. 
 These heeling forces are to some extent offset by the lateral 
 water pressure on the rudder, which, acting on the inside, and 
 below the center of gravity, has a tendency to produce inward 
 heel. The heeling of large ships in turning is rarely of practi- 
 cal importance; but in small craft it may be a source of consid- 
 erable danger. Suppose such a boat, whose build happens to be 
 favorable for heeling, to be turning at full speed and with hard- 
 over helm while at the same time rolling more or less in a seaway. 
 The hard-over helm acts, as already noted, to counteract the 
 other forces and reduce the outward heel. If, now, the helm is 
 suddenly eased, this counteracting force is removed, and the boat 
 lurches sharply outward ; and if it happens that she is at the same 
 instant rolled outward by an impulse from a wave, she may be 
 unable to recover and may capsize. 
 
 ********* 
 
 The forces thus far described as involved in the turning of a 
 
THE STEERING OF STEAMERS. 
 
 ship are all more or less under the control of those who must ma- 
 noeuvre her; or, if not under control, must be understood in 
 order that she may be handled intelligently. They are thus 
 properly matters of Seamanship. It will be interesting now to 
 glance at a few points of a slightly different kind. 
 
 As the helm is put over, the ship begins to turn, or to acquire 
 angular velocity, and for our present purpose we may consider the 
 turning as taking place about the center of gravity of the ship. 
 The turning is opposed by the resistance of the water to lateral 
 displacement of the bow and stern; but as, in the beginning, this 
 resistance is small the turning being slow the velocity of turn- 
 ing rapidly increases. This increase results in a still more rapid 
 increase of resistance, and presently the two sets of forces, those 
 producing and those opposing, the angular velocity, balance each 
 other, and this velocity becomes constant. From this time on, 
 the ship turns in a curve which is practically a circle, her bow 
 maintaining a steady angle, technically known as the " drift 
 angle," to the tangent of the circle. 
 
 An important point in connection with the turning of a ship 
 has to do with what is known in mechanics as the " moment of 
 inertia," of which we need only explain here that it depends upon 
 the distribution of weights in the ship with reference to the center 
 of gravity. The significance of this point may be made clear by 
 a simple illustration. Suppose we have a long rod pivoted at its 
 middle point (the center of gravity) and carrying on each side 
 of the pivot a weight which may be moved in and out. If the 
 weights are kept close in to the pivot, the rod will be easily 
 turned and stopped; whereas if the weights are run out to the 
 ends, a much greater effort will be required to start it, and, 
 after it is started, to stop it. In the first case, the moment of 
 inertia is small and the rod is easily controlled; in the second, 
 the moment of inertia is large, and considerable force is re- 
 quired to control it. Similarly, ships with their weights near 
 the ends have large moments of inertia and are more difficult 
 to manoeuvre than those whose weights are concentrated more 
 nearly amidships, and whose moments of inertia are accordingly 
 small. 
 
 It is important that all officers should be familiar with the 
 manoeuvring peculiarities of the ships which they are called upon 
 
THE STEERING OF STEAMERS. 
 
 359 
 
 to handle, and every effort should be made to determine and 
 record these peculiarities at the very beginning of her service, a 
 " ship's book " being kept, in which the results of all experiences 
 are carefully entered. This book should contain the following 
 information : 
 
 1. The turning circles of the ship, with right and left rudder, 
 and with different degrees of rudder carefully plotted to scale 
 and showing the "kick," the " drift angle," the "tactical diam- 
 eter," the " advance," the " transfer," etc. 
 
 2. The time and distance required to bring the ship to rest by 
 backing with full power at several different speeds. 
 
 3. The behavior of the s*hip in stopping under the conditions of 
 2; whether the head goes to starboard or to port and how far. 
 
 4. The result of putting the helm over either way during the 
 manoeuvre of 2. 
 
 5. The effect upon this manoeuvre of using a reserve of power 
 for backing. 
 
 6. The effect upon this manoeuvre of varying the time at which 
 the helm is put over; before reversing the engines, after reversing, 
 simultaneously with reversing. 
 
 7. The effect of wind in backing. 
 
 8. The best way to work helm and engines for turning in a 
 limited space, and the shortest space in which the ship can be 
 turned 
 
 The methods of obtaining these data, as prescribed for ships of 
 the United States Navy, are given in the Appendix. As usually 
 carried out, often hurriedly and with conditions far from ideal, 
 they leave much to desire in accuracy of results. 
 
 " Right rudder " is port helm. " Left rudder " is starboard helm. 
 
Plate No. 120. 
 
 STEAMER WITHOUT RANGE LIGHTS. 
 
 STEAMER WITH RANGE LIGHTS. 
 
 A SAILING VESSEL. 
 
 VESSELS' LIGHTS. 
 
(36i) 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 THE RULES OF THE ROAD. 
 
 1. REGULATIONS FOR PREVENTING COLLISION. 
 The Regulations for Preventing Collision include : 
 
 1. The International Rules, established by agreement between 
 maritime nations as governing navigation on the high seas. 
 
 Article 30 of the International Rules, reads as follows : 
 " Nothing in these Rules shall interfere with the operation 
 of a special rule duly made by local authority, relative to the 
 navigation of any harbor, river, or inland waters." 
 
 2. The Inland Rules enacted by Congress and governing the 
 navigation of the inland waters of the United States. 
 
 3. The Pilot Rules for United States Inland Waters, supple- 
 menting the Inland Rules. 
 
 These Rules are established by the Board of Supervising 
 Inspectors of Steam Vessels, and are published in a pam- 
 phlet entitled " Pilot Rules for Atlantic and Pacific Coast 
 Inland Waters." 
 
 4. Local Regulations for the navigation of various harbors, 
 rivers, etc., of countries other than the United States. 
 
 These rules are numerous and in some cases important, 
 but they must in general be obtained from pilots or other 
 local authorities. 
 
 Important decisions by the courts in connection with the Rules of the 
 Road can be found in the " Federal Reporter Digest," which gives a brief 
 digest of all important decisions under " Collision "with sub-heads, such 
 as " Speed in a Fog," " Lights," etc. 
 
 Other valuable works on the subject are: Collisions at Sea, by R. G. 
 Marsden ; Collision at Sea, by Julian B. Swope ; Rules of the Road at Sea, 
 by H. Stuart Moore; A Treatise on the Law of Marine Collisions, by 
 Herbert R. Spencer; and Rules of the Road at Sea, by W. H. La- 
 Boyteaux. 
 
 The INTERNATIONAL RULES and the INLAND RULES are printed 
 in parallel columns facing each other on the following pages of 
 this chapter. Where there are important differences between the 
 two sets of Rules, attention is called to the difference by the use 
 of special type. 
 
 The PILOT RULES are embodied in the INLAND RULES at the 
 points where they belong. They are, in fact, a part of the INLAND 
 RULES, since they derive their authority from a clause of the law 
 of Congress by which the INLAND RULES were enacted. 
 
362 INTERNATIONAL RULES. 
 
 11. INTERNATIONAL RULES. 
 
 Preliminary Definitions. 
 
 In the following rules every steam-vessel which is under sail 
 and not under steam is to be considered a sailing-vessel, and 
 every vessel under steam, whether under sail or not, is to be con- 
 sidered a steam-vessel. 
 
 The word " steam-vessel " shall include any vessel propelled 
 by machinery. 
 
 A vessel is " under way " within the meaning of these rules 
 when she is not at anchor, or made fast to the shore, or aground. 
 
 II. LIGHTS, AND SO FORTH. 
 
 The word " visible " in these rules when applied to lights shall 
 mean visible on a dark night with a clear atmosphere. 
 
 Article I. The rules concerning lights shall be complied with 
 in all weathers from sunset to sunrise, and during such time no 
 other lights which may be mistaken for the prescribed lights shall 
 be exhibited. 
 
 f 
 
 Steam-vessels Masthead Light. 
 
 Art. 2. A steam-vessel when under way shall carry (a) On 
 or in front of the foremast, or if a vessel without a foremast, then 
 in the forepart of the vessel, at a height above the hull of not less 
 than twenty feet, and if the breadth of the vessel exceeds twenty 
 feet, then at a height above the hull not less than such breadth, so, 
 however, that the light need not be carried at a greater height 
 above the hull than forty feet, a bright white light, so constructed 
 as to show an unbroken light over an arc of the horizon of 
 twenty points of the compass, so fixed as to throw the light ten 
 points on each side of the vessel, namely, from right ahead to 
 two points abaft the beam on either side, and of such a character 
 as to be visible at a distance of at least five miles. 
 
 Steam-vessels Side-lights. 
 
 (b) On the starboard side a green light so constructed as to 
 show an unbroken light over an arc of the horizon of ten points 
 of the compass, so fixed as to throw the light from right ahead 
 
INLAND RULES. 363 
 
 11. RULES FOR UNITED STATES INLAND WATERS. 
 
 Preliminary Definitions. 
 
 In the following rules every steam-vessel which is under sail 
 and not under steam is to be considered a sailing-vessel, and 
 every vessel under steam, whether under sail or not, is to be con- 
 sidered a steam-vessel. 
 
 The word " steam-vessel " shall include any vessel propelled by 
 machinery. 
 
 A vessel is " under way," within the meaning of these rules, 
 when she is not at anchor, or made fast to the shore, or aground. 
 
 II. LIGHTS, AND SO FORTH. 
 
 The word " visible " in these rules, when applied to lights, shall 
 mean visible on a dark night with a clear atmosphere. 
 
 Art. I. The rules concerning lights shall be complied with 
 in all weathers from sunset to sunrise, and during such time no 
 other lights which may be mistaken for the prescribed lights 
 shall be exhibited. 
 
 Steam-Vessels Masthead Light. 
 Art. 2. A steam-vessel when under way shall carry (a) On 
 
 or in front of the foremast, or, if a vessel without a foremast, 
 then in the forepart of the vessel, a bright white light so con- 
 structed as to show an unbroken light over an arc of the horizon 
 of twenty points of the compass, so fixed as to throw the light ten 
 points on each side of the vessel, namely, from right ahead to two 
 points abaft the beam on either side, and of such a character as 
 to be visible at a distance of .at least five miles. 
 
 Steam- Vessels Side-Lights. 
 
 (b) On the starboard side a green light so constructed as to 
 show an unbroken light over an arc of the horizon of ten points 
 of the compass, so fixed as to throw the light from right ahead 
 
364 INTERNATIONAL RULES. 
 
 to two points abaft the beam on the starboard side, and of such 
 a character as to be visible at a distance of at least two miles. 
 
 (c) On the port side a red light so constructed as to show an 
 unbroken light over an arc of the horizon of .ten points of the 
 compass, so fixed as to throw the light from right ahead to two 
 points abaft the beam on the port side, and of such a character as 
 to be visible at a distance of at least two miles. 
 
 (d) The said green and red side-lights shall be fitted with in- 
 board screens projecting at least three feet forward from the 
 light, so as to prevent these lights from being seen across the 
 bow. 1 
 
 NOTE i. A very little consideration will show that these lights 
 can not be prevented from showing to some extent across the bow. 
 The flame of the lamp must have a certain width, and the lamp as 
 a whole must stand out at some distance from the inboard screen. 
 In addition to this, there will always be a reflection, visible at a 
 certain distance, from the outer (after) side of the light box. The 
 mere use of a screen projecting three feet forward can do very little 
 toward correcting this. The matter is a serious one, involving 
 danger which is the greater because seldom realized. If we see all 
 the lights of a steamer, we assume, and the law justifies us in as- 
 suming (see Art. 18), that she is heading directly toward us. But if 
 her lights show a point across the bow, we may misjudge her course 
 by a point; and if she makes a corresponding error with regard to 
 our lights and our course, the situation may be one of grave danger. 
 
 Although this difficulty can not be entirely done away with, it can 
 be much reduced, by a batten of wood placed vertically along the 
 forward edge of the fore and aft screen, and projecting out-board 
 so that its outer edge shall be tangent to a line drawn through the 
 inner edge of the wick, parallel to the keel line. 
 
 A light so screened will still show nearly or quite half a point 
 across the bow, depending upon the width of the wick. This width is 
 fixed by an English rule at "not less than one inch, nor more than 
 two inches." A two-inch wick screened as above will show nearly 4 
 across the bow. 
 
 In inspecting the lights and their fittings, it is important to see 
 that the after screen complies with the requirement that the light 
 shall show only 2 points abaft the beam. 
 
INLAND RULES. 365 
 
 to two points abaft the beam on the starboard side, and of such 
 a character as to be visible at a distance of at least two miles. 
 
 (c) On the port side a red light so constructed as to show an 
 unbroken light over an arc of the horizon of ten points of the 
 compass, so fixed as to throw the light from right ahead to two 
 points abaft the beam on the port side, and of such a character as 
 to be visible at a distance of at least two miles. 
 
 (d) The said green and red side-lights shall be fitted with in- 
 board screens projecting at least three feet forward from the 
 light, so as to prevent these lights from being seen across the bow. 
 
366 INTERNATIONAL RULES. 
 
 Steam- vessels Range-lights. 
 
 (e) A steam-vessel when under way may carry an additional 
 white light similar in construction to the light mentioned in sub- 
 division (a). These two lights shall be so placed in line with the 
 keel that one shall be at least fifteen feet higher than the -other, 
 and in such a position with reference to each other that the lower 
 light shall be forward of the upper one. The vertical distance 
 between these lights shall be less than the horizontal distance.* 
 
 NOTE 2. The range-lights, as herein described, while giving far 
 less information than they might be made to give if their position 
 were more definitely fixed by law, are nevertheless so useful that it 
 is to be hoped they may, before many years, be made compulsory 
 for all steamers at all times when under way. They are at present 
 compulsory within the interior waters of the United States for all 
 other than "sea-going" steamers and ferry-boats. (See "Inland 
 Rules" for United States. Art. 2. f.) 
 
 It is clear that, supposing a vessel carrying such lights to be seen 
 on an even keel, the lights will show one above the other when she 
 is heading toward the observer; that if she changes course, the lights 
 will open out, the lower one (which is also the forward one), drawing 
 away from the upper one, in the direction to which the ship's head is 
 changing. If the position of the lights were definitely fixed by law, 
 the angle of the line joining them would be an indication of the course 
 steered; but since neither the vertical nor the horizontal distance 
 between them is established, they can not usually be regarded as giving 
 much more information about the course than is given by side-lights. 
 They have, however, one very great advantage over side-lights, in 
 that, after being once clearly sighted, a change in their relative posi- 
 tion gives instant notice of a change of course. This indication is 
 especially sensitive when the vessel carrying the light is heading 
 toward the observer, or nearly toward him, and this happens to be 
 the point where the signals given by side-lights are often dangerously 
 misleading. (See note i.) 
 
 There is, of course, the farther very great advantage in range- 
 lights over side-lights, that they can be seen at a much greater distance 
 and thus give earlier notice as to the approximate course of the 
 steamer carrying them. Their value would be considerably increased 
 if we could be sure of finding associated with them the permanent 
 white stern light permitted by the second part of Art. 10; but as the 
 law stands, these two " permissive " clauses have no connection with 
 each other, and we are not justified in assuming that a steamer which 
 carries range-lights will also carry a permanent stern light. 
 
 It should be noted that when the vessel carrying range-lights is 
 seen end-on, these lights may be confused with the lights of a vessel 
 towing. 
 
INLAND RULES. 367 
 
 Steam-vessels Range-lights. 
 
 (e) A sea-going steam-vessel when under way may carry an 
 additional white light, similar in construction to the light men- 
 tioned in subdivision (a). These two lights shall be so placed in 
 line with the keel that one shall be at least fifteen feet higher than 
 the other, and in such a position with reference to each other that 
 the lower light shall be forward of the upper one. The vertical 
 distance between these lights shall be less than the horizontal 
 distance. 
 
 (f) All steam-vessels (except sea-going ves- 
 sels and ferry-boats) shall carry in addition 
 to green and red lights required by article two 
 (b), (c), and screens as required by article two 
 (d), a central range of two white lights, the 
 after-light being carried at an elevation at 
 least fifteen feet above the light at the head of 
 the vessel. The head-light shall be so con- 
 structed as to show an unbroken light through 
 twenty points of the compass, namely, from 
 right ahead to two points abaft the beam on 
 either side of the vessel, and the after -light 
 so as to show all around the horizon. 
 
368 INTERNATIONAL RULES. 
 
 Steam-vessels When Towing. 
 
 Art. 3. A steam-vessel when towing another vessel shall, in 
 addition to her side-lights, carry two bright white lights in a ver- 
 tical line one over the other, not less than six feet apart, 3 and 
 when towing more than one vessel shall carry an additional bright 
 white light six feet above or below such light, if the length of the 
 tow, measuring from the stern of the towing vessel to the stern of 
 the last vessel towed, exceeds six hundred feet. Each of these 
 lights shall be of the same construction and character, and shall 
 be carried in the same position as the white light mentioned in 
 article two* (a), excepting the additional light, which may be car- 
 ried at a height of not less than fourteen feet above the hull. 5 
 
 Such steam-vessels may carry a small white light abaft the fun- 
 nel or aftermast for the vessel towed to steer by, but such light 
 shall not be visible forward of the beam. 
 
 NOTE 3. These lights may be confused with the range-lights of 
 a steamer seen end-on. Moreover, the range-lights and towing- 
 lights may be carried by the same vessel, which may thus, when seen 
 end-on, show as many as four lights in a vertical line. 
 
 NOTE 4. Under Art. 9 (b), fishing- vessels off the European coast 
 north of Cape Finisterre, carry, when fishing with drift-nets, two 
 white lights, which may be confused with those of vessels towing. 
 This calls for caution. A steamer in the neighborhood of a fishing 
 ground, and having, perhaps, passed a number of fishing boats show- 
 ing these lights, might easily fail to recognize a steamer towing, if she 
 should chance to meet one. 
 
 NOTE 5. That is to say, if two lights are carried, the lower one 
 shall comply, as to height, with the requirements of Art. 2, for the 
 regular masthead light; and if three are carried, the middle one shall 
 comply with these requirements. 
 
 It is found that two lights separated by six feet blend into a single 
 light at distances beyond about four miles. 
 
 Special Lights. 
 
 Art. 4. (a) A vessel which from any accident is not under com- 
 mand shall carry at the same height as the white light mentioned 
 in article two (a), where they can best be seen, and if a steam- 
 vessel in lieu of that light, two red lights, in a vertical line one 
 over the other, not less than six feet apart, and of such a charac- 
 ter as td be visible all around the horizon at a distance of at least 
 
INLAND RULES. 369 
 
 Steam-vessels When Towing. 
 
 Art. 3. A steam-vessel when towing another vessel shall, in 
 addition to her side-lights, carry tico bright white lights in a ver- 
 tical line, one over the other, not less than three feet apart, 
 and when towing more .than one vessel, shall carry an additional 
 bright white light three feet above or below such lights, if 
 the length of the tow, measuring from the stern of the towing 
 vessel to the stern of the last vessel towed, exceeds six hundred 
 feet. Each of these lights shall be of the same construction and 
 character, and shall be carried in the same position as the white 
 light mentioned in article two (a) or the after range- 
 light mentioned in article two (f). 
 
 Such steam-vessel may carry a small white light abaft the fun- 
 nel or aftermast for the vessel towed to steer by, but such light 
 shall not be visible forward of the beam. 
 
 Art. 4 of the International Rules is omitted from the Inland Rules. In 
 inland waters, therefore, a vessel not under command and a vessel lay- 
 ing or picking up a telegraph cable, carry the same lights as other vessels. 
 
370 
 
 Plate No. 121, 
 
Plate No. 121 
 
372 INTERNATIONAL RULES. 
 
 two miles ; and shall by day carry in a vertical line one over the j 
 other, not less than six feet apart, where they can best be seen, ' 
 tzvo black balls or shapes, each two feet in diameter. 
 
 (b) A vessel employed in laying or in picking up a telegraph 
 cable shall carry in the same position as the white light mentioned 
 in article two (a), and if a steam- vessel, in lieu of that light, three 
 lights in a vertical line, one over the other, not less than six feet 
 apart. The highest and lowest of these lights shall be red, and the 
 middle light shall be white, and they shall be of such a character 
 as to be visible all around the horizon at a distance of at least two 
 miles. 6 By day she shall carry in a vertical line, one over the 
 other, not less than six feet apart, where they can best be seen, 
 three shapes not less than two feet in diameter, of which the 
 highest and lowest shall be globular in shape and red in color, 
 and the middle one diamond in shape and white. 
 
 NOTE 6. The middle one of these lights, being white, will usually 
 be seen before the others, and may be mistaken, until the other 
 lights are seen, for a steamer's masthead light. 
 
 (c) The vessels referred to in this article, when not making 
 way through the water, shall not carry the side-lights, but when 
 making way shall carry them. 
 
 (d) The lights and shapes required to be shown by this article 
 are to be taken by other vessels as signals that the vessel show- 
 ing them is not under command and can not therefore get out of 
 the way. 
 
 These signals are not signals of vessels in distress and requir- 
 ing assistance. Such signals are contained in article thirty-one. 
 
INLAND RULES. 373 
 
374 INTERNATIONAL RULES. 
 
 Lights for Sailing-vessels and Vessels in Tow. 
 
 Art. 5. A sailing-vessel under way and any vessel being" towed 
 shall carry the same lights as are prescribed by article two for a 
 steam-vessel under way, with the exception of the white lights 
 mentioned therein, which they shall never carry. 
 
INLAND RULES. 375 
 
 Lights for Sailing-Vessels and Vessels in Tow. 
 
 Art. 5. A sailing-vessel under way or being towed shall carry 
 the same lights as are prescribed by article two for a steam-vessel 
 under way, with the exception of the white lights mentioned 
 therein, which they shall never carry. 
 
 NOTE 7. No lights are prescribed for steam-vessels being towed 
 in inland waters. Such vessels however, carry the same lights as 
 sailing-vessels being towed. 
 
 NOTE 8. The following lights are carried by barges and canal-boats 
 in tow : " In the Hudson River, the East River and Long Island 
 Sound, to and including Narragansett Bay, barges and canal-boats 
 carry white lights at bow and stern. The last vessel of the tow car- 
 ries two white lights at the stern, placed athwartship. Where a 
 number of them are massed in one or more tiers, the limits of the 
 tow are marked by white lights carried at the bow of the outside 
 boats and an additional white light at the stern of each of the two 
 outside boats of the last tier." 
 
 In waters other than those above-named, barges and canal-boats in 
 tow carry colored side-lights; and where they are massed in tiers, 
 these lights are carried at the bows of the outside barges of each 
 tier. 
 
 Ferry-boats carry the side-lights and range-lights of other steamers 
 except that double-ended ferry-boats carry a central range of white 
 lights showing all around the horizon and placed at equal heights 
 forward and aft; in place of the range-lights of other vessels. 
 
 In addition to the above, ferry-boats may carry a special light, 
 white or colored, on a flag-staff amidships, 15 feet above the white 
 range-lights for the purpose of distinguishing different lines of 
 ferry-boats from each other. 
 
376 INTERNATIONAL RULES. 
 
 Lights for Small Vessels. 
 
 Art. 6. Whenever, as in the case of small vessels under way 
 during bad weather, the green and red side-lights can not be fixed, 
 these lights shall be kept at hand, lighted and ready for use ; and 
 shall, on the approach of or to other vessels, be exhibited on their 
 respective sides in sufficient time to prevent collision, in ' such 
 manner as to make them most visible, and so that the green light 
 shall not be seen on the port side, nor the red light on the star- 
 board side, nor, if practicable, more than two points abaft the 
 beam on their respective sides. To make the use of these port- 
 able lights more certain and easy the lanterns containing them 
 shall each be painted outside with the color of the light they 
 respectively contain, and shall be provided with proper screens. 
 
 lights for Small Steam- and Sail-Vessels and Open Boats. 
 
 Art. 7. Steam-vessels of less than forty, and vessels under oars 
 or sails of less than twenty tons gross tonnage, respectively, and 
 rowing boats, when under way, shall not be required to carry the 
 lights mentioned in article two (a), (b), and (c), but if they do 
 not carry them they shall be provided with the following lights : 
 
 First. Steam-vessels of less than forty tons shall carry 
 
 (a) In the forepart of the vessel, or on or in front of the fun- 
 nel, where it can best be seen, and at a height above the gunwale 
 of not less than nine feet, a bright white light constructed and 
 fixed as prescribed in article two (a), and of such a character as 
 to be visible at a distance of at least two miles. 
 
 (b)* Green and red side-lights constructed and fixed as pre- 
 scribed in article two (b) and (c), and of such a character as to 
 be visible at a distance of at least one mile, or a combined lantern 
 showing a green light and a red light from right ahead to two 
 points abaft the beam on their respective sides. Such lanterns 
 shall be carried not less than three feet below the white light. 
 
 Second. Small steamboats, such as are carried by sea-going 
 vessels, may carry the white light at a less height than nine feet 
 above the gunwale, but it shall be carried above the combined 
 lantern mentioned in subdivision one (b). 
 
INLAND RULES. 377 
 
 Lights for Small Vessels. 
 
 Art. 6. Whenever, as in the case of vessels of less than 
 ten gross tons under way during bad weather, the green 
 and red side-lights can not be fixed, these lights shall be kept at 
 hand, lighted and ready for use ; and shall, on the approach of or 
 to other vessels, be exhibited on their respective sides in sufficient 
 time to prevent collision, in such manner as to make them most 
 visible, and so that the green light shall not be seen on the port 
 side nor the red light on the starboard side, nor, if practicable, 
 more than two points abaft the beam on their respective sides. 
 To make the use of these portable lights more certain and easy 
 the lanterns containing them shall each be painted outside with 
 the color of the the light they respectively contain, and shall be 
 provided with proper screens. 
 
 lights for Open Boats. 
 
 Art. 7. Rowing boats, whether under oars or sail, 
 shall have ready at hand a lantern showing a 
 white light which shall be temporarily ex- 
 hibited in sufficient time to prevent col- 
 lision. 
 
Plate No. 122. 
 
 STEAM PILOT VESSEL UNDER WAY. 
 
 At Anchor. 
 STEAM PILOT VESSEL. 
 
 Under Way. At Anchor. 
 
 Flare -up at Intervals,) (Shows Flare-up at Intervals.) 
 ( Side -Lights .) 
 
 SAILING PILOT VESSEL. 
 
 Carries Side Lights, tf 
 Making Way thro 1 Water. 
 
 VESSEL NOT UNDER COMMAND. 
 
 Carries Side Lights?, if 
 Making Way thro' Water. 
 
 VESSEL WORKING WITH 
 TELEGRAPH CABLE. 
 
 VESSELS LIGHTS. 
 
Plate No. 123. 
 
 \t-Nore than ISO Feet ->| 
 
 OPEN BOATS. 
 
 STKAM TRAWLER. 
 
 LINE FISHING. 
 
 DRIFT NET FISHING. 
 
 SAILING TRAWLER 
 OR DREDGE. 
 
 ANY FISHING VESSEL AT ANCHOR 
 AND ATTACHED TO FISHING GEAR. 
 
 VESSELS' LIGHTS. 
 
380 INTERNATIONAL RULES. 
 
 ons 
 
 lA* 
 
 Third. Vessels under oars or sails of less than twenty tons 
 shall have ready at hand a lantern with a green glass on one side 
 and a red glass on the other, which, on the approach of or to 
 other vessels, shall be exhibited in sufficient time to prevent 
 collision, so that the green light shall not be seen on the port side 
 nor the red light on the starboard side. 
 
 Fourth. Rowing boats, whether under oars or sail, shall have 
 ready at hand a lantern showing a white light which shall be tem- 
 porarily exhibited in sufficient time to prevent collision. 
 
 The vessels referred to in this article shall not be obliged to 
 carry the lights prescribed by article four (a) and article eleven, 
 last paragraph. 
 
 Lights for Pilot-vessels. 
 
 Art. 8. Pilot-vessels when engaged on their stations on pilot- 
 age duty shall not show the lights required for other vessels, but 
 shall carry a white light at the masthead, visible all around the 
 horizon, 7 and shall also exhibit a flare-up light or flare-up lights 
 at short intervals, which shall never exceed fifteen minutes. 
 
 NOTE 7 This may be mistaken for a steamer's masthead light. 
 
 On the near approach of or to other vessels they shall have 
 their side-lights lighted, ready for use, and shall flash or show 
 them at short intervals, to indicate the direction in which they are 
 heading, but the green light shall not be shown on the port side, 
 nor the red light on the starboard side. 
 
 A pilot-vessel of such a class as to be obliged to go alongside of 
 a vessel to put a pilot on board may show the white light instead 
 of carrying it at the masthead, and may, instead of the colored 
 lights above-mentioned, have at hand, ready for use, a lantern 
 with green glass on the one side and a red glass on the other, to 
 be used as prescribed above. 
 
 Pilot-vessels, when not engaged on their station on pilotage 
 duty, shall carry lights similar to those of other vessels of their 
 tonnage. 
 
INLAND RULES. 381 
 
 Lights for Pilot- Vessels. 
 
 Art. 8. Pilot-vessels when engaged on their station on pilot- 
 age duty shall not show the lights required for other vessels, but 
 shall carry a white light at the masthead, visible all around the 
 horizon, and shall also exhibit a flare-up light or flare up lights at 
 short intervals, which shall never exceed fifteen minutes. 
 
 On the near approach of or to other vessels they shall have 
 their side-lights lighted, ready for use, and shall flash or show 
 them at short intervals, to indicate the direction in which they are 
 heading, but the green light shall not be shown on the port side, 
 nor the red light on the starboard side. 
 
 A pilot-vessel of such a class as to be obliged to go alongside of 
 a vessel to put a pilot on board may show the white light instead 
 of carrying it at the masthead, and may, instead of the colored 
 lights above-mentioned, have at hand, ready for use, a lantern 
 with a green glass on the one side and a red glass on the other, to 
 be used as prescribed above. 
 
 Pilot-vessels when not engaged on their station on pilotage 
 duty, shall carry lights similar to those of other vessels of their 
 tonnage. 
 
382 INTERNATIONAL RULES. 
 
 A steam pilot-vessel, when engaged on her station on 
 pilotage duty and in waters of the United States, and not at 
 anchor, shall, in addition to the lights required for all pilot 
 boats, carry at a distance of eight feet below her white mast- 
 head light a red light, visible all around the horizon and of 
 such a character as to be visible on a dark night with a clear 
 atmosphere at a distance of at least two miles, and also the 
 colored side-lights required to be carried by vessels when 
 under way. 
 
 When engaged on her station on pilotage duty and in 
 waters of the United States, and at anchor, she shall carry 
 in addition to the lights required for all pilot boats the red 
 light above-mentioned, but not the colored side-lights. When 
 not engaged on her station on pilotage duty, she shall carry 
 the same lights as other steam-vessels. 
 
 NOTE 8. This Rule was adopted by the United States in 1900. A 
 similar Rule has been adopted by Great Britain, but not by other 
 Maritime Powers. Thus the rule is not, in fact, International. 
 
 Lights, etc., of Fishing Vessels. 
 
 Art. 9. Fishing-vessels and fishing boats, when under way, 
 and when not required by this article to carry or show the lights 
 hereinafter specified, shall carry or show the lights prescribed 
 for vessels of their tonnage under way. 
 
 (a) Open boats, by which is to be understood boats not pro- 
 tected from the entry of sea water by means of a continuous deck, 
 when engaged in any fishing at night, with outlying tackle ex- 
 tending not more than one hundred and fifty feet horizontally 
 from the boat into the seaway, shall carry one all-round zvhite 
 light. 
 
 Open boats, when fishing at night, with outlying tackle extend- 
 ing more than one hundred and fifty feet horizontally from the 
 boat into the seaway, shall carry one all-round white light, and 
 in addition, on approaching or being approached by other vessels, 
 shall show a second white light at least three feet below the first 
 light and at a horizontal distance of at least five feet away from 
 it in the direction in which the outlying- tackle is attached. 
 
 (b) Vessels and boats, except open boats as defined in sub- 
 division (a), when fishing with drift-nets, 10 shall, so long as the 
 nets are wholly or partly in the water, carry two white lights 
 where they can best be seen. Such lights shall be placed so that 
 the vertical distance between them shall be not less than six feet 
 and not more than fifteen feet, and so that the horizontal distance 
 between them, measured in a line with the keel shall be not less 
 
INLAND RULES. 383 
 
 A steam pilot-vessel, when engaged on her station on pilot- 
 age duty and in waters of the United States, and not at anchor, 
 shall, in addition .to the lights required for all pilot-boats, carry 
 at a distance of eight feet below her white masthead light a red 
 light, visible all around the horizon and of such a character as 
 to be visible on a dark night with a clear atmosphere at a dis- 
 tance of at least two miles, and also .the colored side-lights re- 
 quired to be carried by vessels when under way. 
 
 When engaged on her station on pilotage duty and in waters 
 of the United States, and at anchor, she shall carry in addition 
 to .the lights required for all pilot-boats the red light above-men- 
 tioned, but not the colored side-lights. 
 
 When not engaged on her station on pilotage duty, she shall 
 carry the same lights as other steam-vessels. 
 
 Lights, Etc., of Fishing- Vessels. 
 
 Art. 9. (a) Fishing- vessels of less than ten gross tons, 
 when under way and when not having their nets, trawls, dredges, 
 or lines in the water; shall not be obliged to carry the colored 
 side-lights ; but every such vessel shall, in lieu thereof, have ready 
 at hand a lantern with a green glass on one side and a red glass 
 on the other side, and on approaching to or being approached by 
 another vessel such lantern shall be exhibited in sufficient time to 
 prevent collision, so that the green light shall not be seen on the 
 port side nor the red light on the starboard side. 
 
 (b) All fishing-vessels and fishing-boats of 
 ten gross tons or upward, when under way and 
 when not having their nets, trawls, dredges, 
 or lines in the water, shall carry and show the 
 same lihts as other vessels under way. 
 
384 INTERNATIONAL RULES. 
 
 
 than five feet and not more than ten feet. The lower of these two 
 lights shall be in the direction of the nets, and both of them shall 
 be of such a character as to show all around the horizon, and to be 
 visible at a distance of not less than three miles. 
 
 Within the Mediterranean Sea and in the seas bordering the 
 coasts of Japan and Korea sailing fishing-vessels of less than 
 twenty tons gross tonnage shall not be obliged to carry the lower 
 of these two lights. Should they, however, not carry it, they 
 shall show in the same position (in the direction of the net or 
 gear) a white light, visible at a distance of not less than one sea 
 mile, on the approach of or to other vessels. 
 
 (c) Vessels and boats, except open boats as defined in sub- 
 division (a), when line fishing with their lines out and attached 
 to or hauling their lines, and when not at anchor or stationary 
 within the meaning of subdivision (h), shall carry the same lights 
 as vessels Ushing with drift-nets. When shooting lines, or fishing 
 with towing lines, they shall carry the lights prescribed for a 
 steam- or sailing-vessel under way, respectively. 
 
 Within the Mediterranean Sea and in the seas bordering the 
 coasts of Japan and Korea sailing fishing-vessels of less than 
 twenty tons gross tonnage shall not be obliged to carry the lower 
 of these two lights. Should they, however, not carry it, they 
 shall show in the same position (in the direction of the lines) a 
 white light, visible at a distance of not less than one sea mile on 
 the approach of or to other vessels. 
 
 NOTE 10. A distinction is drawn in Art. 9 between two important 
 methods of fishing. Trawlers, dredgers, and drag-net fishers, run 
 usually with the tide, dragging a net or scoop along the bottom. 
 Their speed, under favorable circumstances, rarely exceeds two or 
 three knots, and their power of manoeuvring is of course very lim- 
 ited. These vessels are usually of considerable size (from 50 to 100 
 tons), and their work is carried on in deep water and often at great 
 distances from shore. If the trawl or dredge catches on the bottom, 
 the vessel is virtually at anchor, and shows the regular anchor lights. 
 
 Fishing by drift-nets and lines is carried on by vessels drifting, 
 and, of course, unable to manoeuvre for the avoidance of collision. 
 
 Drift-nets are laid out with the wind and the vessel rides head to 
 wind to leeward of her nets, which may be as much as two miles in 
 length, stretching off to windward, and buoyed at certain distances. 
 Lines are laid out across the tide, and may be six or eight miles in 
 length, marked at intervals by small buoys carrying flags. These 
 buoys are not to float the line, but only to mark it. At the end of the 
 
INLAND RULES. 385 
 
 (c) All vessels, when trawling, dredging, or fishing 
 with any kind of drag-nets or lines, shall exhibit, from 
 some part of .the vessel where they can be best 
 seen, two lights. One of these lights shall be red 
 and the other shall be white. The red light shall 
 b e above the white light, and shall be at a vertical 
 distance from it of not less than six feet and 
 not more than twelve feet; and the hori- 
 zontal distance between them, if any, shall 
 not be more than ten feet. These two lights 
 shall be of such a character and contained in 
 lanterns of such construction as to be visible 
 all round the horizon, the white light a dis- 
 tance of not less than three miles and the red 
 light of not less than two miles. 
 
386 INTERNATIONAL RULES. 
 
 
 line is a light anchor or other weight, which drags along the bottom, 
 keeping the lines well down but not holding the boat. 
 
 Drift-net fishing is principally done by night, line fishing by day, 
 trawling by both night and day. 
 
 The methods of fishing to which this article applies are carried on 
 by many thousands of vessels along the coasts of Europe north of 
 Cape Finisterre, in certain parts of the Mediterranean, and in the 
 waters of China and Japan. 
 
 (d) Vessels when engaged in trawling, by which is meant the 
 dragging of an apparatus along the bottom of the sea 
 
 First. // steam-vessels shall carry in the same position as the 
 white light mentioned in article two (a) a tri-colored lantern so 
 constructed and fixed as to show a white light from right ahead 
 to two points on each bow, and a green light and a red light 
 over an arc of the horizon from two points on each bow to tivo 
 points abaft the beam on the starboard and port sides, respect- 
 ively ; and not less than six nor more than twelve feet below the 
 tri-colored lantern a white light in a lantern, so constructed as 
 to show a clear, uniform, and unbroken light all around the 
 horizon. 
 
 Second. If sailing-vessels, shall carry a white light in a lan- 
 tern, so constructed as to show a clear, uniform, and unbroken 
 light all around the horizon, and shall also, on the approach of 
 or to other vessels, show where it can best be seen a white flare- 
 up light or torch in sufficient time to prevent collision. 
 
 All lights mentioned in subdivision (d) first and second shall 
 be visible at a distance of at least two miles. 
 
 (e) Oyster dredgers and other vessels fishing with dredge-nets 
 shall carry and show the same lights as trawlers. 
 
 (f) Fishing-vessels and fishing boats may at any time use a 
 flare-up light in addition to the lights which they are by this 
 article required to carry and show, and they may also use work- 
 ing lights. 
 
 (g) Every fishing-vessel and every fishing boat under one 
 hundred and fifty feet in length, when at anchor, shall exhibit a 
 white light visible all around the horizon at a distance of at least 
 one mile. 
 
 Every fishing-vessel of one hundred and fifty feet in length or 
 upward, when at anchor, shall exhibit a white light visible all 
 around the horizon at a distance of at least one mile, and shall 
 
INLAND RULES. 387 
 
 lights for Rafts or Other Craft Not Provided For. 
 
 (d) Rafts, or other water craft not herein 
 provided for, navigating by hand-power, 
 horse-power, or by the current of the river, 
 shall carry one or more good white lights, 
 which shall be placed in such manner as shall 
 be prescribed by the Board of Supervising In- 
 spectors of Steam Vessels. 
 
388 INTERNATIONAL RULES. 
 
 exhibit a second light as provided for vessels of such length by 
 article eleven. 
 
 Should any such vessel, whether under one hundred and fifty 
 feet in length or of one hundred and fifty feet in length or up- 
 ward, be attached to a net or other fishing gear, she shall on the 
 approach of other vessels show an additional white light at least 
 three feet below the anchor light, and at a horizontal distance of 
 at least five feet away from it in the direction of the net or gear. 
 
 (h) If a vessel or boat when fishing becomes stationary in 
 consequence of her gear getting fast to a rock or other obstruc- 
 tion, she shall in daytime haul down the day signal required by 
 subdivision (k) ; at night show the light or lights prescribed for 
 a vessel at anchor ; and during fog, mist, falling snow, or heavy 
 rainstorms make the signal prescribed for a vessel at anchor. 
 (See subdivision (d) and the last paragraph of article fifteen.) 
 
 Fog-Signals for Vessels Fishing. 
 
 (i) In fog, mist, falling snow, or heavy rainstorms drift- 
 net vessels attached to their nets, and vessels when trawling, 
 dredging, or fishing with any kind of drag net, and vessels 
 line fishing with their lines out, shall, if of twenty tons gross 
 tonnage or upward, respectively, at intervals of not more 
 than one minute make a blast; if steam-vessels, with .the 
 whistle or siren, and if sailing-vessels, with the fog-horn, 
 each blast to be followed by ringing the bell. Fishing-vessels 
 and boats of less than twenty tons gross tonnage shall not 
 be obliged to give the above-mentioned signals ; but if they 
 do not, they shall make some other efficient sound signal at 
 intervals of not more than one minute. 
 
 (k) All vessels or boats fishing with nets or lines or trawls, 
 when under way, shall in daytime indicate their occupation to an 
 approaching vessel by displaying a basket or other efficient signal 
 where it can best be seen. If vessels or boats at anchor have 
 their gear out, they shall, on the approach of other vessels, show 
 the same signal on the side on which those vessels can pass. 
 
 The vessels required by this article to carry or show the lights 
 hereinbefore specified shall not be obliged to carry the lights pre- 
 scribed by article four (a) and the last paragraph of article 
 eleven. 
 
INLAND RULES. 389 
 
39O INTERNATIONAL RULES. 
 
 Lights for an Overtaken Vessel. 
 
 Art. 10. A vessel which is being overtaken by another shall 
 show from her stern to such last-mentioned vessel a white light 
 or a flare-up light. 
 
 The white light required to be shown by this article may be 
 fixed and carried in a lantern, but in such case the lantern shall 
 be so constructed, fitted, and screened that it shall throw an un- 
 broken light over an arc of the horizon of twelve points of the 
 compass, namely, for six points from right aft on each side of the 
 vessel, so as to be visible at a distance of at least one mile. Such 
 light shall be carried as nearly as practicable on the same level 
 as the side-lights. 
 
 Anchor Lights. 
 
 Art. II. A vessel under one hundred and fifty feet in length, 
 when at anchor, 11 shall carry forward, where it can be best seen, 
 but at a height not exceeding twenty feet above the hull, a white 
 light in a lantern so constructed as to show a clear, uniform, and 
 unbroken light visible all around the horizon at a distance of at 
 least one mile 
 
 A vessel of one hundred and fifty feet or upwards in length, 
 when at anchor, shall carry in the forward part of the vessel, at 
 a height of not less than twenty and not exceeding forty feet 
 above the hull, one such light, and at or near the stern of the 
 vessel, and at such a height that it shall be not less than fifteen 
 feet lower than the forward light, another such light. 
 
 The length of a vessel shall be deemed to be the length appear- 
 ing in her certificate of registry. 
 
 A vessel aground in or near a fair-way shall carry the above 
 light or lights and the two red lights prescribed by article 
 four (a). 
 
 NOTE ii. A vessel is at anchor under the law when she is fixed 
 by some means to the soil, when she is made fast to a buoy which 
 is itself fixed to the soil, and when she is moored to a dock. (See 
 the definition of " under way " in the preliminary clause of these 
 rules.) 
 
INLAND RULES. 39! 
 
 Lights for an Overtaken Vessel. 
 
 Art. 10. A vessel which is being overtaken by another, ex- 
 cept a steam-vessel with an after range-l'ight 
 showing all around the horizon, shall show from 
 her stern to such last-mentioned vessel a white light or a flare-up 
 
 light. 
 
 Anchor lights. 
 
 Art. ii. A vessel under one hundred and fifty feet in length 
 when at anchor shall carry forward, where it can best be seen, 
 but at a height not exceeding twenty feet above the hull, a white 
 light, in a lantern so constructed as to show a clear, uniform, and 
 unbroken light visible all around the horizon at a distance of at 
 least one mile. 
 
 A vessel of one hundred and fifty feet or upwards in length 
 when at anchor shall carry in the forward part of the vessel, at a 
 height of not less than twenty and not exceeding forty feet above 
 the hull, one such light, and at or near the stern of the vessel, 
 and at such a height that it shall be not less than fifteen feet lower 
 than the forward light, another such light. 
 
 The length of a vessel shall be deemed to be the length appear- 
 ing in her certificate of registry. 
 
 NOTE 12. As the Inland Rules do not prescribe special lights for a 
 vessel aground, such a vessel must, in United States inland waters, 
 show the lights of a vessel at anchor. 
 
392 INTERNATIONAL RULES. 
 
 Special Signals. 
 
 Art. 12. Every vessel may, if necessary in order to attract 
 attention, in addition to the lights which she is by these rules 
 required to carry, show a flare-up light or use any detonating 
 signal that can not be mistaken for a distress signal. 13 
 
 NOTE 13. This is useful to attract the attention of a ship whose 
 duty is to keep clear, if she does not show a disposition to act. 
 
 Naval Lights and Recognition Signals. 
 
 Art. 13. Nothing in these rules shall interfere with the opera- 
 tion of any special rules made by the Government of any nation 
 with respect to additional station and signal-lights for two or 
 more ships of war or for vessels sailing under convoy, or with the 
 exhibition of recognition signals adopted by ship owners, which 
 have been authorized by their respective Governments and duly 
 registered and published. 
 
 Steam-vessel under Sail by Day. 
 
 Art. 14. A steam-vessel proceeding under sail only but hav- 
 ing her funnel up, shall carry in day-time, forward, where it can 
 best be seen, one black ball or shape two feet in diameter. 
 
 III. SOUND SIGNALS FOR FOG, AND SO FORTH. 
 
 Preliminary. 
 
 Art. 15. All signals prescribed by this article for vessels 
 under way shall be given: 
 
 First. By " steam-vessels " on the whistle or siren. 
 
 Second. By " sailing-vessels " and " vessels towed " on the 
 fog horn. 
 
 The words " prolonged blast " used in this article shall mean a 
 blast of from four to six seconds' duration. 
 
 A steam-vessel shall be provided with an efficient whistle or 
 siren, sounded by steam or by some substitute for steam, so 
 placed that the sound may not be intercepted by any obstruction, 
 and with an efficient fog-horn, to be sounded by mechanical 
 means, and also with an efficient bell. (In all cases where the 
 rules require a bell to be used a drum may be substituted on 
 board Turkish vessels, or a gong where such articles are used on 
 board small sea-going vessels.) A sailing-vessel of twenty tons 
 gross tonnage or upward shall be provided with a similar fog- 
 horn and bell. 
 
INLAND RULES. 393 
 
 Special Signals. 
 
 Art. 12. Every vessel may, if necessary, in order to attract 
 attention, in addition to the lights which she is by these rules 
 required to carry, show a flare-up light or use any detonating 
 signal that can not be mistaken for a distress signal. 
 
 Naval Lights and Kecognition Signals. 
 
 Art. 13. Nothing in these rules shall interfere with the opera- 
 tion of any special rules made by the Government of any nation 
 with respect to additional station and signal lights for two or 
 more ships of war or for vessels sailing under convoy, or with the 
 exhibition of recognition signals adopted by shipowners, which 
 have been authorized by their respective Governments, and duly 
 registered and published. 
 
 Steam- Vessels Under Sail by Day. 
 
 Art. 14. A steam-vessel proceeding under sail only, but hav- 
 ing her funnel up, may carry in day-time, forward, where it 
 can best be seen, one black ball or shape two feet in diameter. 
 
 HI. SOUND SIGNALS FOR FOG, AND SO FORTH. 
 
 Preliminary. 
 
 Art. 15. All signals prescribed by this article for vessels 
 under way shall be given : 
 
 1. By " steam-vessels " on the whistle or siren. 
 
 2. By " sailing-vessels " and " vessels towed " on the fog-horn. 
 The words " prolonged blast " used in this article shall mean a 
 
 blast of from four to six seconds duration-. 
 
 A steam-vessel shall be provided with an efficient whistle or 
 siren, sounded by steam or by some substitute for steam, so placed 
 that the sound may not be intercepted by any obstruction, and 
 with an efficient fog-horn ; also with an efficient bell. A sailing- 
 vessel of twenty tons gross tonnage or upward shall be provided 
 with a similar fog-horn and bell. 
 
394 INTERNATIONAL RULES. 
 
 NOTE 14. It is not easy to say what an " efficient " signal should 
 be capable of doing; but we may probably insist that, under reason- 
 ably favorable conditions of wind and weather, a whistle should be 
 heard not less than two miles, a fog-horn and bell not less than one 
 mile. It would, however, be dangerous to rely upon hearing signals 
 at these or any other definite distances, so many and so seemingly 
 erratic are the atmospheric conditions which modify the audibility of 
 sound. A sound which, under most circumstances, would be clearly 
 heard several miles, may, by some peculiar conditions of the atmos- 
 phere, be inaudible at a quarter of a mile. It is fairly well established, 
 that sounds are heard rather better in a fog or snow than in clear 
 weather (other things being equal) ; that sound travels better with 
 the wind than against it; that a strong breeze breaks up all sounds, 
 and that when the upper and lower strata of air are moving in con- 
 trary directions, sounds are particularly unreliable. 
 
 In fog, mist, falling snow, or heavy rainstorms, whether by day 
 or night, the signals described in this article shall be used as 
 follows, namely: 
 
 Steam-vessel under Way. 
 
 (a) A steam-vessel having way upon her shall sound, at inter- 
 vals of not more than two minutes, a prolonged blast. 15 
 
 NOTE 15 It is clear that the blast from a whistle might be so 
 prolonged or so frequent as to lessen unduly the probability of hear- 
 ing a signal from another vessel. There is also, no doubt, some 
 danger that the hearing of an officer on the bridge may be in a 
 measure dulled by the too frequent sound of his own whistle. 
 
 It will be agreed by most seamen, however, that two minutes is 
 much too long a time between signals; and the general practice of 
 men-of-war and well regulated merchant steamers seems to be to 
 make this interval, as nearly as may be, one minute, and to give the 
 blast a length of from four to six seconds. 
 
 There are electrical devices on the market, by which the whistle 
 is sounded automatically, at regular intervals and for a fixed length 
 of time, thus relieving the officer of the watch and the quarter- 
 master of all thought in the matter, and leaving them free to give 
 their undivided attention to duties from which, in a fog, they never 
 should be diverted. 
 
 The interval between signals is closely connected with the ques- 
 tion of speed in a fog. 
 
 (b) A steam-vessel under way, but stopped, and having no 
 way upon her, shall sound, at intervals of not more than two 
 minutes, two prolonged blasts, with an interval of about one 
 second between. 
 
 

 INLAND RULES. 
 
 395 
 
 In fog, mist, falling snow, or heavy rainstorms whether by day 
 or night, the signals described in this article shall be used as fol- 
 lows, namely : 
 
 Steam- Vessels Under Way. 
 
 (a) A steam-vessel under way shall sound, at intervals of not 
 more than one minute, a prolonged blast. 
 
 NOTE 16. In United States inland waters no special signal is pro- 
 vided for a vessel tinder way, but having no way upon her. Such a 
 vessel uses the regular signal for a vessel under way. 
 
396 INTERNATIONAL RULES. 
 
 NOTE 17. The power to distinguish, in a fog, between a vessel 
 moving and one stationary, is very important. Properly used, this 
 signal should be interpreted by another vessel hearing it, to mean, 
 "The way is off my ship; you may feel your way past me." 
 
 A caution is required in connection with the interval (two minutes) 
 permitted between signals. The law probably intended to require 
 that a steamer, having thus indicated that she is stationary, should 
 remain so until she gives another signal and a different one in other 
 words, if a vessel which has been stationary, starts her engines, she 
 should, by the time she gathers way, give the signal for a vessel 
 moving, without reference to the interval which has elapsed since her 
 last signal. Otherwise, she might gather way and actually move a 
 considerable distance before indicating to vessels in her vicinity that 
 she was no longer at rest and in the position where they would have 
 every reason for placing her. 
 
 It is important to note that from the time two vessels sight each 
 other, the sound signals of this article give way to the sound signals 
 of Art. 28 for " Vessels in sight of each other." 
 
 Sail-vessel under Way. 
 
 (c) A sailing-vessel under way shall sound, at intervals of not 
 more than one minute : 
 
 When on the starboard tack, one blast. 
 When on the port tack, two blasts in succession. 
 When with the wind abaft the beam, three blasts in suc- 
 cession. 
 
 (d) A vessel when at anchor shall, at intervals of not more 
 than one minute, ring the bell rapidly for about five seconds. 
 
 Vessels Towing or Towed and Vessels Unable to Manoeuvre. 
 
 (e) A vessel when towing, 18 a vessel employed in laying or in 
 picking up a telegraph cable, and a vessel under way, which is 
 unable to get out of .the way of an approaching vessel through 
 being not under command, or unable to manoeuvre as required by 
 the rules, shall, instead of the signals prescribed in subdivisions 
 (a) and (c) of this article, at intervals of not more than two min- 
 utes, sound three blasts in succession, namely: One prolonged 
 blast followed by two short blasts. A vessel towed may give this 
 signal and she shall not give any other. 
 
 NOTE 18. Observe that a vessel towing -is here classed with vessels 
 unable to manoeuvre in accordance with these rules when " in a fog, 
 mist, falling snow, or heavy rainstorm." We shall see, however 
 (Art. 16), that she is not relieved from the obligations laid upon 
 
INLAND RULES. 
 
 397 
 
 Sail- Vessels Under Way. 
 
 (c) A sailing-vessel under way shall sound, at intervals of not 
 more than one minute, when on the starboard tack, one blast; 
 when on the port tack, two blasts in succession, and when with 
 the wind abaft the beam, three blasts in succession. 
 
 Vessels at Anchor. 
 
 (d) A vessel when at anchor shall, at intervals, of not more 
 than one minute, ring the bell rapidly for about five seconds. 
 
 Vessels Towing or Towed. 
 
 (e) A steam-vessel when towing, shall, instead of the signals 
 prescribed in subdivision (a) of this article, at intervals of not 
 more than one minute, sound three blasts in succession, namely, 
 one prolonged blast followed by two short blasts. 
 
 A vessel towed may give this signal and she shall not give any 
 other. 
 
 NOTE 19. In United States inland waters no signal is provided for 
 a vessel not under command. 
 
 Rafts or Other Craft Not Provided For. 
 
 (f) All rafts or other water craft, not herein 
 provided for, navigating by hand-power, 
 horse-power, or by the current of the river, 
 shall sound a blast of the fog-horn, or equiva- 
 lent signal, at intervals of not more than one 
 minute. 
 
398 INTERNATIONAL RULES. 
 
 other vessels, of running at a moderate speed, stopping in case of 
 danger, and proceeding with caution; nor from the obligations as to 
 manoeuvring which are prescribed for steam-vessels meeting and 
 crossing. It is evident, however, that a vessel with another vessel in 
 tow is not by any means as free to manoeuvre as if she were unin- 
 cumbered. She can not stop and back as readily as other vessels, and 
 even if she does this herself, she is powerless to stop or back the tow. 
 It has been repeatedly held by the courts that other vessels are bound 
 to take these limitations into account and to make due allowance for 
 them, not only in a fog, but at all other times. In other words a tow- 
 ing-vessel must, as far as possible, comply with the Rules; but other 
 vessels must not expect her to do things which are manifestly im- 
 possible- 
 
 The fog-signal prescribed for a vessel towing, and the lights which 
 such a vessel shows at night, are therefore to be regarded as throwing 
 upon other vessels an obligation to manoeuvre with especial caution. 
 And this obligation is of course greater in a fog than at any other 
 time. 
 
 Small Sailing-vessels and Boats. 20 
 
 Sailing-vessels and boats of less than twenty tons gross ton- 
 nage shall not be obliged to give the above-mentioned signals, 
 but if they do not they shall make some other efficient sound- 
 signal at intervals of not more than one minute, 
 
 NOTE 20. See Art. 9 for the fog-signals to be used by fishing-vessels. 
 
(399) 
 
 FOG SIGNALS. 
 
 SHORT BLAST. 
 
 1 Second 
 Interval ' 
 
 LONG BLAST 
 
 STEAM VESSEL HAVING WAY UPON HER 
 STEAM VESSEL UNDERWAY \ 
 BUT STOPPED and HAV t- 
 ING NO WAY UPON HER ) 
 SAILING VESSEL UNDERWAY 
 
 On Starboard Tack 
 
 On Port Tack 
 
 With Wind Abaft Beam 
 
 VESSEL TOWING 
 VESSEL TOWED 
 
 VESSEL NOT UNDER COMMAND 
 VESSEL WORKING WITH TELE- 
 GRAPH CABLE 
 
 NOTE The International Rules require the. above signals to be 
 sounded at intervals not exceeding 2 minutes, the United States Inland 
 Rules at intervals not exceeding 1 minute. 
 
 VESSEL AT ANCHOR Ring BELL rapidly for 5 seconds 
 (at intervals of ^ minute). 
 
 VESSEL FISHING Ring Bell. 
 
 Blast 
 
 SOUND SIGNALS. 
 
 FOR VESSELS IN SIGHT OF EACH OTHER. 
 
 I am directing my course to starboard. 
 
 I am directing my course to port. 
 
 My engines are going Full Speed Astern. 
 
 NOTE The significance attached to these signals in the Pilot Rules 
 for United States Inland waters is slightly different from the above. 
 (See Notes 29 and 31, Chapter XIV, Art. 19.) 
 
4OO INTERNATIONAL RULES. 
 
 Speed in Fog. 
 
 Art. 16. Every vessel shall, in a fog, mist, falling snow, or 
 heavy rainstorms, go at a moderate speed, having careful regard 
 to the existing circumstances and conditions. 21 
 
 A steam-vessel hearing, apparently forward of her beam, the 
 fog-signal of a vessel the position of which is not ascertained, 
 shall, so far as the circumstances of the case admit, stop her 
 engines, and then navigate with caution until danger of collision 
 is over. 23 ' 24 
 
 NOTE 21. There is no point in connection with seamanship or 
 admiralty law about which there has been as much discussion as 
 about this question of " moderate speed " in a fog. The debates on 
 it fill a hundred pages or more in the report of the International 
 Marine Conference by which the present rules were drawn up. It 
 was contended that a law upon which so much depended ought not 
 to be left open to any doubt ; and that the maximum speed at which 
 a vessel might run in a fog should be definitely fixed by a law which 
 no one could violate except willfully and at his peril. 
 
 This subject will be treated as a matter of seamanship in a later 
 chapter. As a matter of law, it may be said that the courts of 
 both England and America have held that " moderate " speed is 
 such speed as will enable a vessel to bring herself to rest before com- 
 ing into collision with any other vessel which she can sight through 
 the fog in its existing condition, assuming that the other vessel is also 
 running at a proper speed under this Rule, and that both vessels act 
 promptly to prevent collision. In a dense fog, this calls for the very 
 lowest speed which is consistent with steerage way; and steamers 
 have been found at fault when running less than five knots. If the 
 fog is so dense that a ship which has barely steerage way and a good 
 reserve of power can not see another in time to avoid her even at that 
 low speed, then the law requires vessels to stop, and, if circumstances 
 permit it, to anchor. This is unquestionably the law in the matter, 
 and we are not at present considering its wisdom, or the general 
 practice of seamen in connection with it. 
 
 On the other hand, it has been held by the courts of both England 
 and the United States that a higher speed is permissible in the open 
 sea, where the probability of falling in with other ships is very slight, 
 than in crowded waters or on fishing grounds. When in the neigh- 
 
 
INLAND RULES. 4OI 
 
 Speed in Fog. 
 
 Art. 1 6. Every vessel shall, in a fog, mist, falling snow, or 
 heavy rainstorms, go at a moderate speed, having careful regard 
 to the existing circumstances and conditions. 
 
 A steam-vessel hearing, apparently forward of her beam, the 
 fog-signal of a vessel the position of which is not ascertained 
 shall, so far as the circumstances of the case admit, stop her 
 engines, and then navigate with caution until danger of collision 
 is over. 
 
 NOTE 22. See Note 21 under International Rules, and IV at end 
 of this Chapter. 
 
402 INTERNATIONAL RULES. 
 
 borhood of shoals and particularly in channels \\here currents are 
 strong and unknown, it may be dangerous to slow beyond a certain 
 point, and a court would doubtless accept such a plea as a valid 
 reason for maintaining a speed which under other circumstances would 
 be excessive. This is fully covered by the phrase " having careful 
 regard to the existing circumstances and conditions." But the burden 
 of proof is thrown upon the ship maintaining such speed. There can 
 be no question that the custom commonly followed by the great 
 ocean liners, of running through dense fogs at a speed only a few 
 knots below their maximum, is, in the eyes of the law, altogether un- 
 justifiable. 
 
 This subject is one of such importance, and the views held by seafaring 
 men with regard to it are so vague, that it is considered worth while to 
 .append (in IV at end of this Chapter) a number of decisions of the 
 courts dealing with the subject. These decisions will be found recorded, 
 in conveniently accessible form, in the files of the " Federal Reporter," 
 which can be seen in almost any large library. 
 
 NOTE 23. It should be noted that the ship need not be stopped im- 
 mediately, but the engines must be. If, later, the danger appears 
 such that the ship should be stopped, there will be a reserve of 
 steam ready for backing hard. The objection to backing the engines 
 before the location of the danger is fixed, is that by doing so the 
 control of the ship by the helm is to a great extent destroyed. 
 
 NOTE 24. It is clear that this rule could not safely be applied by 
 the individual vessels of a squadron of men-of-war steaming in 
 formation in a fog. Each vessel under such circumstances must have 
 due regard to her neighbors in squadron as well as to other vessels 
 which may be near. The case is covered by the words " so far as the 
 circumstances of the case admit." 
 
INLAND RULES. 403 
 
404 INTERNATIONAL RULES. 
 
 IV. STEERING AND SAILING RULES. 
 
 Preliminary Risk of Collision. 
 
 Risk of collision can, when circumstances permit, be ascer- 
 tained by carefully watching the compass bearing of an approach- 
 ing vessel. If the bearing does not appreciably change, such risk 
 should be deemed to exist. 25 
 
 NOTE 25. The principle involved here is one of such vital import- 
 ance that it should be very carefully impressed upon all officers. If 
 the bearing of the other vessel is changing materially, there is no 
 danger of collision. If it is not changing materially, collision is 
 certain to result unless one vessel changes course or speed. The fact 
 that the bearing is not changing indicates that both vessels are due to 
 arrive at the same time at the point where their courses intersect. If 
 either vessel changes course or speed (materially) the danger will be 
 averted. If both vessels change, the danger may remain. It is for 
 this reason that the law provides (Art. 21) that the vessel which has 
 the other on her own port side shall keep her course and speed. As- 
 suming that this requirement is complied with, practically any change 
 on the part of the other vessel should make the situation safe, but the 
 law has wisely provided (Art. 22) that she shall, if possible, avoid 
 crossing ahead. 
 
 The practical way to determine whether the bearing is or is not 
 changing, is to stand at a point from which the compass can be 
 watched, and then, taking care that a steady course is steered, bring 
 the other vessel or light " on " with a point of the rigging or the 
 rail, and watch thus for a change in its bearing. 
 
 There are, of course, many cases in which there is no time to wait 
 for a change in bearing; but in cases of such emergency as this, the 
 ships are close enough together to make the danger clear at a glance, 
 and there is rarely more than one course of action that can give a 
 hope of safety. 
 
 It is of course not necessary to wait for the side-light of a steamer 
 to show. The masthead light should be visible five miles, and if it 
 shows at anything like this distance the warning of danger, assuming 
 thSt such exists, will be perfectly clear long before the side-lights are 
 made out. 
 
 Sailing-vessels. 
 
 Art. 17. When two sailing-vessels are approaching one an- 
 other, so as to involve risk of collision, one of them shall keep out 
 of the way of the other as follows, namely : 
 
 (a) A vessel which is running free shall keep out of the way 
 of a vessel which is close-hauled. 
 
INLAND RULES. 405 
 
 IV. STEERING AND SAILING RULES. 
 
 Preliminary Risk of Collision. 
 
 Risk of collision can, when circumstances permit, be ascertained 
 by carefully watching the compass bearing of an approaching 
 vessel. If the bearing does not appreciably change, such risk 
 should be deemed to exist. 
 
 NOTE 26. See Note 25 under corresponding paragraph in the In 
 ternational Rules. 
 
 Sailing-Vessels Meeting or Crossing. 
 
 Art. 17. When two sailing-vessels are approaching one an- 
 other, so as to involve risk of collision, one of them shall keep out 
 of the way of the other as follows, namely : 
 
 (a) A vessel which is running free shall keep out of the way 
 of a vessel which is close-hauled. 
 
406 INTERNATIONAL RULES. 
 
 (b) A vessel which is close-hauled on the port tack shall keep 
 out of the way of a vessel which is close-hauled on the starboard 
 tack. 
 
 (c) When bo.th are running free, with the wind on different 
 sides, the vessel which has the wind on the port side shall keep 
 out of the way of the other. 
 
 (d) When both are running free, with the wind on the same 
 side, the. vessel which is to the windward shall keep out of the 
 way of the vessel which is to leeward. 
 
 (e) A vessel which has .the wind aft shall keep out of the way 
 of the other vessel. 29 
 
 NOTE 26. These rules are simple and satisfactory when the situa- 
 tions to which they apply are clearly defined. But in practice it is 
 often impossible for A to tell with any degree of certainty whether 
 B is close-hauled or a little free ; and yet the action to be taken by 
 A may depend upon this and this alone. 
 
 A similar difficulty arises when A, running with the wind free on 
 the port hand, sights B, to port and running free, and cannot tell 
 on which side B has the wind. If she has it on the starboard side, 
 A must keep clear, under rule (c) ; if on the port side, A has the 
 right of way and B must keep clear under rule (d), because she is to 
 windward of A. 
 
 No doubt a rational interpretation of this rule would require B 
 to keep clear in most of these doubtful cases, on the ground that she 
 would have the wind so nearly aft that it should be considered aft 
 in the meaning of the law. 
 
 An officer taking charge of the deck of a sailing ship should esti- 
 mate carefully the true direction of the wind and consider what con- 
 clusions may be based upon this with regard to the possible or prob- 
 able course of other vessels whose lights may be sighted anead or 
 on either hand. Remembering that a square rigger can not lie closer 
 to the wind than 6 points and that side-lights show through a range 
 of ten points, from right ahead to two points abaft the beam, he will 
 have much information upon which to base an opinion as to the 
 way in which a ship may be heading which is seen on a given bear- 
 ing, showing a red or green light. If his own ship is close-hauled 
 on the port tack, he has the right of way over all other vessels ex- 
 cept one close-hauled on the starboard tack, and it is clear that such 
 a vessel, to threaten collision, must bear a little on the lee bow and 
 must show a red light. In a similar way, deductions may be drawn 
 from the data available in any. given case, and, usually, a line of 
 bearing may be decided upon, with reference to which it may be 
 said that, broadly speaking, it is right to stand on for all crossing 
 lights seen on one side of this line, and to give way to all crossing 
 lights seen on the other side. 
 
INLAND RULES. 407 
 
 (b) A vessel which is close-hauled on the port tack shall keep 
 out of .the way of a vessel which is close-hauled on the starboard 
 tack. 
 
 (c) When both are running free, with the wind on different 
 sides, the vessel which has the wind on the port side shall keep 
 out of the way of the other. 
 
 (d) When both are running free, with the wind on the same 
 side, the vessel which is to the windward shall keep out of the 
 way of the vessel which is to the leeward. 
 
 (e) A vessel which has the wind aft shall keep out of the way 
 of the other vessel. 
 
408 INTERNATIONAL RULES. 
 
 Steam-vessels Meeting. 
 
 Art. 1 8. When two steam-vessels are meeting end-on, or 
 nearly end-on, so as to involve risk of collision, each shall alter 
 her course to starboard, so that each may pass on the port side of 
 the other. 
 
 This article only applies to cases where vessels are meeting 
 end-on, or nearly end-on, in such a manner as to involve the risk 
 of collision, and does not apply to two vessels which must, if both 
 keep on their respective courses pass clear of each other. 
 
 The only cases to which it does apply are when each of the 
 two vessels is end-on or nearly end-on, to the other ; in other 
 words, to cases in which, by day, each vessel sees the masts of the 
 other in a line or nearly in a line with her own ; and by night to 
 cases in which each vessel is in such a position as to see both the 
 side-lights of the other. 
 
 It does not apply by day to cases in which a vessel sees another 
 ahead crossing her own course ; or by night, to cases where the 
 red light of one vessel is opposed to the red light of the other, or 
 where the green light of one vessel is opposed to the green light 
 of the other, or Vhere a red light without a green light, or a 
 green light without a red light, is seen ahead, or where both 
 green and red lights are seen anywhere but ahead. 27 
 
 NOTE 27. The wording of this article is necessarily somewhat 
 indefinite, and leaves room for a difference in the interpretation of 
 the situation on the part of two vessels approaching each other, 
 "nearly end-on," but not exactly so. If one vessel considers that 
 the situation is a case of "meeting," as here defined, while the other 
 considers it one of " crossing," there may be such a conflict of action 
 between them as will lead to serious danger, especially if it happens 
 that each vessel is, in reality, a little on the starboard bow of the 
 other. 
 
 Many seamen consider a green light a very little on the starboard 
 bow the most serious threat of collision with which they have to deal. 
 
 The great safeguard, in this and other doubtful cases, lies in an 
 interchange of sound-signals while the vessels arc still separated by a 
 safe distance, and in prompt action in accordance with the under' 
 standing thus established. 
 
INLAND RULES. 
 
 Steam- Vessels Meeting. 
 
 Art. 18. When steam vessels are approaching 
 each other head and head, that is, end on, or nearly so, 
 it shall be the duty ofeach to pass on the port 
 side of t-he other ; and either vessel shall give, 
 as a signal of her intention, one short and distinct 
 blast of her whistle, which the other vessel 
 shall answerpromptly by a similar blast of her 
 whistle, and thereupon such vessels shall pass 
 on the port side of each other. But if the courses of 
 such vessels are so far on the starboard of 
 each other as not to be considered as meeting 
 head and head, either vessel shall immediately 
 give two short and distinct blasts of her whistle, which the 
 other vessel shall answer promptly by two 
 similar blasts of her whistle, and they shall pass 
 on the starboard side of each other. 
 
 The foregoing only applies to cases where vessels are 
 meeting end on or nearly end on, in such a manner as to involve 
 risk of collision ; in other words, to cases in which, by day, each 
 vessel sees the masts of the other in a line, or nearly in a line, 
 with her own, and by night to cases in which each vessel is in 
 such a position as to see both the side-lights of the other. 
 
 It does not apply by day to cases in which a vessel sees another 
 ahead crossing her own course, or by night to cases where the 
 red light of one vessel is opposed to the red light of the other, or 
 where the green light of one vessel is opposed to the green light 
 of the other, or where a red light without a green light or a green 
 light without a red light, is seen ahead, or where both green and 
 red lights are seen anywhere but ahead. 
 
 The following have no parallel in the International Rulesf^ 
 
 Nearing a Bend or Leaving a Slip. 
 
 Whenever a steam-vessel is nearing a short bend or 
 curve in the channel, where, from the height of the banks 
 or other cause, a steam- vessel approaching from the oppo- 
 site direction can not be seen for a distance of half a mile, 
 
Plate No. 124. 
 
 No RANGE LIGHTS. 
 
 SHOWING " B " AS SEEN BY " A 
 
 RANGE LIGHTS. 
 
 STEAMERS MEETING. 
 
INLAND RULES. 41 i 
 
 mile, such steam-vessel, when she shall have arrived within 
 half a mile of such curve or bend, shall give a signal by one 
 long blast of the steam-whistle, which signal shall be an- 
 swered by a similar blast, given by any approaching steam- 
 vessel that may be within hearing. Should such signal be so 
 answered by a steam-vessel upon the farther side of such 
 bend, then the usual signals for meeting and passing shall 
 immediately be given and answered ; but, if the first alarm 
 signal of such vessel be not answered, she is to consider .the 
 channel clear and govern herself accordingly. 
 
 When steam-vessels are moved from their docks or berths, 
 and other boats are liable to pass from any direction toward 
 them, they shall give the same signal as in the case of vessels 
 meeting at a bend, but immediately after clearing the berths 
 so as to be fully in sight they shall be governed by the steer- 
 ing and sailing rules. (See remarks in III of this chap- 
 ter on ' Vessels Backing.") 
 
 Passing a Vessel Going in Same Direction. 
 
 When steam-vessels are running in the same direction, 
 and the vessel which is astern shall desire to pass on the 
 right or starboard hand of the vessel ahead, she shall give 
 one short blast of the steam-whistle, as a signal of such 
 desire, and if the vessel ahead answers with one blast, she 
 shall put her helm to port; or if she shall desire to pass on 
 the left or port side of the vessel ahead, she shall give two 
 short blasts of the steam-whistle as a signal of such desire, 
 and if the vessel ahead answers with two blasts, shall put 
 her helm to starboard ; or if the vessel ahead does not think 
 it safe for the vessel astern to attempt to pass at that point, 
 she shall immediately signify the same by giving several ! 
 short and rapid blasts of the steam-whistle, not less than 
 four, and under no circumstances shall the vessel astern at- 
 tempt to pass the vessel ahead until such time as they have 
 reached a point where it can be safely done, when said vessel 
 ahead shall signify her willingness by blowing the proper 
 signals. The vessel ahead shall in no case attempt to cross 
 the bow or crowd upon the course of the passing vessel. 
 
 NOTE 28. It is good seamanship for a vessel overtaking another 
 from directly astern and desiring to pass her, to pass to the left rather 
 than to the right, and for the following reason: Suppose that A is 
 overtaking B. It may happen that while A is passing, B will meet 
 another vessel, C. In this case, B must put her helm to port and 
 sheer over to the right, which will throw her directly across A's bow 
 if A is passing on that side. With A passing on the other side, B's 
 port helm will take her clear of both A and C. 
 
412 INTERNATIONAL RULES. 
 
 Two Steam-vessels Crossing. 
 
 Art. 19. When two steam-vessels are crossing, so as to in- 
 volve risk of collision, the vessel which has the other on her own 
 starboard side shall keep out of the way of the other. 
 
 NOTE 29. In comparing the International and the Inland Rules for 
 Vessels Meeting and Crossing, some confusion may result from the 
 different methods of treating these situations in the two sets of Rules. 
 
 In the International Rules, the manoeuvres for meeting vessels 
 are prescribed in Article 18 and those for crossing vessels in Articles 
 19, 21 and 22. The sound signals for both meeting and crossing are 
 given in Article 28. 
 
 The treatment of the matter in the Inland Rules is described in 
 Note 3f, on the opposite page. 
 
 The signals from Article 28 are quoted below as a matter of con- 
 venience and for comparison with the United States Pilot Rules on 
 the opposite page. 
 
 From International Rules. (Art. 28). 
 
 "One short blast to mean, I am directing my course to 
 starboard. 
 
 Two short blasts to mean, I am directing my course to 
 port. 
 
 Three short blasts to mean, My engines are going at full 
 speed astern." 
 
 NOTE 30. It should not be forgotten that sound-signals are as ap- 
 plicable by night as by day, and that, under favorable conditions, they 
 can be heard nearly or quite as far as side-lights are required by law 
 to be visible. There is, however, this important difference; that by 
 
INLAND RULES. 413 
 
 Two Steam-Vessels Crossing. 
 
 Art. 19. When two steam- vessels are crossing, so as to involve 
 risk of collision, the vessel which has the other on her own star- 
 board side shall keep out of the way of the other. 
 
 NOTE. 31. (Compare with Note 29, opposite.) In the Inland Rules, 
 Article 18 prescribes the manoeuvres for vessels meeting and also the 
 Sound Signals to be used. Articles 19, 21 and 22 prescribe the 
 manoeuvres for vessels crossing. But, at no point in the Inland Rules 
 as enacted by Congress are the Sound Signals for crossing prescribed. 
 For some reason, Congress thought it wise to leave these signals to 
 be fixed by the Supervising Inspectors of Steam Vessels. Accord- 
 ingly, these sound signals (for vessels crossing in United States In- 
 land Waters) are found only in the "Pilot Rules" issued by the 
 Steamboat Inspection Service. Altho the rules thus prescribed are 
 in their essentials identical with the corresponding International 
 Rules, they are unfortunately expressed in terms differing rather 
 widely from those of the International Rules, as will be seen by 
 comparing the following with the corresponding International Rules. 
 
 It must be understood that tJiese rules are as much a matter 
 of law as if they had been specifically embodied in the Act of 
 Congress. They are, lioivever, subject to change by the will of 
 Supervising Inspectors of Steam-vessels. 
 
 From United States Pilot Rules 
 
 "One short blast of the whistle signifies intention. to direct 
 course to own starboard, except when two steam vessels are 
 approaching each other at right angles or obliquely, when it 
 signifies intention of the steam vessel which is to starboard 
 of the other to hold course and speed. 
 
 Tivo short-blasts of the whistle signify intention to direct 
 own course to port. 
 
 Three short blasts of the whistle shall mean, ' My engines 
 are going at full speed astern.' " 
 
Plate No. 125. 
 
 No RANGE LIGHTS. 
 
 CROSSING: "A" SIGHTS "B" TO PORT. 
 
 RANGE LIGHTS. 
 STKAMERS CROSSING WITH 
 
 AND WITHOUT RANGE LIGHTS 
 
Plate No. 125. 
 
 No RANGE LIGHTS. 
 
 Bi 
 
 CROSSING : " A " SIGHTS " B " TO STARBOARD. 
 
 RANGE LIGHTS. 
 
 STEAMERS CROSSING WITH AND WITHOUT RANGE LIGHTS. 
 
416 JNTERNATIONAL RULES. 
 
 day the sound of the whistle is usually confirmed by the sight of es- 
 caping steam, and seamen commonly rely almost as much upon their 
 eyes as upon their ears for recognizing signals. By night this ad- 
 vantage does not exist, and greater care is called for. 
 
 The danger of misunderstanding at night is still further increased 
 by the uncertainty existing on each ship with regard to the exact 
 course of the other, except in case where both ships are carrying 
 range-lights. Where range-lights are not used, it is helpful to rec- 
 ognize the value of the information given by a change in the side- 
 lights seen ; as, for example, a change from one light to both, or from 
 both to one. A change in the relative positions of the side-light and 
 the masthead light is also significant, but as there is no means of 
 knowing whether the side-light is forward of the masthead light or 
 abaft it, this gives no information as to the nature of the change of 
 course which is being made. 
 
 Observe that there is nothing in Articles 18 and 19 which leaves 
 any choice to meeting and crossing vessels with regard to the side 
 on which they pass each other. Nevertheless, circumstances some- 
 times arise in which it is necessary for them to pass starboard to 
 to starboard, and this manoeuvre can be justified (but only in cases of 
 necessity), under Art. 27. See III of this chapter. 
 
 
INLAND RULES. 417 
 
 Additional Pilot Rules covering exceptional situations in Inland Waters. 
 
 (a) If, when steam-vessels are approaching each other, either 
 vessel fails to understand the course or intention of the other, from 
 any cause, the vessel so in doubt shall immediately signify the same 
 by giving several short and rapid blasts, not less than four, of the 
 steam-whistle. 
 
 (6) If from any cause whatever the conditions covered by this sit- 
 uation are such as to prevent immediate compliance with each other's 
 signals, the misunderstanding or objection shall at once be made 
 apparent by blowing the danger signal, and both steamers shall be 
 stopped, and backed if necessary, until signals for passing with safety 
 arc made and understood. 
 
 (c) Steam-vessels are forbidden to use what has become techni- 
 cally known among " pilots " as " Cross Signals," that is, answering 
 one whistle with two and answering two whistles with one. 
 
 (d) The signals for passing, by the blowing of the whistle, shall 
 be given and answered by pilots, in compliance with these rules, not 
 only when meeting "head and head," or nearly so, but at all times, 
 when the steam vessels are in sight of each other, when passing or 
 meeting at a distance within half a mile of each other, and whether 
 passing to the starboard or port. 
 
 O) The whistle signals provided in the rules of this article, for 
 steam-vessels meeting, passing, or overtaking, are never to be used 
 except when steamers are in sight of each other, and the course and 
 position of each can be determined in the day-time by a sight of the 
 vessel itself, or by night by seeing its signal lights. In fog, mist, fall- 
 ing snow or heavy rainstorms, when vessels can not see each other, 
 fog-signals only must be given. 
 
4 1 8 INTERNATIONAL RULES. 
 
 
 team-vessels shall keep out of the Way of Sailing-vessels. 
 
 Art. 20. When a steam-vessel and a sailing-vessel are pro- 
 ceeding in such directions as to involve risk of collision, the 
 steam-vessel shall keep out of the way of the sailing-vessel. 
 
 Course and Speed. 
 
 Art. 21. Where, by any of these rules, one of the two vessels 
 is to keep out of the way the other shall keep her course and 
 speed. 
 
 Note. When, in consequence of thick weather or other causes, 
 such vessel finds herself so close that collision can not be avoided 
 by the action of the giving-way vessel alone, she also shall take 
 such action as will best aid to avert collision. (See articles 
 twenty-seven and twenty-nine.)** 
 
 NOTE. 32. One of the most trying positions in which an officer 
 can find himself is that of holding on with a prospect of collision 
 where the other vessel ought to keep clear but takes no action to do 
 so. The impossibility of knowing whether the giving-way ship in- 
 tends to act, and if so when, and the necessity of deciding when the 
 time has come which will justify the holding-on ship in acting under 
 this article make the situation very difficult. 
 
 The use of a detonating signal, as per article 12, may be helpful 
 here. 
 
 Crossing Ahead. 
 
 Art. 22. Every vessel which is directed by these rules to keep 
 out of the way of another vessel shall, if the circumstances of the 
 case admit, avoid crossing ahead of the other. 33 
 
 NOTE 33. This article is one of the most important in the Rules 
 of the Road, to which it was added by the International Conference 
 of 1889. 
 
 Taken in connection with Art. 19 and with the new provision of 
 Art. 21, by which the vessel having the right of way is required to 
 keep her speed as well as her course, it defines very clearly the ma- 
 noeuvre for steamers crossing, and requires, as a matter of law, what 
 has always been the practice of careful and competent seamen. 
 
 It is manifestly impracticable to insist that the vessel which is 
 required to keep clear shall never cross ahead of the other since cir- 
 cumstances may in some cases make it imperative to do so; as, for 
 example, where the y-essels suddenly sight each other close aboard, 
 or where neighboring vessels or other dangers must be taken into 
 account Such situations very rarely arise on the open sea, except 
 
INLAND RULES. 419 
 
 Steam-Vessels Shall Keep Out of the Way of Sailing- Vessels. 
 
 Art. 20. When a steam-vessel and a sailing-vessel are pro- 
 ceeding in such directions as to involve risk of collision, the 
 steam-vessel shall keep out of the way of the sailing-vessel. 
 
 Course and Speed. 
 
 Art. 21. Where, by any of these rules, one of the two vessels 
 is to keep out of the way the other shall keep her course and speed. 
 
 Crossing Ahead. 
 
 Art. 22. Every vessel which is directed by these rules to 
 keep out of the way of another vessel shall, if the circumstances 
 of the case admit, avoid crossing ahead of the other. 
 
 NOTE 34. See Pilot Rules quoted under Art. 19. See also III of 
 this chapter. 
 
 In crowded waters, situations frequently arise in which it is essen- 
 tial that the burdened vessel shall cross ahead; but if collision re- 
 sults in such a case, the courts insist upon conclusive evidence that 
 this was in fact the safest course. Whatever action is to be taken, 
 whether in crowded or in open waters, this action should be announced 
 by the proper whistle signal. 
 
 It seems to be believed by many officers, that a signal of two blasts 
 by the vessel which should give away has the effect of changing the 
 law and of justifying this vessel in crossing ahead, merely as a mat- 
 ter of convenience. The law on this subject is very clearly set forth 
 in the decision quoted in III. of this chapter. 
 
42O INTERNATIONAL RULES. 
 
 
 in case of fog, and when they do arise they are lully covered by 
 Art. 21 (International Rules), and Art. 27. It is especially important, 
 in cases of this kind, to indicate by whistle signals the manoeuvre 
 which is to be attempted. (See 111, of this chapter.) 
 
 Steam-vessels shall slacken Speed or Stop. 
 
 Art. 23. Every steam-vessel which is directed by these rules 
 to keep out of the way of another vessel shall, on approaching 
 her, if necessary, slacken her speed or stop or reverse. 
 
 Overtaking Vessels. 
 
 Art. 24. Notwithstanding anything contained in these rules 
 every vessel, overtaking any other, shall keep out of the way of 
 the overtaken vessel. 85 
 
 Every vessel coming up with another vessel from any di- 
 rection more than two points abaft her beam, that is, in such 
 a position, with reference to the vessel which she is over- 
 taking that at night she would be unable to see either of that 
 vessel's side-lights, shall be deemed to be an overtaking ves- 
 sel ; and no subsequent alteration of the bearing between the 
 two vessels shall make the overtaking vessel a crossing vessel 
 within the meaning of these rules, or relieve her of the duty 
 of keeping clear of the overtaken vessel until she is finally 
 past and clear. 
 
 As by day the overtaking vessel can not always know with cer- 
 tainty whether she is forward of or abaft this direction from the 
 other vessel she should, if in doubt, assume that she is an over- 
 taking vessel and keep out of the way. 
 
 NOTE 35 The rule for overtaking vessels applies to sailing-ves- 
 sels as well as to steamers, so that a sailing-vessel close-hauled com- 
 ing up from more than two points abaft the beam of a vessel running 
 free, must keep clear. Moreover, a sailing-vessel overtaking a steamer 
 must keep clear. And this obligation upon the overtaking vessel to 
 keep clear is not modified by any subsequent change in the relative 
 position of the two vessels. 
 
 Where the crossing rule and the overtaking rule conflict that is 
 to say, where one vessel is both overtaking and crossing another, the 
 overtaking rule prevails, so that a crossing steamer which has come 
 up from more than two points abaft the beam of another, must keep 
 clear, even though she is on the starboard side of the other ; and she 
 is not relieved from this obligation even after she draws ahead on to 
 the beam and bow of the other vessel. 
 
INLAND RULES. 42 I 
 
 Steam-Vessel Shall Slacken Speed or Stop. 
 Art. 23. Every steam-vessel which is directed by these rules 
 to keep out of the way of another vessel shall, on approaching 
 her, if necessary, slacken her speed or stop or reverse. 
 
 Overtaking Vessels. 
 
 Art. 24. Notwithstanding anything contained in these rules 
 every vessel overtaking any other, shall keep out of the way of 
 the overtaken vessel. 
 
 Every vessel coming up with another vessel from any di- 
 rection more than two points abaft her beam, that is, in such 
 a position, with reference to the vessel which she is overtak- 
 ing that at night she would be unable to see either of that 
 vessel's side-lights, shall be deemed to be an overtaking ves- 
 sel ; and no subsequent alteration of the bearing between the 
 two vessels shall make the overtaking vessel a crossing vessel 
 within the meaning of these rules, or relieve her of the duty 
 of keeping clear of the overtaken vessel until she is finally 
 past and clear. 
 
 As by day the overtaking vessel can not always know with 
 certainty whether she is forward of or abaft .this direction 
 from the other vessel she should, if in doubt, assume that 
 she is an overtaking vessel and keep out of her way. 
 
 NOTE 36. See Note 35 under Article 24, International Rules. 
 
 In cases where the crossing rule and the overtaking rule conflict, 
 the overtaking rule prevails; so that a vessel which is both over- 
 taking and crossing another must keep clear, even though she has the 
 other on her port hand. 
 
422 INTERNATIONAL RULES. 
 
 Narrow Channels. 
 
 Art. 25. In narrow channels every steam-vessel shall, when it 
 is safe and practicable, keep to that side of the fair-way or mid- 
 channel which lies on the starboard side of such vessel. 37 
 
 NOTE. 37. It is not permissible to keep to the wrong side of the 
 channel to avoid an unfavorable current, or for any other purpose, 
 except to avoid danger. 
 
 Rights of Way of Fishing- vessels. 
 
 Art. 26. Sailing-vessels under way shall keep out of the way 
 of sailing-vessels or boats fishing with nets, or lines, or trawls. 
 This rule shall not give to any vessel or boat engaged in fishing 
 the right of obstructing a fair-way used by vessels other than 
 fishing-vessels or boats. 
 
 General Prudential Rule. 
 
 Art. 27. In obeying and construing these rules due regard 
 shall be had to all dangers of navigation and collision, and to any 
 special circumstances which may render a departure from the 
 above rules necessary in order to avoid immediate danger. 
 
INLAND RULES. 423 
 
 Narrow Channels. 
 
 Art. 25. In narrow channels every steam-vessel shall, when it 
 is safe and practicable, keep to that side of the fair-way or 
 mid-channel which lies on the starboard side of such vessel. 
 
 NOTE. 38. It is not permissible to keep to the wrong side of the 
 channel either to avoid an unfavorable current, or for any other pur- 
 pose, except to avoid danger. See Note 40. 
 
 Eights of Way of Fishing-Vessels. 
 
 Art. 26. Sailing-vessels under way shall keep out of the way 
 of sailing-vessels or boats fishing with nets, or lines, or trawls. 
 This rule shall not give to any vessel or boat engaged in fishing 
 the right of obstructing a fair-way used by vessels other than 
 fishing-vessels or boats. 
 
 General Prudential Bule. 41 
 
 Art. 27. In obeying and construing these rules due regard 
 shall be had to all dangers of navigation and collision, and to any 
 special circumstances which may render a departure from the 
 above rules necessary in order to avoid immediate danger. 
 
 NOTE 40. Although there is no provision of the law giving special 
 privileges to ferry-boats the courts have repeatedly held that ferry- 
 boats are entitled to reasonable freedom of entrance to, and exit 
 from, their slips. 
 
 It is generally held, also, that vessels navigating a harbor should 
 avoid passing close to the docks. 
 
 By a special statute of the State of New York, vessels navigating 
 East River are required to keep as near the middle of the stream as 
 is practicable, and not to exceed a speed of 10 knots. 
 
 NOTE. 41. It is to this Article that appeal must 'be made for justi- 
 fication of any departure from the rules elsewhere prescribed for 
 vessels meeting or crossing. But no appeal can be successfully main- 
 tained before the Courts unless it appears clearly that the course 
 adopted was dictated by necessity ; that it was, in fact, the only 
 course which gave a chance of safety, or at least the one which gave 
 the maximum chance. Neither the convenience of one or both ves- 
 sels nor an agreement between them is held by the Courts to justify 
 departure from the rules. 
 
 But see the very full discussion under III of this chapter, where 
 it is explained that violations of the rules by Pilots are of frequent 
 occurrence in United States Inland waters. 
 
424 
 
 INTERNATIONAL RULES. 
 
 Sound-signals for Vessels in Sight of One Another. 42 
 
 Art. 28. The words " short blast " used in this article shall 
 mean a blast of about one second's duration. 
 
 When vessels are in sight of one another, a steam-vessel under 
 way, in taking any course authorized or required by these rules, 
 shall indicate that course by the following signals on her whistle 
 or siren, namely: 
 
 One short blast to mean, "I am directing my course to star- 
 board." 
 
 Two short blasts to mean, " I am directing my course to port." 
 
 Three short blasts to mean, " My engines are going at full 
 speed astern." 
 
 NOTE 42. It should be noted that this rule applies to vessels in 
 sight of each other, whether by night or day, in clear or in foggy 
 weather, but not to vessels, however close, which do not see each 
 other or each other's lights. Thus two vessels in a fog must keep 
 to the signals of Art. 15 until they actually see each other. Many 
 seamen hold that there would be great advantage in the use of these 
 signals by vessels near each other, but not in sight, in a fog, and 
 some officers do not hesitate to use them in this way; but this is in 
 direct defiance of the law. 
 
 No Vessel, under any Circumstances, to Neglect Proper 
 Precautions. 
 
 Art. 29. Nothing in these rules shall exonerate any vessel or 
 the owner or master or crew thereof, from the consequences of 
 any neglect to carry lights or signals, or of any neglect to keep a 
 proper lookout, or of the neglect of any precaution which may 
 be required by the ordinary practice of seamen, or by special 
 circumstances of the case. 
 
 Reservation of Rules for Harbors and Inland Navigation. 
 
 Art. 30. Nothing in these rules shall interfere with the opera- 
 tion of a special rule, duly made by local authority, relative to the 
 navigation of any harbor, river, or inland waters. 
 
 NOTE. 43. In the waters of the United States there are two sets 
 of rules "duly made by local authority"; ist, the so-called "Inland 
 Rules " made by Act of Congress and printed herewith ; 2d, the " Pilot 
 Rules " made by the inspectors of steam-vessels and embodied in 
 the Inland Rules as here given. 
 
INLAND RULES. 
 
 425 
 
 Sound-Signals for Vessels in Sight of One Another. 
 
 Art. 28. When vessels are in sight of one another a steam- 
 vessel under way whose engines are going at full speed astern 
 shall indicate that fact by three short blasts on the whistle. 
 
 The following are the Pilot Rules establishing sound signals 
 under this article. 
 
 A short blast of the whistle shall mean a blast of about 
 one second's duration. 
 
 A prolonged blast of the whistle shall mean a blast of 
 from four to six seconds' duration. 
 
 One short blast of the whistle signifies intention to di- 
 rect course to own starboard, except when two steam ves- 
 sels are approaching each other at right angles or obliquely, 
 when it signifies intention of steam vessel which is to star- 
 board of the other to hold course and speed. 
 
 Two short blasts of the whistle signify intention to di- 
 rect course to own port. 
 
 Three short blasts of the whistle shall mean, " My en- 
 gines are going at full speed astern." 
 
 NOTE 44. See the discussion of Sound Signals in Notes 29 and 31 
 under article 19 preceding. 
 
 No Vessel Under Any Circumstances to Neglect Proper 
 Precautions. 
 
 Art. 29. Nothing in these rules shall exonerate any vessel, or 
 the owner or master or crew thereof, from the consequences of 
 any neglect to carry lights or signals, or of any neglect to keep a 
 proper lookout, or of the neglect of any precaution which may be 
 required by the ordinary practice of seamen, or by the special 
 circumstances of the case. 
 
 lights on Naval and Revenue Vessels. 
 
 Art. 30. The exhibition of any light on board 
 of a vessel of war of the United States or a 
 revenue cutter may be suspended whenever, 
 in the opinion of the Secretary of the Navy, 
 the commander-in-chief of a squadron, or the 
 commander of a vessel acting singly, _ t h e spe- 
 cial character of the service may require it. 
 
426 
 
 INTERNATIONAL RULES. 
 
 Distress Signals. 
 
 Art. 31. When a vessel is in distress and requires assistance 
 from other vessels or from the shore the following shall be the 
 signals to be used or displayed by her, either together or sepa- 
 rately, namely: 
 
 In the daytime 
 
 First. A gun or other explosive signal fired at intervals of 
 about a minute. 
 
 Second. The international code signal of distress indicated by 
 N. C. 
 
 Third. The distance signal, consisting of a square flag, having 
 either above or below it a ball or anything resembling a ball. 
 
 Fourth. A continuous sounding with any fog-signal apparatus. 
 
 At night 
 
 First. A gun or other expolsive signal fired at intervals of 
 about a minute. 
 
 Second. Flames on the vessel as from a burning tar barrel, oil 
 barrel, and so forth. 
 
 Third. Rockets or shells throwing stars of any color or de- 
 scription, fired one at a time, at short intervals. 
 
 Fourth. A continuous sounding with any fog-signal apparatus. 
 
INLAND RULES. 427 
 
 Distress Signals. 
 
 Art. 31. When a vessel is in distress and requires assistance 
 from other vessels or from the shore the following shall be the 
 signals to be used or displayed by her, either together or separ- 
 ately, namely : 
 
 In the Daytime. 
 
 A continuous sounding with fog-signal apparatus, or firing 
 a gun. 
 
 At Night. 
 
 First. Flames on the vessel as from a burning tar barrel, oil 
 barrel and so forth. 
 
 Second. A continuous sounding with any fog-signal apparatus, 
 or firing a gun. 
 
 NOTE 45. Very important information as to the practices and meth- 
 ods of the United States Coast Guard in assisting vessels in distress 
 will be found in Chapter XXIX. 
 
Plate No. 126. 
 
THE RULES OF THE ROAD. 429 
 
 IH. 
 
 REMARKS ON THE RULES FOR STEAMERS MEETING AND 
 
 CROSSING. 
 
 The rules for meeting and crossing are laid down in Articles 
 18, 19, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 27, and 28 of both the International and 
 Inland Rules and, as regards United States inland waters, in the 
 Pilot Rules quoted under Article 19. 
 
 GENERAL PRINCIPLES. All of the above rules are based upon 
 one very simple principle, which is that every steamer in passing 
 another steamer, whether in meeting or in crossing, MUST KEEP TO 
 THE RIGHT; or, in other words, must present her own port side to 
 the vessel which she is passing. 
 
 It follows that, if A and B are crossing and if A is already pre- 
 senting her port side to B, she has no occasion to make a change. She 
 therefore keeps her course and speed. It follows equally that B, since 
 she is presenting her starboard side to A , must make a change, and 
 this change must be of such a nature as to bring her port side toward 
 A. This will, in general call for port helm and will swing B's head 
 toward A's stern, although B may, of course, bring about the same 
 result by slowing, stopping, or backing, thus allowing A to draw 
 ahead across B's bow and toward B's port side. 
 
 If the vessels are meeting end-on, neither one is presenting her port 
 side to the other, and each must change course to starboard, thus bring- 
 ing her port side toward the other. 
 
 It has been explained, in Notes 34 and 41, that a departure 
 from the general rule is permissible in cases of emergency, where 
 it can be shown to give a maximum chance of avoiding colli- 
 sion, but not otherwise. 
 
 The law in this matter is clearly laid down in the following 
 decisions of the United States courts : 
 
 (i) "A steamer bound to keep out of the way of another steamer 
 by going to the right, has no right, when under no stress of circum- 
 stances, but merely for her own convenience, to give the other steamer 
 a signal of two whistles, importing that she will go to the left, unless 
 she can do so safely by her own navigation, without aid from the 
 other, and without requiring the other steamer to change her course 
 or her speed. Otherwise she would be imposing upon the latter steamer 
 more or less of the burden and the duty of keeping out of the way, 
 which by statute is imposed on herself. When two blasts are given 
 under such circumstances, the steamer bound to keep out of the way 
 thereby in effect says to the other: 'I can keep out of your way by 
 going ahead of you to the left, and will do so if you do nothing to 
 thwart me; do you assent?' A reply of two whistles, in itself, 
 means nothing more than an assent to this course, a.t the risk of the. 
 
430 
 
 Plate No. 127. 
 
 B 
 
 A * 
 
 Each vessel puts helm to port 
 
 / j \ 
 
 and passes with her port side to 
 
 
 the other. 
 Signal Exchanged : One Blast. 
 Exception. If necessary to pass 
 contrary to this rule (using star- 
 board helm) the proper signal is 
 Two Blasts. 
 See Article 18, Rules Road, and 
 
 A keeps clear and if possible 
 avoids passing ahead of B. 
 B keeps course and speed. 
 Signal exchanged ; One Blast. 
 Exception. If necessary for A 
 to cross ahead, the proper signal 
 is Two Blasts. 
 
 "Remarks," III, Chap. XIV. 
 
 See Articles 19, 21, 22, 23. 
 
 
 Rules Road ; Pilot Rules VIII, IX j 
 
 
 "Remarks," III, Chap. XIV. 
 
 I. VESSELS MEETING. 
 
 2. VESSELS CROSSING. 
 
 
 ' 
 
 ^^^^s ' 
 
 B A 
 
 s 
 
 If B wishes to pass A, she signals 
 
 s 
 
 with One Blast if wishing to pass 
 
 s* 
 
 to the right, and with Two Blasts 
 
 /' 
 
 if wishing to pass to the left. 
 
 s/j' 
 
 If A consents she answers with 
 
 y 
 
 the same signal. If she does not 
 
 
 consent, she gives several short 
 
 
 and rapid blasts. 
 
 B has come up from more than 2 
 
 B must not pass until A con- 
 
 pts. abaft A's beam and must keep 
 
 sents. 
 
 clcnr altho* she is on A's starboard 
 
 See Pilot Rule under Art. 18, 
 
 hand. 
 
 U. S. Inland Rules and Note 28 
 
 See Art. 24, International and 
 
 under same Article. 
 
 Inland Rules. 
 
 
 3. OVERTAKING. 
 
 4. PASSWG,GOING IN SAME DIRECTION. 
 
 TYPICAL SITUATIONS. RULES OF THE ROAD. 
 
Plate 3STo. 128. 
 
 A 
 
 f A 
 
 
 \ B C 
 
 (P B 
 
 Y 
 
 Both vessels apply the crossing 
 rule with reference to their direction 
 
 
 of motion, so that A keeps clear of B 
 as in Situation 2, Plate 99, and the 
 same whistle signals are exchanged. 
 In this case One Blast. 
 If it is necessary for A to back 
 across B's line of motion, the proper 
 signal is Two Blasts. See III, 
 Chap. XIV. 
 
 The crossing rule applies as if B's 
 stern were her bow. 
 B keeps clear. 
 Signal in this cass, v/na Blast 
 If it is necessary for B to back 
 across A's bow, the proper signal is 
 Two Blasts. See III, Chap. XIV. 
 
 VESSELS CROSSING, BOTH SACKING, 
 
 ONE GOINGAHEAD,ONEBACKWG, 
 
 -1.- 
 
 -2- 
 
 ^ i f 
 
 / 
 
 ^ 
 
 \ 
 \ 
 
 In these situations, A being presumably faster than B, wishes to cross ahead 
 to make her dock, or for some other reason. 
 
 As the two vessels are now on perfectly safe courses, the law does not recognize 
 the right of A to cross, even in Situation 1, where she has B on the port hand. 
 
 The following manoeuvres are^-hc^wever, very common in United Stateslnland 
 Waters : In 1, A sounds one blast and puts her helm to starboard, B (usually) 
 answers with one blast and takes whatever steps are necessary to keep clear. 
 
 In 2, A sounds two blasts and waits forSto answer. If B answers with 
 1 wo blasts, A puts her helm to port and crosses, and B takes whatever steps are 
 necessary to keep clear. If, in 2, B does not answer, A (usually) does not cross. 
 
 STEAMERS ON PARALLEL COURSES. V WISHES TO CROSS AHEAD. 
 
 TYPICAL SITUATIONS. RULES OF THE ROAD. 
 
432 THE RULES OF THE ROAD. 
 
 vessel proposing it. Such a reply does not of itself change or modify 
 the statutory obligation of the former to keep out of the way as before, 
 nor does it guaranty the success of the means she has adopted to do 
 so." " THE CITY OF HARTFORD," Federal Reporter 23, page 650. 
 
 (2) "But from the moment that such an attempt [the attempt to 
 cross ahead] apparently involves risk of collision, both steamers are 
 equally bound to do all they can to avoid a collision. But this general 
 obligation applies equally whether the previous signals were of two 
 whistles or of one. The precise acts which either is bound to do when 
 immediate danger of collision arises must depend upon the particular 
 circumstances, and of these circumstances the previous understanding 
 as to the course or intention of each vessel is one of the most im- 
 portant. But where the circumstances are such that a course proposed 
 by a signal of two whistles would, if assented to and adopted, require 
 at once, as in this case, immediate and strong measures to avoid a 
 collision, there can be no question that such a proposal is wholly un- 
 justifiable, and a gross fault, when proposed by a steamer that is 
 bound to keep out of the way, and is under no constraint of circum- 
 stances, but free to pursue other safe methods of doing so." The 
 NEREUS. Federal Reporter, No. 23, page 455. 
 
 (3) "The rule of the Supervising Inspectors governing navigation 
 in New York harbor, that a steam-vessel approaching another on a 
 crossing course so as to endanger collision shall signify by a blact, or 
 blasts, of the whistle what course she proposes to take can not be held 
 to deprive the vessel which is on the starboard side of the other of her 
 right to keep on her course as provided by Revised Statutes." The 
 HAMILTON vs. THE JOHN KING. Federal Reporter, No. 49, page 
 469. 
 
 The remarks which precede with regard to crossing deal with 
 cases in which the vessels are not hampered by any emergency 
 connected with the original situation. There is another and very 
 important case which frequently arises in crowded waters, where 
 A, having B on her starboard hand and rather close aboard, is 
 obliged to cross ahead because she has not room to manoeuvre 
 otherwise. This is distinctly an emergency situation and is 
 covered in the International Rules by the second paragraph of 
 Article 21, and in both the International and the Inland Rules by 
 Articles 27 and 29. In this case the vessels exchange a two-blast 
 signal and A crosses ahead, B taking such steps as may be neces- 
 sary to let her cross safely. 
 
