LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. GIFT or THE BANCROFT LIBRARY Class ( THE MANUAL OF DATES. LOW i'UI NTi:i> I. V WOO I'l- AM. AND KIN 1 W.C. THE MANUAL OF DATES: ktbtr&rg 0f TO THE MOST IMPORTANT EVENTS IN THE HISTORY OF MANKIND TO BE FOUND IN AUTHENTIC RECORDS, R GEOEGE H. TOWNSEND. SECOND EDITION, REVISED^ AND ENLARGED. LONDON: FREDERICK WARNE & Co., BEDFORD STREET, COVENT GARDEN. NEW YORK: SCRIBNER, WELFORD, & Co. 1867. ,--;' PREFACE. IT has been the aim of the Author to render " THE MANUAL OP DATES" a concise and trustworthy compendium of the principal events of Ancient and Modern times. As the value of a work of reference must necessarily depend upon the character of the sources whence information is derived, the best authorities have in all cases been consulted, and their statements have been carefully examined and compared. On disputed points, conflicting accounts have been subjected to rigid scrutiny, and the view supported by the best evidence has been invariably adopted. Biographies, with the exception of short notices, are not included in the alpha- betical arrangement, though much information respecting the lives of great men of every age and country will be found in various articles. In so large a collection of facts the number of articles, alphabetically arranged, being nearly double that contained in any similar work, in one volume* certain errors and inaccuracies must occur. The critical reader and the student, who can form some idea of the amount of labour involved in the extensive researches re- quired for a work of this kind, will make due allowance for the same. The Author will feel greatly obliged for suggestions or corrections for future editions. A carefully prepared index to subjects which do not come under the alphabetical arrangement, and a list of some of the principal authorities, have been inserted. The SECOND EDITION, now presented to the Public, has undergone thorough revision, and is in many respects a new work. Every date has been verified, the original authorities for each subject have been again consulted, many articles have been re- written, much additional matter has been introduced into those which appeared in the first edition, and a large number f (3,662) of entirely new ones has been * The statement made in the preface to the first edition of Haydn's Dictionary of Dates, and repeated in every edition to the twelfth inclusive, published in 1866, to the effect that it contains " upwards of FIFTEEN THOUSAND ARTICLES, alphabetically arranged," is altogether inaccurate. The tenth edition of Haydn's Dictionary of Dates, PUBLISHED IN 1861, contains 5,034 ARTICLES, alphabetically arranged, and the first edition of Townsend's Manual of Dates, published in 1862, contains 7,383 ARTICLES, alphabetically arranged. The twelfth edition of Haydn's Dictionary of Dates, PUBLISHED IN 1866, contains 5,743 ARTICLES, alphabetically ar- ranged, and the second edition of Townsend's Manual of Dates (1867) contains 11,045 ARTICLES, alphabetically arranged. These figures, based not upon an estimate, but upon actual calcu- lation, require no comment. It will be seen that neither work contains UPWARDS OF FIFTEEN THOUSAND ARTICLES, alphabetically arranged, though Haydn's Dictionary contains ABOVE FIVE THOUSAND, and Townsend's Manual above ELEVEN THOUSAND ARTICLES. t First Edition, 1862, 7,383 articles. Second Edition, 1867, 11,045 articles. 235166 PREFACE. added. Though the columns in this edition are much broader than those in the first, one hundred and fifty additional pages have been inserted.* The Author believes that, on some points, he has brought together in this Manual information only to be found by consulting different authorities and a large number of books, and refers, as an instance of this, to the account of each Administration, which contains the principal changes that occurred during its tenure of office. In conclusion, the Author begs to express his acknowledgments for the favour with which the first edition of this Manual has been received, and to add that he has laboured diligently to render it a store-house of " the memorials and the things of fame" of the past. It is only by frequent revision that a book of general reference can, considering the increased facilities and the higher requirements of these days, keep pace with the rapid advances which are being made in every depart- ment of knowledge. In too many cases the version which has been handed down from generation to generation, as a true account of some bygone transaction, cannot endure the sharp ordeal of modern investigation. The consequence is that not authentic history, but that which has long usurped its place, is being entirely recast. The wonderful precision with which fiction is being separated from fact, the clear light thrown upon characters and events by the stores of original docu- ments that are daily becoming accessible to the inquirer, the student, and the scholar, and the severer tests to which all historical narratives are subjected, though they may lead to the reversal of many time-honoured judgments, conduce to the elucidation of the truth, do< -hired by Lord Bacon to be "the sovereign good of human nature." In this Second Edition, the Author has endeavoured to record much of the progress made, and to embody many of the results achieved since the first edition appeared, and (anxious to give honour where honour is due) 1ms sought to point out the source wheinv the information was obtained, because, though his own labour has been great, it is the labour of others, in every department of literature, science, and art, that gives vain*- to his work. LONDON, May, 1867. * First Edition, not including Index, 917 pages ; Second Edition, not including I: 1,067 pages. LIST OF AUTHORITIES. A manyst the numerous Works which I fallowing may AMOMMIUS'S History of England, from the Accession to the Decease of George III. 1840-45. Alibone's Dictionary of British and American Authors. Vol. I. 1859. Alison's History of Rurope, from the Commencement of tin- Erciirh Revolution in 178910 the Restoration of tin- l'.ourl...ns in 1815. gth edit. 1853-55. Ali-niiV Hi>t.irv of Europe, from tlio Full of Napoleon in 1815 to the Accession of Louis Napoleon in 1853. I853-59- Almanac de Gotha. 1787 to 1867. Anderson's History of the Colonial Church. 1856. Andrews'* History of British Journalism. Annuls of England: an Epitome of English History. 1855-57- Annals of the Kingdom of Ireland. By the Four .Meters. Annual liegister. 17581867. Arnold's History of Home. 1838-43. Asiatic Annual Register. 17991810. Baker's Chronicle of the Kings of England, with a Con- tinuation by E. 1'hillips. 1730. Bayle's Historical and Critirnl Dictionary. 1734-7. Benr 1 ! nirtionivry of Il.-raldry. Bingham's Antir,uiii,.s of tin- Christian Church. 1840. Biographle rtmersellc. BlograpbU I'.rii muica. Enlarged by Dr. Kippis. 1777-93. Birch's anciemi!ie Librnry. Various Works. Bonn's Standard Library. Various Works. Bouillet. PietiMimaircd'Hlstoireetde Geographic. IM.UI r's History of the Popes. 1748-66. Brady's Claris Ciilendaria. Bnnde'l Dictionary of Scieive, Literature, andArt Brandt's History of the Ke formation in the Low Coun- tiies. 1720-3. British Almanac and Companion. 1829-67. Broughton's Historical Dictionary of all Religions, from the Creation of the World to this Present Time. I75f'. Bryce s Holy Roman Empire. Buckingham, Duke of, Court and Cabinets of George III. Buckingham, l)uke of, Memoirs of the Court of the Ragtocj. Buckingham, Duke of, Memoirs of the Court of George IV. Buckingham, Duke of, Memoirs of the Court of William IV. and Vi. ! Bum's Ecclesiastical Law, by Robert Phillimore. 1842. Buckle's History of Civilization in Europe. Buniet's History of His Own Times. 1833. Burnet's History of the Reformation. Edited by the Rev. N. Pocock. Buniet's History of James II. 1853. Burney's History of Music. 1776-89. Burney's Chronological History of the Discoveries in the South Sea or Pacific Ocean, &c. 1776-89. Calendan of State Papers. Cainden's Britannia. By Richard Gough. 1806. Carlisle's Foreign Orders of Knighthood. Carlyle's History of Frederic II. (the Great) of Prussia. Carte's History of England. 1747-55. Cave's Antiquitates Apostolictc. 1675. Chalmers's Biographical Dictionary. 1812-17. Chambers's Handbook of Astronomy. Chambers's Encyclopaedia. Chevalier's Mexico, Ancient and Modern. Clarendon's History of the Rebellion. 1849. Clark's Concise History of Knighthood. Clinton's Fasti Hellenic!. 1834-51. Clinton's Fasti Romani. 1845-50. Collier's Ecclesiastical History of Great Britain. 1852. Comyn's History of the Western Empire. Cooper's Athense Cautabrigienses. consulted in the compilation of this Manual the be mentioned: Cotton's Fasti Ecclesite Hibernicte. 1847-60. Crabb's History of the English Law. Craik's History of English Literature. Creasy's History of the Ottoman Turks. Croker's Essays on the French Revolution. Crutnycll's Gazetteer. Cunningham's Handbook of London. 1850. Cunningham's London Past and Present Cost's Annals of the Wars of the Eighteenth Century. 1858-60. Cast's Annals of the Wars of the Nineteenth Century 1863-3. Darling's Cyclopaedia Bibliographica. D'Aubigne's History of the Reformation. D'Aubigne's History of the Reformation in England. De Lamartine's History of the Girondins. De Lamartine's History of the Constituent Assembly. Dictionnaire de la Conversation et Supplement Disraeli's Amenities of Literature. Disraeli's Curiosities of Literature. Doddridgu's, Sir J., History of Wales. "1714. Ducanges Glossarium ad Scriptores Media et Infinite Latin! tatis. 1733-36. Dugdule'a Monasticum Anglicanum. 1817-30. Dugdale's Origines Juridiciales. 1666. Dyer's History of the City of Rome. Dyer's History of Modern Europe. Eden, Sir K., State of the Poor. 1797. Edinburgh Gazetteer. Ed wan la's Libraries and the Founders of Libraries. 1864. Edwards's History of the Opera, Elphinstone's History of India. 1843. Emanuel's Diamonds and Precious Stones. Encyclopedia Britannioa. 8th edit Encyclopedia Metropolitana. 410 edit, and the revised treatises in 8vo. Engel's Music of the Ancients. English Cyclopaedia. By Charles Knight Fairholt's Costume in England. 1846. Fergusson's History of Architecture. Furrier's History of the Affghans. Finlay's History of Greece under the Romans. 1844. Finlay's History of Greece and Trebizond. 1851. Finlay's History of the Byzantine and Greek Empires. 1854. Fosbroke's Encyclopaedia of Antiquities. 1843. Foss's Judges of England. Foss's Tabulte Curiales. Foulke's Ecclesiastical History. Freeman's History of Federal Government Froissart's Chronicles, by Lord Berners. 1813. Froude's History of England. 1856-67. Fuller's Church History. Edited by Rev. J. 8. Brewer. 1845. Geneste's History of the Stage. Gentleman's Magazine from 1731. Georgian ^Era. 1832-6. Gibbon's History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. By W. Smith. 1854-55. Gilchrist's Display of the Origin and History of Ordeals, Trials by Battle, Courts of Chivalry or Honour, and Single Combat Goguet's Origin of the Laws, Arts, and Sciences, &c. 1775. Gorton's Biographical Dictionary. Grote's History of Greece. 1846-56. Guicciardini's History of Italy. Translated by A. P. Goddard. 1753-61. Guizot's History of Civilization. Guizot's Historical Works. Guizot's Memoirs. Gwilt's Encyclopedia of Architecture. Hakluyt Society's Publications. Hales's New Analysis of Chronology and Geography, His- tory and Prophecy. 1830. Hallam's England. 1857. Hallam's Middle Ages. 1855. Hallam's Literary History. 1855. Hamilton's East India Gazetteer. 1838. viii LIST OF AUTHORITIES. Hammer's Ottoman Empire. Hardy's Catalogue of Lords, Chancellors, Ac. Heeren's Hi-tor -Danish Con.Miest in America. Herbelot's Hibliotheque < Irientale. 1697. Herbert's History of yie Twelve Great Companies of London. Herschei's, Sir .!., Astronomy. Hertslet's Treat!..-. Hewitt's Ancient Armour and Weapons in Europe. lli.-torical .Notes, 153.1- 1714. Compiled by F. 8. Thomas. 1856. .! IJegi-fer. 1714-38. II I'sTabU Book. Year Hook, &C. Hook's Lives of the An-hbi-hop., of Canterbury. Hook'- Church Dictionary. Home's, Hev. T. II.. Introduction to the Critical Study iind Knowledge..! the Holy .-scriptures. 1856. IIumliol.lt'-. I 'o-nio*. Holm's edit. Hume m, : listory ..f England, continued by the l!ev. T. S. Hughes. 1854-55. Hunt's. I . K . PoOTtt i Hunt's, K., Mineral Stati-lie. of the United Ki; Inett's Church Historv. Edited by Kcv. .1. (iritliths, 1855. .Ian, .--on -. Mr- lers. Jameson's, Mrs., Sacn-d and Leg.-ndary Art. KBIT'S Collection ot \ovages. 1811-17. King's Antique < Knight's London. i-<4l-44. Knight's Topniar lli-t..rv of England. ire ubri-gi-c des Traites de Palx. 1817-18. Laiidon's .Manual of C.inncils. Lan/.i'- History of I'ainMng in Italy. Lapp.-nbcrg's History ot |..:,^l.ind nnd.r the Anglo- Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopaedia. ,-(.43, Lascelles' Liber Munerim, pnbliconim Hibcrniae. 1844-30. in*. 5th edit. l.avard .- Nim-v.- 1 . -i;c Anglicanae. By T. Duffus Ilardj Lewis's Credibility Of Eurlv llonian Hist-iry. 1855. Liber Albus. Living-tone's Travels. a's Annals of i Mali. Hi's Lord. II :id. I--<39-54. Mar.-dcn'- Ili-t. - and Sects. 1856. Martin'- Ili-toi. . . .. edit. McCulloch's DictionaiA N:ni-;iti..|,. MeCiill- . ' IMerivnle's Ili-torv Of thl I the ElllpirO. Mielielc, | Mill's History of Chivalrv. Mill's llritisl.'ln.liM. 1^40-8. Miliinin's Ili-torv of the Jews. Million's llistorV of Christianity. Mihnan's History of Latin Christianity. 1354-55- Mittonl's History of .,, Moinniscn's l!i-torv ot Koine. Montfiilioon's l'Anti.|iiite Kxpli,|iiee. 1719-84. Moreri's Dictionnnire llistori.|iie. Miishcim I History. UySoames. 1850. Mailer'* History of the i. Mure's Language and Litt-ruturo of Anciei.- Napier's f'eninsular War. 1853. Nares's (Jlossary. eilite.l by James O. Ilalliwell and - \Vri.-'ht. 1859. National CvelnpaMia ami Supplement Neale'sB , 1818. Nicholl's History of the I'.nirli-li 1'o.n- Law. Nicolas's Historic ..Maud, by Courthopo. .Nicolas. Sir II.. Tile Chroin>lo:ry ot ili-torv. Nicolas, Sir II. , History of the ' Koyal .Navy. Nielmhr's IINt.-rv of Koine. Notes ami Queriet, 1st. jnd. and 3rd series. Nouvello Dictionnaire de liio^rrajihie I niverseilc. Paget's Hungary and Transylvnnin. Palgrave's Hi-tory ..I Normandy and England. Palmer's Origines I .itnr-iea-. i -45. Parry's Parliament- and Cuuncils <>f England. I'etrie and Sharj'i 1 '" Mimnmetita Ilistorica liritannica. 1848. Ticnrt's Ftcligious Ceremonies nnd Customs of i Nations of the Known World. 1733-9. Pictorial History of England. i-edbyR. J. LJoyd. 183* as the Fifth. i Tdinnnd and Isabella. I're-eott's History of the Coiinuest of Mexico. BSl of 1'eru. Prideaux's Uld and New Testament Connected. 1845. I'ublie Keeord- and Mate I'apurs. (Quarterly Ke\i.-w. v ..f the United States. 1818. llist.,ry'.,f the ' ivil Wars in Pi ttd. I'.yN. Tindal. I-J-47- Kapin'- Ai Kawlin- : Monarchies of the Ancient World. . '. s I Icrodotus. ^14-29. I8W-J9. Christian Clmrch. i the Coinage of Great Britain. 1840. i, I nit.-d Kiiv rope. 1856. I "47- :i Republics. f Greek and Koman Bible. Smith's 1C Id. Ancient li smith'.. Dictionary ..f C.r. . U and K an Antio- t.hy nnd Myth Smith s Dictionary of Oi apliy. 8. rce of *ho : aim. nimeiitaries on the Laws of England. 1858. masteries, Hospitals, Cathedral undCoii, n and \Ve-tmiiister. 1730. Stri.kla: pie of England. :..,il Memorial- .lamesNasmith Tennent'i K. -volution. Thlrlwall's HitVI A (Switzerland). This province was invaded, in 1415, by all the Swiss cantons, except Uri, and divided among the conquerors, Berne retaining the largest terri- tory. It was made an independent canton by the Act of Mediation, promulgated Feb. 19, 1803. Part of the Frickthal, which Austria, by the sixth secret article of the treaty of Campo Formio, Oct. 17, 1797, had relinquished, was incorporated with it, in consequence of which a treaty between Argovia and Baden was signed at Aarau, Sep. 17, 1808. By the constitution, finally settled in 1815, Aargau ranked among the 22 Swiss cantons. An insurrection occurred in Aargau, Jan. 10, n, and 12, 1841 ; and in 1844 the people de- manded the expulsion of the Jesuits. The castle of Habsburg, the seat of the ancestors of the imperial family of Austria, is situated in this canton. AARHUS (Denmark). Gustavus Vasa was imprisoned in the castle of Kalo, near this town, in 1518. Aarhus was nearly destroyed by fire in 1541 and 1556. The plague com- mitted great ravages in 1578. The spire of the cathedral, 600 feet high, originally erected in the isth century, which was destroyed by lightning in 1642, was replaced by a smaller tower, which met with a similar fate in 1822. Here the Danes gained a victory over the Prussians May 31, 1849. Aarhus was occupied by the allied Austrian and Prussian forces, March 13, and April 28, 1864. AATH, AETH, or ATH (Belgium). Tho " Tour de Burbard " was erected in this city in 1150, and the town hall towards the close of the i6th century. Aath, taken by the French in 1667, and strongly fortified by Vauban, was lost by them in 1678, and recovered in 1697. The allies, under General Owerkirke, seized it, Oct. 4, 1706, and in 1716 it was taken by the Dutch, who surrendered it to Louis XV., Sep. 28, 1745. Captured by the army of the French Republic under General Berneron, in 1792, it was finally lost by France in 1814. The fortifications have since been considerably strengthened. The church of St. Julien, erected in 1393, was nearly destroyed by lightning in 1817. ABACOT. Mention of the cap of state worn by some of our kings occurs in the Chronicle of Fabyan, who includes amongst the spoils that fen into the hands of Edward IV., after the battle of Hexham (q. v.) Henry the Sixth's "bycoket, garnysshed with ii. crownes of golde, and fret with perle and ryche stone." This account is repeated by later authors. Graf ton uses the term "abococket," and Cam- den says: "In that fatal battle fought here, 1463, on the plains called the Levels, was taken the cap of state called Abacot, adorned with two rich crowns." ABACUS, in architecture, is the uppermost part of the capital of a column, often erro- neously represented as the capital itself, to which, as well as the column, it serves as a kind of crown. Bailey says: "The abacus, according to Vitrvrvius, was originally designed to represent a square tfle laid over an urn or basket. The rise of this first regular order of architecture is said to have been as follows : An old woman of Athens having placed a basket covered with a tile over the root of an acanthus, the plant, shooting forth the follow- ing spring, encompassed the basket all round, till, having met the tile, it curled back in a kind of scrolls, which being observed by an ingenious sculptor, he formed a capital upon the plan ; representing the tile by the abacus, the basket by the vase or body of the capital, and the leaves by the volutes." The form of the abacus varies in the different orders. This term is also applied to a board with counters, sometimes in grooves, and sometimes on wires, used for facilitating calculation. These instru- ments, fashioned in different ways, were com- '- *": A . BA ^Q AY LJ jnu**an Juijgst "tl^;*. Greeks, the Romans, and other nation's* *of airtufulty, by whom the in- vention was ascribed to Pythagoras. Hero- dotus, for the purpose of making a distinction between the customs of the Greeks and the Egyptians, says the latter, in calculating with counters, moved the hand from right to left, instead of, as the Greeks, from left to right. These counters were made of various materials, and, as nations lapsed into luxury, of the choicest kind. Ivory, and even silver and gold, were employed. The swan-pan, or computing table of the Chinese, was of similar construction to the abacus. It is said to have been in use amongst them from remote ages. The abacus, or modification of the same, was in general use amongst Kuropean nations until the i6th century. Shakespeare makes the clown in the Winter's Tale allude to the practice, when lie gives up the attempt at a calculation, with the remark: " I cannot do it without counters." An instrument, consisting of a frame with cross-wires and beads, and styled a (ilxx-n.x, was introduced by Dr. Reid in 1839, to facilitate the study of chemical compounds. ABAN'CAY (Battle). At this place, in Peru, during the eivil war amongst its Spanish con- querors, Almagro gained a complete victory over Alvarado, July 12, 1537. ABATTOIR. By '4 fc 5 Hen. VII. c. 3(1490), butchers were made subject to a tine for slaughtering beasts within the walls of the city of London. The act extended to all towns of England except Berwick and Carlisle. The butchers, having constructed drains to carry o)T the filth, , > was consecrated to the Fatimites; the Ommiades were distinguished by the tr/,;tr; and the /iluck, as the in .lurally adopted by the Abbas- 1 heir turbans and garments were stained with that gloomy colour: two black standards, on nine cubits long, ; ne aloft in the van of Abu .M and their allegorical names of the ni;i/>t ar^Uud Al l!a-l,id Al M,,kt fi Al .M..-tanj..-d llii Al Naser Al Zaher Al Mostanser Al Mostasem ). Among the ....... MI* ;:::: !i J5 1236 1240 fearful Al Mohtadi Al Motamed Al Motadhed Al Moktaft 903 Al Moktader 908 AlKah.-r 93* ABBAYE (Prison of ABBESS [ 3 1 ABBOT scenes enacted under the rule of Danton, Robespierre, and their associates, were the massacres at the prisons of Paris, in 1792. The prison of the Abbaye was the first assailed. The attack commenced at three o'clock in the morning of Sep. 3, when many of the prisoners were put to death, under circum- stances of unparalleled atrocity. A mock tribunal was formed for the trial of the unfor- tunate captives. ABBESS, the lady superior of a religious house of females. The first of these societies for females was founded by Pachomius, who died in 348. Martene says that the abbesses, in early times, exercised some of the spiritual functions belonging to the priesthood, and even cuufessfd their nuns. This practice, having led to various inconveniences, was suppressed. Bingham (Antiq. b. vii. c. 3, s. 13), referring to the statement in the Saxon Chronicle, that ab- besses were present at the council held at Be- cancL-lde (q. v. ), or Baccancelde, in 694, remarks : "It is justly noted by learned men as a new thing, to find abbesses, as well as abbots, sub- scribing in the Council of Ikvanceldc, in Kent, anno 694, and that before both presbyters and temporal lords, as the author of the Saxon Chronicle reports it. For this is the first time we meet with any such thing in the records of the ancient church." ABBEVILLE (Treaties). Though finally set- tk->l in Paris, the treaty concluded between Henry III. of England and Louis IX. of France, May 20, 1259, has, from the meeting of the two monarchs at Abbeville, been named after this town. The former renounced all claim to the provinces of Normandy, Anjou, Tou- raine, Maine, and Poitou, receiving 300 small pounds of Tours, and being guaranteed in the possession of some other provinces in France, which he was to hold as fiefs. Henry III. was to sit among the peers of France as Duke of Guienne, and he soon after dropped the titles of " Duke of Normandy and Count of Anjou." The cognisance on his seal was changed, a sceptre taking the place of the sword, which circumstance furnished a theme for an olden rhyme : "Peace marks the year, on which may fortune shine, One thousand, hundreds two, and fifty-nine. Then Anjou, Poitou, Normandy the boast Of England's warlike kind's, resigned and lost, Were the rirli trophies of the power of France; And Henry changed his seal and cognisance, Assumed the sceptre for the conqueror's sword, Though still a king, no longer Neustria's lord." Wolsey arrived here in July, 1527, having been sent by Henry VIII. to conclude a treaty with Francis I. Wolsey, who travelled in great state, was kept waiting at Abbeville, and it was not until Aug. 3 that Francis I. met the car- dinal, and they entered Amiens together, where the negotiations were concluded, Aug. 18. ABBEY, a religious house, presided over by an abbot or abbess, into which persons retired, dwelling in seclusion from the world. In times of persecution, the primitive Christians took refuge in mountains, caves, and desert places, and were afterwards collected together and formed into religious communities. Mosheim says that, long before the Christian aura, this mode of life prevailed in Egypt, Syria, India, and Mesopotamia. It was probably first prac- tised by Christians during the Decian persecu- tion, in the middle of the 3rd century. Paul of Alexandria, the first Christian hermit, re- tired to the desert in 251. Antony shut himself up in a tomb in 285, and formed his cell at Phaim, in Upper Egypt, between the Red Sea and the Nile, in 305. Hilarion, about the same period, according to Moshcim, introduced the system into Syria and Palestine. Pachomius was the first to introduce regular monasteries. He built several in the Thebais, in Egypt, during the 4th century. Bingham says (Antiq. b. vii. c. i, s. 4), " Till the year 250 there were no monks, but only ascetics, in the Church ; from that time to the age of Constantino monachism was confined to the anchorets living in private cells in the wilderness : but when Pachomius had erected monasteries in Egypt, other countries presently followed the exam pie, and so the monastic life came to its full ma- turity in the Church." By some decrees of the Council of Saragossa, in Spain, 381, prohibiting clerks from leaving their ministry to take monastic vows, and also specifying the age at which virgins might take the veil, it is evident that in this part of Europe monastic institu- tions were established at an early period. Martin, Bishop of Tours, built a monastery at Poitiers in the 4th century. Cassian founded two, one for monks and the other for nuns, at Marseilles, about 409. Twelve religious houses were established in Italy, within 40 miles of Rome, by Benedict, in 529, that of Monte Casino, erected on the site of an ancient temple of Apollo, in Campania, being the chief. Bene- dict was the first to institute monastic vows and rules. One founded in the isle of Bardsey at the end of the sth, and another at Bangor- Iscoed in the beginning of the 6th century, are supposed to have been the first monasteries in Britain. An establishment of the kind was founded at Banchor, in Ireland, about 520. St. Columba founded one in the isle of Huy, or lona (q. v.), in 565 ; and the abbey of Old Mel- rose was founded before the end of the 7th century. By 27 Hen. VIII. c. 28 (1536), all monasteries and religious houses not possess- ing more than .200 per annum were sup- pressed; and by 31 Hen. VIII. c. 13 (1539), all institutions of the kind were abolished. They amounted to 186 greater and 374 lesser monas- teries, besides 48 houses of the Knights Tem- plars ; making a total of 608. The income was estimated at ^137,000 per annum. ABBOT, or ABBAT. The term is derived from the Syriac abba and the Hebrew ab, the Greek form being abbas, a father. When her- mits, or holy men, formed themselves into reli- gious societies, one of their number was chosen as a chief. The monks must not, however, be confounded with ascetics, for, as Bingham states, "there were always ascetics in the Church, but not always monks retiring to the deserts and mountains, or living in monasteries and cells, as in after ages." The practice of dwell- ing together in communities, and under a chief, arose with Pachomius, in the reign of Constan- iine I. They were first styled Archimandrites, and the use of the term "abbot" commenced n 472. The custom for an abbot to be in orders ABBOT [ 4 1 ABDICATION originated in the 6th century. Abbots gradu- ally grew important, were called to councils, and aspired to an ascendancy over bishops. In order to check this tendency, the Council of Chalcedon (451) enacted that "all monks, whether in city or country, shall be subject to the bishop, and concern themselves in no busi- ness, sacred or civil, out of their own monas- tery, except they have his license and per- mission upon urgent occasion so to do." In spite of this, and other stringent laws, the abbots managed to engross power. Hence arose mitred abbots, who wore a mitre, and had absolute authority. They were exempt from diocesan jurisdiction, having episcopal authority within their precincts. In Kngland, they had a scat in parliament, and were called abbots sovereign, or general, to distinguish them from other abbots. At the Reformation, according to some authorities, there were 26 abbots and two priors. Fuller mentions 27 par- liamentary abbots and t\v<> priors. There were also crosiered abbots, from the crosier or pas- toral staff, which they bore in the right hand, and not, as the biahopo, in the left. Abbots ruling over establishments 1 . branches were styled cardinal abboi I, and. on the continent, the titles of prim abbots, and abbot-counts were used. (,sv-^ AIII-.ACOMI TI:S). In olden times, instead of the ' ion since employed at what is called the consecration, the abbot uas invested with the cowl, the pastoral staff was placed in his hand, and the shoes on hi - AI;I;OT or FOOLS, at MISKFLF, called in Scot land the "A lil iot of F nreasi >n." \\ a --a mast er appointed during the Mid preside over the Christ mas festivities. This m,,ck prince was frequently crowned, and ., with all the para] ihernalia of royalty. A (similar custom prevailed in n. France, and is evidently derived, as 1'rynne declares, from the ancient Saturnalia. The Abbot of I'nreason was suppressed by the Scotch legislature in 1555. The allowance granted to an Abbot of M isrule by a n .bleman early in the i6th century, according to an entry in the Karl of Northumberland's llouse- hold' F.ook. was one pound. The "Abbot of Misrule " was changed into "Lord of Misrule " at the Reformation. (M \'>\ r.isii.n-.) AJBBOT OF HI 5T, or ION A, also Icolumnkffl, an island on the west coast of Scotland. This island, Hede (b. iii. c. 4), writing at the com- mencement of the 8th century, says, "was always governed by a presbyter-abbot, under whose power the whole province, and the bishops also, were subjected, after an unusual manner, pursuant to the example of the first founder, who was not a bishop, but only a presbyter and a monk." This statement gave rise to a controversy on church government, in the 1 7th century. Bingham (b. vii. c. 3, s. 14), referring to Bishop Lloyd on Church Govern- ment, contends that Bedc speaks of "only one small part of Scotland;" and this subjec- tion was not in spirituals. Indeed, it seems- to have been "an acknowledgment of some civil jurisdiction over the bishops, which may very well consist with their superiority in spirituals." (See ABBEY.) ABBOTSFORD (Scotland) stands near the abbot's ford on the river Tweed, between two and three miles from Melrose, and 30 from Edinburgh. Sir Walter Scott purchased the property, consisting of a small farm called Cartley Hole, in 1811, and the present residence was completed in 1824. ABB< KI'SFORD CLUB. This*eociety, for the publication of miscellaneous works, illustrative of history, literature, and aiitiquiti, established at Edinburgh in 1834, in honour of Sir Walter Scott. It has issued no publication since 1859. A m:i;K VIATORS. These officers of the pontifical court, 72 in number, employed in preparing the letters and minutes issued by the 1'ope, were divided into several orders, one of which was secular, and the remainder ecclesiastical. 1'ope Paul II. sup; the order of Abbre viators in 1466, in quence of the corruptions practised by its mem! A I ! I ) I ; |{ A (Greece). According to the mytho- logical account, this cityof Thrace was founded by Hercules, in honour of his favourite Ab- derus; but history ascribes its establishment to Timesias or Timesius of ( 'la/.ornentB, B.C. 656. The original inhabitants having been expelled by the Thracians, a new settlement was made by some colonists from Teos, B.C. 541, and the city rapidly attained considerable importance. :mbod to the power of Atlu ; ; 408, and suffered considerably during a war with the Triballi, B.C. 376. During the Middle A-j-,'s. Abdcra is said to have been called 1'oly- stylus. No remains of the ancient city are A I ;i>KH A (Spain). -Thisancient city, situated on the southern coast of Spain, and founded rthaginians. was the seat of a bishopric, Which was transferred to AlmeriabyAlphcaao II. of Ca^til". in I 147. ABDICATION. The most remarkable in- f the abdication, by rulers, of supremo power, an: those which have occurred, not under --lire of political . ,1 from the prompt ings of purely personal motives. The act of abdication committed by James II. of Kngland was not formal, but constructive: he rted the throne, and parliament de- clared it vacant. The abdications of Napoleon I., of Louis Philippe, and of many other rulers, were compulsory ; and it is only by a perver- sion of the meaning of the word that it can IKJ applied to such transactions. B.C. 665. Tirhnkah, Kinpr of Ethiopia, defeated in a great battle by Asxluir-bani-pul, King of Assyria, abdi- 79. Abdication of Sylla, the dictator. A.D. 305, May I. The Emperor Diocletian, called by f.ibbon "the first example." Maximian abdicated at the same time, but re-assumed the purple in 306. 747. Carloman, eldest son of Charles Martel, abdicated nnd became a monk. I2Q4. Peter Morone, tho hermit Pope, elevated to the papa chair as Ctelcstinc V., July ;. :illi'Mt'-d Dee. 13, and retired to his old mountain hermitage, above the pleasant valley of Sulmona, in the Alirnz/.i. Igcc Oct. ^5. Ci Bed the imperial dignity. ai, .,1 ,!,. Sp..mi>li throne Jan. ifi, 1556. 1654, June 16. Queen Christina of Sweden abdicated 1730, Sep. 2, Victor Amadeus I., Sardinia, ABECEDARIANS [ 5 1 ABERDEEN 1808, March 19. Charles IV., Spain. (See ABANJUEZ.) 1809, March 13. Gustavus IV., Sweden. 1814, April 4. Xapoli'ou I., France. 1830, August z. Charles X., Franco. 1848, Feb. 24. Louis Philippe, Fran.v. 1848, March 3,1. Louis Charles, Bavaria. 1848, Dec. 2. Ferdinand I., Austria. 1849, March 23. Charles Albert, Sardinia, ABECEDARIANS. This branch of the Ana- baptists was founded, in the i6th century, by Nicholas Stork, a disciple of Luther. Stork, who died at Munich in 1530, maintained that all knowledge only prevented men from attend- ing to the divine instruction inwardly com- municated, and refused to learn anything, even the alphabet : hence their peculiar designa- tion. ABELITES, sometimes called Abelians, a sect of heretics that sprang up at Hippo, in Africa, about the year 370. They married, but ab- stained from matrimonial intercourse, follow- ing, as they pretended, the example of Abel, because no mention is made in Scripture of his children. When a man and a woman entered tins society they adopted a boy and a girl. The heresy was not of long duration. It is generally supposed to have commenced just before the final separation of the Eastern and \\VsUm empires, under Arcadius (395), and to have terminated during the reign of Theo- dosius II. (the Younger, 408 450). AKKNCKKK.UiKS and ZEGRIS, two Moor- ish families, whose quarrels are said, by some writers, to have deluged Granada with blood (14781490). A m:\SBKRG (Battle), fought April 20, 1809, between the Austrians and the French. " The Austrians," says Alison, " were not routed at any point, and no artillery was taken ; never- 1h< Kss, they had to lament the loss of 8,000 men ; the Archduke Charles's communications with Landshut were thrown open to the enemy ; they had been deprived of the advan- tages of the initiative ; and, what is of incalcu- lable importance, had been unsuccessful in the first considerable action of the campaign." ABEOKUTA (Africa). This independent town of Yoruba, in Guinea, has arisen within the last 50 years around a huge rock, called "Olumo," which was long the haunt of a band of robbers. They retired in 1825, and it be- came the retreat of fvigitives from the slave- hunting expeditions of the King of Dahomey. These were joined by other exiles from the surrounding country, who gave to the little tracts of land on which they settled the names of the districts whence they had fled, the entire settlement receiving the title of " Abeokuta," or " Understone," from the rock which formed its centre. In 1829 these dis- tricts were united and organized by a chief, named Shodeke, and in 1839 the rising colony was enabled to commence an independent trade with the surrounding tribes. An English mission, established in 1846 under the Rev. H. Townsend, materially aided in the advance- ment of Christianity and civilization. In 1848 the inhabitants, who had been taken under British protection, were attacked by the King of Dahomey, and one of the invader's Amazonian regiments (see AMAZONS) was entirely destroyed. The King of Dahomey made another attempt, March 3, 1851, and was again defeated. A third attack, which took place March 16, 1864, was repulsed with a loss to the invaders of 1,000 killed and 2,000 prisoners. ABERDEEN, in Scotland, is supposed to have formed the seat of a settlement during the 3rd century, and is said to have been erected into a city about the year 89.3. The episcopal see was transferred hither from Mortlach (q. v.), Banff shire, by David I., in 1139. The cathedral was commenced in 1357. George Haliburton, promoted in 1682, was the last bishop. The see was restored after the Revolution, James Gadderar being consecrated Bishop of Aberdeen at London, Feb. 24, 1712 ; and an assembly of the bishop* of the church in Scotland was held here April 24, 1788, when it was unanimously resolved to submit to the House of Hanover. Old Aberdeen was made a free royal burgh in 1154. In 1296 Edward I. passed through this city, after defeating and deposing John Baliol. The castle was taken, and the fortifications were levelled, in 1308 ; and the city was burned by the English in 1336. New Aberdeen was then erected, and became an important $eat of commerce during the Middle Ages, but suffered greatly from the wars between England and Scotland. In 1497 a block-house was erected, to protect the entrance of the harbour against the English ; and in 1514, 1546, and 1647, many lives were destroyed by the plague. The inauguration of the memorial statue of Prince Albert took place in presence of Queen Victoria and several members of the royal family, Oct. 13, 1863. ABERDEEN (King's College) was chartered by papal bull Feb. 10, 1494, and completed in 1500. It is an extensive building, containing a chapel, library, and museum. Marischal College, in the new town, was founded April 2, 1593, by George Keith, fifth Earl Marischal. The two colleges were united by a deed of union in the reign of Charles I. It was re- pealed in 1 66 1. ABERDEEN ADMINISTRATION, known as the "Coalition Ministry," and formed soon after the resignation of Lord Derby's first adminis- tration, Dec. 17, 1 852, was presided over by the fourth Earl of Aberdeen. The feeble prosecu- tion of the war against Russia by this cabinet rendered it unpopular, and its resignation followed the motion for inquiry into the state of the army before Sebastopol, carried in the House of Commons Jan. 29, 1855, by a ma ~ jority of 157. The cabinet was thus con- stituted : Treasury Earl of Aberdeen. Lord Chancellor Lord Cranworth. President of the Council Earl Granville. Privy Seal Duke of Argyle. Chancellor of Exchequer Mr. Gladstone. Home Secretary Lord Palmerston. Foreign Secretary Lord John RusselL Colonial Secretary Duke of Newcastle. Admiralty Sir James Graham, Bart Board of Control Sir C. Wood, Bart Secretary at War Mr. Sidney Herbert. Public Works Sir W. Molesworth, Bart. Without Office Marquis of Lansdowne. The following changes occurred : The Earl of Clarendon became Foreign Secretary Feb. 21 ABERLEMNO ABJURATION 1853, in place of Lord John Russell, who re- tained a seat in the cabinet, without office. He became President of the Council in the place of Earl Granville, who was made Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, with a seat in the cabinet, June g, 1854. The War Department was separated from the Colonies June 8, 1854. The Duke of Newcastle retained the former, and Sir George Grey acceded to the Colonial Secretaryship. Lord John Russell resigned office Jan. 23, 1855 ; but as the ministry re- tired Feb. i, the vacancy was not filled up. (See PALMERSTON [First] ADMINISTRATION.) ABERLEMNO (Scotland). The churchyard of this parish, in Forfarshire, contains a curious antique cross, supposed to commemorate the defeat of a division of Sweyn's Danish army, by Malcolm II., at Mortlach (?. v.), in Banff- shire, in 1010. ABHORRERS. The elections of 1679 having proved unfavourable to the court party, Charles II., by repeated prorogations, pre- vented the aaaemblbg of the new parliament. Petitions praying for the immediate com- mencement of the session poured in from various parts of the kingdom. The church and court party encountered these demonstra- tions by addresses to the king, abounding in loyal expressions, supporting the prerogative, and declaring the deepest abhorrence of those who sought to interfere with the same by dictating to him with respect to the meeting of parliament (1680). Hence the rival parties were called "Addressers, or Petitioners," and "Abhorrers." These appellations afterwards gave place to the well-known terms Whig and Tory. ABILENE (Syria). This district of Coele, Syria, called also Abila, passed, about r..c. .)<>, from the government of Ptolem:c.u>-. Mcnmuus, to his son I.ysanias, who was put to death by order of Cleopatra, B.C. 33, when his territories were transferred fco jMBOdotUB. Herod the Great having acquired poss Abilene, B.C. 31, on his death, A.I>. ^ it was divided between his son Philip and I. mentioned as tetrarch of the province by St. Luke(iii. i), A.D. 29. On the death of Tiberius, A.D. 37, the province was reunited and bestowed by Caligula upon Herod Agrippa, who was confirmed in this possession on the accession of Claudius in 41. Placidius, a general in Ves- pasian's anny, captured Abilene, A.D. 69 or 70, when it was incorporated with the Roman province of Syria. ABINGDON (Berkshire). A monastery said to have been founded at this ancient town by Lucius, King of the Britons, who reigned about the year 181, is alleged by monastic chroniclers to have been the scene of the education of the Emperor Constantino I. Having fallen into decay, it was restored in 675 by Cissa, Viceroy of Kentwin, King of Wessex, and after being ravaged by the Danes during the reign of Alfred the Great, it was restored by Abbot Ethelwold in 954. The last abbot surrendered Feb. 9, 1538. Geffrey Barbar, who died in 1417, founded the Hospital of St. Helen, which was refounded iznder the name of Christ's Hospital by Sir John Mason, May 19, 1553. The free grammar school was instituted by John Roysse, citizen and mercer of London, in 1563. The market house was erected in 1678. ABINGDOX LAW. On the capture of this town by the Earl of Essex, May 25, 1644, a garrison was placed in it by the Parliamenta- rians. During the various attempts made by the Royalists to regain this important place, a singular custom is said to have prevailed ; and from this the term "Abingdon Law" arose. The cruel, practice of the garrison was to hang all the Irish prisoners without trial ; and many Englishmen suffered, either by design or from accident. A 1 5 1 1 '( ) X I A XS. This warlike aboriginal tribe of South American Indians, who formerly in- habited the province of Chaco, in the centre of Paraguay, have since been driven southwards by the Spaniards. The Jesuits appear to have made attempts for their conversion as early as 1 6 10, but little is known of them until 1641, when they are mentioned in the annals of Paraguay as a nation remarkable for skill in horsemanship, whereby they earned on suc- cessful warfare with the Spaniards, :ind the native American tribes. A peace, concluded in 1 747. P u t an end to these incursions for a time, but their hatred of their European oppressors continually broke through every restraint, and quarrels. In 1749 they received a 7iiissii.nary visit from Martin Dobrizhoffer, a (lermau Jesuit, who laboured among them or in the adjacent country for 18 years, and established the colony of San Carlos and the Rosary, Nov. 24, 1763. This settlement was attacked by 600 savages, Aug. 2, 1765, when its founder received some severe wounds in defending his house and church. In 1767 Dobrixholfcr returned to Kuropc, and published an account of his mission in 1784. After his departure the bulk of the tribe migrat ward, and established the colony of Las (Jar/as in 1770. ABJURATION' OATH. The last act (13 and 14 Will. III. c. 6) to which the royal assent was given by William I II. on his deathbed; March L-, 1702, required all persons in office, members of the universities above 18, members of the legal profession, and schoolmasters, peers, and members of parliament, to take the oath abjuring the claims of the Stuarts. The oath was altered in the reign of Queen Anne, and put into a new form by 6 Geo. III. c. 53 (1766). It was changed for Roman Catholics by 31 Geo. III. c. 32 (1791), and by the Roman Catho- lic Relief Act, 10 Geo. IV. c. 7 (April 13, 1829). By the statute 21 & 22 Viet. c. 48 (July 23, 1858), one oath was substituted for the three oaths of Abjuration, Allegiance, and Supremacy. ABJURATION OF THE REALM was an engagement, on oath, to quit the realm, and never return to it without the king's license. The ancient common law of England allowed a person who had committed any felony, ex- cept treason and sacrilege, to make such an oath before the coroner within 40 days after taking sanctuary, under the penalty of death by hanging if he broke it, unless he was a clerk ; in which case he was allowed benefit of clergy. Abjuration underwent several modi- in the reign of Henry VIII., and was ABO [ 7 ABSENTEE abolished as a privilege, together with that of sanctuary (q. v.\ by 21 James I. c. 28, s. 7, (1624). By 35 Eliz. cc. i and 2 (1593) Roman Catholics and Protestant Dissenters convicted of having refused to attend the service of the Church of England, or of having been present at any assemblies, conventicles, or meetings, under colour or pretence of any exercise of religion, were to be imprisoned until they conformed, and if they failed to do so in three months might be required to abjure the realm. From these acts Protestant Dissenters were exempted in 1689 (see ACT OF TOLERATION), but Popish re- cusants not until 1791, by 31 Geo. III. c. 32. ABO (Finland.) This city, built by Eric X., King of Sweden, 1157, was taken from the Swedes by the Russians in 1713 and 1808 ; and was. with the whole of Finland, to the Tornea, finally ceded to Russia by the treaty of Fred- eriukshamm (q. v.}, Sep. 17, 1809. A fire occurred here Aug. 22, 1775, by which above 200 houses and 15 mills were consumed, and some lives lost ; and another Sep. 4, 1827, de- stroyed 780 buildings, with the university, founded hi 1640. Abo, made a bishopric in 1158, became an archbishopric July 20, 1817. ABO (Treaty) between Russia and Sweden, Aug. 17 (O.S. 6), 1743, terminated the war com- menced in 1741. Sweden confirmed in per- petuity to Russia the territory ceded by the 4th & 8th articles of the treaty of Nystadt (Aug. 30, 1721), consisting of Livonia, Esthonia, Ingria, part of Carelia, together with the eastern portion of Finland, making the river Kyiiiiueno the boundary between the two states ; whilst Russia relinquished to Sweden the remainder of her conquests in Finland. AI!i M.ITK INISTS. A party in the northern portion of the United States opposed to slavery. llic "American Anti-Slavery Association," having for its object the unconditional emanci- pation of the slaves, established at Philadel- phia, grew out of a smaller society formed at JJoston, Jan. i, 1832. A new association arose in 1839, called the American and Foreign Anti- Slavery Society, and a congress of abolitionists from various countries assembled at a meeting of the " Society for the Extinction of the Slave Trade, and for the Civilization of Afriea,'' held at Exeter Hall under the presidency of Prince Albert, June i, 1840. The Christian Anti-Slavery Association was established at Chicago, in July, 1851. ABOMEY (Africa). This town, the capital of the kingdom of Dahomey, was besieged by Jacoodonon, King of the Foys, who captured and murdered its king, Da, about 1625. It was visited by Norris in 1772 and by Duncan in 1845. ABORIGINES, or ABERRIGINES. Some writers consider the term to represent a colony of Greeks, who settled in Italy long before the Trojan war. Niebuhr states that the name means the inhabitants of the country from the beginning, answering to the Greek autochthones; and Sir G. C. Lewis declares the obvious Latin etymology of aborigines to be the true one, adding, " The name was applied to a primitive Italian race, at a comparatively early date ; but there is no ground for adopting the view of Dionysius, which makes it a national appellation, and identifies it with the people having an historical existence." Hence the later application of the term to the primitive inhabitants of any country. ABOUKIR (Egypt). The Turks were de- feated here by the French, under Napoleon I., July 25, 1799. An English army, under Aber- crombie, effected a landing near this place, March 8, 1801, and compelled the French to retreat. (See NILE.) ABRAHAM (.Era), so called from the Patriarch Abram, commenced, according to the best authorities, Oct. i, 2016 B.C. ABRAHAM, HEIGHTS OF (Battle). (-See QUEBEC.) ABRAHAM-MEN, beggars, who roamed about the country, on the dissolution of the religious houses in the i6th century. They were also called " Tom of Bedlam's Men." The term " to sham Abraham" is supposed to have been, derived from the tricks or these vagrants. ABRAHAMITES, ABRAHAM1ANS, or IBRAHIMIAH. A sect of heretics, the fol- lowers of one Abraham of Antioch, called by the Arabs Ibrahim, who attempted to revive, towards the close of the 8th century, the errors of the Paulicians (q.v.). Several Syrians were seduced ; but Cyriacus, Patriarch of Antioch, vigorously opposed the new heresy, and it was extinguished at the commencement of the gth century. ABRAHAMITES. An order of monks were thus named. They rose in the gth century, and were exterminated, on account of their idolatry, by the Emperor Theophilus (circ. 835.) A modern sect of Abrahamites was discovered in Bohemia in 1782. They professed the reli- gion of Abraham before his circumcision, and held various peculiar opinions : some were Jews by birth, others Protestants, and a few Roman Catholics. They are said to have been called Abrahamites from their doctrine, and Adamites from their real or supposed prac- tices. Joseph II., Emperor of Germany, in 1783, banished a large number of these secta- ries to Transylvania and Temeswar, on account of their obstinate refusal to incorporate them- selves with one of the religions tolerated by law. These Abrahamites are sometimes called Deists, or Nihilists. ABRANTES (Treaty). Disgusted at the pro- visions of the treaty of Badajos (q. v.), con- cluded between Portugal and Spain, June 6, and ratified June 16, 1801, Napoleon I. overran the former kingdom. The war was brought to a close by the treaty of Abrantes, signed Sep. 29, 1801, by which Portugal agreed to shut its ports against England, relinquished one half of Guiana to France, making the river Carapana- tuba the boundary between the possessions of the two states in that part of the world. The commerce of France was to be placed on the same footing as that of the most favoured na- tions; and, by a secret article, Portugal agreed to pay ,800,000 for the immediate evacuation of the country by the French troops. This treaty having been ratified at Madrid, is some- times named after that city. ABRUTUM (Battle). (See FORUM TREBONII.) ABSENTEE TAX. Parry (Parliaments, &c., of England, p. 142) notices a petition on Irish absenteeism presented to Parliament in 1380, ABSENTEES ABYSSINIA during the reign of Richard II. Complaints were frequently made on this subject ; and, in the reign of Henry VIII., the estates of sevei-al non-resident landlords were seized. A curious debate occurred in Parliament (Saturday, Dec. 12, 1601) respecting a proposal to fine absentees from church 12 pence every Sunday. It w.-is t<> be levied by a distress wan-ant from a justice of the peace. The proposal was rejected, the numbers being, ayes 105, noes 106. Some mem- ber called on the Speaker to give his vote for the bill ; but Cecil said, "The Speaker hath no voice ; and, though I am sorry for it, the bill is lost, and farewell to it." A bill, entitled "An Act whereby certain <>f the Nobility of this kingdom of Irelaml, dwelling within mo land, or elsewhere out of this realm, are made liable unto certain charges within 'this king- dom," was read a third time in the Irish Par- liament, and passed into law, Feb. 17, 1634. In 1715 a tax of 4. in the pound was levied on all profits, fees, pensions, kc., derived from Ireland, in all cases whore the re-rip not reside in that country six months in the year. The crown reserved the right of giving leave of absence. Tin- tax ceased in 1753, and attempts at its reimposition were tried, but without success, in 1773 an( l * n *7$3- ^b' t'"' Irish Act of Parliament, 40 Geo. III.. V. 4 (March 24, 1800), a similar tax was imposed, but it was removed by the English Act, 41 Geo. III. c. TOO (July 2, 1801). ABSENTEES Parliament of), held at Dublin, May 10, 1517 (8 Hen. VIII.), is mriitiuiied in letters patent, dated -.-., lien. VIII. ABSOLUTION, In the early ChrirtianCliTirch, simply signified reeonciliation with tin- < 'hureh and restoration to its communion. During the 2nd century it was granted by bishops in presence of the whole congregation, after the penitent had publicly entreated fi>r pardon, and it was never permitted to those who had lapsed a second time into crime. U,,. doctrine of the priest's authority to pronounce absolu- tion on the part of (iod dates from the 3rd century, and the elevation of the ordinance into the list of sacraments is first mentioned by Otho, Bishop of Bamberg. in 1124. Absolu- tion ad cautelam, or conditional absolution granted to an excommunicated person during his appeal against the sentence, was first granted by Ccelestine III. in 1195. The indica- tive form, " 1 absolve thee," instead of "Christ absolve thee, "was first used in the i2th or i3th century, and was warmly defended by Thomas Aquinas about the year 1250. The Council of Trent, Dec. 13, 1545 to 1563, directed the use of the form "I absolve thee from all thy sins in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost. Amen." ABSTINENCE. Many cases of extraordinary cures effected, and of a great age attained, by use of spare diet, are mentioned by different writers. Abstinence from particular meats was enjoined upon the Jews by the Divine law, and many of the early Christians adopted a similar practice. The Roman Catholic Church has selected special seasons and days on which par- ticular kinds of abstinence are strictly enforced. Among the primitive Christians in'ti several hermits, who retired to the deserts, and lived upon bread and water, and even roots, are said to have attained an e.\ narv age. N<- I.O.M ;r.vi TV. ABSTINENTS, Ai;s I'INKXTKs, ,. r AB- STAINERS, heretics who appeared in France, and Spain at the end of the 3rd or early in the 4th century, during the persecutions oi Diocle- tian and Maximian. They condemned m and the use of tlesh and wine : some of their opinions were borrowed from the linostics and Manich;e;jns. Baronius believes these heretics to have been identical with an K-yptian sect called the llieracians //. ,-. or Hier'ai-ites, that arose at the same period, and held similar opiniomi. A MY DOS, an ancient town on the shore of the Hellespont, or Dardanelles, is said to have become the seat of a Milesian colony n.c. 71-. -tructed a bridge of boats from this pl.i i-opcaii side of the Hellespont, over which his immense army i'-.c. 480. It is ce] from t). [ in the habit of swimming from Abydos to the other side of the Hellespont to visit Hero, was at. last drowned. Lord Myron, who frequently performed tliis feat, ridicules tin- story. Tin's town must not K- confounded with another of the same name in I A BY I" - the Athenian and the IV1..J, . , irj B.C. MS. A MY IM >S (Tablet of), contain!' M-ly kings nf ! by Mr. W. M lake*, OH an interior wall of a huild- Lbydoc, an ancient city nf The tabl.-t, which has been deposited in the British Museum, consist s of three compart- -nd contains . shields of th< AMYSSIMA (Africa), part of the Kthiopia, of which the capital was .\u\umr, sic>n was abandoned. Rochet also entered from the south in Sep., 1839, and was followed by Airston and Lieut. Kiehnaier, who both died in 1840. Dr. Beke, who visited Abys- sinia in Nov., 1840, and Sir W. C. Harris, who was despatched on a political mission in 1841, remained till Feb., 1843, and made many im- p. .rt.uit geographical discoveries. Other expe- ditions were made by Johnston and by Even in 1841, by De Goutin, the French consul at Massowa, who visited Gondar in 1842 to ascer- tain the possibility of establishing a trade be- tween that place and France, and by Bell and Plowden in May, 1843. Plowden, the British consul at Massowa, concluded a treaty of friendship and commerce with Ras AH at Gondar, Nov. 2, 1849, by which it was agreed that ambassadors should be mutually sent and received by the English and Abyssinian courts. Ha* AH was deposed in 1854 by one of hissons- in-law, who was subsequently crowned em- peror under the name of Theodore, and refused to carry out the provisions of the treaty of 1849. Mr. Plowden, having been wounded and in.Kli' prisoner by the rebels, died immediately after his release, and was avenged by King Theodore, who defeated 3,000 of his opponents under their leader Gerat, on the banks of the Taccazy, Oct. 31, 1860, and, in requital, mas- sacred in cold blood 1,500 prisoners, whose wives and children he sold into slavery. Capt. Cameron, appointed consul in the place of Mr. Plowden in 1861, proceeded in 1862 to Massowa, bearing presents from Queen Victoria to Theo- dore, who replied by a letter which was re- ceived in England Feb. 12, 1863. No notice having been taken of this despatch, the king, towards the end of 1863, arrested Capt. Came- ron, with several other Englishmen, whom he kept in cruel bondage. A reply to his letter, sent May 26, 1864, failed in procuring their re- lease, because it was transmitted through Mr. Rassam, the assistant English resident at Aden, and a subject of Turkey, with which country Abyssinia was at variance. A debate upon the subject took place in the House of Commons, June 30, 1865. Dr. Beke left Lon- don on a mission to procure the release of the captives, Nov. 4, 1865. ABYSSINIAN jERA. (See MUNDANE ^RA OF ALEXANDRIA.) ABYSSINIAN CHURCH, had its origin, ac- cording to the best authorities, about 330, when Frumentius was ordained Bishop of Axum, by Athanasius, Patriarch of Alexandria. Some writers are of opinion that the Abys- sininns were first converted in the apostolic age, by the eunuch of Queen Candace, Sep., 37. (Acts viii. 2739.) The Abyssinians formed a branch of the Jacobite or Coptic Church, hold- ing the Monophysite doctrine of one incarnate nature ; into which heresy they fell in the 6th century. Pope Eugenius IV. signed a decree for the union of the Abyssinian Church with that of Rome, at the Synod of Florence, Feb. 4, 1441. This was not carried out, and Abys- sinia continued almost entirely unknown to Europeans until 1484, when Diego Cam ascended the Zaire, and learned from the people of Congo that the country to the south of Upper Egypt was inhabited by a Christian nation. On his return to Portugal, he com- municated this intelligence to John II., who resolved to establish a Roman Catholic mis- sion ; but it failed, the missionaries being ignorant of the African languages. He after- wards sent Pedro Cavilham, who entered Abyssinia in 1490. Two more envoys arrived in 1507; and in 1509 the Empress Helena, regent during the minority of the infant Emperor David, wrote letters, soliciting the alliance and friendship of the King of Portugal. ThVse overtures were received at Lisbon in 1513, and resulted in a special embassy, which reached Abyssinia in 1520. Zaga Zaba arrived in Portugal, as ambassador from the court of Abyssinia, in 1527, bearing letters to the king and to the Pope. After a delay of five years, he proceeded to Rome, and had an audience with the pontiff, Jan. 29, 1533, after which he re- turned to Lisbon, and wrote a statement of the religious and political state of his country, dated April 24, 1534. Meanwhile King David of Abyssinia, being pressed by neighbouring Mohammedan nations, had caused John Bermudes, a Portuguese, resident at his court, to receive consecration as a bishop from the abuna or patriarch of the National Church, and had despatched him to Europe to entreat the aid of the Christian princes. Bermudes arrived at Rome in 1538, and, after proceeding to Lisbon, returned to his own country in 1539. A Portuguese force of 400 men, under Don Christopher de Gama, son of the famous Vasco, entered the country to assist the sove- reign, July 9, 1541, and, after some reverses, their leader having been captured and exe- cuted, eventually established him firmly on his throne. Disputes soon arose, however, in consequence of the emperor's refusal to adopt the Romish faith and worship, and Ber- mudes, whose importunities had become dis- tasteful, was ejected from his office, and impri- soned. A Jesuit mission, under Father Rodri- guez, arrived at the emperor's court May 26, 1555. A series of religious disputes ensued, which resulted in the excommunication of the entire nation, by Andrew Oviedo, the Jesuit Bishop of Hierapolis, Feb. 2, 1559. The mis- sion having failed in establishing Romanism, was recalled by a bull, dated Feb. i, 1560. A second Jesuit mission was established in 1603, by Peter Pays, who intrigued with all the parties that successively attained influence, until the emperor was induced to make a ACACIAN8 ACARNANIA formal statement of submission to the Pope, Dec. ii, 1624. This concession, however, was exceedingly unpopular with the nation, who compelled the Roman patriarch to retire, in 1633. In 1646 the Propaganda .Society sent a mission of Capuchins, who were all murdered l>y order of the emperor. No further effort was made till 1750, when the same body sent ranciscan friars) who were also expelled by the popular voice. In 1809 Mr. Salt, having travelled in Abyssinia, in behalf of tin/ : Government, recommended the establishment of a Protestant mission, which was at length effected, in 1827, by Dr. Gobat, who was, how- ever, compelled to withdraw, in 1842, in conse- quence of the opposition of the natives and Roman Catholic priesthood. Mosheim states that the Kthiopic Church continues to receive her bishop from Alexandria, and is dependent upon it. The religion of the Abyssinians i.s .ited as a compound of Christianity, Judaism, and Heathenism. They practise circumcision, believe in sorcery and evil spirits, and make use of amulets. They pray to the Virgin Mary, and for the dead, though not holding the Romish n. They acknowledge their en,i d of the church, but the abuna,*or patriarch, is the controlling power. They agree wi tli the Greek ( hunh in maintaining si of the Holy Ghost from the Father alone. AC ACI ANS. The followers of Acaeius, sur- namcd Luscus, or Moiiophthaln: hail but one eye, Bishop , ! (O 365 J and the followers of Aeaeius, Patriarch of Con- stantinople, 4714;-;,,, were known by this name. The former neither held, with the Arians '/. P. , that Christ was a ereated being, nor with the Seuii-Ari.ms FM V. The custom for learned men to form themselves into associations called, after the ancient schools, academies, originated in Italy in the i4th century, and gradually ex- tended over Europe. The Society of St. Luke, founded at* Florence by the Venetian painters, in 1345, is the earliest. Ilallam says (Lit. Hist. vol. i. pt. i. ch. ix.), " Italy in the i6th century was remarkable for the number of her literary academies ; institutions which, though by no means peculiar to her, have in III country been so general or so conspicuous." The Italian academies of that period are re- markable for the ridiculous titles, or, as Ilallam terms them, "names humorously quaint," by which they were known. Florence had its academy of " Bran," or "the B Perugia, of "the In.- QeDMt, of " the Sienna, of "the Blockheads ;" and ViterDO, of "the Obstinates." Disraeli's theory (Curiosities of Lit. ii. 48.,) is, that "the n of these ridieuloiis titles for litt rary was an attempt to throw a sportive veil o\ - which had alarmed tin; papal and the other petty courts of Italy, and to quiet their fears and turn aside their j.oli- .ih. They implied the inno, their pursuits by the jocularity with which treated themselves, and were willing that others should treat them." The the establishment of the most cele- brated academies is given under the names of M in which they tlourished. Many Italian towns j . era], and Tii furnishes full details on the academies of that part of Europe. AC ADI A (North ' Discovered by John Cabot, in 1497. The French settled here in 1604, and came into frequent collision with ;i-h settlers in Virginia. In 1621 Acadia Mcd by charter to Sir William Alexan- der and its name ch. . S. i >TIA (7.-!'.). A.CAPULCO (Mexico). During the Spanish rule in America, a galleon, laden with specie, - sent every spring from Acapulco to .Manilla, returning in the autumn with a costly f a different kind. Commodore, after- wards Lord Ansoii, intercepted one of these worth .313,000, July i (O. S. June 20), 1743. Capt. Hyde Parker captured another, valued at half a million, Oct. 31, 1762, during the siege of Manilla. An earthquake that took .re Dec. 4, 1852, overthrew the greater part of the town, with most of the chief building*. ACARNANIA. This province of ancient Greece, according to tradition, received its name from Acarnan, son of Alcmaeon, who settled at the mouth of the Achelous. The Corinthians are said to have founded several towns on the coast iu the middle of the 7th century u.c. 'nanians lived in villages which were united in a political league. Eittle, however, is known respecting its constitution. The Acamanians first came into prominent notice about the time of the Pcloponnesian war. ACBATALBACAR ACHAEAN They espoused the cause of the Amphilochians expelled from Argos Amphilochicum by the Ambraciots, B.C. 432, and both applied to the Athenians for aid. B.C. 433. The Athenians defeat the Ambraciots and drive them from Argos Aniphilochicum. 430. The Ambriiri'its arc foiled iu an attempt to recover Argos AinpIiiliK-liicuin. \miiiMi-i. .t- inilin'c tho Spartans to aid them in an attack upon Acaruania, but are ill i 436. The Acarnaniaiis defeat tin- Ambraciots and their iilli.'., atolpae and Idomene. Peace for a hundred years is concluded between Acamania and Anibracia. 391. Agesilaus, King of Sparta, invades Acamania. 390. The Acarnauiaus submit to the terms imposed by Agesilaus. 343. The Athenians send an expedition against the Acar- imnmi.s. who support the cause of Philip II. of Macedon. 443. Ttie Acarnanians invade JEtolio. and are compelled to retii.'. 239. The ^tolians invade Acarnania. 318. The ^tolians, who had conquered a considerable }x>rtion of Acarnunia, cede it to I'hilip V., iu order to obtain peace. too. The Acanuiniun.4 support Philip V. against Home. !<)-. 'ihf Ararn.-iiimiis Milmiit to limuc. 145. Acaruania subject to Home. ACBATALBACAB (Battle) . Mohammed Boa Hixern, at the head of a united Moslem and Christian force, defeated Snleinrin Urn Alkahem and his Africans at this place, near Cordova, in 1009. NTS wore introduced about B.C. 200, by Arlcfcophaneo, a grammarian of Byzantium. BuriK-y states that they were principally con- fined to prosody, only being used in music occasionally. The practice of using accents in the texts of the old Greek writers was dcvlaix-. 1 to be a modern innovation during a discussion at a meeting of the Philological Society of London, held May 25, 1855. ACCEPTANTtf, or CONSTITUTIONI8TS. In 1713 Clement XI. issued his famous consti- tution or bull Unigenitus (q. v.) condemning as heretical 101 propositions selected from the commentary of Qucsnel. This triumph of the Jesuits over the Jansenists caused great agita- tion in I'Y.in.-e, and the two parties were called, the Const it, it ii,,, r Acceptants, and the Aj>j>tl- lants or Recusant*. The latter, who appealed to a general council, were imprisoned, and suf- fered persecution. The death of Louis XIV. caused a temporary cessation of the strife, and the Duke of Orleans, as regent, induced the :it bishops to accept the bull, with cer- tain modifications. Most of them consented to do so for the sake of peace (1720) ; but the Ap- pellants were again oppressed and persecuted (1723). The Uuigenitus was made national law (1730), and the Appellants continued their re- sistance. ACCLIMATISATION SOCIETY. This asso- ciation, for the "acclimatisation of animals, birds, fishes, insects, and vegetables, within the United Kingdom," was established at a meet- ing held June 26, 1860. Similar societies have since been established in New South Wales, New Zealand, and other parts. The French Soctete" Imperiale d'Acclimatation was founded byGeoffroy de St. Hilaire in 1854. The " Jardin Zoologique d'Acclimatation" was opened in 1 860. ACCORDION. This musical instrument was first introduced into England from Germany about 1828. ACCOUNTANT-GENERAL. This officer of the Court of Chancery was first appointed by 12 Geo. I. c. 32 (1726) an "Act for securing the moneys and effects of the suitors ; " and the office was abolished by 5 Viet. c. 5, s. 15 (Oct. 15, 1841). ACCUSERS, FALSE. The ancient Romans punished false accusers by casting them head- long from the Tarpeian rock ; and by a subse- quent law (Lex Remmia), they were ordered to be burned in the face. By the law of Valentiniau and Gratian, in the Theodosian code (q..v.) t offenders of this kind, "against men's fame and reputation, against their fortunes, and against their lives," were condemned to the same pun- ishment as that to which the person falsely ac- cused would have been subjected had he been convicted. Those who endeavoured by false accusation to deprive other men of their pro- perty, were ordered to be prosecuted to tho last degree, with confiscation and death. The early ecclesiastical laws were severe on this point. The Councils of Vanncs (465) and Agda, in France (Sep. ir, 506), imposed a penance upon them, and the first Council of Aries (314) obliged them to do penance all their lives. In the earlier periods of English, as well as of German history, the accuser was obliged to prove the crime, or suffer the same punish- ment the accused would have undergone had he been convicted ; and a similar law was in fotve in the time of Henry III. They were also branded in the time of Henry VIII., and many severe punishments are recorded in our statute-book. ACEPHALI. The term was first employed by ecclesiastical writers, and applied to those who followed neither Cyril, nor John of Antioch, in the disputes at the Council of Ephesus (third General), June 22 to July 31, 431. As a natural consequence, it was used to describe the various divisions of the Eutychians, who denied the property of two substances in Christ, and con- tended that there is but one nature in his person. They resisted the decision of the Council of Chalcedon (fourth General), in 451, and were, as Bingham says, " called Acephali, that is, without head, because the first authors of the sect at Alexandria separated from their bishop and held conventicles, and gave bap- tisms in private houses." The heresy, revived in 463, was condemned at the Council of Con- stantinople, in 536. The term has been ap- plied to various sects, the members of which followed no particular leader, and came to be applied to a body of levellers in this country, in the time of Henry I. Cowel, with reference to these men, remarks, "Those are called acephali who were the levellers of that age, and acknowledged no head or superior." ACHAEAN LEAGUE. This celebrated confe- deracy, originally formed between twelve cities of Achaia, was dissolved by the factions that prevailed soon after the death of Alexander III., B.C. 323. Four of the principal cities of Achaia, Dyme, Patrse, Tritsea, and Pharse, united for its restoration, B.C. 280; .ZEgiumand Bura joined B.C. 275 ; Cerynea B.C. 274 ; and Leontium, Pellene, and ^gira soon after. Aratus formed the idea of extending it to the >ther Grecian states, and, having liberated ACHAIA ACHAIA Sicyon, persuaded his fellow-citizens to join the League, B.C. 251. 246.' Aratus first appointed poner.il of the Lenprue. 243- Aratus takes Corinth, and annexes it to the League. 242- Megara and other (irecian cities join the League. 239- Megalopolis joins the League. 233. -(Egina joins the League. _'os joins the League. 327. A struggle, called bv Polybius the Cleomenie wnr, breaks out between theAcha-an Leu-rue am! Sparta. 226. The Achaeans are defeated by CleOOMBM 111., at l.adocea. 221. Cleomenes III. is defeated by the Acbrcans, assisted by Antitronus Jion.n of M,- Ion. to w tiom they had applied for aid. at the battle of Scllasiu (q.v.). 320- A contest called the Social War breaks out between HM- .-Ktoiian and the Achaian Leagues. 317. Peace is concluded at Naupactus. th of Aratus. 2 -.M. Philop.i-men -eneral of the- ! 207. Philopd-men effects important reforms in the League, and defeat the Spartans at Miiiilinca 198. 'Hie League conclude., an alliance with Home. 192. Philop.emcu unite, Sparta to the I 191. The whole of the Peloponnesus U included in the Achiean League. 183. The Mi -.eniaii- separate from the League, but again submit. (Sf KCMl 167. One thousand Aeh.-cans are carried off to lioine. ISO. Koine declare., u.,,- a-aiu-t the Aeli.-i-;in League. 147. Mummius defeats the Acha;ans at the battle of LjCUCOpetla. 146. The Aclneaii Lenjrue is AMfeOfBd, HU the whole of Southern Civee.- made ;1 Koman JIHA ince under the name of Achaia (q.v.). Freen, an (History of Federal < ;. .venmient, vol. i. p. 713) gives tlie following list of tl. of tin' Achaean League, with the dates of their ,"ii : B.C. 2 8o Patral. B.C. 'don? 380 I )\ me. Tellthrolle ? cisc. 279... 275 Ti'itnia. n.arai. Pvnrhli KainepolU? 275 lioiira. 275 l.eo'ntion. Lmktmt 1 h.damai? - " Aip-ira. IMI.I.e. 251 Sik.NO". Ak'naiV 196^146* . Corinth. 195 2^4-3*" Megara. Kpidauros I.im 2J.3 Troi/en. 243 340-235 . Kjiidauros. lleraia. Khv.nai. (icronthrai? oatl .*.. Kynaitha. jMMtl KliphasU?? ... Kleltol. o o ... \ h. 11' ox. A lea o o _ Telpliollsa. Alipheiwi. ^~- Mantineiii or A sea. AntiKoneia. ]>ipaia. 233(?)-2io AiJ"ina. 193 H CortvR. Palhintion. 233 (?) Ilermionfi. ItetoML 228 192... Sparta. 228 Pldious. 191... Elis. 227 Ka],hyia. 191... Mes^ene. 222 '1'c^ea. 1*4... KordnS. 210 }>s6phis. i A bin. 2o8 182 \ Tliourla. 308 or 196 . 1'hi^alcia. [Phai. 208 or 196 . Lepr i. 199 or 196 . Orchomenos. ACHAIA, or ACH^EA, an ancient Grecian state, comprising a narrow district of the north- * Corinth was out of the League from 223 to 196, and Megara from 223 to 204- ern Peloponnesus. Accordingtotradition.it was pled by a Pelasgian tribe, expelled by the Ionian*. S.n after the Dorian migration, the Achaeans, driven from .\rj<^ and I mon, settled in this part of Greece, which, after them, was called Achaia (circ. B.< .Monarchical institutions are said to have ] ire- vailed for some time, and upon their addition the territory of Achaia was divided amongst twelve cities. The Achaeans kept aloof from the other "(irecian state*, and formeil a league, which met first at Helice, and after this city had been swallowed up by the sea. B.C. 373, at .Kgium. They fought with the Athenians ami ,ainst I'liili]> 11. at the battle of ChaToiiea q.v. , Aug. 7. ..v; 8 1! -''-- ;lll(1 were allied witli tli Inn. B.C. 330. Four dti ' '"!.. 'I'ritn-a. and renewed the ancient league B.C. 280. (Ste A. II.KA-. I'lic whole of (Jrecce re- c<-ivc. 1205. William of rhaiiiplitte. '(rev I. Villebardoin. :iiam. i . lla. married thrice. ' i. Thilip. son ,,f Charles of Anjou, King of Naples died i. n/ of Hamaull, 1291-1297- 3. I'hil ; '-3U- I3II. Maud of Ilninaiilt. inarri.'d Ihrice. I. uke of Athen-., who ilied 1308. lU of DnrsruiKly, 1313-1315. 3. Hugh de la Palisse, 1316. Claimants of the Principality : ill- 1324. John, Count of (iravina, pretended husband of Maud of llainault. IV.. Duke of Burgundy, under his brother's will. 13241332. Philip of Tarentum. as lord-paramount, in >irt. f the forfeiture of Muud, and by pureha-e from Knd.- I \". 13321364. Ifobert, titular Kmperor nf Romania. Mary of Kourbon. widow of Kobert. Louis, l)uke of Bourbon, her nephew, died in 1410. Suzerains or Lords-paramount of Achaia : The Latin Emperors of Romania, until Baldwin II. ceded his rights to Charles of Anjou, King of Naples, in 1267. Uo- 1.2X5. Charles of Anjou. 1285-1294. Charles II. , Kin- of Naples. Charles II. ceded his rights to his son, Philip of Tarefltum, who married Catherine ..f Valois, titular empress. 12941332. Philip of Tnrentimi. I333 _!346. Catherine of Valois, by grant from her husband. 13461364. Kobert. titular emperor and reigning prince of Achaia. I-/4-I37.V I' 1 " 1 '!' HI., titular emperor. 137313^3. James de Baux. ACHEEN [ 13 1 ACROSTICS ACHEEX, or ATCHEEX. This kingdom, In Sumatra, was first visited by the Portuguese in 1509, and by the English in 1602. A factory was established here by the East India Com- pany in 1659, and a commercial treaty was concluded by Sir Stamford Raffles in 1819. ACHONRY (Sligo). The seat of an Irish bishopric, one of the most ancient in that coun- try, formerly called Achad-Chaoin and Achad- Conair. The church is said to have been founded by St. Finian, Bishop of Clonard (See M i. \ i n, Bishopric), about 530, on a site granted by the Lord of Leney, or Luigny, by which name the bishops are known in the earlier arc-mints. St. Finian's friend and disciple, Nuthy, was the first bishop. In 1607 the Arch- bishop of Cashel held this see in commendam, and it was held with Killala from 1623. Ac- cording to the provisions of 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 37 (Aug. 14, 1833), Achonry and Killala were united with Tuam. A< ' 1 1 Hi .M ATM ' TELESCOPES. Invented by John Dollond, of London, in 1 758. Newton himself despaired of constructing these glasses. The right of priority is by some said to belong to a man whom Humboldt terms "the mys- terious Chester Moore, of Moore Hall, Essex." He is supposed to have invented them in 1720. ACLEA (Battle), now OCKLEY, or OAK- PI. A 1 X, in Surrey, where Ethel wulph, King of Wessex, and his son, Etholbald, defeated the l>:ui'-*. in 851. METJ3, or Sleepless, sometimes called Watchers. An order of monks established at Constantinople in the beginning of the sth century. They performed divine service day and night without intermission, for which purpose they were divided into three classes, each of which took its share of duty. They were greatly venerated, and founded many monasteries. A Roman noble, named Studius, joined this fraternity, and erected a famous monastery, called after him, ynnfiuia., and the monks Studitae. Afterwards becoming favourers of \ostorius, their credit declined. ACOUSTICS, or the science of sound, was known, though imperfectly, at a very early period. Pythagoras, B.C. 540, and Aristotle, B.C. 342, understood the mode in which sound was transmitted through the air. Kircher was the first to show, says Beckmann (vol. i. p. 94), that " Alexander the Great had a prodigious large horn, with which he could assemble his army at the distance of 100 stadia, or eight Italian miles." Roger Bacon, in the i3th century, was the first who inves- tigated this science experimentally. He was followed by Galileo, in the i7th century, and others. Newton completed his mathematical demonstrations in 1700. The velocity of sound was ascertained by Cassini and Maraldi, whose experiments were conducted during the winter of 1738 and 1739. Other experiments made by Euler, and by Lagrange, in 1759, added greatly to the knowledge of this science, which was placed on an independent basis by Chladni, who published his discoveries on vibrations in 1809. The investigations of Moll and Van Beek into the velocity of sound were made in 1823. ACRE (Syria) or ST. JEAN D'ACRE, anciently Accho, called by the Greeks Ptolemais, a for- tified city and seaport, famous for the sieges it has sustained, belonged originally to the Phoe- nicians, and, after changing masters several times, fell under the Roman yoke in the time of Claudius. It was taken by the Saracens in 638; by Baldwin I., after a siege of 20 days, in 1104 ; and by Saladin in 1187. Its capture by Richard I. was the great achievement of the first crusade. The siege commenced in August, 1189, and terminated with the fall of the city, Friday, July 12, IIQI ; soon after which it received the name of St. Jean d'Acre, and was given to the Knights Hospitallers (See CRU- SADES). The Mamelukes gained possession May 18, 1291, and the Turks in 1517. Sir Sidney Smith defended it against Napoleon I., and compelled him to retreat, a_fter a siege of 6 1 days, May 20, 1799. Ibrahim Pasha cap- tured it May 27, 1832 ; it was retaken by an English and Austrian fleet Nov. 3, 1840 ; and it has since remained in the possession of the Turks. ACRE OF LAND. This measure existed from a very early period, although from a pas- sage in the Battle Abbey Register, compiled by order of William I. soon after the battle of Hastings, it appears to have expressed no uniform quantity. It was defined by the "Statutum de Admensuratione Terrarum," 33 Edw. I., stat. 6 (1305); which ordered the acre, when 10 perches in length, to be 16 in breadth, and when 80 perches in length to be 2 in breadth, the elementary acre being 40 perches long by 4 wide. By the act for esta- blishing uniformity of weights and measures, 5 Geo. IV. c. 74 (June 17, 1824), the acre was fixed by law at 4,840 square yards, but its dimensions still vary in different parts of the kingdom. ACROPOLIS. The principal Grecian cities contained a kind of stronghold or citadel, si- tuated, as the term acropolis indicates, on the highest point. That of Athens, of which the ruins still remain, was the most celebrated. It consisted of several public buildings, and was encircled by a strong wall, said to have been built by the Pelasgians, B.C. 1057. On the taking of Athens by the Venetians, 1687, the roof of the Parthenon, one portion of the Acropolis, was demolished by a bomb. In the Greek war of independence, the Acropolis, cap- tured from the Turks June 21, 1822, was re- taken by them May 17, 1827. ACROSTICS. These compositions were known to the Greeks, although their invention is usually attributed to Porphyrius Optatianus, who was living in 328. Eusebius, Bishop of Csesarea (315 340) gives, in his Life of Constan- tine I., an illustration of an acrostic, the initial letters of which form the words "Jesus Christ, the Son of God, the Saviour." Athanasius states that in his time (326 373) a mode of psalmody was introduced called singing acros- tics, but the expression appears to imply only that the congregation joined their voices at the end of every verse uttered by the priest. Acrostics were in much repute in France about the isth and i6th centuries. Sir John Davies, who died Dec. 7, 1626, wrote 26 short ACT [ 14 1 ACTIUM poems, entitled "Hymns to Astraea," each of which is an acrostic on the words " Elizabotha Regina," which are regarded as the most ele- gant examples of this species of composition. Addison commented with playful severity on the false taste displayed in acrostical verses, in the Spectator for May 9, 1711. ACT OF SETTLEMENT. The death of the Duke of Gloucester (July 29, 1700), son and last surviving child of the Princess Anno, after- wards queen, rendered a new settlement of the crown necessary, it being unprovided for after tin: death of William III. and of Anne. Ac- cordingly, a measure was introduced during -ion of 1701, to supply matters of great imi.ort.-mcc, omitted in the Hill of Rights. This .statute (12 & 13 Will. III. C. 2) June 12, provided that in case of dufaul t of William I IF., and also of the Princess Anne respectively, the crown should devolve upon the next Protestant in succession, Sophia, married to the Elector of Hanover, and the heirs of her l>ody, being Pfcotestentai It was fin-flier enacted, that the occupant of the throne "shall join in communion with the Church of Fngland as by law established ;" ihat if a foreigner succeeded, the nation should not be required to defend any foreign do- minions without the consent of Parliament; that tli- -hould not leave the coun- try without permission of Parliament; that all 711:1': 'Me in the Privy Council should lie transacted then-, and all resolu- tions taken thereupon ,-unicd by such of the Privy Council as should consent to them ; that only those born of English parents should lie eligible to a scat at the Privy Council, in either house of Parliament, or to hold any ofiice, or receive any grant under the crown; that no serving under, or receiving a : from the crown, should bo capable of serving as a member of the I|. 1U ^- of Commons; that the judges should hold upon good behaviour, and not be removed except upon the addn-s of both houses of Parliament : and that no pardon under the great seal of Fngland should be pleaded to an impeachment by the Com- mons. The provision against the quitting the kingdom withoi; 1 Parliament was repealed by i Geo. I. stat. 2, C. 51 (1715). The provision respecting mat- ters to be transacted in the Privy Council was repealed by 4 Anne, c. 8, s. 24 (1705), and the general di.-<|ualitication of pensioners and placemen, having been found inco:. was repealed by 4 Anne, c. 8, a. 25, which sta- tute was re-enacted by 6 Anne, c. 7 ( 1707 . at 1 he union between England and Scotland. Section 25 of 6 Anne, c. 7, decreed that the holders of certain offices, therein specified, and of all new offices or places of profit under the crown, created at any time since Oct. 25, 1705, should not be allowed to sit in the House of Commons ; and section 26 provided that any member ac- cepting any office of profit from the crown should vacate his seat, being eligible to stand again. So numerous are the special disc nulli- fications that they have to be collected from at least 116 statutes. ACT OF SUPREMACY. By 26 Hen. VIII. c. i (1534), the king was declared " the only su- preme head in earth of the Church of England," and he formally assumed that title Jan. 15, 1535. All beneficed ecclesiastics, and all lay- men holding office under the crown, were obliged by this act to take the oath abjuring the spiritual as well as the temporal jurisdic- tion of the Pope. By i & 2 Phil. A: Mary, c. 8, s. 12 (1554), this law was repealed, but it was 7-estored by i Eliz. c. i (1559). The denial of the king's sirpremacy was declared treasonable by i Kdw. VI. c. 12, s. 7 (1547). ACT OF T< L 1 : 1 1 A T 1 < i X ( i Will. & Mary, st. i, c. 1 8), for the relief from certain penalties of rs from the Church of Fngland. Papists and persons denying the Trinity, was May 24, 1689, and confirmed by loAnne, 0.2(1711). The clause excepting persons de- nying the Trinity was repealed by 5 ; Geo. III. c. 160 (Jtily 21, 1813), and Roman Catholics were relieved by 10 Geo. IV. c. 7 (April 13, 1829). I' UNIFORMITY. By 2 & 3 Edw. VI. c. i Man. is, i =;.})). i* W;IS enacted that the order of divine worship contained in the book drawn up bv the commissioners, "by the aid of the Holy' Ghost.'' should be the 'only one used after the next Whitsunt i who re- . or who spoke or wrote it, were fined for the first or second < and rendered subject to forfeiture of goods and imprisonment for life for the third. This statute was confirmed by 5 r> >1 ly a revival of an ancient festival, as theT'c was a temple of Apollo at Actium, mentioned by Tlmcy* . =ly ) and by Strabo (vii.), which was enlarged iotas. A< I I ATIC, or ACTIAX T.RA, so called from the battle of Actium, which secured Augustus -ion of the Roman empire. This . 'era dated amongst the Romans from Jan. i, B.C. 50 : in Egypt, where it prevailed till the reign of Diocletian, it dated from Aug. 29, B.C. 30; and amongst the Greeks of Antioch, by whom it was used as late as the gth century, from Sep. i, B.C. 30. A( T! N< >M ETER. Literally, a sr,lnr r(n/f>, an instrument employed for the purpose of ascertaining the intensity of the heat in the direct rays of the sun, invented by Sir John Herschel about the year 1820. ACTIUM (Sea-fight). This decisive engage- ment between the fleets of Augustus and An- tony took place off Actium, a promontory in ACTON ADDA Acarnania, Sep. 2, B.C. 31. After the battle had lasted some time, Cleopatra fled ; Antony fol- lowed, and Augustus obtained a complete vic- tory, which rendered him master of the Roman world. ACTON BURNEL, or SHREWSBURY (Sta- tute of), sometimes called the Statute of Mer- chants, was passed in a parliament held by Edward I. at Shrewsbury, Sep. 30, 1283. It is dated Oct. 12, 1283, and enacted that a debtor's chattels and devisable burgages might be sold ti i ji iv his debts. This enactment was confirmed, am I its provisions were enlarged, by another Statute (f Merchants, passed at Westminster, March 25, 1285. ACTRESSES. The appearance of females on the stage is altogether a modern custom, which originated on the continent, and was not gener- ally adopted iu this country until the reign of rharles II. Anne of Denmark, wife of James I., Henrietta, wife of Charles I., and ladies of noble family, sometimes filled parts in the in, -is. | ues and other dramatic entertainments of the time ; but they were not professional ac- tresses. Prynne denounces the attempt made in 1629 to introduce, according to continental custom, Frenchwomen at the Blackfriars theatre. This was the first appearance of pro- fessional females on the English stage. They were, however, foreigners ; and much differ- ence of opinion prevails as to the first English actress. Mrs. Colman, wife of Mr. Edward ('i)hnan, appeared as lanthe in the "Siege of Rhodes," in 1656 ; and Mrs. Mary Saunderson, afterwards married to the celebrated Betterton, performed the same character at the opening of Betterton's theatre, in April, 1662. The last- mentioned was decidedly the first English ac- tress of celebrity that appeared on our stage. Pepys saw women on tne stage for the first time, Jaii. 13, 1662. The Duke of Bolton mar- ried I^ivinia Fenton, and the eccentric Earl of Peterborough, after the death of his first wife, married Lavinia Robinson, "the nightingale." Amongst actresses who have, in later times, been ennobled, may be mentioned Miss Farren, who became Countess of Derby, May 8, 1797 ; Miss Mellon, left a widow by Mr. Coutts, who became Duchess of St. Albans in June, 1827 ; and Miss Stephens, married to the Earl of Essex, April 19, 1838. ACTS OF THE APOSTLES. The fifth and last of the historical books of the New Testa- ment, composed by. St. Luke, and inscribed to Theophilus, is said by the best critics to have been written A. D. 63. The apostolic fathers in the ist century, and Irenaeus and Tertullian in the 2nd, ascribed this book to St. Luke. This evi- dence is corroborated by that of Origen, Jerome, Augustine, Eusebius, and other ecclesiastical writers. ACTS OF PARLIAMENT. Sir Harris Nicolas declares "that the distinction between a statute, act, and ordinance of parliament is still involved in such obscurity that no positive conclusion can be drawn from the various statements which have been published." At the present day, bills which have passed through both houses, and received the royal assent, become acts of parliament. (See PAR- LIAMENT, STATUTES, &c.) ACTS OF SEDERUNT. Ordinances made by the judges of the Court of Session (Scotland), by virtue of a Scottish act of parliament passed in 1540, frequently dealt with curious local and fiscal regulations ; such as fixing the price of ale in Edinburgh in 1725 ; the sale of bread in 1736 and 1743 ; of butchers' meat in 1682, 1717, and 1736 ; and of fowls in 1669. A tax for cleaning the streets of Edinburgh was imposed in 1687 and in 1691 ; and an act relative to tho cleanliness of the premises within the session- house or parliament close, was passed in 1663. ACTUARIES OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. The Institute was established in London in 1848. ACTUARIES IN SCOTLAND. The Faculty was established in Edinburgh in 1856. AC Y RON. This place, near Nicomedia, was celebrated as the place at which Constantino I. (the Great) expired, May 22, 337. ACZ, or ACS (Battle). At this place the Austrians and Russians retrieved (July 2, 1849) their reverse of the previous day between Raab and Waitzen, and, after a hard-fought battle, compelled Qeorgey and tho Hungarians to retire. ADAMITES, or ADAMIANS, termed by Bayle "a ridiculous sect," are said to have arisen during the 2nd century, one Prodicus being their founder. In their religious assemblies they appeared naked, in imitation of our first parents in their state of innocence. They made a profession of continency, and condemned marriage, because it was not known in Paradise, of which they reckoned their church an emblem, and themselves imitators of Adam and Eve. After carefully examining tho au- thorities, Lelaud declares that no such sect existed in the early church. Evagrius men- tions certain male and female ascetics living in Palestine during the sth century, who always exposed their bodies to the extremes of heat and cold, wearing nothing but a small girdle. Attempts to revive some of these reputed practices of the Adamites have frequently been made in modern times, although it is an error to suppose that Tandemus or Tanchelin, who committed various excesses at Antwerp in 1124, and led many persons astray, was an Adamite. This man, instead of going naked, was richly apparelled, and fared most sumptuously. Some fanatics, seduced by Picard, a Fleming, created much commotion in Germany in 1415. Picard declared himself to be the son of God, and that he was sent into the world as a new Adam, to restore tho law of nature. Having penetrated into Bohemia, this fanatic and his followers were attacked and almost extermi- nated by Ziska in 1420. The author of Cosmo's Travels (in 1669) says there were many Adamites in England. (See ABRAHAMITES. ) AD ARE. This ancient town in Limerick is celebrated for the ruins of a monastery founded in 1279 by John, Earl of Kildare. A lofty square steeple is all that remains of a grey friary, founded in 1465 by Thomas, Earl of Kildare. ADDA (Combats). Pressed by the Russian and Austrian forces, Moreau withdrew the French and Italian army behind th line of this river in the spring of 1 799. His antagonists, after ADDIXGTON ADMINISTRATIONS some sharp encounters, succeeded in passing the river, April 27, 1799. ADDIXGTON ADMIXISTRATION(Geo. III.) The arrangements for this ministry com- menced Feb. 10, 1801, and were riot completed until July 30. It was thus constituted : First Lord of the Trea- Lord Chancellor President of Council Privy Seal Principal Secretaries of 8tatc Admiralty ...................... Board of Control ............ Secretary at War ............ Ordnance ..................... Lord KHon. Duke of Portland. Karl of AV.-stmor.-land. l.i.nU IVlhaiu and Ilolmrt, and Mr. i;. B.JeBktaMMi,wbowM l.'int llavvki-liiiry Nov. 16, 1803, and su< t., tin- Karl.i<,m of Liverpool Dec. 17. 1808. Karl St. 'Vmr-i.t. Vi-r. l.cxvishmil. Mr. ( liarl<-s Vorke. Earl of Cliathuin. Viscount Castlereagh went to the Board of Control July 6, 1802. Mr. Charles Vorke became (Aug. 17, 1803) one of the principal secretaries of state, in place of Lord Pelham, who took the chancellorship of the Duchy nf Lancaster, on the resignation of Lord Hawkesbury. It was dissolved -May 10, 1804. (See Pn i \I>MINISTI:ATK>N.) ADDI8COMBE IHM'SK, mar Croydon, once the residence of the Karl of I,ivei-]io..l, was pur- chased, in 1809, by the Ka-d India Company, and opened by them in [8af, as a collegiate institution for the reception of carets for the whole of their military service, except the cavalry. ADDITIONAL \< bttement of a new constitution for Prance during the Hundred I'ays, March 21 June 17, 1815, was entrusted l>y Napoleon I. to a commis>ion, of which Benjamin Constant was president. The con- stitution embodied in the " Additional Act," the work of Constant liegnand and - d'Angely, was published April 25, and was adopted by the Assembly .June i, 1815. On the restoration KNT, the Gibraltar of the East, an Arabian town and seaport, to the east of the Straits of Habelmandeb. Marco Polo (b. iii. ch. 40) men- tions it. as a place of importance in the 1 3th century. The Portuguese sei/ed it in the i6th century, and the Turks obtained possession by y in 1533. They soon after erected extensive fortifications, and an aqueduct eight miles in length. It was, however, governed by a native prince in 1708. It was bombarded and taken Jan. 19, 1839, by the troops of the Kast India Company. A I ) I ( i !: ( Hat t [OB). Near this river, in Italy, the ancient Athesis. the Cimbri defeated the Roman army under Quintus Catulus B.C. 101. Terrible inundations occurred in 1721 and 1724. Combats occurred here March 26 and 30, 1799, between the French and the Aust rian The former gained some advantages on the first day, but BCOnd, leaving 2,000 prisoners in the hands of the Austrians. m-li withdrew from the line of the \lril i. and in an attempt to their position. April >. were onceniored- AliMIMSTHATH'NM.KiiUKAT IMMTAIX. llallam (Kng. iii. ch. 15) states: "According to tin- original constitution of our monarchy, had his I 'rivy Council, composed of the f slate, and of such others as he should summon to it, bound by an oath of fidelity . by whom all affairs of to domestic or policy, v.' '. foi the most part in his rmined, subordin his pleasure, l,y the vote of the major part. It could not happen but that some councillors, more eminent than the rest, should form juntos or cabals, for m. private management, or ! .is more confidential advisers of thuir sovereign; and Cabinet Council. tin^uished from the larger body, may be found as far back as the reign of Charles I. Hut the resolutions of the crown, whether as to foreign alliances or the issuing of proclamations and orders at home, or any other overt act of go- vernment, were not finally taken without the deliberation and assent of that body whom the law recognized as its sworn and notorious councillors. This was first broken in upon after the Restoration Thus by degrees it became usual for the ministry or cabinet to obtain the king's final approbation of their measures before they were laid, for a merely formal ratification, before the Council During the reign of William III., this dis- tinction of the cabinet from the Privy Council, and the exclusion of the latter from all business became more fully established." Thus it was not until after the Revolution that the Cabinet Council, as distinguished from the Privy Council, was formed. Monarchs had, indeed, before that time, been in the habit of seeking advice from particular members of the Privy Council, and too frequently from favour- ADMINISTRATIVE [ 17 J ADMIRALTY ites. In the earlier days of cabinets, ministers were only accountable for their own depart- ments, and did not necessarily retire when their leaders or colleagues were dismissed. Nor did the minister, who was considered the chief, always preside over the Treasury. The office of Prime Minister is of more recent date. The practice for ministers presiding over par- ticular departments of the government to form themselves into what is now termed an ad- ministration, under the control of a chief, can- not be said to have been established until the reign of Queen Anne. The following is a list of the administrations that have held office from the commencement of her reign, each ministry being more fully described under its title, to be found in its place in the alphabe- tical arrangement : Godolphin 1703 Hurley 1710 Shrewsbviry 1714 Halifax 1714 Carlisle 17 5 Walpole (Jlnt) .... Stanhope Bonderland Walpole (tecond) . Wilmington .. 1'elham Broad-Bottom Admi- Adnii- Korth 1770 Kookinpham (tecond) 1783 Shelburne 1783 Coalition 1783 Pitt (Jlnt) 1783 Addinpton I8oi Pitt (tecond) 1804 " All the Talents "... 1806 Portland 1807 Perceval 1809 Liverpool 1813 Canning 1837 1744 I Goderich 1837 Wellington 1836 I7IS 170 1718 1731 1743 '743 1746 Grey 1830 Melbourne (Jlrtt) 1834 1746 Pee\(flnt) 1834 1754 Melbourne (tecond)... 1835 175$ Peel (tecond) 1841 j Kumell (Jlnt) 1846 ] >erby (Jlnt) 1853 Aberdeen 1853 I'almerston (flnt) ... 1855 Derby (tecond) 1858 Palmerston (tecond) .. 1859 Ku.--.-ll (tecond) 1865 1757 Long-Live the House df Commons in 1572. It was the joint production of the m< >re active Puritans, and was presented to Parlia- ment by two of then- number, Field and Wilcox, preachers. For this offence they were committed to Newgate, and afterwa; tencedto a year's imprisonment. Four appeared in a very short space of t" second admonition was drawn up by Cartwright, and both were answered by Whit- gift. Cartwright replied, and the co'/ raged for sonic time-. These bitter attacks noon the Established church were suppressed by proclamation, .June rx, ADol'TIANS, ,,r A l)i>PTK>N ISTS . The name of a sect which, in 707, revive. 1 the Oriental her. mism in a i: In the West. Its authors v. lab pre- lates, Elipand, Archbishop of Toledo, and l-'elix, Bishop of Urgel. They lirmly maintained the co-equality of the Son as to bil divine nature, but asserted that, as to his humanity, Christ was only the adopted son of the Father. These doctrines were condemned at the Councils of Isarbonne, June 27, 791; of Friuli in 791; at the Diet and Council of Ratisbon in \ 792; and at the Council of Frankfort on-the- Mainc in 794. A conference, which Lusted seven days, tool: place lix and Alcuin at the Council of Aix-la-Chapelle in 7.,.), when the former made a full recantation. The strange theory obtained many supporters. ADOKNO and FREGOSI. Factions, called by Hallam (Miildle Ages, i. ch. iii.) "equal and eternal rivals," by which Genoa was distracted during the i4th and isth centuries. They belonged to the plebeian and commercial aris- tocracy, who obtained power when the old nobility were excluded from authority. The Ghibellines sided with the Adorno, and the Guelphs with the Fregosi. One great struggle between these factious commenced in the elevation of Gabriel Adorno to the ducal throne, in 1363. The Fregosi put the French in possession of Genoa in 1513, and in the same year (Robertson, Charles V. b. xi.) the Adonio again wrested Genoa from the Fregosi, and placed it under the power of the emperor. ADRIAN'S WALL. (& HADRIAN'S WALL.) ADRIANISTS. The term is applied to two different sects. Theodoric (1. i. c. 4, p. 193) is the only author who refers to the first sect of Adrianists, who were followers of Simon Magus, and arose about A.D. 34. The d' >f Adrian llamstead, an Anabaptist of the i6th century, also bore this designation. He taught first in Zealand, and afterwards in England. A 1)111 A Nl ) I'LK. (? IlADKIANOPLE.) ADRIATIC. Herodotus (i. 163) states that this inland sea, named from the once flourish- iscan city of Adda or Atria, was dis- covered by the Phocseans, but there is little doubt that it was known to the Phoenicians at a much earlier period. The navigation of the Adriatic . -I as very perilous by the i'id Unmans, and is frequently referred to on this account by Horace, B.C. 65 to B.C. 8. (See ILI.VKI-. SVKDDING OF THE ADHIATI. A D I A T I c | . This people of Belgic Ganl was descended from alxmt 6,000 Tentones and Cimbri, who, being left behind to guard the national property during the invasion of Italy by those tribes, maintained their position after the defeat of their countrymen by Marius, at Ai.v, it.c. 102. Julius C;t!sar seized their strong- hold B.C. 57, killing 4,000 of the defend. selling the remainder, to the number of 53,000, into captivity. ADr'l.TKK \TloN._Many laws inflicting penalties for the admixture of improper ingre- dients in art ides of consumption are found in the statute-book. 15y 51 Hen. III. st. vi. (1267) bakers were condemned to stand in tho pillory for oil". oa to the assize of id brewers to stand in the tumbrel, or to undergo BOme other kind of correction. l!y -j ; L'liz. c. 8, s. 4 (1581), persons adul 1 ull my.xture," were to foneti A similar penalty tached to the adulteration of wax. By i James I. C. 18 (1604), any person having in his sion adulterated hops was to forfeit them, and any brewer using them in brewin I to forfeit the value of the hops so . IT i.. '. III. c. 29(1776), the penalty for the adulteration line of .5, or six months' imprisonment, other statutes dealing with adulteration in various forms have been passed during the present century. The Act 6 and 7 Wm. IV. c. 37 (1836), repealed former acts for regulating the sale of bread sold beyond the city of London and 10 miles of the Royal Exchange. It inflicted a fine of not less than ^5, or more than 10, or im- prisonment not exceeding six months, for mixing materials other than those specified in . in the preparation of bread. Hard labour was added to imprisonment by 14 and 15 Viet. c. 100, s. 29 (Aug. 7, 1851). ADULTERY. The Jewish law inflicted the punishment of death for this offence (Lev. xx. 10 ; Deut. xxii. 22). The Roman punishment was mutilation. Augustus, after imposing heavy fines and forfeitures on the guilty parties, condemned them to long or even perpetual exile. Constantino I. made the crime capital, but Justinian mitigated this severity of the punishment. The northern nat i ins punished the crime with great severity, and the ancient Germans empowered the hus- band to inflict immediate punishment. Among ADVENT J3GINA the Saxons, a pecuniary fine was exacted, ac- cording to the rank of the female. In Alfred's reign it was punished according to the rank of the hxisband. Canute (1016) adjudged the man to exile, the woman to have her nose and ears cut off. Prescott (Peru, i. Introd. c. ii.) says it was treated as a capital offence by the Peru- vians. The Japanese, early in the iyth cen- tury, cut off the heads of both the offending parties, and hewed their bodies in pieces. Adultery was punished with death by an act of the Scottish Parliament, in 1563. In the time of the Commonwealth (1650) adultery was made a capital offence ; but the law was re- pealed at the Restoration. In later times, re- dress was usually sought by action in the civil courts, until the passing of the new act 20 and 21 Viet. c. 85 (Aug. 28, 1857), by which the " Court for Divorce and Matrimonial Causes" was established. A I > VENT. The period of four weeks before Christmas. It is not known when this season was first consecrated by the Church. The earliest notice of Advent is found in a homily by Maximus Taurinensis, in 450. At the Council of Linda, in 524, the celebration of marriages between Advent and Christinas was interdicted. The Council of Macon, in 581, or- dered a fast to be observed from Advent to Christmas. Advent Sunday is the Sunday, whether before or after, which comes nearest to St. Andrew's day (Nov. 30). ADVENTURE BAY (Australasia) was dis- covered by Capt. Furneuux, in 1773, and named after his ship, the Adventure, belonging to Capt. Conk's expedition. It was visited by Capt. Cook, on his third voyage, Jan. 26, 1777, and by Capt. Bligh in 1788 and 1792. ADVENTURERS. (& MERCHANT ADVEN- TURERS.) ADVERTISEMENTS . The Parliamentary newspaper, the Mercurius Politicus, for Jan., 1652, contains an advertisement, probably the first published in England. It announces the publication of the "Irenodia Gratulatoria, an Ileroick Poem," printed by Thos. Newcourt, in 1652. This effusion is a panegyric on Crom- well's Irish campaign. Advertisements were first subjected to a duty by 10 Anne, c. 19 (1712), and it was charged according to length. Some change took place, and the duty, which had been reduced from 33. 6d. to is. 6d. in Great Britain, and from 2. >d. to is. in Ireland, by 3 and 4 Wm. IV. c. 23 (June 28, 1833), was entirely repealed by 16 and 17 Viet. c. 63, s. 5 (Aug. 4, 1853.) ADVERTISING VANS. This ingenious de- vice for obtaining publicity led to the intro- duction of so many showy vehicles into the streets of the metropolis as to constitute a nuisance, and the use of these vans was ac- cordingly prohibited from Oct. i, 1853, by 16 and 17 Viet. c. 33, s. 16 (June 28, 1853). ADVOCATE. Foss states that the first in- stance of an advocate being regularly employed in the king's affairs occurs in the reign of Henry III. During 14 years, from 38 to 52 Hen. III. (12531267), between 30 and 40 cases in the court are recorded, in which Lawrence del Brok pleaded for the king, " sequitur pro rege." (See BARRISTER.) An assembly of German advocates was held at Mayence in 1844, and at Hamburg in 1846. (See LORD ADVOCATE.) ADVOCATES' LIBRARY, founded in Edin- burgh, by Sir George Mackenzie, about the year 1682. In 1700 great havoc was committed by a fire. It obtained the privilege, under the Copy- right law of 1709, of receiving a copy of every new book. (See FACULTY OF ADVOCATES.) -33DILES. Roman magistrates, whose duty it was to superintend public buildings, high- ways, weights and measures, I I , an ancient people of Italy, inhabiting the upper valley of the Anio. In league with the Volsei. they waged war against the Ro- mans (H. c. 471 302). They invaded the terri- tory of the latins B.C. 494, encamped on Mount Algidus B.C. 463, and captured many Latin towns. Cincinnatus defeated them .c. 458, A. Postumius Tubcrtius almost annihilated them B.C. 428, and they were driven from Mount Algidus B.C. 415. They were finally subdued, and their territory was annexed to Rome B.C. 302. JERA, or ERA, a fixed point of time from which any number of years is counted, tin.; ero, as it were, of the chronological scale. The following isa list of tho-, eraa which have been most in use, with tin- year of the Chris- tian .era to which each of them corresponds : I. A.M.. itntiii .Mini /i. "in tin- year nf tlio world." Thi- JIT.I, tli'- date nf tin- \\ oriel's creation, ac- cording tn tin- reckoning of CofWtenttaO|ll4L which was used in Kussia till tin- beginning of tin- njtli century, mid is Mill employed by the B.C. lit.-.-k rhim-li. 'c..|iiiiicnces S.-p. i ..." '. 5508 '1 hr year of world an reckoned ut Antioch mint l.y the Clitirrh of Alexandria sin. ii it dUenrdfd 10 years from its pr--\ ion- reckoning!. OOmmenOM Mp. I 549 3. The year of tin- orld is commonly assumed by rhronologists to ciMiimence 4004 4. The year of the world, according to the 3761 5. The Ciiliyuga, the last of iti,- f,>ur yugas or great I- ..f time reckoned hv the Hindus. "The tir-t tlin-e are purely mythological ; the last commences 3102 f>. The I ilymplads coniiiience .Inly I 776 -. A. I '.i'.. iiiuirt urliit rimilitir. "in the year from the foundation of the eity," i. r. of Homo, nhieh i-vent is placed by Viirro in tin- >i-ar.. By Cuto the Kl'ler in the year 754 8. The eera of Vieramadilya, in V-oininon urc throughout Mind.xtnn 57 9. Tlu> Spanish a;ra, that of the conquest of Spain liy Augustus. It \viis employed in the IVnin- siila. the south of Frnnce, and Africa, and was in use in some provinces until tin- middle of the 15th century. It commences .Ian. I 38 10. The JEra. of Martyr*, or of Hiodetian. Much ii-e., anno Domini, "in the year of our Lord." The Christian aera is the date of the birth of Christ. A KK.VTED WATERS. Venel pointed out the existence of fixed air in the waters of Seltzer, Spa, and Pyrmont, in 1755, and Lane taught the art of imitating chalybeate sprii 1769. Dr. Priestley's directions for impreg- nating water with fixed air were published in 1772. Henry Thompson, of Tottenham, pa- tented an invention for impregnating mineral waters with one or more aeriform fluids, Oct. AERIANS -ETNA 30, 1807. An improved apparatus was intro- duced by F. C. Bakewell in 1852, and C. Searle patented a new description of aerated water May 24, 1838. Baker introduced further im- provements Nov. ii, 1847. F. M. Lanoa, of Paris, patented a process for filling bottles with such liquids, Nov. 3, 1851 ; and T. Masters introduced an invention for a similar purpose, Dec. ii, 1851. AERIANS. A branch of the Arians, fol- lowers of Ae'rius, a presbyter and monk, native of Pontus. This sect arose 342, and spread ra- pidly through Cappadocia, Armenia, and Pon- tus. Ae'rius, disappointed at not obtaining the bishopric of Sebaste, in Armenia, main- tained that there was no difference between bishops and presbyters. He disapproved of prayers for the dead, stated fasts, the celebra- tion of Easter, and attempted to restore reli- gion to its primitive simplicity. Exposed to persecution, his followers assembled in woods and caves. The sect was still in existence in the time of St. Augustine. AEROLITES. Livy states that a shower of stones fell about B.C. 654, on the Alban Mount, near Rome. Plutarch mentions one, recorded in the Parian Chronicle, that fell at ^Egospo- tami, B.C. 467. In modern times a stone, weighing 2 cwt., fell at Ensisheim, in Alsace, Nov. 17, 1492. A shower of stones fell near Benares, Dec. 19, 1798. A similar occurrence took place in Normandy, some of the stones weighing 16 or 17 lb., April 26, 1803 ; and near Bonn several fell July 10, 1816, one of them weighing nearly 100 lb. The list might be ex- tended almost indefinitely. AERONAUTICS. Archytas, of Tarentum, who flourished about B.C. 400, constructed the figure of a dove in wood, which was enabled by internal machinery to soar into the air; and Strabo (B.C. 60 to A.D. 21) states that the Scythian tribe the Capnobatse raised them- selves above the earth by means of smoke. Friar Bacon (1270) affirmed the existence of a flying machine ; and the Jesuit Francis Lana, in 1670, described a machine, of his own invention, to be raised by metal balls exhausted of the air. Wilkins, Bishop of Chester, in his " Dis- covery of a New World," published in 1638, endeavoured to prove that it is possible to con- struct a flying machine or an aerial carriage, to be propelled by the air acting on sails similar to those of a windmill, to make a voyage to the moon. The aerial machine of Mr. Henson, patented in 1842, and the Archedon, or flying chariot, introduced by Lord Carhngford in 1857, are among the most noteworthy of modern attempts to solve the problem of aerial naviga- tion. The " Aeronautical Society" of Great Bri- tain was established Jan. 12, 1866. (-See BALLOON). AEROSTATION. (See AERONAUTICS and BALLOONS.) jES UXORIUM. A tax paid by unmarried men at the census or review of the people of Rome. It appears to have been first imposed B.C. 403. AETH. (See AATH.) ^ETHIOPIA. (See ETHIOPIA.) AETIANS. This heretical branch of the Arians was founded by Aetius, a native of Antioch, surnamed from his doctrines the Atheist. Left fatherless in early childhood, he became successively a slave to a vine-dresser, a travelling tinker, and a student of medicine. In 331 he studied theology under Paulinus II., the Arian bishop of his native town. Being compelled by public odium to remove from Antioch, he found refuge in Cilicia, but, after various wanderings, he was permitted to return in 348, and was ordained deacon in 350. In 351 he first manifested his dissent from the ordi- nary dogmas of Anus, in a dispute with Basil, the Arian Bishop of Ancyra, and in 354 he was again compelled to quit Antioch, where he had endangered his safety by taking part in the murder of the Oriental prsefect Domitian. His doctrines were condemned at the Council of Seleucia, Sep. 27, 359, and he was banished to Amblada, in Pisidia, where he remained until the death of Constantius, in 361, when he was recalled by Julian. Shortly afterwards he was ordained bishop at Constantinople, where he remained for the most part till his death in 366. Aetius taught that the Saviour possessed a mere creaturely nature, essentially inferior to that of the Father. He also maintained that faith without works is sufficient to salvation, and that no sin, however grievous, can be im- puted to the faithful. The Ae'tians are also called Anomaeans and Eunomians. -ETNA, MOUNT {Sicily). Thucydides men- tions an eruption of this volcano B.C. 475, and states that there had been one previously, of which he does not give the date. He also refers to a third, which took place B.C. 425, and is spoken of by ^Eschylus and Pindar. The next of importance, which occurred B.C. 396, arrested the march of the Carthaginian army from Mes- sina to Syracuse. ^Etna burst forth with extra- ordinary activity B.C. 140, B.C. 135, B.C. 126, and B.C. 121, destroying on the last occasion great part of the city of Catania. The volcano was again active B.C. 49, B.C. 44, B.C. 38, and B.C. 32. During the Roman empire only two eruptions are recorded, in A.D. 70 and 251. Another took place in 812, and again Feb. 4, 1169, when Cata- nia was again overwhelmed and 15,000 lives destroyed. Subsequent eruptions occurred in 1284; June 28, 1329; in 1333; Nov. 9, 1408; in 1445 ; 1446; in Sep., 1447 ; in March, 1535 ; in 1566; 1578; in July, 1603; 1607; in Feb., 1610 ; July 2, 1614 ; in 1619 ; 1624 ; Feb. 22, 1635 : in Nov., 1645 ; and in 1654. The city of Ca- tania (q. v.) was a third time destroyed, March 8, 1669, when the lava formed a promontory in the sea, which serves as a natural breakwater. Eruptions occurred in Dec., 1682 ; 1688 ; March 14, 1689; March to Dec., 1694, on which occa- sion only ashes were thrown up; March 8, 1702 ; in Nov., 1723 ; in Oct., 1735 ; and in Sep., 1747. Torrents of hot water were poured forth March 2, 1755. Ordinary eruptions re- commenced in 1759, and continued Juno 19, 1763; April 2, 1766; May 18, 1780; April 24, 1781 ; July 28, 1787 ; in March, 1792 ; in June, 1798; in June, 1799; Feb. 27, 1800; 1802; March 27, 1809 ; Oct. 28, 1811 ; May 29, 1819 ; and May 20, 1830. The volcano resumed acti- vity Feb. 17, and July 13, 1831, when a new island appeared at a little distance from the coast. Another eruption, by which the town JETOLIA AFFINITY 4<> sh Troja of Bronte was destroyed, commenced Oct. 31, 1832, one of less violence, in Dec., 1842, and another broke out Aug. 20, 1852, and continued for several weeks, but without resulting in any serious injuries. The Rev. J. F. .Hardy ascended Mount JEtna, May i, 1*858. A slight shock of an earthquake occurred Dec. 31, 1864, and an eruption broke out during a tnunder- storm in the night of Jan. 31, 1865, and con- tinued for several months. ^TOLIA (Greece)." Renowned as are the names of their earliest heroes," says Ileeren, "jEtolus, Peneus, Meleager, Diomede, the na- tion has no place in the history of the flourish- ing times of Greece. Nor did they acquire any celebrity until the Macedo- Roman period, when the various insignificant tribes of which they were composed gathered themselves together and chose one common leader, for the purj lose of carrying on a war with the Ach:eans." The .flStolians are said to have sent i si lips, under the command of Thoas, to the jan war; but from this period, until the formation of their league, they are seldom noticed. The .Ktoliaiis are said to have taken 1104. jETOLIAN LEAGUE, compos stead of cities, was an imitation It origin is involved in obscurity, though I i hat it was formed B.C. 914. It is known to have existed in the time of Alexander III. (the Great), if not in that of his father, Philip Jl. The great council of the nation, called the I'ani'-tolicon, met every autumn at Thermum ; and there was another deliberative body, called the Apocleti, which is supposed to have l>ceu a kind of permanent committee. B.C. 323. The -flStolinn Tx-apne joins the Greek confederacy Maccdou in Hi,' l.amian \\ar. 3-U, Aujr. 7. Tin' Creeks lire defeated nt Cranium, and tin- Creek confi deniev in ili xihi-il. CrateniH nnd Antipater invmli' .l'.t<>iia, and afti;r some' success are compelled t<> withdraw. 331. Tin- A, arnanians, who hud invaded ^Elolia, are ex- ]>l'llrd. l.lolia. In tlio sfrnp;rli- nirainst lirciinus ami Ih,' Cauls. \\ho arc expelled from Zip. The Social \\nrliclucciithcjEtoliauandtheAchaEan Leagues commences. 219. Philip V. supports the Adi.'eans and invad JIS. I'hilip V. surprises ThcTiiiinn. sets fire to the sacred building and the spoil he could nt carry n\\ ay. 317. The treaty of Naupiictus terminates the Social war. 4,1. i iftViiMve and defensive alii. nice between Home and the .Ktolian League. 305. I'liilip V. invades .l-'.tolia, sacks Thermum a second time, and the .Kt< .lian.s, de.-i.Ttcd liy the Koinaiis. make peace \\itli him. 200. The JKtolian I.eapie ,lc,-larcs wnr npainst 1'hilip V. 197. The Uoimmsaiid vK'olinns defeat I'hUij) V. at the battle of Cynoxvphal.-e. 196. General peace. 194. The .Ktolian Len friu- joins Aiitiochns in a war against Borne. 191. After the defeat of Antiochus at Thermopylae, the .cKtolians sue for pcaci' and obtain a truce. 189. The -cV.tolians make a luimiliaiin- peace with Rome. 167. Ifce-fitoBn League i- dissolved. AFFG1IAX1STAX (Asia). An extensive kingdom, which, as part of the old Persian empire, passed under the yoke of Alexander III. (the Great) B.C. 330. Seleucus Nicator annexed it (B.C. 305) to his Syrian empire, with which it remained incorporated till it recovered its in- dependence, B.C. 255. It was conquered suc- cessively by the Scythians, Persians, and Saracens, falling to a Tartar dynasty A.D. 997. Zingis Khan and Tamerlane subdued it ; Baboor, or Baber, the fifth in descent from the last-mentioned, established the great Mongol empire, of which Delhi was the capital, 1525. After his .death, portions of Affgh;uiistan fell to Persia and Hindostan, whilst many AlTghan tribes remained independent. Nadir Shah once more brought the whole country into sub- jection to Persia, in 1737, and after his death, in 1747, Ahmed Khan united all the AlTghan .Mil founded the present kingdom of Afghanistan. Various revolutions have since occurred. The Shah Dost Mohammed seized the town of Iiii.it. May 26, 1863, and died May 29, after nominating his son Shir-Ali- r. >'" Am; HAN \ AI'RJIiAN VYAU. During the revolution in Afghanistan, Kngland declared in favour of Shah Shooja, and on the refusal of Dost Mo- hammed Khan to submit, Lord Auckland de- clared war, Oct. i, 1838. The Anglo Indian army quitted Shirkapore early in March, 1839, took possession of Kandahar April 20, and Shah Shooja was crowned there May 8. (ihuz- nee was captured July 23, and ('abul A Part of the army remained to support shah Shooja. Dost Mohammed Khan himself sur- rendered Nov. 4, 1840. A revolt against the Kn-lish broke out at ( 'abul Nov. 2, 1841, when sir A. 1 fumes and several officers and soldiers lied. Sir \V. II. Mc.Naghi- Akbar Khan, son of Dost Mohanm, Christmas day in the same year. The remain- der of the force stationed in this country con- cluded a treaty with the Affghan chiefs tor its immediate evacuation. The order fo: ture was given Jan. 5, 1842; but such was the on the occasion, and the fury with which, in spite of promises of safe conduct, they were assailed, that only three natives and one Kuropcan, out of an army of 5,000 men and a large number of camp fol- lowers, including women and children, i -lellalabad. Lady Sale, a?id some Kn-lish ladies who had surrendered to Akbar Khan, were afterwards restored. Jellalabad, b. by Akbar Khan Jan. 18, 1842, was success- fully defended by General Sale. General Pol- lock came to his aid April 5; General Xott recovered Ghuznee Sep. 9 ; ( 'abul was part ially destroyed Oct. 9; and, having accomplished the objects in view, the British forces evacu- ated the country in October, 1842. A I-TIMTY. In the book of Leviticus (chap, xviii.) certain regulations are laid down re- specting unlawful marriages ; and most ancient nations legislated on this subject. An act passed in 1534 (25 Hen. VIII. c. 22)decreeu that none should many within the Levitical de- grees, and Archbishop Parker drew up a "Table of kindred and affinity, wherein who- soever are related are forbidden in Scripture and our laws to marry together." This he ordered to be printed and set up in the churches. The degrees of affinity or relation- AFFIRMATION [ 23 1 AFRICA ship by marriage within which persons are forbidden to marry, were fixed by the Consti- tutions and Canons Ecclesiastical, made in 1603, during the reign of James I. Marriages within the prohibited degrees could only be annulled by the Ecclesiastical Courts, and in case a decree did not issue during the lifetime of the parents, the offspring was considered legitimate ; but by the 5 & 6 Will. IV. c. 54 (Aug. 31, 1835), all such marriages celebrated after the passing of that act were declared to be absolutely null and void. This act did not extend to Scotland. AFFIRMATION. The solemn affirmation of Quakers in a court of justice was accepted instead of an oath by 7 es on a mission to ( .'maasie. '.pel-ton. Pentium, ami t Mideney eross thelir.at Desert anil \ i-it Honioii. Major Denhani Lake Tsad in l*2\. and Chipperton anil Kii-leney penetrate to Sai-kaloo. The i hi ee travellers reach Tripoli in .Ian., 1835. 1825. Dec. ~. riappeiton quits Radagry on his second mis- into Central Afiiea. 1826. Lit in sets out from Tripoli, crosses the 'i reaches Tinibnctoo Aiifr. 1H; and having set out on another journey i- murdeied. 1827. C,.illie travels from Kakundy to Timbtictoo, and, after crossing the desert, reached Tangier Aug. 18, 1828. 1830. Richard nnd .lolin Lander trace the Niger to its mouth, in the Iti^'ht of Henin. 1832. An expedition, provided with two small steamers. leaves Liverpool with the view of ascending the Niger. 1836. Alexander explores S. Africa. 1x45. Duncan reaches Adafoodia, in the interior of Africa. 1849. Livingstone, (Isnell. anil Murray set out from Kolobeiif,'. travel through the desert of Kalaliari, and traee the river Zoiifra to the I.nke Npimi. 1850. Richardson. Harth. and Overwear start on their expe- dition, and Livingstone goes on a second journey to Lake Npimi. 1851. Living-tone and ( iswell proceed on another expe- dition and make further di-eov ,-ries. 1*55. Living-tone diseovers the Victoria Falls of the Zambesi River towards the close of this year. 1856, Dec. 10. Livingstone reaches Ixmdon after having tra- *ened I I. :... mile- ins. A frica. Dee. 15. He receives the gold medal of the Koyal ( ;e..-ra|)hical Society. 1856101859. Paul li. I)u Chaillu, the goriUa hunter, ex- plores Equatorial Africa. 1857, Sep. 18. Capt Richard Francis Burton crosses the East African (ihauts. 1858, March 10. An expedition to Africa, under the di- rection of Dr. Living-tone, sails from Liverpool. April 26. Capt. Burton reaehe- t \ira, the limit of his African explorations. .July 30. Capt J. H. Speke discovers the Victoria Nyan/.ii, or lake. 1860, Apri! 27. Capt. Speke embarks from England on a second expedition of discovery, in company with Capt. (;rant.- Oet. I. They iniit the Kast African coast, and commence their inland journey of e\4>lration. I*f'I, Srp. .'. Dr Li\ infr>tone enters Luke Nya--a. 1*562, April 27. Mrs. Livingstone dies of fe\ er at Shupanpa. July 28. Capt. Speke discovers u river is-uim,' from the Victoria Nvan/.a at liipon Falls, w Inch he believes to be the Nile. (Sec NILE.) l^'l, .'Hly 2. The /.ambe^i expedition i- recalled. 1864, July 20. Dr. Livingstone reaches London. Sep. 15. Capt. Speke is aeeideiitally killed while shooting near Hath. 1865, April. Dr. Livingstone leaves England. Nov. "The .N.irniive of an Kxpedition to the /ambesi nnd its Tributaries; and of the Diei 1V erie- of Lakes Shirua and \yassa. ts.,s ,- j.' |, v David and Charles Liv in^Mone. is published by Murray. AFRICAN ASSnC|ATIiN.f,,riiu'.linI.,,ii,l..n June 9, 1788, was iiK.'nrjiiir.-itcfl witli tip .|.hir;il S.M-i.-ty .luly 23, 1831. ATKICAN CHURCH, was pn.lably f..uii(k-(l in the 2nd century, as (t)itatus was l>i>lm]. .,f Cartha^u almiit the year acx), and a c"Uiu'il of assciiilik-il hy .\.L r ni']iinus, llislmp uf Carthage, alxmt 215. In the 3rd century the Afriraii Church was rendered illustrious tiilliau, Cyjirian, and Lartantius ; in the 3rd and 4h centuries it resolutely maintained its independence against l.'unie. In the 5th cen- tury this Church suffered much from tho Vandal invasion under (Jenseric. It was also severely tried )>y the Dnnatist, Arian, Mani- inl I'cla^ian heresies, and it furnished many martyrs t.. the cause of Christianity. The early African Church W;IH overthrown by the Saracens, who, in the yth and Sth centuries, made themselves masters of the whole of the north of Africa. In addition to the ili Africa, divided in the time of Constantinc I. into six provinces, with altout 4''-. l.ishopric^, this quarter of the p;lo)>e contained th' archate of Alexandria, or the diocese of N i in icrous missions have been sent from Eng- land during the i8th and igth centuries, for the purpose of disseminating Christianity in dif- ferent parts of Africa. The Rev. T. Thorn ps. ,n, who went from New Jersey to the coast of Guinea in 1751, was the first missionary. Philip Quaque, a native sent to England to be edu- cated, was ordained in 1765, and returned to Africa in 1766, where he laboured for upwards of half a century. Several councils held at different places in this quarter of the glolie are known as African councils. The principal were in 217, 256, 257, 380, 414, 553, and 646. The other African councils will be found under \<;r, HUTU. ,Vc. AFRICAN COMPANY. In 1585 a patent was granted by Elizabeth to private adventurers to trade to Barbary ; in 1588 to others to trade to Guinea; and in 1592 to the south of Sierra Leone, d mipanies were formed in the reigns of James I. and Charles I., and the Royal African or Guinea Company of Merchants was incorporated by Charles II., Jan. 20, 1663. Under this charter, the company received the AFRICAN" [ 25 1 AGHADOE exclusive right of trading from Salee to the Cape of Good Hope. They surrendered their charter, and the Royal African Company of England, with extensive privileges, was estab- lished by patent, Sep. 27, 1672 ; but in 1698 an act was passed leaving the trade, comparatively speaking, free. Various methods were devised for supporting the trade and remodelling the company, until, by i & 2 Geo. IV. c. 28 (May 7, 1821), the company was abolished, the Crown took possession of all forts and settlements in Africa, and the trade was thrown open. AFRICAN INSTITUTION, was established in London in April, 1807, to collect accurate in- formation respecting the African continent, and introduce the arts of civilization among its people. AGAP^E, or love feasts, were instituted in the time of the Apostles, and continued in use among the primitive Christians for three cen- turies. They sometimes preceded, but more usually followed, the Eucharist, from which they were afterwards altogether disconnected. Robertson (Hist, of the Christian Church to the Pontificate of Gregory the Great, p. 320), says the word was afterwards used to designate festivals held by churches at the tombs of mar- tyrs, or by families at' those of their relatives, and took the place of the heathen Parentalia. The abuses committed in them became so notorious that they were solemnly condemned, first by the Council of Laodicea (366), and after- wards by the second Council of Carthage (390). AGA1VEMONE. This establishment, a re- treat for the followers of Brother Prince, was founded at Charlynch, near Bridgewater, in 1845. They are a branch of the Lampeters, and affect to believe that the day of grace and prayer is past, and the time of judgment arrived. A meeting, called at Hanover Square, Sep. 26, 1856, for the promulgation of their views, proved a failure. These sectaries are called Agapajmonians. A sect, with similar aims and views, called the " Family of Love," was founded by Henry Nicholas, a Westphalian, in 1540. He came to England, and towards the latter end of the reign of Edward VI. made several converts. Five members of this sect, called Familists, stood at Paul's Cross, and re- nounced their errors, June 12, 1575. Queen Elizabeth issued a severe proclamation against them Oct. 3, 1580. Fuller quaintly terms the sect " The Family of Love, or Lust rather." The Familists presented a petition to James I. in 1604, and, though their numbers declined, they were not extinct in 1645. AGDA or AGDE (France). A council on dis- cipline, convened by Alaric, King of the Visi- goths, was held here, Sep. n, 506, when 47 canons were drawn up. AGE. In the later periods of Greece and Rome, 25 was considered the full age for both 3. In" Rome, 43 was the legal age for con- suls, and 30 for tribunes. Augustus fixed 30 instead of 35 for judges. That of puberty was 14 for males and 12 for females. By the feudal law, the moment a youth was knighted, he was considered of age, and at 16 this honour was frequently conferred. The kings of France were considered majors at 15. Henry III., the first minor, after the Conquest, who obtained the English crown, was declared a major at 16, though he did not assume his right until he was nearly 20, in Feb. 1227. Edward III., the next minor who mounted the throne, took the government in his own hands before he was 18 ; Richard II. was considered a minor till he was 22 ; and Henry VI. till he was between 23 and 24. Henry VIII. made a law for his own chil- dren, that if his son succeeded, he was to be eligible for sovereign authority at 17, and if a daughter, at 15 ; but he afterwards fixed 18 as the age at which Edward VI. was to assume the government, and he was actually consti- tuted eligible for sovereign authority at that age. By 18 & 19 Viet. c. 43 (July 2, 1855), any male infant of 20, or any female of 1 7, may, with the sanction of the Court of Chancery, make a valid and binding settlement of either his or her real or personal estate, in contempla- tion of marriage. A male at 12 may take the oath of allegiance, at 14 is at years of discre- tion, and subject to punishment by death. A female at 12 is considered to have arrived at years of maturity, may, with permission of her guardians, enter into a binding marriage, or consent or disagree to one previously con- tracted. Formerly, a male of 14 could make a will disposing of his personal estate, if his discretion were satisfactorily proved ; but by i Viet. c. 26, s. 7 (July 3 , 1837), no will is valid if made by a person under the age of 21. By 7 & 8 Will. III. c. 25, s. 8 (1696), a minor was disqualified to be elected to Parliament. Before that act passed, several members were under age. Minors, however, sometimes sit "by connivance." Charles James Fox was elected for Midhurst soon after he had attained his igth year. AGEN (France). The ancient Agennum, or Aginnum, of the Nitiobriges, came into the possession of England with the rest of Gui- enne, in 1151, by the marriage of Henry II., then Duke of Normandy, with Eleanor of Guienne, the divorced wife of Louis VII. of France. These possessions led to frequent wars between France and England. Agen was captured by the French in 1322, regained by the English in 1330; again lost, and restored to England by the treaty of Bretigny (May 8, 1360). It was finally incorporated with France in 1453. I n I 5& 1 i* was taken by the Hugue- nots, who lost it the following year, but re- gained possession in 1591, and in 1592 it surren- dered to Henry IV. AGENHINE, or HOGENHINE. In England, by a law of Edward the Confessor (1043 1066), any one who partook of hospitalities in a house, and remained till the third night, was reckoned under the jurisdiction and protection of the host, in the same manner as if he had been regularly enrolled as one of the family or domestics. Such a one, on the first night of his sojourn, could only be termed uncuth, that is, a stranger ; on the second, gust, that is, a guest; and on the third, agenhine or hogene- hune, that is, a friend or domestic servant. AGHADOE (Bishopric). Dionysius was bishop of this Irish diocese in 1 266, but the see is usually mentioned in conjunction with that of Ardfert (q. v.) and has since given title to an archdeacon. The church, which was in a AGINCOURT AGBAMONTS ruinous condition in 1662, has since fallen into e .AGINCOURT, or AZINCOUR Battle .At this village, in the Pas-de-Calais, France, 10,000 English, under Henry V., defeated from 50,000 to 60,000 French, with great slaughter, Friday, Oct. 25, being St. Crispin's day, 1415. A ( . I STMENT, a small tithe on cattle, or the other produce of grazing lands, payable in England by the occupier to the vicar or rector. In Ireland, while the lands were chiefly in the hands of Roman Catholics, the clergy thank- fully received whatever they could get. It was, however, formally demanded by the Pro- testant clergy in 1720, but was vehemently resisted by the landlords. The Irish House of Commons resolved, March 18, 1735, "that any lawyer assisting in a prosecution for tithes of ngistment should be considered as an enemy to his country." This tithe was abolished in Ireland by the Act of Union. AGITATORS, or A I >.l t TATORS, a term ap- plied in English history to the two privates or inferior officers elected in 1647 by each troop or company of the army. These, with a council of the principal officers, after the model of the House of Peers, formed what Hume terms "a terrible court." Thus, at the instigation of Cromwell, Skippon, Ireton, and l-'leetwood, a military parliament, in opposition to the Par- liament at Westminster, was called into exist- ence. The agitators seized the person of lin- king (June 4), and, after committing various excesses, were suppressed. In later times, ./ues who have endeavoured to excite disall'ection amongst the people, or to obtain in the laws by inflammatory appeals, n si vied agitators. AGLABITES, an African dynasty, the suc- cessors of Ibrahim Ben Aglab, governor of Africa B.C. 797. /eyadatala was the last of this dynasty, the duration of which was 112 years. A(;.\ADKI,,or A<;XAI)KI.Lt)(Rattle),fought on the banks of the Adda, .May \.\. \ --,<>,. the French, commanded by I.ouis XII., and the Venetians. The latter were defeated with great loss. It is called by the Italians the battle of Vaila, or of the Ghiara d'Add army consisted of ul>out 40,000 comb.-; 1 A.GNOCTJB, a sect of the Monophysites, so called from the ignorance they attributed to our Lord with reference to his human nature, was founded by Thcodosius, Patriarch of Alex- andria, who retired to Constantinople between 538 and 540, and founded the Agnoctae. AGNOITES, or AGNOET.T-:. This name was applied to two sects, branches of the Monophy- sites, viz., the followers of Theophronius of Cappadociu, about 370, and the followers of Themistius, a deacon of the Church of Alex- andria, in 535. They both held peculiar notions respecting the prescience of the Almighty. The latter sect were also called Themistians from their leader. AGNUS DEI, wax medals, stamped with the figure of a lamb bearing a cross, intended to represent the Lamb of God, were, in the early Church, distributed amongst candidates for baptism. The practice originated in the 7th or 8th century. The Popes have, since the i4th century, been in the habit of consecrating similar medals, made sometimes of the pre- cious metals, for distribution the first Sunday after Easter. By 13 Eliz. c. 2, s. 7 (1571), any person bringing into the realm any token or thing called by the name of Agnus Dei, in- curred the penalty of a prsemunire. AtioMSTICi, disciples of Donatus, Bishop of Carthage, sent by him in 342 into different parts of. Africa, to preach his peculiar doc- trines at fairs, markets, and places of public resort, whence they were called Circutores, Circumcelliones or Circeliones, and Catropitee. They styled themselves nni*tici (combat- ants , under the pretence that they were com- bating and triumphing over the devil; and they were called circumcell tones, or vagrants, from the a tin , cottages of the peasants, where, having no fixed residence, they sought a re- treat. Having committed various e . they were punished with great severity. A 'cnXYCLITjE. Certain Christians in the 7th century, who, considering it unlawful to bend the knee in prayer, remained in a standing j iost ure. AGRA (Hindostan). By 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 85, 8. 38 (Aug. 28, 1833', it was enacted that the Bengal presidency should lie divided. Tho north-western country was to be erected into a fourth presidency, that of Agra; but the legis- lature afterwards ordered the measure to be ided. At; I! A ;Hindostan\ the capital of the north- .1, was founded by Akbar in 1566, and continued the the Mongol emperors till 1647, when Delhi was made their capital. It was taken by Scindia in 1784, and surrendered to Lord Lake Oct. 17, iSoj. Ani"Tig the spoils on th sion was a cannon, made to throw c balls of 1,500 lb. It was 14 feet 2 inches long, Igned 96,000 lb. It is said to ha wa otlicers buildings in Agra were destroyed during the mutiny of 1857; but then- owners were pre- served in the large and strongly defended fort. The native troops were disarmed June i, 1857. "peaiis attacked the Necmuch force and the Kotah contingent, July 5, 1857, but were compelled to retreat. (Jreathed gained a signal victory here over the rebel forces, Oct. IO AGRAMONTS and BE AUMONTS. These rival factions, which originated in a j quarrel between two of the most powerful families in Navarre, adopted opposite sides in the dispute between John II. of Aragon and his si in 1 >i in Carlos, Prince of Viana. The king, who inherited Navarre in right of his first wife, Blanche, continued to exercise sovereignty after her death, which took place April 3, 1441, disregarding the right of his son. to whom the throne should lineally have de- scended, but who was satisfied with the dignity of viceroy. John, however, having contracted a second marriage, in 1447, with Joan Henriquez, of Castille, sent her, in 1452, into Navarre to divide with her step-son the viceregal authority. The result was an appeal to arms, in which the queen was supported by , . ntonly blown to pieces by some artillery cers in 1833. Nearly all the Kuropcaii AGRARIAN [ 27 1 AGRICULTURE the Agramoiits, and the prince by the Beau- monts, and which terminated in the defeat of the latter party at the battle of Aibar (q. v.}. AGRARIAN LAWS. Niebuhr has shown that the agrarian laws of the Romans did not interfere with or affect private property in land, but related exclusively to the public domain. Portions of the territory of conquered states were divided, and these laws provided for their proper distribution. The first proposal of an agrarian law in Rome, made by the con- sul Spurius Cassius (B.C. 484), failed. Cassius was condemned and executed on a false charge of treasonable designs (B.C. 483), and Livy ob- serves that no measure of the kind was ever proposed up to his time (the reign of Augus- tus) without exciting the greatest commotion, trian law, which served as a model for all subsequent measures of the kind, was carried by the tribune C. Licinius Stole (B.C. 365), and called the Licinian law. It provided that no person should occupy more than 500 jugera of public land, nor have more than 100 large and 500 small cattle grazing on the public pastures. Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus, wh attempted to amend this law (B.C. 133), was killed. His law for appointing three commissioners, to be chosen annually by the 35 tribes, who were to decide all dis- putes on the subject, was virtually suspended B. c. 129, until B. c. 123, when Caius Gracchus, his brother, put it in force. He lost his life B.C. 121. Some irregularities after- wards ensued, and the tribune Spurius Borius carried a law to prevent further divi- sions of the public land, provided that the proceeds of the sale thereof should be formed into a fund for the relief of the poor. This was repealed by a law proposed by another tri- bune, Spurius Thorius (B.C. in). M. Livius Drusus, who proposed the division of all the public land in Italy, was killed B.C. 91, and civil war ensued B.C. 90. P. Servilius Rullus failed in recommending some changes (B.C. 63), and the tribune Flavius proposed a law for providing Pompey's soldiers with lands (B.C. 60), which was reproduced and carried, with some alterations, by C. Julius Caesar (B.C. 59). AC, ll [COLA'S VICTORY. (See ARDOCH.) AGRICOLA'S WALL. The remains of two Roman walls exist in this country. One of these fortifications extended from the Solway Frith to the mouth of the Tyne, being the southern (See HADRIAN'S WALL) ; the other from the Clyde to the Frith of Forth, being the northern fortification. The latter, called thu Wall of Agricola, of Lpllius Urbicus, or of Antoninus, is an earthen intrenchment, fami- liarly known as Grime's or Graham's Dyke. Tacitus states that Agricola constructed a chain of forts from the Clyde to the Forth A.D. 81, and Capitolinus asserts that Lollius Urbicus, during the reign of Antoninus Pius, erected a rampart of turf A.D. 140. This is the fortification that is now known under the various names of the Wall of Agricola, of Anto- ninus, or of Lollius Urbicus. (See ROMAN WALLS.) AGRICULTURAL DISTRESS. A select committee, appointed to inquire into the state of the agricultural interests and the causes of its depression, Feb. 8, 1836, sat some time, but made no report. AGRICULTURAL HALL. The first stone of this building, situated in the north of London, was laid by Lord Berners, president of the Royal Agricultural Society, Nov. 5, 1861, and the hall, in an unfinished state, was opened for the purposes of a dog show June 24, 1862. The annual cattle show of the Smithfield Club first took place here Dec. 6, 1862, and has been held in the same place each succeeding year. A ffite in honour of the tercentenary of Shakespeare's birthday was celebrated in the hall, April 23, 1864. The first horse-show took place July i, 1864, and an Industrial Exhibi- tion of the productions of the North London Working Classes was opened Oct. 17, 1864. A Reformatories' Industrial Exhibition was opened here, by the Prince of Wales, May 19, 1865. An Exhibition of the Arts and Ma- nufactures of East London commenced Aug. 8, 1865. AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES. The "Board of Agriculture," established in 1793, received an annual grant from Parliament, and was dis- solved in 1816. The "Royal Agricultural Society of England" was established in 1838, celebrated its first anniversary in May, 1839, and was incorporated March 26, 1840. Its country meetings are held in the month of July. The " Royal Agricultural Improvement Society of Ireland" was established in 1841. A " Society of Improvers in the Knowledge of Agriculture in Scotland" was instituted in 1723. This became extinct, and another was established in 1755. The present society arose in 1784, under the name of the " Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland." The univer- sity of Oxford maintains a Sibthorpian profes- sorship of rural economy. Professorships of agriculture and agricultural chemistry are at- tached to the university of Edinburgh, while the university of Aberdeen provides lectures on agriculture. There are above 600 agricul- tural societies in the United Kingdom. AGRICULTURE, in a rude form, was known from the earliest period (Gen. iii. 17 IQ). Cain (B.C. 3979) is described as a tiller of the ground (Gen. iv. 2]. The Egyptians excelled in agriculture. Abraham, when there was a famine in Canaan, repaired to their country in search of food (Gen. xii. 10) B.C. 1920; and Jacob sent his 10 sons to purchase corn there (Gen. xlii. i 4) B.C. 1706. An ancient Babylonian work, called " The Book on Nabathaean Agriculture," still preserved, is a cyclopaedia of agriculture. Cecrops is said to have carried the knowledge of agriculture from Egypt to Greece, when he settled in Attica (B.C. 1556). Pliny gives Bazyges credit for imparting a knowledge of tillage to the Greeks. Homer, who flourished about B.C. 962 B.C. 927, describes agriculture as an honourable pursuit with kings and princes ; and Hesiod, about B.C. 859 B.C. 824, speaks in its praise. The Romans esteemed it highly, and the Georgics (composed B.C. 30) of the poet Virgil contain the most elabo- rate and eloquent instructions ever written on this subject. The Persians cultivated the art of agriculture, and Xenophon, who AGRIGEXTUM t 28 ] ATX wrote a treatise on it, declared that Cyrus the Younger paid much attention to it. Gelon of Sicily B.C. 479', sought to render it an honourable occupation. Amid the various wars and struggles in the earlier part of th< Ages, agriculture necessarily declined. It was revived by the Saracens, and has spread over Europe, until at length carried, by modern discoveries and the aid of science, to its present advanced state. AGRIGENTUM (Sicily). This powerful Greek city, founded by a colony from Gela B.C. 582), appears to have fallen under the yoke of the tyrant 1'halarisaboutB.C. 570. He was killed in an insurrection, and Alcamenes succeeded B.C. 534. Theron ruled from B.C. 488 to B.C. 472. Aided by Gelon of Syracuse, he routed the Carthaginian invading army, B.C. 480, and subdued Ilimera. Soon after, a democrat ic form of government was adopted. It was again invaded (B.C. 406) by the Carthaginians, who destroyed the town. Agrigentum scarcely recovered from this blow, and it was captured by the Humans, after :i si< months' duration, B.C. 262. The Carthaginians reco- vriv.l poe>sion B.C. 255, when the city was burned and its walls were razed to the ground. It was restored and betrayed into the hands of Lsevinus B.C. 210. Its modern name is Girgenti (q. v.). AGYNIAN8. Aginani, or Agynenses, a sect that arose about A.D. 664. 'liny .Icnuunced the use of fle.sli and of marriage, declaring it in ordinance of Satan. .\IIMI-:i>.\IJAli...i- A.MKHAUA1) Ilindosten). This city, unce tin Mohammedan capital, built on the site of a more ancient town, in 1412, by Ahmed Shah, was captured by the Mahrattai early in the i8th century. The British stormed it in 1780, and it came into their possession by treaty Nov. 6, 1817. It suffered from an earthquake in 1819. The city walls, built in 1485, were repaired in 1834. Aii.MKhM t;<,i:i;,or AMI-: MM <;<;I-:K iiin- dostan). This fortified city, in t he prcsii lency >f Bombay, was founded by Ahmed Ni/.am Shah, in 1493, and became the capital of a kingdom of name. It was annexed to the Delhi empire in 1634. The Muhrattas seized it in 1707, and it remained in their possession until 1797, when it was captured by Scindia. Wel- lington took it, after a siege of four days, Aug. 12, 1803, and though temporarily restored to the Mahrattas, it was annexed to the British possessions in India, by treaty, June 13, 1817. The first English factory was established here in 1612. A 1 1 W A '/. I ' rate .A favourite place of re- sort of Artabanes IV., the last of the Parthian kings, whose empire was subverted by Artaxerxes, or Adshir, King of Persia, A.D. 226. The English took possession of this town dur- ing the Persian war, April i, 1857. AIBAR, or AYBAR Battle'. At this place, in Spain, the Moors, in 882, defeated the Spa- niards, led by their King Garcia, who fell in the encounter. Here Don Carlos, Prince of Viana, was defeated and made prisoner by his father, John II., of Aragon, Oct. 23, 1452. (See AORAMONTS and BEAUMONTS.) AIDS. Under the feudal system, aids were claims of the lord on the vassal, originally granted by way of benevolence, but afterwards exacted as a matter of right. Our early monarchs used them as a means of extorting money from their subjects. So onerous did they become, that a clause in Magna Charta (1215 declared that no aid should be imposed without the consent of the great council of the, nation, except on three occasioiis : i. The ran- som of the king's person ; 2. The making his eldest son a knight ; and 3. The marriage of his eldest daughter. The clause, omitted in Henry III.'s charter(i224\ was revived in that of Edward I., in 1297. This method of levying money was abolished by 12 Charles II. c. 24 (1660). (See BENEVOLENCE, Ui:v KM r. toe. AJGUES-MORTES(France). From this place Louis IX. embarked, Aug.25,i248, on tin crusade, and again, July 4, 1270, on the eighth and last crusade. It is also celebrated as the scene of the interview between Charles l-'rancis I. in 1538. The emperor. A i Mo-i'iu:i;r..) All: GUN.- The first account of an air-gun is found in David Hivault's " Klemcns d'Artil- lerie." Ho was preceptor to l.miis .\lll..,f France, and he ascribes the invention to a cer- tain Marin, a burgher of Lisieux, who pre- sented one to Henry IV., towards the end of the 1 6th century. A I H 1'UMP. Otto von Guericke, a German, made the first attempt, in 1654, at this inven- tion, which was greatly improved by Robert Boyle a few years later. Further improve- ments were effected by Robert Hook in 1658 or 1659. A I Hi: (France), a fortified town in the Pas de Calais, founded by Lidoric, Count of Flanders, in 630 ; was ravaged by the Danes in 88 1. In 1641 the French took it from the Spaniards, who soon regained possession. Louis XIV. captured it in 1641, and it was ceded to France by the treaty of Utrecht (1713). It was taken by the allies Nov. 9, 1710. Lord Hill captured the town and its magazines, after a severe combat, March 2, 1814. Another town in Landes, the ancient Vicus Julii, or Aturcs, once the capital of the Visigoths, said to have been founded by Honorius, became the seat of a bishopric about 506. The see, supprc 1803, was re-established by the concordat of 1817. This was not executed, but the bishopric was restored in 1823. AIX (France 1 ', the seat of the first Roman colony in Gaul, said to have been founded by C. Sextius Calvinus B.C. 122, and called Aquae Sextia. Cains Marius routed the Teutones and Cimbri at this place B.C. 102. It was destroyed AIX-LA-CHAPELLE ALABAMA by the Saracens in the 8th century, and rebuilt in 796. Charles V. captured it in 1535, and here he was crowned King of Aries. It is an archiepiscopal see, and councils were held here in iii2, 1374, 1409, 1416, 1585, and 1612. The cathedral was built in the nth century ; its choir was erected in 1285; the university, suppressed at the Revolution, was founded by Pope Alexander V. in 1409 ; and the court- house, commenced in 1787, was finished in 1831. It occupies the site of the palace of the counts of Provence, destroyed in 1782. The bath-house was erected in 1600. A IX -I. A -CHAl'KLLE, or AACHEN. This ancient Prussian city, said to have been founded by the Romans A.D. 124, was the birthplace and favourite residence of Charlemagne, who made it the capital of all his dominions north of the A 1 1 is i n 795 . H ere he died and was buried in 8 1 4 . The vault was opened in 997, when the body of the emperor was found on a throne of state. It was reopened in 1165 and in 1215. The city was ravaged, and Charlemagne's palace destroyed, by the Danes, in 882. During the Middle Ages it was made a free and imperial city, at which the German emperors were crowned from 813 to 1531. It suffered severely from a fire in 1656. Aix-la-Chapelle was taken by the French Dec. 8, 1792, retaken by the Austrians March 8, 1793 ; but the French re- gained possession Sep. 22, 1794. By the treaty of Luneville (Feb. 9, 1801) it was ceded to France, but it reverted to Prussia in 1814. The town-hall was erected in 1353. Councils were held here in 799, 803, 809, 813, 816, 817, 825, 831, 836, 842, 860, 862, 992, and 1165. AIX-LA-CHAPELLE (Congress). The King of Prussia, the Emperor of Austria, and the Em- peror of Russia, assembled at Aix-la-Chapelle Sep. 29, 1818, and soon after a congress, at- tended by these sovereigns, their ministers, and the English plenipotentiaries, met. They addressed a note (Nov. 4, 1818) to the French minister, the Duke of Richelieu, stating their determination to put an end to the military occupation of the French territory, and calling upon him to take part "in their present and future deliberations." France accepted the offer, the Duke of Richelieu repaired to Aix- la-Chapelle, a convention for tho withdrawal of the British troops from France was signed Oct. 9, and the congress separated Nov. 21, 1 AIX-LA-CHAPELLE (Treaties). The first, May 12 (O.S. 2), 1668, was the result of the triple league between England, Holland, and Sweden, for the purpose of putting a stop to the war between France and Spain. After some nego- tiations, the plenipotentiaries of England, Swe- den, Holland, France, and Spain, met at Aix- la-Chapelle, the treaty being concluded and signed in a fortnight. France obtained all the places she had conquered in Flanders, and re- stored Franche-Comte" to Spain. Though per- mitted to retain some of his conquests, a check was given to the ambition of Louis XIV. The second treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, confirm- ing the treaties of Westphalia, Oct. 24, 1648 ; Nimeguen, 1678,1679; Ryswick, Sep. 10, 1697; Utrecht, April n, 1713 ; Baden, Sep. 7, 1714 ; the Triple Alliance, 1717; and theQuadruple Alliance, 1718, was concluded Oct. 18 (O. S. 7), 1748. The contracting parties were Great Britain, France, Holland, Hungary, Spain, and some Italian states. The basis of the pacification was a ge- neral restitution of conquests, prisoners being released without ransom. England gave up all she had acquired in the East and West Indies. The Assiento contract, with the article of the annual ship, was confirmed to England for four years. Milan was annexed to Austria, and France restored her conquests in Italy. AIZNADIN, or AJNADIN(Battle). The Sa- racens gained a great victory in this plain, in Palestine, over the imperial forces, in the reign of Heraclius, July 13, 633. According to some authorities, the battle was fought July 30, 634. Gibbon, speaking of the imperial forces defeated on this occasion, says they might be " indifferently styled either Syrians, or Greeks, or Romans : Syrians, from the place of their birth or warfare ; Greeks, from the religion and language of their sovereign ; and Romans, from the proud appellation which was still profaned by the successors of Constantino." AJACCIO (Corsica). The chief town of the island, celebrated as the birthplace of Napoleon I., Feb. 5, 1768. AJALON. (See AIJALON.) AJMEER (Hindostan). This city, theancient capital of the province of Ajmeor of Raj poo- tana, was visited by Sir T. Row in 1616, when a factory was established by the East India Company. In 1818 it was acquired by the Bri- tish. Its population had increased more than threefold by 1823. AKERMANN (Bessarabia) was taken by the Russians in 1770, restored in 1774 ; taken again in 1789, restored in 1792 ; and ceded to Russia by Turkey in 1812. A treaty was concluded here Sep. 4, 1826, between Russia and Turkey, by which the treaty of Bucharest (May 28, 1812) was confirmed. Turkey recognized the independence of Wallachia and Moldavia ; re- stored the privileges of the Servians ; agreed to pay the Russian claims for losses inflicted by the Barbary corsairs ; and granted to Russia the free navigation of the Black Sea, and a passage through the Dardanelles. Russia, on her part, restored her conquests in Asia, and made a few trifling concessions. AKHALZIKH (Armenia). The Russians, under Prince Paskewitch Erivanski, defeated the Turks near this place Aug. 24, 1828, and took possession of the city and fortress Aug. 27. The Turks made an effort to regain possession in Feb., 1829, but were compelled to retire March 16, and Akhalzikh was ceded to Russia by the treaty of Hadrianople, Sep. 14, 1829. AKYAB (E. Indies), a town and seaport of Arracan, ceded, with other places, to the British by the treaty of Yandaboo, Feb. 24, 1826. ALABAMA (N. America). This state origi- nally formed part of Georgia. In 1798 the coun- try, including the present states of Mississippi and Alabama, was formed into a territory. Ala- bama was detached in 1817 from Mississippi, and admitted into the Union as a separate state March 3, 1819. It seceded Jan. u, 1861. ALABAMA SCREW-STEAMER. This cele- brated sloop-of-war was built at Birkenhead, by ALAND ALBA Messrs. Laird and Son, in the spring of 1862. Capt. R. Semmes, well known by his exploits, from Feb. 14, 1861, to Feb. 24, 1862, in the cruiser Sumter was appointed to the com- mand by the Naval Government at Richmond, May 2, 1862. The Federal Consul at Liverpool having communicated to Mr. Adams, the United States Minister in London, his sus- picions as to the character of the vessel, that gentleman addressed a despatch to the Foreign "Office, praying for her detention, June 23. Other communications took place, the result being that orders were sent to the Customs' authorities at Liverpool to detain the Ala- bama, which left the Mersey under pretence of making a trial trip, July 29, the very day on which they were received. Capt. Semmes, who went on board at Terceira, Aug. 20, hoisted the Confederate flag, Aug. 24, and declared that the object of the vessel was to cripple the commerce of the Federal This object she accomplished with perfect success, having captured and burnt 10 trading vessels by Sep. 16. Much indignation was expressed by the United States Government in consequence of her construction, ;uid alleged equipment, in an Knglish port, and an animated debate upon the subject took place in the House of Commons, March 27, 1863. The capture by the Alabama of the 1 June 21, 1863, led to further difficulties with the United States. (See TTTSCALOOSA). During two years the Alabama scoured the seas, and captured no less than M> vi-.-scls. of which 59 were burned ami one sunk, the remainder being released on bond. She entered Cher- bourg for the purpose of taking in coal, and undergoing repairs, June n, 1864. The United hip-of-war A"/ /./ of Cherbourg, opened tire upon the enemy. The engagement, which was fought entirely with the guns, the belligerents never coming within boarding di 1 upwards of an hour. Capt. Semmes, finding that the Ala- bama was sinking, was consequent! polled to strike his colours. The captain and several of the crew were picked up by the English yacht Deerhonii. Nineteen, including the English surgeon, Mr. D. H. Llewellyn, were drowned, making, with 7 killed and 21 wounded, a total loss of 47 out of the crew of the Alabama. ALAND ISI.F.S Gulf of Bothnia'. The group, consisting of 80 inhabited and 200 unin- habited islands, formerly belonged to Sweden, but was seized by Russia, and ceded to her by Sweden in 1809. A naval engagement between the Swedes and Russians, in which the latter were victorious, was fought here in 1714. A congress assembled here May 23 (O.S. i2\. 1718, but was abruptly terminated by the Russians Sep. 24, 1719. The Russian fortifications were captured and destroyed by a joint expedition of English and French troops in the autumn of 1854. The victors took 2,235 prisoners, 72 unmounted guns, 7 field-pieces, and 3 mortars. They afterwards abandoned the islands, which were re-occupied by the Russians, By a sepa- rate convention between England, France, and Russia, annexed to the treaty of Paris April 27, 1856^, the Emperor of Russia agreed " that the Aland Isles should not be fortified, and that no military or naval establishment shall be maintained or created there." A I. AM, or A LANS, one of the Tartar or nomadic races of Asia, which, at the time they first came in contact with the Romans, during Pompcy's expedition to the Caucasus, B.C. 65, inhabited some portion of the mountainous regions to the north of the Euxine. Gibbon (chap, xxvi.) says, " a naked scimitar, fixed in the ground, was the only object of their religious worship." Having been conquered by the Huns, the Alani joined them in their incur- sions into Kumpe. They invaded the Gothic kingdom of llermanric in 375. Theodosius ; them, as allies of the Goths, in the war in ^79 382. They joined the Vandals in the invasion" of Gaul in 406, and of Spain in 409; and in 428 they received Lusitania, ( 'ar- . and other parts of Spain, B the conquest. Many of them under Gcnseric, in his African war of 429; whilst the Alani of the Caucasus followed Attila in his attack upon the Kastcrn empire in 441. Their defection at the battle of Chalons, in 451, during Attila's invasion of Gaul, led to their conquest by Torisinoiid, King of the Vi in 452, after which they ceased to be an in- dependent people. A I . A I : . Fought near A larcos, in Spain, Wednesday, July in., 11^5, between thu :id the Spaniards. The former were victorious, and the town itself and 20,000 prisoners fell into their hands. AI.Asr A.M. The followers of John a Polish divine, uncle to the king of Poland. He left the Roman Catholic Church at the Refor- mation, and at the invitation of Cranmer came to Kn^land in 1551. He held j opinion- the Kueharist, applying the words " this is my body" to both the ele- ments. He was a friend of Erasmus and Melancthon, and, after officiating at the Dutch church in Austin Friars, quitted Knuland dur- ing the reign of Mary, and retired to his own country, where he died in 1560. AI.Il'A Italy .This ancient city of central Italy, one of the oldest strongholds of tho .Kquians, was, upon the subjugation of that people by the Romans, colonized by about 6,000 of the victors. Its inhabitants sent a strong body of men to assist the Romans against Hannibal, B.C. 211, but incurred severe penalties from their refusal to supply further reinforce- ments, B.C. 209. ALBA I.oXG A LatiunV, or "White Long- town." Of the history of this ancient city, about 15 miles S.E. of Rome, little is known previous to its conquest by the Romans B.C. 665. According to the traditional account, it was founded by Ascanius, son of JEneas, B.C. 1152. It was called "Longa"from it> tion upon a steep hill, with a narrow summit ; and "Alba," in allusion to the milk-white sow which yEneas, in obedience to the oracle, is said to have followed on his landing in Italy. Alba was for some time the centre of the league, consisting of 30 Latin cities. It is ALBA ALBERT difficult, however, to separate the authentic from the fabulous in its history, of which the following is a summary : B.C. 1143. Ascanius succeeded by Sylvius Posthumus. 1114. .(Eneas Sylvius king. 1043. Latinus king. 103*. Alba succeeds. 1003. Capetus, or Atys, king. 976. Capys kin?. 916. Calpetus king. 903. Tiberinus king. 895. Tiberinus is defeated, nnd droxvns himself in the Albula, thenceforth called the Tiber (q. t>.). Ho was succeeded on the throne by Agrippa. 864. Romulus king. 845. Aventinus king. 808. Procas kin- N imitiir kin-. i!iu< iiturps tho throno of his brother Xumitor, roinlfiimin- his nice,' Ilia to a life of celibacy. 770. Iliu having hri-n forced to break her vow, and given birth to twin*, is buried ulivi-. The rhildren having been thrown into the Tiber, are rescued near Mount Avi-iitinc liv tin- hi-]ilicrd Kaustulus. They are suckled by his wife Acca Larentia, suruamed Lupa, aud are naim-d H.niiulus and Remus. 754. Romulus put Atuulius to death, and restored his grandfather Numitor to tin; throne. 753. Rome (q. r.) is founded by Romulus. (.71. riiuliu- -i'-ii'U ambassadors to Rome to complain to Tullus Ilostilius of a trespass by the Romans on the Alban territory. 670. Combat iH-twren the Horatii (q. v.) and the Curiatil. The Alban* .submit to Rome. 664. The Albans rebel, and incite the Veientes and the Pidteneans to make war against Rome. 665. The Alban general Mettius U defeated. Alba Longa (1. -itroyed, and its inhabitants are transferred to Home. ALBA DE TORMES (Spain). This fortified town was captured by Kellermann, Nov. 25, 1809, and became the scene of several struggles during the Peninsular war. ALBANIA Asia; . This country, washed by the Caspian Sea, first became known to the an- cient world through Pompey's expedition into the Caucasus in pursuit of Mithridates, B.C. 65. One legend represented the inhabitants as the descendants of Jason and his companions in the Argonautic expedition. Its rulers did homage to Trajan when he invaded Albania, A.D. 116. Little is known concerning this country, which forms part of the modern Georgia. It was the seat of a bishopric in the early Church. ALBANIA (European Turkey) comprises part of the ancient Epirus, Illyria, -and Chaonia. Its early history is obscure. The Albanians, a sturdy and valiant race, termed by Gibbon "a vagrant tribe of shepherds and robbers," long maintained their independence. Their country was invaded by Robert Guiscard in 1081, and a portion of it conquered by Amurath I. in 1388. From these reverses the Albanians recovered, and, under their leader, George Castriot, called by the Turks Scanderbeg, in 1443, resisted the conqueror of Constantinople, Mohammed II. The Albanians overran the Morea in 1460, but were vanquished in 1478. Another struggle with Turkey commenced in 1809, and was car- ried on with varied success until 1822, when the Albanians were subdued. The insurrection of 1843, excited by the Tanzimat, or law of enlistment, was suppressed by Omar Pasha. ALBANS, ST. This town in Hertfordshire, near the site of the ancient Verulam, is sup- posed, on good authority, to be the place which Caesar stormed B.C. 54. The Britons, under Boadicea, Queen of the Iceni, took it A.D. 61, and slaughtered many of the inhabitants. It received its present name from Alban, the proto-martyr of Britain, who suffered in 304. The spot where the relics of the saint had been interred was said to have been miraculously discovered by King Offa, who, in 795, founded the monastery, exempting it from the payment of Peter's pence, and from episcopal jurisdic- tion. The town itself was built at the instiga- tion of Ulsig, the sixth Abbot of St. Albans, in 950. Adrian IV., a native of St. Albans, granted further privileges to the abbey in 1154. Tho Abbot of St. Albans had a seat in Parliament, and took precedence of all other abbots. Ed- ward II. visited the place, and investigated the relics of the saint, in 1313. The barons assem- bled here, and demanded the banishment of the Despensers, in 1321. The abbey was granted in commendam to Cardinal Wolsey in 1521. The town, incorporated by Edward VI. in 1553, was disfranchised for bribery by 15 Viet. c. 9 (1852). ALBANS, ST. (Battles). The first fought Thursday, May 22, 1455, between the houses of York and Lancaster, was the first victory in the wars of the Roses. The Duke of York gained the day, and the Duke of Somerset, who led the Lancastrians, was slain. Henry VI. was wounded by an arrow and taken prisoner. The second battle was fought be- tween Barnet and St. Albans, on Shrove Tues- day, Feb. 17, 1461. The Lancastrians were com- manded by Queen Margaret, who gained a complete victory over the Yorkists, led by the Earl of Warwick, and rescued Henry VI., who was a prisoner in their hands. ALBAYDA (Spain), taken from its founders, the Moors, and peopled with Christians, by James I., King of Aragon, in 1258. ALBERT MAUSOLEUM. Queen Victoria laid the first stone of this building at Frog- more, intended to receive the remains of Prince Albert, March 15, 1862. The coffin containing the body was removed from St. George's Chapel to the Mausoleum Dec. 18, 1862. ALBERT MEMORIAL. Prince Albert, Con- sort of Queen Victoria, died at Windsor Castle, Dec. 14, 1861, and was buried Dec. 23. A meeting to consider the propriety of erecting a suitable memorial was held at the Mansion House under the presidency of Lord Mayor Cubitt, Jan. 14, 1862, when .4,000 were subscribed, which sum had increased, at a meeting held Jan. 22, to 11, 680. The Queen having been consulted with respect to the proposed memorial, a letter was received by the committee, Feb. 21, in which General Grey stated that an obelisk erected in Hyde Park, on the site of the Great Exhibition of 1851, would, if of sufficiently grand proportions, best accord with the Royal wishes. The Earls of Derby and Clarendon, Sir Charles Eastlake, and the Lord Mayor, formed a committee, Feb. 26, for carrying this suggestion into effect, and great efforts were made to procure a block of stone large enough for the purpose. These efforts, however, prov- ing fruitless, a committee of architects was appointed, who recommended that a space of 1,200 feet by 340 should be appropriated ou ALBI t 32 1 ALBUERA the north side of the Kensington Road for en- trances to Hyde Park, fountains, &c., and that the memorial, consisting of bronze or marble statuary, should occupy the centre of this area. It was further resolved to erect a spacious hall as a place for general art-meetings, or other assemblies in London connected with social science and its kindred pursuits, and the lead- ing architects of the kingdom were invited to send in their designs by Jan. i, 1863. The design selected was that of Mr. G. G. Scott, and comprised "a colossal statue of the prince, placed beneath a vast and magnificent shrine or tabernacle, and surrounded by works of sculpture illustrating those arts and sciences which he fostered, and the great undertakings which he originated." The works for the national memorial in Hyde Park were com- menced May 13, 1864. (See HORTICULTURAL GARDENS. ) Albert Memorials have been erected in other places. (See ABERDEEN, COBURG, EXETER, PERTH, TENBY, er states, to have been " the theological ancestors." The Paulieians, wearied by persecution, quitted Asia, and sought refuge in Europe, some of them settling in the south of France. In Italy they were called Paterini and (,'athari, and in France Alhigenses, from the town Albi, where they dwelt in great numbers. The term was, however, applied to other sects. The first con- gregation of the Albigenses is said to have been discovered at Orleans in 1017 ; and they began to attract the notice of the dominant church before the end of the nth century. They were condemned by a council held at Tours .May 19, 1163. About the year 1200, the Albigenses, and other anti-Roman sects, which were loosely included under the same denomination, had become so numerous that they were in pos- session of Toulouse and 18 of the principal towns in Languedoc, Provence, and Dauphinu, which then constituted an independent sove- reignty u ider Raymond VI. A crusade was proclaimed against him and his subjects by Pope Innocent III. (1207 and 1208), and an army of 500,000 men was led against them by Simon de Montfort, Earl of Leicester, in 1209. A merciless war was waged for four years, until Pedro of Aragon, Raymond's kinsman and ally, was killed in battle, Sep. 12, 1213, and De Montfort was supreme. He was slain in an insurrection at Toulouse in 1218. The war was renewed, but with little success, until, in 1225, Louis VIII. t<>,,k the cross and marched into Languedoc. He died in a few months, but the war was con- tinued in the name of the young king, Louis IX. In April, 1229, Raymond VIII. abdicated, and was brought to Paris and scourged by the priest* in the church of Notre Dame. In the beginning of the crusade against the Albi- genses, the tribunal of the Inquisition v. opened, about the year 1210. The Albigenses were condemned by several councils. Much controversy has been excited, even of late -pecting the Albigenses, their history, and doctrines. The subject has been fully dis- cussed by Dr. Gilly, in his "\Yaldensian Ke- seai dies ;" in the Rev. George S. Faber's " Inquiry into the History and Theology of the Aiifient Vallenses and Albigenses ;" and in Mait- laiid's "Vallenses and All licenses." The latter writer contends that the name was not used as the title of a particular religious sect until long after the Council of Albi 1255 . AI.MI.N'OS, or white negroes, so called by the Portuguese, are found amongst the African races, as well as in Central Spanish America. Cortes noticed them in Mexico in 1560, and Lionel Wafer in Darien, towards the end of the ijtli century. ALBUM. A Matties'. In 809 Pcpin advanced against the Venetians, and, after capturing several places, penetrated as far as Albiola with his fleet. The shallowness of the water ren- dered it impossible to reach the central island without throwing a bridge across the narrow channel between Albiola and Hialto. This was done ; but the rude structure broke down under the weight of the invaders, who were precipitated into the lagoon. The ti in 906. The Venetians, under the command of their chief magistrate, completely de their vessels, and but few of the enemy managed to escape. A LB I ON. Aristotle (B.C. 3846.0. 322) is the first who speaks of England by this name. He says (De Mundo, c. 3 , "In the ocean be- yond the Pillars of Hercules are two large islands, called Bretannic, Albion and lerne." The notion that the name is derived either from its white roses, or its white cliffs, as many writers represent, is discussed in Notes and Queries, ^rd Series, Vol. IV., pages 193 and 274. (See BRITANNIA.) ALBION CLUB (London) established early in the century, was dissolved in 1841. ALBUERA (Battles). Alphonso V., of Por- tugal, was defeated here Feb. 24, 1479; upon which he made peace with Castile. Lord Beresford, having been compelled, by the ap- proach of Soult with the French army, to raise the siege of Badajos, resolved to make a stand at the village of Albuera, between Badajos and Seville. His army amounted to 30,000 infantry and 2,000 cavalry ; but of these three-fourths ALBUFERA [ 33 1 ALCORAZA were Spanish, Portuguese, and German troops. They had 38 guns. Soult had under his com- mand nearly 20,000 infantry and 4,000 cavalry, veteran troops, supported hy 50 pieces of artillery. The battle commenced early in the morning, May 16, 1811, and after a terrific contest, in which victory wavered from one side to the other, the French were defeated. They lost 8,000, whilst the allied anny had to deplore a loss of nearly 7,000 men. The brunt of the action was borne by the English, who had only 1,500 un wounded men left, " the rem- nant of 6,000 unconquerable British soldiers." ALBUFERA (Battle). Fought near the lake of this name, in Valencia, in Spain, Jan. 4, 1812, between the French and Spaniards. The former were victorious, and Marshal Suchet, their commander, was made Duke of Albufera in honour of his triumph. ALBUM, amongst the Romans, meant a tab- let containing anything of a public nature, and was so called either because it was made of white material, or because the inscription was in white. The term was applied to the blank book kept at monasteries to register the names of benefactors, and Bede (673-735) m " forms Bishop Gadfrith that his name was registered in the album of l.indisfame. The modern album is said to have originated in Germany, in the i6th century. Stryjic men- tions that he had seen one belonging to Eninnm:! Demetrius, the Dutchman, in the Stranger's Church at St. Austin Friars. A I .< A I .A (Spain), rebuilt near the site of the Roman town of Complutum, in 1083, was wrested from the Moors towards the close of the 1 2th century, and was surrounded by walls by Tenorio, Archbishop of Toledo, in 1389. At the University, founded by Ximenes in 1500, and opened in 1508, the celebrated Complutensian Bible (q. v.) was printed in 1514 and 1515. Cervantes was born here in 1547. AI.CAXTARA. This town in Spain, the Norba Csesarea of the Romans, is celebrated for its magnificent bridge over the Tagus, built by Trajan in 104. It had six arches, one of which was destroyed by the English in 1809 ; and during the same year the structure was more seriously injured by the French general Victor, and was burned in 1836. In 1580 a Spanish and Italian force, under the command of the Duke of Alva, sent against the Portu- guese, gained a victory over Antonio, who had been proclaimed King of Portugal at Santarem, June 24, 1580. The Earl of Galway captured this town, after a short siege, April 25 (O.S. 14), 1706. ALCANTARA (9rder). One of the five mili- tary orders of Spain, founded in 1156, and con- firmed by Pope Alexander III. in 1177. It was subject to the order of Calatrava until 1411. The grand mastership was annexed to the crown in 1495. The knights obtained per- mission to marry in 1540. ALCAZAR, or ALCAZARQUIVER (Battle). Fought between the Moors and the Portuguese, under Sebastian, Aug. 4, 1578. The latter were completely defeated, and their monarch was slain. ALCHEMY. In a vain search for the philo- sopher's stone, supposed to possess the property of transmuting the baser metals into gold, the elixir of life, f earl, count, duke, nobleman, .\NKR,Mi-AI.i: I ' TNDER, an officer appointed in every court leet, to taste ale or beer, to see that it was wholesome, and that it was sold at the regulated price. The "Liber Albus" contains the oath taken by the city ale-conners in the time of Henry V. AI.K -linrsE, or SHOP, is mentioned in the laws of King Ethelred. Malpractices arose, and the then existing regulations not being sufficient, n Hen. VII. c. 2, s. 5 1495 , an act against vagabonds and beggars, placed ale- houses under the jurisdiction of justices of the peace. In consequence of abuses and disorders in "common ale-houses and tippling-houses," a more stringent enactment was made by 4 & 5 Edw. VI. c. 25 (1552 , and this statute fur- nished the basis of future legislation on the subject. Various changes in the licensing laws ensued, and by i Will. IV. c. 64 i-July 23, ALEMANNI [ 35 ] ALEUTIAN 1830), greater facilities were afforded for the sale of ale and beer. This act has been amended. The sale of ale and beer, &c., on Sunday, has frequently been a subject of legis- lation, and a very stringent law, 17 & 18 Viet, c. 86 (Aug 10, 1854^, was repealed by 18 v. 12. B.C. 324, but does not appear to have been generally used; the second commenced B.C. 311, and is better known as the sera of the Seleu- cid.-i 1 , or of the Greeks. ALEXANDER NEWSKY, ST. (Order). In- stituted in Russia by Peter the Great, in 1722, and confirmed by the Empress Catherine I. April 8, 1725. "ALEXANDRA" CASE. The three-masted wooden vessel Alexandra, built at Liverpool, was seized for an alleged breach <>f the seventh section of the Foreign Knlistmeiit Act, 59 Geo. III. c. 69 (July 3, 1819 , by the comini of customs, April 6, 1863, while in dock piv- paring for the first voyage. A debate took place in Hi'' 1 1 "Me of Commons relati grounds for this proceeding April ->. and a trial in the Court of Kxchei|uer, which com- : 1 June 22, terminated .him- 24 in favour of tin: defendant i, and gains! t be seizure. A motion for a new trial was made Nov. 5. and the case came on Nov. 17, and occm court for six days. Judgment wax groom Jan. n, 1864, an-1 tin- rn' I'rom this de- cision an appeal was made to the Court of Error, the Exchequer Chamber. It w Feb. 6, 1864, and judgment, that the court had iu> jurisdiction, was delivered Peb.8. 'I ; case was carried to the Ib appeal was dismissed with costs, April 6, 1864. Al.KXAXDHA TIIKATRK, in CO! with the Highbury Barn Tavern and Pleasure Grounds, London, was opened by Mr. I'.. (Jio vannclli, Saturday, Mav .>o, 1865. ALEXANDRIA Battles). The first, in which Bonaparte deflated the Arabs and cap- tured the town, was fought July 3, 1798; the second and third, in which the English, with an inferior force, defeated the French, took place. 51 arch i ; and 21, iSoi. In the latter the British general, Sir Ralph Abercrombie, received a severe wound, which caused his death Sep. 2. The French lost 3,000 and the English 1,400 men. ALEXANDRIA F.gypt' was founded by Alexander III. the (Jivat , in the autumn n.<\ 332, and was the residence of the Greek kings of Egypt. The Ptolemies made it one of the most magnificent cities of the ancient world, and under their rule it became the seat of civi- lization and learning. It was almost totally depopulated by a general massacre by Ptolemy Physcon, about B.C. 141 ; suffered greatly dur- ing its occupation by Julius tVsar, after the defeat and death of Pompey, B.C. 48 ; and was, with the remainder of Egypt, made a Roman province B.C. 30. Several thousand Jews were massacred here A.D. 67. Having fallen into decay, it was partially restored by Hadrian in 122. Caracalla, on a visit to the city in 215, in revenge for some foolish satires, ordered a ge- neral massacre of the inhabitants. Diocletian having cut off the aqueducts which conveyed the waters of the Nile to the city, captured it after a siege of eight months, in 297: A terrible earthquake occurred July 21, 365, when 50,000 persons are said to have perished. The Chris- tians overthrew the temples of the pagan deities, and did much damage to the temple of Scrapis, in 389. Chosroes II. took it in 616. Amrou, the geneial of Omar I., captured it after a siege of 14 months' duration, Friday, Dec. 22, 640, or, according to other autho- rities, in Dec., 641. The victorious general de- scribed the city to his sovereign in these terms: " It is impossible for me to enumerate the va- riety of its riches and beauty ; and I shall con- tent mys.-lf wish observing that it contains 4,000 palaces, 4,000 baths, 400 theatres or places of amusement, 12,0 o shops forth- table food, and 40,000 trilmtar;, -ion its vain i library royed, and (iibhon states that "six months were barely sufficient for tin- consump- tion of this precious fuel." The vered it in 044, but Amrou re-nine.! possession and it remained undcrthesway of the Arabian caliphs until the Fatimitc.s seized Fgvpt 958 972 and foumi- Cairo. ( 'hristianity was introduced by > in the ist century, and it formed one of the five great patriarchates of the ancient world. i han nine di"- held here, in 231. 235, 301, 321, 324, Dec. 27, 330, 340, 362, 363. 370. 399. 43 457. 477, 581, 589, and 633. From its ruins a modern town has )>cen con- the former site, and its impnr- ;;v. revived, on ac- count of its convenient situation for communi- cation, overland, with the Fast Indii British took it Sep. -.>, iSoi, and again 21, when they held it tiil Sep. 23, 1807. The sultan Alxlul-Aziz landed at Alexandria April 7, 1863, and v. by the inhabitants with great demonstrations of jo\ This city was devastated by the cholera in the summer of 1865. ALFXANDRIA United States'. Imme- ifter the capture of Washington by the British forces, Alexandria capitulate: , AN'DHIAN CODEX or MS. A copy of the Scriptures in Greek, written in capital letters, without being divided into cl >r words, said to be the most ancient in e, belonged, as early as 1098, to the library of the Patriarch of Alexandria. It was sent as a present to Charles I. of England, about the year 1628, by Cyrillus I Patriarch of Constantinople, who asserted that it was written " by the hand of Thecla, a noble Egyptian lady, about 1300 years previously, a little after the Council of Nicsea" (325 . The. learned are much divided in opinion respecting its date. After remaining in the royal library for many years, the MS. was, in 1753, removed, with the rest of the royal collection, to the British Museum. Editions were published in 1717 20 and in 1816 28. ALEXANDRIAN [ 37 ALGEBRA ALEXANDRIAN LIBRARY. There were two libraries in this city, the larger one in the Bruchium, and the smaller in the Serapseum The former was destroyed during the occupa tion of Alexandria by Julius Csesar, B.C. 48 and was probably restored by Antony, anc again destroyed by Aurelian A.D. 273. The latter, founded by Ptolemy Soter, about B.C 298, was not, as some writers suppose, in volved in the destruction of the temple o Serapis, A.D. 389, when, by the edicts o:" Theodosius, the pagan rites were abolished and the pagan temples overthrown. This va luable collection was destroyed by cpmmanc of Omar I, after the capture of the city, Dec 22, 640. Though Gibbon throws doubt upon this statement, it is now established beyonc dispute. ALEXANDRIAN SCHOOL. A writer in the "Encyclopaedia Britannica" says, "The term 'Alexandrian School' is applied, in a loose sense, to the whole body of eminent men who, in all the departments of knowledge, con ferred lustre on the capital of the Ptolemies but, as a characteristic designation, it is more strictly confined to that particular section ol its philosophers known as the Neo-Platonists. 1 The celebrity of Alexandria as a seat of letters commenced under Ptolemy Soter, B.C. 312, and continued, under his successors, till the com- mencement of the Christian sera ; but that celebrated philosophy, known under the name of Neo-Platonism, originated towards the end of the 3rd century, and nourished, with certain modifications, until the sth century, when it rapidly declined. ALEXANDRINE WAR. After the defeat of Pompey, at Pharsalia (q. v.}, Julius Csesai landed at Alexandria, to assist Cleopatra against her brother Ptolemy XI. The war that ensued, during which Alexandria and its magnificent library were almost destroyed by fire, was concluded in January B.C. 47, and resulted in the complete victory of the Romans. ALEXANDRINES. The Alexandrine verse, of 12 syllables, is supposed to derive its origin from the trimeter iambic, or the pentameter, of the classic poets. It was used at an early period by the poets of Spain, and is said to have been popularized in the i2th century by Alexander of Paris, from whom it may have taken its name. Some authorities refer its title to a poem on the life of Alexander the Great, of which it formed the metre, written in France during the i2th century. Pierre Rousard, a French poet, who died in 1586, wrote in this metre, which has been re- tained by his countrymen since his tune as the verse for epic and dramatic poetry. Spenser used the Alexandrine measure for the closing line of his stanzas ; and Michael Drayton's " Polyolbion," the first part of which was pub- lished in 1613, and the second in 1622, "a poetical description of England, in 30 songs or books," containing 30,000 lines, is the longest English poem in this measure. Pope, in his "Essay on Criticism," alludes to this verse, " A needless Alexandrine ends the song, Which, like a wounded snake, drags ita slow length along." ALFORD (Battle). The Duke of Montroso gained a complete victory here over the Scot- tish Covenanters, July 2, 1645. ALFRED (surnamed the Great) was born at Wannating, or Wanading, a royal residence in Berkshire, probably in the month of January, 849. He was the youngest son and last child of Ethelwuph and Osburgha, the daughter of his cup-bearer, Oslac, married about 830. Alfred visited Rome in 853, and again in 855. He married Elswitha in 868. She was de- scended from the royal family of Mercia. On the death of his brother Ethelred, April 23, 871, Alfred became King of Wessex. In spite of his mimerous battles with the Danes, he devoted much of his time to study, and laboured zealously to obtain proper means of education for his subjects. Alfred died Oct. 28, 901, and was buried at Winchester. His wife, Elswitha, survived him. They had several children, of whom some died young. Amongst those that survived were Ethelfleda, his eldest daughter, "the lady of the Mer- cians," who married King Ethelred, and died July 12, 919 ; Edward, afterwards Edward I., born in 870, ascended the throne Oct. 28, 901, and died in 925 ; Ethelgipa, Abbess of Shaftes- bury ; Elfrida, who married Count Baldwin of Flanders, and died in 929 ; and their youngest son Ethelward, who was a zealous scholar, and died Oct. 16, 922. ALFRED CLUB (London). This club, esta- blished in 1808, was frequented by Lord Byron, who describes it as "pleasant; a little too sober and literary." It was dissolved in 1851, when the premises, in Albemarle Street, were occupied by the Westminster Club (q. v.) ALGEBRA. A Greek treatise by Diophantus of Alexandria, written in the sth century of the Christian sera, is the earliest work on Algebra, or, as Newton terms it, " Uni- versal Arithmetic." This treatise dealt with only one branch of the science, indeter- minate analysis. Europeans obtained their first knowledge of algebra from the Arabs, who probably derived their information from the Hindoos. The earliest Arabian writer on Algebra is Mohammed Ben Musa, who wrote at :he command of the Caliph Al Mamun (813 533). A copy of this work in the original, ;ranscribed in 1342, is in the Bodleian Library at Oxford. Dr. Rosen published it, with an English translation, in 1831. Leonard Fibon- acci, a merchant of Pisa, nicknamed by his countrymen Bigollone, or the Fool, who had iravelled much in the East, put forth a treatise on arithmetic and algebra in 1220, and it was re-written, with improvements, in 1228. Thus, ;wo centuries before the invention of printing, ;his science was introduced into Italy. This xeatise had been long forgotten, until, about the middle of the i8th century, it was dis- covered in the Magliabecchian Library at Florence. Luca Pacioli di Borgo, a Franciscan, ho taught mathematics in the university of Milan, published the first printed treatise on algebra at Venice, in 1494. Another edition appeared in 1523. Scipio Ferreo, of Bologna, discovered the solution of one case of equa- tions in 1505 ; and Nicolas Tartaglia, of Brescia, :hat of two other forms in 1535. Jerome Car- ALGERIA dan extended these discoveries, and published in his " Ars Magna," in 1545, his rule for the solution of cubic equations, still known as " Cardan's rule." His coadjutor, Ludovico Ferrari, discovered a general method of solving biquadratic equations. Michael Stifel, in his " Arithmetica Integra," published at Nurem- berg in 1544, is supposed to have first em- ployed the signs + and -, and numeral expo- nents of powers. Francis Viete, or, as he is generally called, Vieta, whose works were pub- lished after 1600, made such important im- provements that he altogether changed the character of the science. Jie WHS tlio first to apply algebra to geometry, and in this was followed by Descartes and Newton. Albert Girard, a Dutchman, in his " Inv.-ntion Nou- velle en Algebre," published in 1629, "con- as Iliillam remarks, "a better notion of negative roots than his predecessors." John Harriott, in his " Artis Analytics I published in 1631, 10 years after the death of the author, made, says Hallam, "the- last great discovery in the pun.; science of algebra. He arrived at a complete theory of equations, which t'arirh 1 of Algiers, June 14. A battle DC to, in which the French, with difficulty, ndu< led, by which Algiers, its forts and hart iour, with some of the adjoining districts, were surrendered to the French, who have since established a colony, divided int.. three provinces, Algiers, Oran, and Constantina. 1830, Nov. Medenh is conquered. Dec. 10. Oran occupied. 1832, May. Bona is occupied. 1833. The French (It-dare their intention of colot.izing the country.- S, .p. 3. Abd-el-Kader. having raised an insiiiTe.-ti..ii. i- il.-fi-:il.-.l .-it Tamojaiiat Bugia is taken. Oct. 10. Ain-Bccia is taken. 1874. Jan. A treo-tv is corn-hided between Gen. Desmichels Mini Abd-el'-Kader. 1835, War breaks out again. Oct. Tlie French take Ilarehgoun. Dee. 5. Mascara ('I- r.) nn.l II. ni-.-n c/. r.) are taken after some severe fighting. 1836, April .:,. The Aigerines defeated at I aaf.ia. July 6. d-el-Kader in a great battle ie-:ir Tleinsen. 1837, May 30. Bugeiuid concludes the treaty of Taafna with Abd-el-Kader. < >ct. 13. Achinet Hey defeated, and Con>taMtin;t t:iken. 1838, Foundation of Hiilippeville. 1839, Dee. 14. Alxl-el-Kader defeats the French at Me- tidja. and advanecs to the walls of the city of Algiers. 1840. War is resumed with Abd-el-Kader. I n-n.-l. -ain MveraJ .-u-tioiis. 1843. The l-'reiidi surprise Alxl-el-Kader, who escapes. 1845, June 12. 1'elissier and St. Arnaud destroy 700 Arabs, men, women, and children, who had taken refuge in the cave of Khartani, by lighting a fire at the entrance. 1847, April 13. Bou-Maza surrenders at Orleansville. May. Bugeaud's expedition to Great Kabylia. A bd-el-Kader surrenders at Nemours. 1849. The Saharians revolt Nov. Zaatcha is taken and .le-t!-< .veil. 1850, Dec. 2. 1'elissier defeats the Saharians at Laghonat, \vhii-l, i-d.-i- i.-5~. An iiiMirn-etion is suppressed by the French. ipoleon Mini-ter of Algeria. l.,.u ill. and the Kmpress Eugenie visit the i-.'lonv. lt/>4, April H. Several Arab tribes revolt in the province i.m, and kill in battle Col. Beaupretre, the l-r.-neh 1,-a.l.r sent iiL-aiin-t them.- Max 21. Death of the i .ox, rn.,r-(.eii, -nil. Marshal IVlissier, Duke of Malakoff. .lime >-. The insurgent tribes are re- ilu.-i-d In >ubje.-tioii. Aug. The Arabs again rise in iii-unvetioii.- s. \,. -. Mai-sbal M.-Malion, Duke of ],JM Milled (iiivernor-General. < >et. '1 he I r, iirh (,..\ eminent eoinmeiicvs military o|ierations ii^.-iinst the in-.ir,ee!i..niM-.- -D.-e. 14. . \ous..,iiff. liiixing subdued the r-beN in the south of the pi-.n 'me.- ,,( i (ran. n-tiirn- to \ ...n.ial Deligny rarri "ii militarx operations ajrniiisl the disaffected Arabs. May ;. I h- I.m- p.-i,,r \aj."le..ii III. \i-it- Alu'.-ii.-i. arriving at i-s. June 10. The Kmp.-ror returns to Toulon. AI,(;i:siK.\S (S],ain).-Thisstronghold,con- ment of the quantity of alkali contained in soda and potashes, was first carried out in England by Dr. Lewis in 1767, and in France by Decroixilles, in 1806. ALKALI WORKS ACT. Much incon- venience having resulted from the noisome fumes evolved in the alkali manufa was ordered by 26 & 27 Viet. c. 124 (July 28, 1863), that all alkali works should condense at least 95 per cent, of the muriatic acid gas which they produced, and that such establish- ments should be subjected to examination by an inspector appointed by the Board of Trade. This act took effect Jan. i, 1864. ALK.MAAK (Holland). Notloe of tins town occurs as early as 924. In 1491 it was seized by insurgent s during t lie " Bread and ( 'h. (q. v.). The town-hull was built in 1509. The Spaniards under Alva besieged it in 1573, and encountered such resistance that th- the siege after it had lasted nearly eight weeks, Oct. 7. A capitulation for the re-embarkation of tin: British expedit'oii, sent to the. Holder to act against the hutch and French republican 1'oives, was concluded at this place < let. 18, 1799. The last portion of the troops re-embarked Nov. 19. It is sometimes written Alemaer. ALL FnoLS' DAY. The ori-in ..f this curious custom, April i, lias been attributed to the mockery of Our Saviour just before the crucifixion, to the rape of the Sahine women, and to the mistake made by Xoah in sending the dove out of the ark before the the flood had abated. It has also 1" posed that th< : iginally held on the ist of .January, may have been transferred to the ist of April. It is in all probability derived from some ancient pagan festival. A similar practice has been common amongst the Hindoos, at their Hull festival, from a very early period. ALL SAINTS, or ALL-HALLOW. A festi- val celebrated Nov. i. A day for the general commemoration of all the martyrs not long after Whit-Sunday was set apart in the early Church. Boniface IV. established a festival in the Latin Church in 611, and this was con- verted into the festival of All Saints by Gre- gory IV., in 830. It was introduced into Eng land in 870. The superfluous and superstitious ringing of bells at Allhallow-tide was prohibited at the Reformation. ALL SOULS. This festival, held Nov. 2, in commemoration of all the faithful deceased, was, according to some authorities, instituted at Clugny in 993, and, according to others, in Sicily in 998. Palgrave states that this well-known festival for the dead was not formally adopted until the nth century, and that the earliest community by which it was commemorated was the monastery of St. Gall, in 741. ALL SOULS COLLEGE (Oxford), founded in 1437, by Henry Chicheley, Archbishop of Can- terbury, was not completed until 1444. ' ALL THE TALENTS," or the Fox and Grenville Coalition Ministry. The refusal of Lord Hawkesbury, afterwards Earl of Liverpool, to .form an administration, on the death of Mr. Pitt (Jan. 23, 1806), induced George III. to send for Lord Grenville (Jan. 26), who, in conjunction with Mr. Fox, undertook the task. This min- istry acceded to office Feb. 5, and received the nickname of " All the Talents," from the boast of its supporters that it combined, as Mr. Can- ning said, " all the talents, all the abilities, and all the experience and wisdom of the coun- try." It was thus constituted : Tr-MMiry ........................... I.ortl Crcnvillc. Lord Chancellor ............... I.onl Krskim-. I'rri-i.l.-iit f tin- Council ... K;irl PftswfltUm. l'ii\y >.-al ........................ Vi.-r,mnt Siihnouth. O- ..... tool theExch^u,, Il:.n i-cri'tnry ............... Kurl Sjn-nri-r. Foreign Secretary ............... Mr. i-'x. < inln. in. ....... '. ................ Knrl of Moira. Ailinittilty ........................ I.<>rl llmvii-k. s'.-it War ............... Mr. Wimlliiim. After the death of Mr. Fox (Sep. 13, 1806), LOP! Bowick became Foreign Secretary Sep. 24, and Mr. Thomas Grenville First Lord of the Admiralty Sep. 27. Karl Fitzwilliam retired int of ill-health, and Lord Sidmouth President of the Council in his place, Oct. 8, and Lord Holland Privy Seal, Oct. 15, 1806. This ministry was never very strong ; a dissolution towards the end of 1806 did not improve its position, and George III. availed himself of some difference of opinion on the Roman Catholic question to make a change, .March 25. 18.17 (> " 1 '"i;n. \ M> AnMiMS'i r A LLAMA BAD ( Hindostan). Sultan Mah- mood, of <;huy.nee, in vaded this province in 1020 and 1023, but made no permanent settlement. The emperors of Delhi subdued it, but it became independent during the isth century. After various changes, it fell under the power of the rulers of ( >udh, who seized it in 1758, and it waa ceded by them to Shah Alum, the titular sove- reign of Delhi, in 1764. The capital of the pro- vince, also called Allahabad, seated at the junc- tion of the rivers Ganges and Jumna, was founded by the Emperor Akbar, in 1583. The English captured it in Feb. 1765, and in 1772 the province of Allahabad reverted to the Oudh sovereigns. Part of the province was ceded to -t India Company in 1775. Allahabad, with some of the territory, was ceded Nov. 14, 1801, and the remainder was secured by treaty Dec. 30, 1803. The mutiny, which commenced at Mccrut, May 10, 1857, extended to Allahabad June 6, when the English retired into the fort, which they held securely. ALLEGIANCE (Oath). Bum (Ecc. Law, iii. 22) says, this oath " is very ancient ; and by the common law, every freeman, at the age of 12 years, was required, in the leet (if he were in any leet), or in the tourn (if he were not in any leet), to take the oath of allegiance." ALLEGORISTS ALMA As administered, says Blackstone, for upwards of 600 years, it contained a promise "to be true and faithful to the king and his heirs, and truth and faith to bear of life and limb and terrene honour, and not to know or hear of any ill or damage intended him, without defending him therefrom." After the Gun- powder Plot, an act was passed (3 James I. c. 4, 1605), for the better discovering and repressing of Popish recusants, which, in addition to other provisions, required from those that conformed an oath of allegiance renouncing the Pope's authority in the most explicit terms. This was repealed, and a new oath of allegiance framed at the Revolution, by i Will. & M. c. 8 (1689). A single oath was by 21 & 22 Viet. c. 48 (July 23, 1858), substituted for the former oaths of alle- giance, supremacy, and abjuration. ALLEGORISTS. Some early Christians, and even the Jews themselves, before the Christian sera, interpreted the scripture according to what is termed the allegorical mode, and were called allegorists. Origen, who nourished at Alexandria early in the 3rd century, is con- sidered by many as the originator of this method of expounding the scriptures. Nepos, an Egyptian bishop, about 260, designated Origen and the opposers of the Millennium, allegorists. ALLEGORY abounds in the Bible. Egypt is regarded as the cradle of allegory, as the entire system of writing in that country pos- sessed a pictorial or representative character. (See HIEROGLYPHICS.) From Egypt it appears to have passed into Greece, where it gave a power- ful tinge to poetry and mythology, and has been supposed by some critics to underlie the entire narrative of the Iliad, (B.C. 927.) It also characterized negotiations between the nations of antiquity, who frequently signified their in- tentions in a symbolic or allegorical manner. Thus Darius, B.C. 491, demanded earth and water from the Greeks, as tokens of their sub- mission. Philo Judajus, boni at Alexandria, B.C. 20, attempted to show the harmony of the religious systems of Plato, Aristotle, and Moses, by explaining their doctrines allegorically ; and the Neo-Platonists (q. r.) adopted similar opinions. During the Middle Ages allegory became the great staple of imaginative writers, and on the revival of literature in Western Europe it was adopted by many poets in the treatment of metaphysical subjects. Thus Dante (1265 to 1321), Ariosto (1474 to 1533), Tassd (1544 to 1595), and Spenser (1553 to 1599), represented abstract qualities under personified forms. John Bunyan (1628 to 1688) was a suc- cessful allegorist; his "Pilgrim's Progress' was published in 1678. Emanuel Swedenborg (1689 to 1772) taught that the inspired volume is a divine allegory in which spiritual truths are represented by material types, and thai this representation has its origin in a corres pondence or mutual relationship existing be tween all things in the natural and spiritua worlds. (See SWEDENBORGIANS.) ALLELUJAH. (See HALLELUJAH.) ALLENITES. Followers of Henry Allen, o Nova Scotia, who taught, about 1778, that al human souls are parts of the one Great Spirit and that they were present in Paradise and par cipated in the sin of Adam. He died in 1783, laving made many proselytes. ALLERSHEIM (Battle). The French, under he great Conde, Duke of Enghien, defeated he Bavarians, led by General Mercy, at this own on the Ries, Aug. 3, 1645. Mercy was dlled by a cannon-ball, and Cond^, who had hree horses shot under him, received several wounds. ALLIA (Battles). Near the confluence of : his small river with the Tiber, into which it alls about n miles north of Rome, tho Romans were defeated, with great slaughter, >y the Gauls, under Brennus, July 16, B.C. 390. The barbarians captured the city, destroying arge portions of the same. The disastrous day was afterwards marked by the Romans, in their calendar, as one of the most unfortunate in the whole year. The dictator Cincinnatus defeated ;he Praenestines and their allies, on the banks of the Allia, B.C. 377. ALLIANCES. The most important alliances jetween different states are given under their respective titles. (See GRAND ALLIANCE, HOLY ALLIANCE, QUADRUPLE ALLIANCE, TRIPLE ALLI- ANCE, HANOVER ALLIANCE, TREATIES, &c.) ALLIED POWERS (Declaration). The Em- perors of Russia and Austria, the King of Prussia, and several German sovereigns, met at Frankfort in Nov., 1813, where they drew up ;hc celebrated "Declaration," issued Dec. i. [n this document the allied sovereigns stated ;hat they did not make war against France, but against the preponderance claimed by Napo- leon I. ; and asserted that they desired France to be " great, powerful, and happy, because the French power, in a state of greatness and strength, is one of the foundations of the social edifice of Europe." ALLIF^E. This Samnite city was taken by the Romans under Q. Fabius Maximus B.C. 326, at the commencement of the second Samnite war. It was soon after recovered by the Sam- nites, and retaken B.C. 310 by the Romans, who gained another victory under its walls B.C. 307. Sylvester I. is said to have erected it into a bishopric A.D. 314. This, however, is doubtful, though it is known to have been the seat of a bishopric in the sth century. ALLOBROGES. This Gallic tribe first ap- pears in history as allies of Hannibal in his in- vasion of Italy, B.C. 218. They were defeated by Q. Fabius Maximus, afterwards surnamed Allobrogicus, near the junction of the Rhone and the Saone, B.C. 121, but refused to con- tract a lasting friendship with their Roman conquerors. Julius Caesar protected the Allo- broges against the Helvetii during his gover- norship of Gaul, B.C. 58. ALLYGHUR (Hindostan). Near this for- tress, in the district of Allyghur, Lake defeated the Mahrattas and the French, under M. Perron, Aug. 29, 1803 ; and the fortress itself was stormed by Lake, Sep. 24. The native troops mtitinied here, May 20, 1857. Tb- e Europeans effected their escape, and the place was retaken by Col. Greathed, Oct. 5, 1857. ALMA (Battle). Fought between the allied English and French, and the Russian armies, Sep. 20, 1854. The allied army consisted of 57,000 men, viz., 26,000 English, commanded ALMACKS ALMERIA by Lord Raglan ; 24,000 French, commanded by the Marshal St. Arnaud ; and 7,000 Turks, with 124 guns. Early on the morning of Sep. 20, the force came in sight of the Russian army, amounting to between 50,000 and 60,000 men, strongly posted on some heights beyond the river Alma. The position was deemed impregnable ; every precaution had been taken to obstruct the advance of an as- sailant. In spite, however, of formidable ob- stacles, the Russians were driven from their intrenchments, after a fearful struggle of three hours' duration. The English lost 2,000, and the French 1,400 men in killed and wounded, whilst 7,000 of the Russians fell. ALMACKS. The famous assembly rooms, built by Robert Mylne, were opened Feb. 12, 1765, and were patronized by the highest aristocracy. Almack, the original proprietor (whose name is said to have been M'Call , died Jan. 3, 1781. The rooms, situated in King- street, St. James's, are now known as Willis's Rooms. Almack's Club was opened in 1714. (See GOOSETREE'S CLUB.) ALMADKX Spain .This place, celebrated for its quicksilver mines, marks the site of the ancient Sisapore. The Iberians, and after them the Romans, worked these mines, from which large quantities of quicksilver are still procured every year. The Fuggers of Antwerp rented them in the i6th century. They were worked by the Spanish Government from 1645 to 1843, when the firm of Rothschild .obtained the contract. ALMAGRO (Spain), a fortified city, built by Roderic, Archbishop of Toledo, and completed in 1214. Diego d' Almagro, the associate of Pizarro in the conquest of Peru, being a found- ling, received in baptism the name of this town, near which he was found, 1464. The Univer- sity dates from 1552. ALMANACK. Porphyry states that alma- nacks were known to the Egyptians before the Arabs. Montfaunon has engraved an Egyptian calendar. They were constructed by the Alexandrine Greeks, about the time of Ptolemy. Instruments of wood or other ma- terial, inscribed with various symbolical figures and characters, to serve the purpose of an almanack, were used in early times by the northern nations, especially the Danes, who introduced them into England. The Anglo- Saxons calculated by the increase of the moon, set down on square pieces of wood, about a foot long, and these they called Almonaught, or almoon-heed. They were also designated clogs, bacculi-annales, primstocks, primsta- ries, primstaffs, runstocks, &c. The celebrated astronomer Purbach, or Puerbach, published a series of almanacks between 1450 and 1461, but the first printed was in 1457. Muller, or Regiomontanus, published the first that con- tained eclipses, about 1475. The first alma- nack printed in England was by Wynkyn de Worde, in the reign of Henry VII. James I. granted the exclusive right of printing alma- nacks, by letters patent, to the two universi- ties and the Stationers' Company. This was declared to be illegal, by a decision of the Court of Common Pleas, in 1775. Moore's almanack was first printed in 1698. The first almanack printed in Scotland was in 1677. A duty was first levied on almanacks by 9 Anne, c. 23 (1710). It was abolished by 3 and 4 Will. IV., c. 57 (Aug. 13, 1834). ALMANACK Nautical, published by the Admiralty for the use of astronomers and sailors, was projected by Dr. Maskelyne, as- tronomer royal, and first appeared in 1767. It declined so much after his death, that, in 1830, the Government consulted the Astrono- mical Society on the subject. The alterations proposed by them were adopted, and the first improved almanack appeared in 1834. ALMANZA .Battle .Fought at this place, in Spain, Easter Monday, April 25 (O.S. 14), 1707, between an army of English, Portuguese, Dutch, and Spanish troops, amounting to 12,000 infantry and 5,000 cavalry, commanded by the Earl of Galway, and the French and Spaniards, 25,000 strong, with a large cavalry force, led by the Duke of Berwick. The English, having been deserted by many of the foreign troops, were defeated, and it is some- what remarkable, as Lord Stanhope remarks, that the English army was commanded by a French, and the French army by an English general. The Duke of Berwick, who com- manded the French, was the natural son of James II. ALMAREZ :Spain\ The celebrated bridge over the Tagus, at this place, was built by Charles V., in 1552. The principal outworks of Almarez were taken from the French by Gen. (afterwards Lord Hill, May 19, 1812. ALMAZAN (Treatys, between Castile and Aragon, was signed April 12, 1375. The prin- cipal condition was a contract of marriage be- tween the Infanta Leonora of Aragon, and the Infant, John of Castile. A I. M KID A (Portugal). This fortified town, about 1 6 miles from Ciudad Rodrigo, was captured by the Spaniards during their in- vasion of Portugal, after a long and bloody siege, Aug. 25, 1762. During the struggle in the Peninsula, it was surrendered to the Eng- lish in Oct. 1808 ; and taken from the Portuguese by the French, Aug. 27, 1810. Wellington, who re-invested it April 7, 1811, took it after a brilliant victory at Fuentes d'Onor (q. v.), May n, 1811. A I.M KNAR A (Battle). Fought July 28 (O.S. 17), 1710, when the English and Germans, under Gen. Stanhope and the Archduke, after- wards the Emperor Charles VI., completely routed the Spanish army, commanded by Philip V. of Spain. ALMERIA (Spain). This city, the capital of a province of the same name, was, says Prescott (Ferdinand and Isabella, vol. i. pt. i. ch. 14), ''one of the most precious jewels in the diadem terror of the Catalan and Pisan marine." The Almoravides captured it in 1091, and it was retaken by the Spaniards in 1147. It was frequently assailed, and at length the Moors finally surrendered it, by treaty, to Fer- dinand and Isabella, who made their entry into the town Dec. 7, 1489. Alphonso II. of Castile removed the ancient bishopric of Abdera ALMOGAVAREZ [ 43 ALPHABET to this town in 1147. When the Moors seized Almeria the see was suppressed, but Ferdinand re-established it in 1490. ALMOGAVAREZ. A companyof Portuguese adventurers who sailed from Lisbon in 1014, for the purpose of seeking new lands in the Atlantic. A tribe of military adventurers, who assisted the Christian sovereigns of Spain in their conflicts with the Moors, were also called " almogavares," or adventurers. ALMOHADES, or ALMOHEDES, termed by Gibbon "the fanatic princes of Morocco," a Mohammedan dynasty, that grew out of a re- ligious sect formed by Mohammed Ben Ab- dallah, surnamed El Mehedi, the guide, or teacher. He was the son of a lamplighter in a mosque, and, having collected a number of fol- lowers, was foiled in an attempt to found his dynasty in Morocco, in 1 1 2 1 . His death occurred in 1 1 30, and his successor, Abdelmumen, cap- tured Morocco in 1132, and established the dynasty of the Almohades, in Africa, in 1146. The next year he invaded Spain, won several battles, and established the dynasty in that country and in Portugal. The Almohades ceased to rule in Spain and Portugal in 1257, and in Africa in 1269. They reigned 150 years, and had 14 kings. The Arabic word signifies " Unitarians." ALMONACID (Battle). In a severe battle fought at this place in Spain, Aug. n, 1809, between the French and the Spaniards, the latter were defeated. ALMONER. An officer, whose duty it was to distribute alms, was attached in former times to the households of sovereigns, princes, pre- lates, and men of high station. The great abbeys and monasteries had their almoners. The date when this office was first appointed has not been ascertained. Fosbroke (Antiq. 588) says, " When our Anglo-Saxon kings dined, the poor sat in the streets, expecting the broken meat, , and the two double consonants and // ; while Aristotle and Pliny say that Epicharmus, who flourished about B.C. 450, added the two letters x an much accelerated, was in- 1 bv Lowdham, of Fxeter, in 1679. ERDAM, or A.MSTKLDAM Holland 1 . This great romniercial emporium, on the , founded in i^\, ycmained a small fishing villas: until the' "middle of the 1 3th century, when it was made a town. William HI., Count of Holland, took it in 1*96; and William l\". jfV it muniripal institutions ill 1340. It was walled in 148.?; joined the i-ation of the Netherlands Fell. 8, 1578, additional privileges from the Prince of Holland in i=;8i. From that time its prosperity increased rapidly, and it n an additional im]mlse from the closing of the Scheldt, in in.,8. It was captured by the lYeneh. Jan. 20, 17',)-, and remained under their rule until 1813. Its town-hall, ei ' completed in 1655, nan-owl -(ruction by tin- in I rSon, and was made a royal ]>alace in 1808. The celebrated Hank of Amsterdam was i in 1609, and ceased in 179''*. The Hank of the Netherlands, on the model of the JSank of Kngland, was established herein 1841. AMSTERDAM Treaty), concluded between France, Russia, and Prussia, Aug. 4, 1717. The C/.arand the King of Prussia accepted the me- diation of France between them and Sweden. Russia abandoned her invasion of Mecklen- burg, and France agreed not to renew a treaty of subsidies with Sweden. AMSTI-;ii:>.\.M ISLAM) Tndian Ocean\ called by the natives Timiin-tabu, one of the group known as the Friendly Isles '/. r.), was red by Tasman, .Fan. 19, 1643, and was visited by ('apt. Cook in 1773. (See TI> A M FJLET. Amulets, of various kinds, \vere in use among the Jews ;Gen. xxxv. 4, and llosea ii. 13'. The Persians and the Egyptians used them ; the Greeks and Romans made them of gems of various kinds. Homer men- tions them as charms. Pericles, who died B.C. 429, wore an amulet. The Emperor Caracalla, about A.D. 216, prohibited the use of them. Amulets made of the wood of the Cross, or of riband with texts of scripture upon them, as preservatives against diseases and other calamities, were adopted by Chris- tians in the 4th century. The Council of Laodicea, in 366, condemned the practice. Epiphanius, Bishop of Salamis (367', Chrysos- tom (400), and St. Basil, Patriarch of Constan- tinople (970), and many others, censured this superstition. The ancient Druids used them, and both necklaces and beads, intended as charms, are frequently found in their barrows. AMYLENK. This inflammable, colourless, and exceedingly light liquid, distilled from fusel oil the oil of potatoes , by M. Balard, of Paris, in 1844, was first employed ! ic substitute for chloroform, by Dr. Snow, Nov. 10, 1856. M. Duvoy published a full account of this substance April 9, 1857. ANABAPTISTS. The term was first applied to the followers of Thomas Miinzer and Storck, who began to preach in Saxony in 1521. Owing to their inflammatory harangues, a rebellion broke out in Swabia, Thuringia, Francoiiia, Saxony, and other parts of Germany, in 1525. ' taries were routed, May 15, 1525, and their leaders put to death. Their doctrines, however, had not been extirpated, and another risingof the Anabaptists occurred in Westphalia in 1534. John Hoekelsohn, a tailor of I rda called John of Leydeii, was made king. They eaptuivd Minister, which was to I'eb. 27, 1534, and the city was not retaken untilJune 24, 1535, when John of Lcyden and many of '< were put to death. About this tim> laws were enacted against the Anabaptists by different Furopeaii governments. Their doe- trines found supporters in England. Fourteen were burned in London and in other towns, May 25, 1535, and four Dutch Anabaptists suf- fered the same punishment in 1538. Three rued at Southwark, April 29, 1540; and Fli/.abeth by proclamation ordered them to quit the kingdom within one-and-tweiity days, in 1560. Some enthusiasts of this kind at- tempted to effect a rising in London April 9, 1657. Thomas Venner, an Anabaptist preacher, with about 80 of his followers, appeared in arms in London, Jan. 6, 1661. They fought desperately with the troops, but w last overcome, and Venner and 16 of his associates perished on the scaffold, Jan. 19 and 21. ANACHORETS, or ANCHORETS, arose in F.gypt and Syria in the 3rd century. Paul the Hermit, who retired into the deserts of Egypt to avoid the Decian persecution, A.I>. 250, and St Antony, born 251, arc considered the first anchorets. Bingham (Antiq. b. vii. c. ii. s. 2) says, the first sort of monks "were commonly known by the name of Ancho- rets, from their retiring from society, and living in private cells in the wilderness. Such were Paul and Antony, and Hilarion, the first founders of the monastic life in Egypt and Palestine ; from whom other monks took their model." Fosbroke points out the dis- tinction between anchorets and hermits, the former never quitting their cells, whilst the latter roamed at large. The Church assumed jurisdiction over these voluntary exiles from the world in the yth century, and enacted rules and regulations for their direction. Towards the end of the gth century, the custom arose of erecting their cells at the porches of churches, and even at the gates of towns. The ceremony of consecration was performed by the bishop. ANACREONTIC [ 53 ANATOLIA St. Dunstan's cell at Glastonbury (950) was so small that he could neither stand erect in it nor stretch his limbs to their full length. In 1325 an anchoress resided upon a piece of ground in St. Peter's, Comhill ; and in the "Privy Purse expenses of Elizabeth of York," entries are made of gifts to an anchoress at Gloucester, Nov. 25, 1502, and to another near St. Alban's in March 1503. (See ABBEY.) ANACREONTIC VERSE. This "gay, lux- urious, and festive style" of verse was carried to its highest degree of excellence by Anacrcon of Teos, a Greek lyric poet, who died aboxit B.C. 478. Amongst his various imitators and translators, Thomas Moore, called " Anacreon Moore," who published his translation of "An- acreon" in 1800, was the most successful. Re- ligious Anacreontics were written by the monks in the Middle Ages. A N .ESTHETICS. Opium and other narcotic drugs, which were employed from a very early period for the purpose of relieving pain, were A.D. 23 to 79, Dioscorides, who nourished in the ist or 2nd century, and Apuleius, whose period is uncertain, all mention the use of man- dragora for this purpose, and give rules for its proper employment. The Chine.se physician, Hod-tho, rendered his patients insensible to the surgeon's knife by means of the Indian hemp plant, about 225, and the Italian practitioner, Theodoric, who wrote during the latter part of the 1 3th century, describes a compound infu- sion, by the fumes of which he produced similar results. John Baptista Porta, of Naples, in his book on Natural Magic, published in 1597, described an apparatus for inhaling the fumes of narcotic drugs, but does not mention its application to medical purposes. Nitrous oxide gas, which was successfully used by II. Wells, a dentist, of Hartford, Connecticut, Dec. ii, 1844, was subsequently pronounced too un- certain in its effects to be of practical value ; but the discovery and application of the proper- ties of chloroform and other similar substances following soon after, the use of aiifesthetic agents rapidly became general in all cases of severe operations. (See AMYLENE, CHLORO- FORM, and ETHER.) ANAGRAM. Camden says, "Good ana- grams yield a delightful comfort and pleasant motion in honest minds," and refers their origin to the time of Moses. They were classed by the Hebrews among the cabalistic sciences. The Greeks took the practice, and Lycophron, about B.C. 280, has left some on record. They were very common on the continent in the 1 6th and i7th centuries ; and in the latter Louis XIII. appointed Thomas Billen royal anagramist, with a salary of 12,000 livres. Calvin, in his " Institutions," published at Strasburg in 1539, styles himself Alcuinus, which, in addition to being the name of an old writer, is the anagram of Calvinus. They prevailed in England at a somewhat later period. In 1613, W. Cheke published a collec- tion of Anagrams and Chronograms. , ANAHUAC. (See MEXICO.) ANAM, or ANNAM (Asia). This extensive tract of country, comprising Cochin-China, and Tonquin, Camboja, or Cambodia, and some small islands, is said to have been colonized by the Chinese B.C. 234. The inhabitants appear to have regained their independence, though they continued nominally subject to China, A.D. 263. In 1406 the Chinese once more cap- tured the country, which they retained until 1428. (See COCHIN-CHINA, TONQUIN, &c.) ANAPA (Circassia). Founded by the Turks in 1784, and captured by the Russians in 1791. It was restored to Turkey, recaptured by Russia in 1807 an d 1809, and restored in 1812. The Russians tpok possession Juno 23, 1828, but abandoned it to the French and English forces June 5, 1855. !t reverted to the Rus- sians on the conclusion of peace in 1856. ANAQUITO (Battle). Fought near Quito between Gonzalo Pizarro and the Peruvian Viceroy, Nunez Vela, Jan. 18, 1546. The Vice- roy was slain and his army defeated. ANASTATIC PRINTING. This process for producing copies of manuscripts, or printed documents, or engravings, that can with dif- ficulty be detected from the originals, was in- vented by M. Buldermus at Erfurt. The dis- covery was communicated to a few persons in London in 1841. It was soon after made public, and Faraday explained the process at the Royal Institution April 25, 1845. It has since trans- pired that a similar process had been employed in England some time before M. Baldermus's invention was made known. The invention was improved and extended by Strickland and Delamotte in 1848. ANATHEMA "is a word," says Bingham (Antiq. b. xvi. ch. ii. s. 16), "that occurs fre- quently in the ancient canons, and the con- demnation of all heretics." It is found in i Cor. xvi. 22, and in Gal. i. 8 ; and upon its use in the latter text the authorities of the early Church grounded their justification of its em- ployment in ecclesiastical censures. The Coun- cil of Gangra, A.D. 365 or 375, closes every one of its canons thus :" Let him be anathema, or accursed ! " In ecclesiastical language, it is generally understood as the sentence of major excommunication from the Church, pro- nounced with execration and malediction by a pope, bishop, or council. During the disorders occasioned by the violence of banditti in Franco in the gth and xoth centuries, when the eccle- siastical jurisdiction was appealed to in aid of the civil, anathemas were decreed against rob- bers by councils, in presence of holy relics brought in for, the occasion. One of these, issued in 988, affords a very curious specimen of style and diction. (See EXCOMMUNICATION.) ANATOLIA (Asia Minor). The Lydians dis- pute with the Phrygians the honour of being the first settlers. It was the seat of empire of the wealthy Croesus, who was defeated and his capital taken by Cyrus, B.C. 546 (See LYDIA) ; and it remained under the Persian yoke until conquered by Alexander III., the Great, B.C. 333. At his death it was divided into several small states. They gradually fell before tho Roman legions, and the whole country was reduced to the form of a Roman province, B.C. 50. Christianity flourished, and several coun- cils were held in different parts. Here were AX ATOMY [ 54 AXCONA the seven churches of Asia, to which St. John wrote his Revelation (ch. i. 4 and n>, A.D. 96 or 97. The Persians, under Chosrocs II., over- ran the country in 616, and were defeated by Heraclius in 627. The Turks obtained posses- sion 1074 1084. The Mongols committed great devastations 1242 1272. In 1300 Anatolia was divided amongst the Turkish emirs. Another Mongol invasion spread ruin and destruction in 1402, but the Turks regained possession, and Anatolia lias since remained under their sway. The Byzantines applied the term Anatolia to the country to the east of Constantinople, and it received the name of Asia Minor in the 4th century. Anatolia, or Anadol, in a more re- stricted sense, is now applied to only a portion of . \si.i .Minor. AX. \TOMY. Some authorities pretend that this science was practised at a very early period, and Hint the .lews and other ancient nations from their sacrifices, ;md the Egyptians from their process of embalming, obtained a certain amount of knowledge on the subject. A writer in the Encyclopaedia Britannica remarks: " Amidst the general obscurity in which the early history of anatomy is inv< lived, only two leading facts may be admitted with certainty. The first is, that previous to the time of Aristotle there was no accurate know- ledge of anatomy; and the second, that all that was known was derived from the dissection of the lower animals only." Aristotle u.c. 384 322) laid the basis of the science, but it was not until the 3rd century that the human body was dissected at Alexandria by Krasis- tratus, who obtained the bodies of criminals. Pliny states that the study was encouraged by the Ptolemies. Cclsus, at the commencement of the Christian asra, gave some account of the progress of anatomy ; and Galen, in the 2nd century, collected all that was known, and made great advances in the science. It nourished in Sicily in the i3th century, when Frederick II. enacted that no person who had not acquired a knowledge of anatomy should be allowed to practise surgery. Pope Boniface VIII. prohibited it in Bologna in 1297. Mundinus, l>etween 1315 18, publicly dissected three human bodies at Bologna, and wrote a work on the subject that became a text-book in the Italian universities. The greatest ana- tomist of the Middle Ages was Vcsalius, who operated extensively on human subjects. He became professor at Pa via in 1540; and pub- lished his great work on anatomy, the first containing anatomical plates, at Basel, in 1543. Michael Angelo, Raphael, and Leonardo da Vinci had, previous to that time, been per- mitted by Julius II. and Leo X. to study the muscles in the human body, for purposes of painting and sculpture. Thomas Vicary, in 1548, was the first Englishman who wrote upon the subject : he has been followed by Harvey, the two Hunters, and a number of eminent men. ANATOMY LAWS. By 32 Hen. VIII. c. 43, s. 2 (1540), the barbers and surgeons of Lon- don were authorized to take, yearly, the bodies of four malefactors, executed for felony, for purposes of dissection. Several enactments have appeared in the statute-book since that tune. Great difficulty having been experienced in obtaining subjects for dissection, and bad practices having arisen, the "Act for Regu- lating Schools of Anatomy " (2 i tion of all his demands, the Duke of Normandy was to receive a pension of 60,000 livres per annum, for which he was to relinquish tho interest which had been lately conferred upon him in Xormandy." ANCHORITES, or ANCHORETS. (Sec AN A- i IKiltKTS.) ANCHORS, which were unknown to tho Greeks till after the Trojan war, are stated by 1'liny to have been invented by the Etruscans. They were at first made of stone, with only one thike, the second being added by Anacharsis the Scythian, the contemporary of Solon, B.C. 594. The earliest anchors forged in England are said to have been constructed A.D. 578, from which period little or no change took place in their manufacture until Lieut. Rodger, R.X., patented his improvements in 1828 and 1829. Lenox patented a new anchor in 1832, and Mcggitts introduced further improvements in 1836. Porter's swivel anchor, patented in 1838, was tested by government in 1840 with satis- factory results. Trotman's improvements were patented in the early part of 1852 ; and a trial of anchors that took place (July) established their superiority to those of any other maker. Firmin's improvements were patented in 1854, Scott's in 1855, and Hunter's in 1856. The anchors employed during the launch of the "Great Eastern," in the spring of 1858, were the largest ever forged. By 17 & 18 Viet, c. 104, s. 483 (Aug. 10, 1854), manufacturers are required to stamp their name on each anchor sent out. ANCIENT LIGHTS. By 2 and the Sardinians Sep. 29, ITOO, when Gen. Lamoriciere, who had re- organized the papal army, was made prisoner. An episcopal see was established at Ancona at an early period. ANCYRA (Asia Minor). An important town in Galatia, on the route from Byzantium to Armenia and Syria. It originally belonged to Phrygia. According to Strabo, it became the chief town of the Tectosages, a Gallic tribe, about B.C. 277. It was taken by the Romans B.C. 189 ; was formally annexed to Rome B.C. 25 ; and soon after took the name of Sebaste, and was sometimes called Metropolis. A Chris- tian Church was established here in the time of the apostles ; and it was made an episcopal see. Councils were held at Ancyra A.D. 314, 358, and 375 ; Chosrocs II. captured the city in 616 ; the Saracens took it in 1085 ; and it was carried by assault, by the Crusaders, in 1102. (See ANOOBA.) ANDALUCIA (Spain), anciently VANDA- LUCIA, a large province, that at one time formed part of the Roman colony of Bsetica. The Vandals conquered it early in the sth cen- tury, and on their passing over to Africa, A.D. 429, the Visigoths obtained possession. They were expelled, in 711, by the Moors, who, in spite of various reverses, did not finally relax their hold until 1492, when their last possessions in Andalucia reverted to the Spaniards. An independent race of caliphs governed Andalucia from 756 to 1036. Andalucia was divided into two departments, containing eight provinces, by a royal decree, Nov. 30, 1833. Its four ancient provinces were Cadiz, Cordova, Jaen, and Seville. ANDAMAN ISLANDS (Bay of Bengal) were explored by Peyraud in 1607, and the English attempted to form a settlement on one of the four in 1 791 . It was removed to Port Corn- wallis in 1793, and abandoned, on account of the climate, in 1796. The British expedition against the Burmese touched here in 1824, and another visit was made in 1825, on both of which occasions the inhabitants evinced great hostility. ANDERNACH (Prussia). The ancient An- tunacum, near which Caesar constructed a bridge across the Rhine, B.C. 55, for the pas- sage of his army into Germany. Charles the Bald was defeated here Oct. 8, 876, by his nephew, Louis II. of Saxony. It was made an imperial city during the Middle Ages, but was reduced to the rank of a municipal town by the Elector of Cologne in 1496. ANDES (Italy). This little village, situated about two miles from Mantua, was the birth- place of the poet Virgil, Oct. 15, B.C. 70. ANDORRA. This republic, in the Pyrenees, consists of neutral territory between France and Spain. It was formed by Charlemagne, during his wars against the Moors, and has preserved the same frontiers and mode of government which it then received. By two diplomas, issued under the authority of Charlemagne, in 778 and 801, Andorra was constituted an independent state. The Counts of Foix were nominated protectors ; but a dis- pute having arisen, in 860, on this point, a contest ensued, which lasted until 1278, when a co-protectorate was vested in the Bishops of Urgel and the Counts of Foix. The rights of the latter merged in the house of the Bourbon, and, in consequence, the joint protectorate is now exercised by the Emperor of the French and the Spanish Bishop of Urgel. Andorra in the oldest free republic in existence. ANDREW, ST. The Russian order of St. Andrew was founded by Peter the Great in 1698. (For order of St. Andrew, see THISTLE.) ANDREWS, ST. (Scotland). This town was made a royal burgh by David I., in 1140. Its university was founded in 1411, by Bishop Wardlaw, and confirmed by a papal bull in the following year. It consisted of three colleges, namely, those of St. Salvator, founded in 1458 ; St. Leonard, in 1512 ; and New, or St. Mary's College, in 1552. The two former were united in 1747, and the buildings of St. Leonard pulled down. St. Mary's was remodelled in 1579. The cathedral of St. Andrews, founded in 1159, and completed in 1318, was nearly destroyed by a mob, excited by the preaching of John Knox, in June, 1559. St. Andrews, made an episcopal see about 800, an archbishopric in 1477, was suppressed in 1689. The name of the see of Fife was changed to that of St. Andrews Sep. 5, 1844. ANDROS (Archipelago), one of the Cyclades, colonized by lonians. Xerxes compelled the Andrians to join his fleet in the invasion of Greece, B.C. 480. The island, which became subject to the Athenians, and afterwards to the Macedonians, was taken by the Romans B.C. 200. It was captured by the Venetians A.D. 1124. ANDRUSSOW (Treaty). By this treaty, con- cluded at the village of Andrussow, on the Gorodnia, Jan. 30, 1667, the Czar Alexis ceded part of Livonia, the Ukraine, and the towns of Polocz, Witepsk, Dunebourg, &c., to John II., King of Poland. Conferences were held between ANEMOMETER ANGOULEME plenipotentiaries of the same states at An- drussow, in 1684. ANEMOMETER. The earliest instrument of this kind was invented by Croune, in 1667. Iffwas improved by Wolfius, in the beginning of the 1 8th century ; and by Dr. Lind, in 1775. ANHROID. This form of barometer, in- vented by Vidi, of Paris, in 1847, was intro- duced to scientific men in this country by Professor Lloyd, at the meeting of the British Association at Swansea, in 1848. A metallic mo- dification of the aneroid was introduced in 1850. ANGEL. This gold coin was introduced from France into England, by Edward IV., in 1465. Stow speaks of angelets at 6. 8d. ; half- angels at 5.-!., and at 33. 4MA- GUS, afterwards called Andcgavia, was fre- quently assailed. Odoaccr wrested it from the Romans, A.D. 464 ; Charles M artel captured it in 724 ; and the Dan ing pillaged it several times, fortified it in 860. It was for- merly the capital of Anjou. King John burned it in Sep., 1206; and the Vcndeuns were driven from it in 1793. In 158=; the Huguenots seized the celebrated castle built by St. Louis. It was made the scat of a bishopric in the 4th century, and its university was founded in 1246. Coun- cils were held at Angers in 453, 529, 1055 or 1062, 1157, 1161, 1269, 1279, 1365, 1448, and 1583. ANGERSTE1N GALLERY. This collection, which formed the commencement of the Na- tional Gallery, consisting of 38 pictures, was purchased by the English Government for .57,000, March 26, 1824. ANGLES. Tacitus (A.D. 61117) speaks of the Angli as a branch of the Sucvi. The Bri- tons having sought their aid against the Picts in 443, a force invade' I the country, under Hen- gist and Ilorsa, in 449, and, after subduing the northern marauders, turned their arms against the Britons, by whom they had been invited. These Angles, said to be a detached part of the Angrivarii, or people of the Angles, are sup- posed to have come from the district of An- gela, in Schleswig, and to have conferred upon Britain its modern name of Angle-land, or England. ANGLESEY, or ANGLESEA, anciently MO- NA. This island was in early times the chief Beat of the Druids in Wales. Suetonius rauli- nus, who captured it after a desperate resist- ance, A.D. 61, cut down the sacred groves, and butchered the priests and their people, though its subjugation was not completed until the year 78. Anglesey was captured by the Nor- mans in 1090. The inhabitants having regained '."ii, 1094, were again conquered in 1096. Magnus III., King of Norway, assailed it, com- mitting great ravages, in 1098. After several contests, it was subjugated, with the rest of Wales, by Edward I., and it was annexed to England by 12 Edw. I. (March 19, 1284). The Mona and Parys mines were discovered in 1768 ; the Menai Suspension Bridge, connecting the island with the mainland, was constructed be- tween 1818 and 1825 ; and the Britannia Tubular Railway Bridge was opened March 6, 1850. ANGLING. This art is of very ancient origin, and is even said to have been invented by Scth, about B.C. 3800. It is frequently mentioned in the Old Testament, and allusions to it occur in Job, one of the most ancient books of the Bible. The Greeks and Romans i it. Ixaak Walton's delightful work, entitled " The Compleat Angler; or, the Con- templative Man's Recreation: being a Di .f Fish and Fishing, not unworthy the perusal of most Anglers," appeared in 1653. There is a text of Scripture (John xxi. 3) on the title- page. It was not, however, the first English Iwok on the subject. This honour belongs to "The Treatysc of Fysshinge with an Angle," by Dame Juliana Barnes, Bcrnes, or Berners, published bv Wynkyn de Worde in 1496. AN(iL< >-SAX< )NS. A name given to several tribes, most of which were of Scandinavian origin. The Northmen having settled in Ger- many, from time to time invadi d and p. themselves of portions of Britain. The date of their first invasion is uncertain, some au- thorities placing it A.D. 368, and others in 449. They established themselves in the southern part of the island, and gradually extended their settlements in other directions. ANGOLA Africa .This territory, on the west coast of Africa, called Donga by the natives, was discovered by Diego Cam, a Por- tuguese, in 1484. Settlements were soon formed, though it was not until 1578 that Loando, its capital, was commenced. The Dutch captured Loando in 1640, but the Portu- guese regained possession in 1648. ANGOKA Asia .Minor .In a battle fought at this place, the ancient Ancyra . 64, and by Irenaeus, Bishop of Lyons, to the whole Roman empire in 177. Mohammed was regarded as antichrist by the Eastern Church during the 7th century. The Pope and Roman Catholic Church fre- quently received the same title from the early Reformers, and were formally denounced as antichrist by the national synod held by the French Protestants at Gap in 1603. Some commentators applied the prophecies relative to antichrist to Napoleon I., whose name they deciphered anagrammatically from Apollyou. ANTI-CORN-LAW LEAGUE was formed at Manchester, at a public dinner, Sep. 18, 1838. Deputies assembled in London Feb. 8, 1842, and from that time its operations were carried on with activity until Sir Robert Peel passed a bill for the repeal of the corn laws (June 26, 1846). The League was dissolved July 2, 1846. ANTIETAM (Battle). (See SHARPSBURG.) ANTIGUA (West Indies), the largest of the Leeward Islands, was discovered by Columbus in 1493. It was, with other islands, granted to James, Earl of Carlisle, July 2, 1627, to be colonized under the name of Carlisle Province. The first settlement appears to have been made in 1632. The French invaded the island in 1666, and committed much havoc. An earthquake destroyed a large number of the churches, sugar-mills, and principal buildings on the island, to the value of 100,000, Feb. 8, 1843 ; and great destruction of property was caused by hurricanes Aug. 12 and 13, 1835, and in 1848. It was made the seat of a colonial bishopric in 1842 ; and a cathedral was erected at its chief town, St. John's, in 1847. Some riots occurred at this town among the blacks in March, 1858, but they were speedily suppressed. ANTILLES, or CARIBBEE ISLANDS. The term Antilles is erroneously applied to all the West India Islands, which some authorities divide into the Greater and Lesser Antilles. The Bahamas are not included in this arrange- ment. The French gave the name to the Carib- bee (q. v.) or Windward Islands. ANTIMONY. This term was formerly applied to an ore in which antimony was combined with sulphur. Tersulphuret of antimony is found in great quantities at Sarawak, in Borneo. This preparation was used by the Jewish women for dyeing the eyelashes black. Jezebel used it (2 Kings ix. 30), about B.C. 884. The Greek and the Turkish ladies employ it in this manner. Preparations of antimony were only introduced into medical practice in the i$ih century. Its virtues in this respect were first discovered by Basil Valentine, a Benedictine monk of Erfurt, in 1490. ANTINOMIANS. This isnotthe designation of a separate sect, but of members of various sects who hold that Christians are free from the restraints both of the ceremonial and the moral law of Moses. They often, however, differed greatly in their views on this question. The theory existed in the time of St. Paul, for he alludes to it in Romans iii. , but the name was first applied to the followers of John Agri- cola, of Eisleben, who had a controversy with Luther between the years is38and 1540. These modern Antinomians held, moreover, that the law should be wholly excluded from the Church. The Antinomians became a strong political party in England, equally troublesome to Charles I., the Parliament, and Cromwell. In 1643 the Assembly of Divines condemned several writings which appeared to them Antinomian ; and in 1648 the Parliament enacted that any one convicted of maintaining that doctrine should be imprisoned until he found sureties that he would not offend again. Hallam (Hist, of Lit. vol. i. pt. i, ch. 4) says that Antinomianism prevails in the early writings of Luther. ANTIOCH [ 61 ] ANTIQUARIES ANTIOCH (Syria), now ANTAKIEH, was founded by Seleucus Nicator B.C. 300, who named it after his father ; and it remained the capital of the dynasty till Syria was conquered by Pompey, and was made a Koman province B.C. 64. Christianity was planted in Antioch by Paul and Barnabas, and here the disciples were first called Christians, A.D. 42 (Acts, xi. 26). This city, long known as "the Queen of the East," was captured by the Persian King Nushirvan, or ChosroesL, in 540; and Chosroes II. wrested it from the empire in 61 1. Heraclius expelled the Persians, but it fell into the power of the Saracens in 638 (according to Clinton, Tuesday, July 21) ; and they degraded it to the rank of a provincial town. Nicephorus Phocas reco- vered it in 966. It was betrayed to the Turks in 1084. The crusaders laid siege to it in 1097, and captured it Thursday, June 3, 1098.* The citadel held out, but the Saracens, who made an effort to regain the prize, were defeated in a great battle under the walls of Antioch, Monday, June 28, 1098; and Antioch became the capital of a Christian"principality. Bibars, Sultan of Egypt, captured it, destroyed its churches, and completely ruined it, June 12, 1268. It was annexed to the Ottoman empire in 1516. Ibra- him Pasha seized it Aug. i, 1832, but it was afterwards restored to the Porte. Antioch has frequently suffered from earthquakes ; the most disastrous occurred in 115, 340, 394, 396, 458, 526, and 588. St. Jerome says that St. Peter was its first bishop, and that he was translated thence to Rome. Antioch was a patriarchate, and, ac- cording to the Council of Nice, ranked third after Rome and Alexandria. The Council of Constantinople, in 382, gives Constantinople the next place after Rome, and makes Antioch the fourth. This was confirmed by the Council of Chalcedon, in 451. Thirty-one councils were held at Antioch, the first in 252, and the last in 1141. It was called by Strabo Tetrapolis. ANTIOCH (., the ancient Aquitania, one of the four provinces into which Augustus divided Gaul, B.C. 27. It was not completely subjected to the Romans until B.C. 28. The Visigoths, under Wallia, conquered it A.D. 419. It submitted to Clovis I., and was united to his kingdom in 508. It comprised Guienne, Poitou, Gascony, and Anjou. ARABIA ARAGON 637. Aquitaine is made an hereditary duchy. 718. It is invaded by the Saracens, who subdue a large portion. 733. Chnrles Martel repels the Saracens. 768. Walfar, Duke of Aquitaine. is defea'ed and slain by Pepin, who re-unites Aq. itaine to France. 781. Louis, son of Charlemagne, is crowned King of Aquitnirie, by Pope Adrian I. 817. Louis I. bestows Aqtiitaine upon his son Pepin. 838. Pepin dies, and the Empress Judith claims Aquitaine for her son Charles. 843. Treaty of Verdun (q. r.), by which the rights of Pepin's sons are sacrificed. 816 849. Danish invasions. 867. Aquitaine is reunited to France by Louis II., the Stammerer. 880. Rainulfe II. attempts to re-erect Aquitaine into a kingdom. 955. It is given by T.othaire to Hugh, Count of Paris. 1137. Death of William X., Duke of Aquitaine, when his duchy passes to his daughter Eleanor, afterwards queen of Louis VII. of France. 1151. Henry of Anjoit, afterwards Henry II. of England, obtains Aquitaine by his marriage with Eleanor, the divorced wife of Louis VII. 1169. Aquitaine devolves upon Richard, eldest son of He.iry II. of England. 1304. Philip II. (Augustus) reunites Aquitaine to France, which causes a long war with England. 1359. Aquitaine is restored to the English under Henry III., since which period it has been called "Guienne." (See GUIENNE.) ARABIA (Asia). The south-western penin- sula of Asia has, both in ancient and modern times, been known under this designation, though the term is sometimes applied to all the countries frequented by the tribes of wan- dering Arabs. The term Arabia does not, however, appear to have been used by the Hebrews until after the time of Solomon. Ptolemy is said to have been the first to insti- tute the three divisions of Arabia Petnea, Felix, and Deserta, i.e., the Rocky, the Happy or Fruitful, and the Desert or Sandy. The Arabs believed themselves to be descended from Joktan, the son of Eber (Gen. x. 2630), and from Ishmael, the son of Abraham, by his bondwoman, Hagar, born B.C. igio (Gen. xvi. 15, 1 6) ; the posterity of the former, by way of distinction, calling themselves pure Arabs. The direct, as well as the indirect, testimony of Scripture proves the Arabs to be descended from Ishmael. In the time of Moses, about B.C. 1530, the Arabians had grown up into "twelve princes according to their nations,'' and "they dwelt from Havilah unto Shur, that is before Egypt, as thou goest toward Assyria" (Gen. xxv. 16, 18, &c.}. Though as- sailed by the Egyptians, the Assyrians, the Medes and Persians, and other ancient nations, the Arabians were never subdued. Herodotus, the first, after the inspired writers, who notices Arabia, states (iii. 88) that it was never sub- jected to the Persian empire. Little is known of the general history of Arabia previous to the time of Mohammed, the accounts given by the Arabian writers being altogether unworthy of credit. 24. Augustus sends an expedition into Arabia Felix. It is unsuccessful. A.D. 105. A portion of Arabia is formed into a Roman province. 195. Septimius Severus obtains additional territory in Arabia. 570. Birth of Mohammed. (See MOHAMMEDANISM.) The Hegira (?. r.). Abu Beker succeeds Mohammed, taking the title of " Caliph." Battles of Aiznadin and Yermuk (7. .). Abdalmelik commences the Arabian coinage. Al Mansur introduces learning into Arabia. Haroun Al Rashid's caliphate commences. The King of Portugal assumes the title, but does not gain the power, of " Lord of the Navigation, Conquest, and Commerce of Arabia." Arabia is conquered by the Ottoman, Selim I. So:ini:in II. completes the conquest An edict is issued which unites all the Arabian tribes under one head, as Getanos orEgipeios (Egyptians), and prohibits the use of their native languages. Niebuhr travels in Arabia. 632- & V 1504. I5i8. 1539- ion. 1763. ARABIANS, or ARABICI. This sect arose in Arabia A.D. 207. They held that the soul dies with the body, with which it will rise again at the resurrection. Eusebius states, that at a council, called the "Council of Arabia," held in 247 or 248, to discuss the question, Origen argued so eloquently that he induced these heretics to renounce their errors. ARABIC NUMERALS. According to some authorities, Gerbert, afterwards Pope Sylvester II., learned the decimal system of notation from the Moors in Spain, and introduced it into France about the end of the ioth century. Another account is, that Leonard Fibonnacci of Pisa introduced it in 1220, in a work en- titled " Liber Abbaci," etc. ; and some have supposed that the Alphonsine Tables, con- structed chiefly by Moors at the court of Alphonso X., must have been the first docu- ment in which the system appeared. It is certain that before the i2th century, and most probably as early as the 9 th, this system had been in the hands of the Persians and Arabs, who ascribe it to the Hindoos, and call it by a name which signifies " Hindoo science." The Hindoos themselves have long used it, and it is easy to trace the manner in which our nu- merical symbols have been derived from those of the Sanscrit. The steps by which the new notation made its way through Europe cannot be very clearly defined. Montfaucon found it in an Italian manuscript which was finished in 1317 ; audit has been traced in many manu- scripts of the works of authors a century older ; it was, however, usual to substitute the new figures for the old in recopying. The library of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, possesses a catalogue of eclipses from 1300 to 1348, to which Arabic numerals are subjoined. In- scriptions with graven dates in these numerals have been given by Wallis and others as old as 1330 ; but, upon examination, reason has been found to suspect that 5 has been mistaken for 3. There does not seem to be evidence of any general use of the Arabic numerals before the invention of printing ; and even the works of Caxton do not contain them, except in a woodcut. Merchants continued down to the 1 6th century to keep their accounts in Roman figures. ARAGON (Spain) passed in the 6th century B.C. under the rule of the Carthaginians, who rebuilt Gades, now Cadiz, about B.C. 350. The Romans expelled the Carthagi- nians between the years B.C. 210 200 and in the redistribution of the peninsula into ARAGUA [ 68 ] ARBITRATION three provinces, made by Augustus, B.C. 27, Aragon formed part of Tarraconensis. It was overrun by the Visigoths at the commence- ment of the sth century. They established their power, and were in turn overwhelmed by the Saracens, who landed in the peninsula A.D. 711, and had subdued the greater portion by 713. Fierce struggles followed between the infidel invaders and the Christian inhabitants. The latter succeeded in maintaining small but independent states, and at the death of Sancho III., the sovereign of Christian Spain, in 1035, his dominions were divided amongst his four sons, and Aragon was formed into a kingdom, Ramiro I., Sancho' s youngest son, being its first king. A.D. 1096, Nov. 1 8. Battle of Alcoraza (q. .), which destroys the Mohammedan power between the Euro, the Ciuca, and the Pyrenees. Ill8. Saragossa is wrested from the Moors by Alphonso I. 1 1 34. Battle of Fraga (q. v.). 1137. llamiro II. abdicates the throne in favour of his daughter Petronilla, and reiires to a monastery. Catalonia is united to Aragon by Petronilla's mar- riage with Don Uaymond. 1303. Pedro II. engages that Aragou shall for ever remain a fief of the Holy See. 1313. Accession of James I. 1340. The Fueroi, or old laws of Aragon, are digested into a co le by Vital, Bishop of Iluesca, and confirmed by James I. 1383. Pope Martin IV. excommunicates the Aragonese, and endeavours to transfer the kingdom from Pedro III. to Charles of Viiloi*. 1291. Withdrawal of the papal ban, and renunciation by Charles of Valois of all claim to Aragon. 1347. Confederation against Pedro IV. to insure the adoption of the Salic law and confirmation of privileges. 1359. Pope Innocent VI. seeks to restore peace between Castile and Aragon. 1413, June. Ferdinand I. is elected King of Arngon. 1458. Death of Alphonso V.. surnamed the Wise. 1403. The Aragonese nobles invite Pedro, Infante of Portugal, to take the throne from John II. 1479. It is united to Castile under Ferdinand and Isabella. 1591. The ancient Aragonese constitution is suppressed. SOVEREIGNS OF ARAGON. A.D. 1075. Ramiro I. 1063. Sancho I. 1094. Pedro I. (Peter). 1104. Alphonso I. 1134. Ramiro II. 1137. Petronilla and Ray- mond. 1162. Alphonso II. 1196. Pedro II. (Peter). 1213. Jayme I. (James). 1276. Pedro III. (Peter). 1285. Alphonso III. A.D. 1391. Jayme II. (James). l-^Z". Alphonso IV. 1336. Pedro IV. (Peter). 1387. Juan I. (John). 1395. Martin I. Interregnum, I vear. 1412- Fernando I. (Ferdi- nand). 1416. Alphonso V. 1458. Juan 1 1. (John). 1479. Fernando II. United to Castile. ARAGUA (Battle). During the revolu- tionary war in South America, a sanguinary battle was fought in the valley of Aragua, June 18, 1814, when the royalists obtained a complete victory, and entered the city of Caracas, July 7. This is erroneously styled the Battle of Arazua. ARANIE, or ARNEE (Battle), between the French and Indians, and the English, led by Clive, was fought Dec. 3, 1751. The latter were victorious. ARANJUEZ (Spain). The ancient Ara Jovis is celebrated for its palace, commenced by Philip II. A treaty of alliance was concluded here, May i, 1745, between Genoa, France. Spain, and Naples, for the prosecution oi the war against Sardinia and the Germans \nother treaty, between Maria Theresa and the tings of Spain and Sardinia, for the main- tenance of the peace of Italy, was concluded, June 14, 1752, the preliminaries having been signed at Madrid, April 14. By a treaty signed acre, April 12, 1772, France and Spain agreed to unite in opposing the English in America. A convention between Great Britain and Spain was signed at Aranjuez May 25, 1793, by which the former agreed not to make peace with France till the Spaniards had obtained full restitution for all places and territories cap- tured by the French from the commencement of the revolutionary war. An insurrection occurred here March 18, 1808, which led to the abdication of Charles IV. in favour of his son, Ferdinand VII., March 19. ARAUCANIA S. America). This territory, which, though nominally subject to Chili, is virtually an independent state, has waged almost uninterrupted war against the Span- iards since their first appearance in 1537. In 1568 the inhabitants employed cavalry against their invaders, and in 1602 they destroyed the new settlements of Imperial, Villarica, Val- divia, and Angol. Peace was restored in 1641, but war recommenced in 1655. The Jesuits established a mission, which was destroyed during a general revolt of the inhabitants in 1720. War continued till 1773, when Spain acknowledged Araucanian independence, and permitted the establishment of a residency at Santiago. The inhabitants have held much more intercourse with surrounding nations since the declaration of Chilian independence in 1818, and of late years Christianity has made some progress. ARAZUA. ;&> ARAGUA.) A 1! HALIST. (See CROSS-BOW.) ARBELA (Battle). Near this town, now called Arbil, Alexander III. (the Great) gained a decisive victory over Darius, Oct. i, B.C. 331. The latter was slain, and the Persian empire subverted. The actual contest occurred near the village of Gaugamela, about 30 miles from Arbela, where the pursuit ter- minated. ARBITRATION. Courts of arbitration, or conciliation, established in Denmark in 1795, rapidly increased in numbers, and were soon after introduced into Norway. Napoleon I., in 1806, issued a decree, by which numerous Conseils de Prud'hommes (q. v.) were estab- lished in the various departments of France, though they were not adopted in Paris until 1844. Arbitration was recognized by the law of England, by 9 &. 10 Will. III. c. 15 (1698), which introduced some important regulations on this subject, making corrupt awards null and void. The power of arbitrators was greatly extended by 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 42, ss. 39, 40, 41 (Aug. 14, 1833), the award being made a rule of court. By the Common Law Procedure Act, 17 and 18 Viet. c. 125, s. 3 (Aug. 12, 1854), the judges of the superior courts have power, in certain cases, to order compulsory arbitration. The House of Commons appointed a select committee (Feb. 19, 1856) to inquire into the expediency of establishing Arbitration Courts on a more extended basis, and a report in favour of the principle was issued. ARBOGA ARCHDEACON ARBOGA (Sweden). Church assemblies were held at this ancient city in 1396, 1412, 1417, 1423, 1474, and diets in 1435, 1440, 1471, 1529, and 1561. The Arboga articles were passed at the last mentioned. Gustavus Adolphus, in 1625, issued an edict here respecting the copper coinage. ARBUTUS. This evergreen shrub was known to the Greeks and Romans, by whom its fruit was used as an article of diet. The bearberry, a variety of this plant, which be- came a fashionable medicinal remedy in 1673 and 1674, has not maintained its repute, and is at present regarded only as an ordinary astringent. ARCADES were employed by the Roman architects in the construction of triumphal arches, aqueducts, temples, and theatres : they were also frequently used by the Gothic builders of the Middle Ages. The Burlington Arcade (q.v.), opened in 1819; the Lowther Arcade, hi 1831 ; and the arcade in New Oxford- street, in 1851, are the principal arcades in London. ARCADIA (Peloponnesus), designated, from its mountainous character, "the Switzerland of Greece." The Arcadians claimed to be the earliest inhabitants of Greece, calling them- selves Proseleni, i. e., "before the moon." Pan was their tutelary deity, and they delighted in music. " They were scarcely," says a writer in the "Encyclopaedia Metropolitana," " an Hellenic race ; hence we are not sur- prised that they retained their pastoral habits and rugged manners." Herodotus (viii. 73) admits that they were indigenous, and Pau- sanias gives a long list of their early kings, descendants of Areas, from whom, according to some accounts, the country received its name. Clinton says the Arcadians were an aboriginal tribe of the Pelasgic race. The first well-established fact with respect to the Arcadians is that they maintained their inde- pendence when the Dorians invaded the Peloponnesus, B.C. 1104. The following is a summary of the events, legendary and authentic, given by historians : B.C. 1710. 1531- I5H. H93- II74- 1103. 848. 7'5- A colony of Arcadians enter Italy (q. v.~). Pe1asgus> king of Arcadia. Areas king, from whom the country takes its name. Ag.-ipcnor leads the Arcadians to the Trojan war. Ephitus is king. The Arcadian women defeat the Lacedaemonians, who had invaded their country. War with Sparta, Aristoc-rates I., of Arcadia, is put to death for having offered violence to the priestess of Diana. 681. Aristocrates II. is stoned to death for treason, and Arcadia becomes a republic. 3*0. Agesilaus invades Arcadia. 367. The Arcadians and their allies are defeated by Sparta. 365. War with Elis (q. .). (See OLYMPIA.) 364. Arcadia is invaded ly Archidamus. The Arcadians seize the Olympian treasury. After the death of Alexander III., several of the Arcadian cities joined the Achasan League, and the country ultimately fell under the Ro man yoke. ARCADIOPOLIS (Battle). The Bulgarians defeated the Emperor Isaac II. near this city in 1194. ARCH. Layard discovered at Nimroud a vaulted chamber, a proof that the ancient Assyrians were acquainted with the principle of the arch. Many authorities have asserted, with great confidence, that neither the ancient Assyrians nor the ancient Egyptians employed ;he arch. Wilkinson shows that the arch in orick and stone was known to the ancient Egyptians, remains of the former, bearing date B.C. 1540, and of the latter B.C. 600, having been discovered at Memphis and Thebes. The Chinese are said to have constructed arches on a very extensive scale, at an early period. The Greeks did not use them. The Cloaca Maxima, the most ancient Roman arch, was built in the reign of Tarquinius Priscus, about B.C. 600. The semicircular arch was one of the charac- teristics of the architecture of the early Britons. The pointed arch formed part of a mosque at Jerusalem, rebuilt A.D. 780 ; of the Nilometer at Cairo, erected in 848 ; and existed in other Saracenic buildings of the ioth cen- tury. In Christian edifices it appears in the 1 2th century. ARCHAEOLOGICAL INSTITUTE. The Archaeological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, established in London in Dec., 1843, held its 22nd annual congress at Dorchester, Aug. i to 8, 1865. (See BRITISH ARCHAEOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION.) ARCHANGEL (Russia). Founded in 1584, and named after the convent of St. Michael the Archangel. The passage by sea was discovered by Richard Chancellor, in 1553. An English factory was established here during the reign of Mary (1553 1558). Archangel was for many years the only port in Russia. An extensive fire occurred here Oct. 17, 1762, and another June 26, 1793, which destroyed the cathedral and about 3,000 buildings. Archangel was blockaded by the English fleet in 1854. ARCHBISHOP. Burn (Ecclesiastical Law, vol. i. 194) says, the " title of archbishop was one of honour, but brought with it no authority, and was at first very rarely bestowed, and only on the most distinguished bishops." The name is not to be met with during the first three centuries. It occurs for the first time in the 4th century, and St. Athanasius appears to have been among the earliest who were dis- tinguished by this title (326 373). In the sth century it was conferred on the bishops of Rome, Antioch, Alexandria, Constantinople, Jerusalem, Ephesus, and Thessalonica. lit gradually grew more common, and was be- stowed upon all metropolitans. The ancient Britons had at least one archiepiscopal see, that of Caerleon, before Augustine arrived. He was made Archbishop of Canterbury (q. v.) by Ethelbert, in 598, and he fixed his seat there in 602. Paulinus, appointed by King Edwin in 627, was the first Archbishop of York (q. v.). The Archbishop of Canterbury was Primate of Ire- land, as well as of England, until 1152, and York had metropolitan jurisdiction over all bishops of Scotland until 1466. ARCHDEACON. Towards the end of the 3rd century, one of the deacons, whose duty it was to attend on the bishop in church affairs, was selected from the rest and made an arch- deacon. Frankish dioceses are said to have ARCHERY ARCHITECTURE been divided into archdeaconries in the 8th cen tury. Wulfred is the first English archdeacon whose name is found in any document, and he became Archbishop of Canterbury in 803. In the early times archdeacons had no juris- diction in this country. It was not until after the Norman conquest that the English dioceses were divided into archdeaconries. From the "Valor Ecclesiasticus " of Henry VIII. it ap- pears the number of English archdeacons amounted to 54, but by 6 & 7 Will. IV. c. 77 (Aug. 13, 1836), and subsequent acts, the number has been increased. ARCIfKRY. Bows and arrows were used by the Israelites (Gen. xxi. 20, i Sam. xxxi. 3, and 2 Sam. i. 18), and from the representations of battles on the walls of Medinet-Abnu, at Thebes, it is evident that the ancient Egyptians employed these weapons. Procopius states that they were in high repute amongst the ancient Persians ; and Homer not only speaks of skilful archers, but describes the attempts made by the suitors of Penelope to bend the bow of the absent Ulysses. Archers composed a portion of the light-armed troops amongst the Greeks and Romans. Pyrrhus employed 2,000 archers at the battle of Pandosia, near Heraclea, B.C. 280. The Romans frequently retained the Cretan bowmen as mercenaries. Bows and arrows were used by the early inhabitants of Britain, and Asser relates that Alfred was preparing such instruments when he offended the cowherd's wife, by allowing her cakes to burn, A.D. 878. The cross-bow is said to have been used by the Normans at the battle of Hastings, was common in the armies of Henry III., and the long-bow was in u'eneral use in England in the time (if Kdward II. The skill of the English archers is a favourite theme with the old chroniclers, and English bows ;uid arrows were in great request. In 1363, Ivlward III. enjoined the practice of archery on Sundays and festivals, and the same was done by Richard II. In 1405, a statute was passed against persons using bad materials in the manufacture of bows and arrows. At Crecy (1346), the English archers proved more expert than the Genoese crossbow-men. Poitiers (1356) and Agincourt (1415) were won by this weapon. Edward IV., by statutes passed in 1478 and 1483, encouraged archery in Ireland. The archers of the king's guard, raised by Kdward III. in 1356, consisted of 120 men selected from the mounted corps of archers. Henry VII., in 1485, instituted the yeomen of the guard (q. v.), who were then all archers. James I., in 1610, appointed a commission to stop the enclosure of the ground used for archery practice. Charles II. reviewed the Finsbury archers in 1682; and so late as 1753 targets for archery practice were set up in Finsbury Fields. ARCHES (Court). The court of appeal for all the inferior ecclesiastical courts within the Erovince of Canterbury received this name om having been held formerly in the church of St. Mary-le-Bow (Sancta Maria de Arcubus). It was removed thence (1567) to the Common Hall of Doctors' Commons, where it is still held. The appeal from this court to the Court of Delegates, or the king in Chancery, as con- stituted by 25 Hen. VIII. c. 19 (1534), was transferred by 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 9 (1832), to the king in council. ARCHITECTURAL SOCIETIES. The Ar- chitects' Club met in London Oct. 20, 1791, and in 1792 appointed a committee of inquiry into the causes and prevention of the frequent fires that had taken place about that time. The London Architectural Society was established in 1806, and the Architectural Society in 1831. The Institute of British Architects, founded in 1834, was incorporated by Royal Charter Jan. ii, 1837, when the term Royal was prefixed to the title, and it was united in 1842 with the Architectural Society. An Association of Archi- tectural Draughtsmen, founded about 1846, was the origin of the present Architectural Asso- ciation. The Architectural Publication Society was established in 1848. A R( 'HITECTURE. The earliest monuments of architectural skill are found in the land of Egypt, where the art appears to have originated in the use of caves as dwelling-places, and con- sequently retained a massive and heavy cha- racter. The Egyptians were expert architects B.C. 1740, and used brick vaults and arches as early as B.C. 1540. Next in point of antiquity probably ranks the Cyclopean or Pelasgian architecture of Greece and Italy, which dates from a period long antecedent to the classic history of those countries, and which is still rich in remains, remarkable for the wonderful massivenexs and strength of the masonry. The art was also cultivated at a very early period in China and India, where it appears to have remained stationary in style and perfection to the present day ; and it attained great and cha- racteristic excellence in the chief kingdoms of Western Asia, as Assyria, Babylon, and Persia. Greek architecture, which, from its neglect of the arch and frequent employment of pillars and horizontal beams, is believed to be founded upon the use of timber dwellings, is thought by some authorities to have been a development of national skill, while others regard it as an importation from Egypt. It is, however, cer- tain that it originated at a period subsequent to the Pelasgian age, and that it was distin- guished by the three great orders, the Doric, the Ionic, and the Corinthian, to whicli were afterwards added the Tuscan and Composite. From Greece the art extended itself to Rome, where it was modified by Pelasgian traditions and Phoenician influences, and became espe- cially characterized by the frequent use of the round arch. Roman architecture reached its culminating point about A.D. 80, when Titus completed the Coliseum (//. r.). The rise of ,'hristianity led to further departures from the ancient classic model, and the foundation of onstantinople, and the removal of the seat of government to that city, where the existing heathen temples were altered to meet the requirements of Christian worship, gave rise to the Basilican and Byzantine schools. The destruction of the Western empire and the supremacy of the Teutonic element, intro- duced still further changes, leading in the 1 2th century to the rise of Gothic architec- ture '/. ;-.), and the mediaeval cathedrals which ire its exemplars. The most eminent architects lave been Vitruvius, who flourished B.C. 40, ARCHONS [ 71 3 ARDAGH Michael Angelo Buonarotti (14741564), Inigo Jones (1572 July 21, 1652), Sir Christopher Wren (Oct. 20, 1632 Feb. 25, 1723), Sir William Chambers (1726 March 8, 1796), and Sir Charles Barry (1795 May 12, 1860). (See ARCH, ARCHITECTURAL SOCIETIES, COLISEUM, CORIN- THIAN ORDER, DORIC ORDER, GOTHIC ARCHI- TECTURE, NEW HOUSES OF PARLIAMENT, PAUL'S (ST.) CATHEDRAL, PYRAMIDS, TUSCAN ORDER, WESTMINSTER ABBEY, &c., &c., &c.). ARCHONS. On the abolition of kingly go- vernment in Athens, at the death of Codrus, B.C. 1069 or B.C. 1045, the chief authority was vested in officers styled archons, appointed for life. Twelve, called the Medontidw, of the family of Codrus, succeeded, when (B.C. 752) the tenure of office was limited to 10 years. Seven archons were appointed for this term, and (B.C. 684) the office was made elective and to be held for one year only. ARCIS-SUR-AUBE (Battle). Fought near this small town in France, March 21, 1814, be- tween the Allies and the French army com- manded by Napoleon I. The latter, after a severe struggle, retreated to Vitry. ARCOLA (Battle). At this village, 15 miles from Verona, on the Alpone, an affluent of the Adige, Bonaparte, in his fourth Italian campaign, defeated the Austrians under Al- vinzi, in a battle extending over three days, Nov. 14, 1 6, and 17, 1796. ARCOT (Hindostan), the capital of the northern district of Arcot, in the presidency of Madras, was founded in 1716. Clive cap- tured it Aug. 31, 1751. He was assailed by a strong native and French force Sep. 23, 1751 ; from which day till Nov. 14, when the final assault was delivered and repulsed, he defended the place with extraordinary heroism. Having fallen into the hands of the French, Oct. 4, 1758, it was retaken by Coote, Feb. 10, 1760. Hyder Ali stormed it Oct. 31, 1780, but did not hold it long. Arcot came into the possession of the East India Company in 1801. ARCTIC CIRCLE. Numerous attempts, with widely different objects, have been made by the mariners of various countries to pene- trate the regions of frost and snow around the North Pole. The Scandinavians, in the 9 th, loth, and nth centuries, and the Venetian, Spanish, and Portuguese navigators, at a later period, prosecuted their researches in this direction. (See AMERICA, GREENLAND, and ICE- LAND.) A.D. 1498. Sebastian Cabot reaches the Arctic regions. 1517. His second voyage in the same direction. 1537. Robert Thorne, a merchant of Bristol, writes to in- duce Henry VIII. to sanction a polar expedition ; and two ships, the Sampson and the Mary of Guildford, are sent out. I5S3- Sir Hugh Willoughby discovers Xova Zernbla (q. v.). He returns, and sails to Lapland, where he and his crew perish from hunger, in Jan., 1554. 1576, June 7. Frobisher starts on his first voyage. 1580. Pet and Jackman sail in search of a north-eastern passage, but are compelled by the ice to return. 1585. June 7. John Davis leaves Dartmouth on his first voyage, and after making several discoveries on the X.E. coast of America, returns to England Sep. 30, 1586. 1586. Davis' s second voyage. 1587. Djivis's third voyage. 1594. The Dutch send an expedition to seek a northern passage, under William Barentsz. Hudson's third voyage. Hudson starts on his fourth voyage, and dis ' A.D. 1595. Barentsz's second voyage. 1595- Barentsz's third voyage. 160?. George Waymouth sails in a fruitless search of the north-west passage. 1607. May I. Hudson starts on his first voyage. 1608. Hudson's second voyage. 1609. Hudson's third voya 1610. Hudson starts on h Hudson's Bay (q. v.) ; his crew mutiny, and leave him to perish of cold and hunger. 1615. Bylot's voyage, in which Baffin acted as mate. 1616. Bylot and Baffin discover Baffin's Bay (q. .). 1631. James's disastrous voyage. 1676. Capt. Wood sails in search of a north-east passage. 17^8. Behring leaves Kamtsclmtka (q. v.) on his first voyage, during which he explores Behring's Straits (q. v.). 1739. Behring's second voyage. 1741. Behring's third voyage, and death. 1743. The English Government offer a reward of 20,000 to any person discovering a north-west passage by Hudson's Strait. 1773. Phipps and Lutwidge sail. Horatio (afterwards Lord) Nelson accompanies the expedition. 1776. Cook and Clerke's voyage. The following list of the Arctic expeditions sent out during the present century is ex- tracted from Simmonds's "Arctic Regions :" A.D. 1818. John Ross, Isabella and Alexander. 1818. Buchan and Franklin, Dorothea and Trent. 1819-21. Franklin, first land expedition. 1819-30. Parry, Hecla and Griper. 1831-23. Parry, Fury and Hecla. 1834. Lyon, Griper. 1834-25. Parry, Hecla and Fury. 1835-37. Franklin, second land expedition. 1826-28. Buchan, Blossom. 1829-33. John Ross, Victory. i 8 33-35- Back, land expedition. 1836-37. Back, Terror. 1836-39. Dean and Simpson, boat expedition. 1846-47. Rae, boat expedition. 1845-46. Franklin, Erebus and Terror. 1848-49. James Ross, Enterprise and Investigator. 1848-49. Richardson, boat expedition. 1848-52. Moore, Plover. 1849-51. Pullen, boat expedition. 1849-50. Hooper, boat expedition. 849-50. Saunders, North Star. 1850. Forsyth, Prince Albert. 1850-55. Collinson, Enterprise. 850-55. 850-54. M'Clure, Investigator. 1850-51. Austin, Resolute, Assistance, Intrepid, and Pioneer. 1850-51. John Ross, Felix. 1850-51. Penny, Lady Franklin and Sophia. 1850-51. De Haven and Kane, Advance and Rescue. 1851-53. Kennedy (Bellot), Prince Albert. 1851-54. Rae, land expedition. 1853-54. Maguire, Plover. 1853-54. Belcher, Assistance and Pioneer. 1853-54. Kellett, Resolute and Intrepid. 1853-54. Pullen, North Star. 1853-55. Kane, Advance. 1857-59. M'Clintock, Fox. See FRANKLIN'S EXPEDITIONS, and NORTH-WEST PASSAGE.) ARDAGH (Bishopric). This see, one of the earliest established in Ireland, is said to have Deen founded by St. Patrick, who appointed ais nephew, St. Mell or Mael, first bishop in 454. St. Mell, described as abbot and bishop, died in 488. Ardagh was united to Kilmore Feb. 24, 1660, but was separated from it for a short time Sep. 8, 1692. In 1742 it was severed from Kilmore and united to Tuam. By the Church Temporalities Act, 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 37 Aug. 14, 1833), other arrangements were made, ay which the bishopric of Ardagh was, in 1839, separated from Tuam and joined to Kilmore. ARDEE [ 72 1 ARGOS In 1841 Kilmore, Elphin, and Ardagh formed one bishopric. ARDEE (Ireland). This town was sacked by Edward Bruce in 1315. It surrendered to the rebels during the insurrection of Oct., 1641, when it was delivei-ed up to pillage. ARDEN. This forest in Warwickshire, situ- ated between and around the towns of Hen- ley-in-Arden and Hampton-in-Arden, formed, during the Roman period, the country of the Comavii, and afterwards constituted part of the Saxon kingdom of Mercia. In 1016, in common with the rest of the county, it was ravaged by the Danish army of Canute, and, after the conquest, its inhabitants were much harassed by the oppressive forest laws of their Norman rulers. Some critics believe it to be the scene of Shakespeare's comedy of "As You Like It." ARDFERT. This Irish bishopric, called in ancient records the bishopric of Kerry, was founded in the sth century, Cerpaiii being mentioned as bishop in 500. Edward Synge, Bishop of Limerick in 1660, held the sees of Ardfert and Aghadoe in conn,,- ndam ; and they were both united to Limerick in 1663. ARDOCH (Battle). Fought between the Romans, led by Agricola, and the Caledonians under Galgacus, on a moor at the foot of the Grampians, A.D. 84 or 85. The latter were routed with great slaughter. This is called Agricola's Victory, and the battle of the Grampians. ARDRES (France). The interview in the " Field of the Cloth of Gold " (q. v.), took place near this town, June 7, 1520. The treaty for the meeting had been concluded Oct. 14, 1518. Ardres was captured by the Spaniards in 1596. ARENENBERG (Switzerland^. This cha- teau, situated in the canton of Thurgau, was purchased in 1817 by Queen Hortense, mother of the Emperor Louis Napoleon III., who there passed several years of his youth. In 1843 it was sold to a gentleman of Neuchatel, but it was afterwards repurchased by the emperor, who visited the spot in the summer of 1865. AREOPAGUS (Court). This institution is attributed to Cecrops, the founder of Athens, B.C. 1556. It is known to have existed before the time of Solon. B.C. 594. He extended its jurisdiction. The guardianship of the laws and the power of enforcing them were entrusted by Solon to this court. Religion and the educa- tion of youth were placed under its control. Its constitution was preserved inviolate until Pericles, B.C. 461, caused himself to be elected without having previously received the ap- pointment of archon. St. Paul was brought before this court A.D. 51 (Acts xvii., 19, &c.). ARGAUM (Battle). Wellington defeated the Mahratta chiefs at this village, in Hyderabad, Nov. 29, 1803. ARGENTARIA (Battle). Argentaria, now Colmar, in Alsace, was the scene of Gratian's signal victory over the Alemanni, in May, A.D. 378. Gibbon says, "It secured the peace of Gaul and asserted the honour of the Roman arms." ARGENTEUS CODEX. (See SILVER BOOK.) ARGENTINE CONFEDERATION, or RE- PUBLIC (S. America). These provinces threw off the yoke of Spain in 1810, remaining in a very unsettled state until 1816, when a republic was first established. The basis of the Argen- tine Confederation was, however, laid in 1834, Buenos Ayres and three other states forming a confederacy, which was afterwards joined by other state's to the number of 13 : Buenos Ayres. Catamarca. Cordova. Corrifntfs. Entrc Kois. La Rioja. Mendoza. Salta. San Juan. Sail Luis. Saut i Fe. Santiago. Tucanian. Buenos Ayres separated from the confederacy in 1853, an d other secessions occurred. War was declared against Buenos Ayres in August, 1 86 1, which lasted till the beginning of the following year, and resulted in the solemn installation of Gen. Mitre and Col. Paz, as president and vice-president of the republic, Oct. 12, 1862. The fleet of Paraguay seized two Argentine war-steamers at Corrientes, and occupied the city, April 13 and 14, 1865, and war was declared against Paraguay (q. v.). A treaty of alliance against Paraguay was con- cluded at Buenos Ayres, with Brazil and Uruguay, May 4. (See BUENOS AYRES and PLATA, LA.) ARGINUSyE (Sea-fight). The Athenian fleet defeated the Spartan armament under Calli- cratidas, among the islands of Arginusse, near Lesbos, B.C. 406. ARGONAUTIC EXPEDITION. This voy- age, the first naval expedition on record, was, according to the traditional account, con- ducted by Jason, son of ^Eson, King of Thes- saly, "to bring back the golden fleece of the ram which had carried away Phryxus and Helle." The celebrated Argo was built, which, after various adventures, reached JEa, the capital of Colchis, B.C. 1263, or, according to Newton, B.C. 937. ,r AUKI.AS. This town in France fell under the Roman yoke B.C. 123, and became a Roman colony in the time of Augustus. It was pillaged A.D. 270, and re- stored and enlarged by Constantino I. ; hence it was sometimes called Constantia. His son, afterwards Constantine II., was born here. Constantine I. presided at the celebrated coun- cil held at Aries against the Donatists in 314. (See ACCUSERS, FALSE.) Three English bishops took part in the proceedings ; which fact proves the important position occupied by the English Church in the beginning of the 4th century. In 418 Aries was appointed as the place for the annual meeting of the assembly of the seven provinces of Gaul. It was besieged by the Visigoths in 425, 429, 452, and 457 ; and cap- tured by Euric in 466. The Saracens defeated Eudes, Duke of Aquitaine, near Aries, in 731 ; but he joined his forces with those of Charles Martel and expelled the Saracens in 732. Aries was plundered by the Saracens in 850, and was frequently invaded. In addition to the cele- brated council in 314, others were held here in 353 442, 4S 2 455 4 6 3> 475, 524, 554, 813, 1059, 1205, 1211, 1234, 1260 or 1261, and 1275. The republican form of government was adopted in Aries in 1240. After various changes, it was annexed to France in 1486. Aries was an archi- episcopal see, suppressed by the concordat of 1801, but re-established and united to Aix in 1817. The bridge of boats and much property was destroyed by a sudden rising of the Rhone Oct. 31, 1864. ARLES, or ARELATE (Kingdom). Count Boso, expelled from Lombardy, was elected King of Provence, by the Synod of Mantaille, in Oct., 879 A.D. He died about 887 ; and his son L,ouis was acknowledged king by the Council of Valence in 890. Louis, who claimed the crown of Italy, was blinded, and died about 928. In 888 Rodolph or Raoul, the Guelph, erected the kingdom of Trans jurane Burgundy, consisting of territory that nearly corresponds to Switzer- land, with some neighbouring districts. Ro- dolph I. died in 911, and was succeeded by his son Rodolph II. ; who, on the death of Louis, in 928, united Provence to Trunsjurane Bur- gundy, making Aries his capital ; and, by a treaty with Hugh, King of Italy, he was, in 933, confirmed in the possession. This constituted what is known in history as the kingdom of Aries. Rodolph III., who died in 1032, be- queathed it to the Emperor Conrad II. ; and subsequent attempts made to revive the king- dom of Aries did not prove successful. Ray- mond, Count of Barcelona, seized Provence in 1146, and Alphonso II., of Aragon, in 1167. Aries became a republic in 1240 ; afterwards fell under the rule of the Angevin family ; and was permanently annexed to France by letters patent of Charles VIII. in 1486. A.D. KINGS OF ARLES. 933. Kodolph II., of Transjurane Burgundy. 937. Coin-in 1 I., tin- Pacific. 993. Itodolph Hi. 1033. Conrad II.. the Emperor, received it on the death of Koilolph III. ARMADA. (See SPANISH ARMADA.) A I! M AGII (Ireland , formerly the metropolis, enjoyed considerable reputation as a seat of learning from the sth to the gth centuries. The bishopric is said to have been founded by St. Patrick, A.D. 445. Gelasius, bishop in 1 1 36, became its first archbishop, and took the title of "Primate of all Ireland," in 1152. Armagh was frequently ravaged by the Danes, who were ultimately expelled in 1004. Its cathedral, founded by St. Patrick in 450, was destroyed in 1564, rebuilt in 1616, again de- stroyed in 1642, and rebuilt in 1675. The town itself was burned by Shane O'Neal in 1564. ARMAGNACS. Soon after the murder of the Duke of Orleans, in 1407, France became a prey to two rival factions, the Bourguignons, or Burgundians, and the Armagnacs. The latter received this name from their leader, Bernard, Count of Armagnac, father-in-law to the Duke of Orleans. Poitiers was the head quarters of the Armagnacs, and Paris of the Burgundians. The Armagnacs, in May, 1412, entered into negotiations with Henry IV. of England. Their leader and 4,000 of his ad- herents were massacred by the Burgundians and the citizens of Paris, June 12, 1418. Louis XI., before he came to the French throne, put himself at the head of a body of ruffians, called Armagnacs, the disbanded mercenaries of the English war, and invaded ARMED [ 75 1 ARMENIA Switzerland, where he was defeated in 1444. The Armagnacs were almost exterminated by Louis XI. in 1473. ARMED NEUTRALITY. Russia, Sweden, and Denmark, instigated by France, and believ- ing England to be hard pressed by the fleets of France and Spain, at the close of the American war, leagued together to establish a new code of maritime laws. This confederacy, known as the Armed Neutrality, was formed in 1780, and Catherine II. issued a declaration, Feb. 26, announcing that free ships make free goods, that the flag covers the merchandise, and that a port is understood to be blockaded only when such a force is stationed at its entrance as to render it dangerous to approach. These principles she professed her intention of maintaining by force of arms. Denmark signed the convention, July 30 ; Sweden, Aug. i, in the same year ; and Holland, Jan. 16, 1781. Prussia followed, May 8, and the Emperor of Germany, Oct. 9, 1781. England declared war against the Dutch ; but the cessation of hostilities soon after caused the dissolution of the confederacy. It was, how- ever, revived in 1800, and Russia, Denmark, and Sweden signed another treaty, Dec. 16, to which Prussia acceded, Dec. 19. England, after remonstrating, replied by a proclamation laying an embargo on all Russian, Swedish, and Danish vessels (Jan. 14, 1801). Nelson was speedily sent to Copenhagen, which he cap- tured, together with the Danish fleet, April 2, 1801. He then set sail for Cronstadt. Peace was concluded with Russia June 17, 1801. Sweden and Denmark abandoned their pre- tensions, Prussia followed their example, and the Armed Neutrality was dissolved. ARMENIA (Asia), according to Armenian tradition, was settled by Haik, son of Togar- mah, and grandson of Japhet (Gen. x. 3) ; and it is noticed in Scripture under the names Togarmah and Ararat. The country, after- wards divided into Lesser and Greater Armenia, was frequently invaded by the Assyrians, the Babylonians, the Medes and Persians, and for many years remained in subjection to one or other of these empires. The accounts given by the Greek and Roman writers are in many points at variance with those of the Armenian historians. M. St. Martin has investigated the subject with great diligence, and upon his valuable work the following chronological table " B.C. 3107. Haik, fleeing from the tyranny of Belus, King 1 of Assyria, settles in Armenia, and becomes its first ruler. 1837. Accession of Aram, who enters Asia Minor, and founds Csesarea in Cappadocia (q. v.). 1725. Armenia becomes subject to Assyria. 743. Baroir renders Armenia independent of Assyria. 565. Accession of Tigranes, who restores Armenia to its ancient position. 333. On the death of Alexander III. Armenia falls under the sway of Greek governors. 3:7. The Armenians, under Ardoates, throw off the Grecian yoke. 149. Valarsaces, or Wagharshag I., founds the dynasty of the Arsacidae (q. v.). 34. Antony leads the Armenian sovereign captive to Alexandria. 30. On the death of Antony, Artaxes II. expels the Romans, and is crowned king. 16. Vonones, King of the Parthians, seeks shelter with the Armenians, and is made king. 115. Invaded by the Emperor Trajan, who annexes both the Armenias to Rome. 117. Hadrian relinquishes the sovereignty of Armenia, 160. M. Aurelius having rescued Armenia from the aggressions of the Parthians, assumes the title of Armeniacus. 332. Armenia is subjected by Ardashir, King of Persia, 3*76. Tiridates II. is converted by St. Gregory, and Armenia thus becomes the first country in which Christianity is adopted as the national religion. 369. The Persians conquer Armenia, 387. Armenia is divided between the Romans and the Persians. 443. Armenia is invaded by the Persians, who seek to abolish Christianity, and substitute the rites of Zoroaster. 515. Pourzan rules Armenia, which is ravaged by the Huns during his administration. 637. Invaded by the Arab Abd-errahim, who seeks to establish Mohammedanism. 830. Invaded by Theopliilus, Emperor of the East. 856. Sempad the Confessor, King of Armenia, suffers martyrdom at Bagdad for his adherence to Chris- tianity. 859. Aschod I., son of Sempnd, receives the title of Prince of Princes from the caliph. 914. Armenia is ravaged by the Arabs. 1045. Coustautine XII., Emperor of the East, gains im- portant possessions in Armenia, 1079. Extinction of the dynasty of the Pagratides, and entire submission of Armenia to the Seljukian sultans. 1 134- David II. recovers great part of Armenia from the Turks. 1334. The Mongols encamp on the confines of Armenia, which they overrun for several years. 1375. Leon VI., King of Armenia, is made prisoner by the infidels, and carried to Egypt. 1393. Leon VI. dies at Paris, and the kingdom of Armenia becomes extinct. 1583. Armenia is overrun by the Turks. 1604. The Persians, under Shah Abbas, invade Armenia, and reduce it to complete subjection. 1838. The Russians, in their operations against Turkey, overrun Armenia. 1839, July 9. Erzeroum surrenders to the Russians. SOVEREIGNS OF ARMENIA. According to St. Martin. Elder Branch of the Arsacidae in Greater Armenia. B.C. 149. Valarsaces, or Wagharshag I., brother of Mithridates I., King of Parthia. 137. Arsaces, or Arshag I. 114. Artaxes, or Ardashes I. 89. Tigranes, or Dikran I. 55. His son, Artavasdes, reigns with him. 36. Artavasdes, or Artawatz I. 30. Artaxes II. 30. Tigranes II. Tigranes III., dethroned by the Romans. 6. Artavasdes I \. 5. Tigranes III. re-established. 3. Queen Erato, widow of Tigranes III. She is forced to abdicate. A.D. 3. Ariobarzanes, a Parthian, placed on the throne by the Romans. 4. Artavasdes III. 5. Queen Erato re-established. Interregnum. 16. Vonones. 17. Interregnum. 1 8. Zeno of Pon'.us, called Artaxias. Tigranes IV. 35. Arsaces II. Mithridates of Iberia, 51. Rhadamistus. 52. Tiridates I. 60. Tigranes V. 63. Tiridates I. re-established on the throne. ARMENIAN 76 ] ARMORICA Younger Branch of the Arsacidaj rules at first at Edessa. B.C. 38. Arsham or Ardsh.im. 10. Mann. 5. Abgarus, said to have written a letter to our Saviour. A.u. 33. Anane, or Ananus. 36. Suiiadrug, or Saiiatruces. 58. Erowant, an Arsacid by the female line, usurps the throne, and conquers the whole of Armenia. 78. Ardashes, or Artaxes III., reigns over the whole of Armenia. 120. Artawutz, or Artavasdes IV. J2I. Iiiran. or Tirauus I. 143. I'ikruu, or '1 'i^rane.s VI. 178. Waf-rharsh. or Vol n/i. Chosroes, or Kh ,>rr\v I., surnamed Medz. or the Great. 232. Ai-dashir, or Anaxerxes, tlir first s : ,s>aniil of I'ersia. 259. Dertud, orTirid.Hes JJ., established by the Romans. 314. Interregnum. Sanadrug takes northern, and 1'agur southern, Armenia. 316. Chosroes, or Khosrew II. 325. Diraii, or 'j'iranus II. 341. Arsao.es, or Arsiiag III. 370. Hub, or 1'ara. 3-7. Warn x.l !([. 382 Arsuces IV. an 1 Valarsaces, or Wagharshag II. . ees IV. alone. 3.17. Arini-ni.i divided b -tween the Romans and Persians. 389. Ar^aces IV. dies. Ca/.avon rules, followed by Chos- locs, or KhuMVw 111. 392- Bahrain Shapur (Sapor). 414. Chosro(js III. re-established. 415. Bhapur, or Sapor. 419. Interregnum. 422. Ardashes, or Artaxes IV. 428. End of the kingdom of the Arsacida?. ARMENIAN ;ERA coininenced Tuesday, July 9, 552, when the Council of Tiben, or of tlie Armenians, confirmed the condemnation passed on the Council of Chalcedon in 536. The Armenians were reconciled to the Latin Church about 1330, and they then adopted the form of the Julian year. ARMENIAN CHURCH is said to have been founded by Bartholomew or Thaddzeus, one of the Seventy. The Gospel does not, however, appear to have flourished, and it was not until the beginning of the 4th cen- tury that it was embraced by king, nobles, and people. Armenia thus became the first country in which Christianity was adopted as the national religion. The Persians, who had subdued Armenia by 369, having failed in their endeavours to force the Magian religion upon the people, permitted them to follow the faith of their fathers. They adopted the Monophysite doctrine in the 6th century. At a council held at Tiben, in Armenia, July 9, 552, the Armenian bishops condemned the General Council of Chalcedon (451), which had proscribed the Eutychian heresy, and they separated from the Orthodox Church. ARMENIAN VERSION. This translation of the Scriptures, of which the Old Testa- ment is based upon the Septuagint, was commenced, A.D. 410, by Miesrob, who in- vented for the purpose the Armenian alphabet, consisting of 36 letters. This alphabet, with two additional letters, is the one still in use. Some authorities are of opinion that this version, completed about 431, was inter- polated in the 6th century from the Syriac Peschito, and in the i3th from the Vulgate. It was first printed at Amsterdam, in 1666. ARMINIANS, the followers of James Armi- nius, or Harmensen, a Dutch divine, born at Oudewater, in 1560. He was made pastor at Amsterdam in 1588, and soon after opposed what is termed the Supralapsarian doctrine of Calvin. In 1604 he obtained the divinity chair at Leyden, and died Oct. 19, 1609. His followers were also called Remonstrants, from the petition or remonstrance, containing their doctrines, set forth in five articles presented to the States of Holland, in 1610. Their opposition to the Calvinists, or Gomarists (q.r.), as they were then called, referred principally to their views respecting original sin, free will, and predestination. The Synod of Dort, assembled Nov. 13, 1618, and closed May 9, 1619, condemned the "five articles," and 200 of the Arminian preachers were afterwards deprived. Many pastors and their followers went into exile, until the proclamation of religious liberty in Holland, in 625. Hallam (Lit. Hist. vol. ii. pt. 3, ch. ii.) remarks, "The Arminian doctrine spread, as is well known, in despite of obloquy and persecution, over much of the Protestant region of Europe." The Arminiaiis still exist in Holland, and their tenets in a modified form are held by several Christian sects. ARMORIAL BEARINGS. "There is no doubt that emblems somewhat similar have," says Hallam (Middle Ages, vol. i. ch. ii. pt. 2), "been immemorially used both in war and peace. The shields of ancient warriors, and devices upon coins or seals, bear 110 distant resemblance to modem blazonry. But the general introduction of such bearings, as he- reditary distinctions, has been sometimes attributed tu tournaments, wherein the cham- pions were distinguished by fanciful devices ; sometimes to the Crusades, where a multitude of all nations and languages stood in need of some visible token to denote the banners of their respective chiefs. In fact, the peculiar symbols of heraldry point to both these sources, and have been borrowed in part from each. Hereditary arms were perhaps scarcely used by private families before the beginning of the 1 3th century. From that time, however, they became very general, and have contributed to elucidate that branch of history which regards the descent of illustrious families." At the end of the i2th century, warriors bore escut- cheons, suspended from the belt, decorated with their arms. William I. introduced into England the arms of Normandy, having two lions on his shield, to which another lion was added, as is generally supposed, for Aquitaine, by Henry II. The earliest display of arms on a seal is of the date 1187. ARMORICA (Gaul). This seat of the Veneti, a Celtic tribe, conquered by Caesar B.C. 56, threw off the Roman yoke A.D. 409, and their independence was recognized by Honorius. Clovis I. annexed it to his empire A.D. 497. Many of the early Britons, assailed on every side, took refuge in the western part of Armorica, called after them Cornwall and the Lesser Britain. The first immigration is be- lieved to have occurred in the 4th century. The term Armorica, from the Celtic words ar, near, and mor, the sea, was at one time applied to nearly all the maritime districts between the Seme and the Loire, occupied by Celtic tribes. ARMOUR C 77 1 ARMY It was af terwards limited to Britanny, which designation, even in its restricted application, had quite superseded that of Armorica by the time of Charlemagne. (See BRITANNY.) ARMOUR. The use of helmets, shields, breastplates, and greaves for the legs, is men- tioned in the wars recorded in the Bible. The giant Goliath (i Sam. xvii. 5 and 6), about B.C. 1063, was armed at all points. Armour was used by most ancient nations, the earliest representations extant being found in the monuments of ancient Egypt. Helmets (q. v.) were not common amongst the Teutonic tribes, though they were occasionally worn by the Franks in the 7th, and had become general amongst them in the 8th century. Shields (q. v.} were borne by the Northmen about this time. Breastplates were much worn in the 1 2th century. In the i3th century armour of chain mail was worn by knights. Metal greaves appeared at the end of the same century. Chain mail was replaced by armour of plate early in the isth century, and black armour was often used for mourning. ARMOUR-PLATED SHI PS. Chain-netting of iron was suspended to the sides of men-of- war, which were also strengthened by plates in the time of Henry VIII. and Elizabeth. The following list of iron-plated vessels built for the English navy, with the date when they were launched, is compiled from a Parliamentary return ordered to be printed June 14, 1865 : 1860, Dec. 39 Warrior. 1861, Feb. 37 Black Prince. April 1 1 -Resistance. April 34 Defence. 1862, June 36 Prince Con- sort. Sep. 10 Royal Oak. Sep. 26 Hector. Oct. 34 Caledonia. 1863, Mar. 19 Ocean. J uly 4 Scorpion. Aug. 15-Research. Aug. 39 Wivern. Oct. 14 Valiant 1863, Dec. 12 Minotaur. Dec. 34 Achilles. 1864, Feb. 9 Enterprise. Mar. 7 Zealous. Mar. 8 Royal Sove- reign. May 23 PrinceAlbert. July 5 Favorite. Oct. 13 Lord Clyde. Oct. 15 Roval Alfred. 1865, Mar. H-Pallas. Mar. 31 Agincourt. April 36 Bi-llerophon. May 37-LordWarden. ARMS. The club, the sling (q. v.}, bow and arrow (see ARCHERY) were the most ancient weapons. Esau, at the command of Isaac, took his quiver and bow, and went to procure venison, about B.C. 1760 (Gen. xxvii. 3). Spears of various kinds, javelins, swords (q. v.}, daggers (q. v.), the battle-axe (q. v.) and mace (q. v.), followed. The cross-bow (q. v.}, and the long-bow were the chief offensive weapons previous to the invention of gunpowder in the 1 3th century. ARMS BILL. Regulations " to prevent im- proper persons from having arms in Ireland " were imposed by 47 Geo. III. sess. 2 c. 54 (Aug. 13. 