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I 
 
 HARVEY'S ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 
 
 AN 
 
 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 
 
 OF THE 
 
 ENGLISH IaNGJjJ^E, 
 
 FOR THE 
 
 USE OF SCHOOLS. ^ 
 
 LISH LANGUAGE.' 
 
 VAN ANTWEKP, BRAGG & CO., 
 
 CINCINlsr ATI: NEAV YORK 
 
 137 WALNUT ST. S8 BOND ST. 
 
Harvey's Language Course. 
 
 REVISED, TWO BOOK SERIES. 
 
 /. Harvey's Revised Elementary Grammar and Composiiion. 
 II. Harvey's Revised English Grammar. 
 
 The best and most practical course In Oral and 
 VITrltten I«ang:uas:e I^essons, Composition, and Bng:- 
 lisli Grammar. Xhe Golden Mean bet^veen tbe too 
 labored attempt at simplification, and tbe scientific 
 technical grrammar. 
 
 " Athorq^h knowledge of the elements, forms, structure, and laws 
 of our moarer-tongue can only iJi acquired by patient, persistent 
 exercise in the analysis and synthesis of words, phrases, and sen- 
 tences. The labor necessary for the acquirement of this knowledge, 
 as well as accuracy and facility in the use of our language, may be 
 * made attrac^ve, but it can not be dispensed with," 
 
 It is claimed for Harvey's Language Course that it shows how this 
 labor s^^ be expended to secure th^/H^t results. 
 
 I. Necessary instruction is given in simple yet concise 
 form, thus economizing the time and energies of both pupil 
 and |eacher. 
 
 2. M^el Oral Lessons, which first appeared as a special 
 feature idWARVEY'S ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR, and 
 ^ave proven so popular, are here presented in an improved 
 and sugge^ve form. 
 
 3. Sentence-making and Composition are presented in a 
 natural andfattractive manner. 
 
 4. Pictorial Illustrations are employed in teaching Com- 
 position. 
 
 5. Special attention is given to exercises in False Syntax, 
 care being taken to include the common errors of speech. 
 
 6. Diagrams for "mapping" sentences are given early 
 in the course, with Models for Analysis. 
 
 7. The higher book contains an exhaustive presentation 
 of the properties and modifications of the different Parts of 
 Speech ; also carefully prepared Models for Parsing and An- 
 alysis ; rules of Syntax and schemes for the description of 
 objects. 
 
 Entered acoording to Act of Conftress, in the vear 1«69, by Wilson. Hinklb & Co.. in the Clerk's 
 Office of the District Court of the United States, for the Southern District of Ohio. 
 
PREFACE 
 
 In the preparation of this work, the aim of the author has 
 been to present the subject in a style neither too difficult for 
 the beginner nor too simple for the more advanced student. 
 As its name indicates, this is an ^elementary, not a liriniarij 
 grammar. 
 
 Part I consists of model oral lessons, illustrating methods 
 of elementary instruction in language culture. These need 
 not be given in the order in which they are arranged; and, 
 if it be found necessary or desirable, they ijjay be varied or 
 subdivided to adapt them to the wants and capacity of the 
 pupil. With these as models, any ingenious teacher can 
 readily prepare similar lessons to simplify or elucidate the 
 more difficult sections in Parts II and III. 
 
 Part II is similar to Part I in spirit and design. The 
 topics, however, are more systematically arranged and devel- 
 oped. Great care has been taken never to define a term or 
 to enunciate a principle without first preparing the mind of 
 the pupil to grasp and comprehend the meaning and use of 
 the terms defined or the principles enunciated- Ideas are first 
 developed by intelligent questioning and appropriate illustra- 
 tions; then, clothed in words. The examples in the drill ex- 
 ercises have been chosen with great care. 
 
 Part III contains a concise yet exhaustive statement of the 
 properties or modifications of the different parts of speech; 
 
 (iii) 
 
IV PREFACE. 
 
 carefully prepared models for parsing and the analysis of com- 
 plex and compound sentences — making, with the analysis 
 taught in Part II, a complete and perfect system; rules of 
 syntax, and cautions, with appropriate exercises in false syn- 
 tax. Notes, remarks, and suggestions have been but sparingly 
 introduced, as they serve rather to confuse than to assist the 
 beginner. 
 
 The author would call special attention to the synthetic 
 exercises in Part II, and the exercises in false syntax in 
 Part III. No thoughtful teacher will neglect or give undue 
 prominence to either class of exercises. Grammatical instruc- 
 tion is of little value unless its aim and end is to teach the 
 pupil to detect and correct inaccuracies in the use of lan- 
 guage, as well as to give forcible, elegant expression to 
 thought. 
 
 It has been said that there is no royal road to geometry. 
 The same may be said of grammar. The meaning and appli- 
 cation of its technical terms must be learned, sentences must 
 be analyzed, words must be parsed, before the student can 
 comprehend the philosophy which underlies the correct use 
 of any language. The labor necessary to acquire this knowl- 
 edge may be made attractive, but it can not be dispensed with, 
 neither can it be materially lessened. All that is claimed for 
 this work is, that it shows how this labor should be expended 
 to secure the best results. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 Names of Things, 
 Teaching new Words, 
 Action-words, 
 Quality-words, . 
 Sentence-making, 
 Things seen in Pictures, 
 Word-picturing, 
 Mispronounced Words, 
 Incorrect Expressions, 
 Classes of Sentences, 
 
 PART II 
 
 The Senses, . 
 Definition of Object, 
 " Word, 
 Language, . 
 Parts of Speech, 
 The Noun, . 
 The Sentence, 
 Parts of a Sentence, . 
 The Noun as Predicate, 
 Elements, 
 The Verb, . 
 Classes of Verbs, 
 Objective Element, . 
 The Adjective, . 
 
 " Article, 
 
 " Participle, . 
 
 " Adjective Element, 
 
 " Pronoun, . 
 
 PAOK. 
 7 
 9 
 10 
 11 
 12 
 14 
 17 
 
 Personal Pronouns, . 
 Possessive " 
 Relative " 
 
 Complex Sentence, 
 Relative Clause, 
 Interrogative Pronouns, 
 The Adverb, 
 
 " Adverbial Element, 
 
 " Preposition, 
 
 " Phrase, 
 
 " Conjunction, 
 Compound Element, 
 The Interjection, 
 Classes of Sentences, 
 Principal Elements, . 
 Subordinate Elements, 
 
 PART III 
 
 The Noun, . 
 
 Gender, . 
 
 Person, . 
 
 Number, . 
 
 Case, 
 
 Declension, 
 
 Parsing, . 
 The Pronoun, . 
 
 Personal Pronouns, 
 
 Possessive " 
 
 Relative " 
 
 Interrogative " 
 
 f 
 
 PAOB. 
 . 46 
 . 48 
 
 50 
 . 51 
 . 51 
 . 53 
 . 55 
 . 55 
 
 57 
 
VI 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 
 
 page. 
 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 False Syutax, Caution3, 
 
 87 
 
 Grammatical Subject, . 
 
 132 
 
 The Adjective, 
 
 90 
 
 Logical Subject, 
 
 132 
 
 Comparison, 
 
 90 
 
 Grammatical Predicate, 
 
 133 
 
 Descriptive Adjectives, , 
 
 90 
 
 Logical Predicate, . 
 
 133 
 
 Definitive 
 
 91 
 93 
 
 Ellipsis, 
 
 V.3 
 
 False Syntax, Cautions, 
 
 Abridgment, .... 
 
 . 134 
 
 The Verb, . = . . , 
 
 95 
 
 Rules of Syntax, 
 
 136 
 
 Voice, 
 
 95 
 
 Miscellaneous Exercises, 
 Questions for Review, . 
 
 140 
 
 Mode 
 
 ■ 96 
 
 143 
 
 Tense, ..... 
 
 98 
 
 
 
 Person and Number, . 
 
 100 
 
 PART IV. 
 
 
 Auxiliaries, .... 
 
 101 
 
 Punctuation, .... 
 
 . 146 
 
 Unipersonal Verbs, . 
 
 101 
 
 The Comma, 
 
 . H6 
 
 Conjugation, 
 
 101 
 
 " Semicolon, . 
 
 . 148 
 
 Coordinate Forms, 
 
 109 
 
 ' Colon, .... 
 
 . 149 
 
 Regular Verbs, . 
 
 111 
 
 " Period 
 
 . 149 
 
 Irregular Verbs, . 
 
 112 
 
 " Interrogation Point, 
 
 . i.'-.o 
 
 Defective and Redundant Verb 
 
 8, 115 
 
 " Exclamation Point, . 
 
 . 150 
 
 False Syntax, Cautions, . 
 
 118 
 
 " Dash, .... 
 
 . 150 
 
 The Adverb, .... 
 
 120 
 
 " Brackets, . 
 
 . 151 
 
 Comparison, .... 
 False Syntax, Cautions, 
 
 . 121 
 123 
 
 Other Marks, .... 
 
 . 151 
 
 
 
 The Preposition, . 
 
 123 
 
 PART V. 
 
 
 The Conjunction, . 
 
 125 
 
 Elementary Sounds, 
 
 . 154 
 
 The Interjection, . 
 
 127 
 
 Table of Sounds, 
 
 . 155 
 
 Simple Sentence. 
 
 128 
 
 Letters 
 
 . 156 
 
 Compound Sentence, 
 
 129 
 
 Capital Letters, 
 
 . 156 
 
 Complex Sentences, 
 
 130 
 
 Syllabus- Words. . . . 
 
 . 159 
 
ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 
 
 PART I. 
 ORAL LESSONS. 
 
 To Teachers. — The lessons in Part I are intended to pre- 
 cede the use of a book in grammatical instruction. That they 
 may be useful, as well as animated and attractive, observe the 
 following directions: 
 
 1. Require prompt answers, always expressed in complete 
 sentences. 
 
 2. Require pupils to copy on their slates whatever you write 
 on the blackboard. 
 
 3. Correct with great care all errors in pronunciation, spelling, 
 punctuation, and the use of capital letters. 
 
 LESSON I. 
 
 1. Names of Things. 
 
 Teacher {taking a book from his desk). — What is this? 
 Pupils. — That is a book. 
 
 The teacher writes this answer on the blackboard : the pupils 
 copy it on their slates. 
 
 T. [Pointing to the word "book*'). — Is that a book? 
 P. — No : that is a word. 
 
 T. — That is right. It is a word used as the name of a thing. 
 Mary, you may bring me a book. James, you may point to 
 
 (7) 
 
8 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 
 
 the word "book". Now, observe that Mary has brought me 
 a thing we call a book, and James has pointed to its name. 
 
 Call the attention of your pupils, in a similar manner, to an 
 mkstand, a pen, a bell, a crayon, a pencil, a slate, a nUer. 
 
 T. — Write these names on your slates, in columns, as 1 
 write them on the blackboard : 
 
 Book. Crayon. 
 
 Inkstand. Pencil. 
 
 Pen. Slate. 
 
 Bell. Ruler. 
 
 T. — With what does each word commence ? 
 P. — Each word commences with a capital letter. 
 T. — What is placed after each word ? 
 P. — A period is placed after each word. 
 T. — What are these words? 
 p. — They are names of things. 
 
 Write, in columns, the names of all objects in the school-room. 
 Let the pupils give the names of objects in the kitchen — in the 
 sitting-room — in the parlor — also, the names of objects seen on 
 their way to school. 
 
 Write six names of things that may be known by the sense of sight. 
 Write six names of things that may be knovm by the sense of hearing. 
 Write six names of things that may be known by the sense of touch. 
 Write six names of things that may be known by the sense of taste. 
 Write six names of things that may be known by the sense of smell. 
 
 Talk with your pupils about the things whose names are given. 
 Encourage them to tell what they know of their uses — of the 
 places where they are found, etc. Let them write sentences like 
 these: "Pepper grows in the East Indies." "Oranges grow in 
 Florida." "Quinine has a bitter taste." "I heard an owl hoot." 
 Pay particular attention to the spelling of these sentences. See 
 that every word is correctly spelled ; that each sentence and every 
 proper name begins with a capital letter, and that a period is 
 placed at the end of each sentence. 
 
ORAL LESSONS. 9 
 
 Eemember that the object of these lessons is not to give in- 
 struction in matters of science, but to lead pupils to observe things, 
 and to teach them how to express their thoughts in correct 
 language. 
 
 LESSON II. 
 
 •Teacher. — We have written the names of five kinds of 
 things. One kind we know by the sense of sight ; another, by 
 the sense of touch or feeling ; another, by the sense of hearing ; 
 another, by the sense of taste ; another, by the sense of smell. 
 Seeing, feeling, hearing, tasting, and smelling are called the five 
 senses. What are the five senses? 
 
 Pupils. — The five senses are seeing, feeling, hearing, tasting, 
 and smelling. 
 
 T. — Any thing which we can see, feel, hear, taste, or smell 
 is called matter. What is matter? 
 
 P. — Matter is any thing that we can see, feel, hear, taste, 
 or smell. 
 
 T. — Write this on your slates. Now repeat it in concert. 
 Those things which are made of matter are called material 
 things. Do you know what material means ? 
 
 P. — We do not. 
 
 T. — It means composed of matter. What, then, are material 
 things ? 
 
 P. — Things composed of matter are material things. 
 
 T. — Write this answer on your slates. What kind of thing 
 is this pencil? 
 
 P. — It is a material thing. 
 
 T. — Why is it a material thing? 
 
 P- — Because it is composed of matter. 
 
 T.— How do you know it is composed of matter? 
 
 P. — Because we can see it and feel it. 
 
 *• — How many new words have you learned in this lesson? 
 
 P. — We have learned three new words. 
 
10 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 
 
 T.— What are they ? 
 
 P. — They are senses, matter, and material. 
 
 T.— What are the five senses? 
 
 Pupils answer the question, and then define matter and 
 material. 
 
 In this lesson is exemplified a method of teaching the meaning 
 and use of new words, or words with which pupils are not familiar. 
 When teaching the name of an object not familiarly known, ex- 
 hibit the object, or a picture of it, before giving its name. 
 
 The names of parts of objects should be taught in a similar 
 manner. Consult any good work on object lessons for illustrative 
 exercises. 
 
 LESSON III. 
 
 2. Action- Words. 
 
 Teacher. — When I say "The boys run", which word tells 
 what the boys are €k)ing ? 
 
 Pupils. — The word "runs" tells what the boys are doing. 
 
 T. — When I say "The dog barks", which word tells what 
 the dog is doing? 
 
 P. — The word " barks " tells what the dog is doing. 
 
 Write these two sentences on the blackboard. 
 
 T. — There are a great many words which tell us what dif- 
 ferent things do. Such words usually express actions. What 
 is a good name for them ? 
 
 P. — Action-words is a good name. 
 
 T. — What, then, are action-words? 
 
 P. — Action-words are words which tell us what different 
 things do. 
 
 T. — AVhen action-words are used with the names of things, 
 they usually affirm soniething of those things. Do you know 
 what "affirm" means? 
 
 P — We do not. 
 
 'M\— "Affinn " means to say. Action-words say something of 
 
ORAL LESSONS. 11 
 
 things. You may now aflfirm the following action-words of 
 appropriate things: walk^ trot, cackle, whistle, plow, fly, play, 
 jump, scratch, sing, remember, whisper, quarrel, recite. 
 
 Pupils write on their slates, "Men walk^\ "Horses trot^\ 
 "Scholars recite", &e. 
 
 T. — You may tell what the following things do : hens, 
 geese, cats, sheep, horses, men, farmers, merchants, vessels, winds, 
 trees, flowers. 
 
 Pupils write on their slates: "Hens cackle", ''^ Vessels sail", 
 ''Trees grow", &c. 
 
 Let the pupils also tell all the actions which any specified 
 object may perform : as, scholars study, scholars learn, scholars 
 recite, &c. ; horses walk, horses trot, horses gallop, horses neigh, 
 horses kick, &c. 
 
 LESSON IV. 
 
 3. Quality- Words. 
 
 Teacher. — Copy on your slates what I write on the black- 
 board. {Writes) "Oranges are sweet". What word describes 
 oranges ? 
 
 Pupils. — The word "sweet" describes oranges. 
 
 T. — That is right. It is a word used to denote that oranges 
 possess a certain quality — that of being sweet. Now, place the 
 word "ripe" before "oranges". Norman, you may read what 
 you have written. 
 
 Norman. — " Ripe oranges are sweet." 
 
 T. — What other word here describes oranges by denoting 
 some quality? 
 
 !•• — The word " ripe " describes oranges. 
 
 T. — As both of these words — ripe and sweet — denote qual- 
 ity, what will be a good name for them ? 
 
 P. — Quality-words will be a good name. 
 
 T.— Is "sweet" placed before or after "oranges"? 
 
 P. — It is placed after "oranges". 
 
12 ELExMENTARY GRAMMAR. 
 
 T. — Where is the word "ripe" placed? 
 
 P. — It is placed before "oranges". 
 
 T. — Where may quality-words be placed, then? 
 
 P. — They may be placed both before and after the names 
 they describe. 
 
 T. — Write all the appropriate quality-words you can think 
 of before the word "apples". 
 
 Pupils write : Sour apples, sioeet apples, pleasant apples, large 
 apples, small apples, sound apples, rotten apples, &c. 
 
 T. — Write all the appropriate quality-words you can think 
 of after the word "ice". 
 
 Pupils write: Ice is cold, ice is heavy, ice is solid, &c. 
 
 T. — When a quality-word is written after the name it de- 
 scribes, a word or group of words is usually placed between it 
 and that name. What word is thus used in the sentences you 
 have just written ? 
 
 P. — The word "is" is thus used. 
 
 T. — When the word "is" or some similar word is placed 
 between a quality-word and the name it describes, the quality- 
 word is said to be affirmed of the name. 
 
 Write the following quality-words before appropriate names : 
 Round, square, large, small, light, heavy, red, yellow, green, 
 smooth, rough, dark, muddy, pretty, sweet. 
 Model. — A round table. 
 
 Write the same ivords after appropriate names. 
 Model. — The table is round. 
 
 LESSON V. 
 4. Sentence-Making. 
 
 Teacher. — Copy these words on your slates: always, good, 
 happy, are, scholars. Are these words so arranged as to express 
 any meaning? 
 
 Pnpiis. — They are not. 
 
ORAL LESSONS. 13 
 
 T. — Arrange them so that they will express some meaning. 
 A papil. — " Good scholars are always happy." 
 T. — Arrange them so that they will ask a question ? 
 A pupil. — "Are good scholars always happy?" 
 T. — Well done. When groups of words express some mean- 
 ing, they are said to make complete sense. Such groups are 
 called sentences. What, then, is a Sentence f 
 
 ■P. — A Sentence is a group of words making complete sense. 
 
 If necessary, the teacher may assist the pupils in expressing 
 this definition. 
 
 T. — Arrange these words into a sentence: unknow7i, the, to, 
 
 were, fire-arms, ancients. 
 
 A pupil. — " Fire-arms were unknown to the ancients." 
 T. — Arrange them so that they will ask a question? 
 A pupil. — "Were fire-arms unknown to the ancients?" 
 T. — Now write a sentence containing the words ice, up, sun, 
 
 datjlight. Supply words necessary to make complete sense. 
 A pupil. — " We were up by daylight to see the sun rise." 
 T. — Very well done. Has any one a different sentence? 
 A pupil. — " We got up after daylight before the sun rose." 
 
 Let the pupils read the sentences they have written. 
 
 T. — You may now arrange these words and groups of words, 
 separated by commas, into a sentence : left, he, of the academy, 
 house, for the halls, father's, his. 
 
 A pupil. — "For the halls of the academy, he left his 
 father's house." 
 
 T. — Has any one a different arrangement ? 
 
 A pupil. — "He left his father's house for the halls of the 
 academy." 
 
 T. — Arrange these words into a sentence, supplying neces- 
 sary words : beautiful, our, garden, flowers. 
 
 1st pupil — " Beautiful flowers grow in our garden." 
 
 2d pupil — "How beautiful the flowers are in our garden!" 
 
 3d pupil — " Our garden is full of beautiful flowers." 
 
14 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 
 
 4lh pnpii. — "How beautiful the flowers look in our garden!" 
 
 This exercise may be made very interesting and attractive. 
 Let the length of the sentences to be constructed be adapted to 
 the age and mental development of the pupil. Select the best 
 arranged of the sentences given — write it on the blackboard, and 
 give reasons for preferring it to all others. 
 
 Turning poetry into prose is an exercise which may follow this. 
 Select some simple ballad ; read it to your pupils ; then read each 
 verse slowly and distinctly, and instruct your pupils how to ex- 
 press the thought or sentiment of the verse in prose, and in their 
 own language. 
 
 LESSON VI. 
 5. Things Seen in Pictures. 
 
 The teacher exhibits a picture. Suppose the principal objects 
 in it to be a lady and a gentleman on horseback, a boy playing 
 with a dog, a house, a gate, and a hill in the background. 
 
 Teacher {to a pupil). — What do you see in this picture? 
 
 Pupil. — I see a lady and a gentleman on horseback in the 
 picture. 
 
 The teacher writes the answer on the blackboard ; the pupils 
 copy it on their slates. 
 
 Teacher [to another pupil). — What do you see in this 
 picture ? 
 
 Pupil. — I see a boy in the picture. 
 
 Write this answer, as before. 
 
 T. {to a third pupil). — What do you see? 
 
 P. — I see a dog in the picture. 
 
 Write this answer, as before. 
 
 T. {to a fourth pupil). — What do you see? 
 
 P. — I see a house in the picture. 
 
 Write this answer, as before. 
 
\^ 
 
 ORAL LESSONS. 
 
 15 
 
 Ask similar questions of other pupils, until all the prominent 
 objects in the picture have been pointed out and named. 
 
 T. — "What is the boy doing? 
 
 P. — The boy is playing with the dog. 
 
 Write this answer, as before. 
 
 T.— What makes you think the boy is playing with the dog? 
 
 Pupils give reasons. 
 
 T.— Into what does the gate open ? 
 
 P.— The gate opens into a lawn in front of the house. 
 
 Write this answer, as before. 
 
 T.— Where is the tree? 
 
 P.— The tree is at the corner of the fence, near the gate. 
 
 Write this answer, as before. 
 
16 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 
 
 T. — Is there any thing else near the gate ? 
 
 P. — There are some steps leading up to the gate. 
 
 Write this answer, as before. 
 
 T. — Where is the hill ? 
 
 P. — The hill is back of the house. 
 
 Write this answer, as before. 
 
 T. — Silas, you may tell me what you see in the picture. 
 
 Silas. — I see a lady and a gentleman on horseback, a boy, 
 a dog, a house, a gate, and a hill, in the picture. 
 
 T.— Pupils, you may erase the first four answers written on 
 your slates, and in their place write the answer Silas has just 
 given. Now see what a nice composition you have written. 
 Susan, you may read what is written on your slate. 
 
 Susan reads : " I see a lady and a gentleman on horseback, 
 a boy, a dog, a house, a gate, and a hill, in the picture. The 
 boy is playing with the dog. The gate opens into the lawn, 
 in front of the house. The tree is at the corner of the fence, 
 near the gate. There are some steps leading up to the gate. 
 The hill is back of the house. 
 
 T. — Sarah, will you point to that part of the picture which 
 appears to be nearest you ? Do you know what that is called ? 
 
 Sarali. — I do not. 
 
 Other pupils say that they do not. 
 
 T. — It is called the foreground. Write that word on your 
 slates as I write it on the blackboard. Now pronounce it. 
 Can any one now tell me what the foreground of a picture is? 
 
 A pupil. — The foreground of a picture is that part which 
 seems to be nearest us. 
 
 This definition is written on blackboard and slates, and then 
 repeated in concert. 
 
 Teach in a similar manner the meaning of the terra back- 
 ground. 
 
 T.— How many neiu words have you learned in this lesson? 
 
 P.— We have learned two new words. 
 
ORAL LESSONS. 17 
 
 T. — What are they? 
 
 p. — They are foreground and background. 
 
 Let the pupils give the definition of these terms a second time. 
 
 Should a painting or colored picture be used in giving this 
 lesson, call attention to the different colors; write their names, 
 and compare them with similarly colored objects in the school- 
 room — such as articles of dress, flowers, etc. 
 
 LESSON VIL 
 6. Word-Picturiii?. 
 
 Teacher. — I will read you a short story, which I find in 
 ^^Gowdery^s Moral Lessons": 
 
 "In one of our large cities, a mechanic, in going to his work, 
 had occasion to pass a group of ragged immigrants just landed 
 from a British ship. They appeared forlorn and destitute. 
 They made no appeal for assistance, but sat silent on the side- 
 walk, in their misery and squalor. The mechanic regarded them 
 for a moment, and then, as if seized by a sudden impulse, drew 
 his dinner, wrapped in an old newspaper, from his pocket, and 
 gave it to a woman who crouched near him, to divide among 
 her children. He did not wait for thanks, but hurried ofi*." 
 
 Now, pupils, can you tell me the name of the feeling 
 which led this mechanic to give his dinner to the poor im- 
 migrants? 
 
 Pupils suggest different names ; as, pity, good-nature^ &c. ; or 
 say, "He pitied them"; "He wanted to do good"; "He was 
 sorry they were so poor and hungry ", &c. 
 
 T. — The word I have in my mind, as a name for his feeling 
 for them, is " compassion ". The immigrants looked so forlorn 
 and distressed that he felt sorry for them, and sorrow excited 
 by the distress of others, is called compassion. Can you now 
 tell me what compassion is ? 
 
18 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 
 
 A pupil. — Compassion is sorrow excited by the distress of 
 others. 
 
 Write this definition on blackboard and slates; then recite it 
 in concert. In review lessons, let some pupil tell the story as 
 an illustration of the meaning of the word. 
 
 Read or relate stories which illustrate charity, honesty, courage, 
 pity, benevolence, kindness, obedience, self-denial, &c. Let the words 
 illustrated remain on the blackboard until each pupil thoroughly 
 understands their meaning and application. 
 
 This lesson may be given to the whole school, as a portion 
 of the opening or closing exercises. 
 
 LESSON VIII. 
 7. Mispronouuced Words. 
 
 Teacber. — I will write on the blackboard what I once 
 heard a boy say. ( Writes) " It is orful cold this mornin' ". 
 Now spell the word "orful" as he pronounced it. Spell by 
 sound. 
 
 Pupils spell : o-r, or, f-u-l, Jul, orful. 
 
 T. — Do you think there is any such word as "orful"? 
 
 Pupils may seem undecided : different opinions may be given 
 
 T. — What other word sounds somewhat like it ? 
 
 A pupil.— The word " awful " sounds somewhat like it. 
 
 T. — Spell the word " awful " by sound. 
 
 Pupils spell : a, aw, f-v^l, ful, awftd. 
 
 T.— That is the word he intended to use. How many will 
 remember the correct pronunciation of the word " awful " ? 
 
 All hands are raised. 
 
 T. — What other word did the boy mispronounce ? 
 P. — He mispronounced the word "morning". 
 
 Spell both "mornin"' and "morning" by sound, calling atten- 
 
ORAL LESSONS. 19 
 
 tion to the difference between the sound represented by "n" and 
 that represented by **ng". 
 
 T. — Is "awful" a proper word to be used here? 
 
 Pupils express different opinions. 
 
 T. — "Very" is the word the boy should have used. He 
 should have said, "It is very cold this morning". 
 
 Write the corrected sentence on blackboard and slates. Read 
 it, pronouncing each word slowly and distinctly — then let the 
 pupils read it. 
 
 Correct, in a similar manner, the pronunciation of the itali- 
 cized words- in the following 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. Father sold our bay hoss yesterday. 2. April comes after 
 March. 3. I saw a rfor^-fight. 4. Drive the keows (cows) to 
 pasture. 5. That was a drefful (dreadful) mistake. 6. The school- 
 marster punished me for laffin\ 7. I oncet went a miled for a 
 bunch oi voileta. 8. I kin (can) read words of lib (two) syllables. 
 
 Make lists of ivorcls mispronounced by your pupils, and teach their 
 proper pronunciation. 
 
 LESSON IX. 
 8. Incorrect Expressions. 
 
 Teacher. — I once heard a boy say, "I hain't got no slate". 
 Did he use correct language ? 
 
 A pupil.— He did not. 
 
 T. — What should he have said ? 
 
 A pupil. — He should have said, "I have got no slate". 
 
 T. — Do you all think that is correct language ? 
 
 A pupil. — I do not. He should have said, "I have no 
 slate ". 
 
 T. — That is right. The word " got " is unnecessary, and we 
 should always omit unnecessary words. 
 
20 ELEMENTARY GRAiMMAR. 
 
 Write the incorrect and correct expressions on the blackboard, 
 and let the pupils write them on their slates. 
 
 Teacher. — See whether you can correct this expression: 
 "Give me them pencils". 
 
 A pupil. — It should be, "Give me those pencils". 
 
 T. — That is right. Before the names of things, the word 
 "those" should be used instead of "them". Correct this 
 expression: "Them apples are sour". 
 
 P. — It should be, "Those apples are sour"; because 
 "those" should be used instead of "them" before the names 
 of things. 
 
 T. — I once heard a saucy, ill-mannered boy say, " Old Jones 
 has lots of tin". Was such language respectful? 
 
 A pupil. — It was not. He should have said, "Mr. Jones". 
 
 T. — Is that all the correction you would make? 
 
 P. — It is not. He meant to say that Mr. Jones had plenty 
 of money: he should have said, "Mr. Jones has plenty of 
 money", not "lots of tin". 
 
 T. — That is right. Do you know what such language as 
 this boy used is called ? 
 
 p. — We do not. 
 
 T. — It is called slang, which means low, vulgar language. 
 Never use slang. 
 
 Let the pupils now define s/an^r — write the definition on black- 
 board and slates, and repeat it in concert. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 1. I can't tell you no more. 2. I am almost froze. 3. He ha? 
 just came. 4. That excuse is all wore out. 5. I have n't saw him 
 for raore'n a week. 6. I wouldn't have went, if I had been in 
 your place. 7. I am sure one of them sentences are wrong. 
 
 8. There is many kinds of fame. 9. Had any one a pencil 
 they are willing to lend. 10. I am e'en-a-most tuckered out. 11. 
 It was not me. 12. Is that all the far that you can count? 13. My 
 money is all done spent. 14. I guess she come lately. 
 
ORAL LESSONS. iJl 
 
 15. T just wanted he and Charley to see tliat. 16. I have ate 
 all my dinner; hain't you ate your'n? 17. Him and me are 
 classmates. 18. Tliat book is his'n. 19. Let us try and learn all 
 we can. 
 
 20. I'll shut his peepers for him. 21. If any one strikes you, 
 go for him. 22. Whar are you toting that gun, stranger? 23. 
 This 'ere road is orful muddy. 24. Do n't tell nobody where I am. 
 25. I live to home. 26. Watch out for the steamboat. 
 
 27. I catched ten fish last evening. 28. Eli, he run, and John, 
 lie run. 29. Eggs, they is very dear. 30. When does your .school 
 take up? 31. Our taters is all rottin'. 32. Is n't that are line writ 
 well ? 33. What 's the heft of that stun ? 
 
 34. Where you gwine ? 35. I knowed what he done thar ; but 
 I never let on. 36. Ghosts can't skeer me. 37. Multiply the mul- 
 tiplier on to the multiplicand. 38. That 's what 's the matter. 
 
 Observe carefully the language of your pupils, and correct all un- 
 grammatical expressions. 
 
 Sagrg-estion. — Usually the corrected expression only should be 
 written on the blackboard. 
 
 LESSON X. 
 
 9. Cliisses of Sentences. 
 
 Teacher. — When I say/ "The window is open", I state a 
 fact. What kind of sentence do I use ? 
 
 Pupils. — You use a sentence that states a fact. 
 
 T. — That is right. I use what is called a Declarative Serf 
 tence. Can you now tell me what a declarative sentence is ? 
 
 A pnpil. — A declarative sentence states a fact. 
 