 Meeting Vessels. In crowded waters, it is often impracticable 
 for meeting vessels to pass each other port to port. In such cases 
 the practice is to exchange a two-blast signal and pass starboard 
 to starboard. This deviation from the law is justifiable only in 
 cases of actual necessity ; yet it constantly occurs in the inland 
 waters of the United States in cases where no possible excuse for 
 
THE RULES OF THE ROAD. 433 
 
 it exists. The custom seems .to be well established among pilots, 
 to pass on whichever side is the more convenient ; and it seems to 
 be considered that the law has been complied with if the side 
 selected is indicated by the appropriate signal. 
 
 So well established is this custom, that its existence can not be 
 ignored; but there is no question that it is a direct violation of the 
 law, except, as already noted, when it is actually dictated by con- 
 siderations of safety. 
 
 Vessels Backing. An interesting and important point arises 
 when one of two crossing vessels is going astern instead of ahead. 
 It is the practice of seamen to consider in such cases that the 
 rules apply with reference to the direction of motion of the ship, 
 so that for the time being, the starboard side becomes the port 
 side and the port side the starboard side. This practice has been 
 sanctioned by several decisions of the courts, and may be regarded 
 as fully established. In other words, we must consider the pilot 
 of a backing vessel to be facing aft, .toward the direction in which 
 his ship is moving. He must then keep clear of a vessel on his 
 right hand as if that were his starboard side. And his whistle 
 signals must correspond. Similarly, the vessel which is crossing 
 him must regard the stern of the backing steamer as if it were 
 the bow, etc. 
 
 Winding Channels. Where two vessels are approaching each 
 other in adjoining reaches of a winding channel so that they are 
 for the moment on crossing courses, it has been held by the courts 
 that they are to be regarded as meeting, not as crossing vessels. 
 
 If they seem likely to meet at a bend, or in a narrow and diffi- 
 cult part of the channel, good judgment requires the one which 
 is going against the current to slow until the other has cleared 
 the difficult point and straightened out, after which there is no 
 difficulty about passing. 
 
 This course, which is dictated by good seamanship, is in many 
 rivers prescribed by local regulations. 
 
 Article 50 of the By-laws for the Thames reads as follows : 
 
 " Steam-vessels and steam-launches navigating against the stream 
 above Richmond Lock shall ease and if necessary stop to allow vessels 
 coming down with the stream to pass clear particularly when rounding 
 points or sharp bends in the river." 
 
 Similar provisions are included in the local regulations for the 
 Trent, the Danube, and many other rivers. 
 
 The following extract from the decision in a case of collision in 
 the Danube, where two steamers met in a dangerous part of the 
 channel, sets forth the view which would probably be taken by 
 the courts in similar cases, even where no local regulations ex- 
 isted covering the situation. It must not be forgotten, however, 
 that this decision has to do with a case which was actually covered 
 by a local rule: 
 
434 THE RULES OF THE ROAD. 
 
 " An ascending ship must stop below the passage until a descending 
 ship has cleared it whenever the ascending ship has notice that if she 
 proceeds she will be exposed to the risk of meeting the descending ship 
 at or near that point; and the descending vessel must stop above the 
 passage when the ascending ship has reached such point and has 
 actually begun to navigate the contracted passage before notice is 
 conveyed to her that if she proceeds she will be exposed to the risk of 
 meeting the descending ship at or near the point. 
 
 "When the ascending ship neglects to stop below the passage, it is 
 the duty of the descending ship to refrain from any attempt to ex- 
 ercise her right of precedence, when the intention of the ascending 
 steamer to violate the regulations becomes reasonably apparent." The 
 CLIEVEDEN vs. The DIANA. 7. Aspinall's Maritime Cases, page 489. 
 
 With regard to ships which for any reason pass at a bend, see 
 remarks to Chapter XVI on rounding a bend with and against 
 the current. 
 
 Men of War in Formation. 
 
 There are no actual decisions by the Courts of this or other countries 
 covering the special case of a vessel encountering a fleet of warships in 
 formation. No doubt such a vessel has all the rights accorded her by the 
 rules of the road as regards -each individual vessel of the fleet. But she 
 would do well to remember that each vessel of the fleet has responsibilities 
 (also under the rules of the road) toward every other vessel of the fleet 
 and that, by entering the water of the fleet, she may create a situation of 
 great complexity and serious danger to the ships of the fleet and to herself. 
 In connection, the following incident may appropriately find a place here. 
 Some years ago (1900) the British Channel Fleet of thirty-two ships 
 was proceeding up the English Channel in four columns abreast, when a 
 tug and tow, standing across from starboard to port, and therefore having 
 the right of way, held their course across, and having cleared the first 
 (starboard) column, came into collision with the battleship Sanspareil, 
 leading the second column. 
 
 It happened that the Sanspareil committed a fault which was perfectly 
 evident, and she was very properly condemned for the collision, but the 
 Court, in passing upon the case, took occasion to express the opinion that 
 the tug and tow should never have attempted to cross ahead of the fleet 
 or to pass through it, even though they had technically the right of way 
 over each individual ship. 
 
 " . . . . The ships being in that formation, it is of the utmost impor- 
 tance that pe:fect order should be preserved because to become dis- 
 organized is to run lisk of great disaster On coming up with a 
 
 big fleet like that, what ought the tug and tow to have done? Con- 
 sider what they proposed to do. They proposed to keep a course which 
 would have just cleared them of the first column, which would land 
 
THE RULES OF THE ROAD. 435 
 
 them, if the fleet did not stop, in front of the leading ship of the 
 second column, which would carry them into the center of the third 
 column and .... into about the center of the fourth column. Con- 
 sider the danger cast upon the fleet by having its columns broken in 
 such a way, the difficulty of stopping ships of that huge build and 
 
 weight suddenly and interfering with their course I do not see 
 
 how, without great difficulty and danger, the Channel Fleet could pos- 
 sibly have done so without running great risk of injury to its vessels." 
 From opinion of the Supreme Court of Judicature in the case of the 
 SANSPAREIL, 9 Aspinall, Marine Cases, page 78. 
 
 IV. SPEED IN A FOG. 
 
 DECISIONS OF COURTS. 
 
 Extract from the decision in the case of the BOLIVIA (speed 7 to 8 knots, 
 off Fire Island): 
 
 "The steam-ship must also be held in fault because she was not 
 going at a moderate speed in the fog, under the special circumstances 
 and conditions of the case. She has given no evidence to show what 
 speed she was required to maintain in order to keep steerage-way, and 
 none to show that at a lower rate of speed than 7 or 8 knots she would 
 not have been under efficient control, and able to govern her own move- 
 ments promptly and effectually. Under the existing state of fog, and 
 exercising the best vigilance, she could not discover another vessel 
 more than 300 or 400 feet away, yet maintained such a speed that, 
 after reversing, her headway through the water could not be stopped 
 within three times that distance. 
 
 " The locality was one frequented by numerous vessels in the coasting 
 trade, and lay in one of the paths of the ocean traffic between Europe 
 and the principal commercial port of this country. The steam-ship had 
 but just passed a sister steam-ship of her own line, bound in an opposite 
 direction; and the schooner had seen or heard several vessels during 
 the previous half hour of the fog. Under such circumstances, it is not 
 enough that the steam-ship moderated her speed; she should have re- 
 duced it to that moderate speed which was safe and prudent, in view 
 of all the circumstances and conditions of the case. The rule is firmly 
 established in this country, and also in England, that the speed of a 
 steam-ship is not moderate, at least in localities where there is a likeli- 
 hood of meeting other vessels, if it is such that she cannot reverse her 
 engines and be brought to a stand-still within the distance at which, 
 in the condition of the fog, she can discover another vessel." Federal 
 Reporter, No. 49, page 171. 
 
 From the decision in the case of the COLUMBIAN (speed 9 to 10 knots on 
 La Have Bank) : 
 
 "The only fault alleged against the steamer is excessive speed and 
 the authorities make it clear that 9 or 10 knots an hour at any time or 
 place is excessive speed in a fog. In saying this, I have no doubt that 
 the captain of another steamer like the COLUMBIAN would have gone 
 
436 THE RULES OF THE ROAD. 
 
 ahead quite as fast. Had the steamer been an ocean liner instead of 
 a freight steamer it would probably have been sent through the same 
 fog at from 15 to 20 knots an hour, and its captain would have been 
 blamed by his company as well as by his passengers if he had loitered 
 along at half-speed. Though this almost universal practice may re- 
 lieve the captain of a steamer from moral blame, the captain of the 
 COLUMBIAN was none the less a transgressor of the International Rules 
 and I am bound to find the steamer at fault. I have often had occa- 
 sion to say that owners and masters must either comply with a law 
 or secure its repeal. Experts may perhaps be found to testify that 
 moderate speed is harmful, a fog-horn useless and a torch misleading, 
 but the statute must be obeyed." Federal Reporter, No. 91, page 801. 
 
 From the decision in the case of the RALEIGH: 
 
 " The rule is that such speed only is lawful or moderate speed in a 
 fog as will permit a steamer seasonably and effectually to avoid a 
 collision by slacking her speed or by stopping or reversing within a 
 distance at which another can be seen. If this rule is a severe one and 
 practically requires a steam-ship to come to a stop and remain stopped, 
 when navigating a river having extensive commerce, or in a crowded 
 harbor, it is too well established to be disregarded." Federal Reporter, 
 No. 44, page 781. 
 From the decision in the case of the NORMANDIE: 
 
 M . ... It is not very material whether her speed was 12 knots or n. 
 Either is considerably in excess of what has been adjudged in many 
 cases in the courts of this country an excessive rate of speed in a dense 
 fog. No doubt the question of what is moderate speed is largely a 
 question of circumstances, having reference to the density of the fog; 
 the place of navigation; the probable presence of other vessels likely 
 to be met; the state of the weather as affecting the ability to hear the 
 fog-signals of other vessels at a reasonable distance; the full speed of 
 the ship herself, her appliances for rapid manceuvring, and the amount 
 of her steam-power kept in reserve, as affecting her ability to stop 
 quickly after hearing fog-signals. No doubt also that, in the absence 
 of circumstances of special danger, navigation is not required to be 
 suspended on the high seas on account of dense fog. Neither the rules 
 nor the ordinary practice of seamen require that. The rules intend 
 that signals shall be given which are expected to be heard in time to 
 enable vessels to avoid each other, and no speed is sufficiently moderate 
 under given conditions of wind, sea, and weather, unless it is so re- 
 duced as to enable the vessel to perform her duty to keep out of the 
 way, from the time when she has a right to expect that the other 
 vessel's signals, under existing conditions, will be heard. 
 
 "There is no case in the country where a speed of two-thirds the 
 maximum speed under such circumstances as the present, has been held 
 to be moderate speed. No doubt certain evolutions could be effected 
 more rapidly with a speed of 10 to 12 knots than with a speed of 6. 
 But a speed of 10 to 12 knots was not more necessary to the NORMAN- 
 
THE RULES OF THE ROAD. 437 
 
 DIE'S safe navigation in this case than was 7 knots in the case of the 
 PENNSYLVANIA. Besides, the question is not whether certain evolu- 
 tions can be executed in less time, but whether the NORMANDIE, when 
 meeting a vessel suddenly in a fog, could as a rule, more effectively 
 avoid her under a speed of 10 or 12 knots than under a speed of only 
 6 or 7." Federal Reporter, No. 43, page 151. 
 
 *********** 
 With reference to the practice of the Atlantic liners in keeping up full 
 speed in a fog, and the attempt to justify this on the ground that the 
 time of exposure to danger is thereby lessened, the courts have held that 
 while high-speed under these conditions may be safer for the fast steamers 
 themselves, it is extremely dangerous to any smaller vessels which may 
 be in their track and that it is, therefore, altogether unjustifiable. 
 
 The following decision in the case of the PATRIA is important in connec- 
 tion with lookouts. There are many other similar decisions: 
 
 " Besides this, I think the steamer is further to blame for not having 
 a lookout stationed forward at the bow. Nor was the lookout doubled. 
 There was but one seaman acting as lookout, and he was stationed on 
 the bridge, some 75 feet or more from the bow, and was also attending 
 to blowing the whistle once a minute. If on account of the lighter 
 fog above, it was desirable to have a lookout as high above the deck 
 as possible, a lookout might have teen stationed in the cross-trees or 
 crow's nest, as is often done in thick fog; but neither that, nor a look- 
 out on the bridge, would be a justification of the omission to keep a 
 good lookout at the bow, which it has been repeatedly held should be 
 maintained wherever possible. The master states his opinion, that if 
 he had had 10 seconds more time, the collision would have been avoided. 
 Had a lookout been stationed at the bow with no divided duties, and 
 reported the schooner at the same distance it was seen from the bridge, 
 the steamer would have had much more than this additional time for 
 coming to a complete stop and backing away from the schooner." 
 Federal Reporter, No. 92, page 411. 
 
 An exceptional situation arises when a number of men-of-war are cruis- 
 ing together in formation in a fog. It may reasonably be contended that 
 a somewhat higher speed is necessary for the safe control of a squadron 
 under these conditions than for that of a single ship, and such speed as 
 can be shown to be actually necessary for safety is manifestly justified by 
 the phrase in Art. 16, " having careful regard to the existing circumstances 
 and conditions." 
 
 The obligation of each ship to keep clear of her neighbors in the squad- 
 ron is at least as great as the obligation to keep clear of strangers, and 
 anything which can be shown to be necessary for this can be justified 
 without placing undue emphasis upon the military features of the situa- 
 tion. 
 
THE RULES OF THE ROAD. 
 
 V. RULES FOR VESSELS PASSING DREDGES AT WORK 
 IN CHANNELS. 
 
 The improvement of channels in United States waters is done 
 by the Corps of Engineers of the United States Army, and the 
 Secretary of War is authorized to make regulations to be ob- 
 served by vessels passing dredges or other craft engaged in such 
 improvement. 
 
 EXTRACT FROM THE RIVER AND HARBOR ACT OF AUGUST 18, 1894. 
 
 SECTION 4. [As amended by Section n of the river and harbor 
 Act of June 13, 1902.] That it shall be the duty of the Secretary of 
 War to prescribe such rules and regulations for the use, administration, 
 and navigation of any or all canals and similar works of navigation that 
 now are, or that hereafter may be, owned, operated, or maintained by 
 the United States as in his judgment the public necessity may require; 
 and he is also authorized to prescribe regulations to govern the speed 
 and movement cf vessels and other water craft in any public navigable 
 channel which has been improved under authority of Congress, when- 
 ever, in his judgment, such regulations are necessary to protect such 
 improved channels from injury, or to prevent interference with the 
 operations of the United States in improving navigable waters or 
 injury to any plant that ; ay be employed in such operations. Such 
 rules and regulations sha i be posted, in conspicuous and appropriate 
 places, for the information of the public; and every person and every 
 corporation which shall violate such rules and regulations shall be 
 deemed guilty of a misdemeanor and, on conviction thereof in any 
 district court of the United States within whose territorial juris- 
 diction such offense may have been committed, shall be punished by a 
 fine not exceeding five hundred dollars, or by imprisonment (in the 
 case of a natural person) not exceeding six months, in the discretion 
 of the court. 
 
 Rules are drawn up for each individual situation coming under 
 the above law, and different sets of rules may differ from each 
 other in minor particulars, but the points covered are practically 
 identical in all cases, and these points are illustrated in the fol- 
 lowing typical set of rules : 
 
 i. Steamers without tows passing the dredges, shall not have a 
 speed greater than six miles an hour, and their propelling machinery 
 shall be stopped when immediately abreast of the dredges, and while 
 passing over the breast and quarter lines of the dredges. 
 
 Steamers with tows passing the dredges shall not have a speed 
 greater than six miles an hour, and their propelling machinery shall 
 be stopped while passing over the breast and quarter lines of the 
 dredges; but they may start their propelling machinery if necessary 
 between these lines. 
 
THE RULES OF THE ROAD. 439 
 
 2. Vessels using the channel shall pass the dredges on the side 
 designated from the dredge by the signals prescribed in paragraph 7 
 of these regulations. 
 
 3. Vessels whose draft permits must keep outside of the buoys 
 marking the ends of mooring lines of dredges. 
 
 4. Vessels must not anchor on the ranges of stakes or other marks 
 placed for the guidance of the dredges. 
 
 5. Vessels must not run over or disturb stakes or other marks 
 placed for the guidance of dredges. 
 
 6. Dredges and operating plant, in the prosecution of the work, 
 must not obstruct any part of the channel unnecessarily. 
 
 7. Dredges shall display by day a black ball three (3) feet in 
 diameter at the end of a horizontal spar extending to the line of the 
 side of the dredge's hull, and at a height not less than thirty (30) 
 feet above the water, the balL to be set on the side of the dredge on 
 which it is desired approaching vessel shall pass. 
 
 NOTE. A red flag or other signal may be substituted for the 
 black ball of this paragraph. 
 
 Dredges shall display by night one white light on a staff in the 
 middle of the dredge, and at least thirty (30) feet above the water, to 
 serve as the regulation anchor light, and four (4) red lights sus- 
 pended in a vertical line from the outer end of the horizontal spar 
 used by day for the suspension of the black ball, the lights to be set 
 on the side of the dredge on which it is desired approaching vessels 
 shall pass. If approaching vessels may pass on either side of the 
 dredge, no day mark shall be displayed, and by night the four red 
 lights shall be displayed in a vertical line directly under the above- 
 mentioned white light. 
 
 8. The breast and stern anchors of the dredges shall be marked or 
 buoyed so as to be plainly visible to passing vessels. 
 
 9. While vessels in the channel are passing, all lines running across 
 the channel from the dredge on the passing side must be entirely 
 slacked. 
 
 10. Dredges will slack the lines referred to in paragraph 9 upon 
 signal by whistle from an approaching vessel. , 
 
 In addition to the authority vested in the Secretary of War to 
 make regulations as above, the same official is empowered to 
 regulate all other matters which have to do with possible obstruc- 
 tions to navigable waters ; such as the dumping of ashes, garbage, 
 etc. ; the marking of wrecks and their removal ; the building of 
 bridges across navigable channels, and the handling of draws in 
 bridges spanning such channels. 
 
44O THE RULES OF THE ROAD. 
 
 VI. INLAND RULES OF NATIONS OTHER THAN THE 
 UNITED STATES. 
 
 The Inland Rules of other countries do not exist in a form 
 which admits of convenient grouping. In most cases the rules 
 are made locally for each port or river. 
 
 Officers having to navigate the inland waters of any country 
 should use every effort to acquaint themselves with these local 
 laws. In some cases .they are to be found in Sailing Directions ; 
 in others they must be learned from pilots or other local au- 
 thorities. 
 
 Generally speaking, it will be found that such local rules do 
 not modify the International Rules in any important particulars. 
 So far as they deal with the rules for vessels meeting and cross- 
 ing, they frequently emphasize cerUin points of the International 
 Rules ; as, for example, the requirement about keeping to the 
 right-hand side of the channel. In many cases they limit the 
 speed which may be used within the river or harbor in question. 
 Other matters with which they deal are the following : anchorage 
 limits ; privileges and obligations of tows ; length of tows ; size 
 of rafts ; lights and signals for dredges at work in the channel, 
 and rules for passing these ; special rules for vessels desiring to 
 pass other vessels going in the same direction in a narrow chan- 
 nel ; ferry-boats crossing the channel, or entering or leaving their 
 slips ; vessels hauling out from slips ; marking of wrecks ; pilot- 
 age ; harbor police regulations ; explosives on board vessels in the 
 harbor ; buoyage ; mooring alongside docks or alongside other 
 vessels ; special rules for exceptionally narrow and dangerous 
 parts of channel ; etc. 
 
 In the case of basins enclosed by breakwaters, rules are pre- 
 scribed as to the conditions for entering, permission being neces- 
 sary in all such cases, and arrangements being made with the 
 harbor master. 
 
 In the case of military ports, very stringent regulations are pre- 
 scribed, and vessels visiting such ports should, if possible, inform 
 themselves of these in advance. 
 
 As a rule, all necessary information for the guidance of a 
 stranger can be obtained from the pilot. The rules with regard 
 to pilots and the signals for calling them are usually to be found 
 in the Sailing Directions. 
 
 A very full and valuable collection of local rules is to be found 
 in " Rules of the Road at Sea," by H. Stuart Moore, published by 
 J. D. Potter, London. 
 
THE RULES OF THE ROAD. 441 
 
 VII. LAWS RELATING TO THE RULES OF THE ROAD. 
 
 Penalties are prescribed for the infringement of these rules, 
 by all nations which have adopted them as laws, and these penal- 
 ties do not depend upon the question whether damage has or has 
 not resulted from the infringement. 
 
 Where damage is done, and can be shown to be the result of 
 neglect or violation of the rules, it is held, in the absence of proof 
 to the contrary, to be the fault of the person having charge of the 
 deck of the vessel offending, who will be considered guilty of a 
 misdemeanor and punishable therefor. If death ensues, he will 
 be subject to a charge of manslaughter. 
 
 In every case of collision, it is the duty of the person in charge 
 of each vessel, to stay by the other and to render such assistance 
 as may be practicable, provided he can do so without damage to 
 his own ship, passengers and crew. 
 
 He is also required to give to the master of the other ship the 
 name of his own ship and of the port to which she belongs, and 
 the ports to and from which she is bound. 
 
 As soon as possible after the collision, he must cause an entry 
 to be made in the log book, of the collision and of all facts in 
 connection with it. 
 
(442) 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 MANOEUVRING TO AVOID COLLISION, 
 
 i. 
 
 The difficulties and dangers with which this chapter has to 
 deal are principally connected with darkness and with fog. In 
 daylight and in clear weather, the avoidance of collisions should 
 be simple enough. This chapter will therefore deal, first, with 
 steamers meeting or crossing at night, and later, with the more 
 difficult question of manoeuvring in a fog. 
 
 As an aid in determining accurately the bearing of a light sighted at 
 night, and of readily recognizing a change in this bearing, it is conveni- 
 ent to have installed, close to the bridge compass, a " pelorus " or dumb- 
 compass, marked to degrees and to quarter points, accurately adjusted 
 with its zero in the fore-and-aft line of the ship, and with a sighting-vane 
 pivoted at the center. 
 
 It is well also to establish a clearly marked fore-and-aft line from a 
 convenient point on each side of the bridge to some conspicuous point near 
 the bow, by which the line on which the ship is heading may be picked up 
 at a glance. 
 
 It must be borne in mind that turbine ships respond much less 
 quickly to changes in engine speed than do ships having the large 
 screws that go with reciprocating engines. Also that the power 
 available for backing is only about one-half that of reciprocating 
 engines. 
 
 The result is that turbine ships must rely more upon the rudder, 
 and must be especially careful to avoid situations demanding 
 quick and handy manoeuvring. 
 
 III. 
 
 STEAMERS MEETING. 
 
 Attention has already been called to the fact that this situation 
 is not as simple as it at first appears, for the reason that vessels 
 which seem to be approaching each other "end-en or nearly 
 end-on," may in fact be crossing at a considerable angle. 
 
 There is no rule which can be laid down to eliminate the danger 
 of such misunderstanding; but there is a certain gain in recog- 
 nizing the existence 'of the danger and the necessity for watch- 
 
Plate No. 129. 
 
 443 
 
 Fig. 1 
 B 2 Points on A's Bow 
 
 f 2 Mia., 5 Sec - 
 
 2-Min., 32 Sea 
 3 Min., 14 Sec: * 
 
 [* 4 Min., 5 Seo. -' 4 
 
 The time Intervals shown assume A ' speed as 10 Knots, but can be easily 
 corrected for any other speed. 
 Ships are not drawn to scale. 
 
 ! 
 
 Fig. 2 
 B 3 Points on A's Bow 
 
 h 
 
 f 2 Min., 11 Seer 
 
 H -2 Min., 42 Seo; 
 
 3 Min., 36 Seo: 
 
 Min., 59 Seo-. 
 
 500 
 
 500 
 
 7000 
 
 Scale of Yards 
 
 MANOEUVRING TO AVOID COLLISION. 
 
 Shouting the points at which A and B will meet for various relative speed* 
 
444 
 
 Plate No. 130. 
 
 in-. 20 Seer 4 
 
 |t -2-Min- 57-Sec-. J 
 
 !* -4-Minv 14-Sec. J 
 
 The time Intervals shown, assume A's speed as 10 knots, 
 but can be easily corrected for any other speed. 
 Ships are not drawn to scale. 
 
 Fig. 2 
 B 5 Points on A's Bow. 
 
 \ 10 Knots 
 
 32-Sec -- 
 
 - 3-Min~20-Seo- 
 
 5 Mint 23-S00-. 
 
 Showing the points at which A and B will meet, for uarious 
 nlatlve speeds. 
 
 Scale of Yards 
 
 MANOEUVRING TO AVOID COLLISION 
 
MANCEUVRINC, TO AVOTD COLLISION. 445 
 
 fulness. If the rudder is to be put to right, 1 this should be done 
 while the ships are separated by a perfectly safe distance, and 
 the course changed to starboard sufficiently to make sure of shut- 
 ting out the green light from the view of the other ship. It is of 
 course impossible to do this in a narrow channel, nor will it be 
 important to do it there, as each vessel will know the course that 
 the other must be steering ; but the change of course should always 
 be made as early as the channel permits. 
 
 When meeting another vessel in a narrow channel, there is danger in 
 changing course too much, as to do so opens the broadside to a pos- 
 sible blow from the other ship. A small change made promptly, is safer 
 than a greater change made after the ships are close aboard. On the 
 other hand, there is the danger already pointed out, that, at night, a 
 small change of course will not be seen by the other ship. In this situa- 
 tion, range-lights are especially valuable, as giving instant notice of the 
 slightest change in the heading of a vessel seen end-on or nearly so. 
 
 In navigating crowded channels, pilots try to avoid changing course; 
 preferring, whenever it can be done with safety, to keep clear of other 
 vessels by reducing or increasing speed. This is less confusing than 
 changes of course where several vessels are trying to keep clear of each 
 other. 
 
 111. 
 
 STEAMEES CROSSING. 
 
 Note. In this section, the steamer having the other on her own 
 starboard hand is called A; the other B. 
 
 As preliminary to a detailed discussion of cases arising under 
 this heading, attention is directed to the figures of Plates 129 and 
 130, in which the vessels are assumed to be separated by one 
 mile, and the courses plotted which B must be steering, for va- 
 rious rates of speed, in order that there shall be danger of a 
 bow-to-bow collision with A. 2 
 
 We do not attempt here to draw any conclusions which involve a 
 knowledge on the part of either vessel, of the course or speed of the 
 other. 
 
 It is apparent from these figures that, if there is to be a colli- 
 sion, the point at which it will take place depends upon the rela- 
 tive speed of the two ships. If the speeds are equal, it will be 
 
 1 Helm to port. 
 
 2 We cannot, of course, disregard the length of the ships; but as a 
 basis of argument we deal here with the bows only. The figures will 
 make it clear in what way the argument must be modified to include the 
 meeting of the bow of one ship with the stern of the other, 
 
446 MANOEUVRING TO AVOID COLLISION. 
 
 at P, equidistant from A and B. If B has the greater speed, the 
 point of meeting is crowded back towards A, and the space avail- 
 able for A to manoeuvre is reduced. If, on the other hand, B'S 
 speed is less than A'S, the point of intersection recedes, and the 
 space at A'S command is correspondingly increased. It follows 
 from this that if A is running at a low speed and finds another 
 vessel closing in on her without change of bearing, she will know 
 that the space at her command for manoeuvring is comparatively 
 limited, as, in all probability, the point of intersection of the 
 courses is not far ahead. 
 
 As regards B, if it happens that she is running at very high 
 speed, she, too, will know that in all probability the courses inter- 
 sect near A and that A has probably but little space for clearing 
 her (B'S) line. It may therefore be urged that, so far as B is con- 
 cerned, the obligation upon her to act for the avoidance of colli- 
 sion, under Art. 21 of the Rules of the Road, will increase with 
 her speed; that is to say, if her speed is so high that A'S is not 
 likely to equal it, she will know that her course is probably crossing 
 A'S at a point which leaves A but little space in which to ma- 
 noeuvre for mutual safety. 
 
 As regards the time available in the cases illustrated in Plates 
 129 and 130, we cannot discuss this without assuming a definite 
 speed for A. In the figures, this is taken at 10 knots, so that 
 B'S speed becomes, for the courses laid down, 10, 15, 20 and 
 7 knots. 
 
 If A'S speed is greater or less than 10 knots, the intervals must be 
 changed correspondingly. 
 
 If we take the distance between the ships as greater or less than one 
 mile, the scale of the figures must be changed. 
 
 With these speeds, we see that, when B is distant one mile 
 and crossing without change of bearing, the bows of the two 
 ships will meet after the intervals shown in the figures. 
 
 An important point brought out by the figures is that, if B'S 
 speed is materially less than A'S, there are only certain bearings 
 on which B can threaten collision. Suppose, for example, that 
 B'S speed is two-thirds of A'S, and that she bears four points on 
 A'S bow. She cannot by any possibility reach the line of A'S 
 course in time to intercept and collide with her. As the differ- 
 ence in speed increases, this point comes out more and more 
 strikingly. If A'S speed is three times B'S, there can be no colli- 
 sion if B is sighted more than i^4 points on the bow. 
 
MANOEUVRING TO AVOID COLLISION. 447 
 
 It follows from this, that in the case of a steamer running at 
 a speed so high that no vessel which is likely to cross her course 
 can be expected to have anything like an equal speed, the danger 
 sector is confined to a few points on either bow. 
 
 Take the case of an ocean liner, running at a speed of 20 knots, 
 and consider her relation, for example, to sailing-vessels cross- 
 ing her route. These vessels will not have more than one-third 
 to one-half her speed. To threaten collision, then, they must 
 bear a very little on the bow, and can be cleared, in most cases, 
 with a few spokes of the wheel. Although this point is not usu- 
 ally specifically brought out, it is probably somewhat vaguely held 
 as the basis of the contention so strongly insisted upon by the 
 officers of the great liners, that it is safer for them to run at full 
 speed in a fog than to slow down. This subject will be discussed 
 in a later section, in connection with " Fog," and it will be shown 
 that this is only one of many points to be considered in thick 
 weather, and that the unquestionable advantage of high speed 
 from this point of view is much more than counterbalanced by 
 other considerations. 
 
 I IV. 
 
 A large proportion of steamers meeting at sea approach each 
 other on bearings from ahead to four points on the bow. It 
 happens that this is, for reasons which will appear hereafter, the 
 most dangerous bearing on which they can approach; and it 
 resists from this coincidence of the maximum frequency of occur- 
 rence with the maximum of danger, that something like seventy- 
 five per cent of all collisions reported, are between vessels ap- 
 proaching each other on these bearings. 
 
 It will be convenient to distinguish two general classes of situa- 
 tions: ist, Those arising under ordinary conditions, where ves- 
 sels sight each other at normal distances and have plenty of time 
 and space for manoeuvring to avoid collision; and 2nd, Those in 
 which they do not see each other until dangerously close. If any 
 doubt exists as to whether they are dangerously close or not, it 
 should of course be assumed that they are. 
 
 ist. Masthead lights are required by law to be visible five 
 miles, on a clear, dark night; and this law is fairly well complied 
 with. We shall certainly not be in error if we assume that they 
 will show four miles, and that the side-lights of a steamer will 
 show half as far. If bearings are taken from the time the mast- 
 
448 MANOEUVRING TO AVOID COLLISION. 
 
 head lights are seen, the situation should be perfectly clear by 
 the time the side-lights are made out, and if danger of collision 
 has been found to exist, A (the " giving way " ship) should be 
 ready to act at once. She may give way by changing speed, or 
 course, or both, but it is always simpler to change the course 
 than to reduce the speed materially; and this has the further 
 advantage that it gives notice to B of what has been done pro 
 vided the course can be changed sufficiently to open the red 
 light. It will not usually be necessary to make so great a change 
 as this, merely to insure passing astern, but it is very desirable 
 to do it if u is not too far on the bow, as it immediately clears 
 up the situation for both ships. The whistle signal required by 
 the Rules of the Road, for a change of course, is an additional 
 safeguard in this case, which could not be used for a mere reduc- 
 tion of speed. If, however, B is more than three or four points 
 on the bow, it will suffice to slow as much as may be necessary to 
 let her draw ahead, changing course later if it shall seem advisable. 
 
 In changing course to avoid collision, right rudder 1 is required 
 of A by the article which directs her, whenever possible, to pass 
 astern of B. This is a survival of the old " Law of Port Helm " 
 which has been the object of such violent denunciation from 
 writers on the Rules of the Road. When confined, as it is by the 
 present rules, to the ship having the other on her own starboard 
 hand, this law is perfectly sound ; but it was at one time regarded 
 as applying to all ships under almost all circumstances. 
 
 2nd, If the vessels are dangerously close when they sight each 
 other, A is relieved from the obligation to pass astern of B, unless 
 it shall appear that this is the safest course that she can take. We 
 shall find that, as a matter of fact, it is in a majority of cases the 
 only course that can give her a hope of safety ; and that right rud- 
 der 1 is usually even more imperatively demanded of her in this 
 case, than when the space available for manoeuvring is greater. 
 
 The first impulse of many officers in such a situation is to turn 
 away from the danger, and at the same time to reverse the en- 
 gines with full power. This course is much more likely to cause 
 collisions than to prevent them. It may be right for B (the hold- 
 ing-on vessel) to turn away, if the emergency is such as to call 
 for any action on her part; but if she does this, so far from rever- 
 sing her engines, she should, if possible, increase her speed, as 
 
 1 Port helm. 
 
Plate 3STo. 131. 
 
 449 
 
 Fig. 1 
 
 B -2 Points on Bow of A 
 500 Yards Distant. 
 
 700 90 
 
 200 
 
 300 
 
 400 
 
 Ssxls of Yards 
 
 B - 3 Points on Bow of A 
 500 Yards Distant. 
 
 MANOEUVRING TO AVOID COLLISION. 
 
450 
 
 Plate No. 132. 
 
 Fig. 1 
 
 B 4 Points on Bow of A 
 500 Yards Distant 
 
 B 5 Points on Bow of A 
 500 Yards Distant 
 
 MANOEUVRING TO AVOID COLLISION 
 
MANOEUVRING TO AVOID COLLISION. 45! 
 
 her whole effort must be directed to getting across the bow of A 
 as quickly as possible. On the other hand, A should reduce her 
 speed, but should at the same time turn to starboard. 
 
 A vessel turning away from another vessel to 'avoid collision should 
 always continue at full speed, as the effort involved in this course is 
 an attempt to cross the other vessel's bow. To turn away and slow 
 is the surest possible way of bringing about collision. 
 
 To make it clear why A turns toward the danger instead of 
 away from it, we may refer to Plates 131 and 132, where B is placed, 
 in the successive figures, on bearings from two to five points on 
 A'S bow, and showing a red light. In such a situation, the action 
 to be taken will not depend upon the exact distance between the 
 ships. This distance is here taken, for convenience of plotting, 
 at 500 yards, but it may be more or less than this without modi- 
 fying the principle involved, except in one special case to be 
 hereafter considered. 
 
 As we cannot suppose that A in this case has time to watch 
 for a change of bearing, or that she will have any information of 
 B'S course and speed beyond that given by a red and white light, 
 we must consider that, so far as A'S knowledge goes, B may be 
 heading anywhere between the lines BX and BY. If, however, 
 she is heading nearly along BX, she is safe to pass astern of A; 1 
 and if she is heading well off toward BY, the danger of collision, 
 although it may still exist, will be comparatively remote. The 
 situation will not be one of serious emergency unless B is head- 
 ing on some course within the sector SET. 
 
 If A turns to starboard and reverses, using helm and engines 
 together to the best advantage, she will follow the heavy line (ap- 
 proximately). If she has twin screws and reverses the inner one, 
 at the same time putting her helm aport, she will follow the light 
 line. In either case, if she does not turn clear of the danger 
 sector, she will cut only a few of its lines (that is to say, only a 
 few of the possible courses of B); and she will at the same time 
 present her stem to B, thus reducing, at once, the danger of colli- 
 sion and the damage to be expected if collision occurs. If she 
 
 1 It will be noted that A could, by turning with the starboard screw 
 backing, collide with B even if B is heading along BX; but long before 
 this could happen, A would see B'S green light and would resume her 
 course. 
 
MANOEUVRING TO AVOID COLLISION. 
 
 turns to port, she not only cuts every one of the courses of B 
 within the danger sector, but she throws herself across B'S path 
 broadside on, inviting the most fatal blow that one ship can give 
 another. 
 
 If it be contended that, in placing the ships 500 yards apart, 
 we have taken too great a distance for urgent danger, the 
 answer is that at less than this we approach the case in which 
 collision is not only imminent but almost inevitable and for 
 which no hard and fast rules can be laid down. Whether, in 
 such a case, it is safer to turn toward the danger or away from 
 it will depend largely upon the angle at which the courses con- 
 verge, and when the vessels are very close together, we may 
 assume that something will be known about this, since it is 
 hardly to be supposed that two vessels within a few hundred 
 yards of each other will not see something besides each others 
 running lights. If it is seen that the courses converge as in 
 Fig. 3, Plate 132, the ships being very close together, it is clear 
 that each should turn away from the other, and stop. If A has 
 twin-screws she would back the port screw full speed. If she has 
 a single right-handed screw, it may be dangerous to back if B is 
 very close. 
 
 In the case where A has B nearly on the beam, the importance 
 of turning inward is less marked than when she is on the bow, 
 and it is generally safe to slow or stop to let her draw ahead, or 
 at least to let the situation declare itself clearly. 
 
 With regard to B'S course when she finds herself called upon 
 under Art. 21 to act for the avoidance of collision with a vessel 
 on her port hand (A), she should, in most cases, turn away, with 
 right rudder, 1 and keep her speed or if possible increase It. But 
 this involves presenting her broadside to A ; and if the ships are so 
 close that it is evident collision cannot be avoided, there is no 
 question that B should turn inward, presenting her bow as nearly 
 as possible to A, and stopping; remembering, if she has a single 
 (right-handed) screw, that backing will throw her head to star- 
 board and may defeat the object of the manoeuvre. This is a 
 situation for which it is impossible to lay down hard and fast 
 rules ; and all that is attempted here is to call attention to all the 
 factors in the problem. 
 
 If B has twin screws, she should, if she puts her rudder to 
 1 Port helm. 
 
MANOEUVRING TO AVOID COLLISION. 453 
 
 left, 1 reverse the inner (port) screw, and follow this up by 
 reversing the other one as soon as she has begun to swing. There 
 is a chance that the ships may still avoid each other, and if they 
 meet, the damage will be less than if either of them strikes the 
 other full on the broadside. 
 
 If A (a steamer) meets a sailing-vessel, her obligation to keep 
 clear is the same whether the latter is on her starboard or her port 
 hand. The law requires her, also, whenever the circumstances 
 admit, to give way by passing astern. Where a right-handed single 
 screw steamer is to turn to port to avoid collision with a vessel 
 approaching from that side, it is important to remember that if 
 the engines are reversed they will probably destroy the effect 
 of the helm, and throw the head to starboard, thus increasing, 
 rather than diminishing, the danger. The point is of special 
 importance because this situation, if arising at all, is likely to 
 come in the form of an emergency, as the lights of sailing-ves- 
 sels rarely show at the distance prescribed by law, and fre- 
 quently cannot be seen until close aboard. With twin-screws 
 it is as easy to turn to one side as to the other. 
 
 It will be clear from what has been said in II, concerning 
 the relation of a fast steamer to a comparatively slow vessel 
 crossing her track, that there is here a strong temptation to turn 
 away from the slower vessel in the hope of getting across her 
 bow; and no doubt there are situations in which this is the only 
 thing to be done; but it is accompanied by serious risk and should 
 be resorted to only in an extreme emergency. If it is attempted, 
 the speed must be maintained at its maximum. In the event of 
 turning inward, the rules laid down in IV of Chapter XIII 
 should be carefully observed ; that is to say, in turning to port 
 (for example) the rudder should be put hard left 1 instantly and 
 the engines stopped ; then, after the head has begun to swing de- 
 cidedly to port, the engines should be reversed, and, finally, the 
 rudder shifted to hard right. 2 This supposes a single right-handed 
 screw. 
 
 V. 
 
 IN A FOG. 
 
 An officer hearing the fog-signal of a vessel which he cannot 
 see, can usually form a general idea of its bearing and may be 
 1 Helm starboard. 2 Helm hard a-port. 
 
454 MANCEUVRING TO AVOID COLLISION. 
 
 able to judge something of its distance; but even with regarc 
 to these points, there is danger of serious error, and of all other 
 points he is absolutely ignorant. The other vessel may be head- 
 ing toward him, or crossing his course at any angle, or running 
 parallel with him. If, however, he hears her signal more than 
 once, he can judge whether she is drawing nearer or not, and can 
 perhaps tell something of her course; and if she is stopped, her 
 signal will tell him this. 
 
 A steamer's whistle can be heard, under favorable circumstances, 
 two miles or more, and rather farther in a fog than in clear 
 weather; but so many things affect the question of audibility that 
 it is not safe to rely upon hearing it more than, say, half a mile, 
 even when all conditions seem to be favorable. The fog-horn of 
 a sailing-vessel can in some cases be heard a mile or more, but 
 in other cases not more than a few hundred yards. The law does 
 not require the signal (of a steamer) to be sounded oftener than 
 once in two minutes, and in this interval, a vessel running 10 
 knots will cover between 600 and 700 yards, while two vessels 
 approaching each other on a bow bearing will draw together by 
 half a mile. 
 
 It can be shown that the safest bearing on which one vessel, 
 A, can have the fog-signal of another vessel, B, is directly ahead. 
 If the signal indicates that B is stopped, she can be easily avoid- 
 ed; and if she is standing across, she will be clear before A can 
 reach her. There is no danger of collision, unless she is heading 
 toward A; that is to say, within the very small angle subtended 
 by A'S beam; and in this case the vessels should be able to pass 
 clear, after sighting each other. If they meet, it will be either 
 stem to stem or with a glancing blow, and such collisions are never 
 very serious. 
 
 Not only is a blow on the broadside far more dangerous than 
 one on the stem, but the length offered by the broadside to pos- 
 sible collision is from eight to ten times as great as in the case of 
 the stem; from which we may argue that, so far as other con- 
 siderations of law and seamanship permit, any vessel in danger 
 of collision with another should present her stem to the danger, 
 rather than her broadside. 
 
 The rules governing the manoeuvring of steamers, as laid down 
 in Chapter XIII, are evidently of maximum importance in a fog, 
 
MANCEUVRING TO AVOID COLLISION. 455 
 
 as are also the facts in connection with stopping, given in Section 
 VI of this chapter. 
 
 Broadly speaking, the Rules of the Road for vessels crossing 
 apply in a fog as well as in clear weather, but a certain time must 
 elapse, after the signals are first heard, before it can be determined 
 whether the vessels are in fact crossing, or passing clear of each 
 other. If they are passing clear, any change of course on the part 
 of either may introduce danger; and no such change will be jus- 
 tifiable unless it can be shown to contribute, on the whole, to the 
 probability of safety. In the interval of uncertainty following the 
 first hearing of the signal (forward of the beam), the law requires 
 that both vessels shall stop their engines. It does not require 
 them to reverse, because this would destroy, to a great extent, the 
 control of the ship by the helm. 
 
 Starting with this single demand of the law, we have to inquire 
 whether anything else is demanded by seamanship. 
 
 Consider, first, the case of a steamer hearing, on her starboard 
 bow, the signal of another steamer, of whose exact bearing she 
 cannot be sure, and of whose distance she knows only that it is 
 not great. A, Plate 133. 
 
 A has no means of knowing whether the vessels are crossing 
 or not, but she knows immediately that, if they are crossing, 
 she must keep out of the way. If she contents herself with stop- 
 ping her engines, she will range ahead, with constantly diminish- 
 ing speed, along the line AK. If she turns to either side, she 
 will follow one of the curving tracks. 1 As regards the possible 
 courses of B, we need consider only those which involve a chance 
 of collision. These will all lie within the " danger sector " shown. 
 Clearly, if A. turns inward, she cuts comparatively few of these 
 possible courses of B, and at the same time she presents her 
 stem, instead of her broadside, to such danger as may exist. If 
 time and space permit her to turn fully toward B, she will have 
 placed herself in the safest position she could take with refer- 
 ence to another vessel whose course is unknown. 
 
 If, on the other hand, A keeps her course or turns away from 
 B, she cuts directly through the danger sector, and exposes her 
 broadside to collision in case it proves that B is heading across. 
 
 From the moment when it becomes clear that B is crossing, 
 
 lr The tracks shown are for a vessel 300 feet long, but the conclusions 
 drawn from them will hold for vessels of any length. 
 
456 
 
 Plate No. 133. 
 
 B rv 
 
 Fig. 1 
 In a Fog. 
 
 A hears B's Whistle 
 to Starboard. 
 
 Scale in far da 
 
 Fig. 2 
 In a Fog. 
 
 A hears B's Whistle 
 to Starboard. 
 
 700 50 
 
 MANOEUVRING TO AVOID COLLISION 
 
MANCEUVRING TO AVOID COLLISION. 457 
 
 the Rules of the Road apply to the situation; and these rules 
 require that A shall keep clear and that she shall, if possible, pass 
 astern of B, to do which she must turn inward; that is to say, 
 the manoeuvre required of A, after the ships have drawn danger- 
 ously close, is the same that is suggested by the foregoing consid- 
 erations for the very beginning, when the time and space avail- 
 able for it are much greater, and while the ship has speed enough 
 to be under satisfactory command. 
 
 In view of all these facts, it seems safe to say that a steamer in a 
 fog, hearing the signal of another vessel on her starboard bow, 
 should turn toward the signal in the shortest possible space and 
 time, stopping her engines as required by law, and backing if this 
 will assist in turning. She should not continue backing long 
 enough to come to a dead stop unless it is evident that this is 
 called for by the emergency. In other words, it is not well to 
 renounce control by the helm while doubt still exists about the 
 course and position of the other vessel. Having brought the 
 signal ahead, she should hold the compass course thus fixed until 
 it becomes clear what course the other vessel is making. 
 
 If the signal heard is on the starboard hand, but only a little 
 forward of the beam, the advantages of turning immediately 
 toward it are not so marked, although there is high authority for 
 recommending it even in this case. It is probably better for A, 
 after stopping her engines, to hold her course for awhile, bearing 
 in mind, however, that if she finds reason to change her course at 
 all it will be to starboard, and that she should be ready to do this 
 the moment it becomes clear that B is crossing. If, later, she 
 turns to starboard, she will probably have reason to back her 
 engines at the same time. 
 
 We have now to consider what B should do upon hearing the 
 signal of A, a steamer, on the port hand. Certain of the argu- 
 ments which have been applied to the preceding case apply with 
 equal force here, and, as far as they go, suggest that B also should 
 turn inward (toward A) ; but a decisive argument against this is 
 that, if the ships are not crossing, B is not called upon to take 
 any action whatever; and if they are crossing, it is her duty to 
 keep her course, letting A pass astern of her, and directing all 
 her own efforts to getting across A'S bow as quickly as possible. 
 She should, therefore, in the period of uncertainty following the 
 first hearing of the signal, hold her course with her engines 
 
458 MANOEUVRING TO AVOID COLLISION. 
 
 stopped. The moment that the situation is recognized as one of 
 crossing, she should start her engines ahead, unless the circum- 
 stances make it evident that she cannot get across. In this case, 
 which can only arise when the ships are very close, she should 
 turn toward A and stop. Whether she should back or not will 
 depend upon the effect this will have on her steering, and upon 
 other circumstances as they reveal themselves at the moment. 
 
 An officer on the bridge of a steamer, hearing a sailing-vessel's 
 fog-horn forward of the beam on either side, has several things 
 to help him in deciding whether danger exists and how it can be 
 avoided. The number of blasts heard will tell him on which tack 
 the other vessel is, and the force and true direction of the wind will 
 tell him much about her course and speed. The law requires him 
 to stop his engines, in this as in other cases; and if the vessels 
 seem to be meeting or crossing with danger of collision, it re- 
 quires him to keep clear, and, if circumstances admit, to avoid 
 crossing the other vessel's bow. As a fog-horn can be heard but a 
 very short distance, it must generally be assumed in this situation 
 that the vessels are dangerously close; and to decide whether 
 " circumstances will admit " of passing astern of the sailing- 
 vessel, calls for rather nice judgment; the more so as the decision 
 must be formed without the least delay. If the steamer is run 
 ning as slowly as under the law she should be, and with the large 
 reserve of power which, as we have seen, will enable her to stop 
 within her own length, or slightly more than this, she should 
 usually turn toward the signal and reverse her engines (provided 
 danger of collision is found to exist). If no danger exists, the 
 steamer keeps course and resumes speed. 
 
 An officer in charge of the deck of a steamer should at all times, 
 but especially at night and in a fog, have as exact a knowledge as 
 possible of the true direction of the wind. This can be told accu- 
 rately enough from the surface ripples on the water, when these 
 can be seen. At other times, it must be estimated from the appar- 
 ent direction and force of the wind and from the general direction 
 of the sea, remembering, however, that this does not always run 
 with the wind blowing at the time. 
 
 The wind is rarely fresh in a fog, but may blow with any force 
 in falling snow or heavy rainstorm, either one of which is more 
 to be dreaded than a fog. 
 
MANOEUVRING TO AVOID COLLISION. 459 
 
 Exception may be taken to the rules laid down above, on the 
 ground that by turning immediately toward a fog-signal, we run 
 a risk of introducing danger where none would otherwise exist. 
 It should be noted, however, that this action is recommended only 
 for the vessel which, in case there proves to be danger, must keep 
 clear, and and keep clear by this very manoeuvre; also, that a vessel 
 turning and backing at the same time, gains very little ground 
 to the right or left of her original course, and finally that, as 
 already noted, the best we can hope to do in a fog is to take the 
 course which gives the greatest probability of safety in view of 
 the evidence available. 
 
 VI. 
 
 SPEED IN A FOG. 
 
 This subject has been treated as a matter of Law, in connec- 
 tion with the Rules of the Road. It will be treated here as a 
 matter of Seamanship. 
 
 It has been shown in III, that a vessel running at very high 
 speed, can, with comparative ease, avoid collision with a slow 
 vessel crossing her path, provided that she makes out this vessel 
 at a fair distance and is sure that it is crossing. 
 
 But in a fog, while a signal may be heard at a considerable 
 distance, it can never be located with precision, and there is no 
 means of telling whether the vessel from which it comes is cross- 
 ing or not. The advantages of high speed are confined to 
 cases in which the crossing vessel is actually seen; and in a fog, 
 a vessel seen is usually so close aboard that a steamer running at 
 full speed would strike her before helm or engines could be 
 touched. 
 
 The claim usually put forward by the defenders of high speed 
 is that a steamer handles better at high than at low speed. This 
 is true enough as regards time, but altogether false as regards 
 space; 1 and in avoiding collision, space, and not time, is the con- 
 trolling factor. Time enters into the question, it is true, but in 
 another way than this, and a way that is all in favor of low speed. 
 The great hope of safety in a fog lies in the sound signals prescribed 
 by law. These are required to be sounded once in two minutes. 
 But in two minutes, a vessel running fifteen knots will pass over 
 
 1 See Chapter XIII, II, where it is shown that the space in which a 
 vessel turns does not greatly vary with her speed. 
 
460 MANCEUVRING TO AVOID COLLISION. 
 
 half a mile, while two vessels approaching each other, will draw 
 together by a mile. 
 
 As there are many conditions of the atmosphere in which sig- 
 nals cannot be heard a mile, it might easily happen that two ves- 
 sels running at this speed would find themselves in collision with- 
 out either one having heard the signal of the other. Moreover, 
 a signal once heard gives very little information. It tells of 
 danger, and is a command to stop the engines; but it can rarely 
 be located, even as to the side from which it comes, until it has 
 been repeated once or twice; and even after it is located approxi- 
 mately, there is certain to be some delay in acting. 
 
 At five knots, the time available for repetition of the signals, for 
 comprehension of the situation, for decision as to the course called 
 for, and for action upon this decision, is three times as great as at 
 fifteen knots; and it seems hardly necessary to insist that in such an 
 increase of time, there is an enormous increase of safety. 
 
 Closely connected with the question of speed in a fog, is that 
 of the space in which a steamer can be stopped under various 
 conditions. This space will depend upon the proportion of her 
 available power which is in use for going ahead. If she is using 
 full power, so that she has no reserve available for backing, it is 
 found that she can be stopped in from three to five times her 
 length; that is to say, the space required is independent of her 
 speed, and directly proportional to her length. Thus a vessel 
 two hundred feet long can be stopped in nine hundred feet, while 
 one six hundred feet long may require nearly three thousand 
 feet. For turbine ships the distance is much greater. 
 
 But a vessel in a fog, running at reduced speed, can have, and 
 should have, a large reserve of power ready for instant use in 
 backing, the only limitation upon this being that " blowing off " 
 shall not be necessary. The greater the proportion which this 
 reserve bears to the power in use for going ahead, the shorter will 
 be the space in which she can be stopped by bringing the reserve 
 into play; and it is evident that, at low speed, a much larger per- 
 centage of power can be held in reserve without blowing off, than 
 would be possible at high speed. With such a reserve ready for 
 immediate use, a steamer should be able to stop in two lengths or 
 less; and if she turns while stopping, this distance is still further 
 reduced. For turbine ships the distance may be doubled. 
 
 Since both the space in which a ship will stop and that in which 
 
MANOEUVRING TO AVOID COLLISION. 461 
 
 she will turn are directly proportional to her length, the import- 
 ance of running slow and with a large reserve of power is greater 
 in the case of a large steamer than of a small one; yet the largest 
 steamers afloat are the very ones which habitually and openly set 
 the law in this matter at defiance. 
 
 A reason frequently given for advocating high speed in a fog 
 is that, the fog belt being of definite width, the danger of collision 
 will be reduced by getting across it as quickly as possible. This 
 is like saying that if one is called upon on a dark night to cross a 
 public square in which people are moving about in all sorts of 
 directions, it will be safer to run across at full speed than to walk 
 slowly. It can easily be shown that in neither of these cases is the 
 probability of collision reduced by reducing the time in which the 
 danger space is crossed. 
 
 It is surprising that in none of the discussions which come up 
 from time to time upon the subject of fog-signals, is any sugges- 
 tion made as to the use of the voice. A good voice can be heard 
 without difficulty a quarter of a mile, and by the use of a mega- 
 phone this distance can be more than doubled. It would seem 
 that advantage might often be taken of this fact to establish 
 communication through a fog, and to exchange information as 
 to courses steered, speed, etc. 
 
 One of the greatest difficulties in deciding upon a course of 
 action in a fog comes from the impossibility of determining with 
 certainty the direction of sounds,. This necessarily reduces the 
 value of all rules which involve the location of signals heard. 
 This difficulty is being much reduced by the development of in- 
 struments for determing the direction of sound (Submarine Sig- 
 nal System) and of radio signals (Radio Compass) both of which 
 systems have been described in Chapter VIII. 
 
 It is well known that fogs do not usually extend to any great 
 height, and that they are often thin at, and for some distance 
 above, the surface of the water. They are probably denser at 
 about the height of a steamer's bridge than at any other point. 
 
462 
 
 MANCEUVRING TO AVOID COLLISION. 
 
 By stationing lookouts as high and as low as possible, dangers 
 may sometimes be made out above or below the fog, long before 
 they can be seen from the deck or the bridge. 
 
 It has been repeatedly decided by the Courts that in a fog a 
 lookout should be stationed at the bow. 
 
 It is important to remember that when vessels sight each other 
 through a fog, the signals of Art. 28 of the Rules of the Road be- 
 come available and must be used if the course is changed or the 
 engines backed. These signals must not be used when the ves- 
 sels are not in sight of each other, no matter how close they 
 may be. 
 
 In the event cf collision, it is a natural impulse for the vessel 
 which has rammed the other, to back out as quickly as possible. 
 This is often the worst thing that could be clone, since her bow 
 must be for the moment closing more or less perfectly the hole 
 that it has made. Often, by keeping the engines of the ramming 
 ship at dead slow ahead, it will be possible to save the other ship 
 from filling and sinking long enough for the passengers and crew 
 to make their escape perhaps directly to the deck of the ram- 
 ming ship. 
 
 As to the duties of both ships under the law, see VII of Chap- 
 ter XIV. 
 
 Collision mats (Plate 134), supplied to all men-of-war, are 
 rectangular mats made of two or more thicknesses of canvas, 
 quilted together, and fitted with lines from the corners, for getting 
 the mat into position over the side wherever it may be needed, and 
 holding it there. This calls for " hogging lines," leading from the 
 lower corners under the keel and up on the opposite side, and 
 others leading up to the rail on the side where the mat is placed ; 
 also for " distance lines " from the corners to stretch the mat for- 
 ward and aft. To get the hogging lines under the keel, they must 
 be dipped over the stem and passed aft to the point where they 
 are needed. It was at one time the custom in the navy to carry 
 n gg m g h'nes under the keel at all times, but this was found to 
 chafe the lines and to rub off the paint. It is now prohibited. 
 
Plate No. 134. 
 
 463 
 
 FIG.1 - MAT ON DECK, READY TO GO OVER 
 
 Thrummed S/rfe 
 toward Skin of Ship 
 
 FI6.2-MAT IN PLACE 
 
 COLLISION MAT. 
 
464 MANOEUVRING TO AVOin COLLISION. 
 
 Hogging and distance lines are usually of chain or wire or 
 both, ami rtre always galvanized. 
 
 A collision mat properly placed may be a threat help to a ship 
 which is dead in the water, but its usefulness is greatly reduced 
 if she attempts to steam at any speed. Its principal value is to 
 make other repairs possible usually from the inside of the ship ; 
 though, of course, if any sort of structure is to be used on the 
 outside, the mat may be kept in place untfcr this and may thus 
 continue to be efficient. 
 
 It might, for example, he practicable to construct a screen of 
 planks to be hauled down over the outside of the mat and bound 
 in place by lines around the ship and under the keel. If the hole 
 is near the turn of the bilge, the planks might be seized together 
 by short turns of rope passing through holes near the edges of 
 the planks, these turns acting as hinges and making the screen 
 sufficiently flexible to accommodate itself to the shape of the hull. 
 A large piece of canvas perhaps an awning might be put on 
 outside of all, and held in place by still other lines passed under 
 the keel. 
 
 Having, by methods of this kind, checked the rush of water, it 
 will usually he possible to build up a structure inside the ship 
 which can he braced and caulked in such a way as to admit of 
 proceeding to port. 
 
 If a water-tight compartment is to remain flooded, its bulk- 
 heads must be vcrv securely braced from adjoining compartments. 
 
(4^5) 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 PILOTING. 
 
 i. 
 
 The navigation of a ship at a distance from land, sometimes 
 known as " Prop er Piloting " is not a matter of Seamanship. 
 This chapter will therefore deal only with the handling of ves- 
 sels in coasting and in navigating harbors and other restricted 
 waters by the aid of soundings, buoys, lights, ranges, etc. For 
 safe navigation under these conditions, it is important that the 
 compass x error should be accurately known, that reliable sound- 
 ings should be had at frequent intervals, and that facilities 
 should be provided for taking bearings quickly and plotting 
 them accurately. The Gyro compass, with its repeaters, is re- 
 placing the magnetic compass and pelorus. 
 
 The compass error should be determined for the courses that 
 are to be used in coming upon the coast, at the latest possible 
 time. The leadlines should be examined and their marks veri- 
 fied. 
 
 Good leadsmen are rare and time and trouble are well spent in train- 
 ing a few of tnem who can be relied upon when exact results are needed. 
 
 The Charts, Sailing Directions, Light and Buoy Lists, etc., 
 should be studied and care taken that they are corrected to 
 date. 
 
 It is very desirable that the chart should be habitually kept 
 on the bridge in pilot waters and for this it is convenient not 
 only to have a large board permanently fixed on the bridge, 
 but to use, in addition to this, one or more smaller portable 
 boards to which the charts are tacked and which can be moved 
 about at will. The use of two of these portable boards does 
 away with the necessity of ever handling a loose chart on the 
 bridge, as each chart can be tacked to its board in the chart- 
 house and kept there until wanted. The portable boafd also 
 does away with the necessity for going to the fixed board when- 
 ever it is desired to refer to the chart a point which may be of 
 great importance in a crowded channel. 
 
 1 Magnetic compass. 
 
4 66 
 
 Plate No. 135. 
 
 Horizontal Danger Angle. 
 Fig. 1 
 
 Determining the Position by Two Bearings with the Run between. 
 Fig. 2 
 
 i 2 3 4 s 
 
 Soalt of Miles 
 
 | Course West by South 
 \ Dlttance Run, 3% Milet 
 8hfp It at 8 at time of Seoond 
 
 Fixing the Position Graphically by T wo Bearings with the Run between. 
 
 Fig. 3 
 
 DETERMINING pn<;mnM m n 
 
PILOTING. 467 
 
 For taking bearings, the compass, magnetic or gyro, fitted 
 with a proper azimuth circle is the most convenient instrument 
 that can be used. When it is not available, the pelorus is sub- 
 stituted for it. (See chapter on "Compass, Log and Lead.") 
 
 Sextant angles are sometimes to be preferred to compass 
 bearings, but are not as universally available. They are un- 
 questionably more reliable than compass bearings where every- 
 thing is favorable for their use, if only because they involve no 
 such uncertain element as deviation; but they require three 
 conspicuous and accurately charted objects separated by favor^ 
 able angles ; and these conditions are not always to be found. All 
 officers should, however, be familar with the use of the sextant 
 for measuring horizontal angles and of the three-arm protractor 
 for plotting them. 
 
 Another convenient and valuable use of the sextant in pilot- 
 ing is for determining distances by the vertical angles sub- 
 ended by light-houses, etc., the heights of which are known. 
 
 Tables are published which give at a glance the distance of 
 an object of a certain height corresponding to any observed 
 sextant angle; but in the absence of such a table, it is not diffi- 
 cult to make the necessary calculation. A common application 
 of this principle is the " vertical danger-angle." Having to pass 
 a light-house or some similar object of known height, we decide 
 at what minimum distance it shall be passed, determine the 
 angle which it will subtend at that distance, and then, by fre- 
 quent observation, make certain that the angle is not allowed 
 to exceed this value. 
 
 Strictly speaking, the height of the observer's eye is a factor in this 
 problem, but for ordinary purposes this may be disregarded. 
 
 Evidently the same angle enables us to keep at a safe distance 
 inside of an outlying danger if we have to pass between it and 
 the coast; and we may even work our way between two dangers 
 in this manner. 
 
 The " Horizontal Danger-Angle " is used where there are 
 two well-defined objects in the vicinity of a hidden danger. In 
 Fig. j, Plate 135, suppose A and B to represent two promi- 
 
 1 See the Chapter in Lecky's Wrinkles in Practical Navigation, on 
 " The Station Pointer " this being the English name for the three-arm 
 protractor. 
 
468 
 
 PILOTING. 
 
 nent objects which are plotted on the chart, and c an outlying 
 danger. At a safe distance to seaward of c, place a mark D, 
 and draw a circle through A, B and D. Draw also the lines A D 
 and B D and with a protractor measure the angle A D B. This 
 angle is the " danger-angle." So long as the angle between 
 A and B measured at the ship is less than A D B, the ship is out- 
 side the circle shown. If the angle becomes greater than A D B, 
 she is within the circle. When it is equal to A D B, she is on 
 the circle. 
 
 It is a well-known geometrical proposition that " all the angles in- 
 scribed in the same segment of a circle are equal." In other words, all 
 the angles that can be formed by lines drawn from points in the circum- 
 ference to the extremities of the chord A B will be equal to each other. 
 As we pass inside the circle, the angles will increase; as we pass outside 
 they will decrease. 
 
 In running along the land with prominent marks in sight, the 
 position should be plotted frequently, as there is always danger 
 that the ship will be set in by a current of which the chart and 
 Sailing Directions give no hint. If two well-marked points are 
 in sight, so placed that their lines of bearing " cut " at a favor- 
 able angle, the simplest method of fixing the position is by 
 cross-bearings. If only one suitable object can be seen, its line 
 of bearing may be plotted and an attempt made to fix the posi- 
 tion of the ship on this line by an estimate of distance, by a 
 sounding or by some other means. If the object seen chances 
 to be a light just coming above the horizon (a common situa- 
 tion), its distance may be determined with considerable accu- 
 racy from its height and that of the observer's eye. It hap- 
 pens that the distance from any given height to the visible sea- 
 horizon is, in miles, approximately equal to the square root of 
 the height in feet. Thus, if an observer whose eye is 25 feet 
 above the water-line, sees, just on the horizon, a light whose 
 height he knows to be 100 feet, he will not be far wrong in 
 assuming its distance as 15 miles. 
 
 For more exact results, the following table is convenient: 
 
PILOTING. 
 
 469 
 
 TABLE OF DISTANCES AT WHICH OBJECTS CAN BE SEEN AT SEA, 
 
 ACCORDING TO THEIR RESPECTIVE ELEVATIONS AND THE 
 
 ELEVATION OF THE EYE OF THE OBSERVER. 
 
 Heights 
 iu leet. 
 
 Distances in 
 nautical miles. 
 
 Heights 
 in feet. 
 
 Distances in 
 nautical miles. 
 
 Heights 
 in feet. 
 
 Distances in 
 nautical mileSo 
 
 5 
 
 2-565 
 
 70 
 
 9-598 
 
 250 
 
 18-14 
 
 10 
 
 3-628 
 
 75 
 
 9-935 
 
 300 
 
 19-87 
 
 15 
 
 4-443 
 
 80 
 
 10-26 
 
 350 
 
 21-46 
 
 20 
 
 5-130 
 
 85 
 
 10-57 
 
 400 
 
 22-94 
 
 25 
 
 5-736 
 
 90 
 
 10-88 
 
 450 
 
 24-33 
 
 30 
 
 6-283 
 
 95 
 
 11-18 
 
 500 
 
 25-65 
 
 35 
 
 6-787 
 
 100 
 
 11-47 
 
 550 
 
 26-90 
 
 40 
 
 7-255 
 
 110 
 
 12-03 
 
 600 
 
 28-10 
 
 45 
 
 7-696 
 
 120 
 
 12-56 
 
 650 
 
 29-25 
 
 50 
 
 8-112 
 
 130 
 
 13 08 
 
 700 
 
 30-28 
 
 55 
 
 8-509 
 
 140 
 
 13-57 
 
 800 
 
 32-45 
 
 60 
 
 8-886 
 
 150 
 
 14-22 
 
 900 
 
 34-54 
 
 65 
 
 9-249 
 
 200 
 
 16-22 
 
 1000 
 
 36-28 
 
 Example. A tower, 200 feet high, will be visible to an observer whose eye 
 is elevated 15 feet above the water, 21 nautical miles nearly : thus from the 
 table : 
 
 15 feet elevation, distance visible 4-44 nautical miles. 
 200 " 16-22 " 
 
 20-66 
 
 Abnormal refraction may introduce an error here. And on a coast 
 where the rise and fall of the tide are excessive, neglect to allow for this 
 might be a serious matter. 
 
 If the light is above the horizon, the observer may move down- 
 ward until he finds the height that brings it to the water-line. 
 
 Two observations of a single object will give a " fix," if the 
 course and distance run in the elapsed time are noted. In run- 
 ning on a steady course with such an object in sight we have a 
 series of simple triangles formed by the intersection of the 
 course with the successive lines of bearing (Fig. 2, Plate 135). 
 In these triangles, we have given the side R s, representing the 
 distance run between any two bearings, and the angles made by 
 these bearings with the course; ART and AST. The triangles 
 might, of course, be solved simply enough by ordinary mathe- 
 matical processes, but these are not suited for work on the 
 bridge. The table which follows gives the solution without 
 calculation. It is a good plan to have a copy of this posted on 
 a board and hung in the chart-house. 
 
470 
 
 PILOTING. 
 
 TO FIND THE DISTANCE OF AN OBJECT BY TWO BEARINGS, 
 KNOWING THE DISTANCE RUN BETWEEN THEM. 
 
 RuLE.-Under the number of points contained between the course and second 
 bearing, and opposite to the difference between the course and first bearing, will be 
 found a number which multiplied by the miles made good will give the distance of 
 the object (in miles) at the time the last bearing was taken. 
 
 N. B. Due allowance should be made for current. 
 
 Difference between the Course and Second Bearing in Points of the Compass. 
 
 4 
 
 41 
 
 5 
 
 5* 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 * 
 
 8 
 
 8* 
 
 9 
 
 9* 
 
 10 
 
 10* 
 
 11 
 
 11* 
 
 12 
 
 12* 
 
 Pts. 
 ^ 
 
 Difference between the Course and First Bearing 
 in points of the Compass. 
 
 1-00 
 
 0-81 
 1-23 
 
 0-69 
 1-00 
 
 o-) 
 0-85 
 
 0-54 
 0-74 
 
 0-49 
 0-67 
 
 0-46 
 0-61 
 
 0-43 
 0-57 
 
 0-41 
 0-53 
 
 0-40 
 0-51 
 
 0-390-38 
 0-490-48 
 
 0-380-38 
 Q-47^-47 
 
 0-39 
 0-47 
 
 0-40 
 0-48 
 
 0-41 
 0-49 
 
 0-43 
 0-51 
 
 
 
 1-45 
 
 1-17 
 1-66 
 
 1-00 
 1-35 
 
 0.88 
 1.14 
 
 0-79 
 1-00 
 
 0-72 
 0-90 
 
 0-67 
 0-82 
 
 0-63 
 0-76 
 
 0-600-58 
 0-72JO-69 
 
 0-570-56 
 0-660-65 
 
 0-56 
 0-64 
 
 0-56 
 0-64 
 
 0-57 
 0-64 
 
 0-58 
 0-65 
 
 3 f 
 
 
 
 1-85 
 
 1-50 
 2-02 
 
 1-27 
 1-64 
 
 Ml 
 1-39 
 
 1-00 
 1-22 
 
 0-92 
 1-09 
 
 0-15 
 1-00 
 
 0-80 
 0-93 
 
 0-760-74 
 0-880-84 
 
 0-72 
 0-81 
 
 0-71 
 0-79 
 
 0-71 
 
 0-78 
 
 0-71 
 
 0-78 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 2-17 
 
 1-77 
 2.30 
 
 1-50 
 1-87 
 
 1-31 
 1-58 
 
 M8 
 1-39 
 
 1-08 
 1-25 
 
 1-00 
 1-14 
 
 0-94 
 1-06 
 
 0-90 
 1-00 
 
 0-87 
 0-95 
 
 0-850-83 
 0-920-90 
 
 5 
 5* 
 
 
 
 2-41 
 
 1-96 
 2-50 
 
 1-66 
 2-03 
 
 1-46 
 1-72 
 
 1-31 
 1-51 
 
 M9 
 1-35 
 
 1-11 
 1-24 
 
 1-05 
 1-15 
 
 1-00 
 1-08 
 
 0-97 
 1-03 
 
 6 
 6* 
 
 
 
 2.56 
 
 2-08 
 2-60 
 
 1-76 
 2-11 
 
 2-61 
 
 1-55 
 1-79 
 
 2-12 
 2-60 
 
 1-39 
 1-57 
 
 1-80 
 2-11 
 
 2-56 
 
 1-27 
 1 41 
 
 1-58 
 1-79 
 
 2-08 
 2-50 
 
 1-18 
 1-29 
 
 1-41 
 1-57 
 
 1-76 
 2-03 
 
 2-41 
 
 1-11 
 
 1-20 
 
 1-29 
 1-41 
 
 1-55 
 1-72 
 
 1-96 
 2-30 
 
 7 
 8^ 
 9 
 
 ib~ 
 
 10J 
 
 Example. A lighthouse bore WNW. The ship ran 6 knots, West, and the light- 
 house then bore NW. JN. Required the distance of the lighthouse at the time of 
 the second bearing. 
 
 Angle between the course and first bearing = 2 points. 
 
 " second " =4* 
 Multiplier from table =0'81 
 Distance = 6 X 0'81 = 4'86 nautical miles. 
 
 In the absence of a table, the problem may be solved graphi- 
 cally by plotting the lines of bearing on the chart and deter- 
 mining by the aid of rulers and dividers where the given course 
 must cut these lines to make the distance between them equal 
 the run of the ship (Fig. 3, Plate 135). 
 
 There are several convenient applications of the above-des- 
 cribed principles to practical cases, which call for neither a 
 Table nor a Chart. If the second observation is taken when 
 the angle between the line of bearing and the course (A s T) is 
 exactly double what it was at the time of the first observation 
 
PILOTING. 471 
 
 (ART), the distance of the ship from the object at the time oi 
 the second observation is equal to the run of the ship between 
 the observations. 
 
 Again, knowing the distance A s, and the angle AST, we may 
 by reference to the Traverse Table, determine the distance at 
 which the point A will be when abeam. 
 
 It will be understood that in all observations involving the run of the 
 ship, allowance must be made for any current that may be known to 
 exist. 
 
 If the first bearing is taken when the point A is exactly on the 
 bow and the second when it is abeam, the distance at the time 
 of the second observation will be equal to the run of the ship 
 between observations. This method of fixing the distance 
 from an object when abeam is called the method of " Bow and 
 Beam Bearings " and is usually carried out with all prominent 
 landmarks passed. There is no reason why both this method 
 and the preceding one should not be made matters of routine 
 and all observations connected with them entered in a " Coast- 
 ing Record " to be kept in the chart-house. 
 
 In this connection, attention may be called to the importance of re- 
 cording all observations accurately at the time they are made, and of 
 noting the reading of the patent log for every observation that has to do 
 with the navigation of the ship, whether this be a sight, a sounding or a 
 bearing. 
 
 Advantage should be taken of every opportunity for getting 
 a line of position by means of two objects " in range " with each 
 other. This calls for no measuring of bearings and is at once 
 the most convenient and the most accurate line that can be 
 obtained. If, at the instant that the range is closed, a bearing 
 of another object be noted, or the sextant angle measured be- 
 tween another object and the range, the position is fixed at 
 once. 
 
 A convenient way of determining the compass-error for the compass- 
 heading at the instant is to take the bearing of a well defined and 
 accurately charted range. 
 
 As a general rule, where coasts are well charted, well lighted 
 and well buoyed, the safest way to navigate them is to keep 
 close enough to see and clearly identify the landmarks in regu- 
 lar succession, running from one mark to another with careful 
 bearings on them all, taking advantage of every opportunity 
 
472 
 
 PILOTING. 
 
 to fix the position, and watching especially to see if the ship is 
 being set in toward danger as she often will be by currents 
 which, in many cases, there is no reason to anticipate. In this 
 way, the position is always known within a few miles and it is 
 much safer than to keep off so far that marks cannot be seen, 
 until the time when it becomes necessary to close with the 
 coast; for when this time comes, you may be far out of your 
 reckoning and a little mistake in standing in may have serious 
 results. Another reason for keeping hold of the marks is that 
 if the weather becomes thick, you know your position with 
 certainty up to the last moment and so have a " departure " 
 upon which you can rely for running in the fog. It is needless 
 to say that in a fog, dangers should be given a wider berth than 
 in clear weather, but even in a fog it is safer to feel the way 
 along by careful soundings and by the help of the sound signals 
 provided for the purpose than to cut adrift from everything. 
 (See Section III of this Chapter.) 
 
 On coasts which are not well surveyed, no chances should be 
 taken. 
 
 It must be remembered that buoys are often out of place 
 and that light vessels may be so; and every effort should be 
 made to fix the position by means of permanent landmarks. 
 Even when buoys, etc., are changed intentionally and with due 
 notice, it may happen that the notice is not received. A vessel 
 approaching New York some years ago at the end of a passage 
 from the Pacific went aground in thick weather because Sandy 
 Hook light-vessel had been moved (three months before) and 
 notice of the change had not been received. 
 
 In approaching a harbor, it is important to know not only 
 the state of the tide as to height, but the direction and force of 
 the tidal currents that may be expected. (See Section II.) 
 After the channel is actually entered, the direction of the current 
 may be known from its effect upon buoys and upon vessels at 
 anchor, and all indications of this kind should be carefully 
 noted. It will rarely happen that the currents run perfectly 
 true to the direction of the channel; and where they draw across, 
 the ship will be set over to one side unless a proper allowance 
 is made by heading a little higher than the course that is to be 
 made. In cases of this kind it is very helpful to use a range; 
 and if none is laid down on the chart an effort should be made 
 
PILOTING. 473 
 
 to pick one out ahead. The objects seen need not be recog- 
 nized to be of use for this. 
 
 The line on which the ship is running should be laid down on 
 the chart and the position plotted frequently by such means as 
 are available. This will give warning if she sags to either side. 
 
 A ship handles better with the tide against her than when 
 running with it. If obliged to come in with a fair tide, the speed 
 should be kept as high as circumstances permit, to insure good 
 control by the rudder. An exception to this rule exists when a 
 sharp turn is to be made, as hereafter explained and as illustrated 
 in Plate 136. 
 
 In approaching a strange harbor, there may be difficulty in 
 recognizing the landmarks and aids to navigation as laid down 
 on the chart. Under such circumstances the ship should be 
 stopped, and if necessary anchored, until the situation is made 
 out clearly. If in doubt about the reliability of surveys, or if 
 the channel is not buoyed, it is well to send a boat ahead to 
 sound it out and mark it temporarily. In running among coral 
 reefs, danger may be made out from aloft at a considerable 
 distance, and intricate passages may be threaded in this way 
 in perfect safety, provided the sun is at the back of the observer. 
 
 On a coast where careful soundings have been made and 
 charted, the sounding machine gives a valuable means of locat- 
 ing the position. This will be described in another section 
 upon " Navigating in a Fog." 
 
 11. CURRENTS. 
 
 Perhaps the most serious danger connected with piloting is 
 that arising from currents, the force and direction of which are 
 not known. This danger is greater in a fog than under other 
 circumstances, but is one that should be kept in mind at all 
 times when navigating in the neighborhood of dangers. 
 
 In most cases there is no way of foretelling with certainty the 
 direction and force of the current to be anticipated at a given 
 place and time, but this ought not to be true of such currents as 
 are tidal in their nature. These are closely connected with high 
 and low water; but whereas very elaborate tables are published 
 giving the time of high and low for all parts of the world, there 
 is so little information published with regard to tidal currents 
 that many of the people to whom such information would be of 
 value, remain, after years of sea-faring, under the impression 
 
PILOTING. 
 
 that " slack " water corresponds to " high " and " low," that a 
 falling tide is necessarily accompanied by a current running out, 
 and a rising tide by one running in. 
 
 This is so far from being true that at many places high and 
 low water correspond with the maximum strength of tidal cur- 
 rent. This commonly occurs where a large basin is to be filled 
 through a relatively narrow mouth, as in the case of Chesapeake 
 Bay, and where a narrow body of water lies open to the sea at 
 both ends, as in the English Channel. 
 
 " We must take care not to confound the time of the turn of the tide 
 stream with the time of high water. Mistakes and errors have often 
 been produced in tide observations by supposing that the turn of the 
 tide stream is the time of high water. But this is not so. The turn of 
 the stream generally takes place at a different time from high water, 
 except at ihe head of a bay or creek. The stream of flood commonly 
 runs for some time, often for hours, after the time of high water. In the 
 same way, the stream of ebb runs for some time after low water. 
 
 " The time at which the stream turns is often different at different 
 distances from the shore; but the time of high water is not necessarily 
 different at these points. 
 
 " In the center of all open channels when the tide runs right through, 
 the streams nearly invariably overrun the times of high and low water 
 by about three hours. In such a locality the stream due to the flood will 
 commence three hours before high water and continue to run for three 
 hours after high water, in the same direction. 
 
 " In tidal rivers a modified form of the same phenomenon occurs, 
 ". e., the stream runs up for some time after the water has begun to fall, 
 and runs down after the water has begun to rise." 
 
 " Near the sides of a channel of any width, and whose sides are shallow, 
 the direction of the tidal stream is rotatory. On the left hand, looking 
 up the channel with the flood stream, the direction of rotation is with the 
 hands of a watch ; and on the right-hand side, in the contrary direction in 
 the following manner: At low water, the stream will be running down 
 the channel ; at half tide, it will be flowing toward the shore ; and at half 
 ebb, it will be ebbing directly away from the shore. In the upper parts of 
 estuaries or tidal rivers., where shallow water prevails, the duration of 
 the flood stream is commonly shorter than that of the ebb. The higher up 
 the estuaries, the greater will this difference become. This is apparently 
 due to the retardation of the advancing tide caused by friction over the 
 shoals, and when the range of tide is great, the water becomes heaped in 
 the lower part of the estuary, finally rushing up the higher part in a wave, 
 which, in extreme instances, has a more or less vertical face and is called 
 a "bore." The Yangtse, Amazon and Seine are cases in point. In such 
 a case, the tide rises perhaps half its height in a few minutes and the whole 
 duration of flood stream will be confined to two or three hours or even 
 less, the remainder of the twelve hours being occupied by the downward 
 or ebb stream." Whewell, "Treatise on Tides." 
 
PILOTING. 475 
 
 It is only on an open coast line or in a shallow basin that slack 
 water corresponds with high and low. 
 
 In a Lasin like Chesapeake Bay, the w r ave of high water .travels 
 up until it reaches and is reflected back from the head of the 
 bay. There results from this a rather complicated condition of 
 affairs in the bay, with two points of high and two of low, water, 
 with points of slack midway between the adjoining high and low. 
 
 In a place like the English Channel, which lies open to the 
 tides at both ends, the currents flow from both sides toward and 
 away from a certain point, which in the case of the English 
 Channel is near Dover. In this case, moreover, the tide turns 
 throughout the whole length of the channel at practically the same 
 moment. Similar phenomena occur in Long Island Sound and 
 East River, which constitute together a single body of water 
 open to the tide at bo.th ends. Here the tidal currents meet and 
 separate at Throg's Neck. It is slack water at practically the 
 same time along nearly the whole length of the Sound, and the 
 same is true of East River, where it is slack at, approximately, 
 one hour and twenty minutes after high and low at Governor's 
 Island, the current running from both sides toward Throg's Neck 
 for six hours preceding slack water high, and from the same 
 point for the six hours between slack water high and slack water 
 low. 
 
 Local conditions may greatly modify the rules as laid down 
 above. The currents are always weaker near shore than in 
 the middle of the channel, and often run in the opposite direction, 
 sometimes with considerable force. A striking illustration of 
 this is to be seen in Wallabout Bay, an offset from the East River 
 (New York harbor) on which the New York Navy Yard has its 
 water front. At the strength of the flood tide, when the current 
 in the river is running up (to the northeast) with a velocity of 
 several knots an hour, a strong counter current runs along the 
 face of the " Cob-dock " at the Navy Yard. Between the two 
 currents an eddy is formed, which, as the currents slack, flattens 
 out, growing longer and narrower, and finally disappearing as 
 slack water is approached. There is no corresponding phenome- 
 non while the ebb current is running, although the contour of the 
 river results in some puzzling irregularities in the direction of 
 the current. 
 
476 PILOTING. 
 
 As has been pointed out in the extract from Whewell quoted 
 above, tidal currents do not always run in and out along the same 
 line, but in many places swing through a complete circle, run- 
 ning, at different stages of the tide, from every point of the 
 compass. This is well illustrated at Charleston Entrance, South 
 Carolina. Here the first of the flood runs to the southwest, 
 the middle of the flood to west, and so on until it has worked 
 around to a little east of north, at which point the flood ends. 
 A little later the ebb current begins, running to northeast, turns 
 to east by the middle of the ebb, and so works around to south, 
 where it ends. Other very striking illustrations occur at various 
 points in the neighborhood of the British Islands, and the adjoin- 
 ing coasts of Continental Europe, where the currents are strong 
 and often apparently erratic. 
 
 In so far as the currents of the British Islands are tidal in 
 character, they have been very carefully studied, and the results 
 are given in the " Tide Tables for British and Irish Ports," pub- 
 lished by the Hydrographic Department of the British Admi- 
 ralty. 
 
 Similar, though less complete, information for United States 
 waters is published in the Tide Tables issued by the Coast and 
 Geodetic Survey. All of this information should be familiar to 
 officers having occasion to navigate the waters in question. 
 
 By far the most dangerous currents with which the navigator 
 has to deal are those which, whether tidal or not in their origin, 
 are encountered beyond the limits where tidal currents are usually 
 looked for. 
 
 Opposite the mouth of a large basin like Delaware or Chesa- 
 peake Bay, the tidal current setting in or out is often felt many 
 miles to seaward, and vessels in the neighborhood of such basins 
 should be very watchful. Vessels passing twenty miles outside 
 of the Delaware Capes have been set in toward the shoals by as 
 much as three knots an hour, and there can be no doubt that this 
 phenomenon accounts for many of the wrecks which occur every 
 year along the coast of New Jersey, most of which occur where 
 vessels are standing to the northward in thick weather. 
 
 In places where long shoals extend far out from land, there is 
 almost always a current setting across. For reasons which are 
 not clear, such a current almost invariably cuts in at more or less 
 of an angle toward the coast. This has been frequently noted on 
 
riLoxiNG. 477 
 
 Lookout and Frying Pan Shoals, off the coast of North Carolina, 
 which are the scenes of frequent wrecks. 
 
 Where a long stretch of straight coast, like that from Hatteras 
 northward to Cape Henry, would seem to preclude the probability 
 of a current, there is often a very marked set, chiefly up or down, 
 but always with a more or less pronounced tendency toward the 
 coast. i 
 
 These phenomena are the more dangerous because due to 
 causes which are too obscure to be identified ; being probably con- 
 nected in some cases with gales or with long continued winds 
 from a certain quarter, which have, perhaps, ceased to blow ; or 
 to winds prevailing farther to seaward and causing a general set 
 toward the coast. The important point is that the navigator 
 should always be prepared to find a current setting him in some 
 direction whenever he is near a coast of any considerable extent, 
 even though his Sailing Directions give no hint of such danger, 
 and no reason for it is apparent. 
 
 Even when everything points to a current from a certain direc- 
 tion, there are many chances that it will be found running in 
 some other direction. The Gulf Stream northwest of Cuba and 
 in the Florida Straits perhaps the most strongly marked ocean 
 current in the world is occasionally found running directly 
 across the axis of the straits ; and sometimes after a prolonged 
 " Norther " may be found running south and west toward the 
 Yucatan Channel and the Caribbean Sea. 
 
 It has been stated in I that a vessel handles better when run- 
 ning against a current than when running with it. To this there is 
 one exception. Where a sharp turn has to be made, the ship will 
 make it better on a fair tide in fact, it is dangerous to attempt 
 such a turn against a strong head tide. This will be clear from 
 Plate 136. In Figs. I and 2, a long steamer is shown attempting 
 to round a turn against the current. As her bow reaches out 
 beyond the point, it is caught by the current on the wrong side, 
 and swept off the wrong way, giving her a rank sheer across 
 (Fig. i). A moment later her stern feels the back water sweep- 
 ing out from the far side of the bend, and tending to cut her 
 stern around the wrong way. Thus there are two forces at work, 
 one on the bow and the other on the stern, to keep her from 
 making the turn. In Figs. 3 and 4 are shown the corresponding 
 forces when the tide is fair. Here everything favors the turn, 
 and it is difficult to keep the ship from coming around. 
 
478 
 
 Plate No. 136. 
 
 Fig. 1, 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 Fig 4 
 
 Fig. 6. 
 
 TURNING A SHARP BEND WITH AND AGAINST CURRENT. 
 
PILOTING. 479 
 
 Some years ago, a large schooner anchored in the Piscataqua Rivei 
 below Henderson's Point, parted her cable in the middle of the nighl 
 and went up the river with a five-knot current. At that time the river 
 made a narrow right-angle bend around the Point, and the turn was 
 regarded as difficult enough under the most favorable conditions. 
 The schooner, with all hands on board asleep, rounded the point with- 
 out touching, and brought up on a shoal a mile and a half further up 
 the river. 
 
 Where two ships are passing at a bend, it will be easier for 
 them to pass clear if the one going with the current turns inside 
 the other. This does not mean that they are privileged to pass in 
 this way, if contrary to the Rules of the Road, nor indeed that 
 they are justified in trying to pass at a bend in this way or in 
 any other. If, however, they are going to pass, and if the rules 
 permit them to pass in this way, it will be comparatively easy to 
 pass without accident while the other way would be very danger- 
 ous. See Figs. 5 and 6, Plate 136. 
 
 III. NAVIGATING IN A FOG. 
 
 The phase of this subject which has to do with the avoidance 
 of collision is fully discussed in Chapter " Manoeuvring to Avoid 
 Collision," where it is shown that the law requiring ships to run 
 at " moderate " speed is perfectly reasonable as a matter of sea- 
 manship, and that a ship running at such speed, and having, as 
 she should have, a reserve of power for backing hard, can be 
 stopped in from one to three times her length. It is clear that 
 the same considerations which make this reasonable for the 
 avoidance of collision make it equally so for the avoidance of 
 stranding ; but there is another point to be considered here, which 
 is that the effect of currents in throwing the ship out of her 
 reckoning will be greater at a low than at a high speed, their 
 effect varying, in fact, inversely with the speed. This should 
 always be taken into consideration and may under some circum- 
 stances constitute a reason for running at higher speed than 
 would otherwise be justifiable. 
 
 Experiments with fog-signals have proved that such signals 
 are often inaudible at distances much within that at which they 
 should be heard ; and furthermore that a signal which has been 
 heard at a certain distance may be lost as it is approached, there 
 being, apparently " zones of silence " surrounding the signals, 
 in which the waves of sound are deflected upward. This has 
 been shown to be a matter of sufficient practical importance to 
 be a source of real danger. 
 
Plate No. 137. 
 
 SIGNIFICANT SOUNDINGS, FIXING POSITION IN A FOG 
 
PILOTING. 481 
 
 Through the development and very general introduction of the 
 Gyro Compass, the Radio Compass, the Submarine Signalling 
 System and the Sounding Machine, all of which are described in 
 Chapter VIII, the difficulties and dangers of navigation and espe- 
 cially of navigation in a fog, have been enormously reduced. 
 
 With these should be associated a reliable system of determin- 
 ing the speed of the ship (by patent log or revolutions of the 
 screws), and from these the distance run (with course made 
 good) for any desired interval of time. 
 
 It is often possible to fix the ship's position with surprising ac- 
 curacy by sounding alone, the soundings being plotted on tracing 
 cloth to the scale of the chart with proper courses and distances 
 between, and the cloth moved over the chart until a position is 
 found where the soundings as plotted fall in with the depths given 
 on the chart. It is convenient to draw a number of meridian lines 
 on the tracing-cloth as an assistance in laying off the courses and 
 in keeping these true to the chart while moving the tracing about. 
 The lead is "armed" for each sounding and the sample of bottom 
 brought up should be recorded as carefully as the depth, and 
 given equal weight in locating the position. 
 
 It will be understood, of course, that this method of navigating" 
 is available only on coasts that have been thoroughly surveyed 
 and accurately charted. 
 
 An examination of the chart will often reveal an exceptional 
 formation of the bottom which may be as characteristic as a 
 conspicuous peak or other peculiar formation on land, and as 
 conclusive in establishing a position. Two important illustra- 
 tions of this are shown in Plate 137. Fig. I shows the soundings 
 at the eastern entrance of Long Island Sound. Here a long, 
 narrow " deep " makes up at right angles to the line connecting 
 Montauk with the southern end of Block Island. 
 
 A vessel standing in here in a fog and in doubt about her 
 exact position, could run slowly to the eastward in 7 and 8 
 fathoms, getting soundings in quick succession. If the sound- 
 ings increased suddenly from 7 fathoms to 25 or 30, and imme- 
 diately afterwards decreased almost as suddenly, the position 
 would be fixed as if the fog had lifted and shown the land. 
 Similarly, a vessel standing in for Boston and getting soundings 
 on Stellwagen Bank, would have almost a perfect fix (Fig. 2). 
 
482 
 
 PILOTING. 
 
 It often becomes necessary in a fog or in weather too thick 
 for sights, to run along a coast or to round a bend, keeping at 
 a certain distance from land. Where the soundings run with 
 some degree of regularity, as for example, along the Atlantic 
 coast of the United States, a certain dep.th of water (or two 
 limiting depths) may be selected from the chart and the ship 
 kept approximately on the curve of this depth by heading out 
 or in a little as the soundings are found to decrease or to in- 
 crease. Thus a steamer having to run in thick weather from 
 Boston to Key West could round Nantucket shoals in depths 
 from 28 to 35 fathoms, then striking across to the 2O-fathom 
 curve on the coast of New Jersey could follow this curve with 
 safety to Cape Canaverel. 
 
 In running a channel where the water shoals gradually en 
 each side, the ship may be kept in the channel by zig-zagging 
 slightly from side to side, the course being changed whenever 
 the water is found shoaling dangerously. The advantage of 
 running more or less across rather than attempting .to follow 
 the channel directly is that when the water begins to shoal, we 
 know in which direction the course must be changed to deepen 
 it, whereas if we attempt to follow the channel, and find our- 
 selves in shallow water, we have no means of telling on which 
 side the channel lies. 
 
 When in the neighborhood of high land, use can sometimes 
 be made of echoes to determine roughly the distance of the land 
 and whether the ship is opposite a bluff or a break in the con- 
 tour of the coast. 
 
 IV. BUOYAGE. 
 
 The International Marine Conference of 1889 suggested a 
 uniform system of buoyage based first upon color and secon- 
 darily upon shape. The following extract from the report of 
 the committee having this subject in charge, puts very clearly 
 the principles which should be included in such a system. These 
 principles have been .to a considerable extent adopted by the 
 leading commercial nations of the world, as will be seen in the 
 appended Notes on Buoyage. 
 
 Extract from Report of Committee on Buoyage: 
 
 "The term starboard hand shall denote that side of ? navigable chan- 
 
PILOTING. 483 
 
 n,?l which is on the right hand of the mariner entering from seaward; 
 the term port hand shall denote that side which is on the left hand under 
 the same circumstances. 
 
 Color. Buoys defining the starboard hand shall be painted a single red 
 color. 
 
 Buoys defining the port hand shall be painted a single black color, or a 
 parti-color. 
 
 Buoys defining middle grounds shall be painted with horizontal _bands. 
 
 Form. Wherever form is used as a distinctive character. 
 
 Buoys defining the starboard hand shall be conical, and those defining 
 the port hand shall be can or spar. 
 
 Top Marks. Countries where form is not used as distinctive character 
 for the buoys may adopt as another distinctive feature for the buoys on 
 either side of a channel, top marks resembling a cone to be used on the 
 starboard side, or a cylinder on the port side of a channel. 
 
 Numbers and Letters. Numbers, letters and names may be painted on 
 the buoys, but they must never be so large as to interfere with their 
 distinctive coloring. 
 
 Whenever numbers and letters are used they shall be in consecutive 
 order, commencing from seaward. 
 
 Buoying a-nd marking of wrecks. (a) All buoys and the top sides of 
 vessels used for the marking of wrecks, shall be painted green with a 
 suitable white inscription. 
 
 (b) Where it is practicable, by day one ball shall be exhibited on the 
 side of the vessel nearest the wreck, and two placed vertically on the 
 other side; three fixed white lights similarly arranged but not the ordi- 
 nary riding lights, shall be shown from sunset to sunrise." 
 
 It should be observed that the above are recommendations 
 and not laws. As a matter of fact, however, the general fea- 
 tures of these recommendations have been adopted by most of 
 the Governments which have established uniform and consistent 
 systems of buoyage. 
 
 As regards the marks for channels, some nations distinguish 
 the starboard and port sides by color y some by shape, and some by 
 topmarks. Some use two characteristics, but place more emphasis 
 on one than on the other. 
 
 In German waters, conical buoys painted black, mark the 
 port side of the channel in entering, and spar or can buoys 
 painted red, mark the starboard side. 
 
 In Norway, Sweden and Russia a " compass " system of 
 marking is adopted ; that is to say, the colors, shapes and top- 
 marks are arranged to indicate the north, south, east and 
 west sides of channels and shoals. 
 
 Quarantine buoys are invariably yellow. 
 
 Buoys defining the limits of anchorages are usually white. 
 But Belgium, Norway, Sweden, Russia and Denmark use 
 white buoys as regular navigational marks. 
 
PILOTING. 
 
 In all countries, special types of buoys, beacons, etc., are 
 used in special places and shown on charts. Such are Bell- 
 buoys, Whistling-buoys, Gas-buoys, Electric-buoys, etc. 
 See' Appendix (" Buoyage "). 
 
 In regular systems, starboard hand buoys, if numbered, 
 have even numbers, port hand buoys, odd numbers, counting 
 in succession from seaward. 
 
 In the Straits of Magellan and the Patagonian Channels, 
 the buoys are placed with reference to vessels passing from 
 the Atlantic to the Pacific, red buoys being on the starboard 
 hand of the channel with reference to such vessels and black 
 buoys on the port hand. 
 
 The positions and character of buoys should be given on 
 all charts and in all Sailing Directions, and the latest authori- 
 tative information available should always be consulted be- 
 fore entering or leaving a port or coming on a coast. 
 
 Buoyage 'of United States Waters. 
 
 The following are the rules for the buoyage of the coasts and 
 harbors of the United States and Insular possessions : 
 
 The buoys used for marking channels, dangers, etc., are 
 called nun, can, ice and spar buoys. With the exception of 
 the spar buoy, which is made of wood, they are constructed 
 of sheet iron with water-tight compartments so that an 
 accidental puncture will not sink them. 
 
 In conformity with section 4678 of the Revised Statutes 
 of the United States, the following order is observed in col- 
 oring and numbering the buoys along the coasts, or in bays, 
 harbors, sounds, or channels, viz. : 
 
 1. In approaching the channel, etc., from seaward, red 
 buoys, with even numbers, will be found on the starboard 
 side of the channel, and must be left on .the starboard hand 
 in passing in. 
 
 2. In approaching the channel, etc., from seaward, black 
 buoys, with odd numbers, will be found on .the port side of 
 the channel, and must be left on the port hand in passing in. 
 
 3. As a rule, starboard hand buoys are nuns, and port 
 hand buoys cans, but spars may replace either. 
 
 4. Buoys painted with red and black horizontal stripes will 
 be found on obstructions, with channel ways on either side 
 of them, and may be left on either hand in passing in. 
 
 5. Buoys painted with white and black perpendicular 
 stripes, will be found in mid-channel, and must be passed 
 close-to to avoid danger. 
 
 ^ 6. All other distinguishing marks to buoys will be in addi- 
 tion to the foregoing, and may be employed to mark particu- 
 lar spots, a description of which will be given in the printed 
 list of buovs. 
 
PILOTING. 485 
 
 7. Perches, with balls, cages, etc., will, when placed on 
 buoys, be at turning points, the color and number indicating 
 on which side they shall be passed. 
 
 8. Day beacons, stakes and spindles (except such as are 
 on the sides of channels, which will be colored like buoys) 
 are constructed and distinguished with special reference to 
 each locality, and particularly in regard .to the background 
 upon which they are projected. 
 
 9. Wherever practicable, the towers, beacons, buoys, spin- 
 dles, and all other aids to navigation are arranged in the buoy 
 list of the Lighthouse Board in regular order as they are 
 passed by vessels entering from sea. 
 
 10. The navigator should keep in mind that the buoys in 
 .thoroughfares and passages between the islands along the 
 coast of Maine are numbered and colored for entering from 
 the eastward. 
 
486 
 
 Plate No. 138. 
 
 Fig. 3 
 
 Fig. 1 
 
 Fig. 2 
 
 Fig. 4 
 
 HANDLING STEAMERS AROUND A DOCK. 
 
(487) 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 HANDLING A STEAMER ALONGSIDE A DOCK. 
 
 I. PRELIMINARY. 
 
 It is clear that the conditions under which work of this kind is 
 to be done may vary almost indefinitely and that the methods 
 used must be varied correspondingly. It would be hopeless to 
 attempt to illustrate all or even any considerable number of the 
 situations which arise in practice, but it is not so difficult to 
 analyze in a general way the various factors involved, and to 
 show their application to a few special cases. 
 
 The factors are: lines, helm, screw, headway or sternway of 
 the ship, current, wind. 
 
 We begin by considering the use of lines, first alone, then in 
 combination with other factors. 
 
 CASE I. 
 
 If the ship is lying dead in the water abreast of a dock, as in 
 Fig. i, Plate 138, with a bow line leading to the dock, hauling 
 on this line will turn the bow in, of course, but it will also throw 
 the stern out, the ship pivoting about the center of gravity. It 
 should be noted, however, that the stern does not go out quite 
 as much as the bow comes in; for, since the ship is not held 
 rigidly at the pivoting point, the mass as a whole will respond 
 more or less to the force acting on the bow, and the resultant 
 motion will be like that shown in the figure. 
 
 If the stern is held by a line to the dock, as in Fig. 2, Plate 138, 
 the pivot is transferred to the stern and the whole length of the 
 ship comes in as shown. This requires much greater effort than 
 to turn the ship about her natural pivoting point as in Fig. I. 
 
 If the bow and stern lines are hauled on at the same time, the 
 ship may be breasted in bodily, but at an even greater expendi- 
 ture of work than in the preceding case. 
 
 If either of the lines described above leads off at an angle from 
 the beam, it constitutes a " spring," which may be defined as a 
 line diagonal to the keel and exerting a force, when power is 
 
 1 See also Chapter XXI, " The Handling of Destroyers." 
 
488 
 
 Plate No. 139. 
 
 Fig. 1 
 
 Fig. 3 
 
 Fig. 2 
 
 Fig. 4 
 
 \ 
 
 HANDLING STEAMERS AROUND A DOCK, 
 
HANDLING A STEAMER ALONGSIDE A DOCK. 489 
 
 applied to it, both in the direction of the keel and at right angles 
 to that direction. 
 
 A spring is used, therefore, for moving the ship ahead or 
 astern and breasting her in at the same time. 
 
 CASE 2. 
 
 If the ship has way, either ahead or astern, her momentum 
 enters into the problem of her behavior. We have here another 
 application of a spring, the power involved in this case being 
 furnished by the ship itself. 
 
 In Fig. 3, Plate 138, suppose that the steamer shown is mov- 
 ing parallel to the face of the dock with engines stopped and helm 
 amidships, and that the stern spring A K is taut. Disregarding 
 the resistance of the water, which is inconsiderable, the motion 
 of the ship will be that resulting from her momentum along the 
 original course and the tension along A K. The tension on A K 
 may be resolved into two components; one retarding the 
 ship along the line of her original course and thus directly oppos- 
 ing the momentum, the other hauling her in toward the dock and 
 tending at the same time to turn her about the center of gravity, 
 drawing the stern in and throwing the bow out. It is important 
 to note, however, that the momentum, which is concentrated at 
 the center of gravity, forward of the pivot, opposes the turning 
 and tends to keep the ship straight. Thus as a matter of fact 
 the ship does not turn much in cases of this kind, but comes in 
 nearly parallel to the dock (Fig. 4, Plate 138). 
 
 CASE 3. (Figs, i and 2, Plate 139.) 
 
 If the vessel is moving as before, but with a spring from the 
 bow instead of from the stern, the forces acting are similar to 
 those in the preceding case, but with an important difference. 
 In the present case, the momentum acts to increase the turning 
 effect of the spring, instead of opposing it. This will become 
 clear if Fig. 2, Plate 139, and Fig. 4, Plate 138, are compared. 
 
 The result of this difference is that the bow of a ship moving 
 ahead on a bow-spring turns sharply in toward the dock, whereas 
 the stern is turned in very little, if at all, by a stern-spring. 
 
 If the ship is moving astern, instead of ahead, the conditions 
 are of course reversed, a stern-spring turning the stern in sharply, 
 while a bow-spring has little effect. 
 
49O HANDLING A STEAMER ALONGSIDE A DOCK. 
 
 Evidently, in both of the preceding cases, the turning moment 
 is greatest when the line is made fast at the extreme bow or 
 stern. If it is made fast at the center of gravity, the ship should 
 (theoretically) spring in without turning, provided her draft of 
 water is the same forward and aft. We shall presently see that 
 if the helm is to be used (as in practice it always is) the maximum 
 control of the ship will be obtained when the line is made fast at 
 some point intermediate between the end of the ship and the 
 center of gravity. 
 
 CASE 4. 
 
 Suppose that the vessel of Case 2 (Figs. 3 and 4, Plate 138) puts 
 her helm to starboard with a view to throwing her head in. Since 
 the steering effect of the rudder is chiefly a matter of moving the 
 stern of the ship, and since the stern cannot be thrown off to 
 starboard because it is held by the spring, it follows that star- 
 board helm can here have comparatively little turning effect. 
 This assumes, of course, that the line is made fast over the rud- 
 der. Port helm, on the other hand, will help materially to throw 
 the stern in. 
 
 If in Case 3 (Figs. I and 2, Plate 139) the helm is put to 
 starboard, it will throw the stern off and greatly increase the 
 rapidity with which the bow turns in. If put to port, it will 
 oppose the turning, but not enough to overcome it. 
 