1807), which was amended and con- tinued by 50 Geo. III. c. 109 (June 20, i8io\ 4 Geo. IV. c. 14 (March 24, 1823^, 10 Geo. IV. 23\ IO Will. c. 47 (June 19, 1829^, and i & 2 Will. IV. c. 47 (Oct. 15, 1831). The new Arms Bill, 6 & 7 Viet. c. 74 (Aug. 22, 1843), required all owners of fire-arms in Ireland to procure licenses under a penalty of ^10 for a first offence, to be increased, in case of repetition, to .20, with forfeiture of the arms illegally held. ARMSTRONG GUN. Mr., afterwards Sir, W. G. Armstrong, was induced to turn his attention to the construction of cannon by the effect of two i8-pounder guns against the Russians at the battle of Inkermann, Nov. 5, 1854. These guns, owing to their weight of nearly two tons each, not being available for service till a late period of the battle, Mr. Armstrong directed his efforts towards the invention of a lighter cannon with longer range, and at once submitted a design to the Duke of Newcastle, then Minister of War. His first gun, completed in accordance with an order from the Government, in April, 1855, was not made public by the inventor until perfected by a course of experiments ranging over three years. It was patented Feb. n,' 1857. The Government committee on rifled cannon having recommended the immediate introduction of the Armstrong gun for special service in the field, Nov. 16, 1858, extensive supplies were ordered, and Mr. Armstrong, in recognition of his generosity in having de- clined all special remuneration for his inven- tion, Jan. 15, 1859, received the honour of knighthood, with the title of C.B., and the appointment of engineer of rifled ordnance at the Royal Gun Factory, which he resigned in Feb., 1863. The great 3oo-pounder Arm- strong gun burst during an experimental firing at the Minotaur target at Shoeburyness, July 7, 1862. A competitive trial of the Arm- strong and Whitworth guns commenced at Shoeburyness April 4, 1864. ARMY. The numerical force of armies in ancient times, as may be seen from Josh. xi. 4, B.C. 1445; i Sam. xiii. 5, about B.C. 1093; and 2 Sam. xxiv. 9, B.C. 1017, was very great. Diodorus Siculus describes the army of Ninus as amounting to 1,700,000 foot and 200,000 horse. Xerxes, B.C. 480, assembled 1,700,000 foot and 80, ooo horse for the invasion of Greece. Gibbon calculates that the peace establish- ment of Hadrian and his successors amounted to 375,000 men, and this number was doubled under the successors of Constantino I. With reference to more modern times, Hallam (Middle Ages, i. ch. ii. pt. 2) says, " In public national history, I am aware of no instance of what may be called a regular army more ancient than the body-guards, or huscarles, of Canute the Great. These select troops amounted to 6,000 men, on whom he probably relied to ensure the subjection of England." Charles VII. of France, advised by the estates at Orleans in 1439, established the first stand- ing army in Europe, levying a poll-tax, in 1444, to defray the expenditure. During the Great Rebellion large armies were raised; and an army was maintained whilst the Common- wealth lasted. In 1662, a force of 5,000 men excited alarm ; and the levy by Charles II., in 1678, of 25,000 or 30,000 troops, created dis- satisfaction. By the fourth clause of the De- claration of Rights (1689), James II. was accused of having raised and maintained a standing army in time of peace without the consent of Parliament. William III. showed great reluctance in obeying the orders of Par- liament with reference to disbanding the troops, and from his reign a standing army has been regularly maintained in this country. ARMY AND NAVY CLUB (London). The idea of establishing a military club originated in ARNHEIM ARRAY 1837 with Sir Edward Barnes and a few Indian officers, who had then recently returned from India. The Duke of Wellington became patron on condition that the club should be opened to the navy and marines, and it was established in a house at the corner of King-street, St. James's-square, at the commencement of 1838. The first stone of the club-house in Pall Mall was laid May 13, 1848, and the building was thrown open to members Feb. 25, 1851. ARNHEIM (Holland), the capital of Guelder- land, is noticed in a charter of Otho, in 996. The counts and dukes of Guelderland resided here. The Spaniards took it in 1585 ; the French in 1672. It was fortified in 1702, and, having again fallen into the power of the French, was retaken in 1813. ARNOLDISTS. This sect comprised the followers of Arnold of Brescia, an ecclesiastic who commenced in 1134 to condemn the wealth and ostentation of the Papal system, teaching that the clergy should subsist entirely xipon voluntary contributions, and that their exten- sive revenues should be abandoned to the civil rulers. His opinions were condemned by the Lateran Council of 1139, which compelled him to retire to Zurich. In 1145 he returned to Rome, where his followers raised several tumults, and, being again compelled to take flight, he was surrendered to the Pope by the Emperor Frederick I., in 1155, and was hanged and his body burned. AROER (Battle). Sargon, King of Assyria, defeated and slew h is rebellious vassal Yahu-bid, or Ilu-bid, King of Hamath, at Karkar, or Gar- gar, in Syria, supposed to be identical with one of the many Aroers of Scripture, about B.C. 720. A KOMATICS. (See SPICES.) ARPAD DYNASTY was founded in Hungary A.D. 889, by Arpadthe Magyar. He died in 907, and the line ended with Andrew III. in 1301. ARPINUM (Italy). - This ancient city of Naples, after forming part of the possessions of the Volscians and Samnites, was seized by the Romans B.C. 305, and elevated into a Roman mancipium B.C. 302, though its inhabitants did not receive the suffrage until B.C. 188. Arpi- num was the birthplace of Caius Marius, B.C. 157, and of Cicero, Jan. 3, B.C. 106. Its modern name is Arpino. ARQUEBUS, or HARQUEBUSS. The hand gun, with the addition of a trigger, received this appellation. The invention is assigned to about 1470, a corps of arquebusiers having existed as early as 1476. Philip of Corn- mines speaks of it as a weapon used at the battle of Morat (q. v.) in 1476 ; and half of the English yeomen of the guard were armed with it in 1485. Mounted arquebusiers are mentioned in 1495. The arquebus, con- siderably improved in construction, became the ordinary weapon in the i6th century. In 1580 John the Almain recommended to the favourable notice of Walsingham one of his countrymen, who had invented "anharquebuse, that shall contain 10 balls or pelletes of lead, all the which shall goe off one after another, haveing once given fire, so that with one harquebuse one may kill 10 theeves, or other enemies, without recharging." Thus was the modern revolver anticipated. ARQUES (Battle). Henry IV. of France defeated the army of the League, under the Duke of Mayenne, at this place, near Dieppe, Sep. 21, 1589. ARRACAN (India). According to native traditions, this country was ruled by inde- pendent princes from about A.D. 700. It was frequently overrun by the inhabitants of neighbouring states. The Portuguese formed an establishment in Arracan in the i7th century. The province was conquered in 1783 by the Burmese, who ceded it to the English in 1826 by the treaty of Yandaboo (q. v.). ARRAIGNMENT. This is the form of cri- minal law of calling a prisoner to the bar of the court, to plead to an indictment. By ancient law and usage he was entitled to appear without irons or other bonds. For- merly, if the prisoner remained mute, instead of pleading, in cases of treason, his silence was held equivalent to conviction. In other cases of felony he was subjected to the bar- barous punishment of pelne forte t-1 dure (>/. .). By 12 Geo. III. c. 20 (1772), standing mute in cases of felony was held equivalent to conviction ; but by 7 & 8 Geo. IV. c. 28, s. 3 (June 21, 1827), the court was empowered, if it thought fit, to order the proper officer to enter a plea of "not guilty" on behalf of the accused. ARRAS (France). Supposed to be the an- cient Nemetacum or Nemetocenna, where Ca-sar wintered, B.C. 50. It afterwards took the name of Atrebates, from the people of the province of which it was the chief town. The Vandals captured it A.D. 407, and the Northmen in 880. Arras was made a bishop- ric about 500. Louis XI. took the town May 4, 1477, and it came into the possession of .Maximilian in 1493. Louis XIII. captured it in 1640. Arras was finally secured to France by the treaty of the Pyrenees, Nov. 7, 1659. Lebon committed great atrocities here in 1794. A Ixl! AS (Treaties). A congress was opened at this town Aug. 20, 1435, at which envoys from England, France, and Burgundy attended. A treaty was concluded between the two latter powers Sep. 21, 1435 ; the English commissioners, disgusted with the terms pro- posed, having retired Sep. 6. This treaty was, with others, confirmed at Crotoy, Oct. 3, 1472. Another treaty, between Maximilian, then Duke of Austria, and Louis XL, was concluded at Arras Dec. 23, 1482. Margaret, infant daughter of Maximilian, was affianced to the daiiphin, and was to receive as her dowry Burgundy, Artois, and other territories, whilst Louis XL engaged to restore some places he had captured in Luxemburg, &c. ARRAY (Commissions of). Hallam (Eng. ii. ch. ix.) says, " In seasons of public danger, threatening invasion from the side of Scot- land or France, it became customary to issue commissions of array, empowering those to whom they were addressed to muster and train all men capable of bearing arms in the counties to which their commission extended, and hold them in readiness to defend the kingdom. The earliest of these commissions that I find in Rymer is of 1324, and the ARREST 79 latest of 1557." Charles I. attempted to re- vive this practice in 1642 ; but the exercise of this ancient prerogative, from long disuse, was received as an innovation. A very early precedent is that of the i6th Edward II. (1323), in which year a commission issued out of the exchequer to Geoffrey de St. Quyntyn and John de Hasthorp, to the effect that they were to raise, in the Wapentake of Dykryng, all the defensible men between the ages of 1 6 and 60, and to lead them properly armed to the king at York to act against the Scots. ARREST. Malicious arrest on mesne pro- cess, in the name of a person not assenting, was declared an indictable offence by 8 Eliz. c. 2, s. 4 (1566). Ambassadors were released from liability to arrest by 7 Anne, c. 12 (1708), and members of Parliament by 10 Geo. III. c. 50, s. 2 (1770). Persons found in the act of larceny may be arrested without warrant by any peace officer, or owner of property con- cerned, by 7 & 8 Geo. IV. c. 29, s. 63 (June 21, 1827), which was re-enacted by 24 ort. Aug. 28. The great American Floyd gun, throwing a 360 -lb. shell, is fired for the first time at Old Point Comfort. 1862, June 20. A select committee on ordnance is ap- pointed by the House of Commons. 1863, July 23. The select committee is dissolved. 1864. The Mackay gun is tested at Liverpool. (See BREECH-LOADING GUNS.) ARTILLERY COMPANY OP LONDON is said to have sprung from a voluntary associa- tion formed for the encouragement of archery, during the reign of Henry VIII., who granted a charter to the fraternity of artillery in great and small ordnance in 1537. The Artillery Company was established in 1585, during the dread of an invasion by the Spaniards, by citizens who voluntarily exercised themselves and trained up others to the use of war. They assembled every Thursday. The exercises were discontinued after the excitement respecting the Spanish Armada had subsided. A new company was, however, formed in 1610. In 1636 Charles II., then Prince of Wales, and his brother the Duke of York, belonged to the company. The exercising ground was removed from Bishopsgate to the Artillery - ground, Finsbury, in 1622. A set of new colours was formally presented to this company by the Princess of Wales June 29, 1864. ARTOIS (France). This province, anciently peopled by the Atrebates, was conquered in the sth century by the Franks. In 863 it was bestowed by Charles II. (the Bald), as the dowry of his daughter Judith, upon Baldwin, Count of Flanders, by whose successors it was held till IT 80, when it reverted to the French crown. Louis IX. erected it into a county in favour of his brother Robert in 1237, and on the marriage of Mary of Burgundy with Maximilian in 1477 it passed into the possession of the house of Austria. Restored to France in 1482 by the treaty of Arras (q. v.}, it was again abandoned to Maximilian by the peace of Senlis, May 23, 1493, and formed part of the empire till its conquest by Louis XIII. in 1640. It was sub- sequently confirmed to France by the treaties of the Pyrenees (q. v.), Nov. 7, 1659; and of Nimesruen (q. v.}, Aug. 10, 1678. ARTS (Degrees in). (See UNIVERSITY DE- GREES. ) ARTS (Society of]. (See ROVAL SOCIETY.) ART-UNIONS. Associations for the exten- sion of the fine arts originated in France early in the igth century, and were soon afterwards G ARUNDEL ASCOLI introduced into Germany. The first society of the kind known in England was the London Art-Union, established Feb. 14, 1837, and incor- porated by royal charter Dec. i, 1846. Doubts having been expressed respecting the legality of art-unions, temporary acts were passed in 1844 and 1845 to relieve their promoters from the penalties to which they were supposed to be liable, and they were legalized under certain conditions by 9 & 10 Viet. c. 48 (Aug. 13, 1846). The Art-Union of Ireland was established in 1858. The following list is given in the almanack issued by the Art-Union of London : 1610, July I a. Bodleian Library founded. 1679, May 10. Ashmolean Museum founded. 1753, April 5. British Museum founded. 1759, Jan. 15. British Museum opened. 1760, April 21. Artists' First Exhibition open free. 1765, Jan. 26. Artists' First Society instituted. 1769, Jan. 2- Royal Academy opened. 1773, March 20. Hamilton's, Sir W., Collection bought. 1804, Nov. 30. Society of Water Colours instituted. 1806, Jan. 18. British Institution opened. 1810, March 22- Artists' Annuity Fund established. 1810, Dec. 20. Dulwich Gallery founded. 1816, June 9. Elgin marbles bought. 1834, March 33. National Gallery founded. 1824, April 14. Society of British Artists instituted. 1827, Aug. 2- Artists' Benevolent Fund established. 1833, March 9. Graphic Society founded. 1834, July 29. Institute of Painters in Water Colours. 1837, Feb. 14. Art-Union of London instituted. 1837, June i. School of Design opened. 1841. Nov. 22. Commission on Fine Arts issued. 1846, Dec. I. Art-Union of London Charter granted. ARUNDEL (Sussex). Camden says he has not met with the name before the time of Alfred, and adds, "All its renown is derived from the castle, which nourished in the Saxon times, and was rebuilt .immediately after the arrival of the Normans, by Roger de Mont- gomery, thence called Earl of Arundel." In his introduction to " Domesday Book," Ellis speaks of it as existing in the days of Edward the Confessor. In 1433 it was decided that the tenure of Arundel Castle, without any creation, patent, or investiture, constituted its possessor Earl of Arundel. It was garrisoned by the Parliament during the Civil War ; was captured by Lord Hopton in 1643, and retaken ARUNDEL CLUB (London), was established, for literary and scientific purposes, in 1860. ARUNDEL CONSTITUTION. Archbishop Arundel, at his visitation in London, in 1397, revived an old constitution, originated by Simon Niger, Bishop of London (12291241), by which the inhabitants of the respective parishes were compelled to pay their rector one halfpenny in the pound out of the rent of their houses. Hence its name. ARUNDEL SOCIETY (London). This so- ciety, named from Thomas Howard, Earl of Arundel, who flourished at the commencement of the 1 7th century, and was called "the father of vertu in England," and " the Maecenas of all politer arts," was instituted in 1849, witn tne secondary title of the "Society for Promoting the Knowledge of Art." ARUNDELIAN MARBLES. (See OXFORD MARBLES.) ARUSPICES. (See HARTJSPICES.) ARVERNI. This powerful nation of Celtic Gaul first came into collision with the Romans B.C. 121, when they sustained a defeat from Q. Fabius Maximus, on the banks of the Isere. They participated in the general revolt of the Gauls against Rome, B.C. 52, at which time they held the neighbouring states in subjection. ARZILLA (Africa), taken from the Moors by Alphonso V., King of Portugal, in 1471. The King of Fez wrested it from the Christians in ASAPH, ST. (Wales). Tradition states that Kentigern, being expelled from the see of Glasgow, came into Wales about 550, and es- tablished a bishopric at this ancient city of Flintshire. The original wooden cathedral was destroyed by fire in 1282. It was rebuilt in 1284, but was again burned by Owen Glen- dower in 1402. Bishop Redman, who held the see from 1471 to 1495, erected the present building, which received important repairs and additions in 1833 Geoffrey of Monmouth, the historian of the mythical and early periods of Britain, was bishop of this diocese from 1152 to 1154. ASCALON (Syria) is mentioned as a city of the Philistines, Josh. xiii. 3, and i Sam. vi. 17. The tribe of Judah captured it B.C. 1425 (Judges i. 1 8), but it was retaken by the Philistines, and is frequently denounced by the prophets. It fell successively into the hands of the Egyptians, the Greeks, and the Romans. It became a bishop's see in the 4th century. Owing to the attacks and occupation, in the 7th century, of the Saracens, who held it for many years, the succession of its bishops was interrupted. It was besieged by the Crusaders in i loo, and again in 1148, without success. Baldwin III. captured it in 1157. Saladin re-took it in 1187, and burned it in 1191. Richard I. of England obtained possession the same year, and restored the fortifications in 1192. Sultan Bibars destroyed its fortifica- tions and filled up its harbour in 1270. ASCALON (Battle). Fought during the second crusade, between the Fatimite army, led by the Caliph of Egypt, and the Crusaders, under the command of Godfrey of Bouillon, Friday, Aug. 12, 1099. The former were de- feated, leaving 30,000 killed upon the field of battle, with immense booty. ASCENSION JERA, supposed, says Nicolas, to have been used only by the author of the "Chronicle of Alexandria," who dates the year of the martyrdom of St. Menas of Cotys. It corresponds with Nov. 12, 295. ASCENSION DAY, formerly called Holy Thursday, a movable feast, to commemorate the Ascension of our Saviour, appointed, ac- cording to some authorities, in the apostolical times. It was not, however, generally cele- brated until the 4th century. King John dated a charter on the Monday next before the Ascen- sion, May 20, 1191. ASCENSION ISLAND (Atlantic), discovered by the Portuguese mariner Galego, on Ascen- sion-day, Thursday, May 20, 1501. It remained uninhabited till the English took possession Oct. 15, 1815, and formed a military station. ASCOLI (Battle). Fought at this place, the ancient Asculum Picenum, during the struggle for the crown of Sicily, between the Emperor ASCOT [ 83 ] ASIA Henry VI. and Tancred, in 1190. The emperor's army was defeated. Ascoli was annexed to the Papal states in 1426. It was made a bishopric in the 4th century. ASCOT RACES. The race-course at Ascot Heath, in Berkshire, was established by Wil- liam, Duke of Cumberland, uncle to George III. In 1722 the manor of Ascot was purchased by Mr. R. Foster, and in 1787 it passed into the possession of Mr. D. Agace. William IV. gave a handsome piece of plate, containing the hoof of the celebrated horse "Eclipse," to be run for at these races in May, 1832. The new grand stand was opened in 1839. ASCULUM (Battle). Fought at this place in Apulia, between Pyrrhus and the Romans, B.C. 279. It was hotly contested, and termi- nated in favour of P3^rrhu8. It is often mis- taken for a place of the same name in Picenum. The modern name of both places is Ascoli. ASCULUM PICENUM (Italy). Captured by Sempronius Sophus, B.C. 268, when the whole nation of the Piceni submitted to Rome. The conspiracy and revolt of its inhabitants, and the massacre of the Romans dwelling in the city, B.C. 91, led to the Social or Marsian war, and the siege and capture of Asculum by the Romans, B.C. 90. ASHANTEE, or ASIENTE (Africa). Infor- mation of this country was first obtained at the commencement of the i8th century. It is inhabited by a warlike people, who, by making continual aggressions on their neigh- bours, have largely increased their territory. The Ashantees gained a victory over the Eng- lish in 1807, the latter having assisted the Fantees ; and in another struggle, in 1816, the Ashantees had the advantage. War was re- newed in 1823, and Sir C. M'Carthy, Governor of Cape Coast, was killed, and his army de- feated by the Ashantees Jan. 21, 1824. The English drove them from Cape Coast Castle, July 22 in the same year. The Ashantees suffered a terrible defeat, when their king was glad to purchase peace, and sent his son as a hostage to Cape Coast Castle, Aug. 7, 1826. In consequence of an attack made by the King of Ashantee upon the Fantees, Governor Pine, the British resident at Cape Coast, ordered a force to proceed against him, Feb. 12, 1864. The expedition was, however, smitten by fever, and returned, after suffering terrible losses from disease, without exchanging a blow with the enemv. -ASH BURTON (Treaty). Concluded at Washington, Aug. 9, 1842, between England and the United States; Lord Ashburton and Mr. Webster being the respective plenipoten- tiaries. It settled the boundary -line between the British possessions in North America and the United States. ASHDOD (Palestine), now ESDUD, a city assigned to Judah in the division of the Promised Land (Josh. xv. 46, 47), about B.C. 1444. It was the chief seat of the worship of the idol Dagon, which fell on its face before the ark of the Lord, captured by the Philis- tines about B.C. 1116 (i Sam. v.). Uzziah took Ashdod, B.C. 810 (2 Chron. xxvi. 6) ; and the Assyrians, B.C. 711 (Isaiah xx. i). Herodotus (ii. 157) speaks of it as having been captured by the Egyptians, after sustaining a siege of 29 years, the longest on record (B.C. 630). Nehemiah, about B.C. 428, denounced the marriages contracted by the Jews with the women of Ashdod (Neh. xiii. 23). It was called by the Greeks and the Romans Azotus, and under that name was known during the Crusades. ASHDUNE (Battle), was fought A.D. 871, between the Danes and the English. The latter, commanded by Ethelred and" his brother Alfred, were victorious. In the ancient chron- icles the place is called JSscesdune, or Es- chendun, and signifies "hill of the ash." Some writers believe Aston, in Berkshire, and others Ashendon, in Bucks, to have been the scene of this victory. ASHMOLEAN MUSEUM (Oxford). This repository of manuscripts, books, coins, cu- riosities, and antiquities, was founded Thurs- day, May 15 (O.S.), 1679, and opened May 24 (O.S.), 1682. The collection was formed and given to the university by Eliaa Ashmole, an eminent antiquary, who died May 18, 1692. The Ashmolean Society was established at Oxford in 1828. ASH WEDNESDAY. Among the early Christians, Lent commenced on the Sunday now called the first in Lent. Ash Wednesday and the three following days, making the fast to continue 40 days, were afterwards added. " Some say it was the work," Bingham (Antiq. b. xxi. ch. i. a. 5) remarks, "of Gregory the Great (590 604) ; but others ascribe it to Gregory II., who lived above an hundred years after, in the beginning of the 8th century." Other authorities attribute it to Felix III., in 487. It received its name from the Roman Catholic practice of sprin- kling ashes on the heads of penitents, in remembrance of Gen. iii. 19. ASIA, the cradle of the human race, and the earliest seat of empire, civilization, and commerce, is said by some Greek writers to have been named from the nymph Asia, one of the Oceanides. The term was, however, applied by the Greeks to a portion only of this extensive continent. The overthrow of the Lydian empire by Cyrus, B.C. 546, first brought it under their notice ; and the vic- tories of Alexander III., the Great, B.C. 334 B. c. 323, led to a further acquaintance. Ptolemy, A.D. 139 161, asserts that not more than one-fourth part of Asia was known to the ancients. The progress of discovery in this quarter of the globe was accelerated by the in- vasion of Europe by the Saracens, and the Crusades. Marco Polo, the account of whose travels was circulated in 1208, is the pioneer of modern discovery in this direction. He obtained information respecting China, Japan, and parts of India. Little was, however, effected until the invention of the mariner's compass, and the discovery of the passage round the Cape of Good Hope enabled the navigators of Europe in the isth and i6th cen- turies to prosecute their researches by sea : 1497. Vasco de Gama doubles the Cape of Good Hope (q. v.), and arrives at Calicut (q. v.) in the of the following year. G 2 ASIA [ 84 ] ASSASSINATION 1498. The Portuguese explore Malabar (q. v.). 1503. The Portuguese obtain a footing in Cochin (llin- dostan). 1506. Almeida discovers Ceylon (q. r.), and Soarez the Maldives. 1507. Martin Baumgart >n travels in Palestine. 1509. Several Portuguese settlements are planted in Asia. 1511. The Portuguese establish themselves at Malacca (q. .), \isit Siam (q. t).), and reach the Moluccas or Spice Islands. 1517. The Portuguese reach China (q. .), UTld form a settle- ment at Macao (q. v.). They erect the fortress of Colombo (q. v.). 1518. The Portuguese visit Bengal, Borneo (?..). and Chittagong (q. v.). 1543. Discovery of Japan (q. t).). 1558. Jenkinson explores the Caspian, and reaches Bok- hara ( have descended from Olympus and joined battle with mortals ; the conquests of the Persians, the overthrow of their empire by Alexander, and the settlement in this part of Asia of his successors. It subsequently fell under the Roman sway, and suffered severely in after-ages in the wars of the Saracens, Turks, Tartars, &c. It is also intimately con- nected with the early history of Christianity, and the first Christian churches were planted here." Its chief political divisions in ancient times were Bithynia, Cappadocia, Caria, Cilicia, Galatia, Isauria, Lycaonia, Lycia, Lydia, Mysia, Pamphylia, Paphlagonia, Phrygia, Pisidia, and 1'ontus. ASIATIC SOCIETIES. The first society of the kind was established by the Dutch at Batavia, in 1780 ; the next was the Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal, founded at Calcutta by Sir W. Jones, in 1784 ; and this was followed by the Societe" Asiatique, at Paris, in 1822. The Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, for the investigation and encouragement of arts, sciences, and literature in relation to Asia, was founded in London in March, 1823, and received its charter in 1824. The Oriental Translation Committee, estab- lished in 1828, is in connection with this society. The Literary Society of Bombay, founded in 1804, joined it as a branch in 1829. The Literary Society of Madr vs, the Asiatic Society of Ceylon, instituted in 7845 ; that of China, founded at Hong Kong in 1847 ; and that of Shanghai, established in 1858, are also branches. ASPERN and ESSLING (Battle). Napoleon I., after a series of encounters in the plain of the Marchfield (q. v.), near Vienna, between the villages of Aspern and Essling, on the Danube, extending over two days, May 21 and 22, 1809, was compelled to take refuge in the island of Lo"bau ( a t Venice, and a French one at Paris in 1690. ASSIZE OF WOOD AND COAL. On ac- count of the frauds practised, a law was passed in 1543 (34 & 35 Hen. VIII. c. 3), regulating the measure for coal and wood. In consequence of the scarcity of wood and the impossibility of enforcing the regulations of this statute, it was amended by 7 Edw. VI. c. 7 (1553). The latter act was altered by 43 Eliz. c. 14 (1601). The law was enforced by 9 Anne c. 15 (1710), and an exemption granted in favour of billets made of beech wood only, by 10 Anne c. 6 (1711). These acts were repealed by 5 Geo. IV. c. 74, s. 23 (June 17, 1824). The sale of coal in the metropolis is regulated by i & 2 Will. IV. c. 76 (Oct. 5, 1831). ASSUMPTION. This Roman Catholic fes- tival, celebrated Aug. 15, in honour of the alleged assumption of the Virgin Mary into heaven, was instituted, according to some authorities, in the 4th, and according to others in the 7th century. The early Church com- memorated her death, but the festival of the Assumption is a Romish innovation. It was originally observed Jan. 18, which was after- wards changed to Aug. 15. The Greek and Russian Churches 011 the latter day observe the festival of "the Day of Rest of the Most Holy Mother of God," but do not hold the doctrine of the Assumption. ASSUNDUN (Battle.) (See ASHDUNE and ASSINGDON, both of which battles are known under the name of Assandun or Assundun. ) ASSURANCE. (See INSURANCE.) ASSYRIA (Asia). The narrow tract of country enclosed between Mesopotamia, Baby- lonia, Armenia, Susiana, and Media, called by the ancients Assyria, or Asturia, was the original seat of that extended dominion known as the Assyrian empire. According to the loth chapter of Genesis, Nimrod, leaving Babylon, which he had founded, went forth into Assyria, where he built Nineveh, Rhehoboth, Calah, and Resen, about B.C. 2218. Such is the inter- pretation given in the margin of the Bible, though some authors prefer the reading that Asshxir went forth and built these cities. The next notice of this empire that occurs in the Old Testament is the invasion of Palestine in the reign of Uzziah by Pul (2 Kings, xv. 19), King of Assyria, B.C. 769. The sacred historian relates that Menahem, King of Israel, induced him to retire by a bribe of 1,000 talents. Tig- lath- Pileser II., the successor of Pul, at the solicitation of Ahaz, King of Judah, invaded Syria, and took many of its people away captive (2 Kings, xvi. 5 9), B.C. 738. Shalmaneser, having besieged Samaria three years, captured it, and put an end to the kingdom of Israel B.C. 722 (2 Kings-, xvii. 5, 6), and carried away its people into captivity. Another king, Senna- cherib, came up against all the fenced cities of Judah, and took them (2 Kings, xviii. 13, and 2 Chron. xxxii.), B.C. 714, but failed in an attack upon Jerusalem, the angel of the Lord having slain 185,000 men in one night, B.C. 712 (2 Kings, xviii. i3, j xix. 35, 36, and 2 Chron. xxxii. 21). On his return to Nineveh, Sen- nacherib was slain by two of his own sons, and another king, named Esarhaddon, assumed the Assyrian sceptre, B.C. 711 (2 Kings, xix. 37). The last King of Assyria mentioned in Scripture is Nebuchadnezzar, who is supposed to have ascended the throne B.C. 650. The ancient authors who treat of the history of Assyria are Herodotus, who died B.C. 408, Ctesias, who was living B.C. 398, and Berosus, a native of Babylonia, who flourished B.C. 250. The theory of an Assyrian empire that terminated at the revolt of the Medes, about B.C. 711, fol- lowed by an Assyrian monarchy that continued till the destruction of Nineveh, B.C. 606, though supported by high authorities, is now generally rejected. Clinton (Fasti HeUenici, i. 268) re- marks, with reference to the duration of the Assyrian monarchy : " The period delivered by Ctesias seems to have been 1,306 years. He placed its commencement 1,000 years before the Trojan war, and its termination at B.C. 876. But in assigning the termination of the Assyrian monarchy, Ctesias, and those that followed him, confounded two events, the revolt of the Medes and the destruction of Nineveh ; which they made to happen together. These two events, however, were divided by a con- siderable interval of time, and the conclusion of the term of 1,306 years assigned to that monarchy did not occur at the Median revolt, but at the final capture of Nineveh. The date of this event we are enabled to fix with precision, on the concurrent authority of Scripture and Herodotus" (B.C. 606). Clinton gives the following summary : Yrs. B.C. Ninus, B.C. 318?. Assyrian monarchy, 1306 years before") ,- the empire j ' 5 * 9 * During the empire, 34 kings 536 1337 Sardanapalus, B.C. 8j6. After the empire, 6 kings 105 711 1306 Capture of Nineveh 606 Vaux (Nineveh and Persepolis, p. 508) gives, on the authority of Col. Rawlinson, the follow- ing list of Assyrian monarchs : B.C. 1373. Belukh. 255. Pudil. 340. Phulukh I. 1230. Silima-Rish I. 300. Sanda-pal-irnat. 1185. Asshur-dapal-il. 1165. Mutaggil-Nebo. 40. Asshur-Rish-ipan 20. Tiglath- Pileser I. 1 100. Asshur-bani-pal I. FIRST ASSYRIAN EMPIRE. B.C. 950. Asshur-adan-akhi 925. Asshur-danin-il. 900. Phulukh II. 880. Tigulti-Sanda. 815. Silima-Rish II. (As- shur- damn-pal) . 780. Shamasphul. 760. Phulukh III. (Pul) and Semiramis 747.' Tiglath-Pileser II. 730. Shalmaneser. 721. Sargon. ;o2. Sennacherib. iSo. Esarhaddon. SECOND ASSYRIAN EMPIRE. B.C. 660. Asshur-bani-pal II. 640. Asshur-Emit-Ilut. 625. Final overthrow of Nineveh. ASSYRIA ASSYRIA The subject has been investigated with great care and ability by the Rev. G. Rawlinson (The Five Great Monarchies of the Ancient World), who is of opinion that this, the second great monarchy of the ancient eastern world, was situated in the "upper portion of the Mesopotamian valley. The cities which suc- cessively formed its capitals lay, all of them, upon the Middle Tigris, and the heart of the country was a district on either side that river, enclosed within the 35th and s/th parallels. By degrees these limits were enlarged; and the term Assyria came to be used in a loose and vague way, of a vast and ill-defined tract extending on all sides from this central region." Its earliest known inhabitants migrated from Shinar, whence "went forth Asshur, and builded Nineveh" (Gen. x. n). His descendants, after submitting to the empire of Chaldsea (q. r.), removed farther to the north, where they made a per- manent settlement before B.C. 1600. The fol- lowing summary f its history is taken from Rawlinson's elaborate and exhaustive work : B C 1831. Shamas-Vul, son of Ismi-dagon, King of ChaldtU (,/. 7-.), builds a temple at Klleh-Sherg**, the capital (luring the Clialdivan supremacy. 1600. The migration of the Assyrians fiom a more south- ern dUtrict is ..ffccied before this year. 1290. Accession of Shalmaneser I., who founds Ximrud, or Cahih (> Asshur-danin-pul rebels about this time against his father Shalmaneser, and is subdued, and, probably, put to death. 820. Shamas-Iva invades Babylon, attacking in his road to the capital a fortified place, where he slays i8,oco men, and captures 3,000. He subsequently attacks Merodach-belatzu-ikbi, King of Babylon, on the Daban river, wh;.-re he kills 5,000 of the enemy, and captures 2,000 prisoners, 100 chariots, and 200 tents. 8:0781. Keign of Iva-lush IV., whose queen, Sammu- ramit, is believed by llawlir.son (ii. 383) to be the mythical Semiramis of the Greeks and Komans. 760750 According to Hawlinson (ii. 3yo, note), Jonah's visits to Nineveh took place between these years. 751 745. 1'ul, "King of Assyria," invades Israel, and exacts from King Menahem 1,000 tahnts of silver (2 Kings, xv. 19). Kawlinson (Ancient Monarchies, ii. 388) regards this prince, whoso name is not mentioned in any Assyrian records, as "a pretender to the Assyrian crown, never acknow- ledge I lit Nineveh, b, it established in the western (and southern) provinces so firmly, that he could venture to conduct an expedition into Lower Syria, and to claim there the fealty of Assyria's vassals." Different dates are assigned for this invasion by different ehronologists. (See ISUAKL.) 744. Tiglath-l'ileser II. invades Babylon. 741. He attacks Syria, subduing Damascus, Samaria, and Tyre. "T? He invades the northern portions of Palestine. 730 (about). Ahaz submits Judiea to Tiglath-l'ileser II., who, in return, as.-ists him against the kings of Damascus and Samaria. 723721 Shalmaneser IV. besieges and takes Samaria. (See. ISHAEL.) -21. Sargon usurps the throne. (See AltOER.) 720. Battle of Hapikh or Kaphia (7.1?.). 715. Sargon subdues Arabia, and exacts tribute from the native wandering tribes. 709. He invades Babylon, which he conquers and places under ail Assyrian viceroy. 708 or 7. The Kings of Cyprus and of Asmun, an island in the iYrsiaii Ciulf, send embassies off ering homage to Sargon. 702. Sennacherib invades Babylon, and plunders 76 largo towns and 420 villages. 701. He annexe-* many citie, in Zagros to Assyria. 700. He attacks Luliya, King of Sidon, marches into Egypt (see ALTAKl', battle), and invades the terri- tories of Hezekiah, King of .ludah, whom he com- pels to pay him heavy tribute, amassed by the spoliation of the temple at Jerusalem. 699. He again invades Babylon, where he establishes a 608. He in- ades Palestine for the second time, and his army is miraculously destroyed (2 Kings, xix. 35). 695. Soon after this year Sennacherib wages war against the (ineks in Cilicia, and founds Tarsus. 680. Sennacherib is murdered while worshipping in a temple, bv his sons Adrammelech and Sharezer, who are compelled to flee into Armenia, while their brother Esar-haddon succeeds to the throne. 634. The Medes fail in an attack upon Nineveh. 632. Cvaxares, King of Media, enters Assyria, and defeats the army of Asshur-emid-ilin, or Saracus. Shortly after this year Assyria and the. other nations of Western Asia are devastated by the Scythians. 627. Assyria is simultaneously attacked, on the east by fyaxares the Mede, and on the south by the 625 Saracus (Sardanapalus), betrayed by his general Nabopolassar, and hard pressed by the forces of Cyaxnres, burns himself in his palace at Nineveh. With him ends the line of monarchs, and the ex- istence of Assyria as an independent nation. Rawlinson (Ancient Monarchies, ii, 291), gives the following table of the KINGS OF ASSYRIA. B.C. B.C. (Asshur-bel-nisis. Circ. 1650 to 1550.... ^Buzur- Asshur. lAsshnr-vatUa. ASTA ASTRONOMY B.C. B.C. Circ I450JP) . 1350 to 1330... 133010 1310... 13 o to 1290... 1290 to 12,0... 12,0 to 1250... 1250 to 1230... Bel-sumili-kapi. # Bel-lush. Pud-il (his son). Iva-lush I. (his son). .Shalmanesur I. (his son). lin-lathi-Nm i his son). Iva-lush 1 1. (his son). 13:0 to 1190... IK,0 to 1170.... 1170 to 1150... 1150 to 1130... 1.3010 mo... mo to 1090... Nin-pala-ziru. Asshur-dah-il (his son). Mutaggil-Xebo (Iiis son). Asshur-ris-iliin (his son). Tiglath-Pileser I. (his son). Asshur-bil-kalu (his son). A*shi 950 to 930.... 930 to 910.... 910 to 890.... 89010 884.... 88410 859.... 859 to 824.... 82410 810.... 810 to 781.... 781 to 770.... 770 to 752.... 753 to 744.... 744 to 726.... 720 to 721.... 721 to 704.... 70410 680.... 680 to 667.... 66- to 647 (?) 647 (?) to 635- Asshur-iddin-akhi. Asshur-danin-il I. Iva-lush 111. (his son) Tig athi-Xin II. (his son). Asjhur-idanni-pal (his son). Shalmaneser II. (his son). Shamas-Iva (Ins sou). Iva-lush IV. (his son). Shaluiaueser III. Asshur-dauin-il IL Assliur-lush. Tiglath-Pileser II. (Shalrnanecer IV. ?) Sargon. Sennacherib (his son). Esar-haddon (his son). Assliur bani-pal (his son). ASTA, now ASTI, in Piedmont, was captured by the Gauls about B.C. 400. Alaric besieged it A.D. 403. It was taken and retaken several times during the struggles with the barbarians. It was made a bishop s see at an early period. Evasius, supposed to be the first bishop, suffered martyrdom Dec. i, 265. The Emperor Frede- rick I. captured it A.D. 1154. The French ob- tained possession in 1387, and, after holding it nearly a century and a half, relinquished it to the Emperor Charles V., by the treaty of Cam- bray, 1529. Charles bestowed it upon Beatrice of Portugal, and by her marriage with Charles III. of Savoy it passed into the possession of that house. ASTEROIDS. (-See PLANETS.) ASTLEY S AMPHITHEATRE (London), a temporary building in 1774, was, in 1780, con- verted into a roofed amphitheatre, which, opened as the Amphitheatre Riding House, was destroyed by fire Aug. 17, 1794. Having been rebuilt and reopened in 1795, it was burned Sep. 2, 1803 ; and again June 8, 1841. The circus was removed and the building was converted into an ordinary theatre by D. Boucicault, and opened by him as the "New Westminster Theatre " in 1862. The old name was restored in 1864. ASTON. (See ASHDUNE.) ASTORGA (Spain), "the city of priests," built on the site of the Asturica Augusta of the Romans, was taken by Almansor in 990, and recovered by Alphonso V. in 1010. The King of Navarre took it in 1033 ; and the French, after a desperate encounter, obtained possession April 12, 1810, when they dismantled the fortifications and committed great havoc. It was made the seat of a bishopric in the 3rd century. A council on discipline was held here Sep. i, 946. ASTRACAN (Russia), formerly the capital of a Tartar state, was taken by Ivan IV. in 1554. The Turks besieged it in 1569; and a rebellion broke out here in 1670. It is the seat of an archbishopric. ASTROLABE. This instrument for the ob- servation of the stars is believed to have been first used by Hipparchus, who fl. B.C. 160 145, and it was also employed by his disciple Ptolemy, fl. A.D. 139161. The modern astro- labe, called also a " Jacob's staff" (q.v.), from its similarity in form to the heads of the staves bome by pilgrims, was invented at Lisbon by two Jewish physicians, named Rotheric and Joseph, during the reign of John II. of Portu- gal (14811495', by whom it was first applied to maritime purposes. The term occurs in the " Margarita Philosophica," printed in 1496, and the first elaborate work on the subject is " Elucidatio Fabricise Ususque Astrolabii," published in 1513. During the i6th and i7th centuries the term astrolabe was used to ex- press the projection of a sphere upon a plane. ASTROLOGY. The Chaldaeans, the Egyp- tians, the Hindoos, and the Persians cultivated this "illusory science;" and with the former it is supposed to have originated. By an edict issued at Rome, B.C. 139, the Chaldseans, or mathematicians, as the astrologers were then called, were banished from the city. The senate, in the reign of Augustus, expelled them from Italy A.D. 16. Sharpe (Hist, of Egypt, ii. 179), writing of the reign of Antoninus Pius (138 161), when Egypt was a Roman province, remarks on astrology : "The poor Jews took to it as a trade. In Alexandria the Jewess, half beggar half fortune- teller, would stop people in the streets and interpret dreams by the help of the Bible, or sit under a sacred tree like a sibyl, and promise wealth to those who consulted her, duly proportioned to the size of the coin by which she was paid." Constantius (July 13, 358) made a law declaring astrologers to be the enemies of mankind. The Arabians were great astrologers. Prescott says, with refer- ence to the Aztecs, " In no country, not even in ancient Egypt, were the dreams of the astro- loger more implicitly deferred to. On the birth of a child he was instantly summoned. The time of the event was accurately ascer- tained ; and the family hung in trembling suspense, as the minister of heaven cast the horoscope of the infant, and unrolled the dark volume of destiny." During the Middle Ages the practice became general. In the i3th and 1 4th centuries, astrology was taught in the Italian universities, whilst at Padua and Bologna professors of astrology were appointed. Many of our own early philosophers and men of science were captivated by this study. (See JUDICIAL ASTROLOGY). ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY. (See ROYAL ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY or LONDON.) ASTRONOMY. This science was cultivated, before the Christian aera, by the Chaldaeans, the Egyptians, the Hindoos, the Chinese, the Phoenicians, and the Greeks ; and to each of the four first mentioned has its invention been attributed, whilst Josephus claims it for the Jews. There can be no doubt that it was ASTRONOMY [ 9 ] ASYLUM practised amongst the Chaldseans as early as the reign of King Umkh (B.C. 20938.0. 2070), as the position and construction of the numerous buildings he erected manifest an intimate knowledge of astronomical calculation. It was also cultivated by the Egyptians ; and the great antiquity of the Hindoo observations is acknowledged by all astronomers. The claims of the Chinese on this point are not supported by satisfactory evidence. In Greece, Thales, born B.C. 636, who predicted an eclipse, was the earliest astronomer. He was followed by Anaximander, born B.C. 610; Anaximenes, fl. B.C. 556 ; and Anaxagoras, born B.C. 500. Pythagoras, born B.C. 580, greatly advanced the science. Meton and Euctemon introduced the Metonic cycle, B.C. 433. Aristotle, bom B.C. 384, wrote a treatise on the subject; and Autolycus two books, the most ancient as- tronomical works that have come down to us. Hipparchus I.B.C. 160 145) reduced it to a systematic form, and is the father of true astronomy. Ptolemy, called the "prince of astronomers,"^. A.D. 139161, was the last as- tronomer of the Greek school. The science was revived by the Arabians, " who," says Hallam (Lit. Hist. vol. i. pt. i. ch. 2), "under- stood astronomy well, and their science was transfused more or less into Europe." The Caliph Al Mansur is said to have encouraged the study of this science ; and Albategnius is the most celebrated of the Arabian astrono- mers. Alphonso X., of Castile, produced the Alphonsine tables in 1252. Little was accom- plished until the appearance of Copernicus, who is justly termed the founder of modern astronomy. He was born at Thorn, in 1473, and published his celebrated treatise on the "Revolutions of the Heavenly Bodies," just before his death, in 1543. It was issued at Nuremberg, and the treatise, consisting of six books, is said to have been completed by the astronomer about 1530. Tycho Brahe (15461601), Hallam admits, " did far more in this essential department of the astronomer than any of his predecessors." He was the first to make a catalogue of the stars, and his new mundane system paved the way for the important discoveries of the i7th century. In 1582 Gregory XIII., by the aid of Lilius and Clavius, reformed the calendar. It is impossible in a small compass to explain even the chief results of the wonderful progress made in astronomical science since the com- mencement of the 1 7th century ; but some of the more important are given in the following summary : A.D. 158 r. 1603. 1609. 1610. 1611. 1616. 1618. 1631. Galileo remarks the isochronism of the pendulum. Bayer's maps, in which the stars are distinguished by letters. Galileo makes his telescope. Kepler publishes his work on Mars, containing what are culled his First and Second Laws. Galileo announces discoveries of Jupiter's satellites ; of spots on the moon ; of nebulae ; of new pheno- mena in Saturn, which prove to proceed from the ring ; and phases of Venus. Galileo observes spots on the sun. The Copernicau theory is prohibited by the court of Home. Kepler's Third Law. Gassendi observes the transit and measures the diumuter of Mercury. A.D. 1639. Transit of Venus is first observed by Horrox and Crabtree, and her diameter measured. 1654. Discovery of Saturn's ring by Huyghens. 1665. Cassini determines the time of rotation of Jupiter. 1666. Newton first turns his attention to gravitation. 1671. Richer observes the shortening of the seconds' pen - dulum on nearing the equator. 1675. Roemer announces his discovery of the velocity of light by means of Jupiter's satellites. 1687. Newton publishes the " Principia," 1705. Halley first predicted the return of a comet; viz., that of 1758. 1727. Bradley discovers aberration. March 30. Death of Newton. 1731. Hadley's quadrant is invented. 1732. Maupertuis introduces the Newtonian theory into France. 1765. Harrison gains the Parliamentary reward for his chronometer. 1767. The first nautical almanack is published. 1781. Herschel discovers Uranus. (See GEOKOIUM SlDUS.) 1784. Laplace's researches on the stability of the Solar .System, &c. 1795. Separation of the Milky Way into stars by Herschel. 1806. Herschel suspects the motion of the whole Solar System towards the constellation Hercules. 1814. IMazzi's catalogue of 7,646 stars. 1830. Astroiinniic.il Socirty of London is founded. 1830-32. Sir J. Herschel's investigations of double stars. 1845. Lord Hosse completes his telescope. 1846. The planet Neptune (q. v.) is discovered by Adams and Le Venier, who conducted their researches quite independently of each other. 1847. Herschel publishes the " Results of Astronomical Observations made at the Cape of Good Hope." 1850. Nebula; are observed by Lord Kise. 1853. Airymakes investigations respectingancienteclipses. 1857. Photography is successfully applied to astronomical purposes. 1858. Annular eclipse of the sun is visible in England. Donati's comet appears with great splendour for several weeks. (See PLANETS, &c.) ASTURIAS (Spain). An ancient province, to which, in 1833, the name of Oviedo, its chief town, was given. In its mountains the Gothic fugitives sought refuge on the invasion of Spain by the Saracens in the 8th century. The independence of the country was main- tained by a race of native rulers, commencing with Pelayo, A.D. 716. Henry, eldest son of John I., assumed the title of Prince of Asturias in 1388 ; and from that period the heir apparent to the Spanish throne has been thus styled. The insurrection against the French (1808) commenced in the fastnesses of the Asturian mountains, which became the scene of many severe struggles. Its junta was the first organized in Spain, and thus, as Alison re- marks, its inhabitants had "a second time the honour of having taken the lead in the deli- verance of the peninsula." ASUNDEN LAKE (Battle). Sten Sture the younger, Protector of Sweden, was defeated and wounded by the Danes under Otho Krumpe, on the ice of this lake, near Bogcsund, early in 1520. He died in his sledge on lake Malar while hastening to the defence of Stockholm, Feb. 3, 1520. ASYLUM. The earliest notice of a place of refuge for criminals is found in the command to Moses for the Jews to build six cities of refuge, for the manslayer, B.C. 1451 (Numbers xxxv. 6). A similar order was given to Joshua, B.C. 1444 (ch. xx.), on the entrance of the Jews into Canaan. Cadmus is said to have erected one at Thebes, B.C. 1493, and Rome at ATELIERS [ 91 1 ATHENS its foundation was a general place of refuge. Some place of sanctuary existed amongst all ancient nations of which we have any record. On the introduction of Christianity, the custom was retained. Milman (Latin Christianity, vol. i. b. iii. ch. 5) states : " The privilege of asylum within the Church is recognized in most barbaric codes. It is asserted in the strongest terms, and in terms impregnated with true Christian humanity, that there is no crime which may not be pardoned from the fear of God and reverence for the saints." It became a privilege of churches from the time of Constantino I. The altar was at first the sanctuary, until the privilege was extended to the other parts of the church. Theodosius regulated asylum by law, A.D. 392. When Alaric captured Rome, in 410, he ordered that all who took refuge in the churches should be spared. During the Middle Ages even con- vents, the dwellings of the bishops, the pre- cincts of these places, the graves of the dead, hospitals, &LC., were privileged in this respect. The canon law of Gratian and the Pope's Decretals granted protection to all except night and highway robbers, and offenders against the Church. The practice gave rise to various abuses, and many attempts were made to find a remedy. At the Reformation the system, as far as criminals were concerned, was abolished, though it continued to exist in a modified form, for the benefit of debtors, until abolished by 8 & 9 Will. III. c. 27 (1697). (See SANC- TUARY. ) ATELIERS NATIONAUX. (See NATIONAL WORKSHOPS.) ATELLA (Italy) was the seat of a bishopric, which was transferred to Aversa about 1050. The French army, under Montpensier, capitu- lated to the Spaniards and Italians at this town, July 21, 1496. Philip of Commines denounces this surrender as ignominious, and compares it to the capitulation of the Romans at the Cau- dine Forks. ATH. (See AATH.) ATHANASIAN CREED. A confession of faith, so called because it was supposed to have been composed by Athanasius, Bishop of Alexandria, A.D. 326. The latest critics have, however, shown that it was not the work of Athanasius. By some it is ascribed to Vigilius Tapsensis, "an African bishop, who lived in the latter part of the sth century, in the time of the Vandalic Arian persecution ; " and by Dr. Waterland (Hist, of Athanasian Creed) it is attributed to Hilary, Bishop of Aries, in the 5th century. It was written chiefly against the > Arians ; and to the fact that Athanasius was their vigorous opponent may its peculiar designation be attributed. ATHEISM. Disbelief in the existence of a God has, apparently, existed to a greater or less extent since the antediluvian period, and is referred to by David, who states that, "the fool hath said in his heart there is no God." (Psalm xiv.) Atheism was professed by many of the Greek philosophers, especially by Epicurus (B.C. 342 B.C. 270), who taught that happiness is the sole end of life, and re- jected all religious doctrines as antagonistic to the sensual pleasure in which he supposed it to consist. From Greece atheistic principles spread to Rome, where the poet Lucretius became their best known exponent and champion (B.C. 95 B.C. 52). The early Christians were condemned as atheists by the Roman tribunals, because they denied the prevalent polytheism, and the term has been frequently applied in reproach to those whose opinions on theological subjects were unintelli- gible to the mass of mankind. During the Middle Ages atheistic principles became very general among speculative philosophers, and were attributed to Popes John XXII. or XXIII. (1410 1416), Alexander VI. (1492 1503), and Leo X. (1513 1522). Machiavelli (14691527), Lucilius Vanini, who suffered death for heresy at Toulouse in 1619, Thomas Hobbes (1588 1679), and Benedict Spinoza (1632 1677), are also charged with having professed atheistical opinions, which became so prevalent that it was alleged that no fewer than 50,000 atheists were living in Paris in the year 1623. In 1774 Dr. Priestley declared that all the phi- losophers and men of letters whom he met during a visit to France were absolute infidels, and in 1781 a Mr. William Hammon, of Liver- pool, publicly declared himself an atheist. Atheism was established by the republican government in France from 1794, when Robespierre celebrated the festival of the God of Nature, to 1801, when the Roman Catholic religion was restored. (See DEISTS.) ATHEN.EA. The sacred games celebrated annually at Athens, in honour of Athetia or Minerva, the tutelary divinity of the city, when instituted by Erichthonius, B.C. 1495, or by Orpheus B.C. 1397, were called Athensea, but after the union of the peoples of Attica by Theseus, B.C. 1234, they received the title of Panathensea. (See PAN ATHENIAN GAMES.) ATHEN.ZEUM CLUB (London) was founded in 1823. The club-house in Pall Mall was built in 1829 and opened in Nov., 1830. ATHENREE (Battle). The Irish were de- feated here with great slaughter, Aug. 10, 1316. ATHENS, the capital of Attica and the most celebrated city of ancient Greece, is said to have been first called Cecropia, from Cecrops, an Egyptian who built the original city on the Acropolis (q.v.), according to Hales, B.C. 1558; Usher, B.C. 1556 ; and Clinton, B.C. 1433. It received the name of Athens from the worship of Athenae or Minerva, said to have been esta- blished by Erichthonius B.C. 1495. The legen- dary accounts give a succession of kings from Cecrops to Theseus, and with the latter the history of Athens as a state is declared by some writers to commence. Theseus ascended the throne, according to Hales, B.C. 1236 ; Usher, B.C. 1235 ; and Clinton, B.C. 1234. He united into one political body the 12 states into which Cecrops had divided Attica, and made Athens the capital. Codrus, the last king of the dynasty, sacrificed himself for the safety of Athens, B.C. 1070 according to Hales, or B.C. 1044 according to Clinton. Seventeen kings reigned during the monarchical period, and they were followed first by perpetual, then by decennial, and finally by annual archons (q. v.}. Homer speaks of Athens as a place ATHENS ATHENS of importance during the Trojan war (B.C. 1183). B.C. 1069. Medon is made perpetual archon. 754. Alcmreon the last of the perpetual archons. 753. Charops the first decennial archon. 684. Erixias, the seventh and last of the decennial archons, dies. 683. Nine annual archons are appointed, the title of archon being given only to the first. Creou first annual archon. 631. Compilat.on of Draco's Code (q. v.). 613. Cylon attempts to make himself master of Athens. 594. Solon remodels the constitution, and gives a new code to Athens. 563. Introduction of Comedy (q. v.). 560. Pisistratus usurps the government. Death of Solon. 554. Pisistratus is expelled. 535. Thespis first exhibits tragedy at Athens. 537. Death of Pisisiratus. 514. Assassination of Hipparchus by Harmodius and Aristogiton. 510. Establishment of Ostracism (q. .). 505. War between Athens and Sparta. 490. Battle of Marathon (q. v.). 487. War between Athens and ^gina (q. v.). 483. Banishment of Aristides. 481. A fleet of 300 ships is built at Athens. Ascendancy of Themi-tocles. 480. Athens is taken by Xerxes. 479. Mardonius burns Athens. 478. Themistocles rebuilds the city. 477. Commencement of the Athenian supremacy. 471. Banishment of Themistocles. 461. Ostracism of Cymon. 459. Athens asserts her supremacy over the other states of Greece. 457. The " Long Walls " of Athens are commenced. 456. Battle of (Enophyta (q. v.). 453. Truce between the Athenians and Peloponnesians for five years. 449. The Athenians defeat the Persians. 448. The Athenians assist the 1'hocians in the second Sacred War (q. v.). 447. Battle of Coronea (7. v.). 445. Thirty years' truce between Sparta and Athens. 444. Pericles is at the head of affairs. 440. Comedy (q. v.) is prohibited at Athens. The Samian war (q. v.). 439. Athens is at the height of its glory. 437. The law against comedy is repealed. 433. Alliance between the Athenians and the Corcyrreans. 431. Commencement of the Peloponnesian war (q. v.), and invasion of Attica. 430. Plague at Athens. Second invasion of Attica. 439. Pericles dies of the plague. 438. Third invasion of Attica. 415. First Athenian campaign in Sicily. 414. The Athenians are defeated in the second campaign in Sicily. 413. The Athenian fleet and army are destroyed. 41 1. Government of the " Four Hundred." 407. Second and last banishment of Alcibiades. War with Sparta (q. v.). 406. Sea-fight of Arginuste (q. v.). 405. Battle of JEgotpotairri (7. i:). 404. Athens is taken by Lysander. End of the Pelopon- nesian war. The rule of the Thirty Tyrants (q. v.), who are replaced by " the Ten." 403. Thrasybulus overthrows the government of "the Ten." 399. Death of Socrates. 394. Xenophon is banished from Athens. 393. Conon rebuilds the walls of Athens. 388. Plato founds the Academia (q. v.). 378. TheThel ans and Athenians are allied against Sparta. 376. Athenian victory off Naxos. 374. Peace between Athens and Sparta. 371. General peace. 360. War between the Athenians and the Olynthians respecting Amphipolis. 359. Philip II. of Macedon makes peace with Athens. 357. Commencement of the Social War (q. v.). 355. The Social W:ir terminates. 353. Philip II., in prosecuting the third Sacred or Phocian War (q. v.), t ikes Methone (q. .), and enters Thes- saly. He is stopped at Thermopylte by the Athenians. Demosthenes delivers his first Philippic (q. v.). B.C. 346. Peace between Athens and Macedon. 339. War breaks out between Philip II. and the Athenians. 338, Aug. 7. Battle of Charonea (q. v.). 333. Commencement of the Lamian war (q. v.). 323. Submission of Athens to Macedou. Death of Demosthenes. 317. Cassander conquers Athens. Execution of Phocion 011 a charge of treason. 307. Demetrius restores the ancient constitution of Athens. 297. Demetrius tails in an attack upon Athens. 290. Demetrius besieges Athens. 295- Demetrius takes Athens. 27- Athens revolts from Demetrius. 277. Athens, Sparta, and Egypt are allied. 308. After a series of sieges, Athens surrenders to Antigonus Gonatus, King of Sparta. 229. Athens joins the Achwan League. 215. The Athenians and ^Etolians unite against Macedon. 211. A Roman fleet arrives at Athens. 300. Athens and other Greek states join Rome against Philip V. of Macedon. 196. The Romans proclaim Athens free from the Macedo- nian power. 146. The Romans subdue Greece. 86. Athens is stormed by Sylla. ATHENS (Modem). This city sank into comparative insignificance early in the Chris- tian sera. St. Paul visited it (Acts xvii. 534) in 51. At first a bishop's see, it became an arch- bishopric, and ultimately received the metro- politan dignity. A.D. 267. Athens is besieged by the Goths. 395. It is taken by Alaric. 533. The walls are restored by Justinian. 1146. The city is plundered by Roger, King of Sicily. 1305. It is taken by Otho de la Roche, whom the Marquis of Montferrut makes Lord of Athens and Thebes, by the title of Grand Sire. 1311. It is conquered by the Catalans. 1394. It is bequeathed by Xeiio Acciaiuoli to the church of St. Mary. 1456. The city is taken by Mohammed II., who thus puts an end to the domination of the Latins. 1466. It is taken by the Venetians. 1497. It is restored to the Turks. 1087. It is retaken by the Venetians. 1837. Insurrection of Greeks. May 17. Siege and capture by the Turks. 1834. Athens is declared the capital of the modern king- dom of Greece. 1850, Jan. 18. It is blockaded by a British fleet. (See GREECE.) 1854. It is occupied by French and English forces. 1856. 'Ihe French and English forces are withdrawn. 1862, Oct. 22. A revolu ion against King Otho takes place during the night, which results in his abdication. (See GREECE.) 1863, Oct. 30. King George I. enters Athens. DUKES OF ATHENS. HOUSE OF DE LA ROCHE. A.D. A.D. Otho 1305 William 1375 Guy 1 1225 Guy II 1290 John 1264 IOUSE OF BRIENNE. Walter de Bricnne Roger Deslau . CATALAN GRAND COMPANY. HOUSE OF ARAGON. (Dukes of Athens and Neopatras.) Manfred ..................... 1326 ' Wil'lia John 133 1338 HOUSE OF ACCIAIUOLI. Frederick .................. 1348 Frederick .................. Maria ........................ Nerio 1 1386 Antonio 1394 Xerio II 1435 Infant son of Xerio II. with his mother as regent 1453 Franco 1455 ATHERTON T 93 ATLANTIC ATHERTOX MOOR (Battle). The parlia- mentary army, led by the Earl of Essex, was completely defeated here, June 30, 1643, by the royalist forces under the Marquis of New- castle. ATHLETIC SPORTS were highly prized by the classic nations of antiquity, and constituted an important feature of the Olympic and other games of the Greeks and Romans. Professional athletae first appeared at Rome B.C. 186. An annual contest in running, leaping, and other athletic exercises between members of the universities of Oxford and Cambridge was instituted in 1864, and the first competition took place March 5, 1864. (See GLADIATORS, GYMNASIUM, GYMNASTICS, ISTHMIAN and OLYMPIC GAMES, iroiisrh. Spencer 1'ercivaL Arthur 1'igott. Vicary Gibbs. Thomas PI inner. William Gnrrow. Sinnuel Shepherd. Robert Gifford, afterwards Lord Gifford. GI:OIJGK IV. Robert Gifford again. John Singh-ton Copley, afterwards Lord Lyndhurst. Charles Wetherell. James Scarlett, afterwards Lord Abinger. Charles Wetheivll again. James Scarlett again. WILLIAM IV. James Scarlett again. Thomas Denman, afterwards Lord Den- man. William Home. John Campbell, afterwards Lord Campbell. Frederick Pollock. John Campbell again. VICTORIA. John Campbell again. Thomas Wilde, afterwards Lord Truro. Frederick Pollock again. William Webb Follett. Frederick Thesiger, afterwards Lord Chelmsford. Thomas Wilde again. John Jervis. John Romilly. Alexander James Edmund Cockburn. Frederick Thesig r again. Alexander James Edmund Cockburn again. Richard Bethell,afterwards Lord Westbury. Fitzroy Kelly. Richard Bethell again. William Atherton Roundell Palmer. ATTRACTION. Tbales discovered the at- tractive power of amber, when excited by rub- bing, B.C. 600. Pythagoras, born B.C. 580, and Anaxagoras, born B.C. 499, had some know- ledge of this principle as the source of the stability of the heavenly bodies ; but it was first scientifically understood by Copernicus, whose system of astronomy was completed in 1530. Dr. Gilbert, of Colchester, taught, in 1590, that the earth exerts in all its parts great attractive power; and Kepler, in 1609, applied the same principle to the explanation of the motions of the planet Mars by the phenomena of the tides. Sir Isaac Newton's researches into the subject of attraction com- menced in 1666, and the result was published in the " Principia " in 1687, in which he developed his theory of gravitation. (See ELECTRICITY, GRAVITATION, MAGNETISM, &c.) AUBAINE. -This right, by which the sove- reigns of France claimed the property of a stranger who had died in their dominions with- out having been naturalized, was abolished by laws dated Aug. 6, 1790, and April 13, 1791 ; confirmed by a constitutional act Sep. 3, 1791. It was re-established in 1804; and finally abolished July 14, 1819. AUBEROCHE (Battle). Fought between the English and French before this place, in France, Aug. 19, 1344, in which the former, although greatly inferior in point of numbers, were vic- torious ; the loss of the French amounting to 7,000 slain and 1,200 prisoners. AUBIN DU CORMIER, ST. (Battle). Fought at this place, in Britanny, between the Bretons and the French, July 28, 1488. The latter gained the victory, and St. Aubin fell into their hands. The Prince of Orange and the Duke of Orleans were made prisoners. A body of English archers, 400 in number, com- manded by Lord Woodville, were cruelly put to death after the battle. AUCKLAND (New Zealand), the capital, was founded Sep. 19, 1840. Capt. Hobson, the first governor of the colony, arrived in January, 1841. It was resolved to transfer the seat of government to Wellington (q.v.], Dec. 24, 1864. AUCTION. This mode of sale was common amongst the Romans. Petronius gives the following caricature of the handbill of a Roman auction : " Julius Procuius will make an auction of his superfluous goods to pay his debts." In the i3th century the crier, called cursor, stood under a spear, as amongst the Romans. By 19 Geo. III. c. 56, s. 3 (1779), an auction is defined, "a sale of any estate, goods, or effects, whatsoever, by outcry, knock- ing down of hammer, by candle, by lot, by parcel, or by any other mode of sale at auction, or whereby the highest bidder is deemed to be the purchaser." Duties were first levied on auctions by 17 Geo. III. c. 50 (1777). Increased and extended to Ireland in 1797 ; and again increased by 45 Geo. III. c 30 (April 5, 1805^; they were repealed by 8. Viet. c. 15 (May 8, 1845), which imposed upon auctioneers the necessity of taking out a license. AUDIANS, or AUD^EANS, a Christian sect, so called from Audius, Audseus, or Udo, a native of Mesopotamia, who was prosecuted by the Syrian clergy, because he censured their irregular lives. AUDIENCIA t 97 1 AUGSBURG In revenge, he was ejected from the Syrian Church, and banished to Scythia, where he died A.D. 370. His followers celebrated Easter on the same day as the Jewish passover, con- trary to the decree of the Council of Nicaea in 325 ; and they maintained that God had a human form, and that man was created after his image. From the former doctrine they have been called Quart odecimarians, and from the latter Anthropomorphites. Theodosius I., in 385, decreed death against those who dared to perpetrate the atrocious crime of celebrating Easter on an improper day. Only a small number of Audians remained after the year 377, and they dwelt in cabins and monasteries near Antioch. By the sth century they had become extinct. They .are also called Ardseans, and their founder Ardseus. AUDIENCIA REAL. A great council ap- pointed to assist the viceroys in the Spanish colonies in the administration of civil affairs. Venezuela threw off the authority of this tri- bunal July 8, 1 8 10, establishing in its stead a popular junta, and her example was speedily followed by the other colonies of South America. AUDIT OFFICE. This department was established at Somerset House by 25 Geo. III. c. 52 (1785), to provide for the proper audit and examination of the public accounts. Com- missioners were appointed to audit the colonial revenues by 2 Will. IV. c. 26 (April 9, 1832), and the accounts of Ireland were brought within the jurisdiction of the Commissioners of Audit for Great Britain by 2 & 3 Will. IV. c. 99 (Aug. 9, 1832). AUDLEY f S REBELLION. (See FLAMMOCK'S REBELLION.) AUERSTADT (Battle). Marshal Davoust, at the head of the French army, defeated the Prussians, under Marshal Blucher, at this plateau in Prussia, Oct. 14, 1806. The Duke of Brunswick, who led the infantry, was mortally wounded. The Prussians lost 10,000, and Davoust 7,500 men. This battle, with that of Jena (q. .), fought the same day, placed Prussia completely at the mercy of the French. AUFIDENA (Italy). This ancient city of the Samnites was carried by assault by the consul Cn. Fulvius, B.C. 298. A Roman colony was established here by Julius Csesar B.C. 45. AUGHRIM, or AGHRIM (Battle). Fought near this place, in Ireland, Sunday, July 12, 1691. The troops of William III., commanded by Gen. Ginkell, gained a complete victory over the army of James II. The chief result was the submission of Ireland to William III. AUGMENTATION OF POOR LIVINGS. (See QUEEN ANNE'S BOUNTY.) AUGMENTATIONS, called "The Court of the Augmentations of the King's Revenues," was established by 27 Henry VIII. c. 27 (1535), to take cognizance of suits and controversies arising out of the suppression of monasteries. It consisted of a chancellor, treasurer, attorney, solicitor, 10 auditors, 17 receivers, a clerk, an usher, and a messenger. It was sup- pressed by letters patent, re-established, and was annexed to the Court of Exchequer by i Mary, sess. 2, c. 10 (1553), and revived by i Eliz. c. 4 (1558). The records of the court may be searched on payment of a fee, by i & 2 Viet, c. 94 (Aug. 10, 1838). AUGSBURG (Bavaria). Founded by Augus- tus about B.C. 14, after the conquest of Rhsetia by Drusus, and called Augusta Vindelicorum, was pillaged by the Huns about the middle of the sth century. Charlemagne destroyed it in 788. It was restored, and enjoyed the rights of a free and imperial city from 1276 1806. Marshal Villars captured it Sep. 18, 1703 ; the Elector of Bavaria in December of the same year ; and Marlborough retook it in 1704. It was taken by the French Oct. 10, 1805, and delivered by them to the Bavarian authorities in March, 1806. The bishopric is very ancient. Councils were held at Augsburg Aug. 7, 952, and Feb., 1051. The academy of painting was founded in 1712. AUGSBURG CONFESSION. This cele- brated confession of faith, compiled by Melanc- thon, and revised by Luther and other reformers, was read before the diet of Augs- burg, June 25, 1530. It consisted of 28 articles, seven of which contained refutations of Roman Catholic errors, and the remaining 21 set forth the leading tenets of the Lutheran creed. Soon after its promulgation, the last hope of inducing the pontiff to reform the Roman Catholic Church was abandoned, and the com- plete severance of the connection followed. An answer by the Roman Catholics was read Aug. 3, 1530 ; and the Augsburg diet declared that it had been refuted. Melancthon drew up another confession somewhat different. The first is called the unaltered, and the second the altered confession. AUGSBURG DIET. The most celebrated of the numerous diets held at this place was that of 1530. As Pope Clement VII. refused to call a general council for the settlement of all religious disputes, to be held in some German town, in accordance with the recess of the diet of Spires in 1529, the Emperor Charles V. summoned another diet at Augsburg, which met June 20, 1530. The confession (q. v.) was read June 25, and an answer by the Roman Catholics Aug. 3, whereupon it was proclaimed that the Protestants must conform in all points to the Church of Rome. Philip of Hesse withdrew Aug. 6, and John, Elector of Saxony, asked leave to depart Sep. 20. Charles V. soon after delivered his decision, in which he gave the Protestants till April 15 to re-mrte themselves to the Roman Catholic Church, during which period they were to attempt no further innovations, to publish no new re- ligious works, and to allow their Roman Catholic subjects free use of their worship, and to repress Anabaptists and Sacramentaries. The Emperor engaged to induce the Pope to summon a national or general council. This decision met with resistance, and a recess was issued Nov. 22, in which the emperor announced his intention to execute the edict of Worms, made some severe enactments against the Protestants, and re-constituted the Imperial Chamber. The Protestant depu- ties put in a counter declaration, and the diet separated. AUGSBURG INTERIM. This document AUGSBURG AULIC was drawn up by order of the Emperor Charles V., with a view to the settlement of the re- ligious differences in Germany. It was the joint production of John Agricola, Julius Pflug, and Michael Heldingus, commonly called Sidonius, from his bishopric. The code, consisting of 26 articles, most of them in favour of the Roman Catholics, was read before a diet at Augsburg May 15, 1548, and having failed to produce the desired effect, was at length withdrawn. AUGSBURG LEAGUE. Concluded at Augs- burg July 9, 1686, for the maintenance of the treaties of Munster and Nimeguen, and the truce of Ratisbon. It was negotiated by Wil- liam Prince of Orange, June 21, 1686, for the purpose of resisting the encroachments of France. The contracting parties were the Emperor Leopold I., the Kings of Spain and Sweden, the Electors of Saxony and Bavaria, the Circles of Swabia, Franconia, Upper Saxony, and Bavaria. The League was to be in force three years, and might be renewed. England acceded to it in 1689. AUGURY, supposed to be of Asiatic origin, was received by the Romans from the Etrus- cans. The story of the rival pretensions of Romulus and Remus, to be decided by the flight of birds, B.C. 753, is well known. Romu- lus instituted f our augurs, and Numa Pompilius increased the number to six, and established them as an order B.C. 716. The Romans never embarked in any important enterprise without consulting the augurs, and one of them always attended upon the consul when commanding an army. In B.C. 307 the number of augurs was increased to nine, five plebeians being associated with four patricians. Sylla increased the number to 15, B.C. 81. Augustus, B.C. 29, obtained the right of electing augurs at his pleasure. Theodosius I. (the Great) abolished the office of augur A.D. 390. Gibbon (iii. ch. 28) remarks : " Fifteen grave and learned augurs observed the face of the heavens, and pre- scribed the action of heroes according to the flight of birds." AUGUST. By a decree of the senate, B.C. 30, the name of this month was changed from Sextilis to August, in honour of the Emperor Augustus, who extended the number of its days from 30 to 31. AUGUSTA PRETORIA. (See AOSTA.) AUGUSTALIA, or AUGUSTALES. This festival, in honour of the birthday (Sep. 23, B.C. 63) of Augustus, was established by a de- cree of the Roman senate, B.C. n. The term is applied to games celebrated in honour of Augustus at Rome, Neapolis, Alexandria, and other cities. AUGUSTAN 2ERA, named after Augustus, began Feb. 14, A.U.C. 727, or B.C. 27. AUGUSTENBURG (Denmark). The castle at this town, on the isle of Alsen, erected in 1651, is the seat of the ducal family of Augus- tenburg, a branch of the house of Holstein. Prince Christian Charles Augustus of Augus- tenburg, born in 1786, and nominated in 1809 Crown-Prince of Sweden, died immediately on his arrival in that country, in 1810, it is be- lieved by poison. In consideration of the sum of $3,500,000, Prince Christian signed an act, Dec. 30, 1852, renouncing for himself and family all right to the succession of any part of the Danish kingdom. After the death of Frederick VII., Prince Frederick of Augusten- burg published a claim to the succession in Sleswig-Holstein, Nov. 16, 1863. (See DENMARK.) The contract for the marriage of the Princess Helena with Prince Christian of Augusten- burg, younger brother of the claimant to the duchies, was sanctioned by Queen Victoria in "council, Dec. 5. 1865. AUGUSTINE FRIARS, also called AUS- TINS, or EREMITES. Their origin is uncer- tain. Pope Alexander IV. is said to have col- lected several bodies of hermits and placed them under the common rule of St. Augustine in 1256. Lanfranc of Milan was their general. Much controversy has been excited respecting the date of their introduction into England. A small body is said to have settled at Wood- house, in Wales, in 1252. Humphrey Bohun, afterwards Earl of Hereford and Essex, gave them a house and a church in London in 1254. They had about 32 houses in England and Wales when the monasteries were sup- pressed at the Reformation. AUGUSTINES, or the Canons of the order of St. Augustine, sometimes called Austin Canons, because they pretended to follow the rule of St. Augustine, or Austin, Bishop of Hippo, in Africa, A.D. 395. They were little known until the nth century, and did not assume the name until a later period. It is generally believed that they came into Eng- land in the reign of Henry I., about 1105. Stevens states that they did not take any vows until the i2th century, and that they assumed the name of Regular Canons of St. Augustine, when Innocent II., at the tenth general coun- cil, that of Lateran, in 1139, placed all regular canons under his rule. There were canonesses of this order, which had about 175 houses in England and Wales at the time of the suppres- sion of the monasteries. AUGUST! ) I ) I N I' .M. (See BIBRACTE.) AULDEARN (Battle). The Covenanters were defeated at Auldeam, or Alderne, near Inverness, by the Earl of Montrose, May 9, 1645. AULIC COUNCIL. Soon after the establish- ment of the Imperial Chamber by the diet of Worms, in 1495, Maximilian I. instituted an Aulic Council at Vienna. The judges were ap- pointed by the emperor. "The Aulic Coun- cil," says Hallarn, "had, in all cases, a concur- rent jurisdiction with the Imperial Chamber ; an exclusive one in feudal and some other causes. But it was equally confined to caser* of appeal ; and these, by multiplied privileges appellando, granted to the electoral and superior princely houses, were gradually reduced into moderate compass." This court underwent various modifications. An edict for its regulation was issued by Ferdinand III. in 1654. During the wars between Austria and Napoleon I. the Aulic Council directed the military affairs of the empire. Its inter- ference with the plans of the generals fre- quently proved disastrous. The Aulic Coun- cil was abolished on the formation of the Confederation of the Rhine in 1806, but was AURAY [ 99 AUSTRALIA revived on the renewal of the struggle against Napoleon I. AURAY (Battle), was fought near this town in France, Sep. 29, 1364, between a French army, 4,000 strong, led by Charles de Blois and Bertrand du Guesclin, and some English and Breton forces, amounting to 2,500, under the command of the Count de Montfort and Sir John Chandos. Bertrand was defeated and taken prisoner, Charles de Blois was killed, and the results of the victory were the cap- ture of Auray, Dinan, and other towns, and the conclusion of a peace at Guerrande, April X 3) JB^S. The French lost 1,000 men in the battle, and their army was dispersed, whilst only 20 fell on the other side. AUREOLA. (See NIMBUS.) AURICULAR CONFESSION. The practice of private confession of sins to the priest arose at an early period of Christianity, and was frequently condemned by the primitive Church. The penitent in Anglo-Saxon times was re- quired to say to the priest (Thorpe, Ancient Laws and Institutes of England, p. 404), " I confess to thee all the sins of my body, of skin, of flesh, and of bones, and of sinews, and of veins, and of gristles, and of tongue, and of lips, and of gums, and of teeth, and of hair, and of marrow, and of everything, soft or hard, wet or dry." It was established in the Roman Catholic Church by the decision of the twelfth general council (fourth Lateran), in 1215, and confirmed by that of Trent, 1545 1563. The former decreed it to be heresy for any one to assert that it was sufficient to con- fess sins to God, without making confession to a priest. It was abolished in England at the Reformation. Attempts have been made by members of the Tractarian party to revive the practice in the Anglican Church ; and in 1858 a clergyman was suspended from his office on this account. AURIFLAMMA. (&e ORIFLAMME.) AURORA BO RE ALIS. Pliny the Elder (A.D. 23 79) declares this phenomenon of nature was greatly dreaded, and speaks of one appearance as exhibiting daylight in the night. Extraordinary displays were seen in Spain, Portugal, Holland, France, and Great Britain, Aug. 31, 1769, and Feb. 29, 1780. The aurora borealis seen Oct. 24, 1847, one of the most brilliant ever witnessed in this country, was preceded by great magnetic disturbance. AUSTERLITZ (Battle). Fought near a small town of this name, in Moravia, Dec. 2, 1805, and called " the battle of the three emperors," because the French were commanded by Na- poleon I., and the Austrians and Russians by the Emperors Francis II. and Alexander I. The French army numbered 90,000, and that of their opponents 80,000 men. The former proved victorious, and the armistice of Auster- litz was signed Dec. 6. It led to the breaking up of the third coalition, and the conclusion of the treaty of Presburg (q. v.}. AUSTINS. (-See AUGUSTINE FRIARS.) AUSTRALASIA, the fifth great division of the world, comprises several of the islands lying hi the Indian and Pacific Oceans. The most important are Australia, or New Holland ; Van Diemen's Land, or Tasmania ; Papua, or New Guinea ; New Zealand, New Britain, New Caledonia, the New Hebrides, and Solomon's Archipelago. The first discovery made by Europeans in this quarter of the globe was that of Papua (q. v.), by the Portuguese, in 1512. A.D. 1538. Saavedra, a Spaniard, lands in Papua. 1529. Saavedra visits Papua a second time. 1537. An expedition, sent by the Viceroy of Pern, lands in Papua. 1543. Gaetano discovers one of Ihe Sandwich Isles (q. v.). 1507. Mendana discovers New Georgia, or Solomon's Island. 1603. The New Hebrides (q. v.) are discovered by the Spaniards. 1606, March. The Dutch sight Australia (q. v.). June, Torres, a Spaniard, passes through the strait named after him in 1763, separating 1 Australia from New Guinea. He also discovers islands in the Louisade Archipelago. 1643. Tasman discovers Van Diemen's Land (see TAS- MANIA) and New Zealand (q. r.). 1644. Tasman 's second voyage to Australia. 1700, Feb. 37. Dampier discovers the island of New Britain (q. v.). 1767. Carteret discovers New Ireland (q. v.). 1773. Kerguelen, or Desolation Island (q. v.) is discovered. 1773. Furneaux discovers Adventure Bay (q. v.). 1774. Cook visits the New Hebrides. Sep. 4. He discovers New Caledonia. 1789. Banks's Island, to the north of the New Hebrides, is discovered by Bligh. 1798. Bass, in the Norfolk, explores the strait bearing his name. 1799. Flinders circumnavigates Van Diemen's Land. AUSTRALIA, or NEW HOLLAND. The discovery of this, the largest island in the world, called by the Dutch Terra Australis, by the Spaniards Terra Australis del Espiritu Sancto, and in the earliest maps Jave la Grande, or Great Java, has been claimed by the French for Capt. Binot Paulmier de Gonneville, in 1504. Recent researches have proved that it was the coast of Madagascar, and not that of Australia, upon which this French navigator was driven. Magellan is said to have discovered it during the voyage made in the Vittoria in 1520, but the claims of these early discoverers are not sup- ported by satisfactory evidence. There is, how- ever, little doubt that Australia was discovered previous to the year 1540, and the Portuguese are supposed to be entitled to the honour of this discovery, of which no record remains. The Dutch, Nov. 18, 1605, despatched the yacht Duyphen, from Bantam, to explore the islands of New Guinea, and during the voyage, about March, 1606, they sighted the coast of Australia. In June of the same year it was seen by Torres, a Spanish navigator, when passing through the straits that bear his name ; yet neither of these enterprising men was aware of the im- portance of the discoveiy. Between the years 1616 and 1705 several expeditions were sent by the Dutch in this direction, and various portions 'f the Australian coast were explored. Much in- formation will be found in " A History of the Discovery and Exploration of Australia," by ;he Rev. J. E. Tenison Woods, 1865. In 1770 Capt. Cook gave the name of New South Wales to a part of the island, and in 1829 Western Australia, or Swan River, was founded. Other provinces have since been erected into separate colonies, and Australia contains the following divisions : 1. New South Wales ; 2. Western Australia, or Swan River ; 3. South Australia ; AUSTRALIA [ ioo ] AUSTRALIA 4. Victoria, or Port Phillip ; 5. Queen's Land, or Moretuu Bay. A.D. 1616. Hartog makes discoveries in what id now called West Australia. 1618. Zeacheu makes discoveries in what is now called North Australia. 1619. Von Edels makes discoveries in what is now called West Australia. 1637. Nuyt's Land is discovered by the Dutch. 1638. I)e Witt makes discoveries, to which his name is given, in what is now called Northern Australia. 1643, Aug. 14. Tii.sman sails from Batuvia with two vessels, on his iirst voyage of discovery, to Aus- tralia. Nov. 23. Discovers Tasmania (?..). Dec. I. Lands, and names it Van Diemcn, after the Governor of liatavia. 1644. Tasman's second voyage to Australia. 1686, Jan. 4. William Dumpier, tin; first Englishman to visit Australia, lands on the eastern coast. Feb. 13. Dumpier sails from Australia. 1696, Dec. 25. William Vlamingh, a Dutch navigator, sights the southern coast of Australia. 1697, J an - 5- Vlamingh lands 011 the Australian continent. 1699, Jan. 14. W. Dampicr sails for Australia a set 'I time. Aug. i. He sights the coast of Australia.-- Aug. 3r. Lands on one of the group called Dam- pier's Islands. 1705, April July 13. The Dutch 'explore the north-west coast of Australia. 1737, June. A Dutch vessel, the Xri-icyk, is wrecked on what is now called Gun Island. I77O, April, (.'apt. Cook sails along th" south-east coast of Australia; lands at a spot which he calls Botany Hay (:). Mar. 10. La IVrouse quits the coast of Australia. Governor 1'hillip goes on several exploring tours. 1790. The colonists arc "in danger of perishing from starvation, caused by the loss of the storeship Guardian. 1791. Vancouver makes some important discoveries. 1793, April 31. Two French vessels, under Admiral D'Entreeas'.eaux, despatched in quest of the lost expedition of La Perouse, anchor off Storm Bay, Tasmania. 1793. The first church is erected. 1795. The first printing-press is established. Sep. Bass and Flinders arrive at Port Jackson, and ascend the George's Kiver in a small boat named Tom Thumb. 1797, Dec. 3. Bass commences a short voyage of discovery. 1798, Oct. 7. Bass and Flinders sail in the Norfolk. Oct. II. They anchor in Twofold Bay. Oct. 17. They reach Kent's Islands. Nov. 4. They sight the north coast of Tasmania, and discover Port Dalrymple. Dec. 4. They discover Bass's Straits (q. .), thus establishing the fact that Australia and Tasmania are distinct islands. 1799, Jan. 13. They return to Sydney. July 8. Flinders starts on another expedition. July 15. He dis- covers Moreton Bay (q. r.), which he explores. 1800, Jan. The brig Lady Kelson, under Lieut. Grant, is sent from England as a surveying ship. Dec. 3. He discovers Cape Northumberland. 1801, July 18. Flinders sails from Spithead in the Inves- tigator. Dec. 6. He reaches Cape Leeuwin. 1803, Feb. 16. Flinders passes Point Sir Isaac, and discovers Port Lincoln, whence he sails Mar. 6. Mar. 31. He discovers Kangaroo Island (q. .). April 36. He reaches Cape Schanck. May 9. He returns to Port Jackson, having explored the south coast. July 23. He sets sail on an expedition to the north- west coast. Nov. 4. He reaches the gulf of Car- pentaria, which he explores. Nov. 17. He dis- covers Swecr's Islands. Dec. I. Discovery of Wellesley's Islands. Dec. 31. He sights Capo Maria Island. 1803, June 9. Flinders returns to Port Jackson. The Syitney Gaxette is published by authority. A settlement is formed at Port Phillip (q. .). 1804. The Irish rebellion is suppi- 1808. Governor Bligh is deposed by the colonists for his tyranny, and sent home. 1813. Lieut. Lawson, ami Messrs. Went worth and Black- land, cross the Blue Mountains. 1817, May i Aug. 39. Lieut. Oxley partially explores the rivers Laehlan and Macquanie, Dec. 33. The Mi'nmiiil, ('apt. King, is despatched by Govern- ment to survey the north-west coast. llume dis- covers lake Bathurst. 1818, Mayj8. Oxley leaves Bathurst to explore the Mac- qnarrio Kiver. July 38. King arrives at Port Jackson, having explored Van Dicmen's Gulf, and discovered several rivers and inlets on the northern coast. Nov. 5. Oxley's expedition ter- minates at Newcastle, on the Hunter Kiver, having resulted in the discovery of Liverpool plains. 1819, May. King starts on a second voyage. 1830, Jan. 13. He reaches Sydney, having explored 540 miles of the northern coast. June 14. King com- mences his third voyage. Sep. 6. He is forced by the leaky state of his vessel to return to Sydney without having made any important discovery. 1831, May 36. King commences his fourth voyage, in the lltithurnt. Departure of Governor Mncquaire, under whose rule the convicts were well treated, and assisted to retrieve their character and obtain a position. 1833, Mar. 35. King returns to Sydney, having explored a large extent of the north-west coast 1833, June i. Capt. Cim-ie and Gen. Owens discover the Murrumbidgee Kiver. Oxley discovers the Bris- bane Kiver. 1834, Oct. 3. A settlement is formed on Melville Island, on the north coast. Oct. JIovcll and Hume com- mence their overland exploration. Nov. They discover the Australian Alps. Nov. 15. They dis- cover the Hume or Murray Kiver, and, a few days afterwards, tin' < ivens Kiver. Dec. 3. They cross the Goulburn Kiver. Dec. 9. They ascend "Mount Disappointment Deo. 18. They reach the limit of their exploration, and commence their return. The Legislative Council is established this year. 1835, Jan. 18. Hovell and Hume return to lake George. 1836, The north coast settlement is removed from Melville Island to Kafflcs' Bay. 1837, June 5. Cunningham discovers Darling Downs. 1838, Capt. Stirling surveys the coast from King George's Sound to Suan Kiver (q. v.).~ Nov. lo. Capt Start commences his first expedition. 1829, Jan. Sturt discovers the Darling Kiver. April 21. He returns to Wellington Valley. Sep. 25. Sturt's second expedition reaches the Murrumbi.l-.ree. 1830, Jan. 14. He discovers the junction of the Murrum- bldgee with a larger river, which he calls the Murray, but which had been previously named the Hume. Jan. 33. He discovers the junction of the rivers Murray and Darling. Feb. 13. Having traced the Murray to lake Alexandrine, and thence ascertained its Innavigable outlet into the ocean at Encounter Bay, he commences his return journey. 1831, Mitchell explores South Australia and Eastern Aus- tralia, 1835, March 9. Mitchell commences his second expedition. May 25- He reaches the Darling. July. He is compelled by the natives to return to Sydney. 1836, March 17. Mitchell's third expedition starts. Ho returned in October, having traversed 2,400 miles, and explored Australia Felix. July 37. Settle- ment of Adelaide (q. v.). [837, Oct. Capt. Guy leaves the Cape of Good Hope on an expedition to North-western Australia, Dec, 3. He reaches Port George the Fourth. AUSTRALIA AUSTRASIA 1838, April 16. Grey's expedition terminates at Hanover Bay. Eyre discovers lake Hindmarsh, into which the waters of the Wimmera discharge themselves. 1839, Feb. 35. Grey commences his second expedition at Bernier Island. March. Bouncy journeys overland from Portland Bay to Ai '.elaidc. Grey discovers the Gascoyne River. April 31. He reaches Perth, Swan Kivcr. AVickham explores the Victoria IJiver. 1840, Feb. 15. Count Strzelecki ascends the Australian Alps. June 18. Eyre commences his overland ex- ploration of AVestem Australia. July 30. Stokes enters the Albert River. 1841, Feb. 23. Eyre, having sent back all his party except Mr. Scott and three native boys, resumes his journey. April 29. Scott is murdered by two of the native guides. Eyre, attended only by the third guide, and 600 miles distant from any settle- ment, continues his journey. June 2. Signals the French whaler Mississippi, and obtains relief from the captain. July 7. After enduring extreme hardships, Eyre reaches Albany. 1843, Landor and Lefray explore- Western Australia. 1844, Aug. Dr. Lcichhardt'l expedition leaves Moreton Bay. Sep. 24. Sturt leaves the Darling on another expedition. 1845, Sep. 6. Sturt, having travelled within nearly 150 miles of the centre of the continent, is compelled by drought to return. Nov. 17. Sir Thomas Mitchell's expedition leaves Paramatta. Dec. 17. Leich- hardt reaches Port Essington, having journeyed overland upwards of 3,000 miles. 1846, Aug. 7. The brothers Gregory set out from Bolgart .Spring. Sep. 9. They discover coal deposits on the Arrowsinith Kiver. Sep. 22- They return, having penetrated 953 miles into Western Austra- lia. Sep. 28. Mitchell reaches the limit of his exploration of the Upper Barcoo. 1847, March. Kennedy starts from Sydney on his first expedition. Aug. 13. He reaches the limit of Mitchell's exploration of the Barcoo. Sep. 19. He is compelled by want of water to return. 1848, Leichhardt starts early in the year, intending to traverse the continent from east to west. April 3. He dates a letter from McPherson's station, Cogoon, and is never heard of afterwards. April 29. Kennedy's second expedition sails from Syd- ney. May 30. He lands at Rockingham Bay, on the north-east coast, and commences his journey overland. Sep. o. A. C. Gregory sets out from Western Australia to search for pasture-land, &c. Sep. 14. Roe's expedition starts from York, in Western Australia, Oct. 18. He commences the ascent of the Pallinup Kiver. Nov. 13. After much hardship and disappointment, Kennedy, vi ith three white men and Jackey Jackey, a native, leave the main bo !y and endeavour to push their way to Port Albany. Kennedy is killed by the natives; the whites die from accident or privation ; and Jackey Jackey, the sole sur- vivor, reaches Port Albany Dec. 23. Nov. 17. Gregory returns to Perth, having travelled more than 15,000 miles, and discovered valuable lead veins on the Murchison Uiver. 1849, Feb. 2- Roe's expedition returns to Perth , having traversed nearly 18,000 miles, and discovered several coal seams. 1851. Hargreaves discovers gold in the Bath urst Mountains. (See GOLD DISCOVERIES.) 1853. Holy leaves Sydney early in the year in quest of Leichhardt July 22. Having failed in his object, he returns to the Balonne River. 1854, July 10. Austin's expedition leaves Momekine. Oct. 29. He reaches the extreme point of his journey. 1855. A. 0. Gregory commences his exploration of the A'ictoria River. 1856, Nov. :6. Gregory's expedition returns to Brisbane, having made one of the most extensive explora- tions ever made in the continent. 1858, April 1 6. F. Gregory sets out from the Geraldine Mine. May 12. He discovers the Lyons River. June 22. He returns to the Geraldine Mine. May to Sep. John M'Douall Stuart's first expedi- tion on the west coast of Port Lincoln district. Sep. A public meeting in Melbourne for organ- izing an exploration of the interior of Australia, collects upwards of =3,000, which sum is raised to 10,000 by the colonial legislature. A.D. j ->j j ; j j > ' 1859, April 2 to Julys, ahd-IJuv-^to Jai^;# second and third expeditions. 1860, March 2- Stuart starts from Chambers Creek. April 23. He reaches the centre of Australia. Aug. 20. The expedition of Robert O'Hara Burke and W. J. AVills leaves Melbourne. Oct. 19. They quit Menindee. Nov. 20. They reach Cooper's Creek. Dec. 16. The party divides into two portions ; the first, under Brahe, staying as a re- serve at Cooper's Creek, while the other, consist- ing of Burke, Wills, Gray, and King, commence the exploration of the great Sahara of Australia. 1861, Jan. I. Stuart starts on his fifth expedition. Feb. ar. Burke and Wills, having crossed the Austra- lian continent, commence their return homewards. April 17. Death of Gray from starvation. April 21. The three survivors reach Cooper's Creek, which had been abandoned the same day by Brahe and his party. June. Death of Burke and Wills from exhaustion. King is hospitably entertained by the natives until .Sep. 15, when he is rescued by a relieving party under A. W. Howitt. Sep. 15. Stuart, having reached lat 17 deg. long. 133 deg., and on one occasion been for 106 hours without water, reaches the settlements. Oct. 9. Howitt's relief expedition returns to Poria Creek. Nov. 9. F. Gregory completes a successful exploration of the north-west coast. 1863. Jan. 2. Stuart commences another expedition. Jan. 22. McKinlay completes his journey across the continent. June. Landsborough completes some important discoveries. July 25 Stuart reaches the opposite shore at Chambers Bay. Dec. He returns to the settlements. 1864. In consequence of the opposition of the Australian colonies, the English Government abolishes the practice of transportation. Explorations are con- tinued in North and South Australia and Queens- land. 1865. Foundation of Somerset as the nucleus of a settle- ment near Cape York, on the shores of Torres Straits. AUSTRASIA, or EAST FRANCE, was allot- ted to Thierry I. on the death of his father, Clovis I., A.D. 511. It was united to Neustria by Clotaire II. in 613, and separated from it by Dagobert I. in 622. Charles Martel annexed it to his dominions in 737. Carloman received Austrasia on the death of Charles Martel, in 741, and Charlemagne annexed it to his empire in 772. Sigebert I. transferred the capital from Rheims to Metz in 561. Many of the sovereigns of Austrasia were mere puppets in the hands of the mayors of the palace. KINGS OF AUSTRASIA. A.D. 511. Thierry I. 534. Theodebert I. 547. Theodebald. 553. Clotaire I., King of Soissons, seizes Austrasia, and Is sole King of the Franks in 558. 561. Sigebert I. 575. Childebert II. 596. Theodebert II. 613. Clotaire II. annexes it to Neustria. 622. Dagobert I., sole King of the Franks 628. 638. Sigebert II. receives Austrasia. 656. Clovis II. unites it to Neustria and Burgundy, and dies the same year, when an interregnum ensues. 660. Childeric II. is sole King of the Franks in 673. 673. Thierry III., who is deposed. 674. Dagobert II After the death of Dagobert II., in 679, Pepin of Heristal seized the reins of govern- ment, and was acknowledged duke. DUKES OF AUSTKASIA. A.D. 679. Pepin of Heristal. 715. Charles Martel, who becomes solo ruler of France In AUSTRIA. ^ [ 102 ] AUSTRIA .-.a. 747. Pepin the Short takes Austrasia, and Carloman retires to the monastery on Monte Casino. 752. Pepin, sole King of the Franks. 768. Charlemagne and Carloman. 771. Charlemagne sole king, becomes emperor in 880. AUSTRIA. Noricum, bordering on Pan- nonia, made a Roman province B.C. 15, %vas the original seat of the Austrian empire. The two provinces of Noricum and Pannonia consisted of the extensive territories between the Imi, the Save, and the Danube. During the decline of the Roman empire, Noricum was overrun by various barbarian tribes, and one of these, the Avari, having penetrated into Bavaria, was defeated and driven across the Raab by Charle- magne, in 791 and 796. A colony was placed in the territory from which they had been driven, and it was called the Eastern Mark, or Ostreich, whence its present name. On the division of the empire in 84 ?, it was annexed to Bavaria. The Hungarians took it in 900, but it was wrested from them by o : 955. Leopold I., grandson of Adalbert of Bamberg, was made margrave of Austria in 984; and one of his successors, Leopold III., obtaining Bavaria in 1139, the two provinces were again united. Frederick I. (Barbarossa) adding to it the province west of the En.s, erected it into a separate duchy in 1156, and bestowed it upon Henry IX., who had previously resigned his former duchy of Ba- varia. A.D. 1346. Extinction of the male branch of the ducal line, and commencement of an interregnum. 1362. Premislaus ottocar II.. King of Bohemia, obtains the investiture of Austria and Stvria. 1268, Dec. Ottocar II. obtains Carinthia by li 1276, Nov. 2> Ottocar II. formally resigns Austria, Styria, &c., toKod,,lph of ila 1377. Ottocar II. rebel-. 1278, Aug. 26. Battle of March field d/. r.1. 1308, Jan. The Swiss re.-olt from Albert'!. 1337. Carinthia is annexed to Austria. 1363. Acquisition of the Tyrol (,,. r.}. 1364. Treaty of union between Austria and Bohemia is concluded. 1438. Albert V., Duke of Austria, King of Hungary and Bohemia, is made Emperor of Germany under the title of Albert II. 1453, Jan. 6. Austria is created an archduchy by the Em- peror Frederick HI. Duke Kodolph III. (1358 1365) had assumed the title of archduke, but it had not been confirmed bv the emperor. 1477, Aug. 18. Acquisition by Austria of the .Netherlands, airl some pro\ ine.es in France, by the marriage of Maximilian, afterwards emperor, with Mary of 1496. Marriage of Philip, Archduke of Austria, to Joanna of Castile, which begins the connection with T522. Charles V. cedes Austria to his brother Ferdinand. 1526. Bohemia (q. v.) and Silesia (q. .) are united to Austria. 1539. Hungary is invaded by Soliman the Magnificent. (Sir OTTOMAN E.Mi'iiin.) 1570. Hungary (q. v.) is annexed to Austria, I6l8. The Thirty Years' War begins. 1635. Ferdinand II. abolishes the Protestant worship, and i oses seven! restrictions on all Lutherans. 1648. The Thirty Years' War ends. Alsace (q. v.) is ceded to (''ranee. 1687, Oct. Hungary is, by th.: diet of Presburg, converted from an electoral into an hereditarv monarchy, and settled ou the male line of the house of Aus- tria. Dec. 9. The Archduke Joseph is crowned King of Himirarv. 1701. The War of the Spanish Succession begins. 1708. Mantua is added to the Austrian dominions. A.D. 1713, April ii. Peace of Utrecht, by which Austria obtains part of Milan. 1714, End of the War of the Spanish Succession. 1715, Nov. 15. Barrier treaty, which confirms Austria in possession of Milan, Naples, and Sardinia. 1718, July 21. Peace of Passarowitz (q. t>.). 1732. Charles VI. obtains the assent of the Germanic empire to the Pragmatic sanction (q. v.), thereby securing the succession for his daughter Maria Theresa. 1725- Naples and Sicily are relinquished. 1740, Oct. 20. Death of Charles VI., with whom the male branch of the Hahsburg dynasty becomes extinct. Maria Theresa succeeds. 1740-2. First Silesian War. 1744-5. Second Silesi in War. 1745, Sep. 13. Francis, Grand Duke of Tuscany, and hus- band of Maria Theresa, is elected Emperor of Germany. 1748. Parma, Milan, and other Italian possessions, are lost. 1756. The third Silesian AVar, known as the Seven Years' 1763, Feb. >' Treaty of HnberNburg. by which Austria redes Silc.sia and (ilaU to Prussia, terminates the. third Silesian, or the Seven Years' War. 1772, Aug. 5. On the dismemberment of Poland, Austria acquires Galicia an 1 other parts of Poland. 1797, Oct. 17. Treaty of Campo Formio (q.r.). i8or, Feb. 9. Treaty of Ltmcville (q. v.). 1805. Joins F.ngland and Russia in on ler to oppose France. Nov. 14. Napoleon I. enters Vienna. Dec. 3. Battle of Ansterlitz (. Francis II. of Germany abolishes the title of Emperor ol Germany, and takes that of Francis I., Emperor of Austria. 1809, April 20. Battle of Abensberg (q. v.). May 13. Vienna is again taken by the French. 1810, Mar. II. Marriage by proxy of Napoleon I. and Maria Louisa, ('laughter of 'the Emperor. 1814, Oct. 2. Congress at Vienna. 1815, Mar. 25. Treaty of Vienna. Austria regains her Italian possessions. 1835, Mar. 2. Death of Francis I., and accession of Fer- dinand I. 1838, July 3. Treaty of commerce between Austria and Great Britain. 1848, Mar. 13. Insurrection at Vienna, and flight of Prince Mettcnuch. May 17. Flight of the Emperor. July 2,1. A constituent assembly meets at Vienna. :>.ii. The Hungarian revolution breaks out, and war ensues. (Sir Hr.M.AltY.) Dec. 2. Abdica- tion of the Emperor Ferdinand I. in favour of his nephew, Francis Joseph. 1849, July 2. Battle of Acz (q. v.). Aug. 13. Surrender of Georgey. 1850, Nov. i). Convention of Olmtltz (:iu of the earliest bishoprics established in France after Lyons and Vienne. At a council held at this town, sentence of excommunication was pronounced against Philip I. of France, Oct. 16, 1094. In the previous year he had put away his wife Bertna, mother of Louis VI., and married Ber- trade, wife of the Count of Anjou, and for this he was at first privately admonished by the Roman Catholic authorities, and then excom- municated. AUXIMUM (Italy), now OSIMO, first men- tioned B.C. 174, when the order for erecting walls around it was given by the Roman cen- sors. It was made a Roman colony B.C. 157 ; and having boon taken by the Goths, was wrested from them by Belisarius A.D. 538. ' AUXUME. (See AXUM.) AVA (Asia), for some time subject to Pegu, became an independent state in the i7th cen- tui-y. Its chief city, Ava, was taken by the Pcguans in 1752, and rescued from their hands in 1753. It was made the capital of Burmah in 1364, in 1761, and for the third time in 1822. It suffered severely from an earthquake in March, 1839. (See BURMAH.) AVAINE, or AVEIN (Battle). The Marshals Chatillon and Breze, commanding the French and Dutch troops, defeated the Spanish forces under the command of Prince Thomas of Savoy, in this plain, near Luxemburg, May 20, 1635. The Spaniards lost 4,000 men and 50 stand- ards. AVARS, sometimes called the Huns of Pan- nonia, a barbarian tribe first mentioned in his- tory towards the close of the sth century. Retiring before the Turks, they reached the shores of the Euxine, and sent an embassy to Constantinople A.D. 558. In their audience with Justinian, at that time declining in years, the chief ambassador addressed him thus : " You see before you, O mighty prince, the representatives of the strongest and most populous of nations, the invincible, the irresis- tible Avars. "We are willing to devote our- selves to your service ; we are able to vanquish and destroy all the enemies who now disturb your repose. But we expect, as the price of our alliance, as the reward of our valour, precious gifts, annual subsidies, and fruitful possessions." They afterwards advanced into Poland and Germany ; and in 626 joined the Persians in an attack on Constantinople, but were repulsed. Having committed various ag- gressions, and provoked numerous wars, they were, after a conflict of eight years' duration, subdued by Charlemagne in 799. AVE MARIA. This form of prayer, used in the Roman Catholic Church, is a repetition of the salutation of the angel Gabriel to the Virgin Mary (Luke i. 28). Bingham shows that the use of this invocation to the Virgin cannot be traced higher than the beginning of the i sth century. "Ferrarius," he adds, " ingeniously confesses that Vincentius Ferrerius was the first ecclesiastical writer that ever used it before his sermons. Baronius has not a syllable of its antiquity in all his 12 centuries ; there being a perfect silence both among the ancients and all the Ritualists about it, till that Dominican preacher, in his .ibundant zeal for the worship of the Holy Virgin, began to use it before his sermons." Christians were ordered to annex it to their prayers in 1420. This invocation is now generally used in the services of the Roman Catholic Church. The early summons to wor- ship was called the Ave-bell ; and indulgences granted by various pontiffs for frequent re- petition of the invocation were termed Avo Marias. AVEBURY, or AVBURY. This village in Wilts occupies the site of a Celtic structure, composed of blocks of stone, and generally believed to be a Druiclical work. Aubrey visited it in 1648 ; Dr. Stukeley commenced his examination of these antiquities in 1720; and Sir Richard Hoare in 1812. It is supposed to be the remains of a national temple, or place of assembly for the performance of sacred rites, erected by the Druids before the Christian sera. AVENTURINE. A successful imitation of this mineral, which is a kind of quartz inter- spersed with brilliant metallic points, was accidentally discovered at Venice during the Middle Ages, by a workman who let some copper filings fall into coloured glass in a state of fusion. This process, improved by Fremy and Clemandot, was superseded in 1865 by AVERSA [ 105 ] AYLESFORD Pelouze, who obtained beautiful specimens of aveiiturine by fusing sand, carbonate of soda, carbonate of lime, and bichromate of potash. AVERSA (Italy). Built A.D. 1020, by Rain- ulph, a Norman chief, near the ruins of the ancient Atclla, from which place the bishopric was transferred to Aversa, about 1050. Al- phonso V., of Aragon, took it in 1440 ; and it was frequently besieged. It suffered from an earthquake in 1805. AVIGNON (France). This ancient city is seated in a beautiful valley on the left bank of the Rhone. The adjacent territory, the Venaissin county, "a populous and fertile spot," was ceded to the papacy by Philip III. in 1273 ; and the sovereignty of Avignon was sold to Clement VI. for 80,000 gold florins of Florence by Joanna, Queen of Naples and Countess of Provence, in 1348. Clement V., elected through the influence of Philip IV. of France, removed the papal chair to Avignon, in 1309. The folio whig popes remained here under French influence : A.D. 1309. Clement V. 1314. Seo vacant two years. 1316. John XXI. or XXII. 1334. Benedict XI. or XII. 13.1.3. Clement VI. 1353. Innocent VL 1363. Urban V. 1370. Gregory XI. 1378. Commencement of the rnpnl Schism (q. v.),when two popes were elected. Clement VII. at Avignon. 1394. Benedict XIII. Urban V. went to Rome for a short time, but returned to Avignon ; and Gregory XI. is said to have meditated flight, when surprised by death. In the Papal Schism, called " the great schism of the West," occasioned on the election of his successor in 1378, the antipope Clement VII. took up his residence here, and was succeeded by Benedict XIII. The popes at Rome, how- ever, triumphed, and Avignon was deprived of its rival pontiffs in 1409. The French kings seized this city on various occasions. The annexation of the Venaissin and Avignon to France by the revolutionary govermneiit, Sep. 14, 1791, was their first act of aggression. By the treaty of Tolentino, Feb. 19, 1797, Pius VI. formally ceded these possessions to France. Avignon was made a bishopric in the ist century, and was erected into an archbishopric in 1475. By the concordat of 1801 it ceased to be a metropolis, but the privilege was restored in 1821. Councils were held at Avignon in 1080, 1209, 1270, 1279, 1282, 1326, 1327, 1337, and 1457. Its university, founded in 1303, was abolished in 1794. AVIS (Order). Instituted in 1147 by Alphonso I., the founder of the Portuguese monarchy, and raised by him in 1162 to the rank of an ecclesiastical order of chivalry. The knights were then called " Knights of Evora," but took their present title in 1187, from their gallant defence of the fortress of Avis against the Moors. The order was changed from an ecclesiastical to a civil institution in 1789. AVOIRDUPOIS. This system of weight, used for all goods except the precious metals and medicines, is first mentioned in some orders of Henry VIII., in 1532. A pound avoirdupois was placed in the Exchequer by Elizabeth, in 1588, to serve as a standard. AVRANCHES (Normandy), anciently Ingena, also called Abrincatse, came into the possession of England at the Norman conquest. In its cathedral Henry II. received absolution from the Pope's legate, in 1172, for the murder of Becket ; a flat stone marks the spot where he did penance. The Bretons captured the town in 1203, and committed great havoc. It was restored by Louis IX., and it again fell under the power of the English in 1415, but was recovered by France in 1450. The bishopric, established in the sth century, was suppressed and united to Coutances in 1801. AXARQUIA (Battle). In the winding de- files of the Axarquia, the Moors inflicted a severe loss on the Spaniards, in actions ex- tending over two days, March 20 and 21, 1483. AXE. The Franks in their expedition into Italy in the 6th century made use of an axe with a large blade. Hence it was termed fran- cisca. The principal weapons of this kind' were the taper axe, the broad axe, and the double axe. The pole axe and the adze axe were varieties of these. The Lochaber axe was used in the i6th century. AXUM, anciently AUXUME (Abyssinia). This ancient city, founded about B.C. 650, be- came in later times the seat of a powerful kingdom, nearly co-extensive with modern Abyssinia, and embracing portions of Arabia. Though its origin has not been ascertained, it is mentioned as existing in the 2nd century of our aera. Justinian formed an aUiance with the Auximites A.D. 533. Gibbon is of opinion that the Auximites, or Abyssinians, as he calls them, were a colony of Arabs, and there can be no doubt that the Arab element is blended with the Ethiopian in their composition. They were converted to Christianity in the 4th cen- tury ; and in its defence came into collision with the followers of Mohammed, who deprived them of their possessions in Arabia, and de- stroyed their commerce. The Chronicles of Axum, a kind of history of Abyssinia, a copy of which the traveller Bruce brought to Eng- land in 1774, are deposited hi a Christian church in Axum, built about 1657. Axum was made a bishopric about 330, and Frumentius was the first bishop. AYACUCHO (Battle). On this plain, in Peru, the Spaniards were defeated by the re- publican forces Dec. 9, 1824, and a capitulation was soon afterwards made, by which Spain surrendered the whole of Peru and Chili. AYLESBURY (Buckinghamshire). This an- cient town formed one of the principal strong- holds of the Britons in their resistance to the Romans. In 571 Cuthulf, a West-Saxon chief, took Aylesbury, which was ravaged by the Danes in 921. The town was incorporated and made a borough by Queen Mary in 1554. During the disputes between Charles I. and the Parliament, it espoused the cause of the latter, and in 1643 it formed the head-quarters of Lord Essex. John Wilkes represented it in Parliament in 1761. AYLESFORD (Battle). A victory was gained by the Britons over the Saxons, A.D. AZINCOURT [ 106 ] BABINE 455, near a village of this name, in Kent. The Saxon chief Horsa was slain in the con- flict. AZINCOURT. (See AGINCOURT.) AZOF. This sea, called by the ancients the Palus Maeotis, communicates with the Euxine by the strait of Yenikale, or the Cimmerian Bosphorus. It was the scene of some important operations during the Cri- mean war. An allied expedition, 15,000 strong, composed of English, French, and Turkish troops of all arms, with five batteries of artillery, left the anchorage at Sebastopol May 22, 1855, and arrived off KertchMay 24. The Russians blew up their fortifications on both sides of the straits, destroyed three steamers and several heavy-armed vessels, and large quantities of provisions, ammunition, and stores. Operations were carried on against the chief Russian positions. A small garrison was left at Kertch and Yenikale, and the expedition returned June 12. AZORES, or WESTERN ISLANDS (Atlantic), nine in number, arc said to have been known before 1380, and by some their discovery is attributed to Vanderberg of Bruges, about 1430. The Portuguese no sooner heard of the dis- covery than they sent out Cabral, who sighted one of the group in 1432 ; and in 1448 Prince Henry of Portugal took formal possession of the islands. Alphonso V. gave them in 1466 to his sister, the Duchess of Burgundy, and they were colonized by the Dutch. When Philip I. seized the vacant throne of Portugal in 1580, they fell under the dominion of Spain. The Earl of Essex and Sir Walter Raleigh failed in an attempt to capture them in 1597. They reverted to Portugal in 1640, and still remain in her possession. Angra (g. r.), the capital of Terceira, one of the group, was made a bishop's see by Paul III. in 1534. Owing to volcanic disturbance, rocks and islands have frequently been thrown up from the sea. The most remarkable phenomena of this kind occurred in 1538, 1720, and 1811. AZOTUS. (See ASHDOD.) AZTECS. The earliest known seat of this tribe was Aztlan, a country to the north of the Gulf of California, where they were dwelling in 1160. They soon after commenced their migrations, arriving at Tula in 1196. They removed to Zumpanco about 1216, and even- tually settled on a group of islands to the south of lake Tezcuco. They were reduced to slavery by the Colhuans in 1314 ; and, moving to the westward of the lake, founded Tenochtitlan, their capital, on the site of which Mexico now stands, in 1325. They were assailed by the Spaniards under Cortes in 1519- BAAL and ASHTORETH, or ASTARTE, the former supposed to represent the sun, and the latter the moon, were idols worshipped by the Phoenicians, Chaldseans, and other ancient nations. This idolatry was established amongst the Moabites and the Midianites B.C. 1451 (Numb, xxv.), and the Israelites were punished for falling into it B.C. 1161 1143 (Judges x. 6 8), and on several occasions. Ahab, at the instance of his queen Jezebel, established the worship of Baal and set up an altar in Samaria B.C. 918 (i Kings xvi. 28 33), for which he was reproved by Elijah, who slew the prophets of Baal at the river Kishon B.C. 906 (i Kings xviii. 36 40). Jehoiada destroyed the temple of Baal, slew its priest, and Athaliah, the last of the house of Ahab, B.C. 878 (2 Kings xi.). BAALBEC, or HELIOPOLIS (Syria), the name given to the place by the Seleucidae, both words signifying "the city of the sun," is by some supposed to correspond with the Baal Gad of Scripture. Little is known of its early history. Julius Csesar made it a Roman colony. Trajan consulted its famous oracle previous to his departure on his expedition to the East, A.D. 114. Antoninus either enlarged its temple to Jupiter or built a new one, that became one of the wonders of the world. Baalbec capitulated to the Saracens, paying an enormous ransom, in 635 ; it was sacked and dismantled by the Caliph of Damascus in 748 ; seized by Tamerlane in 1401 ; and has since gradually declined. Thevet, in 1550 ; Pococke, in 1740; Maundrell, in 1745 ; Wood and Dawkins, in 1751 ; and Volney, in 1785, are amongst the most celebrated travellers who have visited and described its ruins. This Syrian city must not be confounded with an- other Baalbec, or Heliopolis, in Lower Egypt, one of the earliest cities of which any record remains. Smith (Diet, of Greek and Roman Geog.) remarks concerning the last-mentioned city : " Its obelisks were probably seen by Abraham when he first migrated from Syria to the Delta 1600 years B.C. ; and here the father-in-law of Joseph filled the office of high priest." BAB-AT-THE-BOWSTER. This old dance, somewhat resembling the cushion-dance (q. ?.), save that a bolster, as the name indicates, supplies the place of the pillow, is still danced in Scotland, and is always the winding up at " kirns " and other merry-makings. BABEL (Tower). Described Gen. xi. 19, and built 120 years after the Deluge, by the descendants of Noah, about B.C. 2247. Much controversy has been excited respecting its exact position. It is now generally believed that Babylon was built upon the site, if not upon the actual ruins, of this temple. BABINE REPUBLIC, or RESPUBLICA BINEPSIS. The following account of this society, established in the i4th century, is given in the Annual Register for the year 1764 : " There was at the court of Sigismund Au- gustus, a gentleman of the family of Psomka, who, in concert with Peter Cassovius, bailiff of Lublin, formed a society, which the Polish writers call ' The Republic of Babine,' and which the Germans denominate ' The Society of Fools' (q. v.). This society was instituted upon the model of the Republic of Poland ; it has its king, its chancellor, its counsellors, its archbishops, bishops, judges, and other officers : in this republic Psomka had the title of captain, and Cassovius that of chan- cellor. When any of the members did or said anything at their meetings which was BABCEUF'S [ 107 ] BABYLONIA unbecoming or ill-timed, they immediately gave him a place of which he was required to perform the duties till another was appointed in his stead ; for example, if any one spoke too much, so as to engross the conversation, he was appointed orator of the republic ; if he spoke improperly, occasion was taken from his subject to appoint him a suitable employment ; if, for instance, he talked about dogs, he was made master of the buck-hounds ; if he boasted of his courage, he was made a knight, or, per- haps, a field-marshal ; and if he expressed a bigoted zeal for any speculative opinion in religion, he was made an inquisitor. The offenders being thus distinguished for their follies, and not their wisdom, gave occasion to the Germans to call the republic ' The Society of Fools,' which, though a satire on the individual, was by no means so on the institution. * * * * The regiment of the Calot, or Calotte (q. v,}, which was some years since established in the court of France, is very similar to the republic of Babine." (See FOOLS, Order.) BABCEUF'S CONSPIRACY. Baboeuf, a Ja- cobin, surnamed Gracchus, formed a conspi- racy against the French Directory in 1796. His chief aim was to obtain a division of property. The deliberations of this society were carried on in a large vault under the Pantheon, where, as Alison (iv. ch. 24) remarks, " by the light of flambeaux, and seated on the humid ground, they ruminated on the most likely method of regenerating France." They had agents in the provinces, and they also elected a secret direc- tory of public safety in Paris. Their design was at length acknowledged to be to establish what they termed " the Public Good," by means of a division of property, and the for- mation of a government consisting of "true, pure, and absolute democrats." They had framed a solemn instrument, called an "In- surrection Act," the publication of which was to be the signal for revolt. This was fixed to take place May 21, 1796 ; but one of the party having given information, the chief conspira- tors were arrested the day before. Baboeuf and one of his associates suffered on the scaf- fold May 25, 1797. BABYLON, the chief city of Babylonia (q. v.). Sir John Stoddart states that Babylon, accord- ing to the scriptural account, "was the first great city built after the Deluge, and that it was founded by Nimrod, a great-grandson of Noah, or at all events by a tribe of his descen- dants, bearing his name." The city of Babylon is supposed to have been built on the site of Babel (Gen. x. 10), the scene of the confusion of tongues, about B.C. 2247 (Gen. xi. 9). It was taken by Tiglath-Pileser I., of Assyria, about B.C. mo, and by Cyrus B.C. 538. During the present century many enterprising tra- vellers, amongst whom may be mentioned Eich, Ker, Porter, Layard, Frazer, Chesney, Botta, Loftus, and Rawlinson, have, by their explorations amongst the ruins of the ancient city, thrown considerable light upon the his- tory of Babylon. BABYLONIA." The Babylonian and Assy- rian empires," says Sir John Stoddart, "in all historical records, are much blended together. These empires, whether distinct or united, possessed in very early times two vast cities ; Babylon on the Euphrates, and Nineveh on the Tigris. The country on the Tigris was called Assyria ; that on the Euphrates Babylonia ; and the large intervening space was commonly termed Mesopotamia, or ' between the rivers ; ' and this, together with Babylonia, seems to be meant in Scripture by the land of Shinar." The Rev. G. Rawlinson classes it fourth of "The Five Great Monarchies of the Eastern World" (Murray, 1862 5), and from his valuable work the following table has been compiled : B.C. 1723. Babylon is conquered by the Assyrians. 1370 1250. Tiglathi-Nin, King of Assyria, assumes the title of "Conqueror of Babylonia," where he establishes an Assyrian dynasty. 11501130. Nebuchadnezzar I., "King of Babylon, leads two expeditions into Assyria during the reign of Asshur-ris-ilim. 11301110. Tiglath-Pileser I., King of Assyria, towards the end of his reispi, invades Babylonia, where he remains for two years, taking the cities of Kurri- Galazu (now Akkerkuf), Sippara of the Sun, Sippara of Anunit (see SKPIIAUVAIM), and Hupa or Opis, and ultimately seizing the city of Baby- lon. On hig return, however, he is much harassed by Merodach-iddin-akhi, who captures several of the Assyrian idols and deposits them in Babylon as trophies of victory. 880. The Assyrian monarch Asshur-idanni-pal invades Babylonia, and recovers and rebuilds the city of Diyaleh, which hnd been destroyed at a remote period by a Babylonian king named Tsibir. 850. During a civil war between King Merodach-sum- adin and his younger brother Merodach-bel * * the country is invaded by Shalmaneser II. of Assyria, who slays the pretender, takes many cities, and enters the capital, thus establishing his sovereignty over the native king. 830. Babylonia is invaded by Shamas-Iva, who defeats King Merodak-belatzu-ikbi in two pitched battles, and renders his kingdom tributary to Assyria. (See DABAN.) 750. About the middle of the 8th century B.C. Babylon regained its independence, but was split up into numerous petty states. 747- Nabonassar establishes his authority in Babylon. 744. Tiglath-Pileser II. invades Babylonia and subdues Merodach-Baladan, prince of one of its minor divisions. 7I. Merodach-Baladan is acknowledged King of Baby- lon. 713. Merodach-Baladan, King of Babylonia, sends an embassy to Hezekiah, King of Judah, which is favourably received by that monarch. (3 Kings xx, 12, 13 ) 709. Sargon, King of Assyria, invades Babylonia, besieges Merodach-Baladan in Beth-Yakin, which, with its defenders, he captures, establishes his court at Babylon, and places an Assyrian viceroy on the throne. 704. Babylon revolts. 703. Sennacherib invades Babylonia, and defeats the ex-king Merodach-Baladan near the city of Kis. 688. Disturbances commence hi Babylon, which revolts from Assyria. 680. It is recovered by Esarhaddon. 667. A revolt is suppressed by Asshur-bani-pal. 625. Nabopolassar, Viceroy of Babylonia, revolts from Assyria, and establishes an independent empire. 608. Babylonia is invaded and in great part conquered by Pharaoh Xecho, King of Egypt 605. Nebuchadnezzar, son of Nabopolassar, defeats the Egyptians at Carchemish, and succeeds his father on the Babylonian throne. 598. Nebuchadnezzar invades Palestine, besieges Tyre (q. D.), and conquers .Tehoiachim, King of Judah, whom he carries away captive (2 Kings xxiv. i7). 588. Nebuchadnezzar lays siege to Jerusalem (q. v.), which surrenders the following year. 581. He invades Egypt BABYLONISH [ 108 ] BACHELORS 570. Ho again invades Kgypt ( o 5 o Their sons, each 036 A registry was ordered to be kept by persons in holy orders, for the better collecting of the duty, by 6 & 7 Will. III. c. 6, s. 20 (1694). By 43 Gco. III. s. 43 (1785), bachelors above the age of 21 years were required t > pay annually, in addition to the usual tax, i 5*. for every male servant in their employ ; and those that had three or more female servants paid IDS. per annum for each, in addition to the ordinary tax. BACKGAMMON [ 109 ] BADEN BACKGAMMON. This, or some similar game played with dice, was known to the Greeks, and was a favourite amusement amongst the Saxons, by whom it is said to have been invented about the loth century. Dr. Henry attributes the invention to the Welsh. It is recorded of Canute that he frequently played at backgammon, which was called the English game in the early part of the 1 4th century. BACK-STAFF, or DAVIS'S QUADRANT, for taking the sun's altitude at sea, was in- vented by Capt. J. Davis, about 1590. It has been superseded by later inventions. BACTRA, called by Strabo and Pliny Zari- aspa, though Heeren contends that they were different places, the capital of Bactriana, was one of the oldest centres of commerce and civilization in the world. Heeren says it was the first place of exchange for the productions of India ; and that the great highways of com- merce from east to west followed this direc- tion. (See BALKH.) BACTRIANA, or BACTRIA (Asia). This ancient state, situated between Persia and India, bounded on the north by the Oxus, varied at different periods in extent. Ninus, King of Assyria, is said to have failed in an attack upon its capital, until Semiramis suggested a plan for its capture, thereby gain- ing the favour of the king and a share of his throne. For a considerable period Bactriana formed part of the Persian empire, and in eastern traditions is represented as having been the seat of powerful and independent princes long before it became a Persian satrapy. Alexander III. conquered it in his sixth campaign, B.C. 329. It is now a dependency of the Khanat of Bokhara, under the name of Balkh. B.C. 355. The Governor Theodotus, called by .Strabo Diodotus, revolts from Antiochus II. of Syria, and founds the kingdom of Bactriana. 331. Euthydemus deposes and succeeds Theodotus or Dio- dotus II. 307. Antiochus of Syria defeats Euthydemus. 181. Commencement of the reign of Eucratides I., the period of Bactrlaoa'l prosperity. 168. Part of India is added to Bactriana. 143. Eucratides II. assassinates his father, and succeeds to his throne. 135. Bactriana is overrun by tribes of wandering Scythians, by whom the kingdom is destroyed. SOVEREIGNS OF BACTRIANA.- B.C. 250. Theodotus or Diodotus I. 345. Theodotus or Diodotus II. 331. Euthydemus. 300. Demetrius. B.C. 196. Menander. 181. Eucratides I. 143. Eucratides II. BADACA, or VADAKAT (Susiana). This, the second city of Susiana, was stormed and taken by Sennacherib, King of Assyria, about B.C. 695. Antigonus retired thither after his defeat by Eumenes, B.C. 316. BADAJOS (Spain). This barrier fortress, the capital of a province of the same name, only five miles from the Portuguese frontier, has sustained numerous sieges, and was several times taken and retaken during the occupation of the peninsula by the Moors. It was be- sieged by the Portuguese in 1660, and was assailed, but without success, by a combined English, Portuguese, and Dutch force, Oct., 1705. Gal way was beaten in a battle hereby the Spanish army, May 7, 1709. Soult captured it March n, 1811 (see ALBUERA, battle); and Wellington having been compelled to raise the siege June 10, in the same year, obtained possession April 6, 1812. Badajos was made an episcopal see at an early period. The cathedral was commenced in 1248 ; and its granite bridge was built in 1460, restored in 1597, and rebuilt in 1833. BADAJOS (Treaty), between Spain and Portugal, was signed at Badajos June 6, rati- fications were exchanged at Badajos June 16, and it was published at Madrid Aug. 8, 1801. It brought to a close the short contest between Portugal and Spain, which Napoleon I. had stirred up for the purpose of carrying out his ambitious designs. Spain restored all her conquests, excepting Olivenza and its territory, which were ceded to her ; and she guaranteed the Prince Regent of Portugal the entire possession of all his states and possessions. Portugal agreed to close her ports against England, and to pay the expenses of the war. (See ABRANTES, Treaty.) BADDESDOWN HILL, or BADON MOUNT (Battle). This spot, near Bath, was the scene of a celebrated victory gained by the Britons under King Arthur over the Saxon leader, Cerdic, in 493, according to Bede. This ap- pears to be an error, as it is generally believed to have taken place in 520. BADEN (Germany) was made a margraviate about the year 1130, by Herman II., grand- son of Berthold, Landgrave of Brisgau, his father, Herman I., having previously acquired Baden by marriage. The title of Grand Duke was given to the Margrave Charles Frederick, by Napoleon I., in 1806. The rank held by Baden is that of seventh in the Germanic Con- federation, and in time of war it is required to furnish 10,000 men to the federal army. A.D. 1130. Herman II. takes the title of Margrave of Baden. 1190. Herman IV. accompanies Frederick I. (Barbarossa) to the Holy Land. I36. Herman V. (the Pious) cedes the county of Dagsburg to the Bishop of Strasburg. 1350. Death of Herman VI., who is succeeded by his infant son Frederick, under the regency of his mother, Gertrude of Austria. 1367, Oct. 39. Frederick is beheaded at Naples. 1383. Rodolph I. acquires part of Eberstein by purchase. 1388. Baden is divided among the four sons of Rodolph I. 1353. Kodolph VII. reunites Baden into a single state. 1405. League of Marbaeh formed between Bernard, Mar- quis of Baden, the Archbishop of Mayence, the Count of Wiirtemberg, and some minor powers, against the Emperor. 1463, June 19. Frederick II., King of the Romans, gains a great victory over Charles I. of Baden, and takes him prisoner. 1488. Christopher of Baden sends 4,000 men to deliver Maximilian, son of the Emperor Frederick II., from the inhabitants of Bruges. 1503. Christopher claims the marquisate of Hochberg : the claim is referred to the imperial tribunal. 1515, Aug. i. Christopher abandons the government to his sons, Bernard, Philip, and Ernest, who rule as his vicars. 1537. Baden is divided into Baden-Baden and Baden- Durlach. T 533- Bernard establishes Protestantism in Baden-Baden. 1569, Oct. 3. Philibert of Baden-Baden assists the Roman Catholics, and is slain at Moncoutour. 1581. The lawsuit in reference to the possession of Hoch- berg terminates in favour of Baden. BADEN BAHAR 1594. The creditors of Edward of Baden obtain permission from the Emperor to indemnify themselves by seizing his territories. 1637. Arrangements as to territory are made between the rulers of Baden-Baden and Baden-Durlach. 1683. Louis William, Marquis of Baden-Baden, assists in the deliverance of Vienna from the Turks. 1707. Death of Louis William, the most warlike marquis of Baden-Baden. 1 733- The French ravage Baden, and compel Louis George to seek refuge in Bohemia. 1771. Baden-Durlach is united to Baden-Baden. 1796. A treaty of peace is concluded with the French re- public. 1801, Feb. 9. Baden receives an accession of territory by the treaty of Luneville. 1803. Charles Frederick of Baden is raised to the rank of 1805, Dec. 36. Brisgau is added to Baden by the treaty of Presburg. 1806, July 13. The elector, Charles Frederick, is raised to the rank of grand duke. 1815, March 25- Baden joins the allies against Napoleon I. 1818, Aug. 22- A representative constitution is granted. 1849, May 14. Insurrections take place in Baden. The Grand Duke Charles Leopold Frederick quits Carlsruhe. 1850, Sep. 6. Treaty of peace with Denmark and other powers. 1857, July 9. General amnesty for the political offenders of 1848 and 1849. 1859, Dec. i. The concordat signed by the Tope June 28 ts published. 1860, June 1 6. Interview at Baden-Baden between Napo- leon III., the Trince Regent of Prussia, and other German prinees. 1861, June. A new constitution for the Protestant Church is settled at a synod that meets at Carlsruhe. GRAND DUKES OF BADEN. 1806. Charles Frederick. I8tl. Charles Louis Frederick. 1818. Louis William Augustus. 1830. Charles Leopold Frederick. 1852, April 24. Frederick William Louis assumes the regency. 1856, Sep. 5. Frederick William Louis assumes the title of grand duke by patent. BADEN (Treaty . Signed at Baden, in Switzerland, Sep. 18 (O. S. 7), 1714, between the Emperor Charles VI. and Louis XIV. It confirmed the treaty of Alt-Ranstadt a, r. . By one of its provisions Landau was ceded to France. (See AIX-LA-CHAPELLE, Treaties.) BADON, MOUNT. (See BADDESDOWN HILL.) BAEZA (Spain). Near this town, which is of great antiquity, and contains many Roman relics and Inscriptions, the younger Scipio vanquished Hasdrubal B.C. 208. Having fallen under the Saracen yoke, it was taken by the Spaniards A.D. 1239. It is the birthplace of the n,ooo virgins who, with St. Ursula, were, according to the legend, slaughtered by the Huns at Cologne. BAFFIN'S BAY. This inland sea, between Greenland and the N.E. coast of America, was discovered July 6, 1616, by the English navi- gator, William Baffin, from whom it takes its name. BAGAUD2E. An appellation given to the peasants of Gaul who rebelled against the Romans A.D. 286. Their work was executed with fire and sword. "They asserted," says Gibbon, " the natural rights of men, but they asserted those rights with the most savage cruelty." For some time they obtained the ascendancy, but were subdued by Maximian. The term was siibsequently applied to other rebels. (See PEASANT WAR.) BAGDAD (Asia), on the Tigris, was founded by Al Mansur, the second caliph of the Abbas- sides, in 762, and remained the seat of the caliphate until Feb. 20, 1258, when it was cap- tured, after a siege of two months, by the Mon- gols, and Mostasem, the last of the Abbassides (q. v.), was put to death. Tamerlane sacked the city July 23, 1401, erecting on its rums a pyramid of 90,000 heads. Its Tartar rulers returned, but were expelled in 1417, by Kara Yusef . His descendants were, in 1477, replaced by Usum Cassim, who was followed by the Suffide dynasty, of Persian origin, in 1516. The possession of the city was long contested by the Persians and the Turks, and amongst the numerous sieges it sustained may be men- tioned those of 1534, when it was captured by Soliman I. (the Magnificent) ; of 1590, when taken by Abbas I. (the Great) ; of 1638, when it was captured by Amurath IV., 30,000 Persians having been ruthlessly massacred ; and of 1740, when Nadir Shah was repulsed by Achmet, who rendered the pashalic independent of the Porte. Its celebrated college was founded in 1233. A Nestorian patriarch resided at Bagdad, and the Greek metropolitan was expelled in 913. BAGNALO (Treaty). Concluded Aug. 7, 1484, between the Venetians on the one hand, and the King of Naples, the Duke of Milan, and the Florentines, on the other. The news is said to have so affected Pope Sixtus IV. that it brought on a fit of the gout, which caused his death, Aug. 13, 1484. BAG-PIPE. The earliest representation of this instrument occurs in a terra-cotta dis- covered at Tarsus, and supposed to date from about B.C. 200. It was known to the Romans, and probably to the Greeks, and appears in a bas-relief of a Persian concert of the 6th cen- tury A.D. It is said to have been introduced into the British islands by the Danes. In Ger- many it was a favourite instrument during the 1 5th century, and it has always been prized by the Scotch Highlanders. BAHAMA ISLANDS (Atlantic), called also the LUCAYOS, consist of about 20 inhabited islands, with innumerable rocks and islets. St. Salvador, the chief of the group, was dis- covered by Columbus Oct. n, 1492, being the first portion of America discovered by him. The Spaniards conveyed the natives to Mexico, and the islands remained unpeopled till colo- nized by the English, under a patent granted Dec. 4, 1630. In 1641 the Spaniards destroyed the colony, but it was re-established by the English in 1666, and remained in their hands till 1703, when it was ravaged by a combined French and Spanish fleet. It afterwards be- came notorious as a rendezvous for pirates, who were extirpated in 1718, when a regular colonial administration was established. In 1776 New Providence was stripped by the Americans of its artillery and stores, and the governor and some other officers were made prisoners. The islands surrendered to the Spaniards May 8, 1782, but were restored to England by the 7th article of the treaty of Versailles, Sep. 3, 1783. BAHAR, or BEHAR (Hindostan). This territory, after changing rulers several times, was formally ceded to England by the treaty of Allahabad, Aug. 12, 1765. BAHARITES BAKERTAN BAHARITES, the first Mameluke dynasty I that reigned in Egypt, were descended from Turks sold to slavery by the Tartars. They began to reign in 1244, and the last sultan of the race was expelled by the Borgites, or Circassians, the second Mameluke dynasty of Egypt, in 1381, after having reigned 137 years. (See BORGITES.) BAHAWULPORE, or BUHAWULPORE (Hiudostan). This state, formerly ruled by- deputy governors from Cabul, solicited an alli- ance with the English in 1808 ; and it came under the direct protection of Great Britain by treaty Oct. 5, 1838. The khan having proved faithful, received as a reward, in Feb., 1843, a part of Scinde. BAHREIN ISLANDS (Persian Gulf). This small group of islands, celebrated for its pearl- fishery, is called by the natives Awal, or Aval. The Portuguese, who had seized them, were expelled by the Persians in 1622 ; and the islands have since fallen under the sway of different Arab chiefs. During the expedition of 1809 against the pirates in the neighbour- hood, they were occupied by British troops. BAHTZ. This fort, situated at the point dividing tho East and West Scheldt, and form- ing the key to both channels, was captured by the land forces of the Walcheren expedition (q. v.), Aug. 3, 1809. BALE (Italy). This town of Campania, which was celebrated for its harbour at a very remote period, and remarkable for its warm springs, which were mentioned by Levy under the name of the "Aquae Cumanse," B.C. 176, became, towards the close of the Roman Republic, a fashionable resort of the wealthy citizens of the capital. Horace (B.C. 65 B.C. 8) refers to the beauty of its bay, and it sub- sequently became a favourite residence of the Emperors Caligula (A.D. 37 41), who erected a bridge of boats upwards of two Roman miles in length across the bay, Nero (54- -68), Hadrian, who died here July 10, 138, and of Alexander Severus (222 235), who had several magnifi- cent villas at Baise. The springs to which the town owed its repute continued in use as late as the 6th century. BAIBOUT (Battle). The Russians, under Paske witch, defeated the Turks at this town in Asiatic Turkey, Sep. 28, 1829. The total loss of the victors did not exceed 100 men. The Turks lost 700 killed, 1,200 prisoners, 6 guns, and 12 standards. BAIL. "The system of giving sureties, or bail," says Sharon Turner (Anglo-Saxons, iii. Ap. i. ch. 6), " to answer an accusation, seems to have been coeval with the Saxon nation." The Statute of Westminster I. (3 Edw. I. c. 15), in 1275, defined what persons were bailable, and what were not ; and this act was enforced by 27 Edw. I. stat. i, c. 3 (1299). By i Rich. III. c. 3 (1484), justices of the peace were allowed to bail offenders, and the facility thus accorded having led to some abuses, not less than two justices were, by 3 Hen. VII. c. 3 (1487), required. Bail was regulated by subse- quent statutes, more particularly by the Habeas Corpus Act (31 Charles II. c. 2, 1679), which, as Hallam remarks (Const. Hist, of Eng. iii. ch. 12), "introduced no new principle, nor con- ferred any right upon the subject." Provisions against excessive bail are embodied in various statutes. Bail in cases of felony is regulated by 7 Geo. IV. c. 64 (May 26, 1826). This act, entitled " An Act for Improving the Adminis- tration of Criminal Justice in England," re- pealed several previous statutes. Bail in error is regulated by s. 151 of 15 & 1 6 Viet. c. 76 (June 30, 1852), the Common Law Procedure Act. BAILIFF. Two bailiffs were appointed for the city of London in the first year of the roign of Richard I. (1189) ; though such officers under another name existed in Anglo-Saxon times. We learn from the " Liber Albus " that the sheriffs of the city of London were formerly styled bailiffs ; and we know, from the same authority, that such officers were in existence at the time of the Norman Conquest. In 1207 the office of sheriff superseded that of bailiff. BAIOLENSIANS, or BAGNOLENSIANS. Manichseans, so called from Bagnols, in Laii- guedoc, where they arose in the 8th century. Another sect, with the same name, a branch of the Cathari, arose in Provence during the i2th century. BAIREUTH. (See BAYRETTTH.) BAIZE. The art of making baize was intro- duced into England by a body of Dutch arti- sans, who settled at Colchester in 1568 ; and their privileges were confirmed by letters patent under the great seal in 1612. An act of Parliament was passed in 1660 (12 Charles II. c. 22) for the regulation and protection of their trade. It took effect from Sep. 20, 1660. BAKEHOUSES REGULATION ACT. By 26 & 27 Viet. c. 40 (July 13, 1863), it was enacted that no person under the age of 18 years should be employed in any bakehouse between the hours of nine at night and five in the morning. In towns of more than 5,000 inhabitants bake- houses, if painted, were to have three coats of paint, to be renewed every seven years, and well washed every six months ; and if lime- washed they were to be re-washed every six months. Other regulations were enacted for en- suring cleanliness, efficient ventilation, &c., the whole being enforced by fines or imprisonment. BAKER. In early ages every household prepared its own bread. Public bakers are first mentioned as existing at Rome B.C. 173. Athenseus speaks of the Cappadocians, the Lydians, and the Phoenicians as the best bakers. It is probable the trade arose in the East. The punishments for bakers who trans- gressed the law were, at an early period of our history, extremely severe. Fabyan notices that in 1258 the tumbrel was temporarily sub- stituted for the pillory ; and that " sharpe cor- rection upon bakers for making of light bread " was administered upon several of the fraternity in 1485. The bakers formed a brotherhood in the reign of Henry II., about 1155. The white bakers existed as a company in 1308, and ob- tained in 1485 a new charter, which was con- firmed by Henry the Seventh's successors. The brown bakers, who are said to have existed as a company in 1380, were incorporated June 9 ' BAKERIAN LECTURES. Henry Baker, the microscopist, born May 8, 1698, was elected a fellow of the Royal Society March 12, 1740, BAKU BALEARIC and died Nov. 25, 1774. By his will he left ;ioo, the interest to be devoted to the main- tenance of an annual lecture in connection with the Royal Society. BAKU (Asia). This port, in the Caspian, mentioned as early as 943, and the neighbour- ing territory, were surrendered by Persia to Russia in 1723, and restored to Persia in 1735. The Russians seized Baku in 1801, and it was ceded to them by the treaty between Russia and Persia, Oct. 19 (O.S. 7), 1813. BALACLAVA. A small port in the Crimea, about 10 miles to the east of Scbastopol. The harbour is commodious, though the entrance is very narrow ; and it was with great difficulty that accommodation was obtained for the British ships during its occupation in the Crimean war. The troops took possession Sep. 26, 1854, a portion of the fleet having already arrived. They improved the harbour, con- structed quays, built a new town, with store- houses, hospitals, &c., and laid down a line of rail to the camp, about seven miles distant. Soon after the conclusion of the treaty of Paris, the army of occupation was gradually with- drawn, and the last soldier quitted the place during the summer of 1856. (See RUSSIAN WAR.) BALACLAVA (Battle). Fought Oct. 25, 1854, between the Russians and the British and Turkish troops. Early in the morning a powerful Russian force, led by Liprandi, drove the Turks from some earthen redoubts facing the Tchcrnaya, a weak point in the English position. The further advance of the Russians was checked by the 93rd Highlanders, under Sir C. Campbell (Lord Clyde), and the enemy was quickly repulsed by a charge of the heavy cavalry. From this day the British lines were, on account of the insufficiency of our force, contracted, and the communication by the Woroiizoff road was effectually closed. BALACLAVA (Charge), called " The Ride of the Six Hundred." Owing to some miscon- ception of orders, the light cavalry brigade, only 670 strong, followed up the battle of Bala- clava (Oct. 25, 1854), by charging the Russian infantry and cavalry in position, protected by a powerful artillery. The exploit has scarcely a parallel in the annals of war. In spite of the fearful and almost hopeless nature of their task, that handful of British horsemen rode fearlessly onward. When at a distance, their ranks were shattered by a murderous dis- charge, and many a gallant fellow was struck down before he could reach the foe. The Russians quailed before this band of heroes. Their artillery fired upon the struggling mass of friend and foe. The heavy cavalry and the French Chasseurs d'Afrique covered their re- treat. The glorious but fatal charge lasted 25 minutes. More than two-thirds of the men were killed or wounded, and 400 horses de- stroyed. The moral effect it produced was cxtraordinaiy. BALAGIIAUT DISTRICTS (Hindostan). These provinces once formed part of the Hin- doo kingdom of Bijyangur, and on its fall were divided into several independent states, until conquered in rapid succession by Hyder Ali, between 1766 and 1780. On the dismember- ment of Tipppo Saib's empire in 1799, a con- siderable portion came into the possession of the East India Company, and the remainder was taken in 1841. BALAMBANGAN (Indian Archipelago). This island was ceded by the King of Sooloo, in 1762, to the East India Company, and a settlement was formed in the following year. In Aug., 1774, intelligence was received that ^he Spanish governor of the Manillas had threatened to destroy the works and fortifi- cations in case the English settlers did not retire ; and this threat was put into execution Feb 24, 1775. Another settlement, founded in 1803, was abandoned, and the island is now uninhabited. BALANCE OF POWER. The first com- bined attempt to preserve the balance of power in European affairs was made during the invasion of Italy by Charles VIII. of France, 1494 1496. Incited by the Emperor Maximilian I., the Italian states and some other European powers held secret conferences by night at Venice, and the celebrated league was signed at that city, March 31, 1495, be- tween Austria, Milan, Rome, Spam, and tho Venetian republic. Its object was to defeat the ambitious projects of the French king. Robertson remarks that princes and statesmen " had extended on this occasion to the affairs of Europe the maxims of that political science which had hitherto been applied only to regu- late the operations of the petty states in their own country. They had discovered the method of preventing any monarch from rising to such a degree of power as was inconsistent with tho general liberty ; and had manifested the im- portance of attending to that great secret in modern policy, the preservation of a proper distribution of power among all the members of the system into which the states of Europe are formed." After showing that the attention of Italian statesmen was from that period directed to the maintenance of the principle, he adds : " Nor was the idea confined to them. Self-preservation taught other powers to adopt it. It grew to be fashionable and universal. From this sera we can trace the progress of that intercourse between nations which has linked the powers of Europe so closely to- gether ; and can discern the operation of that provident policy which, during peace, guards against remote and contingent dangers ; and, in war, has prevented rapid and destructive conquests." The principle was first publicly acknowledged at the peace of Westphalia, Oct. 24, 1648. BALASORE '(Hindostan). Different Euro- pean nations established factories here at the commencement of the intercourse with India. The English factory was destroyed by fire in Nov. 1688. The town itself was ceded to Eng- land by the Danes in 1846. BALEARIC ISLANDS (Mediterranean). This group, consisting of five islands, Cabrera, Formentera, Iviza, Majorca, and Minorca, off the coast of Spain, is supposed to have been colonized by the Phoenicians. The Cartha- ginians reduced the inhabitants to subjec- tion. After the fall of Carthage they regained their independence. The Romans, under the BALIOL 113 ] BALLOON pretence that the people were pirates, took possession of the Balearic Islands, B.C. 123. The Vandals seized them A.D. 423, and the Moors A.D. 790; but they were wrested from the latter by the troops of Charlemagne in 799, and placed under his protection. The Moors, however, regained their footing, and were not expelled until 1286. (See MAJORCA and MINORCA.) BALIOL COLLEGE (Oxford). Founded by John Baliol, of Barnardcastle, Durham (father of Baliol, King of Scotland), between the years 1263 and 1268. He died in 1269, during the progress of the work, which was completed by his widow. Her statutes, dated the loth year of the reign of Edward I. (1282), are still pre- served in the college. BALISTA. Described by Gibbon as "a powerful cross-bow, which darted short but massy arrows." Belisarius made use of the balista in his defence of Rome against the Goths, A. P. 537. The more modern weapon is supposed to have been a species of "gyn," rather than a hand instrument. Its introduc- tion into England is usually assigned to the 1 2th centiiry. Richard I. appears to have been the first to adopt the manubalista, after its use had been prohibited by Innocent II. in 1139. BALKH (Asia), the ancient Bactriana, is now a dependency of the khanat of Bokhara. Its chief city, also called Balkh, the ancient Bactra, is styled by Orientals the " Mother of Cities," on account of its great antiquity. It was taken from the Uzbeg Tartars by the Khan of Bokhara in 1820. BALL. Games with the ball have been common amongst ancient and modern nations. The Anglo-Saxons played at ball. An amuse- ment of this kind was in vogue in this country amongst ladies and gentlemen in the i4th century, and it became fashionable at courts in the 1 6th. Fitzstephen, who wrote in the reign of Henry II., in alluding to sports at Shrove- tide, says, " After dinner, all the youth of the city goeth to play at the ball in the fields ; the scholars of every study have their balls. The practisers also of all the trades have every one their ball in their hands." Some writers sup- pose football is here meant. A complaint of the citizens of London was brought before the Privy Council in July, 1446, respecting the erection of several places where the people played " at the ball, cleche, and dice." It has been highly recommended as a gymnastic exercise. BALLARAT (Victoria). This goldfield, about TOO miles from Melbourne, was first worked in Sep., 1851. BALLENY ISLES. {-See ANTARCTIC REGIONS.) BALLET. Dancing applied to theatrical re- presentation is an ancient amusement, sup- posed to have been revived in Italy during the 1 6th century. Baltageriiii, director of music to Catherine de Medici, was the first to Intro- duce the ballet into France, where it became very popular in the time of Louis XIII. Since that period it has undergone various improve- ments. The first dramatic piece performed in England, in which the story was entirely carried on by dancing and action, was a pro- duction by Mr. John Weaver, called " The Tavern Bilkers," performed at Drury Lane in 1702. A work of higher pretensions was pro- duced by the same author at Drury Lane in 1716. It was entitled " The Loves of Mars and Venus," and its success led to the establish- ment, in this country, of the ballet as a branch of theatrical amusements. BALLINAMUCK (Battle). A French force landed at Killala Aug. 22, 1798, and having been joined by some Irish rebels, were defeated and taken prisoners at Ballinamuck, Sep. 8, 1798. BALLOON. Albert of Saxony, a Dominican monk, who flourished at the commencement of 'the i4th century, was the first to form a correct notion of the principle on which balloons might be constructed. The idea was taken up by several learned men ; and Bishop Wilkins, in 1680, speaks of a carriage with sails, like a windmill, to be propelled through the air. The brothers Moiitgolfier, paper- makers, at Annonay, near Lyons, were the first to secure a practical result, and, June 5, 1783, launched the first balloon, which, after them, was then called a Moiitgolfier. The experiment was repeated at Paris, Aug. 27, 1783 ; and, Nov. 21 in the same year, M. Pilatre de Rozier and the Marquis d'Arlandes made the first ascent from Paris, which was accom- plished with success, and the adventurers alighted in safety about six miles from the point at which they had started. " The Mont- golfiers," says a writer in the " Encyclopaedia Britannica," "had the annual prize of 600 livres adjudged to them by the Academy of Sciences ; the elder brother was invited to court, decorated with the badge of St. Michael, and received a patent of nobility ; and on Joseph a pension was bestowed, with the further sum of 40,000 livres, to enable him to prosecute his experiments with balloons." The first ascent in a hydrogen balloon was made Dec. i, 1783, at Paris, by Messieurs Charles and the brothers Robert, who, after a pleasant voyage, alighted in safety about 27 miles from the spot where they started. Since that time great improvements have been made in the construction of balloons. The first ascent made in England was by Lunardi, Sep. 21, 1784. Blanchard and Jefferies crossed the Channel, from Dover to Calais, Jan. 7, 1785. Count Zamfleccari, Admiral Vernon, and a Miss Grice, of Holborn, took their seats in the car of one of these machines March 23, 1785. The balloon was, however, over-weighted, and the lady was compelled to retire, which she did with great reluctance, and burst into tears at her disappointment. A successful ascent was made at Ranelagh Gardens, Dublin, Jan. 20, 1785. Balloon ascents have since been of frequent occurrence ; and we read of one at Constantinople, by a Persian physician, in 1786. Rozier and Remain were killed through the ignition of their balloon, in an attempt to cross the Channel, June 15, 1785 ; and William Sadler, son of the celebrated aeronaut of that name, was killed by a fall from a balloon in 1825. The French are said to have employed balloons on various occasions for the purpose of reconnoitring the position of an enemy. The most remarkable instances occurred at Liege, in September, 1794, and during the I BALLOT BAMFLEET Italian campaign of 1859. Mr. Glaisher and Mr. Coxwell have made several ascents for scientific purposes, the first at Wolverhampton, July 17, 1862. M. Nadar's monster balloon, the Ge'ant, was exhibited at the Crystal Palace in 1863. Mr. Chambers, an amateur aeronaut, was killed during an ascent at Basford, Notts, Aug. 24, 1863. Mr. Coxwell's balloon was destroyed by a mob at Leicester, on the occasion of a Foresters' fe"te there, July n, 1864. BALLOT was used in several states of ancient Greece, as well as amongst the Romans. It was first introduced at Rome for the elec- tion of magistrates, by the Gabiana lex, B.C. 139 ; for state trials, treason excepted, by the Cassia lex, B.C 137; and for the legislative assembly, by the Papinia lex, B.C. 131. The ballot was used in the republic of Venice. It was employed at a political debating society, called the Rota, held nightly, in 1659, at Miles's coffee-house, New Palace Yard, Westminster. Addison, in a letter dated Feb. 20, 1708, speaks of the House of Commons being engaged upon a project for deciding all elections by balloting. Its adoption in the election of members for the House of Commons has been frequently urged. BALL'S BLUFF (Battle). (See LEESBURG HEIGHTS.) BALLYHOE (Battle). O'Neill was checked in his career of plunder and devastation within the British pale, at a battle fought at Ballyhoe, in Aug., 1539. ISA LLYNAHINCH (Battle). Fought during the Irish rebellion, June 13, 1798. The rebels, led by Munroe, a draper of Li.sburn, were de- feated, and this terminated the rising in the north of Ireland. BALMORAL CASTLE. Queen Victoria selected this mansion and domain, situated on the right bank of the river Dee, about 45 miles from Aberdeen, as a royal residence, in Sep., 1848. The property, which had been previi usly rented, was purchased in 1852, and a new castle has been erected on the estate. BALTA-LIMAN (Treaty). Concluded be- tween Russia and Turkey, at Balta-Liman, May i, 1849. It arose out of the transactions relating to the insurrection in the Danubian provinces and the Russian occupation. Rus- sia was secured in the same rights as she then exercised in the principalities for seven years. BALTIC EXPEDITIONS. During the war with Russia, two expeditions were sent into the Baltic Sea by the English Government. The first, under the command of Sir Charles Napier, sailed from Spithead March n, 1854, and was afterwards joined by a French squadron, and reinforcements from England. The fleets entered the Baltic Sea March 20. Several merchantmen were captured, and the Russian ports blockaded, until more decisive operations were undertaken on the arrival of a French expeditionary force. (See ALAND ISLES.) The fleet returned home during the autumn. The second, accompanied by gun and mortar boats, under the command of Admiral Sir R. S. Dundas, sailed April 4, 1855, an advance squadron having left March 20. It was joined by a French squadron June i. Several infernal machines were taken up, and the ships sailed within sight of Cronstadt Its operations, chiefly directed against (q. v.) and Sweaborg, are described under these titles. The fleets returned during the autumn. BALTIC SEA. By a treaty concluded between Russia and Sweden, at St. Petersburg, March 9, 1759, to which Denmark acceded March 17, 1760, these nations agreed to main- tain a fleet to preserve the neutrality of the Baltic for purposes of commerce. BALTIMORE (United States). This city, founded in 1729, in accordance with an act passed by the proprietary government of Mary- land, received the name of Baltimore in 1745, and became the shire town of the county of the same name in 1768. In 1780 it was made a port of entry, and in 1791 was selected as the site of the Roman Catholic College of St. Mary. The charter of incorporation was granted Dec. 31, 1796, and the University of Maryland was founded in 1812. Baltimore was attacked by British forces under Gen. Ross Sep. 12, 1814. The Washington Medical College was incorporated in 1833. On the out- break of the great American civil war a party of Federal volunteers on their way to Washing- ton were attacked by the citizens of Baltimore, April 19, 1861. A conflict resulted, which occasioned the destruction of several lives, and the route through the city was closed to the northern troops for more than two weeks. Eventually, however, Baltimore, with the other cities of Maryland, adopted the Federal cause. I5AMBERG (Bavaria) is said to have been founded by a colony of Saxons in 804. Other authorities state that it was founded by the Emperor Henry II. in 1004, finished in 1012, and rebuilt, after a conflagration, in mo. It was made a bishopric in 1007 ; and in 1020, on the visit of Pope Benedict VIII. to Germany, the emperor presented the city and bishopric to the Roman see, on condition of receiving every year a white horse and 100 silver marks. The bishopric afterwards became independent, was secularized in 1801, and assigned to Bavaria in 1803. Councils were held here in 1020, 1052, and 1148. Bamberg surrendered to the Prussians May 16, 1759, and during two days was given up for piflage. It was again captured in 1763. BAMBOROUGH, or BAMBURG (Northum- berland). This ancient town was built by Ida, who reigned 12 years, from 547. Bede says it was called Bebba, after its queen. It was frequently pillaged by the Danes. The castle, built in 1070, was wrested by stratagem from his rebellious barons by William II., in 1096, and was besieged and taken by Edward IV., Dec. 24, 1463. BAMEEAN (Battle). Fought between Dost Mohammed Khan's army and his Oosberg allies, under the Walee of Khooloom, and a small English and Sepoy force, commanded by Brigadier Dennie, Sep. 18, 1840. The former were completely routed, and their leader fled into Kohistan. BAMFLEET (Essex). This fortress was BAMPTON [ "S 3 BANK stormed and captured by King Alfred, and several Danish ships in the neighbourhood were destroyed in 894. BAMPTON LECTURES. Founded by Rev. J. Bampton, Canon of Salisbury, who be- queathed to the university of Oxford estates, the proceeds of which were to be devoted to the endowment of eight divinity lecture-ser- mons, to be preached every year at Great St. Mary's. The cost of the publication of the lectures, within two months of delivery, was to be defrayed out of the endowment. The first course was delivered in 1780, by the Rev. J. Bandinel. Only those who have taken the master's degree at Oxford or Cambridge are eligible ; and a second course by the same per- son is not allowed. B ANBURY (Oxfordshire). In 1125 Blois, Bishop of Lincoln, erected a castle here, which was frequently assailed. The royalists captured it in 1642, defended it with great gallantry during a siege of 13 weeks in 1644, and again in 1646. The parliamentary party demolished it when it came into their possession. A battle was fought at Danesmore, near this town, Wednesday, July 26, 1469, in which the Lan- castrians were defeated by the troops of King Edward IV. BANCA, or BANJA (Indian Ocean). This island, possessing tin mines, discovered in 1710, was ceded to the East-India Company by Sultan Najemudin, of Palembang, in 1812. By the second article of the convention of Aug. 13, 1814, the English ceded the island to the King of the Netherlands, in exchange for Cochin and its dependencies, on the coast of Malabar. B ANCHOR. (See BANGOK-ISCOED.) BANCROFT'S HOSPITAL. Almshouses, near Mile End, London, erected in 1735, pur- suant to the will of Francis, grandson of Arch- bishop Bancroft. Accommodation is afforded for 24 poor men of the Drapers' Company, and a school for 100 boys. BAND A ISLANDS (Pacific), 10 in number, were discovered, in 1511, by the Portuguese, who were expelled by the Dutch in 1603. The English established a factory in 1608. After various struggles between them and the Dutch the latter obtained possession in 1664. They retained their hold until March 8, 1796, when the islands surrendered to an English squadron. Having been restored to the Dutch, by the treaty of Amiens, in 1802, they were again captured by the English, Aug. 9, 1810, and once more restored to the Dutch at the peace of 1814. BANDA ORIENTAL. {See URUGUAY.) BANGALORE (Hindostan) was captured by Lord Comwallis March 22, 1791. The fortress was, however, restored to Tippoo Saib, by the treaty of peace of March 19, 1792. He de- stroyed it, but it was repaired in 1802. BANGKOK (Siam). This city was chosen by Pia-tac as the capital of Siam (q. v.) about the year 1760. In 1849 the cholera carried off 20,000 of the inhabitants in about 12 days. It was visited by Sir J. Bowring in 1855. BANGOR (Caernarvonshire) was made a bishopric early in the 6th century, Daniel, Abbot of Bangor, in Flintshire, its first bishop, having been appointed in 516. The cathedral was destroyed in 1071 ; and having been re- built, suffered severely in subsequent wars. An order for union of the see with St. Asaph, issued in 1838, was rescinded by 10 & n Viet, c. 108 (July 23, 1847). BANGOR (United States) was captured by a party of English sailors and marines Sep. 3, 1814. BANGORIAN CONTROVERSY. During the reign of William III., the Lower House of Convocation had requested "that some synodical notice might be taken of the dis- honour done to the Church by a sermon Sjached by Mr. Benjamin Hoadley, at St. wrence Jewry, Sep. 29, 1705, containing positions contrary to the doctrine of tho Church, expressed in the first and second parts of the homily against disobedience and wilful rebellion." The enmity of this writer's opponents was further excited by a sermon which he preached before George I., March 31, 1717, and afterwards printed under the title, " The Nature of the Kingdom or Church of Christ." He had been made Bishop of Bangor in 1715 ; was translated to Hereford in 1721 ; to Salisbury in 1723 ; and to Winchester in 1734. The so-called dangerous tenets of this discourse, and of a work entitled, "A Pre- servative against the Principles and Practices of the Non- Jurors," were denounced in the report of a committee of the Lower House of Convocation in 1717. This gave rise to a general paper war between the supporters and opponents of Bishop Hoadley 's views on various points, known as the Bangorian Con- troversy. BANGOR-ISCOED, or BANCHOR (Flint- shire), which must not be confounded with Bangor, in Caernarvonshire ; or Benchor, in Ireland ; was the seat of the largest ancient monastic establishment in Great Britain. It contained above 2,000 monks, and was founded by Dunod in the beginning of the 6th century, Ethelfrith, King of Northumberland, insti- gated, it is supposed, by Augustine, who was resolved to reduce the primitive Christian Church in these islands to subjection to Rome, destroyed the monastery and massacred all the monks and students. This event probably took place in 603, but as some confusion has arisen in the chronology of the time, the date cannot be ascertained with certainty. Augustine is said to have died in 604, though there is some doubt on the subject. Bede says, Augustine foretold of these monks that if they would not join in unity with their brethren, they should be assailed by their enemies, and that if they would not preach the way of life to the English people, they should perish at their hands. BANK OF ENGLAND. Incorporated by royal charter, July 27, 1694, was projected by "William Paterson, who, with other merchants in London, subscribed ,1,200,000 as a loan to the government, to bear interest at 8 per cent, per annum. The first charter provided that at any time after Aug. i, 1705, on a year's notice and the repayment of the ,1,200,000, the said charter should cease and determine. It received the sanction of Parliament, and thus were the governor and company of the Bank of England established. Further loans BANK BANKS have since been advanced to the government, the rate of interest has been reduced, and the charter has been repeatedly renewed and ex- tended. The last, known as Sir R. Peel's act (7 & 8 Viet. c. 32), received the royal assent July 19, 1844. The bank suspended cash pay- ments in 1696, but having recovered from a temporary pressure nourished greatly, until again compelled by the drain upon its resources, caused by the French war at the close of the last century, to suspend cash payments, for which an order in council appeared Feb. 27, 1797, and they were not resvimed until May i, 1821. By the 6th section of the Bank Charter Act of 1844, the directors are required to render a weekly account in a prescribed form to the Commissioners of Stamps and Taxes, to be published in the next succeeding Gazette. Since 1828 branch establishments of the Bank of England have been formed in several pro- vincial towns. The first stone of the Bank of England was laid Aug. 3, 1732, the business having been transacted in the Grocers' Hall until June 5, 1734, when it was removed to the new building. Sir John Soane commenced alterations in 1788, and completed the present structure in 1821. BANK OF IRELAND was established by act of Parliament, with privileges similar to those enjoyed by the Bank of England, and opened in June 1783. In 1802 the governors purchased the buildings in College Green used as the Houses of Parliament previous to the Union in 1801. These were adapted for the purposes of the bank, which was transferred here in 1808. The Bank of Ireland is now regulated by 8 n the promise that the duke would assist BARRIER [ 122 ] BARROWS him in purging Paris of strangers and ob- noxious persons. No sooner, however, was an attempt made to execute this plan, than the people rose, erected barricades, and attacked the king's troops with irresistible fury. Henry III., having requested the Duke of Guise to put a stop to the conflict, fled from Paris, and the moment the duke showed him- self to the people they pulled down the barri- cades. It was followed, during the war of the Fronde, by another contest of a somewhat similar character, Aug. 26, 1648, when Anne of Austria ordered the arrest of Charton, Blancmeuil, and Broussel, three popular mem- bers of the Parliament. The first-mentioned managed to escape, but the other two were captured ; whereupon the people rebelled, formed barricades, and attacked the troops with cries of "Broussel and liberty!" The Queen was intimidated, and, by the advice of Mazarin, ordered the release of the prisoners. In July, 1830, the elder branch of the Bourbons, and in Feb., 1848, the Orleans branch of the same family, were driven from the French throne after a struggle at the barricades. Gen. Cavaignac, in defence of the Provisional Go- vernment, waged a fearful contest with the insurgents, who had erected barricades, June 23, 24, 25, and 26, 1848, in which he was at length victorious. The killed and wounded amounted to 15,000, and about 8,000 of the rebels were taken prisoners. Napoleon III. lias widened the streets, and taken other pre- cautions to prevent the recurrence of such scenes. Barricades have been erected during popular outbreaks at Berlin, Vienna, and other continental cities. An attempt at something of the kind, made in London, on the occasion of the funeral procession of Queen Caroline, Aug. 19, 1821, was speedily suppressed. BARRIER ACT. A name given to an act passed by the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland, Jan. 8, 1697, as a barrier against innovations. Similar acts have been passed by other churches. JJAIWIKK TI{ KATIES. The first between England and the Netherlands was negotiated by Lord Townshend, and signed at the Hague Oct. 29, 1709. England engaged to assist the Dutch in preserving their barrier towns, whilst the Dutch pledged themselves to maintain the Queen of England's title to her dominions, and the Protestant succession. It was very unpopular in this country, and was called Lord Townshend's treaty. It was annulled in 1712, and the second barrier treaty was concluded at Utrecht, Jan. 29, 1713. The third treaty known by this name was signed at Antwerp, between England, the Netherlands, and the Emperor Charles VI., Nov. 15, 1715. It de- termined the boundaries of the Netherlands, and the Emperor recognized the Hanoverian succession, as the states general had done in the former treaties. BARRIERS (Battle), was fought under the walls of Paris, March 30, 1814, when the allied army, after an obstinate contest, gained a victory, which led to the capitulation of Paris and the abdication of Napoleon I. BARRISTERS, or BARRASTERS, at first styled apprenticii ad legem (apprentices), were first appointed, according to Dugdale, by an ordinance of 20 Edw. I. (1292). The clergy, who for some time supplied the only persons learned in the law, were at the commencement of Henry III.'s reign prohibited from prac- tising in the secular courts. Reeves (Hist, of Eng. Law, v. 247) remarks, "We have seen that heretofore there were only two descrip- tions of advocates ; these were Serjeants and apprentices. But we find in this reign (Eliza- beth), and no doubt it had been so for some time, that the orders of the profession were these, the lowest was a student, called also an in in r ha i-fix/i r, and so distinguished from the next rank, which was that of an outer or utter Imrr'iKter; then came an apprentice, and next a '." The first order relative to the quali- fications of barristers was made June 21, 1571, being the isth year of Elizabeth's reign. The following entry occurs in the churchwardens' accounts of St. Margaret, Westminster, for 1476: "Also paid to Roger Fylpott, learned in the law, for his counsel-giving, 3.5. 8d., with 4d. for his dinner." In the reign of Charles II. the client consulted the barrister in person, and handed him the honorarium without the intervention of an attorney or clerk. The qualifications required varied until 1852, when the four societies agreed upon one set of rules. BARROSA. (See BAROSSA.) BARROW IS L AMD (Arctic Sea). Dis- covered by Capt. Beechy, Jan. 26, 1826. Like Harrow's Straits, it is named after Sir John Barrow, Bart., secretary to the Admiralty, and author of " A Chronological History of Voyages into the Arctic Regions," London, 1818, and other works. HA R K< )\V'S STRAITS. This channel, lead- ing from Baffin's Bay into the Polar Sea, was discovered by Baffin in 1616 ; and explored in 1819 by Lieut. Parry, who named it after Sir John Barrow. BARROWS. These tumuli, or mounds of earth, are the most ancient monuments in the world. Gough says they were both tombs and altars. They were used by the Assyrians, the Egyptians, and other ancient people. Homer (B.C. 962 B.C. 927) makes mention of one raised by Achilles in memory of Patroclus, and of another to Hector. In some cases they were erected in honour of a deceased hero, whose remains were not deposited beneath them, and frequently to signalize some im- portant event. After the battle of Plataea (q. v.], B.C. 479, Pausanias ordered the dead to be interred in tumuli or barrows. ' ' A single burying-place," says a writer in the " Ency- clopaedia Metropolitana," "was appointed to the use of the Athenians, Tegseans, Mega- raeans, and Philiasians; but the slain of the Lacedaemonians formed three separate mounds ; one consisting of those who had borne the priestly office, another of the Lacedaemonians in general, and the third of their Helots." Barrows were very common in Britain at an early period. Those at Avebury and Stonehenge are the most ancient. They are of numerous shapes, and devoted to various purposes. Many have been opened, and in addition to . bones (calcined), ashes, stone 1 coffins, &c. BARTENSTEIN [ 123 ] BASILICA amber ornaments and other relics have been discovered. BARTENSTEIN (Treaty). Between Prussia and Russia, was concluded at Bartenstein April 25, 1807. It provided for a vigorous pro- secution of the war against France, and the contracting parties engaged not to make a separate peace. BARTHOLOMEW FAIR. To the priory of Bartholomew, founded by Rahere in 1102, King Henry I., in 1133, granted the privilege of holding a fair in Smithfield on St. Bartho- lomew's Day, O.S. Aug. 24, N.S. Sep. 3. The original grant was for three days, but this was gradually extended to 15. In 1593, 1603, 1625, 1630, 1665, and 1666, the fair was suspended 011 account of the plague. An order of the Common Council, in 1708, limited its duration to three days. At one time it was a great place of resort for traders, but it declined in importance until it was only attended by itinerant showmen and the owners of a few stalls. Proclamation of the fair by the Lord Mayor was made for the last time in 1850, and the fair has not been held since 1855. Morley's work, entitled "Memoirs of Bartholomew's Fair," contains full and interesting details on this subject. BARTHOLOMEW, ST. (W. Indies). This island was colonized by the French in 1648 ; taken by the English in 1689 ; and restored to France in 1697. The English took it again in 1746, restored it in 1748, and captured it again March 17, 1781. It was ceded in perpetuity by France to Sweden in 1 784, in return for certain concessions. The English again captured it March 22, 1801, but restored it to Sweden the same year. BARTHOLOMEW'S DAY (Massacre). On the evening of St. Bartholomew's Day, Aug. 24, 1572, the massacre of the Huguenots at Paris commenced. The Roman Catholic leaders, the Dukes of Guise, Aumale, and Anjou, with the connivance of Charles IX,, and at the instiga- tion of Catherine de Medici, resolved by a general assassination to exterminate the French Protestants. Their leader, Admiral Coligny, the first victim, was shot Aug. 22, and the inhuman slaughter of man, woman, and child, which commenced Aug. 24, was carried on till it was believed that all the Protestants in Paris had been destroyed. The plot had been secretly organized, and similar scenes were enacted in many towns in the provinces. Ac- cording to the lowest estimate, 30,000 persons perished. The reigning pope, Gregory XIII., celebrated this deed of blood by a procession and a Te Deum at Rome, and proclaimed a year of jubilee. He also ordered a medal to be struck in its commemoration. (See NONCONFORMISTS.) BARTHOLOMEW'S HOSPITAL (London) was founded in 1102, by Rahere, who had been king's minstrel. It was originally in connec- tion with the priory, which Rahere established about the same time. Edward II., by letters patent, conferred upon it the privilege of sanc- tuary ; consequently no person could be ar- rested within its precincts. Both priory and hospital were dissolved by Henry VIII., who founded the hospital anew, giving 500 marks per annum towards its maintenance, on the condition that the city should give a like sum. It escaped the great fire in 1666, and has been several times enlarged. BARTHOLOMITES. This religious order of St. Basil, driven from Armenia in 1296, owing to the cruelties committed upon them by the Sultan of Egypt, formed an establishment at Genoa in 1307. They obtained a second house at Parma in 1318, and afterwards spread to other towns in Italy. They assumed the habit of St. Dominic, and eventually followed the rule of St. Augustine, which was confirmed to them by Innocent VI., in 1356. The Bartholo- mites gradually decreased in numbers, and were suppressed by Innocent X. in 1650. BARWALDE (Treaty). Between France and Sweden, concluded by Gustavus, in his camp at Barwalde or Barenwald, Jan. 13, 1631. It provided for a defensive alliance, and its duration was fixed at six years. It was aimed against the Emperor Ferdinand II., and Spain. BASEL, or BASLE (Switzerland). This ancient city was ruled during the Middle Ages by a bishop, who was a prince of the German empire. It was taken by Rodolph of Habs- burg in 1267 ; in 1392 became a free imperial city, which was, with the adjoining territory, admitted into the Confederation in 1501, when the bishops were expelled. A council was held here in Oct., 1061. The i8th general council, transferred from Pavia to Sienna and from Sienna to Basel, assembled July 23, 1431, and was brought to a conclusion May 16, 1543. Its chief objects were the reunion of the Greek and Latin Churches, and a general refor- mation of the Church. The university of Basel was founded by a papal bull from Pius II. in 1459. Treaties of peace were concluded at Basel between France and Prussia, April 5 and May 17 ; between France and Spain, July 22 ; and between France and Hesse-Cassel, Aug. 28, 1795. The French seized the city in 1798. BASHEE, or BASHI ISLANDS (Pacific), five in number, were discovered by Dampier, in 1687, an d colonized by the Spaniards in 1783. They form a dependency of the Philippines. BASHI BAZOUKS. Irregular troops in the Turkish service, principally Asiatics. They formed a contingent of the Turkish army during the Russian war, 1853 56. As light cavalry they are considered excellent, sur- passing the Cossacks in courage and powers of endurance. BASIENTELLO (Battle). Otho III., Empe- ror of Germany, was defeated near this place, in Italy, by the Greeks and Saracens, July 13, 982. This victory restored Apulia and Cala- bria to the Eastern empire. BASILIANS. Monks of the order of Basil, surnamed the Great, Bishop of Csesarea A.D. 370. He had retired in 358 into a desert in Pontus and founded a monastery. He after- wards founded several similar establishments, placing them under rules of his own institu- tion. The order was introduced into the Western Church in 1057, and was reformed by Pope Gregory XIII. in 1569. BASILICA. Halls bearing this name were erected by the Romans for public business, or the administration of justice, about B.C. 180. Their form, in most cases that of a paral- BASILICAN [ 124 3 BASSET lelogram, twice as long as its width, with a circular recess at one end, having fitted them for the public worship of the primitive Chris- tian Church, they were in many instances converted into temples in the reign of Con- stantine I. (A.D. 306 337), and furnished mo- dels for all early ecclesiastical architects. .BASILICAN CODE of Byzantine law was published A.D. 884 by Basilius I., from whom its name is derived. It was revised and extended, by Leo VI. and Constantino VII. (Porphy- rogenitus), and appeared in its amended form between 905 and 91 1 . This remained the law of the Byzantine empire till its conquest by the Turks, and has been adopted in the modern kingdom of Greece. BASILIDIANS. The followers of Basilides of Alexandria, who is supposed to have quitted the Church during the reign of Trajan or that of Hadrian, were thus named. Cave says that he nourished in 112, Basnage in 121, and Mill in 123. Basilides, who died in 130, per- verted the doctrinu of the Logos. Clement of Alexandria asserts that Basilides boasted that he had been taught by Glaucias, a disciple of St. Peter. BASILIKON DORON, or ROYAL GIFT, a treatise composed by James I., and published at Edinburgh in 1599, and in London in 1604. It is divided into three books, and contains precepts on the art of government, addressed by the king to his son, Henry, Prince of Wales, who died suddenly, Nov. 6, 1612, aged 17. BASING (Hants). The scene of the Danish victory over Ethelred and Alfred in 871. Near this place is Basing House, celebrated for its heroic defence by the Marquis of Winchester, against the parliamentary forces in 1644. It was relieved by Col. Gage, after having sus- tained a siege of three months; but on his retirement the enemy again returned. When Col. Gage once more approached to relieve it in November of the same year they took to flight. The besiegers returned : Cromwell stormed the place in 1646, and put the garri- son to the sword. BASKET-MAKING, or WICKER-WORK. The ancient Britons, from whom the Romans are said to have learned it, excelled in this kind of manufacture. Their boats, shields, and various implements were fashioned of wicker-work. Herodotus (i. 194) mentions boats of this kind on the Euphrates. A com- pany of basket-makers once existed in London. BASLARD. Sir W. Walworth wounded Wat Tyler in the neck with a baslard or basiliarde, a species of dagger, worn at that time sus- pended from the girdle. By 12 Rich. II., c. 6 (1388), no servant or labourer was allowed to carry one of these weapons. This statute was repealed by 21 James I. c. 28 (1623). Wright states that in 1403 it was decreed that no per- son not in receipt of an income of 20 per annum should use a baslard ornamented with silver. BASQUE PROVINCES (Spain). The origin of this term, applied to three provinces, viz., Biscay, Guipuzcoa, and Alava, is unknown. The inhabitants preserved their independence against successive invasions of Romans and Goths, but were at length subdued by the latter about A.D. 585. Guipuzcoa and Alava were united to Castile in the i3th century, and Biscay was annexed to Castile by Peter the Cruel in the i4th. BASQUE ROADS (Sea-fight). Capt. Lord Cochrane, afterwards Earl of Dundonald, in the Impdrieuse, with explosion-vessels, tire-ships, gunboats, &c., sailed from Basque Roads to attack the French fleet at anchor under the shelter of the batteries in Aix Roads, April 1 1, 1809. A boom, half a mile in length and com- posed of the thickest cables, floated by buoys, had been moored a few yards in front of the line of French frigates. An explosion-vessel, fired by Lord Cochrane, broke through the boom, and such was the terror caused amongst the French fleet that the cables were cut and the ships drifted on shore. Lord Cochrane, in the morning of April 12, signalled to Admiral Lord Gambier to send half the fleet to de- stroy the French ships, several of which were aground. This, however, Lord Gambier re- fused to do, and a large portion of the French fleet, by dint of great exertions, managed to escape. At St. Helena Napoleon I. admitted that if Lord Cochrane had been properly sup- ported all the French ships must have been captured or destroyed. BASS AN O (Battles). During the French revolutionary war, the Austrian general Wurmser was defeated at this town in Lom- bardy, Sep. 8, 1796, by the French republican army under Massena and Augereau. After this defeat the Austriaus retired to Mantua. Bassano was restored to Austria, by the treaty of Campo Formio, Oct. 17, 1797 ; but in the Italian campaign of 1813 Eugene Beauhamais wrested it from the Austrians. 15ASSEIN (Burinah). An English expedi- tion that sailed from Rangoon, April 17, 1852, anchored off this town April 19, and took it by storm. BASSEIN (Hindostan). This town, in the presidency of Bombay, was ceded, in 1531, to the Portuguese, by whom it was promised, but never bestowed, as part of the dowiy of Catherine of Braganca, queen of Charles II. It was taken in 1750 by the Mahrattas. In 1774 and 1 780 it was captured by the British, who relinquished it in 1782, but concluded a treaty with the Peishwa in 1802 (see BASSEIN, Treaty), and finally annexed it to their Indian possessions in 1818. Bishop Heber, who visited Bassein in 1825, described it as a city in ruins, uninhabited, and desolate. BASSEIN (Treaty), between the Peishwa and East India Company, was concluded at this place, in Hindostan, Dec. 31, 1802. The ratifications were exchanged March 18, 1803. It was an alliance offensive and defensive be- tween the contracting parties, and in return for certain concessions the English engaged to support the rights of the Mahratta chieftain. BASSET. This game at cards, said to have been invented by a noble Venetian in the isth century, was introduced into France in 1674. The courtiers of James II. are, in an account dated Feb. 6, 1685, represented as playing at basset on the day of his proclamation. It was played at the court of Louis XIV., until that monarch lost a large sum by means of false BASSET [ 125 BATH cards; whereupon lie ordered that persons found playing basset should be fined 1,000 livres. BASSET HORN was invented in Passau in 1770, and improved by Lotz of Presburgin 1782. BASSETERRE (Sea-fight). Count de Grasse made three attacks upon the British fleet, anchored in Basseterre Roads, St. Christopher's, Jan. 26, 1782, and was, on each occasion, re- pulsed with great loss. BASSORAH, or BUSRA (Asiatic Turkey). This city was founded by Omar A.D. 636, and captured during the revolt against Ali, by Telha and Zobeir, accompanied by Ayesha, the widow of the prophet, in 658. The rebels were, however, defeated under its walls in the same year. (See CAMEL.) The Saracen rule terminated by its conquest by the Turks in 701. Though it became a flourishing place it was abandoned, some writers allege, because the canal on which it was built had fallen into neglect ; and the modern Bassorah, eight miles to the north- east of the ancient site, was established. The Turks made themselves masters of Bassorah in 1668 ; but it was wrested from them by the Persians April 16, 1776, after a siege of 12 months. It was recovered by the Turks in 1778, and is known under the names of Bus- sorah and Basra. BASS ROCK (Frith of Forth). This small island is first mentioned in history as affording a retreat for St. Baldred, a Scottish enthusiast, who died here March 6, 606 A.D. It was granted to the Lauder family by charter, dated June 4, 1316. A castle existed on this island in the 1 5th century, if not before. James VI. of Scotland visited the Bass Rock in 1581, and the English Government purchased it for a state prison in Oct., 1671. Having surrendered to the new government in 1690, some adherents of James II. regained possession the same year, and they held it, plundering all vessels that came near, until April, 1694. It was the last place in Scotland that held out for James II. The fortifications were finally destroyed in 1701, by order of William III. To the Dal- rymple family, in whose possession it has since remained, it was ceded by charter, July 31, 1706, ratified by Parliament in March, 1707. Several of the Covenanters were imprisoned in this island. BASS'S STRAIT (Pacific). This channel, separating Van Diemen's Land from Australia, is named after Mr. Bass, surgeon of the ship Reliance, who, accompanied by Flinders, then a midshipman in the same ship, crossed it in an open boat called the Tom Thumb, March 25 27, 1796. Flinders and Bass, in a small vessel, the Norfolk, circumnavigated Van Diemen's Land, long believed to form part of Australia, Oct. 7, 1798 Jan. 12, 1799. BASTARN^. This powerful tribe of Sar- matia first appeared in history during the reign of Perseus of Macedon (B.C. 178 168), to whose army they contributed 20,000 mercen- aries. Having encroached upon Roman terri- tory, they were driven across the Danube by M. Crassus, B.C. 30, and ultimately settled between the rivers Dneister and Dnieper. BASTIA, the ancient Mantinum, founded in 1380, was the capital of Corsica until that island was annexed to France in 1768. The town and its citadel were captured by the English in 1745, and again May 22, 1794. The Austrians assailed it without success in 1 748. BASTILLE. There were three bastilles or state-prisons, namely, those of the Temple, St. Denis, and the Rue St. Antoine, at Paris. On the ground occupied by the last-mentioned a kind of fortress, which was strengthened in 1356, had long before existed. The place generally known as the Bastille was com- menced by order of Charles V., and the first stone was laid April 22, 1369. It was not com- pleted until 1383, and was afterwards improved and strengthened in such a manner that it became one of the strongest f orti esses of the kind in Europe. It was taken in 1418, in 1594, and Jan. 13, 1649, ^Y the Fronde army. The mob attacked it July 14, 1789, released the prisoners, put the governor to death, com- mitted great havoc, and soon after the order was given for its demolition. Croker (Essays on the French Revolution, p. 246) remarks that only six or seven prisoners were found in the Bastille when captured, and not a single state-prisoner. In July, 1794, the prisons of Paris contained 8,913 prisoners, and in 1793, 2,637 had passed from the prison to the scaffold. (See IRON MASK.) BATALHA (Portugal). John I. (13831433), of Portugal, built a convent at this place in commemoration of his victory over John I. of Castile, at Aljubarota (q. v.), Aug. 14, 1385 BATAVIA, an island between the Rhine and the Waal, occupied in the time of Caesar, B.C. 55, by a German tribe, called the Batavi. Claudius Civilis, a Batavian chieftain, rose in arms against the Romans A.D. 69, and after a fierce struggle, in which he gained many vic- tories, was at last defeated. Zosirnus, who was the first to call the island Batavia, states that in the time of Constantius II. (350 360) it belonged to the Franks. (See HOLLAND.) BATAVIA (Java). A factory was established by the Dutch at the village of Jacatra in 1612, and upon its site the town of Batavia was founded in 1619. The new settlement became the seat of the government of the Dutch East Indian colonies. The French obtained posses- sion in 1811, and were expelled by the English Aug. 8 in the same year. It was restored to the Dutch by a convention signed in London, Aug. 13, 1814. BATAVIAN REPUBLIC. In 1795 the French republicans invaded the Netherlands, and subverted the government. The seven united provinces formed with France an offen- sive and defensive alliance against England, May 15, 1795, and assumed the title of "the one and indivisible Batavian Republic," May i, 1798. The new commonwealth, guaranteed by the ti-eaty of Luneville (q. v.), Feb. 9, 1801, received a constitution promulgated Sep. 14, 1 80 1. Other changes were made, and at last the Batavian republic was annexed to France, and named the kingdom of Holland, June 5, 1806. BATH (Somersetshire). This city occupies the site of a Roman station, called by them Aquae Soils, and formed as early as B.C. 44. The Romans adorned it with many noble BATH [ 126 ] BATTERSEA buildings. Its hot springs are mentioned by their writers. Bath suffered during the struggles between the Saxons and the Britons, and was seized and plundered by the Danes. Richard I. granted it a charter, which was confirmed by Henry III. Edgar was crowned at Bath by l3unstan, A.D. 973. The hospital of St. John was founded in 1180. The Black Alms Hospital and Grammar School were estab- lished by Edward VI., July 12, 1552. The abbey church was completed in 1609, and the old town-hall, erected by Inigo Jones in 1625, was removed in 1777, and the present building opened in 1780. The city, which had pre- viously afforded but scanty accommodation to its numerous visitors, was much benefited by the architectural improvements commenced by Wood in 1728. The old pump-room, erected in 1704, and improved in 1751, 1786, and 1791, was taken down in 1796, when the present struc- ture was built. The Assembly Rooms, built in 1708 and 1728, were superseded by more spacious apartments in 1771. The first stone of the general hospital was laid by the Hon. W. Pulteney, afterwards Earl of Bath, July 6, 1738. Beavi Nash, the celebrated "king of Bath," died here Feb. 3, 1761. Sydney Gardens were opened in 1795, and Victoria Park in 1830. The theatre, built in 1805, was destroyed by tire April 18, 1862. The 34th annual meeting of the British Association took place here in 1864. BATH (Order). Knights of the Bath were thus named from the ceremony of bathing, performed the night before their creation, and Sir Harris Nicolas mentions two cases of knights created in this manner during the reign of King John, the first in 1204 and the second in 1205. The order is supposed to have existed at a much earlier period. It is first noticed under the name of the Bath, Oct. n, 1399, when Henry IV., at his coronation, created 46 knights. The practice was con- tinued at the coronation of our sovereigns, but after that of Charles II., in 1661, fell into neg- lect, until it was revived by George I., May 18, 1725. The order was re-organized and ex- tended Jan. 2, 1815 ; and April 14, 1847, the number of knights in the existing classes w.-is increased, whilst civil knights, commanders, and companions were added. (See TKIA JUNCTA IN UNO.) BATH AND WELLS (Bishopric). The see of Wells was founded A.D. 909, and that of Bath in 1078. William II. removed the see of Wells to Bath, by charter, Jan. 25, 1092. This gave rise to a dispute between the canons of Wells and the monks of Bath, and it was not ter- minated until about 1139, when, with the Pope's consent, it was determined that the bishops should be called bishops of Bath and Wells ; that the election should be made by the canons of Wells and the monks of Bath conjointly ; that the event of the election should be pronounced by the Dean of Wells ; and that the bishop should be enthroned in both cathedrals. The episcopal residence is at Wells. BATH ADMINISTRATION. (See LONG- LIVED ADMINISTRATION.) BATHS are mentioned in the Old Testament, and Homer (B.C. 962 B.C. 927) speaks of the baths in the houses of the Greeks. Hot baths were also used in ancient times, and Homer commends the warm fountains of the Sca- mander, though he attributes to them the effeminacy of the Phseacians. They were not common at Rome until the ist century of the Christian sera. Augustus constructed public baths in every part of the capital. The baths of Antoninus Caracalla, in the 2nd century, contained above 1,600 marble seats, and those of Diocletian, in the 4th century, about 3,000. Gibbon says (ch. xxxi), " The meanest Roman could purchase, with a small copper coin, the daily enjoyment of a scene of pomp and luxury which might excite the envy of the kings of Asia." (-bee TURKISH BATHS.) BATHS AND WASH-HOUSES. (See PUBLIC BATHS AND WASH-HOUSES.) BATHURST (N. S. Wales). Established in April, 1815, being the first settlement made beyond the Blue Mountains. Gold was dis- covered at Ophir, near Bathurst, Feb. 12, 1851. The governor issued a proclamation, May 22, claiming the gold, but allowing persons to search or dig, on taking a license at 303. per month. By the month of June 20,000 persons had arrived at the new diggings. BATHURST (W. Africa). This settlement, on the south side of the Gambia, was estab- lished in 1816. BATNEAR (Hindostan). The former capital of the Batnears or Batties of Hindostan was taken by Tamerlane in 1398, and by the Rajah of Beykaneer in 1805. BATON ROUGE (Louisiana). This town . Amulph II., the Bad. I 938. Berthold. Eberhanl. in M-.S OF SAXOXY AND FRAM-OMA. Henry I. 1020. Henry VI. Henry II., the Quarrel- 1039. Henry VII. some. : >. Guelph T. II2C. Henn- IX. Guelph II. 1126. Henn X. lu KI.S OF mi: Hor>r. OF li.\r.Kxr.ERG. LoojMltl. | 1141. Henn- XI. GCELPHIC Dt'KE. Henn- XII. 1)1 1,1 s UK THE HorSF. OF WlTTELSBACH. Otho I. 1438. Albert I. Louis I. 1460. John II. and Sigte- Otho II.. the Illnstriou-. mund. Henry Xlll. and Louis 146-. Albert II. William II. and Louis IV. .t III. 1579. William IIL II lis III. hen. [374 .lohn I. of Munich. : nest and William I. ELECTORS OF TIIK HOTSE OF WITTELSBACH. 1598. Maximilian I. (Duke). I ifi-o.. Maximilian FmanueL 1623. do. (Elector). I-y.. Charles Albert. 1651. Ferdinand Maria. | 1745. Maxiiuiliau Joseph I. 1-A1..VTIXE HOUSE. 17"". Charles Theodore. KIXGS. 1709. Maximilian Joseph II. 1825. Louis I. (Elector). 1848. Maximilian Joseph II, 1805. Maximilian Joseph I. 1864. (King). BAY ISLANDS (Bay of Honduras^. This cluster was made an English colony by royal warrant, dated March 20, 1852, and a proclama- tion was issued at Belize July 17. Great Bri- tain ceded the Bay Islands, consisting of Knatan. Guanaea, Elena. Utile, Barbarete. and Morat, to the republic of Honduras, by treaty, signed at Comayagua Nov. 28, 1859. BAY OF ISLANDS "Pacific , at the northern extremity of New Ulster, one of the New Zea- land isles, became the seat of a whaling station in the iSth century. BAYAZID (Battle). The Russians, 8,000 strong, defeated a Turkish army of 5,000 men at this place, in Armenia, July 29, 1854. BAYEUX (Normandy), the ancient Augus- todurus, was burned to the ground by Henry I. n Aug., 1105, on which occasion its magni- ficent cathedral was much injured. Bayexix suffered greatly in the wars 1 ictweeii England and France. It capitulated to Charles VII. in 1449. The bishopric was founded in the 4th century. BAYEUX TAPESTRY. This celebrated roll of linen cloth or canvas, 214 feet in length and 20 inches wide, contains, in 72 distinct com- partments, a representation, in embroidery, .)f the events of the Norman invasion, from Harold's leave-taking of Ed ward the Confessor, on his departure for Normandy, to the battle if Hastings. The Bayeux tapestry is supposed to have been worked by Matilda, wife of Wil- liam I., and was by her presented to the cathedral of Bayeux. Montfauoon caused re- searches to be made that ended in the dis- covery of the tapestry in Bayeux cathedral in 1728 ; and Napoleon I. had it conveyed to Paris in 1803, where it was kept some time and exhi- bited. It has been engraved, and several works upon the subject have been published. Bruce Bayeux Tapestry Elucidated) says it contains figures of " 623 men, 202 horses, 55 dogs, 505 animals of various kinds not hitherto enume- rated, 37 buildings, 41 ships and boats, and 49 m all 1,512 figures." BAYLEX Buttle .In 1808 Dupont's army was shut up in this town, in Spain, where a battle was fought with the Spaniards, July 20. It terminated in the complete discomfiture of the French, 20,000 strong, who surrendered at discretion. HA Yi NET. Military instructions issued to tlie 1'iviich army in 1646 and 1647 contain the earliest notice of this weapon. In 1671 they were introduced generally into the French army. From official documents it appears that in 1682 the bayonet was inserted into the barrel of the musket. The plug- bayonet was used in England until 1690, after which date tin < net was introduced. It superseded the pike, and was doubtless taken from the sweynes-feathcr, or swine's feather, called also swan's feather, invented during the reign of James I. This was a long, thin rapier blade, which the musketeer, after discharging his piece, fixed into the muzzle. The bayonet is said to have received its name from Bayonne, where it was invented. The first victory secured by a charge of the bayonet was that of Landeu (-/. '. , in 1693. BAYONNE France). This ancient town was made a bishopric towards the end of the 4th century. Its cathedral was erected in the i3th century. It was taken by the English, Jan. i, 1295, during the invasion of France by Edward I. The bayonet is said to have been invented at this place, from which its name is derived. Napoleon I. met Ferdinand VII. of Spain at the castle of Manic, near Bayonne, in April. i3o8, and endeavoured to induce him to resign the crown, which he had just received from Charles IV. (>w ARANJTEZ.) Ferdinand VII. abdicated May 6. Several encounters be- tween the French "and English took pi:. Bayonne, Dec. 9, 10, n, and 13, 1813, in which the English were victorious, and the place was invested by them Feb. 24, 1814. The French BAYONNE [ 129 ] BEAR were repulsed in a desperate sally, April 14. This action was fought after peace had been concluded. The castle of Marac was destroyed by fire in 1825. An exhibition was opened here July 19, 1864. BAYONNE (Treaty). Agreed to May 4, 1808, and signed May 5, between Napoleon I. and Charles IV., King of Spain. The latter re- signed his kingdom, and Napoleon I. engaged to maintain its integrity, and to preserve the Roman Catholic religion. His son Ferdinand VII. confirmed the cession, May 10. BAYONNE CONFERENCE was held in June, 1565, between Charles IX., the queen mother, Catherine de Medici, Elizabeth, Queen of Spain, and the Duke of Alva, envoy of Philip II., to arrange plans for the repression of the Huguenots. It is generally believed that the massacre of Bartholomew's Day (g. v.) was determined upon at this meeting. BAYREUTH (Germany). This principality, formed about 1248, was united with the mar- graviate of An.spaoh, in 1769, and sold by the last Margrave of Anspaeh-Bayreuth to Prussia in 1791. Its annexation was agreed to by a treaty between France and Prussia, Dec. 15, 1805. France acquired it by the treaty of Tilsit (q. v.), July 9, 1807 ; but it was trans- ferred to Bavaria in 1810. Its capital, of the same name, is a place of some importance. The church of St. Mary Magdalen was built in 1446, and the gymnasium in 1664. BAZA (Spain). This stronghold of Granada was wrested from the Moors, after a siege of six months' duration, by Ferdinand and Isabella, in Nov., 1489. The Spanish sovereigns made their triumphal entrance into the city Dec. 4. BAZAAR. This term is applied in Eastern countries to a large square or street appro- priated to purposes of trade. The bazaar of Tauris is the most extensive in the world, and that of Khan Khaliel, at Cairo, which occupies the site of the tombs of the caliphs, contains some valuable records. It was built in 1292. The bazaar at Ispahan is, perhaps, the most magnificent of any. Adrianople and Constan- tinople have large bazaars. The last-mentioned was built in 1462. The Soho Bazaar, London, was opened in 1815, the St. James's Bazaar in 1832, the Pantheon (q. v.) in 1834, and the London Crystal Palace Bazaar in 1858. The Queen's Bazaar, Oxford Street, was burned down May 27, 1829. (See ARCADES.) BAZAS (France). This ancient city, the Roman Cossio, taken from the Vasates by Crassus in the ist century B.C., was ravaged by the Vandals A.D. 408, by the Goths in 414, and by the Normans in 853. The Crusades were preached here by Urban II. in 1096, and by St. Bernard in 1153. Bazas was made a bishopric in the 6th century, and its cathedral was built in the i2th century. BEACHEY HEAD (Sea - fight). A French fleet, commanded by Tourville, consisting of 78 ships-of-war and 22 fire-ships, defeated the combined Dutch and English squadrons, under the Earl of Torrington, amounting to 56 sail, off Beachey Head, June 30, 1690. The French obtained the command of the Channel, and great consternation was created throughout England, particularly in the metropolis. William III. was incensed against the Earl of Torrington, who was tried by court-mar- tial, and honourably acquitted. BEACONS, or SIGNAL-FIRES, are referred to by Jeremiah (vi. i), and were used by the Greeks and Romans. The intelligence of the capture of Troy is represented by vEschylus as having been conveyed to the Peloponnesus by signals of this kind. Coke says : " Before the reign of Edward III. they were but stacks of wood set up on high places, which were fired when the coming of enemies was de- scried ; but in his reign pitch-boxes, as now they be, were, instead of these stacks, set up ; and this properly is a beacon." An act of the Scotch Parliament, in 1455, prescribed the mode in which any approach of the English was to be signalled by beacons. The erection of beacons once formed a branch of the royal prerogative, but by 8 Eliz. c. 13 (1566), the cor- poration of the Trinity House were empowered to set up beacons, or sea-marks, in all places where ithey deemed them necessary, and the penalty for destroying them was the fine of ;ioo, and, in case of inability to pay, outlawry. They were sometimes erected on the towers of churches. The eastern beacon nearest London was on Shooters' Hill ; and that in Middlesex on Hampstead Hill, as was represented in Hollar's View of London in 1666. BEADEN-HEAD (Battle). The Kings of Wessex and Mercia fought an indecisive battle at this place, supposed to be Great Bedwyn, in Wiltshire, A.D. 675. BEADS, made of various materials, were used as ornaments amongst ancient nations, and have been frequently found in barrows, more particularly in those of the Druids, in different parts of England. They were used for devotional purposes by the Chinese, Hin- doos, and Egyptians ; and Augustine, in the 4th century, is said to have introduced the practice among the Christians. According to the ioth of the canons of Chelsea, July 27, 8 1 6, seven belts of paternosters were to be said for the repose of a bishop. About the year 1200 St. Dominic introduced the rosary (q. v.). BEANDUNE (Battle). Cynegils, King of Wessex, defeated the Britons at this place, supposed to be Bampton, in Oxfordshire, though some authorities are in favour of Bampton, in Devonshire, in 614. More than 2,000 of the Britons fell in the action. BEAR. This military order was instituted at St. Gall, in Switzerland, by the Emperor Frederick II., in 1213, St. Ursus being the patron. It was abolished when Switzerland threw off the Austrian yoke. BEAR-BAITING. This cruel pastime was very popular in England during the Middle Ages, and frequently took place on a Sun- day, after service. In Fitzstephen's descrip- tion of London and he wrote in the time of Henry II. bear-baiting is enumerated amongst the sports of the citizens ; and Stow speaks of the bear-gardens as being much frequented in his day. The act against cruelty to animals, 5 . though generally re- ceived, clues not rest upon good authority. ly, in 976, and the church of St. Pierre, huilt of materials taken from the ruins of an old Roman temple, was completed in 1098. Beaune was erected into a commune in 1203. A fine hospital was founded hy Chancellor Rollin in 1443. Beauno, seized hy the Leaguers in 1585, was sin-rendered hy the inhabitants to Henry IV. in 1595. During the i7th century it was a flourishing seat, of mrumfactures, carried on for the most part hy Protestants, who were expelled hy the revocation of the edict of Nantes, Oct. 22, 1685. La Madeleine, the last ancient gate of this city, was pulled down in 1837. BEAUVAIS (France). The Ca'saromagus, or I'.rat 1 1 span tin m of the Romans, was taken hy ( ':esar u.c. 57. It received the name of liellova- cujii in the time of Cmistant hie i. The hishojirie of IJcauviiis was erected in the 3rd century. It was assailed hy the Northmen in 850, and after undergoing various vicissitudes, it re- sisted an attack hy the Kuglish, June 7, 1433. It was the scene of the Jacquerie or !' war in i ^H. Charles, Duke of Burgundy, laid siege to it, Saturday, June 27, 1472, assaulted it in vain July 9, and after making the most extraordinary clt'orts, was compelled to retire, Wednesday, July 72, in tl year. The women, called the heroines of ieK, or BACC ANCELDB. A council summoned by Wihtred, King of Kent, was held at this place in 694, to consult rc- I he bettering of Cod's < 'hurch in thai, part of Kn-land. Abbesses took part in its de- liberations, and fivesubscri. '. tut ions in the form of a charter, drawn up on the occasion. Mapc.hild, ill Kent, is generally supposed to be the place at which this early synod was hold, thon : .;li some authorities are in favour of ISeckenham, in t he same county. P,i:CKASCO<; Treaty, renewing the con- vention of llelsinborg, dated Aug. 31, 1805, was concluded between (ireat Britain and Sweden, at Heckascog, Oct. 3, 1805. Sweden agreed to send 12,000 troops into I'OHM rania to co operate with the Russians against France, for which Kngland was to furnish an annual subsidy, at the rate of 12. 10*. each man ; and to pay for preliminary expenses the sub- sidy calculated at that rate for five months, on the ratification of the treaty. It consisted ofj 10 articles, and by the ninth England agreed to furnish an additional ,50,000 ster- ling for the purpose of improving tne defences of Stralsund. BF.D OF JUSTICE, the seat or throne on which the sovereign sat in (he Parliament of France. As the authority of the rarliumeut BEDCHAMBER BEES ceased when the king was present, a bed o justice came to signify a session of the khi in Parliament. The last bed of justice wa assembled at Versailles, Nov. 19, 1787, by orde of Louis XVI. BEDCHAMBER. ftta LORDS AND LADIE OF Till: I '.Kuril AMBER.) BEDKK (Battle). This battle, won by Mo h; u ni nod over the Koreish of Mecca, wa fought between that town and Medina, A.D 623. It was the first struggle after the nigh from Mecca, and was represented, from thi great disparity in numbers, as having beei gained by miraculous agency. BEDFORD. The Saxon "Bedcanford,""th< lodging at the ford, " so called from its situa tion at an ancient ford of the Ouse. Th< \\Vst Saxons and the I Jritons fought a battle here in 571. The town, nearly destroyed b\ the I fanes in 1010, was restored by Kdwan the Klder. Stephen took the castle in 1137 during bis war against Matilda. King Join: ea]itureil it in 1216. It was frequently!" Tim Qrammar School was founded by Kdwan VI. in 1552. John Bunyan preached in a chapel here from 1671 1688; and in its gaol on the site of which a new one has beer erected, wrote " The Pilgrim's Pi-ogress. ' The bridge was rebuilt in 1811. HKDKOU I) A DM I N I STRATION. (See GKKNVIU.K ADMINISTRATION.) I : I : ! I < ) I ! I ) I . K V EL,. (See DRAINAGE.) HKDK AM. 'c BKTIII.KHKM HOSPITAL.) I;I;D.\OI;K (Hindoatan). This place, made in 1645 the seat of the rajahs of Ikeri, was captured, with a large amount of plunder, by llyder Ali in 1763. Though he ordered the name to be changed to Hydernagur, it still retains its former appellation. It was taken by (leu. Matthews in Jan., 1783, and was retaken by Tippoo Haib, April 18, in the same year. In 1833 it came into the possession of the Ivist India Company. 1!KI>OIM.\S, wandering Arab tribes, sup- posed to be the descendants of Ishmaol, the "wild man," whose "hand was against every man, and every man's hand against him" ((Jen. xvi. 12), B.C. 1910. Their mode of life lias undergone little change since the time of Moses (B.C. 1571 1451) and Mohammed (A.D. 570 632), but since the conquest of Northern Africa in the 7th century they have enjoyed a wider field for their predatory excursions, which extend from Egypt to the Atlantic Ocean. (,SYf ARABIA.) BKDKIACUM, or BEBRIACUM (Battles). The first, between the generals of Marcus Otho and Aulus Vitellius, rivals for the im- perial sceptre, was fought in April, A.D. 69, when the former sull'ercd a defeat, and .Marcus Otho committed suicide at I Sri x ell nm, April 17. The second was fought the same year, between the generals of Vitellius and Vespasian, the latter being victorious. Bedriacum lay between Verona and Cremona, but its exact position has not been ascertained. BKDS. The earliest practice amongst ancient nations was to sleep upon the skins of beasts. Among the Israelites an ordinary couch, with light coverings, served the pur- pose of a bed. At a later period ivoiy bed- steads were used by the wealthy (Amos vi. 4), B.C. 805. They were sometimes decked with rich hangings, and sprinkled with perfumes (Prov. vii. 16 & 17). The Greeks did not make use of pillows until about B.C. 850. Towards the end of the Roman republic, and under the empire, when simplicity of living had given place to Asiatic luxury, the beds of the opulent classes were most costly and magnificent. Straw is said to have been used in the royal chambers iii England in the i3th century. The great bed of Ware, to which Shakespeare alludes in "Twelfth Night " " Although the sheet were big enough for the bed of Ware in 1 1.].- land" (act iii. sc. 2) is still in existence at Ware, and will hold 12 persons. Air-beds were invented in the i8th century, and the hydrostatic or water-bed, by Dr. Arnott, in 1832. BEE (Order of the) was instituted at Sccaux, by Louise of Bourbon, wife of Louis Augustus of Bourbon, Duke of Maine, June 4, 1703. It was intended for women as well as men. BEEF-STEAK CLUB (London). The first of this name was established in the reign of c^iicen A nne, and is described in Ward's "Secret History of Clubs" (1709). Dick Estcourt, the actor, who died in 1712, was its first providore. The club was frequently noticed in contem- porary literature, and appears to have been, famous for the jovial character of its meetings. The Sublime Society of the Steaks was founded by Henry Rich in 1735, and consisted of 24 members, who met every Saturday in a room at t he t op of Covent Garden Theatre. The number was, in 1785, increased to 25, in order to admit the Prince of Wales, who joined May 14. Its archives were destroyed when Covent Garden Theatre was burned, Sep. 20, 1808. After the fire they met at the Bedford Hotel till apart- ments were fitted up for them in the English >pera House. After its destruction by fire, Feb. 1 6, 1830, they returned to the Bedford, until the Lyceum Theatre was rebuilt in 1834. A beef-steak club became a kind of institution i almost every theatre. The club formed by )r. Johnson in Ivy Lane, in 1749, was at first a beef-steak club. (See RUMP-STEAK or LIBERTY- LUB.) BKKR. (See ALE and BEER.) BEES were kept by the Greeks and Romans, who used hives made of cork, wood, wicker, "n-on/e, and pottery. By 9 Hen. III. c. 13 (1225), ivery freeman was entitled to the honey found n his own woods. Huber, the blind naturalist, y whom the nature of bees was most care- illy studied, discovered the existence of the wax cells in 1793. The Western Apiarian Society was established at Exeter in 1799. BEES, ST. (Cumberland). This ancient town erives its name from Bega, an Irish saint, vho is said to have formed a small monastery icre A.D. 650. It was destroyed by the Danes, id restored in the reign of Henry I., about 120, being intended for Benedictine monks. rdibishop (Irindall, who died A.D. 1583, ounded the grammar-school. The founder s tatutes were afterwards confirmed, and the overnors incorporated in 1585. The college ras established in 1817. K 2 BEET [ 132 BEGUINE3 BEET-ROOT, introduced into this country in the latter part of the i8th century as a pickle, salad, and for feeding cattle, has been extensively used on the continent in the manu- facture of sugar (tI-:;:S, UOU.AVP, the NKTHHI- r.ANiis, ami the UNITED PKOVIXC i:s , was, by treaty of July 21, 1814, united with Holland. The Dutch and Belgian elements would not combine, and the outbreak of tho French Revolution proved the signal for a separation. 1830, Aug. 2v An insurrection breaks out nt Brussels. Sep. 99. The separation from Holland is resolved upon. Oct. Hi. Arrangements are made for a nn- tioual congress. < >H. -!". The insurgents take Ant- werp. Nov. 10. Tin- national emigres* at Brussels proclaims the independence ol tin- Belgian penpie. Dec. 20. The conference of the great powers as- sembled at London interferes to prevent war be- Iweeii Holland and Belgium, and recognizes the independence of Belgium. 1831, Feb. ?. The Belgian Congress choose the Duke of Nemours for king. Feb. 25. M. Surlet de Chokler is installed Regent of Belgium. June 4. Louis Philippe havinir refused to sanction the election of the Duke of Nemours, L'rince. LeopoM of Saxe Coburg is chosen kin;;. July 31. 1'rince Leopold of Coburg is installed at Brussels. Aug; 4. Re- newal of hostilities with the King of Holland. Aug. 23. A French army of 50,000 men assists the Belgians, and a truce is resolved upon. Nov. 15. The great powers conclude a treaty at London with Belgium, defining the limits of the new kingdom. 18-53. Nov. -50. The siege of Antwerp. 1833. Great distress prevails among the Belgian manufac- turers in consequence of the cessation of trade with Holland. 1834, April 6. Riots take place in Brussels. 1838. Commercial panic, owing to the failure of the bank of Belgium. 1839, April 19. Holland concludes a treaty with Belgium. 1846, "ee. Terrible famine in Belgium. 1850, Aug. Calamitous floods in Belgium. 1851, Oct. 27- A treaty of commerce is concluded at Lon- on between Great Britain and Belgium. 1853, Aug. 10. Queen Victoria visits Belgium. 1853, Aug. 22- Marriage of the Duke of Brabant, heir apparent of Belgium, with the Archduchess Maria of Austria. 1857, May 19. The Roman Catholic clergy introduce a bill placing the administration of public charities in their power. June 13. It is abandoned in conse- quence of its unpopularity. 1860, June 17. Deputies from all the Belgian provinces, assembled at Brussels, decide upon forming a league for the preservation of national inde- pendence. 1861, Oct. 19. The King of Belgium meets the King of Holland at Liege. 1 86s, July 23. A treaty of commerce with Great Britain is signed at London. 1863, June 18. Leopold 1. having been appointed to arbi- trate between Great Britain and Bra/.il. awards in favour of the latter country. (.s>p BRAZIL.) Aug. II Sep. 10. Queen Victoria visits Belgium. 1865, Dec. lo. Death of Leopold I., who is succeeded by his son, the Duke of Brabant, under the title of Leopold II. Dec. 16. Funeral of Leopold I., at Laekeii. Dec. 17. Leopold II. takes the constitu- tional oath as King of the Belgians. KINGS OF BELGIUM. 1831. Leopold I. 1865. Leopold II. BELGRADE, or THE WHITE CITY (Servia), built on the site of the ancient Singidunum, destroyed by the Avars in the 6th century, was founded in 1372. John Huiiiades defended it against Mohammed II. from July 22 to Sep. 4, 1456. The latter was repulsed with a loss of 40,000 men, and Gibbon remarks, "the joyful nations celebrated Huniades and Belgrade as the bulwarks of Christendom." The Turks captured it Aug. 20, 1521; the Austrian s ob- tained possession in 1688; but the Turks recovered it in 1690. Prince Eugene invested Kelgrade, June 19, 1717, defeated the Turkish army sent for its relief, Aug. 16, and entered the town the following day. By a humiliating treaty it was restored to the Turks in Sep., 1739. The Austrians retook it Oct. 8, 1789, and re- stored it to the Turks in 1791. The Servians seized it in 1806 ; but in 1813 it reverted once more to the Turks. A dispute between the Turks and Servians broke out here June 15, 1862, in consequence of the assassination of a Servian youth by a Turkish soldier. The Turks were driven into the citadel, whence they commenced bombarding the town, and an armistice was concluded June 18. BELGRADE (Treaty). This humiliating peace, dictated at the point of the sword, was concluded between Austria, Russia, and Tur- key in Sep., 1739, the definitive treaty having been signed Sep. 18. Austria ceded Servia, Wallachia, with Belgrade and other fortresses, and Russia restored her conquests to the Porto and renounced her pretensions with respect to the navigation of the Black Sea. It was the most glorious treaty the Turks had ever made with any European power. BELIZE, or BALIZB (Central America). This settlement, otherwise called British Hon- duras, was founded by the logwood cutters of Yucatan, Honduras, and Nicaragua, shortly before 1674, when it was visited by Dampier. In 1754 an invading expedition of 1,500 Span- iards was defeated by a body of 250 English settlers. A second attack was made Sep. 15, 1779, when the inhabitants were overcome, and removed in large numbers to Merida and Ha- vana, where many died in captivity. In 1783 the settlement was again thriving, and after BELL [ 135 1 BELLS repeated altercations with its Spanish Ameri- can neighbours, repulsed another formidable attack, made by a fleet of 13 vessels and a land force of 2,000 men, July 10, 1798. After this victory, Belize was suffered to remain in comparative tranquillity, and it was specially excepted from the treaty concluded at Wash- ington, June 29, 1850, by which Great Britain and the United States mutually agreed " not to occupy, fortify, or colonize any part of Central America." BELL, BOOK, AND CANDLE. (See ANA- THEMA AND EXCOMMUNICATION.) BELL ROCK LIGHTHOUSE. (See INCH- CAPE ROCK.) BELLAIR (Battle). Capt. Sir Peter Parker, at the head of 120 men, landed from the Menelaus, at anchor in the Chesapeake, and attacked the Americans posted at Bellair, near Baltimore, Aug. 30, 1814. The enemy, who appeared in greater force than had been antici- pated, were put to flight. Capt. Parker was killed, and the expedition returned, carrying away their wounded. BELLEGARDE (France). This barrier for- tress, near the Pyrenees, was taken by Peter III. of Aragon, in 1285. The Spaniards regained possession in 1674, but were expelled by Marshal Schomberg in 1675. Louis XIV. con- structed the present fortress in 1679. The Spaniards captured it June 25, 1793, and Du- gommier, at the head of the French republicans, regained possession Sep. 17, 1794. BELLE ISLE (Atlantic). This island, off the coast of France, belonged, in the gib. century, to the Count of Cornouailles, who bestowed it on the abbey of Quimperle. The monks ceded it to Marshal Retz in the i6th century, and it was sold to Fouquet in 1638. The Dutch cap- tured it in 1674. Fouquet's grandson, Marshal Belleisle, ceded it to the Duke of Orleans in 1718. A French fleet was defeated off Belleisle by an English squadron under Sir E. Hawke, Nov. 20, 1759. The English having failed in an attempt to land, April 8, 1761, succeeded April 22, and the whole island surrendered June 7. It was restored to France by the treaty of Paris, Feb. 10, 1763. BELLMEN. Stow says that Alderman Draper set up the first bellman in Cordwainer Street Ward, in January, 1556. The number was speedily increased, and the bellman was often attended by a dog. He was added to the London watch, and went through the streets and lanes ringing his bell, and crying, " Take care of firq and candle ; be kind to the poor, and pray for the dead." It was also a part of the bellman's office to bless the sleepers as he passed their doors. Milton refers to this in " II Penseroso : " "The bellman's drowsy charm, To bless the doors from nightly harm." BELLOT STRAIT (Antarctic), connecting Prince Regent's Inlet with Peel Sound or Franklin Channel, was discovered by Capt. "by him after Joseph Rene Bellot, a French naval officer, who Kennedy in 1851, and named by him after joined the expedition which sailed from Eng- land in search of Sir John Franklin in May 1851. Lieut. Bellot sailed in Capt. Inglefield'i expedition in 1852, and perished in a deep crack in the ice, Aug. 18, 1853. A monument was erected to his memory in front of Green- wich Hospital in 1855. BELLOVACI. This Gallic tribe, referred to by Csesar as the chief of the Belgic peoples, aad their capital at Bratuspantium. Their territory was invaded, and their chief city cap- tured, by Julius Csesar B.C. 57. They revolted B.C. 51, but were again reduced to subjection. BELLOWS are represented in the paintings of the ancient Egyptians, and were used by the Greeks and Romans, who ascribed their invention to Anacharsis the Scythian, the contemporary of Solon, B.C. 594. During the 1 3th century bellows-blowers were regular officers of the royal kitchens of England. Wooden bellows, which, from the greater strength of their material, are better adapted than those made of leather for manufacturing purposes, were introduced in Germany in the 1 6th or 1 7th century, their invention being variously ascribed to Hans Lobsinger, of Nu- remberg, about 1550 ; to a Bishop of Bamberg before 1620 ; and to the brothers Martin and Nicholas Schelhorn, about 1630. The Trompe, or Water-bellows, was invented in Italy about the year 1640. Smeaton constructed large bellows or blowing machines, worked by steam or water power, for the Carron iron -foundry, in 1760. The hot-blast, discovered by Neilson in 1827, was patented by him in 1829. BELLS were in use amongst ancient nations both for religious and other purposes. They are first mentioned in the book of Exodus. The Egyptian monuments do not, however, itain any appearance of them, but small bells have been discovered both in Egyptian and Assyrian tombs, and it appears from their bas-reliefs that the Assyrians also used them to decorate their horses. The Chinese claim to have used bells as early as B.C. 2000. Bing- ham rejects as a vulgar error the story that they were first introduced into the Christian Church by Paulinus, Bishop of Nola, about A.D. 400, and believes that they were not known long before the 7th century. Benedict, Abbot of Wearmouth, brought one from Italy to England in 680. Ingulphus relates of Tur- ketul, Abbot of Croyland, who died in 975, that he had a very large bell made, called Guthlac, and that this, with six others, soon afterwards added, produced such an exquisite harmony that England had no such peal of bells in those days. William of Malmesbury speaks of the bells given to the churches by Dunstan. The custom of consecrating, anoint- ing, and baptizing bells, giving them the name of some saint, Bingham shows to be a modern invention. Baronius himself does not assign the date earlier than the year 968, when John XIII. consecrated the great bell of the Lateran church, naming it John. The Turks have a saying that "bells drive away good spirits from the abodes of men," and do not allow them to be used. The Greek Church, under their dominion, employ various modes of sum- moning people to service. In the isth century bells of enormous size were cast. In olden times many superstitions were connected with the ringing of bells. It was believed to be BELMONT [ 136 1 BENEDICTINES >ug in dispelling tempests. By 7 & 8 Geo. IV. c. 75 (June 14, 1827), the court of the Company of Watermen were required to erect and maintain a bell at Billingsgate, and an- other at Gravesend ; the former to be rung at high water, and the latter at first flood. The following are the most celebrated : A.D. 1507. Breslau. l6So. linifivs. 1448. Colo.'me.. 1453. Duntzic. 1497. Erfurth. 1675. Exeter. 1457. HallHTstadt. 1610. A.D. 1636. Lucerne. 1847. Montreal. 1653 and '734- Moscow (great 1680. Oxford. 1680. Paris (Xotre Dame). 1711. Vienna. 1856. Westmmster(BigBen). 1845. York. Lincoln (Torn). 1834. Lincoln (new bell). 1716. London (St. Paul's). (See RINGING OF BELLS.) BELMONT (Battle). Gen. Grant defeated the Confederates at this place, in Missouri. Sep. 7, 1861. The Federals lost 84 killed, 288 wounded, and 235 missing ; and the Confede- rates 632 men. BELOOCHISTAN (Asia\ This country, the ancient Gedrosia, called, according to Rawlin- son, Kusaii, through the Sassaniaii period, is now known as Beloochistan, the country of the Beloochees or Belus. Its early history is in- volved in obscurity, llajee Mohammed Khan, a kind of lieutenant of Nadir Shall, was assas- sinated in 1739, by his brother Nusseer Khan, who obtained the chief authority. In 1758 he declared Beloochistan independent, and, after a struggle, succeeded in concluding a treaty with the Affghan monarch. Under his suc- ISeloochistaii lost several of its pro- vinces. Owing to the hostile and treacherous attitude assumed by the government and people towards the English in their advance through the iiolan Pass, Kelat. the chief town of Beloochistan, was captured Nov. 13, 1839, and temporarily occupied. The Beloochees regained possession July 27, 1840; but it was recovered by the English Nov. 3, 1840, and held by them until the conclusion of the Ali- ghan war. BELPBB (Derbyshire), anciently named Beaupoire, or Bollc-repaire, was the seat of a residence of Edmund Crouchback, Earl of Lancaster, who died in 1296, and was a fa- vourite resort of the celebrated John of Gaunt, who died Feb. 3, 1399. The plague carried off 51 persons between May i and Sep. 30, 1609. Belper was one of the earliest seats of the cotton manufacture ; and the mills of the Messrs. Strutt were erected in 1776. In 1795 a flood carried away the bridge over the Der- went, which has since been replaced ; and a fire occasioned much injury Jan. 12, 1803. The poor-house was erected in 1803 ; the church, founded Oct. 31, 1822, was opened Sep. 6, 1824; and the national school and gaol were built in B 9 EN NARES (Hindostan). The holy city of the Hindoos, the capital of a district of the same name, and the ancient seat of Brahmiii- ical learning, is studded with mosques and temples, whilst thousands of pilgrims flock to it annually to wash away their sins in the waters of the Ganges. It came into the pos- session of the East India Company May 21, 1775. The Sanscrit College was founded in 1792, and an English department was in 1832. The 37th Regiment of Native Infantry, and the i3th Irregular Cavalry, and Loodiaiiah Sikhs, mutinied here June 4, 1857. Owing to the energy displayed by Gen. Neill, the su- premacy of the English was maintained. BKNCOOLEN (Sumatra). The East India Company, on being expelled from Bantam, formed a settlement, afterwards called Fort Marlborough, at this place in 1683. It was much enlarged in 1695. The natives massacred a large portion of the settlers in 1719. Ben- coolen and other English settlements in the island were destroyed by the French in 1760. They were, however, again restored. By the gth article of the treaty between England and the Netherlands, concluded at London March 17, 1824, they were ceded to the Dutch in ex- change for their settlements on the continent of India. The respective settlements were to i u]) .March i, 1825. BKXDKIi (Bessarabia^. Varnitza, the re- treat of Charles XII. of Sweden after his defeat of Pultowa (July 8, 1709), is situated near this place. Having refused compliance with the sultan's order to quit the town, he was attacked in Feb., 1713, by an army of 6,000 Turks and 20,000 Tartars, who subdued his guard of 600 Swedes, and carried him captive to Demotika, whence he returned the following year to Sweden. Bender was taken by the Russians Sep. 28, 1770, and was restored to the Turks in 1774. A .sanguinary battle was fought at Tobak, near Bender, between the Turks and K in 1789, in which the former were defeated. Bender itself surrendered in the middle of No- vember. It was again captured by the Rus- sians in 1809, and was finally ceded to them by the tTv.ttv of Bucharest. May 28, 1812. BENEDICTINES. This order of monks was founded by St. Benedict or Bennet, born at Nursia in 480, who introduced monachism into Western Europe, and erected his first monastery on the site of a temple of Apollo on Monte Casino, about 50 miles from Subiaco, in Italy, A.D. 529. The order spread rapidly in Europe ; St. Benedict himself founded sevei-al monas- teries, and his example was followed by others. The monks took the vows of chastity, obe- dience, and poverty. By some authorities the Benedictines are said to have been introduced into England by Augustine in 596, and by others the event is assigned to a later period, Duiistan (925 988) being considered the first English abbot of that order. Edgar (958975) is said to have founded above 40 Benedictine convents. Milman, referring to the beautiful spots chosen for their monasteries, says : " In general, if a district in England be surveyed, the most convenient, most fertile, most peace- ful spot will be found to have been the site of a Benedictine abbey." Towards the end of the 8th century they had become so numerous that Charlemagne caused inquiry to be made whether any other kind of monks existed than those of the order of St. Benedict. The aus- terity of their rule soon became relaxed, and Matthew Paris mentions a reformation that was attempted in 1238. Their merits in col- lecting, preserving, and multiplying copies of BENEFICE [ 137 1 BENEHARNUM classical manuscripts must not be forgotten ; and the order is every way distinguished for the numerous services rendered to literature. There were several branches of the Benedictines living under the same rule, but observing a different discipline ; the chief being the Clu- niacs, established in 912, and brought into England in 1077 ; the Carthusians, founded in 1080, and introduced into England in 1180; and the Cistercians or Bernardines, founded in 1098, and brought into England in 1128. The habit of the Benedictines was black, and from this circumstance they have been called Black Monks, or the Black Monks of St. Benedict. Ac- cording to an inquiry instituted by Pope John XXI. or XXII. (13161334), this order had at that time produced 20 emperors, 10 empresses, 47 kings, 50 queens, 24 popes, 68 princes, 100 princesses, 200 cardinals, 7,000 archbishops, 15,000 bishops, 15,000 abbots, and 4,000 saints, besides a host of other dignitaries, both in church and state. There were nuns as well as monks of this order. BENEFICE. An estate held by feudal tenure was originally termed a benefice, which at length came to signify the ecclesiastical estate granted to a clergyman for term of life, to be enjoyed by him on account of his ministry in the Church. Lord Coke says benefice is a large word, and is taken for any ecclesiastical promotion whatever. The custom of endowing churches arose in the time of Justinian, about A.D. 500. Towards the end of the i2th century the bishops of Rome issued mandates, re- questing that particular benefices might be conferred upon their nominees. This was speedily assumed as a right, and Clement V. ^[305 1314) claimed the disposal of all bene- ces. This claim was resisted, more particu- larly in England, and the statute of provisors of benefices (25 Edw. III. st. 6), passed in 1351, was aimed against this system. It was fol- lowed by other enactments of a similar charac- ter. The temporary submission of former sovereigns to the claim had inundated the country with Italians and other foreign clergy. The statute of provisors was confirmed by 3 Rich. II. c. 3 (1380) ; and by 7 Rich. II. c. 12 (1383), it was enacted that no alien should be eligible to purchase or to be presented to any ecclesiastical preferment within the realm. The most terrible abuses arose on account of the pretensions of the Pope respecting the pre- sentation to benefices. Milman (Lat. Christ, vol. vi. b. xiii. c. 3), -treating on Boniface IX. (1389 1404), says, " The smaller benefices were sold from the day of his appointment with shameless and scandalous notoriety. Men wandered about Lombardy and other parts of Italy, searching out the age of hoary incum- bents, and watching their diseases and infirmi- ties. For this service they were well paid by the greedy aspirants at Rome. On their report the tariff rose or fell. Benefices were sold over and over again." A distinction between bene- fices and cathedral preferments is drawn in i & 2 Viet. c. 106, s. 124 (Aug. 14, 1838), and in a later act, 13 & 14 Viet. c. 98, s. 3 (Aug. 14, 1850), the word "a benefice" is explained to signify a benefice with cure of souls and no other. BENEFIT OF CLERGY. The exemption of the clergy from secular jurisdiction was one of the privileges claimed by the Roman Catholic Church. Milman remarks (Lat. Christ, vol. iii. b. viii. c. 8), "Crimes of great atrocity, it is said of great frequency, crimes such as rob- bery and homicide, crimes for which secular persons were hanged by scores and without mercy, were committed almost with impunity, or with punishment altogether inadequate to the offence, by the clergy; and the sacred name of clerk exempted not only bishops, abbots, and priests, but those of the lowest ecclesias- tical rank from the civil power." The system, gradually introduced into this country after the Norman conquest, gave rise to many abuses. Not only the clergy, but clerks and all members of the laity who could read, in cases in which capital punishment was awarded, were at length entitled to claim benefit of clergy, so that when the penalty of death was to be rigidly enforced, the statute expressly intimated that it was without benefit of clergy. On the introduction of the custom the claim was not allowed unless the prisoner appeared in his clerical habit and tonsure. When ability to read became the test, this ceremony ceased, and he was merely re- quired to read from a psalter or some other book before the judge. By 4 Henry VII. c. 13 (1489), it could only be pleaded once by persons not in orders, and by 4 Hen. VIII. c. 2 (1512), it was denied to murderers and felons. Abjurers in cases of treason were not allowed benefit of clergy, by 28 Hen. VIII. c. i (1536), and the same statute placed persons in holy orders, in respect to many offences, exactly on the same footing as the laity. Women were allowed to plead benefit of der^y by 3 & 4 Will. & Mary, c. 9, s. 6 (1691), and by 4 & 5 Will. & Mary, c. 24, s. 12 (1692), women were only allowed to plead benefit of clergy once. Both these sta- tutes were made perpetual by 6 hi| eiiler the Ganges. 1536. Nine Portuguese ships are sent to assist Mahmoud Shah. 1580. Bengal is made a dependency of Delhi. 1620. An attempt made to establish a factory at Patna fails. 1634. The English obtain permission to trade to Piplee, in (Irissa. where a factory is built. 1640. An English factory is established on the llooghley. 1652. The English obtain great influence in Bengal. igal is placed under Madras. 1664. The French and Danes form establishments in Bengal 1681. Bengal is made an agency distinct from Fort St George, Madras. 1686, Dec. 20. The council remove from the llooghley to Calcutta (q. v.). 1(187, Sep. The Ilooghley factory is resumed. 1 ><<. The factories in Bengal are abandoned. 1690. The Company's agents return to C'huttaiinuttee, and are allowed to erect a factory. 1700. Chuttannuttce, Govindpore, and Calcutta are granted to the Company. 1707. The garrison is increased to 300 men. 1726. A mayor's court is established in Bengal. 1765, Aug. 12. By the treaty of Allahabad, the Company nre empowered to receive the revenues of Bengal, Bahar, and Orissa. 1772, The Company assume direct authority. 1773, July I. Bengal is made the chief presidency in India. 1774, Aug. I. The new- arrangements commence in Bengal. 1793. The permanent settlement is introduced by Lord Cornwallis. GOVERNORS OF BENGAL. 1749. Alexander Dawson. 1752. William Eytclie. He died Aug. 8, and was succeeded by Koger Drake. 1757. Watts, Manimigham, Becker, and Holwell govern alternately, each for four months. BENIN BERG 1758. Robert, afterwards Lord Clive. 1760. John Zephaniah Holwell, retired July 37, when Mr. Henry Vansiltart succeeded. 1764. John Spencer. 1765. Lord Clive again. 1767. Harry Verelst 1769. John Cartier. 1773, April 13. Wan-en Hastings is appointed to succeed him. (See INDIA.) BENIN (W. Africa). This country, dis- covered by the Portuguese about the year 1485, was first visited by English traders in 1553. In 1588 a company was established by Elizabeth for opening trade with this country, and a ship and pinnace accomplished a voyage for the purpose. The French settlements, formed in 1786, were destroyed by the British in 1792. The traveller Belzoni died in Benin Dec. 8, 1823. In 1840 the Benin River was explored by Capt. Becroft, who ascended both its branches in a steamer, and an agreement for the navigation of the river was concluded April 4, 1851. Owing to the prevalence of slave piracy the coast of this region was blockaded by an English squadron from Dec. 6, 1851, till Feb. ii, 1852. BENNINGTON (Battle). A party of Hessians were defeated at this place in Vermont, by the Americans, July 16, 1777. BEXSINGTON (Battle). Offa, Ethelbald's successor in the kingdom of Mercia, having subdued Kent, reduced the more powerful kingdom of Wessex by the defeat of Cyne- wulph, at Bensington, in Oxfordshire, A.D. 777. This victory rendered him master of all the territory north of the Thames. BENTONVILLE (Battle). Gen. Sherman defeated the Confederates in a series of battles fought near this town in North Carolina, March 18 21, 1865. The Confederates lost 1,892, and the Federals 1,646 men. BENZINE, originally obtained from coal gas by Professor Faraday in 1825, has since been employed by M. Beschamps, Dr. Hof- mann, and others, in the production of ani- line (c/. v.). BERAN-BIRIG (Battle). Fought between the Britons and Saxons at this place, supposed to be Barbary Hill, near Marlborough, Wilts, though some authorities are in favour of Banbury, Oxfordshire, in 556. Henry of Huntingdon says that the Britons formed their battle array in nine battalions, three being posted in the van, three in the centre, and three in the rear, the archers, slingers, and cavalry being arranged in the Roman order. The Saxons came on in a compact body, and charged with such fury that the standards were dashed together, and a hand-to-hand fight ensued. The battle lasted till nightfall, with- out any decisive result. BERBICE (S. America) was discovered by the Spanish navigator Pinzon in 1499, and the Dutch formed a settlement in 1580. The English settled in the neighbourhood in 1634, but withdrew in 1667. The French attacked the colony in 1690 and in 1712, on each occa- sion levying a contribution. An insurrection of the negroes occurred in Feb., 1762, when they destroyed a large amount of property. Berbice surrendered to an English expedition May 2, 1796 ; but it was restored to the Dutch by the third article of the treaty of Amiens, March 25, 1802. It was again taken Sep. 23, 1803 ; and retained by an agreement con- cluded at London, between England and the Netherlands, Aug. 13, 1814. With Demei-ara and Essequibo it was formed into one colony in 1831, under the name of British Guiana (q. v.). BEREANS. A sect of dissenters from the Church of Scotland, founded in 1773 by the Rev. J. Barclay, who died in 1798. They believe that the Bible is the sole source of information respecting the existence and attributes of the Deity, that the Psalms relate exclusively to Christ, and that unbelief is the unpardonable sin. Their title was adopted in imitation of the ancient Bereans, who " re- ceived the word with all readiness of mind, and searched the Scriptures daily " (Acts xvii. n). They are also known as Barclayans. BERENGARIANS. The followers of Beren- garius, Archdeacon of Angers, who, about 1047, denied the real presence in the Eucha- rist. He was excommunicated by a council at Rome, May 2, 1050. The cause was tried again in a council held at Tours in 1055, when Berengarius is said to have recanted, and to have been reconciled to the Church. At a later period he persisted in maintaining the views he had previously advocated, and is said to have been again summoned before a council at Rome in 1059, an< ^ to have once more recanted. He again wrote in defence of his former opinions, and was condemned at councils held at Angers, April 4, 1062 ; at Rome, in 1063 ; at Poitiers, in 1073 ; at Rome, in Nov., 1078, and Feb., 1079, when he is said to have made a confession of faith ; and at Bordeaux, in 1080, when he made another exposition of his faith. It is probable that some of the above-mentioned, councils did not deal with Berengarius, who died in communion with the Church, Jan. 6, 1088. BERESINA (Battle). The French, during their retreat from Russia, were defeated at this river with great slaughter, Nov. 26, 27, and 28, 1812. Such scenes of carnage and de- struction as those of the night of the 28th and the following days have seldom been witnessed. The camp-followers, men, women, and child- ren, terrified by the Russian artillery, pressed forward to the bridges, one of which broke down, and thousands were precipitated into the stream. On the return of spring above 12,000 bodies were taken out of the bed of the river, near the place where the struggle occurred. BERG (Germany) was ruled by counts for many years, and on the failure of the first line in 1348, devolved on the princes of Juliers. It was raised to a duehy in 1380. Juliers was incorporated with it in 1423, and they came into the possession of the dukes of Cleves on the failure of the Juliers line in 1511. The Cleves line became extinct in 1609, and after a long contention, the elector palatine and the Elector of Brandenburg, in 1666, agreed to divide the possessions, the former taking Berg. It was merged in Bavaria, the elector of which ceded it to France in 1806 ; and Napoleon I. BERGAMO [ 140 ] BERLIN raised it into a grand-duchy, and conferred it with other territory upon Murat, March 15 in that year. Murat went to Naples in 1808. This grand-duchy was extinguished in 1815, and the territories were transferred to Prussia. BERGAMO (Italy), the ancient Bergomum, was ravaged by Attila A.D. 452. A council was held here July 5, 1311. Under the Lombard rnonarchs it was made the capital of a duchy. It was annexed to Venice in 1428, and was taken by the French in 1509. The Venetians having succeeded in re-occupying it, the French again obtained possession in 1512 ; but it once more fqll into the power of the Vene- tians in 1515. Bergamo revolted March 12, 1797 ; was incorporated with the (Jis-alpine republic by the treaty of Campo Formio, Oct. 18, 1797 ; was given to Austria in 1814 15, and ceded by that power to Sardinia in 1859. It was a bishop's see in the early Church. It had two cathedrals, the oldest destroyed by the Venetians in 1561. The other was founded in 896. BERGEN (Battles). The first battle of the name was fought at Bergen, near Frankfort-on- the-Maine, in Germany, between the allied English and Germans under Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick, and the French under the Duke of iJruglio and Conlades, April 13, 1759. The former retired from the contest, but were not pursued by 11 it.: French. The a cmul was fought between Bergen and Alkmaar it ions they had occupied before the battle. In the third battle, fought at tin place Oct. 2, 1799, the Duke of York, with 30,000 English and Russians, engaged and defeated Gen. Bruno, at the head of 25,000 French and Dutch troops. I.KKGKN (Norway) was founded in 1070, and during the i2th and 13!!! centuries was the residence of the kings of Norway. The mer- chants of the Hanse towns obtained great privileges in the way of trade in 1278, and these were confirmed and extended in 1343. From this time they obtained an ascendancy, which was destroyed by a law passed by Frederick II. of Denmark, July 25, 1560. It lias several times suffered from the ravages of pestilence and fire. The former committed great ravages in 1348, 1353, 1618, 1629, and 1637 ; and a fire that broke out May 19, 1702, destroyed the larger portion of the town. BERGEN-OP-ZOOM (Holland .This strong fortress was unsuccessfully assailed by the Duke of Parma in 1581 and in 1588, and by Spinola in 1622. The French captured it Sep. 17, 1747 ; and it was restored to the Dutch by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapclle Oct. 18, 1748. It again fell into the hands of the French in 1795. Sir T. Graham carried it by storm March 8, 1814, but some of the troops, having broken into the wine-shops, were overcome by wine, and the garrison, taking fresh courage, expelled the assailants. It was surrendered by the treaty of Paris in 1814. BERGERAC (France). The Earl of Derby (John of Gaunt) defeated the French at this place in Guienne in 1344. So great was tho booty on the occasion that the Earl of Derby is said to have obtained a pipe of gold. The French recovered Bergerac in 1371 ; but the English recaptured it, and were not finally expelled until 1450. It became one of the strongholds of the Huguenots. Louis XIII. captured it in 1621, and demolished its forti- fications. BERGERAC (Treaty). Concluded at Berge- rac between the Huguenots and the Roman Catholics Sep. 17, 1577. Protestants were allowed to practise their religion in those places in which it was tolerated, on the day the treaty was signed, though its exerciso was entirely prohibited in Paris, or within TO leagues of the city. The nobility were free to follow the Protestant worship in their own 1 louses. These and other points were settled by the treaty, which in the end satisfied neither party. It is also called the treaty of Poitiers. BERKIIAMPSTEAD (Herts). A council was held here A.D. 697, convened by Wihtred, King of Kent. Several constitutions were passed, and amongst them one ordering the suspension of any priest who deferred the baptizing of children beyond the proper time. BLKLIN (Prussia .This city is said to have been founded by Albert tho Bear, Mar- grave of Brandenburg. The Elector Frederick William improved and embellished it, 1640 1688; and Frederick III., who erected Piu/sia into a kingdom in 1701, and became its first king under the title of Frederick I., greatly extended its area. The French and AustrLais 1 Berlin Oct. 17, 1757. The Austrians and Russians captured it Oct. 9, 1760, and having committed various depredations, retired Oct. 13. Napoleon I. entered Berlin Oct. 21, 1806. An insurrection broke out during the revolutionary troubles on the Continent, June 15, 1848. A state of siege, proclaimed Nov. ::>, lared illegal by tho Legislative Cham- ber April 25, 1849. The equestrian statue of Frederick the Great was inaugurated May 31, 1851. The Academy of Sciences was founded in 1702 ; the bank in 1765 ; and the university in 1 8 10. BERLIN (Treaties). Several treaties have been concluded at this city, the principal being the peace between Prussia, Poland, and Hungary, by which the former obtained Sile- sia, July 28, 1742 ; the treaty of union and confederation for maintaining the indivisibi- lity of the German empire, caused by the attempt of Austria to exchange her possessions in the Netherlands for the duchy of Bavaria, which was signed at Berlin July 23, 1785, by the King of Prussia, the King of England, as Elector of Brunswick-Lunenburg, the Elector of Saxony, and other German princes; and the treaty between Prussia and France, guarantee- ing the neutrality of the north of Germany, Aug. 5, 1796. BERLIN DECREE. Prussia find a great part of the Continent being under his domi- nation, Napoleon I. issued this celebrated in- terdict against English commerce at Berlin, BERMUDAS BE3ANCON Nov. ig, 1806. It prohibited all commerce, and even correspondence between countries under his sway and Great Britain. England was declared to be blockaded ; English pro- perty was liable to seizure ; all subjects of England found in countries occupied by French troops were declared prisoners of war; all letters addressed to Englishmen or written in the English language were to be stopped ; and ships touching at any port in England or her colonies were excluded from the ports under French control. (See ORDERS IN COUN- CIL.) BERMUDAS, OR SUMMERS' ISLANDS (At- lantic), were discovered by Juan Bermudez, a Spaniard, wrecked upon them in 1522, during a voyage from Spain to Cuba with a cargo of hogs. Hemy May was wrecked upon them in 1593 ; and Sir George Summers in 1609, who claimed them for the Virginia Company. They sold them to another company, to which a charter was granted by James I., June 29, 1615. A settlement was immediately formed, and George-town founded. Their first general assembly was held Aug. i, 1620. The group consists of between 300 and 400 islands, but of these only six or seven are inhabited. The charter expired in 1684. These islands, with Newfoundland, were separated from the diocese of Nova Scotia and erected into a distinct bishopric in 1839. BERNARD, GREAT ST. (See ALPS.) BERNAR DINES. The Cistercians, a branch of the Benedictines, instituted at Citeaux in 1098, were reformed by Bernard, Abbot of Clairvaux, in Champagne, at the commence- ment of the 1 2th century ; from which circum- stance they received the name of Bernardines. The second crusade, in 1146, was preached by Bernard, who was one of the most influential men of his time. He resolutely refused all ecclesiastical dignities, and is said to have founded 160 religious houses. The Bernar- dines came into England in 1128. Their first house, at Waverley, in Surrey, was founded in that year, and completed in 1129. At one time the number of their establishments was about 90. From the colour of their habit, they were called White Monks. There were nuns of this order. (See CISTERCIANS.) BERNE (Switzerland) joined the Swiss con- federation, being the eighth canton, in 1352. Its chief town, of the same name, was founded by Berthold V., Duke of Zsoringen, in 1191 ; and was made a free and imperial city by a charter from Frederick II., dated May, 1218. It was besieged, though unsuccessfully, by Rodolph of Habsburg in 1288. It long exer- cised considerable authority, and obtained several accessions of territory. It was de- stroyed by fire in 1405. Berne received a new constitution in 1846, and was made the capital of Switzerland by the National As- sembly of 1848. Its university was founded in 1834. BERNWALD. (See BARWALDE.) BERCEA. (See ALEPPO.) BERSAGLIERL These riflemen, or sharp- shooters, introduced into the Sardinian army by Gen. Delia Marmora about the year 1849, took part in the Russian war (q. v.), and as- sisted at the battle of the Tchernaya (q. v.), Aug. 1 6, 1855. They were also employed in the Italian war of 1859. BERSINIKIA (Battle). Crumn, King of Bulgaria, defeated the Emperor Michael I. at this place, in Thrace, A.D. 813. BERWICK-ON-TWEED. This ancient town, between England and Scotland, suffered greatly in the wars between those countries. When first mentioned in history, it belonged to Scotland, and its castle was ceded to England in 1174, and restored to Scotland in 1189. Baliol did homage for himself and his heirs for the whole kingdom of Scotland at Berwick, Nov. 30, 1292. Edward I. captured Berwick, March 30, 1296, united it to England, and granted it a charter, afterwards extended and confirmed by Edward III. Bruce took it in 1315, and again April 2, 1319 ; and Edward III. recovered it July 20, 1333. The Scots surprised it Nov. 6, 1355, but Edward III. retook it in 1356. Henry VI. surrendered Berwick to tho Scotch, April 25, 1461 ; it was, however, re- taken by Edward IV. in 1482, who conferred many privileges upon it by 22 Edw. IV. c. 8 (1482). It was made independent of both countries in 1556. Cromwell captured it in 1648, and Monk in 1659 ; and it has since re- mained in the possession of England. The statute 20 Geo. II. c. 42, s. 3 (1746), provided that where England only is mentioned in any act of Parliament, the same, notwithstanding, shall be deemed to comprehend the dominion of Wales and the town of Berwick-upon-Tweed. A treaty was concluded here in 1560 ; and another, between Elizabeth and James VI., of Scotland, July i, 1586, providing for mutual assistance incase of invasion by Roman Catholic powers. BERYL. This precious stone, called also aquamarine, was the first in the fourth row on the breast of the Jewish high priests (Ex. xxviii. 20, xxxix. 13), B.C. 1491. Beads of this gem have been f ound in Egyptian mummy- pits, and it was employed by the Greeks for intaglios more than 2,000 years ago. It was also known to the Romans, and was supposed by Pliny to be a species of emerald, a suppo- sition proved by modern discovery to be cor- rect. An opaque specimen of this gem from North America, of the enormous weight of 781b.,was exhibited in the Great Exhibition of 1851. BERYTUS (Syria). This city, supposed to be the Berothai whence " King David took exceeding much brass" (2 Sam. viii. 8), B.C. 1040, was destroyed by Tryphon B.C. 140. Agrippa founded a colony here, B.C. 15, which was afterwards called Julia Augusta Felix Berytus, and received the rights of an Italian city. (See BEYROUT.) BESANCON (France).- -This ancient city, called Vesontio by the Romans, was occupied by Julius Csesar B.C. 56. The Burgundians sacked it A.D. 456, and the Hxmgarians in 937. The Emperor Frederick I. held a diet of more than usual magnificence at Besangon, Oct. 24, 1157. It was an imperial city from 1184 till about 1648, when it was joined to Spain. It was captured by Louis XIV. in 1668, and was annexed to France in 1674. The allied army BESIKA [ 142 ] BEYROUT failed in an attack upon it in 1814. It was made a bishopric in the 3rd century. BESIKA BAY (Archipelago). The Czar Nicholas having, May 31, 1853, issued an order for the passage of the Truth by his troops, the French and English fleets sailed for this bay, at the entrance of the Dardanelles, June 2, 1853, and anchored here June 13. BESSARABIA. This province, taken by the Turks under Mohammed II. in 1474, was seized by the Russians in the autumn of 1770, and finally ceded to Russia by the treaty of Bucharest, May 28, 1812. BESSEMER'S PROCESS. (See IRON.) BETHAR (Palestine). This city was the last retreat of the Jews 011 their expulsion from Jerusalem by Hadrian, A.D. 130. After holding out for nearly three years, it was carried by storm in 133, when the Jewish leader Barcochebas died in the field, and the rabbi Akiba, who had been active in the defence, was torn to death with hot pinchers. The site of Bethar, now called Beitir, was identified in 1843. BETH-HOIK )X (Battle). At this village, in Palestine, Joshua gained a memorable victory over the five kings of the Amorites, B.C. 1450. These kings, viz., Adoni-zedec, of Jerusalem; Holiani, of Hebron; Piram, of Jarmuth ; Japhia, of Lachish ; and Debir, of Eglon, having coalesced against the Gibeonites (Josh. x. 35), that people sent to entreat aid of the Jewish leader, then in camp at Gilgal (v. 6). Joshua, being divinely com- manded to accede to this request, fell upon the foe suddenly at Gibeon, and chased them to Hcth-horon, to A/ekah, and to Makkcdah, the retreating Amorites being farther harassed by stones hurled upon them fn>m heaven (Josh. x. 8 n). It was on this occasion that the sun stood still upon Gibeon and the moon in the valley of Ajalon, according to the command of Joshua .losh. x. 12, 13). BETHLEHEM. This town of Syria, called also Bcit-laham, i. e. House of Bread, about six miles south of Jerusalem, is celebrated as the birthplace of the Saviour of mankind (Matt. ii. 8, and Luke ii. 4). It was called Ephrath, and is mentioned a.s the place at which Rachel died and was buried (Gen. xxxv. 17 19> and xlviii. 7), B.C. 1729. Rehoboam fortified or rebuilt it (2 Chroii. xi. 5, 6), B.C. Q73. David was born here (circ. B.C. 1085), and hence it was called the city of David. Helena, the mother of Constantino I., erected a church, A.D. 325, 011 the place of the Nativity. The church, destroyed by the Saracens in 1236, was restored by the Crusaders. It was ceded, with other towns, to Frederick II. by the Sultan of Egypt, in 1229. It was called Bethlehem- Judah, to distinguish it from Bethlehem in Zebulon (Josh. xix. 15, 16). Bethlehem was made a bishopric in mo. BETHLEHEM (Order). (See OUR LADY OF BETHLEHEM.) BETHLEHEM (United States), in Pennsyl- vania, was settled by the Moravians under Count Zinzendorf in 1741. BETHLEHEM HOSPITAL (London), com- monly called Bedlam, a priory for canons, both brothers and sisters, founded by a deed of gift dated Wednesday, Oct. 23, 1247, from Simon FitzMary, sheriff of London, was with all its revenues granted by Henry VIII., in 1547, to the city of London, for an hospital for lunatics. It was transferred from Bishopsgate Without to Moorfields in 1675. The foundation of the new building was laid in April, 1676, and it was finished in July, 1676. The hospital was trans- ferred to its present site in St. George's Fields in 1814. The foundation-stone was laid April 18, 1812 ; and the erection of a new wing was commenced July 26, 1838. Patients partially cured, and suffered to go at large, were called Bedlam beggars. Alterations were made in the building in 1856. BETIILEHEMITES. These monks were also styled Star-bearers, because they wore a red star of five rays, with a blue circle in the middle, on their breast, in memory of the star which appeared to the wise men. Matthew Paris states that they obtained an establish- ment at Cambridge in 1257, and adds, "So many orders of brethren now made their ap- pearance in England that there was a most extraordinary confusion among them." A religious order bearing this name was founded at Guatemala, in New Spain, by Pierre de Bcthcncourt, about 1660. They attended the sick in hospitals. Innocent XI. confirmed the order in 1687, and ordered the brethren to follow the nile of St. Augustine. BETI1UNE (France). This town, which was governed by independent potentates in the nth century, and has usually shared the changes of Artois, was the scene in 1487 of a victory of the French over the Archduke Maximilian. Taken from the Spaniards by Gaston of Orleans in 1645, it was recaptured by Prince Eugene in 1710, and was finally annexed to France by the treaty of Utrecht 7. v. , April 1 1, 1713. BETTING - HOUSES. A considerable number of these places, the owners of which offered to bet upon the principal races with all comers, sprang up in London between the years 1850 and 1853. Servants, apprentices, and workmen frequently robbed their employers to invest money in this new form of gambling, and these places were suppressed by 16 & 17 Viet. c. 119 (Aug. 20, 1853). BEVERW YK (Battle). In this position, near Alkmaar, in the Netherlands, Gen. Bruno's outposts were attacked by the English and Russian forces Oct. 6, 1799. The French and Dutch were at length compelled to give way, though their antagonists did not succeed in capturing the position. BKVLAU (Battle). Ibrahim Pasha, at the head of the Egyptian army, defeated the Turks at this place, in Asia Minor, July 29, 1832. The battle was fought near the spot where Alex- ander III. (the Great) defeated Darius in the battle on the Issus. BEYROUT (Syria), the ancient Berytus (q.v.), was the seat of a famous school of juris- prudence from the 3rd to the middle of the 6th century. The city having been destroyed by an earthquake July 9, 551 A.D., the school was removed to Sidon. Beyrout suffered severely during the Crusades, and having been taken by the Saracens, was wrested from them BEZABDE BIANCHI by Baldwin I. in mo. Beyrout was made a bishopric by Theodosius the Younger, and after its capture by Baldwin I. it became the seat of a Latin bishop about 1136. The Saracens, however, regained possession in 1187. Ibrahim Pasha seized it in 1832 ; and it was bom- barded by the combined fleets of England and Turkey, Sep. n 16, 1840, and being cap- tured was restored to the Porte. Beyrout and its neighbourhood was the theatre of the massacre of the Maronites (q. v.) by the Druses (q. v.), in 1860. BEZABDE (Mesopotamia) was captured by Sapor II. A.D. 360, when all the inhabitants, even women and children, were massacred. Constantius II. made a vain effort to wrest it from the Persians during the same year. It was the seat of a bishopric before the Persians seized it. BE Z IE RS (France). This ancient city, made a Roman colony A.D. 52, was besieged during the crusade against the Albigenses, and captured July 22, 1209. "A general massacre," says Milmau (Lat. Christ, vol. iv. b. ix. ch. 8), "followed ; neither age nor sex were spared ; even priests fell in the remorseless carnage. Then was uttered the frightful command, become almost a proverb, ' Slay them all, God will know his own.' In the church of St. Mary Magdalene were killed 7,000 by the defenders of the sanctity of the Church. The amount of the slain is variously estimated from 20,000 even up to 50,000. The city was set on fire, even the cathedral perished in the flames." It was rebuilt in 1289, and suffered severely in the religious wars in France. Tradition assigns the introduction of Christianity to St. Paul. Its bishopric, founded at an early period, was suppressed in 1801. BHOTAN (Hindostan). The inhabitants of this hill country invaded Cooch Behar, a de- pendency of Bengal, in 1722, and were expelled by the British, with whom they concluded a treaty of peace, Aprils, 1774. Lower Assam hav- ing been acquired in 1828, constant difficulties commenced with the Bhotanese in reference to the tribute to be paid by them for the Dooars, or plains afthe foot of the hills that divided the two provinces, and in 1837 Capt. Pember- ton was despatched as an envoy, to arrange matters. The mission proving unsuccessful, the government determined, in 1841, to annex the Dooars, paying to Bhotan an annual com- pensation, and in 1842, at the request of the Bhotanese, the estate of Ambaree Fallacottah was also taken under British control. In con- sequence of continued outrages upon the Bhotan frontier, it was resolved in 1860 to withhold the rental of Ambaree Fallacottah until the Bhotan Government should surrender the guilty parties. Other disputes having arisen in reference to Sikim (q. v. ) and Cooch Behar, Mr. Eden was despatched on a pacific mission, which left Darjeeling Jan. 4, 1864, arriving, after much delay, at Paro, Feb. 22. Resuming his journey March 10, he reached Poonakha March 15, and was insulted by the Tongso Penlow and council, who compelled him, March 29, to sign a treaty assigning to Bhotan the Assam Dooars. The governor- general accordingly proclaimed his intention to annex permanently the Bengal Dooars, and part of the hill territory, Nov. 12, 1864, and despatched an army, which occupied Gopal- gunge, Nov. 28 ; seized Buxa, Dec. 7 ; captured Dewangiri, Dec. 10 ; and took possession of Chamoorchee, Dec. 31. The British garrison in Dewangiri was attacked by the natives Jan. 30, 1865, and though at first victorious, was com- pelled by want of water to evacuate the place Feb. 5. Other disasters following, additional forces were sent, and Balla was captured March 15. Buxa was again occupied March 23, and Chamoorchee March 24 ; Dewangiri was taken by storm April 2, and the defences haying been destroyed, was abandoned April 6. This success terminated the war, which was formally ended by a peace concluded Nov. n, 1865. BHURTPORE (Hindostan). The capital of a native state of the same name. Gen., after- wards Lord Lake, concluded a treaty of per- petual friendship with the rajah Sep. 29, 1803. The rajah, however, espoused the cause of Holkar in 1804, and his chief town, Bhurtpore, was besieged Jan. 3, 1805, by Gen. Lake. The English general failed in several attempts to carry the place by storm; but the rajah surrendered April 10, and a second treaty was concluded April 1 7, by which, on the payment of a heavy fine, the rajah was allowed to re- tain his authority. A rebellion broke out Feb. 25, 1825. Lord Combermere captured Bhurtpore Jan. 18, 1826, and the rightful heir was restored Feb. 4. BIAGROSSA (Treaty). Concluded between Louis XII. and the Cardinal of Pavia, on behalf of Pope Julius II, in July, 1509. BIALYSTOCK (Poland). This province was incorporated with Russia by the third treaty of partition in 1795. A portion of it was trans- ferred to the duchy of Warsaw by the treaty of Tilsit, July 7, 1807, whilst the remainder was erected into a separate province. BIANCHI. Men and women, called White Penitents or Brethren, from a white linen vest- ment that they wore, appeared all over Italy in August, 1399. In their progress from pro- vince to province, and city to city, they kept their faces covered and bent downward, carry- ing before them a large crucifix, and shouting ' ' Misericordia. " They sang continually ' ' Stabat mater dolorosa." They were not confined to Italy, where, according to some authors, they effected a remarkable reformation of manners. In 1400 Boniface IX. had their leader seized at Viterbo. He was sent to Rome, and burned there by his orders ; and he prohibited these processions. BIANCHI AND NERI, or WHITES AND BLACKS, appeared amongst the numerous factions into which the inhabitants of various Italian towns were divided early in the i4th century. They are said to have originated in the following manner. Two branches of a rich and powerful family in Pistoja, called the Can- cellieri, were descended from the two wives of their common ancestor. The descendants of one of them, named Bianca, called themselves Manchi, whilst the descendants of the other wife were termed Neri. A quarrel having ensued at a convivial meeting, one of the BIARRITZ BIBLE Bianchi wounded a member of the Neri branch. The latter, in revenge, waylaid and maltreated another of the Bianchi. The father of the last-mentioned aggressor compelled him to wait upon, and ask pardon of, Guglielmo Caiicelliere, the father of the wounded man. Guglielmo could not, however, be appeased ; he chopped off the hand of the penitent, bid- ding him return to his parent and tell him that wounds were to be healed by wounds, not words. The feud between the families gathered strength from this savage act ; the citizens joined in the struggle, and factions, bearing these names, spread to other towns in Tuscany. At Florence two noble families, the Cerchi and the Donati, took up the quarrel in 1300, the former siding with the whites mid the latter with the blacks. In 1302 Dante Aligheri, with several of the Bianchi, were expelled from Florence, and in his exile the poet wrote the great work that has immor- talixed his name. 1 [allam (Middle Ages, vol. i. ch. 3, pt. i) remarks, " An outrage committed at Pistoja in 1300 split the inhabitants into the parties of Bianchi and Neri ; and these, spreading to Florence, created one of the most virulent divisions which annoyed that republic." BIARRITZ (France). This watering place was a favourite resort of Eugenie de Montijo before her marriage with Napoleon III., Jan. 29, 1853. Th e English church was erected in 1860. Bir.KRACH (Battle). During the French revolutionary war, the re-publicans, led by Moreau, defeated the imperialists at Biberach, in Wiirtembt'.i'g, with considerable loss, Oct. 2, 1796. This is often mistaken for another com- bat at Biberach, in which Moreau defeated Marshal Kray, the Austrian general, 1\\ ay 9, 1800. BIBLE, or THE BOOK. A term derived God." Many of the fathers bear similar tes- timony. Origen published a Bible, called Hexapla, in six columns, with different ver- sions, and, on adding two, called it the Octapla. The division of the Bible into chapters has been erroneously attributed to Stephen Lang- ton, Archbishop of Canterbury, in 1206. The Psalms were always divided as at present, and Hugo de Sancto Caro, a Dominican friar, and afterwards a cardinal, who compiled the first concordance to the Bible, divided the matter into sections, and the sections into under- divisions, and these sections are the chapters. He flourished about 1240, and died in 1262. Rabbi Isaac Nathan in 1445 introduced regular verses. These alterations have since been much improved. In the Latin translation of the Bible, by Pagimis of Lucca, published at Lyons in 1528, Arabic numerals are placed in the margin, opposite the verses. EARLY TRANSLATIONS. B.C. 377 (circ.). The Septunpint The Old Testament is translated into Greek, loo. Old Syriac version. A.I). 12*. Aquila. n Jewish proselyte, translates the Old Testa- ni.-nt into Creek. 176. Thcodotion translates the Old Testament. 205. Symmaclms, by order of Septimins Scverus, traus- " lates the ( Hd'Tcstainent into Greek. 200-300. Coptic translation. 300-400. Kthiopie version. 360. Gothic version, by fphilas. 405. Jerome completes the Latin vulgate, commenced about 3*5. 410-413. Armenian version. " on tran>l-itioii of the Psalms. 7^1. Saxon translation of the Gospels. 7^5. liede's Saxon translation of the. whole Bible is com- pleted. H/4. Slavonian translation. i id... I rtiuli translation of the whole Bible, by Peter de Van.x. 1290. F.njdisii tnadation. 1380. WyckliflVs Enjdish version. from the Greek, applied to the sacred writings by St. Chrysostom in the sth century. The PRI NTED BIBLE s. name Old Testament first occurs in St. Paul's second epistle to the Corinthians (iii. 14), Translation. N.T. Bib. Place of Printing written in A.D. 55. The canon is generally believed to have been closed by Simon the Just, about B.C. 292. The Apocrypha '/. <.) Ma/.arin (Latin) .... lill Paris. Mentz. was added B.C. 150. The Old Testament canon i lei-man (Vulgate) .. .. 1467 consists of 39 books, divided into 929 chapters, containing 592,439 words. Of this portion of the Bible, the oldest edition is the Septuagint, Italian .. Iut-h Spanish French . , . . :: 1471 !$ 1487 Venice. Cologne. Valencia. Paris. translated into the Greek, according to the tradition of Aristeas, B.C. 277, by 72 Jews. The work was undertaken at the desire of lloliemiim Hebrew (Old Testa-j ni<-nt) ) TCT 488 i 4 88 Prague. Ptolemy Philadelphia. The books of the New Greek German 1510 1532 1534 Basel. Wittenberg. Testament, written in Hellenistic Greek, were Helvetian 1525 1529 Zurich. Kn;rlish I52 Antwerp. century. Peter (2nd epistle, iii. 16), in 65, 1535 Uncertain. speakb of St. Paul's epistles as though they French Swedish 1534 J535 1541 Geneva, Upsall. had been collected in his time. Doubtless the ]>jM>i-ih 1524 1550 Copenhagen. separation of the genuine from the spurious 1560 Ital'an 1562 Geneva had already commenced when St. Peter wrote. The New Testament is divided into 27 books, Spanish IS56 leio 1569 Frankfort or Basel. < )slro*r. containing 260 chapters. The sacred writings Finnish Dialect.!...'. 1548 1642 Stockholm. were translated bv the early Christians into \Velsh 1567 Is88 London. 1574 iV*9 Vienna. various languages. Eusebius says, "They leel-mdio 1584 Holum, Iceland. were translated into all languages, both of Polish I58S 1596 Greeks and barbarians, throughout the world, and studied by all nations as the oracles of Virginian Indians 1661 1593 1663 Cralitz, Moravia. Cambridge, U.S. [ 145 I BICOCCA PRINTED BIBLES continued. Translation. N.T. Bib. Place of Printing. Vulgate (English! edition) / Modern Greek 1638 1666 J635 Kouen. Geneva. Oxford. London. Irish l6o 1685 Lapponic ! f 28 J799 J803 1783 Edinburgh. EJsbon. Copenhagen. Calcutta. (" illl'SU EDITIONS OF ENGLISH BIBLES. A.D. 1546. Tyndale's New Testament. Antwerp. 1530. Tyndale's Pentateuch. Malborow, Land of Hesse. I53I- Joye's Lsaye (Isaiah). Strasburg, 1535. Bartholetus, first Latin Bible printed in England. Quarto. London. Tyudole and Coverdale's- folio Bible. Printed abroad. 1537. Matthew's Bible. Folio. Abroad. 1537. An edition of Coverdale's Bible. Quarto. South wark. 1539. The Great (or Cromwell's) Bible. London. (The first Bible printed by authority in England.) 1539. Taverner's Bible. Folio. London. 1540. Cranmer's edition of the Great Bible. Folio. London, I sbo. Genevan Bible. Quarto. Geneva. IS68. Parker's, or the Bishops' Bible. Folio. London. 1571. The Gospels, in Saxon and English. The Saxon from the Vulgate, and the English from the Bishops' Bible. London. 1576. Genevan Bible. Folio. Edinburgh. (The first Bible printed in Scotland.) ifxjg. First Romanist Bible in England. Quarto. Douai. 16 a. The Koyal Bible, or King James's Bible. Folio. London. 1633. The " Wicked Bible." Octavo. London. 1633. First Scotch edition of Authorized Bible. Octavo. Edinburgh. 1657. Walton's Polyglot Bible. Folio. London. 1717. Vinegar Bible. Folio. Oxford. 1850. Wycliffe's Bible. Quarto. Oxford. (For list of books in the Bible see CANON OF SCRIPTURE.) BIBLE SOCIETIES. The following are the principal associations formed for the disse- mination of the Scriptures, with the date of institution : A.D. 1649. New England, re-incorporated in 1661. 1663. Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Wales. 1698. Society fen- Promoting Christian Knowledge (7. .). 1701. Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts. 1709. Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge in Scotland. 1712. Society at Halle. 1750. Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge among the Poor. 1780. Naval and Military Bible Society. 1785. Society for the Support and Encouragement of Sun- day Schools. 1793. French Bible Society. 1803. Society for Promoting a more Extensive Circulation of the Scriptures, both at Home and Abroad. 1804. British and Foreign Bible Society, being the society of 1 803 remodelled. Gorman Bible Society. New York Society. 1805. Berlin Society, changed to Prussian Bible Society in 1814. 1808. Philadelphia Bible Society. 1813. Russian Bible Society. Suspended in 1836. 1817. American Bible Society. 1831. Trinitarian Bible Society. Some of these societies have a large number of branch establishments. Pius VII. issued a bull at Rome, June 29, 1816, against bible societies, denouncing the movement as a crafty device, by which the very foundations of reli- gion are undermined. BIBLIOGRAPHY. Conrad Gesner pub- lished at Zurich, in 1545, his " Bibliotheca Uni- versalis," a catalogue of all the Hebrew, Greek, and Latin books of which he could obtain information, arranged according to the names of their authors. This appears to have been the earliest book on' bibliography, though the term, which originally signified an acquaint- ance with ancient writings, was first intro- duced in its modern sense by De Bure, whose " Bibliographic Instructive " appeared in 1763. Brunet's " Manuel du Libraire," of which many editions have been issued, was originally pub- lished in 1810, and Watt's "Bibliotheca Bri- tannica " in 1824. The first edition of Lowiides's " Bibliographer's Manual " was published in 1 BIBLIOMANCY, or divination by the Bible, sometimes called "Sortes Biblicse," was a common practice among the early Christians, who were accustomed to regulate their conduct by opening the Sacred Scriptures and accept- ing the passage which first presented itself as a guide. Although condemned by the councils of Vannes in 465, Agda in 506, and Orleans in 511, this mode of divination was practised for many years. The Mohammedans exercise a similar divination by means of the Koran. The ancients used the works of Homer and Virgil in the same manner, the Sortes Home- ricse and Sortes Virgilianse being popular modes for prognosticating future events. Divination was also practised by consulting the poems of Musseas. BIBRACTE, the modern Autun (q v.}, called also Augustodunum, was the capital of the ^Edui (q. v.), and was delivered by Julius Caesar from a besieging army of Belgse and Suessiones B.C. 58. It was seized by the ^duan chieftain Sacrovir, A.D. 21, and in the reign of Gallienus (260 268) was besieged and taken by Tetricus. It was finally destroyed by the Huns under Attila about 451. BICENTENARY. (See NONCONFORMISTS.) BICETRE (France). This place, near Paris, is said to derive its name from John, Bishop of Winchester, who erected a castle here in 1290. A hospital, established here in the reign of Charles V. (13641380), and destroyed in the time of Charles VI. (13801422), was restored and converted into an asylum for old soldiers during the reign of Louis XIII. (1610 1643). Bicetre is celebrated for a remarkable well, constructed in 1733. The prison, the scene of barbarous massacres, on account of an alleged conspiracy, June 16 and 26, 1794, was abolished in 1835. A fort was erected here in 1842. BICOCCA (Battle). Prospero Colonna, at the head of the Imperialists, repulsed the French and Swiss, under Lautrec, at this villa and park in Lombardy, between Milan and Monza, April 29, 1522. The latter were com- pelled to retire from Italy, where Francis I. had nothing left but the castles of Milan and Cremona^ both of which were closely besieged. L BIDASOA [ 146 ] BIXGEN BIDASOA, or VIDASO A (Spain). Wellington effected a passage of this river in Spain, defeat- ing the French army under Soult, Oct. 7, 1813. BIDDEXDEN MAIDS. On the afternoon of Easter Sunday, 600 rolls are distributed to strangers, and 270 loaves, weighing 3^ Ib. each, with cheese in proportion, to the poor of the parish of Biddenden, in Kent, the expense being defrayed from the rental of 20 acres of land, called Bread-and-Cheese Land, said to have been left for this purpose by the Biddende Maids. The donors are represented as two sisters, named Elizabeth and Mary Chulkhurst who were bom joined together by the hips anc shoulders, at Biddenden, in noo. They lived 1 together in this state for 34 years, when one 01 them died, and the other, refusing to be scpa rated from the body of her sister, succumbet a few hours after. An impression of the Bid dedden Maids is stamped upon the rolls. Hal stead, in his "History of Kent," rejects this story, saying that the lands were left by twc maiden ladies of the name of Preston, uin that the impression on the cakes is intend to represent two widows, as general objects of charity. W. Homer, rector of the parish, brought an action to obtain the land as p.trt oi his glebe, but he was nonsuited. BIG HARRISON ( RKKK Battled At this place, in north-western Missouri, Col. .M'-i defeated a Confederate force, killing 14, anc making 8 prisoners, Oct. 19, 1861. BILBAO (Spain). This city, founded in 1300, quickly rose into importance. It w.-i by the French in July, 1795, but restored by the treaty of Basel. July 22 in that year. The Spaniards expelled the French, who had a;.;Min seized it, in September, 1808, but Napoleon I. recovered it in the same year. It surrendered to Wellington after his victory at Vittoria, June 21, 1813. The Carlists besieged it during the civil war. It was relieved by Espartero and the British Legion, Dec. 24, 1836. BILL OF RIGHTS. The petition of right, drawn up by Parliament in 1628, and accepted by Charles I., June 7, 1628, was converted into a statute (3 Charles I. c. i), and called the Bill of Rights. The term is, however, generally used to describe the statute passed, after much discussion (i Will. n the following morning, June 21, only 23 of he 146 incarcerated the night before were ound alive. Clive exacted signal vengeance or this act of barbailty. He took Calcutta an. 2, 1757 ; won th 5 battle of Plassey (q. v.) une 23 in the same year ; and the perfidious )owlah was slain by one of his own officers 'une 25 in the same year. BLACK LETTER. (-See PRINTING.) BLACK-MAIL. This tax, in kind or money, was levied by the borderers of England and Scotland, under the pretence of affording pro- jection from robbers, with whom those de- manding the tribute were generally allied. 3y 43 Eliz. c. 13 (1601), all persons in the Bounties of Northumberland, Westmoreland, Cumberland, and the bishopric of Durham, BLACK [ 150 ] BLANKET receiving or carrying black-mail, or giving it for protection, were to suffer death as felons, without benefit of clergy, and to forfeit all their goods. These illegal exactions were carried to such an extent that they became the subject of legislation just before the Union in 1707. The practice was, in spite of every effort for its suppression, continued in Scotland until the rebellion of 1745. BLACK MONDAY. Easter Monday, April 6, 1360, was thus named from the severity of the weather on that day. Stow, under the year 1360, says, " And here is to be noted that the 1 4th day of April, and the morrow after Easter-day, King Edward, with his host, lay before the city of Paris, which day was full dark of mist and hail, and so bitter cold that many men died on their horsebacks with the cold ; wherefore unto this day it hath been called the Black Monday." Easter Monday in that year fell April 6 (N. S.). Launcelot, in the "Merchant of Venice," remarks, "Then it was not for nothing that my nose fell a bleed- ing on Black Monday last." By school-boys, the first Monday after the holidays the day on which work usually commences is also called Black Monday. BLACK MONEY. Base coin, brought into England from foreign countries, was thus de- nominated. The importation of black money was prohibited by 9 Edw. III. c. 2 (1335) ; and 9 Edw. III. c. 4 (1335), declared that it should not bo current in this realm. The term was also applied to jettons and counters. BLACK MONKS. The Benedictines (q. v.), from the colour of their outward garments, were usually called black monks. 15LACK RIVER Battle). Gen. Lawlcr drove the Confederates from then- entrenched po- sition on the banks of this stream in Missis- sippi, capturing many prisoners and 17 cannon, May 17, 1863. BLACK-ROCK (Battle). At this place, near Buffalo, the American army, amounting to nearly 2,500 men, was defeated by a British force consisting of 1,400 regulars and militia, Dec. 30, 1813. The Americans attempted to make a stand at Buffalo, but speedily gave way ; whereupon the village of Blackrock and the town of Buffalo, with all stores, / was lost off that port May 12. The landing of the allied armament was effected at Old Fort, Sep. 14 18, Balaclava entered Sep. 26, and Sebastopol bombarded Oct. 17. A terrible gale occurred Nov. n, and the hur- ricane in which so many British and French ships were lost, Nov. 14. The expedition to Kertch sailed May 23, 1855, and after having captured several places and destroyed warlike stores, returned to Balaclava June 14. The expedition to the Bug and the Dnieper an- chored off Odessa Oct. 8, was detained by fogs and contrary winds till Oct. 14, captured Kin- burn Oct. 1 6, and returned to Balaclava in November. After the conclusion of peace in 1856, the English and French squadrons were gradually withdrawn, and the Black Sea was thrown open to the commerce of all nations. BLACK-WALL (Middlesex). Thla impor- tant suburb of London was connected with the metropolis by railway July 4, 1840. Bruns- wick Wharf was opened July 6, 1840. BLACK W A T C II. A militia armed by Government in 1725, to guard the Scotch High- lands, and regularly organized in 1729 or 1730, was so termed from the dark tartan uniform. This force was formed, in 1739, into 'the 42iid Regiment. BLACK-WATER (Battle) took place, near this river in Ulster, during Tyrone's rebellion, between the English forces, led by Sir Henry Bagnal, and the rebels, Aug. 14, 1598. The former were defeated, and the result of the disaster was a general rising of the Irish in Ulster. BLACKS. (See BIANCHI and NERI.) BLADENSBURG (Battle). An English army defeated the Americans on the heights of Bladensburg, in Maryland, Aug. 24, 1814. The American force consisted of between 7,000 and 8,000 infantry, with 3,000 cavalry, in a strong position, supported by a powerful ar- tillery ; whilst the British scarcely mustered 5,000 men, and only 1,500 were actually en- gaged. The defeated army retreated through Washington, of which the victors took posses- sion. BLANCO (Cape). This headland of Western Africa, discovered by the Portuguese in 1440, was first doubled by Tristam in 1443. BLANKET. Coarse woollen cloth, manufac- BLANKETEERS BLENHEIM tured at Bristol by the brothers Edward, Ed- mund, and Thomas Blanket, the last of whom was bailiff of that town in 1340, though origin- ally used for the dress of monks and nuns, was speedily adopted as a material for bed- coverings, and is frequently alluded to as such in the " Expenses of the Great Wardrobe of Edward III., from Sep. 29, 1347, to Jan. 31, 1 349-" BLANKETEERS. Rioters who assembled from all parts of Lancashire at St. Peter's Church, Manchester, Monday, March 10, 1817, for the ostensible purpose of carrying a petition for reform to London, in order to present it to the Prince Regent. Each man brought with him a blanket, amongst other necessaries for the journey, and on this account they received the name of Blanketeers. The authorities, by adopting proper precautions, and suspending the Habeas Corpus Act, were enabled to sup- press the movement before mischief had been done. BLANK VERSE was, according to Hallam, first used in English poetry by Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey, who was executed Jan. 19, 1547. His chief production in this measure is a translation of a portion of the ^Eneid, published in 1557. Blank verse was much im- proved by Marlowe. Some authors state that Chaucer first employed it. BLARNEY-STONE. The tradition that whoever kisses this stone, in the castle of Blarney, county Cork, is endowed with per- suasive eloquence, is traced to the circumstance that Cormac M'Dermot Carthy, an Irish rebel, having concluded, in 1602, an armistice with the English on condition of surrending Blai- ney Castle, succeeded by his promises and entreaties in holding that stronghold until the assailants became the laughing-stock of the English court. Two stones of the castle are said to possess the power referred to, one dated 1446, being situated about 20 feet from the top of the lofty tower, while the other, inscribed 1703, is at the summit and easily accessible. BLASPHEMY was severely punished, both in ancient and modern times. The penalty by the law of Moses was death, and the same was awarded by the civil code of Justinian. The ecclesiastical codes were very severe rn persons guilty of any form of the nee. The Long Parliament passed a law (May 2, 1648) visiting it in some cases with capital punishment without benefit of clergy. By 3 James I. c. 21 (1605), any person or per- sons in any stage play, interlude, show, May- game, or pageant, jestingly or profanely speaking or using the name of either person of the Trinity, incurred a fine of 10 for every offence. The act for more effectually suppress- ing blasphemy or profaneness, 9 & 10 Will. III. c. 32 (1698), punished these offences with general disqualification and imprisonment for three years. By 53 Geo. III. c. 160, s. 2 (July 21, 1813), Unitarians are relieved from its operation. The law respecting blasphemy is regulated by 60 Geo. III. c. 8 (Dec. 30, 1819). The Scotch acts, punishing the offence by death, passed in 1661 and 1695, were repealed . III. c. 160 (July 21, 1813). BLEACHING, which seemsto have originated in Egypt, was practised by the ancients, who did not, however, discriminate clearly between it and the kindred operations of fulling and washing. Early in the i8th century Holland was celebrated for its bleach-works, to which goods were sent from this country ; but similar establishments having been introduced into Scotland with much success in 1749, the pro- cess was speedily extended over Great Britain. Berthollet having, in 1785, discovered the bleaching properties of chlorine (q. v. ), several attempts were made to utilize that substance by depriving it of its tendency to rot cloth brought within its influence. This was suc- cessfully accomplished by Tennant's invention of chloride of lime bleaching powder in 1798. Bentley's continuous process was patented in 1828. The employment of women and children in bleaching works was placed under the Fac- tories Acts by 23 & 24 Viet. c. 78 (Aug. 6, 1860), which act was amended by 23 Viet. c. 8 (April n, 1862), by 26 & 27 Viet. c. 38 (June 29, 1863), and by 27 & 28 Viet. c. 98 (July 29, 1864). BLENEAU (Battle). The Spanish, led by Condi? and the Duke of Orleans, defeated the army of Louis XIV., under Hocquincourt, near this place, in France, April 7, 1659. BLENHEIM, orBLINDHEIM (Battles). The allied army, under Maryborough and Eugene, defeated the French and Bavarians at this place in Bavaria, about 20 miles from Augsburg, Aug. 13 (O. S. 2), 1704. The forces of the former consisted of 52,000 men and 52 pieces of cannon ; those of the latter of 57,000 men, advantageously posted and defended by a powerful artillery. The battle commenced at eight in the morning, and by nine in the evening the triumph of the allies was com- plete. Their loss was 4,500 killed and 7,500 wounded ; that of the French and Bavarians, 12,000 killed and 13,000 prisoners ; whilst several thousands perished in the Danube. The victors took 100 pieces of cannon, 24 mortars, 129 colours, and 171 standards. This was Marlborough's greatest achievement, and on the evening of the battle he wrote in pencil, on a slip of paper torn from his memorandum- book, the following letter, still preserved in the family archives, to the duchess : ' I have not time to ore, but to beg you will give my duty to the Queen, and let her know her army has had a glorious victory. Monsieur Tallard and two othtr generals are in my coach, and I am following the rest. The bearer, my aide-de-camp, Colonel Parkc, will give er an account of what has passed : I shall do it in a day r two, by another more at large. 'MARLBOROUGH.' This distinguished general received, as a na- ional gift, the manor and honour of Wood- stock (q. v.), and the hundred of Wootton, where the palace of Blenheim was erected for him. The trophies of the victory were re- moved from the Tower to Westminster Hall, Jan 3, 1705, amid the thunders of artillery and popular demonstrations. It is also called the battle of Hochstadt, from a village in the vicinity. The French, under Moreau, effected the. passage of the Danube at this place, in face of a strong body of Austrians, who were defeated with much slaughter and the loss BLIND [ 152 ] BLOOD of throe battalions made prisoners, June 19, 1800. BLIND. Louis IX. founded the hospital of the Quiuze Vingis at Paris, in 1260, for the reception of soldiers who had lost their sight in the Crusades. Simpson's hospital for the blind at Dublin was founded in 1781. The first school for the blind was opened by Valentine Hatty at Paris, in 1784. The following is a list of the principal institutions for the blind, with the date of foundation : A.D. 1791. 1793- *793- 1804. 1804. 1806. 1809. 1809. 1809. Liverpool. Edinburgh. Bristol. London. Vienna. Prague, Amsterdam. Norwich. St. IVtiTsbur^. Berlin. Dublin (Kiehi.rr.i but) Zurich. Drcsilen. Copcnba 1815. Dublin (Molineux.) Uiolm. 1820. Barcelona. 1822. Naples. 1824. Lintz. 1825. Perth. 1828. Gl:: IS-o. I|;n, JS-I. IJostMU, U.S. 1831. Iv'. 1833. Philii.1,.1]': 1835. Limerick. 1836. ColUlIlll!.- :nrk. 1838. Mam The number of these excellent institutions increases rapidly. Printing for the blind was introduced in 1827, and the methods of con- veying instruction have been greatly improved. BLINDING. Duncange, under the term Abacinaire, enumerates the various methods by which this barbarous punishment of depriving persons of sight was inflicted. Burning with hot irons was the me mon. Shakespeare, in the case of G: (King Lear, act iii. so. 7), and in the scene between Arthur and Hubert in King ,J = >!i;i (act. iv. sc. i), gives a vivid description of its horrors. Michael PakaologiU blinded the young Emperor John Lascaris, in order to render his own usurpation secure (Dec. 25, 1261). Gibbon (ch. Ixii.) remarks: "The loss of sight incapacitated the young prince for the active business of the world : instead of the brutal violence of tearing out his eyes, the visual nerve was destroyed by the intense glare of a red-hot basin, and John Lascaris was removed to a distant castle, where lie spent many years in privacy and oblivion." This mode of torture was a fearful weapon in the hands of oppressors and tyrants in ancient times, as well as during the Middle Ages. (See ZKTUNIUM, Battle.) BLOIH (France), the Blesum of the Romans, who erected a fine aqueduct which still exists, passed in the .early part of the gth century under the government of counts, one of whom, Guy II., sold it, in 1391, to Louis of France, Duke of Orleans, by whose successors it was annexed to the French crown. Louis XII. rebuilt the eastern portions in 1498, and in 1577 it was the scene of a meeting of the states general. The Duke of Guise was assassinated here by order of Hemy III., Dec. 23, 1588, and Mary de Medici, imprisoned in the castle May 3, 1617, escaped thence in 1619. Blois was erected into a bishopric in 1697. A fine bridge over the Loire was erected in 1717. Maria Louisa, consort of Napoleon I., held her court here for a short time during the occupation of Paris by the allies in 1814. BLOIS (Treaties). A secret treaty was concluded here between Louis XII. and the Archduke Philip, Sep. 22, 1504, by which the former ceded to Prince Charles (afterwards the Emporor Charles V.) Britanny, part of Bur- gundy, and certain places in Italy, as the dowry of his daughter, the Princess Claude : tho marriage never took place. A second treaty, by which the Princess Germainc de Foix, niece -of Louis XII., was betrothed to Ferdinand V. of Castillo, who agreed to pay the French king a million gold ducats within 10 years, was concluded here Oct. 12, 1505. By a third treaty, signed Nov. 17, 1510, in consideration of a sum of 100,000 ducats and an auxiliary of i, 200 lances and 8,000 infantry, covenanted to him by Louis XII., the Emperor Maximilian engaged to invade Italy the ensuing spring. Another alliance, between Louis XII. and the Venetians, was concluded here March 14, 1513 ; and a league between England and France, negotiated at Paris, was signed' at Blois, April ii, 1572. The latter was an offensive and defensive alliance, intended to lull the sus- picions of the French Protestants. BLOOD. During the early and Middle Ages, human blood was regarded as a medicine of great efficacy, and blood-baths, in which the patients sat, were used in cases of leprosy. Louis XI. (1461 1483) of France, after having tried a number of remedies, is said by the historian Gaguin to have hoped to recover by the blood of certain children, which he swallowed. Pope Innocent VIII. (1484 1492) is said to have endeavoured to prolong his days by the transfusion of blood. The Harveiau theory of the circulation of the blood was con- firmed by the experiment of transfusing blood, tried xipon dogs, in 1657. Vario us attempts were made in France in the i8th century to renovate old and broken constitutions by means of some system of transfusion of blood. BLOOD (Circulation of the .The discovery of the general circulation of the blood has been attributed to several individuals. Hallaii!, who substantiates the claim of William llar- vey, after reviewing the controversy, remarks : "It is thus manifest that several anatomists of the 1 6th century were on the verge of com- pletely detecting the law by which the motion of the blood is governed ; and the language of one (Caesalpin) is so strong, that we must have recourse, in order to exclude his claim, to the irresistible fact that he did not confirm by proof his own theory, nor proclaim it in such a manner as to attract the attention of the world." Servetus (1543 1553) was acquainted with the pulmonary circulation; Columbus (1559) possessed the same knowledge ; and Csesalpin, about 1583, had a more just notion than any of his predecessors of the general circulation of the blood, discovered in 1619 by William Harvey, who fully demonstrated its truth in 1628. Asellius, in 1622, discovered the lacteal vessels. The common origin of the lacteal and lymphatic vessels was discovered by Pecquet in 1647, and made public in 1651. BLOOD (Council of). This name was popu- larly given to the " Council of Tumults," or- ganized by the Duke of Alva in 1567, to try- criminals against the Spanish throne and reli- BLOOD r 153 i BLUE gion in the Netherlands. By their orders 500 citizens were arrested on Ash Wednesday, 1568, and condemned to death. They also had Cotmts Egmont and 'Horn executed, June 2, 1568. BLOOD ORDER. John George I., Elector of Saxony, who owed his power to Swedish assistance, having bound himself, by the peace of Prague, May 30, 1635, to drive his bene- factors from Germany, subsequently directed his troops, under Baudis, to attack the Swedish forces of General Bauer. In consequence of the ingratitude of this command, it is usually known in history as the Saxon Blood Order. BLOOD OF OUR SAVIOUR. This order of knighthood was instituted at Mantua by the Duke Vincentio di Gonzaga, on the marriage of his son with Margaret of Savoy, in 1608. BLOOD OF ST. JANUARIUS. (See JANUA- BIUS, ST.) BLOODY ASSIZES. After the suppression of Monmoiith's rebellion, a special commission, dated Aug. 24, 1685, for the trial of offenders, was directed to Jeffreys* and four other judges. They set out for the west of England under a military escort, commanded by Jeffreys, with the rank of lieutenant-general, and at Dor- chester, Exeter, Taunton, and Wells, con- demned above 300 persons to death, almost without trial. Nearly 1,000 were sold as slaves to the West Indian plantations, and others were whipped, fined, and imprisoned. James II. termed the expedition Jeffreys' Campaign, rewarding him with the lord-chancellorship, Sep. 28. This is generally known as the Bloody Assizes. BLOOMER COSTUME. Holinshed, in his description of England in the i6th century, says, " I have met with some of these trullcs in London, so disguised that it hath passed my skille to discerne whether they were men or women." These were doubtless the first wearers of what is called the Bloomer cos- tume, being a dress for females, adopted in America in 1848, and introduced into England in 1851, where, though recommended by lec- turers, it fell into contempt, and speedily dis- appeared. BLOOMSBURY GANG, a clique of politi- cians who, towards the close of the i8th cen- tury, exercised an undue influence over the councils of George III., so-called from the fact that their meetings often took place at Blooms- bury House, the residence of their leader, John, fourth Duke of Bedford. To such an extent was their tyranny carried, that the sovereign was frequently compelled, though reluctantly, to submit to their demands. The Marquis of Bath, and Lords Sandwich and Weymouth, were members of this political knot. The Marquis of Stafford, who died Oct. 26, 1803, was the last survivor of the Bloomsbury Gang. BLORE-HEATH (Battle). Fought at this * Lord Cnmpbcll (Lives of the Chancellors, iii. 495), re- marks: " The name is spelt no fewer than eight different ways 'Jeffries,' ' Jeff erics,' 'Jefferys,' ' Jeffjereys,' 'Jef- fereyes,' 'Jeffrys,' *Jeffrves,' and v Jeffreys,' and he him- self spelt it differently at different times "of his life ; but the last spelling is that which is found in his patent of peerage, and which he always used afterwords." place, iii Staffordshire, during the wars oi tLo Ruses, Sunday, Sep. 23, 1459, when the Yorkists, commanded by the Earl of Salisbury, defeated a superior force of the Lancastrians, led by Lord Audley. Henry VI. and Queen Margaret were in the neighbourhood at the time of the encounter. BLOTTING-PAPER. Though no account of its first use is known to exist, it was probably introduced soon after the invention of paper. Fuller (circ. 1655) says, " Paper participates in some sort of the characters of the countrymen which make it : the Venetian being neat, sub- tile, and courtlike; the French light, slight, and slender ; the Dutch thick, corpulent, and gross, not to say sometimes also charta bibula, sucking up the ink with the sponginess thereof." Blotting-paper is included amongst the items in an account of stationery supplied to the Exchequer and Treasury 1666 1668. BLOWING MACHINES. (See BELLOWS.) BLOWPIPE. The date of its invention has not been ascertained. It was first employed in the analysis of metals by Swab, in 1738, and its use in the science of mineralogy was demonstrated by Cronstcdt in 1758. It has been improved by various men of science since his time. BLUE COAT. Blue was the colour in which the Gauls and ancient nations clothed their slaves ; and a blue coat with a badge was, in the time of Shakespeare, the livery worn by servants of the nobility. A serving-man in one of Ben Jonson's dramas remarks, "Ever since I was of the blue order." Blue was also the colour worn by beadles; hence "blue-bottle" became a term of reproach for both. Doll Tear-sheet (Henry IV., pt. ii. act v. sc. 4) says to the beadle who is dragging her to prison, " I will have you as soundly swinged for this, you blue-bottle rogue ! " Blue was also worn by apprentices, and even younger brothers ; and a blue gown was the dress of ignominy for a harlot in the house of correction. BLUECOAT SCHOOL. (See CHRIST'S HOS- PITAL.) BLUE'S GAP (Battle). Col. Dunning drove an inferior force of Confederates from their position at this place in Virginia, Jan. 6, 1862. BLUE SPRINGS (Battle), The Confederates were defeated by the Federals at this place in East Tennessee, with a severe loss in killed and wounded, and 150 prisoners, Oct. 10 and n, 1863. BLUE-STOCKING CLUBS. The term, ap- plied to a literary body, is referred by Mills (History of Chivalry) to a society formed in Venice in 1400. Boswell, in his " Life of Johnson," thus describes their origin : "About this time (1781) it was much the fashion for several ladies to have evening assemblies, where the fair sex might partici- pate in conversation with literary and in- genious men,, animated by a desire to please. These societies were denominated ' Blue- Stocking Clubs ; ' the origin of which title being little known, it may be worth while to relate it. One of the most eminent members of those societies, when they first commenced, was Mr. Stillingfleet, whose dress was remark- ably grave, and in particular it was observed that he wore blue stockings. Such was the BOARD [ 154 1 BCEOTIA excellence of his conversation, that his absence was felt as so great a loss that it used to be said ' We can do nothing without the blue stockings ; ' and thus by degrees the title was established." BOARD OF ADMIRALTY. (See ADMI- RALTY.) BOARD OF CONTROL, established by Pitt's East India Bill, 24 Geo. III., sess. 2, c. 25 (May 1 8, 1784). Six privy councillors were appointed as commissioners to have control and superintendence of all the affairs of the British possessions in the East Indies. The statute was amended by 33 Geo. III. c. 52 (June n, 1793), and subsequent acts. The first president was Lord Sydney, appointed Sep. 3, 1784. The Board of Control was abolished by 21 & 22 Viet. c. 106 (Aug. 2, 1858), when a council of India, consisting of 1 5 members and a secretary of state for India, was appointed. BOARD OF GREEN CLOTH. (See MAR- SHALSEA COURT.) BOARD OF HEALTH. The General Board of Health was established by 11 & 12 Viet. c. 63 (Aug. 31, 1845), for sanitary purposes, with the power of creating local boards in provincial towns. It was reconstructed by 17 & 18 Viet, c. 95 (Aug. 10, 1854), entitled " An Act to make better provision for the administration of the laws relating to public health." Sir B. Hall, created Lord Llanover June 27, 1859, was made president, with a salary of ,2,000 per annum. By 21 & 22 Viet. c. 97 (Aug. 2, 1858), all the powers of the General Board of Health were transferred to the Privy Council. Further pro- vision for the local government of towns and populous districts in this matter was made by 21 & 22 VlCt. C. 98 (Aug. 2, 1858). BOARD OFOHDXAXCK. (.W OIIDNAXCK. BOARD OF TRADE AX1) PLANTATIONS. Cromwell, in 1655, appointed his son Richard, with several lords of the council, merchants, &c., to consider by what means trade and navigation might be best promoted and regu- lated. Charles II. established a council to superintend and control the whole commerce of the nation, Nov. 7, 1660, and a Council of Foreign Plantations, Dec. i in the same year. The boards were united in 1672, but ceased altogether soon afterwards, their functions being transferred to the Privy Council. The board was re-established in 1695, undergoing many changes until 1782, when, by 22 Geo. III. c. 82, it was abolished. A committee of mem- bers of the Privy Council was ordered to be appointed for the consideration of all matters relating to trade and foreign plantations. The order of council issued March 5, 1784, was revoked, and a new committee, appointing the board as at present constituted, was nomi- nated Sep. 5, 1786, Mr. R. B. Jenkinson, afterwards Lord Hawkesbury, being the first president. BOAT RACE. (See UNIVERSITY BOAT RACE.) BOBER (Battle). The Prussian General Blucher was driven from his position on this river, in Silesia, by the French army, com- manded by Napoleon I., Aug. 21, 1813. BOCCA TIGRIS, or BOGUE FORTS, at the entrance of the Canton river, having been attacked, two were taken by the English, Jan. 7, 1841. The Chinese having failed to carry out the provisions of a treaty by which a cessation of hostilities had been secured, the rest of the forts were captured Feb. 26 in the same year. A treaty was concluded here April 4, 1846 ; and the forts were again captured by the English in Nov., 1856. BOCHETTA (Battle). Prosper Adorno, Go- vernor of Genoa, under Bona of Savoy, sister of Louis XI. of France, and Regent of Milan, during the infancy of Duke John Galea/^o, having, at the instigation of Pope Sixtus IV., thrown off his allegiance to that princess, defeated her army at the pass of the Bochetta, Aug. 7 , 1478. BODLEIAN, or BODLEYAN, LIBRARY (Oxford). Humphrey, the good Duke of Gloucester, founded a library at Oxford ; but it was destroyed, and in 1556 the desks and benches were ordered to be sold. The room remained empty until repaired and again de- voted to the purposes of a library by Thomas Bodley, an eminent diplomatist, who had been sent on several embassies by Queen Elizabeth. On retiring from his employments in 1597, he undertook to restore this library. He endowed it richly, and presented it with a collection of books worth ;io,ooo. It was opened Nov. 8, 1602, and alterations in the building were completed in 1606. The foundation-stone of a new library was, however, laid by Sir Thomas Bodley himself, July 19, 1610. It was not completed until 1613; after his death, which occurred Jan. 28, 1612. It was enlarged in 1634, has since received many additions, and contains upwards of 260,000 volumes of printed books and 22,000 volumes of manuscripts. Several catalogues have been published, the first by Dr. James, in 1605. Casaubon calls the Bodleian library a work rather for a king than a private man. A reading room was opened for the convenience of students in 1856. BOEHMISCHBROD (Battle). (See LIPPAU.) BCEOTIA. The early history of this politi- cal division of ancient Greece, included in the modern kingdom, is involved in obscurity. Thucydides represents it as having been in- habited by various barbarous tribes until about 60 years after the Trojan war, when the Boao- tians, an yEolian people, expelled from their native seat by the Thessalians, settled in the country, at that time called Cadmeis, to which they gave the name of Bceotia, B.C. 1124. According to traditional accounts, Ogyges was King of Boeotia B.C. 1749, and Cadmus is said to have founded Thebes, B.C. 1550, or, ac- cording to other authorities, B.C. 1493. There is, however, little, if any, authentic informa- tion respecting the early period. The cities of Bosotia, with Thebes (q. v.) at their head, entered into a league, though the date of its formation is not known. The number is gene- rally supposed to have been 10, or at the out- side 14. B.C. 608. War in Bceotia between the Mitylenreans and (ho Athenians. 