 T. — Write that definition on your slates. Now repeat it in 
 concert. When I say, "Is the window open?" what kind of 
 sentence do I use? 
 
 P. — You use a sentence that asks a question. 
 
 T. — Such a group of words is called an Interroffofive Sen- 
 tence. Can vou tell me what an interrogative sentence is? 
 
22 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 
 
 A pupil. — An interrogative sentence asks a question. 
 
 T. — Write that definition on your slates. Repeat it in con- 
 cert. Wiien 1 say, "Clarence, open the window", what kind 
 of sentence do I use ? 
 
 P. — You use a sentence that makes a command. 
 
 T. — Such a sentence is called an Imperative Sentence. Can 
 you tell me what an imperative sentence is ? 
 
 A pupil. — An imperative sentence makes a command. 
 
 T. — When I say, "O, that window is open again I" I ex- 
 press some feeling or emotion. I then use what is called an 
 Exclamatory Sentence. What is an exclamatory sentence ? 
 
 A pupil. — An exclamatory sentence expresses some feeling 
 or emotion. 
 
 T. — Write this definition on your slates. Repeat it in con- 
 cert. These are all the classes of sentences there are. How 
 many are there ? 
 
 Pupils. — There are four classes of sentences. 
 
 T. — Repeat their names. 
 
 P. — ^^Declarative, Interrogative; Imperative, and Exclam- 
 atory. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 Tell the kinds of sentence.^ in the following exercises : 
 
 1. The winds bring perfumes. 2. Where is my new book? 3. 
 Necessity is the mother of invention. 4. Go to the ant, thou 
 sluggard ! 5. Oh, how I trembled with disgust ! 6. Does God 
 uniformly work in one way? 7. Be not forward in the presence 
 of your superiors. 8. Lend me your wings ! I mount ! I fly ! 
 
 Tell the kind of sentences in your reading lesson. Change the form 
 of these sentences, from declarative to interrogative, &c. 
 
 [§>ug:g:estion. — While studying Parts ll and III of this work, 
 let the pupils change the form of many exercises in analysis and 
 parsing. This exercise will teach them how to express different 
 shades of meaning by different arrangements of the same words. 
 
PAKT6 Ui- ^SPEECH. 23 
 
 PART II. 
 PARTS OF SPEECH. 
 
 10. Objects. 
 
 1. Tlie Senses. — We have five senses : seeing, hear- 
 ing, feeling, tasting, and smelling. 
 
 We obtain a knowledge of material things by means of 
 these senses. 
 
 When we see, hear, feel, taste, or smell things, we are said 
 to perceive them. 
 
 We can not perceive things which are not material, or 
 composed of matter. We are said to be conscious of such 
 things. 
 
 I drop a book upon the floor. A force called gravitation 
 draws it toward the center of the earth. We can not perceive 
 this force, but we are conscious of it, — that is, we know such a 
 force must exist. 
 
 We are conscious of many other things which we can not 
 perceive ; as, love, hatred, joy,, sorrow. 
 
 All these things are called objects. What, then, is an 
 object f 
 
 2. An Object is any thing we can perceive or be 
 conscious of. 
 
 When we think, we think of objects : when we talk, we 
 talk about objects : when we write, we write about objects. 
 
24 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR, 
 
 When we talk or write, we use words to express our 
 thoughts. What, then, is a word f 
 
 3. A Word is a syllable or combination of sylla- 
 bles used in the expression of thought. 
 
 <(aestions. — How many senses have we? Name them. How 
 do we obtain a knowledge of material things ? Can we perceive 
 things which are not material ? What is an object ? What is a 
 word ? 
 
 11. Gnamniar. 
 
 1. ^Language is the expression of thought by means 
 of words. 
 
 When we talk, we express our ideas by spoken words. This 
 is called Spoken Language. 
 
 2. Spoken Liaiiguage is the expression of ideas by 
 the voice. 
 
 When we write or print our thoughts, we use letters which 
 represent sounds. This is called Written Language. 
 
 3. Written Language is the expression of thought 
 by the use of written or printed characters. 
 
 Different nations use different languages. What language 
 do we use ? The English language, 
 
 4. Oraiuniar treats of the principles and usages 
 of language. 
 
 5. ^English Grammar teaches how to speak and 
 write the English language correctly. 
 
 Questions. — What is language? Spoken language? Written 
 language? Grammar? English grammar? 
 What is an object ? What is a word ? 
 
PARTS OF SPEECH. 
 
 12. Parts of Speech. 
 
 "Scholars study." What word is here used instead of 
 names of the persons of whom we are speaking? "Scholars." 
 What word tells what scholars do ? " Study." 
 
 "Good scholars study." What word here describes schol- 
 ars? "Good." 
 
 "Good scholars study diligently." What word here tells 
 how good scholars study? "Diligently." 
 
 Words, then, not only have different meanings, but they 
 are also used in different ways. 
 
 They can be divided into classes, according to their mean- 
 ing and use. 
 
 These classes are called Parts of Speech. 
 
 Parte of Speech are the classes into which words 
 are divided according to their meaning and use. 
 
 It is necessary to know its meaning and use in order to 
 determine to which class any word belongs. 
 
 Questions. — What are parts of speech ? What is necessary in 
 order to determine the class to which any word belongs ? 
 
 What is language? Spoken language? Written language? 
 Grammar? English grammar? 
 
 What is an object ? What is a word ? 
 
 13. The Noun. 
 
 "What are the words boy, girl, city, door, window, book, desk f 
 They are names. 
 
 That is correct. They are the names of objects, not the 
 objects themselves. Each word is called a noun, which means 
 a name. 
 
 What are the words house, farm, garden, dog, horse, black- 
 smith, merchant f They are nouns. Why ? Because they are 
 names. 
 
26 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 
 
 What are the words Mary, John, Washington, Chicago, Ohio, 
 America ? They are nouns. Why ? Because they are names. 
 
 Can the name boy be applied to all boys? It can. Can 
 the name John be applied to all boys ? • It can not. Why ? 
 Because boys have different names, such as Charles, Frank, 
 Samuel, Clarence. Why are boys called by different names? 
 In order to distinguish one from another. 
 
 Can the name city be applied to all cities ? It can. Is the 
 name Chicago applied to all cities? It is not. Why? Be- 
 cause it is the name of a particular city. 
 
 There are, then, two kinds or classes of nouns: those which 
 can be applied to each one of a class of objects, and those 
 which are applied to a particular one only. 
 
 The first kind are called Common Nouns: the second kind, 
 Proper Nouns. 
 
 1. A ^oiin is a name; as, hoy^ John, railroad. 
 
 2. A Couiuiou ^oun is a name which may be ap- 
 plied to any one of a class of objects; as, hird^ door^ 
 lightning. 
 
 3. A Proper ^N'ouii is the name of some particular 
 person, place, people, or thing ; as, Susan, Borne, Mex- 
 ico, Sun. 
 
 Proper nouns should commence with capital letters. 
 
 What kind of noun is plow ? It is a common noun. Why? 
 Because it can be applied to all plows. 
 
 What kind of a noun is New York ? It is a proper noun. 
 Why? It is the name of a particular place. 
 
 Write the names of five kinds of fruit : of five kinds of grain : 
 of three articles of clothing : of five games : of five bad habits : 
 of six farming implements : of four trades : of six townships 
 in your county: of six large citi&s: of five large rivers: of five 
 mountains : of seven of your schoolmates. 
 
PARTS OF SPEECH. 27 
 
 "What are these words? Why? Tell which are common 
 and which are proper nouns. 
 
 Tell which are common and which are proper nouns in the 
 
 following list: 
 
 Lake Erie, railroad, barn, Boston, Sarah, Augusta, rain, 
 snow, dew, Niagara Falls, thunder, lesson, slate, Indianapolis, 
 hour, minute, April, Vesuvius, volcano, Palestine, temple, 
 college, church, organ, steeple. Black Sea. 
 
 Point out all the nouns in your reading lesson, and tell which 
 are common and which are proper nouns, itsing the fol- 
 lowing 
 
 MODEL. 
 "Cicero was an orator." 
 Cicero is a noun; it is a name: proper; it is the name of a 
 particular person. 
 
 Orator is a noun; (why?): common; it may be applied to 
 any one of a class of objects. 
 
 Questions. -What is a noun? How many classes of nouns 
 are there? What is a common noun? Give examples. What is 
 a proper noun? Give examples. Which class should commence 
 with capital letters? 
 
 Can you write objects? Can you write the names of objects? 
 What are parts of speech ? What is language ? What an object ? 
 
 14. The Sentence. 
 
 AVhat is the color of chalk? It is white. Chalk breaks 
 easily : is it tough or brittle f - It is brittle. We can not see 
 through it: hence we say it is opaque. What part of speech 
 is the word chalk f It is a noun. Why? 
 
 We will join the words white, brittle, opaque with the noun 
 chalk, thus : 
 
 Chalk is white. 
 Chalk is brittle. 
 Chalk is opaque. 
 
28 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 
 
 Each of these groups of words is called a Sentence. 
 
 1. A Sentence is a group of \fords making com- 
 plete sense. 
 
 Each group is also called a Proposition. 
 
 2. A Proposition is a thought expressed in words. 
 
 In writing sentences, the pupils should carefully observe 
 the following directions: 
 
 1st. Commence each sentence with a capital letter. 
 
 2d. Spell each Avord correctly. 
 
 3d. Place a period [.] at the end of every sentence 
 that declares something, or makes a command. 
 
 4th. Place an interrogation point [ ? ] at the end of 
 every question. 
 
 5th. Never divide a syllable at the end of a line. 
 
 <iiiesttions. — What is a sentence ? A proposition ? Give the 
 directions for writing sentences. 
 
 What are parts of speech ? What is language? What language 
 do the Germans use? What is an object? What is a word? 
 
 15. Parts of a Sentence. 
 
 In the sentence, "Chalk is white", chalk is called the Sub- 
 ject; for, 
 
 1. The Subject of a proposition is that of which 
 something is affirmed. 
 
 White is called the Predicate ; for, 
 
 2. The Predicate of a proposition is that which is 
 affirmed of the subject. 
 
 Is is called the Copula; for, 
 
PARTS OF SPEECH. 29 
 
 8. The Copiila is a word or group of words used 
 to affirm the predicate of the subject. 
 
 The word copula means a link. It is used to join the pred- 
 icate to the subject. 
 
 In the sentence, *'Ice is cold", what is the subject? "Ice." 
 Why? Because it is that of which something is affirmed. 
 What is the predicate? "Cold." Why? Because it is that 
 which is affirmed of the subject. What is the copula ? " Is." 
 Why? Because it is the word used to affirm the predicate 
 cold of the subject ice. Why is it called the copula? Be- 
 cause it links or joins the predicate to the subject. 
 
 Point out the subject, predicate, and copula in each of the follow- 
 ing sentences: 
 
 1. Air is transparent. 2. Iron is heavy. 3, Nero was cruel. 
 4. Jane is studious. 5. Walter will be tardy. 6: Mary should 
 be kind. 7. Ellen is unhappy. 8. Martha was cheerful. 9. 
 George is industrious. 
 
 Point out the nouns in these sentences, and tell which are common 
 and which are proper nouns. 
 
 Qnestions. — What is the subject of a proposition? The pred- 
 icate? The copula? What does the word copvJa mean? 
 
 What is a sentence ? A proposition ? 
 
 What is a noun? A common noun? A proper noun? 
 
 What is language? Spoken language? Written language? 
 
 What is a word? What is an object? Is thunder an object? 
 Why ? Is a horse an object ? Why ? Is love an object ? Why ? 
 Give the directions for writing sentences. 
 
 16. The Noun as Predicate. 
 
 In the sentence, "Man is mortal", the predicate mortal 
 denotes a quality belonging to the subject man. Words which 
 express qualities may be called quality-words. Quality- words 
 are very frequently used as predicates. 
 
30 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 
 
 Nouns may be used as predicates. When they are thus 
 used, they denote kind or class. 
 
 In the sentence, "Horses are animals", what is the subject? 
 "Horses." Why? What is the predicate? "Animals." Why? 
 What does the word animals denote ? It denotes the kind or 
 class of beings to which horses belong. What part of speech 
 is it? It is a noun. Why? What is the copula? "Are." 
 
 Affirm qualities of the following subjects : 
 
 Fishes, apples, lead, iron, play, swimming, school, marbles, 
 books, flowers, oranges, trees. 
 
 Model. — Oranges are yellow. 
 
 Affirm the following qualities of appropriate snbjects : 
 
 Sweet, bitter, sour, opaque, transparent, red, yellow, blue, 
 
 hard, soft, round, square, mellow, young, old, happy, miserable. 
 Model. — Sugar is sweet. 
 
 Affirm kind or class of the following subjects : 
 
 Sheep, eagles, hoe, rake, wheat, corn, ax, locomotive, gold, 
 silver, coat, wagon, houses, oxen, river, road, table. 
 
 Model. — Eagles are birds. 
 
 Affirm qualities of the sarrte subjects. 
 
 Ascertain all the properties of five substances. Affirm them of the 
 
 substances to which they belong. 
 
 Model. — Sugar is sweet; sugar is opaque ; sugar is combus- 
 tible, &c. 
 
 Questions. —What are quality-words? Can they be used as 
 predicates? Give an example. Give an example of a noun used 
 as a predicate. 
 
 What is the subject of a proposition? The predicate? The 
 copula? * 
 
 What is a sentence? A proposition? 
 
 What is a noun? A common noun? A proper noun? 
 
 Give the directions for writing sentences. 
 
PARTS OF SPEECH. 31 
 
 17. Elements. 
 
 We have seen that a sentence is composed of parts. These 
 parts are called Elements. 
 
 1. An Menieut is one of the distinct parts of a 
 sentence. 
 
 2. The Subject and the Predicate are called Prin- 
 cipal Elements^ because no sentence can be formed 
 without them. 
 
 3. The Copula is not called an element. It is used merely 
 to affirm the predicate of the subject. 
 
 We can separate any sentence into its elements. This is 
 called Analysis. 
 
 4. Analysis is the separation of a sentence into its 
 elements. 
 
 Analyze the following sentences, using this 
 
 MODEL. 
 
 "Iron is heavy." 
 
 This is a sentence; it is a group of^ords making complete sense. 
 
 Iron is the subject; it is that of which something is affirmed: 
 heavy is the predicate; it is that which is affirmed of the subject : 
 is is the copida. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. Indigo is blue. 2. Gold is heavy. 3. Cork is light. 
 
 4. Flies are insects. 5. Mary was tardy. 0. Sarah is truthful. 
 
 7. Glass is transparent. 8. Apples are plentiful. 9. Boys will 
 be playful. 
 
 10. Children should be careful. 11. Men may be impru- 
 dent. 12. John can be studious. 13. Iron is useful. 14. Sil- 
 ver is white. 15. Roses are fragrant. 16. Water is heavy. 
 
32 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 
 
 17. Violets are flowers. 18. Cherries are ripe. 19. Flowers 
 may be white. 20. Axes may be sharp. 21. Julius should 
 be diligent. 22. Lessons may be difficult. 23. Oxen may be 
 useful. 
 
 Point out the common and proper nouns in tlie above sentences. 
 
 Questions. — What is an element ? What are the principal 
 elements ? Is the copula an element ? What is its use ? What is 
 analysis ? 
 
 What is the subject ? The predicate ? The copula ? 
 
 What is a sentence? A proposition? Give the directions for 
 writing sentences. 
 
 What is a noun? A common noun? A proper noun? 
 
 What is an object ? What is a word ? 
 
 What is language? Spoken language? Written language? 
 
 18. The Terb. 
 
 In the sentence, "Fishes swim", what is the subject? 
 "Fishes." Why? What is the predicate? "Swim." Why? 
 Is there any copula expressed ? There is not. 
 
 The predicate, then, can be affirmed of the subject directly; 
 one word expressing both the copula and the predicate. 
 
 A word which affirms something of a subject is called a 
 Verb. It usually expresses action, being, or state; as, I am, 
 denotes being; I run, denotes action; I sleep, denotes state. 
 
 A Verb is a word which expresses action, being, or 
 state ; as, I aw, George writes^ he dreams 
 
 What is the word "trot" in the sentence, "Horses trot"? 
 It is a verb. Why? Because it affirms action of the subject 
 "horses". 
 
 What is the word "stand" in the sentence, "Houses stand"? 
 It is a verb. Why? Because it affirms state of the subject 
 "houses". 
 
PARTS OF SPEECH. 33 
 
 What is the subject of the sentence, " Boys play " ? " Boys." 
 Why? What is the predicate? "Play." Why? What part 
 of speech is the word "play"? It is a verb. Why? 
 
 Write sentences, using the following verbs as predicates: 
 
 Run, limp, stand, sing, whistle, mow, reap, study, recite, 
 sail, look, listen, loiter, reform, neigh, whine, pur, cackle, 
 scream, quarrel, work, play, remain. 
 
 Model. — Birds sing. 
 Point out all the verlis in your reading lesson. 
 
 Questions.— What is a verb? What does it usually express? 
 What is an element? What are the principal elements? 
 What is the subject ? The predicate ? The copula ? 
 What is a sentence ? A proposition ? 
 What is a noun? A common noun? A proper noun? 
 What is a word? What is language? Grammar? English 
 grammar? 
 
 Give the directions for writing sentences. 
 
 19. Classas of Verbs. 
 
 In the sentence, "Boys study", lesson, grammar, algebra, or 
 some other word is required to complete tlie meaning of the 
 predicate "study". That which tells what the boys study, 
 completes its meaning, and is called an Objective Element, or 
 Object. 
 
 1. An ObjectiTe Oement is a word or group of 
 words which completes the meaning of a verb. 
 
 Ex. — "Indians hunt buffaloes.'''' The word "buffaloes" com- 
 pletes the meaning of the verb "hunt", and is an objective 
 element. 
 
 Those verbs which require the addition of an object to com- 
 plete their meaning are called Transitive Verbs. 
 E. G.— 3. 
 
34 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 
 
 2. A Transitive Verb requires the addition of an 
 object to complete its meaning. 
 
 Ex. — "Columbus discovered America." The verb "discovered" 
 requires the addition of some word, as "America", to complete 
 its meaning, and is therefore transitive. 
 
 The object of a transitive verb is not always expressed; but 
 some word different from the subject can always be made its 
 object. 
 
 Ex. — "Horses eat." The object of the predicate "eat" is not 
 expressed; but some word, as hay, oats, corn, &c., can be made its 
 object. 
 
 In the sentence, "Clarence walks", no word is required to 
 complete the meaning of the verb "walks". Those verbs 
 which do not require the addition of an object to complete 
 their meaning are called Intransitive Verbs. 
 
 3. An Intransitive Verb does not require the ad- 
 dition of an object to complete its meaning. 
 
 Ex. — *' Horses run." The verb "run" does not require the 
 addition of an object to complete its meaning. It is therefore 
 intransitive. 
 
 The copula is always a verb. 
 
 4. A Copulative Terb is used to assert the predi- 
 cate of the subject. 
 
 Ex. — "Lambs are playful". The verb "are" is used to assert 
 the predicate "playful" of the subject "lambs". It is therefore a 
 copulative verb. 
 
 Write seven sentences containing transitive verbs. 
 Model. — John struck James. 
 
 Write seven sentences containing intransitlTe verbs. 
 Models. — Houses stand. Boys swim. 
 
PARTS OF SPEECH. 35 
 
 Wnte seven sentences containing copulative verbs. 
 Model. — The weather was warm. 
 
 Write sentences, tising the following nouns as objective elements: 
 
 Lions, elephants, wheat, oats, boats, cars, letters, books, 
 churches, laws, grass, trees, mountains, sun, geography, debts, 
 pictures, wood. 
 
 Model. — Fire burns wood. 
 Analyze the following sentences, using this 
 
 MODEL. 
 "Scholars learn lessons." 
 This is a sentence; (why?). 
 
 Scholars is the subject; (why?): learn is the predicate; 
 (why?). "Learn" is modified by lessons, an objective element. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. Dogs hunt rabbits. 2. Jane studies botany. 3. Eli 
 drives horses. 4. Horses draw wagons. 5. Men build houses. 
 6. Farmers sow grain. 7. Merchants sell goods. 8. Haste 
 makes waste. 9. Soldiers fight battles. 10. Cats catch mice. 
 
 Point out the verbs in the following sentences, using these 
 
 MODELS. 
 L " The nights are chilly." 
 Are is a verb; it denotes being: copulative; it is used to assert 
 the predicate of the subject. 
 
 n. " Corn grows." 
 Orows is a verb; (why?) : intransitive; it does not require an 
 object to complete its meaning. 
 
 III. "Horses draw wagons." 
 Dra^ is a verb; (why?): transitive, it requires an object to 
 complete its meaning. 
 
36 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. Viola blushed. 2. Stephen was a martyr. 3. Boys may 
 be useful. 4. The merchant sold goods for money. 5. Houses 
 stand on the river bank. 6. Fishes swim. 7. Elihu works on 
 a farm. 8. James is a clerk. 9. James reads good books. 
 10. Birds build nests. 
 
 Point out the nonns in these sentences. 
 
 Point out the nouns and verbs in your reading lesson. 
 
 Questions.— What is an objective element? What is a tran- 
 sitive verb? An intransitive verb? A copulative verb? Is the 
 object of a transitive verb always expressed ? Give a sentence in 
 which it is not expressed. 
 
 What is a verb? What is an element? What are the principal 
 elements? 
 
 What is the subject? The predicate? The copula? A sen- 
 tence ? A proposition ? Give the directions for writing sentences. 
 
 What is a noiin ? A common noun ? A proper noun ? 
 
 Wliat is a word? Wliat is language? An olyect? 
 
 20. The Adjective. 
 
 When quality-words are joined to nouns by copulas, they 
 are said to be predicated of those nouns. 
 
 They may be written or printed in connection with nouns, 
 without being joined to them by copulas; thus: white chalk, 
 sour apples, a square table, good boys. 
 
 When thus used, they modify or restrict the meaning of 
 nouns, but are not predicated of them. 
 
 Words which do not express quality may be used as modi- 
 fiers of nouns. In the sentences, " This book is heavy ", " That 
 book is light", "Two boys were sick", "Three boys were idle", 
 the words this, that, two, three,B,re modifiers of the nouns which 
 follow them ; but they do not express any quality. This and 
 that point out the nouns to which they belong : two and three 
 denote number. 
 
PARTS OF SPEECH. 37 
 
 Those words which modify nouns by expressing quality, 
 pointing them out, or denoting number are called Adjectives. 
 
 1. An AdjectlTe is a word which modifies the 
 meaning of a noun. 
 
 2. There are two classes of Adjectives : Descriptive 
 and Definitive. 
 
 All quality-words are Descriptive Adjectives. 
 
 3. A Descriptive Adjective modifies a noun by ex- 
 pressing some quality belonging to it ; as, ripe peaches, 
 bad jexamples, round tables. . 
 
 Pointing-out words and number- words are Definitive Ad- 
 jectives. 
 
 4. A I>efiiiitive Adjective limits or defines a noun 
 without expressing any of its qualities ; as, this boy, 
 that house, five dollars. 
 
 Every adjective derived from a proper noun should com- 
 mence with a capital ; as, American cotton, French customs. 
 
 Place each of the following adjectives before a noun: 
 
 Good, bad, hungry,- thirsty, agreeable, healthy, dry, moist, 
 warm, cold, round, square, light, heavy, hard, soft, rough, 
 smooth, clean, dirty, pleasant, unpleasant, Spanish, Australian. 
 
 Models.— ^Swoo^A ice. Clean hands. 
 
 What kind of adjectives are these ? Why ? 
 
 Place eoich of the following adjectives before a noun : 
 
 This, that, these, those, such, same, another, some, yonder, 
 each, every, either, neither, former, latter, both, certain, few, 
 many, much, several, sundry, four, seventh, four-fold. 
 Models. — Much money. Sundry books. 
 What kind of adjectives are these? Why? 
 
38 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 
 
 Point out the adjectives in the following sentences, using this 
 
 MODEL. 
 " Fearful storms sweep over these islands." 
 Fearfkil is an adjective; it is a word which modifies the mean- 
 ing of a noun: descriptive; it denotes a quality. 
 
 These is an adjective; (why?): definitive; it defines without de- 
 noting any quality. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. Both horses are lame. 2. Ripe peaches are plentiful. 3. 
 Large houses are expensive. 4. Beautiful flowers bloom in 
 that garden. 5. Either road leads to town. 
 
 6. Every man carried a square box. 7. This lesson is hard. 
 8. The brave soldier received a severe wound. 9. With fleecy 
 clouds the sky is blanched. 10. Bright and joyful is the 
 morning. 11. The day was -clear and cool. 12. A small, 
 white house stood at the foot of the hill. 
 
 Point out the nouns and verbs in the above sentences. 
 
 Point out the adjectives in your reading lesson. 
 
 Questions. — What is an adjective? A descriptive adjective? 
 A definitive adjective? What adjectives. should commence with 
 capitals ? 
 
 What is an objective element ? A transitive verb ? An intran- 
 sitive verb? A copulative verb? What is a verb? 
 
 What is an element? What is the subject? The predicate? 
 The copula? 
 
 What is a noun ? A common noun ? A proper noun ? 
 
 What is language? Spoken language? Written language? 
 
 21. The Article. 
 
 When we say, "A hoi*se was stolen", a denotes that 07ie horse 
 is meant, but it does not point out any particular horse. 
 
 When we say, ''The horse was stolen", the denotes that a 
 particular horse is meant. 
 
PARTS OF SPEECH. 39 
 
 The words a and the, in these sentences, are definitive ad- 
 jectives, because they limit nouns, without denoting any of 
 their qualities. They are also called Articles. 
 
 A and an are different forms of the same word. A is used 
 when the following word begins with a consonant sound ; An, 
 when the following word begins with a vowel sound. 
 
 1. The is called the Ileflnite Article, because it 
 points out definitely the object which it restricts. 
 
 2. A or an is called the Indefiiilte Article, because 
 it restricts in an indefinite or general manner. 
 
 Place a or an before the following words, and tell why it should 
 be used : 
 
 Ode, measure, cart, egg, house, honor, hearth, oven, advan- 
 tage, goat, opossum, turkey, orange, humor, stand, eagle, 
 vulture, elephant, memory. 
 
 Use a or an instead of the dashes in the following sentences, and 
 tell why it should be used: 
 
 1. Temperance is — virtue. 2. The house stands on — hill. 
 3. — loud report was heard. 4. Life is but — vapor. 
 
 5. He is — boniest man. 6. He has — ax to grind. 7. Fa- 
 ther has bought — horse. 8. My being — child, was — plea 
 for my admission. 
 
 Use the proper articles instead of the dashes in tfie following sen- 
 tences : 
 
 1. Such — law is — disgrace to any state. 2. Repeat — first 
 four lines in concert. 3. Love took up — harp of life, and 
 smote on all — chords with might. 
 
 4. — fox is cunning. 5. — days are calm. 6. I had — 
 dream which was not all — dream. 7. — wise son maketh — 
 glad father. 8. — rain is over and — sun shines. 9. — crime, 
 not — scaffold, makes — shame. 
 
40 ELEMENTARY GRAxMMAR. 
 
 Point out the articles in your redding lesson, using this 
 
 MODEL. 
 "The man was riding in a wagon." 
 The is a definite article; it points out definitely the object which 
 It restricts. 
 
 A is an indefinite article; it restricts in an indefinite or general 
 manner. 
 
 Questions. — What words are called articles? Which is the 
 definite article? The indefinite article ? When is a used? When 
 is an used? 
 
 What is an adjective ? A descriptive adjective ? A definitive 
 adjective? What adjectives should commence with capitals? 
 
 What is a verb? A transitive verb? An intransitive verb? A 
 copulative verb ? 
 
 What is an element? What is the subject? The predicate? 
 The copula ? What is analysis ? 
 
 What is a noun? A common noun? A proper noun? 
 
 Wliat is an object? What is a word? What is language? 
 Grammar? English Grammar? 
 
 22. The Participle. 
 
 "James saw the man plowing." 
 
 What is the subject of this sentence? Why? What is the 
 predicate? Why? What is the objective element? Why? 
 What words limit or restrict "man"? The words "the" and 
 "plowing". What does the word "plowing" denote? It tells 
 what the man was doing. Does it q^rw any thing of man ? 
 It does not : it modifies it like an adjective. 
 
 The word "plowing", then, partakes of the properties of 
 both a verb and an adjective. Like a verb, it expresses ac- 
 tion : like an adjective, it modifies a noun. Because it par- 
 takes of the properties of two parts of speech, it is called a 
 Participle, which means partaking of. , 
 
 A participle may partake, also, of the properties of a verb 
 au4 of a noun. 
 
PARTS OF SPEECH. 41 
 
 1. A Participle is a word derived from a verb, 
 partaking of the properties of a verb, and of an ad- 
 jective or a noun. 
 
 When we say, "The boy is writing", the participle "writ- 
 ing" denotes a continuance of the act: the boy is continuing to 
 write. 
 
 When we say, "The letter is written", the participle 
 "written" denotes a completion of the act: the writing of the 
 letter is finished. 
 
 When we say, ^'Having written the letter, he mailed it", the 
 words "having written" denote that the writing of the letter 
 was completed before the time represented by the verb 
 "mailed". 
 
 2. There are three participles : the Present, the 
 Perfect, and the Compound. 
 
 When a participle represents the subject to which it be- 
 longs as acting, it is called an active participle. When it 
 represents the subject as being acted upon, it is called a 
 passive participle. 
 
 In the sentence, "The boy, laughing, ran away", the par- 
 ticiple »laughing" is active: it represents the boy as acting. 
 
 In the sentence, "The boy being punished was a truant", 
 the participle "being punished" is passive, because it repre- 
 ents the boy as being acted upon. 
 
 3. The Present Participle denotes the continuance 
 of action, being, or state ; as, loving, being loved. 
 
 The present active participle always ends in ing. 
 
 4. The Perfect Participle denotes the completion 
 of action, being, or state ; as, loved, been, lived. 
 
 The perfect participle usually ends in d or ed, but fre- 
 quently in n, en, or t. 
 
42 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 
 
 5. The Compound Participle denotes the comple- 
 tion of action, being, or state, at or before the time 
 represented by the principal verb ; as, '•'Having learned 
 the lesson, he recited it." 
 
 The "principal verb" is the verb used as copula or predi- 
 cate of the sentence in which -the compound participle is 
 found. 
 
 The compound participle is formed by placing having or 
 having been before a perfect participle, or having been before 
 a present participle ; as, having learned, having been learned, 
 having been learning. 
 
 Give the present, perfect, and compound participles of the 
 
 following verbs: 
 
 Recite, answer, inquire, spell, find, help, study, grow, paint, 
 hope, suffer, resemble, sit, see, go, come, arrive, enjoy, make, 
 learn, demand, enchant, reconcile. 
 
 Form sentences, using any of these participles as predicates. 
 Model. — Sarah is studying her lesson. 
 
 Point out all the participles in your reading lesson, using these 
 
 MODELS. 
 I. "The boy, laughing, ran away." 
 Iiang:hingr is a participle; it is a word derived from a verb, 
 and partakes of the properties of a verb and of an adjective: 
 present; it denotes the continuance of an act. 
 
 II. "The lesson, studied carefully, was recited." 
 Studied is a participle; (why?): perfect; it denotes completion. 
 
 III. " Having recited, we were dismissed." 
 Having: recited is a participle; (why?): compound; it de- 
 notes the completion of an act before the time represented by the 
 principal verb. 
 
PARTS OF SPEECH. 43 
 
 Questions. — What is a participle? Why is it called a par- 
 ticiple? How many participles are there? Name them. When 
 is a participle called active ? W^hen passive f 
 
 What does the present participle denote ? How does the present 
 active participle end? What does the perfect participle denote? 
 How does it usually end? What does the compound participle 
 denote? What is the "principal verb"? How is the compound 
 participle formed ? 
 