 If in any case we make fast the line at the center of gravity 
 while the ship is working ahead, we shall spring the ship in 
 bodily but can at the same time steer her by putting the helm 
 over, throwing the stern to either side as desired ; the ship swing- 
 ing on a pivot under the influence of the helm, while coming 
 bodily in on the spring. 
 
 If the line, instead of being made fast amidships, is taken to a 
 chock between the midship point and the stern, say midway be- 
 tween, we gain a considerable steering power, without entirely 
 sacrificing the turning tendency of the spring. In practice, the 
 spring is usually taken to this point or to the corresponding 
 one between the midship point and the bow and this is found 
 to give a convenient balance of forces and to admit of working 
 in with the ship under good control (Fig. 3, Plate 139). 
 
 CASE 5. 
 
 If we add to the factors already considered, the effect of the 
 screw, going ahead or backing, we have the conditions of actual 
 
HANDLING A STEAMER ALONGSIDE A DOCK. 49! 
 
 practice in cases where the tide is not strong enough to be con- 
 sidered. 
 
 So long as the screw is turning ahead it has a powerful steer- 
 ing effect through the action of the discharge current against 
 the rudder, driving the stern off to, the side to which the helm is 
 put, the bow being held in by a spring. In backing, its effect 
 may be utilized to throw the stern to one side, but not to the 
 other. If it is right handed, it will throw the stern to port and 
 cannot be prevented from this even by hard over port helm. It 
 is for this reason that single-screw steamers (right handed) are 
 most easily put alongside with the port side to the dock. They 
 can run in at a considerable angle, then stop and back and so 
 straighten up parallel to the dock, whereas with the starboard 
 side in, backing would throw the stern further off. 
 
 Vessels with twin-screws have the same advantage in working 
 around a dock that they have in manoeuvring elsewhere; that is 
 to say, the screws can be utilized to turn the ship even when she 
 has no steerage-way, and when, therefore, the rudder has little 
 effect. This use of twin-screws going ahead on one and back- 
 ing the other is obvious enough; but there is another applica- 
 tion which can be made of them which is often overlooked. As 
 noted above (and as explained at considerable length in the chap- 
 ter on " The Steering of Steamers "), a right-handed screw, in 
 backing, throws the stern to port, while a left-handed screw 
 throws it to starboard. In a single-screw steamer we have, in 
 this action of the backing screw, a powerful force acting to one 
 side, which may be utilized with great advantage if we wish to 
 throw the stern to that side. If it happens that we wish to throw 
 the stern to the other side while backing, or to hold it steady, 
 then this action of the screw is a disadvantage, and often a serious 
 embarrassment. But in a twin-screw steamer we have both a 
 right-handed and a left-handed serew, so that we may, in backing, 
 throw the stern to either side by using the proper screw. It is 
 the general practice to put the right-handed screw to starboard 
 and the left-handed screw to port. If, therefore, we wish to 
 throw the stern to port while backing, we back with the star- 
 board screw alone; and it should be noted that not only does the 
 direct action of the screw throw the stern to port, but the lever- 
 age due to the position of the screw (to starboard of the center 
 of gravity) acts in the same direction. Similarly, if we wish to 
 throw the stern to starboard, we back on the port screw alone. 
 
492 HANDLING A STEAMER ALONGSIDE A DOCK. 
 
 EFFECT OF A CURRENT. 
 
 If there is any current, it must of course be reckoned with and 
 may be the most important factor in the situation because the one 
 which cannot be controlled. Slack water is the most favorable 
 time for working around the dock; but a head tide, if not too 
 strong, may be used to advantage. A fair tide is unfavorable, 
 and should be avoided if possible in coming alongside. A weak 
 tide setting on to the dock may be helpful, but a strong one is 
 very dangerous. A tide setting off increases the difficulty of the 
 situation, but reduces its danger. 
 
 In considering the effect of the tide, it must be remembered 
 that a vessel with a current on the bow not only has her headway 
 checked, but is set bodily off to the opposite side. For this 
 reason, care must be taken to avoid getting too much of a cant 
 across, as this may result in being set in with dangerous violence. 
 
 A ship held stationary in a current, whether by her own power 
 or by a line, may be canted to either side by the use of the helm, 
 exactly as if she were moving through the water. Thus, with 
 a head tide, a line may be run out from the bow to the dock well 
 ahead, and the ship dropped in by the tide alone, the speed with 
 which she comes in being regulated by the helm. 
 
 II. PRACTICAL CASES. 
 
 In considering the handling of a steamer around a dock, a dis- 
 tinction must be made between the case in which she uses her 
 own power alone and that in which she is assisted by one or 
 more tugs. All very large vessels are new handled by tugs and 
 it would be the height of imprudence to attempt to dispense with 
 them. But vessels which would formerly have been considered 
 very large are constantly worked in and out with their own re- 
 sources alone. Such are the splendid vessels of the Sound and 
 Bay Lines of the United States, some of which are side-wheelers 
 and others propellers. These vessels run on schedule lime and 
 without reference to tides. They are brought alongside their 
 piers often under the most unfavorable conditions, and rarely 
 meet with an accident. It should be noted, however, that these 
 vessels are especially designed for this business of docking under 
 all conditions of wind and tide. Most of them have guards ex- 
 tending much farther out from their sides than any 6f the pro- 
 jections which might interfere with docking. 
 
HANDLING A STEAMER ALONGSIDE A DOCK. 493 
 
 The Marine Superintendent of one of the large Atlantic steam- 
 ship companies writes to the author on this subject as follows: 
 
 " In my opinion, the great secret in handling either a twin- 
 screw or single-screw steamer in approaching a pier, is not to 
 have too much way on the ship; the engines should be slowed 
 and the way off the ship so that she can be kept well in hand at 
 such a distance from the pier, that if it should be necessary to go 
 ahead in order to cant the ship's head either one way or the other 
 by the use of the rudder, it can be done without the ship's over- 
 running the place where she is required to land. The ship should 
 be kept thus in command until she gets into a position where she 
 can be stopped entirely by moving the engines astern, without 
 risk of her bows striking the pier, or of her getting out of posi- 
 tion by her head canting off by the action of the propeller mov- 
 ing half or full speed astern. If the pier is approached in this 
 manner, after a little practice it is astonishing how close even the 
 largest vessels can be brought to the pier without danger of col- 
 liding. Large steam vessels should always approach a pier 
 against the tide, and as near parallel with the direction of the tide, 
 or trend of the river, as possible. The practice of heading a 
 ship from the river between two piers is a very doubtful and fre- 
 quently dangerous operation; for, although the tide may be slack 
 on the surface it may be running smartly either flood or ebb for 
 a few feet below." 
 
 HANDLING A STEAMER WITHOUT TUGS. 
 
 Having to go alongside, if there is any choice in the matter, 
 select a time as near as possible to slack water; which, it must 
 be remembered, does not necessarily or usually correspond to 
 high or low. If any current is running, manoeuvre if possible to 
 bring it ahead, running beyond the pier and turning if coming in 
 with the flood. With a single-screw steamer, there is an advan- 
 tage in putting the port side to the dock (supposing the screw to 
 be right handed) but this is of less importance than is the direc- 
 tion of the tide. 
 
 A vessel does not go alongside without some preparation hav- 
 ing been made, and there are usually men stationed to receive and 
 handle her lines. If not, a gang must be sent ashore for this 
 purpose; and in any case, a boat should be ready for lowering, 
 with the men either in it or standing by. Fenders should be at 
 hand, lines on deck and clear for running, with heaving lines 
 
494 
 
 HANDLING A STEAMER ALONGSIDE A DOCK. 
 
 bent, anchors ready for letting go, capstans and winches ready 
 for heaving, boat-davits and every thing else alongside rigged in 
 or cleared away as far as possible. Most merchant vessels are 
 designed with some reference to going alongside, although it is 
 impossible in any ocean-going vessel, to avoid the projection of 
 boat-davits and some other obstructions. In men-of-war there 
 are also guns and spdnsons to be considered; and in twin-screw 
 ships, whether men-of-war or merchantmen, the screws project 
 many feet beyond the side and constitute a danger which must 
 never be forgotten for a moment. To keep these vessels off, 
 there are usually provided floats or " camels " ; and these must 
 be hauled into position by the shore gang at the points where 
 they are seen to be needed. 
 
 The simplest case that can arise is that in which a right- 
 handed screw vessel is to be put alongside at slack water arid 
 port side to the dock. Here she is run in at a small angle to the 
 face of the dock, and the engines backed in time to throw her 
 stern in and straighten her up. This does not mean that she 
 should come in at -such speed and at such an angle that if the 
 signal to back is misunderstood or if the engines are slow in 
 responding, the bow will crash into the dock. Other things 
 being equal, the more nearly parallel to the dock she is brought 
 in, and the lower the speed used, the better; but as some back- 
 ing will probably be called for and as the effect of this will be 
 to throw her stern in, a little allowance should be made for it. 
 
 Another way of making a landing under the above conditions 
 is to get out a line from the quarter, and, going ahead very 
 slowly, spring her in on this, using the helm to hold her parallel 
 to the dock. A line used in this way must be carefully attended 
 and checked slowly as the tension on it approaches the danger 
 point It should preferably be taken from a chock about half 
 way between the midship point and the stern, as this gives good 
 control of the ship by the helm as she comes in. 
 
 Under the same conditions, if the port side is to the dock, she 
 might be sprung in by backing on a bow line, but this is not so 
 good a way, since the control of the ship in backing is altogether 
 unsatisfactory. If the starboard side is to the dock, the effect of 
 backing Would be to throw the stern off, so if this method is to 
 be used, a stern spring will be needed in addition to the bow 
 spring (Fig. 4, Plate 139). The use of two springs like this 
 is verv common. 
 
Plate No. 140. 
 
 495 
 
 Fig. 8. 
 
 WORKING AROUND A DOCK, TURNING A Tow. 
 
496 HANDLING A STEAMER ALONGSIDE A DOCK. 
 
 A twin-screw ship may be backed down on a bow line and 
 sprung in with comparative ease, the helm being used to keep 
 her fair with the dock, and the right- and left-handed screws 
 used as has been explained above. 
 
 Here it will be helpful to use a bow-breast with the spring as in 
 Fig. I, Plate 140, coming in with a decided cant toward the dock, 
 and getting the lines to the dock as shown, the breast being taken 
 from as far forward as is convenient. Now by backing on the 
 off screw we drop alongside. 
 
 It sometimes happens .that a ship is going into a slip with very 
 little room, as in Fig. 2, Plate 140, and it becomes necessary to 
 check her without canting her. The bow spring shown, if used 
 alone, would cut her bow in sharply. Here we may check her 
 with two forces which will act together for checking her way, 
 but oppose each other for canting. These are the spring on the 
 inner bow, and the screw (backing) on the outer quarter. This 
 is often a very valuable combination of forces. 
 
 If there is a head tide, the vessel may be brought up 
 with hardly more than headway enough to stem it until a bow 
 spring is run, then allowed to drop back on this by the tide and 
 so come in to her berth. Care will be needed to see that she 
 does not get too strong a cant across, as this would set her in 
 with dangerous force. She can be steered without difficulty by 
 the helm, giving a turn ahead with the screw if necessary from 
 time to time. In this way a vessel may drop in from a consider- 
 able distance out. She may even dispense with the line for com- 
 ing in, taking the tide a little on the bow and letting this set her 
 in bodily; care being taken, as before, that she does not come in 
 ; too fast, the helm and engines being used to straighten her up 
 when necessary. 
 
 It does not always happen that the tide sets parallel to the face 
 of the dock. More frequently, it sets on at more or less of an 
 angle, and the angle often varies with the stage of the tide. At 
 Old Point Comfort, for example, the current at one stage of thj 
 ebb runs along the face of the dock, while at another stage it sets 
 directly on. Between the two extremes, it turns slowly froni 
 one of these directions to the other. Similar phenomena to this 
 are common in all places where fairly large bodies of water are 
 involved and especially where the channel bends or where sev- 
 eral channels meet. Another point to be remembered is that 
 the surface current often has a very different direction from that 
 
HANDLING A STEAMER ALONGSIDE A DOCK. 497 
 
 which is running underneath. Considerations like these make it 
 clear that local knowledge is essential for docking ships with 
 safety, and suggest that in places where the phenomena of cur- 
 rents may prove to be complicated, a stranger having to dock his 
 ship should seek the assistance of a pilot with full knowledge of 
 local conditions. 
 
 If it should be necessary to make a landing with a f a i r t i d e , 
 preparations must be made to get out a stern line promptly, and 
 the vessel should be brought abreast her berth (or a little astern 
 of it) with a slight cant of the head outward (Fig. i, Plate 141). 
 This will prevent danger of the current catching her stern on 
 the inside and sweeping her off while the line is being made fast, 
 as might happen if her head were canted in. 
 
 It is an invariable rule that with a fair tide, the ship must be 
 sprung in with a stern line, never with a bow line alone; and 
 the same rule applies in springing her in by her own headway. 
 In either of these cases, the effect of a bow spring would be to 
 throw the stern off, while a stern spring, for reasons which have 
 been explained in Section I, brings her bodily alongside. 
 
 If the dock is not clear ahead and astern of the berth to be 
 occupied, other means must be employed. The vessel may be 
 laid abreast her berth as close in as practicable, and hauled in one 
 end at a time by lines taken to winches. In this case, if there is 
 no tide, the stern should be hauled in first, the bow line being 
 slack and the bow allowed to swing out as the ship turns. This 
 because it is always harder to haul in the stern than the bow, 
 owing to the drag of the after body and the screw. The stern, 
 having been hauled in somewhat, is held from swinging out by a 
 breast line, and the bow is hauled in. The operation is then re- 
 peated if necessary, the stern being held in each time while the 
 bow line is manned, but the bow being allowed to swing out a 
 little each time as the stern comes in. Thus the working in of 
 the stern is a matter of turning rather than of dragging in bodily, 
 while with the bow, the reverse is the case. 
 
 If circumstances admit of going ahead somewhat, the follow- 
 ing method is perhaps the simplest that can be employed. A 
 spring is run from a point well forward but still abaft the center 
 of gravity, and a breastline from a chock near the stern to a point 
 on the dock nearly abeam (Fig. 2, Plate 141). The screw is 
 started ahead slow with rudder hard right 1 (supposing the port 
 side is to the dock) and the stern swings in on the spring, 
 
 1 Helm hard aport. 
 
498 
 
 Plate No. 141 
 
 Fig. 1 
 
 Fig. 2 
 
 Fig. 3 
 
 Fig. 4 
 
 HANDLING STEAMERS AROUND A DOCK 
 
Plate No. 142, 
 
 499 
 
 Fig. 1 
 
 B5 
 
 Fig. 2 
 
 J 
 
 
 \> <f <*\ 
 
 ^-o 
 
 HANDLING STEAMERS AROUND A DOCK 
 
50O HANDLING A STEAMER ALONGSIDE A DOCK. 
 
 from the effect of the port helm. When she is canted as much 
 as is thought best, the stern breast is hauled taut and held, and 
 the helm shifted to hard a-starboard, the engines being kept 
 ahead slow. The starboard helm now tries to drive the stern 
 off, but the breast holds it, and, as the ship forges ahead on the 
 spring, the bow turns in and is held by a bow breast. The helm 
 is presently shifted to hard aport (the engines all the time going 
 ahead) and the stern comes in again. The operation is repeated 
 as often as may be necessary; care being taken, if a current is 
 running, to avoid getting too much of a cant. 
 
 Still another way of working into a restricted berth is shown 
 in Figs. 3 crnd 4, Plate 141. This supposes that there is no tide. 
 Come in at such an angle as may be necessary to clear the danger 
 astern, putting the bow close enough to get a line ashore to 
 some point as P, abaft the point where the bow is to be when se- 
 cured. Go ahead with left rudder, 1 which will throw the stern in, 
 leaving the bow line slack until the stern clears the danger ; then 
 hold on the bow line, still going ahead with starboard helm. This 
 brings her into her berth. 
 
 Under many circumstances, as for example when proposing 
 to lie for some time at an exposed dock, an anchor should be 
 let go outside and some distance ahead of the berth to be oc- 
 cupied, and the ship dropped or hauled in from this by the aid 
 ot bow and stern lines to the dock. With a head tide, a judicious 
 use of the lines and the helm will make it possible to drop in 
 with little or no hauling, but she must be straightened up toward 
 the end to avoid coming in too heavily. If an anchor is needed 
 from the quarter, this must be laid out later by a boat. 
 
 With a fresh breeze or a current setting on to the dock, it may 
 be possible to drop in by letting go an anchor abreast of the 
 berth with a spring from the quarter made fast to the ring (Fig. 
 T, Plate 142) ;bow and stern lines being used as before. 
 
 Fig. 2, Plate 142, shows a vessel secured to the face of a dock 
 with bow and stern lines, bow and stern breasts, and with off- 
 shore moorings for holding her off. 
 
 III. WORKING INTO A SLIP. 
 
 Where a vessel is to be worked around into a slip, she usually 
 makes a landing first at the outside of the pier and is then turned 
 1 Starboard helm. 
 
HANDLING A STEAMER ALONGSIDE A DOCK. 5OI 
 
 either ahead or astern around the corner, swinging on a spring 
 from near the end of the dock. It is easier to put the bow in 
 than the stern, because of the use which may be made of the helm 
 for steering around and into the new berth. Account must be 
 taken of the current, and allowance made for the fact that its 
 principal effect will be felt upon the part of the vessel which 
 swings out into the stream not upon the part inside the slip. 
 
 We consider first the case in which there is no current (Fig. 3, 
 Plate 142). The vessel goes ahead sufficiently tp bring her bow 
 well beyond the end of the pier, and a line is taken from the bow 
 to a point on the pier near the corner around which she is to 
 turn. If the line is made fast close to the end of the pier, the 
 tension on it is nearly a straight pull, and the turning effect is 
 very slight. It should therefore be taken a short distance up 
 the slip, to give a good turning effect with comparatively little 
 strain upon the line. If, however, it is taken up too far, the ship 
 will make a large sweep in coming around, going over to the 
 farther end of the slip. The same effect will be produced if the 
 bow is allowed to lap too far beyond the pier before the spring 
 takes the strain. The effects of different conditions here may be 
 foreseen in any given case by remembering that the point of the 
 ship at which the line is made fast will follow the arc of a circle 
 around the bollard on the pier. 
 
 The spring may be greatly assisted and the tension on it re- 
 lieved, by making use of the helm to swing the stern out at the 
 beginning and to steer her into place after she is pointed fairly in. 
 
 In the early part of the turn, the bow of the vessel will hug 
 the corner of the pier, owing to the lead of the spring and the 
 disposition of the ship to turn about her own center of gravity, 
 throwing her stern out and her bow in. Toward the end of the 
 turn, the same factors act to throw her off, although if rather a 
 short spring is used, her bow will always be held in more or less 
 closely. If it is not desired to hold her close in because of boats 
 or guns which might be endangered her bow should be allowed 
 to lap well over beyond the pier before beginning to turn, and a 
 longer line used. The line should also be made fast farther aft 
 on the bow, and taken farther up the slip, and the helm put hard 
 over in the beginning. All of these points will tend to prevent 
 binding against the corner as she turns (Fig. 4, Plate 142). 
 
 If the spring used is a short one, it will presently have a lead 
 too nearly in line with the keel to continue its turning effect at 
 
502 
 
 Plate No. 143. 
 
 Fig. 1 
 
 Fig. 3 
 
 Fig. 2 
 
 Fig. 4 
 
 Tide 
 
 HANDLING STEAMERS AROUND A DOCK, 
 
HANDLING A STEAMER ALONGSIDE A DOCK. 53 
 
 a favorable angle, and will, if continued in use, be subject to an 
 undue tension (A Fig. i, Plate 143). It should be replaced be- 
 fore this point is reached by another line, B, having a better lead. 
 
 In making use of two lines in a case of this kind, where the 
 lines must cross, care should be taken to keep the line which will 
 be first let go, under the other. 
 
 A stern line is commonly used as shown at c, but in this par- 
 ticular case, there being no current and the vessel being under 
 control by the helm, this line is not important. 
 
 In backing around into the slip, the same principles hold; but 
 here the helm is not of much assistance, although it should be 
 used and will help somewhat. In this case, a bow line (E) is 
 needed to keep control (Fig. 2, Plate 143). 
 
 If there is a current, it must of course be allowed for. If pro- 
 posing to work against it, as in Fig. 3, Plate 143, we must re- 
 member that the ship will be set down hard against the corner 
 of the pier until she is fully inside the slip, and that a great deal 
 of power will be required to overcome the effect of the current 
 acting against the quarter as the stern is thrown out into the 
 stream. Here there will be an advantage in using a compara- 
 tively long spring and allowing the bow to project well beyond 
 the pier before beginning to turn. The tendency to swing out 
 from the pier will be counteracted by the tide. It will be espe- 
 cially important under these conditions to shift the spring before 
 it leads too nearly fore and aft. A vessel held as in Fig. 4, 
 Plate 143, for example, would probably not turn at all, while she 
 would put a tremendous strain upon the spring. The whole situ- 
 ation is modified by substituting the line B for A. The vessel 
 can now gather headway (going ahead with her engines), and 
 work into place. The second line, (B), having been run, A is 
 eased away until B has the strain, after which A may be shifted 
 up the dock, and take its turn later as replacing B. 
 
 A large vessel could not be turned in this way against a strong 
 tide without the aid of tugs to pull her stern around. 
 
 If the tide is fair, as in Fig. I, Plate 144, the danger is that as 
 the stern swings out into the stream it will be swept around with 
 such force that the stern line cannot hold it. This line (tech- 
 nically the " swinging " line) should be a good one and care- 
 fully attended by several men. The spring should be short and 
 taken from a check not very far forward. It will then help to 
 
504 
 
 HANDLING A STEAMER ALONGSIDE A DOCK. 
 
 hold her up, at the same time that it springs her around. As she 
 swings out, the swinging line must at first be eased away roundly; 
 but there will presently come a time when, as she moves into her 
 berth, this line slacks up, and the slack must be gathered in rap- 
 idly to prevent her being swept down across the slip. At the 
 same time, the spring, having done its work by pointing her fairly 
 in, is let go, and she is steered inside, bow and stern lines being 
 used to hold her in to the pier. These lines should be shifted 
 frequently and used principally as breasts, not as springs. If her 
 stern has swung too far over, it may be sprung in by the original 
 swinging line or by another spring run for this purpose. 
 
 With a large ship and a strong tide, this method is not to be 
 thought of, as the stern line would inevitably part and the stern 
 sweep down across the slip with every probability of serious disaster. 
 
 If the ship is to be backed into the slip, the principles involved 
 are the same, but the difficulties are somewhat greater because 
 of the comparative lack of control by the helm. It should be re- 
 membered, however, that even in backing, the helm is of some 
 value and should always be used. Even in cases where the ship 
 is not moving through the water, the suction current of the back- 
 ing screw is drawn in against the rudder, with an effect which 
 may be utilized to more or less advantage. 
 
 For hauling into a dry dock', slack water is very im- 
 portant, because of the narrow space available and the exactness 
 with which the ship must be pointed and held. A current from 
 any direction is troublesome, but one running across is especially 
 so 
 
 Yet if high water is essential it may be necessary to accept some 
 inconveniences in this matter. Ah officer whose ship is to be 
 docked should make himself familiar with the currents with which 
 he will have to deal and this none the less because the docking 
 is usually directed by local authorities. 
 
 For hauling into the dock, the ship must be pointed fair by 
 such means as the situation of the dock and the facilities provided 
 may suggest. At large establishments, tugs are usually at hand 
 for hauling the stern around. In the absence of these, lines are 
 run from the quarter for hauling it around, while the bow is held 
 by good lines from either side of the entrance. A line for haul- 
 ing in is taken to the head of the dock, and extra lines are used 
 wherever they may be necessary. 
 
Plate No. 144. 
 
 505 
 
 Tide 
 
 HANDLING STEAMERS AROUND A DOCK, 
 
HANDLING. A STEAMER ALONGSIDE A DOCK. 
 
 To WIND A STEAMER AT A DOCK. 
 
 To turn a vessel end for end as she lies at the dock is a ma- 
 noeuvre of considerable difficulty in cases where there are no 
 means of hauling off the bow or stern. 
 
 It may be done in a tide-way as follows: Suppose the port 
 side is to the dock and that it is desired to put the starboard side 
 there (Figs. 3 and 4, Plate 144). Select a time when the tide is 
 running feebly from ahead. Cast off all moorings but a breast for- 
 ward and a spring aft. Back on the stern spring and ease away 
 the bow breast, letting the tide catch her on the inner bow. As she 
 cants out, let go forward and hold en to the after spring. Run a 
 line from the starboard quarter fairly well forward, passing it 
 around the stern and holding the bight up clear so that it cannot 
 foul the screw. Make fast the other end of this line well up the 
 dock. The tide will set her out from the dock at the same time 
 that it swings her. As soon as the screw is clear, go ahead slow 
 with right rudder, 1 taking care not to throw the stern in against 
 the dock, and to keep the line from the starboard quarter clear of 
 the screw. She will forge ahead, slacking the inner (port) spring, 
 which may be let go and gotten out of the way. By a careful use 
 of the helm and engines, the stern may be worked up the face of 
 the dock but well clear of it, until abreast of the point where it is 
 to rest when the vessel has been turned. The slack of the star- 
 board spring is then taken in and the line made fast. As she 
 turns, bringing the tide more and more on her broadside, she will 
 drop down until this line holds her stern, when she will begin to 
 swing more rapidly. As her bow turns in toward the dock, the 
 engines may be backed if necessary to hold her stern up to its 
 place, and even to throw it off a little from the dock if she is 
 coming in too fast. The effect of this is to let the tide meet her 
 a little on the inner bow as she swings in, and so to check her 
 somewhat. It is supposed, of course, that proper fenders are in 
 use; and here it may be remarked that in all cases of handling 
 large steamers around docks, fenders should be used of such 
 length that as the ship comes in on them, the pressure on her 
 side will be distributed over a large number of frames, not local- 
 ized at a single point. 
 
 If it becomes necessary to wind a ship when there is no tide to 
 turn her, it may be done in much the same way as above, but 
 
 1 Helm aport. 
 
HANDLING A STEAMER ALONGSIDE A DOCK. 507 
 
 with a little more use of engines, helm, and lines. Her bow must 
 first be canted out a little by such means as may be available. 
 This may be by backing on a stern spring, by pivoting on a 
 float, or by any other method which may be suggested by the 
 conditions of the case. Care must be taken to keep the screw 
 clear. Having canted the bow out slightly, go ahead slow, and 
 as she moves out from the dock give her as much port helm as 
 she will stand without swinging the stern in too far. In this 
 way work her up along the dock, canting her out more and more. 
 In the meantime, a line is run from the starboard quarter but well 
 forward toward the midship point. This must be carefully at- 
 tended to keep it clear of the screw. When she has turned out 
 sufficiently to give this line a clear lead, it is held on and acts as 
 a spring. Going ahead on the engines with rudder hard right 1 
 will now turn her head rapidly, and she may be worked around 
 and into place without much difficulty. The fact that the spring is 
 made fast near the midship point, gives a good leverage for the 
 steering effect of the rudder, whichever way it is put. 
 
 If the starboard side is to the dock and it is proposed to wind 
 her, it may be better to back around, as the effect of the screw 
 (right handed) will be to throw the stern out and to turn her as 
 is desired. In this case, take a line around the bow to the port 
 side a little forward of the midship point. Leave this slack in 
 the beginning. Go ahead on a starboard bow spring until the 
 stern is canted out slightly, then back with rudder hard left, 2 
 holding on to the port bow line. The stern will swing around 
 rapidly, the spring holding her up and in. When she is nearly 
 around she may be worked in at any point desired by going 
 ahead or backing on the engines, using the helm to steer her to 
 her place. 
 
 It is frequently necessary to wind a vessel in making a landing. 
 Say the tide is fair and the dock to starboard, that it is desired to 
 put the port side in, and that there is not room to run beyond the 
 pier and turn (Fig. i, Plate 145). Make as much of a sweep as 
 space permits, putting the bow in near the place where it is to be, 
 and run a line from the port side a little forward of the midship 
 point. Back slow with helm hard a-starboard and let her swing 
 on the line. When she is nearly around, she may be steered into 
 place by going ahead on the engines and using the helm. 
 
 If the tide is running out and it is desired to turn, the condi- 
 tions being otherwise identical with those of the preceding case, 
 
 1 Helm hard aport. 2 Helm hard a-starboard. 
 
5 o8 
 
 Plate No. 145. 
 
 Fig. 1 
 
 
 Fig. 3 
 
 Fig. 4 
 
 Fig. 5 
 
 HANDLING STEAMERS AROUND A DOCK 
 
HANDLING A STEAMER ALONGSIDE A DOCK. 509 
 
 run up to the other end of the berth and get out a line from the 
 port side a little abaft the midship point, taking it around the 
 stern and keeping the bight up clear of the screw. Go ahead 
 with left rudder 1 and she will turn on the spring and work into 
 place (Fig. 2, Plate 145). 
 
 It is possible to wind a small steamer by putting her stem 
 against the dock and going ahead with helm hard over to the 
 side which will throw the stern out and swing it around. A large 
 steamer handled in this way would probably cut through the 
 dock. 
 
 Freight and passenger steamers frequently have to hold their 
 bows in against the dock for discharging cargo from the forward 
 deck. In such cases they use a spring as in Fig. 3, Plate 145, 
 and keep their engines turning slowly ahead with the helm hard 
 over to the side which will throw the stern off. A steamer will 
 lie this way for an indefinite length of time even though the tide 
 may be ahead. If the tide is aft, a stern line is used to assist in 
 holding her. 
 
 GETTING CLEAR OF A DOCK. 
 
 In preparing to get clear of the dock, all lines should be 
 singled, and as many as can be spared got out of the way; 
 all permanent fasts let go and hauled to the dock, spur-shores 
 cleared away, and men stationed by the line which will be the 
 last cast off. 
 
 It is convenient to select a time when a feeble current is run- 
 ning along the face of the dock, to set the bow or stern out (the 
 line at the other end being kept fast), thus getting a cant for 
 working out, either ahead or astern. In the absence of such a 
 current, advantage may be taken of a breeze setting off from tfre 
 dock, cr the bow may be swung in more or less by going ahead 
 slow on a bow line with helm hard over to the off-shore side. 
 She may then be backed off clear. 
 
 Care should be taken in all cases, but especially with twin- 
 screws, to keep the screw clear of the dock. 
 
 With a current or a fresh breeze setting onto the dock, it will 
 be necessary to provide some means of hauling out, and for this 
 purpose a tug is most convenient, unless it happens that a line 
 
 1 Starboard helm. 
 
5IO HANDLING A STEAMER ALONGSIDE A DOCK. 
 
 can be run to a buoy or to a neighboring dock. If an anchor has 
 been dropped in coming alongside, it will of course be useful 
 now. In ,the absence of any other means, a stream anchor may 
 be laid out without much trouble. 
 
 It is sometimes necessary to get clear of a dock where the cur- 
 rent always runs strongly in one direction, as in a river. Officers 
 having this to do as a part of their regular business become very 
 expert at it. A case in point is the Peiho River, at Tientsin. 
 The river is only just wide enough for the steamers trading there 
 to swing from shore to shore, and the tide runs four or five knots 
 and never slacks. Steamers lie alongside with head up stream, 
 port side to dock, and when ready to turn for going out, having 
 a full head of steam, they cast off all but a line from the star- 
 board (off-shore) quarter, and swing out into the stream. The 
 bow sweeps around with great rapidity athwart the current, and 
 down the stream. At just the right instant, while heading three 
 or four points across and down, the starboard quarter line is 
 cast off and the engines started full speed ahead with helm hard 
 oven 
 
 IV. HANDLING A LARGE VESSEL WITH THE AID OF 
 TUGS. 
 
 In seme cases tugs are used for actually towing the larger ves- 
 sels; in others, merely for turning them, holding them up against 
 the tide, etc. 
 
 A tug having to tow a large vessel in docking is usually placed 
 on the quarter which will be away from the dock, with a line for 
 going ahead and another for backing, both of which are taken 
 from the bow of the tug to some convenient point on the other 
 vessel. A breast line is also run from the stern of the tug to pre- 
 vent her from swinging off (Figs. 4 and 5, Plate 145). A tug 
 placed like this is favorably situated for turning to either side by 
 going ahead or backing. 
 
 In some cases it is found convenient to place a tug on the 
 off-shore bow. This is in case the vessel must be brought to the 
 pier with a considerable cant inward. The tug on the bow is 
 well placed for bringing her in like this and for hauling the bow 
 out at the last moment while the stern is being worked in. 
 
 In docking large ocean liners, a number of tugs (frequently as 
 many as six) are used for turning the vessels and for holding 
 
Plate No. 146. 
 
 \ 
 
 Fig. 1 
 
 Fig. 2 
 
 Fig. 3 
 
 Fig. 4 
 
 DOCKING A LARGE STEAMER, 
 
512 HANDLING A STEAMER ALONGSIDE A DOCK. 
 
 them against the tide as they work into their slips; but such 
 headway or sternway as is needed is generally given by the en- 
 gines of the vessels themselves. 
 
 In this, as in all other cases of working around a dock, much 
 use is made of the helm; and if the vessel has twin-screws, these 
 are used also, in connection with the tugs, for turning her. 
 
 The tugs may take lines from the bow or quarter, or they may 
 point their stem-fenders against the side, and push. Spring and 
 check lines are used as in the cases already described, but are 
 not trusted to the same extent for checking the vessel or for 
 springing her around. They must be large and very carefully 
 attended. If allowed to lead fore and aft or nearly so, they will 
 almost inevitably carry away as the ship forges aheid upon them. 
 They should therefore be frequently shifted as she moves along 
 the dock, being kept approximately at right angles to the side. 
 
 The following description of berthing a large Atlantic liner 
 on the New York side of the North River is contributed by an 
 officer of many years' experience in such work. As the tide is 
 running flood (to the northward) the ship is berthed on the 
 south side of the pier (see Plate 146). 
 
 On the flood tide, the ship comes up the river on the Jersey side 
 and is turned completely around, above the pier, by the aid of tugs 
 which are placed with their fenders against the port bow (Fig. i, 
 Plate 146). After the ship is turned nearly parallel with the tide or 
 with the trend of the river, one tug is usually kept alongside on the 
 port bow, in case the ship's head should require to be canted to 
 starboard, the other tugs backing away ready to be placed on the 
 port quarter. As soon as the ship is near enough to her pier, heav- 
 ing lines are sent off to her by a small rowboat and by means of these 
 the bow-lines are run. These lines are led some distance up the 
 slip. Another heaving line is carried to the ship and a hauling line 
 of about 3" manila is sent from the ship to the pier, where it is made 
 fast with a long bowline through the eye of an 11" manila hawser 
 which is faked on the end of the pier, near the southeast corner. 
 When ready, the 3" rope is taken through a forward pipe to one of the 
 ship's winches, the hawser hove on board and the eye hove over the 
 bitts. This line is for helping to slew her around into the slip. The 
 ship is then allowed to go as far ahead as possible before the strain is 
 permitted to come on the spring (Fig. 2, Plate 146). Great care must 
 be taken that the ship does not get too much of a cant towards the 
 pier, with the tide too broad on the starboard bow, as it is most im- 
 portant that these heavy vessels should not be permitted to approach 
 the corner of the pier sideways at any great rate of speed, but gradu- 
 ally. We have had instances of ships taking the corner of the pier 
 
HANDLING A STEAMER ALONGSIDE A DOCK. 513 
 
 with apparently only a moderate force and denting plates and bend- 
 ing frames to such a degree that it was a question of thousands of 
 dollars to place the hull of the ship in its original condition. We 
 use for a fender a spruce built log, about 40 feet long by 30" by 24". 
 This log is fitted with chains and ropes so that it can be handled 
 from the pier and placed in any position required. It is laid across 
 the corner of the pier for the ship to land on at the water line, so 
 that instead of one or two of the ship's frames taking the pier, she 
 is landed on a dozen or more. As soon as the ship takes the fender, 
 signal is given to the tugs and they commence to push her port 
 quarter out into the stream. One tug is usually placed on the star- 
 board quarter attached to a hawser, while two or more push on the 
 port quarter. With a twin-screw ship it is necessary to have at 
 least this one tug on the starboard quarter to prevent her quarter 
 from taking the corner of the pier with a flood tide running, en- 
 dangering fouling the port propeller. The bow ropes by this time 
 are passed some 150 or 200 feet up the pier. When all is ready, the 
 signal is given to the bridge, starboard engine " Slow Ahead," rudder 
 left. 1 The ship gradually swings toward a line at right angles with 
 the trend of the river with her bow pointing into the slip. As she 
 comes around, the check is slacked away to permit her to go ahead, 
 and bow-lines are shifted as required (Fig. 3, plate 146). 
 
 The after ropes are run by the small rowboats, sometimes by tugs, 
 as soon as her quarter nears the end of the pier. As she moves into 
 her berth, the bow and stern lines are kept as nearly abreast as 
 possible, by short fleets, and the ship's stern kept as close to the pier 
 as is prudent, always taking into consideration the care that must be 
 observed not to foul the port propeller. The engines can move the 
 ship ahead or astern as much as necessary. There is a 12" check 
 rope on the pier near the berth, ready to be hauled on board into 
 one of the after chocks on the lower deck. There is also a wire 
 pennant passed out from one of the chocks from the lower or spar 
 deck, with an eye, in which is to be hooked the block of a three- 
 fold purchase block leading from the pier. 
 
 When she has sufficient way to reach her berth, she is placed in 
 proper position by lines and tackles which are entirely in the hands 
 of the shore gang on the pier. 
 
 The warps used on these vessels are 7" and 8". The lines them- 
 selves must never be passed forward from the stern chocks, but 
 heaving lines used when it is necessary to pass forward any distance 
 away from the quarter, as great care must be taken that these warps 
 are not allowed to foul the propellers. In handling the check from 
 the end of the pier, the shore end should be fleeted as often as pos- 
 sible as the ship goes ahead, in order that the strain may not be 
 brought too much fore and aft. Of course the nearer the check is 
 kept at right angles with the line of the ship, the less strain will be 
 required on it to cant the ship's head, and when it is nearly fore and 
 aft almost the slightest way on the ship will carry it away, unless the 
 greatest care is observed. 
 
 1 Helm a-starboard. 
 
514 
 
 HANDLING A STEAMER ALONGSIDE A DOCK. 
 
 Leaving the Slip. 
 
 We undock these ships from both north and south side of the 
 pier at any stage of tide. 
 
 When undocking from south side of the pier, with tide running 
 strong ebb, an u" line is taken from the port quarter to one of the 
 largest tugs (Fig. 4, Plate 146). Extra men are placed on the tug 
 to assist in handling this rope. Two or three moments before the 
 sailing time, the tug starts ahead to the northward and pays out 
 perhaps 75 or 80 fathoms of scope. As the stern of the ship is about 
 100 feet inside the end of the pier, this hawser is rove through a 
 thimble spliced into a 4 tail rope. This slip rope is taken around the 
 post at the south corner of the pier with three or four turns, and the 
 end held by some of the shore gang, to prevent the bight of the 
 hawser from flying into the crowd that is usually on the dock at 
 sailing time. When the ship is far enough astern for the bight of the 
 hawser to clear the corner of the pier, the slip rope is let go. The 
 end of the hawser attached to the ship is fitted with a lashing eye 
 (old cargo falls are used for the lashings) and the eye hove over one 
 of t$ie bitts. When the ship is turned head to the southward, this 
 lashing, at a signal from the bridge, is cut on the ship; the eye of 
 course flies clear of the vessel and prevents any danger of fouling 
 the propeller. In addition, one or two tugs are used to push on the 
 starboard quarter. As soon as the ship is partly out of the slip these 
 tugs let go the quarter and proceed to the port bow. With the aid 
 of the tugs on the port bow and the one attached to the hawser, the 
 ship of course is swung with her head to the southward, and when 
 far enough around the tugs are let go and ship proceeds. 
 
 With the flood tide, two or three tugs are ready to put their stems 
 against the port quarter of the ship. As soon as the propeller is 
 well clear of the pier these tugs are to ease the ship off the corner 
 as much as possible. For sliding out we have a built spar, 50 or 60 
 feet long by 20" by 24". This spar is slung abreast of a plate on the 
 ship's side that is clear of sidelights and coal ports, and is secured 
 firmly to the pier by chains and heavy ropes. The outer side of the 
 spar is sheathed with 2" spruce that can be easily replaced as it 
 becomes broken or splintered. 
 
 For handling a large liner when her own engines are not avail- 
 able, at least six tugs would be used; one on each bow (ahead) 
 one on each quarter alongside and one on each quarter with a 
 single line. The tugs alongside are especially for stopping the 
 vessel's way when necessary, though of course they assist also in 
 moving her ahead and in turning. 
 
HANDLING A STEAMER ALONGSIDE A DOCK. 515 
 
 Turning a Vessel While Towing Alongside. 
 
 A tug towing a vessel alongside sometimes has occasion to 
 " wind " the .tow for putting her alongside in a particular way, 
 or for getting on the off side in landing, to avoid being jammed 
 between the tow and the dock. Plate 140. 
 
 The tug first gives the tow a sheer with the helm (Fig. 3). 
 She then backs, slacking all lines except the backing line (Fig. 
 4), then, a little later, slacks everything and puts her stem against 
 the stern of the tow and goes ahead, pushing the stern around 
 (Fig. 5) ; and ends by making fast alongside with her bow to- 
 ward the stern of the tow (Fig. 6), and with her own port side 
 to the tow instead of the starboard side as in the beginning. 
 This manoeuvre may be seen every day in New York harbor, 
 where tugs handling scows have to get on the off side of the 
 scows for landing the scows alongside while themselves keeping 
 clear. 
 
(5i6) 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 PLACING A SHIP IN DRY DOCK. 
 
 The operation of safely placing a ship in dry dock, safely sup 
 porting her with blocks and shores, and afterwards floating hei 
 out of dock, is so common that the care and experience necessary 
 to ensure success in this operation are not generally understood 
 yet it is possible that very serious damage may occur during th( 
 operation, if intelligent supervision be neglected. 
 
 Every ship should carry a docking plan which shows: tht 
 length on the load water line; the length over all; the location o: 
 all the under water valves; the locations of the water-tight bulk- 
 heads, the engines, the boilers, the turrets (if any), and such 
 other weights and fittings as are peculiar to any particular ship 
 the length cf straight keel, together with dimensions locating ac- 
 curately the cut-up (if any) of the dead wood aft, together with 
 any peculiarities of the stern post and rudder; also such dimen- 
 sions as will show the curvature of the forefoot, especial care 
 being taken to locate the exact point where this curvature de- 
 parts from the straight line of the keel. The docking plan of a 
 battleship is shown on Plate 147. The docking plan should also 
 contain information as to cross-sections amidships and elsewhere, 
 showing the beam at or near the water-line, the shape and loca- 
 tion of the keel, the docking keels and bilge keels, the struts, the 
 propellers and all other objects below the water-line; in other 
 words, the docking plan must furnish all necessary information 
 concerning the under-water hull and its accessories, also dimen- 
 sions as to projections above the water-line which increase the 
 nominal beam of the vessel: the latter information is frequently 
 of extreme value in foreign ports whose docks have their dimen- 
 sions tabulated with reference to merchant vessels only. 
 
 In our navy yards, blue-prints of such plans are usually in the 
 possession of the Naval Constructor elsewhere it is necessary 
 to furnish such plans to the responsible authorities of public or 
 private docks without them, the efficiency and safety of the 
 docking are absolutely dependent upon the skill and experience 
 of those having control of the docks. 
 
PLACING A SHIP IN DRY DOCK. 517 
 
 The dock master of any particular dock being given the dock- 
 ing plan of a ship to be placed therein, proceeds as follows : know- 
 ing the ship's draught, the maximum depth over the sill, together 
 with the current and tidal variations in the vicinity, he decides 
 upon the time the vessel should enter the dock, and so informs 
 the commanding officer, who thereupon makes the necessary ar- 
 rangements to ensure that the vessel at the time specified shall 
 be absolutely upright, without any list either to starboard or port. 
 
 The entrance to a dry dock may be closed by hinged gates, a 
 floating caisson, or a sliding caisson; the first and last methods 
 are often used in foreign docks, but in home docks, a floating 
 caisson is most commonly found; it usually has a ship-shape form 
 with sufficient stability to safely float upright when empty; to 
 sink it, valves are opened which admit water to its interior, and 
 to raise it, all outboard valves are closed and the water it contains 
 is pumped overboard. 
 
 The dock floor carries along its center a line of blocks, called 
 " keel blocks." These are usually of wood and are secured to the 
 dock floor in various ways. Their distance apart varies in differ- 
 ent docks, but it is customary to place these keel blocks much 
 closer together under turrets and other heavy local weights on 
 war ships, than is done with ordinary vessels. Those ships hav- 
 ing straight keels, but whose fore-foot is cut away, are supported 
 forward by building up the corresponding keel blocks to suit the 
 contour shown en the docking plan. With ships having docking 
 keels, a double line of keel blocks is provided, running parallel 
 to the center line and at the proper distance therefrom, given on 
 the docking plan. At intervals along the bottom of the dock 
 and at right angles to the center line, are the bilge ways, along 
 which slide the bilge blocks which can be moved towards or 
 away from the center line by the hauling lines which are manipu- 
 lated from the dock coping. Each bilge block is built up of a 
 proper height and level, as determined from the docking plan, 
 so that after the vessel's keel rests upon the keel blocks, the bilge 
 blocks can be hauled and accurately fit against the bottom, thus 
 thoroughly supporting the ship before the water has been 
 pumped out of the dock. Care is taken that the bilge blocks 
 are not hauled so that they will bear against an under-water valve 
 or other accessory which would be injured by heavy local pres- 
 sure. In foreign docks, bilge blocks are rarely used, shores being 
 fitted to sustain the bottom after the dock is empty. 
 
Plate No. 147. 
 
PLACING A SHIP IN DRY DOCK. 519 
 
 To maintain the vessel upright after she has grounded on the 
 keel blocks, and before the bilge blocks are hauled, wale shores 
 are used, one end resting against the ship's side, the other against 
 the dock's side, wedges being used to set them taut. These 
 shores are prepared of the desired length and placed in the vi- 
 cinity of their final location by means of information obtained 
 from the docking plan. Certain marks are also made on the 
 coping which will accurately locate the ship's position in the 
 dock, in order to ensure that as the water is pumped out, the 
 under-water hull shall exactly coincide at the proper time with 
 the various blocks and shores which have been made ready to 
 receive it. Plate 147 shows the plan which would be prepared 
 for a particular dock after receiving the docking plan of the ves- 
 sel which was to be placed therein. 
 
 These preparations being completed, water is admitted, the 
 caisson is floated and removed, and the dock is then ready to 
 receive the ship. After the ship's bow has safely entered the 
 mouth of the dock, the responsibility for her safety rests upon the 
 dock master; the methods of securing this safe entrance are con- 
 sidered elsewhere. The dock master then hauls the ship into the 
 dock until certain definite objects near her bow and stern coin- 
 cide with the marks which he has laid out upon the dock coping 
 in accordance with the docking plan. The caisson is then placed 
 in position, the pumps which empty the dock are started; their 
 operation between this time and the time of the complete empty- 
 ing of the dock being controlled by the judgment of the dock 
 master. 
 
 In the meantime the necessary arrangements have been made 
 to ensure the ship being safely centered in the fore and aft and 
 athwartship directions, and the wale shores have been floated 
 and placed approximately in their proper positions: during this 
 period, by the use of sighting battens or other means, the varia- 
 tions of the ship from the upright are finally determined, and the 
 necessary measures are taken to correct any listing to starboard 
 or to port. 
 
 Under ordinary circumstances, the ship's keel first touches on 
 the keel blocks aft, and with a ship having a large amount of 
 drag, special precautions are necessary to prevent listing, because, 
 under these circumstances, stability is lessened very rapidly. 
 The grounding of the keel aft upon the keel blocks is indicated 
 in various ways, but before this occurs, the dock master has ar- 
 
PLACING A SHIP IN DRY DOCK. 
 
 ranged the wale shores so that any inclination towards listing or 
 twisting shall be prevented as far as possible. The entire line 
 of wale shores is not set up tightly until the forward portion of 
 the keel is bearing upon the keel blocks prepared to receive it. 
 As the water level within the dock becomes still lower, the bilge 
 blocks are hauled, and the ship during the remaining period of 
 her stay in dock is supported by the keel blocks, bilge blocks, 
 and shores. 
 
 After the dock is emptied, the ship's bottom is thoroughly 
 cleaned and careful examination is made of the entire bottom as 
 regards fouling, corrosion and damage. All outboard valves, 
 propeller struts, propellers, shaft bearings, rudder pintals and 
 gudgeons, strake edges, butts, etc., are carefully examined. It is 
 usually necessary to re-grind the underwater valves, and to re- 
 pack the stuffing boxes of valves and of the rudder; if the plating 
 butts show lines of rust, they should be re-calked; if the rivet 
 heads show serious corrosion, the rivets should be removed and 
 new ones driven; if there is serious corrosion or pitting, the plat- 
 ing should be thoroughly cleaned and brushed before re-painting ; 
 in cleaning the bottom from fouling substances, care should be 
 taken that the paint underneath is disturbed as little as possible; 
 zinc rings and zinc plates at the openings of outboard valves, and 
 in the vicinity of the propellers, should be renewed if their cor- 
 rosion shows galvanic action. The bottom is then given fresh 
 coats of anti-corrosive and anti-fouling compositions, which 
 should be applied whenever possible, on dry surfaces. 
 
 If special repairs have been anticipated or are found to be nec- 
 essary after the dock is empty, the necessary action is taken im- 
 mediately, because the length of time a ship remains in dock 
 must be reduced to the minimum. 
 
 The particular precautions which must be taken in docking 
 ships which are not in ordinary condition, must depend upon the 
 judgment of the dock master. 
 
 During the period that a ship is in dock, no change of any 
 kind in the distribution of her weights should be made without 
 the knowledge and consent of the dock master, because the ship 
 when being floated might suddenly change her trim so as to cause 
 serious damage to herself or to the dock. 
 
 The painting of the bottom, and all under-water repairs being 
 completed, a time for flooding the dock is agreed upon by the 
 commanding officer and the dock master. The former stations 
 
PLACING A SHIP IN DRY DOCK. 521 
 
 men at the outboard valves and elsewhere, as he deems proper 
 to ensure that water does not enter the ship, and the latter sta- 
 tions men at the various shores and lines and elsewhere, to pre- 
 vent as far as possible, any injury to dock or ship, from a change 
 of weights or an unexpected alteration in tide or wind. 
 
 The water in the dock enters continuously under the dock 
 master's control. When it has risen to a sufficient height, the 
 bow ordinarily first lifts from the keel blocks, and shortly after- 
 wards the stern. If there has been any material change of 
 weights while the ship has been in dock, she will suddenly and 
 violently take a list to starboard or to port, with consequent dam- 
 age to herself and the dock. 
 
 The ship being safely afloat, the water is allowed free entrance 
 until the level within the dock coincides with that outside, after 
 which time the caisson is floated as quickly as possible, then re- 
 moved, and the ship is floated out of dock. 
 
522 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 WEATHER AND THE LAWS OF STORMS. 
 
 I. WEATHER, WINDS, CLOUDS, RAINFALL. 
 
 The subject of weather may conveniently be studied in its 
 general features by reference to a map showing normal or aver- 
 age conditions at different seasons of the year. Plate 148 gives 
 such a map, showing normal winds, barometer pressures, and 
 temperatures, for January and July, throughout the world with 
 the exception of the extreme polar regions. The curves in 
 black are " isobars " or lines of equal barometric pressure. It 
 will be seen that these lines are, in the main, closed curves 
 about areas of high or low barometer; the distinction between 
 a " High " and a " Low," as these areas are called, depending 
 not upon the actual height of the barometer, but upon the way 
 in which the wind circulates about the area; or, more accu- 
 rately, upon whether the characteristic pressure is the result 
 of descending or of ascending currents. It is clear that a high 
 pressure is the natural accompaniment of descending currents 
 of heavy air, and vice-versa; but whereas a barometric height 
 of 30 inches may indicate a rising current at one place and 
 time which would make it a Low; it may indicate a descend- 
 ing current at another place and time, and may thus be a 
 High. It tends to clearness, therefore, to use, instead of 
 " high " and " low," the terms " anti-cyclone " and " cyclone, " 
 which define the wind circulation instead of the pressure re- 
 sulting from this circulation. As thus used, the term cyclone 
 has no necessary connection with a gale. It defines simply a 
 condition of affairs in which an ascending current of air at a 
 more or less clearly marked central area is surrounded by an in- 
 flowing spiral whirl which may or may not take on the con- 
 centrated and intense character with which we commonly asso- 
 ciate the term cyclone. Similarly " anti-cyclone " defines a 
 condition of affairs in which a descending current of air de- 
 velops into an outward flowing spiral whirl with a motion of 
 rotation opposed to that of the cyclone (Plate 149). Both of 
 these phenomena will be more fully described hereafter. 
 
 The relative positions of the warm red and cold blue tints 
 
WEATHER AND THE LAWS OF STORMS. 523 
 
 on Plate 148 show January as winter in the northern and sum- 
 mer in the southern hemisphere; and July as summer in the 
 northern and winter in the southern hemisphere. The bound- 
 ing lines of the red and blue tints are the isotherms (lines of 
 equal temperature) of 70 F. and 30 F. respectively. It will 
 be noted that the thermal equator as the middle of the equa- 
 torial hot belt may be called does not coincide with the 
 geographical equator, but fluctuates in a way which is evi- 
 dently influenced by the seasons, continents, oceans, and winds. 
 
 When air is heated, it expands and becomes lighter; it there- 
 fore rises, and the ascending currents cause a decrease of pres- 
 sure. Another important result follows in the formation of 
 clouds and rain due to the presence of aqueous vapor in the 
 ascending current. As the air rises it expands more and more, 
 cooling at the same time through the absorption of heat due to 
 this expansion, while it is still further chilled by the lower tem- 
 perature of the upper regions of the atmosphere. As a con- 
 sequence of the reduction in temperature, mu'ch of the aqueous 
 vapor is condensed into clouds or precipitated in rain, giving 
 off a large amount of heat, which tends to rarefy the air still 
 further and so to intensify the upward draft. 
 
 We have here, briefly outlined, an explanation of the weather 
 characteristics, which in some degree mark all regions of low 
 barometer and cyclonic circulation, whether these extend 
 over thousands of miles of ocean and continent as in the cases 
 shown on Plate 148, or are localized in the narrower and more 
 intense form of tropical hurricanes. The weather of all such 
 regions is characterized by more or less cloudiness, frequently 
 accompanied by rain, by low barometer, and by winds which, 
 while not necessarily violent, are usually stronger than in an 
 anti-cyclone, since the determining cause of these winds an up- 
 ward rush of warm air with the attendant features that have 
 been described naturally takes on a somewhat more violent 
 form than does the downward current of cool and heavy air 
 which is the determining cause of anti-cyclonic circulation. 
 
 The velocity of the wind, as well as its direction, depends 
 upon relative pressures in adjoining areas; being determined 
 by the steepness of the " barometric gradient," or the amount 
 of difference in the reading of the barometer for a given dis- 
 tance. This is well illustrated in the cyclone and anti-cyclone 
 of Plate 149, in which the distance between the successive iso- 
 
524 
 
 Plate No. 148. 
 
 20 
 
 LOO 120 140 160 l&O 160 IAO 120 1OO 6 
 
 WINDS AND WEATHER FOR JANUARY AND JULY. 
 
Plate No. 148. 
 
 525 
 
 40 20 
 
 __ 40 60 80 1QQ 120 140 
 
 20 
 
 40 20 
 
 20 40 60 . 80 100 120 140 
 
 WINDS AND WEATHER FOR JANUARY AND JULY. 
 
526 
 
 WEATHl 
 
 bars indicates the steepness of the barometric gradient. Where 
 the isobars are crowded closely together, the change in pres- 
 sure is very great for a small change in position; or in other 
 words the gradient is very steep. At such places the velocity 
 of the wind is high. Where the isobars are separated more 
 widely, they indicate a gradual change in pressure or a gradual 
 slope to the gradient, and here the winds are more moderate. 
 
 To compare barometric gradients, they are commonly re- 
 duced to hundredths-of-an-inch per 15 sea miles. On this scale 
 the steepest gradient ever observed was in the cyclone that 
 passed over False Point, India, in September, 1885. This gra- 
 dient was 238; which means that in a distance of 15 miles, there 
 existed a difference in barometric reading of 2rV<i inches. 
 
 It will be observed in Plate 149, that the wind blows partly 
 across and partly along the isobars, forming the spiral whirl 
 which has been elsewhere described. 
 
 The following description and explanation of a sudden shift 
 of wind over the North Atlantic Ocean is from the Pilot Chart 
 of the U. S. Hydrographic Office for July, 1900 (Plate 150). 
 
 It illustrates in a very striking way the relation between the 
 direction of the wind and the barometric pressure. 
 
 During the course of March 17, 18 and 19 last, the steamers along that 
 portion of the transatlantic routes lying to the eastward of the meridian 
 of 60 experienced a sudden shift of the wind from S.E. to N.W., accom- 
 panied by a marked increase in force, as indicated by the following table. 
 The shift progressed steadily eastward, the date and hour at which it was 
 noted aboard the several steamers distributed along the lane depending 
 upon the position of the various vessels at the time, becoming succes- 
 sively later as the longitude diminished. 
 
 Vessel. 
 
 Date. 
 
 Long., 
 West. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 Nederland.. 
 
 Mar. 17 
 
 61 35 
 
 Strong to fresh breeze (from the South) ; at 8 a. m. wind 
 
 
 
 
 shifted suddenly to NW. 
 
 Maryland . . . 
 
 Mar. 17 
 
 57 42 
 
 Southerly wind until midnight, when wind veered to 
 
 
 
 
 NW. strong. 
 
 Minnesota . 
 
 Mar. 17 
 
 56 29 
 
 Southerly wind shifting at midnight to NW. ; moderate 
 
 
 
 
 gale. 
 
 Turcoman . . 
 
 Mar. 18 
 
 51 27 
 
 At 3 p. m. wind shifted suddenly from South to N N W. 
 
 
 
 
 and blew a moderate gale. 
 
 Anchoria . . . 
 
 Mar. 18 
 
 50 42 
 
 Wind SE. ; at 5 p. m. wind hauled to W SW., later to NW. 
 
 Chester 
 
 Mar. 18 
 
 48 53 
 
 At 11 p. m. wind shifted (from S SE.) to NW., moderate 
 
 
 
 
 gale. 
 
 Mokta 
 
 Mar. 19 
 
 48 22 
 
 At 2 a. m. wind shifted from S SE. to N NW. 
 
 Hekla 
 
 Mar. 19 
 
 46 47 
 
 Wind S SE., 2, until 5 a. m., when it shifted through SW., 
 
 
 
 
 West, to NW., 8. 
 
 British King 
 
 Mar. 19 
 
 46 00 
 
 At 8 a. m. wind shifted from SE. to NW. 
 
 Euxinia 
 
 Mar. 19 
 
 44 52 
 
 At noon wind suddenly shifted from SE. 5, to N NW., 6. 
 
 Symra 
 
 Mar. 19 
 
 44 04 
 
 Wind from South ; at 1 p. m. wind changed to W NW. 
 
 Helios 
 
 Mar. 19 
 
 42 10 
 
 At 8 p. m. wind changed (from SE.) to N NW. 
 
Plate No. 149. 
 
 527 
 
 Northern Hemisphere 
 
 * 
 
 Equator. 
 
 / 
 
 ' 
 
 Anti-Cyclone-, 
 High Barometer. 
 
 Cyclonej 
 Low Barometer. 
 
 FiG.1. CHARACTERISTIC WIND CIRCULATION ABOUT 
 CENTERS or U\GH AND Low BAROMETER IN EACU HEMISPHERE. 
 
 THE HURRICANE- OF* 
 
 DECEJABER 25.W9I, 
 
 MOOM,GJA.T. 
 
 SYMBOLS. 
 
 WIND. WEATHER. 
 
 Calm. : Rain. 
 
 t. Variable. * Snow, *. Ha/7. 
 <f N..force4. & Fog, < Haze 
 
 FIG. 2. 
 CYCLONE AND ANTI- CYCLONE IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC. 
 
528 
 
 Plate No. 150. 
 
 Fig. 1 Barometric Conditions over the 
 
 North Atlantic xausing a Sudden Shift 
 
 of Wind. 
 
 Fig. 1 
 
 Air flowing toward a" Low "and 
 Diverging according to Ferret's Law 
 to form a Cyclonic Whirl. 
 
 Fig. 3 
 
 From Storms, Storm-tracka and Weather Forecasting' 
 Published by the U. S. Weather Bureau. 
 
 Storm Tracks for August. 
 
 The Storms noted during 10 years are grouped according to their places of origin, 
 the figures opposite the brackets indicating the number for each group. 
 
 STORMS AND STORM TRACKS. 
 
WEATHER AND THE LAWS OF STORMS. 529 
 
 The meteorological conditions prevailing throughout this part of the 
 North Atlantic at Greenwich mean noon of March 19 are shown upon 
 the chart (Plate 150), where the symbols have the usual significance 
 the center of the arrow head marking the position of the observing 
 vessel at the time of observation, the arrows flying with the wind, the 
 number of feathers indicating the force of the wind, etc., etc. An inspec- 
 tion of the chart shows that the sudden shift of the wind (which several 
 observers in their extended remarks stated was not announced by any 
 decisive variation of the barometer, the mercury standing above 30 inches 
 tthroughout) was due to the passage of the observing vessel across the 
 shallow trough of low pressure which intervened between the two areas 
 of high, each of these latter areas being surrounded by a well-developed 
 system of anti-cyclonic winds, the light southerly and southeasterly winds 
 proper to the rear of the preceding area being almost instantaneously 
 supplanted by the strong northerly and northwesterly winds proper to 
 the front of the following area. For the purpose of distinctness the out- 
 line of the trough is indicated by cross-hatching. 
 
 The several heavy dotted lines join the points at which the shift 
 occurred at the same hour, the latter being indicated in the diagram. 
 Thus along the entire length of the most western of these lines the shift 
 was noted at 8.00 A. M. of March 18; along the next at 8.00 P. M. of 
 March 18, and similarly for the others. Comparing the distance inter- 
 vening between these lines it is seen to be in the neighborhood of three 
 degrees of latitude or 180 nautical miles, giving for the eastward progress 
 of the shift an average velocity of 15 miles per hour. 
 
 The indrawing air of the cyclone obtains its moisture by 
 evaporation from the sea and from damp earth, or from areas 
 of ice and snow if it passes over such. Its capacity for holding 
 moisture in invisible suspension increases with the temperature; 
 and -for a given quantity of moisture so held, there is a per- 
 fectly definite temperature, called the " saturation point " or 
 " dew point," below which the air cannot be cooled without 
 giving out some part of its moisture in the form of cloud or 
 rain. As already explained, this is why the warm moist cur- 
 rents from the surface of the earth, as they rise into the cooler 
 regions of the upper atmosphere, produce the clouds and rain- 
 fall of cyclonic weather. It is the reason also, for the compara- 
 tively clear skies and dry weather of anti-cyclonic regions; 
 since the cool dry air flowing from the higher regions down- 
 ward and outward has its temperature raised and is enabled 
 to take up into invisible suspension much of the moisture that 
 it encounters, thus producing a comparatively dry atmosphere 
 and clear skies. Naturally the farther we move from the center 
 of circulation, whether cyclonic or anti-cyclonic, the less 
 
530 WEATHER AND THE LAWS OF STORMS. 
 
 marked these characteristics become. They may, moreover, 
 be modified in many ways by local conditions of the land or 
 ; sea over which they extend or over which they have passed; 
 for all the features which would mark the weather of an ideal 
 globe of uniform surface are modified in countless ways by the 
 unequal distribution of land and water, and the varying physical 
 features of both; by currents, icebergs, etc., in the oceans; 
 and by deserts, mountain ranges, and areas of forest or clear- 
 ing on the land. 
 
 Thus the warm moist air over the Gulf Stream is chilled and 
 turned into fog by contact with the cold Labrador Current oft" 
 the Banks of Newfoundland. Similarly the southwest mon- 
 soon, charged with vapor from the tropical latitudes of the 
 Indian Ocean, coming in contact with the cold heights of the 
 Himalayas, precipitates its moisture in torrents of rain on the 
 southern slopes of those mountains and passes on over the 
 plains to the northward as dry as if it came from a desert. The 
 proximity of a mountain range has always an important in- 
 fluence upon climate and weather. 
 
 GENERAL WIND CIRCULATION. 
 
 It would be natural to expect that in the great equatorial 
 hot-belt, the phenomena of expansion from heat, of ascending 
 currents with resulting low barometer, of condensation and 
 precipitation of moisture, would be more frequent and more 
 marked than elsewhere. Such is in fact the case; and Plate 148 
 shows clearly the great systems of steady indrawing Trades 
 that meet in the region of equatorial rains and calms, and the 
 connection of these with the great and generally permanent 
 areas of high and low barometer that have been referred to as 
 largely determining the circulation of the atmosphere about 
 the globe. 
 
 As the Trades approach the equator there are constant little 
 rising currents marked by the characteristic trade wind clouds; 
 and in the region of permanent low pressure, calms, clouds and 
 rain, which we have called the equatorial belt, but which is com- 
 monly known as the " Doldrums," they meet and rise, generally 
 quietly and steadily but sometimes in the great eddies or whirl- 
 winds with which we are familiar as tropical cyclones. 
 
 The tendency of the trades toward the equator from the north 
 and south results naturally enough from the conditions which 
 
WEATHER AND THE LAWS OF STORMS. 531 
 
 have been described as prevailing in the equatorial belt; but 
 explanation is required of the westward component in these 
 winds, as well as of the unvarying regularity with which the 
 winds of cyclones turn always in one direction in the northern 
 hemisphere and in the opposite direction in the southern, while 
 for anti-cyclones these directions are reversed. 
 
 The theory which is commonly accepted accounts for all of 
 these phenomena by the rotation of the earth. 
 
 As the earth revolves from west to east the envelope of air 
 surrounding it shares its motion, but may in addition have a 
 motion of its own. If we imagine a particle of air moving from 
 some point in north latitude toward the equator, it is clear that 
 the particle will in the beginning have an eastward velocity 
 equal to that of the spot from which it starts; but that as it 
 moves toward the equator it will find the earth beneath it turn- 
 ing more and more rapidly (in linear velocity) and, failing to 
 take up entirely this increased velocity, will lag behind and 
 manifest itself as a wind from the northward and eastward. 
 That is to say, it will be continually diverted to the right as it 
 moves southward. 
 
 A particle of air moving from the equator northward, will, 
 on the other hand, start out with the eastward velocity of the 
 earth at the equator, and will thus outrun the more slowly mov- 
 ing surface over which it passes as it travels northward. Thus 
 this particle will also be diverted to the right. And so with 
 every particle of air which we may suppose to be moving in 
 the northern hemisphere along any line except one due east 
 and west. To some extent it will have a tendency to turn to 
 the right. In Plate 150 are shown a number of such particles 
 moving toward a common center of low barometric pressure, 
 and forming inevitably a left-handed swirl (Fig. 2). 
 
 Similar considerations will make it clear why the winds flow- 
 ing outward from a " high " revolve in the opposite direction, 
 and why all these conditions are reversed in southern latitudes. 
 
 The following simple law, first enunciated by Buys-Ballot, 
 puts in convenient form the relation between pressure and wind 
 circulation. 
 
 When facing the wind, in the northern hemisphere the pres- 
 sure is lower on your right hand and higher on your left; and 
 conversely, in the southern hemisphere, it is higher on the 
 right and lower on the left. This rule, it should be noted, 
 applies to winds in general; not alone to storms. 
 
532 WEATHER AND THE LAWS OF STORMS. 
 
 Observations of winds, temperatures and pressures extend- 
 ing over a long period of years indicate the existence in the 
 polar regions of an area of low barometer about which the 
 winds circulate with the characteristic cyclonic direction, giv- 
 ing rise to the " Westerlies " or " Passage Winds " of the re- 
 gions north and south of the Trades. 
 
 It is clear, of course, that this condition cannot be due to 
 the causes which produce the low pressure in the equatorial 
 region; and the commonly accepted theory accounts for it as a 
 result of the centrifugal force acting upon the mass of the 
 atmosphere as it is whirled about by the earth's rotation on its 
 axis. Whether this be the true explanation or not, there is 
 abundant evidence that the pressure is low at the poles as well 
 as at the equator and that there exists an intermediate belt of 
 generally high pressure in the neighborhood of 30 of latitude, 
 from which the air tends to draw on the one hand toward the 
 equator, on the other toward the poles. This belt of high pres- 
 sure, of comparative calms, and of baffling winds, while not 
 always well marked over the continents, can be clearly traced 
 across the ocean, where it is well known to navigators under 
 the name of the " Horse Latitudes." 
 
 The winds blowing about and toward the poles take up the 
 characteristic motion which has been explained, and there re- 
 sults, in latitudes above (approximately) 35 north and south, 
 a steady flow of the atmosphere toward the east. At the earth's 
 surface, this flow is often delayed, arrested, and turned back to 
 the westward by local and temporary causes, but in the upper 
 regions of the atmosphere it continues without interruption 
 though not with unvarying velocity. 
 
 In this continued eastward movement of the air is to be found 
 the key to the fluctuations of weather which (for example) 
 sweep across the continent of North America and the North 
 Atlantic Ocean; as well as the possibility of predicting from 
 day to day approximately what weather may be expected at 
 any given place. Disturbances of the atmosphere highs and 
 lows, with the weather features which have been described as 
 characterizing them sweep across the continent in a regular 
 procession, following paths which may vary considerably, but 
 are always toward the eastward. These disturbances may orig- 
 inate within the limits of the continent or may enter it from 
 the Pacific; but they invariably leave it by the Atlantic sea- 
 
WEATHER AND THE LAWS OF STORMS. 533 
 
 board and usually by way of the New England coast or the 
 Gulf of St. Lawrence (see Plate 150). An examination of the 
 weather maps published by the United States Government for 
 several successive days gives an interesting view of this pro- 
 gression of varying weather characteristics toward the east, 
 and makes clear in a general way the laws upon which weather 
 forecasting is based. Plate 151 shows a map of this kind. The 
 corresponding map for the following day would show the suc- 
 cessive highs and lows as having moved to the eastward, carry- 
 ing with them their characteristic features of wind-circulation, 
 temperature, cloud or clear sky, precipitation, etc. 
 
 The following description of the daily weather map is from 
 a leaflet published by the Weather Bureau: 
 
 This map presents an outline of the United States and Canada, showing 
 the stations where weather observations are taken daily at 8 A. M. and 
 8 P. M., seventy-fifth meridian time. These observations consist of read- 
 ings of the barometer, thermometer (dry and wet), direction and velocity 
 of wind, state of weather, amount, kind and direction of the clouds, and 
 amount of rain or snow; they are telegraphed to Washington and to 
 many of the Weather Bureau stations throughout the country for 
 publication on the maps. Solid lines, called isobars, are drawn through 
 points having the same atmospheric pressure; a separate line being 
 drawn for each difference of one-tenth of an inch in the height of the 
 barometer. Dotted lines, called isotherms, connecting places having the 
 same temperature, are drawn for each ten degrees of the thermometer. 
 Heavy dotted lines, inclosing areas where a decided change in tempera- 
 ture has occurred within the last twenty-four hours, are sometimes added. 
 The direction of the wind is indicated by an arrow flying with the wind, 
 or opposite to the ordinary vane. The state of weather whether clear, 
 partly cloudy, cloudy, raining, or snowing is indicated by the circular 
 symbol. Shaded areas, when used, show where rain or snow has fallen 
 since the last observation. 
 
 The general movement of storms in the United States is from west to 
 east, similar to a series of atmospheric waves, of which the crests are 
 designated on the map " Highs," and the troughs or depressions " Lows." 
 These alternating Highs and Lows have an average easterly movement 
 of about 600 miles per day. 
 
 High winds, with rain or snow, usually precede the Low area, often 
 extending to a distance of 600 miles to the eastward of the center of the 
 storm. In advance of the Low the winds are generally southerly, and 
 consequently bring high temperature. When the center of the Low 
 passes to the east of a place, the wind at once shifts to the west or north- 
 west, bringing lower temperature. The temperature on a given parallel 
 west of the Low may be reasonably looked for on the same parallel to 
 the east when the Low has passed, and frost will occur along and north 
 of an isotherm of about 40, if the night is clear and there is but little 
 
534 WEATHER AND THE LAWS OF STORMS. 
 
 wind. Following the Low usually comes an area of High, bringing 
 sunshiny weather, which in its turn is followed by another Low. 
 
 By bearing in mind a few general rules as to the direction and rate of 
 movement of the Low and High, with the blowing of the wind from the 
 High toward the Low, and studying the map carefully, coming weather 
 changes may frequently be foreseen. The centers of Lows do not, as a 
 rule, move across isotherms, but follow their general direction. -Areas 
 of low pressure frequently move to the south of east from the Rocky 
 Mountains to the Mississippi and then change direction to the north of 
 east over the eastern half of the country. Storms in the Gulf of Mexico 
 occasionally move to the west or north of west, but after reaching the 
 coast, they generally change direction and move to the northeastward. 
 High areas move to the southeast and are usually attended' by fair and 
 cool or cold weather. A cold- wave is always accompanied by a High. 
 
 The cloud and raip area in front of a Low is generally about the size 
 of the latter and oval, with the west side touching the center of the Low 
 in advance of which it progresses. 
 
 When the isotherms run nearly east and west no decided change in 
 temperature will occur. If the isotherms directly west of a place incline 
 from northwest to southeast, it will be warmer; if from northeast to 
 southwest it will be colder. Southerly to easterly winds prevail west of 
 a nearly north and south line passing through the middle of a High, also 
 east of a like line passing through the middle of a Low. Northerly to 
 westerly winds occur west of a nearly north and south line passing 
 through the middle of a Low and also east of a similar one through the 
 middle of a High. 
 
 An absence of decided waves of High or troughs of Low pressure 
 indicates a continuance of existing weather which will last till later maps 
 show a change, usually first appearing in the west. 
 
 The temperature of the air as published on the map is observed with 
 a dry-bulb thermometer, and also with a wet-bulb thermometer that is, 
 one whose bulb is covered with a moist wrapping. The evaporation 
 from the wetter surface, if the air is not saturated with moisture, is more 
 rapid than from the dry bulb, in proportion to the relative amount of 
 aqueous vapor in the air. The difference of temperature between the 
 readings of these two thermometers suffices to compute the relative 
 humidity of the atmosphere. The temperature of the wet bulb is lower 
 than that of the air as given by the dry-bulb thermometer, on account of 
 the evaporation from its bulb. The wet-bulb temperature is sometimes 
 called the sensible temperature, because the sensation of heat on the 
 skin agrees more closely with its indications than with those of the dry 
 thermometer. 
 
 A study of these charts, with their succession of highs and 
 lows will make it clear why bad weather in the eastern part of 
 the United States almost invariably begins with an easterly 
 wind and clears with a cold northwester. 
 
 It should be noted that highs and lows must of necessity 
 
WEATHER AND THE LAWS OF STORMS. 535 
 
 accompany each other, since the inward draft of air in a low 
 implies the existence of a neighboring high, from which the 
 wind flows outward. The relation between the two is shown 
 in Fig. i, Plate 149. 
 
 After the circulation of the winds, the most interesting and 
 important features in connection with weather changes are the 
 phenomena of precipitation, and temperature changes. It has 
 already been explained why there is a tendency toward pre- 
 cipitation in the upward draft of a low; but it is found that in 
 the case of the lows moving to the eastward across the United 
 States, the precipitation is much greater along the forward part 
 of the storm and in its eastern and southern quadrants than to 
 the northward and westward. The explanation of this is that 
 the winds of the eastern and southern quadrants are largely 
 drawn from the warm regions of the southern states and from 
 the Gulf- of Mexico, and are charged with moisture which they 
 deposit as they sweep northward and rise at the same time into 
 the cooler regions of the upper atmosphere. This explains 
 why, in north latitudes, rain comes with an easterly or southerly 
 wind. 
 
 The winds of the northern and western quadrants are rela- 
 tively dry and cold. 
 
 The same explanation suffices in a general way to account 
 for the succession of cool and warm waves which are the more 
 or less marked accompaniments of the highs and lows. It has 
 already been explained that a low is, in its essential nature, an 
 area of upward tending warm air, while a high is an area of 
 downward-flowing cold air. But an inspection of our weather 
 maps will show that in addition to this we have, on the for- 
 ward side of an advancing low, a southerly or southeasterly 
 wind, drawing up from the warm regions of the tropics; while 
 the front of a high is made up of northerly winds sweeping 
 down from British America. 
 
 Where a low originates in the tropics, it moves at first west- 
 ward instead of eastward, being carried along by the general 
 movement of the atmosphere. At the same time it works more 
 or less toward the north (or south) and in the end becomes 
 involved in the eastward current above described. Under the 
 influence of this current it recurves and sweeps off to the east- 
 
536 
 
 Plate No. 151. 
 
WEATHER AND THE LAWS OF STORMS. 537 
 
 ward, taking its place in the procession of highs and lows which 
 have already been discussed. 
 
 The laws of atmospheric circulation which have been out- 
 lined above are subject to many exceptions and modifications, 
 due to the :i regular distribution of land and water and to other 
 circumstances which break up the symmetry of an ideal globe. 
 The predominance of land in the northern as compared with 
 the southern hemisphere is the most important factor in modi- 
 fying the general law. 
 
 Of the modifications thus introduced, the most marked and 
 important is the enormous change over the continent of Asia 
 from winter to summer, causing the phenomenon known as 
 the reversal of the monsoons; a phenomenon which is of vital 
 importance to half the inhabitants of the globe. 
 
 This extensive continental area is excessively heated during 
 the summer months and the air in contact with its surface be- 
 comes heated and rises, creating an upward draft of sufficient 
 power to overcome the effect of the similar draft in the equa- 
 torial belt and to turn back the N.E. trade wind on its track, 
 converting it into a S.W. " monsoon " which blows steadily and 
 often violently, for several months of the year; after which, the 
 continent having cooled down sufficiently to restore the normal 
 balance of pressures, the trade wind again sets in; under the 
 local name of the N.E. monsoon. 
 
 These phenomena are strictly analogous to the alternation of 
 land and sea breezes which characterize the summer climate 
 of nearly all sea coasts. The land becomes abnormally heated 
 during the day, the air above it rises, and a breeze draws in 
 from seaward which continues until toward evening. During 
 the night the land radiates its heat more rapidly than the water, 
 the relative temperature and barometric conditions are re- 
 versed, and the land-breeze springs up and blows throughout 
 the night. 
 
 Reverting. once more to Plate 148, attention may be called to 
 the marked contrast between winter and summer conditions 
 throughout the earth's surface, as regards not only tempera- 
 tures, but pressures and wind-circulation as well. 
 
 It will be noted that the winter storms of the North Atlantic 
 are not usually tropical in their origin, but begin, as a rule, 
 
538 WEATHER AND THE LAWS OF STORMS. 
 
 in the region of westerly winds and sweep across, usually well 
 to the northward, following the general course of these winds. 
 They are, in fact, in many if not most instances, identical with 
 storms which have already swept across the North American 
 continent; and in some cases it is possible to trace their history 
 far back over the Pacific. 
 
 If it were possible to add still more data to Plate 148, it would 
 be of interest to show the average amount of cloud, winter and 
 summer; the .precipitation in the form of rain or snow; the 
 regions of maximum and minimum departure from normal tem- 
 perature and pressure, and the amount of such departure; and 
 the average daily range of the thermometer and barometer, to- 
 gether with the daily barometric tides. Were such data added 
 it would be seen that the cloudy rainy regions are those of the 
 equatorial calm belt and the high latitudes of the temperate 
 zones, where low pressures indicate ascending currents; and 
 that the tolerably clear regions are the belts of high pressure 
 along the 3Oth parallels, with more cloudiness over the oceans 
 and less over the continents, but entirely clear skies over the 
 great deserts and in the lee of mountain ranges only. The 
 rainfall data would show clearly the influence of prevailing 
 winds in carrying moisture from the oceans to the continents, 
 sometimes far inland over level land, sometimes only as far as 
 a mountain range that chills and precipitates the aqueous 
 vapor. The winds carry the temperatures, too, of the oceans 
 they traverse, and thus modify weather and climate, with a 
 tendency toward warmth rather than cold, inasmuch as the 
 condensation of the vapor which they carry sets free large 
 quantities of latent heat. Where storm tracks are numerous 
 the rainfall is heavy; witness the case of cyclones which carry 
 moisture with them from the Bay of Bengal to the foothills of 
 the Himalayas producing rainfalls of 30 and even 40 inches a 
 day, which may be contrasted with an average daily rainfall of 
 ^ inch in most parts of the United States. The great variations 
 from normal temperature and pressure that occur in the stormy 
 high latitudes of the temperate zones contrast forcibly with the 
 uniformity and regularity within the tropics. The daily range 
 of the thermometer depends on whether it is winter or summer, 
 clear or cloudy; that of the barometer, on the position of the 
 region relative to the tracks and number of passing cyclones 
 
WEATHER AND THE LAWS OF STORMS. 539 
 
 and anti-cyclones. The barometric tides, slight in themselves 
 but moving in the equatorial regions with the regularity of 
 clockwork, with daily forenoon and evening maxima and early 
 morning and evening minima, are often obscured in higher lati- 
 tudes by the far greater changes due to passing storms, and 
 are modified a little everywhere by the effect of continents close 
 by. All of these phenomena, so closely inter-related, may be 
 studied in connection with the fundamental data represented 
 graphically in Plate 148. 
 
 THE BAROMETER. 
 
 It will be evident from what precedes, that the barometer is 
 beyond comparison the most important of the instruments avail- 
 able for forecasting weather, and that it is deserving of much 
 more exact attention than it commonly receives on shipboard. 
 It should be carefully placed where it will hang vertically and be 
 subject to a temperature not widely different from that of the 
 outside air. A thermometer should be attached to it or placed 
 near it, and the temperature indicated by this thermometer en- 
 tered with every reading of the barometer recorded. Compari- 
 son should be made from time to time with a standard barome- 
 ter in ports where such an instrument can be found. For this 
 comparison it is not necessary to bring the instruments to- 
 gether, but only to get practically simultaneous readings and to 
 apply the proper corrections for temperature. A comparison 
 carefully made, with the proper corrections, gives an instru- 
 mental error which may be checked from time to time as op- 
 portunity permits, and makes it possible to compare the read- 
 ings of the instrument with data published on Weather Charts 
 and in Sailing Directions, as well as to furnish additional re- 
 liable data for publications of that kind. 
 
 It will add to one's interest in keeping a good barometric log to know 
 that others can easily check its accuracy, both at once and years hence. 
 For instance, suppose you make a voyage from New York to Liverpool, 
 thence to Hamburg, Cape Town, Melbourne, and Yokohama. When- 
 ever you pass within a few miles of another vessel, or of any port or 
 coast of a country where daily weather maps are published (such as the 
 United States, England, Germany, France, Cape Colony, Australia, and 
 Japan), a comparison of your log with other good logs, or with the pub- 
 lished observations that are available in the libraries of government and 
 other offices all over the world, will give any one that chooses to make 
 it, a perfect check on your record. If it stands the test, it becomes a 
 
540 
 
 Plate No. 152. 
 
 PRINCIPAL FORMS OF CLOUDS (AFTER KOPPEN). 
 
Plate No. 152. 
 
 PRINCIPAL FORMS OF CLOUDS (AFTER KOPPEN), 
 
542 
 
 WEATHER AND THE LAWS OF STORMS. 
 
 good check on other logs and valuable for study. Very few aneroids will 
 stand this rigid and long-continued test of reliability, however useful 
 they may be in showing changes of pressure from time to time in 
 practical use at sea. 
 
 To draw conclusions from the reading of the barometer we 
 must know the normal pressure of the place and time of ob- 
 servation. These are shown for mid-winter and mid-summer in 
 most parts of the world on Plate 148, and should be given for all 
 places and seasons in Sailing Directions. The importance of 
 this point is indicated by the fact that a corrected pressure of 
 29.40 is normal for high southern latitudes, but very low for 
 corresponding latitudes north. 
 
 The normal pressure at any given place may be expected to 
 show the regular daily fluctuation or " barometric tide," already 
 referred to, and which is entirely independent of variations con- 
 nected with the weather. This fluctuation is greatest in the 
 tropics and disappears in very high latitudes both north and 
 south. The extreme daily range in the tropics is in the neigh- 
 borhood of iV of an inch. The maxima occur about 10 o'clock, 
 the minima about 4 o'clock, A. M., and P. M. Apart from the 
 daily tides, the variations in barometric pressure are slight 
 within the tropics, while in high latitudes they are very marked. 
 
 CLOUDS. 
 
 The relation of cloud-forms of various kinds to weather, 
 either existing or in prospect, is a matter of the greatest im- 
 portance; but unfortunately our knowledge upon this subject 
 is still very limited. The usual classification of cloud-forms is 
 shown in Plate 152, and the following notes give in condensed 
 shape about all that is known with regard to their significance. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF CLOUD-FORMS (PLATE 152). 
 
 The following cloud-forms are arranged according to a general descend- 
 ing scale of altitude, observation having shown that there are five main 
 cloud levels; viz.: cirrus (highest), cirro-cumulus, alto-cumulus, cumulus, 
 and stratus (lowest). 
 
 i. Cirrus (Ci.). Detached clouds, delicate and fibrous looking, taking 
 the form of feathers, generally of a white color, sometimes arranged in 
 belts which cross a portion of the sky in great circles, and, by an effect 
 of perspective, converge toward one or two opposite points of the 
 horizon. (The Ci.-S. and the Ci.-Cu. often contribute to the formation of 
 these belts). The height of cirnis is from 5 to 6 miles. 
 
WEATHER AND THE LAWS OF STORMS. 543 
 
 2. Cirro-Stratus (Ci.-S.). A thin, whitish sheet, at times completely 
 covering the sky and only giving it a whitish appearance (it is then 
 sometimes called cirronebula), or at others presenting, more or less 
 distinctly, a formation like a tangled web. This sheet often produces 
 halos around the sun and moon. Average height about 5^2 miles. 
 
 3. Cirro- Cumulus (Ci.-Cu.). Small globular masses, or white flakes 
 without shadows, or having very slight shadows, arranged in groups and 
 often in lines. Height about 4 miles. 
 
 4. Alto-Cumulus (A.-Cu.). Rather large globular masses, white or 
 grayish, partially shaded, arranged in groups or lines, and often so closely 
 packed that their edges appear confused. The detached masses are gen- 
 erally larger and more compact (changing to S.-Cu.) at the center of the 
 group; at the margin they form into finer flakes (changing to Ci.-Cu.). 
 They often spread themselves out in lines in one or two directions. 
 
 5. Alto-Stratus (A.-S.). A thick sheet of a gray or bluish color, show- 
 ing a brilliant patch in the neighborhood of the sun or moon, and which, 
 without causing halos, may give rise to coronae. This form goes through 
 all the changes like the Cirro-stratus, but, by measurements made at 
 Upsala, its altitude is one-half less. Height about 3 miles. 
 
 6. Strato-Cumulus (S.-Cu.). Large globular masses or rolls of dark 
 cloud, frequently covering the whole sky, especially in winter, and occa- 
 sionally giving it a wavy appearance. The layer of Strato-cumulus is not, 
 as a rule, very thick, and patches of blue sky are often visible through 
 the intervening spaces. All sorts of transitions between this form and 
 the Alto-cumulus are noticeable. It may be distinguished from Nimbus 
 by its globular or rolled appearance, and also because it does not bring 
 rain. Average height about i mile. 
 
 7. Nimbus (N.). Rain clouds. A thick layer of dark clouds, without 
 shape and with ragged edges, from which continued rain or snow gen- 
 erally falls. Through the openings of these clouds an upper layer of 
 Cirro-stratus or Alto-stratus may almost invariably be seen. If the layer 
 of Nimbus separates into shreds, or if small loose clouds are visible 
 floating at a low level, underneath a large nimbus, they may be described 
 as Fracto-nimbus (Fr.-N.), " Scud " of sailors. 
 
 8. Cumulus (Cu.). Wool-pack clouds. Thick clouds of which the 
 upper surface is dome-shaped and exhibits protuberances while the base 
 is horizontal. These clouds appear to be formed by a diurnal ascensional 
 movement which is almost always observable. When the cloud is oppo- 
 site the sun, the surfaces usually presented to the observer have a greater 
 brilliance than the margins of the protuberances. When the light falls 
 aslant, these clouds give deep shadows; when, on the contrary, the clouds 
 are on the same side as the sun, they appear dark, with bright edges. 
 
 The true Cumulus has clear superior and inferior limits. It is often 
 broken up by strong winds, and the detached portions undergo continual 
 changes. These may be distinguished by the name of Fracto-cumulus 
 (Fr.-Cu.). 
 
 9. Cumulo-Nimbus (Cu.-N.). The Thunder-cloud; Shower-cloud. 
 Heavy masses of clouds rising in the form of mountains, turrets, or 
 anvils, generally having a sheet or screen of fibrous appearance above 
 
544 WEATHER AND THE LAWS OF STORMS. 
 
 (" false Cirrus "), and underneath, a mass of cloud similar to " Nimbus." 
 From the base there usually fall local showers of rain or of snow (occa- 
 sionally hail or soft hail). Sometimes the upper edges have the compact 
 form of Cumulus, forming into massive peaks round which the delicate 
 " false Cirrus " floats, and sometimes the edges themselves separate into 
 a fringe of filaments similar to that of the Cirrus cloud. This last form 
 is particularly common in spring showers. 
 
 The^front of thunderclouds of wide extent frequently presents the form 
 of a large bow spread over a portion of the sky which is uniformly 
 brighter in color. 
 
 10. Stratus (S.). A horizontal sheet of lifted Fog. When this sheet 
 is broken up into irregular shreds by the wind, or by the summits of 
 mountains, it may be distinguished by the name of Fracto-stratus (Fr.-S.)- 
 
 NOTE. The attention of mariners is especially called to the value of 
 observations of cirrus, as this form of cloud is often closely connected 
 with barometric depressions. If the cirrus occurs in radiating bands 
 crossing the sky, the point of convergence of these bands should be 
 noted; if in the form of a cloud bank, or sheet, upon the horizon, the 
 center, or point of greatest density of this bank; as this point will some- 
 times serve to indicate in a general manner the direction of the center 
 of any cyclonic disturbance. 
 
 II. THE LAW OF STORMS. 
 
 The general features of this law have been enunciated in the 
 preceding pages; for the storms with which the law deals (in 
 its special application to Seamanship), are simply cyclones or 
 lows like those already described, but with all their character- 
 istic features intensified and concentrated within comparatively 
 narrow limits. 
 
 These storms, variously known as " Cyclones," " Typhoons," 
 " Tropical Hurricanes," etc., have their origin over the ocean 
 and on the border-land between the equatorial hot-belt and the 
 trade-wind region, where unsettled conditions would naturally 
 be expected to prevail. Many theories have been put forward 
 to explain their origin, but none which is entirely satisfactory. 
 The generally accepted theory connects the development of the 
 disturbance with the existence, as a preliminary, of excessively 
 sultry, rainy, and squally conditions in the lower layers of the 
 atmosphere, and the coincidence in the upper layers, of tem- 
 peratures lower than those due to the normal decrease of tem- 
 perature with the altitude. This is evidently a condition of un- 
 stable equilibrium and sooner or later results in the formation 
 of ascending currents and a general overturning of the atmos- 
 phere, with a sudden and violent inrush of air from all the 
 
Plate No. 153. 
 
 545 
 
 FIG. I. WIND CIRCULATION IN HURRICANE, 
 NORTHERN HEMISPHERE. 
 
 
 Fie.2. 
 
 CROSS - SECTION OF HURRICANE, SHOWING 
 CLOUD-BANK-, CENTRAL CALM AND STORM-WAVE. 
 
546 WEATHER AND THE LAWS OF STORMS. 
 
 surrounding regions. This action, once commenced, is in- 
 creased in intensity by the formation of clouds and rain in the 
 ascending air, resulting in the liberation of heat, which acts to 
 increase still further the violence of the upward- and inward- 
 rushing currents. The air flowing in takes up the characteristic 
 cyclonic rotation which has already been described and ex- 
 plained, and the hurricane vortex is established, with extremely 
 low pressure and a clear calm space of small diameter at the 
 center. In this vortex and the surrounding whirl there are 
 different degrees of rotation to the different layers of the 
 atmosphere, beginning at the base with an inward spiral which 
 diverges by perhaps two points from a circle (at a distance from 
 the center) and ending at the top many miles above the base 
 with currents radiating almost directly outward. An attempt 
 is made to indicate this circulation in Plate 153. The successive 
 layers of air are marked by different cloud-forms resulting from 
 the special conditions to which the moisture in the swirl finds 
 itself subjected. The lowest layer above that at the surface is 
 marked by low fast-flying scud, which is observed to move in 
 what is practically a circle; above this and diverging slightly 
 outward is a layer of cumulus, and above this come in succes- 
 sion alto-stratus, cirro-cumulus, and in the rare, cool atmos- 
 phere six miles and more above the surface, the long feathery 
 plumes of cirrus, radiating almost directly outward. Natur- 
 ally, these successive layers of cloud are not distinguishable by 
 an observer actually involved in the storm, as his view is bound- 
 ed by the heavy scud over his head; but they can be more or 
 less clearly made out from a distance, the cirrus clouds in par- 
 ticular being distinguishable above the heavy bank beneath, 
 and indicating by the point from which they radiate, the bear- 
 ing of the center of the storm. Great activity of movement in 
 the upper clouds, observed while the center is still distant, indi- 
 cates a storm of great severity. If the cirrus plumes are faint, 
 fading gradually behind the slowly thickening veil, the storm is 
 an old one of large area; if they are of snowy whiteness, pro- 
 jected against a clear blue sky, it is young and of small area, 
 but of great intensity. The general direction of translation is 
 at first toward the west, but with a slight tendency away from 
 the equator which becomes more and more marked, until the 
 storm sweeps around altogether, and, in the region of westerly 
 winds, moves off to the eastward. The velocity of translation 
 
Plate No. 154. 
 
 547 
 
 ^A 
 Bot o0 30.0. 
 
 ^<r* e 
 
 Fig. 1 
 Sept. 6, 8 A. M. 
 
 Marque tie 
 
 A d 
 
 ,.ft-i3?sfe 
 *-*- 
 
 Fig. 2 
 Sept. 9, 8 A. M. 
 
 GALVESTON HURRICANE SEPTEMBER 1900. 
 
548 WEATHER AND THE LAWS OF STORMS. 
 
 varies from a few miles an hour to as much as twenty-five or 
 thirty miles, being greatly affected by the barometric pres- 
 sures prevailing in the regions towards ivhich it is advancing. 
 Thus a storm advancing toward the Atlantic coast of the 
 , United States may find prevailing over the continent and 
 the coasts, an area of very high barometer against which 
 it comes up as against an elastic but impenetrable barrier. 
 It may thus be slowed down and held back, or, as frequently 
 occurs, shunted off to one side and entirely changed in 
 direction. A striking example of this kind is shown on 
 Plate 154, where a cyclone which was apparently marked out for 
 a track along the Atlantic coast found its path blocked by a 
 " High " and was finally driven off onto the west Gulf Coast, 
 where it entirely destroyed the city of Galveston. This effect 
 is similar to that of the fixed area of permanent high barometer 
 shown on Plate 148, as overhanging the North Atlantic Ocean 
 during the summer months. The storms of this season follow 
 around the outside limits of this area, the existence of which 
 undoubtedly counts for much in determining their course. 
 Their track, in fact, is usually along a trough of low pressure 
 between two highs, one overhanging the ocean, the other the 
 land. Other factors of importance in determining the track 
 of the storms, are the general circulation of the atmosphere, 
 with which they tend to move along, and the existence of such 
 ocean currents as the Gulf Stream in the North Atlantic and 
 the Japanese Current in the North Pacific; the excessive evapo- 
 ration over these currents tending to create a trough of low 
 pressure such as has been referred to above. The track of such 
 a storm in the North Atlantic is shown in Plate 155, in which 
 are brought out many points of interest and importance in 
 connection with its progress and development. It will be noted 
 that the shape of the storm, far from being a circle, is a decided 
 ellipse, with a well-marked trough of low pressure along its 
 major axis. In the early stages of its progress the storm is of 
 small area but great intensity. As it progresses, it spreads out 
 and, usually, loses something of its violence; (as is indicated 
 by the increasing distance between the isobars), and in the end 
 sweeps across the North Atlantic as a southeasterly gale with 
 a northwester following close upon it. Taken as a whole, the 
 storm here shown is a summer type, but in the final part of its 
 path it represents also the winter storms of the North Atlantic, 
 
Plate No. 155. 
 
 549 
 
 
 OCEAN CYCLONES AND ANTI-CYCLONES OF THE 
 NORTHERN HEMISPHERE. 
 
 A Diagram of Typical Wind Circulation from Anti-cyclones to and 
 around Cyclonic Storm Centers in Oceans North of the Equator, and 
 the Tracks along which Storms Usually Move. 
 
550 
 
 WEATHER AND THE LAWS OF STORMS. 
 
 which are none the less cyclonic because they do not originate 
 in the tropics. 
 
 Strictly speaking, we should consider this chart to represent, 
 not the progress of a single storm on a number of successive 
 days, but a number of storms existing at the same time. This 
 is not an impossible condition of affairs, although it would of 
 course be an unusual one. For our present purpose, however, 
 we may imagine that the " high " which is shown as hanging 
 over the western part of the area included by the chart has re- 
 mained stationary for several days (a phenomenon which is not 
 uncommon) and that the storm has made its way through the 
 trough between this high and the permanent anti-cyclone to the 
 eastward. 
 
 The chart illustrates the conditions of weather characterizing 
 each portion of the storm, and can be made to show the changes 
 which would be encountered by a vessel passing through the 
 storm along any given line, or lying to and allowing the storm 
 to pass over her. An inspection of this chart will explain most 
 of the characteristic features of bad weather in the North At- 
 lantic; showing why gales commonly begin with the wind at 
 east or southeast and end with it at N.W.; and why the change 
 from one quarter to the other often comes in a sudden shift 
 with violent squalls. This shift is due to the passage of the 
 trough of low pressure into which the originally circular center 
 has been stretched out. (Compare with Plate 150.) 
 
 Among the weather proverbs most firmly believed in by sea-faring men 
 is the one which insists that good weather is not to be expected after a 
 storm in the northern hemisphere if the wind shifts to the left, or backs. 
 It will be clear from what precedes, that this is true only for observers 
 in the right-hand semi-circle of the storm. In this semi-circle, as has 
 been shown, the wind shifts to the right as the storm passes, and goes 
 to Northwest by way of South, Southwest and West. In the left-hand 
 semi-circle, on the other hand, the northwest weather of the clear anti- 
 cyclone follows a shift to the left, through Northeast and North. 
 
 It happens, however, that the Atlantic and Gulf Coasts of the United 
 States, and the greater part of Europe (including England) lie to the 
 south and east of the average path of the storms to which these regions 
 are subject; and the same is true of the ordinary tracks of vessels in the 
 North Atlantic. Thus it happens that with regard to a very large 
 majority of the storms moving over these regions, observers find them- 
 selves in the right-hand semi-circle; and do, as a matter of fact, get 
 their clearing weather by a shift of the wind to the right. This is not 
 true of tropical hurricanes, but it must be remembered that these are 
 few in number in comparison with the storms which originate in higher 
 latitudes. (See Plate 157.) 
 
WEATHER AND THE LAWS OF STORMS. 551 
 
 The velocity of translation of storms varies within wide limits 
 and it is very unsife to assume even an approximate value for 
 it in any given case. It may be said, however, that the average 
 velocity per hour vithiri the tropics is between 15 and 20 knots; 
 that as the storms turn toward the north (or south) they slow 
 down, the average for this part of the path being from 5 to 6 
 knots; and that as they recurve and start off to the eastward, 
 the velocity usually increases, the average for this part of the 
 track being something like 25 knots. The maximum velocity 
 that has been observed does not much exceed 30 knots. The 
 velocity of rotation varies from 50 to 100 miles an hour and 
 perhaps even more than this. It is evident that on one side of 
 the track, or in one semi-circle of the storm, the velocity of 
 translation will be added to that of rotation, while in the other 
 semi-circle it will be subtracted. This is one of the most im- 
 portant reasons for regarding one semi-circle as " dangerous " 
 and the other as " manageable." Other reasons are that this is 
 the side toward which the storm-track curves, and that on this 
 side the winds and currents tend to set the vessel toward the 
 front of the storm-center. 
 
 Rules are sometimes laid down as to the latitude of recurving 
 of storms at different seasons of the year; but such rules are 
 even more dangerous than those which deal with the velocity 
 of translation. The storm tracks plotted on Plate 157 give all 
 the data that are available on this subject, and indicate clearly 
 enough that no rule can be laid down which will not be subject 
 to so many exceptions as to render it altogether valueless. 
 
 Plate 153 illustrates on an exaggerated vertical sectional scale 
 the cloud formation, wind circulation and storm wave of a hur- 
 ricane. The mountainous central mass of cloud, composed of 
 heavy nimbus below and towering leaden cumulus above, often 
 maintains a remarkable fixity of bearing, which, together with 
 its solid rugged appearance, makes it look like distant land. 
 Such a cloud-bank was once visible from Trinidad, Cuba, for 
 five entire days. 
 
 The storm wave, or general rise of the level of the sea near 
 the center, due to the inrushing winds and low pressure, moves 
 along with the storm until perhaps precipitated in a great flood 
 upon islands and coasts in its path. Such a flood, the night of 
 
552 WEATHER AND THE LAWS OF STORMS. 
 
 October 31, 1876, in the low lands of the delta of the Ganges, 
 drowned 100,000 people and resulted in the death of as many 
 more through famine and disease. Very strong currents are 
 caused both by the wind force and, apparently, by the advance 
 of the entire storm, which seems to drive the sea bodily before 
 it as well as drag it along behind. Near the coast these effects 
 are most marked, and after a few days in a hurricane, vessels 
 often find themselves 50 or 100 miles out of their reckoning. 
 The widest allowances must therefore be made for current, 
 until the weather clears and good sights can be obtained. 
 
 INDICATIONS OF THE APPROACH OF A HURRICANE. 
 
 EARLIEST INDICATIONS. The distant storm usually causes an 
 abnormal rise of the barometer, with cool, dry, fresh winds and 
 cessation or reversal of the ordinary land and sea breezes, with 
 a very transparent atmosphere. A long low swell is often no- 
 ticed at a great distance, sometimes hundreds of miles, with 
 occasional high hurricane rollers. The direction of the swell, 
 when unaffected by intervening islands and neighboring coasts, 
 indicates the bearing of the center; as do also the light feathery 
 plumes of cirrus cloud that radiate from a point of the horizon 
 marked by a whitish arc. 
 
 UNMISTAKABLE SIGNS. As the sky becomes hazy with a thin 
 uniform cirrus veil, halos are noticed by day and night, the 
 barometer begins to fall slowly, the air becomes heavy, hot and 
 moist, with red and violet tints at dawn and sunset; the low 
 but solid and rugged looking cloud-bank of the hurricane ap- 
 pears on the horizon like distant land; squalls break off and 
 diverge from it, and later squalls are noticed passing across 
 the line of bearing of the center of the bank. Fine misty rain 
 forms, seeming to grow out of the atmosphere; a heavy cross 
 sea is felt, and the barometer, while falling rapidly, becomes 
 unsteady. 
 
 A vessel situated in front of and near the path of a cyclonic 
 storm will commonly experience a long, heavy swell, a falling 
 barometer with heavy rain, and increasing winds, the direction 
 and changes of which will depend upon her position with refer- 
 ence to the center and the track. A comparison of the three 
 positions of a storm plotted in Plate 156 will show that whereas 
 in Fig. i, a wind from N.E. or E.N.E. marks a position near 
 
Plate No. 156. 
 
 553 
 
 LO 
 
 do 
 L. 
 
 id 
 
 bO 
 
 a i 
 
 Q >, 
 
 Z H 3 J 
 
 f \ IX ^-^ "* ^*^ '^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 O 
 
 cO 
 
 <D 
 
 o: 
 
 o; 
 
 - f - / 
 
 01 
 
 
 
 o: 
 a: 
 
 r 
 
 < 
 
 <f> 
 
 '\ 
 r 
 
 c 
 
 V- 
 
 <L> 
 
 ^: 
 i- 
 o 
 
 (N 
 
 Dl) 
 
554 WEATHER AND THE LAWS OF STORMS. 
 
 B, in the forward right-hand quadrant (the most dangerous part 
 of the storm), in Fig. 3, the same direction of the wind marks 
 a position near A in the navigable semi-circle and clear of all 
 real clanger; while in Fig. 2, it marks a position near c, almost 
 in the track of the storm. This shows the importance of con- 
 sidering the ship's position as to latitude and longitude, in 
 connection with other data; but in attempting to draw con- 
 clusions from this it must not be forgotten that the latitude of 
 recurving can be known only in a very general way. 
 