519. Plafjca withdraws from the Boeotian LCMLTIIC. 507. The League joins the IVlopounesians ami the Chal- cidiaus against Atheii.-. BOGESUND [ 155 BOII B.C. 480. The Boeotians join the Persians. 456. Battle of (Enophyta (q.v.). 447. Battle of Coronea (q. v.). 395. The Boeotians take part against Sparta in the Corin- thian war (q. v.). 394. The Spartans defeat the Boeotians, &c., at Coronea (q. c.). 387. Peace of Antalcidas (q. v.). 386. Boeotia regains Platiwi. 378. Agesilaus and Cleombrotus invade Boeotia, 377- Agesilaus invades Boeotia a second time. 371. Battle of Leuctra (q. v.). From this time the history of Boeotia is merged in that of Thebes. The Boeotian con- federacy, that had long had only a nominal existence, was entirely dissolved by the Romans B.C. 170. BOGESUND (Battle). (See ASUNDEN, Lake.) BOGOMILES, or BOGARMIT^. A sect of heretics that sprang up in Bulgaria early in the 1 2th century. The name is compounded of two Slavonic words, bog, " God," and miloui, "have mercy on us," given to them from their custom of muttering prayers to themselves. They are said to have been Manichseans. They rejected images, dis- carded all mysteries in the sacraments and the historical books of the Old Testament. Their leader, one Basil, a monk, having been condemned by a council held at Constanti- nople in 1 1 10, was burned alive by order of the Greek Emperor Alexius Commenus in 1118. The sect is said to have been in existence early in the 1 3th century. BOGOTA. (See SANTA FE" DE BOGOTA.) BOHEMIA (Germany) derives its name from the Boii (q. v.), its ancient inhabitants, who were expelled by the Slavonians. Borzivoi became its first duke in 891. The dukes were frequently nominated by the Emperor of Ger- many, and two of them, Wratislaus II., in 1086, and Ladislaus III., in 1158, received the title of king as a mark of personal honour, before Bohemia was definitively erected into a kingdom. (See PRAGUE.) A.D. 480. (circ). The Czeches establish themselves in Bohemia. 630. Samo raises Bohemia into an independent state. 680. About this time the first advance in civilized arts is made by the Bohemians. 733. Libussa, granddaughter of Samo, weds Premislaus, who founds the dynasty which bears his name. 805. Bohemia is conquered by Charlemagne. 864. Borzivoi, a Bohemian chief, receives the sacrament of baptism. 1005. Boleslans I., King of Poland, takes Cracow, and lays siege to Prague, which is delivered by Jaromir. 1039. War between Breti? laus I. and the Emperor Conrad, in which the former is defeated. 1061. On the death of Spitigneus II., Wratislaus II. unites Bohemia, Poland, Silesia, Lusatia, and Moravia into one kingdom. 1174. Ladislaus II., banished by his subjects, takes refuge in Lusatia, where he dies. 1176. A large number of the Vaudois immigrate into Bohemia, 1191. Conrad II. dies of the plague at the siege of Naples, and leaves the succession to his dukedom disputed. 1198. Premislaus Ottocar I. is made the first hereditary king. 13-1.1-3. The Tartars overrun Moravia. 1363. Premislaus Ottocar II. is King of Bohemia and Austria, and soon obtains possession of Styria, Carinthia, and Istria, when his dominions extend from the Baltic to the Adriatic. 1373. Premislaus Ottocar II. refuses the imperial crown. 1378. Battle of Marchfield (q. v.). 1389. Marriage of Wenceslaus IV. to Judith, daughter of Rodolph of Habsburg. Part of Misnia and of Eger added to Bohemia. 1300. Wenceslaus IV. is elected King of Poland. 1306. Death of Wenceslaus V., the last sovereign of the house of Premislaus. 1337. Silesia is annexed to Bohemia. 1408. John Huss declares himself a disciple of Wycliffe. 1416. Rebellion of the Hussites (q. v.). 1430. Suppression of the Adamites (q. v.). 1438. Death of Sigismnnd, and extinction of the house of Luxemburg. Tin- 1 1 ussit.-s invite Cas.simir, Prince of Poland, to succeed him, but the Crown falls to Albert of Austria. 1466. Pope Paul II. excommunicates George Podiebrad, the Hussite King of Bohemia, and sends an army against him, which is defeated at Tina. 1536. On the death of Louis I. the Bohemians confer the crown on Ferdinand I. of Austria, in whose family it has since remained. 1567. Maximilian II. abolishes the religious compacts which had restrained the spread of Protestantism. 1609. Rodolph II. establishes freedom of conscience in Bohemia. 1618. The commencement of the Thirty Years War. 1630. The battle of Prague (q. p.). 1648. The treaty of Minister puts an end to the Thirty Years War, and to the political existence of Bohemia, which is incorporated with the Austrian empire. 1744. Frederick II. (the Great) of Prussia, invades Bo- hemia. 1757, May 6. The battle of Prague (q. v.). 1763. The Prussians ravage Bohemia. 1773. A terrible famine devastates Bohemia. 1775. Insurrection of the peasantry. 1781. Joseph II. abolishes slavery. 1813. The Austrian army, under Schwartzenberg, assem- bles in Bohemia, preparatory to the campaign against Napoleon I. 1848, June 13- An insurrection breaks out at Prague. SOVEREIGNS OF BOHEMIA. DUKES. A.D. A.D. 891. Borzivoi I. 093. Bretblans II. 903. Spitigneus I. 100. Borzivoi 11. 907. Wratislaus I. 916. Wenceslaus I. 107. Suatopluc. 109. Ladislaus I. 936. Boleslaus I. I3& Sobielaus I. 967. Boleslaus II. 140. Ladislaus TI. 999. Boleslaus III. 174. Sobielaus 11. 1003. Jaromir. 178. Frederick 1013. Udalric. 190. Conrad II. 1037. Bretislaus I. 191. Wenceslaus II. 1055. Spitigneus II. 1061. Wratislaus 11. 193. Henry Bretislaus. 196. Ladislaus III. 1093. Conrad I. 1096. Premislaus Ottocar I. KINGS. 1198. Premislaus Ottocar I. 1330. Wenceslaus III. 1438. Albert of Austria, Em- peror. 1353. Premislaus II. 1440. Ladislaus V. 1378. Wenceslaus IV. 1305. Wenceslaus V. 1458. George Podiebrad. 1471. Ladislaus VI. 1306. Rodolph of Habs- 1516. Louis I. burg. 1307. Henry of Carinthin. 1310. John of Luxemburg. 1536. Ferdinand I,, Emperor of Germany. 1564. Maximilian II. 1346. Charles I., Emperor in '347- 1575. Ilodolph II. 1611. Matthias. 1378. Wenceslaus VI., Em- 1619. Ferdinand II. peror. 1419. Sigismund, Emperor. 1637. Ferdinand III. (incor- porated with Austria in 1648). BOHEMIAN BRETHREN. (See MORAVIAN BRETHREN. ) BOII. A Celtic people who migrated at an early period from Transalpine Gaul into Italy, where they assisted at the destruction of Melpum, B.C. 396. The Dictator Sulpicius defeated them in Latium B.C. 358, and they were, with the Etruscans, defeated at the Vadunoman Lake (q. v.}, B.C. 283. They were BOILING [ 156 ] BOLOGNA again opposed to Home B.C. 225, and attacked the Roman colony of Placentia, B.C. 218. They destroyed the army of the Consul Postumius, numbering 25,000 men, B.C. 216, and assisted in the destruction of Placentia, B.C. 200. They were at length subdued by Scipio Nasica B.C. 191, who slew numbers of their people, and confiscated nearly half their lands, which became the seat of the colonies of Boiionia, Mutina, and Parma, B.C. 183. BOILING TO DEATH. By 22 Hen. VIII. c. 9 (1531), this punishment was awarded to poisoners. The act related that one Richard Roosc, otherwise called Coke, a cook in the Bishop of Rochester's diocese, had, by mixing poison in their food, caused the death of two and the illness of several persons. He was declared guilty of treason, and ordered to be boiled to death, without receiving benefit of clergy ; and the like punishment was decreed for all, from that time, found guilty of any manner of poisoning. He suffered at Smith- field, April 5, 1532 ; and Margaret Dany, a maid-servant, was boiled to death at the same place, March 17, 1542, for "poisoning of three households, that she had dwelt in." This act was repealed by i Edw. VI. c. 12, s. n (1547). The punishment itself was common both in England and on the Continent, previous to the enactment of the statute of Henry VIII. The Chronicle of the Grey Friars of London (ftarn- den Society) records a case at Smithfield of a man who was fastened in a chain and pulled up and down divers times, till he was dead. It appears to have been a common punishment for coining. BOIS-LE-DUC (Holland) was founded in 1184 by Godfrey III., Duke of Brabant, in the midst of a forest. Having separated from the United Provinces during the i6th century, it was ineffectually besieged by Prince Maurice of Nassau in 1601 and 1603, but was at length taken by the Dutch in 1629. Besieged and captured by the French republican army Oct. 10, 1794, it was retaken by the Prussians under Bulow Jan. 25, 1814. The bishopric, founded in 1560 or 1561, and suppressed in 1629, was restored in 1853. BOJACA, or BOYACA (Battle). During the war of independence in South America, the Spaniards were defeated at this place, in New Granada, by Bolivar's army, Aug. 7, 1819. 150,1 ANO (Naples). This town, which occu- pies the site of the ancient Boviaiium ( A treaty is concluded by the Dutch with the ruler of Sambas, and thev rstablish a factory. 1623. The Dutch abandon their settlement at Succadana. 1707. The English factory is dest roved. 1763. The English take possession of Balambangan. 1773. The English endeavour to establish a factory at Passir, and fail. 1775, Feb. 24. The garrison at Balambangan are killed by pirates. 1776. The Dutch establish a factory at Pontianak. 17.-0. Part of the W. coast is ceded to the Dutch. 1786. The Dutch, in alliance with the Sultan of i'ontianak, d'.'stmv Succaduiia. 1787. 'I'ln- sovereignty of the S. coast is granted to the Dutch. iSrj. An Knglish expedition against Sambas fails. 1813, .July 3. Sambas is captured by the English. 1818. The Dutch, wiio had been expelled by the English during the war, return. 1839, Aug. Sir .lames Brooke arrives at Borneo. I.--4I. Sir .lames lirooke is made Rajah of .Sarawak, by treaty witii the native ruler. (< S.vitA -,v AK.) 1846. The Dutch colonies in Borneo are formed into a special government, by a decree of the Dutch governor. 1848. I.abnan is formed into an English colony. (See LABOADT.) 1855, Oct. IS. Consecration of Francis J. McDougall, the first Bishop of Labuaii. BORNOU (Central Africa), called by Heercn "a great empire," was first explored by Den- ham and ( 'lapperton, sent out by the English Government, who reached Kouka, the capital, Feb. 17, 1822. It has been more recently explored by Richardson, Barth, and Overweg. BORO 1)1X0 (Battle). During the invasion of Russia, Napoleon I. attacked the whole Russian army intrenched at this village, Sep. 7, 1812. After a sanguinary engagement, both armies encamped 011 the field of battle, but the Russians withdrew during the night. The killed and wounded amounted to 80,000 men. In 1839 the Russians erected a mauso- leum on this battle-field. BORON. This olive-coloured substance, discovered by Sir H. Davy in 1807, was exa- mined by Gay-Lussac and Thenard in 1808. BOROUGH, or BURGH, is supposed to have been first applied to a tithing or collection of 12 families, bound together as sureties for one another. The term was afterwards applied to a castle, then to the group of houses built beneath the shelter of its defences, next to a walled town, .and is now used to designate cities or towns that possess the privilege of sending representatives to the House of Com- mons. Guizot asserts that it was not until the i ith century that boroughs assumed any important position in history. BOROUGH-BRIDGE (Battle). Edward II. defeated the f^arl of Lancaster and the con- federated barons, with their Scottish allies, at this place, in Yorkshire, Tuesday, March 16, 1322. The Earl of Lancaster, who fled, was afterwards taken prisoner. He was tried by a military council, and executed at Pon- tefract, Tuesday, March 23. BOROUGH-ENGLISH. A custom, m BORRISOW [ 161 ] BOSTON as some assert, because it originated in Eng- land, existing in certain boroughs, by which the youngest son inherited, to the exclusion of his elder brothers, the father's tenements in the borough, in case the latter died intestate. It is a species of burgage tenure, which at one time prevailed to a great extent in this country, and still exists in some places. The best authorities regard it as a remnant of the pastoral state of the tribes from which we claim descent. Amongst them the elder sons invariably took their portion, quitted the paternal roof, and sought new habitations, whilst the younger son, who remained at home, naturally became the heir. BORRISOW (Battle). During the retreat of the French from Moscow, Portonneaux's division, consisting of 8,000 men, surrendered to the Russians at this place, Nov. 27, 1812, and on the following day a drawn battle was fought between the French and the Russians. BORSIPPA (Chaldsea). The remains of Birs-Nimroud at this place, dating, it is believed, from circ. B.C. 2234, consist of a pyramidal structure about 153 feet high, and divided into seven stories. It was rebuilt by Nebuchad- nezzar (B.C. 605 B.C. 561). BOSCOBEL (Shropshire). Charles II., after his defeat at the battle of Worcester (q. v.), Wednesday, Sep. 3, 1651, obtained shelter in this farm-house, the residence of William Pen- derell. In order to escape the parliamentary troopers, he quitted it Friday, Sep. 5, hiding all that day in a large oak, whence he could see and hear his pursuers. He finally left Boscobel Sunday, Sep. 7, and after a series of romantic escapes, embarked at Brighthelm- stone, the modern Brighton, Oct. 15, arriving at Fecamp the following day. The Boscobel Tracts, containing contemporary records of this period in the "Merry Monarch's" life, were first published in 1662. The tree in which he found shelter was afterwards called the " Royal Oak." BOSCOI, or Grazers, an order of monks ori- ginating in Mesopotamia, and afterwards nu- merous in Palestine, who dwelt in mountains or deserts, feeding on herbs and grass, and dis- pensing almost entirely with the use of clothes. They were noticed by Sozomen in the sth century. BOSNIA (European Turkey). Part of the ancient Pannonia, long tributary to Hungary and Servia, was erected into a kingdom in 1376. Its monarch was defeated by the Turks in 1389. Bosnia became tributary to Turkey in 1463, and was annexed in 1522. Austria ob- tained a portion of Bosnia by the treaty of Passarowitz, July 21, 1718. This was, however, recovered by the Turks in 1738. Bosnia has been the scene of numerous insurrections ; and frequent quarrels have occurred between the Christian and the Moslem population. A revolt which occurred in 1851 was suppressed by Omar Pasha. BOSPORUS (Asia). This ancient kingdom on the Cimmerian Bosporus was a great coin- growing country, and for many years served as a granary to Greece. Gibbon calls it " the little kingdom of Bosporus, composed of dege- nerate Greeks and half -civilized barbarians." It is supposed to have been a Milesian colony, and arose out of the old Greek settlements. The history of the kingdom cannot, however, be traced with accuracy, and much uncertainty prevails respecting the dynasties compiled from the works of the ancient writers. 39- The kingdom of Bosporus is founded. On the -death of Parysades the succession is con- tested by his sons Satyrus and Eumelus ; Satyrus defeats his brother, but dies in the battle ; so the younger brother, Prytanis, reigns in his stead. Eumelus murders Prytanis and all his adherents, and succeeds to the crown. Bosporus is ceded to Mithridates VI. of Pontus. Bosporus revolts from Mithridates VI. Pompey reduces Bosporus to a Roman province, and makes Pharnaccs, son of Mithridates VI., its king. Julius Csar defeats Pharnaces, and gives Bosporus to Mithridates of Pergamus, who soon afterwards dies, and his territory is seized by Asander. Agrippa gives Bosporus to Polemon, King of Poutus. Mithridates Achemenides, King of Bosporus, revolts against the Komans, who depose him. Bosporus is captured by the Goths. The Turks take the city of Bosporus. RULERS OF B.C. 480. Archreanactidae. 438. Spartocus 1. 43r. Seleucus. 407. Satyrus I. 393. Leucon. 353. Spartocus II. 348. Parysades. 310. Satyrus II. Prytanis. 309. Eumelus. 304. Spartocus III. Leucanor. Eubiotus. Satyrus III. Gorgippus. Spartocus IV. Parysades II. 108. Mithridates VI. of Pontus. 79. Machares. 03. Pharnaces II. 47. Asander. 14. Scribonius. 13. Polemon I. BOSPORUS. B.C. Pythodoris. Sauromates I. A.D. 30. Rhescuporis I. 38. Polemon II. 42. Mithridates II. 49. Cotys I. 83. Rhescuporis II. 108. Sauromates II. 115. Cotys II. 13?. Rhuemetalces. 155. Eupator. 180. Sauromates III. 215. Rhescuporis III. 232. Cotys III. 235. Inintheremus. 235. Rhescuporis I V. 276. Sauromates IV. 277. Teiranes. 297. Thothorses. 303. Sauromates V. 306. Sauromates VI. 321. Rhescuporis V. Sauromates VII. BOSTON (Lincolnshire) is supposed to have been built upon the site of the monastery of Icanhoe, founded by St. Bodolph in 654, and destroyed by the Danes in 870. Boston became impoi-tant as a commercial town in the i3th century, was made a staple for wool, an d th e foundation stone of the Herbert memorial was laid Sep. 18, 1865. BOUTS RIMES." Rhymed ends" were supplied, which were amplified into complete lines by the person undertaking the task, a pastime invented by the French poet Dulot, in 1648. It became very fashionable, and was much used by ladies to test the tact and de- votion of their lovers. It is stated that Campbell wrote his poem of " Lochiel," which was first published in 1802, after this strange fashion. B< >VIANUM (Italy). This Samnite city, be- sieged by the Romans without success B.C. 314, was taken by them B.C. 311, again B.C. 305, and again B.C. 298. It was an important mili- tary position, and suffered in many succeeding wars. Bovianum was destroyed by an earth- quake in the gth century, and the modern J Jo juno occupies its site. BOVINES or BOUVINES (Battle 1 ). Fought, Sunday, July 27, 1214, at the bridge of Bou- vines, where Philip II. (Augustus), with in- ferior numbers, defeated the army of Otho, Emperor of Germany, and his allies. The Counts of Flanders and Boulogne, and William, Earl of Salisbury, were made prisoners. BOWIDES. A dynasty established in Persia A.D. 932. There were 17 kings of this line, which lasted for 127 years, and became extinct BOW ISLAND (Pacific). One of the coral islands discovered by Bougainville in 1768. He called it La Harpe, and it received its present name from Capt. Cook, who landed upon it in 1769. BOWLS. This game, which was unknown to the classical ancients, is believed to have originated in England at an early period. Half-bowl, played with a hemispherical ball, was prohibited by Edward IV. (14611483) ; and bowls were forbidden by 33 Hen. VIII. c. 9 (1541), which was repealed by 8 & 9 Viet, c. 109, s. i (Aug. 8. 1845). BOWYER FORT (United States), near Mobile, was captured by the English troups, Feb. n, 1815. This was the last encounter during the American war, as the news of the conclusion of peace reached the belligerents the next day. BOXING. (See PUGILISM.) BOXTEL (Battle). The republican army under Pichegru having wrested Boxtel from the Dutch, Sep. 14, 1794, the Duke of York ordered Gen. Abercrombie to advance during the night with the army of reserve. In the morning of Sep. 14, he was engaged with the French, and was compelled to retire. On this occasion, the Duke of Wellington, then com- manding the 33rd Regiment, first came under fire. By a well directed movement he checked the advance of the republican troops, and in- flicted such chastisement upon them that the further retreat was effected without molesta- tion. B< VAC A. (Sff BO.TACA.) HOYA1U1-KEUY (Treaty), between Aus- tria and the Porte, was signed at Boyadji-Keuy June 14, 1854. It consisted of seven articles, providing for the occupation of the Daiiubian principalities by the Austrians, who entered the principalities Aug. 20, 1854, an( i retired at the close of the war in 1856. BOY-BISHOP, called also Barn, Barne, or Beam Bishop, was elected in cathedrals and parish churches on St. Nicholas' day (Dec. 6), during the Middle Ages. This child, usually chosen from one of the choir, was invested with all the insignia of the episcopal office, and his authority lasted until Innocents' day (Dec. 28). He performed all the ceremonies and offices of the Church except mass. At Salisbury the boy-bishop is said to have had the disposal of all stalls that came vacant dur- ing his rule. This custom was suppressed by proclamation July 22, 1542, and according to some authorities a previous proclamation had been issued July 22, 1540. This, with other Roman Catholic pageants, was revived by Queen Mary in 1554, and it was again sup- pressed by Elizabeth, though it continued to exist in rural districts for some time after the prohibition. A similar custom prevailed in many parts of the Continent. BOYLE LECTURES. Instituted according to instructions in the will of the Hon. Robert Boyle (seventh son of the Earl of Cork), who died Dec. 30, 1691. He was one of the founders of the Royal Society, and a man of extraor- dinary attainments. The lectures, eight in number, intended as a defence of natural and revealed religion, are preached at St. Mary-le- Bow church, on the first Monday in January, February, March, April, May, September, October, and November. The first course was preached by the celebrated Dr. Bentley in 1692, and he preached a second in 1604. BOYNE (Battle). At this battle, fought on the banks of the Boyne, near Oldridge, in Ireland, William III. defeated his father-in-law, James II., July i, 1690. The latter fled to Dublin, thence to Waterford, from which port he set sail for France. BRABANCONS, or BRABANCIONES, mer- cenary soldiers, called also Routiers, because they were always en route, and Cotereaux, BRABANT [ 165 ] BRAGANCA were frequently employed during the Middle Ages, and in this country in particular, by William II., Stephen, andHeiiry II. They were little better than freebooters. The greater number came from Brabant : hence their name. BRABANT (Belgium and Holland). This ancient province formed part of Charlemagne's empire, and in the division of his territories, made A.D. 806, was assigned by him to his son Charles. Lothaire I. obtained it in 843, and his son, Lothaire II., in 855, by whom it was joined to Lorraine. Bruno, Archbishop of Cologne, made it a separate duchy, called Lower Lorraine, and afterwards Brabant ; and bestowed it upon Geotfrey, its first duke. It passed under the rule of the dukes of Bur- gundy in 1429, and was with their dominions transferred to Austria in 1477. When Charles V., Emperor of Germany, became King of Spain, in 1516, the Netherlands were united to Spain. The religious persecutions of Philip II. having caused a revolt, North Brabant joined the United Provinces in 1581 ; and South Bra- bant remained under the dominion of Spain until 1706, when it became part of the Austrian Netherlands. Brabant, with the whole of the Austrian Netherlands, was united to France by decrees of the National Convention, dated March, 1793, and 1795, and armies were sent for the purpose of subjugating the country. It formed part of the kingdom of Holland in 1815, and at the revolution of 1830 South Bra- bant became a province of Belgium. The heir to the throne bears the title of Duke of Bra- bant. BRACELETS, or ARMLETS, were worn at a very early period. Abraham's servant gave Rebecca two bracelets of gold B.C. 1857 (Gen. xxiv. 22) ; and the Amalekite who killed Saul brought the bracelet that was upon his arm to David, B.C. 1055 (2 Sam. i. 10). They were worn both by men and women amongst most ancient nations. William of Malmesbury re- lates that Alfred ordered golden bracelets to be hung up in the highways (circ. 890), and such was the good order that prevailed that no- body took them away. The same author mentions, as part of the peace-offering sent by Earl Godwin to Hardi Canute in 1041, 80 soldiers, who had two bracelets on their arms weighing 1 6 ounces of gold. In the Saxon Chronicle, under the year 975, Edgar is called the "brace- let-giver to heroes." Amongst the Danes, the most sacred form of oath was that sworn on the holy bracelet, originally kept at an altar, but afterwards worn on the arm of a priest. This ceremony is alluded to by the Saxon Chronicle under the year 876. Various ancient ornaments of this kind have been found in different parts of the island. BRADFIELD RESERVOIR. The embank- ment of this large reservoir, situated within a few miles of Sheffield, suddenly burst at mid- night, March n, 1864, when the water rushed in torrents through the neighbouring villages, drowning 250 persons, and causing an immense destruction of property. BRADFORD (Yorkshire). This town is mentioned in Domesday Book (q. v.) as waste, the whole surrounding country having been desolated by William I. in suppressing an in- surrection in 1070. Notice of the church occurs in 1281, and the town was, at an early period, an important centre of the woollen manu- facture. The royalists, foiled in an attack upon Bradford, Sunday, Dec. 18, 1642, effected its capture in July, 1643. Riots occurred here in 1812, and a strike, lasting from June 14 to Nov. 7, 1825, threw 20,000 persons out of em- ployment. Riots against the use of machinery took place here in May, 1826 ; the franchise was conferred by the Reform Act in 1832 ; and serious disturbances occurred in consequence of the New Poor Laws, Nov. 20, 1837. Eighteen persons were accidentally poisoned here in consequence of a confectioner having adulte- rated lozenges with arsenic instead of a prepa- ration of gypsum, known as " daff," Oct. 30, 1858. The grammar school, founded by Ed- ward VI., and incorporated by charter of Charles II. in 1663, was rebuilt in 1830. Aire- dale College, a seminary for Independent ministers, was established in 1665. The Piece- hall was erected in 1773, the Bradford canal was finished in 1774, and the new market-place was opened in Sep., 1824. The dispensary was established in 1826, the mechanics' institute in 1832, the court-house in 1834, the temperance- hall in 1837, and the new infirmary in 1844. All Saints' church, built by Mr. F. S. Powell, M.P., was consecrated March 31, 1864. The foundation-stone of the Exchange was laid by Lord Palmerston, Aug. 9, 1864. BRADOCK DOWN (Battle). Sir R. Hopton, with inferior numbers, defeated the parlia- mentary army at this place, near Liskeard, in Cornwall, about the middle of Jan., 1643. With trifling loss on his part, he took 1,250 prisoners, all their cannon, colours, arms, &c. BRAGA (Portugal). This city, the Bracara Augusta of the Romans, is the seat of an arch- bishopric, which dates from about A.D. 37. In 445 it became the capital of the Suevi, who were expelled by the Visigoths in 585. It fell under Moorish domination, and was taken by the forces of Old Castile in 1040. Councils were held here May i, 563 ; June i, 572 ; and in 675. BRAGANCA. According to tradition, this ity in Portugal was founded by King Brigo, B.C. 1906. Its real founder was Sancho I., who built the present city and castle in 1187. Bra- ca was erected into a duchy by Alphonso V., n 1442. In 1782 the see of Miranda was transferred to Braganca, the bishop retaining both titles. BRAGANCA (House of). Portugal threw off the Spanish yoke in 1640, and John II., eighth Duke of Braganca, was raised to the throne Dec. i, under the title of John IV. The family dates from the beginning of the i$ih century, when Alphonso, a natural son of John I., was cre- ated Duke of Braganca and Lord of Guima- raens. He married Beatrice, daughter of the Count of Barcellos and Ourem, and from them the Braganca line sprang. In 1801 Napoleon I. declared that the reign of the Braganca sove- reigns had ceased. John, regent of the king- dom, withdrew to Brazil in 1807, but he returned in 1821. At his death, in 1826, his son, Don Pedro, resigned the throne in favour BRAHMINS [ 166 ] BRAZIL of his daughter Maria II., preferring to remain Emperor of Brazil, which he had been elected Nov. 18, 1825. BRAHMINS. The order of Hindoo priests, constituting the highest of the four castes into which the Hindoo nation is divided, is of great antiquity. It is said that their Vedas, or sacred books, date from B.C. 1400, and that some of their codes of criminal and civil law go back nearly 3,000 years from the present* time. The Hindoo tradition respecting the origin of this caste is, that in the first crea- tion the Brahmins proceeded with the Veda from the mouth of Brahma, their chief god. The system of castes prevailed both in Egypt and in India, and much controversy has been excited as to whether India borrowed it from or Egypt from India. lAILOW (Battle). Fought near Brailow, or Ibrail, in Wallachia, between the Russians and the Turks, June 19, 1773, the latter having been defeated. The town, taken by the Rus- sians June 18, 1828 the siege having com- menced May 1 1 was restored to the Turks by the treaty of Hadrianople (q. v.}, Sep. 14, 1829. BRAMHAM MOOR (Battle!. Sir Thomas Rokeby, High Sheriff of Yorkshire, defeated the Earl of Northumberland, who had rebelled a second time against Henry IV., at this place in Yorkshire, Feb. 19, 1408. The Karl of Northumberland was killed in this battle. BRANDENBURG (Prussia). This province, .subjugated by Charlemagne A.D. 789, some time after regained its independence, which it enjoyed until 928, when it was conquered and annexed to Saxony. It became a margraviate under Albert, surnamed the Bear, in 1142. On the extinction of that race in 1320, it was given by the Emperor Louis V. to his son Louis, and was sold by one of his descendants to Charles IV. It continued in this family until the Emperor Sigismund obtained possession in 1411, and by him it was, in 1415, sold to Frederick of Hohciizollern, one of whose suc- cessors founded the kingdom of Prussia in 1701. The town of Brandenburg, founded about the 7th century, was made a bishop's see in 946. It was suppressed in 1565. BRANDY, formerly called Brandwine, was first mentioned about 1671. The aqua vitse invented by Raymond Lully, who died in 1515, is often mistaken for brandy. Potato brandy was distilled by C. Skytes about 1747. BRANDY STATION (Battle). The Con- federate cavalry, under Gen. Stuart, defeated the Federals in a skirmish at this place in Virginia, Aug. 20, 1862. BRANDY-WINE (Battle). At Brandy-wine Creek, near Newcastle, in Pennsylvania, Lore Comwallis, with inferior numbers, defeated, Sep. ii, 1777, an American army of 15,000 men, advantageously posted. BRANKIRKA (Battle). Christian II. o Denmark was defeated by the Swedes, under Sten Sture the younger, at this place in Sweden, in 1518. BRASENOSE C OLLE GE (Oxford). Brasenose Hall existed in the time of Henry III., in the middle of the i^th century, and was known by that name in 1278, a nose of brass being fixed to the gate. The name s said to be derived from a conniption of bra- inium or brasinhuse, because it was originally ituated in part of Alfred's palace used as a brew- .ouse. William Smyth, Bishop of Lichfield, fterwards of Lincoln, and chancellor of the niversity of Oxford, and Sir R. Sutton, founded his institution about 1508. A charter was granted by Henry VIII., Jan. 35, 1512, for one principal and 60 scholars of the King's Hall and College of Brasenose. The new library was finished in 1663, and the foundation itone of the new chapel was laid in 1656. t has received numerous benefactions. BRASS. The art of making this alloy of jopper and zinc was known in ancient times, ^nd the early Britons are said to have possessed jrass foundries. The celebrated colossus of Rhodes, erected about B.C. 288, was formed of brass. This fact has, however, been disputed, xnd it is certain that the present process of making brass is altogether of modern in- vention. The first works in England are said ;o have been established at Esher in 1649. In 1781 Emerson obtained a patent for making jrass in a more direct way, by melting to- gether its constituent metals. (See MONU- MENTAL BRASSES.) BRATUSPANTIUM. This town of the Bellovaci (q.v.) was besieged and taken by Julius Caesar B.C. 57. According to smno .uthorities Beavais, and according to others Breteuil, occupies its site. BRAY (Berks). Fuller's story of the Vicar u f Bray, who held his living under Henry VIII., Edward VI., Mary, and Elizabeth, being first a Uomau Catholic, then a Protestant, again a Roman Catholic, and once more a Protest- ant, on the principle that he intended to live and die Vicar of Bray, is not borne out by the Church records. The living was not held by the same person for so long a period as tli.-it required to prove the truth of the anecdote. BRAZIL (South America). This country, discovered by Vincent Pinzon, was afterwards surveyed by Amerigo Vespucci, who published an account of it, with a map. The Spaniards and French occupied several portions of the country. A.D. 1500, Feb. Vincent Pinzon, having sailed from Pnlos, in Dec. the preceding year, arrives at Cape Augustine, and discovers and names the river Amazon. April 23. Pedro Alvarez Cabral is driven on to the coast, and takes possession of the country on behalf of the King of Portugal. 1530. Capt. Hawkins, of Plymouth, the first English- man who visits Brazil, prevails on one of the native chiefs to accompany him to England. 1549. The Portuguese found St. Salvador, and the Jesuits first enter Brazil. 1553. Settlements formed by Europeans extend as far as the river La Plata, and the country is made a Jesuit province. ISS5- Coligny establishes a settlement of French Protest- ants in Brazil. 1558. The Portuguese massacre most of the French settlers. - 1560. The French Huguenots are ctfpclled by the Portu- guese. 1572. The English mnke nn unsuccessful attempt to obtain a footing in Brazil. 1580. It passes into the power of Philip II., King of Spain, who becomes Sovereign of Portugal. 1624. First invasion of Brazil by the Hutch, who take Bahia, but are unable to make a permanent settlement. BREAD [ 167 ] BREDA 1630. Second invasion by the Dutch, who take Olinda and the province of Pcrnambuco. 1654. Vieyra restores Brazil to the Portuguese rule. Free trade is opened between Brazil and England. 1661. The Dutch resign all claim to Brazil. 1723. The French found Monte Video, wluch is seized by the Spaniards. 1760. The Jesuits are expelled from Brazil. 1763. The seat of government is transferred from Bahia to Rio. 1772. Revolt of the oppressed natives and negro slaves. 1789. Insurrection of the province of Minas. 1808, Jan. 2,1. The royal family of Portugal, driven from Lisbon by the Fn nch, reach Brazil. 1815, Aug. i. The culture of the tea-plant is introduced into Brazil. Dec. 16. John, Prince Kegent of Portugal, erects Brazil into a kingdom. 1831. Revolutions in Para, Bahia, Pernambuco, and Rio Janeiro. The king returns to Lisbon, leaving Don Pedro Regent of Brazil. 1833, Sep. 21. Don Pedro refuses to recognize the authority of the King of Portugal, and is proclaimed "con- stitutional Emperor of Brazil." 1825, May 13. The King of Portugal recognizes the inde- pendence of the Brazilian empire. 1838. Brazil recognizes Monte Video as an independent state. 1839. Insurrection in Pernambuco. 1831, April 6. The Emperor abdicates in favour of his infant son Don Pedro April 7. He embarks for Europe. 1840. July 23. The Emperor is declared of age by a coup d'etat, and assumes the head of affairs. 1850, Sep. 4. The Emperor issues a decree, making the im- portation of slaves piratical. 1858, Nov. 8. Inauguration of the first Brazilian railroad from Rio to Belem (38 miles). 1862, Oct. A conflict occurs at Belem about the end of this month, between the Brazilian authorities and two Peruvian ships-of-war, respecting the customs rights of Brazil relative to the entry of the Amazon. 1863, Jan. 2. By order of the English envoy at Rio Janeiro, several Brazilian merchant vessels are seized by British ships-of-war in reprisal of alleged insults offered to three officers of H.M.S. Forte, and of the pillage of the Prince of Wales, trading vessel, shipwrecked on the Brazilian coast. Feb. 26. The Brazilian Government pays, under protest, the indemnity demanded by the English envoy. May 28. The Brazilian envoy quits London. June 6. The English envoy is recalled from Rio de Janeiro. June 18. The King of Belgium having been chosen to arbitrate between England and Brazil, decides in favour of the latter. 1864, A ag. 4. In consequence of repeated outrages Brazil addresses an ultimatum to Uruguay. Aug. 9. It is rejected, and war commences (See URUGUAY). Oct. 12. The seizure of the Brazilian postal steamer Marquis of Olinda leads to a war with Paraguay (q.v.). 1865, May 4. An alliance is concluded at Buenos Ayres between Brazil, Uruguay, and the Argentine Confederacy. Sep. 23. Friendly relations having been restored with Great Britain, an English minister is received by the emperor. EMPEROES. A. I). 1822, Dec. i. Pedro I. 1831, July 18. Pedro II. BREAD. Various materials were converted into bread in ancient times, when wheaten flour was not in such general use as at present. From the description of England prefixed to Holinshed's Chronicle, it appears that even in this country bread was made "of such grain as the soil yieldeth, nevertheless the gentility commonly provide themselves sufficiently of wheat for their own tables, while their house- hold and poor neighbours in some shires are enforced to content themselves with rye or barley, yea, and in time of dearth, many with bread made either of beans, peas, or oats, or of all together, or some acorns among." Amongst other substitutes for wheat, potatoes and various kinds of earth have been used. Stow says Bread Street was so called on account of its being the place where bread was formerly sold, and adds : " For it appearethby records that in the year 1302, which was tho 3oth of Edward I., the bakers of London were bounden to sell no bread in their shops or houses, but in the market." Butter was substituted for dripping, to be eaten with bread at breakfast, between the reigns of Edward IV. and Elizabeth. By a royal man- date issued by Henry III. in the 36th year of his reign (1252), bakers were ordered not to impress bread intended for sale with the sign of the cross, Agnus Dei, or the name of Jesus Christ. (See ASSIZE OF BREAD, BAKER, &c.) BREAD-AND-CHEESE WAR, In conse- quence of oppressive taxation, the people of Holland rose in rebellion in 1491, and seized Alkmaar, using for their standard a banner bearing the device of a loaf and cheese : hence the name. BREAD-FRUIT TREE. This esculent, found in the South-Sea Islands, was intro- duced into the West Indies by order of the British Government. The first attempt in 1789 under Bligh failed, on account of the mutiny of part of his crew on board the Bounty. Bligh was sent out again in 1791, reached Otaheite in 1792, and landed the plants in 1793. Capt. Bligh received the gold medal offered in 1777 by the Society for the Encouragement of Arts and Manufactures to any one who should bring the bread-fruit plant in a state of vegetation from the South-Sea Islands to the West Indies. The experiment succeeded, but the negroes prefer their own preparation of food from the plantain. BREAKWATER. The mole at Tangier, com- menced in 1663, and abandoned, though not completed, in 1676 ; the works commenced at Plymouth Aug. 12, 1812, and completed in 1841 ; those at Cherbourg, commenced June 6, 1784, continued at intervals, and completed in 1858; those at Portland, commenced in 1849; and the Admiralty pier at Dover, commenced about 1844, are amongst the most celebrated breakwaters in the world. (See HOLYHEAD). BREASTPLATE. A portion of the vest- ment worn by the high-priest amongst the Jews, was called the breastplate of judgment, and to it the Urim and Thummim were at- tached. The defensive armour called the breastplate, worn both in ancient and modern times, is made of various materials. BRECHIN (Scotland). This ancient town, supposed to have been the capital of the kings ofthePicts, was burned by the Danes A.D. 1012. It was made a bishopric in 1150, and the see, suppressed in 1689, was revived in 1731. Brechin was taken by Edward I., Aug. 9, 1303, and was burned by Montrose in 1645. (See HUNTLY HILL, Battle.) BREDA (Holland), founded about 1190, was annexed to Spain in 1567. It was recovered in March, 1590, by Prince Maurice of Nassau, to whose family it belonged during the i4th and isth centuries. During the struggle with BREECH [ 168 ] BRESCIA Spain conferences were opened here March 3, 1575, and closed July 8, 1575. The Spaniards besieged Breda in 1624, and captured it in June, 1625. It came into the possession of the United Provinces Oct. 6, 1637, and was con- firmed to them by the peace of Westphalia in 1648. Charles II. resided here during part of his exile, and his celebrated declaration was written at Breda, and dated April 14 (O. S. 4), 1660. Peace between England, France, and Holland was concluded here July 20 (O. S. 10), 1667. During the revolution the assembly of the United Belgic States met here Sep. 14, 1789. Breda capitulated to the French Feb. 25, 1793. The French were expelled in 1813, and Breda was restored to Holland at the peace in 1815. BREECH-LOADING GUNS. Breech-load- ing hand-cannon were used, it is believed, early in the reign of Henry VI. (1422 1461). "Carts of war," a species of artillery peculiar to Scot- land, which the barons of that country were commanded to employ against the English in 1471, were also breech-loading weapons. The Muri/ Rose ship-of-war, which sank off the French coast in 1545, contained breech-loading ordnance that has been recovered from the wreck ; and numerous weapons of the i^ih and i6th centuries, constructed on the same prin- ciple, and exhibiting other modern improve- ments, are deposited at the arsenal at Venice. Breech-loading cannon were invented by Dr. Lind and Capt. Blair in 1774, and were improved byLieut.-Gen. Sir W. Congreve, who exhibited a breech-loading field-piece of his own inven- tion shortly before his death in 1814. Rifled breech-loading ordnance was introduced by Major Cavalli, of the Sardinian army, and Baron Wahrendorff, of the Swedish service, about 1847. BREHON LAW prevailed in Ireland previous to its conquest by Henry II. in 1169, and was so called because the Irish name for a judge is Brehon. The Irish nation received and swore to observe the English laws at the Great Coun- cil assembled at Lismore. Spencer, in 1596, describes Brehon Law as " a rule of right un- written, but delivered by tradition from one to another, in which oftentimes there appeared great show of equity in determining the right between party and party, but in many things repugnant quite both to God's laws and man's." This account is not altogether correct, as the code existed in manuscript as early as the i4th century. King John, who visited Ireland in 1210, ordained and established by letters patent that it should be governed by the laws of Eng- land. The Irish, however, clung to the Brehon Law. Henry III. and his successors made several efforts to induce them to abandon it ; and Edward III., by the statute of Kilkenny, in 1366, formally abolished the Brehon Law, the practice of which was, by the last-mentioned statute, made treason. The Brehon Law was not, however, in spite of this and other enact- ments, entirely abolished until the reign of James I. The Earl of Eglinton, in 1852, ap- pointed a commission to secure the transcrip- tion and translation of the ancient Irish ^BREITENFELD (Battles.) (See LEIPSIC.) BREMEN (Germany). The capital of the republic of Bremen, and one of the free IlaiiHe towns, is first mentioned as a bishop's see" A.D. 787. The Archbishop of Hamburg removed his seat here in 845, and Bremen itself became an archbishopric in 1203. It was destroyed by the Hungarians in 900. In 1283 it joined the Hanseatic League ; and in 1648 its archbishop- ric was suppressed. Bremen was made an imperial city in 1640. A majority of the in- habitants having declared in favour of Pro- testantism, the city was separated from the remainder of the diocese. The latter, called the duchy of Bremen, was ceded to Sweden by the peace of Westphalia, Oct. 24, 1648. Denmark conquered it in 1712, and sold it to Hanover in 1715, with which it was incorpo- rated in 1732. The French captured it Aug. 29, I 757 again in 1758, but were speedily expelled, and took it again in 1759. It was taken by the French in 1806, and annexed to the French empire in 1810, but regained its independence in 1813, and was made a member of the Ger- man Confederation in 1815. BRENNEVILLE (Battle). Louis VI. of France, who supported the claim of William Clito to the estates in Normandy seized by Henry I., was defeated by the latter in the plain of Brenneville, in Normandy, Aug. 20, 1119. This is sometimes called the battle of Bremulle, and also of Noyon. BRENTFORD (Battles). Edmund Ironside defeated the Danes at Brentford, with great slaughter, in May, 1016. Charles I. defeated the parliamentary army near this place, Nov. 12, 1642. BRESCIA (Italyi, the ancient Brixia, was conquered by the Romans. The Goths burned it A.D. 412, and Attila plundered it in 452. It became an important city under Lombard rule, and the capital of a province of the same name. It was taken by Charlemagne. It joined the league against the Emperor Frederick I. in 1175, and successfully resisted the arms of Frederick II. in 1238. It was long a prey to the various factions by which Italy was con- vulsed ; was taken by the Emperor Henry VII. in 1311, by the Venetians in 1426, and by the French in 1509. The Venetians having regained possession in 1512, it was taken and sacked by the French, under Gaston de Foix, Feb. 16, but was again captured, after a long siege, by the Venetians, May 26, 1516. It was annexed to Venice in 1576, and continued under the sway of that republic until 1797. The French having captured it in 1796, they were expelled in 1799; but Brescia again passed under their yoke until 1815, when, with the remainder of Lombardy, it was ceded to Austria. During the revolution of 1848, the Austrians were ex- pelled, but it was retaken March 30, 1849, and passed to Sardinia, by the treaty of Zurich, in 1859. Its cathedral was commenced in 1604, and completed in 1825. (See ARNOLDISTS.) BRESCIA (Treaty,. The Venetians, jealous of the growing influence of their ally, Francis Sforza, concluded this treaty with the repub- licans of Milan, during his siege of that city, Sep. 27, 1449. The reduction of Milan (q. v.), which followed soon after, rendered its pro- visions of no effect. BRESLAU [ 169 ] BREWERS BRESLAU (Silesia). The bishopric of Smogre, founded in 960, was transferred to Breslau in 1062. Councils were held at Breslau in 1248, and Feb. 2, 1268. Frederick II. of Prussia took possession of Breslau Jan. i, 1741. After the battle of Czaslau (q. v.), May 17, 1742, a treaty of peace between Frede- rick II. and Maria Theresa was drawn up at Breslau under the mediation of the British ambassador, June n, 1742, and definitively con- cluded July 28. Silesia and Glatz, in Bohemia, were ceded to Prussia. A great battle was fought here between the Austrians and the Prus- sians, Nov. 22, 1757, and the latter having been defeated, the Austrians took possession of Breslau Nov. 25 ; but it was retaken by Frede- rick II. Dec. 19, in the same year. Loudon, who had appeared before it July 30, 1760, was compelled to raise the siege Aug. 5, and the Russians bombarded it in 1761. The French took it in 1806, and its fortifications were de- molished in 1814. Its university was founded in 1702, and that of Frankfort-on-the-Oder was incorporated with it in 1811. BREST (France), supposed to be the ancient Brivates Portus, came into the possession of the Duke of Britanny in 1240. It was fre- quently captured and held by the English in the continental wars during the i4th and isth centuries ; and it passed to the French crown, with the remainder of Britanny, by the mar- riage of Louis XII. with Anne of Britanny, widow of Charles VIII., in 1498. Sir Thomas Howard burned Brest May 23, 1512 ; and an in- decisive action between the French and Eng- lish fleets occurred off the port Aug. 10, in the same year. Sir Edward Howard, lord high admiral, sailed into Brest, landed some men, and ravaged the country in 1513, and was killed outside the port in an attempt to destroy some French galleys. Sir Martin Frobisher assisted the French to recover Brest from the Spaniards in 1594. The harbour was improved in 1631 by order of Richelieu, who made Brest a naval station. The English failed in an attack upon Brest in June, 1694. Capt. Gordon was beheaded at Brest in 1769, on a charge of being concerned in a conspiracy for setting fire to the shipping in that port. The hospital was destroyed by fire, and 50 slaves lost their lives, in Nov., 1776. Lord Howe defeated the French fleet off Brest, June i, 1794 ; and the port was blockaded by an English squadron during the French revolutionary war. BRETEUIL (France). This town of Nor- mandy possesses a church, erected in the nth century, and the ruins of a castle, built by William the Conqueror in the same period. In 1356 it was taken by John II. of France, after a long siege. Joanna, daughter of Charles II. of Navarre, was here made prisoner by the French and taken to Paris in 1377. BRETHREN. (See BIANCHI, MORAVIAN, PLYMOUTH BRETHREN, 7o/.. Ccnulpb. 819. Ceolwulph. 737. Ina, King of Wesscx, quits the throne, and retires to .ndn. 831. Jicornwulph. Koine. 659. Wnlfhcre. 836. Ludican. 755. Insurrection in Mercia, and death of King Ethclbald. 777- Offa, Kingof Mercia, commences an intercourse with 675. r.thelred. 704. GYnrcd. .>6. Wiglaf. 835. Bertulph. Charlemagne. 709. Ccolred. 853. Burrhcd. 787. The Danes (7. r.) first land in England. 716. Ethclbald. 875. Ceolwulph. 800. Egbert is recalled from exile to ascend the throne of 755. Offa. K<)3. Kthelred, Wessex. 813. Egbert lays waste West Wales. KINGS OF DEIRA. is united to Wesscx. A.D. A.D. 834. Kent is united to Wessex. 559. Ella, or Alia. 644. Oswin. 835. Nortlmmbria is united to Wessex. '5*9. Ethelric, Kingof Berni- 653. Oswy, King of Ber- The date usually assigned for the dissolution cia. 593. Ethclfrith, ditto. nicia. 663. Alfred. of the Heptarchy (q. -o. is 827 ; but the title I,,-, r, I win. 670. Ecgfrid, King of Ber- " King of the English" was first assumed, ac- cording to Hume, by Edward the Kl-.ler, son of Alfred the Great, in 901. Sharon Turner makes 633. Osric. (.34. Oswald, King of Berui- cia. nieia. (United to Bernicia, taking the name Xorthumbria.) Athclstan the first king of all England, and KINGS OF NORTHUMBRIA, OR BERNICIA. fixes 934 as the year when he assumed the title. 547. Ida. A.D. 730. Ceolwulph. THE HEPTARCHY. 559. Adda. 737. Eadbert. KINGS OF KK.NT. 566. Clappa. 758. Osulph. A.D. A.D. 571. Theodulf. "9. l-thelwald, surnamed 455- IlengisU 725. Kthelbert and Edbert. S7* 1 reothnlf. Mono. 748. Ethelbert alone. 5-9. Thcodric. 765. Aired. 513. < >cta. 7<,o. Alric. 586. Ethelric. 774. Ethelred. 534. Eniric. 774. Sigirned, Eadbert, and 593. Ethclfrith. 779. A If wold. 5oK. Etlleib;,t. Eardalph. di-. !:.! win, Kingof Deira. 789. ( isred II. 6l6. E.'idbaM. 786. Egebert. 633. Ennfrid. 790. Ethelred (restored). 640. Ercombcrt. 79*. Cudrcd. 634. Oswald. 796. Osbald, Eardulf . 604. Egbert. 605. I'.nMred. 643. Oswv. 808. Alfwold. 673. Lothaiiv. r,H5. Edrie. 686. Wihtred. 834. Submitted to Egbert, Kingof Wessex. (Uni- ted to Wcssex.) 670. Ecgfrid. (United to Deira, the two king- doms being called 810. Enured (submits to Egbert, King of Wcssex, 835). KINGS OF SI-SSKX. Nortliumbria.) 867. Ella and Osbort, rival A.D. A.D. 685. Alfred. sovereigns of Nortli- 491. Ella. 636. Cynegils, King of 705. Eadwulph (3 mouths). umbria, are slain by 5.4. Cissa. 588. Ceawlin, King of Wcssex. Wesscx (again). 643. Cenwalch, ditto. f>4S. Kdilwalch. 705. Osred I. 716. Cenred. 718. Osric. the Danes. 871. Egbert, succeeded by Kicscg (who died 876). 593. Ceolric, ditto. 598. Ceolwulph, ditto. 687. Cadwallader, or Cead- walla, King of BRITANNIA THEATRE (London). This 611. Cynegils, ditto. AVcssex. (IVnnanently establishment, erected on the site of the Bri- 613. Quicehu. united to Wessex.) tannia Saloon, with seats for 2,500 spectators, KINGS OF WESSEX. was opened Monday, Nov. 8, 1858. A.D. 519. Cerdic. A.1J, 737. l-'.tliclheard. BRITANNIA TUBULAR BRIDGE, over the 534. Kenric. 740. Cuthrcd. Mcnai Strait, was commenced in 1846, and 560. Ceawlin. 754. Sigcbvrth and Cyne- opened March 5, 1850. It was designed and 593. Ceolric. 598. Ceolwulph. wulf. 784. Brithtric. 800 Egbert executed by Robert Stephenson, and is the first structure of the kind. 643. Cenwalch. KV;. Ktiielwulph. BRITANNY (France), or BRETAGNE. 673. Sexburga. 674. JBscwin and Kentwin. 686. Cadwallader. or Cead- walla, 688. Ina. 858. Ethelbald. 86 1. Ethelbert. 867. Ethelred. 870. Alfred the Great. This name was given to a portion of Armorica (q. v.}, in which some Britons from Cornwall formed a colony, in the latter part of the 4th century. The country was subjugated by BRITANNY 175 BRITISH Charlemagne. In 841 the Bretons regained their independence and were ruled by their own sovereigns, ' tributary at times to the Prankish kings. Charles II. (the Bald), after several severe struggles, induced its sovereigns to do homage to him, and this was afterwards rendered to the dukes of Normandy. 818. Louis I. (the Pious) of France intrusts Nominee" with delegated authority. 841. Nominee revolts, becomes the first duke, and captures the march -land of Kennes. 843. First expedition of Charles II. into Britanny. He is compelled to retreat on account of the severity of the weather. 845. Charles II. undertakes a second expedition, and is defeated at Baldon, the battle lasting two days. 848. Nominee assumes the title of king, and obtains the golden crown from the Pope. 850. Charles II. enters Britanny for the third time. Nominee, again victorious, dies suddenly. 851. His son, Herispoii, succeeds, and does homage to Charles II. Dissensions arise between France and Britanny, and Charles II. invades it for the fourth time. 853. Charles the Second's fifth expedition leads to a peace. 858. The Bretons, incensed at the alliance with the Franks, are induced by Solomon, Herispoe's nephew, to revolt, and Herispoe is killed in a church. Solomon succeeds. 861. A portion of Britanny is assigned to Robert-le-Fort, by the groat council held at Compiegne. 874. Solomon, deposed by a cousin and a nephew, is cast into prison, and these relatives, Pasquitaiu and Gurvard, divide Britanny between them. 877. Alain I., surnamed the Great, obtains the supre- macy. 907. The Northmen ravage Britanny, which, divided into four great counties, Rennes, Nantes, Yannes, and Cornouailles, remains for some time in a very distracted state. 931. Britanny is ceded to the Northmen by Count Robert. 933. Rollo's supremacy is acknowledged in Britanny. 931, Sep. 39. The Bretons revolt against the Northmen. 933. Guillaume Longue-epee, having vainly sought to in- duce the Bretons to return to their allegiance, invades and subdues them. The Channel Islands and other parts of Britanny are annexed to Nor- mandy. 937. Athelstane, King of England, interferes in behalf of Alain II., who recovers part of Britanny. Cor- nouailles is permanently annexed to Normandy. 938-43. Alain II. defeats the Northmen at D61, St. Brieux, and Nantes, and obtains part of Anjou. 944. The Northmen invade Britanny. Confusion prevails for several years. 993. Geoffrey I. rules all Bntanny, and takes the title of Duke. 1076. William I. of England invades Britanny, but retires, the duke being supported by Philip I. of France. 1148. Three dukes rule in Britannv. 1183. Marriage of Geoffrey of An'jou, Duke of Britanny, with Constance, daughter of Duke Conan. 1186. Geoffrey II. is killed at a tournament at Paris. 1196. Arthur, posthumous son of Geoffrey II. and Con- stance, is acknowledged Duke of Britanny. 1303, April 3. Mysterious death of Arthur, at Rouen. 1334. Alliance of France and Britanny against the English. 1337. Abdication of Peter I. (Mauclerc), who is succeeded by John I. 1309. A project to render Britanny subject to England is prevented by the people. 1341. The duchy of Britanny is disputed by Charles de Blois and John de Montfort, the former being supported by Philip VI. of France, and the latter by Edward III. of England. 1378. Unsuccessful incursions by John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster. 1395, Oct. 2,0. Peace in Britanny, after long wars. 1399. Deatli of John IV., " the Valiant," who is succeeded by his infant son John, under the tutelage of his mother. 1433. A treaty between Britanny and Henry VI. of Eng- land is made against France. 1436. War ia declared between England and Britanny. .. 1449. Alliance between the Duke of Britanny and the King of France, who fight in conceit against the English. 1450. Francis I. poisons his brother Giles, and dies, soon afterwards, from fear and remorse. 1489. Marriage, by proxy, of Anne of Britanny to Maxi- milian, King of the Romans. 1491. Charles VIII. of France annuls the marriage between Anne of Britanny and Maximilian, and weds her himself. 1501. Treaty of Trente, whereby Claude, the infant Princess of Britanny, is betrothed to Prince Charles of Austria, on the condition that her duchy shall constitute her dowry. 1514. Death of Anne, and marriage of Claude with the Duke of Angouieme. 1515. The Duke of Angoule'me becomes Francis I. of France, and receives the duchy of Britamiy from his wife Claude. 1534. Death of Claude, who bequeaths Britanny to the dauphin. 1533. Britanny is finally annexed to France. DUKES OF BBITANNY. A.D. A.D. 993. Geoffrey I. 1305. Arthur II. 1008. Alain III. 1313. John III. 1040. Conan II. 1341. Charles de Blois and 1066. Hoelll. John de Montfort. 1084. Alain Fergent. 1345. Charles alone. 1113. Conan III. 1364. John IV. 1148. Eudes, HoelllL, and 1399. John V. Geoffrey. 1443. Francis I. 1156. Conan IV. 1450. Peter II. 1171. Geoffrey II. 1457. Arthur III. 1186. (Interregnum.) 1458. Francis II. 1196. Arthur I. and Con- 1488. Anne. stance. 1514. Claude. 1303. Guy de Tours, regent. 1515. Francis I., King of 1313. Peter I. Mauclerc. France and Duke of 1337. John I. Britanny. 1386. John II. BRITISH AMERICA. Sir Walter Raleigh formed a settlement in North America, in 1585, which, in honour of Queen Elizabeth, was called Virginia. It did not, however, succeed, and Sir Francis Drake, who touched there in 1586, brought the colonists to England. An- other attempt was made in 1607, when the first permanent settlement of the English in Ame- rica was formed at Jamestown, in Virginia. Other colonies were speedily established. The inhabitants of Virginia and of other parts of the American continent under English rule, in 1776, declared their independence, which was recognized by England in 1782. A conference of delegates from the dependencies of Great Britain in North America assembled at Quebec Oct. 10, 1864, to consider the propriety of a federal union of those provinces under the British crown, and passed resolutions affirming the desirability of such a union, provided it could be effected on principles just to the several colonies. (The British colonies in Ame- rica are noticed under their names.) BRITISH ARCHAEOLOGICAL ASSOCIA- TION (London). This society was established in 1843, f r the promotion of research into the arts and monuments of the Middle Ages exist- ing in England. The Archaeological Institute (q.v.), founded the same year, was also originally termed the British Archaeological Association, its name having been changed at the annual meeting held at Winchester, Sep. 9-15, 1845. The 22iid annual meeting of the British Archae- ological Association took place at Durham, Aug. (See ARCHITEC- ARCHITECTS. TURAL SOCIETIES.) BRITISH [ 176 ] BRITISH BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE AD- VANCEMENT OF SCIENCE, instituted by Sir David Brewster, to promote scientific in- vestigation and discovery, held its inaugural meeting at York in Sep., 1831. The annual meetings have been held at the following places : A.T>. 1849. Birmingham, 2nd. 1850. Edinburgh, 2nd. 1851. Ipswich. 1853. Belfast. 1853. Hull. 1854. Liverpool, 2nd. 1855. Glasgow, 2nd. 1856. Cheltenham. 1857. Dublin, 2nd. 1858. Leeds. 1859. Aberdeen. 1860. Oxford, 3rd. 1 86 1. Manchester, and. 1862. Cambridge, 3rd. 1863. Newcastle, 2nd. 1864. Hath. 1865. Birmingham, 3rd. A.D. 1831. York, ist. 1832. Oxford, ist. 1833. Cambridge, 1st 1834. Edinburgh, ist. 1835. Dublin, ist. 1836. Bristol. 1837. Liverpool, ist. 1838. Newca-tlo, ist. 1839. Birmingham, 1st. 1840. Glasgow, ist. 1841. Plymouth. 1843. Manchester, 1st. 1843. Cork. 1844. York, 2nd. 1845. Cambridge, 2nd. 1846. Southampton. 1847. Oxford, 2nd. 1848. Swansea. BRITISH AUXILIARY LEGION. In June, 1835, the Foreign Enlistment Act was sus- pended, and a legion formed in this country under the command of Gen. Evans to assist the Queen of Spain in suppressing the Carlist Revolution. The war was waged with great fury, and in June, 1836, Gen. Evans issued a proclamation declaring that every Englishman found fighting on the side of Don Carlos would be put to death as a traitor. BRITISH BANK (London) was established in 1849, under the act to regulate joint-stock banks (7 . 1756. The books are transferred to Montague House. 1757. George II. presents the library collected by his pre- decessors. 1759, Monday, Jan. 15. The reading-room, entrance in Montague Place, is opened to the public. 176?. A collection of 30,000 tracts and MSB., bound in volumes for the use of Charles I., is purchased by George III., who presents it to the Museum. 1772, March 2,0. Sir W. Hamilton's collection is purchased for 8,410. 1801. New rooms are added for Egyptian antiquities. 1805. The Townley marbles are purchased for 30,000. 1807. The Lansdowne M.SS. are purchased for 4,925. 1810. A larger room is allotted to readers. The Greville collection of n inerals is purchased for ,13,727. 1815 The Phigalian marbles are purchased for 19,000. 1816. The Elgin marbles are purchased for 35,000. 1818. Dr. Burney's MSS., &c., are purchased for 13,500. 1820. The new building is commenced. 1823. George the Third's Library, consisting of 63,000 volumes, said to have cost 130,000, is presented by George IV. to the British Museum. 1831. The Arandel Library is added. 1845. The old house is removed. Oct. 28. By a codicil of this date the Hon. Thomas Grenville bequeaths his library, consisting of 20,240 volumes, said to have cost above 54,000. 1847, April 19. The portico is finished. 1854. The first grant for a new reading-room is obtained. 1855, Jan. The first standard for the new room is fixed. 1857, May 8. The new reading-room is opened. 1864, July. A refreshment room is opened for readers and officials. 1865, July 10. The bookbinders' workshops, containing several valuable MSS., are destroyed by fire. BRITISH ORPHAN ASYLUM (London). This institution, founded at Clapham Rise in 1827, was removed to a new building at Slough, in Buckinghamshire, opened by the Prince and Princess of Wales, June 24, 1863. BROAD BOTTOM ADMINISTRATION. Lord Granville having been compelled to retire from the Pelham ministry, Nov. 24, 1744, fresh arrangements were made which resulted in the formation, during the following month, of a coalition between the chiefs of different parties. From this circumstance it was ludicrously called the Broad Bottom Administration. First Lord of the Treasury) and Chancellor of theV The Hon. Henry Pelham. Exchequer .................. ) Lord Chancellor .................. Lord Hardwicke. President of the Council ... Duke of Dorset. Privy Seal ........................ Earl Gower. /Duke of Newcastle, Lo;d Secretary of State I 1746. Admiralty ........................ Duke of Bedford. Master of the Ordnance ...... Duke of Montague. Master of the Horse ............ Duke of Kichmond. Lord Chamberlain ............... Duke of Grafton. Lord Keepir, Scotland ......... Duke of Argyle. This administration, with the exception of an interval of two days, Feb. n and 12, 1746 (see LONG-LIVED ADMINISTRATION), remained in power until the death of the Hon. H. Pelham, March 6, 1754. The following are the principal changes that ensued during the period : live Earl of Chesterfield replaced Lord Harrington, who resigned the secretaryship of state Oct. 29, 1746. Lord Chesterfield, who resigned Feb. c>, 1748, was replaced by the Duke of Bedford Feb. 13, the Earl of Sandwich having taken the Admiralty Feb. 10. The Earl of Holdernesse superseded the Duke of Bedford June 21, 1751. Earl Granville became president of the council June 17, 1751. The Duke of Richmond was re- placed as master of the horse by the Marquis of Hartington in 1751. Lord Anson took the Admiralty, vacated by the Earl of Sandwich, June 22, 1751. (See NEWCASTLE ADMINISTRA- TION.) BROCCOLI. Brought to Italy from the island of Cyprus in the i6th century. BROKER. Regulations for the city of Lon- don, passed in 1285, ordered that brokers should be admitted and sworn before the warden or mayor, and aldermen. Persons acting in de- fiance of this law were to be arrested and im- prisoned, and were for ever inadmissible to the franchise. A parliament held by Edward III. in 1376, ordained that "no stranger merchant, nor other stranger, should use or exercise the occupation of 'brocage,' between merchant and merchant, or other persons, nor be a ' brocour ' within the city of London or its suburbs ;" and a petition was, in 1442, presented to Parliament demanding the enforcement of that law. They were called "broggers" in a statute of 10 Rich. II. (1386) ; and in 1574 Stow says there were but 10 of them in London. BROMINE. This elementary fluid body was discovered by Balard, a French chemist, in 1826. BROMSEBRO, orBROEMSBROE (Treaty). This peace, between Sweden and Denmark, was concluded Aug. 14, 1645. Christian IV. of Den- mark ceded Gothland and other territories, and his son Frederick renounced Bremen and Verden. BRONI (Battle). Prince Eugene defeated the French at this place in Savoy in 1703. BRONZE. Works in bronze were known in very ancient times; and the Israelites, at the time of their escape from Egypt, B.C. 1491, had made some progress in the art, as appears from Exod. xxx. 18 and xxxi. 4. It was improved by the Greeks and Romans, and revived in N BROOKES'S [ 178 ] BRUNANBURG Italy about the i4th century. Bronze casting had almost reached perfection amongst the Greeks about B.C. 330. BROOKES'S CLUB (London). This Whig Club, established in the first instance as Almack's Club, then Goosetree's (q. v.), named after Brookes, a wine merchant and money lender, who took it and built a house for it in St. James's Street, which was opened in Oct., 1778. Brookes retired from the club soon after, and is said to have died in poverty in 1782. BROOM-FLOWER IN THE HUSK. This order of knighthood was instituted at Sens by Louis IX., on his marriage with Margaret, eldest daughter of Raymond Berengarius, Count of Provence, in 1234. It became extinct during the 1 5th century. BROTFELD (Battle). Pa\il Kinis, Count of Temeswar, and Stephen Bathori, Waiwode of Transylvania, defeated the Turks at this place in Hungary, Oct. 13, 1479. BROTHERS' CLUB (London). The rules of this political club were framed in 1713 by Dean Swift, who stated that its object was " to ad- vance conversation and friendship, and to reward learning without interest or recom- mendation." It was dissolved in 1714, many of the members removing to the Scriblerus Club (7. r.). BROTHERS AND SISTERS OF THE FREE SPIRIT. This sect arose in Germany during the i3th century, and afterwards ex- tended into France and Italy. Perverting the Scripture doctrine that the Holy Spirit is a spirit of freedom, they disallowed the claims alike of ecclesiastical and moral law, and hav- ing cultivated pantheism, and the grossest licentiousness, they were denounced by the councils of Cologne in 1307, and of Treves in 1310, and shortly disappeared from the page of historv. BKi iTHERS OF CHARITY. (See CHARITY.) BROTHERS OFTHE SWORD. (See SWORD.) BROWNISTS, or HARROWISTS. The fol- lowers of Robert Browne, an ultra Puritan, born about 1550, who denounced the discipline and ceremonies of the Church of England, and having been imprisoned for a short time on account of his extreme views, quitted En-Ltnd, and formed a Church at Middleburg, in /ca- land. In 1589 he returned to England, sought re-admission to the Church, and in 1590 re- ceived the rectory of Achurch, in Northamp- tonshire. He is said to have died in 1630, :: in the prison of Northampton, in which he had been confined for striking a constable. On his deathbed he boasted of having been an inmate of 32 prisons. Landon says the Brownists " held all church officers and ministers to be unchristian and unlawful ; that the evil of the minister does away with the efficacy of the Sacrament ; that marriage is but a civil con- tract ; that all forms of prayer are unlawful, and that even the Lord's Prayer is to be used only as a model for extempore prayer ; that by communicating with the wicked at the Eucha- rist, the good become partakers in their wicked- * This date is not correct, as the parish registers of Achurch contain an entiy in his handwriting dated May 2i, T63!. \. ,y- Q. ness; and that salvation was to be obtained only in their sect ! " They were severely dealt with by the law. Elias Thacker was hanged June 4, 1583, and John Coping June 6, for dis- tributing Browne's libels against the Book of Common Prayer. Henry Barrow, John Green- wood, and Henry Penny were executed, the two former April 6, and the latter May v 2g, 1593. From Henry Barrow these sectarians received the name of Barrowists. Sir Walter Raleigh, in 1592, stated that there were 20,000 Brown- ists. They formed a settlement at New Ply- mouth, in Massachusetts, in 1620. They were condemned by the synod of London in 1640, and afterwards took the name of Independents. BRUCTERI. This German tribe, subdued by Tiberius, A.D. 4, and by Ctecina in 15, re- tained a distinct nationality as late as the sth century. BRUGES (Belgium) ranked as a city in the 7th century, and was celebrated in the time of Charlemagne for its industrial productions. Bruges was fortified A.D. 837, walls were erect- ed in 1052, and extended in 1270. The counts of Flanders, who resided at Bruges, obtained the rule in the gth century. It became a mem- ber of the Hanseatic League in 1300, and passed under the sway of the dukes of Burgundy in the i4th century. It suffered from the ravages of fire in 1184, 1215, and 1230. Wy cliff e, as second in a commission, was sent in 1375, by Edward III., to treat with the papal legate at Bruges, respecting the questions at issue be- tween the king and Gregory XI. Wycliffe re- mained at this place from July 27 to Sep. 14. During the isth and i6th centuries it attained the highest prosperity as an emporium of trade, and in 1429 Philip the Good, Duke of Bur- gundy, instituted the order of the Golden Fleece (q. v.}, in commemoration of its cele- brated woollen manufactures. Bruges passed to the Habsburg family in 1477, and the citizens rebelled against the Archduke Maximilian, and imprisoned him in 1488. During the re- ligious struggles it surrendered to Spain, May 20, 1584. The Dutch bombarded Bruges with- out success in 1704; and it surrendered to the allied army in 1706, after the victory at Ra- milles. The French took it by surprise July 5, 1708, and retired in 1709. The English took it in 1712, and the French again in 1745, and again in 1792. They were, however, expelled, but regained possession in 1794, and the inhabitants formally acknowledged the sovereignty of the French republic June 24. It was restored to the Netherlands in 1814, and has formed part of Belgium since 1830. Bruges was made a bishopric in 1561, which was united to Ghent in 1801. The town-hall at Bruges dates from 1377. BRUGES (Treaty). This alliance of England and Germany against Francis I. of France, called also the treaty of Windsor, was con- cluded at Bruges by Wolsey, Nov. 24, 1521, and ratified at Windsor by Henry VIII. and Charles V., in June, 1522. Henry agreed to invade France with 40,000 men, and promised to the emperor the hand of his eldest daughter Mary, who was affianced to the dauphin. BRUNANBURG (Battle). According to the best received account, Anlaf, the pagan King of the Irish, incited by Constantine III., King BEUNDISIUM BRUNSWICK of Scotland, sailed up the river Humber, with a fleet of 615 vessels; and having landed, was with his army encountered by Athelstan, who defeated him with much loss. The con- test is said to have lasted from daybreak to dusk, and in no previous battle in England had so much blood been shed. It has been called the Waterloo of the Anglo-Saxons. The chronicles differ respecting the locality and the date of this battle. It probably took place somewhere in the immediate neighbourhood of the Humber, and about 937. BRUNDISIUM, or BRUNDUSIUM (Italy). This city of Calabria, situated on the shores of the Adriatic, was an important stronghold of the Sallentines, long before the surrounding Greek colonies of Tarentum, founded. 1311. Brussels is visited liy the plague. 1346. The Museum is commenced. 1369. The walls are removed and the city is enhiryvd. 1370. The.le\\s an- banished. 1380. A second wall is built. 1401. The town-hall is commenced. 1405. A large portion of tlie city is destroyed by fire. 1443. The town-hall is completed. 1488. Tlie city is taken by Philip of Cloves. 1489. The plague commit 1507. Brussels becomes the seat of government for the Low Countries. 1518. The towers are added to the cathedral. 1567. Alva attempts to esta' lisli the Inquisition. 10,000 artisans <(iiit lirnssels. 1568, June 5. Execution of Egmont and Horn. (See HOLLAND.) 1578. The plague rages with great fury. 1695. Villeroi bombards the city, destroying a considerable portion. 1701. Brussels is captured by the French. 1706, Oct. 12. Martborough enters Brussels. 1708, Xov. 22. It is assailed by the Elector of Bavaria. Nov. 20- It is relieved by MarlbOTOUgb. 1746. The Old Palace is rebuilt: Feb. 16. Marshal Saxe takes Brussels. 1748. It is restored to Austria by the peace of Aix-Ia- Chapelle. 1749. Tlie Museum is extended. 1770. The academy is founded. 1700. Nov. The Austrians regain possession of Brussels, which had revolted. 1792, Nov. 14. Dumouriez takes the city. 1794. Dumouriez, having been driven out, regains pos- session. 1803, July 21. Napoleon I. makes a triumphal entry. 1814, Feb I. The Prussians enter Brussels. It becomes one of the capitals of the Netherlands. 1830, Sep. 23- Revolution. Brussels is made the capital of the new kingdom of Belgium. 1831, June 4. The National Congress at Brussels elects Leopold king. 1834, April 6. Riots occur in the city. The university is founded. 1848. A Peace Congress assembles at Brussels. 1853. A Statistical Congress assembles at Brussels. 1859, Aug. 31. The Assembly of Deputies, by a majority of 20, pronounce in favour of the fortification of Antwerp. Sep. 6. The proposal is adopted by the Senate. Sep. 8. It receives the royal assent. ' 1864, April 6. The foundation-stone of a new church is laid bvthe Bishop of Oxford. 1865, Dec. 10. Death of" Leopold I. (See LAEKEN.) BRUSSELS (The Union of ). This confede- racy, formed by the states of Holland in Jan. , 1577, had for its object the expulsion of the Spaniards, the execution of the pacification of Ghent (q. v.), and the maintenance of royalty and the Roman Catholic religion. It was dis- solved in 1578. (See UTRECHT, UNION OF.) BRUSTEX (Battle .Charles the Bold, of Burgundy, defeated the burghers of Liege at this village in the Netherlands, Oct. 28, 1467. BRZESC LJTEW8KI, or BREST LlTKV^Ki (Russia). Suwarrow defeated the Poles at this place in 1794. It was occupied by the Russians in 1795, and became the seat of a military school in 1841. BUBBLE ACT, passed in 1719 (6 Geo. I. c. 18), in order to punish unprincipled adventurers who proposed schemes merely as baits to extract money from the thoughtless. " The whole nation," says Tindal, "was become stock-jobbers. The South Sea scheme was like an infectious distemper, which spread itself in an astonishing manner. Eveiy even- ing produced new projects, which were justly called Bubbles, and new companies appeared every day." The king issued a proclamation against them June n, 1720. The act was re- pealed by 6 Ceo. IV. c 91 (July 5, 1825). BUCANEERS. The term boucan was ap- plied by the Caribbees to the flesh of cattle or fish dried in the sun. They taught this mode of curing to the early French settlers in I layti or St. Domingo, and they were called bouca- niers, or bucaneers, because they hunted wild Im.-ii-saiid buffaloes, and preserved their flesh after this peculiar method. The term was af; ei-wards applied to those bold and hardy adventurers, whether English, French, or Dutch, who assailed the Spanish settlements in America. On the failure of Dudley's con- spiracy 'q. v.) against Queen Mary, several <>( the confederates sought refuge at the court of Henry II. of France, who furnished them, in Aug., 1556, with three or four ships, in which they sailed with the avowed object of waging war against all Spaniards. Other expeditions were fitted out. The island of St. Christopher's was taken in 1623, and the little island of Tortuga, to the north of Hispaniola, in 1629. Here they carried on their piratical warfare, under various celebrated commanders. The Spaniards captured Tortuga in 1638, and the bucaneers regained possession in the following year. In 1603 the Dutch pirate, Van Horn, sailed at the head of 1,200 bucaneers, and took Vera Cruz. Morgan captured Panama in 1670 ; Grammont took Campeachy in 1685 ; and in 1697 Pointis seized Cartagena, and gained booty to the amount of ,1,750,000. A treaty, called the treaty of America, for the entire suppression of this warfare, was concluded be- tween Great Britain and Spain in 1670 ; but it was not until a few years after the peace of BUCEPHALA [ 181 ] BUENOS Ryswick, Sep. 10, 1697, that the bucaneer con- federacy was broken up. BUCEPHALA (India). This town, on the western bank of the Hydaspes, was founded by Alexander III., at the spot where he had crossed the river to attack Porus, an Indian king, whom he defeated, B.C. 327. It was built in memory of his famous charger, " Buce- phalus," which expired in the hour of victory. Jelum, in the Punjaub, is supposed to occupy its site. BUCHANITES. This Scotch sect, followers of one Mrs. Elspeth Buchan, whose maiden name was Simpson, a woman of indifferent character, sprang up in Irvine in 1783. In conjunction with Hugh White, minister of the Relief congregation of Irvine, she attempted to gain converts ; but an outbreak occurred, and they were both driven from the town in May, 1784. She was addressed "Friend Mother in the Lord," personified the woman mentioned in Rev. xii. i, and pretended that Hugh White was her son (Rev. xii. 5). She promised her followers bodily translation to heaven ; and on one occasion, after a long fast, led them to the top of a hill for that purpose. They retired to a place near Dumfries, where Mrs. Buchan died in May, 1791. On her deathbed she de- clared she had a secret to communicate, which was to the effect that she was the Virgin Mary. The last member of this fanatical sect is said to have died in 1846. BUCHAREST (Wallachia) was captured by the Russians in 1769, and by the Austrians in 1789. By the treaty of Bucharest, concluded between Turkey and Russia at this place May 28, 1812, the former ceded Bessarabia to Russia, and thus the frontier of the last-mentioned power was extended to the Pruth. The Czar agreed to restore Anapa and other places in Asia to the Sultan ; but this part of the treaty was not fulfilled ; and soon after Russia had recovered from the disastrous effects of the French invasion, she again made war upon Turkey. The Russians occupied Bucharest in July, 1853, but quitted it on July 28. The Turks regained possession Aug. 8, and were followed by the Austrians Sep. 6 in the same year. The Austrian occupation terminated in 1856. BUCKINGHAM PALACE (London). Old Buckingham House occupied a portion of the mulberry garden, at which Evelyn relates that Lady Gerrard treated him and some others, May 10, 1654. The new palace is erected on the site of Buckingham House, so called from John Sheffield, Marquis of Normanby, made Duke of Normanby March 9, and Duke of Buckingham March 23, 1703. Old Buckingham House was erected by him in 1703. The govern- ment purchased it in 1761 for Queen Charlotte, upon whom it was settled by George III., in case she should survive him. Hence it was called the Queen's House, and here nearly all her children were born. The new palace was commenced in 1825, and Queen Victoria took possession July 13, 1837. It cost nearly ^1,000,000 sterling. Improvements were ef- fected in 1853. BUDA, or OFEN (Hungary), the ancient Acincuin, held by the Romans till about the 4th century. Arpad made it the residence of the Magyar chieftains about 900. The modern city was founded in 1240, and became the capital of Hungary in the i4th century. A council held here Sep. 14, 1279, ordered 69 canons for the regulation of the Church of Hungary to be promulgated. Another council was held at Buda, May 7, 1309. Soliman II. captured it Sep. 10, 1526, and Sep. 8, 1529. The Turks sacked it in 1541, and it was considered the key of the Ottoman empire until it was wrested from the Turks by the Austrians, under the Duke of Lorraine, Sep. 2, 1686. Its university was founded by Martin Corvinus between the years 1470 1490, and its library was destroyed by the Turks in 1527. Buda, seated on the Danube, is connected with Pesth by a bridge of boats. The Austrian army took Buda from the Hungarians Jan. 5, 1849. BUDDHISM, long the prevailing religion in India, was, according to Sir William Jones, introduced into that country about B.C. 1,000, though later authorities are inclined to accept the traditional account of its introduction by Gautama, or Godama, about B.C. 500. A feud arose between the Buddhists and the Brahmins, and the former were expelled from the greater part of Hindostan, though Buddhism is still the prevailing religion in China, Japan, Ceylon, and other parts of Asia. BUDE LIGHT, so named from the residence of its inventor, Goldsworthy Gurney, of Bude, Cornwall, by whom it was patented June 8, 1839, and March 25, 1841, is produced by the introduction of oxygen instead of common air into the centre of the flame. It has been adopted in the illumination of the House of Commons. BUEXOS AYRES (South America). This province threw off the Spanish yoke in 1810, and with other South-American states issued a declaration of independence, July, 1816, and formed themselves into the Argentine Con- federation (q. v.). A treaty of commerce between England and Buenos Ayres was signed Feb. 2, 1825. It separated from the Argentine Confederation, and became an in- dependent state, in 1853. BUENOS AYRES. This city, the capital of the state of the same name, founded by Don Pedro de Mendoza in 1534, and abandoned, owing to the attacks of the Indians, in 1539, was not permanently colonized by the Spa- niards until 1580. A.D. 1630. Buenos Ayres is made the seat of a bishopric by Paul V. 1763, Jan. i. An English and Portuguese expedition fails in an attack upon the city. 1775. It is made the seat of a viceroyalty. 1778. The river is thrown open by Spain. io6, June 37. It is taken by the English, and a large amount of treasure secured. Aug. 13. The Spaniards regain possession. Oct. if). It is re- taken by the English. 1807, July 5. The English fail in an attempt to capture Buenos Ayres. 1825, Feb. 2. A treaty of amily and commerce is signed with Great Britain at Buenos Ayres. 1827-8. It is blockaded by the Brazilian fleet. 1859, Oct. 23. Indecisive battle between the forces of the Argentine Republic and of Buenos Ayres. Nov. 10. A treaty is signed, by which Buenos Ayres again joins the Argentine Confederation. BUFFALO [ 182 ] BULL A.D. 1860, June 6. The act of union between the Argentine Confederation and Buenos Avres is signed and ratified. I86l, Aug. 29. War is announced with the Argentine Confederation. Sep. 17. Gen. Mitre , ! Argentine forces of Gen. Urquiza, at Pavon. Nov. 22. Gen. Mores defeats the Argentine (ieii. Virasoro, and thereby causes a nuijoriiy of the states t<> declare for Buenos A 1863, Jan. 31. Order is deelared re-established in most of the provinces. Oct. 13. Gen. Mitre and Col. Paz an; .solemnly installed president and vice- president of the Argentine Confederacy. 1865, April 16. The Argentine U.-publie declares war against Paraguay. May 4. Brazil, tli" Argentine Republic, and Uruguay conclude an alliance against Paraguay and Buenos Ayre?. BUFFALO TOWN (United States). This town, and part of the enemy's squadron, with stores, were destroyed by the English army, after the defeat of the Americans at Black- rock (q. v.), Dec. 30, 1813. BUHAWULPoilE. (See BAHAWULPORE.) BUHL. This mode of decorating furniture, by inlaying it with tortoise-shell, metal, or enamel, was invented by Andre Charles Buhl, T< '1 KTI KS. The earliest asso- ciation for enabling tenants to acquire absolute proprietorship in houses, after payment of a given amount of rent, was established at Kirk- cudbright, in Scotland, under the auspices of the Earl of Selkirk, in 1815. Similar institu- tions, termed " Menages," soon became com- mon in North Britain, whence they extended to Kngland, where they became so numerous that Parliament passed " An Act for the Regu- lation of Benefit Building Societies," 6^7 Will. iv. c. 32 (July 14, 1836). BULGARIA (East Turkey), the ancient Miesia Inferior, was invaded by the Bulgarians in the yth century, and named after them Bul- garia. The first kingdom lasted frum 640 to 1018, when it was subjected to the Eastern empire by Basil II. The second, established about 1186, was annexed to the Ottoman em- pire in 1396. 559. The Bulgarians, under Zabergan, invade Macedonia and Thrace, and are repubcd by Belisarius. 678. The Bulgarians, led by Aspariich, conquer the country between the Hicmns and the Danube. 788. The Bulgarians defeat the Thraciuns. 793. Cardain, King of the Bulgarians, defeats Con- st:mtine IV. 8n, July 25. Crumn, King of the Bulgarians, defeats and slays the Emperor Nicephorus. 813. Battle of Bersinikia, in which the Emperor Michael I. is defeated by Crumn. 814. The Emperor Leo defeats and annihilates an army of 30,000 Bulgarians. 861. Michael and Bardas invade the territory of the Bulgarians, whose king becomes a Christian. 885. Bogoris, cir Michael, first Christian King of Bulgaria, abdicates and reiires to a monastery. 893. The Bulgarians defeat the Byzantine Gen. Leo Ilatakalon. 917, Aug. 20. Battle of Achelous, in which the Bulgarians defeat the Byzantine army. 931. Simeon, King of Bulgaria, defeats the Byzantine forces, and plunders Constantinople. 923- The Emperor Bomanus purchases peace from Simeon on the most humiliating terms. 981. The Emperor Basil II., who invades Bulgaria, is driven back, with great loss, by King Samuel. SOVEREIGNS OF BULGARIA. FIUST KINGDOM. A.D. A.D. Moerus. 826. BaldimSr, or Vladimir. 700. (circ.) Terbelis. 844. Bogoris, or Michael. 727. Cormes. Presiam. 763. Tele-is (a few months). Michael Vorize. 763. Sabin. 889. (circ.) Simeon. 764. Pagan. 771. (circ.) Teleric. 914. (circ.) Samuel. 927. Peter. 776. Cardam. 971. Borise. 806. (circ.) Crumn. 1014. Gabriel. 814. Doucom. 1015. John Ladislaus. 15. Ditzeng. iois. P.ulgaria is made a 821. Mortagon. province of the empire. SECOND KINGDOM. A.D. 1186. Peter 11. Mytzes, A.D. 1258 or 1259, 1196. John I. after whom the throne 1207. Vorylas. is a continual object of 1215. John Asan 11. contention, till the con- 1241. Caloman I. quest of Bulgaria by 124.;. Michael. Bajazet, in 1396. 1258. Caloman 11. 996. Samuel invades Greece. His army is totally routed, and he himself escapes with difficulty. 1014, July 29. Battle of Zetunium (q. v.). 1018. Death of Ladislaus, last King of Bulgaria, whose territory becomes a province of the Byzantine empire. 1040. The Bulgarians revolt, and seize upon Western Greece. 1186. The Bulgarians revolt from the Byzantine yoke, and establish a second monarchy. 1285. Bulgaria is overrun by the Tartars. 1330. It is made subject to Servia. 1363. It is invaded by Amurath I. 1396. The Sultan Bajazet conquers Bulgaria, and unites it to the Ottoman empire. BULGNEVILLE (Battle) fought at this place in France, July 2, 1431, between Rene" of Anjou and Antony, Count of Vaudemont, for the succession of Lorraine. Rene, defeated and taken prisoner, was confined for many years in the "Tower of Bar," at Dijon. BULJANAK (Battle 1 . A skirmish took place near this river in the Crimea, between 15,000 Cossacks and 500 British horse, Sep. 19, 1854. The former, having lost a few men, with- drew. BULL. This term, derived from the word ftulln, a seal, was first applied to deeds, eccle- siastical as well as regal. Subsequently it was used to denote a papal edict, or rescript, written upon parchment, bearing a leaden seal, and issued by order of the Pope from the Roman chancery. The seals varied in form until 1088, when one side was impressed with the heads of Peter and Paul, the reverse bearing the name of the Pope and the year of his pontificate. Vigilius, in the 6th century, introduced the date of the regnal years of the emperors into bulls, and this custom was con- tinued till the middle of the nth century. In bulls of grace or favour the lead is attached by silken (red or yellow), and in those of punishment by hempen, cords. The prepara- tion of bulls was entrusted to a college of 72 persons. (See ABBREVIATORS.) Pius V. published a bull against Elizabeth, April 25, 1570. Fenton, who posted a copy of it on the gate of the Bishop of London's palace, May 24, was taken and executed Aug. 8. By 13 Eliz. c. 2 (1570), bringing in bulls, or putting them nto execution, was made high treason, for BULL [ 183 BUNKER'S which the penalty was death and forfeiture of property. The bull in Cund Domini, excom- municating heretics and opponents of the papacy, was read in the Pope's presence every Maundy Thursday, until the time of Clement XIV. According to the ancient mode of pro- nouncing the sentence of excommunication, the Pope, after the reading of the bull, threw a lighted torch into the public place. It was declared void by the Council of Tours, Sep., 1510. Brief is the term applied to papal acts sealed with wax. Pius IX. published a bull or encyclical letter, accompanied by an appen- dix of 80 propositions, condemning certain "modern errors," amongst which he included Bible societies, and the belief that salvation can extend to any except members of the Roman Catholic Church, Dec. 8, 1864. BULL-BAITING was a favourite amusement amongst the Egyptians, the Greeks, the Romans, and other ancient nations, and was frequently practised in this country during the Middle Ages, and even to a comparatively recent period. Fitzstephen, the monk of Canterbury, in his description of London in the 1 2th century, speaks of bull-baiting as then common ; and Henzel, who visited England in 1598, gives a description of the sport. Evelyn mentions a visit he paid to the bear-garden June 16, 1670, when one of the bulls tossed a dog into the lap of a lady sitting in the boxes : he calls it " a rude and dirty pastime." The following occurs in an advertisement dated 1719 : "This is to give notice to all gentlemen, gamesters, and others, that on this present Monday is a match to be fought by two dogs at a bull, for a guinea, to be spent ; which goes fairest and farthest in wins all. Likewise a green bull to be baited which was never baited before ; and a bull to be turned loose with fire- works all over him." A bill for the suppression of this sport was introduced into the House of Commons April 3, 1800. Mr. Windham opposed the measure, declaring that it had existed more than one thousand years, and that it was a manly amusement. Mr. Canning contended that the amusement was a most excellent one ; it inspired courage and produced a nobleness of sentiment and an elevation of mind. The bill was rejected by a small majority, and though a similar attempt in 1802 failed, bull- baiting has since been declared illegal, and by the act against cruelty to animals (5 & 6 Will. IV. c. 59, Sep. 9, 1835), persons keeping places for bull-baiting incur a penalty. The Stamford Bull-running, which took place annually Nov. 13, was in 1825 postponed till the next day, because the i^th fell on a Sunday. Bull-fights, said to have been introduced into Spain by the Moors, still form a favourite sport with the vulgar in that country. Isabella I., in the 1 5th century, vainly endeavoured to abolish them. BULLETS, originally spherical, have, since the extensive adoption of rifled musketry, been introduced of conical and other elongated forms. Greener, in 1836, invented a plan for causing bullets to expand while leaving the gun, and thus to fill up the grooves in the rifled barrel, for which he was rewarded by Government with a grant of ,1,000 in 1857. BULLION REPORT. The Bank of England having been restricted in 1797 from paying its notes in gold, the country possessed two inde- pendent and separate currencies, one metallic and the other of paper. These soon came to differ so widely in value that a select com- mittee of the House of Commons was ap- pointed, which published a report in 1810, asserting the fact that paper-money is always in danger of being over-issued, and conse- quently depreciated, unless its immediate con- version into gold is at all times possible. BULL RUN, or BULL'S RUN (Battle). (See MANASSAS, Battle.) BULWER- CLAYTON TREATY, between England and the United States, relative to the establishment of a communication by ship canal between the Atlantic and the Pacific Oceans, was signed at Washington April 19, and ratifi- cations were exchanged there July 4, 1850. It consisted of nine articles. The contracting parties declared that they would not erect for- tifications* on the banks or in the vicinity of the proposed canal, and that they would not assume dominion over Nicaragua, Costa Rica, the Mos- quito Coast, or any part of Central America. Opposite and contradictory constructions having been placed upon this treaty by Eng- land and the United States, another, called the Clarendon-Dallas Treaty (q. v.}, was, after various negotiations, signed at London, Oct. 17, 1856 ; but objections having been raised to it on both sides of the Atlantic, it was ultimately rejected, and the President, in his message for the year 1857, recommended the abrogation of the Bulwer-Clayton Treaty as the best method of solving the difficulty. BUNDELCUND (Hindostan). This exten- sive province, consisting of 33 states, five of which are tributary, attained great power, under a native dynasty, in the nth century. Their rule was, however, subverted by the Delhi princes in 1183, and for a long period the country remained in a very unsettled state. By the treaty of Bassein (q. v.}, Dec. 31, 1802, a portion of the province was ceded to the East India Company. Owing to the refractory con- duct of certain chiefs, military expeditions were sent into portions of Bundelcund, and in ihe treaty of Poouah (q. v.}, June 13, 1817, the articles of the treaty of Bassein were explained and amended ; certain provisions being added calculated to prevent the recurrence of such disastrous outbreaks. BUNDSCHUH. (See PEASANTS' WAR.) BUNKER'S HILL (Battle). The revolted Americans having thrown up batteries and erected a formidable redoubt on Bunker's or Breed's Hill, an eminence that commanded the harbour of Charleston, were attacked in this position by the English, June 17, 1775. The latter amounted to 2,000, whilst the batteries and redoubt were defended by 5,000 men. In their advance the assailants suffered severely from sharpshooters, posted in the houses of Charleston. In spite of every obstacle the Eng- lish had almost reached the works, when a terrific fire was opened upon them. Gen. Howe was for a few seconds left almost alone, several of the officers near having been either killed or wounded. The troops, however, rallied from BURA [ 184 ] BURGUNDY the confusion into which they had been thrown, and carried the works at the point of the bayonet. In this brilliant action 226 officers and men were killed, and 828 wounded. The American loss, according to their own repre- sentation, amounted to 450 killed, wounded, and missing, but it is believed to have been much greater. BURA (Greece). This town, which, with Helice (q. v.), was swallowed up by an earth- quake, B.C. 373, was afterwards rebuilt, and its inhabitants, having shaken off the yoke of an oppressive tyrant, joined the Achaean League (q. v.) B.C. 275. BURFORD (Battles). Near this town, in Oxfordshire, Cuthred, King of Wessex, de- feated Ethelbald, King of Mercia, in 752. Fairfax defeated the Royalist army here in 1649. BURFORD CLUB. This association was frequently mentioned in the documents con- nected with Layer's Conspiracy q. <.). Hav- ing been called upon to explain the mean- ing, Layer declared it to be an appellation made use of by the Pretender and his agents to denote a club of Tory lords and others, of which association Lord Orrery was declared to be chairman. Earl Cowper, one of the lords mentioned as being a member, made a decla- ration, March 20, 1722, to the effect that he had never heard of such a club, and that he did not know, even by sight, three out of the six commoners named as being members. A committee of the House of Commons appointed to examine Layer, declared in their report that " the matters asserted of Burford's Club in Phmket's Letters, seem utterly inconsistent with the known characters of some of those persons." BURGESS. Previous to the Norman Con- quest freemen not holding landed property, but permitted to occxipy houses in towns .-is tenants of the Crown or some inferior lord, were called burgesses. The first writ summon- ing them to Parliament was issued by Ili-nry III. in 1265, and they are mentioned as a dis- tinct class from citizens by 5 Rich. II. stat. 2, c. 4 (1382). Several modifications in the defini- tion and privileges of a burgess were introduced by the Municipal Reform Act, 5 & 6 Will. IV. c. 76 (Sep. 9, 18351. BURGH. (See BOROUGH.) BURGHERS, ANTI-BURGHERS, and BURGHER SECEDERS. These terms are applied in ecclesiastical history to the parties that grew out of the schism in the Scottish Church, caused by the induction of a pastor to the parish of Kinross, in direct opposi- tion to the wishes of the congregation. After much discussion, eight ministers protested against this procedure, for which they were deprived, and their parishes declared vacant in 1740. Their congregations adhered to them, and so powerful did they become that, in 1745, they formed themselves into a synod, consist- ing of three presbyteries. An inquiry which they instituted into the lawfulness of certain oaths led to a further division amongst them, the subject being the particular oath admi- nistered in royal burghs when persons were admitted to the privileges of a burgess. The Burghers maintained that it was lawful to take the oath in question, while their opponents, the Anti-burghers, took a different view, and in 1746 carried a vote condemning the oath. In 1747 the Burghers mustered in great strength, whereupon the Anti-burghers with- drew, and formed a synod of their own. The rival persuasions were, after a long period of hostility and opposition, reunited in 1820 under the name of the United Associate Synod of the Secession Church. BURGLARY. This offence, defined as the breaking into and entry of a dwelling-house by night with felonious intent, was punished by 7 & 8 Geo. IV. c. 29 (June 21, 1827', and by all previous legislation, with death. By 7 Will. IV. and i Viet. c. 86 (July 17, 1837) the capital sentence was limited to cases where there had been violence to any person ; and by 14 . DUKES OF BURGUNDY. 491. Gondebaud murders his brother Chilperic, and seizes A.D. A Irs kingdom. 500. Gondebaud is defeated by Clovis I., King of the 877. Richard le Justicier. 931. Rodolph. 1143. Eudes II. 1163. Hugh III. Franks. 533. Sigismund, King of Bur put to death by the I 533. Clotaire and Childebert 534. Clotaire and Childebert c it subject to the Frai gundv, is made prisoner, and rank's, iiake war upon Burgundy, onquer Burgundy, and render iks. 923. Giselbert. 938. Hugh the Black and Hugh the Great. 956. Otho. 965. Henry I. 1003. (Interregnum and dis- 1193. Eudes III. 1318. Hugh IV. 1373. Robert IL 1305. HughV. 1315. Eudes IV. 1350. Philip I. puted succession.) 1364. Philip II., the Bold. SOVEREIGNS C F BURGUNDY. 015. Henry 11. 1404. John the Fearless. A.D. A.D. 033. Robert I. 1419. Philip III., the Good. 413. Gundicar. 491. Gondi baud. 075. Hugh I. 1467. Charles the Bold. 436. Gimderic. 516. Sigismund. 078. Eudes I. 1477. Mary of Burgundy. 466. Chilperic I. 533. Goiidemar. 103. Hugh II. BURGUNDY, or BURGUNDY PROPER, was erected into a duchy during the reign of Charles II. (the Bald\ and assigned to his son- in-law, Richard le Justicier, at the Council of Quiercy, or Kiersy, June 14-16, 877. It under- went several changes, and was ultimately in- corporated with France. A.D. 933. Rodolph, Duke of Burgundy, is elected King of France, and resigns his duchy to Giselbert. 938. Hugh the Great, Count of Paris, and Hugh the Black, rule Burgundy between them. 943. Hugh the Great is sole Duke of Burgundy. 956. Death of Hugh the Great, who is succeeded by his son ( ttho. 987. Henry I., the Great, is confirmed in his title of Duke of Burgundy, with sovereign rights, by Hugh Capet. 1003. Death of Henry I., whose duchy is claimed by Robert of France and two other competitors. 1015. Henry II., son of King Robert, becomes Duke of Burgundy. 1033. Henry II. having become King of France the pre- ceding year, makes his brother Robert Duke of Burgundy. With him begins a long succession of dukes. 1361. Death of Philip I., Duke of Burgundy, with whom terminates the first succession of dukes. John II., King of France, unites Burgundy to his own dominions. 1364. John II., King of France, erects Burgundy into a duchy, and bestows it upon his son Philip the Bold. 1369. Marriage between Philip of Burgundy and Margaret of Flanders. 1384. Philip inherits Flanders, Artois, Nevers, and other territories. 1407. John the Fearless causes the assassination of the Duke of Orleans, and is compelled to seek safety in flight. 1416. Secret treaty between John the Fearless and Henry V. of England. 1419. John the Fearless is assassinated at Montereau by the Orleanists. 1430. Philip the Good enters into an alliance with Henry V., and sanctions the treaty of Troyes. 1431. Philip the Good acquires Namur by purchase. 14 }o. Acquisition of Brabant and Limburg. 1435. Philip of Burgundy withdraws from his alliance with the English, and enters into a league with France. 14,36. He acquires Hainault, Holland, and Zealand. 1443. Acquisition of Luxemburg. 1468, July 2. Marriage of Charles the Bold and Margaret, sister to Edward IV. of England. 1473. Charles the Bold invades France, ravages Xonnandy, and adds Gueldurland to his dominions. 14-6. Charles the Bold invades Switzerland, where he is defeated. 1477, Jan. 4. Dea;h of Charles the Bold at the battle of Nauci (q. v.). Louis XI. seizes part of the duchy. Aug. 19. Mary, daughter and successor of Charles, marries Maximilian of Austria. 1479. Louis XI. of France seizes Burgundy, and annexes it to France. 1483, Mar. 37. Death of Mary of Burgundy, in con- sequence of a fall from her horse. 1483. Dec. 33. Treaty of Arras (?. v.). BURIAL is the most ancient mode of dis- posing of the dead. Abraham buried his wife Sarah in the cave of Machpelah, B.C. 1859 (Gen. xxiii. 19). It was practised amongst ancient nations, although burning of the dead was at one period common amongst the Greeks and Romans. Burial in woollen material only was ordered by 18 Charles II. c. 4 (1666). This sta- tute was repealed by 30 Charles II. st. i, c. 3 (1677), which enforced new regulations, and inflicted a penalty of ^5 in every case where a person was not buried in stuff made from sheep's wool only. Registers of burials were ordered to be kept in every parish. Further regulations were made by 32 Charles II. c. i (1680). These acts were repealed by 54 Geo. III. c. 108 (July 23, 1814). A tax of 45. on each person on burials, to last five years from May i, 1695, was imposed by 7 and 8 Will. III. c. 6 (1694). It was continued till Aug. i, 1706, by 8 & 9 Will. III. c. 20, s. 14 (1697). In addition to the 4-s., a regular scale was imposed on the different ranks between a duke and a person possessing real property of ^50 per annum, or personal property of ^600. The burial of a duke was taxed at ^50 that of the lowest in the scale ios. (See CEMETERY.) BURIAL CLUBS, or SOCIETIES, on the principle of friendly societies, were introduced into this country during the first half of the igth century. It would appear that this is merely the revival of an ancient institution. Miller states (Anglo-Saxons, p. 363): "The Saxons had also guilds or clubs, in which the artizans, or such as seem to have consisted of the middle classes, subscribed for the burial of a member, and a fine was inflicted upon every brother who did not attend the funeral. Thus, above 1,000 years ago, were burial societies established in England." As some irregularities arose from the insurance of children, the legislature interfered for their regulation. BURKERSDORF (Battle). Frederick II. of Prussia drove the Austrians from the heights of this town in Silesia, in the early part of the autumn of 1762. BURKING. The high price paid by medical practitioners for subjects for dissection, in- duced a man named Burke to endeavour to supply bodies, by decoying persons into his house, and then murdering them by suffoca- tion. He carried on this inhuman trade at Edinburgh, and secured many victims, until he was at length detected, and suffered the ex- treme penalty of the law, Jan. 28, 1829. Burke, from whom it was called burking, admitted BURLINGTON [ 186 ] BURNING having perpetrated 15 murders of the kind. A woman named M'Dougal, who was charged with being his accomplice, was acquitted. This crime was revived in London by Bishop and Williams, who were convicted of burking an Italian boy, and were executed Dec. 5, 1831. They admitted having murdered several per- sons in this manner. BURLINGTON ARCADE (London) was opened to the public March 20, 1819. BURLINGTON HEIGHTS (Battle). In a night attack upon the American camp near this place, in New Jersey, June 6, 1813, an Kng- lish force, consisting, of 704 men, completely routed the Americans, 3,500 strong, including cavalry. The action was continued during the night ; but the Americans were repulsed in every attempt to retrieve their disaster, and eventually took to flight, leaving 100 prisoners and four guns in the hands of the victors. J3URMAH Asia . This extensive kingdom, sometimes called Ava, from its capital, when first visited by the Portuguese in the i6th cen- tury, was divided into four states, Arrao'in, Ava, Pegu, and Siam. Very little is known of its history previous to the establishment of in- tercourse with Europe. Buddhism is said to have been introduced amongst the inhabitants about A.D. 301. The seat of the government was removed from Panya to Ava in 1364. With rtugue . Ra travelled in India at the end of the i6th cen- tury, is the fh'st English writer who notices Bunnah. the assistance of the Portuguese, the Burme.se su'ndued the Peguans. Ralph Fitch, who 1687. The English take possession of the island of Negrais, lit t!ic iniiuth of tin- Irawaddy. 1705. Capt. Hamilton visits Buniiah. 1740. The Peguans revolt. 1752. Ava is captured by the Peguans, and the Burmese are completely subdued. 1753. Alompra recovers AVM, iind builds Rangoon. 1754. The 1'eguans are defeated in another attempt npon Ava. The French as,-ist ihe IVguans, and the English the Burmese, iu this struggle. 1755. Alompra is again victorious. 1757. Alompra captures I'egu. The East India Company obtain a site for a factory. 1760. Alompni, who is taken ill whilst besieging the capital of Slain, withdraw* his army, and dies on his way home. 1766. Shenibuan captures Ayuthia, or Yuthia, the Siamese capital. 1767. Bunnah is invaded by a Chinese army of 50,000 men. They are defeated, with great slaughter. 1771. The Siamese revolt, and regain their independence. 1781. Amarapora is made the capital of Burundi. 1783. Arraean is annexed to Bunnah. 1785. The Burmese fail in an attack upon the island of Junkseylon or Salang. 1786. The Burmese invade .Siam, and are again repulsed. J 793- 1't'uce is concluded between Burma!] and Siam. The provinces of Tenasserim, Mergui, and Tavoy are ceded to Bunnah. 1794. The Burmese make inroads upon the territories of the Kast India Company in pursuit of robbers. 1795. A satisfactory explanation is given, and war is averted. 1810. Salang is conquered. 1811. Arraean is invaded by a Mugh force. isig. The Burmese make further inroads upon the terri- tories of the East India Company. 1823, Sep. 23. The Burmese attack and overpower a British guard 011 the island of Shapaive. l-->24, March 5. The Governor-General of India declares war. May 11. Rangoon is captured. Cheduba, Xegrais, Tavoy, Mergui, Martalmn, the whole of 'ie:iar,serim, and Yeah, surrender. 1835, Feb. i. Assam is conquered. March 8. Gen. Cotton is defeated at Donahue. April 2. It is captured; and Arraean, after a series of actions, March 26, 27, 28, and 29. April 25. Prome is entered. Sep. 17. An armistice for one month is signed, and afterwards extended to Nov. 2. L)ec. I, 2, and 5. The armistice is broken, and the Burn, defeated at Prome (q. r.). Dec. 26. The Burmese send a flag of truce. 1826, Jan. J. The first conference is held. Jan. 3. A treaty is signed, but is not ratified. Jan. 18. Hostilities are resumed. Jan. 19. Melown is captured. Feb. 9. The Burmese are defeated at the battle of Pagahm Jlew. Feb. 24. Treaty of Yandaboo (q. .). 1850, Dec. 28. Rangoon is destroyed by fire. 1851. Complaints by English seamen of ill-treatment are received from the governor of Rangoon. Repara- tion is demanded and refused. 1852, Jan. 4. The British force the passage of the Irawaddy. Jan. 10. The batteries at Rangoon fire upon the Fox man-of-war. April 5. Martaban is taken. April 14. Rangoon. A pi il 19. Bassein. Oct. 10. Prome. Nov. 21. Pegu. Dec. 30. 1'egu is annexed to India by proclamation. 1853. Several marauding chiefs are punished. June 30. The termination of the Burmese v,ar is officially proclaimed by the Governor-General of India. BURNEL. (See ACTON BURNEL.) BUKXETT PRIZES. -Mr. Burnett, of Dens, Aberdeenshire, born in 1729, on his death in 1784 bequeathed the bulk of his fortune to found prizes to be awarded to the authors of the two best treatises on "The evidence that there is a Being all-powerful, wise, and good, by whom everything exists ; and particularly to obviate difficulties regarding the wisdom and goodness of the Deity; and this independent of written revelation, and of the revelation of the Lord Jesus ; and from the whole to point out the inferences most necessary and useful to mankind." The competition, which is open to all, takes place every 40 yeans, the first having occurred in 1815, when the highest prize of ,1,200 was a warded to Dr. W. L. Brown, Principal of Marischal College, Aberdeen, and the second prize of .400 to the Rev. J. B. Sunnier, afterwards Archbishop of Canterbury. On the second competition, in 1855, the first prize of .1,800 was received by the Rev. R. A. Thompson, and the second prize of /6oo by the Rev. Dr. J. Tulloch, Principal of St. Mary's College, St. Andrew's. In accordance with the founder's directions, these essays have all been published. BURNING ALIVE was a common punish- ment, amongst ancient nations, for various kinds of offences. The Anglo-Saxons used it in certain crimes, and it was the ordinary punishment for witchcraft during the Middle Ages. Blackstone says : " In treasons of every kind, the punishment of women is the same, and different from that of men. For as the decency due to the sex forbids the exposing and public mangling their bodies, the sentence is, to be drawn to the gallows, and there to be burned alive." The " Scandalous Chronicle" contains an account of a woman, named Per- rette Mauger, who was burned alive at Paris in 1460 for having committed several robberies, and having harboured thieves and house- breakers. Criminals were generally strangled and their bodies afterwards burned. Katherine Hayes, who suffered for the murder of her husband, was, through the carelessness of the executioner, really burned alive at Tyburn, BURNING 187 BURYING Nov. 3, 1726. The last woman executed in this manner was Christian Murphy, alias Bowman, March 18, 1789, for coining. The law was altered by 30 George III. c. 48 (1790), which provided that after June 5, 1790, women under this sentence were to be hanged. Death at the stake was long considered the only method of extirpating heresy, and as early as 304, Alban, the protomartyr of England, siiffered in this manner. Lord Hale says : " Before the time of Richard II., that is, before any acts of Par- liament were made about heretics, it is with- out question, that in a convocation of the clergy or provincial synod, they might and frequently did here in England proceed to the sentencing of heretics." By 29 Charles II. c. 9, s. i (1676), the writ commonly called breve de h&retico comburendo, with all process and proceedings thereupon in order to the executing such writ, or following or depending thereupon, and all punishment by death, in pursuance of any ecclesiastical censures, was utterly taken away and abolished. BURNING THE DEAD. (See CREMATION.) BURNING-GLASSES. Gibbon fch. xl.) re- marks : " A tradition has prevailed that the Roman fleet was reduced to ashes in the port of Syracuse by the burning-glasses of Archi- medes ; and it is asserted that a similar ex- pedient was employed by Proclus to destroy the Gothic vessels in the harbour of Constan- tinople, and to protect his benefactor Anasta- sius against the bold enterprise of Vitalian. A machine was fixed on the walls of the city, consisting of an hexagon mirror of polished brass, with many smaller and moveable poly- gons to receive and reflect the rays of the meridian sun ; and a consuming flame was darted to the distance, perhaps, of 200 feet. The truth of these two extraordinary facts is invalidated by the silence of the most authentic historians ; and the use of burning-glasses was never adopted in the attack or defence of places. Yet the admirable experiments of a French philosopher (Buffon^ have demonstrated the possibility of such a mirror ; and, since it is possible, I am more disposed to attribute the art to the greatest mathematicians of antiquity, than to give the merit of the fiction to the idle fancy of a monk or a sophist." Leonhard Digges, in his " Pantometria," published in 1571, speaks of a burning-glass which he had constructed on the plan of Archimedes ; John Napier, the inventor of logarithms (1550 April 3, 1617), mentions them as a means of defence. Dr. Gregory sent one that he had constructed to Sir Isaac Newton in 1673. That eminent man's attention having been thus directed to the subject, he is said to have con- structed one himself. Kircher investigated it with much perseverance. Vilette constructed several burning mirrors of great magnitude, and experiments were tried in this country with one of them in June, 1718. Buff on made several successful experiments in 1747. Parker, in 1800, and other men of science at later periods, have improved the construction of burning-mirrors. BURNLEY (Lancashire) is supposed to have been an early Roman settlement, and to have been visited by the Christian missionary Pauli- nus in 597. The town, which contained 53 families in 1311, continued unimportant till the introduction of the cotton manufacture, about 1780. The grammar school was estab- lished in 1578, and the barracks in 1819. Mr. Howard gave 16 acres of land for the site of an infirmary to be called the Howard Institution, March 4, 1864. BURSE. This title for a place of resort for financiers and commercial men, now generally termed an exchange, was first applied to the burse at Bruges, formed early in the i6th cen- tury. Lewis Roberts, in ' ' The Merchants' Mappe of Commerce," published in 1638, says : "This city (Bruges) hath an eminent market-place, with a publick-house for the meeting of all merchants at noon and evening ; which house was called the Burse, of the houses of the ex- tinct family Bursa, bearing three purses for their arms engraven upon their houses, from whence these meeting-places to this day are called burses in many countries, which in Lon- don we know by the name of the Royal Ex- change, and of Britain's Burse." The burse at Antwerp was established in 1531 : that at Am- sterdam in 1608; at Paris 1784. The first stone of Britain's Burse, or the first Royal Exchange in England, was laid by Sir Thomas Gresham, June 7, 1566, and the building was opened by Queen Elizabeth, Jan. 23, 1571. BURSLEM (Staffordshire), the principal town for the manufacture of English pottery during the 1 7th century, was the birth-place in 1730 of Josiah Wedgwood, by whom this important branch of native industry was carried to its highest perfection. The town-hall was erected in 1761, and the market established in 1825. The county constabulary force was introduced here in 1842. The first stone of the Wedgwood Institute was laid by Mr. Gladstone, Oct. 26, 1863. BURY ST. EDMUNDS, or ST. EDMUNDS- BURY (Suffolk). This town received its name from Edmund, King of East Anglia, who was crowned at Bury on Christmas Day, 856. He was taken prisoner by the Danes, and refusing to renounce the 'Christian faith, suffered, mar- tyrdom, Monday, Nov. 20, 870. According to the chroniclers, his persecutors bound him to a tree, scourged him, shot him with arrows, and beheaded him. On account of his heroic constancy, he was afterwards canonized, and a monastery dedicated to him was founded at Bury. Stephen Langton and the barons met here Nov. 20, 1214, and agreed upon the de- mands which form the basis of Magna Charta. Henry III. held a parliament at Bury in 1267 ; Edward I. held another Nov. 3, 1296 ; and Henry VI. another Feb. 10, 1447; and his example in this respect was on one or two oc- casions followed by some of his successors. A large portion of the town was destroyed by fire in 1608. The grammar school was founded 111 BURYING ALIVE. This mode of punish- ment was occasionally resorted to by the Jews and other nations of antiquity. Herodotus mentions burying alive as a Persian custom, and states that Xerxes buried alive nine sons and nine daughters of the Edonians ; and that Amestris, the wife of Xerxes, in her old BURYING BUTCHERS age ordered 14 children, selected from the best Persian families, to be buried alive, in order to show her gratitude to the god under the earth. In ancient Rome it was the punish- ment awarded to the vestal virgin who vio- lated her vow (see VESTALS) ; and, during the Middle Ages, nuns were for a similar offence subjected to the same penalty. !Sir Walter Scott, in " Marmion," describes the manner in which it was carried out. The culprit wai-j placed in a small niche, made in the massive wall of the convent, a slender meal of water and bread was deposited in it, and at the words Vo.de in pace the opening was closed. Skele- tons have been discovered in an upright po- sition in the ruins of abbeys in this country, and it is probable that they are the remains of persons who had been for some offence or other immured. It was at one time the punishment for a female thief. BURYING-PLACE. The Jews and other ancient nations buried their dead in fields, near the highways, and other places, without the walls of their cities and towns. Plutarch relates of Lycurgus, that, in order to do away with superstition and to accustom the youth of Sparta to such sights, he ordered the dead to be buried within the city, and permitted their monuments to be erected near the tem- ples (B.C. 830 820). In ancient Rome, the bodies of her more illustrious men were al- lowed, as a favour, to be buried within the city. The Twelve Tables prohibited burial in the city. Hadrian and several emperors pub- lished edicts against the practice. Bingham shows that no burying-placcs existed either in cities or in churches during the first three cen- turies of our a;ra. Graves in the public roads, or vaults and catacombs in the fields, were used for this purpose. The Christian emperors prohibited the practice several centuries later. The origin of the change in the custom appears to have arisen from the erection of churches over the graves of martyrs, or the removal of their relics into the churches, and this com- menced in the 4th century. The next step was the burial of emperors and kings in the church porch, or some outer building of the church, which originated in the sth century ; and to this privilege the people were admitted in the beginning of the 6th century. The Council of Braga, May i, 563, allowed burial in the church- yard, but prohibited it within the walls. He- reditary burying -places were forbidden in the gth century (Council of Meaux, June 17, 845) ; but this was afterwards allowed by a decree of Leo V., inserted in the decretals of Gregory IX. about 1230. From this later period it be- came customary for bodies to be buried in churches and in family sepulchres. (See CEME- TERY, CHURCHYARD, &c.) BUSACO (Battle). Massena and Ney were defeated at the convent of Busaco, near Coim- bra, in Portugal, by Wellington, Sep. 27, 1810. The French attacked the British and Portu- guese with a superior force. Their loss was 4,500 men killed and wounded, whilst that of the allies was only 1,300. Wellington soon after retired to the famous lines of Torres Vo Ira-*. BUSHEL, supposed to take its name from an old English word, buss, signifying a " box," was regulated by several enactments. By 14 Edw. III. st. i, c. 12 (1340), a standard bushel was ordered to be sent throughout the realm, according to a provision in 9 Hen. III., st. i, c. 25 (1225 , which ordained that only one mea- sure should be used throughout the kingdom. The bushel of wheat was to contain 8 gal- lons by 12 Hen. VII. c. 5 (1496). By 22 Charles II. c. 8, s. i (1670), the Winchester bushel, containing 8 gallons, was ordered to be used: in gauging corn or salt; and in 8 & 9 Will. III. c. 22, s. 9 (1697), it was declared to be a round bushel, with a plain and even bottom, being 185 inches wide throughout, and 8 inches deep. The heaped bushel was done away with by 4 & 5 Will. IV. c. 49 (Aug. 13, 1834), the pro- hibition taking effect from Jan. i, 1835. All former statutes were repealed, the Winchester bushel abolished, and a general measure estab- lished, from May i, 1825, by 5 Geo. IV. c. 74 June 17, 1824). BUSH1RE (Persia) was made the seat of a factory by the East India Company in the i7th century. During the Persian war it was cap- tured by the British forces, Dec. 10, 1856, and was occupied by them until the conclusion of peace, May 2, 1857. BUSIRIS (Egypt). Four places in ancient Egypt bore this name. One Busiris, in the . was utterly destroyed by order of Diocletian A.D. 296 ; and at another Busiris, on the west bank of the Nile, Merwan II., the last Caliph of the Ommiades, was slain, Feb. BUSSORAH. (See BASSORAH.) BUTCHERS. There were three classes of butchers among the Romans ; viz., the Suarii, who provided hogs ; the Pecuarii, or Boarii, who provided oxen, sheep, &c. ; and the /.,< it, or Carniflcei, who killed the animals. During the Middle Ages, a common slaughter-house, in which the inhabitants had their beasts killed, was established in many towns. The butchers of Dunstable are said to have been the first to erect sheds, in 1279. A clause in the ordinary of the butchers' company at New- castle-upon-Tyne, dated 1621, ordered that any member who killed flesh in that town during the Lent season without the general consent of the fellowship, should incur a penalty of ,5 for each offence. Edward III., in a letter to the mayor and sheriffs, dated Feb. 25, 1361, ordered that no large beasts should be slaughtered nearer to London than Stratford on the one side and Knightsbridge on the other ; and a similar injunction was made by Richard II. in 1380. A statute for the regu- lation of the trade was passed in 1531. The butchers were incorporated under letters patent of James I., bearing date Sep. 16, 1605. They were at that time an ancient fraternity. The blue dress is the uniform of a guild. By 24 Hen. VIII. c. 3 (1532), butchers were re- quired to sell by weight "called Haver-du- Pois." A penalty was fixed for infraction of this law by 25 Hen. VIII. c. i (1533). By 27 Hen. VIII. c. 9 (1535), butchers were allowed from April, 1536, to April 12, 1540, to sell meat as they had done previous to the statute of 1532 ; and by 33 Hen. VIII. c. n (1541), former BUTE [ 189 ] BYZANTIUM regulations were repealed, and the privilege was continued. BUTE ADMINISTRATION. Its advent to power was caused by the retirement of Mr. Pitt, Oct. 5, 1761, from the Newcastle and Pitt (Chatham) Ministry, though the new ministry was not formed till the following year. Mr. Pitt's office was filled first by the Earl of Egre- mont, and afterwards by the Duke of Bedford. The Earl of Bute, who had been tutor to George III., was made prime minister May 26, 1762. Treasury Lord Chancellor President of the Council Privy Seal Chancellor of Exchequer Principal Secretaries of State ........................... Admiralty Ordnance ........................ Board of Trade Earl of Bute. Lord Henley. Earl Oranville. Duke of Bedford. ( Sir Francis Dashwood, -< afterwards Lord Le De- ( spencer. /Earl of Egremont and Hon. \ Geo. Grenville. Lord Anson. {^Ligonfer afterward8 Ear1 ' Lord Sandys. On the death of Lord Anson, June 6, 1762, the Hon. George Grenville, who took the Admi- ralty, was replaced as Secretary of State by the Earl of Halifax. In Oct., 1762, Henry Fox, afterwards Lord Holland, paymaster of the forces, was made leader in the Commons, with a seat in the cabinet. This administra- tion was assailed by Junius and Wilkes, and the Earl of Bute resigned April 8, 1763. His opponents called him " the favourite," and in some parts of the kingdom he was burned under the effigy of a jack-boot. (See GREN- VILLE ADMINISTRATION.) BUTTER. The word rendered butter in our translation of the Old Testament (Gen. xviii. 8 ; Job xx. 17 ; and other passages) is supposed by the best biblical critics to signify cream or sour thick milk. Herodotus (B.C. 484 B.C. 408), in his notice of the Scythians, describes a rude process of churning practised amongst them ; and as his account is confirmed by Hip- pocrates (B.C. 460 B.C. 357), Beckmann believes this to be the earliest mention of butter. It was probably introduced at a later period, though not generally, amongst the Greeks and Romans, who derived their knowledge of it from the Scythians. The Romans anointed the bodies of their children with butter ; the Burgundians besmeared their hair with it ; and Clemens of Alexandria (192) speaks of it as having been used by the early Christians in lamps, instead of oil. The trade is regulated by act of Parliament. BUTTINGTON (Battle). Ethelred collected an army and surrounded the Danes in their fortifications at Buttington, on the banks of the Severn, in 894. The Danes were so reduced by famine, having eaten their horses, that their leader, Hastings, was compelled to risk a sally towards the east. This led to a battle, in which the Danes were routed with great slaughter. BUTUNTUM. (See BITONTO.) BUXAR (Battle). Major, afterwards Sir Hector, Munro, with 7,072 men and 20 field- pieces, defeated the army of the confederated native princes of Hindostan, consisting of 40,000 men and a powerful artillery, at this fortified town in Bahar, Oct. 23, 1764. The loss of the latter was severe, 6,000 men having been left on the field of battle. The victors captured 133 pieces of artilleiy. BYE, SURPRISE, or SURPRISING PLOT. George Brooke, brother of Lord Cobham, who was engaged in the plot to place Arabella Stuart on the throne this being termed the Main Plot, to distinguish it from the lesser scheme, the Bye Plot had also conspired with Sir Griffin Markham, Lord Grey of Wilton, and two Roman Catholic priests, named Walton and Clarke, to seize James I., imprison him, compel him to change his ministers, and to grant liberty of conscience and the free exercise of religion. The existence of the plot was made known to the Government about mid- summer, 1603, and in July the conspirators were apprehended. (See MAIN PLOT.) BYZANT, or BE Z ANTINE. William of Malmesbury (book iv. ch. 2) states that By- zantium, the original name of Constantinople, is still preserved in the imperial coin called a byzant. This coin was current in England from the gth to the i4th centuries, and Cam- den, writing in the i6th, says "that a great piece of gold, valued at 15, which the king offered on high festivals, is yet called a Bezan- tine, which was anciently a piece of gold coined by the emperors of Constantinople ; but after- wards there were two purposely made for the king and queen, with the resemblance of the Trinity, inscribed, In honorem Sanctce Trini- tatis ; and on the other side the picture of the Virgin Mary, In honorem Sanctce Marice Vir- ?inis." The last were cast by order of James ., in 1603. The Turks, at the siege of Csesarea, in 1102, are said to have hidden byzants in their mouths. The Crusaders struck the cap- tives in the neck, whereupon the coin was dis- gorged. One writer declares that the bodies of the slain were also piled up and burned, for the purpose of obtaining the byzants which they had swallowed. A similar coin was struck in other countries ; and in the reign of Stephen, a white or silver byzant, of the value of two shillings, is supposed to have been current in England. BYZANTINE EMPIRE. (See EASTERN EM- PIRE.) BYZANTINE HISTORIANS. The Greek historians and writers in whose works are re- corded the principal transactions of the Byzan- tine or Eastern empire, from A.D. 325 to 1453, are known by this name. A collected edition of their works was published at Paris 1645 1711; another, in 23 volumes folio, was published at Venice 1722 1733 ; and a new edition at Bonn was commenced in 1828. BYZANTIUM was founded B.C. 667, by the navigator Byzas, with followers from Argos and Megara, and received a considerable accession of numbers from Megara under Zeuxippus, B.C. 628. It was captured by the Persians B.C. 505, and retaken by the Greeks under Pausanias, B.C. 477, from which circumstance he has been called its founder. Byzantium became subject to Athens B.C. 470, threw off the yoke B. c. 440, but again submitted. Alci- biades took it B.C. 408, Lysander B.C. 405, and Philip II. of Macedon made an attempt B.C. 340, CAABA [ 190 1 CABLES but was compelled to raise the siege B.C. 339. It was then allied with Home, and eventually became a Roman colony. In the civil wars that ensued on the accession of Severus, By- zantium remained faithful to Niger, and after having sustained a siege of three years' dura- tion, was reduced by famine A.D. 196. Severus ordered its walls to be demolished, and sup- pressed many of its privileges. Maximin took it after a siege of n days in 313, and in the* civil war between Constantino and Licinius, the former captured it in 323. Struck with what Gibbon terms " the incomparable position of Byzantium," Constantino determined to make it the seat of his government, and an imperial edict for the building of the new city was issued in 324. The Emperor, at the head of a procession, marked out its boundaries, the capital was forthwith constructed, and in- augurated in May, 330. The rites of inaugura- tion lasted 40 days, and the city received the title of Second or New Rome, which soon gave placu to that of Constantinople, derived from its founder. The Byzantine Church is supposed to have been founded in the ist century. (See CONSTANTINOPLE.) c. CAABA, or the SACRED STONE OF A1 ;!'( 'A, was guarded by the Korcish tribe; and the term was applied to the temple in which it was kept. Gibbon (ch. 1.) says that its genuine antiquity ' ' ascends beyond the Christian aera ; " and he describes the rites which the idolaters, and after them the Mus- sulmans, practised. "At an awful distance they cast away their garments : seven times with hasty steps they encircled the Caaba, and kissed the black stone : seven times they visited and adored the adjacent mountains : seven times they threw stones into the valley of Mina : and the pilgrimage was achieved, as at the present hour, by a sacrifice of sheep and camels, and the burial of their hair and nails in the consecrated ground." Mohammed de- stroyed the 360 idols of the Caaba in 630. The Carmathians despoiled the temple in 929, and bore away the black stone, which was, how- ever, afterwards restored. CAB. This term, an abbreviation of cab- riolet, is applied to the conveyances intro- duced into London in 1820. The Cab and Omnibus Men's Sunday Rest Society was established in London in 1858, and the Cab- men's Club Aid Society in 1861. (See HACKNEY COACH.) CAB STRIKE. Displeased with the pro- visions of 16 & 17 Viet. c. 33 (June 28, 1853^, reducing the fare from 8d. to 6d. per mile, London cabmen withdrew their vehicles after midnight on Tuesday, July 26, 1853. The strike lasted three days, during which time locomo- tion was entirely paralyzed. Arrangements having, however, been made for bringing up vehicles from various provincial towns, the cab proprietors and drivei-s returned to their work Saturday, July 30. CABAL. Soon after the dismissal of the Earl of Clarendon, Aug. 30, 1667, the forma- tion of the secret council, called the Cabal, commenced. It has been incorrectly stated that the name "Cabal" originated from the initial letters of the names of the five mem- bers of this ministry. This is not the case, as the word " cabal" had been employed at an earlier time to denote a secret council, or what is now termed the cabinet. Its influence was directed principally to foreign affairs, and it was, when fully formed, in 1670, com- posed of the following members : Sir Thomas, afterwards Lord Clifford, Lord, afterwards Earl of Arlington, the Duke of Buckingham, Lord Ashley, afterwards Earl of Shaftcsbury, and the Earl of Lauderdale. Sir William Coventry was associated with them. The passing of the Test Act (25 Charles II. c. 2), early in 1673, spread disunion in its ranks ; and by the spring of 1 674 it was entirely dissolved. Hallam Lng. ii. ch. xi.), whilst admitting that their counsels soon became "extremely pernicious and dishonourable," declares, "the first mea- sures after the banishment of Clarendon, both in domestic and foreign policy, were highly praiseworthy." OABATDAN. The chief city of Panay, one of the Philippines, was founded in 1732. CABBAGE was introduced into England at an early period, and is noticed in documents of the 1 3th century. Henry says the better kind was known in the time of Edward IV. It is supposed that Evelyn, in assigning the introduction of the cabbage from Holland to the 1 6th century, alludes to some particular sort. The soldiers of Cromwell's army are said to have introduced the plant into Scotland. CAHIJA LISTS. Jewish doctors, who study the Cabbala, described by Dr. Moore as a tra- ditional doctrine or exposition of the Penta- teuch, which Moses received from God on Mount Sinai. Prideaux considers Cabbalist to be the general name of those who profess the study and knowledge of all manner of tra- ditions, which are of the interpretative part of the Hebrew Scriptures. Hallam declares (Lit. pt. i, ch. 3) that the Cabbala is the off- spring of the Alexandrian Jews and not far from the beginning of the Christian Pera. It was revived during the nth and iath centuries. CA IUNET COUNCIL. (See ADMINISTRATIONS OF GREAT BRITAIN.) CABIRA (Battle). Mithridates VI. (the Great; was defeated near this city, in Pontus, by Lucullus, B.C. 71. The Roman general captured the town itself and secured a large quantity of treasure. CABLES were made of hemp, rush, papy- rus, barks of trees, &c., from time immemo- rial. Iron cables were first suggested in the narrative of M. Bougainville's voyage of dis- covery, which was published in 1771, but no attempt was made to adopt them till Slater obtained a patent for their manufacture in 1808. The first vessel fitted with iron rigging was the Penelope. She made her trial trip in i Sir, and satisfactorily proved the efficacy of the system, which was generally adopted in the royal navy in r8r2. Capt. Brown invented the proving machine, for testing chain-cables, in 1813. CABOCHIENS CADETS' CABOCHIENS. In 1412, John the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, armed a chosen body of about 500 journeymen butchers or skinners, who took the name of Cabochiens, from John Caboche their leader. They maintained the cause of Burgundy against the Armagnac faction, and, ruling Paris in the most despotic manner, kept the inhabitants in a state of constant terror. The citizens rose against them in 1418. CABRERA (Mediterranean). One of the Balearic Islands (q. v.), was used by the Spa- niards as a depot for French prisoners from 1808 to 1813. CABRIOLET. (-See CAB.) CABRITA POINT (Sea-fight). Sir Thomas Dilkes engaged with a French squadron off Cabrita Point, March 10, 1705, when two out of the five ships of which the French squadron consisted were driven on shore and destroyed, and three were captured. CABUL, or CABOOL (Afghanistan), the capital of a territory of the same name, is said to have been founded by Pusheng. Baber acquired possession of it in 1504, and in 1547 his son Huma"yun expelled his brother Camran from the city. On the accession of Akbar, at the age of 13 years, in 1556, Cabul was seized by Mirza Soliman ; but it was again added to the empire of the Mogul in 1581. An insurrec- tion was quelled in 1611. Nadir Shah took Cabul in 1737, and in 1774 it was made the capital of Afghanistan by Timour Shah, who died there May 20, 1793. In 1801 a revolt of the Ghiljies took place at Cabul; but after severe stniggles it was suppressed, May n, 1802. In 1809, Shah Shooja was deposed and driven from the city by Futteh Khan, who was murdered in 1818, after which Cabul fell into the hands of Dost Mohammed. Shah Shooja was restored by the English May 8, 1839. An in- surrection broke out at Cabul Nov. 2, 1841, and many English officers were massacred ; and the British commenced their disastrous retreat from Cabul, leaving Lady Sale and others pri- soners in the hands of the enemy, Jan. 6, 1842. Cabul was retaken by Gen. Pollock Sep. 15, 1842. Gen. Nott arrived with another force the following day. Operations for the destruction of the great bazaar at Cabul, the most celebra- ted building of Central Asia, in which Sir W. McNaghten's body had been exposed, were commenced Oct. 9, and the objects of the ex- pedition having been fully accomplished, a por- tion of the English army evacuated Cabul Oct. ii, and the whole force gradually withdrew from Afghanistan. (See AFFGHAN WAR.) CACHAO (Anam), the capital of Tonquin, was nearly demolished by an incendiary fire during the ijih century. Since 1820 the sove- reign has resided in Cochin China, and Cachao has suffered in consequence. CACHAR, or HAIRHUMBO (Hindostan). This province was invaded by the Burmese in 1774, but no conquests were effected. The Brahminical religion was introduced in 1780. In 1813 Rajah Govind Chunder became sovereign of Cachar. He was soon expelled, and in 1818 Choorjeet gained the ascendancy and main- tained it for five years, when Govind Chunder was restored. This prince, finding himself un- able to protect his kingdom against Burmese invasion, sought the assistance of the British, and concluded a treaty of alliance with them March 6, 1824. He w.as assassinated in 1830, and his territory was annexed to the posses- sions of the East India Company by a treaty signed at Seenaputtee, Nov. 3, 1834. CACHET. (See SKALED LETTERS.) CAD AN (Treaty), concluded at this town in Bohemia, June 29, 1534, between Ferdinand, King of the Romans, and Ulric VI., Duke of Wurtemberg. Ulric was recognized as legiti- mate governor of his duchy, on condition that it should become a fief of the house of Austria, to be absorbed, on the extinction of the ducal line, into the imperial dominions. The con- federates of Smalcald, who were parties to the treaty, recognized Ferdinand as King of the Romans. CADDEE LEAGUE originated in Switzer- land, and was occasioned by an alliance formed between the subjects of Hartmann, Bishop of Coire, and the Counts of "Werdenberg, in 1396. The peasantry of Upper Rhsetia assembled by night at Trons in 1400, and exacted from their feudal lords a recognition of their right to inde- pendence, justice, and security. A second league, formed at the same place in May, 1424, was at- tended by the nobles as well as by the peasantry, and all present pledged themselves to unite for the maintenance of justice and public safety. Owing to the predominant colour of the cos- tumes at this meeting, it is known as the Grey League, or League of the Orisons (q. v.). A similar alliance, the third league, known as the League of the Ten Jurisdictions, was established in 1436, and in 1471 the three confederacies met at the village of Vazerol, and united for mutual de- fence and assistance. CADESIA (Battle). The Saracens defeated the Persians on this plain, near Cufa, in 636. Some authorities are, however, of opinion that this battle was fought early in 635. The battle lasted four days, and the different periods were distinguished by peculiar appellations. The first was called the day of succour, because a Syrian reinforcement reached the army ; the second the day of concussion, the third the day of embittered war, and the fourth of cormorants, or howling, or barking. The Saracens sacked Ctesiphon, and obtained the province of Irak, or Assyria. CADE'S INSURRECTION. Several risings took place indifferent parts of England in 1450, caused by general dislike of the Duke of Suf- folk. The most formidable was excited in Kent during the month of May, by John Cade, an Irish soldier of fortune, who assumed the name of Mortimer, called himself John Amend- all, and claimed relationship with the Duke of York. He encamped on Blackheath June i, defeated the royal army at Sevenoaks June 27, and slew its commander, Sir Humphrey Staf- ford. Their demands were set forth in 15 articles. Cade entered London July i, beheaded Lords Say and Sele, and others, July 3, and was expelled by the citizens July 5. He was killed by Alexander Iden, sheriff of Kent, July n, and his head was exhibited on London Bridge. Several of his followers were executed. CADETS' COLLEGE (Sandhurst). The junior department of the Royal Military Col- CADIZ [ 192 1 CAFFRARIA lege was remodelled and received this name in 1858. CADIZ (Spain\ the ancient Gadir, Latin form Gades, was the seat of a Phoenician colony B.C. uoo. The inhabitants entered into an alliance with Rome B.C. 212, and this was confirmed' B.C. 78. Julius Caesar conferred the civitas on all its citizens B.C. 49, and it was made a municipium by Augustus. The Goths, destroyed it on their invasion of Spain, 415 418, and it was ravaged by the Danes in the gth century. The Moors held it for many years, until it was wrested from them by Alonzo the Wise in 1262. It was made a bishop- ric in 1264. Sir Francis Drake burned several ships in its harbour April 19, 1587 ; and Lord Howard of Effingham and the Earl of Essex captured Cadiz June 21, 1596. Two galleons, 13 ships of war, and 24 merchantmen, were taken or burned. The town was plundered and the fortifications were destroyed. An English expedition failed in an attack in 1625, and another Aug. 15, 1702. Nelson bombarded it July 3 and 5, 1797. Victor invested it in 1810, and raised the siege Aug. 12, 1812. Insurrec- tions broke out July 7, 1819, and Jan. i, 1820, and massacres ensued March 9 and 10 in the latter year. It was taken from the revolutii.n- ary Cortes by the French, under the Duke d'Angouleme, Oct. 3, 1823, and held by them until 1828. It has two cathedrals, one built in 1597, and the other commenced in 1720, and completed in 1840. Its academy of arts was founded in 1789. CADMIUM. This metal was discovered by M. Stromeyer in 1817. CADSANl) Zealand). This island wa* cap- tured, its Fleming garrison defeated, and the town sacked and burned, by the Karl of Derby, Nov. 10, 1337. It was overrun by the repub- lican army in 1797; and part of the Walcheren expedition landed in Cads.-md July 29, 1809. It was ceded to France by tivaly, .Murch, 1810, and was restored to Holland at the close of the war. CECILIA DIDIA LEX, enacted B.C. 98, limited the legislative power of the Human tribes by prohibiting the promulgation of any law containing provisions on different sub- jects, and insisting on an interval of seven days between the proposing and passing of a bill. CAEN (France), originally called Cathern or Cathorn, was an important city in the ioth century. Henry I. captured it in 1105, Edward III. in 1346, and Henry V. Sep. 4, 1417. The French recovered it in 1449, and it lias since remained in their possession. The church of the abbey of St. Etieniie, now the cathedral, was fovmded by William I. between 1061 and 1070. The town was a favourite residence of William I. and his wife Matilda, both of whom were buried here. Louis XI. concluded a treaty at Caen with the Duke of Britanny, Dec. 22, 1465, and it was ratified on the following day. The Girondists raised a revolt here in 1793. CAERLEON, or CASTLE OF THE LEGION (Monmouthshire), the Isca Silurum of the Romans, is supposed to have been the chief city of Wales when it formed a Roman pro- vince, and was the permanent station of the second legion until its removal in the sth century. St. Alban, Aaron, and Julius, the protomartyrs of England, suffered here A.D. 304. The seat of the archbishopric was re- moved from Caerleon to St. David's in 521 CAERMARTHEN v Wales , the ancient Ma- ridunurn, was made a Roman station A.D. 70. Merlin, the Welsh prophet, is said to have been born here in the sth century. CAERNARVON Wales .Edward I. laid the foundations of the castle in 1282, which was not completed for 10 years. Edward II. was born here April 25, 1284. Edward I. granted the town a charter in 1 284, being the first ac- corded to any town in Wales. The Welsh cap- tured the castle, and put its garrison to the sword in 1294. It was taken and retaken during the civil wars. C.KSAHKA (Cappadoda), originally called Mazaca, afterwards Eusebea, which was changed to Cresarea by Tiberius (A.D. 1437', and founded by Aram, King of Armenia, B.C. 1827, was the residence of the kings of (Japji.i- docia. It was taken by Tigranes, and by the Persians under Sapor, about A.D. 260, and again under Chosroes II. in 612. The gospel was preached here by St. Peter and St. Paul ; and it became the metropolitan see of Pontus. A council was held at Cajsarea in 365. C/ESAREA (Palestine), founded by Herod the Great B.C. 10, and named in honour of Caesar Augustus, was the Roman capital of Judea. St. Paul appeared before Felix, and was imprisoned at Cassarea A.D. 58 (Acts xxiii. 3335;- An insurrection occurred here about 65, when 20,000 Jews were massacred in one hour. It was made a metropolitan see at an early period. Councils were held here in 334 and 358. It must not, however, be confounded with Cfesarca Philippi, another town in Pales- linc .MaM. xvi. 13 . C.KSAIiKA PHILIPPI (Palestine). This city was founded by Philip the Tetrarch (who died A.D. 33), near a cave which the Syrian Greeks had dedicated to Pan, whence it was sometimes called Paneas. It was the northern limit of our Saviour's wanderings (Matt. xvi. 13, and Mark viii. 27). C.ESAREWITCH. (See HORSE RACING ) C^SARS, ;Era of. (See SPAIN, JEra. of.) c.KSIUM. This metal, closely resembling potassium, discovered by Bunsen by means of the spectrum (q. v.), was made known by him in 1861. CAFFA (Crimea), built on the site of the ancient Theodosia, or Feodosia, was captured by the Genoese in 1261. It was wrested from them by the Venetians in 1296, but they re- covered it in 1299. The Turks took it in 1475, the Russians in 1783, and it was ceded to them by the treaty of Jassy, Jan. 9, 1792. Caffa was made a free port in 1806. CAFFRARIA (South Africa) appears to have been quite unknown in 1718, as it is not men- tioned in Peter Kolbe or Kolben's " The Pre- sent State of the Cape of Good Hope," pub lished in that year. In 1797 Barrow explored part of Caffraria, and obtained the first authentic information as to the manners and customs of the Caffres. The interior was ex- plored by Duncan in 1844, and by Iluxton in CAFFRE CAIRO 1845. A part of Caffraria was made an English colony in 1848. (See CAFFKE WAR.) CAFFEE WAR. The settlers at the Cape of Good Hope came into frequent collision with the Caffres between the years 1798 and 1811. In 1819 the Caffres, led by Makanna, a pre- tended prophet, attacked Graham's Town, but were repelled and forced to purchase peace by a cession of territory. In 1828 they were de- feated, and in 1834 they again invaded the English settlements under their chief Charlie, who carried slaughter and devastation wherever he appeared. Sir Peregrine Maitland expelled them from the Tyumie district in 1846. In 1850 Sir Harry Smith was appointed governor of the Cape ; and the Caffres rose, Dec. 24, in a general insurrection, and treacherously attacked a British force of 600 men in the Kriskamma defile. They blockaded Sir Harry Smith in Fort Cox, Dec. 29, and repelled Col. Somerset, who came to his assistance. Fort Hare was unsuccessfully besieged by the Caffres, who lost more than 100 men, Jan. 21, 1851. The Hottentots rose in rebellion May 31, and joined the Caffre chiefs, who continued to harass the colonists. Col. Fordyce and several other offi- cers and men were killed in a battle fought on the Waterkloof Hills in Nov. The war continued with great violence. Sir George Cathcart succeeded Sir Harry Smith as go- vernor April 9, 1852, and the Caffres, defeated Dec. 20, near the Berea mountain, sued for peace Feb. 13, 1853. A meeting between the governor and the chiefs was arranged, and peace was restored March 9. CAGLIARI (Sardinia), the capital of the island, occupies the site of the ancient Caralis, said to have been founded by the Cartha- ginians. It is the seat of an archbishopric. The Genoese were defeated at Cagliari by the united Venetian and Catalan forces in 1352. The university, founded in 1626, was re-estab- lished in 1764. During the war of the Spanish succession, Cagliari was bombarded and taken in 1708, and the inhabitants were compelled to declare in favour of Charles III. It was seized by the Spaniards in 1717. The French bom- barded the town in 1793, but did not succeed in reducing it to subjection. The King of Sar- dinia resided at Cagliari from 1798 to 1814. CAGLIARI AFFAIR. The Sardinian steamer Cagliari, trading between Genoa and Tunis, was seized by some armed Sicilians who were on board, Jxine 27, 1857, and steered by them to the island of Ponza, which they attacked, re- leasing several prisoners and capturing arms and ammunition. They then landed on Neapolitan territory, for the purpose of inciting the in- habitants against the government. The vessel, thus left to continue her voyage, was sur- rendered by the captain to a Neapolitan frigate, on the high seas, and her crew, with two Eng- lish engineers, Watt and Park, were imprisoned at Naples on a charge of having aided in an attempted insurrection on Neapolitan territory. Although 1 1 of the crew deposed that the Eng- lish prisoners were ignorant of the objects of the expedition, and had been compelled by force to work the engines, they were kept in close con- finement for eight months, till one had lost his reason and both sustained serious injury to health. They were liberated in consequence of the general indignation of the English people, and the strong representations made to the Neapolitan Government by the English Foreign Secretary, the Earl of Malmesbury. Compen- sation having been demanded on behalf of the victims, the sum of ^3,000 was conceded by the authorities at Naples, June 8, 1858. CAGOTS. This proscribed race, existing in the Pyrenees, are said by some to have de- scended from the fugitive Goths who survived the defeat of Alaric II., near Poitiers, in 507. Others refer their origin to the Arabs who fled to Gascony on the defeat of Abd-el-Rahman, by Charles Martel, in 732. They are first men- tioned about 1000, when they were under the absolute power of the nobility. In 1288 they were forbidden to sell articles of food, and compelled to wear a peculiar costume, on the alleged ground of leprosy. From dopuments dated 1365 and 1385, it appears that the Cagots then dwelt in the province of Beam ; but they afterwards appeared in Navarre, Aragon, and other districts in the north of Spain. It was not till May 13, 1515, that the papal bull was published which established them in the com- monest rights of humanity ; and even then the privileges obtained were limited to the Cagots of Navarre. They subsequently became ob- noxious to the Inquisition, which continued to persecute them as late as 1755. CAHORS (France). This town, called Divona by the Romans, of whose architecture many splendid remains still exist in the city and neighbourhood, was made a bishopric about 257, and was ravaged by the Northmen in 864. The Pont Valendre was built in the i^ih cen- tury. The university, founded by Pope John XXI. or XXII. in 1322, was united in 1751 to that of Toulouse. Cahors, surrendered to England by the treaty of Bretigny, May 8, 1360, revolted and returned to France in 1428, and was seized by Henry of Navarre in 1580. An obelisk in honour of Fenelpn, who studied at the university, was erected in 1820. CAIETA (Italy). This port of Latium, fre- quented by traders at a very early period, was sacked by the Cilician pirates before their con- quest by Pompey, B.C. 66. The town and har- bour, much improved by Antoninus Pius (A.D. 138 161), formed a favourite resort of the wealthier Romans. (See GAETA.) CAI-FONG-FOU, or KAIFONG (China), the ancient capital, was invested by the Mongols about 1227, and yielded in 1232. It was be- sieged by rebels in 1642, when the embank- ments were destroyed, and 300,000 persons perished in the inundation. CAINITES, or CAINIANS. A Gnostic sect that arose in the and century. They pretended that Cain was produced by a superior virtue to that which produced Abel, who was thus easily overcome. They honoured all the worst cha- racters mentioned in Scripture, Judas among the number. Origen did not regard them as Christians. CAIRO, GRAND CAIRO, or CAHERA t), the " Victorious," called by the natives j, the capital of modern Egypt, w<* a founded by the first of the Fatimite caliphs in 969, and became the chief city of Egypt iu CAIRVAN CALATRAVA 973. One mosque, built in 879, before the foundation of the city, and another, finished in 1362, are among its most remarkable build- ings. On the approach of the Crusaders in 1171 it was partially burned by the inhabi- tants, who succeeded in saving it from foreign occupation ; and a second attempt to surprise it, made by Louis IX. of France, was defeated in 1249. In 1382 it passed under the rule of the Mameluke Kings of the Circassian or Borgite dynasty, during whose government a Tartar invasion, under Tamerlane, was successfully resisted in 1393 and 1394. It was the seat of a Jacobite bishop, who possessed the rights of a metropolitan. Councils were held at Cairo in 1086 and 1239. In 1517 the Turks under Selim I. took Cairo, and subverted the dynasty of the Egyptian sultans. In 1754 it was nearly destroyed by an earthquake ; and in July, 1781, the plague carried off many inhabitants. Cairo was taken July 21, 1798, by Napoleon Buonaparte, who held it till March 29, 1801, when the inhabitants threw off the French Joke. It was taken by the English and Turks une 27. Cairo was the scene of the massa-ru of the Mamelukes, by order of Mehemet AH, in 1811. The Prince of Wales visited Cairo in March, 1862. CAIRVAN, or KAIRWAN Africa), was founded, in 670, by Akbah, the Saracenic conqueror of Africa. A city of the same name had been built by his predecessor, but Akbah, not liking the site, determined upon erecting another. It was about 33 leagues from Car- thage. CAITHNESS (Scotland). This, the most northern part of the mainland of Great Britain, was the seat of a bishopric established about 1066, and suppressed at the Revolution. New harbour works in course of construction were severely injured by a storm, Oct. 20, 1864. CAIUS COLLEGE (Cambridge). Edmund Gonville in 1348 obtained letters patent from Edward III. to found a college called after him Gonville Hall. At his death in 1350 William Bateman, Bishop of Norwich, undertook the care of the Hall, calling it "the College or House of the Annunciation of the Virgin Mary." He enlarged the statutes in 1353. Dr. John Cains obtained a charter of foundation in 1557, and dedicated it March 25, 1558, and it has since been named Cains College. A new body of statutes was drawn up and approved by the Queen in council in 1860. " CALABRIA -Italy) was anciently peopled by the Messapians, who possessed some of the arts of civilization, as early as B.C. 708. They suffered much from the tyranny of the Taren- tines, whom they defeated with great slaugh- ter B.C. 473. Another battle was fought B.C. 338. The Romans took possession of Calabria B.C. 266, and suppressed a rebellion in favour of Hannibal B.C. 213. The province subse- quently formed part of the empire, until con- quered by Odoacer, A.D. 476. On the defeat and death of Odoacer, in 493, it formed part of the Ostrogothic kingdom of Theodoric, until sold to Justinian by Theodatus, in 536. Alboin, King of the Lombards, took it in 570, and made it part of the duchy of Benevento ; and in 828 its richest towns were pillaged by the Saracens, who made a permanent settle- ment at Bari in 842. In the nth century it was conquered by Robert Guiscard, the Nor- man, who, in 1051, was installed Duke of Apulia and Calabria, together with all the lands he could rescue from the infidels. The Emperor Manuel I., in 1155, despatched Michael Palaeologus to conquer Calabria ; but the suc- cess gained was merely temporary, as William I. of Sicily expelled the invaders the following year. Calabria has since formed part of the kingdom of the Two Sicilies. It was erected into a dukedom in 1597. Garibaldi landed here on his invasion of Italy, Aug. 23, 1862, and was defeated at Aspromonte (q. v.) Aug. 29. CALAH (Assyria). This, the second city of the Assyrian empire, founded by Shalmaneser I. about B.C. 1290, was improved by Asshur- idanni-pal (B.C. 8846.0. 859), who made it the residence of his court. Shalmaneser II. (B.C. 859 B.C. 824) and Esar-haddon (B.C. 680 B.C. 667) erected spacious palaces here, and Saracus or Asshur-emid-ilin, the last King of Assyria (B.C. 647 B.C. 625), commenced a much smaller edifice, which he was unable to complete. Its ruins still exist, and the edifice, according to Rawlinson (Ancient Monarchies ii. 517), "contrasts most painfully with the palatial erections of former kings." Nimroud occupies the site of the ancient Calah. CALAIS (France I was only a fishing vil- lage until 997, when Baldwin IV., Count of Flanders, improved the harbour, and erected fortifications. Philippe, Count of Boulogne, extended its defences in 1224, and built a castle in 1227. It suffered greatly during the wars between England and France. Edward III. invested it in Sep., 1346, and it surrendered Aug. 4, 1347. The French failed in an attempt to regain possession in 1349. Wolsey \s to mediate between the Emperor Charles V. and Francis I. of France; but the conferences, held in Aug., 1521, proved ineffectual. Henry VJII. landed here on his invasion of France, July 14, 1544. The castle surrendered to the Duke of Guise Jan. 6, and the town itself Jan. 7, 1558. By the treaty of Cateau-Cambresis (April 2, 1559) Calais was to be restored to the English, if no act of hostility were committed in eight years. This engagement was not, how- ever, fulfilled, and Calais passed out of the hands of the English, who had held it 210 years. Henry VIII. granted to Calais the privilege of representation in the English Par- liament, and this it continued to exercise during the reigns of Edward VI. and Mary. The Spaniards took Calais April 24, 1596, and retained possession until 1598. Several acts relating to Calais will be found in the statute- book, under the reigns of many of our kings to the time of Edward VI. Charles II. resided here in 1659. CALATAYUD (Spain). This town, near the site of the ancient Bilbilis, in Aragon, was wrested from the Moors by Alphonso VII. in "CALATRAVA. This order of knighthood was instituted by Sancho III. of Castile, in 1158. His father having taken the town of Calatrava from the Moors in 1147, intrusted its defence to the Templars. They resigned it to CALATRAVA CALENDAR Sancho III. in 1158, when Raymond, abbot of a Cistercian monastery, undertook to defend it, and the order was instituted. It was con- firmed by Pope Alexander III. in 1164. Having been defeated by the Moors, they took refuge in the castle of Salvatierra, by which name they were some time known, and in 1212 they returned to Calatrava. The grandmastership was united to the crown by Ferdinand and Isabella in 1487. CALATRAVA LA VIEJA, or OLD CALA- TRAVA (Spain). This town, of which only the ruins remain, was taken from the Moors in 1147. (& ee CALATRAVA.) CALCIUM, the metallic basis of lime, was discovered by Sir Humphry Davy in 1808. CALCULATING MACHINE, or DIFFER- ENCE ENGINE. The swanpanof the Chinese, and the Roman abacus (q. v.}, were employed in early times for performing arithmetical operations. Pascal, born in 1623, and Leibnitz, in 1646, invented machines of this kind. Sir Samuel Morland also constructed machines for performing some of the simpler operations of arithmetic about 1670. Mr. Babbage's differ- ence-engine was commenced in July, 1823, government having granted .1,500 to be em- ployed in perfecting the invention. Owing to misunderstandings with the draughtsman, the undertaking was suspended in 1833, at which time it had cost 17,000. This machine was removed to King's College, London, in 1843. The Messrs. Scheutz, of Stockholm, who took the idea from Dr. Lardner's article on Mr. Bab- bage's machine in the " Edinburgh Review" for July, 1834, succeeded, in Oct., 1853, afte r many years of labour, in completing a similar machine. They exhibited it in England in 1854, at the Paris Exhibition in 1855, an d it was purchased for the Dudley Observatory, Albany, in the United States. CALCUTTA (Hindostan). When the East India Company removed their factory from the Hooghley in 1686, the site on which Calcutta now stands was occupied by one of the villages afterwards granted to them by Aurungzebe. Fort William was erected in 1700, and Calcutta, now the chief city of Bengal, and the metro- polis of the English dominions in India, was soon after commenced. A.D. 1707. Calcutta is made a separate presidency. 1743. A ditch is dug round a portion of Calcutta. l753. Defences are commenced. 1756, June 2,0. Calcutta is taken by Surajah Dowlah. (See BLACK-HOLE.) 1757, Jan. i. Watson and dive anchor in the Hooghley. Jan. 2. They plant the British standard on the walls of Calcutta. 1758, Meer Jaffier grants the free tenure of Calcutta to the East India Company. J| 773, Jul y > Calcutta is made the residence of the Governor- General, and a supreme Court of Judicature is established. 1793. The High Court of Criminal Appeal is established. 1801. The university is founded. 1804. The Government House is erected. 1813. A bishopric is established at Calcutta, 1830. Bishop's College is founded. 1839. General Assembly's Institution for extending a knowledge of Christianity among the Native Youth, is founded by the Scotch Church. The In- solvent Court is established. 1833. The Bishop of Calcutta is made metropolitan. A high tide in the Hooghley commits great destruction. 1836. The Martiniere, an institution founded by Gen. Claude Martin, for the education and maintenance of indigent native Chiistian children, is opened. 1855, Jan. 35. Au industrial exhibition is opened. 1864, Oct. 5. A violent hurricane or cyclone lays waste a gieat part of Calcutta, destroying nearly 300 vessels, and thousands of houses, and causing a loss of 70,000 lives, according to the lowest offlcia estimate. CALDIERO (Battles). Napoleon Buonaparte was defeated in a sanguinary engagement at this strong position, the site of the ancient Caldarium, celebrated for its thermal springs, between Verona and Vicenza, Nov. n, 1796, by Alvinzi, at the head of an Austrian army superior in point of numbers. Massena, at the head of a French and Italian army, attacked the Austrians in this position Oct. 29 and 30, 1806, and after a gallant struggle was repulsed, and retreated to Verona. CALEDONIA. (See BRITISH COLUMBIA and SCOTLAND). CALEDONIAN CANAL (Scotland), connect- ing the North Sea with the Atlantic Ocean, is navigable for ships of 500 or 600 tons burden. In 1773 James Watt showed the practicability of executing this work, which was commenced by Telford in Sep., 1803, and was opened Oct. 23, 1822. In 1837 and 1838 the works sustained considerable injury, and as the expenditure far exceeded the revenue, the idea of abandon- ing the undertaking was seriously entertained. An act was obtained in 1840 to permit the transfer of the canal to a joint-stock company ; but the project was not carried out. CALENDAR. The Jews and some ancient nations divided the year into 12 lunar months, a 1 3th being added from time to time to ac- commodate it to the seasons. The year amongst the ancient Egyptians consisted of 12 months, each of which contained 30 days. At the end of the year five supplementary days were added. The Greeks for a considerable period made the year consist of 12 lunar months. Solon, B.C. 594, introduced a change respect- ing the length of the months, making them of 29 and 30 days alternately. An intercalary month was occasionally introduced to restore the balance. Romulus is said to have divided the year into 10 months, of which March was the first. This year consisted of 304 days, and was the original Roman calendar. Numa added two months, January at the com- mencement, and February at the end of the year, and caused an additional month, con- sisting of 22 and 23 days alternately, to bo inserted every second year. The Decem- virs altered this arrangement B.C. 452, by placing February after January. Confusion having arisen in these calculations, Julius Caesar abolished the use of the intercalations B.C. 46. He adjusted the year according to the course of the sun, and assigned to the months the number of days which they now contain. He added an intercalary day to February every four years. The new system, arranged by Sosigenes, an astronomer of Alexandria, whom Ca?sar invited to Rome for the purpose, com- menced Jan. i, B.C. 46, and was called the Julian or solar year. This arrangement was disturbed by the Emperor Augustus. The o a CALENDS [ 196 ] CALIXTINES consequence was, that the equinox, which, on the introduction of the Julian calendar, fell March 29, retrograded so much that in the year 1582 it fell March n. Gregory XIII., by a bull dated Feb. 24, 1582, effected another reformation, which is now generally adopted and is called the Gregorian calendar. He ordered 10 days to be deducted, making Oct. 5, 1582, to reckon as the isth. In order to render the civil and the natural year of the same length, he ordered that every jooth year, excepting the fourth, commencing with 2000, should not be a leap-year. Thus, whilst 1700, 1800, and 1900 are not leap-years, 1600 was ; and 2000 will be, but 2100, 2200, and 2300 will be common years. (See NEW STYLE and REVOLUTIONARY CALENDAR.) CALENDS, in the Roman calendar, the firsl day of the month. Nicolas says, in the Middle Ages the term was sometimes used for the first day of the preceding month, on which the calends of the ensuing month began to be reckoned. CALETES, or CALETL This Belgic tribe, which numbered 10,000 fighting men B.C. 57, attempted to relieve Vercingetorix during the siege of Alise (q. v.) by Julius Caesar, B.C. 52, and assisted the Bellovaci against the Romans B.C. 51. CALICO, so called from Calicut, a city of India, has been manufactured in Hindostan from time immemorial. The first importation was made by the East India Company in 1631, and the printing was commenced in London in 1676. In 1768 this branch of industry was in- troduced into Lancashire. In consequence of the hostility of the Spitalfields silk-weavers, the importation of Indian calicoes was prohibited in 1700, and by 7 Geo. I. c. 7 (1721) it was made illegal to wear any printed calico whatever. By a Geo. II. c. 4 (1736) the use of calico partly made of linen was permitted ; and by 14 Geo. III. c. 72 (1774) cloth entirely of cotton was sanctioned. By i Will. IV. c. 17 (March 15, 1831^, all laws restricting calico-printing were finally repealed, and the manufacture has since rapidly increased. CALICUT (Hindostan) was the first port in India reached by Vasco de Gama in 1497. The Portuguese attacked and burned Calicut in 1510. They were repulsed, but obtained permission to erect a factory in 1513. The English East India Company established their factory in 1616. Hyder Ali seized the town in 1766, and compelled the inhabitants to remove to Nellaru, afterwards called Furruckabad. The English took Calicut Feb. 12, 1782 ; Tippoo Saib ob- tained possession in 1789, and completely de- stroyed the town. The country was finally ceded to the British in 1792, and the people returned and rebuilt the town. CALIFORNIA (N. America) was discovered by Grijalva in 1534, and visited in 1537 by Cortes. Its coasts were explored by Cabrillo in 1542 ; but no European settlement was formed till a subsequent period. It is now divided into Lower and Upper California ; the former had been previously called Old and the latter New California. Sir Francis Drake landed near the site of the present San Francisco in June, 1579. In the account of the proceedings of the expedition in this part of America, it is stated, " There is no part of earth here to be taken up, wherein there is not special likelihood of gold or silver." Capt. George Shelvocke, who visited California in Aug., 1719, declared that gold-dust was promiscuously and univer- sally mingled with the common earth, and he brought away some of the soil for the purpose of making further investigations. This was, however, lost in China, and the actual discovery of the gold was reserved for the igth century. A.D. 1578. Sir Francis Drake takes possession, on behalf of Queen Kli/.ab, th, of the northern part of Cali- fornia, calling it Xew Albion. 1698. The Spanish Jesuits establish the first European settlements in California. 1768. The Spanish Jesuits are succeeded by the Francis- 1823. Revolution, by which California is separated from Spain. 1829. Revolt among the Californians and Indians at Monterey. 1831. Don Manuel Victoria becomes governor, and occa- sions an insurrection by his tyranny. 1833. The .Mexican Government seizes all the missionary stations of the Spanish priests, and declares tin-in public property. 1836, Nov. Overthrow of the Mexican dominion in Cali- fornia. 1840. All foreigners are expelled from California. 1846, California is occupied by the army of the United Stales. Sep. 24. Monterey is captured by the United States army. 1847, Sep. Cold is discovered on the Sacramento River. 1848, Feb. 2. Upper California is ceded to the United States. 1850. California is admitted into the Union as a sovereign slate. 1860. Towards the end of this year the assembly resolves in favour of maintaining its connection with the United States Government. CALIGRAPIIY. Varro, who died B.C. 28, is commended by Cicero for the elegance with which he adorned his manuscripts; and Se- neca, A.D. 65, speaks of books ornamented with figures. Charlemagne (800 814) was a munificent patron of professors of caligraphy, as was also the Emperor Basilius I. (867 886). About 1150 great progress began to be made in the art, and Charles V. of France (1364 1380) granted special protection to caligraphic paint- ing in France and Flanders. CALIPH. This title was first borne by Abu Beker, who succeeded Mohammed in 632. CALIPPIC PERIOD. Calippus of Cyzicus, said to have been a disciple of Plato, lived about B.C. 330. He discovered and corrected the error of the Metonic cycle, which was composed of 235 lunations, or periods from new moon to new moon, containing a few hours more than 19 years. Calippus observed that a more correct period might be formed by taking four times the period of Meton, all but one day, or 27,759 days, very nearly 76 years. The Calippic cycle is therefore four Metonic cycles all but one day. The first dated from July, B.C. 330, and corresponded with the third year of the ii2th Olympiad, and to A.U.C. 423. CALIXTINES. In 1420 a schism broke out amongst the Hussites, and they separated into two factions, the Calixtines and the Taborites. The former derived their name from the cir- cumstance that they insisted on the use of the cup (calyx, the Greek word) in the Eucharist. CALIYUGA CALPEE The difference between the Calixtines and the Roman Catholics was very slight, and they were reconciled to the Pope in 1433. They de- feated the Taborites in a great battle at Lippau (q. v.}, May 28, 1434. In 1458 they per- secuted the original Hussites, whom they ex- pelled from Bohemia in 1497. Also a Lu- theran sect, the followers of George Calixtus of Helmstadt, who flourished 1586 1656, and endeavoured to unite the various branches of the Romish, Lutheran, and Reformed Churches. He was assailed by Buscher in 1639, and other Lutheran divines. CALIYUGA. The Hindoo sera of the Deluge. Hales remarks " Though the date of the astronomical sera Call yuga be invariably fixed to B.C. 3102, the historical sera " of that name fluctuates considerably. B.C. " The Bhagavat reckons it 1913 The Vishnu Purana 1905 Other Puranas 1370 The followers of Jina 1078." CALLAO (Peru), the port of Lima, from which it is seven miles distant, was founded during the reign of Philip IV. (16211665). In 1746, the original city was destroyed by an earthquake and covered by the sea. It surren- dered Sep. 22, 1821, during the Peruvian war of independence. In the struggle between Brazil and Buenos Ayres, Callao capitulated after a siege of two years' duration, Jan. 23, 1826. Severe shocks of an earthquake were felt here in the middle of April, 1860. CALLIAS (Treaties). A compact between Artaxerxes Longimanus, King of Persia, and the Greeks, concluded at Susa by the Athenian envoy Callias, B.C. 449, fixed a boundary be- tween the territories of the contracting parties, who agreed to abstain from aggressions either upon the Greek colonies of Western Asia, or the Persian dependencies of Egypt and Cyprus. The jealousy of the Greek states soon led them to invoke the aid of Persia against each other, and thus neutralized the intended benefit of this treaty. A second peace, concluded at Sparta by the Lacedsemonians and Athenians, and their allies, B.C. 371, assured the indepen- dence of each Greek city, subject to certain rights due to Sparta as the supreme state on land, and to Athens as queen of the sea. This treaty was also named from one of the Athe- nian envoys. CALLINGHUR (Hindostan). Mohammed of Ghuznee failed in an attempt to capture this stronghold in 1024 ; and Sher Shah, the Affghan leader, made an unsuccessful attack in 1543. The English failed in an attempt to carry it by storm Feb. 2, 1812 ; but the fort surrendered Feb. 7. CALLINICUM (Battle). The Persians de- feated Belisarixis near this small town on the Persian frontier, Easter Sunday, April 20, A.r>. 531. CALMAR (Sweden). The celebrated treaty known as the " Union of Calmar," by which Sweden, Norway, and Denmark were united into one kingdom, under Queen Margaret, was concluded at this town in Sweden July 12, 1397. The Union was finally dissolved by Gustavus Vasa, in 1523. A large portion of the town was destroyed by a fire, which broke out Oct. 18, 1765, and raged till Oct. 21. CALMUCKS. This name was given to one of the three principal Tartar divisions by the Mohammedan Mongols. Expelled from China in 1672, they settled on the banks of the Volga. Repeatedly invited to return, the great trans- migration of these hordes commenced in Jan., 1771, when above 300,000 set out for their original seat in China. By the end of May they crossed the Torgan, after a march in which they endured such terrible hardships that 250,000 of their number perished in its progress. In June they were compelled to resume their journey by an army of Bashkirs ; and they arrived in China Sep. 8, and were permitted to enjoy rest and prosperity after their adversities. CALNEH (Assyria). This city, founded by Nimrod (Gen. x. 10) about B.C. 2218, was after- ards called Niffer. CALOMEL, or SUBCHLORIDE OF MER- CURY, is said to have been prepared by the alchemists ; but the original discoverer is un- known. Croillus, writing at the beginning of the 1 7th century, speaks of its preparation as a great mystery. Begum made the process public in 1608. CALORIC ENGINE. (See ERICSSON'S PA- TENT.) CALOTTISTES, or LE REGIMENT DE LA CALOTTE. This association of wits, formed in France during the reign of Louis XIV. (1643 1715), received its name from its custom of sending to any public character who had exposed himself to ridicule a "patent" au- thorizing him to wear the calotte, a small cap worn by the monks over the tonsure, as a protection to the weak part of his head. Having become too bold in its satire it was dissolved during the ministry of Cardinal Fleury (1726 1743); Memoires pour servir a I'Histoire de la Calotte were published at Basel in 1725. (See BABINE REPUBLIC.) CALOTYPE PROCESS of photography, for producing negative pictures on paper, was first exhibited by H. F. Talbot in 1840. CALPE. (See GIBRALTAR.) CALPEE, or KALPEE (Battle). At this town, in the province of Agra, Hindostan, the first engagement took place between the British, under Gen. Carnac, and the Mahrattas, May 20, 1765. The latter were completely routed, and driven across the Jumna. Sir Hugh Rose defeated the mutineers, who came out from Calpee in great force, and attacked his besieging army at Gulowlie, May 22, 1858. CALPEE, or KALPEE (Hindostan), said to have been founded before A.D. 400, was seized by the Mohammedans in 1 196, and surrendered by the Patan sovereigns of Delhi to Baber in 1527. In 1778 it was taken from the Mah- rattas by the British, and it was ceded to the East India Company by the treaty of Bassein, Dec. 31, 1802. The native chief in possession, having, however, refused to deliver up the tow it was besieged and taken Dec. 4, 1803. Its possession was confirmed to the Company in 1806. Sir Hiigh Rose, who arrived in the neigh- bourhood May 15, took possession of Calpee May 23, 1858. CALVARY [ 198 ] CAMBRAY CALVARY. (& MOUNT CAT,VAIIY.) c.MA'Ks' iiKAD CLUB (London). In a tract entitled "The Secret History of tho Calves'- Iload Club; or, Tin: Republican I ,'nmasked," published in 170), :ui(l reprinted in tin: sixth vol. of I.IK: llarleian Miscellany, Millon ;iiid nt her members of tin: Commonwealth a to have instituted this c.lub. This account of its origin is not, however, considered authentic, Home members ol such an association I to have met. at a French tavern in Suffolk Street, Jan. 30, ij ibited calves' heads, on which they \vei at the window. They drank lo the memory of the army which dethroned the king, and of the men who cut off his head on t he scaffold. This led to a riot, which was suppressed by the in tcrferenee of the military. The \\holealfairis by some writers believed to bo a hoax. CM A' I (Corsica .- -This seaport was taken by the Knglish under Lord Mood,. Aug. 10, 1794, after a siege of 51 days. Nelson was > in this struggle, and 'received a wound which destroyed the sight of his right eyo. The Lmdish retired in 1796. CALVlMS.MandCALVINISTS. The former name is given to the peculiar doctrines tan;.-; ht by John Calvin, the reformer, born at Noyon, July Ip, [509, llec|uitted the Roman (Catholic Church, in whicli he held a cure, in d having leli i. where he puUishi-d his " Christian Institutes" in [555, lie went to Ceneva in 1536, but ha.viic.' advocated some unpopular views was expelled in April, 1538. The edict of banishment was cancelled in May, is4i,and in Sep. he returned to (i. IP \a, Rrhett I liority. Ry his influence Michael Scrvetus was arrested and burned at a < >ct. 17, i { <. The peculiar doctrines of tin- Calvinists, called the five points, aie i, particular election; 2, particular redemp- tion ; i, moral inability in a fallen state ; 4, irresistible, ^raec ; and -,, final perse \ erance. Calvinism spread throu-h France, Holland, Kngland, Scot.la.nd, and other parts of Kuropc. Calvin himself died at Geneva, May 27, 1564. Various divisions have broken out anp followers. On the subject of predestination t hey a, re divided int o t he I nfra or Sub lapsarians and I he Supra lapsarians ; the former contend : God permitted, and the latter that lie i the fall of man. The jooth anniver wary of the death of Calvin was celebrated by the reformed churches of France, May 27, 1864. (,SV(- (ioMAICISTS. ; CA.MALIHiLFNSIANS.orCAMALDOLITKS. An order of re! i Qfl founde.i) at Camaldoli, or Campus Malduli, a desert, spot on the lofty heights of 1 he A penn incs, about jo miles fi-oiii Florence, by Romuald, an Italian, in 1023. They follow the rule of St. Benedict, and are divided into Cenobites and Krcmites. One of their houses was established at Gros- bois, near I'aris, but they do not appear ever to have had an establishment in Kngland. CAMARINA (Sicily . Founded by a colony from Syracuse, B.C. >;<*<)- It revolted and was destroyed by the Syracusans B.C. 55-.!. Hip p icrat.es, tyrant of Gela, restored it about B.C. 495 ; but it was again destroyed by Gelon B.C. 485. The town was re-established for the third time B.C. 461, fell into the hands of the Carthaginians B.C. 4os, and joined the Romans in the first I'unie war. Tho Roman fleet was destroyed off the const,, near Cama- rina, B.C. -^ss- Camariiia afterwards declined, and no trace of it remains. < 'A M 15 A VII indostan , supposed to have been the capital of the Hindoo empire in V India in the sth century, is mentioned by Marco I'olo i;>.z,6 1323). In 1780 the Knglish took Cambay from the Mahrattas, to whom it 'red in 170 ;. Cambay lias formed part of i he F.ri! i.-h empire in India since 1803. CAMBEBWELL (Surrey ,. The grammar school of this village, which now fi-. southern suburb of the metropolis, was founded by the Rev. K. Wilson under letters patent granted by James I. Sep. 29,1615. The old p irish church was destroyed by fire in 1841. CA.MHODIA (Asia). -Nothing was known of this country beyond the, Ganges till about 1590, when the King of Cambodia implored the assistance of the Governor of the Philippines against the King of Siam. Christianity was introduce. 1 by the Portuguese Jesuits in [624. The Siamese invaded the country and took the capital in iHoi>; and in iHn, all direct inter- OOUTSe of foreigners with the Cochin Chinese portion of Cambodia was prohibited by the Kmpcror of Anam. The final partition of the country between the Lmperor of Anam and the King of Siam took place in iHvo. A treaty vvilli France was concluded at Udong Aug. n, ('AMUR AY, or CAM UK A I (France , the an- cient ( 'amaracum, one of the chief cities of the Nervii, was fortified by Cliarli-ma-ne, and was long governed by bishop?, under 1 he rule of the empire. b best ged the town in nd in 1477 it fell into the possession of Louis X I., who restored it to Unrgundyin (478. It was captured by Charles V. in 1544. The Prince of Parma besieged Cambray in 1580, but without success. In i-i'j.sit was sei/ed by Hie Spaniards. Louis XIV. reunited it to Prance the revi ilutionary i the cathedral was utterly destroyed. Cambray was twice besieged by the A'. in 1793, being taken by them Sep. 10. The I'Yench were defeated here by the, Duke of York, April 24, 1794; and tin Mn.'dish under Sir < lharles Colville captured the town June 24, 1815. Cambray was made a bishopric in 390, an archbishopric, in 1 1556, reduced to a In in 1801, and reconstituted an archbishopric in 1841. It was in union with Arras until 1092, when a separation took place. Fenelon was made Archbishop of Cambray in 1695. Coun- cils were held here in 1064 ; Dec. 27, 1303 ; Oct. i, i [8 ; ; and in Aug., 1565. CAMBRAY (League is supposed to have been determined upon at the meeting between Louis XI I. of France and Ferdinand and [ga bella of Spain, at Savona, June 28 July 3, 1507. The celebrated convention was signed LJec. 10, 1508, be! ween Louis XII. and the Km- peror Maximilian, Pope Julius II., Ferdinand, and other princes being invited to join. Fer- dinand and Julius II. soon after ratified the CAMBKAY [ 199 OAMBRIDCK Us ohjeet.i were llu- humiliation i>( Venice, and (lie partition of her territories. The contracting parties advanoad into it.-i.iy in order In carry out. tin- project, ami this proved tin- signal for a st ru<_';;dc, in wliicli one member of the league was often arrayed aj.;ainst ;in ot licr, nut il peace \vas re est al >\ isln -c I in 1,11. .Sisinoiidi says tliis league laid I lie foiindal i<>n of public law in Kuropc. &< C.vn \r C \MI:I.I si ,. <'AMI;I:A v Peace), known aa the " I'aix des "Of" Ladies' I "ea.ee," I >. -cause tllCHOgO- tiations were commenced I'.v .Margaret, Duchess bhe emperors aunt, and Louise, mother to l-Vancis I. of France. The .; Madrid 81 rved as I h<- basis for that of ( 'anil tray. signed Aug 1 . 5, 1520. Robert i he ( hie!' art ieles WCM-, that the emperor "should not, for the present, demand tin- res lilutioii of I JuriMindy, reservim;-. ho\vi:vi-r, in full force, his rights and pretensions to that, duchy; that Francis should pay -.,000,000 crowns as the ransom of his MOMS, and, before they were set at liberty, should rrst.s. towns as he st ill held in t he Mil-.nese; that he should res !, 1 1 his pretensions to i lies, ,\, of Flanders ami of Artois; thai he should renounce all his pretensions to Naples, Milan, (iciioa, and e\ery other place beyond the Alps; (hat he should inini<-< 1 is I ' I , OOQfiUm male the marria -..- concluded between him and t he emperor'8 .sister Fleaiiora." c \MI;I;IA. Set WALES.) ( ' A M lt|{ I A N A IIC I 1 .K< il .( )( I K ' A F ASSOCIA- Tl< >N, for promo) in- the study and ffl lion ,,f (I,,: aid ii|iiitiesof Wales, was established in that country in 1846. < 'AM I'd,' I ( , originally manufactured a,t. Cam- 1. ray, whence- its name, was introduced into Filmland by t he 1 )u|i-h eini--,i-.i nt ,-. in 15163. In r/)., the impofl al ion of foreign cambiic was prohibited. In 1701 the manul'aeli, i.cd at Winchelsea. and broii;dd. tosueh perfection lhat, in 1711;, the home made article was considered C(|iia! to the French. Cambric o manufactured at Dundalk, in Ireland. By 7 (u-o. I II. C. 43 (1767), the; rcstl-iclmn.--. OD the importation ,,f eambrie were reimposed ; but, they were repealed by the col ereial treaty between England and Efranoe, signed at Versailles, Sej). 26, 1786. They \\ere again CU- forcei I June OJ CAMBIUM;!-; (Kn : dai,d , supposed to be the Camborienni or Ca mborit um of the Uomans, and the Qrantabiicsir of the Baxous, is said to base been fouiidi d by a, Spa.niard named ( 'an nil red and burned l>y the Danes in 87] and in tOIO. William I. founded the castle in 1070, and fortified (he lo\\ ; , a-ainsl the attacks of t he Saxons. In 1088 it Was sei/.ed and plundered bv the re belli,, us barons of William II. KI'P granted it a, charter in iaOO, ami cont'u med it in ]icrpc-tuily in laoj, Its castle, captured by the Karons in i .M <;, was soon recovered by Kin-- John. Cambridge suiien-d in the "Baron? War," in the n-i;-,n of Henry 111., havii plundered by tin: insurgents, who, in i ried away such of t he iuhabitanls as were able to pay heavy ransoiu. In 1381 the town lost its charters in consequence of un attack made by the populace on the university, and it. mm by ( 'I'omwcll and made " the prime gar- rison and rcnde/.vousof the associated count ies" in 1642. The Fily.william M useuni was founded in 1816 ; the Cambridge Philosophical Society was established Nov. 15, 1819, and received its charter Aug. 3, 1832. The railway from London was opened in July, 1845. The Prince and i Wales visited Cambridge June 34, 1864. CA M r.it I DC F (United States). This town in Massachusetts was tirst settled in 1631, under the name of NYwtown. I larvard College (q. V.), the oldest institution of the kind in the Cnit. d muled here by the Rev. John Harvard. M) Fn;;lish clergyman, {111638. The Synod of Cam bridge met in 1646, and was dis- solved in 1648. after adopting the system of church discipline known as the "Cambridge I'la! form," which formed the religious consti- tution ,,l CAMI:I;IIM;F l M\ FtisiTY. Some authors believe CamhridKC t., be the place at Which Sigibert. King OI the Fa, t An des, founded a. school for youth in 635, as related by Bode (b. ii. c. 1 8). It was restored by Edward I. (the I'll.l.-r) in 915. Peter of IHois, in his con- tinuation of Inj.'.ulphiis, relates that Joffrid. Abbot of Croylaml, in nog, Mn\ ( iisleber). an.l three other monks to Cambridge every day, where, ha\im; hin-ii a barn, they 1: night the s.cji -nei-s, and colluded a great concourse of scholars. The number had increased so much in I he second year after their arri\al, t hat mi house oi- church was lar;/;e enough to hold them. For this reason 1 hey sepalal ed into ela met in dilleivnt places. The first, menlioii of the university under the title of the cham-i llor and masters occurs in 1231, during the reign of Henry 111., who -ranted several charters, and contributed grtfttu '" t il( ' well arc of the insti- tution, in ,,;;,, during Wai Tyler 1 * riots, the town of Cambridge rose in arms against the university and burned its charters, all which wen- afterwards restored by Hichard II. Pope Mariin V. gave it full ecclesiastical and spiii- tual jurisdiction over its students in 1430 ; and ThomaaSoott, Bishop of Lincoln, founded the l.ibr. , ry in 1. 17',. It was incorporated b\ i . l-.li-. c. 29 (1571). In 1687, Feb. 9, the university re- fused to admit I-' ram-is, a Benedict ine monk, in consequence of which the vice chancellor and mate rendered theinsehcs obnoxious to James II. The classical Tripos was estab- lished in 1824. Tim Philoflophioa] or M..I-.-I! S.'i.-ne.-s Tiipos ami I he Natural Scieuc.-s Tri- |i' .. in ,;. ,i. 'I he present uni , ci ,n ii lined by <.,)uoen Vio- toi-ia, by BO Ord0r in Council, July 31,1858. The Fni i.inal ions ('/. v.) com m. i, ,-,-,i |n ; ', ,,,. A new K.A. scheme was adopted June ;, iKo'j. T I a- following are the 17 wit h the date of foundation : dan 1-^47. IViiiliniUi- I. ;.):;. Ciinvillc Hull uirl 1350. Ti-h.ily Hull. 135* Cor|insCliri,li 1 , i|. . 1448. Queen's A. Ii. ' I'liHi -duo's Co !.)'(''. .Irsll^ i-,i i. SI. .hilm'B 1510. MiiBdnloue 1598. Sidney Huox 1800. Downing 1,,-u CAMBUSKENNETH [ 200 ] CAMEO Founded. A.D. EXHIBITIONS. 1657. Lwmley. Five. 1856. - Sheepshanks, the Astronomical. PRIZES. 749. Seatonian. Value 40. English Poem on a Sacred subject. 1751. Chancellor's (two) gold medals, 15 15*. each, for Classical Learning. 1752. Members'. Four 15 15*. each, for Latin Prose Com- position. 1768. Smith. Two. 25 each. Mathematics and Natural Philosophy. 1774. Browne. Three gold medals, 5 5*. each. Greek and Latin Verse and Epigrams. 1780. Norrisian. Value 60. English Essay on Theo- logical subject. 1789. Hulsean (q. r.). Value 80. 1812- Chancellor's gold medal. An English Ode or Poem in Heroic Verse. 1816. Person (7. v.). Greek books, 20. 1840. Camden. Gold medal. Latin Hexameter Verse. 1844. Maitland. Value 120. English Essay on Mis- sionary subject. 1845. Burney. English Essay. Value 100. 1848. Adams. Value 130. Essay on some subject of Pure Mathematics, Astronomy, or other branch of Natural Philosophy. 1848. Le Has. Value 57. English Essay on a subject of General Literature. 1853. Cams (two) Greek Testament Prizes. Proceed of 1,000 Fund. 1856. Chancellor's gold medal for Legal Studies. 1856. Scholefield. Value 15. Greek Testament and Septuagint. 1861. Kaye. Value 60. English Dissertation on some subject of Ecclesiastical History. 1861. Hare. Value 60. English Dissertation on some subject from Ancient Greek or Roman History. 1865. Hebrew. Interest of 300 Scinde Railway Stork. 1865. Sedgwick. Three years' interest of 500 Scinde Railway Stock. Geology or Kindred Sciences. The first prize to be awarded in Lent, 1868. PROFESSORSHIPS. A.D. 1503. Margaret, Divinity. 1540. Regius, Divinity." A.D. 1727. Wood wardian, Geology 1749. Lowndean,Astronomy 1540. Five Regius Professor- ships for Divinity, 1768. Norrisian, Divinity. 1783. Jacksonian, Natural Civi! Law, Greek, Hebrew, and Physic. 1632. Arabic. and Experimental Philosophy. 1800. Downing, Laws of 1663. Lucasian, Mathematics England. 1683. Moral Philosophy. 1684. Music. 1801. Downing, Medicine. 1808. Mineralogy. 1702. Chemistry. 1828. Political Economy. 1704. Plumian, Astronomy. 1851. Disnev, Archaeology. 1707. Anatomy. 1860. Hulsean, Divinity. 1724. Lord Almoner's, Ara- 1860. Hindustani. bic. 1863. Sadlerian, Mathema- 1724. Modern History. 1724- Botany. tics. 1863. Sanscrit. PREACHERS AND LECTURERS. 1503. Lady Margaret's Preacher. 1524. Sir Robert Rede's Lecturer. 1724. Whitehall Preacher. 1818. Hulsean Lecturer. UNIVERSITY SCHOLARSHIPS. 1647. Craven, six Classical. 1813. Pitt, one Classical. 1746. Battle, one 1818. Tyrwhitt, six Hebrew. 1774. Browne, one 1832. Crosse, three Theolo- 1804. Davies. one gical. 1 8 10. Bell, eight 1855. Porson, one Classical. The "University Calendar" and the "Cam- bridge Year Book " (Rivingtons), edited by W. White, Sub-librarian of Trinity College, contain full particulars on all points relating to the University. CAMBUSKENNETH (Battle). Wallace de- feated John de Warrenne, Earl of Surrey, guardian of Scotland, at this place, near Stir- ling, Sep. 10, 1297. CAMDEN (Battles). The first was fought at the village of Camden, in South Carolina, Aug. 16, 1780, between the Americans under Gen. Gates, and the British under Lord Corn- wallis. The former were completely routed, with a loss of about 1,000 killed and wounded, and as many prisoners, the English having only 20 killed and about 200 wounded. The second battle, at the same place, was fought April 25, 1781. The Americans, commanded by Gen. Greene, were defeated. Lord Rawdon, the English commander, evacuated Camden May 13. This is sometimes called the battle of Hobkirk's Hill. CAMDEN SOCIETY (London), for the pub- lication of documents illustrative of English history, was established in 1838. It takes its name from William Camden, author of the " Britannia," and historian of Queen Elizabeth. ('. \MKL. This machine for raising ships, in order to enable them to pass over shallows, was invented about the year 1688, by a Dutch- man named Meuvis Meindertzoon Bakker, of Amsterdam. CAMKL (Battle). Fought under the walls of Bassorah, in 658, by the Caliph Ali, against the Arab chieftains Telha and Zobeir, who were accompanied by Ayesha, the widow of the Prophet. ' She rode upon a camel : hence the name given to the battle. The rebels were de- feated, and Telha and Zobeir were slain. < ' A M ELFORD (Cornwall), said to have been the scene of the battle between King Arthur and his rebellious nephew Mordred, in which both leaders were mortally wounded, fought in 542. A second battle was fought here in 823, between the Britons, and the Saxons under Egbert. Camelford was incorporated by one of the Cornish earls, and sent two members to the first parliament of Edward VI., in 1547. At the passing of the Reform Bill, in 1832, the borough was disfranchised. CAMELODUNUM, or CAMULODUNUM (Britain). This town, the modern Colchester (<> '- Hir ]) - Kirke takes the French possessions in Canada. 1632. They are restored to France by the treaty of St. (it-miam. 1648-49. The colony suffers from the incursions of the Iroquois Indians. 1663. Louis XIV. erects Canada into a royal government, with the laws and usages of Fnmri-. 1665. Canada is granted to the French West Imiia Company 1667. 1'eace is made with the Indians. CANADA [ 203 ] CANARY A.D. 1690. Sir William Phipps is despatched from New England to conquer Canada. Oct. 16. He reaches Quebec. Oct. 22. He re-embarks, without effecting any conquests. 1711. The British American colonies send another fleet to conquer Canada. Aug. 22. It is wrecked at the mouth of the St. Lawrence. 1713, April ii. The peace of Utrecht restores tranquillity to Canada. 1746. Shirley, Governor of Massachusetts, projects the conquest of Canada, but only carries his arms into Nova Scotia. 1755. The English again attack Canada. 1759, Sep. 13. Battle of Quebec (q. t>.), and death of Gen. Wolfe. Sep. 18. The town surrenders to the British. 1760. Entire reduction of Canada by the British. 1763, Feb. 10. Canada is ceded to Great Britain by the treaty of Paris. 1765. Canada submits to the Stamp Act. 1774, A legislative council of 33 members is ap- pointed. 1775, Sep. 10. The American forces invade Canada, and land at St. John's. Nov. 3. Gen. Montgomery takes St. John's ; Nov. 12, Montreal. Dec. 31. In company with Arnold, he assaults Quebec. He is killed in the action, and the Americans surrender to Gen. Carleton. 1776, June 1 8. The Americans evacuate Canada, 1791, March 4. Pitt proposes the Quebec Bill (31 Geo. III. c. 31), by which Canada is divided into the Upper and Lower provinces, and receives a represen- tative constitution. 179?. The first House of Assembly is opened by Lieut. - Governor Clarke. 1793. Canada is erected into a bishopric. 1813, Aug. 15. The Americans, under Gen. Hull, having invaded Canada, are compelled to surrender. Oct. 14. A second army, under Gen. Wadsworth, capitulates. Nov. 27. A third, under Van Rensse- laer, surrenders. 1813, April 37. The Americans take York (Toronto). May 27. They capture Fort George. May 29. They repel the British at Sacket's Harbour. June 6. They are defeated tit Stony Creek. Nov. n. In- decisive battle of Williamsburg. 1814, March 4. The Americans gain the battle of Longwood. July 3. They take Fort Erie. July 5. They gain the battle of Chippawa. July 25. Second battle at Chippawa, also called Bridgewater. Dec. 24. Peace is signed at Ghent. 1828. 87,000 Canadians petition the king against the manner in which the governors had applied the revenues. 1836, Sep. 22. The Houses of Assembly refuse to vote supplies. 1837, The "Sons of Liberty," under Papineau, rise in rebellion at Montreal. Dec. 4. They are de- feated in an attempt to seize Toronto. Dec. 14. They are defeated at St. Eustace. 1838, Jan. 15. Resignation of Sir Francis Head. May 29. Lord Durham, his successor, arrives at Quebec. Oct. Lord Durham leaves for England. 1841, Feb. 10. Upper and Lower Canada are united into one province. 1844. The seat of government is transferred from Kingston to Toronto. 1849, April 25. Disturbances in Canada, owing to the Rebellion Losses Indemnity Bill. The insurgents burn the parliament house at Montreal. 1853, May 9. By 16 Viet c. 31, the legislature is empowered to make provision concerning the lands known as Clergy Reserves, and their proceeds. 1855, Sep. Extensive immigration from the north of Scot- 1856, March 12. Seventy people are killed by an accident on the Hamilton Railway. April 17. Quebec is made the seat of government. 1858. Ottawa is made the capital. 1860, July. The Prince of Wales visits Canada. Sep. 20. He leaves for the United States. 1861, Dec. 23. Detachments of troops are despatched to Canada by the British Government as a precau- tion against aggression by the Federal States of America. 1862, May 20. Resignation of the Ministry. A new cabinet is formed under Mr. J. L. M'Donald. June 7. A disastrous fire occurs at Quebec (q. r.). A.D. 1864, Oct. 3. A meeting of French Canadians, held at Mont- real, protests against the project of Federal union. Oct. 10. A conference of delegates assembles at Quebec to consider the advisability of forming a federal union of the provinces of British America (g. .). Oct. 19. Confederate refugees in Canada cross the frontier into Vermont, and attack the town of St. Albans. Dec. 6. President Lincoln proposes in his message, after giving six months' notice to England, to form a naval force on the Lake, to prevent Confederate raids from Canada. Dec. 14. Gen. Dix publishes a proclamation, annulled by President Lincoln, announcing that persons invading United States territory" across the Canadian frontier, w ill be pursued beyond that boundary and captured on British soil. Dec. 15. The raiders having been discharged, great excite- ment prevails in the United States. 1865, Jan. 19. Opening of the Canadian Parliament. March 23. The English House of Commons, after an animated debate, votes 50,000 for the defence of Canada. April it. The Canadian Parliament adopts, by a large majority, the project of federal union. 1866, March. The Canadians take measures to repel a threatened invasion of Fenians from the United States. CANADIAN. This screw steamer, carrying mail-bags and passengers from Quebec, struck xipon a field of ice about five miles from the straits of Belleisle, between Newfoundland and Labrador, and foundered in about an hour, June 4, 1861. The majority of the passengers and. crew escaped in the boats, but 35 persons perished. CANALS were constructed in China at a very earlyperiod, and in Egypt as early as B.C. 1350. (See SUEZ CANAL.) The Bahr-Yoosuf, or river of Joseph, was made under the Pharaohs. They were introduced into Europe about the commencement of the Christian sera. The CaerDyke and the Foss Dyke, in Lincolnshire, the earliest in England, were constructed by the Romans. Locks, which are said to have been used in the time of the ancient canals of Upper Egypt, and in the Milanese canals in 1497, were introduced into England from Flanders in 1652. Canals are regulated by 8 & 9 Viet. c. 42 (July 21, 1845), and 17 & 18 Viet. c. 31 (July 10, 1854). (See INLAND NAVIGATION.) CANANORE (Hindostan). The Portuguese had a fort at this town in Malabar, as early as 1505. They were expelled by the Dutch, who in 1664 sold their privileges to the native princes. It afterwards formed part of the em- pire of Hyder Ali. The English, who were repulsed in an attack upon Cananore in 1768, garrisoned it in 1784. Having been restored, it was taken from Tippoo Saib by Gen. Abercrombie in 1791. CANARA (Hindostan). This province was wrested from the Hindoos by Hyder Ali, in 1763. On the death of his son Tippoo Saib, in 1799, it came under the rule of the East India Company, and has since formed part of the presidency of Bombay. It is divided into North and South Canara. CANARY-BIRD, found in Madeira, the Canary and Cape Verde Islands, was brought to Europe early in the i6th century. CANARY ISLANDS, or CANARIES (N. At- lantic Ocean), are supposed to be the Hespe- rides or Fortunate Islands of the ancients. Their discovery in modern times is attributed to the crew of a French vessel, who were driven CANCER [ 204 ] CANNING to their shores by stress of weather about 1330 4. (See AFRICA.) Some Spanish adven- turers visited them about 1395, and plun- dered all the populous districts, carrying off as captives the king and queen and about 70 of the inhabitants. In 1400, the King of Castile granted the Canaries to John de Bethencourt. An episcopal see was established in the Canaries in 1404. In 1483 the Spaniards commenced the conquest of the Canaries, which have remained in their possession ever since. In 1494 most of the Guanches, the aboriginal inhabitants who had escaped slavery, war, and famine, were carried off by a terrible pestilence. Ximenes extended the Inquisition to the Canaries in 1516. In 1822 the Canary Islands were formed into a Spanish province, with the right of representation in the Cortes. CANCER HOSPITAL (London), situated at West Brompton, was opened Nov. 20, 1852. CANDAHAR.-(?e KANDAHAR.) CANDI A (Mediterranean), the ancient Crete, became a Roman province 8.0.67. The capital of the island, also called Candia, was taken by a band of Spanish Arabs A.D. 823, and recovered by the Greeks under Nicephorus Phocas in 961. The Venetians purchased the island Aug. 12, 1204, and took possession in 1205. In conse- quence of the frequent insurrections of the Can- diotes, the Venetians, in 1243, divided the island into three parts ; the first for the re- public, the second for the Church, and the third for the colonists. Notwithstanding this, the inhabitants remained so turbulent, that it was necessary to despatch a fleet to reduce them to subjection, which was done in 1364. In 1571 the Turks settled in Candia, but soon abandoned it to prosecute their conquests in other directions. They returned June 24, 1645, and after a siege of 24 years, gained possession of it in 1669. In 1830 it was ceded to the Pasha of Egypt, and again restored to Turkey in 1840. An insurrection among the Christians of Candia, that broke out in 1841, was suppressed by the Turkish Government before the end of the year. It suffered from an earthquake in 1846. CANDLE. (See INCH OF CANDLE.) CANDLEMAS DAY. A festival held Feb. 2, to commemorate the purification of the Virgin Mary. Bingham (b. xx. c. 8, s. 5) says, " This at first among the Greeks went by the name of Hypapante "Yirairav-ni, which denotes the meet- ing of the Lord by Simeon in the temple, in" commemoration of which occurrence it was first made a festival in the Church ; some say in the time of Justin, the emperor ; others in the time of his successor Justinian, anno 542." A proclamation against carrying candles on Candlemas Day was issued by Edward VI. in I5 CANDLES. Pliny the elder (A.D. 2379), speaks of the invention of rush-lights, and Apuleius (130173) mentions candles of wax and tallow. They were also used in the Church during the 3rd century. Alfred the Great used them to measure time (871 901). Tallow candles did not come into general use till about 1300, before which time torches and oil lamps were most frequently employed. An attempt to obviate the inconvenience of snuffing was made in 1799. The composite candle, which does not require snuffing, was introduced in 1840. The patents of Gwynne, in 1840, of Wilson in 1842, and of Tighlman in 1854, have led to great improvements in the manufacture. A duty on candles, first imposed by 8 Anne c. 9, s. i (1709), was repealed from Jan. i, 1832, by i & 2 Will. IV. c. 19 (Sep. 6, 1831). CANDLESTICK. Some of the ancient uten- sils called by this name were lamps for burning oil. Moses was commanded to make a candela- brum with six branches, of hammered gold, for the tabernacle (Exod. xxv. 31 & 32), B.C. 1491. The golden candlestick, which had been replaced in Solomon's temple by 10 golden candelabra, was restored after the Babylonish captivity. It was seized by the Romans on the capture of Jerusalem A.D. 70, carried into Africa by the Vandals under Genseric in 435, and taken from them in 533 by Belisarius, who removed it to Constantinople. It was afterwards transferred to Jerusalem. Another account states that it fell into the Tiber from the Milvian bridge during the flight of Maxen- tius from Constantine, Oct. 28, 312 CANEA, or CANNA (Candia), the capital of the island, was founded by the Venetians in CANE HILL (Battle). At this place, in Ar- kansas, the Federals under Gen. Blunt defeated the Confederate forces of Gen. Mannaduke, Nov. 28, 1862. The latter retired to Van Buren. CANGI. Hie territory of this British tribe, which some authorities place in Somersetshire and others in North Wales, was invaded and laid waste by Ostorius Scapula, A.D. 50. CANICULAR YEAR. The Egyptians and Ethiopians began their year from the rising of the Canicula, or Sirius, the Dog-star ; whence the term. It consisted ordinarily of 365 days, to which another was added every fourth year. It commenced July 20, 2785 B.C., and is some- times called the HELIACAL YEAR. CANINEFATES. This German tribe, which submitted to Tiberius A.D. 4, assisted Civilis in his rebellion against the Romans in 69. CANNAE (Battle), fought between the Ro- mans under L. ^Emilius Paulusand C. Terentius Varro, and the Carthaginians under Hannibal, at this place, called by Florus "an obscure Apulian town," Aug. 2, B.C. 216. As the Ro- man calendar was in confusion, it is believed to have taken place in June. The Romans were defeated with a loss of 70,000 men, whilst Hannibal's loss was only 6,000. CANNES (France). Napoleon I. landed near this seaport, March i, 1815, on his escape from Elba. CANNING ADMINISTRATION. The Earl of Liverpool having been incapacitated from continuing at the head of affairs by a paral yt ic stroke, with which he was seized Feb. 17, 1827, George IV. applied to Mr. Canning, then secre- tary of state for foreign affairs, and after pro- tracted negotiations, he received formal in- structions from the king to form a ministry, April 10. The Duke of Wellington, Lord West- moreland, Lord Eldon, Lord Bexley, Earl Ba- thurst, and. Mr. Peel resigned, April n. The king, however, persevered, and Mr. Canning kissed hands April 12. Other resignations fol- CANNON [ 205 ] CANON lowed. The new ministry was composed as follows : First Lord of the Treasury') and Chancellor of the}- Rt. Hon. G. Canning. Exchequer. ) Lord Chancellor .................. Lord Lyndhurst. President of the Council ...... Earl of Harrowby. Privy Seal ........................... Duke of Portland. Home Secretary .................. Rt. Hon. W. S. Bourne. Foreign Secretary ............... Viscount Dudley and Ward. Colonial Secretary ............... Viscount Goderich. Board of Control .................. Rt. Hon. C. W. W. Wynn. Board of Trade .................. Rt. Hon. W. Huskisson. Secretary at War ............... Lord Palmerston. Woods and Forests ............... Earl of Carlisle. Master of the Mint ............... Rt. Hon. G. Tierney. Without office ..................... Marquis of Lansdovrae. The Earl of Carlisle was gazetted Privy Seal, July6i, 1827, in place of the Duke of Portland, who retained a seat in the cabinet; and the Marquis of Lansdowne Home Secretary in place of Rt. Hon. W. S. Bourne, who became first Commissioner of Woods and Forests, retaining his seat in the cabinet. A reconstruction of this ministry occurred after the death of the Rt. Hon. G. Canning, which took place Aug. 8, 1827. (See GODERICH ADMINISTRATION.) CANNON have been long known to the Chinese, whose books mention them as early as 618 B.C. A small brass cannon, bearing the date 1258, has been taken from a well at the Castle de Cluey in France. The earliest docu- ment yet discovered relative to the employ- ment of cannon for siege and defence, is among the ordinances of Florence for 1326, where metal cannon are appointed to be made for the defence of the forts and lands of Florence, and for the injury of her enemies. The first French mention of cannon is dated July 2, 1338, and provides ammunition for the attack on South- ampton. Froissart speaks of cannon used by the inhabitants of Quesnoy against the Duke of Normandy in 1340. Mohammed II. established a foundry at Hadrianople in 1452, where a piece of brass ordnance of incredible magni- tude was cast expressly for the siege of Con- stantinople. Gibbon says its bore measured 12 palms, and that the stone bullet weighed 600 Ib. ; according to another authority, the bullet was double that weight. This gun burst during the siege. Von Hammer declared that he had seen the great cannon of the Darda- nelles, and that it furnished a hiding-place for a tailor who had run away from his creditors. The invention of brass cannon is attributed to John Owen. Iron cannon were first cast in England in 1547. (See ARMSTRONG GUN, AR- TILLERY, &c.) CANNONGATE MARRIAGES. In the mid- dle of the 1 8th century, couples were married at public-houses in the Cannongate, Edinburgh, by unauthorized persons. Hence the term by which such marriages were known. CANON LAW is a collection of ecclesiastical constitutions, decisions, and rules for the regulation of the Roman Catholic Church. It consists principally of ordinances of provincial and general councils, the decretals, bulls, and epistles of the papacy. The earliest of these rules (canones) are the Canons Apostolical (q. v.}. Dionysius Exiguus, a Roman monk, compiled a "Codex Canonum" in 520; and the canons of the four councils of Nicaea, Constantinople, Ephesus, and Chalcedon, received the sanction of Justinian in 545. The Codex Canonum, with the Capitularies of Charlemagne, and the decrees of the popes from Siricius to Anasta- tius IV. (3851154), formed the chief part of the canon law down to the i2th century. In 1114 Ivo, Bishop of Chartres, collected the decrees made by the popes and cardinals, and this work was completed by Gratian, a Benedic- tine monk, and published in 1140. Raimundus Barcinus, chaplain to Gregory IX., published in 1234 the decretals, which were rescripts or letters of the popes, in answer to questions on ecclesiastical matters submitted to them. The work consisted of five books, to which Boniface VIII. added a sixth in 1298. Clement V. added what were called the Clementines in 1308. John Andreas added a commentary called the Novelise in the i4th century, and John XXI. or XXII. the Extravagants in 1317. To thdse have since been added some decrees by later popes, and the whole form what is now known as the " Corpus Juris Canonici," or the great body of the canon law received by the Church of Rome. The primary object of this system was to establish the supremacy of ecclesiastical authority. It was not received in England, though attempts at its introduction were made at various times. The Legatine and Provincial Constitutions (q. v. ) formed, however, a kind of national canon law, adapted to the English Church. By 25 Hen. VIII. c 19 (1553), it was enacted that these canons should be reviewed by the king and certain commissioners to be appointed under the act, and that until such review was made, all canons, constitutions, or- dinances, and synods provincial, being then already made, and not repugnant to the law of the land or the king's prerogative, should remain in force. This act, repealed by i Phil. & Mary c. 8 (1553), was revived by i Eliz. c. i, s. 10 (1559)- By 27 Hen. VIII. c. 15 (1535), power was given to the king to appoint 32 commissioners under the act of 1533. Divers urgent matters interfered to prevent the exercise of the power, and by 35 Hen. VIII. c. 1 6 (1544), power was given to the king to nominate them during his life. A commission was duly appointed, but the death of the king prevented the completion of the work. During the reign of his successor, Cranmer renewed his efforts to obtain a satisfactory settlement of the question. By 3 & 4 Edw. VI. c. n (1549), another ^mmission was ordered, and eight persons were appointed to prepare the ma- terials for the larger commission. They were engaged on the work in 1552, and concluded their labours during the year. Various matters interfered to delay the ratification and estab- lishment of the new code of ecclesiastical laws, and after the death of Edward VI. it was almost entirely neglected. The manuscript containing this code of laws, with nujnerous notes and corrections in the handwriting of Cranmer, is preserved amongst the Harleian MSS. in the British Museum. From this draught Archbishop Parker probably prepared the code published in 1571, under the title of "Reformatio Legum Ecclesiasticarum." It CANON [ 206 ] CANONIZATION was republished in 1640. The Rev. E. Cardwell has published several editions of this remark- able work. CANON OF SCRIPTURE consists of those books which are in "the rule, or canon, or catalogue of books authorized to be read in the church," and recognized as inspired, and there- fore authentic. The Church of Rome admits into the canon several books which neither the Primitive Church nor the Church of England* accepts as canonical. Cyril, Bishop of Jerusa- lem in the 4th century, in speaking of the canonical books, mentions all those in the English Bible, except the book of Revelation. The Council of Laodicea, in 366, forbids any but the canonical books to be read in the Church, and gives the folio wing list of them : Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deutero- nomy, Joshua, Judges, Ruth, Esther, four books of Kings, two of Paralipomena or Chroni- cles, two of Esdras, the book of 150 Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Canticles, Job, 12 Pro- phets, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Lamentations, and epistles of Baruch, Ezekiel, Daniel, the four Gospels, the Acts of the Apostles, the seven catholic epistles ; 14 epistles of St. Paul. " Where none of the apocryphal books," says Bingham, " nor the Revelation, are mentioned ; which is a plain evidence that none of them were read in the churches of that district." Ezra collected the books of the Old Testament about B.C. 444 ; and Simon the Just, who died about B.C. 291, added the two books of the Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah, Esther, and Malachi ; and this closed the canon of the Old Testament. With respect to the canon of the New Testament, Townsend (The Holy Bible in Historical and Chronological Order, vol. ii. p. 439) remarks : " As the canon of the Old Testament was cqinpleted by Simon the Just, the last of the great Sanhedrin, so it is proba- ble the canon of the New Testament was completed either by St. John, or that disciple who might be the survivor of the 120, the number of the Sanhedrin, who met at the day of Pentecost. It is not probable that any of these outlived St. John, who died nearly 70 years after the ascension of his Divine Master. " The following is a list of the canonical books of the Old and New Testament, with the supposed date of their composition. This is, however, in some cases uncertain : OLD TESTAMENT. When composed. Book. Author. Chap- ters. B.C. Before 1451 (iciicsis Moses 5 Leviticus 27 3* 145: Deuteronomy 34 1 $g .In-hllll /o^iua 24 1060 Kutli 4 1060 Not known. Before 444 i Samuel 2 Samuel i Kings 2 Kings Not known. Ezra 3i 24 22 25 Not known. I Chronicles Not known. | Not known. 312 Nrhei.iiah Esther ... Nehemiah ... Not known. 13 10 OLD TESTAMENT continued. When composed. Book. Author. Chap- ters. Not known. Various \ times. / Before 976 976 950-946 758 627 Circ. 637 595 604 784-740 877-847 79 580 825 75 713-TH 650-637 627 52 520 job Job . 4 150 31 8 66 3 14 3 9 I 3 3 2 14 4 Psalms [ David until others ...) Solomon . Proverbs Ecclesiastes Isaiah Isaiah ('/ridel Ezekiel Daniel Hosea Joel Daniel Hosea foci ( Hiadiali < ibmliah Jonah Mifah Xahum . . Jonah Micah Nahum Habakkuk Habakkuk... Zephaniah... Haggai y.echariah ... Malachi /e|ihaniuh Haggai /(,!,. ii-lah Malachi NEW TESTAMENT. When composed. Book. Author. Chap- ters. A.D. 37 or 38 60-63 M'ltlhew Mark Matthew ... Mark 28 16 Luke Luke 97 or 98 63 or 64 John John Luke 21 28 I Corinthians 1'aul 16 16 53 r 53 Galatians 1 61 63 or 63 1 |ihr-iaus PhOlppiaiM 6 4 4 5 I i Timothy 1 64 4 63 or 64 Philemon i 63 42 to 65 Hebrews James I Peter .lames I'eter 13 5 & 3 Peter 3 68 or 69 r John 3 John Jolin 5 -? John 11 _ Fade r..vie :::::: 95-97 IJ.'velation Inhll 2,2 (See APOCRYPHA, BIBLE, PENTATEUCH, &c.) CANONIZATION. Milman (Lat. Chris- tianity, book xiv. ch. zn) remarks, " Canoni- zation has been distributed into three periods. Down to the zoth century the saint was exalted by the popular voice, the suffrage of the people with the bishop. In the intermediate period the sanction of the Pope was required, but the bishops retained their right of initiation. Alexander III. seized into the hands of the Pope alone this great and abused prerogative." The first recorded canonization by the Pope is that of Ulric, Bishop of Augsburg, who received the title of saint from John XV. or XVI., in 995. In 1176, during the supremacy of Alex- ander III., the privilege of adding to the calendar of saints was vested in the Pope alone. CANONS [ 207 ] CANTERBURY Beatification, an inferior degree of canoni- zation, was introduced into the Roman Catholic Church in the i2th century. Twenty-three monks who visited Japan as missionaries in the 1 6th century, and suffered death in the Philippine Islands, were canonized at Rome with great pomp, June 8, 1862. CANONS of the Church of England, 141 in number, were "drawn up by Bancroft, Bishop of London, accepted by Convocation in 1604, and assented to by the king. They were chiefly compiled out of the synodical acts passed in I57I 1597, a few new ones being introduced. They never received the sanction of Parliament, and are considered by the courts of common law to be binding on the clergy only. Though these are generally called the canons of 1603, they were not ratified until 1604. In 1640 Convocation formed a new body of canons. The House of Commons voted them unlawful Dec. 16, and Archbishop Laud, their author, was committed to the custody of the Usher of the Black Rod, Dec. 18. Thirteen bishops were impeached for their share in drawing up these canons, Aug. 13, 1641. CANONS (Apostolical). These ancient canons, 76 or 85 in number, according to differ- ent modes of division, are attributed by Ba- ronius, Bellarmin, and other Roman Catholic writers, to the apostles. Other authorities as- cribe them to St. Clement, whilst some declare that they are the forgeries of some heretic in the 6th century. CANONS (Regular and Secular). Mosheim states that this new species of priests, at first called the Lord's Brethren, and afterwards canons, was instituted by Chrodegang, Bishop of Metz, in the 8th century. They formed an intermediate class between monks and regulars, and although they followed the discipline and mode of life of monks, took no vows upon them. Canonesses were added in the gth century. By the nth century they had, like the other orders, become corrupted, and several efforts were made to effect reforms. Nicholas II. was, at the Council of Rome, April 13, 1059, to a certain extent successful in this object ; but some communities would not proceed so far in this direction as others. Hence arose the dis- tinction between regular and secular canons, the former having all things in common, whilst the latter had nothing in common but their dwelling and table. The term canon is now applied to a prebendary of a cathedral. CANONS (Scottish). The book of canons for the Church of Scotland, drawn up by the Scottish bishops, was confirmed by letters patent under the great seal, May 23, 1635. It was very unpopular in Scotland, and was with- drawn by Charles I. Sep. 9, 1638. CANOPUS, or CANOBUS (Battle). The battle of Alexandria (q. v.), March 21, 1801, is sometimes called Canopus, from the ruins of an ancient town of that name about 15 miles from Alexandria, and three from Aboukir. It is also called the battle of Rhamanieh. CANOSA (Italy), the ancient Canusium, in Apulia, which is said to have been founded by the Pelasgi, submitted to the Romans B.C. 318, whereupon the Canusians renounced their alliance with the Samnites, and remained faithful to Rome- for many years. Having revolted, their city was besieged and their territory ravaged B.C. 89. During the civil war, Sylla gained a battle here B.C. 83. The modern city occupies the site of the citadel of Canusium. At a very early period of the Christian sera, it became the seat of a bishopric, which was united to that of Bari in 845. It was besieged by the French July 2, 1502. After repulsing two assaults, the Spanish garrison capitulated on honourable terms. CANOSSA (Italy). This fortress, near Reggio, in Modena, was the scene of Henry the Fourth's humiliation to Pope Gregoiy VII. (Hil- debrand), in Jan., 1077. The Pope had sum- moned the emperor to appear before him at Rome to answer some charges brought against him by his subjects. Henry I V. , in an assembly held at Worms, Jan. 23, 1076, declared that Gregory VII. was no longer pope. Gregory VII. immediately called a council in the Lateran, excommunicated Henry IV., deprived him of the kingdoms of Germany and Italy, and re- leased his subjects from their allegiance. The emperor, at first bent upon resistance, was frightened by some disaffection that revealed itself at home, and he crossed the Alps to submit and seek absolution. Gregory VII. was at the time in the castle of Canossa, with the Countess Matilda. Henry IV. arrived at its gates in the depth of a winter of unusual severity, Jan. 25, 1077. Three successive days he remained in an outer court, without food, in a woollen shirt and with bare head and naked feet, and only on the fourth would Gregory VII. admit him to his presence. Absolution was then granted. The emperor's friends, disgusted at this base humiliation, deserted him Jan. 28, and, goaded by the insolence of Gregory, he renounced his treaty. At a diet held at Forcheim by the rebel princes, Henry IV. was deposed, and Rodolph of Swabia elected in his stead, March 15, 1077. Gregory VII., who endeavoured in vain to act the part of arbi- trator, excommunicated Henry IV. at a council at Rome, March 7, 1080, and acknowledged Rodolph. The emperor summoned a council at Brixen, June 2.5, 1080, deposed Gregory VII., and elected Guibert in his stead, under the title of Clement III., June 25. Success crowned Henry's efforts in the field ; he entered Rome, June 9, 1083, after a siege of three years' duration, and was crowned by the new Pope. Gregory VII. took refuge, first at Monte Casino, and then with Roger Guiscard, at Salerno, where he died, May 25, 10815. CANOUJ (Hindostan). (See KANOGE.) CANTABRI. This tribe, inhabiting part of northern Spain, was the last in the peninsula that submitted to the Roman yoke in the reign of Augustus, by whom they were subdued, B.C. 25. Agrippa suppressed an insurrection among them B.C. 19, when the greater part of the nation perished by the sword, the survivors being driven from their mountain fastnesses, and compelled to reside in the valleys, where they were kept in awe by strong garrisons erected by Tiberius. The Basques are regarded as the descendants of this fearless and war- like people. CANTERBURY. This city in Kent, the CANTERBURY [ 208 ] CANTON Roman Durovernum, is said by Geoffrey of Monmouth to have been founded by Hudi- bras, who reigned about B.C. 900. It existed at the time of the Roman conquest of Britain, as it is mentioned in the Itinerary of Anto- ninus, written about A.D. 320. At the com- mencement of the Heptarchy, in 455, it ranked as the chief city of Kent, and continued the residence of the king till Ethelbert gave up his palace to St. Augustine and withdraw to Reculver in 597. Christ's Church, which be- came the cathedral, was consecrated in 597. In the time of Theodore, who occupied the see from 668 to 693, the city was the seat of an important public school, which declined in consequence of the ravages of the Danes. Augustine became first Archbishop of Canter- bury in 597. In 754 the town was nearly de- stroyed by fire, and in 851 it was taken by the Danes. Archbishop Odo (942960) restored the walls and roof of the cathedral, which was, however, much damaged by the Danes, who again sacked the town in ion, putting Elphege, the archbishop, to death, on Easter Eve, March 24. The cathedral suffered from a fire in 1066, and on St. Nicholas Day (Dec. 6), 1067, and the work of restoration was carried on by Archbishop Lanfranc (1070 15593) and his successors, by whom the new edifice was finished in 1130. Becket was killed in the cathedral Tuesday, Dec. 29, 1170, and the'city became a resort for pilgrims. The choir was burned hi 1 174. Canterbury was represented in Parliament in 1265. The city remained unpaved till 1477. In 1542, Henry VIII. remodelled the cathedral and school, giving to the latter the title of King's School, which it has since re- tained; and in 1561 Queen Elizabeth permitted the Protestant refugees from the Low Countries to worship in the undercroft of the cathedral. Cromwell passed through the town in 1651, when the cathedral was used as a stable by his troops. The hospital was founded June 9, 1791. Thorn's riots at Bough ton, near Canter- bury, May 28 31, 1838, led to a sacrifice of several lives. (See THOMITES.) CANTERBURY (Archbishopric) was founded by Ethelbert in 597, when Augustine became the first archbishop, formally establish- ing his see in 602. After a long contest with York, the primacy of the archbishops of Can- terbury was established at a council held in England from Easter to Pentecost, in 1072. Lanfranc, at that time archbishop, laboured diligently in order to secure this result. The archbishop is primate of all England and metropolitan. Augustine quitted Rome in 596, landed in England in 597, went to France, and was consecrated by the Bishop of Aries, Sunday, Nov. 17, 597 ; returned to England in 598, received the pallium from Rome in 601, and fixed the see at Canterbury in 602. In the following list, the date of the appointment of each archbishop is given : ARCHBISHOPS OF CANTERBURY. A.D. I A.D. 597. Augustine. 655. Deusdedit, or Adeoda- 604. Laurentiug. tus. 619. Mellitus. 668. Theodore. 634. Justus. 693. Brihtwald. 627. Houorius. I 731. Tatwiiie. ARCHBISHOPS OF CANTERBURY Continued. 735. Nothelm. 741. Cuthbert. 793. Ethelhard. 805. Wulfred. 833. Feologild. . 833. Ceolnoth. 870. Ethelred. 890. Plegmund. 914. Athulm. 933. Wulfhelm. 942. Odo. 960. Dunstan. 988. Ethelgar. 990. Siric. 995- Elfric. 006. Elphege. 013. Living. 030. Ethuluoth. 038. Eadsige. 051. Robert. 053. Stigand. 070. Lanfranc. 093. Anselm. 114. Kalph of Escures. 123. William of CorbeuiL 139. Theobald. 163. Thomas a Becket. 174. Richard. 185. Baldwin. 191. Reginald Fitz-Jocelin. 193. Hubert Walter. - -. Sti'phi'ii I.angton. 339. Richard Grant. 334. Edmund Rich. 345. Boniface. 373. Robert Kilwardby. 279. John lVckh:im. 394. Robert Winchelsev. 313. Waller Reynolds." 3.!*. Simon Mepeham. 333- John Stratford. 349. Thomas Bradwardine. A.D. 1349. Simon Islip. 1366. Simon Langham. 1368. William Whittlesey. 1375. Simon Sudbuiy. 1381. William Conrtenay. 1397. Thomas ArundeL 1398. Roger Walden. 1399. Thomas Arundel (again). 1414. Henry Chicheley. 1443. John Stafford. 1453. John Kemp. 1454. Thomas Bourchier. I4S6. John Morton. 1501. Henry Deane, or Denny. 1504. William Wareham. 1533. Thomas Cranmer. 1556. Reginald Pole. 1559. Matthew Parker. 1576. Edmund Grindal. 1583. John Whitgift. 1604. Richard Bancroft. i6ir. George Abbot 1633. William Laud. 1660. William Juxon. 1663. Gilbert Sheldon. 1678. William Sancroft. 1691. John Tillotson. 1695. Thomas Tcnisun. 1716. William Wake. 1737. John Pntti-r. 1747. Thomas Herring. 1757. Matthew Hutton. 1758. Thomas Seeker. 1768. Hon. Frederick Corn- wallis. 1783. John Moore. 1805. Charles Manners Sut- 1838. William Howley. 1848. John Bird Simmer. 1863. Charles Thomas Longley. CANTKRIUrKY New Zealand .This settle- ment was founded in 1850, by a society of gentlemen connected with the Church of England, and incorporated under the style of the Canterbury Association. The local government was constituted in 1853. (AM'IRE, or KINTYRE (Scotland). This peninsula of Argyleshire was subdued in 210 by Scots from Ireland, who having been ex- pelled in 446, returned in 503, and established a government !it Campbelton. From the 8th to the 1 3th century it was occupied by the Northmen ; it then fell into the possession of the Macdonalds of the Isles, and lastly of the Campbells. CANTON (China) is said by native historians to have been founded about B.C. 200. Its im- portance as a seat of foreign trade dates from about A.D. 700, when it was appointed the resi- dence of an imperial commissioner of customs. In 1517 the Portuguese obtained permission to trade here, and in 1634 the English made an ineffectual attempt to secure the same privi- lege. The original city was destroyed in 1650, after a siege of n months. The East India Company established a factory in 1680. In 1755 European intercourse with China was restricted to Canton, which was nearly de- stroyed by fire Nov. i, 1822, and greatly injured by a flood in Sep., 1833. The forts fired on two English ships-of-war, Sep. 7, 1834 ; but they were speedily silenced, and amicable relations re-established. Canton, the centre of operations CAOUTCHOUC [ 209 ] CAPE during the Chinese war of 1839 1841, was made, by the treaty of Nankin (Aug. 29, 1842), one of the five ports opened to British commerce. The factories, however, were burned down soon afterwards, and the English suffered greatly until April 6, 1847, when, having threatened to bombard the town, they obtained the execution of four murderers of their countrymen. The Arrow, a lorcha manned by Chinese, but commanded by an Englishman, was boarded by order of Commis- sioner Yeh, Oct. 8, 1856, and as compensation was refused, Sir M. Seymour seized the forts Oct. 24, and bombarded the town Oct. 28 and 29. The foreign factories were burned by the natives Dec. 14. An allied English and French force captured it Dec. 29, 1857, and the governor and Yeh were taken prisoners Jan. 5, 1858. Yeh was sent to Calcutta Jan. 8. A French cathedral was founded in 1863. (See CHINA.) CAOUTCHOUC. (See INDIA RUBBEB.) CAP. The ancient Greeks and Romans usually left the head uncovered, and regarded the Phrygian cap as a mark of barbarism. The Romans gave their slaves a cap when they made them free. Hence the origin of the cap as a symbol of liberty. According to Diodorus Siculus (B.C. 44), the ancient Britons used a conical cap, which was discontinued during the Roman supremacy, and resumed under the Saxons, who wore head-coverings of felt, wool, and skin. After the Norman conquest, skull-caps were introduced, and during the i4th centuiy both sexes adopted head-dresses of most extraordinary forms. It is usual to refer the general use of caps to the year 1449, when Charles VII. of France entered Rouen ; but the change was probably very gradual. The cap was sometimes used as a mark of infamy ; and in the i6th and i7th centuries bankrupts in France were compelled to wear a green cap. (See MAINTENANCE.) CAPE ANNE (N. America). This promon- tory of New England, forming the north-east point of Massachusetts Bay, was discovered in 1614 by John Smith, who named it Tragabig- sanda, after a Turkish lady whose slave he had formerly been. The title was changed by de- sire of Prince Charles, afterwards Charles I., in honour of his mother Anne of Denmark. CAPE BLANCO. (-See BLANCO.) CAPE BRETON (N. America). This island is supposed to have been discovered by Cabot in 1497. In 1632 it was ceded to France by the treaty of St. Germain ; but the French did not form a settlement until 1712, when they called it He Royale. They fortified Louis- bourg in 1720, which was taken by the English June 15, 1745, but restored to France by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, Oct. 18, 1748. The English recaptured Louisbourg July 26, 1758, and the island was finally ceded to them by the fourth article of the treaty of Paris, Feb. TO, 1763. Sydney, the capital, was founded in 1823. It forms part of the colony of Nova Scotia. CAPE-COAST CASTLE (Africa). This set- tlement in Guinea was established by the Portuguese in 1610; taken in 1643 by the Dutch, who established a colony in 1650, and by the English in 1661. In 1665 it was be- sieged, though unsuccessfully, by the Dutch under De Ruyter. It was finally ceded to the English by the treaty of Breda, July 10 (O. S.), 1667. CAPE COD (Massachusetts) was discovered, according to some authorities, in 1004, by Thorwald, son of Eric the Red, who named it Kial-Arnes or Keel Cape, and according to others by Thorhall, the companion of the Danish voyager Thorferin, in 1007. It was re-discovered in 1602, by Capt. Gosnold, who gave it its present name, and in 1614 was ex- plored by John Smith, who named it Cape James in honour of King James I. It was the first land sighted by the Pilgrim Fathers in the Mayflower in 1620. CAPE COMORIN (Hindostan) is first men- tioned in the "Travels of Marco Polo," cir- culated in 1298, and called by him Komari. CAPE F1NISTERRE (Sea-fight). Lord Anson and Admiral Warren defeated and captured a French fleet and convoy, consisting of 32 sail, under Admiral de la Jonquiere, off this cape, May 3, 1747 (O. S.). CAPE GIRARDEAU (Battle). The Confede- rates, under Gen. Marmaduke, having vainly demanded the surrender of the Federal depot at this place in Missouri, April 25, 1863, were defeated by Gen. McNeil, April 26, and com- pelled to retreat into Arkansas, which they reached May 2. CAPE OF GOOD HOPE (S. Africa) was discovered by Bartholomew Diaz in 1487, and first doubled by Vasco de Gama Nov. 19, 1497. The English took possession in 1620, but neglected to plant a settlement, and it re- mained abandoned by Europeans till colonized by the Dutch in 1650. Diaz named it the Stormy Cape, which the King of Portugal changed to its present appellation. It was explored by Barrow in 1797. (See CAPE TOWN.) CAPE HAYTIEN (Hayti). Capt. Wake, of the Bulldog, having run his ship aground during an attack on the forts of this sea-port, formerly called Cape Fran?ais and Cape Henri, burned her to prevent her falling into the power of the enemy, Oct. 23, 1865. The forts were subsequently destroyed by H. M. S. Galatea and Lily, Nov. 9. CAPE HORN, or HOORN (S. America), is supposed to have been sighted by Sir Francis Drake in 1578. Some authorities contend that it was first doubled by Le Maire and Schouten in 1616, and named after the birthplace of the last mentioned. CAPE LA HOGUE (France). The north- west part of a promontory which runs into the English Channel about 16 miles N.W. of Cherbourg. The eastern extremity of the same promontory is called Cape La Hague. (See LA HOGUE.) CAPE ST. VINCENT (Sea-fights). Sir George Rooke, with 23 men-of-war and the Turkish fleet under convoy, was attacked near this promontory, in Spain, by a force of 1 60 vessels, under Admiral De Tourville, June 1 6, 1693. The French captured or destroyed 12 English and Dutch men-of-war, and above 80 of the merchantmen. Admiral Rodney gave chase to a Spanish p CAPE t 210 ] CAPITULARIES fleet in these waters, Jan. 16, 1780, and suc- ceeded in capturing one 80 and five 74-gun ships, Jan. 17. Sir John Jervis, with 15 ships of the line and a few frigates, defeated a Spanish fleet of 27 men-of-war, four of which he captured, besides sinking others, Feb. 14, 1797. CAPE TOWN (S. Africa) was founded by the Dutch in 1650, and remained in their pos- session till captured by the English under Ad-, miral Elphinstone and Gen. Clarke, Sep. 16, 1795. A Dutch squadron, sent to recapture it, was taken by Elphinstone, Aug. 1 7, 1 796. At the peace of Amiens (March 25, 1802", England restored it to the Dutch. It was again taken by Sir Home Popham and Sir David Baird, Jan. 10, 1806, and was finally ceded to England by the treaty signed at London, Aug. 13, 1814. The bishopric of Cape Town was founded in 1847. An attempt made by government in 1849 to convert the colony into a penal settle- ment was abandoned, owing to the opposition of the inhabitants. The constitution granted to the colony of Cape Town was officially pro- claimed July i, 1853. The judicial committee of the Privy Council decided that the Bishop of Cape Town had no jurisdiction over the Bishop of Niital, March 20, 1865. (See CAFFBE WAR.) CAPE VERDE (Africa) was discovered by Dinis Fernandez, a Portuguese, in 1445. It is believed to have been the Arsinarium Pr. of the ancients. CAPE VERDE, or DE VERDE ISLANDS (North Atlantic Ocean), were known to the ancients as the Gorgades. Though the re-dis- covery is usually attributed to the Genoese navigator Antonio de Noli, sailing in the ser- vice of Portugal, in 1449, Nuno Tristan is sup- posed to have discovered some of them two or three years earlier. Different authorities refer the discovery to 1450, 1460, and 1462. Pope Clement VII. erected them into a bishopric in 1532. CAPET (House of). Hugh L Paris, seized the crown of France on the death (House of). Hugh Capet, Count oi of Louis V. in 987, and founded the third dynasty of French monarchs. He was crowned at Noyoii by the Archbishop of Rheims, July i, 987. Fourteen kings of this line reigned before 1328, when Philip VI. vested the power in the house of Valois. CAPITAL PUNISHMENT. Among the ancient Jews, stoning, burning, and cruci- fixion were the chief capital penalties. Draco. B.C. 621, endeavoured to repress crime among the Greeks, by visiting every offence with death ; but Solon, B.C. 594, limited the extrem sentence of the law to murder (q. v.}, and a few other heinous offences. The Romans in flicted it on murderers, traitors, violators o: public morals, and vestals who broke their vows of chastity. By the codes of Theodosius and Justinian, promulgated in 438 and 528 capital punishment was chiefly confined tc murder, treason, adultery, forgery (q. v.), i committed by a slave, and man-stealing Under the Anglo-Saxons, it was almost limitec to theft ; other offences, including murder being dealt with by fines. William the Con queror (10661087) abolished it altogether as j system, and substituted mutilation. Never theless, the first instance of decapitation for reason, in this country, occurred in his reign, Waltheof, Earl of Northumbria, having been >eheadedat Winchester, May 31, 1076. Henry I. evived the capital penalty in certain kinds of ;heft in 1108, and in 1241 kanging, drawing, and quartering were first inflicted on a pirate named William Marsh or Maurice. The punish- ment of death subsequently became much more common, and in the time of Edward II. 1307 1327) was awarded to traitors, who were drawn and hanged ; to murderers, robbers, and incendiaries, who were hanged ; to heretics, who were burned ; and to offenders against nature, who were buried alive. A ' ' Society for the diffusion of knowledge upon the punish- ment of death," was established in London about 1808. By 4 & 5 Viet. c. 56 (June 2, 1841), it is limited to the crimes of treason, murder, unnatural offences, setting fire to the queen's ships or stores, injuring life with intent to murder, burglary accompanied with attempts to murder, robbery accompanied with stabbing or wounding, setting fire to a dwelling-house having any person therein, setting fire to, casting away, or otherwise destroying ships with intent to murder, exhibiting false lights with intent to bring ships into danger, and piracy, accompanied with stabbing, &c. A commission, which was appointed in 1864, S resented its report in 1865. (See BOILING TO EATH, BURNING ALIVE, BURYING ALIVE, CRU- CIFIXION, DROWNING, EXECUTIONS, GAROTTE, HAM; INC, 60. CAPITATION TAX. (See POLL TAX.) CAPITOL (Rome). According to the legend, as the workmen were digging on the Saturnian, afterwards called the Capitoline Hill, the foundations for the temple, which Tarquin, in the Sabine campaign, vowed to erect to Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva, they came upon a human head. The augurs declared it to be an ornen that the spot was destined to become the head of the whole world. It was founded by Tarquinius Priscus B.C. 615, completed by Tar- quinius Superbus B.C. 533, and dedicated to Jupiter by the consul Horatius B.C. 507. It was destroyed by lightning July 6, B.C. 183, by fire B.C. 83, rebuilt by Sylla, again destroyed by fire Dec. 19, A.D. 69, and rebuilt by Domitiaii the same year ; again burned 80, and restored 82. During the sack of Rome by Genseric, in June, 455, the Capitol was stripped of its gold orna- ments and roof, and abandoned to decay. Petrarch was crowned here April 8, 1341. CAPITOLINE GAMES, instituted B.C. 387, to commemorate the preservation of the > from the Gauls, were revived by the Emperor Domitian, A.D. 86. CAPITULARIES, a term derived from capi- tula, " little chapters," is applied to all laws passed by the Prankish kings. Guizot enume- rates 60 of the first race, and 152 of the second. Of these, no less than 65 were passed during the reign of Charlemagne (768 814). The Capi- tularies of Charlemagne and of Louis I. were collected by Angesius in 827, and another col- lection was made by royal authority in 847. Hallam considers the last Capitularies to be those of Carloman in 882, though two have been attributed to Charles III. (the Simple), who died Oct. 7, 929. They have been published at CAPPADOCIA CAPUCHINS Paris, the best editions being byBaluze, in 167 and 1780. CAPPADOCIA (Asia Minor). The early his tory of this ancient state is involved in ob scurity. Pharnaces, who held it as a fief of th Persian empire, is said to have founded th kingdom B.C. 744. B.C. 531. Assassination of the Magi Smerdis by seven nobles one of whom, Anaptuis, is descended from Pliar naces. 323. Perdiccas, Regent of Macedon, subdues Cappadocia Cto death King Ariarathes I., and invest, lenes with the government. 390. Mithridates III., King of Pontus, seizes Cappadocia and Paphlagonia. 388. Cappadocia becomes subordinate to the Seleucidae. 380. Seleucus Nicator is slain, and Cappadocia regain its independence. 193. Ariarathes IV. marries Autiochis, daughter of Anti- ochus the Great 158. Ariarathes V., dethroned by Holophernes, is re- stored by the Romans. 130. Ariarathes V. is slain with Crassus, in battle against Aristonicus of Mysia. Five of his sons are poisoned by their mother Laodice, but the youngest escapes, and succeeds to the crown. 96. Ariarathes VI. is put to death by his brother-in-law Mithridates VI., King of Pontus. He is the last king of the original dynasty. 93. The Romans appoint Ariobarzanes I., King of Cap- padocia, but he is immediately expelled by Mithridates VI. 92. Sylla restores Ariobarzanes I. 88. Ariobarzanes I. is again expelled. 84. Ariobarzanes I. is again restored. 66. Mithridates VI. again seizes Cappadocia, which he is compelled to evacuate by Pompey. 43. Ariubarzanes II. assists Pompey against Caesar, and is slain by Cassius. 36. Mark Antony deposes and puts to death Ariara- thes VII., and appoints Archelaus king in his stead. 30. Augustus confers new territories on Archelaus. A.D. 15. Tiberius invites Archelaus to Rome, and detains him prisoner. 17. Death of Archehius at Rome. Cappadocia is made a Roman province. 370. A famine prevails in Cappadocia. 515. It is invaded by the Huns. 717. It is conquered by the Saracens. 876. It is reunited to the empire by Basil I. 1074, It is conquered by the Seljukian Turks, under Soliman. 1360. It is adiied to the Ottoman empire. KINGS OF CAPPADOCIA. B.C. I B.C. 163. Ariarathes V. Philo- Ariamnes I. Ariarathes I. (died B.C. 332.) 315. Ariarathes II. Ariamnes II. Ariarathes III. 330. Ariarathes IV. pator. 130. Ariarathes VI. 93. Ariobarzanes I. 63. Ariobarzanes II. 43. Ariarathes VII. 36. Archelaus. CAPPEL, or KAPPEL (Battle), between the Roman Catholics in Switzerland, and the Zu- richers, was fought at this village in Zurich, Oct. 12, 1531. The latter were defeated, and their leader, Ulric Zwingli, was slain. CAPPIANO (Battle). Castruccio of Lucca defeated and captured Raymond of Cordova, the Florentine general, at this place, Monday, Sep. 23, 1325. CAPRI (Mediterranean), the ancient Caprese r the "island of the wild goats," between the bays of Naples and Paestum, is celebrated in ancient history as the retreat chosen, A.D. 27, by Tiberius, who spent the last 10 years of his life here, dying March 15, 37. He built 12 villas in different parts of the island. It has two towns, one called Anacapri, i, 600 or 1,700 feet above the level of the sea. The inhabi- tants communicate with those of the other town, called Capri, by a flight of 538 steps; Christianity was planted in Capri in the earliest times, and it was made a bishopric in 987. The island was wrested from Napoleon by Sir Sydney Smith, May 12, 1806. Sir Hudson Lowe and the garrison capitulated to Murat Oct. 16, 1808. CAPRERA (Mediterranean). This island, situated to the north-east of the island of Sardinia, was the haunt of a bandit from Porto Vecchio, who erected the first house here about 1750. Garibaldi settled at this place in 1854. CAPS AND HATS. On the assembling of the Swedish diet, May 30, 1738, the house divided into two hostile parties, the Hats, who opposed, and the Caps or Nightcaps, who favoured the alliance with Russia. Owing to the ascendancy of the former faction, war was declared in Aug., 1741, and continued till the peace of Abo, Aug. 17, 1743. Both parties were CAPSTERN, or CAPSTAN^This apparatus suppressed by Gustavus III. in 1772. For working the anchors of ships was invented by Sir Samuel Morland, who died Dec. 30, 1695. CAPUA (Naples). The ancient Volturnum, was taken from the Etruscans by the Samnites, 3.c. 423. Hannibal made it his winter quar- ters after the battle of Cannae. The Romans, who regained the city after a siege of two years' duration, B.C. 211, wreaked their ven- geance on the inhabitants, all the senators and nobles being put to death, and the other citizens banished beyond the Tiber. By the Lex Julia Agraria, passed B.C. 59, Capua was made a Roman colony, and regained a portion )f its ancient splendour. Genseric, King of ;he Vandals, took it A.D. 456, and reduced it to a very low condition ; but it was not destroyed ill 840, when it was captured. and burned by he Saracens. The modern town was built in ;he gth century, at about two miles distance rom the original site, and was fortified in 231. Capua was made a bishopric about 46, Bud was erected into an archbishopric in 968. Councils were held here in Dec., 391, March 21, 087, and in 1118. It was for many years a public, under the nominal sovereignty of the Eastern empire, and afterwards formed part if the kingdom of Sicily. Caesar Borgia cap- ured it, and put 5,000 of the inhabitants to the vord, July 24, 1501. Capua was occupied by French force Jan. 23, 1799, and July 28 it urrendered to the British. The French took )ossession of it in 1806. It capitulated to the Sardinian forces Nov. 2, 1860. CAPUCHINS. These friars, of a reformed rder of St. Francis, were established by Matthew de Baschi in 1525. In 1528 they btaiiied a bull from Clement VII., and the rder was fully established in 1529. This ranch of the Franciscans derived their name rom the cowl (caputium], but were at first ailed Friars Hermits Minor. Paul III. con- rmed the order in 1536, and gave them the ame of Capuchins of the order of Friars Hinor. The right of preaching, taken from hem in 1543, was restored in 1545. They p 2 CARABINE [ 212 ] CARCANET were introduced into France in 1573, and into Spain in 1606, but had no houses in England. On the establishment of peace between England and France, April 14, 1629, Louis XIII. ar- ranged that 10 Capuchins of Paris should go and serve Henrietta Maria, Queen of Great Britain,, in the capacity of confessors. Accord- ingly 12 friars, of whom Father Leonard, of Paris, was the chief, left Calais Feb. 24, 1630. The queen laid the foundation-stone of a Roman Catholic chapel, to be presided over by the Capuchins, Sep. 24, 1636, and mass was publicly celebrated in presence of the queen and court Dec. 10. On the departure of the queen to Holland, in 1642, the Parliament im- prisoned the Capuchins and closed the chapel. CARABINE, or CARBINE. This fire-arm, a small musket, was used by light cavalry as early as the i6th century. A corps of cara- binicrs was raised in France in 1560. CARABOBO (Battle). This strong position in Venezuela, held by 4,000 Spaniards, was assailed by Bolivar's army, containing a force of English auxiliaries, June 24, 1821. ' The armies were nearly equal in numbers, and the latter gained a complete victory. CARABUSO (Mediterranean). This piiMte stronghold was attacked and destroyed by the English fleet Jan. 31, 1828. CARACAS (South America). This part of the country was discovered by Columbus during his third voyage, in 1498. The colony was afterwards sold by Charles V. to the Welsers, a company of German merchants, who ruled so tyrannically that they were dispos- sessed in 1550, when a governor was appointed. In 1810 the colony declared its independence, and took the name of Venezuela (q. v.), which was formally acknowledged by the Spanish Cortes, July 5, 1811. Santiago de Leon de Caracas, the chief city, built by Diego Loseda in 1567, possesses a university, founded in 1778, and is the seat of an archbishopric, established in 1803. A disastrous earthquake, which occurred March 26, 1812, laid the city in ruins, and destroyed numbers of the inhabi- tants, which so excited the superstition of the survivors, that they soon afterwards surren- dered to the royalists. Independence was re- established by Bolivar, Aug. 26, 1813 ; and New Grenada and Venezuela were united into a single state, under the name of Columbia (q.v.}, Dec. 17, 1819. They separated again in 1831, and Caracas is now the capital of Venezuela. (See AKA<;I;A.) CARAITES, KARAITES, or READERS, a Jewish sect that adhere closely to the text of the Scriptures, and are distinguished from the Rabbins by their rejection of traditions. They pretend to be descendants of the 10 tribes led captive by Shalmaneser, B.C. 721 ; while others trace their descent from Ezra, B.C. 458, though it is generally believed that they did not make their appearance till the 8th century. The Cara'ites exist in Turkey, Poland, Syria, and some parts of the East. CARALIS. -(See CAGLIARI.) CARAVAGGIO (Lombardy) was taken by the Venetians in 1431. In 1448 Francis Sforza laid siege to it, and, after a hotly-contested battle, effected its capture Sep. 15. The Venetians regained possession in 1499. After the battle of Agnadel, May 14, 1509, Caravaggio and other places surrendered to the French. Michael Angelo Amerighi, or Merighi da, an Italian painter, who was born here in 1569, bears the name Caravaggio. CARAVAN. In countries in which neither facility nor security is afforded to the traveller, A number of merchants or pilgrims form them- selves into a company for mutual protection. This is more particularly the case in the East. Joseph was sold by his brethren, about B.C. 1728, to some merchants belonging to a cara- van. It consisted of a company of Ishmaelites, coming from Gilead, " with their camels bearing spicery and balm and myrrh, going to carry it down to Egypt." (Gen. xxxvii. 25.) CARBERRY HILL (Battle). Lord Hume encountered Bothwell's army at this place, about six miles from Edinburgh, June 15, 1567. Bothwcll took to flight without striking a blow, and Mary Queen of Scots was taken prisoner. CARBONARI, or "CHARCOAL-BURN- ERS." The name given to a secret political association, formed in Italy at the commence- ment of the present century, its professed aim being the reorganization and reform of the government of Italy. Members of all classes are found in its ranks. In 1814 they formed a plan, subsequently abandoned, of creating a revolution in Naples. The scheme TA relinquished, but deferred, and June 2, 1820, a constitution was proclaimed at Nola. The same thing occurred at Naples and other places. Ferdinand I., King of the Two Sicilies, made concessions ; the forces of the Carbonari, under Gen. Pope, entered Naples July 9, and the king swore to observe the new consti- tution July 13. The emperors of Austria and Russia, and the Prince of Prussia, met at Troppau, in Oct., and by letters dated Nov. 20, invited Ferdinand I. to meet them at Laybach, to which town the congress was transferred in Jan., 1821, where measures were determined for an armed interference for the suppression of the revolution. The Austrians entered early in 1821. Naples capitulated March 20, and the revolutionary parliament was closed March 24. By an ordinance dated April 10, any person attending the meetings of the Carbonari was to be punished capitally. The society continued to exist, and, spread- ing through France, caused insurrections at Rochelle, Colmar, Toulon, and Marseilles, in 1821 ; and its influences are supposed to have contributed to the revolution of 1848 in France and Germany. The numerous out- breaks that have occurred in the Italian penin- sula since 1821 may all be traced, directly or indirectly, to the machinations of the Car- bonari. The Calderaii, tinkers or braziers who use the coals, is the name given to a loyal society that opposed the Carbonari. CARBUNCLE. This gem, a variety of the garnet, was, according to Eastern legends, em- ployed by Noah to illuminate the ark during the deluge. It ranked third on the breast- plate of the Jewish high-priest, and was there- fore known as early as B.C. 1491. CARCANET, a kind of chain or necklace manufactured at Venice in the ijth century. CARCANO [ 213 ] CARICATURE CARCANO (Battle). The Emperor Frede- rick I. of Germany was defeated at this place by the republican forces of Milan and Brescia, Aug. 9, 1 1 60. CARCASS. This missive of war is said to have been first employed by the Bishop of Minister against Groll, in 1672. CARCASSONNE (France), the ancient Car- caso, made a bishopric in the 6th century, was captured and pillaged Aug. 15, 1209, during the Albigensian crusade, and the inhabitants were expelled. The Inquisition was established here in 1230. CARCHEMISH (Battle). Nebuchadnezzar, son, and afterwards successor, of Nabopolassar, King of Babylonia, defeated the army of Pharaoh Necho at this city on the Euphrates, B.C. 605. CARDIFF (Wales). The castle is supposed to have been commenced in 1080 and com- pleted in 1 1 10. Robert, eldest son of William I., taken prisoner Sep. 28, 1106, is said to have remained in the castle until his death, Feb. 10, 1135, though the story is discredited by some writers. Its first charter was granted by Edward III., in 1338. Cromwell obtained possession of the castle by treachery in May, 1648. The Glamorganshire Canal was finished in 1798, and the Taff Railway in 1840. CARDIGAN (Wales). The name is said to be derived from " Caredigion," signifying the territory of Caredig, the first king. Its king is said to have become King of all Wales hi 834, but little is known of its early history. It was assailed by Saxons, Danes, and Normans, and was, with the whole of Wales, annexed to England in 1283. Cardiganshire has returned one member to Parliament since 1536. The castle of Cardigan, the chief town, was founded in 1160, and strengthened in 1240. A French expedition, 1,200 strong, landed in Cardigan Bay Feb. 22, 1797. They surrendered without offering any resistance, Feb. 24, while two frigates that had accompanied the expe- dition were captured on the way back to France. (See FISHGUARD.) CARDINAL. This title, in early times, was applied to any bishop, priest, or deacon in office. It probably commenced with the car- dinal priest or presbyter, and, though modest in its origin, has, as Gibbon remarks, "aspired to emulate the purple of kings." There were several cardinal presbyters in the same church, and they are not noticed before the time of Gregory I. (the Great), (590 604). The word cardinal was long of dubious import. Stephen IV. (768 772) is said to have elected seven bishops, to whom he gave the title of cardinal. Nicolas II., at a council at Rome, April 13, 1059, ordered that cardinals should elect the Pope, though he did not exclude the clergy, &c., from a share in the election. The cardinals, however, struggled to obtain the sole power, and, after various altercations, Alexander III., at the third council of Lateran (the nth general council), March 5-19, 1179, transferred the elec- tion of a pope to the college of cardinals. (See CONCLAVE. ) From this time the cardinals have gradually attained the supremacy they now exercise as princes of the Church. The number of cardinals having before varied considerably at different periods, was fixed by the bull of Sixtus V., in Dec., 1586, at 70 ; 6 being bishops, 50 priests, and 14 deacons. Louis XIII. gave them precedence in France over bishops and abbots in 1614. The red hat was first assumed at the 1 3th general council, held at Lyons, May 7 July 17, 1245, by permission of In- nocent IV. Boniface VIII. (1294 1303) allowed them to wear the purple cloak, and Paul III. (1534 1549) allowed them to wear the red cap. Their style was altered from "Most Illus- trious" to "Eminence" by Urban VIII., Jan. 10, 1631. The body of cardinals is called the Sacred College. Moreri's Dictionary con- tains a list of cardinals from 1119 to 1724. CARDINALISTS AND ROYALISTS. These parties arose in France in 1642. The former sided with Richelieu, who advocated the pro- secution of the war against Spain, and the latter with King Louis XIII., who desired to bring it to a termination. CARDIS, or KARDIS (Treaty), by which peace was concluded between Russia and Sweden July i, 1661. A truce for three years had been signed in 1658, and the treaty of Cardis was a renewal of the treaty of Stolbova, Jan. 26, 1617. CARDS. (See PLAYING CARDS.) CARELIA (Russia). This province, con- quered by the Swedes in 1580, and restored to Russia in 1595 by the treaty of Teusin (q. v.), was ceded to Sweden in 1609 by the treaty of Wibourg (q. v. ), which was confirmed Jan. 26, 1617, by the treaty of Stolbova (q. v.). It was finally restored to Russia Aug. 30, 1721, by the peace of Nystadt (q. v.}. CARIA (Asia Minor). The Carians claimed to be the original inhabitants of the country. This view is, however, disputed. They are supposed to have been subject to Minos, King of Crete. The Dorians and the lonians formed colonies on their territory. The Carians con- tributed 70 ships to the great armada of Xerxes, B.C. 480. The country was ruled over by the Lydians, the Persians, the Greeks, and the Romans, who divided it, giving part to the King of Pergamus and the remainder to the Rhodians, B.C. 190. The Romans added Caria to their province of Asia, B.C. 129. Caria was the sixth ecclesiastical province of Asia Minor. St. John the Evangelist is said to have con- verted its inhabitants to Christianity. It now forms part of the Ottoman empire. CARIBBEE ISLANDS (Atlantic). The Windward and Leeward Islands, called also the Lesser Antilles, are known by this name. It is derived from the Caribs, Caribbees, or Dharaibes, an aboriginal tribe of America, dis- tinguished from the other tribes by their athletic stature and superior courage. (See WEST INDIES.) CARICAL (Hindostan). This strong for- tress, held by the French, was invested April 2, 1760, and surrendered April 5. By the i4th article of the treaty of Versailles (Sep. 3, 1783), Carical was delivered up and guaranteed to France, in the possession of which country it still remains. CARICATURE was practised by the Egyp- tians, whose sculptured monuments present many examples of this grotesque species of CARIGNAN [ 214 ] CARLISLE art. It was also used by the Greeks and Romans, who frequently adorned their pottery and the walls of their houses with caricatures and parodies of mythological and heroic inci- dents, and after the fall of the Western em- pire it was revived by the builders and sculp- tors in their designs for the details of Gothic architecture. Caricature is also exemplified in many of the Anglo-Saxon MSS. and in the monkish illuminations of the Middle Ages ; and it generally entered largely into the represen- tations of the popular subject of the Dance of Death (q. v.), which was first painted in 1312. The " .Ship of Fools" of Sebastian Brandt, pub- lished in 1494, contained vigorous caricatures of contemporary follies. Political caricature dates from about 1499, when an engraving entitled "the Political Game at Cards" was published in France. In 1506 Thomas Murner produced the "Conspiracy of Fools," a satire levelled against the proposed refor- ruations of Martin Luther, which showed con- siderable advance in artistic ability upon the work of Brandt, of which it was an imitation. In retaliation for this and similar productions, the Protestants strengthened their attacks upon the papal system by a free use of carica- tures, a curious collection of which, dated i54S i> s preserved in the British Museum. Jacques Callot, a French artist, who died March 28, 1635, did much to raise the art of caricature, which became fashionable in England about the year 1640, when it was employed by the Puritans to ridicule their opponents. After the Restoration in 1660, it was chiefly used by the Cavaliers, who em- bellished their playing cards with satirical portraits of the parliamentary leaders. Ro- maiu deHooghe, a Dutch artist who published a series of engravings in 1672, proved a formi- dable opponent to Louis XIV. by the vigour of his pictorial satire, which made Holland for many years celebrated for caricature. In 1710 the art returned to England during the agitation in reference to Dr. Sacheverell, when it was extensively used by both parties, and in 1720 it was employed to ridicule the notorious Mississippi scheme. William Hogarth, who commenced his career as a caricaturist in 1728 by the publication of some burlesque illustra- tions of the Beggar's Opera, became in 1754 a frequent subject of the satirical pencil of Paul Sandby and other artists, by the announce- ment of his much ridiculed theory of the line of beauty. Bunbury (1750 1811), Rowlandson (1756 1827), Gillray (1757 June i, 1815), and Leech (1817 Oct. 29, 1864), are the most cele- brated of recent English caricaturists. CARIGNAN, or CARIGNANO (Italy). This town was besieged by the French early in the spring of 1544, and surrendered after the vic- tory over the Imperialists, gained near Ceri- soles, April 14. CARINTHIA (Austria). This province, having belonged successively to the Romans, the Heruli, the Ostrogoths, and to Charle- magne, was erected into a duchy by Arnulph I. in 880, and annexed by him in 888 to Bavaria, from which it was again separated in 977. It sxibsequently passed in 1058 to the house of Zaermgen, in 1073 to the house of Murzthal, 1127 to that of Ortenbiirg, and in 1268 to Premislaus Ottocar II., King of Bohemia. The family of Gcerz obtained possession in 1282, and the counts of the Tyi-ol in 1286 ; and in 1337 it was finally annexed to Austria. CARISBROOlv CASTLE (Isle of Wight). A castle was built at Carisbrook, formerly the capital of the island, according to Dr. Stukeley, by Carausius, about B.C. 290. This was rebuilt by Richard de Rivers, Earl of Devon, in the reign of Henry I., and Elizabeth repaired it in 18. The French, who had taken possession the island, besieged it in vain in 1377. Charles I., was imprisoned here Nov. 14, 1647. He endeavoui-ed to escape, Dec. 28, but was prevented, and remained in the castle till Nov. 30, 1648, when he was removed to Hurst Castle (q.v.\ Elizabeth, his daughter, died here of a broken heart, Sep. 8, 1650, in her isth year. A tablet to her memory has been erected in Newport church by Queen Victoria. CARISMLYNS, or KHARIZMIANS. This tribe, dwelling from time immemorial on the borders of the Caspian Sea, was noticed by Herodotus (B.C. 484 408), and under Sultan Gelaleddin gained great renown early in the 1 3th century. Expelled from their native haunts by the Mongols in 1229, they crossed the Euphrates to the number of 10,000 horse- men in 1244, and at the call of the Sultan of Cairo pillaged Syria, massacred 7,000 Christian men and women at the pass of Ramah in Palestine, and seized and profaned Jerusalem. Having defeated the Christians at Carita (q. v.}, Oct. 18 and 19, they vainly laid siege to Jaffa in Nov., seized Damascus after a six months' blockade, and having deserted the Sultan of Cairo and formed an alliance with his Syrian enemies, were defeated in two great battles in 1247, and expelled from the Holy Land. CAKITA, or KARITA (Battle). The Chris- tians, under Walter de Brienne and the Emir Bibars. attacked the Carisrnians [q. r.) at this place near Gaza, Oct. 18, 1244. The result of the first day's battle was in favour of the Christians. The conflict was renewed on the following day, Oct. 19, when the Carismians, having received reinforcements, gained a com- plete victory. Upwards of 30,000 Christians were slain, and Walter de Brienne and the chiefs of the Hospitallers and Templars, with the Archbishop of Tyre, were made prisoners. The Mohammedan historian, Ibn-ghiouzi, says of this fight : " Never was there so glorious a day for Islam, not even under Noureddin and Saladin." CARLAVEROCK, or CAERLAVEROCK (Scotland). This castle, on the Nith, was cap- tured by Edward I., between July 6-12, 1300. The siege forms the subject of a contemporary poem, of which Sir N. H. Nicolas published a translation in 1828. CARLEON. (See CAERLEON.) CARLISLE (Bishopric) was established April ii, 1132, and the first bishop was consecrated in Aug., 1133. The church, restored about 1092, and dedicated by Henry I. in noi, was much damaged by fire in 1292. Cromwell destroyed the nave of the cathedral in 1648. The wooden tower was removed in 1661, and the restoration CARLISLE [ 215 ] CARMATHIANS of the cathedral commenced in 1853. It was reopened in 1856. CARLISLE (Cumberland) was destroyed by the Danes about 900 A.D. William II. restored it in 1093, and founded its castle. Carlisle suf- fered greatly during the border wars, was destroyed by fire in 1292, and resisted a siege by Robert Bruce in 1315. A parliament was held here July i, 1300. Richard III. extended the castle, and Henry VIII. ordered the citadel to be built. Mary Queen of Scots was im- prisoned here after the battle of Langside (q. v.). Carlisle remained faithful to the cause of Charles I., was repeatedly assailed by the republican forces, and captured, after a long siege, July 2, 1645. It was retaken by the Royalists, from whom it was wrested by Crom- well in 1648. The Pretender's forces obtained possession Nov. 15, 1745, the garrison having capitulated the day before. It was retaken by the Duke of Cumberland Dec. 30, 1745. The foundation stone of a new church was laid by Miss Burdett Coutts, March 2, 1864. CARLISLE ADMINISTRATION. The Earl of Carlisle was appointed First Lord of the Treasury, May 23, 1715, to supply the vacancy caused by the death of the Earl of Halifax. The other members of the Halifax administra- tion continued in office. The Duke of Mont- rose gave up the seals of office Aug. 5 ; the Earl of Sunderland was made Lord Privy Seal Aug. 20 ; and the Dukes of Argyle and Rox- burgh were appointed members of the cabinet council Aug. 31, 1715. It was dissolved in Oct., 1715. (See WALPOLE ADMINISTRATIONS.) CARLISLE PROVINCE. (See ANTIGUA.) CARLISTS. The supporters of Charles X. of France, after the Revolution of 1830, were called Carlists. On the death of Ferdinand VII. of Spain, Sep. 29, 1833, two parties con- tended for the succession, his brother Don Carlos, and his daughter Isabella II. (born Oct. 10, 1830), in anticipation of whose birth the Salic Law, which prohibited the succession of females, had been abolished, by a Pragmatic Sanction published March 29, 1830. The sup- porters of the former were termed Carlists, and of the latter Christinos. The Carlist war lasted from 1833 to 1840. CARLO VINGIANS. (See CAROLINGIANS.) CARLOW (Ireland). The castle was founded by the English in 1180. Carlow'was made a borough in 1208, and fortified in 1362. It was captured by Gen. Ireton in 1650. The rebels were defeated near this town with great slaughter, May 24, 1798. The railroad from Dublin was opened Aug. 10, 1846. CARLO WITZ (Treaty), concluded at this town in Austria, Jan. 26, 1699, between Turkey and Germany, Poland, Russia, and Venice. The Turks, for the first time, sought to enter into diplomatic relations with the European powers, and ambassadors from Austria, Po- land, and Russia assembled at Constantinople to ratify this treaty. CARLSBAD (Bohemia). This town has been celebrated for its mineral springs from a very early period. The first spring, the Sprundel, was, according to tradition, discovered by Charles IV. in 1370, during a hunting excur- sion. A congress of German powers was held at Carlsbad, Aug. i, 1819, for the purpose of considering what measures were necessary to prevent the spread of revolutionary principles in Germany. It endeavoured to suppress secret societies and to establish the censorship of the press. This town is also called Kaiser Carlsbad. CARLSCRONA (Sweden), built by Charles XI. in 1680, suffered severely from a fire in 1790. CARLSRUHE (Germany), the capital of the grand duchy of Baden (q. v.), was founded by the Margrave Charles William, who made it his hunting-seat in 1715. A new palace was commenced in 1751. A revolution occurred at Carlsruhe May 14, 1849. The town was occupied by the troops of the confederacy, June 23, when the insurrection was suppressed. CARLSTADT (Croatia). A fortress was erected at this spot in 1579 to resist the inroads of the ^urks, and the town was founded by the Archduke Charles, from whom it receives its name. In 1809 it fell into the power of the French, who retained possession till 1814. CARLSTAD (Sweden). This town, founded in 1584 by Charles, Duke of Sudermania, after- wards Charles IX. of Sweden, suffered se- Duke of Wellington, held its first meeting in Charles Street, St. James's, in 1831. In 1832 it removed to larger premises in Carlton Gardens, and in 1836 a club-house was erected in Pall Mall, which was enlarged in 1846, and taken down in 1854. The present house was opened early in 1855. CARMAGNOLA, or CARMAGNOLE (Italy). This town of Piedmont was taken by Catinat in 1691. It was also captured in 1796. CARMAGNOLE. This song and dance, said t>y some authorities to have been introduced into France by Savoyards from Carmagnola or Carmagnole, and by others to have commemo- rated a victory of Francis Carmagnole (1390 1432), were popular among the people of Paris during the first French Revolution. The name was also given to the costume adopted by the Jacobins in 1793, " consisting," says Dyer (Modern Europe, iv. 132), " of enormous black pantaloons, a short jacket, a three-coloured waistcoat, and a Jacobite wig of short black r, a terrible moustache, the bonnet rouge, and an enormous sabre." CARMARTHEN. (See CAERMARTHEN.) CARMATHIANS. A branch of the Shiites, minded by an Arabian preacher, who assumed ;he name of Carmath. He first appeared in 2ufa about 890. Gibbon says (ch. lii.) that he "assumed the lofty and incomprehensible style of the Guide, the Director, the Demonstration, the Word, the Holy Ghost, the Camel, the Herald of the Messiah, who had conversed with him in a human shape, and the repre- sentative of Mohammed the son of Ali, of 3t. John the Baptist, and of the angel Gabriel." The Carmathians, after a sanguinary struggle, obtained the supremacy in the province of Bahrein, in 900. They conquered Syria and Mesopotamia in 902, pillaged Mecca in 929, and carried away the Caaba. The Carmathians soon after separated into factions, and their wwer declined, (See ASSASSINS.) CARMEL [ 216 ] CARPET CARMEL. 'See MOUNT CARMEL.) CARMELITES. This religious order of St. Mary of Mount Carmel was founded in the i2th century. The Carmelites themselves claim an unbroken succession from Elijah, and speak of the Virgin Mary as a Carmelite mm. About 1205, Albert, Patriarch of Jerusalem, pre- scribed a rule for them, which was confirmed by Honorius III. in 1226. They were driven from Syria by the Saracens in the i3th century, and became mendicant friars in 1247. They came to England in 1240, and had 40 houses in this country. Gregory XIII. divided them into two branches in 1580, according to a reform projected by St. Theresa in 1540, the more rigid being called Barefooted Carmelites, be- cause they went barefooted. During the latter half of the i7th century the antiquity of the order was disputed by the Jesuits ; and the quarrel became so violent that Innocent XII. put an end to it, Nov. 20, 1698. The Carmelite nuns, or Carmelitesses, were instituted in 1452. The first stone of a Carmelite church was laid ut Kensington by Dr. Manning, July 17, 1865. CARMINE, discovered by a Franciscan monk at Pisa, was first made in 1656. CARNARVON. (See CAERNARVON.) CARNATIC (Hindostan). This province was conquered by the Mohammedans in 1310. Nizam ul 'Mulk wrested it from the Mongol empire in 1717. Anwar ud Deen was made Nabob of the Carnatic by Nizam ul Mulk, and his son, Mohammed Ali, was put in possession of part of his father's territories by the British in 1754, after a hard struggle with opposing claimants, who were aided by the French. After various reverses, it was again surrendered to Mohammed Ali in 1763, and in 1783 it was wrested from Hyder and Tippoo Saib by the British, who obtained the whole province by treaty July 31, 1801. The last nabob died with- out issue in 1855, and with him was extinguished one of the Hindoo Mohammedan dynasties. CARNI. This ancient Alpine tribe, inha- biting part of the modern province of Car- niola (q. v.), was subdued by M. .ZEmilius Scaurus, B.C. 115. CARNIOLA, or KRAIN (Austria). This province, which takes its name from its ancient inhabitants, the Garni (q. v.), was wrested from the Slavonic Wends by Charle- magne (800 814), who bestowed it upon the dukes of Friuli. In 972 it was erected into a margraviate, and on the extinction of the male line of margraves in the i3th century, part of it passed into the possession of the dukes of Austria, who acquired the whole in 1336. Ceded to France in 1809, it was restored to Austria in 1814. CARNIVAL, or "FAREWELL TO FLESH," a festive season observed in Roman Catholic countries. It formerly commenced on the day of the Epiphany (Twelfth-day), and termi- nated on Ash- Wednesday, but is now confined to a few days before Ash- Wednesday. It is an imitation of some portion of the pagan festival of the Saturnalia, and has existed from a remote period. CARNUTES. This Celtic people of Gaul having rebelled against Csesar, B.C. 54, and put to death Tasgetius, whom he had appointed their governor, were speedily reduced to sub- jection. Another insurrection, begun B.C. 52, by Gutruatus, whom Caesar subsequently flogged to death, extended to all the Gallic tribes, and cost" the Romans much trouble before it was suppressed. CAROLINA (United States) is supposed to have been discovered by John Ponce de Leon in 1512, though some writers say that its coasts were explored by Sebastian Cabot in 1498. In 1564 the French built a fort here ; but they were expelled by the Spaniards. The colony of Roanoake was planted in this part of America under Raleigh's patent in 1584. The experiment having failed, another attempt was made in 1587, with no better results. In 1630 Sir Robert Heath, attorney-general of Charles I., obtained from that monarch a grant of the district of Carolana, which, though distinct from Carolina, included most of that province in its limits. The first settlements were made in 1660, by emigrants who fled from Virginia to escape religious persecution : and from them the colony received the name of Albemarle. By a charter of March 24, 1663, Charles II. conferred it upon Lord Clarendon and others, from whom it received the name "Carolina," about 1675. Charleston (q. v.) was founded in 1672. The original constitution of the colony, which had been prepared by John Locke, was abandoned in 1693. The culture of rice was introduced in 1695. The Church of England was established by law in 1704. In 1719 the colonists threw off the proprietary govern- ment, and in May, 1 729, the English Parliament purchased the province of the lords proprietors for the sum of .17,500. In virtue of this ar- rangement, George II. immediately divided it into the two governments of North and South Carolina (q. v.). CAROLINE BOOKS. These four books were written by order of Charlemagne against images, to refute the decree on this subject of the Council of Nicsea, in 787. They were read before the council at Frankfort-on-the-Maine in 794, by order of Charlemagne. Roger Hoveden attributes the authorship to Alcuin (725 April 1 8, 804). They were first published at Paris in 1549. CAROLINGIANS, erroneously styled Carlo- vingiaus, ruled over France (q. v.) from 715 to 987. CAROOR (Hindostan). This fortress was taken by Col. Lang April 2, 1783 ; and by Gen. Meadows in June, 1790. CARP is mentioned as a scarce fish in this country by Dame Juliana Barnes, Bernes, or Berners, in her "Treatise on Hawking, Hunt- ing, and Fishing with an Angle ;" published by Wynkyn de Worde in 1496. CARPENTARIA (Australasia). This gulf, discovered about 1627, was named by Tasman in 1642, in honour of Carpenter, a governor of the Dutch Indies, who had returned to the Netherlands in 1628. The story of its having been discovered by Pierre Carpenter in 1627 or 1662 is incorrect. CARPET was in use from the earliest times, and is frequently mentioned in the Bible. Plato (B.C. 428 347) draws the distinction be- tween the coverings placed round the couch CARPI [ 217 ] CART and under it, whilst Plautus (B.C. 254 184) speaks of "purple-cushioned couches." Athe- nseus (fl. A.D. 200) states that the art of weav- ing embroidered cloths was in great perfection about this time. Carpets were found in the ruins of Pompeii. Carpets were introduced into Spain from the East, and from Spain they passed into France and England. When Eleanor of Castile, wife of Prince Edward, afterwards king, arrived in London, 1255, the rooms of her abode were covered with carpet. They were used generally in the palace during the reign of Edward III. This is spoken of as a Spanish custom, and one that excited much ridicule among the English people. Bedroom carpets occur in 1301. Turkey car- pets were advertised for sale in London in 1660. The manufacture of carpets was introduced into France by Colbert in 1664. A manufactory was opened in England during the reign of Henry VIII. ; but this branch of industry was not permanently established until 1685, by artisans driven from France by the revocation of the edict of Nantes (q.v.). Brussels carpets were introduced into Kidderminster from Tournay in 1745. CARPI (Battle). Prince Eugene, at the head of the imperialists, defeated Marshal Catinat and the French army at this place, in Italy, in Aug., 1701. CARPOCRATIANS. The followers of Carpo- crates, a native of Alexandria, who in the and century revived several Gnostic errors. He rejected the Old Testament and the gospels of St. Matthew and St. Luke ; denied the resur- rection of the dead ; and advocated the most licentious mode of life. Mosheim calls him " the worst of all the Gnostics." CARRARA (Italy). This city owes its cele- brity to the adjacent quarries of white marble which supplied material for Roman builders in the reign of Augustus (B.C. 27 A.D. 14). The finer quality, discovered in the time of Pliny the Elder (A.D. 23 79), was adopted by sculptors in preference to that procured from Paros. On the overthrow of the Roman em- pire the quarries fell into neglect until the i2th century, when they were again worked by the citizens of Pisa. The collegiate church of Carrara, founded in the i^ih century, was completed in the isth. CARRH^E (Mesopotamia). The modem Har- ran, is supposed to be the Haran whence Abra- ham departed, B.C. 1921 (Gen. xii. 4). Crassus was defeated here by the Parthians, B.C. 53, with the loss of the larger part of the Roman army. Caracalla was assassinated on a pilgrim- age he had undertaken from Edessa to the celebrated temple of the Moon at Carrhse, March 8, 217 A.D. CARRIAGES of various kinds were used by ancient nations. The horse litter preceded the introduction of carriages into this country. The earliest carriages used by the ladies of England were called whirlicotes. Long wag- gons, for the conveyance of passengers and goods, went between London and some large towns in 1605. They were, however, even at this time but little used, the principal traffic of the country being carried on by means of pack-horses. The long waggons, or machines, were followed by the waggon-coach, which was superseded by stage-coaches (q. v.). The principal modern vehicles are noticed under their ordinary names. (See CHARIOT and ROYAL CARRIAGE DEPARTMENT.) CARRICKFERGUS (Ireland). John de Courcy planted a colony here in 1182, and built a castle; and the church is .. said to have been founded in 1164. The town was taken and burned by Niall O'Neill in 1384. In 1 monastery of Franciscans was founded. English suffered a defeat here in 1503. The wall round the town, commenced in 1575, was completed in 1608. In 1597 the governor, with many others, was slain by some Scottish troops under Sir James MacDonnell. William III. landed here June 14, 1690. Commodore Thurot took the town Feb. 28, 1760; but was very soon compelled to evacuate it ; and Paul Jones cap- tured a British sloop of war in the bay April 24, 1778. CARRICK'S FORD (Battle). Capt. Bonham and Gen. Morris overtook and defeated the re- treating Confederate forces of Gen. Garnett at this place on the Cheat River, Virginia, July 13, 1 86 1. Gen. Garnett was killed, and many of his men were made prisoners. CARROCIUM. The invention of this vehicle is usually ascribed to Eribert, Archbishop of Milan, about 1040 A.D. It was drawn by oxen, had a lofty pole, surmounted with a golden banner, and decorated with a white banner. A crucifix was fixed in the middle of the pole. The carrocium, used at first in the civil wars of Milan, was adopted throughout Italy, and appeared in every army, guarded by a chosen band, to inspire courage in the combatants. The Milanese lost their carrocium at the battle of Cortenuova (q. v.}. CARRON (Stirlingshire). The first furnace was blown at the iron works in this village Jan. i, 1760. CARRONADE, or SMASHER. This piece of carriage ordnance, invented by Gen. R. Mel- ville, takes its name from the Carron iron- works, where it was first cast in 1779. A trial of a loo-pounder carronade was made at the Leith battery, Oct. 6, 1781. The result was satisfactory. The carronade was first used in action by Lord Rodney, in his contest with De Grasse, April 12, 1782. Allen (Battles of the British Navy) remarks, under 1800, that " at the commencement of this century, carronades were in general use in all classes of ships." CARROT was introduced into England from Flanders at the commencement of the i6th century. CARROUSEL, or knightly exercise in imita- tion of the old tournaments, originated in Italy, and was introduced into France in 1605, during the reign of Henry IV. A carrousel was held at Paris in honour of Madlle. de la Vallifere by Louis XIV. in 1662, and another at Versailles in 1664. The Place du Carrousel at Paris received its name from the first of these. An attempt was made to revive the carrousel at Berlin in 1750, and one was held at Saumur in honour of the Duchess de Berry in 1828. (See EGLINTON TOURNAMENT.) CART. A carriage on two wheels was used for agricultural purposes in very early times, CARTAGENA [ 218 ] CARTHAGENA and appears to have been introduced into this island by the Romans. Carts of war, a peculiar kind of artillery, are described in an act of the parliament of Scotland in 1456 ; and by another act, in 1471, the chieftains are ordered to pro- vide them for use against the English. CARTAGENA, or CARTHAGENA (South America', the capital of a province of the same name, in New Granada, was founded by Pedro de Heredia, in 1532. An episcopal see, under the metropolitan of Santa Fe, was established here in 1537. The town was taken by Sir Francis Drake in 1586. Thebucaneers seized it in 1697. Admiral Vernon attacked it March 9, 1741. After some temporary success, the siege was raised April 14. The town was again can- nonaded without any decisive result April 16. A large portion of the town was destroyed by an earthquake, Nov. 9, 1761. During the revo- lutionary war in South America, Carthagena was captured by the royalists, after a siege of four months' duration, Dec. 6, 1815. It was re- taken by the republicans Sep. 25, 1821. CARTHAGE (Africa). - According to the legend followed by the poet Virgil in the Mneid, Carthage was founded by Dido, or HI issa, daughter of a king of Tyre. Her brother Pyg- malion, at that time king, murdered her hus- band for the sake of his treasures, with which Dido, accompanied by several noble Tyrians, managed to escape. Having touched at Cyprus, from which island her followers carried off 80 maidens to be their wives in their new home, they landed on the coast of Africa, near Utica, a Phoenician city. From the natives they ob- tained for an annual tribute as much land OB a bull's hide would encompass. Dido cut the bull's hide into small shreds, and thus obtained a large tract of territory. The new city, called Byrsa, was afterwards the citadel of Carthage. This event has been assigned to different periods, ranging from 140 to 65 years before the foundation of Rome. There can be little doubt that Carthage \v,-is ;i colony of Tyre. It may, as some authorities suppose, have been at first an emporium established by the merchants of Utica and of Tyre. 878.' Dido founds Carthage. 503. A commercial treaty is concluded with the Romans. 480. t'lelon defeats tin; CarthagiaiaBI at Himera (q. v.). 410. The Carthaginians again invade Sicily. 406. They take Agrigentum (q. r.). 398. The Carthaginians are defeated in Sicily, and return to Carthage. 396. The Carthaginians, under the younger Hamilcar, n t irn to Sicily, and, after many victories, lay siege to Svr.-icuse (q. r.). 393. Dionysius defeats the Carthaginian! in Sicily, and compel* them to sue for peace. 3-3. Sicily is again invaded by the Carthaginians, who effect a landing in Italy. 348. A second commercial treaty is copcluded with the Romans. 340. Discovery and suppression of Hanrio's conspiracy to massacre the senate and establish a despotism. 339. Timoleon defeats the Carthaginians on the banks of the Crimisus (q. .). 310. Agathocles, Tyrant of Sicily, defeated at Himera, invades Cartilage. 308. Revolutionary conspiracy of Bomilcnr. 306. A third commercial treaty is concluded with Rome. 264. The first Punic war. 260. The sea-fight off Tyndaris (q. v.). 255. Regains is defeated and made prisoner in Africa, by the Carthaginian leader Xantippus, the Spartan. B.C. 351. Metellus defeats Hasdrubal, and the Carthaginians send Regulus to Rometo sue for peace. 250. Regulus urges his countrymen to prosecute their con- quest of Carthage and returns to bis captors, by whom lie is cruelly executed. Defeat of the Romans at Lilybannn (q. v.). 247. Hamilcar Barcas becomes the Carthaginian leader liirth of Hannibal. 241. Lutatius defeats the Carthaginians, who are com- pelled to sue for peace, which ends the first Punic . war. The mercenary troops rebel, and are defeated by Hamilcar. 238. Hamilcar Barcas invades Spain, and subjects many of the native tribes to Carthage. 229. Hamilcar falls in battle against the Vetrones. His son-in-law Hasdrubal succeeds him. 221. Assassination of Hasdrubal, who is succeeded by Hannibal 219. Hannibal is victorious in Spain. 2i8. Hannibal invades Italy, and begins the second Punic war. lie defeats the Konians in two battles near the rivers Ticinus and Trebia (q. v.). 21". Battle of Thrasymciic (7. r. ) 2i6, Aug. 2. Battle of Cannre ( thither 3,000 colonists. A.D. 12^. It is visited by Hadrian. 2. . It is , -reeled into a bishopric. 439, Oct. 9. It is taken by the Vandal Oenseric. 533. It is recaptured by Belisariu.s, by whom it is named .Justiniana. 047. It is destroyed by the Arabs. on*. It is taken and destroyed by the Saracens under 1270, July. Louis IX. of France lands at Carthage. (See CKI v \|,KS.) 1841. A chapel in memory of Louis IX. is erected by Louis 1'hilippc. Councils were held at Carthage in the following years: 200, 217, 35', 253, 253, 254, 255, 256, 3'2. 33, 34 or 349, 3 s ", 39, 397, 3. 1291- Restoration of peace. 3308. The Pope orders the suppression of the Castilian Templars. 1327. Alphonso XI. confiscates the estates of John, Lord of Biscay. 1366. Peterl.is opposed by his brother Henry, who invades Castile, of which he is solemnly proclaimed king. 1367. Edward the Black Prince, who goes to the assistance of Peter I., penetrates into Castile. April 3. He utterly defeats Henry and his army at Xajara. 1369. Henry again invades the kingdom. March 23- He defeats Peter I., and puts him to death at Montiel (q. v.). 1381. John I. repels the Portuguese fleet which was sent to invade Castile. 1386, July. John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, invades Castile, and is proclaimed king at Santiago. 1387. John of Gaunt foregoes his claim to the crown of Castile, on condition that Henry, son of John I., marries his daughter Catherine. 1390, Oct. 9. Death of John I., in consequence of a fall from his horse. His infant son, Henry III., succeeds him. 1407. Accession of John II., under the regency of his uncle Ferdinand. 1439. Revolt of the Castilians, who demand the permanent expulsion of Don Alvaro de Luna from the court. 14(19, Oct. 19. Marriage of Isabella of Castile and Ferdi- nand II. of Aragon. 1474. Ferdinand and Isabella are proclaimed sovereigns of Castile. 1479. Ferdinand becomes King of Aragon, which is thus united to Castile. SOVEREIGNS OF CASTILE. AD. I A.D. 1035. Ferdinand I. 1252- Alphonso X. 1065. Sancho II. 1284. Sancho IV. 1072. Alphonso Vl.'of Leon. 1295. Ferdinand IV. 1109. Urraca and Alphonso 1312- Alphonso XI. 1126. Alphonso VIII. of Ara- gon. 1157. Sancho III. and Ferdi- nand II. 1158. Alphonso IX. 1214. Henry I. I2I7- Ferdinand III. CASTILLEJOS (Africa). Gen. Prim, at the head of the Spanish army, defeated the Moors at this place, Jan. i, 1860. CASTILLON (France). Charles VII. of France defeated John Talbot, Earl of Shrews- bury, near this town, in Guienne, July 7, 1453. Talbot was slain in the battle, in which the French were greatly superior in point of num- bers. Castillon surrendered to the French July 1 6. The result was that Guienne passed out of the possession of the English. Admiral Penrose destroyed a flotilla at Castillon, April 6, 1814. CASTLE. The ancient Greeks and Romans erected castles, and Gildas, who flourished in the 6th century, relates that the aboriginal British built very strong tall houses on the tops of hills, which were fortified for purposes of defence. Perhaps the oldest castle, the date of which is determined, is the Roman fortress at Richborough, in Kent, which was commenced in 43, and completed by Severus about 205. Anglo- Saxon castles consisted of a round or square tower-keep, ascended by a direct flight of steps in front. One was erected at Bamborough, by Ida, King of Northumberland, about 548, though they appear not to have become com- mon till the reign of Alfred. The chief altera- tion introduced by the Normans, was an en- largement and elaboration of the keep, which was built of prodigious strength and security. 50. Peter I. the Cruel. 1369. Henry II. 1379. John I. 1390. Henry III. 1406. John II. 1454. Henry IV. 1474. Ferdinand and Isa- bella I. One of the most famous is that at Rochester, built by Bishop Gundulph, about 1088. CASTLEBAR (Battle). Gen. Humbert, at the head of a French force of 1,150 men, defeated Gen. Lake near this town, in Ireland, Aug 27, 1798. The former, who had landed at Killala Aug. 22, were afterwards surrounded, and laid down their arms at Ballinamuck, Sep. 8. CATACOMBS, called cryptce and arenaria, says Bingham, from their being digged pri- vately in the sand under ground, were the places used for Christian burial during the first three centuries of our sera. The catacombs in the Via Appia, near Rome, extend for six miles under ground, and are supposed to have been quarries. The bodies of St. Peter and St. Paul are said to have been interred in these catacombs. They were, it is believed, used as places of interment by the pagans before they were thus employed by the Christians, who often assembled in them for the celebration of divine worship. Catacombs are found in vari- ous countries. The catacombs of Egypt, ex- plored by Belzoni in 1815-17, were found to contain vessels of various kinds, works of art, deeds, and other documents. Romanelli dis- covered in a catacomb at Naples inscriptions recording the ravages committed by the plague in that city in 1020. The catacombs at Paris are the quarries out of which materials were excavated for the building of the city. The victims of the massacres of Sep., 1792,.. were interred in these crypts, to which the remains of human beings taken from the Paris cemeteries, suppressed in 1784, had been re- moved. Several persons were lost in these labyrinthine chambers, which, on account of their dangerous nature, are closed to the public. CATALAUNIAN PLAIN (France), near Cha- lons-sur-Marne, where Aetius defeated Attila and the Huns in 451. CATALOGUES OF BOOKS. George Wilier, a bookseller at Augsburg, who frequented the fairs at Frankfort, first published a catalogue of new books, with titles and size. There is a difference of opinion respecting the date of his first catalogue, some authorities placing it in 1554, and others in 1564. Hallam is in favour of the latter. The earliest known catalogue of English books for sale was published by Andrew Maunsell, in 1595. CATALONIA (Spain). This province, form- ing part of the Roman Tarraconensis Provincia, the new name given to Hispania Citerior by Augustus, was, on the decline of the Roman power, invaded by the Goths and the Alani, about 409, and a settlement formed by them was called Goth-Alania. The Saracens conquered it in 712, and it was wrested from them by Charle- magne in 788, and included in his Spanish march. Catalonia was annexed to Aragon by the marriage of Queen Petronilla with Raymond Berenger, Count of Barcelona, in 1137. Philip III. of France invaded it in 1273. A general insurrection against the Aragon dynasty broke put in Catalonia in 1461, and the inhabitants, in 1466, elected Rene the Good, of Anjou, king. He was, however, unable to accept the prof- fered crown, and an accommodation was made with the King of Aragon, who swore to re- spect the laws and constitution of Catalonia, CATAMARAN [ 222 ] CATHARISTS Dec. 22, 1472. Both Aragon and Catalonia were united with Castile by the marriage of Ferdinand II. and Isabella, Oct. 19, 1469. Ferdi- nand emancipated the serfs of Catalonia hi 1486^ and transferred his court to this province ui Oct., 1492. The inhabitants of Catalonia re volted in 1640, and entered into a treaty of alliance with Louis XIII., Dec. 16, converted into a treaty of union Jan. 23, 1641. Thp Spaniards recovered Barcelona Oct. 12, 1652, and Catalonia was soon afterwards re-united to Spain. The people rose against the French in 1808 ; but after a desperate struggle, it was subjugated and again annexed to France hi 1812. The war was renewed, and, with the assistance of the English, the French were expelled in 1814. CATAMARAN. During the invasion panic of 1804, some projector induced Lord Melville o countenance a plan for the destruction of the flotilla at Boulogne by means of catamarans, being copper vessels of an oblong form, con- taining a quantity of combustibles, and so constructed as to explode in a given time by means of clockwork. They were to be towed and fastened under the bottoms of the enemy's gunboats, by a small raft rowed by one man, who, being seated up to his chin in the water, would, it was hoped, escape detection in .1 dirk night. Fire-ships were also to be employed. Lord Keith anchored at about a league and a half from Boulogne Oct. 2, for the purpose of trying the experiment. Operations commenced at a quarter after nine the same evening, and terminated at a quarter after four on the morn- ing of Oct. 3. No damage was, however, done to the enemy's fleet, and their loss was only 25 in killed and wounded. The catamaran project proved a failure. ( 'A I AXI A (Sicily, the ancient Catana, founded about B.C. 730, by a Greek colony. The original inhabitants were expelled by Hieron of Syracuse, B.C. 476, and a colony of Syracusans and Peloponnesiana introduced, the name of the city being changed to JEtna. The original inhabitants were restored B.C. 461. Dionysius of Syracuse captured it, and sold the people to slavery, B.C. 403. It submitted to the Romans B.C. 263, was injured by an earth- quake B.C. 121, and having been restored was captured by the Goths, and was wrested from them by Belisarius, A.D. 536. Richard I. held a conference with Tancred here in 1 190. This city, situated close to Mount xEtna, has frequently been partially destroyed both in ancient and modern times. The earthquakes of Feb. 4, 1169, March 8, 1669, and 1694 committed the greatest havoc. Catania, however, rose from the ruins, and is considered the finest city in Sicily. It was made a bishop's see at an early period, but remained vacant for nearly 200 years, from the close of the gth century, about which time Catania was captured by the Sara- ceiis, from whom it was wrested by the Nor- mans. The nave of the celebrated cathedral, constructed from the ruins of an ancient pagan temple, was completely destroyed by the earth- quake of 1693. The university was founded in 1445. During the Sicilian rebellion, it was captured by the royal troops, April 2, 1849. Garibaldi seized the town Aug. 20, 1862. Se- veral villages near Catania were destroyed and many persons killed by an earthquake, July 18 and 19, 1865. CATAPHRYGIANS. The followers of Mon- tanus, who founded his new Church at Pepuza, a small town of Phrygia, in 171 or 172, were also called Pepuziaiis and Montanists (erg or Palatinate Catechism in 1563 ; the rridentine Catechism in 1566; and Noel's Cate- chism hi 1570. James I., at the Hampton Court conferences, recommended additions hat were adopted in 1604. The Catechism of he orthodox Greek Church was published hi 642 ; the Shorter Catechism, prepared by the Assembly of Divines, in 1647 ; and the Longer CATHARISTS, or CATHARL This word, ignifying pure, was applied to several sects in -he early Church. The Apostolians 7. r.) and -he Montanists, and especially the followers of sovatus, who separated from the Church in 251, were called Cathari. The appellation CATHAY [ 223 ] CATTARO was subsequently assumed by the descendants of the Paulicians, who appeared during the nth century. Mosheim represents these Catharists as proceeding from Bulgaria, and spreading over Europe. He says they were divided into two principal parties, the one holding two first causes, and the other but one ; and of the last-mentioned he makes the Albigensians a branch. There is much con- fusion in the accounts of these sects. CATHAY. (-See CHINA.) CATHEDRAL. This name, given to the episcopal church of every diocese, because it contains the cathedra, or bishop's seat, was not used, in its present sense, before the loth cen- tury, and is confined to the Western Church. CATHERINE (Knights of St. Catherine of Mount Sinai). This order of knights was insti- tuted in 1063, for the protection of pilgrims to the shrine of Catherine, saint, virgin, and martyr, who suffered at Alexandria, under Maximin, in 307, and whose relics are said to have been miraculously conveyed to Mount Sinai, where they are preserved in a monas- tery. Landon (Eccles. Diet.) remarks: "She is said to have been put upon an engine made of four wheels joined together and armed with spikes, which, when the wheels were moved, were intended to lacerate her body ; but at the instant at which the machine was put into motion, her bonds were miraculously broken, and she was released, only, however, to be instantly beheaded. Hence the name of Catherine-wheel." CATHERINE, ST. The earliest record of this religious order, which was originally for monks only, occurs in 1188, when it is men- tioned as connected with the hospital of St. Opportune. The title was changed to St. Catherine in 1222, and nuns were admitted about the year 1328. In 1558 the order became exclusively one of nuns, who received a new constitution and regulations from Eustace du Bellay, Bishop of Paris, about 1564. CATHERINE, ST. (Order), for females only, was instituted by Peter I. (the Great) of Russia, or, as some say, by his wife Catherine, in 1714, in memory of his escape from the Turks in 1711. CATHERINE (ST.) DOCKS. (See KATHA- RINE (ST.) DOCKS and HOSPITAL.) CATHERINE'S (ST.) COLLEGE or HALL (Cambridge) was founded by Dr. Woodlarke, Chancellor of the University, in 1473. CATHOLIC LEAGUE. (See ROMAN CATHO- LIC LEAGUE.) CATILINE'S CONSPIRACY was formed by Lucius Sergius Catilina, a Roman patrician, born B.C. 108. He was elected prator B.C. 68, governor of Africa B.C. 67, and in tended to offer himself for the consulship B.C. 65 ; but the senate declared him ineligible, because he was under an accusation for misconduct in his African administration. Annoyed at this, he entered into a conspiracy with P. Autronius Postus and Cn. Calpurnius Piso to murder the new consuls on the day of their inauguration, Jan. i. Piso was to be sent with an army to secure Spain, and the other two conspirators intended to seize the consulship. Suspicion having been excited, the execution of the plan was postponed until Feb. 5, and several sena- tors were included in the list of proposed victims. Catiline gave the signal too soon, and the scheme miscarried, though its authors were not molested. Soon after, Catiline was brought to trial for alleged misconduct in Africa, and acquitted. In B.C. 64 he formed plans for a second revolution on an extended scale. Cicero, who was consul, obtained some intimation of his proceedings, and informed the senate of what he had learned, Oct. 21. They made the usual provision to avert the peril, and Catiline, who was again a candidate for the consulship, was rejected. His agents took up arms in Etruria, and attempted to assassinate Cicero, who called a meeting of the senate in the temple of Jupiter Stator on the Palatine Hill, Nov. 8, B.C. 63, and denounced Catiline, who in vain attempted to reply, and was compelled to quit Rome. Catiline left some of his associates behind, who, on a certain day, were to set fire to the city in several places, murder the magistrates and leading men, whilst Catiline was to be ready in the neighbourhood with an army to com- plete the massacre and put the finishing stroke to the revolution. By the vigilance of the authorities, the principal conspirators were arrested, Dec. 3, B.C. 63, and executed Dec. 5. Catiline's followers rapidly deserted him, and he was slain in a conflict with the army of the republic in Jan. B.C. 62. Some critics question the accuracy of the account of this conspiracy given by Sallust and Cicero. Smith (Hist, of the World ; Ancient Hist., vol. iii. ch. 34, p. 189) gives the following as the dates, with the corrections required by the disordered state of the Roman Calendar, of the four Catilinarian orations : 1. Ad Senatum, Nov. 8, B.C. 63, for Jan. 13, B.C. 63. 