 What is the definite article? The indefinite article? When is 
 a used? When is an used? What is an adjective? A descriptive 
 adjective? A definitive adjective? Wliat is a verb? A transitive 
 verb? An intransitive verb? A copulative verb? What is an ele- 
 ment? The subject? The predicate ? 
 
 What is a noun ? A common noun ? A proper noun ? 
 
 23. The Adjective Element. 
 
 In the sentence, "Small lakes are abundant", what word 
 modifies " lakes " ? The adjective " small ". 
 
 In the sentence, "John's hat is torn", what word modifies 
 "hat"? The noun "John's". In what manner does it mod- 
 ify "hat"? It denotes that it is the hat which John owns. 
 
 In the sentence, "Mr. Jones the mason is insane", what 
 word modifies "Mr. Jones"? The noun "mason". In what 
 manner does it modify "Mr. Jones"? It tells his trade or 
 business. 
 
 These modifying words are called Adjective Elements, because 
 they modify nouns. 
 
 1. An Adjective Element is a word or group of 
 words which modifies a noun. 
 
 In the sentence, "Kipe peaches are plentiful", what ele- 
 ment is " ripe " ? It is an adjective element. Why? Because 
 it modifies the noun "peaches". 
 
 In the sentence, " Milton the poet was blind", what element 
 is "poet"? It is an adjective element. Why? 
 
 In the sentence, "Solomon's temple was destroyed", what 
 element is "Solomon's"? It is an adjective element. Why? 
 
44 ELExMENTARY GRAMMAR. 
 
 Write five sentences, modifying their stibjects by descriptive ad- 
 ject! veis. 
 Model. — Cold weather is unpleasant. 
 
 Write five sentences, modifying their subjects by deflnitlve ad- 
 jectives. 
 Model. — Both horses are lame. 
 
 Write five sentences, modifying their subjects by nonns. 
 
 Models. — Elfs uncle is rich. Mr. Todd the mason is young. 
 
 Write five sentences, modifying both subjects and objects by ad- 
 jective elements. 
 Model. — Ellen^s mother bought a new bonnet. 
 
 Point out all the adjective elements in your reading lesson. 
 
 Analyze the following sentences, using tliese 
 
 MODELS. 
 I. " Sweet sounds soothe the ear." 
 This is a sentence; (why?j. 
 
 Sounds is the subject; (why?): soothe, the predicate; (why?). 
 "Sounds" is modified by sweet, an adjective element; "soothe", 
 by ear, an objective element: "ear," by the, an adjective element. " 
 
 II. " Frank's father is a merchant." 
 
 This is sentence; (why?). 
 
 Father is the subject; (why?): merchant, the predicate; 
 (why?). "Father" is modified by Frank's, an adjective element: 
 "merchant," by a, an adjective element. 
 
 III. "Milton the poet was bliiid." 
 
 This is a sentence; (why?). 
 
 Milton is the subject; (why?): blind, the predicate; (why?): 
 was is the copula. "Milton" is modified by poet, an adjective 
 element: "poet", by the, an adjective element ' 
 
PARTS OF SPEECH. 45 
 
 ^ EXERCISES. 
 
 1. Clarence is a good scholar. 2. Charles found an old 
 knife. 3. Helen's mother is sick. 4. Miss Young the mil- 
 liner is dead. 
 
 5. The thief stole father's horse. 6. The sheriff caught Hobbs 
 the burglar. 7. Five boys earned three dollars. 8. Both ves- 
 sels have sailed. 
 
 9. Several scholars were tardy. 10. Few men escaped. U. 
 Many men died. 12. Mr. Snooks the grocer boards Mr. »ear^ 
 the tailor. 
 
 Questions. — What is an adjective element? Can nouns be used 
 as adjective elements? 
 
 What is a participle? How many participles are there ? What 
 is the present participle? The perfect participle? The compound 
 participle ? 
 
 How does the present participle end? Tlie perfect participle? 
 How is the compound participle formed ? Why is this part of 
 speech called a participle? 
 
 24. The Pronoun. 
 
 "John put John's hat on John's head." 
 
 Is this a correct sentence? It is not. What word is un- 
 necessarily repeated? "John's," How should the sentence be 
 written? It should be written, "John put his hat on his 
 head". 
 
 What word is here used instead of "John's"? "His." 
 
 This word is called a Pronoun, which means instead of a 
 noun. 
 
 1. A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun; 
 as, he runs, she sings, they listen. 
 
 In the sentences, "/ write", ''You read", ''They study", 
 what are the words "/", "you", and "they'^f They are pro- 
 nouns. Why? Because they are used instead of nouns — "I", 
 
46 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 
 
 instead of the name of the person speaking; "you", instead 
 of the name of the person spoken to; "they", instead of the 
 names of the persons spoken of. 
 
 The name of a person speaking is said to be of the first 
 person; the name of an object spoken to, of the second person; 
 the name of an object spoken of, of the third person. 
 
 Those pronouns which show by their form whether the 
 nouns which they represent are of the first, second, or third 
 person, are called Personal Pronouns. 
 
 2. Personal Pronouns both represent nouns and 
 show by their form whether they are of the first, sec- 
 ond, or third person. 
 
 Rem. — The personal pronouns are /, thou, he, she, it, we^ 
 our, us, my, mine, ye, you, your, thy, thine, thee, his, him, her, 
 its, they, their, them, myself, himself, &c. 
 
 Point out all the personal pronouns in the following sen- 
 tences: 
 
 1. Thou callest. 2. I come. 3. She studies. 4. I like her. 
 5. They are honest. 6. Her lesson was learned. 7. I borrowed 
 his books. 8. They have sold their farms. 9. You should 
 study your lesson. 10. Ye are the people. 11. It can not find 
 its master. 12. Thy fame hath preceded thee. 
 
 Analyze the foregoing sentences, and point out the nouns and 
 Terbs, using these 
 
 MODELS. 
 
 I. "It is he." 
 This is a sentence; (why?). 
 
 It is the subject; (why?): he is the predicate; (why?): is is 
 the copula. 
 
 II. "He has lost his book." 
 This is a sentence; (why?). 
 He is the subject; (why?): has lost, the predicate; (why?). 
 
PARTS OF SPEECH. 47 
 
 '*Has lost" is modified by book, an objective element; and 
 "book" by his, an adjective element. 
 
 III. ''Their horses drowned themselves." 
 
 This is a sentence; (why?). 
 
 Horses is the subject; (why?): drowned, the predicate; 
 (why?). '* Horses" is modified by their, an adjective element, 
 and "drowned", by themselves, an objective element. 
 
 Substitute appropriate pronouns for the dashes in the following 
 sentences : 
 1. Stephen died a martyr to faith. 2. house to 
 
 was a strange land. 3. said of son, " 
 
 is brother". 4. Let there be no strife betwixt 
 
 and . 5. . Lend — pen till write exercise. 
 
 6. How much missed brother and sister. 7. 
 
 say are friend. 
 
 Write Jive sentences, using personal pronouns as subjects. 
 Model. — We are scholars. 
 
 Write Jive sentences, using personal pronouns as objects. 
 Model.— Henry admires them. 
 
 Write Jive sentences, using personal pronouns as a4Jecti'cre 
 elements. 
 Model. — His book is in his hand. 
 
 Point out the personal pronouns in your reading lesson, using 
 this 
 
 MODEL. 
 "His book is in my desk." 
 Ills is a pronoun; it is a word used instead of a noun : per- 
 sonal; it represents a noun, and shows that it is of the third 
 person. 
 
 My is a, pronoun; (why?): personal; it represents a noun, and 
 shows that it is of the first person. 
 
48 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 
 
 Questions. — What is a pronoun ? A personal pronoun? Name 
 some of the personal pronouns. 
 
 What js an adjective element ? What is an adjective ? A de- 
 scriptive adjective? A definitive adjective? 
 
 What is a participle? The present participle? How does it 
 end ? The perfect participle ? How does it end ? The compound 
 participle ? How is it formed ? 
 
 What is the definite article? The indefinite article? 
 
 What is a verb ? A transitive verb ? An intransitive verb ? A 
 copulative verb? 
 
 What is an element? The subject? The predicate? The cop- 
 ula? For what is the copula used? What is analysis? 
 
 What is a noun? A common noun? A proper noun? Can 
 you write objects? Can you write the names of objects? What is 
 an object ? What is a word ? 
 
 25. Possessive Pronouns. 
 
 In the sentence, "This house is ours", what is the subject? 
 "House." Why? What is the predicate? "Ours." Why? 
 It is that which is affirmed of the subject. What is the cop- 
 ula? "Is." 
 
 What modifies "house"? "This", an adjective element. 
 What words can be used instead of "ours"? "Our house." 
 What does the pronoun "our" denote? It denotes that we 
 own the house. 
 
 "Ours", then, is used to denote both the possessor and the 
 thing possessed. In this sentence, it represents both "our" 
 and "house". Because it does this, it is called a Possessive 
 Pronoun. 
 
 Possessive Pronouns are words used to represent 
 both the possessor and the thing possessed. 
 
 The Possessive Pronouns are mine, thine, his, hers, ours, 
 yours, theirs, our own, &c. 
 
 In the sentence, "That book is his", what is the predicate? 
 "His." Why? What does it represent? It represents the 
 words "his book". What is it? It is a possessive pronoun. 
 Why? Because it represents both the possessor and the thing 
 
PARTS OF SPEECH. 49 
 
 In the sentence, "That is his book" what is the predicate? 
 "Book." What modifies "book"? "His", an adjective ele- 
 ment. What is "his"? It is a personal pronoun. Why is it 
 not a possessive pronoun? Because it modifies the noun fol- 
 lowing it, and does not represent both the possessor and the 
 thing possessed. 
 
 Write fire sentences, using possessive pronouns as snbjects. 
 Model. — His is a hard lot. 
 
 Wrifp fire sentences, using possessive pronouns as predicates. 
 Model. — That desk is mine. 
 
 Analyze the following sentences, using these 
 
 MODELS. 
 I. " Ours is an easy task." 
 This is a sentence; (why?). 
 
 Ours is the subject ; (why?): task, the predicate ; (why?): is 
 is the copula. "Task" is modified by an and easy, both adjec- 
 tive elements. 
 
 II. "That factory is theirs." 
 This is a sentence; (why?). 
 
 Factory is the subject; (why?): theirs, the predicate; fwhy?): 
 Is is the copula. "Factory" is modified by that* an adjective 
 element. 
 
 III. "This land is our own." 
 This is a sentence ; (why?). 
 
 I^and is the subject; (why?): our own, the predicate; (why?). 
 " Land " is modified by this, an adjective element. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. This book is hers. 2. Those apples are his. 3. Yours is 
 a hard lesson. 4. Those marbles are mine. 5. This book is 
 thine. 6. The evenings are our own. 7. The victory is ours. 
 
50 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 
 
 Point out the possessive pronouns in these sentences, using this 
 
 MODEL. 
 "That book is mine." 
 Mine is a pronoun; (why?): possessive; it represents both the 
 possessor and the thing possessed : it is equivalent to " my book ". 
 
 See whether there are any possessive pronouns in your read- 
 ing lesson. 
 
 Questions. — What are possessive pronouns? Name some of 
 them. What is a pronoun? A personal pronoun? What is a par- 
 ticiple? The present participle? The perfect participle? The 
 compound participle? What is an adjective? A descriptive ad- 
 jective? A definitive adjective? 
 
 What is the definite article? The indefinite article? When 
 should a and when should an be used? What is a verb? A tran- 
 sitive verb? An intransitive verb? A copulative verb? 
 
 What is a noun? A common noun? A proper noun? 
 
 What is an element? The subject? The predicate? The ob- 
 jective element? The adjective element? What is analysis? 
 
 26. Relative Pronouns. 
 
 When we say, "A rich man owns that house", what ele- 
 ment is the word "rich"? It is an adjective element. Why? 
 
 When we say, "A man who is rich owns that house", what 
 words do w^ use instead of "rich" to modify "man"? We 
 use the words, "who is rich". What element do these words 
 form? An adjective element. Why? Because they modify a 
 noun. 
 
 Is the expression, "who is rich", a proposition? It is. 
 Why? Because it has a subject and a predicate. What is the 
 subject? "Who." Why? What is the predicate? "Rich." 
 Why? What is the copula? 
 
 What part of speech is "who"? It is a pronoun. Why? 
 It is a word used instead of a noun. Instead of what noun is 
 it used? The noun "man". 
 
 This sentence, then, contains two propositions: "A man 
 
iJ&^'av4uy>^.' \ i^-jjeA^ , n/^rf\/-^ 7 '--fM 
 
 PAHTS OP SPEECH. 51 
 
 owns that house", and "who is rich"; the second proposition 
 modifying the subject of the first. Such a sentence is called 
 a Compleoc Sentence. 
 
 1. A Complex Sentence consists of a proposition 
 some part of which is modified by another proposition. 
 
 The propositions of which a complex sentence is composed 
 are called clauses. 
 
 What is the proposition, "A man owns that house"? It is 
 a clause. Why? It is a proposition which forms a part of a 
 complex sentence. What is the proposition, "who is rich"? 
 It is a clause. Why? 
 
 The pronoun "who" is not only the subject of the proposi- 
 tion, but it also joins the modifying clause, "who is rich", to 
 the noun which it limits. 
 
 Those pronouns which represent preceding words or expres- 
 sions, to which they join modifying clauses, are called Relative 
 Pronouns. 
 
 2. A RelatiTe Pronoun is a word used to repre- 
 sent a preceding word or expression, to-^hieh-k joins 
 
 -^-madrrying-t^attse . 
 
 3. A Relative Clause is a clause introduced by a 
 relative pronoun. 
 
 The relative pronouns are who, tvhich, what, and that. As is 
 also a relative after the words such, many, and same. 
 
 The suffixes ever, so, and soever are sometimes added to these 
 pronouns ; as, whoever, whoso, whosoever. 
 
 Point out the relative pronouns in the following sentences, 
 using this 
 
 MODEL. 
 
 "A man who is industrious will prosper." ' 
 
 Who is a pronoun; (why?): relative; it represents a preceding 
 
62 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 
 
 word, to which it joins a modifying clause. The word it repre- 
 sents is *^nian". 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. Tell me whom you saw. 2. Those who sow will reap. 3. 
 He that hateth, dissembleth with his lips. 4. This is the house 
 which my father bought. 
 
 5. I gave him all that I had. 6. Judge ye what I say. 7. 
 He will do what is right. 8. A kind boy avoids doing what- 
 ever injures others. 9. Whoever studies, will learn. 10. What- 
 ever ye shall ask in my name, that will I do. 
 
 Point out Vie relative pronouns \n your reading lessor}. 
 
 Point out the nouns, a«yeotives, verbs, and personal pro- 
 nouns in the above sentences. 
 
 Substitute pronouns for the dashes in the following sentences: 
 1. Death lifts the vail -^ hides a brighter sphere. 2, Blest 
 
 are the feasts simple plenty crowns. 3. God, 
 
 in — trust. 
 
 4. The man paid the money was the cashier. 
 
 5. The message sent was received. 6. No one can 
 
 tell others may do. 7. will do is proper. 
 
 Write Jive sentences, modifying their subjects by relative clauses. 
 Model.— The boy who studies will learn. 
 
 Write Jive sentences, modifying their obJeotN by relative clauses. 
 Model. — I have lost the book which you gave me. 
 
 Analyze the foregoing sentences, using these 
 
 MODELS. 
 I. "The fish which you caught, is a trout." 
 This is a sentence; (why?). 
 Flsb is the subject; (why?): front, the predicate ; (why?): 
 
PARTS OF SPEECH. 58 
 
 Is is the copula. "Fish" is modified by the and whicb yoa 
 caug^lit, both adjective elements. 
 
 II. "I remember what you said." 
 This is a sentence; (why?). 
 
 I is the subject; (why?): remember, the predicate; (why?). 
 '* Remember" is modified by wbat you said, an objective element. 
 
 Questions. — What is a clause? What is a relative pronoun? 
 What is a relative clause? Name the relative pronouns. What 
 terminations are sometimes added to these pronouns? 
 
 What are possessive pronouns ? 
 
 WJiat is a pronoun ? A personal pronoun ? 
 
 Wniat is a participle? Tlie present participle? The perfect 
 participle? The compound participle? What is the ending of the 
 present participle? Of the perfect participle? How is the com- 
 pound participle formed? 
 
 What is an adjective? A descriptive adjective? A definitive 
 adjective? What is the definite article? The indefinite article? 
 W^hat is a verb? A transitive verb? An intransitive verb? A 
 copulative verb ? 
 
 What is a noun ? A common noun ? A proper noun ? 
 
 27. Interrogative Pronouns. 
 
 In the sentences: "Who is that man?" "Which cornea 
 first?" "What is he?", what words are used instead of the 
 answers to the questions? The words "who", "which", and 
 "what". 
 
 These words, together with ivhose and whom, when used in 
 asking questions, are called Interrogative Pronouns, 
 
 An Interrogatii'e Pronoun is one used in asking 
 questions. 
 
 The interrogative pronouns which and what are sometimes 
 placed before nouns. They are then called Interrogative Ad- 
 jectives. 
 
 Ex.— "Which road shall I take?" The word "which" is an 
 interrogative adjective, modifying "road". "What noise is 
 
54 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 
 
 that?" The word "what" is an interrogative adjective, modify- 
 ing "noise". 
 
 Point out the interro§raUve pronouns in the following sen- 
 tences, using this 
 
 MODEL. 
 "Who visited your school yesterday?" 
 
 Il'lio is a p'onoun; (why?): interrogative/ it is used in asking 
 a question. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. What did he say? 2. Who wrote that letter? 3. Which 
 trots the fastest? 4. Whom did you call? 5. Whose house 
 was burned? 6. What can he mean? 7. Who has learned 
 this lesson? 8. Who discovered America? 9. Who borrowed 
 John's slate? 10. Whose book is this? 
 
 Point out the nouns, adjectives, verbs, and personal pro- 
 
 in these sentences. 
 
 See whether there are any interrogative pronouns or inter- 
 rogrative adjectives in your reading lesson. 
 
 Analyze the foregoing sentences, using this 
 
 MODEL. 
 "Whom can you trust?" 
 This is a sentence; (why?). 
 
 You is the subject; (why?): can trust, the predicate; (why?). 
 "Can trust" is modified by wliom, an objective element. 
 
 Questions. — W^hat is an interrogative pronoun? W^hat words 
 are used as interrogative pronouns? W^hich of these are some- 
 times used as interrogative adjectives? 
 
 What is a clause? A relative pronoun? A relative clause? 
 Name the relative pronouns. 
 
 What are possessive pronouns? Name some of them. 
 
 W^hat is a pronoun? A personal pronoun? Name some of 
 them. 
 
PARTS OF SPEECH. 55 
 
 ^- \ 28. The Adverb. 
 
 \ 
 
 In the sentence, "Birds sing sweetly", does the word 
 "sweetly" denote what the birds sing? It does not: it tells 
 how they sing. Does it complete the meaning of the verb 
 "sing", like an objective element? It does not: it modifies 
 it in another way. 
 
 In the sentence, "Very large vessels were seen", what is 
 modified by "very"? The word "large". What is "large"? 
 It is an adjective. 
 
 In the sentence, "He rode quite fast", what word tells how 
 he rode? The word "fast". What word tells how fast he 
 rode? The word " quite ". 
 
 Words used in this manner are called Adverbs. 
 1. An AdTerb is a word used to modify a verb, 
 adjective, participle, or adverb. 
 
 A group of words used like an adverb is called an Adverbial 
 Element. 
 
 2.) An AdTerbial Element is a word or group of 
 words used to modify a verb, adjective, participle, or 
 adverb. 
 Point out the adverbs in the following sentences, using this 
 
 MODEL. 
 "The wind blew furiously." 
 Furioasly is an adverb; it is used to modify a verb. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. That vessel sails slowly. 2. He built a house there. 3. 
 Emma is quite unwell. 4. Those mountains are very high. 
 5. We were agreeably surprised. 6. I will shortly return. 7. 
 You will never see him again. 8. I would gladly pardon you. 
 9. So thought Palmyra. 10. He afterward escaped. 
 
56 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 
 
 Point out the nouus, verbs, pronouns^ and adjectives in these 
 sentences. 
 
 Point out the adverbs in your reading lesson. 
 
 Write seven sentences, modifying their predicates by adverbs. 
 Model. — We should walk quietly. 
 
 Write seven sentejices, modifying their subjects by adjectives, and 
 those adjectives by adverbs. 
 Model. — Very loud reports were heard. 
 
 Write seven seiitences, modifying their predicates by adverbs, and 
 those adverbs by other adverbs. 
 Model. — He walks quite slowly. 
 
 Analyze the above exercises, using these 
 
 MODELS. 
 I. "Our house is very small." 
 This is a sentence; (why?). 
 
 House is the subject; (why?): small, the predicate; (why?): 
 is is the copula. "House" is modified by our, an adjective ele- 
 ment: "small", by very, an adverbial element. 
 
 n. "We should study our lessons carefully." 
 
 This is a sentence/ (why?). 
 
 We is the subject; (why?): should study, the predicate; 
 (why?). "Should study" is modified by lessons, an objective 
 element, and by carefully, an adverbial element: "lessons" is 
 modified by our, an adjective element. 
 
 Questions. — What is an adverb? What do adverbs usually 
 denote? Wliat is an adverbial element? 
 
 What is a pronoun ? A personal pronoun ? A possessive pro- 
 noun? A clause? A relative pronoun? A relative clause? An 
 interrogative pronoun? What are which and what called when 
 placed before nouns? 
 
 Give the directions for writinij sentences. 
 
PARTS OF SPEECH. 
 
 57 
 
 29. The Preposition. 
 
 In the sentence, "A man of wealth rode by our house", 
 what does the group of words "of wealth" modify? It modi- 
 fies the noun "man". What element is it? It is an adjective 
 element. Why? Because it modifies a noun. 
 
 What does the group of words "by our house" modify? It 
 modifies the verb "rode": it tells lohere he rode. What ele- 
 ment is it? It is an adverbial element. Why? Because it 
 modifies a verb. 
 
 The word "of" connects the noun "wealth" to the noun 
 "man". The word "by" connects the noun "house" with the 
 verb "rode". 
 
 They are said to show the relations between the worda 
 which they connect. 
 
 They are called Prepositions, and the nouns which follow 
 them are called their objects. 
 
 1. A Preposition is a word used to show the rela- 
 tion betw;een its object and some other word. 
 
 LIST OF PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 A = at, on, or in, 
 
 At, 
 
 Ere, 
 
 Since, 
 
 Aboard, 
 
 Athwart, 
 
 Except, 
 
 Till, until, 
 
 About, 
 
 Before, 
 
 For, 
 
 Through, 
 
 Above, 
 
 Behind, 
 
 From, 
 
 Throughout, 
 
 According to, 
 
 Beside, 
 
 In, 
 
 To, 
 
 Across, 
 
 Besides, 
 
 Into, 
 
 Toward, 
 
 After, 
 
 Beneath, 
 
 Of, 
 
 Towards, 
 
 Against, 
 
 Between, 
 
 Off, 
 
 Under, 
 
 Along, 
 
 Betwixt, 
 
 On, 
 
 Unto, 
 
 Amid, 
 
 Beyond, 
 
 Out of, 
 
 Up, 
 
 Among, 
 
 But, 
 
 Over, 
 
 Upon, 
 
 Amongst, 
 
 By, 
 
 Past, 
 
 With, 
 
 Around, 
 
 Down, 
 
 Round, 
 
 Within, 
 
 As to, 
 
 During, 
 
 Save, 
 
 Without. 
 
58 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 
 
 When two prepositions come together they form a com- 
 plex preposition. 
 
 2. A Preposition and its object form a Phrase. 
 
 Point out the prepositions in the following sentences, using this 
 
 MODEL. 
 " He came from France to America," 
 From is a preposition; it shows the relation between its object 
 and some other word. It shows the relation between "France" 
 and "came". 
 
 To is a preposition; (why?): it shows the relation between 
 "America" and "came". 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. The old man was often in want of the necessaries of life. 
 2. The boy went through the gate into the garden. 3. Be not 
 forward in the presence of your superiors. '4. He was not, at 
 that time, in the city. 5. He drove over the bridge into the 
 city. 6. He went to the doctor for advice. 7. The path 
 brought them to the end of the wood. 8. She turned to the 
 old man with a lovely smile upon her face. 9. The light 
 came through the stained windows of the old church. 
 
 Point out the nouns, yerbs, adjectives, and pronouns in these 
 sentences. 
 
 Point out the prepositions in your reading lesson. 
 Analyze the following seiitences, using this 
 
 MODEL. 
 "Habits of industry will lead to prosperity." 
 This is a sentence; (why?). 
 
 Habits is the subject; (why?): will lead, the predicate; 
 (why?). "Habits" is modified by the phrase of industry, an 
 adjective element: "will lead" is modified by the phrase to 
 prosperity, an adverbial, element. 
 
PARTS OF SPEECH. 59 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. Light moves in straight lines. 2. They went aboard the 
 ship. 3. I differ from you on that point. 4. The two thieves 
 divided the money ^between them. 5, The ship was driven 
 upon the rocks. 
 
 6. Our sincerest laughter is fraught with some pain. 7. The 
 young lambs are bleating in the meadows. 8. They came to 
 the country of the free. 9. I will divide this farm among my 
 three sons. 10. Man goeth to his long home. 11. The sleep 
 of a laboring man is sweet. 
 
 Questions. — What is a preposition ? What is the object of a 
 preposition ? What is a phrase ? 
 
 What is an adverb ? What do adverbs usually denote ? What 
 js an adverbial element ? 
 
 What is a pronoun ? A ^personal pronoun ? A possessive pro- 
 noun ? A relative pronoun ? An interrogative pronoun ? <\ 
 clause? A relative clause? 
 
 What is a verb? A transitive verb? An intransitive verb? A 
 copulative verb ? 
 
 What is a participle ? The present participle ? The perfect 
 participle ? The compound participle ? 
 
 What is an adjective? A descriptive adjective? A definitive 
 adjective ? 
 
 What is a noun ? A common noun ? A proper noun ? Which 
 pf these should always commence with a capital letter? 
 
 30. The Conjunction. 
 
 In the sentence, "Ellen and Mary study botany", what two 
 words are used as the subject? "Ellen" and "Mary". Wky? 
 Because something is affirmed of them : both. Ellen and Mary 
 study botany. What word joins them? The word "and". 
 
 In the sentence, "Ellen or Mary studies botany", what two 
 words are. used as the subject? "Ellen" and "Mary". Are 
 both represented as studying botany? They are not ^ if E^Ten 
 studies botany, Mary does not. What word joiop^b^ai^ The 
 word "or". * ff'V ^. 
 
 itim-^. 
 
60 ELEMENTARY GRAMxMAR. 
 
 In the statement, " Ellen will study botany if Mary studies 
 algebra", how many sentences are there? There are two: 
 ■'Ellen will study botany", and ''Mary studies algebra". 
 What word is used to connect these two sentences? The 
 word "if". 
 
 The words "and", "or", "if", and all other words used 
 merely to join words, phrases, clauses, and members are called 
 Conjunctions. 
 
 1. A Conjunction is a word used to connect words, 
 phrases, clauses, and members. 
 
 Conjunctions merely connect words, they do not express 
 relations, like prepositions. 
 
 Two or more parts of the same proposition, connected by 
 conjunctions, form a compound element. 
 
 2. A Compound Oement consists of two or more 
 parts of the same proposition connected by con- 
 junctions. 
 
 Ex. — "James and Samuel are kind, honest, and faithful." 
 "James" and "Samuel" are the parts of the compound subject: 
 "kind", "honest", and "faithful" are the -parts of the compound 
 predicate. 
 
 The comma [,] is omitted after "James" because two 
 parts only are connected; it is inserted after "kind" and 
 "honest", because more than two parts of a compound ele« 
 ment are connected. 
 
 nireetions for Writing:. — When a compound element con-' 
 sists of more than two parts, 
 
 1st. Place a comma after each part except the last. 
 
 2d. Use the conjunction between the last two parts only. 
 
 Point out the conjunctions in your reading lesson. 
 
PARTS OF SPEECH. 61 
 
 Point out the conjanetions in the following sentences^ using this 
 
 MODEL. 
 "Eli and iSilas will improve, if they study." 
 And is a conjunction; it is a word Used to connect words: it 
 connects "Eli" and "Silas". 
 
 If is a conjunction; (why?): it connects the sentences, "Eli and 
 Silas will improve" and ''they study". 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. We moved along silently and cautiously. 2. I consent 
 to the constitution, because I expect no better. 3. He heaped 
 up great riches, but passed his time miserably. 4. He is both 
 learned and wise. 5. I shall not go, if it rain. 
 
 6. Cold and hunger awake not her care. 7. They submit, 
 since they can not conquer. 8. He has many faults, still he 
 is very popular. 9. Emma or Susan will remain at home. 
 10. Neither Clara nor Jane was in the room. 
 
 Point out all the parts of speech in these sentences. 
 
 Analyze the above sentences, using this 
 
 MODEL. 
 "He came and went like a pleasant thought." 
 This is a sentence; (why?). 
 
 He is the subject; (why?): came and went, the compound 
 predicate; it is that which is affirmeii of the subject. The com- 
 pound predicate is modified by the phrase, like a pleasant 
 tbought, an adverbial element: "thought" is modified by a and 
 pleasant, adjective elements. 
 
 Qnestjons. — What is a conjunction? What is the difference 
 between a conjunction and a preposition? What is a compound 
 element? Give the directions for writing a compound element. 
 
 What is a preposition? What is the object of a preposition? 
 What is a phrase? 
 
 What is an adverb ? What is an adverbial element ? " 
 
62 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 
 
 31. The luterjectioii. 
 
 -_i '^Bhirral we have found him." 
 
 Is this a sentence? It is. Wh^t is the subject? The pro- 
 noun "we". What is the predicate? "Have found." What 
 modifies the predicate? The pronoun "him", an objective 
 element. 
 
 What does the word "hurra" denote? It denotes that the 
 speaker or writer is highly pleased. Does it affirm or deny- 
 any thing? It does not: it simply implies a feeling or emo- 
 tion of pleasure. 
 
 There are words, also, used to denote sorrow, grief, surprise, 
 disgust, pity, hatred, &c. 
 
 All such words are called Interjections. 
 
 An Interjeotioii is a word used to denote some 
 sudden or strong emotion. 
 
 Interjections usually, but not always, require an exclama- 
 tion point [ I j after them. 
 
 Point Old the Jnterjections in each of the following sentences, 
 rising this , 
 
 MODEL. 
 "Hush! they are coming." 
 Hash is an interjection; it denotes some sudden emotion. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. Hal it freezes me. 2. Aha! you are a truant, I see. 
 3. Ahem I I will think about it. 4. Hark ! the clock strikes 
 one. 5. Pshaw ! I knew that long ago. 6. Alas ! we shall 
 see him no more. 
 
 7. Tush! tush! man, I made/no reference to you. 8. Ay, 
 every inch a king. 9. 0, wh^t a noble mind is here o'er- 
 
PARtS OF SPEECH. 63 
 
 thrown! 10. Alas! they had been friends in youth. 11. 
 Hark! hark! the lar.k at heaven's gate sings. 12. Alas! for 
 the rarity of Christian charity. _ 
 
 Point out all the parts of speech in the above sentences. 
 
 Point out the interjections in your reading lesson. 
 
 Qnestions. — What is an interjection ? What should usually 
 be placed after an interjection ? 
 
 What is a conjunction? W^hat is a compound element? Give 
 the directions for writing a compound element. 
 
 What is a preposition? What is the object of a preposition? 
 What is a phrase? 
 
 What is an adverb ? An adverbial element ? 
 
 32. Classes of Sentences. 
 
 Sentences may be used to declare something, to ask questions^ 
 to express commands, or to denote emotian. 
 