 RULES FOR MANOEUVRING. 
 
 The rules for manoeuvring with reference to a storm have for 
 their objects: 1st, to determine the bearing and distance of the 
 center and the track along which it is moving; 2nd, to avoid 
 the center and, if possible, to keep out of or escape from the 
 dangerous semi-circle; 3d, to ride out the storm in safety if 
 unable to escape from it. 
 
 It has been shown that the bearing of the center may in some 
 cases be determined, while the storm is at a distance, by observa- 
 tions of the cloud-bank and especially of the point from which 
 the cirrus plumes are seen to radiate; and in some cases, also, 
 by the direction of the long swell which often precedes the 
 storm. But these indications are confined to the early stages 
 of the storm's advance, within the limits of the tropics. Under 
 other circumstances, the only indications of value are the di- 
 rection and force of the wind and the action of the barometer. 
 The old rule for determining the bearing of the center was to 
 assume it as eight points from the direction of the wind; to 
 the right in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the 
 southern. It is now known that this eight-point rule is true 
 only near the center of the storm, and that near the edge, the 
 center may bear as much as twelve points from the wind. 
 
 The following perhaps expresses as definitely as a rule can 
 express it, this relation between the direction of the wind and 
 the bearing of the center of the storm. 
 
 RULE. When the approach of a revolving storm is first clearly 
 recognised, the bearing of the center may be assumed as between 
 10 and 12 points from the direction of the wind. When the char- 
 acteristic features of the storm are fully developed, the wind hav- 
 ing the force of a gale and the barometer falling steadily, the bear- 
 
WEATHER AND THE LAWS OF STORMS. 555 
 
 ing may be assumed as betiveen eight and ten points. As the 
 storm continues to increase and after the barometer has fallen as 
 much as half an inch, the bearing may be taken as about eight 
 points. 
 
 It will be understood that neither this rule nor any other one 
 can take the place of an intelligent comprehension and applica- 
 tion of the principles which have been explained in the pre- 
 ceding pages. 
 
 For data as to the path of the storm,, a vessel must heave-to 
 and note the changes in the bearing of the center, and the fall 
 of the barometer. 
 
 Plate 155 shows the changes in conditions which would be 
 noted by vessels over which the storm is passing along the 
 different lines there indicated. The hauling of the wind to the 
 right indicates that the vessel is in the right-hand semi-circle; 
 hauling to the left, that she is in the left-hand semi-circle. 
 
 This rule holds for both hemispheres; but whereas in the 
 northern hemisphere the dangerous semi-circle is to the right, 
 in the southern hemisphere it is to the left. In either hemi- 
 sphere, if the wind continues from the same direction with a 
 steadily falling barometer, the chances are that the ship is in 
 the track of the storm. One important exception should, how- 
 ever, be noted. When a hurricane moves along the edge of a 
 trade-wind or monsoon region, the prevailing winds are intensi- 
 fied over a wide area, without appreciable change in direction, 
 giving rise to what are known as " intensified " trades or mon- 
 soons. These are illustrated in Fig. i, Plate 158. In this 
 figure, a vessel at A, hove-to, would have a falling barometer, 
 and no change in the direction of the wind. But if she infers 
 that she is directly in front of the center, and runs before the 
 wind, she plunges directly into the vortex. The only safe 
 course under these conditions is to haul off to the right (in the 
 particular case illustrated in the figure), carrying all the sail 
 that is safe and gaining as much ground to that side as is pos- 
 sible before it becomes necessary to lie-to. It must be remem- 
 bered that this applies only to the exceptional case of a hurricane 
 encountered on the border of a trade-wind or monsoon belt. 
 
 It is not a matter of indifference on which tack a ship heaves- 
 to while watching the wind, barometer, and clouds, and waiting 
 for the situation to declare itself. Consider, for example, the 
 ships of Fig. 2, Plate 158. If the ship B, in the right-hand 
 
556 
 
 Plate No. 157. 
 
WEATHER AND THE LAWS OF STORMS. 
 
 557 
 
 semi-circle, heaves-to on the starboard tack, the wind and sea 
 will gradually draw aft. If she heaves-to on the port tack, they 
 will draw ahead and she is liable to be taken aback, perhaps 
 in a sudden and violent squall. In the left-hand semi-circle, the 
 conditions are reversed; but here the danger is not in any case 
 as great as in the other semi-circle. The rule is, therefore, in 
 the northern hemisphere, to heave-to in the beginning on the 
 starboard tack. If the wind shifts to the right, you are in the 
 dangerous semi-circle and are on the proper tack. If circum- 
 stances admit, you may try to work away from the track of the 
 center, close-hauled on the starboard tack. When obliged to 
 lie-to, do so on the same tack. 
 
 If, being hove-to on the starboard tack, the wind hauls to 
 the left (ahead), you are in the left-hand or manageable semi- 
 circle, say at A, and heading away from the track of the center. 
 Here you should bring the wind on the starboard quarter and 
 run as long as possible. If obliged to lie-to, do so on the port 
 tack, being careful to make as little headway as possible. 
 
 If, the ship being hove-to, the wind remains steady in direc- 
 tion and the barometer continues to fall, it may be assumed, 
 except in the one case which has been discussed above, that 
 the ship is in or near the path of the storm; say at c. She 
 should run with the wind on the starboard quarter and hold the 
 compass course thus fixed until the barometer begins to rise. 
 
 Most of the above rules are reversed for the southern hemi- 
 sphere. They are summarized for both hemispheres in the 
 following table: 
 
 NORTHERN HEMISPHERE. 
 
 Heave-to on Starboard Tack to note Shift of Wind. 
 
 Wind hauls to right 
 
 left 
 
 continues 
 
 steady 
 
 Ship is in right semi-circle 
 
 DANGEROUS. 
 
 Ship is in left semi-circle 
 Manageable. 
 
 Ship is in path of storm 
 
 Run close hauled on starboard 
 
 tack. 
 When obliged to lie-to, do so 
 
 on starboard tack. 
 
 Run with wind on starboard 
 
 quarter. 
 If obliged to lie-to, do so on 
 
 port tack. 
 
 Run with wind on starboard 
 quarter and keep this com- 
 pass course. 
 
 If obliged to lie-to, do so on 
 the tack on which wind and 
 sea will draw aft. 
 
558 
 
 WEATHER AND THE LAWS OF STORMS. 
 
 SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE. 
 
 Heave-to on Port Tack to note Shift of Wind. 
 
 Wind hauls to right 
 
 left 
 
 continues 
 
 steady 
 
 Ship is in right semi-circle 
 Manageable. 
 
 Ship is in left semi-circle 
 
 DANGEROUS. 
 
 Ship is in path of storm 
 
 Run with wind on port quar- 
 ter. 
 
 If obliged to lie-to, do so on 
 starboard tack. 
 
 Run close hauled on port 
 
 tack. 
 When obliged to lie-to, do so 
 
 on port tack. 
 
 Run with wind on port-quar- 
 ter and keep this compass 
 course. 
 
 If obliged to lie-to, do so on 
 the tack on which wind and 
 sea will draw aft. 
 
 For plotting the position of the ship within the storm from 
 time to time it is convenient to construct a storm-card like 
 Fig. 2, Plate 158. This should be on tracing cloth and on a 
 good scale. The ship is then drawn on a sheet of paper and 
 the storm-card moved over it in accordance with the motion of 
 the center as determined from the successive observations made 
 as above described. A rough estimate may generally be made 
 of the distance of the center, from the character of the weather, 
 the force of the wind, the fall of the barometer, etc. 
 
 It is hardly necessary to say that circumstances may require 
 the modification of the foregoing rules in many directions. 
 One of the most frequent reasons for such modifications is the 
 proximity to land. The influence of this point upon the course 
 to be adopted will be greatly affected by the way in which it is 
 known that the wind will shift. There is less danger in closing 
 with a coast if it is certain that the shifts of wind will be off- 
 shore and not on. So with regard to seeking an anchorage. 
 It may be safe to anchor in an open roadstead if the shifts of 
 wind are bound to be such as to give a lee; it would be hazar- 
 dous to anchor if the reverse were the case. 
 
 Naturally, also, the seaworthiness of the ship, her speed, and 
 many other conditions, are factors in the problem of manoeu- 
 vring. 
 
 The latitude in which the storm is encountered makes a dif- 
 ference because of the difference in intensity; and a vessel may 
 
Plate No. 158. 
 
 559 
 
 Example of Intensified Trade-Wind Be\t. 
 
 East 
 
 N.E. 
 
 North 
 
 West 
 
 5.W. 
 
 A C^done in the Northern Hemisphere. 
 
 SHIFTS OF WIND IN A CYCLONE. 
 
 CYCLONES. 
 
560 WEATHER AND THE LAWS OF STORMS. 
 
 safely hold her course through a storm in the North Atlantic 
 which she would take every means to avoid in the tropics. On 
 the other hand, it is easier to avoid a storm in the tropics than 
 in high latitudes, because of the difference in the area which it 
 covers. The diameter of a hurricane in the tropics rarely ex- 
 ceeds 300 miles, while in high latitudes it may be a thousand 
 miles or more. 
 
 The curvature of the track must be taken into consideration. 
 Vessels have been known to escape from a slow-moving hurri- 
 cane toward the concave side of the track, only to run into it 
 again after it had recurved. 
 
 The preceding directions have especial reference to sailing 
 vessels, but in their general principles they are perfectly appli- 
 cable to steamers. There is, however, this important difference 
 to be noted; that as a steamer is not dependent for her course 
 upon the direction of the wind, she is much freer to manoeuvre 
 and may almost always, unless in the neighborhood of land, 
 keep far enough from the center of the storm to avoid all 
 serious danger. This, however, is true only when the storm is 
 of comparatively limited area and with a center clearly defined; 
 as in positions I, 2, 3 and 4, of Plate 155. It is evident that 
 when the storm has spread out over thousands of miles, as in 
 positions 5 and 6, with an elongated trough of low pressure in 
 place of a sharply-defined center, it is hopeless for even a 
 steamer to attempt to avoid it. In such a gale, the directions 
 of the following Chapter (Handling a Steamer in Heavy 
 Weather) become important; and if applied with some reference 
 to the changes in weather which may be anticipated from a 
 study of Plate 155, they furnish all the directions which should 
 be needed to carry a steamer through any gale in which she 
 has a fair amount of sea-room. 
 
 Another point of difference between a steamer and a sailing 
 vessel has to do with the rule for lying-to in the manageable 
 semi-circle. The rule for a sailing ship is to lie-to on the 
 " coming-up " tack in spite of the fact that this brings her head 
 toward the center. For a steamer, the rule in general is to 
 lie-to always with the head away from the center, in order that 
 such headway as is made may be all in the direction of safety. 
 
 The Pilot Charts of the North Atlantic and North Pacific 
 
WEATHER AND THE LAWS OF STORMS. 561 
 
 Oceans, issued by the Hydrographic Office of the United States 
 Navy Department, should be familiar to all mariners. These 
 are in substance Monthly Weather Maps of the Ocean and con- 
 tain a large amount of valuable information not elsewhere to be 
 found, upon a great variety of topics. 
 
 WEATHER AND STORM SIGNALS. 
 
 Most of the maritime nations of the world publish informa- 
 tion of weather and winds to be expected and give warnings 
 to mariners by signal and by radio of the approach of storms. 
 
 In the United States the system of weather-signals is very 
 complete, information of the approach of storms being received 
 from various stations in the United States and even throughout 
 the West Indies. These warnings are published at the various 
 seaports by the display of flags by day and of lanterns by night, 
 and by bulletins and reports furnished to newspapers. (Plate 
 159.) Every effort is made to give these warnings as early as 
 possible at all points where they may be of service to mariners 
 and others. 
 
 UNITED STATES STORM SIGNALS. Storm signals are displayed 
 by the United States Weather Bureau at a large number of sta- 
 tions situated on the coasts of the United States. Most of these 
 stations are equipped for signalling by the International Code, 
 and are prepared to transmit by telegraph and radio the messages 
 of passing vessels. 
 
 The warnings adopted by the United States Weather Bureau 
 for announcing the approach of wind storms are as follows : 
 
 Storm Warning (a red flag, eight feet square, with black 
 center, three feet square) , indicates that a storm of marked 
 violence is expected. This flag is never used alone. 
 
 Red Pennant (eight feet hoist and fifteen feet fly) displayed 
 with the flags, indicates easterly winds ; that is, from the north, 
 through east to south, and that the storm center is approaching. 
 
 White Pennant (eight feet hoist and fifteen feet fly) displayed 
 with the flags, indicates westerly winds ; that is, from north 
 through west to south and that the center has passed. 
 
 Red Pennant if hoisted above the storm warning, indicates 
 that winds are expected from the northeast quadrant; when be- 
 low, from the southeast quadrant. 
 
 White Pennant if hoisted above the storm warning, indicates 
 
562 
 
 Plate No. 159. 
 
 Easterly Winds Storm Signals Cautionary Westerly Winds 
 
 Signal 
 
 N.E. Winds 
 
 5. E. Winds Hurricane 
 
 Warning 
 
 N.W. Winds 5.W. Winds Night Warnings 
 
 No.! 
 
 No. 3 
 
 Ra ' ln r 5now Locc^l 5now 
 
 No.4 ,. No.5 
 
 TemperatureRagl "Cold Wave 
 
 STORM AND WEATHER SIGNALS. 
 
WEATHER AND THE LAWS OF STORMS. 563 
 
 that winds are expected from the northwest quadrant; when be- 
 low, from the southwest quadrant. 
 
 Night Storm Warnings By night a red light will indicate 
 easterly winds; a white above a red light will indicate westerly 
 winds. 
 
 Hurricane Warning (two storm warning flags, red with black 
 centers, displayed one above the other) indicates the expected 
 approach of a tropical hurricane or of an extremely severe and 
 dangerous storm. 
 
 No night hurricane warnings are displayed. 
 
 A yellow flag with white center is a cautionary signal. 
 
 Signals should be read from the top of the staff downward. 
 These signals indicate the weather forecasts for the twenty-four 
 hours commencing at 8 o'clock a. m. 
 
 UNITED STATES WEATHER SIGNALS. When displayed on poles, 
 the signals should be arranged to read downward; when dis- 
 played from horizontal supports, a small streamer should be at- 
 tached to indicate the point from which the signals are to be read. 
 
 The morning forecasts only (i.e., those issued from the a.m. 
 reports) will be utilized for the display of weather signals, and 
 the flags displayed will represent only the forecast applicable to 
 the twenty-four hours beginning at 8 p.m. of the day the flags 
 are hoisted. (Plate 159.) 
 
 If more than one kind of weather is predicted for the period 
 from 8 p.m. to 8 p.m., the conditions first named in the fore- 
 cast will be represented by the uppermost weather flag in a ver- 
 tical hoist, or by the weather flag nearest to the small streamer 
 indicating the point, in a horizontal hoist, from which the sig- 
 nals are to be read. If two temperature forecasts are made for 
 this period, the first-named only will be represented by the tem- 
 perature flag in its proper position. 
 
 When cold-wave signals are ordered, or when the regular 
 forecast contains warnings of a cold wave, the cold-wave sig- 
 nal will be displayed alone, and in no case will flags represent- 
 ing the weather element be displayed on the same staff with the 
 cold-wave signal. 
 
 If the forecasts contain a prediction, " moderate cold wave," 
 " decidedly low temperature," " decided fall in temperature," 
 " much colder," etc., the cold-wave flag will not be displayed but 
 the temperature flag will be hoisted below the proper weather 
 flag. 
 
WEATHER AND THE LAWS OF STORMS. 
 
 Flags will be invariably lowered at sunset of the day the hoij 
 is made, and no flags will be displayed on the following day until 
 the receipt of the next succeeding morning forecast. 
 
 Number I indicates clear or fair weather. Number 2 indi- 
 cates rain or snow. Number 3 indicates that local rains 01 
 showers will occur, and that the rainfall will not be general. 
 Number 4 always refers to temperature; when placed above 
 numbers i, 2 and 3 it indicates warmer weather; when placec 
 below numbers I, 2 and 3 it indicates colder weather; when not 
 displayed, the indications are that the temperature will reman 
 stationary, or that the change in temperature will not vary more 
 than four degrees from the temperature of the same hour of 
 the preceding day from March to October, inclusive, and not 
 more than six degrees for the remaining months of the year. 
 Number 5 indicates the approach of a sudden and decided fall 
 in temperature. When number 5 is displayed, number 4 is always 
 omitted. 
 
 Examples : Nos. i and 4, " Fair weather. Colder." 
 
 Nos. 4 and 2, " Warmer. Rain or snow." 
 Nos. 4, i and 2, " Warmer, fair weather, followed 
 
 by rain or snow." 
 Nos. i and 5, " Fair weather. Cold wave." 
 
(565) 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 HANDLING STEAMERS IN HEAVY WEATHER. 
 II. 
 
 The conventional way of handling a steamer when the 
 weather is too heavy for her to proceed on her course is to 
 bring her up until she has the sea on the bow and to hold her 
 there by the engines and the helm, assisted by such after sail as 
 may be available. In this position, most steamers have a con- 
 stant tendency to fall off, and can only be held up by giving 
 them way enough for the rudder to exercise considerable steer- 
 ing power. They are thus, to some extent, forced into the sea, 
 and the more it is necessary to force them, the greater the strain 
 to which they are subjected, and the greater the probability of 
 their taking water on board in dangerous quantities. This 
 method of riding out a gale has been handed down from the 
 days of bluff-bowed sailing ships and of steamers with more or 
 less complete sail power. Such ships were held up to wind and 
 sea by their ample after sail, with little or no headway. If they 
 fell off as from time to time they did and started to gather 
 way, the hard down helm and after sail would bring them 
 promptly back to meet the sea. Thus they came up and fell 
 off, making some little way through the water, but none of it 
 against the sea; and, in the main, drifting steadily to leeward. 
 For such ships, this was and is the ideal way of riding out a 
 gale. But a modern steamer, whether man-of-war, liner or 
 tramp, carries very little after sail and is commonly long and 
 sharp. The propeller acts as a drag, tending to hold her stern 
 up to the sea, and this tendency is assisted by the excess of 
 draft which such steamers usually have aft. To hold such a 
 steamer bows on to the sea, she must be forced into it not at 
 great speed, perhaps, but sufficiently to strain the ship severely 
 and to suggest grave doubt as to the wisdom of this method 
 of lying to. 
 
 The opinion is gaining ground of late years that a steamer 
 of this type should run slowly before a sea or lie to with the 
 
566 HANDLING STEAMERS IN HEAVY WEATHER. 
 
 sea astern or on the quarter; and this view is supported both by 
 theoretical considerations and by a convincing amount of prac- 
 tical experience. 
 
 If we watch any buoyant object floating in waves which are 
 of some size as compared with the object itself, we shall see th'at 
 so long as it floats freely, it floats easily, with no indication of 
 strain and with little or no wash on its upper surfaces. If it is 
 forced to lie in some other position than that which it naturally 
 takes, all this is changed; it ceases to ride easily, and the waves 
 break over it more or less. If it is forced through the water, 
 even on the heading which it naturally takes, signs of strain 
 become apparent, and the sea washes over it. If it is forced 
 against the sea, the wash will be greater than on any other 
 course, and as the speed in this direction increases, it dives into 
 and cuts through the waves instead of riding over them. 
 
 We might anticipate for this that the easiest position for a 
 ship in a heavy sea would be that which she would herself take 
 if left at rest and free from the constraint of engines, helm and 
 sails. For steamers of the type we are now considering (mod- 
 ern steamers of average characteristics), this seems to be gen- 
 erally true. Such a steamer, if left to herself in a seaway will 
 usually fall off until she has the sea abaft the beam, the pro- 
 peller acting as a drag and holding her stern up. In this posi- 
 tion she will roll deeply, but easily, and will drift to leeward, 
 leaving a comparatively smooth wake on the weather beam and 
 quarter, rolling deeply, but 141 most cases easily, and taking little 
 or no water on board. If oil is used along the weather side and 
 astern, the wake can be converted into an " oil-slick " and all 
 danger of seas breaking on board effectually prevented. 
 
 If she rolls dangerously, she may be kept away more, either 
 by setting head sail, by using a drag over the stern, or by turning 
 over the engines just fast enough to give her steerage-way; for 
 it seems to be established also, as the result of experience, that 
 a steamer may safely run with the sea aft or quartering, pro- 
 vided she runs very slowly. Clearly this is not " running " in the 
 old sense of that term, according to which a vessel going before 
 the sea was forced to her utmost speed with the idea of keeping 
 ahead of the waves, which were expected to " poop " her if they 
 overtook her. It will be seen from the statements of a large 
 number of shipmasters who have tried the experiment of slow- 
 ing down or stopping when running before a heavy sea, that 
 
HANDLING STEAMERS IN HEAVY WEATHER. 567 
 
 this manoeuvre, so far from resulting in the disaster which many 
 seamen would expect from it, had an extraordinary effect in 
 easing the ship and keeping her dry. 1 
 
 The explanation of this seems to be that a ship running at 
 high speed through the water draws a wave after her which fol- 
 lows under her counter and rolls along toward the waist on 
 either side, tending continually to curl over and break on board. 
 This wave is reduced to insignificant proportions in running 
 dead slow. 
 
 Another point which enters into the behavior of a vessel 
 going before the sea is that as she rolls and pitches she buries 
 first one bow and then the other, increasing the pressure on the 
 bow so buried. If, now, she is being driven through the water, 
 her head will be forced off, first to one side and then to the 
 other, causing her to yaw badly with a continual tendency to 
 broach to; and this cannot be met by the rudder, because, at the 
 very time the bow is buried, the stern is lifted more or less out 
 of the water, and the rudder loses, for the moment, its steering 
 power. As the stern is lifted, there also comes a racing of the 
 propeller which is in itself a serious danger at high speed. 
 Whether these points be sufficient to entirely explain the fact 
 or not, there seems no question that the dangers connected 
 with running, so far from being increased, are greatly reduced 
 if not altogether removed, by slowing or stopping. 
 
 It will of course be understood that in this matter, as in all 
 others connected with Seamanship, due regard must be had for 
 the peculiarities of the individual ship; and that the manoeuvre 
 which is safest for a majority of ships may be dangerous for cer- 
 tain ones. Thus a ship whose cargo is of a kind that may shift 
 should not be allowed to roll excessively; nor should a battle- 
 ship whose heavy guns are carried high above the center of 
 gravity. The same is true to some extent of sailing ships, 
 whose spars may be endangered by rolling too deeply. For 
 such vessels, a course and speed should be maintained which 
 will keep theni reasonably steady, even though this may involve 
 some strain upon the hull and some risk of shipping water. 
 But on whatever course the vessel may be kept, this rule may 
 be regarded as of universal application; that, other things 
 
 1 See III of this Chapter for the testimony of shipmasters on this 
 subject. 
 
568 HANDLING STEAMERS IN HEAVY WEATHER. 
 
 being equal, the lower the speed at which she is run, the easier she 
 will be. 
 
 Attention may be called here to an important relation, not 
 always recognized, between a ship and the waves in "which she 
 floats. For every ship (in a given condition as to trim, &c.), there 
 is a perfectly definite " rolling period "; a period, that is to say, in 
 which she will make a complete roll, without regard to whether she 
 is rolling ten degrees or forty. So, also, in the case of a seaway, 
 there is usually a fairly regular interval of time between wave- 
 crests passing a given point. If the point is a ship in motion, 
 her motion may increase or decrease the interval between the 
 waves so far as she herself is concerned; but this will not change 
 the regularity of the interval. If, now, it happens that this in- 
 terval coincides with that required for the ship to complete a 
 roll, each wave as it passes her will add its rolling impulse to 
 the accumulated effect of those which have preceded it, and the 
 ship will roll more and more deeply until she reaches the maxi- 
 mum roll of which she is capable. She will not roll over, if prop- 
 erly designed, because there are forces at work to resist the 
 rolling, and these increase as the depth of roll increases, until 
 the rolling forces and the resisting forces balance. But she will 
 continue to roll to the maximum limit until something is done 
 to break up the synchronism between her period and that of the 
 sea. This can be accomplished, provided the ship has headway, 
 by changing the course or the speed or both; thus changing, not 
 the real, but the apparent, period of the waves. By running 
 more nearly into the sea meeting the waves the apparent 
 period is shortened; by running more nearly before it, the 
 period is lengthened ; but in either case it is changed and will no 
 longer agree with the rolling period of the ship. The same effect 
 is produced by a change of speed. If, therefore, it is judged 
 from the violence of the rolling on a given course that the period 
 of the waves is coinciding with that of the ship, the course or 
 speed or both should be changed to break up the synchronism. 
 
 The length of the ship, as compared with that of the waves, 
 is also a very important factor in the behavior of the ship, especi- 
 ally when she is running more or less with the waves, or meeting 
 them. It often happens that a small, short ship, in a long sea, 
 will be perfectly comfortable where a larger and longer one makes 
 very bad weather. The small craft climbs up and slides down 
 
HANDLING STEAMERS IN HEAVY WEATHER. 569 
 
 the waves, accommodating herself to their slopes, and pitching 
 only as the slope changes; while the longer craft, partially span- 
 ning the crests and the hollows of the waves alternately, one end 
 being poised on the crest of one wave while the other end is 
 buried in the adjoining one, may be making very heavy weather. 
 A few years ago a large cruiser in the Philippines was very 
 badly battered by a typhoon, while a small gunboat which passed 
 through the same gale at very nearly the same place, was per- 
 fectly comfortable. A Cuban revenue cutter, less than 100 feet 
 long, was caught in one of the heaviest cyclones of recent years 
 some twenty miles south of Cienfuegos and rode it out not only 
 without discomfort but without damage to a light dinghy which 
 she carried rigged out at davits overhanging the side and only 
 eight feet above the water. There are many other similar cases 
 on record. It is no unusual thing to hear that a vessel has 
 foundered in a gale, and that her boats have ridden out the same 
 gale in safety. The great difficulty here is to load the boats and 
 get them clear of the ship. Once clear, they are often much 
 safer than the ship. 
 
 If, when a steamer is before the sea or in the trough, it is de- 
 cided to bring her up to it, bows-on, she should first be slowed 
 until she has barely steerage way, and should then be brought 
 up as gradually as possible. To put the wheel over with con- 
 siderable speed on and bring her up with a rush slapping the 
 sea in the face, as it were would result in serious damage, if 
 not in foundering. After getting her up to it, bows-on, the 
 greatest watchfulness is required, first, to avoid falling off into 
 the trough of the sea, as she will try to do the moment she loses 
 way, and second, to avoid driving into the heavy, breaking seas, 
 which will threaten her now and again. There is reason to be- 
 lieve that many of the phenomenal " tidal waves " reported as 
 having suddenly overwhelmed steamers in mid-ocean have been 
 simply the exceptionally heavy waves which build up from time 
 to time in any long continued gale ; and that their destructive 
 power was due to the fact that the vessels were driven into 
 them instead of being allowed to drift before them and ride 
 over them unresistingly. An officer should always be kept at 
 the engine-room telegraphs, in lying to bows-on, and an en- 
 gineer standing by below, to obey his signals instantly. So 
 long as she heads up to it, the more slowly she turns over, the 
 
57 HANDLING STEAMERS IN HEAVY WEATHER. 
 
 better. If a heavy sea is seen bearing down upon her, she should 
 be stopped altogether. If she falls off, it will be necessary to 
 increase the speed a little to bring her up, but she must be slowed 
 again as soon as possible. 
 
 The use of a sea-anchor is advocated by many writers on Sea- 
 manship, and it is commonly assumed .that by its use any vessel 
 may be held head to sea and enabled to ride out a gale. No 
 doubt this can be done if the anchor is large enough and strong 
 enough. But considering the importance that is universally 
 attached to this method of riding out a gale, it is surprising how 
 little it seems to have been used and how small is the amount of 
 practical evidence available with regard to it. If used with a 
 modern steamer to keep her head .to sea, it acts against the drag 
 of the screw, which, as has been seen, tends to keep her stem-on 
 to it ; and to overcome this it must be very large and very strongly 
 built ; otherwise, its effect will be to keep her in the trough of the 
 sea. 
 
 With small ships, and especially with sailing ships, it has been 
 tried often and with good results. Such a ship, riding to lee- 
 ward of a sea-anchor of fair size with an oil bag hauled out to 
 a block on the hawser well clear of the stem, and drifting slowly 
 astern, will ride out almost any gale with safety and comfort. 
 Indeed, as has been said above, this is the ideal position, in 
 very bad weather, for any vessel which can be made to take and 
 keep it. But it is doubtful if a large steamer could be made to 
 do this without the use of an anchor too unwieldy to be handled 
 conveniently in a heavy gale. There are certainly few instances 
 recorded of its use with large steamers ; and the shipmasters 
 who advocate it for all cases do not claim to have tested it under 
 these conditions. 
 
 If, however, the steamer is to be 'kept before the sea, and espe- 
 cially if she is stopped, a sea-anchor may be laid out to wind- 
 ward (and astern) with great advantage, since it will in this 
 case act with the drag of the screw instead of against it, helping 
 to keep her more nearly before the sea. 
 
 A convenient type of sea-anchor is shown in Plate 160. It is 
 merely a large drag, floating but well immersed, and resisting 
 motion through the water by reason of the large area which it 
 presents. It is attached to a line from the ship by a span and 
 has a tripping-line from its apex, for capsizing it, to admit of 
 hauling in. 
 
HANDLING STEAMERS IN HEAVY WEATHER. 571 
 
 In cases where a light drag is needed and no sea-anchor is 
 available, a boat may be used, with a hawser made fast to a span 
 from the bow and stern ring bolts, and to a belly band amid- 
 ships. Or a long spar (or a number of spars lashed together) 
 may be used, also slung by a span. If a topsail or a heavy 
 awning can be added to such an improvised anchor, it will help 
 to break the seas. 
 
 There are cases recorded of vessels having been kept head 
 to sea by paying out their chain cables, unbent from the an- 
 chors. Where the water is shallow enough for the chains to 
 drag on the bottom, they are especially helpful; in deep water, 
 they have the disadvantage of burying the bow. A good sized 
 manila hawser, paid out on the bight both ends being kept on 
 board, makes a very convenient drag perhaps the most con- 
 venient that could be devised. With both ends leading in 
 through the stern chocks, it would be extremely helpful for 
 holding her stern-on, and with one end at the stern and the 
 other at some point near the beam, she could be held with the 
 sea on the quarter. A block on the hawser would admit of reev- 
 ing a line for hauling oil bags out and in. 
 
 Where the depth of water admits, a stream anchor or a good 
 sized kedge may be let go with a long scope of cable, either 
 chain or rope, and allowed to drag on the bottom. In compara- 
 tively shoal water, a vessel may ride out almost any gale, at 
 anchor, provided she has a sufficient scope of cable. During the 
 Civil War in the United States, scores of vessels lay at anchor 
 off the Atlantic coast, and rode out gale after gale, winter and 
 summer, without a single disaster. Under such circumstances, 
 the longer the scope the better; and one anchor with tzvo cables 
 on end is preferable to two anchors, each with 'half the scope of 
 chain. The engines may be used, but very cautiously, to relieve 
 the strain on the cable if this should be thought too great. 
 
 Some years ago a steamer was caught in a very heavy on-shore 
 gale off the coast of South Carolina with her engines disabled. 
 Being in shallow water, she let go both anchors and at once swung 
 head to wind and sea, tailing on to the shore. The anchors dragged 
 slowly but held her head up to the gale and she drifted stern-on 
 to the beach where she lay for twelve hours or more with tremen- 
 dous seas breaking over her bow, but with her crew and pas- 
 sengers safe at the stern. She ultimately swung around broad- 
 
57 2 HANDLING STEAMERS IN HEAVY WEATHER. 
 
 side-on, and broke up, but this not until long after all hands had 
 been taken off. 
 
 In twin-screw ships, the propellers have not as much drag 
 as with single-screws, and such ships can sometimes be held up 
 to the sea without being driven into it dangerously, by turning 
 over the lee screw very slowly. This is often the best way to 
 lay a twin-screw ship to, although there is nothing in the nature 
 of the case to prevent such a ship from riding easily with the 
 sea astern or quartering. 
 
 We may sum up what precedes on the various methods of 
 handling a ship in heavy weather, with the statement that the 
 ship will usually be safest and most comfortable when end-on, 
 or nearly end-on, to the sea, and drifting before it. 
 
 If, by the use of sails, a drag, or any other means, she can 
 be held bows-on, while being still allowed to drift, this is probably 
 the best way to lay her to; but if she cannot be held up without 
 being forced into the sea, it will be because of the natural drag 
 of the stern and propeller, and in this case advantage should be 
 taken of this drag to hold her more or less directly stem-on, 
 letting her drift in this way. 
 
 Even if the position she takes up in drifting is nearly in the 
 trough of the sea, it will usually be found that she is easier in this 
 position than in any other, but the use of oil, as described below, 
 is especially important in such cases. 
 
 If the position which she takes in drifting proves to be one 
 in which she rolls dangerously, then she may run just fast 
 enough to steer, but no faster, and so keep the course which is 
 found most comfortable. 
 
 II. THE USE OF OIL. 
 
 The effect of oil in calming a rough sea has been known from 
 the earliest times, but only very recently has advantage been 
 taken of it to any important extent. The very general use that 
 has been made of it in the last few years is due largely to the 
 researches and publications of the Hydrographic Office of the 
 United States Navy Department. Since that Office took the 
 matter up, a great number of shipmasters have experimented 
 with it, and a mass of evidence has been accumulated which 
 leaves no possible doubt with regard to its utility. 
 
Plate No. 160. 
 
 573 
 
 m 
 
 Fig. 1 
 Running before a Sea* 
 
 
 Fig. 2 i- ig- Ji 
 
 funning before a Sea and yawing with danger of Broaching-to. 
 
 Distributing oil from bow alone (2) leaves quartep 
 
 unprotected as ship yaws. Use method of 3. 
 
 Fig. 4 
 tylng-to with sea on the 
 
 Fig. 5 
 Running with sea on the 6enm; 
 
 leeward to pick up boat. See Chapters XXI and XXII. 
 
 Fig. 6 
 Conimunlcatlng by Boat, 
 
 t, t "A" Stops to windward to lower boat and goes to 
 bote:-Fig. G \, eewa .-- 
 
 j 
 
 . 
 
 /{/'v^i y ( \ L ('^Y- ^^^~^^ 1 ^^^^^^^ 
 
 ii : '-t( v\i!ff ( '( MlMMilW&&mM^ 
 
 , Fig. 7 Towing against a Sea, if sea is not ahead, both ships use oil as in Fig. 5. 
 Fig. 8 At Anchor- Haul out bag to block on cable. 
 
 Wrought/ran \ 
 Spreader 
 
 Front View of 
 Spreader, Open 
 
 S/c/e VfewofSpreac/er, Oosec/ 
 
 SEA ANCHOR. 
 
 THE USE OF OIL. 
 
574 HANDLING STEAMERS IN HEAVY WEATHER. 
 
 The action of the oil is not only to prevent the breaking of 
 waves, but to a considerable extent also to prevent them from 
 forming, and its effect when used on an angry sea is described 
 by all who have tried it as magical. Even in a surf, while it 
 cannot altogether prevent the waves from breaking as they are 
 driven in upon the shoals, it greatly reduces their violence, and 
 will often enable a boat to land when otherwise it would be out 
 of the question. 
 
 Almost any kind of oil will give good results, but some kinds 
 are very much better than others. Animal and vegetable oils 
 are best; for example, sperm, porpoise, linseed, olive and cotton 
 seed; and fairly thick and heavy oils are better than lighter ones. 
 Oil of turpentine is probably the best of all. Mineral oils are 
 much less effective, but a very thick sticky oil or one that tends 
 to thicken or congeal in cold weather, may be improved by 
 thinning with petroleum. Soap-suds has a remarkable effect 
 in preventing the formation of waves, but it does not keep them 
 from breaking when formed. 
 
 Any method will answer for using the oil which produces a 
 slow and steady flow. A convenient way is to fill the closet 
 bowls with oakum and oil, or to place a can with a tap slightly 
 opened where it will give a slow drip into the bowls and out 
 through the waste-pipes. A still simpler way and one fre- 
 quently used is to fill a canvas bag, from one to two feet square, 
 with oakum and oil, and punch a number of holes through the 
 canvas with a sail needle. Such a bag may be hung over the 
 side at any point where it is found to give the best result. If 
 there is danger of its being thrown back on board by the sea, its 
 lanyard may be led through an eye-bolt or a shackle in the 
 side. If for any reason a very rapid flow is wanted, a hose may 
 be led through a scupper or over the rail, and the oil poured 
 into it through a funnel or, in a sudden emergency, the oil 
 may be thrown over the side. The quantity used need not ex- 
 ceed a few gallons four or five at most even for a large ship 
 riding out a prolonged gale. 
 
 The diagrams of Plate 160 show how the oil may be dis- 
 tributed to advantage under various circumstances. 1 To the 
 cases there illustrated, we may add the following: 
 
 1 Adapted from an Essay by Captain Karlowa, of the North German 
 Lloyd S. S. Line. 
 
HANDLING STEAMERS IN HEAVY WEATHER. 575 
 
 CROSSING A BAR IN HEAVY WEATHER. 
 
 Here the oil is needed for a short time only, but in consid- 
 erable quantities and on both sides. A convenient way of using 
 it is to trail a hose over the bow or through the hawse pipe 
 on each side and to pour the oil freely through this by means of 
 a funnel. 
 
 LOWERING AND HOISTING A BOAT IN HEAVY WEATHER. 
 
 A boat is always lowered and hoisted to leeward, with the 
 vessel usually either bow or quarter to the sea. A small quan- 
 tity of oil slowly poured over the side a short distance forward 
 or abaft the boat (depending upon the way she gets the sea) 
 adds greatly to the ease and safety of handling her and gives 
 her a " slick " in which to come alongside or get clear. 
 
 It should be noted that the rate at which the oil spreads is 
 slow in comparison with the speed even of a vessel drifting. 
 Thus a vessel lying with engines stopped can make a " slick " to 
 windward but not to leeward except, perhaps, very close 
 alongside because she drifts faster than the oil can spread. 
 So, in running, a vessel can leave a slick astern and to some 
 extent on either hand, but can do nothing to calm the waves 
 ahead of her. She can, therefore, avail herself of the benefits 
 of oil if she is running more or less before the sea, but not at 
 all if steaming into it. 
 
 111. SOME OPINIONS OF SHIPMASTERS UPON LYING- 
 TO IN MODERN STEAMERS. 
 
 The author of the present work has collected the views of 
 forty prominent shipmasters upon the subjects of the preceding 
 pages. Of these, thirty-two strongly advocate either stopping 
 the engines entirely, or turning over dead slow and bringing the 
 sea aft or nearly so. Seven prefer to lie to bows on, but think 
 the other method perfectly safe for most steamers. Three have 
 tried the experiment of stopping the engines, but found the roll- 
 ing so alarming that they were obliged to bring the sea on the 
 bow. It is an interesting fact that these three were captains 
 of large Atlantic liners. 
 
 The following are extracts from a few of the letters received: 
 
57 6 HANDLING STEAMERS IN HEAVY WEATHER. 
 
 Captain Otto Nielsen, S. S. Pennland, writes: 
 " I have laid-to with engines stopped in a terrible sea whilst in com- 
 mand of the S. S. Switzerland, westward bound, facing for several days 
 a heavy westerly gale and enormous high sea. A heavy sea broke on 
 board carrying away after hatches and companions. As the seas had 
 been breaking over more or less and would continue to do so, filling the 
 'tween-decks with water, and as it was impossible for anybody to be 
 about decks to repair the damage, I was compelled to stop both engines 
 immediately, at the same time starting both oil tanks going fore and aft 
 on the weather side. In less than a minute I could see the oil spreading 
 up to windward and in less than five minutes it had spread at least 300 
 feet. The ship kept gradually falling off until she was in the trough of 
 the sea. The heavy seas with breakers would come up to the oil and 
 go under it as if it were a blanket and when they reached the ship it was 
 like a long lazy rolling swell, giving the ship a push, but never a bucket 
 of water coming on board. 
 
 Of course the ship rolled considerably but in an easy way, and in 
 fifteen minutes after the engines were stopped the decks were perfectly 
 dry fore and aft." 
 
 Captain D. Richardson, S. S. Noranmore, writes: 
 
 " I find in the North Atlantic great advantage in lying-to with the 
 quarter to the sea. Put the helm hard up and keep the propeller just 
 revolving to break the sea and prevent the rudder being damaged. Use 
 oil from forward, amidships, and on the quarter. This plan was carried 
 out in the S. S. Baltimore in a hurricane on the 2nd and 3rd of February, 
 1899, off the Grand Banks when so many steamers were disabled and lost. 
 I escaped with little injury." 
 
 Captain H. Doxrud, S. S. Rhynland, writes: 
 
 " I prefer to stop engines entirely providing I can run oil out liberally. 
 
 On the 7th of May, 1898, whilst in command of the American S. S. 
 Pennsylvania, I ran into a hurricane with a tremendous sea. It was im- 
 possible without great danger to get along the upper deck, as the seas 
 swept all over her. I was then lying-to, head to sea, and making very 
 bad weather of it. During the height of the storm the engines had to be 
 stopped, the ship fell off with the sea a little abaft the beam and re- 
 mained so. Oil was used liberally on both sides all the time. The dif- 
 ference in the ship's behavior was simply marvellous. She took little or 
 no water over but was rolling very heavily." 
 
 Captain S. W. Watkins, S. S. Montana, writes : 
 " With my present command I prefer lying-to with the sea right aft, 
 
 speed reduced and running oil from waste-pipes of W. C.'s, as I find she 
 
 is much easier that way." 
 
 Captain A. R. Mills, S. S. Westernland, writes: 
 
 I prefer to lie to with the engines stopped and the sea quartering. 
 I have tried this several times with different steamers and it worked 
 
HANDLING STEAMERS IN HEAVY WEATHER. 577 
 
 beautifully. They rolled a good deal, of course, but with a good oil 
 streak to windward they shipped no water." 
 
 The following extracts are taken by permission from a valu- 
 able paper, " Notes on Handling Ships," by Captain D. Wilson- 
 Barker, published by the Shipmaster's Society, London: 
 
 Captain A. H. Brown, S. S. Hunstanton, writes: 
 " In December, 1886, being in ballast, I was running before a westerly 
 gale and high sea for Memel. Knowing that port could not be entered, 
 and that my vessel could not steam against such weather, I decided on 
 rounding to when about 50 miles off shore. The helm was put down, 
 but the steamer would not answer it; she came to the wind about every 
 half hour, immediately fell off again into the trough of the sea, and drove 
 to leeward at an alarming rate. After about two hours I determined to 
 try her stern on, and did so with most satisfactory results, for although 
 the engines were going slow astern we held our own, rolling ceased, and 
 she lay steadily quarter to sea. After a while she paid off to nearly right 
 before the wind, and nothing could be better than her behavior; the helm 
 was kept amidships all the time. So satisfactory was the manoeuvre that 
 under similar circumstances I have always adopted it since." 
 
 Captain J. G. Groombridge, writing of a spar-deck steamer, 
 3123 tons gross, 400 H. P., says: 
 
 "Off Cape Horn, Bar. dropped 29.60 to 28.80 in. during four hours, 
 the wind increasing to a hurricane, it and the sea abeam, the vessel roll- 
 ing very heavily and shipping much water, fore and aft. I decided to put 
 her before the wind and stop the engines. She then lay with wind and 
 sea on the quarter, and never shipped a drop of water. After this and 
 two other experiences of like character, let wind and sea be ever so vio- 
 lent, I shall never hesitate to act in a similar way." 
 
 Captain Jackson of the S. S. Palamed, writes: 
 " I have had one experience in a typhoon. I found the ship making 
 very bad weather whilst steaming slowly ahead, so after consideration, 
 I stopped the engines and let her take any position she chose. She 
 gradually fell off until we had the wind about four points on the quarter, 
 and there we lay until the blow was done. We did not take any seas on 
 board from the weather side, the cross swell rolled aboard over the lee 
 side, but there was not the least damage done." 
 
 Captain Slessar, of the S. S. Pecheli, writes: 
 
 " I was caught between Shanghai and Nagasaki in a very heavy gale 
 and high running sea, the ship at the time in ballast trim. As she was 
 continually falling off I at length decided to let her remain so. She laid 
 with the wind a little on the starboard quarter, the helm amidships, if 
 I remember aright; then the engines were worked slow astern, with no 
 appreciable difference as regards ship's position. In this way she lay 
 for 30 hours, riding easily." 
 
578 HANDLING STEAMERS IN HEAVY WEATHER. 
 
 The following extracts are taken by permission from letters 
 by shipmasters of high professional standing, published by the 
 Nautical Magazine, 1 as part of a discussion of this subject: 
 
 One shipmaster writes: 
 
 " The question of riding out a gale with engines stopped is a big one 
 and the answer depends upon the type of vessel and her trim; but this 
 I will say, that on no occasion, when in consequence of break-down of 
 machinery or stoppage of engines from other causes, the vessel in which 
 I have been serving has been allowed to take up her own position, has 
 she shipped any heavy water. Many years ago, in mid-winter, when one 
 of the large Atlantic Liners in which I was serving broke down when 
 homeward bound, during an exceptionally heavy gale, and drifted for 
 more than a week, rolling out gale after gale, the only occasion on which 
 she shipped any heavy water was when an attempt was made to bring 
 her head towards the wind by means of a sail, for in those days the 
 Atlantic Liners had masts and yards and could spread a good deal of 
 canvas. Then she relieved the deck of two boats and a house. 
 
 Another shipmaster writes: 
 
 " Some few years ago, I was running right before a very high N. W. 
 sea, off Belle Isle, in command of a deeply laden tramp. I never re- 
 member either before or since seeing so high a sea running in the Bay 
 of Biscay. When abreast of Belle Isle light, distance seven miles, she 
 pooped a tremendous sea, which washed all our deck gear adrift, and 
 started the after bulkheads of both deck bunkers. I at once came to the 
 conclusion something must be done, and that very quickly, or the ship 
 would founder. I then ordered all hands to lower bridge, all deck open- 
 ings being battened down, intending to bring her head to sea; I there- 
 fore eased the engines to slow, to take the way off her prior to bringing 
 her head to sea. Directly the vessel began to lose her way, the effect 
 was simply magical; she shipped no heavy water at all; so I kept on 
 going easy all night, the vessel making splendid weather of it till dawn, 
 when the storm moderated." 
 
 Still another writes: 
 
 " On Sunday, Nov. 24th, 9 P. M., very heavy gale and very high sea. 
 Ship scudding dead before the sea. The ship, although a very fine sea- 
 boat, kept continually filling her fore well (74 feet in length), chock full 
 from rail to rail. 
 
 Before putting my oil bags over, I thought, ' here is a grand chance to 
 try how she acts dead slow.' So I eased the engines to dead slow. 
 The moment she lost her strong headway, the effect was magical. The 
 fore well became nearly dry, only a lipper went over occasionally as it 
 rolled along her side, and the ship was as truly comfortable as she could 
 be wished for." 
 
 1 See an interesting discussion on this subject in the Nautical Magazine 
 for 1895 and 1896. 
 
(579) 
 
 CHAPTER XXL 
 THE HANDLING OF DESTROYERS. 
 
 i." Design. As preliminary to a discussion of the handling of 
 Destroyers, attention should be called to certain features of the 
 design of such vessels which influence their behavior and which, 
 in many cases, call for altogether different handling from that 
 which would be appropriate for other vessels under similar con- 
 ditions. 
 
 The development of the Destroyer has passed through several 
 well-marked stages of design, from the Decatur class, of 420 tons, 
 designed in 1898, to the Modern Flush Deck class, of 1,200 tons, 
 with a horse-power identical with that of the superdreadnought 
 Colorado. The last-mentioned type is that to which a large pro- 
 portion of the destroyers belong which for ten years to come 
 (1920-1930) will be in active commission; but there are still a 
 few belonging to the types designed between 1911 and 1916, 
 which, if not in active commission, will continue for some years 
 in reserve and thereafter in the coast defense flotilla. The charac- 
 teristics of all of these types are shown in the following table. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Dis- 
 
 
 42 
 
 
 Year: 
 
 
 
 
 place- 
 
 
 o 
 
 Armament 
 
 Au- 
 
 Num- 
 
 Type 
 
 L'ngth 
 
 ment 
 
 Horse- 
 
 j 
 
 
 thor- 
 
 ber. 
 
 ship. 
 
 (feet). 
 
 (tons) 
 
 power. 
 
 "? 
 
 
 ized. 
 
 
 
 
 Nor- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 mal. 
 
 
 a 
 m 
 
 Gun-. 
 
 Tubes. 
 
 1911.. 
 
 8 
 
 Cassin 
 
 305 
 
 1,020 
 
 16,000 30.00 
 
 4, 4-inch 
 
 4, 18-inch twin 
 
 1912. . 
 
 G 
 
 Gushing 
 
 305 
 
 1,050 16,000 30.00 
 
 4, 4 
 
 4, 21 
 
 1913.. 
 
 6 
 
 Tucker 
 
 315 
 
 1,100 17,000 30.00 
 
 4, 4 
 
 4, 21 
 
 1914. . 
 
 6 
 
 Davis 
 
 315 
 
 1.100 17,000 30.00 
 
 4, 4 
 
 4, 21 triple 
 
 1915.. 
 
 6 
 
 Manlev 
 
 315 
 
 1,125 20,000 32.00 
 
 4,4 
 
 4, 21 
 
 1916) 
 
 111 
 
 Wickes 
 
 315 
 
 1,170 26,000 35.00 
 
 4,4 i 
 
 4, 21 
 
 1917 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1917 \ 
 
 174 
 
 Hatfield 315 
 
 1,215 29,000 35.00 
 
 4,4 " i 
 
 4, 21 " 
 
 1918 / 
 
 
THE HANDLING OF DESTROYERS. 
 
 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS, COMMON TO ALL CLASSES. 
 
 Beam, 31 ft. (approximate). 
 
 Mean draft, 9 ft. 6 inches (approximate). 
 
 Maximum draft with full load, 2 10 ft. (approximate). 
 
 Funnels, 4, except Stockton, Gwin, and Conner, 3. 
 
 Masts, 2. 
 
 Propellers, 2, except Conner and Stockton, 3. 
 
 Fuel, Oil. 
 
 Boilers, Number: 4 (Two in each fireroom). 
 
 Types : Yarrow, Normand, Thornycroft, or White-Foster. 
 Engines, Types: Geared-Turbines ; Parsons, Curtis or Westing- 
 house. 
 Steaming Radius : 
 
 1911 to 1913 types, approximately 3000 knots. 
 
 1913 to 1915 types, approximately 4000 knots. 
 
 1916 to 1918 types, approximately 2400-6000 knots. 
 Development. Early destroyers in the United States Navy 
 (Decatur Class of 420 tons) had a flat stern with no after dead- 
 wood, the bottom rising from about the deaclflat section in almost 
 a plane surface, so that the draft of the hull itself at the stern 
 was only a few inches. The beam at the stern was greater than in 
 other types and the entire above water afterbody very full. None 
 of the United States destroyers now in active service are of this 
 type but the effect of the features described is instructive, and as 
 these features exist in other types of vessels, space will be taken 
 to discuss them. The advantages of the design are two-fold: to 
 prevent racing of the propellers and to reduce the diameter of the 
 turning circle. In a following sea, the stern keeps close to the 
 water, since a drop of the sea of only a few inches leaves the 
 entire weight of the stern unsupported, so that it follows the 
 water very quickly. In the same way a rising sea, in lifting only 
 a few inches over the full-bodied quarter, greatly increases the 
 buoyancy of the after part of the vessel and the stern responds 
 immediately. The general result is that the stern sticks to the 
 water, and racing of the propellers and the probability of pooping 
 are reduced to the lowest degree possible with a vessel of the size. 
 The reduction in the turning circle results from the absence of 
 
 1 Also 2-3" A.A. guns. 
 
 2 May be considerably increased when running at high speed, by the 
 tendency for the stern to " squat." 
 
Plate No. 161. 
 
 FIG. i. HIGH Bow DESTROYER. 
 
 FIG. 2. FLUSH DECK DESTROYER. 
 
582 THE HANDLING OF DESTROYERS. 
 
 deaclwood, the stern offering very little resistance to lateral 
 motion through, or rather over, the water. When the rudder is 
 put over, the stern simply slides along the surface of the water. 
 The small turning circle arising from these conditions, while ex- 
 tremely advantageous from the point of view of handling in con- 
 fined areas in smooth water, becomes objectoinable in a seaway, 
 since the very reasons which make it possible to turn the vessel 
 sharply, also make it impossible to keep her from yawing in 
 rough water. In a heavy following sea, this yawing becomes so 
 great that it is very difficult to steer a steady course, and "broach- 
 ing-to" may result, with all its attendant dangers. Such a vessel, 
 when a heavy following sea commences to rise under the stern, 
 is thrown bodily off by the advancing and rising sea as she pre- 
 sents her quarter to it in yawing; with the result, in an extreme 
 case, of bringing her beam to it just in time to receive the break- 
 ing crest aboard. 
 
 Destroyers of the two classes immediately preceding that of 
 1916 are generally known as the 75o-ton and the looo-ton classes 
 respectively. These are the destroyers which, during the recent 
 war, rendered such valuable service in European waters ; steam- 
 ing on an average five thousand miles per vessel per month, under 
 all conditions of weather. The 75CHton class comprises de- 
 stroyers numbered serially as high as 42 (the Jenkins) ; the 
 looo-ton class, all vessels from the Cassin, No. 43, to and includ- 
 ing the Shaw, No. 68. 
 
 Vessels of both these classes have a high forecastle extending 
 from the stem to a point just abaft the pilot house, where it 
 breaks off to a low main deck which is extended to the stern 
 (Fig. i, Plate 161). The high forecastle of these vessels plays 
 an important part in their manoeuvring qualities ; acting as a per- 
 manent jib, which, while helpful under some conditions, is a 
 serious handicap under others. It must always be kept in mind 
 and allowed for, its principal effect being, of course, to make it 
 difficult to bring the vessel up to the wind. Caution must be 
 used when such a vessel is run into a small harbor into which 
 the wind is blowing and where it will be necessary to turn her 
 within the harbor in order to get out. Under such conditions the 
 ship may get beam to wind, and, lacking space to gather head- 
 way, refuse to turn into it, and may drift ashore broadside on. 
 Several narrow escapes are on record resulting from failure to 
 
THE HANDLING OF DESTROYERS. 583 
 
 appreciate this feature. In turning with a vessel of this type, it 
 is desirable to turn in such a way as to take advantage of the jib 
 effect instead of having to work against it. The effect of the 
 wind upon the bow is particularly important in going alongside 
 a dock. 
 
 Destroyers of the above two types as well as those of the mod- 
 ern 35-knot type (Plate 162) have a large after dead-wood, 
 which results in greater steadiness of sea route but produces an 
 excessively large turning circle, the tactical diameter being as 
 great as one thousand yards with rudder angle of twenty degrees. 
 
 The later classes, 1915 to 1918, have a continuous flush main 
 deck from stem to stern, but with considerable sheer; the bow, 
 while less conspicuously elevated than in the earlier classes, hav- 
 ing decidedly more freeboard than the stern (Fig. 2, Plate 161). 
 
 The change from the high and cut away forecastle to the flush 
 deck has produced great improvement in seaworthiness, habit- 
 ability, and all around efficiency. In the flush-deck type, the 
 reluctance to turn into the wind still exists, but in a much less 
 marked degree; while the tendency towards excessive leeway, 
 which is characteristic of all destroyers because of their neces- 
 sarily shallow draft and the large area which they expose to the 
 wind, is somewhat increased. 
 
 The earliest of the flush-deck type (Caldwcll, Craven, Conner, 
 Gzvin, Stockton and Manley) lack the fine underwater body lines 
 of the later vessels of their class, being decidedly flat-bottomed 
 forward, as a result of which feature they pound heavily when 
 being driven into a sea and list deeply when the rudder is put 
 over at high speed. 
 
 In the latest destroyers of the 1916 program (as enlarged by 
 subsequent legislation), the manoeuvring power is increased by 
 cutting away the after deadwood to a considerable extent and 
 slightly increasing the rudder area. Other changes have ma- 
 terially added to the steadiness in a seaway, thus giving an im- 
 proved gun-platform, and, by increasing the capacity for fuel oil, 
 have extended the cruising radius. 
 
 Motive Power. Turbine engines are economical only at high 
 speed and only at approximately the speed at which they are de- 
 signed to run. This introduces two problems into the design of 
 turbine motive power for destroyers: first, to harmonize the 
 high speed which is necessary for the turbine rotor, with the 
 
(584) 
 
 Plate No. 162. 
 
 STERN OF DESTROYER. 
 
THE HANDLING OF DESTROYERS. 585 
 
 lower shaft speed required for propeller efficiency ; and second to 
 provide for reasonable economy both at the high speed for which 
 destroyers are designed and the comparatively low speed at which 
 they necessarily cruise under ordinary circumstances 
 
 Various solutions have been devised for the problems outlined 
 above and widely differing arrangements are to be found in the 
 destroyers now in service. In recent destroyers of 35-knots de- 
 signed maximum speed, a turbine speed of 2,500 R. P. M. is con- 
 verted by reduction gears to 450 turns of the propeller shaft. 
 
 The problem of cruising efficiency is solved in some cases by 
 the use of reduction gears and in others by the installation of 
 special cruising turbines or reciprocating engines. 
 
 When a proper balance has been struck between maximum 
 speed efficiency and cruising speed efficiency, it is found that 
 the most economical speed at which a destroyer can cover a given 
 distance is somewhere between 15 and 20 knots. Between 
 these speeds, the fuel expended per mile varies but little, whereas 
 at higher speeds it increases rapidly with the horse-power devel- 
 oped. Approximately twice as much fuel is required per hour 
 at 25 knots as at 20 knots; and from 25 to 35 knots the con- 
 sumption increases at an astonishing rate. 
 
 All destroyers of the United States Navy have four boilers, 
 but it is only when making very high speed that more than two 
 are required. A speed of 26 to 28 knots can be maintained with 
 half boiler power, and some destroyers have reached thirty 
 knots under two boilers. Speeds as high as 20 knots can be 
 made with one boiler, but this is, of course, uneconomical as the 
 boiler must be forced. Destroyers have made long cruises 
 economically with only one boiler in use, at about fifteen knots. 
 It is unwise to undertake harbor manoeuvring under one boiler 
 except under most favorable weather conditions, as the necessity 
 to do considerable backing will probably draw all steam from 
 the boiler, thus stopping the blowers and disabling the vessel. 
 
 Manoeuvring. It is clear that no hard and fast rules can be 
 laid down for the handling of destroyers any more than of battle- 
 ships. It rarely happens that conditions are identical on any 
 two occasions, even for the same vessel performing the same 
 manoeuvre in the same place. A destroyer will make more 
 leeway when her oil-tanks are light than when she is fully fuelled. 
 The head will fall off rapidly in making a dock at low speed if 
 the forward tanks are empty and the after tanks full; while if the 
 
586 THE HANDLING OF DESTROYERS. 
 
 reverse conditions exist, she may decide to lie broadside to the 
 wind and drift bodily to leeward. 
 
 When engines are stopped and an ahead or astern signal is 
 given, it is engineering practice to open throttles fairly wide in 
 executing the signal, then to close them quickly to the pressure 
 necessary for the speed demanded. Turbines of the thousand 
 ton ships are direct connected, while those of the later type 
 drive the shafts through reduction gears, and it is especially 
 noticeable while warping to lines alongside docks that the newer 
 type ships do not receive the quick "jolt" ahead or astern that 
 is apparent with the older vessels immediately after ringing up 
 an engine room signal. The propellers of the modern destroyer 
 are larger than those of the older ships and they seem slower to 
 "bite," but as soon as they take hold they are more effective so 
 far as leverage is concerned. 
 
 In manoeuvring the modern destroyer alertness and sound 
 judgment are required. It must be kept in mind that great 
 power is available, that headway or sternway is very quickly 
 gathered, that the hull of the destroyer is frail, and that in con- 
 fined waters the effect of wind may be a very serious factor 
 owing to the leeway and the poor manoeuvring qualities of the 
 vessel. The tactical diameter of the destroyer with engines 
 going ahead and rudder hard over is greater than that of the 
 battleship. 
 
 The effect of screws of different types upon the manoeuvring 
 of steamers is fully discussed in Chapter XIII. These effects 
 are more or less modified in destroyers by the great length of 
 the vessel as compared with the leverage of the screws, the result 
 being that under the most favorable conditions the manoeuvring 
 power due to the screws is less than with vessels of greater beam 
 as compared with length. When one engine is turning ahead 
 and the other astern, the ship being dead in the water, it will be 
 found that the destroyer will swing very slowly, her bow moving 
 to the side of the backing engine. If the conditions of wind 
 are such as to assist the bow to swing no difficulty will be experi- 
 enced in turning, but if the movement of the bow is opposed by 
 any appreciable wind, the vessel will remain stationary and 
 merely "tremble," or may fall off, meanwhile drifting bodily to 
 leeward. 
 
 To turn in a limited space it is well to use the engines in brief 
 spurts of high speed, assisting with the rudder as far as practicable 
 
THE HANDLING OF DESTROYERS. 587 
 
 and being careful not to allow the ship to gather much headway. 
 The quickest method for turning a destroyer in a limited space 
 is shown in Fig. I, Plate 163, a standard manoeuvring speed of 
 fifteen or eighteen knots being assumed. The destroyer lying 
 in position I and wishing to turn to starboard, starts both 
 engines ahead at two-thirds speed, rudder full right. At position 
 2, or as soon as the stern has started to swing to port, the star- 
 board engine is reversed two-thirds. The bow will swing 
 sharply to the right, headway will be quickly checked, and the 
 ship will forge ahead very slowly. Relative power of ahead and 
 astern engines will vary in different destroyers depending mostly 
 upon the pressures in use by the personnel below, but it will 
 usually be found that in position 3 the vessel has lost all head- 
 way and will continue to swing rapidly. At this point the rudder 
 will not be effective and may be placed amidships. If the wind 
 is on the starboard hand, care should be taken here not to gather 
 sternway, for as soon as the vessel starts astern, the effect of 
 the wind will be to check the movement of the bow and to force 
 it off. If the wind is on the port side, sternway will be helpful 
 but if it is to be utilized the rudder should be put hard left as 
 soon as it begins. In this case it will be well at 3 to put both 
 engines ahead, with rudder hard right and then to back the 
 starboard engine again as soon as the stern begins to swing. 
 
 Harbor conditions may make it necessary at position 3 to go 
 astern, in which case it should be remembered that the rudder 
 must be shifted to left as soon as sternway is noted. 
 
 In the above example a speed of two thirds ahead and astern 
 is advocated. Weather conditions frequently necessitate the 
 use of higher speeds to expedite the turn and this is always avail- 
 able, but most destroyer officers prefer to employ full power 
 astern sparingly because of the great volume of steam that this 
 so suddenly draws from the boilers. 
 
 In narrow waters, under adverse conditions of wind and tide, 
 two or more destroyers may be secured together and advantage- 
 ously manoeuvred as one vessel. Opportunity offers employ- 
 ment of this method when destroyers, moored to the same buoy 
 or dock, are scheduled to sail simultaneously or to shift berth 
 or enter a slip, tide or wind being unfavorable to single man- 
 oeuvring. Very delicate control can be maintained in this 
 manner, as the leverage of the screws is considerably multiplied, 
 only outboard engines being worked, while the wind surface 
 
5 88 
 
 Plate No. 163. 
 
 t 
 
 Wind 
 
 FIG.1. 
 TURNING IN A LIMITED SPACE 
 
 Screw MM/ Screw 
 Ahead \ X Y Backing 
 
 FIG. 2. 
 
 THREE DESTROYERS 
 MANOEUVERING TOGETHER 
 
 FIG. 3. 
 
 FIG. 4. 
 
 \ 
 
 FIG. 5. 
 
 FIG. 6, 
 
 FIG. 7. 
 
 MANOEUVRING DESTROYERS. 
 
THE HANDLING OF DESTROYERS. 589 
 
 is not materially increased over that of the single vessel. Pre- 
 cautions to be observed are to see all lines doubled and taut and 
 to use little power. As many as four destroyers have been 
 manoeuvred in this manner, one officer, of course, doing the 
 conning. Fig. 2, Plate 163. 
 
 To pick up a buoy, approach on the weather side at slow speed 
 and, if a boat is not in the water, lower a man to the buoy by 
 means of a bowline from the forecastle. It is advisable to lower 
 a boat to expedite the work of securing and to avoid possible 
 injury to personnel. Little difficulty is usually found, by skill- 
 ful use of engines and by taking advantage of wind, in keeping 
 the ship in position long enough to enable the man on the buoy 
 to make fast a line, after which the end of an anchor chain is 
 led through the ring of the buoy and made fast on deck. 
 
 The facility with which destroyers can be handled when going 
 astern, especially when backing into wind or current, may in 
 some cases render it advisable to make landings or enter slips 
 stern first. With gentle sternboard, motion of one screw astern 
 will ordinarily push the stern away from the side of that screw 
 and delicate control is often possible under these circumstances. 
 A special case in which this method of handling is recommended 
 is when running into port with following wind or current, when 
 it is intended to pick up a mooring buoy. Rounding to under 
 these circumstances will be a long and troublesome operation, 
 especially if the channel be narrow; and under these conditions 
 the bow may be run up to the buoy and held there indefinitely 
 with stern to wind and tide by skillful backing of first one engine 
 and then the other. 
 
 One destroyer commander is said to have been very successful 
 in manoeuvring through crowded harbors by backing both 
 engines and. by use of rudder, at the same time trailing an anchor 
 as a drag on the bow. 
 
 Going Alongside a Dock. The destroyer officer gets constant 
 practice in making docks under various conditions of wind and 
 tide. The discussion in a previous chapter of " Handling a 
 Steamer Alongside a Dock " applies to destroyers as well as to 
 other vessels, but with some points of difference. The lightness 
 of the ship, the large surface which she exposes to the wind, and 
 the comparatively small draft, give exceptional importance to 
 the effect of wind, especially if this be on the beam. 
 
 As discussed in a later chapter on " Keeping Position and 
 
59O THE HANDLING OF DESTROYERS. 
 
 Manoeuvring in Squadron," it is important to understand and 
 keep constantly in mind the effect upon manoeuvring which 
 results from the limited backing power of turbine ships in general ; 
 the power available for backing being but little more than half 
 of that for going ahead. This condition holds for destroyers 
 except that the power available for backing is ample and satis- 
 factory when compared with the power that will ordinarily be 
 used ahead in approaching a dock. However, if considerable 
 headway is gathered the backing engines are slow to take charge; 
 and if excess speed ahead is used in making a dock or in entering a 
 slip, an error in judgment as to backing may have very disastrous 
 consequences. 
 
 Destroyers are light craft with very powerful engines and there 
 is an easily understandable fascination in handling them which 
 frequently leads to the taking of unnecessary chances. A good 
 destroyer officer is one who uses the powers at his command 
 daringly when necessary, but who does not invite disaster by 
 rashness. It happens from time to time that an engine will not 
 follow the signal, through fault of either personnel or material; 
 and if this happens when the commanding officer is charging into 
 a landing at high speed, trusting to his backing power to stop 
 in time, the result may be a smashed bow or some worse accident, 
 resulting not from an effort to perform some important service, 
 but merely from bravado. 
 
 The light scantling and high power of the destroyer make 
 it especially important to exercise care in warping or springing 
 around docks. If the fact be kept in mind that the horse- 
 power of the latest type destroyer is equal to that of a 32,000- 
 ton battleship, and that the hull is at the limit of lightness, it 
 will at once be realized that the engines can only be worked 
 against chocks, cleats, etc., with extreme care. This caution 
 applies not only to the fittings of the vessel itself, but to the lines 
 by which she is to be handled. The largest mooring line with 
 which destroyers are at present equipped is a 5-inch manila, and 
 this is none too strong. The foregoing should not be taken to 
 mean that power cannot be employed while springing the vessel 
 on a line, as it is often necessary to work the engines in opposite 
 directions at considerable speed. What is meant is that great 
 strain cannot be brought on the line by imparting motion to the 
 vessel. 
 
 The speed to be used in approaching a dock should be in 
 
THE HANDLING OF DESTROYERS. 59 1 
 
 keeping with the space available ahead or astern of the landing 
 to be made and with weather and harbor conditions. It often 
 happens that the landing must be made where other vessels are 
 so moored as to present but little of the dock in excess of that 
 absolutely required for the destroyer, in which case caution is 
 obviously essential. 
 
 The dock should be approached at a slight angle (Fig. 3, 
 Plate 163), and the engines stopped with sufficient headway to 
 slightly overreach the landing. The conning officer will do well 
 to take his position just abaft the wheel until about time for the 
 first line to be cast, for it is from here that he can best line up 
 his jackstaff and form a comprehensive idea of the approach. 
 When assured that the momentum of the ship will carry his bow 
 within heaving line distance of the dock, he should shift to the 
 inboard bridge rail and back his outboard engine (or both 
 engines, depending on conditions of wind and tide) to check his 
 headway, straighten out the vessel, and throw in the stern. The 
 degree of rudder necessary to assist in this will vary with the 
 angle of approach and with the proximity of the bow to the 
 dock. All mooring lines are now passed to the dock and engines 
 are worked to bring the ship to securing position, care being 
 taken that springs and breasts are properly led and that neither 
 bow nor stern is brought in too sharply, as any localized pressure 
 may result in damage to the frail shell plating. At times the 
 stern will tend to come in too rapidly, in which case, propeller 
 guards being of light material, the swinging of the stern should 
 be checked by backing the inboard engine and working the out- 
 board engine ahead. 
 
 On reaching a position where lines may be delivered to the 
 dock, the conning officer should observe two objects on shore 
 in order to gauge his headway properly. By so doing he will 
 always have the situation in hand and can prevent the ship from 
 charging ahead or astern on her lines while engines are being 
 manoeuvred alongside the dock (or other vessel). 
 
 Many helmsmen, if not closely directed, will so point the ship 
 as to approach the dock parallel and very close aboard. This 
 sort of landing should be avoided, for if wind and tide are such 
 as to cause the ship to be drifted slightly in towards the landing, 
 it will be discovered too late that the ship is going to "Side- 
 swipe" the dock. Damage to the side plating may result, 
 since headway can be killed only by backing both engines, the 
 
592 THE HANDLING OF DESTROYERS. 
 
 position of the vessel relative to the dock making it impossible 
 to throw the stern either in or out. 
 
 When the wind is blowing onto the dock it is best to approach 
 parallel but well clear just within heaving line distance. As 
 the destroyer loses headway she will drift easily and bodily in 
 to the dock. The backing of the outboard engine will offset 
 the tendency of the bow to drift more rapidly than the stern, 
 and the engines may easily be manoeuvred to keep the ship 
 squared off with the dock face. This landing affords good prac- 
 tice for the beginner, for he may approach well clear and at his 
 own speed and cannot miss eventually making the dock. 
 
 When the wind is blowing off the dock it is often necessary to 
 use greater speed and to approach boldly, owing to the rapidity 
 with which the destroyer drifts to leeward as she loses her head- 
 way. In this it is safe and best to begin the approach as if to 
 make a parallel and close aboard landing. As the dock is neared 
 the effect of the drift will be felt and the rudder must be used to 
 point the bow very close in, and this will result in a cant towards 
 the dock. As soon as it is assured that a position will be reached 
 from which the bow lines can be cast, the rudder should be 
 thrown away from the dock and the outboard screw backed in 
 order that stern lines may be got out. It is now important to 
 remember that the destroyer pivots just abaft the bridge, that 
 there is a capstan forward but no winch aft, and that the heavy 
 stern can be brought to a securing position only by use of engines 
 and springs. The wind being off the dock, bow lines should be 
 run as quickly as "possible but should immediately be slacked to 
 avoid a strain forward and to permit the bow to fall off as may 
 be necessary in order that the stern may be brought in smartly 
 by engines and rudder. Bow lines once being passed, the bow 
 can always be warped in by means of the capstan after the stern 
 is in the position desired. 
 
 To breast the ship in, the waist line can be depended upon 
 and it is important that this line be got out quickly. The waist 
 line should be the stoutest of the mooring lines and should be 
 not less than forty fathoms in length. It is led from a chock 
 slightly abaft the pivoting point. The ship can be sprung in on 
 this line by forging ahead or astern, using engines and rudder 
 to best advantage, but the strain must be watched carefully, 
 as the line is usually of five-inch manila and is easily parted. A 
 stern spring may be used to assist the waist line, as shown in 
 
THE HANDLING OF DESTROYERS. 593 
 
 Fig. 4, Plate 163, when forging ahead. When forging astern a 
 forward spring may be added to these (Fig. 5). All slack of 
 waist and stern lines should be taken up with each effort. Some 
 destroyers are equipped with flexible wire mooring lines, mostly 
 5/8" diameter, and such lines are allowed all vessels; but there 
 is a difference among officers regarding the desirability of sub- 
 stituting wire for manila for mooring purposes. Wire is less 
 bulky and consequently more readily stowed; it does not require 
 being dried out on deck after having been wet; and it is of 
 undoubted value when the vessel is to be secured alongside for 
 considerable time or when strong currents are running or heavy 
 winds blowing. The disadvantages of wire are that it has not 
 the spring of manila when subject to sudden strain and that men 
 are loath to handle it, owing to the fact that when worn or slightly 
 stranded it tears the hands. 
 
 If the wind off the dock is very strong, some officers make the 
 landing as shown in Fig. 6. As the dock is neared the inboard 
 screw is not stopped but is kept turning one third ahead. At 
 position I the rudder is thrown right and the outboard engine 
 backed full speed, thus bringing the stern in against the wind 
 with considerable leverage. The ship will bring up as in posi- 
 tion 2, from which it may be warped in. This method is espe- 
 cially useful when the tide tends to keep the stern out, as when 
 the dock is entirely or partially athwart the stream. 
 
 Various conditions of tide are encountered, and an officer 
 having to work habitually around a certain locality will in time 
 become accustomed to the peculiarities of the currents; but 
 much time and trouble may be saved by making a study of 
 those peculiarities from the first, through systematic observations 
 of the strength and direction of the current from hour to hour 
 through several days, keeping a careful record and referring all 
 hours to the time of high and low water as given in the tide 
 tables (see remarks on this subject in chapter on Piloting). 
 It must be kept in mind that currents are often baffling around 
 the face of a dock and that the surface current may be running 
 quite differently from the main current of the stream. 
 
 When the tide is running strong and parallel or nearly parallel 
 to the dock, the wind may be considered as of secondary im- 
 portance, for the destroyer is long and narrow, and when placed 
 at an angle from the axis of the current will rapidly be carried 
 towards or away from the dock depending upon that angle. If 
 
594 
 
 THE HANDLING OF DESTROYERS. 
 
 in this case the landing is to be made ahead of other vessels, care 
 must be taken to approach well clear in order not to be carried 
 down across the bows of those vessels (Fig. 7). "A" approaches 
 boldly at a slight angle to the axis of the current and well clear 
 of "B." When his stern clears "B's" bow, "A" backs his out- 
 board screw slowly, with right rudder, and is straightened out 
 and brought to the dock by the combined effect of tide, rudder, 
 and engines. 
 
 If the tide is forcing the vessel on to the dock, as will often 
 happen where docks are athwart the stream, it is important that 
 engines be manoeuvred to keep squared up with the dock as the 
 vessel drifts in with the current, and to see that sufficient fenders 
 are ready in place, otherwise serious local damage may be caused 
 to the shell plating. 
 
 If the tide is running away from the dock, speed must be used, 
 lines must be got out smartly, and backing power and good 
 judgment depended upon. Once the lines are out, the stern 
 must be brought in by springing upon the waist line and by 
 skillful use of engines and rudder. 
 
 To make a landing with a fair tide is very difficult, as the 
 slightest cant towards the dock will bring the current under the 
 inboard quarter. This force will probably overcome all effort 
 of engines and lines to bring the stern in, especially if strain be 
 brought on a forward line, which is an error commonly made 
 (every destroyer officer learns that it is useless to attempt to 
 spring in on a bow line). The ship should be brought as nearly 
 parallel to the dock as possible, preferably with a slight cant 
 outward, and the after lines got out smartly and held. If a line 
 can be secured aft it will act as a spring, and the current will 
 bring the ship in readily. The bow will take care of itself. It 
 will ordinarily save time, with this condition of tide, to turn 
 and stem the current or to drop an anchor and swing before 
 approaching the dock. 
 
 It has been said that backing power relative to ahead power 
 is not uniform in destroyers. The speed at which a dock 
 should be approached is further modified by the meaning of 
 "stop" as construed by the engineer officer. With reciprocating 
 engines the propeller stops with the machinery; but when turbine 
 throttle valves are closed, the ship having headway, propellers 
 will continue to revolve, turning the rotors in vacuum. Many 
 destroyer officers give instructions that when "stop" is rung up 
 
THE HANDLING OF DESTROYERS. 595 
 
 sufficient steam shall be admitted to the backing turbines to 
 actually stop and hold the shafts. The choice of method is not 
 mandatory but the officer conning should have an understanding 
 with the engineer officer as to the system to be used, because, 
 when the shafts are held, the dragging of the propellors consider- 
 ably checks the headway of the ship. It is more economical 
 from an engineering standpoint to close the valves and permit 
 the shafts to turn idly but in this case a slightly increased interval 
 is required to execute a backing signal; whereas if the shaft be 
 held, the astern throttle is already partially opened before the 
 backing signal is received. From the point of view of seaman- 
 ship the method to be chosen depends much upon what one has 
 been accustomed to. In making a dock there is of course a 
 feeling of confidence, when the shafts are held by steam through 
 the astern throttles, that the backing signal will be quickly and 
 certainly executed. 
 
 Going Alongside a Vessel at Anchor. This is very similar to 
 going alongside a dock except that conditions of wind and tide 
 to be met are usually more favorable. The destroyer must 
 keep clear of an overhanging stern or of any projections from the 
 side of the vessel approached and if possible select a part of the 
 ship's side where there are no projections; for a whaleboat, an 
 ash chute, or a triced up gangway may inflict serious damage to 
 the destroyer's upper works. The greatest danger to be avoided 
 is that due to the possible yawing of the vessel at anchor and 
 this is especially to be guarded against if the vessel being ap- 
 proached is a destroyer, for these craft yaw very freely when 
 anchored and riding to wind or tide. Just as the lines are about 
 to be passed, after an approach that has looked perfect, the 
 stern of the anchored vessel may swing so unexpectedly as to 
 make it impossible to avoid a sideswiping blow. A destroyer 
 riding to a long scope of chain yaws excessively from the effect 
 of the wind on her high forecastle and her bow may fall off as 
 shown in Fig. i, Plate 164, when she reaches the end of her arc. 
 If this happens, the vessel going alongside may find her stem 
 unexpectedly brought up against the side of the other destroyer, 
 or her projecting anchor may "sweep the rail" of the vessel 
 anchored. 
 
 NOTE. See description in Chapter XI, III, and Plate 97, of proposed 
 method to prevent yawing. 
 
596 
 
 Plate No. 164. 
 
 FIG. 1, 
 
 Wind 
 
 FIG. 2. 
 
 FIG. 3. 
 
 FIG. 4, 
 
 FIG. 5. 
 
 FIG. 6. 
 
 FIG. 7. 
 
 GOING ALONGSIDE AND LEAVING A VESSEL AT ANCHOR. 
 
THE HANDLING OF DESTROYERS. 597 
 
 There is really no difficulty in going alongside a vessel at 
 anchor and the fact that she is at anchor makes it reasonable 
 to suppose that there will be ample manoeuvring room, except 
 when she rides with her stern close to the beach; hence caution, 
 not high speed, is all that is required. The approach should be 
 made fairly well clear with a slight cant inward, and the stern 
 should be brought in and the bow carried out by backing the 
 outboard screw and by use of rudder as forward lines are passed. 
 Here a spring leading forward from the after forecastle chock of 
 the destroyer can be held and the ship breasted in easily by the 
 current, a breast or bow line through the bull-nose being hove 
 in as necessary by means of the capstan. Unlike the situation 
 in going alongside a dock, the forward lines are the more important, 
 for the stern will be taken care of by the wind or current to which 
 the anchored vessel is riding and engines and rudder can easily 
 be used to assist in paralleling the two vessels as they draw 
 together. 
 
 If the wind or tide is very strong the destroyer may be brought 
 up well clear and, if not within heaving line distance given a 
 slight cant across wind or tide. By slight assistance from the 
 engines and rudder she will then gradually drift over until 
 forward lines are passed and may be brought alongside parallel 
 and without shock. If she tends to cant too much, bow lines 
 must be slacked before control is lost, and inboard screw worked 
 ahead and outboard screw astern, with rudder thrown away from 
 the anchored vessel in order to prevent the bow from coming 
 in too rapidly. 
 
 Should the vessel ride at anchor so that her stern tails close 
 to the beach, it is sometimes feasible to make the landing stern 
 first, but if the wind is blowing very strong this should not be 
 attempted. It is here that an anchor may be used to advantage 
 (Plate i64, Fig. 2). "A" approaches with the wind as shown 
 and drops an anchor off the bow of "B" at position (i). 
 
 The anchor is held under foot and chain veered if dragging 
 is noted until the destroyer swings to the wind. Forward 
 lines are now passed, dropping down by veering chain if neces- 
 sary, and when these lines are secured on B's deck A may heave 
 up her anchor and warp alongside by means of a forward line, 
 assisted by engines and rudder. 
 
 While alongside a dock lines are doubled up and secured, 
 care being taken that all lines are sufficiently slack to allow for 
 
598 THE HANDLING OF DESTROYERS. 
 
 rise and fall of tide. This precaution is necessary with all 
 classes of ships, and there is a record of at least one steamer 
 having been sunk by failure to observe it. An army transport 
 at Shanghai, where rise and fall of tide is about 18 feet, was 
 listed over by her lines, permitting water to enter her portholes 
 and sink her. 
 
 It might be stated here that destroyers have sustained and 
 inflicted serious damage alongside docks from the following 
 causes. 
 
 1. Improper method of warming up engines, resulting in 
 jammed open throttle, parted lines, and damage to dock and 
 ship. Precautions against this are covered in the Engineering 
 Manual. 
 
 2. Engine room signal improperly executed on leaving the 
 dock. If one third astern is rung up and one third ahead de- 
 livered by untrained personnel, it is best to stop immediately 
 and take light punishment; for if the telegraphs are rung "full 
 astern" when this mistake occurs the probability is that "full 
 ahead" will b.e received. 
 
 3. "Jingling of telegraphs followed by 'stop' " as a signal 
 for the engine room to secure after the vessel is moored. This is 
 bad practice; for in cases where the telegraph has carried away 
 in this operation, the pointer has rested on full ahead. Little 
 time is required to deliver the message "Secure" by voice tube 
 or messenger. 
 
 Getting Clear of a Dock or Vessel. Lines are singled after 
 engines have been reported ready. Advantage should be taken 
 of wind or tide to start either bow or stern out, and these should 
 be assisted by stern or bow springs. If there is no wind or tide 
 and it is desired to back away, hold a bow spring and go ahead 
 gently on the outboard screw until stern has begun to swing 
 out, then cast off and back clear. If desired to go ahead, back 
 slowly on the outboard engine, holding a stern spring and being 
 careful not to endanger the inboard screw. 
 
 If the wind is holding the vessel on the dock the first pre- 
 caution to be observed is to place the anchor on deck, as de- 
 stroyers carry old fashioned anchors with fluke projecting from 
 the billboard. It is then best to go ahead slowly on the out- 
 board engine sufficiently to keep a strain on a bow spring, if 
 necessary assisting the stern out by backing the inboard screw. 
 As soon as the stern is pointed clear, put both engines astern 
 
THE HANDLING OF DESTROYERS. 599 
 
 with plenty of power, harbor conditions permitting, in order to 
 gather headway quickly. Place the rudder over towards the 
 dock or away from the wind and stop the inboard engine. The 
 backing engine on the windward side, combined with the effect 
 of the rudder as headway is gathered, will overcome the tendency 
 of the stern to point into the wind and thus prevent the bow from 
 falling off against the dock. It will sometimes be necessary as 
 the ship starts astern to go ahead on the inboard screw to assist 
 in keeping the bow clear. 
 
 The means employed in getting clear of a dock must conform 
 to harbor conditions and weather but in difficult situations 
 the possible use of lines should not be overlooked. The use of 
 lines and anchors will not be despised by anyone who has watched 
 harbor masters manoeuvre strange vessels in crowded waters and 
 warp them into difficult slips. 
 
 The destroyer "A," moored as in Fig. 3, Plate 164, and wishing 
 to clear the dock, can be assisted by a line run to the stern of 
 the ship D or to the mooring buoy C and taken to the capstan. 
 If the wind is blowing as shown, A has only to run a line to the 
 stern of D, cast off from the dock, and ride to her line until she 
 reaches the position A-i, taking in on the line sufficiently to keep 
 her stern clear of the dock. Engines may then be manoeuvred 
 to force the ship's stern into the wind as at A-2, when the line 
 is cast off and the ship backed out of the harbor. Once sternway 
 is gained the destroyer will answer her helm across the wind if 
 sufficient power is used. 
 
 No difficulty should be experienced in clearing from alongside 
 a ship at anchor, for the anchored vessel will ride to wind or 
 tide and if there is no wind or tide the procedure is the same as 
 when leaving a dock under the best of conditions. With wind 
 or tide, forward lines should be cast off and the destroyer held 
 by a stern spring. The bow will fall off gently and if the in- 
 board propeller guard should be brought against the ship's side 
 it will be without shock or damage. If a strong tide is running, 
 the outboard screw should be put ahead slowly to keep the stern 
 clear and as soon as the bow has fallen off sufficiently, both 
 engines should be put ahead, with rudder over towards the an- 
 chored ship. This will keep the stern clear, and the large 
 turning circle of the destroyer will eliminate all danger forward. 
 If the vessel which is to be cleared from is a destroyer, the engines 
 must be worked ahead slowly as the bow falls off, to avoid any 
 
THE HANDLING OF DESTROYERS. 
 
 possible damage aft; for unless the two vessels have equal draft, 
 the propeller guard of one may ride over that of the other, 
 locking screws that are very easily bent. 
 
 Winding a destroyer on a line is very easily accomplished when 
 wind or tide is favorable; and this manoeuvre is often of great 
 value when the tide is wrong and it is desired to leave a narrow 
 harbor. In such harbors several destroyers are frequently 
 moored to the same buoy, as in Fig. 4, Plate 164. A casts off 
 forward, his bow falling off as strain is brought on the after 
 spring. He then works his inboard engine ahead sufficiently to 
 keep his stern clear of B and swings with the tide until so pointed 
 as to be able to cast off his stern line and proceed. In very 
 narrow waters it may be advisable to run a second line from the 
 off quarter, taking strain on that line when the vessel is athwart 
 the stream; and in any case it is well to have this second line 
 as a preventer. When winding in this manner with a strong 
 tide, the line must be cast off at just the right time and the signal 
 for this is usually a short toot of the whistle. This evolution is 
 also commonly used in clearing a dock under the conditions 
 noted above. 
 
 The necessity for winding at a dock is often felt when a de- 
 stroyer is moored in a narrow harbor or at a river dock, pointed 
 up stream, and is required to sail at an hour when the tide will 
 be running flood. If she waits until the hour of sailing to get 
 pointed downstream she may be delayed by some unforseen 
 circumstance, or may find that a strong wind may hold her on 
 the dock and make turning very difficult. She should, at some 
 time previous to sailing, take advantage of an ebb tide and a 
 favorable wind to wind ship and get pointed down stream. 
 (Fig. 5, Plate 164.) A destroyer so situated holds a stern 
 spring and permits her bow to swing out as shown, then goes 
 ahead with rudder over away from the dock until she reaches 
 position (2). Here a spring which has been led well up the 
 dock from the off quarter is taken in and held, the inboard screw 
 being worked ahead when necessary to keep her stern clear of 
 the dock. The current will now bring her around and when 
 position (3) is reached the spring may be slacked and the engines 
 manoeuvred to bring her stern far enough up and clear of the 
 dock to permit the bow to come in to the position required for 
 mooring. The time to be chosen for this manoeuvre should if 
 
THE HANDLING OF DESTROYERS. 6OI 
 
 possible be when a light wind is blowing off the dock and when 
 the ebb is running slowly. 
 
 A few destroyers are fortunate enough to have had winches 
 installed aft. These are of assistance in mooring and are very 
 effective in winding at docks. In the example above, a destroyer 
 having a winch aft can be wound in a narrow channel regardless 
 of harbor conditions ahead, by holding a stern spring and taking 
 a spring from far up the dock through a chock on her off quarter 
 and to the winch. As her bow swings out with the current, she 
 heaves in on the off spring using engines to keep clear; and, 
 when the turn is partly made, to bring her stern to the proper 
 position up the dock. 
 
 Winding on a bow line is also possible, the inboard screw 
 being backed to keep the stem away from the dock as the stern 
 is carried out into the stream (Fig. 6, Plate 164). A line from 
 the off bow is led around the stem and well down the dock, and 
 strain is taken on this as the vessel comes athwart the current. 
 If a strong tide is running it may be necessary, as the turn nears 
 completion, to slack the bow spring so that engines can be 
 manoeuvred to overcome the cant across the tide, keep the bow 
 clear of the dock, and straighten out the ship. It may even be 
 necessary to drop an anchor to assist in this manoeuvre. If it is 
 intended to sail on completion of winding, it is quicker to cant 
 the stern out by means of a forward spring, back off, and drop 
 and swing to an anchor, veering chain and going ahead towards 
 the dock if the harbor is so narrow as to make this necessary. 
 
 At Sea. The destroyer is so light in proportion to her size 
 that she acts at sea much as would a floating plank if driven 
 through the water at some speed. Rolling is very heavy at 
 times, depending upon the angle at which she takes the waves, 
 but when the sea is abaft the beam the vessel seems to rise and 
 fall without excessive motion, without shipping water, and with 
 surprisingly little jerk at the end of the roll. In a long storm 
 sea, by bringing the sea abaft the beam and regulating the 
 course and speed as is found desirable (see chapter on Handling 
 Steamers in Heavy Weather) the vessel will ride very easily and 
 if properly handled should weather any storm. 
 
 As previously stated, the destroyer at high speed will "squat," 
 the screws drawing down her stern so as to materially increase 
 the draft aft. This squatting is greatest at a speed of about 
 twenty-eight knots; and, curiously enough, as the speed is 
 
602 THE HANDLING OF DESTROYERS. 
 
 increased beyond this she tends to right herself until at top speed 
 she carries very little drag. This is true only in deep water; 
 for in shallow water the drag on the bottom is so great that a 
 speed of 28 knots cannot be made. 
 
 Every destroyer has two "critical speeds," usually at about 
 ten knots and again between twenty and twenty-two, and at 
 these speeds a certain amount of vibration will be felt. At all 
 other speeds, if engines and shafts be true and propellers un- 
 damaged, the vibration is almost imperceptible. 
 
 With the sea ahead or forward of the beam, both rolling and 
 pitching may be very heavy; and when steaming into a head sea 
 much water is often taken over the bow. 
 
 Bucking a head sea is the most trying effort a destroyer can be 
 called upon to make, and troubles may be met even at compar- 
 atively low speeds. These troubles are not necessarily dangerous 
 to the destroyers of to-day, which are strong capable vessels 
 vastly different from the type of twenty or even of ten years ago. 
 The late war has shown that they will stand a great amount of 
 punishment, 1 but they should not be subjected to such punish- 
 ment unnecessarily. 
 
 If forced, they will often ride smoothly over several waves, 
 then rise forward and pound heavily, submerging the bow and 
 shipping green water in such quantities as to damage the upper- 
 works. 
 
 The destroyer's quick period makes a short steep sea more 
 trying than any other and it forced into heavy weather in partially 
 enclosed waters such as Long Island Sound she may pound 
 more heavily and suffer more damage than under the same wea- 
 ther in the open sea, where the waves are longer and where the 
 vessel will seem to slide over the crests. During the war an 
 escort of five destroyers had to abandon their 22-knot convoy, 
 the Mauretania, between Liverpool and The Skerries, where 
 short high seas were "thrown up by the wind ahead; and three 
 
 1 Cassin's stern was blown off by torpedo, and Manley's stern to after engine- 
 room bulkhead was destroyed by 'explosion of 30 depth charges. Both were 
 towed to port without difficulty. Several destroyers sustained severe damage 
 from collision and all returned safely. The Shaw, whose bow was completely 
 severed at the forward end of the bridge by S. S. Aguitania, made port under 
 her own engines, her forward oil tanks on fire. All American destroyers 
 stood up splendidly so far as damage from seas was concerned and proved 
 that they can operate in the worst weather. 
 
THE HANDLING OF DESTROYERS. 603 
 
 of the escort returned to port with their pilot house bulkheads 
 crushed in. 
 
 With the sea aft or on the quarter, the vessel rides very easily, 
 with little rolling or pitching, and no difficulty is experienced 
 except in steering. 
 
 In formation underway, the standard distance between ships, 
 bridge to bridge, is 300 yards; and it is safe even at high speeds 
 to keep well within this distance, for collision can easily be 
 avoided by quick use of rudder. However, with a following or 
 quartering sea it is unwise to manoeuvre too close, for under 
 these conditions the best helmsmen cannot steer a steady course 
 and the bow as it yaws from side to side may strike the stern of 
 the destroyer ahead before the rudder can become effective. 
 
 When lying-to in a seaway, the destroyer will invariably work 
 broadside on, into the trough, 1 rolling heavily and drifting 
 rapidly to leeward. If she is backed from this position, her 
 stern will tend to point up; but the quantity of water shipped 
 over the stern will prove very dangerous. 
 
 Because of the number of destroyers employed on the same 
 mission, it is often necessary for these vessels to be anchored in 
 outer harbors where little or no protection is afforded. 
 
 Sometimes, as at Ponta Del Gada, the anchorage must be 
 close in shore because of the fact that deep water extends very 
 close in and the anchorage is exposed to wind and swell from the 
 open sea. A long scope of chain must be used; and with the 
 present ground tackle arrangement there is danger that the 
 chain will be parted or weakened as it is nipped across the sharp 
 stem by the excessive yawing of the vessel. In getting underway 
 from such an anchorage, if the sea is running directly towards 
 the beach, the engines must be started ahead promptly and 
 with power, as the anchor breaks ground; otherwise wind and 
 sea will force the bow off into the trough parallel to the shore 
 line thus placing the ship in a very precarious position. As the 
 chain is being hove short it is well to avast heaving when the 
 chain tends off the bow due to yawing, for there is danger here 
 that the anchor will begin to drag, placing the vessel broadside 
 to a lee shore and in the trough, not free to go ahead. To avoid 
 
 1 So strong is this tendency to lie in the trough that a destroyer attempting 
 to save the capsized seaplane NC-i in a severe storm and having succeeded 
 in getting a 5-inch line from her bow to the plane in the hope of using the 
 plane as a sea anchor in riding out the night, could not be brought bow to sea. 
 The line parted though strain was taken cautiously. 
 
604 THE HANDLING OF DESTROYERS. 
 
 this possibility the chain may be held until the yawing of the 
 ship points her directly into the sea, at which time it is hove in 
 rapidly and engines put ahead. The rising of the bow with the 
 crest of a wave may at any time break out the anchor, so that 
 it is good practice when at short stay and pointed fair to start 
 engines ahead, dragging the anchor into deeper water and 
 heaving in as soon as the windlass will take the chain. 
 
 In case of man-overboard it is quicker to stop the ship by 
 backing full speed as soon as the stern clears the man, then lower 
 a boat. When the sea is rough it is better to pick up the man 
 with the ship, turning with hard over rudder. The time to 
 turn is considerable, owing to the large turning circle, but the 
 ship will return almost exactly to the spot where her rudder was 
 put over and by stopping to windward the destroyer will quickly 
 drift down upon the man, making a lee for him and enabling him 
 to be picked up by line or by lowering a man in a bowline. 
 
 To pick up a boat, the destroyer should be brought to wind- 
 ward and permitted to drift down. The ship will make a satis- 
 factory lee for the boat and the principal precaution to be taken 
 is to see that the boat does not get so far aft as to be crushed 
 beneath the propeller guard as the destroyer rolls. If the boat 
 is to be hoisted in, she must be held off while being hooked on, 
 in order that her gun-whale may not get caught beneath the 
 guard rail; for the boat will be jammed tight against the de- 
 stroyer by the leeway being made by that vessel. During the 
 War many survivors in open boats were picked up by destroyers 
 under very severe weather conditions, and despite the heavy 
 rolling of these vessels there is no record of a boat having been 
 capsized or a life lost in so doing. When we entered the War 
 destroyers were outfitted with special ladders for rescuing sur- 
 vivors from boats, but these were discarded by most destroyers 
 as it was found that "The survivor always gets aboard." 
 
 Navigation. Although not properly belonging to the subject 
 of seamanship, a few cautions as to the navigation of destroyers 
 may not be amiss. 
 
 As already mentioned, leeway, real or apparent, must be 
 carefully watched. 
 
 The compass card oscillates considerably in a seaway, intro- 
 ducing errors due to heeling and to difficult steering. Large 
 changes in deviation may result from slight repairs or alterations 
 to the ship, so that the ship should be swung frequently for 
 
THE HANDLING OF DESTROYERS. 605 
 
 compass error, and azimuths should fte taken daily at sea. 
 Most cruising is done at fairly high speeds so that a slight error 
 in compass course, under weather conditions adverse to observa- 
 tion of sun or stars, will result in large error in the position by 
 dead reckoning. Most destroyers are equipped with the Sperry 
 two- wheel gyro compass, but little dependence can as yet be 
 placed on the gyro in this type of vessel. Unquestionably the 
 gyro compass will in time be developed and made suitable for 
 destroyer work. 
 
 The motion is at times so excessive that it is difficult to use 
 navigational instruments, and the navigator must learn to take 
 sights while holding on to a stanchion or bridge rail to keep 
 from being thrown from side to side, at the same time endeavoring 
 to keep his sextant mirrors free from spray. He must become 
 accustomed to "bringing down" stars under conditions of most 
 violent rolling and learn to eliminate errors due to a rapidly 
 changing dip, and to plot his positions with instruments that 
 are constantly getting adrift. 
 
 The use of the hand lead is very difficult owing to the low 
 position of the leadsman and to the relatively high steerageway 
 speed of the vessel; and although the lead must be used for 
 in-shore work, in accordance with Navy Regulations, it cannot be 
 relied upon unless the vessel is almost dead in the water. De- 
 stroyers are all provided with sounding machines for deep sea 
 work and can get good soundings by slowing down. 
 
 The rates of chronometers are liable to change owing to 
 vibration and excess motion, and the navigator should take a tick 
 frequently. 
 
 To summarize: although it may justly be said that practically 
 all methods of navigation are less reliable on Torpedo vessels 
 than on larger craft, the navigator can with diligence and practice 
 overcome these difficulties; and it has been demonstrated that 
 destroyer navigation can be made to compare favorably with 
 that of the largest vessel. Skillful navigating in destroyers is 
 of the utmost importance because of the duty required of these 
 vessels. In scouting work and in trailing the enemy, contact 
 reports and other information sent out by the scout may be 
 very misleading to the commander-in-chief unless based upon 
 the most accurate navigation. 
 
 In Narrow Waters. In entering harbors, speed must be 
 reduced to not more than fifteen knots because of the stern 
 
5o6 THE HANDLING OF DESTROYERS. 
 
 wave that is drawn by destroyers in shallow water. At high 
 speed, in depths of forty feet or less, the screws draw down the 
 stern causing the vessel to drag and to be materially slowed. 
 This drag is very perceptible and the speed of the vessel through 
 the water cannot be increased above a certain point (about 
 twenty knots) regardless of the speed of the screws. The 
 stern will squat until the fantail deck is flush with the surface 
 of the water, and the resultant wave will prove very destructive 
 to harbor craft, and even to sea-walls and large shipping. So 
 many complaints have been received and so many bills sub- 
 mitted to the government for parted lines and damaged property 
 that present orders prohibit destroyers from using a speed 
 greater than twelve knots in entering and leaving harbors. For 
 this reason many units of the flotilla make it doctrine to use a 
 standard manoeuvring speed of eighteen knots. Channels are 
 entered and left at two thirds speed, or twelve knots, and all 
 speed signals except cones are thus eliminated in getting under- 
 way and coming to anchor. It is unsafe to pass operating 
 dredges at more than six knots. 
 
 In rounding bends in rivers or narrow harbors it must be kept 
 in mind that the destroyer pivots well forward, her stern being 
 thrown away outside the course. Care must therefore be 
 taken that the stern is not endangered. It is well to remember 
 also that if the rudder is put over towards an obstacle which the 
 bow has already passed, there is no further danger from that 
 obstacle except 1 of course where strong currents are involved. 
 
 In rivers, deep water is to be found on the side of the high 
 bank, and it is safer to round a sharp river bend with fair tide 
 than when stemming the current; for often the engines have to 
 be manoeuvred separately, with consequent loss in headway, in 
 making such turns, due to the destroyer's large turning circle. 
 Slack water is of course to be preferred at these bends, but if the 
 vessel is stemming the tide, the bow will be thrown off by the 
 current and the vessel may easily be shoaled before control can 
 be gained; whereas with a fair tide the current on the quarter 
 tends to assist the turn and the movement of the bow is not 
 impeded (see Chapter XVI and Plate 136). Furthermore, if the 
 ship should be grounded in turning it is probable that she will 
 not strike stern first, as this presumes that her bow was at 
 some time pointed clear and that the speed available could have 
 been employed to send her ahead out of danger. If unable to 
 
Plate No. 165. 
 
 607 
 
 FIG. 1. 
 
 f 
 
 Incorrect Approach 
 
 Tide 
 
 FIG. 2. 
 
 10 
 
 24 
 
 I2 17 26 
 
 26 
 
 15 26 
 
 // 24 
 
 FIG. 3. 
 
 HANDLING DESTROYERS 
 
608 THE HANDLING OF DESTROYERS. 
 
 make the turn, and forced to drift with the tide, she may be 
 carried safely through; but if her bow should go aground, the 
 current under her inboard quarter will tend to force her off with 
 great force, and she may come off unharmed, around the bend 
 and once more under control (Fig. I, Plate 165). Low speeds 
 must necessarily be employed in rivers and it is advisable to 
 approach sharp turns at one third speed until just before the 
 turn is to be made, then to go standard ahead both engines with 
 hard-over rudder, backing the inboard screw as soon as the 
 stern begins to swing. 
 
 When leaving narrow waters that open into seas where strong 
 tides may be expected to run across the entrance, do so with 
 caution and see all hands clear of the forecastle. The sea out- 
 side may not look extremely rough; but at times, on entering the 
 junction of the two waters, an unexpected wave will sweep the 
 forecastle. This is a bad place in which to be engaged in secur- 
 ing anchors for sea. Two destroyers have recently passed 
 through this experience, one off Tampico and one outside of 
 Brest, with serious injury to personnel in one case and loss of 
 life in the other. 
 
 In entering slips and making landings, the effect of eddies in 
 the current must be studied ; for the destroyer is long, and when 
 her bow enters dead water or an eddy, the effect of the current on 
 her stern may endanger the vessel. These conditions may be 
 encountered in entering the New York Navy Yard (Fig. 2, 
 Plate 165). A strong tide may be running in the East River 
 and on passing the pier line and entering the basin an eddy will 
 be found running in the opposite direction. The bow, on 
 entering this, will be swept sharply to one side while the outside 
 current will carry the stern to the other, and at least one colli- 
 sion has occurred in this manner to the surprise of a destroyer 
 commander. In entering the basin at New York Yard, it is 
 best to stand up the East River channel close to the Brooklyn 
 shore, stemming the tide and to turn sharply, rather than get 
 across the current of the main tidal stream. 
 
 In passing through Hell Gate much traffic is often met, and 
 this usually consists of tows. The tugs, making barely sufficient 
 speed to keep their barges in motion, choose a fair tide, and are 
 compelled to head directly across the stream in order to keep 
 their tows off the rocks at the turns; and it will sometimes be 
 found that they completely block the channel. Here it is best 
 
THE HANDLING OF DESTROYERS. 609 
 
 for the destroyer to have a fair tide; for the speed of the tows 
 is less than steerageway for the destroyer, and the latter vessel 
 cannot use her speed at the turns and must partly drift through 
 the gate, using her engines in brief spurts to make the rudder 
 effective and to keep off the rocks. 
 