2. Ad Populum, Nov. 9, B.C. 63, for Jan. 13, B.C. 63. 3. Ad Populum, Dec. 3, B.C. 63, for Feb. 5, B.C. 63. 4. Ad Senatum, Dec. 5, B.C. 63. for Feb. 7, B.C. 63. CAT ISLAND (Atlantic). (See SALVADOR,ST.) CATO-STREET CONSPIRACY, so called from the place, near the Edgeware-road, London, where the conspirators assembled to arrange their plans, was formed by one Arthur Thistlewood, who had imbibed revolutionary projects during a residence in France just after the fall of Robespierre. He had collected a few associates, and Saturday, Feb. 19, 1820, they finally resolved to murder the ministers separately in their own houses, to seize the Bank, and set fire to London in several places, on the following Wednesday. Finding that a cabinet dinner was to be given at Lord Har- rowby's, in Grosvenor-square, on the day they had fixed for carrying out the plot, they deter- mined to obtain entrance by stratagem, and to murder the whole party. Information was given to Government by one of the conspira- tors, and several of them were arrested in Cato- street, at eight on the Wednesday evening. Thistlewood, the leader, escaped ; but he was taken on the following day in bed, in a house near Finsbury-square. They were found guilty. Thistlewood and four of his fellow-conspirators were executed, May i, 1820 ; five were trans- ported for life, and one was pardoned. CATTARO (Dalmatia). The ancient Catta- rus, was a Roman colony. The modern town CATTI [ 224 ] CAUTIONARY was probably founded in the 6th century. It suffered from earthquakes in 1563 and 1667. Formerly the capital of a small state, it was ceded to France by the treaty of Presburg, Dec. 26, 1805, to be given up in three weeks from that date. The Austrian garrison, how- ever, surrendered it to the Russians, March 4, 1806, who held it till the next year, when they relinquished it to France by the treaty of Tilsit, July 7, 1807. An English squadron captured Cattaro Jan. 5, 1814, and it was ceded to Austria at the general peace of 1814-15. CATTI, or CHATTL This German tribe, in- habiting the modern Saxony, Hesse, and Nas- sau, was attacked by Germauicus, who de- stroyed their capital, Mattium, A.D. 15. Their territory was invaded by Domitian in 84, and in the 4th century they disappeared from history. CATTLE PLAGUE. A " very grievous mur- rain" constituted one of the 10 plagues in- flicted by Jehovah on the obstinate Egyptians, B.C. 1491 (Exod. ix. i 7), and Plutarch men- tions a severe cattle pestilence B.C. 753. Violent epidemics raged among the herds of Europe in 376 and 592, and in 1316 protracted rains occasioned a destructive malady in England. In 1711 epizootic typhus spread from Hungary to Venice, whence it extended into Piedmont, destroying 70,000 cattle, and into France and Holland, which lost in each instance 200,000. It subsequently reached England and diffused itself over Western Europe, carrying off, before its termination in 1714, 1,500,000 horned cattle. A still more fatal epidemic broke out about 1745, and raged for 10 years, destroying in Central and Western Europe alone 3,000,000 cattle. This visitation was studied by the English physicians, Malcolm Flcmrning and Peter Layard, who, in 1757, introduced the practice, since carried out with good results in Russia, of preventing the malady or mitigating its effects by inoculation. Typhoid contagion broke out in Holland in 1768, 1769, and 1770, in French Flanders in 1771, in Hainault in 1773, and in the south of France, and again in Hol- land, where the government vainly offered a reward of 80,000 norms for a remedy, in 1774. The destruction effected by this epidemic since its great outbreak in 1711 was estimated by Dr. Faust in 1796 at no fewer than 200,000,000 of bovine cattle. During the early part of the igth century, though constantly carried from its home in the steppes of Russia and Hun- gary, in the train of the armies that made Eu- rope the theatre of war, it never effected any great destruction. In 1832, under the name of the Delombodera, it ravaged the South Ameri- can Republics, and between 1841 and 1844 it destroyed 400,000 oxen in Egypt, having, it is alleged, been occasioned in both cases by the importation of infected cattle from Europe. In 1853 the Russian government commenced experiments to test the efficacy of inocula- tion, which was found in most cases to prevent contagion, and in 1857 the English and Irish Agricultural Societies sent out Professor Simonds to investigate an epidemic said to be raging in Mecklenburg. The outbreak in Eng- land of the steppe murrain, or Rinderpest, originated, it is alleged, in the sale at the Metropolitan Cattle Market, June 19, 1865, of two infected cows that had just been imported. One of them being found ill, June 24, both were sold, and the disease was at once propagated. A meeting of the London cow-keepers, held July 31, established the National Association for the Prevention of Cattle Diseases ; and the Privy Council issued several recommendations, which were ultimately consolidated into an Order, Sep. 22. A Royal Commission, ap- pointed Oct. 4, published its first report on the plague Nov. 13, and an Order in Council, con- solidating all previous Orders upon the subject, was issued Nov. 24. By an Order issued Dec. 22, local authorities received power to regulate the removal of cattle. Measures for the pre- vention of contagious disorders among sheep and cattle were imposed by n and 12 Viet, c. 107 (Sep. 4, 1848), which was continued by several acts, the last being 28 & 29 Viet. c. 119 (July 5, 1865). The plague, which spread with fearful rapidity at the commencement of 1866, occupied the attention of the Legislature, and a very stringent act was passed hi March. CATTLE-SHOW. (See AGRICULTURAL HALT. and SMITHFIELD.) CAUDEBEC-LES-ELBCEUF (France). This town, captured by the English under Talbot, after a six months' siege, in 1419, suffered severely during the religious wars of the i6th and 1 7th centuries. CAUD1XE FORKS. In the valley of Cau- dium, in the Apennines, supposed to be the modern Arpaia, the Romans were completely surrounded by the Samiiites in the spring, B.C. 321. Half their number were cut to pieces on the spot, and the remainder capitulated to the Samnite general, C. Pontius. The treaty was, however, rejected at Rome B.C. 320. The name of the pass into which the Roman army had been allured was Furcutce Caudince. Ac- cording to Livy (b. ix. 2), it consisted of two narrow defiles, which opened into a plain, sur- rounded, excepting at these outlets, by moun- tains. The Romans advanced through the first defile, and found the second blocked up to op- pose farther progress, and their vigilant enemy at once closed the one through which they had entered. Hence retreat was impossible. CAULIFLOWER was brought from the Le- vant to Italy about the end of the i6th century, and was introduced into Germany and into Eng- land at the end of the i7th. Alpinus mentions that it was very plentiful in Egypt in 1588. CAURSINES, or the POPE'S MERCHANTS, Italian usurers who came to England early in the 1 3th century. They practised the most flagrant extortion, and are denounced by Matthew Paris as " ahorrible nuisance." Roger, Bishop of London, expelled them from the city of London in 1235. They obtained the protec- tion of the Pope, and became numerous. To such a height did they carry their extortion, that, in 1251, many of them were prosecuted in the civil courts and punished. They managed, by the payment of a large sum of money, to ob- tain permission to pursue their nefarious traffic, but were at length expelled. CAUTIONARY TOWNS. In July, 1585, Queen Elizabeth accepted the protection of the Netherlands, repeatedly urged upon her by their inhabitants. She engaged to supply them CAVALIERS 225 ] CEDAR with 5,000 infantry and 1,000 cavalry, for which they were to pay at the close of the struggle with Spain. As security for this repayment, Briel, Flushing, Rammekins, and Walcheren were placed in her possession ; and these were called the Cautionary Towns. The Dutch re- funded only a third of the sum due to England, but the Cautionary Towns were, notwithstand- ing, delivered to them May 27, 1616, the treaty for the purpose having been signed May 22. CAVALIERS. The apprentices of London published and circulated a petition against popery and prelates in 1641. Seditious cries having been raised, and the bishops assaulted on their way to Parliament, skirmishes be- tween the malcontent apprentices and their followers, and many gentlemen who volun- tarily offered their services to form the king's body-guard, were of almost daily occurrence. " And, from these contestations," says Claren- don, "the two terms of roundhead and cavalier grew to be received in discourse, and were afterwards continued for the most succinct dis- tinction of affections throughout the quarrel : they who were looked upon as servants to the king being then called cavaliers : and the other of the rabble contemned and despised, under the names of roundheads." CAVALRY. The ancients appear to have used horses in warfare. The Canaanites, whom Joshua defeated at the waters of Merom, are said to have assembled "with horses and chariots very many," B.C. 1445 (Josh. xi. 4). The Jews, however, possessed no cavalry till the time of David, who took from Hadadezer, King of Zobah, 1,000 chariots. David houghed all the chariot horses except sufficient for 100 chariots B.C. 1040(2 Sam. viii. 4). Alexander III. iised cavalry to great advantage in his various conquests, and Scipio's victory at Zama, B.C. 202, is attributed to his superiority in this force. Edward III. divided the English cavalry into small bodies commanded by constables, in 1324. The word troop, as applied to a body of horse- soldiers, first appears in an army list for 1557. CAVAN (Ireland). Part of Cavan was formed into a county of Ulster in 1584, and the re- mainder was escheated to the crown in 1610, in consequence of the rebellion of the O'Reillys. The chief town, Cavan, was burned in 1690. CAVENDISH CLUB (London) was estab- lished Jan. i, 1855. CAVENDISH SOCIETY (London) was estab- lished in 1846, for the promotion of chemical science by the translation and publication of valuable works and papers. CAVINIANO (Battle). The Florentine forces, under Francesco Ferrucci and Malatesta Bag- lioni, were defeated at this place in Italy by the Imperial army under the Prince of Orange, Aug. 2, 1530. Ferrucci and the prince were both slain. Florence capitulated Aug. 12. CAWNPORE (Hindustan), the chief town of a district of the same name, was founded in the 1 8th century. The district belonged to Oude in 1777, and was ceded to the East India Company in 1801. On the breaking out of the Sepoy revolt in 1857, the English residents of Cawiipore were placed in the greatest peril. Their efforts to obtain reinforcements failed, and the 2nd regiment of native cavalry revolted June 5. Their example was speedily followed by the native infantry. The English, their wives and children, with native servants, amounting to nearly 900 persons, were besieged within a narrow entrenchment, by the rebel soldiers commanded by Nana Sahib. They defended themselves heroically against over- whelming numbers. Death, however, rapidly thinned their ranks, and, June 24, Nana Sahib sent a message to Sir Hugh Wheeler, offering to allow the English to proceed unmolested to Allahabad, provided they gave up the public treasure, the guns, and ammunition. A con- tract to this effect was signed on the following day, and the remnant of the 900 besieged at Cawnpore embarked in boats prepared to con- vey them to Allahabad, June 27. No sooner, however, had they quitted the shore, than the treacherous sepoys opened fire upon them, fol- lowing them along the banks in order to insure their destruction. The boats were sunk, many of the men killed, and the survivors, with the women and children, carried back to Cawn- pore. Other prisoners, male and female, were brought in, and all who survived were bar- barously slaughtered July 15. Gen. Havelock defeated Nana Sahib near Cawnpore, July 16, and entered the town on the following day, when the horrors that had been enacted there became known. The Gwalior rebels defeated Gen. Windham near Cawnpore, Nov. 27 and 28, 1857. Sir Colin Campbell soon after reached the scene of action, and completely routed the rebels, 25,000 strong, at Cawnpore, Dec. 6. CAXTON SOCIETY (London), established about 1844, for the publication of chronicles, . III. c. 18 (1764), orders that a return of all such rty bequeathed in Ireland be handed in e bishop of the diocese or the Archbishop of Armagh. This having been found ineffectual to secure the proper application of such be- quests, the Roman Catholic Bequests Act, 7 & 8 Viet. c. 97 (Aug. 9, 1844), laid down more stringent regulations. The Charitable Trusts Act, 16 & 17 Viet. c. 137 (Aug. 20, 1853), m - stituted a board empowered to inquire into the condition and management of charities, to examine accounts, to hear witnesses, and to report their proceedings annually to Parlia- ment. This act was amended by 18 & 19 Viet. c. 124 (Aug. 14, 1855), and certain charities were temporarily exempted from its operations by 20 & 21 Viet. c. 76 (Aug. 25, 1857). Further regulations for the conveyance of land for charitable uses were made by 24 Viet. c. 9 (May 17, 1861). CHARITABLE INSTITUTIONS. According to the report of the commissioners appointed to investigate this subject, the following are the oldest charitable institutions in England : St. Bartholomew, Guildford, founded in 1078 ; Cirencester, in noo ; Ripon, in 1109; St. Bartho- lomew, London, in 1122 ; in Northampton, in 1138; and St. Katherine, London, in 1148. (See ALMS-HOUSES.) CHARITY (Brothers of). This religious order, established at Seville by John di Dio in 1540, received the papal sanction in 1572, and was invested with all the privileges of the mendicant orders in 1624. They attend the sick, and were introduced into France in 1601. (See SISTERS OF CHARITY.) CHARITY SCHOOLS. The sixth general council, held at Constantinople 680-81, by one of its canons ordered charity schools to be established in connection with country churches ; and further regulations were, from time to time, issued on the same subject. William Blake, a woollen draper of Covent Garden, about the year 1685 is said to have projected the first charity school in England, and to have purchased Dorchester House, Highgate, for that purpose. Franck, a Ger- man divine, laboured for the same object at Glaucha, in 1698. Another, which claims to be the first, was established in London in 1693, and the movement was prosecuted with zeal in 1698. The trustees of the then existing schools formed themselves into a voluntary association in 1 700. CHARLEROI (Belgium). A fortress was erected in 1666, by Rodrigo, Spanish governor of the Low Countries, who named it in honour of Charles II. of Spain. By the peace of Aix- la-Chapclle (May 12, 1668), it was ceded to the French. The Prince of Orange besieged it in 1672, but was obliged to raise the siege. Louis XIV. of France added the lower and middle town in 1676. In 1677 the Prince of Orange again made an unsuccessful effort to take the town, which was restored to Spain by the treaty of Nimegucn, Sep. 17, 1678. In 1690 it was again taken by the French, and again restored to Spain by the peace of Ryswick, Sep. 20, 1697. The French captured it Aug. 2, 1746, Nov. 12, 1792, and June 26, 1794. In 1795 the walls were destroyed, but they were rebuilt in 1816, by order of the Duke of Wellington. The railroad from Charleroi to Paris was completed in 1856. CHARLES CITY (Battle). The Confederates, under Gens. Longstreet, Hill, and Huger, foiled in an attack upon the Federal batteries at this place in Virginia, were afterwards rallied by Gen. Hill, and gained a complete victory, June 30, 1862. ( IIAIJLES THE FIRST, the second son of James I. of England and Anne of Denmark, was born at Dunfermline, Nov. 19, 1600. He ascended the English throne March 27, 1625, and married Henrietta Maria of France, June 13 in the same year. They had three sons and four daughters ; the eldest ascended the throne as Charles II. (q. v), and the third child and second son succeeded his brother as James II. (7. r.). Their eldest daughter, Mary, was born Nov. 4, 1631. She married Prince William of Nassau, and died Dec. 24, 1660. Their fourth child, Elizabeth, was born Dec. 28, 1635, .and died Sep. 8, 1650. Their fifth child, Anne, born in 1637, died young. Their sixth child, Henry, born July 8, 1640, died Sep. 13, 1660 ; and their seventh child, Henrietta Maria, bom June 16, 1644, married Philip, Duke of Anjou, and died June 30, 1670. Charles the First was seized at Holmby House June 4, 1647, and taken to Childersley, near Cambridge, whence he was removed to Hampton Court. He made his escape Nov. 12, and was confined in Carisbrook Castle, Isle of Wight, Nov. 14. After the New- Srt conferences Charles I. was imprisoned in arst Castle Nov. 30, 1648, removed to St. James's Dec. 18, to Windsor Dec. 22, and brought back to Whitehall Jan. 19, 1649. His trial lasted three days, Jan. 20, 22, and 23 ; he was sentenced to death Jan. 27, and beheaded at Whitehall Jan. 30, 1649, and buried at Windsor Feb. 8. CHARLES THE SECOND, the eldest son of CHARLESTON [ 235 ] CHARTER Charles I. and Henrietta Maria, was bom at St. James's, May 29, 1630. He succeeded to the throne, de jure, on the death of his father, Jan. 30, 1649, but did not become king de facto until May 29, 1660. He married Catherine of Portugal, May 20, 1662. Charles II., who left no legitimate issue, died Feb. 6, 1685, and was buried at Westminster Feb. 14. CHARLESTON (United States). The in- habitants of old Charlestown (q. v.), preferring the situation of Oyster Point, at the confluence of the Ashley and Cooper, removed thither in 1680, and founded a town to which they gave the name of their former settlement. It was immediately attacked by the Westoe Indians, with whom peace was concluded the following year. The first English church was erected in 1681. In 1690 it received a colony of French Protestant refugees, and in 1700 it was nearly destroyed by a hurricane and fire, which were succeeded by a frightful pestilence. In 1706 it was attacked by the Spanish and French, who were repulsed and defeated. A furious hurri- cane, in Aug., 1728, occasioned an inundation, which did considerable injury to the town, and a visitation of the yellow fever in the same year carried off multitudes of the inhabitants. In 1740 and 1778 great damage was caused by fires. The garrison at Sullivan's Island under Col. Moultrie repulsed a British squadron, June 28, 1776, but after a siege of some months the town was surrendered by Gen. Lincoln to Sir H. Clinton May 12, 1780. It was hfeld by them till Dec. 14, 1782, when it was evacuated. In 1783 it was incorporated by the name of the city of Charleston by the legislature of S. Carolina, and in 1787 the seat of state govern- ment was removed to Columbia (q. v.). In 1796 about a third of the city was burned, and another fire effected destruction to the value of $5,000,000, April 27, 1838. A negro conspiracy was discovered and suppressed here in June, 1822. The college was founded in 1785, the Med- ical College instituted and the Charleston and Hamburg Railway completed in 1835, and the high school established in 1839, The civil war commenced here at half-past four o'clock on the morning of Friday, April 12, 1861, with the bombardment by the Confederate Gen. Beau- regard of Fort Sumter, which was surrendered by Major Anderson, Sunday, April 14. Later in the year Charleston was strictly blockaded by the Federals, who sank 17 vessels laden with stone at the entrance of the harbour Dec. 21. An engagement between the Federal and Confederate fleets resulted in the retire- ment of the former Jan. 31, 1863. Gen. Beaure- gard declared the blockade raised, a statement denied by Admiral Dupont Feb. 10. A naval attack on Fort Sumter and the other defences, begun April 7, was abandoned April 12, in con- sequence of the tremendous fire of the Con- federates. Operations by sea and land were, however, commenced by Gen. Gillmore, who occupied Folly Island July 3, and seized the southern part of Morris Island July 10. Re- pulsed in an assault upon Fort Wagner July n, he renewed the attack, with the assistance of the fleet, July 18, and sustained a second defeat, with a loss of 1,530 killed and wounded. Having advanced his works to within 420 yards of Fort Wagner, Aug. 13, he opened fire on Fort Sumter Aug. 15, and after completing his batteries commenced a regular bombardment Aug. 17. A demand for the surrender of this stronghold being refused Aug. 21, he com- menced shelling the city Aug. 22. Morris Island, on which were Fort Wagner and Battery Gregg, was evacuated Sep. 7, but an attempt made the same day to carry Fort Sumter by storm was defeated with a loss of 80 men. The siege continued till Feb. 17, 1865, when Charleston was evacuated by the Confederate Gen. Hardee, who was succeeded, Feb. 18, by the Federals under Gen. Gillmore. CHARLESTOWN (Massachusetts), founded at Mishawum in June, 1629, was burned by the British in the early part of the battle of Bunker's Hill (q. v. ), June 1 7, 1 775 . A monument in commemoration of the battle, of which the first stone was laid by the Marquis La Fayette June 17, 1825, was inaugurated June 17, 1843. The navy yard was established about 1798, and the dry-dock completed in 1833. Charlestown was incorporated a city in 1847. CHARLESTOWN (S. Carolina), called Old Charlestown, was founded on the banks of the Ashley by Governor Sayle in 1670, and named Charles Town in honour of King Charles II. In 1680 its inhabitants removed to Oyster Point, where they erected a new town. (See CHARLESTON.) The original site formed in 1802 part of a plantation known as Old Town, though no traces of the first settlement then existed. CHARLOIS (Holland). At this village, in 1512, a religious procession having attempted, in spite of the prohibition of the authorities, to cross the Maas on the ice, 8,000 persons were thrown into the water. CHARMOUTH (Battles). Egbert is defeated by the Danes at Carrum, supposed to be this place, in Dorsetshire, in 833. The invaders had disembarked from 35 ships. His successor, Ethelwulph, was defeated by the Danes at this place in 840. CHARTER. " Nearly all the nations," says Sir Harris Nicolas, "which established them- selves upon the ruins of the Roman empire, gave to their charters the form of epistles, in imitation of the Romans." The most ancient Anglo-Saxon charters extant are of the 7th century. It is believed that the earliest known is of the time of Ethelbert, King of Kent, and was granted in full council April 29, 619. The charters of the Anglo-Saxon monarchs were generally in Latin. Public liberties were secured by the early charters. They were renewed and confirmed so frequently, that between the reign of Edward I. and Henry IV. Sir Edward Coke reckons 32. These were termed royal charters. A calendar of the Charter Rolls in the Tower, extending from 1199 to 1483, which contain grants of privileges to cities, corporations, guilds, religious houses, and individuals, has been published by the government. Charters were frequently forged. CHARTER-HOUSE (London). This is a cor- ruption of Chartreuse, the name given to a house of Carthusian monks, established by Sir Walter Manny in 1371. Before that time the site had been used as a burying place for CHARTER [ 236 ] CHATHAM the poor. Its last prior was hanged and quar- tered for denying the king's supremacy, May 3 I 535- After the suppression of the monasteries by Henry VIII., it was purchased by Thomas Button, whom Stow calls " the right Phoenix o] charity in our times," from the Earl of Suffolk in 1 6 1 1, to be converted into an hospital, " con sisting of a master, governor, a preacher, a free school, with a master and usher, eighty poor people, and forty scholars." The benevolent founder died Dec. 12, 1611, before his work was completed ; but he had provided amply for the endowment, and the hospital was opened Oct. 3, 1614. An attempt having been made by one of Mr. Button's relatives to obtain possession of the property, the foundation was confirmed by 3 Charles I. c. i (1627). Button's tomb, which is in the chapel, was opened in 1842. CHARTER-PARTY. Agreements between merchants and seamen respecting their ships and cargoes, were regulated by the law of Rhodes as early as B.C. 916. The Scottish parliament passed several acts for their regu- lation in 1467, which were ratified in 1487. CHARTISTS. The first demonstration, on a large scale, made by the political agitators called Chartists, because they clamoured for what they termed the six points of the People's Charter, was held in the open air at Birming- ham, Aug. 6, 1838. The six points were, i. Uni- versal stiff rage ; 2. Vote by ballot ; 3. Paid repre- sentatives in Parliament; 4. Equal electoral dis- tricts ; 5. Abolition of the property qualification for members of Parliament ; and 6. Annual parliaments. Large bodies of the Chartists, armed, assembled at night in various parts of the country, and a proclamation was issued declaring all suchmeetings illegal Dec. 12, 1838. The National Convention elected by Chartists in different parts of the kingdom commenced its sittings at Birmingham in May, 1839. The agitation continued, and an enormous peti- tion, signed, it was said, by 1,200,000 Char- tists, was presented to Parliament by Mr. Attwood, June 14, 1839. The Chartists attacked Newport Nov. 4, 1839, and were, after some resistance, dispersed by the troops, the leaders being taken and afterwards tried. Chartist riots occurred in various parts of the kingdom in 1842. Another petition, presented in 1843, was said to contain 3,500,000 signatures. In 1848 Chartist disturbances occurred in various parts of the kingdom, and a meeting was summoned by the Chartist leaders to take place on Kennington Common April 10. They avowed their intention of going in procession to the House of Commons with a petition, which, they boasted, contained above 5,000,000 signatures. Every preparation was made by the authorities to preserve the public peace, 170,000 special constables were organized, and the Duke of Wellington, as commander-in- chief, was at his post. When the Chartists assembled, their leaders were informed by the police that any attempt to pass the bridges in procession would be resisted. The Chartists gave way, and consigned the petition to three cabs for conveyance to the House of Commons. On examination, it appeared that, instead of 5,706,000, only 1,975,490 names were appended to the monster petition, and of these a large number had been fabricated. Prince Albert and the Queen figured amongst the names in the document. The name of the Duke of Wellington was signed 30, and that of Colonel Sibthorp 12 times. This exposure, coupled with the determination evinced by the public to repress agitation, proved fatal to the cause, and from that day Chartism rapidly declined. CHARTRES (France), the ancient Autricum, was the capital of the Carnutes, from whom it received its modern name. The Northmen ravaged it in 852 and 872. Rollo received a check here in 912. Henry I. of England enter- tained Innocent II. at Chartres Jan. 13, 1131. It afterwards fell into the power of the English, and was recovered by surprise in 1432. The Huguenots failed in an attack upon it in 1568. Henry IV. seized it in 1591. Having been long ruled by its own counts, it was sold to Philip IV. in 1286, was united to France in 1349, and having been again separated, was purchased in 1623 by Louis XIII. Louis XIV. made it a duchy and bestowed it upon the Duke of Orleans. The cathedral was founded in 1020, and dedicated in 1260. The roof having been destroyed by fire in 1836, a metal one was erected in 1841. CHARTREUSE (France). This monastery, called La Grande Chartreuse, was founded near Grenoble, by St. Bruno of Cologne, in 1084. It was several times injured by fire, and the present building dates from about 1676. St. Bruno followed the rule of St. Benedict, with certain modifications. It was called the order of the Chartreux, or the Carthusians. The monks were expelled during the Revolution, but they returned in 1826, and Chartreuse is still the chief monastery of the Carthusians. CHARTS. (See MAPS.) CHASIDIM. On the return of the Jews from the Babylonish captivity, B.C. 536, a code of civil and religious laws was introduced among them by the Persian government, which embodied several innovations on the Mosaic law. Those who adopted these novel- ties were styled Chasidim or Pietists, while those who refused them called themselves Za- dikim, or " upright." The modern sect of the Chasidim was founded in Poland in 1740, by Israel Baalsham, and numbered at his death, in 1760, 40,000 converts. Their ceremonies, remarkable for their wild and noisy character, semble those of the Jumpers (q. v). CHASSEURS D'AFRIQUE. Three regi- ments of the French army, formed since the conquest of Algeria in 1830, have received this name, ( 'i I ASSEURS DE VINCENNES. A corps of riflemen enrolled about 1835, and stationed at Vincennes, proved so efficient that a whole Battalion was organized in 1838. They are also called tirailleurs, or sharpshooters. CHATHAM (Kent). Queen Elizabeth estab- ished a dockyard at Chatham in the i6th century, a little before the time of the invasion arojected by Spain. It was removed to its ^resent site in 1622. The Dutch fleet entered he Medway and destroyed several ships June 12, 667. The "Chest" for the relief of wounded ind superannuated seamen, established at Chatham by Queen Elizabeth, was removed to CHATHAM [ 237 ] CHEDUBA Greenwich by 43 Geo. III. c. 119 (July 29, 1803). The school for engineers was established in 1812. Additional fortifications were ordered to be erected by Parliament in 1860. An explo- sion occurred in one of the workshops Jan. 21., 1861. A revolt of the convicts was suppressed Feb. 9-11, 1861. CHATHAM (FIRST) ADMINISTRATION. (See NEWCASTLE and PITT ADMINISTRATION.) CHATHAM (SECOND) ADMINISTRATION. William Pitt, the elder, created Earl of Chat- ham July 30, 1766, presided over two adminis- trations, the first formed hi 1757, and called the Newcastle and Pitt (q.v.} administration; and the second, designated after his title, the Chatham administration, formed July 30, 1766, on the dissolution of Lord Rockingham's first cabinet. Lord Chatham's ministry was thus constituted : Treasury Duke of Graf ton. Lord Chancellor Lord Camden. President of the Council.... Earl of Northington. Privy Seal faster. ChatUam ' *"' Chancellor of Exchequer. . . . Hon. Charles Townshend. l Earl of Shelburne and Gen. Principal Secretaries of J Conway. The latter lender State 1 of the House of Cwn- (. nions. Admiralty Sir Charles Saunders. Board of Trade Lor.l Iliilsborough. Secretary at War Viscount Barrinprton. Ordnance Marquis of Granby. Paymaster General Lord North. Sir Edward (afterwards Lord) Hawke suc- ceeded Sir Charles Saunders at the Admiralty Dec. 13, and the Hon. Robert (afterwards Lord) Nugent replaced Lord Hillsborough at the Board of Trade Dec. 16, 1766. The Hon. Charles Townshend, who died Sep. 4, 1767, was succeeded by Lord Mansfield Sep. 12. The Earl of Chatham's health rendered him inca- pable of taking part in public affairs ; and towards the end of 1767, the whole power fell into the hands of the Duke of Graf ton. Lord North accepted the Chancellorship of the Exchequer Dec. i. Mr. Thomas Townshend succeeded Lord North as Paymaster General. Lord Chatham finally resigned the privy seal Oct. 14, 1768. (See GRAFTON ADMINISTRATION.) CHATHAM ISLANDS (South Pacific). Lieut. Broughton discovered these islands Nov. 29, 1791, and named them after H. M. S. Chatham, in which he sailed. The group consists of three large and several small islands. A whaling station was established at O'inga by Capt. Richard in 1840. CH \ TILLON-SUR-SEINE (Congress). Pro- posals of peace were made whilst the allied armies were advancing upon Paris in 1814, and Chatillon was fixed upon as the place for the congress, which opened Feb. 4. England sent three plenipotentiaries, Austria, Prussia, Russia, and France each one to the conferences. The allies demanded that France should be restricted to the limits she had attained before the Revolution. Some temporary successes gained in the field induced Napoleon I., Feb. 17, to send instructions to Caulaincourt, the French plenipotentiary, to sign nothing with- out his orders. Early in March, Caulaincourt announced to Napoleon I. that the allies had determined to break up the conference if the fundamental principle of reducing France to its ancient limits was not accepted. Cau- laincourt delivered a counter-project March 15, from which it became evident that Napoleon was not sincere hi his desire for peace, and the congress broke up March 18. CHAT MOSS (Lancashire), supposed to have formed in 669 part of the estate of St. Chad, Bishop of Mercia, was partially reclaimed by Mr. Roscoe of Liverpool, at the end of the i8th and beginning of the rgth century. Operations for bringing it under cultivation were undertaken in 1828. George Stevenson commenced his process for constructing the permanent way of the Manchester and Liverpool Railway across this bog hi June, 1826. After difficulties which had worn out the patience of nearly every person connected with the work except him- self, a road formed of hurdles, &c., covered with gravel, was floated on the Moss, and the first experimental train passed over it hi safety Jan. i, 1830. CHATSWORTH (Derbyshire), conferred by William the Conqueror upon his natural son William Peveril, was purchased by Sir William Cavendish, who commenced the erection of the mansion-house in 1570. It became the same year the prison of Mary Queen of Scots, who was also detained here in 1573, J 577> I 57%> and 1581. In Dec., 1643, it was taken by the Earl of Newcastle from the Parliamentary leader Sir John Gell. The present building, commenced by the first Duke of Devonshire, April 12, 1687, was surveyed by Sir Christopher Wren in May, 1692. The east front and north- east corner were completed in 1700, and the entire palace in 1706. The great stables were erected hi 1706, and a northern wing has been added since 1820. CHATTANOOGA (Battle). The Confederate Gen. Bragg was defeated with great loss in pri- soners and amimmition at this place in Tennes- see by Gens. Sherman and Thomas, Nov. 25, 1863. CHAUMONT (Treaty). The insincerity dis- played by Napoleen I. during the negotiations at Chatillon-Sur-Seine, induced the great powers whose plenipotentiaries were engaged at that congress, to enter into more solemn obligations for the energetic prosecution of the war, in case France should reject their pro- posals. With this view, treaties were signed by each of the four powers, England, Austria, Russia, and Prussia, separately with the three others at Chaumont, March 14, 1814. The four treaties were, of course, substantially the same. Each treaty consisted of 17 articles, and provided the number of men to be maintained in the field by each power, and the amount of subsidies to be paid by England. By the second article, each contracting power engaged not to enter into separate negotiations, nor to conclude a separate peace without the con- sent of the others. The treaty was to remain in force for 20 years, and not to be renewed before the expiration of that period. CHEBRFJSSE (Battle). At this place in it Napoleon I. defeated the Mamelukes July 13, 1798. CHEDUBA (Bay of Bengal). This island was taken by the Burmese in the i7th cen- tury. The English captured it in May, 1824 ; CHEESE [ 238 ] CHEPSTOW and it was ceded to the East India Company by the third article of the treaty of Yandaboo, Feb. 24, 1826. CHEESE was known to the Greeks and Romans much earlier than butter, according to Beckmann, who could find no notice of the latter substance in Aristotle (B.C. 384 322), though he frequently mentions cheese. Athe- nseus (circ. A.L>. 200) speaks of a celebrate*! Achaian cheese. The inhabitants of the island of Cynthus excelled in the preparation of this article of food, which was stamped upon their coins. In the Middle Ages it was made from deer's milk. The Artotyritse (from opro?, bread, and rupo?, cheese) offered cheese with their bread in the Eucharist, in the 2nd century. They pretended that the first inha- bitants of the world offered, as oblations, the fruits of the earth and of sheep. CHELM8FORD (Essex). In the reign of Edward the Confessor this town formed part of the possessions of the bishops of London, but it attained no importance till the time of Henry I., when a stone bridge was erected over the Cann. The ancient parish church was rebuilt in 1424, and the grammar-school was founded by Edward VI. in 1552. The old prison, erected on the system of John Howard, was built in 1777, and the present bridge over the Cann in 1787. Part of the church, which fell in, in June, 1800, has since been restored. In 1805, a line of fortified embankments was erected to defend the approach to London from the threatened French invasion. The new prison was built in 1828, and the large fountain in the market- place was restored in 1841. cmiLSKA [Middlesex). Some authorities are of opinion that this is the place called Calcuith, at which a council was held July 27, 816, when it was ordained that all bishops should date their acts from the year of the Incarnation. It was designated Chelc-hethe in 1291. Sir Thomas More, who lived there, wrote Chelcith ; and as late as 1692 it was called Chelchey. Stow describes it as "a town not large, but graced with good well-built houses." During the i6th and i7th centuries it was a favourite place of residence for noble- men and wealthy persons. Chelsea College, for the study of polemical divinity, was pro- jected, in 1609, by Dr. Matthew Sutcliffe, Dean of Exeter, who endowed it, though not suffi- ciently. James I. granted it a charter in 1610, and gave it the name of the College of King .lames in Chelsea. In 1616, James I. issued a declaration, setting forth the reasons which induced him to erect the college. The scheme did not, however, succeed, and it was con- verted into an hospital for invalid and decayed soldiers by Charles II. , who laid the foundation stone of the new building, designed by Sir Christopher Wren, in 1682. The good work, carried on by James II., was completed by William III. and Mary, in 1690, at a cost of .150,000. The Royal Military Asylum in con- nection with the hospital was founded in 1801. The china works, founded by Mr. Dwight, Dowoit, or De Witt, of Fulham, about 1640, and much encouraged by George II., were taken down in 1784. The body of the Duke of Wellington was removed from Walmer Castle, Nov. 10, to this hospital, where it lay in state Nov. 13-15, 1852. The suspension Abridge was opened March 28, 1858. CHELTENHAM (Gloucestershire). Doctor Short discovered the medicinal properties of the water at this place in 1740 ; the first spring having been found in 1716. George III. visited Cheltenham in 1788, and a spring found on the estate where he resided is called the King's Well. A salt spring was discovered in 1803. Cheltenham was enfranchised in 1832, and returns one member to Parliament. The Proprietary College was opened in June, 1843, and the chapel in 1758. The Cheltenham Normal College, for the training of school- masters, the first stone of which was laid in 1849, was opened in 1851. The Grand Stand fell during a race Friday, April 13, 1866, when many of the spectators received serious injuries. CIIKMICAL SOCIETY (London), was insti- tuted Feb. 23, 1841. CHEMISTRY. Ample evidence may be found in the Old Testament to show that the ancient Epyptians possessed a knowledge of chemistry ; and from them the Saracens, to whose industry the origin and improvement of the science are attributed by Gibbon, de- rived much information. Geber, who flourished in the gth century, admits that he derived most of his knowledge on the subject from the early ages. (See ALCHEMY.) Little real progress was made for several centuries. "Chemistry," says Hallam, "as a science of principles, hypothetical, no doubt, and, in a great measure, unfounded, but cohering in a plausible system, and better than the reveries of the ParacelcistsandBchmenists, was founded by Becher in Germany, by Boyle and his con- temporaries of the Royal Society in England." Becher published his "Physica Subterranea " in 1669, and he died in London in 1685. Boyle's " Sceptical Chemist" appeared in 1661. George Ernest Stahl, who died in 1734, originated the phlogistic theory of combustion, and I>r. S. Hales, who died Jan. 4, 1761, stands first as a Encumatic chemist. Dr. Priestley, 1733 1804. rst obtained oxygen gas, Aug. i, 1774, and Mr. Cavendish discovered the composition of water in 1784. Lavoisier, who died May 8, 1794, threw considerable light on the theory of combustion, and proved the chemical identity of the diamond and common charcoal. Dalton explained the Atomic Theory (q. v.) in 1803. CHEMISTRY (College). The Royal College of Chemistry was founded in London in July, CHEMITYPE, the art of producing by a chemical process engraving in relief, on a metal plate, invented by C.Pul, a Dane, was practised by him from 1843 to 1846 at Copenhagen, then at Leipsic, and since 1850 at Vienna. CHEPSTOW CASTLE (Monmouthshire) is said to have been founded in the nth and rebuilt in the i3th century. It was taken by the Parliamentary forces Oct. 10, 1645, and surprised by the Royalists early in Oct., 1648. Cromwell, who failed in an attempt to retake it by storm, ordered it to be besieged, and the small garrison, having exhausted all their pro- visions, surrendered May 25. The iron bridge CHEQUE [ 239 ] CHERSON over the Wye, wliich joins the Severn two miles below Chepstow, was constructed in 1816. CHEQUE. The first cheque by an English king was the following, given by Edward I. to Bourunoiiio de Luk, or Luke, a Florentine merchant : " Whereas, our beloved Robert de Brus, Earl of Carrick, is in present need of money, we request that you will cause to be advanced or lent to the said earl or his attorney, for his occasion, forty pounds, and we will cause them to be repaid to you. And when you have lent to him the aforesaid money, you shall take from him his letters patent testi- fying his receipt of the same. Witness our hand, Windsor, Sep. 10, 1281." A stamp duty of one penny was placed upon all drafts or cheques by 21 Viet. c. 20 (May 21, 1858). An ancient book, preserved in the Chapel Royal St. James's, containing entries respecting the establish- ment, is called the Cheque Book, and the gentleman appointed to keep it was called " Clerk of the Cheque." CHERASCO, or CHIERASCO (Treaty), by which the Duke of Nemours obtained posses- sion of his territories in Mantua, was concluded at Chierasco, in Piedmont, between Louis XIII. of France, and Victor Amadeus I. of Sa- voy, April 6, 1631. Napoleon I., by an armis- tice concluded here with the Sardinian com- missioners, obtained free passage for his troops through Sardinian territory. This truce was preparatory to the treaty of Paris (q. v.), May 15, 1796. CHERBOURG (France), the ancient Chere- burgum, Caroburyum, or Ccesaroburgus, re- ceived a visit from Harold of Denmark, about 945. The castle is mentioned in an act of 1026, and its chapel and the town hospital were founded by William the Conqueror between 1060 and 1064. On the conquest of Normandy by Philip Augustus in 1203, Cherbourg fell under French domination, and in 1295 it was pillaged by the English. Charles the Bad, of Navarre, obtained possession in 1355, and in 1489 it was taken by the English under Henry V., after a three months' siege. Charles VII. retook it Aug. 12, 1450. Louis XIV. conceived the idea of erecting Cherbourg into a naval fort and arsenal about 1687, and Vauban was appointed to superintend the improvements ; but the project was abandoned, and the defences were demolished in 1689. Some of these were restored in the beginning of the i8th century, and the town was of sufficient importance to receive an attack from the English, who effected an entry Aug. 6, 1758, and after destroying the works and seizing all the stores, re-embarked Aug. 15. In 1781 Louis XVI. resumed the attempts to establish a naval station here, and in 1784 M. Cessart commenced the breakwater, which is acknowledged to be one of the finest in the world. The outbreak of the Revolution of course suspended its progress, but it was resumed by Napoleon Lin 1803, and inaugurated in 1813. Since then additions have been con- tinually made. In 1828 the foundations were found to have shifted very considerably from their original position. Louis Philippe restored them on a new principle in 1832 ; but even now the dyke is liable to serious injury from every violent tempest. The military strength of the place has been prodigiously increased by Napoleon III., who opened the railway and ;he Grand Basin of the Napoleon Docks Aug. 4 and 5, 1858, in presence of Queen Victoria, the English court, and many distinguished visitors. The sea-fight between the Alabama (q. v.) and .he Kearsage took place off this port June 19, "4. The English fleet reached Cherbourg Aug. 14, 1865. CHERRY. "Lucullus, after the war with Mithridates," says Isaac Disraeli, " introduced cherries from Pontus into Italy (circ. B.C. 74) ; and the newly imported fruit was found so pleasing, that it was rapidly propagated." Pliny states that the cherry-tree was intro- duced into Britain about 120 years afterwards, that is, A.D. 45. This stock of cherry-trees, so ailed from Cerasus, now Keresoun, was lost in the Saxon period, and some more were brought from Flanders by the gardener of Henry VIII., and planted in Kent in 1540. Native cherries were, it is said, known in Norfolk in the i3th century. The Cornelian cherry was introduced into England from Austria in 1596 ; and the American Bird cherry from America in 1629. CHERRY ISLAND (Arctic Sea) was dis- overed by the Dutch pilot Barentz, June 9, 596. It was at first called Bear Island, because the Dutch sailors killed a bear, the skin of which measured 12 feet in length. The Muscovy Company took formal possession of the island in 1609. CHERSON (Crimea), an ancient city, near the site of which Sebastopol now stands, is sup- posed to have been built about the 5th century. It formed for many years a republic, and joined the alliance against Pharnaces I. about B.C. 184. The inhabitants assisted Constantino I. against the Goths, who were defeated A.D. 334. Justinian II. was banished to this city in 695. He made his escape in 705, and having been restored to the imperial throne, sent an expe- dition against Cherson in 709. The youth of both sexes were reduced to servitude, 'seven of the principal citizens were roasted alive, 20 drowned in the sea, and 42 taken in chains to receive sentence from the emperor. On the return voyage, the fleet was wrecked on the coast of Anatolia, when conquerors and captives perished. Justinian II. sent another expedition in 711. The people of Cherson pre- pared for resistance. The army sent against them revolted, elected Bardanes emperor, un- der the title of Philippicus, returned to Constan- tinople, and put Justinian II. to death in Dec., 711. Theophilus reduced Cherson to subjec- tion in 831. Vladimir of Russia was converted to Christianity and baptized at this city in 988, and at the same time married to Anna, a Chris- tian princess. The baptism of Vladimir and his marriage were celebrated at the same time, and to the desire of obtaining a Roman princess for his bride his conversion is attributed by Gibbon. Alexis I. of Trebizond annexed Cher- son to his empire about 1210. CHERSON, or KHERSON (Russia), the capital of a province of the same name, was founded in 1778, and fortified in 1780. Johu Howard, the philanthropist, died in this city Jan. 20, 1790, and the Emperor Alexander I. erected a monument over his grave. Catherine CHESAPEAKE [ 240 ] CHICAGO II. of Russia made a triumphant entry into Cherson in 1 787, passing under an arch bearing the inscription, "The Way to Byzantium." Joseph II. of Germany met her here, and entered into an alliance against Turkey. During the war with Russia, an allied fleet appeared in the neighbourhood of Cherson in Oct., 1855 ; but no attack was made upon that city, which must not be confounded with the ancient city of the same name in the Crimea. CHESAPEAKE. This frigate, belonging to the United States, was captured_by Capt. Broke in the British frigate Shannon, June i, 1813. The action, which only lasted a quarter of an hour, was fought near Boston, in the presence of a large number of Americans who lined the shore. The strength of the rival frigates was as follows : Tons. Guns. Crew. Chesapeake 1135 50 376 Shannon 1060 49 330 The former had 46 men killed and 106 wounded, and the latter 24 killed and 59 wounded. CHESAPEAKE BAY ( North America) was first explored by Capt. John Smith, who arrived with colonists in April, 1607. The squadron of three vessels was commanded by Capt. Newport, and carried no settlers. CHE8MEH. The Russian fleet, under Ad- miral Spiridoff, having defeated the Turks off Chios, completed the victory by burning their enemies' vessels in the bay of Chesmeh, near Smyrna, July 5, 1770. CHESS. The Chinese are said to have in- vented chess ; but Sir William Jones is of opinion that the game was invented by the Hindoos. He says : " We may be satisfied with the testimony of the Persians, who, though as much inclined as other nations to ap- propriate the ingenious inventions of a foreign people, unanimously agree that the game was imported from the west of India in the 6th century of our sera. It seems to have been hmnemorially known in Hindostaii by the name of chaturanga, i.e. the four angas, or members of an army : which are these, elephants, horses, chariots, and foot-soldiers ; and in this sense the word is frequently used by epic poets in their descriptions of real armies." Gibbon states that it was introduced into Persia in the reign of Chosroes I., or Nushivran (531 579). Tamerlane, or Timour, who died Feb. 18, 1405, was fond of the game, which he is said to have improved. The Saracens introduced it into Spain in the 8th century, and it gradually spread over Europe. The date of its introduction into England has not been clearly ascertained. It was known here in the nth century, as Canute is repre- sented as having played it in 1028. Caxton published " The Game and Playe of the Chesse" in 1474. The British Chess Association held its first meeting at Leeds, Jan. 18, 1841, when it was called the " Yorkshire Chess Association." The title was changed to the " Northern and Midland Counties Chess Association," Oct. 21, 1852, and to the "British Chess Association," Aug. 5, 1857. CHESS CONGRESS commenced in London under the auspices of the British Chess Asso- ciation, with a preliminary meeting held at St. James's Minor Hall, June 13, 1862. Play began at the various clubs and divans June 16, and a public contest, lasting a week, commenced in St. James's Hall June 30. A banquet was held at Willis's Rooms July 10, a meeting to revise the laws of the game took place July 1 7, and the last game was played Oct. 2. The committee met at the London Club to award the prizes Nov. 25. CHESTER was called Deva by the Romans, who formed a colony here, and were not ex- pelled until A.D. 476. The Britons called it Caerleon. St. John's Church is said to have been founded in 698. Chester was taken by the Saxons in 828 ; was destroyed by the Danes in 894, and rebuilt by Edelfleda in 904. The Welsh ravaged it in 1255. Richard II. made Chester a principality in 1389. Henry VII. separated it from Cheshire by letters patent, dated April 6, 1506, and made it a county of itself. The county hospital was founded in 1756, and opened in 1761. Some portion of the cathedral was finished in 1485, and the west end was commenced in 1508. It has been represented in Parliament since 1549. The city was taken by the Parliamentary forces, after a long siege, in 1645. The race for the cup was established in 1824. The jurisdiction of the county palatine of Chester was abolished by i Will. IV. c. 70, s. 14 (July 23, 1830). The town-hall and exchange were destroyed by fire Dec. 30, 1862. CIIKSTER (Bishopric). At a council held in London in 1078, it was determined to estab- lish this bishopric. The recommendation was not carried into effect until 1534. ('11 K.STKKFIEU) (Battle). King Henry the Third's troops defeated the forces of the re- bellious barons at this place Whitsun-eve, May I5 CHESTER-LE-STREET (Bishopric). The see, founded at Holy Island (q. v.) in 635, and removed in 875 to this place in Durham, was permanently transferred in 995 to Durham ^CHEVY CHASE (Battle). (See OTTERBURN.) CHIARI (Battle). At this town in Brescia, Prince Eugene of Savoy defeated the French under Marshal Villeroi, who lost 4,000 men, CHICAGO (United States). The name of this city of Illinois, situated on the south- western shore of Lake Michigan, is of Indian origin, and was first mentioned by Perrot, who visited the site in 1671. In 1803 the United States government erected a stockade named Fort Dearborn. Having been abandoned in 1812, it was destroyed by the Indians and was rebuilt in 1816. Chicago was first settled in 1831, and contained about a dozen families in 1832. It was first organized by the election of a board of trustees, Aug. 10, 1833, and large ad- ditional territory was acquired by a treaty con- cluded with the Pottowautomy Indians Sep. 26. Incorporated in 1836, the first charter of the city was passed March 4, 1837. The Illinois and Michigan Canal, by which Chicago com- municates with the coal-fields of Illinois and with the Mississippi, was finished in 1848. The Michigan Central and Michigan Southern Rail- way were completed to this place in 1832. CHTCHESTER r 241 i CHILLIANWALLAH CHICHESTER (Bishopric). The see was removed from Selsey about 1078. CHICHESTER (Sussex) was taken by Ell; the Saxon in 480, and, having been destroyec by the South Saxons in 491, was rebuilt h 538 by Cissa, from whom the name is derived A wooden cathedral, completed in 1108, was burned May 5, 1114, and rebuilt in 1125. I was again destroyed by fire in 1187, and the rebuilding commenced in 1199. The presen' edifice was completed in the i3th century The Parliamentary forces captured the city in 1643, arid the fortifications were destroyed by order of the Long Parliament in 1648. The grammar-school was founded in 1497. The spire of the cathedral was blown down Feb 21, 1861. CHICKAHOMINY (Battles). The advanced guard of the Federal army, under Gen. Casey, was attacked by the Confederates under Gen Lee at Fair Oaks, on the Chickahominy, about seven miles from Richmond, May 31, 1862. The Federals, who were totally defeated, lost all their baggage and camp-equipage, with 19 guns. They pushed forward fresh bodies of men, and compelled the Confederates to seek shelter in their entrenchments before Rich- mond, June i. A second series of battles, sometimes styled the "Seven Days of Rich- mond," and fought near the same river later in the year, are also called the battles of the Chickahominy. They commenced Wednesday, June 25, 1862, when the Federal left wing, under Gen. Hooker, attacked the Confederates at White Oak swamp, and encountez-ed a vigo- rous resistance. Gen. "Stonewall" Jackson attacked the right wing of the Federals at Mechanicsville, June 26, driving them across the river to Po white swamp. Gens. Hill and Longstreet crossed the river June 27, and being joined by Lee and Jackson, took up their position at Gaines's Mill, where a despe- rate encounter took place, which resulted in the defeat and further retreat of McClellan. Gen. Lee occupied the Federal head-quarters at White House, June 28, and McClellan com- menced a retreat towards the James River. He was again attacked, June 29, by the Con- federate Gen. Hill, at Savage's Station, and another severe encounter took place on the James River June 30. The next battle, fought July i, and known as the battle of Mal- vern Hill, terminated the series of contests, McClellan having taken up a position at Harrison's Bar, or Turkey Bend, where he was protected by the Federal gunboats. The total loss of the Federals in these engagements was 20,000 men. CHICKAMAUGA (Battle). Gen. Bragg de- feated the Federals, under Gen. Rosencrantz, on the banks of Chickamauga Creek, a tribu- tary of the Tennessee River, on Saturday and Sunday, Sep. 19 and 20, 1863. The Federals lost 8,000 prisoners, 15,000 stands of arms, and 51 cannon, besides killed and wounded. Gen. Bragg estimated his losses at two-fifths of his army, several Confederate generals being among the slain. CHIEF BARON. (See EXCHEQUER.) CHIEF JUSTICE. (See KING'S or QUEEN'S BENCH.) CHIEF JUSTICIARY. (See JUSTICIARY, CHIEF.) CHIERASCO. (See CHERASCO.) CHIERI, or QUIERS (Italy). This ancient town of Piedmont, called Carea during the later years of the Roman empire, became, in the 6th century, a small independent republic governed by one Balbus, whose descendants maintained their supremacy till 1347, when the inhabitants transferred their allegiance to Amadeus V. or VI., Count of Savoy. The church of St. Dominico was built in 1260, and the church of Santa Maria della Scala in 1405. Its manufacture of fustians, &c., dates from 1422. The fortress, called La Rochetta, was destroyed in the i6th century. CHIETL (See THEATINES.) CHILDERMAS. (See INNOCENTS' DAY.) CHILDREN'S CRUSADE. (See PILGRIM- AGES.) CHILI (South America). This country, the name of which is supposed to be derived from the Peruvian word Tchili, signifying "snow," was under the rule of the Incas when the Spaniards commenced the conquest of Peru. Pizarro sent Almagro to subdue Chili in 1536, but the marshal, as he was called, returned without having effected his object. Pedro de Valdivia went by Pizarro's order in 1540. He overran the country, founded the city of San- tiago in 1541, and remained there 12 years. The people maintained a struggle against the Spaniards for nearly two centuries, and the war was terminated by a treaty in 1722. L.D. .773. The Chilians or Chilenos expel the Spaniards from a large part of the country. 810, Sep. 18. They declare tlieir independence. 814. The Spaniards regain the ascendancy. 817, Feb. 12. The Chilians are victorious at Chacabuco. 1818, Feb. 12. National independence is proclaimed at Santiago. April 5. The Spaniards are defeated at Maipu (q. v.). 833. Mr. Canning recognizes the independence of Chili. 833, May 23- The constitution is promulgated. 1844, April 25. A treaty is signed at Madrid by which Chilian independence is recognized by Spain. :848. Attempts are ineffectually made to abolish restric- tions on the franchise. 861, Sep. 7. Jose 1 Joaquin Perez is elected president. 863, Dec. 8. Several lives are lost in the burning of a church at Santiago (q. .). 864, March I. Cessation of diplomatic relations with Bolivia in consequence of a dispute respecting the Mejillones or Guano Islands. 865, May 13. Sencr Tavira, Spanish minister at Santiago, complains of Chilian sympathy with Peril. (See CIUNCHA ISLANDS and PERU.) May 16. The Chilian foreign minister presents his explanation. May 20. It is declared satisfactory by S. Tavira. July 25. The Madrid Cabinet repudiates this settlement, and recalls S. Tavira. Sep. 18. Admiral Pareja, on the anniversary of Chilian independence, presents an insulting ultimatum to the Government. Sep. 23. It is finally rejected. Sep. 24. Pareja declares Valparaiso and the other ports of the republic in a state of blockade. Sep. 29. Chili declares war. Dec. 5. A treaty of alliance with Peru is signed at Lima. Dec. 30. It is ratified at Santiago. 866, Jan. 2. The Chilians capture the crew of the store- ship Salvador Vidal. (See PERU.) CHILIASTS. (See MILLENARIANS.) CHILLIANWALLAH (Battle). Lord Gough, ,t the head of 22,000 men, with 125 guns, en- ountered the Sikh army, 60,000 strong, at his village, near the river Chenab, Jan. 13, 849. The English remained masters of the CHILLON r 242 CHINA field, though their loss was severe, amounting to 2,269 m killed and wounded. The Sikhs lost 3,000 killed and 4,000 wounded. CHILLON (Switzerland). This fortress, erected in 1238 by Amadeus III., Count of Savoy, on a rock in the eastern part of the lake of Geneva, was the scene in 1273 of a Savoyard victory over the Imperialists. Bon- nivard, Prior of St. Victor, having incurred- the displeasure of Charles III., Duke of Savoy, by his exertions to free the Genevese from the Savoyard yoke, was seized by the ducal emis- saries in 1530, and secretly confined in the deepest dungeon of the castle, whence he was released in 1536, when Chillon was besieged and taken by the Swiss. The castle became a state prison in 1733. Lord Byron's poem of " The Prisoner of Chillon" was written at the village of Ouchy, near Lausanne, in June, 1816, he being detained there for two days by stress of weather. It does not relate to the history of Bonnivard, with which, at the time of writing, the poet was only slightly acquainted. CHILTERN HUNDREDS. The forests on the Chiltern Hills, in Buckinghamshire, were in olden times infested with banditti, and an officer called the steward of the Chiltern Hundreds was appointed to prevent their depredations, and protect the people in the neighbourhood. This office, which no longer exists, now serves to enable a member of Par- liament, in certain cases, to vacate his seat. May (Parliamentary Practice^ thus explains the practice : " It is a settled principle of parliamentary law, that a member, after he is duly chosen, cannot relinquish his seat ; and in order to evade this restriction, a member who wishes to retire accepts office under the crown, which legally vacates his seat, and obliges the house to order a new writ. The offices usually selected for this purpose arc those of steward or bailiff of her Majesty's three Chiltern Hundreds of Stoke, Desborough, and Bonenham, or of the manors of East Hendred, Northstead, or Hempholme, which, though sometimes refused, are given by the Treasury in ordinary cases to any member who applies for them ; and are resigned again as soon as their purpose is effected." The legality of the practice, which sprang up in 1750, is doubted, as the office is not one of those for which the occupant is required to vacate his seat. CHIMNEY. Beckmann contends that the Greeks and Romans were not acquainted with the use of chimneys. None are found at Herculaneurn. They appear to have warmed their rooms by means of a large fire-pan, or portable stove, and this, filled with wood well ignited, or burning coals, was brought into the apartment. Hot air, conveyed by means of pipes, seems also to have been employed. There were no chimneys in the ioth and nth centuries. In the Middle Ages a fire was made in a hole or pit in the centre of the floor, and the smoke escaped through an opening in the roof. A fireplace occurs in Rochester Castle, built about 1130, but some believe the first authentic account of chimneys is to be found in an inscription at Venice, relating that in the year 1347 many chimneys were thrown down by an earthquake. The first chimneys at Rome were erected by order of Francesco de Carrara in 1368. In a manuscript giving an account of manners and customs in Eng- land, written about the year 1678, it is stated that, before the Reformation, "ordinary men's houses, as copyholders and the like, had no chimneys, but flues like louver holes ; some of them were in being when I was a boy." Chimneys did not come into general use in Prance until the middle of the i7th century. CHIMNEY TAX, or HEARTH-MONEY (q. v.}, was levied by 13 & 14 Charles II. c. 10 (1662). It proved so obnoxious, that it was abolished by i Will. & Mary, sess. i, c. 10 (1689). CHIMNEY- SWEEPERS. Chimneys were at first swept with a little brushwood fastened to a rope. As the flues were made narrower, boys began to be employed. The first chim- ney-sweepers were lads from Savoy and Pied- mont. In consequence of the numerous acci- dents that happened to boys, a machine for sweeping chimneys was introduced into Eng- land towards the close of the i8th century, and a society formed for encouraging the sweeping of chimneys without the use of boys. By 3 & 4 Viet. c. 85 (Aug. 7, 1840), any person compelling or allowing a child or young person under the age of 21 years to ascend or descend a chimney after July i, 1842, was made liable to a penalty of not more than 10 or less than 5. It was amended by 27 & 28 Viet. c. 37 (June 30, 1864), which took effect from Nov. i, 1864. CHINA (Asia). The annalists of this country, called the " Celestial empire," trace its history to the remotest antiquity. Rjmusat, accepting their statements, expresses his be- lief that it goes back with certainty to the 22iicl century before our sera, and that the date of its commencement, according to traditions worthy of credit, may be fixed even earlier, namely, at B.C. 2637. Gibbon (ch. xxvi.), who says the sera of the Chinese monarchy has been variously fixed from B.C. 2952 to B.C. 2132, adds that the historical period does not ascend above the Greek Olympiads. This, however, is considered much too early, and the best au- thorities fix the commencement of the histo- rical period at the beginning of the Han. dynasty, B.C. 203. The northern and southern empires, the former ruled by the Great Khan, and the latter by the Chinese, from 1234 to 1279, were called Cathay and Magni. In the Middle Ages the name Cathay was sometimes applied to the whole country. China is the most extensive empire in the world. Mr. S. Wells Williams (The Middle Kingdom) gives the following estimates of the amount of population, at different periods, according to undermentioned authorities : Inhabitants. 1711. Chinese Repository 38,605,716 1736. Grosier, De Guignes 125,046,345 1743. Ditto 157,343,975 1753. Chinese Repository 103,050,060 1760. Yih-tung-chi 143,135,225 1760. De Guignes 303,916,477 1761. Ditto 205,293,053 1763. Allerstain, Grosier, De Guignes 198,314,553 1790. Chinese Repository l55,349, 8 '/7 1793. Dr. Morrison 307,467,300 1793. Macartney 333,000,000 1813. Chinese Repository 363,467,183 CHINA CHINA B.C. 2700. The first Chinese cycle. 2357. Accession of the Emperor Yao, who is said to have reigned 100 years. 3317. Commencement of the Hia dynasty, according to l)u Halde. 3198. Commencement of the Ilia dynasty, according to "L'Art de Verifier les Dates." 651. Earliest date in Se-ma-tsein's History of China. 550. Birth of Confucius. 246. All Chinese books are ordered to be burned. 21 1. Completion of the Great Wall of China, 20%. Printing is known in China. 2co. A Jewish settlement is made in China. 170. It is invaded by the Tartars. 24. Supposed Chinese embassy at Rome. 15. The Taou-tse sect of philosophers attain great in- fluence. A.D. 65. The religious belief in Boodh, or Fo, is introduced into China. 94. The Emperor Hoty sends an envoy to Arabia. 166. Chinese historians report the arrival at the Chinese court of an embassy from Anthon, who is sup- posed to be the Emperor Antoninus. 184. China is divided into three separate states. 265. China is reunited into one kingdom, under the Tsin dynasty. 420. The seat of government is established at Nankin. 635. Christianity is preached by the Nestorian bishops. 845. Expulsion of the Nestorian Christians. 851-877. China is visited by Arab travellers. 1334. The Mongols obtain possession of the northern half of China. 1345. The first European mention of China is made by friar John de Piano Carpini, missionary to the Mongols. 1253. Rubuquis is sent by Louis IX. of France as missionary to the court of the Great Khan. 1360. Kublat Khan rebuilds Pekin (q. v.), and makes it his capital. 1378. The grand canal is commenced. 1380. Kublui Khan obtains possession of the whole empire, and founds the Mongol or Yuen dynasty. 1388. Giovanni di Monte Corvino, papal legate at the court of the Grand Khan, dies at I'ekin. 1395. Marco Polo arrives in Venice, after having resided 17 years in China. 1317. Oderico de Pordenone travels in China. 1324. The Arab Ibn Batatu arrives in China, of which he publishes a correct description. 1368. Restoration of a Chinese dynasty by Choo, who commences the Ming family of emperors. 1405, Feb. 1 8. Timour the Tartar, who set out to invade China, dies on the march. 1420. A -Persian embassy arrives in China. 1517, Aug. 15. The Portuguese, under Andrade, arrive at the island of Tamaiig, three miles from the main- land. 1521, Jan. Thomas Pires, Portuguese ambassador at the Court of China, falls into disgrace, and is im- prisoned at Canton. His countrymen are for- bidden to enter the empire. '537- The Portuguese obtain a footing at Macao. 1543. A Spanish colony is established at Manilla, and intercourse commenced with Chinese merchants. 1556. Friar Diego Bernardo conducts a religious mission into China. 1565. A Spanish fleet arrives at the island of Zebu. 1575, July 5- The Jesuit missionaries, Martin de Herrada and Geronimo Marin, land at Gan-hai. 1576, June 21. Alvaro and other Augustine monks arrive at Canton. 1581. Martin Ignatius conducts a Franciscan mission to China. 1556. Queen Elizabeth despatches a fleet to China. The vessels are wrecked on the voyage out. 1600. The Jesuit Matteo Ricci obtains the emperor's per- mission to settle in Pekin. 1624. The Dutch open a trade with China. (See FORMOSA.) 1637, Ma y 28. The British attempt to trade at Macao, but are prevented by the Portuguese. 1649. Li Kong deposes the last Ming sovereign, and establishes the Mantchoo Tartar dynasty. 1664. The British again attempt to trade with China, but 1680. The East India Company open a factory at Canton. 1689. Trade is opened with Russia. A.D. 1693. In consequence of the exertions of the Jesuits, the Emperor Kanghy issues a decree permitting Christianity. 1693. A Russian embassy arrives in China. 1700. Limpo, Amoy, and Canton are opened to British commerce. 1708, July 4. The Jesuits commence a survey of China. 1718. They complete a general map of the empire, which they present to the emperor. 1719. Peter the Great despatches Ismaloff on an embassy to China. 1723. Christianity is prohibited by the Emperor Yoong-t- ching, who expels the Jesuits. 1727. Catherine I. of Russia concludes a treaty with the emperor, and forms an ecclesiastical establish- ment and regular embassy at Pekin. 1755. European intercourse is restricted to Canton. 1784, Nov. 24. A Chinese is killed by a loaded gun acci- dentally fired as a salute. 1785, Jan. 8. The gunner is seized, and strangled. 1792, Sep. 26. Lord Macartney sets sail from Portsmouth. 1793, July. Lord Macartney arrives at Chusan. Sep. 14. He has an interview with the ernpeior at Zhehol. 1794, March 17. Lord Macartney sets sail for England. Sep. 6. He lands. 1800. An affray takes place between the crew of H. M. S. Providence and some Chinese, in which one of the latter is wounded. 1802. The first American consul in China is allowed to reside at Canton. 1807. Trade with England is stopped for a time, in con- sequence of the death of a native in a skirmish with the crew of the ship Neptune. 1814, Oct. 20. Sir George Staunton compels the imperia I viceroy to allow the English to correspond under seal and in Chinese with the government, and also to promise that British factories shall not be entered by Chinese officers without previous per- mission. 1816, Feb. 10. Lord Amherst's embassy leaves England. Aug. 12. It reaches Tien-tsin, where his lordship refuses to perform the humiliating ko-tow, or prostration, before the emperor, and consequently returns without accomplishing the results of the mission. 1821, Dec. 15. The crew of H.M.S. Topaze are attacked by the Chinese, who lose two men in the struggle, and attempt to put a stop to trade in consequence. 1822, Feb. 23. Trade is recommenced on its old footing. 1834, April 22. Termination of the East India Company's monopoly of the trade with China. July 25. Arrival at Canton of Lord Napier, chief com- missioner, to superintend British trade with China. Sep. 5. Lord Napier sends for a guard of marines, in consequence of the injuries inflicted on his residence, &c., by the natives. Sep. 7. .The forts at Canton, which fire on two English men- of-war, are soon silenced. Oct. II. Death of Lord Napier at Macao. He is succeeded by Mr. (after- wards Sir) J. F. Davis. Nov. 3. An imperial edict, prohibiting the opium trade, is issued. 1835, Jan. 31. The Chinese seize a boat and its crew belonging to the British merchant-ship Argyle. 1837, Mareh 18. The emperor allows the residence of a British commissioner at Canton. Nov. 29. Capt. Elliot strikes the British flag at Canton, and retires to Macao. 1838, Jan. The insurrection of the Meaou-tsze is sup- pressed by the imperial troops. July 12. Admiral Sir F. Maitland arrives at Tunkoo. Dec. 4. Dis- turbance and stoppage of trade in consequence of persistence in the opium traffic. 1839, March 10. Arrival of Commissioner Lin at Canton. March 18. He issues an edict for the seizure of opium. March 19. The British are forbidden to leave Canton. March 27. Capt. Elliot requires the surrender of all opium in the possession of British subjects, and promises that they shall receive its full value from Government. April 8. Half the opium is given over to the Chinese. May 5. Passage from Canton is open to all English merchants, except 16, who are detained as hos- tages. May 21. The remaining 20,283 chests of opium are delivered up. May 24. Capt. Elliot and the British merchants leave Canton. June. The Chinese destroy the opium. July 7. A Chinaman is killed in a fray with British and American seamen. Aug. 17. The Chinese attack and B 2 CHINA [ 244 CHINA A.D. murder the crew of the British schooner Black Joke. Aug. 2,6. British residents at Macao are ordered to quit in 13 hours. Sep. 4. Sea-fight between the British and Chinese in the bay of Coalloon. No decisive result. Nov. 3. War is commenced by the naval action at Chumphee. The Volage and Hyacinth disable 29 war-junks, sinking three and blowing up one. Dec. 6. Edict of the emperor, prohibiting all intercourse with England. 1840, Jan. 5. Imperial edict, declaring the English out- lawed. Jan. 14. Projected massacre of the English. Feb. 38. Attempt to burn the British fleet in Tongkoo Bay by means of fire-junks. May 33. The Hellas is attacked by pirates. June 9. Another unsuccessful attempt to bum the British fleet at Capsingmoon. June 38. Canton is blockaded by Sir Gordon Bremer. July 3. The Blonde, with a flag of truce hoisted, is fired on by the Chinese at Amoy. July 5. Capture of Chusan (?..). Aug. 6. Mr. Stanton is seized by the Chinese, and carried prisoner to Canton. Sep. 16. Seizure of Capt. Anstruther, and wreck of the Kite, the crew of which, with the captain's wife, are made prisoners, and treated with great cruelty. Oct. 17. Lin receives orders to hand over his seals of office to Commissioner Keshen. Nov. 6. A truce is proclaimed. Nov. 10. Release of Mr. Stanton. Nov. 39. Admiral Elliot resigns the command of the fleet. 1841, Jan. 6. The negotiations are broken off, owing to the procrastination of the Chinese. Jan. 7. Two of the Bogue forts are taken by the British. Jan. 30. Kesheu cedes Hong-Kong (q. v.) to the British, and agrees to pay an indemnity of 6,000,000 dollars. Jan. 37. The emperor disavows the treaty. Feb. 33. Recommencement of hosti- lities. Feb. 36. Destruction of the Bogue forts by Sir Gordon Bremer. Keshen is degraded by an imperial edict, and ordered to be conveyed to Pekin for trial. March I. The English fleet ascends the Pekiang to Canton. March 3. Sir Hugh Gough assumes command of the forces. March 3. Another truce. March 13. The de- fences of Canton are sei/.ed by the British. March 18. The forts and factories at Canton are seized by the British, and a Chinese flotilla is destroyed. March 30. A truce is agreed upon be- tween Capt. Elliot and the imperial commissioner Yang. April 14. Arrival of Yihshan, the non- imperial commissioner. May 31. The Chinese attempt to burn the fleet at Canton with fire- rafts. May 34. The British, under SirLe Fleming Senhouse, attack Canton, and gain the heights behind the city the next day. May 27- Capt. Elliot abandons the attack, and a ransom of 6,000,000 dollars is paid to the British Government. June 14. Death of Sir Le Fleming Senhouse. July 16. An imperial proclamation re-opening British trade, is issued. Aug. 10. Sir H. Pottinger, the new British plenipotentiary, lands at Macao, and soon after captures Amoy (q .v.), Chusan (q. v.), Chin-hae (q. v.), and Ningpo (q. v.). Dec. 38. Capture of the district cities of Yuyao, Tsikee, and Funghwa. 1843, March 10. The Chinese make a futile attempt to re- cover Ningpo and Chin-hae. March 15. Sir Hugh Gough defeats a Chinese force of about 8,000 men at Tse-kee. May 7. Evacuation of Ningpo by the British. May 18. Capture of Chapoo. June 16. Capture of Woosung, on the Yang-tze- kiang. June 19. Capture of Shang-hai. July 31. Storming and capture of Chin-keang-foo. Aug. 6. The English fleet takes its station before Nankin (q. v.). Aug. 15. Arrival of Ke-ying, the imperial commissioner, with powers to treat for peace. Aug. 39. The treaty of Nankin (q. v.) puts an end to the first Chinese war. Sep. 16. H.M.S. Auckland leaves Nankin with the emperor's rati- fication of the treaty. Oct. 17. Dedication at Hong-Kong of the first Protestant place of worship in China. Dec. 7. Riots at Canton, and destruction of the European factories. 1843, June 36. Hong-Kong is placed under the governorship of Sir H. Pottinger. July 37. Canton is opened to the British, under the regulations of the treaty of Nankin. Oct. 8. Supplementary treaty of Hoinum- A.D. 1844, May 7. Arrival at Hong-Kong of Mr. Davis, Sir H. Pottinger's successor as British governor-general in China. 1846, April 4. Treaty of Bocca Tigris. July 8. Fracas at Canton between the natives and English residents. 1847, April 3. The English residents at Canton present a list of their grievances to Sir John Davis. Aprils. A British force, under Gen. d'Aguilar, destroys the Bogue forts, threatens Canton, and compels the Chinese commissioner, Ke-ying, to accede to the demands of the governor. Dec. 5. The natives seize and murder six English residents. Sir John Davis afterwards obtains the execution of the criminals. 1850, Oct. 3. The first battle of the Tae-ping rebellion is fought. Oct. 20. The great piratical fleet of Shapng-tsai is destroyed in the bay of Tonquin, by H.M.S. Columbine and Fury, and the E.I.C. steam -sloop PMegeUion. Nov. 5. Commissioner Lin, who is despatched against the Tae-pings, dies on the journey. 1851, April ii. Defeat of the rebels at the Kew-heen-heu ferry. Nov. 30. Organization of the Tae-ping army. 1852, May 19. The rebels raise the siege of Kweilin. Dec. 30. They extend their conquests to the Yang-tze-kiang. 1853, Jan. 12. They take Woo-chang. March 18. Amoy submits to the Tae-pings. March 19. Capture of Nankin by the rebels. May 23. Kae-fung suc- cessfully resists a siege by the rebels. Sep. 7. They enter Shang-hai. Nov. I. The Tae-ping army is besieged in Tsing-hae. 1854, June 36. The rebels retake Woo-chang. 1856, Oct. 8. The Chinese board the Arrow lorcha. (See CANTOX.) Nov. 13 and 13. Sir M. Seymour captures all the Bogue and the Annunghoy forts. Dec. 14. The foreign factories at Canton are burned by the natives. 1857, Jan. 15. An attempt is made to poison the British residents at Hong-Kong, by mixing arsenic with bread. May. Commodore Elliot and Sir M. Seymour destroy the Chinese fleet of war-junks in the Canton waters. June 13. A British squadron sets fire to the suburbs of Canton, and retires to the lower part of the river. July. Lord Elgin, the British plenipotentiary, arrives at Hong-Kong. Oct. Baron Gros, the French pleni- potentiary, arrives at Canton. Dec. 38. Bom- bardment of Canton (q. v.). 1858, Jan. 5. The victors enter Canton, and Capture Yeh, Peh-kwei, the governor, and Tscang-keun, the Tartar general. May 19. The allied squadrons force an entrance into the Peiho River, in spite of the fire of the Chinese forts. June 36. The treaty of Tien-tsin (q. v.). Aug. II. Capture and de- struction of Fort Namtow. 1859, May. The Hon. Mr. Bruce arrives at Hong-Kong, as her Majesty's minister at the court of Pekin. June 13. A commercial treaty is made with Russia. June 24. (SeePEiuo.) 1860, Expeditions fitted out by England and France sail for China. March 8. An ultimatum is sent by Mr. Bruce to the Chinese government. June 31. Lord Elgin and Baron Gros reach Hong-Kong. Aug. 31. Capture of the Taku forts at the mouth of the Peiho. Aug. 33. Tien-tsin is occupied. Sep. 9. The expedition leaves Tien-tsin, and ad- vances on Pekin. Sep. 18. Mr. Parkes, Mr. De Norman, and party, consisting of 26, including Sikhs and Europeans, who had started for Tang- chow under a flag of truce, are treacherously made prisoners. Oct. 6. The emperor's summer palace is captured and sacked by the French. Oct. 8. Mr. Parkes and some other prisoners are restored. Oct. 13. The allies prepare to open fire on Pekin, when the Chinese government grant all their demands. Oct. 24. A convention is signed at Pekin. Nov. 5. The allied forces evacuate Pekin. Nov. 14. A treaty is made between Russia and China. Dec. 27. The conclusion of peace is pro- claimed in the city of London. 1861, Aug. 22- Death of the Emperor Hien-fung at Ye-hol. He is succeeded by his only son Tsai-sun, aged six years, who assumes the name of Ki-tsiang. Sep. 3. A treaty of friendship, commerce, and navigation is concluded at Tien-tsin with Prussia, the Zollverein, and the Hanse towns. CHINA [ 245 ] CHIPPAWA A.D. l6i, Oct. 15. The allies quit Tien-tsin. Oct. 31. They leave Canton. Nov. 3. Prince Kung suppresses the council of regency, and places himself at the head of the cabinet. Dec. o. Niugpo is seized by the rebels. 1863, March I. The imperialist forces, assisted by the English and French, defeat the Tae-ping rebels, near Shang-hai. May 3. The Tae-pings are de- feated with great loss. May 17. The city of Kekio is taken by the allies, the French Admiral Protet being killed in the assault. May gi. Naiigpo and Trangpon are recovered from the Tae-pings by the imperialists. Aug. 13. Macao is ceded to the Portuguese. Oct. 33. The imperialists expel the Tae-piugs from Kah-sing. 1864, March 31. TheTue-pmgs evacuate Hang-tcheou-fou, which is occupied by the imperialists. July 19. Capture of Nankin by the imperialists, and death of the Tae-ping leader Tieng- Wang. Oct. lo. A commercial treaty is concluded at Tien-tsin with Spain, which is permitted to send a diplomatic agent to the court of Pekin, and to trade with the Philippine islands. 1865, Jan. 15 and 16. The Dounganes, Mohammedan insurgents of north-westem China, seize Tarba- gatai or Tschougoutschak. Alarch 31. Prince Kung is relieved of his functions as minister president of the council of state. May. He is restored to office. June. The imperialists take Tchang-tcheon, and subdue the Tae-pings in the province of Fukieou. The Nien-fei, or northern rebels, aiming at the subversion of the reigning dynasty, advance upon Pekin. Dec. Resignation of the empress dowager. LIST OF DYNASTIES. B.C. I. 3198. Hia. 3. 1766. Chang. 3 mo. Tcheou. 4. 346. Tsin. 5. 303. Han. A.D. 6. 23i. Heou-Han. 7. 365. Tsin. 8. 430. Song. 9- 479- Tsi. io. 503. Lcang. ll. 557. Tchin. A.D. 13. 590. Souy. 13. 619. Tang. 14. 907. Heou-Leang. I 5-~ 923- Heou-Tang. JO- 937- Heou-Tsin. 17. 947. Heou-Han. 18. 951. Heou-Cheou. 19. 960. Song. 30. 1380. Yuen. 31. 1368. Ming. 33. 1644. Tsin. EMPERORS OF THE REIGNING DYNASTY. A.D. 1649. Shun-che. 1663. Kang-hy. 1733. Yoong-t-ching. 1735- Kien-long. A.D. 1795. Kea-king. 1830. Taou-kwang. 1850. Hien-fung. 1861. Ki-tsiang. CHINA or CHINESE APPLE was intro- duced into England in 1780. CHINA ROBE was first grown in England in the year 1789. CHINA-WARE. The art of making porce- lain was known in China nearly two centuries before the Christian sera. For a long time the Chinese supplied Europe with this ware, whence its name. The ships of the East India Company first imported it in 1631. CHINCHA ISLANDS (Pacific Ocean), situ- ated off the coast of Peru, and valuable for their immense deposits of guano, were seized by the Spaniards, April 14, 1864. The Spanish admiral's ship was burned and foundered here, Nov. 26, 1864. Peace having been concluded at Callao, Jan. 28, 1865, between Spain and Peru, the islands were restored Feb. 3. The Chinese labourers rebelled in Feb., 1866. CHINESE YAM. This esculent root, the Dioscorea batatas of naturalists, was introduced into England by the Acclimatisation Society in May, 1 86 1. CHINGLEPUT (Jrliiidostan;. This town, near Madras, was taken by the French in 1751. Clive retook it after a short siege, Oct. 31, 1752. Hyder Ali besieged it in 1780, and was driven away by Sir E. Coote Jan. 18, 1781. CHIN-HAE (China). This town was taken by the English army Oct. 9, 1841, when 157 guns were captured. An attack made by the Chinese on the gates of the city, March io, 1842, was repulsed. CHIN-KEANG-FOO (China). This city was taken by the English, after a gallant defence, July 21, 1842. The rebels took the city April i, 1853, and evacuated it early in 1857. CHINON (France). Geoffrey of Anjou, im- prisoned in the castle of Chinon by his brother Fulk, in 1068, remained there until 1096. Henry II. of England died at Chinon July 6, 1189. His son, King John, concluded a truce for five years with Philip II. of France at this place, Sep. 18, 1214. Joan of Arc, the Maid of Orleans, arrived at this town, where Charles VII. was holding his court, Feb. 24, 1429. She appeared before Charles VII. Feb. 26, and announced her mission to raise the siege of Orleans and crown him king at Rheims. CHINSURA (Hindostan). The Dutch, who formed a factory at this place on the Hooghley near Calcutta in 1656, were soon after expelled by the native authorities. They returned in 1686. The English took it in 1795, and restored it to the Dutch in 1814. By the 8th and gth articles of a treaty concluded between Great Britain and the Netherlands, March 17, 1824, it was, with other places, ceded to England in exchange for some possessions in Sumatra. The Hooghley College was established in 1836. CHIOGGIA, or CHIOZZA (N. Italy). This town was besieged in 1366. An engagement took place between the Genoese and Venetian fleets off the coast in May, 1379. The latter were defeated with great loss. The island and city of Chioggia fell into the hands of the Ge- noese. Their fleet was blockaded by the Vene- tians in the port, and the Genoese were com- pelled to surrender in 1380, when the island was restored to Venice. CHIOS (Mge&n Sea). This island was, according to tradition, peopled by the Pelas- gians. Its inhabitants joined the Ionic con- federation. The Persians invaded Chios and committed great devastation B.C. 493. The Chians revolted from the Athenians B.C. 412, and the latter ravaged the island. They again threw off the Athenian yoke B.C. 357. Philip V. captured Chios B.C. 201. The Chians re- mained in friendly alliance with the Romans for many years. Their island is supposed, how- ever, to have been included in the Insularum Provincia, established by Vespasian. The chief city, also called Chios, claims the honour of being the birthplace of Homer. Its modern name is Scio (q. v.). CHIPPAWA (Battles). Gen. Riall, at the head of 1,500 regular troops, besides militia and 300 Indians, sustained a defeat at this place from an American army 6,000 strong, with a numerous train, of artillery, July 5, 1814. Gen. Riall having been reinforced and sup- ported by Gen. Drummond, advanced against the Americans, who had established themselves CHIPPENHAM [ 246 ] CHOBHAM at Chippawa. A severe action took place July 25, in which Gen. Riall was wounded. The Americans were, however, defeated, and aban- doned their camp, throwing the baggage and E revisions into the Rapids. The Americans ad 5,000 men engaged, and the English 2,800 of all descriptions. Several hundred prisoners were taken. CHIPPENHAM (Wilts) was a place of inv portance in the time of the Anglo-Saxon kings, some of whom resided here. Ethelwulph celebrated the marriage of his daughter Athel- switha with Burrhed, King of Mercia, in this town, in 853. In 878 it was seized by the Danes, who, after having committed great ravages, were expelled by Alfred. In Domesday Book (1086), it is mentioned as forming part of the royal possessions both before and after the Conquest, but in the reign of Richard II. it belonged to the Hungcrford family. Chippen- ham sent two members to Parliament in the reign of Edward I. Its charter, dated May 2, 1554, was abolished by Charles II. in 1684. James II. restored the old privileges of the borough by another charter, granted March 13, 1685. Chipponham cloth won the first prize in the Great Exhibition of 1851. CHISWICK (Middlesex). The church of this suburban village is supposed to date from the i2th or 1 3th century, though the greater part of the existing structure was not erected till the isth. The charity schools were established in 1707. Chiswick House, the seat of the Duke of Devonshire, was built on the site of an Elizabethan mansion pulled down in 1788. The Botanical Gardens were established in 1822 (see HORTICULTURAL SOCIKTIKS), and the British Schools in 1836. The poet Pope and his father resided here from 1716 till 1719, when they removed to Twickenham. Chiswick was also the residence of William Hogarth, who died Oct. 26, 1764, and whose tombstone in the churchyard bears an epitaph by David Garrick. CH1TORE (Hindostan V This fortified town, seated on the summit of a precipice, was at one time the capital of Odeypoor. The Mo- hammedan emperor of Delhi seized it in 1303, and the Rajpoots recovered it in 1312. The King of Guzerat took it in 1533, and the Em- peror Akbar in 1567. After having undergone varioiis vicissitudes, it was, in 1790, restored to the ruler of Odeypoor. CHITTAGONG (Hindostan). The revenues of the district of Chittagong, and of other dis- tricts, were ceded to the East India Company by a treaty concluded with Mir Casim, Sep. 27, 1760, and confirmed by Shah Allum in 1765. Its capital, of the same name, was conquered by Aurungzebe, who called it Islamabad. CHITTLEDROOG (Hindostan). Hyder Ali failed in an attack upon this strong fortress in 1776, but obtained possession in 1779. In this fortress Tippoo Saib imprisoned Gen. Matthews, made prisoner at the capitulation of Bednore, April 30, 1783. The troops stationed here seized the military treasure Aug. 6, 1809. CHITTOOR (Hindostan). Hyder Ali took this place, in Arcot, in Oct., 1780. Sir E. Coote laid siege to it Nov. 8, 1781, and it capitulated Nov. 10. It came under British rule in 1802, and the native chiefs were expelled in 1804. CHIVALRY. "It appears probable," says Hallam, "that the custom of receiving arms at the age of manhood with some solemnity was of immemorial antiquity among the nations that overthrew the Roman empire." And to this he traces the origin of chivalry, adding that " proofs, though rare and incidental, might be adduced to show that in the time of Charle- magne, and even eaiiier, the sons of monarchs at least did not assume manly arms without a regular investiture. And in. the nth century it is evident that this was a general practice." The custom for feudal tenants to serve on horse- back, equipped with the coat of mail, in the reign of Charlemagne, in his opinion gave birth to the institution. The connection of chivalry with the Crusades gave it a strong religious tinge, and to this, devotion to the female sex was udded, so that the love of God and of the ladies constituted a single duty. Its chief virtues were loyalty, courtesy, and munificence. "The young man, the squire," says Guizot, "who aspired to the title of knight, was first divested of his clothes, and put into the bath, a symbol of purification. Upon coming out of the bath, they clothed him in a white tunic, a symbol of purity ; in a red robe, a symbol of the blood which he was bound to shed in the service of the faith ; in a saga, or close black coat, a symbol of the death which awaited him as well as all men." Hallam is of opinion that the invention of gunpowder eventually over- threw chivalry. CHIVALRY (Court of) existed at a very early period, though no records of its history remain. Its jurisdiction extended over matters of honour and courtesy, and its severest penalty was degradation from knighthood, which it only decreed in three cases ; that of Sir Andrew Harclay in 1322 being the first. In consequence of abuses, its authority was defined by 13 Rich. II. stat. i, c. 2 (1389). CHIZE, or CHIZEY (Battle). Sir John Devereaux, who came to the relief of the Eng- lish garrison of this town and castle in France, was defeated and taken prisoner by Bertrand du Guesclin in a battle fought March 21, 1373. The French had a great superiority in points, and the town and castle of Chizey surrendered after the battle. CHLORINE. This elementary gaseous body was in 1774 discovered by Scheele, who called it " dephlogisticated muriatic acid." Sir Humphry Davy corrected some errors that prevailed respecting its nature in 1809, and gave it the name of chlorine on account of its greenish hue. Mr. F. Smith introduced an apparatus for making chlorine in 1847. CHLOROFORM. This fluid, regarded as a compound of chlorine and f ormyle, whence the name, was discovered by Soubeiran in 1832. Its true composition was ascertained by Dumas and Peligot in 1835. The vapour of chloroform was first applied as an anaesthetic agent by Dr. Simpson, of Edinburgh, Nov. 20, 1847. It is considered the safest of all anaesthetics. CHOBHAM CAMP (Surrey). An encamp- ment on a small scale was formed at Chobham, June 14, 1853, for exercising the troops in CHOCOLATE C 247 ] CHRISM military evolutions. Queen Victoria reviewed the troops June 14, and the camp broke up Aug. 20. CHOCOLATE. Prescott (Mexico, vol. i. b. i, c. 5) speaking of the products of Mexico, remarks : " Another celebrated plant was the cacao, the fruit of which furnished the choco- late, from the Mexican chocolatl, now so common a beverage throughout Europe." When Cortes was at the capital, in 1519, the Emperor Montezuma took no other beverage, 50 jars or pitchers being prepared for his daily consumption. Two thousand pitchers were allowed for his household. It was brought from Mexico into Europe by the Spaniards in 1520, and was in use in France in 1661. Choco- late-houses were introduced into London early in the i8th century. CHOCZIM, CHOTYN, KHOTIN, or KOT- ZIM (Battles). The Ottoman Emperor Osman II. was defeated by Ladislaus VII. of Poland at this town of Bessarabia in 1621. The Poles, under John Sobieski, gained a great victory over an immense army of Turkish invaders, of whom more than 30,000 perished, Nov. n, 1673. The Turks sustained a calamitous defeat from the Russians at the same place, April 30, 1769. The Russians gained another victory- over the Turks, near Choczim, July 13, 1769. CHOCZIM, CHOTYN, KHOTIN, or KOT- ZIM (Russia). This town, in Bessarabia, was taken from the Turks by the Russians in 1739; but the former soon after regained possession. After the battle of Choczim the Russians laid siege to the town, but were compelled to retire. They returned, and it fell into their hands in the autumn of the same year, but was restored to Turkey in 1774. The Austrians and Russians the captured it, after a gallant defence, Sep. 29, 1788. Though restored by the treaty of Jassy, Jan. 9, 1792, it was finally ceded to Russia in 1812. CHOLERA. This disease was prevalent in 1669, but the most malignant form, known as Asiatic cholera, first made its appearance amongst some troops stationed at Ganjain, in Hindostan, in 1781, on which occasion several men were carried off in a few days. Occasional outbreaks afterwards occurred in other parts of India, and in 1817 the cholera appeared, in an epidemic form, spreading over different parts of Asia. It reached the Mauritius in 1819, visited the islands of the Indian archi- pelago, broke out at Canton in 1820, at Pekin in 1821, at several places in the Persian Gulf in the same year, and at Aleppo in 1822, where it spread along the shores of the Caspian Sea, and parts of Russia. For a time its ravages ceased, but in 1829 it again broke out near the Caspian. It appeared in Moscow, St. Petersburg, and other Russian towns, in 1830, at Vienna, and in parts of Germany, Hungary, Poland, Turkey, &c., in 1831, and travelling to England, burst forth at Sunderland Oct. 26, 1831. It visited Edinburgh in Jan., 1832, London Feb. 14, Dublin March 22, and gradu- ally extended over the United Kingdom. France and America were devastated by this terrible scourge in the same year ; Spain and Portugal in 1834 ; and different parts of Italy in 1835, 1836, and 1837. In the last-mentioned year it passed over to Algiers, and, after an outbreak at Malta, disappeared. The second visitation broke out in Asia in 1845, and after visiting many places in Asia, and on the conti- nent of Europe, reached England in Oct., 1848. This attack seems to have died out somewhere in America in 1849. The third visitation appeared in England for a short time in 1853, again burst forth in Sep., 1854, and after spreading over other parts of Europe, ceased in 1856. It broke out again in Egypt in the summer of 1865, and spread over Europe, ap- pearing at Paris in Sep. Two cases occurred at Southampton Oct. 24. The Cholera Con- ference at Constantinople was formally opened Feb. 13, 1866. CHOLET, orCHOLLET (Battle). The royal- ists of La Vendee were defeated by the repub- licans at this place in France, Oct. 17, 1793. CHONDA (Battle). Sir Hugh, afterwards Lord Gough, gained a decisive victory over the Mahrattas at this town in Gualior, Dec. 29, 1843. CHOTUSITZ. (See CZASLAU.) CHOUANS. This name, given to bands who fought against the republicans in Britanny and La Vende'e, during the French Revolution, is said to have been derived from their leader, Jean Cottereau, who went by the name of Chouan, or from the watchword " chou, chou," which was their battle-cry. Lord Stanhope says, "The insurgents of Britanny were known by that name, a word of doubtful origin, and said to be corrupted from chat-huant, the night-owl, to denote their secret signal in their nightly expeditions." The rebellion com- menced in 1792, and in Oct., 1793, they defeated the republican forces at Laval, in Britanny. Their leader Cottereau fell in an engagement at Misdon, July 28, 1794, and they sustained a serious defeat at Quiberon, July 20, 1795, but their cause was not finally lost till Nov. 9, 1799, when Napoleon Buonaparte substituted his despotism for the government of the Directory. At the time of their greatest power the Chouans numbered 100,000 armed men. It broke out again in 1803 and in 1814, but was speedily suppressed. CHRISM. The oil consecrated by the bishop, and used in the Greek and Roman Catholic churches in baptism, confirmation, ordination, and extreme unction. It was prepared on Holy Regality, p. 347) remarks, "The distinction between the oil and Thursday. Taylor (Glory of Regs the chrism of our rituals may be explained by showing their respective uses in the cere- monies of the Christian Church. In the earlier ages three kinds of unction were employed in the offices of religion : ist, that for sick persons ; 2iid, that for the catechumeni, or persons not yet baptized or confirmed ; and 3rd, that used in baptism, confirmation, or consecration. The former of these were with oil consecrated for the two several purposes by the priest, but the latter with an unguent of oil mingled with balm, which was prepared at a particular season, and always consecrated by a bishop, by whom only it could be used, except in cases of necessity in the rite of baptism." Our sove- reigns down to Elizabeth were anointed with this last-mentioned chrism at the coronation. CHRIST [ 248 ] CHRISTOPHER'S Bingham (Autiq. xi. cli. i. s. 3) says, "And because the divine operations of the Holy Spirit in sanctifying grace are sometimes in Scripture called the unction or anointing <>r' !//e S/tirif, therefore baptism had also the name of chrism or unction, from this noble effect attend- ing it." CHRIST (Order of). On the abolition of the Templars by Clement V. in 1312, King Diony- sius of Portugal preserved the order in his dominions, but changed its title in 1317 to that of "The Knights of Christ," or "The Order of our Lord Jesus Christ." This arrangement was sanctioned by Pope John XXI. or XXII. in 1319. The seat of the order was transferred from Castro-Marino to Tomar in 1366. The new order afterwards attained such power that King John III. was obliged to obtain an edict from Pope Hadrian VI. by which the grand mastership of the order became vested in the kings of Portugal in 1522. CHRISTAUIMNS, or CHRISTODINS. This name was in the i6th century applied to the Protestants in France, to render them con- temptible, because, as their enemies pretended, they could only talk about Christ. CHRIST CHURCH (Oxford). This college, called Cardinal College, was founded by W< >1 sey , who in 1524 obtained permission to convert the priory of St. Frideswiue into a seminary. On Wolsey's death it reverted to H'.niry VIII., who re-established it as King Henry's College Sep. 27, 1532. It received further endowments. was changed into a cathedral church, and called Christ Church, in 1546, the dean and canons being required to maintain the school. The library was annexed in 1716, and completed in 1761. A fire broke out in the hall March 3, 1809. It was fortunately extinguished, though the damage amounted to ,12,000. CHRISTIAN ;ERA. I See Ax.vo DOMINI.) C II R I S T I A N r C 1 1 A .11 [ T Y (( )rder). This order of knighthood was founded by Henry III. (1574 1589) of France, for the support of maimed officers and soldiers who had done good service in the wars. It was completed by Henry IV. iisSg 1610), and was superseded by the Hotel des Invalides, founded by Louis IV. CHRISTIAN CONNECTION. This sect, whose members deny the divinity of Christ, arose in the United States early in the igth century. CHIUSTIANIA (Norway), the capital, was founded by Christian IV. in 1624, 011 the site of the ancient city of Opslo, destroyed by fire May 24 in that year. Charles XII. advanced to Christiania in 1716, and laid siege to the castle, supposed to have been built about 1302 ; but he was compelled to retire. It is the seat of a bishop. The university was founded in 1811, and the observatory in 1833. A fire occuiTed at Christiania April 13, 1858, when the Exchange, the Bank, other public buildings, and a large part of the city were destroyed. CHRISTIANITY. The religion professed by all believers in Jesus Christ, being the fulfil- ment and completion of the Mosaic dispen- sation. The disciples of our Saviour were first called Christians at Antioch (Acts xi. 26), in 42 ; and the word occurs but twice more in the New Testament, namely, in the address of King Agrippa to Paul (Acts xxvi. 28), in 60, and in Peter's (i Epist. iv. 16) exhor- tation, "If any man suffer as a Christian, let him not be ashamed." This epistle was written about 59. Though Christian was the name to which the primitive Church adhered, its followers were known under various desig- nations ; amongst which may be mentioned, Believers, Brethren, Chrestians, Elect, Gnos- tics, Jesseans, Nazarenes, and Theophori. ClilMSTlANS.VNl) (Sweden), founded by Christian IV. in 1641. CHRISTIAN SFELD (Schleswig). The Mo- ravian brethren formed a settlement here in ' 'c i'l R ISTIXOS. (See CARLISTS.) ( .' 1 1 R 1STM AS B( )X. The practice of giving presents on Christmas Day arose out of the Pagan custom of the Paganalia. instituted by Scrvius Tullius B.C. 550. On these festivals, celebrated at the commencement of the year, an altar was erected in every village, when each person (man, woman, and child) was expected to contribute a coin. From this primitive mode of counting the population, new year's gifts, of which the English Christ- mas boxes are a modification, arose. Aubrey speaks of a pot, in which Roman coins were found, resembling the earthen boxes formerly used by our apprentices. A circular against the practice of giving Christmas boxes to the :crs of the Foreign Office and other "o verm HOD t servants was issued in 1836. CHRISTMAS CAROLS were first sung in celebration of the Nativity in the 2iid century. The first collection of English Christmas Carols was published in 1521. CHRISTMAS DAY. The Nativity was not celebrated on the same day by all the primitive Churches. For two or three centuries the Eastern Church kept the feast Jan. 6, whilst the Latin Church observed it Dec. 25. The festival is believed to have originated in the 2nd century. Dionysius Exiguus, a Scythian monk, about 527, first fixed as an jera the birth of Christ, Dec. 25, in the year of Rome 753, when Lentulus and Piso were consuls. This computation has been followed up to the present time, though the best authorities are agreed that this is neither the month nor the year in which the Saviour of mankind became incar- nate. The date generally received is Friday, April 5, B.C. 4. CHRISTMAS ISLAND (Pacific Ocean) was discovered by Capt. Cook in his last voyage, Dec. 23, 1777. He landed Dec. 25, and named the island after the day. CHRISTOPHER'S, ST. (Atlantic). This island, vulgarly called St. Kitts, and named by the natives " Liamuiga, or The Fertile Isle," was discovered by Christopher Columbus in 1493. Warner, an Englishman, formed a settle- mcntinJaii., 1623, the bucaneers landed in 1625, and the French and English, having quarrelled, occupied different portions. An English ex- pedition landed June 21, 1690, and the island capitulated July 14. It was again taken from the French July 15, 1702, and was ceded to England by the treaty of Utrecht in 1713. The French landed 8,000 men here Jan. n, 1782, CHRIST'S [249 CHUQUISACA during the American war, and the small garrison, only 600 strong, retired to a strong position, called Brimstone Hill. An English squadron sent for its relief, under Admiral Hood, engaged with the Count de Grasse's tieet Jan. 26, 1783. Brimstone Hill, closely besieged, capitulated Feb. 13. The island was restored the next year. CHRIST'S COLLEGE (Cambridge). A col- lege called God's House, founded by Binghamin 1439, was removed in 1446 by Henry VI. and named Henry the Sixth's College. Margaret, Countess of Richmond and Derby, in 1505 obtained a license from her son Henry VII. to re-establish it under the name of Christ's College. The Tancred Studentships were founded in 1721. CHRIST'S HOSPITAL, or the BLUECOAT SCHOOL (London), the site of the monastery of the Grey Friars, was granted by Henry VIII. to the city of London, for relieving and suc- couring the poor, in 1547. In 1552 the city of London fitted up a part of the monastery for the reception of children, and 340 were received in Nov. Their dress, at first russet cotton, was at Easter, 1553, changed to blue ; whence the present name of the school. The patent of foundation by Edward VI. bears date June 26, 1553. The school was almost destroyed in the fire of 1666. Charles II. added the ma- thematical school in 1673. The branch estab- lishment at Hertford was founded in 1683, and the writing-school was endowed by Sir John Moore in 1694. Owing to the decay of great part of the original erection, it has been rebuilt. The new infirmary was completed in 1822, and the first stone of the hall was laid by the Duke of York in April, 1825. CHRIST'S THORN. The Zizyphus paliurus, supposed to be the same from which the crown of thorns was made, was brought to this country from Africa in 1596. CHROMIUM. This metal was discovered in 1797 by N. L. Vauquelin, a distinguished ana- tomical chemist, born, in Normandy. CHRONICLES (First and Second Books). (See CANON OF SCRIPTURE.) CHRONOGRAMS, or CHRONOGRAPHS, numerical anagrams, were much used in the Middle Ages for inscriptions, especially by the Germans. An early example occurs on a bell in the Tour de 1'Horloge at the Tuileries, which bears three Frenchliiies purporting chronogram- matically that it was cast in 1371. Michael Stifelius, a Lutheran minister at Wiirtemberg, foretold from the Latin text of John xix. 37, that the world would come to an end at 10 o'clock on the morning of Oct. 3, 1533 ! * nc words in question being " VIDebVnt In qVeM transflXerVnt," the capital letters of which make, when transposed, MDXVVVVIII., or 1533. It is related that the pastor was severely beaten by his congregation for having misled them by this prediction. The following chro- nogram on Queen Elizabeth indicates MDCIII., or 1603, the year of her death : My Day Is Closed In Immortality. CHRONOLOGY. Sir Isaac Newton main- tained that Europeans had no fixed chronology before the conquest of Babylon by Cyrus, B.C. 538, and that all dates assigned to previous events have been since deduced by calculation and reasoning. Eratosthenes (B.C. 274194) is styled the father of chronology. Julius Africanus, who flourished early in the 3rd cen- tury, was the first Christian systematic chron- ologist. Sir Isaac Newton's " Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms Amended "was published in 1728. "L'Art de Verifier les Dates," by the Benedictines Maur d'Antine, Durand, and Clem- ence, originally appeared in one volume in 1750, but has been extended in subsequent editions until the last, published at Paris, 1818 1831, contained 38 volumes. Blair's Chronology first appeared in 1754, Playf air's " System of Chro- nology" in 1784, Dr. Hales's "New Analysis of Chronology" 1800 1812, and Clinton's "Fasti Hellenic! " and " Fasti Romani" 1824 1850. The " Chronology of History" of Sir Nicholas Harris Nicolas first appeared in 1832. The Chronological Institute of London was estab- lished in 1852. (See MRA, CALENDAR, OLYM- PIAD, &c. and at Norwich Oct. 3-7, 1865. CHURCH OF ENGLAND. The early his- tory of the Church in this island is given under BRITISH CHURCH (q. v.). Many laws for the regulation of the Church were made by the Anglo-Saxon kings. Its right of sanctuary was rigidly enforced. Attempts at encroach- ment by Rome were frequently opposed, and the first article of Magna Charta (1215) pro- vided that the Church of England should be free, and enjoy her whole rights and liberties inviolable. This was confirmed by subsequent acts. The connection with the Church of Rome was entirely severed at the Reforma- tion. In 1530, the clergy in convocation acknowledged Henry VIII. as supreme head of the English Church ; and by 25 Hen. VIII. c. 21 (1534), the papal power in England was abrogated. The king was appointed supreme head of the Church by 26 Hen. VIII. c. i (1534). The Articles were drawn up in 1551, and published in 1553. They were 42 in number. They were revised and reduced to 39 in 1562. At the Union in 1800, the Church of Ireland was united with that of England, under the title of the United Church of England and Ireland. (See EPISCOPACY, HIGH and Low CHURCH, and PRESBYTERIANISM.) CHURCH-RATES. This charge for main- taining the fabric of the Church, &c., existed in England in very early times. One of Alfric's canons, issued in 970, and an act of a witenagemot, held by Ethelred II. in 1014, are supposed to refer to Church-rates. Several bills have been introduced into the House of Commons for the abolition of Church-rates. CHURCH OF SCOTLAND. The General Assembly which met at Glasgow abolished episcopacy, and deposed the bishops, Dec. 20, 1638 ; from which time Presbyterianism has been adopted as the religion of that part of the United Kingdom. The Presbyterians quar- relled in 1843, when the Free Church (q. v.) was established. CHURCHWARDENS. These officers are said to have been first appointed by an African council about 425. In England, where they were anciently called church reeves, they were sometimes appointed by the clergyman of the parish, ;uxl sometimes by the clergyman and the parish, according to custom. The 8gth canon of 1603 directs that " churchwardens shall be chosen yearly in Easter week by the joint consent of the min- ister and parishioners, if it may be ; and if they cannot agree, the minister shall choose one, and the i arishioners another." From a communi- cation in Notes and Queries, it appears that three churchwardens have been chosen an- nually at Attleborough, in Norfolk, since 1617. CII URi ' ! 1 V A I ! 1 ). The practice of interring the dead in churchyards arose in the 6th cen- tury. The Council of Braga, in 563, allowed men to be buried in the churchyard, under the walls of the church, but prohibited burial within the church. The French, how- ever, retained the ancient practice until per- mission was accorded for interment in church- yards by the Council of N antes in 660. In former times churchyards were privileged places, and property was often carried to them for safety. (See BURIAL and CEMETERY.) C1J USAN China Sea). The principal island of this group, called Chusan, was captured by the English July 5, 1840 ; and evacuated Feb. 25, 1841. Its chief city was again captured, and the island re-occupied, Oct. i, 1841. By the treaty of Nankin, Aug. 29, 1842, the English were to hold this island until the indemnities had been paid, and certain ports opened. It was restored to the Chinese in 1846, again occupied in 1860, and again re- stored in 1861. CIBALIS (Battle). During the civil war between Constantino and Licinius, the latter was defeated near this city, in Pannonia, Oct. 8, 314 A.D. Licinius abandoned his camp and magazines, and retreated with great expedition. CIGAR-SHIP. An iron screw steam yacht, constructed at Millwall in the form of a cigar, was launched Monday, Feb. 19, 1866, and named the ftoss Winans. CILICIA (Asia Minor). This country was originally inhabited by a Phoenician tribe. Sennacherib subdued Cilicia about B.C. 680. Syennesis, King of Cilicia, is said to have assisted in a mediation for peace between Croe- sus, King of Lydia, and the Medes, B.C. 610. Cilicia was afterwards subject to Persia, and supplied TOO ships for the invasion of Greece, CIMBRI [ 251 1 CINQUE B.C. 480. The inhabitants indulged in piracy, and the Romans sent several expeditions against them. M. Antonius overran the country B.C. 102, and it was finally conquered by Pompey B.C. 66, and was made a Roman province B.C. 64. It was overrun by the Saracens in the 7th cen- tury. They were expelled by Zimisces in 964. It underwent various changes, and was finally conquered by Amurath I. in 1387. CIMBRI. This Celtic tribe, inhabiting Jut- land, having joined with the Teutones, entered lilyria, where they defeated Cn. Papirius Carbo, at the head of a consular army, B.C. 113. After this triumph they advanced into Gaul, B.C. 112, passed into Spain, and, reappearing on the frontiers of Transalpine Gaul, defeated two Roman armies B.C. 109 and 107. They inflicted a terrible defeat at Arausio on another Roman army, led by two consuls, Oct. 6, B.C. 105, after which they withdrew into Spain. The Celti- berians drove them out B.C. 103 ; whereupon the Cimbri returned into Gaul. Marius col- lected a large army and went to oppose them. The Cimbri and Teutones separated into two bodies, the former taking the road through Helvetia, and the latter pressing forward to assail the Roman army. Their intention was to reunite their forces on the Lombard plains. The Teutones were attacked and overwhelmed by the Romans, and 100,000 men are said to have perished on that occasion, B.C. 102. The Cimbri in the meantime had reached the valley of the Adige (q. v.), where they defeated the Roman army under Quintus Catulus. He formed a junction with Marius and allured them into an unfavourable position, in which they were defeated and exterminated, B.C. 101. (See CAMPUS RAUDIUS.) The women, having put their children to death, committed suicide. A distinct tribe was discovered, in the middle of the 1 8th century, inhabiting the villages in the mountains near Verona and Vicenza, and speaking the Danish language. Some writers endeavoured to prove that these people were a remnant of the Cimbri defeated by Marius. CIMMERII, or CIMMERIANS. This noma- dic race, inhabiting the Crimea, and parts of the neighbouring country, having been expelled by the Scythians, passed along the shores of the Euxine, invaded Asia Minor, and pillaged Sardis, the capital of Lydia, B.C. 635. In this country they are said to have remained until about B.C. 617, when they were defeated and driven out of Asia Minor. Little authentic is known of this people. Homer refers to another people of the same name, fabled to have dwelt in a land of perpetual darkness. Hence the term " Cim- merian gloom." CINCINNATI, or CINCINNATUSES. A society or order established by the Americans during the revolutionary war, about 1783, was for a time very popular. CINCINNATI (United States), the metropolis of Ohio, first settled by the name of Losante- ville, Dec. 28, 1788, was attacked in 1790 by the Indians, who killed about 20 of the in- habitants and proved formidable enemies for several years. It was incorporated a city in 1819. The Medical College of Ohio was chartered in 1819, Lane seminary was founded in 1829, a law school was established in 1833, and the first stone of the observatory was laid by J. Quincy Adams, Nov. 9, 1843. The Melodeon, a public hall for musical performance and other pur- poses, was erected in 1846, and the first stone of the Ohio Female College was laid Sep. 21, 1848. CINNAMON. The Hebrews used this spice in their religious ceremonies B.C. 1496 (Exod. xxx. 23). It is also mentioned in the Song of Solomon (iv. 14), and in Prov. vii. 17. The tree flourishes best at Ceylon, from which island Europe has derived its principal supplies from the earliest times. The Society for the En- couragement of Arts, Manufactures, and Com- merce in 1773 awarded a gold medal to Dr. Young for introducing the culture of the cin- namon-tree into St. Vincent. A few plants found in a French ship bound from the Isle of France to Hispaniola, and captured by Rodney, were presented by him to the Jamaica planters in 1783, and thus the cultivation of the tree was introduced into that island. No sooner had the passage round the Cape of Good Hope been discovered than the Portuguese endea- voured to get the cinnamon trade, which had before that period been monopolized by Arab merchants, into their hands. They established a factory at Ceylon, and concluded a treaty with the King of Kandy, who engaged to fur- nish them with 124,000 Ib. annually, in return for their assistance against his enemies. The Dutch became the rivals of the Portuguese, and in 1612 the King of Kandy engaged to deliver to them all the cinnamon he could collect. This led to a struggle, which was terminated in 1644 or 1645, by an agreement between the Dutch and the Portuguese to share the produce between them. War broke out again in 1652 ; the Dutch captured Colombo in 1656, and in 1663 the Portuguese were finally excluded from all participation in the trade. Ceylon was captured by the English in 1795, when the trade passed from the control of the Dutch. CINQUE CENTO, an abbreviation for five hundred, applied to a style of art that arose in Italy early in the i6th century. CINQUE PORTS. The commencement of this system of defence against invasion may be traced to the period of the Roman occupation of England. Jeake states that the five ports, Hastings, Hythe, Sandwich, Dover, and Rom- ney, were enfranchised in the time of Edward the Confessor, although only three, Sandwich, Dover, and Romney, are mentioned in Domes- day Book. William I. erected the district of the Cinque Ports into a kind of palatine juris- diction under a warden, in whom the military, naval, and civil authority was combined. Ri- chard I. admitted Rye and Winchelsea to the privileges of the Cinque Ports, by a charter dated March 27, 1191. The number was thus increased to seven principal ports, whilst smaller places were attached to them as sub- ordinate ports. They were required to furnish a fleet for the defence of the sea, and, according to an ordinance of Henry III. in 1229, in the following proportions : Dover and Hastings, each 21 ships, carrying 21 men and one boy ; Winchelsea, 10 ships; and Hythe, Sandwich, and Rye, 5 each. These vessels were to serve CINTRA [ 252 ] CIRCULATING 15 days at the expense of the towns, but were paid for any service beyond that time. The Cinque Ports received their charter of confir- mation from Edward I. in 1278, and all their liberties and free customs were secured to them by 25 Edw. I. c. 9 (1297). The jurisdiction of the constable of Dover Castle was defined by 28 Edw. I. c. 7 (1300). By an act passed in 1689, the right of nominating the members for the Cinque was taken from the lord warden, in whom it had been vested. The number of members returned by the Cinque Ports was reduced from 1 6 to 8 by the Reform Bill in 1832. The jurisdiction of the lord warden in civil suits, sm ce which period many writers have directed attention to the subject. CIRCASSIA (Asia) was conquered by the Huns in the $th century, by the Chazars in the nth century, and at the commencement of the 1 3th century fell under the Mongol Emperor of Kaptchak. Tirnour, or Tamerlane, invaded it in the i4th century, but was unable to effect a permanent conquest. Its first intercourse with Russia took place in 1555. It afterwards sub- mitted to the khans of the Crimea, but, owing to their tyranny, the Circassians revolted in 1708, and applied for protection to the Ottoman Porte. At the peace of Belgrade, Sep. 18, 1739, Circassia was declared independent, but it soon returned to its dependence on Turkey, which did not renounce all right to exercise authority over it till the peace of Kutsehouc-Kainardji, July 10, 1774. In 1783 Circassia was claimed as part of the Russian empire, but it was not finally incorporated therewith till the treaty of Hadrianople, Sep. 14, 1830. The Circassians strenuously resisted Russian domination under their leader Schamyl, who was captured Sep. 7, 1859. Vaidar, the last stronghold of the Cir- cassians, capitulated to the Russians April 28, 1864 ; three of the tribes accordingly left their country for Turkey. Starting to the number of about 300,000, many died from hardships on the shores of the Black Sea, and many more perished at Trebizoud, from fever occasioned by over-crowding. CIRCASSIANS. (See BORGITES.) CIRCELIONES, or CIRCELLIONES. (See AGONISTICI.) CIRCLES OF GERMANY. Maximilian I. in 1501 carried into execution the design of Wen- ceslaus, attempted by Albert II., of dividing Germany into circles. The empire, the elec- torates and the dominions of Austria excepted, was divided into six circles; viz., Bavaria, Franconia, the Upper Rhine, Lower Saxony, Swabia, and Westphalia. In 1512 four more were added Austria, Burgundy, the Lower Rhine, including the three ecclesiastical elec- tors and the elector Palatine, and Upper Saxony, including the electorates of Saxony and Brandenburg. " It was," says Hallam, ' ' the business of the police of the circles to enforce the execution of sentence pro- nounced by the Imperial Chamber against refractory states of the empire." The circles were abolished by the Confederation of the Rhine, concluded at Paris, July 12, 1806, and each German prince resumed such of his titles as referred to his connection with the German empire, Aug. i. CIRCUITS. In a great council held at Northampton Jan. 26, 1176, Henry II. divided England into six districts, to each of which he appointed three itinerant judges, who were to make their circuit round the kingdom once in seven years, for the purpose of trying causes. Various changes in the number of the circuits, &c., were afterwards made. England and Wales are now divided into eight circuits, to which the judges go twice a year. CIRCULATING LIBRARY. Jerome relates that Pamphilius, Bishop of Caesarea (put to death Feb. 16, 309) collected 30,000 religious books, for the purpose of lending them ; and this is the first notice of a circulating library. In 1342 the stationers of Paris were compelled to keep books to be lent on hire. This was intended for the benefit of poor students, before printing had been invented. Merry- weather (Bibliomania in the Middle Ages) remarks : " The reader will be surprised at the idea of a circulating library in the Middle Ages ; but there can be no doubt of the fact that they were established at Paris, Toulouse, Vienna, and other places." Catalogues, with the charge for reading, were exhibited in their shops. A circulating library was established at Edinburgh in 1725. A prospectus for estab- lishing one in some convenient place near the Royal Exchange, London, appeared June 12, 1740. There were, however, only four in the CIRCULATION [ 253 ] CIRRHA metropolis in 1770; but since that period the number has rapidly increased. CIRCULATION. (See BLOOD.) CIRCUMCELLIONES. (See AGOTSISTICI.} CIRCUMCISION. The practice of this rite amongst the Hebrews was instituted by Abra- ham in accordance with the divine command, B.C. 1897 (Gen. xvii. 10 14). It existed amongst other nations previous to that time. Rawlin- son considers that it was practised by the Egyptians long before the birth of Abraham, or B.C. 1996. The custom, followed by the Mohammedans, prevailed amongst many na- tions, and has been found to exist in the islands of the Pacific. CIRCUMNAVIGATION OF THE GLOBE. The first ship by which the circumnavigation of the world was accomplished was the Vit- toria, forming one of the expedition that sailed from San Lucar under Ferdinand Magal haens, or Magellan, a Portuguese commander, Sep. 20, 1519. With three out of the five ships that formed the expedition, he passed through the straits which bear his name, connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, Nov. 28, 1520. Magellan was killed in an encounter on the Philippine Islands in 1521. Sebastian del Cano, in the Vittoria, the only ship which returned to Europe, sailed round the Cape of Good Hope, and arrived at San Lucar Sep. 6, 1522, having achieved for the first time the circumnavigation of the globe. The following are the most cele- brated expeditions : Date of Departure. Date of Return. Navigator. 1519, Sep. 20 or 21 1577, Dec. 13 1522, Sep. 6 1580, Sep. 26 Magellan. Sir Francis Drake. 1580, July 21 1588, Sep. 9 Cavendish. 1598, Sep. 13 1601, Aug. 26 Van Noort. 1614, Aug. 8 1617, July I Spilbergen. 1615, June 14 1617, July I Schouten and Le Maire. 1623, April 29 1703, Sep. II* 1636, July 9 1706, July L'Hermite Dampier. 1708, Sep. I 1711, Oct. 14 Rogers. 1719, Feb. 13 1722, July 30 Shclvocke. 1721, Aug. 21 1723, July 28 Rog'jrewein. 1710, Sep. 18 1763, Sep. 15 1764, July 3 1766, Aug. 2,2, 1744, June ic 1769, Mar. 16 1766, May 7 1768, May 20 Anson. Bougainville. Byron. Wallis. 1766, Aug. 22 1769, Mar. 20 Carteret. 1768, Aug. 26 1771, June 12 }" 1772, July 13 1775, July 30 Cook. 1776, July I2f 1780, Oct. 4 1790, Aug. 1792, June 19 Edwards. 1822, Aug. II 1835, Mar. 24 Duperry. 1838, Aug. 18 1857, April 30 1842, June 10 1859, Aug. 26 Wilkes. Wullerstorf-Urbair. CIRCUS, called by the Greeks Hi_ was devoted by the Romans to horse and chariot races. The most celebrated and the earliest was the Circus Maximus, said to have been built by Tarquinius Priscus, B.C. 605. There were several of these buildings in Rome. * Only part of Dampier's expedition returned in 1706, the remainder, with the commander, having been de- tained in the East Indies, as prisoners, by the Dutch. t Capt. Cook was killed by the Sandwich Islanders, Feb. 14, 1779. He was succeeded in the command by Capt. King. The Circus Flaminius was erected B.C. 220. The founder is supposed to have been Caius Flaminius, who was defeated by Hannibal at Thrasymene, B.C. 217. Gladiatorial shows were first exhibited B.C. 264. The Goths abolished the games A.D. 410. (See AMPHITHEATRE.) CIRCUS FACTIONS. The race, at its first institution, was a contest between two chariots, distinguished by white and red colours. To these green and blue were afterwards added ; the four colours, according to some authorities, being intended to represent the four seasons. So excited did the people become in these contests, that the supporters of the different candidates degenerated into factions, and fre- quently provoked tumults that ended in san- guinary conflicts. Even princes shared in this folly, and Gibbon (ch. xl.) relates that Caligula, Nero, Vitellius, Verus, Commodus, Caracalla, and Elagabalus were enrolled in the blue or green factions of the circus. The system, with its abuses, was transferred to Constantinople, in which two factions, the green and the blue, contended for supremacy. Justinian I. favoured the former, and during the celebration of the festival of the Ides of January, in the fifth year of his reign, A.D. 532, a quarrel arose between them. For five days the city was in their power, and the cathedral of St. Sophia, the baths of Zeuxippus, part of the palace, and many edifices, were destroyed by fire. Their watchword was Nika, "Vanquish," by which name the contest is sometimes designated. The outbreak was suppressed by Belisarius, when much slaughter ensued; and though the circus was closed for several years, the fury of the factions again burst forth at its restoration. CIRCUTORES. (See AGONISTICI.) CIRENCESTER (Gloucestershire). This an- cient city was a station of the Romans, which they called Coiinium. The Danes captured it in 878, and Guthrum wintered here in 879. Canute held a council at Cirencester in 1020. Henry I. founded its abbey in 1117. The inhabitants assailed and expelled the earls of Huntingdon, Kent, and Salisbury, who had formed a plot to restore Richard II., Jan. 6, 1400, and were rewarded for this service by Henry IV. Prince Rupert captured the town in Feb., 1643. It surrendered to the Parlia- mentary army during the same year. A fine mosaic pavement was found in 1723, and many antiquities have been from time to time dis- covered. The grammar-school was founded in 1750, and the Agricultural College in 1846. CIRRHA (Greece). This town of Phocis, the sea-port of Delphi and Crissa, with the latter of which it is often confounded, was of ancient origin. Its inhabitants levied exorbitant tolls on pilgrims passing through on their way to the temple of Delphi, and committed other outrages, on which account the Amphictyonic council declared war against them B.C. 595. This, the Cirrhsean or first Sacred War, was carried on by a joint force of Athenians, Sicy- onians, and Thessalians, and after a long siege Cirrha was taken and razed to the ground, B.C. 586. The assailants are said to have poisoned the spring which supplied the town with water. All the males were put to the sword, the women and children sold to slavery, CISALPINE [ 254 ] CIVIL and the Pythian Games were founded, with the spoils. CISALPINE REPUBLIC was formed by the union of the Cispadane and Transpadane re- publics, by Napoleon Buonaparte, in 1797. By the eighth article of the treaty of Campo-For- mio, Oct. 17, 1797, the Emperor of Germany recognized this new state, which was therein stated to comprehend "Austrian Lombardy, the Bergamasque, the Bressau, the Cremasque, the city and fortress of Mantua, Peschiera, part of the Venetian states, the Modenois, the prin- cipality of Massa and (Jarrara, and the three legations of Bologna, Ferrara, and Romagna." By a decree dated Oct. 10, 1797, Napoleon annexed the Valteline to this republic. Con- stitutions were made and abrogated in rapid succession, and the interference of Napoleon became intolerable. Treaties of alliance and commerce were concluded between France and this republic in 1 798, by which the last vestige of independence was destroyed. Austria re- fused to recognize its envoy, sent to Vienna in 1798, and its fortunes declined, owing to the reverses sustained by the French. It was, however, once more recognized by the Emperor of Austria, by the treaty of Limeville, Feb. 9, 1801 ; its independence was guaranteed, and some alterations were made in its limits, and it received an addition in the duchy of Mo- dena. Other changes were made, and Napoleon nominated himself president, and changed its name to that of the Italian Republic, Jan. 26, 1802. It was merged in Napoleon's Italian king- dom in 180.1;. CISPADANE REPUBLIC. In 1796 Napoleon Buonaparte conceived the design of forming two republics from the Italian ter- ritories wrested from Austria and other states. They were called the Cispadane and Transpa- dane republics, and were both merged in 1797 in the Cisalpine Republic >/. o. . CISTERCIANS. This religious order was founded in 1098, by Robert, a Benedictine abbot of Molcsme, in Burgundy, and received its name from Citeaux, in which forest, near Dijon, the first convent was situated. Its members increased rapidly, although their rules were extremely severe. They had a dispute with the Cluniacs or Cluniacensians, who accused them of too great austerity, whilst the Cistercians taxed the Cluniacs with having abandoned their regular discipline. The Cis- tercians followed the rule of St. Benedict, and having been reformed early in the i2th century by Bernard, Abbot of Clairvaux, were after- wards called Bernardines. They were intro- duced into England in 1128, and their first house, at Waverley, in Surrey, was completed in 1129. There were nuns of this order. (See BERNARDINES.) CITATE (Battle). The Russian troops oc- cupied a strong position at this village on the Danube in the winter of 1853-4. Several skirmishes between the Cossacks and the Turkish cavalry took place near Citate towards the end of Dec., 1853, an( * the beginning of Jan.. 1854. The Turks assailed the lines at Citate Jan. 6, and, after a desperate combat, expelled the Russians. CITEAUX (France). The seat of the abbey House, was built in 1833. CITY OF LONDON LIBRARY, was founded in 1824, and is rich in works relating to the city of London, the boroug Southwark, and the county of Middlesex. founded by Robert of Molesme in 1098, in which originated the order of the Cistercians. Part of the buildings of this abbey were con- verted in 1849 into a reformatory for juvenile delinquents. (See CISTERCIANS. ) CITY. In Kerr's " Blackstone " a city is described as " a town incorporated, which is or hath been the see of a bishop : and though the bishopric be dissolved, as at Westminster, yet still it remains a city." The term is, how- ever, applied to many large towns that have not enjoyed this distinction. Alphonso V. granted a charter to Leon in 1020, and Berenger, Count of Barcelona, in 1025, confirmed to the inhabitants of that city all the franchises they already possessed. Charters as old as mo, though the precise date has not been ascer- tained, granted to French cities, are in exist- ence. Lord Lyttleton states that in England many cities and towns were bodies corporate and communities long before the alteration introduced into France by Louis le Gros. CITY CLUB (London). In Old Broad Street, occupying the site of the Old South Sea in Guildhall, CITY OF LONDON THEATRE (London), situated in Norton Folgate, was opened early in 1837. CITY OF REFUGE. (See ASYLUM and SANwid of the Harrich. Clan-Noill. Clan-Kinnon. Clan-Jeane. Clan-Chattane. Grantes. Fraseres. Clan-Keiuzie. Clan-Avercis. Munroes. | Murrayes in Southerland. The act (20 Geo. II. c. 43) for abolishing heri- table jurisdictions in Scotland, passed in 1747, put an end to the legal authority of the chiefs of clans. CLARE COLLEGE (Cambridge). University Hall, founded in 1326, having been destroyed by fire in 1342, was rebuilt and endo J 347 by Elizabeth de Burgh, one of the sisters and coheirs of Gilbert, Earl of Clare. From this benefactress it received its new name. The present hull was built in 1638. The old chapel, built in 1535, was never consecrated. The new chapel was commenced in 1763 and consecrated in 1769. Chaucer calls it Solere Hall. CLARE, or CLAIRE, ST., or CLARISSKS (Order). This religious order was founded by St. Clare, with the uid of St. Francis of Assisi, in 1212. The order was confirmed by a bull of Innocent IV. At first the nuns followed the rule of St. Benedict; this was, hou-ovur, modified by St. Francis in 1224, and by Urban IV. in 1264. Those who follow the modifi- cation of the rule by Urban are called Urban- ists, and those who observe the original rule Damianists. Brought into England in 1293, under a license from Edward I., they had only four houses in this country. They were called Poor Clares. CLAREMONT (Surrey) was built by Van- brugh in the reign of Queen Anne, and named after the Earl of Clare, who became Duke of Newcastle in 1715. It was sold in 1769 to Lord Clive, by whom the house was rebuilt and the grounds newly arranged. On the death of Clive, in 1774, the house and estate passed into the hands of Lord Galway, and subsequently of the Earl of Tyrconnel, who sold them to Mr. Ellis in 1807. By 26 Geo. III. c. 25 (1816), the property was purchased by Government as a residence for the Princess Charlotte, who died here Nov. 6, 1817. Louis Philippe, King of the French, lived at Claremont on his retirement to England, March 4, 1848 ; and died here Aug. 26, 1850. His widow, Queen Marie Amelie, also died here, March 24, 1866. CLARENCIEUX (Kmg-at-Arms). This name was given to a herald of the Duke of Clarence during the reign of Edward III. (1327 1377), and was confirmed by Edward IV., at whose funeral in 1483 Clarencieux king- at-arms was present. CLARENDON CONSTITUTIONS. A coun- cil was held at Clarendon, near Salisbury, .Jan. 25, 1164, when these laws, defining the limits between the civil and ecclesiastical jurisdic- tion, and regulating certain church n were passed. Thomas Becket, Archbishop nf Canterbury, having refused to sign them, withdrew from the kingdom in disguise, and landed at Grave-lines Nov. 3. He excommuni- cated many of the bishops, clergy, and influen- tial laymen, who had subscribed them, June 12, 1166; whereupon Henry II. banished 400 of the archbishop's supporters. The king and archbishop met at Fretville, in Touraine, July 22, 1170, and were reconciled. Soon after his return to Canterbury, Dec. 3, he excommuni- cated several nobles, and was assassinated before the altar of St. Benedict, in the cathe- dral, Dec. 29, 1170. These constitution of which were annulled by the Pope, are given in Roger of Wendover's " Flowers of History," Lord Lyttleton's " Life of Henry the Second," and other works. CLARENDON-DALLAS TREATY, intended to settle difficulties that had arisen b. England and the United States, respecting the interpretation of the Bulwer-Clayton Treaty of April 19, 1850, was signed in London Oct. 17, 1856. It was altered in the United States, and feigned in the new form March 12, 1857. To one of the amendments the British Govern- ment objected, and the treaty was never ratified. CLARENDON PRESS (Oxford). The design of establishing a press for the use of Oxford University was formed in 1672, at which time the business was carried on at the Shcldonian Theatre. From the profits arising from the sale of Lord Clarendon's " History of the Re- bellion," the university was enabled, in 1711, to erect a special building for the purpose, after the designs of Vanbrugh. In 1721 the statue of Lord Clarendon was placed over the south entrance. The present university print- ing-office was commenced by Robertson in 825, and completed by Blore in 1830, \vhen the business was transferred from the Claren- don, which was convei'ted into a museum, ecture-hall, &c. The new building V.MS damaged by fire to the amount of ,2,000, Feb., CLARINET, or CLARIONET. This wind iistrument was invented by Christopher Denner, at Nuremberg, in 1690. CLASTIDIUM (Battle). Marcellus defeated ;he Gauls at this place, in Cisalpine Gaul, B.C. 222, whereupon they sued for peace. The modern town of Casteggio occupies its site. CLAUSENBERG. (&>e KLAUSENBERG.) CLAVICHORD, or CLARICHORD. This musical instrument is mentioned by Otto- marus Luscinus in 1536 ; but its invention may )e referred to an earlier date. It was much ised by nuns in convents. CLAVIJO (Battle). Ramiro defeated the Moors at Clavijo in 844. No less than 60,000 of them are said to have perished in the conflict and the retreat. CLAZOMEN^E (Asia Minor). This city, ori- ginally founded on the mainland by Ionian and other colonists, but subsequently removed, CLEARING [ 257 1 CLERGY for fear of the Persians, to an island in the bay of Smyrna, became a dependency o: Athens, and was made tax-free by the Romans B.C. 188. With other cities on the borders oJ the ^Egean Sea, it was plundered by pirates B.C. 84. CLEARING-HOUSE (Banking). This estab- lishment, for enabling bankers easily to inter- change bills, cheques, &c., originated about 1775, when a building in Lombard Street was set apart for the purpose, under the direction of a committee chosen by the chief banking firms, and managed by two inspectors. CLEARING-HOUSE (Railway). For rail- way companies in England and Scotland to transact the business of their through traffic ol goods and passengers passing over the lines of different companies, was regulated some time after its establishment, by the Railway Clear- ing Act, 13 & 14 Viet. (Local and Personal) c. 33 (June 25, 1850). The Railway Clearing- house in Seymour Street, London, was much enlarged in 1865. CLEMENTINE, or HOLY LEAGUE. (See COGNAC.) CLEMENTINES. These spurious writings, amongst which are two epistles to the Corin- thians, represented as the works of Clement, Bishop of Rome in the ist century, are supposed to have been concocted by one of the sect of the Ebionites. This father of the Church is generally believed to be the Clemens mentioned by St. Paul (Phil, iv, 3). He died in 100 or 102. Some apostolic canons, consti- tutions, recognitions, &c., are included in the Clementines. The constitutions of Pope Clement V. (1305 1314) are also called Cle- mentines. CLEMENTINES AND URBANISTS. Gre- gory XI. returned to Rome, after a long residence at Avignon, in April, 1377, and thus terminated what is called the Babylonish Cap- tivity of the popcdom. He died March 27 or 28, 1378. An outcry was immediately raised for the election of an Italian pope, and Bartho- lomew Prignani, Archbishop of Bari, was chosen, April 9. He took the title of Urban VI. The French cardinals at Anagni declared the election void, Aug. 9, and elected Robert of Geneva pope, who took the title of Clement VII., Sep. 20. Such was the commencement of the schism by which the Latin Church was agitated and divided for 38 years. Each pope had his followers, and these were known by the names of Clementines and Urbanists. CLEMENT'S INN (London). This inn of Chancery is said by Dugdale, on the authority of an ancient record, to have been in existence long before 1479. The hall was built in 1715. CLEOBURY (Battle). -Leofgar, Bishop of Hereford, having led an army against the Welsh king Griffith, was defeated and slain at this place, in Herefordshire, June 17, 1056. Several of his priests who had accompanied him to the field of battle fell at his side. The chroniclers do not agree respecting the name of the place at which the battle was fought. Roger of Hoveden says it was Glastonbury. CLEOMENIC WAR. (See ACHJEAN LEAGUE.) CLEPSYDRA, or WATER-CLOCK. The Chaldseans and the Egyptians are said to have made use of some ingenious invention of this kind in order to measure time. Vitruvius as- cribes the invention to Ctesibius of Alexan- dria, who flourished about B.C. 250. P. C. Scipio Nasica introduced them at Rome B.C. 159. ' There can be no doubt that they were used by the Greeks at an early period. They were known in India in the i2th century. Modern water-clocks, invented during the i7th century, were introduced from Burgundy into Paris in 1693. CLERGY. Bingham (Antiq. b. i. ch. v.< . 8) says : " As to the reason of the name clerici and clerus, St. Jerom rightly observes, that it comes from the Greek *Aijpo, which signifies a lot; and thence, he says, 'God's ministers were called clerici, either because they are the lot and portion of the Lord, or because the Lord is their lot, that is, their inheritance.' Others think some regard was had to the ancient custom of choosing persons into sacred offices by lot, both among Jews and Gentiles ; which is not improbable, though that custom never generally prevailed among Christians." The distinction between the clergy and the laity commenced at the foundation of the Christian Church. The name clergy was at first given to the bishops, priests, and deacons, the only orders in the Church. In the 3rd century sub- deacons, acolythists, readers, and other inferior orders were appointed ; and these were also styled clerici. The clergy were afterwards divided into the regular and secular, the for- mer living under some religious rule, such as abbots and monks, and the latter mingling with the people and having the care of parishes, as bishops and priests. The term clergy is applied in England to all persons in holy orders belonging to the Established Church. A clergyman is exempted from serving on a jury, or as a bailiff, reeve, constable, &c., is incapable of sitting in the House of Commons, or of being a councillor or alderman in a borough, is free from arrest in a civil suit whilst engaged in divine service, or whilst ?oing to or coming from the performance of this duty, by 9 Geo. IV. c. 31, s. 23 (June 19, 1828). The mode of proceeding against the clergy for ecclesiastical offences is regulated by the Church Discipline Act, 3 & 4 Viet. c. 86 Aug. 7, 1840). At one time the clergy en- grossed every branch of learning, and were remarkable for their proficiency in the study of the common law. The judges were selected rom their ranks, and from the lower clergy ;he inferior offices were supplied. Hence the ;erm clerk. (See BENEFIT OF CLERGY.) CLERGY (Sons of). The festival of the Sons of the Clergy, celebrated every year at St. Paul's Cathedral, was instituted in 1655, and ;he first sermon was preached in St. Paul's Cathedral Nov. 8 in that year. The society's charter of incorporation is dated July i, 1678. CLERGY CLUB (London). The club-house f this institution for "promoting the associa- ion of clerical and lay members of the United Church of England and Ireland, in Great Britain, and in her possessions abroad, as also f the Scottish Episcopal Church," situated in Charles Street, St. James's, was opened Jan. 5, 1866. CLERK [ 258 ] CLOCK CLERK. (-See CLERGY.) CLERK OF THE CLOSET, or CONFESSOR TO THE SOVEREIGN, usually a bishop, whose duty it is to attend the sovereign in the royal closet, during Divine Service, to resolve all doubts concerning spiritual matters, is rrien- tioned by Chamberlayne in his " State of Eng- land," published in 1673. CLERKENWELL (London) is called by Stow " Clarkes-Well, or darken-Well." The same writer adds, the well " took name of the parish clarks in London, who (of old time) were accustomed there yearly to assemble, and to play some large history of Holy Scripture. For example of later time, to wit in the year 1390, the i4th of Richard the Second, I read, that the parish clarks of London, on the i8th of July, plaid interludes at Skinners' Well, near unto Clarks' -Well, which play continued three days together, the king, queen, and nobles being present." Dugdale records the foundation of a nunnery about noo, and the erection of the priory of St. John of Jerusalem about mo. In Fitz-Stephen's "Description of the most noble City of London" (1190), Clerkenwell is named as one of the spots where ' ' the scholars, and youth of the city, do take the air abroad in the summer evenings." In 1563 the locality was still unoccupied, except by the monasteries and St. John's Street and Cow Cross; but the number of houses was much increased before 1598. The Bride- well was erected in 1615 ; Sadler's Wells Thea- tre was built as a music-house in 1683; the Workhouse was erected in 1 790 ; the Middle- sex House of Correction in 1794 ; and the New Prison, or House of Detention, was built on the site of the Bridewell in 1818, and rebuilt in 1 CLERMONT FERRAND (France), the an- cient Augustonemetum, was sacked by the Vandals in 408, and by an army under Honorius in 412. Thierry captured it in 507, and it be- came the capital of Auvergne. It was fre- quently besieged. The Northmen took it in 853 and in 916, committing great ravages on each occasion. It was the seat of the bishopric of Auvergne, founded about 250. Since 1160, the occupants of the see have taken the title of bishops of Clermont. Parts of the church of Notre Dame du Port were built in 863, and the cathedral was founded in 1248. In the Middle Ages, Clermont, called Clams Mons, or Clari- montium, was the scene of two celebrated councils. The first, which led to the first cru- sade, was summoned by Urban II., and lasted from Nov. 18 to 28, 1095 ; and the second was held in 1130. CLEVELAND (UNITED STATES). This city of Ohio was founded in 1796. CLEVER (Germany). This district was ruled by counts from the gth century until 1419, when Thierry VIII. was made duke by the Emperor Sigismund. It passed into the pos- session of the house of Brandenburg in 1609; the French seized it in 1794, united part of it to Berg in 1806 ; but it was restored to Prussia in 1815. (See BERG.) The town of Cleves is pleasantly situated about two miles from the Rhine. The cathedral was built in 1346, and the castle in 1439. It was the birthplace of Anne of Cleves, married to Henry VIII. Jan. 6, 1540. The marriage was abrogated by act of Parliament July 24, 1540. CLIFF. (See CLOVESHOO.) CLIFFORD STREET CLUB (London). A debating society, which met once a month, in the last century, at Clifford Street Coffee-house. George Canning was a member. CLIFFORD'S INN (London) received its name from the De Clifford family, who granted it to students-at-law in the reign of Edward III., about the year 1344, when it was made an inn of Chancery. CLIFTON. (See BRISTOL.) CLIFTON MOOR (Battle). During the re- treat of the Pretender, Charles Edward, from England, the English were repulsed in an attack upon the Scottish rear-guard, at Clifton Moor, Dec. 18, 1745. The former lost 100 men in killed and wounded, and the latter only 12. C1.1SSAU (Battle). Charles XII. of Sweden having invaded Poland, gained a complete vic- tory over Augustus Frederick HI., King of Poland, on this plain, between Warsaw and Cracow, July 20, 1702. Charles XII., in pursuit of the King of Poland, fell from his horse and broke his collar-bone. CLOACA MAXIMA. (&* BiEWBsa.) CLOCK. Sun-dials and clepsydrte (q. ?'.), or water-clocks, preceded clocks moved by wheels and weights. Beckmann assigns the invention of the last-mentioned to the nth century. The first public clock was erected at Padua. Others were put up at Westminster in 1288 ; at Canter- bury in 1292 ; at Dover in 1348 (the oldest ex- tant) ; at Bologna in 1356 ; and at Paris in 1364. Their general introduction into England may be ref erred to 1 368, in which year Ed- ward III. invited three Dutch clockmakers from Delft to settle in the country. A clock was erected at Strasburg about 1370. The Duke of Burgundy removed the clock from Courtrai to Dijon in 1382. A public clock was set up at Spires in 1395 ; and another at Nurem- berg in 1462. Balance clocks were used by Walther for astronomical observations as early as 1484. A clock was erected at Venice in 1497. Portable clocks arc supposed to have been invented about 1525, in order to be used at sea in computing the longitude. The first Eng- lish clock that measured time with accuracy is said to have been that at Hampton Court, which bears date 1540. Charles I. incorporated the company of Clockmakers Aug. 22, 1632. The invention of pendulum clocks is claimed for three persons Richard Harris in 1641 ; Vincenzio Galilei, who is said to have rendered his father's discovery of practical utility in 1649 ; and Huygens in 1657. Repeating clocks were first constructed by Barlow in 1676 ; the anchor escapement was introduced by Clement in 1680 ; and equation clocks, whose inventor is unknown, some time previous to 1699. Jewelled pallets and pivot-holes were intro- duced by De Baufre about 1704, and the com- pensation pendulum by Graham and Harrison in 1715. The electric clock was first exhibited to the Royal Society by Professor Wheatstone in 1840, and was much improved by Messrs. Bain, Appold, and Shepherd, the last of whom supplied the clock at the Exhibition of 1851. CLOGHER [ 259 ] CLOVESHOO By 37 Geo. III. c. 108 (July 19, 1797), an annual duty of 58. for each clock, or zs. 6d. for each silver or metal watch, was levied. These were repealed by 38 Geo. III. c. 40 (May 10, 1798). Clocks formerly paid a duty of 25 per cent. , which was reduced to 10 per cent." by 5 & 6 Viet. c. 47 (July 9, 1842), and still further diminished by 16 & 17 Viet. c. 54 (Aug. 4, 1853). CLOGHER (Ireland) was erected into a bishopric in 493 by St. Macartin, who founded a monastery, and died in 506. The cathedral was rebuilt in 1041, and again in 1295. The first Protestant bishop of Clogher was Miller Magrath, whom Queen Elizabeth appointed Sep. 10, 1570. Charles I. erected this town into a borough, and it returned two members to the Irish parliament till its dis- franchisement at the Union. On the death of the Right Hon. Lord R. P. Tottenham, Bishop of Clogher, April 28, 1850, the see was united to Armagh according to the provisions of the Church Temporalities Act, 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 37 (Aug. 14, 1833). CLOGS. ( See ALMANACK.) CLONARD (Bishopric). This Irish diocese, founded by St. Finian about 520, was, with several other minor sees, merged in 1174 in the diocese of Meath (q. v.). CLONFERT (Ireland). St. Brendan founded a monastery here in 558, and became the first bishop of the diocese. In 1602 the see was united to Kilmacduagh, and to the sees of Killaloe and Kilfenora, by 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 37 (Aug. 14, 1833). CLONMEL, the Vale of Honey (Ireland), was incorporated at a very early period, but did not receive its charter till 1608. The manu- facture of woollen goods, introduced in 1667, declined at the Revolution. The trial of Smith O'Brien for high treason commenced here Sep. 28, and terminated Oct. 9, 1848. CLONTARF (Battle). Brian Boru, King of Ireland, with a force of 20,000 men, defeated 21,000 Danes, under King Sitric, on the plains of Clontarf, near Dublin, Good Friday, April 23, 1014. Seven thousand Irish, in- cluding Brian and his son Murrogh, fell in the action. The Danish loss amounted to 13,000. CLOSET. (See CLERK OF THE CLOSET.) CLOSETINGS. The name given to the pri- vate conferences to which James II. in 1687 and 1688 summoned members of Parliament and various public functionaries, for the pur- pose of winning them over to his plan for the re-establishment of the Roman Catholic reli- gion and other arbitrary measures. CLOSH, or CLOSSYNGE. An old game of ninepins, prohibited by 17 Edw. IV. c. 3 (1478). The penalty for a person allowing this and several other games to be played in his house, was three years' imprisonment and a fine of ,20, the players to be imprisoned two years and to forfeit 10. By 33 Hen. VIII. c. 9 ( 1542), any person keeping a house or place for the practice of this and other games mentioned in the statute, was to forfeit 2 per diem, and those using or haunting the place 6s. Bd. for every offence. CLOSTER-SEVEN (Convention). The Duke of Cumberland, at the head of 38,000 Hano- verians, Hessians, and other Germans, being hardly pressed by the French army, at the intervention of the Count de Lynar, the Danish ambassador at Hamburg, signed a convention at this village of Hanover, which must not be confounded with Kloster Seyvern (q. v.) t near Munich, Sep. 8, 1757. It consisted of five articles, to which three separate articles were annexed. The troops laid down their arms and were dispersed. George II., as Elector of Hanover, disavowed the authority of his son, the Duke of Cumberland, to sign it, and the latter resigned all his commands. It led to innumerable difficulties and disputes. CLOTH. The manufacture of woollen cloth was practised in Tyre B.C. 588, and its invention may no doubt be referred to a still earlier period. Plaids were made in England about 500. In 960 the business became considerable in Flanders ; whence it was introduced into England in mi. The first exportation of British cloth occurred in 1189, in which year the manufacture appears to have spread widely in England. Broadcloth was made in 1197. In 1261 all Englishmen were commanded to wear British cloth ; but, after the arrival of the Flemish weavers, in 1331, an exception was made in favour of their goods. The manufac- ture had obtained a firm footing in Yorkshire before 1461, and on the passing of the act to confine the manufacture to towns, and limit the number of looms allowed to each weaver (2 & 3 Phil. & Mary c. n, ss. 9 & 10), in 1555, this county was exempted from all restrictions. Medley cloths were invented in 1614. In 1643 cloths were fully finished in England, although some kinds were still sent to Holland to be dyed. The art was, however, introduced in 1667. In 1698 both houses of Parliament petitioned William III. to diminish the Irish manufacture of woollen cloth and substitute that of linen in its stead ; and measures were afterwards taken with this view. The Cloth- workers' Company was incorporated April 28, 1482, and confirmed by Henry VIII. in 1528. It was re-incorporated and named Clothwork- ers by Elizabeth, whose charter was confirmed by Charles I. in 1634. CLOTH, GREEN (See MARSHALSEA COURT.) CLOUD, ST. (France). The name is said to be derived from St. Clodoald, a son of Clodo- mir, who became a monk and founded a monastery at this place, about five miles from Paris, in 551. The palace was built in 1572 by Jerome de Gondy, a rich financier. Henry III. was assassinated here Aug. 2, 1589. Louis XIV. purchased it in 1658, and presented it to the Duke of Orleans, and it remained the seat of that family until 1782, when Louis XVI. purchased it for Marie Antoinette. The sittings of the Councils of the Ancients and of the Five Hundred were transferred to St. Cloud, Nov. 9, 1799. The capitulation of Paris in 1815, and the ordinances of Charles X., July 25, 1830, were signed at this palace. The palace and the park have been embellished and improved by successive sovereigns of France. CLOVESHOO (Kent). A celebrated council was held at this place, supposed to be Cliff, near Rochester, though some authorities are in favour of Abingdon, Berks, and others Clifton CLOYNE [ 260 ] CLU8IUM lloo, Beds, in Sep., 742 or 747. Twelve English prelates assembled, with the nobility and clergy, under the sanction of Ethelbald, King of the Mercians. Thirty canons were passed, relating to the government and discipline of the Church. Councils were held here in 800 ; Oct. 12, 803 ; in 822; and in Aug., 824. CLOYNE (Ireland) was erected into a bishop- ric by St. Colman, who died Nov. 24, 604. In 1490 the see was united to Cork, but was sepa- rated in 1638. The celebrated Dr. Berkeley was Bishop of Cloyne from 1733 to 1753. On the death of Bishop Brinkley, in 1835, this see was permanently united to Cork and Ross, by 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 37 (Aug. 14, 1833). CLUB, THE (London). Dr. Johnson and Sir Joshua Reynolds formed a small circle of friends, which was called "The Club." It was founded in 1764, and the original members were nine in number, Edmund Burke and Oliver Goldsmith being included in the list. The number was increased to 12 soon after its estab- lishment ; to 20 in 1773 ; to 26 March n, 1777 ; to 30 Nov. 27, 1778; to 35 May 9, 1780; and finally to 40. They first met at supper, but in 1772 they resolved to dine together once every fortnight during the session of Parliament. The first meeting recorded in their books took place at the " Turk's Head," Gerard Street, April 7, 1775, from which they removed in 1783, and after various changes settled at the Thatched House, St. James's Street, Feb. 26, 1799. At Garrick's funeral, Feb. i, 1779, it took the title of the Literary Club. On the removal of the Thatched House, the Club was held at the Clarendon Hotel, where its centenary was tolel >ratcd J une 6, 1 864. Its title has been again changed to that of the Johnson Club. CLUB OF KINGS. (See KING CLUB.) CLUB OF 1789. Sieyes, Talleyrand, Lafay- ette, and others, not approving of the violent course adopted by the Jacobin Club, founded a new club under the above title in the spring of 1790. CLUBMEN. During the Great Rebellion, bands of armed men, bearing this title, opposed the military oppression to which they were subjected by both armies. In 1645 they peti- tioned Prince Rupert against their grievances, but, not receiving the satisfaction they re- quired, they harassed the Royalist forces, and, in the words of Clarendon, "did him (Gen. Goring) more mischief than all the power of the rebels. " CLUBS. Dr. Johnson defined a club to be "an assembly of good fellows, meeting under certain conditions." A club of this kind, under the name of "La Court de bone Compagnie,' was established during the reign of Henry IV. Occleve was one of its members ; and Chaucer is supposed to have belonged to it. Sir Walter Raleigh established the cclebrated-club at the Mermaid, in Bread Street, about the beginning of the 1 7th century. This was the scene of the wit-combats between Shakespeare and Ben Jonson, described by Beaumont : " What tilings have we seen Done at the Mermaid ! heard words that have been So iiimbU: and so full of subtile llame, As if that every one from whom they camo Had mount to put his wholu wit iu a jest." Jonson founded another club in Fleet Street. These, however, were social clubs, and ;he political club did not come into existence .mtil a later period. Lord Stanhope, in com- menting upon the formation of the Rocking- aam administration in 1765, says, "It was at this period, and under such a condition of par- ties that rival clubs for politics were formed, and rose into great vogue and importance. Under Lord Bute the Ministerial Club, as it was at first termed, used to meet at the Cocoa Tree Tavern, from which it soon derived its name." Gibbon describes it in his journal for Nov., 1762. Mr. Gladstone's proposal, April 1 6, 1863, to make clubs pay a license duty, was soon after withdrawn. A list of the principal clubs is given in the Index. (See BENEFIT SOCIETIES, WORKING MEN'S CLUBS, &c.) CLUBS (Foreign). The Societe* d'Entresol, in imitation of an English Club, which began to meet every Saturday at the lodgings in Paris of the Abbe Alari in 1724, was suppressed by Cardinal Fleury in 1731. Political societies, established in Paris in 1782, were suppressed by the police in 1787. The Breton Club, formed at Versailles in 1789, changed its name to that of the Jacobin Club. The "Club des Feuil- lants," of which Lafayette was a member, was founded in 1791 ; that of the Reunion was commenced by the Girondins, but suppressed Aug. 10, 1792. All these French clubs were abolished Sep. 4, 1797. An attempt was made to revive them during the revolution of Feb., 1848, but they were totally prohibited in 1849. During the first revolution several female clubs were formed in Paris, and the number of members at one time amounted to 6,000. They led to such grave disorders that they were closed by the Convention. Clubs were prohibited in Germany in 1793, and by an act of the Confederation iu 1832. CLUGNI, or CLUGNY (France), celebrated for its Benedictine abbey, founded by Wil- liam I., Count of Auvergne, in 910. Louis IX. of France and Pope Innocent IV. held a con- ference here in 1245. The monastery was frequently assailed by the Huguenots, and was almost entirely destroyed during the re- volution in 1789. (See CLUNIACS.) CLUNIACS, or CLUNIACENSIANS. Monks of the abbey of Clugny received this name. They were a branch of the Benedictines. Odo, Abbot of Clugny, in 927, reformed their rule, and the Cluniacs became renowned throughout Europe. William of Warrenne, made Earl of Surrey by William II., introduced the Clu- niacs into England, and gave them their first house, at Lewes, in Sussex, in 1077. They had 42 priories and cells in this country, the last having been established at Slevesholm, Norfolk,, in 1222. Wolsey dissolved four of their establishments in 1525, and the rest were suppressed at the Reformation. There were also nuns of this order. CLUSIUM (Italy). One of the 12 cities of which the Etruscan confederation was com- posed. Its original name was Camars. Por- senna, who is represented, by tradition, as having besieged Rome B.C. 508, was ruler of Clusium. It was besieged by the Gauls B.C. 390, B.C. 295, and B.C. 225. It became the seat CLYDE [ 261 1 COALITION of a bishopric at an early period, and is known under the modern name of Chiusi. CLYDE CANAL. The act for making this important communication between the rivers Forth and Clyde was obtained early in 1768, and the works were commenced by Sir Lau- rence Dundas, June 10. Mr. Smeaton was the chief engineer, and under his direction the works were completed July 28, 1790. CLYST, ST. MARY'S (Battle), was fought between the Protestant forces under Lord Grey and the Roman Catholic peasantry of Devonshire, on the evening of Saturday, Aug. 3, 1549, w hen the latter were defeated. Miles Coverdale, who afterwards translated the Bible into English, preached a thanksgiving sermon for the victory on the battle-field. CNIDUS, or GNIDOS (Asia Minor). This city, in Caria, was the metropolis of the Dorian confederacy. It is celebrated for the victory gained by Conon over the Lacedae- monian fleet, commanded by Pisander, B.C. 394. The inhabitants carried on a flourishing trade with Egypt at an early period. Aphro- dite was the great object of worship amongst the Cnidians. CNOSUS (Crete), also written Cnossus and Gnosus, was founded, according to tradition, by Minos, the mythical king of Crete. It was colonized by the Dorians, and, in alliance with the cities of Gortyna and Cydoiiia, ruled over the whole of the island. The Romans cap- tured it and planted a colony in it, B.C. 67. The celebrated Labyrinth of Crete, in which the Minotaur was confined, is always repre- sented as having been situated in this city. COACH. The precise period at which coaches were introduced is not known; but Italy, France, Spain, and Germany all claim the honour of the invention. Towards the end of the isth century, the queen of Charles of Anjou entered Naples in a caretta, which appears to have borne some resemblance to our carriages, and to have been regarded with favour by the French ladies, as Philip IV. (the Fair) prohibited the use of similar vehi- cles to citizens' wives in 1294. The Emperor Frederick III. visited Frankfort in a covered carriage in 1474, and in 1509 the Elector of Brandenburg possessed a coach gilt all over. The first carriage seen in England was intro- duced by the Earl of Arundeliii 1580, but they were not generally used till about 1605. The first who drove six horses in his coach was the Duke of Buckingham, in 1619 ; and his ex- ample was immediately emulated by the Earl of Northumberland, who set up a team of eight. A glass coach was used in Spain in 1631. Hackney coaches were first let for hire in London in 1625, in Paris in 1650, and at Edinburgh in 1673. Stage-coaches were intro- duced into England during the ijth century, but the earliest public notification of their establishment is dated April 26, 1658. One was started between London and Edinburgh before 1754 ; and in 1784 mail-coaches were instituted. Mr. Josiah Child brought the first cabriolet from Paris in 1755, and Horace Walpole states that every man of fashion soon set up a similar conveyance. Cabs were in- troduced into London in 1820, and cabriolets were first let for hire in 1823. The Coachmakers' Company was incorporated by Charles II. in 1671, as the Coach and Harness Makers'. COAL is supposed to have been known to the Britons before the arrival of the Romans, and to have been used in England in 852. The earliest document in which it is mentioned is Bishop Pudsey's Boldon Book, dated 1180, in which we read of colliers established at Escomb and Bishopwearmouth. Newcastle coal is first mentioned in 1234, when Henry III. granted the inhabitants a charter to dig it ; and sea-borne coal was sold in London before 1245, though at first only employed in the arts and manufactures. The Chinese used it in 1295. In consequence of a petition presented by Parliament to Edward I. in 1306, the use of coal in London and the suburbs was prohibited by proclamation as a nuisance. In 1321 the palace was warmed by coal. The exportation of coal from Newcastle commenced in 1325, in which year several cargoes were conveyed to France. A tax of twopence per chaldron on all coals sold to persons not fran- chised in the port of Newcastle was imposed in 1421, and made payable to the king; but the payment being very irregular, such large arrears were claimed by Queen Elizabeth, in 1599, that the town voluntarily agreed to pay a duty of is. per chaldron. Coal was fbst employed in the manufacture of glass and iron in 1624 ; and in 1638 its sale was made a monopoly by Charles I. The duty of is. per chaldron was granted by Charles II. to the Duke of Richmond, in 1677 ; whence it became known as the Richmond shilling. Its existence in Newfoundland was discovered in 1 763, and mines were opened in Cape Breton in 1767. The production of tar from coal was discovered in 1779. The impost of the Richmond shilling was finally relinquished March i, 1831 ; at which time the arrears, in consequence of which it was first claimed, were redeemed, with an overplus of .341,900, and the export duty, reduced by i & 2 Will. IV. c. 16 (Aug. 23, 1831), was entirely repealed by 8 Viet. c. 7 (April 24, 1845). COAL EXCHANGE (London). In 1807 the corporation possessed a coal exchange, which was converted into a market in 1831. The first stone of a new building was laid Dec. 14, 1847. It was opened by Prince Albert Oct. 30, 1849. COAL HARBOUR, or GAINES'S MILL (Battles). The Confederates, under Gens. Jack- son and Stuart, gained a complete victory over the Federals, led by Gen. McClellan, at this place in Virginia, June 27, 1862. The Federals had 60,000, and the Confederates 40,000 men. Gen. Grant attacked the- Confederate position here June 3, 1864. After having lost nearly 7,000 in killed, wounded, and prisoners, he was compelled to retire. COALITION (NORTH AND FOX) ADMI- NISTRATION. The vote of censure on the preliminaries of the peace of Versailles, passed Feb. 21, 1783, induced the Earl of Shelburne and his colleagues to resign office. Mr. Pitt, then only 23 years of age, was requested by George III. to form a ministry ; but he declined, and a long interregnum ensued, which was COALITION [ 262 ] COCHIN brought to a close by a coalition between Mr. Charles James Fox and Lord North, under the premiership of the Duke of Portland. The new ministry kissed hands April 2, 1783. The cabinet was thus constituted : Treasury Duke of Portland. FMadent of the Council Viscount Stormont. Privy Seal Earl of Carlisle. Chancellor of Exchequer Lord John Cavendish. Home Secretary- Lord North. Foreign Secretary Mr. C. J. Fox. Admiralty Viscount Keppel. The cabinet consisted of only seven persons. The great seal was placed in commission. Viscount Townshend was Master-general of the Ordnance ; Edmund Burke, Paymaster- general ; Mr. Richard Brinsley Sheridan, Secretary to the Treasury; and Mr. Charles Townshend, Treasurer of the Navy. Mr. Fox's India Bill was rejected on its second reading, in the House of Lords, Dec. 17, 1783; and Dec. 18 George III. sent a messenger to Lord North and Mr. Fox, requesting them to deliver up the seals of their offices, which they did Dec. 19. (See PITT (FIRST) ADMINISTRATION.) COALITION MINISTRY. (See ABERDEEN ADMINISTRATION and ALL THE TALE-. COAST-GUARD. This force, at first formed for the prevention of smuggling, and afterwards organized for defensive purposes, was trans- ferred from the Customs department to the Admiralty by 19 & 20 Viet. c. 83 (July 29, 1856). COAST VOLUNTEERS. (See ROYAL NAVAL COAST VoLtiNT! COASTING TRADE of Great Britain was thrown open to all nations by 17 Viet. c. 5 (March 23, 1854). COBALT." The name Cobalt," says Beck- mann, "is given at present to that metal, and its ores, the oxides of which are largely em- ployed in the manufactures of glass, porce- lain, and pottery, for the production of a blue colour." It was not known to the ancients. In 1 754 the Society for the Encouragement of Arts and Sciences offered a premium for the discovery of a cobalt-mine in the south of Eng- land. One was found at Gweimap, in Cornwall, to the proprietor of which the premium was awarded in Dec., 1754. The word cobalt is said to be derived from the kobold, goblin, a term applied to it by the German miners, because, as they assert, more valuable metals are never found where it occurs. COBALT BLUE. This pigment was dis- covered by the French chemist Thenard, in 1802. COBLENTZ (Prussia), the Confluentes of the Romans, is a town of great antiquity. The church of St. Castor, consecrated in 836, is the spot where the grandsons of Charle- magne met when they divided his empire into Germany, France, and Italy, in 843. At a council held here June 5, 860, peace was con- cluded between Lothaire, King of Lorraine, and the sons of Charles II. (the Bald). Ano- ther council took place in 922, and a third in 1012. Edward III. of England had an inter- view here with the Emperor Louis of Bavaria in 1338. The palace, built by the Elector of Treves in 1779, was used by the French as barracks during their occupation of the town in 1792. The Russians occupied Cobleiitz in 1814. A wooden bridge was built over the Rhine in 1819. In the spring of 1830, the waters of the Moselle thawed before those of the Rhine, and, being stopped by the ice, oc- casioned a destructive inundation. The millen- nial jubilee of the church of St. Castor, built in 836, was celebrated with great solemnity in 1836. The railway bridge over the Rhine was opened by the King and Queen of Prussia, May 9 , 1864. COBURG (Germany). The palace at this town, the capital of Saxe-Coburg Gotha, was built in 1549. Wallenstein made an unsuc- cessful effort to besiege the castle during the Thirty Years' war (1632). The gymnasium was founded in 1604. The memorial to Prince Albert was unveiled in the presence of Queen Victoria and the royal family of England, Aug. 26, 1865. COCCEIANS. The followers of John Cocceius or Coeken, born at Bremen, > Aug. 9, 1603. He was appointed Hebrew professor at Bremen in 1630, and at Franeker in 1636. In 1650 he became professor of divinity at Leyden, where he died Nov. 4, 1669. He taught that the whole of the Old Testament "was a kind of emblematic history of Christ, and of the Christian Church ; that the prophecies of the ancient prophets, in their literal import, treated of Jesus Ckri?l; and that whatever was to occur in the Christian Church, down to the end of time, was all prefigured in the Old Testament, in some places more clearly, and in others less so." He believed in a visible reign of Christ upon earth, after the conversion of the Jews. COCKEREL (Battle). Bertrand du Gues- clin defeated John, King of Navarre, at this hamlet, near Evreux, Thursday, May 16, 1364. Although the forces of the latter were much inferior to those of the former in number, the struggle was maintained with great resolution. Hy this victory nearly the whole of Nomiandy was Itrought under subjection to Charles V. of COCHIN (Hindostan). This native state was made tributary by Hyder AH in 1776. Treaties were concluded by the East India Company with the Rajah of Cochin in 1791 and May 6, 1809, by which, on the payment of an annual tribute, it was placed under British protection. The sea-port town of Cochin was founded by Albuquerque in 1503, being the first Portuguese establishment. The Dutch captured it in 1663. It was wrested from them by the English in 1796, and was, with its de- pendencies, ceded to England, in exchange for the island of Banca, by the second and third articles of the convention between England and the United Netherlands, signed at London Aug. 13, 1814. COCHIN CinXA Asia) formed part of the Chinese empire till a few centuries after our asra, but little is known of its early history. A.D. 1636. Cochin China is visited by some Italian Jesuits, who introduce Christianity. 1666. A French priest arrives on a missionary visit. 1774. The rcifrniiij? family is expelled, and the country divided between three brothers. COCHINEAL [ 263 ] COCK A.D. 1776. The number of native Christians is estimated at 300,000. 1778. Warren Hastings fails in an endeavour to establish commercial intercourse with Cochin China. 1-787. The French conclude a treaty with the native Govern- ment, but it is not carried into effect. 1790. The rightful heir recovers his possessions from the 1797. WitlTthe 'assistance of a French missionary he com- mences the introduction of many European arts. 1798. The Christians are subjected to a severe persecution. isoi. Gin-long, aided by the French, recovers his kingdom from a Tonquin usurper. 1803. Gia-long conquers Tonquin, and assumes the title of Emperor of Anam. 1804. The East India Company fail in an attempt to open trade. 1833. Mr. Crawfurd visits Cochin China with a letter from the Governor-General of India, but is refused an audience with the king. l82v The Christians are subjected to persecution. 1835, Nov. 30. M. Murchand, a French Christian, is put to deuth with .shocking barbarity. 1841. During the war of the English in China, the perse- cution relaxes in rigour. 1847. Sir John Davis, Governor of Hong-Kong, accredited British Plenipotentiary at the Cochin Chinese Court, visits the country with a letter from Queen Victoria, but is refused an audience. Commodore La Pierre (h strays the batteries and native fleet at Tourann. 1856, Tu-Duk, Emperor of Anam, contemptuously refuses permission to land in his territories to an envoy from Napoleon III. 1857, Bishop Diaz, the Spanish vicar-apostolic, is beheaded after being cruelly tortured. 1858, Aug. Admiral Kiguult de Genonilly, at the head of a French squadron, enters Tourann IViy. Hep. r. He attacks the forts, and, meeting with a vigorous resistance!, takes up an entrenched position, in which his troops suffer severely from the climate. 1859, July 30. The French having gained a victory at Sai- gon, an armistice is concluded, and negotiations for peace commence. Sep. 15. De Genouilly having discovered that the ue^otiati'ins were merely a ruse to enable the Cochin Chinese Government to em- ploy their army in suppressing an internal rebellion, attacks the enemy, and seizes their position. Oct. De Genouilly, relieved by Admiral 1'age, sails for France. 1860, Jan. i. The French having transferred their opera- tions to Saigon, that port and river are thrown open for trade. 1861, April 13. The French capture the fort of Mytho. 1863, June 3. Peace is concluded. Aug. 15. The French establish a lighthouse on Cape St. James, Saigon river. Dec. 17. The Emperor of Anam repudiates the peace, and the people of Saigon rise against the French, but are repulsed by the European troops. 1863, Jan. J - Saigon is proclaimed French territory. Feb. 26. Admiral Bernard captures Gokond and Fort Traica. 1864, July 15. Capt. Aubaret, French agent in Cochin China, concludes a treaty with the Imperial Government at Hue, the capital. 1865, March. The French Government refuses to ratify this treaty. (See ANAM, CAMBODIA, and TON- QUIN.) COCHINEAL was discovered by tlie Spa- niards in Mexico, in 1518. The insect from which the dye is obtained was introduced into St. Domingo by Thierry, a French naturalist, in 1777, and into India in 1795. Only an inferior quality of dye is produced there. Prescott says that the rich crimson of the best kinds is the modern rival of the famed Tyrian purple. The excise duty on cochineal, reduced to a shilling the hundredweight in 1842, was finally repealed by 8 & 9 Viet. c. 90 (1845). COCKADE. The ancient custom of wearing badges in the bonnet is generally considered to have given rise to the modern cockade. As worn by officer's servants, it is supposed to have originated during the wars of the Roses. In later times the black cockade was the Hanoverian badge, the white that of the Stuarts. COCK-CROWER (the King's). This officer during Lent crowed the hour every night within the precincts of the palace. George II., then Prince of Wales, was sitting down to supper on Ash-Wednesday, March 2, 1715 (the first Lent after the Hanoverian accession), when the occupant of the office entered the apartment, and performed his peculiar duty. The prince, mistaking it for an intended insult, was greatly incensed, and the custom was from that time discontinued. COCK-FIGHTING was established at Athens as a public or solemn pastime by Themistocles, previous to B.C. 465. The Romans received the custom from the Greeks, although they appear to have preferred quail-fighting. The date of its introduction into England is uncertain, but may probably be referred to the period of Roman supremacy. The earliest record on the subject occurs in a work of Fitz-Stephen's, who died in 1191. He mentions that it was the practice of schoolboys to bring their cocks to the master on Shrove-Tuesday, and devote the morning to an exhibition of their prowess. The sport was prohibited in France in 1260, and in England by Edward III. in 1365; again by Henry VIII.; by Elizabeth in 1569; and by Cromwell, March 31, 1654. The cock-pit in St. James's Park was removed in 1816, and the sport was prohibited in England by the Cruelty to Animals Act, 5 & 6 Will. IV. c. 59 (Sep. 9, 1835). This Act was extended to Ireland by i Viet. c. 66 (July 15, 1837). These acts were repealed and the law was made more stringent by 12 & 13 Viet. c. 92 (Aug. i, 1849). Cock- fighting is common in Asia, is a fashionable pastime with the ladies of Peru, and is carried to a great height in Ceylon. COCK-LANE GHOST. This famous decep- tion, practised in a house in Cock Lane, West Smithfield, in the years 1760, 1761, and 1762, created considerable sensation. The second and most notorious visitation commenced in Jan., 1762. A child about n years of age was thrown into violent fits by scratchings and knockings heard in different parts of the room, and communications were held with the supposed ghost who produced these noises. The case was taken up by several influential persons. The child was removed to the house of the Rev. S. Aldrich, rector of St. John's, Clerkenwell, and an investigation took place in the presence of several influential persons, on the night of Jan. 31. Measures had been taken to prevent any collusion, and the result was that the people assembled were unanimously of opinion, that "the child has some art of making, or counterfeiting, parti- cular noises ; and that there is no agency of any higher cause." The girl was moved from house to house, and was ultimately detected in an attempt to play off a trick upon her auditors. William Parsons, the officiating clerk of St. Sepulchre's, the father ; Elizabeth, his wife ; Mary Frazer, a girl who assisted in the deception ; a clergyman, and a tradesman, were tried at Guildhall, July 10, by a special COCKERMOUTH [ 264 ] COFFEE jury, before Lord Mansfield, and convicted o a conspiracy against the life and character o Mr. K . Sentence having been deferred fo seven or eight months, the clergyman and thi tradesman paid Mr. K between five and six hundred pounds, and were dismissed with severe reprimand. The father was sentencer to stand in the pillory three times in on< month, once at the end of Cock Lane, am after that to be imprisoned two years ; hi; wife to one year's imprisonment, and Marj Frazer to six months in Bridewell, with hare labour. COCKERMOUTH (Cumberland). The castl( of this town, erected in the nth century, sus tained a month's siege from the Royalists in 1648. The church, founded in the reign o: Edward III., rebuilt in 1711, and enlarged in 1825, was destroyed by fire in 1850. The free school was founded in 1676, the dispensary established in 1793, and the bridge over the Derwent was erected in 1822. The court-house was built about 1830. The Cockermouth and Worldngton Railway was opened throughoul April 28, 1847. The poet Wordsworth was born here April 7, 1770. COCKLE (Order). This military order was founded by Louis IX. of France in 1269, to induce his nobles to join in the disastrous in vasion of Africa, which cost him his life. (See CRUSADES.) It was also called the order of the Double Crescents and of the Ship, all three titles being taken from its decorations, which comprised a collar composed of escallop shells alternated with double crescents, and a badge adorned with the picture of a ship. COCKNP]Y. The origin of this term, as well as the reason for its application to a native of London, is involved in obscurity. In 1517, Henry VIII. made an order with re- ference to the feast of the King of the Cockneys, held on Childermas-day. The term Cockney School was'in 1817 applied to a lite- rary coterie consisting of Ilazlitt, Keats, Leigh Hunt, Shelley, . 51. It was erected into an archbishopric before 314. A.D. 508. Clovis I. is declared King of the Franks at Cologne. 511. Cologne forms part of Austrasia. A.D. 700. The church and nunnery of Santa Maria in Capitulio arc founded. 715. Charles Muriel sustains a defeat near Cologne. 783. Charlemagne holds a council. 814. The old cathedral is founded. 870, Sep. 26. A council is held on discipline. 873, Sep. 26. A council is summoned. 887, April I. A council is held against robbers of churches. 957. Cologne is declared an imperial town. 980. Archbishop Bruno founds the church of St. Panta- loon. 1057. A council for the reformation of the clergy is held. 1066. The church of St. Gereon is founded. 1 1 10. A council is held. 1115. The Emperor Ilemy V. is excommunicated at a council. 1119. The excommunication of Henry V. is published at a council. 1164. The relics of the three kings are removed to Cologne. 1185. The outer walls are built. 1186. A council is held. 1187. A council is held. 1248. Destruction of the old cathedral by fire. 1259. An stops trading to the neighbourhood are compelled to unload here. 1261, March 12. A council is held. 1266. A council is held. y 1270. The cathedral is commenced. 1281, March 9. A council on discipline is held. 1307, Feb. 23. A council against the Ucghards is held. 1310. The year is ordered by a council to commence :it Cologne at Christinas, instead of at Easier, i;c- cording to their custom. 1322, Oct. 31. A council is held. 1388. The university is founded. 1390, Sep. 16. The ancient statutes of the province aro renewed at a council. 1424, April 22. A council is held on discipline. 1425. Persecution and expulsion of the Je\vs. 1452, March 3. A council on discipline. 1536. A council on the duties of ecclesiastics, &c. 1571. The town-hall is built. 1577. Birth of Rubens at Cologne. 1579. A congress of European powers isheld at Cologne. 1618. Expulsion of the Protestants. 1636. The church of the Jesuits is founded. 1642. Mary d.' Medieis dies at Cologne. 1655, Sep. Prince Charles, afterwards Charles II. of Eng- land, arrives at Cologne. 1787. The Protestants are allowed to erect a place of wor- ship and a school. 1795. Cologne is seized by the French. 1801. It is made the capital of the French department of La Uoer, and the archbishopric is secularized. 1814. It is restored to Prussia, 1815. The fortifications are rebuilt. 1837. The navigation of the Uhinc is opened, which en- ables Cologne to cany on a direct foreign trade. 1841, Sep. I. The railroad to Aix-la-Chapelle is opened. 1843, Sep. 4. The King of Prussia lays the foundation- stone of the new transept. 1848, Sep. The newly- finished p:irts of the cathedral are- thrown open to the public. 1855. A permanent bridge over the Rhine, for railway and common traffic, is commenced. 1859. The south portal of the cathedral is completed. 1860. The central spire is added to the cathedral. 1865, June 2. An exhibition is opened by the Crown Prince of Prussia, COLOGNE-SUR-SPREE (Treaties). Frede- rick William, Elector of Brandenburg, by a treaty concluded at this place, which forms part of Berlin, April 26, 1672, agreed to assist the Dutch against Louis XIV. with 20,000 men. He also signed an alliance here with the Em- peror Leopold I., Charles II. of Spain, and the States-General, July i, 1674. A third treaty, concluded Feb. 10, 1682, established union and engagements to supply mutual aid between the said Elector and Christian V. of Denmark. Louis XIV. here signed an agreement with Frederick William of Brandenburg relative to the fulfilment of the truce of Ratisbon (q. v.), COLOMBIA [ 269 ] COLONY Nov. 4, 1684. A convention of boundaries was signed here by the Duke of Pomerania (Charles XII. of Sweden) and Frederick, Elector of Bran- denburg, March 31, 1699. COLOMBIA (South America). The ancient vice-royalty of New Granada and Quito, and the state of Venezuela, having thrown off the Spanish yoke, formed themselves into a re- public under the name of Colombia, in 1819. A.D. 1830, July 13. The Congress express willingness to enter into negotiations with Spain, if their republic is acknowledged independent. 1831, June 24. The republican troops, under Gen. Bolivar, clef eat the royalists at Carabobo (.). Dec. Spain loses all power in the new republic. 1833, Nov. 13. Battle of Maracaibo, in which the republi- cans are defeated by the royalists, under Gen. Morales. 1823, March 8. Treaty of alliance between Colombia and Buenos Ayres. Nov. 6. The Colombians take Puerto Cabello. 1834, Feb. 10. Bolivar is elected dictator by the Congress of Peru. June 30. An alliance is formed between Colombia and Mexico. 1825, Jan. i. Great Britain recognizes the independence of Colombia. March 15. A treaty of alliance is con- cluded with Guatemala. May 28. A treaty of friendship and commerce is made with the United States. Nov. 7. A treaty of friendship and com- merce is made with Great Britain. 1826, Aug. 19. The Congress at Lima declares Bolivar pre- sident for lift'. Sep. i. B jlivar appoints Santa-Cruz his deputy during his absence in Peru. Nov. 14. Bolivar returns to Santa F< de Bogota. Nov. 23. He accepts the dictatorship. 1828, April 18. Insurrection of Colombian troops. April 23. The Congress of Ocana declares Ignacio Marques president. Sep. 25. Santander excites a revolt against Bolivar, who escapes assassination, and quells the insurrection. 1829, Venezuela constitutes itself a separate republic. 1830, Jan. 20. Bolivar tenders his resignation of the presi- dentship, and retires to Cartagena shortly after- wards. Venezuela again joins New Granada. Dec. 17. Death of Bolivar. 1831, Nov. 17. Venezuela, New Granada, and Colombia again become separate states. (See VENEZUELA.) COLOMBO (Ceylon), called by the Moors Kalambu, and mentioned by them in 1340, was fortified by the Portuguese in 1517. Cotta (q. v.) having been dismantled in 1564, Colombo was made the capital of Ceylon. Rajah Singha laid siege to it in Aug., 1586, but was forced to withdraw the following year. The Dutch wrested it from the Portuguese in 1656, and retained possession till, by a treaty signed here Feb. 15, 1796, they ceded all their fortified towns and stations in Ceylon to the English. Colombo was made a bishopric in 1845. COLONIA. (See CAMELODUNTJM.) COLONIAL BISHOPRICS. The bishops of the Scotch Episcopal Church consecrated the Rev. Dr. Seabury, of Connecticut, first bishop in America, at Aberdeen, Nov. 24., 1784. Bishops for New York and Pennsylvania were consecrated at Lambeth, Feb. 4, 1787, and bishops were afterwards appointed for other parts of the United States. Nova Scotia, the first colonial see, was erected Aug. n, 1787. By 15 & 16 Viet. c. 52 (June 30, 1852), extended by 16 & 17 Viet., c. 49 (Aug. 4, 1853), colonial bishops are empowered to exercise all episcopal functions in the United Kingdom except that of jurisdiction. The following are the colonial sees, with the date of erection : A.D. 1787. Nova Scotia. 1793. Quebec. 1813. Calcutta. 1824. Barbadoes. 1824. Jamaica. 1833. Bombay. 1833. Madras. 1836. Australia, afterwards Sydney. 1839. Newfoundland. 1839. Toronto, Canada West. 1841. New Zealand. 1843. Antigua. 1842. British Guiana. 1842. Gibraltar. 1842. Tasmania. 1845. Colombo, Ceylon. 1845. Fredericton, New Brunswick. 1847. Adelaide, South Aus- tralia. 1847. Cape Town, Cape of Good Hope. 1847. Melbourne, Victoria. 1847. Newcastle, N. S. Wales. 1850. Sierra Leone. 1853. Graham's Town, Cape of Good Hope. 1853. Natal, Cape of Good Hope. 1854. Mauritius. 1855. Labuan, Borneo. 1856. Christchurch, New- Zealand. 1856. Kingston, Jamaica. 1856. Perth, Western Aus- tralia. 1857. Huron, Canada West 1858. Nelson, New Zealand. 1858. Wellington, New Zea- land. 1858. British Columbia. 1859. Brisbane,MoretonBay. 1859. St. Helena. 1859. Waiapu, New Zealand. 1861. Nassau, Bahama Islands. 1861. Ontario, Canada. 1863. Goulbourn,N.S. Wales. 1865. Dunedin,NewZealand. 1865. Graf ton and Armidale. 1865. New Westminster, British Columbia. 847. Sydney. 1849. Victoria, Hong-Kong. 1850. Montreal, Canada. 1850. Prince Rupert's Land. (See MISSIONARY BISHOPS.) COLONY. The Phoenicians and the Carians planted several colonies in the Mediterranean, and the Greeks followed their example. The Romans began to establish colonies during the monarchical period. In modern times, the Venetians, the Portuguese, the Spanish, the French, the English, and the Dutch, have been distinguished by their attempts to form colonies. England has succeeded in establish- ing the most extensive colonial empire of ancient or modern times. The following list of colonies, which are more fully described under their titles, contains the date of the first connection of England with each, whether by conquest, settlement, or treaty : A.D. 1536. Newfoundland. 1579. Moluccas. 1609. Bermudas. 1618. African Forts. 1618. Gambia. 1618. Gold Coast. 1620. Cape of Good Hope. 1621. Nova Scotia. 1623. st - Christopher's. 1634. Barbadoes. 1628. Nevis. 1630. Bahama Islands. 1633. Antigua. 1633. Montserrat. 1632. Anguilla, or Snake Island. 1634. Bengal. 1634. Berbice. 1639. Madras. 1651. St. Helena, 1655. Jamaica. 1661. Cape Coast Castle. 1663. Bombay. 1666. Toitola, Virgin Isles. 1668. Dominica. 1674. Belize, or British Hon- duras. 1704. Gibraltar. 1713. New Brunswick. 1745. Prince Edward's Island. 1745. Cape Breton. 1759. Lower Canada. 1760. Upper Canada. 1762. Grenada. 176?. St. Lucia. A.D. 1763. Tobago. 1763. St. Vincent. 1763. Ceylon. 1766. Falkland Islands. 1770. New South Wales. 1785. Penang, or Prince of Wales Island. 1787. Sierra Leone. 1792. Vancouver Island. 1796. Demerara. 1796. Esscquibo. 1797. Trinidad. 1798. Gozo. 1800. Malta. 1803. Port Philip. 1803. Tasmania, or Van Die- man's Laud. 1807. Heligoland. 1809. The Ionian Islands. 1810. Mauritius. 1814. New Zealand. 1815. Ascension Island. 1824. Natal. 1827. Fernando Po. 1829. Western Australia, or Swan River. 1831. British Guiana. 1834. South Australia. 1837. Victoria, Australia. 1841. Hong-Koug. 1848. Labuan. 1851. Lagos. 1858. British Columbia. 1859. Queensland, or More- ton Bay. COLOPHON [ 270 ] COMEDY COLOPHON (Asia Minor). An Ionian city, founded, according to tradition, by Andrsemon. It was a flourishing city as late as B.C. 66. Strabo says that the Colophonians were cele- brated for the excellence of their cavalry. It was, in fact, considered invincible, and gave rise to the proverb, " He has put the Colophon to it," or given the finishing stroke, used to show that a matter had been brought to a certain termination. Old works, before the introduction of a title-page, had title, date, &c., printed at the end ; and this, as the last thing printed, was termed a colophon. COLORADO, orCOLERADO (United States). This district was separated from Utah and Kansas, and organized as a distinct territory by act of Congress, Feb. 28, 1861. It main- tained the Federal interests during the civil war. A proposal to erect it into a state of the Union was rejected in March, 1866. Important gold fields have been discovered. COLOSSI Asia Minor). This city of Phrygia, first mentioned by Herodotus (B.C. 484 408), was visited by Xerxes with his army B.C. 481, and by Cyrus the Younger B.C. 401. In the time of Strabo V B.C. 60 A.D. 21) it had lost most of its ancient importance, and now scarce a ruin marks its former site. COLOSSEUM. (&e COLISEUM.) COLOSSI. A NS Kpisllu was addressed by St. Paul to the Christians of Colossae, in I'hryxia, in 62. COLOSSUS OF RHODES, a brazen statue of Apollo, commenced by Chares de Lindos B.C. 290, and completed B.C. 280. The statement that one foot rested on each side of the har- bour of Rhodes, and that ships passed under it in full sail, does not rest on good authority. It was 105 feet in height, and was ascended by a winding staircase. It was overthrown by an earthquake B.C. 224 or B.C. 222, and was never re-erected. The remains were sold to a Jewish merchant of Eclcssa in 672, and 900 camels were laden with the brass. It was one of the seven wonders of the world. COLU.M HI A 8. ( 'arolina), the capital of the state, was founded in 1787, when the seat of government was removed hither from Charles- t. >u. The S. Carolina college was founded in 1804, and the Presbyterian theological semi- nary in 1831. It was occupied by the Federals under Gen. Sherman Feb. 17, 1865. COLUMBIA DISTRICT (United States), originally containing about 100 square miles, was ceded to the United States Government by the states of Virginia and Maryland in 1 790. Washington (q. v.}, the capital, was surveyed in 1791. The annexation of the county of Alexandria to Virginia in 1846 reduced the area of the district to 60 square miles. The senate of the United States abolished slavery in this district April 3, 1862. COLUMBIA RIVER. (See OREGON.) COLUMBLUM, or TANTALUM. This metal was discovered by Mr. Hatchcll in a ferru- ginous mineral from North America in 1801. Eckeberg, who afterwards found it in a Swe- dish mineral, gave it the name of Tantalum. COLUMBUS (United States). This, the chief town of Ohio, was founded in 1812 and incorporated in 1816. The state-house, erected in 1814, was burned Feb. i, 1852. The insti- tution for the blind and the lunatic asylum were founded in 1836. COMBS were made by the Greeks and Romans, and during the Middle Ages, of box- wood, ivory, and other materials. They often occur in early barrows, British, Roman, and Saxon ; and were buried with both pagans and Christians. Some were found at Pompeii like the modern srnall-t ;oth combs. In the i3th century combs were sometimes made of gold and set with jewels. The Comb-makers' Com- pany was incorporated in 1636. COMEDY was introduced at Athens by Susarion and Doloii, B.C. 578. Epicharmus, born at Cos B.C. 540, composed the first regular comedies. Thespis, the " father of comedy," performed on a waggon B.C. 535. A decree for its prohibition was passed B.C. 440, but was evaded, as performances are recorded to have taken place B.C. 439 and B.C. 437. Aristo- phanes, the chief poet of the old comedy, exhi- bited his first production B.C. 427. The middle comedy commenced B.C. 375, and was sup- ported by 35 poets, none of whom are of great repute. The new comedy, which began about B.C. 335, owes its chief celebrity to the pro- ductions of Menander, who commenced his theatrical career B.C. 321. The principal Latin comedy writers are Plautus, who died B.C. 184, and Terence, B.C. 159. Some difference of opinion prevails respecting the origin of Eng- lish c-omedy. Hallam (Lit, vol. ii. pt. ii. ch. 6) speaks of " Ralph Roister Doister, written by Udal in the reign of Henry VI II., as the earliest English comedy in a proper sense, so far as our negative evidence warrants such a position." This comedy, probably written before 1540, was first printed in 1565. Hallam believes it to be "the earliest lively picture of London manners among the gallants and citizens, who furnished so much for the stage down to the civil wars." For a long time " Gammar Gvirton's Needle," supposed to have been written by John Still, afterwards Bishop of Bath and Wells, was considered the first Knglish comedy. It was represented at Christ's College, Cambridge, about 1565, and the earliest edition is that of 1575. " Misogonus," written by Thomas Rychardes, another comedy, is known to have been written before 1560. In France, Jodelle's comedy of " La Rencontre" was represented before Henry II. in 1552; and his comedy of "L'Abho Eugene" was published about the same time. Hallam terms the " Le Menteur" of Comeille " the first French comedy written in polite language, without low wit or indecency." The comedies of Larivey were published in 1579 ; and Moliere began to write in 1653. Ariosto wrote the first regular Italian comedies in 1495, and Machiavelli composed his "Mandra- gola" before 1520. Flamiiiio Scala first pub- lished the outline of a series of extemporaneous comedies in 1611, and they afterwards became the most popular branch of the Italian drama. Spanish comedy commenced in the latter portion of the i6th century, and was chiefly supported by Lope de Vega, who flourished in 1600, and by Calderon, who published 12 comedies in 1635. The German theatre is not COMETS [ 271 1 COMMANDER very rich in comic authors. Hans Sachs, who died Jan. 25, 1578, probably supplied its ear- liest comedies. COMETS. Humboldt (Cosmos, vol. i. p. 84) remarks, that " Kepler, with his usual anima- tion of expression, said that there were more comets in the regions of space than fishes in the depths of ocean. As yet, however, there are scarcely 150 whose paths have been calcu- lated, if we may assume at 600 or 700 the number of comets whose appearance and passage through known constellations have been ascertained by more or less precise observations." The Chinese observations, which commence B.C. 500, are of great value. Mr. John Russell Hind has published a history of comets; and in his work much of the in- formation given in the following list will be found : 370. A comet is mentioned by Aristotle. It is calculated by Pingre. 136. A comet is mentioned by Justin, and observed in China. 53. A comet, supposed by Arago to be Halley's, is ob- served in Europe. 44. A comet is seen at Rome. AD. i -;x. A comet is observed by the Chinese. 389. A comet is mentioned by contemporary historians as of extraordinary brilliancy and size, and as a cause of much terror. 531. A comet, supposed to be the same as that which ap- peared B.C. 44, is visible. c83. A comet is recorded in the Chronicle of Idatius. 615, July. A comet is observed in China. First mention of coruscations in the tail of a comet. 885. A comet, said by Arago to be Halley's Comet, is ob- served. 891, May. A comet is observed in Europe and in China. 989. A comet is observed in China, and supposed to have been Halley'x Comet. 1006. A comet, probably Halley's, is observed by Hali Ben Kodoan. 1066. A comet is observed in Europe, and considered omi- nous, as it occurred in the year of the Norman con- quest. ncC. A comet, supposed to be the same which appeared B.C. 44 is visible. 1230. A comet, probably Halley's, is observed. 1364. A comet, calculated by Pingre, is supposed to be identical with that of 1556. 1305. Acomer, prohMbly ll.-illey's, is observed. 1337. A fine comet is described by Nicephorus Gregoras and in the Chinese annals. 1378. A comet, afterwards found to be HaUey's Comet, is observed by the Chinese. 1403. A very splendid comet is visible in Europe and Asia. 1456. Halley's Comet is observed in Europe and China. 1473. A very splendid comet, with a prodigiously long tail, is observed in Europe and China. 1537. A comet appears. 1531. Apian observes a comet (Halley's) at Ingoldstadt. 1556. A comet, supposed to be that of 1364, is visible. 1607. A comet (Halley's) makes its appearance. 1618, Nov. A comet is discovered by Kepler, Gassendi, and others, and observed by Harriott. 1680, Nov. 14. A comet, discovered by Godfrey Kirch, at Coburg, directed Newton's attention to cometary astronomy. This comet is supposed to be identical with that which appeared B.C. 44 and A.D. 531 and 1 1 06. 1683. Halley's Comet, discovered by him to be identical with that of 1456 and succeeding years, and to be periodical in its return. This was the first demon- stration of the periodical return of comets. 1707, Nov. 25. A comet is discovered by Manfred! and Stan- cari, at Bologna. 1744. The finest comet of the i8th century appears, and is observed by almost every astronomer of the age. 1759. Apian or Halley's Cnmet returns. 1773. Biela or Gambart's Comet appears 1786, Jan. 17. Encke's Comet is discovered by Mechain. 1811, March 36. The Grand Comet is discovered by Flau- gergues, at Viviers. 1815, March 6. Others' Comet is discovered by Olbers, at Bremen. 1819. Encke's Comet is discovered by Pens. During this appearance its periodicity was detected by Encke. 1833, Dec. A comet with two tails, one turned from the sun, and the other towards it, is seen in various parts of Europe. 1835, July IS- The Great Comet of 1825, discovered by Pons is calculated by Hansen. 1836, Feb. 37. Biela or Gambart'g Comet is discovered by Biela, at Josephstadt. During this appearance its recurrence at short periods was ascertained. 1835. Apian or Halley's Comet reappears. 1843, Feb. 28. The Great Comet of 1843 is discovered in America, Italy, and at the Cape. 1844, Nov. 33. Faye's Comet is discovered by Faye, at Paris, and ascertained to be periodical. 1846. Biela or Gambart's Comet reappears. 1851, June 37. D'Anest's Comet is discovered by D'Anest, at Leipsic, and ascertained to be periodical. 1853. Biela or Gambart's Comet is again visible. 1858, June 3. Donatfs Comet is discovered by Donati, at Florence. It was seen in Great Britain in Sep. and Oct. 1860, Oct. M. Tempel discovers a comet at Marseilles. 1861, June 30. A brilliant comet is first visible in England. Dec. 29. Mr. Tuttle discovers a telescopic comet at Harvard College, Cambridge, U.S. 1863, July 2. Schmidt discovers a comet at Athens. July 18. A comet, discovered at Cambridge, U.S., is afterwards observed at Rome by Prof. Rosa. 1863, Oct. 9. Backer, a watchmaker of Leipsic, discovers a small comet. Nov. 4. Tempel discovers a comet visible to the naked eye. Dec. 38. M. Respighi, of Bologna Observatory, discovers a comet. 1864, Jan. I. A new comet is observed by M. Backer, of Nauen, near Berlin. July 6. A comet is observed by Tempel, at Marseilles, and Respighi, at Bologna. 1865, A comet is visible in Australia. COMFITS. During the reign of Henry III. of France ' (1574 1589) an excessive use of comfits was one of the flagrant follies of fashion. Disraeli (Curiosities, i. 221) says, " All the world, the grave and the gay, car- ried in their pockets a comfit-box, as we do snuff-boxes. They used them even on the most solemn occasions ; when the Duke of Guise was shot at Blois, he was found with his comfit-box in his hand." COMMAGEN, or COMMAGENE (Syria). This little kingdom, which during the supre- macy of the Seleucidge (B.C. 323 B.C. 65) formed part of the Syrian territory, became subsequently an independent state. Its king, Antiochus, besieged in his capital, Samosata (q. v.), by Ventidius, B.C. 38, was put to death at Rome, B.C. 29. Augustus conferred Comma- gen upon an infant prince named Mithridates, B.C. 20, and on the death of King Antiochus HI., A.D. 17, it became a Roman province. In 38 it was given to Antiochus IV., son of the former king, and in 73 was again reduced to the state of a province. This district, united with Cyrrhestica (q. v.) by Constantine I. (323337), received from him the name of Euphratensis. It was ravaged by the Persians under Chosroes COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF. This officer acts as the immediate deputy of the sovereign in controlling the organization, &c., of the land forces of the country: their employment, h ordinal is published. 1551, The Prayer-Hook is revised. 1552, Nov. The second Prayer-Book is published and used. 1558, Dec. Two editions of the Litany are published. 1559, June 24. Queen Elizabeth's revised Prayer-Book is published, and ordered to be used. 1560, Haddon's Latin translation of the Prayer-Book. 1571. A correct Latin version of the Prayer-Book is pub- lished. 1578. The Puritan Prayer-Book is published. 1604. James the First's I'raver-Book is published. 1637. Charles the First's Piayer-Book for Scotland is pub- lished. 1643. The use of the Book of Common Prayer is prohibited by the Long Parliament. 1661. The Prayer- Hook is revised. 1662. Charles the Second's Prayer-Book is published. 1689. An attempt is made to revise the Prayer-Book. 1859, Jan. 17. Warrant under the royal sign manual for discontinuing the special services for Jan. 30, May 29, and Nov. 5, and for omitting them in the Book of Common Prayer, is signed at St. James's. Jan. 18. The warrant is published in the London Gazette. COMMONS. (See HOUSE OF COMMONS.) COMMONWEALTH. (See INTERREGNUM.) COMMUNION SERVICE. The early Church was exceedingly strict in the admi- nistration of the Eucharist, and during the 3rd century denied the privilege of communi- cation to a converted sinner who twice relapsed into error. Communion in two kinds was enjoined by Leo I. (the Great) in 445, in order to discover Manichgeans, who objected to take wine. The Council of Agda in 506 enacted that clergy not communicating at Easter, Whitsuntide, and Christmas, should no longer be regarded as Catholics; and the Lateran (twelfth general) council, held Nov. n, 1215, ordered all the faithful of both sexes to confess and communicate at Easter. Communion in one kind only was instituted by Pope Urban II. at the commencement of the Crusades in 1096, but it was not rendered imperative till 1414, when the Council of Constance for- bade the clergy to administer wine to lay communicants, under pain of excommuni- cation. The Romish Church has ever since administered the communion in one kind. The communion service of the Church of England was adopted in 1552. COMMUNISTS [ 275 ] COMPROMISE COMMUNISTS. The followers of Robert Owen, Saint Simon, Fourier, and Proudhon are distinguished from other Socialists, of which they form a branch, by this name. Com- munism was explained and advocated by Robert Owen in "A New View of Society, or Essays on the Principle of the Formation of the Human Character, and the Application of the Principle to Practice," published in 1813. He attempted to form a communist society in 1825 but this failed ; and " Harmony Hall," established in Hampshire in 1843, did not prove more successful. Similar attempts made on the continent have also failed. Owen died Nov. 17, 1858. COMO (Italy), the Comum Novum of the Romans, who planted a colony here B.C. 188. It was erected into a bishopric by St. Felix, in 379. Inn 27 it was besieged and burned by the Milanese, who did not finally annex it to their territories till 1335. The cathedral was commenced in 1396. COMORN, or KOMORN (Hungary), a town of great antiquity, was taken and burned by Soliman I. in 1543. It was soon rebuilt ; but the Turks returned and captured it in 1594. The Imperialists obtained possession in 1597, and in 1598 it again fell under Turkish power. Comorn was erected into a royal town in 1751. The fortress was rebuilt in 1805. During the Hungarian revolution, the Austrians were defeated in a battle near this place, July n, 1849. The town was given up to the Austrians Oct. i, 1849. COMPANIES. Trade guilds are mentioned in Judica Civitatis Londonice, compiled by King Athelstan, and other Anglo-Saxon laws ; and they therefore existed as early as in 939. The company of Steelyard Merchants settled in England before 967, and the original foun- dation of the Saddlers' Company is referred to the same period. Henry I. (iioo -1135), granted a charter to 'the weavers, and is sup- posed to have established the first Anglo- Norman guild. In the reign of Henry II. trade guilds were common institutions, and their formation was encouraged by that king and his successors John and Henry III. THE CHIEF COMPANIES STYLED HONOURABLE : Incorporated Incorporated A.D. A.D. 1337. Goldsmiths. 1447. Haberdashers. 1337. Skinners. 1403. Ironmongers. 1345. Grocers. 1305. Vintners. 1466. Merchant Tailors. 1483. Clothworkers. 1394. Mercers. 1509. Fishmongers (Stock). 1430. Drapers. 1433. Fishmongers (Salt). 1536. Fishmongers united. 1558. Salters. Incorporated Incorporated A.D. A.D. 1110-1135. Reign of Henry I. Weavers. 1463. Tallow Chandlers. 1471. Dyers. 1115. Bakers. 1473. Cooks. 123.3. Parish Clerks. 1473. Pewterers. 1273. Saddlers. 1477. Carpenters. 1383. Leather Sellers. 1484. Wax Chandlers. 1410. Cordwainers. 1487. Fletchers. 1411. Masons. 1501. Coopers. 1417. Cutlers. 1501. Plasterers. 1433. Armourers and Braziers. 1504. Poulterers. 1508. Tilers and Bricklayers. 1438. Brewers. 1514. Inn-holders. 1449. Girdlers. 1540. Barbers and Surgeons 1463. Barbers. united. 556. Watermen. 7. Stationers. 13. Embroiderers. 19. Joiners. 578. Blacksmiths. 3. Paper Stainers. 4. Felt Makers. 604. Musicians. 604. Turners. 605. Butchers. 605. Curriers. 605. Fruiterers. 605. Shipwrights. 605. Woodmongers. 613. Plumbers. 614. Founders. Gardeners. 616. Scriveners. 617. Apothecaries separated from Grocers. 630. Bowyers. 633. Starch Makers. 633. Gold and Silver Wire Drawers. 637. Upholders. 639. Card Makers. 629. Spectacle Makers. 630. Silk Throwsters. 631. Silkmen. 1633. Clock Makers. 1636. Comb Makers. 1636. Pin Makers. 1637. Glaziers. 1638. Distillers. 1638. Gun Makers. 1638. Horners. 1638. Soap Makers. 1639. Glovers. 1656. Needle Makers. 1663. Framework Knitters. 1663. Tobacco-pipe Makers. 1664. Glass Sellers. 1664. Hatband Makers. 1668. Carmen. 1687. Fishermen. 1670. Farriers. 1670. Patten Makers. 1670. Tin-plate Workers. 1670. Wheelwrights. 1677. Coach and Harness Makers. 1709. Fan Makers. 1713. Lorimers. 1745. Barbers and Surgeons separated. Basket Makers. Paviors. Woolmen. See AFRICAN COMPANY, FINANCIAL COMPANIES, FREE COMPANIES, GUILDS, JOINT-STOCK COM- ANIES ACTS, &C. &C.) COMPASS. (-See MARINER'S COMPASS.) COMPIEGNE (France). This town, the ancient Compendium, built by the Gauls, was enlarged by Charles II. (the Bald) in 876, and called by him Carliopolis. Councils were held aere June 22, 756 ; in 823 ; Oct. i, 833 ; in 861 ; .n 871 ; May i and Dec. 8, 877 ; in 1085 ; Nov. 4, [198; Aug. 5, 1235; May 19, 1270; April 9, 1278 ; Jan. 4, 1303 ; and Sep. 8, 1329. It was taken from the Burgundians by Charles VI. in 1415, and besieged by the English, who took Joan of Arc prisoner here, May 26, 1430. Napoleon I. met the Archduchess Maria Louisa of Austria at this town in 1810. A statue to Joan of Arc was erected in 1860. COMPLUTENSIAN BIBLE. This polyglot Bible was projected by Cardinal Ximenes, or Jimenez de Cisneros, who spent 52,000 ducats in forwarding the work. It was printed at the Spanish town Alcala, from the Latin name of which, Complutum, it derives its name. The idea first occurred to Cardinal Ximenes in 1502, when the work was commenced. The New Testament was completed Jan. 10, 1514, and the Old Testament in July, 1517, when Ximenes, who died Nov. 8, 1517, was on his death-bed. It was not published till 1520. COMPLUTUM. (See ALCALA.) COMPOSTELLA. (See JAMES, ST. (Order), and SANTIAGO.) COMPREHENSION SCHEME. This mea- sure for the enlargement of the basis of the Church of England, by making certain alterations in the liturgy, in order to admit Dissenters, passed the House of Lords in 1689. The Commons presented an address to the king, requesting him to summon a convoca- tion, and this having been done, discussions arose, which ended in the abandonment of the plan. An attempt to pass a similar scheme in Scotland in 1678 also failed. COMPROMISE (The). A document promul- gated by a league of Flemish nobles at a T 2 CONCEPCION [ 276 ] CONDE meeting held at Breda in Jan., 1566, de- nouncing the tyranny of the Spanish Govern- ment, received this name. In the course of two months it received 2,000 signatures. It was presented to the regent, Margaret, sister of Philip II. (See GUEUX.) CONCEPCION (South America), the capital of a province of the same name, in Chili, was built in 1763. It was destroyed by an earth- quake Feb. 20, 1835. CONCEPTION BAY (Newfoundland), was first settled by about 40 colonists in 1640. CONCEPTUALISTS. (See NOMINALISTS.) CONCERT. This entertainment originated in Italy, and the earliest on record is that of the Filarmonici, which was established at Vicenza as early as 1565. The Academy of Ancient Music, founded in 1710, introduced concerts into England. The Concerts Spiri- tuels were established at Paris in 1725, and the Gewandhaus Concerts at Leipsic in 1742. A.D. 1738. Royal Society of Musicians. 1741. Madrigal Society. 1761. Noblemen and Gentlemen's Catch Club. 1763. Bach's Concerts. 1770. Concert of Ancient Music. 1785. Ceciliun Society. 1787. Glee Club. 1791. Choral Fund Salomon's Concerts. 1793. Harrison and Kiiyvett's Concert. 1813. Philharmonic Social v. 1823. Koyal Academy of Music British and Foreign Musi- cians' .Society. 1833. Britisli ('., 1825. Melodists- Club. 1833. Sucred Harmonic Society. 1833. Vocal Soei.-ty. 1834. Society Of M'ritish Huitd 1837. Purccil Club. 1839. Uoyal Society of Female Musicians. 1840. Western Hadrlgal Society. 1843. Hound, Catch, and Canon Club. 1844. Promenade Concerts. Jt.> Musical I'nion. 1848. London Sacred Harmonic. 1849. Bach Society. 1851. English Glee and Madrigal Union Reunion des Arts. 1853. New Philharmonic Society -Musical Insiituti Musi- cal Winter Evenings 'Tonic S,>l-fa Association. 1856, May 22. Henry Leslie's Choir Vocal Association- London 1'olvhvmnia Choir. 1858, April 30. Musical Soci tral Association. Society of London English Orel 1859. Monday Popular Concerts Amateur Musical Society. 1860. National Choral Society. 1863. Pianoforte Quartet Association. 1863. Polyhymnian Choir. CONC HO LOGY. Pliny divided shell- covered animals into soft, crustacean, and tes- taceous : but no correct system for their classification was known till Dr. John Daniel Major, of Kiel, published his tables of Ostra- cology in 1674. Martin Lister announced another arrangement in 1678, and published his great work in 1685 ; and Philip Bonanni published his system in 1684. George "E. Ruruphius in 1701, and Nicholas Languis in 1722, contributed to bring the science to its present state of accuracy. CONCLAVE. The assembly of the cardi- nals, by which, when a vacancy occurs in the papal see, a new pope is elected, was insti- tuted by Alexander III. in 1179, and regulated by a bull published by Gregory X. at the i4th general council held at Lyons, May 7 July 17, 1274. It received its name from a gloomy apartment in the Vatican, called the Conclave, in which the cardinals were shut up to nominate the new pope, within nine days of the death of the former occupant of the see. If the election was not made in three days the cardinals were only allowed a single dish at dinner and at supper, and after the eighth day received only a small allowance of bread, water, and wine. John XXI. or XXII. sus- pended the operations of the Conclave, and after the death of Nicholas IV. an interval of two years and three months elapsed before a successor was elected in the person of Peter Morone, who took the title of Ccelestine V., July 5, 1294. The Conclave was, however, re- established. Gregory XV. in 1621, and Urban VIII. in 1625, issued bulls for its regulation. CONCORD (Battle). The first struggle between the revolted Americans and the En- glish troops occurred near this town, in Massa- chusetts, April 19, 1775. The latter, after having destroyed three guns and all the military stores, withdrew to Lexington. This is sometimes called the battle of Lexington. CONCORDANCE. The first concordance or verbal index to the Bible, was drawn up by Anthony of Padua, who nourished from 1195 to 1231. It was entitled Con<-'i,'oleon I., the Kings of Bavaria and Wurtemberg, the Archbishop of Ratisbon, the Elector of Baden, the Duke of Berg, the Landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt, the Princes of Nassau-Weilburg and Nassau-Usingen, of Ho- CONFESSIONAL t 278 1 CONGREYE henzollern-Hechingen and Hohenzollern-Sig- maringen, Salm-Salm, and Salm-Kyrburg, Isen- burg-Birchstein and Lichtenstein, the Duke of Aremburg, and the Count of Leyen. In accordance with the y?d article of the act of the confederation, these princes declared their entire separation from the German empire, at the diet of Ratisbon, Aug. i, 1806. By the^ 38th article the contingents fixed for the several* states were as follows : Mm. Franco 300,000 Bavaria 30,000 Wttrtemberg I2,ooo Berg 5,000 Darmstadt 4,000 Nassau, Hohenzollern, and others 4\o Total 258,000 The Grand-duke of Wurzburg joined the con- federation Sep. 30, 1806; the King of Saxony Dec. n, 1806; the King of Westphalia and other German princes joined in the next and following years. The Emperor of Russia recognized it by the isth article of the treaty signed at Tilsit, July 7, 1807 ; and the King of Prussia by the 4th article of the treaty signed at the same place July 9, 1807. Russia and Prussia issued a proclamation for its dissolu- tion Feb. 23, 1813, and in 1815 it was replaced by the Germanic Confederation (q. <.). CONFESSIONAL. (See AURICULAR CONFES- SION.) CONFESSIO TETRAPOLITANA, or the Con- fession of the Four Towns, is the term applied to the confession presented to the diet at Augsburg in 1530, by Constance, Liudau, Memmingen, and Strasburg. It only differed from that of Augsburg (7. v.) in a word or two respecting the Lord's Supper. CONFESSOR. (See CLEKK OF THE CLOSET.) CONFIRMATION, or imposition of hands, is a ceremony that dates from the apostolic age (Acts viii. 17, and xix. 5 & 6). In the primitive Church "this was always," says Bingham (Ecc. Antiq. xii. ch. i. sec. i.), "ad- ministered together with baptism, if the bishop, who was the ordinary minister of it, were present at the action. But if he were absent, as it usually happened to be in churches at a distance from the mother church, or when persons were baptized in haste upon a sick bed, then confirmation was deferred till the bishop could have a convenient opportunity to visit them." It is one of the seven sacraments of the Roman Catholic Church. CONFLANS (Treaty) was concluded at this castle, near Paris, between Louis XI. and the Count of Chai-olois, afterwards Charles the Bold of Burgundy, on account of his father, Philip the Good, and the chiefs of the League of the "Public Good," Oct. 5, 1465. Normandy was ceded to the Duke of Berri. It was con- firmed by the treaty of Peronne, Oct. 14, 1468. Louis XI. having induced the estates assembled at Tours, in the spring of 1470, to release him from the engagements of these treaties, they were again confirmed by the treaty of Crotoy, Oct. 3, 1472. CONGE D'ELIRE, or leave to elect, the king's writ or license to a dean and chapter to elect a bishop, when a vacancy had occurred in a see, was first established by King John, and was confirmed by Magna Charta in 1215. By 25 Hen. VIII. c. 20 (1533), the ancient right of nomination was restored to the crown. CONGO (Africa). The name is applied to an extensive tract of country lying between the rivers Congo or Zaire and Dando, portions of which were visited by Diego Cam in 1484 and 1489, by Ruy de Souza in 1490, by Battel in 1607, by Gattina and Piacenza in 1666, by Sor- rento in 1682, by Daffer in 1686, by Barbot in 1688, and many enterprising missionaries and travellers. It is the seat of several European settlements described under their designations. CONGO, or ZAIRE RIVER (Africa). This river, discovered by Diego Cam in 1484, was supposed in 1518 to flow from a lake in the interior of Africa. In 1816 it was partially ex- plored by Capt. Tuckey, but little is known respecting its source and actual course. CONGREGATIONALISTS. (See INDEPEN- DENTS.) CONGREGATIONAL LIBRARY (London) was established in Blomfield Street, Finsbury, for the use of the Independents, in 1831. CONGREGATION OF THE LORD. During the regency of Mary Stuart an attempt was made to restore the Roman Catholic religion in Scotland by the aid of French mercenaries. The reformers took up arms in 1557, and de- manded aid from England, styling themselves "the Congregation of the Lord." Their leaders assumed the title of Lords of the Con- gregation. Their bond of union, sometimes called the First Covenant, was signed at I'Minburgh Dec. 3, 1557. CONGRESS. This term is applied to an assembly of sovereigns or their representa- tives convened for the settlement of interna- tional questions. The following are the most celebrated congresses : B.C. A.D. 432. Congress of Lacedaa- 1793. At Antwerp, mon. 1797-99- Radstadt. A.D. 1813. Prague. 897. Congress at Pavia. 1814. ChatUlon. 1644. At Minister. 1814-15. Vienna. 1663. Aix-la-Chapelle. 1818. Aix-la-Chapelle. 1676-78. Nimeguen. 1820. Carlsbad. 1697. Ryswick. 1820. Troppuu. 1713. Utrecht. 1831. Laybach. 1722. Cambray. 1822. Verona. 1738. Soissoiis. 1856, Feb. 25. Paris. 1790, Jan. 7. Brufsels. 1863. Frankfort. (See AMERICAN CONGRESS.) CONGRESS OF LADIES, for the considera- tion of plans to improve feminine education and extend the circle of employments open to women, held a preliminary meeting at Leipsic, Oct. 15, 1865, and commenced its formal sit- tings Oct. 1 6. CONGREVE ROCKETS, so called from Sir William Congreve, Bart., born May 20, 1772, who invented these destructive engines of war- fare in 1804. They were first employed in the attack upon Boulogne, Oct. 8, 1806, and, having been found effective, were used at the siege of Copenhagen, Sep. 2 5, 1807, and at other places. They proved so effective at the battle of Leipsic, in Oct., 1813, that the Emperor of Russia bestowed the order of St. Anne of the second class on their inventor. CONI [ 279 ] CONSCRIPTION They have, however, been, to a certain extent, superseded by more recent inventions. CONI, or CUNEO (Italy). The French besieged this strong town, but without suc- cess, in 1691. The French and Spaniards, who besieged it in 1744, were ultimately compelled to withdraw. It was surrendered to Buona- parte April 29, 1796. The French surprised it Dec. 5, 1798, and they surrendered it to the Austrians Dec. 4, 1799. It was ceded to France by the convention of Alessandria in 1800. The Austrians concluded a treaty with Pied- mont, July 26, 1821, by which Coni and other places were to be occupied by their troops until Sep. 1822. Coni was made the seat of a bishopric in 1817. CONIC SECTIONS were first investigated by Aristseus, the mathematician, by whom they were made known to Euclid, who flourished circ. B.C. 300. Apollonius of Perga collected all that previous mathematicians had written on the subject, and wrote his work, in eight books, B.C. 250. He first named the three sec- tions parabola, ellipse, and hyperbola. Galileo, who died Jan. 8, 1642, discovered the parabola to be the natural direction of a projectile flying in unresisting space ; and Kepler, in 1609,. iden- tified the ellipse as the curve of the planetary orbits. CONJEVERAM (Hindostan). This town was taken from the French by Clive in Dec., 1751. The English having retired, it fell into the hands of the French, from whom it was again wrested April 18, 1759. The French surprised it Jan. 12, 1760. Hyder Ali defeated the East India Company's army near this place Sep. 10, 1780. CONNAUGHT, mail steamer, left Galway on her second voyage to the United States Sep. 27, 1860, with a crew consisting of 124 officers and men and 467 passengers, and was de- stroyed by fire Oct. 7, when about 300 miles from Boston. The passengers and crew were rescued by a Yankee brig. CONNAUGHT (Ireland). The division of Ireland into the provinces of Ulster, Munster, Connaught, and Leinster, was made by Pope Eugeiiius II. in 1152. Until 1590 Connaught constituted a kind of independent kingdom ; but in that year it was divided into counties and rendered directly subject to the English crown. Clare county was separated from Connaught in 1602. CONNECTICUT (United States). Two set- tlements, formed in Connecticut, in 1635 and 1638, were united by a charter granted by Charles II. in 1665. This state adopted the constitution of the United States Jan. 9, 1788. CONNOR (Ireland). This bishopric was founded about 500, by Aengus Mac Nisse, a pupil of St. Patrick, who erected a church, of which he became bishop, and where he was buried in 514. On the death of James Saurin, last Bishop of Dromore, April 9, 1842, his see was united to Down and Connor by the Church Temporalities Act, 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 37 (Aug. I4 CONRAD POOR. (See PEASANTS' WAR.) CONSARBRUCK (Battle). The Duke of Lorraine defeated the French, under Marshal Crequi, at this place, near Treves, in 1675. CONSCIENCE. Courts of conscience, or of requests, for the recovery of small debts, were established in London as early as 1517, by an act of the Common Council. It was dated Feb. i, and ordered that two aldermen and four discreet commissioners should be ap- pointed to sit on Wednesdays and Saturdays to determine cases in which the debt or damage did not exceed 40 shillings. The power of the court was confirmed by 2 James I. c. 14 (1604), which ordered all inhabitants of the city of London, who had debts owing them not exceeding 40 shillings, to sue for their recovery in the Court of Requests at Guildhall. This statute was enforced by 3 James I. c. 15 (1605), which enacted that all creditors living in London who sued for the recovery of such debts in any other court, should not only lose the suit, but pay all the expenses. These courts, which were afterwards introduced in other parts of the kingdom, were superseded by 9 & 10 Viet. c. 95 (Aug. 28, 1846), which established the county courts for the recovery of small debts. CONSCIENCE CLAUSE. This clause, based upon the Endowed Schools Act, 23 Viet. c. 1 1 (March 31, 1860), was introduced by the Com- mittee of Council on Education in order to relieve the children of Dissenters from the obligation to learn the Church catechism, &c., Nov. 29, 1863. CONSCRIPTION. This mode of obtaining recruits was practised by the Romans, and introduced into France in the 8th century. Gen. Jourdan proposed in the Council of the Five Hundred the law of the conscription, which was approved and adopted Sep. 5, 1798. Every Frenchman from the age of 20 to 45 was liable to serve. Alison gives the following table of the levies made in France during the revolutionary war, compiled from Capefigue and the Moniteur : A.D. Men. 1793 300,000 1793 1,200,000 1798 200,000 1799 200,000 1801 30,000 1805, Jan. 17 6o,coo 1805, Sep. 24 80,000 1806, Dec. 4 8o,coo 1807, April 7 80,000 1808, Jan. 21 80,000 1808, Sep. 10 160,000 1809, April 18 30,000 1809, April 18 10,000 1809, Oct. 5 36,000 1810, Dec. 13 120,000 1810, Dec. 13 1811, Dec. 20 181?, March 13 1812, Sep. I 1813, Jan. ii 1813, April 3 1813, Aug. 24 1813, Oct. 9 1813, Nov. 15 120,000 100,000 137,000 180,000 30,000 280,000 300,000 The standard of height was gradually lowered and the age reduced, in order to supply the necessary number of conscripts. In 1833 boys little above 17 years of age were compelled to serve, and the height required was not much above five feet. A new law was promulgated CONSECRATION [ 280 ] CONSTABLE March 21, 1832. A similar system prevails in Russia, Prussia, and other continental states. CONSECRATION. The first-born of man and beast were ordered to be consecrated to God B.C. 1491 (Exod. xiii. 2, 12, 15). The family of Aaron and the tribe of Levi (Num. i. 49, and iii. 12 & 13) were set apart B.C. 1490. The Hebrews consecrated both cattle and fields to the Lord (Lev. xxvii. 28 & 29) ; Solo- mon dedicated the temple B.C. 1004 (i Kings viii.) ; and Nehemiah (xii. 27, &c.) describes the ceremonies practised at the dedication of the walls of Jerusalem B.C. 445. On the intro- duction of Christianity, churches were conse- crated. Bingharn (bk. viii. ch. ix. sec. i) says, " Anciently, when churches were finished and adorned, it was then usual to proceed to a dedication or consecration of them." This ceremony, which signified the devoting, or setting them apart peculiarly for divine service, consisted during the first three cen- turies only of particular prayers and thanks- giving to God. In the 4th century churches were consecrated with great solemnity. The church built by Constantino I. over the Saviour's sepulchre at Jerusalem was conse- crated in a full synod of all the bishops of the East, in 335. The Council of Antioch, Aug., 341, was summoned on purpose to dedicate the famous church in that city commenced by Constantiiie I. A canon passed at a British council in 450, ordered that " a presbyter, though he builds a church, shall not offer the oblation in it, before he brings his bishop to consecrate it, because this was regular and decent ; " and the first Council of Braga, in Portugal, May i, 563, makes it deprivation for any presbyter to consecrate an altar or a church, declaring that the olden canons for- bade it also. The distinct consecration of altars is first mentioned at the Council of Agda, Sep. n, 506. The water in baptism was consecrated in the early Church. (See NAG'S HEAD CONSECRATION.) CONSEGUINANA (Nicaragua). This vol- cano was in a state of eruption in 1835. CONSERVATIVE CLUB (London). This club was founded in 1840. The house, situated on the west side of St. James's Street, was built between the years 1843-45, an( i was opened Feb. 19, 1845. CONSERVATIVES. This term was first applied to a political party about 1830. By some authorities its origin is attributed to John Wilson Croker, who in an article on in- ternal policy, published in the Quarterly Re- view (vol. xlii. No. 83, p. 276) for Jan., 1830, declared, " We despise and abominate the details of partisan warfare ; but we are now, as we always have been, decidedly and con- scientiously attached to what is called the Tory, and which might with more propriety be called the Conservative, party." CONSERVATOIRE. This term was applied by the Italians to schools established for the cultivation of music. According to some autho- rities they were instituted by St. Ambrose, Bishop of Milan (347 397), and according to others by St. Leo, who nourished in the sth century. A new conservatoire was established at Milan in 1808, and the Neapolitan conserva- toires were united in the Real Collegio di Musica in 1818. The Ecole Royale de Chant et de Declamation, established in Paris in 1784, was changed into the Institut National de Musique in 1793, and into the Conservatoire do Musique in 1795. It has been regulated by royal ordinances promulgated in 1817, 1819, 1828, 1829, 1839, 1840, and 1848. The conser- vatoire at Vienna was established in 1816, that of Leipsic in 1842, and of Cologne in 1849. CONSERVATORS, WARDENS, or KEEPERS OP THE PEACE, were appointed by the common law of England. The power of trying felonies was given them by 34 Edw. III. c. i (1360), when they received the title of Justices of the Peace (\SOLS. (See FUNDS.) CONSPIRACY. (See PLOT.) CONSPIRACY TO MURDER BILL. (See ORSINI CONSPIRACY.) CONSTABLE. The statute of Winchester (13 Edw. I. st. 2, c. 6), passed Oct. 8, 1285, enacted that two constables shall be chosen in every hundred or franchise. This is the first authentic record of the appointment in this country of high constables. Inferior officers, called petty constables, subordinate to the high constable of the hundred, were first ap- pointed in the reign of Edward III. Justices CONSTABLE CONSTANTINOPLE of the peace are empowered, in cases of neces- sity, to swear in householders as special con- stables, by i & 2 Will. IV. c. 41, passed Oct. 15, 1831, and by 5 & 6 Will. IV. c. 43, passed Aug. 31, 1835. (See SPECIAL CONSTABLES.) CONSTABLE OF ALL ENGLAND. (See LORD HIGH CONSTABLE.) CONSTANCE (Council). The i 7 th general council held its first sitting Nov. 16, 1414. Nicolas says, " In the second session, 2nd of March, 1415, the Pope solemnly published his act of cession ; in the third session, on the 26th of the same month, the council was declared to be lawful : the fourth session was held on the soth of March ; in the fifth, held on the 6th of April, all persons were en- joined to obey the decrees of the council. On the 2gth of May, Pope John XXIII. was de- posed. Gregory XII. abdicated 4th of July. The errors of Wycliffe were condemned in the seventh session, 2nd of May, 1415 : in the fif- teenth session, held 6th of July, 1415, John Huss was condemned to be burned : in the forty-first session, held nth of November, 1417, Otho Colonna was elected pope, under the name of Martin V. The council ended 22nd of April, 1418." It established the authority of a general council above that of a pope, and is by some authorities said to have terminated the Papal Schism. CONSTANCE (Germany). Peace was con- cluded at this town in 1183, between the Emperor Frederick and 24 Lombard cities ; by which the freedom of the latter was se- cured. John Huss, condemned by the council, suffered at the stake here July 7, 1415. By another treaty, signed here March 30, 1474, the contest between Austria and the Swiss was brought to a close. Charles V. issued the ban of the empire against Constance, Oct. 15, 1548 ; and Ferdinand I. of Austria annexed it to his dominions in the following year. It was transferred to Baden by the 8th article of the treaty of Presburg, Dec. 26, 1805. In addi- tion to the isth general council (g. v.), from 1414 18, councils were held here in 1005, in 1043, in 1094, and in 1153. Its bishopric, trans- ferred from Windich about 570, was suppressed in 1802. CONSTANTLY. (See ARLES.) CONSTANTINA, or CONSTANTINE (Africa), the ancient Cirta, was the residence of the kings of the Massylii, and the chief city of Numidia. The Romans, in the time of Julius Caesar, sent out a colony to this place, which was destroyed in 311. It was rebuilt by Con- stantine I. The French captured it Oct. 13, 1837, and it is now the capital of the province of Constantino, in their colony of Algiers. CONSTANTINOPLE (Mm.) was adopted in Constantinople before the middle of the jth century, and commences with the creation of the world, B.C. 5508, according to this calcula- tion. It is still used by the Greek Church, and the Russians followed it until the time of Peter the Great. The civil year commenced Sep. i, and the ecclesiastical March 21, and sometimes April i. CONSTANTINOPLE (Turkey), the ancient Byzantium, named Constantinople after its founder, Constantino I., who determined to make it the seat of the empire in 324. The new city, called Second or New Rome, was dedicated May n, 330. Gibbon (ch. xvii.) says, " As often as the birthday of the city returned, the statue of Constantine, framed by his order, of gilt wood, and bearing in its right hand a small image of the genius of the place, was erected on a triumphal car. The guards, carrying white tapers, and clothed in their richest apparel, accompanied the solemn procession as it moved through the Hippo- drome. When it was opposite to the throne of the reigning emperor, he rose from his seat, and with grateful reverence adored the me- mory of his predecessor." The rites of inau- guration lasted 40 days. The Turks call the city Istamboul or Stamboul. A.D. 365. Constantinople is seized by Procopius. 378. It is threatened by the Goths. 381. Nectarius becomes the first patriarch. 395. It is again besieged by the Goths, under Alaric. 413. Theodosius II. (the Younger) surrounds it with walls. 441. It is attacked by the Huns. 447. The walls are destroyed by an earthquake. 465. A fire consumes nearly half the city. 507. Anastasius builds the long wall. 533, Jan. The Nika sedition. (See CIRCUS FACTIONS.) 537. Dedication of St. Sophia 559. Belisarius saves Constantinople from the Bulga- rians. 616. It is threatened by Chosroes II. 636. Heraclius compels the Persians and the Avars to raise the siege. 668. Arrival of the Saracens, who lay siege to the city. 675. The Saracens raise the siege. 695. Revolution at Constantinople, and dethronement of Justinian II. 716. It is again besieged by the Saracens. 718. The Saracens raise the siege. 865. It is unsuccessfully attacked by the Russians. 907. Second attack of the Russians. 941. Third attempted capture by the Russians. 1303, July 18. It is taken by the Latins. (See CKUSADES. 1304, April 9. It is again taken by the Latins, and aban- doned to pillage. 1361, July 25. It is recovered by the Greeks under Michael Palaiologus, who restores the walls. 1394. It is besieged by the Turks. 1433, June 10. It is besieged by the Turks, under Amurath II. Aug. 24. The siege is raised. 1453, April 6. It is besieged by Mohammed II. May 29- Mohammed II. effects its capture. 1590. An English embassy arrives at Constantinople. 1705. A revolt of the Janissaries is suppressed. 1729- A calamitous fire does considerable injury. 1756. A fire consumes 8,000 houses and 200 mosques. 1778, Sep. 4. The city is again devastated by fire. 1783. It is visited by plague and fire. 1808, Nov. 14 and 15. Revolt of the Janissaries, who mas- sacre the regular troops. 1821. Massacre of the Christians. 1822, March 25. Second massacre of the Christians. 1826, June 14 and 15. Insurrection of the Janissaries (~olvedin consequence of violent opposition. 806. To regulate the consecration of an archimandrite. 809, Jan. Which declared the marriage of the Emperor Constantine valid. 812, Nov. i. To consider a proposed peace between the Bulgarians and the Emperor Michael. 814, circ. Christmas. By Nicephorus, against the Icono- clasts. 815, Feb. By the Iconoclasts, who depose Nicephorus. April. Against the Catholics and decorations of churches. 821. Wherein the Catholics refuse to confer with the Iconoclasts. 829. Against the use of images. 843, Feb. 19. Against the Iconoclasts. 847. To depose the Bishop of Syracuse. 858. To reinstate Ignatius in the patriarchy. 861, May 25. Which again deposed Ignatius, and decreed in favour of images. 867, Jan. To depose and excommunicate Pope Nicholas I. Nov. 23. Which deposed Photius. 869, Oct. 5 Feb. 28. The eighth general council, which anathematized the heretics, and opposed the seven general councils. 879, Nov. March 13. Concerning Photius, the Nicene creed, and the general councils. 006, Jan. Against the marriage of the Emperor Leo VI. 006. The Patriarch Nicholas is deposed. 911, May. Whereby Nicholas is restored. 930, July. To heal schism. 931, Sep. 3. To receive .the abdication of the Patriarch Tryphon. 963. To confirm the marriage of the Emperor Nicephorus II. (Phocas). 1027. To consider donations to monasteries. 1039. Against the Patriarch of Antioch. 1054, June. Wherein the papal legates were anathematized. 1066. Against incestuous niarri : 1067. Against breach of promise of marriage, mo. Against the heresy of the Bogomiles. 1140 May. To condemn the books of Constantine Chryso- riiale. 1143, Aug. 30. Against the ordination of two bishops. Oct. I. Against Mphon. a monk. A.U. 1144, Feb. 23. Against Niphon. 1147, Feb. 26. To depose the Patriarch Comas. 1157, Jan. 36. On the celebration of divine service. ), April II. Concerning marriage, discipline, and cer- tain doctrinal points. 1170. To reject a proposal to reunite the two Churches. 1186. On the irregular election of certain bishops. 1342. On the differences between the Greek and Latin bishops of Cyprus. 1275, May 36. To elect John Veccus patriarch. 1277, April. To make a creed like that of Rome. July 16. To excommunicate those unwilling to reunite the two Churches. 1280, May 3. On doctrinal matters. 1283, Jan. To condemn Veccus. Easter Monday. To con- demn the promoters of the proposed union. 1285. On doctrinal points. 1297. To consider Athanasius's anathema of the emperor. 1399. To consider the marriage of Alexis, nephew of the emperor. 1341, June ii. On doctrinal points. 1345. Against the Palamites. 1347. To depose the Patriarch John of Apri. 1450. Against the reunion of the Churches. CONST KM, ATI ONS, or groups of stars, are mentioned in the book of Job, written, ac- cording to the best authorities, by Moses, B.C. 1520. Arctums, Orion, and Pleiades, are no- ticed Job ix. g, and again, with the addition of Mazzaroth, ch. xxxviii. 31 & 32. Eudoxus of Cnidus, who flourished B.C. 366, wrote an account of the constellations. CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY. (See NATIONAL ASSEMBLY. O >NSTITUTI< LXISTS. (See ACCEPTANTS.) CONSUL, as the representative of the com- mercial interests of England in foreign coun- tries, was first officially appointed by Richard III. in 1485, when Laurentio Strozzi, of Florence, was by patent of the king made consul and president of the English merchants in Italy. The custom originated in Italy in the 1 2th century. ('i)NSULATK was established in France by the influence of Buonaparte, Nov. 10, 1799. The new constitution was proclaimed Dec. 24, when three consuls were appointed, the chief authority being vested in one of them, called the First Consul. Napoleon Buonaparte, Cam- baceres, and Lebrun, were the consuls named ; and, Aug. 4, 1802, the former was made first consul for life. The consulate was, however, superseded by the empire, May 18, 1804. CONSULS. On the expulsion of the kings, B.C. 509, two chief magistrates of the Roman republic were appointed. Their tenure of office was for one year only. Decemvirs weie appointed B.C. 451, three military tribunes B.C. 444, two censors B.C. 443, a dictator obtained the chief authority B.C. 391, and a prsetor was appointed B.C. 366. Although the direction of affairs was occasionally vested either in decemvirs, military tribunes, or a dictator, the consulship was the office generally adopted. A plebeian was elected one of the consuls B.C. 366, and the office was often held by a plebeian until B.C. 172, when both consuls were plebeians. After the appointment of an emperor, B.C. 31, it became a nominal dig- nity, and continued as such, with certain interruptions. Decimus Theodorus Paulinus, in 536, was the last consul at Rome, and Flavius Basilius Junius, in 541, the last at Constantinople. Milan proclaimed itself a re- public, and elected two consuls in 1107, and CONTI [ 283 ] COOCH other Italian cities immediately followed its example. CONTI. (See BOURBONS, Collateral Branches.) CONTINENTAL SYSTEM. This name has been given to the plan adopted by Napoleon I. for cutting off England from connection with the continent of Europe, and thus destroying her maritime supremacy. It was first enunciated in the armistice of Foligno (q. v.}, Feb. 18, 1801, but it was not prominently put forward till the publication of the Berlin Decree (q. v.), Nov. 19, 1806, which declared the British Is- lands in a state of blockade, and prohibited all trade in English goods. The British Govern- ment, in retaliation, issued, Jan. 7, and Nov. n, 1807, the celebrated Orders in Council (q. v.), which elicited the Milan Decree (q. v.), Dec. 17, 1807, and another similarly prohibitive proclamation, dated from the Tuileries, Jan. n, 1808. The tariff of Trianon, introduced Aug. 3, 1 8 10, and supported by a decree of Sep. 12, 1810, and the Decree of Fontainebleau, Oct. 18, 1810, were also aimed at the establishment of this system by the burning of English goods, and the destruction, by all possible means, of British commerce. CONTINENTS. (See ENCRATITES.) CONTRACTORS. By 22 Geo. III. c. 45, s. i (1782), government contractors are disqualified from holding a seat in the House of Commons. A similar bill had passed the Commons in 1780, but was rejected by the Lords. The law was extended to Ireland by 41 Geo. III. c. 52, s. 4 (1801). CONVENT. {See ABBEY, &c.) CONVENTICLE. This term, derived from the Latin conventiculum, an assembly, was, in the early period of Christianity, applied to the building in which the Christians worshipped. It was afterwards used to describe the meet- ings of heretics, and is, in this country, applied to the meeting-places of Dissenters from the Established Church. By 35 Eliz. c. i (1593), persons attending any assemblies, conven- ticles, or meetings, under colour or pretence of any exercise of religion, were to be imprisoned until they conformed. If they did not con- form in three months, they were to abjure the realm, and if they refused to do so, or returned after abjuration, they were to be hanged. It was enacted by the Conventicle Act (16 Charles II. c. 4), passed in 1664, that wherever five persons above those of the same household assembled in religious congregation, every one of them was liable to three months' imprison- ment, or a fine of five pounds for the first offence : the penalty was doubled for a second, and increased to transportation for seven years, or a fine of ^100, for the third. This act was only temporary, and a second Con- venticle Act, in which the penalties were modified (22 Charles II. c. i), was passed in 1670. It was repealed by the Toleration Act (i Will. & Mary, st. i, c. 18), passed May 24, 1689. CONVENTION PARLIAMENTS. This term is applied to two English parliaments, called in times of great emergency, without the usual authority of the king's writ. The first convention parliament, summoned by order of Gen. Monk, met April 25, 1660, and having completed the work of the Restoration, was dissolved by Charles II., Dec. 29. The second, convened by William III., then Prince of Orange, met Tuesday, Jan. 22, 1689 (O.S.), and established William and Mary on the throne. A bill to convert the convention into a parlia- ment passed through both branches of the legislature, and received the royal assent Feb. 23, 1689. It was dissolved by William III. Feb. 6, 1690. CONVENTIONS. (See TREATIES.) CONVICTS. (See TRANSPORTATION.) CONVOCATION, or a general assembly of the clergy of the kingdom, was summoned by the king's authority, for the purpose of assess- ing themselves in levies of taxes. The clergy assembled for this purpose in Anglo-Saxon times ; but the first attempt to establish a convocation of this character by royal authority was made by Edward I. in 1294, in which year Convocation met at Westminster by his order, Sep. 21. The Convocation is divided into the Upper and Lower House. Richard III., on the petition of both houses of Convocation, relieved them from the juris- diction of the secular courts, by charter dated Feb. 23, 1484. It was deprived of the power of performing any act whatever without the king's license by 25 Hen. VIII. c. 19 (1534^. This act was repealed by i & 2 Phil. & Mary c. 8 (1554), and re-enacted by i Eliz. c. i (1559). By 16 & 17 Charles II. c. i (1665), the clergy, as well as the laity, were bound by the act, which was for the raising of a tax, and were discharged from the payment of subsidies levied in Convocation. Its business was con- fined to the granting of subsidies, except in 1603 and 1640, and it ceased to meet from 1717, until revived for a formal sitting at the com- mencement of each session in 1854. CONVOLVULUS. The Camry convolvulus was introduced into England in 1690, and the many- flowered convolvulus in 1779. They were both brought from the Canary Isles. CONVULSIONISTS, or CONVULSION- ARIES. This sect of the Jansenists arose in 1730, and were so called because they threw themselves upon the ground and went into convulsions. An order for the imprisonment of these fanatics was issued in 1733. The Dancers of the i4th century, and the Jumpers of the igth, indulged in similar extravagances. CONWAY, CONWY, or ABERCONWAY (Caernarvonshire). One of the Welsh princes founded a Cistercian monastery at Conway in 1185. Edward I., who built a castle at this ancient town in 1283, was besieged here by the Welsh in 1290. Richard II. fled to this place in 1399. It suffered severely from the plague in 1607. It was taken by the Parliamentary army in 1646. The suspension bridge, commenced by Telford in 1822, was completed by him in 1826. COOCH BEHAR, or KOOCH BEHAR (Hin- dostan). The rajahs of this small state trace their descent from Viswa Singh, who began to reign, according to the native chroniclers, in 1509, though this date is probably too early. In 1582 it possessed considerable influence, and in 1661 was conquered by Meer Jumla, and annexed to the empire of Aurungzebe. With the rest of Bengal it passed in 1765 to the East COOKERY COPENHAGEN India Company, but it received little notice till 1772, when its rajah applied to the British for aid against the Bhotanese. by whom his terri- tory had been invaded. A force was accord- ingly despatched vmder Capt. Jones, who ex- pelled the marauders, and in 1773 attacked them in the hill country, where they had sought refuge. The internal affairs of the state having fallen into great confusion in 1787, the government was vested, in 1789, in a commissioner who, after collecting the revenues and paying the tribute, &c., retained the surplus for the use of the youthful rajah. That potentate attaining his majority in 1801, the office of commissioner ceased, but owing to the renewal of the former abuses, which the native government refused to reform, in spite of strong representations made by the English in 1805, it was re-established in 1813. COOKERY. When Abraham entertained the three angels, he took a calf, had it dressed, and, with butter and milk, set it before his guests, B.C. 1897 (Gen. xviii. 6-j-8). Disraeli (Curiosities of Literature, vol. ii. p. 246) re- marks : " The numerous descriptions of ancient cookery which Athenneus has preserved indi- cate an unrivalled dexterity and refinement : and the ancients, indeed, appear to have raised the culinary art into a science, and dig- nified cooks into professors." Fitzstepheu, the monk of Canterbury, who died in 1191, in his description of London says : " There is in London upon the river's bank, a public place of cookery, among the wines to be sold in the ships, and in the wine cellars. There every day, ye may call for any dish of meat, roast, fried, or sodden ; fish both small and great ; ordinary flesh for the poorer sort, and more dainty for the rich, as venison and fowl." And after some further remarks, adds: "This is the public cookery, and very convenient for the state of a city, and belongs to it. Hence it is, we read in Plato's Gorgias, that next to the physician's art is the trade of cooks, the image and flattery of a fourth part of a city." The cooks having formed an ancient brother- hood, were incorporated July u, 1472, con- firmed by Elizabeth, and again by James I., May 19, 1615. " This is the Boke of Cokery " was printed in London in 1500. COOK ISLANDS, or HARVEY ARCHI- PELAGO (Pacific Ocean.) This group, com- prising five principal islands, situated between the Society and Navigator Islands, was visited by Capt. Cook in 1769. COOLIES. This name, originally the title of one of the hill tribes of Hindostan, has, from the circumstance that these people are commonly employed as labourers in the cities of India, been applied to Hindoo labourers in general, and especially to the Indian and Chinese emigrants, who have in large numbers superseded negroes since the abolition of slavery in the British West Indian territories. They appear to have been employed in the Mauritius as early as 1834, and since that year liave been introduced into other colonies. COOPER. The art of the cooper is of great antiquity. The company of Coopers was in- corporated in 1501. CO-OPERATIVE SOCIETIES. The earliest institution of this kind appears to have been at Rochdale, where a few labouring men joined together in 1844, to purchase in wholesale markets the goods necessary for themselves and their families. The Leeds Industrial Co- operative Flour and Provision Society was established in 1847, and the Bradford In- dustrial Co-operative Society in Dec., 1860. There are similar associations in almost all the manufacturing towns of Lancashire and Yorkshire. The "Co-operator," a journal de- voted to the interest of these societies, was first published in 1860. Co-operative societies are registered pursuant to 13 & 14 Viet. c. 115 (Aug. 15, 1850). By 18 & 19 Viet. c. 63 (July 23, 1855), a member can own shares to the value of ^200. COORG (Hindostan), under the government of independent princes in 1583, preserved its freedom till 1779, when Hyder seized Beer Rajindra, the heir, and excluded him from the succession. In 1787, however, he escaped from his prison, and recovered his hereditary possessions. He died in 1808, and bequeathed his dominions to his infant daughter, from whom they were wrested by Linga in 1810. In 1832 hostilities broke out between the rajah and the British Government, in conse- quence of the protection afforded by the latter to some political fugitives, and an army was despatched under Col. Lindsay, which en- tered Mercarah, the capital, April 6. The rajah was deposed April 10, 1834, and his terri- tories were permanently annexed to the British empire in India. Coorg is also called Caduga. COPENHAGEN (Denmark). A bsolon, Bishop of Roskild, and afterwards Archbishop of Lund, erected a castle here in 1168. In 1254, Bishop Erlandsen of Roskild granted certain rights to the town that had grown up beneath the protection of the castle, and these were extended by King Eric in 1284. In 1443 Copenhagen was made the capital of Denmark. It has suffered greatly from conflagrations, and was almost completely destroyed in 1795. Nelson captured the city April 2, 1801 ; and it surrendered, after three days' bombardment, Sep. 5, 1807. The Danish Royal Society was founded in 1 742, the Academy of Arts in 1754, and the Bank in 1762. The Casino was built in 1846. A deputation con- sisting of above 2,000 inhabitants of Schleswig and Hplstein was received here with great enthusiasm Sep. 2, 1865. COPENHAGEN (Treaties). A treaty between Denmark and Holland, for the naviga- tion of the Baltic, was concluded here Aug. 26, 1656. An alliance between the same powers was signed here June 27, 1657. A peace between Sweden and Denmark was concluded here June 5, 1660. A second alliance between Denmark and the States was signed May 20, 1673 ; and an alliance between Denmark and the Emperor Leopold I., Jan. 26, 1674. An alliance between Denmark and Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg, was con- cluded Dec. 27, 1676; and a convention between Denmark and Sweden May 8, 1680. Denmark signed an alliance with Augustus II. of Poland at the same place, March 24, 1698 ; and an alliance with Russia Oct. 22, 1709. The Em- COPERNICAN [ 285 ] COPYRIGHT peror Charles VI. joined this Russo-Danish alliance May 26, 1732. Conventions between France and Denmark were signed July n, 1757, and May 4, 1758 ; a convention between Denmark and Sweden March 27, 1794; and others between Denmark and Great Britain Aug. 29, 1800, and April 9, 1801. An alliance between Denmark and Napoleon I. was signed July 10, 1813. COPERNICAN SYSTEM. Hallam (Lit. Hist. pt. i. ch. ix.) says, " It appears to have been about 1 507 that, after meditating on various schemes besides the Ptolemaic, Copernicus began to adopt and confirm in writing that of Pythagoras, as alone capable of explaining the planetary motions with that simplicity which gives a presumption of truth in the works of nature." It was completed in 1530, and pub- lished at Nuremberg in 1543, just before the death of Copernicus, which occurred May 24. Pope Paul V. condemned it in 1616, but Pius VII. in 1818 repealed the prohibitory edicts against Galileo and the Copernican system. Nicolas Copernicus was born at Thorn, Feb. 19, 1473, and died May 2, 1543. COPPER. This metal was known in the earliest times, and is frequently noticed in the Bible. Thus, the fetters with which Sam- son was bound (B.C. 1117) were in reality of this material (Judges xvi. 21). Ezekiel (xxvii. 13), B.C. 588, speaks of Tyre as trading in vessels of brass or copper ; and Ezra (viii. 27), B.C. 458, speaks of "two vessels of fine copper, precious as gold," which formed part of the treasure of the temple. The origin of the art of smelting and working copper was attributed by the Egyptians to Osiris. Cadmus conveyed it to Greece B.C. 1313. Cyprus and Rhodes were celebrated as early manufactories of cop- per. It subsequently became one of the most important metals known to the ancients. Copper mines were worked in England in 1189. They are first mentioned in Sweden in 1396 ; and in 1399 one was discovered in Shrop- shire. A mine of pure copper was discovered in Cumberland in 1561 ; but the art of working the metal made little progress till 1689, when it was carried on with success in Cornwall. It afterwards increased to a prodigious degree, and in 1721 employed 30,000 people. Copper was first used to sheathe ships in 1758, and the demand for it increased so much that its exportation was prohibited by 20 Geo. III. c. 59, s. i (1780). In 1783 all the ships of the royal navy were ordered to be sheathed. The Burra-Burra mines of South Australia, dis- covered about 1843, are perhaps the richest copper-mines in the world. COPPER COINAGE. The Romansused cop- per as a circulating medium prior to the reign of Numa, B.C. 715, but it was not coined, being measured by weight. The square " as " of copper was struck some time before Ser- vius Tullius, B.C. 578, and the circular " as " about B.C. 385. The first Greek copper money was that of JSropus, King of Macedonia, struck B.C. 397. Copper never became a chief medium with the Greeks. Cunobelin, King of Britain, is known to have coined copper about A.D. 40, as pieces still remain bearing his mark. It was made and circulated in Ireland in 1339, in France about 1580, and in Scotland before 1603. Copper tokens were coined in England in 1609 and patented in 1625 ; but the first real coinage was by Charles II., who failed in an attempt to establish a copper currency in 1665, but succeeded in 1672. In 1722 George I. granted a patent to Mr. Wood to coin copper halfpence and farthings for Ireland; but the measure was very unpopular, and was so vehemently opposed by Dean Swift, who published his Drapier letters in consequence, that it had to be abandoned. The English copper coinage was so defective in 1792, that a large number of tradesmen's tokens were issued ; but these were superseded in 1797 by the coinage of 500 tons of copper pence, struck by Mr. Boulton, at Soho. A new bronze coinage was issued in 1860 to supply the deficiency of copper money. COPPERHEADS. This name, derived from the copperhead, a venomous snake which gives no warning of its attack, was applied to a party in the Northern States of America sup- posed to favour the secessionists during the civil war which divided the United States from 1861 to 1865. COPPER-PLATE. (See ENGRAVING ON COP- PER.) COPTS. These people, descendants of the ancient Egyptians, with whose language their speech was radically identical, translated the Bible into their own dialect between 200 300, and at an early period embraced Christianity, which, under a very imperfect form, they still profess. Their language, superseded by that of their Arab conquerors, has not been spoken in Lower Egypt since the xoth century, and was entirely extinguished, except as a written dialect, in the i7th cen- tury. Their doctrines resemble those of the Jacobites (q. v.), and in their religious pecu- liarities they somewhat approximate to the Abyssinian Church (q. v.). COPYRIGHT IN BOOKS was established by 8 Anne c. 19 (1709). From April 10, 1710, the copyright of all new works was vested in the author for 14 years. At the expira- tion of that term it was renewed for another 14 years, if the author was then living. In the case of works that had been printed, but of which the copyright had not been sold, authors were to have the sole right of printing them for 21 years. The act was ex- tended to the whole of the United Kingdom by 41 Geo. III. c. 107 (July 2, 1801). By 54 Geo. III. c. 156 (July 29, 1814), the copy- right was to last for 28 years certain, and for the remainder of the author's life if he out- lived that term. By 5 & 6 Viet. c. 45 ( July i, 1842), called Talfourd or Lord Mahon's Act, the copyright was extended for the duration of the author's life and seven years from the day of his death. In case the seven years expired before the book had been published 42 years, the copyright was to last until that period had elapsed. The copyright of works published after the death of the author was also fixed at 42 years. The privilege was extended by this act to all British colonies. (See INTERNATIONAL COPYRIGHT.) COPYRIGHT IN DESIGNS for manufactures COEAL [ 286 ] CORFE was fixed at three years by 5 & 6 Viet. c. 100 (Aug. 10, 1842), which repealed all former acts on the subject, and came into operation Sep. i, 1842. It was extended to designs not orna- mental, but having reference to some purpose of utility, by 6 & 7 Viet. c. 65 (Aug. 22, 1843). The Board of Trade received authority to ex- tend the copyright in ornamental designs for an additional term not exceeding three years, by 13 & 14 Viet. c. 104 (Aug. 14, 1850). COEAL was much valued by the ancients, who procured it from the Eed Sea, and the northern shores of Africa. The Gauls used it to adorn their weapons and armour. COEAL ISLANDS (Pacific Ocean). Coral- reefs, which exist in great numbers, have been known to rise several feet in the course of a few months. A group was discovered by Bougainville in 1768, the chief of which is Bow Island fo. v.}. COEBACH (Battle), fought between the French army and the allied English and Ger- mans at this place, in Westphalia, July 10, 1760. The former were victorious. The allied army was saved from a total rout by a charge of British dragoons. COEBEY (Treaty) was signed at the abbey of Corbey, in Picardy, Oct. 26, 1513, between Louis XII. of France and Pope Leo X. The former agreed to abandon the Council of Pisa and conform to the decrees of the Latcran, and the Pontiff recalled the censures that had been pronounced upon France by his predecessor Julius II., the founder of the Holy League -/. . ). COEBJK, COKliKY, or COEVKI Saxony . The Benedictine abbey of this place, founded in 822 by monks from a monastery of the same name in Picardy, is the oldest and most famous establishment of the kind in Saxony, and was the seat of the school of Ansgar, or Anscarius, (the Apostle of the North, who died Feb. 3, 864), which attained great celebrity during the gth and loth centuries. In 1794 Corvei was made a bishopric by Pius VI. In 1803 it was annexed t<> Nassau, and ceded in 1807 to Westphalia, passing finally into the possession of Prussia in 1815. In 1822 the lands of the ancient abbey were transferred to Count von Helscn- Eheinfels-Eotenburg, and became a mediate principality of the Germanic empire. COEBIESDALE, COEBISDALE, or KEE- BESTEE (Battle.) The Marquis of Montrose was defeated at this place in Eoss-shire by the Covenanters, Saturday, April 27, 1650. The Marquis, captured a few days after the battle, was put to death with " every circumstance of ignominy and cruelty," May 21. COECYEA. (See CORFU.) COEDELIEES, or COED-WEAEEES, so called from their girdle of knotted cord, a minor order of Franciscan or Grey Friars, was founded by St. Francis d'Assisi in 1223, and was sanctioned by Pope Honorius III. in a bull published Oct. 30, 1223. COEDELIEES CLUB. This society of republicans, formed at Paris in Dec., 1790, re- ceived this name because their meetings were held in a chapel which had been built by the Cordeliers. Danton was the first president, and amongst the more celebrated members were Marat, Camille Desmoulins, Fabre d'Eglantine, Eobert, and Hubert. The Cordeliers demanded the abolition of royalty in 1791. A most power- ful body, assembled at this club, took part in the insurrection of Aug. 10, 1792. They clamoured for the death of the king in 1793, and, in conjxmction with the Jacobins, con- spired for the overthrow of the Girondists in ,the same year. It was dissolved in 1794. COEDOVA (South America), the capital of a province of the same name, a member of the Argentine Confederation, was founded by Jerome Cabrera in 1573. COEDOVA, or COEDOBA (Spain), the Corduba of the Eomans, was founded by M. Claudius Marcellus, who wintered here B.C. 132. It was nearly destroyed by Caesar B.C. 45, in consequence of its fidelity to Pompey, and when rebuilt was peopled by the pauper gentry of Eome. It was erected into a bishopric in 264, and fell under the Gothic sway in 572. The Moors seized it in 711, and made it the capital of their empire in Spain in 756. The great mosque was begun by Abderahman in 786. A fire which raged for three days in 917, laid waste much of the city, but it was soon rebuilt more magnificently than ever. Soliman took the town in 1012, after a siege of about three years. In 1091 it fell into the hands of the Almoravides, who retained it till its capture by the Almohades in 1148. St. Ferdinand, King of Castile, took it June 30, 1235, and it has ever since been under Christian domination, although the Moors tried to retake it in 1280, and in 1365. The French, under Gen. Dupont, seized Cor- dova June 7, 1808, when the city was aban- doned to pillage for three days, and the populace cruelly massacred. The town was again plundered in 1836 by the Carlists under Gomez, who took possession Oct. i, and carried off booty to the amount of .200,000. COBDWAINBB8. The name was formerly applied to shoemakers in this country. Stow says the term cordwainer or cobbler was not then a name of contempt for a man of less skill in that mystery, or only a mender, but for a maker and seller of that commodity. The Cordwainers were incorporated in 1410, confirmed by Mary in 1558, by Elizabeth in 1562, and by James I. They built a new hall, which was opened Tuesday, July 23, 1577. (See SHOEMAKERS.) COEEA (Asia) is said to have been civilized by the Chinese about B.C. 1120. In 1692 it became subject to Japan ; but the Coreans having requested aid from China, the em- peror delivered them from Japanese tyranny in 1698, and substituted his own dominion. Some French missionaries who had pene- trated into the country were expelled in 1839. Corea has since formed part of the Chinese empire. COEFE CASTLE (Dorsetshire), in the Isle of Purbeck, was the scene of the assassination of Edward the Martyr by his stepmother Elfrida in 978 ; and in the disputes between King John and his barons was the depository of the British regalia. In 1642 it was defended for six weeks against the troops of Charles I., by Lady Bankes, and in 1645 it was destroyed by Fairfax. CORFU [ 287 ] CORINTHIANS CORFU (Ionian Sea). This island, the ancient Corcyra, was colonized by the Corin- thians B.C. 734. The first sea-fight on record is said to have taken place between the fleets of Corcyra and of Corinth, B.C. 664. The two states were continually at war. The Corcyreans defeated the Corinthian fleet B.C. 435, and again B.C. 432. A massacre of the aristocratic party, which lasted seven days, occurred B.C. 427. The Spartans captured the island B.C. 303, and the Romans B.C. 229. After passing through various vicissitudes, Corfu was taken by the Venetians in 1386. The Turkish fleet was defeated by the Venetians near Corfu in July, 1716. The Turks returned, and after besieging the town of Corfu for 42 days, retired Aug. 18, 1717. By the fifth article of the treaty of Campo-Formio, Oct. 17, 1797, the Emperor of Gel-many allowed it to pass to the French. The allied Turkish and Russian forces wrested the island from the French, March 3, 1799. It was, with other islands, formed into the republic of the Ionian Islands (q. v.). Having again fallen into the hands of the French, they were recovered by the English in 1809, and placed under British protection in 1815. A conference respecting the affairs of Greece was held by the plenipotentiaries of Great Britain, France, and Russia, at Corfu in 1828. Ninety soldiers and 47 of the in- habitants were killed, and upwards of 20x3 persons wounded, by a powder explosion, which also destroyed many buildings and much property, June 5, 1864. CORINGA (Hindostan). The English took possession of this place, and established a factory in the neighbourhood, in 1759. A great inundation, in May, 1787, swept away all the houses, and destroyed nearly the entire popu- lation, besides extending far inland. The total loss of life was estimated at about 15,000 people, besides more than 100,000 head of cattle. A similar calamity happened in 1832. CORINTH (Battles). This town of Missis- sippi was the theatre of several important operations during the American civil war. Defended by Gens. Beauregard and Bragg, it was besieged by the Federals under Gen. Hal- leek, who advanced to within eight miles of the town, May 3, 1862. He arrived within three miles, May 21, and having driven the enemy from their position, May 28, compelled them to evacuate it, May 29. Occupied by Gen. Rosencrans, Sep. 26, 1862, Corinth was attacked by the Confederates, who killed Gen. Hackelman, and drove the defenders into their intreiichments, Oct. 3. The battle was renewed Oct. 4, when the assailants were compelled to retreat. CORINTH (Greece). Some authors are of opinion that Corinth was originally the seat of a Phoenician colony. According to the traditional account, it was founded B.C. 1520, under the name of Ephyre, which was ex- changed for that of Corinth at a subsequent period. Sisyphus seized the place B.C. 1326, erected it into a kingdom, and founded the Isthmian games. The first event in its history that has been ascertained with any degree of accuracy is its conquest by the Dorians, B.C. 1074. Aletes was the first Dorian king, and the dynasty, which lasted 327 years, consisted of 12 monarchs. B.C. 935. Reign of Bacchis, a descendant of Aletes. His suc- cessors take the name of Bacchidse. 786. The Corinthians invent triremes. 745. The Corinthians depose their king Telestes, and elect Automenes prytanis, or annual magistrate. 734. The Corinthians found Syracuse and Corcyra. 064. Corcyra revolts, and defeats the Corinthians in a naval engagement. 655- Cypselus expels the Bacchidae, abolishes the dignity of prytanis, and begins to reign at Corinth. 625. Keign of Periander, who reduces Corcyra to its old obedience, and encourages learning and the arts. 585. Death of Periander, who is succeeded by his nephew Psammetichus. 581. End of the Cypselian dynasty, and establishment of a republic. 457. The Corinthians are defeated in a war with the Athenians. 435. The Corcyreans again defeat the Corinthians in some naval engagements, and capture Epidamnus. 305. The Corinthian war (q. v.). 387. Peace of Antalcidas, which puts an end to the Corin- thian war. 344. Timophanes, who attempts to establish a despotism at Corinth, is defeated, and murdered by his brother Timoleon. 338. Congress at Corinth, which declares war against Persia, and appoints Philip V. of Macedon the Greek generalissimo. Corinth falls into the power of the Macedonians. 343. Aratus delivers Corinth from the Macedonian sway, and annexes it to the Achan League (q. v.). 228. First arrival of Roman ambassadors at Corinth. 323. The Achseans surrender Corinth to Antigonus Doson. 197. Battle of Cynoscephala? (q. v.). 146. Sack of Corinth by L. Mummius, who slaughters all the male inhabitants, sells the women and chil- dren for slaves, conveys the art treasures of the city to Rome, and, having abandoned it to pillage destroys it by fire. 44. Corinth is restored by Julius Caesar. A.D. 363. The Isthmian games are celebrated under the Em- peror Julian. 396. Corinth is taken by Alaric. 532. Justinian rebuilds the walls and fortifications. 1146. Corinth is plundered by Roger, King of Sicily. 1205. The Crusaders lay siege to Corinth. 1209. It is besieged by Geoffrey Villehardoin. 1310. It is erected into an archbishopric. 1247- I* > s taken by William Villehardoin, Prince of Achaia. 1358. It is granted to Niccolo Acciaiuoli. 1422. It is ceded to the Venetians. 1453. The Turks seize Corinth. 1687. It is taken by the Venetians. 1714, June 20. It is retaken by the Turks. 1822, Oct. 2. The Greeks capture the fortress. 1823. The city is taken by the Greeks, and added to their newly formed kingdom. 1858, Feb. 21. Corinth is nearly destroyed by an earth- quake. CORINTHIAN ORDER of architecture waa invented by Callimachus B.C. 540. CORINTHIAN WAR. Corinth, Athens, Ar- gos, Thessaly, and Thebes, entered into an alliance against the Spartans, B.C. 395, and the war was prosecuted with great vigour, until brought to a conclusion by the peace of Antalcidas, B.C. 387. As hostilities were, for the most part, waged on the territory, or in the vicinity of Corinth, it was called the Corinthian war. CORINTHIANS (Epistle). Two letters written by St. Paul to the church which he had founded at Corinth during his stay there in 51 and 52. The first epistle was written by CORIOLI CORN St. Paul from Ephesus in 57 or 58, and the second from Philippi in 57 or 58. CORIOLI (Italy) was taken from the Latins by the Volscians, from whom it was wrested by the Romans B.C. 493. All traces of the town had disappeared by B.C. 443. The story of Coriolanus in connection with this city is not considered authentic by Niebuhr and other writers. CORK (Bishopric) was founded by St. Barr, or Finnbarr, about 606. In 1490 it was united to Cloyne by Pope Innocent VIII., and in 1586, May 17, the see of Ross was also added. Cloyne was separated from Cork and Ross between 1638 and 1660, and in 1678 Cork was again made distinct. The three sees were ordered to be permanently united by Act 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 37, s. 32 (Aug. 14, 1833), which came into operation at the death of Bishop Brinkley in 1835. CORK (Ireland) is said to owe its origin to St. Barr, who founded a cathedral and monas- tery here in the beginning of the 7th century. It was laid waste by the Danes in 832. A fire destroyed the greater part of the town in 978, and it was again reduced to ashes during another Danish invasion in 1013. In 1172 it surrendered to Henry II., who established an English garrison ; but the Irish besieged it in 1182 and in 1185, and finally effected its capture in 1195. King John granted Cork its first charter in 1185. The Franciscan monastery of Grey Friars was founded in 1214, and that of the Dominicans in 1229. This city was repre- sented in the Irish Parliament in 1359. In 1493 the charter was forfeited, in consequence of the favourable reception given to Perkin Warbeck ; but it was restored by James I. in 1609. In 1612 and 1622 fires destroyed great part of the city, and a flood swept away some public buildings and bridges in 1633. Cork was besieged in 1642, and in 1643 all its Irish inhabitants were expelled. The Parliamentary forces seized it in 1649, and during the Protec- torate it suffered much oppression in conse- quence of its adherence to the royalist cause. James II. landed here in 1689, and in 1690 the forces of William III., under Marlborough, took the town after a spirited resistance. The Northgate bridge over the Lee was erected in 1712. The cathedral was taken down in 1725, in consequence of the injuries it had sustained during Marlborough's siege ; and a new one was commenced on the original site in 1735. The Mansion-House was erected in 1767, the library was established in 1792, the house of correction built in 1818, and the city and county court-house was completed in 1835. Riots, caused by scarcity of food, broke out June 10, 1842; and Daniel O'Connell held a monster meeting in the neighbourhood June 8, 1845. Queen Victoria landed here Aug. 3, 1849, an d desired that the town should henceforward be called Queenstown in con- sequence. In 1850 Cork and Dublin were united by railway, and an industrial exhibition was opened June 10, 1852. New Northgate Iron Bridge was opened by the mayor March 16, 1864. The statue of Father Mathew was inaugurated Oct. 8, 1864. CORK-TREE. The bark of this tree, a kind of oak, was used by the Greeks and Romans for various purposes ; and amongst others, to make floats to their nets, anchor-buoys, swim - ming-jackets, and soles for their shoes. Beck- mann contends that the Romans also used it to stop vessels of every kind. Cork was first employed for this purpose in Europe on the invention of glass bottles, in the isth century. The cork-tree was introduced into England from the south of Europe in 1699. CORN. Jacob sent his ten sons into Egypt to buy corn (Gen. xlii.) during the great famine, about B.C. 1707. According to the Arundelian marbles, Ceres taught the art of sowing com at Athens B.C. 2409. Some au- thorities declare that Triptolemus first cul- tivated corn. Corn was regularly distributed to the citizens of Rome, of Constantinople, and other towns, in ancient times. Greece was supplied with corn from the coxmtries bordering on the Black Sea in the time of Xerxes. Corn was imported to Rome from Sicily B.C. 486. CORN EXCHANGE (London) was projected and opened in 1747. Alterations were com- menced in 1827, and the new building was opened June 24, 1828. CORN LAWS. The exportation of corn from England, except in certain cases, was prohibited by 34 Edw. III. c. 20 (1361). The law was modified, and in 1436 exportation was permitted by 15 Hen. VI. c. 2, provided the home price did not exceed 6s. Sd. per quar- ter. Dealers were first allowed to engross their corn, i.e. to buy in one market with intent to sell at a profit in another, by 15 Charles II. c. 7 (1663). The importation of corn, unless the price of wheat exceeded 6s. 8d. per quarter, that of rye 4$. , and of barley 3*., was prohibited by 3 Edw. IV. c. 2 (1463), the preamble of the statute stating, " Whereas, the labourers and occupiers of husbandry within this realm be daily grievously en- darnaged by bringing of corn out of other lands and parts into this realm, when corn of the growing of this realm is at low price." Further regulations on the subject followed, and the importation of corn was heavily taxed by 22 Charles II. c. 8 (1670), and also by i Will. & Mary c. 12 (1689), which substituted a bounty for the previous duty on exported corn. The rapid increase of population, how- ever, and the extended commerce and manu- factures of the country, led to alterations in the regulations respecting importation ; and by 13 Geo. III. c. 43 (1773) foreign wheat was admitted on payment of a duty of 6d. per quarter, when the home price was not less than 485. The same statute ordered the bounty on exportation to cease when corn was at or above 44*. These regulations were again modified by 31 Geo. III. c. 4 (1791), which in- creased the duties on imported corn. Mr. Robinson's act, 55 Geo. III. c. 26 (March 23, 1815), removed all restrictions on foreign corn imported in order to be warehoused, and per- mitted its importation for home consumption when at 8os. per quarter. This bill was very unpopular, and occasioned serious riots in Lon- don and Westminster, March 6-9. By 3 Geo. IV. c. 60 (July 15, 1822), the importation price CORNET [ 289 ] CORONATION was reduced to jos. per quarter, and for corn from British North America to 595. per quarter. Mr. Canning's Corn Bill, proposed March i, 1827, passed the House of Commons, bxit was rejected by the Lords. Several modifications were embodied in 9 Geo. IV. c. 60 (July 15, 1828), which is known as the Sliding Scale, because the duty varied; being 25$. &d. when the home price was 6 is. and under 628. per quarter, i6s. 8d. when it was 68s. and under 69*., and is. when it was at or above 735. By the second Sliding Scale act (5 Viet. c. 14, April 29, 1842) the duty ranged from i when corn was under 51$. per quarter to is. when it reached 73.?. Sir Robert Peel's Com Importa- tion Bill, 9 & 10 Viet. c. 22 (June 26, 1846), re- duced the duty on all corn imported at 535. per quarter to 48., until Feb. i, 1849, when the duty was permanent! y rediiced to is. per quar- ter on all grain imported. (See ANTI-CORN-LAW LEAGUE.) CORNET. This officer, occupying in cavalry regiments the same position which the ensign (q. v.) holds in the foot service, is mentioned in a list of the army in Ireland under the Earl of Essex, signed by Queen Elizabeth, March 24, 1598. Cornets received at that time two shillings a day. CORNETO (Italy), built on the site of the ancient Tarquinii, was erected into a city by Pope Eugenius IV. in 1432. CORNWALL (Bishopric), founded in 909, was united to Devonshire in 1040, and fixed at Exeter (q. v.) in 1046. CORNWALL (England) is said to have been governed by a prince named Corineus (whence its name) as early as B.C. 1145. Vespasian is supposed to have been its Roman conqueror, about A.D. 41 ; but little is known of its history till a much later period. Vortigern, Earl of Cornwall, became King of Britain in 425, and his earldom formed part of the kingdom till about 460, when the Saxons murdered 300 of the British nobility and com- pelled the rest to seek retirement in the mountainous wilds of Wales and Cornwall, where they re-established an independent kingdom. Arthur, who began to reign in 517, and ultimately extended his dominions much beyond their original limits, is the most cele- brated of the Cornish sovereigns. Cuthred, King of Wessex, annexed a portion of Corn- wall to his territories in 753, and in 835 Egbert gained the whole kingdom at the battle of Hengstone Hill. Alfred erected Cornwall into an earldom before 901, and the earls continued in uninterrupted succession from the old British kings of the country till 1066, when William the Conqueror substituted in then- place his half-brother Robert. The dignity remained in the royal family till the death of the last earl, Edmund, in 1300, when it reverted to the crown. In 1337 Edward III. created the Black Prince Duke of Cornwall, and the title has since formed part of the style of the Prince of Wales. In 1497 one Thomas Flam- mock incited the Cornishmen to rebellion, and led them in arms to Blackheath, where they were defeated by Lord Daubeny, June 22, 1497. In June, 1549, the people rose on account of the imposition of the prayer-book, and the re bellion was quelled at the battle of Sampford- Courtenay (q. v.). In 1595 the Spaniards made a descent on the Cornish coasts, and committed several depredations. The Prince and Princess of Wales visited Cornwall in 1865. CORONATION. Justin II., who succeeded Justinian I. Nov. 15, 565, was the first em- peror crowned with ceremony by the Patriarch of Constantinople. Charlemagne adopted the custom, and was crowned by the Pope, at Rome, Dec. 25, 800. Edward I. (the Elder), crowned Whitsunday, 902, is said to have been the first English monarch to adopt the ceremony. The custom for the queen to be crowned originated here before the Conquest. The French queens were for a long time crowned at the abbey of St. Denis, near Paris. Kingston-on-Thames, London, Westminster, and Winchester, were chosen by different Eng- lish kings, in early times, for their coronation. Edward the Confessor, who was crowned at Winchester, formally fixed the monastery founded by him at Westminster as the place for the ceremony (Dec. 28, 1065). CORONATION BANQUET. The feast usually held in Westminster Hall on the day of the coronation, was omitted by William IV. on his coronation, Sep. 8, 1831, and has not been revived. CORONATION OATH. The oath taken in Sweden before the conversion of the country to Christianity is still extant. It contains the name of Odin, and was accommodated to the Christian faith by Eric in 1156. The Greek emperors, in their coronation oath, which con- sisted of six articles, professed, amongst other things, their acceptance of the Apostles' Creed and of the apostolical traditions, confirmed the rights of the Church, and acknowledged the constitutions of the seven oecumenical councils. The oath taken by Ethelred II., who was crowned in 979, is extant. The oath of the kings of France was similar to that of Ethel- red II., King of England. The next oath of which a copy exists is that taken by Henry I. in i ioo, and it agrees exactly with the former. The office used by Ethelred II. appears to have been adopted by his successors to the reign of Edward II., when some slight alter- ations were made. One of the articles of impeachment against Archbishop Laud was the charge of having altered the coronation oath for Charles I. By i Will. & Mary, c. 6 (1689), a new coronation oath was framed, the former oath containing, according to this statute, "doubtful words and expressions with relation to ancient laws and constitu- tions now unknown." This was altered at the union with Scotland. CORONATION STONE. " The legends of the old historians," says Taylor (Glory of Re- gality, p. 53), " inform us that this is the very stone on which the patriarch Jacob laid his head in the plain of Luz ; that it was brought from Egypt into Spain by Gathelus the supposed founder of the Scottish nation ; that it was thence transported into Ireland, ' amongst other princelie ie wells and regall monuments,' by Simon Brech, who was crowned upon it about B.C. 700, and that it was thence carried to Scotland by King u CORONEA [ 290 ] CORRUPTIBLES Fergus, B.C. 330." The real history is that it was transferred from Ireland to Scotland at an early period, and was placed in the abbey church of Scone in 850. The Scottish kings were crowned here until 1296, when Edward T. carried it to England. It was agreed by the treaty of Northampton, in 1328, that the stone should be returned to Scotland, buj this was not done. It is called the " Stone oi Destiny," and is fixed under the seat of the coronation chair, which is made of oak. CORONEA (Battles). The Boaotians defeated the Athenians on this plain in Boeotia, B. c. 447 Agesilaus, at the head of the Spartans, during the Corinthian war, defeated the Thebans and their allies here B.C. 394. Several battles were fought in the vicinity. (See CH^ERONEA.) CORONER. This office is of very ancient institution, and is said by Ducange to be pecu liar to the English. It is mentioned in a char- ter of King Athelstan in 905, and the laws of Malcolm II., who began to reign in 1004, con- tain many regulations respecting the authority of this officer in Scotland. The lord chief justice of the Queen's Bench is the chief coroner in the realm ; but there are, besides, particular coroners for every county, who were first appointed in 1275 by the statute of Westminster I. (3 Edw. I.'i. Originally none but knights were permitted to hold t he- office; but it has gradually become sufficient that a man pos.sess landed property worth 20 per annum. Coroners are chosen for life ; but by 25 Geo. II. c. 293. 6 (1752 , extortion, neglect, or misbehaviour, are made reasons for removal. In case of sickness or other sufficient 'oroners are allowed to act by deputy by 6 ) its jurisdiction was limited to the right of recovery of rent, &c., and of deciding civil questions in which the damage did not exceed 40 shillings. Its operation was still further restricted by 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 27, s. 36 (July 24, 1833), and it has now fallen into disuse in consequence of the permission granted to lords of manors by 9 ct 17, 1797. CHKMATION. The custom of burning the dead originated at an early period, and is frequently referred to by Homer (B.C. 962 927). The Romans, who adopted this practice in imitation of the Greeks, discontinued it during the 4th century A.D. Henry Laurens, the first President of the American Congress, whose infant daughter had narrowly escaped burial while in a state of suspended animation, and who held peculiar views on the subject of the purifying powers of fire, directed by his will that his remains should be burned. He died in 1792, and his body was disposed of accord- ing to his desire. Cremation is still common in parts of Hindostan and other Oriental countries. CREMERA (Italy). On the banks of this small river, which flowed into the Tiber near Rome, the 300 Fabii established a fortified post, and carried on hostilities against the Veientines. They were surprised July 16, B.C. 477, and not one of the band escaped. CREMONA (Italy), the capital of a Lombard province of the same name, was the seat of a Roman colony B.C. 221. The Gauls were defeated in a great battle under its walls B.C. 200, and it received a new colony B.C. 190. Cremona suffered during the civil wars. The vanquished legions of Vitellius, after his defeat by the generals of Vespasian, A.D. 69, having CREMORNE r 299 i CRICKET taken refuge here, carried the city by assault. It was given up to pillage, and completely destroyed. Though rebuilt by Vespasian, it did not recover its former prosperity, and was again destroyed by the Lombards in 605. The inhabitants erected their city into a re- public in 1107, which joined the Lombard League in 1176. The Emperor Henry VII. imprisoned many of the inhabitants, abolished their privileges, and destroyed the ramparts of the city, in 1311. After this time it often changed masters, and was ceded to Venice in 1428. Louis XII. took it in 1499, and bestowed it upon the Swiss, in return for their alliance. He obtained possession of it in 1509, and the inhabitants threw off the French yoke in 1512. The Venetians recovered it for France in 1515. It shared the varied fortunes of the Italian cities, submitted to Buonaparte in 1796, and its incorporation with the Cisalpine republic was recognized by' the Emperor Francis II. in the treaty of Campo-Formio, Oct. 17, 1797. It was recovered by the allies in 1799, but the French regained possession in 1800. It was ceded to Austria at the set- tlement of Europe in 1814-15, and remained in its possession, with the exception of a short interval in 1848-49, until it was incor- porated with Sardinia by the treaty of Zu- rich, Nov. 10, 1859. Cremona is the seat of a bishopric. CREMORNE GARDENS (London) were opened in 1 847. Ashburiiham House was opened in 1860, and the first dog-show took place in 1 86 1. Carlo Valerio fell during a performance on the wire rope June 23, 1863, and died the following morning. CRESCENT. Gideon took from Zebah and Zalrnunna, kings of Midian, B.C. 1245, "orna- ments like the moon," that hung on their camels' necks (Judges viii. 21 24). The Midianites were Ishmaelities, and it is there- fore probable that the Turks derived the use of the crescent, as one of their standards, from their ancestors, though some authorities state it was first used by them in 1446, after the taking of Constantinople. Warburton (Crescent and the Cross) says, " The cres- cent was the symbol of the city of Byzantium, and was adopted by the Turks. This device is of ancient origin, as appears from several medals, and took its rise from an event thus related by a native of Byzantium. Philip, the father of Alexander the Great, meeting with great difficulties in carrying on the siege of this city, set the workmen one dark night to undermine the walls. Luckily for the besieged, a young moon suddenly appearing, discovered the design, which accordingly miscarried ; in acknowledgment whereof the Byzantines erected a statue to Diana, and the crescent became the symbol of the state." Philip II. of Macedon besieged Byzantium B.C. 34- CRESCENT (Orders). Charles I., King of Naples and Sicily, instituted an order of knighthood of the Crescent, in 1268. Rene, Duke of Anjou, instituted an order of the Cres- cent at Angiersin 1448. Selim III. established an order of the Crescent in 1801, in honour of the battle of Aboukir (q. v.). (See COCKLE.) CRESPY (Treaty), between Francis I. of France and the Emperor Charles V., was signed at this small town, near Meaux, in Valois, Sep. 18, 1544. They agreed, among other things, to restore all conquests made subsequent to the truce of Nice in 1539, and to join in making war against the Turks. Charles V. renounced his claim to Burgundy, and Francis I. renounced all pretensions to the kingdom of Naples, the duchy of Milan, and the suzerainty of Flanders and Artois. CREST. The custom of adopting the figure f some animal as a cognizance is of great antiquity. Herodotus (i. 171) attributes to the Carians the invention of crests for helmets, devices for shields, and handles for bucklers. Alexander III. (the Great) is said to have assumed a rani's head as his device, and Julius Caesar a star. Richard I. of England is believed to have been the first to revive the practice, as his image on a seal of the period is represented in a helmet adorned with a sprig of the planta- genista, or broom, from which the name of his family was derived. Edmund Crouchback, Earl of Lancaster, is represented with a crest before 1286 ; and Baron de Spencer, in 1296, adorned his horse with the same embellish- ment. These earlier crests were mostly plumes of feathers. In 1322, the Earl of Leicester assumed a dragon as his cognizance. Edward III. originated the custom of con- ferring crests as military honours in 1333. CRETE, or CRETA (.Egean Sea). The Egyptians, the Phoenicians, and the Phrygians are said to have founded cities in this island, the modern Candia (q. v.). The Dorians settled in it before the return of the Heraclidse. CREVANT (Battle). (See CRAVANT, Battle.) CREVELDT (Battle). Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick defeated the Count of Clermont, at the head of the French army, on this plain, near Cleves, June 23, 1758. CRIBBAGE. This game is believed to be identical with the old game of Noddy, which was played at the English court and is referred to by Sir John Harrington (1561 1612). John Hall of Durham, in his "Horse Vacivpe," pub- lished in 1646, speaks of "cribbidge" as a game played with cards; and an anonymous work called "Wit's Interpreter," published in 1670, enumerates it among a list of " courtly games." It is also mentioned in 1709. CRICKET. Although a game with bat and ball, somewhat similar to the modern pastime, was played in England as early as the i3th century, the name of cricket first occurs in the " Mysteries of Love and Eloquence," by Edward Phillips, Milton's nephew, published in 1685. Fosbroke states, that club-ball, a game played in the time of Edward III., was its ancestor. The game was much improved in I 774> when Sir Horace Mann, the Duke of Dorset, and Lord Tankerville, formed a com- mittee, Sir William Draper being chairman, and drew up the first collection of rules, which fixed two as the number of the wickets. In 1775 a middle stump was added; and in 1799 the White Conduit Club was formed. Thomas Lord established his cricket-ground in 1780, when the Marylebone Club was instituted. A match was played at Moulsey Hurst, between CRIMEA [ 300 ] CRONSTADT six unmarried and six married women, Aug. 3, 1775. The former proved victorious. One of the fair cricketers scored 17 runs. In 1849 the "Eleven of All England" visited the United States and Canada, and exhibited the perfection of the game to American players. In 1862 they paid a similar visit to Australia. The Prince of Wales headed a subscription for preserving Lord's cricket-ground from builders with a donation of ,100, April 30, 1864. CRIMEA (Russia), the ancient Tauric Chersonese, was peopled originally by the Tauri. The Greeks formed settlements towards the middle of the 6th century B.C., and founded the little kingdom of Bosporus (q. v.) about B.C. 480. The Goths descended on its shores in 250, and during the 4th century it sub- mitted to the Huns, who were expelled by Justinian I. (527565). In 679 it was seized by the Chazars, and after various reverses of fortune, submitted to the Tartars in 1237. In 1261 the Genoese obtained considerable trading privileges, and ultimately seized the country ; but, in 1475, Mohammed II. overthrew their power, and subjected the Crimea to the Turkish yoke. It afterwards existed for about three centuries as a dependency of the Sultan, under the nominal government of native khans. In 1696 it was invaded by the Russians under Peter the Great ; and again in 1 736, under Count Munnich, who defeated the Tartar forces sent against him, but failed to accom- plish any signal success. A third Russian army of 40,000 men, led by Dolgoruki, entered the Crimea July 26, 1770, and reduced the whole peninsula to subjection within a month; and in 1771 a new khan was chosen, who owed his elevation to Russian influence. In 1783 the khan abdicated, and an imperial mani- festo was issued, stating the intended incor- poration of the Crimea with the Russian empire ; to accomplish which, more than 30,000 Tartars of every age and sex were massum-d. The f ormal cession of the Crimea by Turkey did not take place till the peace of Jassy, Jan. 9, 1792. During the Russian war of 1853 56, the Crimea was the scene of many of the principal operations. An army of 58,000 men, of whom 25,000 were English, 25,000 French, and 8,000 Turks, landed at Old Fort, 20 miles from Eu- patoria, Sep. 14, 1854. The final evacuation of the Crimea by the allies took place July 12, 1856. The Russian Government subsequently strengthened 'some of the Crimean strongholds, and expended, before the end of 1865, 15,000,000 roubles on the fortifications of the straits of Yenikale alone. Large deposits of mineral oil were discovered in the Crimea in 1865. CRIMEAN MEDALS. The public distribu- tion of these medals to the brave men who distinguished themselves in the Crimean cam- paign against Russia was made by Queen Victoria in St. James's Park, May 18, 1854. CRIMISUS (Battle). Timoleon of Corinth, with an army of 11,000 men, defeated the Car- thaginians, 70,000 strong, on the banks of the Crimisus, or Crimissus, a river in Sicily, B.C. 3 CRINOLINE. (See HOOPS.) CRIPPLEGATE (London). An ancient gate of the city is noticed under this name as early as 1016. It was so called from the cripples who congregated there to seek alms. For some time a part of the postern was used as a prison for debtors and trespassers. The gate was rebuilt by the brewers of London in 1244, and was repaired in 1663. The materials were sold for gi in 1760, the purchaser agreeing to com- jnence the work of demolition Sep. i in that year, and to clear away all the rubbish within one month from that date. CRISSA (Greece). This town of Phocis, more ancient than the neighbouring city of Cirrha (q. v.}, with which it is sometimes con- founded, was built, according to tradition, by a colony of Cretans under the personal direc- tion of Apollo. In the time of Homer (B.C. 962 927), it appears to have been a place of considerable importance, but it was subse- quently eclipsed by the rising greatness of Cirrha and Delphi, and had fallen into insigni- ficance before the first Sacred War (q. v.}. CROATIA (Austria). This province of the Austrian empire, forming part of the ancient Pannonia, was incorporated with Illyria by Augustus. The Goths settled in it in 509, and the Crotians, a tribe of the Wends, in 640 ; and from them the country received its name. They conquered several neighbouring states, and erected Croatia into a kingdom in the ioth century. It was incorporated with Hungary in i ioo, and with that kingdom passed under the Austrian rule. CROCKARDS. Base coin, imported into this country, from Flanders, in large quantities during the reign of Edward I. By 27 Edw. I. (1299;, the circulation of this coin was prohi- bited under severe penalties. CROCKERY-WARE is supposed to have been invented by the Egyptians, who are said to have introduced it into Greece about B.C. 1490. In ioo years from that time it was in general use. (See EARTHENWARE.) CROCKFORD'S CLUB (London). This private club and gambling-house, in St. James's Street, was built in 1827. It took its name from one Crockford, who began life as a fish- stall keeper, and after amassing a large fortune in gaming transactions, died in May, 1844. It was sold after his death, and having been redecorated was in 1849 opened as the Naval, Military, and County Service Club (q. v.). CROISIERS. (See CROSSED, CROUCHED, or CRUTCHED FRIARS.) CROIX ST. (See DANISH AMERICA and SANTA CRUZ.) CROMLECHS. These ancient structures, found in different parts of the island, are be- lieved to be sepulchral monuments, though an opinion long prevailed that they were heathen altars or temples. The most celebrated is the cromlech at Plas Newydd, in the island of Anglesey. A cromlech was discovered in removing a large barrow in Phosnix Park, Dublin, in 1838. CROMWELL GARDENS (London), in Old Brompton, formed a favourite place of public resort in the middle of the i8th century. CRONSTADT (Russia). This strongly for- tified seaport town was founded by Peter the Great in 1710. Menschikoff wrested the island, on which part of the fortifications stand, from CRONSTADT [ 301 ] CROSSED the Swedes in 1703. It received the name of Cronstadt in 1721. Nelson followed the Rus- sian fleet to Cronstadt in May, 1801. The allied English and French fleets arrived off Cronstadt the last week in June, 1854, and returned June i, 1855 ; but on neither occasion were the fortifications assailed. CRONSTADT (Transylvania) was founded in the i sth century. CROPREDY BRIDGE (Battle). The royal troops defeated the Parliamentary army, led by Sir William Waller, at this place, near Ban- bury, June 29, 1644. CROQUET. This game, the name of which is said to be derived from the 'old word for a shepherd's staff, to which the mallets used in playing bear some resemblance, is alleged to have been introduced into this country from Germany about 1830, although it did not be- come general till many years after. Capt. Mayne Reid's " Rules, " 126 in number, were published in 1863. By some the origin of cro- quet is traced to the fashionable game pall- mall. CROSBY HALL (London), in Bishopsgate, formerly called Crosby Place, was built about 1470, by John Crosby, grocer and woolman, knighted by Edward IV. in 1471. It was con- structed of stone and timber, very large and beautiful, and, according to Stow, " the highest at that time in London." Richard Duke of Gloucester, afterwards Richard III., lodged here. CROSIERED ABBOT.