 1. There are four classes of sentences : Declarative, 
 Interrogative, Imperative, and Exclamatory. 
 
 2. A Deelarative Sentence is one used to affirm 
 or deny something ; as, Fishes stvim. Fishes do not 
 walk. 
 
 3. An Interrc^atiTe Sentence is one used to ask 
 a question ; as, Are you sick ? Where do you live ? 
 
 4. An Imperative Sentence is one used to express 
 a command or an entreaty; as, Come here. Do not 
 strike me. 
 
 5. An Exclamatory Sentence is one used in ex- 
 clamations, or in the expression of strong emotion; 
 as, Oh, how glad I am to see 
 
64 ELExMENTARY GRAMMAR. 
 
 Tell the different kinds of sentences in your reading lesson, using 
 these 
 
 MODELS. 
 I. " Attend to the duties I have assigned you." 
 This is a sentence; (why?): imperative; it is used to express a 
 command. 
 
 II. "When was America discovered?" 
 This is a sentence; (why?); inierrogative ; it is used to ask a 
 question. 
 
 Qnestions^ — How many classes of sentences are there ? Name 
 them. What is a declarative sentence? An interrogative sen- 
 tence ? An imperative sentence ? An exclamatory sentence ? 
 
 33. Review. 
 
 1. We have now learned that there are nine Parts 
 of Speech; viz., Noun, Verb, Adjective, Participle, 
 Pronoun, Adverb, Preposition, Conjunction, Inter- 
 jection. 
 
 2. We have also learned that a sentence may con- 
 tain five Elements. 
 
 3. The Principal Slemente are the Subject and 
 the Predicate. 
 
 4. The Subordinate Elements are the Objective, 
 Adjective, and Adverbial Elements. 
 
 Before proceeding farther, be sure that you can answer all 
 the following 
 
 QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 
 
 How many senses have we ? 
 Name them. How do we ob- 
 tain a knowledge of material 
 
 things? Cnn we perceive things 
 which are not material ? What 
 is an object ? What is a word ? 
 
PARTS OF SPEECH, 
 
 65 
 
 What is language "i* Spoken 
 language ? Written language ? 
 Grammar? English grammar? 
 
 What are parts of speech ? 
 How many parts of speech are 
 there? Name them. How do 
 you determine the class to which 
 any word belongs ? 
 
 What is a noun ? A common 
 noun? A proper noun? Give 
 examples of each class. Which 
 should commence with capital 
 letters? Can you write objects? 
 Can you write the names of ob- 
 jects? 
 
 What is a sentence? A prop- 
 osition? How many classes of 
 sentences are there? Nametliem. 
 What is a declarative sentence ? 
 An interrogative sentence ? An 
 imperative sentence? An ex- 
 clamatory sentence? Give the 
 directions for writing sentences. 
 
 What is the subject of a prop- 
 osition ? The predicate ? The 
 copula? What does the word 
 copula mean? 
 
 What are quality-words ? Can 
 they be used as predicates? Give 
 an example. Give an example 
 of a noun used as a predicate. 
 What do predicate-nouns de- 
 note? 
 
 What is an element? What 
 are the principal elements? Is 
 the copula an element ? What 
 is its use? What are the sub- 
 ordinate elements ? What is 
 analysis ? 
 
 E G— 5. 
 
 What is a verb ? What does 
 it usually express ? What is a 
 transitive verb? An intransi- 
 tive verb ? A copulative verb ? 
 Is the object of a transitive verb 
 always expressed? What is an 
 objective element? 
 
 What is an adjective ? A de- 
 scriptive adjective? A defini- 
 tive adjective? What adjectives 
 should always commence wilh 
 capitals? 
 
 What words are called ar- 
 ticles? What is the definite ar- 
 ticle? The indefinite article? 
 When is a used ? When is an 
 used ? 
 
 What is a participle? Why 
 is it called a participle? How 
 many participles are there? 
 Name them. Wheh is a par- 
 ticiple ealled active f When jkis- 
 sive f What does the present par- 
 ticiple denote? How does the 
 present active participle end? 
 What does the perfect participle 
 denote? How does it usually 
 end ? What does the compound 
 participle denote ? What is the 
 "principal verb"? How is the 
 compound participle formed ? 
 
 What is an adjective element ? 
 Can nouns be used as adjective 
 elements? Give examples. 
 
 What is a pronoun ? A per- 
 sonal pronoun? Name some of 
 the personal pronouns. 
 
 What are possessive pronouns? 
 Name some of them. 
 
66 
 
 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 
 
 What is a clause ? A relative 
 
 pronoun 
 
 A relative clause ? 
 
 I»Ianie the relative pronouns. 
 What terminations are sorae^ 
 times annexed to these pro- 
 nouns ? 
 
 What is an interrogative pro- 
 noun? Name them. Which of 
 these are sometimes interroga- 
 tive adjectives ? 
 
 What is an adverb ? What do 
 adverbs usually denote ? What 
 is an adverbial element ? 
 
 What is a preposition? What 
 is the object of a preposition? 
 AVhat is a phrase ? 
 
 What is a conjunction? What 
 is the difference between a con- 
 junction and a preposition? 
 What is a compound element? 
 Give the directions for writing 
 a compound element. 
 
 What is an interjection? What 
 mark of punctuation should usu- 
 ally be placed after an inter- 
 jection? 
 
NOUNS. 67 
 
 PART III. 
 SYNTAX-PARSING. 
 
 THE NOUN. 
 
 To nouns' belong Gender, Person, ;^^nniber, and 
 Case. 
 
 34. Gender. 
 
 1. Gender is a distinction of nouns or pronouns 
 with regard to sex. 
 
 2. There are four genders : Masculine, Feminine, 
 Common, and Neuter. 
 
 3. The Mascnline Gender denotes males; as, fa- 
 ther, king, governor. 
 
 4. The Feminine Gender denotes females ; as, 
 mother, queen, governess. 
 
 5. The Common Gender denotes either males or 
 females ; as, children, parent, cattle. 
 
 6. The l^enter Gender denotes neither males nor 
 females ; as, stove, pen, locomotive. 
 
68 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 
 
 7. There are three ways of distinguishing the masculine 
 and feminine genders : 
 
 1. By using different words; as, father, mother; brother, 
 sister; boy, girl; gentleman, lady; Mr., Mrs.; Charles, Caro- 
 line; drake, duck; hart, roe. 
 
 2. By different terminations; as, actor, actress; executor, 
 executrix ; hero, heroine. 
 
 3. By joining some distinguishing word; as, man-servant, 
 maid-servant; he-bear, she-bear; landlord, landlady; mer- 
 man, mermaid. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 Tell the grender of the following nouns: 
 
 Baker, milliner, poet, father, aunt, nephew, cart, Susan, 
 Joseph, duke, countess, administratrix, madam, president, 
 empress. 
 
 Give the corresponding masculine or feminine for the follow- 
 ing nouns: 
 
 Grandfather, uncle, niece, count, widow, prophet, sorcerer, 
 earl, • female, hen-sparrow, Miss Jones, Augusta, Francis, 
 mediator. 
 
 Write five sentences, usi7ig mascnline nouns as subjects. 
 Model. — John left his book on my desk. 
 
 Write five sentences, using feminine nouns as objects. 
 Model. — The teacher sent my sister home at recess. 
 
 Write six sentences, using nouns in the common or neuter gender 
 as subjects or objects. 
 
 Model. — A beggar frightened me this morning. 
 Tell the gender of all the nouns in your reading lesson. 
 
NOUNS. 69 
 
 4|iiestions. — What is a noun? A common noun? A proper 
 noun? What belong to nouns? What is gender? How many 
 genders are there? What is the masculine gender? The feminine 
 gender ? The common gender ? The neuter gender ? How many 
 ways are there of distinguishing the masculine and feminine gen- 
 ders? Give them. 
 
 35. Pei'soH. 
 
 1. Person is that property of a noun or pronoun 
 which distinguishes the speaker, the person spoken to, 
 and the person or object spoken of. 
 
 2. There are three persons : First, Second, and 
 Third. 
 
 3. The First Person denotes the speaker; as, "/, 
 Geo. IV''; ^^We are contented with our lot". 
 
 4. The l^»eeond Person denotes the person ad- 
 dressed; as, ''^ James, shut the door"; ^'"You are care- 
 less". 
 
 5. The Tliird Person denotes the object spoken 
 of; as, "My father sold his farm this morning.'' 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 Tell the person of the nouns and pronouns in the followinfj 
 sentences : 
 
 1. My lesson is learned. 2. Have you seen our old friend 
 lately? 3. Ellen, tell your sister to come home. 4. I saw him 
 on the battle eve. 5. They left the plowshare in the mold. 
 6, Your horse is in our barn, Mr. Eckel. 7. He left home 
 early in the morning. 
 
 Tell the person of the nouns and pronouns in your reading lesson. 
 
70 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 
 
 Write five sentences, using nouns or pronouns of the first person 
 
 as subjects, predicates, or objects. 
 
 Model. — We are pupils. / defended myself. 
 
 Write five sentences, using nouns or pronouns of the second 
 person as subjects or objects. 
 
 Model. — You may be excused. I envy thee. 
 
 Write five sentences, using nouns or pronouns of the third person 
 
 OS subjects, predicates, or objects. 
 
 Models. — Studious pupils learn long lessons easily. They left 
 their homes in sorrow. 
 
 Q,uestions. — What is person? How many persons are there? 
 Define them. What is gender ? The masculine gender? The fem- 
 inine gender? The common gender? Tlie neuter gender? What 
 belong to nouns? 
 
 36. Number. 
 
 Nouns may denote one object or more than one. Thus, 
 "house" denotes one object; "houses", more than one: "ox" 
 denotes one object; "oxen", more than one. 
 
 This modification or use of a noun is called Number. 
 
 1. dumber is that property of a noun or pronoun 
 which distinguishes one from more than one. 
 
 2. There are two numbers : Singular and Plural, 
 
 3. The lingular ^^uinber denotes but one ; as, 
 hoy., girl., apple. 
 
 4. The Plural Bfumber denotes more than one ; 
 as, hoySy gi^ls^ apples. 
 
37. Formation of the Plural. 
 
 1. Nouns whose last sound will unite with 5, form their 
 plurals by adding 8 only to the singular ; as, book, books; boy, 
 boys; desk, desks. 
 
 2. Nouns whose last sound will not unite with s, form their 
 plurals by adding es to the singular; as, bush bushes; box, 
 boxes. 
 
 3. Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant, change y 
 into ies; as, mercy, mercies. 
 
 4. Some nouns ending in / or fe, change these endings 
 into ves; as, knife, knives. 
 
 5. Most nouns ending in o, preceded by a consonant, add 
 
 es; as, cargo, cargoes. 
 
 6. Nouns ending in o, preceded by a vowel, add s; as, 
 folio, folios. 
 
 7. Letters, figures, marks, and signs add 's; as, p's and q^s; 
 9's and IVs; the *'«/ the |'s and 9's. 
 
 8. Proper nouns usuafly add s only in forming their plu- 
 rals; as, Mary, Marys; Sarah, Sarahs; Nero, Neros. The forms 
 Maries y Neroes, &c., are sometimes used. 
 
 9. '^lost nouns from foreign langua 
 
 r€L^ 
 
 or^cey; as, calculus, calculi; arcanum, arcana; phenomenon, 
 phenomena ; thesis, theses; ephemeris, ephemerides. 
 
 10. Some nouns form their plurals irregularly; as, man, 
 men; ox, oxen; mouse, mice. 
 
 11. A few nouns are alike in both numbers ; as, slieep, deer, 
 trout, yoke, hosej vermin, and others. 
 
 12. In compound words, the part described by the rest is 
 generally pluralized; as, 6ro^Ae/'«-in-law, cowr/s-martial, ox- 
 earts. 
 
72 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 
 
 13. Nouns ending in fid or full, fofm their plurals by add- 
 ing s to the singular; as, handfuls, mouthfuls. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 Write the plurals of the following nouns : 
 
 Plow, rake, wrench, hoe, calf, turf, tooth, chimney, clam, 
 cameo, vase, glory, folly, embargo, woman, child, armful, tariff', 
 tax, studio, mischief, a, b, c, T|, f, incubus, radix, John, 
 Charles, creature, reply, salmon, horse, wagon-load, momen- 
 tum, tooth, analysis. 
 
 Write the siugrular of the following nouns: 
 
 Horses, oxen, men, children, pence, badges, loaves, feet, 
 mice, genii, beauties, geese, judges, heroes, ellipses, strata, 
 rubies, errata, valleys, folios. 
 
 Tell the number of all the nouns in your reading lesson. 
 
 Questional. — What is number? How many numbers are there? 
 What is the singular number? The plural number? Repeat the 
 rules for the formation of the plural. What is person? Tiie first 
 person? The second person? The third person? What is gender? 
 The masculine gender? The feminine gender? The common gen- 
 der ? The neuter gender ? 
 
 38. Case. 
 
 "The sun is shining": here *'sun" is used as the subject 
 of a proposition. "Every star is a sun": here "sun" is used 
 as the predicate. "The sun's rays are warm": here "sun" is 
 used as an adjective element, modifying "rays". "We saw 
 the sun at noon" : here "sun" is used as an objective element, 
 modifying "saw". "Dear is thy light, O sun!" here "sun" 
 is used absolutely — i e., it is absolved or separated from any 
 grammatical connection with the rest of the sentence. 
 
NOUNS. 73 
 
 In no two of these sentences has the word " sun " the same 
 relation to the other words. 
 
 These different relations are called Cases. 
 
 1. Case is the relation of a noun or pronoun to 
 other words. 
 
 2. There ai*c four cases : Nominative, Possessive, Ob- 
 jective, and AhmluUi 
 
 3. The Nominative €'ase is the use of a noun or 
 pronoun as the subject or the predicate of a proposi- 
 tion ; as, Boys skate ; Horses are animals. 
 
 4. The Possessive Case is the use of a noun or 
 pronoun to denote ownership^ a^ttborshi p, oiHg i R,— ^ 
 
 <dct^ ; as, John^s hat, Ray^s Algebra, the suns rays, 
 men's clothing. 
 
 The. Possessive Case Singular is formed by annexing ^s to 
 the nominative; as, Ellen's, Charleses. 
 
 A few singular nouns, ending with s or ce, form their pos- 
 sessive case by adding the apostrophe only ; as, goodness^ sake, 
 conscience' sake. 
 
 The Possessive Case Plural is formed by annexing the apos- 
 trophe only, when the nominative plural ends in s; as, boys', 
 "The Teachers' Association". 
 
 Plural nouns not ending with s, form their possessive case 
 by annexing 's/ as, men^s hats. 
 
 5. The Objective Case is the use of a noun or pro- 
 noun as the object of a transitive verb in the active 
 voice, or of a preposition ; as, " Indians hunt buffa- 
 loes'' ; "They ran over the bridge"; "John threw a 
 stone at the dog". 
 
74 ELEMEJSPTARY GRAMMAR. 
 
 6. The Absolute Case is the use of a noun or pro- ,, 
 noun jmdependent of any relatian to other^woeda ; a^, 
 
 ^Oh, my son''; '^Soldiers, attention". _^--'"^^^ 
 
 R«m. — A noun may be in the absolute case: 
 
 1. By direct address; as, "James, bring me a book" 
 
 2. £i/ exclamation; as, "Oh, my daughter/" 
 
 3. By pleonasm; i. e., by placing it before a sentence in 
 which an aflEirmation is made concerning it; as, "Your fathers, 
 where are they?" 
 
 4. With a participle; as, "The sun being risen". 
 
 7. A noun limiting the meaning of another noun 
 denoting the same person or thing, is, by apposition, 
 in the same case; as, Washington the general became 
 Washington the statesman. 
 
 39. Declension. 
 
 The I>ecleiision of a noun is its variation to de- 
 note number and case. 
 
 The absolute case always has the same form as the nom- 
 inative. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 Norn., Fly, Flies, 
 
 Poss., ■ Fly's, Flies', 
 
 06;., Fly, Flies. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 Nom., Ooodness, 
 
 Poss., Goodness', 
 
 Obj., Goodness, , 
 
 Questions. — What is case? How many cases are there? 
 What is the nominative case? The possessive case? The object- 
 ive case? The absolute case ? How is the possessive case singular 
 formed ? The possessive case plural ? In how many ways may a 
 noun be in the absolute case? Give examples. 
 
 What is declension ? Decline "boy", "girl", "farmer". 
 
 
PARSING. 75 
 
 40. Parsing. 
 
 Parsing consists (1) In naming the part of speech ; 
 (2) In telling its properties; (3) In pointing out its 
 relations to other words ; (4) In giving the rule for 
 its construction. 
 
 41. Order of Parsing. 
 
 1. A noun, and why? 
 
 2. Common or proper, and why? 
 
 3. Gender, and why? 
 
 4. Person, and why? 
 
 5. Number, and why? 
 
 6. Case, and why? 
 
 7. Rule for construction. 
 
 42. Models for Parsing. 
 
 I. "Wheat is a vegetable." 
 
 Wbeat ... is a noun; it is a name: common; it can be applied to 
 any one of a kind or class: neuter gender; it denotes 
 neither males nor females: third person; it is spoken 
 of: singular number; it denotes but one: nominative 
 case; it is used as the subject of the proposition. 
 Rule I. "The subject of a proposition is in the nom- 
 inative case." 
 
 Vegetable is a noun; (why?): common; (why?): neuier gender; 
 (why?): third person; (why?): singular number; 
 (why?): nominative case; it is used as the predicate 
 of the proposition. Rule II. " A noun or pronoun 
 used as the predicate of a proposition is in the nom- 
 inative case." 
 
76 
 
 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 
 
 II. "Henry's uncle, the sheriff, was wounded." 
 
 Henry's . is a noun; (why?): proper; it is the name of a par- 
 ticular person: masculine gender; it denotes a male: 
 third person; (why?): singular number; (why?): pos- 
 sessive case; it denotes possession, and modifies "uncle". 
 Rule III. "A noun or pronoun used to limit the mean- 
 ing of a noun denoting a different person or thing, is 
 in the possessive case." 
 
 Sheriff. . ig a noun; (why?): common; (why?): masculine gen- 
 der; (why?): third person; (why?): singular number; 
 (why?): nominative case, in apposition with "uncle", 
 which it modifies. Rule IV. "A noun or pronoun 
 used to limit the meaning of a noun or pronoun by 
 denoting the same person, place, or thing, is in the 
 same case." 
 
 III. "Samuel, study your lesson with care." 
 
 Samuel . . is a noun; (why?): proper; (why?): masculine gen- 
 der; (why?): second person; it denotes the person, 
 addressed : singular number; it denotes but one : ab- 
 solute caBe; it is used independently. Rule V. "A 
 noun or pronoun used independently is in the abso- 
 lute case." 
 
 I^esson . . is a noun; (why?): common; (why?): neuter gender; 
 ( w^hy ? ) : third person ; (why?): s^ingular number; ( why ? ) : 
 objective case; it is the object of the verb "study". 
 Rule VI. "The object of a transitive verb in the 
 '"rt^. . active voice, or of its participles, is in the object- 
 
 ive case." 
 
 Care . . . is a noun; (why?): common; (why?): neuter gender; 
 (why?) : third person; (why?) . singular number; (why?) : 
 objective case ; it is used as the object of the preposition 
 "with". Rule VTI. "The object of a preposition is in 
 the objective case." 
 
SYNTAX. 77 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 Analyze the JoUowing sentences, and parse the nouns: 
 
 1. Borneo is a large island. 2. Our father lives in Wash- 
 ington. 3. John's dog bit Clarence. 4. Johnson's farm is 
 mortgaged. 5. Mr. Trowel the mason is unwell. 6. Oh, Helen, 
 father is coming. 7. The statue fell from its pedestal. 8. 
 Gad, a troop shall overcome him. 9. Jocko has stolen my 
 ^^,^^^/^^pectacles. 10. Susan's mother is my aunt. 11. Is the doc- 
 tor's office open? 
 
 12. Next to sincerity, remember still 
 Thou must resolve upon integHty. 
 God will have all thou hast ; thy mind, thy will, 
 Thy thoughts, thy words, thy works. — Herbert. 
 
 Write the first two sentences of a composition on "Winter 
 Sports", and parse the nouns. 
 
 Correct the following sentences: 
 
 1. Jane has two brother-in-laws. 2. Storms are interesting 
 phenomenons. 3. Three chimnies were on fire. 4. The Sha- 
 ker's are industrious. 5. Did you attend Mr. Chance' lecture. 
 6. I called at Coleman's the jeweler's. 7. She is reading in her 
 sister's Mary's book. 
 
 Questions. — What is a noun? A common noun? A proper 
 noun? What belong to nouns? 
 
 What is gender? How many genders are there? What is the 
 masculine gender? The feminine gender? The common gender? 
 The neuter gender? 
 
 What is person ? The first person ? The second person ? The 
 third person? 
 
 What is number? The singular number? The plural number? 
 Repeat the rules for the formation of the plural. 
 
 What is case ? How many eases are there ? W^hat is the nom- 
 inative case? The possessive case? How is the possessive case 
 singular formed? The possessive case plural? What is the ob- 
 jective case? Tlie absolute case? In how many ways may a 
 noim or pronoun be in the absolute case ? Give examples. 
 
 What is declension? Parsing? Order of parsing a noun? 
 
78 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 
 
 THE PRONOUN. 
 
 To pronouns belong Gender, Person, Number, and 
 Case. 
 
 43. Personal Pronouns. 
 
 1. The ISimple Personal Pronouns are 7, thou, 
 lie, she, and it, with their declined forms ^ve, our, us, 
 my, mine, ye, you, your, thy, thine, thee, his, him, her, 
 its, they, their, them. ' 
 
 2. The Componnd Personal Pronouns are formed 
 by adding self or selves to some form of the simple per- 
 sonals ; as, myself, yourselves, himself, themselves. 
 
 Rem. — You is used to represent both singular and plural 
 nouns. 
 
 We is used in place of I, in editorials, royal proclamations, 
 &c. ; as, *^We, Geo. IV, King of Great Britain and Ireland"; 
 ^^We were mistaken". 
 
 It is sometimes used in the nominative, without reference 
 to any particular antecedent, and in the objective for euphony 
 alone; as, "//! thunders"; "Come and trip it on the green". 
 
 When pronouns of different persons are used, the second 
 should precede the third, and the third the first. 
 
 44. Declension of Personjil Pronouns. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 Myself, Ourselves, 
 
 Myself, Ourselves. 
 
 
 
 FIRST PERSON. 
 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 
 Nom.j 
 
 I, 
 
 We, 
 
 Nom. 
 
 Poss., 
 
 My, mine, 
 
 Our, 
 
 Poss., 
 
 Obj., 
 
 Me, 
 
 Us. 
 
 Obj., 
 
PRONOUNS. 
 
 79 
 
 SECOND PERSON^. 
 
 Singultir. Plural. 
 
 Thou, Ye, 
 
 Thy, thine, Your, 
 
 06/., Thee, You. 
 
 Norn. & Obj.. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 ( Thyself, 
 
 Yourself. 
 
 Singular. Flural. 
 
 ■Nom., You, You, 
 
 Your, Your, 
 
 Olyj., You, You. 
 
 fNom 
 Jposs 
 
 Flural. 
 Nom. & Obj., Yourselves. 
 
 THIRD PERSON. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Mas. Fern. Neut. 
 
 Nam., He, She, It, 
 
 Poss., His, Her, " Its, 
 
 Obj., Him, Her, It. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Mas. 
 Himself, 
 
 Fern. 
 Herself, 
 
 Nom. & Obj., 
 
 Neut. 
 Itself. 
 
 Nom. 
 Poss., 
 Obj., 
 
 Plural. 
 
 Com. or Neut. 
 They, 
 Their, 
 Them. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 ( Com, or Neut. 
 ' ( Themselves. 
 
 45. Order of Pai^sing. 
 
 1. A pronoun, and why? 
 
 2. Personal, and why ? 
 
 ^. What is its antecedent ? 
 
 4. Gender, person, and number? Bule. 
 
 5. Decline it. 
 
 6. Case, and why? Rule. 
 
80 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 
 
 46. Models for Pai*sing. 
 
 T. "I see them on their winding way." 
 is a pronoun; (why?): personal; it shows by its form that 
 
 it is of the first person : its antecedent is the name, un- 
 derstood, of the speaker : gender, first person, singular 
 
 number, to agree with its antecedent. Rule IX. "Pro- 
 nouns must agree with their antecedents in gender, person, 
 and number." Decline it: nominative case: Rule I. 
 
 Ttaem . is a pronoun; (why?): personal; (why?): its antecedent 
 
 is the name, understood, of the person spoken of: 
 
 gender, third person, plural number: Rule IX. Decline it: 
 objective case; it is the object of the transitive verb "see": 
 Rule VI. 
 
 II. " I, myself, told you so." 
 
 Myself is a pronoun; (why?): personal; (why?): compound: its 
 
 antecedent is the name, understood, of the speaker: 
 
 gender, first person, singular number: Rule IX. Decline it: 
 nominative case, in apposition with "I": Rule IV. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 Analyze the following sentences, and parse the iioiins and per- 
 sonal pronouns : 
 
 1. You and he are my friends. 2. I saw them in their car- 
 riage. 3. The soldiers helped themselves. 4. Thou art the 
 man. 5. He saved thy money for thee. 6. Your father knows 
 us. 7. He himself hid youi slate. 
 
 8. Where shall I see him ? angels tell me where. 
 You know him ; he is near you ; point him out. 
 Shall I see glories beaming from his brow, 
 Or trace his footsteps by the rising flowers?^ — Young. 
 
 Write the first two sentences of a composition on "Our Garden", 
 and parse the perMonal pronouns. 
 
PRONOUNS. 81 
 
 ^nestion^. — What is a pronoun ? A personal pronoun ? What 
 are tke simple personal pronouns? The compound personal pro- 
 nouns? What does "you" represent? How is "we" used? How 
 is "it" sometimes used? Give examples of the use of these pro- 
 nouns. When pronouns of different persons are used, how should 
 they be arranged ? 
 
 Decline the personal pronouns. 
 
 Repeat the order of parsing personal pronouns. 
 
 47. Possessive Pronouns. 
 
 1. The Possessive Pronouns are mine^ thine, hisj 
 Tiers, ours, yours, theirs, 
 
 2. To denote emphatic distinction, my own is used 
 for mine, his own for his, thy own for thine, our own 
 for ours, your own for yours, their own for theirs. 
 
 48. Order of Parsing. 
 
 1. A Pronoun, and why? 
 
 2. Possessive, and why? 
 
 3. What is its antecedent? 
 
 4. Gender, person, and number? Rule. 
 
 5. Case, and why? Rule. 
 
 49. Models for Parsing. 
 
 I. "That house is mine, not yours." 
 
 FIRST METHOD. 
 
 Sline is a pronoun; (why?): possessive; it represents both the pos- 
 sessor and the thing possessed : its antecedent is " house " : 
 neuter gender, third person, singular number, to agree with 
 its antecedent: Rule IX: nominative ca^e; it is used as the 
 predicate of the proposition: Rule II. Parse "yours" in a 
 similar manner. 
 E. G.— 6. 
 
82 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 
 
 SECOND METHOD. 
 
 t 
 
 Mine is a pronoun; (why?): possessive; (why?): it is equivalent 
 to "my house". Parse "my" as a personal pronoun in the 
 possessive case, according to Rule III, and "house" as a 
 predicate nominative, according to Rule II. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 Analyze the foUovdng sentences j and parse the possessive pro- 
 
 1. That horse of yours is lame. 2. This sled is not yours : 
 it must be hers. 3. The money is your own. 4. Friend of 
 mine, you are welcome. 5. That garden of theirs is a very 
 fine one. 6. This book is not mine; it must be his or hers. 
 7. She is an old friend of ours. 8. These books are yours, 
 not theirs. 
 
 Q,nestions. — What is a pronoun ? A possessive pronoun ? 
 Name the possessive pronouns. How is emphatic distinction de- 
 noted? Repeat the order of parsing possessive pronouns. 
 
 50. Relative Pronouns. 
 
 1. The Simple Relative Pronouns are who, which, 
 what, and that. 
 
 WLem.—That is a relative when who, which, or whom can be 
 used in its place. 
 
 2. The Componnd Relative Pronouns are who- 
 ever, whoso, whosoever, whichever, whichsoever, what- 
 ever, and whatsoever. 
 
 3. Some relative pronouns not only connect clauses, 
 but also comprise in themselves both antecedent and 
 relative. 
 
PRONOUNS. 83 
 
 In the sentence, "I got what I desired", what \9, used in- 
 stead of the thing which — "I got the thing which I desired", 
 "Thing", the object of "got", is the antecedent, and is 
 modified by "the" and "which I desired", both adjective 
 elements. 
 
 In the sentence, "Tell what you know", what is equivalent 
 to that which— ''Tell that which you know". "That", the 
 object of "tell", is the antecedent, and is modified by "which 
 you know", an adjective element. 
 
 In the sentence, "Whatever is, is right", whatever is equiv- 
 alent to that which — "That which is, is right" "That", the 
 subject of the proposition, "That is right", is the antecedent, 
 and "that", the subject, is modified by "which is", an adjec- 
 tive element. 
 
 In the sentence, "Whoever runs may read", whoever is 
 equivalent to he who, or any person who — "He who runs may 
 read". "He", the subject of the sentence, "He may read", 
 is the antecedent of "who", and is modified by "who runs", 
 an adjective element. 
 
 In the sentence, "Whichever road you may take will lead 
 to the city", whichever is equivalent to any which — "Any road 
 which yx)u may take", &c. "Any" and "which you may take" 
 are adjective elements, modifying "road", the antecedent of 
 "which". 
 
 That part of a sentence which is introduced by a relative 
 pronoun is called a Relative Clause. 
 
 \ 
 
 I 
 
 51. Declension. 
 
 Singular and Plural. 
 Norn., Who, 
 
 Pos8., Whose, 
 
 Obj., Whom. 
 
 Singular and Plural. 
 Nam., Which, 
 
 Pass., Whos\, 
 
 Obj., Which. 
 
Si ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 
 
 52. Order of Parsing. 
 
 1. A Pronoun, and why? 
 
 2. Relative, and why? 
 
 3. Name its antecedent. 
 
 4. Gender, person, and number ? Rule. 
 
 5. Decline it. 
 
 6. Case, and Rule. 
 
 53. Models for Parsing. 
 
 I. "Happy is the man that findeth wisdom." 
 
 That ... is a pronoun ; ( why ?) : relcUive ; it represents a pre- 
 ceding word or phrase, to which it joins a limiting 
 clause: its antecedent is "man": maculine gender, third 
 person, singular number : Rule IX : nominative case ; it 
 is the subject of the relative clause, " That findeth wis- 
 dom " : Rule I. 
 
 II. "Whoever perseveres will succeed." 
 
 Whoever is a pronoun; (why?): relalive ; (why?): it is equiva- 
 lent to he who, or any one who — " he " being the ante- 
 cedent, and "who", the relative. Parse "he" as a per- 
 sonal pronoun, subject of "will succeed", or "one" as 
 an adjective used as a noun, subject of "will succeed", 
 and "who" as a relative, subject of "perseveres", ac- 
 cording to Rule I. 
 
 III. " I remember what you said." 
 
 What ... is a pronoun; (why?) : relative; (why?) : it is equiva- 
 lent to that which — "that" being the antecedent part, 
 and "which", the relative. Parse "that" as an adjec- 
 tive used as a noun, in the objective case after 
 "remember". . 
 
PRONOUNS. 85 
 
 Wbicli . , is a pronoun; (why?) : relative; (why?) : its antecedent 
 is "that": neuter gender, third person, singular number: 
 Rule IX: objective case; object of the transitive verb 
 "said": Rule VI. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 Analyze the following sentences, and parse the pronouns: 
 
 1. He that hateth, dissembleth with his lips. 2. This is tlie 
 child that was lost. 3. The dog which you bought was stolen. 
 4. He will do what is right. 5r^-Ask for what you want. 6. 
 That is the man whose house was burned. 7. This is the dog 
 that worried the cat that killed the rat that ate the malt that 
 lay in the house that Jack built. 8. My sister, whom I loved, 
 is dead. • 
 
 Write the first two sentences of a compositio7i on " Velocii»edes", 
 and parse the nouns and pronouns. 
 