 Caution must be exercised in heaving-to in narrow waters, 
 owing to the rapidity with which the destroyer will fall off and 
 drift with the effect of wind. The precaution "Have one anchor 
 ready for letting go" probably applies more seriously in de- 
 stroyers than in any other type of vessel. If caught in a tight 
 place, always manoeuvre to keep the stern in deep water. If the 
 ship should be grounded forward it is probable no damage will 
 result, and she may be able to work off without outside as- 
 sistance. But if the stern be grounded, it means a dry-dock 
 job, for the propeller blade tips extend about nine inches below 
 the keel of the vessel and will invariably be damaged. 
 
 Towing. The method of passing lines and taking vessels in 
 tow is very fully described in Chapter XXV. Destroyers are not 
 constructed for the purpose of employment in towing, but are 
 at times called upon to engage in this heavy work and are capable 
 of performing it. To this end all destroyers carry a i5O-fathom 
 eight-inch manila hawser, on a reel protected from the weather 
 at the after deck house. Around the bases of the forward and 
 after gun-mounts a channel-bar ring is shrunk for the purpose 
 of securing lines or bridles ; and towing bridles of I ^g-inch wire 
 are provided, completely equipped with shackles and pelican 
 hooks. Lines for towing or being towed are led through large 
 chocks at stern and bull-nose respectively. 
 
 In passing tow lines it must be remembered that the destroyer 
 drifts more rapidly than other vessels and lines may be passed 
 by proceeding to windward on a heading parallel to that of the 
 vessel to be taken in tow and drifting so as to pass just clear. 
 If weather conditions permit, the destroyer may be backed up 
 into wind and sea until the first line is run. It is of course advis- 
 able not to attempt to back after the tow line has been passed. 
 When a heavy sea is running, the heading of the destroyer cannot 
 be chosen and it is best to heave to to windward. The ship will 
 fall off into the trough and should be allowed to drift so that 
 her stern will pass within heaving line distance but clear of the 
 disabled vessel. It is not difficult to accomplish this, by assisting 
 with the engines, if the executive officer takes up a position on 
 
6lO THE HANDLING OF DESTROYERS. 
 
 the fantail or after deck house and keeps the commanding 
 officer informed as to the distance between the two vessels as 
 they approach. 
 
 In picking up the tow at sea, the destroyer should be allowed 
 to drift until she is riding to a strain on the tow line. If the 
 vessel is to be towed some distance and is not a naval vessel, it 
 is a good precaution to lower a boat, weather permitting, and 
 place on board the disabled ship a signalman and an officer so 
 that the line can be tended to the satisfaction of the commanding 
 officer. (See Chapter XXIX.) 
 
 The following description is given of the recent salvaging 
 and towing to port of the three masted schooner Geneva 
 Kathleen by a destroyer the U. S. S. .Herbert (Plate 164, Fig.3). 
 
 'The Kathleen, loaded with lumber and drawing 16 feet aft, 
 15 feet forward, had grounded off Fort Pierce, Florida, about 
 1 8 hours before the arrival of the Herbert. A long swell had 
 carried the schooner on to the bar until she showed n feet 
 forward, 14 feet aft and at times pounded heavily. She was 
 listed to starboard, her keel had been torn loose, she was making 
 water slowly, and her rudder post was bent. The Herbert 
 anchored 400 yards from the Kathleen, veered to 90 fathoms of 
 chain, and the commanding officer had soundings taken about 
 the schooner. These showed depths in feet as in the sketch, 
 and as the bow had passed well up on the bar it was considered 
 advisable to haul from her stern. A 3-inch messenger was 
 passed by the motor sailer at 7.30 a.m. and the eight-inch hawser 
 run and secured to a double 8-inch bridle passed from the king- 
 posts and under the counter of the Kathleen. As the crew of 
 the schooner seemed to be indolent and ignorant in seamanship, 
 an officer, six seamen, and a signalman were placed on board 
 her. 
 
 "The 8-inch manila was run through the stern chock and for- 
 ward on the Herbert to the forecastle windlass and a strain was 
 taken until the Herbert's stern was drawn across the tide and 
 held in this position. An attempt proved that the schooner 
 could not be hauled off; and as high water was not due until 
 3.30 p.m. it was decided to wait until early afternoon before 
 making further effort. A half knot tide was running due to an 
 eddy of the gulf stream, and this kept a good strain on the 
 hawser, it being hoped that this strain would not only prevent 
 the Kathleen from passing higher up on the bar but would per- 
 
THE HANDLING OF DESTROYERS. 6l I 
 
 haps assist in working her stern off as the swells passed under 
 her. 
 
 "The hawser was now passed twice around the base of the 
 after gun mount (Herbert not being equipped with wire towing 
 bridles) and secured to the bitts, plenty of chafing gear being 
 used where the line passed through the stern chock; and at 
 1.30 p.m. both engines of the Herbert were started ahead at 5 
 knots. This was continued for over an hour and a half, occa- 
 sional jolts of seven and a half knots being given in an effort 
 to start the stranded ship. As the time of high water approached, 
 both engines were, at 3.15 p.m., put ahead ten knots, and con- 
 tinued at that speed until 3.40 p.m. when the Kathleen began 
 to slide off. At this moment the towing bridle parted at the 
 schooner's stern and engines were immediately stopped; but a 
 preventer bridle of the best line that could be found in the 
 Kathleen's lazaret (an old 8-inch manila) had previously been 
 rigged through the bowline of the towing hawser and as time 
 was of greatest importance, a strain of 5 knots was placed on 
 this. The schooner slid off at 3.45. The Herbert's anchor was 
 picked up, the tow line was run out full length and shifted to the 
 Kathleen's bow, and the Herbert towed the schooner to Miami, 
 a distance of 130 miles. Turns were made for ten knots; but 
 as the Kathleen yawed badly and could not be steered because 
 of the condition of her rudder post, the engines frequently had 
 to be slowed. No difficulty was experienced except when once 
 during the night the schooner took a sharp yaw, parting the 
 towline on the schooner's deck; but a light preventer that had 
 been bent on forward of the break was payed out, a signal given, 
 the Herbert stopped, and the line was quickly hove in and 
 secured on board the Kathleen. At the destroyer end only a 
 slight but not abnormal heating of the thrusts was noted. 
 
 "During the same week, the Herbert picked up and towed over 
 100 miles the steamer Aragon loaded with coal. The Herbert's 
 towline was bent to Aragon' s anchor cable, thirty fathoms of 
 which was paid out to assist in weighting the line and to provide a 
 steady strain. Turns were made for 10 to u knots; and al- 
 though the Aragon' s propeller was dragging, a speed of about 
 7 knots was made good against the gulf stream current." 
 
6i2 THE HANDLING OF DESTROYERS. 
 
 HANDLING DESTROYERS AND OTHER SMALL CRAFT IN COM- 
 MUNICATING WITH LARGER VESSELS UNDERWAY. 
 
 Speaking Large Vessels. The greatest care should be taken 
 in approaching large vessels which are underway. It is especially 
 dangerous to attempt to take position full on the beam. The 
 safe course is to come up on the quarter of the large ship and 
 carry on communication with the quarterdeck or after bridge. 
 This leaves the smaller vessel free to swing her stern towards 
 the larger one if necessary for increasing distance, which could 
 not be done if she were entirely overlapping the larger vessel 
 and chanced to get a little too close. When a small vessel is 
 running parallel to a larger one and rather close aboard, the 
 smaller craft is dwarfed and her commanding officer loses power 
 to realize the exact situation. He cannot correctly judge the 
 steadiness of course of the big ship, changes in her speed, etc., 
 and should she slow for any reason, he may be under her bow 
 before he knows it. In repeated instances it has been proved 
 that in such a position he is apt to close in without realizing it 
 until he is so close that, if he puts his helm over, his stern will 
 take against the ship's side and a smash will follow. This is 
 but one example of the wisdom of the old destroyer rule: "Keep 
 your stern clear to swing, no matter what happens." 
 
 Another advantage of the quartering position is that in case 
 of trouble, "full speed astern" will clear you in an instant. 
 
 During the war, escorting destroyers frequently had to deliver 
 written secret instructions to vessels of convoys after they 
 joined up at the entrance to the submarine zone, and it was 
 necessary to do this with despatch in order not to slow the speed 
 of the convoy or break up its formation. The destroyer first 
 signalled the larger ship to steer a steady course and to main- 
 tain a constant speed (this is very important), then approached 
 on her quarter to leeward and delivered a heaving line to the 
 after main deck or to the rigged out life boat of the convoy 
 ship. At the destroyer end of the heaving line was attached 
 the written instructions in a sealed tin container, then a second 
 heaving line. As the first heaving line was taken in by the 
 larger ship, sufficient strain was kept on the second to keep the 
 instructions clear of the water; and after the container was 
 removed both lines were bent together and returned to the 
 destroyer. Throughout this manoeuvre, the destroyer main- 
 
THE HANDLING OF DESTROYERS. 613 
 
 tained her position by slight changes of speed and light touches 
 of rudder, always keeping her stern free to swing. 
 
 TAKING FUEL, STORES, OR PASSENGERS FROM ANOTHER 
 VESSEL UNDERWAY. 
 
 What has been said in the preceding paragraphs about a small 
 vessel communicating with a larger one applies to the case now 
 to be considered, but with certain modifications. So far as 
 destroyers are concerned, it must be recognized that the present- 
 day destroyer is herself a fairly large ship. Furthermore, the 
 present case is one in which lines will be used; and these, if prop- 
 erly handled in connection with the screws and rudder, introduce 
 a new factor of very great importance. Moreover, the necessity 
 for receiving stores or passengers makes a demand for closer 
 approach than would be necessary for merely communicating. 
 
 Fig. i, Plate 166, shows a destroyer or other craft lying along- 
 side a larger vessel underway and either steaming with her or 
 being towed; preferably the latter. Here we must assume 
 that the side of the larger ship is free from projections which 
 can smash down upon the deck of the destroyer or puncture her 
 side, and that any overhanging boats have been either swung 
 inboard or otherwise gotten out of the way and that the same 
 precautions have been taken on the destroyer. Also that good 
 fenders are in use and properly placed. Note that the bow 
 spring is taken from a chock well aft on the bow of the destroyer, 
 giving an opportunity to pivot on the line. By a few degrees 
 of right rudder, the destroyer keeps the water pressure slightly 
 on her in-board bow. The bow-breast will hold her against 
 the tendency to swing out, and may be assisted by easing the 
 rudder; but this must be done very carefully, the helmsman 
 standing by to meet her instantly to prevent crashing in against 
 the side in case she is allowed to catch the water-pressure on the 
 off-bow. With the lines as shown in the plate, the point x is a 
 fixed point so long as the water-pressure is maintained on the 
 inner bow; and the stern, protected by a good fender, may be 
 swung in close to the side of the ship by a spoke of the wheel, 
 and held there with the greatest delicacy of adjustment. If the 
 sea is rough the larger ship should take it a little on the off-bow, 
 but not enough to cause heavy rolling. 
 
 Note that the above -is a case rather of "towing alongside" 
 
614 
 
 Plate No. 166. 
 
 SSL 
 
 U) 
 (D 
 
 (D 
 
 CD 
 
THE HANDLING OF DESTROYERS. 615 
 
 than of "lying alongside" and that the water resistance to the 
 towing is the essential factor in the manoeuvre, making it possible 
 to hold the small vessel as close or as far off as may be desirable 
 by manipulation of the helm and the bow-breast. She may 
 indeed be held off so far as to prevent all danger of contact 
 (Plate 166, Fig. 2). The method of approach to take up the 
 position shown, will depend upon conditions existing at the 
 time; but the following is suggested as practicable under average 
 conditions (Figure 3). The larger ship being steady on a course 
 which gives a lee without producing excessive rolling, the com- 
 municating vessel comes up under the lee quarter and takes 
 the end of a stout hauling-line which has been led from well 
 forward on the larger ship and passed aft outside of all. With 
 this line slack she steams up onto the beam of the larger ship, 
 at a safe distance, keeping well clear of the screws, and hauls 
 across a five- or six-inch manila line from the bow of the other 
 ship. This line is brought in through a chock fairly well aft 
 on the destroyer's forecastle, forming a spring on which the 
 destroyer drops in alongside by slowing or stopping, using the 
 rudder as may be necessary for control. The bow breast is 
 then gotten across and the destroyer held as already described. 
 To get clear, the rudder is put a few degrees to right, and the 
 bow-breast cast off. The stern swings in, bringing the pressure 
 on the inner broadside, and the destroyer is swept bodily off 
 
 (Fig. 4). 
 
 When conditions are such that towing alongside is not con- 
 sidered practicable, the simplest plan is to take a line and tow 
 astern or a little under the lee quarter, using oil if necessary. 
 (Fig. 5). This gives more independence of action and less 
 danger of accident but is less convenient when passengers are 
 to be transferred. Here the breeches-buoy may be found 
 useful, or a small boat may be used in the oil slick. 
 
 The Maumee Method. The following method of fueling 
 destroyers at sea was developed by the U. S. S. Maumee (fuel 
 ship) and was employed with great success during the war and 
 later during the trans-Atlantic sea-plane flight of 1919. By 
 this method, oil was delivered through a four-inch hose at the 
 rate of 25,000 gallons per hour, while the ships were steaming 
 at speeds of four to thirteen knots, in a moderate sea, force of 
 wind 3 to 4. It was estimated that vessels could be fueled in 
 this manner during more than seventy-five per cent of all weather 
 encountered (Plate 167). 
 
6l6 THE HANDLING OF DESTROYERS. 
 
 In this manoeuvre rolling of the vessels will not interfere; 
 but yawing is very dangerous, especially as the destroyer may 
 be brought under the counter of the larger ship. The fuel ship 
 therefore assumed such a course as to bring the sea forward of 
 her off beam, preferably on the off bow. Her course and speed 
 were signalled to the destroyer and both vessels were kept going 
 ahead throughout the evolution. Various speeds were tried, 
 but owing to the relatively high steerageway speed of the de- 
 stroyer it was found that best results were obtained when the 
 speeds of fuel ship and destroyer were regulated at about eight 
 and seven knots respectively. 
 
 All gear was furnished by the fuel ship. A ten-inch manila 
 spring was led from her bow chock and stopped along the rail, 
 a 2-inch messenger being bent to this, fifty feet from the end, 
 and stopped along to the end. The destroyer approached to 
 leeward within about fifty feet of the Maumee's side and received 
 the messenger by heaving line. This messenger was led through 
 the after forecastle chock, taken to the capstan, and hove in, 
 assisted by hand. Stops were cut as they came aboard and the 
 ten-inch manila was given a turn around the base of the forward 
 gun-mount and secured to bitts on the opposite side of the deck, 
 a lashing on the bitts being necessary to prevent the hawser 
 from jumping. 
 
 As soon as the destroyer signalled that the line was secured, 
 the fuel ship hauled in the spring to take a strain and bring the 
 smaller vessel to the relative position desired, and the destroyer 
 regulated her speed at about one knot less than that of the 
 Maumee. This spring, assisted by the force of the sea on the 
 inboard bow, acted much as would a sea painter on a small boat, 
 tending to keep the destroyer off; and with the 750 and 1,000 
 ton destroyers whose towing point was well aft on the fore- 
 castle, a slight in rudder was necessary to offset the effect of the 
 sea on the bow. This sea-painter effect was not so pronounced 
 in towing the modern type destroyer, whose bridge is farther 
 forward. 
 
 A six-inch breast was now passed to bitts forward of the 
 destroyer's forecastle gun and secured to bitts forward of the 
 capstan. This line was subjected to considerable strain at times 
 and when made fast was hove in on the fuel ship to reduce the 
 distance between vessels to about forty feet. 
 
 An after breast of six-inch manila was passed in wake of the 
 
Plate No. 167. 
 
 617 
 
6l8 THE HANDLING OF DESTROYERS. 
 
 destroyer's after deck-house and secured but tended. This line 
 was not absolutely necessary to the manoeuvre but was employed 
 as a safeguard against the delay that might be caused should a 
 sudden lurch of the destroyer carry away the oil hose. 
 
 As soon as all lines were secured, the Maumee passed an 
 oil hose to the destroyer by means of a wooden carrier suspended 
 from a boom-head amidships (Plate 167). The hose was led 
 to the destroyer's tank and pumping was begun when the 
 ready signal was received. 
 
 Under unfavorable weather conditions, about forty minutes 
 were required in passing lines and connecting up the hose; but 
 in good weather the signal to begin pumping could be given 
 within twenty minutes after the destroyer began going alongside. 
 While fueling, the destroyer received stores and provisions by 
 means of an after boom ; and by proper regulation of speed and 
 delicate use of rudder, no difficulty was encountered after the 
 lines were secured, and no damage sustained by either vessel. 
 
 In very rough weather the destroyer was fueled while being 
 towed astern, and oil was delivered to the older destroyers at 
 the rate of fifteen thousand gallons per hour. With the newer 
 type, however, considerable time is required in leading the 
 hose while towing astern, as these vessels have no open tanks 
 forward. The hose must either be coupled up to a deck fitting 
 forward or led to an open tank abaft the after engine-room bulk- 
 head. 
 
 TAKING FUEL, STORES, OR PASSENGERS FROM A VESSEL AT SEA 
 BUT NOT UNDERWAY. 
 
 Here the principal factor of the preceding case is lacking; 
 viz., the water-resistance on the rudder and on the inner bow of 
 the communicating vessel, by means of which it is possible to 
 hold her off from the side or to swing her in, merely by a touch 
 of the wheel; and to swing her clear when the time comes to 
 cast off. 
 
 The present case, where the ship to be assisted is dead in the 
 water, has many features in common with cases treated in later 
 chapters on "Towing," and "Rescuing the Passengers from a 
 Wreck." It has been explained in the chapter on "Handling 
 Steamers in Heavy Weather" that a steamer lying dead in the 
 water almost invariably falls off, bringing the wind and sea abaft 
 
THE HANDLING OF DESTROYERS. 
 
 the beam and sometimes well on the quarter, the vessel drifting 
 more or less rapidly to leeward. A destroyer or other small 
 craft, taking a line from the quarter of a ship in this position, 
 will usually tail down to leeward as shown in Fig. 3, Plate 167. 
 Here she should have a good lee, which may be improved by the 
 use of oil, preferably from outlets fairly well aft on the small 
 craft herself. There should be no difficulty in holding her bow 
 close enough to the larger ship to admit of taking stores or of 
 transferring passengers, either by a small boat working in the 
 oil slick, or by the breeches buoy. Both vessels will drift and 
 the destroyer will drift the more rapidly unless blanketed by 
 the larger vessel. If the destroyer finds the other vessel drifting 
 faster, she can hold her position to leeward by backing her 
 screws. If any tendency is noted to swing in alongside the ship, 
 the line should be let go and the small vessel backed off, as it 
 would be dangerous to be jammed up against the lee side of the 
 other vessel. This suggests that the smaller ship will do well 
 to take the line through a chock fairly well aft on her forecastle, 
 and on the bow which will cant her stern toward the stern of 
 the other vessel, as indicated in the figure. 
 
 For getting a line across from one vessel to another, when a 
 heaving line cannot be used, any of the methods described 
 in the chapter on "Towing" may be used; that is to say, it 
 may be carried across by a boat or floated down. A line throw- 
 ing gun is very useful here (see Chapter XXIX). The shoulder- 
 gun shown in Plate 185 is especially convenient for use on 
 Destroyers, Submarines, Tugs and other small craft and should 
 be supplied to all such. 
 
 A thrilling rescue was effected during the late war when the 
 transport Otranto ran aground during a storm and rapidly began 
 to break up. The British destroyer Mounsey arrived to her 
 rescue and had no choice but to make her weather side. The 
 destroyer commander signalled the transport to lower her life- 
 boats empty to the water's edge and, using these as fenders, the 
 Mounsey went alongside, took off over five hundred troops, 
 and succeeded in backing clear. Those remaining on the 
 transport perished. 
 
 The danger in lying alongside another vessel at sea is that 
 due to rolling. Especially is this true in the later types of 
 destroyers, because of the height of their bridges and midship 
 gun platforms which plumb the ship's side about twenty-five 
 
62O THE HANDLING OF DESTROYERS. 
 
 feet above the water's edge. Even in a light swell, considerable 
 damage will be wrought to upperworks and the side will be 
 dished by fenders. 
 
 It was found during the war that fuel oil is of doubtful value 
 in smoothing out the crests, it being too heavy; and for rescuing 
 persons in the water it should not be used, as it seems to stupify 
 those already weakened from exposure. Storm oil as sold com- 
 mercially is very light but is not furnished destroyers. One 
 destroyer commander tried out the commercial oil and reported 
 that it was very effective, ten gallons being sufficient to ride out a 
 severe storm. 
 
(621) 
 
 CHAPTER XXII. 
 
 THE SUBMARINE CHASERS. 
 Plate 168. 
 
 One of the earliest naval projects of large scope undertaken 
 by the United States following the declaration of war in 1917 
 was the laying down of a fleet of armed motor launches, known 
 as Submarine Chasers. Four hundred and fifty of this class, 
 all of a single design, were built, of which fifty were purchased 
 and operated by the French Government. From any point of 
 view, whether that of the marine architect, the naval officer, 
 or the seaman, these boats represented a novel type of craft; 
 and the history of their operations is one of the most interesting 
 records of seamanship in maritime annals. 
 
 The Chasers were originally conceived as "patrol boats." 
 At the time the United States entered the World War the sub- 
 marine menace had become the issue upon which the final out- 
 come of the struggle appeared to balance. Anti-submarine 
 tactics were essentially defensive in character, and depended 
 upon the principle of establishing so close a surface patrol in 
 selected areas that no submarine could expose itself without 
 being subjected to immediate attack; or, at least, to having the 
 information of its whereabouts immediately broadcasted by radio. 
 
 By the time the chasers were beginning to be delivered such 
 progress had been made in the development of submarine detec- 
 tion apparatus and in weapons for attacking submerged sub- 
 marines that a solution to the problem of direct offensive action 
 against submarines appeared to be in sight. All chasers that 
 operated in the war zone were equipped and specially trained 
 as submarine-hunting units, and the original conception as to 
 their mission and manner of employment became radically 
 changed. Instead of patrol launches, operating merely as look- 
 outs and with no offensive power except under conditions in 
 which the initiative rested with the submarine, they became an 
 agent for the detection, chase and destruction of submarines in a 
 wide area. The matter of present interest is not, however, the 
 
622 THE SUBMARINE CHASERS. 
 
 military effectiveness of the chaser, but the fact that these small 
 vessels, conceived as launches, were called upon to fulfil the role 
 of cruising ships. To the limit of their cruising radius they 
 operated as seagoing vessels. All the problems of seamanship, 
 of navigation, of interior organization and routine, to which the 
 largest vessels are heir fell in their full weight to the lot of these 
 ships in miniature. The weather was not tempered to their 
 small size, nor was there any other class of vessel which showed a 
 greater independence of it. 
 
 A study of the material characteristics of the chasers dis- 
 closes many features of interest, but an understanding of the 
 personnel factor is necessary to a proper appreciation of the 
 performance of these vessels. Broadly speaking, the chasers 
 were manned by naval reserves with little or no seafaring experi- 
 ence. A few experienced regular officers were assigned as com- 
 manders of large detachments and for the most important staff 
 duties. There were also a number of experienced seamen in 
 the persons of yachtsmen, warrant officers, and enlisted men of 
 the regular navy holding temporary commissions, scattered 
 throughout the force, but the mass of the 9,000 or 10,000 per- 
 sonnel involved, both commissioned and enlisted, were raw 
 recruits clerks, tradesmen, mechanics, professional men, college 
 students, and men of leisure. Some of the boats leaving for the 
 war zone faced a trip across the Atlantic in winter weather with 
 not a man in the ship's company, from commanding officer to 
 lowest enlisted rating, that had ever been off soundings. It 
 would be not unworthy of remark had such a class of personnel 
 succeeded only in maintaining operative seagoing vessels and in 
 meeting the problems of existence through all the strange 
 vicissitudes of a life at sea under conditions so severe. But this 
 was only the beginning of their accomplishment. Their task 
 included the operation of entirely novel and highly intricate 
 apparatus in every department of ship activity, especially as 
 regards the communication, ordnance, and main propelling equip- 
 ment, and the conduct of a new system of tactical movements 
 in which skilful efficiency represented the acme of professional 
 naval seamanship. 
 
 Material Features. The hull design of the chasers is generally 
 regarded as involving radical departures from accepted principles 
 heretofore applied in any type of power driven craft, whereas it 
 is in fact one of the oldest designs in existence. It has been 
 
THE SUBMARINE CHASERS. 623 
 
 well described as that of a whaleboat with the stern cut off 
 square at a point slightly forward of the overhang. The general 
 appearance and arrangement of the boats are shown in Plate 168. 
 
 Dimensions and Characteristics. 
 Length over all, no ft. 
 Breadth, extreme 14 ft. 8 in. 
 Designed draft, forward, 4 ft. 4 in. 
 Designed draft, aft, 5 ft. 10 in. 
 Designed displacement, 66.5 tons. 
 Actual displacement (loaded), 85 tons. 
 Speed, (loaded), 14.5 knots. 
 
 Propelling machinery, 660 h.p., triple screws; 3 "Standard" 
 Marine Gas Engines of 220 h.p. each. 
 
 Propelling Machinery. The original design contemplated 
 twin screws with one 300 h.p. engine for each shaft. In order 
 to obtain the large number of engines necessary within the 
 time allowable it was necessary to adopt a commercial stock 
 model, and the "Standard," 220 h.p., six cylinder, air starting 
 and reversing type was decided upon as the most acceptable. 
 This forced the use of triple screws. Although this arrange- 
 ment was originally regarded rather as a choice of undesirables 
 it proved on the whole to be a very advantageous feature, con- 
 sidering the special nature of the service performed by these 
 vessels. The outstanding qualities of readiness and reliability 
 exhibited by the chasers were due in large measure to the third 
 engine installation. With the inexperienced character of per- 
 sonnel in charge of these complicated mechanisms and the 
 difficulty in obtaining spare parts, the matter of repair and 
 overhaul became of more than ordinary importance. As the 
 boats could carry out all their principal functions under any two 
 engines the third engine gave opportunity for overhaul of one 
 engine at a time without leaving station. 
 
 One of these vessels, while drifting, having lost her rudder, 
 steamed to her base at full speed on various courses, using all 
 engines, entered harbor, went alongside a wharf, cast off and 
 went alongside a tender before a new rudder was obtained. The 
 commanding officer reported that he "did not miss the rudder 
 much." 
 
 Towing Gear. The matter of towing arrangements was of 
 peculiar importance in the chasers. The only practicable 
 manner of transporting a large number of chasers across the 
 
624 THE SUBMARINE CHASERS. 
 
 Atlantic was to have them cross on their own bottoms; and in 
 view of their cruising radius of 800 miles, a considerable period 
 of towing for the purpose of fueling alone and irrespective of 
 breakdown, was a necessity. It was also the expectation that 
 the chasers, operating in groups of three boats under peculiarly 
 hazardous conditions, would have frequent occasion to take 
 each other in tow. The first gear devised for the purpose 
 appeared reasonably adequate, but it was found so seriously 
 defective that it was abandoned and replaced by a new design 
 which proved very efficient. This consisted of a strap-iron bridle, 
 of 2-inch x I /2-inch iron, passed entirely around the boat, but 
 spiked securely to the upper guard rail and secured at the bow 
 by heavy through bolts passing through both parts. The ends 
 at the bow terminated in heavy forged eyes of sufficient strength 
 to be practically an integral part of the stem. A wire pendant 
 of about 8 feet in length with an eye splice in outboard end was 
 attached to these eyes by means of a swivel pelican hook. The 
 pendant was very convenient in making fast the tow rope; when 
 casting off by means of the pelican hook it of course remained 
 attached to the tow rope and the chaser was obliged to retrieve 
 it from the towing vessel. On each quarter, projecting aft 
 beyond the sharp knuckle formed by the square stern, a solid 
 eye was worked into the strap iron bridle. When the chaser 
 became the towing vessel the tow line was secured to the bight 
 of a chain bridle which hooked to these eyes. The feature of 
 passing the strap iron bridle entirely around the chaser was 
 required in order to protect the vessel's longitudinal strength, 
 as it was frequently necessary to tow several chasers in tandem. 
 The only serious defect in this arrangement was the destructive 
 action of the iron strap, spiked to the guard rail, on fenders 
 and mooring lines and the sides of other chasers lying alongside. 
 Ventilation. One of the severest trials to which the crews of 
 these boats were subjected was the gasoline fumes which perme- 
 ated all living spaces to the extent, in a few instances, of causing 
 serious cases of asphyxiation. The question of ventilation in 
 vessels of this type has a serious aspect aside from its relation 
 to the health and comfort of the personnel. The most serious 
 danger to which the chasers were exposed was fire, originating in 
 the ignition of gasoline vapor, or liquid gasoline floating in the 
 engine room bilges. More chasers have been lost from this 
 cause than from all other causes combined. A thorough study 
 
Plate No. 168. 
 
 625 
 
626 THE SUBMARINE CHASERS. 
 
 of this question, the results of which are published in Bureau of 
 Engineering Circular Letter D-2, shows that proper ventilation 
 is the most effective single preventive measure that can be 
 applied. The causes which may produce a spark sufficient to 
 ignite an explosive mixture of air and gasoline vapor are so 
 numerous that the absolute prevention of sparks can hardly be 
 deemed entirely practicable, and all precautions of this nature 
 must be supplemented by thorough measures of ventilation to 
 insure as far as possible that no explosive mixture is present. 
 
 In extinguishing one of the numerous fires that occurred in 
 chaser engine rooms the experiment was tried of sealing the 
 compartment against entrance of air and allowing the fire to 
 burn itself out. The method proved surprisingly effective, the 
 fire being smothered within a few minutes with no damage to 
 machinery or electric apparatus and only slight scorching of 
 paintwork. This method should not be entirely depended upon, 
 however, on account of the uncertainty as to the air-tightness 
 of bulkheads, hatches, and ports in individual cases, and the 
 fact that to employ this method precludes the use of ordinary 
 extinguishers which are effective if used promptly. 
 
 Handling Alongside a Dock. In the early stages of their 
 training, the chaser personnel usually employed methods suitable 
 for large vessels in bringing their craft alongside. With in- 
 creasing skill they soon developed the practice of handling the 
 ship almost entirely by the engines instead of by lines. With 
 the large power available and the small size of the vessel the 
 performance generally conveyed the impression of unusual snap 
 and ease, though even the most competent officers frequently 
 made the mistake of using too much speed. 
 
 Fueling at Sea. The experience of the chasers led to an inde- 
 pendent development of a practice similar to that followed by 
 the destroyer forces (Plates 166 and 167). In weather which 
 permitted towing with a short scope, the preferred method was 
 to give the chaser a line from the stern of the tanker, the latter 
 maintaining speed as permissible by the condition of the sea, 
 and either floating the fuel hose down to the chaser to be picked 
 up by a grapnel, or sending it in a runner down the tow line, 
 the chaser hauling it in with a heaving line. Fueling alongside 
 was often performed in moderately heavy weather. In this 
 case it was found desirable that the tow line from the tanker 
 should give as long a scope as practicable and should be taken 
 
THE SUBMARINE CHASERS. 627 
 
 on board the chaser through a chock on the inner bow (Plate 
 166). A breast line from bow of chaser to tanker is secured to 
 give the desired scope between vessels from five to ten fathoms. 
 The tanker maintains as much speed as conditions allow and 
 the chaser, by use of her rudder, keeps the breast line well taut. 
 A second breast line from stern of chaser to tanker is usually 
 tended. The fuel hose should be slung from a davit on the 
 tanker and paid out to the chaser as required in order to keep 
 the hose clear of the water. 
 
 In this manner as many as six chasers at a time were fueled 
 by a single tanker, two on each side and two astern. The whole 
 operation from the taking of the tow line to casting off after 
 receiving two thirds fuel supply usually occupied about twenty 
 minutes. 
 
 Performance at Sea. The salient characteristic of the chasers 
 was their remarkable seaworthiness. All of the boats operating 
 under the United States flag in the war zone crossed the ocean 
 on their own bottoms, and in a number of instances encountered 
 winter storms of extreme severity. Several chasers built in 
 Puget Sound made the trip to the Atlantic coast without escort 
 or tender of any kind. The conditions with respect to sea and 
 weather peculiar to the regions in which the greater number of 
 the chasers operated were such as to test the seagoing ability of 
 craft of this size to the utmost. Operating from 10 to 100 miles 
 off shore in such areas as the north Atlantic coast of the United 
 States, the English Channel, the Irish Sea, and off the southern 
 and western coast of Ireland, they were often exposed to the full 
 force of ocean gales, with the added disadvantage that in these 
 regions of moderate depth the character of the waves during 
 heavy weather is exactly of the type most difficult for small 
 vessels to cope with, short, high, and precipitous, with breaking 
 crests and generally confused in direction owing to reflection 
 from the land. In long, regular, deep-water waves, the chasers 
 frequently passed through gales of extraordinary violence in 
 such comparative comfort that the actual severity of the weather, 
 as evident in large vessels, was generally underestimated. 
 Under these conditions, the full force of the wind was apparent 
 only when upon the crests of the waves. 
 
 The first chasers to cross the Atlantic were of those pur- 
 chased by the French Government and manned by French 
 crews. The personnel of these boats was excellent as regards 
 
628 THE SUBMARINE CHASERS. 
 
 experience and ability in practical seamanship, but it did not 
 include any trained navigators, and dependence for navigational 
 direction lay in keeping touch with the escort vessel. Two of 
 the chasers became separated from the escort, and one of them 
 was never heard of again. The other, after a separation of 
 about thirty days and great hardship from the exhaustion of 
 fresh water and stores, made port under sail using a jury rig 
 improvised from blankets. With the above possible exception 
 no chaser was lost during the war through any cause connected 
 with the seaworthiness of the vessel. This experience led to an 
 idea that it would be necessary to send the boats across either on 
 the decks of large freighters or with a single escort vessel for 
 each chaser. Later, however, the United States chasers crossed 
 in convoys of from twelve to thirty, generally with one escort 
 vessel for four, five, or six boats. The number of escort vessels 
 required was determined principally by the necessity for fueling 
 the chasers at sea and with some regard also to the probability 
 of machinery breakdowns in view of the inexperienced state of 
 the personnel, rather than from any considerations of safety for 
 the crews. On one occasion one of the escort vessels, a large 
 ocean going tug, foundered during heavy weather ; and in several 
 other instances the safety of escort vessels was a matter of more 
 concern than any situation that arose in connection with chasers. 
 Every type of vessels has its own individual peculiarities of 
 performance in a seaway, but, generally speaking, all are equally 
 subject to certain broad general laws of ship handling. All 
 vessels if allowed to drift will assume a position more or less in 
 the trough of the sea; all vessels may be strained by being 
 forced directly into a head sea, and will either pound or bury 
 their bows depending upon the speed used and the period, 
 size, and conformation of the waves encountered; all vessels 
 will run more comfortably with the sea abaft the beam on a 
 proper combination of speed and course with respect to the 
 character of the sea; and any vessel may be "pooped" through 
 a disregard of these factors. The chasers were no exception 
 in these respects, and yet the fact that they were successfully 
 operated under all conditions by personnel who were in many 
 cases inexperienced shows that their excellent design did give 
 them a considerable immunity from conditions which, in the 
 case of small vessels especially, often necessitate careful and 
 experienced management. A few excerpts from reports of 
 
THE SUBMARINE CHASERS. 62Q 
 
 experienced officers are added as showing the characteristic 
 features of the design as evidenced by the performance of the 
 vessels in a seaway. 
 
 "When drifting in a moderate sea she lay in the trough and rolled 
 rapidly, but very seldom shipped water. In a rough sea she lay in the 
 trough and rolled very heavily. At first the rolling motion of the vessel 
 was alarming, but through experience we learned that the chaser was 
 like a cork on troubled water, and we felt quite as safe drifting in the 
 trough of a rough sea as in any other position, although this was the 
 most uncomfortable one." 
 
 "I went through a 92-mile hurricane at various speeds, including full 
 speed, by keeping the weather abaft the beam, and noticed no danger or 
 damage to the vessel." 
 
 "These boats commence rolling in very moderate chop and under 
 these conditions are distinctly uncomfortable. An increase in the size 
 of the sea does not, however, increase the discomfort but may actually 
 cause them to roll less violently. . . . "Their motion is seldom violent 
 and there is little tendency to throw objects around. . . . Very few of 
 the chasers which had been at sea continuously during the war had 
 racks for their tables. I cruised 8,000 miles in one from Lisbon to Arch- 
 angel and there was seldom a time when we could not serve dinner on a 
 table without racks. Of course things chased round a little, but nothing 
 compared to a destroyer." 
 
 "Here the chasers were practically in the breakers and their per- 
 formance in these breaking seas, of at least 30 feet height, was remark- 
 able. It is the worst position I have ever been in in any type of boat, 
 and I know of no other type which would have gone through so suc- 
 cessfully." 
 
(630) 
 
 CHAPTER XXIII. 
 
 SUBMARINES 
 
 1. PRELIMINARY. 
 
 While submarines are designed primarily for operating under 
 water, it must be understood that even in time of war they spend 
 many hours on the surface for every hour that they spend 
 submerged. The motive power used on the surface is that of 
 gas or oil engines; and fuel for these can be carried in quantities 
 as great, proportionally, as the fuel carried by other surface 
 craft. A modern submarine may have a cruising radius of from 
 6,000 to 8,000 miles. The motive power for running submerged 
 is derived from storage batteries which give, at best, a speed 
 from 12 to 14 knots and can furnish power for this or for much 
 lower speeds for only a very limited period, after which the boat 
 must rise to the surface to re-charge the batteries before another 
 submerged run is possible. 
 
 There is reason to anticipate that ultimately a type of internal 
 combustion engine will be developed which can be used under 
 water as well as on the surface. Such a development will 
 greatly increase the submerged capabilities of the submarine. 
 But it must not be forgotten that there is a limit, fixed by the 
 human element involved, to the time that may be spent submerged ; 
 a limit which is a matter partly of physical endurance and 
 partly of morale. 
 
 II. GENERAL FEATURES OF DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 The cross-section of the submarine is circular except toward 
 the bow and stern, where it takes the form of an ellipse, the 
 major axis being vertical at the bow and horizontal at the stern. 
 Except as modified by structure added to provide deck space, 
 bridge, conning tower, gun-platforms, etc., the general shape 
 is that of a torpedo (Plate 169). 
 
 In late designs the strength of the hull is such as to resist the 
 crushing pressure of the water at a depth of 200 feet. In early 
 types, the ballast tanks, which will be referred to later, were 
 inside the hull proper. In later types they are built on, outside, 
 making what is in effect a double hull and adding much to the 
 normal strength of the structure, as well as to the protection 
 from damage by collision or other accident. In this (double- 
 
SUBMARINES. 63! 
 
 hull) type, the ballast tanks, in addition to being outside the 
 real hull are below the level of the interior deck level. In the 
 single-hull type also, they are below the interior deck. 
 
 Tanks habitually carried completely rilled when the boat is 
 submerged are called "Main Ballast Tanks" and are numbered 
 serially from forward aft. 
 
 Tanks which are not habitually carried completely filled when 
 the boat is submerged, or which are used for weight compensation 
 are called "Variable Ballast Tanks." The variable tanks at 
 bow and stern are the forward and after "Trimming Tanks." 
 
 To the above are added other small variable tanks, "Auxiliary" 
 and "Regulating," for various purposes. Each tank is provided 
 with a sea-valve, a vent-valve, and connections for pumping and 
 blowing by the use of air at loo-pounds pressure. 
 
 When it is desired to rid the tanks of water it may be done in 
 three ways : 
 
 I. Blowing with air. 
 
 2. Pumping with main power pumps. 
 
 3. Pumping by hand. 
 
 Air flasks are provided, capable of being charged with com- 
 pressed air to a pressure of 2500 pounds or over. This air can 
 be blown into any tank at any desired pressure through air lines 
 fitted with proper stop-valves. When air pressure is admitted 
 into a tank (at its highest point) and the flooding valves (at the 
 lowest point) are left open, the water in the tank will be blown 
 out, provided the internal air pressure is greater than the ex- 
 ternal water pressure due to the "head" of water. 
 
 The main-power pumps are run either through suitable gearing 
 or by clutches from the main shaft, and will pump against a great 
 pressure. The water-lines are so arranged that all tanks can be 
 opened up to the main pump. 
 
 The hand-pumps are operated entirely by hand, and would 
 afford the final method used to free the tanks of water, when the 
 air and electricity had failed. They can be connected to any 
 tank. 
 
 The interior of the hull is divided into water-tight compart- 
 ments, of which the most important are: 
 
 The Torpedo Room, at the extreme bow, where the torpedo 
 tubes are installed and the "ready" torpedoes stowed. In 
 large submarines, tubes are also installed astern. 
 
 The Battery Room, for the storage batteries. 
 
(632) 
 
 Plate No. 169. 
 
 FIG. i. A SUBMARINE. 
 
 FIG. 2. QUARTERS IN A SUBMARINE. 
 
SUBMARINES. 633 
 
 The Control Room, with all facilities for manoeuvring, espe- 
 cially when submerged. Here is a sound-proof booth, with 
 receivers for radio, submarine signals, and special listening de- 
 vices as developed during the World War. 
 
 This is the station of the Commanding Officer when operating 
 submerged. 
 
 The most important of the control-devices are the following: 
 Diving plane controls. 
 Steering wheel and electric controls. 
 Kingston-valves for flooding the ballast-tanks. 
 Trimming pumps and their manifolds. 
 High and low pressure manifolds. 
 Depth and tank pressure gauges. 
 Motor controls. 
 
 Periscopes and their hoisting controls. 
 Valves of ventilating system. 
 Inclinometer for determining Trim. 
 The Engine Room. 
 The Motor Room. 
 The Tiller Room. 
 
 The After Torpedo Room (if stern tubes are used). 
 Such space as is available in the compartments above enum- 
 erated is utilized as living spaces for the officers and crew. In 
 the largest boats a separate living compartment is provided for 
 the officers. 
 
 The modern submarine is a vessel of considerable size (500 to 
 2000 tons displacement), with good cruising radius, carrying its 
 personnel in comfortable quarters (Plate 169) and affording 
 fairly satisfactory space and facilities for exercise and diversion. 
 An elevated and roomy conning tower (Plate 170) gives ample 
 opportunity for navigation and manoeuvring on the surface, and 
 the necessary instruments are duplicated in the control room 
 below as above described. 
 
 Sanitation is provided by effective force pumps or air ejection 
 systems which have been brought to a high degree of efficiency. 
 Cooking is done by electric stoves. 
 Steering may be by either magnetic or gyro compass. 
 Ventilation. The volume of air contained within the boats is 
 usually sufficient to last from 5 to 6 hours before becoming 
 vitiated. The renewal of air is provided for by a pump taking its 
 suction from the bilges or lower portion of the boats, and dis- 
 
634 
 
 SUBMARINES. 
 
 charging outboard, while fresh air is admitted to the interior from 
 the compressed air tanks until normal atmospheric pressure is 
 obtained. The general practice is to start the renewal of air 
 after being with closed hatches for 4 hours. After this time, 
 2 inches by barometer is removed every 4 hours, and air admitted 
 from the air tanks to bring the pressure back to normal. The 
 compressed air contained in the tanks is considered sufficient to 
 sustain life for about three or four days in the ordinary type of 
 submarine. Below is a formula for determining the number of 
 days the contained compressed air in the air tanks of a sub- 
 marine will sustain life: 
 
 X Number of days life is sustained before symptoms of 
 
 distress occur. 
 
 a = Air pressure in tanks, per square inch. 
 b = Cubical contents of tanks in cubic feet. 
 c = Number of men in crew. 
 
 36oooc 
 
 NOTE. This formula was computed assuming that one man uses .8 cubic 
 feet of oxygen per hour; that there is 20 per cent by volume of oxygen in the 
 air; and that symptoms of distress occur when the oxygen has been reduced 
 to 12 per cent by volume. 
 
 III. OPERATING. 
 
 Insofar as submarines can be divided into types, the dis- 
 tinguishing characteristics are connected more with methods of 
 submerging than with any other features, and even here the 
 differences are fast disappearing. 
 
 All modern submarines have, under normal operating condi- 
 tions, a small degree of positive buoyancy, as a result of which 
 they tend to rise to the surface except when some force is being 
 applied to keep them submerged. The forces which may be so 
 applied are of two kinds, weight, added by filling the ballast 
 tanks which have been described, and pressure, applied by 
 horizontal rudders or fin-like planes, called ' 'hydroplanes," 
 projecting from the hull and capable of being tilted up or down 
 by mechanism controlled from inisde the boat. The hydroplane 
 does not differ in principle from the horizontal rudder, and like 
 the rudder it depends for its effect upon actual motion of the 
 submarine through the water; the action being, in fact, one of 
 steering the submarine either up or down. It will be seen that 
 
Plate No. 170. 
 
 635 
 
 FIG. i. CONNING TOWER AND BRIDGE 
 OF A SUBMARINE. 
 
 FIG. 2. PERISCOPE. 
 
636 
 
 SUBMARINES. 
 
 if there exists a small amount of positive buoyancy when all the 
 tanks are filled, the submarine will, theoretically, rise to the 
 surface when motion through the water ceases. 
 
 Another important factor which enters into the question of 
 steering up or down, when the submarine (submerged) is actually 
 making way through the water, is the trim of the boat. 
 
 There are three conditions under which submarines usually 
 operate; viz., the "light" or cruising condition, the "awash" 
 condition, and the "submerged" condition. 
 
 In the "light" or cruising condition, the main ballast, auxiliary 
 ballast, adjusting, and midship tanks, should be kept free of 
 water, and the water in the bilges should be kept as low as pos- 
 sible, in order to prevent the dangerous tendency to dive when 
 there is free water in the main ballast or midship tanks, or in the 
 bilges. 
 
 The forward and after trimming tanks are used to give the 
 boat the most efficient trim for surface running. This trim is 
 usually about 2 or 3 down by the stern, but it varies slightly 
 with different types of boats. Except in cases where a main 
 hatch trunk is fitted, the main hatch should always be kept closed 
 when underway. The torpedo hatch is also closed and should 
 never be opened when underway. The conning-tower hatch and 
 all ventilators are kept open except in very rough weather, when 
 every opening in the boat should be sealed except one ventilator 
 which supplies air for the engines. This ventilator is so fitted 
 that it can be lowered from inside the boat. 
 
 To run awash under the engines, a special type ventilator is 
 provided, which can be closed from inside the boat. All prepara- 
 tions are made as before except that the "awash" ventilator is 
 kept up. All tanks are filled except the auxiliary, which should 
 be kept empty. The air for the engines is supplied through the 
 ventilator, and a fuel-tank vent inside of the boat is kept open. 
 The diving rudder is tended very carefully to prevent the boat 
 diving, and a watch is kept on the ventilator, which can be closed 
 instantly by a flat valve, should any water enter. 
 
 To Submerge. Control in the vertical plane is effected by the 
 use of horizontal rudders or hydroplanes as already described. 
 In the early boats, of the Holland type, one such plane aft, in 
 the form of a horizontal rudder, was all that was required ; but 
 the increase of length in later boats has led to a demand for a 
 pair of planes at the bow, and the Lake type has a pair amid- 
 
SUBMARINES. 637 
 
 ships also. The midship planes are always fitted to be rigged 
 in, to clear the side of the boat when going alongside a dock or a 
 tender. The bow planes are sometimes similarly fitted. The 
 stern planes are identical in effect with the horizontal rudder 
 formerly used alone. 
 
 When running submerged, the storage batteries are the only 
 source of power. It is a peculiarity of the storage battery that 
 the higher the rate of discharge, the smaller the total amount of 
 power which can be taken from it, and vice-versa. This char- 
 acteristic is utilized when submarines wish to make long sub- 
 merged runs. The storage battery is divided, electrically, in 
 halves. When these are connected in parallel, the voltage 
 impressed on the motors is reduced, thereby reducing the rate 
 of discharge. This connection will give the maximum total 
 amount of power that can be taken from the battery. If the 
 motors are now placed in series with each other, the power which 
 would ordinarily be used to drive one propeller is divided be- 
 tween two and the boat is run at its lowest and most economical 
 speed. 
 
 Diving and Running Submerged. There are two methods of 
 submerging, the Stationary dive and the Running dive. The 
 stationary dive is made, as its name indicates, with no way on 
 the boat. It is made, but only in shallow water, when the 
 commanding officer is uncertain of the "trim" or the location of 
 the center of gravity, as a result of recent changes in the variable 
 weights in the boat: stores, oil, torpedoes, etc. The object of 
 this type of dive is to determine the locatio~h of the center of 
 gravity, as this is very important in submarine handling. 
 
 When a stationary dive is to be made, an area on soundings, 
 and, if possible, with a soft bottom, is chosen. When in the 
 desired location, the boat is stopped and the main ballast tanks 
 slowly flooded. When these are full, as indicated by water 
 coming through the inboard vents, the inclinometers are examined 
 to ascertain the condition of the fore and aft trim. In a sub- 
 merged submarine, the fore and aft stability is much reduced. 
 The first step after submerging is, therefore, to establish a fore 
 and aft horizonal trim. It is assumed that the buoyancy is not 
 completely destroyed when the main ballast tank is flooded, as 
 the operation is rendered much more dangerous and difficult 
 when the boat is so heavy as to sink before the fore and aft trim 
 is obtained. 
 
638 
 
 SUBMARINES. 
 
 Assuming that the boat is submerged to a depth of eight or 
 nine feet by the depth gauge when the main ballast tanks are 
 flooded, the commanding officer looks to the angle of the boat 
 in a fore and aft line. If, for instance, the bubble of the in- 
 clinometer is at the forward end of the glass he knows that the 
 boat is lighter at the forward end than at the after, and he 
 slowly admits water to the forward trimming tank, watching 
 the bubble carefully and stopping in time to catch it at zero. 
 During this operation care must be taken not to add enough 
 water to destroy the buoyancy of the boat. If it is seen that to 
 bring the boat on an even keel by flooding forward will require 
 enough water to destroy this buoyancy, the plan is changed and 
 water is pumped from aft forward, until the proper trim is 
 reached. 
 
 When the fore and aft trim is obtained and the bubble is on 
 zero, the total weight of the boat is examined and corrected by 
 changing the amount of water in the auxiliary and regulating 
 tanks. The best trim for slow speed (the most difficult condition 
 for running submerged) is that of almost neutral buoyancy. If 
 this condition is obtained, very little diving angle is needed to 
 maintain the set depth. If the boat is heavy, i.e., has negative 
 buoyancy, high speed and large rudder and plane angle are 
 necessary to keep her from going below the desired depth; and 
 if she is light, the same demands on power and rudders are made 
 to keep her from breaking the surface. A very good trim is 
 obtained when the boat will hang or balance on an even keel at 
 twenty feet; this will leave something less than one hundred 
 pounds of positive buoyancy, which amount is about right. 
 
 It must be emphasized that this type of dive should be made 
 only in shallow water, as in great depths very real dangers are 
 present. When a submarine is falling through the water there 
 are only two ways of stopping the fall; one by blowing the water 
 from the main ballast tanks, thus overcoming the downward 
 momentum by the lifting force of buoyancy, the other to go 
 ahead at full speed and raise her by the planing effect of the 
 hydroplanes. As it takes some time and no little force to over- 
 come the downward momentum of a large boat, dangerous 
 depths and pressures may well be encountered before regaining 
 control. The force necessary to catch a boat weighing 600 tons 
 falling at the rate of a foot per second can be quickly figured 
 but it will take- longer to apply it. 
 
SUBMARINES. 639 
 
 On account of this danger and the time lost in making a 
 stationary dive, charts and tables are usually made from which 
 the amount and location of the salt water necessary to com- 
 pensate for the fuel used and stores moved can easily be found, 
 and the trim maintained during long runs and over protracted 
 periods. 
 
 The running dive is the safest, quickest and most common 
 method of submerging. In this method the trim must be 
 approximately known, but large variations are permissible. 
 After making all preparations, as described later, the main ballast 
 tanks are flooded while still going ahead on the motors at normal 
 speed with the halves of the battery in series, so as to have a 
 large reserve of power if it is needed. When the ballast tanks 
 are flooded, the speed may be reduced and the planes placed in 
 the neutral position in order to ascertain the fore and aft trim 
 and the total weight of the boat. As in the stationary dive, 
 the fore and aft trim is corrected first and then the total weight. 
 When the boat is so trimmed that the planes will hold the 
 desired depth at slow speed with a small angle, it may be stopped 
 with safety to make very fine adjustments; but in practice this 
 is seldom done as the trim obtained at slow speed is good enough 
 for all purposes. In this method of diving, the danger of the 
 boat getting away on the flooding of the tanks is much reduced, 
 as there is already sufficient way on to make use of the planes 
 immediately and the downward momentum can be more readily 
 overcome. 
 
 Preparation and Orders for Diving. When a submarine is 
 on the surface there are several conditions existing that must be 
 changed before it can submerge. Deck hatches may be open, 
 awnings up, battery ventilation outlets open, and the induction 
 valve supplying air to the engines and living spaces is sure to be 
 open. These valves must be closed and all navigation gear and 
 other portable objects on the bridge must be struck below. 
 This work is a matter of routine but the commanding officer 
 must make sure that all is done correctly. Below decks there 
 are many things to be done. The valves mentioned above are 
 all closed from inside the boat, beside which there are stop valves 
 on the tanks to be opened, reserve air-banks to be connected to 
 the air manifold, pumps to be tested and bilges pumped, and 
 motor fields to be excited. W T ith a well-trained crew the only 
 order necessary is the signal to dive, given on the warning 
 
640 SUBMARINES. 
 
 howler or klaxon ; but if the crew are inexperienced each order is 
 given in detail and a report made on its execution. 
 
 A complete list of diving orders with their meanings is given 
 below : 
 
 RIG FOR DIVING (described above). 
 
 VENTILATE INBOARD. This applies to the battery ventilation 
 and on account of its importance is given as a separate order 
 and requires a separate report when complied with. 
 
 SHIFT THE CONTROL, to conning tower or control room. Before 
 diving, the rudder and engine telegraphs are operated from 
 the bridge. 
 
 STATIONS FOR TRIMMING DOWN. At this order the junior officers 
 and crew take their diving stations and await orders to open 
 valves and vents. 
 
 SECURE THE ENGINES. At this order the engines are stopped, 
 the motors made ready, and all outboard openings in the 
 engine room closed. When the commanding officer takes 
 his diving station, usually at a periscope from which a view 
 of the depth gauge is had, he orders : 
 
 REPORT. At this the man in charge of each station reports 
 through the voice tube or telephone that the valves and 
 machinery at his station are, in all respects, ready for diving. 
 These reports may be made to the executive officer but in 
 any case they should be checked by the executive or com- 
 manding officer. 
 
 CLOSE THE CONNING TOWER. 
 
 AHEAD BOTH MOTORS. If this has not been given before or 
 unless a stationary dive is to be made. 
 
 A further word of explanation is here necessary. An order to 
 BLOW a tank is an order to CLOSE the vent and an order to FLOOD 
 a tank is an order to OPEN the vent. An order to flood or blow 
 requires two reports of execution, one that the water valve is 
 either opened or closed, as the case may be, and another that 
 the vent is in the correct position. Now comes: 
 
 FLOOD MAIN BALLAST. This is acknowledged by the reports 
 that the kings tons and vents are open. When the man at 
 the air manifold reports that there is water at the manifold, 
 the commanding officer, after waiting long enough to be 
 sure that there are no bubbles left in the tank, orders: 
 
SUBMARINES. 64! 
 
 CLOSE THE MAIN VENTS. This leaves the kingston valves still 
 open and the tanks are ready for quick blowing. Orders 
 are now given to regulate the trim such as : 
 
 FLOOD Ibs. in after trim. In flooding, pumping, or blowing 
 small tanks, a definite amount is always designated and a 
 report is made when the gauge passes an even mark, such as 
 "1800, 1900, in after trim" and the final amount is reported 
 when the tank is secured. 
 
 When an order is given to blow a partially filled tank, the man 
 at the station on the outboard valve must never open it until a 
 report is received that the pressure in the tank is greater than the 
 sea pressure. To do so will allow water to enter the tank, which 
 is the converse of what is desired; and if the tank is a large one, 
 only slightly filled, great danger exists that enough water to 
 sink the boat may enter. When taking water from a partially 
 filled tank, it is much safer, quicker, and more economical, to use 
 the pumps. Boats have been known to hit the bottom at dan- 
 gerous depths by trying to blow. It is one of the most dangerous 
 mistakes that can be made; as will be clear from the following 
 illustration : 
 
 A submarine is running at sixty feet, with five thousand pounds 
 of water in the auxiliary tank, which is designed to hold twenty 
 thousand. At sixty feet there is a pressure of thirty pounds 
 per square inch on the outside of the tank. Now if the kingston 
 is opened before the pressure is built up in the tank, the water 
 will enter with a head of thirty pounds at a rate governed by the 
 size of the kingston, usually about six inches in diameter. With 
 this opening it will take only a few seconds for ten or fifteen 
 thousand pounds of water to enter the boat. As this is giving 
 the boat negative buoyancy, she will immediately gather momen- 
 tum toward the bottom. 
 
 To catch her this water must be got rid of and the momentum 
 overcome. Things happen quickly in submarines and one can 
 not be too careful. THE BEST RULE is TO PUMP, NOT BLOW, 
 
 A PARTIALLY FILLED TANK. 
 
 When the boat is in the proper trim, the order is given to 
 RUN AT FEET. It may be sixty or only sixteen, but the depth 
 is always specifically designated. 
 
 To bring a submarine to the surface it is only necessary to get 
 rid of the water in the main ballast tanks. Any tank may be 
 
642 
 
 SUBMARINES. 
 
 freed of water in either of two ways; by pumping with high or 
 low pressure pumps or by blowing with compressed air. The 
 usual method is to blow until a good percentage of positive 
 buoyancy is obtained and then pump the tanks dry. This is a 
 quick method and is economical of compressed air. Hence, 
 after making sure that the vents are secured, the order is given 
 BLOW MAIN BALLAST. The pumps are started when positive 
 buoyancy is assured. 
 
 IV. HANDLING SUBMERGED. 
 
 Whether or not the boat handles well submerged depends 
 almost entirely on the trim. Heavy seas will make a difference 
 in handling, particularly near the surface, but the one big 
 factor over which the commanding officer has control is the trim, 
 which should be very carefully regulated. A poor trim can be 
 overcome by high speed but it is unseamanlike and only the 
 gravest emergencies should be allowed to interfere with having a 
 perfect trim. 
 
 The effect of speed on handling submerged is tabulated below : 
 
 HIGH SPEED: 
 
 1. Requires small plane angle. 
 
 2. Requires small angle on boat to change depth. 
 
 3. Can be out of buoyancy trim as much as 4,000 or 5,000 
 
 pounds. 
 
 4. Can be out of fore and aft trim. 
 
 5. Planes are difficult to operate and boat changes depth and 
 
 angle very quickly. 
 
 LOW SPEED: 
 
 1. Requires large plane angle. 
 
 2. Requires large angle on boat. 
 
 3. Must be trimmed more accurately as to buoyancy. 
 
 4. Must be trimmed more accurately fore and aft. 
 
 5. Planes easy to operate, boat easy to control, changes depth 
 
 and angle slowly. 
 
 Periscopes. A periscope (Plate 170) is an Instrument for 
 conveying to the eye of an observer inside the submerged sub- 
 marine an image of objects on and above the surface of the 
 water as the observer would see them directly if his eye were at 
 the height occupied by the upper end of the periscope. It 
 
SUBMARINES. 643 
 
 consists of a long tube projecting upward through the deck of 
 the submarine so that its upper end will be several feet above the 
 surface of the water when the submarine is submerged to a 
 depth sufficient for concealment. An opening in the upper end 
 carries a prism so placed that rays of light striking the prism are 
 reflected downward through the tube where they strike upon the 
 object glass of what is, in effect, a telescope. The light rays 
 from the lens are again reflected by a prism to a horizontal eye- 
 piece at the lower end of the tube, inside the control-room of the 
 submarine, and thence to the eye of the observer, who thus 
 sees what he would see if he were using a telescope, with his 
 eye at the point occupied by the upper prism of the periscope. 
 
 Some periscopes are fitted for scanning the sky and are called 
 altiscopes. One of this type is usually provided in each boat. 
 The latest periscopes are bi-focal; that is, they have two powers 
 of magnification in addition to unity; usually, i, 5 and 6. The 
 lower power with a large field is used when the object viewed is 
 near or when a search is being made for an object. As the field 
 of the high power is very much smaller than that of the low power, 
 it is easier to pick up an object in the latter, after which it can be 
 examined through the high-power eye-piece. When nearing an- 
 other vessel while submerged, the low power eye-glass should 
 always be used as the other is apt to give an incorrect idea of dis- 
 tance. Telemeter scales are placed in the fields of all periscopes 
 to aid in estimating distance and after considerable practice they 
 are very helpful ; but the rule to shift to low power when close 
 aboard should never be disregarded. Periscopes are provided 
 with azimuth circles so that bearings may be taken, and all 
 torpedo firing is done from this instrument; therefore great 
 care should be taken to keep it properly bore sighted; that is, 
 to have the cross wires split the center line of the target when 
 the scale reads zero. They are fairly strong instruments but the 
 same care used with all other optical instruments should be 
 observed in their use. 
 
 On the surface a submarine will carry its way as far as any 
 other vessel of the same tonnage; but submerged the way is lost 
 very quickly. This should be remembered as it may be of 
 value when the boat is brought to the surface near unexpected 
 traffic. Another point that should be kept in mind is that 
 backing the screws submerged tends to drag the stern down. 
 This is of value when the boat is heavy forward and going down 
 
644 SUBMARINES. 
 
 rapidly; in this case backing will not only kill the way but will 
 help level the boat when the planes are inadequate. 
 
 When submerged the turning circle is increased (Plate 171). 
 The same principles about backing the inboard screw when 
 turning apply as in surface work. In turning with hard over 
 rudder, a heel is given the boat, the degree depending on the 
 speed. As this throws the rudder out of the vertical plane, it 
 takes on a little of the character of the hydroplanes and makes 
 depth-keeping more difficult. This is a point to be watched 
 when firing torpedoes, or when, for any reason, accuracy of depth 
 is essential. When holding a course, no more than five de- 
 grees of rudder angle should be used. 
 
 When running submerged at high speeds, the bow planes are 
 usually set at an angle determined by the trim, which will allow 
 a minimum use of the stern planes, by which changes of depth 
 are controlled. At low speeds, the reverse is true. The stern 
 planes are set and the bow planes used like the wings of an aero- 
 plane, raising or lowering the boat by their hydroplane effect 
 without changing the inclination of the boat. If the stern 
 planes are used for this purpose it must be remembered to use 
 them in the opposite direction from that used in changing the 
 inclination of the boat. To give the boat an angle down by the 
 bow, the stern planes are put down, throwing the stern up and 
 the bow down. If the "planing" effect is wanted, a smaller 
 angle is used; and on account of the low speed, the water, acting 
 on the under surfaces of the planes, will tend to raise the boat 
 as a whole rather than to change the inclination. When running 
 at fairly high speeds, the bow planes are set and the man at the 
 stern planes "follows the bubble" on the inclinometer. As the 
 planes are connected to their controls in such a way as to give 
 down angles when the wheel is moved forward, this will give 
 down plane when the bubble moves forward, overcoming the 
 tendency of the bow to rise. 
 
 V. DO'S AND DONT'S. 
 
 Do not attempt to pass under traffic or tow lines. It is much 
 safer to wait and go astern. 
 
 Do not submerge unless all bilges are reported dry. A free 
 water surface is a dangerous thing in a submarine, because of 
 the tendency of the water to rush forward or aft, changing the 
 trim suddenly and violently. 
 
Plate No. 171. 
 
 645 
 
 SURFACE, LEFT RUDDER (29) 
 
 SUBMERGED, LEFT RUDDER (29) 
 
 TURNING CIRCLES OF A SUBMARINE. 
 
646 
 
 SUBMARINES. 
 
 If, after coming to the surface, the boat is heavy at one end, 
 examine the valves to the trimming tank at that end. One 
 may have been left open or a sea valve to the bilges may be 
 cracked. Free water may give the boat a sudden and dangerous 
 lurch at a moment when it is least expected or desired. 
 
 If submerged, do not flood an empty torpedo tube by opening 
 the outer door. This is a sure way of hitting the bottom. 
 Always pump the tubes full from the forward trimming tank. 
 This will not change the trim or add weight to the boat. 
 
 Do not run at excessive angles. Oil will run out of the motor 
 bearings. Excessive depths or the bottom will soon be reached, 
 especially in long boats. 
 
 If chlorine is smelled come to the surface at once, but do not 
 blow a tank surrounding a battery or one which could leak into it. 
 Blow everything else. Get the load off the battery as soon as 
 possible. Pump tanks surrounding a battery. 
 
 If the boat is fitted with a duct keel, always fill it before the 
 final trim is obtained. A leak into this passage may throw the 
 boat out of trim just as a torpedo is fired. 
 
 Do not wait for the muffler valves to leak. Examine them 
 periodically. 
 
 Watch the bilges. Allow no free water. 
 
 Watch the exhaust valve drains. 
 
 Watch the pressure on all tanks. Note that a leaky tube 
 drain may give excessive pressure on forward trim when firing 
 torpedoes. Crack and close the main vents occasionally. 
 
 When coming up, pass from fifty feet to periscope depth as 
 quickly as possible without excessive angles. 
 
 Collision submerged has long been considered fatal: it has 
 been done without losing life. But do not try it. 
 
 Hitting the bottom too hard may ruin the battery. 
 
 Going ahead to "catch her" without blowing is bad practice. 
 
 You may blow two blasts on the whistle submerged but only 
 one spout will show and a misunderstanding may occur. It is 
 better to expose the bridge and indicate your intentions clearly 
 in plenty of time to avoid collision. Always be ready to blow. 
 
 Look out for main ballast blows freezing in cold weather, 
 due to water in the lines and expansion of air. 
 
 Check gyro-compass with magnetic frequently, particularly 
 when the boat is rolling or pitching. 
 
 Watch battery grounds. Remember that with grounds on 
 both legs, the weaker will go and a fire may result. 
 
SUBMARINES. 647 
 
 The man on the listening device should report all noises, how- 
 ever slight. 
 
 Do not make a stationary dive off soundings. 
 
 Do not blow a partially filled tank. 
 
 If a kingston leaks, put about five pounds pressure in the tank 
 when on the surface. 
 
 VI. EMERGENCIES. 
 
 Battery fires are caused by short circuits. The trouble may 
 be in an acid-soaked power lead, a broken battery jar, acid 
 spilled in rough weather, or any one of a great many things; 
 but the first treatment is always the same. Get the power off the 
 battery. This removes the cause and the fire now becomes an 
 ordinary one and will succomb to ordinary treatment. If the 
 fire is of no great extent when discovered, a fire extinguisher will 
 probably be all that is necessary. A large fire may require the 
 compartment to be battened down. If this is the case be sure 
 that all the voice tubes and ventilation ducts are closed. A bad 
 fire in the engine room will always go out if the engine is started 
 and the air supply to the engine room cut off. 
 
 The treatment for battery explosions is entirely preventive. 
 After the explosion the wounded will require attention and there 
 will be a fire to fight, but the explosion is over and there will 
 probably not be another. Proper ventilation is the best pre- 
 ventive. If the explosive gas is present, a motor is sure to spark 
 and supply the necessary heat to explode it. Do not be par- 
 simonious of the water in the battery. Use the blowers at full 
 speed when near the end of a battery charge. Four per cent of 
 hydrogen is enough to cause an explosion. The blowers are 
 large enough to carry it all away if the ventilation system is 
 tight. There will be no warning, so watch the ventilation. 
 
 Chlorine is caused by the passage of an electric current through 
 an electrolyte containing salt in solution. The emergency 
 treatment here is the same as that for a battery fire. Get the 
 current off the battery. If submerged, come to the surface but 
 do not put pressure on a battery tank unless the salt water was 
 actually seen to enter the battery through some other means than 
 the battery tank. Blow the tank not adjacent to the battery 
 giving off the chlorine, and pump those near it. As chlorine 
 gas is poisonous, plenty of fresh air is necessary to clear the gas 
 from the boat. If only a small amount of water has entered the 
 
648 SUBMARINES. 
 
 battery, the chlorine may be got rid of by charging the battery 
 at a high rate. This will produce a large amount of gas for a 
 time but after a couple of hours all the salt will have been acted 
 upon and no more chlorine will be generated. This treatment 
 is harmful to the battery and should not be used unless impera- 
 tive. If large amounts of salt have entered the battery, the 
 plates will have to be taken out and washed and all electrolyte 
 renewed. 
 
 To have salt water in the lubricating oil is always a serious 
 matter. The results of this are the wiping of bearings, burning 
 of piston heads and cracking of cylinders. Water may enter 
 lubricating oil through a variety of paths; leaky muffler valves on 
 a deep dive, a leak in the oil cooler, a cracked cylinder, and leaky 
 rivets in the stowage tanks, are common causes. Salting of the 
 oil may always be determined before the condition becomes 
 dangerous, by the use of silver nitrate solution. The oil should 
 be tested by the addition of a few drops of the silver nitrate to a 
 sample of oil at least once every hour that the engines are running 
 and always before starting an engine. Once the salt gets a start 
 there is a lot of work ahead of the officers and crew before the 
 engines can be run again. 
 
 Finding oneself in dangerous depths is about the only other 
 emergency that is peculiar to submarines. This condition is, 
 almost without exception, due to having the boat negatively 
 buoyant. The seriousness of the situation depends on the 
 depth of water and the condition of the hull. If a large com- 
 partment is flooded and the water is much over two hundred feet 
 deep, there is not much that can be done from within the boat. 
 If the boat is stuck in the mud at one hundred and fifty feet and 
 the hull is still tight there is every reason to believe that she 
 may be raised by the crew. Submarines of our Navy are built 
 and tested to withstand two hundred feet of water. This means 
 a pressure of ninety pounds per square inch, and the pumps and 
 air lines are designed to work against that pressure. If stuck 
 in the mud in deep water, the first thing to do is to get as much 
 positive buoyancy as possible. This may be done by blowing or 
 pumping tanks, provided the pressure is not too great; even if 
 it is, the effort must be made. Remember the principle of 
 blowing full tanks instead of partially filled ones, for in an 
 emergency of this sort one can't afford to waste a single pound of 
 air. Watch the pumps, when working at great depths; for the 
 
SUBMARINES. 649 
 
 glands and stuffing boxes are sure to leak and may blow out. 
 Always be sure that the pump is running before opening the 
 outboard valve, otherwise some additional water will have to be 
 pumped out, as the pressure will back it in through the pump. 
 The chances are that a submarine will get stuck in the mud at 
 the bow, as this is pointing down when the dive commences. 
 This leaves the screws clear for use and makes the salvage that 
 much easier. The first thing to do is to free the heavy end or 
 the end that is being held by the mud. Blow the forward 
 tanks first, so that the buoyancy thus gained will work toward 
 putting the boat on an even keel. If this does not free the bow, 
 the screws may be backed. Backing the screws has a three- 
 fold value when in this condition. As was mentioned before, 
 backing the screws when submerged has a tendency to drag the 
 stern down, thus forming a lever to break the bow out of the 
 mud; it also gives a powerful pull away from the mud, and, if 
 continued for some time, may wash the mud away from the bow 
 in sufficient quantities to aid in freeing the boat. Backing on 
 one screw and going ahead on the other gives a strong turning 
 moment that is of no little value; if the directions of the screws 
 are reversed from time to time an effect of sallying may be 
 produced. The moving of heavy weights will also have a value, 
 particularly if the boat is held by only a small portion of the bow. 
 If the torpedo tubes are empty and can be opened, blowing water 
 slugs from them might help in breaking the bow clear. The 
 above are a few applications of the principles involved; circum- 
 stances will have to govern the choice of methods. 
 
 VII. HANDLING ALONGSIDE. 
 
 The main points to be remembered in handling a submarine 
 alongside a dock or tender are that the bow and stern are delicate 
 and that the boat will invariably back into the wind. The bow 
 casting is very strong, but only a foot or so abaft this are the 
 torpedo shutters, which will not stand any sharp blow or any 
 considerable pressure without bending or breaking, either of 
 which will put the torpedo tubes out of commission. The skegs 
 on most of the older boats and on many of the newer ones pro- 
 ject far out from the hull. As these skegs support the rudder 
 and the stern planes and only partially guard the screws, a 
 small blow may put the whole after end of the boat out of com- 
 mission. Except for these peculiarities, submarines are very 
 
650 SUBMARINES. 
 
 easy to handle. There is a large reserve of power for both back- 
 ing and going ahead which can be almost instantly applied. On 
 account of the tendency to back into the wind, care must be 
 taken in getting out lines, to be sure that the stern is under con- 
 trol of one line as soon as possible. Do not hesitate to use power. 
 Full power can be used for a short time without getting much way 
 on the boat and may be just what is needed to overcome a bad 
 tide or a strong wind. Do not confuse power and speed, however. 
 
 When manoeuvring, do not neglect the rudder. When turning 
 in a confined area, the rudder will assist the screws to a great 
 extent. The rudder must be used with regard to the direction 
 of motion, however, and not to the screw direction. Do not shift 
 the rudder until the way is entirely killed, when backing and 
 filling. The screws have a powerful turning force and can turn a 
 submarine around in a length and a half if there is no wind. 
 
 The use of lines in securing and coming alongside with a sub- 
 marine is the same as with a surface craft. Always cross the 
 lines so that they may be used to warp in, whether going ahead or 
 astern. 
 
 VIII. HEAVY WEATHER. 
 
 Submarines, properly handled, will live through any storm. 
 The only requirements are that the hatches ba secured in plenty 
 of time to prevent water entering the boat and that there is 
 plenty of sea room. A submarine can be handled from within 
 almost as well as from the bridge, except of course in narrow 
 waters; so on the approach of a storm do not run the risk of 
 losing a man by trying to keep the bridge control too long. Do 
 not pound into a heavy sea. To do so will strain the hull and 
 will surely bend or break the torpedo shutters. A submarine, 
 like any other propeller driven ship, will naturally ride most 
 easily with her stern to wind and sea. If forced to lie-to, do so 
 in this position. It may be possible to^ keep a man on the 
 bridge when lying to, while it would be foolhardy to try if heading 
 into it. If it is of advantage to run before the sea, it can be 
 done more easily by regulating the speed to the length of the 
 waves. This will have to be done by running on the motors, 
 as the engines will not go slowly enough. If the speed is too 
 great, waves will come over. Oil may be used to advantage as 
 with surface vessels; a good way to apply it is to pump it out 
 with the bilge pumps. If the bilges are dry it will do no harm 
 
SUBMARINES. 651 
 
 to pump a little water in, and then, after adding a little oil, to 
 pump them dry again. 
 
 No difficulty should be experienced in submerging in a sea- 
 way if the sea is brought abeam or abaft the beam. 
 
 IX. TOWING. 
 
 Submarines are fitted with a towing pendant consisting of 
 from fifteen to twenty fathoms of six or seven inch wire. This 
 is fitted with a pelican hook for making fast to the towing 
 shackle in the bow. The pendant is usually carried stopped down 
 on deck, pelican hook attached, and a tripping line run from the 
 hook to the bridge. 
 
 As the motors are the most reliable part of the motive machin- 
 ery of a submarine they are usually in commission when the boat 
 has to be towed. This makes the operation of picking up the 
 tow much easier than is the case with larger vessels. Of course 
 if the submarine has not the use of her motors the problem of 
 picking up the tow is the same as for any other type of ship. 
 
 If a large ship is picking up the tow it is easier for the sub- 
 marine to manoeuvre for the tow line than for the larger vessel 
 to do so. If the towing vessel will lie-to with the wind on the 
 quarter or bow, the submarine can come up under the lee quarter 
 and, in smooth weather, take the tow line itself, thus eliminating 
 the use of messengers and other small lines that would encumber 
 the deck. If the weather is too bad for this, it may be possible 
 for the submarine to handle a messenger and a heavy tow line, 
 but it is improbable, for the decks are small, and, in bad weather, 
 very wet. 
 
 After the tow line is made fast, the submarine may be of 
 great assistance to the towing vessel in getting under way. By 
 using her motors, the strain of starting may be greatly relieved 
 and the danger of parting the line reduced. The same principles 
 apply in towing a submarine, as to speed and length of tow line, 
 as with other surface craft. As our submarines range from 
 three hundred to two thousand tons displacement, it is impossible 
 to designate the size of the tow line; it should be remembered, 
 however, that a submarine has more drag than a surface craft 
 of the same tonnage on account of the greater percentage of 
 below-water body. 
 
 If a submarine is to take another in tow, it should be done 
 about as follows. As only the very latest types have bitts aft, 
 
552 SUBMARINES. 
 
 a line should be passed around the conning tower, using plenty 
 of chafing gear, and the ends taken aft to a point about one 
 third the distance from the conning-tower to the tail, before 
 shackling the ends together and making the tow-line fast to this 
 improvised bridle. This will allow the stern to swing, and make 
 steering easier. Stop the bridle firmly to the cleats abreast the 
 conning tower to prevent rendering. 
 
 The tow line should be coiled down near the stern, with a good 
 man stationed near to prevent its slipping over the side and 
 fouling the screws. With the tow line led well forward, out- 
 board of everything, on the weather side, pass on the lee side 
 of the other boat as close as the weather will allow and send a 
 heaving line aboard. If the weather is such that it is imprac- 
 ticable to come within heaving line distance, make a heavy float 
 fast to the tow line, and, after coming as close as possible, drop 
 it where it can be picked up. When the heaving line is passed 
 or the tow line is in the water, stop dead. The two boats will 
 drift at the same speed and if the tow line is paid out at sufficient 
 speed to prevent its dragging, the other boat will have no diffi- 
 culty in pulling the end aboard or picking it up. This method 
 has the disadvantage that the tow is over the weather quarter 
 of the towing boat and she will have to manreuvre to place it 
 on the other side with consequent danger of fouling the propellers, 
 but it is the best method available if the boat to be towed is 
 completely disabled. If the boat to be towed has the use of her 
 motors the tow line may be passed as outlined with the larger 
 vessel. The towed boat can come up on the lee side of the 
 towing boat and take the heaving line, or she can manoeuvre to 
 pick up the buoyed tow line if the weather is heavy. 
 
(6 5 3) 
 
 CHAPTER XXIV. 
 
 KEEPING STATIONS AND MANCEUVRING IN SQUADRON. 1 
 II. 
 
 It is proposed here to discuss in rather general terms some of 
 the difficulties connected with work in squadron from the point 
 of view of seamanship not at all from that of tactics. We may 
 regard tactics as prescribing, in a very definite way, certain things 
 which must be done; while seamanship deals, in a much less 
 definite way, with the manner of doing them. The two subjects 
 necessarily overlap each other throughout a considerable field 
 and within this field it is impossible to discuss one of them with- 
 out touching upon the other. This is the excuse for such com- 
 ment as is here included upon tactical formations and manoeuvers. 
 
 All work of ships in squadron is designed as a preparation for 
 battle, but it may be questioned whether sufficient consideration 
 is always given to the difficulties which, in time of battle, will be 
 added to those which are connected with station-keeping and 
 manoeuvring at other times. The smoke from the guns and the 
 funnels of ships ahead all of these ships being under forced 
 draft will obscure the view from the conning tower in all di- 
 rections, but especially ahead. The ship next ahead will be seen 
 only a part of the time ; the leader of the column probably not at 
 all. And the use of instruments for keeping position will be 
 altogether impracticable. 
 
 In ordinary cruising and manoeuvring the conditions are much 
 better ; the next ahead can be seen at all times, the leader occasion- 
 ally; and sextants, stadimeters and range-finders are always 
 available for measuring distances. It is questionable, however, 
 to what extent advantage should be taken of these conditions. 
 Certainly a constant effort should be made to train the eye in 
 judging distance both by day and by night the last without the 
 aid of lights. And it would seem desirable to recognize the fact 
 that only under very exceptional circumstances, such as will 
 rarely exist in battle, can a column of vessels keep their distances 
 from the leader. 
 
 1 See Notes B, ' 'Handling Ships," at end of this chapter. 
 
654 KEEPING STATIONS AND MANOEUVRING IN SQUADRON. 
 
 Whatever method is used for estimating distance, it will usu- 
 ally be found easier to keep position than to regain it after it has 
 been lost. The moment a tendency is recognized to close up or 
 drop back, the speed should be changed enough, and only enough, 
 to check the tendency. This is better than to wait until the error 
 is so great as to call for a more radical change, which, if pro- 
 longed even a very little more than necessary, throws the posi- 
 tion out in the other direction. 
 
 A caution is called for here. It has already been remarked 
 that a column of ships cannot keep distance from the leader. It 
 seems probable that, in battle, each ship will be reduced to the 
 necessity of keeping distance from the next ahead ; and that there 
 will often be a good deal of uncertainty even about this. There 
 will be many times, however, when it is practicable to judge 
 whether the next ahead is or is not approximately in position 
 with reference to her own next ahead. Thus by watching as 
 many ships ahead as can be seen, whether one or two or more, 
 it will often be possible to discriminate between a real and an 
 apparent fault in position and to avoid the vexation of closing 
 up on the next ahead only to find her a moment later dropping 
 back because she has herself been ahead of position. 
 
 In spite of all that can be done, a ship will at times get quite 
 badly out of distance. It may be that her revolutions are not 
 quite true to standard, or that she has been badly steered, or 
 that the vessels ahead have changed their speed. When distance 
 has been lost from this last cause, caution must be used in closing, 
 as the other ships may at any time resume standard speed. 
 
 Here it may be remarked that more than half the troubles in 
 station-keeping come from irregularity in the speed and steering 
 of the guide, and that no amount of trouble should be thought 
 too great to keep these uniform. Good steering can be insured 
 by careful training of the helmsmen, and the electric revolution- 
 telegraph which is now installed in battleships gives the officer of 
 the deck information at all times of the number of revolutions ac- 
 tually being made. The officer-of-the-deck sets on this telegraph, 
 by means of three dials, the number of revolutions he desires to 
 make. This is indicated in the engine room and repeated back 
 over the instrument so that a duplicate set of dials on the bridge 
 record the number of turns that the engine room understands it is 
 to make. The officer-of-the-deck can always tell how many revo- 
 
KEEPING STATIONS AND MANOEUVRING IN SQUADRON. 655 
 
 lutions he has ordered by looking at his instrument, which also 
 shows that the engine room understands correctly. 
 
 While a perfectly uniform speed is more important on the part 
 of the guide than on that of other ships, it is of immense import- 
 ance to every vessel of the fleet, both for her own comfort and 
 for that of all the vessels associated with her. It is rather sur- 
 prising how little attention is usually given to acquiring this 
 habit. As a rule, if ships keep their positions reasonably well, 
 very little thought is given to the methods by which they ac- 
 complish this result, and a ship which is incessantly ranging up 
 and dropping back a little without getting seriously out of posi- 
 tion suffers nothing by comparison with one which steams 
 .steadily hour after hour. Yet the difference between the two is 
 very great, especially in the consumption of coal and in the de- 
 mand upon the fire-room and engine-room force. It is worth 
 while to give great attention to this point and to require the 
 closest possible approach to perfect steadiness on the part of the 
 officer of the deck and the engineer's force. An excellent way 
 to develop this is by steaming in line. Here errors in speed 
 manifest themselves at once and yet they inconvenience no one 
 but the offender. But for good results here, as in other cases, 
 the steadiness of the guide must be beyond suspicion. 
 
 Under conditions as they exist at present, some variation in 
 speed must be anticipated, and it is very important for every 
 ship of the column to have timely notice of a change made by the 
 ships ahead. The speed-cones as at present used give informa- 
 tion of changes in units of one knot. The rules for their use 
 could easily be modified to admit of showing smaller changes. 
 But any system of signalling by shapes hoisted at a yard-arm is 
 crude and unreliable and in battle would probably break down al- 
 together. It would not be difficult to devise an electrically con- 
 trolled system for showing in a sheltered position at the stern 
 the number of revolutions which the ship is making, or, perhaps 
 more simply, the deviation on one side or the other from the 
 number which is for the moment prescribed, whether this be 
 " standard," " half " or " slow." Whatever system is used, the 
 signal for a change should, when practicable, be shown coinci- 
 dently with the change. 
 
 Attention has been called to the importance of judging distance 
 without the use of instruments. The clearness with which de- 
 
656 KEEPING STATIONS AND MANOEUVRING IN SQUADRON. 
 
 tails can be seen on the ships ahead is a great help here. At 
 certain distances, for example, the name on the stern of the other 
 ship can just be read. It will almost always be possible to select 
 two objects on the other ship which can be brought in range 
 (vertically) for the correct distance, provided the observer 
 always stands at a fixed point. A little pitching may seem to 
 throw this out, but with practice the mean bearing can be recog- 
 nized. Even at night, if the weather is reasonably clear, this 
 plan is helpful, the spars and funnels of a ship 400 yards away 
 being plainly visible with good binoculars. 
 
 It is sometimes practicable to use a mark on our own ship as 
 a means of determining when we are at standard distance from 
 the next ahead, the observer standing always at a fixed point and 
 bringing this mark into coincidence with the water-line or some 
 other well-defined mark on the other vessel. The objection to 
 this is that such a mark would probably not be available in action 
 and is thus worse than useless as a guide at other times. It may 
 be possible, however, to fix a line on something which is always 
 available. An officer looking through a slit in the conning tower, 
 for example, might be guided by the angle subtended by the width 
 of this slit either vertically or horizontally his eye being at a 
 fixed point from which this angle just takes in the height of a 
 funnel or the width of a bridge on the ship ahead. 
 
 It is important to recognize the effect of steering, upon the 
 speed of the ship. A poor helmsman may make it impossible for 
 any officer to keep position. Not only does the ship in steering 
 wildly range over a greater distance than is right, but the " drag " 
 of the rudder holds her back and reduces her speed very materi- 
 ally. It is worth while to give great attention to training the 
 helmsman, insisting not only that a steady course shall be kept, 
 but that this shall be kept with the least possible amount of 
 helm. 
 
 It is a common error for beginners to make too frequent and 
 too radical changes of speed as a result of the failure to allow 
 for the interval which necessarily elapses between the signal for 
 increasing or reducing the revolutions and the actual change of 
 speed and position to be produced by the change in revolutions. 
 It is realized that a large ship holds her way for a long time 
 after the engines are stopped, and that she does not gather way, 
 if at rest, until an appreciable time after the engines art S 
 
KEEPING STATIONS AND MANOEUVRING IN SQUADRON. 657 
 
 but it is not always realized that exactly the same delay must be 
 allowed for in the response to a change of a few turns when the 
 ship is already making way. Thus the beginner, impatient to 
 regain position, and seeing no effect from his signal to add or 
 subtract one or two revolutions, is tempted to call for two or 
 three more ; and when, finally, the ship begins to forge ahead or 
 to drop back, his inclination is to let this go on until he is nearly 
 or quite in position, forgetting that the effect of the change in 
 revolutions of his engines will continue to affect the speed of his 
 ship long after the engines have resumed their standard speed. 
 This leads, of course, to almost endless changes in the revolu- 
 tions and keeps the ship perpetually ranging ahead of position 
 and dropping back astern of it. 
 
 Assuming that a ship has dropped astern of position, say a 
 hundred yards, and wishes to regain her place. 1 Having steadied 
 her, it remains to regain position and to avoid overrunning. 
 Suppose that five revolutions correspond to one knot. This 
 means that five revolutions per minute will give 2000 yards in an 
 hour. One revolution will thus give 400 yards an hour, or 100 
 yards in 15 minutes. If, therefore, we add one to the revolutions 
 which hold her steady, we may expect to regain position in 15 min- 
 utes, which is much too long an interval. To reduce the time to 
 five minutes, we must add not one turn, but three. We shall not 
 be actually in position at the end of the five minutes, for it will 
 take a perceptible time to pick up the extra speed ; but the interval 
 for continuing the extra revolutions will be five minutes, since it 
 will take approximately the same time to run off the extra mo- 
 mentum that it took to pick it up, and the ship should, theoreti- 
 cally, settle into place with the speed which will just keep her 
 there. 
 
 Similar considerations govern the reverse operation of drop- 
 ping back when we find ourselves ahead of position. 
 
 In all changes of speed, and indeed at all times when working 
 in squadron, it is not only good " comradeship " but good seaman- 
 ship, to give all possible consideration to the next astern. It 
 may be difficult for him to run into you, as is often said, but this 
 is no reason for trying to make it easy for him to do so. If the 
 
 *It is the "doctrine" of the Fleet to db this smartly (See Notes B at 
 end of this chapter) but the danger of overrunning, as above described, 
 must not be forgotten. 
 
658 KEEPING STATIONS AND MANCEUVRING IN SQUADRON. 
 
 next ahead comes dropping back suddenly upon you, and the 
 next astern is rather closer than he should be, there is no harm 
 in sheering out a little until all hands have time to adjust them- 
 selves. And in the simpler case where you are merely called 
 upon to open out for regaining your own position, it is well to 
 do this slowly, giving indication by speed signals of your inten- 
 tion to reduce revolutions. If you find yourself running up on 
 your leader, you should of course sheer out onto his quarter until 
 he draws away or you drop back. 
 
 It is an axiom of tactics that in column a ship is better ahead 
 of position than astern of it. This is for the reason that by 
 running more or less ahead she does not, as a rule, subject any 
 other ship to inconvenience. The next ahead will not usually 
 attempt to get out of the way, and the next astern is under no 
 obligation to follow up. On the other hand, a ship falling ma- 
 terially behind her station crowds back the next astern and in- 
 conveniences all ships in rear. 
 
 It should be noted, however, that if too much emphasis is 
 placed upon this axiom, there may be a tendency for all ships to 
 close unduly, each on the next ahead, and this may result in con- 
 gestion throughout the column or a considerable part of it; and 
 while there is comparatively little danger in such congestion so 
 long as a steady course is steered, the danger becomes very seri- 
 ous if the column changes course by more than a few points. If 
 a signal for such a change is hoisted while a number of ships are 
 crowding up on each other, it may be presumed that every ship 
 will try to drop back, thus producing more or less confusion; 
 but whether they attempt this or not, the difficulties of the turn 
 will be much increased. 
 
 It is doubtless correct for a vessel which is ahead of position 
 when the signal for a change of course goes up, to try to get into 
 position before the turning point is reached, but there is no ex- 
 cuse for the disposition frequently manifested to drop back, 
 whether in position or not, to the maximum distance tolerated by 
 tactical regulations. If dropping back legitimately, it is very im- 
 portant to pick up standard speed not in revolutions alone, but 
 in actual speed made good in time to make the turn with stan- 
 dard speed. 
 
 In compound formations there is especial reason for insisting 
 that the individual columns shall not be lengthened out unduly, 
 
KEEPING STATIONS AND MANOEUVRING IN SQUADRON. 659 
 
 because the rear of a column which is taking up more than its 
 share of sea-room will crowd the head of the next column when 
 the fleet passes into simple formation. In compound formations, 
 therefore, we may place more emphasis upon our rule that it is 
 better to be ahead of station than astern of it. And here, too, 
 as there are fewer ships in the individual column, the results of 
 congestion are less serious. 
 
 In spite of all precautions, interference will occasionally arise 
 between the rear of one subdivision of the fleet and the head of 
 the next one, in passing from one formation to another, and it 
 is well to prescribe rules as to who shall give way in such a 
 situation, and how. A convenient rule is to require the rear 
 vessel of a leading section, when she finds herself so far astern of 
 position as to embarrass the leader of the next section, to give 
 way to the side of safety ; letting the leader of the other division 
 swing into his proper place, and continuing on herself, more or 
 less outside the formation, until she finds a chance to work into 
 place. 
 
 In running at night without lights, not only can the ship 
 ahead be. seen though perhaps only very dimly but her wake 
 is likely to show up with more or less phosphorescence. The 
 difficulties of this situation are less than is sometimes supposed. 
 All must be ready for switching on the navigation lights upon 
 the approach of other vessels, and for manoeuvring to keep clear 
 as required by law- except, of course, in time of war. 
 
 In a Fog. 
 
 Running in a fog has been much simplified by the adoption 
 of " position-buoys." It is found well to keep the buoy of the 
 ship ahead a little on one bow and nearly abreast of the stem. 
 If each ship keeps an after search-light trained upon her own 
 buoy at night, the situation is still farther improved. The search- 
 light shows the buoy if it is " watching " and shows approxi- 
 mately where it should be, if it tows under for awhile. Moreover, 
 the search-light itself can be made out for from 500 to 1000 yards 
 through a very dense fog. Search-lights are useful by day as 
 well as by night, and should be used at all times in a fog. 
 
 It is important to keep well closed up in a fog. If a ship loses 
 touch, it is difficult to regain it. 
 
66O KEEPING STATIONS AND MANOEUVRING IN SQUADRON. 
 
 Unless in case of an emergency, only small changes in course 
 should be made in a fog. If the course is to be changed as much 
 as four points, it is better to make two changes of two points 
 each, allowing time between for all ships to get straightened out. 
 
 If danger of collision threatens with a ship outside the fleet, 
 it must never be forgotten that the ships of the fleet are to be 
 considered in any manceuver that is made for keeping clear. It 
 is as indefensible in law as in seamanship to foul a ship of the 
 fleet in keeping clear of an outsider. The ships astern may be 
 relied upon to help keep clear as soon as they are notified by 
 signal, but the signals provided for this emergency are far from 
 satisfactory. In case of backing the engines, the International 
 Signal of three blasts must of course be given instantly ; but with 
 the other signals that are always sounding in a fog it may be 
 doubted whether this will be recognized as promptly as is desir- 
 able. In any event, the caution here given, to remember your 
 own ships as well as the stranger, cannot be amiss. 
 
 Although the subject of avoiding collision in a fog is fully 
 treated in another chapter, attention may here be called to the 
 difference between the case in which one ship strikes another on 
 the broadside, and that in which the two ships scrape alongside. 
 The importance of this in connection with ships in squadron lies 
 in the fact that all the ships are, in general, headed in the same 
 direction, so that if one of them stops without turning very 
 much, the next astern, coming up, if she cannot avoid touching, 
 can usually manage to scrape alongside rather than to strike a 
 direct blow. It might perhaps be argued from this that if a ship 
 in squadron finds it suddenly necessary to go full speed astern 
 to clear a stranger, she should try to avoid turning more than is 
 necessary. The next astern, coming up, has thus the maximum 
 chance of avoiding collision altogether or of striking a glancing 
 rather than a cutting blow. 
 
 The question of speed in a fog is very fully discussed in Chap- 
 ters XIV and XV. 
 
 Special sound signals are used for manoeuvring in a fog. 
 Those at present established are crude and unsatisfactory. It 
 is probable that submarine signals and the wireless telephone will 
 ultimately be substituted for them. 
 
 It is very important to have a good lookout at the bow and to 
 provide efficient means of communication with the bridge. This 
 
KEEPING STATIONS AND MANOEUVRING IN SQUADRON. 66l 
 
 lookout should be able to see the vessel ahead at almost all times. 
 
 Breakdown. 
 
 A vessel which breaks down, hauls out of the column at once 
 and should be very prompt in giving notice to the ships astern. 
 Rules are laid down as to the side for hauling out, and break- 
 down signals are established. 
 
 An accident to the steering gear, if the helm is well over to 
 one side, may make it necessary or advisable to haul out on the 
 wrong side, in which case speed may be increased. The engines 
 will, of course, be used for steering, and if the helm is not too 
 far over to the wrong side it will be easy to swing against it by 
 giving full speed to the off screw and so to haul out according 
 to rule ; but if the situation calls for slowing materially on the 
 inner screw, with some delay and uncertainty in getting clear, it 
 is better to keep up the speed and haul out on the other side. 
 
 In case the helm is jammed not far from amidships, it should 
 be practicable to keep in position by the screws and so avoid 
 showing the breakdown signal ; but if there is any doubt about 
 this it is well to fall out and avoid the danger of trouble. 
 
 It is very important to have everything ready for shifting 
 quickly from steam or electric to hand-steering gear, or, if the 
 accident does not call for throwing out the steam gear, then to 
 shift from one steering-station to another, without nervousness or 
 confusion. Capable men should be stationed in the steering en- 
 gine-room at all times ready to meet any emergency, and the de- 
 tail of men for the hand-steering gear should be considered quite 
 as important as the life-boat crew. The lines of communication 
 from the bridge to the various steering stations should be per- 
 fected, and kept always in working order. Finally, frequent 
 drills should make it a matter of simple routine to meet any emer- 
 gency connected with the steering. 
 
 Man Overboard. 
 
 Rules are prescribed for this as a tactical manceuver, and 
 signals are provided for notifying the fleet. If trfe man goes over 
 from the ship ahead of you, you should be able to see him as you 
 run up towards him. By stopping at once, and backing if it 
 seems advisable to do so, you should be able to bring him fairly 
 
662 KEEPING STATIONS AND MANOEUVRING IN SQUADRON. 
 
 close alongside and to toss a buoy or a line close to him. It must 
 be remembered that the suction of a screw continues for some 
 time after the screw is stopped, so that if you are going to run 
 beyond the man you must take care not to let him get near the 
 screw until its wash has subsided. It is a pretty manoeuver to 
 bring the man alongside and pick him up with the ship, but unless 
 the ship is practically dead in the water the wash alongside may 
 be embarrassing, and if he goes down he may come up under the 
 bottom. The life-boat will, of course, be ready and can be low- 
 ered very near him, and it is not well to take any chances that the 
 man will keep afloat long enough for you to pick him up in any 
 except the quickest and surest way, which will usually be by 
 means of a boat. 
 
 Keeping Position in Line. 
 
 The most important requirement for keeping position in line 
 is to be absolutely sure about the course of the guide. A slight 
 error in this not only leads the ship which is in error to close or 
 open distance without understanding why, but misleads her also 
 as to her bearing. It is helpful to have conspicuous marks estab- 
 lishing a thwartship line on the guide, by which other ships may 
 know, not only that they have her abeam, but that they are also 
 abeam of her. 
 
 Battleships and destroyers are fitted with gyro-compasses and 
 " repeaters," which, when used in connection with one-metre 
 range-finders, greatly facilitate keeping position. 
 
 If out of bearing, it is better to be astern than ahead, because 
 when the signal comes to form column it is easy to drop into place 
 by easing the helm and slightly increasing speed. 
 
 If a ship which is in position as regards both bearing and dis- 
 tance forges ahead of the line or drops astern of it, she changes 
 not only her bearing, but her distance ; the distance becoming too 
 great in either case that is to say, whether she is ahead or astern 
 of the line. Yet the remedy is merely to change speed, without 
 working in or out with reference to the guide. If a ship, finding 
 herself a little out of position as regards both bearing and dis- 
 tance, attempts to correct these two elements by changing two 
 variables simultaneously closing in toward the guide, for ex- 
 ample, at the same time that she drops back toward the proper 
 bearing it is impossible to foresee just how she will come out 
 
KEEPING STATIONS AND MANOEUVRING IN SQUADRON. 663 
 
 It is much better, assuming that the total error is not very great, 
 to correct one element at a time, and to begin by getting on the 
 proper bearing, after which it is not difficult to close in or open 
 out by a small change of course and speed. It should not be 
 necessary to change the course more than one-eighth of a point, 
 or at most one-quarter of a point, and tables can be prepared to 
 indicate the change of speed which will hold the vessel steady on 
 her bearing as she heads in or out by this angle. The use of a 
 definite angle here, with the definite change of speed indicated by 
 a table, removes the problem from the realm of guess-work to 
 that of rules ; although here, as in all other cases of handling a 
 ship, the rules must always be illuminated by judgment. 
 
 It should be observed that any change of distance in line calls 
 for an increase of speed, whether it is a matter of closing-in to- 
 ward the guide or of opening-out from her. 
 
 Attention has already been called to the value of steaming in 
 line as a matter of training for steaming at unvarying speed. 
 
 On an Echelon Line of Bearing. 
 
 For keeping position in echelon, it is even more important than 
 in line abreast, to be sure of the exact course which the guide is 
 steering. It is helpful, if practicable, to have marks on one's 
 own ship, fixing the line of bearing, which will almost always be 
 either two, four, or six points on the bow. Here, as in the case 
 of line formation, the gyro-compass and repeaters, with the small 
 range-finders, greatly simplify the problem of keeping position. 
 The essential point is to so place the observer that he may 
 always under the general direction of the officer of the deck 
 watch the bearing and distance and regulate these by a touch, 
 from time to time, of the helm or the revolutions. 
 
 If open slits are used in the conning tower, the sides of these, 
 or light colored marks painted on them the observer's position 
 being fixed give a convenient line when conning from this 
 point, if nothing more satisfactory is available outside. 
 
 Here, as in the case of " Line Abreast," it is well, if a little out 
 of position, to correct the bearing first, and then the distance, thus 
 using only one variable at a time. There is this difference to be 
 noted between echelon and line abreast as regards a change of 
 distance. It has been explained that in line abreast, any change 
 of distance on the guide calls for an increase of speed, whether 
 
664 KEEPING STATIONS AND MANOEUVRING IN SQUADRON. 
 
 to close in or open out. In echelon, to close in toward the ad- 
 vanced flank calls for an increase of speed (to hold the bearing 
 steady) and for a greater increase than when in line. But to 
 open out in echelon, while keeping the bearing steady, calls for a 
 reduction in speed. To work off toward the withdrawn flank 
 without reducing speed would throw us ahead and more or less 
 across the bow of the vessel next toward the withdrawn flank. 
 The importance of this point increases as the sharpness of the 
 line of bearing increases; that is to say, as the echelon departs 
 more and more widely from line abreast and approaches more 
 and more closely to column. When the withdrawn flank is 
 dropped back eight points forming column all change of dis- 
 tance becomes entirely a matter of change in speed. 
 
 To Change Course in Succession in Column, Turning Eight Points 
 
 or Less. 
 
 One of the most important difficulties connected with the ma- 
 noeuvring of ships in squadron arises from the uncertainty which 
 inevitably exists at any given time with regard to the tactical 
 diameter of any individual ship under the conditions of trim and 
 of weather existing at the moment. 
 
 Turning trials are often made so hurriedly and under such 
 unfavorable conditions, as to be of little value at the best ; and 
 even when they are made with every care, in a smooth sea and 
 with little wind, they give results which are standard only for 
 similar conditions, and which will vary widely with variations 
 in draft and trim, and in wind and sea. 
 
 It should be added that the methods which are in use for determ- 
 ining turning circles and other tactical data are crude and un- 
 satisfactory and it is greatly to be desired that some more scien- 
 tific method should be devised and put into effect under rules 
 which will not only permit, but require, the accumulation of 
 complete tactical information with regard, at least, to every man- 
 of-war which is ever expected to manceuver in company with 
 other ships. 
 
 When all has been done in this direction which can be done, 
 and absolutely exact information acquired, the fact will still 
 remain that the tactical diameter of a ship when trimming by the 
 stern will be greater than when she is on an even keel, and much 
 greater than when she happens to be trimming by the head. 
 Similarly the diameter of a ship which at a given time is trim- 
 
KEEPING STATIONS AND MANOEUVRING IN SQUADRON. 665 
 
 ming by the stern will be materially greater when she is turning 
 up into a fresh breeze than when she is turning away from it. 
 The effect of these and similar variations of condition makes it 
 impossible to say of any ship except in a very general, and often 
 a very misleading, sense, that her tactical diameter is a fixed 
 number of yards for a fixed speed and a fixed helm angle, and 
 then demand that the ship shall under all conditions, turn in a 
 circle of this diameter, using a standard helm angle prescribed 
 as the result of trials made with one particular set of conditions. 
 
 For a given standard circle which is what is desired in ma- 
 nceuvers the helm angle must of necessity be varied from time 
 to time within certain limits, and it is the judgment shown in 
 this variation which makes the difference between success and 
 failure in squadron work. 
 
 In making a turn, the leader of the column should be scrupu- 
 lously careful to use the same helm angle at all times, to put the 
 helm over to this angle in the same interval of time, to ease the 
 helm and reverse it always at the same point of the turn. It is 
 particularly objectionable for the leader to swing past the new 
 course and then come back to it. And the leader should make no 
 change in revolutions during the turn, unless to avoid danger. 
 
 The other ships of the column must adapt their circles to the 
 standard thus established by the leader, their problem being to 
 follow around in his wake, preserving the formation as accurately 
 as practicable. 
 