- (See ABBOT.) CROSS. The sign of the cross was used by Christians in the sacrament of baptism in the 2nd. century, and the cross was adopted as the standard of Christian warriors by Constantino I. (the Great), who solemnly affirmed that he saw one two miles long shining in the heavens at mid-day, Oct. 26, 312. (See LABARUM.) The cross on which our Lord suffered is said to have been discovered by the Empress Helena, mo- ther of Constantine I., in 326. Three crosses having been found buried beneath Mount Cal- vary, the identity of the true cross was deter- mined by the miraculous cures it wrought on such sick people as touched it. This discovery is commemorated every 3rd of May, by the feast of the " Invention of the Cross." After this event images of the cross were erected on altars, which first took place about 340. In 614, Chosroes II., King of Persia, plundered Jerusalem and carried away the true cross, which was recovered by the Emperor Hera- clius, and restored to Mount Calvary, Sep. 14, 629. The festival of the " Exaltation of the Cross," held Sep. 14, is in memory of this event. The worship of crosses was estab- lished at the Council of Nicsea in 787. In the gth century men sang the praises of the cross, as they sang the great deeds of heroes; and Rhaban Maur, Archbishop of Mayence in 847, wrote a poem in its honour. The true cross is said to have been captured by Saladin in 1187 at the battle of Tiberias (q. v.). During the Mid- dle Ages crosses were erected to mark the site of any particular event. Thus Edward I. marked the spots on which the bier of his queen, Eleanor, rested, on its way from Her- deby, in Lincoln, to Westminster, by building crosses over them. (See PAUL'S (ST.) CROSS, and CHARING CROSS.) Eleanor died Nov. 28, 1291, and was buried Dec. 17. Berry (Encyclopaedia Heraldica, I., under "Cross") states, on the authority of Mackenzie, that during the Cru- sades (q. v.) " the Scots carried the cross of St. Andrew ; the French, a cross ar. ; the English, a cross or ; the Germans, sa. ; the Italians, az. ; and, as Colombiere asserts, the Spaniards, gu. ; but the red cross of St. George, the patron saint of England, has long been the standard bearing of this country." (See UNION JACK.) CROSS (Maids of the). This sisterhood was instituted in 1625, at Roye, in Picardy, by four young women, who resolved to devote them- selves to the education of poor girls. In 1636 they were compelled by persecution to remove to Paris, where their society was erected into a regular order by the archbishop in 1640, and confirmed by royal letters patent in 1642. CROSS-BOW, sometimes called ARBALIST, said by some writers to be of Sicilian, and by others of Cretan, invention. The Crusaders are supposed to have introduced the cross-bow into France, where it was used in the com- mencement of the reign of Louis VI. (1108 1137). Some historians allege that the arbalist was used in William the Conqueror's army at the battle of Hastings, Oct. 14, 1066. Gibbon speaks of it as employed at the battle of Dorylseum (q. v.}, July 4, 1097. The French had arbalists at Crecy, Aug. 26, 1346. Their use was prohibited by the council of Lateran, or the ioth general council, April, 1139. Richard I. introduced them into the Eng- lish army, and he was slain by an arrow from a weapon of this kind, March 26, 1199. Cross-bows mounted on wheels, and called spin-gardas, which shot not only darts or quarrels, but also stones and lighted combusti- bles, were used at the battle of Mons-en-Puella in 1304 ; and similar engines formed part of the armoury of Dover Castle in 1344. The use of the cross-bow in the English army ceased in 1515, but it was employed as a weapon of the chase much later. CROSS-KEYS (Battle). Gen. Fremont encountered the Confederates under Gen. " Stonewall" Jackson at this place in Virginia, Sunday, June 8, 1862. An indecisive contest ensued, in which Jackson, though forced to retreat, sustained the smallest loss. CROSS, or STARRY CROSS (Order). This order of ladies was founded by Eleonora de Gonzaga, wife of the Emperor Leopold I., in 1668, to commemorate the miraculous preserva- tion from fire of a gold cross containing relics of the true cross. It was confirmed by bull of Clement IX., July 27, 1668, and by the em- peror Sep. 9. (See BETHLEHEMITES.) CROSSED, CROUCHED, or CRUTCHED FRIARS, also called CROSIERS, or CRO- ZIERS. Originally three orders of friars were thus called in England, Flanders, and Bohemia, all of whom claimed St. Cletus (Pope 78 91) as the founder ; and St. Cyriacus, who was Bishop of Jerusalem in 331, as the restorer of their fraternity. The rules and constitution were granted in 1169 by Pope Alexander III. ; but the blue robe and silver cross, which distin- guished the order in later times, were not CROTONA [ 302 ] CRUCIFIX adopted till 1462. Theodore of Celles is said to have been the founder of the order in Flanders in 1211. The Bohemian order was founded at Prague in 1236. In 1568 Pius V. sought to restore the friars to their original sanctity of life by confirming and enlarging their privileges, but apparently with little success, as the order was finally suppressed by Pope Alexander VII. in 1656. CROTONA (Italy). This city was founded by a colony of Achteans B.C. 710. War having broken out between the inhabitants and the people of Sybaris, the latter were defeated in a great battle, and their city was destroyed B.C. 510. The elder Dionysius took C'rotona B.C. 389, and Agathocles B.C. 299, and it after- wards fell under the power of Pyrrhus. The Romans seized it B.C. 277. A colony of Romans was sent here B.C. 194. It suffered greatly during numerous wars, and the modern town Cotrone, which occupies its site, is a place of no importance. CROTOY (Treaty), confirming the treaties of Arras (q. v.) and Conflans 7. v,) } was signed at Crotoy, in France, Oct. 3, 1472. CROUCHED FRIARS'. (See CROSSED, CROUCHED, or CRUTCHED -FRIARS.) CROUP. This disease was first described scientifically by Dr. F. Home in 1765. CROWN. The first mention of a king's crown is in 2 Sam. i. 10, which describes the delivery of Saul's crown and bracelet to I >avid, B.C. 1055. At first crowns were plain fillets, bound round the head, though that taken by David from the Ammonites B.C. 103;; xii. 30), which, weighed one talent, or 120 lb., and was adorned with precious stones, was doubtless of a different description. Tanjuinius Priscus, B.C. 616, is said to have been the first Roman king who assumed a crown; but as a similar ornament was worn by 1 magistrates, it cannot be considered a mark of royalty. The use of the modern crown commenced, according to Sclden, wi : stantine I. (the Great, whose rei;;i: in 306. Crowns were adopted by the sovereigns about 580 ; by the kings of Lom- bardy, who wore iron crowns, about 590 ; and by the French kings in 768. Egebert, who became King of Kent in 786, is represented on his coins as crowned. The papal triple crown was originally a plain pointed cap. Pope Hor- misdas added the first crown about 523, Boni- face VIII. the second (1294 1303), and John XXII. the third (13161334). CROWN (Treaty of the). By this treaty, concluded at Vienna Nov. 16, 1700, the Em- peror Leopold I. agreed to recognize the Elector Frederick III. as King of Prussia. Frederick on his part engaged to assist his ally with 10,000 men, to support Austria in the Diet, and to vote, as elector, for the de- scendants of the emperor's son, Joseph, King of the Romans. CROWN AND HALF-CROWN. Gold crowns were coined by Henry VIII. in 1527. The first commission for coining silver crowns and half-crowns was signed by Edward VI. Oct. i, 1551. CROWN, IRON (Order). (See IRON CROWN, i CROWN POINT (America). Gen. Johnson defeated the French near this fort, situated on Lake Champlain, Sep. 7, 1755 ; and they abandoned it in July, 1759. The fort was surprised by the revolted Americans in 1775. They evacuated it Oct. 13, 1776, after the signal defeat of their squadron on Lake Champlain (q. v.}. CROWS AND ROOKS. In consequence of 'the depredations committed by these birds, an act (24 Hen. VIII. c. io'~ was passed in 1532, to compel every one, under penalty of a fine, to do his best to destroy them, and to render it incumbent on all villages and country towns to provide and maintain nets for their capture. This statute was partially repealed by 8 Eliz. c. 15 (1565). CROXTON PARK RACES. These annual races, celebrated in the spring at Croxton Park, in Leicestershire, a hunting seat of the Duke of Rutland, were instituted about 1816. CROYDON (Surrey), called in Domesday Book Croinedone, was given to Lanfranc soon after the Conquest. A palace built of timber was in existence in 1278. Archbishop Parker entertained Elizabeth at the new palace of Croydon in 1575. It was converted into a fac- tory in 1780. Archbishop Whitgift founded the hospital in 1596. The canal was commenced in 1801, and the railroad to London opened June i, 1839. CUOYLAXD, or CROWLAND (Lincoln- shire .Kthelbald, King of Mercia, founded a monastery on this island in 716. The building was completed in 726. The Danes killed the abbot and plundered the monastery in 870. It was restored by King Edred in 948. The abbey w. -d by fire in 1091, and re- built in 1 1 12. It was again burned in 1142, and 1 about 1170. Croyland was suppressed with the other monasteries at the Refor- CRO/FER, the pastoral staff of an arch- bishop, is distinguished by a cross, and must not be confounded with the staff of a bishop, which terminates in a shepherd's crook. The origin of the crozier is referred to the original staff of the Romans. It was adopted at a very early period in the Church's history, and is known to have been in use about 500. In the 1 2th century the crozier was appointed to be borne by metropolitans and patriarchs, which privilege was afterwards extended to all archbishops by Gregory IX. (1227 1241). A writer in Notes ami (jn< ,-i his own territories, giving Malcolm some English towns as a com- pensation. The county remained an object of contention between the two kingdoms for some time, and was ravaged by the Scotch in 1091 and in 1135; on the latter occasion Stephen resigned his claim. Henry II. recovered it in 1157. Cumberland was finally annexed to England in 1237. The Border service was instituted by Edward I. in 1296, when Robert de Clifford was made Lord Warden of the Marches, and appointed to guard the country against Scotch invasion, and to decide dispxites between the people of both kingdoms. Edward Bruce ravaged Cumberland in 1315, and in 1322 his brother Robert also entered the county, whence he returned with immense booty ; and for a long period the whole border territory was the scene of continual marauding incursions. CUMBERLAND GAP (N. America). This pass, separating Kentucky and Tennessee, and important as commanding those states and the line of communication between Richmond and northern Alabama and the towns on the Mississippi, was seized by the Confederates early in the American civil war. It was eva- cuated by them about June 10, 1862, and occupied by the Federals, who were compelled to abandon it Sep. 17. Gen. Shackelford, who commenced operations against it Sep. 4, 1863, invested it Sep. 7, but its surrender was refused by Gen. Frazier, who delivered it, how- ever, to Gen. Burnside, Sep. 9. CUMBERLAVD PRESBYTERIANS. This sect originated at Cumberland, in Kentucky, North America, in iSio, in a dispute between the presbytery of that town and the Kentucky synod of the Presbyterian Church in America, relative to the admission to the ministry of persons, who, not having received the usual education, were nevertheless deemed by the presbytery to be required as preachers. They hold the doctrine of universal redemption, and deny the predestination of sin. CUNAXA (Battle). Cyrus the Younger was defeated and slain by his brother Artaxerxes II. (Mnemon), King of Persia, at this place, in Upper Asia, B.C. 401. CUNEIFORM INSCRIPTIONS.-The cunei- form, wedge-shaped, or arrow-headed character, used for monumental records, and read from right to left, " arose," according to Rawlinson (Ancient Monarchies i. 83), "when clay took the place of stone as a material. A small tool, with a square or triangular point, impressed, by a series of distinct touches, the outline of the old pictured objects on the soft clay of tablets and bricks." The earliest inscription yet deciphered is one of Urukh, King of Chaldfea, who reigned from B.C. 2093 to B.C. 2070. From this date they are found written in three alphabets or languages, viz. the Assyrian, the Median or Scythic, and the Persian, till about the time of Alexander III. (the Great) B.C. 336 323. Garcia de Sylva Figueroa, Persian ambassador of Philip III. of Spain, was the first modern who suggested, in 1618, that these inscriptions were probably records traced in some ancient and lost lan- guage. Sir John Chardin, in 1674, published ;hree groups of cuneiforms, copied at Perse- r>olis, which he declared to be writing, adding, " the rest, however, will always be unknown." Karsten Niebuhr, in a narrative of his eastern ravels, published between 1772 and 1778. first proved the existence of three cuneiform alpha- bets ; and Dr. Grotefend of Hanover laid the first cuneiform alphabet, with its modern European equivalents, before the Academy of Gottingen, Sep. 7, 1802. Sir H. Rawlinson, writing in 1851 of the Assyrian records, pub- lished a list of 246, or, including variants, 366 characters, as occurring in the inscriptions known to him. M. Oppert, in 1858, gave 318 forms as those "most in use" (Rawlinson i. 337). CUNERSDORF, or KUNNERSDORF (Battle). Frederick II. of Prussia attacked the allied Austrian and Russian army at this place, near Frankfort, on the Oder, Aug. 12, 1759. The Prussians were at first successfxil, and a messenger was sent to Berlin, with the following message to the queen : ' ' Madam, we have driven the Russians from their en- trenchments. In two hours expect to hear of a glorious victory." Their opponents, however, renewed the contest with great vigour, and the king was compelled to order a retreat, having lost 30,000 men in killed and wounded, and 200 pieces of artillery. CUPOLA or TURRET SHIPS. Capt. Coles, R.N., having been struck by the success of the Luilf/ Xunc/t raft, which carried a 32-pounder, and was used with great effect in the sea of Azof during the Crimean war, directed his attention towards the invention of an iron dome or hemispherical shield to protect the men working guns placed on similar rafts. His designs were favourably noticed by a committee of investigation in Nov., 1855, and, having made fresh experiments and plans, he introduced his views to the public in a lecture delivered before the Royal United Ser- vice Institution, June 29, 1860. In 1861 ex- periments made by government on a cupola erected on the Trusty, resulted in establishing the superiority of the new system, which was that iised, with some modifications, in the Federal steam i-aft Monitor, which defeated the Confederate Mvmmac, March 9, 1862. CURACOA (Atlantic). The Spaniards formed a settlement on this island, one of the Antilles, in 1527. It was taken by the Dutch in 1634. The inhabitants having claimed the protection of England, the island and its dependencies surrendered to an English squadron Sep. 13, 1800. The island, restored by the 3rd article of the treaty of Amiens, March 25, 1802, was, on the renewal of the war, again captured by a British squadron, Jan. i, 1807. By the treaty concluded in London, Aug. 13, 1814, it was restored to the Dutch, in whose possession it has since remained. CURATE. Simon Islip, Archbishop of Canterbury (13491366), fixed the yearly sa- lary of a curate at six marks, or 4, which was increased to eight marks or ,5 6s. 8d. by Arch- bishop Sudbury, in 1378. Perpetual curacies CURFEW f 37 CURZOLA were originated by 4 Hen. IV. c. 12 (1402), which enacted that " in every church appro- priated there shall be a secular person or- dained vicar perpetual." Curates were first required to be examined and admitted by the ordinary by the canons of 1604, and by 12 Anne, stat. 2 c. 12 (1713), the bishop's licence was declared necessary before they could serve a cure in the absence of the rector. This act, which provided for the salaries of curates, was, with 36 Geo. III. c. 83 (May 14, 1796), and 53 Geo. III. c. 149 (July 20, 1813), relating to the same subject, repealed by 57 Geo. III. c. 99 (July 10, 1817). This was amended by i & 2 Viet. c. 106 (Aug. 14, 1838), and by 2 & 3 Viet. c. 49 (Aug. 17, 1839). (-See QUEEN ANNE'S BOUNTY.) CURFEW BELL. The Couvre-feu, or Curfew, was a signal for putting out fires and lights. William I. is said to have introduced it into England in 1068, although it is pro- bable that he only enforced a regulation previously in existence, as a similar custom at that time prevailed in Italy, France, Spain, and other countries. The severity, however, with which William I. enforced it, compelling the people to extinguish both fires and lights when the curfew-bell rang at eight in the evening, caused the introduction of the custom to be attributed to him. In those early times, the fire was generally made in a hole in the middle of the floor, the smoke escaping through an aperture in the roof. When the bell tolled the wood and embers were raked together and the fire was extin- guished. The custom was modified by Hen- ry I. in 1103. The Liber Albus contains regu- lations of the city of London, passed during the reigns of Edward I. and Edward III., by which persons were forbidden to wander about the city armed, after curfew. The practice of ringing the bell at eight o'clock is still kept up in many places in England. CURIA MURIA ISLANDS (Indian Ocean), on the south coast of Arabia, were visited by Portuguese missionaries in 1588 ; at which time the population, only one of them being inhabited, consisted of a few savages, who subsisted on fish, which they dried in the sun. In 1819 they were invaded by the Wahabees, who destroyed their houses, killed their goats, and sold some of their children to slavery. The islands, five in number, were explored and described by Dr. Hulton in 1836. They are also called the Kooria Mooria Islands. CURIA REGIS. (See KING'S COURT ) CURIATIL (See ALBA LONGA and HORATII AXD CURIATII.) CURLING. This game is said to have been introduced into Scotland by the Flemish emi- grants, at the commencement of the i6th century. CURRANTS, or " raisins de Corinthe," were first introduced into this country in the i6th century, when they were called " Corinthes," fi-om the part of Greece in which they are produced in the greatest abundance. An at- tempt was made in the reign of Henry VIII. to introduce the culture of this particular vine in England. The duty on currants, which was very high, was reduced in 1834, and by 7 Viet. c. 6 (June 6, 1844). CURRANT-TREE was first planted in England in 1533. The hawthorn currant-tree was introduced from Canada in 1705. CURRIERS.-(See LEATHER.) CURSE OF SCOTLAND. The reason why the nine of diamonds is called the curse of Scotland has been discussed in Notes and Queries. Amongst the reasons assigned are the following: Because the Duke of Cum- berland, after the battle of Culloden, April 16, 1746, wrote upon the back of this card a very cruel and inhuman order for the destruction of the persons and property of the rebels. Because the armorial bearings of the Earl of Stair, who was very unpopular in Scotland, on account of the part he took in promoting the Union in 1707, were so arranged as to resemble the nine of diamonds. Because "curse of Scotland "is a corruption of "cross of Scotland," the allusion being to St. An- drew's cross, which is supposed to resem- ble the nine of diamonds. Because diamonds imply royalty, being ornaments to the im- perial crown ; and every ninth king of Scot- land has been a tyrant and a curse to his country. Because the heraldic bearings of the Dalrymple family are, on a saltire azure, nine lozenges of the field ; the second Viscount Dalrymple and first Earl of Stair being called the curse of Scotland, from the part he took in the massacre of Glencoe in 1692. Because it is the great winning card at cornette, a game introduced into Scotland in 1538, by the French attendants of Mary of Lorraine, queen of James V., to the ruin of many Scotch families. Because the nine of diamonds is the pope in the game of Pope Joan, originally called Pope Julio, and said to have been played as early as the time of Queen Elizabeth. The latter explanation, from the anti-papal spirit dis- played by the Scottish people, is believed to be the true one. CURSITOR BARON. Although the functions of this officer originated at the same time as the Exchequer, they did not give rise to a separate dignity till the reign of James I. The first mention of baron-cursitor occurs July 8, 1606, when Nowell Sotherton received the title. By 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 99 (Aug. 29, 1833), many of the duties of this office were abolished, and it was suppressed by 19 & 20 Viet. c. 86 (July 29, 1856). CURSUS. I See BREVIARY.) CURTAIN THEATRE (London), mentioned in 1577, was occupied in 1622 by the servants of Charles, Prince of Wales. In 1678, Aubrey described it as "a kind of nursery or ob- scure playhouse, called the Greene Curtain, situate in the suburbs towards Shoreditch." It was afterwards used for exhibitions of pugilism. CUR TA TONE (Battle). The Austrians, after a severely contested action, defeated the Italian army at this village, between Mantua and Vicenza, May 29, 1848. CURZOLA (Adriatic), the ancient Corcyra Nigra, so called from the dark colour of the pines that grow upon it, is said to have been colonized by the Cnidians. It was seized, in 997, by the Venetians, under the Doge Pietro Orseolo II., and in 1298 the Genoese CUSHER CUTTACK defeated a Venetian fleet in its vicinity. In 1420 it was retaken by the Venetians, and in- corporated with the province of Venetian Dal- matia ; and in 1485 it resisted the attempts of Ferdinand II. of Aragon for its capture. The Turkish corsair Uluz-Ali attacked Curzola in 1571, and the governor and garrison having fled, the women put on armour, and saved the place from pillage. The Russians twice seized Curzola in 1806. It was ceded to France by the treaty of Tilsit, July 7, 1807. The English obtained possession in 1813, and re- tained it till its cession to the Austrians, July 15, 1815. CUSHEE PIECES were invented by Richard Leake, who was born in 1629, fought in the great sea-fight against Van Tromp in 1673, and died in 1696. Leake held the position of master-gunner of England and storekeeper of Woolwich. CUSHION-DANCE, also called Joan Sander- son, is a very old round dance. According to Fosbroke, in most ancient dances a man and a woman danced together, holding each other by the hand or arm, and a kiss was the established fee of the lady's partner. One of the charac- ters in Hey wood's play of "A Woman killed with Kindness" (1600), remarks, " I have, ere now, deserved a cushion ; call for the cushion- dance." Playford's " Dancing-Master," pub- lished in 1698, contains a description of this dance, usually introduced at weddings. CUSTOM-HOUSE (London). The business of the Customs was transacted at Billingsgate in 979, but no building was especially devoted to this purpose till 1365. In 1559 a larger house was erected, which was destroyed during the Great Fire of 1666 : and the new edifice, built by Sir Christopher Wren in 1668, was also burned, in 1718. It was rebuilt by Ripley soon after, and shared the fate of its predecessors, Feb. 12, 1814. The first stone of a new custom-house had been laid in 1813, as the former .building was found inadequate to the requirements of the times, and this was opened May 12, 1817. In 1825, owing to the defective manner in which the foundations had been laid, part of the new building fell in, when the whole central portion was taken down and restored. The custorn-house of Dublin was completed in July, 1621, and re- built before 1661. In 1707 a new building was erected ; but as this was found to be unsafe in 1773, another was commenced in 1781, and completed in 1791. A dreadful fire, ' which broke out in the sugar and spirit stores, Aug. 10, 1833, destroyed 700 puncheons of spirit, 300 casks of tallow, and nearly 5,000 hogsheads of sugar. CUSTOMS were paid on vessels and goods at Billingsgate, during the reign of Ethelred II. (978 1016). They were granted to the king in 1274, by 3 Edw. I.; and in 1282, the duty of col- lecting them was intrusted to foreigners. Queen Elizabeth farmed them to Sir Thomas Smith, receiving at first 14,000, which sum was raised, in 1590, to 42,000, and afterwards to .50,000. In 1666, Charles II. farmed them for .390,000. In 1 787 they were regulated by the Customs Consolidation Act (27 Geo. III. c. 13), which has been since amended, by 16 & 17 Viet. c. 107 (Aug. 20, 1853), and 18 and 19 Viet, cc. 96 & 97 (Aug. 14, 1855). CUSTOS BREVIUM. This office, in the court of King's or Queen's Bench and in the court of Common Pleas, was abolished by i Will. IV. c. 58 (July 23, 1830). CUSTOS ROTULORUM, or Keeper of the Rolls or records of the session of the peace, was ordered to be appointed under the sign manual, by 37 Hen. VIII. c. i (1545), and i Will. & Mary c. 21 (1689). CUSTOZA (Battle). -Marshal Radetsky de- feated the Italians at this place, near Mantua, July 23, 1848. CUSTRIN. (See KUSTBIN.) CUTCH, or KUTCH (Hindostan), was an in- dependent state in 1582, and held possessions in Scinde and other neighbouring territories, all of which were lost by Rao Lacka, who suc- ceeded to power in 1751. Futteh Mohammed, the general of the army, expelled the reigning prince in 1792, and was himself overthrown in 1802 ; after which Cutch became notorious as the seat of hordes of robbers, who were a source of constant annoyance to the adjoining provinces. Consequently, the East India Com- pany interfered in 1809, and compelled the government of Cutch to promise that the offences complained of should be discontinued. In 1815 it became necessary to enforce this agreement by an appeal to arms ; and the result was, that another more stringent treaty was entered into Jan. 16, 1816. In 1819 the Rao was dethroned for misgovernment, and a regency was appointed until his infant heir should be able to rule. A commercial treaty was concluded with England Oct. 13, 1819. Cutch. suffered from an earthquake in July, 1819. Another commercial treaty was concluded May 21, 1822. A secret but extensive trade in slave children was discovered and suppressed by treaty Feb. 6, 1836 ; and other improvements, such as the abolition of sutteeism and infanti- cide, have also resulted from British inter- course. CUTLERY. The manufacture of cutlery is an art of great antiquity. The precise period at which it was introduced into Great Britain is not known. Sheffield was famous for its steel manufactures in the i3th century, as Chaucer speaks of the "Sheffield thwytel" as a common article. Henry V. incorporated the London cutlers in 1417. The Sheffield artisans did not receive their charter till 1624. By s. i of 59 Geo. III. c. 7 (March 23, 1819), makers of wrought-steel cutlery obtained the privilege of marking them with the figure of a hammer ; and by sec. 5, a penalty of 10 per dozen was imposed on all vendors of cutlery falsely stamped " London made." CUTTACK (Hindostan). The Mohammedan writers, about 1212, mention this country under the name of Jagepore. It was conquered and annexed to Bengal in 1592. The Mahrattas obtained possession of it in 1751, and it was ceded to the East India Company by the second article of the treaty of Deogaum, Dec. 17, 1803. The capital of the district, also called Cuttack, or Royal Residence, sustained a celebrated siege in 1592. It was captured by the East India Company's army Oct. 14, 1803. CUXAR [ 309 ] CYPRUS CUXAH (Spain). This strongly fortified post, near Baza, was taken from the Moors by the Spaniards in 1489. CUX HAVEN (Germany). This seaport town, belonging to Hamburg, was occupied by the Prussians in 1800. The French took possession in 1804, and evacuated it in 1813, when it was occupied by a British force. CUZCO (Peru), the capital of the Incas, said to have been founded by Manco Capac, in the loth or nth century, was entered by Pizarro Nov. 15, 1533. The siege of Cuzco commenced early in Feb., 1536, when the city, having caught fire in several places, was nearly consumed. The Peruvian army waged the conflict for more than five months, and withdrew in Aug. Prescott says: "It stood in a beautiful valley on an elevated region of the plateau, which, among the Alps, would have been buried in eternal snows, but which within the tropics enjoyed a genial and salubrious temperature. It was, moreover, the ' Holy City ;' and the great temple of the Sun, to which pilgrims resorted from the furthest borders of the empire, was the most magnificent structure in the New World, and unsurpassed, probably, in the costliness of its decorations, by any building in the Old." CYANOGEN is a gaseous compound, dis covered by Gay-Lussac in 1815. CYBELE, or RHEA. The worship of this goddess, " the great Idsean mother of the gods," which originated at a very early period in Crete, where, according to tradition, she had given birth to Zeus or Jupiter, extended thence to Athens and over the entire eastern world, of which she became the chief divinity. Her image was brought from Pessinus to Rome, about the end of the second Punic War, B.C. 202, and her worship appears to have been naturalized in the empire about the time of Domitian (8196). Julian the Apostate (361 363) delivered an oration in her honour. CYCLADES (Mgean Sea) .This group of 12 islands received this name because they lay in a circle around Delos, the smallest of them. Artemidorus increased the number to 15. Originally inhabited by Carians, who were expelled by Minos, they were afterwards colonized by lonians and Dorians. The Cy- clades passed from Turkish rule, and were included in the new kingdom of Greece, f ormed in 1829. CYCLE. The Chinese cycle of 60 years, or 720 revolutions of the moon, was instituted by Hoang-ti, who flourished about 2660 B.C. ; and that of Cleostratus, who proposed a cycle of eight years, began about 532 B.C. The Metonic cycle was invented by Meton of Athens B.C. 432, and was superseded by that of Calippus, which commenced B.C. 330. CYCLONE. Mr. W. C. Redfield in 1831, and Lieut.-Col. (afterwards Sir William) Reid in 1838, suggested that gales, like hurricanes and whirlwinds, possessed a rotatory action. (See CALCUTTA, STORMS, levied by 13 Will. III. c. 5 s. 5 (1701), upon all cyder and perry made in England. A duty of ^4 per tun on all cyder and perry imported from foreign countries was imposed by 5 Will. & Mary, c. 7, s. 27 (1694), and continued for 95 years by 4 Anne c. 6, s. n (1705). The duties, having undergone various modifications, were repealed by i Will. IV. c. 51 (July 16, 1830) from Oct. 10, 1830. CYMBALS, very similar in form to those of the present day, were used by the ancient Egyptians, Assyrians, and Hebrews. They were also common in Greece, and were intro- duced by the Etruscans into Rome, where they were used in religious festivals. CYMRI, CYMRY, or KYMRY. These ancient inhabitants of Britain, possessing a common origin with the Cimmerii (q. v.) and Cimbri (q. v.), are supposed to have come into Britain from Asia, at a very early period, under Hu the Mighty, a descendant of Gomer, the son of Japheth. Finding it unoccupied they took possession, and after 150 years a second great chief brought the whole island under one form of government. From the name of this people Wales obtained its Latin title of Cambria. CYNICS. These philosophers received this name on account of their snarling disposition, or from the Cynosarges, a gymnasium in the suburbs of Athens, in which their founder Antisthenes, born B.C. 420, used to lecture. Diogenes (B.C. 4126.0. 323) was one of the most celebrated of this sect. They were some- times called the School of Barkers. CYNOSCEPHAL^E (Battles). Two battles were fought on the hill of Cynoscephalse, the Dog's Heads, near Scotussa, in Thessaly ; the first, B.C. 364, between the Thebans and Alex- ander of Pherae, when the former were vic- torious, though Pelopidas, their leader, was slain. The second, in which the Roman con- sul Flamininus defeated Philip V. of Macedon, was fought B.C. 197. CYNOSSEMA (Sea-fight). The Athenians defeated Mindarus and the Spartan fleet, off Cynossema, or the Dog's Monument, a mound supposed to mark the tomb of Hecuba, said to have been transformed into a dog, on the coast of Caria, B.C. 411. CYPRESS, said to be the Tezzah of Scripture, is remarkable for its durability; and on this account was used for statues of the gods and cases of mummies. The gates of St. Peter, at Rome, made of this wood, lasted 1,100 years. It was used for coffins. The common cypress is known to have been cul- tivated in England as early as 1551, and was probably introduced from Canada about 1548. The deciduous cypress was brought into this country from North America about 1640, ar,d the cedar of Goa in 1683. A common age for the cypress on the American continent is 400 years. CYPRUS (Knights of). The order of the Sword, in Cyprus, was instituted by Guy de Lusignan towards the end of the i2th century. It numbered 300 barons, and became extinct yhen the Turks took Cyprus in 1570. CYPRUS (Mediterranean). This island, CYR [ 310 ] CZASLAU which was colonized by the Phoenicians at a very early period, passed successively under the supremacy of the Syrians, the Greeks, the Egyptians, and the Persians. On the death of Alexander III. (the Great), it was incorpo- rated with Egypt. It was made a Roman pro- vince B.C. 58. Cjesar gave it to Arsinoe and Ptolemy, the sister and brother of Cleopatra B.C. 47. It was made an imperial province B.C. 27, but was given up to the senate B.C. 22. Paul and Barnabas visited the island A.D. 44 (Acts xiii. 4). The island was an independent province of the early Church and was divided into 13, or, according to some authorities, 15 dioceses. The Jews of Cyprus rebelled during the reign of Hadrian (117 138 , and massacred above 200,000 of the inhabitants. A council was held in Cyprus in 399. The Saracens took possession of the island in 648, but soon after retired. Haroun al Rashid captured it about 803, and John Zimisces ex- pelled the Saracens in 964. Richard I. of Eng- land wrested the island from Isaac Comnenus in 1191, and at first ceded it to the Templars ; but in 1192 bestowed it upon Guy de Lusig- nan. Cyprus was reduced to subjection by the Genoese in 1373, and fell under the power of the Venetians in the isth century. Selim II took it in Aug, 1571. It was ceded by treaty March 7, 1573, and has since remained in the T>AMPIER ISLANDS (Indian Ocean). This archipelago, situated to the north of Australia, was discovered by William Dampier, who anchored off Rosemary Island, the chief of the group, Aug. 31, 1699. DAMPIERRE (France). In this chateau, situated on the Loire, Margaret of Anjou, widow of Henry VI. of England, ended her days Aug. 25, 1481. DANCE OF DEATH. This subject, so popu- lar with the artists of the Middle Ages, was painted in 1312, in the church of the Domini- cans at Basel. The earliest printed work on the subject which bears a date is "LaDause Macabre," published at Paris in 1485. Holbein's "Dance of Death" was first published at Lyons in 1538. It comprises 41 cuts, each sur- mounted by a Latin text, and having under- neath four French verses. A second edition of this work appeared in 1542, and it has since been frequently reprinted. DANCERS. This sect arose at Aix-la- Chapelle in 1373, and spread through various parts of the N etherlands. Its members, of both sexes, hand in hand, danced furiously till they fell upon the ground. They were the fore- runners of the Convulsionists (q. v.} in France, and the Jumpers (q. v. ) in England and America. DANCING is said to have been invented by Athothus, the Egyptian Mercury. The Curetes introduced dancing to time B.C. 1534 ; and Miriam and the Israelitish women testified their joy at their deliverance from the Egyp- tians by dancing to the sound of their timbrels, B.C. 1491 (Exod. xv. 20). David danced before the ark of God B.C. 1044 (2 Sam. vi. 14). ^Eschy- lus united dancing to the dramatic perform- ances of the Greeks about B.C. 499, and panto- mimic dances were introduced on the Roman stage B.C. 22. Dancing was an ordinary recrea- tion at the convivial meetings of the Greeks. Meursius mentions 184 kinds of dancing. Da ncing was prohibited in 366 by the Coun cil of Laodicea. The Church Dance, which may still be seen on certain festivals in the cathedral at Seville, was stopped in France in the nth century. Sir Christopher Hatton, afterwards Lord Chancellor, is said to have in- gratiated himself with Queen Elizabeth by his excellence in dancing. DANEBROG, or DANNEBROG. Some authorities refer the institution of this order of knighthood to the earliest period of the Danish kingdom, while others say it was founded by Valdemar II., in 1219, in commemoration of a miraculous standard which descended from heaven, and rallied his troops when they were on the point of fleeing before the Livonian. pagans. In the isth century the order fell into decay, but it was revived by Christian V. Oct. 12, 1671, and received new statutes Dec. i, 1693. The constitution of the order was ex- tended by Frederick VI., who issued letters patent to that effect June 28, 1808. DANEGELT, or DANE MONEY, a tribute exacted by the Danes in their invasions of Eng- land. It was first paid by Ethelred II., or the Unready, in 991, on the advice of Siric, Arch- bishop of Canterbury, and consisted of 16,000 pounds of silver. Another levy, of 24,000 pounds of silver, was exacted in 1002, and it afterwards became a regular custom for the Anglo-Saxon kings to extort money from their subjects to bribe the Danes. Edward the Confessor abo- lished the Danegelt in 1051. It was restored by William I. in 1068, and again suppressed at the council held at Oxford by King Stephen in 1136. The last recorded payment of Danegelt took place in 1175. The citizens of London were relieved from the payment of this tax by the sth article of Henry the First's charter. DANES. The Scandinavian tribes, who, in the Sth, gth, and loth centuries, invaded many parts of the continent, and of England, were known under this general name. Their ravages DANES in France and upon the continent of Europe are described under NORTHMEN. A.D. 787. First appearance of the Danes in England. 793. They pillage Liudisfarne, and ravage Northumber- 794. The Danes are defeated at Wearmouth. 795. They land in Ireland. 833. They seize .Sheppey Island. 833. They defeat Kgbert at ('harmouth (q. .) 835. Egbert defeats them at Hengstone Hill (q. v.). 837. The Danes are defeated at Southampton, but gain a victory on the isle of Portland. 845. They are defeated by Ethel wulph at the Parret. 851. They winter in Sheppey; sail up the Thames with 350 ships ; plunder Canterbury and London ; and are defeated at Aclea (q. .). 853. They are victorious in Tlianet. 860. They land at Southampton, and threaten Winches- ter; but are driven back by Osric and Ethclwulph. 867. They take York, which is defended by Ella and l tobert, who fall in the battle. 869-70. They subdue East Anglia, and destroy the monas- tery of Bardney and the abbeys of Croyland, Cold- ingham, and Kly. 871. They fight nine battles in the country south of the Thames, and conclude peace with King Alfred. 874. They conquer Mercia. 875. Hea'lfden invades Northumberland, and destroys Tynemouth and Lindisfarne. Outhrum and other chiefs seize Cambridge, where they winter. 876. They take Wareham and Exeter, and conclude a second treaty with Alfred. 877. A Danish fleet of 130 vessels is wrecked at Swansea. A third treatv with Alfred is made at Exeter. 878. They compel Alfred to hide in Atheh.ey. After six months, he collects bis forces, defeats them at Kthandunu ('/. r.), and persuades Guthruni to em- brace Christianity. 88r. The Danes land in Scotland. 884. They renew their attaelo. and lay siege to Rochester, 'bi< .1, is relieved by Alfred. 894. Alfred defeats Hastings at Farnham, Bamfleet, and Chester. 896. Hasting leaves Kngland. 897. Alfred d, 'feats the Danes near the Isle of Wi-ht. 901. Ethelwitld, son of Kthehvd I., is defeated in a pro- ject to assume the crown, and compelled to seek refuge with the Northumbrian Danes, who elect him king. oil. The Danes suffer a great defeat at Wodensfield from Edward, King o( W 031. The Northumbrian Danes submit to Edward the Elder. 943. The Danes plunder Tamworth. 978. The Danes are defeated by the Irish on Tara Hill. 981. A Danish fleet ravages Devon and Cornwall. 991. Another formidable invasion. The Danes are in- duced to retire on receiving ,10,000 of tribute money. (See DANEGELT.) 993. They renew their attacks, and are defeated by Ethel- red II. in a naval engagement. 994. Sweyn, defeated in an attempt to take London, ravages Essex, Kent, and the southern counties, and receives 16,000 on. condition of his quitting the country. 099. Four thousand Danes are slain at the battle of the Suck, in Ireland. 1003. Danish invasion bought off for 25,000. Ethelred II. orders the massacre of every Dane in England, which is perpetrated on the eve of St. Bride's day Nov. 13. 1003. Sweyn invades England (q. v.). 1005. Sweyn quits England, in consequence of a famine. 1006. Another Danish invasion. 1010. The Danes burn Oxford and Cambridge, and obtain posses-ion of 16 English counties. 10 1 1. They burn Canterbury, and carry away the arch- bishop, whom they murder the following year. 1013. They receive =48,000 tribute, and disband their fleet 1013. Sweyn takes London, and asserts his rule over the whole country north of Watling Street. 1014. The battle of Clontarf (q. v.) is lost by the Danes. 1016. Canute, son and successor of Sweyn, gains many victories, and obtains from Edmund II. (Ironside) the cession of the northern half of England. DANUBE A.L>. 1018. Canute exact* a tribute of ,80,000. 1047. An invading fleet lands at Sandwich. 1054. The Dane* fight a gainst Macbeth, under Siward, Earl of Northumberland. 1066, Sep. 25. They are defeated by Harold II. at Stam- ford Bridge. 1069. The sons of Sweyn arrive, with 240 ships, in the Humber. They burn York, and slay more than 3,000 of its Norman defenders. 1070. Sweyn arrives in the Humber, and a Danish fleet sails up the Thames. 1075. A Danish fleet, under Swcyn's son, Canute, pillages York, and then withdraws. DANESMORE (Battle). (-See BANBURY.) DANGER ISLES (Pacific Ocean). This group was discovered by Com. Byron in 1765. DANISH AMERICA. The islands of St. Thomas, Santa Cruz or St. Croix, and St. John, with some small islands, constitute the Danish possessions in America. DAXXEWERK, DANNEVIRKE, or DANE- WIRKE (Denmark). This wall, erected in the 9th century to protect Southern Jutland, was rebuilt and greatly strengthened in 937 by the queen consort Thyra. Gen. Wrangel, at the head of 30,000 Prussians, defeated the Danes, 10,000 strong, after a struggle of eight hours' duration, at this place, near Sleswig, Easter Sunday, April 23, 1848. The Danes abandoned their position behind the Daimewerk to the Austrians and Prussians, Friday, Feb. 5, 1864. DANTZIC (Prussia), which existed as early as 970, was taken by Mestwin, Duke of Eastern Pornerania, in 1271, and by the Poles in 1294. In 1310 it fell under the domination of the Teutonic Order, who retained it till 1454, when it became a free city under Polish protection. In 1 5 1 7 it was besieged by the Teutonic Knights, and in 1577 was taken by Stephen Bathori, King of Poland, whose authority it had disputed. Charles X. (Gustavus), of Sweden, invested John II. < 'asiinir within its walls in 1656, but without success. In 1709 the plague committed great ravages amongst its population ; and, in 1734, it was besieged and taken by the Russians and Saxons. At the second partition of Poland, in 1793, Dantzic was assigned to Prussia. It was taken by the French May 20, 1807, and restored to its former independence by the treaty of Tilsit, July 9, 1807. But though nominally independent, it was really subject to the French, who garrisoned it, and retained it under then- authority until they were expelled, after a long siege, by a Russian and Prussian force under Alexander, Duke of \Viirtemberg, Jan. 2, 1814, since which date it has been restored to Prussia. The principal buildings are the cathedral, commenced in 1343, and finished in 1503 ; Trinity Church, founded in 1514; the Rath-haus in 1556; and the Hohe Thor in 1588. The city was much injured by the explosion of a powder-magazine Dec. 10, 1815. An inundation, which occurred April 9, 1829, laid the whole city under water, and destroyed many thousand houses and cattle, besides causing considerable loss of life. In July and" Sept., 1831, Dantzic was visited by the cholera, which caused 1,028 deaths. DANUBE, the ancient Danubius, or Ister, was crossed by Darius I. on his expedition into Scythia, B.C. 515, and by the Celtic barbarians previous to their invasion of Greece, B.C. 280. DANUBIAN DARTFORD Trajan built a line stone bridge across it in 104, which was destroyed by Hadrian in 120, lest it should enable the northern barbarians to invade the Thracian provinces. Charlemagne formed a magnificent project, which was never carried out, of connecting the Rhine with the Danube by means of a canal. Steam naviga- tion was established on the Danube in 1838, when the Austrian Company was formed and incorporated by the emperor. The Bavarian company was established in 1836. The naviga- tion of the Danube was declared free from all impediment or toll by the isth article of the treaty of Paris, March 30, 1856. DANUBIAN PRINCIPALITIES. Moldavia and Wallachia were united under the name of the "United Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia," by the convention of Paris, signed Aug. 19, 1858. They were placed under the suzerainty of the sultan, but with power to cany on their own administration without his interference, government being administered by a hospodar and an elective assembly in each principality, and a central commission common to both principalities. (See MOLDAVIA and WALLACHIA ; and ROUMANIA.) DARA (Mesopotamia) was founded by Anas- tasius I., in 505, as a bulwark against the Per- sians. It was frequently besieged, and was taken by Chosroes I. in 572. DARBYITES. (See PLYMOUTH BRETHREN.) DARDANELLES. Xerxes threw a bridge of boats across this channel, anciently called the Hellespont, B.C. 481. The bridge was destroyed by a storm. In consequence of this disaster, the water received 300 lashes, and the next bridge remained secure. Alexander III. crossed the straits B.C. 334 with an army of about 35,000 men. The Saracens, under Soliman, the son of Orchan, crossed this channel in 1360, and first raised the Mohammedan crescent in Europe. In 1465 Mohammed II. erected two forts to de- fend the passage ; and in 1659 two more, named Sostos and Abydos, were added by Mohammed IV. The passage of the Dardanelles was effected by Admiral Sir Thomas Duckworth, Feb. 19, 1807, in spite of the severe fire of the forts. He returned through the channel March i the same E, when the squadron sustained much in- , owing to the unfavourable weather and IB immense stone shot used by the enemy. By a secret article of the treaty of Unkiar- Skelessi, between Russia and Turkey, signed at Constantinople July 8, 1833, the latter power agreed to close the Dardanelles against vessels of war belonging to foreign powers. The straits were passed by the allied fleets of England and France at the commencement of the Russian war (g. y.], Oct. 14, 1853. The ancient rule of excluding all ships of war in time of peace, confirmed in the convention signed at London July 13, 1841, is recognized by the ioth article of the treaty of Paris, March 30, 1856 DARDANELLES (Sea-fight). The Genoese defeated the Venetians, the Catalans, and the Greeks in an engagement in the Dardanelles in DARIC, a Persian gold coin, struck by Darius the Mede, B.C. 538. The daric was originally coined at Babylon, whence its circulation ex- tended over all the East, and even into Greece. The device was an archer in the act of drawing his bow. Dr. Bernard estimates the weight of the daric at 15 grs. more than our guinea. Specimens in the British Museum weigh 128 "4 and 128-6 grs. Hussey estimates its value at i is. lod. 1-76 farthing. There were also darics of silver. DARIEN (Central America). This isthmus was discovered by Columbus, who founded Porto Bello in 1502. Vasco Nunez de Balboa crossed it, and discovered the Pacific Ocean, Sep. 25,1513. A Spanish colony was established on the isthmus in 1510. William Paterson, the originator of the Bank of England, first pro- posed to form what is known as the Scottish settlement at Darien in 1694. The company was incorporated by an act of Parliament, to which the royal sanction was given June 26, 1695. Three ships and two tenders, having on board 1,200 men, besides women and children, left Leith July 26, 1698. They reached the isthmus Nov. i. The chiefs of the expedition landed on the following day, and took formal possession of the country, naming it New Caledonia. They built a fort, which they called New St. Andrew, and soon became involved in a quarrel with the Spaniards, who regarded them as pirates and bucaneers. Disease com- mitted great ravages amongst them, and those that remained alive were compelled to embark in three vessels. More than half of them perished during the voyage to New York. A second expedition, consisting of four ships, with 1,300 men, that had left Edinburgh in Aug., 1699, did not reach the colony until four months after its abandonment. They built a new fort, and having been assailed by a Spanish fleet and army, concluded a treaty March 30, 1700, engaging to evacuate Darien in 14 days. They embarked April n. Two of the ships were lost, and only a small number of the colonists returned to their native land. In Nov., 1827, the isthmus was surveyed by Mr. Lloyd, acting under the orders of Gen. Bolivar, with a view to ascertain the best route, either for a road or a canal, by which it might be traversed. DARIK (Battle). Selim I., Emperor of the Ottomans, defeated and slew Ghori, the Mame- luke Sultan of Egypt, at this place, near Aleppo, Aug. 24, 1516. DARJEELING (Hindostan). This hill station of Bengal was, with the surrounding country, ceded to the British by the Rajah of Sikim, as a sanatarium for Europeans, in 1835. In 1850 the limits were extended. A mission to Bhotan (q. v.} left Darjeeling Jan. 4, 1864. DARLING RIVER (Australia) was discovered by Capt. Sturt in 1829, and was named after the then governor of the colony. DARMSTADT (Germany) was made a city in 1330, and became the residence of the land- graves of Hesse-Darmstadt in 1567. The grand- ducal palace was commenced in 1568, and the town hall was built in 1580. Darmstadt has been the scene of two conventions : the first, between the Grand-dukes of Hesse-Darmstadt and of Baden, was signed Oct. 5, 1806; and the second, between the Grand-duke and Jerome Buonaparte, June 3, 1810. DARTFORD (Kent) was either founded by DARTM OOB t 316 ] DAVY the Romans, or built on the site of a former Roman town, as numerous remains of Roman furniture, houses, coffins, &c., are found in its vicinity. In 604 Ethelbert founded a nunnery, which was ravaged by the Danes in 790. The marriage by proxy of Isabella, sister of Henry III., to Frederick II. of Germany, was solem- nized in Dartford church in 1235. Edward HI. held a great tournament in the town in 1330, and founded the priory in 1349. Wat Tyler's insurrection broke out at Dartford in 1381. In 1538 the priory was abolished, and the house converted into a royal palace ; and in 1576 the grammar-school was founded. Sir John Spiel- man erected the first paper-mill in England at Dartford in 1580. In 1780 a camp was formed at Dartford, and in 1790, 1795, and 1805, the powder-mills were blown up, causing, on each occasion, considerable loss of life. The infant- school and mechanics' institute were estab- lished in 1843. DARTMOOR (Devonshire). This immense tract of moorland, granted by Henry III. in 1238 to his brother Richard, Earl of Cornwall, has, since 1337, formed part of the duchy of Cornwall. The first stone of the prison for prisoners of war was laid March 20, 1806. A serious insurrection of the prisoners took place April 6, 1815, when seven of the insur- gents were shot. DARTMOUTH (Devon) was an important borough, market town, and seaport at an early period. The crusading fleet assembled in its harbour in 1 190. The charter for a market and fair at Dartmouth was granted in 1226, and that by which the town was endowed with a corporation in 1342. In 1347 it was the third in the list of seaports which furnished Edward III. with a fleet for the siege of Calais, and in 1377 it was attacked and nearly destroyed by a powerful French army. In 1404 it was again assailed by a French force, under M. du Chastel, whose army was compelled to take flight, after losing its commander and many of the principal officers. Warwick, the king-maker, who had fled to France, landed here Sep. 13, 1470. During the Great Rebellion, Dartmouth was twice taken : by the Royalists, under Prince Maurice, in 1643, after a siege of a month's duration ; and by the Parliamentary forces, under Sir Thomas Fairfax, Jan. 18, 1646. The mechanics' institute was estab- lished in 1846. DAUPHIN, the title of the eldest son of the King of France, was first assumed by Charles (grandson of Philip VI.), afterwards Charles V., to whom the province of Dauphiny was ceded by its sovereign, Humbert II., July 16, 1349. The title was permanently attached to the eldest sons of the French kings by John II. in 1356, and was last used by Louis Aiitoine, who assumed it in Sep., 1824, on the accession of his father as Charles X. The Dauphins quar- tered on their shields the arms of France and Dauphiny, and only yielded precedence to crowned heads. DAUPHINY, or DAUPHINE (France). - This ancient province of France, formerly peopled by the Allobroges (q. v.}, passed, about the year 438, into the hands of the Burgun- dians. In 568 it was seized by the Lombards, and in 733 was invaded by the Saracens, from whom it was delivered by Charles Martel. It was subsequently annexed to Burgundy, and split up into a number of small territories, the most important of which, named Albon, passed in 889 into the hands of Count Guy I., the founder of a long race of rulers. Guy IV., who died in 1142, assumed as his crest the dolphin, from the French word for which his country took its name of Dauphine". In 1325 Count Guy VIII. defeated Edward, Count of Savoy, at Varey ; and in 1343 Humbert II. surrendered his estates to Philip, son of Philip of Valois, on condition that he would as- sume the title of Dauphin, a transfer sub- sequently confirmed by treaty in 1349. Dau- phiny was ravaged by the Duke of Savoy and Prince Eugene in 1690 ; and was occupied by an Austro-Sardinian army in 1814. (See DAUPHIN.) DAVENTRY (Battle). Gen. Lambert, having risen against the government of Gen. Monk, April 9, 1660, was defeated and made prisoner by Ingoldsby at this town in Northampton- shire, April 22. DAVIDISTS, or DAVID-GREGORIANS. This sect was founded by David George, or Joris, the son of a market crier, who was born at Delft in 1501. He joined the Anabaptists in 1534, when he began to have visions and revelations. He published his "Book of Wonders" in 1542. In 1544 he repaired to Basel, in Switzerland, and lived in retire- ment there 12 years. He called himself the third David, another spn of God, and held various heretical opinions. His followers existed in Holland till about a century after his death. DAVID'S, ST. (Wales). The archbishopric of Caerleon (q. v.) was removed to this place, the ancient Menevia, in 521. It was burned in 610, and in 904 and 906 it was taken and ravaged by the Danes. In 930, Sampson, the archbishop, removed to Dole, in Britanny, and the see became merely episcopal, although the bishops still exercised archiepiscopal authority. In 981 the town was again pillaged by Gothrit and Harold, and in 998 by the Danes, who slew the archbishop. The Saxons took it in ion, and committed great devastation, and in 1020 it was destroyed by Eilaf. About 1115 Bishop Bernard professed his subjection to the Archbishop of Canterbury, and the see lost all archiepiscopal power. The cathedral was founded in 1180. John of Gaunt founded a college here in 1365, of which only the chapel is now in existence. DAVID'S, ST., DAY. The Welsh custom of wearing a leek in the cap on the ist of March, originated in 540, when the Britons, under Cadwallader, defeated the Saxons. St. David ordered the British warriors to wear a leek, that they might be known to each other; whence the present custom is de- rived. DAVIS'S STRAITS (North America) were discovered by Capt. John Davis, Aug. n, 1585, during his first voyage in quest of the north- west passage. DAVY LAMP, for lighting the miner, without risk from the explosion of fire- DEACONESSES DEATH'S damp, was invented by Sir Humphry Davy, in 1816. DEACONESSES are of very early origin in the Christian Church, as St. Paul (Rom. xvi. i) speaks of Phebe as "a servant (Sia/coz/os or deaconess) of the church which is at Gen chrea," in 58. By a law in the Theodosian Code, published in 438, they were to be widows who had had children and were above 60 years old ; but instances were not uncommon in which the office was filled by virgins. Their duties were to baptize and catechise women, to attend the sick and martyrs in prison, and to superintend the behaviour of female wor- shippers at church. It is doubtful when the office was discontinued ; but the Council of Orange, Nov. 8, 441, forbade any more deacon- esses to be ordained; which prohibition was repeated by the Council of Albon in 517, and the Council of Orleans June 23, 533. The order did not, however, become extinct till the i ith century, and in the Greek Church deaconesses continued as late as the end of the i2th cen- tury. DEACONS were first appointed by the apostles to superintend the daily ministration to the poor, in 31 (Acts vi. i 6). The original number was seven; viz. Stephen, Philip, Prochorus, Nicanor, Tirnon, Parmenas, and Nicolas. Deacons of the Church of England were prohibited from consecrating the Holy Communion by 13 & 14 Charles II. c. 4, s. 14 (1662!, under penalty of ^100. DEAF AND DUMB. The earliest legislation for the deaf and dumb appears in the code of Justinian in 529, which declares persons born thus incapable of making a will, manumitting a slave, and performing other civil offices. The Venerable Bede states that John, Bishop of Hagulstad (Hexham), enabled a . deaf man to talk in 685, and Rodolphus Agricola (1443 1485) states the capacity of those born deaf to receive instruction, and mentions instances in which it had been successfully imparted. The art was first reduced to a system by Jerome Cardan (1501 1576), and was successfully prac- tised by the Spanish Benedictine, Pedro de Ponce, who died in 1584. Jean Bonifacio published his work on the language of action in 1616 ; and John Bulwer's " Philocophus, or the Deafe and Dumbe Man's Friende," published in 1648, is probably the earliest English book on the subject. Dr. Wallis announced his ability to teach the deaf in 1653, and George Dalgamo's manual alphabet, the first published in England, appeared in 1680. The great French teachers of the deaf and dumb are the Abbe de l'Epe"e (1712 1789), and the Abbe Sicard (1742 1822), who laboured arduously and successfully to establish an effective system of instruction for their unfortunate pupils. The first school for the deaf and dumb was opened in Edinburgh about 1760, by Thomas Braidwood, who re- moved it to Hackney, London, in 1783. The London Asylum for poor deaf and dumb children was projected and established in 1792, by the Rev. John Townsend, who collected a considerable sum of money for the purpose. The Duke of Gloucester laid the first stone of the new asylum in the Old Kent Road, July ii, 1807. Similar asylums have been estab- lished in the following places : A.D. 1810. Edinburgh. 1813. Birmingham. 1816. (Claremont) Dublin. 1819. Aberdeen. 1819. Glasgow. 1823. Manchester. 1835. Liverpool. 1837. Exeter. 1839. Doncaster. 1831. Belfast A.D. 1839. Newcastle. 1841. Brighton. 184 1. Bristol. 1842. Bath. 1846. Dundee. 1846. Strabane. 1846. Roman Catholic, Dublin. 1847. Swansea. DEAL (Kent). This port is one of the places supposed to be the spot where Julius Csesar landed with his legions, Aug. 26, B.C. 55. Soon after the Norman Conquest it was annexed to the Cinque Ports, and by a decree of Henry III., in 1229, it was declared exempt from taxation. Perkin Warbeck was defeated in an attempt to land here July 3, 1.495. (See WARBECK'S INSURRECTION.) The castle was erected by Henry VIII. in 1539, tne charter of incorporation was granted by William III. Oct. 13, 1699, and the court hall was built in !8o3. DEAN. This dignitary originated at an early period, in the division of sees, by their bishops, into decennaries or tithings, each of which comprised 10 churches or parishes, and was placed under the government of a dean. Formerly this office was open to laymen, but by 13 & 14 Charles II. c. 4 (1662) it can only be filled by a priest. Deaneries of old cathedrals, except in Wales, were placed under the direct patronage of the crown by 3 & 4 Viet. c. 113 (Aug. ii, 1840). DEAN FOREST (Gloucestershire) contained iron mines at a very early period of English history, probably before the Roman invasion. Its boundaries were defined by 20 Charles II. c. 3 (1667). The mine law courts, for the pro- tection of the free miners, &c., were abolished in 1777, and the free miners have since lost many of their alleged rights. Riots broke out here June 8, 1831, in consequence of the opposition of the foresters to the inclosure of any part of the forest, when upwards of 2,000 men destroyed the fences, and indulged in other riotous proceedings. DEATH. (See BIRTHS, DEATHS, and MAR- RIAGES ; BLACK DEATH ; CAPITAL PUNISHMENT ; and REGISTRATION OF BIRTHS, DEATHS, AND MARRIAGES. ) DEATH BY ACCIDENTS COMPENSATION ACT, or LORD CAMPBELL'S ACT. This act, 9 on, and reunites the three kingdoms un< lei- one monarch. 1464. Christian I. is made Duke of Sleswig and Count of Ilolstein. 1477. Chri.siiau I. n linqiiishes his efforts to maintain the sovereignty of Sweden. 1481, May 33. Death of Christian I. He is succeeded on the Danish and Norwegian thrones by his son John. 1497, Nov. 19. Sweden submits to John. 1533. Deposition ,,f Christian II. 1535. Gustavus Vas.-i becomes King of Sweden, which he nil '; rs independent of Denmark and Norway. 1537- Frederick I. declares in favour of Lutheranism. 1533. On 'the death of Frederick I., the succession is dis- puted by the deposed Christian II., Christian Duke of Holstei,,. and Prince John of Ilolstein. The Duke of Holstein succeeds as Christian III. 1630. Tranquebar, in Ilindostan, is ceded to Denmark. 1645, Aug. 14. Treaty of I!r .msebro (7. v.). 1653. Instigated by the Dutch, Frederick III. seizes and sells 33 English vessels, at anchor in the port of Copenhagen. Cromwell compels the Dutch to make reparation. 1658. Denmark is invaded by Charles Gustavus of Sweden, who threatens Copenhagen, and receives Scania, Blenkingen, Ilalland, Bornholm, Balms, Janet- land, Droiitbeim, and parts of Bremen and Riigen. 1660, Oct. The authority of the king is made absolute and hereditary. 1667. Acquisition of Oldenburg and Delmenhorst. 1730, June 14. Peace of Stockholm, between Denmark and Sweden. 1736. Rantzau is added to Denmark. 1761. Holstein-Plon is added to Denmark. 1773, Jan. 16. Caroline Matilda, Queen of Christian VII., is arrested on a cruirge of incontinence, and after- wards banished.' April 38. Execution of Counts Struensee and Brandt, for alleged implication in the queen's offence. A.D. 1773. Holstein-Gottorp is ceded to Denmark by Russia, in retum for Oldenburg and Delmenbont 1784, March 38. Christian VII. having become insane, his son, Prince Frederick, is appointed regent. 1786. Liberation of the serfs in Denmark. 1795. Establishment of tribunals of conciliation, to ad- just law disputes by mediation instead of litiga- tion. 1801, April 3. Bombardment of Copenhagen (7. r.), which pnls an end to the Armed Neutrality. 1803. The Danish poor-law comes into operation. Its pro- visions are, the maintenance of the destitute at the public cost, and the total prohibition of begging. The Danes suppress the slave trade. 1806, Sep. 9. Holstein is declared an integral part of the Danish monarchy, distinct from the Germanic empire. 1807, Aug. 16. Copenhagen is invested by the British fleet under Admiral Gamhu-r, and the army under Lord Cathcart. Sep. 3. Firing commences. Sep. 5. The town capitulates, a;id its fleet, con- sNting of 18 ships of the Hue, 15 frigates. 6 brigs, and _35 gun-boats, falls into the hands of the 1810. The conscription is introduced. 1813, Sep. 5. War is declared airainst Sweden. Dec. 16. Ilolstein is heid by the allies. 1814, Jan. 14. Peace of Kiel (7. i\). 1815. June 4. Denmark cedes Pomer.inia and Riigen to Prussia, receiving Laucnburg and a pecuniary compensation as indemnity. June 8. The king joins the German Confederacy. 1816. Introduction of savings banks. 1830. Introduction of system of mutual instruction. 1834, June 16. Commercial treaty with Great Britain is signed at London. 1835. A violent storm breaks through the isthmus between the North Sea and the Lym fiord, thereby making the north parr of .list land an island. 1831. Frederick VI. institutes provincial 1846, JulyS. Christian VIII. issues a letter patent, declar- ing his undoubted right to the duchy of Sleswig, and his intention to submit his claim to i! for due consideration. 1848, Jan. 38. Frederick VII. publishes a new constitution, by which Sleswig. llolsi.in, and Denmark are to be governed by "common states," el, cted alter- nately in the duchies and Denmark. March 34. Revolt of Sleswig and Ilolstein commences at Kiel. April 33 (Easter Sunday). The Prussians defeat the Danes, and take possession of Sleswig. May I. Jutland is occupied by the Prussian forces. Aug. 3'). Truce of Mahno (7. v.). 1849, July 10. The armistice is mi iwea for six months. 1850, July 3. Peace with Prussia is signed at Berlin. July 17. The Danish troops enter Elcnsbnrg. July 25. The Danes conquer the troops of Sleswig llol- stein, at Idstedt. Aug. 17. Cession of the Danish possessions on the coast of Africa to Great Britain. Oct. 4. The llolsteiners, under Gen. Willisen, attack Friederichstadt, but are driven back. 1851, Jan. n. Submission of the duchies to Denmark, and reference of the matters in dispute to the arbitra- tion of the Germanic Confederation. 1853, Feb. 1 8. The government of Holstein is assigned to the Danish minister for Holstein-Lauenbiirg by the German commissioners. The Prussian and Austrian troops leave the duchy. May 8. Inter- national treaty, relative to the succession of the crown of Denmark, is signed at London. Dec. 30. The Prince of Augnstenburg, in tion of a sum of 3,500,000 dollars, signs an act renouncing for himself and his family all right to the succession of any part of the Danish domi- nions. 1855, Oct. i. The Danish government sends despatches to all the states interested in the question of the Sound dues, inviting them to confer with Denmark relative to a definite arrangement Oct. 3. The king publishes a new constitution. 1857, March 14. Abolition of the Sound dues (7. r.). 1858, Nov. 6. Great changes in the constitution of Hol- stein. 1859, July 14. Denmark is connected with Great Britain by submarine telegraph. 1860, May 3. The Prussian diet resolves to assist the duchies of Sleswig-Holstein against Denmark. DENMARK 323 ] DENMARK A.D. 1861, Jan. Preparations are made cresis tthe anticipated attack of Germany and Prussia. March. Hoi stein rejects the propositions of the Danish government. April 8. The infantry is ordered to be doubled. April 27. The government delivers its final answer respecting Holstein, and refuses to make further concessions. July 37. About 500 Sleswigers, in favour of the rights of Denmark over Sleswig, visit Copenhagen, where they meet with an enthu- siastic public reception. 1863, May 8. The Danish government addresses a circular on the Holstein question to the ambassadors at Paris, London, St. Petersburg, and Stockholm. 1863, Feb. 26. The Princess Alexandra leaves Denmark for England. March 10. Marriage of the Princess Alexandra and the Prince of Wales. (See ENG- LAND.) March 30. The kingpublishes an ordinance decreeing that no law shall be valid in Holstein until it has received the assent of the states of that duchy. Prince William, second son of Prince Christian, is elected King of Greece (q. .). June 6. The king receives a Greek deputation at Copen- hagen, and signifies his consent to the election of Prince William. July 30. The Sleswig diet is dis- solved. Sep. 3. Denmark protests against the threatened German federal execution in Holstein. Nov. i?. The Kigsraad adopts a fundamental law for the kingdom of Denmark and duchy of Sles- wig. Xov. 15. Death of King Frederick VII., who is succeeded by Christian IX., father of the Prin- cess of Wales and the King of Greece. Nov. 16. Prince Frederick of Augustenburg publishes a claim to the succession in Sleswig-Holstein. Nov. 18. The king signs a new constitution for Den- mark and Sleswig. Nov. 19. A petition to the German diet in favour of the Augustenburg family is signed at Kiel by several members of the Hol- stein diet Nov. 91. The states of Holstein refuse to swear allegiance to the new king. Dec. 4. The king declares his intention to resist all revolu- tionary movements in Holstein. Dec. 14. The Danish government resolves not to oppose armed resistance to the entry of the German federal troops into Holstein. Dec. 23. The Holstein diet meets at Hamburg, and resolves to pecognize Duke Frede- rick of Augustenburg, and to appeal in his favour to the federal diet. Dec. 33. The Saxon and Hanoverian troops enter Holstein. Dec. 37. The Prince of Augustenburg is solemnly proclaimed Duke of Sleswig-IIolstein at Elmshorn, by the title of Frederick VIII. Dec. 30. He arrives at Kiel, and issues a proclamation to the people of Holstein. 1864, Jan. 6. The federal commission suppresses the admi- nistration of Holstein, and institutes a ducal government at Kiel. Jan. 16. Austria and Prussia require Denmark to repeal the constitution of Nov. 1 8, 1863, within 48 hours. Jan. 31. This demand being rejected, an allied Austrian and Prussian army, under Marshal Wrangel, enters Holstein. Jan. 31. Gen. de Meza, commander-in- chief of the Danish army, refuses to evacuate Sles- wig on the demand of Marshal Wrangel. Feb. I. The Prussians enter Eckenforde. Feb. 2. They bombard Missunde. Feb. 3. The Austrians, under Maj.-Gen. Gondrecourt, seize Konigsberg. Feb. 6. Battle of Oversee. The Prussians cross the Schlei atArnis and Cappel. The Austrians occupy the town of Sleswig, and give chase to the Danes, the bulk of whose army takes up a position at Duppel. Feb. 7. Flensborg is occupied by the allies. Gen. de Luttichau succeeds Gen. de Meza as commander of the Danish forces. Feb. 10. The Austrians and Prussians occupy northern Sleswig. Feb. 18. The Danes quit Sleswig. Feb. 31. Den- mark declares Sleswig-Holstein in a state of blockade. Feb. 33. Engagements take place near Dtippel at Wielhoi, Sandberg, and Rackebull. March I. Gen. de Gerlach assumes the command of the Danish forces. March 8. The Danes are de. feated at Sonderbygaard and Veile. March 15. The Prussians commence the bombardment of Dtippel (7. r.). March 20. Fredericia (q. t>.) is bom- barded by the allies. April I. The Prussians bombard Sonderborg. April 18. Fall of Dtippel ( 9 .t>.).-April3i. The King of Prussia visits the theatre of war. April 35. A conference for the restoration of peace meets at London. . 1864, April 39. The Danes retreat from Fredericia, and estab- lish themselves in Fiihnen, thus leaving the whole of Jutland in the hands of the allies. May 8. A meeting of 50,000 Sleswig-Holsteiners at Kends- burg declares in favour of separation from Den- mark, and the establishment of an independent duchy under Frederick VIII. May 9. Naval vic- tory of the Danes off Heligoland (q. v.). May 13. Commencement of a suspension of hostilities re- solved upon by the congress of London. June 8. The king opens the railway from Copenhagen to Elsinore. June u. The ministry of Count Moltke assumes office. June 35. The belligerents reject the bases of peace proposed by the congress of London. June 36. Hostilities are resumed. June 39. The Prussians seize the island of Alsen. .July 5. Gen. de Steinmann is appointed com- mander-in-chief of the Danish army. July lo. The Prussians occupy Skagen. July 13. The Aus- trians seize the islands of Mors and Sylt. July 18. The Austrians occupy the island of Foehr. July 19. Capt Hammer surrenders a Danish flotilla of 19 boats and 353 men. July 30. A truce is com- menced. July 31. The federal troops quit Rends- burg, which is occupied by the Prussians. July 36. A conference for the restoration of peace assembles at Vienna. Aug. I. Preliminaries of peace are signed at Vienna, and a truce is concluded till Sep. 15. Sep. 6. The Prince and Princess of Wales, with their infant son, visit Denmark. Sep. 39. The Princess Dagmar is betrothed to the Czarewitch Nicholas. Oct. 30. Peace is concluded at Vienna, Denmark agreeing to resign the duchies, to pay a large sum' of money, and to acquiesce in a ratification of the frontier of Jutland. Nov. 25. The Prussians complete the evacuation of Jutland. 1865, March 7. Death of Gen. de Gerlach. June ai. A postal convention is concluded with Prussia. Nov. 6. A new ministry is formed under Count Faysenborg. SOVEREIGNS Died. B.C. 40. Skiold. 23. Fridleif I. A.D. 35. Frode I. 47. Fridleif II. 59. Havar. 87. Frode II. 140. Wermund the Sage. 190. Olaf I. the Mild. 270. Dan Mykillate. 310. Frode III. 334. Halfdan I. 348. Fridleif III. 407. Frode IV. 436. Ingild, or Ingel. 447. Halfdan II. 460. Frode V. 494. Helg-e and Roe. 510. Frode VI. 532. Rolf Krake. 548. Frode VII. 580. Halfdan III. 588. Ruric Slvngebande. 647. Ivar Vidiadme. 735. Harold Hildetand. 750. Sigurd Ring. 794. Ragnar Lodbrog. 803. Sigurd Snogoje. 828. Harold I. 850. Hardi-canute. 854. Eric I. 883. Eric II. OF DENMARK. Died. A.D. 641. Gorm the Old. 991. Harold II. Blaatand. 1014. Sweyn. Began to reign. A.D. 1015. Canute the Great. 1035. Hardi-canute. 1042. Magnus I. 1047. Sweyn II. 1076. Harold III. 1080. Canute IV. 1087. Olaf II. 1095. Eric III, 1105. Nicholas. 1134. Eric IV. 1137. EricV. 1147. Canute V. and Sweyn 1157. Valdemar I. the Great. 1182. Canute VI. 1203. Valdemar II. 1341. Eric VI. 1350. Abel. 1252- Christopher I. 1259. Eric VI I. 1286. Eric VIII. 1320. Christopher II. 1334. (Interregnum.} 1340. Valdemar III. 1376. Olaf III. SOVEREIGNS OF DENMARK, NORWAY, AND SWEDEN. Began to Began to reign. reign. A.D. . Margaret. 1413. Eric IX. of Pomerania. 1439. Christopher III. 1448. Christian I. 1481. John. 1513. Christian II. Y 2 DBNNEWITZ t 324 1 DERBY SOVEREIGNS OF DENMARK AND NORWAY. A.D. A.I>. 1523. Frederick I. 1699. Frederick IV. 1533. Christian III. 1730. Christian VI. 1559. Frederick II. 1746. Frederick V. 1588. Christian IV. 1766. Christian VII. 1648. Frederick III. 1808. Frederick VI. 1670. Christian V. SOVEREIGNS OF DENMARK. A.n. A.D. 1839. Christian VIII. 1863. Christian IX. 1848. Frederick VII. DENNEWITZ (Battle). The allied Prus- sian, Swedish, and Russian army defeated the French, under Marshal Ney, at the village of Dennewitz, in Prussia, Hep. 6, 1813. The Prussians, who for some time maintained their j(round against overwhelming numbers, were, by the arrival of Bernadotte with the Swedes and Russians, strongly reinforced, when the French were completely routed. They lost 13,000 men, 43 pieces of cannon, three stan- dards, and 6,000 stand of arms, whilst the loss of the allied army was about 6,000 men. I >K.\! FIXATIONS. (See THREE DENOMINA- TION-. DEODAND. By 9 & 10 Viet. c. 62 (Aug. 18, 1846), the forfeiture of any chattel for having been the cause of the death of a man, was abolished from and after Sep. i, 1846. Deo- dands, at first given to the Church, afterwards became the property of the Crown. DEOGAUM (Treaty). By a treaty concluded at this place, in Hindostan, Dec. 17, 1803, the Rajah of Berar ceded Cuttack (q. v.) to the British. DE OXORO. 'See FUENTES DE ONORO.) DEORI1AM Hattlc). Ceawlin, King of the West Saxons, defeated the Britons at Deor- ham, supposed to lie IMrliam, in Gloucester- shire, in 577. Three British kings fell in the battle, and the vic-iors t<>k possession of Bath, Cirencester, and Gloucester. DEPHLOGISTICATED MURIATIC ACID. (See CHLORINE.) DEPTFORD (Kent). Henry VIII. estab- lished a storehouse here about 1513, and granted a charter to the ship-men and mari- ners of England to found a guild in the parish church, under the name of the " Guild of the Most Glorious and Undivided Trinity," May 20, 1514. Here, too, Queen Elizabeth visited the Golden Hind, in which Drake had circumnavi- gated the globe, April 4, 1581. The town suffered from a fire in 1652, and from a flood in 1671. Trinity House hospital was founded in 1685. In 1698 Deptford was the residence of the Czar Peter the Great, during his initiation into the mysteries of shipbuilding. Waterworks were erected here in 1699; and the victualling office, built in 1745, was burned in 1749. The ancient hall of the Trinity House was taken down in 1 787, and the hospital was rebuilt in 1 788. D K T U T I E S (Chamber of ) . The French legislative assembly received this title by a charter of Louis XVIII. in 1814, and retained it till the publication of Louis Napoleon's con- stitution, Jan. 14, 1852, which appointed the Corps Legislatif in its stead. DERBEND (Asia), the capital of Daghistan, occupies the site of the ancient Albana. The Russians took it in 1722, restoring it to the Persians in 1735.- It again fell into the power of Russia in 1796, and was incorporated with that empire early in the present century. DERBY (Derbyshire) is supposed to have been founded by the ancient Britons. At the Cono^iest in 1066, it was granted to William Peverell, natural son of William I., and in 1160 a Benedictine nunnery, of which some vestiges still remain, was founded. The grammar- school, which is supposed to be one of the most ancient endowments in England, was granted to the corporation in 1554. In 1592 the plague visited the town and carried off many of its inhabitants, and in 1745 it was the extreme point reached by the Pretender in his invasion of England. Dr. Darwin founded the Philosophical Society of Derby in 1783. The silk manufacture was introduced by John Lombe in 1717, that of porcelain in 1750, and here in 1793 Messrs. Strutt erected the first fire-proof mill in England. The infirmary was erected in 1800, and the town hall in 1828. In 1833-4, 2,400 factory hands struck work, and the prosperity of the town suffered in consequence. The arboretum, which was presented to the town by Mr. Joseph Strutt, was opened Sep. 16, 1840; and in Oct., 1841, the town hall was destroyed by fire. A new cattle market was opened in 1 86 1. The new market hall was opened Tues- day, May 29, 1866. DERBY ADMINISTRATIONS. The first vv-as formed on the resignation of the Russell Administration, officially announced Feb. 23, 1852. The cabinet was thus constituted : Treasury Earl of Derby. Lord Chancellor L-.rd St. Leonard*, President of the Council Earl of Lonsdide. Privv Seal Marquis of Salisbury. Chancellor of Exchequer Mr. Disraeli. II Srrivtary Foreign Secretary Colonial Secretary .. Mr. Walpole. Earl of Malniesbury. Sir John Pakinprton, Bart. Admiralty Duke of Northumberland. I 'Control Mr. llerries. Public Works Lord John Manners. Hoard of Trade Mr. Henley. Postmaster-General Earl of Hardwicke. They were defeated on their budget Dec. 16, 1852, and on the following day resigned the seals of office. (See ABERDEEN ADMINISTRA- TION.) The second was formed on the resignation of the first Palmerston Adminis- tration, Feb. 20, 1858. The cabinet was thu:; constituted : Treasury E;irl of Derby. Lord Chancellor Lord Chelmsford. President of the Council Marquis of Salisbury. Privy Seal Earl of Hardwicke. Chancellor of Exchequer Mr. Disraeli. Home Secretary Mr. Walpole. Foreign Secretary Earl of Malmesburv. Colonial Secretary Lord Stanley. Admiralty Sir John 1'akin.srton. n art . Board of Control Earl of Ellenborough. at War Colonel Peel. Publie. Works Lord John Manners. Board of Trade Mr. Henley. Lord Stanley became president of the Board of Control (and, on the passing of the India bill, minister for Inclia^ on the resignation of the Earl of Ellenborough in June, 1858 ; and Sir E. Bulwer-Lytton,Bart., took Lord Stanley's place as Colonial Secretary. Mr. Walpole resigned the Home Secretaryship, and Mr. Henley the presidency of the Board of Trade, Feb. 28, DERBY [ 325 1 DEVIZES 1859. The former office was filled by Mr. Sotheron Estcourt, and the latter by the Earl of Donoughmore. An amendment to the address was carried against the ministry June 10, 1859, and they resigned on the following day. (See PALMERSTON (SECOND) and THIKD DERBY AD- MINISTRATIONS.) DERBY RACE. This great national race, held at Epsom, and founded by the Earl of Derby, was first run May 4, 1780, when it was won by Sir 0. Bunbury's chesnut horse Diomed. The race was originally run on Thursday, but since 1838 it has taken place on the Wednesday after Trinity Sunday. DERBY TRIALS. At the assizes held at Derby, July 26, 1817, the grand jury found an indictment of high treason against Bran- dreth, Turner, Ludlam, and others. As par- ticipators in the Luddite insurrections, they were charged with levying and making war against the king. Special commissions were opened Sep. 25, and the trial commenced Oct. 15, and terminated Saturday, Oct. 25, when 23 of the prisoners received sentence of death. Brandreth, Turner, and the elder Ludlam were executed at Derby, Nov. 7, and the others were reprieved. DERRICKS. A. V. Newton, of Chancery Lane, patented certain improvements in " der- ricks for raising heavy bodies," Aug. 9, 1849. The great floating derrick of the Thames Iron Ship-building Company, built on a plan in- vented by Bishop, an American, .was erected at Blackwall in 1859. DERRY (Bishopric). The date of the estab- lishment of this Irish bishopric is unknown. Columbkille founded a monastery at Derry about 546. The first bishops of the district were called bishops of Tyrone, and had their see at Ardsrath or Ardstraw, in Donegal county ; but in 597 they removed to Rathlone or Maghera, in Londonderry. In 1158 a coun- cil of bishops decreed that Derry should be erected into a see, and a bishop was apparently appointed, though there is no regular succes- sion of bishops of Derry till 1279. The Church Temporalities Act, 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 37, s. 32 (Aug. 14, 1833), directed that on the death of the Bishop of Raphoe, then in office, that diocese should be united to Derry. Under this provision the union of the two sees took place in 1834. DERVISH. These Mohammedan monks, professing i-ules for the most part similar to those of Christian monachism, originated at an early period in the history of Islam. They are divided into several orders, usually named after their founders, and of which the chief are the Bestamis, founded in 874 ; the Kadris in 1165 ; the Rufaji in 1182 ; the Mevelevis in 1273 ; the Nakshibendis in 1319 ; the Bektashis in 1357 ; the Rushenisin 1533 ; the Shemsiss in 1601 ; and the Jemalis in 1750. DESIGN. The Government School of Design, established at Somerset House, was opened June i, 1837. DESOLATION ISLAND (Indian Ocean) was discovered by the French navigator Kerguelen in 1772, and named after him. Capt. Cook landed Dec. 24, 1776, and having discovered that it was not a continent, as Kerguelen supposed, changed the name from Kerguelen Land to the Island of Desolation. DESPARD'S PLOT. In the year 1800 Col. Edward Marcus Despard began to plot against the government, and having induced about 36 persons to join him, formed a conspiracy to assassinate George III. and to subvert the go- vernment. The blow was fixed for Tuesday, Nov. 1 6, 1802, the day that had been appointed for the opening of Parliament. Despard and about 30 of his associates were arrested at their place of assembly, the Oakley Arms public- house, in Lambeth, on the night of Nov. 16. After a long examination, Col. Despard and 14 others were committed to take their trial for high treason before a special commission. The ring- leader and six of his associates were executed at Horsemonger Lane Gaol, in presence of an immense crowd, Feb. 21, 1803. DESSAU (Battle). Wallenstein defeated Mansfeld and John Ernest of Weimar, in an engagement at the bridge of Dessau, in Anhalt- Dessau, in Germany, April 25, 1626. It was the scene of several encounters between the French and the allied squadrons in 1813. DESVENTURADAS, or UNHAPPY ISLANDS (Pacific), were discovered by Magellan during his voyage across the Pacific in the spring of 1521. The name was given to them by this en- terprising navigator on account of their lonely and deserted appearance. It is doubtful whether they have been visited by any European since their discovery. DETROIT. (See FORT DETROIT.) DETROIT (United States) was founded by the French in 1670. The English captured it in 1759, and it suffered greatly during the revolu- tionary war. It was incorporated in 1802. The act of incorporation having been withdrawn in 1810, it was again incorporated in 1815. Lansing took its place as the capital ofMichigan in 1847. DETTINGEN (Battle) was fought June t6 (O.S.), or 27 (N.S.), 1743, near the village of Dettingen, in Bavaria, and is memorable as being the last battle in which a King of Eng- land appeared in person on the field. The Hessians and Hanoverians, under George II. of England, defeated the French under Marshal Noailles. The former lost 1,500, and the latter 3,000 men. DEUTERONOMY. This book, the last of the Pentateuch (q. v.}, is supposed to have been written by Moses before B.C. 1451. DEVA. (See CHESTER.) DEVI-COTTA FORT (Hindostan) was taken from the Rajah of TanjorebyClive in 1749. The French took it in 1758, but it was recaptured by the English in 1759. DEVIZES (Wiltshire) is a very ancient town, although no authentic information remains respecting its early history. The castle, atone time one of the strongest in the kingdom, was erected by Roger, Bishop of Salisbury, about 1132. In 1233 it was the prison of Hubert de Burgh ; and in 1299 was, together with the town and park, settled by way of dower on Margaret, queen of Edward I. In July, 1643, the army of Charles I. was besieged here by the Parlia- mentary forces. The latter sustained a total defeat near the town, July 13. The county bridewell was erected in 1810. DEVONPORT [ 326 ] DIAMOND DEVONPORT (Devonshire) received its pre- sent title in 1824, having previously been styled Plymouth Dock. A mechanics' institute was established in 1825 ; and the column to com- memorate the change in the name of the town was erected in 1827. (See PLYMOUTH.) DEVONSHIRE (Bishopric). (See EXETER, Bishopric.) DEVONSHIRE ADMINISTRATION tookT office in Nov., 1756. The cabinet was thus con* stituted : Treasury The Duke of Devonshire. President of the Council {^fSSSSi Privy Seal Earl Gower. Chancellor of Exchequer ... Hon. Henry Bttson Legge. ( Mr. Pitt, afterward* Eurl of Secretaries of State < Chatham. ( Karl of Holdernesse. Admiralty Earl Temple. Board of Trade Earl of Halifax. Secretary at War Viscount Harrington. Treasurer of the Xavy IU, Hon. George Grenville. The great seal was placed in commission. The king demanded the seals of office from Lord Temple April 5, 1757. Pitt was dismissed a few days later, and the administration was dis- solved. An interregnum of nearly three months' duration followed. (See NEWCASTLE AND PITT ADMINISTRATION.) DEVONSHIRE CLUB (London), formed in 1859 as the "Westbourne Club," was reorga- nized in 1864 under the name of the Devonshire Club. DEWANQIRI (Hindostan). The Bhotanese were repulsed in an attack upon this city Jan. 30, 1865, but they returned and compelled the British to evacuate it, Feb. 5. Gen. Tombs recaptured it April 2, and it was destroyed and abandoned by the troops under his com- mand April 6. DHARWAR (Hindostan), taken from the Mahrattas by Hyder Ali in 1778, was recap- tured in 1791. In 1837, religious disputes be- tween the Brahmins and Liiigayets occurred, and the British Government was compelled to interfere. DIABLINTES. This Gallic tribe assisted the Veneti (q. v.} against Julius Caesar, B.C. 56. The name occurs as late as the 7th century, and the situation of the nation is supposed to have been near the modern Mayenne. DIADEM. Selden (Titles of Honour) states that although the crown (q. v. ) and the diadem have been from ancient times con- founded, yet the latter was a very different thing from what a crown now is or was. The diadem was a fillet of silk, or linen ; and no other crown was used, excepting in some Asiatic kingdoms, before the Christian sera. Diocletian assumed the diadem in 303. DIAL. (See SUN-DIAL.) DIAMOND, This gem is mentioned as the sixth jewel of Aaron's breastplate, B.C. 1491 (Exod. xxviii. 18). Some authorities consider that the original would be more correctly rendered by some other word. Pliny, in the ''Natural History," written A.D. 77, speaks of it as the most costly of human possessions, and states that the ancient writers mention Ethiopia as its locality, but that it had been brought from India shortly before his own time. India, and especially the districts around Golcoiida, furnished nearly all the diamonds in Europe, until the discovery of the Brazilian mines in 1728. In 1730, the Rio Janeiro fleet brought 1,146 ounces of diamonds into Europe. These mines were let, in 1740, to a' company of Rio Janeiro merchants. The diamond mines of the Ural mountains were discovered June 22, 1829. In 1373 the Emperor Charles IV. had the clasp of his cloak adorned with diamonds, and they were employed, roughly cut, in the decoration of church or- naments at a still earlier date. The art of cutting diamonds is, however, usually ascribed to Louis van Berghem, of Bruges, who dis- covered a process for cutting the gem into regular facets, in 1456. The diamond was first used for writing on glass in the i6th cen- tury. In 1562, ornaments cut with a diamond on Venetian glasses were common. In 1564 Clement Birague, of Milan, succeeded in en- graving 011 them. The inflammability of the diamond was first asserted by Boetius de Boot in 1607, and demonstrated at Florence in 1694 ; while the products resulting from its combustion were ascertained by Lavoisier in 1772. Among celebrated diamonds may be mentioned the Kohinoor, which was found in one of the Golcoiida mines before the Christian sera. In 1526 it passed into the hands of the Emperor Baber, by whose descendant, Mohammed Shah, it was surrendered to Nadir Shah, in 1 739. Runjeet Singh, the lion of the Punjaub, obtained it as a ransom from Shah Shooja in 1813, and in 1849 it wa ; s delivered to the Eng- lish by Dhuleep Singh. Queen Victoria received it from the- chairman of the East India Company June 3, 1850, and it formed one of the attractions of the Great Exhibition of 1851. In 1852 it was recut, and now weighs 102 carats, being worth ,276,768. The Pitt or Regent diamond was bought by T. Pitt, Esq. (grandfather of Wm. Pitt), during his governorship of Fort St. George, for ,12,500, in Feb., 1702. In 1717 it was purchased by the Regent of Orleans for ;i 35,000. It was exhi- bited in the Paris Exhibition of 1855. It weighs 137 carats, and is the most perfect diamond in the world. The Orloff, or great diamond of the Russian sceptre, originally formed the eye of an Indian idol. In 1775 it was sold to Catherine II. for ,90,000, an annuity of 4,000, and a patent of nobility. It is said to weigh 193 carats. The Pigott diamond was- brought to England by Earl Pigott, and sold by lottery in 1801. It weighs 49 carats, and is worth 40,000. The great diamond of the Emperor of Brazil was dis- covered in 1808 by a negro slave. It is uncut, and weighs 1,680 carats : its value has been estimated at .5,644,800. The Star of the South, discovered in Brazil by a negro in 1853, which originally weighed 254^ carats, has been reduced in cutting to 125 carats. It was exhi- bited in the International Exhibition of 1862. Free importation and exportation of diamonds were permitted by 6 Geo. II. c. 7 (1733). They were allowed to be landed without entry, report, or warrant, by 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 52, s. 2 (Aug. 28, 1833). DIAMOND NECKLACE. Boehmer and Bas- DIAMPEB [ 327 3 DIET sanges, the court jewellers of France, were commissioned by Louis XV., in 1774, to col- lect the most beautiful diamonds, for a neck- lace, which he intended to present to Madame du Barry. Louis XV. died before the necklace was completed ; but the jewellers persevered with their work, hoping that Louis XVI. would purchase it for Marie Antoinette. The necklace was valued at 1,800,000 francs, or 72,000. An intriguing woman, Madame Lamotte, who took the title of countess, pretending to have received authority from Marie Antoinette to purchase the necklace, induced the jewellers to part with it in re- turn for orders, to which the forged signature of the queen was attached, amounting to 1,400,000 francs, or .56,000. This negotia- tion was completed in Jan., 1785. Several persons connected with the court became the dupes of Madame Lamotte, and a girl named Leguet, or D'Oliva, was 011 one occasion made to personate the queen. The Cardinal de Rohan, Grand Almoner, who had been em- ployed as an instrument to carry out her schemes by Madame Lamotte, was arrested Aug. 15, 1785, and Madame Lamotte herself was taken at Bar-sur-Aube Aug. 19. They were, with Madame Lamotte's husband, sent to the Bastille. At the trial that ensued, brought to a close May 31, 1786, the cardinal's innocence was clearly established, and Mon- sieur and Madame Lamotte were sentenced to be flogged, branded on both shoulders, and imprisoned for life. She managed, however, after an imprisonment of about 10 months' duration, to take refuge in England. Having been pursued for debt, she endeavoured to escape by a window on the second story of her house, and falling from the window-sill, was killed on the spot. The scandal created by this affair proved most disastrous. Talleyrand- Perigord wrote to a friend : ' ' Attend narrowly to that miserable affair of the necklace : I should not be surprised if it overturned the throne." DIAMPER (Hindostan). The Archbishop of Goa held a council here in 1599, for the purpose of compelling the inhabitants to abjure the heresies of the Nestorians. DIANA (Temple}. (See EPHESUS.) DIARBEKIR (Asia). This town, occupying the site of the ancient Amid or Amida, was sacked by Tamerlane in 1393. It was frequently besieged, and was captured by Seliml. in 1515. The Persians regained possession in 1605, but it reverted to the Turks at the peace in 1639. It is the seat of a Nestorian archbishop and of a Jacobite patriarch. The Turks call it Kara Amid, or Black Amid, in allusion to the black basalt used in the construction of the houses, &c. DIBIO. (See DIJON.) DICE are said to have been invented by Pala- medes, at the siege of Troy, about B.C. 1183, though some authors ascribe their origin to the Lydians, B.C. 600. They were vised by the Romans, by whom they were called tessene. The talus, though frequently mentioned as a species of dice, is hardly entitled to the distinc- tion, as it always signified a figure with only four sides on which it could rest. The practice of cogging dice was known to the Romans . Th e Council of Eliberis about 300 passed a general canon forbidding laymen to play at dice, under the penalty of suspension from communion for a whole year. The Council of Constantinople in 691 prohibited the use of dice to both clergy and laity, the penalty for the former being deprivation, and for the latter excommunica- tion. Dice were introduced into England at a very early date, and about 1066 they formed one of the chief amusements of the people, who played with them in a most extravagant man- ner. By 9 Geo. IV. c. 18, s. 2 (May 9, 1828), the duty on dice was fixed at 20$. the pair. DICTATOR. The Roman dictators possessed sovereign power in the state, and were the generals-in-chief of the army. The first was Titus Lartius, who was appointed B.C. 501. The dictators were at first chosen from the patrician order of the people; but, B.C. 356, Marcius Rutilus, a plebeian, obtained the honour. The office was finally abrogated by the law of Antony, B.C. 44. DICTIONARY. The earliest dictionary of which any record remains is one in the Chinese language, compiled by Pa-out-she, about B.C. i zoo. Marcus Terentius Varro, who flourished B.C. 116 B.C. 28, was one of the first classic authors who turned his attention to lexico- graphy ; but the most celebrated dictionary of antiquity is the Onomasticon of Julius Pollux, which was completed early in the 3rd century. The earliest Latin dictionary of modern times was published by John Balbi of Genoa in 1460; but that of Calepio, published in 1502, is much superior. Sebastian Munster's Chaldee Dictionary appeared in 1527 ; Pagninus's Lexicon of the Hebrew language in 1529; Robert Stephens's Thesaurus in 1535; Erpenius's Arabic Dictionary in 1613 ; Schind- ler's Lexicon Pentaglottum in 1612 ; Edmund Castell's Lexicon Heptaglottoniii 1669; andPhil- lips'sNew World of Words in 1658. Moreri pub- lished his Biographical, Historical, and Geogra- phical Dictionary in 1673. Elisha Coles's English Dictionary appeared in 1677 ; and Bayle's His- torical and Critical Dictionary and the Diction- ary of the French Academy in 1694. Dr. John- son's English Dictionary was completed in May, 1 755 j Walker's Dictionary appeared in 1 791 ; and Francis Grose's Dictionary of the Vulgar Tongue in 1785. DIDYMIUM, a rare metal, the discovery of which was announced by Mosander in 1841. DIEG (Hindostan). (See DEEG.) DIEPPE (France), as early as the xoth cen- tury, was a fishing village possessing some fortifications, and in the nth century was called Bertheville. Henry II. erected the castle in 1188, and the church of St. Jacques was com- menced in 1200. Dieppe was attacked by the English in 1442, andagain July 12 13, 1694, being on the latter occasion nearly destroyed by fire. DIERSHEIM (Battle). Moreau effected the passage of the Rhine at this place, after a series of combats with the Austriaiis, April 19 and 20, 1797. Desaix and Davoust distinguished them- selves in these encounters. DIEST (South Brabant). This town, taken from the French by the Duke of Marlborough in I 75> was recaptured by them in the same year. DIET. The name given to the assembly of the German states, which was instituted in the DIEU [ 328 1 DIOCESE most ancient times, and reconstituted by Charles IV. in 1356, on the publication of the " Golden Bull." These sittings were made per- manent at Ratisbon, Dec. 23, 1663. They were removed to Frankfort by the "Confederation of the Rhine," July 17, 1806. The following are some of the most celebrated diets : A.D. 1180. Diet of Witrzburg, which deposed Henry the Lion, Duke of Brunswick. 1467. Diet of Nuremberg, which divided the states into the College of Klectors. the College of Princes, and the College of Imperial Towns. 1531. Diet of Worms, at which Luther refused to recant. 1539. Diet of Spires, which prohibited the spread of the reformed religion, and occasioned the famous protest from which the reformers are called Pro- testants. 1530. Diet of Augsburg, summoned by Charles V., to re- unite the princes of Christeutlo'iii, and secure their co-operation ji gainst, the Turks. (Sec AUUMH'KG CONFESSION AND DIET.) 1541. Diet of Katisbon, summoned to reunite the Protest- ants \\ith the Papists, who were unable to agree respecting 22 articles of faith submitted to their consideration by the Pope's 1 DIEU ET MON DROIT, or God and my Right, the motto of the royal arms of England, was the parole of the day given by Richard I . at the battle of Gisors, Sep. 20, 1198. It was assumed by him and his successors, but did not appear on the broad seal before the time of Henry VIII. Anne discontinued " Dieu ct moil Droit," substituting "Semper eadeni" in its place ; but George I. restored the old motto. DIFFERENCE ENGINE. (See CALCULATING MACHINE.) DIFFUSION. (See USEFUL KNOWLEDGE.) DIGEST. The first digest of the Roman laws was made by Yarn>, r,.r. 66. Gregorianus, in 306, Hermogenianus in 365, and Theodosius II. (the Younger) in 438, also compiled and simpli- fied the laws ; but the term " Digest" is usually applied to the Pandects of Justinian, which formed the second part of his code, finished in 529. They were in 50 books, and a copy of them was found at Amalphi in 1137. DIGGERS. These levellers, who pretended that the earth ought to be held in comnn m, and commenced cultivating some waste land in Surrey, wtrc dispersed by the military, April 1 6, 1649. DIGIT. The term applied to any whole number under 10. The system of notation by digits, commonly called the Arabic system, was used by the Hindoo Aryabhatta in the sth century, and was first employed in Arabia by Mohammed Ben Musa towards the latter part of the gth century. By the end of the loth century it was established throughout Arabia, and was soon after introduced into Europe. Its general adoption by European accountants was, however, very gradual ; and even at the begin- ning of the 1 6th century the Roman notation was common. DIGNITY (Cap of}. (See MAINTENANCE.) DIJON (France), the ancient Dibio, or Divio, is said to have been founded by Marcus Aure- lius. Clovis I. defeated the Burgundians in a battle near this place in 500. It was burned in 1137, rebuilt in 1157, and in 1179 became the residence of the dukes of Burgundy. Dijon is the seat of a bishop. Councils were held here in July, 1077, in 1116, and from Dec. i to 13, 1199. On the anniversary of St. Bartholomew's Day, Aug. 24, 1865, a marble slab was erected, commemorating the deliverance of that part of the country from the massacre of Aug. 24, 1572, by Chabat, Count of Charny, the governor of the province. The cathedral dates from 1291, and the church of Notre Dame was completed in 1334. Rene of Anjou, defeated and made prisoner by Antony of Vaudeniont at Bulgne- ville (q.v.}, July 2, 1431, was confined for many years in the tower of Bar, at this city. The castle was completed in 1513. DILETTANTI. This society, for encouraging a taste for the fine arts, was established in 1734 by some gentlemen who had travelled in Italy. They sent an expedition to the East, which left England June 9, 1764, and returned Nov. 2, 1766. The result of their investigations was the " Ionian Antiquities," of which part i. v\ as published in 1769, part ii. in 1797, and part iii. in 1840; Chandler's "Travels in Asia Minor,' published in 1775; Chandler's "Travels in Greece," in 1776; and a volume of Greek In- scriptions, in 1774. Another expedition was sent to the Levant in 1811. "The Unedited Antiquities of Attica" appeared in 1817, and "Antique Sculpture" in 1835. The society consists of 50 members, who dine together at the Thatched House tavcm the first Sunday in every month from Feb. to July. IHNAN 'France'. The cathedral of this old town of Britanny dates from the nth or i2th century. In 1280, Dinan, long governed by independent counts, was annexed to the duchy of Britanny, and in 1300 it was fortified by a castle, now used as a prison. It was taken by Du Guesclin in 1379, by Oliver de Clisson in 1379, and in 1585 it passed into the : .'ii of the Duke of Mercosur, who re- tained it till 1598. A plaster statue of Du Guesclin, whose heart was deposited in the cathedral, was erected in 1823. Dl. \A.\T Belgium). Notice of this town occurs in records of the 6th century. It was taken Monday, Aug. 25, 1466, and destroyed in March, 1467, by Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy. It was speedily rebuilt, and was again seized by the Duke of Nevers in 1554. The French, under the Marshal de Crequi, took it in 1675 ; under Marshal Saxe in 1746 ; and again in 1794, when it was erected into the chief town of the department of Sambro-et- Meuso. It was restored to Holland in 1814. D 1 N A P R E (Hindostaii). Three native regiments revolted at this military station in Bengal, about 25 miles from Arrah, July 25, 1857, an( l f r a short time carried on a desul- tory warfare. DIXDIGUL (Hindostan) was conquered by the Rajah of Mysore in 1755, taken from Tippoo Saib by the British in 1783, and restored in 1784. In 1792 it was ceded to the British Government. In 1809, 1810, and 1811, tL and its neighbourhood were visited by a very fatal epidemic, which carried off numbers of the population. DIOCESE. Bingham (Antiq. ix. c. i, s. 2), speaking of the division of the Roman empire into dioceses, says, "It is generally owned that the division of provinces is more ancient than that of dioceses : for the division into DIOCLETIAN [ 329 1 DISCIPLINE dioceses began only about the time of Con- stantino" (306 337). A list of the dioceses of the empire is given in the "Notitia Im- perii," said 'to be written about 400, at which time they seem to have numbered 13. The term was first used in its episcopal sense about the time of the Council of Aries, in 314, which addressed a letter to Pope Sylvester I., wherein mention is made of his holding "the greater dioceses." The first division of a large diocese into several smaller ones took place in 569. The establishment of dioceses in Britain was coeval with the introduction of Christianity, but information on the subject is very meagre. British bishops attended the Council of Aries in 314, as well as that of Sardica in 347. DIOCLETIAN ;ERA, or the JERA OF MAR- TYRS, dates from the proclamation of Diocle- tian as Emperor, Axig. 29, 284. This aera was generally used by Christians, till the introduc- tion of the Christian sera about 527. DION YSIA. These festivals, in honour of Dionysus, or Bacchus, which originated in Egypt, were introduced into Greece by Me- lampus, B.C. 1415. They were four in number, the rural or lesser Dionysia, which was the most ancient ; the Lenrea, the Anthesteria, and the Dionysia proper, all of which were cele- brated annually, with much extravagant mer- riment, though they were not disgraced by the excesses of the Roman Bacchanalia (q. v.). DIORAMA. This mode of exhibiting paint- ings of landscapes, architecture, &c., with such effects of light as to produce most complete optical illusion, was first established at Paris by MM. Daguerre and Bouton in 1822. In 1823 a building was erected for its exhibition at Regent's Park, London. For some time the speculation proved prosperous. It was closed in 1852, and the building was sold in 1855, and converted into a Baptist chapel. DIOSPOLIS (Palestine). This city, the Lod of the Old and Lydda of the New Testament, was founded about B.C. 1300, by Shamed, the descendant of Benjamin (i Chron. viii. 12), and after the return from the captivity was possessed by the children of the same tribe, B.C. 445 (Nehem. xi. 35). At the request of Jonathan Maccabeeus (circ. B.C. 152), Lydda, with other towns, was released from tribute by Demetrius Soter, and it was one of the places seized by Cassius, who sold all the in- habitants into slavery to pay the heavy taxes he demanded, B.C. 45. St. Peter visited Lydda in 33, and performed there his miraculous cure of ^Eneas, who had " kept his bed eight years, and was sick of the palsy" (Acts ix. 32-35). The town was burned by Cestius Gallus in 66, and was taken by Vespasian in 68, suffering on both occasions severely. In 136 it was rebuilt, and Paganism being in the ascendant, the name was changed to Diospolis. Aetius signed the acts of the Council of Nicsea as Bishop of Lydda, in 325. It is believed that the see is of much earlier foundation, its origin being traditionally referred to Zenas the lawyer, who was one of the 70 disciples. The Council of Diospolis, at which Pelagius was acquitted of heresy, was held Dec. 20, 415. Diospolis, seized and ravaged by the Saracens early in the 8th century, was restored and fortified by the Crusaders in 1099. It was again destroyed by Saladin in 1191, and, according to tradition, was rebuilt by Richard I. (Coaur de Lion). At present it is a mere village, the inhabitants of which are much afflicted with blindness and diseases of the eyes. DIPHTHERIA, a diseased state of the mu- cous membrane of the throat, which causes the development of a false membrane. The best authorities believe it to be the "putrid sore throat" described by early writers. The ancient Greek physician Aretseus refers to a similar disease. It prevailed in an epi- demic form in Italy, Spain, and other Eu- ropean countries in the i6th and i7th cen- turies. In England, the continent of Europe, and North America, it broke out in the i8th century. It appeared again at Tours, in France, in 1818, and in 1856 raged with epidemic vio- lence at Boulogne. The first accurately de- scribed cases in this country occurred in 1857. M. Bretonneau, of Tours, gave it the name of " diphtherite" in 1821. DIPLOMACY. -By 6 Anne c. 7 (1707) salaries or pensions enjoyed as the rewards of diplo- matic service disqualified the possessor from sitting in the House of Commons. This pro- vision, as far as it was affected by 2 & 3 Will. IV. c. 116 (Aug. 16, 1832), was repealed by 22 & 23 Viet. c. 5 (Aug. 8, 1859). The Foreign Office List, forming a complete British Diplo- matic and Consular Handbook, compiled by E. Hertslet, contains full information on the subject. Diplomatic agents are divided into four classes : i. Ambassadors, legates, and nuncios. 2. Envoys extraordinary and minis- ters plenipotentiary. 3. Envoys, ministers, and others accredited to sovereigns. 4. Charges d'affaires. (See AMBASSADORS.) DIPLOMATICS. (See PALEOGRAPHY.) DIRECTORY. The first London Directory, "A Collection of the Names of Merchants, ?lt(i.-:ii ecclesicK, dower ex assensu patris, and dower de la plus belle. The last was abolished by 12 Charles II. c. 24 (1660), and the third and fourth by the Dower Act, 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 105 (Aug. 29, 1833), which came into operation Jan. i, 1834, and virtually placed the right of dower entirely at the husband's disposal. DOWLATABAD, or DOWLETABAD (Ilin- dostan). This town, considered the key of the Deccan, the ancient Deoghir, was taken by the Mohammedans under Allah -ud-Deen in 1293, and in 1306 was rendered subject to the Emperor of Delhi, who changed its name to Dowlatabad, and endeavoured to make it the capital of his dominions. About 1595 it surrendered to Ahmed Nizam Shah, of Ahmednuggur, whose dynasty becoming extinct in 1600, it was seized by an Abyssinian slave, named Mallik Amber. In 1634 it was taken by the Mongols, from whom it was wrested in 1717 by Nizam-ul- Mulk, whose descendants have ever since re- tained it. In 1758 it was occupied for a time by a French force under M. Bussy. DOWN (Ireland). This see is supposed to have been founded about 499, and to have been originally fixed at Downpatrick (q. v,). The DOWNING [ 337 DRAMA diocese was united to Connor, at an early period, but they were separated in 1136 or 1137 They were permanently united by the Pope h 1441. In 1609 James I. made the church o" the Holy Trinity at Downpatrick the cathe dral of the diocese ; but this having fallen into decay, Charles II. transferred the title tc the parish church of Lisbum, by a paten dated Oct. 27, 1662. On the death of James Saurin, Bishop of Dromore, April 9, 1842 that see was united to Down and Connor, according to the provisions of the Church Temporalities Act (3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 37, Aug 14, 1833). DOWNING COLLEGE (Cambridge). Sir E. Downing, Bart., by his will dated Dec. 20. 1717, left estates, which, on the failure of heirs in a certain line of succession, were to be devoted to the foundation and maintenance of a college at the university of Cambridge. The college was founded by charter, Sep. 28, 1800, and the statutes were framed in 1805. Land having been purchased, the first stone of the college buildings was laid May 18, 1807, and undergraduates were admitted to reside in 1821. DOWNPATRICK (Ireland). One of the most ancient towns in Ireland, existing in the days of St. Patrick, who is said to have founded the cathedral. He died in 493. In 1538 its church was pillaged by Lord Deputy Grey, and in 1609 it was made the cathedral of the diocese of Down. In consequence of the decayed state of the building-, Charles II. transferred the title of cathedral to Lisburn church Oct. 27, 1662 ; but in 1790 Downpatrick cathedral was restored for divine service. DOWNS (Sea-fights). Admiral Blake de- feated the Dutch fleet of De Ruyter and De Witt in the Downs, Sep. 28, 1652. He gained a second victory, over Van Tromp, Nov. 29, 1652. DRABESCUS (Battle). The Athenian colonists of Amphipolis (q. v.), to the number of 10,000, were defeated by the Thracian Edo- nians on this plain, to the north-west of Phi- lippi, in Greece, B.C. 465. DRACO'S CODE, which punished all offences with death, and was consequently said to be written in blood, was compiled about B. c. 624, and remained in force until superseded by the milder legislation of Solon, B.C. 594. DRAFT. (See CHEQUE.) DRAGONNADES. The persecutions of the French Protestants by Louis XIV., especially the military expeditions, consisting chiefly of dragoons, which were despatched into the southern provinces by Louvois in 1684 and 1685, are known in history as the Dragonnades. They were followed by the revocation of the Edict of Nantes (q. v.}, Oct. 22, 1685. DRAGOONS. Knights called dracones, be- cause they fought under the standard of a dragon, are of very ancient date. Modern dragoons are of French origin, having been instituted by Charles de Cosse, Marshal of Brisac, about 1600. In 1632 two kinds existed , called pikemen and musketeers. The oldest English regiment of dragoons is the Scots Greys, first enrolled Nov. 19, 1683. DRAINAGE was practised by the ancient Egyptians and Assyrians at a very early date. Attempts were made to drain the Pontine marshes B.C. 160, but without permanent effect. Baldwin I., Count of Flanders, is believed to have commenced the drainage of his territories about 863, but they were not effectually pro- tected from inundations of the sea till 1180. In 1633 the Spaniards constructed works for the purpose of draining the city of Mexico, which, from its situation in the centre of a lake, was subject to frequent inundations. The draining of the Bedford Level, under the management of the Earl of Bedford and others, was completed March 25, 1653. In consequence of the frequent recurrence of cholera, measures have recently been adopted for securing a better system of drainage in this country. The Metropolitan Board of Works, appointed by 18 & 19 Viet. c. 120, s. 43 (Aug. !4> J^ss), exercises control over all main sewers of the city of London, and, by the terms of the act, was bound to complete sewers, to prevent the passage of any sewage into the Thames near London, before Dec. 31, 1860 (s. 135). By 21 & 22 Viet. c. 104 (Aug. 2, 1858), the board was to commence, as soon as possible, works for the main drainage of the metropolis, and for preventing the further pollution of the Thames, the shores and bed of which they were empowered to improve by embankments, &c. To enable them to effect this, they were permitted to borrow money to the amount of ,3,000,000, and to levy a rate of threepence in the pound on the annual value of property in London and its environs, on the basis of the county rate. This rate is called the Metropolis Main Drainage Rate. The works were opened in presence of the Prince of Wales and a large assemblage, April 4, 1865. DRAKE'S CIRCUMNAVIGATION OF THE GLOBE. This, the first voyage round the globe accomplished by an Englishman, was performed by Sir Francis Drake, who sailed From Plymouth Dec. 13, 1577. He arrived in the La Plata April 14, 1578, and entered Port 3t. Julian June 20. Here Drake executed Mr. Thomas Doughtie on a charge of mutinous conduct, after which he resumed his voyage, Aug. 17. He seized Callao, where he captured 7 heavily laden ships, Feb. 15, 1579; & n d e took a Spanish galleon, March i, which yielded a booty of about ;i 50,000. After com- pleting the circumnavigation of the globe, and meeting many surprising adventures, the expedition returned to Plymouth in safety, Sep. 26, 1580, where Queen Elizabeth visited lim on board his ship and knighted him. DRAMA. The ancient drama originated with the Greeks, whose efforts were at first wholly extempore. Comedy was introduced at Athens, B.C. 578, by Susarionand Dolon, whose ompany of buffoons performed on waggons, and smeared their faces with lees of wine, "nstead of concealing them with masks. The ihorus, which was of Doric origin, was added i.e. 556. Thespis of Icaria introduced a single actor, who related the mythological deeds of Dionyshis or Bacchus, and carried on serious conversations with the chorus, B.C. 535. He is therefore regarded as the founder of tragedy. Phrynichus introduced other subjects besides DRAMA [ 338 ] DRAMATIC the deeds of Bacchus, and also employed female characters in his productions, B.C. 511. Written comedy began with Epicharmus of Cos, who attired his performers in costume, and adorned his stage with purple curtains. He flourished about B.C. 500. Anaxandrides, the comic poet, who flourished B.C. 376, was the first who wrote, plays with regular plots. The principal Greek poets were : Tragic : .ZEschylus (B.C. 525456), Sophocles (B.C. 495405), and Euripides (B.C. 480406). Comic: Eupolis (B.C. 429 ?), Aris- tophanes (about B.C. 427 ; last comedy, B.C. 388), and Menander (B.C. 342 291). Theatrical exhibitions were introduced at Rome during n pestilence, B.C. 364, in order to propitiate the favour of the gods, or to divert the minds of the populace from the miserable condition to which they were reduced. The actors were Etruscans, and their performances consisted of dances without words or dramatic plot. Songs, however, were soon added, as ac- compaTiiment, and Livius Andronicus, who flourished about B.C. 240, wrote Latin plays with regular plots and fables. In consequence of losing his voice from the frequency of his performances, lie employed a boy to sing the ode whilst he himself danced ; thus intro- ducing a most important improvement. Tra- gedy never flourished at Rome, although several distinguished authors endeavoured to render it popular. The chief of these were Nsevius, who flourished B.C. 235, and Ennius (B.C. 239 169). The principal Roman comic dramatists are Plautus (B.C. 227 184), Statins (died B.C. 168), and Terence (B.C. 195 159). The ok" drama maintained its footing till the 4th ceil tury, when Gregory of Nazianzus banished it from the theatres at Constantinople, and intro- duced in its stead dramatic compilations from the Sacred Writings. From Constantinople these productions were conveyed to Italy. They wci-c succeeded by the mysteries, or religious comedies, from which the modern drama is almost entirely derived. Thus the "Feast of Fools" and the "Feast of the Ass," with other religious celebrations, were insti- tuted by Theophylact, Patriarch of Constanti- nople, about 950. These mysteries were intro- duced into England about mo, when the Story of St. Catherine was exhibited at Dun- stable. In 1264 a society del Gait/alone was established at Rome to represent the passion of the Saviour, and before 1 300 sacred dramas were performed in Germany. The Chester mysteries are referred by Warton to 1327, though Hallam considers that date a cen- tury too early. The " Confrarie de la Pas- sion" was established in France as a regular theatrical company about 1400. The earliest drama of a secular kind was Bibiena's comedy of the Calandra, which was performed at Venice in 1508. Udal's " Ralph Roister Doister," written about 1540, and printed in 1565, is the first secular English play. The office of master of the revels, whose duty was to ar- range the theatrical entertainments of the court, was established in 1544, and contributed greatly to the rise of the British drama. In 1574 the Earl of Leicester's servants received a patent to act plays in any part of England, and iu 1576 they built the theatre at Black- friars, which was the first building of the kind in England. Marlowe's " Edward II.," which appeared in 1593, is regarded as the earliest English historical play. " Celestina," written in Spanish by Fernando de Roias, translated into English by James Mabbe, and published in 1631, in 21 acts, is the longest play on record. Burbage, Shakespeare, Hemmiiigs, and others, received a license to act plays in any part of the kingdom, May 19, 1603. Actresses, who were originally from France, first appeared in England, at the Blackfriars Theatre, in Michael- mas, 1629'; but the innovation was vehemently opposed by the stricter portion of the com- munity, and in great part occasioned the publication of Prymie's " Histrio-Mastix, or Players' Scourge," which appeared in 1633. During the supremacy of the Puritans the drama was discouraged, all the theatres being closed by a parliamentary order dated Sep. 2, 1642, and their fittings and furniture destroyed by another dated Jan. 22, 1648. Sir William Da- venant, however, opened a kind of theatre in Ru t- land House, Charterhouse Yard, May 23, 1656, on which occasion scenes were first employed in a public theatre ; and, in 1662, both he and Killigrew obtained patents to open playhouses by monopoly, from Charles II. Davenant's theatre in Lincoln's Inn Fields was opened early in 1662, the actors being styled "the Duke of York's Company of Comedians." Killigrew's company, known as the "King's Company," opened Drury Lane in 1663. The theatre in Dorset Gardens was opened iu 1671 ; and in 1682 the King's and the Duke's Com- panies united patents, and removed to Drury Lane. The popularity of operas so injured the pay of the actors, that Bctterton and other performers opened another theatre in Lincoln's Inn Fields in 1695. By 10 Geo. II. c. 28 (1737), plays were ordered to be revised and l by the lord cliamberlain before they could be legally performed. 3 Will. IV. c. 15 (June 10, 1833), known as the Authors' Dra- matic Copyright Protection Act, prohibited the performance of any play unless the sanc- tion of the author had been previously ob- tained. The provisions of this act were extended to operatic performances by 5 & 6 Viet. c. 45, ss. 20 & 21 (July i, 1842). DRAMATIC COLLEGE. Mr. Henry Dodd having placed five acres of land and 100 guineas at the disposal of a provisional committee, for the founding of an institution to bear this name, a public meeting was held at the Prin- cess's Theatre Wednesday, July 21, 1858. Mr. C. Kean presided, and was, with three others, appointed trustees. A dispute commenced be- tween Mr. Dodd and the committee, Sep. 20, respecting the conditions of the gift, and at a meeting held at the Adelphi Theatre, Jan. 12, 1859, Mr. Dodd's offer was rejected, and arrangements were made for erecting the building elsewhere. A site was subse- quently selected at Maybury, near Woking, and the foundation-stone of the college was laid by Prince Albert, Friday, June i, 1860. A meeting for the purpose of establishing public schools for both sexes, in connection with the college, was held in the Adelphi Theatre, under the presidency of Mr. Charles Dickens, May u, DRANESVILLE [ 339 1 DRESS 1864. The central hall of the college was opened by the Prince of Wales, June 5, 1865. DRANESVILLE (Battle.) The Confederate Gen. Stuart was defeated by the Federals, with a loss of 200 men, at this place, in Virginia, Dec. 22, 1861. DRAPERS' COMPANY was incorporated in 1430. The patent for their arms bears date 1439. The company established themselves in 1541 in the house of the attainted Thomas Cromwell, Earl of Essex, situated in Throg- morton Street. It was destroyed in the great fire of 1666, and the present building was com- menced in 1667. DRAPIER LETTERS. These letters, written by Dean Swift under the signature of M. B. Drapier, condemned the government for granting a patent, in 1722, to supply a deficiency of ,108,000 in the copper coinage of Ireland, to a man named Wood. They began to appear in 1723, and created a sensation in Ireland, per- haps unparalleled in the literary history of the country. In April, 1724, Harding, the printer of the letters, was imprisoned and prosecuted by the crown; but, in spite of this, he re- fused to betray their author. In consequence of the excitement in the country, the patent was abandoned, after .40,000 in halfpence had been coined ; and Wood, who received an in- demnity of .3,000 per annum for 12 years, was compelled by the popular indignation to leave the country. DRAUGHTS. This game, called in France Les Dames, and in Scotland Dambrod, which was unknown to the ancients, is mentioned as early as 1551. DRAWING. This art is evidently of extreme antiquity, being, at least, as old as the Egyptian hieroglyphics, which were invented about B.C. 2122. The Greeks attribute its origin to the ingenuity of a young girl of Sicyon, who traced, with a piece of charcoal, the shadow of her lover's profile on the wall, in order that she might possess a likeness of him during his absence. DREADNOUGHT HOSPITAL. This vessel, which fought at Trafalgar (q. v.) Oct. 21, 1805, was moored off Greenwich as an hospital ship for seamen of all nations, June 20, 1831. DREPANUM (Sea-fight). During the first Punic war, the Roman consul, P. Claudius Pulcher, was defeated, B.C. 249, off Drepanum, in Sicily, with a loss of 93 ships, by the Car- thaginian fleet. The Roman commander is said to have given battle in defiance of the augurs, and, when told that the sacred chickens would not eat, exclaimed "Let them drink ! " and ordered them to be thrown into the sea. DRESDEN (Battle). An allied Austrian, Russian, and Prussian army, about 150,000 strong, under Prince Schwartzenberg, attacked 131,000 French troops, led by Napoleon I., at Dresden, Aug. 26, 1813. The battle, which commenced at four o'clock P.M., was renewed Aug. 27, when Napoleon totally defeated his opponents. The allied army lost above 6,000 men in this battle, and Gen. Mpreau, who was engaged as a volunteer, fell in the conflict. The French loss amounted to 4,000 men. DRESDEN (Saxony) was originally a miser- able fishing village, founded in the nth cen- tury. In 1136 it was beautified and enlarged by Henry the Illustrious, and in 1485, on the division of Saxony between the sons of Frede- rick II., it fell to the lot of Albert, who made it his residence. In 1491 it was destroyed by fire, but was speedily rebuilt, and, in 1534, a castle was erected by George le Barbu. In 1548 it became the capital of the electorate, and in 1610 was visited by war, plague, and famine. The academy was founded in 1697. The Prus- sians took it in 1745 and in 1756, when they were commanded by Frederick the Great, who again laid siege to it July 13, 1760. He was, however, compelled to retire July 22, after submitting the city to a bombardment, which reduced some of its noblest buildings to ruins. The institution for the blind was founded in 1809. An Austrian army entered Dresden June ii, 1809, and, after various reverses, quitted it July 21. The allies, who occupied the city April 26, 1813, abandoned it soon after, and it was taken by the French (See BATTLE OF DRESDEN), who in their turn withdrew Nov. n. Riots occurred Sep. 9-13, 1830, when the town hall was attacked and plundered, and many excesses were committed. Another insurrection broke out June 3, 1849, which was finally suppressed June 7. Mr. Paget, an English traveller resident in Dresden, was arrested on a false charge of aiding the Hun- garian revolution, Sep. 2, 1852. His liberation took place Sep. 25. DRESDEN (Treaties). Several treaties have been concluded at Dresden, the most important being the Alliance of Dresden, signed June 28, 1709, by which Frederick IV. of Denmark, and Augustus II. of Saxony, united against Charles XII. of Sweden ; and the peace of Dresden, Dec. 25, 1745, between Saxony, Prussia, and Hungary. DRESDEN CHINA. John Frederick Bott- cher, an apothecary's assistant at Berlin, having fled to Dresden to avoid prosecution for alchemy, was protected by the Elector Augustus II., who provided him with means to discover the philo- sopher's stone. Although unsuccessful in this enterprise, he unexpectedly produced some- thing so like oriental porcelain, that he aban- doned his former useless pursuits, and directed his attention to the perfection of his new dis- covery. After several years of arduous labour, ic, in 1709, succeeded in his attempt, and manufactured the first white porcelain made in Europe. A factory was established at Meissen .n 1710, of which he was appointed director; nd in 1715 he brought his invention to perfec- tion. DRESS. In the " Book of Costume " it is stated that " all ancient nations seem to have aad the same costume, formed of long gar- ments, without much shape or ornament ; and as these were all much alike, they descended Yom father to son for many generations. The colours most valued among the ancients appear ;o have been purple, red, and violet, but white was the most used by the Israelites." The costumes of the early Greeks were remarkable rom their close fit, loose flowing garments )eing of later introduction. Amongthe Romans, he toga, a dress derived from the Etruscans, was the characteristic costume ; and, although DRESS [ 340 ] DROGIIEDA discouraged by Augustus (B.C. 27 A.D. 14) and Domitian (81 96), it maintained its popularity till the removal of the seat of government to Constantinople in 330, when it was superseded by the Greek pallium. The earliest mention of the Britons is by Herodotus (B.C. 478), who alludes to their custom of staining their bodies with woad as a proof of high descent. Strabo (B.C. 71 A.D. 14) says that their dress consisted of a long black robe bound round the breast ; and Herodian, writing in 207, states that the inhabitants of the fenny districts wore little or no clothing, both that they might be at liberty to swim and wade through the marshes, and that their tattooed bodies might be seen and appreciated . The Druids wore long white robes arid mantles, with oak-leaves bound round the forehead, and the chief priest was adorned with a breastplate of a crescent form, which was believed to possess the power of strangling the wearer if he ever gave false judgment. When the Romans conquered England, they of course introduced their costume, which Tacitus stales began to be adopted in the time of Agri- cola. The Saxons introduced drawers, trowsers, long and short tunics, whence the modern rustic smock is derived ; cloaks, caps of wool, felt, or fur ; stockings, usually cross-gartered ; hoots, shoes, and gloves. The Danes wore dresses similar in style, but more ornamental ; and the Normans introduced no novelty on their first arrival, except the ladies' surcoat, a short cloak, with long and ugly sleeves. Parti- coloured coats were first worn in England in the reign of Henry I., chaplets, or wreaths of artificial flowers, in the time of Edward III., hoods and taberts in the reign of Henry IV., hats in the time of Henry VII., shoes in 1633, and breeches superseded trunk hose in 1654. In the i3th century the tabard, a sleeveless garment, consisting of two pieces, hanging before and behind, came into vise, and in the i4th century a great variety of sleeves, cloaks, and head-gear, with pantaloons, sleeveless spencers, scarfs, and long-pointed shoes, be- came characteristic features. The women of this century were chiefly distinguished by the whimsical designs of their head-dresses ; they also wore stay-like garments outside their other dress. In the isth century tight breeches and slashed sleeves were introduced. Strutt states : "At the close of the isth, the dress of the English was exceedingly fantastical and absurd, insomuch that it was even difficult to distin- guish the one sex from the other. The men wore petticoats over their lower clothing ; then- doublets were laced in the front like a woman's stays across a stomacher; and their gowns were open in the front to the girdle, and again from the girdle to the ground." The honied head- dress for ladies appeared at the beginning of this century, and continued in vogue till 1461, when the steeple fashion became prevalent. Swords, as a part of domestic dress, were intro- duced in the latter part of the i$th century. The chief innovations of the i6th century were the enormous puffed doublets and trunk breeches of the men, and the hooped fardin- fales and high wing-like collars of the ladies, n the 1 7th century, judges' wigs, coats with short sleeves, puffed breeches, and boots with very large tops, were favourite fashions, and the Puritans embroidered their garments with religious maxims. Muffs for the hands are mentioned as having been used by gentle- men during the frost of 1683-4. In the early part of the i8th century, the ladies' commodes, introduced in 1687, attained the extravagant height which excited Addison's raillery in the Spectator ; and the hooped petticoats were so altered in fashion, that, in the words of a writer in the Weekly Journal of 1718, " when a slender virgin stands upon a basis so exorbitantly wide, she resembles a funnel, a figure of no great elegancy." Gentlemen wore square-cut coats, stiffened by wire and buckram. Towards the middle of the century, head-dresses of enor- mous height were worn by the ladies, who, according to the L<>i/il<>,< Magazine for 1768, used such expensive modes of dressing the hair, that it was sometimes left nine weeks without attention, which time, says the author, is ' ' as long as a head could well go in summer." The formation of the Macaroni Club in 1772 contri- buted greatly to extravagance of costume, which continued undisturbed by any important novelty until the introduction of the modern round hat for gentlemen in 1789. Short waists became fashionable in 1794, but in 1798 they resumed more graceful proportions, and at length regained their proper shape. Various laws have been enacted at different times for the regulation of costume in England. Such are 37 Edw. III. c. 8, &c. (1363) ; 3 Edw. IV. c. 5 (1463) ; 22 Edw. IV. c. i (1482); i & 2 Phil. & Mary c. 2 (1554); and 13 Eliz. c. 19(1570). The last act required every person above six years old, except maidens, ladies, and gentle- women, and lords, knights, and gentlemen of 20 marks a-year, to wear on Sundays and holi- days a woollen cap of English manufacture, under a penalty of 3.9. 41!. DREUX (France). This town was taken and destroyed by the English in 1188. An obstinate battle was fought between the Roman Catholic army and the Huguenot forces, led by Conde", at this place, Dec. 19, 1562. Both commanders were made prisoners. Henry IV. of France took the town, after a siege of 18 days, in 1593. DRINKING-FOUNTAINS. A meeting in support of the movement to erect drinking- fouiitains was held at Willis's Rooms, April 12, 1859. The first public fountain in London was erected by the Metropolitan Drinking-Foun- tains Association, at the expense of Mr. S. Gumey, at the comer of St. Sepulchre's churchyard. It was opened for general use April 21, 1859. Numbers of drinking-fountains have since been erected in London, and in va- rious provincial towns. DROGHEDA (Ireland) was fortified by Tur- gesius the Dane, in 911. Lucas, Archbishop of Armagh, founded a Dominican convent in 1224, and in this building the four Irish kings, O'Neill, O'Hanlon, O'Donncll, and Macmahon, did homage to Richard II., March 10, 1395. In 1412, Henry VI. granted a corporation, and the town afterwards became of considerable political importance, courts and parliaments being held in it by the English viceroys. " Poynings's Law," cwJnVh TwiiHoiWi fii TviaVi which rendered the Irish DROMORE DRUSES parliament subservient to that of England was passed at Drogheda in 1494. Cromwelj stormed and took the town Sep. n, 1649 putting 3,000 of the inhabitants to the sword and in 1690 it resisted an assault by King William III.'s army, to which it surrendered after the battle of the Boyne. The first stone of the Whitworth Institution was laid by its founder, Mr. Benjamin Whitworth, May 24, 1864. DROMORE (Ireland) was erected into a bishop's see by St. Coleman about 510, but there is no regular succession of bishops til] the i ath century. Jeremy Taylor became Bishop of Dromore in 1661. The Church Temporalities Act (3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 37, Aug. 14, 1833) provided that, when next vacant, the see of Dromore should be united to those of Down and Connor (q. v.). This occurred on the death of Bishop Saiirin, April 9, 1842. DRONTHEIM, or TRONDHJEM (Norway). This town, founded by Olaf I. in 997, was the capital of Norway, until that kingdom was united to Denmark. The cathedral was commenced in 1033. Drontheim was made an archbishopric in 1151, was ceded to Sweden in 1658, and restored to Denmark in 1660. The Swedes invested Drontheim, but without suc- cess, in Oct., 1718. DROOP MOUNTAIN (Battle). The Con- federates, under Gen. Echols and Col. Jackson, were defeated, with a loss of 300 men, by a superior force of Federals under Gen. Averill, near this mountain in Virginia, Nov. 6, 1863. DROTNINGHOLM (Treaty). The Empress Catherine II. of Russia, and Gustavus III. of Sweden, concluded an alliance at this island, called also Queen's Island, in the Malar Lake, near Stockholm, Oct. 19, 1791. It was purely of a defensive character, and was contracted in order that Gustavus, relieved from fear of invasion on the part of his more powerful neighbour, might be at liberty, should an opportunity arise, to lead his forces against the French Republic. It was very unpopular in Sweden. DROWNING. This punishment, common amongst many nations of antiquity, was treacherously inflicted near Nicomedia in 370, on 80 legates, who complained of certain grievances, which the Emperor Valens found it inconvenient to redress. It was awarded, by a charter of Richard I., dated 1189, to any crusader of his army who should kill a fellow- soldier on shipboard. In this country it was long a punishment inflicted upon women. It prevailed in Scotland as late as 1685. The last execution by drowning in Switzerland took place in 1652, in Austria in 1776, and in Iceland in 1777. During the French Revolution, it was revived by the monster J. B. Carrier, who, in 1793, constructed vessels in which 100 victims might be drowned at once. (See NOYADES.) DRUIDS, the priests of the ancient Gauls and Britons, who revered the oak and mis- tletoe, and were the legislators and teachers of the people. Their origin is unknown. Sue- tonius Paulinus put numbers of them to the sword, when he took Anglesey, the ancient Mona, in 61, and from that time their authority declined. DRUM. Representations of this instrument occur on Egyptian sculptures of the i6th cen- tury B.C., where it is always depicted as being struck by the hands. It was introduced into Europe by the Saracens, and was played, pro- bably for the first time in France, on the entry of Edward III. into Calais in 1347. DRUMCLOG (Battle). Graham of Claver- house was defeated here by the Scottish Covenanters, Sunday, June i, 1679 (O. S.). Forty of the royalists and one of the rebels fell in the action, and Claverhouse himself was nearly made prisoner. DRUNKARDS. By a law of Pittacus, B.C. 589, the ancient Greeks inflicted double punish- ment upon such as committed crime in a state of intoxication ; one penalty being awarded for the actual offence and the other for the intemperance which occasioned its commission. The Apostolical Canons, in 250, declared all drunken priests degraded from their sacred office, and Pope Eutychian (275 283) de- nounced sentence of excommunication against laymen guilty of intoxication. In England a law was passed against drunkenness in 975, and by 4 James I. c. 5 (1606), and 21 James I. c. 7, s. 3 (1623), offenders are liable to a fine of five shillings, to be devoted to the use of the poor, or six hours in the stocks, and for a second offence to be bound with two sureties in 10 for good behaviour. DRURY - LANE THEATRE (London) was opened by the King's Company under Thomas Killigrew, April 8, 1663. In Jan., 1672, it was burned down, and a new one, erected from the designs of Sir Christopher Wren, was opened May 26, 1674. This theatre became the only one in London, when Davenant's Com- pany united with the King's, Nov. 16, 1682. After undergoing considerable alterations, it was reopened Sep. 23, 1775. The Theatrical Fund was established by Garrick in 1776. The last performance in Wren's theatre took place June 4, 1791, after which it was pulled down and rebuilt by Henry Holland. The new building was opened with a performance of sacred music, March 12, 1794. It was burned down Feb. 24, 1809. The first stone of a new theatre, designed by Mr. B. Wyatt, was laid Oct. 29, 1811, and the new building was opened with a prologue by Lord Byron, Oct. 10, 1812. DRURY'S BLUFF (United.States) .The garrison of the forts at this point on the James River, Virginia, about eight miles below Richmond, repulsed an attack by a powerful squadron of Federal iron-clads, May 8, 1862. DRUSES, a people of Syria, who trace their descent from Darazi, a disciple of the Fati- mite caliph Hakem (9961020). In 1588 they were subdued by Amurath III., but regained a portion of their independence in the middle of the 1 8th century. An insurrection occurred among the Drvises and Maronites in the spring of 1840. It was suppressed by the Turks in 1841. In the summer of 1860 they rose in arms against the Maronite Christians, and slew about 12,000 men, women, and children, of whom 200 were priests ; besides destroying 163 villages, 220 churches, and 7 convents. The massacre was suspended July 10, and the DUBLIN [ 342 1 DUBLIN Sultan despatched Fuad Pasha as commissioner to restore tranquillity. The consequence was, that 167 of the most guilty Druses were publicly executed at Damascus Aug. 20, and many others sent to Constantinople to undergo imprisonment and hard labour. DUBLIN (Archbishopric). St. Patrick is said to have placed a bishop over the church he founded at Dublin, in 448 ; but no names of prelates remain earlier than Livinus, who was promoted to the see in 633. In 1152, Bishop Gregory was raised to the archiepis- copal dignity, and in 1214 the diocese was enlarged by the addition of the see of Glen- daloch. George Brown, who succeeded to the archiepiscopal throne in 1535, was the first Protestant archbishop of the diocese. In agreement with a provision of the Church Temporalities Act (3*4 Will. IV. c. 37, Aug. 14, 1833), the see of Kildare was united to Dublin, Aug. 8, 1846. DUBLIN (Ireland) is mentioned by Ptolemy, under its Latin name " Eblana," A.D. 140. Its early history is involved in obscurity. A.D. 448. St. Patrick converts tho King of Dublin and his sub- jects to ChrisiianiU. 798. First arrival of the 'Danes, who surround the city with walls. 964. Dublin is mentioned bv Edgar, King of England, in a charter called "Oswald's Law." 1005. The suburbs are burned bv Mclaghlln, King of Heath. 1014, April 33. Battle of Clontarf (q. v.\ 1034. Donat, Bishop of Dublin, and Sitric, Kingof Dublin, found St. Michael's chapel, afterwards culled ChrUtchurch. 1105. St. Catherine's church is built. 1170, Sep. 2,1. Dublin is besieged and taken by the English, under Karl Strongbow. 1173. Henry II. -ranis Dublin, by charter, to the citizens of Brtatol. 1190. A disastrous fire destroys great part of the city. Christchureh is rebuilt, and St. Patrick's church founded. 1305, Aug. 31. A patent is granted by King John, directing Fit/.henry, the governor of tiie town, to commence Ba*tl. 1315. A bridge is built over the Liffey. 1335. 1'e monastery of .St. Francis is founded. 1359. '''lie monastery of the Holy Trinity is founded. I2~s. Whitefrian monastery is founded. 1383, Jan. 3. The greater part of the city is destroyed by fire. 1308. A provost and two bailiffs are appointed. 1330. A university is established in St. Patrick's church bv Alexander de I'.irUnor, Archbishop of Dublin. ' 1362, April d. St. Patrick's church is destroyed by tire. 1409. A mayor is first appointed. 1487. Lambert Sinmel is crowned king in Christchureh, by the. title of F.dward VI. 1500. The riiy is besieged by a son of Gerald, Earl of Kil- dare, and lord-deputy. 1541. The priory and convent of Christchureh constituted a deanery and chapter. 1548. The bailiffs" of Dublin are first called sheriffs. 1591, March 13. Trinity College is founded by Thomas Smith, mayor. 1601. The library of Trinity College is formed. 1614. A convocation of bishops is held, which the Thirty-nine Articles. 1635. John ( )gilby erects the first theatre in Dublin. 1647, June 18. Dublin surrenders to the Parliamentary forces. 1649, June 19 Aug. a. It is unsuccessfully besieged by the Marquis of Orinond. Aug. 14. It is occupied by Cromwell previous to the siege of Droghcda. 1653. The high court of justice is established, for the trial Of Papist rebels. 1663. Phoenix Park is commenced. 1665. The chief magistrate is tirst called lord mayor. 1670. The Blue-coat Hospital and Bloody-bridge are built 1676. Sir Humphrey .l.-rvis builds Essex Bridge. i6,S4, April 7. Great part of the castle is destroyed by fire. 1686. The lloyal Hospital at Kilmuinhum is completed roh 24- -lames II. enters Dublin. 1695. The Four Courts are built in Christchureh Lane. 1701, July i. The equestrian statue of William III. is in- augurated. 1704. The Foundling Hospital is commenced. 1*107. The Old Custom-house is founded in Essex Street. 1730. Steven's Hospital is founded. 1735. The market-house in Thomas Street is built. 1738, Aug. The infirmary is founded on the Inns' Quay. 1739. Parliament-house on College Green is begun. 1745. St. Patrick's Hospital is founded by Dean Swift. 1749, April 3. The lioyal Dublin Society is incorporated, and St. Patrick's steeple erected. '753i April. St. Nicholas' Hospital is opened. The re- building of Essex Bridge is commenced. 1757- St. Patrick's Hospital is opened. 1758. The new theatre in Crow Street is opened. 1704. (Queen's Bridge is founded. 1767, June 1 1. Magdalen House, Leeson Street, is opened. 1769, Aug. 3. The Koyal Exchange is founded. 1770. Meath Hospital is founded. 1773. The Foundling Hospital and workhouse are incorpo- rated. 1773. The new gaol is founded. An act for paving the streets is passed, and the penny post e.stal.iIMied. 1775. Four Courts Marshalsca are founded. 17-9. The Uoval Exchange is opened. 1781. Simpson's Hospital for the Blind is founded. The New Custom-house is founded. 1783, June 25. The Bank of Ireland is opened in St. Mary's Abbey. 1784, July 17. Assembly-rooms, Cavendish Row, are founded. 1785, The observatory is established. I h'oitr Court! founded, and police established. 1787. Soldiers 1 Infirmary, Plnenix Park, is founded, and new theatre of Trinity College opened. 1789, Jan. 15. Astley's Theatre Koyal, tor equestrian per- lonnanees. is opened. 1791. Apothecaries' Hah is established, and Carlisle and Sarah'.- Bridge* are founded. Nov. 7. Tlr Ciistom-ho.i.sr is opened. 1793, Feb. 37. The House of Commons is partly destroyed by tire. 1796, July 39. Commercial Buildings are founded. Oct. First meeting of the City Armed Association. Nov. 3. New Four Courts opened. 1798, May 19. Rebellion in Dublin, and arrest of Lord Edward Fii /.gerald. 1801, Jan. I. The united standard is unfurled from the castle towers, in consequence of the union with Great Britain. 1803, July 23. Emmet's insurrection breaks out in Thomas Street. 1804, May 14. The Fever Hospital is opened. 1806, Nov. 2*. Bedford Asylum is founded. 1808. The Parliament-house is converted into the Bank of Ireland. 1809. Richmond Institution for the Blind is founded. 1814, Dec. 16, &e. Riots at the Crow Street Theatre. 1815. The Molincux Blind Asylum is founded. 1817. The General Post-office is completed. 1819, April 1630. Riots at the theatre. 1831, Aug. 12. George IV. visits Dublin. The Theatre Koyal, Hawkins Street, and George's Dock, arc opened. 1823. Dec. 14. Riot at the theatre, on the occasion of the lord-lieutenant's visit. From the cirru, a bottle being thrown at the vice-regal box, it is called the liottle riot. 1824. Now Anatomy Buildings, and Koyal Hibernian Academy of Arts, are founded. 1825. Gas is introduced. 1827, Dec. 13. The King's Bridge is founded. 1829. Northumberland Buildings are erected. 1833. First appearance of the ehoiera. 1833, Aug. ic. Great fire at the Cust. .m K 1834, Dec. 17. The railroad to Kingston is opened. 1836, July 4. Dublin New Police Act (6 & 7 Will. IV. c. 39) is passed. 1837. The Mechanics' Institute is founded. (839, Jan. 6. Much injury is done by a hurricane. 1843, Oct. 14. O'Connell and others are arrested on charges of conspiracy and sedition.. DUBLIN [ 343 DUELLING 1844, Sep. 6. Great demonstrations of popular joy, in con- sequence of the liberation of O'Connell and his fellow-prisoners. 1848, May 15. Trial of Smith O'Brien. (See CLONMEL.) May 16. Trial of Meagher. May 2437. Trial of Mitchell, who is sentenced to 14 years' transporta- 1849, Aug. 6. Dublin is visited by Queen Victoria and the royal family. 1850, April 18. A hail-storm destroys property to the value of 37,000. 1852, Sep. The Exchange is inaugurated as the City -hall. 1853, May 13. The Dublin Exhibition is opt-ned by the lord- lieutenant. 1854, Aug. ic. An act (17 & 18 Viet. c. 99) is passed for the establishment of a National Gallery, Library, and Museum in Dublin. 1858, March 13. Serious fray between the students of Trinity College and the police, on the entry of the lord-lieutenant. 1861, April 6. Six persons are killed in an omnibus which falls into the canaL May 34. The Fine Art Exhi- bition is opened. Aug. 33. Queen Victoria and Prince Albert arrive. Aug. 36. The Queen and Prince leave for Kilkenny. 1864, Jan. 5. The statue of Oliver Goldsmith in Trinity College is inaugurated by Lord Carlisle. Jan. 13. Lord Carlisle opens an exhibition of works of art and industry of the officers and men of the Uth regiment. Jan. 38. Opening of the Irish National Gallery, and inauguration of the statue of William Dargau. Feb. 33. A riotous assembly takes place in the Kotunda, on the occasion of a meeting to testify " indignation and shame " at the proposed erection in Dublin of a national monument to the late Prince Consort March 39. Lord Carlisle lays the first stone of the Cannicbael School of Medi- cine. April 15. A national horse show is opened. Aug. 8. A statue of Daniel O'Connell is inaugu- rated. (See BELFAST.) 1865, Feb. 34. St. Patrick's Cathedral is reopened after its restoration by Mr. Guinness. May 8. The Inter- national Exhibition is opened by the Prince of Wales. Nov. 9. The Exhibition is formally closed. 1866, Feb. The Habeas Corpus Act is suspended. (See FENIANISM and IRELAND.) DUBLIN INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION. At a meeting of the Royal Dublin Society, held June 24, 1852, Mr. William Dargan offered to place the sum of 20,000 in the hands of a committee of 25 gentlemen, fur the construc- tion of a building in which an Irish industrial exhibition might be held. The offer was ac- cepted, and the committee held its first meet- ing July 5. The building, designed by Mr. John Benson, was sufficiently advanced to admit exhibitors to deposit their goods, March i, 1853 ; by which time Mr. Dargan's advances fell little short of ,80,000. The ceremony of opening the exhibition was performed by Earl St. Germains, the lord-lieutenant, May 12. It was visited by Queen Victoria and Prince Albert, Aug. 29, and after a most successful season was closed Nov. i. DUCAT. This gold coin is said to have been first struck in the 6th century by Longi- nus, Duke or duca of Ravenna. Others attri- bute its introduction to Roger II., Duke of Apulia, who coined a large number of ducats in 1140. Gibbon attributes the origin of the name to the dukes of Milan. The Venetians adopted them in 1280, and they subsequently became the favourite medium of the commer- cial republics of Italy. A silver coin, known as the dvicatoon, was extensively used in Spain and Holland. DUCKING STOOL. (See CUCKINO STOOL.) DUDLEY (Worcestershire). Dodo, a Saxon prince, erected a castle here about 760. It was demolished during the rebellion, and was ultimately destroyed by fire in 1750. DUDLEY'S CONSPIRACY. In Feb., 1556, Sir Henry Dudley, cousin to the Duke of Northumberland, entered into a conspiracy, with other young men, to dethrone Queen Mary and establish the Princess Elizabeth in her stead. The French agreed to furnish means, and it was proposed to rob the Treasury ; for which purpose five of the conspirators were selected. The plot was, however, be- trayed, and Throgmorton, and about 15 more, were arrested and committed to the Tower, March 18. Dudley succeeded in making his escape. Throgmorton was executed April 28 ; Captain Stanton, May 19 ; Derrick, June 2 ; and Sir Henry Peckham and John Daniel, D CELLING. No doubt this mode of settling disputes originated in the old system of assize of battle, the first instance in England resem- bling the modern duel being the encounter between William Count .d'Eu and Godfrey Baynard, in 1096. In 1361, a projected duel between Henry, Duke of Lancaster, and the Duke of Brunswick, was prevented by John, King of France ; and in 1398 Richard II. prohibited one arranged between the Dukes of Hereford and Norfolk. Hallam remarks that duelling in the modern sense of the term was unknown before the i6th century. In 1528 Francis I. challenged the Emperor Charles V. to a mortal encounter ; but, though accepted, the challenge led to no engagement. Charles IX. of France prohibited the practice in his dominions in 1566. The celebrated duel be- tween Jarnac and La Chataigneraie took place in the presence of Henry II. of France in 1547. Duelling with small-swords was first intro- duced into England in 1587. In 1597 duelling was allowed in England by Queen Elizabeth. Henry IV. of France, in 1602, published an edict by which all persons engaging in a duel, or acting as seconds, were guilty of high treason. The law was found to be too severe, and a milder edict was issued in 1609. Cromwell published an ordinance for its suppression in 1654, and Charles II. issued a proclamation de- nouncing death against any who should kill another in a duel in 1679. A severe edict against duelling was published in Bavaria, Nov. 9, 1773, which enacted that principals and seconds in a duel, even although 110 wounds were given, should suffer death, and be buried as criminals. A court of honour was established for its suppression in Prussia in 1786, by deciding questions which otherwise would have occasioned duels. An anti-duel- ling association was formed in England before May, 1843, and three new articles of war were issued in 1844 to abate the practice in the English army. The following are some of the most remarkable duels : A.D. 1713, Nov. 15. The Duke of Hamilton and Lord Mohun both fall in a duel fought with small swords. 1763, Oct. 5. Between John Wilkes and Lord Talbot, neither being injured. 1763, Nov. 16. Between John Wilkes and Samuel Martin, M.P., when the former was wounded by a pistol- shot. DUELLING t 344 1 DUELLING A.D. 1764, Feb. 8. Cornet Gardiner kills the Rev. Mr. Hill in Epping Kuivst. 1765, Jan. 36. Lord Byron kills Mr. Ohaworth, at the Star and Garter, in Pall-mall. 1769, Oct. Henry Flood shoots James Agar. 1770, March 17. George Garrick and Mr. Baddoley exchange shots in Hyde Park, without effect. 1771, Jan. 39. Lord Poulett wounds Lord Milton. 1773, Jan. 31. Two French ludiosof qualityfight a duel with knives, in order to settle a question of precedency. 1773, Feb. 3. Lord Townshend wounds the Earl of Bella- mont. 1777, Jan. 13. Capt. Stoney and the Rev. Mr. Bate wound each other at the Adelphi Tavern, Strand. Oct. A Frenchman of quality is severely wounded in a dud by his lover, wliom he had abandoned. The lady was the challenger. 1778, March 31. The Count of Artois is wounded by the Duke of Bourbon, at Paris. Nov. 33. Count Rico kills Vix'ount du Harry, at Bath. 1779, Nov. 30. Charles James Fox is wounded by Mr. Adams. 1780, March 22. Col. Fullerton wounds Lord Shelbnrne, in a duel fought on account of expressions used in a ' Parliamentary debate. 1783, Juno 18. The Rev. Bennet Allen mortally wounds Lloyd Dulany. July 6. He is tried, found guilty of manslaughter, and sentenced to pay a fine of l.v., and to he imprisoned for six months. 1783, April 31. Mr. Kidddl is killed by Mr. Cunningham, who is also wounded. Sep. 4. Vol. Cosmo Cordon kills Litiut.-Col. Thomas. Oct. 17. Mr. Crrriii.s killed by Mr. Munro. 1786, June 8. Lord Macartney is wounded by Major.-Gen. Stuart. 1787, Robert Keon kills Mr. Nugent while their seconds are making preliminary arrangements for a duel. Mr was tried Jan. 31, 17**, and executed Feb. 16. 1788, Dec. 31. C,,l. lioper is killed by Mr. Purefoy, who is tried and acquitted, \ug. 14, 1794. 1789, May 30. The Duke of Vork and Col. Lenox meet on Wimbledon Common, but neither is wounded. 1790, April i. Met ween Mr. Corran and Major Ilobart, neither of whom is wounded. April 14. Sir! ic. >v.re liam-ay is killed by Capt, Macrae. May 4. Mr. Power is killed by Capt. ( .rumbleton. Sep. 30. Mr. Anderson kills Mr. Stephens. 1791, July 19. Mr. Crabam is killed by Mr. Julius. 1793, March. A duel takes place between Messrs. John Keinble and Aikin, the actors, neither of whom is injured. June. Mr. Clark kills Mr. Fri/.ell in Hyde Park. June 9. The Karl of Lonsdale and Capt. Cuthbert have a meeting without dangerous re- sults. July 3. Lord Lauderdale and Cen. Aniold exchange shots without effect, 1794, June IK. Richard Kngland shoots Mr. Rowlls. Heis tried, and found guilty of manslaughter, Feb. 19, 1796. 1796, Jan. 13. Major Swcetman is killed by Capt. Watson. June 38. Mr. (iawler wounds Lord Yalcntia. Aug. 30. Mr. Carpenter is killed by John Pride. 1797, Aug. 5. ('apt. Smith kills Lieut. IJue'kley. at Jersey . 1798, May 37. A duel is foiiirht between Mr. Pitt and Mr. fierney, neither of whom is wounded. 1800. Mr. Crattan wounds Mr. Corry. -March 13. Mr. Coolaii kills Mr. Morean, at Dublin. May 10. Mr. Corn- kills Mr. \ewlmr-h. 1801, Aug. 36. Major Impcy is killed by Lieut. Willis, at Quebec. 1803, Jan. 10. Mr. Hamilton is shot, at New York, by Mr. C. .1. Kaker. June 15. Lieut. Rae kills Mr. Bremen, at the Cape of Good "Hope. 1803, March. Lieut. W and Capt. J exchange shots, with fata! effects to both. April 6. Capt. Maena- mara kills Col. Montgomery. He is tried April 2-', and is found not guilty, in spite of his own confes- sion. 1804, March 6. Capt. Best kills Lord Camelford. July. Gen. Hamilton is killed by Aaron Burr, Vice-pre- sident of the United States. 1806, Jan. I. Ensign Butler kills Ensign Brown. Jan. 4. Major Brook is killed by Col. Holton. March 2i. Lieut. Turrens is killed by Mr. Fisher. May 3. Messrs. Rogers and Long kill each other in a duel. Sep. 21. Mr. Richardson and Baron Hompesch have a meeting, and the- former is shot through the body. Oct. 13. Mr. Long is shot by Mr. Arm- strong, 1807, Mav 5. Sir Francis Burdett and Mr. Paull wound each other. June 8. Mr. Alcock kills Mr. Col- clough, and shortly afterwards becomes deranged. June 33. Major Campbell shoots Capt. Boyd. He is executed in Aug., 1808. 1808, May 3. M. de Granpree and M. le Pique fight in balloons, with blunderbusses. M. le Pique's bal- loon is pierced by his adversary's shots, and he and his second are dashed to pieces by its sudden . descent. 1809, May 30. Lord Paget and Capt. Cadogan meet, but without result. Sep. 33. Mr. Canning is wounded by Lord Ca.-tlereagh. 1810, Sep. 6. Mr. Payne is killed by Mr. Clark. 1811, March 4. Ensign de Button kills Capt. Boardman, at Barbadoes. 1812, Oct. 7. A duel between Lients. Stewart and Bagnall terminates fatally to the latter. 1813, July 13- Lieut. Blun.l.-ll is killed by Mr. Maguire. 1814, April 33. Lieut. Cecil kills Capt. Stackpole, at Port Royal, Jamaica. 1815, Feb. i. Mr. D'Esterre is killed by Mr. O'Connell. Dec. Major Hillas is shot by Mr. Fenton. 1816, Feb. 31. Mr. Dillon is shot by Mr. Kane.-Dec.2- Mr. Adolphus wounds Mr. Alley. 1817, March 8. Lieut, Conroy kills Lieut. Hindes. Dec. 12. Mr. Cochrune is killed by Major Loc.kyer. 1818, Jan. 13. Lieut, Bailey is shot by Mr. O'Callaghan. March I. Lieut. Cartwrijrht is killed by Lieut. Maxwell. April l. Lieut. Gordon is shot by a French officer at Cambrai. June 31. Eject Williams wounds Mr. Walcot. Sep. 13. Mr. Marsden is wounded by Mr. Hillson. Nov. I. Sir J. C. Kgertou wounds Lord Belgrave, at Chester. 1819, April i. Capt. Johnston wounds Mr. Browne, at Gib- raltar. May 34. Lieut. Osboni kills ('apt, Hussev, at the Cape of Good Hope. July 4. Capt. KirsoiT is wounded by Mr. Paytoii. Aug. I. Mr. I'mackc kills Mr. Bowie, at Halifax, \o\a Scotia. Oct. 6. Capt. I'ellew is killed by Lieut. Walsh. 1820, March 19. Lieut. Smith is wounded, at Gibraltar, by Lieut. Howling. June II. A duel between Lord Clare and Mr. Crattan terminates without injury. Aug. 13. Mr. Travers is killed by Mr. M-m-cr- ford. Aug. 20. Messrs. Stuart and Tmvnsend right with muskets, and both fall. Si;]). 17. Mr. Bur- rowes is killed by Mr. Fulliot, whose skull is frac- tured. Dec. 34. Mr. Brown* wounds Mr. Gre-ham, at Dublin. 1821, Feb. i(,. Mr. Scott is killed by Mr. Christie. April 10. M. Manuel is killed near Paris by M. Beaumont. April 31. Viscount Petersham and Mr. Weddei- bume meet without injury. May 32- Mr. Cuddie is killed by Mr. lirirtlebank. 1822, March 30. Sir Alexander Itoswell, son of the bio- grapher, is killed by Mr. Stuart. May 2. Tho Dukes of Buckingham and Bedford meet without result, 1833, Feb. 28. Gens. Pepeand Carascosa fight with swords, and the latter is wounded. 1834, Oct. 30. Capt. Gourlay is killed by Mr. Westall. 1836, July I. Messrs. Lambton and Beaumont meet with- out any casualties. Dec. 36. Mr. Brie is killed by Mr. Hayes. 1839, March 31. The Duke of Wellington and the Earl of Winchelsea exchange shots without effect. April I. Capt. Melsham kills Lieut. Crovvther. 1830. Jan. . Mr. Clayton is killed by Mr. Lambrecht. March 17. Mr. O'Crady is killed by Capt. Smith. Aug. A duel between Dr. Smith and Dr. Jeff- ries, at Philadelphia, terminates fatally for both parties. 183-; Mav 10. Sir J. .Teffcott kills Dr. Hennis. 1834, Jan. 30. Gen. Bugeaud kills M. Dulong, at Paris. I8 April 3v Mr. St. John kills Count Catrafhana. Nov. 19. Mr. Roebuck, M.P., and Mr. I'.laek. editor of the Morning Chroiiir/,; meet and exchange two shots, at Christchurch. Nov. 31. Col. Bellamy kills Capt. White, at Washington, and is desperately wounded himself. 1836 April 8. Gen. Evans is wounded by Capt. Dickson. Aug. 4. The Hon. Grantley Berkeley and Dr. Win. Maginn exchange three shots without 1838, April 27/Mr. Pigot is wounded by Mr. Carroll. June 16. M. Gerard de Me.ley wounds Lord Castlercagh. Aug. 23. Mr. Mirfin is shot by Mr. Eliot. DUISBURG [ 345 DUMFRIES 1839, Jan. 13. Lord Londonderry and Mr. Grattan exchange shots without effect. Feb. 28. Lord Povverscourt nnd Mr. Roebuck meet without serious results. Dec. 10. Lords George I.oftus and Hurley exchange shots without effect Dec. 20. Lord William I'aget and Mr. Fiske exchange shots. 1840, May 17. Messrs. Wynn and Brown fight in a stage- coach, between Perm and Chicago, and both are killed. g e p. 13. Lord Cardigan wounds Capt. Tuckett. He is brought to trial before the House of Lords, Feb. 16, 1841, and acquitted. 1843, July 15. The Hon. Craven Berkeley and Mr. Boldero exchange shots without effect. 1843, July I. Col. Fawcett is killed by Lieut. Munro. 1845, May 20. Mr. Seton is killed by Lieut. Hawkey. 1853, Oct. 19. M. Cournet is killed in a duel at Englefleld Green, near Windsor. DUISBURG (Prussia). The church, of St. John the Baptist in the ancient city was founded in 1187. In the i^ih century Duisburg was an important member of the Hanseatic League. St. Salvador's church was erected in 1415, the gymnasium was established in 1599, and the Protestant university, foxinded in 1655, was abolished in 1802. Duisburg, which had previously been a free city of the empire, was ceded to Prussia in 1815. DUKE, the highest title of nobility in England, is derived from the Latin dux, a leader. It is applied to the descendants of Edom, in Genesis xxxvi. 15 43 (B. c. 1575 1533), and was used as a title of honour by the Roman governors of provinces under the later emperors. It was introduced into England by Edward III., who created his son, the Black Prince, Duke of Cornwall, in 1337. The order had become extinct in 1572, and was revived by James I. The first Irish duke was Robert Vere, created Duke of Dublin in 1385. The title was introduced into Scotland by Robert III., who created his son David Duke of Rothe- say in 1399. The title of archduke is said to have been created by Rodolph I., Emperor of Germany, in favour of his son Albert, in 1284. The first grand-duke was Cosmo dc Medici, of Florence, who received the title from Pope Pius V. in 1569. DUKE OF YORK'S ISLAND (South Pacific Ocean) was discovered by Com. Byron, June 24, I7 DUKE OF YORK'S SCHOOL. (See ROYAL MILITARY ASYLUM.) DULCIMER appears to be a modification of the most primitive stringed instrument found among savage nations, which usually consisted of strings stretched over a hollow piece of wood or a calabash. It existed in Asia in very ancient times, and was used by the Assyrians, the Babylonians, and the Per- sians, who employed an instrument differing but little in form from that used in 1536, the earliest kind known in modern times. DULWICH COLLEGE (Surrey) was founded by Edward Alleyn, the actor, and designed by Inigo Jones. The chapel was finished in 1616, and the foundation opened Sep. 13, 1619. Its original name was God's Gift College, and its purpose the maintenance of a master, 4 fellows, 6 poor brethren, 6 sisters, 12 scholars, and 30 out-members. Alleyn was buried in the chapel Nov. 27, 1626. The east wing was finished in 1740. The girls' school was founded by James Allen, Aug. 31, 1741, and the pictiire-gallery was completed in 1813. The paintings were bequeathed by Sir Francis Bourgeois Dec. 20, 1810, and the gallery, some- times called from its founder the Bourgeois Gallery, was opened to the public in 1817. Owing to the increased value of land, the wealth of the college accumulated so fast, that provisions were made for extending its bene- factions by 20 & 21 Viet. c. 84 (Aug. 25, 18=57). DUMB. (See DEAF AND DUMB.) DUMBARTON (Scotland). The castle of Dumbarton, which is of very ancient date and supposed to be the Roman station Theodosia, resisted a siege by Agricola, and was taken by Eadbert, King of Northumbria, in 756. In 1221 the town was erected into a burgh by Alexander II., and in 1456 the Countess of Lennox founded a collegiate church, of which nothing but the rums remain. In 1563 Mary, Queen of Scots, visited the castle, and in May, 1571, it was taken, under circumstances of remarkable daring, by Capt. Crawford. Queen Victoria inspected this fortress Aug. 17, 1847. DUMBLANE, or DUNBLANE (Bishopric), was founded in 1153, and having been sup- pressed was restored in 1731. The cathedral was commenced in 1240. DUMBLANE, or DUNBLANE (Scotland). A battle (see SHERIFF-MUIR) was fought near this town between the forces of the Pretender, under the Earl of Mar, and those of George I., under the Duke of Argyle, Sunday, Nov. 13, 1715 (O. S.), in which both parties claimed the victory. DUM DUM (Hindostan). The mutiny of the native troops in India broke out at this military depot of Bengal, situated about mid- way between Calcutta and Barrackpore (q. v.). The Sepoys, alleging that the cartridges pro- vided for the Enfield rifles were greased with the fat of oxen and pigs, which they could not use without loss of caste, broke into open in- subordination in Feb., 1857. DUMFERMLINE, or DUNFERMLINE (Scotland). King Malcolm III. (Canmore) and his queen Margaret, who resided at this town in Fifeshire, founded, between 1070 and 1093, a Benedictine abbey, the nave of which was consecrated in 1150, and the choir built about 1250. Edward I. of England, who wintered here in 1303, partly destroyed the abbey church, Feb. 10, 1304, and it received further injuries from the Puritans, March 28, 1560. The Confession of Faith of 1581 was signed here by James VI., who erected the town into a royal burgh in 1588. His son Charles I. was bom here, Nov. 19, 1600, and Charles II. resided here in 1640. The Covenants of 1638, 1643, and 1650 were signed at this town (see COVE- NANTERS), which was plundered by Cromwell's troopers in 1651. The Guildhall was built in 1808. The skeleton of King Robert I. (Bruce) was disinterred in 1818, during the removal of a ruined portion of the old abbey preparatory to the erection of the new abbey church, which was completed in 1821. DUMFRIES (Scotland). This town was erected into a burgh in the reign of David I. (1124 1153). A monastery was founded about 1-200, in the chapel of which Robert Bruce DUX A [ 346 ] DUNKIRK stabbed Sir John Cornyn, Feb., 1306. Dura- fries was occupied and burned by the High- land army in 1745. Of the two bridges over the Nith, the oldest, to which a remote antiquity is sometimes erroneously ascribed, was built in the i/th century ; the other was erected in 1795. DUNA, or DWINA (Battle). Charles XII. of Sweden defeated the Saxons and Poles under Marshal Steinau, on the banks of this river, near lliga, July 20, 1701. D UNBAR (Scotland) was conferred upon the Earl of Northumberland in 1072 by Malcolm III. (Canrnore). John Warren, Earl of Surrey, defeated John Baliol, in a great battle fought here, April 29, 1296, which for the time decided the fate of Scotland as a conquest of Edward I. It was destroyed in 1333, rebuilt in 1336, and was successfully defended in 1338. In 1567 Queen Mary and Both well took refuge in the castle, which was demolished by order of Par- liament. Cromwell gained a victory over the Scottish army at the Race of Dunbar, near this place, Sep. 3, 1650, killing 4,000, and taking 10,000 prisoners. DUNDALK. , Ireland', seized by Edward Bruce in 1315, was the scene of his coronation as King of Ireland in 1317, and of his death in a battle fought with Lord Bermiiigham, Oct. 5, 1318. In 1641 it was taken by Sir Phelirn O'Neill, who destroyed its castle and fortifi- rati'.ns, and in 1642 it was stormed by Lord Moore and Sir Henry Tichbourne. It surren- dered to Cromwell in 1649, and was occupied by the forces of William III., June 27, i6yo. (tii-i: ('A. MBHIC.) DUNDEE (Scotland). Malcolm III., who reigned from 1057 to 1093, built a palace here, in which he sometimes resided. It was made a myal burgh in 1210, and placed under the government of a constable in 1298. Edward I. was at Dundee in 1296 and 1303, and Edward Bruce took it in 1313. It was sacked by the Duke of Lancaster in 1385. In 1544 the plague committed great ravages among its population, and in 1641 Charles I. conferred upon it the present charter. In 1645 it was besieged and taken by the Earl of Montrose. Charles II. resided here in 1651, after his coronation at Scone, and it was sacked by Monk, who massacred about 1,300 of its inhabitants. Queen Victoria landed at Dundee in Sep., 1844, in commemoration of which a magnificent triumphal arch has been erected. Nineteen persons were killed by a boiler explosion at one of the linen-factories, April 15, 1859. The People's Park, the gift of Sir D. Baxter, was opened f-Jep. 9, 1863. An accident, from over- crowding at the doors of an evening entertain- ment, which caused the death of nine young women and ten youths, and serious injury to many more, occurred here Jan. 2, 1865. DUNEDIN (New Zealand), the chief town of Otago (q. v.}, founded in 1848, was erected into a bishopric in 1865. An Industrial Exhi- bition was held from Jan. 12 to May 6, 1865. DUNES (Battle), fought on the dunes or sands, whence the name, near Dunkirk, during the siege of that town by the combined armies of France and England, June 4 (14 N. S.), 1658. The Spaniards, who had advanced to the relief of Dunkirk, were totally defeated by the allied troops, led by Turenne, and Dunkirk capitu- lated June 23. DUNGAN-HILL (Battle), fought at this place, in Ireland, between the Parliamentary army, under Col. Michael Jones, and the Irish, under Gen. Preston, Aug. 8, 1647. The num- bers were nearly equal, and Jones gained a complete victory. DUNGANNON (Ireland). A Franciscan monastery was erected at this town of Tyrone, during the reign of Henry VII. (1485 1509). The castle, which till 1607 was the chief seat of the O'Neils, was destroyed by the Parliamen- tary army in 1641. DUNGENESS (Kent). A French fleet of 14 ships of the line anchored off this point Jan. 22, 1744, but sailed away on the approach of the English squadron commanded by Sir John Norris, and was subsequently scattered by a storm. Towards the end of the last century a lighthouse was erected on this cape, after the model of the Eddystoiie, and in 1807 a series of martello towers was commenced, to defend the coast between Dungeness and Folkestone. DUNKELD (Bishopric), erected in 1127, was, with the rest of the Scotch sees, suppressed at the Revolution in 1688. It was restored in 1727, received Dumblane in 1776, and was removed to St. Andrews in 1844. The choir of the cathedral was erected between 1318 and 1337, the nave between 1406 and 1464, and the tower and chapter-house between 1470 and 1477. Dl, N K ELD (Scotland). The Culdees had a monastery at this place, in Perthshire, as early as 729, which was erected into a cathedral by David I. in 1127. Kenneth II. removed the remains of St. Columba to Duiikeld in 850. James VI. founded the grammar-school in 1567, and the bridge over the Tay was built in 1809. DUNKERS, or GERMAN BAPTISTS. Th is religious sect was founded in Germany by Alexander Mack about 1708. In 1723 they were driven by persecution to America, where they established themselves at Germantown, and founded a church. They are for the most part vegetarians, and insist upon the necessity for good works, and the separation of the sexes. The origin of the name Duiikers is un- known. DUNKIRK, or DUNKERQUE (France), was founded by Baldwin III., Count of Flanders, about 960. It afterwards passed into the possession of the counts of Ilainault, who sold it to its former lords in 1280. In 1388 it was burned by the English, and in 1435 was transferred to the house of Luxemburg, whose right passed by marriage to the Bourbons in 1487. Early in the i6th century it was sei/.ul by the Spaniards, who retained it till July, I 55^> when it was retaken by the French. The Duke of Parma re-annexed it to the Spanish empire in 1585. In 1646 it was taken by the grout Conde, and in 1652 was again seized by the Spaniards. Marshal Turenne retook it June 23, 1658, after the battle of Dunes (q. r.\ fought June 14, and gave it to the English, who had assisted him in its capture. Charles II. DUNMOW [ 347 DURHAM sold it to France for ,500,000, Oct. 17, 1662. Louis XIV. increased its fortifications, which were sufficiently strong to resist a bombard- ment by the united fleets of Great Britain and Holland, July 26, 1694. By the treaty of Utrecht, April n, 1713, it was agreed that all the military defences should be destroyed ; but these conditions were evaded, and the restriction was consequently renewed by the treaty of Paris, Feb. 10, 1763. The enforcement of the order was, however, found impracticable. It was repealed by the treaty of Versailles, Sep. 3, 1783, and the works have since been much increased. The Duke of York was defeated in an attempt to take Dunkirk, Sep. 7, 1793. The fortifications were enlarged, and Dunkirk was made a free port in 1816. DUNMOW (Essex). The priory was founded in 1104, by Juga Baynard. The manor is held by a curious tenure. The prior and canons were obliged to give a flitch of bacon to any couple who could swear, a year and a day after their wedding, that they had never quarrelled; or wished themselves unmarried again. It is unknown who originated this tenure, but probably it was one of the Fitz- Walters, the first of whom died in 1198. The flitch was claimed and awarded in 1445, 1467, 1510, 1701, 1751, Thursday, July 19, 1855, and in 1860. In 1855 the ceremony was performed at Great Dunmow Town Hall, as the lord of the manor refused to revive the custom. The happy candidates were Mr. and Mrs. Barlow, and the Chevalier de Chatelam and his lady. A similar custom prevailed in the manor of Wichnor, Stafford, where corn was given in addition to the flitch of bacon. DUNSE (Pacification). By this treaty, signed at Dunse, in Berwickshire, June 18, 1639, Charles I. granted all the demands of his Scotch subjects, consenting to withdraw his fleet and army, and to summon a general assembly and parliament to discuss the bases of reconciliation. The Scotch also agreed to disband their army. DUNSINANE (Battle). The army of the usurper Macbeth was defeated at Dunsinane, in Perthshire, July 27, 1054, by Malcolm, the eldest son of the murdered Duncan, assisted by an English force under Siward, Earl of Northumberland. Macbeth escaped to Lan- phananan, where he was slain in 1056. DUNSTABLE (Bedfordshire) was founded by Henry L, and granted to a priory of Black canons in 1131. The corpse of Queen Eleanor rested here on its way from Lincolnshire to London in 1290. The cross erected to com- memorate the event was pulled down during the Interregnum. Cranmer opened a court here to consider the validity of Henry VIII.'s marriage with Catherine, May 10, 1533, and pronounced a divorce May 23. The free'school was founded in 1727. A large quantity of Roman copper coins of the reigns of Antoninus and Constantine was discovered here in 1770. DUNWICH. The seat of the bishopric of East Anglia, founded in 630, was fixed at Domnoc, or Dunwich. It was removed to Thetford in 1078. (See NORWICH.) DtiPPEL, DUPPELN, or DYBBOL (Battles). This village of Sleswig, separated from the island of Alsen (q. v.) by a narrow sound, has been the scene of several conflicts in the struggles for the settlement of the Sleswig- Holstem question. Here the Danes defeated the Prussians, May 28, 1848, and compelled them to retreat to GraVenstein. A second engagement took place June 5, 1848, when the Danes were driven from their position, which, however, they regained June 6. It was carried by an assault of the Saxons and Bavarians, April 13, 1849. The bulk of the Danish army having taken up its position at Diippel, Feb. 6, 1864, the village was besieged by the Prussians, who commenced a bombard- ment, March 15, which terminated in the defeat of the Danes, April 18. DUPPLIN-MOOR (Battle). The English forces under Edward Baliol defeated the Scotch under the Earl of Mar, on this moor, in Perth- shire, Aug. ii, 1332. The loss of the Scotch amounted to 13,000 men, while the English only lost two knights, 33 squires, with a few common soldiers. DU QUESNE FORT. (See PITTSBURG.) DURANGO, GUADIANA, or CIUDAD DE VICTORIA (Mexico). This city was founded by yelasco in 1559, and erected into a bishop's see in 1620. DURAZZO, DYRRACHIUM, or EPIDAM- NUS (Albania). -This city, when founded by the Corcyrseans, B.C. 627, was called Epidam- nus. It was seized by Glaucus, King of Illyria, B.C. 312. Pompey compelled Julius Caesar to raise the siege, B.C. 48. It was taken by the Normans, under Robert Guiscard, Feb. 8, 1082 ; and in 1216 withstood a siege by the Venetians, who effected its capture in 1386. The Sultan, Bajazet II., took it in 1500, and annexed it to the Ottoman empire. DURBAR. This name, given in India to the apartment in which great potentates admit their vassals to audience, has been applied in consequence to such audiences themselves. The Tongso Penlow having insulted the Hon. Ashley Eden in open durbar, March 29, 1864, war was declared against Bhotan (q.v.). Sir John Lawrence, Viceroy of India, held a durbar at Lahore, Oct. 18, 1864. The custom of requiring Europeans to remove their shoes on entering native durbars, was ordered to be henceforth discontinued in Rajpootana at the request of Gen. G. St. P. Lawrence, to whom the chiefs desired to show a token of respect, Oct. 21, 1864. DUREN, or MARK-DUREN (Prussia). Several cohorts of the Ubii were defeated at this place, the ancient Marcodurum, by the Batavian chief Civilis, A.D. 70; and Charle- magne held diets here in 775 and 779, previous to his conflict with the Saxons. In 1543 it was besieged and taken by Charles V., and in 1642 was restored to Prussia by Duke Fred- erick William, who again surrendered it to the Imperialists the same year. The French seized it in 1794, and erected it into the capital of the department of Roer; but it was finally re- stored to Prussia in 1814. DURHAM was fotuided by the monks of Lindisfarne, or Holy Island, in 995. In 1040, Duncan, King of Scotland, made an ineffectual attempt to capture it ; and in 1069 the inhabi- DURHAM [ 348 ] DUTCH tants were so oppressed by Robert Comyn, Earl of Northumberland and governor of the city, that they rose in rebellion and slew him, with 700 of his followers, Jan. 28. It was to avenge this atrocity that William I. devas- tated the northern counties in the latter part of the same year. The castle was founded in 1072 ; and a riot, in which Bishop Walcher was killed, took place May 14, 1080. In 1323 the walls were restored by Bishop Beaumont, and in 1424 the city was the scene of the marriage of James I., of Scotland, with Lady Jane Seymour. The plague raged with great fury in 1416, 1589, and 1597. In 1633 it was the residence of Charles I., and in 1640 was taken by the Scotch. It sent two members to the House of Commons in 1675. The infirmary was founded in 1791, and the county gaol and court-house erected in 1809. The palatine ju- risdiction of the county was transferred from the see to the crown, by 6 Will. IV. c. 19 (June 21, 1836). The church of Sherburn Hospital, supposed to have been erected about 1184, was entirely destroyed by fire Dec. 4. 1864. DURHAM (Bishopric). In 634, Aidan came from Scotland to Northumberland at the so- licitation of King Oswald, who established him as bishop in Lindisfarnc, or Holy Island, in 635. In 664 the see was merged in the diocese of York, but in 678 was again se- parated. In 875 the see was removed to Chester-le-Street, and in 995 was transferred to Durham. The cathedral, commenced in 1093, was not finished till 1500. The see was suppressed by 7 Edw. VI. c. 17 (1553), which provided that two sees were to be established at Durham and Newcastle, and all the tem- poralities were granted to the Duke of Nor- thumberland. The deanery and 12 prebends had been appointed by charter, dated May 1-2, 1541, which was confirmed by i Mary, s. 3, c - 3 ( I 554 '' re-establishing the see. DURHAM LETTER. The Pope having pub- lished a bull establishing a Roman Catholic hierarchy in England and Wales, Sep. 30, 1850, Lord John Russell, who was then premier, ad- dressed a letter on the subject to the Bishop of Durham. In this letter, which dated Nov. 4, lie not only expressed the strongest iiidignat i< m at the attempted aggression, but condemned as " unworthy sons of the Church of England" all clergymen who approved of "the honour paid to saints, the claim of infallibility for the Church, the superstitious use of the sign of the cross, the muttering of the Liturgy so as to disguise the language in which it is written, the recommendation of auricular confession, and the administration of penance and abso- lution." DURHAM, or NEVILLE'S CROSS (Battle). Philippa, Queen of Edward III., totally de- feated the Scottish army under David II., and took the king prisoner, at Neville's Cross, near Durham, Oct. 12, 1346. The loss of the Scotch in this battle was estimated at 15,000. DURHAM UNIVERSITY. A college founded here in 1290 was suppressed by Henry VIII. Oliver Cromwell signed a writ of privy seal for establishing a university at Durham, May 15, 1657, which was suppressed at the Restoration. The present university was founded, with the consent of the bishop, by an act of chapter, Sep. 28, 1831, and Parlia- ment sanctioned the proposal by a private act (2 ., levied on all imported earthenware, by the "Additional Book of Rates" attached to ii Geo. I. c. 7 (1724), was repealed by 15 Gco. III. c. 37 (1775). A duty of 50 per cent, on the value of imported earthenware was levied by 49 Geo. III. c. 98 (June 10, 1809). All duties on imported earthenware were abolished by the Customs Amendment Act, 23 Viet, c. 22, s. 5 (May 15, 1860). EARTH-HOUSES. (See PICTS' HOUSES.) EARTHQUAKE. No satisfactory account of the causes which produce this phenomenon has yet been given to the world. Humboldt remarks: " The phenomena of volcanoes, and those of earthquakes, have been considered of late as the effects of voltaic electricity, de- veloped by a particular disposition of hete- rogeneous strata. It cannot be denied, that often, when violent shocks succeed each other within the space of a few hours, the electricity of the air sensibly increases at the instant the ground is most agitated ; but to explain this phenomenon, it is unnecessary to recur to an hypothesis, which is in direct contradiction to everything hitherto observed respecting the structure of our planet, and the disposition of its strata." EARTHQUAKE EARTHQUAKE 1491. An earthquake, accompanied by thunder and light- ning, occurred on Mount Sinai, on the occasion of the delivery of the law. (Exod. six. 18.) 1450. An earthquake in Central Italy, which swallowed up a city, and produced Lake Ciminus in its place. 595. An earthquake in China. 464. An earthquake in Sparta. 435. In Greece, especially in Euboea, which is converted into an island by an inundation of the sea. 313. In the Peloponnesus. (See HELICE.) 364. A chasm opens in the Roman forum, into which Quintus Curtius voluntarily leaps. It afterwards forms a lake. 385. A lake, ",2,1 miles long by 13} wide, formed in one night in the Japanese i hind Xiphon. 383. (circ.) The city Lysimachia. is destroyed. 334. The Colossus of Rhodes overthrown. Eusebius places this catastrophe B.C. 105. 33. In Palestine, in which 30,000 persons perish. .D. 17. Thirteen cities of Asia Minor are overthrown. 33. In Palestine and Bitliynia, on the occasion of the Crucifixion, the city of Nicsca was destroyed. 79. In Misenum and its neighbourhood, followed next day by the destruction of Ilerculaneum and Pompeii. 115. Antiorh is destroyed, and a violent earthquake is felt in China. 137. Severe shocks are felt in Nicopolis, Neocassarea, Hierapolis, Laodicea, Nicpmedia, and Syracuse. 363. An earthquake in Rome, Libya, and Asia Minor is attended by an eclipse and inundations of the sea. 358, Aug. 34. One in Asia Minor, Bithynia, and Macedo- nia, the effects of which are experienced by 150 cities. 359, Nov. or Dec. Nicomedia, in Bithynia, is destroyed. 365, July 31. An earthquake is felt iii the Roman world. 446. One is felt throughout the civilized world. 494. Laodicea, Hierapolis, and Tripoli are nearly de- stroyed. 536, Nov. 39. Antioch is again reduced to ruins. 543, Sep. 6. One is felt throughout the then known world. 551, July 9. Beyrout is destroyed. 553 or 555, Aug. 15. An earthquake at Constantinople and many other places, shocks being felt even in Egypt. 557, Oct. 6 and Dec. 14. At Constantinople, where thou- sands of the population perish. 684. More than 500,000 acres of land in the Japanese island Sikokf arc swallowed up by the sea. 743. One of great violence in Egypt and Arabia, Its con- vulsions were observed at 600 places. 7*78. At Trevisa, in Italy, where 48 persons lost their lives. 794. One at Alexandria, which overthrows the Pharos. 801, April. In France, Gennany, and Italy. 859. Upwards of 1,500 houses are overturned at Antioch. Laodicea and other towns of Syria also suffer con- siderable injury. 893. An earthquake in India destroys 180,000 lives. 986, Oct. One at Constantinople. It is also felt through- out Greece. 1007. Deinar, in Irak is overturned, and 10,000 persons are buried in the ruins. 1039. Half of Damascus is destroyed. 1040. Tabriz, in Persia, is reduced to ruins, and 50,000 of the inhabitants are destroyed. 1048, May i. One is felt at Worcester, Derby, and other parts of England. 1089, Aug. n. An earthquake is felt throughout England. 1115, Dec. Antioch, Aleppo, Jerusalem, and other towns in Syria are greatly injured. 1139. Gaiisana, in Persia, is destroyed, and 100,000 persons are buried in its ruins. 1143, Dec. One is felt at Lincoln. 1158. Antioch, Tripoli, Damascus, Aleppo, and other Syrian towns, are reduced to ruins, and 30,000 lives lost. 1169, Feb. 4. Catania (q. v.) and other towns of Sicily and Calabria are ruined, and 15,000 persons killed. 1186, Sep. Throughout Europe, but especially in England, Calabria, and Sicily. 1318. In Tranche Comte a mountain opens, and engulfs 5,000 men. A.D. 1337. In France, towards the mouth of the Rhone, 5,000 persons perish from the fall of rocks from the mountains. 1368. Sixty thousand persons are killed by an earthquake in Cilicia. 1374, Dec 35. An earthquake is felt throughout Eng- land. 1318, Nov. 14. One of the most violent ever experienced in England. 1353, Jan- i- One occurs at Borgo-San-Sepolcro in Italy. 3,ooo people perish. 1456, Dec. 5. Throughout Naples, where many towns are injured, and 60,000 lives lost. 1491, Oct. In the Archipelago. 5,000 persons perish in Cos. 1509, Sep. 14. At Constantinople 1,700 houses are over- thrown, and some thousands of lives lost. 1531, Jan. 36. One in Spain, Portugal, &c. In Lisbon 1,500 houses and all the churches were thrown down, and many persons buried in the ruins. 1563. Cattaro suffers from an earthquake. 1580, April 6. In France, Belgium, and especially England. It was most violent at London and Dover. The bells at Westminster and other places were made to sound by the violence of the shock. 1596, July 23. In Japan, where many cities were reduced to ruins. 1603. In Jamaica. (See POET ROYAL.) 1634 or 1638. An island of more than a league and a half long is raised near St. Michael, in the Azores. 1636, July 30. Thirty towns and villages are destroyed in the provinces of Capitanata and La Puglia, Naples also suffers, and 17,000 persons are killed. 1638, March 37. One hundred and eighty towns and villages of Calabria and Sicily are reduced to ruins. 1645. An earthquake takes place at Manilla (q. v.). 1667. Schamaki is reduced to ruins, and 80,000 persons are buried. 1669, March 8. Catania suffers from an earthquake. 1690, Oct. 17. At Dublin and Kilkenny in Ireland. 1693, June 7. At Port Royal, Jamaica, three-fourths of the houses are overwhelmed by the sea, and 3,000 of the inhabitants lose then- lives. 1693. In Sicily and Calabria, where 49 towns, many villages, and 973 churches or monasteries arc re- duced to ruins, and 93,000 lives lost. 1694. Catania again suffers from an earthquake. 1703, Feb. 3. Aquilea is overthrown, and 5,000 lives lost. Jeddo, in Japan, is reduced to ruins, and 300,000 of the inhabitants are buried. 1706, Nov. 3. In Abruzzo, where 15.000 persons perish. 1716, May and June. An earthquake destroys 30,000 lives at Algiers. 1736, Sep. i. At Palermo, 4 churches, 10 palaces, and 1,600 houses are overthrown, and from 3,000 to 6,000 lives lost. 1737. Tabriz, in Persia, is ruined, and 77,000 persons are overwhelmed. 1731, Nov. 30. In China. The first shock buries 100,000 persons in Pekin. 1733, Nov. 39. Shocks in the kingdom of Naples, 1,940 persons are killed, and 1,455 wounded. 1746, Oct. 38. In Peru, where Callao, Cavallos, and other towns are overwhelmed by the sea. 1750, Feb. 19. In London and the country for seven miles round. Several earthquakes occur in London June 7. Two thousand persons perish in the island of Cerigo. 1753, July 39. At Hadrianople and Constantinople, where mosques and houses are injured. 1754, Cairo is nearly destroyed, and 40,000 lives are lost. 1755, April 38. Quito is overthrown. June 7. Kaschan, in northern Persia, is reduced to rutns, and 40,000 persons killed. Nov. i. The great earthquake of Lisbon, which was felt from Iceland on the north to Morocco on the south, and from Bohemia on the east to the West India islands on the west. It took place at 9.40 A.M., and lasted several minutes, there being three principal shocks. In Lisbon, 13,000 houses were overturned. The loss of life is variously estimated at from 30,000 to 50,000 per- sons. Faro, Setubal, and Cascaez also sustained much injury. Seville, St. Lucar, Xeres, Couil, Coimbra, and Cadiz suffered most Nov. 19. Mequinez, in Morocco, is completely ruined, and 35,000 Arabs lose their lives. EARTHQUAKE [ 352 ] EAST 1759, Oct. 30. In Syria, where 30,000 persons perish in the valley of Baalbec alone. 1761. An earthquake at Cartagena. 1763. An earthquake occurs at Manilla, 1763, July 29. At Comorn, in Hungary, 1,500 houses are overturned. 1767, Aug. One thousand six hundred persons perish at Martinico. 1773, June 7. The city of Santiago, in Guatemala, is buried: 5,000 or 8,000 families perish in the 1778, July 3. An earthquake nearly destroys Smyrna. 1780, Feb. Tabriz, in Persia, sustains severe injuries. 1783. Feb. 5. Great devastation in Calabria ittended with great loss of life. id Sicily, 1784, July 23. The city of Arsingham, in the pashalic of Erzeroum, is overthrown, and upwards of 5,000 lives are lost. 1788, Aug. 12. At St. Lucia, in the West Indies, where 900 persons perish. 1789, Sep. 30. In Tuscany. Houses, men, and cattle are engulfed at Borgo-San-Sepolcro. 1793, April i. In Japan, near the volcano Illigigama, which throws forth ton-cuts of water, destroying 53,000 persons. 1794, June 12. Throughout Campania, but especially in the neighbourhood of Vesuvius, which bursts forth into active eruption. June 17. It overwhelms the city of Terra del Grecco. 1796, Feb. 26. In Asia Minor, where 1,500 persons perish. 1797, Feb. 4. Quito, in Peru, is overthrown, burying 40,000 persons in its ruins. Dec. 14. Cumaua is de- stroyed. 1800, Sep. 26. One occurs at Constantinople. 1802, Oct. 26. A very widely-extended earthquake is felt at Cronstai.lt. St.. Petersburg, Bucharest, Constan- tinople, &c. The shocks are most violent in the Danubian principalities. 1804, Jan. At Kottcrdam, Haarlem, and other Dutch towns. 1805, Friday, July 26. A most destructive earthquake throughout Calabria and the Terra-di-Lavoro. Six towns and villages destroyed and 20,000 per- sons killed. 1808. April 2- Very violent shocks in Piedmont and the valley of the Rhone. 1810, Aug. ii. The village of Las Casas, in the island of St. Michael, one of the Azores, disappears, and is supplied by a lake of boiling sulphurous water. 1812, March 26. Caraccas is totally destroyed by an earth- quake. 1817, April. Chang-Kuh, in China, is overthrown, and 2,8oo persons buried in its ruins. 1818, March. Philippolis, in Turkey, a city of 30,000 in- habitants, is said to be entirely engulfed in the earth. 1819, June 16. Severe shocks are experienced in the north of Hindustan. Bhooj, the capital of Cutch, is re- duced to ruins, with the loss of 2,000 of its inhabi- tants. Vostitza, the ancient ^Egium (q. .), is de- stroyed by an earthquake. 1822, May 7. The town of Carthago, in Costa-Rica, Central America, is quite overthrown. Aug. ic, 13, and Sep. 5. Aleppo (q. t>.) is destroyed, and other towns injured, with the loss of 20,000 of their inhabi- tants. Nov. 19. The coast of Chili, for more than 100 miles, is permanently elevated by an earth- quake. 1824. An earthquake occurs at Manilla. 1825, March 2. Algiers and Blida (an adjacent town) are severely injured: 7,ooo persons perish. 1827, Sep. Fort Kolitaran, near Lahore, Hindostan, de- stroyed, with about 1,000 persons. Nov. 16. Very destructive shocks in Columbia, S. America. 1828, March 30. In Peru. Scarcely a house in Lima and Callao escapes injury. 1839, March 31. A very disastrous earthquake occurs in the province of Murcia, Spain, and is at- tended with fearful destruction of property and life. 1830, May 26 and 27. The city of Canton sustains severe shocks, which destroy between 6,000 and 7,000 of its population. 1835, Feb. 20. Concepcion, Santiago, and other towns of Chili arc reduced to ruins. Oct. 12. Castiglione, in Calabria, is utterly destroyed, and loo of its inha- bitants are buried. A.D. 1837, Jan. I. An earthquake in Syria utterly ruins the town of Saphit, and destroys 3,500 of its inhabitants, besides overwhelming entire villages. 1839, Jan. n. Violent shocks are felt in the island of Mar- tiuico. 1840, Feb. 14. A destructive earthquake occurs in the island of Ternate. June 20 July 28 (O.S.). The district of Mount Ararat, in Armenia, is de- vastated by violent earthquakes, attended with great destruction of houses and life. Oct. 30. Violent shocks in Zante, where one village is com- pletely overturned. 1843, May 7. Hayti and Cape Haytien are severely injured by two violent shocks. 1843, Feb. 8. Very violent shocks occur in the West Indies. In Antigua alone, property to the amount of ,100,000 is destroyed. The loss of life is incon- siderable. 1845, Feb. 8. Severe shocks in Java, April 7. The city of Mexico is much injured by some violent shocks. 1846, March 14. The most violent earthquake ever recorded in Norway. 1847, Oct. _23- The city of Atlixco, in Mexico, is completely ruined, with the destruction of many of its inhabi- tants. 1851, Feb. 28. The islands of Rhodes and Maori are shaken. At the latter place, the Baba-Dagh mountain falls from a height of 2,050 feet, and the village of Ghedrack-BuL:a.-i disappears, with all its inhabi- tants. April 2- Valparaiso and other towns in Chili experience severe shocks. Aug. 14. The towns of Melfi and Barile, in South Italy, are totally de- stroyed, with 1,000 of their inhabitants. 1853, July 15. The city of Cumana, in Venezuela, is de- stroyed, with 800 of its inhabitants. Aug. 18. Numerous shocks occur in Greece, but more espe- cially at Thebes, which suffers almost total de- struction. 1854, April 6. San Salvador, in Central America, is over- whelmed, with a fourth of its inhabitants. 1855, Feb. 28. Broussa, the ancient capital of Asia Minor, is nearly destroyed. July 25 and 26. Some shocks are felt throughout Central Europe. Dec. 23- Jeddo is injured, and some towns in Niphou are destroyed by an earthquake. 1856, March 17. Great Sanghir, one of the Moluccas, is visited by a severe earthquake, which destroys 3,806 of its inhabitants. Oct. 13. The Mediterra- nean, especially Candia, is severely visited. In Candia alone, 4,000 houses and 1,600 people are destroyed. 1857, Dec. 16. A very destructive earthquake in Calabria destroys many towns, and causes the death of 10,000 persons. 1858, Feb. 31. Corinth is destroyed by an earthquake. 1859, March 22- Quito is reduced to ruins. 1861, March 20. The city of Mendoza (q. ;.), in South America, is destroyed. 1863, April 22. A very destructive earthquake occurs in Rhodes. (See RHODES.) July 2. Manilla is severely injured by an earthquake. (See MANILLA.) Oct. 6. A shock is distinctly felt between three and four o'clock in the morning through the south-western portions of England. 1864, Oct. 3. A severe shock is felt in Mexico. 1865, July 1 8 and 19. Several villages are overthrown in Catania, 1866, March. An earthquake overthrows 300 houses at Avlona, in Koumelia. EAST ANGLES. This Anglo-Saxon king- dom, which comprised Norfolk, Suffolk, and Cambridgeshire, was founded by Uffa about 527, and became extinct at the death of Ed- mund the Martyr in 870. EAST ANGLES (Bishopric). In 628 its king Eorpwald was converted to Christianity, and in 630 it was erected into a bishopric under Felix. In 673 the see was divided into Dun- wich and Elmham, which were reunited in 955, and in 1078 the see was removed to Thet- ford, whence it was transferred to Norwich in 1092. EAST [ 353 EASTERN EAST COWES (Isle of Wight). This town, separated from West Cowes (q.v.) by the es- tuary of the Medina, owes its origin to a fort or block -house erected by Henry VIII. (1509- 1547). The chapel-of-ease to Whippingham church, founded here by the Princess (after- wards Queen) Victoria, in 1831, was consecrated in 1833. EASTER, the festival in commemoration of the Resurrection, is so called from Eastre, or Eostre, a Saxon goddess, whose feast was anciently celebrated in the month of April. Some ascribe its institution to the Apostles, but the more general opinion is, that it was first observed by their immediate successors, about 68. The Council of Aries, in 314, de- creed that the day for keeping this festival should be the Sunday after the i4th day of the March moon, and the Covmcil of Nicsea, in 325, confirmed this decision. The Roman method was not established in France till 525, and in Britain and Ireland till about 800. By the alteration of the calendar by Gregory XIII. in 1582, the first Sunday after the full moon immediately following the 2ist of March was fixed as the day for observing this festival. Offerings, oblations, &c., were collected at Christmas, Easter, Whitsuntide, and other particular occasions, before the reign of Edward VI. By 2 and 3 Edw. VI. c. 13 (1548), it was enacted that such offerings should thenceforth be collected at Easter. EASTER ISLAND, or DAVIS'S LAND (Pacific Ocean), was discovered by Davis in 1686. It was visited and named by Rogge- wein, who thought it was a new discovery, April 6, 1722, and visited by Capt. Cook, March n, 1774. EASTERN BATHS. (See TURKISH BATHS.) EASTERN (called also the BYZANTINE and GREEK) EMPIRE. Valentinian I. first divided the Roman empire in June, 364, when Valens became Emperor of the East. The final separation took place in 395. Gibbon (ch. xxxii.) remarks, "The division of the Roman world between the sons of Theodo- sius marks the final establishment of the empire of the East, which, from the reign of Arcadius to the taking of Constantinople by the Turks, subsisted one thousand and fifty- eight years in a state of premature and per- petual decay." 364. The Eastern empire commences, under Valens. 388. Theodosius I. defeats Maximus, the tyrant of the West, who is beheaded by the army. 304. Theodosius I. defeats the Gauls and Germans under Eugenius, who is slain. 395. It is separated from the West, under Arcadius, who governs under the guardianship of Kuf us. 408. Persecution of the Pagans. 423. The two divisions of the empire are reunited. 435. The Eastern and Western empires are again sepa- rated. Schools of law are opened at Constanti- nople. 438. The Theodosian code (q. v.) is published. 474. Leo II., an infant, and Zeno are joint emperors. Loo II. dies, it is supposed, by poison. 478. Theodoric, son of Triarins, invades the empire. 514. The Gothic general Vitalian lays siege to Constanti- nople. 539. The Justinian code (q. r.) is published. 541. Justinian I. abolishes the consulship. 545. The Turks enter Asia. 551. The Slavonians ravage Illyria, and penetrate almos as far as Constantinople. 553. The seriate is abolished by Justinian I. 61 1. Chosroes II. of Persia conquers Syria. 617. lleraclius abjures Christianity, and embraces Pagan- ism, in order to conciliate Chosroes II. 636. The Avars besiege Constantinople, and the Persians reach the Bosphorus. 637. Heraclius defeats Chosroes II., and recovers all his lost territories. 633. The Saracens invade the empire. 644. Rebellion and death of Valentinian. 668675. The Saracens besiege Constantinople. 678. The Bulgarians obtain the country now called Bul- garia. 693. Armenia is separated from the empire. 695705. Justinian II. is exiled, and the empire is ruled by Leontius and Tiberius Apsimar in succession. 711. The Bulgarians ravage the empire as far as Constan- tinople. 716. Constantinople is besieged by the Saracens. 717. The Emperor Theodosius III. abdicates, and retires to a monastery. He is succeeded by Leo III., the Isaurian. 739. The Greek provinces of the empire are invaded by the Saracens, who are defeated by Acroiiius. 770. Constantine IV. abolishes monasteries in the Eastern empire. 793. Constautine VI., the last emperor of the Isaurian dynasty, is blinded, by order of his mother Irene. 811, July 25. Nicephorus I. Is defeated and slain by the Bulgarians. 830. Accession of Michael II., the founder of the Amorian dynasty. 825. Dalmatia is taken from the empire by the Servians. 837. Loss of Sicily and Crete. 850. Bogoris, King of the Bulgarians, becomes a vassal of the empire. 867. Accession of Basil I., founder of the Basilian or Macedonian dynasty. 890. Southern Italy becomes subject to the Eastern empire. 938. Five emperors reign simultaneously. 1014, July 29. Battle of Zetunium (q. v.). 1018. Bulgaria is made a province of the empire. 1035. The empire is visited by famine, and ravaged by in- vaders. 1040. Eestoration of Sicily, and loss of Servia. 1057, Aug. 31. Michael VI. abdicates in favour of Isaac I. End of the Macedonian dynasty. 1133. Revolt of the Servians. 1144. Restoration of the senate. 1186. Revolt of the Bulgarians. 1195. Isaac II. is deposed and blinded by his brother, who ascends the throne as Alexius III. 1303, July 18. Capture of Constantinople by the Crusaders, who restore Isaac II., and make his son, Alexius IV., joint emperor. 1304, Jan. 38. Murder of Alexius IV., and accession of Alexius V., soon after which Isaac II. dies. The Crusaders again besiege Constantinople, put Alexius V. to death, and found the Latin empire of the East. May 9. Baldwin, Count of Flanders, ascends the throne. 1308. Ephiis and ^Etolia are erected into an independent state. 1361, July 35. Michael Palscologus restores the Greek em- pire to Constantinople. (See BLINDING.) 1377. An invasion of Sicilians, Venetians, and French is repelled. 1331. Civil war of the Andronici. 1338, May 24. Abdication of the elder Andronicus, who is succeeded by Androuicus III. 1353. The Turks enter Europe. 1367. The Mamelukes conquer Armenia. 1373. The treaty of Amurath, which limits the Eastern empire to Constantinople, Thessalonica, part of the Morea, and a few islands. 1390. The empire loses all its Greek possessions in Asia. 1396, Sep. 28. Battle of Nicopolis, and massacre of 10,000 Christian prisoners by the Turks. 1400. Manuel II. surrenders part of Constantinople to Bajazet I. 1448. On the death of John Palseologus II., the empire is claimed by his three brothers. Constantine XII. is elected. 1453, May 29. Capture of Constantinople by Mohammed II., and extinction of the Eastern empire. A A EAST [ 354 J ECBATANA EMPERORS OF THE EAST. the A.D. 364. Valens. 379. Theodosius I. Great. 395. Arcadius. 408. Theodosius II. 450. Marcian. 457. Leo I. 474. Leo II. and Zeno. 491. Anastasius I. 518. Justin I. 527. Justinian I. ' Justin II. Tiberius II. Maurice. Phocas. 6to/ Heracliua. 641. Constantino III. 641. Constans II. 668. Constantine IV. 685. Justinian II. 711. Philippicus. 713. Anastusius II. 717. Theodosius III. 718. Leo III. 741. Constantine V. 775. Leo IV. 780. Constantine VI. and Irene. 792. Irene. 803. Nicephorus I. 811. Stauraeius. 811. Michael I. 813. Leo V. 820. Michael II. 839. TheophiliM. 842. Michael III. 867. Basil I., the Mace- donian. 886. Leo VI. A.D. 911. Alexander and Con- stantine VII. 919. Komanus I., Christo- pher, Stephen, and Constantino VIII. 945. Constantino VII. (alone.) gw. Romanus II. 963. Nicephorus II. 969. John Zimisces, Basil II., and Constantine IX. 976. Basil II. and Constan- tine IX. 1025. Constantine IX. 1038. lionianus III. 1034. Michael IV. 1041. Michael V. 1043. Zof andConstantineX. 1054. Theodora, 1056. Michael VI. 1057. Isaac I. IOS9- Constantine XL 1067. Eudocia and Komanus III. 1071. Michael VII., Andro- nicus I., and Con- stantine XII. 1078. Nicephorus III. 1081. Alexius I. I I IS. .)(,],!,. 114-,. M:muell. 1 1 80. Alexius II. 1183. Andronicus I. ...ell. 1195. Alexius III. 1203. Alexius IV. and Isaac II. i restored.) 1204. Alexius V. A.D. 1204. Baldwin I. 1206. Henry. 1216. Peter of Courtenay. 1219- Kobert of Courtenny. LATIN EMPERORS. A.D. 1228. Baldwin II. and John of Brieime. 1237- Baldwin II. (alone.) GREEK EMPERORS OF NICE. A.D. 1259. John Lascaris. 1360. John Lascaris and Michael Palsuologus. A.D. 1204. Theodore Lascaris I. 1223- John DUCMS Va(:ir,-s. 1255. Theodore Lascaris II. GREEK EMPERORS RE3TOE.ED AT CONSTANTINOPLE. A.D. 1261. Michael Palmologus. I273- Andronicus II. 1338. Andronicus III. 1341. John Palooologus I. 1347. John Cantacuzene. A.D. 1355. John Palajologus I. (restored.) 1391. Manuel II. 1425. John Palocologus II. 1448. Constantino XII. EAST INDIA COMPANY. This celebrated association for the purpose of carrying on trade with the East Indies was formed in London in 1599, and obtained its charter Dec. 31, 1600. In 1635 a rival company was estab- lished by Sir William Courten, and chartered by Charles I. The two associations united in 1649. In 1657, Cromwell renewed their charter, which was confirmed by Charles II. April 3, 1661, and again Oct. 5, 1677. In 1694 the East India trade was thrown open, but in 1698 a new company obtained a monopoly, in ex- change for a loan to Government of .2,000,000. In 1702, however, the old and new companies amalgamated, and f ormed the ' ' United Com- pany of Merchants of England trading to the East Indies." In 1772 the company was com- pelled to apply for a loan, and in 1784 the Board of Control was erected by 24 Geo. III. c. 25, to regulate the civil and military govern- ment of the company's territories. By 53 Geo. III. c. 155, s. 7 (July 21, 1813), the impor- tation of any goods but tea from any place except China was declared free to all British subjects, and the commercial character of the company was abolished by 3 & 4 AVill. IV. c. 85 (Aug. 28, 1833). The number of directors was reduced from 24 to 18 by 16 & 17 Viet. c. 95 (Aug. 20, 1853), and the government of India was finally transferred from the company to the crown, by 21 & 22 Viet. c. 106 (Aug. 2, 1858). The Dutch East India Company was formed in 1595. Charles VI. founded an East India Com- pany at Ostend in 1719. It was dissolved in 1731. The Swedish East India Company was formed in 1731; the French in 1740, and dis- solved in 1770 ; and the Danish was formed in 1740. The Scotch East India Company was established by an act of the Scottish Parlia- ment in 1695. (See DARIEN.) EAST INDIA HOUSE (London). The old house of the East India Company, situated in Leadenhall Street, was erected in 1726, and the new house in 1798. The library, rich in Oriental MSS., was founded by the Court of Directors about 1805-6. In 1861, when the library and museum were removed the former to Cannon- row West, the latter to Fife-House, Whitehall- yard 70,000 volumes of records of the com- pany were sold for waste paper. The building was sold by tender to a private company for .155,000, June 20, 1861. BAST INDIAN UNITED SERVICE CLUB (London) was founded Jan. i, 1850. MAST INDIES. (-See INDIA.) KASTLAM) COMPANY. This association was incorporated in 1579 to trade to all places within the Sound except Narva. When the trade to Norway and Sweden was thrown open, this company declined in importance. E 15 K RSBERG (Battle). The Austrians under Gen. Hiller were attacked and defeated by the French under Bessieres and Oudinot at this place near Linz, in Austria, May 3, 1809. EBIONITES. A sect of Christian Jews founded at Pella, about 66, which attained importance in the 2nd century. They spread in the villages around Damascus, and had a church at Aleppo. Gibbon (ch. xv.) says: " The name of Nazarenes was deemed too honourable for those Christian Jews, and they soon received, from the supposed poverty of their understanding, as well as of their condi- tion, the contemptuous epithet of Ebionites." They believed Christ to be a man, though endowed with divine power, and they main- tained that the ceremonial law of Moses must be observed. The sect was in existence in the 4th century. EBORACUM. (See YORK.) EBRO. (See TUDELA, Battle.) ECBATANA (Media). This city is said to have been founded by Semirainis, though Hero- dotus mentions Dejoces as its founder. An account of the building of the city by Ar- phaxad is given in the book of Judith (i. 2 4). It was the summer residence of Cyrus and the succeeding kings of Persia. It is mentioned by Ezra under the name of Achmeta, and the modern Hamadan occupies its site. ECCENTRICS [ 355 J ECLIPSE ECCENTRICS. This convivial club, an off- shoot of the Brilliants, held its first meeting about May, 1800, at a tavern in Chaudos Street, Co vent Garden, whence they removed to May's Buildings, St. Martin's Lane, where they held their meetings till 1840. ECCLESIASTES. This book, written by King Solomon before B.C. 976, derives its title from the name, signifying preacher, by which its author always refers to himself. Some commentators have supposed that it was not the work of Solomon, but of some later writer who assumed the name and style of the wisest of men to add force to his teaching. On this supposition, the dates assigned for its produc- tion have extended over a period of more than 300 years. ECCLESIASTICAL COMMISSION. William IV. issued a commission of inquiry into the state of the Church of England, Feb. 4, 1835, which published its first report March 17. A new commission was issued June 6, and by 6 & 7 Will. IV. c. 77 (Aug. 13, 1836) the commissioners became a corporation, with perpetual succession and a common seal. The constitution of this corporation was ma- terially amended by 3 & 4 Viet. c. 113 (Aug. u, 1840), and 4 & 5 Viet. c. 39 (June 21, 1841). ECCLESIASTICAL COURTS. Previous to the Conquest, all offences were tried in civil courts ; but in 1085 William I. published a charter of separation, which established eccle- siastical courts. By 24 Hen. VIII. c. 12, s. 2 (1532), all ecclesiastical jurisdiction was de- clared to be immediately from the crown. This act, repealed by i & 2 Mary c. 8, s. 6 (1554), was revived by i Eliz. c. i, s. 4 (1558). In July, 1830, a commission was appointed to inquire into their practice and jurisdiction, which recommended sundry important changes in 1832. The Probate and Divorce Court, established by 20 & 21 Viet. c. 77, s. 3 (Aug. 2 5> 1857), abolished all the authority of the Ecclesiastical Courts in matters relating to wills, &c. ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. The narra- tive of the foundation and early history of the Christian Church is drawn from the inspired record in the New Testament. Hegesippus, in the and century, and Eusebius, Bishop of Csesarea (265 338), chronicled the course of events to their own times, and their accounts were continued by Socrates Scholasticus, whose history extends to the year 439 ; by Hermias Sozomenus, who died after 443 ; and by Theo- doret, Bishop of Cyrus (393 457). Evagrius Scholasticus (536 600) ; the Venerable Bede (672 or 3 May 26, 735) ; and Simeon Meta- phrastes, who died about 976, wrote on the same subject. Cardinal Csesar Baronius (1538 June 30, 1607), author of the "Annales Eccle- siastic! ;" Archbishop Usher (1580 March 21, 1656) ; Rev. Thomas Fuller (1608 Aug. 15, 1661) ; Rev. Joseph Bingham (1668 Aug. 17, 1723) ; Lewis Anthony Muratori (1672 Jan. 21, 1750); John Lawrence Mosheim (1694 Sep. 9, JJSS); John A. W. Neander (1789 July 14, 1850) ; Rev. George Townsend, Canon of Dur- ham (1788 Nov. 23, 1857) J Rev. Henry Hart Milman, Dean of St. Paul's, born Feb. 10, 1791 ; John Henri Merle D'Aubigne, born in 1794 ; and Rev. James C. Robertson, born in 1813, have contributed valuable works to this department of history. ECCLESIASTICAL LAW. (See CANON LAW ECCLESIASTICAL COURTS, LEGANTINE and PRO- VINCIAL CONSTITUTIONS.) ECCLESIASTICAL TITLES BILL. In con- sequence of the papal bull of Sep. 30, 1850, by which an attempt was made to establish a Roman Catholic hierarchy in England, Lord John Russell, then prime minister, introduced a measure into Parliament Feb. 7, 1851, which was read a third time and passed July 4. By this act (14 & 15 Viet. c. 60, Aug. i, 1851), the papal brief was declared null and void, and a fine of ,100 was imposed on all such as should endeavour to carry it into effect. ECCLESIASTICUS. This book of the Apo- crypha (q. v.), called in the Septuagint "The Wisdom of Jesus the son of Sirach," the date of whose life is not known, was translated into Greek, according to some authorities, about B.C. 230, though others assign it to B.C. 130. Its name is derived, not from the profession" of the author, which is unknown, but from the fact that it was the chief of the ecclesiasti libri, or uninspired books, which, from their edify- ing nature, were accepted as proper to be read in churches. Numerous commentaries were published in the i6th and ijth centuries, Linde's German translation appeared in 1785, and his Greek text in 1795. The more complete version of Bretschneider was published in 1806. ECIJA (Spain), the ancient Astigi, celebrated for an aqueduct completed by Abderahman III., in 949. The Merines defeated the Casti- liaiis near this town in 1275. ECKENWALD. (See CAMPO FORMIO.) ECKMUHL (Battle). At this place, in Ba- varia, the Austrian army, under the Archduke Charles, was defeated by the French, under Napoleon I. and Davoust, April 22, 1809. ECLECTICS, a sect of ancient philosophers, founded by Potamon of Alexandria, who is said by some authorities to have lived in the time of Augustus, and by others in the 2nd century. He persuaded his disciples not to join any of the existing schools of philosophy, but to select from each what seemed most conformable to true reason. Between 200 and 235 similar principles were taught in reference to Christianity by Ammonius Saccas, who founded the school of the New Platonists. Another sect of Eclectics arose in the i7th century. ECLIPSE signifies "failure," namely, of light. The Brahmins appear to have been the first astronomers who attained the power of calculating solar and lunar eclipses. In their great astronomical work, the "Surya" Sidd- hanta"," it is stated that a total eclipse of the sun occurred Feb. 18, B.C. 3102, and modern calculations have proved the assertion true. Next in order the Chinese calculated eclipses, and based their entii'e chronology on their ob- servations of these phenomena, which date from the year B.C. 2940. The Babylonian register of eclipses commenced in the year B.C. 2226. Hales says, "In the age of Thales, at least, the elements of the calculation of A A 2 ECNOMUS 356 ] EDEN eclipses were known in Greece ; for Herodotus say.s that he foretold to the lonians the year of the remarkable eclipse that put an end to the battle between the Medes and Lydians." B.C. 625. A total eclipse, predicted by Thalos, interrupts the battle of Halyg (7. .). Various dates between B.C. 625 and B.C. 583 are given for this event. 603, May 17. A total eclipse is recorded by the Persian historians. 4-79, March 14. The array of Xerxes is alarmed by a total solar eclipse. 434. An eclipse is observed at Athens. 309, Aug. 15. The total eclipse of Agathocles. A.D. 59. A total eclipse takes place at the death of Agrip- pina. 346, June 6. An eclipse occurs soon after the siege of Nisibis. 447. Matins mentions an eclipse. 593, March 19. An eclipse occurs during the march of the Emperor Maurice to Thrace. 840, June 20. A total eclipse occurs at the death of Louis 1 !. of France. 1030, July 29. A total eclipse takes place during the battle o'f Sticklastad. 1140. A total eclipse is visible in England. 1191, June 23- A very remarkable eclipse is visible in England. 1239, June 3. An eclipse is visible in Enirland. 1433. A total eclipse is visible in the British islands. 1598. Another total eclipse is visible in the British islands. 1053. A total eclipse occurs, which is visible hi the British islands. 1706. A total eclipse is visible in the south of Europe. 1715, May3- A total eelipse takes plaee, durinjy which the stars are visible at London in the daytime. 1734. A total eelipse of the sun is Nibble in F.ntfnnd. 1733, May 2. A total eclipse is visible, in the north of F.urope. The red appearances round ihe nino:i, since known as Holly's beads, were first noticed on this occasion. 1806, June 16. A total eelipse is visM-1.' in Xorth America. 1842, July 7. A total eclipse is visible in the south of Europe. 1850, Aug. 8. A total eclipse is observed by M. Kutczyeki in the 1'aeilic ( leean. 1858, March 15. A great annular eclipse is visible in Eng- land. Sop. 7. A total eclipse is visible in South America, and observed by order of the Brazilian ^n\ eminent. 1860, July 18. A total eclipse, visible in Spain, is observed by a party of English astronomers. ECNOMUS (Battle). The Carthaginians, under Hamilcar, defeated Agathod.es, Tyrant of Syracuse, in a great battle fought near this hill in Sicily, B.C. 311. ECNOMUS (Sea-fight). The Roman fleet, consisting of 330 ships, commanded by the consuls L. Manlius and M. Atilius Regains, defeated the Carthaginian fleet, consisting of 350 ships, under the command of Hanno, off Ecnomus, near Agrigentum, in Sicily, B.C. 256. Some authorities contend that the Roman fleet had sailed from Ecnomus, and that the en- counter took place at another part of the island, off Heraclea Minoa. ECOLE POLYTECHNIQUE (Paris). In 1794, a school for the education of young men in military, naval, and civil engineering, called the Ecole Centrale des Travaux Publics, was established at the Palais Bourbon. In 1795, the name was changed to Ecole Polytechnique, and the pupils were required to wear a uniform, and were instructed in artillery ; and in 1804 the organization was made more strictly mili- tary by Napoleon I. In consequence of the strong political demonstrations of the students, the school was dissolved for a time in 1816, 1830, and 1832. It was reorganized Nov. i, 1852, and is now called L'Ecole Imperial e Polytechnique. ECONOMISTS, a sect of philosophers, who first began to propagate their views in France, about 1761, and endeavoured to establish a system of government and social life founded on a knov^edge of human nature as it actually exists. Francis Quesnay (see PHYSIOCRATS), born in 1694, and M. de Gournay, in 1712, are considered the founders of the school. The latter was made iiitendant of commerce in 1751, in which capacity he strove vigorously to release mercantile men from the numerous restrictions the legislature of the day imposed upon them. The first assemblies of the Eco- nomists were held in Madame de Pompa- dour's dra wing-n >om. KUOXOMY (United States). This Socialist village, in Pennsylvania, was founded by Ger- mans in 1825. ECUADOR, or EQUATOR (South America). This country was discovered by Pizarro in 1526, and it remained under Spanish rule until the rebellion of 1812. Its independence was secured in 1821, when it formed part of the republic of Colombia. On the disruption of the Colombian republic in 1831, Quito, with its associated provinces, assumed the rank of an independent republican state, with the name of Ecuador or Equator. The navigation of the rivers of this republic was declared free from all dues for 20 years in 1853. In con- sequence of the interference of Gen. Mosquera, I 'resident of New Granada, in the affairs of Ecuador, the government declared war against him, Nov. 20, 1863. (See NEW GRANADA.) A revolution was suppressed in June, 1865. KI>!)AS, two ancient Scandinavian books, one of which is in verse and the other in prose. Some of the songs in the former probably existed as early as the 6th century, but the majority date from the 7th and 8th. In the i2th century they were collected arid arranged by Baamund Sigfuseon, an Icelandic priest, who died in 1133. The MSS. were discovered by Bishop Brynjolf Svendson, who gave them the name Edda, or "grandmother," in 1643. The prose Edda was written by Snorro Sturleson, who died Sep. 20, 1241. It contains the mythological history of Scandinavia, was discovered in Iceland in 1628 : and was first printed in 1665. Complete editions of the Eddas were published at Stockholm in 1818. EDDYSTONE LIGHTHOUSE. The first lighthouse on the Eddystone, a narrow rock 14 miles from Plymouth, erected by Winstanley in 1696, was destroyed by a violent tempest, Nov. 27, 1703. Its reconstruction was ordered by 4 . 7. A shock of an earthquake is felt. 1803, Oct. 10. The first number of the Edinburgh Review is published. 1805, April 10. Edinburgh New Police Act. 1807, Oct. 31. The Nelson monument, on Calton Hill, is founded. 1813, Jan. i. Serious riots. April 32. Three of the rioters are executed. 1815, Sep. 19. Uegent Bridge and the new gaol are founded. 1818, March 3. The Edinburgh and Glasgow Canal is com- menced. April. Gas is introduced. 1831, April 38. The Melvill >lunn. is founded. 1832, Aug. 14. George IV. arrives at Edinburgh. Aug. 37. Tin- National monument is founded. 1824, June 24 and Nov. 15. Disastrous fires. 1825, July 3.S. The High School, Calton Hill is founded. Kdinbnrgh and Dalkeith Railway and the Scot- tUli Academy are instituted. 1827, Au f?- '5- George the Fourth's Bridge and the Western Bridge are founded. 1829, Oct. 15. The infant school is founded. 1830, March 27. The museum of the College of Surgeons is founded. Oct. 20. Charles X. of France, expelled from his kingdom by a revolution, resides in Holy- rood House. 1831, The new waterworks are completed. l33, Jan. 27. The cholera first visits Edinburgh. 3. 'I he Uritish Association meets ,,t Kdinburgh. 1836. The National Security Savings Bank is established. 1837, March 15. The Edinburgh and Leith Gas Company is established. 1840, Aug. 15. Kemp's monument to Sir Walter Scott is founded. 1843, Feb. 1 8. The Edinburgh and Glasgow Railway is opened. Sep. I. Arrival of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert in Edinburgh. Sep. 3. Victoria Hall is founded by her Majesty. Sep. 5. The Queen hold* a reception at Dalkeith Palace. Sep. 15. The Queen leaves for England. 1843, May 28, Sunday. Owing to the "Act of Separation," the Free Church ministers officiate in new places of worship, which creates great excitement at Edinburgh. 1845, Jan. 19. Total destruction by fire of the Old Grey- friars Church. The Southern, Western, and Edin- burgh and Leith cemeteries are formed. 1846, June 18. The North British Railway from Edinburgh to Berwick is opened. Aug. 1 5. The Scott monu- ment is inaugurated. 1847, April 9. The Caledonian Railway terminus is founded. 1848, March 7. Alarming riots in the city. June 38. The new Corn-market is founded 1850, Aug. 39. Queen Victoria revisits Edinburgh, and re- sides at Holyrood House. Aug. 30. The National Gallery is founded by Prince Albert. -Nov. 6. The new or Free College is opened. 1853. The colossal equestrian statue of the Duke of Wel- lington is erected. 1853. The National Association for the Vindication of Scottish Rights meets in the Music-halL 1857, Aug. 5. Great fire in the Lawn-market. 1859, Aug. 6. The Prince of Wales resides in Holyrood Palace while attending classes at the University. 1860, Aug. 7. Queen Victoria reviews about 20,000 volun- teers in the Queen's Park. 1861, Oct. 33. The first stones of the New Post-office and of the Industrial Museum are laid by Prince Albert. Nov. 24. Thirl v persons are killed and many more injured by the fall of an old house in the High Street EDINBURGH 359 EDUCATION 1863, March 31 April 3. Lord Palmerston visits Edin- burgh. 1864, June 25. The first stone of the Fettes' College a Comely Bunk is laid by the Hon. Mrs. Primrose. 1865, Jan. 13. The Queen's Theatre is destroyed by fire and several persons are killed by the fall of the walls. March 25. The statues of Allan Kanisay and John Wilson are uncovered. Pec. 2,. The new Queen's Theatre is opened. 1866, May 7. The New Post-office is opened. May 19. The Industrial Museum is opened by Prince Alfred, who receives from the University the degree of LL.1). EDINBURGH (Bishopric) was created in 1633 by Charles I., who extended the diocese from the Forth to Berwick, and made St. Giles's church its cathedral. Dr. William Forbes was consecrated the first bishop, Jan. 28, 1634. On the abolition of prelacy in Scotland, July 22, 1689, this see was suppressed, but it was re-erected as a post-revolution bishopric in 1720. EDINBURGH (Treaties). Peace was con- cluded at this city between England and Scotland in 1482. A treaty was concluded between Elizabeth and the Scotch July 6, 1560. It provided that all the French troops should leave Scotland, and that Mary should no longer use the style and arms of sovereigns of England and Ireland. In 1561, Mary refused to ratify this treaty. EDINBURGH REVIEW. The first number appeared Oct. 10, 1802. EDINBURGH UNIVERSITY. In 1558, Robert Reid, Bishop of Orkney, bequeathed 8,000 merks for the purpose of founding a university in the city of Edinburgh ; but the money was detained by the Abbot of Kinloss for 24 years before it could be applied to the proposed object. Efforts were, however, made by Mary, Queen of Scots, April 23, 1561, and in 1563 part of the present site was pin-chased. In 1581 the magistrates applied for a charter, which was granted by James VI. April 14, 1582, and in 1583 Robert Rollock was nominated first principal of the new university. The library was founded in 1580, the Speculative Society in 1764, the Dialectic Society in 1787, the Natural History Museum in 1812, the Scots Law Society in 1815, the Diagnostic Society in 1816, the Hunterian Medical Society in 1824, and the Anatomical Museum in 1826. The first theological chair was instituted in 1642, and the first school of medicine in 1685. The government of the institution was remodelled Sep. 5, 1704, and the new building was founded by Lord Napier, Nov. 16, 1789. Its constitution was remodelled by 21 & 22 Viet. c. 83 (Aug. 2, D'i EDiSTO ISLAND (North America), belonging to South Carolina, situated 40 miles to the south of Charleston, was occupied by the Federal forces under Gen. Sherman, Feb. n, 1862 EDMUNDSBURY (St.). (See BURY ST. EDMUNDS.) EDMUNDS SCANDAL. It was ascertained from an inquiry into the state of the Patent Office, ordered in March, 1864, that Mr. Leonard Edmunds, Clerk of the Patents, who had been permitted to resign, and also petitioned to be allowed to retire, with the usual pension, from the Clerkship of the House of Lords, had not accounted for .9,617 of the public money. On the motion of Lord Chancellor Westbury, this petition had been referred to a committee of the Lords, at the recommendation of which a pen- sion of ,800 a-year had been awarded him, the vacant office being conferred by the Chancellor on his son, the Hon. Slingsby Bethell. These circumstances having created much public scandal, Lord Westbury proposed a committee of inquiry of the Lords, March 7, 1865. The report, laid before the House May 5, confirmed all the charges brought against Mr. Edmunds, and censured the Chancellor for having with- held, in presenting that person's petition, the circumstances under which it was made. Mr. Edmunds' pension was accordingly rescinded, May 9. (See LEEDS BANKRUPTCY COURT AFFAIR.) EDMUND'S (St.) HALL (Oxford), named after St. Edmund, Archbishop of Canterbury (1234 45), was devoted to educational purposes in 1269. EDOM, or IDUM^A (Asia), is the name given to the country inhabited by the descend- ants of Esau, who was living there B.C. 1739 (Gen. xxxii. 3). The inhabitants refused to allow the Israelites to pass through their terri- tory on their retreat from Egypt, B.C. 1452 (Num. xx. 14 21). Saul made war upon them B.C. 1093 (i Sam. xiv. 47), and David established garrisons in their land B.C. 1040 (2 Sam. viii. 14). Solomon built a navy at Ezion-geber B.C. 992 (i Kings ix. 26), and Amaziah, King of Judah, gained a great victory, and took Selah, B.C. 825. The Edomites subsequently extended their borders as far north as Hebron, where they were defeated by Judas Maccabaeus B.C. 163, and the country was overrun by the Arabs in the 7 th century. EDRISITES. This independent dynasty, which founded the kingdom and city of Fez, lasted from 829 to 907. The founder was Edris, a posthumous child of a descendant of Ali. EDUCATION. Among the ancient Greeks and Romans, education was chiefly carried on in the schools of philosophy. The Britons left it to the Druids. The Saxon children were taught to repeat the psalms and other books by heart, reading being still uncommon in the time of Alfred. The English language was not spoken in the i2th century ; but after the Nor- man period children learned their lessons in English, and afterwards translated them into French. Reading and writing became the chief oranches of education in the i4th century. The following are some of the most important dates connected with the subject : 880. Alfred the Great invites learned foreigners to estab- lish schools in his dominions. 1198. Sampson, Abbot of St. Edmunds, founds a school at Bury St. Edmunds for 40 poor boys. 387. Winchester School is founded by William of Wyke- ham. :44i. Eton College (. 1788. The first reform school is established by the Philan- thropic .Society. 1805. Joseph Lancaster founds the British and Foreign School Society. 1806. The first evening school is opened at Bristol. 1807. Mr. Whitbrcad's proposal to the House of Commons for the establishment of parochial schools, on the monitorial system, is rejected. I8II. Andrew Bell founds the National School Society, and the Kev. Mr. Charles establishes the first adult school at Bala. in \V 1815. An infant school is established in Lanark. 1818. A committee of the House of Commons publishes its reports on the state of endowed schools m Eng- land. 1830. Mr. Samuel Wilderspin undertakes the management of the Spitallidd.- infant school. 1823. Tll nrst mechanics' institution is established in London. 1835. The Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge is founded. 1833, Aug. 17. On the motion of Lord Althorp, Parliament ; annual grant of 20,000 for the promo- tion of education in Great Britain. 1836. The Home and Colonial Infant School Society is founded. 1837. The first Kagged School is opened at Westminster. 1839, April 10. The Queen appoints a committee of the Privy Council "to superintend the application of any sums voted by Parliament for the jmrpose of promoting public" education." June 3. The com- mittee pro, -ut tlieir ii.-st report. 1846. The reform of military education is commenced by Mr. li. Baring (Lord Ashburton) and the Kev. G. It. Gleig. 1856, July 29. A vice-president of the Committee of Coun- cil on Education is appointed by 19 & 40 Viet. c. 116 (July 29, 1856). 1857, Juno 18. Middle-class examinations (q. v.) areestab- lished. June 22. An educational congress is held in Ixmdon, under the presidency of Prince Al- bert. 1859, July 6. The Queen appoints a Committee of Council on Education to superintend the application of any sums of money voted by Parliament for the pur- pose of promoting public education. 1860, May 15. The committee present their report. 1861, July 18. A commission is appointed to inquire into the nature and application of the endowment.-!, &c., of colleges and public schools. July 29. _A important minute is issued to come into operatio after March 31, 1862. 1863, Feb. i.Timd March 2. Mehemet Ali is made Pasha. 1807, March 27. The English are defeated in an attempt to occupy Rosetta. Sep. 23. They re-embark. 1811, March I. Massacre of the Mamelukes at Cairo, by Mehemet Ali. 1814. The Turkish army in Egypt is remodelled. ;8i5 17. Belzoni prosecutes his discoveries. 1820. Alexandria is connected with the Nile by the Mahmoud Canal. 1829. The first Egyptian newspaper is published. 1831. Mehemet Ali, Pasha of Egypt, revolts from Turkey, and invades S\ ria. 1834. The cholera visits Kgypt. 1835. The plague ravages Egypt 1839. Mohammed Ali revolts, and claims hereditary pos- '.i of Egypt and Syria. 1840. The Egyptians are defeated by the British at Beyrout. 1841. July II. The dispute with Turkey is adjusted. 1854, July 14. .Said Pasha succeeds his brother Abbas as Viceroy of Egvpt. 1856, Oct. 12. An earthquake is felt in Egypt. 1858, May 14. Aclnncd Pasha, eldest son of Ibrahim Pasha, and heir to his titles, i.s killed at the Kaffer-Said Railway station. 1862, March 27. The Prince of Wales visits Cairo. June 3 Aug. 4. The Viceroy visits Egypt. 1863, Jan. 18. Death of the 'Viceroy Said Pasha, who is succeeded by his brother. Ismail Pasha. April 7 May i. The Sultan Abdul-A/.iz visits Egypt. 1864, May. The Viceroy, on the demand of the Porte, de- spatches a body of troops against Arabian insur- gents in Yemen. 1865, Aug. 15. Opening of a portion of the Suez Canal (1- ) DYNASTY OF THE LAGID^E, OR PTOLEMIES. B.C. 106. Cleopatra Cocce & Pto- 3=6. Ptolemy (I.) Soter I. 2-4. Ptolemy 1 1. Philadclphus 246. Ptolemy(IIL) Euergete, 221. PtoiemylV. Philopator. 204. Ptolemy V. Epiphanes. 1 80. Ptolem'yVI. Philnuieter. 145. Ptolemy(VII.)Euergete.s 116. Cleopatra Cocce and Ptolemy (VIII.) Soter lemy(!X,)A exaiiderl. 87. Ptolemy (VIII.) Soter 81. Cleopatra Berenice. 80. Ptolemy (X.) Alexander 80. Ptolemy XI. Neus Dio- nysus. 57. Cleopatra Trypha-na ipatra d Ben 51. Cl;;opatra. EGYPTIAN jERA. The year of the ancient Egyptians, consisting of 365 days, brought back the commencement of the year to the same place in the seasons every 1461 years, which is termed the Sothic period. The first of these periods commenced B.C. 1322. To remedy the inconvenience of this calculation, the astrono- mers of Alexandria ;B.C. 30) caused five days to be added every fourth year ; and the reform commenced five years after that date. EHRENBREITSTEIN (Prussia). This strong fortress and town, on the left bank of the Rhine, opposite Coblentz, is mentioned under another name as early as 1153. The works having been rebuilt on a more extensive scale, were, in 1160, on account of their breadth, named by Hermann Hillin, Archbishop of Treves, " Ehrenbreitstein," or the "Broad EICHSTADT [ 363 ELBING Stone of Honour." The French, under Marshal Boufflers, failed in an attempt to-capture it in 1688. Jourdan invested Ehrenbreitstein for a short time in 1795, and returned June 9, 1796 ; but the French forces were compelled to with- draw Sep. 17. In April, 1797, the French again blockaded the fortress, which surrendered Jan. 24, 1799. The French, who restored it by the treaty of Luneville, Feb. 9, 1801, blew up the fortifications before they withdrew. Since the peace of 1814-15, the Prussian Government have devoted large sums to the restoration of its defences. EICHSTADT (Bavaria), the capital of a principality belonging to prince-bishops, was secularized, and conferred upon Austria in 1802. It WAS ceded to the Elector of Bavaria by the peace of Presburg, Dec. 26, 1805, and was given to Prince Eugene Beauharnais, Duke of Leuchtenberg, in 1817. The bishopric was established in 745, and the cathedral was founded in 1259. EIDER, or EYDER. This river, flowing between Sleswig and Holstein, was connected with the Baltic by the Kiel Canal in 1784. It is 23 miles long, and was commenced in 1777. EIDOGRAPH. This instrument for copying drawings was invented by Wallace in 1821. EIKON BASIL1KE ; or, The Portraiture of His Sacred Majesty King Charles I. in his Solitude and Suffering. The first edition of this work appeared in 1648, and such was its popularity, that no less than 50 editions are said to have appeared in England and else- where before the end of 1649. The question of the authorship has excited considerable con- troversy, some ascribing it to Charles 1., while others attribute it to Dr. Gauden, the king's chaplain. E1MBECK, or EINBECK (Hanover). This town originated in the pilgrimages to the Chapel of the Holy Blood, founded here by Count Alexander von Darul in 1094. It was a place of considerable importance in the i$th century, and, having been partially burned in 1826, has since been restored. EIMEO (Society Islands). This island, dis- covered by Quiros in 1606, was, in 1814, the first place in Polynesia where Christianity was popularly received. The South Sea College of the London Missionary Society has been estab- lished here since. EINSIEDELN (Treaty). By this compact, signed in 1450, Zurich renounced alliance with the house of Austria, and rejoined the Swiss Confederacy. EINSIEDELN, or NOTRE - DAME - DES- ERMITES (Switzerland). The Benedictine abbey of this place, founded in 946, the abbot of which was made a prince-abbot in 1274, and in which the Swiss reformer Zwinglius sought shelter about 1516, was rebuilt in 1719. The town was seized by the French in 1798. EISENACH (Germany) was founded in 1140, and till 1406 was the residence of the land- graves of Thuringia. The Minnesingers had a trial of skill here in 1207. In 1521 it afforded shelter to Luther on his return from the diet of Worms. A considerable portion of the town has been rebuilt during the present century, and it was the scene of a meeting between the members of the new'liberal party in Germany, who recommended the adoption of a central government instead of the diet, and proposed the formation of a national assembly, Aug. 14, 1859. EISENSTADT (Hungary). The palace of this town, erected by Prince Paul Esterhazy, Palatine of Hungary in 1683, was rebuilt in 1805. EISLEBEN (Prussian Saxony). Celebrated as the birthplace of Martin Luther, Nov. 10, 1483. He died here Feb. 18, 1546. The house in which he was born was destroyed by fire, June, 1689, and another erected on its site was opened as a free school, Oct. 31, 1693. EISTEDDFOD, the name given to the annual assemblies of the British bards. They were of very ancient origin, being held at least as early as the 6th century of our sera, although there is no description of one previous to that of 1176, held by Rhys ap Gryffyd at Cardigan Castle. The last of these gatherings, convened by royal authority, was summoned by a commission of Queen Elizabeth, dated Oct. 20, 1567. They were revived towards the close of the i8th century, to encourage the study of the Welsh tongue, ] >i io< 1 t< > vane >us regions in which gold has been found. ELEASA (Battle). Judas Maccabeus was defeated and slain by the Syrians mider Bac- chides and Alcimus at this place, in Palestine, near Ashdod, B.C. 160. ELEATICS, a sect of philosophers, founded at Elea, in Sicily, by Xenophanes of Colophon, about B.C. 538. Zeno, who flourished B.C. 464, K.np.jdocles, B.C. 435, and Melissus, B.C. 428, wore leading philosophers of this school. They opposed the idea of a plurality of gods, but mingled this truth with many puerile and ab- surd conceits, which obscured and weakened its efficacy. ELECTION PETITIONS. Controverted elections to Parliament, originally tried as party questions by the whole House of Com- mons, were first referred to the decision of select committees by the Grenville Act, 10 Geo. III. c. 16 (1770), which provided that the committee should be chosen by ballot. Similar regulations in the case of Irish elections were introduced by 42 Geo. III. c. 106 (June 26, 1802), which was amended by 47 Geo. III. c. 14 (Feb. 19, 1807). The English law was consolidated and amended by 9 Geo. IV. c. 22 (May 23, 1828) ; and the appointment of the committee by ballot was repealed, and other changes effected by 2 & 3 Viet. c. 38 (Aug. 17, 1839). Further amendments were introduced by 7 & 8 Viet. c. 103 (Aug. 9, 1844), and by the Election Petitions Act, n & 12 Viet. c. 98 (Sep. 4, 1848), which was amended by 28 Viet, c. 8 (April 7, 1865). (See BRIBERY, June 22. Execution of Bishop Fisher. July 6. Execution of Sir Thomas More. 1536, May 19. Execution of Anne Boleyn. May 20. Henry VIII. marries Lady Jane Seymour. 1537, Oct. 13. Birth of Edward VI. Oct. 34. Death of Jane Seymour. 1538, Suppression of the monasteries. 1539, The statute of the "Six Articles" (31 Hen. VIII. c. 14). 1540, Jan. 6. Henry VIII. marries Anne of Cleves, from whom he is divorced July 9. July 28. Execution of Cromwell, Earl of Essex. Aug. 8. The king marries Lady Catherine Howard. 1542, Feb. 12. Execution of Catherine Howard. 1543, July 12. Henry VIII. marries Catherine Parr. I 547i J" 11 - 19- Execution of the Earl of Surrey. Jan. 28. Death of Henry VIII., who is succeeded by Edward VI., under the protectorship of the Duke of Somerset. 1549, March 30. Execution of Lord Seymour, brother of the Lord Protector. June 9. An insurrection in favour of papacy breaks out in the west Oct. 14. Disgrace of the Duke of Somerset. 1552, Jan. 22. Execution of the Duke of Somerset. 1553, J"ly 6- Death of Edward VI. -July 10. Procla- mation of Lady Jane Grey as queen. July 19. She relinquishes the title, and Mary is proclaimed in London. 1554, Feb. 7. Suppression of Wyatt's insurrection (q. v.). Feb. 12. Execution of Lady Jane Grey and Lord Guildford Dudley. July 25. Marriage of Mary with Philip II. of Spain. Nov. 30. Cardinal Pole pronounces the country reconciled to the Church of Rome. 1555, Feb. 4. Mary's persecution of the Protestants com- mences with the burning of John Rogers. Feb. 9. Hooper suffers. Oct. 16. Martyrdom of Ridley and Latimer. 1556, March 31. Burning of Cranmer. 1558, Jan. 7. Loss of Calais, the last English possession in France. 1559. The reformed religion is restored by the Act of Uniformity (l Eliz. c. 3). 1568, May 16. Mary, Queen of Scots, seeks shelter in England, and lands at Workington, in Cumber- land. 1571. Pope Pius V. endeavours to incite the English to rebellion. 1581, Dec. i. Execution of Campian, the Jesuit, and others, for conspiracy. 1586, Sep. 30 and 31. Execution of Babyngton and his accomplices. 1587, Feb. 8. Execution of Mary, Queen of Scots, at Fotheringay Castle. 1588, Repulse of the Spanish Armada (q. v.). 1598. Tyrone's rebellion in Ireland. 1601, Feb. 35. Execution of the Earl of Essex. 1603, March 24. Death of Queen Elizabeth and accession of James VI. of Scotland as James I., under whom the Scotch and English crowns are united. 1604, Oct. 34. James I. assumes the title of King of Great Britain. 1605, Nov. 4. Discovery of the gunpowder plot (q. v.). 1606, April 13. The present national flag of England is announced by royal proclamation. A.D. 1611, May 23- James I. creates the title of baronet. 1613, Nov. 6. Sudden death of Henry, Prince of Wales. 1616, April 33. Death of Shakspeare. 1618, Oct. 39. Execution of Raleigh. 1631, May 3. Impeachment and disgrace of Lord Bacon. 1635, June 13. Charles I. marries Princess Henrietta Maria, of France. 1626, April 9. Death of Lord Bacon. 1638, Aug. 33. Assassination of the Duke of Buckingham by John Felton. 1634, Feb. Punishment of Prynne and others for publish- ing " Histrio Mastix." 1637, June 13. Trial of John Hampden. (See SHIP MONEY.) 1639, June l8 - Pacification of Dunse (q. v.). 1641, Feb. 26. Parliament annuls the judgment against Hampden by 16 Charles I. c. 14. May 13. Exe- cution of the Earl of Strafford. 1642, Jan. 4. The king proceeds to the House of Com- \ mons, to seize five members accused of treason. \ Commencement of the civil war. Oct. 23. Battle of Edgehill (q. v.). 1643, June 18. Battle of Chalgrove (q. v.). Sep. 30. First battle of Newbury. Sep. 25. The Solemn League and Covenant is approved by both houses of Parliament. (See COVENANTERS.) 1644, July 2- Battle of Marston Moor. Oct. 27. Second battle of Newbuy (q. v.). 1645, Jan. 10. Execution of Archbishop Laud. June 14. Battle of Naseby (q. .). 1646, May 5. Charles I. seeks protection from the Scotch. Sep. 31. They sell him to the Parliament for 400,000. 1647, Jan. 30. The Scotch surrender the king to the Par- liamentary commissioners. 1648, Dec. 6. "Pride's purge." 1649, Jan. 20. Trial of Charles I. Jan. 27. He is sentenced to death. Jan. 30. Charles I. is executed. 1651, Sep. 3. Battle of Worcester (q. v.). 1653, April 20. Cromwell dissolves the Long Parliament. Dec. 16. He is made Lord Protector. (See IN- TEUKEGXUM.) 1657, A P ril J 7- Ueath of Admiral Blake. 1658, Sep. 13. Death of Oliver Cromwell, who is suc- ceeded by his son Richard. 1659, Ma y- !3- Kichard Cromwell resigns the title of Lord Protector. 1660, May 29. The Restoration. 1662, May 19. The Act of Uniformity (13 & 14 Charles II. c. 4). May 30. Marriage of Charles II. to Cathe- rine of Braganca. 1664-5. The Great Plague. 1666, Sep. 3. The Great Fire of London. 1667, Dec. 18. Banishment of Lord Clarendon. 1674, Nov - 8 - Ueath of John Milton. 1678, Aug. 12. Gates' "popish plot." Oct. 17. Discovery of the body of Sir Edmuiidbury Godfrey. 1679, May 27. " Habeas Corpus " Act passed (31 Charles II. c. 2). 1680, Dec. 29. Execution of Lord Stafford. 1683, June 12. Discovery of the Rye- house plot July 2,1. Execution of Lord Russell. 1689, Dec. 7. Algernon Sydney is beheaded. 1685, June 20. (See MONMOUTli'S REBELLION.) July 6. Battle of Sedgemoor. 1688, June 30. Acquittal of the seven bishops. Dec. 23. Abdication of James II. 1689, Feb. 13. William III. and Mary are proclaimed king and queen. 1690, July i. Battle of the Boyne. 1693. Commencement of the national debt. 1694, July 37. The Bank of England is incorporated. Dec. 38. Death of Queen Mary. 1701, Sep. 16. Death of James II., at St. Germain. 1707, May i. England and Scotland are united under the title of Great Britain. 1708, Oct. 28. Death of Prince George of Denmark, husband of the queen. 1710. Sacheverell's Riots. 1713, April u. Treaty of Utrecht (q.v.). 1714, Aug. i. Dt-atli of Queen Anne, and accession of the Hanoverian family, in the person of George I. 1715, Sep. 6. Mar's Insurrection (q. v.). Dec. 23- The Chevalier lands at Peterhead. 1716, Feb. 24. Execution of the Earl of Derwentwater and Viscount Kenmure. 1720, Sep. 29. The South Sea bubble bursts. 1733, June 1 6. Death of the Duke of Marlborough. ENGLAND t 374 ] ENGLAND 1737. George II. quarrels with his son Frederick Louis, Prince of Wales. Nov.2o. Death of Queen Caroline. 1743, June 16. Battle of Dettiugen (q.v.). 1745, July 25. The Young Pretender lands at Moidart, in Inverness-shire. Sep. 17. He establishes himself nt Holyrood House, Edinburgh. Sep. 21. Battle of Prestoiipans. Dee. 4. His army penetrates into England as far as Derby. 1746, Jan 17. Battle of Falkirk. April 16. Battle of Cul- lodtm (q. v.). Aug. 10. Executions of Lords Kil- maruock and Halnicrino. 1747, April 9. Execution of Lord Lovat. 1751. March 2,0. Death of Frederick Louis, Prince of Wales. 1753, Sep. 3. The, New Stylo is introduced into Groat Britain, .Sep. 3 being accounted the I4th. 1756, May i. Commencement of the Seven Years' War. 1757, March 14. Execution of Admiral Byng. June 33. Battle of Plassey (q. .). 1760. Conquest of Canada. Oct. 25. George II. dies, and is succeeded by his .grandson, George 111. 1761, Sep. 8. George ill. marries the Princess Charlotte Sophia, <>f Ueoklenburg-Strelitz. Sep. 22. The coronation. ( )ct. 9. The elder Pitt resigns the oilier of scrivt:iry of State. 1763, Feb. TO. By the peace of Paris, England acquires Canada and Florida, mid an end is put to the Seven Years' War. April 30. Arrest of Mr. Wilkcs. 1765, March 22. The American Stamp Act is passed. Dec. 30. Dentil of the Pretender, at Koine. 1771, MayS. Establishment of the right to report Parlia- mentary debates. 1772, April i. The lioyul Marriage Act (12 Geo. III. C. 2) is passed. 1773, Commencement of the American revolt. 1778, April 7. Lord Chatham is seized with a fit while speaking against the American war in the I louse of Lords. May II. Dcathof Lord Chatham. 1780, June 2-7. Lord (ienrge Cordon's anti-popery riots. I-.SI, Fell. 5- Lord George Cordon is tried and annulled. 1782, Nov. 30. A provisional treaty, acknowledging the in Ivpcmlenee of the Tinted States, is signed at Paris. Dec. 5. The separation is announced by the king in his speech on opening Parliament. 1786, Aug. 2. Margaret -Nicholson, a maniac, attempts the king's life. 1788. Feb. 13. Burke opens the impeachment of Warren Hastings before th- House o! I, op Is. March 3. Death ,-f Prince Charles Edward, the Young Pretender, at Koine. Nov. 19. The public are informed of the mental indisposition of the king. 1789, Feb. 19. Recovery of the king, and abandonment of the regency bill. April 23. Public thanks- giving throughout the kingdom, ill consequence. 1793, Feb. II. War is declared against France. 1704 Mav 23. Suspension of the "Habeas Corpus " Act. Oct. 28- Dee. 5. Trial of Hardy, Home Tooke, and Thehvall, who are acquitted. 179? April 8. The Prince of Wales marries Caroline of Brunswick. April 23- Acquittal of Warren Hastings. l'7Q6 Jan 7. Birth of the Princess Charlotte, daughter of 1 the Prince of Wales. 1797, Feb. 20. Commercial panic. Feb. 27- The Bank of England stops payment. July 29- Death of Edmund Bnrke. 1798 April 20. The " Habeas Corpus " Act is again sus- ]H .iidcd. May. A rebellion breaks out in Ireland. Aug. I. Battle of the Nile (q. .). 1800, May 15. James Iludfield fires at the king in Drury Lane Theatre. 1801, Jan. i. Legislative Union of Great Britain and Ireland. April 2- Battle of Copenhagen ( K \ i i i I :\t'n m atfManchester. May 30. Visit of the Grand Duke Coustantine of Russia. June 26. Distribution of Victoria crosses. Aug. 35. Meeting at the Mansion House to raise a relief fund for the sufferers by the Indian mutiny. .similar meetings are afterwards held throughout the country. Nov. 13. Suspension of the Bank Charter Act, in consequence of the commercial crisis. 1858, Jan 25. Marriage of the Princess Royal to Prince Frederick William of Prussia. Feb. 8. Lord Palmerstoii introduces the Conspiracy to Murder Bill, in consequence of the attempted assassi- nation of Louis Napoleon by Orsini, &c. Feb. 19. It is rejected by the Commons, and the Palmer- 1858. ston cabinet resigns. June 15. The Queen visits Birmingham (q. v.). June 28. Property qualifica- tion of members of Parliament abolished by 21 Viet. c. 26. July 23. Jewish Disabilities Bill passed (21 & 33 Viet. c. 49). Aug. 3. Act for the better government of India passed (31 & 22 Viet. c. 106). Aug. 4. The Queen visits Cherbourg (q. p.). Sep. 6. The Queen visits Leeds, to open the new town hall. Nov. i. Royal proclamation throughout India, announcing the incorporation of that country with the British empire. 1859, May i. General thanksgiving, in consequence of the suppression of the Indian mutiny. June. Many volunteer rifle corps are formed. Oct. 17. The Prince of Wales becomes a student at Oxford. Dec. 38. Death of Lord Macaulay. 1860, Jan. 33. The commercial treaty with France is signed at Paris. March 7. The Queen holds a levee for officers of the volunteer rifle corps. June 23. The Queen reviews 18,000 volunteers in Hyde Park. July 3. Important failures in the leather trade. Nov. 15. The Prince of Wales returns from his visit to America. (See CANADA and UNITED STATES.) 1861, March 16. Death of the Duchess of Kent. April 8. The census is taken. Aug. 9. The marriage con- tract between the Princess Alice and Prince Louis of Hesse is signed at Osborne. Aug. 12. The King of Sweden arrives at Portsmouth on a visit to her Majesty. Aug. 35. Fatal accident in Clay- ton tunnel, on the Brighton railroad. Sep. 3. Fatal collision on the Hampstead Junction rail- road. Sep. 16. Post-office Savings Banks opened. Oct. 31. A convention for intervention in Mexico is signed at London by representatives of Eng- land, France, and Spain. Middle Temple library inaugurated by the Prince of Wales. Nov. 30. Earl Russell, in a despatch to Lord Lyons, the British Minister at Washington, instructs him to leave America within seven days, unless the United States Government consent to the uncon- ditional liberation of Messrs. Mason and Slidell. (See TRENT AFFAIR.) Dec. 14. Death of Prince Albert. (See ALBERT MEMORIAL.) Dec. 23. His funeral takes place in the vaults of St. George's Chapel, Windsor. [862, Jan. 29. Messrs. Mason and Slidell, Commissioners from the Confederate States of America, arrive in England. Feb. 13. The Prince of Wales visits the Emperor of Austria at Vienna. April 30. A Japanese Embassy arrives in England. May i. Opening of the International Exhibition (q. .). May 4. The Middle Level Drain bursts its banks near King's Lynn, in Norfolk, and inundates 10,000 acres of cultivated land. June 3. The Viceroy of Egypt visits England. June 12. The Prince of Wales visits the Emperor and Empress of the French at Fontainebleau. June 4. The Prince of Wales returns to England after his tour in the East June 16. Death of Lord Can- ning. (See INDIA.) July i. Marriage of the Princess Alice with Prince Louis of Hesse. Sep. I Oct. 25. The Queen and Royal family visit Belgium, Prussia, and Saxe Coburg-Gotha. Nov. I. The International Exhibition (q. v.) is closed to the public. Nov. 4. The intended marriage of the Prince of Wales with the Princess Alexandra of Denmark, is officially announced in the London Gazette. Nov. 13. Earl Russell declines the in- vitation of France to intervene between the .bel- ligerents in North America. Dec. 37. The Cotton Famine (q. v.) reaches its height. :863, Jan. 3. Rupture with Brazil (q. .). Feb. 3. Prince Alfred is elected King of Greece (q. .). Feb. 5. The Prince of Wales takes his seat in the House of Lords. March 3. Earl Russell remonstrates against Russian cruelties in Poland. March 6. The Princess Alexandra arrives at the Nore. March 7. She lands at Gravesend, and proceeds through London to Windsor. March 10. Marriage of the Prince of Wales and the Princess Alex- andra in St. George's Chapel, Windsor. April 13. Death of Sir George Cornewall Lewis. (See PALMERSTON (SECOND) ADMINISTRATION.) April 17. Death of Field Marshal Lord Seaton. Jnly7- Death of William Mulready, It. A. July 13. England, France, and Russia, the three protecting ENGLAND 376 ENGLAND 1863, powers, sign a treaty at London, sanctioning the election of Prince William of Denmark to the throne of Greece. July 38. Death of Lord Nor- manby. Oct. 13. Death of Lord Lyndhurst Nov. 20. Death of Lord Elgin. (See INDIA.) Nov. 37. Earl Russell declines the invitation of the Em- peror of the French to the English Government, to take part in an international congress. (See FRANCE.) Dec. 5. Lord Wodehouse is despatched to Berlin and Copenhagen to endeavour to pre- serve peace. 1864, Jan. 8. Birth of the eldest son of the Prince of Wales. Feb. 33. England invites Prussia and Austria to submit the disputed (jucstions relative to Denmark, to a conference of the Powers which participated in title settlement of 1853. The pro- posal is opposed by Denmark (q. V.). Feb. 35. The Government declines to afford Denmark material aid in her contest with Austria and Prussia. March 3 April 19. The King of the Belgians visits England. March 10. The infant prince is christened Albert Victor Christian Edward. March 13. Maximilian, Emperor elect of Mexico (q. .), visits England. April 3. Garibaldi lands at Southampton on a visit. April 6. Judg- ment adverse to the Government is finally given in the ''Alexandra" case (q. v.). April 33. The ter- centenary of Shakspeare's birthday is celebrated throughout the kingdom. (Sec Sn \KM-EAKK COMMEMORATIONS.) April 35. A conference on the affairs of Denmark, attended by represen- tatives of Great Britain. France, Kussia. Austria. Prussia, Denmark, Sweden, and the Germanic confederation, assembles in London. April 37. Garibaldi re-embarks for Caprera. June I. The Ionian Islands (t/. r.) are delivered to the Greek Government: June 25. The London Conference breaks up without arriving at any satisfactory conclusion. Sep. 3 Nov. 7. The Prinee anil Princess of Wales visit Denmark and Sweden. Oct. 1 8. Death of the Di.ke ,,f \cw.-astle. 1865, Feb. 7. Parliament is opened by commission. Feb. J2. Death of the Duke of Northumberland. Feb. 15. Death of Cardinal Wiseman. March 4. A luck- out commences in the iron trade. (See STRIKE*.) April 2. Death of Mr. Cobden.- May I. Ad- dresses of condolence with the people of the United States, and of indignation at the assas-i- nation of President Lincoln, are voted by both houses of Parliament June 3. Birth of Prince George of Wales. June 19. Commencement of the Cattle Plague (q. P.). July 4. liesignation of Lord Chancellor Westbnry. (See PAUIBB3TON (SECOND) ADMINISTRATION.) July 6. Parlia- ment is dissolved. July 10. The general election commences. Aug. 8 Sep. 8. The Queen visits Germany. Aug. 14. The Channel fleet visits Cherbourg. Aug. 16. A treaty of navigation with Prussia is signed at Gastein. Aug. 17. The Great Eastern returns from her unsuccessful attempt to lay the Atlantic Telegraph (q. r.). Aug. 39 Sep. 3. The French fleet visits Portsmouth. Sep. 14. Earl Kussell issues a circular despatch, con- demning the convention of Gastein (q. r.). ' let. 18. Death of Lord Palmerston. (See KUSSELL (SECOND) ADMINISTRATION.) Oct. 37. Lord Palmerston is buried in Westminster Abbey. Nov. 9. The M,e>in>,iioah Confederate cruiser surrenders to the British Governmental Liverpool. Dec. 5. The marriage of the Princess Helena with Prince Christian of Augustenburg is sanc- tioned by the Queen in Council. Dec. 16. A pre- liminary treaty of commerce is signed with Austria. Dec. 18. Sir Henry Storks leaves Eng- land as special commissioner, to examine into the circumstances attendingthe revolt in Jamaica fa. i\) 1866, Jan. 37. John Gibson, K. A., the sculptor, dies at Rome. Feb. 6. The new Parliament is formally rued by the Queen in person. March 24. Death Marie Amelie, ex-Queen of the French, at Claremont (q. v.). April. The betrothal of the Princess Mary of Cambridge to Prince von Teck is announced. April 38. (3 A.M.) The Govern- ment franchise bill passes its second reading. May 33. The opening of the International Hor- ticultural Congress. June 18. Defeat in the Commons of the Russell Ministry. June 26. 1866. Resignation of the Rus.sell Ministry. July 6. The third Derby Ministry take office. SOVEREIGNS 837. Egbert 837, Feb. Ethelwulph. 857. Ethelbaldll. 860. Ethelbert. 866. Ethelredl. 871. Alfred the Great. 901, Oct. Edward I., the Elder. 935. Athelstan. 940. Edmund I. 946. Ed red. 955. Edwy. 957. Edgar. OF ENGLAND. 975. Edward II., the Mar- tyr. 979. Ethelred II. 1013. Sweyn. 1014. Canute the Great. 1014. Ethelred II. (again). 1016. Edmund II. Ironside. 1017. Canute (again). 1035. Harold I. 1040. Hardicanute. 1043. Edward the Confes- sor. 1066. Harold II. NORMANS. 1066, Dec. 25. William I. I noo, Aug. 5. Henry I. 1087, Sep. 36. William II. | 1135, Dec. 36. Stephen. PLANTAGENETS. iiSJ, Dec. 19. Henry II. 1189, Sep. 3. Richard I. 1199, May 27. John. 1316, Oct 38. Henry III. 1373, Nov. 30. Edward I. 1307, July 8. Edward IT. 1337, Jan. 35. Edward III. 1377, June 33- Richard II. HOUSE OF LANCASTER. 1399, Sep. 30. Henry IV. I 1433, Sep. I. Henry VI. 1413, March 31. Henry V. | HOUSE OF YORK. 1461, March 4. Edward IV. I 1483, June 36. Richard 1483, April 9. Edward V. | III. HOUSE OF TUDOR. 1485, Aug. 23. Henry VII. I 1553, July 6. Mary. 1509, April 23. Henry VIII. 1558, Nov. 17. Elizabeth. 1547, Jan. 38. Edward VI. | HOUSE OF STUART. (603, March 24. James I. 1635, March 37. Charles I. Interregnum. 1649, Jan. 30. Charles II. [660, May 39. Restoration. ifi5, Feb. 6. James II. 1689, Feb. 13. William III. 1703, March 8. and Mary. Anne. HOUSE OF HANOVER. 1714, Aug. I. George I. 1727, June ii. Geopj-e [I. 1760, Oct. 35. George III. 1830, Jan. 39. George IV. 1830, June 36. William IV. 1837, June 30. VICTORIA (Vivat Regina !) THE ROYAL FAMILY OF GREAT BRITAIN. The QUEEN. Alexandria Victoria, born May 34, 1819 married Feb. 10, 1840, to her cousin, Albert Francis Augustus Charles Emanuel, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, bom Aug. 36, 1819 ; died Dec. 14, 1861. Victoria Adelaide Mary Louisa, Princess Royal, born Nov. 31, 1840; married, Jan. 35, 1858, to Prince Frederick William, of Prussia. ' Albert Edward, Prince of Wales, born Nov. 9, 1841 married, March 10, 1863, to the Princess Alexandra Caroline Maria Charlotte Louisa Julia, eldest daughter of Prince Christian, afterwards King Christian IX of Denmark. Alice Maud Mary, born April 35, 1843; married, Julv I, 1863, to Priiu-e Frederick William Louis, nephew of the Grand Duke of Hesse. Alfred Ernest Albert, born Aug. 6, 1844; created Earl of Ulster, Earl of Kent, and Duke of Edinburgh, May 34, 1866. Helena Augusta Victo ia, born May 35, 1846, married, July 5, 1866, to Prince Christian Charles Augustus, of Bleswig-Holatein-Sonderburg-Auifttgtenbnrg. Louisa Caroline Alberta, born March 18, 1848. Arthur William Patrick Albert, born May I, 1850. Leopold George Duncan Albert, born April 7, 1853. Beatrice Mary Victoria Feodore, born April 14, 1857. ENGLAND [ 377 3 ENGRAVING ROYAL PRINCES AND PRINCESSES. George Frederick, Duke of Cumberland and King of Hanover, born May 27, 1819 ; married, Feb. 18, 1843, to Mary Alexandrina, daughter of the Duke of Saxe- Altenburg. George William, Duke of Cambridge, born March 36, 1819. Augusta Caroline, born July 19, 1094 i married, June 28, 1843, the hereditary Grand-duke of Mecklenburg- Mary Adelaide (Princess Mary of Cambridge), born Nov. 27, 1833; married, June 13, 1866, to Prince Francis Lewis Paul Alexander von Teck. ENGLAND, NEW. (See NEW ENGLAND.) ENGLEFIELD (Battle), or "The Field of the Angles," near Reading, celebrated as the scene of a disastrous defeat of the Danes by the Britons, led by Ethelwulph, Ealdorman of Berkshire, in 871. ENGLISH GLEE AND MADRIGAL UNION. (See CONCERT.) ENGLISH LANGUAGE. Hallam (Introd. to Lit., pt. i. c. i. s. 47) says : " Nothing can be more difficult than to determine, except by an arbitrary line, the commencement of the English language." The Saxon Chronicle was continued till the death of Stephen, in 1154, and considerable change may be noticed in the language of the later years. Layamon's translation of the French Brut romance, com- pleted about 1200, exhibits further digressions from the primitive Saxon tongue ; and some metrical lives of saints which were written about 1250, may be called the earliest speci- mens of English. The first dated document in the language is a proclamation by Henry III. in 1258, and the earliest English book is Sir John Mandeville's travels, written in 1356. By 36 Edw. III. c. 15 (1362), pleadings in courts of law were ordered to be in English, and in 1536 the language was introduced into Ireland. The use of English in all proceedings in English and Scotch law coxirts was rendered compulsory by 4 Geo. II. c. 26 (1731). The development of the English language has been divided into the following periods : A.D. 4491066. Anglo-Saxon. 10(16 1250. Semi-Saxon or Norman. 12501550. Early English. 1550 . Modern English. ENGLISH OPERA HOUSE. (See LYCEUM THEATRE.) ENGLISH ORCHESTRAL ASSOCIATION. (See CONCERT.) ENGLISH AND WELSH BISHOPRICS. Many bishoprics were founded in this country during the early period of the Church. All particulars, and even, in some cases, the names of the sees, are lost. British bishops were present at the councils of Aries in 314, of Nicrea in 325, and of Ariminum in 360 ; and their signatures are affixed to the canons passed at these synods. By 10 Ezra, the authorship and date of the first and second books of Esdras are involved in great obscurity. Lawrence supposes the second book to have been written B.C. 28 25. They were admitted as canonical by the Council of Cartilage in 397 or 419, but have since been included in the Apocrypha. BSD (JD. (See ASHDOD.) ESIIER Surrey). Sandon priory, founded here by Robert de Watevile early in the reign of Henry II. (1154 1189), was granted in 1436 to the hospital of St. Thomas, Southwark. William Waiiiucet, Bishop of Winchester from 1447 to 1486, erected a palace, which was en- larged by Cardinal Wolscy in 1528. Claremont (q. v.) is in this parish. ESPINOSA, or ESPINOSA-DE-LOS-MON- TEROS (Battle). Marshal Victor defeated the Spaniards under Gen. Blake and the Marquis de la Romana at this place in Spain, Nov. 10 and ii, 1808. ESQUIMAUX, or ESKIMO. A tribe of savages, who are supposed to have been iden- tical with the modern Esquimaux, appeared in West Greenland in 1349, and destroyed several of the Norwegian settlers. In 1733 the Esquimaux were visited by some Moravian Brethren, who established a mission in La- brador hi 1752 ; but the missionaries were compelled to return, in consequence of the ill- feeling of the natives. A second attempt, made in 1764, proved more successful. Hearne discovered Esquimaux near the Polar Sea in 1772, and MacKenzie in 1789. ESQUIRE. This title is of considerable antiquity, and, like armiger, scutifer, scuta- 'rius, and e"cuyer, is derived from the shield, and other portions of the knight's arms, which the esquire used to carry. Selden states that it was first used to express the next rank below a knight, about 850, and it is said to have been applied to other persons than at- tendants upon knights as early as 1245. ESSAYS AND REVIEWS. This volume, which created much controversy, was pub- lished in 1860, and went through several editions. It contained the following essays : "The Education of the World." By Fre- derick Temple, D. D. " Bunsen's Biblical Researches." By Rowland Williams, D.D. " On the Study of the Evidences of Chris- tianity." By Baden Powell, M.A. " Seances Historiques de Geneve." "The National Church." By Henry Bristow Wilson, 13. IX "On the Mosaic Cosmogony." By C. W. Good- win, M.A. " Tendencies of Religious Thought in England, 16881750." By Mark Pattison, B.D. " On the Interpretation of Scripture.'' By Benjamin Jowett, M.A. The judgment of the Court of Arches, delivered by Dr. Lush- ington, Monday, Dec. 15, 1862, sentencing Messrs. Williams and Wilson to one year's sus- pension and costs, for their contributions to this work, was reversed by the judicial com- mittee of the Privy Council, Feb. 8, 1864. ESSECK, or ESZEK Austria;, the capital of Slavonia, is built on the site of the ancient Mursia or Mursa. The Turks defeated the Germans, in a great battle at this place, in 1537. The fortress, commenced in 1712, was completed in 1719. ESSENDINE ,' Battle). (See ASSINGDOK.) ESSEXES, or ESSEN1ANS. A sect of as- cetics which sprang up amongst the Jews after the return from the Babylonish captivity. They were also called Therapcuta). Some writers are of opinion that John the Baptist belonged to this sect. ESSEQUIBO (South America). Pinzon dis- covered this river in 1499, an( i m x s8o the Dutch formed a settlement on its banks. This was captured by the English in 1796. It was restored to the Dutch in 1802. Having been recaptured Sep. 20, 1803, it was finally ceded to England by the convention signed with the Netherlands, Avig. 13, 1814. (See BRITISH GUIANA, DKMERAKA, y Louis XVI., and met at Versailles May 5, 789, when the commons, insisting that the states should constitute but one body, changed ;he title to National Assembly (q. v.), June 17. ETCHING. The inventor of this art is not mown. It was practised by Albert Durer, vhose print of the "Canon," in 1518, is perhaps ;he first example of its employment. Parme- giano, who died in 1540, is regarded by some as ;he inventor of etching. Henry Schwanhard discovered the art of etching on glass in 1670. ETHANDUNE (Battle). Alfred defeated the Danes at Ethandune, supposed to be Edington, near Westbury, in 878. ETHER is thought to have been known in some form to Paracelsus, who flourished 1520 1541. Basil Valentine obtained it in the i6th century by distilling alcohol and sulphuric acid, and in 1681 nitric ether was discovered by Kunckel. In Middleton's " Women beware Women," printed in 1657, the following passage occurs : " I'll imitate the pities of old surgeons To this lost limb ; who, ere they show their art, Cast one asleep, then cut the diseased part." Act iv. sc. I. Its preparation was, however, lost, until re- discovered by Navier in 1742. Nitric ether was first analyzed by Boulay and Dumas in 1828. Hydratic, or, as it is incorrectly termed, sulphuric ether, was discovered by Gay- Lussac, and acetic ether by the Count de Lauragnais. Muriatic ether was first obtained by Gehlen in 1804, oananthic ether by Liebig and Pelouze in 1836, and real sulphuric ether by Wetherill in 1848. ETHICS, a word of Greek origin, signifying morals. The chief writers on the subject are Plato (B.C. 428 May, B.C. 347); Aristotle (B.C. 384 Aug., B.C. 322); Seneca (died in 65) ; St. Augustine, Bishop of Hippo (354 Aug 28, 430); Thomas Aquinas (1224 March 7, 1274); Adam Smith (1723 July 8, 1790) ; Adam Ferguson (1724 Feb. 22, 1816) ; William Paley (1743 May 25, 1805) ; Jeremy Bentham (1748 June 6, 1832) ; Dugald Stewart (1753 June ii, 1828) ; Sir William Hamilton (1788 May 6, 1856) ; and William Whewell (1794 March 6, 1866). (See PHILOSOPHY.) ETHIOPIA (Africa), the Cush of the Scrip- tures. The term was applied to the extensive territories between the Red Sea and the Atlantic, and in a more restricted sense to the kingdom of Meroe. B.C. 1615. The Ethiopians establish themselves in the south of 941. Terah, King of Ethiopia, is defeated by Asa, at Mareshah. 719. Shebek, or Sabaco, leads an immense army into Egypt, where he establishes an Ethiopian dynasty. 698. Tirhakah, King of Ethiopia, marches to the assist- ance of Hezekiah against Sennacherib, but re- turns, in consequence of the miraculous destruc- tion of the Assyrian army. 630. A great migration of warriors from Egypt to Ethiopia. 600. Ethiopia is invaded by Psammis, King of Egypt ETHNOLOGY 384 1 EUCHITES B.C. 524. Cambyses leads an army of 50,000 men into Ethiopia, all of whom are buried beneath the burning sands of the desert. 225. Ptolemy (III.) Euergetes I. extends his power in Ethiopia. &. Candace, Queen of Ethiopia, is defeated by Petroaius. ETHNOLOGY. This science, which treats of the various races of mankind, owes its origin to the researches of Thunmuim, Schlaef- zer, Buhle, Klaproth, De Sacy, Hitter, &c. An ethnological society was established at Paris in 1839, an d the Ethnological Society of Lon- don was founded by Dr. King in 1843. ETIENNE ST. (France). This town, founded in the ioth century, possesses the remains of a fine church erected in the nth century, and was surrounded with walls by Charles VII. about 1441. In the i6th century it became a centre of the hardware and riband manu- facture, the royal factory for fire-arms having been established in 1585. In 1585, 1628, and 1629 it was nearly depopulated by the plague. A large fire-arm manufactory was founded in 1764. St. Etieime, which has increased greatly in importance since the peace of 1815, became the capital of the department of the Loire, Jan. i, 1856. IOTXA. (See MTN\, MOUNT.) ETOGES (Battle). A fierce but indecisive contest took place Feb. 14, 1814, at this village of France, between the army of Silesia, under Marshal Blucher, and the French, under Napoleon I. and Marshal Marmont. Both sides claimed the victory. ETON COLLEGE (Buckinghamshire) was founded by Henry VI., as the " College of the Blessed Marie of Eton by Wyndesore," Sep. 12, 1440. The charter was confirmed by act of Parliament at Westminster, May 4, 1441. The original foundation was a provost, 10 priests, 4 clerks, 6 choristers, 25 poor grammar- scholars, and a master to teach them, and the like number of poor men. It now consists of a provost, 7 fellows, 2 conducts, 7 clerks, 70 king's scholars, 10 lay clerks, 10 choris- ters, and a number of inferior officers and servants. The Duke of Newcastle founded and endowed three scholarships of the annual value of ^50 each in 1829, and Prince Albert instituted the annual prize of ^50 for pro- moting the study of modern languages in 1842. ETON MONTE M. This triennial procession of the scholars of Eton College is thus described by Lyson (Magna Britannia, i. 557) : " The chief object of the celebrity is to collect money for salt, as the phrase is, from all persons present, and it is exacted even from passengers travelling the road. The scholars who collect the money are called salt-bearers, and are dressed in rich silk habits. . . . This ceremony has been frequently honoured with the pre- sence of his majesty (George III.) and the royal family, whose liberal contributions, added to those of many of the nobility and others who have been educated at Eton and purposely attend the meeting, have so far augmented the collections, that it has been known to amount to more than .800. The sum so collected is given to the senior scholar who is going off to Cambridge, for his support at the university." The date of its institution is not known, but it is of very early origin. At first it was celebrated Dec. 6, but in 1758 it was transferred to Whit-Tuesday. The ceremony was abolished May 25, 1847. ETRURIA. By the 5 th article of the treaty of Luneville, Feb. 9, 1801, the duchy of Tus- cany was raised into the kingdom of Etniria, and bestowed upon Louis, son of the Duke of Parma, who began to exercise authority July 21. Napoleon I. suppressed this kingdom, adding it to the kingdom of Italy in 1807. (See TUSCANY.) - ETRURIA (Staffordshire). This village, manufactory, and mansion, were founded by Mr. Josiah Wedgwood, the eminent improver of British pottery, in 1771. He died here Jan. 3> ETRURIA, TYRRHENIA, or TUSCIA (Italy), the modern Tuscany. 800. The Ktriisruns settle in Campania. 538. They unite with the Carthaginians in an expedition against the Phocieau colonists of Corsica. 522. They attack Cumae. 506. Defeat of Porseuiia at Aricia, by the Greeks and Romans. 474. Hit-rim of Syracuse defeats an Etruscan fleet. 453. The Syracusaiis ravage the coasts of Etruria. 396. The Barnaul capture Veii. 384. Dionysius of Syracuse invades Ktruria. 351. The Etruscans conclude a 40 years' truce with the Romans. 310. Battle of the Vadimonian Lake (q.v.). 295. Battle of Sentinmn ( EU&EA (JSgean Sea). This island was in- vaded by the Athenians, who defeated the in- habitants of its chief city, Chalcis (q. v. ), and established a colony of 4,000 of their own countrymen, B.C. 506. The city of Eretria was destroyed by the Persians B.C. 490, and the island soon afterwards became subject to the Athenians. It revolted B.C. 445 and B.C. 411, and was in each case speedily reduced to tran- quillity ; but after the battle of Chajronea, B.C. 338, it was seized by Philip II. of Macedon, whose descendants retained possession of it till the Romans restored it to independence, B.C. 194. An insurrection against the Turks broke out in Euboea in 1822. (See NEGROPONT.) EUCHARIST. (See CHEESE, COMMUNION SERVICE, and SUPPER OF THE LORD.) EUCHITES, or MESSALIANS. This sect, says Bingham (Antiq. iv. b. xi. c. 2, s. 5), 'were so called from the Greek word ev^i) EUGUBIAN [ 385 ] EVANGELICAL prayer, and Messalians from the Syriac word metsalach, which is much of the same signifi- cation, because they resolved all religion, into prayer." They arose in the 4th century. EUGUBIAN, or EUGUBINE TABLES. These tablets of brass were dug up between Cortona and Gubbio, the ancient Eugubium, or Iguvium, in 1444. The number of the tablets is seven, of which five contain Umbric in- scriptions mixed with Etruscan and two Latin inscriptions. They are generally ascribed to the 4th century B.C. EUNOMIANS. The followers of Eunomius, Bishop of Cyzicus in 360, adopted the extreme tenets of Arianism. Theodosius I. published edicts against them in 394, by which they were forbidden to appoint bishops, and were declared incapable of inheriting property or making a will. E U N U C H S. Semiramis, the mythical Queen of Assyria, is said to have been the first who employed eunuchs as servants, B.C. 2017. The custom seems to have originated in Libya, whence it extended to Egypt, Assyria, Persia, and other Eastern nations. Constantino I. (323337) and the other Christian emperors of Rome suppressed, with severe penalties, the making of eunuchs, and the Council of Nicaea (June 19 Aug. 25, 325) condemned and ex- cluded from holy orders those who, from ex- cess of zeal, practised self -mutilation. EUNUCHS, or VALESIANS. This heretical sect, founded by Valesius in the 3rd century, mutilated not only their own male children, but all upon whom they could lay hands. EUPATORIA, or KOSLOV (Crimea), the ancient Pompeiopolis. The mosque of Devlet- Ghiri-Khan was built in 1552. This town was taken by the Russians in 1726 and 1771. It was occupied by the allied forces, Sep. 14, 1854, who repelled an attack of the Cossacks, Oct. n. Omar Pasha defended it against a Russian force under Gen. Chruleff, Feb. 17, 1855, and it was finally restored to the Russians, May 31, 1856. EUPHON, or EUPHONON. This musical instrument was invented by Chladni in 1790, and improved in 1822. EUPHRATENSIS. (See COMMAGEN.) EUPHUISM. This affected style of phraseo- logy, common in the reign of Elizabeth, was introduced or made popular by John Lilly, whose "Evphves," or " The Anatomy of Wit," ancF " Euphues and his England," were pub- lished in 1581. These works, saysGifford, " did incalculable mischief by vitiating the taste, corrupting the language, and 'introducing a spurious and unnatural mode of conversation and action." EUROPE. The Phoenicians founded colonies in Europe, the smallest of the four divisions of the world, between the i2th and 8th centuries B.C. The earliest notice of this quarter of the globe is found in the writings of the Greeks, who began to form settlements in the south of Europe in the 6th century B.C. EURYMEDON (Battle). Near this river of Asia Minor, Cimon, son of Miltiades, defeated a Persian fleet of 350 vessels, 200 of which he captured, 6.0.466. At the same time he encoun- tered the land forces of the Persians on the banks of this river, and completely routed them . EUSEBEA. (See C^SAREA.) EUSEBIANS. This ecclesiastical faction, followers of Eusebius, Bishop of Nicomedia, opposed Athanasius at the Council of Tyre in 335, and supported Arius at the Councils of Jerusalem in 335, and of Constantinople in 336. EUSTACE, ST. (Battle). The rebels were defeated at this place, in Lower Canada, Dec. 14, 1837. The insurgents laid down their arms, and their leaders took to flight. EUSTATHIANS. The Arians called the orthodox by this name, after Eustathius, or Eustace, Bishop of Antioch, about 325. It also distinguishes the followers of Eustathius, Bishop of Sebaste, who prohibited marriage. He was deposed for his errors by the Councils of Melitena in 357, and of Neo-caesarea in 358, and his disciples were condemned by the Council of Nicopolis in 372. EUSTATIUS, ST. (West Indies), one of the Leeward Islands, was colonized early in the 1 7th century by the Dutch, to whom it now belongs. It was taken and retaken several times during the i7th and i8th centuries. Admiral Rodney captured it Feb. 3, 1781. The French took it Nov. 26, 1781. The English re- gained possession, and the island was finally transferred to the Dutch by the convention with Great Britain, signed at London Aug. 13, 1814. EUTAW SPRINGS (Battle). The Americans were defeated by the English in a severely- contested action at Eutaw Springs, in South. Carolina, Sep. 8, 1781. The American army consisted of 4,000 men, and the English force was greatly superior in point of numbers. EUTYCHIANS, the disciples of Eutyches, an ecclesiastic of Constantinople, who began to publish his views respecting the nature of Christ in 446. He taught that, after his incar- nation, the Saviour only possessed one nature, compounded of Godhead and manhood. This doctrine was condemned by the Council of Constantinople Nov. 8-22, 448, and Eutyches was deprived of his office ; but the Council of Ephesus in 449 declared him orthodox, and reinstated him in his dignity. His doctrines were, however, again condemned by the fourth general council, held at Chalcedon Oct. 8, 451. (See ACEPHALJ and MONOPHYSITES. ) EUXINE. (See BLACK SEA.) EVANGELICAL ALLIANCE. A conference was held at Liverpool in Oct., 1845, to con- sider the possibility 'of uniting all branches of the Christian Church into one grand confede- racy. Two meetings were held at the same town, Dec. 16, to consider the proposed alliance, and a conference, composed of members from all parts of the United Kingdom and several foreign countries, met at Freemasons' Hall, London, under the presidency of Sir Culling . Eardley Smith, Aug. 19 Sep. 2, 1846, when nine propositions were adopted as the basis of the union. Meetings in connection with this society were held at Paris in 1855, at Berlin in 1857, and at Geneva in 1861. EVANGELICAL ASSOCIATION was orga- nized in the United States by German immi- grants in 1803. EVANGELICAL UNION, a religious body formed in Scotland by the Rev. J. Morison, of Kilmarnock, in 1843. (See MORISONIANS.) c c EVANGELISTS 386 ] EXCHEQUER EVANGELISTS. This term, formerly ap- plied to all writers or preachers of the Gospel, is now generally confined to the writers of the four gospels, Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John. Matthew's is assigned by different au- thorities to various dates between 38 and 64 ; Mark's to 60 or 63 ; Luke's to 63 or 64 ; and John's to 97 or 98. EVESHAM (Battle). Near this town, in Worcestershire, Prince Edward, afterwards Edward I., defeated (Aug. 4, 1265) the English barons under Do Montfort, and released his father, Henry III., who had been taken cap- tive at the battle of Lewes. I)e Montfort and his son Henry were both killed. (See BARONS' WAR.) EVIL MAY-DAY. Stow remarks : " The apprentices of London are so considerable a body that they have sometimes made them- selves formidable by insurrections and muti- nies in the city, getting some thousands of them together, and pulling down houses, breaking open the gates of Newgate and other prisons, and setting the prisoners free." Their resentment was generally directed against foreign merchants and artisans for supposed interference with their trade. A general in- surrection occurred May i, 1517, and the day received the name of "Evil May-day." Much damage was done, and many lives were lost, when' Henry V11I. sent some troops, who quelled the riot, and took 300 prisoners. .Several were executed on gibbets set up in different parts of the city. A similar out- break against the French and Dutch, in Sep., 1586, was put down by the vigilance of the authorities. Another occurred June 29, 1595, for participation in which five apprentices were executed as traitors on Tower Hill, July 24. The apprentices also took part in the disputes between Charles I. and the Long Parliament. One of the last tumultuous assemblages oc- curred April 4, 1668, when they pulled down several disorderly houses. Four of the ring- leaders were afterwards executed. EVORA, or EBOIIA (Portugal). This ancient city was taken, B.C. 80, by Quintus Sertorius, who erected a fine aqueduct, still in good preservation, about B.C. 70. Evora was seized by the Moors in 715, but was recaptured in 1166. The cathedr.il was founded in 1186, and the choir rebuilt in 1721 ; the archbishopric was created in 1540, and the university was established in 1578. The Spaniards occupied Evora for some weeks in 1663. An insurrec- tion in favour of Don Miguel was suppressed herein 1828. (.SVe Avis.) EVORAMONTK (Treaty). By a convention signed at this place in Portugal, May 29, 1834, Don Miguel renounced all claim to the throne of Portugal ('/. E VRE UX (France). This town of Normandy, the ancient Mecliolanum, founded in the sth century, and taken and plundered by the Northmen under Rollo in 892, was seized by Lothaire in 962, and erected into a county in 989. On the extinction in 1118 of the first line of counts, the succession was disputed by the Duke de Montforfc and Henry I. of England, who burned the town in 1119. In 1194 and 1199 it was taken and burned by Philip II. (Augustus). The English were permanently expelled in 1441, and the town was seized by the Duke of Longueville in 1649. In 1793 attempts were vainly made to raise an insur- rection here against the National Convention. The shrine of St. Thaurin, first bishop of the diocese, erected in 660, was enlarged into an abbey church by Richard II., Duke of Nor- niandy, in 1026. The cathedral was founded in the nth century. The chateau of Navarre, founded by Jeanne of Navarre, in 1330, and rebuilt by the Duke of Bouillon in 1686, was the residence till 1745 of the young Pretender, and afterwards of the Empress Josephine. It was destroyed in 1836. The clock-tower was erected by the English in 1417. The bishop's palace was built in 1484, and the little chateau in 1749, in honour of a visit of Louis XV. .SYc UOCHKKF.L, Battle. : EXALTATION OF THE CROSS. (See CROSS.) KXAMINATIOX.S (MIDDLE CLASS). (See U.NIVKKSITV LOCAL, EXAMINATIONS.', EXARCH. An officer first appointed in 553 by Justinian I. as the representative in peace and war of the Emperor of the Romans. Narses, the first exarch, administered the entire king- dom of Italy, but the jurisdiction of his suc- cessors in the oincc was limited to the province of Ravenna ((/. <.). EXCKLLEXCK, or EXCELLENCY, This title was first applied to ambassadors at the congresses which commenced at Minister and Osnaburg in 1643, and resulted in the treaty of Westphalia. EXCHANGE. (See BILLS OF EXCHANGE; BURSE; COAL BZOHAKGB ; CORN EXCIIA.V;;; ; ROYAL EXCHAX<;K; &c.) EXCHEQUER. This court, sometimes called Curia Regis ad Scaccariuia, formed a part of the Curia Regis. Its origin is variously attributed to William I. in 1079, and to Henry I. It took cognizance of matters connected with the revenue, and also exercised jurisdiction over common-plea suits until a separate court was erected for their decision by Magna Charta, in 1215. (See COMMON PLEAS.) The name was derived from the table at which its sittings were held, which is described as "a four- cornered board, about ten feet long and five feet broad, fitted in manner of a table to .sit about; on every side whereof is a standing ledge, or border, four fingers broad. Upon fhis board is laid a cloth bought in Easter Term, which is of black colour, rowed with strokes, distant about & foot or a span." On the squares of this Scaccarium, or chequered cloth, counters were placed, to assist in making the needful computations. Barons of the exchequer were first appointed Jiily 6, 1234, and chief barons about 1307. By 9 Edw. III. st. 1,0.5 'i335' justices of assize, &c., were ordered to send all their records to this court annually at Michael- mas, and by 31 Edw. III. st. i, c. 12 (1357), the lord chancellor and lord treasurer were autho- rized to examine its erroneous judgments. (See EXCHEQUER CHAMBER.) By 5 Viet. c. 5, s. i [Oct. 5, 1841), the equity jurisdiction of the exchequer was transferred to the court of Chancery. The office of cursitor baron of the exchequer was abolished by 19 & 20 Viet. c. 86 EXCHEQUER C 387 1 EXCHEQUER (July 29, 1856), and the practice and procedure on the revenue side of the court was amended by 22 and 23 Viet. c. 21, s. g, et seq. (Aug. 13, 1859). By 6 Anne, c. 26 (1707), a court of ex- chequer was established in Scotland, which was abolished by 2 & 3 Will. IV. c. 54 (June 23, 1832). Foss gives the following list : CHIEF BARONS OF THE EXCHEQUER. A.D. EDWARD II. 1307, Sep. 16? William de Carleton. 1308, Oct. 24? Thomas de Caiitebrig. 1310, July 17? Roger le Scotre. 13121, ~M.au: 3? Walter de Norwich. EDWARD 111. 1337, Feb. 2-4- Walter lie Norwich. 1329, Feb. 21. .luhn Thomas de Lodelowe. 1374, Feb. 3. William Tank. 1375, Nov. 13. Henry de Asty. RICHARD II. 1377, June. Henry de Asty. 1300, Dec. 6. Robert de Plesyngion. 1386, Xov. 5. John Cary. April 24. Thomas 1'ynchebek. 13. John Gassy. IIENKY IV. 1399, Sep. 30. John Cnssy. 1400, Nov. 15. John Cokayn. HEXRY V. 1413, April 38. William Lasingby. 1413, May 3. William Lasingby. 1419, Nov. 4. William Babington. HK.VKY VI. William Babington. 5. John Juyn. 9. John Fray. 3. Peter Ardernc. EDWARD iv. Peter Arderne. 4. Kichard lllingworth. 471, May 22. Thomas Ursxvyke. 1479, April 3. William Nottingham. EICIIAKD III. 1483, Juno 26. Humphrey Starkey. HEXRY VII. 1485, Aug. Humphrey Starkey. 1486, Oct. 29. William Hody. ' HENRY VIII. 1509, April. William Hody. 1522, Feb. 8. John Fitz- James. 1526, Jan. 34. Kichard Broke. 1529, May 12. Kichard Lyster. 1545, Nov. II. Kogcr Cholmley. EDWAun vi. 1547, Jan. Roger Cholmley. 1552, May 31. Heiirv Bradsha\v. MARY. 1553, Sep. I. David Brook. 1558, March 3. Clement Heigham. ELIZABETH. 1558, Nov. 17. Clement Heigham. 1559, Jan. 22. Edward .Saundcrs. 1577, Jan. 24. Kobert Bell. John Jeffery. Koger Mamvood. AVilliam Pcryham. JAMES I. William Peryhnm. Thomas Fleming. Laurence Taiifield. 1422, Sep. 1423, May 1436, Feb. 1448, May 1461. 1462, Sep. Oct. 1578, Nov. 17. 1593, Feb. 1603, March. 1604, Oct. 27 1607, June 35. CHARLES I. 1625, Mar. 27. Laurence Tanfield. 1625, May 10. John Walter. 1631, Jan. 10. Humphrey Davenport. 1644, Jan. 25. Richard Lane. 1648, Oct. 13. John Wilde. INXEKBEGNUM. 1649, Feb. John Wilde. 1655, May 28. William Steele. l6s, June 26. Thomas Widdriugton. 1660, Jan. 17. John Wilde (again). CHARLES II. 1660, June i. Orlando Bridgeman. 1660, Nov. 7. Matthew Hale. 1671, May 23. Edward Tumour. 1676, April 13. William Montagu. JAMES II. 1685, Feb. William Montagu. 1686, April 21. Edward Atkyns. WILLIAM III. 1689, April] 17. Edward Atkyns. 1695, June 8. Edward Ward. ANXE. 1702, March 8. Edward Ward. GEORGE I. 1714, Nov. 23. Samuel Dodd. 1716, June 1722, May 1723, Nov. 1725, June 1736, Oct. Thomas Bury. 4. James Montagu. 6. Kobert Eyre. 3. Jeffrey Gilbert. 3. Thomas Pengelly. GEORGE II. 1737, June. Thomas Pengelly. l73o,April 30. James Reynolds. 1738, July 7. John Comyns. 1740, Nov. 2. Edward I'robyn. 1742, Nov. 39. Thomas Parker. GEOEGE ill. 1760, Oct. Thomas Parker. 1773, Oct. 38. Sidney Stafford Smythe. 1777, Nov. 37. John Skynner. 1787, Jan. 36. James Eyre. 1793, Feb. 13. Archibald Macdonald. 1813, Nov. Vicary Gibbs. 1814, Feb. 14. Alexander Thomson. 1817, April 32. Kichard Richards. GEORGE IV. 1830, Jan. Richard Richards. 1834, Jan. 9. William Alexander. . WILLIAM IV. 1830, June. William Alexander. 1831, Jan. 18. John, Lord Lyndhurst. 1834, Dec. 34. James, Lord Abinger. VICTORIA. 1837, June. James, Lord Abinger. 1844, April 15. Frederick Pollock. 1866, July 17. Fitzroy Kelly. CHIEF BARONS FOR IRELAND, SINCE TTIE REVOLUTION. 1690, Dec. 5. John Hely. 1695, May 10. Kobert Doyne. 1703, Dec. 37. Nehenmh'Donnellan. 1706, June 25. Richard Freeman. 1707, June 12. Robert Rochfort. 1714, Oct. 14. Joseph leane. 1715, June 16. Geffrey Gilbert. 1722, June 9. Bernard Hale. 1725, Sep. 2. Thomas Dalton. 1730, Sep. 29. Thomas Marlay. 1741, Dec. 21. John Bowes. 1757, March u. Edward Willes. 1766, Sep. 5. Anthony Foster. 1777, July 3. James Dennis, afterwards Baron Tracton. 1782, July 3. Walter Hussey Burgh. 1783, Nov. 29. Barry Yelverton, afterwards Viscount Avonmore. 1805, Oct. 5. Stniidish O'Grady, afterwards Viscount Guillamore. 1831, Jan. 6. Henry Joy. 1838, July 30. Stephen Woulfe. 1840, Feb. II. Ma/.iere Bradv. 1846, Sep. I. David Richard'Pigot. EXCHEQUER 'Chancellor). John Manscll, appointed to reside at the receipt of the ex- chequer in 1234, is supposed to have been the CO 2 EXCHEQUER EXCISE first chancellor of the exchequer. The fol- lowing is a list of the Chancellors of the Ex- chequer since the Restoration : CHANCELLORS OF THE EXCHEQUER. CHARLES II. A.T>. 1660, Sep. 8. Sir Robert Long. 1667, May 24. Anthony, Lord Ashley, afterwards Earl of. 167.?, Nov. 13. Sir John Duncombe. 1679, March 26. Lawrence Hyde, afterwards Viscount Hyde, and Earl of Rochester. 1679, Nov. 21- Sir John Eruley. JAMES II. 1685, Feb. 6. Sir John Ernley. WILLIAM in. 1689, Feb. 13. Sir John Ernley. 1689, April a. Henry Booth, Lord Delamcre. 1690, March 18. Richard Hampden. 1694, Mays- Sidney, Lord Godolphin. 1696, May 2. Chark-s Montague. 1699, Nov. 15. John Smith. 1701, March 29. Henry Boyle, afterwards Lord Carleton. ANXE. 1702, March 8. Henry Boyle. 1708, Feb. ii. John Smith (second time). 1710, Aug. 10. Robert Harluy, afterwards Earl of Oxford. 1711, June 14. Robert Benson, afterwards Lord Biugley. 1713, Nov. i. Sir William Wyndham. GEORGE I. 1714, Aug. I. Sir William Wyndham. 1714, Oct. 13. Sir Richard Onslow, afterwards Baron 1715, Oct. 10. Robert Walpole, afterwards Earl of Orford. 1717, April 15. James Stanhope, afterwards Earl Stan- hope. 1718, March 18. John Aislabie. 1731, Jan. Sir John 1'rntt. 1721, April 4. Robert Walpole, afterwards Earl of Orford (second time). GEORGE II. 1727, June II. Robert Walpole. 1742, Feb. 17. Samuel Sandys, afterwards Baron Sandys. 1743, Aug. 3S- Il'iiry 1'elham. 1754, March 9. Sir William Lee. 1754, April 6. Henry Bilsnn Leggi>. 1755, Nov. 22. Sir George Lyttelton, afterwards Lord Lyttelton. 1756, Nov^ 16. Henry Bilsnn I.e^-v (second time). 1757, April 9. William Murray, afterwards Lord Mans- field. 1757, July 2,, Henry Bilson Legge (third time). GEORGE III. 1760, Oct. 25. Henry Bilson Legge. 1761, March 12. William, Viscount Barrington. 1762, May 29. Sir Francis Dashwood, afterwards Lord le Despenser. 1763, April 1 6. George Grenville. 1765, July 13. William Dowdeswell. 1766, Aug. 2. diaries Towiishnnd. 1767, Sep. 12- William, Lord Mansfield (second time). 1767, Dec. i. Frederick, Lord North, afterwards Earl of Guildford. 1782, March 27. Lord John Cavendish. 1782, July 13. William Pitt. 1783, April 5. Lord John Cavendish (second time). 1783, Dec. 19. William Pitt (second time). 1801, Feb. 17. Henry Addington, afterwards Viscount Sidmouth. 1804, May 12. William Pitt (third time). 1806, Feb. 5. Lord Henry Petty, afterwards Marquis of Lansdowne. 1807, April. Spencer Perceval. 1812, June 9. Nicholas Vansittart, afterwards Lord Bexley. GEORGE IT. 1820, Jan. 29. Nicholas Vansittart. 1823, Jan. 31. Frederick John Robinson, afterwards Viscount Goderich and Earl of Kipon. 1827, April 12. George Canning. 1827, Aug. 17. John Charles Hurries. 1828, Jau. Henry Goulburu. WILLIAM IV. 1830, June 26. Henry Goulburn. 1830, Nov. 23. John Charles, Viscount Althorpe, after - wards Earl Spencer. 1834, Dec. 9. Sir Robert Peel. 1835, April. Thomas Spring Kice, afterwards Lord Mont- eagle. VICTORIA. 1837, June 20. Thomas Spring Rice. 1839, Aug. 26. Francis Thornhill Baring. 1841, Sep. Henry Goulburn (second time). 1846, July 16. Charles Wood, afterwards a Baronet and in 1866 Lord Halifax. 1852, March. Benjamin Disraeli. 1852, Dec. William Ewart Gladstone. J K.-.5. Feb. 23. Sir George Coniewall Lewis. 1858, Feb. Benjamin Disraeli (second time). 1859, June 30. William Ewart Gladstone (second time). 1866, July 6. Benjamin Disraeli (third time). EXCHEQUER (Comptroller-General). The offices of auditor, tellers of the exchequer, and clerk of the pells, were suppressed by 4 Will. IV. c. 15, s. i (May 22, 1834), which act ordered the appointment of a comptroller-general, with a regular staff of clerks and assistants. KX CHEQUER (Tellers of the). These offi- cers, who existed as early as 1189, when they were ten in number, afterwards reduced to four, were abolished by 4 & 5 Will. IV. c. 15, s. i (May 22, 1834). EXCHEQUER BILLS, which first appeared in 1696, have since been issued annually. They were first circulated by the Bank of England in 1706. Doubleday (Financial History of England, p. 77) defines them as "nothing more than promissory notes due at certain dates, and bearing interest, issued by Govern- ment when in want of money." EXCHEQUER CHAMBER. This court was erected by 31 Edw. III. st. i, c. 12 (1357), to discuss questions which other courts found doubtful, and to serve as a tribunal of appeal from the court of Exchequer. By 27 Eliz. c. 8 (1585), its jurisdiction was extended over erroneous judgments in the court of King's Bench, and it was confirmed and further regu- lated by 31 Eliz. c. i (1589). The constitution of this court was again altered by j i Geo. IV. & i Will. IV. c. 70, s. 8 (July 23, 1830). In Scotland the court of Exchequer was, until the Union, 6 Anne, c. n (March 6, 1707), the King's revenue court. A new court was estab- lished by 6 Anne, c. 26 (1707), which was amended by 2 Will. IV. c. 54 (June 23, 1832), and by 19 & 20 Viet. c. 56 (July 21, 1856), which abolished the Scotch court of Exchequer, and transferred its jurisdiction to the court of Session. The court of Exchequer Chamber in Ireland was established by the Irish Act, 40 Geo. III. c. 39 (Aug. i, 1800). EXCISE, or a duty levied upon articles of consumption, produced within the state in which the tax is levied, was introduced at Rome by Augustus, after the civil wars, B.C. 28. Gibbon says it seldom exceeded one per cent., that it was temporarily reduced one-half by Tiberius, after the annexation of Cappa- docia in 17, and that it was altogether abolished by Caligula (37 41). An attempt, made in 1626, to introduce excise duties into England, proved unsuccessful. The Long Parliament levied the first excise duties in England, May 1 6, 1643. Wines, ale, beer, cider, perry, EXCLUSION [ 389 1 EXECUTIONS and tobacco were the articles taxed. By 12 Charles II. c. 24 (1660), excise duties were levied as part of the revenues of the crown. The malt duty was first levied in 1695. A large number of articles on which excise was formerly levied are now exempted. The old Excise Office was built on the site of Gresham College in 1774. In 1823, the Irish and Scotch Boards of Excise were incorporated with the English establishment. The Board of Excise was incorporated with that of Stamps and Taxes, under the name of Board of Inland Revenue, by 12 Viet. c. i (Feb. 27, 1849). EXCLUSION BILLS. The first Exclusion bill committed in the House of Commons, May 21, 1679, by 207 against 128, was lost by the dissolution of that Parliament, May 27. A second measure, "for securing the Protestant religion by disabling James, Duke of York, to inherit the imperial crown of this realm," passed the House of Commons Nov. n, 1680 ; and was rejected in the House of Lords, on its first reading, Nov. 15. Charles II. sent a message to the Commons, refusing to pass a bill of exclusion, Jan. 7, 1681. In the Parlia- ment summoned to meet at Oxford, March 21, 1 68 1, the Commons ordered, March 28, that the bill for excluding James, Duke of York, was to be read a third time the next day. Charles II. at once dissolved the Parliament, stating, "as we are not likely to have a good end, when the divisions at the beginning are such." EXCOMMUNICATION, as an ecclesiastical punishment, is of two kinds, the major or greater, and the less. The major excommu- nication is also called anathema (q. v.). The lesser excommunication consisted in exclud- ing persons from the participation of the Eucharist, and the prayers of the faithful. Excommunication by Bell, Book, and Candle, formerly pronounced every quarter in English churches, was denounced in Westminster Hall against the violators of Magna Charta, in 1253. The following are the most celebrated instances in which excommunication has been pronounced by the popes. When levied against an entire state, it is termed an interdict. 535. Baronius asserts that Agapetus I. threatened to put France under an interdict, because of a murder committed by King Clotaire I.. This account is re- jected as a fable. 098. Gregory V. excommunicates Robert, King of France. 1077. Gregory VII. excommunicates the Emperor Henry IV. (See CANOSSA.) 1115. The Emperor Henry V. is excommunicated at a council at Cologne. 1160. Interdicts are said, by some authorities, to have become frequent from the time of Alexander III. 1308 March 23. Innocent III. places England under an interdict, which is removed Dec. 6, 1213. 1337 Gregory IX. excommunicates the Emperor Frede- rick II. The excommunication is repeated in 1328, and the ban is removed in 1229. mo Gregory IX. again excommunicates the Emperor Frederick II. 1345 July 17. The Emperor Frederick II. is excommuni- ' cated at the I3th general council at Lyons. 1510. Julius II. excommunicates Louis All. ot France. 1538, Dec. 17. Paul III. publishes a bull, dated Aug. 31. 1535, excommunicating and deposing Henry Vlll. 1559. Paul I E V. g denies the right of Elizabeth to the English crown. A.D. 570, April 25. Pius V. publishes a bull declaring Eliza- beth of England an usurper. 1786, May 4. Lord George Gordon is excommunicated at the parish church of St. Marylebone. (See GORDON RIOTS.) 1860, March 39. Pius IX. excommunicates all persons concerned in the rebellion, invasion, and usurpa- tion of the Romaprna. This sentence includes ;llion, inva a. This f Napoleon HI. and Victor Emanuel. EXCURSION TRAINS were first started in England Easter Monday, April 8, 1844. EXECUTIONS. In 1039 the executioner is mentioned as a person of exalted rank, and even now the sheriff is nominally the exe- cutioner by virtue of his office. Harrison's ' Description of Great Britain," printed in 1577, states that 72,000 rogues and thieves suffered death in the reign of Henry VIII., that is, about 2,000 a year. By 9 Geo. IV. c. 31, s. 4 (June 27, 1828), the time for the exe- cution of a murderer was fixed for the next day but one from that on which he received sentence. This was repealed by 6 & 7 Will. IV. c. 30 (July 14, 1836). Date. Name. Crime. Place of Execution. 1700, Aug.23 1701, May 23 Rev. T. Hunter... Captain Kidd ... tfurder ... Piracy ... Edinburgh, Execution Dock. 1716, Feb. 24 Lord Derwent- High Tower Hill. water reason 1718, May 21 John Price, the Murder ... BunhillRow hangman 1724, Nov.i6 John Sheppard... rlouse- Tyburn. jreaking 1739, Apr. 10 Richard Turpin... Horse- York. stealing 1746, Aug.iS Lords Kilmar- High Tower Hill. nock and Bal- treason merino 1747, April 9 Lord Lovat .. I7SQ, Aug.io Eugene Aram ... Murder ... York. 1766, May 5 Lord Ferrers Tyburn. 1761, April 4 Theodore Gar- delle Saymarket. 1761, Dec. 15 JohnM'Naughton Strabane. 1767, Sep. 14 1774, NOV-SO Mrs. Brownrigg.. John Rann, alias Sixteen - string Highway robbery Tyburn. Jack 1-776, Jan. 17 Daniel and Ro- Forgery... M bert Perreau 1777, June27 1779, Apr. 19 Rev. Dr. Dodd ... Rev.JamesHack- Murder ... " man 1781, April 2 John Donellan ... " Warwick. 1795, Aug. 3 Lewis Jeremiah Abershaw Kennington Common. 1797 Juneso Richard Parker... Mutiny ... The Sand- wich, off 1797, Dec. ii 179:1, June 7 Mrs. Phipoe James O'Coigley Murder ... High treason ... Newgate. Pennenden Heath. 1800, April Richard Fergu- Highway Aylesbury. son, alias Gal- robbery 1802. Jan. 38 loping Dick Joseph Wall,Esq. Murder ... Old Bailey. 1803, Jan. 18 1803, Feb. 31 George Foster ... Col. Despard and others High treason ... Horsemon- ger Lane. 1803, Sep. 3 1803, Sep. 30 John Hatfield ... Robert Emmett... Forgery .. High treason .. Carlisle. Dublin, 1806, April 8 Richard Patch ... Murder .. Horsemen-. ger Lane* 1807, Feb. 33 Haggerty and Holloway " Old Bailey.