 Questions.— What is a pronoun? A relative pronoun? What 
 are the simple relatives? The compound relatives? What do 
 some relatives comprise in themselves? To what is "what" equiv- 
 alent? "Whatever"? "Whoever"? "Whichever"? "Whoso"? 
 and "Whosoever"? Ana. — He who. Decline "who" and "which". 
 What is a relative clause? 
 
 Repeat the order of parsing a relative pronoun. 
 
 54. Interrogative Pronouns, 
 
 1. The Interrogative Pronouns are who, which, 
 and what, when used in asking questions. 
 
 2. The Subsequent of an interrogative pronoun id 
 that part of the answer which it represents. 
 
 Rem. — An interrogative pronoun must agree with its sub- 
 sequent in gender, person, and number. Hence, when the 
 
86 ELExMENTARY GRAMMAR. 
 
 answer is not given, or clearly implied, its gender, person, and 
 number are indeterminate. 
 
 Ex. — "Who is hurt?" The answer to this question not being 
 given, it is evident that the gender, person, and number of "who" 
 are indeterminate. 
 
 "Who is hurt ? — Silas." The answer to this question is given. 
 "Who" is masculine gender, third person, singular number, agree- 
 ing with "Silas", its subsequent. 
 
 Apply Rule IX in parsing interrogatives, changing "ante- 
 cedent" to "subsequent". 
 
 55. Order of Parsing. 
 
 1. A Pronoun, and why? 
 
 2. Interrogative, and why? 
 
 3. Name its subsequent, if expressed. 
 
 4. Gender, person, and number? Rule. 
 
 5. Decline it. 
 
 6. Case, and Rule. 
 
 56. Models for Parsing. 
 
 I. "Who invented gunpowder?" 
 
 Who . is a pronoun; (why?): interrogative; it is used in asking a 
 question : its subsequent is not expressed : gender, person, 
 and number indeterminate: nominative case; it is used an 
 the subject of the proposition: Rule I. 
 
 II. "What is that man? — A lawyer." 
 
 Wliat is a pronoun; (why?): interrogative; (why?): its subse- 
 quent is "lawyer": masculine gender, third person, singular 
 number: Rule IX: nominative case; it is used as the pred- 
 icate of the proposition : Rule II. 
 
FALSE SYNTAX. ^TT'O T V ^- 
 
 EXERCISES. ^S.-ijFO'E'^ 
 
 Analyze the following sentences, and parse the prenonnsT 
 
 1. Who came with you ? 2. Whoge horse ran away? 3. 
 Whom did you call? — Mary. 4. What did you say? 5. WLat 
 IS UtAt? — It is a velocipede. 6. VVhich will ysu have?— The 
 laigC' one. 7. Whom did you take me to be-? ^ 8. Who 
 told yovi how to parse "wh:|^"? 9. I do not know who — -/^^ 1^ 
 you are. 
 
 10. "Alas for thooc who never sing, 
 
 But die with all t^ejr music in them ." — Holmeg. 
 
 ^nestions. — What are the interrogative pronouns? What ia 
 the subsequent of an interrogative ? With what must an interrog- 
 ative agree in gender, person, and number? Repeat the order of 
 parsing ai) interrogative. 
 
 57. False Syntax. 
 
 1. False Syntax is any violation of the laws of 
 good usage, in the application of words or the con- 
 struction of sentences. 
 
 2. Most of the common errors in the use of language may 
 be avoided by observing the "Cautions" in this and subse- 
 quent sections. 
 
 See Part I, Lesson IX, for model for correction. 
 
 Caution I. — Do not omit the subjects of declarative sentences. 
 
 Ex. — 1. Glad you have come. 2 Hope you will remain long 
 with us. 3. What say? 4. 'Tis a poor school can't keep itself 
 half an hour, 5. It was Johnson saved the drowning man, 6 
 After a long tramp, felt very much fatigued. 7. Read his poems: 
 like them very much. Think them sublime. 
 
88 ELExMENTARY GRAMMAR. 
 
 Caution II. — Do not omit the sign of possession in formirig 
 the possessive case of nouns, nor use it in forming the possessive 
 case of pronouns. 
 
 Ex. — 1. Mr. Moody sells mens hats. 2. That boys father is ray 
 uncles landlord. 3. The horse threw it's rider. 4. That book is 
 her's. 5. Frances mother is an actress. 6. Where was Mr. Pierce' 
 arm broken? 7. Who's house is thatN 
 
 Caution III. — Do not use the objective-case forms of pronouns 
 as subjects or predicates of sentences. 
 
 Ex. — 1. Her and me study algebra. 2. It is me. 3. It is her 
 who you wish to see. 4. Him and you ought to go to school. 5. 
 You and him and me were boys together. 
 
 Caution IV. — Do not use "who" as the object of a transitive 
 verb or preposition. 
 
 Ex. — 1. Do you know who you are talking to? 2. H^ is a fel- 
 low wlio I do not like. 3. Tell me who you work for. 
 
 Caution V. — The second persoji should precede the third, and 
 the third the first. 
 
 Ex. — 1. He and you are in the same class. 2. I and you will 
 not whisper. 3. I and he went skating. 
 
 Caution VI. — Do not use a pronoun and its antecedent as 
 subjects of the same proposition. 
 
 Ex. — 1. Mr. Kellogg he has bought our farm. 2. Many words 
 they darken speech. 3. The boys they all staid in at recess. 4. 
 The horse he run, and the man he hollered "whoa". 
 
 Caution VII. — Avoid the use of different Umbus ^ffmioimf in 
 MgLsa»ie construction. 
 
 Ex. — 1. If you will go, I will take care of thy farm. 2. I 
 hope you will put money into thy purse. 3. I will tell thee 
 what we have, and which will suit you. 4. Le3.rn thy lesson. 
 
FALSE SYNTAX. 89 
 
 then amuse yourself. 5. You may have my sled, if you will 
 lend me thy skates. 
 
 Cantion VIII. — Do not use improper forms of possessive pro- 
 nouns. 
 
 Ex. — 1. That house is his'n. 2. Is that book your'n? 3. No, 
 it is her'n. 4. He had no gun ; so he borrowed our'n. 5. You'una 
 should study harder. 6. We'uns are learning fast. 
 
 Caution IX. — Do not use "which" to represent persons, or 
 "who" to represent animals, ^hildmn, or objects without life. ^ 
 
 Ex. — 1. She is a friend which I have long proved. 2. They 
 which honor me, I will honor. 3. This is the child who was lost. 
 4. That is the man which sells pictures. 5. It was our old dog 
 Hero, who was killed. 6. I assisted the poor old woman which 
 was hurt. 
 
 Correct the following sentences by reference to Rule IX: 
 
 1. Every person should mind their own business. 2. Each day 
 has their own anxieties. 3. If any one hasn't voted, they will rise 
 in their places. 4. Many a youth have injured their health by 
 keeping late hours. 
 
 Questions. — What is a pronoun ? A personal pronoun ? What 
 are the simple personal pronouns? The compound personal pro- 
 nouns? What does "you" represent? How is "we" used? 
 "It"? Decline the personal pronouns. Repeat the order-of 
 parsing personal pronouns. 
 
 Wharare the possessive pronouns ? How is emphatic distinction « 
 denoted ? Repeat- the order of parsing possessive pronouns. 
 
 What is a relative pronoun ? What are the simpl^ relatives ? 
 The compound relatives? What do «orae relatives -con^prise in 
 themselves? To what is "what" equivalent? "Whatever"? 
 " Whoever " ? " Whoso " and " Whosoever " ? Decline " who " and 
 ' ' which ". What is a relative clause ? Repeat the order, of parsing 
 a relativje pronoun. 
 
 What are the interrogative pronouns? What is- the subsequent 
 of an interrogative? With what must an interrogative agree in 
 gender, person, and number? Repeat the order of parsing an in- 
 lerrosrative. 
 
 What is false syntax ? Repeat the cautions. 
 
90 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 
 
 THE ADJECTIVE. 
 68. Descriptive Adjectives. 
 
 Most descriptive adjectives, by cliange of form or the addi- 
 tion of modifying words, express quality in different degrees. 
 This is called Comparison. 
 
 1. Comparison is a variation of the adjective to 
 express different degrees of quality ; as, rich^ richer,, 
 richest. 
 
 2. There are three I>^rees of Comparison : Pos- 
 itive, Comparative, and Superlative. 
 
 3. The Positive I>^;ree expresses the simple qual- 
 ity, or an equal degree of the quality; as, "An old 
 man"; "She is as good as she is beautifuV\ 
 
 Rem. — Tlie suffix ish, and the words rather, somewhat, &c., 
 expresses a small amount of the quality; as, saltish, having a 
 little taste of salt; rather warm, som^ewhat awkward. 
 
 4. The Comparative D^ree ascribes to one of two 
 objects a higher or lower degree of the quality than 
 that expressed by the positive ; as, "An older man " ; 
 "Charles is more studious than Mary". 
 
 The comparative of monosyllables is regularly formed by 
 adding r or er to the positive : the comparative of adjectives 
 of more than one syllable ia formed by prefixing more or less 
 to the positive; as, rough, rougher; more honorable, less Hon- 
 orahle. 
 
 5. The Superlative Degree ascribes the highest 
 or lowest degree of the quality to one of more than two 
 
ADJECTIVES. 91 
 
 objects; as, "The oldest man"; *'The lea^ fertile farm 
 in the township". 
 
 The superlative of monosyllables is regularly formed by 
 adding st or est to the positive: of adjectives of more than one 
 syllable, by prefixing most or least to the positive; as, roughest, 
 most honorable, least honorable. 
 
 Some adjectives are compared irregularly; as, good, better, 
 belt; bad, worse, worst. 
 
 Some adjectives can not be compared ; as, square, infinite, 
 mpreme. 
 
 Adjectives should not be doubly compared. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 Compare the following adjectives : 
 
 Proud, angry, laughable, cheerful, holy, wise, agreeable, 
 honest, sensible, near, far, little, skillful. 
 
 Tell the degrree of comparison of the following adjectives: 
 
 Taller, most useful, more hopeful, least sensible, greenish, 
 less confident, rather nice, farthest, eldest, later, stormy, very 
 frightful. 
 
 59. Definitive Adjectives. 
 
 1. Pronominal Adjectives are those definitives, 
 most of which may, without the article prefixed, rep- 
 resent a noun understood. 
 
 The principal pronominals are, 
 
 1. The JDemonstratives, this, that, these, those, former, 
 latter, both, same, yon, yonder. 
 
 2. The DistributiTes, each, every, either, neither. 
 
 3. The Indefinites, all, any, another, certain, divers, enough, 
 
92 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 
 
 few, little, many, much, no, none, one, own, other, several, 
 some, sundry, which, whichever, whichsoever, what, whatever, 
 whatsoever. 
 
 Rem. 1. — The phrases such a, many a, what a, but a, only a, 
 &c., are pronominals, and should be parsed as single words. 
 
 Rem. 2. — Some pronominals can be compared like descrip- 
 tive adjectives; as, few, fewer, fewest; much, more, most. 
 
 2. IVumeral Adjectives are those definitives which 
 denote number and order definitely ; as, two, fourth, 
 fourfold. 
 
 There are three classes of numeral adjectives: Cardinal, Or- 
 dinal, and Multiplicative. 
 
 1. Cardinals denote the number of objects; as, two, four, a 
 thousand. 
 
 2. Ordinals mark the position of an object in a series; as, 
 second, fourth, thousandth. 
 
 3. Mnltlplicatives denote how many fold; as, twofold, 
 fourfold. 
 
 60. Order of Pai'sing. 
 
 1. An Adjective, and why? 
 
 2. Descriptive or definitive, and why? 
 
 3. Compare it, if it admits of comparison. 
 
 4. Degree of comparison? 
 
 6. What does it modify? Rule. 
 
 61. Models for Parsing. 
 
 I. "Fearful storms sweep over these islands." 
 
 Fearftal is an aidjective; (why?): descriptive; it modifies a noun 
 by denoting some quality: compared, pos. fearful, com. 
 
ADJECTIVES. 93 
 
 more fearful, mp. most fearful: positive degree^ and be- 
 longs to "storms". Rule XII. "An adjective or par- 
 ticiple belongs to some noun or pronoun." 
 
 These. . is an adjective; (why?): definitive; it defines without de- 
 noting any quality : it can not be compared, and belongs 
 to "islands": Rule XII. 
 
 II. "I have been there many a time." 
 Many a is an adjective; (why?): definitive; (why?): it can not be 
 compared, and belongs to "time": Rule XII. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 Analyze the following sentences, and parse the nouns, pronouns, 
 and adjectives : 
 
 1. I saw a large drove of cattle. 2. Jane is studying modem 
 history. 3. Fido is a Newfoundland dog. 4. You may have 
 the smallest melon. 5. Every man received a penny. 6. Either 
 road leads to town. 7. That course was most honorable. 8. 
 He took a twofold view of the subject. 9. What noise is that? 
 10. Two men wanted the fourth horse. 
 
 11. With many a curve my banks I fret, 
 By many a field and fallow, 
 And ma ny a fairy foreland, set 
 
 With willow, weed, and mallow. — Tennyson. 
 
 Write the first sentence of a composition on "Wbat I did last 
 Saturday", and parse the adjectives. 
 
 62. False Syntax. 
 
 Caution I. — Do not me a be/ore vowel sounds, nor an be/ore 
 consonant sounds. 
 
 Ex. — 1. Ah hundred cents make one dollar. 2. There should 
 be aii imiversal rejoicing. 3. This is a open country. 4. He is 
 a honest man. 
 
94 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 
 
 Caution II. — Do not iise them for those, this here for this, 
 or that 'ere for that. 
 
 Ex. — 1. Look at them beggars. 2. That 'ere girl is not very 
 handsome. 3. What is the name of tliis here town ? 4. Put them 
 peaches ii> the pantry. 
 
 Caation III. — Do not use adverbs as adjectives. 
 
 Ex. — 1. Did you arrive safe!^? 2. The country looks beauti- 
 fully. 3. The eggs boiled hardfy. 4. I feel poetically. 5. Mat- 
 ters look more favorably just now. 6. I like our now minister. 
 
 Caution IV. — Avoid double comparatives and superlatives. 
 
 Ex. — 1. He is the most miserably man in town. 2. No man 
 cantt be more neutral^ than I on the temperance question. 3. He 
 seems more cheerfull&r to-day. 4. Always choose the lesssf of two 
 evils. 5. That is moce preferable tbaA to b^ imprisoned. 
 
 Caution V.— 07nit the article before a word used as a titles or 
 as a inere name. 
 
 Ex.— 1. They gave him the title of -a« emperor. 2. A^ rascal 
 formerly meant ^ servant. 3. Riches and honor are the gifts of 
 fortune. 4. He is a better sailor than a^ soldier. 5. They elected 
 him as a chairman. 
 
 Caution VI. — Plaxie ordinal adjectives before cardinals in most 
 constructions. 
 
 Ex. — 1. The four first houses on the right hand belong to 
 me. 2. Sing the two first and two last verses. 3. Read the three, 
 first chapters. 
 
 Caution Vll* — Plural adjectives should modify plural nouns: 
 singular adjectives, singular nouns. 
 
 Ex. — 1. I do not like these kind of apples. 2. These sort of 
 people don't amount to much. 3. Those yoke of oxen cost 
 seventy-five dollars. 
 
VERBS. 95 
 
 Questions. — What is an adjective? A descriptive adjective? 
 What is comparison ? How many degrees of comparison are there? 
 What is the positive degree? What does the suffix ish denote? 
 "Rather"? "Somewhat"? What is the comparative degree? How 
 is it regularly formed? What is the superlative degree? How is 
 it regularly formed? How are some adjectives compared? Can 
 all adjectives be compared? 
 
 What is a definitive adjective? What are pronominal adjec- 
 tives? Name some of the principal demonstratives : distributives: 
 indefinites. What is said of the phrases sttcA a, <&c.? What are 
 numeral adjectives? Cardinals? Ordinals? Multiplicatives ? 
 
 Repeat the order of parsing an adjective. 
 
 Repeat the cautions in false syntax. 
 
 THE VERB. 
 
 To verbs belong Voice, Mode, Tense, dumber, and 
 Person. 
 
 Let the pUpil now review section 19, Part II. 
 
 63. Voice. 
 
 A verb may represent its subject as acting or as being acted 
 upon. In the sentence, "John struck James", "John" the 
 subject, is represented as acting: in the sentence, "James was 
 struck by John", "James", the subject, is represented as be- 
 ing acted upon. This property is called voice, and is peculiar 
 to transitive verbs. 
 
 1. Voice is that form of the transitive verb which 
 shows whether the subject acts or is acted upon. 
 
 2. Transitive verbs have two voices : an Active and 
 a Passive Voice. 
 
 3. The AdiTe Voice represents the subject as act- 
 ing upon an object; as, "The boy wrote a letter"; 
 "Eli is studying his lesson". 
 
»b ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 
 
 4. The Passive Voice represents the subject as 
 being acted upon; as, "The letter was written^' ; "The 
 lesson ivas studied''. 
 
 5. The Passive Voice is formed by prefixing some 
 form" of the verb to be to the perfect participle of a 
 transitive verb. 
 
 Rem.— A verb in the active voice is changed into the pas- 
 sive by making the direct object in the active the subject in 
 the passive; as, "The cat caught the mouse" {active); "The 
 mouse was caught by the cat" {passive). 
 
 Tell which verbs are active and which passive in the following 
 
 exercises : 
 
 1. The girl sings. 2. Fire burns. 3. The mail was robbed. 
 4. Truants will be punished. 5. A meteor was seen. fJ. He 
 should have told the truth. 7. Children love play. 8. He has 
 found his knife. 9. A watch was found in the street. 10. The 
 burglar might have been arrested. 11. The bad boy was 
 whipped for stealing apples. 
 
 Ctnestions. — What is a verb? A transitive verb? An intran- 
 Ritive verb? A copulative verb? 
 
 What is a participle? The present participle? How does the 
 present participle always end? What is the perfect participle? 
 How does it usually end? What is the compound participle? 
 How is it formed? 
 
 What belong to verbs? What is voice? How many voices 
 have transitive verbs? What is the active voice? The passive 
 voice? How is the passive voice formed? How is a verb in the 
 active voice changed into the passive? Give examples. 
 
 64. Mode. 
 
 1. IM:ode is the manner in which the action, being, 
 or state is expressed. 
 
VERBS. 97 
 
 2. There are five modes : Indicative^ Subjunctive, 
 Potential, Imperative, and Infinitive, 
 
 3. The Indicative Mode asserts a thing as a fact, 
 or as actually existing; as, "Fire burns^^; "A battle 
 was fought^'. 
 
 4. The Subjiiiietive Hode asserts a thing as doubt- 
 ful, as a supposition, or as a future contingency; as, 
 "If this be true, all will end well"; "I shall go, if 
 you remai7i^\ 
 
 5. The Potential Mode asserts the potver, neces- 
 sity, liberty, duty, or liability of acting, or of being in 
 a certain state; as, "He can taW; "You niust go''; 
 "They should be more careful". 
 
 Rem. — May, can, must, might, could, would, and should are 
 the signs of the potential mode. 
 
 6. The Imperative Mode expresses a command, 
 an exhortation, an entreaty, or a permissioyi; as, ''Go''; 
 "i>o not hurt me". 
 
 7. The Infinitive Mode expresses the action, be- 
 ing, or state, without affirming it; as, "To go"; "He 
 wants to speak". 
 
 Rem. 1. — The infinitive may usually be known by the sign 
 to placed before it. This sign is omitted after the words bid, 
 dare, feel, help, let, make, need, see, and a few others; as, "Let 
 them [to] come on"; "See him [to] run"; "Bid them [to] 
 come". 
 
 Rem. 8. — The indicative and potential modes may be used 
 in asking questions; as, "Is he honest?" "Has she arrived f" 
 "May I go home?" 
 
98 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 Tell the mode of the verbs in the following sentences: 
 
 1. The army encamped by the river. 2. Run for some water. 
 3. You must recite your lesson. 4. I will recite my lesson, if 
 I can. 5. I like to play. 6. Hope thou in God. 7. Do let 
 me go to the picnic. 8. He should have come home. 9. Lif^ 
 up your heads, O ye gates ! 10. Were I rich, I would purchase 
 that property. 
 
 11. Hope not the cure of sin till Self is dead; 
 Forget it in love's service, and the debt 
 Thou canst not pay the angels will forget. — Whittier. 
 
 Q,aestions. — What is mode? How many modes are there? 
 Name them. What is the indicative mode? W^liat is the sub- 
 junctive mode? What is the potential mode? What are the 
 signs of the potential mode? What is the imperative mode? 
 What is the infinitive mode? What is the sign of the infinitive 
 mode? What modes are used in asking questions? 
 
 65. Tense. 
 
 1. Tense denotes the time of an action or event. 
 
 2. There are six tenses : the Present^ the Preseyit 
 Perfect^ the Past^ the Past Perfect, the Future, and 
 the Future Perfect, 
 
 3. The Present Tense denotes present time; as, 
 "I write''^; "The wind is hlowing^\ 
 
 4. The Present Perfect Tense represents an ac- 
 tion or event as past, but connected with present time; 
 as, " I have written "; " The wind has been blowing ''. 
 
 5. The Past Tense denotes past time; as, "I 
 wrote''; "The wind blew'\ 
 
VERBS. 99 
 
 6. The Past Perfect Tense represents an act as 
 ended or completed in time fully past ; as, " I had 
 written "; " The bridge had fallen before we reached it ". 
 
 7. The Future Tense denotes future time ; as, " I 
 shall write''; ''The lion shall eat straw like the ox". 
 
 8. The Future Perfect Tense represents an act as 
 finished or ended at or before a certain future time ; 
 as, "I shall have written the letter before the mail 
 closes". 
 
 66. Signs of the Tenses. 
 
 ACTIVE VOICE. 
 
 Indicative Mode. 
 
 Present, . . Simple form of the verb. 
 Past, . . . When regular, add ed to the simple form. 
 Future, . . Prefix shaU or tvill to the simple form. 
 Pesent Perfect, " have, hast, or has to the perfect participle. 
 Past Perfect, . " had or hadst to the perfect participle. 
 Future Perfect, " shall have or will have to the perfect par- 
 ticiple. 
 
 Snbjnnctive Mode. 
 
 ^^mt,^ -^ssept, unless, &c., placed before tense "forms given in 
 the conjugation. 
 
 Potential Mode. 
 
 Present, . . . Prefix may, can, or must to the simple form. 
 
 Past, ... " might, could, would, or should to the simple 
 form. 
 
 Present Perfect, " tnay, can, or mv^t have to the perfect par- 
 ticiple. 
 
 Past Perfect, . " might, could, would, or should have to the 
 perfect participle. 
 
100 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 
 
 Imperative Mod^. 
 
 Present, . . . Let, or a command. 
 
 Infinitive Mode. 
 
 Present, . . . Prefix to to the simple form. 
 
 Present Perfect, " to have to the perfect participle. 
 
 Participles. 
 
 Present, . . . Add ing to the simple form. 
 Perfect, . . . When regular, add ed or d to the simple form. 
 Compound, . . Prefix having to the perfect participle, or having 
 been to the present or perfect participle. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 Teil the tense of the verbs in the following sentences: 
 
 1. Emma sings. 2. I went home. 3. John ran. 4. Write. 
 5. Let him go. 6. The man shouted. 7. I had been taught. 
 8. They will succeed. 9. We shall be glad. 10. The letter will 
 have been written. 11. If you go, I shall stay. 12. You might 
 study. 13. He may have written. 14. Know most of the 
 rooms of thy native country, before thou goest over the thresh- 
 old thereof — Fuller. 
 
 <tuestions. — What i& tense ? How many tenses are there ? 
 What is the present tense? The present perfect? The past? The 
 past }»erfect? The future? The future perfect? Give the signs of 
 the tenses. 
 
 What is mod'3? How many modes are there? What is the 
 indicative mode? The subjunctive mode? The potential mode? 
 The imperative mode? The infinitive mode? 
 
 67. Person and Number. 
 
 1. The Person and Bi^umber of verbs are the 
 changes which they undergo to mark their agreement 
 with their subjects. 
 
VERBS. 101 
 
 2. A verb must agree with its subject in person 
 and number. 
 
 Rem. — The infinitive, having no subject, has neither person 
 nor number. 
 
 08. Auxiliaries. 
 
 Auxiliary Verbs are those which are used in the 
 conjugation of other verbs. They are do, be, have, 
 shall, may, can, must. 
 
 Rem. — Do, be, have, and will are often used as principal 
 verbs; as, " He rfoes well" ; "lam"; "He Aow money"; "He 
 wills it". 
 
 69. Unipersonal Yerbs. 
 
 A Unipersonal Terb is one by which an act or 
 state is asserted independently of any particular sub- 
 ject; as, "It snows''; "It behooves us to be watchful". 
 
 Questions. — What is meant by the person and number of a 
 verb? With what must a verb agree in person and number? 
 What are auxiliary verbs? Name them. Which of these are 
 sometimes used as principal verbs? What is a unipersonal verb? 
 
 70. Conjugation. 
 
 1. The Conjugation of a verb is the correct ex- 
 pression, in regular order, of its modes, tenses, voices, 
 'persons, and numbers. 
 
 2. The Piineipal Parts of a verb are the 
 indicative^ the past indicative, and the P£^^^^^^' 
 ficiple. 
 
 £4LTv^r('i\^. 
 
102 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 
 
 3. The Synopsis of a verb is its variation in form, 
 through the different modes and tenses, in a single 
 person and number. 
 
 71. Synopsis of the Verb "To Be". 
 
 Principal Parts. 
 
 Present Tense. Past Tense. Perfect Participle. 
 
 Be, or am. Was. Been. 
 
 Indicative Mode. 
 
 Present, ... I am. Past Perfect, . I had been. 
 
 Present Perfect, I have been. Future, ... I shall be. 
 
 Past, ... I was. Future Perfect, I shall have been. 
 
 Subjunctive Mode. 
 
 Present, . . . If I be. Past, If I were. 
 
 Past Perfect, . . . If I had been. 
 
 Potential Mode. 
 
 Present, ... I may, can, or must be. 
 
 Present Perfect, I may, can, or must have been. 
 
 Past, ... I might, could, would, or should be. ^ 
 
 Past Perfect, . I might, could, would, or should have been. 
 
 Conjugation of the Yerb "To Be". 
 
 Note. — Shall, in the finst person, and will, in the second and 
 third, denote futurity. Will, in the first person, and shall iu 
 the second and third, denote determination or necessity. 
 
 INDICATIVE MODE. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I am, 1. We are, 
 
 2. Thou art, 2. You are, 
 
 3. He is ; 3. They are. 
 
VERBS. 103 
 
 PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I have been, 1. We have been, 
 
 2. Thou hast been, 2. You have been, 
 
 3. He has been ; 3. They have been. 
 
 PAST TEIWE. 
 
 1. I was, 1. We were, 
 
 2. Thou wast, 2. You were, 
 
 3. He was; 3. They were. 
 
 PAST PERFECT TENSE. 
 
 1. I had been, 1. We had been, 
 
 2. Thou hadst been, 2. You had been, 
 
 3. He had been ; 3. They had been. 
 
 FUTURE TENSE. 
 
 1. I shall be, 1. We shall be, 
 
 2. Thou wilt be, 2. You will be, 
 
 3. He will be ; 3. They will be. 
 
 FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. 
 
 1. I shall have been, 1. We shall have been, 
 
 2. Thou wilt have been, 2. You will have been, 
 
 3. He will have been ; 3. They will have been. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 1. If I be, 1. If we be, 
 
 2. If thou be, 2. If you be, 
 
 3. If he be ; 3. If they be. 
 
 PAST TENSE. 
 
 1. If I were, 1. If we were, 
 
 2. If thou wert, 2. If you were, 
 
 3. If he were ; 3. If they were. 
 
104 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 
 
 PAST PERFECT TENSE. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. If I had been, 1. If we had been, 
 
 2. If thou hadst been, 2. If you had been, 
 
 3. If he had been; 3. If they had been. 
 
 POTE^IAL MODE. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 1. I may be, 1- We may be, 
 
 2. Thou mayst be, 2. You may be, 
 
 3. He may be; 3. They may be. 
 
 PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 
 
 1. I may have been, 1. We may have been, 
 
 2. Thou mayst have been, 2. You may have been, 
 
 3. He may have been; 3. They may have been. 
 
 PAST TENSE. 
 
 1. I miglit be, 1. We might be, 
 
 2. Thou mightst be, 2. You might be, 
 
 3. He might be; 3. They might -Jje. 
 
 PAST PERFECT TENSE. 
 3. I might have been, 1. We might have been, 
 
 2. Thou mightst have been, 2. You might have been, 
 
 3. He might have been ; 3. They might have been. 
 
 Note. — In reviews, use the auxiliary can or must. 
 
 IMPERATIVE MODE. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 2. Be, or do thou be; 2. Be, or do ye or you be. 
 
 INFINITIVE MODE. 
 Present^ To be; Present Perfect, To have been. 
 
VERBS. 105 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 Present, Being ; Perfect, Been ; Compound, Having been. 
 
 72. Synopsis of the Terb "To Love". 
 
 ACTIVE VOICE. 
 
 Principal Parts. 
 
 Present Tense. Past Tense. Perfect Participle. 
 
 Love. Loved. Loved. 
 
 IndicatiTe Mode. 
 
 Present, ... I love. Past Perfect, . I had loved. 
 
 Present Perfect, I have loved. Future, ... I shall love. 
 Past, ... I loved. Future Perfect, I shall have loved. 
 
 SubjnnctiTe Mode. 
 
 Present, . . . If I love. Pas/, ... If I loved. 
 
 Past Perfect, ... If I had loved. 
 
 Potential Mode 
 
 Present, ... I may, can, or must love. 
 
 Present Perfect, I may, can, or must have loved. 
 
 Past, .... I might, could, would, or should love. 
 
 Past Perfect, . I might, could, would, or should have loved. 
 
 Conjugation of the Terb "To Love". 
 
 INDICATIVE MODE. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I love, 1. We lov^, 
 
 2. Thou lovest, 2. You love, 
 
 3. He loves; 3. They love. 
 
106 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 
 
 PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 
 Singular. " Plural. 
 
 1. I have loved, 1. We have loved, 
 
 2. Thou hast loved, 2. You have loved, 
 
 3. He has loved; 3. They have loved. 
 
 PAST TENSE. 
 
 1. I loved, 1. We loved, 
 
 2. Thou lovedst, 2. You loved, 
 
 3. He loved; 3. They loved. 
 
 PAST PERFECT TENSE. 
 
 1. I had loved, 1. We had loved, 
 
 2. Thou hadst loved, 2. You had loved, 
 
 3. He had loved; 3. They had loved. 
 
 FUTURE TENSE. 
 
 1. I shall love, 1. We shall love, 
 
 2. Thou wilt love,"** 2. You will love, 
 
 3. He will love; 3. They will love. 
 
 FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. 
 
 1. I shall have loved, 1. We shall have loved, 
 
 2. Thou wilt have loved, 2. You will have loved, 
 
 3. He will have loved; 3. They will have loved. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 1. If I love, 1. If we love, 
 
 2. If thou love, 2. If you love, 
 
 3. If he love ; 3. If they love. 
 
 PAST TENSE. 
 