 To put the helm over at the right instant and by just the right 
 amount calls for good judgment, and, it would almost seem, for 
 a special instinct. Many officers believe that the difficulty here 
 is best met by noting the instant when the next ahead begins to 
 turn, and adding to this a time-interval calculated beforehand 
 for speed and distance. This seems reasonable, but is not usu- 
 ally found satisfactory in practice. The bearing of the next 
 ahead, or of the second ahead, should be helpful, but this again 
 is found to fail in practice. Perhaps the most satisfactory guide, 
 when it is available, is the path of the ship ahead as marked out 
 by the broad sweep of the wake which she leaves in turning. 
 This starts with a pronounced " kick " toward the off side, where 
 the stern has swung over at the beginning of the turn, and con- 
 tinues as a broad curving arc of disturbed water one side of 
 
666 KEEPING STATIONS AND MANOEUVRING IN SQUADRON. 
 
 which marks the path of the stem, the other that of the stern. 
 Practice will make it possible to judge with fair accuracy how 
 far the bow of the following ship should be allowed to enter this 
 wake before the helm is put over, but it must not be forgotten 
 that a fresh breeze blowing across will carry the wake to lee- 
 ward, and that at night the wake cannot always be distinguished. 
 Moreover, it is at the best, only a guide for turning in the wake of 
 the next ahead, and she may have turned very wide of the leader. 
 
 There is no question that the officers who are most successful 
 in this manceuver rely upon the general " look " of things ahead 
 rather than upon any rules which could be formulated for the 
 help of others ; in other words, they more or less unconsciously 
 sum up a number of factors and are guided by the balance of 
 all rather than by any one alone. 
 
 A ship well down toward the rear of the column cannot gov- 
 ern herself directly by the leader. She has, however, a good 
 view of the ships ahead, all of which, except the one which has 
 last turned, may be assumed to have corrected any errors made 
 in turning, and to be now following in the leader's wake. Car- 
 rying back the line formed by these ships she should be able to 
 judge fairly well how her next ahead is coming out, and to 
 determine whether to turn outside or inside or to follow around 
 as exactly as she can. The difficulty here is far greater by night 
 than by day, and is enormously increased when lights are 
 screened. 
 
 It is important to watch the steering after the next ahead 
 begins to turn, and to take care that the ship is held on her com- 
 pass course and not allowed to swing off, following the ce kick " 
 made by the stern of the ship ahead. It is helpful here to glance 
 at the ships astern, which are still, of course, preserving the old 
 direction, thus getting a line by which to make sure that your 
 helmsman is not swinging off in spite of good intentions. 
 
 It is better to start the turn a little early rather than at all too 
 late. If the bow is pushed too far across the wake of the ships 
 ahead, it catches the current from their screws and is thrown off 
 still more, with the result that a small initial error is greatly 
 magnified. A ship which turns outside must accept the situation 
 and straighten out on a course parallel to the column and out- 
 side of it. To attempt to work into position across the bow of 
 
KEEPING STATIONS AND MANOEUVRING IN SQUADRON. 667 
 
 the next astern while the latter is turning would involve danger 
 of being rammed. It will be necessary, after having turned out 
 side, to increase speed a little, thus making 1 up for the larger cir- 
 cle traversed. A ship which finds herself turning a little inside 
 could correct the error by easing her helm and reducing speed 
 slightly, waiting for this until the turn has progressed to a point 
 where the condition of affairs can be made out with certainty ; 
 but most officers think it unwise to tolerate this, if only for the 
 reason that it is likely to encourage the altogether unpardonable 
 practice of turning decidedly inside and then easing the helm, 
 merely to avoid the embarrassment of judging when and where 
 to turn properly ; or the equally unpardonable practice of " cut- 
 ting corners " to make up distance. 
 
 A ship which has turned inside will usually have to reduce 
 speed more or less to drop into her position, but must resume 
 standard in time to avoid hampering the next astern. 
 
 The time for easing the helm and reversing it to meet the 
 ship on her new course will vary with different ships. It is gen- 
 erally found well to begin easing at about two points from the 
 course, bringing the helm to amidships with one point left to go, 
 and then to reverse it as much and as fast as is found necessary 
 to meet her without swinging past the course. It is especially 
 important for the leader to be absolutely consistent in this matter. 
 
 Each ship before turning should note carefully what her new 
 compass course is to be. 
 
 Finally, attention may be called to the importance of being 
 always as nearly as possible in position, as regards both bearing 
 and distance, before beginning to turn. To be outside or inside 
 of the point where the leader has put the helm over means an out- 
 side or an inside turn if we assume that the helm used is that 
 which duplicates the turn of the leader. A still more important 
 point is that the ship should be steady on her proper course when 
 the time comes to put the helm over. // she is off her course or 
 if she is swinging, a variable and uncertain factor is introduced 
 into the turn. It is important also that the speed should be uni- 
 form and standard. If a ship is closing up or dropping back as 
 she approaches the turning point, even though standard speed 
 be ordered at the last moment, she will continue to gain or lose 
 distance throughout the turn. 
 
668 KEEPING STATIONS AND MANOEUVRING IN SQUADRON. 
 
 It is not necessary to point out the exceptional embarrassment 
 which may result from being very close to the next ahead and on 
 her inner quarter when she begins to turn. This situation may 
 arise from the next ahead being out of position, in which case it 
 emphasizes two of the rules which have been laid down above; 
 first, that it is better to be ahead of position than astern, since by 
 being ahead you embarrass nobody but yourself, and second that 
 it is good seamanship as well as good comradeship to avoid em- 
 barrassing your next astern. If, on the other hand, it is a real 
 error of position on your own part, it emphasizes the caution 
 already given not to overwork the first of these two rules by 
 making a practice of being ahead of position. 
 
 Turning More Than Eight Points. 
 
 In a turn of more than eight points it is very dangerous to 
 turn inside. A ship which finds herself in this position should 
 reduce speed in the early part of the turn to avoid running up 
 on the next ahead, whom she will presently find swinging in 
 across her bow as the column doubles back toward its original 
 line. The best that she can do is to keep turning, at reduced speed, 
 and with hard-over rudder, abreast her proper place in the column, 
 but always inside of it. There will be a temptation to work back 
 into place by easing the helm, but this will check her swing and 
 she can never pick it up again. The result is that if she gets into 
 place momentarily, it will be only to cut across the curve on which 
 the other ships are turning, and, worst of all, to receive a kick 
 from the screw current of the ships ahead on her inner bow, 
 throwing her still further out and more or less across the stem 
 of the following ship, which, swinging as she will be under hard- 
 over helm, is practically powerless to do anything toward keep- 
 ing clear of a ship in such a position. 
 
 The only thing to do, then, is to turn on a circle parallel to 
 that of the column, but with smaller radius. This means a 
 sharper turn and calls for more than standard turning helm and 
 possibly for stopping the inner screw. Here, as in the other 
 abnormal situations, due notice should be given by the cones or 
 otherwise, of all changes of speed. The next astern can, in case 
 of danger, help to keep clear of a ship which is distinctly inside 
 of her, by easing her helm. 
 
 A ship turning outside the proper path is safe but needs a 
 
KEEPING STATIONS AND MANOEUVRING IN SQUADRON. 669 
 
 material increase of speed to keep abreast of position. The 
 danger of attempting to work into place in the column is even 
 greater than in an eight-point turn, so there is nothing to do but 
 to keep up as well as possible and be ready to resume position 
 after the turn is completed. 
 
 The difficulties and dangers of a " counter-march " are so many 
 and its utility is so slight that in some fleets it has been given up, 
 its place being taken, when a change of 16 points is to be made, 
 by two 8-point turns. 
 
 Turning Simultaneously. 
 
 To turn simultaneously through 8 or 16 points is a test of many 
 points in the work of the squadron ; since any error in position, 
 speed, or tactical diameter is brought out very strikingly. In 
 one respect, the apparent result may be misleading, since the 
 guide now changes (usually) and it may happen that ships which 
 were exactly in position with the old guide and which have 
 turned perfectly, are altogether out when the turn is completed, 
 as a result of faults on the part of the new guide. 
 
 As soon as signal is made for this or any other manceuver 
 which involves a change of guide, each ship should try to get her 
 distance and bearing from the new guide so that she may know 
 where she is likely to find herself at the end of the manoeuver, 
 and what will be necessary for getting into position. By watch- 
 ing the guide as the end of the first eight points is approached 
 and completed, much can be learned about the way the ships are 
 turning with reference to each other, and this is a good time also 
 to get the distance, if practicable. The adjoining ships on either 
 hand should also be watched, as intervals are sometimes closed 
 rather unaccountably in a turn of this kind, and ships run up 
 dangerously close without clear evidence as to which one is at 
 fault. (See remarks below as to reasons for variations of speed 
 in the turning of different ships.) 
 
 As the new course is approached, certain allowances must be 
 made (unless prohibited by tactical regulations) to perfect the 
 alignment on the new guide. 
 
 It is a fact often noted in fleet manoeuvers where vessels of 
 different type are associated, that some ships lose much more 
 speed than others in turning. There are several reasons for this 
 difference. With ships of different length, but otherwise simi- 
 
670 KEEPING STATIONS AND MANCEUVRING IN SQUADRON. 
 
 lar, the longer ship will expend a larger proportion of her power 
 in turning, and thus her speed will drop more than that of the 
 short ships. A ship with full deadwood aft expends more power 
 in turning than one with the deadwood cut away, and therefore 
 loses more speed. A ship with large turrets or other heavy 
 weights at bow and stern requires more power to take up her 
 swing at the beginning and more power to check it at the end, 
 than one whose weights are more evenly distributed, and will 
 thus have less power left for maintaining her speed. 
 
 For the above reasons, it is very important to group similar 
 vessels together as far as possible. 
 
 Anchoring Simultaneously. 
 
 In standing in for an anchorage it is customary to slow to 
 five or six knots while still some distance away and to stop when 
 at a distance such that it is thought the ships will reach up to 
 their berths with sufficient way left for anchoring. Supposing 
 all the ships to be in position and moving at uniform speed when 
 the fleet is stopped, it is assumed that they will continue in posi- 
 tion. Unfortunately, this is not the case unless, as very rarely 
 happens, they are all of the same displacement. Nor does it 
 always happen that all are running at the same speed when the 
 signal to stop is hauled down. 
 
 In running 500 yards, very marked changes of position may 
 take place in a fleet where the displacement varies as much as it 
 commonly does in most fleets of to-day or where some variation 
 of speed exists at the instant of stopping. It is worth consider- 
 ing whether it might not be well to keep the engines turning 
 over at dead slow up to the instant of letting go the anchors. 
 This would make it possible to keep the ships in position, and 
 their headway need not be greater than it usually is under the 
 present practice. 
 
 It is important that " half -speed " and " slow-speed " should 
 be standardized as carefully as " standard speed " and that the 
 leader of the column, when indicating either of these speeds, 
 should maintain the proper number of revolutions as carefully 
 as at other times. A little carelessness on the part of the leader 
 when approaching the anchorage can make serious trouble for 
 the ships astern. Similarly, of course, carelessness on the part 
 of any ship in the column throws out all ships astern of her. 
 
KEEPING STATIONS AND MANOEUVRING IN SQUADRON. 67! 
 
 Getting Underway. 1 
 
 Notice having been given in advance, of the hour for getting 
 underway, signal is made a few minutes before this hour to 
 " heave short " and, at the proper time, to " get underway." If 
 tlie ships chance to be heading in the proper direction, and if the 
 flagship or other vessel which is to lead out of harbor is at the 
 head of the column, the manceuver is very simple. If the ships 
 are heading in some other direction, they should keep this head- 
 ing after the anchors are up, until signal is made to turn. ' If the 
 flagship is at the inner end and proposes to lead out, it is advis- 
 able, unless conditions of wind and tide introduce some difficulty, 
 for the ships to turn a little short of the course on which they will 
 run out ; that is to say, they should head one or two points toward 
 the line along which the flagship will pass as she leads out. Each 
 ship is then ready to drop into place as her turn is reached. 
 
 It is much more common to see ships slow about getting into 
 position than to see them closed up too far, the result being that 
 in a fleet leaving port the leaders are often seen running at half 
 speed while the rear vessels are closing up under reserve speed. 
 This looks badly and there is no reason for it except undue slow- 
 ness or timidity about taking position. 
 
 Handling Turbine Ships. 
 
 Most men-of-war of recent design have turbine engines, and 
 must be handled somewhat differently from ships with recipro- 
 cating engines. Attention may be called to the following points 
 of difference: 
 
 Turbine ships have small screws, which are run at high speed. 
 In ships with reciprocating engines the conditions are reversed, 
 these ships having large screws which run at comparatively low 
 speed. 
 
 As turbines cannot be reversed, it is necessary to provide sepa- 
 rate rotors for backing; and as it is not economical to divide 
 the available space equally between the power for going ahead 
 and that for backing, it results that the backing rotors are com- 
 paratively small. 
 
 1 See Notes B at end of chapter. 
 
672 KEEPING STATIONS AND MANOEUVRING IN SQUADRON. 
 
 In many cases turbine ships develop less than half the power 
 in backing that they have for going ahead. 
 
 This is a point that can never be lost sight of for a moment 
 when manoeuvring in formation with ships having reciprocating 
 engines. It is also of great importance in crowded waters or in 
 a fog, in turning in a narrow space, in going alongside a dock, 
 and in many other situations where it may be necessary to reduce 
 the headway quickly. 
 
 Perhaps the most important loss which results from these con- 
 ditions is in the power to turn in a limited space, where a ship 
 with reciprocating engines and a good spread between her (large) 
 screws can often be made to spin around on her heel by going 
 ahead on one screw and backing on the other. 
 
 As it is necessary for reversing in a turbine ship to shift from 
 one set of rotors to another, there is considerable time lost as 
 compared with a corresponding shift in the case of reciprocating 
 engines. It is found on the Nevada that, under average condi- 
 tions, about a minute and a half is required. 
 
 As the head of steam is reduced in shifting from one set of 
 rotors to another, there is a material drop in pressure where 
 much manoeuvring is called for, with the result that a ship which 
 is obliged to shift several times in turning, as may be necessary 
 in getting underway with other ships, is likely to find herself 
 unable to pick up speed promptly after straightening out on her 
 course. This may be guarded against by having a good reserve 
 of boiler power. 
 
 There are two distinct types of turbines in use in the U. S. 
 Navy, viz. : The Parsons and the Curtiss. 
 
 The following notes refer to ships having the Parsons type 
 as installed on the Florida and Utah. 
 
 There are four propellers driven by turbines on each shaft. 
 The high-pressure ahead rotors are on the wing shafts, the in- 
 termediate and low-pressure on the centre shafts; the high- 
 pressure backing rotors are on the wing shafts, the low-pressure 
 backing on the centre shafts. The backing turbines are small 
 and the combination has less than half the power of the ahead 
 combination. Due to the less efficient clearance of the blades, 
 the backing turbines use up steam very rapidly and therefore the 
 backing efficiency of the engines is really less than the rated 
 
KEEPING STATIONS AND MANOEUVRING IN SQUADRON. 673 
 
 horse-power of the backing turbines would lead one to suppose. 
 It should be noted also that after backing for a comparatively 
 short time there is not a full head of steam left for going ahead 
 until steam is worked up again. 
 
 Getting Underway. When getting underway the low efficiency 
 of the backing turbines must be kept in mind at all times. 
 
 When casting in restricted waters the sternboard should be 
 made towards the most restricted area on account of quicker 
 effect of the propellers in going ahead. 
 
 The turning effects of the propellers in combination with the 
 rudder are the same as with reciprocating engines, but slower. 
 The effect of wind is the same, the ship usually falling off when 
 going astern. 
 
 In a tide-way it is most important to bear in mind that the ship 
 responds to her engines much more slowly than in the case of 
 reciprocating engines with large propellers, particularly in back- 
 ing. With way on ahead the ship answers her rudder prac- 
 tically as efficiently with her engines backing as when they are 
 stopped or going ahead. 
 
 When getting underway in squadron where it is necessary to 
 gain -and keep position, it is well to remember that much 
 manoeuvring in turning materially reduces the head of steam, and 
 it will be necessary to work it up again before full or even 
 standard speed can be maintained. A very wise precaution is to 
 have more power available than the prescribed speed requires un- 
 til clear of the harbor, when a boiler may be taken off. 
 
 Coming to Anchor. When approaching an anchorage the low 
 efficiency of the backing turbines must be kept in mind always. 
 With steam for fourteen knots or under it is not advisable to let 
 go the anchor with more than four knots way on. The engines 
 should be stopped far enough from the anchorage for the ship to 
 lose her headway to about four knots when the anchor is let go. 
 This gives the fire-room force opportunity to bottle up steam for 
 backing. It is well to remember that when steam is shut off from 
 the rotors the propellers revolve freely, so there is no drag of 
 the propellers to deaden headway. Headway may be deadened 
 by quickly putting the rudder full over each way. If the harbor 
 is an open one it is well to keep standard speed to the point 
 
674 KEEPING STATIONS AND MANOEUVRING IN SQUADRON. 
 
 where the engines should be stopped and let the ship slide up 
 to her berth, rather than slowing gradually by two-thirds and one- 
 third speed and then stopping near the anchorage point. 
 
 Cruising and Manoeuvring in Formation. It must be borne in 
 mind always that the ship responds slowly to changes of speed of 
 the engines. The propellers are much smaller than in case of re- 
 ciprocating ships with two screws. When cruising in formation 
 with ships having reciprocating engines, their comparatively quick 
 changes of speed must be taken into account and their action 
 anticipated as much as possible. If astern of a reciprocating ship 
 and the signal stop is made, the turbine ship will close up rapidly. 
 
 When turning, the rudder tends to check the speed materially 
 and distance must be watched closely. If it becomes necessary 
 to give more than the standard rudder in the turn, the engines 
 should be speeded up immediately. If the rudder is put over 
 full, the ship will lose distance rapidly in spite of full speed on 
 the engines. Therefore it is better to turn outside than to attempt 
 to turn short into column with a full rudder. 
 
 When manoeuvring in company with reciprocating ships very 
 great care and vigilance are required at all times, and the rudder 
 should be depended on rather than engines in avoiding collision. 
 
 In a Fog. In a fog also the rudder must be relied on rather 
 than the engines. The rudders are large and the steering qualities 
 excellent. Stopping and backing the starboard engines when 
 turning to starboard, and the port engines when turning to port, 
 of course will quicken the turning very materially. Headway is 
 lost slowly by backing the engines, but quickly by using full 
 rudder. 
 
 Breakdown. The ship will carry her way a long time, as the 
 propellers do not drag. Headway will be lost quickly by using a 
 full rudder in turning. 
 
 Man Overboard. Rules are prescribed for this as a tactical 
 manoeuvre. But when acting singly or otherwise, when possible 
 to do so, the quickest way to reach the man is to turn with a full 
 rudder, stopping engines until the man is clear and then starting 
 them again. Keep engines going until about half-way around, 
 then stop. The ship will slide up close to the man and headway 
 will be deadened enough to get boats away. 
 
 The following notes refer especially to Curtiss turbines. 
 
KEEPING STATIONS AND MANOEUVRING IN SQUADRON. 675 
 
 The remarks on Parsons turbines apply also to Curtiss turbines 
 in all cases where a ship has four propellers. In oil-burning 
 ships it is not necessary to make allowances for time to build 
 up steam pressure for going ahead again after backing, even 
 though the steam pressure has dropped due to the large volume 
 of steam required for backing. This is due to the fact that as 
 soon as the fire-room receives the signal "Full speed," enough 
 burners are at once turned on to run the steam quickly up to 
 the working pressure. The point is that the volume of oil flame 
 under the boilers can very quickly be varied at will, which is of 
 course not the case with vessels burning coal. 
 
 On the Nevada, which is equipped with only two propellers 
 and Curtiss turbines, the time required to manipulate the neces- 
 sary valves for stopping and backing is practically constant for 
 all speeds. This time is from fifteen to twenty seconds. But 
 the total interval of time elapsing from going ahead say at 
 twelve knots to astern, depends entirely on the boiler power 
 available. With full boiler power it would not take more than 
 one minute to reverse the engines from full speed ahead. With 
 only one- third boiler power available (which is the minimum) 
 it takes about two minutes to reverse and have the engines going 
 one-third astern. With one-half to two-thirds boiler power avail- 
 able, about i l / 2 minutes would be required to back at three-quar- 
 ters the maximum astern speed. 
 
 Boiler power available. 
 
 Engines going 
 ahead. 
 
 Engines going 
 astern. 
 
 Elapsed time. 
 
 \la,ximum (12 boilers) 
 
 Full speed 
 
 Full speed 
 
 i minute 
 
 \ to f (6 to 8 boilers) 
 
 15 knots 
 
 
 i \ minutes 
 
 \ (4 boilers, minimum for backing . 
 
 5-10 knots 
 
 * 
 
 2 minutes 
 
 The above times are approximate. 
 
 Generally speaking, the turbine ship having two propellers can 
 be backed more quickly than the turbine ship having four pro- 
 pellers, since it takes less time for the steam to pass through the 
 turbines, and since the propellers are somewhat larger. How- 
 ever, the total backing power is about equal in both Parsons and 
 Curtiss installations. 
 
 Manoeuvring. Vessels of the Nevada class have their deadwood 
 cut away much more than other recent types. This results in im- 
 
676 KEEPING STATIONS AND MANOEUVRING IN SQUADRON. 
 
 proved tactical qualities, but this improvement tends to complicate, 
 rather than simplify, the handling of the ship in formation with 
 the older ships, such as the Wyoming and New York classes. The 
 reason for this is as follows : Absence of deadwood has very little 
 effect as long as the ship travels a straight course, but as soon as 
 she begins to turn she turns very rapidly. This causes the ship 
 to advance much further than the older ships when given the 
 amount of rudder necessary to turn in the same tactical diameter. 
 Conversely, if she is given enough helm to cause her immedi- 
 ately to follow in the wake of one of the older ships, she will 
 describe a much smaller circle. Thus the vessel cannot be turned 
 in a prescribed tactical diameter by using a standard helm with- 
 out getting considerably out of position. That is, a varying 
 amount of helm must be used in manoeuvring with the older 
 types of vessels. 
 
 Another peculiarity of this ship is the difficulty of steering 
 with the engines. There being but two propellers, which are 
 small (18 ft.) and set close to the center line (24 ft), their steer- 
 ing effect is almost negligible. In fact, if the ship is swinging it 
 is practically impossible to check her with the engines alone. At 
 slow speeds, when there is considerable wind and sea, the ship 
 has a strong tendency to come up into the wind, and it is often 
 necessary to steam under one engine and with a considerable 
 rudder in order to steer a set course. In a harbor, with little 
 manoeuvring room, and with but little way on it is difficult to 
 turn against the wind. This condition is probably found only 
 on the Nevada, since her sister ship, the Oklahoma, has recipro- 
 cating engines, and the later types, Arisona and Pennsylvania, 
 have four screws. 
 
 In a Fog. Backing the inboard engine when turning with full 
 rudder does not quicken the turn, but causes the ship to advance 
 fty yards less and transfer fifty yards less than when turning 
 with full rudder and both engines going ahead. There appears to 
 >e a slight advantage in backing the inboard engine to avoid colli- 
 sion, though the headway is much reduced by the time the ship 
 has turned 90. 
 
 Man Overboard. There is no necessity for stopping the engines 
 
 o prevent striking a man overboard. In the first place the tops of 
 
 the screws are submerged n feet and the outboard edge does not 
 
 ject beyond the side of the ship ; in the second place the screws 
 
 itmue to revolve for some time at practically the same speed 
 
KEEPING STATIONS AND MANOEUVRING IN SQUADRON. 677 
 
 after the throttles are closed, provided the ship has way on. The 
 best thing to do is to manoeuvre to lower a boat as soon as possible 
 and as close as possible to the man. By using full rudder and 
 turning 180 with both engines going ahead and then backing 
 both engines the ship will be practically dead in the water at 
 the point where the rudder was first put over. 
 
 In other respects the manoeuvring qualities of the Nevada are 
 similar to those described for the Florida and Utah. 
 
 Notes On Handling the Idaho. 
 
 Steering. The Idaho has electric and steam steering gear, the 
 shift from one to the other being made through clutches in the 
 steering gear room. Frequent drill enables the steering room 
 watch to shift in thirty seconds or less after hearing the bell sig- 
 nal from the steering station. In order to be sure that both sys- 
 tems are at their maximum efficiency it is customary to use 
 each system twelve hours out of every twenty-four hours at sea. 
 
 The Idaho has Parsons Turbines, four shafts. Her engines 
 are used in " Direct Combination " or " Cruising Combination." 
 The direct combination may be used for all speeds and is best for 
 manoeuvring and backing. It is the only combination for speeds 
 over seventeen knots. The cruising combination may be used 
 for all speeds up to seventeen knots and for manoeuvring and 
 backing, though it is more awkward than the direct combination 
 due to the fact that a small high pressure turbine is connected to 
 each inner shaft by a mechanical gear, which is thrown out for 
 the direct combination. Backing reverses the motion through the 
 gear, which is more awkward than if the gear were not there. 
 Practice is to get under way, manoeuvre, and come to anchor, with 
 the direct combination, though the Pacific Fleet is considering an 
 order making it mandatory to use the cruising combination for 
 all speeds under a certain designated one. 
 
 To shift from direct to cruising combination requires one min- 
 ute fifteen seconds, varying somewhat with the speed of the ship. 
 The shafts have to be stopped to make this shift. It is best to 
 back before making the shift so as to prevent the main shafts 
 turning due to headway. 
 
 To shift from cruising to direct combination takes thirty sec- 
 onds, varying somewhat with the speed of the ship. Clutch can 
 be disconnected with shafts revolving slowly. 
 
678 KEEPING STATIONS AND MANOEUVRING IN SQUADRON. 
 
 Time necessary to reverse from fifteen knots ahead to full 
 speed astern is about ten seconds when in direct and fifteen sec- 
 onds when in cruising combination. The relative backing to 
 ahead power is about seventy-five per cent. 
 
 Handling of Ship. The two shafts on the same side work to- 
 gether and it is only necessary to think in terms of the starboard 
 and port engines. The Idaho handles like any twin screw (out 
 turning) ship except that she does not answer as readily. It is 
 difficult to get any results unless there is way on the ship. To get 
 results in turning it is better to use standard speed on the ahead 
 engines and full speed on the astern engines than it is to use one 
 third and two third speeds. 
 
 Turning Eight Points or Less. The rudder is first put over a 
 little more than standard to get the ship started. After the ship 
 has turned a given amount, depending on the amount of the turn 
 to be made and determined by experience, the rudder is eased to 
 standard. It is then put amidships and reversed in time to keep 
 the ship from swinging past the course. 
 
 Except as above noted, the remarks which precede as to han- 
 dling turbine ships apply to the Idaho. 
 
 Notes on Handling the Jupiter. 
 
 Before discussing the handling of the Jupiter, it will be neces- 
 sary to give a brief description of the installation. 
 
 The ship is propelled by two induction motors using alternating 
 current furnished by a turbine-driven generator. So far as the 
 generation of power goes, the Jupiter is a single-screw ship, 
 5 all power used by the motors comes from the one generator 
 which is driven by one turbine; but so far as manoeuvring goes! 
 is a twin-screw ship, as the power is carried from the single 
 generator to two motors and two shafts. 
 
 The generator has two poles and each motor thirty-six poles, 
 that eighteen revolutions of the generator are necessary for one 
 revolution of the motor, which is secured to its respective pro- 
 slier shaft. In other words, the propeller revolutions (neglect- 
 shp m the motor, which is less than 2%) are always one- 
 eighteenth of the number of revolutions of the revolving field 
 ot the generator. 
 
KEEPING STATIONS AND MANCEUVRING IN SQUADRON. 679 
 
 The revolving field of the generator is on the same shaft as 
 the rotor of the turbine so that one revolution of the turbine gives 
 one revolution to the generator and 1/18 of a revolution of the 
 motors and propellers. 
 
 Thus, in order to change the speed of the propellers, it is 
 only necessary to vary the speed of the turbine which drives the 
 generator; and all changes of speed in the vessel are made in 
 this way. In other words, if the turbine and generator are mak- 
 ing 1800 r.p.m. the motor will make 100 r.p.m., which gives 
 thirteen knots. If the turbine is slowed to 900, or one-half the 
 revolutions, the motors automatically, due to their construction 
 and to the fact that they are induction motors, will make 50 
 revolutions, or speed for six and one-half knots. 
 
 Object and Effect of Resistances. There are two water-cooled 
 resistances in the engine-room which can be thrown in or out of 
 circuit with the rotor of either motor, and as these are cross-con- 
 nected they must be thrown in or out on both motors at the same 
 time. 
 
 These resistances have nothing whatever to do with the speed 
 of the motors and propellers. Their function is to enable the 
 motors to exert their go ahead or backing power on the propeller 
 shaft instantaneously. The effect of these resistances is, in fact, 
 to give the motors and propellers a practically instantaneous full- 
 power reversal in either direction, either at fifteen knots or at 
 any speed below that, the speed at which the motors operate 
 when the resistances are "in" depending entirely upon the speed of 
 the turbine and the generator field, as has been stated. It takes 
 about four seconds to throw these resistances in or out of circuit. 
 
 As the motors are less economical running with the resistances 
 "in," they are habitually kept "out" except in manoeuvring where 
 instantaneous reversal is desirable. 
 
 If running at a speed of fifteen knots, the highest speed the 
 vessel can attain, the resistances can be thrown in and the motors 
 reversed up to a speed of ten knots, in four seconds. Either 
 motor may be stopped while the other is running in either direc- 
 tion. 
 
 Turning. A point that forces itself upon one's attention, and a 
 vital one so far as manoeuvring goes, has to do with the turning of 
 a vessel, the motors (and propellers) of which must of necessity 
 operate at the same number of revolutions whether both are 
 
68O KEEPING STATIONS AND MANCEUVRING IN SQUADRON. 
 
 going ahead or one is going ahead and the other astern. As a 
 matter of fact the difficulties which might be expected to result 
 from these conditions vanish under the test of actual manoeuvring. 
 The turning of the ship is accomplished by the application of 
 power to the propellers in different directions, for certain periods 
 of time. Consider the Jupiter turning to the right with full 
 right rudder at 10 knots (77 r.p.m.) under the port motor, 
 starboard motor being stopped. It is desired to turn faster. 
 The starboard motor is signalled to back ; and a second after the 
 switch is thrown, that motor is making seventy-seven revolutions, 
 no more and no less, astern. The ship picks up to the de- 
 sired velocity. The signal is given to stop the starboard motor, 
 and instantly the power is off. The inertia of the ship over- 
 comes any jerky motion. In other words, with two motors that 
 can supply absolutely definite amounts of power to the pro- 
 pellers as often as thirty times a minute, any uncertainty as to 
 what is going on is removed, and greater facility of control 
 attained. 
 
 It is one thing to have an order appear on the engine-room 
 telegraphs and quite another to obtain an absolutely definite and 
 practically instantaneous response. The handling of the New 
 Mexico, when both pairs of motors are operated from one of 
 her two turbo generators, will be similar to that of the Jupiter; 
 but when the starboard and port pairs of motors take their power 
 from separate turbo generators, of which there are two instead 
 of one as in the Jupiter, the starboard and port pairs of pro- 
 pellers can operate at different speeds as reciprocating engines 
 do, but with much greater promptness. One should be able to 
 "thread the eye of a needle" with the New Mexico if the two 
 independent turbo-generators are in use. 
 
 Fleet Work. The manoeuvring of the Jupiter, as required by 
 the nature of the duties she must perform, is somewhat more com- 
 plicated than falls to a reciprocating engine battleship, for the 
 reason that the Jupiter, which displaces 22,000 tons, draws 31 feet 
 when fully loaded, and as little as 20 feet when nearly discharged. 
 She is 542 feet long, has only 65 feet beam, and has a considerable 
 amount of top hamper, making the effect of wind a very im- 
 portant factor, especially when the ship is light. 
 
 Moreover the full horse-power is 7200 or about Yz H.P. per 
 ton of displacement, which is about a third of that at the dis- 
 
KEEPING STATIONS AND MANOEUVRING IN SQUADRON. 68 1 
 
 posal of a reciprocating engine battleship. As the cargo is dis- 
 charged, the ship is habitually trimmed down with water ballast ; 
 and for best handling trim a drag of from three to four feet 
 is kept. If trimmed deeper by the stern, the wind effect on the 
 bow resembles that upon a destroyer, and with the overhanging 
 bow, an element of danger is introduced which calls for extreme 
 caution in going alongside ships or coal piers. 
 
 Going Alongside a Battleship. In illustrating the procedure of 
 going alongside, the Texas, which is a clear-sided vessel and 
 longer than the Jupiter, will be considered, and special difficulties 
 met with in connection with other vessels will be briefly mentioned 
 later. 
 
 It is assumed that the Texas is anchored and that no obstacles 
 interfere with an ideal approach. Standard speed for going 
 alongside is ten knots ; no reserve speed is provided for, as all 
 handling is done well below the ten-knot limit. 
 
 (1) In approaching the battleship, pass under her stern and 
 get her compass heading by a bearing of her masts when in 
 range. This is necessary because the Jupiter's bridge is far 
 forward and it is difficult to judge the exact angle of approach. 
 Moreover, the curved form of the battleship is deceptive, and 
 startling changes of viewpoint frequently occur as the two ves- 
 sels come into close proximity. 
 
 (2) Place the collier about 1,500 yards from, and two points 
 on the port quarter of, the battleship, the collier to be practically 
 dead in the water at this time and on about the same heading as 
 the battleship. 
 
 (3) Kick the collier ahead with the motor, using y$ speed or 
 2 /3 if necessary to give her steerage way, and nothing more than 
 steerage ivay, then stop motors. Approach at steerage way, 
 using the engines as necessary. Avoid getting any more than 
 steerage way on the collier, as a moderate speed is no longer 
 moderate when the vessels draw together; and if backing be- 
 comes necessary, the control of the collier may be lost. Always 
 keep the situation so in hand that you force the vessel to the 
 battleship. Never allow yourself to get close aboard and abreast 
 of her, trusting to backing both engines to make a safe landing 
 alongside. 
 
 (4) Gradually change course so that your ship approaches 
 the battleship at an angle of one point. This keeps the sterns 
 
682 KEEPING STATIONS AND MANCEUVRING IN SQUADRON. 
 
 of the ships separated and places the bow closer than any other 
 part of the collier. Any effect of wind or current tends to set 
 you slowly in ; and besides this, if the battleship swings stern 
 to starboard you can haul off a point and still be parallel, with- 
 out getting the s'tern in and bringing the propellers of the two 
 vessels together. 
 
 (5) As soon as the vessels are within heaving-line distance, 
 pass your lines aboard; or if a boat is available, send over a 
 heaving-line bent to a good hauling-line. By this hauling-line 
 the bow-line and a spring are run simultaneously and carried 
 as far forward as possible on the battleship. 
 
 (6) Work your ship parallel to the battleship, make fast the 
 spring leading forward, tend the head-line, and if any current 
 is running the collier will drop alongside; otherwise back y$ 
 speed on port motor to assist. The advantage of using a spring 
 leading forward, over one leading aft, is that the resultant of 
 the wind and current forces, to which the battleship rides, all 
 tend to make the collier do likewise. Moreover, less engine 
 power is required to get alongside, the strain on the spring is 
 taken on the battleship's anchor chain, and there is no tendency 
 to tow her up towards her anchor, as with a spring leading aft, 
 when the collier is forced ahead. 
 
 (7) Get stern lines over as convenient, but there is usually 
 no urgency in this matter unless a wind blows from the battle- 
 ship. Get out a spring leading aft from a point well forward, 
 and" place hatches as desired by the battleship. Never bother 
 as to where the hatches will come till you are safely alongside 
 and suitable lines are run to control the ship. 
 
 (8) Sometimes while close alongside, delay occurs in getting 
 lines over. Pick out a mark on the battleship, say an awning 
 stanchion, and hold the ship in position till lines are run. 
 
 The Broadside Landing. It sometimes happens that a wind of 
 force four or even stronger is blowing you down, broadside, upon 
 the battleship to which you must go. Under these conditions it is 
 advisable to get abreast of the battleship and parallel to her, but 
 outside of heaving-line distance. No strain should be taken on 
 the bowline or bow spring when run, but the slack should be hove 
 in as the collier drifts down. Keep the bow out about a quarter of 
 a point and allow the after-fenders to take before the forward 
 
KEEPING STATIONS AND MANOEUVRING IN SQUADRON. 683 
 
 ones. If any current is running and the wind sets the collier 
 toward the battleship, it is hard to work the bow out against 
 them. If the bow blows down rapidly let go the port anchor, 
 to check her. Conversely it is well to be prepared to pull the 
 bow out when the wind is blowing from the battleship when 
 coming up from astern ; for the bow of the collier is then* under 
 her lee while the stern is not. 
 
 Getting Clear. There is some difference of opinion among 
 officers commanding colliers that do fleet work as to whether 
 "backing away'* or "going ahead" is the better method of getting 
 clear of a battleship. It is usually to " Go ahead," if possible, for 
 the following reasons : 
 
 (1) The pivoting point of the Jupiter is about % of her 
 length from the bow; it is therefore much easier to throw the 
 stern clear than the bow, if in danger of contact. 
 
 (2) The bow is allowed to fall off not more than half a 
 point before going ahead; and in this position any current tends 
 to separate the vessels ; and if the wind is ahead, that acts in the 
 same direction. A short spring is used from a point forward 
 of the propeller, where it cannot foul. This is kept fast while 
 the bow is falling off, and run in when the collier starts ahead. 
 
 (3) When the collier starts ahead and the ships' sterns tend to 
 draw together, backing the starboard motor throws the screw 
 current, or "quick water." in between the ships, and first forces 
 the stern away and then separates the vessels bodily. Of course 
 the backing is only continued long enough to get the separating 
 effect, and not long enough to materially check the collier's way. 
 When starting away, set a course diverging not more than half 
 a point from the battleship's heading, :and throw the stern out 
 with small right rudder; then back the starboard motor to sepa- 
 rate ships, if necessary. 
 
 (4) The collier. can then be gradually eased across the battle- 
 ship's bow, keeping clear of her chain, and allowing for current 
 if any. 
 
 (5) A vessel is under better control going ahead than while 
 backing, and good control is essential in close quarters. 
 
 Backing Away. In using this method it is necessary to watch 
 for the following difficulties: In order to get clear, the stern 
 must first be worked off about half a point. This forces the flar- 
 ing bow of the collier close to the battleship. 
 
684 KEEPING STATIONS AND MANOEUVRING IN SQUADRON. 
 
 The current, or wind, if the latter is from ahead, tends to 
 force the bow towards the battleship. 
 
 Backing tends to back the stern into the wind, if it is ahead 
 or on the port side, which increases the tendency of the bow to 
 sweep the battleship. 
 
 By going ahead on the starboard propeller without stopping the 
 collier's sternboard, a turning effect is gained; but as the pivot- 
 ing point is well forward, this does not give as prompt or satis- 
 factory results as are obtained in working the stern off in going 
 ahead. Nevertheless no trouble need be anticipated in backing 
 away, if care and skill are exercised. 
 
 Remember that the bow toward the battleship must pass her 
 propeller before clearing, and, if too close aboard, may foul. 
 
 With a breeze blowing the collier toward the battleship, it is 
 highly dangerous to attempt to back away. 
 
 Points to Keep in Mind. 
 
 (1) Never be in a hurry to get alongside take it easy. 
 
 (2) If the collier handles i>adly, due to wind or other condi- 
 tions, back out while there is time. 
 
 (3) When lines are run to a battleship, use as little engine 
 power as possible. The vessels will come together quite rapidly 
 enough. Do not force matters. 
 
 (4) Keep as large a reserve of power as possible. 
 
 (5) Coming up parallel to a battleship, then backing both 
 engines, is dangerous. Your starboard screw current tends to 
 throw her across your bow, with her stern away from you. 
 
 (6) Have both anchors hanging below the hawse-pipes and 
 ready for letting go instantly, while working in the fleet. 
 
 (7) In going alongside a small vessel, ask her to heave short 
 before you run lines. Let go your anchor and have her heave 
 up at the same time. Then bring her alongside the collier. 
 
 (8) If by any chance the flaring bow overlaps the forecastle 
 of a ship, and you fear that it may do some damage, go .ahead 
 full speed on the starboard propeller and back the port propeller 
 full speed. Do not attempt to back away; you will sweep the 
 battleship's side. Do not let the collier go astern. Hold your 
 spring leading forward, bring the ships parallel, and then into 
 position for coaling. If damage is done under these circum- 
 
KEEPING STATIONS AND MANOEUVRING IN SQUADRON. 685 
 
 stances it will be less than will result from attempting to back 
 out with wind or current setting you on. 
 
 (9) Be ready to get underway at short notice while alongside 
 a ship. 
 
 (10) Trim your ship with water ballast as coal comes out, 
 thus keeping her manageable at all times. 
 
 (n) Be on the lookout for a change of heading on the vessel 
 you approach. She may swing unexpectedly. 
 
 SOME DUTIES OF THE OFFICER OF THE DECK. 
 
 In concluding- this chapter it may be helpful to call the atten- 
 tion of young officers to the magnitude of the responsibility 
 which rests upon an officer in charge of the deck of a battleship 
 at sea in company with a large number of other ships. Officers 
 easily become so accustomed to the routine of cruising and ma- 
 noeuvring without accident, that they forget how close they may 
 be at any instant, not only to accident, but to disaster. 
 
 It is not alone the mishaps of one's own ship which must be 
 reckoned with, but those occurring to the ships ahead as well. 
 It is true that if the next ahead stops her engines suddenly, she 
 still holds her way for a time, and if the officer on her bridge is 
 alert and self-possessed, he gives instant notice of the accident 
 and hauls out of column. If the next astern is also alert and self- 
 possessed, he sees the signal instantly and acts judiciously, and 
 the danger is not great. The same is true of other accidents ; 
 such as a failure of the steering gear, a " man overboard," or an 
 unexpected manceuver to avoid a vessel or other danger sud- 
 denly discovered ahead. 
 
 But suppose the officer on the bridge of the ship ahead is slow 
 to act, or loses his head and does the wrong thing, and in addi- 
 tion to this, neglects to signal that anything- is wrong. If now 
 the officer on the bridge of the next astern is as alert as he should 
 be, and as ready to recognize and to meet the situation, all will 
 still be well ; but if he is giving his attention to other things, 
 perhaps studying the chart, perhaps making an entry in the log, 
 perhaps engaged in something far less justifiable than these, he 
 may lose the brief interval in which he has time to act, or may 
 be forced to act so quickly that his judgment will be at fault, 
 
686 KEEPING STATIONS AND MANOEUVRING IN SQUADRON. 
 
 and it may be his lot to become the responsible actor in an appall- 
 ing tragedy. 
 
 It is perhaps essential that matters of internal routine should 
 make some demand upon the attention of the officer of the deck 
 at sea in squadron, but these demands should be reduced to a 
 minimum, and should never for an instant cause him to forget 
 the vastly more important demands connected with the safety 
 of the ship. There should at all times be some responsible person 
 on the bridge who is closely watching the movements of the ship 
 ahead, and to this rule no exceptions should be made. If, there- 
 fore, the attention of the officer of the deck is for a brief time 
 necessarily diverted to something else, he should caution his as- 
 sistant to keep an eye upon the ships ahead. 
 
 It is well to prepare oneself for prompt action by frequently 
 picturing the emergencies which may arise and settling upon the 
 proper methods of meeting them. This habit, coupled with the 
 vigilance which will result from recognition of the fact that the 
 emergency, if it is to come, will come without warning and when 
 least expected, will give the only assurance that is possible, of 
 readiness to meet it with credit. 
 
 It is one of the unfortunate features of an officer's preparation 
 for his duties, that very few emergencies can be simulated with 
 their attendant features of danger and surprise- for purposes of 
 training. The situation, for example, in which a vessel suddenly 
 looms up, from a dense fog, close aboard of one of the vessels 
 of a battleship fleet, requiring instant decision as to the ma- 
 nceuver which will be best for keeping clear at once of the 
 stranger and of the neighboring vessels of the fleet, is one in 
 which no officer can hope for much practice, except in his own 
 imagination. And so with many other situations. 
 
 Much is gained by making sure that all emergency arrange- 
 ments are in working order, and that the men stationed to operate 
 them are thoroughly acquainted with their duties; the break- 
 down flag rounded up to its place; the signal gun ready, with 
 ammunition at hand; fireworks of any kind prescribed, in their 
 appointed place; the life-boat ready for lowering-, the crew 
 mustered and inspected ; men detailed to run aloft in case of man 
 overboard, to keep him in sight and signal to the boat; a force 
 detailed for shifting steering-gear in the event of a breakdown; 
 
KEEPING STATIONS AND MANOEUVRING IN SQUADRON. 687 
 
 men at the engine-room telegraphs for regulating the speed ; 
 men at the cones or other speed-signals for communicating with 
 the ships astern ; the position-buoy ready for going over promptly 
 if there is a possibility of fog, etc. 
 
 While keeping lookouts up to their work, an officer should not 
 trust to them but should remember that he is his own best look- 
 out, and that if he sees danger first, he gains time which may be 
 vital for avoiding it. This is especially important in a fog. 
 
 There is even greater gain in reading signals for oneself 
 instead of trusting to signal-men who may be "both stupid and 
 careless. And it is a good rule to verify all tactical signals by 
 reference to the Signal Book or to a memorandum in which the 
 most important of the tactical signals are set down. 
 
 It is important also to note whether neighboring ships have 
 apparently read the signal correctly and are starting out to per- 
 form the manceuver properly, as a mistake made by any one ship 
 may be more dangerous to others than to herself. 
 
 Not only the officer and junior officer of the watch but the 
 quartermaster and helmsman also should know to which side the 
 ship is required to haul out in case of breakdown. 
 
 The officer of the deck should never enter the chart-room at 
 night except in case of necessity. To do so, not only takes him 
 away from a station which he ought never to leave, but makes 
 his eyes useless for an appreciable time after he comes out. So 
 with poring over the log or a chart though the last may of 
 course be essential. 
 
 It is important to keep the engineer officer of the watch in- 
 formed in advance as to changes of speed in so far as these can 
 be foreseen, and to let him know how long a given condition will 
 probably continue. If stopped or running slow this may save 
 " bio wing-off." It will also enable him to prepare for keeping 
 position when " standard " speed is again called for. 
 
 It must be remembered that the Rules of the Road do not 
 apply to vessels running at night without lights. A fleet run- 
 ning in this way must therefore keep clear of all vessels carry 
 ing lights. 
 
688 KEEPING STATIONS AND MANCEUVRING IN SQUADRON. 
 
 "Notes B" 
 
 HANDLING SHIPS 
 
 Official Rules Prescribed for Atlantic Fleet (1921) 
 
 1. Maintain position. This requires constant attention and alertness. 
 
 2. Regain station quickly. During maneuvers, if a ship loses her position 
 she must regain it quickly. This requires radical changes of revolutions and 
 course. 
 
 3. Until ships are in correct position, the next maneuver, as a rule, cannot 
 be performed. 
 
 4. When cruising, work with small changes of revolutions. 
 
 5. Guide. The Guide must exactly maintain the prescribed speed and 
 steer a steady course. 
 
 6. Uniform steaming. Uniform steaming of Fleet Units is demanded 
 under all circumstances, both for cruising and for the line of battle. 
 
 7. Do not be astern of your station when in column. 
 
 8. Do not be ahead of your station when in line of bearing. 
 
 9. Change speed with directing ship. When in column, and speed is 
 changed by signal or otherwise, make the change with the directing ship. 
 Do not wait to follow the movements of some dilatory ship that may be 
 ahead of you. 
 
 10. Check revolutions. When in formation, the revolutions should be 
 checked by revolution indicators on the bridge at least every ten minutes. 
 
 11. Steering. Good steering is essential alike for station keeping and 
 for accurate "Dead Reckoning." 
 
 12. Train your eye. Train your eye to judge distance. Do not be wholly 
 dependent upon rangefinders and speed indicators. 
 
 13. Watch "coming on." Alertness on the part of the officer-of-the-deck 
 will prevent the watch "coming on" causing the ship to lose position. New 
 steersmen and new hands at the throttle require supervision. 
 
 14. You may be the one in error. The ship ahead is always wrong and the 
 ship astern nearly always so. Notwithstanding this condition, it is entirely 
 possible with skillful handling of your own ship to hold your correct position 
 in formation. If other ships are handled badly, the greater will be the oppor- 
 tunity to train the officer-of-the-deck of your own ship. Do not blame other 
 ships, but keep your own in position, regardless of difficulties created by 
 others. 
 
 15. Responsibility for safe navigation. It should invariably be thoroughly 
 understood in every ship, whether she is in company with a fleet or detached, 
 that her own officers are always responsible for her safe navigation. There- 
 fore, when in column in cramped waters, do not blindly follow your leader 
 under the supposition that, because he may have safely passed foul ground 
 ahead, you, perhaps some distance astern, are bound to do the same. There 
 is generally either tide, set, or wind, to consider, and it is sometimes remarkable 
 how much the end of a long line of ships may be deflected from its proper 
 course by one or a combination of these. 
 
 16. This applies when entering or leaving a harbor, or passing through 
 the entrance of a breakwater: look out for your own navigation. 
 
KEEPING STATIONS AND MANOEUVRING IN SQUADRON. 689 
 
 17. Rules of the road. The "Rules of the Road" govern all movements, 
 and nothing justifies a ship getting to her position (however smartly) at the 
 risk of her safety or another's. 
 
 1 8. Speed on dispatch duty. It is well known (and provided judgment is 
 also present) that the faster the ship is moving through the water the easier 
 she is to handle. Therefore, when at work on any detached duty amongst 
 the fleet, till that duty is completed, use the engines with the cones right up, 
 giving plenty of rudder, and you cannot go far wrong; but remember the rule, 
 "Never let your boat go faster than your brain." 
 
 19. Turn sharply. When leaving a formation, ships should turn out 
 sharply, when practicable, so as to render the intent quickly apparent. 
 
 20. Rule for handling ship while lowering or picking up boat. When not 
 in contracted waters and you are obliged to stop to lower a boat or have a 
 boat come alongside, do not keep your engines backing so long that the back 
 water works forward of the davits or gangway (as the case may be). A little 
 headway will do no harm and you may back again later, if necessary. It 
 is confusing to a coxwain to suddenly find himself in a contrary current, and 
 more so to the coxwain not specially skilled. 
 
 21. Obeying signals in flagship. A signal of execution in a flagship 
 should always be immediately obeyed in that ship. 
 
 22. Do not follow ship making error. Ships should not follow, or be 
 guided by, the motions of ships which clearly misinterpret a signal. 
 
 23. Getting underway, heave in together. Upon the execution of a "get 
 underway" signal, ships should heave in and get their anchors as quickly as 
 possible. All ships should be riding to the prescribed scope of chain when 
 the signal is executed. 
 
 24. It is more important to get underway promptly than to moor with 
 rapidity. 
 
 25. Speed of windlass. The anchor windlass, when heaving in, should 
 always be run at its designed speed. 
 
 26. Use engines to ease strain on chain. If there is a strain on the chain 
 when the "get underway" signal is hoisted, the main engines should be used 
 to slacken the chain so that there will be no delay in heaving in. 
 
 27. Keep pointed. When a ship is "away," she should only use her 
 engines sufficiently to keep her head pointed in the direction it was before the 
 anchor was tripped, unless a casting, course, or formation signal has been 
 executed. 
 
 28. Getting underway. When signal is made to cast to starboard (or to 
 port), ships, while casting, must: 
 
 (a) Adhere rigorously to the anchorage line of bearing; 
 
 (b) Maintain their bearing from the guide; 
 
 (c) Turn with the guide not before nor after to the prescribed heading; 
 
 (d) Be ready to take standard speed with the guide; and, 
 
 (e) Be ready to promptly perform the next evolution. 
 
 29. Turning on your heel. To turn a ship on her heel and at the same 
 time preserve exact bearing and distance: 
 
 (a) Go full speed astern with the propeller on the side on which you require 
 her head to come up; 
 
 (b) The instant she begins to move, go full speed ahead with the propeller 
 on the other side; 
 
690 KEEPING STATIONS AND MANOEUVRING IN SQUADRON. 
 
 (c) Keep the inner propeller at full speed astern the whole time and work 
 the other engine against it as may be necessary. 
 
 (d) Do not forget to stop both engines in time to steady on the desired 
 heading. 
 
 30. Take station passing column. Having no way upon your ship, to 
 take up your station in a passing column you should go ahead one-third speed 
 when your "next ahead" is about twenty degrees abaft your beam; take the 
 guide's speed when your "next ahead" is abeam. 
 
 31. Watch shore ranges. When getting underway and when anchoring, 
 watch shore ranges, if practicable, to determine what your ship is doing over 
 the bottom. 
 
 32. Exchanging stations. When exchanging stations in column be careful 
 not to edge in too close to the bow of what will be your next astern. 
 
 33. Forming column from line of bearing. A ship forming column on a 
 guide from a bow, beam or quarter bearing, must conform, more or less, 
 with the rudder and speed of the ship next towards the guide. 
 
 34. When scattered use full speed to form. If the ships are scattered and 
 signal is made to form, individual ships should steam at full speed and take 
 station as quickly as possible. 
 
 35. Tactical diameter when forming. When standing down to take station 
 in a column, keep your ship just outside your tactical diameter from the col- 
 umn. You cannot foul the column if your rudder is hard over, although by 
 bad judgment you may turn up short or otherwise. Steam at full speed. 
 
 36. Do not edge in. Never drop in to your position in a fleet underway 
 by slowing down and edging in. Much time is lost thereby and it is a lubberly 
 performance. 
 
 37. Come hi on stern of next ahead. When taking up your position in a 
 column be careful as you close in to note the course of the column in com- 
 parison with your own heading. Come in on the stern of your next ahead 
 and, providing you are going fast enough, you cannot interfere with your 
 next astern, which is always the danger. 
 
 38. Joining from ahead. When taking up your position in column from 
 ahead, you can always roughly estimate the course of the column by the 
 relative angle of the masts; if they are in line, you know at once. This 
 done, come swinging down on the opposite course, and remember that when 
 you put the rudder over for the last turn, the ship you are forming on is 
 moving ahead the whole time. 
 
 39. Communicating by boat. When closing in to communicate with 
 another vessel which is stopped, nothing looks better to others, or is more 
 satisfactory to yourself, than that your ship should be nicely stopped at 
 the right place which means that the boat which you are lowering should 
 have as short a pull as possible. But you must always bear in mind that the 
 bow of your ship must be inclined out from the side of the other, and also 
 remember how big masses in water attract each other and suck together; 
 and that the other ship is making something good to leeward. 
 
 40. Going alongside dock. On running up alongside a ship, and the same 
 applies to going alongside a dock, as you draw up to the vessel ahead (till you 
 are accustomed to it) you are likely to be deceived as to the distance you will 
 be off when you arrive abreast, and you will find that you are nearly always 
 much closer than you expected. 
 
KEEPING STATIONS AND MANCEUVRING IN SQUADRON. 69! 
 
 41. Line of bearing. By remembering the following points, the usual 
 difficulties encountered by the beginner, when steaming in line of bearing, 
 may be readily overcome. 
 
 42. The bearing must continually be verified and, if necessary, be at once 
 corrected by increasing or decreasing speed. 
 
 43. When your bearing is correct, remember that: 
 
 (a) The distance may be changed by altering course slightly (2, 4, 6) 
 and changing your speed. 
 
 (b) A change of course away from the advanced flank (i.e., towards the 
 normal to the line of bearing) will cause the ship to forge ahead rapidly if the 
 speed is not immediately reduced. 
 
 (c) Small changes of speed are generally not sufficient to prevent a ship 
 getting ahead of her proper bearing when she alters her course away from the 
 advanced flank. A change of course of but 3 degrees away from the advanced 
 flank will, as a rule, demand a speed less than standard. 
 
 (d) A change of course towards the advanced flank will cause the ship 
 to drop back, if the speed is not increased simultaneously. 
 
 44. When both distance and bearing are incorrect: 
 
 (a) Increase speed and change course, if abaft the bearing. 
 
 (b) Decrease or maintain speed (according to the amount that the course 
 has been changed at the same time) if materially ahead of the bearing. 
 
 45. If the distance is correct and you are ahead of the proper bearing, a 
 reduction of speed without altering course will increase your distance. There- 
 fore, when you are ahead of your bearing, in addition to reducing speed, 
 simultaneously change course towards the advanced flank. 
 
 46. If ahead of your bearing, and your distance is so little that when you 
 drop back it becomes necessary to change course away from the advanced 
 flank, a rapid regaining of the correct bearing is possible only by a consider- 
 able reduction of speed. 
 
 47. If abaft your bearing and your distance is either correct or too little, 
 an increase of speed only will bring you on the bearing but will further reduce 
 your distance. You must, therefore, in addition to increasing speed, change 
 course slightly away from the advanced flank, bu be careful to avoid forging 
 ahead of the proper bearing. 
 
 48. If abaft your bearing and your distance is too great, you must change 
 course somewhat towards the advanced flank and then you may energetically 
 increase your speed. 
 
 49. Bearing Rule. In general, stick to the rule, "Keeping correct bearing 
 must be rated higher than keeping correct distance ; and above all, you must 
 never forge ahead of the line." 
 
 50. When ordered to take up position astern of any ship at equal speed 
 from any bearing except direct ahead, you will arrive in her wake at approx- 
 imately the same distance from her as when you started, if, when the signal 
 is hauled down, you take the bearing of her foremast and steer that course. 
 
 51. Column. In changes of direction by column movement, the following 
 points must be observed: 
 
 52. The formation must be accurately maintained. 
 
 53. The masts of each ship, immediately upon completing the prescribed 
 change of course, should be on the proper line of bearing from the column 
 leader. 
 
692 KEEPING STATIONS AND MANOEUVRING IN SQUADRON. 
 
 54. Each ship should be at proper distance immediately before and 
 immediately after the prescribed change of course has been made. Never 
 be appreciably too close when your next ahead reaches the turn. In order to 
 avoid this, speed must be reduced, if necessary, when the evolution signal is 
 hoisted, but remember that every reduction of speed causes some disturbance 
 to ships astern. In large turns especially (90 to 180) too little distance is 
 uncomfortable and likely to result in your turning outside. 
 
 55. If you reduce speed before turning, because too close, then when 
 beginning to turn or very soon thereafter, resume standard speed; otherwise, 
 you will be sure to drop behind. In some circumstances even an increase of 
 speed will be necessary. 
 
 56. Fault to Turn Late. It is an ugly fault to start a turn so late that 
 even full rudder cannot prevent your ship over-running the correct bearing 
 from the column leader. 
 
 57. Result of Late Turn. By making a turn too late, a ship increases the 
 turning arc established by the column leader and this impedes correct turning 
 by ships following, besides making the column ragged. 
 
 58. Stern. The stern of a ship while turning deviates outboard from the 
 original track. 
 
 59. Steady Compass Course. Each ship should keep a steady compass 
 course up to the turning point. If no suitable objects for the steersman are 
 available ahead, and it is not possible to depend sufficiently upon the steering 
 compass, look astern in order to detect at once any turning of the ship by 
 the swinging of the stern to the right or left from the rest of the column 
 following. 
 
 60. Chasing Tails. It is improper to maintain heading on the stern of 
 your next ahead while the latter is making the turn. 
 
 61. The resulting effect of a ship chasing tails is to increase the tendency 
 of following ships to sag away, thus making it almost impossible for them to 
 turn correctly. 
 
 62. The marked swinging out of the stern of the ship ahead makes at 
 first a rather alarming impression at the normal distance with the modern 
 long ships. It takes some -time before the stern begins to return again to 
 the tangent; and, as your own ship, on account of the loss of speed of the 
 ship ahead, will at first run up on her, you are likely to think that there is 
 danger of collision. In reality, such is not the case if your ship is properly 
 in station. Your ship, it is true, will approach rather near to the stern of the 
 ship ahead, but as soon as you begin turning, the distance will be opened again 
 by your own loss of speed and the taking up of speed by your next ahead. 
 
 63. Turning Point. Begin turning at exactly the same point as the column 
 leader and not at the turning point of your next ahead if he turns short or 
 outside. 
 
 64. Wake Rule on Turn. If your next ahead has turned properly keep 
 your stem inside the rough water of his wake. The distance inside should 
 be approximately equal to the beam of your ship. 
 
 65. Early vs. Late Turn. Better begin turning too soon than too late. 
 Turning too soon may be easily rectified by easing the rudder and, if necessary, 
 reducing the speed. When, for any reason, the rudder was moved too late, 
 at once apply a larger angle and increase the speed, because otherwise you 
 
KEEPING STATIONS AND MANOEUVRING IN SQUADRON. 693 
 
 will always drop behind. During the course of turning, notably during its 
 last part, the observing of the angle between the column already formed on 
 the new course and the midship line from the conning station to the stem, will 
 furnish a good clue to determine whether the ship, with the rudder kept as 
 it is, will still come around in time or not. 
 
 66. Do Not Repeat Errors of Ship Ahead. When the ship ahead, by 
 faulty turning, goes outside the arc of turning of the column leader, take 
 your direction from the column leader. If necessary, increase the amount 
 of rudder in order not to come too close to the ship ahead. In turns up to 
 90 degrees in such a case, you may, without fear, head at first for the middle 
 or even the bow of your next ahead. If need be, there always remain the 
 stopping of the inboard engine and a reduction of speed. When the fault of 
 the ship ahead is great, you will, in most cases, range alongside of her at a 
 pretty close distance. 
 
 67. Hold Your Course. While your next ahead, having turned outside, 
 returns to his station, the distance between his inner quarter and your bow 
 may be a little close. You must not ease your rudder, if you are in station. 
 Reduce speed, if necessary, but when doing so do not forget your next astern. 
 
 68. Increase Speed While Edging In. The ship edging into the column 
 must increase her speed while so doing. 
 
 69. Get Turn in Hand. Upon all occasions, when turning in column, 
 endeavor to get the turn well in hand. If your ship is inclined to turn short, 
 the rudder can always be eased; but, if the turn is made too late, the rudder 
 has to be put hard over and once it is there no more can be done. 
 
 70. Start Turn Promptly. A ship must start her turn promptly even 
 though it requires a hard over rudder to do so. 
 
 71. Check Bearing in Column. As a guide leading a division through 
 a tideway, perhaps it is safer to put the ships of the column on a bearing 
 from the guide, instead of allowing them to attempt to follow round in the 
 wake of the next ahead; but, in all cases, every ship in the column should 
 endeavor to pass over the same ground. 
 
 72. Fog. Do not drop astern of your station while in a fog. 
 
 73. Correct Errors on Turn. When making a simultaneous turn from 
 column to line or to line of bearing, and vice-versa, check your distance from 
 the guide and from the next ship towards the guide. Correct errors in distance 
 during the turn. 
 
 74. Turn Rules. In simultaneous turns, ships must: 
 
 (a) Start the turn promptly when the signal is executed; 
 
 (b) Regulate their speed and rudder angle so that they will be in station 
 when they have swung to the prescribed heading; 
 
 (c) Remember that a change of the prescribed rudder angle generally 
 necessitates a change of speed; 
 
 (d) Watch carefully their next towards the guide; 
 
 (e) Follow standard procedure for easing the rudder and meeting her; 
 
 (f) Not swing beyond the new heading. 
 
 75. Standard Speed and Rudder. The practice of rigorously adhering to 
 the standard rudder and never changing the speed of the engines by signal 
 from the bridge while turning is not correct. Standard rudder and standard 
 speed is only a general rule and must be departed from as occasion requires. 
 
694 KEEPING STATIONS AND MANOEUVRING IN SQUADRON. 
 
 76. Approaching Anchorage. Radical Speed Changes. When approaching 
 an anchorage, or at any other time in formation, when the speed is much 
 reduced and the ship is out of position, it should not be attempted to regain 
 position by a small change of revolutions. The change should be radical 
 for a short period of time, in order that the ship regain her station quickly. 
 Remember that the speed of the ship is not, necessarily, equivalent to the 
 speed of the engines. Considerable time is required to overcome the momen- 
 tum of a heavy ship. When a ship is at rest, or nearly so, slow speed for 
 regaining position is of little more value than getting out an oar. To produce 
 results quickly, the engines must be worked with considerable power. 
 
 77. Backing without Swinging. When it is intended to back the engines 
 while the ship is going ahead, if there is time, the ship should be first going 
 steadily on her course, with rudder amidships. If the ship is swinging at all, 
 she will swing more violently in the same direction as soon as the engines 
 are backed and the only way that this swing can be checked is by going ahead 
 full speed on both engines with the rudder hard over, and as soon as the bow 
 starts swinging in the other direction, reverse the engines and the ship will 
 come back to her course. The handling of the ship under such conditions 
 must be prompt. 
 
 78. Swinging Stern. When anchoring in succession or when approaching 
 another ship, and it is desired that the ship's stern shall swing in a particular 
 direction, the swing must be started before engines are backed. The ship 
 may be relied upon to continue that swing after the engines start backing. 
 
 79. Anchoring Backing Power. When anchoring in formation, as well 
 as when approaching an anchorage in a crowded harbor, or the vicinity of other 
 ships, a ship should maintain plenty of steam pressure, in order to have ample 
 backing power to control the ship in case of emergency. 
 
 80. Never Snub Chain. In anchoring, a ship should never be snubbed 
 by the chain. The momentum of such a heavy weight is great even at low 
 speed and may be relied upon as sufficient to part or weaken the chain. Chain 
 should be veered until way is lost then hove in as necessary. 
 
 81. Approach Anchorage Boldly. When anchorage water is clear, ships, 
 whether in formation or not, should approach the anchorage boldly. Nothing 
 looks worse, or is more indicative of timidity and lack of self-confidence on 
 the part of the Commanding Officer, than to drift up to the anchorage, under 
 barely steerageway, with a ship or ships which handle quickly, thereby losing 
 control of the ship as well as position in formation. 
 
 82. Let Go Anchor with Execution Signal. All ships should anchor 
 simultaneously the instant the anchorage signal is executed. It is unfair to 
 your next astern if you "hang on" to make up lost distance and he has properly 
 obeyed the signal. 
 
 83. To Moor. To moor in a harbor: 
 
 (a) Steady your ship on the anchorage bearing; 
 
 (b) Then devote your attention to letting go the first anchor; 
 
 (c) Do not snub the chain, but have plenty of way on and let the chain 
 lay itself out straight ; 
 
 (d) Endeavor to have the ship at rest just after the second anchor has 
 been let go; 
 
 (e) Then go full speed astern, keeping in mind your next astern. 
 
( 695 ) 
 
 CHAPTER XXV 
 TOWING. 
 
 I. The TOW-LINE. 
 
 Generally speaking, the longer and heavier the tow-line used, 
 the easier the towing will be. A decided dip or " catenary " 
 gives the same advantage here as in the case of a vessel riding 
 at anchor with a good scope of chain; that is to say, the sag- 
 ging bight acts as an elastic spring, preventing variations in 
 the tension from being thrown upon the line in sudden jerks; 
 and the sag of the bight depends not only on its length but on 
 its weight. 1 Unfortunately, however, too great weight is a 
 serious inconvenience in handling and running lines. This is 
 the principal objection to chain-cable, which in many ways is 
 an ideal tow-line. Another objection is that if the vessels are 
 obliged to stop, the weight of the chain may prove sufficient to 
 drag them into collision. In the excellent work on Seaman- 
 ship by Captains Todd and Whall, the use of chain-cable (alone) 
 is recommended for all cases of heavy towing; one of the au- 
 thors testifying to its availability as the result of his own ex- 
 perience upon several occasions. This is high authority, but 
 the present author has collected the views of more than forty 
 prominent shipmasters, every one of whom says that under no 
 circumstances would he attempt to tow by chain alone, unless 
 compelled to do so. 
 
 Wire-rope is very convenient for handling, and makes an ex- 
 cellent tow-line for smooth water, but is much too light to give 
 a satisfactory spring for all-around work under ordinary con- 
 ditions. All of its advantages may be realized and its disad- 
 vantages eliminated, by the use of a Towing Engine, which sub- 
 
 1 Observe that the dip does not in the least reduce the tension of 
 steady towing. What it does is to furnish an elastic link between the 
 ships, by which the forces already described as arising in a seaway are 
 absorbed gradually instead of being thrown upon the line with the sud- 
 denness and disastrous effect of " impact." 
 
696 TOWING. 
 
 stitutes the elasticity of steam pressure for that due to a long 
 and heavy line. This will be referred to at greater length here- 
 after. 
 
 Both chain and wire have a serious disadvantage in that they 
 are not buoyant, as are lines made from vegetable fiber. 
 
 Manila, while heavy enough to give a good dip if used in 
 sufficient length, is not too heavy for convenient handling and 
 its buoyancy is a great advantage, particularly where lines are 
 to be run by boats or hauled across over considerable distances. 
 It is, upon the whole, the most satisfactory line that can be used 
 for moderate towing; but although heavier than wire of corres- 
 ponding strength, it is still much too light for towing in a sea- 
 way. Its weight is increased in some cases by hanging a good 
 sized kedge to the bight between the two ships ; a device which 
 is evidently available with wire, as well as with manila. A more 
 common plan is to use a combination of chain-cable with a 
 manila or wire hawser, or both, the hawser being made fast to 
 the towing ship and the chain-cable paid out by the tow. 
 
 When the conditions for getting the lines across from one 
 ship to the other are fairly good, a combination of wire and chain 
 is perhaps the best ; but in bad weather, or when, for any reason, 
 the ships cannot come close together for running the lines, the 
 buoyancy of manila its " floatability" shows up as an enormous 
 advantage, especially where the vessel which is to receive the line, 
 get it on board, and secure it, is a small craft, such as a de- 
 stroyer. The use of a manila hauling line helps out, but cannot 
 do away with the difficulties connected with dragging a wire- 
 line across a long stretch of water and securing it on the cramped 
 forecastle of a small vessel which is perhaps plunging into a 
 heavy sea. A good plan is to combine manila and wire, the tow- 
 ing vessel first paying out the manila line, which is hauled across 
 by the tow and secured, after which the towing ship shackles 
 the wire-line to the manila and starts ahead very slowly, paying 
 out the wire-line as she gathers way. 
 
 For towing even a vessel as small as a destroyer in rough 
 weather and it must not be forgotten that rough weather may 
 be encountered in almost any towing expedition the full length 
 
TOWING. 697 
 
 of an 8-inch manila line with the added length of a 5-inch or 
 6-inch wire, will he none too much. 
 
 Where the tow is able to haul across and handle a wire-line, 
 and especially where she proposes to use with it a good length of 
 her own bower-cable, a 6-inch or 7-inch wire-line is recommended. 
 The length that is needed will vary with circumstances, but it is 
 far better to have too much than too little ; and the use of a 
 margin of safety which seems unreasonably large may result in a 
 very comfortable security from .the vexatious accidents and de- 
 lays which are so common in towing. 
 
 Where a battleship is to be towed, the full length of a special 
 7-inch wire-line (200 fathoms) is recommended, in addition to 
 75 or 90 fathoms of bower-cable. With such a line there should 
 be no troublesome break-downs unless the speed is forced unduly. 
 (See remarks below on "Speed and Resistance.") 
 
 Securing on the Towing Ship. In securing the line, considera- 
 tion must be given to the possible necessity for letting go in a 
 hurry. It is clear that there are many emergencies which may 
 arise in which the line must be gotten rid of in the shortest pos- 
 sible time ; such as a sudden threat of collision. This is a point 
 which is not always given the consideration to which its im- 
 portance entitles it. 
 
 For convenience in letting go, it is desirable to have a break 
 in the line near the stern ; that is to say, to have, at or near this 
 point, a shackle connecting two parts of the line, together with 
 some arrangement, like a pelican-hook, for slipping quickly. 
 
 The objection to letting go at any point well inboard of the 
 ship is that a dangerous " whip " is certain to result as the end of 
 the line goes out. 
 
 To have the end only just inside the stern-chock on the towing 1 
 ship means that practically the whole length of the tow-line must 
 be paid out, and that any variation in length must be taken care 
 of by the tow. As it happens, this is usually the simplest way to 
 arrange matters, provided the bower cable of the tow is in use as 
 a part of the line, as it almost always is. It is very easy to heave 
 in or veer away on this, as may be necessary for shortening or 
 lengthening the line. 
 
698 
 
 Plate No. 172. 
 
Plate No. 173. 
 
 699 
 
TOWING. 
 
 ^ A point of some importance in towing in a seaway is to keep the ships 
 "in step" as nearly as may be; that is, to use such a length of line that 
 they shall meet the waves and ride over them together. If the length 
 of the line is such that one vessel is in the trough of the sea as the 
 other is on the crest, the line will for a moment slacken, then tauten 
 out with a sudden jerk; whereas if they meet the waves at the same 
 time the tension on the line will remain comparatively steady. The wave- 
 lengths of a sea are usually approximately uniform at any given time, and 
 it should not be difficult to arrange the line as above described by heaving 
 in or veering away the cable on the tow. In towing for a long time and 
 covering a great distance, extreme variations may of course be found in 
 wave-lengths, and the inconvenience of changing the length of the line 
 from time to time may more than offset the advantage to be gained ; but 
 it is worth while to recognize this point and to be ready to take advantage 
 of it when circumstances permit. 
 
 If the towing ship has a chock at the stern and amidships or 
 nearly so, the line should be brought in through this. It is a 
 good plan to use a short length of chain for the lead through the 
 chock, shackling outside to an eye in the end of the wire-line, and 
 inside to a pendant or span from the turret, the bitts, or else- 
 where, according to the arrangement decided upon for 'securing. 
 The chain through the chock- not only takes the chafe under 
 which the wire would cut through but by its flexibility does 
 away with the dangerous " nip " which would be thrown into 
 the wire if the tow chanced to take a rank sheer off onto the 
 quarter. 
 
 If it is thought that the chain may suffer from chafe, a per- 
 fectly efficient sleeve may be made by wrapping it with a sheet of 
 copper from j to ^-inch thick. 
 
 If chain is not to be used for taking the chafe in the chock, 
 
 the toW-line must be very carefully protected by chafing-gear, 
 
 which -it is well to put on in the shape of a long and bulky pud- 
 
 The stiffness of such a pudding reduces the sharpness of 
 
 the nip which without it would be thrown upon the wire from 
 
 me to time by the sheering of the ships. 
 
 The arrangements for securing the line inboard on the tozvin* 
 ship will vary widely with conditions. 
 
 In men-of-war, a pendant of wire or chain is sometimes taken 
 
 und the after turret, as in Plates 172 and 173. The first of 
 
 e plates shows the method used in the British Navy where 
 
 ne battleship tows another. Two lines are used here-a plan 
 
 ch has some advantages and a good many disadvantages The 
 
TOWING. 7OI 
 
 second plate shows what is considered to be upon .the whole the 
 best arrangement for heavy towing. A wire pendant may of 
 course be used around the turret, instead of the chain here shown. 
 
 In a ship having no turret, the pendant may be taken around a 
 deck-house, with a few turns around .the bitts on each side, as in 
 Plate 173. 
 
 Where the strain is not too heavy to be taken by the bitts, the 
 arrangement will be that shown in Plate 174, the line being taken 
 around as many sets of bitts as are available. To divide the 
 strain here, it is advisable to take only one or two turns around 
 the first bitts, thus leaving the line free .to " render " slightly and 
 so transfer a portion of the strain. 
 
 In all of the arrangements shown in the plates, pelican-hooks 
 are used for letting go. In the case illustrated in Plate 172, the 
 hook has the weight of the tow at all times. 
 
 In the other cases, the strain is taken momentarily on the hook, 
 relieving the shackle and admitting of knocking out the shackle- 
 pin, after which the pelican-hook is slipped. This arrangement 
 entails a little delay, which, however, need not exceed a few 
 seconds, and the whole arrangement is more secure than that of 
 Plate 172. 
 
 If it is not convenient to use an extra shackle for the pelican- 
 hook, the hook may be used directly on the chain, as in Fig. 2, 
 Plate 174. 
 
 If no pelican-hook is at hand, a strap may be used on the chain 
 or wire, outside of the shackle, and a heavy purchase hooked to 
 this and taken to the winch. For letting go, the strain is taken 
 by the winch long enough to disconnect at the shackle, after 
 which the strap is cut. (Fig. 3, Plate 174.) 
 
 There are some conditions under which it is convenient to use 
 a span on the towing ship, the two parts being brought in through 
 the quarter-chocks. Generally speaking, this makes it rather 
 easier for the towing ship to steer and the advantage gained in 
 this respect may become important in cases where a small ship is 
 dealing with a heavy tow. Where the line leads from a chock 
 directly over the rudder, it binds the stern so that it can only 
 swing in obedience to the helm, bv dragging the tow with it. A 
 large ship can take care of this situation by the power of her 
 steering gear, assisted, if necessary, by the screws ; but a small 
 ship with a heavy tow and with the line leading through the 
 
702 
 
 Plate No. 174. 
 
 GO 
 
 
Plate No. 175. 
 
 703 
 
 Fig.2. 
 
 Towing a Vessel 
 
 with Bower Chain 
 
 and Bridle. 
 
 (This may be Bow of Vessel towed 
 or Stem of Vessel towing.) 
 
 SECURING TOW-LINES 
 
704 
 
 TOWING. 
 
 stern chock, if she steers at all will be very sluggish. Tugs which 
 are specially fitted for towing have their bitts well forward of 
 the rudder, allowing a chance for the stern to swing ; the fittings 
 abaft the bitts being such as to let the line sweep freely across 
 from one quarter to the other. 
 
 Where a span is used it may be of chain, wire or manila, chain 
 being probably the best. In this, as in other cases, arrangements 
 must be made for letting go quickly if necessary. 
 
 Where chain is used for the span, two lengths of bower-cable 
 are gotten aft, one on each side, and passed through the quarter- 
 chocks. The outer ends are then brought in over the rail and con- 
 nected together by an anchor shackle, to which the end of the 
 towing hawser or chain is also made fast (Plate 175). A bull- 
 rope is made fast to the shackle, for lowering the span over the 
 stern after the lines have been secured and for heaving the span 
 up to the rail if the line parts or if it is desired to let go. 
 
 The details of securing the lines inboard must of course depend 
 upon circumstances, but it is important to distribute the strain 
 over as many sets of bitts as possible. 
 
 A convenient plan is to bring the tow-line in through the 
 quarter-pipe on one side and bend a hawser to it from the other 
 quarter-pipe at such a point outside that the two parts shall form 
 a span of convenient length. The lines may be made fast around 
 the bitts and to the mast or a deck house in practically the same 
 way as in the methods already described. This plan has the 
 advantage that by letting go the second line we get rid of the 
 span at once and have to deal only with the tow-line itself. 
 
 On board the tow, the hawser is usually bent to the bower-cable 
 (Plates 175, 176), although there may of course be many condi- 
 tions under which some other arrangement will be necessary. If 
 the cable cannot be used, it is desirable to use at least a short 
 length of chain to take the chafe in the chock in the same manner 
 as already described for securing on the towing ship. If even 
 this is impracticable, abundant chafing-gear must be used, and 
 this should be examined several times a day and renewed as often 
 as may be necessary. 
 
 Where the bower cable is used, the line is bent or shackled to 
 it and the cable veered away to the desired length, after which 
 the windlass brakes are set up and springs, to take the real strain 
 of towing, are put on as in Plate 176. It is well to have a shackle 
 
Plate No. 176. 
 
 705 
 
 SECURING LINES IN TOWING, 
 
706 TOWING. 
 
 between the windlass and the point to which the springs are bent 
 and to keep tools at hand for unshackling' if it becomes necessary 
 to let go in a hurry. Generally speaking, however, the tow 
 should not let go in this way except in case of extreme emergency, 
 as the line, weighted with a considerable length of heavy chain, 
 would sink immediately, hanging as a dead-weight from the stern 
 of the towing vessel, where it would be extremely difficult to 
 handle and would be in danger of fouling the screws. This 
 applies only .to cases where the tow is a vessel of some size, and 
 where she is towing by her bower cables. It is evident that where 
 a large ship is towing a small one, the natural way of casting off 
 is for the tow to let go, leaving the line to be handled by the large 
 ship. There is here, however, no question of a heavy chain-cable 
 hanging from the end of .the line. 
 
 In the more general case where the bower-cable of the tow is 
 in use, the natural way to let go is for the tow to heave in her 
 cable and then cast off the line. 
 
 There may, of course, be cases where the towing vessel is the 
 proper one .to let go, leaving the tow to handle the whole of the 
 line. And cases may arise in which both vessels must let go, 
 sacrificing the line to avoid some serious danger. 
 
 NOTE. It is well to remember that in an emergency the towing 
 vessel may safely back her engines without letting go the line and 
 without danger of fouling the screws; but this must not be continued 
 long enough to check her headway altogether much less to let her 
 gather stern-board as to do this would involve danger not only of 
 getting the line into the screws, but of being rammed by the tow. On 
 the tow, the helmsman should ahvays be alc.'t and ready to sheer out in 
 case of ranging up onto the towing vessel. 
 
 A plan which has many advantages for securing the line on 
 the tow, is to bend it to the crown of the anchor and let the anchor 
 go, veering chain to .the proper length. Not only does this save 
 the time required for unshackling, but it leaves the anchor on the 
 bight of the line, where it should be very helpful in the matter of 
 " dip." If the strap shown in Plate 110 is at hand, it will be very 
 convenient here. 
 
 Naturally, this plan would not work in shallow water, as the 
 anchor would take on the bottom. 
 
TOWING. 707 
 
 Attention has been called to the difficulties connected with 
 handling lines on the cramped forecastle of a small craft like a 
 destroyer. Another point to be noted here is that the bower- 
 cables of these small craft are not well suited for use as a part of 
 the tow-line, and even if they were otherwise adapted to the 
 work the difficulty in letting them go for casting off in a hurry 
 especially in bad weather would be an insuperable objection to 
 their use. A plan for securing the lines on vessels of this type is 
 shown in Plate 177. Here a wire pendant is passed around the 
 conning-tower and to this is shackled a pelican-hook which en- 
 gages a length of chain sufficient to pass through the " bull-nose " 
 and leave a little drift outside. 
 
 The pelican-hook should be large and heavy, as it takes the 
 full weight of the tow. It must be fitted with a lanyard leading 
 to the bridge, by which it can be tripped without sending anyone 
 onto the forecastle. To the end of the chain is shackled a pendant 
 of wire-rope long enough to lead aft, outside of all, to the bridge 
 or some other point at which it is convenient to handle lines even 
 in bad weather. 
 
 The line from the towing ship, which is preferably of manila 
 for reasons already explained, is hauled over to this point of the 
 tow and shackled to the wire pendant, after which the bight is 
 let go, giving a clear lead. 
 
 For casting off, it is only necessary to trip the pelican-hook. 
 
 Where time permits, it is very desirable to prepare for towing 
 operations by splicing eyes, with heavy thimbles, into all lines 
 which are to be used, and providing shackles for connecting up 
 at all points, thus doing away with the necessity for using bends 
 and hitches, which weaken manila very seriously and are fatal 
 to the efficiency of wire. At least two short lengths of good chain 
 should be provided for the leads through the chocks on both the 
 towing ship and the tow, and it will not be amiss to have two or 
 three other lengths of, say, a fathom each, for use at any point 
 where they may be wanted. Two or three wire pendants with a 
 thimble eye at each end will be needed also. The plates illustrat- 
 ing this chapter will make it clear where these various parts are 
 needed. 
 
 The pelican-hooks should be so heavy as to give a very large 
 margin of safety. This is especially important where the stress 
 
708 TOWING. 
 
 of towing comes continuously on the hook. The link which en- 
 gages the hook should be long enough to let the tongue of the 
 hook slip freely through on letting go and if the chain which is 
 to be used is not fitted with an end link of this character, a 
 shackle should be used. This is often the most convenient plan, 
 and it illustrates the importance of keeping on hand a number of 
 spare shackles for general utility. Such shackles are preferably 
 larger and more open than those commonly used with chain- 
 cables. 
 
 It should be remembered that the stud may be knocked out of 
 a link to admit of using it with a shackle, without weakening the 
 link. 
 
 For getting the line across, in good weather, any one of a num- 
 ber of methods will answer. It may be run with a boat, a good 
 length of the line being coiled in the stern-sheets and the remain- 
 der paid out as the boat pulls away. The towing ship is usually 
 the one to send the line and should place herself, for this purpose, 
 to windward of the tow. This not only gives the boat an easy 
 pull to leeward, but makes a lee for her to work in. If the ships 
 can come close enough together to admit of heaving the line 
 across, this is of course a convenient method. For this, it is well 
 for the tow to come up under the lee quarter of the other ship, 
 being careful not to range up alongside far enough to let her 
 stern overlap the stern of the other vessel. So long as her stern 
 is well clear, she is free to sheer out and haul off if she finds 
 herself getting too close or if the other vessel seems to be drifting 
 down upon her. 
 
 If the vessels are practically abeam of each other and too close 
 for comfort, neither one can haul off because to do so means that 
 she must throw her stern in toward the other vessel. 
 
 For getting the line across under these conditions, it is well 
 to begin with a light fish-line, weighted at the end with a piece of 
 lead or iron of convenient size to fit comfortably in the hand and 
 to admit of a long throw. The line is flaked down on deck, clear 
 for running, and the weight is thrown like a baseball. It is 
 possible to cover in this way several times the space that can be 
 covered by the usual- " heaving " line. The heavier lines are of 
 course hauled across later. 
 
 Other methods, especially applicable to bad-weather conditions, 
 are described below ( III). 
 
Plate No. 177, 
 
 709 
 
710 TOWING. 
 
 II. SPEED AND RESISTANCE. 
 
 In smooth water, the tension on the tow-line will be constant, 
 after the inertia is overcome, so long- as the speed does not vary. 
 The following table gives the approximate values of this tension 
 for ships of various sizes when towed at speeds from 2 to 8 knots. 
 
 APPROXIMATE TOW-ROPE RESISTANCES FOR SMOOTH WATER. 
 
 Displacement 
 Vessels towe 
 Tons. 
 
 of 
 (j 
 
 Speed. 
 
 Z knots. 
 
 4 knots. 
 
 6 knots. 
 
 8 knots. 
 
 1000 
 
 310 Ibs. 
 
 1250 Ibs. 
 
 2800 Ibs. 
 
 -5000 Ibs. 
 
 2000 
 
 540 " 
 
 2050 " 
 
 4800 " 
 
 8600 " 
 
 3000 
 
 675 " 
 
 2700 " 
 
 6050 " 
 
 10800 " 
 
 4OOO 
 
 830 " 
 
 3300 " 
 
 7500 " 
 
 13500 " 
 
 5000 
 
 960 " 
 
 3800 " 
 
 8600 " 
 
 15000 " 
 
 6000 
 
 1075 " 
 
 4250 " 
 
 9500 " 
 
 I7OOO " 
 
 Note that if the vessel towed' is long and fine, the resistances will be 
 less than those above, while if she is short and bluff, they will be greater. 
 
 It must be understood that the resistances of the above table 
 suppose the vessels to be actually moving with the speeds given. 
 When the tow is at rest, the problem of overcoming 1 her inertia 
 and getting her up to the uniform speed desired, is very differ- 
 ent from that of towing her after she acquires this speed ; and as 
 something of a jerk is inevitable, it is essential to use a line 
 considerably longer and stronger than would be necessary for 
 steady towing. 
 
 The tauter the line can be made before the towing vessel starts 
 her engines ahead, the better it will be. She will of course start 
 as slowly as possible, and, having overcome the inertia of the tow, 
 work up, a fraction of a turn at a time, to the speed required. In 
 gathering way at the very beginning it is well to give a few turns 
 ahead, then stop the engine, then give a few more turns and stop, 
 and so on. 
 
 To the resistances of the above table must be added a large 
 percentage for the dragging screws of a steamer. This may be 
 as much as 75 per cent of the resistance of the hull alone. More- 
 over, the resistance increases very rapidly and, what is of more 
 importance, becomes very irregular where we have to deal with 
 even a very moderate sea, especially if the sea is ahead. The 
 wind must also be taken into account, its effect varying with the 
 cross-sectional area exposed by the tow. 
 
TOWING. 711 
 
 As a rough rule we may say that the resistances given in the 
 table should be multiplied by a factor of 3 or 4 for what may be 
 called " average " conditions of wind and weather at sea, and that 
 this factor should be increased to 5 or 6 where conditions are 
 distinctly unfavorable. 
 
 Where a very large ship, like a battleship, is to be towed, it is 
 safe to say that 8 knots is about the maximum speed which should 
 be undertaken with any lines which are likely to be available. It 
 will be seen from the table of resistances for smooth-water towing 
 that the resistance added by an increase of a knot rises very 
 rapidly as the speed increases. 
 
 This point becomes very marked as we go above 8 knots, and 
 it seems probable that any promise of gain in time based upon a 
 gain of one or two knots in speed of towing will be much more 
 than off-set by the delays due to failure of the lines. 
 
 The remarks which have already been made as to the advantage 
 of a very high factor of safety in the towing arrangements are of 
 course emphasized in the case where the ship to be towed is a 
 large and heavy one, and practical experience in long-distance 
 towing cannot fail to demonstrate the wisdom of making this 
 factor much larger than is likely to seem necessary in the begin- 
 ning. 
 
 III. TAKING A DISABLED VESSEL IN TOW AT SEA 
 
 In good weather, this manoeuver presents no especial difficulty 
 and calls for no extended discussion. The lines are run and 
 secured as already described. The towing vessel starts ahead 
 slowly on the course upon which the disabled vessel happens to 
 be heading, using every precaution to prevent a jerk on the line, 
 and waiting, before changing the course, until both ships have 
 gathered way and are moving steadily with a good tension on the 
 line. 
 
 In very bad weather, on the other hand, towing should not be 
 attempted unless exceptional circumstances make it necessary; 
 as the running of lines in a heavy sea is attended by considerable 
 difficulty, especially if the vessel to be towed is unable to assist 
 by placing herself in a favorable position. Moreover, in really 
 heavy weather, it would be necessary to proceed so slowly that 
 little or no time would be lost by waiting for the weather to 
 moderate. 
 
TOWING. 
 
 It will be considered in the discussion which follows, that the 
 weather is rough enough to call for the use of all reasonable 
 precautions, but not rough enough to make towing impracticable. 
 It may be assumed that the disabled vessel will be lying with wind 
 and sea a little abaft the beam ; this being the position which a 
 steamer usually takes up when lying in a seaway with engines 
 stopped. The other vessel places herself on a parallel heading, 
 either to windward or to leeward. In considering which of these 
 positions is to be preferred, we must remember that a considerable 
 time will be required to run the lines ; and that, during this time, 
 both vessels will be drifting to leeward at a rate which may make 
 their drift a very important factor in the problem of manoeuvring. 
 A vessel which is light will drift faster than one which is loaded, 
 the drift of a vessel in ballast-trim amounting often to several 
 knots an hour. If the lighter vessel is toJeeward, she will drift 
 away from the other, making it very difficult to run the lines. It 
 may be said, therefore, that as a general rule, if there is any im- 
 portant difference in the rate of drift of the two vessels, the 
 lighter one should be to windward when the work of running the 
 lines is begun. 
 
 If there is any doubt as to which vessel is drifting the faster, 
 this can be determined in a few moments by placing the one 
 which is able to manoeuver, in line with the other and on the 
 same heading. 
 
 The towing vessel, then, places herself to windward if she is 
 drifting faster than the other vessel, and to leeward if she is 
 drifting more slowly, and on the same heading as the disabled 
 vessel ; taking care of course, not to run any risk of drifting into 
 collision, and remembering, as the ships draw together, the cau- 
 tion already given not to get so close that the helm cannot be put 
 over for hauling off without danger of throwing the stern into 
 collision with the tow. 
 
 The vessel which is to leeward uses oil freely, creating a 
 " slick " in which the boats can work. 1 
 
 Some seamen recommend placing the towing vessel to wind- 
 ward and heading up to the sea or nearly so. But to hold her 
 up in this position it would be necessary to keep the engines 
 
 oil from a vessel drifting in a seaway will not spread to leeward 
 as fast as the vessel will drift. It is therefore impossible to make an oil- 
 slick on the lee side, except, perhaps, very close aboard. 
 
Plate No. 178. 
 
 713 
 
 FIG. 2 
 
 FIG. 1 
 
 FIG. 7 
 
 FIG. 6 
 
 TOWING ALONGSIDE TURNING A TOW. 
 
7H TOWING. 
 
 turning, which would result in drawing away from the other 
 vessel and add greatly to the difficulty of the situation. 
 
 Where the difference in the rate of drifting is considerable, 
 the time available for running the lines after the work is once 
 begun will be short at best and every precaution should be taken 
 to prevent delay ; a clear understanding being established between 
 the ships and all preparations made, before the towing ship takes 
 her position as above. In communicating between two ships, 
 megaphones are of the greatest value. Under any except the 
 most unfavorable conditions, they should make it possible to 
 perfect a thorough understanding of what is to be done and how. 
 They also to a great extent take the place of signals between the 
 two ships after the towing begins, although a code should by all 
 means be adopted and w r ill be useful under many conditions. It 
 is an excellent plan, when feasible, to send an officer on board the 
 tow to remain there permanently ; acquainting him first with the 
 plan to be carried out and providing him with a list of whistle- 
 and sight-signals for handling the lines and the ships. If no 
 boats are to be used, a paper should be floated across to the tow, 
 giving full instructions and a list of the signals. This may be 
 sealed up in a bottle and attached to the rope or the float. Whistle 
 signals are preferable to flags, because they can be used at night 
 or in a fog. 
 
 The following is suggested : 
 
 Cede of Sound Signals for Towing. 
 
 A short blast must not exceed 2 seconds in length. 
 
 A long blast must not be less than 6 seconds in length. 
 
 I am putting my rudder to right x i short blast. 
 
 I am putting my rudder to left 2 2 skort blasts. 
 
 Go ahead 2 long. 
 
 Stop i long, 2 short. 
 
 All fast 2 long, i short. 
 
 Haul away 2 short, i long. 
 
 Let go 2 long, 5 short. 
 
 Pay out more line i short, 2 long. 
 
 Avast hauling 3 short. 
 
 I am letting go (emergency) 5 short, 5 short, 5 short. 
 
 i. right rudder is port helm. 2. left rudder is starboard helm. 
 
TOWING. 715 
 
 The first line to be run will be a light one, by means of which 
 the heavier ones can be hauled across. A 3-inch manila is a 
 convenient size to begin with. If new, so much the better, as it 
 will float freely. If a boat is to be used it should be lowered with 
 the crew and the greater part of the line in it, and gotten clear 
 as quickly as possible, the line being paid out as the boat pulls 
 away for the other ship. 
 
 If it is not .thought best to use a boat, the line may be floated 
 alongside the disabled ship without much difficulty. The best 
 way to do this will depend upon circumstances, but a common 
 way is to float a good length of the line by life-belts, casks, or 
 any other convenient means, and to steam slowly around the 
 disabled vessel, dragging this astern and causing it to foul her. 
 If proposing to take up a position on her weather bow it is a 
 good plan .to steam along to leeward, fairly close aboard, cross 
 the stern, and come around parallel to her heading. This will 
 cause the line to foul her stern, which entails a little trouble in 
 shifting it forward, but it leaves the towing ship in position 
 without further manoeuvring. Similarly, if proposing to take 
 a position on the lee bow, pass along to windward, cross the 
 stern and come around to leeward. The line should be picked 
 up without difficulty. 
 
 Many vessels are provided with guns throwing a line-carrying 
 projectile similar to that used in the Coast Guard Service (see 
 Chapter XXIX and Plate 185). This is very useful and may 
 save a great deal of trouble and delay. 
 
 An ordinary ship's rocket affords another and an excellent 
 method of establishing communication. Such a rocket will carry 
 a small fishing-line over 200 feet athwart .the wind. If proposing 
 to use this method, it will be better to go to windward and as 
 close as is prudent. The fishing-line is faked down on deck, clear 
 for running, with one end fast on board and the other bent to the 
 rocket stick a few inches from the end. The rocket is given a 
 good elevation (about 45), and fired. If connection is success- 
 fully made, a somewhat heavier line is bent on and hauled across 
 and so on until a sufficiently heavy one has been run to haul over 
 the tow-line. If the wind is blowing across, it will carry the 
 bight of the line and hence the tail of the rocket, to leeward, 
 causing the rocket to work up to windward. Allowance must be 
 made for this. 
 
716 TOWING. 
 
 There may be special circumstances which will make it de- 
 sirable for the disabled vessel to run the lines, but under ordi- 
 nary circumstances it is more convenient for the towing vessel 
 to run them. Having gotten the first light line across, by what- 
 ever method, the heavier lines are run and made fast to the 
 bower-cable of the vessel to be towed. A good length of cable is 
 paid out ; 60 or 75 fathoms is none too much for heavy work ; 
 and the line made secure on both ships as has been described in 
 I, chafing-gear being used liberally wherever it can be needed. 
 In the meantime, full instructions about starting are given to the 
 Chief Engineer, and when all is ready the engines are started 
 ahead as slow as possible, and stopped the moment the line begins 
 to tauten out ; then a few more turns are made, and so on until the 
 inertia of the .tow is overcome and both ships are moving slowly 
 with a steady tension on the line. The revolutions are then in- 
 creased little by little and the course changed gradually, as may 
 be necessary. When, finally, the tow is straightened out and 
 moving steadily, the speed is worked up to that at which it is 
 thought wise to continue. 
 
 In all changes of course, the tow puts her helm at first to the 
 side opposite that of the leader, and so steers around into the 
 leader's wake. 
 
 If the sea is such as makes it dangerous to tow to windward, 
 it is worth while to consider whether a port cannot be made on 
 a course which will present fewer difficulties, even if the distance 
 is much greater. 
 
 After settling down to a steady rate of towing, the lines should 
 be examined, springs hauled taut afresh, the strain divided as 
 evenly as possible, chafing gear renewed wherever necessary, etc. 
 Hands should be stationed night and day to watch the lines on 
 both ships, with axes and unshackling tools ready for slipping 
 hurriedly if necessary. It is Well to have a light " messenger " 
 line between the ships, for hauling messages across and for use 
 in running a new line in case of necessity. This line should be 
 left slack and should have ample length to allow for the fact 
 that if the tow-line parts the leading ship will forge ahead con- 
 siderably before she can be stopped. If such a line is not used, 
 messages may be floated across by paying out and hauling in a 
 light line like an old-fashioned log-line. 
 
 The towing vessel should use oil freely as in Plate 160. 
 
TOWING. 717 
 
 Standard Towing Equipment, United States Navy. 
 
 All capital ships of the United States Navy carry the Standard 
 Towing Equipment shown in Plates 179 and 180. 
 
 The approved method of taking a vessel in tow is as follows: 
 
 Directions for Towed Vessel. Unshackle both bower cables 
 at the five- fathom shackle, each anchor having first been secured 
 by two housing-stoppers on the five- fathom shot. Reeve the free 
 ends of the bower cables out through the bow chocks, bring 
 them in on the forecastle and shackle them together, forming a 
 bridle, taking care to have all clear for veering the bridle outside 
 when ready. 
 
 Shackle the end of the steel towing hawser to the bridle and 
 flake the hawser on the forecastle, clear for running. Remember 
 that the end which is shackled up to the bridle will go out last. 
 Put check-stoppers of one-inch manila on the bights of the hawser 
 to check it when it is payed out. 
 
 Bend a 3-inch manila line to a spar. Put the spar overboard 
 and pay out the line. The spar will probably drift to wind- 
 ward ; or, what amounts to the same thing, it will drift to leeward 
 more slowly than the ship. 
 
 Directions for Toimng Ship. Take position about one-half 
 mile astern of the ship to be towed, and a little to windward. 
 Secure the bridle around the turret. Flake down the towing 
 hawser (2*/2-inch diameter wire), shackling one end to the bridle 
 and the other to an 8-inch manila hawser, this hawser being also 
 flaked down clear for running. To the free end of the 8-inch 
 manila line bend one end of a 3-inch manila line which has 
 been led aft from the forecastle, outside of all, and in through 
 the stern towing chock. 
 
 All being ready on both ships, the towing ship steams slowly 
 up to the spar, the location of which is signalled by the towed 
 ship picks it up (on the forecastle) and bends the 3-inch manila 
 line which the spar has floated across, to her own similar line 
 leading from aft. The bight of the 3-inch lines is then thrown 
 overboard, and the towed ship takes in the slack. When the 
 line is clear of the screws of the towing ship she manoeuvres 
 to gain a favorable position, the 3-inch line being payed out as 
 is found necessary by the towed ship. When a favorable posi- 
 tion has been attained, the towed ship hauls in the 3-inch line, 
 followed by the 8-inch, and finally by the end of the steel towing 
 
Plate No. 179. 
 
Plate No. 180. 
 
 719 
 
 I 
 
 II 
 
 -1-X-- 
 
 it 
 I* 
 
 tt 
 
 1 
 
 7< 
 
72O TOWING. 
 
 hawser. The two towing hawsers are shackled together, and 
 payed out. When the chain bridle is reached (on the towed 
 ship) it is payed out carefully and the two cables are veered 
 away to whatever scope is considered advisable. Sixty fathoms 
 is recommended. 
 
 The precautions to be observed in starting ahead and in in- 
 creasing speed have been detailed in an earlier part of this 
 Chapter. 
 
 IV. TOWING ENGINES. TOWING ALONGSIDE. 
 
 Towing Engines. (Plates 181 and 182.) In the United States, 
 vessels designed especially for towing are in most cases fitted 
 with towing-engines, which carry the line on a reel and pay out 
 and haul in automatically as may be necessary to keep the tension 
 constant ; the resistance of the tow being borne entirely by the 
 steam pressure in the cylinders. If the tension on the hawser 
 rises momentarily above this steam pressure, the drum revolves 
 and pays out line. This action opens the regulating valve and 
 increases the steam pressure in the cylinders until this pressure 
 balances the tension on the line. If, later, the tension decreases, 
 the steam pressure will be in excess and the drum will revolve 
 and reel in the line, but at the same time the regulating valve will 
 close in part, and the pressure will fall until it meets and bal- 
 ances the tension. In this way, the line is paid out or reeled in 
 only just enough to meet the condition of things prevailing at 
 any given moment, and the average length of line remains prac- 
 tically constant. 
 
 There can be no question of the enormous advantage in towing 
 resulting from the use of these engines. A point of great, though 
 perhaps secondary, importance, is that if the towing vessel stops, 
 or if for any other reason the tow ranges up and slacks the line, 
 the engine takes in the slack at once and keeps it clear of the 
 screw. If it is found desirable at any time to shorten in the line, 
 reducing the distance between the vessels, it can be done without 
 difficulty. This may be important in passing around bends in a 
 channel, or for .Inking in the line preparatory to casting- off. 
 
 It is not the least of the advantages of the towing engine that 
 it makes the use of wire-rope perfectly safe in all weathers. 
 
 Towing Alongside. When towing in port or in confined waters, 
 the tug should be made fast alongside if possible, as this gives 
 
Plate No. 181, 
 
 721 
 
722 
 
 Plate No. 182. 
 
TOWING. 7 2 3 
 
 greater ease and certainty in handling. When used in this way, 
 the tug is usually placed on the quarter, where its rudder acts 
 with that of the tow, for steering. As the power is applied at a 
 distance from the midship line, there is here a considerable turn- 
 ing moment, which will throw the ship's head to one side or the 
 other, according as the tug goes ahead or backs ; the effect being 
 exactly as if the ship had twin screws and was using only one of 
 them. In going straight ahead, the turning effect is neutralized 
 by a small amount of helm. 
 
 The tug must be made fast with a line from aft for going 
 ahead and one from forward for backing. Both of these lines are 
 usually made fast at the bow of the tug, her stern being held from 
 swinging out by a breast-fast leading to' the tow (Plate 178). 
 
 If the tug has a right-handed screw, she will handle better if 
 made fast on the port side ; since, in backing, the tendency of her 
 screw is to throw her stern out to port, while the tendency due 
 to her position on the port side of the tow is to throw the stern 
 of the tow the other way. Thus she will make a straighter stern- 
 board than if made fast .to the starboard .side, where both these 
 elements would tend to throw the stern off to port. 
 
 If, however, there is a sharp and difficult turn to be made, the 
 tug should be on the inboard quarter ; that is to say, on the side 
 toward which the turn is to be made. Here she will be properly 
 placed for backing to assist in the turn. So long as she is going 
 ahead, she would be more favorably placed for turning, on the 
 outboard side ; but if her turning effect when so placed should 
 prove insufficient for the turn she would be helpless. To back, 
 under these circumstances, even for keeping clear of the beach, 
 would only make matters worse. It is, therefore, the practice of 
 tug masters to place themselves on that side of the tow toward 
 which they wish to turn, if the turn is one which involves some 
 difficulty. 
 
 It sometimes becomes necessary to turn the larger vessel on a 
 pivot ; that is to say, without going materially either ahead or 
 astern. Suppose the tug is on the starboard quarter and wishes 
 to slew the stern of the tow to port (Plate 178). She lets go 
 her stern breast and goes ahead with left rudder, 2 holding on 
 to the " go-ahead " line. This throws her stern out and she 
 puts her bow (usually protected by a good fender) against the 
 stern of the tow and pushes it around. 
 
 2. left rudder is starboard helm. 
 