* * At this execution more than. 40 people lost their live from the crush. EXECUTIONS [ 390 ] EXECUTIONS Date. Xame. Crime. Place of 1 Execution. Date. Name. Crime. Place of ICxecutiuii. 1808, Mar. 7 'homus Simmons Murder ... i Hertford, 184^ June 2 Joseph Connor ... Murder ... Old Bailey. 1808, Oct. 2 ilajor Campbell (duel) Armagh. 1846, Jan. 5 \IarthaBro\vning 1811, June34 {. Armitage and Forgery... Old Bailey. ; 1846, April 4 Samuel Yarhain ' Norwich. C. Thomas 1847, April l Jolm Platts Derby. 1813, May 18 John Bellinglunvi Murder ... 1847, Apr. 17 Catherine Foster Bury St. Ed- 1813, Aug.23 'hilip Nicholson " Pennenden i Heath. 1848, Jan. 8 Patrick Reid munds. York. 1813, Sep. 18 Michael M'llvena l.'nhiw- 1849, Apr. 2 1 James B. Rush... Norwich. fullvper- tormfng l49, Aug. 2 1 1849, Xov. 1 3 Mary A. Geering Manning and his !.e%\ es. Horsemon- the mar- wife ger Lane. riage ce- 1850, Aug. 34 Patrick Forbes ... Newcastle. remony 1851, Mar.25 Sarah Chesham .. Chelmsford. 1815, Aprils Joseph Black- burn, Esq. Forgery... York. 1854, Jan.35 1854, April 9 Wm. dimming... (juiii, Grant, and " Edinburgh. Monaghau. 1816, Aug.39 Jeremiali Grant.. Hirjrlary Maryboro 1 . Cootney 1817, Mar. 12 1817, July Jolm ('ashman ... Patrick Dcvan ... \-lony ... Murder ... -dinner St. Wild Goose 18^, Jan. 22 [858; Mar.3, E. Barthelemv ... Wm. Bousfield ... - Old Bailey. Lodge, Ire- 656, Junei4 Wm. rainier Stafford. land. 1856, Aug. 9 William Dove ... Xork. 1817, Xov. 7 Jeremiah Bran- ffigh Derby. Robert Marlev ... old Bailey. dretli, &c Dedea Kedanies Jlaidstone. 1818, Aug. 3 Charles 1 i Murder ... Pennenden 1*57, >"'>' (> Thomns .Mansell Heath. 1857, Julv33 Mil-had Crawley Chelmsford. (Thistlewood..') 1*57, July 25 John Lewis ' Cardiff. Ings 1 iigh nea- i '57, Sep. ii ('apt. Bo Liverpool. 1830, May I Brunt 'f son, ( atO St. con- Old Bailey. I*S7, -No\ . .'( 1858, Jan. 12 Thos. K. Havis... Jolm W. Beale... Old Bailey. Wilton. I>a\idson ... spiracy... I*S*, ''an. 14 John Thompson Paisley. 1830, July3i James Xc.sbctt ... Murder ... Pennenden Christian Saltier Old Bailey. Heath. i8s8,Apr.36 Giovanni Lani ... 1821, July 1 8 David Hag-art... Edinburgh, is*, Aug.24 Thos. B. Urn-knell Taunton. 1823, July 28 Philip Stoffel and Horscmon- [859, Jan. 3 Henry Reid Liverpool. 1824, Jan. 9 Chan. Keppel John Thurtell ... ger Lane. Hertford.) 1860, Sep. 4 W. (i. Voungman " llorscmon- ger Lane. 1824. Nov. 3 o llenrvFauntlerov Forgery... Old Bailey. I .oo, Xov. 19 James Mullins ... old Bailey. 1835, Junc2o William 1'robert llorse- [86l, April 5 The brothei-s Taunton. tealing Weilnmre 1826, Mar. 20 TolmDiggles Murder ... Manchester. 1861, Aug.37 Martin Doyle ... Attempt Chester. 1827, Jan. 2 Charles T. White Arson old Baih-y. to murder 1827, Jan. 26 John Peele Forgery... Pennenden 1861, Sep. 19 I'eter Master: on Munk-r ... Maidstone. Heath. 1862, Mar.14 Jolm Gould Reading. 1*27, Sep. I Josliua Slade Murder ... Huntingdon [86, Mar. 15 Wm. Charlton ... Carlisle. 1838, Aug.li William Corder... Bury St. Ed- 1*62, Apr. 1 1 Jliehard Thorley n Derby. munds. George J. Gilbert Winchester. 1828, Dec. 8 Joseph IfuiltOll... Forgery... Old Bailey. 1862, Aug.25 Kiehard Burke... 1829, Jan. 28 1829, Apr. 13 William Burke... Esther llibner ... Murder ... Edinburgh. old Bailry. I86J, Sep. 13 William Taylor) John Ward J Kirkdale. 1829, Apr. 29 Kdward Barnett Moinnoiith. 1862, Oct. 20 Catherine Wilson Old Bailuy. 1830, Jan. 1 1 AVillium Banks... Burglary Eonemon- 1863, Xov.I7 Hubert Cooper ... ger Lane. 1863, Juu - 3 William Ockold Wife' Worcester. 1830, Aug. 3 Capt. Moir Murder ... Chelmsford. (aged 70) murder 1830, Dec. 24 11. & W. Pack- Arson Pennenden 1*6-,, Mar.24 \oali Auston Murder... Oxford. in ail and J. Heath. 1863, April 6 lleiirv Carter Warwick. Dyke 1863, A])ril8 Daniel Ward Belfast. 1831, July 29 Jolm A. B. Bell Murder ... 1863, Apr. ii Robert A. Burton Maidstonc. 1831, Dec. 5 (aged 14) Bishop and Old Bailey. 1 863, Apr. 1 1 1863, Apr. 13 Edward Cooper... Dennis Delane ... Shrewsbury. Limerick. Williams 1*6-;, Apr. 14 John Ducker lps\\ ich. 1833, Jan. 8 Elizabeth Ross ... 1863, Apr. IT William Hope ... Hereford. 1833, July 9 Jonathan Siui- Murder & , 1 863, Apr. 25 I>. Mel-hail and " Kirkdale. thers arson G. Woods 1833, Aug.io 183 1, Xov.35 James Cook Mose'evand Gar- Murder ... Leicester. Horsemoii- i 1863, Apr. 27 j 1863, Aug.io Joseph Brooks ... Joseph Kelly Old Bailey. Wexford. 1835, Apr. 15 1*3-, Mar. 7 1837, May 2 side " Mary A. Burdock John Pegsworlh James Greenaerc " ger Lane. Bristol. Old Bailey. 1863, Sep. II /"Alvarez \ I Hughes ( S O'Brien ( VThomas ) 1 Kirkdale. 1839, Dec. 16 William Lees AI 1.^3. Dee. 28 Alice Holt Chester. 1840, July 6 F. B. CourvoUei ., If C>4, .lull. 2 John (Jreei Cambridge. 1841, Aprils Josiah Mister Atlemptci Shrewsbury [804, Jan. 9 Luke Charles Kirkdale." laJ^Feh! 1 ' Robert Blakeslej John Delahmit.. murder Murder .. Old Bailev. Dublin. " 1864, Jan. 13 Samuel Wright... IBlaneo 1 Duranno j " Hi/rsemon- gcr Lane. 1843, July 4 1844, Jan. 13 Cooper " Old Bailev. Stafford. ' 1864, Feb. 3? Lyons .... Piracy & munler Old Bailey. Sarah Wcstwoo; 1844, Aug. 7 William Saviile Notting- Watto j ham * [864, Mav g John Devine Murder ... 1845, Mar. 34 James Tapping.. ^ Old Bailey. [864, Aug. i Charles JJrieknell " 1845, Mar. 38 1845, Apr. 38 .lames TaweSl .. Thomas llocker " AvK-sburv. Old Bailey. 1*64. Aug. 5 Ch.irles Stevens .. Fran/. Midler Avh-sbuvv. Old Builey. 1864,' Dec. 3* Francis Wane ... ^ Chelmsford. * Twelve persons were killed, and upwards of 30 seriously injured, from the excessive crowding at this execution. 1865, Jan. 36 1865, Mar.i6 Ferdinand Kohl Matt. Atkinson... " Durham. EXECUTORS r 391 i EXETEE Date. Name. Crinic. 1'lacc of Execution. A.L>. 1643, Sep. 1865, July 38 Dr. Edward W. Murder ... ettatgow. 1646, Apri I68, Xov Pritchard 1*6;, Oft 12 John C.n-rir Maidstonc. 1696. Will 1866, Jan. ii StephenForwood, alias Southey " :1 1725- The 1738, Oct. tr I'TTO. A 1H EXECUTORS were appointed iu Greece and Rome. They are often mentioned in Anglo- Saxon wills. Mention is made in the Rotuli Parl. of the executors of the will of Bishop John of Kyrkcby in 1290. EXETER (Bishopric). On the erection of the see of AVinchester, in 650, its ecclesiastical jurisdiction extended over all the west of England ; but in 705 Devon and Cornwall were formed into the separate diocese of Sherbome. In 909 Edward the Elder created the sees of Wells, Cornwall, and Devonshire, the two latter of which were united in 1040, and in 1046 the sec was transferred from Creditor! to Exeter. The Scilly Islands were declared within this diocese July 30, 1838. EXETER (Devonshire). This city is one of the oldest in England, some authorities ascribing its foundation to Corinseus, nephew of the mythic Brutus, B.C. noo, while others state that it was built by Vespasian in 49. But as it was anciently called by British names, such as Pancair, the chief city ; Caer- Isc, the city of the Isc or Exe ; and Caer-Rydh, the city of the red soil, it was most pro- bably settled by the Britons previous to the Roman invasion. B.C. 54. Kougcmont Castle is said to have been founded by Julius Cresar. A.t). 633. Pcnda, King of Mercia, besieges Exeter. 868. Ethelred founds a monastery. 876. The Danes winter in Exeter. 894. Alfred compels the Danes to raise the siege of the city. 918. Edward the Elder holds a witenagemot at Exeter. 933. Athelstnn founds a monastery. 1003. Exeter is totally destroyed by Sweyn, King of Denmark. 1050. Edward the Confessor and his queen Edith visit Exeter, and found a cathedral. 1067. The inhabitants rebel against William the Con- queror, who besieges and takes Exeter. III2. The cathedral is founded by Bishop Warlewast. 1140. Exeter surrenders to King Stephen, after a siege of three months, during which the cathedral is demolished. I2co. It is incorporated. 1239. Tlle priory of St. John the Baptist is founded. 1250. A bridge is built over the Exe. 1280. Bishop Linvil rebuilds the cathedral. 1386. Edward I. and his queen hold their Christmas revels at Exeter. 1354. The first recorder is elected. 1357. The inhabitants entertain the Black Prince and King John of France, after the battle of Poitiers. 1463. Xine aldermen are appointed by Edward IV. 1469. Exeter is besieged by the Yorkists, under Sir Hugh Courtenay. 1497. Perkin Wai-beck lays siege to Exeter. 1536, Aug. 3. Exeter is erected into a separate county. 1549, July 2. It is besieged by the Cornish rebels. Aug. 6. They are compelled to withdraw, and the day is still observed as an annual festival, 1555. The first chamberlain of the city is elected. 1588. Elizabeth grants the city "Semper ftilclix" as its motto, for its fidelity during- the Spanish invasion. 1593. The Guildhall is erected. . The Koyalists, under Prince Maurice, take ). The city surrenders to Sir Thomas Fairfax. . William III. makes his public entry into ter. in III. establishes a mint. <> Tnpsham canal is completed, t. 18. The Duke of Marlborough reviews the troops hero. bridge is commenced. 1773. The castle is partially demolished, and the asjiza' hall built. 1775. The new bridge is destroyed by a flood. 1778. Exe bridge is opened. 1789, Aug. George III. visits Exeter. 1796. The gaol is built. 1801. .St. Thomas's Lunatic Asylum is founded. 1807. The Bridewell is founded. 1813. The Devon and Exeter Institution is founded. 1817. Exeter is first lighted with gas. 1819. The city prison is erected. 1820. The Koyal Subscription-rooms are built. 1821. The public baths are opened. 1825. The Mechanics' Institute is established. 1835. The Western market is built, the Athena?um insti- tuted, and the waterworks arc completed. 1838, July. The Eastern market is opened. 1844, May I. The Bristol and Exeter railway is opened. 1847. The Polytechnic Institution is founded. April 27. A destructive fire. May 14. A serious food riot takes place. 1848. May 5. The South Devon railway is opened. 1849. The post-office is erected. 1805. The Albert Memorial Museum is erected. EXETER CHANGE (London) is mentioned as a recent erection by De Laune in "The Present State of London, &c. ; " published in 1 68 1. It was designed for the vise of milliners, hosiers, 4, Jan. 12. Dublin (/.'.). Jan. 20. Lahore. March i. South Lon- don. 1864, Oct. IT. North London. t86s Wert London. (See FLORAL HALL.) May S. Dublin (q. t>.). Sep. Hastings. Sep. Oporto. Sep. i<;. Bristol. Sep. 21. I'reston. Dec. 12. Glasgow (1- r.). 1866, March 2. Manchester March 'o. Guildhall, London. (See ART Flxmni TIONS ; GRT-.VT EXHIBITION; INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITIONS; INTERNATIONAL Kx- HIHITKIN ; A'.' K.xiu-is i',;ittlc\ The Austrian* and Sardinians defeated the French and Spaniards at this place, near Mont Cenis, July 19, 1747. The French republican army failed in an attack upon the fort of Exiles in 1794. K\. The powder mills at Brandy- wine, United States.hlow up. killing ?c and wounding 10 pc rso us. 1843, April 13. Seven men are Killed and four buildings overthrown by an explosion at Walthimi. 1850, March ii. Three explosions, resulting in the death of eight persons, occur at the llonnslow mills. 1859, March 30. The Hounslow mills again blow up, with a loss i if seven lives. Aug. d. Five persons are killed by an explosion at the llallincolligmills, near Cork. 1860, Sep. to. Six men are killed at the Mclford powder works. Argyll-shire. 1860, Dee. i. An explosion of gunpowder in a shop at Norwich kills two persons and destroys much property. iSfii, Jan. 21. An explosion at the Government manu- factory for hand grenades. Ac., at Chatham, kills one man and injures several. 1861, May 27. The Waitham mills blow up, killing one man and wounding others. 1862, Sep. i). Six women are killed by an explosion at the Nance Kuke powder mills, Cornwall. 1864, Oct. I. Frightful explosion at Frith (17. r.). Dec. 9. A powder st. in- explodes at linenos Ayrcs, killing 160 soldiers. Dec. 16. A powder vessel blows up in the Mersey at. Liverpool (q. V.). Dee, 24. A powder vo-sel explodes without damage at Wil- mington, Cnitod S; 1865, March 20. Two persons are injured at Favcrsham. April II. Four or five barrels of powder ex- plode in a shop at Southwnrk. May 24. About 300 persons are killed by an explosion at Mobile, I'nited States.- -Sep. 21. A firework manufactory explodes at Manchester. Sep. 25. Two men arc killed by an explosion at the Ewell powder mills. Sep. 26. A firework manufaetory blows up at l!ris t ol. EXTRAVAGANTS. (See CANON LAW.) EXTREME UNCTION. This ceremony of anointing persons on the point of death with oil, originated in the 7th century. In the ioth EYLAU [ 393 1 FAIRFAX century the clergy contended that if it did nol benefit the body it was of great service to the soul, and this doctrine was generally accepted in the i2th century. Eugenius IV., at the Council of Florence (14391442), decreed it to be a sacrament. This was confirmed by the Council of Trent (1545 1563). EYLAU (Battle). Napoleon I. defeated the Russian army under Benningsen at this Prus sian town, Feb. 8, 1807. The action was com- menced by Augereau, whose division was defeated with immense slaughter ; but Napo- leon corning to the rescue, the fortunes of the day were retrieved, and the Russians com- pelled to retire to Konigsberg. The loss of life was unusually great, though from the discrep- ancy in the reports, it is difficult to arrive at a positive conclusion. Alison (ch. xliv. s. 74 says : " On the side of the Russians 25,000 had fallen, of whom above 7,000 were already no more ; on that of the French upwards of 30,000 were killed or wounded, and nearly 10,000 had left their colours, under pretence of attending to the wounded, and did not make their appearance for several days afterwards." EZEKIEL. This book, written by the rphet Ezekiel B.C. 595, has been elucidated the commentaries of Marck, published in 1731, and of Venenia in 1790. EZRA. This' book was for the. most part written by Ezra the scribe, before B.C. 444, though it appears, from internal evidence, that Daniel and Nehemiah contributed some por- tions. F. FABIL This, one of the most celebrated and ancient patrician families of Rome, did not become prominent in history till after the esta- blishment of the Commonwealth, B.C. 510. Three brothers of the house held seven succes- sive consulships, from B.C. 485 to B.C. 479. The name occurs as late as the 2nd century. (See CREMERA.) FABLES. Jotham's parable of the trees (Judges ix. 7-15), delivered about B.C. 1235, is the earliest fable extant. Very ancient examples by Pilpay, the Hindoo fabulist, and by the Arabian, Lokman, a contemporary of King David (B.C. 1055 1015), are preserved ; but the first collection of any extent is that of jEsop, who flourished B.C. 570. His fables were turned into Greek verse by Babrius, who is believed to have lived before the reign of Augustus (B.C. 27 A.D. 14). Phsedms, the Roman fabulist, lived in the ist century ; and Strieker, the earliest known German writer of fables, nourished in the i3th century. The best modern fables are those of Jean de la Fontaine (1621 April 13, 1695), and John Gay (i688-Dec. n, 1732). FABRIANO, ST. (Battle). John of Anjou, during his invasion of Naples, defeated Alex- ander Sf.jrza and the Count of Urbino, the generals of Ferdinand I., in a hotly-contested battle at St. Fabriano, in the province of Ma- cerata, July 27, 1460. FACTIONS. (See Cmcus FACTIONS.) FACTOR. The law relating to a factor or broker was regulated by 6 Geo. IV. c. 94 (1825), called the Factors' Act, amended by 7 & 8 Geo. IV. c. 29, s. 51 (June 21, 1827), and ex- tended by 5 & 6 Viet c. 39 (June 30, 1842). FACTORY. The first fire-proof cotton fac- tory was erected at Belper by the Messrs. Strutt in 1797. Some regulations were intro- duced by 42 Geo. III. c. 73 (1802) ; and by 3 & 4 Will. .IV. c. 103 (Aug. 29, 1833), called the Factory Act, amended by 4 Will. IV. c. i (Feb. 20, 1834), by which persons under 18 years of age, and women, were prohibited from working more than 12 hours a day; and the employment of children under nine years was altogether abolished. This act was amended by 7 Viet. c. 15 (June 6, 1844), which ordered that all machinery should be guarded to prevent accidents; that eight, not nine, years, should be the earliest age at which children could work in factories ; that their hours of labour should not exceed six hours and a half a day ; and that they should attend school daily. These acts were extended and amended by 8 & 9 Viet. c. 29 (June 30, 1845) 10 Viet. c. 29 (June 8, 1847), by 13 & 14 Viet, c. 54 (Aug. 5, 1850), and by 19 & 20 Viet. c. 38 (June 30, 1856). (See BLEACHING.) FACULTIES. The Court of Faculties, em- powering the Archbishops of Canterbury and York to grant Faculties, Dispensations, &c., was established by 25 Hen. VIII. c. 21 si (1534)4 FACULTY OF ADVOCATES. The profes- sion of advocate has existed from time imme- morial in Scotland ; but its members did not form a faculty or society until the establish- ' ment of the College of Justice in 1532. Their number, at first confined to 10, is now un- limited, and has for some years exceeded 400. This body is presided over by a dean. FAENZA (Italy), the ancient Faventia, was the scene of the defeat of Carbo and Norbanus by Metellus, B.C. 82. It submitted to the Em- peror Frederick I. in 1162. Frederick II. cap- tured it, after an obstinate siege, Sunday, April 4, 1241. Rodolph I. confirmed the Pope in its possession in 1275. The Bolognese seized it .n 1282, and its walls were restored in 1286 Caesar Borgia wrested it from the Manfredi in 1501, and it soon after passed into the posses- sion of Venice (1504). The Papal authorities recovered it in 1509, and it submitted to the French in 1512. It was, however, restored to ;he popes, and was annexed to the kingdom of Sardinia in 1859. F^ESUL^E (Italy), an Etruscan city, the mo- dern Fiesole, first mentioned during the war vith the Gauls, B.C. 225, was devastated during he social war, B.C. 90 and B.C. 89. Belisarius aptured it after a long siege in 539, and the Florentines are said to have destroyed it in FAHRENHEIT. (See THERMOMETER.) FAINEANTS, or DO-NOTHING KINGS he name given to some of the Merovingian overeigns of France, who were the puppets of he Mayors of the Palace (a. v.). FAIRFAX COURT-HOUSE (Battle) jieut. Tompkins, with a small body of Federal avalry, attacked the Confederates at this village in Virginia, and captured five prisoners T une i, 1861. FAIR T 394 I FALKIRK FAIR ISLE (Atlantic Ocean . At Strom- ceiler Creek, in this island, south of Shetland, the Duke Medina Sidonia, Admiral of the Spanish Armada, was wrecked in Aug., 1588. FAIRLOP OAK Essex). This celebrated oak, which formerly existed in Ilainault Forest, was so old that, according to Mr. Gilpin, "the traditions of the country traced it half-way up the Christian sera." About 1728, Mr. Day, of Wapping, commenced the custom of dining here every year with a party of friends. Other parties joined him in these annual picnics, until at length the com- pany became so numerous that the gathering assumed the character of a regular fair, recur- ring the first Friday in July. Mr. Day died in 1767, and was buried in a coffin made of wood from his favourite oak. In 1805 the tree was accidentally set on fire. The trunk and most of the principal branches were seriously in- jured, and in Feb., 1820, it was blown down, and part of the wood was used for the pulpit and reading desk of St. Pan eras new church. The trunk of this celebrated oak measured 36 feet in girth, and its branches covered an area of 300 feet in circumference. FAIR OAKS (Battle . ( Italy .-The inhabitants of this city of the Falisci joined the Fidcnatcs and Veientines against Rome, B.C. 437. Caniillus took the city B.C. 396. They made war against Rome P..C. 356 and B.C. 293. The city was taken and destroyed by the Romans B.C. 241. PALBBNIAN WINE, so called from Faler- nus Agcr, the district in which it was produced. Tliis district was ravaged by the Carthaginians B.C. 217. Some writers suppose that a town named Falcria once existed in this part, though no evidence of the fact has been adduced. In later years the best Falcrnian wine was that produced at the village of Faustianum. 1'AI.KIOPING (Battle\ Margaret, Queen of Norway and Denmark, called the Semiramis of the North, defeated Albert of Sweden at this place in 1389. FALKIRK (Battlei. The Scottish army under Sir William Wallace was surprised by the English, under Edward I., in the forest of Falkirk, in Stirlingshire, July 22, 1298. As Wallace was doubtful of the fidelity of some of his troops, he wished to avoid an action ; but finding it impossible, he chose an advan- tageous position. Just as the two armies joined, his heavy cavalry fled without striking a blow, and he was completely defeated, with the loss of at least 15,000 men. FALKIRK (Scotland;. In 1057 a church was erected at this town of Selkirkshire, made a burgh of barony by James VI. in 1600, and a burgh of royalty by Charles I. in 1646. In 1715 it passed to the crown. The old church, removed in 1810, has been replaced by a modern edifice. Falkirk was enfranchised by the Reform Act FA 3 LklRK MUIR (Battle;. The Royalist forces, under Gen. Hawley, were defeated at Falkirk Muir by the Scotch, under Prince Charles Edward, Jan. 17, 1746. The English FALKLAND [ 395 FARMERS loss amounted to less than 400 in killed and wounded, and that of the Scotch to about 120. FALKLAND (Scotland). This town of Fife- shire, anciently a manor of the earls of Fife, from whom it passed to the crown in 1425, was erected into a royal burgh by James II. in 1458. The palace was commenced in 1500, and the town was greatly improved by James V., who died here Dec. 14, 1542. The charter was renewed by James VI. in 1595. The notorious Bob Roy garrisoned the palace and exacted contributions from the inhabitants in 1715. FALKLAND ISLANDS (South Atlantic Ocean). It is sometimes asserted that these islands were descried by Amerigo Vespucci, in 1502. They were visited by Hawkins in 1567, and by Davis in 1592. In 1594, Hawkins explored their northern shores, and in 1690 they were visited by Strong, who anchored in Falkland Sound, to which he gave its name. M. de Bougainville arrived Feb. 3, 1764, and planted a French settlement March 17 ; and Commodore Byron discovered Port Egmont in 1766, and took possession of the country by the name of Falkland's Islands. In 1767 the French ceded their claim to the Spaniards, who expelled the British in 1770, but were compelled to admit their right to the sovereignty of the islands by treaty, Jan. 22, 1771. As no attempts were made to establish an English settlement, the Republic of Buenos Ayres planted a colony at Port Louis in 1820. This was destroyed by the Americans in 1831, and in 1833 was erected into a British station. In 1840 the Government sent out a colony to Port Louis. It was removed to another situa- tion in 1844. FALLING WATER (Battle). An indecisive skirmish took place between the Federals and Confederates at this place in Virginia, July i, 1861. FALMOUTH (Cornwall) was originally called Smithick. In 1613, Sir John Killigrew formed the project of erecting a town here, which re- ceived its charter and present name from Charles II. in 1661. In 1670, Sir Peter Killi- grew built a new quay, which greatly added to the commercial importance of the town ; and in 1688 its prosperity was increased by the establishment of the post-office packet to Lisbon and the West Indies. The hospital for disabled seamen was founded in 1 750, and the gaol in 1831. Queen Victoria visited Falmouth Aug. 28, 1843. FALSE ACCUSERS. (See ACCUSERS, FALSE.) FALSE MONEY. (See COINING.) FALSE PRETENCES. By 33 Hen. VIII. c. i (1541), persons convicted of counterf citing ' ' letters or privy tokens to receive money or goods in other men's names," were made liable to imprisonment, pillory, or such corporal pain, short of death, as the court should award. This Act was amended by 30 Geo. II. c. 24 (1757), which prescribed more definite penalties of whipping, imprisonment, pillory, &c. ; and the offence was constituted a misdemeanour by L& 8 Geo. IV. c. 29, s. 53 (June 21, 1827). The ws on the subject were amended and consoli- dated by 24 & 25 Viet. c. 96 (Aug. 6, 1861). FAMAGOSTA, or FAMAGUSTA. This town, in the island of Cyprus, was taken by the Genoese in 1373, and by the Turks, Aug. i, 1571. FAMARS (Battle). The Allied army at- tacked the French and drove them from their entrenched camp at Famars, near Valenciennes, May^ 23, 1793. FAMIEH. (See APAMEA.) FAMILISTS, and FAMILY OF LOVE. (See AGAP,EMONE.) FAMILY COMPACT. The treaty signed at the Escorial between Philip V. of Spain and Louis XV. of France, Nov. 7, 1733, is called by Spanish historians the First Family Com- pact, and the secret treaty of perpetual alliance between France and Spain, signed at Fontaine- bleau, Oct. 25, 1743, is termed by them the Second Family Compact. The celebrated treaty between the Bourbons of France and Spain (Louis XV. and Charles III.), known as the Family Compact, was concluded at Paris, Aug. 15, 1761. It was a defensive and offensive alli- ance between France and Spain. Ferdinand [V. , King of Naples, acceded to the alliance. FAMILY CONVENTION. (See FLORENCE, Treaties.) FAMINES. (See INDEX.) FAN. Pharaoh is represented surrounded by his fan-bearers on the walls of the tombs of Thebes. Fans of peacocks' feathers were made in Greece in the sth century B.C., and are men- tioned in one of the tragedies of Euripides. The custom of using fans was introduced into Eng- land during the reign of Henry VIII., and in 1523 they were carried in winter as well as in summer. The ladies had prodigious fans, with handles half a yard long, and with these they often administered correction to their daugh- ters. During the i6th and i7th centuries they were used by gentlemen. Sir Edward Coke rode the circuit with one of these large fans. Folding fans were introduced in the beginning of the 1 7th century. The Fanmakers' Company was incorporated in 1 709. FANJEAUX (France). The ramparts of this place, the Fanum Jovis of the Romans, were removed in 1229, and the town itself was destroyed by Edward the Black Prince in 1355. FANO (Battle). The Alemanni defeated the Romans near this town, the ancient Fanum Fortunes, in Umbria, in 270. FARCE. One of the earliest extant is in German, called the " Apotheosis of Pope Joan," and was written about 1480. The French farce of ' ' Maitre Pierre Pathelin" was first printed "VillblNGALE, FARTHINGALE, or VER- D1NGALE. This hooped petticoat, to which the modern crinoline bears a strong resem- blance, is said to have been first worn in England by Catherine, Infanta of Spain, on her arrival in 1501, to marry Prince Arthur. Having become fashionable, it was superseded about 1640 by the hoop, which went out of fashion about 1820. FARMERS-GENERAL, or FERM1ERS GE- NERAUX. This associated body, who farmed certain branches of the revenue in France under the old monarchy, formed in 1728, was abolished in 1789. Dupin read a report against them May 5, 1794, and 31 out of 32 then living were sent to the revolutionary tribunal, FARMING'S [ 396 FATIMITES Twenty-eight were executed May 8, and the remaining three May 14. FARMING'S ISLAND (N. Pacific Ocean) was taken possession of in the name of Queen Victoria, by the steamer A Ibert, Feb. 8, 1861. FARMVILLE (Battle). Gen. Sheridan de- feated the Confederates, under Gen. Lee, near this place, in Virginia, April 6, 1865. FARNHAM (Surrey). In 860 this town was bestowed upon the bishops of Winchester by Ethelbald, King of Wessex ; and in 894 Alfred defeated the Danes in its neighbourhood. Waverley Abbey was built by Gifford, Bishop of Winchester, in 1128. The castle, which was founded by Henry de Blois, Bishop of Win- chester (1129 1171), was taken by Louis the dauphin in 1216, and demolished by Henry III. In Dec., 1642, it was seized by the Par- liamentary forces and again destroyed; but Bishop Morley commenced its re-erection in 1662. Farnham is celebrated as the birthplace of William Cobbett, March, 1762. Until about 1790 it was a borough. FARNOVIANS.-The followers of Stanislaus Farnowski (Farnovius), who separated from the Unitarians in 1568, became extinct on the death of Farnowski in 1615. FARNWORTH (Lancashire). Birch House, situated in this parish, near Bolton, Was erected in the reign of Charles I. (1625 1649). The public park was opened by Mr. Gladstone, Chancellor of the Exchequer, Oct. 12, 1864. FAROE, or FEIlf>K ISLANDS (North Sea). This group, discovered by the Norwegians between 858 and 868, now belongs to Denmark. They were held by the English from 1807 to 1814. FARRIERS. In 1267 farriers worked in shops open to the road as they do at present. Six farriers attended the army assembled to repel the Spanish Armada in 1588. The Farriers' Company was incorporated in 1670. FARRl.\(ilM)N, or FARYNDON INN.- (See SKI:.H:ANT'S INN.) FARRINGDON MARKET (London). The corporation were empowered by act of Parlia- ment, in 1824, to remove the.Fleet Market (q.r.) and erect a new one in its place. This was opened Nov. 20, 1829, under the name of Far- ringdon Market. FARTHING. This coin existed among the Anglo-Saxons, though no specimen remains. Farthings were first coined round in 1210, when King John ordered a large number to be struck for use in England and Ireland. In 1279 they were called Lundrenses, and until the reign of Edward VI. were made of silver. The want of a small coinage subsequently led to the manufacture and issue, by private persons, of leaden farthing tokens, which were sup- pressed by a royal proclamation. May 19, 1613. A few copper farthings were struck in 1665, but they were not issued till 1672. Tin farthings were coined by William III. and Mary in 1690. Half -farthings were first struck in 1843. FASHION. (See DRESS.) FASTI. Numa Pompilius (B.C. 715 B.C. 673) institxited the custom of marking monthly records of the feasts, games, . A congress of the order assembles at Philadelphia. Nov. n. James Stephens, "head- centre "of the Irish Fenians, is arrested. Nov. 24. He escapes from Richmond Bridewell, Dublin. Nov. 27. The trial of the prisoners commences nt Dublin. Dee. I. Thomas Clarke Luby, pro- prietor of the Irish People, is sentenced to 20 years' penal servitude. Dec. 6. O'Lcary, the editor, receives a similar sentence. Dee. 13. o'Donovan is condemned to penal servitude for life. Dec. 14. A special commission for the trial of Fenian prisoners is opened at Cork. 1866, Feb. 17. The. Habeas Corpus Act is suspended in Ireland. Feb. 19. A Fenian senate assembles at Nashville, United States. March 4. A monster demonstration of Fenians against the suspension of the Habeas Corpus takes place at New York. March 17. An alarm that this day, the feast of St. Patrick, will be signalized by a Fenian raid upon Canada, proves groundless. May 10. James Stephen! arrives in New York. May 31. A body of Fenians, under Col. O'N'eil, cms; the Niagara river, near Buffalo, and occupy Fort Krie, in Canada. June 2. They are defeated, nnd Col. O'Neil is killed by the Canadian regular and volunteer forces. June 7. President Johnson issues a proclamation against the Fenian movement. FEODOSIA. (See CAFFA.) FERE-CHAMPEXOISE (Battle). The Aus- trians, under Prince Schwartzenberg, attacked and defeated the French divisions of Marshals Marmoiit, Mortier, and Arrighi, at this place, in France, March 25, 1814. The French loss amounted to 5,000 killed and 10,000 pi i among whom were the generals Pachtod and Arney. FERENTIXUM (Italy). The Volscians took refuge in this town after their defeat by the Romans, B.C. 413. It was afterwards given to the Ilernicians. The Romans captured it B.C. 361, and Hannibal ravaged the territory B.C. 211. The modern town, called Ferentino, was the scene of a meeting between the Em- peror Frederick II., Pope Honorius III., and other rulers, in March, 1223, in favour of the fifth crusade. FERINE LATINS. An annual festival held in commemoration of the union of the peoples of Latium, was celebrated in March, May, or June, and consisted of the offering of sacrifices to Jupiter by all the tribes of the alliance. Some authors state that Tarquin the Proud founded this festival (B.C. 534 510); others con- sider it of earlier origin. At first it lasted one day ; on the expulsion of the kings, B.C. 510, a second day was added to commemorate the event ; and a third was afterwards added. FEKMO (Italy). This city of the Papal States, anciently called Firnium Picenum, was built by the Sabincs, and colonized B.C. 264 by the Romans. The popes obtained possession in the 8th century, and the university, founded in 850, was restored in 1824. The French, under Gen. Rusca, defeated the Neapolitans here, Nov. 30, 1798. FERNANDINA.H CUBA.) FKKXANDO PO (Bight of Benin) waa dis- covered in 1471, by the Portuguese, who ceded it to Spain in 1778. The Spaniards abandoned it, and the English formed a settlement ih 1827. They retired in 1834, and the Spaniards again took possession in 1844, calling the island Puerto de Isabel. FERNS (Bishopric) was founded about 598 by St. Edaii. Its earlier prelates were styled archbishops of Leinster. In 1600 the see of Leighlin was annexed to Ferns. By 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 37 (Aug. 14, 1833), the sees of Ferns and Leighlin were to be added to Ossory 011 their next avoidance, which took place on the death of Bishop Elrington in 1835. PEROZESHAH (Battle). Lord Gough de- feated the Sikhs at this village in Lahore, Dec. 21 and 22, 1845. The British force con- sisted of 16,700 men and 69 guns, and the Sikhs mustered about 50,000 men, with 108 pieces of cannon, which were nearly all cap- tured. The former lost 2,415 in killed and wovinded during the two days. FERRARA (Italy). This town, founded in the sth century, and fortified about 585, was made a bishopric in 66 1, and an archbishopric in 1735. In 1067 it became a free city, joined the Lombard League against the Emperor Fre- derick I., in 1175, and soon after passed under the sway of the house of Este. Venice seized Fcrrara in 1308, and Clement V. claimed it as a fief of the Church in 1309. The Este family FERRARS'S C 399 FIEF regained possession, and Ferrara was made a duchy by Paul. II., April 14, 1471, and was annexed to tlie Papal dominions in 1597. It surrendered to the French Juno 19, 1796, was retaken by the allies May 24, 1799, and was once more resigned to France by the treaty of Luneville, Feb. 9, 1801. Restored to the Pope in 1814-15, its inhabitants revolted in 1860, and Ferrara. became part of the new Italian king- dom. It was nearly destroyed by an earth- quake in Nov., 1570. The cathedral was founded in 1135; the university in 1264, was reorganized in 1402, closed in 1794, and re- opened in 1824; and the library in 1740. Treaties of peace were concluded here in 1428 and 1433. A council was held here Jan. 10, 1438. The last sitting took place Jan. 10, I4 FERRARS'S ARREST. Mr. George Ferrars, M.P. for Plymouth, had become security for a man, who failed to pay at the appointed time. The creditor consequently brought an .action against Ferrars, who was arrested by the officers of the city of London, and impri- soned in the Comptcr. The Speaker laid the matter before the House of Commons, and they despatched the sergeant-at-arms into the city to demand the release of the prisoner. A scuffle oiisued, in which the sheriffs and city consta- bles took part with the municipal authorities ; and the sergeant, after having broken the mace in his efforts to defend himself, was compelled to retreat. The Commons next proceeded in a body to the House of Lords, where the judges declared the arrest illegal, and pronounced it a very great case of contempt. The sergeant was again sent to the prison, this time the officials offering no resistance, and Mr. Ferrars was released from captivity. At eight o'clock the following morning, March 28, 1542, the sheriffs, and other persons concerned, appeared at the bar of the House, and the sheriffs and creditor were committed to the Tower, the clerk of the Compter to a place known as "Little Ease," and the constables who had attacked the sergeant to Newgate. They were, however, released, at the intercession of the mayor, March 30, and in April the king ex- pressed his approbation of the steps the House had taken. FERROL (Spain). A British fleet assailed this seaport, without success, Aug. 25, 1800. It was blockaded by a British fleet in 1805 ; and Sir Robert Calder, with 15 sail of the line, defeated the French and Spanish fleet, consist- ing of 20 sail of the line, 7 frigates, and 2 brigs, off Ferrol, July 22, 1805. Marshal Soult cap- tured it in 1809. FERTILE ISLE. (See CHRISTOPHER'S, ST ) FESTIVALS. (See FEASTS and FESTIVALS.) FETE DIEU. (See CORPUS CHRISTI ) FETHANLEA, or FRETHERN (Battle). Ccawlin defeated the Britons at this place, near Stroud, in Gloucestershire, in 584 FEUDAL S Y S T E M. Alexander Severus (222 235) and Probus '276 282^ gave grants of land to their soldiers on condition that they and their heirs should do military service for them. The custom was afterwards imitated by the Lombards and other northern nations, by whom it was introduced into civilized Europe. The oldest codes of laws founded on the feudal principle are the Salic law, which was promulgated by the Salians or Franks about 481 ; the code of the Lombards, com- menced about 646 ; and the Capitularies, pub- lished in 827. It is believed some such system was introduced into England by the Saxons, but it was not till after the Norman Conquest, in 1066, that it attained its full operation in this country. It was introduced into Scotland by Malcolm II. in 1008. The "Liber Fcudo- rum" was compiled by the Emperor Frede- rick I. in 1170, and it is regarded as the chief authority as to the feudal law of the continent. The "Coutumicr de Normandie" was com- posed about 1229. The system was discouraged in France in 1470, limited in England in 1495, and finally abolished by 12 Charles II. c. 24 (1660). FEUILLANT CLUB (Paris). During the Revolution, a club, first called the club of 1789, that assembled in the old convent of the Feuillants (1791), was named after them. A ministry composed of their leaders assumed power in June, 1792. The Jacobins conspired against them, and the Feuillant Club was closed in July, 1792. FEUILLANTINES. This order of nuns, subject to the rule of the Feuillants (q. ?.), was founded in 1590, and possessed a house at Paris, established in 1622 by Anne of Austria. FEUILLANTS. This name was given to a religious order founded by Jean de la Barrierc, at Feuillant, in Laiiguedoc, in 1577, and sanc- tioned by Sixtus V. in 1588. In 1587 it estab- lished itself in Paris, and in 1630 a separation took place between the Feuillants of France and those of Italy. FEUILLETON first appeared in the "Jour- nal des Debats," in Paris, in 1800. FEVER. Scarlet fever is believed to have originated in Africa, whence it was brought into Europe by the Moors. It is known to have existed in England for the last 200 years. Ty- phus fever, which has been known for 300 years, caused great mortality in the armies of Napo- leon I. and of the allied forces in the Crimea. FEVERSHAM. (See FAVERSHAM.) FEZ, or FAS (Africa), the capital of a king- dom of the same name, was founded by Edris, in 829. His dynasty lasted till 907. Fez be- came subject to Morocco in 1550. FEZZAN, or FESSAN (Africa), the ancient Phazania, the country of the Garamantes, was attacked by the Romans under Cornelius Bal- bus, B.C. 20. It was long governed by indepen- dent princes, who afterwards became subject to Tripoli, and was conquered by the Turks in 1842. FIDDLE. (-See VIOL, VIOLIN.) FIDEN^E (Italy), captured B.C. 496 by the Romans, with whom its inhabitants were fre- quently engaged in war, was taken and plun- dered B.C. 426, and its inhabitants were sold as slaves. The amphitheatre fell during an ex- hibition, in 27, when 50,000 persons were killed or wounded. Its site is occupied by Castel Giubilco. FIEF. Ducange (iii. p. 433 ) states that the word fief, as applied to a possession held by a tenant of a superior, was not used until 884, in the reign of Charles the Fat. (See FEUDAL SYSTEM.) FIELD [ 400 ] FILE FIELD OF THE CLOTH OF GOLD. Henry VIII. of England, and Francis I. of France, held interviews between Guisnes and Ardres, near Calais, June 7 24, 1520. Such was the magnificence displayed, that the place of meeting was called the Field of the Cloth of Gold. FIELD OF MARCH, or FIELD OF MAY. This name was given to assemblies of the Frankish people which were held in France under the Merovingian kings, every year in the month of March. They have been called Par- liaments of the Champ de Mars. The people assembled in arms on these occasions. Pepin the Short, after his accession to the throne in 747, revived this national assembly, changing the time of meeting from March to May. Charlemagne also convoked them. Sheppard (Fall of Rome and Rise of the New Nation- alities, sect, ix.) remarks: "Of these assem- blies the chroniclers enumerate thirty-five between the years 770 and 813. That convoked in spring, and styled 'the field of May,' alone had the privilege of passing laws, and in it the third estate, or the people, were associated with the clergy and nobles." FIELD SPORTS. From the time of Nimrod, the " mighty hunter before the Lord" (Gen. x. 9), hunting has been popular in all countries and in every age. The Egyp- tians, Assyrians, Babylonians, Med Persians, pursued it with avidity, hunting the lion, tiger, leopard, deer, hare, A: c., and em- ploying, to track the game, sporting dogs, and lions, and other beasts of prey trained for the task. The Greeks and Romans, in the early period of their history, hunted the lion, panther, leopard, &c., in Thrace and in Asia Minor, and afterwards the wild boar furnished their favourite sport. Stag and hare hunting, and coursing, were also practised, Xenophon (B.C. 444 B.C. 357), Arrian (90170), and other authors having left accounts of the manner in which they were conducted. The ancient Britons were enthusiastic sportsmen, and many skeletons of their hunting dogs are found in the barrows (q. v.) which formed their places of sepulture. The Saxons practised hunting, which was a favourite recreation of Alfred the Great (871 901), and it was a favourite pastime in the time of Edward II. (13071327). (See ANGLING, FALCONRY, Fox - HUNTING, GAME LAWS, See SALMON FISHERY.) FISilEirs HILI, rhe retreating Confederates under Gen. Ewell made a stand at this pass in Virginia, and were defeated by G.-'ii. Milroy, June 2, 1862. Gen. Sheridan defeated the Confederates at the same place, Oct. 9, 1864. FISHGUARD (Wales). A French force of 1,200 men landed near this town Feb. 22, 1797, and surrendered Feb. 24. FISHMONGERS. Mention of the fish- mongers of London occurs as early as 1290. They originally formed two companies, the Salt Fishmongers, incorporated in 1433, and the Stock Fishmongers in 1509, united in one company in 1536. Their ancient arms were confirmed in 1575. The company of fishermen was incorporated in 1687. The Fishmongers, before the union of their two companies, pos- sessed six halls. The new Fishmongers' Hall was completed in 1835. The Prince of Wales received the freedom of the Fishmongers' Company, Feb. 12, 1863. FITZWILLIAM MUSEUM (Cambridge). Richard Viscount Fitzwilliam, who died Feb. 5, 1816, bequeathed his collection of books, paintings, &c., and the interest of 100,000, for the purpose of establishing a museum at Cambridge. The building was commenced by FIUME [ 403 FLANDERS George Basevi, Nov. 2, 1837, and continued till 1847, when operations were suspended for a time, to allow for the accumulation of suffi- cient funds to carry out the design. FIUME Illyria). This seaport, in the pos- session of Austria, was made a free port in 1722, and was taken from Hungary and incor- porated with Croatia in 1849. FIVE FORKS (Battle). After a fierce con- test, Gen. Sheridan, with 30,000 men, drove the Confederates under Gen. Pickett from their entrenchment at this junction of five roads, near Richmond, Virginia, Saturday, April i, 1865. The Federals lost nearly 3,000 men, and the Confederates as many, besides 4,000 prisoners. FIVE HUNDRED (Council of the). The National Convention in 1795 vested the legis- lative power in two councils, that of the Ancients (q. v.), and that of the Five Hundred. To the latter was entrusted the sole right of originating laws. Its sittings were transferred to St. Cloud (q. v.) Nov. 9, 1799. This council was dissolved by Napoleon Buonaparte, Nov. 10, 1799. FIVE-MILE ACT. This act (17 Charles II. c. 2, 1665) prohibited Dissenters who refused to take the oath of non-resistance, from ap- proaching within five miles of any corporation where they had preached since the Act of Oblivion (12 Charles II. c. u, 1660), under a penalty of ,40. Nonconformists who con- sented to sign the declaration attached to the act for disabling Papists from sitting in either House of Parliament 130 Charles II. st. 2, c. i, 1677), were relieved from this restriction by i Will. & Marj', c. 18 (1688). FIVES. This game, under the name of palm-play, or hand-tennis, was known both in France and England as early as the i4th century. FLADENHEIM (Battle). Rodolph of Swabia defeated the emperor Henry IV. near this town in Thuringia in 1080. FLAG. The earliest flag was suspended from two corners like a square sail. Flags were used by the Greeks as. naval ensigns from the earliest period of their history. The pre- sent style of flag was introduced into Europe by the Moors when they entered Spain in 711. The embroidery of flags afforded occupation to the ladies of the Middle Ages ; thus the celebrated raven standard of the Danes, which was captured by the English in 878, was said to have been worked by the three sisters of Hubba. The renowned carrocium, or car* standard, of the Italians, was invented at Milan about the year 1040. Flags were first attached to lances during the nth and i2th centuries, and were distinguished by various badges by the Crusaders in 1188. For a long period the dragon was the national badge of the English. It was used by Harold II. at Hastings, by Richard I. in 1191, and by Henry III. in 1264. Edward III. blazoned his banners with the arms of England and France quar- terly in 1340. The Dutch yielded the honour of the flag to England in 1673. The flag- officers in the English navy are the admiral, vice-admiral, and rear-admiral, of the white, red, and blue. FLAG OF TRUCE. The Russians fired upon a flag of truce at Odessa, April 6, 1854, and at Hango, June 5, 1855. FLAGELLANTS, or WHIPPERS. Many persons in Italy, holding no peculiar doctrines, formed themselves into processions, and in- flicted chastisement upon themselves as they marched along, about 1260. Milman (Latin Christianity, vol. v. b. xi. ch. 2) says they "seemed to rise almost simultaneously in different parts of Italy. They began in Perugia. The penitential frenzy seized Rome : it spread through every city, Guelph and Ghibelline crossed the Alps, and invaded Germany and France." It was a purely religious movement, which had been preceded in 1251 by that of the Pastoureaux (the Shepherds) in Flanders and in France. Clement VII. anathematized the new flagellants who sprang up early in the 1 4th century. An attempt to revive these practices was made in Thuringia and other parts of Germany in 1414. Conrad, the leader of the sect in Thuringia, with many others, suffered at the stake. Flagellation was much practised amongst the early monks. (See BLACK DEATH.) FLAGEOLET, said to have been invented by Sieur Juvigny in 1580. FLAMINIAN ROAD or WAY. The Flaminia Via at Rome, constructed by Caius Flaminius B.C. 221, terminated at Ariminum. It was continued to Milan, under the name of the Via JEmilia, B.C. 179. FLAMMOCK'S REBELLION. In conse- quence of a tax levied to meet the expense of the Scottish wars of Henry VII., the Cornish- men rose in rebellion under Thomas Flam- mock, a lawyer, and Michael Joseph, a black- smith, of Bodmin. They marched towards London, and at Wells were headed by Lord Audley. On arriving at Winchester, they compelled their leaders to conduct them to Kent, expecting to be joined by many natives of that county, and encamped on Blackheath, where Henry VII. resolved to give them battle. An engagement ensued, June 22, 1497, in which the rebels were defeated, and 2,000 of their number slain. Lord Audley was be- headed on Tower-hill, and Flammock and Joseph were drawn, hanged, and quartered at Tyburn, June 28. FLANDERS is believed to have been covered by the sea in ancient times. In 793 it was erected into a county, and in 802 was colonized by a Saxon tribe. It was annexed to France in 843, passed under the government of counts in 862, and acquired celebrity as a centre of woollen manufacture about 960. In uop a terrible inundation forced many families into exile, and thus led to the establishment of a Flemish settlement in Cumberland, and sub- sequently, in 1 1 12, in Wales. The first com- mercial treaty between Flanders and England was concluded in 1274 ; but in 1309 disagree- ments broke out between the two countries, which, in 1322, led to open war. Peace was re- stored in 1325, and in 1369 it was annexed to Burgundy by marriage. The insurrection of the "White Hats" broke out in 1378, and Flanders remained in a very unsettled state till the accession of Philip II., the Bold, in D D a FLANDRIANS [ 404 1 FLINT 1364. In 1477 Flanders passed into the posses- sion of the house of Austria, in consequence of the marriage of the duchess Mary with the archduke Maximilian, and in 1556 it was an- nexed to Spain. In 1581 the Flemings asserted their independence, and the country was en- gaged in wars with Spain till the conclusion of the peace of the Pyrenees, Nov. 7, 1659. i n 1668 many of the inhabitants repaired to Eng- land, and in 1680 some parts of the country were seized by Louis XIV. of France. By the peace of Radstadt, March 6, 1714, it formed part of Germany, and Dutch Flanders was ceded to France by the treaty signed at the Hague, May 16, 1795. (See BELGIUM AND HOLLAND.) FLANDRIANS, or FLEMINGS, a branch of the Anabaptists, arose in the i6th century, and rebaptized not only those who had received baptism in other denominations in their child- hood or infancy, but also such as had re- ceived it when adults. FLANNEL. Various kinds were introduced into this country in the reign of Charles II. (See WOOLLEN TRADE, &c.) FLAX. The culture and manufacture of flax, carried 011 in Egypt about B.C. 1706, were introduced thence into Tyre B.C. 588. The ma- nufacture was in operation in England in 1189, and was practised in Scotland in 1210. By 24 Hen. VIII. c. 4 (1533), the culture of flax in England was made imperative, and in 1703 a bounty was paid on flax imported from the American colonies. A duty of id. pcrcwt. was imposed upon imported flax by 5 & 6 Viet. c. 47 (July 9, 1842), which was removed by 8 Viet. c. 12 (May 8, 1845). (See LINEN.) FLEET MARKET (London-, for meat and vegetables, was established in the centre of the present Farringdon Street, and exactly over the Fleet ditch, Sep. 30, 1737. It WHS re- moved to its present site, and called Farringdon Market, Nov. 20, 1829. FLEET MARRIAGES. One of the most glaring abuses of the Fleet prison was the il- legal performance of the marriage ceremony by clergymen confined within its precincts for debt. The first notice of a Fleet marriage is in 1613, and the first entry in a register in 1674. They were suppressed by the Marriage Act (26600. II. c. 33, 1753), which took effect March 25, 1754. The register books of the Fleet mar- riages were purchased by Government in 1821 FLEET PRISON (London) was built on the east side of Fleet ditch, in the first year of the reign of Richard I., and became a prison for debtors in 1640. It was burned down in the great fire of 1666, and again in Lord George Gordon's riots in 1780. It was rebuilt in 1781-2 By the act for consolidating the King's Bench Fleet, and Marshalsea prisons (5 Viet. c. 22, May 31, 1842), this prison was abolished, and was pulled down in 1844, I n *%45 the site was purchased by the Corporation of London for ^25,000, and the outer walls were removed Feb. 20, 1846. FLEETWOOD (Lancashire). This port was laid out by Sir Hesketh Fleetwood, Bart., in 1836. It takes its name from its founder, who died April 12, 1866. FLEIX (Treaty). Concluded at the castle of ?leix, in P<5rigord, Nov. 26, 1580, between aenry III. of France and the Protestants, ;erminated the seventh of the French wars of religion, or the " War of the Lovers." FLENSBORG (Denmark). Margaret, Queen of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, died at this place Oct. 28, 1412. The prosperity of the town was greatly increased by the neutrality of Denmark in the American war, from 1770 o 1783. The Iron Church was opened in 1854. The Danes defeated the German and Sleswig allies April 10, 1848, near the town, which was taken by the Prussians and Hanoverians, April 25, 1848, and was occupied by the Danes July 16, 1850. The Germans entered it Feb. 7, 1864. FLETCHERS. The Fletchers' or Arrow- makers' Company was incorporated in 1487, and the Bowyers' in 1620. FLEUR-DE-LYS. Tradition states that Clo- vis I., on his baptism, in 496, received from an angel a lily, which he and his successors on the Fi-eiich throne consequently assume! 1 as a icaringas their arms a blue shield sown with an indefinite number of golden fleurs-de- lys, which were, however, afterwards limited to three. Berry (Encyclopaedia Heraldica, i. under Fleur-de-lis) says : " Authors have much differed as to the origin and nature of the bearing, some supposing that they were intended to represent the top of a teepfrt, others the French battle-axe, called /ranctoca, or rather the iron of the im I 73 I > an d called the Family Convention, recognized Don Carlos, son of Philip V. of Spain, as his heir. A treaty of peace be- tween Napoleon Buonaparte and Ferdinand IV. of Naples and of Sicily, was concluded here March 28, 1801. Tuscany, Parma, Modena, and the Legations signed an alliance Aug. 20, ' 1859. FLORES (Atlantic). One of the Azores (q. v.}. An island sometimes called Kud-5, in the Indian Archipelago, is also known by this name. FLORIDA (North America) was discovered by Sebastian Cabot, in 1497. Juan Ponce de Leon re-discovered it on Palm Sunday (called in Spanish Pasjua Florida), April 4, 1512; whence its name. The Spaniards failed in an attempt to colonize it in 1521 : it was explored in 1539, and the French Calvinists sent an ex- pedition in 1562. The new settlers were assailed and defeated by a Spanish force, Sep. 4, 1565. Florida was ceded to Great Britain in exchange for Havana, in 1763. The Spaniards took it in 1781, and were guaranteed in the possession of the same by the peace of Versailles, Sep. 3, 1783. By a treaty concluded between Spain and the United States, Oct. 24, 1820, Florida into the possession of the latter. A constitution was adopted in 1833, an( i ^ was made a state March 3, 1845. It joined the Con- federate States, Jan. 10, 1861. The tract of country formerly known by the name of Flo- rida was of much greater extent than the present state. FLORIN. This coin is said to have been first issued at Florence, whence its name, in 1252, and in the i4th and isth centuries was current over all Europe. English silver florins, valued at two shillings, coined in 1849, were declared by proclamation, in 1852, to be cur- rent and lawful money of the United King- FLORINIANI, or FLORINIANS. The fol- Imveis of Florimis, the pupil of Polycarp, con- stituted an obscure Gnostic sect in the and century. FLO WEBS." There has been a class of men," says Disraeli, " whose patriotic affec- tion, or whose general benevolence, has been usually defrauded of the gratitude their coun- try owes them : these have been the intro- ducers of new flowers, new plants, and new roots, into Europe." Date. Flowers, Plants, &c. Introduced into England from A.D. 1726 Allspice 1596 i5'/> 1710 1792 1797 1753 Before 1597 1808 j S 96 Alicia. .ne (hortensis) Ditto (poppy) Ash (flowering) (Alpine) Ditto (American) Ditto (Siberian) Auricula Azalea (Indian) Holland. Levant. Italv. S. Europe. N. America. Siberia. Switzerland. China. India 1696 Before 1596 1548 1827 Hell-flower (Canary) P.roonj (Butcher's) Ditto (Spanish) Calceolaria Canary Islands. Hungary. S. Europe. Chili. 1811 Camellia China 1629 1814 Cardinal-flower Ditto (splendid) Virginia. Mexico. Poland il?2 C'eanothns (blue) , uun. Sicily. iso6 Africa. $4 Chrysanthemum (Chinese) India. 1783 1813 Clematis (Au_-ustifolia) ... Ditto (awned) New Holland. FLOWERS [ 407 1 FOIX 1726 ag I76 7 1690 1779 1789 1597 1803 178; 1773 1793 1781 1714 1698 1777 1788 1833 1755 1803 1803 1803 Before :63 1800 1791 1803 1775 J775 1804 1789 1806 1656 Before 1596 1788 159 IS96 1639 Before 1548 1629 1656 Before 1596 1794 1793 1562 1752 1713 1814 1774 1683 Before 1576 1792 1597 Before 1573 1793 J59 IS96 1597 1726 Flowers, Plants, &c. Clema'is (blue) Ditto (curled) Ditto (cylindrical- "> flowered) J Ditto (florid) Ditto (mountain) Ditto (Oriental) Ditto (vine bower) Ditto (Virginian) Convolvulus (Canary) Ditto (man} -flowered) ... Dalilia Double-rocket . andra Ecbium (large-flowered) Edwardsia (ditto) Everlasting (giant) Ditto (great-flowered) ... Fernbnsh (sweet) Foxglove (Canary) Ditto (Madeira) Fuchsia (scarlet) Ditto(tree) iazania (great- flowered) iompholobium (great-1 flowered) / Goodenia (large-flowered) Hakea (many-flowered) ... Hawthorn (American) Heath (ardent) Ditto (bell-flowered) Ditto (fragrant) Ditto (greut-flowered) ... Ditto (pearl-flowered) ... Ditto (perfmed) Ditto (tremulous) Hollyhock Honey-flower (great) Honeysuckle (Afiican fly) Ditto (Chinese) Ditto (Japan) Ditto (trumpet) Hyacinth Hydrangea Iris (Florentine) Ditto (Spanish) Ditto (Persian) Jasmine Ditto (Catalonia) Ditto (yellow Indian) Laburnum Lavender Lilac Lily (gigantic) Lipnria (globe-flowered)... Lupine (tree) Magnolia (purple) Ditto (swamp) Mandrake Mignonette Milk- wort (great- flow'red) Ditto (showy) Monsonia (Inrg.vflowered) Myrtle (candleberry) Ditto (woolly-leaved) ... Nasturtium Oleander (sweet scented) Oleaster Olive (sweet-scented) Passion-flower Ditto (orange) Peviploca Petunia Pink (tree) Ranunculus Rhododendron Rose (China) Ditto (damask) Ditto (Japan) Ditto (moss) Ditto (Provence) Ditto (white) Ditto (without thorns) ... Introduce;! into England from Jap;n. N. America. N. America. Japan. India. Levant Italy. N. America, Canary Islands. Ditto. Spain. Italy. New Holland. Cape. New Zealand. Cape. Ditto. N. America. Canary Islands. Madeira. Chili. Mexico. Cape. New S. Wales. Ditto. New Holland. N. America. Cape. Ditto. Ditto. Ditto. Ditto. Ditto. Ditto. Cape. Ditto. China. Japan. N. America. China. Italy. Spain. Persia. Circassia. East Indies. Madeira. Austria. S. Europe. Persia. New S. Wales. Cape. China. N. America. S. Europe. Africa, Cape. Ditto. Ditto. N. America, China, Italy. East Indies. S. Europe. China. Brazil. N. Caledonia. Greece. Brazil. Candia, Levant. Gibraltar. China. S. France. China. . Italy. N. America. Date. Flowers, Plants, &c. Introduced into England from A.D. Before 1548 J 73t I73i 1724 1774 1597 Rosemary Sage (blue African) Ditto (golden, ditto) Ditto (Mexican) Selago (clustered-flow'red) 8. Europe. Cape. Ditto. Mexico. Cape. Syria, 1750 Carolina. 1730 8t Peter's Wort 1640 1534 Tuberose India Before 1577 Tulip 1827 1837 Verbena (Melindres) Victoria Kegia Buenos Ayres. Ciuiana. FLUORTYPE was invented by Robert Hunt in 1844. FLUSHING, or VLISSINGEN (Holland). The inhabitants of this fortified town, on the island of Waleheren, threw off the Spanish yoke in 1572. The French took Flushing in 1795. It was ceded to France by the King of Holland, Nov. n, 1807, and formally annexed by a decree published Jan. 21, 1808. The Eng- lish having captured it Aug. 16, 1809, destroyed the works and retired in Nov. (See WAL- CHEREN EXPEDITION.) It again fell into the hands of the French, who surrendered it by the treaty of Paris, May 30, 1814. FLUTE. This instrument was in use in very early times, and several kinds are described in the " Harmonie Universelle," by Father Mer- senne, published at Paris in 1636. FLUXIONS. This department of mathe- matical science was invented in 1665 by Sir Isaac Newton, who explained it in a letter of Dec. 10, 1672, and published a description in 1704. The first work on the subject was pub- lished by John Harris in 1702. Leibnitz pub- lished his method of the differential calculus in 1684, and a long controversy resulted as to whether he had borrowed the idea from New- ton's former discovery. Recent researches have relieved him from the imputation of pla- giarism. FLYING MACHINE. (See AERONAUTICS.) FOGGIA (Italy). Manfred defeated the * Papal troops at this place, supposed to have been built from the ruins of Arpi, in 1254. Its Gothic cathedral was destroyed by an earth- quake in 1731. FOIX (France), though said to derive its name from its foundation by a colony of Pho- cians, does not appear to have existed before the 2nd century, when it grew up around the ancient abbey of St. Volusien. The castle is first mentioned in the will of Roger I., Count of Carcassonne, in 1002. In the nth century, Foix became the capital of the county of the same name, the princes of which were often celebrated in French history. It was besieged by the Albigenses in 1210, and by Philip III., the Bold, in 1273. The county of Foix, erected in 1050, became tributary to the kings of France in 1229, and was united to Beam in 1290. In 1398 it passed by marriage into the family of Grailly, and in 1494 into the house of Albret, from whom it descended to the line of FOKSHANI [ 408 ] FONTHILL Navarre, and on the accession of Henry IV., in 1589, it was united to the French crown. FOKSHANI (European Turkey). A congress for the settlement of peace between Turkey and Russia, assembled at this town in 1772, and broke up in Hep., without effecting the desired object. The Russians gained a victory over the Turks at Fokshani, July 31, 1789. FOLEMBRAI (Treaty). Henry IV., of France, by a treaty concluded with the Duke of Mayenne, at this castle in France, in Jan., 1596, put an end to the Roman Catholic League (q.v.). FOLIGNO (Italy). An armistice between Napoleon Buonaparte and the King of the Two Sicilies, concluded at Foligno, the ancient Fulginium, Feb. 18, 1801, led to the treaty of Florence (//. *'.). Foligno suffered from the effects of an earthquake in 1832. FOLK-MOTE. (6'ee COMMON COUNCIL.) FOLKS TONE (Kent;. This town, founded by the Romans, was of some importance under the Saxons, and was ravaged by the Danes. A fortress was built about 1150, of which no trace remains. Dr. William Harvey, discoverer of the circulation of the blood, was born here April i, 1578. Sir Elias Hervey, in 1674, en- dowed a charity for educating 20 poor children, and for supplying nets to poor fishermen. The harbour, constructed in 1809, was much im- proved in 1842. FOND I (Italy). This city of Naples, the ancient Fundi, obtained the privileges of a Roman city B.C. 336. In 1222 it was burned by the adherents of the Emperor Frederick II., and in 1534 it was besieged by the Turks. PONT, OT liAI'llSTKHY, was, according to Biiigham, for many ages, a distinct place fr an the body of the church. The same author remarks: " The baptistery, properly speaking, was the whole house or building in which the font stood, and where all the ceremonies of baptism were performed ; but the font was only the fountain or pool of water, wherein per- sons were immersed or baptized." Fonts were erected inside the churches in the 6th century. FONTAINEBLEAU (France). A royal palace existed here as early as 999, and a chapel in honour of the Virgin was founded by Louis VII. in 1169. Louis IX. established the convent of the Holy Trinity in 1230. In 1518 it was much improved by Francis I., who added the library and great garden in 1530. The celebrated conference between the Roman Catholics and the Huguenots assembled in May, 1600. Henry IV. formed the park in 1607. A treaty of alliance between France and Sweden was signed here Sep. 24, 1661, and peace concluded with Denmark, Sep. 2, 1679. A treaty of union and alliance with Spain was signed Oct. 25, 1743 ; the preliminaries for a peace between Great Britain, France, and Spain, Nov. 3, 1762 ; and a definitive treaty of peace between the Emperor of Germany and Holland, Nov. 8, 1785. Napoleon I. concluded a treaty of peace with Spain here, Oct. 27, 1807, and issued the decree of Fontainebleau, which ordered all English merchandise to be burned, Oct. 19, 1810. Pius VII. and Napoleon I. concluded a concordat (q. v.} Jan. 25, 1813, whereby it was agreed that the Pope should continue to exercise pontifical government in France and Italy. Napoleon I. here bade adieu to the Old Guard previous to his retirement to Elba, April 20, 1814. The marriage of the Duke of Orleans with the Princess Helen of Mecklenburg was celebrated here May 30, 1837. Louis Philippe restored the castle 1837 1840. FONTAINE FRANCAISE (Battle). In this battle Henry IV., of France, defeated the Spaniards, June 6, 1595. FONTAIN E - L'E V EQUE (Belgium). This town, long the subject of contention between the counts of Hainault and the princes of Liege, fell, in 1757, into the hands of the Austrians, by whom it was surrendered to the French in 1794. It was annexed to Holland in 1814, and 011 the separation of Belgium (q. v.), formed part of the new kingdom. FOXT ARABIA, or FUENTE-RABIA 'Spain). A conference was held at this strongly fortified town between Henry IV. of Castile and Louis XI. of France, in 1463. The French captured it in 1794. It was taken by the royal troops during the civil war in Spain, May 18, 1837. FOXTKNAI, or FONTENAY (Battle). Charles II., the Bald, of France, and Louis II., the German, Margrave of Bavaria, defeated their brother, Lothaire I., Emperor of Germany, and their nephew, Pepin II. of Aquitaino, at this village of Burgundy, June 25, 841. The victory produced no definite or permanent results. F( >.\TK.\A V - I.K -CO.MTI-; France). This town, which received a charter of commune in 1471, was taken by the Huguenots in 1568 and 1570, and by the Roman Catholics in 1574. Henry IV. seized it in 1590, and it was taken by the Vendeans in 1793. The church of Notre Dame was erected in 1600. FONTENOY (Battle). The French, under Marshal Saxe, defeated the allied army, com- manded by the Duke of Cumberland, at this village, near Tournay, in Belgium, April 30, (O.S.), May ii (N.S), 1745. The French army amounted to 76,000 men, in aposition defended by 220 pieces of artillery, whilst the allied forces consisted of 50,000 men, of whom about 28,000 were English and Hanoverians. At the commencement of the battle, the English carried everything before them, but the Dutch took to flight. The victory was in a great measure due to a charge made by the Irish brigade, led by Lord Clare. FONTEVRAULT. This order of monks and mms was founded by Robert d'Arhrissel, who erected a monastery at Fontevrault, in France, in 1099. In 1106 it received the sanction of Pope Pascal II., and in 1113 was rendered independent of episcopal jurisdiction. Some monks of the order established themselves in England by invitation of Henry II. in 1177. It was re-formed in 1507 by the abbess Rene"e of Bourbon. FONTHILL ABBEY (Wiltshire). This magnificent mansion, built from the designs of Mr. James Wyatt, was founded by William Beckford in 1796. Warner says that in it "expense has reached its utmost limits in furniture and ornaments; every room is a gold-mine, and every apartment a picture- FOO-CHOW-FOO [ 409 1 FORESTS gallery." The cost of the building was ^240,000, and in 1807 the proprietor fixed his residence here. In 1822 the house was sold, and in 1823 the pictures, statues, &c., were disposed of by an auction which continued for 41 days. The grand tower fell Dec. 21, 1825, and irreparably injured the building, which was consequently sold in lots, and converted into a private villa, a cloth-factory, &c. William Beckford, who wrote " Vathek " and other works, died May 2, 1844. FOO-CHOW-FOO, FOU-TCHOU-FOO, or FU-CHOO (China). This city stands on both sides of the river Min, which are here connected by a stone bridge of 33 arches, mentioned by the Jesuits in the ijth century. The town was one of the five ports' thrown open to British commerce by the treaty of Nankin (q. v.), Aug. 29, 1842, which was rati- fied at Hong Kong, June 26, 1843. FOOL. (See ABBOT OF FOOLS and JESTER.) FOOLS (Feast of). This festival, supposed to be derived from the Saturnalia of the Romans, was celebrated in France on the ist of Jan., as early as 1230, and it lasted till the Reformation. It reached England in 1240, and was abolished about the end of the i4th century. The Feast of Asses was celebrated at Beauvais about the same time. An annual fair held in the Broad Gate, Lincoln, Sep. 14, is called Fools' Fair. (See ALL FOOLS' DAY.) FOOLS (Order of ). This association, founded by Adolphus, Count of Cleves, Nov. 12, 1381, and composed of nobles and gentlemen of high rank and honour, who united for charitable purposes, continued in existence till the com- mencement of the 1 6th century, and is last mentioned in some verses prefixed to a Ger- man translation of Sebastian Brand's " Ship of Fools," published at Strasburg in 1520. FOOT BALL. This game, supposed to be identical with the Roman Pila Paganica, is mentioned by Fitz Stephen as an amusement of the English in the reign of Henry II. (1154 1189), and was a fashionable diversion of the aristocracy in the time of James I. (1603 1625). FOOT MESSENGERS. (See COURIERS.) FORBES MACKENZIE'S ACT, 16 & 17 Viet. c. 67 (Aug. 15, 1853), f r the better regulation of public-houses in Scotland, amending 9 Geo. IV. c. 58 (1829), permitted grocers to obtain certificates for the sale of beer, spirits, &c., by retail, not to be consumed on the premises. It was introduced by W. Forbes Mackenzie, M.P. for Liverpool, from whom it received its name. FORCALQUIER ( France), the Forum Ne- ronis or Forum Calcarium of the Romans, became the capital of a county erected in 1054, and was united to Provence in 1208. FORCED LABOUR. (See CORVEE.) FORCHEIM (Bavaria). Councils were held at this town in May, 890 ; in 903 ; and March 13, 1077, when Rodolph, Duke of Swabia, was elected Emperor of Germany, instead of Henry IV. (See CANOSSA.) FORCONIO (Italy). The ancient see of this town was transferred in 1257 to Aquila (q. v.). FOREIGN CLUBS. (See CLUBS, Foreign.) FOREIGN ENLISTMENT ACT. The enlist- ment of British subjects to serve in foreign armies was prohibited by 59 Geo. III. c. 69 (July 3, 1819). This act was temporarily sus- pended by an order in council of June 10, 1835, which permitted the Spanish Government to raise a body of 10,000 mercenaries in Great Britain. FOREIGN LEGION. The name given to regiments composed entirely of foreigners, who in various wars have served under the English flag. About 9,000 Hessians arrived at Chatham in May, 1756, to resist an expected invasion by the French, and in June, 1798, soldiers of the same nation were sent to Ire- land to subdue the rebels. By 18 Viet. c. 2 (Dec. 23, 1854), permission was granted for the enlistment of foreigners to serve in separate corps during the Russian war, and for one year after the conclusion of peace. A regiment was consequently formed, composed chiefly of Germans and Swiss, who formed a camp at Shorncliffe, near Dover, where they were re- viewed by Queen Victoria and Prince Albert, Aug. 9, 1855. FOREIGN OFFICE (London). This depart- ment was created in 1782. The new building near St. James's Park was commenced in 1864. FOREIGN ORDERS. According to regu- lations issued by the Foreign Office, May 10, 1855, and published in the London Gazette May ii, no British subject may accept a foreign order, or wear the insignia thereof, without having previously obtained the permission from the sovereign, signified by a warrant under sign manual. FORENZA (Italy). This city, the ancient Ferentum or Forentum, taken by the Romans B.C. 319, was colonized B.C. 118. FORESTALLING, ENGROSSING, or RE- GRATING, is the name given to the offence of buying articles of food on the way to market, or persuading persons not to offer them for sale, or to increase the price. By 25 Edw. III. c - 3 ( X 35). persons convicted of it were liable to forfeit the things forestalled, or two years' imprisonment. Many subsequent acts were passed for its suppression, the most important being 5 & 6 Edw. VI. c. 14 (1552), all of which were repealed by 7 & 8 Viet. c. 24 (July 4, 1844). FORESTERS (Ancient Order of). This asso- ciation of members of the working classes for rendering assistance in sickness and distress, was formed in 1836. FORESTS." The forests in England," says Coke, " sixty-nine in number, except the New Forest, in Hampshire, erected by William I., and Hampton Court Forest by Henry VIII., and by authority of parliament, are so ancient as no record or history doth make any men- tion of their history or beginning." The larger number of these forests has now en- tirely disappeared. Courts for levying amerce- ments for offences against the forest laws have not been held since 1632. The surveyor-general of the land revenues of the crown, and the surveyor-general of woods and forests, v. 7. IV-ie- of the Pyrenees (q. r.\. 1661, March 9. Death of Cardinal Ma/.arin, after which the king dispenses with a prime minister, and Colbert is appointed minister of finance. 1667. Louis XIV. declares war against Spain, and in- vades Belgium. 1668. Louis XIV. acquires Lille, Tournay, and other towns in Flanders. 1672. Louis XIV. declares war against Holland. 1678, Aug. 10. Peace of Nimeguen (q. v.), 1681. Strasbnrg (q. v.) and Casale, in Lombard}-, are an- nexed to France. 1683, Sep. 6. Death of Colbert. 1684, Louis XIV. is privately married to Madame de Maintenon. 1685, Oct. 22. Revocation of the Edict of Nantes (q. v.). 1689. War is declared against England. The Grand Al- liance (q. '-.) is formed. 1695. The currency is altered, a capitation tax levied, and patents of nobility are sold, to supply the defi- ciencies of the exchequer. 1697, Sep. 20. Treaty of Ryswick. 1701, Sep. 7. The war of the Spanish succession (?..). 170.1, Aug. 13. Battle of Blenheim (q. v.). 1706, May 12 (It. S.) Battle of Ramillies (q.v.). 1709. A severe famine occurs throughout France. 1713, A] ril II. Treaty of Utrecht (q. r.). 1714. Lettres de cachet become general. (See SEALED LCXTBBS.) 1715, Sep. :. Death of Louis XIV., who is succeeded by his great-grandson, Louis XV., under the regency of the Duke of Orleans. 1716. The Mississippi Scheme. (See LAW'S BANK.) 1722, Oct. 25- Coronation of Louis XV. 1725, Sep. 4. Louis XV. marries Maria Luziuska, daughter of Stanislaus, King of Poland. . 1748, Oct. 7 (O.S.) The peace of Aix-la-Chapelle (q. Dec. 10. The young Pretender is expelled fr A.D. 1733. Louis XV. declares war against Austria, on behalf of his father-in-law, the King of Poland. 1739. A severe famine occurs in France. 1743, June 16 (O.S.). Battle of Dettingen. 1746. Madame Pompadour attains great influence over the king. v.). rom France. I7S& France enters into alliance with Austria against England, and the Seven Years' War commences. 1757, .Ian. 5. Da miens attempts the king's life. March 38. lie is executed with great barbarity. 1762, The Jesuits are secularized, and their property con- fiscated. 1763, Feb. 10. Peace of Paris (q. r.). 1764, April 14. Death of Madame Pampadour, and sup- ii of the order of the Jesuits. 1766. Lorraine (q. r.) is united to Fiance. i<-a (q. r.) is united to France. i-'' i. Ma. lame du I'.arri becomes the king's mistress. 1770, May 30. Marriage of the dauphin and Marie Antoi- nette 1771. The Parliament is banished, and six "superior courts " are established in its 1774, May 10. Death of Louis XV., who is succeeded by his grandson. Louis XVI. Dec. 12. The Parlia- ment is re-establish d. 1776. May 12. Turgot is dismissed from office. 1777. Juh- 2. Necker becomes minister of finance. 1778. Loiiis XVI. declares war against England, in aid of the North American colonies. 1779. An army of 40,000 men is assembled in Brittany for the invasion of England. 1780. Torture is abolished. [781, May 33. Resignation of Necker. 3. Treat v of Versailles (q. t'.). 1785. The diamond' necklace affair (q. v.). The guillotine is invented. 1787, Feb. 22. 'I he Assembly of Notables meets. The king and Parliament disagree respecting the col- lection of taxes. 1788, Necker is recalled. Nov. 6. The second Assembly of the Notables meets. 1789, May 5. The states-general assemble at Versailles. June 17. The states-general assume the title of the, National Assembly (q. r.). July 14. The llastille is stormed and destroyed. Aug. I }. The Assembly adopts the declaration of the"l(ight Oct. 5 and 6. The people attack the palace at Versailles, and compel the king and queen to go to Paris. Oct. 9. The' Assembly follows the king and queen to Paris. Oct. 16. The title "King of France" is altered to "King of the French." Nov. 2. The property of the clergy is confis- cated. Dec. 22. France is divided into 83 de^art- ments. 1790, Feb. 4. The king and queen visit the Assembly, and ngree to the revolution. -March 16. Li-ttres de cachet are abolished. June 20. Hereditary no- bility and titles of honour are abolished. July 14. The king swears fidelitv to the new consti- tution at the fete in the Champ de Mars (7. .). Sep. 4. Final dismissal and flight of Necker. Nov. 2". The Assembly publishes decrees for the humiliation of the clergy. 1791, March 18. Territorial .primogeniture is abolished. April 2. Death of Mira beau. June 22. The royal family escape from Paris by night. June 21. They are arrested at Varciines. June 25. They are imprisoned in tin; Tuileries. Sep. 15. Louis XVI. assents to the National Constitution. Sep. 29. Dissolution of the constituent National As- sembly. Oct. I. The Legislative Assembly meets. 1792, April 20. War is declared against Austria. June 20. The mob attack the Tuileries. June. Prussia, Austria, and Holland unite against France. Aug. 10. The mob storm the Tuilerie*. m the Swiss guards, and ini] rison the royal family in the Temple. Sep. 2 5. The royalist pri-oners in Paris, amounting to about 5,000, are massacred, the Princess de Lamballe being of the number. Sep. 2;. The National Convention (q. r.) assembles, and abolishes royalty.- Sep. 22. The French re- public is founded. Nov. 12. The debate on the trial of the king is opened in the Convention, and concludes Dec. 3. Dec. 15. Flanders is an- nexed to France. FRANCE FRANCE 1-703 Jan. 19. Louis XVI. is sentenced to death. Jan. 21, Louis XVI. is executed.-Feb. I. War is de- clared against England, Spain, and Holland. March 10. The royalists of La Vendee rise in insurrection. March 25. Kobespierre and his colleagues are invested with dictatorial autho- rity. May 31. The Reign of Terror commences. July 13. Charlotte Conlay assassinates Marat. Aug. 23. Napoleon Buonaparte first distin- guishes hinisc-lf at the siege of Toulon. Oct. 14. Trial of the queen. Oct. 16. She is executed. Nov. 6. Philip Epalite, Duke of Orleans, is he- headed. Nov. 8. Madame Roland is be headed. Nov. 24. The revolutionary calendar is adopted by the Convention. Dec. 12. The insurrection in La Vendee is suppressed. 1794, March 24. The leaders of the Cordeliers Club are executed. April 5. Danton and his colleagues are guillotined. May 12. Madame Elizabeth, sister of Louis XVI., is executed. June 7. Kobes- pierre celebrates the festival of the God of Nature, and acts as high priest. July 27. The revolution of the 9th Thennidor, and fall of Robespierre. July 28. Robespierre, St. Just, and 70 of their partisans, are guillotined, which ter- minates the Ileign of Terror. Sep. 8. The National Convention orders the closing of the Jacobin clubs. J 79Si April 5. peace is concluded with Prussia at Basel. June 8. Louis XVII. dies in prison in the Temple. Oct. 5. A rebellion of 30,000 royalists against the convention is suppressed by Napoleon Buonaparte. Oct. 28. The Council of the Ancients and of the Five Hundred hold their first meetings. The Directory is established. 1796, April 9. Napoleon commences his Italian victories. Nov. 14, 16, and 17. Battle of Arcola (q. v.). 1797, May 20. Babceut's conspiracy. Sep. 4. A revolution in favour of the Directory takes place in Paris. Dec. 10. Napoleon Buonaparte returns to Paris. Magnifi-cut fetes are given in his honour as "the Pacificator." 1798, Jan. 4. All English merchandise in France is con- fiscated. May 20. Napoleon Buonaparte embarks for Egypt. 1799, June 22. England, Russia, Germany, Turkey, Por- tugal, and Naples, form the second coalition against France. Nov. 10. The Directory is dis- solved, and the consular government established. Dec. 13. Napoleon Buonaparte is chosen first consul. 1800, June 14. Battle of Marengo (q. v.). Dec. 24. Napo- of an infernal machine, which exploded in the Rue de St. Nicaise, destroying about 40 houses. 1801, Feb. 9. Treaty of Luneville (q. v.). July 15. (See CONCORDAT.) Sep. n. The Roman Catholic re- ligion is re-established. -Oct. 8. Peace with Russia. Oct. 9. Peace with Turkey. 1802, March 25. Treaty of Amiens (q. v.). May 19. The Legion of Honour is instituted. Aug. 2. Napoleon Buonaparte is appointed first consul for life. 1803, March 13. Napoleon Buonaparte publicly insults Lord Whitworth. the English ambassador. May 16. War is declared against England. 1804, Jan. 15. A new civil code is adopted. Feb. 16. The Georges conspiracy (q. .). March 31. Execution of the Duke d'Enghein. May 1 8. Napoleon is proclaimed Emperor of the French. Dec. 2. He is crowned by the Pope at Notre Dame. 1805, May 26. Napoleon I. is crowned King of Italy. June 4. Genoa is annexed to France. Aug. 9. England, Russia, Naples, and Austria, form the third coalition against France. Sep. 36. The French invade Germany. Oct. 31. Battle of Tra- falgar (q. .). Dec. 2. Battle of Austerlitz. Dec. 26. Treaty of Presburg. 1806, July 12. The Confederation of the Rhine. Oct. 6. England, Russia, Prussia, and Saxony, form the fourth coalition against France. Oct. 8. Prussia declares war. Oct. 14. Battle of Jena (q. v.). Nov. 19. Publication of the Berlin De- cree (q. v.). 1807, Feb. 8. Battle of Eylau (q. v.). June 26. Napoleon I. has an interview with the Emperor of Russia. July 7 and 9. Treaty of Tilsit (q. v.). Dec. 17. Publication of the Milan Decree (q. v.). 1808, May 5. Charles IV., King of Spain, is compelled to abdicate in favour of Napoleon, which leads to the Peninsular war. (See Sl'AlX.) 1809, April 6. England and Austria form the fifth coa- lition against France. June 10. Napoleon I. is excommunicated. Oct. 14. Treaty of Vienna. Dec. 15. Napoleon I. is divorced from his wife Josephine. 1810, April i. Napoleon I. marries Maria Louisa, daughter of the Emperor of Austria. July 9. Holland is incorporated with the French em- pire. 1811, March 20. The empress gives birth to a son, who receives the title of King of Rome. 1813. Napoleon's invasion of Russia. (See RUSSIA.) 1813, Jan. 25. The Concordat. March 16. Russia and Prussia form the sixth coalition against France. Oct. 7. Wellington crosses the Bidasoa (q. v.) and enters France. Dec. 31. Napoleon I. dissolves the Legislative Council. 1814, March 30. Paris surrenders to the allies. April 4. Napoleon I. abdicates in favour of his son. May LThe Bourbons are restored in the person of uis XVIII. May 4. Napoleon I. arrives in Elba. 1815, March I. Napoleon I. suddenly returns from Elba, and lands at Cannes, with l.ooo men. March 15. Great Bri ain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia form a new alliance against Napoleon. March 19. Louis XVIII. leaves Paris and the empire is re- stored. March 29. Napoleon I. abolishes the slave trade. June r. Napoleon I. promulgates a new constitution. June 13. He leaves Paris to take the command of his forces. June 15. He invades Belgium. June 18. Buttle of Waterloo (q.v.). June 22- He again abdicates in favour of his son. July 3. He attempts to embark for America. July 6. Louis XVIII. returns to Paris. July 15. Napoleon I. seeks refuge with Capt. Maitland of the Betleroplion.Aug. 8. He is transferred to the Northumberland, at Torbay, and sent to St. Helena. Oct. 16. He arrives at St. Helena. Dec. 7. Execution of Marshal Ney. 1816, Jan. 13. The allied sovereigns issue a decree, per- manently excluding the Buonaparte family from the throne of France. 1830, Feb. 13. The Duke de Berri is assassinated. 1831, May 5. Death of Napoleon Buonaparte at St. Helena. 1834, Sep. 16. Death of Louis XVIII., who is succeeded by his brother, Charles X. 1837, April 30. The National Guard is disbanded. Nov. 5. The Chamber of Deputies is dissolved, and 76 new peers are created. g. 8. The Polignac administration is formed. y 19. The Chamber of Deputies is dissolved. May 25. An expedition sails for Algeria (q. p.). July 35. Royal ordinances are issued respecting the system of electing the Chamber of Deputies. July 26. They are published in the Moniteur, and create great dissatisfaction. July 37. The streets are barricaded, and the revolution commences. July 38. Paris is declared in a state of siege. July 30. The fighting ceases. July 31. The royal family flee from St. Cloud, and the Duke of Orleans accepts the lieutenancy-generalship of the kingdom. Aug. 3. Charles X. announces his abdication. Aug. 7. The crown is offered to the Duke of Orleans, who ascends the throne as Louis Philippe I. Aug. 17. Charles X. seeks refuge in England. Dec. 31. The Chamber of Peers pro- nounces a sentence of imprisonment for life against the Prince of Polignac and some "other members of his ministry. 1831, Feb. 14 and 15. Riots in Paris. Feb. 26. The criminal law is reformed. July 31. A law is passed to pro- hibit the assembling of the National Guard unless by authority. Dec. 28. The hereditary peerage decree is repealed. 1833, March 28. The cholera appears in Paris, and rages in France with great fury for several months. July 22- Death of the Duke of Reichstadt, sot) of Napoleon Buonaparte and Maria Louisa, at Sehonbrunn. Nov. 19. The kings life i at- tempted. 1833, Aug. 14. The Court of Delegates is abolished. 1834, May o. Death of Lafayette. FRAXCE t 416 ] FRANCE A.D. 1835, July 28. The Fieschi conspiracy (q.v.). 1836, June 35. Louis Alibaud attempts the king's life. Oct. 29. Louis Napoleon Buonaparte, afterwards the Emperor Napoleon III., attempts to create an insurrection at Strasburg. Nov. 6. Death of Charles X.,the ex-king. Nov. 23. Prince Polignac is released from prison. Dec. 27. Meunier attempts the king's life. 1837, May 9. An amnesty for political offenders is pub lUhed. 1838, May 20. Death of Talleyrand. July 12. War with Mexico. 1839, May II. An insurrection occurs in Paris. 1840, March I. Thiers becomes minister of foreign affairs. May 12. The Chambers order the removal of the remains of Napoleon I. from St. Helena to France. Aug. 6. Louis Napoleon makes a descent upon Boulogne. Oct. 6. Louis Napoleon is sentenced to imprisonment for life. Oct. 15. The king's life is attempted by Darmes Oct. 29. M. Guizot accepts the portfolio of foreign affairs. Dec. 15. There- minus of Napoleon I. are solemnly re-interred in the -Hotel des Invalides. 1841, Sep. 13. Attempted assassination of the Duke D'Aumale. 1842, July 13. Death of the Duke of Orleans, heir to the throne, in consequence of a fall from his carriage. 1843, Sep. 2 7- The Queen of England visits the French royal family at the Chateau d'Eu. 1844, Sep. "6. Peace with Morocco. 1846, April if>. Lecompte makes an attempt upon the king's life. May 25. Louis Nupolrrm escape's from the fortress of" Hum. July yj. Joseph Henri attempts the king's life. Oct. 16, &c. Inundations of the Loire and Rhone destroy an immense amount of property. 1847, Dec. 1 8. Death of Maria Louisa, widow of Napoleon Uuona;>arie. Dec. 21. Abd-el-Kader is surren- dered to the French. 1848, Feb. 21. A great refonn banquet is prohibited by proelamation. Feb. 22. The revolution com- mences, Paris being in a state of anarchy. Feb. 24. Louis Philippe abdicates, and. with his family, escapes from Paris. Feb. 26. A republic is proclaimed. March 3. The ex-king and queen arrive at Xewhnven. March 4. The victims of the revolution are buried with great public solemnity. May 4. The National Assembly is opened. May 7. The government is entrusted to an executive commission, elected by the Na- tional Assembly.- May 15. The mob attack tin- National Assembly. May 30. Louis Philippe and his family are condemned to perpetual banish- ment.-- June 13. Louis .Napoleon is elected a mem- ber of the National Assembly. June 23. The I.Vd Republicans rise in insurrection in Paris. June 24. Paris is declared in a state of siege, and all exe- cutive power is entrusted to (leu. Cavaignac. June 25. The left bank of the Seine is cleared of the insurgents. June 26. The Archbishop of Paris is mortally wounded while administering consola- tion to the dying, and comparative order is at length restored. June 28. (Jen. Cavaignac is made President of the Council. July 6. Solemn funeral of the victims of the insurrection. Sep. 26. Louis Napoleon takes his seat for the depaitmentof 1'Yonne in the National Assembly. < )ct. 19. Paris is delivered from its state of siege. Nov. 12. The Constitution is solemnly published in Paris and throughout France. Dec. 20. Louis Napoleon is declared President elect of the French Kcpublic. Tn. 29. An insurrection of the Tied Republicans is prevented. Aug. 22. The Universal Peace Con- gress assembles at Paris. 1850 May 16. The French ambassador is recalled from England. Aug. 26. The ex-king, Louis Philippe, dies at Claremont. 1851, Jan. 10. Gen. Changarnier loses the command of the National Guard. Sep. 27. Telegraphic communi- cation is established with England. Oct. 19. Death of the Duchess d'Angouleme, daughter of Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette. Nov. 4. The Pre- sident proposes to restore universal suffrage. Nov. 13. The National Assembly reject the Presi- dent's proposition. Nov. 26. Death of Marshal Soult. A.D. 1851, Dec. 2. The coup-tVi'tat. The President dissolves the Legislative Assembly, establishes univer- sal suffrage, proposes the election of a presi- dent for 10 years, and declares Paris in a state of siege. Thiers, Changarnier, Cavaignac, La- moriciere, and about 180 of the National Assem- bly, are arrested. Dec. 12. The President appoints a consultative commission. Dec. 2oand 21. Voting for the election of a President for 10 years takes place throughout France. 1852, Jan. i. The Moniteur announces the result of the votes to be that the nation desires Louis Napoleon to continue the government on the principles he laid down Dec. 2, 1851. He is accordingly installed at Notre Dame, and takes up his oilieial residence in the Tuileries. Jan. 7. The motto " Liberte, Fraternite, Egalite," is ordered to be erased throughout France. Jan. 9. Gens. Changarnier, Lamoricieie, and others, are set at liberty in Bel- gium, with instructions not to return to France. Jan. 10. Eighty-three members of the Legis- lative Assembly are banished, and 575 persons are transported to Cayenne for having opposed the coup-d'etat. Jan. 15. The President promulgates a new constitution. Jan. 23. The property of the Orleans family is annexed to the state. Jan. 2v Titles of nobility are restored. Feb. 3. The official statement as to the election of deputies to the Le- gislative Assembly is published in the Muniti-iir. Feb. 17. The President abolishes nil national holidays except the birthday of the Emperor Napoleon (Aug. 151. March 28. The departments are released from martial law. March 29. The legislative chambers assemble. March 30. A pre- sidential decree authoriy.es the erection of a per- manent crystal palace in Paris. May 10. The President distributes eagles to the army. July i. A plot for tin- assassination of the President is dis' -overeil at Paris. July 19. The President visits Strasburg. Aug. n. Thiers and other exiles am permitted to rciurn to I'Yalice. Sep. 13. The senate petitions for the re-establishment of the " hereditary sovereign power in the Buonaparte family." Sep. 10. The President visits Lyons to inaugurate a statue of the Emperor Napoleon. Sep. 23. The police at Marseilles seize an infernal machine designed to destroy the President. Sep. 27. The President visits Toulon, and orders the enlargement of the fortifications. Oct. 7. He visits Bordeaux. Oct. 16. lie releases Alid-el- Kader. Nov. 4. He announces his intention of restoring the empire. Nov. 7. The senate calls upon the President, to a -si the title of emperor. Nov. 12. A protest from the Count de Chambord against the empire appears in the Paris papers. Nov. 21 and 22. The votes of the nation are taken as to the restoration of the empire. Dec. I. Tin; Corps Legislatif declares the result of the voting : Ayes, 7,864,189; noes, 253,145; null, 63,336. The President accepts the empire, and assumes the title of Napoleon III. Dec. 3. He is proclaimed in Paris. 1853, Jan. 29. Napoleon III. marries Eugenie de Monti jo, Duchess of Teba. Feb. 4. The Moniteur an- nounces the pardon of 4.312 political offenders. Aug. 21. Napoleon III. and the empress visit Dieppe. Oct. 2. Death of Francois Arago. Nov. 7. Thirty-three persons are tried on the charge of plotting to assassinate the emperor: 10 of the accused are transported for lite, and the rest sentenced to various imprisonments. Nov. 20. The two branches of the Bourbons are reconciled. 1854, Feb. 6. The Russian ambassador leaves Paris. March 12. Treaty of Constantinople. March 27. France declares war against Russia. July 12. Napoleon III. reviews the troops at Boulogne. Sep. 3. Napoleon III. visits Boulogne, where he entertains the Kings of Belgium and Portugal, and Prince Albert Sep. 29. Death of Marshal St. Arnaud. 1855, April 1721. Napoleon III. and the empr England. April 28. Pianori fires at the emperor. May i> Opening of the Paris exhibition Aug. 18 37. Queen Victoria and Prince Albert visit France. Sep. 8. Pellenmrre attempts the empe- ror's life. Dec. 29. The Imperial Guard enter Paris. FRANCE FRANCE 1856, March 16. Birth of the Prince Imperial, in conse- quence of which the emperor pardons more than 1,000 political offenders. March 30. Peace is con- cluded with Russia. June I. Inundations occur in the south of France. 1857, Jan. 3. Assassination of the Avchbishop of Paris. March 15. A conference assembles at Paris to settle the Neufchatel difficulty. (See NEUF- CHATEL.) April 20. The Grand-duke Constantino of Kussia visits the emperor. July 16. Death of Bcraimvr. Aug. 7. The Italians, Tibaldi, Grilli, and Bartolotti, are tried for plotting against the life of the emperor. Aug. 8. Napoleon 111. and the empress visit England. Sep. 25. Napoleon III. meets the Emperor of Russia at Stuttgardt. Oct. 28. Death of Gen. Cavaiguac. 1858, Jan. 14. Orsini conspiracy (q. v.). Feb. I. Napoleon III. appoints the empress regent in the event of his death during the minority of the Prince Im- perial. Feb. 24- Numerous arrests take place in of an apprehended insurrection. juenee April 15. Marshal Pelissier, Duke of Malakhoff, arrives in London as French ambassador. May 22 Aug. 19. A conference meets at Paris to adjust the organization of the Danubian princi- palities. Aug. 4 and 5. Queen Victoria meets the emperor at Cherbourg (q. .). Oct. 9. A treaty of friendship is concluded with Japan. Nov. 2. Death of Count Esterhazy. Nov. 24. Trial and condemnation of the Count de Monta- lembert. Dec. 21. The count is partially ac- quitted by the court of appeal. 1859, Jan. i. Napoleon III. addresses some ominous words to the Austrian ambassador. Jan. 3- Marriage of Prince Napoleon and the Princess Clotilde of Savoy. April 23. The French army leaves Paris for Italy. May 2- The French am- bassador quits Vienna. May 3. Napoleon III. de- clares war against Austria. May 4. The Austrian ambassador leaves Paris. May 10. Napoleon III. leaves Paris to assume the command of the army in Italy, the empress having been appointed regent during his absence. (See ITALY.) July 16. Napoleon III. returns to Paris. Aug. 14. The army recently engaged in Italy makes its solemn entry into Paris. Aug. 16. Napoleon III. pub- lishes an amnesty to Frenchmen in imprison- ment or exile for political offences. Nov. 10. The treaty of Zurich (q. .). Dec. 31. In a letter to the Pope, Napoleon 111. insists upon the cessi of the Roniagua. 1860, Jan. 5. Napoleon III. announces his intention of relieving commerce from many existing restric- tions. Jan. 23. The treaty of commerce with Great Britain is signed at Paris. Jan. 29. L'Univers, the organ of the Ultramontane party, is suppressed. Feb. 25. The cession of Savoy and Nice to France is demanded. (.See SARDINIA.) March 10. Publication of the commercial treaty with England. June 24. Death of Prince Jerome Napoleon Buonaparte. Aug. 4. A French force is sent to Syria, to protect the Christians against the Mohammedans. Aug. 25- Napoleon III. writes to Count Persigny, French ambassador in London, to repudiate any hostile designs against England. Nov. 14. The empress visits England and Scotland privately. 1861, Feb. 2. A treaty is signed at Paris with the Prince of Monaco, for the cession of Mantone anc Roquebrune to France. Feb. 15. The pamphlet " France, Rome, and Italy," is published. Marcl 7. A treaty of boundary is concluded with Sar- dinia. April 6. A treaty for the protection of literary and artistic property is concluded with Russia. April 29. A commercial treaty is con- cluded with Turkey. May i. A treaty of com. merce, and for the protection of literary am artistic property, is concluded with Belgium. June it. The Moniteur announces the intention of France to preserve strict neutrality in th American civil war. June 23. Napoleon III recognizes Victor Emanuel of Sardinia as Kii of Italy. Aug. 6. The King of Sweden visit Paris. Aug. 18. A dispute commences with Switzerland. (See SWIT/EKLAND.) Oct. 6. Th King of Prussia visits the emperor at. Com pieg. .. 6i, Oct 12. The King of Holland meets the em peror at Compiegne. Oct. 3;. A convention for intervention in Mexico is signed at London, by plenipotentiaries of France, Great Britain, and Spain. Nov. 14. M. Achille Fould is ap- pointed minister of finance. 863, June 12- The Prince of Wales visits the emperor and empress at Fontainebleau. Oct. 15. M. Drouyn de Lhuyg succeeds II. de Thouvenel as minister of foreign affairs. Oct. 30. France invites England and Kussia to join her in intervention in North America. Nov. 8. Kussia declines to interfere. Nov. 13. England maintains her neutrality. 363, Jan. 9. The minister of foreign affairs addresses a second note to the cabinet at Washington, sug- gesting propositions for re-establish ing peace. Jan. 17. Death of Horace Vernet, the historical painter. Feb. 17. France remonstrates with Prussia respecting her proposed interference in Poland. Feb. 18. The French Government invites Kussia to tranquillize Poland. (See POLAND.) Feb. 27. Porto Novo, Western Africa, is received under French protection. June 23. Count Walewski becomes minister of state. Oct 13. Death of M. Billault. minister of state. Nov. 4. Napoleon III. invites the sovereigns of Europe to a general congress. Nov. 5. The session of the new chambers is opened by the emperor. Dec. 29. Four Italians, namedGreco, Imperatori, Trabuco, and Scaglioni, are arrested at Paris 011 a charge of conspiring against the life of the emperor. 864, Jan. 16. Death of Admiral llamelin, commander of the French naval forces during the Crimean war. Feb. 25. The conspirators are tried, convicted, and sentenced to various terms of imprisonment and transportation. April 8. A revolt breaks out in the province of Oran. (See ALGEUIA.) May 22. Death of Marshal Pelissier, Duke of Malakhoff, and Governor- General of Algeria. June 20. The Japanese ambassadors sign a treaty at Paris, and return to Japan. Aug. 16. The King of Spain visits the imperial court at St. Cloud. Sep. 15. A treaty is concluded with Italy, by which France agrees to evacuate Koine, and Italy arranges to transfer the seat of vernment to Florence. Oct. 37-28. Napoleon . visits the Emperor of Russia at Nice. Dec. 9. Death of M. Mocquard, senator and chief of the emperor's cabinet. Dec. 24. Prince Napoleon is appointed vice-president of the privy council. Dec. 37. A convention concerning telegraphs is signed with Prussia. 865, Jan. i. The bishops are forbidden to insert in their episcopal instructions the first part of the Tope's encyclical letter. Jan 10. M. Fould publishes his financial report for 1865. Jan. 19. Death of Pierre Joseph Proudhon. Feb. 14. A treaty with Sweden and Norway is signed at Paris. Feb. 15. The French Chambers are opened by the emperor. Feb. 31. The Commissioners for the Paris Exhibition of 1867 are appointed. March 10. Death of the Duke de Moray. March 39. M. d"e Lavalette is appointed minister of the interior. April 24. An attempt is made upon the life of the Secretary to the Russian Legation at Paris. April 26. Napoleon III. appoints the empress regent during his intended visit to Algeria. May 3. The emperor arrives in Algeria (q. v.). May 15. Prince Napoleon inaugurates a statue of Napoleon I. at Ajaccio. May 23. The emperor, in a letter to the prince, strongly disapproves of his speech on that occasion. May 27- Prince Napo- leon resigns the presidency of the Privy Council and of the Exhibition of 1867. May 29. Death of Marshal Mapnan. June 10. Napoleon III. re- turns to Paris. June 24. The budget is adopted by the Corps Legislatif. Aug. 14 31. The English Channel fleet visits Cherbourg and Brest. Aug. 29 Sep. 2. The French fleet visits Ports- mouth. Sep. 3. Count Walewski is appointed President of the Corps Legislatif. Sep. o. The emperor and empress meet the Queen of Spain at St. Sebastian. Oct. 20 and 23. The emperor and empress visit the cholera hospitals at Paris. Nov. 15. The emperor publishes a decree for the reduction of the army. Dec. 24. M. Fould pub- lishes his financial statement for 1866. gov 111. PRANCE [ 418 ] FRANCISCANS A.U. HOUSE OF VAT.OTS. 1866, Feb. 25. The Prince Imperial is formally appointed A D A.D. president of the Commissioners for the Inter- national Exhibition of 1867. March lo. A con- gress on the affairs of Roumania (q. v.) holds its first meeting at Paris. May 7. Nupoleon III., in a speech at Auxerre, denounces the European settlement of 1815. May 25. Official invitations to take part in a conference for the prevention of hostilities on the continent are forwarded to 1338. Philip VI., de Valois. 1350. John II., the Good. 1364. Charles V., the Wise. 1380. Charles VI. 1433. Charles VII. 1461. Louis XI. 1483. Charles VIII. 1498. Louis XII. 1515. Francis I. 1547. "enry II. 1559. Francis II. 1560. Charles IX. 1574. Henry III. Berlin, Vienna, Frankfort, and Florence. June HOUSE OF BOURBON. 5. The French Government announces that in A.D. A.D. the project of the conference must be abandoned! June 1 1. The emperor, in a letter to M. Drouyn de Lhuys, the Foreign Secretary, expresses his desire to avoid participation in a continental war, 1589. Henry IV. 1610. Louis XIII., the Just. 1643. Louis XIV,, le Grand. 1715. Louis XV., the Well- beloved. 1774. Louis XVI. 1793. Louis XVII. (merely nominally a king). and states his opinion that Austria, for an equi- table compensation, should cede Venetia to Italy. THE REPUBLIC. (See PKUSSIA.) A.D. I A.I). SOVEREIGNS OF FRANCE. 1793. Convention. 1795. Directory. 1799. Consulate. MEROVINGIANS. A.D. THE EMPIRE. A.D. A.D. 428! Clodion. 447. Merovajus. 1804. Napoleon I. 1814. Louis XVIII. (king). 1815. Napoleon I. (again). 458. Childeric I. 481. Clovis I. /Thierry I. (Austrasia or Metz). ... I Clodomir (OrleanM. 5 "' "} Childebert I. (Paris). ( Clotaire I. (Soissons or Neustria). 534- Theodebcrtl. (Met/.). 548. Theodebald (Metz). 558. Clotaire I. (France). /Caribert (Paris). efir ) Gontran (Orleans and Burgundy). *" \ Chilperir I. (Soissons). Uigebert I. (Aiistra.-iii). 575. Childebert II. (Austrasia). 593. Ditto (Burgundy). 584. Clotaire II. (Soissons). 613. Ditto (France). .-- /Thierry II. (Burgundy). 595- Vfheodebert II. (Austrasia). 638. Dagobert I. , /Sigebertll. (Austrasia). 3- \ciovis II. (S,,iss,,ns and Burgundy). 656. Clovis II. (France). f-f- fClotaire III. (Soiss.ms and Burgundy). W)0 - \Childei-ir II. (Austrasia). 670. Childeric II. (France). , /Uagobert II. (Austrasia). "'* (Thierry III. (Soissons and Burgundy). 691. Clovis III. (\eustria and Burgundy). 695. Childebert I II. 711. Dagobert III. 715. Chilperic II. 717. Clotaire IV. 730. Thierry IV. 737. Interregnum 743. Childeric III. CAROLINOIANS. A.D. 7S3- Pepin the Short. 768. Charles I., Charle- magne or the Great. 814. LouisI.,leDebonnaire. 840. Charles II., the Bald. 877. Louis II., the Stam- merer. 879. Louis III., and Carlo- man. 883. Carloman (alone). 884. Charles the Fat (em- peror). 887. Eudes. 898. Charles III., the Simple. 933. Robert I. 923. Rodolph, or Raoul. 936. Louis IV., d'Outremer. 954. Lothaire. 984. Louis V., le Faineant, or Indolent. CAPETIANS. 987. Hugh Capet. 996. Robert II. 1031. Henry I. 1060. Philip I. 1108. Louis VI., the Fat. 1137. LouU VII., the Young. 1180. Philip II., Augustus. 1333- Louis VIII., the Lion. A.D. 1226. Louis IX., St. Louis. 1370. Philip III., the Bold. 1385. Philip IV., the Fair. 1314. Louis X., the Head- strong (llutin). 1316. John I. 1316. Philip V., the Long. 1333- Charles IV., the Fair. HOUSE OF BOURBON RESTORED. A.D. I A.D. 1815. Louis XVIII. I 1834. diaries X. HOUSE OF OHLKANS. A.D. I A. I). 1830. Louis Philippe I. | 1848. Republic. THE EMPIRE RESTORED. A.D. 1853. Napoleon III. (Charles Louis). FBANCHE-COMTfi (France). This ancient province, conquered by the Franks in 534, formed part of the duchy of Burgundy, and was bestowed on Philip II. of Spain on his marriage with Isabella, daughter of Henry II. of France, in 1559. Louis XIV. conquered it in 1668, and restored it to Spain by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, May 12, 1668. He con- quered it again in 1674, and it was ceded to France by Spain, by the treaty of Nimeguen, Sep. 17, 1678. FRANCHISE. A royal privilege, or branch of the king's prerogative, subsisting in the hands of a subject, was of various kinds, and existed from a very early date. Charlemagne made capitulars in 779, securing the franchise of churches. By 8 Hen. VI. c. 7 (1429), the franchise was conferred upon forty-shilling freeholders. (See REFORM BILLS.) FRANCISCA. (See BATTLE-AXE.) FRANCISCANS, called also Grey Friars, Minor Friars, Minorites, and Lesser Brethren, were mendicant friars, founded by Francis D'Assisi, or St. Francis, in 1208. Pope Inno- cent III. in 1210, the Council of theLateran in 1215, and Honorius III. in 1223, approved the order. The first general chapter was held at Assisi in 1216. Francis died Oct. 4, 1226, and was canonized in 1228. In 1228, a dispute, which lasted till 1259, arose between the Domi- nicans and the Franciscans, concerning the dignity and preference of their respective orders. Gregory X. made it one of the four orders to which he reduced the mendicants in 1274. The Franciscans came to England in 1219. The Capuchins (q. r.), the Fraticelli (q. v.}, the Observants (q. v.), and the Clares, or Clarisses (q. v. ), are branches of the Fran- ciscans. FRANCIS'S FRANKLIN'S FRANCIS'S ATTACK ON THE QUEEN. At six o'clock in the evening, May 30, 1842, John Francis, a young man in his twentieth year, son of a machinist at Covent Garden Theatre, discharged a pistol at the Queen, who, accompanied by Prince Albert, was rid- ing in a barouche and four down Constitution Hill, London. He received sentence of death June 17, but was respited and condemned to transportation for life, July 2. FRANCONIA (Germany). This name was originally applied to the country on both sides of the Maine which was colonized by Frankish settlers under Thierry I., eldest son of Clovis I., who succeeded to his father's German posses- sions in 511. (See FRANCE.) Conrad, Duke or Count of Franconia, was elected King of Ger- many Nov. 8, 911, and princes of the same house occupied the throne from 1024 till 1250. The Emperor Wenceslaus, in 1387, divided the empire into four circles, of which Franconia and Thuringia constituted one ; and Maximi- lian I., in 1512, erected Franconia into a dis- tinct circle. In 1806 it was divided between Wiirtemberg, Baden, Hesse-Cassel, the Saxon duchies, and Bavaria, but since 1814 the greater part has belonged to Bavaria, where the districts or circles of Upper, Middle, and Lower Franconia were established in 1837. FRANEKER (Holland). The university, founded in this town in 1585, was abolished by Napoleon I. in 1811, and the building was converted into an Athenaeum in 1816. FRANKENHAUSEN (Battle). Mtinzer and his followers, who raised an insurrection in Thuringia, were defeated at this town, in Germany, May 15, 1525. The old town was destroyed by fire in 1833. FRANKENMARKT (Battle). The French, under Gen. Richepanse, defeated theAustrians at this place in Austria, Dec. 17, 1800. FRANKENTHAL (Germany), founded by some Flemish Protestants in 1562, has been frequently assailed. The French captured it in 1792, and the Austrians Nov. 12, 1795. FRANKFORT (N. America), the capital of the state of Kentucky, was founded in 1786, and made the seat of government in 1792. FRANKFORT-ON-THE-MAINE (Germany) was founded by the Franks in the 5th century. Charlemagne, who had a palace in this city, summoned a council in 794, and it was sur- rounded with walls by Louis I. in 838. It was the capital of the Eastern Franks from 843 to 889, when Ratisbon was selected. Frederick I. was elected at Frankfort in 1152. From that time it became the place of election for the emperors, and the Golden Bull confirmed it in the possession of the privilege in 1536. Frankfort was made a free city in 1257. The bridge over the Maine was built in 1342. Frederick of Prussia signed a treaty, known as the Union of Frankfort, with the Empire, France, and Sweden, at this city, May 13, 1744. The French captured it Jan. 2, 1759, and again in 1792 ; but the Prussians wrested it from them Dec. 2, 1792. It was bombarded by the French July 12, and surrendered July 16, 1796. It formed part of the Confederation of the Rhine in 1806. Napoleon I. erected Frankfort and some of the surrounding territory into a duchy in 1810. The Declaration of the Allied Powers was issued at Frankfort Dec. i, 1813. By the congress of Vienna, in 1815, it was made one of the four free cities of Germany, and the seat of the Germanic diet. It was made a free port in 1831. The Constituent Assembly, elected in 1848, held its sittings at Frankfort. They were transferred to Stutt- gardt, May 30, 1849. Francis Joseph II. of Austria summoned a congress of German princes to meet here, Aug. 17, 1863. The con- gress separated Sep. i. It was occupied by the Prussians July 16, 1866. Councils were held here in 794, 853, 1001, 1007 (Feb. 2), 1234, and ^RANKFORT-ON-THE-ODER (Prussia). Three periodical fairs, instituted at this town in 1253, are much frequented. It was besieged by the Hussites in 1430, by the Poles in 1450, and by the Duke of Sagan in 1477. Its univer- sity, founded in 1506, was removed to Breslau (q. v.) in 1811. The Russians and Austrians took Frankfort Aug. 3, 1759; the Prussians, however, regained possession Aug. 12. FRANKINCENSE. This vegetable resin, used as a scent, and especially for burning as incense, was employed by Moses in preparing the "perfume, a confection after the art of the apothecary, tempered together, pure and holy " (Exod. xxx. 34, 35), which was reserved, under penalty of death, for the exclusive service of the tabernacle, B.C. 1491. It was used in the ceremonies of the temple through- out the Jewish history, and as one of the most precious of known substances, was, with gold and myrrh, offered to the infant Redeemer by the wise men from the east (Matt. ii. n) B.C. 4. It is still employed in the services of the Romish and Greek Churches. FRANKING. The privilege of receiving and sending letters free of postage was claimed by the House of Commons in 1660. A warrant was soon after issued to the postmaster- general, granting the privilege to the weight of two ounces. This was confirmed by 4 Geo. III. c. 24 (1764). The privilege of franking was regulated by acts passed in 1764, 1765, and 1795, and by i Viet. c. 35 (July 12, 1837). By the third clause of 2 & 3 Viet. c. 52 (Aug. 17, 1839), the Treasury had power to suspend the privilege of franking, which ceased altogether on the introduction of the penny postage, Jan. 10, 1840. FRANKLIN'S EXPEDITIONS. John Franklin made three expeditions to the Arctic regions previous to that in the Erebus and Terror. As lieutenant in command of the Trent, he, in company with Capt. Buchan of the Dorothea, left England for Spitzbergen April 25, 1818. They arrived at their destina- tion May 26, and returned to England the following Oct. Capt. Franklin sailed from Gravesehd for America May 23, 1819, in order to conduct a land expedition in search of the north-west passage. He set out in sledges from the Hudson's Bay Company's station at Cumberland House, Jan. 19, 1820, and arrived at Winter Lake Aug. 20, where he remained during the severe weather ten months. The party embarked on the Polar Sea, July 21, 1821, and commenced their return journey to E E 2 FRANKLIN'S [ 420 ] FRANKLIN'S England Aug. 22. Capt. Franklin sailed from Liverpool to xmdertake a second land expedition, Feb. 16, 1825, and arrived at Fort Chipewyan in July. The party separated into two divisions, July 3, 1826, but reunited Sep. 21, and the expedition returned to Eng- land Sep. 26, 1827. He received the honour of knighthood, April 20, 1829. Sir John Franklin's last expedition, in the Erebus and Terror, sailed from Sheerness May 26, 1845. The last despatch home was written July 12, and the ships were seen for the last time by the Prince, of Wales whaler, July 26. From information afterwards collected by Capt. M'Clintock, of the Fox, an account of whose expedition is appended, it appears that the two ships were beset with ice Sep. 12, 1846. A party of six men, under Lieut. Gore, left the ships May 24, 1847, at which time all was going 011 well. Sir John Franklin died June ii, 1847, and the ships were abandoned April 22, 1848. The officers and crew, in number 105 men, landed April 25, and they intended to start for Back's Fish River April 26. This is the latest intelligence obtained respecting this ill- fated expedition. No anxiety was felt re- specting the vessels until the close of 1847, but numerous expeditions were subsequently despatched, an account of which is given in the following table. The case of Sir John Franklin, and his officers and 'crew, was officially pronounced hopeless, and their names were removed from the "Navy List," March i3> l8 54- A.D. 1848 55. 1^48, Jan. I. The Plover, Commander Moore, sails from Shecniess. with order-, (> proceed to Behring'l Strait, mid meet the lli-mlrl. dipt. Kellett. Aug. 23. She rcai'lii's tin- Sandwich Islands. 1849, .Inly 15. Is joined by the Herald at Ch.-i- miJMO Island. 1850, July 18. Tin- two ships are joined I iy the Nancy DawtOn yaeht.--.lnly 3> A boat expedition is sent under Lieut, Pullen. Aujf. 5. They see the lltve*tffator.l&$l. The Herald returned to Kn-land. 1*54, Nov. '9. The never, after long arctic service, traa sold, at San Franeiseii. not being seaworthy. 1855, April 8. The erew arrive in Filmland. 1848 52. 1848, March 25. .Sir John Uieliardson and Dr. Kae lea\ e Liverpool to eouduet a land expedition. - April to. They arrive in Xew York. Aug. 3. Enter the estuary of the Mackenzie Hiver. 1849, May I. Dr. Kae is despatched, with a party of eight men, to attempt to r.-ach \Vollaston Land, but in consequence of excessive ice, he was unable to accomplish this object. 1849, Nov. 6. Sir John Richardson arrived at Liverpool. 1851, May. l>r. Kae succeeded in exploring the shores of Wollaston. Aug. 31. He discovered a fragment of a flagstaff, supposed to have belonged to the missing party. 1853. He returned to E>iL--la.;d. 1840 9. 1848, June 12- Sir James Ross (Kiiteiprixe) and Capt. Bird (Imxttifator) leave England. They fail in an Mttempt to fret to the westward <>!' Leopold Island, and return to Mi, -land, Nov. 3, 1849. 1849 50. 1849, May 1 6. The North Star, Mr. Maunders, master, sails with provisions for Harrow's .Strait. Sep. 28, 1850. He returns to England. 1850 55. 1850, Jan. 10. The Enterprise and Investigator, under Capts. Collins in and M'Clurc, sail from the Thames. Jan. 30. They leave Plymouth. April 19. The two vessels are parted by stress of weather. July 29. The Investigator Arctic circle. Aug. 5. The Inrestigatoi is seen by the Plover. Aug. 29. The Enterprise is com- pelled by the ice to steer southward, and winter at Hong Kong. Sep. 7. M'Clure takes possession of Baring Island. Oct. 36. He discovers the north-west passage. July lo. 1851. Thu Enter- prise leaves I'ort Clarence for the North. I 8 53 SS- 1852, Sep. 36. She reaches Cambridge Bay, Wol- laston Land, and winters there. 1.^53, April 6. Lieut. Pirn, of the Resolute, brings assistance to the Investigator. June 3. She is abandoned, the crew being received on board the Resolute and Intrepid. 1854, April 14. The crew of the f;/ ( v.v- tigator proceed on foot to Beechy Island. Sep. 6. They reach Disco, on the coast of Greenland. Sep. 28. They arrive in England. 1855, May 6. The Kntvr/irise returns. 1850 SI. 1850, April 13. Capt. Penny, of the Lady Franklin, and Capt. Stewart, of the Sophia, sail from Aberdeen. 1851, Sep. They return. 1850 5:. 1850, April 30. Sir John Ross, in the Fclir, and Commander Phillips, in the Mary, sail from Loch Regan, the expense of the expedition being defrayed by public subscription. Sep. 25, 1851. Thev return. 185051. 1850, .May 4. Capt. Austin's expedition sails from Greenhithe. It consists of the Hex, Austin; the Assistance, Capt. Ommaney; the Intrepid, Lieut. < (shorn; and the Pioneer, Lieut. Cator. 1851, Sep. The Resolute and Assistance re- turn to England. 1850 51. 1850, May 23. The American expedition, the Adntnce and the Rescue, under Lieut. DC Haven and Dr. Kane, sails from New Vork. of this undertaking was sustained by Mr. Grin- nell, a wealthy American merchant A They fell in with some relics ol Terror. 1851, Sep. 30. Thev arrive at Ilrookivn. 1850, June 5. The Prince Albert, Capt. Furs- from Aberdeen. Lady l-'ranklin having equipped the expedition. Oct. i. It returns. 1851 S3. is.;, i. May 4 The Prince Albert is again fitted up by Lady Franklin, and sails irom Aberdeen, under the command of Mr. Kennedy and Lieut. I'.ellot, of the French navy. 1852, Oct. 9. They return after wintering in Prince Regent's Inlet. 1851, Sep. 37. Lieut. Pirn proposed to conduct . dition through Siberia to the mouth of the river Kolyma, and to explore the north coasts of Asia ; but the idea was abandoned in eons' ipienee of the representations of th Russian Government, 1853 55- 1852, April 15. Sir Edward Belcher's expedition, viz., the Assistance, Sir F,. I!e;cher; the Hcsnlnle, dipt. Kclk-tt; the \orth Slur, Capt. Pnllen; the Intrepid,l'n[)t. M'Clintock; and the Pioii-er, dipt. Osborn, sailed from Woolwich, with the double object of searching for the Franklin expedition, and for the Bnterprite and Inrestiffatur, which had been absent since 1850. Aug. 18. They arrive at their winter quarters, in Northumberland Sound. 1854, May 14. The Resolute and In- trepid are abandoned. Aug. 35. They abandon the Assistance and Pioneer, the whole of the officers and crews being transferred to the .\orth Star. Sep. 28. Sir E. Belcher and Capt. Kellett returned to England in the Phoenix. 1855, Sep. 10. The Resolute was discovered drifting in the ice. by Capt. Buddington, of the U.S. whaler George Henry. The British Govern- ment having relinquished all claim to the vessel, it was purchased by Congress for 40,000 dollars, and sent as a present to the ' \ She reached Spithead, under the care of Capt. Hartstein, of the U.S. navy, by whom she was formally presented to her Majesty, Dec. 16, 1856. 1852, July 4. The Isabel, Capt. Inglefield, sails from Woolwich Nov. 4. She returns, having explored 600 miles of new coast without success. 1 8 53, A P ril 8 - 'Hie Isabel again sails for Bchring's Strait, under Mr. Kennedy, of the - Albert. She reaches Valparaiso, where the officer and crew disagree, and the expedition is abandoned. 1853, May 19. The Phoenix, Capt. Inglefield, with Lieut. Bellot as a volunteer, and the lireadalbune trans- port, sail from Sheerness. Aug. 8. They reach Beechey Island. Aug. ;8. Lieut. Be-Hot meets his death by accident. (See BELLOT STRAIT.) tiet. 4. The expedition returns with news of Sir Edward Belcher's expedition, and of the missing inrcstigator. 1853 55. 18^3, May 30. The American ship Advance, com- manded by Dr. Kane, sails from Now York. 1855, Oct. "i r. She returns. FRANK [ 421 ] FREDERICKSHAMM A.D. 1854, May 6. The Phoenix, Capt. Inglefield, again sails to Beechey Island. Sep. 28. She arrives at Cork with Sir Edward Belcher and Capt. Kellett cm board. 1855, June i. The United States despatch the Release and Arctic, under Lieut, Hartstein, in aid of Dr. Kane's expedition. 1857, July 2. Lady Franklin despatches the steam yacht Fox, Capt, M'Cliutock, from Aberdeen. 1858, Aug. ii. She reaches Beechey Island. 1859, April 3. The crew divide into two parties, one of which is commanded by Capt. M'Clintock and the other by Lieut. Hobson. May 6. Mr. Hobson discovered the record of the fate of the Frankli: expedition in a cairn at Point Victory. Aug. 9. The Fox commences her homeward i Sep. 21. She arrives at Portsmouth. voyage. 1860, May 29. Mr. Hall, of Cincinnati, sails from New London, Connecticut, U.S., with the intention of searching to the north of Fury and Heela Strait for further traces of the Franklin expedition. 1860, July 7. Dr. Hayes starts from America for Smith's Sound. 1861, April. Dr. Hayes, having wintered near Cape Alex- ander, starts for the north. 1864, Dec. Capt. Hall receives information from the Esquimaux, which induces him to hope that Capt. Crosier and other companions of Sir John Franklin may still survive. 1865, Sep. The Queen of the Isles, chartered by the citizens of Hamburg to explore the polar regions, breaks down a few miles below Cuxhaven, and the expedition is abandoned. FRANK-PLEDGE. On the establishment of decennaries by Alfred the Great, about 890, each member was required to pledge his word for the right conduct of all his fellow-mem- bers. This pledge was called frank-pledge. The custom is by some authorities said to have existed at an earlier period. Courts for the view of frank-pledge were held annually, and were regulated by the statute for view of frank-pledge, 18 Edw. II. (1325). (See COURT- LEET.) FRANKS. This confederation was formed, about 240, by the tribes dwelling on the banks of the Lower Rhine and the Weser, who united under the title of Franks or free men. They invaded Gaul in 256, and for 12 years ravaged that country and Spain, extending their incur- sions as far as the opposite continent of Africa. Probus drove them back into their native marshes in 277 ; but their influence gradually increased, and after the death of Constantino I., in 337, they constituted a powerful faction at the imperial court. In 355 they again in- vaded Gaul, and were defeated by Julian, who permitted them to establish a colony in Brabant, or Taxandria. In 418 they again invaded Gaul, where, under their leader Pharamond, they founded the modern king- dom of France (q. v.}. FRASCATI (Italy). This town was founded near the ancient Tusculum, destroyed in 1191. The church of San Rocco was built in 1309, and the new cathedral in 1700. The first bishop of the see was consecrated in 269. FRASERBURGH (Scotland). This town, called Faithly, was made a burgh of barony in 1546. James VI. changed its name to Fraserburgh in 1592, and made it a free port in 1601. Sir A. Fraser in 1592 obtained a crown charter, ratified by Parliament in 1597, and renewed by the crown in 1601, for a college and university ; but the scheme has not been carried out. FRASER, FRAZER, or TACOUTCHE- TESSE RIVER (British Columbia). Largo deposits of gold were found on its banks in 1 FRATICELLI, FRATICELLI ANS, or LESSER BRETHREN, a branch of the Fran- ciscans (q. v.) that arose in Italy towards the end of the i3th century. They were, accord- ing to Milman, bound to the Coelestinians by the closest ties. By some authors they have been confounded with the Beghards, to whom the name Fraticelli, or Fratercali, was applied as a term of reproach. They disappeared towards the end of the isth century. FRAUDULENT TRUSTEES ACT. By 20 & 21 Viet. c. 54 (Aug. 17, 1857), trustees or bankers who fraudulently dispose of property, or keep false accounts, or wilfully destroy books or other documents, or publish false statements, are declared guilty of misdemea- nour, and rendered liable to penal servitude for three years. The provisions of the act were not extended to Scotland. FRAUSTADT (Battle). The Swedes de- feated an allied German and Russian army at Fraustadt in Posen, Feb. 12, 1705. FREDERICIA (Jutland). This town was founded by Frederick III. of Denmark in 1650. The Danes defeated the Sleswig in- surgents near this fortress, May 3, 1849. It was bombarded by the Prussians and Aus- trians March 20, 1864, and was evacuated by the Danes April 29. The Austrians com- menced the demolition of the fortifications FR 3 EDERICKSBORG (Denmark). This palace was built by Frederick II., about five Danish miles from Copenhagen, upon three islets, which he acquired in 1560. It was re- built and enlarged by Christian IV. between 1602 and 1608, and was destroyed by fire Dec. I7 FREDERICKSBORG (Treaty). By a treaty concluded at this place in Denmark, July 14, 1720, the Kings of Sweden and Denmark agreed not to restore the fortifications of Wismar, and to facilitate postal arrangements between their own states. FREDERICKSBURG (Battled The Federals under Gen. Burnside commenced four pontoon bridges over the Rappahannock, Dec. n, 1862. The main body crossed the river to Fredericks- burg, Virginia, Dec. 12. The attack upon the Confederate position on the heights took place Dec. 13, and after raging with desperate violence through the day, terminated in the defeat of the Federals. Little fighting took place Dec. 14 and Dec. 15, and Burnside was permitted to recross the river without opposi- tion Dec. 16. The Federals lost 1,138 men killed, 9,105 wounded, and 2,078 missing, in all 12.321 men. (See CHANCELLORSVILLE, Battle.) FREDERICKSHALL, or FREDERICK- SHALD (Norway). Charles XII. of Sweden was killed whilst besieging the castle of Frederickstein, near this town, Dec. n, 1718. The death of the king led to the immediate raising of the siege. ATI obelisk was erected on the spot in 1814. FREDERICKSHAMM (Finland). The Rus- FREDERICKTOWN [ 422 ] FREIBERG sians wrested this fortress from the Swedes in 1742. Gustavus III. of Sweden, who failed in an attempt to capture it in 1788, stormed its defences, and destroyed the docks, timber, and stores in 1790. A treaty of peace between Russia and Sweden was concluded at this town Sep. 17, 1809. FREDERICKTOWN (Battle). The Con- federate garrison of this town of Missouri was defeated by the Federals Oct. 21, 1861. FREDERICTON (New Brunswick). This town, formerly called St. Anne's, the capital of the colony, was erected into a bishopric in 1 F REE CHURCH OF SCOTLAND. In con- sequence of the opposition of a large portion of the Scotch presbyterians to the right of patrons to nominate whom they pleased to vacant livings, a large body seceded from the Kirk, May 18, 1843, and founded the Free Church of Scotland. At first the infant Church endured much privation, in consequence of the general opposition of the landed proprietors to the movement ; but a subscription of ,366,719 14*. yl. was raised, and at the meeting of the General Assembly in May, 1844, the society was declared in a veiy prosperous condition. In 1845, ,100,000 were collected for the erec- tion of manses for the seceding clergy ; and in 1846 a college was founded by Dr. Chalmers, who died May 30, 1847. In 1853 there were about 850 Free Church congregations in Scotland. FREE COMPANIES. Bands of discharged soldiers, who ravaged France after the con- clusion of the peace of Bretigny, May 8, 1360. BertrandduGuesclin,born in Britanny in 1314, put himself at their head, andledthem agamat Peter the Cruel, King of Castile, whom he dethroned in 1365, placing Henry, Count of Trastamara, on the throne. Edward the Black Prince recalled the free companies, defeated Henry at Najara, April 3, 1367, and restored Peter the Cruel, who was, however, defeated March 14, 1369, and killed by Henry of Trastamara .March 23. FREEHOLDERS were exempted from dis- trainment on account of their freeholds by 52 Hen. II. c. 22 (1267) ; and they were protected from the councils of the lords, which had usurped the functions of the law of the land, by 15 Rich. II. c. 12 (1391). By 8 Hen. VI. c. 7 (1429), electors for Parliament were compelled to possess land to the amount of 40 shillings per annum, and 19 Geo. II. c. 28 (1746), rendered a similar qualification necessary in the case of electors of boroughs. Electors in Ireland are obliged to possess a freehold estate of 10 a year, by 10 Geo. IV. c. 8 (April 13, 1879). FREE LANCES. (See CONDOTTIERI and FREE COMPANIES.) FREEMANTLE (Australia). This town, on Swan River, was founded in 1830. FREEMASONRY. Members of this order claim for it the highest antiquity ; some asserting that it was introduced into Egypt by Mizraim, grandson of Noah; others that it originated at the building of Solomon's temple, B.C. ion ; and others that it arose from the Eleusinian mysteries (q. v.). The Rev. G. Oliver, in his "Antiquities of Freemasonry," styles St. John the grand patron of the order. England was almost the first country to en- courage modern Freemasonry, it having been introduced about 676. The grand lodge at York was formed in 926, and the mem- bers of the fraternity are believed to have contributed materially to the erection of the beautiful Gothic cathedrals of the Middle Ages. In 1140 the order appeared in Scotland; and in 1424 it was prohibited in England by 3 Hen. VI. c. i. It is supposed to have been intro- duced into France during the i6th century. The grand lodge of England was founded in 1717, and in 1734 a misunderstanding arose between it and the grand lodge of York, which resulted in a division of the order. The first French lodge was formed in 1725. In 1729 the order was introduced into the East Indies, and in 1730 into America. The grand lodge of Ireland was also established in 1730. In 1731 a lodge was erected at the Hague; in 1735 the first German lodge was instituted ; in 1736 the grand lodge of Scotland was established, and a lodge founded at the Cape of Good Hope ; in 1738 one was planted at Brunswick; and in 1749 the order appeared in Bohemia. The Pope published a bull of excommunication against Freemasons in 1738. The meetings of the order were sanctioned by 39 Geo. III. c. 79, ss. 5 7 (July 12, 1799), and by 57 Geo. III. c. 19, s. 26 (March 31, 1817). The tavem in London was erected in 1786, and the charity for female children established in 1788. The new tavern was commenced in 1865. FREEMASONS' HALL (London), founded May i, 1775, was opened May 23, 1776. FREE SPIRIT. (See BROTHERS AND SISTERS OF THE FREE SPIRIT.) FREETHINKERS. This deistical sect, the apostles of the so-called Natural Religion, based upon reason and free inquiry, arose in England in the i7th century. Lord Herbert of Cherbury (1581 Aug. 20, 1648) ; John Tol.unl (1669 March n, 1722); Lord Shaftesbury (1671 Feb. 15, 1713); Anthony Collins (1676 Dec. 13, 1729); Thomas Woolston (1669 Jan. 27, 1733); Matthew Tindal( 1657 Aug. 16, 1733); and Viscount Bolingbroke(i678 Dec. 15, 1751), advocated these doctrines. (See DEISTS.) FREE TRADE, advocated by Adam Smith in his "Wealth of Nations," published in 1776, and to some extent adopted by the French Economists, formed the basis of the Anti-Corn- Law League (q.v.). Richard Cobden died April FREE-WILL ISLANDS (Pacific), three in number, were discovered by Carteret in 1767. FREGOSI. (See ADORNO.) FREIBERG (Saxony). The discovery of silver mines in the neighbourhood during the 1 2th century, raised this city into im- portance. It was long the residence of the Saxon princes. The town-house was built in 1410, the cathedral 1484 1512, and the mining academy was opened in 1767. Frederick II. of Prussia defeated the Austrian and Saxon ,rmy near this town in 1745. (See HOHEN- FREIBERG.) FREIBERG, or FREYBERG (Battle). Prince Henry of Prussia defeated the Austrians FEEIBURG [ 423 1 FRIENDLY under the Prince of Stolberg, near this place in Saxony, Oct. 29, 1762. FREIBURG (Baden). The cathedral, com- menced in 1 122, was not completed till 1513. The university was founded in 1456. FREIBURG, FREYBURG, or FRIBURG (Switzerland), the capital of a canton of the same name, was built in 1179. Freiburg became a sovereign canton in 1481. The form of government was remodelled in 1830. The canton joined the Sonderbund in May, 1846, and the town was taken by the confederate troops Nov. 13, 1847. The suspension-bridge was erected in 1834. This town must not be confounded with a place of the same name in Baden. FREISING (Bavaria), made a bishopric in 738, of which the holders became princes in 1619. It was secularized in 1802. The cathe- dral dates from the i2th century. FREJUS (France), the ancient Forum Julii, was made the seat of a Roman colony by Julius Csesar. A Roman navy was, under the emperors, stationed at this port. An action between a French squadron and some English ships took place near Frejus Bay, July 13, 1795, when three English vessels suffered some damage, and the French 74, the Alcide, took fire. Napoleon Buonaparte disembarked at this port, Oct. 9, 1799, on his return from Egypt. He arrived here April 27, 1814, and embarked the following day for Elba. FRENCH AMERICA. The French possess a portion of Guiana, Guadaloupe, Martinico, and some smaller islands in America. FRENCH FURY. (See ANTWERP.) FRENCH LANGUAGE. The French lan- guage is, according to Hallam, one of the prin- cipal of "many dialects deviating from each other in the gradual corruption of the Latin, once universally spoken by the subjects of Rome in her western provinces." Latin seems to have been the vulgar tongue as late as about 670 ; but by the middle of the 8th century, a rustic dialect was established, which was ordered to be used in the explanation of homilies, by the Council of Tours, in 813. The earliest written record of this language is the oath of Louis of Germany and Charles II. (the Bald), in 842. The earliest poem extant in this dialect is a fragment on Boetius, supposed to have been written about 1000. French became the language of the English court after the Conquest, in 1066, but its use in law pleadings was discontinued in 1362. FRENCHTOWN (Canada), having been seized by the Americans, Jan. 22, 1813, was recaptured by Gen. Proctor Jan. 24. The Americans, who had lost 300 men, surrendered prisoners of war. FRESCO, or FRESCO-PAINTING, was prac- tised by the Egyptians and the Greeks at a very early period. The art was revived in Italy during the i4th century, and carried to great perfection. Having fallen into disuse, it was restored by some Germans in 1816. FRETEVAL or FRETTEVAL (Battle). Richard I. defeated Philip II. of France at this place in France, July 15, 1194. Richard I. captured the records of the kingdom. FRETHERN (Battle). Ceawlin's brother Cutha was killed in a battle with the Britons at this place, near Stroud, in Gloucestershire, in 584. Ceawlin gained the victory, and com- mitted great ravages. FRETVILLE. A treaty was concluded be- tween Henry II. of England and Louis VII. of France at this town, between Chartres and Tours, July 21, 1170. Becket, who was in the neighbourhood, held a conference with Henry II., with whom he was reconciled July 22, 1170. (See CLARENDON CONSTITUTIONS.) FREUDENSTADT (Wurtemberg). This town was founded in 1599 by Protestant re- fugees from Austria, under Duke Frederick, by whom it was called Friedrichstadt, which was changed for its present title in 1609. It was taken by the French in 1799. FREYR (Treaty). The earliest commercial treaty between France and Spain was signed at this castle in Belgium, Oct. 25, 1675. FREYSINGEN (Bavaria). The cathedral of this city was erected in 718 by St. Corbinian. It was formerly the capital of a sovereign bishopric, which was annexed to Bavaria in 1803. The timber bridge over the Isar was erected in 1808, and the bishopric was trans- ferred to Munich and made archiepiscopal in 1 FRIARS HERMITS MINOR. (See CAPU- CHINS.) FRIARS OBSERVANT. (See OBSERVANTS.) FRICKTHAL (Switzerland). This district, invaded by the Hungarians in 900, was ceded to France by the treaty of Luneville, Feb. 9, 1801. In 1802 it was restored to Switzerland, and by the Act of Mediation, Feb. 20, 1803, it was incorporated with the canton of Aargau. FRIDAY, the sixth day of the week, is said to be named after Frea, or Friga, the wife of Odin, in Scandinavian mythology. FRIDAY-STREET CLUB (London). (See MERMAID CLUB.) FRIEDBERG (Battle). Gen. Moreau, having crossed the Danube Aug. 19, forced the passage of the Lech at Augsburg Aug. 24, and defeated Gen. Latour at Friedberg in Bavaria the same day. (See JOHANNISBERG.) FRIEDLAND (Battle). The French, com- manded by Napoleon I., defeated the Russian and Prussian army in a great battle at this town, on the Alle, in Prussia, June 14, 1807. FRIEDLINGEN (Battle). Marshal Villars defeated the cavalry of Prince Louis of Baden at this place on the Upper Rhine, Oct. 12, I7 FRIEDRICHSHAFEN (Wurtemberg). This town was formed by King Frederick I. of Wurtemberg in 1811 and 1812. FRIEDWALD (Treaty) was concluded be- tween France and the Protestant princes of Germany, Oct. 5, 1551. FRIENDLY ISLANDS (Pacific), also called Tongaii Islands, consisting of three groups, containing nearly 200 islands, were discovered by Tasman, in Jan., 1643. Capt. Cook gave them the name of the Friendly Islands in 1773, on account of the kind reception which he ex- perienced from the inhabitants. Missionaries were first sent to these islands in 1797. (See AMSTERDAM ISLAND and TONGA.) FRIENDLY SOCIETIES. These institu- FRIENDS [ 424 FRUIT tions are of very early origin, and were general among the Anglo-Saxons, though the date at which they originated is not known. One was founded in London in 1715, which was, perhaps, the earliest modern friendly society, and they made such progress that 16,000 societies are said to have existed between June 19, 1829, and Sep. 30, 1852. They were first brought under legislative control by 33 Geo. III. c. 54 (June 21, 1793), which is known as Mr. Rose's Act. Many statutes were subse- quently enacted. They were repealed by 18 & 19 Viet. c. 63 (July 23, 1855), which consolidated all previous statutes, and was amended by 21 BIS HER STRAIT was discovered by Sir Martin Frobisher, Aug. n, 1576. FRONDEUIiSand M A/ A KINS. The arbi- trary acts of Mazarin provoked opposition in France, and those who supported the minister were called Mazarins, and those who supported the Parliaments who opposed him were called Frondeurs, or Slingers. The name by which they were compared to the scholars, who fought with slings in the ditches of Paris, and took to flight on the approach of the watch, was given to them in derision. The struggle between these parties led to civil strife, called the war of the Fronde, which lasted from 1648 to 16=52. FRON8A.C (France). The castle of this town, erected by Charlemagne in 768, and re- stored in the isth century, was destroyed by order of Louis XIII. in 1623, The town, which gave title to a count in 1551, became a marqui- sate in 1555, and a dukedom in 1608. FRONTIGNAN (Sea-fight). Admiral Col- lingwood compelled the French Admiral, Baiidin, to run his fleet aground and burn his vessels at this place at the mouth of the Rhone, Oct. 24, 1809. FRONT ROYAL (Battle). The Federals, under Col. Kenley, were defeated and driven from their position at this place in Virginia, by the Confederates under Col. Ashby, May 23, 1862. FROZEN OCEAN. This term is applied to the Polar Seas. In 1636 the Russians ascer- tained that they washed the northern shores of Asia. Wrangel explored the limits of the Frozen Ocean in 1821. FRUIT. The following table contains a list of the principal fruits, and the date of their introduction into this country : FRUITERERS [ 425 1 FUNDS Date. Fruits. Introduced into England from In 1548 1780 1736 1818 Almond-tree Apple (Chinese) Ditto (custard) Ditto (osage) Barbary. China. N. America, Ditto. Cherry 1810 China. Temp. Hen. VIII. In 1596 J794 !75 Ditto (Flemish, or"! Kentish) j Ditto (Cornelian) Ditto (Tartarian) Currant (hawthorn) Flanders. Austria. Russia. Canada. Africa. Italy. In 1789 Ditto (15otany Bay) N. S. Wales. 1752 In 1570 1597 Before 1548 J75' 1029 Lime (American) Melon (Musk) Ditto (water) Mulberry (common) Ditto (paper) Ditto (reJ) N. America, Jamaica. Italy. Ditto. Japan. Ditto (white) China. Persia Olive Ditto (Cape) ,, 1784 177' i73o Ditto (laurel-leaved) ... Ditto (sweet-scented) ... Ditto (wave-leaved) ... Hope. Madeira. China. Cape. S. Europe. In lift Peach Before 1746 In 1057 Pear (snowy) Romans. N. America, W Indies. ,, 1596 1639 IS4 ;; JS ;; '8 In 1737 : 1$ Plum (date) Ditto (Pishamin) Pomegranate Quince (common) Ditto (Japan) Kaspberrv (flowering) ... Ditto (Virginian) Strawberry (Chili) Ditto (Oriental) Barbary. N. America. Spain. Austria. Japan. N. America. Ditto. France. Levant. , ^Ho Vine Before 1639 In 1563 Walnut (black) Ditto (common) N. America. France. FRUITERERS. This Company was incor- porated in 1605. FU-CHOW. (See FOO-CHOW-FOO.) FUCHSIA. The fuchsia was first noticed by Fuchs in 1501. The scarlet fuchsia was introduced from Chili in 1788, the slender fuchsia from the same place in 1822, and the tree fuchsia from Mexico in 1823. There are many varieties of this American plant. FUCINUS. (See LAKE FUCINUS.) FUENTE CANTOS (Battle). The French, under Marshal Mortier, defeated the Spaniards at this town in Spain, Sep. 15, 1810. FUENTES DE ONORO (Battle). Several actions took place between the French and English near this town, in Spain, in 1811. Here Wellington, with 32,000 foot and 1,200 horse, defeated Massena at the head of 40,000 foot and 5,000 horse, May 3, 1811. Massena renewed the attack May 5, and after a gallant struggle was compelled to retire. FUESSEN (Peace), between Maria Theresa, Queen of Hungary, and the Elector of Bavaria, was concluded at the instigation of the English Government, April 22, 1745. The Elector re- nounced his pretensions to the Austrian suc- cession, and Maria Theresa relinquished her claims to Bavaria. FUGALIA. (See REGIFUGIUM.) FUGGERS. This family of merchants, re- siding at Augsburg, amassed great wealth in their trade with India and many parts of Europe, in the isthand 1 6th centuries. Charles V. made them counts of the empire in 1530. Some members of the family were distin- guished for their encouragement of literature. They established libraries and charitable insti- tutions. FUGITIVE SLAVE BILL. By this act, which passed the American Congress Sep. 18, 1850, fugitive slaves who had escaped into another state were to be restored to their owners, their testimony was not to be admis- sible, and any assistance shown them in their flight, or opposition offered to their arrest, was declared penal. FUHNEN, FUNEN, FIONIE, or FYEN (Denmark). This island, forming part of the kingdom of Denmark, was occupied by the Danish army which left the whole of Jutland in the occupation of the Prussians and Aus- trians, April 29, 1864. FULDA (Hesse-Cassel). An abbey founded here in 744, by St. Boniface, obtained great privileges, and was made a bishopric in 1752. The church of St. Michael was built in 822. Fulda, with its territory, was erected into a principality by the Prince of Nassau-Orange in 1803. Napoleon I. annexed it to the grand-duchy of Frankfort in 1810. It was divided in 1814, and ceded to Hesse-Cassel in 1815. FULFORD (Battle). Edwin and Morcar were defeated at this place, near York, by the Norwegians, under Harold Hardrada, King of Norway, and Tostig, Sep. 20, 1066. FULGURITES were first discovered in 1711 at Massel, in Silesia. FULHAM (Middlesex) belonged to the bishopric of London as early as 691. The bishop's palace was erected during the reign of Henry VII., and the gardens began to acquire celebrity in 1 650. Sir William Powell's almshouses were founded in 1680, the bridge to Putney was built in 1729, the Starch -green almshouses were erected in 1812, and the new almshouses in 1834. FULTON (Battle). Col., afterwards Gen. McNeil, defeated the Confederate, Gen. Harris, at this place in Missouri, July 17, 1861. FUMAGE. (See HEARTH MONEY.) FUNCHA, or FUNCHAL (Madeira). This town, the capital of the island, was erected into a bishopric, subject to the Patriarch of Lisbon, in 1422. It was much injured by inundations in Oct., 1803 ; in Oct., 1842 ; and in Dec., 1855. FUNDS. The funding system appears to have originated at Venice, where it was estab- lished as early as 1172. In 1600 it was intro- duced into Holland, in 1672 into France by Louvois, and in 1689 into England. In this country the legal per-centage was at first six per cent ; but by 12 Anne, st. 2, c. 16 (1713), it FUNERAL [ 426 FURTH was reduced to five per cent. The legal re- striction to five per cent, for interest was abolished by 17 & 18 Viet. c. 90 (1854). A.TX 1716. The sinking-fund is established. 1726. Bunk annuities are created. 1747. Three per cent, reduced annuities are established. 1751. Three per cent, consols are created. 1758. Three-and-a-half per cent, annuities are created. * 1761. Long annuities are created. 1763. Four per cent, consols are introduced. 1771. New three-and-a-half per cent, annuities are created. 1796. Five per cent, annuities are created. 1818. Three-and-a-half per cents, are introduced. 1823. The five per cents, are reduced to four per cents. 1823. The " dead weight " annuity, to expire in 1867, is created. 1824. Reduced three-and-a-half per cents, are created. 1830. New five per cent, annuities are civatcd. 1844. New annuities are formed. The three per cents, at par the first time in the century. 1852. The three per cents, above par. 1853. New annuities at two-and-a-half per cent., and new three-and-a-half per cent, annuities. 1860. The long annuities expire. FUNERAL GAMES. The Greeks and Romans frequently celebrated the funeral obsequies of persons of distinction by races, processions, dramatic representations, and gladiatorial combats. The practice was of ancient origin, as Homer commemorates the games celebrated by Achilles in honour of Patroclus. The "Adelphi" of Terence was first performed at the funeral of Lucius jEmilius Paulus, B.C. 160. FUNERALS and FUNERAL RITES. The first people who celebrated funerals with special ceremonies are supposed to have been the Egyptians, from whom the custom was imported into Greece by Cecrops, about B.C. 1556. The practice of delivering orations over the bodies of eminent persons is one of great antiquity, and is probably alluded to in the lamentation of David over Saul and Jonathan, (2 Sam. i. 17 27), B.C. 1055. The custom was introduced into Greece by Solon, and Pericles delivered a famous harangue in honour of the Athenian victims of the Peloponnesian war, B.C. 431. The first Roman lady honoured with an oration was Popilia. Nero pronounced one over his wife, Popprea, in 65. The ancient Christians always interred their dead, in oppo- sition to the heathen, who practised incre- mation, though they also adopted the custom of sepulture before 420. Speaking of funerals among the primitive Christians, Bingham says (xxiii. ii. s. 6, c. 3, i), "No act of charity was more magnified by the ancients than this of burying the dead ; and therefore they many times ventured upon it even with the hazard of their lives." The Romish custom of burying the Eucharist with the dead origi- nated about 814. The custom of burying the dead with a monk's cowl over the head was discontinued in 1530. Funeral feasts were so common, that they were forbidden in 1569, to prevent the increase of plague. The fol- lowing eminent persons have been honoured with public funerals : George Monk, Duke of Albemarle, April 30, 1670 ; the Duke of Rut- land, Nov. 17, 1787 ; Lord Nelson, Jan. 9, 1806; Mr. Pitt, Feb. 22, 1806 ; Mr. Fox, Oct. 10, 1806 ; Mr. Sheridan, July 13, 1816; Mr. Canning, Aug. 1 6, 1827 ; and the Duke of Wellington Nov. 18, 1852. FUNF-KIRCHEN, or FIVE -CHURCHES (Hungary). This town existed, according to tradition, in the time of the Romans. Its university was established in 1364. It was seized in 1543 by the Turks. In 1664 it was taken and pillaged by the Austrians, and in 1686 was finally surrendered by the Ottomans. FURNEAUX ISLANDS (Bass's Strait) were discovered by Capt. Furneaux, Friday, March I9 FUR 3 NES, or VEURNE (Belgium). This town, having been destroyed by the Vandals and Northmen, was rebuilt about 870, by Baldwin I. (Bras-de-Fer), Count of Flanders. It was taken by the French in 1297 and 1488 ; by the Spaniards in 1583 ; by the French in 1646; by the Austrians in 1648; and by the French in 1658, 1667, 1675, 1693, 1744, 1792, 1793, and 1794, and formed, till 1814, part of the department of the Lys. FURNIVAL'S INN (London). (See LIN- COLN'S INN.) FURRUCKABAD (Hindostan). This terri- tory was ceded to the East India Company June 4, 1802. Holkar's army was defeated by Lord Lake, at the fortified town of Fur- ruckabad, at one time called Nellaru, Nov. 17, 1804. FURS. Beckmann says that furs are not often mentioned as articles of clothing in the Scriptures. They were known to the Romans in the 2nd century. Honorius forbade the use of furs in Rome in 397. This order was re- newed in 399 and 416. A Norwegian ship brought furs to England, as merchandise, in 878. Furs were dyed as early as the i2th century ; and about this time the clergy were forbidden to use them by decree of a council. In 1336, Edward III. enacted that no person who did not possess a yearly income of one hundred pounds should be permitted to wear them. The fur trade grew into importance in the beginning of the i7th century. (See HUDSON'S BAY COMPANY.) FURSTEN BUND, or LEAGUE OF THE GERMAN PRINCES. This league of the princes of Germany, f ormed at the instigation of Frederick II. of Prussia, to resist the encroach- ments of the Emperor Joseph, was signed at Berlin July 23, 1785, by Prussia, Saxony, and Hanover ; and was joined by the Electors of Mayence and Treves, the Landgrave of Hesse- Cassel, the Dukes of Brunswick, Mecklenburg, Saxe-Weimar, and Saxe-Gotha ; and other minor German princes. It formed the basis of the Germanic Confederation (q. r.). FURTH (Battle). Gustavus II. (Adolphus) failed in an attempt to storm Wallenstein's camp, near this town of Bavaria, in 1632. FURTH (Bavaria). This town, founded about the ioth century, and the scene in 947 of a council of the German nobles and the Emperor Louis IV., was burned in 1634 by the Austrian Croats, and was again destroyed by fire in 1680. It was annexed to Bavaria by the treaty of Presburg, Dec. 26, 1805, and ob- tained municipal rights in 1818. The railway to Nuremberg, the first established in Ger- many, was completed in 1836. FURY [ 427 GAITO FURY and HECLA STRAIT (N. America). This channel, dividing Cockburn Island from the peninsula of Melville, was discovered in 1821 by Parry. FUSILIERS. These soldiers were origi- nally armed with fusees, which they threw with slings. The 2ist regiment, or Royal North British Fusiliers, were raised Sep. 23, 1679 > the 7th regiment, or Royal English Fusi- liers, June ii, 1685 ; and the 23rd regiment, or Royal Welsh Fusiliers, March 17, 1688. FUSSEN (Treaty). By this treaty, con- cluded at Fiissen, in Bavaria, April 22, 1745, Maria Theresa, Queen of Hungary, recognized Charles Albert, the deceased Elector of Bavaria, as Emperor of Germany, and his widow as Empress, and restored to his son, the Elector Maximilian Joseph I., all his Bavarian posses- sions. The Elector, on his part, renounced his claim to the Austrian succession, and guaranteed the Pragmatic Sanction (q. v.). FUTEHGUNGE (Battles). The Nabob of Oude having in 1774 gained a victory in the district of Bareilly, by which he acquired a large part of Rohilcund, erected the town of Futehgunge, or Victory Market, to commemo- rate the success. A second battle, fought in 1796 near the scene of the first, is also distinguished by the erection of a town bearing the same name. FUTTEGHUR, or FUTTY-GUHR (Hindos- tan). The native troops stationed here dis- played much insubordination June 3 and 10, 1857. Some of the English took to their boats, and proceeded down the Ganges, June 10. Those that remained defended the fort with great gallantry until July 4, when they also sought refuge in their boats. Both parties were inhumanly massacred by Nana Sahib. Sir Colin Campbell, afterwards Lord Clyde, defeated the mutineers at this place, Jan. 2, 1858. FYZABAD (Hindostan). This city became the capital of Oude about 1730. Luckriow ob- tained this distinction in 1775, and Fyzabad has declined in importance. The native troops stationed at Fyzabad rebelled June 8, 1857. o. GABALA (Galilee). Herod the Great (B.C. 474) fortified this city, supposed to be the same as Gamala. GABELLE. Though introduced in 1286, Philip VI. is generally supposed to have estab- lished this tax, which secured the monopoly in salt throughout France, by an ordinance dated March 20, 1340. The people, both in town and country, opposed the gabelle, and it was repealed by the states-general in 1356. It was restored by Charles V. (1364 1380), and ultimately abolished by the National Assembly, May 10, 1790. GAB INI AN LAW, introducing the ballot in the election of magistrates at Rome, was pro- posed by Gabinius, B.C. 139. GADARA (Palestine). This strong city, captured by Antiochus, was restored by Pompey. Vespasian took it, slaughtered all the adult population, and committed it to the flames in 68. GADEBUSCH (Battle). The Swedes de- feated a Danish and Saxon army near this town, in Mecklenburg, Nov. 20, 1712. GADES, or GADIR. (See CADIZ.) GAETA (Italy), the ancient Caieta (q. v.}, was a port of some importance in early times, and after the destruction of Formise by the Saracens in the gth century, attained great prosperity. For a long period its form of government was republican. It was made a duchy in 572. Alphonso V. of Aragon captured it in 1435, and annexed it to the crown of Naples. It has sustained many sieges. The Spaniards took it Jan. i, 1504 ; the Austrians in Sep., 1707 ; and the Spaniards Aug. 7, 1734. The French seized it Jan. 4, 1799. It was wrested from them by the English, Oct. 31 in the same year. The French recovered posses- sion, after a desperate struggle, July 18, 1806. Pope Pius IX. took refuge here Nov. 24, 1848. A revolution having broken out at Naples, the king, Francis II., tied to Gaeta, Sep. 7, 1860. It was besieged by the Sardinian army Nov. 3, and surrendered to Gen. Cialdini. Feb. 14 1861. GAGGING BILL. This term was applied to the bills for preserving his majesty's person and government against treasonable and sedi- tious practices and attempts, and for the sup- pression of seditious meetings and assemblies, 36 Geo. III. cc. 7 & 8 (Dec. 18, 1795), and also to the act for more effectually preventing seditious assemblies, 60 Geo. III. c. 6 (Dec. 24, 1819). 'GAIANITES. This branch of the Eutychians received this appellation in 537, from their leader, Gaian, Bishop of Alexandria. G A I L L O N (France) . Cardinal George d'Amboise erected a castle at this town in 15, and Cardinal Charles de Bourbon, who died in 1590, built a Chartreuse or Carthusian monastery, which was burned in 1764. GAINES'S MILL (Battles). (See CHICKA- HOMINY.) GAINSBOROUGH (Battle). Cromwell de- feated the Royalist Gen. Cavendish, about a mile and a half from this town in Lincolnshire, Thursday, July 27, 1643. GAINSBOROUGH, or GAINSBURGH (Lin- colnshire). Founded during the Saxon Hep- tarchy, and the scene, in 868, of the marriage of Alfred the Great and Elswitha, was ravaged in 1013 by Sweyn, King of Denmark. The church was originally founded by the Templars about 1209. Gainsborough was taken from the Earl of Kingston by the Parliamentary forces of Lord W T illoughby in June, 1643. The bridge over the Trent was completed in 1790, and the town was made a port in 1840. GAIS (Battle). The Swiss defeated the Austrians at this village of Switzerland in 1405. GAITO (Battle). Charles Albert, King of Sardinia, defeated the Austrians under Marshal Radetsky at this place in Northern Italy, May 30, 1848. GALACZ [ 428 ] GALLEYS GALACZ, or GALATZ (Moldavia), taken by the Russians in 1789, was made a free port in 1834. The Russians assembled 10,000 men, and collected a park of artillery, numbering 120 guns, at this place, in Dec., 1853. They crossed to attack the Turks, Jan. 12, and again in March, 1854. GALACZ, or GALATZ (Treaty).- Prelim i-. naries of peace, signed by Russia and Turkey at this town in Moldavia, Aug. n, 1791, were confirmed by the treaty of Jassy (9. v.), Jan. 9, 1 GALAPAGOS (Pacific). This group of islands was discovered by a whaling ship towards the end of the i8th century. The Spaniards formed a settlement on the island of La Floriana in 1832. They were ceded to the United States for three millions of dollars by the republic of Ecuador, Nov. 20, 1854. GAL AT A, or PER A. The Genoese estab- lished themselves in this suburb (if Constan- tinople in 1261. They maintained several contests with the Greeks, who were supported by the Venetians ; and by a treaty, signed May 6, 1352, the Venetians and Catalans were for ever banished, and a monopoly of the trade was secured to the Genoese. GALATIA, or GALLO-GR JUGI A (Asia Minor). This ancient kingdom was founded by the Gauls after their defeat at Delphi, B.C. 279. They crossed the Hellespont B.C. 278, and received a grant of land from Nicomedes I., King of Bithynia, in return for the assist- ance they rendered him against his brother Zipuitos. They subsequently waged war with Antiochus Soter, King of Syria, who is said to have fallen in a battle fought with them B.C. 261; and they also assisted at the battle of llaphia, B.C. 217. Their rule in Asia was limited to Galatia by Attains I., King of Per- gamus, who reigned from B.C. 241 to B.C. 197, and opposed a successful resistance to their growing power. Prusias I., King of Bithynia, defeated them in a great battle fought B.C. 216. Galatia was invaded by the Romans under Cn. Manlius, B.C. 189, and the inhabitants were treated with great severity, according t<> some authorities as many as 40,000 of their nation, dying in battle. Mithridates VI. murdered all the Galatian tetrarchs, with their women and children, B.C. 86, to prevent them from deserting to Sylla. Mark Antony conferred the kingdom on Amyntas, King of Pisidia, B.C. 36, and it was made a Roman province by Augustus B.C. 25. Galatia was twice visited by the apostle Paul, in 51 or 53 (Acts xvi. 6), and in 56 (Acts xviii. 23). ( I A I.AT1AXS (Epistle to the) was written by the apostle Paul about 52. Various dates, be- tween 48 and 58, have been assigned for its production, and biblical critics are at variance whether it was written at Ephesus, Corinth, or in Macedonia. GALENA (United States). This town, in Illi- nois, was commenced in 1819. GALENISTS. In 1664 the Flemings of Am- sterdam separated into two parties, the Ga- leiiists and the Apostoolians, named after two preachers, Galenus Abrahams de Haan, and Samuel Apostool. Mosheim remarks : " The Galenists are equally ready, with the Armi- nians, to admit all sorts of persons into their church, who call themselves Christians; and they are the only Anabaptists (in Holland who refuse to be called Mennonites. The Apostoo- lians admit none to membership who do not profess to believe the doctrines contained in the public formula of their religion." The fol- lowers of Galen (130 200), the great authority in medical science, are called Galenists. GALICIA (Austria .This province of Po- land, on the first partition in 1772, was divided into two provinces, called East and West, the former being annexed to Austria. The Aus- triaiis invaded West Galicia in Oct., 1793, and it was annexed to their empire in 1794. It was made part of the grand-duchy of Warsaw in 1809, and recovered by Austria in 1815. An insurrection, which was speedily suppressed, broke out in Galicia Feb. 19 and 20, 1846. GALICIA Spain .The Vandals made them- selves masters of this territory in 411. It be- came the subject of frequent contests, and was taken by the Moors in 713. Pelayo expelled the Moors in 721, and after undergoing various vicissitudes, Galicia was annexed to Leon in 913. Almansor invaded it in 993. It was made a separate kingdom in 1065, but its king was expelled in 1071, and his territories were an- nexed to Castile in 1072. It was ruled by its own counts until 1475. It was subdivided into four provinces in 1822. <;.\I.1L.KANS. This ancient Jewish sect, named after Judas the Gaulonite, resisted the Roman tax established by Quirinus, and re- belled at various intervals, till Jerusalem was destroyed by Titus, Sep. 8, 70. Eleazar, the grandson of Judas, after the capture of Jerusa- lem, retired with 960 followers to a strong for- tress, where they were exterminated. GALILEE (Palestine). From this, the most northern of the three divisions of Palestine, Christ and his disciples were called Galileans (Matt. xxvi. 69, and Mark xiv. 70), in 30. CALL, ST. Switzerland). This canton was formed in 1798, by the union of the territories of the Abbot of St. Gall with the free town of St. Gall, and other districts. The town of St. Gall grew up around a cell formed by St. Gall, or Gallus, in the beginning of the 7th century. An abbey, erected soon after, was celebrated in the gth century for its school. The abbey was destroyed by the Magyars in the loth century. St. Gall became a free town at the Reformation, and the abbey was secularized in 1805. It was soon after made a bishopric, joined to Chur in 1823, and separated in 1847. GALLE, or POINT DE GALLE (Ceylon). This town was obtained by the Portuguese in 1517. A colony of Chinese was established in 1801. GALLEYS. The Corinthian triremes, or gal- leys, with three rows of oars, were first con- structed B.C. 786, or B.C. 703. The dromoncs, or light galleys of the Byzantine empire, had two tiers of oars. During the Middle Ages, galleys with one bank of oars were used by the Venetians and Genoese, by whom they were introduced into France, about the reign of Charles VI. (13801422). The first document referring to the punishment of the galleys, called in French Bagnes, is an ordinance of the GALLIA [ 429 GALVANISM French parliament in 1532 ; but criminals were most probably condemned to row in them at an earlier period. In 1564, the minimum duration of punishment at the galleys was limited to 10 years. The office of captain of the galleys was abolished by an ordinance of Louis XV., Sep. 27, 1748, when the slaves were removed to work in the docks and arsenals. GALLIA. (See GAUL.) GALLICAN CHURCH. The French Church was established at a very early period, bishops of many of the existing dioceses having as- sisted at the Council of Aries in 314. Articles directed against the encroachments of Rome were, in 1438, embodied in the Pragmatic Sanction (q. v.}, which was superseded in 1516 by the concordat of Leo X. with Francis I. A declaration of the French clei-gy, promulgated March 12, 1682, and regarded as the charter of Gallicanism, declarer that the authority of the Pope is limited to spiritual affairs, and that it is in all respects inferior to the decision of a general council. This declaration was con- demned by Pope Innocent XI. in April, 1682, by Alexander VIII. in Aug., 1690, by Clement XI. in 1706, and by Pius VI. in 1794. GALLIPOLI (Italy). -This Neapolitan port, called by the Greeks Callipolis, and founded by Leucippus, a Lacedemonian, was visited by Christian preachers in 44. It was ravaged by the Vandals in 450, and in 1284 was destroyed with much barbarity by Charles of Anjou. GALLIPOLI (Turkey), the ancient Calli- polis, was seized by the Catalans in 1303, and, fortified by them, resisted the troops of the Greek emperor. The walls were shattered by an earthquaVe. In 1357 the town fell into the hands of the Turks, who restored the forti- fications. Gib jon calls it the key of the Hel- lespont. The French landed March 30, and the English April 5, 1854; and, by April 21, the allied forces amounted to 27,000 men. An ad- vance to Varna was made in May. There was another Callipolis in Sicily, now called Mascali (q. v.). GALLO (Peru). This island was discovered by Ruiz in 1526. Pizarro took refuge here in !5 2 7- GALLOWAY (Bishopric) was founded by St. Ninian about 450. It was suppressed with the other Scotch sees at the Revolution, but was restored and annexed to Glasgow in 1837. GALLOWAY (Scotland.) This ancient pro- vince of southern Scotland, comprising the counties of Kirkcudbright and Wigton, with other territories, was overrun by the Northum- brian Anglo-Saxons in the sth century. "Jaco- bus, rex Gallwallise, " was one of the eight tri- butary princes who did homage to Edgar, King of England, at Chester, in 973, and it con- tinued under the government of independent sovereigns, paying nominal submission to the kings of Scotland, till 1233, when its last ruler, Alan of Galloway, Constable of Scotland, died without male heirs, and his estates were di- vided between his three daughtei-s. During the 1 2th century this district was called by the English the land of the Picts. GALLOWS, and GIBBET. Fosbroke says that the Roman furca took the form of our gallows when Constautine I. abolished cruci- fixion in 325. The ancient gallows in England were provided with hooks. The triangular gal- lows occurs in the reign of Queen Elizabeth. In the 1 4th century an Italian lord erected a gallows before the door of his house, and re- paired it every year. Gibbets, on which the bodies of criminals were hung in chains, were first erected in the i7th century. All the gib- bets in the Edgeware Road were cut down April 3, 1763. The last gibbets in England were erected near South Shields for an execution which took place Aug. 6, 1832 ; and at Leices- ter, for an execution, Saturday, Aug. n, 1832. The former was removed in 1832, and the latter in 1856. A piece of an old gibbet might be seen, in 1856, at the corner of Ditchliiig Common, Sussex. It was called "Jacob's Post," from the name of a Jew who was hung in chains here Aug. 31, 1734, for a barbarous murder. GALVANISM. The earliest notice of this branch of electrical science was made by Sulzer, who mentioned the peculiar sensation arising from a piece of silver and a piece of lead in contact with each other and the tongue, in 1762. In 1791, Galvani published the dis- covery he had made a short time previous, that the limbs of a dead frog were convulsed when touched by a dissecting-knife, and sub- mitted to an electric spark simultaneously ; and in 1793 Volta broached the contact theory of galvanism. Aldini produced powerful galvanic convulsions on the head of a recently killed ox, in 1796 ; and in 1800 Volta announced the dis- covery of the voltaic pile, which was success- fully applied to the decomposition of water by Messrs. Nicholson and Carlisle, May 2 in the same year. Aldini performed some galvanic experiments on the body of an executed criminal in 1803, by which he produced violent muscular contortions ; and in 1805 Behrens constructed a dry pile of 80 pans of zinc, copper, and gilded paper. Sir Humphry Davy de- composed potash, and produced potassium by galvanism, Oct. 6, 1807 ; and in 1809 Mr. Children constructed a battery of sufficient power to fuse platinum, diamond, and other very hard substances. De Luc's pile of tinned iron and gilded paper was made in 1810; and Zamboiri's pile of paper disks, covered on one side with tin and on the other with peroxide of manganese, in 1 8 1 2. Ritter's secondary pile was constructed the same year, which was also memorable for the first application of galvanism to blasting purposes. Sir Humphry Davy discovered the galvanic arc in 1813 ; Dr. Wol- laston constructed his thimble battery, and used it to fuse platinum wire, in 1815 ; and Dr. Ure performed some curious experiments on the body of a recently executed criminal in 1818. Ampere exhibited his galvanometer to the Royal Academy, Sep. 18, 1820. Other instruments for measuring galvanism were produced by Schweigger in 1820, by Professor Cumming in 1821, by De la Rive in 1824, by Ritchie in 1830, and by Joule in 1843. Gal- vanism was applied by Sir Humphry Davy to the protection of the copper sheathing of ships from the effects of water in 1824. Ohm's formulae, relating to the quantity of the galvanic current, were published in 1827 ; and, in 1829, Becquerel constructed his double-fluid GALVESTON [ 430 ] GAME battery. Sturgeon's cast-iron single-fluid bat- tery was invented about 1830 ; Daniell's " con- stant" battery, andMullin's sustaining battery, in 1836 ; Grove's battery in 1839 ; Jacobi's and Smee's in 1840 ; Bunsen's and Robe's batteries, and Grove's gas battery, in 1842. Faraday proved that the producing power of a battery depends on the size of the plates, in 1834 ; and Wheatstone invented his chronoscope [g. v.),' 1840. GALVESTON (United States). This port of Texas, first settled in 1837, was fired upon by the Federal schooner Dart, Capt. Alden, Aug. 3, 1861. The town, taken by Commander Ren- shaw, Oct. 8, 1862, was held by the Federals till Jan. i, 1863, when it was captured by the Con- federates of Texas, under Gen. Magruder. It again surrendered to the Federals, Junes, 1865. GALWAY (Ireland), called the " City of the Tribes," was fortified in 1124, and the walls were erected in 1270. Richard II. granted it a charter of incorporation, and it became celebrated for maritime enterprise in the iyth century. Galway surrendered to the Parlia- \ mentary forces, July 10, 1651, and Gen. Ginkel captured it July 21, 1691. All traces of the walls had been removed by 1779. The rail- road to Dublin was opened Aug. i, 1851. The church of St. Nicholas was founded in 1320, the west bridge was built in 1442, and the Royal College was founded in 1484. Queen's College was opened in Nov., 1849. Riots, caused by Gavazzi's attempts to preach, occurred .March 29, 1859. The Galway line of steamers to America was founded by Mr. J. O. Lever, who despatched the ln consist of the sovereign and 25 knight- companions, with such lineal descendants of George III. as may be elected, and the Prince of Wales. GARTER KING-AT-ARMS. (See GARTER, Order of the.) GAS. A burning spring in the collieries of Wigan, Lancashire, which was noticed by Mr. Shirley in 1659, was doubtless nothing more than ignited gas, although it was not so understood at the time. In 1726 Dr. Hales ascertained by experiment the quantity of in- flammable air evolved from coal, and in 1733 Sir James Lowther sent specimens of the air to the Royal Society, who used it for experi- ments. In 1739 the Rev. J. Clayton published an account of his experiments on the distilla- tion of coal, which had extended over a long period of years ; and in 1792 Murdoch, of Red- ruth, Cornwall, conceived the project of ap- plying gas to purposes of artificial illumination. The first gas-works were erected by him at Boulton and Watt's Sohp foundry in 1798, and at the peace rejoicings in 1802 the light was publicly exhibited at that establishment with great success. The first employment of gas in Paris also occurred in 1802. In 1803 the new light was adopted by Mr. "Winsor in the Lyceum Theatre, and in 1804 Murdoch erected gas-works on a grand scale at Phillips and Lee's cotton-mill, Manchester. Gas was used to light Pall Mall Jan. 28, 1807. The London and Westminster Gas-light Company was in- corporated in 1810, and Westminster Bridge was lighted by gas Dec. 31, 1813 ; and its use became general throughout London in 1816. The London Gas-light Company was established in 1833. Gas was introduced at Sydney, in Australia, in 1841. In Dec., 1851, a stream of natural gas was discovered at Chat Moss, on the Manchester and Liverpool Railway. Gas was obtained from oil and resin by Taylor in 1815, and an improved method for its pro- duction was patented by Laming and Evans. April 23, 1850. Water-gas is also the. subject of several patents, the chief of which are Donovan's, dated 1830 ; Lowe's, 1832 ; Manby's, 1839; Val Marino's, 1 839; Radley' 8,1845; Lowe's, 1846 ; and White's, 1847. The sale of gas in the metropolis is regulated by 23 & 24 Viet. cc. 125 & 146 (Aug. 28, 1860). Gas was applied to the illumination of railway trains by Allen, of the Scottish Central Railway, in 1862. Mongruel's photogenic gas was invented in 1862. GASCONY (France). An ancient province, that nearly corresponded to the Aquitania of Csesar, received this name from the Vascones, or Gascones, a Spanish people who settled here at an early period, and were subdued by the Franks in 602. Gascony for a time formed part of Aquitaine, and on the union of the latter with the French monarchy, in 867, the duchy of Gascony continued independent. It passed under English rule in 1152, and became the subject of frequent contests between Eng- land and France, until finally annexed to the latter in 1453. In the chronicles of the time the terms Gascony and Guienne are used as though they were synonymous. They were, however, distinct provinces. Auch was the chief town of Gascony. GAS-METKR was invented by Clegg in 1815, and improved and patented in 1816. The dry gas-meter was patented by Malam in 1820. Defrios' dry meter was patented in 1844. CASTKIN Convention). This convention, signed at Gastein, in the duchy of Salzburg, Aug. 14, 1865, by Jlerr von JJismark and Count Blome, and subsequently confirmed at Salz- burg by the King of Prussia and the Emperor of Austria, transferred the government of Sleswig to Prussia, and that of Holstein to Austria. Lauenburg was ceded to Prussia for 2,500,000 Danish dollars : both powers engaged to propose in the federal diet the establishment of a German fleet having its harbour at Kiel, and it was agreed to unite Sleswig and Holstein to the Zollvcrein. A treaty of navigation between Great Britain and Prussia was signed here Aug. 16, 1865. GATESHEAD (Durham). A monastery was established at this place some time before 653. In 1068 William 1. gained a great victory at (iateshead Fell, in the neighbourhood, over Malcolm II. of Scotland, who had espoused the cause of Edgar Atheliiig. The church was destroyed by fire May 14, 1080, and in 1164 Bishop Pudsey^gave the burgesses the liberty of his forests in the vicinity of the town. St. Edmund's Hospital was founded before 1248, and restored by James I. in 1610; and in 1695 the government of the town was vested in two stewards, who were elected by the borough-holder and freemen. Gateshead, en- franchised by the Reform Bill in 1832, returns one member to Parliament. A fire, which broke out in a worsted manufactory at mid- night, Oct. 5, 1854, and afterwards extended to a bond warehouse, where large quantities of gunpowder and other explosive materials were stored, caused the death of about 50 persons, and serious injury to many more. The flames extended over the Tyne to New- castle, and the total value of the property destroyed was estimated at ^1,000,000. GAUGAMELA. (See ARBKLA, Battle.) GAUGING was practised in this country as early as 1272. By 27 Edw. III. st. i, c. 8 .'1353', all wines imported into this country were ordered to be gauged by the king's gaugers, GAUL [ 433 1 GAZA under penalty of forfeiture and imprisonment in case of neglect. GAUL, or GALLIA. This ancient country was divided by the Eomans into Cisalpine and Transalpine Gaul, the former signifying the countries of North Italy, on the Roman side of the Alps, and the latter the territory be- yond the Alps, now called France. 600. A colony of Phocnsans from Asia Minor founds Mas- silia, or Massalia, the present .Marseilles. 506. The Gauls invade North Italy, and drive the Etrus- cans before them. 391. The Gauls again invade Etruria. 390. Under their leader Brennus they take Rome. (See ALLIA, Battle.) 349. The Gauls attack the Venetians. 299. They again invade Rome. 295. Battle of Sentinum (q. v.). 285. Battle of Arretium. 283. Second battle of the Vadimonian Lake (q. t>.). 279. The Gauls invade Greece. 222. The Romans form the province of Cisalpine Gaul. 2i8. The Gauls assist Hannibal. 191. Scipio Xasica defeats the Boii of Cisalpine Gaul. 186. An army of 12,000 men from Transalpine Gaul penetrates into Venetia, and is compelled to return by the Romans. 154. The'Massaliota invite the assistance of the Romans against the Ligurians. 122- The Romans found Aqua; Sextia;, or Aix, their first settlement north of the Alps. I2r. The Romans invade the land of the Allobroges (q. v.). 118. The Romans found Narbo Martins, or Xarbonne, which secures them the mastery of the province. 112. The Cimbri from Transalpine Caul invade Italy. 101. Cisalpine Gaul is invaded by the Cimbri, who are defeated by Marius and Catulus. 58. Julius Crcsar invades Gaul for the first time, and defeats the Germans and the Helvetii. 52. The Gauls rebel from the Roman yoke. 51. Cicsar completes the conquest of Gaul by the capture of Uxellodunum (q. v.), and erects the whole country into a Roman province. 43. Cisalpine Gaul ceases to have separate governors, and is incorporated with Italy. 39. The Ubii are removed into Gaul. 27. Augustus organizes the government of Gaul, and visits the province. A.D. 91. The Gauls rebel under Julius Floras and Julius Sarrovir. 68. The Gauls rebel against Xero. 120. The Emperor Hadrian visits Gaul. 177. The Christians in Gaul are subjected to cruel perse- cutions. 213. Caracalla visits Gaul. 334. Severus suppresses a revolt of the Gauls. 250. Seven Christian missionaries are sent into Gaul. 255. Gallienus opposes the Franks in Gaul. 256. Invasion of the Franks. 358265. Postumus governs Gaul. 277. Probus commands in Gaul, and defeats the Frankish and Burgundian marauders. 280. The culture of the vine is introduced. 287, Jan. i. Maximian I. defeats the Gauls, and estab- lishes large colonies of Franks in their territory the following year. 296. Constanti'is defeats the Gauls at Vindonissa. 298. Battle of Lingonum Civitas (q. v.). 306. Constantino I. defeats the Franks in Gaul. 330. Gaul gives its name to one of the four prefectures of the empire, and comprises Gaul, Hispania, and Britannia. 341. The Franks again contend against the imperial forces in Gaul. 355. The barbarians again ravage Gaul. 357. Julian marches to the rescue of the province, de- feats the Alemanni (see STRASBUEG), and winters in Paris. 361. Julian is proclaimed emperor at Paris. 365. The Alemanni resume their inroads. 371. The Franks and the Alemanni are expelled from Gaul and Rhrctia by Theodosius I. 377- The Alemanni again ravage Gaul, and are expelled by Richomer. A.D. 383. Gaul is ceded to Maximus. 405 6. The Vandals, Burgundians, and other barbarian tribes invade Gaul. 412. Jovinus revolts in Gaul. 419. The Goths obtain Toulouse and the south-west parts of Gaul. 451. Attila invades Gaul with 500,000 Huns. (See CHALONS-SUR-MARNE. ) 455. The Britons plant a colony in Gaul, which after- wards becomes Brittany. (See ARMORICA.) 464. -35gidius, last Roman governor of Gaul, dies. 470. Euric attempts to usurp the supreme authority. 473. Julius Nepos cedes Auvergne to the Visigoths. 476. The Roman empire in the West is overthrown, Gau having passed under the dominion of the Franks, from whom it is called France (q.v .). GAULTIERS, or GAUTIERS. These bands of armed peasants, organized in Lower Nor- mandy in 1586, to oppose the ravages of the regular soldiery, were suppressed by the Duke of Montpensier in 1589. GAUR, GOUR, LAKNAOUTY, or LUCK- NOUTI (Hindostan). This town, the chief of which became independent in 648, was taken in 1202 by Bakhtiar Kilji, and was made the capital of Bengal in 1212. In 1450 it was sur- rounded with walls by Nasir Shah, in 1536 it was taken by Sher Shah, and in 1574 it was seized by Monaim Khan, who was, however, speedily compelled by the pestilential climate to abandon it. GAURUS (Battle). On this mountain of Campania, Valerius Corvus defeated the Sam- nites, B.C. 341. GAUZE. This light fabric is said to have received its name from Gaza, in Palestine, where it was first made at an early period. The manufacture of silk gauze was introduced at Paisley in 1760. A tax of from zd. to $d. per yard was placed upon it in 1784. GAVELKIND. This tenure, limited to the county of Kent, was the common tenure of the Anglo-Saxons. Its chief distinction is the division of the property of an intestate father equally among his sons, or, in default of male issue, among his daxighters. It was abolished in Wales by 34 & 35 Hen. VIII. c. 26, s. 91 (1543). GAVOTTE. This dance, introduced upon the stage in the i8th century, was adapted by Gardel to private drawing-rooms, in 1794. Its popularity declined early in the igth century. GAWELGHUR (Hindostan). This strong fortress was taken by Sir Arthur Wellesley Dec. 15, 1803. GAY SCIENCE meant (N. & Q., srd s. vol. v. 299) in its largest sense poetry generally, more freqiiently the poetry of the Troubadours, and in a more special sense still their erotic poetry. (See ROMANCE.) GAZA (Palestine 1 !, the ancient capital of the Philistines, is mentioned Gen. x. 19 (B.C. 2218). It was the scene of Samson's triumph and death (Judges xvi. 30), B.C. 1117, and was taken by Alexander III. (the Great), after a long and arduous siege, B.C. 332. Ptolemy I. defeated Demetrius in its neighbourhood B.C. 312, and Ptolemy (IV.) Philopator used it as a depot for military stores B.C. 217. It was destroyed by Antiochus B.C. 198, was afterwards rebuilt, and was selected by the Emperor Hadrian as the seat of a fair for the sale of Jewish captives in 119. Gaza was a bishopric of the primitive Church, and, accord- F F GAZETTE [ 434 1 GENERAL ing to some authorities, the first bishop was Philemon, to whom Paul addressed his epistle in 63 or 64. The first of whom any certain date is known was Asclepas, who was deposed at the Council of Antioch in 331. A council was held here in 541. Gaza was taken by the Sultan Saladin in 1170, and was the scene of a victory gained by the Carismians over the united armies of the Christians and Ayoubites, Oct. 18-19, 1244. Napoleon took it during his campaign in Egypt in March, 1799, an( i ^ was seized by Ibrahim Pasha in 1831. GAZETTE. The publication of the official gazette, which commenced at Oxford in 1665, was afterwards removed to the metropolis, and it was called the London Gazette. GAZETTEER. The first work with the title was "The Gazetteer's or Newsman's Interpre- ter, being a Geographical Index, &c.," by Laurence Echard, published in 1703-4. GAZNEVIDES. (See GHIZNEVIDES.) GEDROSIA. (See BELOOCHISTAN.) GEEL, or GHEEL (Belgium). Dymphna, a Christian lady of British origin, martyred on the site of this town in the 6th century by her heathen father, for refusing to comply with his incestuous proposals, became the tutelary saint of all persons troubled with mental alienation ; and her shrine, at a very early period, was celebrated for the cures it effected in such cases. The town, which, in consequence, has been ever since the resort of lunatics, became in 1803 the asylum for incurably insane Dutch and Belgian patients, who reside with the citizens, and are employed in such labours as seem best suited to their capacities. GEELONG (Australia), the capital of Grant county, Victoria, was formally claimed as a possession of the English crown by John Bate- man in 1835, and founded on the harbour of Corio in 1837. Its importance dates from the gold discoveries of 1851. The railroad to Mel- bourne was completed in 1855. GELA (Sicily). This city, on the river Gela or Gelas, was founded by a joint colony of Cretans and Rhodians, B.C. 690. Its inhabitants sent out a colony which founded Agrigentum B.C. 582. Cleander obtained despotic power B.C. 505, and ruled till B.C. 498, when he was succeeded by his brother Hippocrates, who died B. c. 491 . His successor Gelon was followed by his brother Hiero, B.C. 478, and from this time Gela rapidly declined. The Carthaginians captured Gela B.C. 405 ; whereupon the majority of the inhabitants abandoned the city. They returned, and Gela once more became pros- perous. Phintias, Despot of Agrigentum, removed the inhabitants to Phintias, and de- molished Gela, B.C. 280. GELAL^EAN ^ERA, instituted by Malek Shah, one of whose titles was Gelaleddin, " Glory of the Faith," commenced March 14, IO GELDERN, or GUELDRE (Prussia). This town, founded in 1097, was, till 1343, the resi- dence of the sovereigns of Guelderland (q. v.). It was given to Prussia in 1713, and surrendered to the French in 1757. Its fortifications were destroyed by Frederick II. in 1764. GELLHEIM, or GOELHEIM (Battle). The Emperor Albert I. defeated and slew his rival, Adolphus of Nassau, at this town of Germany, July 2, 1298. GELNHAUSEN (Hesse-Cassel). Frederick I. (Barbarossa) erected a castle at this ancient free imperial city in 1144. The town, which suffered severely during the Thirty Years' War, was given to the Elector of Hesse-Cassel by a recess of the deputation of the empire signed Feb. 25, 1803. It was much injured by the military operations of the campaign of 1813. GEMAUERS (Battle). The Swedes defeated the Russians at Gemauers, or Gemauershof, July 28, 1705. GEMBLOURS (Battle). Don John of Aus- tria defeated the Netherlanders with great slaughter at this place, nine miles from Na- mur, Jan. 31, 1578. GEMS have been held in high estimation from the most remote antiquity. The Hindoo poem of Rama j ana, which is said to date from a period of 2,000 years B.C., mentions them ; and they were employed in the construction of Aaron's breastplate, B.C. 1491 (Exod. xxviii. 15-29). They were also much prized by the Egyptians, Persians, and Phoenicians, and the historical records of the Mexicans and Peru- vians establish the antiquity of gems as orna- ments in the Western Hemisphere. The Romans carried the admiration of gems to such an excess, that in 460 it was found necessary to pass a law prohibiting their use in the harness of their horses. On the decline of the Roman empire, the demand for gems abated ; but it revived in the i2th century, and reached its height in this country during the reigns of Queen Elizabeth and James I. GENDARMERIE, a name given to a chosen corps of cavalry in the old French monarchy. It was formed by Charles VII. in 1439, but was not known as the gcndaimerie till the i6th century. The gendarmerie of the guard was enrolled by Henry IV. in 1609, and suppressed in 1787. It was, however, restored in 1791, and regulated by ordinances issued April 17, 1797, and Oct. 29, 1820. GENERAL. Thifl title, which originated in France, was first conferred upon the com- mander of the royal army about the middle of the isth century. The title of captain-general occurs in a list of the English army which served at St. Quentin in 1557. In i62oand 1639 the commander of our army bore the title of lord general. GENERAL ASSEMBLY, composed of laity and clergy, is the Convocation of the Church of Scotland. The first was held in 1561. James I. suppressed it, and it was restored at the Revolution. The Free Church, on their separa- tion in 1843, established an independent General Assembly. GENERAL COUNCILS. The Anglican Church, in common with the Universal Church, acknowledges only the first six, and the Greek Church the first eight, of the 20 general councils recognized by Rome. 335,' June 19 Aug. 25. Council of Nicaea, or Nice, in Bithynia, was summoned by Constantino I. against Arius. 381, May July 30. Council of Constantinople (q. r.). 451, June 22 July 31. Council of Ephesus, against Nestor and 1'elugius. GENERAL [ 435 1 GENOA A.D. 451, Oct. 8 Nov. I. Council of Chalcedon, which justified Flavian and anathematized Dioscorus. 553, May 4 June 2. Council of Constantinople (q. v.). 680, Nov. 7 68 1, Sep. 16. Constantinople q.v.). 787, Sep. 24 Oct. 23. Council of Nictea, or Nice, which anathematized the Iconoclasts, and restored Image-worship. 869, Oct. 5 870, Feb. 28. Council of Constantinople, which deposed Phocius, and restored Ignatius. 1123, March 18 April 5. Council of l.ateran. 1139, April 20. Council of Lateran, for the reunion of the Church. 1179, March 5 19. Council of Lateran, on discipline. 12J5, Nov. 1130. Council of Lateran, against the Albigenses, &c. 1245, June 2'6 July 17. Council of Lyons, which deposed Frederick II. of Germany. 1274, May 7 July 17. Council of Lyons, which published ordinances respecting the election of bishops, &c., and reunited the Greek and Latin Churches. 1311, Oct. 161312, May 6. Council of Vienne, in Dau- phiny, where the Pope published the suppression of the Templars. 1409, March 25 Aug. 7. Council of Pisa. 1414, Nov. 161418, April 22. Couneil of Constnnce (q.v.). 1431, July 231443, May 16. Council of Basel {q.v.). 1439, Feb. 29 1442, April 23. Council of Florence (q. r.). 1545, Dec. 131563, Dec. 3. Council of Trent, against the doctrines of Luther, Xuinglius, and Calvin, and for the reformation of manners.* GENERAL FUND. ( GENERAL SAFETY (Committee of), com- red of 25 members, and established at Paris the Revolutionary party, Oct. 2, 1792, was superseded by the Committee of Public Welfare (q. v.). GENERAL "WARRANTS, not specifying any particular persons, were declared illegal, Friday, May 6, 1763. John Wilkes had been arrested on a general warrant, Saturday, April 30, 1763. Having obtained an acquittal, he brought the subject forward in the House of Commons, and commenced an action against Robert Wood, under-secretary of state, for having seized his papers. This was tried Dec. 6, 1 763, and resulted in a verdict in favour of John Wilkes, with ,1,000 damages. GENERALISSIMO. Cardinal Richelieu is said to have been the first person to bear this title, which he did on taking the command of a French army in Italy in 1629. GENESIS, the first book of the Pentateuch (q.v.), was written by Moses, who died B.C. 1451. GENEVA (Switzerland) is mentioned by Csesar as a town p f the Allobroges, B.C. 58. 200 (about). Geneva is made a bishopric. 426. Geneva is taken by the Burgundians, who make it their capital. 534. Geneva is seized by the Franks. 1385. The citizens conclude an alliance with the Count of Savoy. 1387. Bishop "Fabri grants the town a charter. 1417. It is rendered subject to the Duke of Savoy. 1499. Louis XII. and Philibert II., Duke of Savoy, sign a treaty at Geneva. 1515, Nov. 7. Francis I. and eight of the Swiss cantons conclude a treaty at Geneva. 1516. The other cantons accede to the treaty. 1519. The inhabitants conclude a treaty 'with Freiburg and Berne. 1524. The Genevese shake off the yoke of Savoy. 1535. The Calviuists expel the bishop, who 'retires to Annecy, in Savoy. * Authorities differ respecting the list, some making the Council of Pisa (1511, Sep. 11512, April 21) and others that of Lateran (1512, May 31517, March 16) general councils. A.D. 1536. Calvin repairs to Geneva, which becomes a republic in alliance with Berne. J553, Oct. 27. Michael Servetus is burned, at Geneva, for heresy. 1584. Geneva forms an alliance with the Swiss cantons. 1602. The Duke of Saxony fails in an attempt to effect its capture. 1603. Henry IV., of France, acknowledges its inde- pendence. 1712- A general assembly is convened, but without im- portant results. 1738. The republic adopts a regular constitution. 1770. An insurrection is suppressed. 1781, Delay in the publication of a new code of laws creates great dissatisfaction. 1782, March. A rebellion breaks out, and the inhabitants admit foreign troops into the city. Sep. One thousand of the inhabitants petition the Irish government for permission to settle in Ireland, which is granted, and 50,000 are voted to enable them to do so. 1783, July. A deputation arrives in Waterford to found New Geneva; but after 30,000 have been ex- pended, the scheme is suddenly abandoned. 1789. The inhabitants compel the magistrates to extend their privileges. 1794, July. A revolution takes place, some of the gentry are executed, and others are exiled, or imprisoned. 1798, April. Geneva is annexed to the French republic. 1814. Geneva is restored to Switzerland, of which it becomes a canton. 1834, Feb. 5. Some Polish refugees excite the lower orders of Geneva to aid them in a rebellion against the Sardinians. 1846. It is disturbed by insurgents, who obtain an alte- ration of the constitution, which becomes more democratic. 1849. The fortifications are destroyed. 1860, March 30. From 50 to 80 persons, who had set out to plant the Swiss flag at Thonon and Kviau, are arrested, and brought back. 1864, Aug. 22. Serious disturbances take place on the election of a member of the council of state. Aug. 23. The riot is suppressed by the Swiss federal troops, who occupy the city. 1865, Feb. 10. The military occupation ceases. GENEVIEVE, ST. (Missouri), was founded in 1755- GPJNEVOIS (Italy). This province, governed in the Middle Ages by the counts of Geneva, passed to the house of Savoy in 1564, when it was erected into a duchy. In 1659 ^ was m " corporated with Savoy, and in 1792 was an- nexed to France. It was restored to Sardinia in 1815. GENNET (Order of). This, the first order of chivalry established in France, was founded by Charles Martel, in memory of his victory over the Moors between Poitiers and Tours in 732. It was named Gennet, or Wood Marten, be- cause numbers of these animals were found in the camp of the invaders. GENOA (Italy), the ancient Genua said to have been founded about B.C. 707, was the chief maritime city of the Ligures, and at the begin- ning of the second Punic war, B.C. 218, was in alliance with Rome. Mago, the Carthaginian, seized it B.C. 205, and reduced it to ruins ; but it was rebuilt by Sp. Lucretius, B.C. 203. 262.' The cathedral is founded. 381. A bishop of Genoa is present at the Council of Aquileia. 641. Genoa is seized by the Lombards. 936. It is pillaged by the Saracens. 985. The cathedral is rebuilt. 1119. War is declared against Pisa. 1 1 22. It is governed by consuls, who hold their office for a year at a time. 1133. The see is made archiepiscopal. 1146. The Genoese take Minorca from the Moors. F F 2 GENOLA [ 436 ] GEOLOGY 1190. The administration is entrusted to a podesta. 1257. '1 '"' town is {roverned by a captain. 1370. Doria and Spinola usurp the government, and a-Mime the- titles of Curtains of Liberty. 1284. Sca-fi-ht of .Melora (e> under the s\vay of the Duke of Milan. I47v Genoa is iu\ ailed by the Turks. 14-;.;. It i-, a-.iin subjected to the French. 1507. An insurrection of the inhabitants is suppressed by Bayard. 1528. Andrew Doria opposes Francis I. and obtain* a new constitution, the chief power being in the hands of a do-,., elei-ted biennially. 1547, Jan. -. l.oui., 1'ieM-o fails in a conspiracy again>t Andrew Doria. The lifrhihu>e is erected. 1684. Genoa is bombarded by the French, and the do-re repairs to VcrsaiHe," to tender submission to Loub \iv. 1729. Cornea revolts. 174.5, s "i'- -'' (; ''"" :1 is bombarded by Admiral Rowley. 1746, Nov. 9. It surrenders to Charles Kmanm 1, King of Sardinia, and the Austrians. Dec. lo. The in- vaders arc expelled by the eiti/ens. 1747, Man h 31. The Austrians renew the siege. June lo. The Austrians retire. 1768, Aug. 5. Corsica is ceded to France. 17-7. The palace of the do-.- is destroyed by fire. U] lied by the French. 1797, June 14. The republic assumes the title of the Ligurian Republic. 1800. Massena i., besieged in Genoa by the EnglNh and Austrians. June 4. lie is compelled 1<> retire. 1805, June 4. Genoa is incorporated with the French empire. 1812. The university is founded. 1814, April 18. Genoa surrenders to the English under Sir William Itentinck. Dec. 14. It is annexed to Sar- dinia by the Congress of Vienna. 1828. The Carlo Felice theatre, the largest in the city, is opened. 1846, Sep. 27. A monument is commenced in honour of Christopher Columbus, a native of Genoa. 1849, April 3. The inhabitants expel the Sardinian forces, a:id proclaim the restoration of the Ligurian He- pnblie. The city is declared in a state of siejie by Gen. Iiella .Marmora. April II. The city sur- renders. 1853. The harbour is connected with Turin by a railway. is-.o, .May 12. Napoleon III. di>enibarks to join the French army in the war against Austria. 1860, May 5. Garibaldi embarks for Sicily with 2,ooo men. 1861, June. 7 and 8. The theatres, &c., are closed, in con- sequence of the funeral of Count Cavour. GEXOLA (Battle). The French, under Cham- piomiet, were defeated by the Austrians, under Gen. Mclas, at this place, in Northern Italy, ^ GENTILLY (FranceW St. Eligius, who died in 659, founded a monastery at this town, which was annexed to the bishopric of Paris by Louis II. (the Stammerer) in 878. A council concerning images was held here in 767. GENTLEMAN. This name is derived from the Latin f/fittilis, which signified such aswere of the same family or gens, and is a corruption of the French ytntilhomme. It exists in some form in all the Romance languages, and is de- fined by Selden (Titles of Honour, p. 852) as " one that, either from the blood of his ances- tors, or the favour of his sovereign, or of them that heave power of sovereignty in them, or from his own virtue, employment, or otherwise according to the laws and customs of honour in the country we speak of, is ennobled, made gentile, or so raised up to an eminency above the multitude, perpetually inherent in his per- son, that by those laws and customs he be truly nt,/,;ilx or nnble, whether he have any of the precedent titles or not fixed besides on him." GENTLEMEN-AT-ARMS. This branch of the royal body-guard, instituted by Henry VIII. in 1509, under the title of the "Band of Gentlemen Pensioners," originally numbered 50 men, reduced to 40 by Charles II. in 1670. It received its present designation from William IV. in 1834. ( ; i-;< >( ; HAPHICAL SOCIETY. Maite-Bnm founded one at Paris in 1821. The Royal Geo- graphical Society of London was founded in 1830. The African Association, established June 9, 1788, was incorporated with it July 23, 1831. The Palestine Association, founded in 1805, joined it March 4, 1834 ; and the Geogra- phical Society of Bengal, founded in 1831, joined it in June, 1832. ( i l-K >< ; KA PHY. Egyptian tradition ascribes the origin of this science to Hermes or. .Mer- cury, and the invention of geographical maps -iris, who flourished about B.C. 1618. The first Grecian map was prepared by Anaxi- mander of Miletus, about B.C. 568, and the science, reduced to rule by Eratosthenes, B.C. 240, was afterwards improved by Ilipparchus, B.C. 135. Strabo, who flourished B.C. 71 to A.D. 14, is the most eminent of the ancient geographers. Modern geography was revived by the Moors, who introduced it into Spain in 1201. In 1478, Arnold Buckinck published at Rome an edition of Ptolemy's Geography, illustrated with copper-plate engraved maps; and in 1532 Simon Grynaeus printed an ac- count of the state of geography in his time, embodying the recent discoveries of the Spa- niards and Portuguese. Maritime charts were brought to England by Bartholomew Columbus in 1488. Ramusio's collection of Travels ap- peared in 1550, and Ferrari's Lexicon Geogra- phicum in 1627. The first volume of Malte- Brun's Geography was published in 1810. GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY was instituted in London in 1807, and its charter of incorporation is dated April 23, 1826. The Royal Geological Society of Cornwall was founded Feb. n, 1814. The Geological Society of Dublin was founded in Feb., 1832 ; that of Edinburgh in 1834 ; of Manchester in 1838 ; and of the West Riding of Yorkshire in 1838. The French Geological Society was established in 1830. <;!:> LOGY is a science of recent origin, although the knowledge of fossils attained by GEOMETRY [ 437 1 GEORGE Frascatorio in 1517, and the deductions Agricola drew from the information of the Saxon miners in 1546, might naturally have led to its culti- vation. Kircher's " Mundus Subterrancus," which appeared in 1662, contains all then known on the subject. In 1683, Dr. Lister sug- gested the preparation of maps exhibiting the various soils of England, and in 1694 Bumet published his " Theory of the Earth." Wood- ward's theory appeared in the " Philosophical Transactions" for 1695 ; and Whiston published his work on the same subject in 1696. In 1743, Parke published his (Jhorographical Chart of East Kent, and in 1749 the "Protog^a" of Leibnitz announced his views on the science. The first volumes of Buffon's "Natural His- tory, " which also appeared in 1 749, are devoted to his exposition of the theory of the earth, which he was afterwards compelled by the Sorbonne to recant. The regular order of strata was proved by the Swedish philosopher Tylas, in 1750, and enlarged upon by the German Lehmann in 1756. Werner's treatise on mine- rals appeared in 1774, and was controverted by Hutton in 1795. English geology may be said to have been founded by William Smith, who walked over nearly the whole of England in order to prepare his " Tabular View of British Strata," which he published in 1815. GEOMETRY. Herodotus and other ancient writers state that this science was first culti- vated in Egypt, whence it was introduced into Greece by Thales (B.C. 6363.0. 546). Py- thagoras, born about B.C. 580, and Hippocrates, B.C. 480, made many important additions to the science, which was enriched by the writings of Euclid, B.C. 285. Archimedes, born B.C. 287, and Ptolemy, who floiirished in 125, are also eminent among the ancient geometricians. Geometry, with the other sciences, suffered a temporary decline in consequence of the de- struction of the Alexandrian library by Omar I. in 640. It was revived by the Moors in the dark ages, and gradually resumed its rank as an important branch of mental education. Euclid was first translated into Latin about the year 1150, by a monk of Bath, named Adelard, or Athelard; and Thomas Brad wardin, Archbishop of Canterbury, who died in 1349, was eminent for his skill in this science. Lamberti's trans- lation of Euclid appeared in 1505, and the trea- tise of Regiomontanus on triangles in 1533. In 1552, books of astronomy and geometry were condemned to be burned in England as con- nected with necromancy ; but the science appears to have speedily regained the public good opinion, as the first English translation of Euclid appeared in 1570. The application of algebra to geometry was brought to perfection by Descartes, 1596 1650. Kepler's treatise on the capacity of casks, which appeared in 1615, originated the modern school of geometry, which was brought to fuller perfection by Ca- valieri of Bologna in 1626. Among modern geometers, Pascal (1623 1662), Simson, whose Euclid, first published in 1756, still maintains its rank as one of the best, and Legendre (1752 1833), are the most distinguished. (See DEGREES or GEOMETRY.) GEORGE. George florins, coined at Orleans, were made current in England in Feb., 1340. George nobles of gold were first corned by Henry VIII. in 1533. Their value was six shillings and eightpence. GEORGES CONSPIRACY. This plot against the life of Napoleon I. takes its name from its originator, Georges Cadoudal, a Chouan chief. He associated with him in the scheme Gens. Moreau and Pichegru, and others ; but the affair becoming known Feb. 16, 1804, the leaders were arrested, and the plot was abandoned. Pichegru was found strangled in prison, April 6 ; Moreau was sentenced to two years' exile June 10 ; and Cadoudal was exe- cuted June 25. GEORGE'S CLUB (London), which met on St. George's Day (April 23), at the sign of the George, and the members of which were used to swear "before George," is mentioned as " still fresh in every one's memory " in the Spectator, No. 9, March 10, 1710-11. GEORGE, ST., or George of Cappadocia, was born in Cilicia, according to some autho- rities, and in Cappadocia according to others, in the 4th century. The English crusaders found St. George elevated to the rank of a warrior saint, bearing the title Victorious, in 1096. The Council of Oxford (June u, 1222) commanded his feast to be kept a holi- day of the lesser rank. Edward III. made him patron of the order of the Garter, and from that time he has been the tutelary saint of England. St. George was the ancient English war-cry. His day is April 23. GEORGE, ST. This town, on the island of St. George's, one of the Bermudas, was founded in 1613. The general assembly was instituted to meet at this town Aug. i, 1620. The government house was built in 1847. GEORGE, ST. (Knights of). There have been several orders of St. George. Frederick III., Emperor of Germany, founded one in 1470, as a defence against the Turks. The military Russian order of St. George was founded by Catherine II., Nov. 26, 1769. It was afterwards neglected, but was restored to its original dignity by Alexander I., Dec. 12, 1801. The order of St. George of the Reunion was founded by Joseph Buonaparte as the order of the Two Sicilies, Feb. 24, 1808, re- modelled in 1815 by Ferdinand I., and received its present name from King Ferdi- nandll., Jan. i, 1819. TheorderofSt. George of Lucca was established by the Duke Charles Louis, June i, 1833. The Hanoverian order of St. George was founded April 23, 1839. (See ANGELIC KNIGHTS OF ST. GEORGE.) GEORGE, ST. (Religious Order). The order of St. George in Algha, founded at Venice by Antony Corrario and Gabriel Gondelmaire in 1404, was suppressed by Clement IX. in 1668. GEORGE'S (ST.) HOSPITAL, near Hyde Park Corner, London, was founded in 1733. The present edifice was erected in 1830. GEORGE'S (ST.) ISLAND, one of the Azores, was colonized by some Flemings and Portuguese in 1450. Another island of the same name, one of the Bermudas, was colo- nized by the English in 1612. GEORGE THE FIRST, son of Ernest, the Elector, and Sophia, Electress of Hanover, was born at Osnaburg, May 28, 1660. He GEORGE [ 438 1 GEORGIA married Sophia Dorothea, daughter of the Duke of Zell, in 1682. She died a prisoner at Alilen, Nov. 2, 1726. They had one son (see GEORGE II.) and a daughter, named Sophia Dorothea, bom March 16, 1687, and married to Frederick William I. of Prussia in 1706. George I. succeeded to the electorate of Han- over in 1698, and, in accordance with the terms of the Act of Settlement, became king on the death of Queen Anne, Aug. i, 1714. He ar- rived at Greenwich Sep. 18, entered London Sep. 20, and was crowned Oct. 20, 1714. He died at Osiiaburg, on a journey to Hanover, June n, 1727. GEORGE THE SECOND, the only son of George I. and Sophia Dorothea, was born at Hanover Oct. 30, 1683. He married Wilhel- mina Caroline, daughter of John Frederick, Margrave of Braiidenburg-Anspuch, Aug. 22, 1705. They had three sons and five daughters : Frederick Louis, born Jan. 20, 1707, made Duke of Gloucester Jan. 10, 1718, died March 20, 1751 ; Anne, born in 1709, died Jan. 12, 1759 ; Amelia, boni in 1711 ; Caroline, in 1713 ; George William, born Nov. 3, 1713, died in 1714; William Augustus, born in April, 1721, created Duke of Cumberland in 1726, and died in 1765 ; Mary, born in 1723, married in 1740 to Frederick, Landgrave of Ilesse-Cassel ; and Louisa, born in 1724, married in 1743 to Fre- derick V. of Denmark. George II. succeeded his father June n, 1727. He died suddenly at Kensington, Oct. 215, 1760. GEORGE TIIK THIRD, the eldest son of Frederick Louis, Prince of Wales, and Augusta of Saxe-Gotha. married April 25, 1736, was born in Norfolk House, St. James's Square, May 24, 1738 (O.S.). He succeeded his grand- father, George II., Oct. 25, 1760. He married Charlotte Sophia of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, Sep. 8, 1761. His queen died at Kew, Nov. 17, 1818. They had nine sons and six daughters. George Augustus Frederick, afterwards George IV. (q.v.) ; Frederick, born Aug. 16, 1763, made Duke of York Nov. 27, 1789, and died Jan. 3, 1827 ; William Henry, afterwards William IV. (q.v.); Charlotte Augusta Matilda, born Sep. 29, 1766 ; Edward, born Nov. 2, 1767, made Duke of Kent in April, 1799, died Jan. 23, 1820 ; Augusta Sophia, bom Nov. 8, 1768, died in 1840; Elizabeth, born May 22, 1770; Ernest Augustus, born June 5, 1771, made Duke of Cumberland in April, 1799, died Nov. 18, 1851 ; Augustus Frederick, born Jan. 27, 1773, made Duke of Sussex in April, 1779, died April 21, 1843 ; Adolphus Frederick, born Feb. 24, 1774, made Duke of Cambridge in April, 1799, died July 8, 1850 ; Mary, born April 25, 1776, became Duchess of Gloucester July 22, 1816, died April 30, 1857; Sophia, born Nov. 5, 1777, died May 27, 1848; Amelia, born Aug. 8, 1783, died Nov. 2, 1 8 10 ; and Charlotte Caroline Augusta, born Jan. 7, 1796, and died Nov. 6, 1817. George III. died at Windsor, Saturday, Jan. 29, 1820, in the 6oth year of his reign. GEORGE THE FOURTH, the eldest son of George III., was born Aug. 12, 1762. He married Caroline Amelia Elizabeth, second daughter of the Duke of Brunswick, April 8, 1795. They had one daughter, Charlotte Augusta, born Jan. 7, 1796, and married to Prince Leopold, afterwards King of the Bel- gians, May 2, 1816. She died Nov. 6, 1817. George IV. separated from his wife in 1796. She was accused of having given birth to a son in 1802, and a commission of inquiry was in- stituted in 1806. The evidence was published in a volume, entitled " The Book," in 1813. He ascended the throne Jan. 29, 1820; and Queen Caroline, who had retired to the continent in 1816, returned to London June 6, 1820. She was refused admittance to Westminster Abbey at the coronation, July 19, 1821 ; and, falling ill, died at Hammersmith Aug. 7, 1821. George IV. died at Windsor, June 26, 1830. GEORGE THE FOURTH'S CORONATION GULF (Arctic Sea) was discovered and named by Franklin in July, 1821. GtiORGE TOWN (United States). A Roman Catholic College was erected at this town in Maryland in 1789, which received authority from Congress to confer degrees in 1815. There is also the Convent of Visitation, which was founded in 1798. George Town, formerly called Stabrock, in British Guiana, was nearly destroyed by fire Dec. 29, 1828. GEORGE TOWN, or PORT DALRY.M 1'LU (Tasmania). This town was founded by the English in 1809. Mirian. 343. Bakhar. 364. Mirdat III. 379. Barsabakhar. 395. Tirdat. 405. Pharsaman IV. 408. Mirdat IV. 413. Artchil. 434. Mirdat V. 440. Vakhtang. 499. Datehi.| 538. Bakour I. 53ii. 1'liarsaman V. A.D. 313. Vatche". 331. Bakour. 343- Mirdat II. 363. Asphagour. THE SASSANIDES. 533. Pharsaman VI. 557. Bakour II. 563. Stephanos I. 574. Gouram Pagratides. 600. Stephanos II. 614. Adarnassus. 639. Stephanos III. 635. Moslem Invasion and Interregnum. 730. Minnan, or Mir. 760. Artchil II. [. Joanne 1 and Djouan- cher. DYNASTY OF THE BAGRATIDES. -787. Achot. I 845. David I. 841. Bagrat I. | 881. Aternitch. (After which the list is confused.) GEORGIA (United States) was founded and named after George II., by an English com- pany, in 1732. The Spaniards invaded Georgia in 1742. It became crown property in 1752, and the provincial legislature was established in 1755. Georgia joined the Confederacy in 1776, was occupied by the English from 1778 to 1786, and was one of the original states of the Union. Its constitution, framed in 1785, was remodelled in 1798 ; and it seceded Jan. 19, 1861. GEORGIAN, or TAHITIAN ISLANDS (Pa- cific), were discovered by Wallis in 1767. (See OTAHEITE.) GEORGIEVSK (Russia), founded in 1771, was from 1793 to 1825 the capital of the Cau- casus. GEORGINIA. (See DAHLIA.) GEORGIUM SIDUS. William Herschel dis- covered this planet March 13, 1781, and named it in honour of George III. It has been called Herschel, and more generally Uranus. Two satellites were discovered in 1787, two in 1790, and two in 1794. GEPID^E. This Germanic tribe, originally inhabiting the shores of the Baltic, expelled the Burgundians from Northern Germany in the middle of the 3rd century, and invaded the Roman territory in 269. Having been con- quered by the Huns late in the 4th century, they regained their independence on the death of Attila in 453, but are not mentioned after 566 or 567. GERBEROI (Battle). William I. was wound- ed in a battle fought at this place in 1078. Having engaged in a personal encounter with his son Robert, who had joined Philip I,, King of France, his horse was killed, and his own life placed in great peril. GERBEROI (France). Henry II. of England seized this town in Oct., 1160, and in 1418 it was taken by the Burgundians and English, from whom it was wrested in 1432 by the Coxuit of Clermont, who reduced it to ruins. The English, who failed in an attempt in 1435, seized it in 1449. and were expelled by Louis de Soyecourt de' Mony. It was pillaged by the Burgundians in 1472, delivered from the Leaguers in June, 1591, and was retaken by them in 1593 and 1594. GERBI, JERBA, or ZERBI (Mediterranean). This island, the ancient Meninx, situated near the coasts of Tunis, the refuge of Marius when expelled from Africa, B.C. 87, was taken in the i6th century by the Spaniards, who were driven out by the Turks in 1560. GERGOVIA (France). Vercingetorix de- feated Cassar in an attempt to capture this city, belonging to the Averni, B.C. 52. The modern Gergoie, near Clermont, occupies its site. GERIZIM (Palestine). On this mountain of Samaria, Darius Nothus (B.C. 424 405) erected a temple designed to supersede that of Jeru- salem. It was destroyed by John Hyrcanus about B.C. 127, and its site was transferred to the Christians by the Emperor Zeno in 474. GERMAIN-EN-LAYE, ST. (France). King Robert II. built the monastery of St. Germanus in the nth century. Louis VI. resided here in 1124. The English burned the town in 1346, in 1419, and in 1438. A palace was built by Charles V. in 1370. Francis I. rebuilt it in 1547, and it was improved by various sove- reigns. James II. of England held a mock court here from 1689 till his death, Sep. 6, 1701. Napoleon I. established a military school in 1809, and English troops were quartered here in 1815. GERMAIN-EN-LAYE, ST., or ST. GERMAIN (Treaties). Several treaties have been con- cluded at this place. The first, signed by Charles IX. and Admiral Coligny Aug. 8, 1570, accorded liberty of worship to the French Huguenots, with amnesty for their past oppo- sition to government and permission to reside in any part of the kingdom. By another, concluded March 17, 1632, Canada and other portions of N. America, captured by the Eng- ish during the war, were restored to France. Another, signed Oct. 26, 1635, established an alliance between Louis XIII. of France and the Duke of Weimar, who received the landgraviate of Alsace and a large sum of money in return r or supplying 18,000 men to the French army. Great Britain, Sweden, and the States- jeneral signed, April 25, 1668, a preliminary treaty, confirmed at Aix-la-Chapelle (q. v.), Vlay 12, 1668. Peace was restored between. Frederick William, Duke of Prussia, and the iings of France and Sweden, by another treaty signed here June 29, 1679. GERMAN BAPTISTS. (See DUNKERS.) GERMAN KNIGHTS. The knights of Ger- many formed during the Middle Ages a feudal order acknowledging no authority. The Em- jeror Rodolph I. (of Habsburg) dismantled nany of their castles in Thuringia in 1289. jrdtz von Berlichingen and Hans Selbig von ?rauenstein, two of the most notorious German mights, attacked a caravan between Forcheim and Neuss in May, 1512, capturing 31 522 the and a considerable booty. In 1522 the knights under Hans Thomas von Absberg infested all ;he roads in the neighbourhood of Nuremberg, and cut off the right hands of their prisoners, iickingen, the most powerful of the Rhenish knights, also headed a league of his fellow nobles formed at Landau in the spring of 1522 GERMAN [ 440 ] GERMANY and, under the pretence of assisting the Refor- mation, declared war against the Archbishop of Treves, Aug. 27. lie was put under the ban of the empire Oct. 8, and in April, 1523, was besieged in his castle of Landstuhl, which capitulated to Philip of Hesse, the Elector of Treves, and the Elector Palatine, May 7, when he died of his wounds. (See BARONS OF (ii;i;\i ( ; I : U M A X LEGAL PROTECTION SOCIETY. This association of German residents in London defended Franz Miiller, charged with having murdered Mr. Thomas Briggs in a carriage of the North London Railway, July 9, 1864. The prisoner, who had es- caped to New York, was arrested there by Inspector Tanner, of the London detective police force, Aug. 24, and arrived in custody at Liverpool ,Sep. 17. His trial, which com- menced Oct. 27, terminated in a conviction Oct. 29 ; and in spite of vigorous efforts to procure a mitigation of his .sentence, he was executed at Newgate, having previously con- fessed his guilt, Nov. 14. G BEMAN, SAN I'orto Rico), was founded in 1511. GERMANIC CONFEDERATION. This union of the states of Germany, formed by an act of the Congress of Vienna, June 8, 1815, to de the Confederation of the Rhine (fj. c.), comprised the umpire of Austria: the kingdoms of Bavaria, Hanover, I'russia.Sax. my, and Wurlemberg ; the grand-duchies oi liaden, and Saxe-Weimar ; the duchies of lirunswick and 8 the free cities of Bremen, I-'rankfort-on-the Maine, Hamburg, and Lubeck ; and sonic minor states. The soth anniversary of its foundation was celebrated June 8, 1865. In consequence of the Prussian invasion of Saxony (q. T.), Anhalt and Waldeck seceded from the Confederation June 25, 1866. (Si> l'i;i GKKMANo, SAN (Italy. An agreement between the Kmperor Frederick 1 1. and 1'ope Honorius, deferring the crusade till Aug., 1227, was concluded at this Neapolitan town, in July, 1225. Frederick II. concluded a hu- miliating treaty of peace with Pope Gregory IX. -June 14, 1230. The town was taken by the Spaniards iu 1730; and the Austrians defeated Murat here March 16, 1815. G HUMANS, ST. (Cornwall).-- The scat of the bishopric of Cornwall i/. r. , founded in 909. GHKMANTOWN Battle . The English de- feated the Americans at this town (included within the limits of Philadelphia since 1854), in Pennsylvania, Oct. 4, 1777. GERMANY. The Romans applied the term Gormania to a much more extensive tract of country than that at present known under the name of Germany. It was occupied by various warlike tribes, the name itself meaning " man of war." 113. The Cimbri and Teutoncs cross the Danube. (See XOKKIA, Battle.) 102. They :irc defeated by Manns, nt Aqua> Sextirc. 7.!. ArioviMus, King of 'the Murcomannie Suevi, sci/cs Burgundy. 55. Julius Ca>sar builds a wooden bridge over the lildne, and enters Germany. 13-9. Drusus makes four incursions into Germany. 9. Battle of Teutoburg (e Mibmir-.-ion, and receive Chris- tianity. 800, Dec. 25. Charlemamie is cr >wned Emperor of the West. (Sir iioi.v HOMAN- EMPIKE.) 843, Aug. II. The treaty of Verdun (7. r. ). i.ermans. under Arnold, take- Hume by storm. 911. Louis the Child dies, which puts nn end to the su- premacy of the Caroliugians in Germany. Conrad, Duke of Franconia, is elected king iu his stead, Nov. 8. 934. Henry I. defeats the Danes. 2. Otho I. is crowned Emperor of Germany at Kome. 978, Oct. i. (Mho II., the Ked, invades France, and conquers Lorraine-. [O4O, 1'opf Henedi'-t VIII. visits Germany. 1044. Peter of Hungary does homage to Henry III. for his kingdom. 1055. The eldest son of the emperor receives the title of " King of the- Kom.ins." 1073. Hildebraiid is elected pope, by the title of VII., without the sanction of the- emperor, Henry IV.. which occasions the dispute as to the right of investiture. 1077, .Ian. 25. Henry IV. is compelled to submit to the 1'ope. and do penance at Cauossa (q. r.). March. The 1'ope elects 1,'odolph of Swabia emperor. 1080. Eodolph is killed in battle. (,- .Mi;i:M-:i:rK<;.) 1084, Mureh 31. Henry IV. lakes Uoii:e, and cntlironi-s Clc-nient III. as pope. Gregory VII. Salerno. 1122. The dispute between the emperor and the Pope is concluded by the treaty of Worms. 1140. The Ghibellincs and Quelphs an- first used as party iiamc-s at the battle of Weinsberg. 1152. Frederick Karbarossa. Duke- of S\\abia, is elecled emperor at Frankfort. < Hi the- father's side he was connected with the Ghibelliues, and on the jiiother's with the Guelphs. 1154. T-rederick 1. invades Italy. 1163. Frederick I. takes and de.-troys Milan. 1167. Frederick I. besieges ami takes Home, tlW. I'.atlle of Kc-gnaiio (<,. r.). 1180. Frederick I. pronounces sentence of outlawry on Henry the Linn of Bavaria, who is deprived of his dignities and possessions. 1190, June' 10. Frederick I. is drowned while crossing the riverCalvcadnus.in Syria. 1197. On the death of Henry VI., the Guelphs elect as emperor Otho IV., son of Henry the Lion; and theGhibcllines. Philip of Swabia. 1308. Philip is assassinated at liamberg, and Otho is solemn! v crowned sole emperor at Koine. I2I5- Otho IV. "is deposed, and Frederick II., son of Henry VI., elected in his stead. I229- Frederick II. becomes King of .Ic-nisalem. 1346. Frederick II. is deposed by his subjects, who elect Henry of Thuringia. !24-. The Ha'nseatie League (?..). 1254- The death of Conrad IV. produces a disputed suc- ec-ssion and intc-i reynum. 1257- Uichard of Cornwall, brother of Henry III. of England, is elected emperor, but merely enjoys nominal dignity. 1268, Oct. 29. Conradin of Swabia, son of Conrad IV., is beheaded ut Naples. GERMANY t 44i GERMANY A.D. 1273. Eodolph I. of Habsburgis elected emperor. 1308. Mav i. Albert I. is assassinated by his nephew, John of Swabia. 1313. On the death of Henry VII., the empire is con- tended for by Louis V. and Frederick of Aus- tria. 1333, Sep. 28. Battle of Miihldorf (q. v.). 1325. Frederick is associated in the empire. 1347. Gunther, Count of Schwartzburg, who disputes the throne with Charles IV., dies. 1353. Germany is ravaged by the plague. 1356. Charles IV. signs the Golden Bull (q. .). 1363. The Tyrol passim under the house of Austria. 1387. The empire is divided into circles. 1410. Sigismund, King of Hungary, and Jossus, of Mo- ravia, are elected emperors. 1411. Jossus dies, and Sigismund reigns alone. 1439. The title of emperor is limited to the house of Austria, by the Pragmatic Sanction. 1462. Frederick III. is besieged in Vienna, by his brother Albert, to whom he cedes Lower Austria for eight ye ui s. 1483, Nov. 10. Birth of Martin Luther. 1497, Feb. 16. Birth of Philip Melancthon. 1514. The Poor Conrad League originates in Wttrtemberg. 1517, Oct. 31. Luther condemns indulgences. ^f 1519, June 28. Charles V. of Spain is elected emperor. 1531, April 17. Luther is excommunicated at the diet of Worms. 1539, March 13. The reformers are condemned by the diet of Spires. (See PROTESTANTS.) 1530, June 25. The reformers publish the Confession of Augsburg. Dec. 3. The League of Smalcald. 1535, June 25. The Roman Catholics take Minister. (See ANABAPTISTS.) 1546, Feb. 18. Death of Martin Luther. June 26. The emperor declares war against the Smalcald con- federates. 1553, July 31. The treaty of Passnu (q. v.). 1555, Oct. 25. Charles V. abdicates in favour of his brother Ferdinand. 1560, April 19. Death of Philip Melancthon. 1570. Hungary is annexed to the empire. 1599. The League of Heidelberg. 1608. The Evangelical Union of the Protestants is formed by the Elector Palatine Frederick. 1618. Commencement of the Thirty Years' War (q. v.). 1620, Nov. 8. The battle of Prague (q. .). 1629, M av 33- Tl'e treaty of Liibeck (q. v.). 1630, June 24. Gustavus II. (Adolph.ua), King of Sweden, invades Germany with 15,000 men. 1632, Nov. 16. Battle of LuUen. 1634, Feb. 25. Wallensteiu is assassinated by the impe- rialists. 1648,001.24 The peace of Westphalia (q. .). *" 1663. The permanent diet commences at Katisbon. 1674. War is declared against France. 1679, Feb. 5. The treaty of Nimeguen (q. .). 1683, Sep. 12. John Sobieski, King of Poland, compels the Turks to raise the siege of Vienna. 1688. War is renewed with France. 1689. The French invade Germany, and act with great cruelty. 1697, Sep. 20. The treaty of Kyswick. 1690. Jan. 26. The treaty of Carlowitz (q. i>.). " "1703, Oct. 6. War is again declared against France. 1704, Aug. 13. Battle of Blenheim. 1713, April 1 1. The peace of Utrecht (q. v.). 1717. Germany and Holland suffer severely from inun- dations. 1719. Bremen and Verden are ceded to the Elector of Brunswick. 1733. The emperor and states join in the Polish war. 1736, Feb. 13. Marriage of Maria Theresa and the Duke of Lorraine. 1740, Oct. 30. Death of the Emperor Charles VI., who is succeeded by his daughter Maria Theresa, in virtue of the Pragmatic Sanction (.(' Ill: V\I VKK.) 1864, Jan. 19. Prussian troops enter Oldenburg and Ham- burg. April i!S. A meeting of representatives ,if tli,- German newspaper press is held at Weimar. .June 1 6 21. The Kmperor of Russia meets the Emperor of Austria and other German potentates ill lvissii,ge;i. -Sep. 13 15. A general assembly of the Roman Catholic associations of Germany meets at Wur/.burg. Oct. 31 Nov. i. The Nalwnai-Verfin assembles at Eisenach. Dec. 5. The diet resolves to terminate the federal exe- cution in Holstcin. Dec. 17. The federal army of execution is declared to have evacuated ilolstein. 1865, March 4. A treaty of commerce, &e., is signed be- tween France and the llanse Towns at Ham- burg. -March 7. A conference commences for the conclusion of a commercial treaty between the German Customs Union and Switzerland. .March. Numerous strikes for increased wages and re- duced hours of labour take place. June 8. Cele- bration of the 5oth anniversary of the Germanic ( 'oil federation (q. v.). 1866, Jan. I. \ convention for the abolition of passports, concluded by Bavaria, Saxony, Hanover, and Wiirtemberg, comes into operation. April 9. Pi-'issU proposes to the diet that a representative assembly, elected throughout Germany by uni- versal suffrage, should discuss proposals for a reform of the federal constitution. April 26. A committee on reform is appointed. May *. Nine federal states, including Bavaria, Wiirtemberg, and liaden, hold a conference at JIfihlacker, in Wurtemherg, respecting the concentration and disposition of their military contingents. Mav 18. The diet publishes a despatch calling upon Austria, Prussia, and all other German states, to reduce their establishments to a peace footing. June 14. The diet, by a majority of three votes, decides in favour of the mobilization of the federal army. June 16. The diet resolves to assist Saxony against Prussian invasion. June 25. Anhalt and Waldeck secede from the Con- federation. June 37. Prince Charles of Bavaria is appointed Commander-in-Chief of the federal army. (See PitUobiA.) EMPERORS AND KINGS OF GERMANY. CAROLINGIANS. A.D. tioo. Charlemagne, or Charles 1. , the Great 814. Louis I., le Debon- naire. 840. I,othaire I. 843. Louis II., the German, king. 855. Louis II., emperor. Charles II., the Bald. I Carloms 876. < Louis III., the .Saxon. j Charles III., the Fat, *> king. 883. Charles III., emperor. 876. Arnold I., king. 896. Arnold I., emperor. 809. Louis IV., the Child. 911. Conrad I. HOUSE OF FUAXCONIA. HOUSE OF SAXONY. 919. Henry I., the Fowler. 936. Otbo I., the Great, king. 963. Otlio I., emperor. 973. Otho II. 983. Otho III. 1003. lleiiry II., the Holy. HOUSE OF FRANCONIA. 1034. Conrad II., the Sa- lique. 10^9. Henry III., the Black. 1056. Henry IV. 1077. llodolph of Swabia (elected by the Pope). 1081. Herman of Luxem- burg (elected by tho Pope). 1087. Conrad. 1106. Henry V. 125. Lothaire II. HOUSE OF SAXONY. )I<>< M, OF SWABIA, OR HOHENSTAUFEN. 1138. Conrad III. 1153. Frederick I., Barba- PMU. 1190. Henrv VI. (Philip. 1197. Vff IjU.V^Jl 1308. Henry VII., of Lux- 1378. Wcnceslaus, of Lux- emburg. emburg. ... ri-ouis V.. of Bavaria, 1400. Robert, Count Pala- 1 >'* \ Frederick of Austria. tine. {Charles IV., of Lux- emburg. Gunther, Count of Sehwartzburg. (Jossus, of Moravia. 1410. -{.Sigismund, of Lux- (. emburg. HOUSE OF AUSTRIA. 1438. Albert II. 1619. Ferdinand II. 1439. Frederick III. 1637. Ferdinand III. 1493. Maximilian I. 1658. Leopold I. ISIQ. Charles V. 1705. Joseph I. 1556. Ferdinand I. 1711. Charles VI. Is/'.}. Maximilian If. 1743. Charles VII., of Ba- 1576. Kodolph II. varia. 1613. Matthias. HOUSE OK AUSTRIA LORRAINE. Francis I. I 1790. Leopold II. | 1793. Francis II. Joseph II. GERONA, or GIRONA (Spain), is of very early origin, and was taken from the Moors by Charlemagne in 785. The bishopric was estab- ished in 786, and in 795 the city was recovered ay the Moors. In 1285 it was seized by Philip III. of France, who was compelled to surrender it to Peter of Aragon. The cathedral was re- built in 1316. Gerona was taken by the French ~.n 1694, but restored to Spain by the peace of Ryswick, Sep. 20, 1697. In the war of the GERSAU [ 443 1 GIANTS Spanish succession it was taken by the Duke de Noailles for King Philip V., Jan. 25, 1711. In June, 1808, it was besieged by 6,000 French under Duhesme, who was compelled to retire by the Ulster regiment of 300 men, commanded by O'Daly. In May, 1809, a French army of 35,000 men, under Verdier, Augereau, and St. Cyr, laid siege to the city, which main- tained a brave resistance until famine com- pelled the defenders to capitulate, Dec. 12, 1809. Councils were held at Gerona in 517 and 1068. GERSAU, or GERSOVIA (Switzerland). This town, which from 1315 till 1798 consti- tuted an independent state, was united to the canton of Schwyz hi 1814. GERTRUYDENBERG (Holland). Confe- rences for the conclusion of a general peace, which were opened at this village March n, 1710, led to no definite result, and were broken off July 20. Dumouriez captured Gertruyden- berg in March, 1793, but was soon after com- pelled to retire. The French seized it in 1795. GETTYSBURG (Battle). The Confederates, under Gen. Lee, attacked the army of the Potomac, commanded by Gen. Meade, at this place hi Pennsylvania, Wednesday, July i, 1863, and compelled them to take up a strong position on Cemetery Hill to the south of the town, where, after a succession of desperate onslaughts, the assailants were repulsed, July 2. The battle, recommenced July 3, resulted in the failure of a gallant attack by Gen. Pickett upon the Federal position, and the consequent defeat of the Confederates. GEX (France). This town, at the foot of Mount Jura, conquered by Savoy in 1353, was annexed to France in 1601. GHAZEEPORE (Hindostan). This town and the adjoining territory were ceded to the East India Company hi 1775. GHEEL. (See GEEL.) GHENT (Belgium) is said to have been founded by the Vandals, who made an irrup- tion into the Low Countries in the sth century. A.D. 630. St. Arnaud introduces Christianity. 879 Ghent is ravaged by the Northmen. 944. The cathedral of St. Bavon is founded. 968. The art of weaving is introduced. 1053. The city is fortified. 1 1 80. Ghent is made the capital of Flanders. llSi. The belfry tower is erected. 1234. The grand Beguinage is founded. 1344. Jacques vail Artevelde's insurrection is suppressed. 1379. Philip van Artevelde commences his insurrection. 1451. Ghent rebels against the government of Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy. 1480. The Hotel de Ville is commenced. 1539. Ghent rebels against Charles V. 1540, Feb. 34. Charles V. enters Ghent. 1559. The bishopric is founded. 1576, Nov. 8. The " Pacification of Ghent " is signed in the town hall. 1584, Sep. 17. Ghent surrenders to the Spaniards. 1678, March 9. Ghent is taken by Louis XIV. of France. 1706. Ghent is taken by th " rlboroujrh. great prison is commenced by Maria Theresa. 1793. The French seize Ghent, and make it the capital of 1774. The Duke of Ma rison is commenced b the department of the Scheldt. 180!. The bishopric of Bruges is united to that of Ghent 1^14. Ghent is annexed to the Netherlands. 1816. The university is founded by William L, King of Holland. 1830. The city forms part of the new kingdom of Belgium. 1838, Sep. 2,. The railway to Ostend is opened. GHENT (Treaty). Peace between Great Britain and the United States was signed at Ghent, Dec. 24, 1814. GHERIAH (Hindostan). The Mahrattas seized this fortress in the i7th century, and the pirate Angria made it his stronghold in 1705. Angria and his fleet wore destroyed by Watson and Clive, Feb. n, 1756. The English exchanged it by treaty for other places, and it came into the possession of the East India Company in 1818. GHIARA D'ADDA. (See AGNADEL, Battle.) GHIBELLINES and GUELPHS. On the death of Lothaire II., Emperor of Germany, Dec. 4, 1137, Conrad, Duke of Franconia, son of Frederick of Hohciistaufen, Duke of Swabia and Lord of Wiblingen, which by conniption became Ghibelline, was elected his successor. His right to the imperial throne was, however, disputed by Henry the Proud, Duke of Saxony and Bavaria, and nephew of Guelph II., Duke of Bavaria, who was in consequence declared an outlaw, and shortly after died. His ad- herents transferred their allegiance to his son Henry the Lion, at that time a boy of 10 years old, and the whole empire was divided into the partisans of Conrad, who assumed the name of Ghibellines, and those of Henry, or the Guelphs. These titles were first used at the battle of Weinsberg in 1140. The strife between the two parties subsided in Germany, but continued in Italy, resulting in war in 1 159. The supporters of the popes were termed Guelphs, and those of the emperors Ghibellines. Charles of Anjou expelled the Ghibellines from Italy in 1268 ; but the contest between the two factions continued until the French invasion hi 1495 united them against a common enemy. GHIZEH (Egypt). The pyramids of this place were erected by the eight Memphite kings of the Fourth Dynasty, which reigned in Egypt from about B.C. 2440 to about B.C. ' GHIZNEVIDES, or GAZNEVIDES. This Tartar dynasty, named from Ghizni (g. v.), where it was founded by Alp-Tekin in 961, was defeated by the Turcomans, or Seljukiaii Turks, at the battle of Zendecan (q. v.) in 1038. Ala-Eddyu, of the dynasty of the Gourides (q. v.), expelled them from Ghizni in 1158, and the last of the race was put to death at Lahore in 1189. GHIZNI, or GHUZNEE (Afghanistan), in 957, was the capital of a powerful empire. In 1171 it was burned to the ground by Saheb ud Deen Mohammed Ghori, and it never regained its former prosperity. Ghizni surrendered to a British force under Sir John Keane, July 23, 1839. The English were compelled to restore it to the Afghans, March i, 1842, but it was retaken by Gen. Nott, Sep. 9. GHOST. (See COCK LANE GHOST and HOLY GHOST.) GHRENNAH. (See CYRENE.) GHURI. (See GOCRIDES.) GIANTS, mentioned (Gen. vi. 4) under the term Nephilim, as existing before the flood, B.C. 3468. Chedorlaomer and other kings de- feated the Rephaim, another race of giants (Gen. xiv. 5), B.C. 1913. Og, King of Bashan, GIANTS [ 444 1 GIRDLERS one of the last of the Rephaim, was .slain by the Israelites under Moses (I)eut. i. 4, and iii. 1-13), B.C. 1451. His bed measured 9 cubits in length. The Anakim, descendants of Arba (Josh. xv. 13 ', were defeated by Joshua (xi. 21-22), B.C. 1445. Goliah, slain by David, B.C. 1063 (i Sain. xvii. 49), was 10^ feet in height. Many fabulous stories are told respecting tlje heightof giants, but there is no certain evidence that above 9 feet has been attained. GIANTS (,Battle of the). (See MARIGNANO, Battle.) GIBBON'S TENNIS COURT THEATRE (London), situated in Clare Market, was opened by the king's company under Killi- grew, Nov. 8, 1660. Pepys states that he first saw women 011 the stage at this house, Jan. 3, 1661. The company removed to Drury Lane Theatre ((/. r.), April 8, 1663, and the building, after undergoing various transformations, was destroy ed by fire, Sep. 17, 1809. G1BEON. (See AIJALON and BKTH-HORON.) CIHKALTAi; (Spain). This rock was known to the Pho.;nirians by t lie name Alube, which the Greeks altered toYalpe. 711, April 30 (Thursday), (ii-l)nl Tank, tin- Moor, lands a! (.ibrallar, and commence* the subjugation of Spain. 1309. Gibraltar is taken from the Moors by Guzman el liueiio. 1333. The Moors recapture it. 140^. Gibraltar is finally taken by the Spaniards. ic;o^. Gibraltar i Incorporated with Spain. 1554. Charles V. strengthens the tortili- atious. J-O4, July 21. The combined Knglish and Dutcli llcets arrive at Gibniltar. July 23. They open lire on tin- citadel. July 24. It surrenders.- Oct. II. 'ilie Spaniards, under the Marquis t only 400. 1713, April 11. If I- ceded I. .'(.real Urituin. (See UTKECHT, Treaty.) 1730. The Spaniards make an abortive effort to recapture 1737, Jan. 20. The Spaniards blockade it without success. - l''cb. z>. 'J'hey open lire on the garrisoii. June 12. They retire. 1773. The kin},''.- bastion is erected. J 77 n i Julv 10. 'J'he grand siege is commenced by the Spaniards blocking up the port, 1782, May 14. The .Spaniards commence their floating batteries. Sep. 13. The grand attack is made by the combined l-'rcnch and Spanish fleets and lo floating batteries, which are destroyed by fire, and completclv repulsed. 1783, Feb. 5. The blockade is discontinued. 3. The library is founded. l, July 7. The Hainiilnil. 74 puns, surrenders to the French. July i>. Sir. I. Saiimarey., vitli a fleet of live men-of-war and a frigate, attacks the l-'reiich and Spanish fleets off Gibraltar, blowing up two {Spanish ships of 112 guns each, and capturing one of 74 {runs. 1804, Sep. The to-wii is ravap'il by jK'stilence. IS I 3, Sep. 5. 'J'he pestilence rea]ipears. j.v-\ Sep i. Tlie pestilence again rages. 1843. Gibraltar is made a bishopric. GIEN (League). The chiefs of the Armag- mcs (K.' GILES'S (ST. HOSPITAL (London). Ma- tilda, Queen of Henry I., founded this hospital for lepers in noi. GILTSPUK STREET COMPTER (London). This debtors' prison was erected in 1791. GIN ACT. By 9 Geo. II. c. 23 (1736 , every retailer of spirituous liquor in less quantity than two gallons was obliged to pay ^5. for a licence, and a duty of 2o. on every gallon sold. GINGEK 'Hindustan'. This fortress, in the Carnatic, founded in 1442, passed, in if the hands of the Mohammedans of Bejapour, who retailed it till 1677, when it was seixed by tin- Mahrattas. In 1698 it was captured by the imperial general Zulficar Khan, and in 1715 by Saadet Oolla Khan. The French, under Bussy, took it in 1750; and it surrendered to the British April 5, 1761. GINGKR was formerly collected in Egypt, and sold by weight to Europeans. By 12 Charles II. c. 18 (1660), the exportation of ginger from British colonies to any foreign country was prohibited ; but, in 1765, large quantities were allowed to be exported to Holland. By 5 & 6 Viet. c. 47 (July 9, 1842 , the duty on ginger was fixed at IDS. per ewt. if imported from a foreign country, and 5*. per cwt. if from a British colony. GINGERBREAD, sold in Paris in the i 4 th century, was introduced into England during the reign of Henry IV. (1399 1413). GIRAFFE, or CAM ELOPARD. This ani- mal, found in Africa, was known to the ancient Egyptians, and was first exhibited in Italy by Julius Csesar. A giraffe was sent as a present to Frederick II. of Germany (1215 1246 , and another, belonging to Lorenzo de Medici, was a great favourite with the inhabitants of Flo- rence towards the end of the isth century. No living giraffe was seen in Europe for more than three centuries. The first brought to England alive, in Aug., 1827, died in 1829. Four were exhibited in the Zoological So- ciety's Gardens in 1836. GIRDLERS. The company of girdlers, or girdlemakers, was incorporated by Henry VI. in 1449, and confirmed by Queen Elizabeth in GIRGENTI [ 445 GLASGOW 1568, when pinners and wire-drawers were ad- mitted. GIRGENTI (Sicily), the ancient Agrigentum (q. v.), was seized in 825 by the Saracens, from whom it was wrested by Roger Guiscard in 1086. The harbour was formed in 1752. GIRONDISTS. A political party during the great French Revolution, so named because its leading members were deputies for the depart- ment of the Gironde, was composed of the more moderate republicans, such as Vergniaud, Brissot, Ducot, Coiidorcet, Petion, and many others, who played a conspicuous part in the history of the times. They were called Brissotins, from Brissot. The Girondists at first were the dominant party in the assembly ; but, owing to their disgust at the massacres of Aug. and Sep., 1792, they rendered themselves obnoxious to the Montagnards, who procured the arrest of 21 of their chief members, June 2, 1793. These prisoners were confined in the Conciergerie, and executed Oct. 31. GISORS (Battles .An indecisive battle was fought at this town, in Normandy, between the French and English, Oct. 28, 1197. Richard I. defeated a French force near Gisors, Sep. 20, or Oct. 10, 1198. The English watch- word 011 the occasion was " Dieu et man uke of Wellington's statue is erected. 1849, Feb. 17. A false alarm of lire in the theatre occa- sions a panic, in winch 65 persons are crushed to death. l54, Sep. 6. The statue of the Queen is inaugurated. 1855, Sep. 12. The Uritish Association meets iit (;iasirow. 1859, Oct, 14. The Queen opens the new waterworks at I.oeli Katrine. 1860, Nov. The Kinpn-ss of the Freneh visits Glasgow. 1863, March 29. I..,rd 1'alniersMn is installed as Lord Hector of the University. 1864, Nov. 30. Nineteen persons are drowned by the up- setting of ft ferry-boat. 1865, Dec. 12. An Exhibition of Arts nnd Industry is opened in the Central AVi king Men's Club and Institute. 1866, March 31. The exhibition is closed. GLASITES, GLASSITES, or SANDEMA- NIANS. Tin's sect was founded by John Olas, minister of Tealing, near Dundee. In 1728 he was deposed for heterodox y, by the Synod ( ,f Angus, and consequently founded a distinct sect about 1730. In 1755 his opinions were embraced by Robert Sandetaan, who removed t<> London in 1760, and, after founding a con- gregation, sailed for America in t-jf\\. Alem- bcrs of this sect receive the Holy Supper weekly, retain the ancient feasts of charity, or Agapjo, abstain from things strangled, and from blond, and wash each other's feet. In 1851 il numbered six- congregations in England. CLASS. The probable inventors of glass were the Phoenicians, who are said by Pliny to have discovered its manufacture from the acci- dental fusion of sand and nitre in a fire lighted by some sailors on the seashore. It was brought to great perfection by the Sidonians. That must esteemed in ancient times was made by Ihe Hindoos. Considerable skill in it* prepara- tion was shown by the Egyptians, who practised the art of staining glass as early as B.C. 1150. Vessels of glass have been discovered in the buried city of Herculancum, which was over- whelmed by an eruption of Vesuvius in 79. The celebrated Portland vase, another specimen of Roman glass ware, was dis- covered in the tomb of Alexander Severus, who died in 235. There is no certain evidence that glass was employed in windows before the 3rd or 4th century. Jerome refers to their use in 422. They were first introduced into England by the Abbot Benedict Biscop, who brought a number of French glass manufac- turers to aid in the decoration of Wearmouth church and monastery, in 674. At first the use of the article was entirely confined to religious edifices, and it was not till the i4th century that it was in sufficient demand to create a dis- tinct business for its sale. The first notice of a glazier occurs in a contract respecting York cathedral, of the year 1338. Window glass of an inferior kind was made in England before 1439. The finer sorts were not manufactured till 1557, when a glass-house was established at Crutched Friars, London. Plate glass was first made in England at Lambeth, by some Venetian workmen in the employ of the Duke of Buckingham. The first glass manufactory in America was established in New Hampshire in 1790. British sheet glass was first manu- factured by Chances, of West Bromwich, and Hartley, of Sunderland, in 1832. An excise duty on glass was first imposed by 6 & 7 Will. & .Mary, c. 18 (1695'. This was repealed by 9 & 10 Will. 3, c. 45 ^1698^, and 10 & n Will. III. c. 18 (1699;. It was re-established by igGeo. II. c. 12 (1745 , and after successive augmentations was finally abolished by 8 n glass with enamel was introduced in the i6th century, and, together with the mosaic process previously practised, declined in the i7th cen- tury. Attempts to revive it were made with par- tial success in the i8th century, and it has since been carried to a high state of excellence. GLASTQNBUBY Somersetshire .Accord- ing to monkish tradition, the earliest Chris- tian church in Britain was founded here by St. Joseph of Arimathea, about 63. On the death of its founder it is reported to have fallen into decay, until Pope Eleutherius, in 186, de- i I'haganus and I >iruviaiius, who con- verted King Lucius to Christianity, and after- wards established themselves in the long- neglected foundation of St. Joseph. Ina, King of \Vessex, erected a church at Glastonhury about 719, and Edwy expelled the ambitious Dunstan from the abbacy, which he had en- joyed for 22 years, in 956. In 1081 there was a serious quarrel between the Abbot Turstin and the monks, which resulted in the death of several of the latter. The chapel of St. Joseph of Arimathea, of which the ruins still exist, was built by the Abbot Herlewin, who governed the abbey from noi to 1120. In 1184 the town and abbey were consumed by fire, and in Sep., 1275, the chapel of St. Michael was overthrown by an earthquake. Edward III. and his queen, Philippa, were magnificently entertained by the monks in 1331. Richard Whiting, the last abbot, was hanged on the Tor Hill, for op- posing the Reformation, Nov. 15, 1539. The monastery was suppressed in 1540, and has since fallen into decay. GLATZ (Prussia; was besieged and occupied, in 1049, by Henry III. of Germany. In 1114 it was seized by the Poles, in 1421 by the Huss- ites, and in 1462 it was erected into a county by Frederick III. In 1561 it was annexed to Bohemia; the Austrians besieged it in 1622; and in 1742 it was taken by the Prussians and incorporated with their territories. Alum works were erected in 1563. The Austrians took Glatz in 1759, and the Bavarians and Wurtembergers in 1807. GLAUCHA. (See CHARITY SCHOOLS.) GLAZIERS and GLASS-SELLERS. In 1309 glass-makers themselves exposed their wares GLEE [ 447 GLUCKSTADT for sale. The Glaziers' Company was incorpo- rated in 1637, and the Glass-sellers' in 1664. GLEE CLUB. (See CONCERT.) GLENCOE (Argyleshire) was the scene of the massacre of a tribe of the Macdonalds by the regiment of Campbell of Glenlyon. The Jacobite Highlanders having shown great re- luctance to submit to the rule of William III. and Mary, a proclamation was issued, promis- ing pardon to all who should tender their sub- mission before Jan. 1,1692. Many of the chiefs acceded to the demands made xipon them. Macdonald, or Maclan, of Glencoe, repaired to Fort William, Dec. 31, 1691, .and offered submission ; but the governor was not autho- rized to receive it. He furnished the chief with a letter to the sheriff of Inverary, who accepted his oath of allegiance Jan. 6, 1692. The Macdonalds had, however, rendered them- selves offensive, and William III. issued a warrant for the extirpation of the tribe. A troop of 120 men, led by Capt. Campbell, ac- cordingly entered the valley Feb. i, and on the pretext that they merely required quarters, were hospitably received by the inhabitants. They lived together in friendly intercourse till five o'clock on Saturday morning, Feb. 13, when the massacre was perpetrated under cir- cumstances of shocking and infamous treachery. Owing to the boisterous weather and the defective arrangements of the assassins, about three-fourths of the tribe escaped. No judi- cial inquiry into this crime was made till May 23, 1695, when a commission was nomi- nated. The commissioners made some state- ment June 10, when Bredalbane was arrested on a charge of treason. The report was de- clared to be finished June 20, and was laid before the House June 24. Bredalbane was set at liberty without trial, and William III. paid no attention whatever to the recommendations of the commission. GLENDALOCH. (See GLANDELAGH.) GLENLIVET (Battle). The Roman Catholics in Scotland, assisted by France and Spain, de- feated the adherents of James VI., afterwards James I. of England, at this place, in 1594. GLOBE THEATRE (London), situated in Bankside, Southwark, the property of Shak- speare and. his fellow actors, was built in 1594, the exterior plan being hexagonal, and the interior circular, while the roof was open. It was destroyed by a fire, occasioned by the accidental ignition of the thatch by some ordnance, discharged during a performance of Henry VIII., June 29, 1613. Having been re- built, at the expense of King James and the nobility, it was pulled down Monday, April 15, 1644. GLOGAU, or GROSS-GLOGAU (Prussia). The cathedral was erected in 1160. The town, formerly held by the Polish sovereigns of the Piast dynasty, passed in 1476 to Bohemia, and was taken from the Austrians in 1741 by the Prussians, who acquired it by treaty in 1742. The French invested it in Oct., 1806, and it surrendered early in Dec. The allies blockaded it Aug. 17, 1813, and it capitulated April 10, 1 GLORIOUS VIRGIN, or ST. MARY THE GLORIOUS. This order of knighthood,founded in Venice by Bartholomew of Vincenza, was approved by Pope Urban IV. in 1262. A similar order existed in Rome in the i7th century GLORY. (See NIMBUS.) GLOUCESTER (Bishopric of) was separated from the diocese of Worcester by a charter of Henry VIII., dated Sep. 3, 1541. The see of Bristol was united with it by an order in council, Oct. 5, 1836, and styled the diocese of Gloucester and Bristol. GLOUCESTER (Gloucestershire). This city, called by the Romans Clevum or Glevum, is of great antiquity, though the precise period of its foundation is unknown. It submitted to the Romans about 45, and on their departure became the principal city of the Britons, who surrendered it to the West Saxons in 577. In 679 it was enlarged and beautified by a son of King Penda. St. Peter's Abbey, the present cathedral, was commenced by Wulfhere, King of Mercia, about 671, and restored by Aldred, Bishop of Worcester, in 1058. In 1087, and June 17, 1264, the city suffered severely from fire, a calamity to which its wooden houses frequently exposed it. Gloucester was incor- porated by Henry III. The statutes of Glou- cester were passed Oct. 4, 1278. The siege of the city by the Royalists under Charles I. and the Earl of Brentford commenced Aug. 10, 1643, an d lasted till Sep. 5, when the Earl of Essex brought relief. The walls were demo- lished in 1662, and in 1673 the city received its chief charter from Charles II. The infirmary was founded in 1755, the market-house in 1786, and the gaol in 1791. The Gloucester and Berkeley canal, commenced in 1794, was not completed till 1826. The town haUwas erected in 1814. GLOVES. In the classical sera gloves were worn by archers, husbandmen, and others, as a protection from accidents, to which their pursuits rendered them liable. They were first distinguished by pairs about 814, and were introduced into this country in the ioth or nth century. Stevens, in his "Notes on Shakspeare," remarks, it was " the custom to wear gloves in the hat on three distinct occa- sions ; viz. as the favour of a mistress, the memorial of a friend, and as a mark to be challenged by an enemy," and instances of their use for these purposes are common in the writers of the i 5 th and i6th centuries. White wedding-gloves are mentioned by Dekker in 1599, an( i at a wedding in 1604 the gloves given to the guests cost nearly 1,000. The Glovers' Company was incorporated Sep. 10, 1639. The importation of gloves was prohi- bited by 3 Edw. IV. c. 4 (1463), and 6Geo. III. c. 19 (1766). The restriction was removed by 6Geo. IV. c. 105, 8. 119 (July 5, 1825). GLUCINA, or GLYCINA, was discovered in the emerald by Vauquelin in 1797. GLUCINUM, or GLYCINUM, a metal first obtained from glucina by Wohler in 1828. GLUCKSTADT, the capital of Holstein, was founded in 1619, and fortified in 1620 by Christian IV. In 1628 it successfully resisted a siege by Tilly, and in 1643 Torstenson failed in an attempt to take it. A supreme court of justice for Holstein and Sleswig was estab- lished in 1752. The fortifications were demo- GLYCERINE [ 448 ] GOG lished in 1814, and it was declared a free port in 1830. GLYCERINE. This substance was disco- vered by Scheele in 1779, and termed by him the "sweet principle of oils." It is obtained in the manufacture of soap and palm candles, and is employed as a material for soap and in medicine. GXESXA (PosenV Othp III. made it thrs seat of an archbishopric in 1000, and it was taken by the Prussians in 1793. GXIDOS. Sfc CNIIM-S. GNOSTICS. This sect of heretics is said by some to have been founded by Simon Magus, whom St. Peter rebuked in Samaria, in 33 (Acts viii. 20 24). Gnostic doctrines became general about 81. In 122, Basilides and Satur- ninus founded new sects in Syria, and in 140 one was founded at Rome by \ aleiitinus. The heresy reached its height about 150, after which it gradually declined, though some scattered ntiiiued to exist as late as 390. GXosus. SeeCx GOA Iliiidostan . This city of Bejapore was wrested from the Hindoo rajah by the Mohammedan sovereign of the Deccan about 1469. In 1510 it was taken by Albuquerque, who made it the capital of the Portuguese possessions in the Ivist. Revolutions, unat- tended with bloodshed, were effected in 1821 and 1822. (JOAT RIVER.- !&>?. /KGOSI-OTAMI. G01J.UX, ST. France .- --The celebrated looking glass manufactory of this town was established in 1691. GO13KLIX TAI'KSTRY is manufactured at the establishment founded by Colbert at Paris, in 1662, and named in honour of the celebrated tapestry-makers, the brothers Gobelin. The manufactory was under tlu management of the painter Lebrun from 1662 to 1690, and of late years Chevreul has introduced several improve- ments in design and colour. Gol) AND MY HIGHT. ,'& DiEU KT MON DROIT.) GOD SAVE THE KIXG, or QUKKX. (See NATIONAL ANTIII:M. GODDESS OF REASON'. .'> RKA GODERICH ADMINISTRATION. On the death of Mr. Canning, Aug. 8, 1827, Lord Goderich became prime minister, with the under-mentioned associates in the cabinet : Treasury I/ord Chancellor President of the Council Privy Seal Chancellor of Exchequer ... Home Secretary Foreign Secretary Colonial Secretary Board of Control Secretary at War Hoard of Trade Chancellor of the Duchy! of Lancaster "..) Master of the Mint Woods and Forests I ord G,ideri,-h. Lord Lyndliurst. Duke of Portland. Earl of Carlisle. Mr. llerries. M:irf|tiis of Lanfdowne. Lord Dudley and Ward. Mr. Huskiss.m. Mr. C. W. Wynn. Lord Palmerston. Mr. C. Grant. Lord Bexley. Mr. Tierney. Mr. S. Bourne. Mr. Huskisson resigned the colonial secretary- ship Jan. 7, 1828, anddissensions having broken out in the cabinet, Lord Goderich himself re- signed Jan. 8, 1828. (See WELLINGTON AD- MINISTRATION.) GODFATHERS AND GODMOTHERS. Tradition refers the origin of godfathers and godmothers to Bishop Hyginus, about 154, though some authors endeavour to derive the office from the Jewish rites or the Roman civil codes. Parents were prohibited from acting as sponsors for their children by the Council of Meiitz in 813. The number of sponsors was limited to one or two, at the most, by the Council of Trent in 1545, but the Church of England permits three. G< )DIVA PROCESSION. (See COVENTRY.) GODOLO (Battle). The Hungarians de- feated the Austrians at this place, near Pesth, April 6, 1849*. The Austrians lost 3,200 pri- soners, 26 pieces of cannon, seven standards, and ammunition. GO DOLPHIN ADMINISTRATION was formed soon after the accession of Queen Anne, Lord Godolphin, afterwards Earl Godolphin and Viscount Rialton, having been made lord high treasurer, May 8, 1702. Treasury Lord Godolphin. Lord Keeper sir Nathan Wri-ht. (Karl of Pembroke and President of the Council 1 Montgomery (July 14, ( 1702). Privy Seal (Marquis of Normanby ... -, aftcnvards Duke ol / P.uckinpham. rds Ch.nceUor of Exchequer -. Principal Secretaries of /Karl of Nottingham. State .............................. \Sir Charles lled-es. The Duke of Marlborough received the garter and the command of the army. A modification of the cabinet took place in 1 704, when the P]arl of Nottingham retired. Harley, afterwards Earl of Oxford and Lord Mortimer, became secretary of state May 18, 1704, and Henry St. John created Viscount Bolingbroke in 1712) became secretary at war April 20, 1704. The Duke of Newcastle became privy seal March 31, 1705. William, afterwards Lord Cowper, was made lord keeper Oct. 4, 1705, and lord chancellor May 4, 1707. Harley, in consequence of the indiscretion of Gregg, a clerk in his office, was dismissed Feb. n, 1708, and St. John immediately resigned. Mr. Boyle, afterwards Lord Carleton, replaced Harley, and Mr., afterwards Sir Robert, Walpole, and Earl of Orford, succeeded St. John. Mr. Smith re- placed Mr. Boyle at the exchequer Feb. n, 1708. Lord Somers was made president of the council Nov. 25, 1708. The Godolphin Ad- ministration was dissolved Aug. 8, 1710. (See HARLEY ADMINISTRATION.! GOD'S GIFT COLLEGE. (See DULWICH COLLEGE.^ GOD'S HOUSE. '.See CHRIST'S COLLEGE.) GOD'S TRUCE. (See TRUCE, or PEACE OF GOD.) GOES, or TERGOES (Holland). This forti- fied town, delivered by Spain from the attacks of the Dutch confederates in 1572, surrendered to the Prince of Orange in 1577. GOG AND MAGOG. These names occur frequently in the Bible. In a description of the procession made by Elizabeth, Jan. 13, 1558, mention is made of "the two ymages of Gotmagog the Albione, and Corineus the Britain, two gyantes bigge in stature, furnished GOHUD C 449 GOLD accordingly." Douce believes that some figure of the kind decorated the Guildhall long bef or this date. Richard Saunders carved the presen figures, set up in 1708, the old ones having been destroyed in the great fire. GOHUD (Hindostan). This town, fortifiec about the middle of the i8th century, wa taken by Scindia in 1784. The East Indu Company concluded a treaty guaranteeing the Rana of Gohud in his possessions, Jan. 17 1804. It was not, however, carried out, anc Gohud was transferred to the East India Com pany, in exchange for Dholpore. GOITO (Battles). This town in Lombard., was captured by the Imperialists in 1630. Ii was frequently assailed during the war of the Spanish succession. The French seized it in 1796, and were expelled the same year by the Austrians. The Sardinians took it April 8, 1848 ; and Charles Albert, King of Sardinia defeated the Austrians here, May 30, 1848. GOKOND. (See COCHIN CHINA.) GOLCONDA (Hindostan j . This town, celebrated in olden times for its diamond- mines, was the capital of a Hindoo principality incorporated with Delhi by Aurungzebe, ii 1687. GOLD. The earliest mention of this pre- cious metal occurs in Gen. ii. n, where gold is said to exist in the land of Havilah, compassed by the Pison, one of the four heads of the river that went out of Eden. In Gen. xiii. 2, Abra- ham is described as a man rich in silver and gold (B.C. 1897). Solomon employed this metal in every part of the temple and of his own palace, silver being " nothing accounted of " in his reign, i Kings x. 21 (B.C. 992). It was also in high estimation amongst the Egyptians, Babylonians, Assyrians, Persians, Greeks, and Romans, and was manufactured with skill by British goldsmiths as early as 628. The standard of gold is regulated by 17 & 1 8 Viet. c. 96 (Aug. 10, 1854). Wedding-rings are ex- empted from this by 18 & 19 Viet. c. 60 (July 23, 1855;. GOLD COAST (Africa). A district on the west coast of Africa, discovered by Santarem and Escobar in 1471, and named in consequence of the wealth thence derived. It was visited by an English expedition in 1591, and became an English colony in 1618. (See GUINEA.) GOLD COINAGE. The earliest gold coins known are supposed to be those of Miletus, in Asia Minor, which were probably struck about B.C. 800. The gold darics of the Persian monarchs originated about B.C. 538, and the Sicilians established a gold coinage at least as early as B.C. 400. The Romans first used gold coins B.C. 206. The modern gold coinage of Europe wis Commenced by the Florentines in 1252, that of Venice was established in 1276, and gold was a general circulating medium in 1320. The principal facts connected with the, English gold coinage will be found in the fol- lowing table : B.C. 19. Cunobelin begins to reign, and strikes the earliest known British u-old coins. A.D. 1347. Henry III. commences the English gold coinage by making a number of gold pennies, each worth 2O ordinary pieces. 1344. Edward III. orders florins, nobles, half-nobles, and quarter nobles, to be struck. 136?. The Commons petition for smaller gold coins. 1465. Edward IV. coins gold ryals and angels. 1489. Sovereigns, or double ryals, are first coined by Henry VII. 1526. Henry VIII. increases the value of the gold coins. 1537. Henry VIII. coins gold crowns. 1603. James I. coins gold unites, or broad pieces. 1617. James I. orders a new coinage. 1663. Guineas are first coined. 1670. Gold coins of 10, 40, and loo shillings are ordered. 1695. In consequence of the large number of clipped coins in circulation, the window-tax is levied to defray the expense of a recoinage. 1701. William III. coins gold pistoles and half pistoles for Scotland. 1733. The broad pieces of James I., Charles I., and Charles II., are recalled, and coined into guineas 1797. George III. coins gold seven-shilling pieces. 1843, June. The light gold coinage is called in. GOLD DISCOVERIES. The most impor- tant gold discoveries of modem times have been made in California, Australia, and British Columbia. The metal was discovered in Cali- fornia by Marshal and Capt. Suter in Sep., 1847, an d attracted adventurers from all parts of the world, insomuch that the immi- gration was estimated at 50,000 persons at the end of 1848. The gold excitement in Australia did not commence till 1851, though the metal was discovered in small quantities in 1829. In 1841 it was detected in the neighbourhood of the Macquarie River, and in May, 1845, Sir Roderick Murchison announced the probability of large gold discoveries in Australia to the deographical Society. In 1850 Stutchbury was Appointed geologist to the colony of Sydney xnd Hargraves announced his establishment of niners at the Ophir diggings, near Bathurst, Hay 8, 1851. The local government claimed ;he right of search for gold on behalf of the :rown, May 17, and before May 19 the diggers it Ophir had increased to between 500 and 600. )r. Kerr discovered a hundredweight of the recious metal in one day (July 14), and at the md of 1857 the total amount derived from Lustralia had amounted to ,66,135,484. The discovery of gold in British Columbia was >fficially reported to the governor of the colony, -larch i, 1856, and during 1858 occasioned imilar immigration and excitement to that weviously experienced in respect to California nd Australia, although in this case it was hiefly confined to the American continent, mportant discoveries of gold were made at "tago, New Zealand, in 1861. GOLD DUST. The trade in gold dust com- menced in Africa in 1442. GOLD FISH, introduced into England from 'hina, towards the end of the i7th century GOLD-LEAF. According to Pliny (ist cen- ary), the Romans were able to beat gold so tin that an ounce, forming a plate four fingers quare, was multiplied into 600 leaves of the ame area. The use of gold-leaf in the deco- ation of houses, furniture, or dress, was rohibited by a proclamation of James I. in 619. The art of gold-beating is carried to uch perfection that a single ounce of gold is lade to cover an area of a hundred square eet, the average thickness of common gold- eaf being 55^ of an inch. GOLD GOLDEN GOLD-MINES. The precious metals were first found in the eastern parts of Egypt and Asia. The Egyptians obtained gold from the copper-mines of Nubia, which were discovered by the kings of the most ancient race, and the metal was also derived from some mines of Southern Africa, of which the situation is now unknown. Job (xxii. 24) speaks of the gold of Ophir, the locality of which is much disputed, ' B.C. 2130. The first gold-mine in Europe was opened by Cadmus who is said to have nou- rished about B.C. 1550 in Mount I'angams, iu Thrace. The sources whence Solomon (B.C. 1015 975) appears t<> have derived his gold were chiefly Ophir (i Kings x. n) and Tarshish, which is supposed to be an ancient name for the south of Spain 2 (Jhron. ix. 21). The gold- mines of Hungary were discovered, about 745, those of Saxony in the loth century, of Hano- ver in 972, of Schellgadin in 1378. Gold was obtained from Chili in 1539. In 1543 it was discovered in Brazil, where the Indians used it for i'lsh-hooks ; but it was not obtained there by Europeans till 169:5. Peter the Great, of Russia, reopened some long-neglected gold- mines in his kingdom in in:/); and in 1781 the metal was discovered in France. Gold was found in the county of Wicklow, Ireland, in 1796, and in the Ural Mountains in 1820. (See GOLD Disc >v::i;ii:s. GOLDSMITHS' COMPANY was incorpo- rated by letters patent of Edward III., in 1327, and confirmed by Richard II. in 1392 or 1394. Edward IV. incre-ised its privil' powers in 1462, and the crest and supporters were granted in 1571. The fine hall of the company was built from the d>- Philip llardwick, R.A., and opened July 15, 1 GOLD AND SILVER WIRE DRAWERS. The ancients used gold and silver wire in weaving embroidery, and it was employed by surgeons in fastening teeth. The manufac- ture, originally practised in France and Italy, was introduced into Germany in 1592. The company of the Gold and Silver Wire Drawers was incorporated by James f. in 1623. GOLDAU (Switzerland). This village was entirely destroyed by the fall of the Knippo- nouhl rock, which formed the summit of Mont Rossberg, Sep. 2, 1806. Four other villages were destroyed at the same time, and upwards of 1,000 persons fell victims to this calamity. GOLDEN BULL. The name given to seve- ral charters and documents of the Middle Ages, which were sealed with a golden seal. The golden bull of Hungary was pi-omul 1222, that of Bohemia in 1348, of Brabant in 1349, and of Milan in 1549. The golden bull par excellence is the celebrated bull of Charles IV. of Germany, which was made the basis of the German constitution at the diets of Nu- remberg in 1355 and of Metz in 1356, and re- mained in force until the dissolution of the German empire in 1806. It was published in Latin, at Nuremberg, in 1474, and in German, at Ulm, in 1484 ; and at Strasburg in 1485. (IOLDEX CANDLESTICK. (See CANDLE- STICK.) GOLDEN EAGLE. (See EAGLE.) GOLDEN FLEECE. (See ARGONAUTIC EXPE- DITION.) GOLDEN FLEECE (Order of ). This order was instituted at Bruges by Philip the C.md, Duke of Burgundy, Jan. 10, 1429, and received its name and the badge of a golden fleece in consequence of the important woollen manu- factures of the coimtry. The grandmastership was inalienably attached to the house of Bur- gundy, with the proviso that in the event of that family having no male representatives, it should descend to the husband of the daughter and heiress of the last sovereign. It conse- quently passed into the house of Austria in 1477, and continued in that family until the death of Charles II. of Spain, Nov. i, 1700, when it was contested by Charles III. and Philip V., who agreed, at the peace of Vienna, April 30, 1725, that each should retain the title during life, but that their heirs should only take the title of the country they governed. The order was consequently divided into the Golden Fleece of Austria, and of Spain. GOLDKN HORDE. This tribe of Mongo- lians, under their leader Baton, grandson of /enghis Khan, established themselves oil the plains of Kipsale in 1235. They rendered Russia tributary in 1243, and made Alexander Newski grand duke in 1252. Timour attacked them in 1392, and Ivan III. discontinued the payment; of tribute to them in 1477. Their influence was finally destroyed by the Nogay Tartars and Ivan III. at the battle of Bielaweseh, in 1481. GOLDEN HORN. Gibbon (ch. xvii.) re- marks: "The harbour of Constantinople, which may be considered as an arm of the Bosphorus, obtained, in a very remote period, the denomination of the (,'nfilrn llnm. The curve which it describes might lie compared t') the horn of a stag, or, as it should seernwith more propriety, to that of an ox." GOLDEN LAND. See Ki, DORADO.) GOI.DKN I.EOEXD. This work, named be- cause, " like as passeth gold in value all other metals, so this LIIH-/H/. cxceedeth all other books," was written in Latin about 1260, by Jacobi de Voraignc, or, as he is frequently called, James de, Varagine, Voragine, or Vra- gine, who, born about 1230, became principal of the Dominicans in Lombardy in 1267, Arch- bishop of Genoa in 1292, and died in June, 1298. The book, which relates, in 177 sections, " the high and great fates of our Lord, the fates of our blessed l.ady, the lives, passions, and miracles of many other Saints, and other his- tories and acts," was first published at Cologne in 1470. Caxton printed an English transla- tion in 1483, and it has passed through nume- rous editions, and has been translated into almost every European language. GOLDEN NUMBER, or CYCLE OF THE MOON. This cycle of 19 years, at the end of which the phases of the moon corre- spond within an hour to their appearance 19 years before, was invented by Meton, the Athenian, and adopted July 16, B.C. 433. It is called the Golden Number, because in old almanacks it was marked in letters of gold. (JOLDEN ROSE.- A mysterious gift, repre- senting by its gold, its odour, and its balm, GOLDEN GORCUM the godhead, the body, and soul of the Re- deemer, was only bestowed by popes on sove- reigns who were the most loyal servants of the Church. The custom existed as early as the icth century. John XXII. or XXIII., during the struggle for the papacy, presented one to the Emperor Sigismund, March 9, 1416. Julius II. sent a golden rose to Henry VIII. in 1510. GOLDEN SPURS, or GOLDEN MILITIA (Order). This knightly order claims supe- riority to all others in point of antiquity, Con- stantinel., the Great (323 337), being regarded as its founder, and Pope Sylvester I. (314 335) as the confirmer of its constitution. It is, however, more probable that it was founded by Pius IV. in 1559. ^ was suppressed in 1841 by Gregory XVI., who founded the order of St. Sylvester. GOLDSBOROUGH (United States). This town of North Carolina was captured by the Federals under Gen. Foster, who destroyed the railway works and burned several bridges, Ut<.uur, " of the Macedonian hero during his residence at Gordium, which the gravest historians have not disdained to preserve in their pages. Plu- tarch tells us that, upon taking this town, which is said to have been the seat of the ancient Midas, he found the famed chariot fastened with cords made of the cornel-tree ; and was informed of a tradition, firmly be- lieved among the barbarians, that 'the fates had decreed the empire of the world to him who should untie the knot.' This, as most historians state, was twisted so many private ways, and the ends of it were so artfully con- cealed, that Alexander, finding he could not untie it, cut it asunder with his sword, and made many ends instead of two. But Aristo- bulns atlirms that lie easily undid it, by taking out the pin which fastened the yoke to the beam, and then drawing out the yoke itself." This is supposed to have occurred in the acro- polis of Gordium, a town of Bithynia, B.C. 333. To Gordius I. of Phrygia the invention of the knot is ascribed, B.C. 1449. DON, or -NO-POPERY RIOT don). -These anti-popery riots were named Cordon, who was elected president of the Froiost ant Asso- ciation in r77<>. lie piv.si/nted a petition, Jan. 4, 1780, praying for the repeal of an act \ 1778, in favour of Unman Catholics, from that society to Lord North, and summoned a meet- ing at Coachmakers' H-ill, May 29, at which it .lived that the entire association shoiuV assemble in St. George's Fields on the follow in; Friday, June -. I'.'iny him with the petition to the House of Commons. Ac cordingly, on the day appointed, a crowd oj the supporters of the movement, variously computed at from 50,000 to 100,000 men, as ! and marched in several divisions to Palace Yard, where they mobbed th members of Parliament as they arrived i: their carriages. Lord George presented his petition, which was signed by nearly 120,000 persons, and moved for its immediate con sideration ; but on a division, only 6 vote? appeared for his proposition, while 192 were recorded against it. The mob retired fron the Houses, uu 1, Laving burned the Romar Catholic chapels in Duke Street and Warwick Street, dispersed for the night. The following evening the disturbances were less violent but on Sunday the rioters assembled in largi bodies in Moorfields, and burned the chapeli and houses of the Roman Catholics. On Monday, June 5, they burned the chapels in Virginia Lane, Wapping, and Nightingale Lane, Smithfield, and also the house of Si: George Sackville, who was peculiarly unpopu lar as the proposer of the obnoxious act. On Tuesday, June 6, the houses of Lord Mansfield Justice Hyde, and Justice Cox, were burned y the rioters, who also set fire to Iv md the new prison in Clerkenwell, releasing ,he prisoners. On Wednesday, June 7, King's Bench and Fleet prisons, and the new Bride- ell, with many private houses, were de- stroyed, as many as 36 conflagrations isible at once from the same spot. The Bank ras also threatened, but being strongly guarded by soldiers, escaped pillage. On Thursday the disturbances began to subside, and on Friday Jord George was arrested and committed to ;he Tower. The official return of casualties during the riots comprised 210 killed by the soldiers, and 248 wounded ; but a great number are supposed to have perished from intoxica- tion, and in the flames of the burning houses. The trial of the rioters commenced at the Old Bailey Wednesday, June 28, and many were convicted and executed. Lord George Gordon was tried for high treason in Westminster Hall, Feb. 5, 1781, and acquitted. He died in Newgate, where he had been confined for libel, Nov. i, 1793. GOREE (Atlantic). Tin's island, on the west coast of Africa, belonging to the French, was discovered about 1446. Commodore Keppell took it Dec. 29, 1758. The settlement was de- stroyed by fire March 14, 1761. The island was restored to France by the treaty of Paris, Feb. 10, 1763. Fort Elizabeth blew up, Oct. 15, 1763. It suffered from an earthquake in 1777. The French abandoned Gorcc early in 1779, and an English squadron soon after took pos- stored to France by the gth article of the treaty of Versailles, Sep. 3, 1783. Sir Charles Hamilton captured it April 4, 1800. The French took it Jan. 18, 1804. English squadron regained possession March 9, 1804. CORKY Battle) was fought between the Irish rebels and a force under Col. Walpole, near this town in Wexford, June 4, 1798. The latter were completely defeated, as Col. Wal- pole fell almost immediately after the action commenced. GORGADES. (See CAPE VERDE.) GORHAM CONTROVERSY. The Pov. George Cornelius Gorham, having in Dec., 1847, obtained from Lord Chancellor Cotten- ham a presentation to the vicarage of Bramp- ford Speke, Devonshire, to which he was re- fused admission by Dr. Phillpott, Bishop of Exeter, on the ground of his denial of the doctrine of baptismal regeneration, carried the case to the Court of Arches, where judg- ment was given against him by Sir I Jenner Fust, Aug. 2, 1849. He accordingly appealed to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, which reversed the decision of the Ecclesiastical Court, March 8, 1850. GORILLA. This ape, supposed by natu- ralists to be of the same class as the chimpan- zee, is believed to have been discovered by Hanno, the Carthaginian, during his explora- tion of tropical western Africa, about B.C. 350. (See LIBYA.) In 1847, Dr. Wilson, an American missionary on the Gaboon River, sent a skull to Dr. Savage, of Boston ; and numerous skins and skeletons have been subsequently pro- cured. Du Chaillu's " Explorations and Ad- ventures in Equatorial Africa," published in London in 1861, contains an account, the cor- GORKUM [ 453 1 GOTHS rectness of which is doubted by some scientific men, of this ferocious creature. GORKUM. (-See GORCUM.) GORLITZ CASE. The body of the Countess of Gorlitz, in Silesia, was found in her sitting- room nearly consumed by fire, June 13, 1847, under circumstances which appeared to indi- cate that death had ensued from spontaneous combustion. In Nov., however, suspicion was directed towards her servant, Johann Stauff, by the discovery, in his possession, of several jewels, identified as the property of his late mistress. The body was exhumed Aug. u, 1848, and after a prolonged controversy, in which Dr. Sieboldt maintained the spontaneous combustion theory in opposition to the eminent chemists Liebig and Bischoff, Stauff was brought to trial, March n, 1850. On convic- tion, he confessed that, having been detected by the countess in the act of stealing the articles which had led to his discovery, he had strangled her, and had burned the corpse to conceal the evidence of his crime. GORZYCA (Confederation). The army of the King of Poland formed a confederation at this place, in the autumn of 1715, for the ex- pulsion of the Saxons from the country. GOSHEN (Egypt). Jacob and his family settled in this part of Egypt, called also "the land of Rameses" (Gen. xlvii. n), B.C. 1706 (Gen. xlvi. 28, and xlvii. 4-6). Their descend- ants possessed the land above four centuries. (4OSLAR . (Hanover), founded in 922, was afterwards the residence of the emperor, and a free imperial city. Mines were opened in 986. The cathedral was built in 1150, and the church in 1521. It was annexed to Hanover in 1803, made part of Westphalia in 1807, and restored to Hanover in 1813. GOSPELLERS. This term, applied during the Middle Ages to persons who were given to the reading of the Scriptures and the circula- tion of the Gospels, was used especially for the Wycliffites (q. v.). It was also given to the English reformers of the time of HemyVIII., whose widow, the queen dowager, Catherine Purr, in a discourse written by her shortly before her death in Sep., 1548, " lamented the great scandal given by many Gospellers." GOSPELS, or "good tidings," of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John (see CANON OF SCRIPTURE), were admitted as authentic at a very early period of the Church. Justin Martyr (103 167) frequently refers to them, and Irenseus (130 200) states that in his time they were so gene- rally accepted that heretics were obliged to attempt to confirm their dogmas by their teachings. Tertullian mentioned them in 208, and Origeii (185253 or 254) described them as " the elements of the Church's faith, of which the whole world, reconciled to God in Christ, is composed." They were included in the canon of Scripture by the Council of Laodicea in 366, and by the Council of Carthage in 397. GOSPORT (Hampshire). This town, sup- posed to have been named God's Port by King-Stephen (1135 1154) on landing after tempest, was, in the time of Leland (1506 April 18, 1552), a mere fishing village. Edwarc I'achy's almshouses were founded in 1693, and a market-house was erected in 1811. Haslar Royal Hospital, an asylum for sick and wounded seamen, was commenced in 1746, and finished in 1762, one of the wings being appro- priated in 1818 to the reception of seamen and marines afflicted with lunacy. The suburb of Angleseaville has risen into importance as a 'ashionable watering-place since 1825. GOSSELIES (Battle). The French defeated ;he Austrians at this town in Belgium June 26, GOTHA (Saxony), formerly the capital of ;he duchy of Saxe-Gotha, passed, on the ex- inction of the direct line, in 1825, to the Duke of Saxe-Coburg. The gymnasium was founded n 1524, and the ducal palace in 1643. The Almanach de Gotha was first published here n 1764. GOTHARD, ST. (See ALPS and GOTTHARD, ST. GOTHENBURG or GOTTENBORG(Sweden). This city, second in importance to Stockholm, was founded in 1607 by Charles IX., but having jeen destroyed by the Danes in 1612, it was estored in 1618 by Gustavus II. (Adolphus). The academy was incorporated in 1775, and :he Gota Canal, connecting the German Ocean with the Baltic, was completed in 1832. It suffered from a fire in 1803. GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE. The first diver- gence from the classical orders of architecture occurs about the 4th century, and the intro- duction of the pointed arch, the great feature of the Gothic style, took place about the i2th. The branches of this order are differently classed by various authors. Dallaway enume- rates five ; viz. the Mixed, or Semi-Norman, from 1170 1220; Lancet-arched Gothic, 1220 1300; Pure Gothic, 1300 1400; Ornamented Gothic, 1400 1460 ; and Florid Gothic, 1460 to the middle of the i6th century, when the order was extinguished. Rickman reckons only three orders: viz. Early English, 1189 1307; Deco- rated English, 1307 1377 ; and Perpendicular English, 1377 to the extinction of the style. GOTHLAND, or GOTTLAND (Baltic Sea). This island was taken from the Swedes by Valdemar III., King of Denmark, in 1361. By the treaty of Bromsebro, Aug. 14, 1645, it was restored to Sweden, and in 1807 was surprised by a Russian force, which was, however, soon compelled to retire. GOTHS. This barbarian nation of antiquity deduced its origin from the Scandinavian pe- ninsula, but it is xincertain whether this state- ment is correct. It was divided into two great bodies, the Ostrogoths, who traced their origin from the eastern part of Scandinavia, and the Visigoths, who claimed its western portion as the cradle of their tribe. At the beginning of the Christian sera they occupied a territory towards the mouth of the Vistula, but they did not become conspicuous in his- tory till 250, when the Emperor Decius en- countered them 011 the banks of the Danube, and sustained a severe defeat. In 253 they were defeated by jEmilianus, in 262 they ravaged Greece, and in 269 invaded the Roman empire with a force of 320,000 men, which was defeated by the Emperor Claudius at the battle of Naissus. In 272 they obtained I 1 possession of Dacia. They invaded Moesia in 332, but were repulsed by Constantino I., and, GOTTENBOEG [ 454 ] GRADO in 366, assisted in the revolt and shared the humiliation of Procopius. In 375 they came into collision with the Huns, by whom they were defeated on the banks of the Dniester ; and in 376 they implored the protection of Valens, who assigned them a territory in Thrace, where they soon introduced the horrors of war. In 378 the Gothic youth in Asia wort? all i nassacrod by order of the Roman governor. The Visigoths tendered their submission to the Romans, Oct. 3, 382, but the Ostrogoths continued their attacks, and again invaded the empire in 386. They subsequently accepted settlements in Thrace and Phrygia, and were admitted as soldiers of the Roman army under the name of Foederati. They became converts to Christianity in the middle of the 4th century. (.s>v- osTitncoTiis and VISIGOTHS. GOTTENBORG. (& GOTHENBBBO.) GOTTHARD, ST. (Battle .An allied army of French, Germans, and Italians, under Monteeuculi, defeated the Turks, led by the Grand Vizier Ahmed Koeprilii, at this Cister- cian convent, on the borders of Styria and Hungary, Aug. i, 1664. The watchword was " Death or victory," and the Christians fought with such spirit that 10,000 Turks were slain or drowned in the Raab. GOTTIXCKX Hanover) is first noticed in a record of the time of Otho I. (936 973), and became a member of the Hanscatic league in 1360. The university, founded by George II. of England, in 1734, and opened Sep. 17, 1737, was called the " Georgia Augusta." The bota- nical gardens were laid out ill 1739. The French sei/oil (Jottingen in 1760. The allied army, having blockaded it from Nov. 22 until Dec. 12, 1760, were compelled to retire. The French blew up the fortifications and withdrew, July 16, 1762. The three youngest sons of George III. entered as members of the university of Gottingen, July 6, 1786. An insurrection which broke out Jan. 8, 1831, was suppressed Jan. 16. .Seven professors were expelled from the uni- versity in 1837. GOULBOURN (N. South Wales). The river was discovered in 1823, and Goulbourn was made a bishopric in 1863. GOURIDKS, or (i HURT. This Persian dy- nasty was founded by Hussein Gouri 1111155. He rendered himself independent of the Ghiznevides (ridge, Tring, Fenny Stratford, &c., to Braunston, in Northamptonshire, where it join* other canals, affording water commu- nication between London, Liverpool, Hull, and Bristol, was commenced May i, 1793, and opened Feb. 28, 1805. GRAND JURY, consisting of not less than 12 or more than 23 persons, is summoned by the sheriffs of a county to decide whether suf- ficient grounds of accusation exist to justify the putting of prisoners 'upon their trial. Its number and constitution were denned in the laws of King Kthelred I. (866871). In the time of Richard I. (11891199) it w.i posed of four knights taken from the county, who chose two more out of every hundred, which two associated with themselves 10 other principal freemen. This process, gradually modified, was abandoned by 6 Geo. IV., c. 50 (June 22, 1825), which also fixed the qualifica- tion of grand jurors at sessions as the ! that of the petit jury. By 19 & 20 Viet. c. 54 (July 14, 1856 , the foreman of a grand jury was empowered to administer the oath to wit- nesses, who need not be sworn in open court. GRAND JUSTICIARY. (See JUSTICIARY, CHIEF.) GRAND PENSIONARY. The title of an officer of the Dutch Government, whose func- tions were to propose to the council the subject for deliberation, to collect the votes, to receive the diplomatic communications of foreign powers, and to supervise the administration of finances. He held office for five years, at the end of which period he was eligible for re-elec- tion. Previous to the time of Barneveldt, who was executed May 13, 1619, this function- ary bore the title of advocate -general. The office, abolished at the revolution of 1795, was restored by Napoleon I. in 1805. (See HOL- LAND.) GRANDMONTINES, or GRANDIMONTINES (Monks). This order was founded by Stephen, a native of Auvergne, at Grandmontin Limo- sin, in France, about 1076. The Grandmontiiies passed into England chiring the reign of Henry I., and established themselves at Abberbury, in Shropshire ; Cressewell, in Herefordshire ; and Grosmont, or Eskdale, in Yorkshire. The rule of the order was a modification of that of St. Benedict, GRANGER SOCIETY (London), instituted in 1842, by Granger, for the purpose of pub- lishing ancient English portraits and family pictures, was in existence about three years. GRANICUS (Battles). Alexander III. (the Great) defeated the Persian army near this river, in Asia Minor, May 22, 334 B.C. It was also the scene of a victory gained by Lucullua over Mlthridates, B.C. 74. ( ! R ANITE. The two principal granite quar- ries are at Aberdeen and Dartmoor, the former of which was not worked till 1730, and the latter till 1820. The first large building erected of this material was Gordon's Hospital, Aberdeen, built in 1739. ( ; R A N H ( ) N (Battle). Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, having destroyed the garrison at Crauson, near Neuchatel, was defeated by the Swiss, with great slaughter, March 2 or 3, 1476. ( i It ANTHAM (Battle). Oliver Cromwell de- feated 24 troops of Royalist cavalry at this town in Lincolnshire, May 13, 1643. CRAXTHA.H (Lincoln). Tradition ascribes its foundation to Gorbomannus, King of Bri- tain, who nourished B.C. 303 ; but its origin may more probably be referred to the Saxons. The church was endowed by Hugh, Bishop of Lincoln, in noo, and a Franciscan priory was established in 1290. It was incorporated by Edward IV. in 1463, and the free grammar school was founded in 1528. Grantham was taken by the Royalists under Col. Charles Cavendish, March 22, 1642. The church steeple, blown down in 1651, was rebuilt by subscrip- tion; the guildhall was erected in 1787, and the canal, by which communication is opened with the river Trent, was commenced in 1793. The exchange and other valuable property were destroyed by fire, Nov. 19, 1862. GRANVILLE (France), the ancient Granno- num, was bombarded and set on fire by the English, July 8, 1695. Admiral Dilkes captured or destroyed about 24 French ships near Gran- ville, July 16, 1703. The Vendeans committed great havoc, Oct. 15 and 16, 1793. Sir James Saumarez bombarded Granville, Sep. 15, 1803. GRAPES. .SVe VINK and VINE DISEASE.) GRAPHIC SOCIETY. (See ART UNIONS.) GRAPHOTYPE. This method of producing, from drawings, blocks for surface printing, without the aid of the engraver, was invented in 1860, by D. C. Hitchcock, of New York. GRASSE (France). This town, said to have been founded in 583, by a colony of converted Jews from Sardinia, was referred to by Pope Adrian IV. in 1155. The bishopric of Antibes was transferred hither in 1252. GRATZ (Austria), the capital of Styria, is of ancient origin. The cathedral was erected by the Emperor Frederick III., in 1456, and the university was founded in 1586. Napoleon Buonaparte entered Gratz in April, 1797. The French took it and destroyed the citadel in 1809. GRAUDENZ [ 457 1 GREAT GRAUDENZ (Prussia), founded in the i 3 th century, was fortified by a citadel, completed in 1776. The French besieged it without suc- cess in 1807. GRAVE (Holland) was captured by the Duke of Parma in 1586, by Prince Maurice in 1603, and was besieged by Louis XIV. in 1674. The French took it, after a siege of two months, Dec. 29, 1794. GRAVELINES (France). This town was founded by Henry, Count of Flanders, in 1160. The Spaniards defeated the French under its walls in 1558. The Spanish Armada sustained a defeat off Gravelines, Aug. 8, 1588. It was taken by the French in 1 658, and finally ceded to France by the treaty of the Pyrenees, Nov. 7, 1659. GRAVESEND (Kent) is mentioned in the Domesday Survey as Gravesham. In 1337 the fleet of Edward III. anchored here, previous to sailing against the Flemings ; and in 1380 the town was attacked by a French fleet and burned. The first charter of incorporation was granted by Queen Elizabeth, July 22, 1562 ; and in 1588 the town was fortified, in anticipa- tion of the attack of the Spanish Armada. In July, 1606, James I. received a visit from Christian IV. of Denmark at this town, which was the scene of a conflict between the Irish adherents of James II. and the supporters of the Prince of Orange, Dec. 12, 1688. A great fire occurred at Gravesend, Aug. 24, 1727, which is said to have destroyed 120 dwelling- houses, with other buildings, the whole da- mage being estimated at more than ^200,000. The first steamboat between London and Gravesend was the Margery, which performed her first voyage Monday, Jan. 23, 1815. The town-hall was erected in 1836. GRAVITATION. Pythagoras, who flou- rished B.C. 540 510, and Anaxagoras, born about B.C. 499, make allusions to this principle, which was referred to by Copernicus in 1543, and by Kepler in 1609. Hooke published a theory on the subject in 1674. Sir Isaac New- ton's attention is said to have been directed to this subject in 1666 by the fall of an apple from a tree, but the fact is disputed. In 1687 he published the Principia, in which he estab- lished the principle of universal gravitation. GRAY (France). This town, founded in the 7th century, and burned in 1360 and 1384, was taken by Louis XL in 1474, and was recaptured by the Germans under Vaudrey, in 1477. Louis XIV. seized it in 1668, and dismantled its fortifications. GRAY'S INN (London). This Inn of Court, named from the Lords Gray of Wilton, who wcL-e owners of the manor, is stated by Stow to have been erected after the reign of Edward HI. (1327 1377). The hall was erected in 1560, the gateway in 1592, and the gardens were first planted about 1600. GRAZERS. (See Boscoi.) GREAT BEDWYN. (See BEADEN-HEAD.) GREAT BETHEL, or BIG BETHEL (Battle). Two Federal divisions, despatched by Gen. Butler to surprise the Confederate camp at this place in Virginia, June 9, 1861, meeting in the darkness, commenced a fight, in which several were killed before the error was dis- covered. They attacked the Confederates June 10, and were defeated with a loss of 16 killed, 34 wounded, and 5 missing. GREAT BRITAIN. The island itself consists of England, Scotland, and Wales. The term was first applied to England, Wales, and Scotland, at the union of the two crowns, Oct. 24, 1604, when James I. was proclaimed King of Great Britain, France, and Ireland. A national flag for Great Britain was announced by royal proclamation, April 12, 1606. The legal appli- cation commenced at the legislative union agreed upon by the commissioners July 22, 1706, when it was provided that the two states should form one "United Kingdom of Great Britain." An act (6 Anne c. n) to carry out the union received the royal assent March 6, 1707. It took effect from May i, 1707, and a proclamation, July 28, appointed the national flag. It was the same as the one agreed upon in 1606, which had fallen into disuse. (See ENGLAND, SCOTLAND, and WALES, and UNION OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.) GREAT BRITAIN STEAM - SHIP. (See STEAM NAVIGATION.) GREAT CHAMBERLAIN. (See LORD GREAT CHAMBERLAIN.) GREAT DUNMOW. (See DUNMOW.) GREAT EASTERN RAILWAY. This line, originally incorporated by 6 & 7 Will. IV. (Local and Personal), c. 106 (July 4, 1836), under the title of the Eastern Counties Railway, was opened as far as Colchester March 29, 1843. It was united with the East Anglian, Eastern Union, East Suffolk, and other railways, and was reincorporated by 25 & 26 Viet. c. 223 (Aug. 7, 1862). GREAT EASTERN STEAM-SHIP. (See ATLANTIC TELEGRAPH and STEAM NAVIGATION.) GREAT EXHIBITION. Industrial exhibi- tions originated in the French expositions. In June, 1845, the Society of Arts attempted to introduce them into England, and the council opened an exhibition on a small scale in 1847. The experiment was renewed, with increased success, in 1848 and in 1849. Prince Albert, the president of the society, at a meeting held at Buckingham Palace, June 30, 1849, stated his opinion that the proposed exhibition should include raw materials, machinery, manufac- tures, sculpture, and plastic art in general. A royal commission was appointed at the com- mencement of 1850, and the necessary arrange- ments were made. When completed, the build- ing measured 1,851 feet in length, by 408 in width. The transept was 72 feet wide and 108 high. The entire area was 772,784 square feet, or about 19 acres, and the quantity of iron em- ployed in the building was about 4,000 tons. The glass amounted to 17 acres for roofing, and i, 500 vertical glazed sashes ; and the woodwork was estimated at 600,000 cubic feet. .. 1850, Jan. 3. A royal commission is appointed. Jan. 34. The commissioners nominate a building com- mittee. Jan. 35. A meeting is held at the Mansion House, and a subscription list is opened. Feb. 21. The building committee approve of the site in Hyde Park. March 13. They invite de- signs for the building. March 31. The Lord Mayor of London gives a banquet to the provin- cial mayors, to enlist their sympathies in behalf of the undertaking. GREAT [ 458 ] GREECE 1850, July 6. Mr. (afterwards Sir Joseph) Paxton ptib- li-hes his I)]:IHS in the llli/strnti'il 1 tuition ACJC.V. July 16. Mr. Paxton's design is ace.']. ted. July 26. The commissioners accept Messrs. Fox and Hen- derson's tender for =79,800. July 30. The builders take possession of the ground. Sep. 26. The first column is erected. Oct. 26. The Lord Mayor of York gives a banquet in aid of the exhibition. lift-. 4. The fust pair of arched ribs for the transept are Imi.sted. Dec. 2L Queen Victoria visits the bonding 1851, Jan. 21. The catalogue is commenced. Feb. 3. The commissioners take possession of the building. April 30. The first copy of the catalo-ue is completed at 10 o'clock at night, and lo.Soo copies are finished by morning. Way I. The exhibition is opened l>v Queen Victoria. May 26. First shilling day. Oct. 7. The greatest number of visitors (109,91:;). Oct. II. The last pi. Hie day. (let. r-,. The jury make their . and the exhibition is lonnally closed. (See CRYSTAL PALACE and INTERNATIONAL EX- HIBITION OF 1862.) GREAT GR1MSBY (Lincolnshire). Said, by Camden, to have been founded by one Gryme, a merchant. He brought up a foundling named Havcloc, who, after acting as scullion in the king's kitchen, proved to be of the Danish royal family, and married the king's daughter. It is mentioned as a frontier town in 827. In 1346 it contributed n ships and 170 .seamen tc . I lie expedition of Edward III. again. The grammar-school was founded by Edward VI. in 1547 ; and a wet and dry dock was opened in Dec., 1800. New and extensive docks, the first stone of which was laid by Prince Albert April 18, 1849. were completed March 18, 1852, and were in.si>ected by Queen Victoria Oct. 13, 1854. GREAT NORTHERN RAILWAY. This company was incorporated by 9 & 10 Viet. c. 71 (June 26, 1846). The London terminus at King's Cross was opened in Oct., 1852. The station of the Great Northern Cemetery Com pany was erected hi 1861. By 23 & 24 Viet. c. 168 (Jxily 23, 1860), the Great Northern was authorized to effect a communication with the Metropolitan Railway, which was opened in .lune, 1863. GREAT ST. BERNARD. (See ALPS.) GREAT SALT LAKH United States). This remarkable inland sea, which in the saltness of its waters and the barren character of the surrounding scenery bears a strong resem- blance to the Dead Sea, was first mentioned in 1689 by Baron La Hontan, who had re- ceived an account of it from the Indians. It was first explored in 1843 hy Col. Fre- mont, and was surveyed in 1849-50 by Capt. Stansbnry, of the United States army, who published arc port in 1850. (See SALT LAKE CITY ) GREAT SEAL. The earliest Englishmonarch who is known to have made grants under seal is Edgar (958975), but the institution of the great seal is usually attributed to Edward the Confessor (1042 1066). The custody of the great seal is the prerogative of the lord chan- cellor, but as there is sometimes an interval between the death of that officer and the ap- pointment of his successor, a keeper of the great seal was appointed to act in such cases. His dignity was declared equal to the lord chancellor's by 5 Eliz. c. 18, 1562. Commis- sioners of the great seal were appointed in 1689, and authorized by i Will. & Mary, c. 21 1688). The great seal stolen by housebreakers from the residence of Lord Thurlow, in Great Ormond Street, March 24, 1784, was never recovered. GREAT WESTERN RAILWAY. This broad- gauge line, opened as far as Maidenhead June 4, 1838, was extended to Twyford July i, 1839, and completed as far as Bristol June 30, 1841. GRECIANS. See HELLENISTS.) GRECIAN THEATRE (London), in connec- tion with the Eagle Tavern, City Road, was opened as the Grecian Saloon about 1826. It was remodelled and named the Grecian Theatre in 1858. GREECE, originally called Hellas, consisted of a number of states. (See ATTICA, &c.i The name Grsecia first occurs in the works of Aristotle (B.C. 384322). The modern king- dom of Greece, erected in 1827, comprehends a portion only of the territories of ancient Greece. -ialeus founds Sieyon. 3:43. Traiius settles in Creeee. 1*56. Inachiis founds Argo>. 1796. Ogygcs reigns in l!u-otia. 1773. PhoroiuMis introduces sacrificial worship. Lenglet gives this date for the foundation of Sieyon. 1760. A tl 1, known as the deluge of * > Attica. 1710. (Knotrus leads a colony of Arcadians into Italy. [58* The ehronology of the Arundelian marbles begin* 1550. Ceerops, the Kgyptian. arrives in Attica. Imus arrives from I'h.enicia. (See THEBES.) I.S20. Kph\re. or Corinth, is founded. 1506. The Areopagus is founded. alion'.s deluge. 1495. The Pamithemran games are instituted. 1459. Keign of llellen. from whom the country wns called Hellas, and who is the reputed ancestor of the (ireek race. i (". Foundation of ,M\ , 1453. The Idivi Dactyl! found the Olympic games. 141-. Melampus inslilutes the Dionysia. , j.heus founds the Chalcean' festival. 1376. The Isthmian games are instituted, i. ^56. Enmolpus introduces the Kleiishnan mysteries. 1330. The Lycian games are instituted. l-l'j3- 'I'b" C.reeks eoloni/.e Sicilv. 1283. Pelops, from I.ydia, settles in the southern part of (ireccn, called from him the I'eloponnesus. 1263. Jason conducts the Argonautic expedition, and Adrastus institutes the Pvthiaii games. 1240. Theseus subdues the Minotaur. 1228. Theseus carries off Helen. 1345. The first Thcban war, known also as the war of the Seven Captains. 1216. Helen is married to Menelaua, King of Sparta. 1314. Helen elopes with Paris, son of Priam, King of Troy. 120'). Impulsion of the Heraclidse. 11^4, Kml of the Trojan war. (See ILIUM.) 1124. The Thessuli settle in Thcssaly, which is named after them, and the l!\ The battle of Man tinea (q. v.). 415. Invasion of Sicily (q. v.). 413. The Peceleaii war. 403. The Greeks adopt a new alphabet. 400. The retreat of flie Ten Thousand. 399. The Athenians condemn Socrates to die by poison. 395. The Corinthian war. 387. The peace of Antalcidas. 383. The Olynthian war. 378. Thebes and Athens unite against Sparta. 371. Congress at Sparta. Treaty of Callias (q. v.). 369. The Thebans invade Luconia. 368. Epaminondas leads the Thebans into the Pelopon- nesus. 363. Death of Epaminondas. (See MANTINEA.) The decline of Thebes dates from his death. -355- The Social war. 5. The third Sacred war. 353. Philip II. of Macedoii commences his ambitious de- signs against Greece. 339. The fourth Sacred war. 338. Philip II. defeats the confederate Greeks at Chse- ronea (q. v.). 336. Accession of Alexander III. (the Great). (See MACEDOX.) 323333- The Lamian war (q. v.). (See ..umerous insurrections. 1*40, Oct. 28. Admiral 1'arker, with the British Mediter- ranean fleet, arrives in Uesika Bay. 1850, Jan. 9. The Knglish iieet sails from Moskenissi. Jan. 15. It arrives at the I'ineus. Jan. 16. Admiral Mr William 1'arker and Mr. \\yse, the British envoy at Athens, present to the govern- ment an Ultimatum which in six articles demands compensations for injuries received by l.nrlM: subjects from Greeks. Jan. 17. M. Londos, the foreign minister, states, in re])1y, that the question has be. >n referred to the arbitration of France and Kussiu. Jan. 18. The Knglish blockade the 1'i- i:eiis. - -.Ian. 19. King Otho protests against the Ijlockade. Jan. 26. The French and l:< rs appeal to the Knglish to withdraw their ..'. \\hich, by checking commerce, will render it impossible for Greece to fulfil her pecu- niary obligations.- Feb. .",. The Knglish envoy rcji'dsthe intervention of the Kussian legation. Feb. 5. The French Government oilers its inter- \ ntion. Feb. 8. It is accepted by Lord Palmer- ston. Feb. 10. Mr. Wyse apprises the' Greek Government of the seizure by the Knglish of the islands of Cervi and Sapicn/a. March I. The blockade is suspended. March 5. Baron Gros arrives at Athens as French minister. April 18. A convention for the settlement of the question is agreed to at London between Lord I'ahnerston ;i:id M. Droiiyn de Lhuys.- April 23. Baron Gros announces the failure of his mission. April 25- The English resume coercive mca.-iircs, and place :!! Greek vessels under an embargo. April -'6. 'i he Creek G'iNcrnnieiit ..ii-Tees to the Knglish demands. April 29. The Knglish legation returns t:> Athens. May 4. The British fleet quits Sala- mis, two ships only remaining in the Piraeus. .June i. Baron Gros, the French envoy, quits Athens for the purpose of settling the Anglo- Greek, difficulty. June 24. A commercial treaty is signed with' Russia. June 29 (4 A.M.). The Knglish House of Commons decides in favour of Lord Palmerstou's policy by 310 votes against 264. July 20. A treaty, prepared by the cabinets of England and France, is signed at Athens by the Kiiglish envoy and the Greek foreign minister. 1^54, J.m js. The Albanians revolt against the Turks. March 28. The Turkish ambassador leaves Athens. May 18. The allied powers declare Greece in a state of blockade. May 25. The French and Knglish land at the Piraeus. May 26. Otho I issues a declaration of neutrality in the Russo- Turkish war. jt-5"- '' !;c French and English evacuate Greece. 1*59. The Greeks sympathize warmly with the Italian in their war of independence, and organize a committee to aid them. 1860, July i. The princes of the Orleans family visit Athens. Xov. Otho I. becomes Tory unpopular. 1861, Sep. 19. An attempt is made on the life of Queen Amelia. 1862, Jan. 24. Retirement of flic Miaulis administration, r.ad formation of a cabinet by Admiral Canaris. A.D. 1862, Feb. i. The old ministry is restored. Feb. 13. A revolt breaks out in Xapoli-di-Homania, which is seized by the insurgents. March 13. The royal troops recover the city. May lo. The Miaulis cabinet again resign. June 7. Gen. Colocotronis forms an administration. Oct. 13. Otho I. and liis consort quit Athens to make a tour through the Peloponnesus. Oct. 19. An insurrection against the reigning family breaks out in the \\estern provinces. Oct. 22. The revolution ex- tends to Athens. Oct. 23. A provisional govern- ment is formed and a new ministry appointed which issue a proclamation announcing the over- throw of the old dynasty, and the commence- ment of a new administration. Oct. 24. Otho I. publishes a manifesto at .^alamis, declaring that, to jirevent bloodshed, he will at once quit Greece, lie emharks on board a British man-of-war. Oct. 29. He arrives at Venice. Nov. I. He reaches Munich. Nov. 22. Great Britain and Russia exchange notes affirming their intention to maintain the pro\ isions of the treaty of 1833, excluding the dynasties of the three protecting iowers from the throne of Greece. Nov. 23. Yince Alfred is declared King of Greece at Athens. Dec. I. The provisional government c- the election of anew king by universal suffrage. Dec. 13. The representatives of the three protecting powers, Kngland, France, and l:u.-Ma. address a note to the provisional govern- ment stating their intention to exclude their dynasties from the Greek tlirfcne. Dec. 14. Austria protests against the Greek revolution, and de- clares in favour of Otho I. anil his family. Dec. 21. The new national assembly m. Athens. Dec. 24. Mr. Henry George Elliott, plenipotentiary from Great Britain, arrives in Athens, and presents a memorial to the provi- sional government declaring the conditions under which the Ionian Isles will be ceded to Greece. 1863, Jan. 24. The national assembly declares itself legally constituted. Jan. 2>). The advocate Balbis is elected its president.