 1. If I loved, 1. If we loved, 
 
 2. If thou loved, 2. If you loved, 
 
 3. If he loved ; 3. If they loved. 
 
VERBS. 107 
 
 PAST PERFECT TENSE. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. If I had loved, • 1, If we had loved, 
 
 2. If thou hadst loved, 2. If you had loved, 
 
 3. If he had loved ; 3. If they had loved. 
 
 POTENTIAL MODE. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 1. I may love, 1. We may love, 
 
 2. Thou mayst love, 2. You may love, 
 
 3. He may love; 3. They may love. 
 
 PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 
 
 1. I may have loved, 1. We may have loved, 
 
 2. Thou raayst have loved, 2, You may have loved, 
 
 3. He may have loved ; 3. They may have loved. 
 
 PAST TENSE. 
 
 1. I might love, 1. We might love, 
 
 2. Thou mightst love, 2. You might love, 
 
 3. He might love; 3. They might love. 
 
 PAST PERFECT TENSE. 
 
 1. I might have loved, 1. We might have loved, 
 
 2. Thou mightst have loved, 2. You might have loved, 
 
 3. He might have loved ; 3. They might have loved. 
 
 IMPEKATIVE MODE. 
 2. Love, or do thou love ; 2. Love, oc-de yg or yoa -lave. 
 
 INFINITIVE MODE. 
 Present, To love; Present Perfect, To have loved. 
 
lOS ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 Present, Loving ; Perfect, Loved ; Compound, Having loved. 
 
 73. Synopsis of the Verb "To Love". 
 
 PASSIVE VOICE. 
 
 The Passive Voice is formed by prefixing the various forms 
 of the verb to be to the perfect participle. The tense of the 
 verb to be determines the tense in the Passive Voice. 
 
 Indicative Mode. 
 
 Present, I am loved. 
 
 P-esent Perfect, .... I have been loved. 
 
 Past, I was loved. 
 
 Past Perfect, I had been Joved. 
 
 Future, . "T . . . . I shall be loved. 
 
 Future Perfect, .... I shall have been loved. 
 
 Subjunctive Mode. 
 
 P-esent, . . If I be loved. Past, . . If I were loved. 
 Past Perfect, . . If I had been loved. 
 
 Potential Mode. 
 
 Present, I may be loved. 
 
 Present Perfect, .... I may have been loved. 
 
 Past, I might be loved. 
 
 Past Perfect, I might have been loved. 
 
 iTote. — The pupil should be required to commit to memory 
 the Synopsis, then to write the full conjugation of to love, or 
 some other transitive verb, in both voices, correcting or veri- 
 fying his work by comparing it with the paradigms already 
 given. 
 
VERBS. 109 
 
 74. Coordinate Forms of Conjugation. 
 
 1. The Progressive, the Emphatic, and the Interrog- 
 ative are called the Coordinate Forms of Conjugation. 
 
 2. The Progressive Form is used to denote action, 
 being, or state in progress; as, "He was ivriting'\ 
 
 In the Progressive Form, the various forms of the verb to be 
 are prefixed to the present participle. 
 
 3. The Emphatic Form represents an act with 
 emphasis; as, "I do write^^; "He did write'\ 
 
 4. The Interrogative Form is used in askinrj 
 questions ; as, " Love I ? " " Bid he ivrite ? " 
 
 o 
 
 SYNOPSIS. 
 
 PROGRESSIVE FORM. 
 
 IiKlicative Mode. 
 
 Present, I am living. 
 
 Present Perfecty .... I have been Ifving. 
 
 Past, I was l(>ving. 
 
 Past Perfect, I had been living. 
 
 Future, I shall be l4)ving. 
 
 Future Perfect, .... I shall have been leaving. 
 
 Snbjnnctivc Mode. 
 
 Present, . . If I be loving. Past, . . If I were lovin< 
 Past Perfect, . . If I had been loving. 
 
 Potential Mode. 
 
 Present, I may be loving. 
 
 Present Perfect, .... I may have been loving. 
 
 Past, I might be loving. 
 
 Past Perfect, I might have been loving. 
 
110 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 
 
 Infinitive Mode. 
 
 Present, To be loving. Present Perfect, To have been loving. 
 
 Imperative Mode. 
 
 Present, Be thou loving. 
 
 Participles. 
 
 Present, . Loving. Compound, . Having been loving. 
 
 THE EMPHATIC FORM. 
 
 Indicative Mode. 
 
 Pr^ent, . . I do love. Past, . . I did love. 
 
 Subjunctive Mode. 
 
 Present, . . If I do love. Past, . . If I did love. 
 
 Imperative Mode. 
 
 Present, Do thou love. 
 
 INTERROGATIVE FORM. 
 
 Present, . • . Love I ? Do I love ? Am I loving ? 
 
 Present Perfect, Have I loved ? Have I been loving ? 
 
 Past, . . . Loved I? Did I love? Was I loving? 
 
 Past Perfect, . Had I loved ? Had I been loving ? 
 
 FtUure, . • . Shall I love? Shall I be loving? 
 
 Future Perfect, Shall I have loved? Shall I have been loving? 
 
 Potential Mode. 
 
 Present, . . . . . . . Must I love? 
 
 Present Perfect, . . . . Must I have loved ? 
 
 Past, Might I love ? 
 
 Past Perfect, Might I have loved? 
 
VERBS. ^Uir^S-^ 
 
 oar 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 Write a synopsis of the transitive verbs think, insti 
 mand, punish, teach, and see, in the Indicative, Subjunctive, and 
 Potential Modes, Active and Passive Voices. 
 
 Tell the mode, tense, person, and number of each verb in the 
 
 following sentences . 
 
 1. He ran. 2. You teach. 3. They have seen. 4. If he go. 
 5. They may have written. 6. Has he departed? 7. They 
 will command. 8. Emma will have recited. 9. The army 
 will be disbanded. 
 
 10. America was discovered. 11. The people should be con- 
 tented. 12. He has invented a velocipede. 13. Attend to your 
 lesson. 14. He can go, if the carriage is not too full. 15. The 
 man loves to see it rain. 
 
 Q,nestions. — What is conjugation ? Wliat are the principal 
 parts of a verb? What is the synopsis of a verb? Give the 
 synopsis of "to be". Of "to love", in both tlie active and the 
 passive voice. 
 
 What are the coordinate forms of conjugation? What is the 
 progressive form ? The emphatic form ? The interrogative form ? 
 Give the synopsis of each form. 
 
 75. Regular and Irregular Verbs. 
 
 1. A R^iilar Verb forms its past indicative and 
 perfect participle by adding d or ed to the present 
 indicative ; as, love, love-d, love-d ; count, count-edy 
 count-ed, 
 
 2. An Irregular Verb is one which does not form 
 its past tense and perfect participle by adding d or ed 
 to the present indicative; as, go, went, gone; see, saw, 
 seen; do, did, done. 
 
112 
 
 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR, 
 
 76. Irregular Verbs. 
 
 The following list contains 
 of the irregular verbs. Those 
 ular fprms. 
 
 the Principal Parts of most 
 marked R have also the rea:- 
 
 Pi-eserU. 
 
 Past. 
 
 Perfect 
 Participle. 
 
 Premif. 
 
 Past. 
 
 Perfect 
 Participle. 
 
 Abide, 
 
 abode. 
 
 abode. 
 
 Breed, 
 
 bred. 
 
 bred. 
 
 Am, 
 
 was. 
 
 been. 
 
 Bring, 
 
 brought. 
 
 brought. 
 
 Arise, 
 
 arose. 
 
 arisen. 
 
 Build, 
 
 built, R. 
 
 built, R. 
 
 
 
 f awaked, 
 1 awoke. 
 
 Burn, 
 
 burnt, R 
 
 burnt, R. 
 
 Awake, 
 
 awoke, r 
 
 Burst, 
 
 burst, 
 
 burst. 
 
 Bear, 
 
 1 bore, 
 ) ( bare, 
 
 born. 
 
 Buy, 
 
 bought. 
 
 bought. 
 
 (bring forth 
 
 
 Cast, 
 
 east. 
 
 cast. 
 
 Bear, (ca»Ti/), bore. 
 
 borne. 
 
 Catch, 
 
 caught, R. caught, R 
 
 Beat, 
 
 beat. 
 
 1 beaten, 
 ( beat. 
 
 Chide, 
 
 chid. 
 
 j chidden, 
 1 chid. 
 
 Become, 
 
 became. 
 
 become. 
 
 Choose, 
 
 chose. 
 
 chosen. 
 
 Befall, 
 
 befell. 
 
 befallen. 
 
 ~ Cleave, 
 
 cleaved, 
 1 clave. 
 
 cleaved. 
 
 Beget, 
 
 begat, 
 1 begot. 
 
 begotten. 
 
 (adhei-c) 
 
 begot. 
 
 
 ( cleft. 
 
 cleft, 
 
 Begin, 
 
 began, 
 
 begun. 
 
 Cleave, 
 
 \ clove. 
 
 cloven, 
 
 Behold, 
 
 beheld. 
 
 beheld. 
 
 {split) 
 
 i clave. 
 
 cleaved. 
 
 Belay, 
 
 belaid, r 
 
 . belaid, r. 
 
 Cling, 
 
 clung, 
 
 clung. 
 
 Bend, 
 
 bent, R. 
 
 bent, R. 
 
 Clothe, 
 
 f clothed, 
 1 clad, 
 
 clothed, 
 
 Bereave, 
 
 bereft, r. 
 
 bereft, r. 
 
 clad. 
 
 Beseech, 
 
 besought 
 
 besought. 
 
 Come, 
 
 came. 
 
 come. 
 
 Bet, 
 
 bet, R. 
 
 bet, R. 
 
 Cost, 
 
 cost. 
 
 cost. 
 
 Betide 
 
 ( betided, 
 ( betid, 
 
 betided. 
 
 Creep, 
 
 crept. 
 
 crept. 
 
 
 betid. 
 
 Crow, 
 
 crew, R. 
 
 crowed. 
 
 Bid, 
 
 bid, 
 bade, 
 
 bid. 
 
 Cut, 
 
 cut. 
 
 cut. 
 
 bidden. 
 
 Dare, 
 
 durst, R. 
 
 dared. 
 
 Bind, 
 
 bound, 
 
 bound. 
 
 Deal, 
 
 dealt, 
 
 deah. 
 
 Bite, 
 
 bit 
 
 f bitten, 
 (bit. 
 
 Dig, 
 
 dug, R. 
 
 dug, R. 
 
 
 Mil, 
 
 Do, 
 
 did. 
 
 done. 
 
 Bleed, 
 
 bled. 
 
 bled. 
 
 Draw, 
 
 drew. 
 
 drawn. 
 
 Bless, 
 
 f blessed, 
 1 blest, 
 
 blessed. 
 
 Dream, 
 
 dreamt, R. dreamt, r 
 
 blest. 
 
 Dress, 
 
 drest, R. 
 
 drest, R. 
 
 Break, 
 
 broke, 
 . brake. 
 
 broken, 
 broke. 
 
 Drink, 
 
 drank, 
 
 drunk, 
 
IRREGULAR VERBS. 
 
 113 
 
 Prenent. 
 
 Pai>t. 
 
 Perfect 
 Participle. 
 
 Prenent. 
 
 Past. 
 
 Perfect 
 
 Participle. 
 
 Drive, 
 
 drove. 
 
 driven. 
 
 Knit, 
 
 knit, R. 
 
 knit, R. 
 
 Eat, 
 
 ate. 
 
 eaten. 
 
 Know, 
 
 knew, 
 
 known. . -^ 
 laid. ocny^<^^ 
 
 Fall, 
 Feed, 
 
 fell, 
 fed, 
 
 fallen. 
 fed. 
 
 Lay, 
 Lead, 
 
 laid, 
 led. 
 
 Fee!, 
 
 felt, 
 
 felt. 
 
 Lean, 
 
 leant, b. 
 
 leant, k. 
 
 Fight, ~ 
 
 "TbuiTTtr 
 
 fought. 
 
 Leap, 
 
 leapt^R. 
 
 ' leapt, R. 
 
 Find, 
 
 found, 
 
 found. 
 
 Learn, 
 
 learnt, r 
 
 . learnt, r. 
 
 Flee, 
 
 fled, 
 
 fled. 
 
 Leave, 
 
 left, 
 
 left. 
 
 Fling, 
 
 flung. 
 
 flung. 
 
 Lend, 
 
 lent, 
 
 lent. 
 
 3% 
 Forbear, 
 
 Forget, 
 
 flew. 
 
 flown. 
 
 Let, 
 
 let, 
 
 let. 
 
 forbore, 
 forgot, 
 
 forbore, 
 forgotten, 
 . forgot. 
 
 Lie, 
 
 {recline) 
 
 Light, 
 
 lit, R. 
 
 lain.^^^n^^^'^ 
 lit, R. 
 
 Forsake, 
 
 forsook. 
 
 forsaken. 
 
 Loadj 
 
 loaded, 
 
 laden, r. 
 
 Freeze, 
 
 froze, 
 
 frozen. 
 
 Lose, 
 
 lost, 
 
 lost. 
 
 Freight, 
 
 freiglitet 
 
 1, fraught, R. 
 
 Make, 
 
 made. 
 
 made. 
 
 Get, 
 
 got, 
 
 gotten. 
 
 Mean, 
 Meet, 
 
 meant, 
 met. 
 
 meant, 
 met. 
 
 Gild, 
 
 gilt, R. 
 
 gilt, R. 
 
 Mow, 
 
 mowed, 
 
 mown, B, 
 
 Gird, 
 
 girt, R. 
 
 girt, K. 
 
 Pass, 
 
 past, R. 
 
 past 
 
 Give, 
 
 gave, 
 
 given, 
 gone. 
 — gi-aven, r. 
 
 Pay, 
 
 paid, 
 
 paid. 
 
 Go, 
 
 OfttVC 
 
 went, 
 - gra*e4^- 
 
 Pen, 
 
 (iiido«e) 
 
 J pent, R, 
 
 pent, R. 
 
 Grind, 
 
 ground, 
 
 ground. 
 
 Plead, 
 
 
 
 Grow, 
 
 grew. 
 
 grown. 
 
 
 ( pled, 
 
 pled. 
 
 Hang, 
 
 hung, R. 
 
 hung, R. 
 
 Put, 
 
 put, 
 
 put. 
 
 Have, 
 
 had, 
 
 had. 
 
 Quit, 
 
 quit, R. 
 
 quit, R. 
 
 Hear, 
 
 heard. 
 
 heard. 
 
 Rap, 
 
 rapt, R. 
 
 rapt, R. 
 
 Heave, 
 
 hove, R. 
 
 hoven, r. 
 
 Read, 
 
 read. 
 
 read. 
 
 Hew, 
 
 hewed, 
 
 hewn, R. 
 
 Reave, 
 
 reft, 
 
 reft. 
 
 Hide, 
 
 hid, 
 
 f hidden, 
 
 Rend, 
 
 rent. 
 
 rent. 
 
 Rid, 
 
 rid. 
 
 rid. 
 
 Hit, 
 
 Hold, 
 
 hit, 
 held. 
 
 hit. 
 1 held, 
 
 1 tif'kl/ipiyi 
 
 hurt. 
 
 Ride, 
 
 rode. 
 
 f ridden, 
 (Fede: 
 
 Hurt, 
 
 hurt, 
 
 Ring, 
 
 1 rang, 
 
 rung. 
 
 Keep, 
 
 kept, 
 
 kept. 
 
 Rise, 
 
 rose. 
 
 risen. 
 
 Kneel, 
 
 knelt, R. 
 
 knelt. 
 
 Rive, 
 
 rived. 
 
 riven, b. 
 
 
 E. G — 8. 
 
 
 ^ifUct 
 
 
114 
 
 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 
 
 A 
 
 ^ 
 
 Present. 
 
 Past. 
 
 Perfect 
 Participle. 
 
 Kun, 
 
 ran, 
 
 run. 
 
 baw, 
 
 sawed, 
 
 sawn, R. 
 
 Say, 
 
 said, 
 
 said. 
 
 ^See, 
 
 saw. 
 
 seen. 
 
 Seek, 
 
 sought, 
 
 sought. 
 
 Set, 
 
 set, 
 
 set. 
 
 Seethe, 
 
 sod, R. 
 
 sodden, r. 
 
 Shake, 
 
 shook, 
 
 shaken. 
 
 Shape, 
 
 shaped, 
 
 shapen, r. 
 
 Shave, 
 
 sjiaved, 
 
 ^shaven, r. 
 
 Shear, 
 
 ^0*ejR. 
 
 shorn, R. 
 
 Shed, 
 
 shed. 
 
 shed. 
 
 Shine, 
 
 shone, E. 
 
 shone, R. 
 
 Shoe, 
 
 shod- 
 
 shod. 
 
 Shoot, 
 
 shot, 
 
 shot. 
 
 Show, 
 
 showed. 
 
 shown. 
 
 Shred, 
 
 shred. 
 
 shred. 
 
 Shut, 
 
 shut. 
 
 shut. 
 
 Sing, 
 
 I sang. 
 
 sung. 
 
 
 
 Sink, 
 
 sank, 
 sunk, 
 
 sunk. 
 
 Sit, 
 
 sat. 
 
 sat. 
 
 Slay, 
 
 slew, 
 
 slain. 
 
 Sleep, 
 
 slept. 
 
 slept. 
 
 Sling, 
 
 slung, 
 
 slung. 
 
 Slink, 
 
 slunk. 
 
 slunk. 
 
 Slit, 
 
 slit, R. 
 
 slit, R. 
 
 Smell, 
 
 smelt, R. 
 
 smelt, R. 
 
 Smite, 
 
 smote, 
 
 f smitten, 
 t smit. 
 
 Sow, 
 
 > sowed, 
 
 sown, R. 
 
 {scatter) 
 
 
 Speak, 
 
 spoke. 
 
 spoken. 
 
 Speed, 
 
 sped, R. 
 
 sped, R. 
 
 ^Spell, 
 
 spelt, R. 
 
 spelt, R. 
 
 Spend, 
 
 spent, 
 
 spent. 
 
 Spill, 
 
 spilt, R. 
 
 spilt, B. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Pa^t. 
 
 Perfect 
 Participle. 
 
 Spin, 
 
 1 spun, 
 
 spun. 
 
 Spit, 
 
 1 spit, 
 
 spit, 
 spitten. 
 
 Split, 
 
 split, R. 
 
 split, R. 
 
 Spoil, 
 
 spoilt, R. 
 
 spoilt, R. 
 
 Spread, 
 
 spread. 
 
 spread. 
 
 Spring, 
 
 1 sprang, 
 1 sprang. 
 
 sprung. 
 
 Stand, 
 
 stood, 
 
 stood. 
 
 Stave, 
 
 stove, R. 
 
 stove, R. 
 
 Stay, 
 
 staid, R. 
 
 staid, B. 
 
 Steal, 
 
 stole. 
 
 stolen. 
 
 Stick, 
 
 stuck. 
 
 stuck. 
 
 Sting, 
 
 stung. 
 
 stung. 
 
 Stride, 
 
 J »t«tr, 
 1 strode, 
 
 — strid, 
 stridden. 
 
 Strike, 
 
 struck, 
 
 struck, 
 . stricken. 
 
 String, 
 
 strung. 
 
 strung. 
 
 Strive, 
 
 strove, 
 
 striven. 
 
 Strow, 
 
 strowed. 
 
 strown. 
 
 Swear, 
 
 f swore, 
 
 t«Mfa*e, 
 
 sworn. 
 
 Sweat, 
 
 sweat, R. 
 
 sweat, R. 
 
 Sweep, 
 
 swept. 
 
 swept. 
 
 Swell, 
 
 swelled. 
 
 swollen, R 
 
 Swim, 
 
 f swam. 
 
 swum. 
 
 Swing, 
 
 swung. 
 
 swung. 
 
 Take, 
 
 took. 
 
 taken. 
 
 Teach, 
 
 taught. 
 
 taught. 
 
 Tear, 
 
 tore. 
 
 torn. 
 
 Tell, 
 
 told. 
 
 told. 
 
 Think, 
 
 thought, 
 
 thought. 
 
 Thrive, 
 
 throve, b 
 
 . thriven, R. 
 
DEFECTIVE AND REDUNDANT VERBS. 
 
 115 
 
 Present. 
 
 Past. 
 
 Perfect 
 Participle. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Past. 
 
 Perfect 
 Participle. 
 
 Throw, 
 
 threw. 
 
 thrown. 
 
 Weep, 
 
 wept, 
 
 wept. 
 
 Thrust, 
 
 thrust, 
 
 thrust. 
 
 Wet, 
 
 wet, R. 
 
 wet, B. 
 
 Tread, 
 
 trod. 
 
 ( trodden, 
 Iteod. 
 
 Whet, 
 Win, 
 
 whet, R. 
 won. 
 
 whet, R. 
 won. 
 
 Wake, 
 
 woke, R. 
 
 woke, R. 
 
 Wind, 
 
 wound, 
 
 wound. 
 
 Wax, 
 
 waxed, 
 
 waxen, r. 
 
 W^ork, 
 
 wrought, 
 
 R. wrought, R 
 
 Wear, 
 
 wore, 
 
 worn. 
 
 Wring, 
 
 wrung, 
 
 wrung. 
 
 Weave, 
 
 wove, R. 
 
 woven, R. 
 
 Write, 
 
 wrote, 
 
 written. 
 
 Wed, 
 
 wed, R. 
 
 wed, R. 
 
 
 
 
 77. Defective and Redundant Terbs. 
 
 1. Defective Verbs are those which want some of 
 the principal parts. 
 
 They are beware, from be and aware, ought, quoth, 
 quod, wit, and its derivatives, tvot, wis, wert, wist, wote. 
 
 2. Redundant Verbs are those which have more 
 than one form for their past tense and perfect participle ; 
 as, cleave, clove, or clave; cleft, cloven, or cleaved. 
 
 Qnestions.— What is a regular verb? An irregular verb? A 
 defective verb? Which are the defective verbs? What are re- 
 dundant verbs? Give examples. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 Correct the following sentences, using this 
 
 MODEL. 
 " The man throwed a stone." 
 This sentence is incorrect. The word "throwed" should be 
 "threw", the past indicative of the verb "throw". The sentence 
 should read, "The man threw a stone". 
 
 1. I have saw some fine cattle to-day. 2. He ought to have 
 wtint home. 3. The beads were stringed on a silk thread. 
 
116 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 
 
 4. He has brung some snow into the school-house. 5. The 
 cloth was weaved by hand. 6. The horse come cantering 
 along. 7. This coat has wore well. 
 
 8. The cars have ran off the track. 9. The bells ringed 
 when the news was got. 10. I dumb the tree and shaked the 
 apples off. 11. That candle should be blowed out. 12. I laid 
 down, and ris much refreshed. 13. Was the cow drove to pas- 
 ture? 14. The plastering has fell from the ceiling. 15. I seen 
 him git it. 
 
 Correct all errors in the use of irregular verbs you may notice 
 in your conversation with your school-mates. 
 
 78. Order of Parsing. 
 
 1. A Verb, and why? 
 
 2. Regular cfr irregular, and why? 
 
 3. Give its principal parts. 
 
 4. Copulative, Transitive, or Intransitive, and why? 
 
 5. Voice, and why? 
 
 6. Mode, and why ? 
 
 7. Tense, and why? 
 
 8. Person and number, and why? Rule. 
 
 79. Models for Parsing. 
 
 I. "Liberty is sweet." 
 
 Im is a verb; it is a word which denotes being : irregular; 
 
 it does not form its past tense and perfect participle 
 by adding d or ed to the present indicative : principal 
 parts are pres. am, past ind. was, perf. part, been: 
 copulative; it asserts the predicate of the subject: in- 
 dicative mode; it asserts a fact : present tense; it denotes 
 present time : third person, singular number, to agree 
 with its subject "liberty". Rule XIII. "A verb 
 must agree with its subject in person and number." 
 
MODELS FOR PARSING. 
 
 117 
 
 II. "I shall go, if you remain." 
 Sball go ... is a verb; (why?): irregular; (why?): give its prin- 
 cipal parts : intransitive ; it does not require an ob- 
 ject to complete its meaning: indicative mode ; (why?): 
 future tense; it denotes future time: first person, sin- 
 gular number; (why?). Rule XIII. *'A verb must 
 agree with its subject in person and number." 
 
 Remain ... is a verb; (why?), regular; it forms its past indica- 
 tive and perfect participle by adding ed to the pres- 
 ent indicative : give the principal parts : intransi- 
 tive; (why?): svhjuictive mode; it represents an act 
 as conditional ; present tense ; (why?): second person, 
 singular or plural number; (why?): Rule XIII. 
 
 III. "The boy caught the horse." 
 
 Canght .... is a verb; (why?): irregular; (why?) : give the prin- 
 cipal parts: transitive; it requires an object to com- 
 plete its meaning: active voice; it represents its sub- 
 ject as acting : indicative mode; (why?): past tense; 
 (why?): third person, singular number; (why?): 
 Rule XIII. 
 
 IV. "We heard the owl hooting." 
 
 Hooting ... is a participle; it partakes of the properties of a 
 verb and an adjective : present participle ; it denotes 
 continuance: it belongs to "owl". Rule XII. "An 
 adjective or participle belongs to some noun or pro- 
 noun." 
 
 V. "I study to improve." 
 To improTe is a verb; (why?) : regular; (why?): give the prin- 
 cipal parts: transitive; (why'?): active voice; (why?): 
 infinitive mode; it expresses action without affirming 
 it: it depends upon "study". Rule XVII. "An 
 infinitive not used as a noun depends upon the word 
 it limits." 
 
118 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 Parse the nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, and participles 
 
 in the following sentences : 
 
 1. The earth rings hollow from below. 2. We soon shall 
 reach the boundless sea. 3. The night was tempestuous. 4. 
 He should be more industrious. 5. Remember thy Creator. 
 6. The poor must work in their grief. 7. I could not learn that 
 lesson. 8. He was beaten with many stripes. 
 
 9. Clarence has been chosen captain. 10. They might have 
 finished their task yesterday. 11. The crops were destroyed by 
 grasshoppers. 12. The girls were playing croquet. 13. He did 
 not return my umbrella. 14. Is he writing a letter? 15. Help 
 us to help each other. 16. Shake off the dust that blinds thy 
 sight. 
 
 17. No cheating nor bargaining will ever get a single thing 
 out of Nature's "establishment" at half price. — Rmkin. 
 
 18. May is a pious fraud of the almanac, 
 A ghastly parody of real Spring, 
 
 Shaped out of snow and breathed with eastern winds. 
 
 Lowell. 
 
 Write five answers to questions in your geography lesson^ and 
 parse the verbs. 
 
 Write the first two sentences of a composition on "iJisEy Boys", 
 and parse the verbs. 
 
 80. False Syntax. 
 
 Caution I. — Never use will for shall, nor would for should. 
 
 Ex. — 1. I was afraid I would be hurt. 2. If I would try, I 
 would learn fast. 3. I shall go: no one will prevent me. 4. I 
 would be very careless if I would leave my books at home. 
 
FALSE SYNTAX. 119 
 
 Cantlon II. — Tense-forms should express time in harmony 
 with that indicated by other parts of the sentence. 
 
 Ex. — 1. They have visited us yesterday. 2. You may take a 
 walk after you finish your task. 3. He was tardy every day this 
 week. 4. I would help you, if you can 't get some one else to do 
 po. 5. He was under obligations to have assisted me. 
 
 Caution III. — General truths should be expressed in the pres- 
 
 't tense. 
 4 Ex.— 1. I have heard that each star was a sun. 2. I always 
 I thought that meteors wer6 falling stars. 3. What did you say was 
 I the capital of Indiana? 4. I should think it was time for school 
 \to be dismissed. 5. I always thought that dew fell. 
 
 Caution IV. — Do not use the perfect participle to express pa^t 
 time, nor the past tense form instead of the perfect participle. 
 
 Ex. — 1. He come here last week. 2. He done it: I seen him. 
 
 3. The tree had fell, and it was broke in two. 4. The squirrel had 
 ran up a tree. 5. He set down on a log. 
 
 Caution V. — Avoid the inelegant use of participles in place 
 of other forms. 
 
 Ex. — 1, Going to Congress is no evidence of greatness. 2. I do 
 not like being punished. 3. He neglected the plowing of his land. 
 
 4. Boys, be ashamed of being found in bad company. 
 
 Caution VI. — Do not use is n't or aint for is not, bare n't 
 or baint for have not, 'taint for it is not, migrlit of for 
 miglit bave, &c. 
 
 Ex.^1. 'Taint one swallow that makes a summer. 2. Jane 
 haint got her lesson. 3. Aint you going to the concert? 4. Sam- 
 uel might of done his task long ago. 5. He should of taken the 
 accommodation train. 
 
 Correct all inaccuracies in the use of verbs you may observe in 
 your own language or that of your school-mates. ■ 
 
i 
 120 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 
 
 Collect the following sentences by reference to Rules XIII and XIV: 
 1. Henry and Charles was very much disappointed. 2. You 
 was there, I suppose. 3. The yoke of oxen were sold for a hun- 
 dred dollars. 4. Ellen are not at school to-day. 5. The scissors 
 is dull. 6. The fleet were seen off Hatteras. 7. Time and tide 
 waits for no man. 
 
 Qnestions. — What is a verb? A transitive verb? An intran- 
 sitive verb? A copulative verb? 
 
 What belong to verbs? What is voice? How many voices are 
 there? What is the active voice? The passive voice? How is 
 the passive voice formed ? 
 
 What is mode ? How many modes are there ? What is the 
 indicative mode? The subjunctive mode? The potential mode? 
 The imperative mode? The infinitive mode? What are the signs 
 of the potential mode? The sign of the infinitive mode? When 
 is it omitted ? 
 
 What is tense? How many tenses are there? What is the 
 present tense? The present perfect? The past? The past per- 
 fect ? the future ? The future perfect ? 
 
 What is an auxiliary verb? A unipersonal verb? 
 
 What is conjugation? What are the principal parts of a verb? 
 What is the synopsis of a verb? Give a synopsis of "to be". Of 
 "to love", in both voices. 
 
 What are the coordinate forms of conjugation? What is the 
 progressive form? The emphatic form? The interrogative form? 
 Give the synopsis of each form. 
 
 What is a regular verb? An irregular verb? A defective verb? 
 A redundant verb? 
 
 Give the order of parsing verbs. 
 
 Repeat the cautions. 
 
 THE ADVERB. 
 81. Classes. 
 
 1. Adverbs are divided into five classes : Adverbs 
 of Time, Place, Cause, Manner, and Degree. 
 
 2. Adverbs of Time answer the questions. When? How 
 long? How often? 
 
 Ex. — After, again, always, early, never, frequently, hereafter, 
 lately, immediately, now, often, seldom, then, when, &c. 
 
ADVERBS. 121 
 
 3. Adverbs of Place answer the questions, Where f Whither f 
 
 Whence ? 
 
 Ex. — Above, below, hither, here, there, herein, whence, some- 
 where, far, yonder, forth, aloof, away, backwards, first, &c. 
 
 4. Adverbs of Caase answer the questions, Why? Where- 
 fore ? 
 
 Ex. — Wherefore, therefore, then, why? 
 
 5. Adverbs of Manner answer the question, Hoiv ? 
 
 Ex. — Amiss, anyhow, well, badly, easily, sweetly, indeed, nay, 
 no, perhaps, peradventure, perchance, &c. 
 
 6. Adverbs of Degree answer the questions. How much f 
 
 How little ? 
 
 Ex. — Almost, enough, even, equally, much, more, little, wholly, 
 partly, only, scarcely, nearly, too, chiefly, &c. 
 
 7. An Adverbial Pbrase is a combination of words used 
 and parsed as a single adverb; as, "/» generaV\ "hand in 
 hand", "no more", 
 
 8. Conjunctive Adverbs are those which connect two prop- 
 ositions, and modify a word in each. 
 
 Ex. — "I shall see you when I return." The conjunctive adverb 
 "when" connects the two clauses, "I shall see you" and "I re- 
 turn", modifying "shall see" in the first clause, and "return" in 
 the second. 
 