724 TOWING. 
 
 If it is desired to pull the stern to starboard, she lets go both 
 lines from her bow, slacks the after-line, and swings off clear, 
 going ahead as in Fig. 8. Observe .that for this manoeuver it is 
 necessary that the line used for towing should lead from a point 
 on the tug far enough forward of the rudder to let the tug's stern 
 swing freely. She will then be able to head in any direction 
 desired, even though there may be a current setting her down. 
 
 This is perfectly simple in the case of a tug whose towing bitts 
 are placed well forward as is usual with tugs. In the case of a 
 vessel not fitted in this way, the line may be taken through a side- 
 chock fairly well forward, the vessel in .this case being held up 
 by the helm as in Fig. i, Plate 183. 
 
 It sometimes happens that a vessel towing another alongside 
 wishes to " wind " the tow to put her alongside a dock, the side 
 on which the towing vessel is secured being the side which must 
 be put to the dock. This is a manceuver which may be seen 
 almost any day in a harbor like New York, where a tug, towing 
 a barge and having the barge, say, on her starboard side, wishes 
 to land the barge alongside a dock which is on the port hand, and 
 at the same time to get herself clear of her position between the 
 barge and the dock. Plate 178 makes it clear how this manoeuver 
 is performed. (But see description in Chapter XVII.) 
 
(725) 
 
 CHAPTER XXVI. 
 RESCUING THE CREW OF A WRECK. 
 
 The situation here is somewhat like that where one ship is to 
 take another in tow, but with several important points of differ- 
 ence. No matter how bad the weather may be, the work of res- 
 cue, if it is to be attempted at all, must usually be undertaken 
 at once; and in practically all cases, by means of a boat. On 
 the other hand, the rescuing ship is much freer to manoeuvre 
 than when she is hampered by lines as in making preparations 
 for towing. 
 
 The natural way of proceeding under ordinary circumstances 
 is to go to windward of the wreck and lower a boat, then go to 
 leeward and stand by to pick it up. If oil is used along the 
 weather side of the wreck, the boat will have an oil-slick, in 
 addition to the lee afforded by her own vessel; and if the res- 
 cuing vessel uses oil after getting into position to leeward, the 
 slick may be continued so that the boat shall have the benefit of 
 it as she returns, loaded, before the sea. If for any reason the 
 wreck cannot use oil, the rescuing vessel can steam around her, 
 running oil freely and so creating a slick into which the wreck 
 will presently drift. 
 
 If the weather is very rough, extreme precautions will be 
 called for in lowering the boat and getting her clear. The ship 
 should be held up with the sea on the bow, giving a lee for the 
 boat and reducing the rolling as much as possible. The crew is 
 lowered in the boat, with life-belts on. A painter is used from 
 well forward, brought in on the inboard bow of the boat and 
 tended with a turn around a thwart, and the steering oar is ship- 
 ped in its crutch, ready to assist in sheering off clear of the side 
 as soon as the boat is in the water. Trapping lines may be used 
 around the falls to steady the boat, and sails or mattresses hung 
 over the side as fenders, to prevent the boat from being stove 
 if she swings in heavily. Two or three extra life-belts should 
 be taken along, with two heaving lines bent to each. These are 
 
RESCUING THE CREW OF A WRECK. 
 
 for hauling back and forth between the boat and the wreck. Oil- 
 bags should be hung from the bows of the boat. 
 
 As the boat strikes the water, or just before it becomes water- 
 borne (depending upon the type of detaching apparatus in use), 
 the boat is detached and the painter passed quickly aft and 
 hauled in, shooting the boat ahead and sheering her off at the 
 same time. The vessel should be nearly dead in the water when 
 the boat is lowered, but a little headway may be needed to keep 
 her up to the sea. 
 
 Assuming that the boat gets off and makes the trip to the 
 wreck in safety, the officer in charge must decide how he will 
 establish communication and take off the passengers and crew. 
 It is out of the question to go alongside to windward ; and if he 
 goes alongside to leeward, not only is there a risk of being stove 
 by the wreckage which is likely to be found floating under the 
 quarter, but there is the much more serious danger of being 
 unable to get clear of the side again. As has been explained in 
 the Chapter on Towing, a vessel lying in a seaway with engines 
 stopped drifts to leeward at a rate which is always considerable 
 and may amount to several knots an hour. A boat alongside 
 such a ship, to leeward, is in exactly the same position as if she 
 were alongside a dock against the face of which a strong cur- 
 rent is setting. Every one knows how helpless a boat is under 
 these conditions so far as getting clear is concerned. As a rule, 
 then, the boat must never be brought actually alongside the 
 wreck. She may either lie off to windward, keeping well clear 
 and being held up head to sea by the oars, or to leeward, holding 
 on with a line from her bow to the wreck, with a few oars at 
 work backing, to keep her at a safe distance, and at right angles 
 to the keel line of the wreck. If obliged to go alongside, the 
 stem may be allowed to touch, all being ready to back off if the 
 boat shows a disposition to get broadside-on. It may be well 
 to let the men at the oars face forward to make sure of being 
 able to keep off. The people on board the wreck put on the life- 
 belts, jump overboard one at a time, and are hauled into the 
 boat. In most cases the .most favorable point for working will 
 be under the lee quarter or the lee bow, depending upon the way 
 the wreck is lying with reference to the sea. It is sometimes 
 possible for people to lower themselves or be lowered to a boat 
 from the head-booms or from an overhanging main-boom, when 
 they could not be rescued in any other way. 
 
RESCUING THE CREW OF A WRECK. 727 
 
 So serious is the question of avoiding actual contact with the 
 wreck, that many officers consider it best for the rescuing ship 
 to go to windward and drop the boat down with a line, putting 
 only two or three men in the boat. This is the plan recom- 
 mended by Captains Todd and Whall in their Seamanship, and 
 it is endorsed by a number of experienced officers who have fav- 
 ored the present author with their views ; but a large majority 
 of the officers who have written on this subject take .the ground 
 that a boat is always safer and more manageable with a full 
 crew, and that to drop her down with a line from the ship simply 
 hampers the manoeuvring of both the ship and the boat without 
 any sufficient compensating advantages. If proposing to drop 
 the boat down with a line, it is important to make sure of having 
 this of sufficient length. One end should be passed through .the 
 bow ring-bolt and hitched around a midship thwart. It is well 
 to have fifteen or twenty fathoms of spare line in the boat for use 
 when close to the wreck, as this gives the people in the boat con- 
 trol of the situation at the time when too much or too little may 
 be of vital consequence. There should be certain men of the 
 crew specially stationed to tend the line, signal the ship, throw 
 the heaving line to the wreck, etc., for there will be no moment 
 during the rescue when either the steering oar or the line should 
 be left unattended. A life-belt or buoy should be taken, in this 
 case as in the one previously described, with two lines for haul- 
 ing it back and forth between the boat and the wreck. 
 
 Oil-bags are hung from the quarters of the boat and oil used 
 by the wreck, as in all cases of this kind. If the wreck cannot 
 assist in this way, the rescuing vessel should pass along to lee- 
 ward (at a good distance) running oil freely. The wreck will 
 soon drift into the slick thus created. 
 
 The boat is dropped down by paying out line on board, being 
 kept head to sea by the steering oar assisted by the drag of the 
 line over the bow. The line. must be kept in hand on board the 
 ship, to insure a prompt response to signals from the boat. The 
 officer in charge of the work keep his glasses on the boat inces- 
 santly. 
 
 If the line is led through a midship chock on the ship and the 
 ship allowed to fall off on a heading parallel with the wreck, she 
 will drift with the latter, though perhaps not at an equal speed, 
 and will change the distance very slowly if at all. She will, more- 
 
728 RESCUING THE CREW OF A WRECK. 
 
 over, be perfectly free to handle the engines slowly going ahead 
 or backing as may be necessary to keep in position for giving the 
 boat a lee. If the attempt is made to hold her up to the sea, it 
 will be necessary to keep turning the engine ahead, which will 
 result in drawing away from the wreck. There will, moreover, 
 be constant danger of fouling the screw with the line, and no lee 
 will be created for the boat. 
 
 A simple code of signals must be adopted and fully understood, 
 thus : 
 
 In the Boat. 
 
 
 
 Right arm extended, Slack away on board, 
 
 Left arm extended, Haul in on board, 
 
 Arm held up overhead, Hold on. 
 
 The arm waved, in either of these positions, emphasizes the order. 
 Thus, the right arm extended and waved up and down means " slack away 
 roundly." 
 
 On Board Ship. 
 
 A long blast of the whistle, " We are about to haul in." 
 
 When the boat is near the wreck, say within thirty or forty 
 yards, signal is made to hold on to the line on board, and the 
 men in the boat begin to pay out, dropping down as close as is 
 thought perfectly safe, then floating the life-belt across. This 
 is picked up by those on board and worked as has already been 
 described. When .the boat is loaded, the signal is given and it is 
 hauled back to the ship. Here the greatest care must be exer- 
 cised and the line hauled in very slowly, else the boat is certain 
 to be swamped. 
 
 The method of dropping the boat down by a line from the res- 
 cuing ship has been described at some length because there are 
 undoubtedly occasions on which it can be used with better pros- 
 pects of success than other methods. In cases, however, where 
 a boat can be used independently and untrammeled by a line 
 from the ship, as in the cases hereafter described, it is be- 
 lieved that the freedom of action thus afforded the boat gives 
 this method a very marked advantage. 
 
RESCUING THE CREW OF A WRECK. 729 
 
 If the weather is such that a boat cannot be lowered, the diffi- 
 culties of effecting a rescue are greatly increased, but the situa- 
 tion is not necessarily hopeless. There are many ways of getting 
 a line between the ships ; as, for example, by a line-throwing gun, 
 a rocket, or a float. If a balsa is available, the following method 
 might give some hope : The rescuing vessel steams slowly 
 across the stern of the wreck, towing the balsa by a very long 
 line, and manoeuvers in such a way as to cause the line (not the 
 balsa) to foul the wreck. If the people on board can haul the 
 balsa up to leeward and get on it there should be no great diffi- 
 culty about saving them. 
 
 Another method which suggests itself is the following : Sup- 
 pose it is apparent that the wreck is drifting faster than the 
 rescuing vessel will drift if she stops her engines. The rescuing 
 vessel goes to leeward and places herself, with engines stopped, 
 in such a position that her bow is just clear of the line of drift 
 of the stern of the wreck. If any miscalculation is made, a 
 few turns of the screw astern will carry her clear. As the wreck 
 drifts down, a line is gotten across by any means that is conve- 
 nient and the people are hauled across. If the rescuing vessel 
 drifts the faster she will of course go to windward instead of 
 to leeward, and wait to drift into position herself. In this way 
 it should be possible without imprudence to let the vessels come 
 much closer than would be safe in any other manceuver that 
 could be attempted. 
 
 The following extract from a letter received by the author 
 gives a detailed description of several rescues by the writer of 
 the letter, who is one of the most experienced officers of the 
 International Navigation Company. 1 It will be noted that he 
 believes in holding his ship as close as possible on the weather 
 quarter of the wreck instead of going to leeward to pick up the 
 boat; believing that more is gained by the lee afforded in this 
 way than would be gained by the other plan. 
 
 In December, 1899, I was in charge of the boat from the S. S. Penn- 
 land that rescued the crew of the British Brigantine Don Juan, of 
 Salcombe, England, in the North Atlantic. In the morning we discovered 
 a vessel dismasted and rolling in the trough of the sea, the wind N.W., 
 force about 7, and a very high sea. Getting closer to her, we saw that 
 there were people on board of her. I got a volunteer crew and made the 
 boat ready for lowering, taking in a couple of heaving lines, two buckets, 
 
 1 Captain H. Doxrud, Steamship Noordland. 
 
730 RESCUING THE CREW OF A WRECK. 
 
 and a large can of oil. The Pennland was brought to windward of the 
 wreck close to and with the wind and sea about 4 points on the starboard 
 bow, heading about west. The boat was lowered with the full crew, 
 8 men, in it and a bridle around the falls from the main deck to prevent 
 the boat from swinging too much when lowered ; a line from the fore part 
 of the ship in the boat. The boat was lowered very quickly, and on touch- 
 ing the water the patent hooks disengaged themselves, the bow-line was 
 passed aft and a strong pull on it brought the boat's bow around and 
 sheered it clear of the ship's side. We got the oars out immediately and 
 pulled before the wind and sea toward the wreck, having good shelter of 
 our own vessel. When we got close to the wreck we found it impossible 
 to get alongside, as she was rolling heavily, the sea washing over her, and 
 part of her rigging floating alongside. We got close under her stern with 
 the boat and had a line thrown us from the wreck ; to this we bent on our 
 heaving line and a life-belt, which was hauled to the wreck, one end being 
 in the boat. The life-belt was put on the first man to go and the bight of 
 the line secured around him under his arms; he jumped overboard and 
 was pulled in the boat. The life-belt was hauled back to the wreck, and 
 by this means all the crew, 9 in number, were rescued. Our vessel was 
 drifting in the trough of the sea with the wreck, close to ; so a short pull 
 brought us safely alongside. 
 
 During the rescue the boat's crew was placed as follows : two men in 
 the bow to work the line, four men at the oars to keep the boat in position, 
 one man bailing and myself steering (using a long oar instead of a rudder) 
 and directing the work. 
 
 My second experience was in October, 1892, off the Flemish Cap when 
 Chief Officer of the S. S. Noordland, when I was in charge of the boat's 
 crew that rescued the crew of the Norwegian Barque Kong Oscar the 
 2nd. The wind was N. W., force about 6, with heavy hail squalls. This 
 rescue was very difficult and dangerous, as it was done during a very 
 dark night, and took from 9 in the evening until I in the morning. The 
 Noordland was brought to, to windward of the wreck, heading about west, 
 when the boat was lowered in the same manner as on the former occasion, 
 with 8 men in it. We got safely away from the ship's side. Coming up 
 tp the wreck, we found her waterlogged, the sea making a clean sweep 
 over her, making it impossible to get alongside. The crew, numbering 
 16, was taken off by means of a life-belt and line, as on the former 
 occasion. 
 
 The Noordland was drifting in the trough of the sea to windward, and 
 we pulled up to her under her lee and got safely alongside and' on board 
 with our boat load of men. The boat's crew during the rescue was 
 placed as on the former occasion. 
 
 My third experience was in October, 1899, when in command of S. S 
 Rhynland. When off George's Bank we fell in with the disabled and 
 waterlogged British Brigantine Ida Maud. The night previous it had 
 been blowing a gale from the S.E. ; and at the time (about 3 P.M.), it 
 was blowing from the N.W., force about 6, making a very nasty cross 
 sea. 
 
RESCUING THE CREW OF A WRECK. 73! 
 
 I brought the Rhynhmd to windward of the wreck, close to, heading 
 about W.S.W., and lowered one of the port life-boats with a volunteer 
 crew of 8 men, Chief Officer Daddow in charge. The boat got away 
 from the ship all right and proceeded toward the wreck. 
 
 As on the former occasions, it was not possible to get alongside the 
 wreck, the sea washing over her, and a lot of loose lumber floating about. 
 A rope was thrown over the end of the main boom that extended several 
 feet abaft the stern of the brigantine, the shipwrecked crew climbed out 
 one by one to the end of the boom and dropped into the boat. In the 
 meantime I had brought the " Rhynland " close to the wreck, her bow 
 nearly in line with the stern of the wreck, thereby giving the boat shelter, 
 and a short pull brought them alongside. 
 
 In these instances oil has been frequently used both from the rescuing 
 vessel, the boats, and in the first instance from the zvreck also, and I cannot 
 recommend its use too strongly for work like this. Its effect is simply 
 wonderful, and I attribute my success in the above cases without mishap 
 greatly to a liberal and judicious use of oil. 
 
 An unusual case of the rescue of the entire crew of a foundering 
 vessel in heavy weather without the lowering of a boat is that 
 of the saving of the crew of the U. S. S. James, a mine sweeper, 
 by the gunboat U. S. S. Marietta, Commander H. G. Hamlet, 
 USCG, commanding, in the Bay of Biscay on April 28, 1919. 
 In a gale of wind, with very heavy sea, the James, with fires out 
 and water logged, was sinking. Weather and sea conditions 
 made it impossible to attempt a rescue by boat; action of some 
 sort was imperative if the imperiled lives were to be saved. 
 The James was lying with wind and sea on her port quarter. 
 The Marietta was placed for a while in the James' wake, and 
 heading with her, in order to determine the comparative drift. 
 As was to be expected, it was found that the Marietta drifted 
 the faster. The Marietta was then placed with her bow lapping 
 the lee quarter of the James, heading with her, and only a few 
 feet distant, and a heaving line was passed on board. The 
 Marietta was held in position, with the helm and engines, at a 
 distance that at no time during the operation of rescue exceeded 
 fifty yards. A 4-inch line was hauled on board the James and 
 the bight was secured to a Carley life raft in such fashion that the 
 raft could be hauled back and forth from one ship to the other. 
 In this manner the entire crew of the James, 47 in all, were 
 transferred to the Marietta, nine trips being made. The crew 
 of the Marietta were stationed along the rail on the forecastle 
 head with bowlines, and, as the raft came near the Marietta's 
 
732 RESCUING THE CREW OF A WRECK. 
 
 bow, a bowline was passed to each man on the raft and he was 
 hauled on board. During the operation oil was used freely by 
 throwing it overboard from the port side of the Marietta; on the 
 James the heads of oil barrels on the after deck were broken in. 
 Shortly after the Marietta had rescued the crew and backed clear 
 the James sank. 
 
 A life raft, with sunken deck, is much better adapted to an 
 operation of the sort described than is a decked life raft. Had a 
 decked raft been used in this case the men would have been in 
 danger of being swept off by the seas. 
 
 Another rescue of exceptional interest is that of the crew of 
 the Otranto by the Mounsey, described on page 619. 
 
(733) 
 
 CHAPTER XXVII. 
 MAN OVERBOARD. 
 
 The most immediate danger to a man falling overboard from 
 a steamer is that of being struck by the propeller. This danger 
 is especially great in the case of a vessel with twin-screws, and 
 is of course increased in any case by throwing the stern to the 
 side on which the man has gone over. 
 
 If the experiment is tried of throwing over from the bow a light 
 buoyant object, it will be found that by trie time this reaches the stern 
 it will be clear of the side by a considerable distance, being thrown off 
 by the surface wash from the side. A man falling overboard may feel 
 this wash to a certain extent, but he sinks in the beginning far below 
 its influence and into the suction of the screw. Moreover, his first 
 instinct is to swim back toward the ship. 
 
 The first thought of a man falling overboard should be to 
 swim outward from the ship, and the first thought of the officer 
 on the bridge should be to stop, not back, the engines. If 
 it is known from which side the man has fallen, the helm may 
 be put hard over to the opposite side, throwing the stern away 
 from him. This calls for quick thinking and prompt action; 
 but the time available is by no means as short as might be sup- 
 posed. A steamer 400 feet long, making 12 knots, passes over 
 her own length in twenty seconds. Thus, if a man falls over- 
 board amidships, he will be ten seconds in reaching the screw. 
 
 One or more life-buoys should be thrown over at once. If 
 a little presence of mind is exercised here, it is often possible 
 to throw one of these very close to the man. 
 
 At the first alarm, a number of men (previously instructed), 
 jump aloft to try to keep the man in sight; and as quickly as 
 possible a quartermaster follows them with a good pair of 
 binoculars. 
 
 The ordinary life-buoy is so small that often the man in the 
 water cannot see it, and it is of little or no assistance to the 
 
734 
 
 MAN OVERBOARD. 
 
 look-outs who are trying to keep him in sight. This is a 
 serious and often a fatal defect. It is well to keep a number of 
 these small light buoys about the decks, to be thrown overboard 
 on the instant by any one who may be near them ; but in addi- 
 tion to these, there should be provided a more elaborate buoy 
 or float fitted with a mast and a light, to be let go promptly and 
 to serve not only as a buoy, but as a marker. 
 
 If to this is added a can stuffed with oakum soaked in oil, a 
 slick will be created around the buoy which will not only be of 
 great help to the man but may assist greatly in keeping the spot 
 in sight. 
 
 The light should be of a nature to ignite upon contact with 
 the water. What is known as the " Holmes Light " is of this 
 nature and is much used in the English merchant service. In 
 the absence of a buoy fitted as above described (or in addition 
 thereto), lights of this kind should be carried on the bridge (or 
 forecastle), to be thrown over by the lookout, without an 
 order, at the alarm of " Man overboard! " 
 
 This use of a marker, as distinct from the idea of a buoy 
 (though preferably connected with the buoy) is of great importance. 
 
 Objection is sometimes made to the use of lights like the " Holmes " 
 on the ground that the fumes given off by them are always offensive 
 and in some cases unbearably suffocating. This is a reason for not 
 connecting them rigidly with the buoy. They may, however, be attached 
 to it by a short line which would let them float at some distance from it. 
 Of course a light which ignites by contact with water must be sealed 
 until it is wanted, when it may be punched or torn open either by a 
 simple tool attached to it, as in the case of the "Holmes," or 
 by some automatic arrangement connected with its release, as in the case 
 of the U. S. Navy life-buoy. 
 
 Men-of-war usually carry life-buoys of special types, fulfilling 
 more or less satisfactorily the above requirements. One of 
 these is usually suspended on each quarter. 
 
 There seems no reason why a steamer should not carry at the 
 end of the bridge (or on an outrigger if the bridge does not 
 overhang the water), a small life raft (Plate 67), of a size suffi- 
 cient to carry a man comfortably, fitted with a mast and a light 
 and with two or three water-tight pockets containing a small 
 supply of provisions and water, and, perhaps, a few lights of 
 the Holmes or some similar type which could be used to attract 
 the attention of passing vessels, in the event of being left adrift. 
 
MAN OVERBOARD. 735 
 
 Under ordinary circumstances the engines are thrown to full 
 speed astern as soon as the man is clear of the screw, and a 
 boat is lowered as soon as the speed has been reduced suffi- 
 ciently. The boat pulls back in search of the man, guided by 
 signals from the lookouts aloft, provided they have succeeded 
 in keeping the man or the buoy in sight. Failing this, the boat 
 cannot go far wrong if it pulls back on a course opposite the 
 original heading of the ship ; for although the steamer in backing 
 will probably throw her head to one side, she will not usually 
 gain a great amount of ground in that direction before coming 
 to rest. 
 
 In most conditions of the sea, a boat may be lowered with 
 reasonable safety at a speed of five knots; and we may assume 
 that the distance required to reduce the speed to this will be 
 from two to four ship's lengths, and the time, from two to four 
 minutes. 
 
 If the weather is smooth or the sea from such a direction that 
 there is no occasion for manoeuvring to lower the boat, all 
 this is simple enough; but if conditions are such as to call for 
 turning wholly or partially before lowering, it is thought by 
 many officers a good plan to put the rudder hard over, keeping 
 the engines turning ahead, and to describe a circle, thus 
 coming back, with the ship, to a point near that "at which 
 the man went over. 
 
 Observations upon the turning circles of a large number of steamers 
 show that a steamer turning with hard-over rudder will pass within a 
 short distance rarely so much as a ship's length from the point where 
 the helm was put down. No doubt the symmetry of the curve may be 
 considerably modified by wind and sea, but not sufficiently to prevent a 
 return to the neighborhood of the starting point. The time required 
 for the full turn will vary with the length, the speed, the weather and 
 the manoeuvring powers of the vessel. Every officer should know the 
 manoeuvring powers of his own vessel, especially the size of the turning 
 circle, the time required to describe it, and how close the ship will come 
 to a marker thrown over just before putting over the rudder. (See 
 Plate 115.) 
 
 Without attempting to lay down rules for the endless variety 
 of situations which may arise in a matter of this kind, it will 
 perhaps not be going too far to say that, generally speaking, the 
 ship should be stopped and backed if she has the wind and sea 
 ahead, or abeam, and that she would probably do well to turn, 
 if they are much abaft the beam; since in the last case a boat 
 pulling back would be working against wind and sea. 
 
736 
 
 MAN OVERBOARD. 
 
 It will of course be understood that in turning, speed must be 
 regulated according to the conditions of the weather. It would 
 not do, for example, to come up into a heavy sea at full speed. 
 (See Chapter "Handling a Steamer in Heavy Weather.") 
 
 If the conditions are such due to the lack of a proper marker, 
 or to fog, or to any other cause that difficulty is to be anticipated 
 in finding the man, it is probably better to stop and send the 
 boat back along the course opposite the original heading. This 
 emphasizes the importance of having a compass in the boat. 
 
 In case of fog, the vessel should avoid changing her position- 
 while the boat is azvay. The compass is thus a guide for finding 
 the ivay back assisted, of course, by sounding the whistle, firing 
 guns, etc. 
 
 There can be no question that in weather too heavy to admit 
 of lowering a boat, the one method that can give a hope of saving 
 the man is to turn and attempt to pick him up with the ship. 
 
 In squadron. Special rules are laid down for cases of man over- 
 board in squadron. It may be assumed that all officers concerned 
 are familiar with these. Generally speaking, they provide for the 
 necessary manccuvers to keep clear of other ships while picking 
 up the man and for the signals notifying .other ships of the situa- 
 tion. 
 
 They also direct what steps shall be taken by neighboring ships 
 to assist in the rescue. Except when the ships are in column, the 
 actual manceuvers on the part of the vessel losing the man are 
 not greatly different from what they would be if she were acting 
 singly, although in certain formations there might be difficulties 
 connected with turning. 
 
 See " Man Overboard " in Chapter XXIV. 
 
(737) 
 
 CHAPTER XXVIII. 
 STRANDING. 
 
 The first impulse of an officer upon finding his vessel stranded 
 is usually to throw the engines to full speed astern. This may 
 be the right thing to do, but it is not always so. If the ship has 
 struck a rock, the chances are that she will have a hole in her 
 bottom, and to back off may result in sinking her without leav- 
 ing time even for saving life. If aground on a soft bottom, to 
 work the engines either way may result in disabling them by fill- 
 ing the condensers with sand or mud. Again, where a single- 
 screw steamer is aground forward, backing the screw may slew 
 her stern around and put her on the beach throughout her full 
 length. These are points which should be taken into considera- 
 tion in deciding whether or not to back the engines immediately. 
 
 Assuming that, for whatever reason, it proves that the vessel 
 cannot be backed off at once, the most urgent step to be taken is 
 to lay out an anchor and get a good strain on a line from this, 
 for holding the ship from being set farther up on the beach. 
 Such a line, kept well taut, will sometimes start a ship off* quite 
 unexpectedly by the steady pull which it exerts ; a slight rise 
 of the tide or a little working of the ship by the wind or sea, con- 
 tributing toward the same end. As the laying out of a large 
 anchor involves delay when every moment may be precious, it is 
 well to send out a kedge at once, following this as soon as pos- 
 sible with a stream or a bower. If there is a current setting 
 along the coast, as frequently happens, the anchor should be laid 
 out a little off the quarter, to keep the stern from being swept 
 around. A buoy with a good buoy-rope should be used on the 
 anchor. (See Chapter XII, Carrying Out Anchors.} While this 
 work is in progress, careful soundings should be made around 
 the ship on all sides, and a good leadsman stationed to note the 
 rise or fall of the tide. The Tide-Tables, Sailing Directions, 
 and Charts will of course be examined, the time of high water 
 
738 STRANDING. 
 
 determined, and the direction of tidal currents noted. If there 
 is a chance that help will be needed, no time should be lost in 
 communicating with shore and making such arrangements as the 
 situation calls for. The immediate assistance of a vessel large 
 enough to carry out a heavy anchor may be of the greatest value. 
 It may be possible to secure a fishing vessel for this. If a tug 
 can be secured, this may be the best use that can be made of her 
 in the beginning. 
 
 An examination of the ship should be made as soon as possible 
 after she strikes, and all compartments sounded. As already 
 noted, this is particularly important on a rocky coast. If a com- 
 partment is found to be holed, the water-tight doors leading to 
 it should be closed, the bulkheads braced, and the pumps put 
 on, to keep the water down. If the hole is a large one, there 
 will probably be danger in hauling off before stopping it at least 
 in part. Repairs of this nature (before hauling off) can only 
 be made from the inside. 
 
 When measures have been taken to prevent the ship from 
 being set farther up the beach, and not until then, the work of 
 lightening her may be begun ; ballast tanks pumped out, cargo 
 shifted, lightered, or thrown overboard. If the ship is aground 
 forward, something may often be gained by filling the after bal- 
 last tank or otherwise adding weight aft; as, for example, by 
 shifting coal from an extreme forward to an extreme after 
 .bunker. 
 
 Getting out the boats is a quick and simple way of lightening 
 the ship. They may be filled at once with provisions and other 
 stores of such a nature as to be handled quickly, these being taken 
 first of all from the forward holds assuming the ship to be 
 aground forward. If the beach is near, this freight may be 
 landed and the boats brought alongside to be loaded again. 
 
 A man-of-war, with a large crew and plenty of boats, should 
 be able under these circumstances to get rid of several hundred 
 tons of easily handled stores within an hour or two. At the same 
 time, the work of shifting weights from forward to aft can be 
 going on, those articles being chosen first which lend themselves 
 to " man-handling," such as boxes of provisions, bales of cloth- 
 ing, ammunition (except very heavy projectiles), cordage, etc. 
 .Much is gained if the conditions admit of letting go the anchors 
 immediately and paying out the cables. This alone, if quickly 
 done, might suffice to float a ship which was only lightly aground 
 
STRANDING. 739 
 
 well forward. But this will be dangerous if there is any chance 
 of the ship being driven farther up so that she may strike on the 
 anchors. It is a good rule in any case of letting go an old- 
 fashioned anchor when aground, to unstock it and foul the flukes 
 with several turns of cable. 
 
 All water in tanks forward should be pumped overboard. Nor 
 should it be forgotten that one thousand men assembled aft gives 
 a weight of approximately one hundred and fifty thousand 
 pounds to help lift the bow. 
 
 VVhen conditions become favorable for backing and hauling 
 off which will of course be at high water the chances of suc- 
 cess will be greatly increased if the ship can be moved in her 
 bed, either by rocking her from side to side or by slewing her 
 stern a little. This may perhaps be done by means of a line to 
 an anchor laid out on the beam or quarter. 
 
 Vessels have been worked loose from a sandy bottom by going 
 ahead with their engines ; .the suction current drawing aft along 
 the bilge acting apparently to scour out the sand. 
 
 If another vessel comes to your assistance, she should, as a 
 rule, anchor to seaward of you, with a good scope of chain, get 
 good lines from your stern, and heave these taut until she tails 
 in toward you or as nearly so as the wind and tide permit. If 
 she then starts her anchor windlass ahead and keeps full steam 
 pressure on it, she will not only keep the lines taut, but will take 
 in and hold every inch that is gained on the line between the 
 ships. When the time comes for a combined effort to haul off, 
 she starts her engines ahead, still keeping the anchor windlass 
 in action. 
 
 It is a good plan for the assisting vessel to lay out her own 
 spare anchors well off shore with good lines bent to them, and to 
 send the ends of these lines on board the stranded vessel. These 
 will be heavier .than the anchors that the stranded vessel could 
 conveniently lay out for herself, and can be placed to far better 
 advantage. This does not interfere with any of the other meth- 
 ods of assisting that have been described. 
 
 In cases where a strong current runs along the beach at certain 
 stages of the tide, if the lines are hove taut at slack water, the 
 current when it makes will be on the beam of the anchored vessel 
 and will exert a tremendous force, with all the advantage due to 
 the span formed by the anchor-cable and the tow-line. It would 
 
74O STRANDING. 
 
 be well here for the assisting vessel to have two anchors down. 
 And it is imperative that she should be prepared to cast off 
 or cut the line between the ships without an instant's delay, in 
 ease s/ie finds that her aneJiors are dragging and that she is being 
 set down toward the beach. Here, as in the case described below 
 where the assisting vessel cannot anchor, it is desirable to lead 
 the hauling line from a chock far enough forward of the stern 
 to admit of using the rudder for holding the head up more or 
 less toward the tide. She will thus be pointed toward safety if 
 she begins to drag, and by starting the engines ahead with hard 
 over rudder, the situation is changed into one resembling that of 
 Fig. i, Plate 183. 
 
 In all cases like the above, of attempts to pull a stranded vessel 
 off, there is danger .that if she comes off suddenly she will col- 
 lide with the vessel that is assisting her. The latter should there- 
 fore be ready to slip everything and get out of the way. 
 
 There is one possible advantage which results from having- 
 the towing ship under way. This is that if she does not start 
 the other vessel by pulling- directly astern, she can place herself 
 on the quarter and may thus be enabled to slew the stern of the 
 stranded vessel and so loosen her up in her bed. 
 
 Generally speaking, however, the difficulties are increased if 
 the assisting vessel cannot anchor. It is almost impossible for 
 her to keep a steady tension on the line, under the most favorable 
 circumstances ; and if the wind or the current is across, there is 
 great danger that she will swing around on the tow-line and end 
 by going ashore herself. 
 
 See Chapter on Piloting, where it is explained that in many places the 
 full strength of tidal current corresponds with high and low water. 
 
 The only thing to be done where the assisting vessel cannot 
 anchor is for her to lie off, head to the current, untill all is ready ; 
 then to run the line, taking it from one of her oivn chocks fairly 
 well forward not under any circumstances from the stern. She 
 then heads more or less across the current and goes ahead, put- 
 ting the strain on the line gradually and holding herself up 
 against the tide by the helm, which will have good turning power 
 because of the way the ship can pivot on the line (Plate 183, Fig. 
 i). With the line led through a stern chock, the rudder would 
 have no power, and the ship would be swept down helplessly 
 
Plate No. 183, 
 
 A can manoeuver freely. 
 
 FIG. 1 
 
 Wind or 
 
 Current 
 
 A is unable fo manoeuver 
 because line leads 
 from stern. May be 
 swept down onto 
 beach. 
 
 FIG. 2 
 
 Wind 
 
 A stands in close and 
 takes line, then backs 
 fu/l speed. 
 
 FIG. 3 
 
 Wind or I 
 Current* 
 
 A fakes position to windward 
 and drifts down, takes 
 line and backs full speed. 
 
 X N ff set down toward beach, A casts 
 
 * N v off and backs clear. 
 
 FIG. 4 
 
 ASSISTING A STRANDED VESSEL. 
 
742 STRANDING. 
 
 toward the beach unless she cut the line. (Plate 183, Fig. 2.) 
 Even when manoeuvring as above described, an axe should be at 
 hand to cut if necessary. 
 
 It may happen that the assisting vessel can approach bows- 
 on to the stranded vessel and receive a line forward, taking it 
 in through her own bow chock, and backing her engines to pull 
 off. This may save much time which would be lost in man- 
 oeuvring for position to take the line in aft and may make all 
 the difference between being " just in time " and " just too late." 
 Here again the importance must be emphasized of retaining the 
 power to pivot on the line, by bringing it in through a chock 
 some distance abaft the stem. (Plate 183, Fig. 3.) This method 
 is especially applicable if the wind is off shore. If the wind or 
 current is setting down along the beach, the line must, in this 
 case, as in that of figure I, be run from the windward (or tide- 
 ward) side. 
 
 In Fig. 4, Plate 183, the assisting vessel stands in as close as 
 is considered prudent, and a little to windward, and drifts down 
 past the stern of the stranded vessel, to receive the line. If 
 she is obliged to cut and get clear to save herself, she is helped 
 by the tendency to throw her stern up into the wind which is a 
 characteristic of all backing vessels. 
 
 If the draft of the assisting vessel permits her to go alongside 
 she should be placed with her stern to the beach. If her bower 
 anchors are laid out and her anchor engine kept running, this 
 may be a powerful help. It may happen, too, that the current 
 from her screw, going ahead with full power, will scour out the 
 bottom under the stranded vessel. 
 
 There are, of course, many cases in which the effort to back off 
 should be made immediately ; as, for example, when it is known 
 that the beach on which the ship has struck is hard and steep 
 and not rocky. Here she will certainly be aground forward 
 only, but there is great danger that she will swing around and 
 ground throughout her whole length. And if this does not 
 happen, the chances are .that if there is any sea on she will be 
 dangerously strained and perhaps broken in two. So here the 
 one chance may be to back at full speed immediately ; not, 
 however, neglecting other measures which do not interfere with 
 it. If it is found that the backing is slewing her around broad- 
 side-on, .the engines must be stopped. This is very likely to hap- 
 pen with a single screw. On a beach of this kind, it is particu- 
 
Plate No. 184. 
 
 743 
 
 Fig.l. 
 
 Bower 
 Cable on 
 Bis Port- Anchor 
 
 Fig.Z. 
 
 fig. 3. 
 
 HAULING OFF A STRANDED VESSEL. 
 
744 STRANDING. 
 
 larlv important to get an anchor la'.d out immediately. A light 
 kedge carried out at once on the quarter opposite that toward 
 which she is inclined to swing around, may be of vital importance. 
 
 If all other methods fail, resort must be had to regular salvage 
 operations, the description of which is beyond .the scope of this 
 book. 
 
 The following plan is recommended by an officer of long expe- 
 rience, as especially valuable in cases where a vessel is stranded 
 on a muddy or sandy bottom (not rocky) and where another vessel 
 goes to her assistance : 
 
 Referring to Plate 184. A is aground, and B goes to her assist- 
 ance. A being on the left side, facing the current, B drops her 
 starboard bower anchor at a distance from A not ecxeeding her 
 available scope of cable, and goes ahead with left rudder, 1 keep- 
 ing the current on the starboard bow and allowing herself to 
 be set over toward A until she is as close as is practicable, which 
 will of course depend primarily upon her draft. A's starboard 
 bower anchor is now transferred to B's port bow, if this can con- 
 veniently be done, by boats or otherwise ; or, more simply, A's 
 starboard bower cable is unbent and the end is hauled across and 
 shackled up to B's port bower chain, disconnected at a convenient 
 shackle. 
 
 At the same time a good hawser is run between the ships. 
 If this hawser is run immediately, it will help to hold B in position 
 while getting the chain across and may save some troublesome 
 manoeuvering in quarters perhaps uncomfortably close. Fig. 2. 
 
 Everything being ready, B starts her steam-windlass and heaves 
 in her starboard cable, using her screw as before, but this time with 
 the current on the port bow and more nearly ahead than before. 
 
 A, in the meantime, veers away her starboard cable, which is 
 thus laid out by B. Fig. 3. 
 
 When A's cable is all out, or when no more of it can be laid out, 
 B lets go the anchor and A heaves in on her cable, and makes fast 
 the hawser connecting with B. At the same time, B heaves in on 
 her steam windlass, and goes ahead with her screw. Thus we have 
 the windlasses of both ships pulling on A, with the power of B's 
 screw added, and, still further, the " sucking " effect of the current 
 acting on B's port bow, and, provided A's bow yields enough to 
 cant her, acting on A as well. 
 
 i. Helm a-starboard. 
 
(745) 
 
 CHAPTER XXIX. 
 
 ASSISTANCE BY PUBLIC VESSELS TO VESSELS 
 IN DISTRESS. 
 
 The following chapter has been kindly prepared by two 
 officers of the U. S. Coast Guard 1 and gives the "Doctrine" of 
 that Service as developed through many years of practical 
 experience with the problems involved in rendering assistance 
 to vessels in distress. 
 
 One of the chief duties of the United States Coast Guard, in 
 time of peace, is to render assistance to vessels in distress. The 
 United States is the only nation that maintains a fleet of vessels 
 whose primary function, during peace, is to afford aid to distressed 
 vessels. A number of other nations maintain, or aid in the 
 maintenance of, life-saving or lifeboat stations on shore to rescue 
 the crews of stranded ships, but in none of these is the number of 
 such stations so large as in the United States, nor are the stations 
 part of a complete military organization as in this country. All 
 seamen should be familiar with the character of assistance 
 rendered by the United States Coast Guard, a work in which 
 it has been engaged for many years with pronounced success. 
 
 The commanding officer of a vessel of the Navy will occa- 
 sionally find himself in a position to render assistance similar to 
 that extended by Coast Guard vessels. The purpose of this 
 chapter is to set forth briefly what may be termed the "doctrine" 
 of the Coast Guard with respect to certain cases that may arise, 
 and the methods that have been found successful by Coast 
 Guard officers. 
 
 Calls for Assistance. Assistance to a vessel in trouble at sea 
 is rendered by one or more cruising Cutters 2 ; if the vessel is 
 
 1 Commander H. G. Hamlett and Lieutenant Commander F. C. Billard. 
 
 2 The cruising vessels of the Coast Guard, although of a size which places 
 them in the Gunboat or Small Cruiser class when they act as a part of the 
 Navy (in time of war), are technically designated as "Cutters." 
 
746 ASSISTANCE BY PUBLIC VESSELS TO VESSELS IN DISTRESS. 
 
 stranded, help will be given by one or more Cutters and by the 
 crew of the nearest Coast Guard station on shore; reenforced, 
 when necessary, by the crews of adjacent stations. 
 
 A vessel in need of assistance should, if possible, send word of 
 her predicament by radio to the nearest shore radio station, 
 taking care to give the exact location of the vessel, her condition, 
 and sufficient data concerning the weather so that the probable 
 drift of the disabled craft may be estimated. The conventional 
 5.0.5. signal should be used only in emergent cases, because all 
 the available resources of the Coast Guard are immediately 
 directed in response to an S.O.S. call, and misuse of this urgent 
 distress signal mayseive to divert the assisting Cutters from other 
 assistance work which may be, in fact, more urgent. All radio 
 calls for assistance reach the operating officers of the Coast 
 Guard through the Coast Guard communication system and 
 prompt action to afford assistance is taken, when the circum- 
 stances of the case warrant, to the utmost resources of the 
 Service. Any change in conditions should be reported and, if it 
 later develops that assistance is not needed, information to this 
 effect should be immediately sent out. Cases have occurred 
 where failure to cancel calls for assistance has resulted in a need- 
 less expenditure of fuel and time on the part of a Coast Guard 
 Cutter. As it is the aim of the Coast Guard to answer all calls 
 for assistance, it should be the part of mariners to cooperate by 
 asking for assistance only when really necessary, by furnishing 
 all possible information, by advising of changes in conditions as 
 they occur, and by annulling the distress call when assistance is 
 no longer needed. , 
 
 Doctrine. The doctrine herein set forth is that which governs 
 officers in command of Coast Guard Cutters, and is recommended 
 for the guidance of the Commanding Officers of naval vessels 
 in similar circumstances. In what follows, the term "Com- 
 manding Officer" refers to the officer in command of a United 
 States naval vessel or Coast Guard Cutter; the word "master" 
 means the captain in charge of a merchant vessel. 
 
 The case of a vessel in distress will usually involve either : 
 
 (a) Rescuing the crew from a ship in danger of foundering, 
 
 (b) Taking a disabled vessel in tow, 
 
 (c) Floating a stranded vessel. 
 
 In connection with the prevention of disasters to vessels, 
 
ASSISTANCE BY PUBLIC VESSELS TO VESSELS IN DISTRESS. 747 
 
 there is the work of (d) removing or destroying floating menaces 
 to navigation. 
 
 The Master of a vessel in distress at sea is responsible for the 
 safety of the lives and property in his charge. Whether all or 
 any of the people are to be taken off the vessel is a matter for 
 him to decide. It is highly desirable, when a vessel is taken in 
 tow in such condition that she is apt to founder, that all the 
 personnel be taken off except only those absolutely necessary 
 to handle the vessel; so that, should the vessel suddenly sink, 
 the number of lives jeopardized may be reduced to a minimum. 
 Whether or not the people are to be taken off is to be decided by 
 the Master of the disabled vessel; the manner of taking them 
 off is decided by the Commanding Officer of the public vessel 
 assisting. The matter of rescuing property and personal effects 
 is entirely in the hands of the Commanding Officer of the assisting 
 vessel. In general, it is the function of the Commanding 
 Officer to advise the Master of the distressed ship in the premises. 
 If the master accept the advice tendered, the conduct of the 
 operation lies solely with the Commanding Officer. 
 
 When a vessel is taken in tow, the question of destination often 
 arises in connection with facilities for repairs, character of cargo, 
 and other matters. The governing factor should be to get the 
 vessel to the most practicable place of safety, taking into con- 
 sideration the resources of the assisting vessel, the conditions 
 of wind and sea, and any other circumstances; acceding, how- 
 ever, to the wishes of the Master in so far as is practicable, in 
 the judgment of the Commanding Officer. It is the right of the 
 Master to let go the tow line whenever he sees fit. Often, when 
 a tow is nearing a place of safety, a commercial tow boat may 
 come alongside and apply for the job of taking the disabled 
 craft into port. In such cases it is the doctrine of the Coast 
 Guard that it is not its function to interfere in any way with 
 private enterprise. The Commanding Officer should see that the 
 bargain proposed is fair and reasonable. If such be the case, 
 in his opinion, he should let go the tow. Naturally, the Com- 
 manding Officer who possibly has picked up the tow under 
 trying circumstances and has towed her successfully under great 
 difficulties, feels a strong desire to complete the job by delivering 
 his charge into a safe harbor. It must be borne in mind, how- 
 ever, that the rights of private enterprise which maintains 
 facilities for doing work of this character at large expense must 
 
748 ASSISTANCE BY PUBLIC VESSELS TO VESSELS IN DISTRESS. 
 
 be respected, and that the duty of the public vessel terminates 
 when the element of danger to the ship and her people is removed. 
 
 The line of demarcation between the duties of the Com- 
 manding Officer of a public vessel and the right of private marine 
 enterprise becomes more difficult to ascertain in the case of a 
 stranded vessel. When danger to life is involved, it is, of course, 
 the paramount duty of the public vessel to do everything possible 
 to save life, regardless of any other question. 
 
 Suppose a vessel ashore is fallen in with, no other help in 
 sight and no danger to life imminent. When communication 
 has been established, the Commanding Officer proffers his 
 advice based upon his experience in similar circumstances, hav- 
 ing in mind that the responsibility for the welfare of the stranded 
 vessel and for whatever operations are to be undertaken, if any 
 at all, rests with the Master. It may be that the vessel is ashore 
 among rocks and to pull her off might result in serious injury to 
 her bottom, with possible danger of sinking in deep water. The 
 Master of the ship must decide whether or not an effort shall be 
 made to pull the vessel off at the time. It will generally be found 
 that the Master of the stranded craft will follow the advice of 
 the Commanding Officer of the public vessel there to assist him; 
 so that it is very important that the advice given be based upon a 
 careful study of the situation in all its aspects, having in mind 
 that the actual decision must be made by the Master himself, 
 as the responsibility is his, and his alone. 
 
 It may be that before passing a line to the stranded vessel a 
 commercial wrecking vessel or tug arrives upon the scene. The 
 duty of the Commanding Officer is first to permit negotiations 
 between the tug and the Master of the stranded ship for floating 
 the ship. The general principle is that the public vessel must 
 make every effort to save the stranded craft, and at the same time 
 not interfere with private enterprise. If the facilities offered 
 by the tug are manifestly inadequate, the Commanding Officer 
 would be justified in counselling the master of the stranded vessel 
 to make no bargain except for the tug to assist the efforts of the 
 public vessel. If, on the other hand, the facilities of the tug are 
 reasonably adequate for the task, and reasonable terms are pro- 
 posed, then the duty of the Commanding Officer is to notify the 
 Master of the stranded ship that the public vessel will not engage 
 in the operations to the exclusion of the tug, but will assist as 
 may be required. 
 
ASSISTANCE BY PUBLIC VESSELS TO VESSELS IN DISTRESS. 749 
 
 The Coast Guard does not ordinarily undertake assistance 
 work involving extensive wrecking operations or lightering. Its 
 services in behalf of vessels in distress are rendered regardless of 
 the nationality of the vessel assisted. Under the law, United 
 States vessels may render aid and assistance to any vessel 
 wrecked, disabled or in distress in the waters of Canada con- 
 tiguous to the United States; and Canadian vessels may render 
 aid and assistance to any vessel wrecked, disabled, or in distress 
 in the waters of the United States contiguous to the Dominion 
 of Canada. 
 
 Derelicts. In general, the removal of sunken obstructions or 
 dangers to navigation within the navigable waters of the United 
 States devolves by law upon the Secretary of War. The destruc- 
 tion or removal of wrecks, derelicts and other floating dangers 
 to navigation beyond the navigable waters of the United States 
 devolves primarily upon the Coast Guard by law. This is 
 construed to include also the removal or destruction of sunken 
 obstructions outside the navigable waters of the United States. 
 Under the terms of an international convention, dated January 
 20, 1914, the United States and the leading maritime nations of 
 Europe undertook to take all steps to insure the destruction of 
 derelicts in the northern part of the Atlantic Ocean east of a line 
 drawn from Cape Sable to a point situated in latitude 34 degrees 
 North and longitude 70 degrees West. They also agreed to 
 establish in the North Atlantic a service for the study and 
 observation of ice conditions and a service of ice patrol. The 
 Government of the United States was invited to undertake the 
 management of the three services of derelict destruction, study 
 and observation of ice conditions, and ice patrol, and the Presi- 
 dent designated the Coast Guard to carry out this work. 
 
 While the Coast Guard is especially charged with the destruc- 
 tion or removal of obstructions to navigation outside the three- 
 mile limit, it is obviously the duty of the Commanding Officer 
 of a naval vessel, if no Coast Guard vessel be available, upon 
 falling in with an obstruction constituting a menace to naviga- 
 tion, to take appropriate action in the case. 
 
 Derelicts and other floating dangers to navigation, wherever 
 found, should be taken to the most convenient port whenever 
 practicable. When it is not practicable to 'take a derelict or 
 other floating danger into port, it should be destroyed or beached, 
 care being exercised in each case that such destruction does not 
 
75O ASSISTANCE BY PUBLIC VESSELS TO VESSELS IN DISTRESS. 
 
 leave sunken or floating wreckage of such size or character as to 
 constitute a menace to passing ships. If the derelict or other 
 floating danger is to be destroyed within the navigable waters of 
 the United States and the emergencies of the case permit, the 
 Army Engineer Officer in charge of the district should be com- 
 municated with and consulted before final action is taken. 
 Whenever circumstances make it necessary to destroy a derelict 
 or other floating danger to navigation before consulting the 
 Engineer Officer of the district, within the navigable waters of 
 the United States, the Commanding Officer should promptly 
 notify that officer. 
 
 When knowledge is obtained of any sunken obstruction to 
 navigation within the navigable waters of the United States, 
 Commanding Officers should promptly notify the District 
 Engineer Officer and take no further action unless requested by 
 that officer. The Commanding Officer should see that a wreck 
 is properly buoyed or lighted before he leaves it. He should in 
 all cases where wrecks are buoyed and lighted by him notify the 
 nearest Lighthouse Superintendent of the fact, giving full in- 
 formation as to the character of the buoy or light established, and 
 forwarding, if practicable, a section of the chart showing its 
 position in order that such information may be published in the 
 weekly Notice to Mariners. 
 
 A derelict may be fallen in with which is evidently of very 
 considerable value. It then becomes necessary to decide whether 
 an effort shall be made to tow the derelict into port or whether 
 it shall be destroyed. If the duty upon which the public vessel 
 is employed permits and the towing facilities are adequate, and 
 the weather conditions promising, an effort should be made to 
 tow the abandoned vessel into port. On the other hand, it 
 may be that the derelict is directly in the path of commerce; 
 it may be, for example, in the trans-Atlantic steamship lanes; 
 weather conditions may be such that a considerable period will 
 probably elapse before it can be taken in tow, with further 
 danger that contact will be lost. In such a case, the Command- 
 ing Officer would be justified in promptly destroying the derelict 
 regardless of any consideration other than the safety of lives 
 that might be jeopardized by collision between passing vessels 
 and the derelict. The Commanding Officer should weigh care- 
 fully the matter before deciding to destroy what would be, if 
 salvaged, very valuable property. But if, in his judgment, the 
 
ASSISTANCE BY PUBLIC VESSELS TO VESSELS IN DISTRESS. 75! 
 
 possibility of jeopardizing lives by collision with the derelict 
 outweighs the consideration of property value alone, he should 
 not hesitate to sink the derelict. A floating derelict in the 
 frequented paths of commerce is one of the greatest menaces to 
 safety at sea, and the decision of a Commanding Officer on the 
 spot to destroy such a menace is not open to question. The 
 salvage of floating wreckage is not usually attempted, and such 
 obstructions are ordinarily mined and destroyed. 
 
 When a derelict vessel is towed into port, it should be turned 
 over to the custody of the owner if practicable; otherwise, to 
 that of the United States Marshal. ' 
 
 Rescuing the Crew from a Ship in Danger of Foundering. 
 This subject is covered in Chapter XXVI and the practice of the 
 Coast Guard is in accord with the general principles therein set 
 forth. Usually, on a Coast Guard Cutter, two of the boats are 
 surf boats, carried on davits in the waist, one on each side, 
 equipped for lowering and hoisting and for work in rough water. 
 In the waist is the logical place to carry such boats on a small ship 
 because there is less pitch, the ship's rail is apt to be lower there, 
 the boat is clear of the propeller, it gets the advantage of the 
 lee formed by the forward or the after part of the ship, and 
 generally a boat can be handled better along the straight part 
 of the side of the ship and will be less liable to be stove as the 
 ship rolls than if under the counter or the bluff of the bow. 
 Also, on a small ship, the operation of lowering, hooking on and 
 hoisting is directly under observation from the bridge, as it 
 should be; particularly when getting the boat away or picking 
 it up in a seaway. 
 
 The boat should never be lowered until the order to lower is 
 given from the bridge, and great care should be taken to give 
 the order at the most favorable time. 
 
 Obviously, the nearer the ship can be brought, with safety, to 
 the wreck, the easier the task for the boat's crew and the less 
 the danger to them. By careful manoeuvring and watching the 
 drift, it will be found that a vessel can be held much nearer to a 
 drifting craft than would be thought feasible, particularly if held 
 with her stern clear in a position to increase distance when 
 imperative. 
 
 In the equipment of a life-boat carried at davits, it is advisable 
 to have coarse mesh nets, readily made on board from small stuff, 
 stopped along the rail between the davits, and deep enough when 
 
752 ASSISTANCE BY PUBLIC VESSELS TO VESSELS IN DISTRESS. 
 
 dropped to reach down to the boat on the high roll of the ship. 
 The boat's crew and passengers can come up or go down such a 
 net more quickly and with greater safety than they can make 
 their way up or down sea ladders. Such a net is particularly 
 useful when hooking on a boat in a bad sea, when, of course, it 
 is most desirable to lighten the boat of her crew as soon as 
 possible. 
 
 Taking a Disabled Vessel in Tow at Sea. The Coast Guard 
 practice in picking up a tow at sea is usually to get a line to the 
 tow by heaving line or by the use of a shoulder gun, placing the 
 cutter in the most advantageous position in accordance with 
 the principles laid down in Chapter XXV. In good weather it 
 is generally unnecessary to use a boat and in bad weather it is 
 seldom practicable. 
 
 When other conditions permit, it will generally be found 
 handier in the case of a vessel having a single right hand pro- 
 peller to work under the starboard bow of a vessel for the reason 
 that backing shapes up your own ship for going clear; whereas, 
 while under the port bow, backing shapes up your ship for fouling. 
 It is always well to keep fifteen or twenty fathoms of your end 
 of the hawser so that the nip may be easily fleeted by slacking 
 away. Moreover, it will often be possible to ease the strain on a 
 hawser, and still maintain good speed, by slacking away several 
 fathoms and bringing the vessels in step. Whenever it is neces- 
 sary to slack or veer a hawser, always stop your ship; if you do 
 not take this precaution the hawser is liable to take charge of 
 things. Never make a hawser fast so that it cannot be let go or 
 cut away instantly. This precaution is often overlooked, par- 
 ticularly when towing with wire. 
 
 A hawser should be protected from chafe as much as possible. 
 This applies to wire as well as to manila. With a vessel in tow, 
 always slow down when about to make a pronounced change in 
 course to avoid parting the line when the catenary snaps out of 
 water and brings a sudden strain on the towing gear. 
 
 In picking up a sailing vessel underway, remember that she is 
 making good a course several points to leeward of her heading. 
 
 When heaving in a hawser that has parted or been let go, 
 keep way on your ship, heading up to windward if practicable, 
 to avoid fouling the propeller. Whenever you have a line of any 
 kind over your stern, keep constantly in mind the possible danger 
 of fouling the propeller. 
 
ASSISTANCE BY PUBLIC VESSELS TO VESSELS IN DISTRESS. 753 
 
 A ship with disabled steering gear can sometimes be best 
 handled by making fast astern of her. The disabled vessel can 
 then do the towing and the assisting ship can do the steering 
 by sheering across the former's stern as necessary. 
 
 A ship which yaws badly under tow on account of being down 
 by the head may often be towed comfortably stern first. A 
 drag over the stern of a ship being towed and yawing badly will 
 generally relieve the yawing. 
 
 A change in speed or in course or both will often relieve 
 dangerous strain on a towing hawser. 
 
 Floating a Stranded Vessel. This subject is discussed in 
 Chapter XXVIII. The assisting vessel should feel her way in 
 carefully, taking into consideration the stage of the tide and 
 state of the sea. Remember that on a sandy beach a bar will 
 often form outside of a large stranded ship. Every effort should 
 be made to anchor in just the right position to pull most effec- 
 tively, having in mind the way the current will probably set 
 while lines are being run and while hauling on the stranded vessel. 
 
 The best time to pull is, of course, at high water. If you 
 begin to pull a few minutes before high water and continue to 
 pull with full power until twenty or thirty minutes after high 
 water in a locality where there is considerable rise and fall of 
 the tide without results, it is almost useless to continue to pull 
 on the vessel ; it is better to wait until the next high water. 
 
 With a line leading from a forward chock, use a "dipping 
 rope" or bridle to keep the line away from your propeller. 
 
 It will be of very great assistance if, while pulling on the 
 stranded vessel, another vessel is at hand to hold up the head 
 of your ship against the set of the current. You will thus be 
 enabled to pull along the direction best calculated to obtain the 
 desired result. 
 
 When conditions permit, "jumping" on the line by getting a 
 little slack on the hawser and then going ahead full speed will 
 sometimes start a stranded ship. This, however, always involves 
 danger of parting the hawser or of doing other damage. 
 
 At night, it is a good idea for the stranded vessel to use a 
 search light kept trained along her own keel line so that the 
 assisting vessel will know at all times just how she is lying. 
 
 When a small vessel is ashore on a sandy beach and the sand 
 has formed around her, a length of 2-inch pipe screwed on to a 
 deck hose may be useful. Pumping water through the pipe may 
 
754 ASSISTANCE BY PUBLIC VESSELS TO VESSELS IN DISTRESS. 
 
 force away the sand sufficiently to enable the vessel to be floated. 
 This has been successfully accomplished. 
 
 The Removal of Derelicts. To locate a derelict that has been 
 reported by a passing steamer is often no easy matter. The 
 success of the search depends upon a number of elements, the 
 accuracy of the original report, the time elapsed since the dere- 
 lict was seen, the weather and currents. With such information 
 as he has received, the Commanding Officer of a vessel ordered 
 to find the derelict must use his best judgment in estimating the 
 probable drift of the derelict since it was last reported. A 
 systematic search should be planned and carried out in accord- 
 ance with accepted methods (search curves) designed to cover to 
 the best advantage, during daylight, the area in which the dere- 
 lict may be expected to be found, giving due weight to con- 
 ditions of weather and sea. In actual practice, it is rarely that 
 a derelict is found without a protracted search. 
 
 The derelict when found should either be destroyed or taken 
 in tow. The wrecking mines used for destroying derelicts are of 
 the standard Navy type. The number of mines used and the 
 manner of connecting them up will depend upon circumstances. 
 
 In order to get the best results, the mines should be in actual 
 contact with the objects to be destroyed; this is often a difficult 
 task and is sometimes impossible. To blow up a hull, particu- 
 larly if it is waterlogged, the best method is to place the mines 
 inside so that the explosive effect will rend the parts asunder. 
 Or they may be placed under the hull, being held in place by 
 hogging lines. The efficient use of wrecking mines to destroy 
 derelicts and wreckage at sea calls for good judgment, consider- 
 able ingenuity and some former experience in the work, and is 
 not devoid of danger. 
 
 To take a derelict in tow is apt to prove a slow and arduous 
 task. It will often be difficult to find a suitable means of making 
 fast a towing hawser on the derelict; as, for example, on a hull 
 floating bottom up. No two cases will be found exactly alike, 
 and an officer must depend largely upon his resourcefulness and 
 ingenuity to solve the problem presented. 
 
 COAST GUARD STATIONS. 
 
 The sea and lake coasts of the United States, exclusive of the 
 coast of Alaska, have an extent of more than 10,000 miles. 
 There are to-day upon these coasts 273 active Coast Guard 
 
ASSISTANCE BY PUBLIC VESSELS TO VESSELS IN DISTRESS. 755 
 
 stations, 180 of which are on the shores of the Atlantic, 9 on the 
 shores of the Gulf of Mexico, 21 on the shores of the Pacific, 
 and 62 on the shores of the Great Lakes. These stations are 
 located at selected points of danger to shipping and vary some- 
 what in character, according to their environment and the 
 nature of the service demanded of them. On some portions of 
 the coast they are placed only at long intervals, while upon 
 others they form chains of contiguous posts within communicat- 
 ing distance of each other. 
 
 The equipment of Coast Guard stations consists of the beach 
 apparatus line-projecting guns, hawsers, breeches buoys, etc. 
 flag and pyrotechnic signals, heaving sticks and lines, life pre- 
 servers, life cars, and lifeboats, surfboats, and other types of 
 boats. 
 
 The outfits are practically the same at all the stations, but the 
 boats are of various types, depending upon their suitability for 
 rescue work on the different coasts. The lifeboats are too heavy 
 to be launched from the beach into the surf, and launching ways 
 are provided and located for them where comparatively smooth 
 water prevails on rivers, bays, and inlets. The surfboats are 
 launched into the surf without the aid of launching ways. 
 
 Types of Boats. Boats used in the Coast Guard may be 
 divided into two general classes those driven by gasoline motors 
 and those without motive power other than sails or oars. They 
 are further subdivided as to their hull construction into three 
 classes: open boats, self-bailing boats, and self-righting and self- 
 bailing boats. (See Chapter IX and Plates 61 and 62.) 
 
 Line-carrying Guns, etc. For effecting line communication 
 with stranded vessels and between cutters and disabled vessels 
 in heavy weather the Coast Guard chiefly employs the Lyle gun, 
 but other types may of course be used (Plate 185). 
 
 For a vehicle in which to transport people from a wreck to 
 shore after line communication has been established, the breeches 
 buoy is generally used. The life car is sometimes taken, how- 
 ever, especially where many persons are to be landed and where 
 the distance is too great to use the breeches buoy. The car is a 
 covered boat, made of corrugated galvanized iron, furnished with 
 rings at each end, into which hauling lines are bent, whereby the 
 car is hauled back and forth on the water between the wreck 
 and the shore without the use of any apparatus. It is supplied, 
 however, with bails, one near each end, by which it can be 
 
756 ASSISTANCE BY PUBLIC VESSELS TO VESSELS IN DISTRESS. 
 
 suspended from a hawser and passed along upon it like the 
 breeches buoy if found necessary, as is sometimes the case where 
 the shore is abrupt. The cover of the boat is convex, and is 
 provided with a hatch, which fastens either inside or outside, 
 through which entrance and exit are effected. Near each end it 
 is perforated with a group of small holes, like the holes in a 
 grater, punched outward, to supply air for breathing, without 
 admitting much, if any, water. It is capable of containing six 
 or seven persons, and is very useful in landing sick people and 
 valuables, as they are protected from getting wet. On the first 
 occasion of its use it saved 201 persons. (Plate 186.) 
 
 At Coast Guard stations a fixed beat or patrol is laid out in 
 each direction along the shore, varying, according to the con- 
 formation of the coast with respect to inlets, headlands, etc., 
 from one-half to 2, 3, or 4 miles in length. The station crew is 
 divided into regular watches of two men each, who during the 
 hours from sunset to sunrise, patrol these beats, keeping a sharp 
 lookout seaward at all times. 
 
 At sunset the first man starts out on patrol in the same direc- 
 tion from all stations in a district, so far as practicable. While 
 the patrolman is out, his watchmate takes the station watch, 
 which is kept in the tower or on the beach abreast the station, 
 as conditions may require. If the station is connected with the 
 service telephone line, the station watch makes it his business to 
 be within hearing distance of the bell at regular intervals. In 
 addition to keeping watch seaward, he is on the lookout for 
 vsignals and telephone calls from the patrolman. Upon the 
 return of the first patrol, he takes the station watch and the 
 other man patrols in the opposite direction. At the proper time 
 the man on station watch calls out the next two men, who must 
 be dressed and ready for duty before the first twb turn in. 
 
 This routine is varied to meet local conditions. In harbors and 
 seaports fixed lookouts are usually maintained instead of a beach 
 patrol. 
 
 In some cases telephones are located in halfway houses or at 
 the ends of the patrols; in such cases the patrolmen report to 
 their stations by telephone. In other cases the patrolman is 
 provided with a small hand telephone set with which he can 
 communicate with the station. 
 
 Each patrolman carries a number of red Coston signals with 
 which to warn a vessel standing too close inshore or to notify a 
 vessel in distress that he has gone to summon assistance. 
 
Plate No. 185. 
 
 757 
 
 FJG. i. THE STEWARD LINE-THROWING GUN. 
 
 FIG. 2. THE SHOULDER GUN. 
 
 FIG. 3. THE SHOULDER GUN IN USE. 
 
ASSISTANCE BY PUBLIC VESSELS TO VESSELS IN DISTRESS. 
 
 The same system of patrols is kept up in thick and foggy 
 weather. 
 
 It should be stated that the beach patrol is an institution of 
 distinctly American origin. It was devised by the former Life- 
 Saving Service and inaugurated in that service about 1870-75. 
 
 To insure that the crews of wrecked vessels shall understand 
 what to do when station crews are making rescues by means of 
 the beach apparatus gear, two tally boards or tablets are used. 
 One of these is spliced permanently into the tail of the whip 
 block just above the splice, and the other is spliced or bent on 
 the top end of the hawser. Each tally board contains inscrip- 
 tions, in English on one side and in French on the other, telling 
 explicitly what is to be done after they are received. 
 
 INSTRUCTIONS TO MARINERS IN CASE OF SHIPWRECK. 
 
 All sea-faring people should be familiar with the following 
 instructions, which are practically identical with those issued by 
 all nations having Life Saving Services. It is the unanimous 
 testimony of the personnel of such services that the principal 
 difficulties with which they have to deal arise from the failure 
 of shipwrecked crews to cooperate intelligently in the work of 
 rescue. 
 
 INSTRUCTIONS. 
 
 Rescue with the Life- Boat or Surf -Boat. 
 
 The patrolman, after discovering your vessel ashore and burn- 
 ing a Coston signal, hastens to his station for assistance. If the 
 use of a boat is practicable, either the large life-boat is launched 
 from its ways in the station and proceeds to the wreck by water, 
 or the lighter surf-boat is hauled overland to a point opposite 
 the wreck and launched, as circumstances may require. 
 
 Upon the boat reaching your vessel, the directions and orders 
 of the Warrant Officer in charge (who always commands and 
 steers the boat) should be implicitly obeyed. Any headlong 
 rushing and crowding should be prevented, and the captain of 
 the vessel should remain on board, to preserve order, until every 
 other person has left. 
 
 Women, children, helpless persons, and passengers should be 
 passed into the boat first. 
 
ASSISTANCE BY PUBLIC VESSELS TO VESSELS IN DISTRESS. 759 
 
 Goods or baggage will positively not be taken into the boat 
 until all are landed. If any be passed in against the warrant of- 
 ficer's remonstrance he is fully authorized to throw the same 
 overboard. 
 
 Rescue with the Breeches-Buoy or Life-Car. (Plate 186.) 
 
 Should it be inexpedient to use either the life-boat or surf-boat, 
 recourse will be had to the wreck-gun and beach apparatus for 
 the rescue by the breeches-buoy or the life-car. 
 
 A shot with a small line attached will be fired across your vessel. 
 
 Get hold of the line as soon as possible and haul on board 
 until you get a tail-block with a whip or endless line rove through 
 it. This tail-block should be hauled on board as quickly as pos- 
 sible to prevent the whip drifting off with the set or fouling with 
 wreckage, etc. Therefore, if you have been driven into the rig- 
 ging, where but one or two men can work .to advantage, cut the 
 shot-line and run it through some available block, such as the 
 throat or peak-halliards block, or any block which will afford a 
 clear lead, or even between the ratlines, that as many as possible 
 may assist in hauling. 
 
 Attached to .the tail-block will be a tally-board with the follow- 
 ing directions in English on one side and French on the other : 
 
 " Make the tail of the block fast to the lower mast, well up. 
 If the masts are gone, then to .the best place you can find. Cast 
 off shot-line, see that the rope in the block runs free, and show 
 signal to the shore." 
 
 The above instructions being complied with, the result will be 
 as shown in Fig. I, Plate 186. 
 
 As soon as your signal is seen a .three-inch hawser will be bent 
 on to the whip and hauled off to your ship by the life-saving 
 crew. . 
 
 If circumstances will admit, you can assist the life-saving crew 
 by manning that part of the whip to which the hawser is bent 
 and hauling with them. 
 
 When .the end of the hawser is got on board a tally-board will 
 be found attached, bearing the following directions in English 
 on one side and French on the other : 
 
760 ASSISTANCE BY PUBLIC VESSELS TO VESSELS IN DISTRESS. 
 
 " Make this hawser fast about two feet above the tail-block, 
 see all clear and that the rope in the block runs free, and show 
 signal to the shore." 
 
 These instructions being obeyed, the result will be as shown 
 in Fig. 2, Plate 186. 
 
 Take particular care that there are no turns of the whip-line 
 round the hawser. To prevent this take the end of the hawser 
 UP BETWEEN the parts of the whip before making it fast. 
 
 When the hawser is made fast, the whip cast off from the 
 hawser, and your signal seen by the life-saving crew, they will 
 haul the hawser taut and by means of the whip will haul off to 
 your ship a breeches-buoy suspended from a traveler-block, or 
 a life-car from rings, running on the hawser. 
 
 Fig. 3, Plate 186, represents the apparatus rigged, with the 
 breeches-buoy hauled off to the ship. 
 
 If the breeches-buoy be sent, let one man immediately get into 
 it, thrusting his legs through the breeches. If the life-car, re- 
 move the hatch, place as many persons into it as it will hold 
 (four to six), and secure the hatch on the outside by the hatch- 
 bar and hook, signal as before, and the buoy or car will be 
 hauled ashore. This will be repeated until all are landed. On 
 the last trip of the life-car the hatch must be secured by the 
 inside hatch-bar. 
 
 In many instances two men can be landed in the breeches- 
 buoy at the same time by each putting a leg through a leg of the 
 breeches and holding on to the lifts of the buoy. 
 
 Children, when brought ashore by the buoy, should be in the 
 arms of older persons or securely lashed to the buoy. Women 
 and children should be landed first. 
 
 In signaling as directed in the foregoing instructions, if in the 
 daytime, let one man separate himself from the rest and swing 
 his hat, a handkerchief, or his hand ; if at night, the showing of 
 a light, and concealing it once or twice, will be understood ; and 
 like signals will be made from the shore. 
 
 Circumstances may arise, owing to the strength of the cur- 
 rent or set, or the danger of the wreck breaking up immediately, 
 when it would be impossible to send off the hawser. In such a 
 case a breeches-buoy or life-car will be hauled off instead by 
 the whip, or sent off to you by the shot-line, and you will be 
 hauled ashore through .the surf. 
 
Plate No. 186. 
 
 761 
 
 FIG. 1 
 TAIL-BLOCK HAULED 
 OFF BY FIRST LINE 
 FROM SHORE 
 
 FIG. 2 
 
 HAWSER HAULED OFF 
 BY WHIP 
 
 FIG. 3 
 BREECHES BUOY 
 
 FIG. 4. BREECHES BUOY IN USE. 
 
 FIG. 5. LIFE CAR AS USED IN DRILL. 
 
 RESCUING PASSENGERS FROM STRANDED VESSEL. 
 
762 ASSISTANCE BY PUBLIC VESSELS TO VESSELS IN DISTRESS. 
 
 If your vessel is stranded during the night and discovered by 
 the patrolman, which you will know by his burning a brilliant 
 red light, keep a bright lookout for signs of the arrival of the 
 life-saving crew abreast of your vessel. 
 
 From one to four hours may intervene between the burning 
 of .the light and their arrival, as the patrolman will have to re- 
 turn to his station, perhaps three or four miles distant, and the 
 life-saving crew draw the apparatus or surf-boat through the 
 sand or over bad roads to where your vessel is stranded. 
 
 Lights on the beach will indicate their arrival, and the sound 
 of cannon-firing from the shore may be taken as evidence that a 
 line has been fired across your vessel. Therefore, upon hearing 
 the cannon, make strict search aloft, fore and aft, for the shot- 
 line, for it is almost certain .to be there. Though the movements 
 of the life-saving crew may not be perceptible to you, owing to 
 the darkness, your ship will be a good mark for the men ex- 
 perienced in the use of the wreck-gun, and the first shot seldom 
 fails. 
 
 RECAPITULATION . 
 
 Remain by the wreck until assistance arrives from the shore, 
 unless your vessel shows signs of immediately breaking up. 
 
 If not discovered immediately by the patrol, burn rockets, 
 flare-up, or other lights, or, if the weather be foggy, fire guii3. 
 
 Take particular care that there are no turns of the whip-line 
 round .the hawser before making the hawser fast. 
 
 Send the women, children, helpless persons, and passengers 
 ashore first. 
 
 Make yourself thoroughly familiar with these instructions, and 
 remember that on your coolness and strict attention to them 
 will greatly depend .the chances of success in bringing you and 
 your people safely to land. 
 
 The following signals, approved by the International Marine 
 Conference convened at Washington in October, 1889, have 
 been adopted by the United States Coast Guard, and will be used 
 and recognized by the officers and men as occasion may require : 
 
 " Upon the discovery of a wreck by night, the life-saving force 
 will burn a red pyrotechnic light or a red rocket to signify 
 ' You are seen ; assistance will be given as soon as possible/ 
 
ASSISTANCE BY PUBLIC VESSELS TO VESSELS IN DISTRESS. 763 
 
 " A red flag waved on shore by day, or a red light, red rocket, 
 or red Roman candle displayed by night, will signify ' Haul 
 away.' 
 
 " A white flag waved on shore by day, or a white light slowly 
 swung back and forth, or a white rocket, or white Roman candle 
 fired by night will signify ' Slack away/ 
 
 " Two flags, a white and a red, waved at the same time on 
 shore by day, or two lights, a white and a red, slowly swung at 
 the same time, or a blue pyrotechnic light burned by night, will 
 signify ' Do not attempt to land in your own boats. It is im- 
 possible.' 
 
 " A man on shore beckoning by day, or two torches burning 
 near together by night, will signify ' This is the best place to 
 land/ 
 
 " Any of these signals may be answered from the vessel as 
 follows : In the daytime, by waving a flag, a handkerchief, a hat, 
 or even the hand ; at night, by firing a rocket, a blue-light, or a 
 gun, or by showing a light over the ship's gunwale for a short 
 time, and then concealing it." 
 
(765) 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 I. SAILING SHIPS. 
 
 Although sails and spars have practically disappeared from tlus 
 navy and from the experience of the average seafaring man even 
 in the merchant service, .they are far from having disappeared 
 from the ocean ; and some familiarity with them may still be ex- 
 pected on the part of every seaman who aspires to be even toler- 
 ably well informed in his profession. 
 
 Plates 187, 188, and 193 show the various rigs which are 
 commonly seen in deep-sea vessels. 
 
 A ship, often referred to as "a full-rigged ship," has three 
 masts ; the fore, main, and mizzen, all of them square-rigged. 
 
 A ship may have more than three masts. Four-masted ships 
 are common, and five-masters are occasionally seen. In a four- 
 master the after-mast is called the jigger-mast. In a five-master, 
 the masts are usually called "fore," "main," "middle," "miz- 
 zen," and " jigger." 
 
 A Barque has three masts, the fore and main square-rigged, the 
 mizzen, fore-and-aft rigged. 
 
 A barque, like a ship, may have more than three masts, the 
 names being the same as in the case of a ship. She is still a 
 barque if all the masts except the after one are square-rigged. 
 
 A Barkentine has three or more masts, of which the two after 
 ones, main, and mizzen, or mizzen and jigger, are fore-and-aft 
 rigged. A five-master, with the three after-masts fore-and-aft 
 rigged is still a barkentine. 
 
 A Brig has two masts, both full square-rigged. A brigantine 
 is a brig without a square mainsail ; that is to say, she carries all 
 the square sails of a brig on both fore and main masts, except the 
 mainsail. 
 
 A Hermaphrodite Brig 1 has two masts, the foremast full square- 
 rigged, the mainmast full fore-and-aft rigged. A hermaphrodite 
 brig is often incorrectly called a brigantine. 
 
 A Topsail Schooner has a fore-and-aft foresail, with a squ-~e 
 
766 
 
 Plate No. 187. 
 
 HERMAPHRODITE BRIG. 
 
 
 SCHOONER 
 
 may have as many as five 
 masts 
 
 
 
 CUTTER 
 
 TOPSAIL SCHOONER. 
 
 
 4 
 
 KETCH. 
 
 YAWL, same as KETCH but 
 
 with a smaller mizzen 
 
 abaft the tiller. 
 
 LUGGER 
 
 SAILING CRAFT. 
 
Plate No. 187. 
 
 767 
 
 FULL RIGGED SHIP. 
 
 4 BAROUENTINE. 
 
 BRIG. 
 
 BRIGANTINE same as 
 
 BRIG., but without a 
 
 square mainsail. 
 
 BARQUE. 
 
 SAILING CRAFT. 
 
768 APPENDIX. 
 
 fore-topsail, and in some cases a fore-topgallant sail. The main- 
 mast is full fore-and-aft rigged. A topsail schooner is often in- 
 correctly called a hermaphrodite brig. 
 
 A Schooner has two, three, or more masts, all fore-and-aft 
 rigged. The designations of the masts where there are more than 
 f.wo are the same as in the case of a ship or a barque. 
 
 There are many variations in the single-masted rig shown in 
 the Cutter of Plate 187. The " sloop " differs from the cutter so 
 far as rig is concerned in having a short fixed bowsprit instead 
 of a long moveable one, and in carrying only one head sail. The 
 most important distinction, however, between the sloop and the 
 cutter, as at present recognized by yachtsmen, has to do with the 
 model of the hull rather than with the rig. 
 
 The Ketch and the Yawl are modifications of the single-master 
 rather than of the schooner, since they have grown out of the 
 desire to make the total sail area more manageable by dividing it. 
 For racing, the " single-sticker " holds its own because, as is 
 well known, a given amount of canvas has far greater driving 
 power in one sail than in two. An incidental advantage of the 
 yawl or ketch rig is that the craft can be handled under very 
 small sail jib and jigger which is a great convenience in work- 
 ing around a harbor, and may be of vital consequence in bad 
 weather when the mainsail must be lowered, perhaps only for 
 reefing; a situation in which the boat under a jib alone would be 
 altogether unmanageable, and reefing a difficult and dangerous 
 operation. 
 
 The same considerations of manageability with a small crew 
 which have led to the development of the yawl and ketch from the 
 single-master, have led to the division of the mainsail of large 
 schooners, resulting in the production of schooners of three, four, 
 and more masts. 
 
APPENDIX. 769 
 
 Details of Rigging Square-Riggers. 
 
 Masts. Lower masts in modern ships are usually built up of 
 steel plates stiffened in various ways by steel shapes. 
 
 Built-up masts of wood are no longer used, although lower 
 masts made of single pine sticks are not uncommon in sailing 
 ships of moderate size. 
 
 Topmasts and topgallant-masts are still made of wood, usually 
 of pine. 
 
 The mast rests on a step, placed as low as possible ; usually 
 on the keelson. At the lower end is a tenon fitting into a mortise 
 at the step. Where the mast passes through the successive decks, 
 timbers are built in from beam to beam, forming partners; the 
 space between these and the mast being filled by tightly fitting 
 wedges. 
 
 The masthead is smaller than the body of the mast, and at the 
 shoulder, called the hounds, where the reduction in size is made, 
 heavy knees or bibbs, are bolted on, widening the shoulder and 
 forming a secure support for the trestle-trees; stout fore-and-aft 
 pieces which, in their turn, support the cross-trees, the top, the 
 topmast, and the eyes of the lower rigging. The cross-trees are 
 athwartship pieces crossing the trestle-trees forward and abaft 
 the masthead, and forming the principal part of the framing of 
 the top. They are jogged down into the trestle-trees, and with 
 the latter form a skeleton to which the comparatively light plank- 
 ing of the top is secured. 
 
 The lower masthead terminates in a square tenon, to which 
 the cap is fitted. This may be of wood, iron-bound, or built up 
 of steel. 
 
 The topmast passes through a round hole in the forward part 
 of the cap, which thus binds the two masts together. In the 
 heel of the mast is a thwartship hole, square in section, through 
 which is placed an iron fid, with its ends projecting and resting 
 on the trestle-trees on either side. Two sheaves placed diagonally 
 in the heel of the topmast furnish a lead for the top pendants, by 
 which the mast is sent up and down. The over-lapping parts of 
 the lower masts and topmasts are the doublings. 
 
 The topmast head is fitted in practically the same way as the 
 lower masthead, and the heel of the topgallant-mast " doubles " 
 upon it similarly. Cross-trees are used here as spreaders for the. 
 topgallant rigging, but without a top. 
 
770 
 
 Plate No. 188. 
 
(771) 
 
 
 
 
 
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Plate No. 189. 
 
 773 
 
774 APPENDIX. 
 
 Topgallant and royal masts are in one, but the diameter is 
 reduced at the topgallant masthead forming hounds, upon which 
 rests the topgallant funnel; a composition cylinder, with two 
 thwartship arms forming the "Jack." At the royal masthead is 
 a similar shoulder, with an iron band for the rigging, and above 
 this is the pole terminating in a tenon to which the truck is fitted. 
 The truck usually carries the point of a lightning conductor, the 
 lower end of which makes contact with the hull, or, in the case 
 of a wooden ship, with the copper well below the water-line. 
 
 Trysail masts are fitted up and down abaft the lower masts, 
 being stepped on deck and secured at the head by bands con- 
 necting by a key to corresponding bands on the lower mast. 
 
 Modern men-of-war rarely carry sail, and such masts as they 
 have are usually for military purposes only ; in some cases for 
 carrying light guns in elevated positions, in other cases merely 
 for signalling. 
 
 Yards. A full-rigged ship carries a lower, topsail, topgallant, 
 royal, and sometimes a sky-sail, yard, on each mast. The topsail 
 is usually double (Plates 188, 189). 
 
 Standing Rigging. The masts of a ship are supported from 
 the sides by shrouds, from forward by stays and from aft by back- 
 stays. The backstays contribute also to the sidewise support 
 since they are necessarily led to the sides of the ship. The stays, 
 in addition to supporting the masts, serve to carry certain fore- 
 and-aft sails known as staysails. For convenience in hooking 
 tackles at the mastheads for various purposes, heavy pendants are 
 provided, fitted with thimbles and links and hanging well clear 
 of the other rigging. Small lines, called " ratlines," stretched 
 from shroud to shroud, furnish the means of going aloft. 
 
 The head-booms are supported from beneath, against the pull 
 of the stays and the lifting tendency of the head sails, by bob- 
 stays,' martingales, etc., leading to the cut-water; and from the 
 sides by bowsprit shrouds, jib- and flying jib-guys, leading to the 
 bow. 
 
 The above constitute the " Standing Rigging " of a ship. 
 
 Standing Rigging is usually fitted of galvanized steel-wire rope, 
 plain-laid, of six strands, and is protected from the weather, 
 
Plate No. 190. 
 
 775 
 
 Lower Topsail Lifts are 
 not usually fitted on 
 Merchant 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 FORE MAST AND HEAD-BOOMS OF A 
 MODERN SAILING SHIP. 
 
776 APPENDIX. 
 
 chafe and wear, by a thorough covering of worming, parcelling 
 and serving (Plate 25). 
 
 Sails. Sails are made of canvas, which may be of flax, hemp or 
 cotton. The sails of ships are always of flax, those of boats and 
 small yachts usually of cotton. Cotton canvas is used also on 
 ship-board for a variety of purposes, such as awnings, windsails, 
 hammocks, tarpaulins, etc. 
 
 Canvas is manufactured in long strips or cloths, varying in 
 width from 16 to 24 inches for flax, and from 20 to 42 inches for 
 cotton, and in lengths of from 40 to 80 yards. The cloths are 
 made up in rolls called bolts. 
 
 Variations in weight, strength and fineness are indicated by 
 numbers running from I to 10; number i being the heaviest, 
 strongest and coarsest, and number 10 the lightest and finest. 
 
 In the United States Navy, canvas is used as follows : 
 
 For the sails of ships, flax canvas, 24 inches wide, issued in bolts of 
 80 yards. For awnings, screens, etc., cotton canvas, 22 inches wide, in 
 bolts of 90 yards. For hammocks and bags, cotton canvas, 42 inches 
 wide, in bolts of 90 yards. For boats' sails, cotton canvas of the variety 
 known as " raven's duck," 28^ inches wide, in bolts of 65 yards. 
 
 Good canvas is made of long, strong, clean threads, evenly 
 spun and well twisted and without any mixture of tow. In the 
 heavier grades (Nos. I to 3), the threads are double, and in all 
 grades the cloths should be closely and uniformly woven, and 
 with a firm, even selvage. To test a sample of canvas, after 
 examining carefully the character of the texture as to the smooth- 
 ness and closeness of the weaving, it is well to bore through 
 with a fid, when .the threads will break easily if of inferior 
 quality, and resist, with a disposition to stretch before yielding 
 altogether, if of good strong staple. A few threads may be 
 drawn and examined as to length, smoothness and freedom from 
 tow ; and finally, if two samples are to be compared, similar strips 
 from the two may be knotted together and tested by hanging 
 weights from them to determine which is the stronger. 
 
 An So-yard bolt of No. I flax canvas, 20 inches wide, should 
 weigh about 75 Ibs. and the successive numbers from this to No. 10 
 should diminish by about 5 Ibs. each, a bolt of No. 2 weighing 
 70 Ibs., one of No. 3, 65 Ibs., and so on. 
 
 The following numbers are commonly used for the sails of a 
 full-powered sailing ship, the lighter grades specified in each 
 
APPENDIX. 777 
 
 case forming a fair-weather suit of sails, while the heavier ones 
 are bent in anticipation of a stormy passage : 
 
 Courses, Nos. i to 3. 
 
 Topsails, " 2 to 3. 
 
 Topgallant sails, " 4 to 5. 
 
 Royals, " 5 to 6. 
 
 Topmast staysails, " 3 to 4. 
 
 Jibs, " 4 to 5. 
 
 Other staysails, " 4 to 5. 
 
 Spankers, trysails, etc., " 4 to 5. 
 
 All storm sails, No. I. 
 
 The square sails of a ship (Plates 187 and 188) are the courses 
 (foresail and mainsail), the topsails, topgallant sails and royals. 
 A sky sail is sometimes set above the royals. Topsails and top- 
 gallant sails may be single or double. 
 
 The fore-and-aft sails are the fore-and-main trysails, the 
 spanker (which is in reality a mizzen trysail), the staysails, taking 
 their names from the stays on which they are set, and the jibs, 
 which are also staysails, although not so-called. The trysails are 
 called also spencers, and the spanker is often called the driver. 
 
 The upper edge of a square sail is called the head, the lower 
 edge, the foot, the sides, leeches, the upper corners the head 
 cringles, the lower corners, the clews. 
 
 In the case of a four-sided fore-and-aft sail like a trysail or 
 spanker (Plate 192) the after edge is the after leech, the forward 
 edge the luff, the upper edge the head, the lower edge the foot, 
 the upper after corner the peak, the upper forward corner the 
 nock, the lower forward corner the tack, the lower after corner 
 the clew. 
 
 In a triangular sail (Plate 192), the edge next the stay is the 
 luff, the after edge the leech, the lower edge the foot, the lower 
 forward corner the tack, the lower after corner the clew, and 
 the upper corner the head. 
 
 The details of sails of various kinds are fully shown in Plates 
 187, 191, and 192. 
 
 The cutting and making of sails constitute an art in themselves, 
 which it would be beyond the province of this book to attempt to 
 teach. The canvas must be cut with care, not only to economize 
 material in adapting the narrow cloths to the irregular shapes 
 required, but to reduce stretching to a minimum and to distribute 
 
778 
 
 Plate No. 191. 
 
 FORE MAST AND HEAD-BOOMS OFA MODERN 
 SAILING SHIP, SAILS SET. 
 
APPENDIX. 779 
 
 such stretch as cannot be prevented, in a way to avoid distorting 
 the sail and allowing it to bag. Canvas stretches very little along 
 the line of the threads of either warp or filling, but may give con- 
 siderably under a diagonal pull. Owing to the way in which 
 sails are set (being hauled out by their corners), the greater part 
 of the strain to which they are subjected is diagonal, and one of 
 the most difficult points in sail making is to arrange the material 
 in such a way that the cloths may take this strain directly along 
 the threads. When this has been done as far as possible, allow- 
 ance must be made for the stretch which still remains, and also 
 for the difference in stretching between the canvas and the rop- 
 ing. 
 
 The cloths are sewed together with overlapping (double) 
 seams having from no to 130 stitches to the yard. The twine 
 used should be of good flax or cotton, spun with from three to 
 eight threads and waxed with pure beeswax. 
 
 Sails are reinforced at points which are subject to especial 
 strain or chafe. 
 
 The edges of the sail all around are turned over, forming a 
 hem or tabling several inches wide. The linings and other 
 strengthening pieces are then sewed on, and lastly the bolt-rope. 
 This is of hemp and should be of the best quality, rather loosely 
 laid up to make it soft and pliable, and tarred with the best 
 Stockholm tar. As there is more stretch to the rope than to the 
 canvas, care must be taken to leave a little slack canvas along the 
 edges, as otherwise the canvas, instead of the roping, would take 
 the strain when the sail is set. A common rule is to allow one 
 inch of slack canvas for every foot along the leeches of topsails 
 and canvas, and one inch for every yard along the foot. 
 
 The roping of square sails is always on the after side of the 
 sails, that of fore-and-aft sails usually on the port side. 
 
 Double Topsails and Topgallant Sails. Modern sailing ships 
 almost without exception have double topsail yards and in many 
 cases double topgallant yards as well. This rig was first pro- 
 posed by an American shipmaster named Howe, and its many 
 advantages were promptly recognized (Plates 187 and 191). 
 
 In this rig, the lower topsail yard is fixed, while the upper 
 yard hoists and lowers, the sail having half the depth of a single 
 topsail. The lower (topsail) yard is trussed to the main cap, 
 and the upper yard, when lowered, lies close above it. Thus by 
 lowering the upper topsail, sail is reduced in a moment to the area 
 
y8o 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 of an old-fashioned topsail when close-reefed, the upper topsail, 
 when lowered, hanging forward of the lower topsail, where it is 
 to a great extent becalmed. 
 
 Downhaul tackles are fitted from the yard-arms of the upper 
 to those of the lower (topsail) yards to haul the yards down. 
 This takes the place of " clewing-down " with a single topsail. 
 The downhauls also support the lower topsail yard-arms, for 
 which, usually, no lifts are fitted. 
 
 The lower topsail is fitted with sheets and clew-lines like an 
 old-fashioned topsail, but as the leech is short, the clew-line 
 blocks are placed well out on the yard. As a rule, the clews of 
 the upper topsail shackle permanently to the lower topsail yard- 
 arms. 
 
 Running Gear. The ropes, purchases, etc., by which the yards 
 and sails are controlled constitute the Running Gear of the ship. 
 Most of this gear is shown so clearly on the plates herewith, that 
 a detailed description of their lead is unnecessary. 
 
 Halliards. Yards are hoisted by purchases consisting usually 
 of a pendant, called a tye, and a purchase called the halliards. 
 
 The halliards of a staysail are bent to the head of the sail, 
 lead up along the stay to a block at the masthead and thence 
 on deck. For heavy sails, the halliards are double, and reeve 
 through the blocks at the head of the sail, the standing part being 
 made fast aloft and the hauling part leading as before. 
 
 The gaffs of trysails are supported by spans from the lower 
 mast to the throat and peak, and when necessary may be hoisted 
 and lowered by throat and peak halliards (Plate 192). 
 
 Lifts. Yards are supported at the yard-arms by lifts, leading 
 through blocks or fair-leaders at the masthead and thence to the 
 top or the deck. 
 
 Braces. Yards are controlled as to their horizontal movement 
 by braces leading from the yard-arms aft or forward. They are 
 always led aft if circumstances permit this without requiring too 
 much of a downward lead. In three-masted ships, the braces of 
 yards on the fore-and-main are led aft, those of yards on the miz- 
 zen, forward. 
 
 Sheets. The clews of square sails are hauled out to the yards 
 below them by sheets, reeving through sheaves in the yard-arms, 
 thence through quarter-blocks under the yard and so to the deck. 
 
 Staysail and trysail sheets consist of pendants and whips, and 
 are usually double, each sail having its port and starboard sheet 
 
Plate No. 192. 
 
 781 
 
 ]?****" Head Earing 
 
 Cringle* 
 
 Clew-, 
 
 ntline Toggles- 
 Single Topsail 
 
 Dasher 
 Block 
 
 FootRope 
 
 Spanker. 
 
 DETAILS OF SAILS. 
 
782 APPENDIX. 
 
 In the case of a sail hauling out to a boom, the purchase for con- 
 trolling the boom is the " sheet " and the sail is hauled out by an 
 " outhaul." 
 
 Tacks. To control the cldws of the courses, not only sheets, 
 but tacks, are needed, the tack hauling the weather clew down 
 and forward, the sheet hauling the lee clew down and aft." The 
 forward lower corner of a fore-and-aft sail is called the " tack," 
 as is also the rope by which this corner is held down and secured. 
 
 Clew-lines. In taking in the sails, the clews are hauled up to 
 the quarters of the yard by clew-lines leading from the clews to 
 the quarter-blocks and down on deck. For topsails and courses 
 the clew-lines are double, and reeve through a block at the clew, 
 the standing part being clinched around the quarters of the yard. 
 
 Clew-lines or clew-ropes are fitted to trysails for hauling the 
 clew up to the jaws of the gaff, and on gaff topsails for hauling 
 the clew up to the head. 
 
 Leech-lines are used to haul the leeches of courses and some- 
 times of topsails along the yard. 
 
 Buntlines. Buntlines haul the foot of the sail above and for- 
 ward of the yard for convenience in furling. They are rove 
 through blocks at the masthead or the top rim, lead down for- 
 ward and toggle to the foot of the sail some distance outside the 
 midship line on each side. 
 
 Reef-tackles. Reef-tackles are whips leading from the yard- 
 arms of topsails and courses to cringle on the leeches of the sails, 
 for hauling the leech up and out in reefing, affording slack for 
 passing the earing and rousing the cringle up to its place. 
 
 Bowlines. Bowlines lead forward from the bowline bridles 
 on the leeches of courses and topsails, and are used, when sailing 
 on the wind, for hauling the leech well forward so that it shall 
 hold the wind. 
 
 Outhauls. The head of a trysail is hauled out by a head out- 
 haul, reeving through a sheave in the end of the gaff and a 
 block at the mast, and then to the deck. The foot of a boom- 
 sail is hauled out by a foot-outhaul reeving through a sheave in 
 the boom. 
 
 Downhauls. Staysails are hauled down by downhauls leading 
 from the head of the sail along the stay to a block at the tack of 
 the sail. 
 
 The head of a trysail is hauled down by a head downhaul from 
 the head of the sail to the jaws of the gaff. 
 
Plate No. 193. 
 
 783 
 
784 APPENDIX. 
 
 Brails. Gaff sails trysails, spankers, etc. are gathered in 
 to the mast for furling, by brails middled and stopped to the 
 after leech, with a hauling part on each side reeving through a 
 block on the mast at a point corresponding to the point at which 
 they are stopped to the leech. 
 
 Vangs. Vangs are fitted to gaffs at the after end one on 
 each side and led to the ship's side. Their office is to steady 
 the gaff when the sail is not set. 
 
 Details of Rigging Fore-and-Aft Bigs. 
 
 Plate 193 shows .the sails and rigging of a two-masted schooner. 
 There are many variations from this rig, especially in yachting, 
 where special sails are used in racing and to some extent in cruis- 
 ing, under favorable conditions of weather. The gaff topsail is 
 often replaced by a "club-topsail," having the head and foot 
 stretched out by long light spars which admit of spreading a 
 greatly increased area of canvas. In this case the halliards are 
 bent to the " yard " on the head of the sail near the middle point, 
 and the yard, when hoisted to the masthead, carries the peak of 
 the sail well up, playing the part of a topmast " pole." 
 
 A balloon-jib is a very large triangular sail extending from 
 the fore-topmast head to the jib-boom end. As it has no stay, it 
 is set " flying." 
 
 A jib-topsail sets on the fore-topmast stay and corresponds to 
 the fly ing- jib of an ordinary schooner. 
 
 A spinnaker is a very large, very light triangular balloon-like 
 sail, often made of raw silk, used in running free. The head 
 goes to the mast-head either fore or main and the foot hauls 
 out to a " spinnaker-boom," temporarily rigged out on the side 
 opposite the main-boom. 
 
 Where the spinnaker, instead of being triangular in shape, is 
 quadrilateral, its head, always very short, hauls out on a tem- 
 porary gaff rigged out for the masthead, the foot hauling out as 
 in other cases to the spinnaker-boom. In this case the sail is 
 called a " shadow." 
 
 Various other sails of questionable utility are set at times 
 by racing yachts. Such are " water sails " under the spinnaker 
 boom ; " ring-tails " increasing the area of the mainsail, etc. 
 
 The ordinary main topmast staysail is often replaced by a very 
 large sail of the same general type as the spinnaker and the bal- 
 loon jib. 
 
APPENDIX. 785 
 
 II. TONNAGE OF SHIPS. 
 
 As there is sometimes confusion as to the difference between 
 displacement and the several kinds of tonnage, the following 
 definitions are given. 
 
 Displacement. The quantity or volume of water displaced by 
 a ship is called her " displacement " ; it can be expressed in either 
 cubic feet or tons ; a cubic foot of sea-water weighs 64 Ibs. and 
 of fresh water 62.5 Ibs., therefore a ton is equal to 35 cubic feet 
 of sea-water or 35.9 cubic feet of fresh water. 
 
 Tonnage, Gross Register. The total enclosed space or internal 
 capacity of a ship, expressed in tons of 100 cu. ft. each, is the 
 gross register tonnage. The unit of volume is that figure which 
 was used originally in " Moorsom's System " of measuring ships, 
 which system has, with slight variations in application, been 
 adopted by most of the nations of the civilized world. 
 
 Gross register tonnage is used as a basis for calculating net 
 register tonnage and in .the United States as a basis for dry dock 
 charges for steamers. 
 
 Tonnage, Net Register. The actual earning power of a ship is 
 expressed by the net register tonnage and this figure is secured 
 by deducting from the gross tonnage such spaces as may have no 
 earning capacity ; for instance, the engine, boiler and shaft alley 
 spaces, coal bunkers, spaces used in steering and working the 
 ship, and such spaces as may be necessary for the accommodation 
 of the crew. The laws of .the several nations vary with' reference 
 to the various deductible spaces. The Suez Canal Tonnage, 
 although based upon the " Moorsom System," and generally 
 similar to net register tonnage, varies therefrom in some respects. 
 
 The rules and laws which have been, from time to time, enacted 
 in the several countries, are extensive and complicated, but are 
 usually published in some form. For reference the following 
 are cited: 
 
 English. Instructions Relating to the Measurement of Ships. 
 Issued by Board of Trade. 
 
 United States. Navigation Laws of the U. S. Bureau of 
 Navigation, Department of Commerce and Labor. 
 
 Suez Canal. Reglement de Navigation dans le Canal Mari- 
 time de Suez. Suez Company. 
 
 Net register tonnage is generally used in charging harbor and 
 port dues, canal tolls, and other similar charges to which merchant 
 ships are liable. 
 
786 APPENDIX. 
 
 III. SHIP'S PUMPS AND THEIR USES. 
 
 1. Main Air Pump. Used for pumping the air and condensed 
 steam from the condenser into the feed-tank and thus maintaining 
 a vacuum in the condenser. In merchant practice and some of 
 the older naval vessels, this pump is direct-connected to the main 
 engine. 
 
 2. Main Circulating Pump. Used lor circulating sea water 
 through the condenser, and is usually of the centrifugal type. 
 It has an independent sea-suction valve called the main injection 
 and also a suction connection with the bilge called the bilge in- 
 jection. It has a discharge through the main condenser and 
 thence overboard through a valve called the outboard delivery. 
 It has also a discharge leading directly from the pump overboard 
 so that the bilge water can be pumped overboard without sending 
 it through the condenser. Since a centrifugal pump will throw 
 ashes, waste, etc., without clogging and also since the capacity 
 of the circulating pump of a ship is generally far greater than 
 the aggregate capacity of all the other bilge pumps, the circulating 
 pumps are of great use in case a large volume of water gets into 
 the ship from any cause. The number of circulating pumps 
 varies according to the number of condensers. 
 
 3. Main Feed Pump. This is used for feeding the boilers and 
 has suctions from the main feed tanks and reserve feed tanks, 
 and but one delivery to the main feed line. There are one or 
 more of these pumps according to the power and arrangement of 
 the machinery and boilers, and located either in the engine-room 
 or fire-room according to circumstances and the views of the 
 designers. These pumps in merchant practice are sometimes 
 direct connected to the main engines. 
 
 4. Auxiliary Feed Pump. This is designed primarily to be 
 used when the main feed pump is out of repair. It can draw 
 from the main feed tank and reserve tank, and from the bot- 
 tom of the main condenser (in which case it takes the place of 
 the air pump). It can deliver either into the boilers through 
 the auxiliary feed line or into the reserve feed tanks. The num- 
 ber of auxiliary feed pumps varies as in the case of main feed 
 pumps : there is generally one in each fire-room. 
 
 5. Main Fire and Bilge Pump. The principal use of this pump, 
 as its name indicates, is for the fire and bilge service. It has an 
 independent sea suction and delivery. At sea it is kept going 
 
APPENDIX. 787 
 
 slowly and continuously to keep the bilges free, and in this case 
 other pumps are used for fire service if they are capable of sup- 
 plying a sufficient quantity of water. When it becomes necessary 
 to use the bilge pump for fire service, or for washing decks, the 
 pump should always first be washed out by pumping sea water 
 overboard, otherwise greasy waste and coal dust may be spread 
 over the deck. This pump is also connected with the main and 
 secondary drains so as to pump out the bilges or double bottom 
 compartments of the ship. The number of these pumps varies 
 with the size of the ship and the arrangement of the engine com- 
 partments. Such pumps are sometimes placed outside of the 
 engine compartments and are sometimes called " wrecking " 
 pumps. 
 
 6. The Auxiliary Air and Circulating Pump. This is generally 
 a combined pump formed of two water cylinders and one steam 
 cylinder. One of the water ends takes sea water direct from the 
 sea and circulates it through the auxiliary condenser overboard. 
 The other end draws fresh water from the bottom of the auxiliary 
 condenser and delivers it into the feed tank. There are generally 
 two auxiliary condensers, each with one combined air and circu- 
 lating pump. Combined air and circulating pumps will not be 
 used in future designs, on account of their extravagant use of 
 steam. 
 
 7. The Water-Service Pump. This is a small pump used to pro- 
 duce a forced circulation of water through the crosshead slides 
 and the main journals of the main engines, when the natural cir- 
 culation due to .the distance of the engines below the water-line 
 is not sufficient for the purpose. It is convenient to have a con- 
 nection by which this pump can deliver into the fire main, and 
 also, into the distiller in case the distiller circulating pump should 
 be out of repair. There is generally one such pump in each 
 engine compartment. 
 
 8. The Distiller Circulating Pump. Is used for circulating 
 cooling water from the sea through the distillers and thence 
 directly overboard. It usually has, however, suitable connections 
 by which the water can be delivered into the flushing system in- 
 stead of overboard and also the water can be delivered into that 
 system without passing through the distiller if the latter should 
 be disconnected for repair. 
 
 9. The Fresh- Water Pump. Is for drawing off the fresh water 
 
788 APPENDIX. 
 
 from the distiller and delivering it into the ship's tanks when the 
 distiller is situated at a lower level than the tanks. 
 
 10. The Flushing Pump. Is used for circulating- sea water 
 through the flushing system. It often has a connection so that 
 it can be used to circulate water through the distiller when the 
 distiller pump is under repair. The pipes composing the flushing 
 system are usually distinct from the fire main, but sometimes the 
 fire main is used as part of the flushing system on a small ship. 
 