-- Feb. 2. The provisional government resigns the executive power to the national assembly. Feb. 3. The national as- sembly declares the throne rightly vacant, and announces that Prince Alfred of Kngland has been elected king by 230.016 votes. He is accord- ingly proclaimed, but is not permitted by the Knglish Government to accept the throne. Feb. 21. A military revolt breaks out under Lieut. Canaris. Feb. 23. A new cabinet is formed under Balbis. March 30. The national assembly proclaims Prince William of Sleswig-IIolslein- Bonderburg-Glnoksborg, second son of Prince Christian of Denmark, King of Greece, by the title of George I. April 8. The nationa'l as- sembly appoints a new ministry under Diomedes Kyriaku. April 12. Bavaria protests against any settlement Of the Greek succession prejudicial to the claims of its own dynasty. May 12. A new ministry takes office under the presidency of Ijoufos. May 27. Kngland, France, and Russia sign a protocol at London declaring the throne of Greece vacant. June 5. The representatives of the three protecting powers and the Danish ambassador sign a protocol at London sanctioning the acceptance of the Greek crown by Prince William of Denmark. June 6. A Greek depu- tation has an interview at Copenhagen with the King of Denmark, who declares that Prince William will accept the crown provided the Ionian Islands are united to Greece. June 27. The national assembly declares King George I. of age. June 30. A military revolt breaks out at Athens. July 2. Order is restored in the capital. July 13. England, France, and Russia conclude a treaty at London, approving of the election of Prince William of Denmark, Oct. 30. King George I. arrives at Athens and is received with enthusiasm. >ov. 6. The Boulgaris ministry takes office. 1864, March 17. A new cabinet is formed under Admiral Canaris. The garrison at MiMolongh] expel their officers as partisans of the ex-king Otho I. April z$. Accession of the Balbis administration. GREEK [ 461 GREENOCK 1864, June T. The Ionian Islands (?. r.) are finally ceded to Greece . June 6. The king VIM'S ( lorfu. Aug. 6. Admiral Canaris fonns a new cabinet. Sep. 19. The national assembly abolishes the senate. Sep. 23 and 24- Austria, Russia, and Prussia recognize King George I. Oct. 31. The national assembly authorizes the crown to create a council of state. Oct. 29. The assembly estab- lishes a new constitution. Nov. 28. The king swears attendance to a new constitution. 1865 March 14. Resignation of the Canaris adminis- ' tration, which is succeeded by the Comoundouros cabinet. April. King George I. makes a tour through the provinces. May 8. .He returns to Athens. Dec. z. Count Sponneck leaves Greece. SOVEREIGNS OF GREECE. A.T>. *!>. 1832. Otho I. 1863. George I. GREEK CHURCH. The bishops of Con- stantinople claimed equality with the Pope from the foundation of their city. In 1734 they condemned image-worship, in opposition to the Romish Church, and in 767 accused their western brethren of heresy respecting the doctrine of the procession of the Holy Ghost. The result was, that the two churches separated, and in spite of the attempts of the Council of Florence in 1439 to procure a union, and of the Act of Union, concluded in 1596, they have never reunited. The principal con- fessions of faith of the Greek Church are Cyril Lucar's, which appeared in 1621 ; and the Orthodox Confession of 1643. The Greek Clmrch, called the " Holy Orthodox Catholic and Apostolic Church," comprises three branches i, the Church in the Ottoman em- pire, subject to the Patriarch of Constanti- nople ; 2, the Church in the new kingdom of Greece ; 3, the Russian Greek Church, the established religion in Russia. GREEK EMPIRE. (See EASTERN EMPIRE.) GREEK FIRE. This combustible composi- tion is said to have been invented by Callinicus in 672, though it was probably an earlier dis covery of the Arabian chemists. It was blown through copper tubes upon the object to be ignited, and was much employed in the cru- sades for burning ships. This fire burned freely in water, and was, indeed, almost inextinguish- able. It was supplanted by gunpowder. GREEK LANGUAGE. Theodore, Arch- bishop of Canterbury in 668, who was sent by Vitalian, brought a collection of Greek docu- ments with him, and imparted a knowledge of the language to several of the natives. Charlemagne was able to read it, and about 1000 it was employed by a congregation of Greek refugees in Toul, in the celebration of their religious worship. It continued a living language at Constantinople until the city was captured by Mohammed II., in 1453. It was taught at Paris in 1458, and was printed at Milan in 1481. Cornelius Vitellius taught it at Oxford in 1488, and William Grocyn, the first eminent English professor of the language, commenced his efforts to diffuse a knowledge of Greek at the same place in 1491. The first Greek lecture was established at Oxford in 1517. The language was first taught in Scot- land, at Montrose, in 1534. During the i century it was much neglected ; but Kuster and Fabricius restored the study at the end of the century. The most eminent Greek scholars of this country are Richard Bentley, 1662 July 14 1742; Samuel Parr, 1747 March 6, 1825; Charles Burney, 1757 Dec. 28, 1817; and Richard Person, 1 759 Sep. 25, 1808 GREEKS (J3ra of th^. -(S e /' ALEXANDER, Sra of.) GREENBACKS. In 1862 the Federal Govern- ment of North America issued a large amount of paper money in notes of small value, which almost superseded the circulation of coin, and caused gold to rise to a high premium. These small notes were commonly known as " green- backs," from their colour, or " shinplasters " GREEN-BAG INQUIRY. The name given to an investigation into the nature of the contents of a green bag full of papers, alleged to be of seditious import, which was laid before Parliament by the Prince. Regent Feb. 3 , 1817. Both houses appointed secret commit- tees Feb. 4, and they presented their reports Feb. 1 8 and 19. Bills for the suspension of the Habeas Corpus Act, and for the prevention of seditious meetings, were moved Feb. 24, and the Habeas Corpus Suspension Act was passed March 3. The bill for restraining seditious meetings was passed March 2 5 GREEN CLOTH. (See MARSHALSEA COURT ) GREEN-COAT HOSPITAL (London). This school for the relief of the fatherless children of St. Margaret's, Westminster, founded by Charles I. Nov. 15, 1633, was rebuilt in 1700. GREEN FACTION.- (See CIRCUS FACTIONS.) GREEN PARK (London) was first enclosed in the reign of Charles II. by Le Notre. In 1767 it was reduced in size by George III., who wished to enlarge the gardens of Old Buckingham House. GREEN RIBBON CLUB. (See KING'S HEAD CLUB.) GREENBRIAR (Battle). An indecisive en- gagement between the Confederates and the Federals, under Gen. Reynolds, took place on the banks of this river in Virginia Oct 2 1861 GREENE CURTAIN. (See CURTAIN THEATRE.) GREENLAND (N. America). This country was probably discovered and inhabited by settlers from Norway before 830, as Gregory IV. published a bull in 835, in which especial mention is made of the Greenlanders. Tho Iceland Chronicle, and other authorities, how- ever, fix its discovery in 982. In 1256 the inhabitants attempted to throw off the yoke of the Norwegians. In 1576 part of the coast was explored by Martin Frobisher, and in 1605 and succeeding years the Danes sent expedi- tions to colonize the country. They all failed, until the Norwegian missionary Hans Egede arrived in 1721, and founded Godthaab. In 1733 the Moravians established a mission, and the small-pox carried off 3,000 of the natives. The country was explored by Capt. Scoresby in 1822, and by Capt. Graab between 1829 and GREENOCK (Renfrewshire) . In 1635 Charles I. granted a charter to John Shaw, erecting the lands of Wester-Greenock, and the town and village of Greenock, into a burgh of barony, and in 1670 Sir John Shaw, son of the above-named, obtained another charter GREENWICH [ 462 ] GREGORIAN incorporating the lands of Finnart with the barony of Wester-Greenock, under the title of the burgh of Greenock. The first harbour at Greenock was built between 1707 and 1710. James Watt was born here Jan. 19, 1736. By a charter granted Sep. 2, 1751, the election of the magistrates was intrusted to the inha- bitants. The town-hall was erected in 1766, from Watt's designs, and the gaol in 1810. The new east harbour was commenced in 1806 and finished in 1811, and the west quay was rebuilt and enlarged between 1807 and 1811. The Chamber of Commerce and Manufactures was incorporated by royal charter in 1813. The dry, or graving dock, was commenced in Aug., 1813, and completed in Sep., 1825. Sir Francis Chantrey's statue of Watt was erected in 1832. Victoria Harbour was commenced in 1846, and opened in Oct., 1850. (JUKKXWICH (Kent). The ancient manor of Grenawic was bestowed by Elthruda, niece of King Alfred the Great (871 901), upon the abbey of St. Peter at Ghent, to which it was confirmed by King Edgar, at the instance of An-libi.shop bunstan, in 964. The Danes sub- sequently established a camp here, where they murdered Archbishop Klphege on the vigil of Easter, 1012. A royal palace or />// pears to have been established as early as the reign of Edward I. (1272 1307), from which Henry IV. dated his will, Jan. 22, 1408 ; but in the reign of Henry V. it was still a inure fishing village. The park, commenced by Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, in 1433, was, with -the palace, bestowed by Kdward I V. upon his queen, Elizabeth Woodville, 1111465. Henry VII. (1485 1509) enlarged the palace and founded a convent. Henry V 1 1 1. was born here June 28, 1491, and married to Catherine of Aragon June n, 1509. Queen Mary was born here Feb. 18, 1516, and Queen Elizabeth Sep. 7, 1533. It was the scene of Henry the Eighth's marriage with Anne of Cleves, Jan. 6, 1540; and of the deatli of Kdward VI., July 6, 1553. Queen Elizabeth's College, a number of alms- houses for the poor, was founded by William Lambard in 1558; and Trinity Hospital or Norfolk College was established by Henry Howard, Earl of Northampton, in 1613. John Roan founded the Grey-coat School in 1643. In 1654 the palace became the residence of the Lord Protector, but it reverted to the crown in 1660, and was enlarged by Charles II. (1660 1685), who did not, however, live to cai-ry out his plans in relation to the building. Its site is now occupied by Greenwich Hospital (/. r. . The last vestige of the old priory was removed in 1826. GREY LEAGUE. (See CADDEE LEAGUI: and GRISONS.) GREYTOWN, or SAN JUAN DE NICA- RAGUA (Central America , originally founded by the Spaniards, and declared a free port Jan. i, 1851, was bombarded by a United States ship-of-war in 1854, in retaliation for an alleged insult to the American consul. TRILLION'S CLUB (London), founded about 1813 as a neutral ground for the princi- pal parliamentary men of the day, derived its name from that of the hotel where the dinner was originally held. Seventy-nine portraits of the members were sold by auction, Jan. 30, 1860. The fiftieth anniversary was celebrated by a banquet at the Clarendon, held under the presidency of Lord Derby, May 6, 1863. GRIMSBY. (See GREAT GRIMSBY.) GRISONS (Switzerland). In May, 1424, the abbot and lords of Upper Rhaetia met the deputies of the Swiss valleys, and of the towns of Itantz and Tusis, near the village of Trons, and there formed a league, which received the name of the .Grey League, or the League of the Grisons, from the colour of the smocks worn by the deputies. (See CADDEE LEAGUE.) Gradually the name extended to the district and its inhabitants, who formed an alliance with the Swiss cantons in 1497. In 1499 they defeated the troops of the Emperor milian I. at Malsheraid, and in 1512 they took possession of the Valteline, Chiavenna, and Bormio, south of the Alps. The Grisons received the Reformation early. In 1603 they formed an alliance with Venice for the protection of the Valteline against the Spaniards ; but in 1 620 the natives of that province rebelled against them, and the territory fell into the hands of Spain. A forced treaty was concluded in 1622, by which the Valteline and Bormio were surrendered, and the independence of the Grisons annihilated ; but in Sep. the inhabit- ants rose in arms, and compelled the Spaniards to retire. The Valteline was restored to the Grisons in 1639. In 1797 the Italian provinces were again wrested from them by Napoleon ; and in March, 1799, their country was overrun by the French. The Grisons became the fif- teenth canton of Switzerland by the Act of Mediation, Feb. 19, 1803. GEISWOLDVILLB I -.attic). The Federals under Gen. Walcott defeated the Confederate militia, commanded by Gen. Phillips, at this place in Georgia, Nov. 23, 1864. GROATS were ordered to be coined in 1227 and 1249. Their proper value was fourpence, but the term was occasionally applied to coins of different worth. Thus, Stow speaks of "a groat, the value of which was 12'?.," issued in 1504. Half-groats were first coined in 1351. The modern fourpenny-pir. ,ht into general circulation by an order in council dated Feb. 3, 1836. GROCERS' COMPANY (London). The origi- nal title of this company was "Pepi> mentioned as a separate fraternity in the time of Henry II., though the guild probably origi- nated at a much earlier date. The present company was founded June 12, 1345, and the name "grocers," which first appears in a peti- tion of the Commons in 1361, was not adopted by them till 1376. The meaning of the term is somewhat disputed, though it is most pro- bably a contracted form of " engrossers," the name applied to dealers in any ware, who by monopoly or other means contrived to raise the price of their goods. The apothecaries were separated from the grocers in 1617. The hall was founded May 8, 1427, and the company received its first patent of confirmation in 1429. The great fire of 1666 seriously damaged the hall, which was restored in 1668-9 y ^ r John Cutler. In 1681 it was again in ruins, and was renovated by Sir John Moore ; and in 1694 it was let to the Bank of England. The present hall was built in 1802, and repaired in 1827. GROCHOW (Battle). The Poles defeated the Russians at this place, near Warsaw, after an obstinate contest'that lasted two days, Feb. 19 and 20, 1831. The Russians lost 7,000 and the Poles only 2,000 men. GRODNO (Poland). This town is of ancient and uncertain origin. In 1184 it suffered con- siderably from a fire, and in 1283 was taken by the Teutonic knights. The Prussians failed in an attempt to capture it in 1306. Grodno was the seat of the Polish diet from 1673 to 1752. In 1708 it was taken by Charles XII., and in 1753 the greater part was destroyed by fire. The GKOG [ 465 1 GUARDS Russians seized it in 1792, and erected it into the chief town of Lithuania in 1795. It has since been made the chief town of a province of the same name. GROG. Admiral Edward Vernon, after the reduction of Porto Bello, Nov. 21, 1739, intro- duced the use of rum -and- water amongst his crew. "In bad weather," according to Mr. Vaux (Notes and Queries, i. p. 52), "he was in the habit of walking the deck in a rough grogram cloak, and thence had obtained the nickname of Old Grog in the service. This is, I believe, the origin of the name grog, applied originally to ru/ii-aud-water." GROLL (Battle). The Duke of Luxemburg encountered the forces of the Bishop of Minister at this place in 1672. GRONINGEN (Holland). This town was founded towards the latter part of the 6th cen- tury, and possessed some commercial influence in the gth century, when it was seized and de- stroyed by the Northmen. In 1 1 ioit was rebuilt, and afterwards formed part of the Spanish do- minions. In 1576 it was incorporated with the United Provinces, but it again fell into the pos- session of the Spaniards, from whom it was finally wrested by Prince Maurice in 1594. The citadel was erected in 1607, and the university founded in 1614. In 1678 Groningen repelled a siege by the Elector of Cologne and the Bishop of Minister. The institution for the deaf and dumb was founded in 1790, and the town-hall in 1793. In 1795 it was seized by the French, under Gen. Macdonald. The h6tel de ville was built in 1810. GROSS - BEEREN (Battle). Bernadotte, commanding an allied army, defeated Napo- leon I. and the Saxons at this place, near Berlin, Aug. 23, 1813. GROSS-GLOGAU. (See GLOGAU.) GROSS-GORSCHEN, orGROSZGORSCHEN. (See LtfTZEN, Battle.) GROSS - JAGERNDORF (Battle). The Russians, under Marshal Apraxin, defeated the Prussians, under Lehwald, at this place in Prussia, Aug. 30, 1757. GROSSWARDEIN (Hungary). This town, taken and pillaged by the Turks in 1660, was captured by the Austrians in 1692. GROTESQUE. This term was first applied to a style of classical ornament, in the i3th century. GROUSE. This bird, which does not appear to have been held in much estimation during the i4th century, is first mentioned as game by Capt. Burt in 1730. GROVETON. (See MANASSAS, Battles.) GROYNE. (See CORUNXA.) GRUB STREET (London) was inhabited, before the discovery of printing, by text- writers, who prepared all sorts of books then in use. John Fox (1517 April 18, 1587), the martyrologist, John Speed(i555 July 28,1629^, the historian, and other authors, resided in Grub Street. Memoirs of the Society of Grub Street appeared in 1737. Its name was changed to Milton Street in i8?o. GUADALAJARA (Spain). A corruption of Guidalhichara, or Guadalaruaca, the name given to this town of Castile by the Moors, who captured it in 714. GUADALETE (Battle). The Moors were defeated by the Christians at this place in Spain in 711. GUADALOUPE, or GUADELOUPE (West Indies). This island, one of the Lesser Antilles, was discovered by Columbus in 1493. In 1635 it was seized by the French, and was taken, Jan. 29, 1759, by the English, who restored it in 1763. It was again seized by them in 1794 and Feb. 5, 1810, when it was proposed to cede it to Sweden ; but at the peace of 1814 it was restored to France. The English again captured it Aug. 10, 1815, and it was finally restored to France July 23, 1816. Guadaloupe suffered severely from an earthquake in 1843. Slavery was abolished in 1848. GUAD-EL-RAS, GUALDRAS, or GUAL- TERAS (Battle). The Spaniards defeated the forces of the Emperor of Morocco, at this place, near Tetuan, March 23, 1860. GUADINA. (See DURANGO.) GUADIX (Spain) is said to have been the seat of the first bishopric erected in Spain. Ferdinand of Castile captured it in Dec., 1489- GUALIOR, or GWALIOR (Hindostan), the capital of a state of the same name, was under the government of rajahs as early as 1008. In 1197 it was taken by the Mohammedans, and in 1235 submitted to Altumsh, King of Delhi. In 1519 it was taken by Ibrahim Lodi, the last Patan Emperor of Delhi, and in 1543 it was surrendered to Shere Khan, the Affghan. Gualior was taken by the British, under Major Popham, Aug. 3, 1780. In 1784 it was seized by Madhajee Scindia, and in 1803 a treaty was concluded, by which it was to be surrendered to the British. As this treaty was not observed, the town was again invested by the British, under Sir Henry White, who effected its capture Feb. 5, 1804. In 1805 it was again ceded to Scindia; but it was recaptured by the British under Sir Hugh Gough, Dec. 29, 1843. Seized by the Indian mutineers June i, 1858, it was recovered by Sir Hugh Rose, June 19. GUAM, or GUAHON. One of the Ladrones, discovered by the Portuguese Fernando Magellan in 1521. GUANHANL (See SALVADOR, ST.) GUANO. Prescott maintains that the Peru- vians made great use of this valuable manure before Peru was visited by the Spaniards. Herrera refers to it in a work published in 1601, and in another published in 1609. It was described by Ulloa in 1748, and first brought to Europe by Humboldt in 1804. It is chiefly obtained from the Chincha (q.v.} and Lobos islands, situated off the coast of Peru. In 1839 the sole right to ship guano for nine years was sold to a private firm by the Peru- vian and Bolivian governments ; but the contract was cancelled by the government of Peru in 1841. The monopoly was, however, revived. Guano was discovered on the island of Ichaboe, on the coast of Africa, in 1843, and in one year the whole stock was exhausted. Large deposits of this manure were discovered in Van Diemen's Land in April, 1861. GUARDS. The celebrated Scotch guards of the kings of France were enrolled by Charles H H GUARDS' [ 466 ] GUEUX VII. in 1453. The English yeomen of the guard were instituted by Henry VII. in 1485. The four troops of horse guards were enrolled in 1660, 1661, 1693, and 1702; the foot guards in 1660, the second regiment is the Coldstrcam Guards (q.v.) ; the horse grenadier guards in 1693 and in 1702. The French National Guard was instituted in 1789, the Imperial Guard in- 1804, and the Garde Mobile in 1848. GUARDS' CLUB (London). This club, restricted to officers of the household troops, was founded in 1810. The house was designed by Harrison, and commenced in 1848. GUASTALLA (Italy). This Italian duchy passed into the hands of the dukes of .Mantua in 1677, and fell under the dominion of Austria in 1746. It was ceded to the Duke of Parma by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, Oct. 18, 1748, and was incorporated with the Cispadane Re- public by Napoleon Buonaparte in 1796. It formed a portion of the appanage of the Empress Maria Louisa in 1815, and was ceded to the Duke of Modena in 1796. The battle of Guastalla was fought near the chief town of the duchy, between the French and Sardinian forces under Charles Emanuel III., and the Austrians, Sep. 19, 1734, when the latter were defeated. GUATEMALA (Central America). This country was discovered by the Spaniards in 1502. The bishopric of Guatemala was estab- lished in 1533. The colony revolted from Spain in 1821, and became a federal republic in 1823. Its limits were diminished in 1839 by ^ ne secession of Honduras, and in 1846 each of the states forming the confederation adopted an independent government. Guatemala is governed according to the constitution of Oct. 19, 1851, byapresidentandlegLslativechanilicr. War was declared against the republic of St. Salvador, Jan. 23, 1863. (See SALVADOR, ST.) Raphael Carrera, the president, died April 14, 1865, and was succeeded by Vincent Ccrna, elected May 3. (See OLD GUATEMALA, and NEW Gr \ n:\iALA.j GUBBIO (Italy), the ancient Iguvium, is the chief town of a district of the same name. The municipal palace was discovered in 1332, and the Eugubine tables (q. v.) in 1444. GUEBRES, PARSEES, or FIRE - WOR- SHIPPERS. The Guebres of Persia, and the Parsces of Bombay, are descended from the fire -worshippers of antiquity, a sect which arose about B.C. 2120, and was suppressed by the Greeks about B.C. 330. It was restored by Ardeschir Badekhan in 225, and again pro- scribed by the Mohammedans in 652, when Yezdijud III. was deposed and slain. A large number of his subjects emigrated to Goojerat, where they were known as Parsees, or Persians. The modern Guebres are chiefly confined to the city of Yezd, in Persia. GUELDERLAND, or GELDERLAND (Holland). This duchy was sold to Charles I., Duke of Burgundy, in 1472, and reverted to the empire-as an escheated fief in 1503. In 1528 it was held by its duke as a fief of Brabant and Holland, and in 1538 the succession was settled on the Duke of Cleves. In 1579 it took part in the Union of Utrecht, and in 1672 submitted to the French, who withdrew the following year. It was readmitted to the Union in 1674, and received an amended constitution in 1748. GUELPH (House of). This ancient family, which traces its descent from the gth century, migrated in the nth century from Italy to Germany, where, in 1070, its members acquired possession of Bavaria (q.v.). Their descendants subsequently obtained sovereignty in Bruns- wick (q. v.) and Hanover, and thus became the ancestors of the present royal family of England. GUELPHIC ORDE R. This Hanoverian order of knighthood was founded by the Prince Regent ; afterwards George IV.), Aug. 12, 1815. The statutes were amended May 20, 1841. GUELPHS. (See GHIBELLINES.) GUENEZ (Battle). Marshal Lefebvre de- feated the Spanish, under Blake and La Ro- inana, at this place, in Spain, Nov. 7, 1808. GUERANDE, or GUERRANDE (France). This town, founded in the 6th century, was surrounded with walls in 1431. After the cele- brated battle of Auray, fought Sep. 29, 1364, between the forces of the two claimants for the duchy of Britanny, John of Montfort and Charles of Blois, in which the latter was slain, a treaty was concluded at Guerande, by the intervention of Charles V., April 13, 1365. It left Montfort in possession of the duchy, which was to revert to the widow of Charles of Blois, in case Montfort died without heirs. Guerande was captured in 1342, and by Du Guesclin in 1373. It was besieged in 1379 and 1489. GUERNSEY (English Channel). This island was called Holy Island in the loth century, owing to the numerous monks who inhabited it. In 1035 it was shared between Nigellius, or Neel, Viscount of St. Sauveur, and Karl Robert of \ormandy. Cornet Castle was founded about 1204, and St. Peter's church consecrated in 1312. ' Queen Elizabeth founded Elizabeth's College in 1563, and Fort George was com- menced in 1775. The French have made nume- rous efforts to take Guernsey, the last of which occurred in 1780. GUERRILLAS. These armed bands of peasants and shepherds were regularly orga- nized in Spain against the French from 1808 to 1814, during which period they rendered signal service. GUEUX, or BEGGARS, was the name con- temptuously applied by the Count of Barlai- mont to the confederate nobles of the Low Countries, who presented a remonstrance called the Compromise (q. v.) against the In- quisition to the Regent Margaret, April 5, 1566, and was adopted by them as the name of their party the same evening. They defeated the Spaniards at Heiligerlee, or Heyligerlee, May 23, 1568, but later in the year were them- selves compelled, by the Duke of Alva, to dis- band their forces. In 1570 they petitioned the diet of Spires against the cruelties of the Spaniards, and, in 1571, were refused asylum in Denmark, Sweden, and England. In 1572 they again proved victorious, and seized Briel and Flushing. Rammekens, Middleburg, and Arnemuydeii also surrendered to them in 1573-4. The celebrated William, Prince of Orange, was a member of this party. There were also the Wild Gueux, or Gueux Sauvages, GUIANA. [ 467 I GUINES a band of Dutch Protestants driven into out- lawry and plunder by Alva, in 1568 ; and the Water Gueux, or Beggars of the Sea, a party of privateers, whocommeuced their ravages in 1569. GUIANA, or GUYANA (S. America). This country was discovered by Columbus in Aug., 1498, and visited by Vincent Pinzon in 1500. The first town, St. Thomas, of Guiana, was founded by Diego de Ordas in 1531, and the Dutch established their settlement of New Zealand in 1580. Sir Walter Raleigh visited Guiana in 1595, and commenced his explora- tion of the country in the hope of discovering rich gold-mines in 1617. Slave labour was in- troduced in 1621. The three colonies of Deme- rara, Essequibo, and Berbice (q. v.}, are called British Guiana (q. v.}. The first French settle- ments in Guiana were formed in 1633. In 1809 their colony was seized by the English and Portuguese, who restored it to France in 1815. (See SURINAM, or DUTCH GUIANA ; and CAYENNE, or FRENCH GUIANA.) GUIDES, or messengers, introduced into the French army in 1774, were formed into a guard by Napoleon I. GUIENNE, or GUYENNE (France). This province, situated to the north of Gascony, with which it is often confounded, comprised part of Aquitania, according to some authori- ties corrupted into Guienne. Bordeaux was its capital. What was termed the duchy of Guienne passed into the possession of the Eng- lish in 1152. The French seized it in 1294, and it was frequently contested until it came into the possession of France in 1453. GUIGNES. (See GUINES.) GUILDFORD (Surrey) is first mentioned in the will of Alfred the Great, who bequeathed it to his neighbour Athelwald. In 1036 it was the scene of the murder of the Norman friends of the Saxon atheling Alfred, by order of God- win, Earl of Kent ; and, in 1216, the castle was taken by the French dauphin Louis. The town received its charter of incorporation from Ed- ward III., in 1337. Its first charitable institu- tion was founded in 1078, the Royal Grammar School in 1509, Archbishop Abbot's Hospital in 1619, the market-house in 1758, the prison was finished in 1822, and the Guildford Institution was founded in 1844. GUILDHALL (London) was founded in 1411, and the kitchen was erected in 1501. It suf- fered much from the great fire of 1666, and was rebuilt in 1669, though the King Street front was not restored till 1789. The statues of Gog and Magog were set up in the hall in 1708. The allied sovereigns were entertained at a civic banquet, June 18, 1814 ; and the Emperor and Empress of the French received a similar com- pliment, April 19, 1855. The new roof was commenced June 22, 1864. GUILD OF LITERATURE AND ART. This institution, for the relief of indigent men of letters and artists, originated in 1851, when Sir Edward Bulwer Lytton's comedy, " Not so Bad as we Seem," was performed, in London and the provinces, by a distinguished party of amateurs, who devoted the proceeds to its establishment. The first representation took place at Devonshire House, in the presence of Queen Victoria, May 16, 1851, and the receipts of this and subsequent performances having been allowed to accumulate, three houses were erected near Stevenage, in Hertfordshire, on ground presented by Sir Edward Bulwer Lytton, which were inaugurated Saturday, July 29, 1865. GUILDS. English guilds were originally political in their nature, arising from the Anglo-Saxon custom of frank-pledges ; one of the earliest of the trade guilds (see COMPANIES) being the Gilda Theutonicorum, or Steelyard Merchants, who were established in England before 967. The Knigten guild existed in the reign of Edgar (957 975), and received a char- ter from Edward the Confessor (1042 1066). These are the most important of the ancient guilds, though there were many others. The substitution of the term livery company for that of guild was made in the reign of Ed- ward III. (1327 1377). GUILLOTINE. This instrument of decapi- tation, at first called the Louison, was invented, in 1785, by Joseph Ignace Guillotin, a cele- brated French physician. It was first employed April 25, 1792. The inventor was himself condemned to suffer by this machine, but was delivered by the counter revolution of 9 Ther- midor (July 27), 1794, and he died at Paris, May 26, 1814. GUIMARAENS (Portugal), founded B.C. 500, was made the capital of Portugal in 1 107. The cathedral was founded in 1385. GUINEA (Africa). This name is applied to the whole west coast of Africa, between Cape Verga on the north and Cape Negro on the south. It was first discovered by the Portu- guese in 1446, but the coast was not explored till 1484. The English first traded with Guinea in 1530. Some adventurers, who renewed their attempts in 1553, died from the unhealthy climate, without effecting any negotiations. A second expedition was equipped in 1554, which met with better success, and in 1588 a company was chartered by Queen Elizabeth for the sole object of trading to this country. GUINEAS. So called because they were originally made of gold brought f rom the coast of Guinea. Guineas and half-guineas were first struck in 1663, the device being an elephant, to signify the country whence the gold was brought. Quarter-guineas were first coined in 1718. The last coinage of guineas took place in 1813. The value of this coin varied consider- ably at different periods. When first struck it was worth 208. ; but in 1695 it had increased to 305. It was reduced to 258. March 25, 1696, and to 22S. April 10, 1697. Its value was fixed at 2is. by a proclamation of Dec. 22, 1717. The guinea was gradually withdrawn, after the introduction of sovereigns in 1817. GUINEGATE (Battle). This name is given to two battles. The first, in which the Flemings defeated the French, was fought at Guinegate, near Courtrai, July n, 1302. In the second, Henry VIII., at the head of an English army, defeated the French, Aug. 16, 1513. Both are also called the Battle of the Spurs. GUINES, GUIGNES, or GUISNES (France). It was near this town, in Picardy, that Henry VIII. and Francis I. met in 1520, at the celebrated Field of the Cloth of Gold (q.v.). GUISBOROUGH [ 468 ] GUY'S GUISBOROUGII, or GUILSBOROUGH (Yorkshire:. This ancient town, supposed to be the Urbs Caluvium of the Romans, was the seat of a priory of Austin canons founded by Robert de Brus in 1129, and destroyed by fire in 1289. The first alum works established in England were erected here by Sir Thomas Chaloner. (See ALUM.) The town-hall waa> built in 1821, and the mineral springs were discovered in 1822. GUITAR. This, the national musical instru- ment of the Spaniards, who regard it as of equal antiquity to the harp, was exceedingly popular in France during the reign of Louis XIV. (1643 1715). A guitar with 12 strings was invented by Vanhek, a member of the Royal Academy of Music, at Paris, in 1773. GUJERAT. (See GOOJERAT.) GULISTAN. This peace between Persia and Russia was concluded Oct. 12, 1813. Persia ceded to Russia a number of governments in the Caspian Sea, and the whole of Daghistan, at the same time renouncing all claims to Georgia, Mingrelia, and other provinces. GULOWLIE. (See CALPEE.) GUMBINNEN (Prussia). Frederick William I. erected this small village into a town in 1732. GUN. The Gunmakers' Company was in- corporated in 1638. The Armstrong gun, invented by Sir William Armstrong, was adopted by the British artillery service, Feb. 26, 1859. (See ARTILLERY, BREECH-LOADING GUNS, CANNON, &c.) GUN-COTTON. In 1846 Schonbein exhi- bited specimens of this material to the British Association at Southampton ; but the method of its preparation was not published till the enrolment of the patent in April, 1847. It was found inapplicable to military and mining purposes, owing to its liability to spontaneous combustion, but has proved of great service in photography. (See COLLODION.) GUNDAMUCK (Battle). The remnant of the Cabul army, consisting of 20 officers and 45 European soldiers, under Major Griffiths, were attacked at this village in Affghanistan, by a force of Affghans numbering about a hundred to one, Jan. 13, 1842, and, with the exception of Dr. Brydon, all massacred. GUNMAKERS were incorporated in 1638. GUNPOWDER. This substance, known to the Chinese at a very early period, appears to have been employed against Alexander III. (the Great), by some Hindoo tribes, B.C. 355, and to have been applied to military purposes in China in 85. It is described in an Arabic M3. of the year 1249, and also in the works of Roger Bacon (1214 June n, 1292), who is regarded by some as the author of the inven- tion, though other authorities ascribe it to the German monk Barthold Schwartz, in 1320. Its exportation from England was prohibited by Henry V. in 1414, and in 1625 its mamifacture was monopolized by Charles I. Restrictions as to the quantity manufactured at a time, or stored in one place, were imposed by 12 Geo.III. c. 61 (1772), which prohibited dealers from keeping a stock of more than 200 Ib. By 16 and 17 Viet. c. 107, s. 45 (Aug 20, 1853), the expor- tation of gunpowder may at any time be pro- bited by an order in council. Experiments, with a view to rendering gunpowder non-ex- plosive, were made by Piobert, in France, in. 835, and by Fadeieff, Professor of Chemistry, at St. Petersburgh, between 1840 and 1844. Gale completed, at Westminster, a series of public demonstrations of his process for securing the same result by mixing the gun- powder with finely powdered glass, from which it is sifted before use, Wednesday, Aug. 2, 1865. (See EXPLOSIONS.) GUNPOWDER PLOT. This conspiracy of the Papists, to destroy the king, lords, and commons, while assembled in Parliament, by means of gunpowder, was contrived by Robert Catesby, in the spring of 1604. He was joined by Thomas Winter, who, April 22, secured the co-operation of Guy Fawkes, a native of York- shire, and a soldier of fortune. In furtherance of his scheme, Catesby hired a house close to the old palace of Westminster, under which he began to mine Dec. n. They were, how- ever, compelled to relinqxiish their mining; but hearing that a cellar under the house was to let, Catesby hired it, March 25, 1605. Thirty barrels and two hogsheads of gunpowder were concealed here under sticks and fagots. Every- thing was prepared for the execution of the plot, which was arranged for Nov. 5, on which day Parliament was to be reopened, when an anonymous letter, sent to Lord Monteagle, Oct. 26, to warn him, led to the disclosure of the whole affair. This letter was laid before James I., Nov. i, and he at once inferred that the threatened danger was from gunpowder, and ordered that the cellars beneath the Parlia- ment house should be searched. This was done on the evening of Nov. 4, when Fawkes was dis- covered in charge of the vault, with dark lantern and matches, ready to fire the mine. The other conspirators fled to Holbeach House, in Worcestershire, where they were attacked Nov. 8. Catesby, Percy, and the two Wrights fell sword in hand, and the others were made prisoners. Their trial commenced Jan. 27, 1606, and Digby, Robert Winter, Grant, and Bates were executed in St. Paul's Churchyard, Jan. 30. Thomas Winter, Rookwood, Keys, and Guy Fawkes suffered in Old Palace Yard, Westminster, Jan 31. Henry Garnet, the Jesuit, was tried March 28, and executed at St. Paul's as an accessory, May 3. GUNS (Hungary). Soliman I. (the Magnificent), at the head of a large Turkish army, laid siege to this town Aug. i, 1532. The defenders, who only numbered about 700 men, of whom about 30 wore regular troops, kept him in check for more than three weeks, repelling n assaults, and ultimately forcing the enemy to retire. GUTTA PERCHA. The properties of this Malayan tree were known to the natives of Malacca and the neighbouring countries, long before they were discovered by Europeans. The tree was first described by Dr. Montgo- merie, of Bengal, in 1842, and in 1843 Dr. D' Almeida exhibited a specimen of its inspis- sated juice to the Royal Society of Arts. GUY'S HOSPITAL (London). This insti- tution, founded in 1722 by Thomas Guy, book- seller, who devoted ,18,793 *6s. IC ^- t the GUZERAT [ 469 HABSBURG erection of the building, and ^219,499 os. 4^. to its endowment, received the first patient Jan. 6, 1725, its founder having died Dec. 17, 1724. His statue was erected in the court Feb. ii, 1734. The front of the building was new-faced in 1778, and in 1829 its funds were increased by a legacy of ^196,115, bequeathed by Hunt, of Petersham. GUZERAT. (See GOOJERAT.) GWALIOR. (See GUALIOB.) GYMNASIUM. According to Plato, the Lacedaemonians established the first gymna- sium, and during the classical sera every im- portant town possessed a similar institution, where the young practised racing, leaping, wrestling, boxing, &c. Solon compiled a code of laws especially for the regulation of gymnasia, about B.C. 594. The first French gymnasium, for the instruction of the anny in physical exercises, was founded at Paris in 1818. GYMNASTICS, practised in ancient times, were revived in Prussia in 1806, and by a decree of the French minister of public instruc- tion, of March 13, 1854, they form a regular branch of instruction in all the royal colleges of the empire. GYMNOSOPHIT^:, GYMNOSOPHISTS, or NAKED SAGES. The name given by the Greeks to a sect of Hindoo philosophers who were remarkable for the asceticism of their manners and doctrines. They wore no cloth- ing, believed in the transmigration of the soul, and exhibited the most surprising contempt of death. Calanus burned himself to death, in the presence of Alexander the Great, about B.C. 325. GYPSIES, for a long period supposed to be of Egyptian origin, their very name being a corruption of the word Egyptians, are by some supposed to be the descendants of Hindoo Pariahs who were exiled from their country by Tamerlane at the commencement of the i5th century. Other authorities say they left Asia for Europe before the i2th century. They are noticed as Ishmaelites jn a paraphrase of the book of Genesis, written by an Austrian monk in 1122. They first appeared in the Danubian provinces in 1417, in Switzerland in 1418, in Italy in 1422, in France in 1427, in Spain in 1447, in England about 1512, and in Sweden in 1514. By 22 Hen. VIII. c. 10 (1530), they were ordered to quit the country, and severe ordinances were also issued against them by i & 2 Phil. & Mary c. 4 (1554), and by 5 Eliz. c. 20 (1562), which made their con- tinuance in England for more than a month a capital felony. In 1560 they were expelled from France, and in 1591 from Spain ; but, in spite of legislative enactments, they still exist in all the countries of Europe. The oppressive statutes against them in this country were repealed by 23 Geo. III. c. 51 (1783), by i Geo. IV. c. 116 (July 25, 1820), and by 19 & 20 Viet. c. 64 (July 21, 1856). Borrow commenced the translation of the Bible into the Rommany dialect (the language of the gypsies) in 1836. GYROSCOPE. This instrument, for exhi- biting the peculiarities of rotatory motion, was invented by Fessel, of Cologne, and described by Foucault to the Academy of Paris in Sep., 1852. The principle of its action was dis- covered by Frisi as early as 1750. It has been applied to the illustration of the diurnal rotation of the earth on its axis, and has been improved by Professors Plucker and Wheat- stone. H. HAARLEM, or HAERLEM (Holland). This town existed in the time of Theodore I., Count of Holland, who began to reign in 913. The church of St. Bavon was erected by Albert of Bavaria in 1372. Haarlem was besieged by the Spaniards, under the Duke of Alva, from Dec., 1572, to July 12, 1573, when it sur- rendered. The great organ was built by Christian Miiller, of Amsterdam, in 1738. An industrial exhibition was opened July 4, 1825. The lake of Haarlem was drained between 1839 and 1851. HABAKKUK. This prophecy, stated by a legend to have been the production of the son of the Shunammite woman restored to life by Elisha (2 Kings iv. 34), B.C. 895, usually ascribed to a period ranging from B.C. 650 to B.C. 627, is referred by Delitzsch to B.C. 630 or 629. Other authorities suppose that Habakkuk attended Daniel during his residence at Babylon, carry- ing food to him while a prisoner in the lions' den, and that he subsequently returned to Judaea and died at his own farm, B.C. 538. HABEAS CORPUS. A writ at common law, issued for various purposes connected with the detention of prisoners. By 2 Hen. V. s. i, c. 2 (1414), there was no liberation under such a writ when the prisoner was confuted on judg- ment at another's suit. Felons and murderers were allowed to be tried in the counties where their offences were committed, by 6 Hen. VIII. c. 6 (1514). By 16 Charles I. c. 10, s. 8 (1640), it was enacted that a person committed by the king, or by his privy council, should be entitled to a writ of habeas corpus. The celebrated Habeas Corpus Act, 31 Charles II. c. 2 (May 27, 1679), specifies the modes of obtaining this writ, and renders the detention of an English subject for any considerable time illegal, un- less the law has pronounced the detention just. This act cannot be suspended, except by authority of Parliament. (See ENGLAND and IRELAND.) The mode of procedure was simpli- fied and improved by 56 Geo. III. c. 100 (July, 1816). The issue of writs of habeas corpus out of England is regulated by 25 Viet. c. 20 (May 16, 1862). HABERDASHERS' COMPANY (London) was incorporated in 1447, and received their coat of arms Nov. 8, 1570. The original hall and laws of the association were destroyed by the Great Fire of 1666, in consequence of which another hall was erected in 1667. It was de- stroyed by fire Sep. 19, 1864. New rules were adopted in 1675. They were also called hosiers and milliners. HABSBURG, or HAPSBURG (Switzerland). This castle in Aargau, the seat of the ances- tors of the house of Austria, founded in 1020, HACKNEY [ 470 3 HAGUE was destroyed in 1415. The ruins were visited by the Emperor Francis II. in 1815. HACKNEY COACHES. The first vehicle of this kind plied in London in 1625. Capt. Baily placed four hackney coaches, to ply for hire, at the Maypole, in the Strand, in 1634. Their number was subsequently increased, and all restrictions on this point were remove* by i & 2 Will. IV. c. 22, s. 9 (Sep. 22, 1831). The regulations respecting hackney coaches are embodied in 16 & 17 Viet. c. 33 (June 28, 1853), an d 16 & 17 Viet. c. 127 (Aug. 20, 1853). The Lost-and- Found Office, for recovery of goods left in hackney coaches, was established by 55 Geo. III. c. 159, s. 9 (July n, 1815). HADDINGTON (Scotland), created a burgh by David I. (1124 1153), was destroyed by John, King of England, in Jan., 1216, and, having been rebuilt, was again burned in 1244. Edward III. burned it in 1355. The English took possession of Haddington in 1544, and again in 1548, and were compelled to retire in Oct., 1549. HADFIELD'S ATTEMPT. James Hadfield, a working silversmith, at one time a private of the isth Light Dragoons, fired a pistol from the pit of Drury Lane Theatre at George III., who was occupying the royal box, May 15, 1800. He disavowed any intention of hurting the king, declaring that he had committed the crime as the readiest means of escaping from life. He was tried for high treason, June 26, and acquitted on the ground of insanity. HADKIAXOPLE Uattlos .The most cele- brated was fought July 3, 323, between Con- stantine and Licinius, during the civil wars that followed the abdication of Diocletian, in which the latter was defeated. It was in this action that Constantine is said to have thrown himself into the river Hebrus with only 12 horsemen, and to have vanquished an army of 150,000 men. Near this city Valens was de- feated by the Goths, with immense slaughter, Au g- 9. 378. Gibbon says this battle, in which the Emperor Valens perished, "equalled in actual loss, and far surpassed in the fatal con- sequences, the misfortune which Rome had formerly sustained in the fields of Cannaj." HADRIANOPLE (European Turkey). This city is referred to by ancient authors under the name of Uscudama. It received its present title from the Emperor Hadrian, by whom it was restored and raised to considerable splen- dour. Hadrianople was erected into a bishopric by Constantine I. Its first bishop died in 340. It withstood a siege by the Goths in 378, and surrendered to the Bulgarians in 813. Frederick I., Emperor of Germany, stormed it in 1190, and it was taken by the Turks, under Amurath I., in 1360. In 1366 it became the capital of the Ottoman empire, which rank it retained until the capture of Constantinople by the Mohammedans in 1453. The Russians effected an entry Aug. 20, 1829, and retained possession till Sep. 14. The city suffered severely from the plague in 1836 and 1837. The Turks call it Edreneh, and it is generally known under the name of Adrianople. HADRIANOPLE (Treaty), signed Sep. 2, (O. S.) 14, (N. S.) 1829, restored the Danubian Principalities to the Porte and confirmed all privileges granted by former treaties. Russia obtained the right of commerce throughout the Turkish empire, with liberty to pass the Dardanelles ; and Turkey agreed to pay 1,500,000 Dutch ducats as indemnity for the expenses of the war, and 10,000,000 ducats as compensation for losses sustained by Rus- sian merchants. HADRIAN'S WALL. This Roman fortifi- cation, of which some remains still exist, ex- tended from the Solway Frith to the mouth of the Tyne, and consisted of a stone wall and parallel earthen rampart, about 60 feet apart. Spartianus declares that Hadrian built a wall 80 miles long, dividing the Romans from the barbarians, and that Severus constructed a wall across the island. The generally received opinion, therefore, is, that Hadrian built the earthen rampart (121), and that Severus, to strengthen it, constructed the stone wall (208- 210). Bruce, in his work on the Roman wall, contends that both the earthen rampart and the stone wall were constructed by Hadrian, and that though Severus may have repaired this fortification, he built no wall himself. This is also called the Picts' wall. HAGERSTOWN (United States). This town of Maryland was occupied by the Confederates under Gen. Lee, Sep. 10, 1862, and Julys, 1864. HAGGAI. This prophecy was delivered by Haggai, B.C. 520, being the second year of Darius I. (Hystaspes;. The author, according to tradition, was born in Babylon, of Jewish parents. HAGIOGRAPHA. (See APOCHRYPHA.) HAGUE (Holland). The Binnenhof, or Court of Holland, was founded in 1249. The town originated in the erection of a hunting- lodge of the counts of Holland in 1250. In 1528 it was pillaged by Maerten van Rossum, and in 1580 was the scene of the abjuration of Spanish supremacy by the States-General, and was made the residence of the stadtholder, and the centre of government. The cannon-foundry was established in 1 668. The brothers Cornelius and John de Witt were literally torn to pieces by the enraged populace, July 24, 1672. The city was seized by the French, arid the stadt- holder compelled to take refuge in England, Jan. 19, 1795. In 1806, Napoleon I. transferred the title of capital to Amsterdam ; but the government was restored to the Hague on its evacuation by the French in 1813. HAGUE (Treaties). The first convention of the Hague, between England, France, and Holland, to enforce the peace of Roskild, was signed May 21, 1659 '> the second convention, to which France was not a party, in July, 1659; and the third, of which the conditions were the same as the first, Aug. 14, 1659. The alliance between Great Britain and the States, signed at the Hague, Jan. 23, 1668, received the name of the Triple Alliance on the acces- sion of Sweden, April 25, 1668. A treaty between Portugal and Holland was signed here, May 7, 1669.- An alliance between the emperor, Holland, and Spain, against France, was signed July 25, 1672. A 20 years' truce was signed here, June 29, 1684. A congress of sovereigns assembled here in 1690 and in 1691, to resist French encroachments. William HAGUENAU HALIFAX III. left England, Jan. 16, to attend, returning April 13. The Grand Alliance (q.v.) was re- newed here in 1696. The Second Triple Alliance (q. v.) was concluded here, Jan. 4, 1717. The alliance of Hanover (q. v.) was signed at the Hague, Aug. 9, 1726. Great Britain, Austria, the States-General, and Sar- dinia concluded a convention here for the pro- secution of the war against France and Spain, Jan. 26, 1748. The French concluded a treaty with the Dutch here, May 16, 1795. HAGUENAU (France), in Alsace, was founded by Frederick I. in 1164. Having withstood many sieges, it was taken by the Swedes in 1632, and its fortifications were de- stroyed in 1675. The Imperialists captured it in 1705, and the French regained possession in 1706. The Austrians were repulsed in severe battles around Haguenau, Oct. 17 and Dec. 22, *793- HAGULSTAD. (See HEXHAM.) HAILEYBURY COLLEGE (Hertfordshire) was founded by the East India Company for the education of cadets. The first stone was laid May 12, 1806, and the building was com- pleted in April, 1809. The college was closed m HAINAULT, or HAINAUT (Belgium), was governed by a regular succession of counts from the time of Regnier I., who began to reign about 860. In 1436 it passed into the hands of Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, and by the treaties of the Pyrenees, Nov. 7, 1659, and of Nimeguen, Sep. 17, 1678, part was ceded to France, and forms the province of French Hainault. In 1793 the rest of the ter- ritory was surrendered to France, and formed into the department of Jemmapes. In 1814 it was allotted to the Low Countries, and in 1830 was incorporated with Belgium. HAINAULT FOREST (Essex), which owed its chief celebrity to the Fairlop oak (q.v.), was disafforested by 14 & 15 Viet. c. 43 (Aug. i, 1851). HAIR. The Egyptians shaved the head, but the Greeks and Romans esteemed the hair of such honour that they offered it to the gods in gratitude for escape from shipwreck. Curling with irons was practised by females among the Greeks and Romans, and by both sexes among the Phrygians. The early Greek Christians offered the hair to God. Long hair was esteemed by the Goths ; but the English of the gth and icth centuries wore it short. The Danes and Normans wore it long ; but in the 1 4th, i sth, and i6th centuries, it was cut short. Wigs became common in the i7th cen- tury. Strange fashions of dressing ladies' hair in the i8th century began about 1760, mode- rated towards 1790, and had nearly declined before 1800. HAIR-POWDER. Gold-dust was occasion- ally used by the ancients for this purpose, but the usual expedient was to dye the hair. According to Josephus, King Solomon was pre- ceded by 40 pages, whose hair was powdered with gold-dust. Powder is said to have been introduced by Mary de Medicis. It is men- tioned by L'Etoile in 1593. The hair-powder tax, proposed by Pitt, was imposed by 35 Geo. HI. c. 49 (April 30, 1795). HAIRUMBO. (See CACHAR.) HAKODADI, orHOKODATE (Japan). This town was ceded to the Tycoon by the Prince of Matsumai, in 1854. By a convention signed at Nagasaki, Oct. 14, 1854, and ratified Oct. 9, 1855, it was opened to British vessels requiring water, repairs, &c., and in 1858 became the seat of a Russian consulate. By the treaty of Jeddo (q.v.), signed Aug. 26, 1858, it was opened to foreign commerce from July i, 1859. A British consulate was established Oct. 15, 1 HAKLUYT'S ISLAND (Polar Seas) was dis- covered by Baffin in 1616. HAKLUYT SOCIETY, named after Richard Hakluyt (1553 1616), celebrated for his labours in collecting the materials for a history of British voyages and discoveries, was instituted Dec. 15, 1846. HALBERTSTADT (Saxony) was the seat of a bishop in 814. The cathedral, commenced in 1235, was completed in 1491. The diet of Halbertstadt elected Otho IV. emperor in 1208. It was annexed to Brandenburg by the treaty of Miinster, in 1648. The French cap- tured Halbertstadt in Jan., 1758. It was ceded to France in 1807, and was restored to Prussia at the peace of 1814-15. HALEB. (See ALEPPO and CHALEB.) HALF-BOWL. (See BOWLS.) HALF-CROWN. (See COIN and CROWN.) HALIARTUS (Battle), fought between a con- federacy of Grecian states and Lacedsemon, B.C. 395, in which Lysander was slain. HALICARNASSUS (Asia Minor). This town of Caria, originally called Zephyria, was of Dorian origin, and is famous as the birth- place of Herodotus, B.C. 484. The celebrated tomb of Mausolus was erected B.C. 353, and the city was taken by Alexander III. (the Great) B.C. 334. It was a bishopric in the primitive Church, and sent a bishop to the Council of Chalcedon in 451. The site of the ancient town was discovered in 1839 by Lieut. Brock, and many interesting sculptures have been disinterred, and deposited in the British Museum. HAL1DON, or HALIDOWN HILL (Battle). Edward III. defeated the Scottish forces at this place, near Berwick, July 19, 1333, and the town surrendered July 20. The Regent Douglas was killed. HALIFAX (Nova Scotia) was settled in 1749 by adventurers from England, who named it after the Earl of Halifax, First Commissioner of Trade and Plantations. The seat of govern- ment was transferred hither from Annapolis in 1750. It was declared a free port in 1817. The college was founded in 1820. HALIFAX (Yorkshire) is first named in a -ant of the 1 2th century, and was a seat of ;he woollen manufacture as early as 1414. In 1443 the town numbered only 13 houses, which had increased in 1540 to 520. The free gram- mar-school was founded by Queen Elizabeth Ji 1583. Archbishop Tillotson was born here :n 1630. Halifax was anciently remarkable :or possessing the right of executing any thief who stole property of the value of thirteen pence halfpenny within its limits. The in- strument used in the execution resembled the HALIFAX [ 472 ] HAMBURG guillotine, and the town possessed and exer- cised this right from about 1280 to 1650; after which there is no record of its use. This was called the Halifax Gibbet Law. The Piece Hall was erected in 1779, Trinity Church in 1795, the gaol in 1828, the infirmary in 1836, and the general cemetery was established in 1837. The People's Park was presented to the town by F. Crossley, and opened in Aug., 1857. The new town-hall, erected at a cost of .32,000, was formally opened by the Prince of Wales, Aug. 4, 1863. A bronze equestrian statue of Prince Albert was inaugurated Sep. I7 HALIFAX ADMINISTRATION. Immedi- ately after the accession of George I. the Trea- sury was placed in commission, with Lord, afterwards the Earl of Halifax, at the head (Oct. 5, 1714). The office of Lord High Trea- surer has not been revived. The ministry was thus constituted : Treasury Lord Halifax. Lord Chancellor ... f Lord ' afterwards Earl Cowper. President of the Council ......... Earl of Nottingham. Marquis Chancellor of Exchequer ...... Sir K. (>nslo\v. Hart. Prin.-ipHl Secretaries of f Mr., afterwards Knrl Stnn- ........................... (. hope.nndl.ordTowushcml. Admiralty ........................... Karl of Oxford. Secretary at War .................. Mr. rnitcucy. Ordnance .............................. Duke of Marlborotigh. Paymaster-General ............ { "ftafrXT"* "* *' Hallam states that Lord Townshend was the actual prime minister. The Marquis of Wliar- ton died April 12, and the Karl of Halifax May 19, 1715. ISf.e CARLISLE ADMINISTRATION.) HALIFAX GIBBET. (See MAIDEN.) HALLE (Saxony). On the Saale, was founded in the gth century, and was erected into a city by Otho II. in 981. St. Ulrich's church was built in 1339, and the cathe- dral founded in 1520. The university was established in 1694, and the orphan-house in 1698. A battle was fought here between the French and Prussians, Oct. 17, 1806. The latter were defeated, and Halle was seized by the French, who retained it till 1814, when it was restored to Pmssia. In 1815 the university was united to that of Wittenberg, and the building for the incorporated institution was erected in the suburbs of Halle in 1834. HALLE (Treaty). Between the Protestant princes of the German empire, was concluded at Halle in 1610. HALLELUJAH VICTORY. This name was given to a victory gained by some newly- baptized Britons over their enemies in 429, because they commenced the struggle with loud cries of "Hallelujah !" Germanus, Bishop of Auxerre, was their leader on this occasion. HALLEY'S COMET. Halley observed the comet in 1682, and compared its orbit with those of the comets of 1531 and 1607, which he found identical. He consequently inferred that these were only three appearances of the same body, and announced this opinion in 1705. Having convinced himself of the truth of his theory bj< laborious calculations, he pre- dicted that it would again appear in 1759, which proved to be th HALOSCOPE. This optical instrument, for the exhibition of the phenomena of halo.s, parhelia, &c., was invented by Auguste Bra- vais (Aug. 23, 1811 March 31, 1863), who pub- lished his " Memoires sur les halos et les ph6- nomenes qui les accompagnent " in 1847. HALYS (Battle),- between the Medes and Lydians, on the banks of this river, in Asia "Minor, was interrupted by the eclipse of Thales. Various years between B.C. 625 and B.C. 583 are assigned as the date of this eclipse. Airy believes it to have occurred May 28, B.C. 584, and Ideler Sep. 30, B.C. 610. HAM (France). Coins were 'struck in this place, on the Somme, in the reign of Charles I. (the Bald) (840877). The lordship was erected into a duchy in 1407, and the castle was built by the Count of St. Pol in 1470. It was the prison of the unpopular ministers of Charles X. in 1830, and of Louis Napoleon in 1840, after his attempt upon Boulogne. He effected his escape, May 25, 1846. HAMADAN (Persia), occupying the site of the ancient Ecbatana (q. r.), was taken by Timour in the i4_th century, and by Ahmed Pasha of Bagdad in 1724. HAMADAXITES. Arabian princes of the tribe of Hamadan, who ruled over Mesopo- tamia from 892 to 1001. II AMAH, or HAMATH (Syria). This city, which at the time of the Exodus, B.C. 1491, was the chief place in Upper Syria, waged war, under its king Toi, with Hadadezer, King of Zobah, B.C. 1040 (2 Sam. viii. 10). It subse- quently owed allegiance to Solomon, who erected "stone cities" here (2 Chron. viii. 4), B.C. 992 ; but on his death, B.C. 975, it re- gained independence, and was a separate power in alliance with the Syrians, Hittites, and Phoenicians, B.C. 900. It was subsequently seized by Jeroboam II. (2 Kings xiv. 28), about B.C. 825, was taken by the Assyrians under Sargon (2 Kings xviii. 34), B.C. 721 704, and never recovered its former importance. Ha- rnah, which occupies the site of the ancient city, was visited by Burckhardt in 1812. HAMBATO (Ecuador) suffered severely from an eruption of Cotopaxi in 1698, and from an earthquake in 1796. HAMBURG (Germany) was founded by Charlemagne in 809, and speedily attained great influence on account of its commerce. In 1241 it concluded a treaty with Llibeck, which subsequently became the basis of the Hanseatic League ; and in 1269 it received the right to frame its own laws and enforce their execution. A provincial council of ecclesias- tics met here in 1406. The town extended its borders to the right bank of the Alster in 1500. A conference between the Reformers and the Roman Catholics was held here in Oct., 1526, and the people adopted the Reformation in 1535. In 1618 it was released from its former subjection to the dukes of Holstein. The bank was founded in 1619, and the church of St. Michael in 1751. In 1768 the city was finally released from all subjection to the house of Holstein, and in 1770 the emperor confirmed its right to the rank of a free city. In 1799 the Irish rebel Napper Tandy was surren- dered to the British Government by the Ham- HAMILTON [ 473 J HANGING burghgrs, and in 1801 the city was occupied by the Danes. In 1802 all the Hanoverian property in Hamburg was surrendered to the city, which suffered severely, in consequence of the blockade of the Elbe, in 1803.- French troops occupied Hamburg from 1806 to 1809, and in 1811 it was annexed to France as capital of the department of Bouches-d'Elbe. The French relinquished Hamburg in 1813 ; it re- gained its old constitution May 26, 1814, and joined the Germanic Confederation June 8, 1815. The gymnasium was founded in 1840. A fire, which broke out May 5, 1842, destroyed 2,000 houses and property to the amount of ^7,000,000. A new constitution was adopted in 1848, and in 1851 the city was occupied by an Austrian force. An inundation of the Elbe laid the greater part of the city under water, Jan. i, 1855. A commercial panic occurred in 1857. The Assembly adopted a constitution based on the Parliamentary sys- tem, with representative government, the members of which are elected by popular suffrage, Aug. n, 1859. HAMILTON (Canada West), situated on Burlington Bay, near Lake Ontario, founded in 1813, was incorporated in 1833. The Great Western Railway of Canada, connecting it with Toronto, was opened Dec. 15, 1853. HAMILTONIAN SYSTEM of teaching lan- guages, first employed by James Hamilton, at New York, in 1815, was introduced into England in 1823. HAMMERSMITH (Middlesex). This village is first noticed in the early part of the reign of Henry VII. The church was founded in 1631. In 1656, Hammersmith was the scene of Miles Syndercomb's conspiracy against Cromwell. The suspension-bridge was founded by the Duke of Sussex, May 7, 1825, and opened to the public Oct. 6, 1827. The parish of Ham- mersmith was separated from Fulham in 1834. HAMPDEN CLUBS were formed throughout the country in 1816, their professed object being Parliamentaiy reform. A report of a committee of both houses, presented Feb. 9, 1817, declared these clubs to be revolutionary. HAMPDEN MEMORIAL. (See CHALGROVE.) HAMPTON COURT (Middlesex) was built by Cardinal Wolsey, and presented by him to Henry VIII. in 1526. Edward VI. was born here, Oct. 12, 1537 ; and his mother, Jane Seymour, died here Oct. 24. Charles I. was detained a prisoner from Aug. 24 to Nov. 12, 1647. The grand front of the palace was com- menced by Sir Christopher Wren in 1690, and completed in 1694. George I. fitted up the hall as a theatre in 1718. The celebrated vine was planted in 1769, and the public were per- mitted to visit the place in Nov., 1838. HAMPTON COURT CONFERENCE, be- tween the Episcopalian and the Presbyterian clergy, assembled at Hampton Court Jan. 14, 1604. James I. gave judgment Jan. 18, 1604. HAMPTON and HAMPTON ROADS (United States). This town of Virginia, settled in 1705, is situated on the estuary of the James River, here called Hampton Roads. President Lincoln and Mr. Seward had an interview with Mr. Stephens, Vice-President of the Confederate States, Judge Campbell, and Mr. Senator Hunter, on board the Federal steamer Hirer Queen, in this channel, Feb. 3, 1865. HANAPER OFFICE. An obsolete depart- ment of the Chancery Court, which derived its name from the practice of keeping writs in a hamper or basket, "in Hanaperio." The emoluments of this office were granted by Charles II. to Lord George Fitzroy and his male descendants, or, failing such issue, to the Earl of Southampton and his male descendants, or to the Earl of Euston, afterwards the Duke of Grafton, these noblemen being the king's sons by the Duchess of Cleveland. The Hanaper Office was abolished by 5 & 6 Viet. c. 103 (Aug. 10, 1842). HANAU (Germany), in Hesse-Cassel, was erected into a town in 1303, and the territory of which it is the capital was made a county in 1429. It was fortified in 1528, and received a large addition to its population in 1593, in consequence of the numerous Flemish Pro- testant refugees. The new town was founded about 1600. Hanau was besieged for nine months by the Imperialists, under Gen. Lamboi, who was compelled to retire June 13, 1636. Numerous French Protestants settled in 1685. In 1736 the county was divided be- tween Hesse-Cassel and Hesse-Darmstadt, but soon passed under the exclusive power of the former. It was erected into a principality in 1803, seized by the French in 1806, united to the duchy of Frankfort in 1809, and ultimately restored to Hesse in 1813. The battle of Hanau, between Napoleon I., with about 70,000 men, and the Austrian and Bavarian army, under Gen. Wrede, was gained by the former, Oct. 30, 1813. The loss was very severe on both sides. HANBALITES, a branch of the Sonnites (q. v.), founded by Ahmed Ibn Hanbal in the 8th century. HAND-CULVERIN. (See CTJLVERIN.) HANDEL COMMEMORATIONS or FESTI- VALS. The first musical festival in memory of this composer commenced in Westminster Abbey May 26, 1784. It lasted five days. The second day's performance was held at the Pantheon, and the receipts amounted to 11,842 guineas. Similar festivals were held on various occasions ; and another on a large scale took place in Westminster Abbey, June 24, 26, 28, and July i, 1834. A commemorative festival (rehearsals having been held June 15, 17, and 19) took place at the Crystal Palace June 20, 22, and 24, 1859. The chorus and band numbered 3,158 performers, the audience 81,260 persons, and the receipts amounted to about ^30,000. The second Handel Festival at the Crystal Palace was held June 23, 25, and 27, 1862, and the third at the same place, June 26,- 28, and 30, 1865. The rehearsal took place June 23. HANDKERCHIEFS, not known to the Greeks, were used by the Anglo-Saxons, and during the Middle Ages. Laced handkerchiefs came into fashion in the reign of Queen Elizabeth. HANEFITES, a branch of the Sonnites(?.v.), founded by Abu Hanif a in the 8th century. HANGING. This punishment is mentioned as the sentence of thieves, in a charter of the HANGO [ 474 ] HANSEATIC reign of Edgar (959 975). The pirate William Marsh, executed in 1241, was the first person who was hanged, drawn, and quartered. The term " drawn " meant that the criminal was drawn on a hurdle to the place of execution. The old custom of hanging the bodies of crimi- nals in chains was abolished by 4 & 5 Will. IV. c. 26 (July 25, 1834). HAXGO (Finland). Peter the Great gained his first naval victory over the Swedes off this village, in Finland, July 27, 1714. Here the Russians fired on an English flag of truce, killing six men, and wounding several more, June 5, 1855. 1 1. \XG-TCHEOU-FOU, or HANG-CHOW- FO( ) China). This city, described as the most splendid, literary, and religious in the Celestial empire, was, during the visit of Marco Polo (about 1278 1295), the capital of the Mongol or Yuen dynasty. It was evacuated by the Tae-pings after a short occupancy, March 31, 1864. 1 1 A XOVER (Alliances). A union, promoted by George I., Elector of Hanover and King of England, and signed at llerrenhausen, in Hanover, Sep. 3, 1725, by England, France, and Prussia, was known as the Alliance of Hanover. Holland acceded to it by a treaty signed at the Hague, Aug. 9, 1726 ; Sweden, by the treaty of Stockholm, March 26, 1727 ; and Denmark by the treaty of Copenhagen, April 18, 1727. Prussia secretly seceded and united herself with the opposite alliance of Vienna, in 1727. A second treaty, bearing the same name, was concluded between George II. and Maria Theresa, June 24, 1741. HAX'nYKR (Germany) was given to Her- mann Billing by Otho I. (the Great), 970, and passed into the possession of Henry the Black, Duke of Bavaria, in 1107. A.D. 1439. The town-hall is built. 1533. Lutheranism is adopted. 1(141. Tlic city of Hanover becomes the capital. l(v)2. Hanover is made an electorate- . 1714. The elector succeeds to the English throne as Geo, 1780. The walls of the city nre levelled. 1795. Hanover is included in the convention between France and Prussia for the neutrality of the North of Germany. 1801, April 3. It is occupied by the Prussians. 1803. The bishopric of Oenaborg is annexed. 1803. Napoleon liuonaparte sc-i/.es Hanover. 1805. France cedes it to Prussia. 1807. It is ognin seized by the French. 1810. Part of the country is annexed to Westphalia. 1813. It is restored to its" riprhtful owner. George III. 1814. Oct. 12. Hanover is erected into a kingdom. 1815. Part of Lauenlmrg is ceded to Prussia, in exchange for East Frieslaml and Harlingen. Nov. The Duke of Cambridge is appointed lieu- tenant-governor. A new constitution, is formed, on the model of the English. 1821, Oct. 8. George IV. visits Hanover. 1826. Hanover is lighted with ga>. 1833. A new constitution is adopted, which confers more influence on the people. 1837, June 20. In consequence of the law of Hanover limiting the royal succession to male descendants, Ernest, Duke of Cumberland, becomes king on the death of William IV. 1846. The great arsenal is built. 1848. The king abolishes the censorship of the press, and grants a new constitution. 1851. The new theatre at Hanover is erected. A.D. 1855, May 20. The king abolishes free institutiflns by order of the federal diet. 1857, Dec. 31. Some of the jewels brought by George II. to England, are restored to Hanover. Their value is estimated at 100,000. 1858, Dec. 13. Submarine telegraphic communication is opened with England. 1861, June 12. The Stade dues are abolished. 4863, Oct. 6. A synod is opened for the discussion of a new .nii/.ation of the. Lutheran Church ill Hanover. Dec. 14. The synod closes after the adoption of a new ecclesiastical law. 1864, Oct. 9. The king sanctions the new law. 1865, March 30. A treaty is concluded with Oldenburg. 1866, June 10. Hanover is seized by the Prussians. ELECTORS OF IIAJfOVEK. 1692. Ernest Augustus. 1693. George Louis (George I. of England). 1727. George Augustus (George II.). 1760. George William Frederick (George III.). 1814. George William Frederick (George III.). 1830. George Augustus Frederick (George I\ .). 1830. William Henry (William IV.). 1837. Ernest Augustus (Duke of Cumberland). 1851. George V. HANOVER COURT HOUSE, or PEAK'S STATION Battle .The Federals under Gen. Porter defeated the Confederates at this place in Virginia, May 27, 1862. 1 1 A X () V K It I A X SUCCESSION. Elizabeth, daughter of James I. of England, married Frederick V., Elector Palatine, Feb. 14, 1613. Her daughter Sophia was born in 1630, and married Ernest Augustus, afterwards Elector of Hanover, in 1658. By the Act of Settlement, 12 & 13 Will. III. c. 2(1701), she was declared the next heir to the English throne after the de- scendants of William III. and of Queen Anne. Sophia died May 28 (O. S.), 1714, and on the death of Anne without issue, Aug. i, 1714, her son, George Louis, Elector of Hanover, suc- ceeded to the English throne as George I. UANSKATIC LKAGUE, HANSE TOWNS, or the HANS A. This union of German seaport ti i wns was instituted about 1 140, for the protec- tion of their commei'cial interests, although the actual signing of the league did not take place till 1247. The first diet met at Llibeck in 1260. Henry III. of England conferred several immunities on this association in 1266, and in 1348 it possessed sufficient power to carry on a successful war with Denmark respecting the Sound dues. The League attained its greatest power about 1370, when it numbered 64 con- federate and 44 allied cities. In 1448 they were at war with England, but had their privileges in that country restored in 1474. They were, however, finally abolished by Queen Elizabeth in 1578. In 1601 the Dutch supplanted them in the Mediterranean, and in 1630 their commerce was seriously injured by the invasion of Germany by the Swedes under Gustavus II. (Adolphus). The maritime law of this league was not published in a complete form till 1614, when its power had already begun to decline. In 1624 it originated maritime in- surance companies, and in 1723 opened its ports to foreign commerce. The only towns still retaining the title of Hanse towns, are Bremen, Hamburg, and Liibeck. The mer- chants of the Hanse towns were called Hansards. They had four foreign factories HARAN [ 475 HARP one at London, established in 1250 ; at Bruges, in 1252 ; at Novogorod, in 1272 ; and at Bergen, in 1278. HARAN, HARRAN, or CHARRAN (Meso- potamia). Terah, the father of Abram, died at this place in Padan-Aram B.C. 1921 (Gen. xi. 31, 32), and the Father of the Faithful, in obe- dience to a divine command, migrated thence with Lot, B.C. 1920 (Gen. xii. i 5). Here Eliezer of Damascus met Rebekah, B.C. 1856 (Gen. xxiv. 10 28), at which time it was called the city of Nahor. At the commence- ment of the Christian sera it formed part of the kingdom of Edessa, and during the reigns of Caracalla (211217) and Julian (361 363) it ranked as a Roman city. It is now a small village inhabited by Arabs. HARBOURS. The improvement of har- bours, docks, and piers, is regulated by 10 Viet. c. 27 (May u, 1847), and 24 & 25 Viet. c. 47 (Aug. i, i86i\ HARFLEUR, or HAREFLEOT (France). Henry V. of England laid siege to this place in Aug., 1415, and captured it Sep. 22. The steeple of the church of Harfleur was built by him in 1416, in memory of the battle of Agincourt. The Earl of Huntingdon captured a Genoese fleet off Harfleur July 25, 1417. It was retaken by the French in 1431, was stormed by the English in 1440, and was recaptured by the French in 1450. Louis XI. placed Harfleur at the disposal of the Earl of Warwick in May, 1470, and English vessels sailing thence as- sailed the merchant shipping of the Nether- lands. The Earl of Richmond, afterwards Henry VII., sailed from Harfleur Aug. i, 1485, for the purpose of wresting the English crown from Richard III. HARLAW (Battle). Donald, Lord of the Isles, obtained some aid from Henry IV. of England, and endeavoured to make himself independent of the Scottish crown. He was defeated in a severe battle at this place, near Aberdeen, July 24, 1411, and afterwards made submission. HARLEIAN LIBRARY. This collection of MSS. and pamphlets was formed by Mr. Harley, afterwards Earl of Oxford, who died May 21, 1724. It was purchased from his trustees for ^10,000, by the government, who received authority from 26 Geo. II. c. 22 (1753), and it is now in the British Museum. The " Harleian Miscellany," a collection of the most interesting documents and tracts in the Harleian Library, first appeared in 1744. Another edition was issued in 1808. HARLEQUIN. The account given by Menage, that this term is derived from a cele- brated Italian actor, who appeared at Paris in the reign of Henry III. (1574 1589), and re- ceived the name of Harlequino, or Little Harlay, from his constant attendance at the house of M. de Harlay, is incorrect, as the word was in use before that period. Dr. Clarke, who traces its origin to classical times, says that Harlequin is Mercury. HARLEY (LORD OXFORD'S) ADMINIS- TRATION. Godolphin was dismissed Aug. 8, 1710, the treasury being put in commission, with Lord Powlett at its head ; and Harley, afterwards Earl of Oxford, was made Chancel- lor of the Exchequer, Aug. 10, 1710, and Lord High Treasurer May 29, 1711. Lord Cowper resigned the great seal Sep. 25, 1710, and it was placed in commission until Oct. 19, when Sir Simon, afterwards Lord Harcourt, was made Lord Keeper, becoming Lord Chancellor April 7, 1713. Barley's associates were Lord, afterwards Earl Dartmouth, and Mr. St. John, afterwards Viscount St. John and Bolingbroke, Secretaries of State. Earl Dartmouth, on accepting the privy seal in 1713, was replaced by Mr. Bromley. The Hon. G. Granville (after- wards Lord Lansdowne) became Secretaiy at War Sep. 28, 1710; he was succeeded, June 28, 1712, by Sir William Wyndham, Bart., who was followed by Mr. Francis Gwyn, Aug. 21, 1713. Sir William became Chancellor of the Exchequer Nov. i, 1713. Dr. Robinson, Bishop of Bristol, and afterwards of London, became Lord Privy Seal April 23, 1711. The chancel- lorship of the Exchequer was given to Hon. Mr. Benson, afterwards Lord Bingley, June 14, 1711. Oxford and Bplingbroke quarrelled, and the former was dismissed July 27, 1714. (See SHREWSBURY ADMINISTRATION.) HARMONICA. Musical glasses are men- tioned in a work published at Nuremberg in 1651. The instrument was improved by Franklin in 1760. It first became known at Paris in 1765. John Stein invented a stringed harmonica in 1788. HARMONISTS. This religious sect was formed by the brothers George and Frederick Rapp, who emigrated from Wtirtemberg to the United States in 1803, when they founded the town of Harmony, in Pennsylvania. In 1815 they built New Harmony, in Indiana, which was purchased by Robert Owen in 1824. The Harmonists removed to a new settlement, which they named Economy, in 1825. Com- munity of property and the absence of mar- riage are the distinguishing features of this sect. HARMONIUM. The principle of the free reed, or the musical vibration of tongues of metal, though known from an early period in China, was invented in Paris by Greni6 in 1810, and was described by Biot in 1817. Three free reed stops were introduced in the organ of Beauvais cathedral in 1827, and the same construction was employed by Erard in an organ erected at the Tuileries in 1829. Alexandre of Paris, who commenced business in 1829, invented a harmonium which bears his name ; and a similar instrument was patented by Debain of Paris in Aug., 1840. The improvements of Evans of Cheltenham, introduced in 1841, were brought into promi- nent notice in 1859. HARMONY HALL. (See COMMUNISTS.) HARNESS. The invention of harness has been ascribed to Erichthonius, King of Athens, B.C. 1487. In the Middle Ages white harness was much used. The Coach and Harness Makers' Company was established in 1677. HARP. Jubal is said to have been "the father of all such as handle the harp and organ," Gen. iv. 21 (B.C. 3204). The harp was common in Egypt as early as B.C. 1500, and the instrument was introduced into Ireland at an early date. The Saxons and other northern r 476 ] HARWICH barbarians possessed it when they first caine into contact with the civilized inhabitants of Europe in the sth century, and the Welsh are said to have used a harp of 26 notes in the 6th century. The pedals were invented about 1720. Erard's pedal harp was patented in 1794, and his double-action harp in 1808. HARPER'S FERRY (Virginia). This village, the seat of a large state armoury, established in 1798, was destroyed by the Federal com- missioners to prevent it from falling into the hands of the Confederate States, April 18, 1861. The town was occupied by the Con- federates May 20. It was the scene of the negro insurrection under Capt. John Brown, Oct. 17, 18159. HARPONULLY (Hindostan). The Rajah of Harponully became tributary to Hyder All in 1774, and to Tippoo in 1786. On the fall of Seringapatam, May 4, 1799, Harponully passed into the hands of the Nizam, by whom it was 1 1 to the East India Company in 1800. HARPSICHORD, supposed to have been in- vented in the isth century, was introduced into England in the i7th. HARRISBURG (Pennsylvania). The capi- tal, founded in 1733, was incorporated in 1808, and made the chief town of Pennsylvania in 1812. During the Confederate invasion of Pennsylvania, the inhabitants abandoned the town, June 16, 1863. Gen. Lee, who advanced within four miles, June 27, changed his plans and marched to < ic.tt vslnirg (>/ r 1IARRISONBURG (Battle). The Federals under Gen. Fremont were defeated by the Confederates under Gen. "Stonewall" Jackson, at this place in Virginia, Friday, June 6, 1862. (See CROSS-KEYS, Battle.) !IARRsk in existence, rneas\iring 36 feet long and 24 feet high, with a capacity of 800 hogsheadfl, or 283, 200 bottles. It has remained empty since 1 ' | f'k II) K L I J MRG LEAGUE, of the Protestant princes of Germany, was concluded in 1599. iiKlDKLBERG, or PALATINATE CM ISM, first published at Heidelberg in 1563, was accepted by the synod of Dort (q. v.}. HEILBRONN (Wiirtemberg) was founded by Charlemagne in 805, and came under the dominion of the see of Wiirzburg in 1225. It was raised to the rank of a free imperial city in 1360, and was taken by storm in the War of the Peasants, 1528. The Protestant League of Germany was formed here in 1594, and a treaty between Sweden and the Protestant states of Germany, called the Union of Heil- bronri, was concluded April 9, 1633. It was made over to the King of Wiirtemberg in 1803. HEILIGER or HEYLIGER LEE (Battle:. The Spaniards were defeated by Louis of Nassau and the Dutch patriots, called the Gueux, or Beggars, near the monastery of Heiliger Lee, or the " Holy Lion," May 23, 1568. HELDER (Holland^.- The Dutch Admiral Van Tronip was killed off the Helder Point, Aug. 9, 1653. The English, having captured the Dutch fleet, Aug. 30, 1799, took possession of Helder. They retired in Oct. of the same year. HELENA [ 481 ] HELVOETSLUYS HELENA, ST. (Atlantic). Discovered on St. Helena's Day, May 21, 1502, by Juan de Nova Castella, a Portuguese, was occupied by the Dutch some time after 1610. They removed their colony to the Cape of Good Hope in 1650. St. Helena fell into the possession of the English in 1651. The Dutch captured it in 1665 and in 1673, and on both occasions were speedily expelled. Charles II. granted it to the English East India Company in 1673. In 1815 it was made the residence of Napoleon I., who landed on the island Oct. 16, 1815, and resided there until his death, May 5, 1821. His remains were removed to France in 1840. A chaplain was appointed in 1675, and it was made a bishopric in 1859. HELENSBURG (Scotland), near Greenock, was founded by Sir J. Colquhoun in 1777, and named after his wife Helen. The railroad to Glasgow was opened in 1858. HELGA (Battle). The Swedes and Nor- wegians defeated Canute near this river, in Denmark, in 1025. HELGYN. (See ELGIN.) HELIACAL YEAR. (See CANICULAR YEAR.) HELICE (Greece). Considered the most ancient city of Achaia (q. v.), was the capital of the Achteaii League, when destroyed by an earthquake, B.C. 373. A similar catastrophe occurred on the same spot Aug. 23, 1817. HELIER'S, ST. (Jersey), was founded by the Normans in 837. The parish church was built in 1341. Fort Regent was commenced in 1550, and completed in 1806. Elizabeth Castle, erected in 1586, received great additions in 1636. The court-house was built in 1647. St. Helier's was surprised by the French, Jan. 6, 1781. The harbour pier was completed in 1819. Queen Victoria visited St. Helier's, Aug. 28, 1846, and again Aug. 13, 1859. HELIGOLAND (North Sea). This island was a dependency of the duchy of Holstein, until captured by the English, Sep. 5, 1807. It was definitively assigned to England by the treaty of Kiel, Jan. 14, 1814, and ceased to be occupied as a military post in 1821. HELIGOLAND (Sea-fight) took place off this island between a Danish squadron and the allied Austrian and Prussian fleet, May 9, 1864. A fire having broken out on board one of the Austrian frigates, the allies were com- pelled to cease the combat, and to retire to their anchorage near the island. HELIOMETER was described by Savary in 1743. Bouguer constructed one in 1748. It was improved by Dollond in 1753, and by Ramsden in 1777. HELIOPOLIS. (See BAALBEC.) HELLENISTS. Jewish colonists who settled in Egypt, after the destruction of the kingdom of Judah, about B.C. 606. Their number was increased by the Jewish colonies planted by Alexander III., B.C. 336. The term was applied to certain Jews (Acts vi. i., and ix. 29) in the early Church, who are also called Grecians. HELLESPONT. (See DARDANELLES.) HELL-FIRE CLUBS. Three secret associa- tions under this name, to which about 40 persons, of both sexes, belonged, existed in London in 1721. Their tendencies and mum- meries were believed to be similar to those of the Mohocks, forbidden, under high penalties, in 1711. They were suppressed by a royal pro- clamation, April 28, 1721. HELMETS were worn by the ancient Egyp- tians and Assyrians, and by the Greeks, Ro- mans, and Etruscans. The Britons did not use them before the Roman invasion, and they were rare among the Franks and Germans. The Anglo-Saxons wore four-cornered pyra- midal helmets of leather, and the Danes conical protections of metal, which also formed part of the armour of the Saxon nobles at Hastings. The nasal-piece was added in the loth century, and cylindrical flat-topped hel- mets were introduced in the i2th, the earliest specimen being one worn by Charles the Good of Flanders, in 1122. Fan crests became general in the i^th century; the round-topped helm came into fashion about 1270 ; and the sugar- loaf-shaped helmet about 1280. Bell-shaped and broad-brimmed helmets were sometimes worn in the i4th century, though they never became general. In the isth century helmets of cuir bouilli and wicker-work were worn by archers; and in the i6th century the close helmet, or burgonet, was introduced, and mask-visors of grotesque design were in vogue. An attempt was made during the reign of Charles II. to invent a head-covering answer- ing the double purpose of a helmet and a hat. HELMSTADT (Brunswick). The university, founded in 1576, was suppressed by Jerome Buonaparte in 1809. HELOTS. The inhabitants of the town of Helos, in Laconia, captured by the Spartans B.C. 700, were employed either as domestic slaves, cultivators of the land, or in the pub- lic works ; and, being cruelly treated, often rose in rebellion. This was the case during the great earthquake, B.C. 464, and in the Peloponnesian war, B.C. 420. The term was afterwards applied to all captives condemned to servitude. HELSINGBORG (Battle). The Swedes de- feated the Danes at this town, in Sweden, March 10, 1709. A convention between Great Britain and Sweden was concluded here Aug. HELSINGFORS (Russia). The position of this town, built by Gustavus I. in the i6th century, was changed in 1639. The Russians burned it in 1728 and in 1741. It was ceded to Russia in 1809, and they made it the capital of Finland in 1819. HELVETIAN or HELVETIC REPUBLIC. The title of the government established in Switzerland (q. v.} by its French conquerors in 1 'HE'LVETII. This Celtic tribe inhabited the country now called Switzerland, and under their leader Divico defeated L. Cassius Lon- ginus, and compelled his army to pass under the yoke, B.C. 107. Orgetorix led them into Gaul B.C. 61, and they were totally defeated and cruelly massacred by Julius Caesar on the banks of the Sa6ne, B.C. 58. HELVOETSLUYS (Holland). William, Prince of Orange, sailed from this port for England, Oct. 19, 1688. It was taken by the 1 1 HEMP [ 482 ] HENRY French in Jan., 1795, and was evacuated by them Dec. 5, 1813. HEMP. This plant has been grown in Ben- gal from the earliest ages, and was woven into cloth by the ancient inhabitants of Thrace. It was introduced into England about 1139. Its cultivation was ordered by 24 Hen. VIII. c. 4 (1532). Its growth in the North American colonies was encouraged by 3 & 4 Anne, c. 10 ( I 73)- HEMS.- (See EMESA.) HENERY ISLE, about 10 miles from Bom- bay, was seized by Sevajee in 1679. It was a rendezvous for pirates about 1790. HENGSTONE HILL, or HENGESTDOWN (Battle). Egbert defeated the Danes at this place, in Cornwall, in 835. HENNEBON (France). The succession to Britanny having, in 1341, been disputed by Charles de Blois, nephew of Philip VI., King of France, and John de Montfort, the former be- sieged l)e Montfort's wife, Jane, in the town of Hennebon, in 1342. This heroic woman, said to have had "the courage of a man and the heart of a lion," was on the point of surren- dering the town, when the English fleet, con- veying reinforcements under Sir Walter Manny, entered the harbour. HENOTICON, or EDICT OF UNION, was published by the Greek Emperor Zeno, in 482, for the purpose of reconciling the rival Churches of Alexandria and Constantinople. Felix III. condemned it in 483, and it was re- voked by Justin I. in 518. (See ACACIANS.) 'UK Nit I. (See CArif HA, HENRICAN8. Th followers of Henry, a monk and hermit, who attempted to effect a reform among the clergy in the 1 2th century. He quitted Switzerland, travelled through Bordeaux and Poitou, and arrived at Toulouse n 1147. Eugenius III. condemned his views at the Council of Rheims, March 21, 1148, and committed Henry to prison, where he died. HENRY SPRINGS (Battle). Maj. -Gen. Blunt defeated the Confederates, under Gen. Cooper, at this place, in Arkansas, July 16, 1863. HENRY THE FIRST, the youngest son of William I., bom at Selby, in Yorkshire, in 1068, was chosen king at Winchester, Aug. 3, and was crowned at Westminster, Sunday, Aug. 5, 1 100. He married Maud, daughter of Mal- colm III., King of Scotland, Nov. n, noo. She bore him a son and a daughter William, Duke of Normandy, who perished by ship- wreck, Nov. 25, 1 120, and Maud, married to Henry V., Emperor of Germany, Jan. 7, mi, and, after his death (May 22, 1125), to Geoffrey of Anjou, Aug. 26, 1127. She re- ceived homage as future queen of England, Dec. 25, 1126, and contested the crown with Stephen. Henry the First's queen, Maud, died at Westminster, May i, 1118 ; and, Feb. 2, 1 121, he married Adelais of Louvain, who sur- vived him, leaving no issue. Henry I., who died at Rouen, Sunday, Dec. i, 1135, was sur- named Beauclerc, or the Scholar. HENRY THE SECOND, the eldest son of Geoffrey of Anjou, and Maud, daughter of Henry I., born at Mans, in Maine, March, 1133, was crowned at Westminster, Dec. 19, 1154. He married Eleanor, the divorced wife of Louis VII., Whitsunday, May 18, 1152. They had five sons and three daughters William, born in 1152, and died in 1156 ; Henry, born Feb. 28, 1155, died June n, 1183 ; Matilda, born in 1156, married to Henry the Lion, of Saxony, in 1168, and died June 28, 1189; Richard (see RICHARD I.) ; Geoffrey, born Sep. 23, 1158, killed at a tournament Aug. 19, 1186 ; Eleanor, born in 1162, married to Alphonso III., of Castile, in 1170, and died Oct. 31, 1214; Joanna, born in Oct., 1165, and died in Sep., 1199 ; and John (q. v.}, afterwards king. Henry II., who died at Chinon, July 6, 1189, was sur- named Fitz-Empress. HENRY THE THIRD, eldest son of King John and Isabella, born at Winchester, Oct. i, 1207, was crowned at Gloucester, Friday, Oct. 28, 1216. He married Eleanor of Provence, Jan. 14, 1236, by whom he had six sons and three daughters. Of these, five, namely, Robert, John, William, Henry, and Catherine, died young. Edward (see EDWARD I.) was born June 18, 1239; Margaret was born in 1241, married to Alexander III. of Scotland, Dec. 26, 1251, and died in 1275 ; Beatrice was born in 1242, and died in 1275 ; and Edimmd was born in 1245, created Earl of Lancaster, and died hi 1296. Henry III. died at Westminster, Wednesday, Nov. 16, 1272, and was buried in the abbey, Nov. 20. In 1286 his widow Eleanor became a nun at Amesbury, where she died June 24, 1291. Henry III. was surnamed Windiest er from the place of his birth. HENRY THE FOURTH, the only son of John of Gaunt, born at Bolingbroke in 1366, was acknowledged king Tuesday, Sep. 30, 1399. In 1380 he married Mary de Bohun, by whom he had four sons and two daughters ; namely, Henry V. (q. v.) ; Thomas, born in 1389, created Duke of Clarence in 1412, and was killed at Bauge", March 22, 1421 ; John, born in 1390, created Duke of Bedford in 1415, and died Sep. 14, 1435 ; Humphrey, born in 1391, created Duke of Gloucester in 1414, and died in Feb., 1447 ; Blanche, born in 1392, and died May 22, 1409 ; and Philippa, born in 1393, married to Eric XIII. of Denmark, and died Jan. 5, 1430. Henry's first wife, Mary, having died in 1394, he married Joan of Navarre, widow of John IV. or V. of Britanny, April 3, 1402. The marriage was celebrated at Winchester, Feb. 26, 1403. She had no children, and survived the king, dying in 1437. Henry IV. died at Westminster, Monday, March 20, 1413. He was suruamed Bolingbroke. HENRY THE FIFTH, the eldest son of Henry IV. and his wife Mary, was born at Monmouth, Aug. 9, 1388 ; ascended the throne March 21. He was crowned at Westminster, April 9, 1413, and married Catherine of France, June 2, 1420. She bore him one child, Henry VI. (g. v.), and survived her husband, who died at Bois Vincennes, Aug. 31, 1422. He was surnamed Monmouth. HENRY THE SIXTH, the only son of Henry V. and Catherine of France, was born at Windsor, Dec. 6, 1421, proclaimed king Sep. i, 1422, and crowned at Paris Dec. 17, 1431. He married Margaret of Anjou, April 22, 1445. They had one son, Edward, bom Oct. 13, 1453, HENRY [ 483 1 HERAT and killed at Tewkesbury, Saturday, May 4 1471. Henry was deposed March 4, 1461 restored Oct. 9, 1470 ; and again deposed Apr! 14, 1471. From that time he was kept in the Tower, where he was probably put to death in June of the same year. His queen, Margaret survived him, and died in penury at Dam- pierre, Aug. 25, 1481. Henry was surnamed Windsor. HENRY THE SEVENTH, son of Edmund Tudor, Earl of Richmond, and Margaret, daughter of John Beaufort, Duke of Somerset, was born at Pembroke Castle, Jan. 21, 1456. He was proclaimed king after the victory of Bosworth Field, Aug. 22, 1485, and was crowned Oct. 30. He married Elizabeth of York, Jan. 18, 1486, thereby xmiting the houses of York and Lancaster, that had long contested the right to the crown. They had three sons and four daughters, of whom Edmund, Elizabeth, and Catherine died in infancy. Their other children were Arthur, born at Winchester, Sep. 20, 1486, married Catherine of Aragon Nov. 14, 1501, and died April 2, 1502 ; Margaret, born Nov. 29, 1489, married to James IV. of Scotland, and died in 1541 ; Henry, who became king (see HENRY VIII.) ; and Mary, born in 1498, married to Louis XII. of France Oct. 9, 1514, and died June 25, 1533. Elizabeth died Feb. n, 1503. Henry VII. died at Richmond, April 21, 1509, and was buried in the chapel at Westminster, which bears his name, May 10. HENRY THE EIGHTH, the second son of Henry VII. and Elizabeth of York, was born at Greenwich, June 28, 1491 ; succeeded to the throne April 22, 1509; and was crowned at Westminster, June 24 in the same year. He married Catherine of Aragon, his brother Arthur's widow, June 7, 1509. The marriage was pronounced null and void May 23, 1533. Henry had married Anne Boleyn in Jan., 1533, and this union was declared lawful May 28, J 533- Anne's marriage was set aside May 17, and she was executed May 19, the king marry- ing Jane Seymour May 20, 1536. Jane Seymour died Oct. 24, 1537, and Henry married Anne of Cleves Jan. 6, 1540. This marriage was pro- nounced invalid July 10 ; abrogated by Parlia- ment July 24 ; and Henry married Catherine Howard July 28, 1540. She was executed Feb. 12, 1542 ; and Henry married Catherine Parr, a widow, July 10, 1543. She survived him, dying in Sep., 1548. In addition to children who died in infancy, Henry had, by Catherine of Aragon, Mary (q. v.) ; by Anne Boleyn, Elizabeth (q. v.) ; and by Jane Seymour, Edward (see EDWAKD VI.). Henry died at Westminster, Friday, Jan. 28, 1547. HENRY THE SIXTH'S COLLEGE. (See CHRIST'S COLLEGE, Cambridge.) HEPTARCHY. This word, which signifies the government of seven rulers, is applied to the divisions of England under the Saxons. The first Saxon monarchy in England was that of Kent, founded in 455. The erection of Sussex into a kingdom in 491 established the Duarchy, which became a Triarchy on the foundation of Wessex in 5 19. The commence- ment of the states of Essex and East Angles, in 527, made it a Pentarchy, which became a Hexarchy when Ida founded Bernicia or North- umbria in 547, and a Heptarchy on the establish- ment of the British kingdom of Deira, in 559. An eighth state, Mercia, founded in 586, con- stituted the Octarchy, which continued till 670, when the union of Deira and Bernicia into the single kingdom of Northumbria restored the Heptarchy. The seven kingdoms were gra- dually united into one by Egbert and his suc- cessors. (See BRITANNIA and ENGLAND.) HERACLEA (Magna Graecia) was founded B.C. 432. The Romans were defeated near this city by Pyrrhus, B.C. 280. HERACLEA, or MINOA (Sicily). Little is known concerning the early history of this town, which was repeopled by the Dorians B.C. 510. It was an important place during the first and second Punic wars. (See ECKOMUS, Sea-fight.) HERACLEA PONTICA (Asia Minor) was founded by the Megarians, B.C. 986. The in- habitants supplied the 10,000 Greeks under Xenophon with vessels to carry them back to Cyzicus, B.C. 401. The republican government of the city was overthrown by Clearchus B.C. 380. Heraclea furnished succour to Ptolemy I., against Antigonus, B.C. 307. The Roman consul Aurelius Cotta sacked and plundered the city B.C. 74. HERACLEONITES. A Gnostic sect, the followers of Heracleon, a pupil of Valentinus, that arose in the 2nd century. HERACLID^, the descendants of Hercules, who, after his death, B.C. 1209, were expelled from the Peloponnesus, and took refuge in Attica. The return of the Heraclidse, or the Dorian Migration, B.C. 1104, forms a celebrated epoch in ancient chronology, as marking the transition from the heroic or fabulous ages to the period of authentic history. HERALDRY. Its origin has been claimed for the Egyptians, Greeks, and other ancient nations, but it is of much later date, and probably arose from the devices painted on German banners. Blazonry was introduced by the French, whether in the time of the Merovingians, who became extinct in 752, or in the gth or loth century, is uncertain. Family bearings were established among the kings of the Heptarchy. Heraldry, as a science, was not introduced into England till 1147 ; crests were borne before 1286. Heralds, as now established, were instituted by Richard III. in 1483, and were incorporated March 2, 1484. HERALDS' COLLEGE, or COLLEGE OF ARMS (London). This institution was incor- porated by letters patent of Richard III., dated March 2, 1484. Queen Mary gave Derby House for the purposes of the college, July 18, 1554. It was destroyed in the great fire of 1666, and the edifice in Doctors' Commons was erected by Sir Christopher Wren in 1683. The college consists of the three kings-at-arms, viz., Garter, Clarencieux, and Norroy; of six heralds, Lancaster, Somerset, Richmond, Windsor, York, and Chester ; and of four pursuivants, Rouge Croix, Blue Mantle, Port- cullis, and Rouge Dragon. HERAT (Afghanistan) in the time of Alex- ander III. was the capital of an extensive pro- vince. From 1150 to 1220 it was the residence of the Gourides, and was taken from the Per- 112 HERCULANEUM C 484 1 HERTFORD sians by the Affghans in 1715. It was retaken by Nadir Shah, in 1731, and recovered by the Affghans in 1749. The Persians attacked it in 1833 and in 1838, without success. It was .sur- rendered to the Persian general Sultan Murad Mirza by Issa Khan, after a long siege, Oct. 26, 1856. The Persian troops evacuated it July 27, 1857. It was seized by Dost Mohammed, Shall of Affghanistan, May 26, 1863. HERCULANEUM (Italy). The foundation of this ancient city of Campania was ascribed to Hercules. It suffered severely from fin earthquake, 63, and was entirely overwhelmed by an eruption of Mount Vesuvius, Aug. 24, 79. A second settlement, formed near the site of the buried city, met with a similar fate in 472. Even the situation of Herculaneum was for- gotten. In 1 709 some fragments of statues, &c. , were discovered in sinking a well, and in 1738 the theatre was discovered and explored by Col. Alcubier. A description of the city was published by the Academy of Naples, at the expense of the government, under the title of " Antichitil di Ercolano" (1757 92). HERDBY, or IIKRPKHY Nottinghamshire). Eleanor, wife of Edward I., died at this place, near Grantham, Nov. 28, 1290. HEREDITARY G I! AM) A LMONER. This office, before the time of Richard I!., was vested in the Beauchamp family. The Earl of Kxel ex- claimed, and, in spite of other competitors, received it at the coronation of Jann.s I., in 1603, in right of descent from Lord Latimer, on whom the lands of the Beauchamp family had devolved. II FRFFORD (Bishopric) was founded in 676. HEREFORD (Herefordshire). A cathedral, built here in 825, and rebuilt in 1030, was destroyed by Griffith, when he assailed the city, in 1055. The present edifice was commenced in 1079. Hei-ofoi-d was pillaged by the Welsh, under Griffith, Oct. 24, 1055, and was taken by King Stephen in 1141. The Parliamentary troops captured it in 1643. It was incorpo- rated. Oct. 9, 1189, and its last charter is dated June 14, 1697. The cathedral, the west tower of which fell April 17, 1786, was reopened after restoration, June 30, 1863. The statue of Sir George Cornewall Lewis was inaugurated by Lord Palmerston Sep. 8, 1864. HERETICS. St. Augustine defines heretics as those "who, when they are reproved for their unsound opinions, contumaciously resist, and, instead of correcting their pernicious and damnable doctrines, persist in the defence of them, and leave the Church and become her enemies." In. the primitive Church they were not regarded as Christians : marriages between them and the orthodox were pro- hibited in 366 by the Council of Laodicea; and the Theodosian Code (438) deprived them of the benefit of sanctuary. The principal here- tical sects will be found under their respective titles. By 25 Hen. VIII. c. 14 (1533), offences against the see of Rome do not constitute heresy. All former statutes on the subject were repealed by i Eliz. c. i (1558), which rendered it an ecclesiastical offence, only to be judged in ecclesiastical courts. The burn- ing of heretics was abolished by 29 Charles II. e. 9, s. i (1676). Persons relapsing from. Chris- tianity into a belief in more than one God, or a denial of the sacred Scriptures, were rendered liable to sundry civil disabilities, and, on persistence in the offence, to impri- sonment for three years, by 9 & 10 Will. 111. c. 32 (1698). (See FIERY CHAMBER.) HERITABLE JURISDICTIONS. A pecu- liar class of jurisdictions in Scotland, abolished at a cost of .152,037 i 2 s. 2(1., by 20 Geo. II. c. 43 (1748). HERMANDAD. (See HOLY BROTHERHOOD.) HERMANNSTADT [Transylvania), foimded by the Saxons in 1160, was the scene of an Austrian defeat by the Hungarians, Jan. 21, 1849. The Russians occupied it July 21, 1849, were drivenout Aug. 5, and regained possession, having defeated the Hungarians with much slaughter, Aug. 6. IIERODIANS, mentioned by Matthew (xxii. 1 6) and Mark (iii. 6, xii. 13), are believed to have been the adherents of Herod the Great, ap- pointed governor of Galilee by Antipater B.C. 47. After he had obtained the throne, B.C. 40, he gained numerous partisans among the Jews, and they were probably formed into a sect at his death, B.C. 4 (March 13). Dr. Martin Luther translated the word 'HptaSiavoi into " Diener des Herodes," servants of Herod. They were a political party rather than a religious sect. 1 1 K I ! I ! I', X H A U s I :N (Treaty). (See HANOVER, Alliances.) 1 1 K HI ! ill! A (Battle). The Carlists defeated Queen Isabella's troops near this place, in Ara- gon, Aug. 24, i8-)7. HERRING FISHERY. The Scotch were extensively engaged in this fishery in the gth century, and the Dutch first practised it in 1164. By the Statute of Herrings, Kdw. III. st. 2 (1357), the sale of the fish at sea was pro- hibited, and the trade was placed under the control of the chancellor and treasurer. This statute mentions Yarmouth as the great seat of the herring fishery. The method of curing the fish with salt was invented by Beukels, a Dutchman, who died in 1397. The Society of the Free British Fishery was incorporated in 1749 for the regulation of the hen-ing fisheries, and a similar company was formed in 1786 ; but neither met with much success, in spite of the extravagant bounties granted for their en- couragement. By 48 Geo. III. c. no (June 25, 1808), commissioners were appointed, whose business was to superintend the cleansing, packing, > tinted. I IK; II AND LOW CHURCH. The terms were first applied to parties who struggled for supremacy in the Church, from the reign of William III. to the suspension of Convocation in 1717. HIGHNESS. This title, borne by Henry VII. and Henry VIII., was relinquished towards the end of the latter' s reign for the style of "your majesty." It was conferred on the Prince of Orange by Louis XIV. in 1644. The Prince of Coiid was the first to assume the title of Serene Highness. HIGH TREASON. The highest offence known in this country, is defined and regulated by 25 Edw. III. st. 5, c. 2 (1350). By 7 range. 15-3. Siege of Alkmaar (q. t).). 1575. Th.- sovereignty is ottered to Queen Elizabeth. 1576, Nov. H. The I'aciticatiou of Ghent (q. V.). 1579, Jan. 23. The northern provinces sign the Union of rtrceht. 1580. The States abjure their allegiance to Spain. [583, Miiy 1 8. John Jaceguy fires at and wounds the Prince of Orange. 1584. July 10. Balthazar Gerard, a Burgundian, nates the Prince of Orange at Delft. Prince .Maiiri''c is appointed stadtliolder. 1585. The States coiieludo a treaty with Queen Elizabeth, Who Appoints the Earl of Leicester her governor- general in the Netlierlaii'K 1586. The States disagree with Leicester. Sep. 22. Battle of Xaitphen (17. .). i5 M 7. Leicester is recalled to England. '1594. The States Maud -pi.nMjrs to the eldest son of James VI. of Scotland, and incur the severe dis- pleasure of Queen Kli/.abeth iu consequence. 1595. The Dutch begin to trade to the East liidi.-s, and despatch expeditions in quest of a north-west passage. The Dutch East India Company is founded. 1598. Philip III. of Spain svirrenders the Spanish Nether- lands to the Archduke Albert and the Infanta Isabella. 1600. Prince Maurice in'wides Flanders. 1609, March 29. Truce of Antwerp. 1610. Ki.se of the Arminians and Gomarists (q.v.). 1614. The States promulgate the "Resolution for the Peace of the Church" of Grotius. 1618. Maurice changes the government, of the Dutch towns. Nov. 13. The Synod of Dort (q. v.). 1619, May 13. Execution of John Barneveldt, 1621. War is renewed with Spain. The Dutch West India Company is founded. 1623, F BD - 6. The sous of Barneveldt and others are de- feated in a plot to*assassinate Maurice. 1625. Death of Maurice, who is succeeded by his brother Frederick Henry. 1628. The Admiral Peter Peterson Heyn captures the Spanish silver fleet, and acquires booty to the amount of 12,000.030 florins. 1637. The " Tulipomania" originates. 1639, Oct. 2t. Van Tromp blockades the Spanish fleet in the Downs. 1641, May i. The Prince of Orange's son marries the Princess Uoyal of England. 1648, Jan. 31. The "states conclude a peace with Spain, and are recognized by the European princes as an independent republic. HOLLAND HOLLY] A.D. 1650. The dignity of the stadtholder is suspended. (See GRAND PENSIONARY.) 1653. War is declared against England, hostilities being chiefly carried on at sea. Van Tromp enters the Engli'sh Channel. 1653, Aug. 9. The Dutch fleet is defeated at the mouth of the Meuse, by Gen. Monk, and Van Tromp is mortally wounded. (See HELDER.) 1654. Peace is concluded. 1658. The .States assist the Danes against the King of Sweden. 1665. The English again declare war. 1666. Sea-fights off the North Foreland (q. v.). 1667. The " Perpetual Edict " (q. .) 1668. Jan. 23. The triple alliance (q. v.). 1670. Charles II. withdraws from the alliance, and agrees with Louis XIV. to declare war against Holland. 1672, April 7. England and France declare war, and Holland is invaded by 130,000 French, under Conde and Turenne, who seize most of the im- portant towns. Julys. The Perpetual Edict is re- voked, and William, Prince of Orange, made stadt- holder. July 24. Cornelius and John De Witt are assassinated by the mob. Aug. 23- The Dutch arrest the progress of the French by opening the sluices, and inundating the country. 1673, The French evacuate the Provinces. 1674, Feb. 19. The treaty of Westminster restores peace with England. 1676, April 29. De Ruyter is killed in a naval engagement with the French off Augusta, in Sicily. 1677, Nov. 4. The Prince of Orange marries the Princess Mary, daughter of the Duke of York. 1678, Aug. 10. The peace of Nimeguen. 1689, Feb. 13. The Prince of Orange ascends the English throne as William III. The French declare war against Holland. 1697, Se P- 2- The treaty of Ryswick (q. v.). 1701. The fortresses of the Netherlands are garrisoned by French troops. 1702, March 8. Death of the stadtholder. The office is again suspended, and the government adminis- tered by Heinsius. May 15. Holland, England, and Germany declare war against France. 1708. The Netherlands are invaded by 100,000 French, under the Dukes of Vendome and Burgundy. 1713, April II. The treaty of Utrecht. 1720, Aug. 13. Death of Heinsius. 1743. The Dutch assist Maria Theresa. 1747. The French invade Dutch Flanders. The stadt- holdership is revived, and conferred upon the Prince of Orange. 1748, Oct. 18. The peace of Aix-la-Chapelle (q. v.). 1763. A commercial panic occurs in Holland. 1780. England declares war against Holland. 1783. Peace is concluded. 1786. Disagreements arise between the stadtholder and the States. '. Civil war devastates the country. The French National Convention declares war against England and the stadtholder, and sends an army into Holland. 1794. The Duke of York arrives with an English force, for the defence of the country from the French, but withdraws without accomplishing any great results. The Dutch constitution is remodelled. 1795. The Batavian republic is organized. 1797, Oct. it. Lord Duncan defeats the Dutch at Camper- down (q. v.). Dutch fleet at the Texel surrenders to ral Mitchel. 801. The constitution is remodelled. 1805, April. France changes the form of government, and places Schimmelpenninck, as Grand Pen- sionary, at the head of affairs. 1806 June 5. Royalty is established by Napoleon I., in favour of his brother Louis. i8oq. The Walcheren expedition ( at York. 1714. Queen Anne's "Star" wins a sweepstakes of lo guineas and a plate of 40 at York. 1735, Sep. 14, Tuesday. A ladies' plate is contested by female riders at Kippon Heath, Yorkshire. 1737. John Cheny commences his Historical List of HoTM Matches, the first racing calendar. The first au- thentic notice of races at Ascot. 739. The excessive increase of race-horses, &c.,is checked by 13 Goo. II. c. 19, which prohibits races by ponies and weak horses. 753- The First and Second Spring Meetings are founded. 1763. The First and Second ( >rt,,bei- Meetings commence. 1765. The July Meeting is established. 770. The Third October or Houghton Meeting is founded. 771. The Craven Meeting is instituted. 1776. The St. Leger is founded at Doncaster. 1779, May 14. The Oaks is instituted at Epsom by the twelfth Earl of Derby. 7?o, May 4. Institution of the Derby (?. r.). 784. Prince George (afterwards George IV.) becomes an owner of race-horses. 803. Kaces are first run on the Goodwood Course. 824. The Chester Cup or Tradesmen's Plate is instituted. 838. The new rules of the Jockey Club are enacted. 837, Oct. 25. The royal atud is sold by auction at Hampton Court HORSE SHOW. An exhibition of horses, similar in character to the annual cattle show f the Smithfield Club, took place for the irst time at the Agricultural Hall, Islington, July i, 1864. A national horse show was opened in Dublin April 15, 1864. HORTENSIAN [ 495 1 HOSPITALS g legisl Rome, ative was HORTENSIAN LAW, conferrin power upon the plebeians of passed B.C. 286. HORTICULTURAL GARDENS. The gar- dens of the London Horticultural Society at Chiswick, commenced in 1822, and finished, as to the orchard and great part of the grounds, in 1824, were completed by the formation of the arboretum in 1825. The annual show, instituted in 1831 for the exhibition of fruit, was ex- tended in 1833 to flowers. The new gardens at Kensington were inaugurated by Prince Albert June 5, 1861. The Great Exhibition Memorial, consisting of a statue of Prince Albert, &c., erected in these gardens, was inaugurated by the Prince of Wales June 10, 1863. By desire of Queen Victoria the gardens were opened free on the anniversary of Prince Albert's birth, Aug. 26, 1864, and the day was appointed by the Society as an annual holiday. (See INTER- NATIONAL HORTICULTURAL EXHIBITION AND CONGRESS.) HORTICULTURAL SOCIETIES. The Hor- ticultural Society of London was founded in 1804, and incorporated by royal charter in 1809 ; the Edinburgh society was founded in 1809, and the Dublin society in 1816. The Transactions of the London Society were first published in 1812, and their gardens at Chiswick were commenced in 1822. The Royal Society of Horticulture of Paris was founded June n, 1827. HOSEA. This prophecy was written be- tween B.C. 780 and B.C. 740, or, according to other authorities, between B.C. 783 and B.C. 725, by Hosea the son of Beeri. HOSPICE. The term applied to establish- ments formed as a refuge for travellers over the mountains. The Great St. Bernard hospice was founded on the Alps by Bernard de Men- thon, a Savoyard nobleman, in 962, and the St. Gothard hospice in the i3th century. HOSPITALLERS, or ORDER OF ST. JOHN OF JERUSALEM. This celebrated military order originated in a monastery, chapel, and hospital, founded at Jerusalem by some mer- chants of Amalphi in 1048. In 1099 the hospital received increased territories from Godfrey de Bouillon, who transferred its go- vernment from the monks to his knights. In i ioo they established a house at Clerken- well, London, and in 1113 were confirmed as a spiritual order by Pope Pascal II. The Hos- pitallers greatly distinguished themselves in the crusades, especially at Jerusalem in 1152, and at Acre in 1191. In 1308 their order was united with that of St. Samson of Jerusalem. They conquered Rhodes Aug. 15, 1309, and from their settlement in that island are sometimes called the Knights of Rhodes. Their wealth was much increased in 1311 by the addition of the possessions of the sup- pressed Templars, which were granted them by the Council of Vienna. In 1321 they de- feated the Turks in a great naval battle, arid in 1341 took Smyrna. They took Alexandria in 1365, and in 1480 compelled Mohammed II. to retreat from Rhodes, which he had be- sieged with 100,000 men and 160 ships. In 1484 the possessions of the dissolved orders of the Holy Sepulchre and of St. Lazarus were bestowed upon the Hospitallers. In 1522 they were compelled to quit Rhodes by Soliman II., who besieged their garrison of 600 knights and 4,500 soldiers with a force of 140,000 men and 400 vessels, and in 1530 they were allowed to settle in Malta by the Emperor Charles V. Hence they are often spoken of as the Knights of Malta. The order was suppressed in England by 32 Hen. VIII. c. 24 (1540), and lost all its privileges in France, Sep. 19, 1792. In 1798 it was expelled from Malta by the French, and has never recovered its political importance H O S P I T A L S. Institutions similar to Chelsea Hospital, for the support of decayed soldiers, were known at Rome, where they were called Meritoria. The first hospital of celebrity was established at Caesarea by the Emperor Valens, between 370 and 380. St. Ephraim, who died in 381, or St. Fabiola, in 400, is the reputed founder of infirmaries supported by voluntary contributions. A foundling hospital was instituted at Milan in 787, and an hospital for orphans at Constanti- nople in 1090. The most important hospitals are mentioned under the places where they are situated. St. Bartholomew's, Bethlehem, St. Thomas's, Christ's Hospital, and Bridewell, are known as the five Royal Hospitals, which were united for purposes of administration in 1557, and placed under the care of the Cor- poration, but with a distinct government, by 22 Geo. III. c. 77 (1782). The following is a list of the London hospitals, with the dates of foundation : HOSPITALS. Founded A.D. 1 102. St. Bartholomew's. 1547. Bethlehem (for lunatics). 1553. St. Thomas's. 1719. Westminster. 1836. Incorporated. 1735. Guy's. 1733- St. George's. 1824. Incorporated. 1740. London. 1759. Incorporated. 1745. Middlesex. 1836. Incorporated. 1746. Small-Pox. 1747. Spanish and Portuguese Jews'. 1749. British Lying-in. 1750. City of London Lying-in. 1751. St Luke's (for lunatics). 1 75%- Queen Charlotte's Lying-in. 1757. Royal Maternal. 1765. General Lying-in. 1830. Incorporated. 1778. Charlotte St. General Lying-in. 1767. Newman Street General Lying-in. 1796. Royal Sea-Bathing Infirmary. 1803. Fever. 1804. London Ophthalmic (Moorflelds). 1804. Royal Infirmary for Diseases of the Eye. 1806. Royal Jennerian. 1809. National Vaccine. 1814. Royal Infirmary for Asthma, &c. 1816. Royal Infirmary for Children. 1816. Westminster Ophthalmic. 1818. Charing Cross. 1831. Seaman's, Dreadnought (ship for sailors). 1833. In- corporated. 1828. Royal Free (Gray's-Inn Road). 1829. Queen Adelaide and British Ladies' Institution. 1833. University College. 1835. St. Mark's. 1838. Orthopaedic. 1839. King's College. 1851. Incorporated. 1840. Metropolitan Convalescent. 1841. Consumption (Brompton). 1849. Incorporated. 1841. For diseases of the skin. 1843. Central London Ophthalmic, 1843. St. Mary's (Paddington). 1843. Women's. 1845. German (Dalston). HOST [ 496 ] HUARIXA HOSPITALS continued. Founded A.D. 184-. Siimaritan Free (for women and children). 1848. City of London (for diseases of the chest). 1849. London Homoeopathic. 1850. Hahnemann. 1850. Incurables. 1851. Cancer. 1851. For sick children. 1856. Great Northern. HOST. The date at which the custom of elevatingthe elementsof the Eucharist previous to distribution was introduced, has given rise to considerable controversy. Some authorities assert that it originated in the 4th century, some that it was unknown till the i2th, while others fix its commencement in 1201. The custom of ringing a bell during the elevation was introduced in 1228, and the miracle of the bleeding host is said to have occurred in 1290. HOT-BLAST. (See BELLOWS. HOTTENTOTS. The aborigines of the southern portions of Africa first became known to Europeans in 1493, and were very numerous when the Dutch began to form their settle- ments at the Cape. Their number has, how- ever, been much reduced by the small-pox, which committed fearful ravages in 1713, and from other causes. .Missionaries were first sent to them in 1736. (See CAFFRE WAR.) HOUNSLOW, or HOUNDSLOW (Middlesex). At this place, anciently called Hundeslawe, a priory of the order of Trinitarians, for the ivilriiiption of captives, was founded in the 13th century, the chapel of which subsequently became a chapel-of-case. In 1650 it contained only 120 houses, and in June, 1688, James II. established a camp upon the heath. The bar- racks were erected in 1793, and the parish church, occupying the site of the priory chapel, commenced in June, 1828, was completed in Dec., 1829. (See EXPLOSIONS.) HOUR. The division of the day into hours was known to the Babylonians and Egyptians, from whom it was transmitted to the Greeks and Romans. The system of L. Papirius Cursor, introduced about B.C. 293, divided the natural day and night, or the periods during which the sun was above and below the horizon, into 12 parts ; thus necessitating a continual alteration in the duration of the hour. The present system of 24 equal hours was adopted about the end of the 4th century. HOUR-GLASS. This invention is of great antiquity, and is mentioned by the Greek dra- matist, Baton, who flourished B.C. 280. It is said to have been lost on the decline of ancient civilization, and to have been restored by the monks during the Middle Ages. HOUSE OP COMMONS. The earliest instance of the assembly of knights, citizens, and burgesses as members of Parliament, occurred Jan. 20, 1265, the Parliament of 1258 having been composed exclusively of barons. They were not again summoned till the Parlia- ment of Nov. 12, 1294, and were established as a necessary part of the legislature by the declaratory statute of York, in 1322. Various statutes have been passed to regulate the amount of property necessary to enable a man to sit in the House of Commons, all of which were repealed by 21 . Dec. 39. And at Mohr. 1849, Jan. 5. The Austrians, under Prince Windischgriitz, take Pesth. Jan. 31. Battle of Hermaimstadt (q. v.). Feb. 37. Battle of Gran (17. r.). March 6. The Magyars defeat the Austrians. April 14. The Hungarian chambers assert the national inde- pendence, and proclaim Kossuth governor. April 37. Russia declares in favour of Austria. June 30. Battle of Pered (q. v.). June 28. The Emperor takes Raab from Georgey. July 3. Battle of Acz. July 11. Battle of Comoro (q.v.). July 31. The Russians take Hermaimstadt. July 31. Battle of Schassburg. Aug. 4. The Hungarians are defeated at Szegedin. Aug. 13. Georgey surrenders to the Russians at Vilagosh. Aug. 21. About 5,000 Hungarian fugitives take refuge in Turkey. Oct. I. Comoni is surrendered to the Austrians. Oct. 7. Execution of Count Bathyany. 1853, Sep. 8. The Hungarian crown and insignia are dis- covered and removed to Vienna. 1854, Jan. i. State documents, law pleadings, &c., in Hungary are ordered to be transacted in the German language. 1856, July 13. A decree of amnesty for the political offen- ders of 1848 and 1849 is published. 1857, May 4, &c. Francis Joseph I. and the Empress of Austria visit their Hungarian dominions. 1859, Sep. I. The Emperor publishes a patent regulating the interior administration of Hungary. 1860, March 31. The chambers at Augsburg reject the patent May 18. It is withdrawn. 1861, Jan. 16. The Emperor publishes an imperial mani- festo against the election of refugees, &c. Feb. 36. A new constitution for the Austrian empire is published. April 6. The Hungarian diet is opened, and demands an Hungarian ministry. HUNGERFORD [ 499 1 HUSSARS l86i, June 6. A Slavonian diet assembles at St. Martin, and decides to maintain their nationality sepa- rate from the Magyars. June 13. The case of the Emperor of Austria v. Day and Kossuth is decided in the Chancery court, in favour of the plaintiff, 100,000,000 Hungarian notes being ordered to be destroyed. July 5. The diet votes an address to the Emperor of Austria, praying him to restore the old constitution. July 33. The Emperor refuses. Aug. lo. The diet declares a rupture of the negotiations with the Emperor. Aug. 33. The Emperor, under protest, dissolves the Hungarian chambers. Sep. 30. The assembly of theComitat of Posth is prevented by an armed force. Nov. 5. Count Maurice Palffy d'Erdoed is appointed Lieutenant-General for Hungary.; 1863, July 36. Garibaldi addresses, from Palermo, an in- flammatory proclamation to the Hungarians. Aug. 33. Klapka, the leader of the Hungarian insurrection of 1848, publishes a reply from Turin, in which he declines further movement until a more propitious period. Nov. 18. The Emperor grants an amnesty to political offenders condemned by military tribunals in Hungary. 1863, No_v. 36. The existence of a general committee of independence is disclosed by a proclamation of Kossuth. 1864, Sep. 19. Count Andrassy resigns the office of mi- nister of justice, in which he is succeeded by Count Valentine de Torok. Sep. 19 and 30. The Emperor visits Comoro* 1865, June 6. The Emperor visits Pesth. June 8. The military tribunals are abolished. June 36. Count Zicliy, Aulic Chancellor, is relieved of his office. July 30. Count Palffy is removed from the go- vernorship. Dec. 6. The union of Hungary and Transylvania is affirmed by the Transvlvanian diet. Dec. 13. The Emperor visits Pesth. Dec. 14. He opens the Hungarian diet at Pesth. 1866, Jan. 9. Death of Count Emile Dessewffy, president of the Hungarian Academy. Jan. 30. The Em- peror and Empress visit Pesth. June 6. Kossuth issues inflammatory addresses to the Hungarians. June 37. In consequence of the war the diet is indefinitely prorogued. SOVEREIGNS OF HUNGARY. A.D. lin). A.D. 1000. Stephen I., the Saint. 1038. Peter. 1041. Abo. 1044. Peter 1047. Andre 1061. Bela I. 1064. Salomon. 1074. Geysa I. 1077. Ladislaus I. 1095. Coloman, the Learned. 1114. Stephen II. 1131. Bela II. 1141. Geysa II. 1161. Stephen III. 1163. Ladislaus and Stephen (usurpers). 1173. Bela III. 1196. Emeric. 1304. Ladislaus II. 1305. Andrew II. 1335. Bela IV. 1370. Stephen IV. 1373. Ladislaus III. 1390. Andrew III. 1301. Wenceslaus. 1305. Otho. 1308. Charobert, or Charles Robert, of Anjou. 1343. Louis I., the Great. 1383. Mary. 1385. Charles. 1386. Sigismund. 1437. Albert of Austria. 1439. Elizabeth. 1440. Ladislaus IV. 1444. Ladislaus V. 1458. Matthias I. (Corvinus). 1490. Ladislaus VI. 1516. Louis II. 1536. John Zapolski and - Ferdinand I. 1540. Ferdinand I. (alone). 1563. Maximilian. 1573. Rodolph. 1608. Matthias II. 1618. Ferdinand II. 1635. Ferdinand III. 1647. Ferdinand IV. 1655. Leopold. 1687. Joseph. 1713. Charles. 1741. Maria Theresa. (The succession is identical with that of the Emperors of Germany and of Austria.) HUNGERFORD (London). The first market was built on the site of Hungerford House in 1681. Another was founded June 18, 1831, and led July 2, 1833. Its demolition, for the Cross (q. v.) Railway Station, com- menced April i6th, 1862. The suspension- bridge, designed by I. K. Brunei, was opened Friday, April 18, 1845. It was removed to Clifton in 1863. (See BRISTOL.) HUNINGEN. This fortified post, at the bridge of Huningen, near Basel, in Switzer- land, was destroyed, in accordance with the provisions of the treaty of Baden, Sep. ^ (O.S.), 1714. The French restored the works in 1796. They were besieged by the Im- perialists, Jan. 25, 1796, and capitulated Feb. i. The victors entered a few days after, when they found the place a mass of ruins. The allied armies invested Huningen in Jan., 1814 ; and by the ^rd article of the treaty of Paris, concluded Nov. 20, 1815, the fortress was ordered to be demolished. It was a place of great strength, and was called the gate of Alsace. HUNS. -Historians are not agreed as to the origin of this famous barbaric tribe. Niebuhr considers them to be Mongolians ; Humboldt, Ugrians; and Zeuss, Latham, and Dr. W. Smith, Turks. They invaded China about B.C. 200; and after harassing that empire for a succession of years, were finally expelled about 93. They subsequently migrated to the plains of Tartary ; and about 100 defeated the Alani on the banks of the Tanais. They defeated the Goths on the Dniester in 376, and attained their highest glory during the reign of Attila, 433 453. They invaded the Eastern empire in 441, ravaged Gaul (where they were defeated by Aetius at Chalons) in 451, and crossed the Alps into Italy in 452. After the death of Attila their power declined. HUNTING. (See FIELD SPORTS and FOX- HUNTING.) HUNTINGDON. Edward the Elder erected a castle here in 917. A priory of Black Nuns, dedicated to St. Mary, was established in 973. St. Mary's church was rebuilt in 1620, and the county gaol was erected in 1829. HUNTLY HILL (Battle). The Earl of Huntly defeated the rebel Earl of Crawford at this battle, fought on a moor near Brechin, May 18, 1452. HUR. (See UR.) HURON (Canada West). The bishopric was founded in 1857. HURRICANES. (See CYCLONE and STORMS.) HURST CASTLE. On the rupture of the negotiations at Newport, the council of the army seized Charles I. at Carisbrook Castle, Nov. 30, 1648, and conveyed him to Hurst Castle, whence he was removed, Dec. 18, to St. James's. HUSK. (See BROOM FLOWER.) HUSSARS, light cavalry, first in use among the Magyars, in 1610, and so called because the twentieth man of all the vassals of the nobles in each province was compelled to be armed as a trooper. Tilly introduced hussars into the Austrian army; and at the battle of Leipsic, in 1631, had five regiments of them in the field. Luxemburg formed a troop in France in 1692 ; and Frederick William I. of Prussia organized two regiments in Prussia, 1730. The first hussars forming part of the English army were enrolled by William III. during the war in Flanders in 1694. The same troops were afterwards called light dragoons, and only employed temporarily, and on foreign service. K K 2 HUSSITES [ 500 ] HYDEAULIC The first British regiment of light cavalry raised for permanent service was the " King's Regiment of Hussars," now called the isth Hussars, formed by Col. G. Eliot in 1759, by order of George II. HUSSITES, the followers of John Huss, burned at Constance July 7, 1415. Upon re- ceiving the news of his death, several nobles^ and knights formed an association, Dec. 2* 1415. This party obtained the majority at the parliament of Prague, Sep. 5, 1416, and being opposed by the emperor, they took the field, and appointed Ziska their leader, March 10, 1418. Active war soon commenced, and a schism occurred in 1420. (See CALTXTINES and TABORITES.) The battle of Prague was gained by Ziska, July 14, 1420 ; and in the still more brilliant victory of Deutschbrod, Jan. 8, 1422, he almost annihilated the Emperor's ;irmy. The Hussites overran the whole of Bohemia and Moravia, and were on the point of marching upon Vienna, when the sudden death of Ziska, Oct. 12, 1424, put a stop to their plans. They gained two more battles, at Aussig, June 15, 1426, and at Mies, July 21, 1426 ; but, weakened by internal disputes, they were induced to sxie for peace. After long negotiation, the treaty of Iglau was concluded between the Emperor Sigismund and the leaders of the Hussites, July 5, 1436. Though this treaty did not put an end to the struggles of the Protestants in Bohemia, yet from this time the name of Hussites was no longer applied to them. HUSTINGS. This term was apparently ap- plied by the Anglo-Saxons to courts held within a house or building, to distinguish them from such as were held in the open air. Edward the Confessor granted such a court to the city of London in 1052. An attempt was made in 1856 to abolish it. Lincoln, Winches- ter, York, and other places, also possessed courts of hustings. HUTCHINSONIANS, the followers of John Hutchinson, who was bora in 1674, and who died Aug. 28, 1737. The sect arose in 1727. " Thoughts concerning Religion," published at Edinburgh in 1743, contains an exposition of the views of this religious sect. HUY (Belgium) was taken by the English and Dutch, Sep. 26, 1694. The Duke of Marl- borough captured it Aug. 27, 1703. The French took it early in 1705, and Maryborough recap- tured it July 12. It once more fell into the hands of the French, Aug. 20, 1746. The church of Notre Dame was commenced in 1311. (See ABBOT OF HUY.) HYACINTH. This plant, which is indi- genous to the Levant, and grows abundantly round Aleppo and Bagdad, received its name from Hyacinthus, whom, according to the legend, Apollo slew and transformed into a flower. It was first cultivated by the Dutch, probably at the commencement of the i6th century, and is mentioned in England by Gerard in 1596. Parkinson enumerates eight varieties in 1629. Double hyacinths were first grown by Peter Voerhelm at the commence- ment of the 1 8th century. HYCSOS, HYKSOS, or SHEPHERD KINGS, a tribe of Arabian or Scythian shepherds, who overran Egypt more than 2000 years B.C. Some authors deny the existence of the Hycsos ; others suppose them to repre- sent the captive Jews in Egypt (q. r. ; and various theories have been circulated on this perplexing subject. Manetho states that they reigned 511, Africanus 284, and Eusebius 103 years. Lepsius says their rule terminated B.C. 1842, and Bunsen B.C. 1639. HYDASPES (Battle). Alexander III. de- feated Porus on the banks of the river Hydas- pes, the modern Jelum, B.C. 327. HYDE PARK (London), formerly the " Mane- rium de Hyde," belonging to the monastery of St. Peter's, Westminster, in 1535, was enclosed about 1545. Cottages existed here in 1655. The custody of Hyde Park, "with all the lodges, houses, and edifices in the same," was granted in 1596 to Sir Edmund Cary, knight. The House of Commons resolved that Hyde Park should be sold, Dec. 21, 1652 ; and Sir Heneage Finch, solicitor-general, obtained a grant of part of the park in 1661. Queen Anne enclosed another portion in 1705, and Queen Caroline another in 1730. The Serpen- tine was formed 1730-33, by order of Queen Caroline. In consequence of the Gordon riots, troops were encamped here in 1780. The volun- teers formed a camp in 1799. The statue of Achilles, " inscribed by the women of England to Arthur, Duke of Wellington, and his brave companions in arms," was erected in Hyde Park June 18, 1822. The triple archway and gate at Hyde Park Corner were constructed from the designs of Burton in 1828. The bronze equestrian statue of the Duke of Wellington, by Wyatt, was erected in 1846. The Marble Arch was placed at Cumberland Gate in March, 1851. Riotous assemblies met in this park to denounce Lord Robert Grosve- nor's Sunday Trading Bill, June 24 and July i and 8, 1855. Turbulent meetings were held, in consequence of the high price of bread, Oct. 14, 21, and 28. Queen Victoria reviewed 18,000 rifle volunteers in Hyde Park, June 23, 1860. Collisions ensued between the followers of Garibaldi and the supporters of the Pope, and several persons were injured, Sep. 28 and Oct. 5, 1862. The Prince and Princess of Wales reviewed the volunteers in this park, May 28, 1864. Another review of the volunteers took place June 23, 1866. A monster reform meeting, called by the Reform League for Monday, July 23, was prohibited by the Government. The park gates having been closed, the mob de- stroyed the railings, and a collision with the police ensued. The riots continued for several days. HYDERABAD (Hindostan), the capital of Hyderadad and the Nizam's dominions, was founded by Kootab Shah, about 1585, being then called Baunuggur. It was taken and plundered in 1687 by the troops of Aurungzebe. HYDERNAGUR. (See BEDNORE.) HYDRAULIC CRANE. This machine, in- vented by Sir William Armstrong, who erected the first at Newcastle-upon-Tyne in 1846, was greatly improved in 1851 by the introduction of the "accumulator." Sir W. Armstrong described its principle and action before the British Association in 1854. HYDRAULIC or HYDROSTATIC PRESS. HYDRAULIC [ SOT ] IAMBICS The principle was suggested by Pascal (June 19, 1623 Aug. 19, 1662), but the machine itself was not invented till 1796, when Joseph Bramah patented a water-tight collar, and thus rendered it available for practical pur- poses. HYDRAULIC RAM. This machine was in- vented and patented in France by Montgolfier, ^Hl'DRO-CARBON LIGHT, obtained by im- pregnating common gas with hydro-carbon, was invented by the Rev. W. R. Bowditch, who tested it at the Westgate railway-station, Wakefield, from Aug. 15, 1863, to Jan. 4, 1864, and exhibited his process in London, Oct. 12, 1864. HYDROCHLORIC ACID GAS, discovered by Priestley in 1772, was shown by Davy in 1810 to consist of chlorine and hydrogen. HYDROGEN. The combustibility of this gas was known early in the 1 8th century, when it was often exhibited as a curiosity. Little was ascertained respecting its real nature till Henry Cavendish published an account of its most important properties in the Philoso- phical Transactions, May 12, 1766. HYDROMETER. This instrument for ascer- taining the weight of fluids was probably invented by Archimedes, who was killed B.C. 212, though it is not mentioned till the time of Hypatia, who died about 415. It was after- wards forgotten, and was not revived or re- invented till the end of the i6th century. It is also called areometer and volumometer. HYDROPARASTATES. (See ENCRATITES.) HYDROPATHY, or the Water-Cure, was in use among the Arabs, and recommended by Rhazes, in 920. The system also flourished in Italy, having been advocated by Avicenna in 1030 ; by Barzi in 1450 ; and by Cardan in 1540. From Italy it passed into Germany, where it found zealous disciples in Hildanus (1560 1600), and Von der Heyden (163043) ; and thence to England, where Floyer (1649 1734), George Cheyne in 1725, and Lucas in 1750, strongly recommended the system. At Malta Padre Bernardo, the self-styled " medicus per aquam," made a great sensation in 1724 ; and at Paris the celebrated Tissot in 1760 advocated in eloquent language the use of cold water as a universal panacea. Dr. Currie published a work on the subject in 1797, and Vincent Priessnitz, a peasant's son, established his famous cold-water cure establishment at Gra- fenberg in 1825. He began with two patients, and in 1829 his system was in full operation. HYDROSTATICS. The phenomena con- nected with water were but little studied by ancient philosophers. Archimedes announced the equal force with which each particle of a fluid mass is pressed when in equilibrio, B.C. 250, and Ctesibius about B.C. 250, and his pupil Hero of Alexandria (B.C. 150) invented the siphon force-pump and pneumatic foun- tain. Galileo (15641642), Castellio (1577 1644), Torricelli (16081647), and Pascal (1623 1662) contributed to advance the science. Hallam says the science was entirely created by Castellio and Torricelli. The motion _ of waters in rivers and canals was first studied by Guglielmini, who published his work on the subject in 1691 ; and the nature of the oscillation of waves was taught by Newton in 1714. Daniel Bernouilli's theory of the motion of fluids was published in 1738, the compressi- bility of water was first demonstrated by M 'Canton in 1762, and Coulomb published his law of resistance in 1800. Professor Airy sug- ested an improved theory of fluids in 1830. cptt Russell's experiments on the motion of ships and waves were published in 1837. HYGROMETER. Various instruments for testing the humidity of the atmosphere have been from time to time invented. The most general are the hair hygrometer of Saussure, who published an account of his instrument in 1783, and the whalebone hygrometer of M. de Luc, which was described in 1786. HYMENEAL HYMNS. (-See EPITHALAMIA.) HYMNS, or songs of praise to the Deity, were in use among the Hebrews as well as the Greeks, and are mentioned Matt. xxvi. 30, and Col. iii. 16. The " Te Deum" and "Benedic- tus" are in our liturgy both called hymns. According to some authorities, St. Hilary, Bishop of Poitiers, who died in 367, was the first who composed hymns for the church. The use of hymns was authorized by the fourth Council of Toledo, Dec. HYPERESIA. (See HYPOTHETICAL UNIVERSALISTS. (See CAMERONITES.) HYRCANIA (Asia). This ancient province was situated to the south of the Caspian Sea, and varied considerably in size and importance at different periods. Little is known respecting its history. It appears that the inhabitants were rendered subject to the Assyrians at an early date, and that a troop of 6,000 of them formed part of the army with which Darius III. resisted Alexander III. (the Great), B.C. 334. Hyrcania was occupied by the Parthians B.C. 244. Christianity was introduced during the 8th century. HYSL^E (Battle). The Argives defeated the Lacedaemonians near this town B.C. 669. The Lacedaemonians destroyed the town B.C. 417. HYTHE (Kent), one of the Cinque Ports, was, according to Leland, once " a very great towne yn lenght, and conteyned iiii paroches, that now be clene destroied." St. Bartholo- mew's Hospital was founded by Hamo, Bishop of Rochester, in 1336. The town-hall and mar- ket-place were rebuilt in 1794. The School of Musketry was established in 1854. I. IAGO. (See SANTIAGO, SPANISH TOWN, &c.) IAMBICS. Iambic verse, said to have been thus named from lambe, an attendant at the court of Metanira, wife of Celeus, King of Sparta. She is supposed to have amused the goddess Ceres, whilst on her sad pilgrimage in. search of her daughter Proserpine, with her witty stories and allusions, and her poetical talent. It is generally used in satirical compo- sitions, and often figuratively to signify satire. IAPYGIAN [ 502 ] 1CONIUM The Greek poet Archilochus, of Pares, who flourished B.C. 714 B.C. 676, was the first who wrote in iambics. Hipponax of Ephesus (B.C. 546 520) invented the Choliambus, or " Lame Iambic." lAI'TGIAN RACE. Among the earliest known inhabitants of Italy, named, according to Greek mythologists, from lapyx, who led a Cretan colony into the southern portions of the peninsula now called Apulia and Calabria. IBERIA (Asia), the modern Georgia (q. v.}, anciently formed part of the Persian empire, and passed under the power of Alexander III., B.C. 331. The Romans first came into contact with the Iberians B.C. 65, when Pompey led an army against them, and compelled them to sue for peace. Instigated by Tiberius, the inhabit- ants invaded and subdued Armenia in 35, and in 115 they made a show of submission to the Romans. Christianity was introduced during the reign of Constantine I. (323 337), and in 365 the Romans resigned the sovereignty of the country, which subsequently became a Persian province. It was erected into a bishopric about the pontificate of Gregory I. (590 604 , and annexed to the Eastern empire by Ileraclius in 623. The Greek name for Spain was also Iberia. IBRAHIMIAH. (See ABRAHAMITES.) IBKAIL.-<&e BRAII.OW, Battle.) [CANHOE. (>< BOSTON, Lincolnshire.) ICE. The manufacture of artificial ice was known to the Greeks and Unmans. The custom of cooling beverages with saltpetre was general in Italy in the i6th century. In the zyth "ice cups" were introduced into France and Spain. A new mode of producing ice by chemical means was invented by Walker in 1782. Leslie introduced the employment of sulphuric acid for the same purpose in 1810. Harrison patented an ice-making machine, in which ether and salt are used, in 1857. Tudor first established the trade in ice at Boston (U.S.) in 1806, and began to export it in 1820. It increased to such an extent that there were soon 16 companies for the exportation of the article in that town. Many of the "ice farms" of the states of New York and Massachusetts are re- puted to be as valuable as the rice-fields of Georgia. The French ice trade dates from 1859, when some Paris speculators constructed a range of ice-houses near Auteuil, in the Bois de Boulogne. ICELAND ,'North Atlantic Ocean). The dis- covery of this island is attributed to a Norwe- gian pirate, Naddod, who was cast by a tem- pest on its coast in 860. It was then called Snce-land, i. e. Snowland. Gardar circumnavi- gated it in 864, and gave it the name of Gar- darsholm. In 874 it was colonized by ar band of Norwegians under Ingolph. The Icelanders discovered Greenland in 982, and the American coast in 986. Its inhabitants were converted to Christianity towards the end of the ioth century. In 1261 it was united to Norway, and in 1380 was ceded to Denmark, to which country it still belongs. Protestantism, intro- duced in 1540, was established in 1551. The commerce of Iceland was declared free to all Danish subjects in 1787, and to foreigners in 1855. It suffered from famine in 1824-5, and from a pestilence in 1827. The mountains of Iceland were explored during the summer of 1861 by Messrs. Holland and Shepherd, mem- bers of the London Alpine Clnb. ICENL This ancient British tribe, inhabit- ing Norfolk and Suffolk, and the frontiers of Essex and Hertfordshire, led by Queen Boadicea, suffered a defeat from the Romans under Suetonius Paulinus, in 61. ICH DIEN. The motto of John of Luxem- burg, King of Bohemia, inscribed upon his helmet found upon the battle-field of Cre'cy, Aug. 26, 1346, where he fell, fighting under the French banner. The motto was adopted by Edward the Black Prince, who took the plumed helmet from the head of the Bohemian monarch. The heirs to the English crown have retained the device, as well as the plume of three ostrich feathers. Sir H. Nicolas holds a somewhat different theory on this subject. (See FEATHERS.) ICHNOLOGY, or the science of footprints, a section of Paleontology, which treats of the fossilized impressions made on mud or sand by the animals of the various geological periods, was founded in 1828 by Dr. Duncan, who dis- covered the tracks of an extinct species of tortoise, at Corncockle, Dumfriesshire. ICHTHYOLOGY. Aristotle (B.C. 384322) is the first, and indeed the only, author of antiquity, who scientifically investigated and described the structure of fishes. Modern ichthyology dates from the 1 6th century, when Bi-lnn in 1553), Rondelet (in 1554 and 1555), and Salviani from 1554 to 1558;, published works upon it. Francis Willoughby (1635 1672) and John Ray (1628 1705) distributed fishes into species defined by their natural character- istics, without reference to the name assigned to them by the Greeks and Romans ; and Peter Artedi (1705 Sep. 21, 1735) and Charles Linnaeus (May 24, 17071778) laboured wrth much success in the same work. Cuvier's " Histoire Naturelle des Poissons," containing an exhaustive history of Ichthyology, was published from 1828 to 1849. William Yarrell's "History of British Fishes" appeared in 1835-36- ICILIAN LAWS. A law proposed by the Tribune Spurius Icilius, B.C. 471, decreed sentence of death against all persons who should interrupt the Tribunes while they were speaking in the Comitia Tributa. The same name is given to the Lex de Aventino Publicando, proposed by the Tribune Lucius Icilius, B.C. 456, which regulated the owner- ship of ground used for building, /. v.); and the remaining country was reduced into a Hum ui province by L. Anicius, B.C. 168. It became an imperial province B.C. n. Dalmatia, Carniola, and some neighbouring countries, received the name of Illyrian Provinces by a decree issued by Napoleon I., Oct. 14, 1809. IL MONTK D'ASDRUBALE (Battle). (See .MKTACIIUS, Battle.) ILVA. (See ELBA.) [MAGES. From the Apostolical Constitu- tions, it appears that image-makers were re- fused the sacraments of the Holy Supper and of baptism by the primitive Church. The decoration of churches with images and pic- tures was prohibited by the Council of Elvira in 277. It was first rendered common by Pau- linus, Bishop of Nola, who flourished about 400. The worship of images and pictures was introduced some time before 692, and was ap- proved by the second Council of Nicaea in 787. By 3 & 4 Edw. VI. c. 10 (1549), all images in churches were ordered to be destroyed ; and the Puritans committed great havoc in the churches during the Civil War. (See ICONO- CLASTS and ICONOGRAPHY.) IMAGE-WORSHIP. (See ICONOCLASTS.) IMBROS (vEgpean Sea). An island, inha- bited at an early period by the Pelasgians, was annexed to the Persian empire B.C. 505, and afterwards belonged to the Athenians. Mo- hammed II. subdued it in 1457. IMMACULATE CONCEPTION. The dis- pute in the Romish Church respecting the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin Mary commenced about 1140, the Franciscans sup- IMMACULATE [ 505 1 INCHCOLM porting, and the Dominicans opposing, the dogma. In 1384 the discussion was revived at Paris by the Dominican John de Montesono, and having been continued with great bitter- ness, resulted in the exclusion of the Do- minicans from the university in 1389. It also occasioned great discussion during the pontificates of Paul V. (16051621), of Gregory XV. (16211623), and of Alexander VII.) 1655 1667). Pius IX. wrote letters on the subject, Feb. 2, 1849, and Ma y 2 > i8 s ; and ft was made an article of faith of the Romish Church by a bull promulgated Dec. 8, 1854. IMMACULATE CONCEPTION (Feast), traced in the Greek Church to the sth, and in the Latin to the 7th century, has been cele- brated annually since the i2th. It received the sanction of the Council of Basel in 1431, and was ordered to be celebrated by Sixtus IV. in 1476. The Latin Church observes the feast Dec. 8, and the Greek Dec. 9. IMMvE (Battle), fought at this village, near Antioch, June 7, 218, when Elagabalus defeated Macrinus. IMPEACHMENT is the accusation of a peer or member of Parliament of treason or other high crimes. The earliest example is the case of the Lord Chancellor Pole, Earl of Suffolk, in 1386. By 12 & 13 Will. III. c. 2, s. 3 (1700), no pardon under the Great Seal is plead- able to an impeachment by the Commons in Parliament. Persons impeached of high trea- son are allowed counsel by 20 Geo. II. c. 30 ( I 74?)- IMPERIAL CHAMBER, or COURT OF THE GERMAN EMPIRE. A supreme tri- bunal of the empire, established by Maximi- lian I., at the diet of Worms, in 1495. It was a paramount court of justice, and consisted, at its first formation, of a chief judge, who was to be chosen amongst the princes or counts, and of 1 6 assessors, partly of noble or equestrian rank, partly professors of law. They were nominated by the emperor, subject to the approbation of the diet. Hallam says, ."The functions of the Imperial Chamber were chiefly the two following. They exercised an appellant jurisdiction over causes that had been decided by the tribunals established in states of the empire. But their jurisdiction in private causes was merely appellant. The second part of the chamber's jurisdiction related to dis- putes between two states of the empire. But these two could only come before it by way of appeal." The police of the circles had to en- force the sentences pronounced by the Imperial Chamber. It lasted three centuries. IMPERIAL GUARD. The Consular Guard received this title on the accession of Napoleon I., in 1804. It originally numbered 9,775 men, but was gradually increased, till in 1814 it in- cluded 102,708 men. This guard was disbanded on the restoration of Louis XVIII. in 1815, but was again enrolled by a decree of Napoleon III., May 4, 1854. IMPRISONMENT FOR DEBT. Clergymen in the performance of their duties, and mem- bers of Parliament, are exempt from arrest for debt. (See CLERGY, and FERRARS'S ARREST.) By 12 Geo. I. c. 29 (1726), no arrest for debt could take place unless the cause of action amounted to ^10 in superior, or 408. in inferior sourts. The restriction was extended to ^10 n inferior courts by 19 Geo. III. c. 70 (1779). By 51 Geo. III. c. 124 (July 2, 1811), 15 was ,he lowest sum recoverable by imprisonment, and by 7 .) is re- captured by Sir H. Rose. July 14. Gen. Grant defeats the rebels atKotara. Sep. I. The Govern- 1864, Jan. 18. He opens the first agricultural show in India at Alipore. March 3. The Bhore Ghaut railway is opened for passengers. March 10. The provincial government of Bengal prohibits the throwing of dead bodies into the Hooghley, and the burning of the dead within a certain distance of Calcutta. July 6. The first passenger train runs from Madras to Bangalore. Oct. 5. Calcutta (q. v.) is much injured by a cyclone or hurricane. Oct. 18. Sir John Lawrence holds a durbar (q. v.) of unprecedented grandeur at Lahore. 1865, Jan. 7. Sir Robert Montgomery holds a farewell durbar at Lahore. March 23. Sir William Mans- field succeeds Sir Hugh Rose as commander-in- chief of the Indian army. March 31. Mr. Massey, the new minister of finance, arrives at Calcutta. April I. Sir Charles Trevelyan submits his budget to the viceregal council. May 8. Sir Charles Wood announces the disallowal of Sir Charles Trevelyan's budget. May 19. Sir Charles Trevelyan arrives in England. May 21. Sir Hugh Rose arrives in England. May 25. Sir J. Gas- pard le Merchant succeeds Sir Hope Grant as commander-in-chief at Madras. July I. A com- mercial crisis reaches its height at Bombay. Sep. 5. Sir Bartle Frere receives the chiefs of the Deccan at a great durbar at Poona. Nov. u. Peace is restored with Bhotan (q. v.). Dec. The cattle-plague appears in the Madras presidency. Dec. 18. The Great Indian Peninsula Railway is opened to Budmaira. 866, March 24. Mr. Massey lays his financial statement before the supreme council. LIST OF HINDOO DYNASTIES. 977. House of Ghizni. 118. House of Ghor. A.D. 206. Slave kings. 1288. House of Khilji. 1321. House of Toghlak. 1414. The Seiad supremacy. 1450. House of Lodi. 1526. House of Teimur (or Mongol dynasty). MONGOL EMPERORS OF INDIA. 526. 53 r - 54- 1545- 1553- IKS 556. (' .v 627. Baber. Humayun. Shir Shah. Selim Shah Sur. Mohammed Shah Sur Adili. Humayun (again). Akbar. Jehangir. Shah Jehan. 1658. Aurungzebe. 1707. Bahadur Shah. 1712. Jehandar Shah. 1713. Ferokhir. 1719. Mohammed Shah 1748. Ahmed Shah. 1754. Alamgir. 1756. Shah Jehan. 1761. Shah Allum. GOVERNORS-GENERAL OF INDIA. 1772, April 13. Warren Hastings. 1785, Feb. I. Sir John Macpherson. :786, Sep. 12. Marquis of Cormvallis. 793, Oct. 28. Sir John Shore. 1798, April 6. Sir Alured Clarke. 798, May 17. Marquis of Wellesley. 805, July 30. Marquis Corn wallis" (again). 805, Oct 10. Sir George Hilaro Barlow. 807, July 31. Lord Minto. 813, Oct. 4. Marquis of Hastings. 823, Jan. 13. Hon. John Adams. 823, Aug. i. Lord Amherst 828, March 13. Hon. William Butterworth Bayley. 828, July 4. Lord Bentinck. 835, March 20. Sir C. T. (afterwards Lord) Metcalfe. 836, March 4. Lord Auckland. 842, Feb. 28. Lord Ellenborough. 844, June 15. William Wilberforce Bird. 844, July 23. Sir Henry (afterwards Viscount) Har- dinge. 848, Jan. 12. Earl of Dalhousie. 855, Aug. 2. Viscount Canning. 862, Jan. Lord Elgin. 863, Dec. Sir John Lawrence. INDIA. (See STAR OF INDIA.) INDIANA (United States) separated in 1800 rom Illinois, with which, from May 7, 1800, ; formed a territorial government, and was INDIANAPOLIS INDUSTRIAL admitted into the Union as an independent state, Dec. n, 1816. INDIANAPOLIS, the capital of Indiana, was founded in 1821. INDIAN COUNCIL, for the government of India, established by 21 & 22 Viet. c. 106 (Aug. 2, 1858), to supersede the Board of Control, consists of 15 members, eight of whom are appointed by the Crown, and seven by the directors of the East India Company. They receive an annual salary of ^1,200, retain their office during good behaviour, and are not per- mitted to sit in Parliament. The first meeting of this council was held in 1858. INDIAN MUSEUM (London). In 1798 the directors of the East India Company resolved to establish a Museum in their house in Lead- cnhall Street, which was accordingly founded under the direction of Mr. (afterwards Sir Charles) Wilkins, in 1800. In 1851 it was enriched by many specimens of Indian manu- factures sent by the native princes to the Croat Exhibition. The Museum was trans- ferred to Fife House, Whitehall Yard, in 1860. INDIA-RUBBER, or CAOUTCHOUC, was first brought to Europe by M. de la Condumine in 1733. An account of the substance, as used by the natives of S. America, was presented by him to the Academy of Sciences at Paris in 1736. A further report was given in 1761, by Messrs. Horisserit and Macquer, to the French Government, and by its order Grossart made several successful experiments, the results of which were published in 1768. The first allusion to the subject in English literature is by Joseph Priestley, in a work printed in 1770, in which India-rubber is recommended as good for " wiping from paper the marks of a black-lead pencil." The substance came into more general notice some 10 years after, when it was sold in the shape of bottles, at the rate of about a guinea the ounce. Macintosh succeeded in dissolving India-rubber, and applying it to waterproof clothing. The first patent obtained by him for cloaks, called "Macintoshes," was in 1823. Barnard took out a patent for caoutchoucine in 1833. The sulphuration of caoutchouc, a valuable inven- tion, is due to Goodyear, who took out a patent for it in 1839. INDICTION. This term was originally ap- plied to a tribute of corn exacted by the Romans every 15 years ; but it was after- wards used to denote the period at which the payments were made. The institution of iii- dictions dates from the time of Constantino I., Sep. i, or, according to some authorities, Sep. 15, 312 ; but the first instance of their use is mentioned in the Theodosian code, under the reign of Constantius II., who died Nov. 3, 361. The papal court adopted computation by iii- dictions about 806, the commencement of the first indiction being referred to Jan. i, 313. INDIGO. Beckmann is strongly inclined to believe that what Dioscorides calls indicon, and Pliny and Vitruvius imlicum, is our indigo. Muratori speaks of a treaty in Latin, in 1 193, between the people of Bologna and Ferrara, in which indicum is mentioned as an article on which duty must be paid. Marco Polo found it in Asia in 1285, and gave a description of the plant and its uses after his return to Europe in 1298. An act was passed in the reign of Elizabeth, authorizing searchers to bum indigo in all dye-houses and other places where it could be discovered. This act re- mained in force till the time of Charles II. Indigo was so little known on the continent that some proprietors of mines in the llariz mountains obtained authority in 1705 to dig for the article in the hills near Halbertstadt. Its use was prohibited in Languedoc in 1598. The cultivation of indigo commenced in Caro- lina in 1747. (See ANILINE.) INDORE (Hindostan . Mulhar Rao Holkar obtained a grant of the territory of Indore in 1733. The town of Indore was founded by Alia Baee in 1767. A great battle was fought here Oct. 14, 1801, when Holkar was defeated by Scindia, a powerful Mahratta chieftain, who destroyed Indore. Murray captured the town, which had been restored, Aug. 24, 1804. By the treaty of Mundisore, Jan. 18, 1818, the British extended their protection to Holkar, the ruler of Indore. The troops mutinied here July i, 1857. INDULGENCE. According to Bingham, anciently an indulgence was no more than the power which every bishop had of moderating the canonical punishments which, in course of penance, were inflicted upon sinners, and not any pretended power of delivering souls from the pains of purgatory, by virtue of a stock of merits, or works of supererogation, of which the Pope is become the sole dispenser. Valen- tiiiian commenced the practice of granting, on Easter Sunday, a general release to all except the worst criminals, in 367. This act of grace, continued by the emperors, was in the nth century first termed an indulgence. The papal system of indulgences originated with Pope Gregory VII. in 1077, and they were granted by the Council of Clermont to the Crusaders Nov. 1828, 1095. They were sold publicly in all parts of Europe on the occasion of the jubi- lee in 1300. The doctrine of indulgences was made an article of faith by Clement VI. in 1343. Indulgences were fanned out for 15 years to John Tetzel in 1502. The Tax-book of Indulgences was published at Rome in 1514. Luther denounced the traffic Oct. 31, 1517. The Council of Trent framed a new law of indulgences, Jan. 13, 1546. INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITIONS. By 28 Viet, c. 3 (March 27, 1865), that portion of the patent laws which refuses protection to inventions exhibited before they have been patented, was modified with respect to articles displayed at working-class industrial exhibitions certified by the Board of Trade. The most important exhibitions of the kind are the following : 1864, March i. Sonth London (Lambeth Baths). Oct. 17 Nov. 7. North London (Agricultural Hall). 1865, Feb. I. South London (Lambeth Baths). Feb. London Operative Couchbuilders (Coach- makers' Hall). May i. Aug. 3. West London (Floral Hall). Aug., Sep., and Oct. Anglo-French Working Man's Exhibition (Crystal Palace). Sep. North London (Agricultural Hall). Sep. Hastings. Sep. 19. Bristol. INDUSTRIAL [ 5" INFORMERS A.D. 1865. Sep. 31. Preston. Nov. I. Clcrkenwell Juvenile Industrial Exhibition. Dec. 12,. Glasgow. 1866, March 6. City of London (Guildhall). July 34. York. INDUSTRIAL AND PROVIDENT SOCIE- TIES. By 15 & 16 Viet. c. 31 (June 30, 1852), it was declared lawful for any number of persons to establish a society for raising by voluntary subscriptions of the members funds for attaining any purpose authorized by the laws relating to friendly societies, &c. This act was amended by 17 Viet. c. 25 (June 16, 1854), and by 19 & 20 Viet. c. 40 (July 7, 1856) ; and all these statutes were repealed by 25 & 26 Viet. c. 87 (Aug. 7, 1862), by which the laws relating to Industrial and Provident Societies were consolidated and amended. (See BENEFIT SOCIETIES, CO-OPERATIVE SOCIETIES, FRIENDLY SOCIETIES, . 1605. The Canal de Briare (France) is commenced by Henry IV. 1613. The Grand Canal of Albert and Isabella, from the Lieve at Venderhout to Bruges (Belgium) is com- menced. 1633. The llasli Canal in the Punjaub (Ilindostan) is commenced. 1642. The Canal de Briare (France) between the Loire and Seine is opened. 1664. The canal between Narbonne and Cette (France) is commenced. 1665. The canal from Bruges to Ostend (Belgium) is enlarged. 1681. The Languedoc, or Canal du Midi (France), betueeii the Mediterranean and Bay of l!i>e:iy. is opened. 1682. The canal connecting Orleans with Briare is com- meiieed by Louis XIV. 1692. The Orleans Canal is opened. 1706. The Canal de Losne, branching from the Rhone ( I-' ranee), is completed. 1724. The Canal deL'Oing (France) is finished, completing the junction of the Canal de Briare and the canal of Orleans, with the Seine. 1738. The canal from the Oise to the Somme (France) ia completed. 1750. The canal from Louvain to Malines is opened. 1754. The Canal of Campos (Spain) is commenced. 1770. The Imperial Canal (Spain) is commenced, and afterwards abandoned. 1775. The Canal of Burgundy, uniting theSaone with the Seine (France), is commenced. 1784. The Canal of Kiel, uniting the Baltic with the Eyder, is opened. 1791. The Canal du Centre (France), uniting the Saone and the Loire, is opened. 1803. The Canal of Francis, between the lower plains of the Danube and Theiss, is completed. 1806. The Canal of Koderteljo (Sweden) is commenced. 1810. The first section of the Canal .St. Qnentin, joining tin 1 Somme and the Scheldt (France), is com- menced. 1811. The Richmond (America) Canal is commenced. 1819. The Canal of SCdertelge (Sweden) is completed. 1824. The Erie Canal, between Erie and New York (N. America) is completed. 1825. The Great North Holland from Amsterdam to the Holder. 1833 Dec. The Canal of Burgundy, joining the Rhone and the Seine (France). The Ohio Canal, connecting Lake Erie and the Ohio (N. America). The Miami Canal, connecting Lake Erie with Cin- cinnati (N. America). INLAND [ Si3 I INQUISITION CANALS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES Continued. A.D. 183?. The Gotha Canal (Sweden), between the Cattegat and the Baltic, is completed. 1854, April 8. The Great Ganges (Ilindostan) Canal is opened. 1859. The Suez Canal is commenced. CANALS IN GREAT BRITAIN. 1131. The Foss Dyke, from Lincoln to the Trent, is deepened by Henry I. 1613, Sep. 29. The New River (q. v.) is opened. 1735. The Topsham Canal, Exeter, is completed. 1737, April. Dee River Navigation. 1760. Sankey Brook Navigation is opened. 1761. Newry (Ireland). July. Barton Bridge, over the Irwell, the first aqueduct over an English canal, is opened. July 17. Bridgewater. 1764. Hartlepool. 1768, June 10. The Forth and Clyde Canal ia commenced. 1769, Nov. Birmingham and Wednesbury. 1770, The Monklaud Canal (Scotland) is commenced. 1774. Birmingham. Bradford. 1770. Chesterfield. 1777, May. The Grand Trunk Navigation, or the Trent and Mersey. 1778, April. Aire and Calder Navigation. 1780. Chester and Naiitwich. 1788, The Grand Canal (Ireland) is completed to the 1789, Nov. ip. Thames and Severn. 1790, July. Coventry Canal. July 12. Birmingham and Fazeley. July 28. Forth and Clyde opened. 1793. The Nutbrook. May I. The Grand Junction Canal (q. .) is commenced. 1794, Feb. Cardiff. Feb. Leicester. Basingstoke and Andover. 1796. Hereford and Gloucester. Nov. Leominster. 1797. Ulverstone. 1798. Oct. Swansea or Glamorganshire. 1799. June 8. Barnsley. June. Birmingham and Wal- sall. 1800. Leicestershire and Northamptonshire Union. May i. Peak Forest. 1802. Horncastle Navigation. Nottingham. 1803. Sep. The Caledonian Canal (q. v.) is commenced. 1804. Dearne and Dove. The Royal Military Canal is commenced. 1805. June. The Aberdeenshire Canal is opened. Ashby- de-la-Zouch. 1806. The Royal Military Canal is completed. 1808. The Grand Surrey Canal is opened. 1810, Dec. 28. Kennet and Avon. 1811. Glasgow, Paisley, and Ardrossan, as far as John- stone. 1816, Oct. Leeds and Liverpool. 1817. Tavistock. 1820, Aug. I. The Regent's Canal (q. v.) is opened. 1822, Oct. 23. The Caledonian Canal (q. v.) is opened. 1836. The Gloucester and Berkeley Canal is opened. 1833, Sep. 30. Norwich and Lowestoft Navigation. 1834, Sep. 30. Birmingham and Liverpool Junction. INLAND REVENUE. (See EXCISE.) INNISKILLEN.-(See ENNISKILLEN.) INNOCENTS' DAY, CHILDERMAS, or the Feast of the Holy Innocents (Matt. ii. 16), in- stituted at a very early age, is celebrated by the Western Church Dec. 28, and by the Eastern, or Greek, Dec. 29. INNS were established in Egypt B.C. 1707. Herodotus ascribes the introduction of inns to the Lydians. They existed among the Romans, who frequently used the chequers as a sign. The city of Herculaneum is said to have con- tained 900 public-houses. Tiberius (1437) prohibited innkeepers from selling any baker's goods, and Nero (54 68) restricted them to the sale of boiled vegetables. By 27 Edw. III. st. i, c. 3 (1353), commissioners were appointed to inquire into impositions by innkeepers, and by ii Hen. IV. c. 2 (1409), innkeepers were pro- hibited from being officers in the customs. The latter act was enforced by 20 Hen. VI. c. 5 (1442). Innholders were incorporated in 1514* (See TAVERNS.) INNS OF COURT AND CHANCERY, called hospitia or hostels, are first mentioned in the time of Edward II. (1307 27). According to Pearse (Inns of Court and Chancery, p. 51), " the inns of court are voluntary societies, for _ :s submitting to government analogous to that of other seminaries of learning." They are four in number, viz. , the Inner and Middle Temple, Lincoln's Inn and Gray's Inn, with the nine inns of Chancery ; viz., Clement's Inn, Clifford's Inn, Lion or Lyon's Inn, New Inn, Furnival's Inn, Thavies' or Taives' Inn, Sy- nond's Inn, Barnard's Inn, and Staple's Inn. New Inn is supposed to have been formed on ;he old foundation of St. George's Inn. There were other inns, such as Chester Inn, Strand or Stronde Inn, and Scrope Inn. The two Ser- "eants" Inns are so called because the judges or Serjeants resided in them. One, also named Faryndon Inn, is in Chancery Lane, and the other in Fleet Street. INNSPRUCK, or INNSBRUCK (Austria), ;he capital of the Tyrol, a very ancient city, was taken by Maurice of Saxony in 1552, and by the Bavarians in 1703. They were driven out in a few days, and the French took it in 1805, and ceded it to Bavaria. The French and Bavarians were expelled April 15, 1809. They regained possession May 19, 1809, and were expelled, after a desperate battle around the city, May 29. Innspriick once more fell into the hands of the French and Bavarians in July, 1809, but 3 rescued Aug. 12, 1809. The Emperor Leo- pold I. founded a university at Innspriick in 1672, and the palace was erected by Maria Theresa in 1770. INOCULATION for small-pox was intro- duced into England from Turkey, about 1721, by Lady Mary Wortley Montagu. It was tried as an experiment on seven condemned crimi- nals, who submitted to the operation on con- dition that their lives should be spared if they survived. The royal family were inocu- lated in 1726, and the practice was afterwards generally adopted. On the discovery of vacci- nation (q. v.} about 1796 it was abandoned, and was finally prohibited by 3 & 4 Viet. c. 29, s. 8 (July 23, 1840). (See CATTLE PLAGUE.) INQUISITION. This ecclesiastical tribunal, also called the Holy Office, dates from the mission of Pierre de Castelnau against the Albigenses in 1210. In 1215 St. Dominic was appointed the first inquisitor-general by the fourth Lateran Council, and in 1233 the Inqui- sition received a definite constitution from Pope Gregory IX. Sicily received the Inqui- sition in 1224, Aragon in 1233, Venice in 1249, France in 1255, Castile and Leon in 1290, and Poland in 1327. The modern Inquisition was formed in Castile, by a bull dated Nov. i, 1478. The tribunal was erected in Sep., 1480, and commenced its operations at Seville, under the Inquisitor-General Torquemada, Jan. 2, 1481. It was firmly established in Spain by two bulls of Sixtus IV., Aug. 2 and Oct. 17, 1483. In 1526 it was established in Portugal ; and in 1571 it was introduced into Peru and Mexico by Philip II., whose reign is known as L L INQUISITORS INTERIM the Spanish reign of terror, owing to the numerous victims sacrificed to the Inquisition during its progress. It was suppressed in France by the edict of Nantes in 1598, and was abolished in Tuscany and Naples in 1782. Napoleon I. published an edict for its suppres- sion in Spain, Dec. 4, 1808, and the Cortes also ordered its abolition, Feb. 12, 1813 ; but Fer- dinand VII. restored it July 21, 1814. The acts of the Inquisition were burned at Goa, by order of John, Regent of Portugal, May 27, 1815, and the office was finally abolished in Spain in 1820. The total number of victims of the Holy Office is quite unknown. In Spain alone it is estimated by Llorente that 32,000 persons were burned, 17,000 burned in effigy, and 291,000 condemned to other penalties. The last sufferer condemned to the flames was a woman, burned at Seville, Nov. 7, 1781, for having made a contract with the devil. This tribunal was abolished by the provisional government of Tuscany, Nov. 16, 1859. INQUISITORS OF THE PRESS were in- stituted by Pope Sixtus IV. (14711484). No work was to be printed without their permis- sion. (See BOOK CKNSOKS.) INSOLVENCY. The first act for the relief of insolvent debtors was passed by the Long Parliament. A court for their relief was tem- porarily established by 53 (Jeo. III. c. 102 July 10, 1813), which was continued by several ads till June 25, 1820. New measures for their relief by means of the court were adopted by i Geo. IV. c. 119 (July 26, 1820), and the nume- rous laws on the subject were amended and consolidated by 7 Geo. IV. c. 57 (May 26, 1826). Insolvent mayors, aldermen, or councillors of boroughs are compelled to vacate their office by 5 & 6 Will. IV. c. 76, s. 52 (Sep. 9, i8 35 \ By 5 & 6 Viet. c. 116 (Aug. 12, 1842), insolvent debtors whose liabilities were less than ^300, might obtain relief in the Bankruptcy Court. This was amended by 7 & 8 Viet. c. 96 1844). By the Bankruptcy and Insolvency Act, 24 & 25 Viet. c. 134 (Aug. 6, 1861), the business of the Insolvent Debtors' Court was transferred to the Court of Bankruptcy. INSTITUTE OF FRANCE. L'Acaddmie Francaise, founded by Richelieu in 1635, met for the first time July 10, 1637. The Academic des Inscriptions, founded in 1663, became the Academic Royale des Inscriptions et Belles- lettres, which held its first meeting July 16, 1701. The Academic Royale des Sciences, founded by Colbert in 1666, and remodelled by Bignon in 1699, was extended in 1785. The Academic de Peinture, founded by Le Brun in 1648, received a charter in 1655, and became the Academic Royale de Peinture et Sculp- ture in 1664. These were suppressed by the Convention, Aug. 8, 1793. The Directoiy es- tablished a new association, named the Institut Kii/ii'ual, by decree, Oct. 25, 1795. It held its first public session in 1796. In 1803 the consti- tution of the society was remodelled ; in 1806 the name was changed to Institute of France ; and in iSn to that of Imperial Institute. The AcatUmie des Sciences Morales et Politiques was established by a decree of Louis-Philippe, of Oct. 25, 1832. INSURANCE, or ASSURANCE. Some au- thorities are of opinion that it was introduced into Europe by the Jews in 1182 ; whilst others state that it arose in Lombardy about 1280, and was brought to London about 1350. The earliest ordinance respecting insurance is dated Barcelona, 1435. The next was pub- lished at Florence in 1523. The Emperor Charles V. of Germany issued the " Caroline code" in 1551 ; his son, Philip II., added a number of new decrees concerning insurance in 1563 and 1565. The preamble to the first English statute on this subject (43 Eliz. c. 12), passed in 1601, states that insurance had been " time out of mind an usage amongst mer- chants." Louis XIV. issued an ordinance on the subject in 1681. Dr. Barton set up the first in- surance office against fire in 1696, then called the Amicable, afterwards the lland-in-Hand. The Amicable Society General Insurance was established by charter in July, 1706 ; the Union Fire Office in 1714 ; and the Westminster Fire Office in 1717. The first companies for marine insurances, the Royal Exchange Insur- ance and the London Insurance, were estab- lished June 22, 1720. INSURRECTION. (See List in Index.) INTAGLIO. Engraving in this style, which is distinguished from Cameo 'I,M K 1 I.I, (Argyleshire). This island, one of the Hebrides, is cele- brated for the ruins of the cathedral, &c., founded by St. Columba in 565. It was sacked by the Danes in 795, in 802, and Dec. 24, 986. Many of the monks suffered martyrdom in 806 and in 825. In accordance with an act passed by the Scotch convention of estates in 1561, the ecclesiastical buildings on this island were destroyed. Shakespeare (Macbeth, ii. sc. 4^, referring to it as the ancient place of sepulture of the Scottish sovereigns, says that Duncan's body was " Carried to Colmes-kill, The sacred storehouse of his predecessors, And guardian of their bones." IONIA (Asia Minor). This country is said to have been peopled by Greek colonists about B.C. 1045. After founding Colophon, Ephesus, Miletus, and other important cities, the lonians obtained possession of Smyrna about B.C. 688, and the country soon attained a high degree of prosperity. At the commencement of the reign of Croestis, B.C. 560, it was subject to the Lydians, and it was conquered by Cyrus B.C. 557. The inhabitants made unsuccessful efforts to regain their independence, B.C. 500 and 496, and they assisted the Greeks against the Persians at the battle of Mycale, B.C. 479. The Persian yoke was at length shaken off by the victory at the Eurymedon (q. v.}, but the peace of Antalcidas again imposed it upon the lonians, B.C. 387. On the overthrow of the Persian empire by Alexander III., Ionia became subject to Macedonia, and it afterwards formed part of the Roman empire, B.C. 133. IONIAN ISLANDS (Mediterranean). Cephalonia, Cerigo, 'Corfu, Ithaca, Paxo, Santa Maura, and Zante, with their dependencies, were erected into the republic of the Seven United Islands, March 21, 1800. It was to pay a moderate tribute to the Porte, and its in- dependence was guaranteed by Turkey and Russia. By the gth article of the treaty of Amiens, March 25, 1802, Napoleon Buonaparte recognized this republic. The French captured the islands in 1807, and Russia ceded them to France by a secret article of the treaty of Tilsit, July 7, 1807. The French garrisons surrendered to an English force Oct. 3, 1809, and by a treaty between Great Britain and Russia, signed at Paris Nov. 5, 1815, they were formed into an independent state, called the United States of the Ionian Islands, or the Sep- tinsular Republic, under the protection of Eng- land. The Prince Regent, afterwards George IV., ratified their constitution July n, 1817, and it was proclaimed Dec. 28. A university for this republic was founded at Corfu in 1823. In 1848 and 1849, Lord Seaton, the Lord High Commissioner, introduced numerous changes in the constitution. In 1851 Greek became the official language of the Ionian Government. Mr. Gladstone was despatched on a commission of inquiry, and arrived at Corfu Nov. 23, 1858. The legislative assembly proposed the annex- ation of their republic to Greece, Jan. 27, 1859, and presented a petition to that effect, Jan. 30, which Mr. Gladstone rejected Feb. 5. Gen. Sir H. Storks succeeded as Lord High Com- missioner, Feb. 17, and Mr. Gladstone em- barked for England Feb. 19. The legislative assembly at Corfu petitioned the Lord High Commissioner in favour of the union of the seven isles with Greece, April 4, 1862, and 1863. A protocol, ceding them to Greece, signed May 28, 1864, was carried into effect June i, 1864, and the governor, with the last detachment of British troops, retired June 2. IONIC ORDER of architecture, distin- guished by the use of the volute, originated in Asia. Several examples have been discovered at Persepolis and Khorsabad. It ranks next to the Doric Order (q. v.), and corresponds to the Decorated Style (q. v.) of Gothic architecture. IONIC SECT. This school of philosophers was founded by Thales of Miletus, born B.C. 636. His two cardinal doctrines were that the whole world is a living being, produced from a seed, and that water is the grand origin of all things. Anaximander, Anaximenes, and Hera- clitus adopted these views. IOWA (United States). The French settled in this part of America in 1686. It was made a separate territory in June, 1838, and was admitted into the Union Aug. 4, 1846. IPATSKOT IRELAND IPATSKOI. (See COSTROMA.) IPSUS (Battle). Ptolemy (I.) Soter I., Ca sander, Lysimachus, and Seleucus Nicato having entered into a confederacy again Antigonus, Alexander the Great's genera their armies met at this village, in Phrygi; in Aug., B.C. 301. Antigonus, who was in h 8ist year, was defeated and slain. IPSWICH (Suffolk) was pillaged by th Danes in 991, and again in 1000. A hurrican destroyed many churches Jan. i, 1287. Th grammar-school was founded in 1527; th gaol was erected in 1790, and the Hall o Commerce in 1845. IRELAND. Its most ancient name is Eri or Erin, called by the Greeks lerne, and by th Saxons lerland, or Ireland. From the and t the ioth century it bore the name Scotia and the inhabitants were called Scoti or Scots The term Hibemia came into use at a late date. No authentic records of its early history exist. A.D. 2. Reign of Conary the Great 90. The Fir-Bolgs, or Belga-, inhabitants of great par of Ireland, revolt under Cairbre Cinncait, when they raise to the throne. 358. The Irish form u settlement in Argyleshire. 396. The Irish invade Britain, and pass into Gaul. St. Patrick arrives in Ireland. Death of St. Patrick. Foreign students flock to Ireland. 684. Ecgfrid, King of Northumbrin, invades Ireland. 595. The Danes invade Ireland. 844. The Danish chief Turgesius is slain, and his country. men are expelled, but soon return. 999. The Irish again defeat the Danes. 1014, April 23, Friday. Battle of Clontarf (q. .). 1103. Magnus III., King of Norway, invades Ireland, and is defeated and slain. 1154. Henry II., of England, obtains from Pope Adrian IV. a grant of Ireland. 1166. Dermot MacMurchad, King of Leinster, is expelled from his kingdom. 1168. He flees to England, and receives a promise of as- sistance from Henry II. 1169, May. The English, under Fitz-Stephen, invade Ire- land. Aug. 24. Richard Strongbow, Earl of Pembroke, lands near Waterford. 1171. Death of Dermot, who is succeeded by Strongbow. Oct. 18. Henry II. lands at Croch, near Water- ford, and receives the . submission of the native princes. H72, April 7. Henry II. returns to England. 1175. Henry II. promulgates the bull of Pope Adrian IV. 1177, May. Henry II. makes his son John Lord of Ireland. 1185, April i. Prince John arrives in Ireland, and ravages Ulster. 1310. King John invades Ireland, and introduces English laws and usages. 1254. Henry III. makes a grant of Ireland to his son Edward Prince of Wales. 1270. The natives rebel and massacre many English. 1288. The " Statute for the state of Ireland" is passed. 1295. Ireland is divided into counties. 1315, May 25. Edward Bruce, brother of Robert Bruce of Scotland, invades Ireland. (See DUKDALK.) 1329. Insurrections break out in the south of Ireland. 1361. Lionel, Duke of Clarence, arrives in Ireland as the king's deputy. 1385. Richard II. invests Robert de Vere with the sove- reignty of Ireland. 1394, Oct. 2. Richard II. lands at Waterford with a force of 4,000 cavalry and 30,000 archers. 1395, March 10. The King of Tyrone and other northern chiefs do homage to Richard II. at Drogheda. March 25. Richard II. knights many of the native noblemen at Dublin, and returns to England in the summer, leaving Roger Mortimer as viceroy. 1398, July 20. Mortimer is defeated and slain by the natives at Kealis, in Kilkenny. I 399i June i. Richard II. again lauds at Waterford. 1455- Richard Plantagenet, Duke of York, takes shelter in Ireland. 1465. The parliament of Trim orders Irishmen livingnear English settlements to adopt English costumes and surnames, and passes an act to permit any- body to kill thieves and robbers without trial unless clad in English apparel. 1472. The Brotherhood of St. George is instituted for the protection of the English in Ireland. 1486, May. A German force lands in Dublin (q. v.) to sup- port the claims of Lambert Simnel. 1404. Passing of Poyning's Act (q. v.). 1528. O'Connor takes the lord-deputy prisoner. 1534, June ii. Lord Thomas FitzGerald, Earl of Kildare rebels against Henry VIII. 1536, Feb. 3. Execution of Lord T. FitzGerald at Tyburn. 1537. Henry VIII. endeavours to force Protestantism upon the Irish. 1543. Henry VIII. assumes the title of King of Ireland former English sovereigns having governed as its 1546. Local jurisdictions are instituted, and native sheriffs appointed. 1550. The French endeavour to obtain aid from Ireland against the English. 1560. Shane O'Neill quarrels with the Earl of Sussex, the lord-lieutenant. 1567- O'Neill is murdered by the Scotch. :573- Sir Thomas Smith fails in an attempt to establish English settlers in Ulster. 579. The rebellion of FitzMaurice is suppressed, and its leaders are slain. 580. The fortress of Smerwick, garrisoned by 700 Spaniards and Italians, is taken by Lord Grey and Admiral Winter, who put the defenders to the sword. 597. Revolt of Hugh O'Neill, Earl of Tyrone. 599, Sep. The Earl of Essex concludes a truce with Tyrone, and thereby incurs the severe displeasure of Queen Elizabeth. 601. Tyrone receives assistance from Spain. 603, March 30. Tyrone tenders his submission, and re- ceives a full pardon. 605. Roman Catholic priests are expelled from Ireland. 607. Tyrone goes to Rome, where he soon afterwards dies. 608. Sir Cahir O'Doherty's insurrection is suppressed. Oil. The Ulster settlement (q. .). 641, Oct. 23. Commencement of the Ulster rebellion (q. v.). H9, Aug. 15. Cromwell lands in Ireland. Sep. 1 1. He takes Drogheda (q. v.). >5o, May 29. Cromwell leaves Ireland under the go- vernment of Ireton. 651, Oct. 29. Ireton takes Limerick (q. v.). 666, May. The garrison at Carriekfergus mutinies. 58 9 , March 12. James II. lands at Kiusale. July 28. He attaints 3,000 Protestants. 590, March 14. A French army, under Lauzun, lands King William III. lands at ly i. Battle of the Boyne (q. t:). Ireland. June Carrickfergus. July July 4. James II. embarks for France. 5gi, July 12. Battle of Aughrim (q. .). Oct. 3. The treaty of Limerick (q. v.). 04, March 4. The Popery Act against Roman Catholics is passed. II, Oct. The " houghers," under " Ever Joyce," commit devastations among the cattle of the gentry. 23- Wood receives his patent for coining halfpence. (See DKAPIEK LETTERS.) 40. Consternation is caused by the Kellymount gang of robbers. 60, Feb. 21. Thurot's Expedition (q. v.). 'i, Oct. First appearance of the Whiteboys (q. v.). 2- First appearance of the Levellers (q. v.). 1769. The Steelboys' insurrection breaks out. 1778. The Roman Catholic Relief Bill is passed. 1779. Free-trade is established in Ireland. 1782. Legislative independence is secured, and Poynings' Act (q. v.) is repealed. 1783. The order of St. Patrick (q. .) is founded. The Genevese attempt to establish a colony in Water- ford. (See GENEVA.) 1784. Restrictions are imposed on the license of the news- paper press. Rise of the Defenders and Peep-o'- Day-boys (q. v.). 1786. Rise of the Riglit-boys. 1791. The Society of the United Irishmen is founded. IRELAND IRELAND 1793, April 18. Arrest of James Xapper Tandy. 1793. Tandy escapes to America. J 7y5i ! ' e l > - 3i. The first Orange lodge is formed at Ar- magh. 1796, Dec. A French expedition, under Hoche and Wolfe Tone, anchors in Bantrv Bav. 1798. Lord Edward Fitzgerald's conspiracy. Mny II. Go- vernment offers 061,000 for his apprehension. May 19. lie is arrested at Dublin.- -May .'-,. Insurrection breaks out in Dublin and the. pro- vim-. -s. -Juiii! 4. Death of Lord Edward Fit/.- gerald in prison. June lo. Battle of Arklow (.). Sep. 16. Napper Tandy lands with a French force at Kuthmd, whence he re-embarks for .Norway. Nov. jo. Trial and capital sentence of Wolfe Tone, who commits suicide. 1799. The rebellion subsides, having cost the lives of 50,000 Irishmen and 20,000 English snldii-rs. 1800, Jan. 1 6. The Irish parliament sanctions the minis- terial scheme of a legislative union with England. July 3, The Act of Union (39 aiid 40 Geo. III. c. 67) receives the royal assent. 1801, Jan. i. The union is effected. 1803, July 23. Robert Emmett's insurrection breaks out AUK- 25. ICmmctt is anvsted. Sep. 19. lie is tried. Sep. 20. lie is executed. 1806. A fran- of rioters, known as the Threshers, do great injury to tithe corn. 1810, Aug. 8. The agitation for the licpeal of the Union ' (7. r.) commend s. IBII, Dec. z(\ Daniel O'Conuell forms the Koman Catholic Hoard. 1815. Insurrectionary movements occur in Tipperary. 1831, Aug. n to Sep. 10. G.orge IV. visits Irehm.l. In the winter outrages occur in the comities of Limerick, Mayo. Tipperary, and Cavan. 1832, Whitcboy outrages. The failure of the potato crop causes a famine. 1835, June 27. The currency is assimilated with that of Great Britain by 6 Geu. IV. . 1829, April 13. The Koman Catholic Emancipation Bill (loGeo. IV. a -) kpMMd 1833, Aug. 7. The Irish Reform Bill (3 & 3 Will IV. c. 88) is passed. 1838, July 31. The first Irish Poor Law Bill (I & 3 Viet. c. 56) is parsed. 1839, Jan. I. Murder of Lord \orbury. 1843, March 10. Monster meeting at Trim. 1*44, Jan. 15 Feb. 12. Trial of Daniel O'Connell and (.tliers at Dublin for sedition. He is found guilty ami sentenced to a year's impri.-onment and a line Of 4,000. Sep. 5. Kelea.se of O'Connell, 1845, Sep. 23. The Irish National Board of Education is estalili-.hed. The failure of the potato crop occa- sions another famine, and Government expends ,850,000 in the relief of the sutT. r. -iv. 1846, April. Food riots occur in Tipperary. April 30. Mr. Smith O'Brien is committed to the custody of the sergcant-at-arms, for a breach of parliamentary order. July 29. Smith O'Brien secedes from the Kepeal Association. 1847, Jan. and Feb. Great destitution prevails. Feb. 36. The Temporary Kelief Act is passed. March 34. A general fast is observed, in consequence of the Irish famine. Hay i> Death of Daniel O'Connell at Genoa. The Government applies 10,000,000 for the relief of the people. 1848, The French revolution creates intense excitement. Aprils. Smith O'Brien heads a deputation of Irish malcontents to Paris, where he is coolly received. - -.May 13. John Mitchell is arrested. May 26. Ho is sentenced to 14 years' transportation. July 26. The Habeas Corpus Act is suspended. July 39. Smith O'Brien's rebellion is suppressed by the police. Aug. 5. He is arrested at Thurles. Aug. 12. Arrest of Meagher and others. Oct. 9. Smith O'Brien, Meagher, and others, are found guilty and condemned to death. 1849, July 9- Smith O'Brien, Meagher, McManus, and others (sentence of death having been commuted) are transported. July 12. A fatal affray between Koman Catholics and Orangemen occurs at Dolly's Brae. July 38. The Encumbered Estates Act (q. v.) is passed. Aug. i. The Queen visits Ire- land. 1850, March 13. Party processions are prohibited b Viet. c. 2. Several landlords are murdered by discontented tenants. Aug. 33. Synod of Thurles. .. 1851, March 30. The census of Great Britain and Ireland is taken. The population of Ireland is returned at 6,5 I 5,794- April 22. TheKoinan Catholic Defence A.-sociatiou is formed in Dublin. May 5. Measures are commenced for the establishment of a Koman Catholic university. May 25. It. L. Shell die> at Florence. June 5. McManus, having escaped from transportation, arrives at San Francisco. - July 14. A monster meeting of the Irish Tenant I. (-ague is held on the battle-field of the I'.oyne. 1851, Aug. i. The Dublin and Galway Kail way is opened. 1852, Jan. i. The statutes of the synod of Thurles. pro- hibiting the Roman Catholic clergy from holding office in the Queen's colleges, are published. May 25. The escaped convict Meagher arrives at New York. June I. Ireland is connected with England by submarine telegraph. June lo. The Cork exhibition is opened. June 24. Mr. I' originates the Dublin exhibition (q. v.). July 3. The magistrates disperse a great Tenant-right meeting at Warrhigtou. July 14. Keligious riots occur at Belfast. July 33. Kiot at the Six-mile Bridge (q. v.). Sep. lo. A meeting for the estab- lishment of religious equality in Ireland is held at Dublin, by Irish members of Parliament. 1 8 53, Juno 9- The convict Mitchell escapes from Van Die- men's Land. June 38. The Income-tax is extended to Ireland by 16 & 17 Viet. c. 34. Aug. 29. Queen Victoria visits Ireland. Oct. 4. The Tenant-right League holds a conference at Dublin. Nov. 3. Extensive Inundations occur in the south of Ire- land. Extensive emigration from Ireland. 1854, Feb. 36. Smith O'Brien receives a pardon, but is not permitted to return to the United Kingdom. Bap. 15. A railway train, with a party of Orangemen travelling from Londonderry to EnnisUii. thrown off the line by obstructions placed there for the purpose. 1855, May 3. Smith O'Brieu receives a full pardon. July 7. Mutiny of the Tipperary militia. 1857, Sep. Keligious riots at Belfast (q. r.). 185^ Aug. 8. Kiots in Kilkenny, against the use of machine labour in agriculture. Sep. Inunda- tions occur in many parts of Ireland. Dec. 13. Several members of the Phoenix Clubs (q. v.) are ai rested. 1859, March 7. Baron Poerio and other Neapolitan refugees arrive in Ireland. March 39. Iteligious riots in Gahv.iy. Sep. Keligious revivals are common in the north of Ireland. 1861, April 8. The census is taken, and the population re- turned at 5,764,543 persons. Aug. 22 to 29. Queen Victoria and Prince Albert visit Ireland. 1863, April and May. Agrarian outrages in Limerick and Tipperary. ct. 6. 1863, Oct. 6. Lord Leitrim occupies an hotel at Maam in 'ii-mara with his tenants, to prevent its affording accommodation to the Lord-Lieutenant during a journey through western Ireland. For this discourtesy, his name is removed from the commission of the peace. 1864, June 18. Death of William Smith O'Brien at Bangor. Aug. 8. Serious Orange riots tuke place at lie! fast (7. .). Oct. I. Lord Carlisle resigns the lord-lieutenancy. Nov. 8. Lord Wodehouse takes the oaths as lord-lieutenant. 1865, Aug. 25. In consequence of the cattle plague (q. .), the removal of cattle from England to Ireland is prohibited by an order in council. Sep. 15. The police seize the office of the " Irish People" news- paper at Dublin. (See FENIANS.) Dec. 5. A con- ference of Irish members of Parliament is held at Dublin. 1866, Feb. 17. The Habeas Corpus Act is suspended. July 17, Lord Wodehouse (the Earl of Kimberley) leaves Dublin. July 30. The Marquis of Abercorn, the new lord-lieutenant, arrives. During the earlier periods of its subjection to English, rule, Ireland was governed by officers of various titles, and most frequently by a lord chief justice. A.D. 1185, Sep. John de Courcy, Earl of Ulster. 1253. Edward, Prince of Wales, afterwards Edward I. 1308, June 16. 1'ierce de Gaveston, Earl of Cornwall. 1329, March i. James Botiller, Earl of Ormond. 1331, June 3. Sir Anthony Lacy. IRELAND IRISH LORDS-LIEUTENANT. The following list is abridged from Thorn's "Irish Almanac and Official Directory" for 1866, p. 878 : A.D. 1360. Maurice Fitz-Thomns Fitzgerald, Earl of Kildare. 1361. Lionel, Duke of Clarence and Earl of Ulster. 1379. Edmund Mortimer, Earl of March and Ulster. 1383. Philip Courtney, Lord Birmingham. 1384. Robert de Vere, Earl of Oxford. 1394. King Richard II., in person. 1395. Roger Mortimer, Earl of March and Ulster. 1399. King Kichard II. (2nd time). 1401. Thomas, Earl of Lancaster. 1410. John, Duke of Bedford. 1413. Edward, Earl of March. 1414. Sir John Talbot. 1416. Thomas, Earl of Lancaster. 1437. Sir John De Grey. 1438. Sir John Sutton, Lord Dudley. 1433. Sir Thomas Stanley. 1438. Lionel, Lord Wells. 1440. James, Earl of Ormond. 1446. John, Earl of Shrewsbury. 1419. Richard, Duke of York. 1401. George, Duke of Clarence. 1479. Kichard, Duke of York. 1483. Prince Edward, son of Richard III. 1485. John de la Pole, Earl of Lincoln. 1490. Jasper, Duke of Bedford. 1496. Gerald, Karl of Kildare. 1501. Henry, Duke of York, afterwards Henry VIII. 1501. Gerald, Earl of Kildare (2nd time). 1520. Thomas Howard, Earl of Surrey. 1530. Henry, Duke of Richmond. 1558. Thomas, Earl of Sussex. 1598. Robert Devereux, Earl of Essex. 1599. sir Charles Blount, Lord Mountjoy. 1639. Thomas Wentworth, Earl of Strafford. 1643. James Butler, Marquis of Ormond. 1649. Oliver Cromwell. 1658. Henry Cromwell. 1660. James Butler, Duke of Ormond. 1669. John, Lord Roberts of Truro. 1670. John, Lord Berkeley. 1673- Arthur Capel, Earl of Essex. 1677. James Butler, Duke of Ormond. 1685. Henry Hyde, Earl of Clarendon. 1686. Richard Talbot, Eurl of Tyrconnell. 1693, Sep. 4. Henry Lord Sydney, afterwards Earl of Romney. 1695, May 37. Henry, Baron Capel of Tewkesbury. 1701, Sep. 18. Lawrence Hyde, Earl of Rochester. 1703, June 4. James Butler, Duke of Ormond. 1707. Thomas Herbert, Earl of Pembroke. 1709, April 31. Thomas, Earl Wharton. 1711, July 3. James, Duke of Ormond (2nd time). 1713, Oct. 37. Charles Talbot, Duke of Shrewsbury. 1717, Aug. 17. Charles Paulet, Duke of Boltou, and Mar- quis of Winchester. 1731, Aug. 38. Charles Fitz-Roy, Duke of Grafton. 1734, Aug. 33. John, Baron Carteret, afterwards Earl Granville. 1731, Sep. II. Lionel Cranfield Sackville, Duke of Dorset. 1737, Sep. 7. William Cavendish, Duke of Devonshire. 1745, Aug. 31. Philip Dormer Stanhope, Earl of Chester- 1747, Sep. 13. William Stanhope, Earl of Harrington. 1751, Sep. 19. Lionel, Duke of Dorset (2nd time). 1755, May 5. William Cavendish, Marquis of Hartington, afterwards Duke of Devonshire. 1757, Sep. 25. John Russell, Duke of Bedford. 1761, Oct. George Montagu, Earl of Halifax. 1763, Sep. 32. Hugh Percy, Earl, afterwards Duke of Northumberland. 1765, Oct. 18. Francis Seymour Conway, Earl, afterwards Marquis of Hertford. 1767, Oct. 14. George, Marquis Townshend. 1773, Nov. 30. Simon, Earl Hartcourt. 1777, Jan 35. John Hobart, Earl of Buckinghamshire. 1780, Dec. 33. Frederick Howard, Earl of Carlisle. 1783, April 14. William Henry Cavendish Bentinck, Duke of Portland. 1783, Sep. 15. George Grenville Nugent, Earl Temple, afterwards Marquis of Buckingham. 1783, June 3. Robert Henley, Earl of Northington. 1784, Feb. 34. Charles Manners, Duke of Rutland. 1787, Dec. 16. George Grenville Nugent Temple, Marquis of Buckingham (2nd time). 1790, Jan. 5. John Fane, Earl of Westmoreland. 1795, Jan. 4. William Wentworth, Earl Fitzwilliam. 1795, March 31. John Jeffreys Pratt, Earl, afterwards Marquis of Camden. 1798, June 20. Charles, Marquis Cornwallis. 1801, May 25. Philip Yorke, Earl of Hardwicke. 1806, March 18. John Russell, Duke of Bedford. 1807, April 19. Charles Lennox, Duke of Richmond/ 1813, Aug. 20. Charles, Earl Whitworth. 1817, Oct. o. Charles Chetwynd, Earl Talbot 1821, Dec. 39. Richard Colle'y, Marquis Wellesley. 1838, March i. Henry William Paget, Marquis of Anglesey. 1839, March 6. Hugh Percy, Duke of Northumberland. 1830, Dec. 33. Henry, Marquis of Anglesey (2nd time). 1833, Sep. 36. Richard, Marquis Wellesley (3nd time). 1834, Dec. 39. Thomas Hamilton, Earl of Haddington. 1835, April 23. Henry Constantine Phipps, Earl of Mul- grave, afterwards Marquis of Normanby. 1839, April 3. Hugh Fortescue, Viscount Ebrington, after- wards Baron, and subsequently Earl, Fortescue. 1841, Sep. 15. Thomas Philip, Earl De Grey. 1844, July 26. William A'Court, Baron Heytesbury. 1846, July 10. John William Ponsonby, Earl of Bess- borough. l847,May26. George William Frederick, Earl of Clarendon. 1853, Feb. 37. Archibald William Montgomerie, Earl of Eglinton and Winton. 1853, Jan. 4. Edward Granville Eliot, Earl of St Ger- mans. i g 55, Feb. 38. George William Frederick Howard, Earl of Carlisle. 1858, March 13. Archibald, Earl of Eglinton (3nd time). 1859, June 18. George, Earl of Carlisle (2nd time). 1864, Nov. i. John, Baron Wodehouse, afterwards Earl of Kimberley. 1866, July. James Hamilton, Marquis of Abercorn. IRIDIUM. This metal was discovered by Mr. S. Tennantin 1803. IRISH BISHOPRICS. Two archbishoprics were reduced to bishoprics, and several sees merged into others by 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 37 (Aug. 14, 1833), and by 4 & 5 Will. IV. c. 90 (Aug. 15, 1834). The archbishop and two bishops sit in the House of Lords, a change being made each session, that all the bishops may sit in turn. (The sees printed in italics have either been suppressed or merged in others.) ARCHBISHOPRICS. 1136. Armagh. 1153. Dublin. 1153. Cashel. 1314. Dublin and Glaiide- 1153. Tuam. lagh. BISHOPRICS. A.D. A.D. 403. Ossory. 631. Lismore. 434. Killala. 445. Armagh (made anArch- t, Leighlin, Mayo. bishopric in 1136). 448. Dublin Emly. . Raphoe. 901. Cashel. 450. Elphin. 1019. Kittaloe, 454. Ardagh. 096. Waterford. 493. Clogher. 106. Limerick. 499. Down. 136. Kilmore. 500. Ardfert and Aghadoe. 500. Connor. 158. Derry. 254. KUfenora. 501. Tuam. 363. Waterford and Lis- 510. Dromore. more. 519. Kildare. 411. Down and Connor. 520. Meath. 568. Cashel and Emly. 530. Achonry. 586. Cork and Ross. 534. Louth. 548. Clonmacnois. 600. Ferns and Leighlin. 603. Clonfert and KUmac- 558. Clonfert. 570. Ross. 598. Ferns. duagh. 633. Killala and Achonry. 663. Limerick, Ardfert and 604. Cloyne. Aghadoe. 606. Cork. 1753. Killaloe and KUfe- 613. Glendelagh. nora. 630. Kilmacduach. IRISH [ 520 ] IRON IRISH CHURCH. In 431, Pope Coeles- tine I. consecrated Palladius and sent him into Ireland as Bishop of its inhabitants, then called Scots. Patrick, son of Calpur- nius, a deacon, having been captured from his father's farm near Boulogne, and sold as a slave to Milchu, an Irish chieftain, with whom he remained for six years, on obtaining his" liberty resolved to labour for the conversion of the heathen islanders amongst whom he had sojourned in bondage. After receiving conse- cration as a bishop, he landed in Ireland in 432, or, according to Dr. Todd (St. Patrick, Apostle of Ireland, p. 392), between 440 and 460, and preached with success, founding the bishopric of Armagh (q. v.) in 445. Chronolo- gists differ respecting the date of his death, some placing it as early as 460, while Dr. Todd (p. 497) assigns it to 493. Although estab- lished according to the principles of the Cul- dees (q. v.), the Irish Church gradually sub- mitted to the see of Rome, the .supremacy of which was acknowledged by many of the clergy at a national synod held at Kells March 9, 1152. In 1291 the bishops and priests formed a con- federacy for the maintenance of their power. In 1535 George Brown became the first Pro- testant archbishop of Dublin, and in 1536 370 monasteries were suppressed. The Eng- lish Bible and liturgy were introduced in 1551, and a series of 12 articles were adopted by a synod held at Dublin in 1566. Other articles were prescribed in 1615, which gra- dually fell into disuse. The churches of Eng- land and Ireland were united by the Act of Union, 39 & 40 Geo. III. c. 67 (July 2, 1800). The Church Education Society was instituted ln iRISH INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION. (See DUBLIN.) IRON. Tubal Cain is spoken of as the " instructor of every artificer in brass or iron," B.C. 3204 (Gen. iv. 22). It was manufactured by the Egyptians about 8.0.1706, and the ore was discovered on Mount Ida, by the Dactyli, about B.C. 1406. The Romans were acquainted with iron at an early date, and derived large quantities from Elba and Spain. Its manu- facture was encouraged by them in Britain, where iron-mines were in operation B.C. 54. Bath became the great centre of the British manufacture about 120. The exportation of iron was prohibited by 28 Edw. III. c. 5 (1354), and the importation of manufactured iron goods which could be made at home was restricted by i Rich. III. c. 12 (1483). In consequence of the destruction of forests to obtain fuel for the manufacture, the erection of iron-works was restricted by 23 Eliz. c. 5 (1581). Lord Dudley obtained a patent for carrying on the manufacture with coal instead of wood in 1619 ; but was unable to bring his invention to perfection, and at his death it was forgotten. It was revived and successfully introduced at Colebrook Dale by Darby in 1713. Cort's patent for rolling iron is dated Jan. 17, 1783, and for puddling, Feb. 13, 1784. The hot-blast was discovered by Neilson in 1827. Bessemer's process for converting crude iron into manufactured iron and steel without fuel, which attracted much attention in 1856, did not fulfil the expectations of its inventor. In consequence of a strike among the operatives in N. Staffordshire, the masters closed their works March 4, 1865, and maintained a lock- out till April 10. The N. Staffordshire men returned to their work May 22. IRON CAGE. Louis XI. was betrayed to Charles the Bold of Burgundy, at Peronne, Oct. 10, 1468, by the Cardinal de la Balue, whom he had raised from a low condition, and was compelled to sign an ignominious treaty, Oct. 14. On discovering De la Balue's treachery in 1469, Louis XI. confined him for ten years in an iron cage, eight feet square, in the Chateau d'Ouzain, near Blois. This punishment was at that time common in Spain and Italy. (See 'ANGORA.) IRON CROSS. This Prussian order of knighthood was instituted by Frederick Wil- liam III., March 10, 1813. IRON CROWN OF LOMBARDY, consisting of a band of gold set with jewels, and a thin circle of iron, which was said to have been made from a nail of the Holy Cross, given by Pope Gregory I. ; was first used in the corona- tion of Agilulph, King of the Lombards, in 591, and afterwards in that of Charlemagne in 774. It was used at the coronation of 34 sovereigns. Napoleon I. was crowned with it at Milan, May 26, 1805, when he instituted the order of the Iron Crown. It ceased in 1814, but was renewed by the Emperor Francis I. of Austria, Feb. 12, 1816. IRON MASK. The man with the iron mask was a mysterious state prisoner in France, who always wore a black velvet mask, which com- pletely concealed his face. He was at first confined at Pignerol in 1679; he was removed to Exilles in 1681 ; to the island of St. Mar- guerite in 1687 ; and finally, Sep. 18, 1698, to the Bastille, where he died Nov. 19, 1703. He was everywhere attended by M. de St. Mars ; and although the slightest attempt on his part to reveal his real name would have met with instant death, he was uniformly treated with the greatest courtesy and indulgence. Various attempts have been made to ascertain the identity of the man with the iron mask. Some affirm that he was the Duke of Vermandois (.who died in camp in 1683), a natural brother of the dauphin. Voltaire published an account of him in 1751. In 1759 it was announced that he was the Duke of Beaufort ; and in 1768 St. Foix suggested that he was the Duke of Mon- mouth, who had been executed in England. He was reported to be an illegitimate son of Anne of Austria by Cardinal Mazarin or the Duke of Buckingham. He is said to have been an elder and also a twin brother of Louis XIV. The last theory on the subject appeared in 1837, and suggested that he was the states- man Foucquet, whose death was believed to have occurred just before the mysterious pri- soner arrived at Pignerol. There seems to be little doubt that the mysterious prisoner was, as announced in a letter by a Baron d'Heiss in 1770, Count Matthioli, minister of the Duke of Mantua. Having broken faith with Louis X I V. , Count Matthioli was lured to the French fron- tier, arrested May 2, 1679, and imprisoned at Pignerol. IRONMONGERS' [ 521 1 ISLINGTON IRONMONGERS' COMPANY. This, the tenth of the twelve chief companies of London, was incorporated by Edward IV. in 1463. The hall was erected from the designs of Thomas Holden in 1748. IRON SHIPS. (See SHIP-BUILDING.) IRRIGATION. Brande states, " It is as old as human civilization, and some of the first machines which we read of in history are those for raising water from the Nile for irrigating the lands on its banks." So celebrated was Egypt for its fertility, that Abraham, during a famine, went there to procure corn, B.C. 1920 (Gen. xii. 10). The Spaniards were surprised at the canals and subterraneous aqueducts on a large scale which they found in Peru when they conquered it in the ijth century. (See CANALS, INLAND NAVIGATION, .\M(, Battle). 1517. Peace is restored to Italy. 1519. Charles V. and Francis 1. wage war in Italy. 1523. The Italian league is formed against Francis I. 1525, Feb. 24. Battle of l'a\ia ('/. r.). 152% June 23. Death of Machiavelli. 1530. Charles V. completes the subjection of Italy. Feb. 22- He is crowned emperor at Bologna. 1535. Italy is again the theatre of war between France and Spain. 1544, Sep. 1 8. Treaty of Crespy (q. .). 1559, April 2. Treaty of Calean -Cambresis (q. .). 159Si April 25. Death of Torquato Tasso. 1616. The " Spanish Triumvirate " rules in Italy, Venice being in the power of Bedemar, Lombardy of Toledo, and Naples of Os.suna. 1627. The war of the Mantuan succession commences. 1631, April 6. The Treaty of Cherasco (g. v.). 1642, Jan. 8. Death of Galileo. 1701. The French commence the war of the Spanish Suc- cession in Italy. 1702. Philip V. of Spain obtains the Spanish possessions in Italy. 1706, Sep. 7. The French, being compelled to raise the siege of Turin, evacuate Lombardy and surrender Naples. 1713, April ii. The treaty of Utrecht (q.v.). 1720. The kingdom of Sardinia (q.v.) is formed. 1733. The French, Spaniards, and Sardinians are at war with the Austrians, in Italy, respecting the Polish succession. 1737. Extinction of the Medici. 1741. The Spaniards, under Montemar, invade Italy. 1748, Oct. 1 8. The treaty of Aix-la-Chapellc (q. v.). 1793, Sep. 3. Naples declares war against France. 1796, May i s- Napoleon Buonaparte invades Italy. Dec. 4. He founds the Cispadane republic. 1797, Oct. 17. The treaty of Campo-Formio (q.v.) 1798. The French again invade Italy. Feb. 23. The Pope is imprisoned. 1799. The Russians, under Suwarrow, gain many vic- tories over the French in Italy. 1800. May 31. Napoleon Buonaparte, with 36,000 men, crosses the Alps into Italy. June 14. Battle of Marengo. 1803, Jan. 35. The Cisalpine republic (g. r.) is remodelled as the Italian republic. 1805, May 26. Napoleon is crowned King of Italy at Milan. Dec. 26. The treaty of 1'resburg. 1810. Italy is ravaged by a pestilence. 1814, April 4. Dissolution of the kingdom of Italy. 1831, Feb. An insurrection breaks out in Central" Italy. 1833. The " Young Italy " party excites several iusurrec- tions. 1847, The country is much agitated. 1848, March 18. Lombardy revolts against the Austrians. March 22. Venice joins the insurrection. March 23. The King of Sardinia joins the coalition against Austria. April 22. The Tope declares war against Austria. June 29. Lombardy is an- nexed to Saidinia (g. r.). 1849, March 23. The Sardinians are defeated by the Aus- triansat the battle of Novara, and Lombardy is restored to Austria. 1859, Feb. 5. The Sardinian government borrows 50,000,000 francs to secure the country against the expected attacks of Austria. April 23. An Austrian envoy demands the disarmament of Sardinia. April 2f>. Sardinia refuses, and the Austrians cross the Tieino. April 27 Victor Kmanu.-l declares war M4, July 15. Edward John Eyre is made governor. 1865, Oct. 7. The capture of a negro, for causing a dis- turbance in Morant Bay Court House, is pre- vented by Ihe mob. Oct. 10. Paul Bogle, a negro charged with obstructing the course of justice at Morant Bay, is rescued from the police by the mob at Stony Gut Oct. n. The vestry, assembled at Morant Bay, are attacked by a body of armed men, who set fire to the Court House, and murder the Custos, Baron Ketelholdt, the Rev. V. Hers- cliell, and 16 others, besides wounding 31 persons. Oct. 13. Govenior Eyre proclaims martial law, and the rebellion is promptly suppressed. Oct 21. George William Gordon, a mulatto of property, is tried by court-martial for complicity in the disturbances and is convicted. Oct. 23. Gordon is executed. Oct. 34. Paul Bogle is captured and executed. Nov. 7. The House of Legislature is opened by Governor Eyre. Dec. II. Sir Henry Storks is appointed temporary Governor of Jamaica. 1866, Jan. 6. Sir Henry Storks lands at Kingston. Jan. 30. Mr. Russell Gurney and Mr. Maule, com- missioners for inquiring into the disturbances, arrive at Kingston. Jan. 24. A special commis- sion for the trial of rebel prisoners opens at Kingston. Jan. 2v The commissioners commence their sittings at Spanish Town. Marcli 21. The inquiry terminates, the commissioners having held 60 sittings, and examined 730 witnesses. JAMES C 528 ] JAXINA 1866, June. The report of the commission is pub- IWieil. July 16. Sir J. P. Grant is appointed governor. Aug. 12. Ex-governor Eyre lands at Southampton. Aug. 41. He is entertained at a public banquet JAMES (Epistle), generally believed to have been written by St. James the Just, son of Alphaeus and Bishop of Jerusalem, about 6r, was accepted as canonical by the Council df Carthage in 397. JAMES, CAPE. (See CAPE COD.) JAMES THE FIRST, the only child of Lord Darnley and Mary Queen of Scots, born at Edinburgh, June 19, 1566, was proclaimed King of Scotland, under the title of James VI., July 24, 1567, and King of England, March 24, 1603. He married Anne, daughter of Fre- derick II. of Denmark, in 1590, and they were both crowned at Westminster, July 25, 1603. They had three sons and two daughters ; viz., Henry, born Feb. 19, 1593, and died Nov. 6, 1612 ; Elizabeth, born Aug. 19, 1596, married to the Elector-Palatine Feb. 14, 1613, and died Feb. 13, 1662; Charles (see CHARLES I.}, and Robert and Mary, who died in infancy. The queen died March i, 1619, and James I. died at Theobalds, near Cheshunt, Sunday, March 27, 1 JAMES THE SECOND, the second son of Charles I. and Henrietta Maria, born at St. James's, Oct. 15, 1633; ascended the English throne on the death of Charles II., Feb. 6, 1685 ; and was crowned April 23. Whilst Duke of York he married, first, Anne Hyde, daughter of Lord Clarendon. She died March 31, 1671 ; and Sep. 30 (N.S.), 1673, James married Mary d'Este, who outlived him, dying May 7, 1718. His family by his first wife consisted of four sons, who died in infancy, and two daughters, Mary (see WILLIAM III. AND MARY) and Anne (q. v.). His second wife bore him five daugh- ters, who died young, and one son, James Francis Edward, or the Chevalier de St. George, known as the Pretender. James II. fled from Whitehall, Dec. n, 1688. The throne was declared vacant Jan. 28, 1689, and William III. and Mary became king and queen Feb. 13. The latest instrument of his reign entered on the patent rolls is dated Dec. 7, 1688. James II. died at St. Germain's, Sep. 6, 1701, and was buried in the Benedictine monastery at Paris. JAMES RIVER (N. America), called by the natives Powhatan, was named James River after James I., May 13, 1607. (See CHICKA- HOMINY, Battles.) JAMES, ST. (Order). The military order of St. James of Compostella, called also the order of St. James of the Sword, was founded in 1170 by Ferdinand II., King of Leon and Cas- tille, in consequence of the obstructions offered by the Moors to pilgrims journeying to the shrine of St. James at Compostella. It re- ceived the papal sanction July 5, 1175, and continued under the government of an inde- pendent grand master till 1493, when the administration was seized by Ferdinand and Isabella I., and permanently vested in the crown of Spain in 1522. The order undertook to defend the doctrine of the Immaculate Con- ception in 1652. A branch of this order, ad- mitting all the rules of the original order, ex- cepting that of chastity, was established by Denys, King of Portugal, in 1288. It was con- firmed by Pope Innocent VIII. in 1486. A similar order for ladies was founded in Spain in 1312, to afford food and shelter to pilgrims. The ladies of this order were originally at liberty to marry and quit the institution ; but in 1480 they were compelled to adopt the con- ventual laws of poverty, chastity, and obe- dience. JAMES'S (ST.) HALL (London), designed by Owen Jones, consisting of one large hall, 140 feet long, 60 feet wide, and 60 feet high, with two smaller halls, each 60 feet square and 25 feet high, was opened to the public with a concert in aid of the Middlesex Hospital, March 25, 1858. JAMES'S (ST.) PALACE (London) stands on the site of an hospital for female lepers, founded by Gislebert, Abbot of Westminster, in i ioo. Henry VIII. ordered the hospital to be pulled down and a mansion to be erected in 1530. It was finished in 1536. James I. pre- sented it to his son Henry, Prince of Wales, in 1612. Charles I. was kept a prisoner here Dec. 18-22, 1648, and Jan. 27-30, 1649. It was made a royal residence after the destruction of Whitehall Palace by fire, Jan. 4, 1698, and was partly destroyed by a conflagration, Jan. 21, 1809. JAMES'S (ST.) PARK (London) was first enclosed and drained by Henry VIII. in 1530. Rosamond's Pond was filled up in July, 1770. A great display of fireworks took place in the park Aug. i, 1814. Two pieces of cannon were placed here as trophies in 1816. Gas-lamps were first introduced into the park in 1822 ; the "Chinese Bridge " was demolished in 1827; and an iron suspension-bridge was erected in 1857- JAMES'S (ST.) THEATRE (London) was constructed by Beazley, architect, for John Braham, the celebrated English tenor (born 1777, died Feb. 15, 1856), and opened Dec. 14, 1835- ,1 A M ES TOWN, in Virginia, was founded on the James River in 1607. (See BARBADOF.S.) JANE (Queen of England). Lady Jane Grey was proclaimed queen against her will July 10, 1553, Edward VI. having bestowed the crown upon her by letters patent, June 21, 1553. Her reign commenced July 6, the day on which Edward VI. died, and she relin- quished the title July 19. She was condemned to death Nov. 13, 1553, and beheaded Feb. 12, 1554. The earliest public document of her reign that has been discovered is dated July 9, and the latest July 18, 1553. JANEIRO. (See Rio JANEIRO.) JANESVILLE (United States), founded in 1836, was made the chief town of Rock county in 1839, and incorporated in 1853. JAXINA, or JOANNINA (Albania), sup- posed to occupy the site of the ancient Do- dona (q. v.), was taken by the Normans in 1082, and by the Turks in 1431. The Albanians rebelled in 1611. Ali Pasha, the Lion of Janina, made it his capital, and, on being pressed by the Turks, ordered it to be set on fire, when it was almost entirely destroyed. Ali himself, who had retired to the citadel, surrendered on JANISSARIES [ 529 JAPAN a promise of pardon, in Jan., 1822. An in- timation having been given to him that the Sultan intended to put him to death, a des- perate contest ensued, in which Ali was slain, JANISSARIES, or JANIZARIES, Turkish infantry, literally "new troops," organized by Sultan Orchan in 1329, remodelled by Amu- rath I., 1360, and increased to the number of 100,000 in the i7th century. The corps was at first composed of 1,000 Christian children taken from their parents, compelled to embrace the faith of Mohammed, and trained as soldiers. After a time, the Janissaries became masters of the empire; deposed Bajazet II. in 1512; procured the death of Amurath III. in 1595 ; dethroned and executed Osman II. in 1622 ; his successor, Mustapha I., in 1623 ; and strangled Ibrahim in 1649. Mustapha II. was deposed by them in 1703, Achmet III. in 1730, Selim III. in 1807, and Mustapha IV. in 1808. At last, after long and powerful efforts, Sultan Mah- moud II. succeeded in mastering the Janis- saries, June 15, 1826, when 15,000 of them were killed in the streets of Constantinople. By an imperial firman of June 16, 1826, the institu- tion of the Janissaries was abolished. JAN MAYEN (Arctic Sea). This island was discovered by the Dutch navigator, whose name it bears, in 1611. Scoresby gave the name of Esk to a volcano observed by him in 1817. JANOWITZ, or JANKOWITZ (Battle). A Swedish army, commanded by Torstenson, defeated the Imperialists at this place, in Ba- varia, March 16, 1645. The latter lost 8,000 men. JANSENISTS, the followers of Cornelius Jansen, or Janseiiius, born in 1585 at the village of Acquoi, near Leerdam, Holland. He was appointed professor of theology at the university of Louvain in 1630, and made Bishop of Ypres in 1636, where he died May 6, 1638, having scarcely finished his famous work " Augustinus," the labour of 22 years. The book was published by Libertus Fromont, at Louvaiu, in 1640, and created an extraordinary sensation. The Jesuits at once attacked the "Augustinus," which defended the doctrine of free grace ; and the book was interdicted by the Inquisition in 1641, and by Urban VIII. in 1642. The Jansenist doctrines prevailed in many parts of France and Holland, and the inmates of Port Royal (q. v.) became cele- brated for the ardour with which they took up the cause. The Jansenists grew very nume- rous, and Clement IX. was compelled to sign a compromise with the party in 1668, com- monly called the "Peace of Clement IX." Fresh disturbances arose in France after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, Oct. 22, 1685, and the Jansenists were excommuni- cated by the bull (termed Unigenitus) of Cle- ment XI., Sep., 1713. The bull met with great opposition in Holland and France ; led to an increase of Jansenism, and the establishment, in Holland, of a religious party called the " Pupils of St. Augustine," presided over, from 1723, by the Archbishop of Utrecht and the Bishops of Haarlem and Deventer. Leo XII. revived the old dispute by excommuni- eating, in 1825, the newly-elected Archbishop of Utrecht and the Bishop of Deventer. ( See ACCEPTANTS and CONVULSIONISTS. ) JANUARIUS, ST. This order of knight- hood, founded in the Two Sicilies by Charles, King of Sicily, afterwards Charles III. of Spain, July 6, 1738, and abolished in 1806, was restored in 1814. JANUARIUS, ST. (Blood of). Januarius, Bishop of Benevento, was beheaded at Poz- zuoli, in 291 or 305, the wild beasts to which he was at first exposed having refused, according to the chroniclers, to injure so holy a man. His relics were removed to Naples, where a small phial of his blood is said to liquify spontaneously every anniversary of his festival, Sep. 19. JANUARY, the first month of the year, was introduced into the Roman calendar by Numa, about B.C. 700. By 24 Geo. II. c. 23 (1751), the commencement of the legal year in this coun- try was changed from March 25 to Jan. i. It was called Wolf-monath by the Anglo-Saxons. JANUS. This temple, in ancient Rome, the gates of which were kept open in time of war, and closed in time of peace, is said to have been founded by Romulus. The gates were shut eight times ; namely, in the reign of Numa, B.C. 714; soon after the first Punic war, B.C. 235 ; after the battle of Actium, B.C. 30; after the Cantabrian war, B.C. 25; at the general peace under Augustus, B.C. 5 ; under Nero in 58 ; under Vespasian in 71 ; and under Gordian in 241. JAPAN (Asia) is called by the inhabitants Nipon, or the Land of the Rising Sun, and by early English travellers Zipangu. According to native annals the first emperor ascended the throne B.C. 660. The country was visited by Marco Polo, who described it under the name of Zipangu in his travels, published in 1298. A.D. 553. Buddhism is introduced. 749. Gold is discovered. 788. Japan is seized by foreign invaders, Who maintain possession for 18 years. 810. The Japanese phonetic: alphabet is invented. 1143. Yoritomo, commander-in-chief of the army, obtains the greater share of government with the title of Siogoon or Tycoon, thus dividing with themikado, or emperor, the chief power. 1384. The Mongol Tartars, under Kublai Khan, invade Japan, when their fleet is dispersed and wrecked by a storm. 1540. The Tycoon Taiko-Sama deprives the mikado of executive power, thus instituting the existing go- vernment of Japan by a tycoon or secuhir em- peror, nominally subject to a mikado or spiritual emperor. 1542. Japan is accidentally discovered by the Portuguese De Mota, one of whose ships is cast upon the shore during a storm. 1549, Aug. The Jesuit Xavier lands in Japan 1563. The Prince of Omura is converted to Christianity. 1585. An embassy of Japanese Christians appears before the Pope at Rome. 1587. The Emperor Taiko-Sama prohibits Christianity under pain of death. 1590. The native Christians suffer persecution. 1597. The Christians are again persecuted. 1600, April 12. A Dutch ship, piloted by William Adams, an Englishman, anchors in the harbour of Hungo. They establish a factory at Firando. 1613. A cruel persecution of the Christians commences. 1613, July. The English open communication with Japan. (See JEDDO.) MM JAPANNING t 530 ] JAVA A.I). 1616. Their commerce is restricted by the native govern- ment to tin 1 port of Firaudo. 1623. The Christians are massacred. 1623. The English withdraw from the country. 1635. The Portuguese are only permitted to trade to Decima. 1637. A royal proclamation banishes the Portuguese, and prohibits all intercourse with foreigners. 1638, April 12. 37,ooo Christians suffer death. 1640. A Portuguese embassy is imprisoned by the natives*, and the members are put to death. 1643. The Portuguese are finally expelled. 1653. The English in vain attempt to open commerce with Japan. 16931698. Corea (q. v.) is subject to Japan. 1783, Aug. i. An earthquake destroys 27 towns and vil- lages and thousands of lives. 1804. The Russians fail in attempts to establish trade. I8n. The Russians are again unsuccessful. 1818. The English fail in an attempt to open trade. 1853, July 8. An American squadron, commanded by Commodore 1'crry, arrives at Japan with a letter from President Franklin, proposing a treaty of amity and commerce. 1854, March 8. A commercial treaty is concluded with the I'liitcd States. 1858, Aug. 26. The English secure important privileges by I lie treaty of Jeddo (q. V.). 1859, Julv ii. The treaty of Jeddo is ratified. Aug. 9. Sir Rutherford Alcoek, Jiritisli diplomatic agent in Japan, protests against the outrages committed on Europeans by the Japan 1860, Jan. 21. Dankirche, linguist to the British legation, -inated by the Japanese. March 24. The Gotairo, or regent of the empire, is assassinated. 1861, Jan. 14. Mr. llcuskin, secretary to the American legation, is assassinated at Jeddo. July 5. The - attack the IJritish embassy at Jeddo, and wound several persons. Aug. 14. Sir H. Alcock obtains for the first time a private and confidential conference with the Japanese foreign ministers.- 1862, Jan. 23. A Japanese mission leaves Jeddo. April p. It reaches Knghind. June 35. The British em- bassy at Jeddo is attacked by the Japanese, and is remove, I in consequence to Yokohama. Sep. 14. Mr. Kiehardson is murdered by the adherents of Prince Satsuma. 1863, June 24. The Japanese ports are declared closed against foreign traders. July 15-19. Tin: forts at the entrance of Strait Simonosaki having fired upon several Kuropeaii vessels, are bombarded by a united English, French, and American squadron. Aug. 15 and 16. Kagosima is bom- barded by an Knglish squadron under Admiral Kuper, In requital of the murder of Mr. Uiehard son. Oct. 26. The government removes restric- tions on foreign commerce, but prohibits trader- from buying or selling ut Yokohama. Dec. II. Prince s'atsuma pays the indemnity claimed by the English for the murder of Kichardson. 1864, April 15. Three Japanese ambassadors, accredited to the French imperial court, arrive at Marseilles. June 20. Having signed a treaty they leave i'aiis 011 their return voyage. Sep. 7. Thu batteries of Prince Nagato are destroyed, and n passage is opened through the straits of Simonosaki by the combined Knglish, French, and Dutch Heels. Nov. 21. Major Haldwin and Lieut. Bird are murdered at Kamakura. Dec. 28. Execution of the murderer. 1865, April ii. Sir Harry Smith Parkes is appointed to succeed Sir Kutherford Alcoek as envoy extra- ordinary and minister plenipotentiary in Japan. JAPANNING, or LACQUERING. This me- thod of embellishing articles by coating them with a particular kind of varnish, was intro- duced into Europe from Japan ; whence the name. JARNAC (Battle). The Huguenots were de- feated at this town, in France, by Henry of Anjou, afterwards Henry III., March 13, 1569. The Prince of Conde fell in this battle. JASHER (Book of). The author and cha- racter of this ancient Jewish book, referred to Josh. x. 13, and 2 Sam. i. 18, are unknown ; but the title is believed to signify the " book of the upright," and it is supposed to have been a collection of records or poems concerning the Israelitish wars. The name is also given to two Rabbinical works, the first of which was written in 1394 by Shabbatai Carmuz Levita, and the other was published by the Rabbi Tham, in Italy, in 1544, and at Cracow in 1586. An anonymous work, printed at Venice and Prague, in 1625, and translated into German in 1674, contained the historical portion of the Pentateuch and books of Joshua and Judges, and was believed by some to be the work quoted in the Scriptures. A forged book, pub- lished in 1751, in England, under the title of "the Book of Jasher," and accompanied by a fictitious attestation by John Wyckliffe, was reprinted at Bristol in 1827, and was again published in 1833. JASMINE, or JESSAMINE. The common jasmine was introduced into Great Britain from Circassia before 1548, the (Jataloniaii jasmine from the East Indies in 1629, the yellow Indian jasmine from Madeira in 1656, and the jasmine-flowered chironia from the Cape of Good Hope in 1812. JASPER. This gem, the twelfth in the breast-plate of the Jewish high-priest (Exod. xxviii. 20), B.C. 1491, was esteemed by the Greeks and Romans, and is mentioned by Onomacritus, B.C. 500, as the "grass-green jasper, which rejoices the eye of man, and is looked on with pleasure by the immortals." Galen (130 200) recommended the wearing of a jasper hung round the neck, to strengthen the stomach. JASSY, or Y ASSY (Moldavia), the ancient Jassiorum Municipium, the capital of the province, founded by the Emperor Trajan, about 105, was conquered by the Turks in 1538, stormed by the Tartars in 1659, and delivered by John Sobieski in 1686. The Russians took it in 1739 and in 1769, but on each occasion restored it to its native princes. A great fire in 1783 destroyed part of Jassy and the castle, built by Trajan. The Austrians occu- pied it in 1788, and peace was concluded here between Russia and Turkey Jan. 9, 1792. The Russians again occupied it from 1807 to 1812. It revolted in March, 1821, and was sacked by the Janissaries Aug. 10, 1822. Two extensive conflagrations caused much destruction in July, 1821, and Aug., 1827. The Russians occupied it in 1828, and quitted it May n, 1834. JAUCOURT (Battle). Louis III. of France defeated the Northmen at this place, on the Somme, in 88 r. JAVA (Indian Archipelago). This island is spoken of by Marco Polo in 1298, although it had not been visited by that adventurous traveller. Buddhism was introduced about the loth century, Mohammedanism in the i4th, and the Hindoo ascendancy was over- thrown in 1475. The Portuguese succeeded in forming several settlements in 1511. The Dutch made their first appearance in 1595, building a fort on the site of the present city of Batavia in 1612. They founded a church in 1621. At Bantam, in 1619, the English erected JEAN JERSEY a factory, which was one of their first pos- sessions in the East. A landing having been effected Aug. "4, 1811, the island was taken from the Dutch, Aug. 26, by an English force under Sir S. Auchmuty and Gen. Wetherall. It was restored Aug. 13, 1814. Slavery was abolished Sep. 20, 1850. JEAN D'ACRE, ST. (See ACRE.) JEAN DE LUZ, ST. (France). The marriage of Louis XIV. with Maria Theresa, Infanta of Spain, was celebrated at this frontier town of the south of France in 1660. In Aug., 1813, the French, under Marshal Soult, took up their position in front of this town, and erected strong fortifications. Lord Wellington attacked them Nov. 10, Sir Rowland Hill commanding the British right, and Marshal Beresford the centre. The next morning the French were compelled to retire beyond the Nivelle. During the conflict the English made 1,400 prisoners, and took 51 pieces of cannon and six tumbrils of ammunition. JEDBURGH (Scotland). Ecfred, Bishop of Lindisfarne, built two towns at this place in Roxburghshire in 829 and 854, which are now represented by Old Jedburgh and Jedburgh proper. David I. founded an abbey of Austin canons about 1130, which was burned in 1523 by the Earl of Surrey, and in 1544 by the Earl of Hertford. The dispensary was erected in 1807, and the bath houses, &c., in 1822. JEDDA, JEDDAH, or DJIDDA (Arabia). This town, the port of Mecca, visited by Bruce in 1 796, was taken from the Wahabees by Mehemet Ali in 1812. The Mohammedans attacked the Christian residents June 15, 1858, and mur- dered upwards of 20, including the Eng- lish vice-consul and the wife of the French consul. The Cyclops, Capt. Pullen, anchored July 23, and 36 hours were granted for the execution of justice on the perpetrators of the outrage. No satisfaction having been afforded, Capt. Pullen bombarded the town July 25 and 26, when he acceded to the request of the Turkish governor to suspend hostilities until instructions were received from the Porte. The necessary firman arrived from the Sultan Aug. 2, and n of the criminals were surrendered and executed. JEDDO, JEDO, or YEDDO (Japan), the capital of the empire, was visited by a com- pany of Jesuit missionaries from Goa, led by Francis Xavier, in 1549. Capt. Saris, of the Clone, bearing a letter and presents from James I., was received at the court in July, 1613. In 1818 the captain of an English ,brig was compelled to leave without receiving a cargo; and an American ship was fired upon from the shore in 1831. A convention and revised tariff were concluded here between the governments of Japan, Great Britain, France, Holland, and the United States, June 25, 1866. (See JAPAN.) JEDDO (Treaty) was negotiated by Lord Elgin, signed at Jeddo Aug. 26, 1858, and ratified July n, 1859. By this treaty the ports of Hakodadi, Kanagawa, and Nagasaki were to be opened to British subjects on and from July i, 1859 ; Nee-a-gata on and from Jan. i, 1860 ; and Hiogo on and from Jan. i, 1863. For purposes of trade it was also stipulated that British subjects should be allowed to reside at Jeddo after Jan. i, 1862, and at Osaca after Jan. i, 1863. JEFFERSON (Battle). The Federals de- feated the cavalry of Gen. Stuart at this village of Virginia, Nov. 7, 1862. JEFFREYS' CAMPAIGN. (See BLOODY ASSIZES.) JEKATERINOSLAV. (>e EKATERINOSLAV.) JELALABAD (Affghanistan) was taken by the British in 1839. Sir Robert Sale, with a few hundred troops, defended it against a numerous Affghan. force from Nov., 1841, to April, 1842. The fortifications were de- stroyed, by order of Gen. Pollock, in 1842. JELUM, or JHELUM. (See BUCEPHALA and HYDASPES.) JEMALIS. (See DERVISH.) JEMAULABAD (Hindostan), formerly called Narasingha Augady, a town containing a for- tress of great natural strength, built by Tippoo Saib, was taken by the English in 1797. JEMMAPES (Battle). Dumouriez, at the head of a French army, defeated the Austrians in a warmly contested battle at this village, near Mons, in Belgium, Nov. 6, 1792. JENA (Battle). Napoleon I. defeated the Prussian army of Prince Hohenlohe and Gen. Ruchelat this town of Saxe- Weimar, Oct. 14, 1806. The casualties were severe on both sides, the Prussians having lost nearly 10,000 men, and the French 6,500. The fugitives from this battle, and from the field of Auerstadt (q. v.), fought the same day, to the number of 6,000 men, threw themselves into Erfurt (q.v.\ where they were captured, together with 8,000 men, consisting of the wounded and the garrison of the place, Oct. 15. JENA (Germany). This town, in the duchy of Saxe-Weimar, is celebrated for its uni- versity, founded in 1547 by the Elector John Frederick of Saxony, and opened Feb. 2, 1558. Fichte founded a new school of philo- sophy here in 1 794. Jena was the capital of the duchy of Saxe-Jena from 1672 to 1690, and of the duchy of Saxe-Eisenach from 1690 to 1741. JENNERIAN INSTITUTION (London), founded in 1803, was merged in the National Vaccine Establishment, founded in 1808. JEREMIAH. This prophetical book of the Old Testament was written by Jeremiah, " the son of Hilkiah, of the priests that were in Anathoth," about B.C. 627. JERGEAUX (Battle). The French, led by Joan of Arc, wrested this town from the Earl of Suffolk, who was taken prisoner, June 12, 1429. JERICHO (Palestine), the first city which fell into the hands of the Israelites on their entrance into the Holy Land, was taken by Joshua (vi. 20) B.C. 1451. Jericho was rebuilt by Kiel, the Bethelite (i Kings xvi. 34), about B.C. 918. Vespasian retook it in 68. Henry VIII. is said to have had a retreat called Jericho, at Blackmore, near Chelnisford. Hence the origin of the term "gone to Jericho." JERSEY (English Channel), originally called Stugia, taken by the Normans about 850, was united to the crown of England by William I. in 1066. King John visited it in 1205. Mont Orgueil Castle, seized by the French in 1461, was retaken by the English in 1467. Jersey M M 2 JERUSALEM t S32 JESSEANS was taken by the Parliamentarians in Dec., 1651. A French force seized it Jan. 4, 1781, and were made prisoners of war Jan. 6. Queen Victoria visited Jersey in 1846, and the Victoria College, St. Helier's, founded in honour of the visit, was opened Sep. 29, 1852. JERUSALEM (Latin Kingdom). This kingdom was founded by the Crusaders at the close of the first Crusade. Godfrey oT Bouillon was elected the first king, July 23, 1099. In 1104 Baldwin I. effected the con- quest of Acre. He took Sidon, with the assistance of Sivard, Prince of Norway, in 1115; and in July, 1124, Tyre submitted to his arms. Saladiu defeated the Latins at the great battle of Tiberias (q. v.}, and recaptured Jerusalem in Oct., 1187. Conrad de Mont- serrat, who claimed the kingdom 011 his 111 irriago with Isabella, daughter of Almeric, in 1190, was assassinated in 1192, during the preparations for his coronation, and the suc- cession devolved upon Henry of Champagne. On the death of Almeric of Lusignan, in 1206, M.iry, daughter of Conrad and Isabella, was the nearest heir, and she was accordingly married to John of Brienne, who assumed the sovereignty in 1206. In 1229 he was com- pelled to abdicate by Frederick II. of Germany. .Jerusalem was taken by the Mameluke sultan Bibars in 1260, and the last remnant of the kingdom was absorbed in 1291. LATIN KINGS OF JERUSALEM. A.D. 1099. Godfrey of Bouillon. 1 1 co. Baldwin I. Il8. Baldwin II. 13;. Fulk, Count of Anjou. I--",. Baldwin IV. [8|. Baldwin V. of Lusignnn. 194. Henry, Count of Champagne. 197. Almeric of Lusignan. 22.). Frederick II., Emperor of Germany. JERUSALEM, or HIEROSOLYMA Lne), probably identical with Salem, a city of Sechem, of which Molchixedek wa king and priest (Gen. xiv. 18), B.C. 1913. The name Jerusalem is first mentioned Josh. x. i. The city was not fin.Jly wrested from the Caiiaanites till B.C. 1049, when David made it the capital of his kingdom, and called it the " City of David." Councils were held here between 49 and 51, in 335, 349, 399, Aug. i, 415 ; Aug. 6, 518 ; Sep. 19, 536; in 553, 766 or 767, 879, 1107, 1 1 12, and 1143. (See SOLOMON'S' TEMPLE.) B.C. ion. Solomon commences the temple (i Kings vi. I). 1004. Completion and dedication of the temple (i Kings vi. 3<, and vii.). 073 or 970. .Shishak, King of Egypt, sacks Jerusalem (i Kings xiv. 35). 887. Jerusalem is sacked by the Philistines and Arabs (.3 Cliron. xxi. 16, 17). 836. The inhabitants are put to the sword by the Israel- ites, after their victory at Beth-shemesh (3 Kings xiv. 13, 14). 710 or 69^. The city is miraculously delivered from Sen- nacherib, King of Assyria (3 Kings xviii. 17, and xix. (>'<< .lc l (All.) 610 or 608. It is taken by Pharaoh Necho, King of Esrypt, after the battle of Megiddo (3 King xxiii. 39, 30). B.C. ((05. Nebuchadnezzar, King of Babylon, takes Jeru- salem (2 Kinsrs xxiv. 17). 598. Nebuchadnezzar, King of Babylon, takes Jerusalem, and plunders the temple, carrying away the sacred vessels, together with the king and several thousands of bis subjects (2, Kings xxiv. lo 16). 588. Nebuchadnezzar, King of Babylon, besieges Jeru- salem, but raises the siege on the approach of the army of Pharaoh, King of Egypt. 586. The Chaldean army renews its attack on the city, and carries it by storm. Zedokiah, who takes to flight, is pursued, and captured; his two sons are slain, and his own eyes put out. The temple, after having been pillaged, is burned to the ground; the whole city is destroyed, and the people are carried captive to Babylon (2 Kings xxv. i 7). 536. Cyrus issues a proclamation for the return of the captive Jews (Ezra i. and ii.). 535. The second toniplo is founded (Ezra iii. 813). 534. The rebuilding of the city and temple is stopped by Artaxerxes or Smerdis, King of Persia (Ezra iv. i 24). 516. The second temple is finished (Ezra vi. 15). 515. The second temple is dedicated (Ezra vi. 16 23). 445. Nehcmiah rebuilds the walls of Jerusalem (Neh. ii. 333. It is visited by Alexander III. (the Great). (See JEWS.) 330. Ptolemy (I.) Soter captures Jerusalem. 303. Jerusalem is annexed, by treaty, to Kgypt. 170. The walls of the city are razed by Ant'ntchus TCpi- phiincs, who massacres 40,000 of the inhabitants, and sets up a statue of Jupiter in the temple. I'rom this period the daily sacrifice Is discontinued. 168. Apollonius, general of Antioehu.s, lakes Jerusalem, fortifies the city of David, and dedicates the temple to Jupiter Olympius. 63. It is taken by Pompey; and the Jews pass under the dominion of the Komans. 54. Crassus plunders the temple, to obtain treasure for the Parthian war. 44. The walls are rebuilt by Antipater, father of Herod the Groat. 37. The Komans, under Herod and Socius, take Jeru- salem, and massacre the inhabitants. A.n. 70, Sep. 8. It is taken by the Komans, under Titus, the temple and city being ra/ed to the -round. During the siege 1,100,000 Jews perished, and 97,000 were carried into captivity. 130. The Emperor Hadrian rebuild* the city, when it - the name of TElia Capitolina. 335. The church of the Holy Sepulchre is founded by Constantino I. 451. It is made a patriarchate. 614. The Persians, under Cliosrocs II., take the city. 637. It surrenders to the Saracens, after a long siege. 1076. It is taken by the Turks. 1098. It passes under the sway of the Egyptian caliphs. 1099, July 15. After a siege of 40 days, the Christian Crusaders, under tiodfrey of Ijuuillon, lake it by storm. July 33. Godfrey of Bouillon is elected king. 1187, Oct. 3. The city is taken by Saladin. 1339. It is delivered" to the. Christians by treaty. The Kniperor Frederick II. enters the city. 1338. Jerusalem is taken by the Turks. 1344. Jerusalem is taken and pillaged by the Carismians 1517. The Ottomans gain possession of the city. 1833. It is rendered subject to the Pasha of Egypt. 1841. It passes under the protection of the Turkish Go- vernment. Xov. 7. The Rev. M. S. Alexander is consecrated Bishop of England and Ireland in Jerusalem, by the Archbishop of Canterbury. The queen, by licence, assigns to his jurisdiction Syria, Chaldeea, Egypt, and Abyssinia; and the new bishopric is placed under the protection of En-land and Prussia. 1863, Sep. 5. A convention is signed at Constantinople by representatives of Ku^sia, Franee. and Turkey, for the preservation of the Holy Sepulchre. JESSAMINE. (See JASMINE.) JESSEANS. (See CHRISTIANITY.) JESTER [ 533 1 JEWS JESTER, or FOOL. The fool, according to Nares, was the inmate of every opulent house ; but the rural jester or clown seems to have been peculiar to the country families. The clown in Shakspeare is generally taken for a licensed jester or domestic fool. The king's jester or fool was a member of the English court at a very early period. Douce remarks : " With respect to the antiquity of this custom in our own country, there is reason to suppose that it existed even during the period of Saxon history ; but we are quite certain of the fact in the reign of William the Conqueror. An almost contemporary historian, Maitre Wace, has left us a curious account of the preserva- tion of William's life, when he was only Duke of Normandy, by his fool Eoles. Mention is made in Domesday Book of ' Berdic joculator regis.'" The allowance of cloth and a Jist of the articles of clothing allowed to William, Henry the Fifth's fool, is given in Ilymer's " Fcedera." In 1652 the king's fool is described as wearing a long coat and a gold chain. Douce considers it probable that Muckle John, the fool of Charles I. and the successor of Archie Armstrong, was the last regular per- sonage of the kind. The Lord Mayor's state fool was compelled on Lord Mayor's day to leap, clothes and all, into a large bowl of custard. The patent of creation of the Order of Fools (q. v.), dated Cleves, Nov. 12, 1381, is still in existence. The custom also existed on the other side of the Atlantic, as the Peruvian and Mexican inonarchs had their jesters. The Spanish conquerors had this ofiicer in their train. Prescott speaks of Velasquez's jester as "a mad fellow, his jester, one of those crack-brained wits half wit, half fool who formed in those days a common appendage to every great man's establishment." JESUIT'S BARK. (See PERUVIAN BARK.) JESUITS, or SOCIETY OF JESUS, founded by Ignatius Loyola, at the chapel of St. Mary, Montmartre, Paris, Aug. 16, 1534, and con- firmed by a bull of Paul III., Sep. 27, 1540, was made independent of all civil and eccle- siastical supervision by a bull dated Oct. 18, 1548. Jesuit colleges were established in Portugal in 1540, at Antwerp and at Louvain in 1552; and Ignatius Loyola died July 31, 1556. The Jesuits received per- mission to settle in France, Sep. 15, 1561 ; were banished from France, Jan. 8, 1595 ; and were allowed to return, Jan. 2, 1604. A decree banishing the Jesuits from. England was issued Nov. 15, 1602. The secret instructions were first printed at Cracow in 1612. The university of Tyrnau, Austria, the first high school of the Jesuits, was opened Nov. 13, 1635. They were expelled from Venice in 1606, and permitted to return in 1656. A French edict was issued against the Jesuits Sep. 2, 1716 ; they were banished from Portugal Sep. 3, 1759; from Brazil in 1760; again from France in 1764 ; and from Spain in 1767. The Jesuit seminaries at Rome were dissolved Sep. 17, 1772, and the order was put down by a bull of Clement XIV., July 21, 1773. They were expelled from Austria, Oct. i, 1773. The Jestiits were re-organi/ed in Parma in 1795, in Lithuania and White Russia in 1801, in Sicily in 1804, and were completely restored by a bull issued by Pius VII., Aug. 7, 1814 ; and a decree for their admission into Spain was issued May 29, 1815. They were expelled from Russia, March 25, 1820, and from Switzerland Oct. i, 1847. (See ASSASSINATION. ) JESUS COLLEGE (Cambridge) was founded in 1496, by John Alcock, Bishop of Ely. The building previous to that time had been used for the nunnery of St. Radegund, founded by Malcolm IV. (115365) of Scotland. JESUS COLLEGE (Oxford). Queen Eliza- beth, on the petition of Hugh ap Rice, or Price, granted a charter of foundation for this college, June 27, 1571. The inner quadrangle was completed in 1676. James I. granted the college a new charter in 1622. JET, the gagates of Theophrastus (B.C. 370 287) and Pliny (23 Aug. 24, 79), was anciently obtained from the Syrian river Gagus. JEUNESSE DOREE, or GILDED YOUTH This party, chiefly composed of the middle and richer classes, and distinguished by a peculiar dress called the " costume a la victimc," was formed in France in 1794, and was protected by Freron. The members opposed the Jacobins, whom they expelled from their place of meeting, Nov. 8. JEWELLERY, or the setting of precious stones, is an art of very ancient origin. JEWISH jERA. The Jews date from the creation of the world, which they consider to have occurred 3,760 years and three mouths before the commencement of the Christian sera. According to some authorities, they used the sera of the Seleucidje after they became subject to the kings of Syria, and only abandoned it in the i sth century. JEWISH DISABILITIES BILL. Mr. Robert Grant's bill for releasing the Jews from civil disabilities was rejected by the Lords Aug. i, 1833; another, introduced by Lord John Russell, after passing the Commons May 4, 1848, was rejected in the Upper House May 25. A third, which received the sanction of the Lower House July 3, 1851, was thrown out by the Lords, July 17. A similar bill passed the Commons April 15, 1853, and was again rejected April 29 ; and after having been again approved by the Commons, was defeated by the Lords July 10, 1857. By 21 & 22 Viet, c. 49 (July 23, 1858), the House of Commons was empowered to modify the oaths in such a manner that they might be taken by Jews ; and by 23 & 24 Viet. c. 63 (Aug. 6, 1860), the words "upon the faith of a Christian" were expunged permanently in the case of Jewish members. JEWS. Strictly speaking, this term can only be applied to the subjects of the kings of Judah after the separation of the ten tribes ; but in its usual acceptation it refers to the whoje race of Abraham. 1996. Birth of Abraham (Gen. xi. 26). 1931. Abraham, by divine command, settles in Canaan (Gen. xii. 15). 1912. Godmakes a covenant with Abraham (Gen. xv. 18). 1897. The covenant is renewed, and circumcision (q. c.) is instituted (Gen. xvii. 122). JEWS [ 534 JEWS B.C. 1896. Birth of Isaac (Gen. xxi. I 5). 1872. The sacrifice of Isaac is prevented by divine inter- position (Gen. xxii. 114). 1856. Marriage of Isaac and Kebekah (Gen. xxiv. 67). 1836. Birth of Esau and Jacob (Gen. xxv. 2438). 1831. Death of Abraham (Gen. xxv. 8). 1760. Jacob is blessed instead of Esau (Gen. xxvii. I 45). 1738. Joseph is sold into Egypt (Gen. xxxvii. 28). 1718. Joseph interprets the dreams of the butler and tlie baker (Gen. xl.). 1706. Jacob and his family remove to Egypt, and settle in Goshen (Gen. xlvi. and xlvii.). 1571. Birth of Moses (Exod. ii. I io). 1491. The exodus of the Jews from Egypt is effected (Exod. xii. 3142). 1451. The Jews enter Canaan, under the leadership of Joshua (Josh. iii. 1417). 1405. They become' subject to Mesopotamia (Judges iii. 8). 1343. They are subject to Eglon, King of Moub (Judges iii. 1314). 1330. Ehud restores them to freedom (Judges iii. 15 30). 1385. They are in servitude to Jubin, King of Canaan (Judges iv. 13). 1265. Deborah and Barak defeat the Canaanitcs, under Sisera, and restore the Israelites to independence (Judges iv. 4 34). 1253. They are again enslaved by the Midianites, the Amalekites, and other eastern tribes (Judges vi. 16). 1345. Gideon effects their deliverance (Judges vii. & viii.V 1 187. The Ammonites subdue the Jewish territory (Judges x. 69). I \f,i). Jephtha expels them (Judges xi. 32, 33). 1156. The Philistines reduce the Jews to slavery (Judges xiii. I). 1136. Samson releases them (JndgM xiv. and xv.). 1143. Samuel is called by the Lord (l Sam. iii. 214). 1116. The .Ie\\s an -.rain subdued by the Philistines (I Sam. iv. I II). 1095. Saul is elected king (I Sam. x. 124). 1093. Saul is victorious over the Philistines (i Sam. xiv. 123). 1081. Birth of David. 1063. David prevails over Goliath (l Sam. xvii. 151)- 1060. David is compelled, by the jealousy of Saul, to take refuge in Gath (i Sam. xxi. 10). 10=15. Death of Saul, and accession of David as King of Judah (l Sam. xxxi. 16. and 2 Sam. ii. 4). 1048. David I* acknowledged by all Israel (> Sam. V. 13). 104.0. David wages war against the Philistines, and re- covers the ark, which had been left in their hands (2 Sam. vi. 117). 1033. Birth of Solomon (3 Sam. xii. 34, 35). 1023. Rebellion nud death of Absalom (2 Sam. xviii. 9 '7>- 1017. David numbers the people (3 Sam. xxiv. I 9). 1015. Adonijah rebels. Death of David, and accession of Solomon (i Kings i. ii.). ion. Solomon commences the erection of the temple (i Kings vi. I). 1004. The temple is completed (i Kings vi. 38). 990. Visit of the Queen of Sheba to Solomon (l Kings x. 113). 975. Death of Solomon, llevolt of the ten tribes, and division of the Jewish territory into the kingdoms of Israel (q. v.) and Judah (q. r.) (l Kings xi. 43, and xii. l6 20). 603. Daniel interprets Nebuchadnezzar's first dream, and the golden image is set up (Dan. ii. and iii.). 561. Evilmerodach releases Jehoiachin from captivity (3 Kings xxv. 27 30). 539. Daniel interprets the handwriting on the wall to Uelsha/./ar, who is defeated and slain by Darius the Mede the same night (Dan. v. i 31). 536. Decree of Cyrus for the restoration of the Jews, who, under Zerubbabel, return from captivity (Ezra i. and ii.). 533. Artaxerxes or Smerdis, King of Persia, stops the rebuilding of Jerusalem (Exra iv. 7 24). 515. The second temple is dedicated (Ezra vi. 1633). 458. Artaxerxes I. (Longimanus), or Ahasueras, marries the Jewess Esther (Esther ii. 1517). A writer in Smith's Diet, of the Bible (i. 583, 584) states that Ahasuerus was Xerxes I., and that his marriage with Esther, of which history makes no mention, took place B.C. 479. 457. Ezra is despatched to Judea (Ezra vii. 69). 445. Nehemiah commences his 13 years' governorship of Judea, during which he rebuilds Jerusalem, and fortifies it with walls (Neh. ii. I n). 444. Ezra collects the books of the Old Testament. 333. Alexander III., while on his march to attack Jeru- salem, is encountered by a procession, led by Jaddua, the high-priest, and is impressed with so strong a sentiment of respect, that he enl* city, and performs a solemn sacrifice to the God of the Jews. 330. Jerusalem is stormed, and token by Ptolemy (I.) Soter. 313. Antiuwius wrests Judea from the power of Pto- lemy (I.). ures is made r Jannanis is defeated by Ptolemy I,athy- igof Cyprus, who ravages Palestine. compels Ptolemy to withdraw. 302. Jerusalem is ceded to Egypt. 377. The Septuagint translation of the Scriptur by order of Ptolemy (II.) Philadelphia. 350. The sect of the Sadducees (q. r.) is formed. 316. Ptolemy (IV.) Philopator massacres between 40,000 and 60,000 Jews in Alexandria. 303. Antiochus the Great, of Syria, besieges Phoenicia and Judea. 200. A Jewish settlement is formed in China. 199. Phoenicia and Judea are recovered by the Egyptian general Scopas. 198. Antiochus defeats Scopas, and takes the whole of Palestine from Egypt. 170. Antioehus Epiphanes, King of Syria, takes Jeru- salem (q. .). 168. Apolloiiius takes Jerusalem (q. v.). 165. Judas Maccabeus commences his insurrection against the Syrians. 163. Antiochus Eupator appoints Judas governor. 160. Judas concludes the first treaty between the Jews and the Konians. 156. The Syrians withdraw their claim to the obedience of the Jews, who are left at peace. 144. Jonathan, prince of the Jews and high-priest, is taken prisoner by Tryphon, at Ptolcmais, and put to death. 130. John Hyrcauus subdues the Idumseaus, and compels them to adopt the . I. -wish faith. 107. Hyrcaiius's sou, Aristobulus, assumes the title of 104. Alexander Jannams is defeated rus, King of Cj 103. Cleopatra compels Ptolemy to 96. Alexander Jaiimeus takes Gaza, and puts the in- habitants to the sword. 94. The Pharisees provoke an insurrection against Alex- ander JamiMMis. 86. Alexander Janna:us suppresses a rebellion of tho Pharisees, crucifying 800 rebels, whose \\ i\es and children he causes to be butchered before their eyes, while ho and his concubines banquet in sight of the victims. For this atrocity he is sur- named the " Thracian." 70. Aristobulus II. deposes his brother Hyrcanus (II.). 63. The Komans, under Pompey, take Jerusalem, and restore Hyrcanus (II.) to the throne as a tributary prince. 57. Alexander, the eldest son of Aristobulug II., collects an army, and ravages the country. 54. Crassus plunders the temple, to obtain treasure for the Parthian war. 49. The deposed Aristobulus (II.) is poisoned by tho friends of Pompey. 42. Marriage of Herod and Mariamne, granddaughter of Hyrcanus, the Jewish high-priest. 40. The Parthians, under Pacorus, invade Judea, and restore Antigonus to the kingdom of his lather Aristobulus (II.). The Koman senate proclaims Herod king the same year. 37. Herod and Socius take Jerusalem (q. v.). 33. A dreadful earthquake destroys 30,000 persons in Judea. 39. Herod puts hia wife Mariamne to death. 17. Herod commences the re-erection of the temple. 4, Friday, April 5. The Nativity, four years before the common computation (Matt. i. 18 35, and Luke ii. 1-7). A.D. 6. Augustus makes the whole kingdom into the Roman province of Judea. t Pontius 1 Slate is appointed procurator of Judea. John the Baptist preaches to the Jews (Mutt. iii. J 13}. JEWS [ 535 1 JOACHIMITES A.D. 37- Baptism of Christ (Matt. iii. 1317). 30. The Passion and Ascension of the Saviour (Matt. xxvii. and xxviii.. Mark xv. and xvi., Luke xxiii. and xxiv., and John xix., xx., and xxi.). (See CRUCIFIXION. ) Judea is desolated by famine. The Jews revolt against the Romans. Vespasian invades Judea. 70, Sep. 8. Titus destroys Jerusalem (q. v.). 95. The Jews refuse to pay a tax for the rebuilding of the temple of Jupiter Cnpitolinus. 115. The Jews of Cyrene, Egypt, and Cyprus, rebel against the Romans. 130. Hadrian rebuilds Jerusalem, which he calls .ffilia Capitolina. The Jews rebel in consequence. 135. The war is concluded, and the Jews are banished from Judea, and cease to possess a national existence. 202. They are severely persecuted by Septimius Severus. 315. Constantino I. forbids them to persecute Jewish converts to Christianity. 439. Thcodosius II. prohibits them from erecting syna- 612. The Jews in Spain are cruelly persecuted. 623. Mohammed expels them from Medina. 712. They assist the Moors in the conquest of Spain. 740. A Jewish kingdom is said to be established on the shores of the Caspian. 750. Some Jews settle in England. 1147. The Jews in the East are persecuted by Sultan Motavakel. 1096. The Crusaders, on their march to Palestine, mas- sacre about 17,000 European Jews, at Troves, Cologne, and other German cities. 1180. Philip II. (Augustus) banishes them from France. 1189, Sep. 3. Numbers are murdered in England at the coronation of Richard I. 1315. The Council of Lateran orders all Jews throughout Christendom to adopt the costume called the Rouelle. 1269. English Jews are prohibited from possessing freehold property. 1290. Edward I. orders their expulsion from England. 1391. The Spanish Jews undergo severe persecution, and about 200,000 submit to baptism. 1394. Charles VI. expels them from France. 1425. The Jews are expelled from Cologne. 1492. The Jews are expelled from Spain. 1505. All Jewish children in Portugal under 14 years of age are ordered to be given up by their parents, and educated as Christians. 1753. A bill for the naturalization of Jews in England is passed. 1754. The measure is repealed. 1782. An edict for their limited toleration is issued in Austria. 1791. Jews are admitted as citizens of France, with equal rights as Christians. 1796. The Jews are declared free citizens of the Batavian Republic. 1806. Napoleon I. assembles a sanhedrim at Paris, and confers certain civil privileges on the Jews. 1809. The Society for Promoting Christianity among the Jews is founded at London. 1812. Jews are admitted to civil rights in Prussia. 1814. Jews are admitted as magistrates in Denmark. 1835, Oct. i. Mr. Salomons is elected sheriff of London. 1837, Nov. 9. Moses Montefiore receives the honour of knighthood from Queen Victoria, being the first Jewish knight 1840, Feb. i. The Jews are persecuted at Damascus. 1846, Aug. 18. Jews are placed upon the same footing as Protestant dissenters, with respect to their places of worship, schools, &c., by 9 & 10 Viet. c. 59, s. 3. 1852, Sep. 3. The Jews are persecuted at Stockholm. 1855, Sep. 29. Alderman Salomons is elected Lord Mayor of London, being the first Jew that filled the office. (See JEWISH DISABILITIES BILL.) KINGS OF THE JEWS. B.C. 1095. Saul. 1055. David (Judah). 1048. Ditto (all Israel). 1015. Solomon. 975. The Jewish territory is divided into the two king- doms of Judah (q. v.) and Israel (q. .). Hales gives the following list of kings and rulers : BABYLONIAN DYNASTY. B.C. 586. Nebuchadnezzar. 561. Evilmerodach. B.C. 558. Belshazzar. MEDIAN AND PERSIAN DYNASTY. 483. Jehoiakim high priest 30 years. 553. Darius the Mede. 551. Cyrus the Persian. 529. Cambyses. 531. Darius llystaspcs. 485. Xerxes. 464. Artaxerxes I. (Longi- manus, or Aha&ue- rus). JEWISH HIGH-PRIESTS. 420. Eliashib. I 373. Jonathan, or John. 413. Joiada, or Judas. | 341. Jaddua, or Jaddus. MACEDO-GEECIAN DYNASTY. 217. Simon II. 195. OniasIII. 175. Jesus, or Jason. 321. Onias I. 300. Simon the Just. 391. Eleazer. 376. Manasses. 350. Onias II. 173. Onias, or Meuelaus. ASAMON^AN PRINCES. [c6. Arjstobulns I. and Ar tigonus. :o5. Alexander Janueeua. 78. Alexandra. 69. Hyrcanus II. 69. Aristobulus II. fJudas Maccabeus. 163. -(Joachim, or Alcinus, ( high priest. 160. Jonathan. 143. Simon. 136. John Hyrcanus I. ROMAN DYNASTY. 63. Hyrcanus II. (again). | 40. Antigonus. IDUMJEAK KING. 37. Herod the Great. JEWS'-HARP, or JEWS'-TRUMP. This musical instrument, deriving its name from a corruption of the French jeu trompe, toy- trumpet, is mentioned in a rare black-letter book, called "Newes from Scotland," in 1591, where it is related that one Geilles Duncan, a servant-girl celebrated for her performance upon this instrument, played before King James VI. of Scotland. Pratorius, in his "Organographia," pxiblished in 1619, refers to it under the name of Crembalum. M. Eulen- stein excited considerable interest by per- forming on 1 6 of these instruments at the Royal Institution, and various public concerts. Fools used to play upon the Jews' -harp, to amuse the guests at taverns. It is also called Jaws'-harp, which Douce maintains to be its proper name, because played upon between the jaws. J HAN SI (Hindostan). This province became connected by treaty with the East India Company in 1804, was made a tributary province in 1817, and was ceded to the British Government in 1854. JHELUM. (See BUCEPHALA and HYDASPES.) JICIN. (See GITSCHIN.) JIONPORE, or JOANPORE (Hindostan), the chief town of a district bearing the same name, which came into possession of the British in 1775. The fort is of great strength, and was built in 1370 by the Sultan of Delhi. On the capture of Delhi by Tamerlane in 1398, Jionpore passed from under the royal sway, but was again annexed to the empire in 1478. In 1570, having become much dilapidated, the fort was put into a state of thorough repair by the governor of Bengal. JOACHIMITES. This heretical sect, founded by Joachim, Abbot of Fiore, in Cala- bria, was condemned by the Lateran Council JOACHIM [ 536 ] JOHNSTON in 1215, and by the Council of Aries in 1260, or 1261. The Joachimites were a branch of the Fruticelli, or Spiritualists. JOACHIM, ST. (Order of). This equestrian order of Francoiiia was founded in 1755, by an association of younger members of the German aristocracy. It was originally named the " Order of Defenders of the Honour of Diviiie > Providence," and received its present title in 1785. Lord Nelson was made a member April 3, 1802. JOAN OF ARC, or JEANNE D'ARC. (See ORLEANS.) JOAN SANDERSON. (See CUSHION DANCE. ) JOANNINA. (See JANINA.) JOANN1TES, or JOHANNITES, followers of John Chrysostom (347 Sep. 14, 407), who was consecrated Archbishop of Constanti- nople, Feb. 26, 398. Having, by his vigorous repression of clerical luxury and immorality, provoked powerful opposition, Theophilus, Pa- triarch of Alexandria, procured his deposition by the Council ad (juomim, or Synod at the Oak, a villa near Chalcedon, in June, 403. Having resumed his see under the imperial authority, he was again deposed by the Council of Constantinople in 404, and compelled to .seek refuge in flight, when his adherents were treated witli great severity by the victorious faction. His followers continued a distinct body till about 438. JOB (Book of). This, perhaps the most ancient book in existence, was written (Smith's " Dictionary of the Bible," i. 1099) "many years after the death of Job, before the promulgation of the Law, by one speak- ing the Hebrew language, and thoroughly conversant with the traditions preserved in tlie family of Abraham." JOCKEY CLUB. This corporate racing body, instituted at Newmarket during the reign of George II. (1727 1760), was first officially noticed in "Heber's Hacin,; Calen- dar," for 1758. Its decisions in disputed cases, first published in 1808, have been con- tinued in the "Racing Calendar" ever since. New rules were enacted in 1828 and 1858. JOEL. This prophetical book of the Old Testament was written by Joel, the sun of Pethuel, about B.C. 877847. Commentaries were published by Edward Pocock in 1691, and by Samuel (.'handler in 1735. JOHANNISBERQ (Battle). The French, under the Prince de Soubise, defeated the hereditary Prince of Brunswick at this place, iu Nassau, celebrated for its wine, near Fried- berg, Bavaria, Aug. 30, 1762. JOHN, the youngest child and the fifth son of Henry II. and Eleanor of Aquitaine, born at Oxford Dec. 24, 1166, was crowned King of England at Westminster May 27 (Ascension- day , 1199. He divorced his wife Isabel, the Earl of Gloucester's daughter, in order to many Isabel of Angouleme, who was crowned at Westminster, Oct. 8, 1200. By his second wife he had two sons and three daughters, iiamely, Henry (see HENRY III.), and Richard, Duke of Cornwall, who was born in 1209, and died in 1271. His daughters were Joan, mar- ried to Alexander J I. of Scotland ; Eleanora, to the Earl of Pembroke, and afterwards to Simon of Montfort ; and Isabel, to the Emperor Frederick II. John died at Newark Oct. 19, 1216, and was buried at Worcester. He was surnamed Lackland. JOHN O'GROAT'S HOUSE, or DUNGANSBY HEAD, the north-eastern extremity of Scotland, was founded, ac< to tradition, in the reign of James IV. (1488 I 5 I 3)> by John Groat, who settled a question of precedency among the eight families into which his relations were divided, by erecting an eight-sided house, with a door and window on each side, and a table of eight sides within, so that the head of each family might enter by his own door, and occupy his own head of the table. In 1741 Malcolm Groat sold the house, of which only a small green mound now remains. JOHN, ST. The Royal Prussian Order of St. John was founded in 1812. JOHN, ST. (Epistles). The first epistle was written from Ephesus in 68 or 69. The .second and third, addressed respectively to " the Elect Lady" and to " Gaius," were probably written soon after. JOHN, ST. < J os] iel), was written at Ephesus by St. John about 97 or 08, though a writer in "Smith's Dictionary of the Bible" (i. 1112) places it as early as "about 78." (Set Al.iM.lAN3.) JOHN, ST. (Knights). (See HOSPITAI.UOICS.) JOHN'S, ST. (Antigua), the capital, was con- nected with a small island on which the lunatic asylum is situated, by a causeway completed in 1846. The cathedral and savings-bank were erected in 1847. JOHN'S, ST. (Newfoundland), the chief town of the island, was fortified by Queen Eli/abeth in 1583, when she formally claimed i-eignty. The French were repulsed in attacks upon St. John's in 1705 and in 1708, and obtained possession June 24, 1762. The garrison capitulated to an English force Sep. 18, 1762. The town suffered considerably fr. 'in tires in 1815, 1817, 1818, and June 9, 1846. On the last-mentioned occasion it was almost entirely destroyed. JOHN'S (ST.) COLLEGE (Cambridge) was founded in 1511, on the site of the Priory, styled the Hospital of St. John the Evangelist, dissolved in 1510, in pursuance, of the will of Margaret, Countess of Richmond, who died in I5 JOHN'S (ST.) COLLEGE (Oxford). King Henry VIII. granted St. Bernard's CoU educational establishment of the Cist. . founded in the time of Henry VI., to I'm-ist Church, Oxford ; and Sir Thomas White, a Muscovy merchant, twice lord mayor of Lou- don, purchased it in 1555, and founded St. John's College, March 5, 1557. Arch' Laud added a second quadrangle, com. in 1631 and completed in 1635, from a design by Inigo Jones. JOHNSON CLUB (London). (See CLUB, THE.) JOHNSTON, or ST. JOHN'S TOWN (Battle\ Aymer de Valence defeated Bruce, who hud Incited the Scottish people tore! A ' land, at this place, in Scotland, July 22, 1306. JOHORE [ 537 JUBILEE JOHORE (Malacca), the capital of an inde- pendent state of the same name, was founded by some refugees from Malacca, when it was captured by the Portuguese in 1511. The new principality was conquered by the Portu- guese in 1608, and it passed into the power of the Sultan of Acheen in 1613. JOINERS wore incorporated in 1569. JOINT-STOCK BANKS. By 7 Geo. IV. c. 46 (May 26, 1826), copartnerships of more than six were permitted to carry 011 business as bankers in England, 65 miles from London, provided they had no establishment in the me- tropolis. By 7 & 8 Viet. c. 113 (Sep. 5, 1844), no joint-stock bank was allowed to transact business except under letters patent. This act, amended by 19 & 20 Viet. c. 100 (July 29, 1856), was repealed and superseded by 20 , clamores populi in Ci'i-ia Ri sovereigns acted as president of the Curia and governed the kingdom during the king's absence, answered to the tul'nix Aiisb< rm>. Karl of Urn-ford. 1073. William de Wuri-ennc and Jiicli-ml Kitz-Cilhert. 1070. Laiifriinc, Archbishop of Canterbury; Geoffrey, Bi.-ho]' of ('out. nice; and 1,'olicrt, Kail of Incretoii. 1087, Sep. 26. Odo, Bi.-hop of I!avru\ and Karl of Ki-nt ; William m Blot-t, Bishop of Lincoln. 1107-8. Kojivr. l',i,l,op of Salisbury; V Geoffrey Ki.lel, V Jialph BaM-el ; 'I Kichard ij asset; ? Geoffrey do Clinton ; V Alheiiedc Vcro. 1135. Roger, Bishop of Salisbury. 1153, Kov. Henry, Duke of Normandy} ? Richard de LncL 1154, Dec. Robert de Beaumont, Earl of Leicester, and Kiclmrd de Luci. 1167. Richard de Luci alone. 1179. Kichard Tooliffe, Bishop of Winchester; Geoffrey Ridel, Bishop of Ely ; and Jobu of Oxford, L'i,-h|> of Norwich. 1180. Ranulph de Glanville. 1189, Sep. 3. lianulpli de Glanville. 1189, Sep. 15. Iluph I'u>ar, I!islio]i of Durham, and AVil- liam de JIuiKlcvillc, Kurl ,f Albcmaric. 1189, Dec. ii. BMiop 1'usiir and William de Longchatnp, Bishop of Ely. 1191, Oct. Walter de ConBtantila. Archbtahop of Uoucn. 1193, Seji. Jlubcrt AV'alt. r. Archbishop of Canli-rlinrv. 1198, July. Geoffrisy 1-itz-l'oter, nfter\vrda Eurl of Eeeex. JUSTIN! AN A. KALAFAT A D ii' } :), May. Geoffrey Fitz -Peter, Earl of Ks^. 1314, Feb. i. Peter ile Rupibas, Bishop of Winchester. 1415, June. Hubert de Burgh. 1316, Oct. 38. Hubert de Burgh. 1333, July. Stephen de Segrave. 1358, June 33- Hugh Bigot. 1360, Oct. 1 8. Hugh le Despencer. 1361, July 5. Philip Basset. 1363, Oct. Hugh le Despencer. JUSTINIANA. (See CARTHAGE.) JUSTINIAN CODE. This compilation of Roman laws, ordered to be made by the Emperor Justinian I., was promulgated April 7, 529. A revised edition was issued Nov. 16, 534. (,S'cv AMALPHI.) JUST, ST. (See YUSTB.) JUT B, the fibre of an Indian plant, was introduced into this country for the manufac- ture of sacking, &c., about 1830. JUTERBOCK (Prussia). At this town Tctzel commenced the sale of papal indul- gences in 1517. A conference held here in 1523, by the German Lutheran princes, to adopt measures against the effects of the Edict of Worms, resulted in the League of Torgau (1526). The Swedish general Torstenson de- feated the Austriaiis under Gallas at this place in 1644, and the field of Denuewitz (q. v.) is in the vicinity. JUTLAND (Denmark). This peninsula was the home of the Danes and Northmen, who for many years devastated Europe. During the loth and i ith centuries the entire surface was covered with forests. The Jutes, who established themselves in Kent and Hamp- shire, came from Jutland. It was overrun by Wallenstein in 1627, and restored to Denmark by the treaty of Liibeck in 1629. The allies occupied the south of Jutland in 1813, and an armistice was concluded with Denmark Dec. 15, 1813. This led to a treaty between Den- mark and Great Britain and Sweden, concluded at Kiel Jan. 14, 1814. (See DENMARK.) JUVENALIA, a feast instituted at Rome by Nero on attaining his majority, in 59. He dedicated the first clippings of his beard and whiskers to Jupiter, and, on the public stage, sang to the accompaniment of his lyre verses of his own composition. JUVENILE OFFENDERS. By i & 2 Viet. c. 82 (Aug. 10, 1838) Parkhurst military hospi- tal, Isle of Wight, was provided for the deten- tion and correction of young offenders of both sexes. Magistrates and justices were em- powered by 17 & 1 8 Viet. c. 86 (Aug. 10, 1854) to commit convicts under 16 years of age, for certain periods of tuition in reformatory schools (q. v.), in addition to such term of imprisonment as they might award. (See FLOGGING.) K. KAABA. (See CAABA.) KABBELJAUWEN AND HOEKS, or HOOKS, the former signifying the Cod-fish party, and the latter the Fish-hooks, two fac- tions that arose in the Netherlands about 1355, soon tlfter the dcatn of William IV., " dividing," as the historian remarks, "noble against noble, city against city, father against son, for some hundred and fifty years, with- out foundation upon any abstract or intelli- gible principle." In the end, the Kabbel- j an won represented the city, or municipal faction, and the Hoeks the nobles, or aristo- crats, who were to catch and control them. The Hoeks were defeated in a naval action July 21, 1490, by the fleet of the Kabbel- jauwen, commanded by-Jan von Egmont. KABUL. (See CABUL.) KABYLES, or BERBERS, descended from the aborigines of Northern Africa, though conquered by the Phoenicians, the Romans, the Vandals, and the Arabs, continued to occupy the countries south of the Mediter- ranean till the nth century, when they were driven to the Atlas Mountains by the Saracens. The French occupied the valley of Sebaon in 1844. Expeditions were sent against them in 1844, 1845, and 1846. Great part of their terri- tory was subdued in 1847, and the remainder was taken by Gen. St. Arnaud in 1850. (See ALGERIA.) KADRIS. (See DERVISH.) KAFFA. (See CAFFA.) KAFFRARIA and KAFFRE. (See CAF- FRARIA and CAFFRE WAR.) KAGOSIMA (Japan). Mr. Richardson, an English subject, was murdered by the Japanese within the jurisdiction of the Prince of Satsuma, Sep. 14, 1862, and Ad- miral Kuper was instructed to proceed to Kagosima, his capital, and exact payment of a heavy indemnity. He arrived in the bay Aug. n, 1863, anchored off the town Aug. 12, and, receiving no satisfactory reply, seized three screw steamers, Aug. 15. His squadron was immediately attacked by the batteries, and retaliated by bombarding the town, which was reduced to rums Aug. 16. KAGUL (Battle). The Russians defeated the Turks in a great battle on the left bank of the River Kagul, or Kahul, Aug. i, 1770. KAHOOLAUI. (See HAWAIIAN ARCHI- PELAGO.) KAI-FONG. (See CAI-FONG-FOTJ.) KAINARD JI. (See KUTSCHOUC-KAINARDJI. ) KAINLY (Battle). The Russians, after a severe struggle, defeated the Turks in the plain of Kaiiily, near Erzeroum, July i, 1829. KAIRWAN. (See CAIRVAN.) KAISER CARLSBAD. (-See CARLSBAD.) KAISERS-LAUTERN, or LAUTERN (Ger- many). The castle of this very ancient town was built by Frederick I., 1152 1190. The French, under Hoche, failed in an attack upon the allied army near this town, Nov. 28, 1793. A French army was defeated here by Mollendorf, with a loss of 3,000 men and several pieces of cannon, May 24, 1794. KALAFAT (Wallachia). At the commence- ment of the Russian war, a Turkish force of 12,000 men took possession of this town, Oct. 28, 1853, and an attempt made to dislodge them by a corps of Russians, 20,000 strong, led to the spirited engagement of Citate, in which the Turks were victorious, Jan. 6, 1854. They fortified the town, and maintained t! en- position till Austria entered the Principalities, by virtue of a treaty signed June 14, 1854. KALEB [ 542 ] KAPOLNA KALEB MEDINA (Battle). A combined force of English, Austrians, Turks, and Druses, defeated Ibrahim, son of Mehemet Ali, at this place in Syria, Oct. 10, 1840. KALEIDOSCOPE. This optical instrument, invented hi 1814 by Sir David Brewster, was patented by him in 1817. KALISCH, or KALISZ (Poland), was founded in the 7th century, and its citadel was built by Casimir III. (13331370). Here the Rus- sians defeated the Swedes, Nov. 19, 1706 ; and the Saxon infantry, commanded by Rcynicr, Feb. 13, 1813. The latter victory was followed by the " Treaty of Kalisch," between Russia and Prussia, signed Feb. 28, 1813. A secret convention between the Austrian and Saxon commanders, to allow the troops of the latter a passage through the Imperial territories, was concluded at this place about the end of March, 1813. A conference was held at Kalisch between the Emperor of Russia and the King of Prussia, in Oct., 1835. KALI Y r UGA. (See CALIYUGA.) KALKA (Battle). The Mongols defeated the Russians and the Curnans on the banks of this river, June 16, 1224. K A I. MAR. (See CALMAR.) K A LM UC KS. ( See KALMUCKS.) KALPEE. (Sff. CATJ-KK.) KALUNGA FORT Hindustan) was unsuc- cessfully attacked, during the Ghoorka war, by the British, under Major-Gen. Gillespie, who fell in the assault, Oct. 31, 1814. A second storming party under Col. Mawby also failed, Nov. 27, and the fort was evacuated by the Nepaulesc garrison Nov. 30. KAMA K U KA. (*,< YOKOHAMA.) K A M I X K I K< ' K , K A M I X 1 KTX, or PODOLSK fKunipean Russia). This town, founded by the sons of Olgherd, in 1331, was erected into a city in 1374. In 1672 it was seized by the Turks, to whom it was ceded in 1676. They siUTenclered it to the Poles in 1699. The Rus- sians took it in 1793, and demolished the forti- fications in 1812 ; but they have since been rebuilt. KA MPTULICON. This flexible substitute for oil-cloth, composed of powdered cork and india-rubber, ami said to be the invention of Fanshawe, was patented by E. Galloway, Feb. 14, 1844. KAMTSCHATKA (Siberia) was discovered by some Russians, who had been wrecked upon the coast, in 1639. The Cossacks pene- trated into the country in 1690, and the Rus- sians took possession in 1696, though they did not succeed in subjugating the inhabitants until 1706. Behring ascertained that it was a peninsula in 1728. KANAGAWA (Japan). By the treaty of Jeddo (q. v.}, Aug. 26, 1858, this town, the sea- port of Jeddo, was opened to British subjects from July i, 1859. KANAWHA (North America). Western Vir- ginia, having remained loyal to the government of the United States, was admitted into the Union as a separate State, under the name of Western Virginia, or Kanawha, Dec. 31, 1862, and was inatigurated at Wheeling, the capital, June 20, 1863. KANDAHAR (Afghanistan), though said by some authorities to have been built by Lohrasp, a Persian king, who nourished at a very early period, is generally supposed to have been founded by Alexander III. (the Great), during his campaigns in Asia, B.C. 334 323. In the beginning of the nth century it was held by the Affghan tiibes, from whom it was taken by the Sultan Mahmoud of Ghizni. Zinghis Khan seized it towards the commencement of the 1 3th, aud Timour in the i4th century. In 1507 the Emperor Baber took it; but being un- able to retain possession, he again laid siege to it in 1521, effecting its capture after a determined resistance. In 1625 it fell under the power of Shah Abbas I. (the Great), from whom it was recovered in 1649. In 1747 it was taken by Ahmed Shah, who made it the capital of Aff- ghanistan. The seat of government was, how- ever, transferred to Cabul in 1774. During the Affghan war (q. r.), a British force occupied the town from Aug. 7, 1839, to May 22. 1842. KANDSAG. (See ELIZABETOPOL.) K ANDY (Ceylon), captured by Rajah Singha I., ill 1582, was seized in Feb., 1803, by the British, who evacuated it June 24, after disastrous occupation. Kandy was once m OK; conquered by the English, Feb. 14, 1815, and was ceded to Great Britain by a treaty signed March 2. > Sit- CKYI.ON.) KA.\<;AU<><> ISLAND (Gulf St. Vincent) was discovered by Flinders in 1802, and thus named by him from the numbers of kan- garoos seen sporting about in every open Spot. K ANGRAH ( Pun jaub). This important for- tress, taken in 1010 by Mahmoud of Ghi/.ni, and recaptured in 1043 by the Rajah of Delhi, came into the possession of England on the annexation of the Punjaub in 1849. KAX1SA, or CANISSA (Hungary). The for- tifications of this town, taken by the Turks in 1600, were dismantled in 1702. KANOJE, KUNNOJ, KUNNOUJ, or CANOUJ (Hindostan). This city, though not mentioned in the poem Mahabharat, B.C. 1400, is believed to be nearly as ancient. It attained its greatest prosperity about 590, was taken by Mahmoud in 1018, and by Shahabuddin Mo- hammed, sovereign of Ghoor, in 1194. It was sacked by Mohammed Toghluk, Tyrant of Delhi, in 1340, and in 1528 was seized by Baber, whose son and successor, Humayun, sustained a defeat in its neighbourhood from his Affghan rival, Sher Shah. A body of fugitive mutineers was defeated here with great slaughter by Sir Hope Grant, in 1857. KANSAS (North America) formed part of Louisiana, purchased by the United States Government from France in 1803, w &s erected into a territory in May, 1854, an d admitted into the Union as an independent state Jan. 29, 1 86 1. A convention to frame a constitution metinSep., 1857. A resolution to appoint acom- mittee to investigate certain charges against President Buchanan, of having used bribes and other influence in order to insure the success of a bill legalizing slavery in this state, was adopted by the House of Representatives, March 5, 1860. KA ITi;L. (See CAPPEL.) KAPOLNA (Battle). The Austrians de- KARAITES C 543 1 KENDAL feated the Hungarians in a series of en counters near Kapolua, Feb. 26 and 27, 1849 KARAITES. (See CARAITES.) KAREGITES, orCHAREGITES. A Moham medan sect, which repudiated the authority of Ali in 657, and were reduced to submission in 659. Three of their number entered int< another conspiracy against Ali, who was stabbed by one of them in a mosque at Cufa Jan. 19, and died Jan. 21, 661. The term Karegite, deserter, or rebel, was applied to all who revolted from the lawful Imam. KARISMIANS, or KHARIZMIANS. (See CARISMIANS.) KARITA. (See CAKITA, Battle.) KARKAR (Battle). (See AROEB.) KAIILOWITZ. (See CARLOWITZ.) KARNAK (Egypt). Nothing certain is known respecting the foundation of this tem- ple, which contains sculptures, with inscrip- tions for the most part of the time of Rameses III., B.C. 1200. The great hall, however, is ascertained to have been built by Sethee I., B.C. 1340. Fragments have been found bearing the name of Sesortasen I., B.C. 2080. KARS (Asiatic Turkey). Once the capital of the Chorzene district, in Armenia, the resi- dence of the Bagratid. Princes, 928961, was exchanged by them in 1064, and has since been known under the name of Kars. It con- tains a castle, built by Amurath III., in 1586, and besieged in 1735 by Nadir Shah, who, after cutting off a Turkish army of 100,000 men, abandoned the enterprise. The Russians blockaded the town for a few months in 1806. Paskewitch laid siege to it July 7, 1828, and captured it July 15. The Turkish garrison, commanded by Gen. Williams, held out against the investing army of Russia from June 16, 1855, till compelled by a famine to capitulate, Nov. 25. The general assault made by the Russians, Sep. 29, was repulsed. Kars was restored to the Turks by the third article of the treaty of Paris, March 30, 1856. KASAN, or KAZAN. (See CAZAN.) KASHGAR, or CASHGAR (China), anciently called Sule, existed before the Christian aera, and after exchanging rulers several times, was conquered by the Chinese in 1759. Marco Polo visited it about 1275. KATHARINE (ST.) DOCKS (London), con- structed according to the Local and Personal Act, 6 Geo. IV. c. cv. (June 10, 1825), were founded May 3, 1827, and opened Oct. 25, 1828. They occupy an area of 24 acres, obtained by the removal of 1,250 houses, including St. Katharine's Hospital (q.v.], and the cost of construction was 1,700,000. A fire in the bonded warehouses of these docks caused great destruction of property Jan. i, 1866. KATHARINE (ST.) HOSPITAL (London). This charity was founded by Matilda, queen- consort of King Stephen, in 1145, "for a master, brethren, and sisters, and almspeople, in pure and perpetual arms." After a series of lawsuits, lasting from 1255 to 1273, it was re established by Eleanor, consort of Henry III., "for a master, three brethren, and three sisters, ten bedeswomen, and six poor scholars." The site being required in 1824 for St. Katharine's Docks, a large compensa- tion was paid, and service having been per- formed for the last time at the old church, Oct. 30, 1825, an edifice near Regent's Park was erected in 1827. KATZBACH (Battle). Blucher defeated the French, commanded by Macdonald and Ney, 011 the banks of the Katzbach, Aug. 26, 1813. Blucher took 18,000 prisoners and above 100 guns. KAUAI. (See HAWAIIAN ARCHIPELAGO.) KEARNEYSVILLE (Battle). Skirmishes without decisive results occurred near this hamlet in Virginia, between the Confederates, under Gen. Lee, and the Federals, Oct. 16 and 17, 1862. KEELING, or COCOS ISLANDS (Indian Ocean), were discovered by Keeling in 1600. KEEPER. (See GREAT SEAL AND LORD KEEPER.) KEEPER OF THE ROLLS. (See CUSTOS ROTULORUM.) KEEPERS OF THE PEACE. (See CONSER- VATORS.) KEHL (Germany) was captured by the French under Marshal Villars, March 9, 1703, and by the Duke de Berwick in Dec., 1733. Moreau surprised the fort June 23, 1796. The Austrians attempted to recover it by a coup de main, but failed, Sep. 18, 1796. After a siege of 50 days, the French surrendered to the imperial general, Jan. 9, 1797. Kehl was again given up to the French, April 21, 1797, and, by a decree of the senate, was annexed to the French empire, Jan. 21, 1807. It was finally restored to Baden by the treaty of Paris, May 30, 1814. KEINTON, or KINETON. (See EDGEHILL Battle.) KELAT, or KHELAT (Beloochistan). This strongly fortified town was stormed by the English, Nov. 13, 1839, when the khan and several of his chiefs fell in the struggle. It was left under the care of a garrison of native ';roops, who surrendered, after a defence of ;hree days' duration, to Meer Nusseer Khan, July 27, 1840. The Beloochees, having plun- lered the town, abandoned it, and the British ;roops regained possession Nov. 3, 1840. KELDEES. (See CULDEES.) " KELLY'S FORD (Battle). Gen. Stuart de- 'eated a superior Federal force at this ford, on ;he Rappahannock River in Virginia, March 17, KEMAOON, or KUMAON (Hindostan). The vhole of this district was ceded to the East ndia Company by the convention of Almorah, April 27, 1815. KEMMENDINE (Burmah). This fortified )ost was captured by the British troops June o, 1824, during the Burmese war. The Bur- nese failed in an attempt to recapture the )lace, Dec. i, 1824. KENDAL (Westmoreland). A hospital for epers was established in the reign of Henry II. 115489). Edward III., in 1331, granted a letter f protection to "John Kempe, of Flanders, loth weaver," for the manufacture of woollen loths, afterwards known as " Kendals." The rammar-school was founded in 1535, Sande's lospital and blue-coat school were founded in 670, the dispensary was erected in 1782, the KENESAW [ 544 KERTCH obelisk commemorating the expulsion of James II. in 1788, and the green-coat (Sunday-school in 1814. The Lancaster and Kendal canal was opened in 1819, and the Roman Catholic chapel was completed in 1837. KENESAW MOUNTAIN (Battle). The Federals, under Gen. Sherman, were repulsed, June 27, 1864, with a loss of nearly 3,000 men, in an attack upon the Confederate forces of Gen. Johnston stationed on this mountain in Georgia. K UN I LW( >RTH CASTLE (Warwickshire) was built about 1122 by Geoffrey de Clinton, on land granted for the ptirix.su by llenrv 1 In 1172 it was garrisoned by Henry II. against his rebellious sons ; and in 1253 was bestowed for life upon Simon De Montfort, Earl of Lei- cester. After the battle of Evesham (q. v.}, Kenilworth, held by De Montfort's second son, Simon, was taken by Henry III. after a six months' siege. In' 1286 Roger Mortimer held a great chivalric meeting or "round table " in this castle, which was enlarged by John of Gaunt in 1391. In 1414 Henry V. kept his Lent here, and received a present of tennis- balls from the French Dauphin. Queen Kli/a- beth was entertained herewith great magni- ficence by Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester, in 1575. She arrived July 9, and prolonged her visit for 17 days. The decline of Kenilworth commenced during the civil wars, when it was given by Cromwell to some of his officers, by whom it was dismantled. KKNNKT (Mat tie). The Danes defeated Ethelrcd II. at Kennet, in 1006. EthHred II. retired into Shropshire, and assembled the witan, when it was determined to make a truce with the invaders to give them food and pay tribute. In the following year 36,000 pounds of gold were paid. K KXXINGTON COMMON 'Surrey). .leinmy Dawson was hanged, drawn, and quar- tered on this common, near London, July 30, 1746. The Chartists, headed by i O'Connor, held a meeting here, April 10, 1848, which proved a failure as far as the objects of its projectors were concerned. Kennington Common was ordered to be inclosed and con- verted into a public pleasure-ground by 15 & 16 Viet. c. 29 (June 17, 1852). KEN8AL-GREEN CEMETERY (London). The cemetery at this place, on the Harrow Road, laid out by a joint-stock company incor- porated by act of Parliament in 1831-2, was opened Jan. 31, 1832, and consecrated Nov. 2. Additional ground was consecrated by the Bishop of London Aug. 14, 1862. A fire, the origin of which was not ascertained, broke out in the catacombs and destroyed several coffins, Sep. 18, 1865. KENSINGTON PALACE AND GARDENS (London). From the Close Roll, temp. Ed- ward I., it appears that a council was held Aug. 23, 1302, "in the king's chamber at Ken- sington." Kensington House was the seat of Heneage Finch, Earl of Nottingham, whose son sold it to William III. soon after his acces- sion, and he converted it into a royal palace. William III., his queen Mary, Queen Anne, and George II., died here. Queen Victoria was born here May 24, 1819, and held her first council here in 1836. The Serpentine was formed be- tween the years 1730 and 1733, an( l the bridge over it, which separates the gardens from ! 1 v< Lo Park, was erected from the designs of Remiie in 1826. (See SOUTH KENSIN<;T