 82. Comparison of Adverbs. 
 
 1. Many adverbs admit of comparison. 
 
 2. Three adverbs are compared by adding er and est to the 
 simple form, viz.: fast, faster, fastest; often, oftener, oftejiest; 
 soon, sooner, soonest. 
 
 3. Adverbs ending in ly are compared by prefixing more 
 and most, less and lea^t to the simple form; as, wisely, more 
 wisely y m^st wisely; swiftly, less swiftly, least swiftly. 
 
122 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 
 
 4, Some adverbs are compared irregularly ; as, well, better, 
 best; little, less, least. 
 
 83. Order of Parsing. 
 
 1. An Adverb, and why? 
 
 2. Compare it. 
 
 3. Tell what it modifies. Rule. 
 
 84. Models for Parsing. 
 
 I. "The soldiers fought bravely." 
 Bravely . . is an adverb; it is used to modify the meaning of a 
 verb: compared, pos. bravely, com. more bravely, sup. 
 most bravely: it modifies "fought". Rule XVIII. 
 "Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, participles, and 
 adverbs." 
 
 II. "I will go whenever you wish." 
 
 WheneTer is an adverb; (why?): conjunctive; it connects two 
 clauses, and modifies a word in each : it modifies 
 "will go" and "wish": Rule XVIII. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 Parse ike nonns. pronouns, adjectives, verbs, a7id adverbs 
 in the following sentences: 
 
 1. I saw him frequently. 2. You must call often. 3. How 
 rapidly the moments fly. '4. He has been reproved again and 
 again. 5. Perhaps he can tell you. 6. Doubtless, he is a wise 
 man. 7. Peradventure, the old dragon is asleep. 8. I have 
 not seen him since I returned from California. 
 
 9. Live and love, 
 
 Doing both nobly, because lowlily. 
 Live and work, strcagly, because patiently. 
 
 Mrs. Browning. 
 
PREPOSITIONS. 123 
 
 Write the first two sentences of a composition on " My Last Taca- 
 tlon", and parse the verbs and adverbs. 
 
 85. False Syntax. 
 
 Cantlon I. — Avoid the use of two negatives to express negation. 
 
 Ex. — 1. I don't know nothing about geometry. 2. Don't say 
 nothing to nobody about it. 3. You do n't look no better than you 
 did yesterday. 4. We did n't find nobody at home. 5. The ped- 
 dler had n't got no needles. 
 
 Caution II. — Do not use adjectives as adverbs. 
 
 Ex. — 1. You ought to read slower. 2. He does not speak dis- 
 tinct. 3. Helen seems tolerable well. 4. His voice was scarce 
 heard. 5. Slie dresses neat. 6. I am that hungry I could eat any 
 tiling. 7. He was exceeding glad to hear from you. 
 
 Observe and correct all inaccuracies in the use of adverbs in your 
 own conversation and that of your school-mates. 
 
 Questions. — What is an adverb? Into how many classes are 
 adverbs divided? What are adverbs of <me .^ Of place? Of man- 
 ner? Of degree? What is an adverbial phrase? What are con- 
 junctive adverbs? Are adverbs ever compared? How are three 
 adverbs compared? How are adverbs ending in ly compared? 
 How are other adverbs compared ? 
 
 Repeat the order of parsing an adverb. 
 
 Repeat the cautions. 
 
 THE PREPOSITION. 
 86. General Remarks. 
 
 1. The relations between objects of thought are sometimes 
 so obvious that they need no expression. This occurs when 
 nouns denoting time, distance, measure, direction, or value folloAV 
 verbs or adjectives; as, "He left yesterday"; "He lives south 
 
124 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 
 
 of this town". Such words are said to be in the objective case 
 without a governing word. 
 
 The names of things following the passive fonns of the 
 verbs ask, lend, teach, refuse, provide, and some others are also 
 in the objective case without a governing word; aa^ "I was 
 asked aC question ^\' "I was taught grammar". 
 
 3. A phrase commencing with a preposition is called a 
 prepositional phrase. 
 
 4. The infinitive is usually called a phrase. 
 
 5. The words^ of some phrases need not be separated in 
 parsing ; as, in vain, on high, round and round, in general, &c. 
 Parse such combinations as single words. 
 
 87. Order of Parsing. 
 
 1. A Preposition, and why? 
 
 2. What relation does it show? 
 
 3. Rule. 
 
 88. Model for Parsing. 
 
 "They went aboard the ship." 
 Aboard is a preposition; it shows the relation between its object 
 and some other word : it shows the relation between 
 "ship" and "went". Rule XIX. "A preposition shows 
 the relation of its object to the word upon which the 
 latter depends." 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 Analyze the following sentences, and parse the nouns and prep- 
 ositions : 
 
 1. A lark reared her brood ^ini^. the corn. 2. They wan- 
 dered in throngs down the valley. 3. Emma came from the 
 village, through the woods, to our house. 4. We have seen the 
 
CONJUNCTIONS. 125 
 
 moon rising behind the eastern pines. 5. I came from beyond 
 Richmond to-day. (Parse "to-day" in the objective case 
 without a governing word, by Rule VIII.) '6. I went to De- 
 troit Vesterday. 
 
 7. The locust by the wall 
 
 Stabs the noon-silence with bk s^ai^ alarm. 
 A single hay^'c/irt down, the-4«sty road 
 Creaks slowly, with its driver fast asleep 
 On the load'ii top. — Whittier. 
 
 Write the first two sentences of a composition on "Onr Flag", 
 and parse the prepositions. 
 
 Write the answers to three questions iii your arithmetic lesson, 
 and parse the prepositions. 
 
 Parse all the prepositions in three sentences of your reading 
 lesson. 
 
 Questions. — What is a preposition ? Do the relations between 
 objects of thoufflit always need expression? When do they not 
 need expression ? What words are in the objective case without a 
 governing word? What is a prepositional phrase? Can the words 
 in all phrases be separated? How should such combinations be 
 parsed ? 
 
 Repeat the order of parsing a preposition. 
 
 THE CONJUNCTION. 
 89. Classes. 
 
 1. Conjunctions are divided into three classes: 
 Copulative, Disjunctive, and Correlative. 
 
 2. Copulative Conjunctions join on words, phrases, 
 or members denoting addition, consequence, cause, or 
 supposition. 
 
126 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 
 
 Ex. — And, also, as, because, consequently, even, for, if, 
 so, since, seeing, tlian, that, then, moreover, therefore, 
 wherefore. 
 
 3. Disjunctive Coiijunetions join on words, phrases, 
 or members denoting opposition of meaning. 
 
 Ex. — Although, though, but, either, neither, except, lest, 
 nor, notwithstanding, or, provided, save, still, unless, whether, 
 whereas, yet. 
 
 4. Correlative Conjunctions are copulatives or dis- 
 junctives used in pairs, one referring or answering to 
 the other. 
 
 Ex. — Both — and, as — as, so — as, so — that, either — or, 
 neither — nor, if — then, though — yet, nevertheless, not 
 only — but also, whether — or, or — or, nor — nor. ■ 
 
 Rem. — Such combinations as as if, as though, as well as, 
 as soon as, forasmuch as, in so much that, but also, but like- 
 wise, not only, &c., should be parsed as single conjunctions or 
 conjunctive adverbs. 
 
 90. Order of Parsing. 
 
 1. A Conjunction, and why? 
 
 2. Copulative, Disjunctive, or Correlative, and why 7 
 
 3. What does it connect? Kule. 
 
 91. Models for Parsing. 
 
 I. " Ellen and Mary study algebra." 
 And ... is a conjunction; it connects words: copulative; it de- 
 notes addition: it connects "Emma" and "Mary". 
 Rule XX. "Conjunctions connect words, phrases, and 
 sentences." 
 
THE INTERJECTION. 127 
 
 II. " Neither Ellen nor Mary learned the lesson." 
 Jfeitber . . . nor . . . are conjunctions; (why?): correlative; one 
 refers or answers to the other: "neither" introduces the 
 sentence, and "nor" connects "Ellen" and "Mary": 
 Kule XX. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 Analyze the following sentences, and parse the conjunctions : 
 
 1. Cold and hunger awake not her care. 2. He came and 
 went like a pleasant thought. 3. Wisdom is the principal 
 thing; therefore get wisdom. 4. We can not thrive unless we 
 are industrious. 5. Though he slay me, yet will I trust in 
 him. 6. He was not only proud, but vain also. 
 
 Write the first two sentences of a composition on "Popping^ 
 Corn", and parse the conjunctions. 
 
 Parse all the conjunctions in three sentences of your reading 
 lesson. 
 
 Questions. — What is a conjunction? Into how many classes 
 are conjunctions divided? What are copulative conjunctions? 
 Disjunctive conjunctions? Correlative conjunctions ? How should 
 as if, not only, &c., be parsed ? 
 
 Kepeat the order of parsing a conjunction. 
 
 THE INTERJECTION. 
 92. Remarks. 
 
 1. Interjections are expressions of emotion only. 
 They are called interjections because they are thrown 
 in between connected parts of discourse, though gen- 
 erally found at the commencement of a sentence. 
 
 2. Most words when used as exclamations may be treated 
 as interjections: as, "What/ art thou mad?" "Revenge! cried 
 he". 
 
128 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 
 
 93. Order of Parsing. 
 
 1. An Interjection, and why? 
 
 2. Kule. 
 
 94. Model for Parsing. 
 
 "Eh! are you sure of it?" 
 Ell! .... is an iTderjection ; it denotes some sudden emotion. 
 Kule XXI. "An interjection has no dependence upon 
 other words." 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 Parse all the words in the following sentences: 
 
 1. Hah! it is a sight to freeze one! 2. Ah_I haj you 
 thought me blind, did you? 3. O! O! 'tis foul! 4. O excel- 
 lent young man ! 5. Alas, what have I seen or known ! 6. 
 Mercy, how it burns ! 7. Fie upon thee ! 8. Soft ! I did but 
 dream. 9. Tush ! tush ! man, I made no reference to you. 
 
 Cliiestions. — What is an interjection? Why is it called an 
 interjection ? 
 
 Kepeat the order of parsing an interjection. 
 
 95. Simple and Compound Sentences. 
 
 "Wheat is a vegetable." This sentence consists of a single 
 proposition. It is called a Simple Sentence. 
 
 1. A Simple Sentence consists of a single prop- 
 osition. 
 
 "Wheat grows in the field, and men reap it." This sen- 
 tence consists of two propositions, each of which will make 
 complete sense when standing alone. It is called a Compound 
 Sentence, 
 
SIMPLE AND COMPOUND SENTENCES. 129 
 
 2. A Compound Sentence consists of two or more 
 connected sentences, each of which will make complete 
 sense when standing alone. 
 
 Rem. — The sentences of which a compound sentence is 
 composed are called Members. 
 
 Model for Analysis. 
 
 " Lead us not into temptation, but deliver us from evil." 
 This is a sentence; (why?): compound; it consists of two con- 
 nected sentences, each of which will make complete sense when 
 standing alone. " Lead us not into temptation " is the first mem- 
 ber; "deliver us from evil", the second member. 
 
 Thou, understood, is the subject of the first member ; lead, the 
 predicate. "Lead" is modified by as, an objective element; by 
 not, an adverbial element ; and by the phrase, Into temptation, 
 an adverbial element. 
 
 Thoa, understood, is the subject of the second member: de- 
 liver, the predicate. "Deliver" is modified by as, an objective 
 element, and by the phrase, from evil, an adverbial element. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. Night comes to our bed, and breathes it in our ears. 2. 
 He lived for his love — for his country he died. 3. Art is 
 long, and time is fleeting. 4. You must reform, or you will be 
 ruined- 
 
 5. She raised her glazed eyes, and looked about with a 
 faint wildness. 6. The dignity of woman has its peculiar 
 character; it awes more than that of man. 7. The earth is 
 hidden yet, but not dead. 8. It is the day of man's trial, not 
 the time of his reward. 
 
 Write five eomponnd sentenees, efuch containing tioo members. 
 
 Ascertain what sentences in your reading lesson are compound. 
 E. G.— 9. 
 
130 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 
 
 Questions. — What is a simple sentence? A compound sen- 
 tence ? What are the parts of a compound sentence called ? 
 
 96. Complex Sentences. 
 
 The sentence, "I know where gold is found" contains two 
 propositions: "I know" and "where gold is found". The 
 conjunctive adverb "where" connects these propositions, mod- 
 ifying "know" in the first, and "is found" in the second. 
 
 These propositions are called Clauses. (See section 26.) 
 
 The first clause, "I know", makes complete sense when 
 standing alone, and is therefore called the leading or principal 
 clause. 
 
 1. A Principal Oaiise is one which makes com- 
 plete sense when separated from the rest of the sen- 
 tence. 
 
 The second clause, " where gold is found ", does not make 
 complete sense when standing alone, and is therefore called a 
 dependent or subordinate clause. 
 
 2. A SulM>i*dinate Clause is one which does not 
 make complete sense when separated from the rest of 
 the sentence. 
 
 Rem. — All the elements of a sentence may be clauses : 
 hence, there are Subject, Predicate, Objective, Adjective, and 
 Adverbial Clauses. 
 
 3. A Complex Sentence consists of a principal 
 clause, some part of which is modified by one or more 
 subordinate clauses. 
 
 Rem. — When a complex sentence contains many clauses, 
 each clause should be separately analyzed in the order indi- 
 cated by its position. 
 
COMPLEX SENTENCES. 131 
 
 Models for Analysis. 
 
 I. " He dared to lead where any dared to follow." 
 This is a sentence; (why?): complex; it is composed of a prin- 
 cipal and a subordinate clause. "He dared to lead" is the prin- 
 cipal clause, and "where any dared to follow", the subordinate 
 clause. 
 
 He is the subject of the principal clause; (why?): dared, the 
 predicate; (why?). "Dared" is modified by the phrase, to lead, 
 an objective element : " to lead " is modified by the adverbial 
 clause, where any dared to follow, of which, any is the sub- 
 ject, dared, the predicate, and the phrase, to follow, the object, 
 which is modified by where, an adverbial element. "Where" is 
 also a connective, joining the subordinate clause to "to lea J", the 
 object of the principal clause. 
 
 II. " He that hateth, dissembleth with his lips." 
 
 This is a sentence; (why?): complex; (why?). "He dissem- 
 bleth with his lips" is the principal, and "that hateth", the sub- 
 ordinate clause. 
 
 He is the subject of the principal clause; (why?): dissem- 
 bleth, the predicate; (why?). "He" is modified by the clause, 
 that hateth, an adjective element, of which that is the subject, 
 and hateth, the predicate: "dissembleth" is modified by the 
 phrase, with his lips, an adverbial element: "lips" by his, an 
 adjective element. 
 
 .EXERCISES. 
 
 1. He that flattereth, deceiveth his neighbor. 2. The boy 
 that you saw is my younger brother. 3. He is frightened 
 when it thunders. 4. I can not study where there is much 
 noise. 5. I would pay you, if I had the money. 6. Was that 
 man whom you addressed, your guardian? 7. He is a good 
 man, though very eccentric. 
 
 8, Nature never did betray 
 
 The heart that loved her. — Wordsworth. 
 
132 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 
 
 9. The poor too often turn away, unheard, 
 
 From hearts that shut against them, with a sound 
 That shall be heard in heaven. — Longfellow. 
 
 Write five sentences, iising clauses as subjects. 
 Model. — ''Haste makes waste" is a true saying. 
 
 Write five sentences, usiiig clauses as predicates. 
 Model. — The rumor is, that Mr. Judson has failed. 
 
 Write five sentences, using clauses as objects. 
 Model. — I believe that the earth is round. 
 
 Write five sentences, using clauses as adjective elements. 
 
 Model. — The report that he is insane, is unfounded. 
 
 Write five sentences, using clauses as adverbial elements. 
 
 Mo<lci. — Our teacher is delighted when we are studious. 
 
 Questions. — Wliat is a clause? A principal clause? A sub- 
 ordinate clause? A complex sentence? How many elements of a 
 sentence may be complex? How many kinds of clauses are there? 
 
 97. Modified Subject and Predicate. 
 
 1. The Graiiiiuafioal Nnbjeet of a proposition is 
 the unmodified subject. 
 
 Ex. — "A. great storm is raging." "Storm" is the gram- 
 matical subject. 
 
 2. The Complex or Lii^ical Subject is the gram- 
 matical subject, taken with all its modifiers. 
 
 Ex. — "A great storm is raging." "A great storm" is the 
 logical subject. "He who runs may read." "He who runs" 
 is the logical subject. 
 
ELLIPSIS. 133 
 
 3. The Grammafieal Preilicate of a proposition 
 is the unmodified predicate. 
 
 Ex. — "The storm rages furiously." "Rages" is the gram- 
 matical predicate. 
 
 4. The Complex or liOgical Predicate is the gram- 
 matical predicate, taken with all its modifiers. 
 
 Ex. — "The storm rages furiously." "Rages furiously" is 
 the logical predicate. "The wind blows with great violence." 
 "Blows with great violence" is the logical predicate; "blows" 
 is the grammatical predicate. 
 
 Rem. — All the parts of a sentence may be simple or com- 
 plex; but it is not necessary, in analysis, to distinguish them 
 as such. The distinction, however, may be observed with the 
 subject and predicate. 
 
 Poi7it out the g-raminatlcal and log^ical subjects and predi- 
 cates iji any of the- preceding sentences. 
 
 Write the first two sentences of a composition on "coasting^", 
 and point out the g^rammatical and log^ical subjects and 
 predicates. 
 
 Questions. — What is the grammatical subject of a proposition ? 
 The complex or logical subject? The grammatical predicate? 
 The complex or logical predicate? 
 
 98. Ellipsis. 
 
 1. £llipsis is the omission of one or more words 
 of a sentence. The words omitted are said to be un- 
 derstood. 
 
 Rem. — If required in analysis or parsing, the words omitted 
 must be supplied. 
 
134 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 
 
 2. All but the most important part of a sentence 
 may be omitted. 
 
 1. Noans may be omitted; as, "Ye are Christ's [dis- 
 ciples] ". 
 
 2. Pronouns may be omitted ; as, " Come [ fhou ] ". 
 
 3. Adjectives may be omitted, as, "A slate and [a] pen- 
 cil"; "That kind of exercise may be good for you, but not 
 [good] for me". 
 
 4. Participles may be omitted; as, "This [being] done, 
 we resumed our journey". 
 
 5. Verbs may be omitted; as, "I'll [go] hence to Lou- 
 don"; "[To be] England's friend [is to be] Ireland's foe". 
 
 6. Adverbs may be omitted, as, "He acted honorably, but 
 you did not [act honorably]". 
 
 7. Prepositions and Conjnnctions may be omitted ; as, 
 "He g^ve [to] me an orange"; "A good, [and] wise, and 
 truthful friend". 
 
 8. Entire Phrases and Clauses may be omitted; as, "You 
 have more to do than you can accomplish; I, less [to do than 
 I can accomplish ] ". 
 
 Questions. — Wliat is ellipsis? When are words said, to be un- 
 derstood? What parts of a sentence may be omitted? 
 
 99. Abridgment. 
 
 1. Complex l§^iitences are often changed into sim- 
 ple ones by abridging their subordinate clauses. 
 
 Rem. — ^This is done by dropping the subject or changing its 
 case, and by changing the copula or verbal predicate to an 
 infinitive or a participle. 
 
ABRIDGMENT. 135 
 
 Ex. —"I believe that he is insane", is equivalent to, "I believe 
 him to be insane''. ^^When the mayor arrived, the rabble dis- 
 persed", is equivalent to, "TAe mayor having airived, the rabble 
 dispersed ". 
 
 2. In analyzing, let the pupil expand each abridged clause 
 into a complete proposition, and state its oflace or use in the 
 sentence. 
 
 Models for Analysis. 
 
 I. "Forward!" 
 
 This is a sentence; (why?) : its subject and predicate are omitted 
 by ellipsis. It is equivalent to, "March ye forward!" Ye is the 
 subject; (why?): march, the predicate; (why?). "March" ia 
 modified by forward, an adverbial element. 
 
 II, "The snow being deep, we could not proceed." 
 
 This is a sc/i^e/ice/ (why?). We is the subject ; (why?): could 
 proceed, the predicate; (why?). "Could proceed" is modified 
 by not, an adverbial element, and by the absolute phrase, the 
 snoYv being: deep, an adverbial element, equivalent to, "be- 
 cause the snow was deep". Snow" is modified by the and 
 beingr deep, both adjective elements. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. Attention! 2. On, Stanley, on! 3. A rope to the side! 
 4. Magnificent! 5. How now, my old friend. 6. Honest, my 
 lord? 7. Better late than never. 8. Are you cold? — Some- 
 what 
 
 9. No rain having fallen, the crops were destroyed. 10. 
 There is no danger of his falling. 11. The storm continuing, 
 we dropped anchor. 12. Having led an active life, he could 
 not endure confinement. 13. Being human, he is not perfect. 
 14. Honor being lost, all is lost. 
 
136 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 
 
 100. Rules of Syntax. 
 
 1. Syntax is that part of grammar which treats of 
 the construction of sentences. 
 
 Rem. — All the exercises in the formation of sentences, in 
 this work, are exercises in syntax. 
 
 2. A Rule of Syntax is a statement of the man- 
 ner in Avhich words should be used in sentences. 
 
 Ride I. The subject of a proposition is in the nom- 
 inative case. 
 
 Rem.— Any tiling that may be used as a noun may be the sub- 
 ject; as, "A is a vowel"; "To play is pleasant"; ^^ That the times 
 are hard is undeniable". 
 
 Rule II. A noun or pronoun used as the predicate 
 of a preposition, is in the nominative case. 
 
 Rem. — A noun or pronoun used as the predicate, denotes the 
 same person or thing as the subject, and must agree with it in case, 
 and generally in number and person. 
 
 Rule III, A noun or pronoun, used to limit the 
 meaning of a noun denoting a different person or thing, 
 is in the possessive case. 
 
 Rem. 1. — The limited noun is sometimes omitted; as, "We 
 visited St. Paul's [church]" 
 
 Rem. 2. — The limited noun need not be plural because the 
 possessive is plural; as, "Their intention was good". 
 
 Rule IV. A noun or pronoun, used to limit the 
 meaning of a noun or pronoun denoting the same per- 
 son or thing, is in the same case. 
 
RULES OF SYNTAX. 137 
 
 Rem. 1. — A noun may be in apposition with a sentence, and a 
 sentence with a noun; as, "ife is dangei^ously ill — a fact that can 
 not be denied"; "Remember Franklin's maxim, ^God helps them 
 that help themselves^ ". 
 
 Rem. 2. — A word in apposition with another, is frequently in- 
 troduced by as or or; as, '^As mayor of the city, / feel aggrieved " ; 
 " mayor " being in apposition with " I " : "Maize, or Indian corn, 
 is extensively cultivated". 
 
 Rule V. A noun or pronoun used independently is 
 in the absolute case. 
 
 Rule VI. The object of a transitive verb in the act- 
 ive voice, or of its participles, is in the objective case. 
 
 Rem. 1. — A phrase beginning with a noun or pronoun may be 
 the object of a transitive verb ; as, "I want friends to love". 
 
 Rem. 2. — Some verbs have two objects, one representing a per- 
 son, the other a thing; as, "He asked me a question^'. When such 
 verbs are used in the passive voice, if the thing is made nomina- 
 tive, the person is governed by a preposition, expressed or under- 
 stood : if the person is made nominative, the thing is in the object- 
 ive case without a governing word. 
 
 Rem. 3. — A noun or pronoun following the infinitive to be, is 
 frequently in the objective case in apposition with a word which 
 precedes it; as, "I did not think it to be him"; "him" is in ap- 
 position with "it": "Whom do you take rae to be?" "whom" is 
 in apposition with "me". 
 
 Rule VII. The object of a preposition is in the ob 
 jective case. 
 
 Rule Vm. Nouns denoting time, distance, measure, 
 or value, after verbs and adjectives, are in the objective 
 case without a governing word. 
 
 Ex.— "He came home yesterday." Both "home" and "yester- 
 day" are m the objective case without a governing word. 
 
138 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 
 
 Rem. — Nouns and pronouns following the passive forms of cer- 
 tain verbs, are in the objective case without a governing word ; as, 
 "I was taught grammar''\- "He was offered a situation". 
 
 Rule IX. Pronouns must agree with their anteced- 
 ents in gender, person, and number. 
 
 Rem. — A pronoun used instead of a collective noun, denoting 
 unity, should be in the neuter singular : one used instead of a col- 
 lective noun, denoting plurality, should be plural, taking the gen- 
 der of the individuals composing the collection. 
 
 Rule X. A pronoun, with two or more antecedents 
 in the singular, connected by a7id, must be plural. 
 
 Rem. — when the antecedents are the names of the same person 
 or thing, the pronoun must be singular: when they are limited 
 by each, every, or no, the pronoun must be singular : when the 
 antecedents, taken together, are regarded as a single thing, the 
 pronoun must be singular. 
 
 Ex. — "The patriot and statesman receives his reward"; "Each 
 officer, each private, did his duty"; ^^ Bread and milk is healthy 
 food ". 
 
 Rule XI. A noun or pronoun, with two or more 
 antecedents in the singular, connected by or or nor, 
 must be singular. 
 
 Rem. — When one of the antecedents is plural, it should be 
 placed last, and the pronoun should be plural; as, "Neither the 
 farmer nor his sons were aware of their danger ". 
 
 Rule XII. An adjective or participle belongs to 
 some noun or pronoun. 
 
 Rem. — ^An adjective used as a predicate belongs to the subject. 
 
 Rule xm. A verb must agree with its subject in 
 person and number. 
 
RULES OF SYNTAX. 139 
 
 Rule XIV. A verb, with two or more subjects in 
 the singular, connected by and^ must be plural. 
 
 Rem. — When two or more subjects in the singular are but dif- 
 ferent names for the same thing, the verb should be singular; as, 
 ^^ Descent and fall to us is adverse." When two or more singular 
 subjects are emphatically distinguished, the verb should be singu- 
 lar; as, "Every bird and beast cowers before the wild blast". 
 
 Rule XV. A verb, with two or more subjects in the 
 singular, connected by or or noi\ must be singular. 
 
 Rule XVI. An infinitive may be used as a noun in 
 any case except the possessive. 
 
 Rem. — The sign to should never be separated from the rest of 
 the infinitive. " To rapidly write" should be, " To write rapidly^'. 
 
 Rule XVn. An infinitive not used as a noun, de- 
 pends upon the word it limits. 
 
 Rem. — An infinitive may depend upon any of the parts of 
 speech, except the preposition, conjunction, and interjection. 
 
 Rule XVin. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, par- 
 ticiples, and adverbs. 
 
 Rem. — Adverbs also modify phrases and entire propositions; 
 as, "He lives jmt around the corner"; ^^Ve)i,ly, ye are the 
 people". 
 
 Rule XIX. A preposition shows the relation of its 
 object to the word upon which the latter depends. 
 
 Rule XX. Conjunctions connect words, phrases, 
 members, and clauses. 
 
 Rule XXI. Interjections have no dependence upon 
 other words. 
 
140 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 
 
 101. Miscellaneous Exercises. 
 
 1. She saw a glory in each cloud. 2. Still waters are com- 
 monly deepest. 3. To-morrow may be brighter than to-day. 
 4. Few days pass without some clouds. 5. She made acquaint- 
 ance with the birds that fluttered by. 6. It was a harper, 
 wandering with his harp. 
 
 7. How long didst thou think that his silence was slumber? 
 8. At length the sun departed, setting in a sea of gold. 9. Tlie 
 smooth sea, the serene atmosphere, the mild zephyr, are the 
 proper emblems of a gentle temper, and a peaceful life. 
 
 10. 'Tis greatly wise to talk with our past lives. 
 And ask them what report they bore to heaven. 
 
 11. The night, methinks, is but the daylight sick. 12. Evils 
 have been more painful to us in the prospect than in the ac- 
 tual pressure. 13. A written or printed paper, posted in a 
 public place, is called a placard. 14. Few are qualified to 
 shine in company; but it is in most men's power to be agree- 
 able. 
 
 15. How often have I blessed the coming day. 
 When toil i-emitting lent its turn to play. 
 And all the village train, from labor free, 
 Led up their sports beneath the spreading tree. 
 
 Goldsmith. 
 
 16. Alas, we think not that we daily see 
 About our hearths, angels that are to be, 
 Or may be if they will. — Leigh Hunt. 
 
 Yl. The insect tribe are here: the ant toils on 
 With its white burden ; in its netted web 
 Gray glistening o'er the bush, the spider lurkj, 
 A close-crouched ball, out-darting as a hum 
 Tells its trapped pray, and looping quick its threads, 
 Chains into helplessness the buzzing wings. — Street 
 
MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES. 141 
 
 18. Princes have but their titles for their glories, 
 
 An outward honor for an inward toil. — Shakspeare. 
 
 19. My soul is an enchanted boat. 
 Which, like a sleeping swan, doth float 
 
 Upon the silver waves of thy sweet singing; 
 
 And thine doth like an angel sit 
 
 Beside the helm conducting it, 
 While all the winds with melody are ringing. — Shelley. 
 
 20. The year leads round the seasons in a choir 
 Forever charming and forever new, 
 Blending the grand, the beautiful, the gay, 
 
 The mournful and the tender in one strain. — Percival. 
 
 21. King David's limbs were weary. He had fled 
 From far Jerusalem ; and now he stood, 
 With his faint people, for a little rest 
 
 Upon the shores of Jordan. The light wind 
 Of morn was stirring, and he bared his brow 
 To its refreshing breath ; for he had worn 
 The mourner's covering, and he had not felt 
 That he could see his people until now. — Willu. 
 
 22. One hour beheld him since the tide he stemmed, 
 Disguised, discovered, conquering, ta'en, condemned, 
 A chief on land, an outlaw on the deep, 
 Destroying, saving, prisoned, and asleep. — Byron. 
 
 23. Who e'er, amidst the sons 
 Of reason, valor, liberty, and virtue, 
 Displays distinguished merit, is a noble 
 Of Nature's own creating. — Thomson. 
 
 24. He that attends to his interior self, 
 
 That has a heart, and keeps it ; has a mind 
 That hungers, and supplies it ; and who seeks 
 A social, not a dissipated life, • 
 
 Has business. — Cowper. 
 
142 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 
 
 25. The timid it concerns to ask their way, 
 
 And fear what foe in caves and swamps may stay ; 
 
 To make no step until the event is known, 
 
 And ills to come, as evils past, bemoan. 
 
 Not so the wise ; no coward watch he keeps, 
 
 To spy what danger on his pathway creeps. 
 
 Go where he will, the wise man is at home — 
 
 His hearth the earth, his hall the azure dome. — Emerson. 
 
 26. Every worm beneath the moon 
 
 Draws different threads, and late or soon 
 Spins toiling out his own cocoon. — Tennyson. 
 
 27. Sweet is the breath of morn, her rising sweet. 
 With charm of earliest birds ; pleasant the sun, 
 When first on this delightful land he spreads 
 His orient beams, on herb, tree, fruit, and flower, 
 Glistening with dew. — Milton. 
 
 28. The day hath gone to God,— 
 
 Straight — like an infant's spirit, or a mocked 
 And mourning messenger of grace to man. — Bailey. 
 
 29. It is a little thing to speak a phrase 
 
 Of common comfort, which, by daily use, 
 
 Has almost lost its sense ; yet on the ear 
 
 Of him who thought to die unmourned, 'twill fall 
 
 Like choicest music. — Talfourd. 
 
 30. Labor is life! 'T is the still water faileth ; 
 Idleness ever despaireth, bewaileth ; 
 
 Keep the watch wound, for the dark rust assaileth; 
 Flowers droop and die in the stillness of noon. 
 
 Frances S. Osgood. 
 
QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 
 
 143 
 
 102. Questions for Review. 
 
 What is a noun ? A common 
 noun ? A proper noun ? What 
 belong to nouns ? 
 