 11. The Evaporator Feed Pump. Is a small light-service pump 
 for supplying salt water to the evaporators. It has a suction from 
 the sea, and, in new designs, from the evaporator feed heaters. 
 Its discharge is to the evaporators. 
 
 12. Special pumps, such as brine-circulating pumps and 
 water-circulating pumps are provided for the refrigerating 
 plant, and recent large battleships are also provided with spe- 
 cial motor-driven pumps for draining the fire-rooms. 
 
 IV. PERMITTED DRAFT OF SHIPS. PLIMSOLL MARK. 
 The Plimsoll Mark is the mark painted on the sides of a ship 
 at the middle of her length on the water-line, to indicate the drafts 
 at which, for various conditions and types or classes of cargo- 
 carrying vessels there will still be left a sufficient percentage of 
 reserve buoyancy to insure the safety of the vessel. The position 
 of this mark depends upon the type and size of the vessel. On it 
 are indicated the maximum safe drafts for fresh and salt water, 
 for winter and summer, and for certain oceans. 
 Explanation of Symbols on the Plimsoll Mark. 
 FW = Fresh Water. 
 
 IS Indian Ocean in Summer. 
 
 WNA = North Atlantic in Winter (October to March in- 
 clusive). 
 
 S = Summer in waters other than the Indian Ocean. 
 W = Winter in waters other than the North Atlantic. 
 All except the first of the above symbols indicate the maximum 
 depth in salt water for the corresponding oceans and seasons. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 789 
 
790 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
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 For il 
 

 APPENDIX. 
 
 VI. ROPE, U. S. NAVY. 
 
 MANILA ROPE, PLAIN LAID. 
 
 791 
 
 Name and 
 circumference. 
 
 Weight 
 per 
 fathom. 
 
 Length 
 of coil. 
 
 Weight 
 of coil. 
 
 Break- 
 ing 
 strain. 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 6 thread, f inch. ..... 
 9 thread, 1 inch 
 12 thread, 1 inch .... 
 15 thread, 1 inch .... 
 18 thread, 1 inch .... 
 21 thread, 1 inch. . . . 
 1 f -inch 
 
 Pounds. 
 0.12 
 .20 
 .25 
 .30 
 .35 
 .50 
 .60 
 
 Fms. 
 250 
 150 
 120 
 100 
 150 
 200 
 200 
 
 Pounds. 
 30 
 30 
 30 
 30 
 52 
 100 
 120 
 
 Pounds. 
 700 
 1,100 
 1,500 
 1,800 
 2,000 
 2,500 
 3,000 
 
 Note that sizes from 
 3 inch down are only 
 made in 3 strands. 
 Note that sizes from 
 3i inch up are only 
 made in 4 strands, un- 
 less' specially ordered 
 
 2-inch 
 
 .83 
 
 200 
 
 167 
 
 4,000 
 
 of 3 strands. Special 
 
 2i inch 
 2i-inch 
 
 1.00 
 1 26 
 
 200 
 150 
 
 204 
 190 
 
 5,000 
 5,550 
 
 sizes may be made up 
 on order of the bureau 
 
 2f inch 
 
 1.55 
 
 150 
 
 225 
 
 6,600 
 
 Any size needed" can 
 
 3-inch 
 
 1.83 
 
 150 
 
 277 
 
 7,800 
 
 be manufactured but 
 
 3i-inch 
 3^-inch 
 
 2.16 
 2.54 
 
 150 
 150 
 
 325 
 380 
 
 9,200 
 10,500 
 
 not in longer lengths 
 than 150 fathoms 
 
 3 J-inch 
 
 2 80 
 
 150 
 
 420 
 
 12 200 
 
 Note that rope up to 
 
 4-inch 
 
 3.25 
 
 150 
 
 487 
 
 13,700 
 
 4 inch is made on ma- 
 
 4 1 -inch 
 
 3 66 
 
 150 
 
 550 
 
 14,900 
 
 chines which do not 
 
 4-!-inch 
 
 4.00 
 
 150 
 
 600 
 
 17,400 
 
 require the walk, and 
 
 4f inch 
 
 4 40 
 
 150 
 
 660 
 
 19,000 
 
 such rope may be 
 
 
 r- oo 
 
 150 
 
 750 
 
 21 800 
 
 made in any length 
 
 5i-inch 
 
 5.50 
 
 -150 
 
 825 
 
 23,700 
 
 the finished coil not to 
 
 5 5-inch 
 6-inch 
 
 6.00 
 
 7 24 
 
 150 
 150 
 
 900 
 
 1,087 
 
 27,700 
 31,000 
 
 exceed 1,100 pounds in 
 weight for rope 3 
 
 6^-inch 
 7-inch 
 
 8.43 
 9.80 
 
 150 
 150 
 
 1,275 
 1,470 
 
 33,500 
 36,200 
 
 inches circumference 
 and above, nor to ex- 
 
 1\ inch 
 
 11 20 
 
 150 
 
 1,680 
 
 42,300 
 
 ceed 300 pounds in 
 
 8-inch 
 
 13.00 
 
 150 
 
 1,950 
 
 47,300 
 
 weight for rope 1^ to 
 
 8 i-inch 
 
 14 40 
 
 150 
 
 2,160 
 
 54,200 
 
 2| inches circumfer- 
 
 9-inch 
 
 16.20 
 
 150 
 
 2,430 
 
 60,000 
 
 ence, inclusive. 
 
 9^-inch 
 
 18.00 
 
 150 
 
 2,700 
 
 67,000 
 
 
 10-inch 
 
 20 00 
 
 150 
 
 3,000 
 
 74,200 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 MANILA HEMP, PLAIN LAID, HAWSERS. 
 
 Name and 
 circumference. 
 
 Weight 
 per 
 fathom. 
 
 Length 
 of coil. 
 
 Weight 
 of coil. 
 
 Break- 
 ing 
 strain. 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Tm. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 
 5-inch 
 
 5.33 
 
 120 
 
 640 
 
 21,800 
 
 These may be made 
 
 6-inch. 
 
 7.90 
 
 120 
 
 950 
 
 31,000 
 
 in any size, but not in 
 
 7-inch .... 
 
 10.40 
 
 120 
 
 1,250 
 
 36,200 
 
 longer lengths than 
 
 8-inch 
 
 13 30 
 
 120 
 
 1,600 
 
 47,300 
 
 150 fathoms, the length 
 
 9-inch 
 10-inch 
 
 17.20 
 22.16 
 
 120 
 120 
 
 2,060 
 2,660 
 
 60,000 
 74,200 
 
 of the ropewalk. The 
 strands are hauled a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 little longer and the 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 rope closed up with 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 more afterturn, mak- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ing it a little fuller 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 than plain laid rope of 
 the same size. These 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 hawsers are hauled 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 out longer than 120 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 fathoms to allow for 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 fag ends, which are not 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 cut off, and for a splice 
 which is not made, but 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 the weight is charged 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 to 120 fathoms, mak- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ing it heavier than 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 plain laid rope of same 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 size. 
 
792 APPENDIX. 
 
 AMERICAN HEMP ROPE, TARRED, PLAIN LAID, THREE STRAND. 
 
 Name and 
 circumference. 
 
 Weight 
 fathom. 
 
 Length 
 of coil. 
 
 Weight 
 of coil. 
 
 Break- 
 strain. 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 -inch. 
 
 Pounds. . 
 0.31 
 
 Fms. 
 200 
 
 Pounds. 
 62 
 
 Pounds. 
 750 
 
 Note that this rrav 
 
 -inch 
 
 .36 
 
 200 
 
 72 
 
 1,060 
 
 be made to any sbe if 
 
 i_i nc h 
 
 40 
 
 200 
 
 80 
 
 1,670 
 
 required It is how- 
 
 $-inch 
 
 .50 
 
 200 
 
 100 
 
 2,340 
 
 ever, seldom or nev ;r 
 
 
 63 
 
 200 
 
 126 
 
 3,325 
 
 called for in largor 
 
 2-inch. 
 
 .96 
 
 200 
 
 192 
 
 3,955 
 
 sizes. 
 
 21 
 
 1.28 
 
 200 
 
 256 
 
 4,718 
 
 
 2l-inch 
 
 1.56 
 
 150 
 
 235 
 
 5,770 
 
 
 2 |-inch 
 
 1.90 
 
 150 
 
 285 
 
 7,000 
 
 
 3-inch 
 
 2 24 
 
 150 
 
 336 
 
 8,380 
 
 
 3i-inch 
 
 2.66 
 
 150 
 
 400 
 
 9,770 
 
 
 3|-inch. 
 
 3.06 
 
 150 
 
 460 
 
 11,200 
 
 
 3 f -inch 
 
 3 53 
 
 150 
 
 530 
 
 13,000 
 
 
 4-inch 
 
 4.00 
 
 150 
 
 600 
 
 14,550 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 RATLINE STUFF AND SIMILAR MATERIAL MADE UP ON SPECIAL ORDERS OF 
 TARRED AMERICAN HEMP. 
 
 Name and 
 circumference. 
 
 Weight 
 fathom. 
 
 Length 
 of coil. 
 
 Weight 
 of coil. 
 
 Break- 
 ing 
 strain. 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 6-thread, J-inch 
 
 Pounds. 
 18 
 
 Fms. 
 100 
 
 Pounds. 
 18 
 
 Pounds. 
 650 
 
 
 9-thread, 1-inch 
 12-thread, H-inch. . . 
 15-thread, H-inch. . . 
 18-thread, If inch. . . 
 21-thread, H-inch. . . 
 24-thread, If-inch. . . 
 
 .25 
 .35 
 .45 
 .53 
 .60 
 .70 
 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 
 25 
 35 
 45 
 53 
 60 
 70 
 
 1,120 
 1,500 
 1,800 
 2,100 
 2,400 
 2,650 
 
 
 AMERICAN HEMP, TARRED, BOLT ROPE. 
 
 Name and 
 circumference. 
 
 Weight 
 per 
 fathom. 
 
 Length 
 of coil. 
 
 Weight 
 of coil. 
 
 Break- 
 ing 
 strain. 
 
 
 1-inch. 
 
 Pounds. 
 27 
 
 Fms. 
 100 
 
 Pounds. 
 27 
 
 Pounds. 
 1,120 
 
 
 H-inch 
 
 37 
 
 100 
 
 37 
 
 1,780 
 
 
 14-inch.. 
 
 .53 
 
 100 
 
 53 
 
 2,470 
 
 
 1 Hnch. . 
 
 .70 
 
 100 
 
 70 
 
 3,500 
 
 
 2-inch. . 
 
 94 
 
 100 
 
 94 
 
 4,300 
 
 
 2i-inch. 
 
 1 18 
 
 100 
 
 118 
 
 5 550 
 
 
 5|-inch 
 
 1 50 
 
 100 
 
 150 
 
 6 790 
 
 
 2 Hnch 
 
 1 75 
 
 100 
 
 175 
 
 8,220 
 
 
 3-inch. 
 
 2 11 
 
 100 
 
 211 
 
 9,800 
 
 
 3 J-inch 
 
 2 44 
 
 100 
 
 244 
 
 11 493 
 
 
 3 Hnch. . 
 
 2 84 
 
 100 
 
 284 
 
 13,220 
 
 
 3 Hnch 
 
 3 33 
 
 100 
 
 333 
 
 15,300 
 
 
 4-inch. . 
 
 3 72 
 
 100 
 
 372 
 
 17 000 
 
 
 4 J-inch. 
 
 4 25 
 
 100 
 
 425 
 
 19 600 
 
 
 4 Hnch 
 
 4 74 
 
 100 
 
 474 
 
 22 050 
 
 
 4 Hnch. . 
 
 5 38 
 
 100 
 
 538 
 
 24^400 
 
 
 5-inch 
 
 6 00 
 
 100 
 
 600 
 
 26 900 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 793 
 
 AMERICAN HEMP ROPE, TARRED, PLAIN LAID, FOUR- STRAND. 
 
 Name and 
 circumference. 
 
 Weight 
 fathom. 
 
 Length 
 of coil. 
 
 Weight 
 of coil. 
 
 Break- 
 strain. 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 1 i-inch 
 
 Pounds. 
 0.60 
 
 Fms. 
 200 
 
 Pounds. 
 120 
 
 Pounds. 
 1,800 
 
 Note that this rope 
 
 1 f-inch 
 
 .77 
 
 200 
 
 155 
 
 2,490 
 
 is made up in four 
 
 2-inch 
 
 .96 
 1.20 
 
 200 
 200 
 
 192 
 240 
 
 3,085 
 4,340 
 
 strands only on spe- 
 cial orders. 
 
 2 !-inch 
 
 1 60 
 
 150 
 
 240 
 
 5,250 
 
 
 2 f-inch 
 
 1.90 
 
 150 
 
 285 
 
 6,352 
 
 
 3 -inch 
 
 2.20 
 
 150 
 
 330 
 
 7,560 
 
 
 3J-inch 
 
 2.70 
 
 150 
 
 405 
 
 8,870 
 
 
 34-inch. .... 
 
 3.00 
 
 150 
 
 450 
 
 10,290 
 
 
 3f-inch 
 
 3.50 
 
 150 
 
 525 
 
 11,812 
 
 
 4-inch. 
 
 4.00 
 
 150 
 
 600 
 
 12,440 
 
 
 4 J-inch 
 
 4 50 
 
 150 
 
 675 
 
 15,170 
 
 
 4 5-inch. . . 
 4 f-inch 
 
 5.00 
 5.70 
 
 150 
 150 
 
 750 
 855 
 
 17,010 
 18,952 
 
 
 5-inch 
 
 6.40 
 
 150 
 
 960 
 
 21,000 
 
 
 5 J-inch. 
 
 7.00 
 
 150 
 
 ,050 
 
 23,152 
 
 
 5 3 -inch 
 
 7 75 
 
 150 
 
 ,162 
 
 25,410 
 
 
 5 f-inch. . . 
 
 8.52 
 
 150 
 
 ,278 
 
 28,773 
 
 
 6-inch 
 
 9.30 
 
 150 
 
 ,395 
 
 30,240 
 
 
 ei-inch 
 7-inch. . . 
 
 10.75 
 12.30 
 
 150 
 150 
 
 ,612 
 ,845 
 
 35,532 
 40,202 
 
 
 7 s-inch 
 
 14 30 
 
 150 
 
 2,145 
 
 46,350 
 
 
 8-inch 
 
 16.50 
 
 150 
 
 2,475 
 
 53,172 
 
 
 Si-inch. 
 
 19 00 
 
 150 
 
 2,850 
 
 60,480 
 
 
 9-inch 
 
 21.00 
 
 150 
 
 3,150 
 
 67,040 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 SEIZING STUFF TARRED AMERICAN HEMP. 
 
 Name and 
 circumference. 
 
 Weight 
 per 
 fathom. 
 
 Length 
 of coil. 
 
 Weight 
 of coil. 
 
 Break- 
 ing 
 strain. 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 4-thread, 3 -inch 
 
 Pounds. 
 0.095 
 
 Fms. 
 100 
 
 Pounds. 
 50 
 
 Pounds. 
 365 
 
 5 lengths to package. 
 
 6-thread, f-inch 
 9 thread, |-inch 
 
 .12 
 
 165 
 
 100 
 100 
 
 50 
 50 
 
 560 
 700 
 
 4 lengths to package. 
 3 lengths to package 
 
 12-thread, 1-inch 
 
 .21 
 
 100 
 
 60 
 
 955 
 
 3 lengths to package. 
 
 LEAD LINES. 
 
 Name and circumference. 
 
 Material. 
 
 Weight 
 fathom. 
 
 Length 
 of coil. 
 
 Weight 
 of coil. 
 
 Boat lead line, f-inch 
 Ship's lead line, f-inch .... 
 Coasting lead line 1-inch 
 
 Cotton twine, braided .... 
 Flax twine, braided 
 do 
 
 Pounds. 
 0.07 
 .14 
 18 
 
 Fms. 
 25 
 33i 
 100 
 
 Pounds. 
 1.75 
 4.67 
 18 00 
 
 Deep-sea lead line, 1 5 inch. 
 
 Am. hemp, plain laid 
 
 .47 
 
 150 
 
 70.50 
 
 LOG LINES. 
 
 Name and circumference. 
 
 Material. 
 
 Weight 
 fathom. 
 
 Length 
 of coil. 
 
 Weight, 
 of coiL 
 
 Chip log line, f-inch . . 
 Taffrail log line, f-inch 
 Do 
 
 American hemp 
 Cotton twine, braided .... 
 . do. . 
 
 Pounds. 
 0.15 
 .14 
 .14 
 
 Fms. 
 100 
 33* 
 66| 
 
 Pounds. 
 15.00 
 4.67 
 9.34 
 
 Do 
 
 do 
 
 14 
 
 100 
 
 14.00 
 
 
 
 
 
 
704 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 COTTON LINES. 
 
 Name and circumference. 
 
 Weight 
 of coil. 
 
 Length 
 of coil. 
 
 Weight 
 fathom. 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Fms. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 
 72 thread, 8 ply, 1^-inch. . 
 
 30 
 
 115 
 
 0.26 
 
 
 54-thread, 8 ply, 1-inch . . . 
 
 30 
 
 160 
 
 .19 
 
 
 45-thread, 8 ply, f-inch . . . 
 
 30 
 
 200 
 
 .154 
 
 
 30-thread, 8 ply, H n cn . . 
 
 30 
 
 260 
 
 .11 
 
 
 24-thread, 8 ply, &-inch . . 
 18-thread, 6 ply, Hnch. 
 15-thread, 6 ply, f-inch. . . 
 
 10 
 10 
 10 
 
 110 
 250 
 
 280 
 
 .09 
 .04 
 . 035 
 
 {Wound in 10-pound pack- 
 ages ; 6 packages packed 
 for shipment in bale 
 
 15-thread, 4 ply, &-inch. . 
 
 10 
 
 330 
 
 .031 
 
 weighing 60 pounds. 
 
 1 For clothes stops. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS SMALL STUFF. 
 
 Cod line of untarred American hemp weighing 0.09 pound per fathom 
 and made up in lo-pound coils, one of which suffices for 10 sets of hammock 
 clews, this being the purpose for which this material is issued: 6 packages 
 packed for shipment in bale weighing 60 pounds. 
 
 Untarred marline for sennit is made up in 10- pound coils, weight per fathom, 
 0.028 pound; six packages packed for shipment in bale weighing 60 pounds. 
 
 Yacht marline is tarred; is used for small work in rigging lofts; weight 
 per fathom, 0.0195 pound; length of 60 fathoms; weight, 1.17 pounds; 
 coil, 20 pounds, or as required. 
 
 Marline tarred. Weight per fathom, 0.0327 pound; lengths of 65 fathoms; 
 weight, 2.125 pounds; coil, 20 pounds, or as required. 
 
 House line. Weight per fathom, 0.0519 pound; lengths of 65 fathoms; 
 weight, 3.375 pounds; coil, 20 pounds, or as required. 
 
 Round line. Weight per fathom, 0.066 pound; lengths of 60 fathoms; 
 weight, 4 pounds; coil, 50 pounds, or as required. 
 
 Spun Yarn, 2-yarn. Weight per fathom, 0.528 pound; length of 65 
 fathoms; weight, 3.437 pounds; coil, 50 pounds, or as required. 
 
 Spun Yarn, j-yarn. Weight per fathom, 0.073 pound; lengths of 65 
 fathoms; weight 4.75 pounds; coil, 50 pounds, or as required. 
 
 MANILA ROPE. 
 
 Manila rope to be of the grade known to the trade as " Rope made of 
 selected yarns,", viz. yarn to be spun of long-fiber manila hemp of a grade 
 not inferior to the mark SB/CS or of selected fiber equal to that mark. 
 
 Rope from ^-inch circumference, 6-thread to 3 inches circumference, 
 inclusive, to be made 3-strand; 3^ inches circumference and above to be made 
 4-strand unless otherwise specified. For the rapid handling of loads of about 
 900 pounds, such as coaling whips, a 4^-inch circumference manila rope is 
 recommended. 
 
 WIRE ROPE. 
 
 For details of the construction, manufacture, and applications of Wire 
 Rope, see Chapter III, IV and Plate 17. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 WIRE ROPE 6 X 19 144 WIRES. 
 
 795 
 
 
 
 
 Ungalvanized. 
 
 Galvanized. 
 
 Min. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Diam- 
 
 
 
 Approx. 
 
 Average 
 
 Maxi- 
 
 Average 
 
 Maxi- 
 
 eter 
 
 Diam. 
 
 Approx. 
 
 Wt. per 
 
 Break- 
 
 mum Safe 
 
 Break- 
 
 mum Safe 
 
 of 
 
 
 Circuni. 
 
 Fathom. 
 
 ing 
 
 Working 
 
 ing 
 
 Working 
 
 Sheave 
 
 
 
 
 Strength. 
 
 Load. 
 
 Strength. 
 
 Load. 
 
 or 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Drum. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 i 
 
 a 
 
 4 
 
 0.6 6,300 
 
 1,134 
 
 5,770 
 
 1,035 
 
 1 
 
 'rS 
 
 1 
 
 0.9 
 
 9,000 
 
 1,620 
 
 8,100 
 
 1,458 
 
 1.25 
 
 | 
 
 1| 
 
 1.32 
 
 13,500 
 
 2,430 
 
 11,150 
 
 2,007 
 
 1.50 
 
 A 
 
 if 
 
 1.8 
 
 18,800 
 
 3,384 
 
 16,920 
 
 3,042 
 
 1.75 
 
 i 
 
 If 
 
 2.34 
 
 24,200 
 
 4,356 
 
 21,780 
 
 3,915 
 
 2 
 
 A 
 
 If 
 
 3.00 
 
 29,000 
 
 5,220 
 
 26,100 
 
 4,725 
 
 2.25 
 
 f 
 
 2 
 
 3.72 
 
 38,000 
 
 6,840 
 
 34,200 
 
 6,156 
 
 2.5 
 
 f 
 
 91 
 
 5.34 
 
 52,600 
 
 9,408 
 
 47,340 
 
 8,514 
 
 3 
 
 1~6 
 
 2j 
 
 6.00 
 
 60,000 
 
 10,800 
 
 54,000 
 
 9,720 
 
 3.25 
 
 I 
 
 if 
 
 7.2 
 
 70,000 
 
 12,600 
 
 63,000 
 
 11,340 
 
 3.5 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 9.48 
 
 90,000 
 
 16,200 
 
 81,000 
 
 14,580 
 
 4 
 
 IT 
 
 31- 
 
 11.00 
 
 100,000 
 
 18,000 
 
 90,000 
 
 16,200 
 
 4.25 
 
 1-| 
 
 3^ 
 
 12.00 
 
 112,000 
 
 20,160 
 
 100,800 
 
 18,090 
 
 4.5 
 
 iA 
 
 33 
 4 
 
 13.1 
 
 124,000 
 
 22,140 
 
 111,600 
 
 20,520 
 
 4.75 
 
 if 
 
 4 
 
 14.3 
 
 138,000 
 
 25,200 
 
 124,200 
 
 22,320 
 
 5 
 
 if 
 
 4j 
 
 18.0 
 
 168,000 
 
 30,600 
 
 151,200 
 
 27,180 
 
 5.5 
 
 iA 
 
 4| 
 
 19.6 
 
 180,000 
 
 32,400 
 
 162,000 
 
 29,160 
 
 5.75 
 
 1"2' 
 
 4f 
 
 21.3 
 
 196,000 
 
 36,000 
 
 176,400 
 
 31,680 
 
 6.0 
 
 If 
 
 5 
 
 24.9 
 
 220,000 
 
 39,600 
 
 198,000 
 
 35,640 
 
 G.5 
 
 If 
 
 5i 
 
 29.1 
 
 266,000 
 
 48,600 
 
 239,400 
 
 43,020 
 
 7 
 
 l| 
 
 si 
 
 33.3 
 
 300,000 
 
 54,000 
 
 270,000 
 
 48,600 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 6-J- 
 
 37.8 
 
 332,000 
 
 59,400 
 
 298,800 
 
 53,730 
 
 8 
 
 2j 
 
 7 
 
 48.0 
 
 420,000 
 
 75,600 
 
 378,000 
 
 68,040 
 
 9 
 
 2} 
 
 71 
 
 59.1 
 
 526,000 
 
 95,400 
 
 473,400 
 
 85,140 
 
 10 
 
 21 
 
 
 71.7 
 
 630,000 
 
 113,400 
 
 567,000 
 
 102,060 
 
 11 
 
 The wire rope used by the United States Navy corresponds with that 
 manufactured commercially, and the Tables which follow are those from 
 the manufacturers' catalogues. 
 
 It should be noted, however, that a tolerance of 10 per cent, up or down 
 is allowed by Naval specifications, so that the breaking strength given in 
 the tables is to be regarded as an average not as a minimum. Accord- 
 ingly, the safe working load as given in the Tables is 10 per cent, below 
 that of the manufacturers' catalogues, to provide for a possible breaking 
 strength of 10 per cent, below the average. 
 The grades of steel used are: 
 For 6 X 12 Type : 
 
 Crucible Cast Steel up to l / 2 inch diameter. 
 Plow Steel above J/2 inch diameter. 
 All galvanized. 
 For 6 X 24 Type: 
 Plow Steel. 
 All galvanized. 
 
79 6 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 For 6 X 19 Type : 
 
 Plow and Crucible Steel. 
 
 Galvanized and ungalvanized. 
 For 6 X 37 Type: 
 
 Plow and Crucible Steel. 
 
 Galvanized and ungalvanized. 
 
 WIRE ROPE 6 X 37 222 WIRES. 
 
 
 
 
 Ungalvanized. 
 
 Galvanized. 
 
 Min. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Diam- 
 
 
 
 Approx. 
 
 Average 
 
 Maxi- 
 
 Average 
 
 Maxi- 
 
 eter 
 
 Diam. 
 
 Approx. 
 
 Wt. per 
 
 Break- 
 
 mum Safe 
 
 Break- 
 
 rmim Safe 
 
 of 
 
 
 Circum. 
 
 Fathom. 
 
 ing 
 
 Working 
 
 ing 
 
 Working 
 
 Sheave 
 
 
 
 
 Strength. 
 
 Load. 
 
 Strength. 
 
 Load. 
 
 or 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Drum. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 i 
 
 li 
 
 1.32 
 
 10,600 
 
 1,908 
 
 9,540 
 
 1,710 
 
 1.0 
 
 ft 
 
 li 
 
 1 -t 
 
 1.8 
 
 15,000 
 
 2,700 
 
 13,500 
 
 2,430 
 
 1.15 
 
 1 
 
 lj 
 
 2.34 
 
 19,500 
 
 3,510 
 
 17.550 
 
 3,150 
 
 1.33 
 
 ft 
 
 U 
 
 3.0 
 
 25,000 
 
 4,500 
 
 22,500 
 
 4,050 
 
 1.5 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 3.72 
 
 32,000 
 
 5,760 
 
 28,800 
 
 5,184 
 
 1.75 
 
 | 
 
 2~ 
 
 5.34 
 
 46,000 
 
 8,280 
 
 41,400 
 
 7,452 
 
 1.85 
 
 1 
 
 2| 
 
 7.2 
 
 5.8,000 
 
 10,440 
 
 52,200 
 
 9,360 
 
 2.16 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 9.48 
 
 74,000 
 
 13,320 
 
 66,600 
 
 11,970 
 
 2.5 
 
 li 
 
 3o 
 
 12.0 
 
 92,000 
 
 16,560 
 
 82,800 
 
 14,850 
 
 2.83 
 
 1; 
 
 4" 
 
 14.7 
 
 116,000 
 
 20,880 
 
 104,400 
 
 18,720 
 
 3.2 
 
 lj 
 
 4j 
 
 18.0 
 
 142,000 
 
 25,560 
 
 127,800 
 
 22,950 
 
 3.5 
 
 1 
 
 4j 
 
 21.3 
 
 168,000 
 
 30,240 
 
 151,200 
 
 27,180 
 
 3.75 
 
 1| 
 
 5 
 
 24.9 
 
 190,000 
 
 34,200 
 
 171,000 
 
 30,780 
 
 4.0 
 
 1: 
 
 5; 
 
 29.1 
 
 226,000 
 
 40,680 
 
 203,400 
 
 36,540 
 
 4.25 
 
 li' 
 
 5i 
 
 33.0 
 
 250,000 
 
 45,000 
 
 225,000 
 
 40,500 
 
 4.5 
 
 2 
 
 6; 
 
 37.8 
 
 274,000 
 
 49,320 
 
 246,600 
 
 44,370 
 
 4.75 
 
 ol 
 
 7j 
 
 48.0 
 
 368,000 
 
 66,240 
 
 331,200 
 
 59*580 
 
 5.0 
 
 2- 
 
 7] . 
 
 59.1 
 
 450,000 
 
 81,000 
 
 405,000 
 
 72,900 
 
 5.5 
 
 2f 
 
 8j 
 
 71.7 
 
 556,000 
 
 100,080 
 
 500,400 
 
 90,000 
 
 6.0 
 
WIRE ROPE 6 X 1272 WIRES. 
 
 797 
 
 Diarn. 
 
 Approx. 
 Circum. 
 
 Approx. 
 Wt. per 
 
 Fathom. 
 
 Galvanized. 
 
 Average 
 Breaking 
 Strength. 
 
 Maximum Safe 
 Working 
 Load. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 1 
 
 I 
 
 .42 
 
 3,200 
 
 576 
 
 A 
 
 1 
 
 .60 
 
 5,200 
 
 936 
 
 I 
 
 If 
 
 .84 
 
 7,200 
 
 1,296 
 
 F 
 
 1 
 
 1.20 
 1.56 
 
 10,000 
 13,200 
 
 1,800 
 2,276 
 
 A 
 
 if 
 
 1.98 
 
 16,600 
 
 2,988 
 
 | 
 
 2 
 
 2.52 
 
 19,800 
 
 3,564 
 
 I 
 
 2j 
 
 3.54 
 
 30,200 
 
 5,400 
 
 
 
 2- 
 
 4.08 
 
 34,600 
 
 6,210 
 
 7 
 8 
 
 2l 
 
 4.80 
 
 39,200 
 
 7,020 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 6.3 
 
 52,000 
 
 9,360 
 
 If 
 
 31 
 3-2- 
 
 7.08 
 7.98 
 
 58,400 
 65,000 
 
 10,440 
 11,700 
 
 iA 
 
 3| 
 
 8.82 
 
 71,200 
 
 12,780 
 
 if 
 
 4 
 
 9.78 
 
 80,000 
 
 14,400 
 
 i| 
 
 if 
 
 12.0 
 
 92,000 
 
 16,560 
 
 iA 
 
 4 1 
 
 13.0 
 
 103,600 
 
 18,630 
 
 i| 
 
 <! 
 
 14.16 
 
 104,600 
 
 18,810 
 
 if 
 
 5 
 
 16.56 
 
 128,000 
 
 23,040 
 
 Hi 
 
 5| 
 
 17.64 
 
 136,000 
 
 24,480 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 19.38 
 20.52 
 
 145,400 
 157,000 
 
 26,100 
 28,260 
 
 if 
 
 6* 
 
 23.0 
 
 168,000 
 
 30,240 
 
 2 
 
 gi 
 
 25.2 
 
 199,000 
 
 35,910 
 
 2rs 
 
 6 
 
 26.58 
 
 210,000 
 
 37,800 
 
 WIRE ROPE 6 X 24 144 WIRES. 
 
 
 
 
 Galvanized. 
 
 
 
 Approx. 
 
 
 
 
 Approx. 
 
 Wt. per 
 
 Average 
 
 Maximum Safe 
 
 Diam. 
 
 Circum. 
 
 Fathom. 
 
 Breaking 
 
 Working 
 
 
 
 
 Strength. 
 
 Load. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 | 
 
 2} 
 
 4.68 
 
 37,600 
 
 6,768 
 
 ft 
 
 2} 
 
 5.4 
 
 45,000 
 
 8,100 
 
 I 
 
 2| 
 
 6.3 
 
 51,400 
 
 9,252 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 8.28 
 
 66,600 
 
 11,988 
 
 iA 
 
 3i 
 
 9.24 
 
 74,000 
 
 13,320 
 
 rj 
 
 3a 
 
 10.5 
 
 82,200 
 
 14,796 
 
 iA 
 
 3| 
 
 11.58 
 
 93,000 
 
 16,740 
 
 ii 
 
 4 
 
 12.9 
 
 103,400 
 
 18,612 
 
 if 
 
 4j 
 
 15.72 
 
 122,400 
 
 22,032 
 
 iA 
 
 4J 
 
 17.52 
 
 136,000 
 
 24,480 
 
 if 
 
 4 
 
 18.6 
 
 150,600 
 
 27,090 
 
 if 
 
 5 
 
 21.78 
 
 173,200 
 
 31,140 
 
 *P 
 
 6f 
 
 23.16 
 
 188,000 
 
 33,840 
 
 if 
 
 5^ 
 
 25.44 
 
 206,200 
 
 37,080 
 
 iff 
 
 5| 
 
 26.88 
 
 218,000 
 
 39,240 
 
 if 
 
 6 
 
 30.54 
 
 232,800 
 
 41,850 
 
 2 
 
 6| 
 
 33.06 
 
 261,000 
 
 46,980 
 
 2^ 
 
 a 
 
 34.86 
 
 276,000 
 
 49,680 
 
798 APPENDIX. 
 
 VII. NOMENCLATURE OF DECKS. 
 
 1. The following nomenclature of decks shall be followed for 
 United States naval vessels. 
 
 2. The highest deck extending from stem to stern shall be 
 called the " main deck." 
 
 3. A partial deck above the main deck at the bow shall be 
 called the " forecastle deck " ; at the stern, " poop deck ;" amid- 
 ships, " upper deck." 
 
 4. The name " upper deck," instead of " forecastle deck " or 
 " poop deck," shall be applied to a partial deck extending from 
 the waist to either bow or stern. 
 
 5. A partial deck above the main, upper, forecastle, or poop 
 deck and not extending to the side of the ship, shall be called 
 the " superstructure deck." 1 
 
 6. A complete deck below the main deck shall be called the 
 " second deck." Where there are two or more complete decks 
 below the main deck they shall be called the " second deck " ; 
 " third deck " ; " fourth deck," etc. 
 
 7. A partial deck above the lowest complete deck and below 
 the main deck shall be called the " half deck." 
 
 8. A partial deck below the lowest complete deck shall be 
 called the " platform deck." Where there are two or more par- 
 tial decks below the lowest complete deck, the one immediately 
 below the lowest complete deck shall be called the " first plat- 
 form ;" the next shall be called the " second platform," and 
 so on. 
 
 9. Decks which for protective purposes are fitted with plating 
 of extra strength and thickness shall be further defined, for tech- 
 nical purposes, as " protective " and " splinter," in addition to 
 their regular names. Where there is only one such deck it shall 
 be defined as " protective " and where there are two, that hav- 
 ing the thicker plating shall be defined as " protective " and that 
 having the thinner plating shall be defined as " splinter " in ad- 
 dition to the regular names. 
 
 10. Where a protective deck is stepped a complete deck height, 
 the respective portions shall be distinguished by means of the 
 terms " middle protective section " and " forward (or after) 
 protective section " in addition to the regular names. Where a 
 
 1 The Bureau interprets this as meaning that a deck structure, although 
 extending to the line of the ship's side is not an upper deck unless the side 
 plating proper of the ship is carried up and connected to it. 
 
APPENDIX. 799 
 
 splinter deck is stepped a. complete deck height, the respective 
 portions shall be similarly distinguished. 
 
 11. Where a portion of the protective or splinter deck is sloped, 
 the sloping portion shall be defined as the "inclined protective 
 deck " or " inclined splinter deck." 
 
 VIII. THE PRESERVATION OF SHIPS. 
 
 Rust. In order to properly preserve the steel structure of 
 a ship from corrosion, or wasting away, means must be pro- 
 vided for preventing the formation of rust. The rusting of 
 steel or iron, is the combination of oxygen and iron, this com- 
 bination being caused by the presence of carbon dioxide in the 
 moist air or water to which the metal is exposed. The carbon 
 dioxide acts upon the iron to form a carbonate, which, in turn, 
 unites with oxygen to form iron rust and new carbon dioxide, 
 and this latter feature accounts for the continuation of the proc- 
 ess of rusting, as the new carbon dioxide attacks new iron, caus- 
 ing the process to go on and on until no more iron remains. 
 
 The formation of rust is accelerated by heat, as is commonly 
 evidenced by the fact that the portions of the ship's hull near 
 the boilers rust much more rapidly than others ; in fact, if the 
 heat is sufficiently great, the iron will oxidize without the pres- 
 ence of moisture. A hot, steamy atmosphere, therefore, is es- 
 pecially conducive of rusting; and consequently, portions of the 
 ship which are exposed to such an atmosphere require special 
 care and attention. 
 
 The best preventive of the formation of rust is to provide 
 a coating, such as paint, bitumastic, cement, etc., which shall be 
 impervious to moisture. Details of these preventives will be 
 given later. 
 
 Galvanic Action. The corrosion of a ship's structure is also 
 caused by galvanic action, an electrical phenomenon which takes 
 place when two dissimilar metals are placed in an acid in metal- 
 lic contact with each other. An electric current is then set up 
 between the two metals which flows from the electro-positive 
 metal to the electro-negative metal, and which results in the 
 corrosion of the former. Salt water has the effect of a weak 
 acid upon two dissimilar metals ; consequently galvanic action 
 will occur between the different metals comprising the ship's 
 
800 APPENDIX. 
 
 structure wherever they are in contact with sea water, bilge 
 water, etc., and will cause corrosion of the electro-positive metal. 
 Galvanic action between copper, bronze, lead, and steel results 
 in the corrosion of the steel; that is, the steel is electro-positive 
 to the others; but galvanic action between zinc and steel re- 
 sults in the corrosion of the zinc, this being electro-positive to 
 steel. 
 
 Mill scale, formed by the application of water to hot steel 
 while it is being rolled at the mill, is an oxide of iron ; and as 
 steel is electro-positive to this scale, it will be seriously corroded 
 if the scale is not removed. This removal can be effected by 
 pickling the steel in a weak acid solution, so that the scale be- 
 comes loosened and can then be brushed off. Another method 
 is to leave the steel exposed to the weather for some time and 
 allow ordinary rusting to loosen the scale a sufficient amount 
 so that it can be removed by wire brushes. 
 
 Steel is also electro-positive to ordinary rust scale, so that 
 the presence of rust upon steel tends to increase the corrosion 
 of the steel when it is immersed in salt water. It is very evi- 
 dent, therefore, that all possible means should be taken to re- 
 move mill scale and rust scale before the steel hull is painted; 
 otherwise the presence of moisture in the scale will cause gal- 
 vanic action, with the consequent pitting of the steel and blister- 
 ing of the paint, resulting in the formation of rust cones. If 
 the steel plating is thoroughly dry before painting is done, the 
 chances of corrosion are, of course, greatly lessened. 
 
 Not only do different metals cause galvanic action, but it is 
 also true that different grades of the same metal may be sub- 
 jected to corrosion from galvanic action. In general, the softer, 
 or low-carbon material, suffers the most from corrosion due to 
 this cause. Experience has also shown that steel ships suffer 
 much more from corrosion than iron ships do. 
 
 The corrosion of the steel hull by galvanic action may be re- 
 duced by the use of zinc protectors. These consist of unpainted 
 slabs of rolled zinc, and they are fitted to stern-posts, rudders, 
 strut hubs, etc., when bronze propellers, or other bronze fittings 
 are used, so that the galvanic action which is set up between the 
 bronze and the zinc will corrode the zinc, this being more electro- 
 positive to bronze than is the steel of the hull. As soon as the 
 zinc protectors are badly eaten away, they must be renewed. 
 
APPENDIX. 8OI 
 
 Mild steel protecting rings for sea valves have been substituted 
 recently for zinc rings, the steel rings being slightly more electro- 
 positive to the composition sea valve than is the steel hull, and 
 they do not require such frequent renewal. There is a tendency 
 at present to do away with all zinc protectors ; but pending fur- 
 ther experience in service, this has not yet been completely 
 adopted. 
 
 Anticorrosive Coatings. There are several distinct varieties 
 of coatings for preventing corrosion; viz., paint, varnish, oil, 
 bituminous compositions, cement, galvanizing, etc., and they are 
 used for different parts of the ship's structure depending upon 
 the various conditions. 
 
 Painting is by far the most commonly used method of pre- 
 venting corrosion ; and if all parts of the ship could be kept 
 well coated with paint, there would be practically no danger of 
 corrosion. It is only when paint loses its protective qualities 
 through age or wear, that the metal becomes subject to corro- 
 sion. Paint, or other coatings, should never be applied to damp, 
 oily, or greasy surfaces, or to surfaces which have not been 
 thoroughly scaled and cleaned, and each coat of paint should 
 be allowed to dry hard before the next coat is applied. 
 
 Red Lead has a more extensive use than any other paint. It 
 is used as a priming coat on the entire outer surface of the hull 
 and all metal surfaces exposed to the weather ; on all inside work 
 (except metal to which special paint, cement, or oil, or bitu- 
 minous compositions are to be applied) ; and on plating behind 
 armor. Red lead has been found by experience to have prac- 
 tically no injurious effect uopn steel, and it has excellent ad- 
 hesive, wearing and covering qualities. 
 
 Ships' Bottom Paints. In addition to the priming coat of red 
 lead applied to the bottom of a steel ship, special paints are 
 also used to prevent corrosion and fouling. A great number 
 of these special paints have been tried from time to time ; but 
 in the United States Navy the only bottom paints now used are 
 the standard antic orrosive and antifouling paints manufactured 
 at the navy yards. The purpose of the anticorrosive paint is 
 to prevent corrosion by separating the metals contained in the 
 antifouling paint from the steel itself. The purpose of the 
 antifouling paint is to prevent fouling of the ship's bottom, 
 oxide of mercury, a poison, being used as an ingredient to 
 
8O2 APPENDIX. 
 
 destroy any marine growth which may attach itself to the bot- 
 tom of the ship. Care should be taken when applying this paint 
 that it does not come in contact with the steel plating; other- 
 wise it will cause corrosion. 
 
 Anticorrosive and antifouling paints should always be ap- 
 plied just prior to launching or before undocking ; and in general, 
 two complete coats of anticorrosive and one complete coat of 
 antifouling paint are applied. When a ship is docked it is not 
 customary to touch up or paint the bottom with red lead, but 
 the anticorrosive paint is applied directly over the red lead firmly 
 adhering to the steel, or else to the bare metal. Antifouling 
 paint should always be applied just before a ship is put into the 
 water, for the reason that if it is allowed to stand exposed to 
 the air for a period of twenty-four hours or more, it begins 
 to lose its antifouling properties. 
 
 Wooden hulls, such as those of submarine chasers, tugs, 
 lighters, etc., are given two coats of an approved copper paint 
 in order to prevent fouling, and larger wooden ships and ships 
 having wooden outside planking are sheathed with sheet cop- 
 per for the same purpose. Marine growths do not attach them- 
 selves readily to copper as it constantly gives off poisonous 
 salts which tend to destroy them. 
 
 Boot-Topping Paint. The region of the hull between the 
 light and the full-load water-lines is particularly difficult to pro- 
 tect against corrosion for the reason that the anticorrosive and 
 antifouling paints deteriorate more rapidly when exposed to air 
 than when immersed in water, and moreover, the plating in this 
 region is subjected to much more chafing than are other por- 
 tions of the hull. Here a special, quick-drying paint, called 
 boot-topping, is used, the principal ingredients of which are var- 
 nish and drier. For large ships, the band of boot-topping is 
 four or five feet wide, and for small ships two feet wide. 
 
 Bituminous Compositions. It has been shown by experience 
 that the most efficient coating for steel work in double bottoms, 
 machinery spaces, fresh water tanks, and similar spaces is a 
 material composed of coal tar, pitch, or asphalt. Bituminous 
 composition, or " bitumastic," consists of bituminous solution, 
 which is applied cold with a brush as a priming coat ; and bi- 
 tuminous enamel, or bituminous cement, which are applied hot, 
 over the solution. The cement is suitable for flat, horizontal 
 
APPENDIX. 803 
 
 surfaces, and is spread on to a thickness of at least one quarter 
 of an inch, while the enamel is suitable for overhead, vertical, 
 or inclined surfaces, and is applied to a thickness of at least 
 one sixteenth of an inch. 
 
 Bituminous compositions should be applied only to surfaces 
 which are thoroughly dry and clean, and free from paint, oil, 
 grease, or rust; and if practicable, they should be put on when 
 the ship is out of water. Artificial ventilation should always 
 be furnished when bituminous compositions are being applied 
 in confined spaces as their fumes are liable to overcome the 
 workmen in their vicinity. 
 
 Portland Cement. In many ships the inner surface of the 
 shell plating- is coated with cement to prevent corrosion, and 
 also to prevent the wearing away of rivet heads and plating 
 through the constant washing to and fro of the bilge water and 
 the foreign substances sometimes contained therein. No 
 
 Portland cement is used in the double bottoms of United States 
 ships ; but cement wash, consisting of cement and fire clay, is 
 applied with a brush to the inside of reserve feed water tanks, 
 care being taken that the metal is thoroughly dry when the wash 
 is applied. 
 
 Galvanizing is another method of preventing corrosion, and 
 consists in thoroughly cleaning the metal in an acid bath, and 
 then applying a coating of zinc, either molten (the hot process), 
 or by electrolytic methods. It is used chiefly for protecting 
 deck fittings, such as rails, stanchions, bitts, chocks, cleats, bolts, 
 etc. It is also used, in addition to paint, for protecting the 
 steel structure of destroyers, for the reason that the hulls of 
 these vessels are built of such light material that only a small 
 margin is allowed against corrosion. 
 
 Special Measures to Prevent Corrosion, U. S. Navy. When- 
 ever a ship of the United States Navy is docked at a navy 
 yard, the condition of the ship's bottom is examined by a spe- 
 cially appointed " Paint Board," and a complete report con- 
 cerning this condition is forwarded to the Bureau of Con- 
 struction and Repair. 
 
 In addition to this board, a " Hull Board " is always appointed 
 by the commanding officer of every ship, and it is the duty of 
 this board to examine and report upon the condition of every 
 part of the ship as regards corrosion or deterioration, and to 
 
804 APPENDIX. 
 
 make such comment and recommendation as are pertinent to 
 the subject. 
 
 IX. DIRECTIONS FOR MAKING TURNING TRIALS AND 
 OBTAINING TACTICAL MANEUVERING DATA FOR VESSELS 
 OF THE UNITED STATES NAVY. (Plate 194.) 
 
 Turning trials shall be made under conditions that permit ac- 
 curate results to be obtained, and if there be any doubt as to 
 the accuracy of all the data required, the trials shall be repeated 
 at favorable times until the required accuracy is assured. 
 
 When this data is once accurately obtained for a ship there 
 is no necessity for a repetition of the trials, unless changes have 
 been made in the hull or machinery that may affect the turning 
 qualities. 
 
 The special reports made on the subject will be reviewed by 
 officers of the Navy Department, who will scan them carefully 
 and systematically tabulate the results. Due credit will be given 
 to succeeding commanding officers who may be able to furnish 
 additional information whenever an opportunity occurs. 
 
 In order that there may be uniformity in the terms used, a 
 thorough understanding of the information required, and of the 
 manner in which the data may be obtained, the following method 
 is given. 
 
 Let P, P lr Po, P s , and P 4 represent the successive- positions of 
 a ship in making a complete turn with right rudder from the in- 
 stant of beginning to put the rudder over at P, to the instants 
 when a change in heading of 90 at P,, 180 at P 2 , 270 at P 3 , 
 and 360 at P 4 is made. 
 
 The most desirable data is that which fixes the positions P l and 
 P 2 with reference to P and gives us a, the " advance," t, the 
 " transfer," and d, the " tactical diameter." 
 
 It is thought that each vessel's " final diameter," /, will be prac- 
 tically constant at all speeds for the same conditions of draft and 
 rudder angle, the differences in the tactical diameters for different 
 speeds being due principally to the differences in time required to 
 put the rudder over and the different distances run (at the dif- 
 ferent speeds) before the rudder is over. 
 
 It is very important to know how to modify the rudder angles 
 in order to turn upon practically the same curves as some other 
 designated ship, or upon standard curves adopted by the com- 
 mander in chief. 
 
Plate No. 194. 
 
 805 
 
 |<. f -Final Diameter 
 
 |< d-Tactica I Diameter 
 
 N . - 
 
 a* -WOyds. 
 
 -*i 
 
 F16.4 
 
 PLOTTING TACTICAL DATA. 
 
8o6 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 It is particularly desirable to know the " advance," " transfer," 
 and " tactical diameter " with screws on one side backing. 
 
 It is also advantageous to know the following: 
 
 The distance the ship will travel and the rate at which she loses 
 speed, when all engines are suddenly reversed, before she can be 
 brought to a dead stop. 
 
 The rate at which the ship loses speed after all engines are 
 stopped or disabled. 
 
 The rudder angle required to keep the ship on a steady course 
 when screws on one side are stopped or disabled, and the actual 
 speed made under such conditions. 
 
 The " advance," " transfer," and " tactical diameter " with full 
 rudder and starting from a dead stop. 
 
 It is very desirable to know the rate at which the ship regains 
 her initial speed after a turn has been made. 
 
 Theoretically, the tactical data of twin-screw and four-screw 
 ships for turning to right ought to be the same as that for turning 
 to left, the speeds and rudder angles being the same, but practi- 
 cally slight differences in results may be expected, owing to 
 differences in the working of the engines and other outside in- 
 fluences during the times of trial. The mean of the right and 
 left determinations, one following the other closely, made under 
 identical conditions, will therefore be regarded as the standard. 
 The data for complete turns, with both right and left rudder, 
 will be required for speeds and for rudder angles as follows (the 
 mean of the right and left determinations shall be used at the 
 different speeds and rudder angles) : 
 
 All engines ahead full rudder (35, or whatever it is). 
 
 All engines ahead rudder angle, 20 to 25. 
 
 All engines ahead rudder angle, 10 to 15. 
 
 Engines on one side full speed astern full rudder. 
 
 From a dead stop, turn with power corresponding to speed at 
 which the other ahead trials are being made. 
 
 The above trials shall be made for each of the following speeds : 
 
 For vessels having designed speed of 
 
 Speed A. 
 
 Speed B. 
 
 Speed C. 
 
 Speed D. 
 
 Over 30 knots 
 Between 20 and 30 knots 
 
 Full speed.. 
 . . .do. . . 
 
 20 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 10 
 10 
 
 Between 15 and 20 knots 
 
 ... do 
 
 12 
 
 
 10 
 
 Less than 15 knots 
 
 do 
 
 10 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 
 
APPENDIX. 807 
 
 Find the time and distance in which the ship can be brought 
 to a dead stop, rudder amidship, and the rate at which she loses 
 speed, by backing full speed, both from " full speed " ahead and 
 from a speed of 10 knots. 
 
 Find the time in which a vessel loses speed down to 5 knots 
 after the engines are stopped, both from " full speed " ahead 
 and from a speed of 10 knots ; and thence deduce the rate of 
 losing speed per knot. 
 
 Find the rudder angle necessary to keep the ship on a steady 
 course, under full power, with engines on one side stopped or 
 disabled, and the actual speed made under such circumstances. 
 
 Find the rate of increase in the speed on straightening out 
 the course after making each of the above complete turns. 
 
 It should always be borne in mind that due credit will be given 
 for additional information, as, for instance, obtaining the data of 
 opposite turns and other speeds or rudder angles than those re- 
 quired, or noting special peculiarities of behavior under the vary- 
 ing influences of wind and sea. 
 
 The conditions under which the turning trial should take place 
 are as follows : ( i ) The depth of water should be sufficient to 
 prevent the drag on the bottom from influencing the speed. (2) 
 The tidal movement in the locality should be small, unobstructed, 
 and uniform. (3) There should be a clearly defined distant ob- 
 ject in view. (4) The weather and sea should be smooth, a dead 
 calm being preferable. 
 
 The following methods have been tested and will give accurate 
 results if carefully and patiently followed. The essential features 
 are: 
 
 (a) Observations of the change of heading, from a dumb 
 compass on board, with reference to a fixed external object. 
 
 (b) Bearings of an observing boat or ship from an azimuth 
 instrument on board, with reference to the keel line of the ship, 
 the boat not being anchored but moored to a drag sunk to a 
 depth corresponding to the draft of the ship. A pole weighted 
 to float at the proper depth with a flag at its staff may be used, 
 the observers then to be in a boat under oars whose bow shall be 
 kept close to the pole as it floats. If an observing sister ship is 
 used, both ships take reciprocal angles and bearings, and the ob- 
 serving ship records the speed and direction of her drift during 
 each turn. 
 
8O8 APPENDIX. 
 
 (r) Ranges or distances of the ship taken from the observing 
 boat or ships. 
 
 These observations to be simultaneous. 
 
 TAKING THE OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 The observer A should be the officer directing the movements 
 of the ship, and a convenient dumb compass may be quickly ar- 
 ranged by ruling, with pencil lines, a dumb card on tracing 
 cloth, showing only the lines of bearing for every two points, or, 
 if the view from the standard compass is fairly clear all around, 
 for every 30. Paste this on the glass face of the standard com- 
 pass with three or four spots of photographic paste (after the 
 trials it may readily be removed) having the TV point of the card 
 coincide with the lubber's point of the compass. If desired, the 
 circuits to the gyro compass repeater may be cut out and the 
 repeaters (with azimuth circles) used as dumb compasses or 
 peloruses. 
 
 Have a hand stationed at the whistle pull instructed to give 
 the whistle a quick, sharp blast whenever observer A says 
 " Mark." Have, near observer A, a recorder with a watch ready 
 to record the time of each order " Mark " and the observations 
 of observer B, placing them opposite the reading of the dumb 
 compass for that mark. . 
 
 The accuracy of results will be increased if observer A is pro- 
 vided with an electric contact maker in circuit with the automatic 
 whistle. When he gives the order " Mark " he can simultan- 
 eously make the contact which will cause the whistle to blow, thus 
 avoiding loss of time and irregularity due to having this duty 
 performed by another man. It will be a simple matter for the 
 electrical force to insert a contact maker in the circuit of the 
 solenoid which operates the whistle in place of the automatic 
 circuit closer. 
 
 Observer B, stationed abreast of the foremast, or at the most 
 convenient point for observations, is to note at each order 
 " Mark " the angle between the keel line of the ship and observer 
 C (in the boat) from forward aft. For this purpose a pelorus 
 may be used if care be observed to note accurately the angle, with 
 the instrument level. If a pelorus on each side is to be used, there 
 should be two contact makers in parallel, one at each pelorus, and 
 
APPENDIX. 809 
 
 so located as to enable the observer to operate them with ease 
 while observing the object. If there is any difficulty about the 
 observers in the engine rooms hearing the whistle signals, elec- 
 tric bells or lamps should be installed there on temporary circuits 
 which are also controlled by the contact makers at the peloruses. 
 The circuits for these bells or lamps should be in parallel with 
 the solenoid circuit and the contact maker should be in the 
 feeder or branch circuit from the dynamo which supplies them 
 with current. 
 
 Observer C has, in the boat with him, a man instructed to 
 watch the steam whistle and to say " Mark " the instant a puff 
 of steam is seen to issue from the whistle, also a recorder with 
 a timepiece to record the time and ranges. Observer C keeps the 
 reflected image of the fore truck at the water line by his instru- 
 ment and at each order " Mark " calls out the range or angle for 
 his recorder to note. The stadimeter is handy for this purpose, 
 but the ship may get too near for accurate observations and the 
 stadimeter may get out of adjustment. Sextant angles, if read 
 to seconds, give greater safeguard of accuracy, although they 
 require more time and trouble in preparing the data for plot- 
 ting. 
 
 An observer, D, in the engine room, assisted if necessary, 
 should record the angle of heel and the actual reading of each 
 revolution counter at each blast, also the revolutions per minute 
 of each engine, before each turn. 
 
 After a turn is begun, no change in position of the throttle 
 valves will be made until the turn is completed. 
 
 All recorders should be prepared, before the trials, with pads 
 and blanks suitably ruled to record the observations. 
 
 The distant object. A tactical diameter of 500 yards will 
 subtend about 1 of arc if the distant object be 15 miles away, 
 iJ/2 if 10 miles, and 3 if 5 miles. It is generally difficult to 
 get a well-defined object sufficiently distant to neglect the par- 
 allax in plotting, and it is preferable to have the object suffi- 
 ciently near and distinct to obtain its distance on the chart and 
 to take account of its distance in the plotting. Therefore, at 
 the end of each turn take sufficient* bearings (or 3-point angles) 
 to plot the position of the ship and thus determine the distance 
 of the object used. If observer C uses a sextant, he will be 
 the best equipped to take this observation, the angles between 
 
8lO APPENDIX. 
 
 three suitable objects on shore. If observer C uses a stadi- 
 meter, he should have also a sextant at hand ready to use. 
 
 TO EXECUTE THE MANEUVER. 
 
 After dropping the boat, stand off far enough to be able to 
 gain the desired speed before beginning the turn. Hoist a pre- 
 paratory signal. Shape a course to head for the distant object 
 and at the same time to pass the boat at a safe distance and 
 have it inside the turning circle. It would be practicable to get 
 the observations by turning so as to leave the boat outside of 
 the turning circle, but turning around the boat is entirely prac- 
 ticable and not only conduces to greater accuracy in the obser- 
 vations of C, but facilitates the observations of B, who thereby 
 gets unobstructed views of C from one side of the ship only 
 during the same turn. 
 
 As the dumb compass takes no account of magnetic bearings, 
 the initial course will read " North " on the dumb card. When 
 observer C bears 3 points forward of the beam, " mark " and 
 put the rudder over as quickly as possible, with the same force 
 that is used every day or in action, the recorder noting the time 
 required to put it over, the direction it is put over (right or 
 left), and the number of degrees of rudder. Now shift the 
 azimuth circle to cover the next line of the dumb compass, NNE. 
 or 30, as the case may be, if turning to port, and as the distant 
 object is just coming onto the vertical line " mark " again. Re- 
 peat this for each line of the dumb card until the full turn has 
 been made, then shift the rudder, straighten out on the original 
 course, and stand on toward the distant object for at least one 
 minute, " marking " again at intervals of 15 seconds. Haul down 
 the " preparatory signal." Note the direction and force of wind. 
 Observer C takes observations for plotting the position of the 
 boat. Prepare for another turn. 
 
 If the same distant object be used for all the turns, the ship 
 will now require to make two half turns before being in posi- 
 tion for another exact maneuver, but if a second distant object 
 be available in a nearly opposite direction, the ship may stand 
 on after the first full turn, and, after running the required dis- 
 tance, return to another trial after making one half turn only. 
 
 In all these turns put the rudder over as quickly as possible, 
 
APPENDIX. 8ll 
 
 even when 10 only is required. Uniformity in this matter is 
 important. 
 
 During the turns it may be that a mast or a smokestack will 
 interfere with a direct view from the compass of the distant 
 object while at some one of the bearings on the card. When this 
 occurs, estimate as near as possible when the object would be 
 on that bearing and give the order " Mark " as usual. Tell the 
 recorder to put a question mark ( ?) after that observation. 
 This will preserve the number and order of the observations and 
 assist in the plotting. 
 
 To obtain the distance the ship will run and the rate of de- 
 crease in speed, after reversing the engines, or after stopping 
 the engines, stand on a straight course past the observing boat, 
 " mark " when the engines are reversed or stopped, " mark " 
 again at intervals of fifteen seconds and again when the ship 
 has stopped dead in the /water. 1 
 
 The angles observed by B and the distances by C will enable 
 the maneuver to be plotted and the distances measured. From 
 this data curves may be constructed to show the rate at which 
 the speed is decreased. 
 
 This method may be employed by two ships working in con- 
 cert, one as the observing boat ; but to get the data for both ships 
 it requires twice as much time as if each ship worked singly, 
 and good judgment forbids that the turns be made around the 
 observing ship. The importance of doing the work during a 
 smooth period favors the use of a boat. When another ship 
 is used as the observing boat, however, great care must be used 
 to see that she has no headway during the turns. 
 
 TO PLOT THE WORK. (Plate 194.) 
 
 Upon a drawing board, construct a dumb compass card, fig. 
 2, similar to that used by observer A, for plotting the right turns 
 and upon another sheet a similar dumb compass card for the 
 left turns; a condemned chart with its compass rose may prove 
 convenient. Select a fixed point, S, fig. 3, to represent the posi- 
 
 1 It is not necessary to keep on observing until the ship has stopped 
 during the maneuver of stopping the engines only. This would require 
 a useless waste of time. 
 
8l2 APPENDIX. 
 
 lion of the observing boat. Place the protractor on the dumb 
 compass course north and mark the angle, a, of B's first obser- 
 vation (say 60). Carry that line down to ^ and lay off the 
 distance SP f C's first observation. 
 
 Now do the same construction for the position P 2 , at the 180 
 turn, and measure the shortest distance between Pa and P 2 a.,. 
 This will be approximately the tactical diameter (say 500 yards). 
 Lay off this distance PP 2 , fig. 4, on the chart scale at right angles 
 to PD, the distance of the " distant object." Draw a miniature 
 and similar dumb compass at PP 2 . The lines connecting each 
 of the successive points with D will represent the true bearing 
 of D, from o and 360 at P to 180 at P 2 . PD, fig. 4, is the 
 true bearing of Pa, fig. 3, and P<,D, fig. 4, of P 2 a. 2 , % 2 > so that 
 the position p., instead of P 2 , fig. 3, becomes the true position at 
 1 80, or the seventh point of observation. 
 
 Now correct the dumb compass, fig. 3, for the parallax of 
 each point of observation according to fig. 4, as shown by the 
 dotted lines in fig. 2, and continue the plotting of the various 
 points of observation in fig. 3 with the corrected bearings shown 
 by dotted lines in fig. 2. 
 
 Connect the various points by a fair curve, fig. 5, correcting 
 inconsistencies and doubtful observations, and construct tan- 
 gents from which the data a, t, d, and / may be measured. The 
 "drift angle" will be the angle between the keel line, and the 
 tangent to this curve at any point of observation. 
 
 The result of these observations shall be entered upon the 
 form hereto attached. 
 
 NOTE. The pamphlet dealing with this subject issued by the 
 Navy Department (from which the foregoing is taken) contains 
 also instructions for determining tactical data using the sun as 
 a distant object. 
 
 X. BUOYAGE. 
 
 Plates 195, 196, 197 and 198 show the systems of buoyage 
 at present used by the principal maritime powers. These plates 
 are put here rather than in Chapter XVI because they are sub- 
 ject to change. 
 
Plate No. 195. 
 
 813 
 
814 
 
 Plate No. 196. 
 
 /-STARBOARD :V' HAHD^:BUOYS , 
 (SINGLE COLOUR, GENERALIY RED OR BLACK) 
 
 (OUTER END) 
 
 HAND BUOYS. 
 :;:(5'iN6Lt COLOUR, CHEQUERED OR STRIPED) 
 
 ISOLATED DANGERS. 
 
 . pi ui: AR ; ;B uo Y ^ :: ; ;s PAR ^ B UOY 
 
 "'. MARKS . . : 
 
 BRITISH BUOYS 
 
 'A.R80ARD..H AMD BUOY 
 
 (OUTER END) : ; " ; : -^:H!HNER ; END). 
 MIDDLE. GROUND; BUOYS. 
 
 INDIAN BUOYS , 
 
 BUOYAGE. 
 
Plate No. 197. 
 
 : ; SQ.UTHER.N SIDE. KORTHERN SIDE ' V: . WESTER 
 
 ^:.OF;A ! ;D ANGER. - , : .. .OF A DANGER : .V : :- OF A DANGER. 
 
 (OUTSIDE A CHANNEL) ^(STARBOARD HAND). ' (.PORT HAND); 
 ,:: DANGERS. ; EMTRANCES:/yTO;: R\VER5 .,::.;: 
 
 KiSi; s s i AN B u o Y s . 
 
 >TAR80ARt) HAND PORT HANP : : MIDDLE 6ROU! 
 
 -BUOYS;, BUOYS. , ., BUOYS,.;;. 
 
 (NOHTHERN ED&E) (SOUTHERN EDGE) (EASTERN EDGE) (WESTERN EDGE) 
 ; SEAWARD -.;.-: .-.SHOALS-,./ :;;: ./:: : ;-.::. 
 
 GERMAN BUOYS 
 
 BUOYAGE, 
 
8i6 
 
 Plate No. 198. 
 
 STARBOARD 
 HAND BUOYS 
 
 NNER END) : ^ISOLATE 
 
 FRENCH BUOYS 
 
 MIDDLE GROUND 
 ... . BUOYS. . ! 
 
 MID -CHAMNEL' 
 : ::;.v..,- BUOYS ; ; 
 
 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 
 AND CANADA; 
 
 II 
 
 ^STARBOARD : - PORT 1 HAND (OUTER END) (INNER END) ISOLATED 
 
 : ':HANO BUOYS. :';':.;'-: BUOYS.; MIDDLE GROUND BUOYS . DANGERS. 
 
 JAPANESE BUOYS. 
 
 BUOYAGE. 
 
APPENDIX. 8iy 
 
 XI. DIRECTIONS FOR RESTORING THE APPARENTLY 
 DROWNED. 
 
 THE SCHAFER METHOD. Plate 199. 
 
 1. Generally speaking, the same steps are followed in the 
 Schafer Method as in any other method ; namely, remove the 
 water from the lungs, clear the air passages, restore breathing, 
 remove wet clothing, and stimulate by heat and friction. The 
 difference between the Schafer Method and the Sylvester 
 Method, which has heretofore been generally recommended and 
 practiced, is in the manner of restoring respiration. 
 
 The simplest method whereby water may be removed from the 
 lungs, and incidentally from the stomach, which often contains 
 considerable water which has been swallowed, is by placing the 
 patient face down, clasping your hands under his abdomen and 
 raising him sufficiently to permit the water to run from the air 
 passages, lungs and stomach. 
 
 SCHAFER METHOD OF RESTORING RESPIRATION. 
 
 2. After removing water from the lungs and clearing the air 
 passages, place the patient on his abdomen with his face pro- 
 tected by clothing and turned to one side so that the mouth and 
 nose are free for breathing. Kneel beside him, or, if preferred, 
 astride him, with your knees at his hips, and facing towards his 
 head ; place the palms of your hands on the small of his back, 
 the base of the palms in line with the spinal column, thumbs 
 extended and nearly touching and fingers slightly extended. 
 First movement : Lean forward and gradually bring the weight 
 of your body on your hands, the movement taking two or three 
 seconds. Avoid all approach to roughness, such as might injure 
 the internal organs. The object of the movement is to compress 
 the lower part of the chest and abdomen, forcing the air and 
 water out of the lungs. Second movement: Swing backward, 
 releasing the pressure quickly but leaving your hands in place. 
 The object of this movement is to allow the lungs to expand 
 with the release of pressure and therefore for air to rush in to 
 fill up the air spaces of the lungs. These two movements of 
 compression and release simulate natural breathing and the move- 
 
818 Plate No. 199. 
 
 TO REMOVE WATER FROM LUNGS 
 
 TO RESTORE RESPIRATION-FIRST MOVEMENT 
 
 TO RESTORE RESPIRATION-SECOND MOVEMENT] 
 
 REVIVING THE APPARENTLY DROWNED. 
 
APPENDIX. 8l9 
 
 ments should be so regulated as to be completed about fifteen 
 times to the minute, each double movement occupying about 
 four seconds. Continue the artificial respiration until the patient 
 breathes, and for a while after signs of returning life, carefully 
 aiding the first short gasps until deepened into full breaths. 
 
 AFTER TREATMENT. 
 
 3. Externally; As soon as breathing is established let the 
 patient be stripped of all wet clothing, wrapped in blankets only, 
 put to bed comfortably warm, but with a free circulation of 
 fresh air, and left to perfect rest. The warmth of the body may 
 be promoted by brisk rubbing of the limbs, the rubbing being 
 always toward the body, by the application of hot flannels to the 
 stomach and armpits, and bottles of hot water, heated bricks, 
 etc., to the limbs and soles of the feet. 
 
 Internally: Give whisky or brandy and hot water in doses 
 of a teaspoonful to a tablespoonful every ten or fifteen minutes 
 for the first hour, and as often thereafter as may seem expedient. 
 If neither whisky nor brandy is at hand, some other stimulant 
 may be substituted. 
 
 LATER APPLICATIONS. 
 
 4. After reaction is fully established there is great danger of 
 congestion of the lungs, and if perfect rest is not maintained for 
 at least forty-eight hours it sometimes occurs that the patient 
 is seized with great difficulty of breathing, and death is liable to 
 follow unless immediate relief is afforded. In such cases apply 
 a large mustard plaster over the breast. If the patient gasps for 
 breath before the mustard takes effect, assist the breathing by 
 carefully repeating the artificial respiration. 
 
 XII. INSTRUCTIONS FOR SAVING DROWNING PERSONS 
 BY SWIMMING TO THEIR RELIEF. 
 
 1. When you approach a person drowning in the water assure 
 him with a loud and firm voice that he is safe. 
 
 2. Before jumping in to save him, divest yourself as far and as 
 quickly as possible of all clothes; tear them off if necessary; but 
 if there is not time, loose at all events the foot of your drawers, 
 
82O APPENDIX 
 
 if they are tied, as, if you do not do so, they will fill with water 
 and drag you. 
 
 3. On swimming to a person in the sea, if he be struggling do 
 not seize him then, but keep off for a few secouds till he gets 
 quiet, for it is sheer madness to take hold of a man when he is 
 struggling in the water, and if you do you run a great risk. 
 
 4. Then get close to him and take fast hold of the hair of his 
 head, turn him as quickly as possible onto his back, give him a 
 sudden pull, and this will cause him to float, then throw yourself 
 on your back also and swim for the shore, both hands having 
 hold of his hair, you on your back and he also on his, and of 
 course his back to your stomach. In this way you will get 
 sooner and safer ashore than by any other means, and you can 
 easily thus swim with two or three persons ; a good swimmer 
 has, as an experiment, done it with four, and gone with them 
 40 or 50 yards in the sea. One great advantage of this method 
 is that it enables you to keep your head up and also to hold the 
 person's head up you are trying to save. It is of primary im- 
 portance that you take fast hold of the hair and throw both 
 the person and yourself on your backs. After many experi- 
 ments, it is usually found preferable to all other methods. You 
 can in this manner float nearly as long as you please, or until 
 a boat or other help can be obtained. 
 
 5. It is believed there is no such thing as a death grasp; at 
 least it is very unusual to witness it. As soon as a drowning 
 man begins to get feeble and to lose his recollection, he gradu- 
 ally slackens his hold until he quits it altogether. No appre- 
 hension need, therefore, be felt on that head when attempting 
 to rescue a drowning person. 
 
 6. After a person has sunk to the bottom, if the water be 
 smooth, the exact position where the body lies may be known by 
 the air bubbles, which will occasionally rise to the surface, allow- 
 ance being of course made for the motion of the water, if in a 
 tideway or stream, which will have carried the bubbles out of a 
 perpendicular course in rising to the surface. Oftentimes a body 
 may be regained from the bottom, before too late for recovery, 
 by diving for it in the direction indicated hy these bubbles. 
 
 7- On rescuing a person by diving to the bottom, the hair of 
 the head should be seized by one hand only, and the other used 
 in conjunction with the feet in raising yourself and the drown- 
 ing person to the surface. 
 
APPENDIX 821 
 
 8. If in the sea, it may sometimes be a great error to try to 
 get to land. If there be a strong " outsetting " tide, and you 
 are swimming either by yourself or having hold of a person 
 who can not swim, then get on your back and float till help 
 comes. Many a man exhausts himself by stemming the bil- 
 lows for the shore on a back-going tide, and sinks in the effort, 
 when, if he had floated, a boat or other aid might have been 
 obtained. 
 
 9. These instructions apply alike to all circumstances, whether 
 as regards the roughest sea or smooth water. 
 
INDEX 
 
 References are to pages. Light face figures indicate text. Bold face fig- 
 ures refer to illustrations. 
 
 Advance of vessel in turning 328, 
 
 805 
 
 Aground (See "Stranded"): 
 Lights for a vessel, 390, 391 
 Alongside : 
 
 a dock. Handling a steamer, 
 
 487, 486, 488, 495, 498, 499, 
 
 502, 505, 508, 511, 588, 589, 
 
 596 
 a ship. Handling a boat, 200, 
 
 201 
 a ship. Handling a steamer, 
 
 681, 595, 596, 598 
 Anchor -s : 
 
 Advantages of long scope in 
 
 lying at, 270, 271, 571 
 Carrying out, by boats 301, 
 
 303, 305, 307, 311, 312 
 Destroyers riding at single 
 
 anchor. To prevent sheer- 
 ing oi 271 
 Dragging, 271, 274 
 Fog-signal for vessel at, 396 
 For United States Navy 232, 
 
 233, 234, 235, 239 
 Foul, 263 
 
 Letting go, (See "Anchor- 
 ing") 
 
 Old-fashioned, 231, 232 
 Patent, various types of 233, 
 
 234, 235 
 
 Picking up, by boats 316 
 Riding at single, 270 
 Riding out a gale at, 274 
 Stern, 266 
 Stowage of, 236, 237, 238, 240, 
 
 256, 272 
 Stowage of, on destroyers. 
 
 271, 272 
 
 Weighing, 262, 671 
 Anchoring: 256 
 By the stern 266 
 In deep water 262 
 In formation 260, 670 
 Safe speed for, 260, 261, 670, 
 
 280 
 While going ahead 260 
 
 Assistance to vessels in distress 
 
 607, 610, 618, 619, 725, 729, 732, 
 
 737, 741, 743, 745 
 Assistance to vessels stranded (See 
 
 "Stranded Vessels") 
 Atlantic Fleet. " Notes B," on 
 
 Handling Ships 688 
 
 Backing : 
 
 Effect of wind upon a ship, 
 
 354 
 Screw, with ship going ahead 
 
 337, 352 
 Steamers, Rules of Road for 
 
 433 
 
 Baldt anchor 233, 234 
 Barometer : 539 
 Care of, 539 
 
 Indications of, in connection 
 with weather 522, 529, 533. 
 534, 535, 538, 542, 548, 552, 
 555 
 
 Barometric : 
 Gradient 523 
 Tides 539, 542 
 Bearings : 
 
 Compass, 128 
 
 Of center of a hurricane 554 
 Relative, 127, 128 
 Battleships 2, 3 
 Battle cruisers 4, 5 
 Bend. Rounding a 447, 478, 606, 
 
 607 
 
 Blocks : 77, 79 
 and tackles, 77 
 Strength of, 92 
 Strength of hooks and shackles 
 
 of, 92 
 Boat -s: 147 
 
 Build of, 148, 149, 150 
 Buoyancy of, 151, 152, 153 
 Carrying out anchors by, 301, 
 
 303, 305, 307, 311, 312 
 Classification of (legal), 152 
 Davits. 158, 166, 167, 168, 169 
 Detaching apparatus for, 173, 
 175, 177, 178, 180 
 
 822 
 
INDEX. 
 
 82 3 
 
 Floating power of, 315, 316 
 For merchant vessels and men- 
 of-war contrasted, 147 
 Handling, alongside a ship 200, 
 
 201 
 Handling, alongside a wreck 
 
 726 
 
 Handling, by a crane and run- 
 ner 186, 187 
 
 Handling, in a gale 216 
 Handling, in a squall 210, 214 
 Handling, in a surf 219 
 Handling, under oars 215 
 Handling, under sail 209 
 Hoisting, at sea 183, 186, 187 
 Life, (See "Life Boats") 
 Lowering, at sea in bad weath- 
 er 182, 183, 186 
 Lundin decked type, 159, 160 
 Metallic, 148 
 Motor, 155, 157, 161, 163, 189, 
 
 198, 200 
 Parts of a, 150 
 Power, handling and care of 
 
 189 
 
 Releasing gear for (See "De- 
 taching Apparatus") 
 Rigs of, for sailing 203, 204, 
 
 206 
 
 Running a line by a, 216 
 Self-bailing, 152. 154 
 Self-righting. 155, 156 
 Steward type, 157, 158 
 Stowage and handling of, 153, 
 
 166, 170, 171, 172, 181 
 Towing, 217 
 
 Types of, 148, 149, 152, 154 
 
 156, 158, 160, 162, 164, 165 
 
 United States Coast Guard, 
 
 154, 155, 156 
 United States Navv, 161, 162, 
 
 164, 790 
 Boom for handling weights 98, 
 
 100, 101 
 
 Breakdown in squadron 661 
 Breeches-buoy use of, 759 761 
 Buoyage, 482, 812, 813, 814, 815, 
 816 
 
 Cable -s (Chain): 241 
 
 Advantage of a long scope of, 
 
 270 
 
 Cast steel as material for, 241 
 Chain lockers for, 248, 249 
 Details of, for men-of-war 242 
 Manufacture of, 241 
 Marking of, 253 
 Overhauling a, 254 
 
 Slipping, 271 
 Stoppers for, 250, 251 
 Stowing, 248, 249 
 Weight of, 253 
 Canvas, 776 
 Chain (See " Cable-Chain ") : 
 
 Use of, as a tow line 695, 704 
 Changing course in squadron, 664, 
 
 668, 669 
 Channels : 
 
 Passing dredge at work in, 438 
 Rounding a bend in a, 477, 478, 
 
 606, 607 
 
 Rules of Road for, 422, 433 
 Circles, turning, 326, 327, 330, 333, 
 
 804 
 
 Clear and foul hawse 277, 280 
 Clear hawse gear 281, 283 
 Clearing hawse 281, 282, 283, 285 
 Cloud-forms. Description of, 540, 
 
 542 
 Cloud-formation in a hurricane 
 
 545, 546 
 Coast Guard, U. S.: 745 
 
 Assistance to vessels in dis- 
 tress, 745, 751, 752, 758, 761 
 Boats of, 154, 155, 156 
 Destruction of derelicts by, 754 
 Doctrine of, as to assisting ves- 
 sels in distress 745 
 Organization and work of, 745 
 Patrol of coast by, 756 
 Stations of, 754 
 Collision : 442 
 
 Duty of ships to stand by after, 
 
 441 
 Effect of speed upon the point 
 
 of, 445 
 
 Facts concerning, to be enter- 
 ed in log 441 
 Laws relating to, 441 
 Manoeuvring to avoid, 442, 
 
 443, 444, 449, 450, 456 
 , in a fog, 453, 456 
 Risk of, how determined 404 
 Rules of the Road for avoid- 
 ing, 361, 362, 404, 405 
 To avoid, between vessels back- 
 ing 433 
 , between vessels crossing 
 
 412, 418, 420 
 , between vessels meeting 
 
 408 
 
 , between vessels overtak- 
 ing and overtaken. 420, 
 428 
 , between steamers and 
 
 sailing vessels. 418 
 Collision mat 462, 463 
 
824 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Compass: 117 
 
 " Boxing" the, 118 
 Cards 116, 119, 120 
 Gyroscopic, 120, 123, 124, 125 
 As installed in battleships 
 
 123, 124, 125 
 Magnetic, 117 
 Radio, 128, 123, 130 
 
 as used in navigation 128, 
 
 130 
 Composition and resolution of 
 
 forces 65, 67 
 Cordage (See "Rope") 
 Corrosion of ships. To prevent, 
 
 801, 802 
 Course. Changing, in formation 
 
 664, 668, 669 
 Courts : 
 
 Decisions of, on Rules of 
 
 Road, 429, 435 
 , on men-of-war in forma- 
 tion 434 
 
 , on speed in a fog 435 
 , on steamers meeting and 
 
 crossing 429 
 Crane. Handling boats by a, 186, 
 
 187 
 
 Cross in hawse: 277, 281 
 Cannot be cleared, 287 
 Crossing steamers: 412, 413 
 
 Crossing ahead. To be avoid- 
 ed, 418 
 
 Manoeuvring to avoid collision, 
 443, 444, 445, 447, 449, 450, 
 456 
 
 Remarks on, 429 
 Rules of Road for, 412, 418, 
 
 420 
 
 Sound signals for, Internation- 
 al Rules 412, 424 
 Sound signals for, United 
 States Inland Rules 413, 425 
 Current -s : 473 
 
 Danger of, in piloting 473 
 Effect of, in rounding a bend 
 
 477, 748, 606, 607 
 Screw, 321 
 Tidal, do not correspond with 
 
 high and low water, 474 
 Wake, 324 
 Curves of steamers in turning 326, 
 
 327, 330, 333 
 
 Cyclones -s (See "Storms," "Ty- 
 phoons," " Hurricanes ") : 
 522 
 
 Bearing of center of, 554 
 Indications of, 552 
 Manoeuvring in, 554 
 Origin and development of, 544 
 
 Path of, 549, 553, 554, 555, 558 
 Signals of approaching, 561- 
 
 562 
 Cyclones and anti-cyclones 522, 527 
 
 Danger-angle 467 
 
 Dangers to navigation. How dealt 
 
 with 749 
 Danger-signal in United States 
 
 waters 417 
 Davits for boats : 166 
 
 Mechanical, 158, 168, 169 
 Old style, 166, 167 
 Decks. Nomenclature of, 798 
 Derelicts, how dealt with 749 
 Derrick. Handling weights by a, 
 
 101, 102, 103, 110, 111 
 Destroyers: 6, 9, 579, 581 
 Fuelling, at sea 613, 614 
 
 Maumee method of, 615, 
 
 617 
 
 Getting clear of a dock or ves- 
 sel 596, 598 
 Handling, alongside a dock 
 
 588, 589, 596, 597 
 Handling, alongside a vessel at 
 
 anchor 595, 596 
 Handling, alongside a vessel at 
 
 sea 613, 614.. 617, 618 
 Handling, in heavy weather 603 
 Handling, in narrow waters 
 
 587, 588 
 
 Manoeuvring of, 585 
 Motive power of, 583 
 Navigation of, 604 
 Plan for stowing anchors of, 
 
 in hawse-pipe, 271, 272 
 Rescuing the crew of a wreck, 
 
 617, 619 
 Riding at anchor, in restricted 
 
 waters 603 
 
 Riding at anchor from bull- 
 nose 271, 272 
 Rounding a bend 477, 478. 606, 
 
 607 
 
 Stowing anchors of, 271, 272 
 Taking fuel, stores or passen- 
 gers from a vessel underway 
 613, 614 
 Towing, 609 
 
 Towing, alongside another ves- 
 sel, 613, 614 
 Turning, in a limited space, 
 
 587, 588 
 Types of, 579 
 
 Detaching apparatus for boats: 
 173, 175, 177, 178, 180 
 
INDEX. 
 
 82 5 
 
 Automatic hooks. 174, 175 
 Broady, 180, 181 
 Mills, 179, 180 
 Rottmer, 176, 177 
 Diameter, tactical 328, 664, 804 
 Differential and duplex purchases 
 
 89, 90 
 Dip-rope (See "Clear Hawse 
 
 Gear ") 
 Disabled vessel, taking a, in tow 
 
 711, 752 
 Distance : 
 
 Keeping, in formation 654, 657 
 Of an object determined by a 
 
 vertical angle 467 
 Of an object in the horizon 
 
 468 
 Of an object by two bearings 
 
 469, 470 
 
 Distress (See "Assistance to Ves- 
 sels in Distress") 
 Distress. Signals of, 426, 427 
 Dock : 
 
 Dry (See "Dry-dock") 
 Handling a steamer alongside 
 a, 486, 487, 488, 495, 498, 
 499, 502, 505, 506, 508, 511, 
 588, 589, 596 
 To wind a steamer alongside a, 
 
 505, 506 
 Docking : 
 
 an ocean-liner 511, 512 
 Plan 516. 518 
 Vessels 516, 518 
 Doldrums, the 530 
 Drag of the propeller : 565 
 Effect of, in lying-to 565 
 In towing 710 
 Dragging anchor 271, 274 
 Drainage of ships 20 
 Dredge at work in channel, Rules 
 
 for passing 438 
 Drift-angle 328 
 Drift-lead. Use of, 275 
 Drowned. To restore the appar- 
 ently, 817, 818 
 Dry-dock: 516 
 
 Examination of a vessel in, 
 
 520 
 
 Placing a vessel in, 516, 518 
 Precautions while in, 520 
 Removing a vessel from, 521 
 Dunn anchor 233, 234 
 
 E 
 
 Echoes, Use of, in a fog 482 
 Elbow in the hawse, 277, 281 
 Electric drive. Handling ships 
 
 propelled by. 678 
 Eels anchor 234, 235 
 
 F 
 
 Fair tide: 
 
 Advantages of, in rounding a 
 
 bend. 477, 478, 606, 607 
 Danger of, in coming along- 
 side. 497 
 Ferry-boats : 
 
 Lights for, 375 
 Privileges of, 423 
 Firemain 20 
 Fishing-vessels : 
 Described 384 
 Fog-signals for, 388 
 Lights for, 379, 382, 383, 384, 
 
 385, 386 
 
 Privileges of, 422, 423 
 Flare-up lights: 
 
 Used by fishing vessels 386 
 Used by overtaken vessels 390, 
 
 391 
 
 Used by pilot vessels 380, 381 
 Used to attract attention 392, 
 
 393 
 "Florida," U. S. S., Notes on 
 
 handling the, 672 
 Fog: 
 
 Coasting in a, 481, 482 
 Decisions of courts as to speed 
 
 in a, 435 
 Lookout at bow, required in a, 
 
 437 
 
 Manoeuvring in a, to avoid col- 
 lision 453 
 Manoeuvring in a, in squadron 
 
 659 
 Moderate speed in a, defined 
 
 400, 435 
 
 Navigating in a, 479, 481 
 Running by soundings in a, 481 
 Speed in a, 400, 435 
 Fog-signal, forward of beam, 400 
 Fog-signals : 392 
 
 For miscellaneous craft 397 
 For small vessels and boats 
 
 398, 399 
 For steamers having way 394, 
 
 395 
 For steamers underway but 
 
 stopped 394, 395 
 For vessels at anchor 396, 397 
 For vessels fishing 388 
 For vessels handling telegraph 
 
 cable 396 
 For vessels towing and towed 
 
 396, 397 
 For vessels not under command 
 
 396, 397 
 
 For vessels under sail 396, 397 
 Interval between, (Internation- 
 al) 394 
 
826 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Interval between, (Inland) 395 
 Length of blasts for, 392 
 
 Forces. The composition and reso- 
 lution of, 65, 67 
 
 Formation (See "Squadron"): 
 Breakdown in, 661 
 Keeping station in, 653 
 Regaining station in, 657 
 Rules of the Road applied to 
 men-of-war in, 434, 437 
 
 Foul anchor 263 
 
 Foul hawse 280, 277 
 
 Friction : 
 
 In blocks and tackles 84 
 
 Gale: 
 
 Handling a steamer in a, 565 
 Lying-to in a, 566. 569, 572, 
 
 575 
 Riding out a, at anchor, 274, 
 
 603 
 
 Galvanizing wire-rope 40 
 Getting underway: 262, 671 
 
 In a squadron 671 
 Ground tackle (See "Anchors, 
 
 Cables, Windlasses," etc.) 231 
 Gybing a sail 214 
 
 Gyroscopic compass (See "Com- 
 pass, Gyroscopic") 
 
 H 
 
 Handling ships in heavy weather 
 
 Hawse : 
 
 Clear and foul, 277, 280 
 Gear for clearing, (See "Clear- 
 hawse Gear") 
 To clear, 281, 282 
 Hawsers : 
 
 Care of, 44, 45 
 
 For mooring 43 
 
 For towing 41, 43, 695, 696, 
 
 697 
 
 Manila, 696, 791 
 Tables of dimensions and 
 
 strength, 791, 795 
 Wire, 697, 795 
 
 Heavy weights. Handling: 83, 
 91, 96, 97, 99, 100, 101, 103, 
 104 
 
 Practical examples in, 107 
 Heavy weather. Handling steam- 
 ers in, 565, 603 
 Hemp rope 32, 33, 34 
 " Highs " and " Lows " in atmos- 
 pheric pressure 522, 527, 528, 
 533, 535 
 
 Hoisting a boat in a seaway 183, 
 
 186, 187 
 Hooks : 
 
 Automatic releasing, for boats 
 
 174 
 
 and shackles; strength of, com- 
 pared 92 
 
 Hull and fittings of a ship 15 
 Hurricane (See "Cyclones" and 
 
 " Storms ") 
 Signals, 558, 562 
 
 " Idaho," U S. S., Notes on handl- 
 ing the, 677 
 
 Inertia. Moment of, as affecting 
 the turning of ships 358 
 
 Inland Rules of the Road, United 
 States 362 
 
 Inland Rules of the Road, Other 
 Nations 440 
 
 Inland Waters of United States. 
 Limits of, 428 
 
 International Rules of the Road 
 362 
 
 " Jupiter," U. S. S., Notes of handl- 
 ing the, 678 
 
 Keeping station and manoeuvring 
 
 in squadron 653 
 
 Kelvin sounding machine 127, 139 
 Knots 48, 49, 51, 53, 55 
 Knotting and splicing 48 
 
 L 
 
 Land and sea breezes 537 
 
 Laws relating of Rules of the Road 
 
 360, 429, 435, 441 
 Laws of storms 522 
 Lead. Use of the, 136 
 Letting go Anchor (See "An- 
 chor") 
 
 Lever. The, 74, 75 
 Life-boats (See "Boats"): 
 Equipment of, 185 
 How carried 163, 167, 172, 181, 
 
 751 
 
 Legal requirements for. 152 
 Lowering, 182, 183, 186, 725, 
 
 729 
 
 Man-of-war rules for, 184 
 Standard Type of, 152, 153 
 Life-Buoys 733 
 Life-rafts 159, 165 
 Light-cruisers 6, 9 
 Lights for vessels 360, 362, 365, 
 370, 371, 378, 379, 410, 414, 415 
 
INDEX. 
 
 82 7 
 
 Line. Keeping station in, in squad- 
 ron 662 
 
 Line of bearing 663 
 Lone for towing (See "Tow- 
 line") 
 
 Line-throwing gun 715, 755, 757 
 Log: 
 
 Care and adjustment of, 131 
 Forbes, 136 
 Nicholson, 135 
 Patent, 131, 132 
 
 Advantages and disadvan- 
 tages of, 133 
 
 Lookout at bow in fog 437, 462, 660 
 "Lows" "and "Highs" (See 
 
 "Highs" and "Lows") 
 Lundin decked life boat 159, 160 
 Lying-to in heavy weather: 566, 
 
 575 
 
 Destroyers, 603 
 Submarines, 650 
 
 M 
 
 Magnetic compass (See "Compass, 
 
 Magnetic") 
 Man overboard, 733 
 In squadron, 661 
 Life-buoys and life-rafts for, 
 
 733 
 
 Picking up, with ship, 662, 735 
 Stopping or turning, to pick up, 
 
 / oD 
 
 Manila : 
 
 Fibre, distinguished from hemp, 
 
 32, 33 
 
 For tow line, 696 
 Rope (See "Rope, Manila") 
 Tables of dimensions and 
 
 strength of, 791 
 Manoeuvring: 
 
 in a hurricane 554 
 
 in squadron 653, 664, 668 671 
 
 674, 675, 677, 688 
 to avoid collision, 442, 443, 444, 
 
 449, 450, 456 
 "Marietta," U. S. S. Rescue by, 
 
 731 
 Mechanical appliances on shipboard 
 
 65 
 
 Meeting steamers: 408, 409 
 Pilot rules for, 408 
 Remarks on, 429, 432 
 Rules of Road for, 408, 409 
 Sound, signals for, 409, 424, 425 
 To avoid collision, 442 
 Megaphone. Use of, in a fog 461 
 Moderate speed in a fog 400, 435, 
 459 
 
 Monsoons 537 
 Moor. A flying, 279 
 Moored. A ship, 276, 277 
 Mooring: 276, 277, 278, 279 
 
 Advantages and disadvantages 
 
 of, 276, 278 
 
 Safe speed for, 261, 280 
 Mooring swivel : 287, 283 
 
 To put on the, 290, 289, 291, 
 
 293, 296, 298 
 
 To take off the, 297, 289, 291 
 Motor boats (See "Boats, Mo- 
 tor") 
 
 N 
 
 "National" anchor. The, 234, 235 
 Navigating in a fog 479, 481 
 Navigation. Dangers to, 749 
 "Nevada," U. S. S. Notes on 
 
 handling the, 675 
 Nicholson log The 135 
 
 Oars. Handling a boat under, 215 
 Officer of the Deck. Duties of the, 
 
 685 
 Oil, The use of, for calming the 
 
 sea: 572 
 
 For boarding a wreck, 727 
 For hoisting and lowering boats 
 
 184, 575 
 For taking a disabled vessel in 
 
 tow, 712 
 Overtaking vessel: 
 
 Rules of Road for, 420, 421 
 
 Paints for ship's use 801 
 
 Parbuckling 98, 99 
 
 Parcelling 61, 62 
 
 Patent Logs 131, 132 
 
 Pelorus 125, 127 
 
 Pilot-charts 560 
 
 Pilot Rules for United States 
 waters 361, 413, 417 
 
 Pilot vessel. Lights for, 378, 380, 
 381, 382, 384 
 
 Piloting 465 
 
 Pivoting point of steamer in turn- 
 ing 329 
 
 Plimsoll Mark 788, 789 
 
 Preservation of ships 799 
 
 Propeller -s : 21, 22 
 
 Drag of the, lying-to 565 
 Resistance of the, in towing 710 
 
 Pumps and their uses 786 
 
828 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 R 
 
 Range-lights 360, 366, 367, 370, 371, 
 
 410, 414, 415 
 Reefing, in a boat 211 
 Releasing gear for boats (See "De- 
 taching Apparatus") 
 Rescuing the crew of a wreck 619, 
 
 725, 729, 751, 758, 761 
 Revolutions of screw for measur- 
 ing speed 133 
 
 Rig of ship's boats for sailing 203 
 Rig of various types of sailing 
 
 craft 765 
 
 Rigging of ships 769 
 Rocket. Use of, for throwing line 
 
 715 
 
 Rocket-gun 715, 755, 757 
 Rolling of a ship: 568 
 
 Dependent upon period of ship 
 
 and waves, 568 
 Modified by change of course 
 
 or speed, 568 
 Rope : 33, 79 
 
 Fibre, varieties of, 32, 33 
 Hemp, 33, 34, 32. 792 
 Manila, 33, 34, 35, 791 
 
 Distinguished from hemp, 
 
 33, 32 
 Care of, 38 
 Hawsers (See "Haws- 
 
 ers") 
 
 Manufacture of, 34, 35, 36 
 Safe working load for, 91 
 Strength of, 91, 791 
 Tables of, 791 
 Tow lines of, 695 
 Wire (See "Wire-Rope") 39, 
 
 42, 795 
 Rope yarn 38 
 Rudder 23, 18, 22, 24 
 Rules of Road 360 to 427, 360, 370, 
 371, 378, 379, 410, 414, 415, 
 428 
 
 Authorities upon, 361 
 For narrow channels 422 
 For sailing vessels 404 
 For steamers backing 430, 433 
 For steamers crossing 412, 418, 
 
 420, 428 
 
 For steamers meeting 408, 428 
 For vessels towing and towed 
 
 368, 369, 374, 375 
 Prescribing the sound signals, 
 for vessels in sight of 
 each other 409, 413, 417, 
 424, 425 
 
 for vessels in fog 392 to 
 399 
 
 Prescribing vessels' lights 362 
 to 393 
 
 Sails 766, 770, 776, 777, 778, 781, 
 
 783 
 Sailing. Rig of ship's boats for, 
 
 203, 204, 206 
 
 Sailing vessels: 13, 14, 765, 766, 
 767, 770, 773, 778, 781, 783 
 Fog signals for, 396, 397 
 Lights for, 360, 374, 375, 378, 
 
 379 
 
 Rules of the Road for, 404 
 Sails of, 770, 776 
 Types of, 765, 766, 767, 770, 
 
 783 
 
 Scout cruisers 4, 7 
 Screw. Effects of, in steering 321 
 Screws, twin (See " Twin- 
 Screws") 
 
 Screw-currents 321 
 Sea anchor 570, 573 
 Seizings 61, 62 
 Serving a rope 61, 62 
 Sextant angles, Use of, in piloting 
 
 467 
 Shackles : 
 
 For chain cables 243, 244, 245, 
 
 246 
 
 For blocks of tackles 92 
 Strength of, 93 
 Shears: 102, 103 
 
 To calculate stresses on, 107 
 Sheering : 
 
 Of ships at anchor 271 
 
 To prevent, in destroyers and 
 
 eagle boats 271, 272," 273 
 Ship. The, 1 
 Shipwreck (See "Stranding" and 
 
 "Wreck") : 
 Instructions to mariners in 
 
 case of, 758. 759, 761 
 Side-lights 362, 363 
 Signals (See "Fog Signals," 
 " Sound Signals," " Danger Sig- 
 nals," " Distress Signals," etc.) 
 Small-stuff 37 
 Sound Signals: 
 
 For fog, 388. 392 to 399 
 
 For vessels in sight, 408, to 417, 
 
 424. 425 
 Sounding : 
 
 By hand lead 136 
 By sounding machine 138, 139 
 Sounding machine: 137, 139 
 
 Navigating by, in a fog 480, 
 481, 482 
 
INDEX. 
 
 82Q 
 
 Span : 72 
 
 For towing, 701, 703 
 
 Riding to a, when moored 276, 
 
 277 
 Speed : 
 
 In a fog 400, 435, 459 
 Measurement of, by log 131 
 Measurement of, by revolutions 
 
 133 
 " Moderate," defined by courts 
 
 435 
 
 Safe, for anchoring or moor- 
 ing 260, 261, 280, 673, 674 
 Safe, for towing 710 
 Splicing 54, 57, 59 
 Squadron (See "Formation"): 
 Anchoring in, 670 
 Breakdown in, 661 
 Changing course in, 664, 668, 
 
 669 
 
 Getting underway in, 671 
 Handling turbine ships in, 671 
 Keeping station in, 654, 662, 
 
 663, 688 
 
 Manoeuvring in a fog, in, 659 
 Man overboard in, 661 
 Regaining station in, 657, 688 
 Rules of the Road for ships in, 
 
 434 
 Squall, Handling a boat in a, 210, 
 
 214 
 Steamers. The steering of (See 
 
 "Steering of Steamers") 
 Steamers crossing (See "Crossing 
 
 Steamers ") 
 Steamers meeting (See "Meeting 
 
 Steamers") 
 Steam launches : 
 Care of, 189 
 
 Of U. S. Navy, 161, 162, 163 
 Handling of, 200 
 Handling, alongside a ship 200, 
 
 201 
 
 With turbine engines, 196 
 Steering of steamers : 320 
 
 Analysis of factors entering in- 
 to the, 321 
 Effect of screw currents upon, 
 
 321 
 Effect of shallow water upon, 
 
 356 
 
 Effect of trim upon, 355, 664 
 Effect of wind and sea upon, 
 
 354 
 
 In steaming ahead, 326 
 Steering by twin screws, 351 
 Steering-gear, 22, 23, 24, 26, 27, 31 
 Stoppers : 
 
 For chain cable, 250, 251 
 
 For tackles, 105, 106 
 
 For wire-rope, 105 
 Stopping. Space required for, 332 
 Storms: 522 (See "Cyclones," 
 " Typhoons," " Hurricanes," 
 etc.) 
 
 Indications of approaching, 552 
 
 Manoeuvring in, 554 
 
 Signals announcing the ap- 
 proach of, 561, 562 
 
 The laws of, 522, 544 
 
 Tracks of, 548, 549, 553, 555, 
 556 
 
 Velocity of translation of, 551 
 Stranded Vessels: 737 
 
 Assisting. 607, 610, 619, 739, 
 
 741, 743, 753, 758, 761 
 Stranding 737 (See " Stranded 
 
 Vessels") 
 Straps. For hooking tackles 81, 
 
 105, 106 
 
 Submarine signals 140. 142, 145 
 Submarines: 8, 9, 630, 632 
 
 Buoyancy of, 8, 634, 638 
 
 Chlorine gas in, 647 
 
 Dangers and precautions in 
 handling, 646 
 
 Diving 637, 639 
 
 Emergencies in, 647 
 
 General features of, 630, 632 
 
 Operating, 634, 636 
 
 Operating, submerged 637, 642 
 
 Periscopes for, 635, 642 
 
 Submerging, 636 
 
 Ventilation of, 633 
 Submarine chasers: 621, 625 
 
 Fueling at sea, 626 
 
 Machinery of, 623 
 
 Performance of, at sea, 629 
 
 Towing gear 623 
 Surf. Handling boats in a, 219 
 Swivels: 247, 248 
 
 Mooring, 283, 287 
 
 Tacking a Boat 212 
 Tackles : 78, 80 
 
 Differential and duplex, 89, 
 90 
 
 Loss of power by friction in, 
 84, 85, 91 
 
 Power of, 78, 80 
 
 Power of, purchased by loss in 
 speed, 86 
 
 Strength and power of (ex- 
 amples) 91 
 
 Types of, 80, 81, 82, 83, 87, 
 89, 90 
 
830 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 "Yard and stay," 82, 88 
 Tactical diameter: 328 
 
 Instructions for obtaining, 804 
 Tanner-Blish sounding machines 
 
 138, 139 
 
 Telemotor 30, 31 
 Tonnage of ships 785 
 Tow: 
 
 Fog-signals for vessels in, 396, 
 
 397 
 
 Lights for vessels in, 368, 369 
 Resistance of, 710 
 Taking a disabled vessel in, 711 
 Taking a submarine in, 651 
 Turning a, 495, 515, 713 
 Towing : 695 
 
 Alongside 713, 720, 721 
 Boats 217 
 
 Destroyers, 596, 609 
 Engines, 720, 721, 722 
 Equipment, U. S. Navy 718, 
 
 719 
 Fog-signals for vessels, 396, 
 
 397 
 Lights for vessels, 368, 369, 
 
 370, 371 
 
 Signals for use in, 714 
 Speed of, 710 
 Submarines 651 
 Tow-line : 695 
 
 Chain cables as, 695 
 
 Manila as, 696 
 
 Securing, on the towed ship 
 
 703, 704, 705, 709 
 on the towing ship, 697, 
 
 698, 699, 702, 703 
 Wire as, 695 
 Wire and manila combined as, 
 
 696 
 
 Getting across by boat, float, line- 
 throwing gun or rocket 708, 715 
 Trade Winds 524, 530 
 Tugs. Handling a vessel by, 510, 
 
 511 
 Turbine ships: 671 
 
 Anchoring in formation 673 
 Cruising and manoeuvring in 
 formation 671, 673, 674, 676, 
 677 
 Getting underway in formation 
 
 673 
 
 Stopping and backing 674 
 Turning: 
 
 A single screw steamer 345 
 A tow, 713, 723 
 A twin-screw steamer 351, 352 
 Circles 326, 327, 330 
 Curves 326, 327, 330, 333 
 
 In a limited space 345, 347, 587, 
 588 
 
 In squadron formation 664, 668 
 
 Simultaneously 669 
 
 Utilizing wind and current for, 
 
 347, 348 
 
 To pick up a man overboard, 735 
 Typhoons, (See "Cyclones") 
 Twin-Screws : 349 
 
 Advantages of, 349 
 
 Manoeuvring by, 351 
 
 Steering by, 351 
 
 Ventilation of ships 19 
 Ventilation of submarines 624 
 Vessels in distress (See "Distress, 
 Vessels in") 
 
 W 
 
 Waves: 
 
 Period of, in relation to rolling pe- 
 riod of ship 568 
 Weather : 
 
 Explanation of phenomena of, 
 
 523, 529, 532, 534, 550 
 Map. Details of, 533, 536 
 Signals 562 
 Weather and the Laws of Storms 
 
 522 
 
 Weights. Handling Heavy, 97 
 Wind -s: 
 
 Circulation of, in "Highs" and 
 
 "Lows" 522, 527, 528 
 Determined by barometric gra- 
 dient, 523 
 Effect of, in ship backing 355, 
 
 347 
 , on ship stopped, 348, 354, 
 
 347 
 
 General circulation of, 530 
 Trade, 530, 524, 525 
 Winding a Ship at Dock, 506, 600, 
 
 505, 506 
 Windlasses: 255, 257, 258. 259 
 
 Directions for care of, 256 
 Wire-rope: 39 
 
 Advantages of, 47 
 
 Appliances for use with, 62, 63 
 
 Care of, 44, 45, 47 
 
 For towing 696, 697 
 
 Galvanized vs. ungalvanized 40 
 
 Handling of, 44, 45 
 
 Hawsers of (See' " Hawsers ") 
 
 Manufacture of, 43 
 
 Safe working load for, 91 
 
 Splicing, 58, 39, 61 
 
INDEX. 
 
 831 
 
 Strength of, 91, 795 
 Types of, 41, 42 
 
 case 
 
 RescJng' tl^'crel of a, 619, 
 725, 729, 751 
 
 Yard' 
 
 "* "*" b * ' 97 ' 
 Yard and stay tackle 88, 82 
 
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