 What is gender ? How many- 
 genders are there? What is the 
 masculine gender? The femi- 
 nine gender ? The common gen- 
 der? The neuter gender ? How 
 many way^ of distinguishing the 
 masculine and feminine genders? 
 Give them. 
 
 What is person ? How many 
 persons are there ? Define them. 
 
 What is number? How many 
 numbers are there ? What is the 
 singular number? The plural 
 number? Repeat the rules for 
 the formation of the plural. 
 
 What is case? How many 
 cases are there? What is the 
 nominative case? The possess- 
 ive case ? How is the possessive 
 singular formed ? The possess- 
 ive plural ? What is the object- 
 ive case? The absolute case? 
 In how many ways may a noun 
 be in the absolute case? 
 
 What is declension ? What is 
 parsing? Eepeat the order of 
 parsing a noun. 
 
 What is a pronoun? A per- 
 sonal pronoun? What are the 
 simple personal pronouns? The 
 compound personal pronouns? 
 When pronouns of different per- 
 
 sons are used, how should they be 
 arranged ? Decline the personal 
 pronouns. Repeat the order of 
 parsing a personal pronoun. 
 
 What are the possessive pro- 
 nouns? How is emphatic dis- 
 tinction denoted? Repeat the 
 order of parsing a possessive pro- 
 noun. 
 
 What is a relative pronoun? 
 What are the simple relatives ? 
 The compound relatives? To 
 what is "what" equivalent? 
 " Whoever ? " " Whichever ? " 
 "Whoso" and "Whosoever?" 
 Decline "who" and "which". 
 What is a relative clause? Re- 
 peat the order of parsing a rel- 
 ative pronoun. 
 
 What are the interrogative 
 pronouns? What is the subse- 
 quent of an interrogative pro- 
 noun? With what must an in- 
 terrogative agree in gender, per- 
 son and number? Repeat the 
 order of parsing an interrogative 
 pronoun. Repeat the "cautions" 
 in section 57. 
 
 What is an adjective? A de- 
 scriptive adjective ? A definitive 
 adjective ? What is comparison ? 
 How many degrees are there? 
 What is the positive degree? 
 What does the suffix iah denote? 
 What is the comparative degree? 
 
144 
 
 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 
 
 How is it regularly formed ? 
 What is the superlative degree? 
 How is it regularly formed? 
 How are some adjectives com- 
 pared ? 
 
 "What are pronominal adjec- 
 tives? Name some of the prin- 
 cipal pronominala. What is said 
 of the phrases such a, &c. ? What 
 are numeral adjectives ? Cardi- 
 nal numerals? Ordinal numer- 
 als? Multiplicative numerals? 
 Repeat the order of parsing an 
 adjective. Repeat the "cau- 
 tions" in section 62. 
 
 What is a verb? A transitive 
 verb ? An intransitive verb ? A 
 copulative verb? 
 
 What is a participle? The 
 present participle ? How does the 
 present participle always end? 
 What is the perfect participle? 
 How does it usually end ? What 
 is the compound participle? 
 How is it formed ? 
 
 Wliat belong to verbs? What 
 is voice ? How many voices have 
 transitive verbs? What is the 
 active voice? The passive voice? 
 Plow is the passive voice formed ? 
 How is a verb in the active voice 
 changed into the passive ? 
 
 What is mode? How many 
 modes are there? Name them. 
 What is the indicative mode? 
 The subjunctive mode? The po- 
 tential mode? The imperative 
 mode? The infinitive mode? 
 W^hat are the signs of the po- 
 
 tential mode? What is the sign 
 of the infinitive mode ? When is 
 it omitted ? 
 
 What is tense? How many 
 tenses are there? What is the 
 present tense ? The present per- 
 fect ? The past ? The past per- 
 fect? The future? The future 
 perfect? Give the signs of the 
 tenses. 
 
 What is said of the person and 
 number of verbs? W^ith what 
 must a verb agree in person and 
 number? 
 
 What are auxiliary verbs? 
 Name them. Which of them are 
 sometimes used as principal 
 verbs? What is a unipersonal 
 verb? 
 
 What is conjugation? What 
 are the principal parts of a verb? 
 What is the synopsis of a verb ? 
 Give the synopsis of "to be". 
 Of "to love", in both voices. 
 What are the coordinate forms 
 of conjugation? The progress- 
 ive form ? The emphatic form ? 
 The interrogative form? Give 
 the synopsis of each form. 
 
 What is a regular verb? An 
 irregular verb? A defective 
 verb? A redundant verb? Re- 
 peat the order of parsing a verb. 
 Repeat the "cautions" in sec- 
 tion 81. 
 
 What is an adverb? Into how 
 many classes can adverbs be di- 
 vided? What are adverbs of 
 
QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 
 
 145 
 
 time? Of place? Of cause? 
 Of manner? Of degree? What 
 is an adverbial phrase? What 
 are conjunctive adverbs ? How 
 are adverbs compared ? Repeat 
 the order of parsing an adverb. 
 Repeat the "cautions" in sec- 
 tion 86. 
 
 What is a preposition? A 
 prepositional phrase? Repeat 
 tlie order of parsing a preposi- 
 tion. 
 
 What is a conjunction ? Into 
 how many classes are conjunc- 
 tions divided ? What are copu- 
 Jative conjunctions? Disjunct- 
 ive conjunctions? Correlative 
 conjunctions? Repeat the order 
 of parsing a conjunction. 
 
 What is an interjection ? Re- 
 peat the order of parsing an in- 
 terjection. 
 
 W^hat is a simple sentence? 
 A compound sentence? What 
 are the parts of a compound sen- 
 tence called ? 
 
 What is a clause? A principal 
 clause? A subordinate clause? 
 A complex sentence? How many 
 elements of a sentence may be 
 complex? How many kinds of 
 clauses are there ? 
 
 What is the grammatical sub- 
 ject of a proposition ? The logi- 
 cal subject? The grammatical 
 
 predicate? The logical predi- 
 cate? 
 
 What is ellipsis ? What parts 
 of speech may be omitted ? 
 
 How are complex sentences 
 changed into simple ones ? 
 
 What is syntax? What is a 
 rule of syntax ? Repeat the rule 
 for tlie subject of a proposition. 
 For a noun or pronoun used as 
 predicate. For the possessive 
 case. For the " same case ". For 
 the absolute case. For the ob- 
 jective case after transitive verbs. 
 For the object of a preposition. 
 For nouns denoting time, dis- 
 tance, measui-e, or value. 
 
 Repeat the rule for the gender, 
 person, and number of pronouns. 
 For pronouns with two or more 
 antecedents connected by and. 
 Connected by or or nor. 
 
 Repeat the rule for adjectives 
 and participles. 
 
 Repeat the rule for the num- 
 ber and person of verbs. For 
 verbs with subjects connected by 
 and. Connected by or or nm: 
 For the infinitive used as a noun. 
 For the infinitive not used as a 
 noun. 
 
 Repeat the rule for adverbs. 
 For prepositions. For conjunc- 
 tions. For interjections. 
 
 10. 
 
146 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 
 
 PART IV. 
 
 PUNCTUATION. 
 
 103. Definition. 
 
 1. Punctuation is the art of dividing written dis- 
 course into sentences and parts of sentences, by 
 means of points or marks. 
 
 2. The principal marks used in punctuation are the 
 followina: : 
 
 Comma, . . . . , 
 Semicolon, . . . ; 
 Colon, . . . . : 
 Period, . . . . . 
 Interrogation Point, ? 
 
 Exclamation Point, ! 
 
 Dash, .... — 
 
 Curves, . . . ( ) 
 
 Brackets, • • • [ ] 
 
 104. The Comma. 
 
 The Comma denotes the slightest degree of sep- 
 aration between the parts of a sentence. 
 
 Rule I. Two or more nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, or 
 adverbs, in the same construction, should be separated by 
 commas. 
 
 Ex. — 1. Spring, summer, autumn, and winter are called the 
 seasons. 2. You, he, and I were boys together. 3. David was a 
 brave, wise, and pious man. 4. In a letter, we may advise, ex- 
 hort, comfort, request, and discuss. 5. Success depends upon our 
 acting prudently, steadily, and vigorously. 
 
PUNCTUATION. 147 
 
 Rnie II. The members of a compound sentence, when 
 short, and connected by conjunctions, should be separated by 
 commas. 
 
 Ex. — He was not fond of the technical language of metaphys- 
 ics, but he had grappled, like the giant he was, with its most for- 
 midable problems. — Everett. 
 
 Rule III. Two correlative clauses should be separated by 
 commas. 
 
 Ex. — As in Adam all die, so in Christ shall all be made alive. 
 
 Rule IV. Each couplet of words arranged in pairs should 
 be set off by commas. 
 
 Ex. — Sink or swim, live or die, I give my hand and my heart 
 to this vote. 
 
 Rule V. Words placed in opposition to each other should 
 be separated by commas. 
 
 Ex.— Though deep, yet clear; though gentle, yet not dull. 
 
 Rem. — This rule applies, also, to phrases and clauses placed in 
 opposition or antithesis to each other. 
 
 Rale VI. When a verb is omitted, its place is usually sup- 
 plied by a comma. 
 
 Ex. — War is the law of violence ; peace, the law of love. 
 
 Rale VII. Transposed words, phrases, and clauses are usu- 
 ally set off by commas. 
 
 Ex. — 1. Integrity is, no doubt, the first requisite. 2. Whom ye 
 ignorantly worship, Him declare I unto you. 
 
 Rale VIII. Adverbs used independently, or modifying an 
 
 entire proposition, should be set off by commas. 
 Ex. — Indeed, yon must wait awhile. 
 
 Rale IX. Nouns and pronouns in the absolute case by ple- 
 onasm or direct address, should be separated from the rest of 
 the sentence by commas. 
 
148 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 
 
 Ex. — 1. Our souls, how heavily they go, to reach immortal 
 joys. 2. Take, O boatman, thrice thy fee ! 
 
 Rule X, Nouns in apposition, modified by other words than 
 the, should be set off by commas. 
 
 Ex. — The butterfly, child of the summer, flutters in the sun. 
 
 Rom. — Nouns in apposition, introduced by or or as, should be 
 eet off* by commas. 
 
 Rule XI. A direct quotation should be set off by commas. 
 Ex. — Quoth the raven, ''Nevermore". 
 
 Rule xii. Words repeated for emphasis should be set off 
 by commas. 
 
 Ex. — Verily, verily, I say unto you. 
 
 . 105. The Semicolon. 
 
 The Semieoloii denotes a degree of separation 
 
 greater than that denoted by the comma. 
 
 Rule I. The semicolon should be used before as. namely, &c., 
 introducing an example or an illustration. 
 
 Ex. — There are four seasons ; namely, spring, summer, autumn, 
 and winter. 
 
 Rule II. Clauses having a common dependence should be 
 separated by semicolons. 
 
 Ex. — Experience teaches us, that an entire retreat from wordly 
 affairs is not what religion requires ; nor does it even enjoin a long 
 retreat from them. 
 
 Rule III. Semicolons should separate the members of com- 
 pound sentences, if the connective is omitted, or if their parts 
 are separated by commas. 
 
 Es. — 1. Straws swim upon the surface; pearls lie at the bot- 
 tom. 2. Philosophers assert, that nature is unlimited in her 
 
PUNCTUATION. 149 
 
 operations; tliat she has inexhaustible treasures In reserve; that 
 knowledge will always be progressive; and that all future gen- 
 erations will continue to make discoveries, of which we have not 
 the least idea. 
 
 106. The Colon. 
 
 The Colon denotes a degree of separation greater 
 than that indicated by the semicolon. 
 
 Rule I. The colon should precede an example or a lengthy- 
 quotation, and follow the introduction to a speech. 
 
 Ex. — The Scriptures give us an amiable representation of the 
 Deity in these words: "God is love". 
 
 Rule II. The members of a compound sentence, whose parts 
 are set off by semicolons, should be separated by colons. 
 
 Ex. — We do not say that his error lies in being a good mem- 
 ber of society; this, though only a circumstance at present, is a 
 very fortunate one : the error lies in his having discarded the 
 authority of God as his legislator; or, rather, in his not having 
 admitted the influence of that authority over his mind, heart, or 
 practice. 
 
 107. The Period. 
 
 The Period denotes the greatest degree of sep- 
 aration. 
 
 Rnle I. The period should be placed at the end of a 
 declarative or imperative sentence. 
 
 Ex. — 1. Evil communications corrupt good manners. 2. Walk 
 quietly. 
 
 Rule II. The period should be used after every abbrevi- 
 ated word. 
 
 Ex.— H. G. Lloyd, Esq.; Mich., Ind., 111.; P.s. Ixxv, 6, 7: 
 Chap. XIV. 
 
150 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 
 
 108. Interrogation Point. 
 
 The Interrogation Point denotes that a question 
 is asked. 
 
 Kx. — 1. Where is Singapore? 2. Do you own this farm? 
 
 109. Exclamation Point. 
 
 The Exclamation Point denotes passion or emo- 
 tion. 
 
 Rule I. The exclamation point should be placed after ex- 
 pressions denoting strong emotion. 
 
 Ex. — Alas, poor Yorick ! Fie on you ! 
 
 110. The Dash. 
 
 The Dash is a straight, horizontal line, placed be- 
 tween the parts of a sentence. 
 
 Rnle I. The dash should be used where a sentence breaks 
 off abruptly, or where there is a change in its meaning or 
 construction. 
 
 Ex. — Dim — dim — I faint — darkness comes over me. ^ 2. If 
 thou art he, so much respected once — but oh! how fallen! how 
 degraded ! 
 
 Rule II. The dash is frequently used before and after a 
 parenthesis. 
 
 Ex. — They see three of the cardinal virtues of dog or man — 
 courage, endurance, and skill — in intense action. 
 
 Rem. — The dash is frequently used where there is an omission 
 of letters or figures; as, L — d N — h; i. e, Lord North: Ps. xxxv, 
 6—10; t.e., Ps. xxxv, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10. 
 
PUNCTUATION. 151 
 
 111. The Curves. 
 
 The Curves include an expression which has no 
 necessary connection, in sense or construction, with 
 the sentence in which it is inserted. 
 
 Rale I. The curves should include those words which may 
 be omitted without injury to the sense. 
 
 Ex. — Know, then, this truth (enough for man to know), 
 Virtue alone is happiness below.— Pojoe. 
 
 Rem. — The curves sometimes include letters or figures used to 
 enumerate subjects or divisions of a subject, as, "(a) What it 
 does ; ( 6 ) What it is." 
 
 112. The Brackets. 
 
 Brackets are used to include words, phrases, or 
 clauses explaining what precedes them, or correcting 
 an error. 
 
 Ex. — 1. They [the Indians] are fast disappearing. 2. I dit- 
 fer with [from] you in opinion. 
 
 113. Other Marks iised in Writing. 
 
 I. The Apostrophe [ ' ] is used to denote the omission of 
 one or more letters, or to mark the possessive case ; as, 
 "You're mistaken"; "The Queen's English". 
 
 II. The Hyphen [ - ] is used ( 1 ) to join the parts of com- 
 pound words and expressions; (2) to divide words into syl- 
 lables ; ( 3 ) after a syllable at the end of a line, when the rest 
 of the word is carried to the next line ; as, " Nut-brown maid: '' 
 "con-fu-sion". 
 
152 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 
 
 III. Quotation Marks [ *" " ] are used to show that a 
 passage is taken verbatim from some author; as, ''Shakspeare 
 says, 'All the world's a stage' ". 
 
 IV. The Index [jg^°^] and Asterism [ *^* ] point out a 
 passage to which special attention is called ; as, " J8@** Be punc- 
 tual in your attendance at school". 
 
 V. The Asterisk [*], the Obelisk or Dag^ger [ f ], the 
 Double Da$?g:er [ + ], the Section [ ^ ], the Parallels [ || ], 
 
 and the Parag:rapli [H], refer to notes in the margin, or at 
 the bottom of the page. 
 
 VI. The Brace [ — ^— ^ ] connects a number of words with, 
 a common term. 
 
 VII. The Paragraph [ ^ ] denotes the beginning of a new 
 subject. 
 
 VIII. The Section [ | ] denotes the divisions of a treatise. 
 
 IX. The Caret [ ^ ] is used in writing to show that some- 
 thing has been omitted. 
 
 a not countries 
 
 Ex. — The sesons are alike in all of the same region. 
 
 A A A 
 
 X. The Tilde [ n ] annexes to n the sound of y ; as, canon, 
 pronounced canyon: the Cedilla f § ] gives to c the sound of s; 
 Sis,fagade: the Macron [-] marks a long sound, as in tone: 
 the Breve [^] , a short sound, as in ndi: the Dieresis [••] sep- 
 arates two vowels into two syllables ; as, aeriform. 
 
 XI. The Acute Accent [ ^ ] commonly denotes a sharp 
 sound ; the Orave Accent [ '" ], a depressed sound ; the Cir- 
 cumflex Accent [ ' " or "^ ], a broad sound. 
 
 Rem.— In most reading books, the aetde accent denotes the 
 rising inflection; the grave accent, the falling inflection; the cir- 
 cumjlex, a union of the acute and the grave. 
 
PUNCTUATION. 153 
 
 Sagg^estion to Teachers. — Require pupils to give rules for 
 the use of all the points found in their reading lesson. Select 
 passages from good authors, and pronounce the words in consecu- 
 tive order, as in a spelling lesson, without indicating the gram- 
 matical construction by tone of voice or inflections. Let the pupils 
 write these as pronounced, and separate them into sentences and 
 parts of sentences by the proper points. 
 
 Punctuate properly the following example, and observe the rules 
 for the use of capitals: 
 
 his personal appearance contributed to the attraction of his 
 social intercourse his countenance frame expression and pres- 
 ence arrested and fixed attention you could not pass him 
 unnoticed in a crowd nor fail to observe in him a man of high 
 mark and character no one could see him and not wish to see 
 more of him and this alike in public and private. 
 
 edward everett. 
 
 Questions. — What is punctuation ? What are the principal 
 marks used in punctuation? 
 
 What does the comma denote? Repeat the rules for the use 
 of the comma. 
 
 What does the semicolon denote? Repeat the rules for its use. 
 
 W^hat does the colon denote ? Repeat the rules for its use. 
 
 What does the period denote? Repeat the rules for its use. 
 
 What does the interrogation point denote? 
 
 What does the exclamation point denote? Repeat the rule for 
 its use. 
 
 What is the dash? Repeat the rules for its use. 
 
 What are the curves ? What should they include ? 
 
 What are the brackets used to include? 
 
 What does the apostrophe denote? For what purposes is the 
 hyphen used? The quotation marks? The index and asterism? 
 The asterisk, &c.? What does the brace connect? What does the 
 paragraph denote ? The section ? 
 
 For what purpose is the caret used? What does the tilde de- 
 note? The cedilla? The macron? The breve? The dieresis? 
 What does the acute accent denote? The grave accent? The cir- 
 cumflex accent? What do these denote in most reading books? 
 
154 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 
 
 I 
 
 PART V. 
 
 ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 114. Sounds— Letters. 
 
 When we speak, we use sounds made by the voice. These 
 sounds are called Elementary Sounds. 
 
 1. An Elementary ^tind is one which can not be 
 separated into two or more distinct sounds. 
 
 When we write, we represent these sounds by letters. 
 
 2. A tetter is a character used to represent an 
 elementary sound, or a combination of elementary 
 sounds ; as, a, x. 
 
 115. Elementjiry Sounds. 
 
 1. There are forty elementary sounds in the English lan- 
 guage. They are divided into Vowels and Consonants. 
 
 2. Vowels, or Vocals, are those sounds which are 
 made with the vocal organs open. They are also 
 called Tonics. 
 
 3. Consonants are obstructed sounds, or mere 
 emissions of breath. They are subdivided into Suh- 
 vocals and Aspirates. 
 
 4. Snbvoeals are those sounds which are obstructed 
 by the vocal organs, in the process of articulation. 
 They are also called Suhtonics. 
 
ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 155 
 
 5. Aspirates are mere emissions of breath. They 
 are also called Atonies. 
 
 116. Table of Elementary Sounds. 
 
 a long, as in 
 
 a short, " 
 
 a middle, " 
 
 A Italian, " 
 
 a broad, *' 
 
 e long, 
 
 e short, " 
 
 Vowels. 
 
 hate. 
 
 hat. 
 
 ask. 
 
 arm. 
 
 all. 
 
 eve. 
 
 ell. 
 
 i 
 
 long, as in 
 
 , 
 
 i 
 
 short, " 
 
 
 o 
 
 long, " 
 
 
 o 
 
 short, " 
 
 . 
 
 oo 
 
 long, " 
 
 . 
 
 oo 
 
 short, " 
 
 . 
 
 n 
 
 long, " 
 
 . 
 
 n 
 
 short, " 
 
 . 
 
 time. 
 
 tin. 
 
 cold. 
 
 hot. 
 
 ooze. 
 
 book. 
 
 lute. 
 
 cup. 
 
 Consonants. 
 
 Subvocals. 
 
 fh, 
 
 J, 
 
 «, . 
 
 1, 
 
 n, 
 "ST, 
 
 S, 
 
 y. 
 
 bib. 
 
 save. 
 
 way. 
 
 am. 
 
 lid. 
 
 with. 
 
 jar. 
 
 size. 
 
 azure. 
 
 lull. 
 
 roar. 
 
 man. 
 
 song. 
 
 nag. 
 
 yes. 
 
 Aspirates. 
 
 p, as in . . . . 
 
 f, " .... 
 wh, " 
 
 Has no corresponding 
 
 f, as in ... . 
 
 th, " .... 
 ch, " 
 
 », .... 
 
 8h,* " . . . . 
 
 Has no corresponding 
 
 k, as in . . . . 
 Has no corresponding 
 
 h, as m 
 
 lip. 
 
 life. 
 
 when, 
 aspirate. 
 
 tat. 
 
 myth. 
 
 church. 
 
 hiss. 
 
 hush, 
 aspirate. 
 
 kick. 
 
 aspirate. 
 
 how. 
 
156 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 
 
 117. Letters. 
 
 1. There are twenty-six letters in the English al- 
 phabet. They are used as either capital letters or as 
 small letters. 
 
 Rem. — Printers call small letters lower-case. 
 
 2. Two or more letters are sometimes joined to 
 represent one or more sounds. 
 
 3. A Dipiitiion^ consists of two vowels sounded together 
 in the same syllable; as, ou, foul; oi, boil. 
 
 4. A Digraph consists of two vowel letters written to- 
 gether in the same syllable, one only being pronounced, or 
 both representing a single elementary sound ; as, aa, Canaan ; 
 ai, gain. 
 
 5. A Trig:raph consists of three vowel letters written to- 
 gether in the same syllable, one only being pronounced, or 
 the three together representing a single vowel sound, or diph- 
 thong; as, aye, aye; awe, awe 
 
 6. A Double Consonant consists of two consonant letters 
 written together in the same syllable, representing a single 
 elementary sound ; as, ch, chord ; gh, laugh. 
 
 7. A Silent Letter is one which represents no sound; as, 
 e in the word mute. 
 
 118. Capital LetteiN, Italics, &c. 
 
 I, The first word of every sentence should begin 
 ■with a capital letter. 
 
 Rem. — The word "that", commencing a sentence which 
 follows an introductory word or clause, often begins with a 
 capital letter; as, ^'Resolved, That section fourteen, &c." 
 
ORTHOGRAPHY. 157 
 
 II. The first word of every line of poetry should 
 begin with a capital letter. 
 
 III. Proper names of persons, places, days, &c., 
 should begin with capital letters. 
 
 IV. Titles of honor or distinction should begin with 
 capital letters. 
 
 V. All appellations of the Deity should begin with 
 capital letters. 
 
 Rem. — Words used as substitutes for the name of the Deity 
 sometimes begin with capitals; as, "The Hand that made us 
 is divine". 
 
 VI. Words denoting the race or nation of individ- 
 uals should begin with capital letters. 
 
 VII. Words derived from proper names should be- 
 gin with capital letters. 
 
 Rem. — When such words become common nouns, they 
 should not begin with capital letters ; as, a guinea; china- 
 ware. 
 
 A^III. Words of special importance may begin with 
 capital letters. 
 
 Rem. -Common words used as names of particular objects 
 become words of special importance, and should begin with 
 capitals; as, the Garden City; Big Creek; the City of Brotherly 
 Love; "Have you visited the Round Tower f" 
 
 IX. I and 0, used as single words, should be capitals. 
 
 X. Emphatic words, phrases, and clauses are fre- 
 quently printed in italics. 
 
 Rem. 1. — Words requiring special emphasis are often 
 printed in small capitals or capitals. 
 
158 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 
 
 Rem. 2. — Italicized words in the Bible are those supplied 
 by translators to explain the original. 
 
 Rem. 3. — In manuscripts, one line drawn under a word 
 indicates italics; two lines, SMALL capitals; t hree lines , 
 CAPITALS. ^ 
 
 Exercises to be Corrected. 
 
 1. — the mornings are chilly, sugar is sweet, rainy weather 
 is unpleasant, the snow was more than eight inches deep, 
 hundreds of birds were singing in the park. 
 
 2. — The day is past and gone ; 
 
 the evening shades appear. 
 o may we all remember well 
 the night of death is near. 
 
 3. — edwin and james went to Chicago last may. The legis- 
 lature meets on the first monday in January. Mr. smith left 
 new york on Saturday the 22d of may. 
 
 4. — Eli Hughes, esq.; Alexander the great; George the 
 third ; earl Russell ; gen. Scott. Eli french, esq. argued the 
 case for the defendant before judge Lynch. 
 
 5. — Remember thy creator. The lord shall endure forever. 
 "I am the way, the truth, the life." God spake these words, 
 and said : I am the lord thy god. 
 
 6. — The french ; the mexicans ; the americans. " The gyp- 
 sies wander about from place to place." The Spaniards were 
 the first european nation that established colonies in america. 
 
 7. — A russian serf; an Italian sunset; an african sun; a 
 Canadian winter, the foliage of austral ian trees is remark- 
 able, the Prussian army was provided with the best fire-arms, 
 the commander of the russian forces was wounded. 
 
 8.— The tariff bill; the Missouri compromise; the whisky 
 
ORTHOGRAPHY 
 
 159 
 
 insurrection. "I have just read 'homes without hands' and 
 ' the world before the deluge '." 
 
 9. — i can 't remember these rules, o, how i wish school 
 was out. there isn't any fun in sitting still all day. let's 
 run away and see the circus come into town. 
 
 119. Syllables-Words. 
 
 1. A Siyllable is a sound or combination of sounds 
 uttered with one impulse of the voice; as, man, 
 man-ner. 
 
 Rem. 1. — Every syllable must contain a vowel. 
 
 Rem. 2. — A syllable is analyzed by giving the sound repre- 
 sented by each letter, except those which are silent. 
 
 2. A Word may consist of one or more syllables. 
 
 A word of one syllable is called a monosyllable ; as, care, man. 
 
 A word of two syllables is called a dissyllable; as, care-ful, 
 man-ly. 
 
 A word of three syllables is called a trisyllable; as, care-ful- 
 ness, man-li-ness. 
 
 A word oi four or more syllables is called a polysyllable; as, 
 com-pla-cen-cy , ec-cen-tric-i-fy. 
 
 3. A Primitive or Radical word is one in no way derived 
 from another in the same language ; as, mind, faith. 
 
 4. A Derivative word is one formed by joining to a prim- 
 itive some letter or syllable to modify its meaning; as, re- 
 mind, faith-/M/. 
 
 5. A Compound word is one formed by imiting two or 
 more primitive or derivative words; as, man-worship, Anglo- 
 Saxon. 
 

 lecfc 
 
 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 
 
 *^^re§( 
 
 \yi:*d which' 
 
 IS 
 
 
 i 
 
 wjiiqh 
 
 A Prefix is that part of a derivative 
 d before the radical; as, re.-ca ^ ,^ib-iom, 
 
 7. A iSuflix is that part, ot a d«ri\i;ative 
 placed after the radical; ai^,'faith^^^^ch4nge-a6/fe7> 
 
 ;^ 8. Spelling is the aj:tf)f forming words by arf^R^g llieii 
 •letters in due order. .4 '. * - ^ ^-'r. :_, . 
 
 The proper way of spelling words. isi^obes^-^rned from 
 i spelling-books and dictionaries. - .vr . ; 
 
 
 at are^sii 
 
 ^ . , Questions.^ What is an elementary lo 
 * many elementary sotinds are there in the Englis ^ 
 are they divii^ed? What are vovvels?- Wiiat iire" 
 ' What are cor^onants? How are they silHbdivide 
 5^cals? Wimt are tblly^alsp called? What are aspira 
 are they also called ? * v>':.ii^ 
 
 How manv 
 th*ig? Ad 
 
 letter? ' ' ; ^ ; 
 
 the nse of capi,tlil let' 
 
 hat' 'iKti^':,ev!bry svj laI)le^,cQntain ? 
 is a syllable. analyz«l?^Whaty^;aittohosy]IableT A dissy 
 A trisyllable? A \)olvs™fbt^r What is a primitive word? 
 
 ) called? ♦ <^ wT V . \sjrW' "** - ■ > 
 
 ly letters 4n the l:n|lis1f*^l^T!!i(y? • Wh'at fs a di]>b- 
 
 igraph ? . M trigraph ? 4. doub|Je^^^"r|^i^."^ ^ ^lei^ 
 
 Kepeat the rules- &§ the 
 W^hat is -a syllable^ W 
 
 \ polysjmlibt^r What is a pri 
 
 as J derivative word? A' compourid 
 
 %# 
 
 ■ • **'^' \ ^^"^^ '^^ spelling? , 
 
 4- 
 
 d? A 'prefix? A^suffij 
 
 ^t. 
 
 oar 
 
 ^«4*C^S0tvft 
 
J 
 
l,-7<^ff 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CAIvlFORNIA IvIBRARY 
 
Ray's New ArithineticR#illg6l)ras. 
 
 Practical Utility combined with Scientific Accuracy; the 
 Best Methorfs with all real Improvenents. 
 
 Ray's ]>jew I»rimar> AHtlimetie, 
 Ray»s Xew Intellectual Arithmetic, 
 Ray's ]>Jew Practical Aritlimetic, 
 Ray's JSfew Ilis:liei Arithmetic. 
 
 TWO-BOOK SERTES: 
 Ray's New Elementary Arithmetic, 
 Ray's I^ew Ifractical Arithmetic. 
 
 Ray's New Elemeiitary Al§:ebra, 
 Ray's T!^ew Higfher Algebra. 
 
 I. The analytic solutions and written ofx i-ations ha . 
 carefully separated, 
 
 II. All obsolete tables of weights aiu; ,m.-„mw 
 obsolete denominations are discarded. 
 
 III. The Metric System of Weights,0.d Measures i. pre- 
 sented m accord,^nce with its now widelf' --tended usage, and 
 's assigned to its proper plr -. immediately after Decimals. 
 
 IV. The subject of Per .utage is much expanded, ^uid : 
 urnerous applications systematized. Mnny nov 1 and int' 
 ■::nz fk'Uures nre i7ii-r.rl' . ,vl fV^.- fir . .^^ .;,,.. •. ,-- , 
 
 ^. inU:it-,L ;;i'rr. n-r. i .LJu-iiess > i.J;ods ha', c r; < 
 le careful attention ■ '...ri \\^W imporuince demands. 
 VI. Much ;;pace i.. devoted ro commercial calculations n- 
 !dent to the new forms of Gnvernmpnf P.oprU .,.h ^.u. .. 
 securities, Coins, etc. 
 
 VII Tlie typography i. ,cw nd ihc bmdin 
 
 ta.refui and sub antial. 
 
 Ray's Arithmetics have a more extenoed use and a more 
 wide-spread popularity than any other series. More than ten 
 '-ousand editions of these books have gone forth from the 
 
 -rcss "^ 
 
 VAN ANTWERP, BRASS & GO., EINglNNATI & NEW W 
 
 Publishers of the Eclectic Educational Series.