i r'sar landed B.C. 55, was erected into a king- dom by Hengist in 455. Ethelbert (568 616) was the first Christian monarch in England. It was united to Wessex in 824. Alfred made it a county in 886. K !: NT I s 1 1 I-'l RE, a term first applied to the enthusiastic applause elicited at the various public meetings held in Kent, in 1828 and 1829, against 1he Roman Catholic Emancipation Ad. KKNTISIJ 1'KTITJON, drawn up at the assizes at Maidstone, April 29, 1701, and signed by the grand jury, several magistral. freeholders, was presented to the House of Commons May 8. The petitioners besought that assembly to "drop their disputes, have regard to the voice of the people, and < their loyal addresses into bills of supply." The House refused to entertain the petition, and imprisoned William Colepeppor and four other persons who had presented it. This act provoked a memorial, which charged the Commons, under 15 points, with tyranny ami oppression. A new parliament, which met Dec. 30, 1701, again committed Colepeppor to prison, and passed resolutions in answer to the Kentish Petition, Feb. 26, 1702. KKXTUCKY (North America), first visited by Europeans in 1767, and settled in 1775, ori- ginally formed part of Virginia. A division took place in 1790, when its first constitution was framed, and Kentucky was admitted into the Union as an independent state, June i, 1792. A new constitution was drawn up in 1799, and another in 1850. KERAITES. Some Tartar tribes who were converted to Christianity in the early part of the nth century. Their Princes were known under the title of Prester John. KERBESTER. (See COEBIESDALE, Battle.) KERESZTES (Battle). Mohammed III. de- feated the Germans in this plain in 1596. KERGUELEN LAND. (See DESOLATION - ISLAND.) KERTCH (Crimea), on the site of the ancient Panticapseum (q. t>.), capital of the ancient kingdom of Bosporus (q. v.), became a Milesian settlement about B.C. 500, and was annexed to Rome by Pompey B.C. 63. The Huns seized it in 375, and the Genoese in 1280. They were compelled to abandon it by the Turks in 1475. These were displaced by the Russians in 1770, to whom the place was formally ceded in 1792. An expedition against the peninsula of Kertch KESSELDORF [ 545 ] KHORASSAN was despatched from the Crimea by the allied forces of France and England, May 23, 1855. Kertch surrendered May 25, and was restored to Russia by the 4th article of the treaty of Paris, March 30, 1856. Kertch is still called Bospor amongst the inhabitants of the Crimea. KESSELDORF (Battle). Prince Leopold, commanding a portion of the Prussian forces of Frederick II. (the Great), defeated the Saxons under Rutowski, at this place, in Saxony, KErS 1 INSURRECTION, so called from its leader, a tanner by trade, broke out at Wy- mondham, in Norfolk, in July, 1549. The in- surgents, whose watchword was " Kill the gentlemen!" having defeated a force sent against them and captured Norwich, were dis- persed in an encounter at Dussindale (q. v.), by the Earl of Warwick, Aug. 27. William Ket, or Knight, the leader, and his brother Robert, with other ringleaders, tried at West- minster, Nov. 26, were executed. KEW HOUSE (Surrey) was made a royal residence by Frederick, Prince of Wales (son of George II.), who took it upon a lease from the Cappel family, in 1730. He began to form the pleasure-grounds, then containing 270 acres ; and dying here, March 20, 1751, the work was completed by his widow, Augusta, Princess of Wales. George III. purchased Kew House about 1789. It was afterwards pulled down, and the furniture, &c., removed to Kew Palace (q.v.}. KEW PALACE AND GARDENS (Surrey). This small red-brick building, erected in the time of James I. or Charles I., was purchased by Queen Charlotte in 1781. William Aiton was appointed manager of the botanical gar- den of Kew in 1759, and the pleasure and kit- chen gardens were also placed under his care in 1783. He published his "Hortus Kewensis ; or, A Catalogue of the Plants cultivated in the Royal Botanical Garden of Kew," in 1789. Dr. Hill had published a catalogue of the plants in the exotic garden of Kew, in 1768. Sir W. Chambers erected the old stove in 1760, and the orangery in 1761. The pagoda, com- menced in 1761, was completed in 1762. A greenhouse for Cape plants was built in 1788 ; and another, for the vegetable productions of New Holland, was added in 1792. The former has been pulled down ; but the latter, greatly improved, is known as the Australian House. The conservatory was transferred here from Buckingham House in 1836. A committee was appointed, in 1838, to inqxiire into the manage- ment, &c., of the Royal Botanical Gardens, and the report was presented in May, 1840. The gardens, pleasure-grounds, &c., were trans- ferred to the management of the Commis- sioners of Woods and Forests, and in 1841 were thrown open to the public. The ornamented gateway was erected in 1845-6. In 1841 the orange-trees were removed to Kensington Palace from the orangery, which was consider- ably improved in 1842. The palm-house was finished in 1848. A wooden bridge, built over the Thames at Kew in 1759, was replaced by the stone bridge in 1783. Sir W. J. Hooker, who died Aug. 12, 1865, effected great improve- ments in these gardens, and wrote a popular guide, published in 1847. KEYS. (See LOCKS AND KEYS.) KEY WEST (Florida), supposed to be a cor- ruption of Cayo Hueso, or Bone Key, was settled in 1822. KHALULI (Battle). At this place, on the lower Tigris, Sennacherib, King of Assyria, defeated the allied forces of Susub, Chaldsean monarch of Babylon, and Umman-minan, King of Elam, about B.C. 689. KHANDESH, or CANDEISH (Hindostan), was an independent sovereignty from the early part of the isth century till it was conquered by Akbar, towards the close of the i6th cen- tury. A famine, which carried off a large number of the population, occurred in 1803. It was annexed by the British Government in 1818, although not finally tranquillized till 1825. KHART (Battles). The Russians were de- feated by the Turks under the walls of this town, in Asia Minor, July 19, 1829. Paske- witch advanced with another army, and de- feated the Turks at the same place, Aug. 20, 1829. KHARTANI. (See ALGERIA and DAHARA, or DAHRA MASSACRE.) KHARTOUM, or KHARTUM (Egypt), the capital of Nubia, consisted only of a few huts until 1821, was made the seat of the govern- ment for Beledes-Sudan, when that district became an Egyptian province in 1822. An inundation occurred in 1850. KHERSON. (-See CHERSON.) KHIVA, KHARASM, KHAUREZM, or URGENGE (Asia). This country, the seat of the Carismians (q. v.), after forming part of the empire of the Seleucidse, and of the king- doms of Bactria, Parthia, Persia, and of the territory of the Caliphs, became in 1692 an inde- pendent monarchy under a Seljukian dynasty. In 1221 it was conquered by Zingis Khan, and in 1370 by Timour, whose descendants were expelled from the throne in 1511 by Shahy Beg, chief of the Uzbeks. In 1602 it was seized by the Cossacks, and in 1622 its khan offered to become a vassal of Russia. A similar proposal was made to Peter the Great in 1700, but on attempting to take possession in 1717, he was totally defeated. Nicholas I. renewed attempts at conquest in 1839, when great part of his army perished in the desert ; but a commercial treaty, obtained in 1854, greatly extended Russian in- fluence. A treaty with Russia, concluded in 1842, was virtually abandoned in consequence of Khivan aggressions in 1846. In 1857 Gen. Perofski destroyed the Khivan fort of Khoja- Nia"z, which had obstructed Russian opera- tions against Kokand (q. v.), and in 1858 Gen. Ignatief was despatched on a mission to the khan. KHOI (Battle). The Turks, led by Selim I., were defeated by Shah Ismael in this plain, near a fortified town of the same name, in Persia, in 1514. KHORASSAN (Persia), or Country of the Sun, was invaded by the Saracens, who over- threw the Sassanides dynasty in 651. Taher revolted, and established his sway in 813 ; Tamerlane conquered it in 1383 ; Ismael, de- N K KHORSABAD [ 546 ] KILLALA f eating Shakibek, took possession of it in 1510 ; and it became a Persian province in 1768. KHORSABAD, or KHISHTABAD (Assyria), is mentioned by the early Arab geographers, who described it as occupying the site of an ancient Assyrian city. Excavations for the discovery of ancient buildings, sculpture, &c., commenced by M. Botta in 1841, disclosed the first Assyrian edifice discovered in modern times. It is believed the ruins formed part of the great city of Nineveh (q. v.}. KHYBER PASS (Afghanistan). By this route Alexander III., Tamerlane, Nadir Shah, and other conquerors, penetrated into India, of which it has been termed the iron gate. The passage was forced by Col. Wade, July 26, 1839. Keane's army retreated through it in 1840. Brigadier Wild, on his way to the relief of Jelal- abad, assailed the key of the pass Jan. 15, 1842 ; but for want of additional support was obliged to retire Jan. 23. Major-Gen. Pollock entered the pass April 5, and the rear of the force emerged from it April 14. The British army, after the subjugation of the Affghan chiefs, re- tired through this pass in Oct., 1842. KI1YRPORK (Hindustan). By a treaty be- tween the East India Company and the ameers of Scinde, signed here April 20, 1832, a free passage up the Indus and other rivers was secured to British ships. The Ameer of Khyr- pore ceded the place by treaty in 1838, and it was annexed by the British March 24, 1843. A commission to investigate an alleged forgery of certain documents by the Ameer AH Murad, found him guilty of the act, Jan. 5, 1857. K I D I) K R M f N S T E R (Worcestershire) was represented in Parliament in 1 300. The privi- lege, subsequently lost, was restored by the Reform Bill, June 7, 1832. It was incorpo- rated by royal charter in 1637. The manufac- ture of carpets was introduced in 1745. KIEF, KIEV, or KI June. John de Cavendish. 1718, May 15. John Pratt. 1735, March 3. Robert, afterwards Lord Raymond. 1381, June 22. Robert Tresilian. GEORGE II. 1388. Jan. 31. Walter de Clopton. 1737, June. John Raymond. HENRY IV. J 733> Oct. 31. Philip Yorke, afterwards Earl of Uard- 1399, Sep. 30. Walter de Clopton. 1400, Nov. 15. William Gascoigne. wicke. '737, June 8. William Lee. 1754, May 3. Dudley Ryder. IIEXRY V. 1413, March 29. William Hankford. 1756, Nov. 8. William Murray, Lord Mansfield, after- wards Earl of Mansfield. HENRY VI. GEORGE III. 1422, Oct. William Hankford. 1760, Oct. Lord Mansfield. 1424, Jan. 21. William Cheyne. 1439, Jan. 20. John Juyn. 1440, April 13. John Hody. 1788, June 4. Lloyd, Lord Kenyon. 1802, April ii. Edward Law, Lord Ellenborough. 1818, Nov. 2. Charles Abbott, afterwards Baron Tenterden. 1442, Jan. 25- John Fortescue. GEORGE IV. EDWARD IV, 1830, Jan. Charles Abbott 1461. John Markham. 1469, Jan. 23. Thomas Billing. 1481, May 7. William Huse. WILLIAM IV. 1830, June. Lord Tenterden. RICHARD III. 1833, Nov. 4. Thomas, afterwards Lord Denman. 1483, June 26. William Huse. VICTORIA. HENRY VII. 1837, June. Lord Denman. 1485, Aug. William Huse. 1850, March 6. Lord Campbell. 1495, Nov. 24. John Fineux. 1859, June 34- Alexander J. E. Cockburn. HENRY VIII. 1509, April. John Fineux. 1526, Jan. 23. John Fitz-James. I539i Jan. 21. Edward Montagu. 1545, Nov. 9. Richard Lyster. KING'S (or QUEEN'S) BENCH (Ireland), was established by Edward I. towards the close of the i^th century. EDWARD VI. 1547, Jan. Richard Lyster. CHIEF JUSTICES SINCE THE REVOLUTION. 1552, March 31. Roger Cholmley. WILLIAM III. AND MARY* MARY. 1689, Feb. 13. Thomas Nugent 1553, Oct. 4. Thomas Bromley. 1555, June 11. William Portman. 1690, Dec. 6. Richard Reynell. 1695, June 7. Richard Pyne. 1557, May 8. Edward Saunders. ANNE. ELIZABETH. 1702, June 1 8. Richard Pyne. 1558, Nov. 17. Edward Saunders. 1709, Jan 4. Alan Brodrick. 1559, Jan. 22. Robert Catlin. 1711, Julys. Richard Cox. 1574, Nov. 8. Christopher Wray. 1592, June 3. John Popham. GEORGE I. 1714, Oct 14. William Whitshed. JAMES I. 1603, March. John Popham. 1727, April 3. John Rogerson. 1607, June 25. Thomas Fleming. GEORGE II. 1613, Oct. 25. Edward Coke. 1727, July 31. John Rogerson. 1616, Nov. 16. Henry Montagu. 1741, Jan. 14. Thomas Marlay. 1631, Jan. 29. James Ley. 1625, Jan. 36. Ranulphe Crewe. 1751, Oct. i. St George Caulfield. 1760, Aug. 25. Warden Flood. KING'S KING'S A.D. CF.'>::<;E in. 1761, March 37. Warden Flood. 1764, S.-|>. 24- John Gore, afterwards Earl Annaly. 1784, April 2<). John Scott afterwards Karl of ClonmeL iw Juno 13. Arthur Wolfe, afterwards Lord Kil warden. 1803, Sep. 13. William Downcs, afterwards Lord Uownes. GEORGE IV. 1820, Jan. 29. Lord Downes. 1834, Feb. 14. Charles Kendal Bushe. WILLIAM IV. 1830, June 6. Charles Kendal Bushe. VICTORIA. 1837, June 20. Charles Kendal Bushe. 1841, Nov. lo. Edward Pennefather. 1846, Jan. 23. Francis Blaekburne. 1852, March I. Thomas Lefroy. 1866, July 33. James Whiteside. KING'S (or QUEEN'S) BENCH PRISON (London). This debtors' prison is said to have been the gaol to which Judge Gascoigne com- mitted Prince Henry in the reign of Henry IV. The office of marshal of the King's Bench was sold to a company of proprietors by the Earl of Radnor, Sep. 20, 1718, for ^10,500. The prison was built in 1751, enlarged in 1776, and burned by the mob during the Gordon riots (ec. 28. In March, 1689, Kinsale was gar- isoned by the French and Irish forces of ames II., who held it till the end of 1690, k'hen it surrendered to Gen. Churchill, after- wards Duke of Maryborough. Kinsale has been :i a declining condition since the peace of 1814. 'he railway to Cork was opened May 16, 1863. KINTRISHI (Battle). The Russians de- eated the Turks near this place in the pro- ince of Erivaii, March 15, 1829. KINTYRE. (See CANTIRE.) KIOGE (Sea-fights). In the Bay of Kioge, n the coast of the island of Zealand, the Swedish fleet was defeated by a combined )utch and Danish fleet, in 1676. From the act that the action took place near Bornholm, t is often called by that name. A Swedish leet having assailed a Danish fleet here, Oct. , 1710, one Danish ship of 90 guns blew up, ,nd two of the Swedish flag-ships grounded >n a sandbank, and were abandoned. The Swedish fleet retired Oct. 7. KIOW. (See KIEF.) KIPSALE, KIPTCHAK, or KIPZAK (Plains if), extending for an immense distance on >oth sides of the Volga, were conquered by ;he Mongols of the Golden Horde (q. y.) in 1235. Their empire was dismembered late in the isth Ce KIRCHDENKERN (Battles). The French were defeated by the allies at this village in Sermany, July 15, 1761. The first attack was made upon the English, commanded by the Marquis of Granby, and both leader and men displayed extraordinary gallantry. The corn- et was renewed July 16, when the French were again defeated. The French lost 5,000 and the allies only 1,500 men in killed and wounded. These combats are sometimes men- tioned under the name of Villingshausen. KIRCHENTAG. This association of minis- ters and laymen, belonging to the different Protestant Churches in Germany, held its first eeting at Wittenberg in 1848. K1RCHHOLM (Battle). Sigismund III., King of Poland, defeated the Swedes at Kirch- holm, in 1605. KIRK. (See CHURCH OF SCOTLAND and FREE CHURCH OF SCOTLAND.) KIRKCALDY (Fifeshire). This town, the seat of an ancient establishment of the Cul- dees, was erected into a royal burgh in 1334, when it was rendered subject to the Abbot of Dumfermline and his successors. It became independent in 1450, and received a charter from Charles I. in 1644. KIRKTON.-(&>e CREIUTON.) KIR OF MOAB (Palestine). This stronghold of Moab, mentioned Isaiah xv. i, was noticed in an act of the Council of Jerusalem in 536. In 1131 Fulk, Count of Anjou, and Latin King of Jerusalem, erected a castle, which successfully resisted a siege by Saladin in 1183. KIS (Battle). Sennacherib, King of Assyria, totally defeated Merodach Baladan, King of Babylon, and his Elamitish allies, near this city of Chaldaea, B.C. 702. KISSING, as a religious act, was practised in the time of the patriarch Job, B.C. 2130, who KISSINGEN t 552 ] KNIGHT protests (Job xxxi. 26 and 27) that he had not kissed his hand to the sun or to the moon. This mark of devotion was paid to Baal (i Kings xix. 18), B.C. 910. It passed to the Greeks, and from them to the Romans. L)r. Winsemius de- clares that the custom was unknown in England till 449, when the Princess Rowena, daughter of Hengist, King of Friesland, pressed her lips to the cup, and saluted Vortigern with a "little kiss." From a passage in Evelyn's Diary, it appears that men kissed each other in the streets of London towards the end of the i7th century. The Spanish conqxierors found the custom prevalent in the New World. KISSINGEN (Bavaria). The importance of this fashionable watering-place arose from the patronage of Louis I., King of Bavaria (1825 1848). The celebrated artesian well, 2,000 feet deep, commenced in 1832, was completed in 1852. The Emperors of Austria and of Russia, and some German sovereigns, met here June 16 21, 1864. KISS OF PEACE. The osculum pacis, or the solemn kiss of peace, was anciently given by the faithful one to the other, as a testimony of cordial love and affection. After the priest had given the salutation of peace, the deacon ordered the people to salute one another with a holy kiss. It was also given before the Eucharist, until the i2th or isth century, when the Pax (q. v.) was introduced. Towards the end of the 3rd century the kiss of peace was given in baptism. It is said to have been omitted at the coronation of Stephen in 1 1 35. Henry II. of England refused to give Becket the kiss of peace, cat that tune the usual pledge of reconciliation, in 1169. KIT-CAT CLUB (London). This celebrated association, formed about 1700, which held its first meetings at a small house in Shire Lane, originally consisted of thirty-nine noble- men and gentlemen distinguished for the warmth of their attachment to the house of Hanover. The Duke of Marlborough, Sir Robert Walpole, Addison, Garth, and many famous men of the period, were members. The club is said to derive its name from Christopher Katt, a pastrycook, at whose house the members dined. KITT'S, ST. (See CHRISTOPHER'S, ST.) KIWEROWA-HORKA (Treaty), concluded between Russia and Poland, Jan. 15, 1582, at this village near the Polish frontier, ceded Livonia to the latter power. The peace, limited by the original compact to ten years, was renewed in 1591. KLAGENFURT (Illyria), the capital of Carinthia, belonged to the crown till 1518, when Maximilian I. transferred it to the states of Carinthia, for the purpose of erecting a fortress. The house of assembly was built in 1391. At various times the city has suffered from extensive fires. Those which occurred in JSSSj I 7 2 3> an d !796, were very destructive. It was taken by the French, March 29, 1797, and Napoleon I. made it his head-quarters, March 30. A skirmish took place here between Chastellar and the Italian general Rusca, in June, 1809. KL AUSENBURG (Battle). George Ragotski II., Waiwodo of Transylvania, was defeated and slain by the Turks near his capital city, in May, 1660. KL AUSENBURG (Transylvania), the capital, called Colosvar or Kolosvar by the Hungarians, is believed to have been founded by the Ro- mans, and by them named Claudia, whence its modern Latin appellation of Claudiopolis. A colony of Saxons settled in the town, which they enlarged in 1178. The cathedral was built in fulfilment of a vow by King Sigis- mund, 1399. Matthias Corvinus Huniades, King of Hungary, was bom here in 1443. On a lofty eminence stands the citadel, erected in KLEIN-SCHNELLENDORF (Convention). Frederick II. (the Great) of Prussia, by a secret convention, concluded at this castle in Silesia with the generals of Maria Theresa, Oct. 9, 1741, permitted the Austrians to retire from Silesia into Moravia, receiving Lower Silesia, and the right to take Neisse by siege. Frederick II. broke the convention before the end of 1741. KLOSTER SEYVERN (Treaty). An alliance was concluded at this place near Munich be- tween Saxony, Hesse, Bavaria, and Franco, who united against the recognition of Ferdi- nand, brother of Charles V., and afterwards Emperor of Germany, as King of the Romans, May 26, 1532. The place must not be con- founded with the Hanoverian village where the convention of Closter Seven (q. v.} was signed. KLUM, or CHLUM. (See SADOWA, Battle.) KNKELERS. A third order of catechumens was distinguished by this name by the Council of Ncocft'sarea, in 314 or 315, and other councils. Amongst the penitents was an order of kneelers or prostrators. KNEELING was practised as the ordinary posture of devotion from the earliest times. Amongst the primitive Christians, on the Lord's day, all prayers were performed stand- ing, but on other days some were said standing, some kneeling. KNIGHT-BANNERET, a person who re- ceived the order of knighthood, under the royal standard, for some distinguished service in the field. Shakspeare (King John, i. i) speaks of ' A soldier, by the honour-giving hand Of Cceur-de-Lion, knighted in the field." The time and place at which the dignity was first conferred have excited much controversy. In 5 Rich. II. s. ii. c. 4 (1382), bannerets are mentioned amongst those summoned to Parlia- ment. " No man," says Hallam (Middle Ages, iii. ch. 9, pt. 2), " could properly be a banneret unless he possessed a certain estate, and could bring a certain number of lances into the field. His distinguishing mark was the square banner, carried by a squire at the point of his lance ; while the knight-bachelor had only the coronet or pointed pendant. When a banneret was created, the general cut off this pendant to render the banner square." Selden states that the first account of this dignity occurs in the reign of Edward I. Edmondson traces it as far back as 736. The Black Prince made Sir John Chandos a knight-banneret in 1367. The order was discontinued from 1642 ; the last, Sir John Smith, having been created by Charles I. KNIGHT [ 553 KNIGHTHOOD after the battle of Edgehill. It was, how- ever, revived by George II. after the battle of Dettingen, June 27, 1743; and Sir William Erskine was made a knight-banneret by George III. in 1764, for distinguished services in the war on the continent. KNIGHT-ERRANTRY is described by a writer in the " Encyclopedia Britannica" (vii. 536) as " a practical caricature of chivalry, which, by bringing it into contempt, exposed it to ridicule, and thus sealed the doom of an institution which, with all its follies, absur- dities, and vices, has conferred essential bene- fits upon mankind." Cervantes wrote "Don Quixote," of which the first part was published in 1605, and the second in 1615, in ridicule of knight-errantry. KNIGHTHOOD. The institution of knight- hood originated in the honour anciently be- stowed upon those who excelled in horseman- ship. Hence the Latin, French, Italian, Spanish, and Dutch words for knight are all derived from terms which signify 'horse.' Some zealous antiquarians consider that Pharaoh conferred the honour of knighthood upon Joseph when he put his ring on his finger and invested him in robes of dignity (Gen. xli. 42), B.C. 1715 ; but there is no evidence of the existence of any such institution until Romulus established the equestrian order at Rome. Modern knighthood did not originate in this order, but in the tenure which com- pelled feudal vassals to hold their lands by furnishing armed men for the service of the sovereign, the obligation to furnish one soldier constituting one knight's fee. The earliest mode of conferring the honour of knighthood in England was the consecration of the novi- tiate's sword by the priest at the altar. The first knight created by the stroke of a sword was Athelstan, who was dubbed by Alfred the Great in goo. The chivalric element was not introduced into knighthood until the period of the Crusades, when devotion to God and to the fair sex became the chief characteristics of all good knights. Ecclesiastics were prohibited from conferring knighthood by a council held in 1 102. In the reigns of Edward VI. and Elizabeth, all persons possessed of lands yield- ing a yearly income of .40 were compelled to receive knighthood or pay a fine ; and in 1626 Charles I. recruited his exhausted exchequer by reviving this obsolete custom. The com- pensation exacted from those knights who declined to perform military service was abolished by 16 Charles I. c. 20 (1640), and the service itself was abolished by 12 Charles II. c. 24 (1660). (See FOREIGN ORDERS.) Many of the following orders are noticed under their respective titles : A.D. 1850. Albert (Saxony). 1383. Albert the Bear (Anhalt Coethon). 1156. Alcantara (Spain). 1733. Alexander Newsky (Russia). 1698. Andrew, St. (Russia). 1540. Andrew, St. (Scotland). 337 (before). Angelic Knights of St. George. 1735. Anne, St. (Russia). 1355. Aununciada (Sardinia). 1383. Antony, St. (Bavaria). 370. Antony, St. (Palestine). 1764. Apostolic Order of St Stephen (Hungary). A.D. 1383. Argonauts of St. Nicholas. 1147. Avis, St. Benedict of (Portugal). 1330. Band or Scarf (Spain). 1304 (before). Bath (England). Revised 1725. 1808. Bavarian Crown (Bavaria). 1313. Bear (Austria). 1703. Bee (France). 1815. Belgian Lion (Holland). 1459. Bethlehem, Our Lady of (Papal States). 1701. Black Eagle (Prussia). 1608. Blood of our Saviour (Austria). 1370. Bourbon (France). 1366. Brician (Sweden). 1334. Broom Flower. 1535- Burguudian Cross (Palestine). 1158. Calatrava (Spain). 1714. Catherine, St. (Russia). 1063. Catherine of Sinai, St. (Palestine). 1348. Chapel, or Poor Knights of Windsor. 1771. Charles III. (Spain). 1811. Charles XIII. (Sweden and Norway). 1807. Charles Frederick (Baden). 1702. Chase-horn (Wurtemberg). 1306. Christ (France). 1317. Christ (Portugal). 1574-89- Christian Charity (France). 1369. Cockle, or Ship (France). 1175. Compostella, or Santiago (Spain). 1660. Concord (Prussia). 1190. Constantino (Two Sicilies). 1606. Cordon Jaune (France). 1368 and 1448. Crescent (Naples and France). 1801. Crescent (Turkey). 1832. Cross of the South (Brazil). 1818. Crown of Wurtemberg. 802. Crown Royal (France). 1 3th cent. Cyprus. 1319. Danebrog (Denmark). 1653. Death's Head (Wiirtembcrg). 1400. De la Calza (Venice). 1330. De la Scama (Spain). 500. Dog and Cock (France). 1379. Dove (Spain). 1418. Dragon Overthrown (Austria). 1838. Ducal House of Peter Frederick Louis (Oldenburg). 1458. Elephant (Denmark). 1450. Ermia (Brittany). 1450. Ermine (France). 1463. Ermine (Naples). 1690. Ernest (Saxe-Coburg-Gotha). 1230. Faith and Charity (France). 1790. Family Order of the Golden Lion (Hesse). 1715. Family Order of Loyalty (Baden). 1838. Family Order of Merit (Oldenburg). 1849. Faustin, St. (Hayti). 1811. Ferdinand, St. (Spain). 1800. Ferdinand, St. (Two Sicilies). 1732. Fidelity (Denmark). 1381. Fools (German Empire). 1829. Francis (Two Sicilies). 1849. Francis Joseph (Austria). Frederick (Wurtemberg). 1344. Garter (England). Generosity (Prussia). 726. Gennet (France). 337. George, St., Angelic Knights of. 1470. George, St (Austria). 1739. George, St. (Bavaria). 1400. George, St. (France). 1470. George, St. (Germany). 1839. George, St. (Hanover). 1833. George, St. (Lucca). 1534. George at Ravenna, St. (Papal States). 1498. George in Rome, St. (Papal States). 1709. George, St. (Russia). 1301. George d'Alfama, St. (Spain). 1819. George of the Reunion, St. (Two Sicilies). 1190. Gerion, St. (Austria). 1690. German Integrity (Saxe-Gotha). 1439. Golden Fleece (Austria). 1785. Golden Lion. 1363. Golden Shield (France). 1559. Golden Spurs (Papal States). 1831. Gregory the Great, St. (Papal States). 1815. Guelphic Order (Hanover). 1834. Henry the Lion (Brunswick). 1739. Henry, St. (Saxony). 1814. Hermingilde, St. (Spain). KNIGHTHOOD [ 554 1 KNIGHTS ce). ))!il States). 1578. Holy Ghost (Fra 1198. Holy (.host (Pap 1496. Holy Sepulchre (Turkey). 1048. Hospitallers (Palestine). 1444. Hubert, St. (Bavaria). 1447. Hubert, St. (German Empire). 1813. Iron Cross (Prussia). 1605. Iron Crown (Austria). 1814. Iron Helmet (Hesse). 1804. Isabella, St. (Portugal). 1815. Isabella the Catholic (Spain). 1390. James, St. (Holland). 1310. James, St. (Portugal). 3175. James of Compostella, St. (Spain). 1738. Januarius, St. (Two Sicilies). 1306. Jesus Christ (France). 1330. Jesus Christ (Papal States). 1615. Jesus and Mary (Papal States). 1755. Joachim, St.. (Franconia). 1812. John, St. (Prussia). 1048. John, St., of Jerusalem (Hospitaller, Palestine). 1807. Joseph, St. (Tuscany). 1351. Knot (Naples). I2i8. Lady of Mercy (Spain). 1564. Lamb of God (Sweden). 1607 (revived). Lazarus, St. (France). 1150. Lazarus, St. (Palestine). 1802. Legion of Honour (France). 1808. Leopold (Austria). 1833. Leopold (Belgium). 1410. Lily of Aragon (Spain). 1050 (about). Lily of Navarre (Spain). I8o8. Lion and the Sun (Persia). 1813. Lion of Zaehringen (Baden). 1587. Loreto (Pupal States). ix 7. Louis (Bavaria). 1807. Louis (Hesse). 1693. Louis, St. (France). 1836. Louis, St. (Lucca). 1 853. Madonna of Cuadnloupo (Mexico). 1043. Malta, St. John of (Austria). 1757. Maria Theresa (Austria). 1618. Mary the Glorious, St. (Papal States). 1614. Mary Magdalene. St. (France). 1434. Maurice. St. (Sardinia). 1573. Maurice and Lazarus, St. (Sardinia). 1853. Maximilian (Bavaria). 1806. Maximilian Joseph (Bavaria). J8^4. Medjidie (Turkey). * Merciful Brethren of the Holy Ghost (Papal States). 1218. Mercy (Spain). 3740. Merit (Prussia). 1815. Merit (Saxony). 3693. Michael, St. (Bavaria). 1469. Michael. St. (France). 1018. Michael, St. (Germany). 1818. Michael ami George, St. (England). 17=19. Military Merit (France). 1769. Military Merit (I I. 1792. Military Merit (Hus^ia). 1841. Military Merit (Tuscany). 3759. Military Merit (\\mlemberg). 1607. Mount Carmel (France). 1708. Neighbourly Love (Austria). * Nichan (Tunis). 1831. Nichani-Iftihar (Turkey). 1383. Nicolas, St. (Naples). 1704. Noble Passion (German Empire). 1841. Oaken Crown (Luxemburg). 733. Oak of Navarre (Spain). 1847. Olaf, St. (Norway). 1818. Our Lady of the Conception of Villa Vicosa (Por- tugal).' 1317. Our Lady of Montesa (Spain). 1607. Our Lady of Mount Carmel (France). 1768. Palatine Lion (Bavaria). 1837. Palm and Alligator (W. Africa). * Patrick, St. (Bavaria). 1783. Patrick. St. (Ireland). 1826. Pedro (Brazil). 3530. Peter and Paul, St. (Papal States). 1838. Peter Frederick Louis (Oldenburg). 1847. Pius (Papal States). 1748. Polar Star (Sweden). 134-!. Poor Knights of Windsor (England). 3393. Porcupine (France). (See CUAPEL.) 1734. Kcd Eagle (Prussia). 1833. Redeemer (Greece). A. 1 .). 312. Kosary of Toledo (Spain). 1829. Kose (Brazil). 516 (about). Bound Table (England). 827. Koyal Louis (Bavaria). 807. Hue Crown (Saxony). 701. Uupert (German Empire). 1118 or 1120. Saviour, St. (Spain). 561. Saviour of the World (Sweden). 815. Savoy (Sardinia). 1825. Saxe-Ernest (Saxe-Gotha). 380. Seraphim (Sweden and -Norway). 1309. Shi]> or Cockle (France). 1705. Sincerity (Prussia). 765. Stanislaus, St. (Russia). 033. Star (France). 351. Star (Sicily). 861. Star of India (England). 562. Stephen, St. (Tuscany). 500 (about). Swan (Flanders). 1449. Swan (Prussia). 535. Sword (Sweden and Norway). 200. Sword-Bearers (Poland). 1300 (about). Sword in Cyprus (Sardinia). 1119. Templars (Palestine). 1191. Teutonic Order (Austria). 1687 (revived 1809). Thistle (Scotland). 1370. Thistle of Bourbon (Fnmee i. 1459. Tower and Sword (Portugal). 1237 (before). Truxillo (Spain). I8o8. Two Sieilies (Naples). 1--6. Vasa (Sweden and Norway). 1333. Virgin Mary (P.-. pal States). 1814. White Cross (Tuscan 1335. White Eagle (Pola 1634. 34. White Eagle (Kussia 33. White Falcon (Saxe- Weimar). 1815. William (Holland). 1172. Win- of St. Michael (Portugal). 1783. Wolodomir, St. (Kussia). KNIGHT-MARSHAL. The earl-marshal of Kngland 7. '<.; had a knight under him called the knight-marshal. In ordinances made by Henry VIII. at Eltham, in 1526, directions were laid down for his attendance at court, vd with great heroism on both sides ; but the French were at length compelled to withdraw, leaving the field of battle in the possession of the allies. The French lost 6,000 men, and 73 pieces of cannon. LARYNGOSCOPE. Dr. Listen in 1840 stated the possibility of obtaining a view of the back of the throat, &c., by means of a specu- lum, and Dr. Warden of Edinburgh showed the larynx in 1845 by means of a spatulse and reflecting prism. In 1855 Garcia published a series of laryngoscopical observations on the human voice, and in 1857 Professor Czermak of Pesth commenced researches which resulted in the invention of a laryngoscope employing artificial light, which he exhibited to the Me- dical Society of Vienna, April 9, 1859. LAS GARZAS. (See ABIPONIANS.) LAS NAVAS DE TOLOSA. (See TOLOSA.) LASWAREE (Battle). A desperate en- counter between the British, commanded by Lord Lake, and the Mahrattas, occurred at this village, near Delhi, in Hindostan, Nov. i, 1803. The former were victorious. LATAKIA, or LADAKIYBH (Syria\ the an- cient Laodicca ad Mare, was founded by Seleu- cus (I.) Nicator, aboxit B.C. 300, and named after his mother. Dolabella took refuge here from Cassius, and was the cause of much destruction to the city in 43. The remains of an aqueduct, built by Herod the Great about B.C. 10, are still to be seen ; and a triumphal arch, believed to have been erected in honour of Septuiiius Severus, about 200, is in a state of great perfec- tion. It was nearly destroyed by an earth- quake, May 1 6, 1796. LATER AN (Rome). This name, derived from the old Roman family of the Laterani, whose chief Plantius, implicated in the Piso Conspiracy, was executed by Nero in 65, was applied to their palace, presented by Const an - tiiie I. to the popes. The greater part of the Lateran palace was destroyed by fire in 1308. Gregory XL, on restoring the seat of the pa- pacy from Avignon to Rome, in 1377, took up his abode at the Vatican. The church of St. John of Lateran, called "the Mother and Head of all the churches of the city and the world," built by Constantino I., was dedicated to the Saviour. Lucius II., who rebuilt it in the i2th century, dedicated it to John the Bap- tist, and it is celebrated for the councils held in it Oct. 5 31, 649; Nov. i, 864; in August, 900; Jan. 31, 993 ; Feb. 12, mi ; March 1823, 1112; March 5, 1116; March 1 8 to April 5, 1123 i'ninth general) ; April 20, 1139 (tenth general) ; March 519, 1179 (eleventh general); Nov. n 30, 1215 (twelfth general) ; and May 3, 1512, to March 16, 1517, by some called the nine- teenth general. Every newly-elected pope takes possession of this church in great state, and bestows his blessing upon the people from its balcony. A new palace, adjoining the church, was built by Sixtus V. in 1586. LATHAM or LATHOM HOUSE (Lan- cashire). The Countess of Derby defended this place against the Parliamentary forces from Feb. 28 until May 27, 1644, when it was relieved by Prince Rupert. The Parliamentary forces renewed the siege in July, 1645, and captured it Dec. 2. LATHE. Diodorus Siculus attributes the invention to a nephew of Daedalus, named Ta- lus, ;ibout B.C. 1240; but Pliny states that it was first used by Theodore of Samos, about B.C. 600. The classical authors make frequent mention of the lathe. The side rest is described in the French Encyclopaedia in 1772, and Maudslay invented one in 1794, Roberts in- vented the screw lathe in 1816, Clement im- proved the side rest in 1818 and received the gold Isis medal of the Society of Arts for the improvement in 1827. LATIN EMPIRE. The Crusaders captured Constantinople April 9, 1204, and founded the Latin Empire of the East, which was over- thrown by Michael (VIII.) Palseologus, July 25, 1261, who restored the Eastern or Greek Em- pire. A list of Latin emperors is given under Eastern Empire. LATIN LANGUAGE. Originally spoken in Latium by the Latins (q. v.}, was afterwards adopted at Rome, to which city it was for many years practically restricted. Cicero (B.C. 106 43) mentions that in his time Greek was the language used by almost every people. Afterwards the Romans permitted foreigners to employ it, and even enforced its use by law. On the removal of the government to Constan- tinople in 330, Latin was retained as the official language, but it was gradually neglected till Greek again became nearly universal. Collo- quial Latin was already much corrupted in the 6th century. Charlemagne, on succeeding in 800 to the Empire of the West, ordered all-law LATINS [ 565 1 LAUSANNE proceedings to be conducted in Latin. This practice continued for several centuries until, in consequence of numerous difficulties, French was generally employed, both on the continent and in England. During the Dark Ages, Latin suffered from the common neglect of learning, the dialects employed by the monks and schoolmen having become much corrupted. The revival of letters about the isth century led to a renewed study of the ancient classic authors and a consequent restoration of pure Latin, which became the language generally used by philosophers and theologians. (See DICTIONARY, GRAMMAR, LAW, ROMAN LITERA- TURE, d. March 2. Second Lombard League. 1255- League of the Rhine. (See BAUOXS OF OKUMAXY.) 1370. Leag.it: of Swabiu and of the Rhine. (See BAKONS OK (IKU.MAXY.) 1396. Caddee League (i/. r.). 1405. League of Marharh ( q. V.). 1410. L ague of Oien (q. P.). 1434. Grey League, or Lexgue of the Orisons. 1436. League of the Ten Jortediottona. 1405. Th- l.eag ,f the Public iiood or Weal (7. r.1. 1471. League of the Italian States against the Turks. 148^. The Swabiaii League (/. ''. i. 1493, April 22. League between Venice, Milan, and the Pope. 1495. Marcli -51. The League of Venice. 1508, Dec. 10. The 1 eague of Cambray (q. r.). 1511, Oct. 4. The Holy League (/. r.). 1638. The Solemn League and Covenant. (See COVE- WAMTJEB8.) 1651. The Roman Catholic League and the Protestant League in Germany. 1684, March 5. Another League against the Turks. (See HOLY LKAGUES.) 1686, July 9. The League of Augsburg (7. .). LEAMINGTON, or LEAMINGTON PRIORS (Warwickshire). This town, mentioned in Domesday Book (1085-6) as the property of Robert de Montgomery, Earl of Shrewsbury, passed, in 1160, into possession of Kenilworth Priory, and was seized by the crown in 1539. Camden mentioned the old Spring or Spa in 1586, the waters of which were analyzed in 1688. It was described in a treatise by Dr. Guidott in 1689. Abbots discovered the second spring in 1 784, and erected several baths. The assembly rooms were built in 1812, and the theatre in 1814. Queen Victoria allowed the place to be called Leamington Royal in 1838. St. Mary's church was erected in 1839, Victoria bridge was widened and beautified in 1840, and the college was built in 1845. LEAP YEAR, or BISSEXTILE. The name given to every fourth year in the Julian calen- dar, B.C. 46. In leap year February has 29, instead of 28 days. Under this arrangement the years were made a little too long, and to rectify this error, three leap years are omitted during the course of four centuries in the Gregorian calendar. Thus 1800 was not a leap year, and 1900 will not be ; 2000 will be a leap year, and 2100, 2200, and 2300 will not. The Bissextile, or Biasextus dies, that is, the sixth day before the calends of March, twice over, was placed in the Roman calendar between Feb. 24 and 25. By 21 Hen. III. '1175', the Bissextile day, aiid the day immediately pre- ceding it, were to be considered legally as one day. LEARNING. The golden period of Grecian learning was the age of Pericles, who died B.C. 429. In Rome the reign of the Emperor Au- gustus was so distinguished for learned men and great authors, that it is usual to charac- terize the ajras most remarkable for learning as " Augustan ages." During the 6th century after the destruction of the Western empire, learning declined, and was restricted to ecclesi- astics. Classical learning was revived in the Anglo.-Saxoii church about 668. The ioth cen- tury i.s usually considered the darkest period of human history. The revival of learning after the period of depression known as the " Dark Ages," took place in the i5th century. Lf'lASE. This word is derived from the French laisser, to let or give leave, and signifies a conveyance creating ari estate for life, for a stated period, or at will. During the reign of Edward III. leases were sometimes extended to several hundred years. The conveyance by lea.se and re-lease originated soon after the Statute of Uses, 27 Hen. VIII. c. 10 (1535). Leases required by law to be in writing, were declared void unless made by deed, by 8 & 9 Viet. c. 106 (Aug. 4, 1845). Leases and sales of settled estates were facilitated by 19 & 20 Viet. c. 120 (July 29, 1856), which was amended by 21 & 22 Viet. c. 77 (Aug. 2, 1858). (See ENTAIL. LEATHER. It is related, Gen. iii. 21, that our first parents were clothed with skins before they \vere turned out of the garden of Eden, and this may perhaps be considered as the ori- ginal suggestion of the manufacture of leather. It was in use among oriental nations for shoes, girdles, &c. ; and with the Greeks and Romans for numerous articles of dress, as well as bot- tles and other vessels for containing liquids. The Romans seem to have obtained the art of tanning from Cordova, in Spain, whence the name Cordovan leather. It was used for clothing by the ancient Britons, who also ex- ported it in considerable quantities. A customs duty was imposed upon leather by 27 Hen. VIII. c. 14 (1535). A duty was laid upon it by 8 & 9 Will. III. c. 21 (1697), and an export duty of i2d. per cent, was imposed by 9 Anne, c. 6 (1710). By ri Geo. IV. c. 16 (May 29, 1830), all duties and drawbacks upon this article were repealed. Leathern money is said to have been used by the Romans, and during the Middle Ages in Italy, and even in England. The Skinners were incorporated in 1394, the Leather Sellers in 1383, and the Curriers in 1605. LEAVENWORTH [ 569 1 LEGANTINE LEAVENWORTH (United States). This town, in Arkansas, was founded in 1854. LEBANON, MOUNT (Syria), was subject to the kings of Tyre, in the reign of Solomon (B.C. 1015 975), fell under the sway of the Mardaites, who rebelled against the Saracens in 677, and became a stronghold of the Assas- sins about 1190. The Marouites and the Druses are the principal inhabitants. LECH^EUM (Battle). Agesilaus II. of Sparta defeated the Athenians and their allies at Le- chseum, in the isthmus of Corinth, B.C. 393. LECH, or LECK. (See RAIN, Battle.) LECTISTERNIUM. This sacrificial cere- mony was first observed at Rome, B.C. 400, according to Livy. LECTOURE (France), the ancient Lactora, belonged to the counts of Aimagnac, until be- sieged by Louis XL, who captured it in 1474, when, in spite of a pledge to the contrary, the count and the inhabitants were put to the sword. LECTURES. The publication of lectures without the consent of the lecturer is pro- hibited by 5 & 6 Will. IV. c. 65 (Sep. 9, 1835). LEDOS (Battle). The Saracens were de- feated by the Spaniards at L6dos, in 793. LEEDS (Battle). (See WINWIDFIELD.) LEEDS (Yorkshire), Saxon Loidis, was a Roman station, and probably fell into the hands of the Danes about 850. Adel Church, near Leeds, was built in 1140, and Kirkstall Abbey was founded between 1147 and 1153. Leeds became celebrated for its manufactures about the beginning of the i6th centiiry, and received its first charter in 1627, which was renewed, with additional privileges, in 1673. A large portion of the population was cut off by pestilence in 1644-45. Shenfield's Free Grammar School was established in 1552 ; St. John's Church was founded in 1634 ; the Coloured-Cloth Hall was built in 1758, the White-Cloth Hall in 1775, the Old Library was established in 1768 ; the theatre and the general infirmary were erected in 1771 ; the Literary and Philosophical Society in 1820 ; and the Mechanics' Institution in 1824. They were united in 1842. This borough was enfranchised by the Reform Act of 1832. The Town-hall, constructed to contain 8,000 persons, for which the town council voted .5,000 to purchase an organ, and ^8,500 to erect a dome, was com- pleted at a cost of ^102,000, and opened by Queen Victoria Sep. 7, 1858. The new Grammar School was built in 1859. Tn e new Infirmary was founded March 28, 1864. It was made a separate assize town for the West Riding of Yorkshire by an order in council June 10, 1864, a motion that Wakefield should be sub- stituted having been rejected in the House of Commons Feb. 19. LEEDS BANKRUPTCY COURT AFFAIR. Mr. Wilde, Registrar of the Leeds Court of Bankruptcy, having been permitted, on the ground of ill-health, to retire with a pension of ;6oo a year, June 30, 1864, was succeeded, July 30, by Mr. Welch, who had advanced money to the Hon. Richard Bethell, son of Lord Chancellor Westbury, on condition that he should influence his father to procure him the appointment. Mr. Bethell, in consequence of a promise from his father of some provincial office, Feb. 22, 1865, went to Leeds Feb. 23, and announced that he had been nominated to succeed Mr. Welch, who was transferred to London ; but this arrangement, if ever made, was set aside by Lord Westbury, Feb. 26. The circumstances were, however, deemed of suffi- cient importance for investigation by a select committee of the House of Commons, ap- pointed May 23. The report, presented June 26, acquitted the Chancellor " from all charge ex- cept that of haste and want of caution in grant- ing a pension to Mr. Wilde," but pronounced the subsequent proceedings as " calculated to excite the gravest suspicions," and affirmed that the inquiry they had conducted was "highly desirable for the public interests." In consequence of this report and of the scandal created by the Edmunds (q.v.) affair, a vote of censure on Lord Westbury was carried in the House of Commons July 3, and his resignation of the Chancellorship was announced July 4, 1865. (See PALMERSTON [SECOND] ADMINISTRATION.) LEEK. (See DAVID'S, ST., DAY.) LEEK (Staffordshire). The ancient church of St. Edward the Confessor is believed to have been founded between 1042 and 1066. The town, called Lee in the Domesday Book (1085-6), which mentions it as the property of the crown, was bestowed by William I. upon his nephew Hugh Lupus, Earl of Chester, in 1086. Ranulph de Blondeville, sixth Earl of Chester, founded the Cistercian monastery of Dieulacresse abbey about 1214, and Edward VI. conferred the manor upon Sir Ralph Bagnall, July 7, 1552. In 1646-7 the town was visited by the plague. Lord Chancellor Macclesfield founded the grammar school in 1723 ; and St. Luke's church, the first stone of which was laid May 13, 1847, was consecrated Dec. 19, 1848. LEESBURG HEIGHTS (Battle). The Con- federates having occupied the Virginian shore of the Potomac for several months, Gen. McClcllan, whose army was assembled on the Maryland side, made a reconnaissance Oct. 19, 1 86 1. Several Federal companies crossed the river Sunday, Oct. 20, and took up a position at Leesburg Heights, or Ball's Bluff. Their number was increased to about 1,700 men by large reinforcements, Oct. 21, when they occu- pied a parallelogram, bounded on three sides by a dense forest, and on the fourth by the river, with only two boats capable of carrying 60 persons each, as a means of return. The Confederates opened a heavy fire from the surrounding woods, and the Federals, their retreat being cut off by the destruction of the boats, suffered a disastrous defeat, losing Col. Baker and 944 men. The Confederate, Gen. Evans, estimated his losses at 300 men. LEGACY. The legacy duty was first imposed by 36 Geo. III. c. 52 (April 26, 1796). All gifts by will were ordered to be deemed legacies by 8 & 9 Viet. c. 76, s. 4 (Aug. 4, 1845). The law of legacies was amended, and the legacy duty was extended to real property, by 16 & n Viet. c. 51 (Aug. 4 , 1853). LEGANTINE CONSTITUTIONS, ecclesias- tical laws made in national synods, held in LEGATES [ 570 ] LEIPSIC England during the reign of Henry III., in Nov., 1237, and April 16, 1268. The first synod was held under Cardinal Otho, legate of Gre- gory IX. ; and the second under Cardinal Ot- hobon, legate of Clement IV. These were edited, with a glossary, by John of Athona, Canon of Lincoln, about 1290. LEGATES. The Roman ambassadors were, so called, and the term was also applied to officers who accompanied the Roman generals in their expeditions to render advice and as- sistance. After the division of the provinces of the empire by Augustus, B.C. 27, the im- perial provinces were governed by legates. During the Middle Ages the term was applied to ambassadors of the popes being cardinals. Other papal ambassadors of high rank were called nuncios. The first legate that appeared in England came at the invitation of "William I. Legatine courts were established by Wolsey, Under the Pope's authority, to relieve him of part of the duties of the lord-chancellorship ; and he was himself made papal legate in 1517. LEGER, ST., RACE, was established at Don- caster by Col. St. Leger, in 1776, and received this name in 1778. LEGHORN .Tuscany). This celebrated sea- port owes its importance to the patronage of the Medici family, having been at the commencement of the isth century an insigni- ficant fishing village. In 1421 it was ceded to the Florentines by the Genoese, and in 1551 its population only numbered 749. The first stone of the new walls was laid by Francesco I. March 28, 1577. The castle was founded by Ferdinand I. in 1595, and the Latin school was established in 1663. An earthquake did great injury to the city in 1741. A large public s'.-hoi >1 was established in 1746. Leghorn was sei/.cd by the army of the French republic June 28, 1796, and retained till 1799, when the French were compelled to withdraw. It was, however, retaken by Gen. Clement in 1800. The bishopric of Leghorn was erected in 1806. In 1813 the city was restored to Tuscany. It was seized and plundered by insurgents, April 22, 1849, but was recovered from them by the Austrians, May 12. An alarm of fire at the theatre occasioned the death of 62 persons in June, 1857. It formed part of the new kingdom of Italy in 1859. LEGION, a body of men in the Roman army, formed by Romulus B.C. 720, consisting of 3,000 soldiers. The number was increased by {Servius Tullius to 4,000, B.C. 578 ; and to 5,000 foot and 300 horse, B.C. 558. Gibbon is of opinion that, after undergoing numerous changes, the constitution of the legion was dis- solved by Constantino I. (See FOREIGN and THUNDERING LKGIUN. LEGION OF HONOUR. This order of merit, as a recompense for civil and military services, established May 19, was inaugurated by Napoleon Buonaparte July 14, 1802. The subject had been brought before the council of state in May, 1801, when a vote in its favour was carried by a small majority. The first crosses were distributed at the head-quarters of the grand army at Boulogne, Aug. 16, 1804. It was reconstituted by Louis XVIII. in 1816. LEQISLAT3 V Ii ASH KMBLY. (See NATIONAL Ays EM ;.!,. . LEGITIMISTS. This term was applied in France to the supporters of the elder branch < if the Bourbon family in 1830. They held a con- gress at Lucerne in June 1862, when about 800 assembled. LEGNANO (Battle). Frederick I., Emperor of Germany, was defeated at this place, near Verona, by the forces of the Lombard League, May 29, 1176. By this victory the Lombard cities secured their independence. Frederick I. concluded a truce of six years with the Lom- bard League in 1177, and the treaty of Con- stance (N .Spain). The city of Leon is said to have been founded by the Romans in the ist century of the Christian wra. It was anciently called Legio, and received its present name on its capture by the Visigoths in 586. It was afterwards seized by the Moors, from whom it was taken in 722, and became the capital of the Christian kingdom of Leon, which was founded in 913. The city was taken by the Caliph Al Mansur in 996, and remained in his power until his defeat at Calatana/or in 998. In 1037 the kingdom of Leon was annexed to Castile ; and with the exception of the intervals from 1065 to 1072, and from 1157 to 1230, did not recover its independence. Leon was erected into a bishopric in the 3rd century. Its first bishop died in 312, and the see was refounded in 910. The cathedral was com- menced about 1199. Councils were held here in 1020, 1091, and 1114. The French under Soult entered Leon Dec. 21, 1808, and destroyed many of the old buildings. KINGS OF LEON. A.D. A.T). 913. OrdonoII. ioj7. Bermuda III. 933. Froila II. 924. Alphonso IV. i)i~. Ktimiro II. 10-57. I'nitcd to Castile. 1065. Alphonso VI. 1072. Again united to Cas- 950. Ordono III. tile. 955. Sancho I. 967. Kamiro III. 1157- Ferdinand II. 1187. Alphonso IX. 982. Bermuda II. 1230. Ferdinand III. 999. Alphonso V. LEONARDS-ON-SEA, ST. (Sussex). This town, forming a western extension of Hastings (q. v.), was commenced in 1828. LEONINE VERSES. This species of Latin versification, consisting of hexameter and pen- tameter verses, which rhymed in the middle and at the end, is said to have been named after Pope Leo II. (682 84), or Leoninus, canon of St. Victor, Paris, during the izth century. They have been traced to the 3rd century, and are also found in English poetry. LEONTIUM, or LEONTINI (Sicily), founded by colonists from Naxos, B.C. 730, fell under the yoke of Hippocrates, B.C. 498, and of Hieron, B.C. 476. It solicited the aid of the Athenians against the Syracusans B.C. 427, when Gorgias, the eminent sophist, acted as ambassador for his native city. In one of its streets Hieronymus was assassinated -by Dino- menes, B.C. 215. It passed under the Roman sway, with the whole island, B.C. 210. LEONTOPOLIS. (See HIEKACIANS and NlCEPHORIUM.) LEPAXTO (Greece). The ancient Naupactos (q.v.}, called by the Greek peasants Epakto, was destroyed by an earthquake in the reign of Justinian I., about 550. Another to\vn, built upon its site, was besieged in 1477 by the Turks, who withdrew after having lost 30,000 men, in a siege of about four months' duration. The Turks seized Lepanto in Aug., 1499. The town sustained several sieges, and was restored to Venice by the treaty of Carlowitz Jan. 26, 1699. The Greeks captured the town and citadel of Lepanto, May g, 1829. LEPANTO (Sea-fight). The combined Spanish and Italian fleets, under the command of Don John of Austria, defeated the Turks in a great naval battle in the Gulf of Lepanto, Oct. 7, 1571. The Turks are said to have lost 224 ships and 30,000 men, and the Christiana 15 galleys and 8,000 men. Cervantes, the author of Don Quixote, received a wound in this action, by which he was deprived of the use of his right hand during the remainder of his life. By some Italian authors this is culled the battle of Curzolari, from a group of islets of this name at the mouth of the Acheloiis. LKI'KOSV. This contagious disease origi- nated in Egypt and Arabia at a very early period. It is frequently alluded to in the Scriptures ; and special regulations were pre- scribed concerning those afiiicted with it by the Mosaic law, B.C. 1491 (Lev. xiii.). Christ healed a leper in Galilee in 28. It was known to the Greeks and Romans, and is described by Hippocrates (B.C. 460 357) and Galen (130 200). The Crusaders introduced the disease into Europe, where it raged with such virulence during the Middle Ages, that almost every town had its lazar-house fcr the reception of lepers. (See LAZARETTO and LAZARUS, ST.) In 1225, during the reign of Louis VIII., there were in France no less than 2,000 of these insti- tutions. Since the commencement of the i7th century the disease has almost entirely disap- peared from Europe, where it is now limited to the most northern and southern countries. It was very prevalent in the Faroe Isles in. 1676, and five persons were affected with it in Great Britain in 1736. The last case mentioned here was described by Dr. Edmonston in 1809. LERIDA (Spain). The ancient Ilerda was taken during the civil war by Julius LV;sar, after a siege of nearly six weeks, June 9, B.C. 49, and destroyed by the Franks in 256. A council was held here in 524. Having been restored, it became the scene of frequent struggles between the Moors and the Spaniards. It was besieged Oct. 2, 1707, and taken by assault Oct. 12. Suchet took it by storm May LESBOS [ 573 LEYDEN 13, 1810. The Spaniards regained possession in 1814. LESBOS. (-See MITYLENE.) LESSER BRETHREN, (See FRANCISCANS.) LETTER. (See ANONYMOUS LETTERS, BRIEF or QUEEN'S LETTER, SEALED LETTERS, Christian III. of Denmark founds the Royal Library of Copenhagen. 1534. Albert of Brandenburg begins the Koyal Library of Kiinigsbcrg. 1540. Gustavus I. (Vasa) founds the Boyal Library of Stockholm. 1513. The library of Leipsic University is founded. 1550 to 1579. Albert V., Duke of Bavaria, founds the library of Munich. l vS6. The Dresden library is founded. 1558. The Ducal Library of Wolfenbuttel is founded. 1562. The library of Tubingen University is founded. 1580. The library of the E^corial (q.v.) is founded. A town library is founded at Ipswich. 1601. The library of Trinity College, Dublin, is founded. 1602. The Bodleian Library (q. v.) is opened, and the Ambrosian Library (q.r.) at Milan is founded. 1609. The Antwerp library is founded. 1629. Padua University Library is established. 1635. The library of Sion College is founded. 163^. The Harvard Library is founded at Cambridge, 1641. The library of the Middle Temple (9. t>.) is founded. 1650. The Berlin library is founded. 1651. Foundation of the Cheetham Libraiy at Man- chester (q. V.). 1660. The Hoyal Public Library of Hanover is founded. 1683. The Advocate's Library (q. c.) is founded at Edin- burgh. 1690. The library of Bologna University is founded. 1692. The Ashmolean Library is bequeathed to Oxford University. (See ASHMOLEAN MrsEUM.) 1695. Archbifhop Tenison's Library is founded. 1696. The library of the University of Halle is founded. 1700. The Cottontail Library (q. v.) is purchased for public use. 1703. The university library of Heidelberg is founded. 1714. The Imperial Library of St. Petersburg is founded. 1725. A circulating library is established in Kdinburgh. 1729. Dr. Williams" s Library (q. v.) is opened. 1731. Franklin founds the first American subscription library at Philadelphia. 1734. The library of Gottingen is founded. 1737. The Koyal Library at Paris is opened to the public. 1740. A circulating library is established in London. 1749. The Kadeliffe Library (q. v.) is opened at Oxford. 1753. The Harleian Library (q. v.) and the Sloane Mu- seum are purchased by the nation. 1796, Feb. 29. The National Library of Portugal is founded. 1803. The library of Count Szechenyi forms the foundation of the 1'esth library. 1803. The library of the Koyal Institution is founded. 1805-6. The library of the East India House is com- menced. 1806. The library of the London Institution (q. r.) is founded. 1809. The library of the Russell Institution (q. v.) is founded. 1823. The library of George III. is given to the British Museum (17. v.) 1834. A library for the city of London is founded at Guildhall. 1830. The library of the Taylor Institution at Oxford is founded. 1831. The Arandel Library is added to the British Mu- seum, and the Congregational Library (q. v.) is founded. 1836. The Royal Library of Brussels is founded. 1841, May. The London Library is established. 1845, Oct. 28. The GrenviUe Library is bequeathed to the British Museum. 1850, Aug. 14. The Public Libraries Act is passed (13 & 14 Viet. c. 65). (See LIBRARIES, FKKE.) 1853, Sep. 2. The burgesses of Manchester open a free public library, under the act of 1850. Oct. 18. A free library is opened at Liverpool. 1856. A public library is founded in Melbourne, Australia. 1861, July ii. The citizens of London reject, by a large majority, a proposition to establish a free public library in the city. 1865, Sep. 6. The Central Free Library at Birmingham is opened. A list of Libraries in Great Britain and her dependencies, the United States, &c., is given in "Notes & Queries," 3 rd Series, vol. iii. 107. LIBURNIA (Illyria) received Vatinius as its proconsul B.C. 47. A revolt against the Roman rule was suppressed by Octavius B.C. 35. The light galleys of the Liburni rendered im- portant assistance to Augustus at Actium, Sep. 2, 31 B.C. Charlemagne annexed Liburnia to his empire in 788. LIBYA (Africa) is mentioned by Homer (B.C. 962 B.C. 927) and described by Herodotus (B.C. 484 B.C. 408). The Phoenicians are said to have colonized it B.C. 2080, and endeavoured to monopolize its commerce B.C. 600. Cam- byses, King of Persia, led an expedition into Lybia B.C. 526, and Ptolemy (II.) Philadel- phus, Ptolemy (III.) Euergetes I., caused it to be explored for purposes of trade. The Romans assigned the country to Ptolemy (VI.) Philol- meter, B.C. 164. (See AFRICA.) LICENSER OF PLAYS was first appointed by 10 Geo. II. c. 28 (1736). Brooke's " Gustavus Vasa " was the first play the performance of which was prohibited by this officer. LICENCES. Gaming - houses were first ordered to be licensed by 33 Hen. VIII. c. 9 (1541), which was repealed by 2 & 3 Phil. & Mary, c. 9 (1555). Alehouses were licensed by 5 ishop prescribed to his own flock such a form of public worship as he thought best." Uniformity in the churches of a province was agreed to at various councils, and amongst others at Agcla, Sep. n, 506, and Gerona, June 8, 517. The Breviary of the Komish church was in use about the middle of the sth century. Henry VIII.'s " Primer" was published in 1535. The Liturgy, compiled under the superintendence of Cranmer, by order of Edward VI., was issued in 1549, and revised by a resolution of Parliament, April 29, 1559. The English Liturgy in its present form was established by an act of Parliament, which received the royal assent May 19, 1662. LITVATOROK (Treaty), was concluded be- tween Austria and the Ottoman empire, in u>;6. The Turks relinquished their claim to tribute from Hungary, and, for the fii'st time in the history of their diplomacy, conde- scended to conclude peace with the formalities used by the other nations of Europe. LIVERIES were not assumed by the trade companies of London before the reign of Kd- ward 1. (12721307); but they afterwards bo- came so dangerous as party badges, that they were regulated by 16 Rich. II. c. 4 (1392), and by 20 Rich. II. c. 2 (1396). The practice was for- bidden in the first and seventh years of Henry IV.'s reign ; again by 13 Hen. IV. c. 3 (1411) ; by 8 Edw. IV. c. 2 (1468), and by other statute.;. They were, however, allowed at coronations, and in great public ceremonies. In conse- quence of these restrictions, the companies were compelled to obtain the king's licence before adopting liveries. LIVERPOOL (Lancashire). The origin of this important town, and even the etymology of its name, are involved in great obscurity. Baines (Hist, of Liverpool, p. 58) considers the first portion of the name to be derived from the Gothic word " lide " or " tithe," the sea ; LIVERPOOL [ 583 LIVERPOOL but other authorities regard it as the water- fowl called the " liver" which they state to have abounded on the shores of the Mersey at an early date. The site of Liverpool was granted by William I. (106687) * Roger of Poitou. It was afterwards purchased by King John (1199 1216), and passed through \~ hands of the Earls of Derby and Chester, ui it was granted to the House of Lancaster by Henry III. (1216 72). On the accession of Henry IV. in 1399, it became the property of the crown, and it continued to be so until it was sold by Charles I. in 1628. 1171. Henry II. embarks from Liverpool on his expedition to Ireland. 1190. Liverpool first mentioned in a deed. 1303 (about). Liverpool Castle is founded by King John. 1307, Aug. 28. King John grants a charter to Liverpool, erecting it into a free burgh. 1239, March 24. Ilenry III. erects it into a free burgh for ever. J 335, Jun e 3- Edward III. orders a fleet to assemble at Liverpool, in readiness to attack the Scots. 1356, May 19. The first mention is made of a mayor of Liverpool. 1361. The plague rages. 1424. A quarrel takes place between the retainers of Thomas Stanley and Sir Richard Molynenx. 1548. The plague carries off many of the inhabitants. 1561. The old haven, which was founded in the reign of Edward III., is destroyed by a tempest. 1571. The inhabitants petition Queen Elizabeth in behalf of her "poor decayed town of Liverpool." 1638. Charles I. sells the lordship of Liverpool to the corporation of London, in liquidation of his debts. 1635. Liverpool is ordered to pay ship-money. 1643, April. Liverpool is taken by the Parliamentary forces. 1644, June 24. It is taken by the Royalists, under Prince Rupert. 1647. It is made a free port. 1699, June 24. Liverpool becomes a distinct parish. 1700 (about). The old custom-house is built. 1709. Messrs. Blundcll and Stithe fonnd the Bluecoat Hospital. 1710. The first dock is completed. (See DOCKS.) 1715. The castle is destroyed. 1745. Eight companies of volunteers are enrolled to oppose the Pretender. 1749. The town-hall is founded. March 25. The infir- mary is opened. 1752. The Seamen s Hospital is founded. 1772. Tiie theatre is opened. 17-8. The first Liverpool dispensary is founded. 1785. King's dock is constructed. 1791. The hospital for the blind is established. 1795. The interior of the town-hall is destroyed by fire. 1799. The Athenaeum, the first institution of the kind in the country, is opened. 1803, Sep. 14. A fire destroys property to the amount of nearly 1,000,000 sterling. The Lyceum is founded. 1803. The Exchange is founded, and the Botanical Gardens are opened. 1807. The Corn Exchange is founded. 1809, Oct. 25. The statue of George III. is commenced. 1810, Feb. ii. The tower of St. Nicholas's church falls, killing 28 .persons. Aug. The Academy of Arts is opened. 1811, Julys. The first number of the Liverpool Mercury is published. 1814. The Koyal Institution is founded. 1815. The Wellington Rooms are built. 1816. Gas is introduced. 1821. July 19. Prince's dock is opened. 1822. March. St. John's market is opened. 1823. The Marine Humane Society is founded. 1824. The infirmary is opened. 1825. The Mechanics' Institute and the Deaf and Dumb Asylum are founded. 1836. The old dock is closed. 1838, Aug. 13. The new Custom-house is founded. 1830, Sep. Clarence dock is opened. Sep. 15. The railway to Manchester is opened, and an accident causes the death of Mr. Huskisson, M.P. for the borough. The Lunatic Asylum is erected. 1833, April 13. Brunswick dock is opened. May 33. The cholera breaks out. 1834, Aug. 1 8. Waterloo dock is opened. 1836, Sep. 8. Victoria and Trafalgar docks are opened. 1837, July 4. The railway to Birmingham is completed. The Statistical Society is founded. 1838, Sep. 17. The railway to London is opened. Oct. 31. The Preston railway is opened. 1839, Jan. The Koyal Bank is opened. Jan. 7. A storm does great damage. 1842, Sep. 23. A fire destroys property to the value of ,700,000. 1843, Jan. The Collegiate Institution is opened. 1846, July 31. Prince Albert lays the foundation of the Sailors' Home. 1847. Mr. Huskisson's statue is erected. Oct. Several serious commercial failures ocuur. 1851, Oct. 9. Queen Victoria visits Liverpool. (See LlBRAEY.) 1854, Sep. 18. St. George's Hall is opened. 18 55, Feb. 19. Serious bread riots take place, 15,000 persons being thrown out of employment by pro- tracted frosts. Oct. 10. The Duke of Cambridge is entertained by the mayor at the town-hall, and the town is illuminated. 1857, April 15. The Free Library and Museum are founded by Mr. William Brown. Nov. Numerous failures occur. 1858, Oct. 12. The Association for the Promotion of Social Science meets. 1860, April 29. The Sailors' Home is destroyed by fire. Oct. 8. The Free Library and Museum, erected by Mr. Brown, are opened, and presented by him to the town of Liverpool. 1862, Sep. 8. A fire in the Brovvnlow Hill workhouse, in which 21 children and two nurses lose their lives. 1864, J ftn - J 5- The explosion of n tons of gunpowder oil board the Lottie Sleigh, at anchor in the Mersey, causes great destruction of property in Liver- pool and Birkeimead. 1866, Jan. 10. The town council decide to erect a statue of Prince Albert at the cast front of St. George's Hall. -June 23. The first stone of the Children's Infirmary is laid by Prince Alfred, Duke of Edinburgh. (See COTTON FAMINE, &c.) LIVERPOOL ADMINISTRATION. Mr. Perceval having been assassinated as he was entering the lobby of the House of Commons, May ii, 1812, new ministerial arrangements became necessary. A motion for an address to the Prince Regent, praying his royal highness to take such measures as might be best calcu- lated to form an efficient administration, was carried in the House of Commons May 21, by 174 to 170. The Marquis of Wellesley, who re- ceived instructions to form an administration June i, declared that his efforts had been un- successful June 3. The Earl of Liverpool an- nounced that he had undertaken the task June 8. The cabinet, formed principally of mem- bers of the Perceval administration, was thus constituted : Treasury Earl of Liverpool. Lord Chancellor Lord Eldon. President of the Council Earl of Harrowby. Privy Seal Earl of Westmoreland. Chancellor of Exchequer Mr. N. Vansittart Home Secretary Viscount Sidmouth. (Viscount Castlereagh, after- Foreign Secretary -J wards Marquis of London- ( deny. Colonial Secretary Earl Bathurst. Admiralty Viscount Melville. Board of Control Earl of Buckinghamshire. Ordnance Earl Mulgrave. Without office Marquis Camden. LIVONIA [ 584 ] LOBOS The Duke of Richmond was lord-lieutenant of Ireland. Mr. Charles Bathurst was made chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, with a seat in the cabinet, in 1813. The Hon. W. Wellesley Pole, master of the mint, was ad- mitted to a seat in the cabinet in 1815. Mr. Canning became president of the Board of Control, in place of the Earl of Buckingham-- shire, in 1816. Mr. F. J. Robinson, afterwards Viscount Goderich, and ultimately Karl of Ripon, was admitted into the cabinet as trea- surer of the navy and president of the Board of Trade, in 1818. The Uuke of Wellington was made master-general of the ordnance Jan. i, 1819, in place of Earl Mulgrave, who retained a seat in the cabinet without office. Mr. Can- ning resigned the Board of Control in June, 1820, and the post was given to Mr. C. Bathurst, who was also chancellor of the duchy of Lan- caster. Lord Maryborough succeeded the Hon. W. Wellesley Pole as master of the mint, in 1821. Sir Robert Peel took the Home Office in Jan., 1822, in place of Viscount Sid- mouth, who retained a seat in the cabinet, without office ; and the Board of Control was taken from Mr. C. Bathurst, and entrust ed to Mr. C. W. W. Wynne. The deatli of the Mar- quis of Londonderry, Aug. 12, 1822, induced Mr. Canning to resign the governor-generalship of India, to which he had been appointed, though he had not quitted England, and he accepted the foreign .secretaryship Sep. 16. Mr. I 1 '. J. Robinson was made chancellor of the exchequer Jan. 31, 1823, in place of Mr. X. Vansittart, who had resigned, and was created Lord Bexley, March i. He was appointed to the chancellorship of the duchy of Lancaster in place of Mr. C. Bathurst. Mr. Huskisson, as treasurer of the navy, and president of the Board of Trade, obtained a seat in the cabinet in 1825. The Earl of Liverpool was attacked by apoplexy, Saturday, Feb. 17, 1827, and a new ministry was formed in April. The Earl of Liverpool died Dec. 4, 1828. (See CANNING ADMINISTRATION.) LIVONIA (Russia) was visited by some Baltic traders from Bremen in 1158. A mission of German monks converted the natives to Christianity in 1186. The Sword-bearers sub- dued the country in 1237. Kettler, the last grand master of the order, abdicated his power in favour of Poland in 1561. It was transferred to Sweden by the treaty of Oliva, May 3, 1660. Peter I. (the Great) of Russia made himself master of the country in 1710, and it was an- nexed to Russia by the Treaty of Nystadt, Aug. 30, 1721. Alexander II. liberated the serfs of Livonia Sep. 24, 1818. LLANDAFF (Bishopric). According to tra- dition, this bishopric was created by King Lucius, about 180, and Elvanus was the first bishop. Dubritius, who is said to have died in 612, is the first bishop respecting whom any- thing is certainly known. The deanery of Llandaff was founded and endowed in Nov. 1843. LLANDEWYER (Battle). Llewelyn, who had made a descent into the marshes, was de- feated and slain near the town of Llandeweyer, or Llandeilo-Fawr, Caermarthenshire, Dec. u, 1282. LLEREXA Battle). Lord Combermere de- feated a French army commanded by Drouet, near this town, in Spain, April n, 1812 LLOYD'S (London). A number of mer- chants who were in the habit of congregating at a coffee-house kept by a person named Lloyd, in Abchurch Lane, Lombard Street, to transact business, early in the i8th century, afterwards removed to Pope's Head Alley, and thence to the Royal Exchange in 1774. On the destruction of the Royal Exchange by fire, the business was transferred to the South Sea House, Old Broad Street, Jan. 10, 1838, and thence to the Royal Exchange, Oct. 28, 1844. The Austrian Lloyd's was established at Trieste in 1833. LOADSTONE. The attractive power of the natural magnet was known to the ancient Greeks in Homer's time, B.C. 962, and it is alleged to have been known by the Chinese B.C. 1000. The directive power of this sub- stance was probably discovered in Europe about 1150, although a Chinese writer de- scribes it in ITU. The Neapolitans maintain that it was adapted to the compass for maritime purposes by a citizen of Anialphi LOANDA, LOANDO, or ST. PAUL DE LOANDO Africa , the capital of Angola, was commenced by the Portuguese in 1578. Taken in 1640 by the Dutch, it was recaptured by the Portuguese in 1648. LOANO (Battle). The French defeated an Austrian and Sardinian army in the valley of Loano, Nov. 23 and 24, 1795. LOANS. Loans to the public on parliamen- tary security, resorted to in place of aids or benevolences (q. v.), originated in 1382, when Richard II. demanded the loan of ,40,000 for the defence of the kingdom, and the mer- chants refused to lend because they had for- merly been subjected to prosecutions under pretence of having defrauded the sovereign. Cardinal Wolsey resorted to forced loans as a means of recruiting the exchequer in 1522 and 1525, and Parliament afterwards released the king from all obligation to pay the debts si > c> >n- tracted, by 35 Hen. VIII. c. 12 (1543). Charles I. demanded loans from his subjects in 1626, and an act of council was passed, requiring a general loan from the subject. Necker (1776 1790) introduced loans into the French financial system. LOAN SOCIETIES. By 5 & 6 Will. IV. c. 23 (Aug. 21, 1835), the rules, ^ r William Hamil- ton, and Dr. Latham. LOGIERIAN SYSTEM. This system of musical instruments was invented by John Bernard Logier, born at Hesse-Cassel in 1780. In 1797 he first turned his attention to the formation of a system for facilitating the acquirement of music. He obtained a patent for the chiropast in 1814, and his system was soon after adopted in Dublin. Academies on this plan were established in England and Scotland, and one was opened in London in 1816. The system nourished from 1817 to 1827. Logier died in 1846. LOG-LINE is known to have been used in navigation as early as 1570. Bourne mentions it in 1577. LOGOGRAPHIC PRINTING. A mode of printing with types expressing entire words or common radices and terminations, instead of single letters, was invented by Walter, of the Times, and Henry Johnson, about 1778, and was described in a work published by the last- mentioned in 1783. The Daily Universal Regis- ter, a four-page paper, designed to introduce this new system of printing to the public, ap- peared Jan. 13, 1785. The price was 2^d., and its name was changed to that of the" Times, Jan. i. 1788. LOGOGRIPHES. (See CHABADE.) LOGROXO, NAJARA, or NAVARRETE (Battle). Edward the Black Prince defeated Henry, brother of Peter I. (the Cruel) of Castile, at this place, in Spain, April 3, 1367. Before the battle the Castilians encamped at Najara, and the allies at Navarrete, and it is sometimes named after these places. LOGWOOD. This dye was introduced into England soon after the accession of Queen Eliza- beth; but owing to the fugitive character of She tints it produced, was prohibited and ordered to be forfeited and burned, by 23 Eliz. c. 9 (1581). This act was repealed by 13 & 14 Charles II. c. n, s. 26 (1662). The English log- wood-cutters formed their settlement on the Bay of Campeachy about 1667. LOIRE (France). On the banks of this river, the ancient Liger or Ligeris, Julius Csesar defeated the Turones, B.C. 57. The Danes ascended the river as far as Tours in 838 and in 882. The embankments of the Loire gave way, causing a great loss of life and de- struction of property in 1846, and in June, 1856. LOJA, or LOXA (Spain). Ferdinand be- ll us town, in Granada, July i, 1482, raised the siege in 1483, and returned and cap- tured it in 1486. LOJERA (Sea-Fight). A Genoese fleet of 59 galleys, commanded by Antonio Grimaldi, attacked an Arragonese squadron of 22 at Lojera, on the northern coast of Sardinia, Aug. 29, 1353. The Spaniards were on the point of surrendering, when the Venetian fleet under Pisani came to their assistance, and completely changed the fortune of the day. Only eighteen of the Genoese galleys were saved from destruction or capture, and the total loss of the vanquished in killed, wounded, and prisoners, amounted to nearly 5,000 men. LOLLARDS. The origin of this term, ap- plied to a religious sect of the i4th century, is by some authorities derived from the German lalleii, lollen, or lulleu, "to sing in a low voice;" and by others is referred to Walter Lollard, who was burned alive at Cologne in 1322. The early Lollards tended the sick and followed the dead to the grave, chanting in mournful tones. They were constituted a religious order through the influence of Charles, Duke of Burgundy, in 1472. Julius 1 1 . conferred further privileges upon them in 1506. The name was also applied to the society of itinerant preachers established by Wyclitfe in England in 1379, and his followers. Uidicensed preachers, or Lollards, were ordered to be imprisoned until they justified them- selves according to the law and reason of the Holy Ghost, by 5 Rich. II. st. 2, c. 5 (1381). Henry IV., under pretence that they conspired against him, punished them with great seve- rity. By 2 Hen. IV. c. 15 (1401), no person v/as allowed to preach without the bishop's licence, and heretics who refused to recant were to die at the stake. A similar act was passed in Scotland in 1425. William Sautre was burned at London, under the English statute, Feb. 12, 1401. Thomas Badby, a Lollard, was exe- cuted in April, 1410. Sir John Oldcastle, com- monly called Lord Cobham, was condemned as a heretic Sep. 25, 1413. He escaped from the Tower, was captured in Wales in 1418, and executed in London, Dec. 25. LOMBARD LONDON LOMBARD ARCHITECTURE, a modifica- tion of the Romanesque (q. v.), was first em- ployed in a small chapel at Friuli, built in the 8th century. The cathedral at Novara, erected in the nth century, is the most re- markable example of this style, which became extinct in the i3th century. LOMBARDISTS. Peter Lombard, Bishop of Paris, wrote in 1164 a "Book of Sentences," in which he endeavoured to unite the two systemS of ecclesiastical and scholastic theo- logy. His disciples were called Lombardists. LOMBARD LEAGUES. The first league between the independent cities of Lombardy, signed at Puntido, between Milan and Ber- gamo, April 7, 1167, had for its object the de- fence of Italian liberties against the preten- sions of the Emperor Frederick I. (Barbarossa), who was compelled, in 1183, to sign the treaty of Constance (q. v.). A second Lombard league was formed March 2, 1226, against Fre- derick II., who was compelled to retire to Naples. (See LEGNANO and LEAGUES.) LOMBARD MERCHANTS arrived in London from Italy for the purpose of prosecuting their trade of usury, in 1229. Edward III., then about to enter upon a war with France, issued a commission for seizing all their estates in 1337. The company of Lombard. Merchants was made answerable for the debts of their fellows by 25 Edw. III. st. 5, c. 23 (1352). The street in which they took up their residence in London is named Lombard Street, after them. LOMBARDY (Italy). The fertile plains of Lombardy were originally peopled by the Siculi, who were expelled by a tribe of Celtse about B.C. 1400. The Etruscans established their authority over the country about B.C. 1000, and retained it until expelled by the Gauls B.C. 506, when it received the name of Gallia Cisalpina. (See GAUL.) It was ravaged by Attila in 452, became subject to the Heruli in 476, was conquered by the Ostrogoths in 489, by the troops of the Eastern empire under Narses in 554, and by the Loiigobardi (q. v.), from whom it received its name, in 568. The empire of the Longobards was terminated by Charlemagne in 774, when Lombardy, with the rest of the peninsula, was annexed to his territories, and in 843 formed the Prankish kingdom of Italy, which was ruled by its own kings till it submitted to Otho I. (the Great) in 961. The cities gradually adopted indepen- dent forms of government, each possessing separate laws and customs. In 1002 they elected Ardouin, Marquis of Ivrea, as king, in opposition to the Germans, who nominated Henry II., and the country was in consequence involved in war till the death of Ardouin in 1015. On the death of Henry II. (the Holy), in 1024, the Lombards again made futile efforts to obtain an independent sovereign. A civil war between the "gentlemen" of Lombardy and Eribert, Archbishop of Milan, commenced in 1035, and lasted till Conrad II. (the Salic) promulgated his Feudal edict in 1037. Milan became a republic in 1 107, and Lodi, Cremona, Verona, Genoa, Pavia, and other cities, soon followed her example, and asserted their new- born independence by rushing into civil war. During the nth and i2th centuries they united to form the Lombard leagues (g. v.) against the German emperors, and were afterwards deso- lated by the contentions of the Guelphs and Ghibellines, which they 'sought to escape by purchasing protection from Charles of Anjou, King of Naples (1266 1285). The history of Lombardy is, after this period, the history of the several republics of which it was com- posed, until the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, Oct. 1 8, 1748, by which the greater part of the country was attached to the house of Austria. In Oct., 1796, Buonaparte erected Lombardy into the Transpadane republic, which was in- corporated with the Cisalpine republic in June, 1797, and formed part of the Italian republic in 1802, and of the kingdom of Italy in 1805. The Lombardo- Venetian kingdom was created by the allies, and given to Austria, in lieu of her Flemish territories, by the treaty of Paris, Nov. 20, 1815. In March, 1848, Lombardy re- volted from Austria, and joined the King of Sardinia, but it was reduced to subjection by the battles of Custoza, July 23, 1848, and of Novara, March 23, 1849. By the peace of Villa- franca, July n, 1859, the Emperor of Austria ceded nearly all Lombardy to the Emperor of the French, who transferred it to Victor Ema- nuel, King of Sardinia, and the remainder was incorporated with Italy in 1866. LONATO (Battle). Napoleon Buonaparte defeated the Austrians at this town, in Lom- bardy, Aug. 3, 1796. LONDON (Bishopric). The traditional ac- count is that an archiepiscopal see was estab- lished at London by Theanus, in 180, during the reign of King Lucius, and that 16 prelates completed the number of archbishops. When Gregory I. despatched Augustine to England in 596, it was his intention that London and York should form the metropolitan sees of the country ; but Augustine established his seat at Canterbury. Mellitus became the first bishop of London in 604. He was expelled in 616, and had no successor till 656, when Cedd was consecrated by Finan, Bishop of North um- bria. By an order in council, Aug. 8, 1845, the county of Hertford and part of Essex were separated from the diocese of London and annexed to Rochester. LONDON (Canada), founded in 1826, was the scene of extensive conflagrations in 1844 and 1845. LONDON (England) is first mentioned under the name of Londinium by Tacitus, who, in recording its destruction by the Britons in 61, during the reign of Nero, speaks of it as having been at that time famed as the resort of traders, and for its affluence and commerce. In the time of Ammianus Marcellinus, 362, it was called Augusta, an appellation frequently bestowed upon great cities, and in the Choro- graphy of Ravenna it is styled Londiuium Au- gusta. According to Geoffrey of Monmouth, it was built by a king named Brutus, and called New Troy, afterwards Trinovantum, and having been surrounded with walls by Lud, was called Kaer Lud, i. e., the City of Lud, or Lud-town. Pennant derives the name from Llyn din, llyn being, in Celtic, a lake, and din a town. Julius Ccesar does not men- LONDON LONDON tion London, though it must have been iu ex- istence when he invaded England, B.C. 54. A.D. 306. London is surrounded by walls. 605. A council is held by Augustine. 610. Ethelbert, King of Kent, founds St. Paul's Church. 839. The Danes dcsiroy London. 8b6. It is rebuilt by Alfred the Great. 948, Sep. 8. A council is held 1078. Gundnlph, Bishop of Kocbester, commences the AVhito Tower, in the Tower. 1087. A great fire destroys .St. 1 'mil's and other buildings. 1101. Henry I. grants i he city a charter. 1103. Sep. A council is held. 1107, Aug. I. A council is held. 1104, May 24. Another council is hold. HiH. The Knights Templars settle in Holborn. 1127. A council is held. 1129, Aug. I. Another council assembles. 1136, Jan. A council is held. 1138, Dec. 13. Another council is summoned. 1143 (Mid Lent). Another council is held. 1151. A council is held. 1154. Another council is held. 1156. London is established as the capital. 1166. A council is held. 1 175, May 18. A council on discipline is held. 1176, March 14. A tumultuous council assembles. Old London bridge (17. c.) is commenced. 1185, March 18. Another council is held. 1189. An edict is issued that all houses are to be built of stone up to a certain height, and covered with slate or tiles. Henry Fitz-lilwyne is chosen first lord mayor (i/. r.). il "is held. 1200. A council "is 121 1. The Tower ditch is commenced. 1313, Aug. 25. A council i> held. 1323. St. Paul's Mceplc is erected. 1226, Jan. 13. A papal bull is rejected at a council. 1333. Another council is held. 1237, K v - I 9i 3i, d 32. A council is held by the legate (Mho. 123*, May 17. A council is h"ld. 1344, Feb. 22. A subsidy is granted to the king by a council. 1245. Henry 111. rebuilds the east-end and the Tower at his own expeu-e. 1246, Dec. I. A council is held to consider the Pope's demand for a third of the revenues of the Knglish clergy. J250. A factory is established \iv the llanseatic League (q. V.). 1255, Jnu- '3- Another council is held. 1357- Henry III. repairs the city walls. Aug. 21. A council is held. 1259- The llnn.se merchants of the Steelyard receive peculiar privileges. 126:, May if>. A council is held. 1368, April 1 6. Another council assembles. 1283. Five arches of London bridge are destroyed by the severe frost. March I. A council assembles. 1385. The great conduit in Westchenp, for the conveyance of water from Tyburn to London, is commenced. 1286, April 30. A council is held. 1291. A council is summoned. 1297, Jan. 14. Another council assembles. 1303, Sep. 15 Oct. 5. Edward I. assembles a council for the purpose of establishing peace between Eng- land and Scotland. 1331, Dec. Another council is held. 1339, Feb. A council assembles. 1343, Oct. 10. A council on ecclesiastical jurisdiction is held. 1343, March 19. A council is held against abuses. 1349. The plague is said to have carried off 50,000 persons. J355- London sends four members to Parliament. 1356, May 16 to 34. The clergy grant a tenth of their revenues to the king for one year, at a council. 1381, June 15. Wat Tyler is killed" in Smithtield. (See WAT TYI.KK'S [XSCBRECTIOH.) 1382, May. A council is held. 1391, Apiil28. Another council assembles. 1394. The aldermen are elected for life. 1397, Feb. 19. A council against the followers of Wy- cliffe. 1401, Jan. 36 to March 8. Another council against the Wycliffjtes. A.D. 1406. The plague destroys more than 30,000 of the popu- lation. 1408, July 33. A council is held. 14:1. The (iuildhall is built. 1413. A council against Sir John Oldcastle and the Lol- lards June 26. It breaks up. I.u v Moorgate is built. 1450. Jack Cade's insurrection (q. r.). 1453. The first lord mayor's procession by water. 1471. Falconbridge threatens London, and burns half the houses on tl.e biid/e. 1503. Fleet ditch is made navigable. The first lord mayor's dinner is held at (iuildhall. 1513. St. Paul's school is founded. 1517. Evil May-day (q. r.) 1529. The lord mayoralty is limited to one year. 1548. Old Somerset House is founded. 1553. Bridewell is given to the city for charitable pur- poses. June 36. Christ's Hospital (q. v.) is founded. 1566, June 7. The first stone of the Koval Exchange (q. v.) is laid. 1568. The first conduit for conveying Thames water is made at Duwgate. 1577, Aug. 24. William Lamb repairs a conduit at llolboni Cro.->. which receives in consequence the name of Lamb's Conduit Fields. 1580, July 27. A royal proclamation prohibits the erection of any new house or tenements, " where no for- mer house hath been known to have been," within three miles ol the city gates. 1583. Thames water is lirst brought to private houses by means of leaden pipes by Peter Morris. 1593. First publication of the bills of mortality. [598. Stow's Survey of London and Westminster is pub- lished. 1603. Sep. 16. James I. issues a proclamation against "multitudes of dwellers" iu and about Lon- don. 1604. The plague ravages violently. 1605. The gunpowder plot (q. V.). 1608, June 10. The now Exchange in the Strand is founded. Sep. 24. Whit, 'friars (7.1:.) and Black- friars are made sanctuaries by a warrant under the privy seal. 1611, May 9. Founding of the Charter House (q. v.). 16:3, Sep. 29. Completion of the New River (q. V.). 1635. The plague again rages. 1630, July 24. The erection ,,t new buildings within three miles of the city gales, on -round previously un- occupied, is again prohibited. 1633, Nov. 15. The Green-coat School in Tothill Fields is erected by letters patent. Enclosure of Lincoln's Inn Fields. 1635- 1643. London is fortified. 1647, Sep. 25. The lord mayor and aldermen are com- mitted to the Tower. 1649, March 24. The Puritan soldiers pull down Salisbury Court ihcatre. the Fortune theatre, and the Cock- pit in Drury Lane. 1650. Cromwell allows the Jews to settle in the city. 1653. The first coffee-house is op-ncd. 1661, April 14. The Maypole (q. v.) in the Strand is erected. 1663, April 8. Opening of Drury Lane theatre (q. v.). April 23. Incorporation of the Hoyal Society (7.1'.). 1665, The great plague is estimated at a 100,000 persons. Nov. 7. The Gazette (q. '.) is commenced, 1666, Sep. 2, Sunday. The great fire of London breaks out between i and 2 ill the morning, at the house of Farryner, the king's bake r, in Pudding Lane. It rages for several days, extending over nearly live- sixths of the city, and destroying six lives, 13.000 houses, 89 churches, including St.. Paul's cathe- dral, and property to the amount of nearly ten millions sterling. Robert Hubert, n French Papist, was hanged on his own confession, for having commenced the fire, though it is believed to have been the result of accident Sep. 13. A proclama- tion is issued for rebuilding the city. 1667, Mav 8. An order in council is issued for rebuilding the city. The Rebuilding Act (19 Charles II. c. 3) is passed. Nov. 15. The common council pass an act for the prevention of fires. 1670. Temple Bar is rebuilt. 1671. The Monument is commenced. 1672. May 29- A new conduit and a statue of Charles II. are erected in Stock's market LONDON t 589 LONDON 1675, June 21. The first stone of new St. Paul's is laid. 1679. The Bagnio, in Newgate Street, is built and opened. l6So, March 35. Introduction of the penny port (q. v.). 1684, Jan. Feb. 5. Frost fair is held on the Thames. 1685. The French I'rotestant silk-weavers settle in Spital- fields. 1687, April. Bridgewater House, Barbican, is destroyed by fire. 1694. The Bank of England is incorporated, and Seven Dials built. June 24. Glass lights are first used for public illumination. 1697. The privilege of sanctuary (q. v.) is abolished by 8 & 9 Will. III. c. 37. 1698. The first workhouse is erected in Bishopsgate Street. 1703, Nov. 36. A great storm does considerable injury. 1705, April 9. The Haymarket theatre (opera-house) is opened. 1708. May fair is abolished, and Bartholomew fair re- stricted to three days. 1709, Nov. 5. Sacheverel's celebrated sermon is preached in St. Paul's. 1711. Fifty new churches are ordered to be erected by 10 Anne, c. n. 1715. The South Sea Company is formed. (See SOUTH SEA COMPANY.) 1722. The Chelsea water -works are commenced. 17.26. The old East India House is built. 173^. The city conduits are taken down and destroyed. 1729. Tyburn Koad is called Oxford Street. 1730. The Serpentine is formed by Queen Catherine. 1732, June 7. Vauxhall Gardens (q. v.) are opened. Aug. 3. The first stone of the Bank of England is laid. Dec. 7. Covent Garden theatre (q. v.) is opened. 1737. The new Exchange in the Strand is taken down. Sep. 30. Stock's market is removed to Farringdon Street, and called Fleet market (?. t>.), and Fleet ditch is covered in. 1739, Oct. 17. The charter of the Foundling Hospital (q. r.) is obtained. Oct. 25. The first stone of the Mansion House (q. v.) is laid. 1740. The first circulating library is established by Mr. Bathoc. 1743, April 5. Ranelagh Gardens are opened. Dec. 13. London stone is removed to its present site. 1749, Jan. 16. The bottle conjuror (?..). 1753- Parliament Street is commenced. 1753. Establishment of the British Museum (q. v.). 1754, March 33. The Society of Arts is formed. 1756, May 10. AVhitfield's Chapel, Tottenham Court Road, is founded. 1757. King's (or Queen's) Bench prison is built. The houses aie removed from London bridge. 1760, Oct. 31. Blackfriars bridge (q. v.) is founded. 1761-3. The Cock Lane ghost (q. v.). June 29. The City Read is opened. 1764, June. The houses of London are numbered. 17 >5, Feb. 13. Almack's (q. v.) Assembly-rooms are opened. Nov. 7. An extensive fire in Bishopsgate Street. 1766. Signboards are removed. 1768, Dec. 10. The Royal Academy (q. v.) is established. 1770, May 31. Founding of Newgate (q. v.). 1771, March 27. The lord mayor, Brass Crosby, is com- mitted to the Tower by a warrant of the Speaker of the House of Commons. 1772, Jan. The Pantheon (q. c.) is opened. 1777. Portland Place is built. 1779. Tattersall's (q. v.) is established. 1780. The Gordon riots (q. v.). l*]?6. Somers Town is commenced. 17)9, Dec. 19. A market is established in St. George's 1731. Camden Town is commenced. 1794. Coldbath Fields prison is opened. 17)8. The East India House is built. Ico5. The London docks are opened. (See DOCKS.) 1806, Jan. 3. The public funeral of Lord Nelson. 1807, Jan. 38. Gas (q. v.) is introduced for lighting the streets. 1811. The Mint is completed. Oct. II. The first stone of Waterloo bridge (q. v.) is laid. The Egyptian Hall is built. 1813. Regent Street is commenced. 1815, May 4. The first stone of the London Institution, Finsbury Circus, is laid. May 23. First stone of Southwark bridge (q. v.) is laid. 1816, June 4. Vauxhall bridge (q. v.) is opened. 1819. The Burlington Arcade is built. 1831. Completion of the Bank of England (7. .). 1834, March 15. The first pile of new London bridge is driven. May 10. The National Gallery (q. c.) is opened. Dec. 2. The first stone of the London Mechanics' Institute, Southampton Buildings, is laid. 1835, March 2. The Thames Tunnel (q. v.) and Bucking- ham Palace are commenced. 1837 April 30. London University is founded. June 34. The Turnpike Act (7 & 8 Geo. IV. c. 34) is passed. 1838, June 24. The new Corn Exchange (g.v.) is opened. 1829, Sep. 10. King's College (q.v.) is commenced. Sep. 33. The new Post-office is opened. Sep. 29. The new police commence duty. Nov. 30. Far market (q.v.) is opened. . 30. Farringdoii 1830, June 33. The pillory is used for the last time. 1831, Aug. I. New London bridge (q. v.) is opened. 1833, Feb. 14. The cholera makes its first appearance. 1833, July 3. Hungerford market is opened. 1835, The Duke of York's column is completed. Oct. 3t. Lord Brougham lays the first stone of the City of London Schools. 1836, Dec. 14. The railway from London to Deptford is completed. 1837, July 13. Buckingham Palace (q. v.) is first inhabited. Nov. 9. Queen Victoria dines at Guildhall. 1838, Jan. 10. The Royal Exchange is destroyed by fire. April 9. The National Gallery is opened. Sep. 17. The London and Birmingham Railway is opened. Dec. 28. The London and Greenwich Railway is opened. 1839, July i. The Great Western Railway is opened as far as Twyford. 1840, Jan. 10. The penny postage comes into operation. April 10. The model prison is founded at Penton- ville. May II. The London and Southampton Railway is opened. 1841, May. London Library is established. June 30. The tireat Western Railway is opened to Bristol. Oct. 30. A fire in the Tower. 1843, Jan. 17. The new Royal Exchange is founded. 1843, March 35. The Thames Tunnel (q. v.) is opened. Nov. 4. The Nelson statue is placed in Trafalgar Square. Nov. 30. The statue of George IV. is erected in Trafalgar Square. 1844, Feb. 7. The railway (South-Eastern) to Dover is opened. April. Fleet Prison is taken down. May i. Trafalgar Square is opened. Oct. 38. The Royal Exchange is opened by Queen Vic- toria. 1845, Jan. i. The new Building Act comes into operation. April 18. Hungerford suspension bridge is opened. June 9. New Oxford Street is opened. July 30. The railway to Cambridge and Ely is completed. Aug. 18. A fire rages in Alderman- bury. Sep. Penny Steamboats commence running on the Thames. Oct. 30. Queen Victoria opens Lincoln's Inn New Hall. Model lodging-houses are introduced. 1846 Sep. 39. The Wellington statue is erected at Hyde Park Corner. Oct. 31. Twopenny omnibuses commence running. 1847, April 19. The new portico of the British Museum is opened. 1848, April 10. The Chartists (q. v.) assemble on Kenning- ton Common. July. Street orderlies are intro- 1849, Jan. 23. The baths at St. Martin's-in-the-Fields are opened. Oct. 30. Opening of the Coal Exchange (q. v.). The cholera re-appears. 1850, March 31. The lord mayor gives a grand banquet at the Mansion House to the mayors of Great Bri- tain and Ireland. March 39. St. Anne's Church, Limehouse, is destroyed by fire. Aug. 6. The Great Northern Railway is opened to Peter- borough. Sep. 4. The workmen at Barclay's brewery attack the Austrian General Haynau. Nov. 35. A meeting is held in Guildhall to protest against the establishment of a Romish hierarchy in England. 1851, May i. Opening of the Great Exhibition (q. v.) July 3. Queen Victoria and Prince Albert attend a civic banquet at Guildhall in honour of the Exhi- bition. Oct. 30. The corporation receive Kossuth in the Guildhall. 1853, Nov. 18. The public funeral of the Duke of Welling- ton takes place in St. Paul's. 1853, July 37. The cab strike (q. v.). Oct. 5. Special re- ligious services are held for averting the cholera. LONDON [ 59 3 LONDON A.D. 1654, Jan. i. The Irvingite church in Gordon Square is opened. June 19. The King of Portugal visits the city. July 18. A public meeting is held against the mode of performing the ritual of the EsKibiished Church at St. Mini's. Kniirhtshridue, and St. Barnabas', Pimlico. July. The cholera !-;< i > tears. Oct. 30. Opening of the Working 1 Mm's College (7. .). Nov. 2. A great meeting in aid of the Patriotic Fund (7. v.). 1855, Feb. 23. liread riots occur in the east of London. April 19. Napoleon III. and the Empress go in .state; to the (iuildhall. May 6. Meeting in favour of administrative reform (g.v.). June 11. Smith- field Market is closed.. him; 13. Opening of the Metropolitan Cattle .Market (7. r.). June 24 and July I. Kiots against the Sunday Trading Hill (7. i'.). July 21. The statue of Sir Hubert Fed, in Chi'ap.-idc, is uncovered. Aug. 14. The M. tro,.,.lis Local Management Act (iS & 19 Viet, c. 120) is passsd. (See .M!.Ti:np<>i.n AN I!OAI;I> OF WORKS.) NOV 5. The ratepayer.- revert a proposition to establish free libraries and mu- seums. Nov. 29. Establishment of the Night- ingale fund (q. .). 1856, April 29. 1'eace is officially proclaimed. May 29. Displays of fireworks in the parks in celebration of the peace. July 9. The Cuards make their public entry. Sep. 3. Failure of the British Hank (7. r.). Oct. 19. A false alarm of lire at the Surrey Music Hall. 1857, June jj. The Educational Conference meets. June 24. Opening of the South Kensington .Museum (7. r.). Sep. 29. The corporation obtains the con- servancy of thcTnames. (>'<< TllA.MKs E.MUA.XK- MKNT.) Nov. 12. In consequence of numerous commercial failures, the Hank Charter Act is led. Deo. 12. More than 3,00: out of work in Spitall'.elds. 1858, Jan. I. London is divided into ten postal di.-tricts. Jan. 31. Launch of the limit l-limtrnt. March 27. Fifteen lives are lost at a tire in Bloomabttry. July u. About loo persons are injured, and several killed, by the explosion of a firework manufactory in the Westminster Road, 1859, April 21. Opening of the first drinking-fountain (7. r.).- May 25. A deputation from the city me- morializes the Pn mier against. Engli.-ii interven- tion in the Italian question. July 18. Much in- jury is done by a storm. July 25. Closing oi Vauxhall (iardcns (7. r.). Aug. 6. The strike of the build, i-s. \.-. ,>,. MKIKKS.) Aug. 16. Found- ing of the Tabernacle at Newington. Aug. 21. Disturbance! cominence at St. (irorgcVin-thc- East, in consequence of the alleged Komish t, n- dcin -ics of the rector. Sep. 22. The metropolis is divided into twenty districts for ecclesiastical piii-j, 1860, March 7. Opening of the Floral Hall (7. t>.). May 30. A train breaks through the walls of the (ireat Northern terminus at, King's Cross, and injures several people in the public street. June 23. A volunteer rifle review is held in Hyde 1'ark. (See VOLUXTEERS.) Aug. 26. A fire in Loin;- Acre in- jures St. Martin's Hall and other buildings. Dec, Much distress is occasioned by a severe frost. 1861, March 23. Opening of the first Street Railway (7. p.). April 8. The decennial census of Great Britain and Ireland is taken, and the population of London is returned at 2,803,034 souls. June 5. The new gardens of tin- lioyal Horticultural Society at Ken- sington are opened by Prince Albert. June 22. Mr. Hraidwood, superintendent of the tire brigade, is killed at a live in Tooley Street, and property worth about 2,coo,oco is destroyed. June. Another strike commences in the building trades. July II. The ratepayers again refuse a free library. Sep. 2. A collision on the North London Kailway occasions the loss of IS lives. Sep. 5. A destructive fire breaks out in Paternoster Row. Oct. 31. The Prince of Wales opens the Middle Temple library. 1862 March 12. Mr. George Peabody, an American mer- chant, gives 150,000 for "the poor. March 23. Cainpden House, Kensington, is destroyed by fire. May i. Opening of the International Kxhibi- tion (7. f-). 1862, May 24. Opening of New Wes'minster Bridge (q. .). July 10. Mr. Peabody revives the freedom of the city. July 13. A fire in Lam- beth destro\s property to the value of ,[50,000. Aug. 15. A fire, attended with the lo.-s of three lives, takes place in Cumberland Street. Hyde Park. ( lot. 5. A riot between Irish Konum Catho- lics and the admirers of Garibaldi takes place in Hyde Park. .Nov. I. Closing of the International Kxhibiiion. Nov. 22. Austin Friars Church is destroyed by fire. Dec. 26. Six lives are lost in a fire in" Portland Place, Soho. 1863, Jan. 9. Opening of the Metropolitan Railway., March 7. The Princess Alexandra, of Denmark makes a public entry into London. March 9. The Lord Mayor and some members of the corpora- tion, on behalf of the city, present a diamond necklace and earrings, valued at 10,000, to the Princess Alexandra at Windsor. March ic. ral lives are lost from crowding at the illumi- nations in celebration of the marriage of the Prince of Wales. Nov. 19. The Common Council vote some land in Victoria Street, and a sum of 20,000, for the construction of dwellings for the poorer classes. Dec. ;H. A fire in Woo i and Milk Streets destroys property estimated at 150,000. 1864, Jan. I. The road from High Street. Scmthwark, to the Black friars Uoad. is opened. Jan. It. open- ing of the Charing Cross Kailway. March i. Opening of the South London Working t Exhibition. April it. (iarib.tldi visits London.-- July". The Savoy chapel is destroyed bv tire. Julys. Foundation of the Thames "Kmb.mknient (q. t).). July 2S. Passing of the Street .Music (.Me- tropolis) Act (27 & 2 Viet. c. 55). July 29. Pass- ing of the Metropolitan Houseless Poor Act (^7 ,'i 28 Viet. c. 116). Sep. 19. A fire in Gresham Street destroys Haberdashers' Hall, and property valued at nearly half amillion. Oct. 17. Opening of the North London Working Classes' Exhibition. 1865, Jan. 26. The Roman Catholic Free Schoolr s at St. Peter's Street, Westminster, fall in, severely injuring more than ico persons.- ,l:m. Surrey Theatre (7. r.) is destroyed by tire. Feb. 23. Funeral of Cardinal Wiseman" at Kensal dr. ,n. Savilic House, Leicester Square, is de- stroy. -<| by lire. --Feb. 27. Funeral of the Duke of Northumberland in Westminster Abbey. April 4. The Southern Outfall of the Main Drainage- Wo.ks is opened by the Prince of Wales. May I. Opening of the West London Industrial Exhibi- tion. July 4. Fire at Marlborouiih House. Oct. 27. Funeral of Lord Palm.-rstoii in West- minster Abbey. Oct. 30. A great fire breaks out at Beat's Wharf, Tooley Street. Oct. 31. The Lx- plo.-ion of a gasometer at Nine Kims causes the death of 10 persons, the serious injury of 22, and great destruction of properly. I8C6, March 6. Opening of the City Industrial Exhibition at Guildhall. June 7. Prince Alfred. Duke of Edinburgh, receives the freedom of the city. June 23. Volunteer review in Hyde Park. July 23. Riots in Hyde Park (7. r.). LONDON (Gates 1 ;. The old Roman gates were four in number, viz., Ludgaie, said to have been built by King Ludd B.C. 66 ; Aldgate, named on account of its antiquity ; Cripple- gate, and Dowgate. In addition to these, were Bishopsgate, built before 685 ; Alderso-;ite ; Newgate, erected by Henry I., or Stephen ; Moorgate, built in 1415 ; and Temple Bar, re- built by Sir Christopher Wren in 1670. LONDON (Treaties). Numerous conven- tions and treaties with the representatives of Foreign Governments have been concluded here. The best known are three treaties between Louis XII. of France and Henry VIII., signed in London, Aug. 7, 1514. The first pro- vided for an alliance, offensive and defensive, between France and England ; the second for a marriage between Louis XII. and Mary, the youngest sister of Henry VIII. ; and the third LONDON [ 591 1 LONDONDERRY secured to Henry VIII. the payment annually, for 10 years, of 100,000 gold crowns, in satis- faction of arrears. Treaties of peace, friendship, commerce, and alliance, with Portu- gal, were concluded at London, June 16, 1373, and Jan. 29, 1642. A treaty for the settle- ment of affairs in Italy was signed at London, Feb. 17, 1720. A treaty of peace, friendship, and alliance, with Spain, was concluded at London, Jan. 14, 1809; an additional article on commerce March 21. A treaty between the Five Great Powers and Belgium, for the sepa- ration of that country from Holland, was signed here Nov. 15, 1831. A treaty between Russia, France, and England, for the settle- ment of the affairs of Greece, was concluded at London July 6, 1827, and another, between Russia, France, Bavaria, and Great Britain, regulating the succession to the Crown of Greece, Nov. 20, 1852. A treaty for the settlement of the dispute between Turkey and Egypt, was signed between Austria, Prussia, and England, July 15, 1840. Mehemet All acceded to it, Nov. 27. The treaty for the pacification of Spain and Portugal, was signed at London, April 22, 1834 ; additional articles Aug. 18, 1834. The treaty regulating the succession to the crown of Denmark, was signed between the Great Powers and Den- mark at London, May 8, 1852. Wiirtemberg acceded to it, Nov. 28, 1852; Sardinia, Dec. 4, 1852 ; the Two Sicilies, Dec. 4, 1852, and Jan. 28, 1853 ! Spain, Dec. 6 ; Tuscany, Dec. 6 ; Saxony, Dec. 9; Oldenburgh, Dec. 10; Hanover, Dec. n; Hesse-Cassel, Dec. 16; Netherlands, Dec. 20; Belgium, Dec. 28, 1852 ; and Portugal, March 19, 1863. LONDON BRIDGE. The first bridge over the Thames at London was built of wood, about 994, and stood lower down the river, near Botolph's wharf. It was much injured by the Danes in 1008, and the ruins were carried away by a flood in 1091. In 1097 William II. imposed a heavy tax for its re- construction, and this bridge, destroyed by fire in 1136, was restored in 1163. The old stone bridge, commenced by Peter of Cole- church in 1176, was completed in 1209. It was 926 feet long, 40 feet wide, and about 60 feet above the water, and stood upon 19 pointed arches, between which were massive piers. A handsome stone chapel, dedicated to St. Thomas Becket, stood upon the centre pier, and appears to have been the only building erected upon the bridge at its foundation, though in course of time a row of houses on each side of the road was added. The entire construction was defended by a drawbridge. A fire, which occurred July 10, 1212, occasioned the death of more than 3,000 persons, and did considerable damage to the bridge itself ; and in 1282 the frost destroyed five of the arches. The custom of placing the heads of traitors over London Bridge was commenced by Edward I. in Aug., 1305, and Paul Hentzner, the German traveller, counted 30 heads on the bridge in 1598. A celebrated passage of arms between an English and a Scotch knight took place on the bridge April 23, 1390 ; and on tho entry of Richard II. and his consort into London, Nov. 13, 1395, nine persons were killed, owing to the excessive crowding. The drawbridge tower was erected in 1426, and the great gate and tower on the Southwark side of the river, together with two arches of the bridge, fell Jan. 14, 1437, but without causing any loss of life. The houses on the bridge were burned by Falconbridge during his attempt on London, May 14, 1471, and six houses were destroyed by fire Nov. 21, 1504. In 1577 the drawbridge tower was rebuilt, the heads were removed to Traitors' gate, the famous Nonsuch House was erected about 1579, and in 1582 the water-works were established. A fire which broke out Feb. 13, 1633, destroyed more than a third of the houses on the bridge ; but the Great Fire of 1666 did comparatively little damage. The bridge gate and several other buildings were burned^* Sep. 8, 1725. Owing to the insecure state of the bridge, the houses were removed in 1757, and a temporary wooden bridge was erected, and opened in Oct. This temporary bridge was destroyed by fire April n, 1758. The drawbridge was removed in 1760, and in 1800 exertions were made for the erection of an entirely new bridge. Nothing was done, how- ever, till June 15, 1822, when the corporation offered three premiums for the best designs, and in Dec., Messrs. Fowler, Borer, and Busby were declared the successful competitors. The design ultimately adopted was that of Mr. John Reniiie. The rebuilding of the bridge was officially referred to Parliament, Feb. 19, 1823, and was ordered to be carried into effect by 4 Geo. IV. c. 50 (July 4, 1823). The first pile was driven March 15, 1824 ; the foundation stone was laid by Lord Mayor Garratt, June 15, 1825, and the bridge was opened by William IV. and Queen Adelaide, Aug. i, 1831. The con- tract for building the bridge was 506,000. The dimensions are : Ft. in. Span of centre arch .................................... 150 6 Height of ditto from high water .................. 29 6 piers ......................................................... z4 o Span of second and fourth arches ............... 140 o Height of ditto from high water .................. 27 6 Piers ......................................................... 2,2, o Span of the abutment arches ........................ 130 o Height of ditto from high water .................. 34 6 Abutments ................................................ 73 o Clear water-way ....................................... 690 o Length of bridge, including abutments ...... 938 o Ditto without abutments ........................ 783 o Width of bridge from parapet to parapet ...... 56 o Width of carriage-way . . 36 o Width of each foot -way .............................. 9 o Total height of bridge on east side from low> g Q LONDON CONFERENCE. A conference, attended by plenipotentiaries from European states for the purpose of restoring peace be- tween Denmark, Austria, and Prussia, held its first meeting in London, April 25, 1864. It separated without accomplishing the object, June 25. (See DENMARK.) LONDON CORRESPONDING SOCIETY. (See CORRESPONDING SOCIETY.) LONDONDERRY, or DERRY (Ireland). This city, situated in the county of the same name, originated in a monastery founded about 546. It was frequently assailed and bunied in civil strife and by the Danes. The great church was built in 1163. Londonderry was LONDON [ 592 ] LONGEVITY taken by John de Courcey in 1198, and was granted by Edward II. to Richard de Burgh in 1311. Londonderry formed part of the escheate'd territory granted to the London companies, by whom it was fortified ; the first English garrison arriving in 1566. In 1568 it was much injured by an explosion in the powder magazine, which caused the English to leave the place ; but it was reoccupied in 1600. It was burned by Sir Cahir O'Doherty in 1608, and it received a charter in 1613. The town- hall was erected in 1622, and the cathedral \va.s completed in 1633. On the breaking out of the rebellion of 1641, Londonderry became the asylum of the Irish Protestants, who success- fully defended the place against the Royalists in 1649. The memorable siege by James II. commenced April 20, 1689, and terminated in the retreat of the besiegers, July 30. During the interval, 3,200 of the defenders died from wounds or starvation, and the assailants lost about 8,000 men. The town-hall, burned during the siege, was rebuilt in 1692. The court-house was commenced in 1813, and the county gaol was completed in 1824. The colos- sal statue of the Rev. George Walker, who had conducted the defence in 1689, was inau- gurated Aug. 12, 1828. The Londonderry Literary Society was established in 1834. LONDON HOSPITAL, founded in 1740, was incorporated in 1759. The first stone of the new wing was laid by the Prince of Wales July 4, 1864. LONDON INSTITUTION. For educational purposes, was established in 1806 in the old Jewry. Professor Person, who was the first librarian, died Sep. 25, 1808. It was incorpo- rated April 30, 1815. The first stone of the building in Finsbury Circus was laid !May 4, 1815, and it was opened April 21, 1819. LONDON LIIiUAHV, in St. James's Square, was opened May i, 1841. The first volume of the catalogue was published in 1847, the second in 1852, and a new edition in 1865. LONDON PHILANTHROPIC SOCIETY was founded in 1841, to supply the poor of the metropolis and its neighbourhood with bread and coal during the months of winter. LONDON SACKED HARMONIC SOCIETY was established in 1848, to encourage the practice and performance of oratorios, anthems, services, chanting, psalmody, S h Adrtm Enos .......................... Cainan ............... Mahalaleel ................. Jared ....................... Enoch was translated Methuselah .............. , Lantech .... Shem Arphaxad Salah Kbcr Peleg Keu Serug Nahor Terah Sarah Abraham , Isaac Jacob Joseph Moses .... Died aged Years. 930 912 95 95 6co 438 433 464 239 239 230 148 205 127 Aged Died A.n. 66. Marcus Androgcncus (killed in battle) 107 95. Apollonius of Tyana i^o 371. Galen IA O 491. St. Patrick 132 500. Attila, King of the Huns ... 124 500. Lywarch Hen (a Welsh bard) 150 618. St. Coemgene or St. Keiven 120 861. Piastus, King of Poland I2o 973. Clarenbaldus 168 or 148 973. Swarlingus 143 974. Tugarus lie I4th century. Sir Ralph Vernon, culled "old Sir 'Ralph'" or Sir Ralph the Long Liver 150 1499. Agnes Skuner of Surrey no 1510. John Kitchingraan of Chapel Allerton, Yorkshire 115 1542. Thomas Newman of Bridlington, Yorkshire 153 1566. Lewis Cornaro, of Padua 104. 1568, Oct. ii. Roger Brook, of Halifax 133 1588, Jan. 28. Thomas Cam, London 107 1613. Countess of Desmond 145 1635. Thomas Parr, Wilmington, Shropshire iw 1648. Thomas Damme, Lelghton, Cheshire TU 1653. William Mead, M.D., Hertfordshire 148 1655, Feb. 20. Elizabeth Clayton, of Kirkburton, Yorkshire 113 1656. James Bowles, Kenilworth *" 1=3 1605, Feb. 8. Widow Allanby, of Thorlby, Yorkshire ill 1666, Nov. Matthew Carter, of Thornborough York- shire .... n 3 1668. Mary Allison, of Thorlby, Yorkshire. "I"!!!!""!!! 108 1668. William Edwards, Glamorganshire 168 1670, Dec. 9. Henry Jenkins, Yorkshire 169 1671, Jan. 26. Robert Montgomery, Skipton 137 1685. Gustavus Holme, Dover 173 1691. Mrs. Eckelston, King's County, Ireland '..' 14? 1706. John Bayles, Northampton 136 1711. Jane Scrimshaw, London 1714. William Wi.kH.-y. Shropshire !., 1715, May 31. Elizabeth Lewis, Herefordshire 141 1731. Widow Foss, of Morley, Yorkshire 114 1731, Nov. 10. John Robert, of Halifax 114 1734. Peter Zartan, Hungary i8c 1738. Ralph Bourn, of West Tanfield, Yorkshire 113 1731. William Eclie, Edinburgh I2o 1733. William Loland, Ireland 140 1734. John Ronsey, Scotland 138 1739. Margaret Patten, London 137 1740. James Grasmay, Hungary 125 1741. John Rovin, Hungi 1741. Wife of John Rovi ,ry 173 i. Hungary ... ,.,., 164 Pied .D. Aged 1743. John Philips, of Thorner, Yorkshire 11-7 1743. Mary Prymm, London 121 1743- Peter Mestanea, Spain 1743, Sep. 20. Mary Myers, of Northwoods, Yorkshire 120 1746. Francis Thompson, of Biusoe, Yorkshire 112 1747. Jonas Surington, Norway jm 1749. Mrs. Bowles, Berkshire '. 1749. Alexander Bennet, Down, Ireland 135 1749. Joseph Battlesworth, Cornwall 136 1753. Don Andrew Bueno, Badajoz 124. 1753. Evan Peiree, North Wales 120 1753. Andrew Schmidt, Upper Silesia '. 124 175! William Congreve, of Sheffield 111 1756. Mr. Elstoff, of Ledstone, Yorkshire 114 1757. William Sharply, Koscommon, Ireland 138 1757. John Walney, Glasgow 124. I757- Robert Parr, Shropshire 1757. Alexander McCulloch, Aberdeen 133 1758. David Grant, Kinross, Scotland 1758. Catherine Giles, Belfast "/."'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'."'. 123 1759- James Sheile, Kilkenny, Ireland 136 1759. Hannibal Camoux, Marseilles 121 1759- Donald Cameron, Scotland iqo 1760. Elizabeth Hilton 131 1761. Jan. Charles Cottrell, Philadelphia, N. America 120 1761, Jan. Mrs. Charles Cottrell, ditto n? 1761, July. John Newell, Ireland 127 761. Elizabeth Marchant, Ireland 133 1763. Catherine Brebner, Aberdeen '.'.'.'".'. 1763. John Noon, Galway, Ireland 1763. Jane Blake, of Leeds 1763. John Michaelstone 1763. Elizabeth Taylor, London 1763. Matthew Hubert, Ireland 1763. Owen Carollan, Ireland 1764. July 15. George Kirton, of Oxnop Hall, York- shire 1765. Edglebert Hoff, New York, U.S....!...!.!!'.!!!!!!!!!!! 1765. Margaret Foster, Cumberland 1766. Thomas Winslow, Ireland 1766. Thomas Dobson, Hatfleld, Yorkshire 1766. John de la Somet, Virginia, U.S 1766. John King, Cambridgeshire 1766. John Simpson, of Knaresborough .. .. 1767. John Hill, Edinburgh 1767. Francis Auge, Maryland, U.S 1768. Catherine Noon, Ireland 1768, Dec. Robert Ogilby, of Leeds 1769. Martha Preston, of Barns'ey 1769. John Brookey, Devonshire .............................. 1769, Sep. William Hughes, of Tadcaster, Yorkshire 1769. Mr. Butler, Kilkenny, Ireland ........................... 1769. Margaret Foster ....*. ........................................ 1770. Isaac Truernan, of Kettlewell, Yorkshire ......... 1771. John Gough, Ireland ....................................... 1772. Mrs. Keith, Gloucestershire .............................. 1772- Christian Drackenburg, Denmark .................. 177?. Mrs. Clum, Lichfield ....................................... 1773. Charles McTindly, Ireland .............................. 1775. Peter Garden, Aberdeen ................................. 1776. Mr. Moval, Dumfriesshire, Scotland ............... 1776 (about). Mrs. Phillip i ............................. 126 or 1777. John Houseman, of Sessay, Yorkshire ............ 1777. Ann Foster, Newcastle .................................... 1780. Louisa Truxo (negress), S. America .................. 1780. Kobert McBride, Scotland .............................. 1780. Mr. Evans, London ....................................... 1780. William Ellis, Liverpool ................................. 1780. Thomas Hume, of York ................................ 1782. Valentine Cateby, of Preston, Yorkshire ......... 1784. Mary Frith, of Marsden, Yo kshire ............ } ..... 1784. Mary Cameron, Inverness-shire ........................ 1785. John Maxwell, Cumberland ........................... 1785. Cardinal de Salis, Spain ................................. 1787. Jonas Warren, Ireland .................................... 1790. John Jacob, the "Patriarch of Mount Jura" ... 1791. Ann Green, of Spro thorough, Yorkshire ............ 1791. Jonathan Hartop, Yorkshire ........................... 1793. Mr. Robertson, Edinburgh .............................. 1794. Alice Atkinson, of York ................................. 1796. Francis Consitt, of Burythorpe, Yorkshire ......... 1796. Mrs. Thompson, Dublin ................................. 1797. Charles Macklin, the actor, London ............... 1797. A mulatto, name unknown, N. America 1798, April 3. Isaac Ingall, Sussex ........................... 1802. Mrs. Golden, of Hilton, Yorkshire .................. 1804, Nov. Thomas Martin, Yorkshire ..................... QQ LONG [ 594 1 LOOKING Died Aged 1805. John Tucker, Hampshire 131 1805. Elias Hoyle, of Sowerby, Yorkshire 113 1806. Catherine Lopez (negresa), Jamaica 134 1806. Mr. Creek, Thurlow, Suffolk 125 1807. Joseph Rann (negro), Jamaica 140 1807. Mr. Crobully, Ireland 138 1810. Flora Macdonald, Isle of Lewes, Scotland 130 1813. Anne Wignell (negress), Jamaica ^46 1813. Mary .Mei-an. Ireland 129 1813. JohnGilley, .Maine, U.s 124 1814. Thomas Uuiicombe, of Beverley 114 1814. Mary Innes, Isle of Skye 137 1817, April. Mary King, Stoi.ehaven, Yorkshire Ill 1818. David Ferguson, Kent 134 1818. William M'K.-in, Virginia, I'.S 130 1830. William Walkington, of Kirkby Mis[>erton, Yorkshire in 1834. John Maildnx, Gloucestershire 121 1836. Ann Mullhollarid, Ireland 123 1837. Rebecca Fury (negress), Jamaica 140 1836. John Cuffee (negro), Virginia, U.S 130 1844, Jan. 33. George Whartou, of Laverton, York- shire H2 1845. Bridget ilevine. Manchester 147 1848. Daniel Aikin, Canada West I3O nthew Pearson, Yorkshire 113 184 s *. Mrs. Morun, Ireland 131 1850. Richard Dorner, Ireland 135 1851. Visc.niint Gardinville 113 1853, Feb. 34. David Kennison. N.A 117 1853, Oct. 15. Judy (a slave), N.A no 1855. M. A. Provencal, France 119 1856. Jane Garbutt, of Welbury, Yorkshire no 1858. James Nolan, Ireland 116 1800. Patrick Sweenev, Ireland 119 1866, Jan. 37- Joseph Civle, ( 'ale.I.mia, Wisconsin, said by the American journals to be the oldest man in the world 141 LONG FRIDAY. (-See GOOD FRIDAY.) LONG ISLAND (Bahamas) was discovered by Christopher Columbus in 1492. With the group to which it belongs it was seized by the Spaniards in 1781, and was restored to the British by the treaty of Versailles, Sep. 3, I7 L 3 ONG ISLAND (Battle). The English, under Gen. Howe, routed the American revo- lutionary forces, commanded by Gen. Putnam, at the village of Flat Hush, in Long Island, New York, Aug. 27, 1776. The English lost 61 killed and 257 wounded, and the rebel army 2,000 men. LONG ISLAND (New York). Capt. Wey- mouth discovered Long Island in 1605. LONGITUDE. (See LATITUDE.) ' LONGJUMEAU (Treaty) was concluded here between the Huguenots and the Roman Catho- lics, by the lame Marshal Biron, March 20, 1568. It was proclaimed in the edict of Long- jumeau, March 23, but being a mere stratagem on the part of the Roman Catholics to weaken their opponents, was speedily broken. It was called the Ill-grounded and Patched-up, or the Lame and Unstable Peace. LONG-LIVED ADMINISTRATION, also called the Short-lived Administration, held office Feb. n and 12, 1746. The Pelham, or Broad-Bottom Administration, having resigned Feb. 10, 1746, the Earl of Bath accepted the Treasury, with Lord Carlisle as Privy Seal, Lord Graiiville as one of the secretaries of state, and Lord Winchelsea at the Admiralty. George III. was not, however, satisfied with the ministerial arrangements, and the Broad- Bottom Administration (q. v.}, was restored to office Feb. 12. LONGOBARDI, or LANGOBARDI. The name of this German tribe of barbarians is derived either from the length of their beards or from the circumstance of their inhabiting the plains beside the Elbe liirde or lord sig- nifying a " fertile plain by the side of a river." They are stated by the ancient authors to have been a branch of the Suevi ; but Paul Warne- frid, who wrote in the time of Charlemagne, and was himself a Longobard, asserts that they originally migrated from Scandinavia. They first appeared in history during the reign of Augustus, when they were settled between the Elbe and Oder, and but little more was heard of them till the reign of Jus- tinian I. (527 565), by whom they were invited into Noricum and Pannonia. Under their chief Alboin, they invaded Italy in 568, and speedily reduced the greater portion of the country to subjection, establishing their kingdom of Lom- bardy, which composed the modern states of Venice, the Tyrol, the Milanese, Piedmont, Genoa, Mantua, Parma, Modena, Tuscany, a large portion of the papal states, and the greatest part of the kingdom of Naples. (See LOMBARD Y.) LONG PARLIAMENT, summoned by Charles I., met at Westminster, Tuesday, Nov. 3, 1640, and continued its sittings until it was dissolved by Cromwell, April 20, 1653. The journal of this Parliament terminates Tuesday, April 19. It was said of this Parlia- ment, that "many thought it never would have a beginning, and afterwards that it never would have an end." (See DELINQUENTS.) LONG WOOD (Battle). The Americans, under Capt. Holmes, defeated the English at this place, on the river Thames, Upper Canada, March 4, 1814. LONGWOOD (St. Helena). This villa, about six miles from James's Town, and the best in the island, became, Dec. 10, 1815, the residence of the exiled Napoleon I., who died here May 5, 1821. LONGWY (France), founded in the 7th cen- tury, annexed to Bar in the isth, taken by the French in the i7th, was ceded to France in 1678, and was fortified by Vauban. The Aus- trians and Prussians, under the Duke of Bruns- wick and Gen. Clairfait, invested it Aug. 20, 1792, and it surrendered Aug. 24. It was bom- barded July i, 1815, and the besiegers were compelled to retire July 13. The siege was re- newed Aug. 10, and the French commander, Ducos, capitulated Sep. 18. LOO (Holland). William III. ratified the peace of Ryswick at his hunting seat of Loo, Sep. 20, 1697. A treaty between Great Britain, Prussia, and Holland, was concluded here under the auspices of William Pitt in 1790. LOO-CHOO, LEKEYO, or LIEOU-KIEOU ISLANDS (Pacific Ocean). Capt. Broughton visited these islands, then little known to Europeans, in 1797. A Christian mission was established in 1851. LOODIANA (Hindostan). This town and the district came into possession of the British in 1836, through the failure of the line of suc- cession. LOOKING-GLASSES are mentioned Job xxxvii. 18, B.C. 2337, and Exodus xxxviii. 8, LOOM [ 595 LORD B.C. 1490, and were probably made of polished metal. Praxiteles, who flourished about B.C. 364, is said to have made a mirror of silver, and the American Indians were found to possess such articles, made from a kind of vitrified lava, plane, concave, and convex, in 1492. Beckniann gathers from Pliny that they were manufactured of glass by the Sidonians in 77. He quotes a treatise of 1279, by John Peckham, a Franciscan, monk of Oxford, in which mirrors are particularly described, and as having the back covered with lead. The Anglo-Saxon women wore them at their girdles. A process for silvering was patented by Drayton in Nov. 1843. (See GOBAIN, ST.) LOOM depicted on the tombs at Thebes, about B.C. 2000, the invention having been as- cribed to the goddess Isis, was in vise in ancient Greece and Borne, especially amongst the females of a family. In India and China it has been in use, in a rude form, from the earliest period. Among the Anglo-Saxons, too, its structure was exceedingly simple. Improved apparatus was introduced into England by the Flemings, of whom Gervaise says that weaving is their "natural" business. A number of these people established themselves at Norwich in 1132, and John Kemp, with a body of work- men from Flanders, came over at the invitation of Edward III., in 1331. A method for the application of mechanical power to the hand- loom was submitted to the French Academy of Sciences by M. de Gennes, in 1678, although it does not appear to have been carried into effect. A machine was patented by the Rev. Dr. Cartwright, which imitated the three movements in weaving, in 1785, and another in 1787 ; but these failed, and after an expen- diture of ^40,000, that gentleman, in 1809, re- ceived a grant of ^10,000 from Parliament as compensation. The first power-loom for cot- ton-weaving was erected near Glasgow in 1798. Jacquard exhibited his machine at Paris in Sep., 1801 (See JACQUARD LOOM), and an electric loom was constructed in 1854 by M. Bonelli, director-general of the Sardinian telegraphs, which he brought to England in 1859. (See ELECTRIC LOOM.) LOOSE COAT, or LOSE-COAT FIELD (Battle). Sir Robert AVells, a Lancastrian, having raised the standard of revolt against Edward IV., fell upon the royal troops at Erpingham, near Stamford, March 19, 1470. He was with Sir Thomas Deland taken pri- soner, and the soldiers, alarmed by the cap- ture of their leaders, took to flight, casting off their coats, lest they should impede their retreat, on which account the battle received this name. LORCA (Spain), the ancient Eliocroca, was besieged several times during the Moorish occupation of Spain. The bridge was built in 1847. LORD. (See CONGREGATION OF THE LORD.) LORD ADVOCATE (Scotland^, also called King's or Queen's Advocate, is the principal law-officer of the Crown in Scotland, the same as the Attorney-general in England. The office of King's Advocate is known to have existed in 1479, but it was not until 1540 that it was raised to the dignity of a great office of state. A record of the Court of Justiciary in 1598 contains the first mention of a Lord Advocate. LORD CAMPBELL'S ACT. (See DEATH BY ACCIDENTS COMPENSATION ACT.) LORD t CHAMBERLAIN OF THE HOUSE- HOLD is mentioned as early as 1208. In 1341 't was ordered that he should swear, on his appointment, to keep the laws of the land, and the great charter; and, in 1406, he was appointed a member of the Privy Council. LORD CHANCELLOR (Scotland) was ori- ginally the king's conscience-keeper, issuing his writs for the remedy of injustice, and be- came the chief judge of the Court of Session at its establishment, in 1533. The office was abolished at the Union, March 6, 1707. LORD CHIEF JUSTICE. (See KING'S or QUEEN'S BENCH.) LORD GENERAL. (See GENERAL.) LORD GREAT CHAMBERLAIN. This office, which has existed in England from a very early period, was granted to the family of De Vere during the reign of Henry I. (noo 1135). Owing to the extinction of the family in 1625, it became the subject of litigation, but was ultimately confirmed to Lord Wil- loughby d'Eresby, in whose family it still remains. LORD HIGH ADMIRAL. When admirals were first appointed in this country, each officer of the kind received the command of a particu- lar fleet, such as, the king's ships north, south, or west of the Thames, or the fleet of the Cinque Ports. Sir John Beauchamp was appointed "admiral of the king's southern, northern, and western fleets" (July 18, 1360), and this, Sir Harris Nicolas observes, is the first instance of the command of all the fleets being vested in one person. Beauchamp died in Dec. 1360, and Sir Robert Herle was (Jan. 26, 1361) appointed to succeed him as admiral of the three fleets. Many similar appointments fol- lowed, and, May 9, 1398, John, Marquis of Dorset, was made admiral of the northern and western fleets for life, the Irish fleet having been placed under his direction on the same terms. Sir Thomas of Lancaster (second son of Henry IV.), afterwards Duke of Clarence, was appointed "Admiral of England," Feb. 20, 1405 ; and from that period, as Nicolas remarks, " there was always an admiral of England, who commanded in chief all the fleets in England, Ireland, and Aquitaine," the office having been held successively by the Earls of Somerset and Kent, and Sir Thomas Beaufort, who was after- wards created Earl of Dorset and Duke of Exeter. Sir Thomas of Lancaster was pro- bably the first who took the title of lord high admiral, which was borne by an uninterrupted series of individual officers till Nov. 20, 1632, when the office was, for the first time, put in commission. During the Interregnum, the affairs of the navy were managed by a com- mittee of Parliament, until Cromwell himself undertook the direction. The Duke of York (afterwards James II.) was lord high admiral from the Restoration till May 22, 1684, when Charles II. took the office, James II. re- suming it on his accession in the following year. It remained in commission after his abdication, till Prince George of Denmark QQ 2 LORD [ 596 1 LORD was appointed lord high admiral of Eng- land, May 20, 1702, and of Great Britain, on account of the Union, June 28, 1707, with a council of four persons to assist him. At his death, Nov. 8 (O.S. Oct. 28), 1708, the Earl of Pembroke was appointed his suc- cessor, with a similar council. The Earl re- signed in 170^ ; since which time the office hns always been in commission, except during the interval from May 1827, to Sep. 1828, in which it was held by the Duke of Clarence, after- wards William IV. The only instance of a lord high admiral for Ireland, is that of James, Lord Butler, high treasurer, created "Great Admiral and Keeper of the Ports in Ireland," by patent, May u, 1535. There was a lord high admiral in Scotland from the isth century until the Union. A lord high admiral having been appointed in France, Richelieu suppressed the office in 1627, but it was re-established by Louis XIV. in 1669. LORD HIGH ALMONER OF ENGLAND, an ecclesiastical officer, generally a bishop, who in olden times had the power of giving the first dish from the king's table, or, instead thereof, alms to any poor person he pleased. Jlis duties, enumerated in an old juridical treatise of the time of Edward I., were to collect the fragments from the royal table for daily distribution to the poor, to visit the sick and poor persons in distress, to remind the king of the duty of almsgiving, and to see that the value of the cast-off robes should be given to increase the king's charity. From the wardrobe accounts of the i4th year of King John, it appears that the alms were at that time distributed by the sovereign on Maunday Thursday. Since 1730 the office of Lord High Almoner has been held by the Archbishops of York. LORD HIGH CHANCELLOR OF ENG- LAND. The office of king's chancellor has been traced to the reign of Ethelbert, King of Kent (568 616). It was tisually held by an ecclesiastic, and frequently by the king's chaplain. The first chancellor after the Con- quest was Arfastus, Bishop of Hclmham, whose name occurs in a charter dated 1068. The office assumed a judicial character in the reign of Henry I., and underwent a change in its constitution under Henry III., who ap- pointed an officer empowered to act as a chancellor, but without possessing that title, his special province being the custody of the seal. (See LORD KEEPER.) The first charter making this distinction is dated June 14, 1232. The chancellor assumed the title of chancellor of England in 1266, and of lord chancellor in the reign of EdwardII.(i307 27.) By 5 Eliz. c. 18 (1563), the offices of loi'd chan- cellor and lord keeper were declared identical. The vice-chancellor (q. v.) was appointed by S3 Geo. III. c. 24 (March 23, 1813). The sala- ries of the chief officers of the lord chancellor are regulated by 15 & 16 Viet. c. 87 (July i, 1852). The lord chancellor, who is keeper of the king's conscience, takes precedence of all the other law officers of the realm, ranking next to the Archbishop of Canter- bury. Foss (Judges of England) gives the following list: LORD HIGH CHANCELLORS AND LORD KEEPERS OF ENGLAND. WILLIAM I. 1068. Arfastus. 1070. Osbert, or Osbern. 1074. Osmund. 1078. Maurice. 1083. William Welson. 1086. William Giffard. WILLIAM II. 1087. William Giffard. logo. Robert Bloet. 1093. Galdric. 1094 (about). William Giffard (again). IIKXUY I. Iloo. William Giffard. HOI. Roger. 1103. William Giffard (again). 1104. Waldric. Ilo8. Rnnulph. 1134. Geoffrey Ruf us. BTKPBBH. 1135. Roger Pauper. 1139. Philip. - Robert de Grant. IIKXUY II. I 54. Thomas ]!e-.>ket. 73. Ralph de Wanieville. 8;. Geoffrey Plantngeuot. KICHAUI) I. William de Lougchamp. Eustace. JOIIX. 1199. Hubert Walter. 1205. Walter de Grey. 1313. Peter de Rupibus. .,.. /Walter de Grey (again). I3I 4- [Richard MarisVo. IIKXUY III. I2T6. Richard Marisco. 1326. Ralph de K<-vill. 123*. Simon Xorinanus (keeper). 1240. Richard Crassus (keeper). 1244- Silvester de Everdon (keeper). 1240. John M tinsel (keeper). 1247. -John de I.exinton (keeper). 1348. John Hansel (sixain, keeper). 1249. John de Lexinton (again, keeper). 1250. William de Kilkenny (keeper). 1255- Henry de Winglmm (keeper). 1360. Nicholas de Ely (keeper). 1261. Walter de Merton. 1363. Nicholas de Ely. ..(. /Th,,n,;is deCanfflnpe. I36 S- [Walter Giffard. 1267. Godfrey Giffard. 1268. John de Chisliull (keeper). 1269. Richard de Hiddleton. 1273. John de Kirkeby (keeper). KKWAUD I. 1272. Walter de Merton. 1274. Robert liurnell. -,, f William de Hamilton (keeper). **>* I John de Lnngton. Adam de ( >sgodby (keeper). i.im de Grenetield. ' I Adam ) Willi. . Willia 1304. William de Hamilton. 1307. Ralph de Ualdoek. KDWAKl) II. 1307. Ralph de Baldock. - John de Langton. /Adam de Osgodby (keeper). I3 ' a [Walter Reginald. 1311. Adam de < NgoMby (keeper). 1312. Walter Reginald (again, keeper). 1314. John de Sandale. 1318. John de Hotham. 1320. John Salmon. 1323. Robert de Haldoek. 1326. William de Ayrcmyvme (keeper). 1326. Henry de Cliff (keeper) " KDWAIM) III. 1327. John de llolham (again) de ierlaston} Henry de liurgitersh. 1330. John de Strattord. 1334. Richard de Bury, or Aungerville. LORD [ 597 1 LORD 1335- John de Stratford (again). 1337. Robert de Stratford. 1338. Richard de Byntenvorth. (John de St. Paul ) 1339. ] Michael de Wath V Keepers. (Thomas de Baumburgh) 1 John de St. Paul (keeper). T ,._ J John de Stratford (again). ^*P- \ Kobert de Stratford. (.Robert Burghchier, or Bouchier. 1341. Robert Parning. (John de Thoresby ) 1343. -{John de St. Paul V Keepers. (Thomas de Brayton ) Kobert de Sadington. 1345- John de Offord, or Ufford. /-David de Wollore ^ (.Thomas de Cotyngham John de Thoresby. 1356. William deEdiugton. 1363. Simon Langham. 1367. William do Wykeham. 1371. Kobert de Thorpe. 1372. John Knyvet. 1377. Adam de Houghton. KICHARD II. 1377. Adam de Houghton. 1378. Richard le Scrope. 1379. Simon de Sudbury. (Hugh do Segrave (keeper). 1381. < William de Courtoneyo. ( Richard le Scrope (again). {Hugh de Segrave ) William de Dighton}- Keepers. John de Waltham ) Kobert de Bray broke. 1382. Michael de la Pole. 1386. Thomas de Arundel. 1389. William de Wykeham (again). 1391. Thomas de Arundel (again.) 1396. Edmund de Stafford. f'i'homas de Arundel (again). 1 399-|j ohnde scarle. HENRY IV. 1399. John de Scarle. 1401. Edmund de Stafford (again). 1403. Henry Beaufort. 1405. Thomas Langley. 1407. Thomas de Arundel (ngain). |Tn ( John Wakering (keeper). l I Thomas Beaufort. 1412- Thomas de Arundel (again). HENRY V. 1413. Henry Beaufort. 1417. Thomas Langley (again). HENRY VI. 1423. Thomas Langley. U22 / simon Gaunstede (keeper), r**. -^ Thomas Langley (again). 1424. Henry Beaufort (again). 1426. John Kempe. 1432. John Stafford. 1450. John Kempe. 1454. Richard Neville. 1455. Thomas Bourchier. 1456. William Waynflete. 1460. George Neville. EDWARD IV. 1461. George Neville. , .f.. /Robert Kirkham (keeper). 140 ' \Robert Stilliugton. / John Morton ) 14*7? J Henry Bourchier [ Keepers. ** \ John Morton (again)) I Lawrence Booth. 1474. Thomas Rotheram. JJohnAlcock. **** \ Thomas Rotheram (again). EDWARD V. 1483. Thomas Rotherham. 1483. John Russell. RICHARD III. 1483. John Russell. 1485. Thomas Barowe (keeper). HENKY VII. 1485. John Alcock. 1486. John Morton. 1500. Henry Deno. 1502. William Warham (keeper). 1504. William Warham. HENKY VIII. 1509. William Warham. 1515. Thomas Wolsey. 1529. Thomas More. 1533. Thomas Audley (keeper). 1533. Thomas Audley. 1544. Thomas, Lord Wriothesley (keeper). 1545. Thomas, Lord Wriothesley. EDWARD VI. 1547. Lord Wriothesley. . < William Paulet (keeper). 15 47- \ Richard, Lord Rich. 1551. Thomas Goodrich (keeper). 1552. Thomas Goodrich. MARY. 1553- Stephen Gardiner. 1556. Nicholas Heath. ELIZABETH. 1558. Nicholas Bacon (keeper). 1579. Thomas Bromley. 1587. Christopher ILittoii. 1591. William, LordBurleigh. 1592. John Puckering (keeper). 1596. Thomas Egerton (keeper). JAMES I. 1603. Thomas Egerton (keeper). 1603. Thomas Egerton. 1617. Francis Bacon (keeper). 1618. Francis Bacon. 1621. John Williams. CHARLES I. 1625. John Williams. 1625. Thomas Coventry. 1640. John Finch. 1641. Edward Lyttleton. 1643. Parliamentary Commission. 1645. Richard Lane. f , ( The Earl of Salisbury. 1040. ^ p ar ii amen tary Commissioners. 1648. Parliamentary Commissioners. INTERREGNUM.* (Bulstrode Whitelocke. 1649. < John L'Isle. (Richard Keeble. .- Bulstrode Whitelocke. 1654. < Thomas Widdringtou. I John L'Isle. ,,., /Nathaniel Fiennes. 1030. \john L'Isle. (Bulstrode Whitelocke. 1659. < Nathaniel Fiennes. (John L'Isle. 1659. William Lenthall. (John Bradshaw. 1659. \ Thomas Tyrrell. (John Fountain. 1659. Bulstrode Whitelocke. 1660. William Lenthall (again). (Thomas Widdrington. 1660. < Thomas Tyrrell. (John Fountain. Edward Montague, Earl of Manchester. THE RESTORATION. 1660. Edward Hyde (created Earl of Clarendon). 1667. Orlando Bridgeman. 1672. Anthony Ashley, Lord Shaftesbury. 1675. Heneage, Lord Finch. 1682. Francis North (keeper). JAMES II. 1685. Lord Guildford. 1685. Lord Jeffreys. WILLIAM III. (John Maynard 1690. -{Anthony Keck (Wm. Rawlinson Commissioners. (John Trevor 1690. < AVrn. Rawlinson > Commissioners. (Geo. Hutchins ) ' 1693. John Somers (keeper). * During the Interregnum the holders of the Great Seal were styled Lords Commissioners. LORD [ 598 ] LORD 1697- Lord Homers. 1700. Nathan Wright (keeper). ANNE. 1703. Nathan Wright. 1705. Hon. William Cowper (keeper). 1707. Lord Cowper. (Thomas Trevor 'I 1710. < Robert Tracy > Commissioners. ( John Scropc. J 17:0. Simon Harcourt (keeper). 1713. Lord Harcourt. GEORGE I. 1714. Lord Harcourt. 1714. Lord Cowper. lUobi'i-tTnicy ) 1718. -{John Pratt V Commissioners. (.lames Montague ) 1718. Lord Parker. (Joseph Jekyll ) 173:;. -(Jeffrey Gilbert > Commissioners. v (Robert Raymond ) 1735. Peter King (afterward* Lord King). GE011UE II. 1727. Lord King). 1733. Charles Talbot. 1737. Philip Vorke, Lord Hardwieke. ' (John Willis ) 1756. { Sydney-Stafford SmythcJ. Commissioners. (.John Kardloy Wilmot j 1757. Robert Henley (keeper). <;EOI:(.E in. 1760. Lord Henley (keeper). 1761. Lord Henley (created Earl of Northington). I~f/>. Lord Camden. 1770. Charles Vorko. ( Sydnov Sta Iford Smythe) 17-0. - ll.-nry Buthurst J- Commissioners. (Richard Aston ) 177:. Henrv Bat hurst (afterwards Lord Apsloy and I MI-! ll.iihnrst). 1778. Lord Thnrlow. irst } Commissio '.ITS. Commissioners. 1783. -{William Henry Ashl (Beaumont Hotham 1783. Lord Thurlow. (James Kvn- 1 703. I William Henry Ashhurst (johnWltaon 1793. Lord i.oughborough. iHo'r. Lord Kldon. 1806. Lord Krskiiie. 1807. Lord Eldon (again). 1820. T,ord Eldon. 1837. John Singleton Copley (created Lord Lynd- hiirst). WILLIAM IV. 1830. Lord Lyndhurst. 1830. Lord Brougham. 1834. Lord Lyndhiirst (again). {Chas. Christopher' IVpys ) Lancelot Sliaihvell > Commissioners. John Bernard Bosanquet j 1836. Lord Cottenhani. VICTORIA. 1837. Lord Cottenhani. 1841. Lord Lyndhiirst (again). 1846. Lord Cottenhani (again) ( Lord I.amrdale 1850. { Lancelot Shadwell } Commissioners. (Robert Mi 1850. Thorn 1852. Lord St. Leonards. 1853. Lord Cranworth. 1858. Lord Cholmsford. 1859. Lord Campbell. 1861. Lord Westbnry. 1865. Lord Cranworth. 1866. Lord Chelmsford. LORD HIGH CHANCELLOR OF IRE LAND. The appointment of this officer com mences with the English rule in Ireland ; bui the earliest lord chancellor whose name has been preserved is Stephen Ridel. Deputies or vice-chancellors, also form part of the ancient establishment of Ireland. Cottonham (again). d I.amrdale ) icolot Shadwell } Commi )ort Mousey Rolfe ) las Wilde (created Lord Truro). LORD HIGH CHANCELLORS OF IKELAND. JIICIIAKD I. 1189. Stephen Kidel. HENRY III. 1219. John do Worcheley. 1330. Froniond Ic lirun. f Ralph Nevill. I2 32- | (jeoffrey Turville (Viee-Cliancellor). 1335. Alan de Saiicta Fide. 1336. Robert Luttrell. ,. f (icoffrev Turville. I3 37- | uai,,!,. j-.ishop of Nonvich. 1345. William Wei ward. "{.'> d le Bran. J349 - - 1359. Fromou EDWARD I. 1373. Fromond le Brim. 1383. Walter de Fulburn. I3W. William do Bruorlaco. 1392. Thomas Cantock. 1393. Walter de Thornburg. 1294. Adam Wodingtoii. 1395. Thomas Cantock (again). KDWARD II. 1307. Tliomas Cantock. 1314. Richard de Hereford. 1317. William Fit/. -John. 1331. Roger Outlawe. 1335. Alexander do Bicknor. 1336. Roger Outlawe (again). EDWARD III. 1330. Adam de Limborg. 1331. William (Prior of St. John's, Dublin), f Adam de Limborg (again). I33- Rogi'j- ( (utlawo (again). 1-5^4. Adam do. Limberg (again). 1335. Roger ( (utlawe (again). 1337. Thomas Charitoii. a f Robert de Hemiingberg. 133- \ John de Battail (ko.-,..-r). ( Roger Outlawe (again). a 33J- \Thomas Charlton (again). , T / Robert de Askeby. I 34 I - \John le Archer. 1343. Roger Dairy (keeper). 1343. John do Battail (keeper, again). 1344. John le Archer (again). ,- ("John Morice, or Morys. 1 34- \Roger Darcy (keeper, again). 1349. John le Archer (again). I William Bromley (keeper). ^S - \ John de St. Paul. 1354. Richard de Asshoton. 1355. John do St. Paul (again). 1356. John de Frowyk. (Thomas Bin-lev. 1357. ^ Friar John de Mora"! Deputy (William Draitoii ) Chancellors. 1359. Thomas Burley. 1363. Richard de Assheton (again). 1366. Thomas Scurlock. 1367. Thomas le Reve. 1368. Thomas Burley. 1370. John de Botheby. 1373. William Tany. (John de Botheby (again). 1374. J William Tany (again). (John Keppock. RICHARD II. /Robert de Wikeford, or Wickford. J 3'7- \Alexaiider Balscot 1379. John Col ton. 13^0. William Tany (again). 1381. Ralph Chene, or Cheney (keeper). 1385. Robert de Wikeford (again). f Robert Button (Viee-Chancellor). {Robert Sutton (Vice-Chancell Alexander Balscot (again). Thomas de Everdon (Vice-Cli Thomas de Everdon (keeper) ice-Chancellor). . 1387. Richard White. 13^8. Robert Preston (keeper). 1389. Alexander Balscot (again). 1388. Robert Preston. 1393. Robert Waldby. 1393. Richard Northalis. 1394. Alexander Balscot (again). 1395. Robert Waldby (aguiu). LORD [ 599 1 LORD /"Alexander Balscot (again). h ) Robert de Braybroke. I39 ~ *) Robert Button (deputy keeper). VThomas Cranley. HENRY IV. 1399. Thomas Cranley. 1400. Alexander Balscot (again). 1401. Thomas Cranley (again). 1403. Thomas de Everdon (deputy, again). (Richard Rede ) 1405. 4 John Bermingham !- Deputies. (Robert Sutton (again) ) 1407. Laurence Merbury (deputy). 1410. Patrick Barret. 1411. Robert Sutton (deputy, again). 1413. Thomas Cranley (again). HENRY V. 1413. Laurence Merbury (again). ( Thomas Cranley (again). 14 ^ \Patrick Barret (again). 1416. William Fitz-Thomas. 1419. Laurence Merbury (again). 14*1. William Fitz-Thomas (again). HENRY VI. 1432. Laurence Merbury (again). /Richard Sedgrave, or Segrave. I 4 3 3- \RichardTalbot. ,- /William Fitz-Thomas (again). J 4 3 ' \Richard Fitz-Eustace. _ . /Richard Talbot (again). 1 *' t Robert Sutton (keeper, again). 1434. Thomas Chase (keeper). 1435. Thomas Strange (deputy). ,- f Richard Fitz-Eustace (deputy, again). M3& \Robert Dyke (keeper). 1441. Thomas Strange. 1444. Ricbard Wogan. 1445. William Cheevers (deputy). , ("John Talbot. I 44 & - \Robert Dyke (deputy, again). T ..Q /Thomas Fitzgerald (deputy). * ' \Thomas Talbot (deputy). 1451. John Talbot (again). 1453. Edward Fitz-Eustace. 1454. William Wells (deputy). 6 f Earl of Rutland. 4 ' (_John Dynham. EDWARD IV. _., T /Robert Preston (deputy). 1461- (wiiHam wells. 1463. Earl of Worcester. 1463. Earl of Kildare. 1468. Robert Allameston. 1469. William Dudley. /Lord Portlester. J 473- \JohnTaxton. _. /Gilbert de Venham. 1474- \uowland Fitz-Eustace. 1480. William Sherwood. 1481. Lawrence de St. Lawrence. 1483. Walter Champflour (keeper). Q /Robert de St. Lawrence. I43- \ThomasFitzgerald. HENRY VII. 1485. Robert Fitz-Eustace. 1493. Alexander Plunket. 1494. Henry Deane. 1496. Walter Fitzsimons. 1498. William Rokeby. 1501. Walter Fitzsimons (again). JENRY VIII. i St. Lawrence, 'itzsimons (again), ompton. 1515. William Rokeby. 1537. Hugh Inge. 1538. John Alan. 1533. George Cromer. 1534. John Barnewall. ,-a /John Allen (keeper). J S3 8 - (john Allen. -.fAf. /Thomas Cusack. I54D- \RichardRead. ED \VAKD VI. 1548. John Allen. 1550. Thomas Cusack. MARY. 1553. Thomas Cusack. -on /Nicholas S I509- 1 Walter Fit I7. William Co /William Fitzwilliams (keeper). (Hugh Cui-wen. ELIZABETH. Hugh Curwen. Robert Weston. Adam Loftus (keeper). William Gerrard. Adam Loftus (keeper). A.iam Loftus. JAMES I. 'Thomas Jones T ___ 1555- 1558. 1567. 1573. 1576. 1577. 1603. Anthony St. Leger f William Jones ) T , Tn J William Methwold V Keepers. I5I 9- < Francis Auugier ) lAdam Loftus (afterwards Viscount Ely). CHARLES I. 1635. Viscount Ely. ! James Usher Lord Docwra William Parsons Adam Loftus {Lord Dillon Adam Loftus Christopher Wandesford Philip Mainwaring J 1639. Richard Bolton. INTERREGNUM. (Richard Pepys ) 1655. -< Gerard Lowther > Commissioners. (Miles Corbet J 1656. William Steele. THE RESTORATION. 1660. Maurice Eustace. 1665. Michael Boyle. JAMES II. T*C /Michael Boyle. I68 S' i Charles Porter. 1686. Alexander Titton. WILLIAM III. C Richard Pyne ) Richard Ryves J- Keepers. Robert Rochfortj Charles Porter. (Archbishop of Dublin) 1693. < Earl of Meath J- Keepers. (William Hill SJohn Jeffreyson ) Thomas Coote > Keepers. Nehemiah DoneUan) John Methuen. (Earl of Meath ) 1697. -{Earl of Longford } (Viscount Blesinton J Keepers. ANNE. 1703. John Methuen (again). 1703. Richard Cox. 1707. Richard Freeman. f Earl of Kildare ) T . T 1 Archbishop of Dublin V Keepers. 1710. / Thomns Keightley ) tConstantine Phipps. GEORGE I. 1714. Alan Brodrick. 1735. Richard West. 1736. Thomas Wyndham. GEORGE II. 1737. Thomas Wyndham. 1739. Robert Jocelyn. 1757. John Bowes. GEORGE III. 1760. John, Lord Bowes. 1767. James Hewitt, 1789. John Fitzgibbon. 1803. John Mitford. 1806. Right Hon. George Ponsonby. 1807. Thomas Manners Sutton. GEORGE IV. 1830. Lord Manners. 1837. Anthony Hart. WILLIAM IV. 1830. William Conyngham Plunket c f Edward Burtenshaw Sugden. I8 35-^ Loi . d pi un ket. VICTORIA. 1837. Lord Plunket. LORD [ 600 ] o. I John Campbell. * \Edvvard Burteushaw Sugden. 1846. Maziere Brady. 1853. Francis Blackburno. 1853. Maziere Brady (again). 1858. Joseph Napier. 1859. Maziere Brady (again). 1866. Francis Blackbumc. LORD HIGH CONSTABLE (England). This officer, called also the Constable of All Eng- land, existed in the Anglo-Saxon period of our history. His jurisdiction was defined by 8 Rich. II. c. 5 (1385). The Duke of Bucking- ham, tried and executed for high treason, May 21, 1521, forfeited the office, and it has never been revived. The lord high constable and the earl marshal were judges of the court of chivalry, called in the reign of Henry IV. Curia Militaris. This office ranked as the first in France, where it existed as early as 1060, and was suppressed in 1626. Napoleon I. created his brother Louis constable of the empire. LORD HIGH CONSTABLE OF SCOTLAND. This office is of great antiquity, and in 1162 was held by Richard de Moreville. Robert Bruce conferred the dignity of constable on Gilbert de Hay, Earl of Errol, and his heirs for ever, Nov. 12, 1315. LORD HIGH STEWARD OF ENGLAND. The office of Lord High Steward is of great antiquity, having existed before the time of Edward the Confessor (1043-66), and the holder thereof was at that period the first great officer of the crown. It was for many years hereditary in the family of the Earls of Leicester, but on the attainder of Simon of Montfort in 1265, it was abolished, and is now only revived for the special occasions of a coronation, or the trial of a peer. Henry, Earl of Arundel, was created, Jan. 12, 1559, high steward for the coronation of Queen Elizabeth, Jan. 15, to hold that office from " the rising of the sun on the same day to the setting thereof." Whenever a grand jury finds a true bill against a peer on a charge of treason or felony, a commission is issued constituting a lord high steward, with authority to try the accused. Edward, Earl of Devon, appointed lord high steward in 1400, in the reign of Henry IV., for the trial of the Earl of Huntingdon, is the first lord high steward created for this purpose. The trial over, the lord high steward breaks his rod, in order to show that his commission has ended. LORD HIGH TREASURER OF ENGLAND. This, the third great officer of the crown, had the custody of the royal treasury, and of the foreign and domestic documents kept there. The office was held during pleasure. The first lord high treasurer was Odo, Earl of Kent and Bishop of Bayeux, in the reign of William I. For many years the office was held by ecclesiastics, the first lay treasurer being Richard, Lord Scrope, in 1371. The Duke of Shrewsbury, appointed by Queen Anne, July 29, 1714, and who resigned office soon afterwards, was the last Lord High Treasurer of England. Since that time the office has always been vested in commissioners, the chief of whom is the first lord of the treasury, and prime minister. LORD LORD HIGH TREASURERS OF ENGLAND. WILLIAM I. Odo, Earl of Kent. HEMIY I. Geoffry de Clinton, llaimlph Flainbard. Roger, Bishop of Salisbury. Kigelius, Bishop of Ely. IIE.NKY II. Geoffrey Ridel. Richard de Ely. EICIIABD I. Richard de Ely. William de Ely JOIW. William de Ely. Dean of St. Paul's. Walter de Grey. Geoffrey, Archdeacon of Norwich. HENRY III. John Ruthall. Wl. Eustace de Faueonbridge. John de Fontibus. Walter Maclerk, or Lacklatiuc. Hubert de Burgo. IVter de Orial. 1334. Hugh de Piitteslmll. (Jalfridus Templuvius. William Haverhull. Richard de Barking. I'liilip Lovel. 1358. John Craekhall. 1260. John, Abbot of Peterborough. 1263. Nicholas de Ely. 1266. Thomas de Wymiiudhain. 1269. John de ChisfiuU. 1271. Philip de Ely. EDWARD I. 1274- Joseph de Clancy. , f Walter (liffard. 19 7'1 Robert BarneL 1278. John de Clancy. 1279. Thomas Beck. 1280. Richard de Warren, or de Ware. 1284. Walter Wenlock. sf /Hojrer de I.ougespee, nllas de Molend. J * 86 ' V'ol'n dc Kirkel.y. 1290. William de Marchia. 1293. Peter de Leicester. 1295. Walter de Langton. EDWARD II. 1307. Walter Reynolds. 1311. John de Sandale. 1313. Walter de Norwich. 1313. John de Sandale (again). . . ( Walter de Norwich (again). 13151 1 John de Drokeucsford. 1317. John Hotham. TOTS /William Walwaine. 131 ' \.Tolin de Stratford. 1319. Walter Staplcton. 1321- Walter de Norwich (again). 1322. Roger de Northburgh. ,,,. /Walter Stapleton (again). *334- \William de Melton. EDWARD III. T ,./- /John de Stratford (again). 3* \Adam de Orleton. 1337. Henry de Burghersh. 1329. Thomas Charleton, or Chorlton. 1330. Robert Woodhouse. 1331. William Melton (again). 1332. William Ayremin. 1333. Robert le Ailstone. 1336. Henry de Burghersh (again). 1337. Richard de Bury. 1338. William de la Zouch, or le Zouch. /Roger de Northburgh. J 34- JRlehard Sodington. 1342. Roger de Northburgh (again). 1343. William de Cusans. 1345. William de Edington. 1358. John de Shepey. 1361. Simon Langham. 1363. John Barnet. 1371. Richard Scrope, Lord Scrope. 1376. Richard Ashton. LORD [ 601 ] LORD 1377. Hemy Wakeiield. RICHARD II. 1377. Henry Wakefield. 1370. Thomas P.rentingham. 1379. Richard Fitzalun. 1380. Thomas Brentingbam (again). 1389. John Gilbert. 1390. John Waltham. 1395. Roger Walden. o /Guy de Mona. *o9- \\villiam le Scrope. HENRY IV. 1399. John Northbury. 1403. Henry Bowet. 1404. Lord Roos, or Hos. 1405. Lord Funiival. .,. /Nicholas Bubbewith. 14081 \Lord Scrope (again). 1409. Lord Tiptoft. 1410. Lord Scrope. HENRY V. 1413. Earl of Aruudel and Surrey. 1416. Philip Lech. 1417. Lord Fitz-Hugh. HENRY VI. 1423. John Stafford. 1425. Lord Hungerford. 1431. Lord Scrope. 1434. Lord Cromwell. 1444. Lord Sudley. 1447. Marmaduke Lumley. 1448. Lord Say and Sole. 1450. Lord Beauchamp. 1453. Lord Tiptoft (again). (Earl of Wiltshire and Ormond. 1455. ] Thomas Thorpe. (Viscount Bourchier. 1456. Earl of Shrewsbury. 1458. Earl of Wiltshire and Ormond (again). 1460. Viscount Bourchier (again). EDWARD IV. 1461. Thomas Bourchier. 1462. Earl of Worcester (again). 1464. Lord Grey, of Euthyn. 1465. Walter Blount. 1466. Earl Rivers. , /John Longstrother. i49- X William Grey. T . /Earl of Essex (again). **!* XViscount Bourchier. EDWARD V. 1483. Earl of Essex. RICHARD III. 1483. Earl of Essex. 1484. Richard Wood. HENRY VII. T . R - /Reginald Bray. I45- (William Stanley. 1486. Lord Dyuham. 1501. Earl of Surrey. HENRY VIII. T too / Earlof Surrey. J 5y- Xl'hoinas Cromwell. 1523. Earl of Surrey. ED \VARD VI. 1547. Earl of Hertford. 1551. Earl of Wiltshire (afterwards Marquia Winchester). MARY. 1553. Marquis of Winchester. ELIZABETH. 1558. Marquis of Winchester. 1572. William Cecil. 1599. Thomas Sackville. JAMES I. 1600. Earl of Salisbury. 1614. Earl of Suffolk. 1618. George Abbott. 1621. Lord Cranfield. 1624. James Ley. CHAELES I. 1625. James Ley. 1636. William Juxon. 1643. Lord Cottiugton. CHARLES II. T ~ /Edward Hyde, xow. XEurl of Southampton. 1667. Duke of Albernarle. 1672. Lord Clifford. 1673. Thomas Osborne. f Earl of Essex. 1679. 1 Hon. Laurence, afterwards Lord Hyde and (. Earl of Rochester. 1684. Lord Godolphin. JAMES II. 1685. Earl of Rochester (again). 1687. Lord Belasyse. WILLIAM III. AND MAKY. 1689. Viscount Mordauut. ifinn /John Lowther. Ib 9- (Lord Godolphin (again). WILLIAM III. 1694. Lord Godolphin (again). 1698. Charles Montague. 1699. Earl of Tankerville. 1700. Lord Godolphin (again). 1701. Earl of Carlisle. ANNE. 1703. Lord Godolphin (again). 1710 Earl Poulett. 1711. Earl of Oxford. 1714. Duke of Shrewsbury. LORD HIGH TREASURER OF IRELAND. The dignity of this officer, who ranked third of the crown officers in Ireland, is as ancient as the English government of that country. Originally he was styled the treasurer of the exchequer. John de St. John was the first holder of the office, in 1217. LORD OF THE ISLES. (See HEBRIDES.) LORD KEEPER. The office of lord keeper of the great seal (q. v.) of England is stated on doubtful authority to have been held during the chancellorship of Ranulph (1108 1124), in the reign of Henry I., by Richard, a chaplain. Foss says the first charter making a distinc- tion is dated June 14, 1232. The offices of lord chancellor and lord keeper were declared identical, as far as England is concerned, by 5 Eliz. c. 18 (1563). A list of lord keepers is given under lord high chancellor of England. LORD LIEUTENANT. Hallam (Hist, of Eng. vol. ii. c. 9) states that the military juris- diction in counties was transferred from the sheriffs, or justices of the peace, to a new officer called the lord lieutenant, during the reign of Mary. "The office gave him the command of the militia, and rendered him the chief viceregent of his sovereign, responsible for the maintenance of public order. This institution may be considered as a revival of the ancient local earldom." Lords lieutenant of counties were appointed in Ireland by i & 2 Will. IV. c. 17 (Aug. 23, 1831). LORD MARSHAL. (See EARL MARSHAL.) LORD MAYOR. The title of Lord was granted to the mayor of London in 1354. Charles I. conferred this distinction on the chief magistrate of Dublin in 1641, but it was not borne by him until 1665. The chief magis- trate of York and of Edinburgh is also styled Lord Mayor. LORD MAYOR (London). According to the Liber Albus, the principal representatives of the sovereign power in the city of London have since the Norman conquest acted at various times under different names. William I. styled this officer his Portgrave, or Port- greve, afterwards corrupted into Portreve. In a charter of Henry I. he is called a Justiciar, and in a charter of Henry II., in which the right of the aldermen to elect one every year LORD t 602 ] LORD is confirmed, he is styled Mayor. In olden 1367. James Andrew. 1445. Symken, or Simon times the mayor was elected on the feast of the apostles Simon and Jude (Oct. 28), and it was customary for him on the day of his 1368. Simon Morden. 1369. John Chichester. 1370. John Bernes. 1371. John Bernes. Eyer. 1446. Johan Olney. 1447. Johan Gidn'ey. 1448. Stephen Browne election to go on foot by land, or by boat on 1372. John I'vel. (again). the river Thames, to Westminster, or the Tower, to be sworn into office. At first the Lord Mayor frequently held the office for 1373. Adam de Bury. 1374. William Wulworth. 1375. John Warde. (Adam Stable (de- 1449. Thomas Chalton. 1450. Nicolas Wyfforde. 1451. William Gregory. 1452. Geffrey Fcldyng. several consecutive years ; but Edward I., iri 1285, limited it to one year, and this rule, except in special cases, has since been observed. Henry Fitz-Elwyne, the first who held the office, was appointed by the crown in 1188. 1376. ! posed). (Nicholas Brembre. 1377. Nicholas Brembre. 1378. John Philipot. 1379. John Hadley. l38o. William Walworth. 1453. John Norman. 1454. Stephen Forster. 1455. William Marowe. 1456. Thomas Caning, or Canings. 1457. Geffrey Boleyn, or The title Lord was added to mayor in 1354. The procession was converted into a pageant in 1454 by Sir John Norman, who proceeded 1381. John Northampton. 1382. John Northampton. 1383 to 1385 Nicholas Brem- bre. Boleine. 1458. Thomas Scot. 1459. William Henlyn. 1460. Richard Lee. " to Westminster in a barge. 1386. Nicholas Exton. 1387. Nicholas Exton. 1461. Hugh Wyche. 1462. Thomas Cooke. LORD MAYORS OF LONDON. 1388. Nicholas Twyford. 1389. William Venour. 1463. Mathew Philip. 1464. Rauf Josselyne. A.T>. A.D. 1390. Adam Bamme. 1465. RaufVerney. 1189 to 1212. Henry Fitz- 1300. Elias Russel. 1391. John Hondo. 1466. Johan Vonge. Elwyne. 1301 to 1307. John le Blount. 1392. William Staundon. 1467. Thomas Owlgrave. 1213. Roger Fitz-Alan. 1308. Nicholas de Farndone. 1393. John Hadley. 1468. William Taylour. 1214. Serlo le Mercer. 1215. William Hardel. 1309. Thomas Ronievn. 1310. Richer de Refham. 1394. John Fresslio. 1395. William More. 1469. Richard Lee. 1470. Johan Stockton. (James Alderman (de- 1311. John Gizors. 1396. Adam Bamme. 1471. William Edward. I2i6. < posed). 1312. John Gizors. 1397. Richard Whittington. 1472. William Hampton. (.Solomon de Basing. 1313. Nicholas de Farndone. 1398. Drew Barentyn. 1473. Johan Tate. 1217 to 1222. Serlo le Mercer. 1314. John Gizors. 1399. Thomas Knolles. 1474. Robert Drope. 1423 IOI226. Richard Rcngcr. 1327 to 1230. Roger le Due. TVS- .Stephen de Abingdon. 1316 to 1318. John de Wen- 1400. John Fraunceys. 1401. John Shadworth. 147=;. Robert liassot. 1476. Rauf Jossel;, 1231 to 1236. Andrew Buke- grave. 1402. John Walcot. 1477. Humphrey Ib'vton'e. rel. 1319. llamo de ChlggeweDe. 1403. William Askham. 1478. Richard Gardiner. 1237. Richard Ronger. 1320. Nicholas de Farndone. 1404. John Hondo. 1479. Bartilmew James. 1238. William Joynier. 1321. Hainode Chiggewelle. 1405. John Woodcock. 1480. Johan Browne. I -'39. Gerard lint'. 1322. Hamo de Chiggewelle. 1406. Richard Whittington. 1481. William Haryot. 1240. Reginald de Bungay. 1323. Nicholas de Farndone. 1407. William Staundon. 1482. Edinond Bhaa. 1241 to 1243. Ralph Eswy. 1244. Michael Tovy. 1324. Hamo do Chiggewulle. ( Hamo de Chiggewelle 1408. Drew Barentyn. 1409. Richard Merlawe. 1483. Robert Billesdon. 1484. Thomas Hylle. 1245. John Gizors. 1335- I (dcp.edj. 1410. Thomas Knolles. 1485. Hugh Bryce. 1246. Peter Fitz-Alan. / Itirhard do lietoigne. 1411. Robert Chichele. 1486. Henry Colet. 1247. Michael Tow or Tony. 1248. Michael Tovy. 1326. Richard de Botuiguo. 13^7. 1 1 'lino de Chiggewelle. 1412. William Walderne. 1413. William Crowmer. 1487. William Home. 14**. Hubert Tate. 1249. Roger Fitz-Roger. 1328. John do Griintlmm. 1414. Thomas Fauconer. 1489. William White. I25o. John Norman. 1329. Simon Swanlond. 1415. Nicholas Wotton. 1490. Johan Mathew. 1251. Adam de Basing. 1252. John Tulesan. 1330. John de Pountniey. 1331. John de Pounteney. 1410. Henry Barton. 1417. Richard Merlawe. 1491. Hugh Clopton. 1492. William Martyn. 1253. Nicholas Bat. 1332. John de Protons. 1418. William Sevenoke. 1493. Rauf Astiy, or Ostrich. 1254 to !257- Ralph Hardel. 1258. John Gizors. 1333. John de Pountonov. 1334. Reginald do Conduit. 1419. Richard Whittington. 1420. William Cambrege. 1494. Richard Chawry. 1495. Henry Colet (again). J2S9- William Fitz-Richard. 1335- Nicholas Wotton. 1421. Richard Chichele. 1496. Johan Tate (again). 1260. William Fit/.-Riebard. '330. John de Pounteuey. 1422. William Waldorn. 1497. William Purchase. I26l to 1264. Thomas Fitz- 1337. Henry Darcy. 1423. William Crowmer 1498. Johan Peroival. Thomas. 1338. Henry Darcy. (again) 1499. Nicholas Alwyn. !HugliFitz-Otho(war : 339- Andrew Aubrey. 1424. John Michell. 1500. Johan Reymington. den). WilliamFitz-Richard (warden). 1340. Andrew Aubrey. ( John Oxen ford (died). 0+ ' \Simon Fraunceys. 1425. Johan Coventre. 1426. William Rynwell. 1427. Johan Gedney. 1501 Johan Bhaa. 1502. Bartholomew Reed. 1503. William Capel. 1266. Alan la Suche (war- 1342. .Simon Fraunceys. 1428. Henry Barton (again). 1504. John Wyngar, or Win- den). 1343. John Hamond. 1429. William Estfleld, or ger. f Thomas de Eppegrave 1344. John Hamond. Kastfield. 1505. Thomas Knesworth. I26 ,J (warden). I3 >< Stephen de Edde- 1345. Richard Lacere. 1346. Geoffrey Wichyng- 1430. Nicholas Wotton (again). 1506. Richard llandon. 1507. William Browne (again (. worthe (warden). ham. 1431. Johan Wellis,or Welles. in I5I3)- 1268. Hugh Fitz-Otho (war- den). 1347. Thomas Legge. 1348. John Lovekyn. 1432. Johan Parneys, or Par- veis. 1508. Stephen Jenyns. 1509. Thomas Bradbury. 1269. John Adrien. 1349. Walter Turke. 1433. Johan Broklev. or 1510. Henry Keble. 1270. John Adrien. 1350. Richard Kislingbury. Brocle. 1511. Roger Aichiley. 1271. Walter Hervey. 1272. Walter Hervey. 1351. Andrew Aubrey. 1352. Adam Fraunceys. 1434. Robert Otley, or Roger Otely. 1512. William Copinger. 1513. William Browne (John 1273. Henry Waleys. 1353. Adam Fraunceys. 1435. Henry Frowyk, or Tate). 12/4 to 1280. Gregory de Rokesley. 1354. Thomas Legge. 1355. Simon Fraunceys. Frow. 1436. Johan Michell, or 1514. George Menoux. 1515. William Butler. 1281 to 1283. Henry Waleys. 1356. Henry Picard. Michael. 1516. John Rest. 1284. Gregory de Rokesley. 1357. John Stody. 1437. William Estfield 1517. Thomas Exmewe. 1285. Ralph de Sandwich 1358. John Lovekyn. (again). 1518. Thomas Mil-fine. (warden). 1359. Simon Dolsely. 1438. Stephen Browne. 1519. James Varford. 1286. John Bretone (warden). 1360. John Wroth. 1439. Robert Large. 1520. John Brugo. 1287 to 1292. Ralph de Sand- 1361. John Pecche. 1440. Johan Paddesley. 1521. John Milbome. wich (warden). 1362. Stephen Cavendish. 1441. Robert Clopton. 1522. John Monday. 1293 to 1296. John Bretone. 1363. John Notte. 14^42. Johan Atherley, or 1523. Thomas Baldrv, 1297. Henry Waleys. 1298. Henry Waleys. 1299. Elias Russel. 1364. Adam de Bury. 1365. John Lovekyn. 1366. John Lovekyn. Hatherley. 1443. Thomas Chatworth. 1 444. Henry Frowyk (again). Baldrie. 1524. William Bailey. 1525. John Allen. LORD [ 603 ] LORD 1526. Thomas Seamer. 1609. Thomas Cambell. 1695. Thomas Lane. 1774. Frederick Bull. 1537. James Spencer. 1610. William Craven. 1696. John Honblon. 1775. John Wilkes. 1528. John Rtulstone. 1611. James Pemberton. 1697. Edward Clarke. 1776. John Sawbridge. 1539. Ralph Dodmer. 1530. Thomas Pagitor. 1613. John Swinnerton. 1613. Thomas Middleton. 1698. Humphrey Edwin. 1699. Francis Child. 1777. Thomas Halifax. 1778. James Esdaile. 1531. Nicholas Lambard. 1614. John Haves. 1700. Richard Lcvett. 1779. Samuel Plumbe. 1533. Stephen Pecocke. 1615. JohnJolles. 1701. Thomas Abney. 1780. Brackley Kennet. 1533. Christopher Askew. 1616. John Leman. 1702. William Gore. 1781. Watkin Lewes. 1534. John Champneis. 1617. George Bolles. 1703. William Dashwood. 1783. William Plomer. 1535. John Allen (again). 1618. Sebastian Harvey. 1704. John Parsons. '.783. Nathaniel Newnham. 1536. Ralph Waren. 1619. William Cockain. 1705. Owen Buckingham. 1784. Robert Peckham. 1537. Kichard Gre.slmm. 1620. Francis Jones. 1706. Thomas IJ'iwlinson. 1785. Richard Clark. 1538. William Forman. 1621. Edward Barkham. 1707. Robert Bedingfield. 17*6. Thomas Wright. 1539. William Holies. 1622. Peter Proby. 1708. William Withers. 1787. Thomas Sainsbury. 1540. William Roch. 16^3. Martin Lumley. 1709. Charles Duncombe. 1788. John Burnell. 154:. Michael Dormer. 1624. John Goare. 1710. Samuel Garrard. 1780. William Gill. 1543. John Cootes, or Cotes. 1625. Allen Cotton. 1711. Gilbert Heathcote. 1790. William Pickett. ..... /William Bowyer. 1626. Cuthbert Aket. 1712. Robert Beachcroft. 1791. John Boy dell. IS 43- \Ralph Waren (ag:;iu). 1627. Hugh Hammersley. 1713. Richard Hoare. 1793. John Hopkins. 1544. William Laxton. 1628. Richard Deane. 1714. Samuel Stanier, or 1793. James Sanderson. 1545. Martin Bowes. 1629. James Cambell. Stainer. 1794. Paul le Mesurier. 1546. Henry Hurbarthome. 1630. Robert Ducy. 1715. William Humphreys. 1795. Thomas Skinner. 1547. John Gresham. 1631. George Whitmore. 1716. Charles Peers. 1796. William Curtis. 1548. Henry Amcotes. 1633. Nicholas Raynton. 1717. James Bateman. 1797. Brook Watson. 1549. Rowland Hill.first Pro- 1633. Kalph Freeman. 1718. William Lewen. 1798. JohnWilliamAnderson. testant lord mayor. 1634. Thomas Moulson. 1719. John Ward. 1799. Richard Carr Glynn. 1550. Andrew Jude. 1635. Robert Packhurst. 1720. George Thorold. 1800. Harvey Christopher I SSL Richard Dobbes. 1636. Christopher Cletheroe. 1731. John Fryer. Coombe. 1552. George Barnes. 1637. Edward Bromfield. 1722. William Stewart. 1801. William Staines. 1553. Thomas White. 1638. Richard Fenn. 1723. Gerard Conyers. 1803. John Earner. 1554. John Lion. 1639. Maurice Abbott 1734. Peter Delme. 1803. Charles Price. 1555- William Gerard. 1640. Henry Gar way. 1735. George Mertins, or 1804. John Perring. 1556. Thomas Offley. 1641. William Acton. Martyns. 1805. Peter Perchard. 1557. Thomas Curteis. 1642. Richard Gurney. 1736. Francis Forbes. 1806. James Shaw. 1558. Thomas Leigh, or Lee. 1643. Isaac Pennington. 1737. John Eyles. 1807. WiUiam Leighton. 1559. William Huet. 1644. John Wollaston. 1728. Edward Beecher. 1808. John Ainsley. 1560. William Chester, 1645. Thomas Atkins. 1729. Robert Baylis. 1809. Charles Flower. 1561. William Harper. 1646. Thomas Adams 1730. Richard Brocas. 1810. Thomas Smith. 1562. Thomas Lodge. 1563. John White. 1647. John Gavre (committed to the Tower). 1731. Humphrey Parsons. 1732. Francis Child. 1811. Joshua Jonathan Smith. 1564. Richard Malorie. 1648. John Warner. 1733. John Barber. 1813. Claudius Stephen 1565. Richard Champion. 1566. Christopher Draper. 1649. Abraham Reynardson (committed to Tower 1734. William Billers. 1735. Edward Bellamy. Hunter. 1813. George Scholey. 1567. Roger Martin. by Parliament). 1736. John Williams. 1814. William Domville. 1568. Thomas Rowe. 1650. Thomas Foote. 1737. John Thompson. 1815. Samuel Birch. 1569. Alexander Avenon. 1651. Thomas Andrews. 1738. John Barnard. 1816. MathewWood. 1570. Rowland Hevward. 1652. JohnKendrek. 1739. Micajah Perry. 1817. Mathew Wood (again). 1571. William Allen. 1653. John Fowkes. 1740. John Salter. 1818. Christopher Smith. 1572. Lionel Ducket 1654. Thomas Vyner. -._ /Humphrey Parsons. 1819. John Atkins. 1573. John Kivers. 1574. James Hawes. 1655. Christopher Pack. 1656. JohnDethick. 1 '4 1 ' \Daniel Lambert. /Robert Godschal. 1830. George Brydges. 1821. John Thomas Thorpe. 1575. Ambrose Nicholas. 1657. Kobert Tichborne. J 742- \George Heathcote. 1823. Christopher Magnay. 1576. John Langley. 1577. Thomas Ramsey. 1658. Richard Chiverton. 1659. John Ireton. 1743. Robert Willimot, or Willmot. 1823. William Heygate. 1824. Robert Waithman. 1578. Richard Pipe. 1579. Nicholas Woodrofe. 1660. Thomas Alleyne. 1661. Richard Browne. 1744. Robert Westley. 1745. Henry Marshall. 1825. John Garratt 1826. William Venables. 1580. John Branche. 1662. John Frederick. 1746. Richard Hoare. 1837. Anthony Browne. 1581. James Harvie. 1663. John Robinson. 1747. William Benn. 1828. Matthias Prime Lucas. 1582. Thomas Blancke. 1583. Edward Osborne. 1664. Anthony Bateman. 1665. John Lawrence. 1748. Robert Ladbroke. 1749. William Calvert. 1829. William Thompson. 1830. John Crowder. 1584. Edward Pullison. 1666. Thomas Bludworth. ,_ /Samuel Pennant. 1831. John Key. 1585. Wolstan Dixie. 1667. William Bolton 1 '5- \John Blachford. 1832. John Key (again). 1586. George Barne. 1668. William Peake. 1751. Francis Cockayne. 1833. Peter Laurie. 1587. George Bond. 1669. William Turner. ., /Thos. Winterbottom. 1834. Charles Farebrother. 1588. Martin Calthorp, or 1670. Samuel Sterling. 1/s * \RobertAlsop. 1835. Henry Winchester. Colthorpe. 1671. Richard Ford. 1753. Crispe Gascoyne. 1836. William Taylor Cope- 1589. John Hart. 1672. George Waterman. *. /Edward Ironside. land. 1590. John Allot. 1673. Robert Hanson. *75r \Thomas Rawlinson. 1837. Thomas Kelly. 1591. William Web. 1593. William Rowe. 1674. William Hooker. 1675. Robert Vyner. 1755. Stephen Theodore Janssen. 1838. John Cowan. 1839. Samuel Wilson. T - n , (Cuthbert Buckle. 1593- X Richard Martin. 1676. Joseph Sheldon. 1677. Thomas Dnvies. 1756. Slingsby Bethell. 1757. Marshe Dickinson. 1840. Chapman MarshaD. 1841. Thomas Johnson. 1594. John Spencer. 1678. Francis Chaplin. 1758. Charles Asgill. 1842. John Pirie. 1595. Stephen Slany. T _ , /Thomas Skinner. 1679. James Edwards. 1680. Robert Clavton. 17=59. Richard Glyn. 1760. Thomas Chitty. 1843. John Humphrey. 1844. William Magnay. I 59- ( Henry Bill in-sly. 1681. Patience Ward. 1761. Matthew Blakiston. 1845. Michael Gibbs. 1597. Richard Saltenstall. 1683. John Moore. 1763. Samuel Fludyer. 1846. John Johnson. 1598. Stephen Some, or 1683. William Prichard. 1763. William Beckford. 1847. George Carroll. Soame. 1684. Henry Tulse. 1764. William Bridgen. 1848. John Kinnersley 1599. Nicholas Mosley. 1685. James Smith. 1765. William Stephenson. Hooper. 1600. William Ryder. 1686. Robert Jeffery. 1766. George Nelson. 1849. James Duke. 1601. John Gerrard. 1687. John Peake. 1767. Robert Kite. 1850. Thomas Farncomb. 1602. Robert Lee. 1688. John Shorter. 1768. Thomas Harley. 1851. John Musgrove. 1603. Thomas Bennet. fo /John Chapman. 1769. Samuel Turner. 1852. William Hunter. 1604. Thomas Low.- 1689. ( Thomas rnkington. /William Beckford. 1853. Thomas Challis, M.P. 1605. Henry Hollyday. 1606. John Wats. 1690-91. Thomas I'ilkington 1692. Thomas Stamp. V' - \BarlowTrecothick. 1771. Brass Crosby. 1854. Thomas Sidney. 1855. Francis Graham Moon. 1607. Henrv Rowe. 1693. John Fleet. 1773. William Nash. 1856. David Salomons. 1608. Humphrey Weld, 1694. William Ashurst 1773. James TWiishend. 1857. Thomas Quested Finnis. LORD [ 604 ] LORDS 1858. Robert Walter Garden. 1863. William A. Rose. 1797. Thomas Fleming. 1831. Thomas Whelan. 1859. David W. Wire. 1864. William Lawrence. 1798. Thomas Andrews. 183.2. Charles PalmerArcher. 1860. James Carter. 1865. Warren Ktonncs Hale. 1799. John Sutton and John 1833. George Whiteford. 1861. William Cubitt, M.P. 1866. B. S. Phillips. Exshaw. 1834. Arthur Pen-in. 1863. William Cubitt, M.P. 1867. Thomas Gabriel. 1800. Charles Thorp. 1835. Arthur Morrison. (second time). 1801. Richard Manders. 1836. William II. 1803. Jacob Poole. 1837. Samuel Warren. The term of office commences Nov. g, in the 1803. Henry Ilutton. [838. Gem-^e Hovte. your preceding the one mentioned in the fore- 1804. Meredith Jenkin. 1805. James Vance. 1839. Nicholas William Brady. going list. LORD MAYOR (Dublin). The title of Lord 1806. Joseph Pemberton. 1807. Hugh Trevor. 1840. Jolm Kingston James. 1841. Dan. O'Connell, M.P. was first assumed by the Mayors of Dublin in 1808. Frederick Darley. 1843. Dan. O'Conncll, M.P. 1665. The year in the following list is that of election to office. 1809. William Stumor. 1810. Nathaniel Hone. iSn. William Henry Archer. 1843. Geoi 1844. Timothy O'Brien. 1845. John L. Arabin. 1813. Abraham Bradley 1846. John Keshan. LORD MAYORS OF DUBLIN. Kin- 1847. Michael Staunton. A.D. A.D. 1813. John Cash. 1848. Jeremiah Dunne. 1665. Daniel Bellingham. 1666. John Desmyuiers. 1733. Thomas How. 1734. Nathaniel Kane. 1814. John Claudius Bcres- ford. 1849. Timothy O'Brien, M.P. 1850. John Reynolds, M.P. l(,(,-. .Mark Quin. 1735. Richard (i rat tan and 1815. Robert Shaw. 1851. Benjamin Lee Guin- 1668. John Forrest. George Forbes. i* 16. Mark Bloxham. ness. 1669. Lewis Desmyniers. 1670. Enoch Reader. 1736. James Som 1737. William Walker, 1*17. Jolm Alley. 1818. Thomas Ji -Kenny. 1853. John D'Arcy. 1853. Robert HenryKinahan. 1671. Jolm Totty. 1738. John Macarroll. 1819. William Stanur. 1854. Edward M'Donuel. 1673. Robert Deey. 1739. Daniel Falkiner. 1830. Abraham Bradley 1855. Joseph Boyce. 1673. Joshua Allen. 1674. Francis Brewster. 1740. Samuel Cooke. 1741. AVilliiimAldricb. 1831. John Kingston James. 1856. Fergus Farrell. 1857- Richard Atkinson. 1675. William Smith. 1743. Gilbert King. 1832. John Smyth Fleming. 1858. John Campbell. 1676. Christopher Lovet 1743. David Tew and Wil- 1833. Richard Smyth. 1859. James Lambert. 1677. Jolm Smith. liam Aldrieh. 1834. Drury Jones. 1860. Redmond Carroll. 1678. IVtcr Ward. 1744. John Walker. 1835. Thomas Abbot. 1861. Richard Atkinson. 1679. John Eastwood. 1680. Luke Lowther. 1745. Daniel Cooke. 1746. Richard White and 1836. Samuel William Tyn- dall. 1863. Denis Moylan. 1863. John Prendergast 16^1. Humphrey Jcrvis. William Walker. 1837. Edmund Nugent. Vereker. 1683. Humphrey Jcrvis. 1747. George Ribton. 1838. Alexander Montgo- 1864. Peter Paul M'Swiney. l6'<3. Elias Best. 174*. Robert Ross. mery. 1865. John Harrington. Id^}. Abel Ram. 1749. John A damson. 1839. Jacob West. :866. JamesWilliamMackey. I68t John Knox. 1750. Thomas Taylor. 1830. Robert W.Harry. 1867. William Lane Joynt. 16-^6. John Castleton. 17:51. John 1687. Thomas llaeket. 1753. Charles Burton. LORDS. (See HOUSE OF LORDS, and PEERS.) 1753. Andrew Murray. LORDS OF ARTICLES (Scotland), a com- 1689. Terence M'Dcrmott. 1690. John dtrington. 1754. Hans Bailie. 1755. Pereival Hunt. mittee of the Scottish Parliament, abolished l6o Viet. c. 64 (July 21, 1856). The diet and ,pparel of each class of the community were egulated by 37 Edw. III. c. 8 14 (1363), and BR 2 LUZON [ 612 ] LYON many subsequent acts, all of wliich were re pealed by i James I. c. 25 (1604). LUZON, or LUCON (Indian Archipelago one of the Philippines (q. v.], was discoverec by Magalhaens in 1521. (See MANILLA.) LUZZARA (Battle). A desperate but inde cisive contest occurred at this place in Italj between the Imperialist army, under Prin prevailed in the Jura in 1600, when persons affected acted like wild beasts, devouring chil dren and committing every kind of atrocity. LYCAOXIA (Asia Minor). This district, the boundaries of which frequently varied, is first mentioned in history B.C. 401, when it was traversed and plundered by Cyrus the Younger. For some years the inahbitants maintained their independence, but they subsequently succumbed, and, with the other peoples of Asia Minor, passed successively under the rule of Alexander III. (the Great) B.C. 336323, of the Seleucicba, B.C. 311, and of Antiochus the Great, B.C. 223, on whose defeat by the Romans, B.O. 190, the country was conferred upon Kurnenes II. of Pergamus. On the death of King Amyntas in battle against the Cili- cians, B.C. 25, it was annexed to the Roman empire. LYCEUM. In this celebrated school at Athens, dedicated to Apollo Lyceius, Aristotle and his disciples taught while walking about, and their philosophy from that circumstance is called the Peripatetic. Philip, son of Demetrius, during his invasion of Attica, destroyed the trees of the Lyceum, B.C. 200. LYcKi:.\I TIIKATUK 'London}, called also the English Opera-house, derives its name from an academy built in 1765. It was con- verted into a theatre in 1790, and into an English opera-house in 1809. Having been destroyed by fire Feb. 16, 1830, it was rebuilt, and reopened Monday July 14, 1834. LYCIA Asia Minor), originally Milyas, was known to Homer, who makes frequent allusions to it in the Iliad, B. c. 962, and enumerates its people among the allies of Troy, B.C. 1192. This country was subdued by Harpagns, the general of Cyrus, and made a Persian province B.C. 546. It was conquered by Alexander III. (the Great) B.C. 333 ; by the Romans, who ceded it to the Rhodians, B.O. 1 88 ; became a Roman province in 48 ; and was constituted a separate province by Theodosius II. (402 450). It was visited in 1838 1840 by Sir Charles Fellows, who discovered the re- mains of ii cities. LYDDA. (See DIOSPOLIS.) LYDIA (Asia Minor). Its history dates as far back as B.C. 1200 ; but the real Lydian ajra commenced about B.C. 713, with Gyges, who reigned till B.C. 678, the dynasty of the Mennnadn closing with Croesus, B.C. 556, when ^ Cyrus reduced the country to the condition of a Persian province. The Romans bestowed it upon the King of Pergamus B.C. 189, and it reverted to them again B.C. 173. (See MEDIA.) LYIXG-IN HOSPITALS. The first institu- tion of this kind was opened in a private house at Dublin by Dr. Bartholomew Mosse, March 25, 1745, and proved so advantageous that in 1747 several influential men in London obtained from him information as to his regulations, with a view to the establishment of similar hospitals at London. (See HOS- PITALS.) LYME REGIS (Dorsetshire), received a royal charter in 1284, and was represented by two members in Parliament. It was plun- dered by the French in 1404, and again in 1416, and it withstood a two months' siege by the Royalists in 1644. It has only returned one member to the House of Commons since the passing of the Reform Bill in 1832. I . V M PHATIC VESSELS. (See LACTEAL EJB.) LYN'CHBURG (United States). This town in Virginia, founded in 1786, was incorporated in 1805. LYNCH LAW is described in Webster's American Dictionary as " the practice of punishing men for crimes and offences by unauthorized persons, without a legal trial." The same authority adds : " The term is said to be derived from a Virginian farmer, named Lynch, who thus took the law into his own bonds." The accuracy of this definition is questioned. Some writers believe Judge Lynch to be a mythical personage, and others trace the origin of the phrase to one Lynch, sent to America in 1687-8, to suppress piracy. He had authority to dispense with the usual forms of law in the punishment of the pirates, and from this circumstance the term arose. Sir Harris Xicolas mentions the case of a widow who had committed murder, put to death in this manner by some of her own sex, in 1429. By others the term is derived from James Lynch Fitzstephen, Mayor of Gal way in 1526, who caused his own son, convicted of murder, to be hanged before his own door. LYXX, LYNN REGIS, or KING'S LYNN Norfolk), received its charter from King John, who remained three days in the town, when evading the forces of the barons, Oct. 9, 1216. ft returned two members to Parliament in 1295, and was detached from the see of Norfolk, of which it formed a fief, under the name of Lynn Episcopi, by Henry VIII. (1509 1547). St. Margaret's Church was founded "n i roo, St. Nicholas' by Edward III., and the grammar-school in 1510. After a three weeks' siege it capitulated to the Parliamentary forces LY(?N COURT (Scotland). This, the chief icraldic tribunal of Scotland, presided over by he Lyon King-at-Arms, was regulated by the Scotch Parliament in 1592 1672. LYON KING-AT-ARMS (Scotland). This )ffice existed at a remote period, according :o some authorities as early as the i2th century. The first recorded appearance of ".yon king-at-arrns is at the coronation of Robert II., in March, 1371. LYON [ 6x3 ] LYRE LYON or LYONS (Battle). Clodius Albinus was defeated and slain by Septimius Severus, in a great battle fought at Lyons, Feb. 19, 197. It terminated the civil war, and 150,000 Romans are said to have been engaged on the occasion. LYON, or LYONS (France). The ancient Lugdunus, Lugdunum, or Lugudunum. A Roman colony is said to have been settled B.c. 43, by L. Munatius Plancus, with the people of Vienne, driven from their homes by the Allobroges. In the reign of Augustus it was the capital of the province of Gallia Lugdunensis. B.C. 10, Aug. i. An altar is dedicated to Augustus by 60 Gallic states. A.D. 40. Caligula visits Lyons, and institutes games in honour of Augustus. 4154. Claudius I., a native, makes it a colony. Having been reduced to ashes in o makes a liberal grant to rebuild it. 59. ight, Ne 168 180. The Christians are cruelly persecuted. 197, Feb. 19. It is pillaged and burned after the defeat of Clodius Albinus by Septimius Severus. A council is held respecting Easter. 199. Another council is held. 383, Aug. 25. The Emperor Gratian, seeking refuge from rebellion, is murdered here. 475. A council is held. 500, Sep. z. A conference of bishops is held by the Bur- gundian King Gundibald. 517. A council is held. 561 613. Lyons forms part of the kingdom of Bur- gundy. 566 or 567. A council on discipline is held. 583, May. A council on discipline is held. 039. A council is held against the Jews. 843. Lyons is allotted to the Emperor Lothaire I. 848. A council is held. 855. Lyons passes under the rule of Charles, King of Provence. 863. It is seized by Charles I. (the Bald). 879. It forms part of the territory of Boson. 1055. A council is held. 1157. The archbishops receive the title of exarch, and are confirmed in their temporal power by the Em- peror. 1178. The followers of Waldo are prohibited from preach- ing by Archbishop John. 1544. Pope Innocent IV. having taken refuge here from the Emperor, Frederick II., pronounces a fresh sentence of excommunication against him. 1345, June 28 July 17. The thirteenth General Council, at which Innocent IV. passes sentence of deposi- tion against Frederick II., is held here. 1374, May 7 July 17. The fourteenth General Council, for the reunion of the Greek and Latin Churches, is held here. 1305. Clement V. issues an order for a meeting of Cardi- nals at Lyons. 1307. It is united to France by Philip IV. 1538, March 21. A council against Luther is held here. 1539. Two bronze tablets, containing the oration of Clau- dius on giving the civitas to the nations of Gaul, are dug up. 1560. The Calvinists capture Lyons. 1563. Charles IX. regains possession. 1573. The massacre of St. Bartholomew. 1596. Henry IV. visits Lyons. 1646 55. The town-hall is erected. 170910. Great distress during the winter. 1793, Oct. 10. Lyons is taken after a siege of 66 days by the army of the French Convention, and the in- habitants are cruelly treated. 1814. The Austrians take possession of Lyons. 1815, March 8. Napoleon I. arrives here on his escape from Elba, and persuades the inhabitants to espouse his cause. 1816, June 8. A conspiracy is discovered and suppressed. 1817. Serious bread riots take place. 1831, Nov. 23. The artisans rebel and drive out the troops. Dec. 31. Marshal Soult at the head of 40,000 troops occupies Lyons. 1834, April 15. An insurrection occurs. April 31. It is suppressed. 1840, Aug. 31. A great reform banquet is held on the plain of Chatillon. Nov. 4. An inundation sweeps away 100 of the neighbouring villages. 1849, June 15. A revolt, which causes great loss, occurs. 1850, Aug. 15. Louis Napoleon is entertained at a grand banquet. 1853. An equestrian statue of Napoleon is erected. LYON, or LYONS (Treaties). The Archduke Philip, on the part of Spain, negotiated a treaty with Louis XII. of France at Lyons, where it was signed April 5, 1503. It provided that Philip's infant son Charles should marry Claude, a princess of France ; and the youthful couple were thenceforth to assume the titles of King and Queen of Naples, and Duke and Duchess of Calabria. The French division of the kingdom was to be ruled by some person named by Louis XII., and the Spanish division by the Archduke Philip, or some person appointed by Ferdinand in the interval before the marriage took place. All places unlawfully seized by either party were to be given up. War broke out soon after the treaty was signed, and much controversy has been excited amongst French and Spanish writers respecting this transaction. Another treaty between France and Spain was concluded at Lyons Feb. n, 1504, and was ratified by Ferdinand and Isabella at the convent of St. Maria de la Mejorado, March 31. It guar- anteed to Aragon the undisturbed possession of her Italian conquests for three years, from Feb. 25, 1504, and provided for a general cessa- tion of hostilities. By a treaty concluded here Jan. 17, 1601, Henry IV. obtained from Savoy all the country included between the Soane, the Rhone, and Mount Jura, in con- sideration of the marquisate of Saluces, which he relinquished to Duke Charles Emanuel I. LYONNAIS (France). This territory, which belonged to the Burgundians in 413, and to the Franks in 534, was afterwards erected into a county, the greater portion of which Philip IV. united to France in 1307. LYON'S INN (London). This inn of chan- cery, originally an hostelry with the sign of the Lion, belonged (Crabb's History of Eng- lish Law, p. 554) to the Inner Temple from the reign of Henry V. (1413 1422), if not before. The hall was erected in 1700. This Inn was sold by auction, Dec. 2-4, 1862. LYON VERSES differ from Palindromes (q. v.} in that each word, and not each letter, is reversed in order to ascertain the double reading, which frequently assumes the nature of question and answer. They were invented by Caius Sollius Sidonius Apollinaris, who was born at Lyons about 431, and died Aug. 21, 482, or 484. The following epitaph in Gum- wallow churchyard, Cornwall, is an English Lyon Verse : "Shall we all die? We shall die all; All die shall we Die all we shall." LYRE. The invention of this musical instrument was ascribed by the Greeks to Apollo, or to Mercury. A similar instrument was known to the ancient Egyptians, and was also in use amongst the Hebrews. LTSIMACHIA t 614 ] MACCABEES LTSIMACHIA ( Thracian Chersonesus) , founded by Lysimacliua, King of Thrace, B.C. 309, whence its name, was injured by an earth- quake about B.C. 282, captured by the Syrians B.C. 281, by the Egyptians B.C. 247, and by Philip V., of Macedon, B.C. 205, when it was destroyed. Restored by Antiochus the Great B.C. 195, it was taken by the Romans B.C. 191, The Emperor Justinian I. (527 65), sur- rounded it with fortifications, after which it was called Hexamilium. LYTHAM (Lancashire). This town, mentioned in Domesday Book (1085-6) under the name Lidun, became late in the reign of Richard I. (1189 1199) the site of a Benedic- tine priory, founded by Richard Fitz-Roger. Lytham Hall was erected between 1757 and 1764, and a church was built on the ground occupied by the priory, in 1770. The school was rebuilt in 1821, the baths were erected in 1829, and the church of St. Cuthbert com- menced March 20, 1834. The lighthouse, on a point called "The Double Stanners," between Lytham and Blackpool, was swept away in a gale, Jan. 22, 1862. M. MAASTRICHT, or MAESTRICHT (Holland), called the German Gate of the Netherlands. the ancient Trajectum ad Mosam, the capital of the province of Limburg, founded in the 5th century, has sustained several memorable sieges. The seat of the bishopric was trans- ferred there from Tongres in 383. In 1576 the inhabitants expelled the Spaniards, who regained possession, and committed great atrocities, Oct. 20. Having again driven out the Spaniards, the Duke of Parma invested it March 12, 1579. A general assault, April 8, was repulsed, but it was carried by storm June 29. The city was delivered up to the infuriated soldiers for three days, when men, women, and children were treated with great barbarity. One historian relates that not more than 400 citizens remained alive, and Strada says that 8,000 of the inhabitants were slain during the siege, and of these 1,700 were females. It regained its independence in 1622, and was taken by Louis XIV. in 1673. William, Prince of Orange, failed in an attempt to capture it in 1675. The Duke of Marlborough occupied Maastricht in 1703. It was invested by the French April 3, 1748, and though they did not succeed in capturing it, yet the pre- liminaries of peace, signed a short time after, provided that it should be delivered to them, and the garrison marched out with the honours of war May 3. The French again besieged it Feb. n, 1793, and retired in March, without having effected their object. They returned in 1794, and the city capitulated to them Nov. 4. Holland ceded Maastricht to Belgium by a treaty with France in 1795, and having long remained under French influence, it was restored to Holland by the treaty of Paris, May 30, 1814. This city remained faithful to Holland during the revolution of 1830. MACADAMIZING. John Loudon Macadam, who invented the mode of road-making that takes its name from him, first put it into practice on the Bristol roads in 1815. He was appointed general surveyor of roads in 1827, and received from Parliament two grants, amounting to .10,000. MACALO (Battle). The Milanese forces, under Carlo Malatesta, were defeated at this place, near Cremona, by the Venetians, under Carmagnola, Oct. n, 1427. MACAO (China). The Portuguese formed a settlement here in 1517, and it was granted to them for purposes of trade in 1537. They kept it a close port till 1849, when it was declared free. By a treaty concluded at Tien-tsin Aug. 13, 1862, Macao was definitely ceded to Portugal. MACARONI. This preparation of wheat flour is an invention of the Italians, and has for many years formed an important branch of manufacture in Genoa and Naples. An establishment for its manufacture was opened in Spitalfields in 1730. MACARONI CLUB (London). This club of dandies was formed in 1772, by a number of young men of fashion, who had travelled in Italy, and adopted the title in contradistinc- tion to the London Beefsteak Club ( CaMander. 296. Philip IV- 3 II. 229. Antigonus Doson. 230. Philip V. 17*. IVi 149 148. Audriscus. MACEDONIANS. This name, given to the Semi-Arians, is derived from Macedonius, a deacon who was made Bishop of Constanti- nople by the Arians in 341, and was acknow- ledged as Patriarch in 342. When the Arians separated into the Arians and the Semi- Arians, in 359, Macedonius took part with the latter, and he was expelled from the see in 360, after which time the Semi- Arians were called Mace- donians. They were condemned by the second general council, held at Constantinople May July 30, 381. They are also called Piieuma- tomachians, or Adversaries of the Spirit. MACELLUM. In this castle near Csesarea Constantius II. confined Julian and Gallus, nephews of Constantino I., from 345 to March 'MACERATA (Italy), the capital of a province of the same name annexed to the ecclesiastical estates by Charlemagne, was made a bishop's see in 1322. Napoleon I., by a decree dated March, 1807, annexed this province to the kingdom of Italy. It was restored to the Papal States in 1814-15, and formed part of the new kingdom of Italy in 1860. MACHIAVELLIAN PRINCIPLES. This term is applied to the principles advocated in the celebrated work " II Principe," by Niccolo Machiavulli (1469 June 22, 1527), the Florentine statesman. It was first published at Rome, Jan. 4, 1532. MACHINE -BREAKING. By the fourth clause of 7 & 8 Geo. IV. c. 30 (June 21, 1827), a person breaking or destroying any machine employed in any manufacture in England, was liable to transportation for seven years, or imprisonment for any term not exceeding two years. If the offender was a male, whipping, either publicly or privately, might be added to the imprisonment. A special commission for the trial of machine-breakers was held in Hampshire in 1830. MACHINES. (See CARRIAGES.) MACHPELAH. (See BURIAL and HEBRON.) MACHYNLLETH (Wales). The Romans had a station at this town in Montgomery- shire. Here the Parliament of Wales met and acknowledged Owen Glendower, as prince of Wales, in 1402 ; and Owen Glendower entered into a treaty in 1403 with the Percys and the Mortimers to restore Richard II., if he could be found alive, to the English throne ; or, in case of his decease, to make the Earl of March king. This alliance was dissolved by the battle of Hateley Field (q. v.). The church was rebuilt in 1827. MACIEJOVICE, or MACIEWICE (Battle). A Russian army of 12,000 men, commanded by Person, defeated 10,000 Poles led by Thaddaeus Kosciusko at this place, in Poland, Oct. 10, 1 794. Kosciusko was taken prisoner. He was liberated after two years' imprisonment, and died at Soleure, in France, Oct. 15, 1817. .MACKENZIE RIVER (North America) is named after Alexander Mackenzie, who dis- covered it in 1 785, and explored the stream, at first called the Athabasca River, to the place where it discharges itself in the Frozen Ocean, which he reached July 15. MACKINTOSH. (See INDIA-RUBBER.) MACON (France), the ancient Matisco, was occupied by one of the legions of Julius Caesar B.C. 52. Councils were held here in 581 (Nicolas says Nov. i, 582), Oct. 23, 585, in 624, and July, 1286. During the Middle Ages, Macon was governed by its own counts. Louis IX. annexed it to France in 1238. It was ceded to Burgundy by Charles VII. in 1435, and reunited to France in 1477. It was made a bishop's see in the 5th, and suffered severely in the religious wars during the i6th century. Great atrocities were perpetrated in the Macon- nais in 1789. The seats of the nobility and several churches were completely destroyed. The French were repulsed in an attack upon an Austrian detachment at this town, March ii, 1814. An inundation committed much havoc at Macon and in the neighbourhood, in Nov., 1841. A reform banquet was held at Macon Sep. 20, 1847. MACON (N. America). This town in Georgia was only a village about 1822. The Wesleyan female college was founded in 1839. MACQUARIE RIVER. (See GOLD DIS- COVERIES.) MADAGASCAR (Indian Ocean). The existence of this island, long known to the Arabs and Moors, was first brought to Europe in 1298 by the Venetian traveller Marco Polo, who describes it under the name Mugaster. MADAIN [ 617 ] MADRAS A.D. 1506. A ship under the command of Coutinho, forming part of Tristan da Cunha's exploring squadron, takes refuge from a storm in one of the harbours of Madagascar. On his return Coutinho per- suades Tristan da Cunlia to visit it, 1508. It is again visited by the Portuguese. 1509. Diego Lopez de Siquera goes on an expedition to Madagascar. 1510. It is visited by Juan Serrano. 1548. The Portuguese form the first European settlement in the island. 1642. The French having destroyed the Portuguese settle- ment, form one which they call Fort Dauphin. 1644. The English plant a colony in St. Augustine Bay. 1669. A French governor-general arrives. 1673. Several of the French are massacred by the natives. 1774, Feb. 14. Count Benyowski, sent out by the French Government, arrives. 1775, Oct. 12. Count Benyowski obtains supreme autho- rity in the island. 1776, Dec. 10. Count Benyowski embarks for France. 1785, July 7. Count Benyowski returns to the island. 1786, May 23. Count Benyowski is killed in an encounter with a French expedition. 1810. Kadama I. (the Great) begins his reign. 1811, Feb. 17. The French factories surrender to an Eng- lish force. May 19. The English garrison is cap- tured, but the French are again expelled. 1817. Oct. 18. A treaty, abolishing the slave trade, is signed at Tamatave between England and the King of Madagascar. 1818. Missionaries sent by the London Missionary Society arrive in the island. 1830, Oct. n. Additional articles to the treaty of 1817 are signed. 1823, May 31. Other articles are signed. 1825, March. The army of Kadama I. replaces the French flag at Fort Dauphin by that of their king. 1828, July 27. Kadama I. (the Great) dies,5and Ranuvolona Manjaka, one of his n wives, succeeds. 1829, June 1 1. Ranavolona Manjaka is crowned. June 15. A French expedition arrives at Tamatave. Oct. 3. The French attack the fort at Tamatave. Oct. 26. They are repulsed at Foulepoint. Nov. 3. The French succeed in an attack on Point a Larre, and a treaty is concluded. 1835, Feb. 6. Kanavolona Manjaka issues an edict for- bidding the teaching of the Bible. Aug. 27. Most of the missionaries leave the island. 1836, Ranavolona Manjaka sends an embassy to England and to France. 1837, March i. The embassy is presented to William IV. March 7. The embassy has a special inter- view with William IV. at Windsor Castle. 1845, June 17. In consequence of restrictions thrown in the way of trade, a joint English and French ex- pedition attacks Tamatave. 1849, Feb. 19. Queen Ranavolona Manjaka orders two houses used for Christian worship to be destroyed. A cruel persecution of the native Christians ensues. 1853, Nov. The merchants of Mauritius and Reunion pay the Queen of Madagascar an indemnity of 15,000 dollars in order to re-open the trade. 1857, June. A conspiracy against the Queen, in which M. Ida Pfeiffer and Prince Rakoto are concerned, is frustrated. 1861, Aug. 23. Queen Ranavolona Manjaka dies, and is succeeded by her son, Kadama Rakotond. 1862, Sep. 12. Treaties of friendship and commerce be- tween England, France, and Madagascar are signed at Antanavarivo. Sep. 23. He is crowned as Kadama II. 1863, May 12. Kadama II. and his chief minister are assassinated. His widow ascends the throne as Queen Kadobo. 1864, Feb. 25. Tv\o ambassadors from Madagascar land at Southampton. 1865, June 37. A treaty of peace and commerce between England and Madagascar is concluded at Anta- navarivo. The first English church in the island is erected at Tamatave. 1866, July 5. The treaty of June 37, 1865, is ratified. MADAIN, or MADYN, AL. (See CTESIPHON.) MADEIRA (North Atlantic Ocean).- This, ;he largest of a group of islands, called the Madeiras, or Northern Canaries, is said to have afforded a refuge to an Englishman named Robert Macham, or Machim, who, fleeing rom France with Anna d'Arfet in 1346, was cast by a storm upon its coast. From this circumstance the island is said to have been called Machico, This story is, however, gene- rally regarded as an invention, and the real discoverer of Madeira is believed to be Gon- zalves Zarco, the Portuguese, who visited it in 1419. It was covered with forests, and its name is derived from the Spanish word madera, signifying timber. The Portuguese soon after formed a settlement, and erected Funchal into a city in 1508. Madeira, with Portugal, passed under Spanish rule in 1580, and again became a Portuguese colony in 1640. A garrison of British troops, under Col. Clinton, landed on the island July 24, 1801, in anticipation of an attack from the French ; and these having been withdrawn, a second force, commanded by Commodore Hood and Major Beresford, took possession Dec. 24, 1807, and remained till the peace of June 20, 1814. The partisans of Don Miguel seized it Aug. 23, 1828, and it declared for Donna Maria June 10, 1834. The vines were nearly all destroyed by the o'idium in 1851. MADISON (N. America). A town of Jeffer- son county, Indiana, was founded in 1808. MADISON (N. America). The capital of Wisconsin, founded in 1836, is the seat of a university established in 1851. MADONNA DELL' OLMO (Battle). The French and Spanish army besieging Coni, was attacked at Madonna dell' Olmo, by Charles Emanuel I., King of Sardinia, Sep. 30, 1743. The former, who gained the day, abandoned the siege Oct. 22. MAD PARLIAMENT, summoned to effect an accommodation between Henry III. and the barons, assembled at Oxford Barnabas-day, June n, 1258, and was attended by all the nobility, archbishops, . 1865. Argosy. 778. Arminian (Methodist). 849. Art-Journal. Artizan. Daily's Magazine of Sports. 848. Baptist Reporter. 776. Bath and Bristol. 1863. Beau Monde. 1866. Belgravia. 1837. Bentley's Miscellany. 1776. Biographical. 1817. Blackwood's. 1788. Botanical. A.D. 1760. British. 1855. British Workman. 1854. Chambers's Journal (new series), [iclc. 1841. Chess Player's Chron- 1760. Christian. 1836. Church of England. 1829. Colburn's United Ser- vice. 1860. Cornhill. 1787. County. 1761. Court. 1833. Dublin University. 1805. Eclectic. A.D. 1773. Edinburgh Magazine and Review. 1835. Educational. I72. European. 1793. Evangelical. 1865. Fortnightly Review. 1830. Eraser's. 1731. Gentlemans. 1859. Geologist. 1860. Good Words. 1766. Gospel. 1758. Grand. 1787. Humourist's. 1851. Hunt's Yachting. 1760. Imperial. 1770. Lady's. 1 7o' Lawyer's. 1852. Leisure Hour. 1735. Literary. 1732. London. 1862- London Society. 1859. Macmillan's. 175?. Magazine of Maga- zines. 1836. Magazine of Zoology. 1823. Mechanics'. 1774. Medical. 1831. Metropolitan. 1796. Monthly. 1766. Musical. 1840. Nautical. 1814. New Monthly. 1831. New Sporting. 1859. Once a Week. 1832. Penny. 1798. Philosophical. 1761. Protestant. 1863. Routledge's Magazin for Boys. 1759. Royal. 1860. St. James's. 1832. Saturday. 1739. Scot's. 1795. Sporting. 1839. Sporting Review. 1832. Tait's Edinburgh. 1861. Temple Bar. 1769. Town and Country. 1747. Universal. 1863. Victoria. 1824. World of Fashion. 1843. Zoologist. Some of the above are completed, as in the cage of the Penny Magazine, and others have ceased to appear. MAGDALENE COLLEGE (Cambridge). Henry Stafford, Duke of Buckingham (exe- cuted for high treason May 17, 1521), com- menced building Buckingham House on the site of an ancient hostel in 1519, and this was completed and converted into St. Mary Mag- dalene College by Thomas, Lord Audley, lord high chancellor of England, in 1542. Samuel Pepys, secretary to the Admiralty in the reigns of Charles II. and James II., bequeathed his library to this institution. He died May 26, 1703. It is now called Magdalene College. MAGDALEN HALL (Oxford). This school, erected by William Wayneflete, to prepare stu- dents for admission to Magdalene College, was called St. Mary Magdalen Hall as early as 1487, and became an independent hall in 1602. The president and fellows of Magdalene College, by act of Parliament, in 1816 obtained Hertford College, to which they removed in 1822. MAGDALEN HOSPITAL (London) was es- tablished. Aug. 8, 1758, for the relief and reformation of penitent women. MAGDALEN or ST. MARY MAGDALENE COLLEGE (Oxford) was founded by William Patten, commonly called Wayneflete, lord high chancellor of England, July 18, 1458. (See MAGDALEN HALL.) The great quad- rangle was commenced in 1743, and the foun- dation of the tower was laid in 1492. The foundations of the new buildings were laid in 1733, and the chapel was restored in 1833. James II. recommended Anthony Fanner as president in 1687. The fellows elected Dr. John Hough April 15, and for this were expelled by the king Dec. 10. The constitution has been changed by rules published under the authority of 17 & iSVict. c. 81 (Aug. 7, 1854). MAGDALENS, orMAGDALENES. The first religious association formed for the reforma- tion of fallen women was established in Ger- many before 1215. A similar order of nuns was established in France by Bertrand, a citizen of Marseilles, about 1272. The convent of the Magdalene of Naples was founded by MAGDEBURG [ 620 ] MAGNA Queen Sancha, of Aragon, in 1324, and that at Metz was established or refounded in 1452. The Paris convent dates from 1492, when Louis, Duke of Orleans, gave his hotel for the purpose of providing a nunnery for penitents. The Magdalen at Rome was established by Pope Leo X. in 1515. The Magdalen Hospital, London, was opened Aug. 8, 1758. MAGDEBURG (Prussia), the capital of the province of Saxony, and one of the strongest fortresses in Europe, was in existence in the 8th century. The Elector Maurice, who be- sieged it in Nov., 1550, took it Nov. 3, 1551, and entered the city Nov. 7. It was taken by the Austrian general Tilly, the inhabitants mercilessly slaughtered, and the city, with the exception of about 140 houses, burned to the ground, May 10, 1631. The archbishopric was founded in 968 by the Emperor Otho I. (the Great), whose statue stands in the market-place. In 1648 the archbishopric was converted into a duchy, and given to Bran- denburg in exchange for Pomerania. The cathedral, a fine Gothic edifice, which contains the tombs of Otho I. and the Empress, was erected between 1211 1363, and restored 1825 1834. The church of the Virgin was built in the nth century, and the French Reformed church in the i7th century. A conspiracy, concocted in 1761 by Baron Trenck, while a prisoner in the fortress, to release 16,000 captive Austrians, and master the garrison, WHS frustrated. After having been invested 15 days by the French, under Marshal Ney, Magdeburg capitulated Nov. 8, 1806, and was annexed to the new kingdom of West- phalia, by the treaty of Tilsit, July 9, 1807. It was restored by the treaty of Paris, May 30, 1814. MAGDEBURG CENTURIES. The publica- tion of the centuries of Magdeburg, written according to a plan drawn up by Matthias Flacius in 1552, to show the agreement of the Lutheran doctrine with that of the primitive Christians, commenced at Magdeburg in 1560 and terminated in 1574. The " Centuriaturs," as its editors were called, only carried the history down to 1300. MAGELLAN STRAIT. (See MAGALHAENS' STRAIT.) MAGENTA. This shade of crimson dye, named after the battle of Magenta, and pre- Eared from gas tar, was brought out in France i 1860, and thence quickly introduced into England. MAGENTA (Battle). The French and the Sardinians, after a desperate struggle, defeated the Austrians near this town in Lombardy, June 4, 1859. MAGHAZUL (Battle), was fought in a field near Toledo, between the Saracenic monarch Abderahaman, grandson of King Abdallah, and the rebel Caleb Aben Hafsun, in 912. The royal troops gained the victory, losing 3,000, whilst the rebels lost 7,000 men. MAGI were entrusted with the care of reli- gion by Dejoces, and formed one of the six tribes into which he divided the Medes, B.C. 700. They were constituted into a sacred caste or college when the Medes and Persians became united under Cyrus, B.C. 559. Two brothers of the magi revolted against Cam- byses, and usurped the supreme authority during his absence in Egypt, B.C. 523; but were put to death with such a large number of their sect that the day was afterwards observed by the Persians as the " Massacre of the Magi," B.C. 522. The primitive religion, which consisted in the worship of Ormuzd, the symbol of light and goodness, having become much debased, was reformed by .Zoroaster, about B.C. 555. (See GUEBRES.) MAGIC, called the Black Art, was originally taught by the magi, who diffused a knowledge of their mysteries through Greece and Arabia, on their expulsion from Persia, about B.C. 500. Smedley (Occult Sciences, p. 190) states, that " according to the Talmud and the Cabbala, which profess to agree with the Bible, magic is divided into three classes, the first, includ- ing all evil enchantments and magical cures, the citation of evil spirits, and the calling forth the dead through the aid of demons, to be punished, like idolatry, with death ; the second, including those magical practices which are carried on by the aid of evil spirits, by which man is often led astray and sunk into eternal darkness, to be punished with scourg- ing ; and the third, including astrology and all intercourse with the lower spirits, excepted from punishment, but pronounced wrong, as leading from reliance upon God." The Council of Laodicea, in 366, condemned all magicians and enchanters, and the ancient laws dealt with them very severely. Trials on charges of having employed magical arts were common in the Middle Ages. (See ALCHEMY, WITCH- CRAFT, c\. -c. MAGICIANS. (See JUGGLERS and MAGIC.) MAGIC LANTERN. Roger Bacon is said to have invented this instrument about 1260 ; but it was not generally known till a much later date. Cellini, who died Feb. 13, 1570, describes optical experiments which apparently de- pended for their effects on an apparatus of this kind. Kircher, who was born in 1602 and died in 1680, is frequently styled the inventor of the magic lantern. The invention of the Argand lamp in 1787, and of the phantas- magoria in 1802, produced considerable im- provements in the construction and operation of the instrument. MAGIC MIRROR. (-See CRYSTAL GLASS or STONE.) MAGIC SQUARE. This mathematical ar- rangement of a set of numbers was known at an early period to the Hindoos, Egyptians, and Chinese. Emanuel Moschopxilus, who wrote upon them in Greek in the middle of the isth century, was the first author who refers to the magic square. MAGISTRATES. (See JUSTICES OF THE PEACE, and STIPENDIARY MAGISTRATES.) MAGNA CHARTA, or THE GREAT CHARTER, embodying some of the " good old laws of Edward the Confessor," with numerous provisions, intended to secure the liberty of the subject, was extorted by the barons from King John. Soon after the king's return from France, Stephen Langton and several barons determined to obtain redress of grievances, met at Edmundsbury Nov. 20. They presented MAGNA [ 621 ] MAGNETISM their demands to the king Jan. 6, 1215, and were censured by the Pope May 19. They entered London May 24, and agreed to meet the king at Rmmymede, a field between Staines and Windsor, where the charter was sealed, June 15, 1215. John violated its stipu- lations in Aug., 1215, appealed to the Pope Sep. 13, 1215, who annulled the agreement, excommunicated the barons, and suspended Stephen Langton, Archbishop of Canterbury, in Dec., 1215. It was confirmed by the guar- dians of the youthful King Henry III. at Bristol, Nov. 12, 1216, and subsequently by other kings so frequently, that Sir Edward Coke counted 32 confirmations, additions, or renewals about 1600. From a copy preserved in Lincoln Cathedral, the Board of Commis- sioners on the Public Records caused a fac- simile to be engraved and published, which is to be found, with a translation, in the first volume of " Statutes of the Realm." (See GRAND, or GREAT PRIVILEGE.) MAGNA GR^ECIA, or MAJOR GR.ECIA (Italy). This name was applied by Greek writers to their colonies formed on the southern shores of Italy, Cumse having by general consent the precedence in point of antiquity, although the date of its founda- tion, B.C. 1050, is not to be relied upon. There is much uncertainty as to the precise dates of the various settlements ; but the greater number of them were probably made between B.C. 735 and B.C. 685. Sybaris, B.C. 720, and Crotona, B.C. 710, the two most powerful cities, were founded by the Achseans. Taren- tum, a Spartan colony, was established about B.C. 708 ; Metapontum by the Achaeans, B.C. 700 680 ; and Locri by the Locrians, about B.C. 700. The date of the league between Crotona, Sybaris, and Metapontum, to expel the lonians from Siris, cannot be fixed with any degjree of accuracy. A great change in the political condition of these cities was brought about by the teaching of Pythagoras, who arrived at Crotona about B.C. 530. An army of 100,000 Crotonists took the field against 300,000 Sybarites, and, after defeating them on the banks of the Traeis, utterly destroyed the city of Sybaris, B.C. 510. Thurii, founded B.C. 443, and Heraclea, B.C. 432, were the two latest of these settlements. The Italian Greeks having allied themselves against Dionysius of Syracuse, were defeated by him in an important engagement on the river Helleporus, or Helorus, near Caulonia, B.C. 389, and at the same time they were attacked in the north by the Lucanians, with whom they waged war till B.C. 282, when they applied to the Romans for aid. The celebrated expedi- tion of Pyrrhus, King of Epirus, whose assist- ance had been invoked by the Greeks, began B.C. 280. He left them entirely at the mercy of the Romans on his departure, B.C. 274. Nearly all these cities declared for Hannibal after the victory of that general over the Romans at Cannae, Aug. 2, B.C. 216 ; but they suffered the penalty of this partisanship when fortune turned in favour of the Romans ; the towns were pillaged and the people put to the sword or sold into slavery, a subjugation from which they never recovered. Cicero describes them in his time, B.C. 106 43, as sunk into utter ruin. MAGNANO (Battle). Marshal Kray, at the head of an Austrian army, defeated the French, commanded by Gen. Scherer, at this place, near Verona, April 5, 1799. MAGNESIA (Battle). The two Scipios gained a complete victory over Antiochus the Great, King of Syria, near Magnesia, usually called Magnesia ad Sipylum, in Lydia, and drove him out of Western Asia, B.C. 190. (See MANISSA.) MAGNESIA AD M^ANDRUM (Greece). This jEolian city, said to have been founded by Magnesians from Thessaly, was destroyed by the Cimmerians B.C. 726, and rebuilt by the Milesians B.C. 725. It was assigned to The- mistocles by Artaxerxes, to supply him with bread, when he was banished from Athens, B.C. 471 ; and the inhabitants raised a statue to his honour in the Agora. The Romans incorporated it with the kingdom of Pergamus B.C. 188. A town of Lydia, of the same name, called Magnesia ad Sipylum to distinguish it from the above, is known under the modern name of Manissa (q. v.}. MAGNESIUM. This metal was first ob- tained by Sir Humphry Davy, in 1808, and examined by Bussy in 1830. Sonstadt patented various processes for producing it in 1862-3. MAGNETISM. This word is supposed to be derived from Magnes, the name of a Phrygian shepherd, who, according to the legend, was detained on Mount Ida by the nails in his boots, or by his metal crook. Other autho- rities state that it is derived from the Lydian province of Magnesia, whence the Greeks obtained the loadstone about B.C. 1000. A.D. 1576. Robert Norman discovers the dip of the magnetic needle. 1590. Julius Csesar, a surgeon of Rimini, observes the conversion of iron into a magnet by position. 1600. Gilbert publishes his treatise " De Magnete." 1650 (about). Bond discovers the true progress of the de- viation of the compass. 1688. Halley publishes his theory of terrestrial mag- netism. 1699. Halley constructs the first magnetic chart. 1732. Graham discovers the diurnal variation. 1746. Dr. Gowan Knight constructs artificial magnets. 1750. Michell publishes his treatise on artificial magnets. 1756. Canton makes 4,000 observations on the variation of the needle, and ascertains that it is greater in summer than in winter. 1780. Coulomb propounds the double fluid theory. 1786. Cassini discovers the annual periodical variation of the magnetic needle. Coulomb constructs his balance of torsion. 1813. Morichini magnetizes a needle by exposing it to the violet rays of the spectrum. 1817. Professor Hansteen, of Christiana, publishes his work on the Magnetism of the Earth. 18^1. Mr. J. H. Abraham, of Sheffield, receives the large gold medal of the Society of Arts for his mag- netic guard, to protect persons engaged in needle- pointing, &c. 1835. Christie proves that heat diminishes magnetic force. 1830. Haldat produces magnetism by friction. 1831. Sir W. Snow Harris improves the mariner's com- pass, and invents the hydrostatic magneto- meter. Faraday produces electricity by means of a magnet. 1846. Professor Faraday propounds the laws of diamag- iietism. 1848. Faraday discovers magneto-crystalline force. MAGNI [ 622 ] MAIDSTONE 1851. Gen. Sabine demonstrates that the terrestrial mag netic force has periods. 1856. Professor Tyndall proves the existence of diainag netic polarity. (See ANIMAL MAGNETISM, LOADSTONE, and MA KINEK'S COMPASS.) MAGNI. {See CHINA.) MAGNOLIA, of several varieties, has been introduced into England at different periods The Magnolia glauca, or the deciduous swamp magnolia, was brought from North America in 1688 ; the Magnolia grandijlora, great-flowerec magnolia, or laurel bay, was introduced from the same country in 1734; and the Magnolia Yulan, or conspicua, from China in 1790. The Yulan magnolia has been cultivated in China since 627. MAGOG. (-See GOG AND MAGOG.) MAGYARS, called Ugri by the Russians, being members of the Ugriau race, whence, by corruption, the name Hungary (q. v.), migrated from the southern part of the Uralian moun- tains, and settled on the plains of the Lower Danube, under Arpad, their leader, in 889. They invaded Bavaria in 900, inspiring such terror by the prowess of their arms and the rapidity of their movements, that walled towns in Europe are said to have had their origin at that period. Defeated in battle by the Saxon Prince Henry I. (the Fowler), in 934, and again by Otho I. (the Great), in 955, their power was completely broken. Andrew III., who came to the throne in 1290, was the last king of the Arpad family, which became extinct in the male line in 1301. MAHAIH:LKSH\VA iiindostan). sir John Malcolm established this station in 1828, and a sanatorium has since been erected. MAHARA.Il'O!!!-; Battle).- Sir I fn^h (after- wards Lord) Gough defeated a Mahratta army of 18,000 men, supported by 100 guns, at this town, in Gualior, Dec. 29, 1843. Sir Hugh had about 14,000 troops and 40 guns. The Mah- rattas lost 3,400 men. MAKE (Hindostan). This place, on the Malabar coast, was taken by Munro, Feb. 10, 1711, and fell into the hands of the French in 1722. It was captured by the English in 1760 ; restored by the treaty of Paris, Feb. 10, 1763; again captured in 1793 ; and restored to France in 1815. MAHOGANY, so called from Mahogaiii, the American name of the tree, was introduced into England in 1595. Sir Walter Raleigh's carpenter is said to have discovered its value in making articles of furniture ; but it was brought into notice by Woolaston, a cabinet- maker of Long Acre, who, in 1720, was em- ployed by Dr. Gibbons to make first a candle- box, and afterwards a bureau, with some planks which he had received from the West Indies. The Duchess of Buckingham having seen the latter article, begged some of the wood from the doctor, and had one made, which soon brought it into general use. MAHRATTAS, or MAHARATTAS. The origin of this people of Hindostan is unknown, but the empire bearing their name was founded in the latter half of the iyth century, by Sevajee, who received from the King of Be- japore a jaghire in the Carnatic. He sup- planted his father in the jaghire of Poonah in 1647, and was succeeded by his son Sambajee in 1680. From 1689 till 1818 the nominal sovereign of the period was kept a close prisoner, the Peishwa wielding the supreme authority. When the succession of Ragoba was disputed in 1773, he entered into a treaty with the English Government, by which ho was to give them possession of Salsette and Bassein, and they in return were to replace him in office ; but as the English obtained the coveted towns by other means, the treaty was not carried out. Bajeron, the Peishwa, having tried to form a confederacy against the English, was compelled to cede a territory worth ,340,000 a year in 1815. Having at- tacked the houses of the British residency, Nov., 1817, he was defeated in an engage- ment, and fled. He wandered as a fugitive till he surrendered to Sir John Malcolm in June, 1818. At this time 50,000 square miles of Poonah territory came into British pos- session, a small principality being assigned to the rajah of Satara, representative of the founder of the rule. Failing legitimate heirs, this principality fell to the English in 1848. A battle between the Mahrattas and the British, under Sir Hugh Gough, was fought at Maharajpore, in which the former were defeated, with the loss of 56 pieces of artillery, Dec. 29, 1843. M A I DA Hattle). An English force of about 4,800 men, under the command of Sir John Stuart, having effected a landing in Calabiia, July i, 1806, attacked and defeated the French, entrenched in a strong position near the village >( Mai da, 7,000 strong, commanded by Gen. Reynier, July 4, 1806. MAIDEN, HALIFAX GIBBET, or WIDOW, 111 instrument for putting criminals to death, somewhat similar to the modern guillotine, was in use in Halifax and other parts of England as early as the ijth century, and was jrought into Scotland during the i6th century ; ;he commonly received account, that it was ntroduced into that kingdom by the Regent James, Earl of Morton, being incorrect. It was last used in England in 1650, and the Earl of Argyle, the last in Scotland who suffered by it, June 30, 1685, declared that it was " the sweetest maiden he had ever kissed." An instrument of this kind is said to have )een in use in various Italian towns about the same period. MAID OF ORLEANS. (See ORLEANS.) MAIDS OF THE CROSS. (& CROSS, MAIDS IF THE.) MAIDS OF HONOUR. Four ladies bearing his title are mentioned as having formed part if the queen's establishment in the wardrobe account of Edward I. (1272 1307). The num- jer is now limited to eight, each of whom enjoys a salary of ^400 per annum. Maids of lonour were suppressed in France by Madame tfontespaii in 1673. (See LORDS AND LADIES >F THE BEDCHAMBER.) MAIDSTONE (Kent), anciently called Caer \Ieguaid, or Medwig, the city of the Medway, md by the Saxons Medwegestan and Med- Lestane, was a possession of the Archbishops MAIL [ 623 ] MAIN of Canterbury, and is so described in Domes- day Book, in 1086-7. A hospice for pilgrims travelling to Canterbury was founded in 1260. It received charters from Edward VI., Eliza- beth, James I., Charles II., and George II., and has returned two members to Parliament since the time of its first charter. During the Great Rebellion the Kentish men, who had risen for the king, were attacked and defeated at Maidstone by Fairfax, June i, 1648. The Gothic palace of the Archbishops of Canter- bury was built in 1348 ; its parish church, one of the largest in England, was erected in the i4th century, and has been recently restored. A college, founded by Archbishop Courteiiay in the reign of Richard II. (1377 1399], was suppressed by Edward VI., the building now accommodating All Saints' College, founded in 1846. The county gaol was erected at a cost of ,200,000 in 1818. MAIL COACHES. John Palmer, manager of the Bath and Bristol theatres, submitted to Mr. Pitt, then prime minister, the first sketch of his plan for the conveyance of letters in 1782, and a second, further developed, in 1783. In July of the same year the post-office authorities furnished Government with three volumes of objections to the proposed inno- vation. In spite, however, of this opposition, the first mail coach started from London for Bristol Aug. 8, 1784, performing the journey the same day. The post-office declared its opinion that the plan was prejudicial to revenue and commerce in 1786. Mr. Palmer's original agreement was for 2^ per cent, on the surplus of the net revenue over ^240,000, and a salary of ^1,500 a year, as comptroller- general of the post-office, but Parliament refused to ratify the agreement, and he only obtained a grant of ,50,000. MAILLOTINS. The name given to the citizens of Paris who revolted on account of the tax of the twelfth denier upon provisions in 1382. They rushed to the Hotel de Ville, and finding no weapons but leaden mallets, hence their name, fell upon the collectors of the tax with these, and killed several. The example set by Paris was imitated by many provincial towns. The dukes of Anjou, Berri, and Burgundy, who acted as guardians for their nephew Charles VI., entered into a treaty with the revolted Parisians. The French army, after the battle of Rosebec, or Rosbach, Nov. 17, 1382, marched upon Paris, and the citizens were punished with fines and confis- cation in 1383. MAILS. An act for the conveyance of mails by railway (2 Viet. c. 98) was passed Aug. 14, 1838. MAIMING, once punished by inflicting a similar injury on the offender, as in the Mosaic economy, " an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth," was afterwards met by fine and impri- sonment. By 22 & 23 Charles II. c. i (March 6, 1671), the Coventry Act (q. v.}, since repealed, malicious wounding and maiming was made a capital offence. It was made a capital felony, if the intention to commit murder is proved, or otherwise, punishable with transportation for life, by i Viet. c. 85 (July 17, 1837). By 9 & 10 Viet. c. 25 (1846), maiming by fire, gun- powder, or explosive and destructive sub- stances, was declared to be felony. MAIN DRAINAGE. (See DRAINAGE.) MAINE (N. America) was discovered by one of the Cabots in 1497. The French visited it soon after, and called the northern part of the country Maine, and the eastern portion Acadie or Acadia. The first settlement was made at Phippsburg in 1607, and several others were formed by the English about 1635. Sir Ferdi- nand Gorges received a proprietary charter in 1639. Maine, united to Massachusetts as the county of Yorkshire in 1652, was purchased from the Gorges family by Massachusetts in. 1676. It was the theatre of the war between France and England from 1702 to 1713, at the close of which Acadia was ceded to England by the treaty of Utrecht, April n, 1713. In 1820 Maine became an independent state. After the war, in 1814, the settlement of the boundary between Maine and the British pro- vince of New Brunswick was, by the fourth article of the treaty of Ghent, Dec. 24, 1814, referred to two commissioners, one to be ap- pointed by the King of England, and the other by the President of the United States. In the event of a disagreement between these com- missioners, the matter was to be referred to some friendly sovereign or state, whose decision was to be final and conclusive. Disputes arose, and the King of Holland was named arbitrator. He decided in favour of Great Britain, but the United States Government refused to be bound by the award. Commissioners were sent out in 1839, to examine the boundary-line claimed by England. In 1841 another commission went to examine the line advocated by America, and they both reported in favour of the Eng- lish claim. The controversy was at last settled by the Ashburton treaty (q. v. ), concluded at Washington Aug. 9, 1842, by which the Ame- ricans obtained seven-twelfths of the disputed territory. Maine was separated from Massa- chusetts in 1820. MAINE, or LE MAINE (France), under the Romans formed part of the Lyonnais, and, made a county in the icth centuiy, was in 1 1 10 united to Anjou, with which it passed into the possession of England in 1156. Philip II. (Augustus) took it in 1204, but the English regained possession. Henry III. of England renounced all claim to it by the treaty of Abbeville, May 20, 1259, and Edward III. did the same by the treaty of Bretigny, May 8, 1360. Retaken by Henry V. (1413 22), it was surren- dered by treaty in 1448, and formed a separate duchy till 1481, when Louis XI. re-united it to France. Henry II. of France gave it to his third son, afterwards Henry III., who, on becoming king, bestowed it upon the Duke of Alencon, one of Queen Elizabeth's suitors, and at his death without heirs, June 10, 1584, it reverted to France. MAINE LIQUOR LAW. This law, prohi- biting the manufacture and sale of intoxicating liquors, except for certain stated purposes, and ordering the arrest and imprisonment of drunkards, was established in Maine, June 2, 1851. MAIN PLOT, a conspiracy formed in 1603, to place Arabella Stuart on the throne, was MAINTENANCE [ 624 ] MALAGA called the Main to distinguish it from the Bye, the Surprise, or the Surprising Plot (q. v.). Arabella Stuart was a cousin of James I., being the daughter of the Duke of Lennox, brother to Lord Darnley, the king's father. Sir Walter Raleigh and Lord Cobham are said to have been the prime movers in this plot. They were seized in July. Sir Walter Raleigh was indicted on a charge of high treason, Aug. 21, and was tried and condemned at Winchester, Nov. 17, and Lord Cobham Nov. 25. They were both reprieved, the latter on the scaffold, Dec. 9 ; but Raleigh was kept in the Tower until 1616, and was after another imprison- ment executed Oct. 29, 1618. MAINTENANCE. The Cap of Maintenance, Dignity, or Estate, was used by English sove- reigns at a very early period, and mention is made of one at the coronation of Richard I., Sep. 3, 1189. The Pope frequently sent a cap of estate as a present to a temporal prince, and Edward IV. received one from Sixtus IV. April 23, 1482. MAINZ. (See MAYENCE.) MAIPU, or MAYPU (Battle). The repub- lican army, led by San Martin, defeated the Royalists in a plain bordering on the river Maipu, in Chili, April 5, 1818. MAITLAND CLUB (Glasgow), named after Sir Richard Maitland, who died March 20, 1586, was instituted March 31, 1828. The object of the association is the publication of works illustrative of the history, antiquities, and literature of Scotland. MAJESTY. The title of majesty, at first applied amongst the Romans to the dictators, the consuls, and the senate, as the represen- t.itivcs of the power of the people, was appro- priated by the Emperor Tiberius (14 37). It was also adopted by the German emperors, and was introduced into France by Louis XL, who was the first to assume it permanently and officially. Francis I. saluted Henry VIII. with this title at their interview in 1520, and he was the first English monarch to whom it was ap- plied. The French Assembly, in 1791, abolished the title. MAJOLICA, soft enamelled pottery made by the Moors, was introduced into Italy from Majorca, whence the name, in the i2th century. The classical designs of Raffaelle, and other distinguished artists, were adopted from 1520 to 1560, and it received the name of Raffaelle ware. The manufacture gradually declined in the 1 6th century. MAJORCA, or MALLORCA (Mediterranean Sea). This island is the largest of the Balearic (q. v.) group, and but little is known of its early history. After the final expulsion of the Moors, in 1268, James I., King of Aragon, con- ferred the islands upon his third son, and they formed a separate kingdom till 1349. In 1521 the peasants revolted against the nobility, and committed great excesses. Majorca declared for Charles in the war of the Spanish succes- sion. The island was captured in June, 1715, and it remained faithful to Spain during the occupation of the peninsula by the French. (See MINORCA.) MAJOR EXCOMMUNICATION. (See ANA- THEMA and EXCOMMUNICATION.) MARIAN (Indian Archipelago). This island, one of the Moluccas, was destroyed by the eruption of a volcano, and the inhabitants, amounting to 4,000, were nearly all killed, June 1 6, 1862. MALABAR (Hindostan). This tract of country, extending from Cape Comorin to the river Chandragiri, was conquered by a king from above the Ghaut mountains, at a very early period. Vasco de Gama landed May 20, 1498, and the Portuguese soon after formed settlements. In 1761 Hyder Ali subdued the country, and he appointed a deputy in 1782. A serious rebellion was provoked by an attempt made by Tippoo Saib to introduce religious changes in 1788. Christianity was introduced at Malabar at a very early period. (See NES- TORIANS.) MALACCA (Malay Peninsula), the capital of a district of the same name, was founded by a Malay king in 1250. The Portuguese visited the town in 1507, Albuquerque captured it in 1511, and it was made a Portuguese settlement. The Dutch, who failed in an attack in 1605, reduced the place in 1640, and held it till Aug. I 7> J 795 when it was taken by the English. Having been restored at the peace of Amiens, March 25, 1807, it was soon recaptured, and again given to the Dutch in 1814. The town and a district of 1,000 square miles were ex- changed by the King of the Netherlands for the British possession of Bencoolen, in the island of Sumatra, by a treaty concluded March 17, 1824. The exchange was fixed to take place March i, 1825. Malacca, with Singa- pore and Prince of Wales Island, have been included in the Bengal Presidency since 1851. .M A LACHI, the last of the prophetical books of the Old Testament, written by Malachi, a contemporary of Nehemiah, is by the best authorities referred to B.C. 410. It is noticed in Mark i. 2, ix. u, 12, Luke i. 17, and Rom. ix. 13. MALACHITE, a green mineral found in large quantities in the copper mines of Siberia and Australia. A solid mass weighing above 20 tons was found in the Ural mountains in 1835. MALAGA (Sea-Fight). An allied English and Dutch fleet, consisting of 41 English and 12 Dutch ships of the line and 6 frigates, en- gaged the French fleet, of 50 ships of the line and 8 frigates, off Malaga, Sunday, Aug. 13, 1704. The battle lasted till night. It was not renewed Aug. 14, and the French fleet sailed away Aug. 15. No ships were captured ; but the English and Dutch lost nearly 3,000, and the French 4,000 in killed and wounded. Sir George Rooke commanded the allied fleets. MALAGA (Spain), the ancient Malaca, is supposed to have been founded by the Phoenicians, and passed under the sway of the Carthaginians, the Romans, the Goths, and the Moors, in rapid succession. Ferdinand and Isabella wrested it from the Moors, after a siege of three months' duration, Aug. 18, 1487. Sebastian, at the head of a French army, captured Malaga, with 120 pieces of cannon and a quantity of stores, Feb. 5, 1810. The castle, built by the Moors in 1279, shows traces of the effects produced by the Spanish artillery in the siege of 1487. The cathedral, MALAKHOFP [ 625 ] MALMO commenced in 1526, was not completed until 1782 ; and the custom-house, begun in 1791, was finished in 1829. The breakwater was commenced in 1588. The national guard revolted, and proclaimed the Spanish con- stitution of 1812 in this town, July 25, 1836. MALAKHOFF (Crimea). During the expe- dition to the Crimea by the allied English, French, and Turkish forces, in the autumn of 1854, this small white stone tower, form- ing one of the defences of Sevastopol, was much strengthened by the Russians, who con- structed a large semicircular mound, with 30 guns at its base. As the siege progressed, the defences of the Malakhoff were still farther extended, and it became, in fact, the key of the whole position. It was assaulted June 18, 1855, by the French, who, after a gallant struggle, were compelled to retire. The Russians did everything in their power to render the Malakhoff impregnable, and the -result of their labours has been described as "a formidable palisade or abattis of sharpened stakes in front; then an earthen parapet of enormous height and thickness ; then a deep and wide ditch ; then three tiers of batteries rising one above another, armed with more than 60 guns of large calibre ; then sheltered spots at which riflemen might be posted ; and, lastly, a place d'armes large enough to contain a powerful defensive or offensive body of infantry." The French collected 25,000 men, exclusive of 5,000 Sar- dinians and the reserves, for the second assault on the Malakhoff, and it was delivered Sep. 8, 1855, with success. For six hours the Russians made fruitless attempts to^expel the French. MALAY, EASTERN or INDIAN ARCHI- PELAGO (Pacific), also called Malasia, com- prises the Moluccas, or Spice Islands (q. v.}, the Philippines (q. v.), the Sunda Islands (q. v.), &c. MALDIVE, or MALEDIVA ISLANDS (Indian Ocean). This group, according to some authorities, consisting of 40,000 or 50,000, and, according to others, of I,QOO or 2,000 islands, is described by two Mohammedan travellers of the gth century. Soarez re-dis- covered them in 1506, and a Portuguese ma- riner, wrecked upon them in 1512, found them occupied by Mohammedans. (See MALI.) MALDON (Essex). A writer in Smith's "Diet, of Greek and Roman Geography" (i. p. 645), questions the generally received opinion, that Colonia and Camelodunum (q. v.) are identical, and believes Colchester to represent the former, and Maldon the latter place. It is first mentioned in the reign of Edward the Elder, who, in 920, built and fortified the town. The Danes, who attacked it in 921, were repulsed, but they returned and captured it in 993. Queen Mary granted it a charter June 18, 1553. It has sent members to Parliament since 1329. The free grammar- school was founded in 1608. MALEGNANO. (See MARIGNANO and PAVIA, Battles.) MALEKITES. This branch of the Sonnites was founded by Malek Ibn Ans, who died at Medina about 802. MALET'S CONSPIRACY. Gen. Malet, a republican, spread a report at Paris, Oct. 23, 1812, of the death, during the Russian cam- paign, of Napoleon I., and, aided by a few accomplices, obtained the control of the city. They were arrested and condemned to death by a military commission, Oct. 29. MALICIOUS INFORMATIONS. (See INFORMERS.) MALICIOUS WOUNDING AND MAIMING. (See COVENTRY ACT.) MALIGNANTS. (See ENGAGERS.) MALI, or MALDIVA ATOLL (Maldive Islands), the largest of the group, and the resi- dence of the native prince, called " The Sultan of the Thirteen Atolls and Twelve Thousand," was first visited by the Portuguese in the i6th century. MALINES (Treaty), concluded against France April 5, 1513, between Leo X., the Emperor Maximilian I., Henry VIII., and Ferdinand V. Henry VIII. undertook to in- vade Normandy, Picardy, and Guienue ; Fer- dinand V. Beam and Languedoc ; Leo X. Provence and Dauphiny; and Maximilian I. the interior of France. MALINES, MECHLIN, or MECHELEN (Belgium). This city, fovinded in the 5th century, destroyed by the Northmen in 884, was rebuilt in 887, and fortified in 930. The fine Gothic church of St. Rombaud was com- menced in 1220. In 1333 Adolphus de la Marck sold Malines to the counts of Flanders, and it subsequently passed into the power of the dukes of Burgundy. The explosion of a powder-magazine occasioned great loss of life and property in 1546. Malines has been several times sacked, by the Spaniards in 1572, by the Prince of Orange in 1578, and by the English in 1583. Marlborough took it in 1706, and it was taken by the French in 1746, 1792, and 1794, and in 1804 they destroyed the fortifications. The Academy of Painting was founded in 1771. Malines was erected into an archbishopric in 1561. Synods were held here in 1570 and 1607. MALISSET. (See PACTE DE FAMINE.) MALLICOLO, or MANICOLA (New He- brides). This island, one of the largest in the group, was discovered by Quiros in 1606. Capt. ?ook landed upon it in July, 1774. MALMAISON (France). A castle, near Ver- sailles, was the retreat of the Empress Josephine after her divorce from Napoleon I., and the scene of her death, May 29, 1814. A decree was passed in 1853 for the erection of a monu- ment to her memory. MALMESBURY (Wiltshire). The monas- tery, founded in 670, was destroyed by the Danes in the a,th century. It was restored, iestroyed, again restored, and was made a mitred abbey by Edward III. (1327 77). The wn was taken by the Parliamentary army 1643. MALMO (Sweden). An important town in 1259, was fortified in 1434. A treaty was con- cluded here between Sweden and Denmark in 1524. On the death of Frederick I. of Den- mark, April 10, 1533, Malmo declared in favour of Christian II., who had been kept in cap- tivity from 1523. An armistice between the Danes and the army of Sleswig-Holstein was signed at Malmo, Aug. 26, 1848. S 3 MALO-JAROSLAWITZ [ 626 ] MAMELON M ALO-J AROSLAWITZ (Battle). Napoleon I. with a portion of the French army, having reached this town, Oct. 23, 1812, on the retreat from Moscow, was assailed by the Russians under Doctoroff, Oct. 24, when a series of furious encounters ensued. The town, fired in several places, was taken and retaken seven different times, and was almost entirely de- stroyed. Though the French succeeded in ex- pelling the Russians, their losses were very severe, and at a council of war held the night of the battle, Napoleon I. determined to fall back by the Smolensko road. MALO, ST. (France.) This seaport town, supposed to have been founded about the ioth century, was attacked by John of Gaunt in 1378. The privateers of St. Malo did so much mischief to English commerce, that in 1693, and again in 1695, the English bombarded the town, but without success. They destroyed a number of privateers and other ships in the harbour of St. Malo, June 8, 1758. Another descent made upon the coast of France at St. Malo, Sep. 16, 1758, terminated in a severe loss, 600 having been killed and wounded and 400 taken prisoners. The railway to Ronnes was opened in 1864. MALPLAQUET (Battle). The Duke of Marl- borough and Prince Eugene, at the head of an allied English and German array, defeated 1h<: French under Marshal Villars in this plain, near the river Sart, Sep. n, 1709. The allies lost 18,000, and the French 15,000, in killed and wounded. MALSERHEYDE, or MALSHERAID (Battle). The Swiss defeated the army sent against them by Maximilian I. at this place in MALT. A duty on malt was first imposed during the reign of Charles I., and has formed a regular branch of the revenue since 1695. It was made perpetual by 3 Geo. IV. c. 18 (April 3, 1822), and the law was amended by n Geo. IV. c. 17 (May 29, 1830). New regulations were imposed by i Viet. c. 49 (July 12, 1837). Malt used in feeding animals was allowed to be made duty free by 27 Viet. c. 9 (April 28, 1864), and the excise duty is changed according to the weight of grain used by 28 & 29 Viet. c. 66 (June 29, 1865), which took effect Sep. 7, 1865. The question of the repeal of the malt- tax has frequently been debated in the House of Commons. The tax was introduced into Scotland in 1713, and into Ireland in 1783. The imposition of a new malt-tax in Scotland caused serious riots at Edinburgh and Glasgow in 1724. MALTA (Knights). This island was con- ferred by the Emperor Charles V. upon the Hospitallers (q. v.) for the heroism which they displayed against the Saracens during the siege of Rhodes. They took possession Oct. 26, 1530; and are frequently called the Knights of Malta. MALTA (Mediterranean Sea). -This island, the ancient Melita, was first colonized by the Phoanicians, and afterwards by the Car- thaginians. The Romans laid it waste B.C. 257. The apostle Paul was wrecked here on his voyage from Palestine to Rome, in 59 (Acts xxviii. i). It fell under the power of j the Vandals, and was wrested from them by IMisarius in 533. They retained possession till it was conquered in 870 by the Arabs, who were expelled by the Normans, under Count Roger, in 1090, and they held the island till 1189, when it passed under the sway of the German emperors. It was in the possession of France from 1258 till 1282, when it passed to the house of Aragon. The Emperor Charles V. , who inherited it as King of Aragon, made a grant of it to the Hospitallers, or Knights of St. John of Jerusalem, in 1530. Soliman I. assailed Malta with a fleet of 159 vessels, carry- ing 30,000 troops, May 18, 1565. The attack on the castle of St. Elmo commenced May 24, and the besieged were reduced to the la.st extremity when relieved by a Sicilian fleet, and the Turks withdrew Sep. 8. A new city, called La Valetta, after the grand master, who had defended the place so heroically against the Turks, was commenced in 1566, and completed Aug. 18, 1571. The Turks failed- in another attack upon the island in 1601. The French expedition to Egypt arrived off the island June 9, 1798, and the grand master, Ferdinand Hompesch, surrendered without striking a blow, June n. Napoleon pursued his course to Egypt June 19. The inhabitants revolted in 1798, and waged war against the French, in which they were assisted by an Knglish squadron, until Sep. 5, 1800, when the French commander surrendered the whole island to the English. By the ioth article of the treaty of Amiens (March 25, 1802), Eng- land engaged to restore Malta to the Hospi- tallers, and its independence was to be placed under the guarantee and protection of Great Britain, France, Austria, Spain, Prussia, and Russia. In consequence of the aggressions of Napoleon I. in Italy, Germany, and Holland, and his preparations to carry on war, the Eng- lish Government refused to give up the island, and hostilities were renewed. Malta was formally ceded to England by the treaty of Paris, May 30, 1814. M AiVERN, or GREAT MALVERN (Worces- tershire). Edward the Confessor (1043 66) established a hermitage at this place, which was afterwards erected into a priory, and on the destruction of the monasteries, Latimer requested that it might be spared for the maintenance of preaching and hospitality. Henry VII. (1485 1509) frequently resided at Malvern ; but it owes its modem celebrity to the mineral waters which abound in its vicinity. Dr. Wall wrote a treatise on their efficacy in 1756. MALVERN HILL. (See CHICKAHOMINY, Battles.) MALWAH (Hindostan). This extensive pro- vince was invaded by the Mahrattas in 1707, and was wrested by them from the Mongol empire about 1732. MAMELON (Crimea). This hill, about one- third of a mile in advance of the Malakhoff, and a quarter of a mile from the allied French and English batteries, formed one of the chief defences of Sebastopol during the siege. It was about a mile in circumference at the base, and the sides, consisting of quarries, were steep and rugged. This was fortified by the MAMELUKES [ 627 ] MANCHESTER Russians in Feb., 1855. The French captured the Mamelon June 8, 1855. MAMELUKES, MAMLOUKS, or MEM- LOOKS. Malek Salech, the Ayoubite sultan of Egypt in 1230, formed some Turkish and Circassian slaves into a body-guard, under this name, the word mameluke signifying, in Arabic, slave. They revolted, and placed one of their own body on the throne, in 1254. There were two dynasties of the Mameluke sovereigns; namely, the Baharites, founded by Bayers in 1244 ; and the Borgites, who supplanted the Baharites in 1381. Tumanbeg, the last sultan of the Mamelukes, was put to death at Cairo, by order of Selim I., April 23, 1517. The Mamelukes were massacred at Cairo by Meheinet Ali, March i, 1811. MAMERS (France), once a fortified town, was taken by the Normans in the nth cen- tury. The English seized it in 1359 and in 1417, when they destroyed the fortifications. MAMERTINES. Some Campaniai* merce- naries, who took possession of Messina about B.C. 284, assumed the name of Mamertini, or " children of Mars," from Mamers, an Oscan name of that deity. Hence Messina (q. v. ) was sometimes called Mamertina. Hieron II. of Syracuse besieged them in Messina for five years (B.C. 27065). MAMRE. (See HEBRON.) MAN. (See ISLE OF MAN, and SODOR* AND MAN.) MANAAR (Manaar Passage). This island, on the coast of Ceylon, was occupied by the Portuguese in 1560. They were expelled by the Dutch in 1658, and it passed under the rule of the English in 1796. MANASSAS, BULL or BALL'S RUN (Bat- tles). The Confederates gained a victory over the Federalists, or the Union party, after nine hours' severe fighting, at Bull's Run, near Manassas Junction, in Tennessee, N. America. July 21, 1861. The Federalists, who were in much greater strength than their opponents, were seized with a sudden panic, and, aban- doning arms, &c., fled in wild confusion fr.om the field of battle. (See " STONEWALL" BRIGADE. ) The second, frequently called the battle of Groveton, the name of a village where some of the most desperate struggles occurred, was fought Aug. 30, 1863. Preliminary encounters had taken place Aug. 28 and 29, and on the last-mentioned day a very bold attempt was made by the Federals to capture the provision and ammunition trains, but the real contest came off Aug. 30. The Confederates, under Jackson, Longstreet, and Lee, completely de- feated the Federals commanded by Pope, and they fled in confusion to Centreville. In the encounter of the three days the Federals lost 20,000 in killed, wounded, and prisoners, 30 cannon, and 40,000 small arms. A monument in memory of those who fell in the two battles was erected on the field June 10, 1865. MANCHESTER (Bishopric) . An order in council, dated Dec. 12, 1838, passed for the erection of this diocese, did not take effect, and was subsequently repealed by jo & n Viet. c. 108 (July 23, 1847), which established the bishopric upon another footing. Another order in council was issued Aug. 10, 1847, for carrying this act into effect, and the new see was subjected to the metropolitan jurisdiction of the Archbishop of York. James Prince Lee, nominated the first bishop Oct. 23, 1847, was consecrated Jan. 23, 1848. MANCHESTER (Lancashire). The Celts, who migrated from Gaul, established a fort here, called Mancenion, or, "the place of tents," about B.C. 38 ; and it fell into the hands of the Romans in 78, who gave the name of Mancunium to this station. The town was afterwards called Manigceastre, or Mancestre. A.D. 79. Agricola erects four forts at Mancenion. 446. Manchester is constituted a parish. 620. It is taken by Edwin of Northumbria. 870. It is taken by the Danes. 920. Edward the Elder fortifies Manchester. 1301. Thomas de Grelley grants the " Great Charter of Manchester." 1338. The cotton manufacture is introduced by Flemish artisans. (See COTTON, &c.) 1431 (about). The old church, or cathedral, is founded. 1509. The free grammar-school is founded. 1553. An act is passed for the improvement of Manchester cottons. 1565. The plague carries off many of the inhabitants. 1578. The college is refounded. 1616. An extraordinary flood. 1643, July 15. A broil between the Royalists and the Puritans, in which several lives are lost. 1643, Jan. 13 to 21. The Puritans, under Sir Thomas Fairfax, occupy Manchester. 1645. The plague rages with great violence. 1651, Dec. 16. Chetham Library and College are founded. 1654, July 19. Manchester sends its first representative to Parliament, by order of Cromwell. The town lost the franchise at the Restoration. 1730. Manchester is described as the largest, richest, and most populous and busy village in England. 1745, Nov. 38. Prince Charles Edward and his army enter Manchester. 1753. The Mercury, the first Manchester paper of im- portance, is established. The infirmary is founded. 1753, June 32. Slight shocks of an earthquake are felt. The infirmary building is opened. Cotton goods' are first exported. 1761, July 17. The Bridgewater Canal between Manches- ter and Worsley is opened. 1779. Oct. Q. Riots against the introduction of machinery take place. 1780. The muslin manufacture is introduced. 1781. The Philosophical Society is founded. 1783. A night-watch is first appointed. 1787. A great flood does much damage. 1789, June 19. The Queen's Theatre is destroyed by fire. 1792. The workhouse is erected. 1803. The Philological Society is founded. 1806. Broughton bridge is erected. The portico is built. 1808, May 34 and 35. A dispute between the masters and weavers respecting wages leads to a riot, which is quelled by the military. 1809. The Exchange is opened, and the Manchester and Salford Water Company established. 1811. Hackney coaches are introduced. 1813, April 10. A riotous meeting of the populace is held in the Exchange. 1816, Nov. 4. The first reform meeting is held at Peter's 1817. Strangeway's bridge is opened. March 10. Meeting of the "Blanketeers" (q. v.). 1818. Gas is introduced. 1819, Aug. 16. Contest at Peterloo (q. .). 1830, Aug. i. Blackfriavs bridge is opened. The Cham- ber of Commerce is established. ^ 1831. Rusholme Road cemetery is formed. The Natural History Society is instituted. 1832, Aug. 19. The town-hall is founded. 1833. The Royal Institution and the Deaf and Dumb Asylum are established. 1834. The Mechanics' Institute is founded. 1835, Jan. i. Omnibuses are introduced. SS 2 1755. 1760. MANCHESTER [ 628 ] A.D. 1836. Owing to commercial distress, numerous riots take place, Broughtou suspension-bridge and Hunt's Bank bridge are opened. 1827. The Botanical and Horticultural Societyis founded. 1838, Oct. 7. The first musical festival is held. 1839, Maya. Serious riots take place; a factory is burned and numerous provision-shops are robbed. The Improvement Committee is formed, and the Phrenological Society is founded. 1830, Sep. 15. The Manchester and Liverpool Railway'is opened. The Royal Institution is inaugurated. The Concert-hall is opened. 1831. The Botanical Gardens at Old Trafford are opened. 1833. May 14. A tumultuous meeting in favour of the Reform Bill, is held in Peter's Fields. May 17. The cholera makes its first appearance. Aug. 9. The passing of the Reform Bill, which makes Manchester a Parliamentary borough, is cele- brated by a public festival. 1833. The Choral Society is founded. 1834. The Statistical Society is founded. 1835. Manchester is incorporated by the Municipal Re- form Act. 1836, March 23. The Blind Asylum is founded. 1837, Feb. i. The Corn Exchange is opened. Harpurhey cemetery is established. The Athenaeum ia built, and tbe Architectural Society founded. 1838, May 24. The East Lancashire railway is opened. Oct. 23. Mancliester receives a charter of incor- poration. The Geolojrieal Soeiety is established. 1831), June 20. Victoria bridge, over the Irwell, is opened. 1840, Oct. 5. Manchester College, in connection with Lon- don University, is opened. The Victoria Gallery is opened. 1843. The British Association meets nt Manchester. J844, May 7. The Theatre Royal is burned down. Sep. 26. Albert bridge is opened. 1845. April. The public baths and wash-houses are opened. June lo. The Connnen-ial Sri Is are founded Sep. 29. The new Theatre Koyal is opened. Dec. 23- The anti-corn-law league hold a meeting. 1846. Peel Park is opened. 1847. The Exchange is enlarged. (See MANCHESTER, BUhoprto.) 1849. Tin 1 borough guril is ereeted. 1851, Oct. 7. Queen Victoria visits Manchester. Owen's College is founded. 1852, Sep. 2- The free library is opened. 1855, June 21. The building for the Mechanics' Institute is founded. 1857, May 5. The Art-Treasures Exhibition (q. .) is opened by Prince Albert. 1861. The British Association meets at Manchester for the second time. 1863 5. The cotton famine (q. v.) occasions great dis- tress. 1863, Oct. 1315. The Church Congress meets nt Man- chester. 1866, Feb. 18. The church of St. John, built on a site pre- sented by the Earl of Derby, is consecrated. March 2. A Workman's Art Exhibition is opened at the Royal Institution. MANCHESTER (N. America), in New Hamp- shire, merely a village in 1840, received a charter in 1846. MANCHESTER ART-TREASURES EXHI- BITION. The proposal for holding an art- treasures exhibition at Manchester was made at a meeting held at Manchester, March 26, 1856. A guarantee-fund of ^74,000 having been raised in three weeks, a site was selected at Old Trafford, adjoining the Botanical Gar- dens, for the erection of the building, which was a parallelogram, of 660 feet by 220 feet, covering an area of 130,0x30 square feet, at a cost of about ^30,000. The arrangement of the art-treasures was placed under the direc- tion of George Scharf, F.R.S. The number of paintings of all kinds, collected in this build- ing, by old masters, was 1,115, and by modern masters, 689. There were, in addition, 969 water-colour drawings, 388 British portraits, 59 cases of enamels, 260 original sketches and drawings by the old masters, 937 engravings in line, 161 in mezzotinto, 246 etchings, and 600 photographs. The museum of ornamental art comprised 17,000 articles. It was opened by Prince Albert, May 5, 1857, an( i closed Oct. 17. During the time it remained open it was visited by 1,335,915 persons. MANDATES, or LETTERS FROM THE POPE, requesting a bishop to confer the next vacant benefice upon some person named therein, were first issued by Adrian IV. (1154 1159). The practice was continued by Alex- ander III. (1159 1181), until Clement IV., in 1266, issued a bull claiming the right of nomi- nation in certain cases. The right of issuing royal mandates to judges, for interfering in private causes, was relinquished as a preroga- tive of the crown by Edward I. (1272 1307). MANFREDONIA (Italy), named after King Manfred, who founded it in 1250, was at first named Novum Sipontum, because it stood near the site of that ancient town. A bay in the vicinity is called the Gulf of Manfredonia. It was taken by the Turks in 1620. MANGALORE (Hindostan). This town, supposed to have been colonized by Arabs at a very early period, was taken by Ilyder Ali in 1767. The English, who captured it Feb. 25, 1768, and retired early in May, recovered it in 1 783, the fortress surrendering March 9. Tippoo Sail) besieged it May 23, and, having converted the siege into a blockade, the garrison capi- tulated Jan. 26, 1784. The English restored it by the treaty of 1784; but it came into their possession, with the whole of the Carnatic, after the overthrow of Tippoo in 1799. .M A N ( I A I >O HE (Treaty), was concluded be- tween the English and Tippoo Saib at this town, in Hindustan, March n, 1784. A resti- tution of conquests was agreed to on both sides. MANGANESE was included among iron ores until 1774, when Scheele, and afterwards Gahn, proved that the metal in this mineral was' distinct from iron. MANGAREVA GROUP. (See GAMBIER IS- LANDS.) MANICHvEANS. This heretical sect was founded in Persia, about 261, by Mani, Manes, or Manichseus, who styled himself the Apostle of Christ and the Paraclete. He endeavoured to engraft Christianity upon the doctrines of the Magi, who believed in the two principles. The heresy spread rapidly through Persia, Iv.cypt, and Palestine, ultimately affecting the whole Roman empire. Mani was burned alive by Varanesl. in 277. Milman (Lat. Christianity, b. ii. c. 4) remarks, "That sect, in vain pro- scribed, persecuted, deprived of the privilege of citizens, placed out of the pale of the law by successive Imperial edicts ; under the ab- horrence not merely of the orthodox, but of almost all other Christians, were constantly springing up in all quarters of Christendom with a singularly obstinate vitality." It ap- peared under various disguises, and many of its main features were adopted by the Pauli- cians (q. v.), who arose at Samosata. Diocle- tian, in 296, issued severe laws against the MANILIAN [ 629 ] MANTES Manich&aiis, who were condemned by several councils, and Pope Leo I. ordered their books to be burnt in 443. (See DOCET^E.) MAX! LI AN LAW. Caius Manilius, one of the tribunes (B.C. 66), proposed the revival of a law relating to the enrolment of Freedmen, which had been carried by the popular party under Carbo, and was afterwards repealed by Sylla. By proposing it suddenly, at a late hour of the day, when the majority of the citizens were absent from the forum, he suc- ceeded in his object ; but it was instantly annulled by the senate, because it had been illegally passed. This is said to have been the origin of the celebrated Manilian law, vesting the sole management of the war against Tigranes I. and Mithridates VI. in Pompey. It was supported by Caesar and Cicero, and passed B.C. 65. .MANILLA ISLANDS. (See PHILIPPINES.) MANILLA, or MANILA (Indian Archipel- ago). This city, on the island of Luzon (q. v.), and capital of the Philippines, was founded by the Spaniards in 1543. An expedition, fitted out at Madras, under Admiral Cornish and Col. W. Draper, took the place Oct. 6, 1762 ; when, to save the rich cargoes that lay in the port, a ransom of .1,000,000 was promised ; an ar- rangement which the King of Spain afterwards refused to ratify. It was restored to Spain by the peace of Paris, Feb. 10, 1763. The cathedral, commenced in 1654, was completed in 1672. The royal college for the instruction of youths was founded by Philip IV. in 1645 ; the bronze statue of Charles IV., standing in the public square, was presented to the town by Ferdi- nand VII. in 1824. England was allowed to trade in 1809, a privilege previously withheld from foreigners, and extended to all nations in 1814. An earthquake in 1645 destroyed 3,000 lives ; and others in 1762, 1824, and 1852, did much damage. A fire, by which 10,000 huts were destroyed, 30,000 persons rendered home- less, and 50 lives lost, occurred March 26, 1833. It suffered from an earthquake July 3, 1863, which destroyed about 1,000 lives and much property. MANIS8A (Greece), the ancient Magnesia ad Sipylum, surrendered to the Romans under Scipio, B.C. 190, and was nearly destroyed by an earthquake. Tiberius granted funds from the treasury to aid in its restoration in 17. The Emperor of Nicsea, Theodore II., died here in 1258, and it fell into the hands of the Turks in 1312. MANNHEIM (Baden). Frederick IV., the Elector Palatine, enlarged and fortified this place, then merely a village, in 1606. It suf- fered greatly during the Thirty Years' War. The French captured it ^in 1688, and the forti- fications were improved in 1699. The French besieged Mannheim in 1793 ; and, having re- tired, returned and captured it Sep. 20, 1795. The French garrison capitulated to the Aus- trians, Nov. 22. Mannheim was again taken, March 2, 1799, by the French, who were expelled by the Austrians Sep. 18, 1799. One portion of the allied army passed the Rhine at this place in the night Dec. 31, 1813. Mann- heim was made the seat of the electoral court in 1719. It was removed to Munich in 1778, and the town was assigned to Baden-Baden by the treaty of Luneville, Feb. 9, 1801. The palace, founded in 1720, was completed in 1731, and the academy was founded in 1757. MANOR. In feudal times, a manor was a territorial district, with jurisdiction, rights, and perquisites thereto belonging. In England manors were afterwards called baronies, and ultimately lordships. Each lord held a court, called Court Baron (q. v.), for redressing wrongs and settling disputes among the tenants. A writer in the National Cyclopaedia remarks : " The modern English manor derives its origin from subinfeudation, as it existed before the modifications of the system of tenures introduced in 1215 by Magna Charta, and the still more important alterations made in 1290, by the statute ' Quia Emptores,' and in 1 324 by the statute 'de Praerogativa Regis,' by which statutes the granting land in fee simple, to be held by the grantee as a tenant or vassal to the grantor, was stopped." MANRESA (Spain). A French brigade was cut off by the Spaniards, near this town, in 1810. The French captured and destroyed it in May, 1811. The modern bridge over the Carbonero was built in 1804. MANSARD, or MANSART ROOF, was invented by the French architect, Francis Mansard, or Mansart (1598 1666), and named after him. MANSION HOUSE (London) was founded in 1739, from the designs of George Dance, city surveyor. The use of the Mansion House, furniture, carriages, &c., and an allowance of ^8,000, is granted to the Lord Mayor during the year that- he holds the office. It was first occupied in 1753, by Thomas Winterbottom, who died during his mayoralty. MANS, LE (France), the capital of Maine, till 1790, is built upon the site of the Roman Suindinum, which in the 4th century was called Cenomani, from which the present name is derived. Its earlier inhabitants, the Ce- nomani, joined Vercingetorix against Caesar, B.C. 52. The church of Notre Dame du Prl dates from the i ith, the church de la Couture from the i2th, and the cathedral of St. Julian from the i^th century. Henry II. of England was born at Le Mans in March, 1133. It was frequently assailed in the wars between Eng- land and France, and passed into the power of the latter in 1481. The church de 1'Ancienne Visitation was opened in 1737. Henry IV. took it in 1589, and the Vendeans Dec. 10, 1793, but they were expelled by Marceau Dec. 16. The Chouans took Le Mans in March, 1799. MANSURAH, or EL MANSOORAH (Battle). The Saracens defeated the Crusaders at a great battle near this town in Lower Egypt, the ancient Tanis, April 5, 1250, when Louis IX. was compelled to purchase peace on very humiliating terms. The French garrison here was massacred by the Arabs in 1798. MANTAILLE (France). A council assembled at this castle on the banks of the Rhone, Oct. 15, 879, conferred the title of king on the Duke of Boson. MANTES (France). William I., having marched with an army from Normandy into France, burned this town to the ground in MANTINEA [ 630 ] MARANON Aug. 1087, when his horse is said to have set its foot on some hot ashes, and, by plunging violently, bruised its rider on the pommel of his saddle. The injuries William I., received brought on an illness, of which he died at the monastery of St. Gcrvas, Sep. 9. Bertrand du Guesclin took it April 7, 1364, and the English in 1418, who lost it in 1449. Henry IV. (1589 1610} destroyed the fortifications. MAXTIXKA, or MANTINEIA (Greece). This city of Arcadia, said to have been named after Mantineus, son of Lycaon, was founded by the inhabitants of four or five villages at an early period. Mention is made of it about B.C. 540 ; and an indecisive battle was fought be- tween Mantinea and Tegea, B.C. 423. The Spartans, under Agis II, defeated the combined army of Argives, Mantineans, and Athenians, near this place, in June, 418 B.C. They were defeated by the Spartans B.C. 385, and compelled to retire frsmi their city, the walls of which were destroyed. They returned after the battle of Leuctra, July, 371 B.C., and began to rebuild their city. Epaniinondas, the Theban general, defeated them at the second battle of Mantinea, June 27, B.C. 362. He was mortally wounded in the action and died exclaiming, " I have lived long enough, for I die uiiconquered." The city was taken and pillaged, and the inhabitants were sold as slaves, by Antigonus Dusun, King of Mace- donia, B.C. 222. It was rebuilt, and called Antigonea, after Antigonus Doson, and did not resume its former name until the time of Hadrian. In addition to the aforemen- tioned battles, the defeat of Archidamus and the Spartans by Demetrius Poliorcetes, B.C. 295 ; the defeat of the Spartans under Agis IV., by Aratus and the Achseans, B.C. 242 ; and the defeat of the Spartans by the Achaean forces under Philopcemen, B. c. 207, are all known as battles of Mantinea, because they were fought in a plain near that city. It is now called Palfeopoli. MAX-TRAPS an.l KPUING-GUN8. By 7 & 8 Geo. IV. c. 18 (May 28, 1827), any person setting any spring-gun, man-trap, or other engine calculated to destroy life, or inflict grievous bodily harm, was to be guilty of a misdemeanour. The act did not extend to Scotland. By the fourth clause, spring-guns, &c., might be set inside a dwelling-house for the protection thereof, from sunset to sunrise. MANTUA Italy;. This city of Northern Italy was founded by the Etruscans at a very early date, bvit little is known with certainty respecting its ancient history. It passed under the Roman power B.C. 197, and was the birth- place of Virgil, B.C. 70. Its territories were distributed among the veterans of Augustus, B.C. 41 ; and it was sacked by the troops of Vitellius in 69. It was pillaged by the Mar- comani in 270, and in 403. It was taken by Alaric I. in 408. After numerous reverses of for- tune, Mantua passed into the hands of Louis I. of Gonzaga in 1328; and, under his rule, at- tained great importance. In 1392 a con- federation was signed here with other Italian cities, for the maintenance of the equilibrium of Italy. It was erected into a marquisate in 1433, and into a duchy in 1530. Mantua was erected into a bishopric in 808. Councils were held here in 827, 1053, and 1067. The war of the Mantuaii succession commenced in 1627. The Imperialists took Mantua July 17, 1630, and the war ended with the peace of Cherasco, signed April 6, 1631. In 1701 it was occupied by the French, and in 1707 was taken by the Imperialists. On the extinction of the house of Gonzaga in 1708, it passed into the power of Joseph I. of Austria ; and in 1791 Leopold II. and the Bourbon emigrants organized a coalition here against the French republic. It was taken by Napoleon Buonaparte after a siege which lasted from June 14, 1796, till Feb. 2, 1 797, and erected into the chief town of the department of the Mincio. The Austrians regained possession July 30, 1799. It was restored to France in 1800, after the battle of Mareiigo, and to Austria in 1814. By the treaty of Zurich, Nov. 10, 1859, Mantua and Peschiera were the only towns of Lombardy left to the house of Austria, and these were surrendered in Oct. 1866. MANTUA (Treaties). At a congress held here in 1392, an alliance between Florence, Hulogna, Mantua, and other Italian states, was concluded. Pius II., who remained here from May, 1459, to Jan., 1460, assembled a oon- gress, bvit failed in his attempt to get up a crusade against the Turks, who had taken Constantinople. Maximilian I., Julius II., and Ferdinand IV. entered into a treaty here in 1511, respecting Milan, which they had wrested from Louis XII. Leopold II. and the exiled princes of the house of Bourbon met here in 1791, in order to form a coalition against France. MAXU. (See MENU.) MAORIES, supposed to be the aboriginal inhabitants of New Zealand, have a tradition that their ancestors arrived in the island in seven canoes 500 years ago. In 1814, the Church Missionary Society established a mis- sion for their conversion, which laboured with little effect till 1830, when the progress of ( 'hristiaiiity became very rapid. The last case of cannibalism occurred amongst them in 1843. The Maories were at war with the colonists from 1843 to 1847, in 1860, and from 1863 to 1864. The Pai Marire (q. v.) religion arose in 1864. (See NEW ZEALAND.) MAPLE. The scarlet maple was introduced into England, from N. America, before 1656, and the ash-leaved maple from the same part of the world before 1688. MAI'S AND CHARTS. Anaximander of Miletus is the reputed inventor of geographical maps, about B.C. 568. The first maps engraved on copperplate were used to illustrate an edition of Ptolemy's Geography, published in 1478 ; and the first maritime charts seen in England were brought by Bartholomew Co- lumbus in 1488. Mercator's projection was invented in 1556, by Gerard Mercator, and improved in 1599 by Wright. MAKACAIBO, or MARACAYBO (Battle). The republicans were defeated by the royalist forces Nov. 13, 1822, near this town, in Vene- zuela, at that time forming port of the republic of Colomb'a. MARANON. (See AMAZON.) MAEATHON t 631 ] MARDIA MARATHON (Battles). A great battle, in which the Greeks, under Miltiades, defeated the Persians and secured the independence of Greece, was fought on the plain of Marathon, in Attica, mentioned as a place of importance in the Homeric poems, Sep. n, B.C. 490. The Greeks, during the war of independence, defeated 2,000 Turks at Marathon, July 18, 1824. MARBACH LEAGUE. The Elector of May- ence, the Margrave of Baden, several powerful princes, and many of the free towns, under pretence of redressing various wrongs and abuses, formed a league at Marbach in Wiir- temberg, 1405, against the Emperor, who made some concessions, and the league was dis- solved. MARBLE. Pliny (2379) states that marble was first employed as a material for sculpture by Dipaenus and Scyllis, who were born in Crete about B.C. 580. They used the white marble of Pharos in their works. Crassus, the orator, B.C. 91, was the first who used foreign marble in his house. The practice of staining marble commenced during the reign of Clau- dius I. (41 54), and of covering it with gold under Nero (54 63). It was very costly during the Middle Ages, and Edward III. (1327 77) paid 10 for a slab to cover the grave of Richard de Gravesend, Bishop of London. MARBLE ARCH (London) was erected by George IV. as a gateway to Buckingham Palace, in 1830, and was removed to Cumber- land Gate, Hyde Park, March 29, 1851. The original cost was ^80,000, and the expense in- curred by the removal amounted to ;n,ooo. MARBURG (Hesse-Cassel) was made a town in 1227, and was one of the residences of the Landgraves of Thuringia. The church of St. Elizabeth, commenced in 1235, was not com- pleted until 1283. The Landgrave Philip founded the first Lutheran university at this town in 1527. A conference was held in its castle between Luther, Melancthon, and other German reformers, Oct. 1-3, 1529. The botan- ical garden was formed in 1530. The French, who captured Marburg June 3, 1759, were ex- pelled by the Austrians Sep. n. The French took it again in 1760 ; and the garrison, assailed by the Austrians without success in 1761, was compelled to surrender in 1762. The French destroyed its fortifications in 1807. (See MARCH. The third month in the year was named Martius by the Romans, after the god Mars. The Anglo-Saxons called it Hlyd Monath, i.e. stormy month. The old proverb, ' ' A bushel of March dust is worth a monarch's ransom," expresses the value formerly attached to a dry March. (See FIELD OF MARCH.) MARCHES, or country lying near the marks or boundaries of two kingdoms, often had peculiar rights and customs. Edward I., in 1296, appointed a lord warden of the Marches to guard the border against invasions by the Scotch. The authority of the lords of the marches, called lords marchers, whence the title marquis, between England and Wales, was abolished by 27 Hen. VIII. c. 26 (1536). The Court of the Marches of Wales was abolished by i Will. & Mary, c. 27 (ifiSg^. MARCHFELD (Battle). Ottocar II., of Bohemia, was defeated and killed in this battle, fought on the plain of the Marchfeld, near Vienna, by Rodolph I., Aug. 26, 1278. MARCHIONESS. The title of marchioness was bestowed upon Lady Anne Rochfort in 1532, and she was invested at Windsor, Sunday, Sep. i. MARCIANISTS, a branch of the Euchites, or Messalians, and a distinct sect from the Marcionites, were thus named from Marcianus Trapezita, who, in the time of Justinian I. (527 565), observed the Sabbath as a fast. MARCIANOPOLIS (Mcesia), named after Marciana, the sister of Trajan (98 117), who built it in her honour, was the capital of the second Mcesia. The Goths assailed it in the 3rd century, but, on the payment of tribute, retired. It was made the capital of Bulgaria, and was frequently besieged. MARCIONITES. A sect of heretics founded by Marcion, said to have been a sailor, son of the Bishop of Sinope, about 150. He held that there were three original principles. His fol- lowers were the forerunners of the Mani- chseans. They admitted no married persons to their baptism, requiring all candidates to be either virgins, widows, bachelors, or di- vorced persons. Marcion held it lawful to re- peat baptism three times for the remission of sins. Tertullian wrote against this heresy in 207, and it was not extinct till the 6th century. (See CERDONIANS and DOCET^E.) MARCODURUM. (See DUREN.) MARCOMANNI. The name Marc-o-manni, i.e. Men of the Marches,orFrontier,or Borderers, was given by the Romans to various tribes on the confines of Germany. Some hordes under this name were driven out of Gaul- by Julius Caesar, B.C. 58. Marobodnus formed a league amongst these tribes, and concluded a treaty with Tibe- rius (afterwards emperor) in the year 6. The Cherusci defeated the Marcomanni in 17, and a peace was mediated between them by Drusus. Domitian made war upon them, and was de- feated in 90. In alliance with other tribes they invaded the Roman empire in 166, when a war commenced, which was not brought to a close until 1 80. They ravaged Italy in 270. The last notice of the Marcomanni is in 451, when they formed a contingent of the army with wfiich Attila invaded Gaul and Italy. MARCOSIANS. The followers of Marcus and Calarbasus, who adopted the Valentinian system, and are said to have anointed their dead, arose in the 2nd century. MARCOU, or MARCOUF, ST. (English Chan- nel.) These islands, off the coast of France, were taken by the English in 1795. The small garrison repulsed an attack made by a flotilla of French gunboats, May 7, 1798. The English lost one man killed and four wounded, whilst the French admitted a loss of several hundred in killed and wounded. These islands were restored to France by the treaty of Amiens, March 25, 1802. MARCOUSSIS (Treaty), between Louis XII. and Ferdinand V., by which all differences be- tween France and Spain were arranged, was concluded at Marcoussis, Aug. 5, 1498. MARDIA (Battle). Constantine I. defeated MARENGO [ 632 ] MARINER'S his rival Licinius, in this plain, in Thrace, ii 315. In consequence of this defeat, Licinius entered into a treaty with Constantino I. in Dec., 315. Thrace, Asia Minor, Syria, and Egyp were assigned to Licinius. MARENGO (Battle). The Austrian arm under Melas was totally defeated by the French at this village, near Alessandria (q. v.), in Italy June 14, 1 800. The Austrians had defeated their antagonists at all points, and Napoleor Buonaparte was about to order a retreat, when Desaix, who was killed in the moment of vie tory, counselled further resistance, and Keller maun by a brilliant charge changed the for- tunes of the day. A pageant, representing the battle, was held on thin plain, in presence 01 Napoleon I., the empress, and a large assem blage of spectators, in 1805. MARGARITA (Caribbean Sea). This island was discovered by Columbus in 1498. MARGATE ; Kent). The name is said to be derived from Meregate, on account of the hollow between two hills in which the town is situated. Bathing-machines were introduced about 1790. The first stone of the General Sea-Bathing Infirmary was laid June 21, 1792, and Trinity church wa-s erected in 1825. MARGUS, MORGUM, or MURGl ties). Carinus, who disputed the empire with Diocletian, was defeated and slain near this city of Mcesia, at the confluence of the Margus and the Danube, in May, 285. The Goths defeated a Human army under Sabinian at Margus, in 505. Its site is occupied by i'assa- rowitz. MARIA ISLAND (Pacific) was discovered by Tasman in 1642. MARIA LOUISA (Order), of Spain, was founded in 17^2 fur ladies only. MARIAN PERSECUTION commenced in Jan., 1555, when 30 persons found using the service-book of Edward VI. were .seized and imprisoned. Rogei-s was burned at the stake in Smithfield, Feb. 4, and Hooper, Bishop of Gloucester, at Gloucester, Feb. 9. Justices of the peace were ordered to search for heretics, and many persons were apprehended and exe- cuted, 13 having been burned at Srnithfield, June 27. Ridley and Latimer, condemned as obstinate heretics, were burned at Oxford, Oct. 16. Cranraer suffered in the same manner at Oxford, March 21, 1556. According to the lowest estimate, 500 persons, belonging to the clergy and the laity, suffered during this persecution, which terminated at the death of Mary, Nov. 17, 1558. Above 1,000 persons sought refuge in Germany and Switzerland whilst the persecution lasted. MARIA THERESA (Order), of Austria, was founded in 1757. MARIE-GALANTE (Caribbean Sea). This island, discovered by Christopher Columbus in 1493, and named after his ship, was settled by the French in 1647. BCABIBNBEBG (Saxony). -This town, cele- brated for its iron and silver mines, was founded by Henry, Duke of Saxony, in 1519. MARIENBURG (Belgium), built in 1542, was taken in 1554 by the French, and restored by them in 1559 to the Spaniards, who ceded it to Louis XIV. in 1659. The French, who took it in 1814, were expelled in 1815, and its fortifications were demolished in 1849. MARlENBURG(Prussia). Thegrand master and the knights of the Teutonic order, who had a fortress here in 1274, removed their seat from Venice to this town in 1309. A k Prussian cities, called the Convention of Ma- rienburg, was formed in 1436. The Teutonic knights compelled the Prussians to dissolve this league. The Poles having assailed the castle unsuccessfully in 1410 and 1420, cap- tured it in 1457. The Swedes captured it in 1626 and 1655. Casimir IV. of Poland, took it in 1460. The castle, which had fallen into de- cay, and the palace were restored by the King of Prussia in 1820. MARIENBURG (Treaty), concluded at this town, in Brandenburg, between Charles X. of Sweden and Frederick William, PJlector of Brandenburg, June 15, 1656, was an offensive and defensive alliance, formed for the prosecu- tion of the war against Poland. MARIENWERDER (Prussia). The Prussian cities of the province having formed a league against the Teutonic knights, in 1440, trans- ferred their allegiance to the King of Poland in 1454. The capital, of the same name, was founded by the Teutonic knights in 1233, and the cathedral was commenced in 1255, in the neighbourhood. Eugene de Beauharnaia was surprised by the forces of Wittgenstein, and suffered a severe defeat, Jan. 12, 1813. MARIETTA (N. America;, founded by colonists from New England, in 1788, was named after Marie Antoinette. The college was founded in 1832. MARKJXANO, or MALI :< JNAXO (Battles). Francis t. defeated an allied German, Italian, and Swiss army, under the command of Maxi- milian I., at this village, near Milan, Sep. 13 and 14, 1515. After this victory, Bayard was knighted by the French king. It is some- times called the battle of the Giants and of St. Donato. A second encounter near the same place, is better known as the battle of 1'avia. The French and Sardinians defeated the Austrians here, June 8, 1859. MARINE INSURANCE. (See INSURANCE.) MARINER'S COMPASS. The Chinese are said to have used this instrument as early as B.C. 2634, though their written records of the properties of the loadstone only date from 125. [11 their great dictionary Poi-weii-yeu-fou, it is said to have been used 265419. The precise ;imo at which it was introduced into Europe s very uncertain, but it was known at a much earlier period than is generally supposed, and is noticed in a French satire, La Bible, written by Guyot de Provins about 1190. It s described by Bailak-Kibdjaki in 1242, as icing in use on the Syrian coast, and is noticed >y Brunetto Latinl in 1260. Some authorities nsist that Marco Polo brought the instrument Tom China in 1260, while others claim the lonour of its invention for Flavio Gioja, a sea- nan of Amalphi, near Naples. Flavio Gioja, 11 1310, attached a card to the needle, and thus >btained the credit of the invention, and as he applied the Mediterranean sailors, the inven- ion came into more general use. The declina- ion of the magnetic needle was discovered by MARINES C 633 ] MARYBOROUGH Columbus in 1492, the dip of the needle by Robert Normand, of Wapping, in 1576, and the variation of the declination by Gellibrand in 1625. The Liverpool compass committee was formed in 1854. (See MAGNETISM.) MARINES were first established as a nursery to man the fleet by an order in council, Oct. 1 6, 1664. The third regiment of the line was called the Marine regiment in 1684. In the reign of William III. the soldiers on the navy establishment seem to have been put in train- ing as seamen. Marines were regularly estab- lished in 1698, and six regiments were raised in 1702. On the recommendation of Lord Anson, 130 companies were raised and placed under the control of the Admiralty in 1755. The title "Royal" was bestowed upon the corps by George III., May i, 1802. as a mark of approbation for their services during the war. MARINO, SAN (Italy). A hermit named Marinus, who had been a mason, came from Dalmatia, and settled in this locality in 469, and at his death a church was built, and a vil- lage gradually formed. It had become a walled town, and was called Plebs Santi Marini cum Castello, in the loth century ; and the com- mune of San Marino purchased some neigh- bouring lands from the lords of Urbino, in the 1 2th century. In the civil wars between the Guelphs and Ghibellines, the people sided with the latter, for which they were excommuni- cated by Innocent IV. (1243 1254). Called upon to pay taxes to the papal government aboiit the end of the i4th century, they re- fused, and on reference of the dispute to a judge of Rimini, decision was given in their favour; from which period San Marino has been acknowledged as an independent state. This independence was respected by Napoleon I., and confirmed by Pius VII. on his restora- tion in 1814. MARIOLATRY. The worship of the Virgin Mary, practised in the Roman Catholic Church, founded on the salutation of the Angel Ga- briel, and Mary's exclamation in the Magni- ficat (Luke i. 48), was not known in the first ages of Christianity. The Collyridians (q. v.} were condemned for their adoration of the Virgin towards the end of the 4th cen- tury. Mary was declared to be the mother of God by the third general council assembled in the Church of the Mother of God, at Ephesus, in 431. Mosheim (b. iii. pt. ii. ch. iv. s. 3), commenting on the loth century, says : " The worship of the Virgin Mary, which previously had been extravagant, was in this century carried much further than before. Not to mention other things less certain, I observe, first, that near the close of this century, the custom became prevalent among the Latins, of celebrating masses, and abstaining from flesh, on Saturdays, in honour of St. Mary. In the next place, the daily office of St. Mary, which the Latins call the Lesser Office, was introduced ; and it was afterwards confirmed by Urban II. in the Council of Clermont. Lastly, pretty distinct traces of the Rosary and Crown of St. Mary, as they are called, or of praying according to a numerical arrange- ment, are to be found in this century. For they who tell us that St. Dominic invented the Rosary, in the thirteenth century, do not offer satisfactory proof of their opinion. The Ros- ary consisted of fifteen repetitions of the Lord's Prayer, and one hundred and fifty salutations of St. Mary : and what the Latins called the Crown of St. Mary, consisted of six or seven, repetitions of the Lord's Prayer, and sixty or seventy salutations, according to the age as- cribed by different authors to the holy Virgin." (See ANNUNCIATION, ASSUMPTION, CANDLEMAS DAY, IMMACULATE CONCEPTION, INVOCATION OF SAINTS, NATIVITY, &c.) MARISCHAL. -(See EARL MARISCHAL.) MARISCHAL COLLEGE. (See ABERDEEN.) MARK. An old gold coin in England, value 138. 40!., bore this name. The silver mark seems to have originated in Denmark, and was long current on the continent, especially amongst the northern nations. James VI. (1567 1603) of Scotland coined a two-mark piece, a balance-mark, and a half-mark, in silver. Previous to his accession to the British throne, he had two sets of thistle-marks, so named from the thistle on the reverse, and half - marks struck. These seem to have been the last coins of this name struck in Great Britain. MARK-DUREN. (See DUREN.) MARKETS, held in former times chiefly on Sundays and holidays, as the people then as- sembled for divine service, were forbidden to be held in churchyards by 13 Edw. I. c. 5 (1285). By 27 Hen. VI. c. 5 (1448), Sunday markets, except on the four Sundays in har- vest, were prohibited ; and by 29 Charles II. c. 7 (1677), markets were declared illegal on any Sunday. (See FORUM, and List in INDEX.) MARK, ST. (Gospel), is supposed by the best authorities to have been written between 60 and 63, by John, whose surname was Mark (Acts xii. 12, 25), the cousin of Barnabas. He is said to have been the founder of the Coptic Church, and to have suffered martyrdom at Alexandria, about 66. MARK'S, ST. (Venice), considered the finest Byzantine church in Western Europe, was built between 977 and 1043, the original church having been destroyed in 976. The foundation- stone came into possession of Mr. Douce in 1834, and is preserved in the Doucean Mu- seum, Goodrich Court, Herefordshire. Ho- well, in his letters, mentions a huge iron chest as tall as himself, which he saw in the trea- sury, with a crevice for receiving the gold, bequeathed to the saint, in 1619. The Emperor Frederick I. and Pope Alexander III. met here, when a proclamation of peace was made with much ceremony, July 24, 1177. MARLBOROUGH (Wiltshire) received its first charter in 1205. A parliament met here Nov. 1 8, 1267, in the reign of Henry III., when the statutes of " Marleberg " were made, which have since been constantly received as the law of the land. The grammar-school was founded by Edward VI. in 1551, and the college, for the education of 500 pupils, sons of clergymen and others, was incorporated in 1843. ($> ee BERAK- BIRIG, Battle.) MARLBOROUGH CLUB (London) was founded in 1864 and closed in 1866. MARLBOROUGH HOUSE (London) was MARMANDE [ 634 ] MARRIAGE built by Sir Christopher Wren for the great Duke of Maryborough, in 1709-10, and WHS bought by the Crown as a residence for the Princess Charlotte and Prince Leopold in 1817. Soon after the death of Queen Dowager Adelaide, Dec. 2, 1849, Marlborongh House was used for the Vernon gallery of paintings. These were removed, and it was prepared for the residence of the Prince and Princess "of Wales, on their marriage in 1863. MAHMAXDE (France). This ancient town is said to have been occupied by the Goths, and was destroyed by the Saracens in the 8th century. It was rebuilt in 1185 by Richard I. of England, and captured by Simon De Mont- fort in 1212, and by Amaury De Montfort in 1219. The English took it in 1427. It was besieged by Henry of Navarre in 1577, and by (Jonde" in 1652. MARONITES. Gibbon (ch. xlvii.) asserts: " In the style of the Oriental Christians, the Monothelites of every age are described under the appellation of Maronites, a name which has been insensibly transferred from a hermit to a monastery, from a monastery to a nation. Maron, a saint or savage of the 5th century, displayed his religious madness in Syria ; the rival cities of Apamea and L'mesa disputed his relics, a stately church was erected on his tomb, and 600 of his disciples united their solitary cells on the banks of the Orontes." The subject is involved in obscurity; but the truth appears to be, that John Maro, or Maron, a monk, founded several convents on Mount Lebanon during the 5th century. He main- tained the independence of his followers, and assi nned the title " Patriarch of Antioch." His followers became infected with the .Mono- thelite doctrines in the 7th century, and were from that time called Maronites, and regarded as a distinct sect. They renounced the Mono- thelite doctrines in 1182, and were readmitted into the Roman Catholic Church. They yielded, however, only a modified obedience to Home, and have frequently been subjected to severe persecutions. A college for the education of the Maronite clergy was founded at Rome in 1585, and they accepted the decrees of the Council of Trent in 1736. A large number of the Maronite Christians were massacred by the Druses (q. v.), in the neighbourhood of Keyrout and Lebanon, in May and June, 1860, and from 1,000 to 2,000 were killed in the streets of Damascus, July 9. The remarks of Gibbon hold good, that "the humble nation of the Maronites has survived the empire of Con- stantinople, and they still enjoy, under their Turkish masters, a free religion and a miti- gated servitude." MAROONS. When Spain was dispossessed of Jamaica (q. v.) by the English, May 3, 1655, the slaves belonging to the Spaniards betook themselves to the mountains, and, recruited by runaways, soon became formidable under the name of Maroons. Gen. Trelawney, in 1738, succeeded in making an arrangement by which they were confined to certain localities. A rebellion broke otit amongst them in 1795, which was suppressed March 21, 1796, and 600 of the insurgents were transported to Nova Scotia, 350 of whom were removed to Sierra Leone in Oct., 1800, at a cost to the Govern- ment of ,5,903 igs. 8c. MAROUGA (Battle). The Roman army, led by Julian, on their retreat from Assyria, defeated the Persians at Marouga in 363. MAR-PRELATE TRACTS. The first of these tracts, under the name of Martin Mar- Prelate, was printed at a movable press, and appeared n 1588. A letter, instructing the archbishop to find out and commit to prison the authors and printers, was issued by the council in Nov., 1588. John Penry, a Welshman, exe- cuted May 29, 1593, for writing a pamphlet, was suspected of having assisted in the prepa- ration of these libels upon the prelacy. They have also been attributed to Throgmorton, to Udal, and to Fenner. MARQUE. (See LETTERS OF MARQUE.) MARQUESAS, or MENDANA ISLANDS (South Pacific Ocean), were discovered by Alvaro de Meudaua in 1595, who named them in honour of the Marquis of Mendoza, Viceroy of Peru. Hood's Island, one of the group, was discovered by Capt. Cook, April 6, 1776, and several others by the Americans in 1797. The Mniiiti-iif announced, Dec. 20, 1842, that they had been taken in the name of the King of the French. With the exception of three Huahine, Raiatea, and Borabora they were placed under the protectorate of France, June 19, 1847, and a project formed by the French in 1850, of making one of them a penal settle- ment, was abandoned. MARQUIS. The title of marquis is derived from the lords marchers, appointed to guard the marches, or boundary lauds, who were suppressed by 27 Hen. VIII. c. 26 (1536). In the time of Edward III. a foreign nobleman, the Marquis of Juliers, was made an English peer, with the title of Earl of Cambridge ; and Richard II. created Robert de Vere Marquis of Dublin in 1385, he being the first English peer who bore the title. Winchester, created in 1551, is the most ancient in exi The Marquis of Huntly and the Marquis of Hamilton, created in 1599, were the first who bore the title in Scotland. The practice of granting it as a second title to a dukedom was adopted after 1689. MARRIAGE. The institution of marriage is usually referred to Gen. ii. 21-25, when God, in the garden of Eden, gave Eve to Adam as his wife. This view of the subject is con- firmed by the answer given by Christ to the Pharisees, in 29 (Mark x. 6 10). Among the ancient Greeks the nuptials were celebrated with various ceremonies ; but no record was kept of their solemnization, and the only proof of their having taken place was afforded by the guests who were present at the wedding feast. The social position of wives among the Greeks was extremely low, sterility being esteemed in some states a sufficient cause for separation. Among the Romans no forms were requisite, though certain ceremonies were usually observed. The Lex Julia et Lex Papia Poppaia, passed B.C. 18 and A.D. 9, placed certain restrictions respecting the parties between whom marriages might be contracted. Roman wives were treated with great consideration. They presided over the MARRIAGE [ 635 ] MARSEILLE education of the children, conducted the household, and shared in the honour and respect shown to their husbands. A.D. 335. Ecclesiastics are forbidden to marry after ordi- nation by the Council of Nicsea. 366. Marriage during Lent is prohibited by the Council of Laodicea. 692. Bishops are prohibited from marrying. 731. The Council of Koine defines the degrees of con- sanguinity within which marriage is unlawful. 868, May 16. The Canons of Worms prohibit the clergy from marrying. 1073 85. Priests are compelled to take the vow of celi- bacy. 1100 1200. Matrimony is first mentioned as a sacrament. 1199. Innocent III. orders the marriage ceremony to be solemnized in churches. 1533. Bishops are empowered to grant licences for marry- ing without banns. 1538. A proclamation is issued in England enforcing clerical celibacy. 1545 1563. The Council of Trent includes marriage amongst the seven sacraments. 1549. The marriage of the clergy is permitted by 3 & 3 Edw. VI. c. 21. 1554. The married clergy who do not separate from their wives are expelled. 1695, May i. A duty on a somewhat similar scale to that adopted in the tax upon births (q. i-.) is imposed upon marriages by 6 & 7 Will. III. & Mary, c. 6. 1754, March I. Clandestine marriages are prohibited by 36 Geo. II. c. 33 (Lord Hardvvicke's act). 1773. The Royal Marriage Act (13 Geo. III. c. 2) prohibits the descendants of George II., unless of foreign birth, from contracting any marriage without the royal consent, until they attain the age of 25 years. After that age the consent of Parliament is necessaiy. 1808, July 2. By 48 Geo. III. c. 149, a stamp-duty of los. is imposed upon every licence for marriage, and of 4 for every special licence. 1833, July 23. The act of 1754 is amended by 3 Geo. IV. c. 75, which limits the right of granting licences to the Archbishops of Canterbury and York. 1833, March 36. Certain provisions of the act of 1833 are repealed by 4 Geo. IV. c. 17. July 18. Former laws are repealed by 4 Geo. IV. c. 76, which re- quires a religious ceremony as essential to the marriage contract. 1836, Aug. 17. Marriages are (by 6 & 7 Will. IV. c. 85) made legal without a religious ceremony, by registrar's certificate, or in dissenting chapels. They are ordered to be registered by 6 & 7 Will. IV. c. 86. 1837, June 30. The marriage acts are amended by I Viet. c. 33. 1840, Aug. 7. Provisions are made (by 3 & 4 Viet. c. 73) for solemnizing marriages near the residence of the contracting parties. 1856, July 39. The marriage and registration acts are amended by I9,& 20 Viet. c. 119. (See DIVOKCE.) 1858, July 3. The bill for authorizing marriage with a deceased wife's sister passes the Commons. July 23. It is rejected by the Lords. 1862, Feb. 19. The bill for authorizing marriage with a deceased wife's sister passes the second reading in the House of Commons. March 12. It is thrown out on the motion to go into committee. (See BIRTHS, DEATHS, AND MARRIAGES, and REGISTRATION OF BIRTHS, DEATHS, AND MAR- RIAGES.) MARRIAGE LAW REFORM INSTITUTION (London), for the purpose of legalizing mar- riage with a deceased wife's sister, was founded Jan. it;,- 1851. MARROW CONTROVERSY, respecting a book entitled " Marrow of Modern Divinity," written by Edward Fisher, a Puritan soldier, and published in 1646. It was republished in 1717 by the Rev. J. Hog, who issued an ex- planatory pamphlet in 1719. A committee appointed by the General Assembly presented their report in 1720 condemning the book, and ordering the people not to read it. This pro- duced a protest, signed by twelve ministers, called the "Twelve Brethren," the " Repre- senters," and the "Marrow Men," presented to the General Assembly in 1721. Another committee was appointed, and it condemned the Marrow men, who were called before the bar of the General Assembly in 1722, and rebuked. MARRUCINI. This nation, of Sabine origin, frequently in alliance with the Marsi and Peligni, became allies of the Romans, B.C. 304. During the Social war (q. v.) they revolted, and about the end of B.C. 89 they were de- feated and their territory ravaged by Sul- picius, Pompey's lieutenant, and they were afterwards reduced to submission by Pompey himself, B.C. 52. They revolted against An- tonius B.C. 43. MARSAILLE, or MARSAGLIA (Battle). Marshal Catinat defeated Victor Amadeus and Prince Eugene near this town, between Pig- nei-ol and Turin, in Piedmont, Oct. 4, 1693. It is sometimes called the battle of Orbazzano. MARSALA (Sicily), the ancient Lilybseum (q. v.), was restored by the Saracens, who es- teemed its harbour so highly that they called it Marsa Alia, i.e. the port or harbour of God. In the 1 6th century the harbour was blocked up with a mound of sunken rocks, by order of Charles V., to protect it from the Barbary corsairs. Garibaldi selected it as a landing- place on his invasion of Sicily in 1860. MARSEILLAISE. This celebrated repub- lican hymn was composed by Rouget de Lille, a French officer of engineers, whilst quartered at Strasburg, in Feb., 1792. It was called the Marseillaise, because a body of troops on their march from Marseilles entered Paris in July, 1792, playing the tune, at that time little known in the capital. The author, who had fallen in love with the daughter of Diet- rich, mayor of Strasburg, is said to have com- posed the verses in a single night, and to have repeated them the following morning to the young girl, to whom he was passionately at- tached. Alison calls the Marseillaise hymn the "Rule Britannia" of the Revolution. MARSEILLE, or MARSEILLES (France), the ancient Massalia, called by the Romans Massilia, was founded by the Phocseans, B.C. 600. B.C. 543. A second colony settles at Massalia. 2i8. The inhabitants assist the Romans in the second Punic war. 154. They call in the aid of the Romans against the Deceates and Oxybii. 49. The people refuse to admit Julius Csesar within the gates, and the place is besieged and captured. A.D. 409. Cassian founds two abbeys. 470 Euric, King of the Visigoths, takes Marseilles. 839. It is plundered bv the Saracens. 1190. Richard I. of England embarks at Marseilles for the Holy Land. 1314. Marseilles is erected into an independent republic. 1351. It passes under the dominion of the counts of Provence. 1433. It is sacked by Alphonso V. of Aragon. 1481. It is reunited to the French crown. 1534. The inhabitants repel an attack by the Constable of Bourbon. 1596. Marseilles submits to Henry IV. MARSHAL [ 636 ] MARTINICO 1650. The Chamber of Commerce is established on a per- manent basis. 1660. Louis XIV. takes away its franchise. J7?o. The, plague carries off about 40,000 persons. 1789, April 30. The inhabitants of Marseilles join in the Revolution. 1793, Aug. 25. Marseilles is taken by the republicans, for having assisted the (iirmidinj. 1855. The new harbour of l.a Joliette is completed. 18581860. The Exchange is eroded. 1863, July 5. A fire causes great destruction. MARSHAL, or MARESCHAL. This term, derived by Nicod from polemarchut, and by Matthew Paris from Marti s senescallus, was first applied to an officer who hud the care or command of horses. Napoleon I. created 18 marshals of the empire in 1804. (See EARL MARISCHAL and EAKL MARSHAL.) MARSHALL: A COURT, or BOARD OF GJIKMX CLOTH, was a court of justice, noticed as early as the reign of Henry III. (1216 72), having exclusive jurisdiction in the king's palace and within the verge, described by 13 Rich. II. st. i, c. 3 (1390), not to exceed 12 miles of the king's lodging. Its power, confirmed by several statutes, was derived from the common law. By 28 Edw. I. st. 3, c. 3 (1300), the pleas that could be held in the court of Verge were defined, and by 2 Hen. IV. C. 23 (1400), regulation.-; respecting feus were laid down. Its powers were extended to treasons, misprisions of treasons, murders, manslaughters, bloodsheds, tV:c., by 33 lien. VIII. c. 12 (1542). This court \v;is abolished by 9 Geo. IV. c. 31 (June 27, 1828). (See PALACE COURT). MARSHALS!-: A PRISON (London), erected in Southwark in the i3th century, was under the control of the king's marshal. In 1376 the citizens of London rescued a prisoner com- mitted contrary to the liberties of the city. The Gordon rioters released the prisoners, Wednesday, June 7, 1780. By 5 Viet. sess. 2, c. 22 (May 31, 1842', it was abolished, and it has since been taken down. MAUS1AN, or MARSIC WAR. (See SOCIAL WAR.) MARSI, or MARSIAXS, a nation of central Italy, first mentioned in Roman history B.C. 340, at which time they were on friendly terms with the Romans, against whom they leagued with the Sainnites, B.C. 368. They concluded a treaty with the Romans 3048.0., but again took up arms B.C. 301, when, having been de- feated, they were compelled to purchase peace by the cession of part of their territory. They became faithful allies of Rome, and were among the first to offer volunteers to the fleet and army of Scipio, B.C. 205. In the Social, sometimes called the Marsic war, B.C. 91, they took a prominent part, and gained several victories over the Romans ; but in the next campaign, B.C. 89, after repeated defeats, they were compelled to sue for peace. The Marsi received the full rights of Roman citizens, and from that time ceased to exist as a separate nation. MAR'S INSURRECTION. The Earl of Mar, called Bobbing John, from his tendency to change sides, invited the gentry to meet at a hunt, Aug. 27, 1715, and proclaimed the Pre- tender as James VIII. of Scotland and HI. of England, at Brae-mar, in Aberdeenshire, Sep. 6. His force had gradually increased from about 50 to 5,000 men, when he entered Perth, Sep. 28. Mar, who remained some time inactive, was defeated at Sheriff-muir, near Stirling, Nov. 13, and escaped with the Pretender from Mont- rose, Feb. 4, 1716, whence they proceeded to France. Some of the chiefs of the insurrection were captured and about 20 were executed. MARS STKA.MER, plying between Water- ford and Bristol, struck on a reef on the Welsh coast, April i, 1862, and sank almost imme- diately. Of the 55 persons on board, 50 perished. MARSTON MOOR (Battle), was fought be- tween the Royalists under Prince Rupert, and the Parliamentary army under Lord Fairfax and Oliver Cromwell, at Marston Moor, in Yorkshire, July 2, 1644. It commenced about 7 o'clock in the evening, and the left whig of the king's army totally routed the right wing of the Parliamentarians ; but Cromwell with his " Ironsides" managed to defeat the king's right wing. After a severe struggle, victory declared in favour of the Parliamentarians, the R( lyaiist s 1< wing all their artillery, ammunition, and baggage. M A i; 1 A HAN (Pegu). This fortress was sur- rendered to the English in 1824, and it was captured by them during the second war in Burmah, April 5, 1852. MART A, ST. .New Grenada). This city, founded in 1525, was made the seat of an arch- bishopric in 1529. MAitTELLO TOWERS. (See DUNOENESS.) MARTIAL LAW. Power exercised by the king of dispensing with ordinary law pro- ceedings in time of war, and proceeding by his own absolute authority. By a clause of the Bill of Rights, 3 Charles I. c. i (1628), commissions for proceeding by martial law were declared illegal, and prohibited; but Parliament waa itself compelled to issue similar commissions in 1644. Martial law, signifying military law, is regulated by court martial (q.v.). MA KTINESTI (Battle). An allied Austrian and Russian army, commanded by Prince Coburg and Gen. Suwarrow, defeated the Turks at this place in Wallachia, Sep. 22, 1789. No less than 5,000 Turks fell in the battle, and 2,000 in the pursuit. It is also called the battle of Rimnik, from the name of the village, near Martinesti, where it was fought. MARTINICO, or MARTINIQUE (Atlantic Ocean), called by the natives Madiana, erro- neously supposed by some writers to have been discovered by the Spaniards in 1493, was in reality discovered by Christopher Columbus, June 15, 1502, during his fourth voyage. It was settled by some French colonists from St. Christopher's in 1635. The Dutch assailed it in 1674, and were repulsed with great loss. Admiral Penn failed in an attempt to capture it in 1695. The cultivation of the coffee-plant was introduced in 1727. The principal fortifi- cations were attacked by an English squadron Jan. 24, 1759, and after doing considerable damage, the expedition withdrew. The island surrendered, Feb. 16, 1762, to an English force, MARTIN 637 ] MARYPORT which had landed Jan. 16 ; and it was restored to the French by the treaty of Paris, Feb. 10, 1763. It was retaken Feb. 5, 1781, and re- stored at the peace of Versailles, Sep. 3, 1783. The English again effected a landing Feb. 5, 1794, and after gaining several battles, the whole island capitulated March 23, 1794. The French failed in an attempt to recover it, Dec. 7, 1795, and it was restored at the peace of Amiens, March 25, 1802. An English fleet landed 10,000 troops on the island, Feb. 3, 1809, It surrendered Feb. 24, and was restored to France at the general peace in 1814. The slaves rebelled in 1833, and a number of them were killed, and several taken prisoners, in a battle fought Dec. 24. An earthquake did serious damage to Fort Royal, and caused the death of about 700 persons, Jan. n, 1839. Slavery was abolished in 1848. MARTIN MAR-PRELATE. (See MAR- PRELATE TRACTS.) MARTINMAS, MARTLEMASS, MARTIL- MASS, or ST. MARTIN'S DAY, Nov. n, was formerly observed as a day of feasting and jollity. It was instituted in honour of St. Martin, the son of a Roman military tribune. He was born in Hungary, in 316, settled in the neighbourhood of Poitiers, was Bishop of Tours in 374, and died in 400. His festival was instituted in 650. Sonie authors refer the festivities practised on this day to an ancient Athenian festival in honour of Bacchus. (See MICHAELMAS.) MARTIN'S (ST.) HALL (London). The first stone of this edifice, built from designs by R. Westmacott, was laid June 21, 1847 ; and it was opened Feb. n, 1850. It was da- maged by fire Aug. 26, 1860. MARTYR. Since the martyrdom of Stephen, a man full of faith and of the Holy Ghost (Acts vi. 5), chosen in 31 to be one of the seven deacons first appointed, the Christian Church has furnished a long succession of martyrs, who have freely given up their lives in defence of the truth. Stephen the pro- tomartyr was stoned at Jerusalem (Acts vii. 58 60) in May, 37. Polycarp, the last of the Apostolic Fathers, suffered death in 169. Eusebius, who wrote in the beginning of the 4th century, is the first writer who gives an account of the early martyrs. MARTYRS (Mra.). (See DIOCLETIAN ./ERA.) MARY (Queen of England), the only child of Henry VIII. and Queen Catherine that arrived at maturity, was born at Greenwich, Monday, Feb. 1 8, 1516, was proclaimed Queen in London, July 19, and entered the city Aug. 3, 1553. Although Jane (q. v.) was acknowledged queen for a few days, the accession of Mary is reckoned from the day on which Edward VI. died, July 6, 1553. Mary was crowned Oct. i, 1553, and was married at Winchester to Philip of Spain, July 25, 1554. They had no children, and Philip became King of Spain on the abdi- cation of his father, the Emperor Charles V., Jan., 1556. Mary died at St. James's, broken-hearted from grief, caused by the negligence of her husband and the loss of Calais, Nov. 17, 1558, and was buried in Henry VII.'s chapel at Westminster, Dec. 13. She was called Bloody Queen Mary from the severity with which she persecuted the Re- formers. According to the lowest estimate, one archbishop, three bishops, several clergy- men, and about 300 of the laity, perished at the stake, whilst numbers died in prison during her reign. She is sometimes called Mary I. (See WILLIAM III. and MARY II.) MARYLAND (N.America). The first English province created in America was named Mary- land, after Henrietta Maria, queen of Charles I., Who granted the absolute proprietary to Lord Baltimore, in 1632. The first colonists were chiefly Roman Catholic gentlemen and their families, sent out from England under the charge of Lord Baltimore's brother, in 1634. A house of assembly was established in 1639 ; it was divided into two houses in 1650, the one consisting of members chosen by the Proprietary, and the other chosen by the Free- men. In 1645 Cleyborne succeeded in stirring up an insurrection, the governor was obliged to flee to Virginia, and peace was not restored till 1646. Parliamentary commissioners took possession of the government in 1652, but restored it to the governor in 1658. In 1689 an association, formed for the defence of the Protestant religion, overthrew the proprietary government. A governor was sent out in 1692, and the province remained in the hands of the Crown till 1715, when it was restored to the heir of the proprietary. In 1765, on the passing of the Stamp Act, riots occurred, and the house of the stamp-master was destroyed. A provincial congress assembled in 1774, and took the government into its own hands, and a constitution was adopted in 1776, declaring- it a free state. In 1814 a British fleet landed troops under Gen. Ross, who routed the Ameri- cans at Bladensburg (q. v.), Aug. 24. MARYLAND COLONY (Africa^, near Cape Palmas, was founded in 1834 by free coloured emigrants sent from the state of Maryland, in America ; whence the name. MARYLEBONE (London). The manor of Marylebone was obtained by Henry VIII. in exchange for certain crown lands, in 1544. The park was assigned by Charles I. as security for debts contracted by him during the civil war in 1646. Marylebone Street was built about 1679, an( i received this name because it led from Hedge Lane to Marylebone. The gardens, which were a favourite resort of Sheffield, Duke of Buckingham, were situated at the back of the old manor-house. Admission to this fashionable place of amusement was free until 1737, when a shilling was charged. They were closed in 1778. The manor-house was pulled down in 1791. MARYLEBONE THEATRE (London). The new building was opened Monday, Dec. 12, 1 MARY MAGDALENE (ST.). (See MAGDA- LENE COLLEGE and HALL, &c.) MARY OF MERTON, ST. (Canons). Re- gular canons of the order of St. Austin settled at Merton, in Surrey, in 1117. Henry I. made a grant to them of the whole town in 1121, and they erected a church and priory in honour of the Virgin. MARYPORT (England). This seaport in Cumberland was founded in 1750. MARY [ 638 ] MASTER MARY, ST. (See CARMELITES, GLORIOUS VIRGIN, MARIOLATRY, &c.) MARY (ST.) HALL (Oxford). This hall was conferred by Edward II. on Oriel College in 1325. It was made a separate place of educa- tion in 1333, and it subsequently became an independent academical hall. Thomas Dyke bequeathed funds towards the support of foiu- scholars in 1667. MAS-A-TIERRA. (See JUAN FERNANDEZ.) MASCALI (Sicily), anciently called Calli- polis, was besieged by Hippocrates of Gela early in the sth century B.C. The Saracens erected a fortress, but the town possesses no modern importance. MASCALUCIA (Sicily). This town was much injured by an eruption of Mount ^-Ktna in 1669, and was nearly destroyed by an earth- quake in 1818. MASCARA (Algeria), the ancient Victoria, was at one time the residence of Abd-el-Kader. The French seized it Dec. 5, 1835, and again in 1841 ; and on the last occasion annexed it to their colony in Algeria. MASCARENHAS. (See BOURBON.) MASKS. The kings and priests of Egypt wore, upon certain occasions, masks of papyrus, representing the heads of hawks, lions, and other birds and animals, and from them the knowledge of masks passed to the Greeks and Romans, by whom they were employed in dramatic exhibitions. The tragic masks of the Greek stage were frequently very beauti- ful; but in comedy a grotesque effect was produced by representing the mouth opened and the features distorted. The custom of the use of masks by public executioners is men- tioned in 1295. They were first worn by English ladies during the reign of Elizabeth (1558 1603). In the time of Charles II. (1660 1685), they were always worn by ladies in the theatre, and in the time of Anne they were tised on horseback, being suspended to the side by a string. (See IRON MASK.) MASONS were incorporated in 1411. MASOURAH (Battle). {See MANSURAH.) MASQUERADES, or MASKED BALLS. Dramatic masques were introduced into this country about 1340. The masked ball, or mas- querade, originated in Italy towards the com- mencement of the 1 6th century, was introduced into the French court by Catherine de Medici (1519 1589), into England by Henry VIII. in 1513, and into Germany towards the end of the 1 7th century. The Bishop of London preached a sermon against them, Jan. 6, 1724 ; in consequence of which orders were issued that no more than the six subscribed for at the beginning of the month should take place. MASS. The word missa, or mass, was first employed in religious ordinances in 394, to in- dicate the particular services specially appro- priated to different persons, who left the church when the portion of the service which con- cerned them was concluded. It was, indeed, the general name for every part of divine ser- vice, sometimes signifying the lessons, some- times the collects or prayers, and sometimes the dismission of the people. The Roman Catholic mass was introduced into England in 680. The term was afterwards applied to the elements of the Eucharist, and a decree, order- ing all to bow down at the elevation of the host, or mass, was published in 1201. In Eng- land the order of Communion was substituted for the Mass April i, 1548. MASSACHUSETTS (N. America). This state was first settled by the Puritans, who ar- rived at New Plymouth, U.S., in the Mayflower, Dec. 22, 1620. Salem and Charlestown were founded in 1629, and Boston in 1630; and in 1692 the colonies were united under the Indian name of Massachusetts. A charter for Massa- chusetts Bay was obtained from the crown in 1629. Its first constitution, formed in 1780, was amended in 1820. Slavery was abolished by law in 1783, and the constitution of the United States was adopted in 1788. MASSA DI CARRARA, MASSA, or DU- CALE (Italy), the chief town of a duchy of the same name, which was in 1829 united to Modena, and was, with it, incorporated in the new kingdom of Italy in 1860. M ASS AGETvE. This Asiatic tribe, by some supposed to be Scythians, drove the Cimme- rians from the Araxes B.C. 635, and penetrated into Media B.C. 632, whence they were expelled by Cyaxares, B.C. 609. Cyrus the Elder was killed in battle against them, B.C. 529. Alex- ander III. (the Great) defeated them B.C. 328. Ammianus Marcellinus calls the Alani "the ancient Massagetse." Niebuhr considers them Mongols, and Humboldt assigns them to the Indo-European family. .MASS ALIA, or M AS SIL I A . (See MARSEILLE, or MARSEILLES.) MASS-HOOK, "MIHSALE," or MISSAL, the ritual used by the Roman Catholic Church, was compiled by Gelasius I. (492 6), and im- proved by Gregory I. (the Great) (590604). The services were translated into English for the Church of England in 1549, and by 3 & 4 Edw. VI. c. 10 (1549), the use of missals was abolished. In early times various missals were in use, but the adoption of the Roman missal was ordered by the Council of Trent (1545 1563). It was revived by Clement VIII. in 1604, and by Urban VIII. in 1634. .M A SSI I.IAXS. (See SEMI-PELAGIANS.) MASTER OF THE CEREMONIES. The official master of the ceremonies at the English court was instituted by James I., in 1603, for the purpose of introducing foreign ambas- sadors, &c., to the sovereign. Sir Lewis Lewkenor was appointed to the office, with a salary of ^200 per annum. The first person who assumed the title to signify his supre- macy in the ball-room was Capt. Webster, who preceded Beau Nash in the office at Bath. He became master of the ceremonies on the occa- sion of the visit of Queen Anne, in 1703. MASTER-GENERAL OF THE MILITARY. Constantino I. (306 337) instituted two masters-general, one for the cavalry and one for the infantry. Before the end of the reign of Constantius II. (337 361) their number had been increased to four. A master of the military was elected annually at Venice be- tween 737 and 742. instead of a doge. MASTER OR KEEPER OF THE ROLLS OF CHANCERY. The rolls of the exchequer commence in the reign of Henry I., the earliest MASTER [ 639 ] MATCHIN extant being that of his 3ist year (1131). The title of " Custos Rotulorum Cancellarise Domini Regis " is found for the first time attached to the name of John de Langton, on the Patent Roll of 14 Edw. I. (1286), although the office no doubt existed before that date. The duties of this officer are defined by 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 94 (Aug. 28, 1833). His salary is regulated by i Viet. c. 46 (July 12, 1837). The master of the rolls is a patentee officer and a privy councillor. He may sit in Parliament, and administer justice in the Rolls Court ; but his decrees are not valid until signed by the chancellor. By virtue of his office he is chief of the masters in chancery and of the Petty-Bag Office. Lord Romilly, Master of the Rolls, submitted to the treasury, Jan. 26, 1857, a proposal for the pub- lication of materials for the History of Eng- land from the invasion of the Romans to the reign of Henry VIII. The Lords of the Trea- sui-y, in a minute dated Feb. 9, 1857, approved of the plan, and the publication of two series, one of Chronicles and Memorials, and the other of Calendars of State Papers, commenced in 1857. MASTERS OF THE ROLLS FROM THE REIGN OF GEORGE III. 1760, Oct. Thomas Clarke. 1764, Dec. 4. Thomas Sewell. 1784, March 30. Lloyd Ker.yon. 1788, June 4. Richard Arden. itfoi, May 27. William Grant. 1818, Jan. 6. Thomas Plumer. GEORGE IV. Jan. Thomas Plumer. April 5. Robert, Lord Gifford. Sep. 14. John Singleton Copley (afterwards Lord Lyndhurst). 1827, May 2. John Leach. WILLIAM IV. 1830, June. John Leach. 1834, Sep. 29. Charles Christopher Pepys. 1836, Jan. 16. Henry, Lord Langdale. VICTORIA. 1837, June. Henry, Lord Langdale. 1851, March 28. John Romilly (afterwards Lord Romilly). MASTER OF THE REVELS. The follow- ing list of persons who held this appointment was communicated to " Notes and Queries" by Mr. E. F. Rimbault. It was copied from the handwriting of Sir Henry Herbert, one of the last to hold the office : DATE. Not on record Sir Richard Guildford. [1544] 36 Hen. VIII Sir Thomas Cawerden. Not on record Sir Thomas Beneger. Not on record Sir John Fortescue. July 24 CIS?], 31 Eliz. ... Edmund Tilney, Esq. June 23 [1603], i Jac Sir George Buck. [1612], 10 Jac. I Sir John Astley. [1617] 15 Jac. I Benjamin Johnson. Aug. 21 [1629], 5 Car. I. { nJJJ^EjJ*^ and 8im n To these may be added the following : 1673. Thomas Killigrew. I 1725. Charles Henry Lee. 1683. Charles Killigrew. | 1744. Solomon Dayrolle. The ancient jurisdiction of the master ot the revels was transferred in 1737 to the " licenser of the stage," who, with the deputy licenser, performed all the duties of the office ; and on the death of Solomon Dayrolle, no successor was appointed. 1820, as MASTER OF THE ROLLS (Ireland). The earliest on record was William de Bardelby, appointed in 1334. MASTERS OF THE ROLLS (IRELAND). VICTORIA. 1837, Jan. 28. Sir Michael O'Loghlen. 1842, Nov. i. Francis Blackburne. 1852, March i. Thomas Lefroy. MASTERS IN CHANCERY. Foss considers that masters or clerks in chancery existed as early as the reign of Richard I. (1189 99), and that they were appointed to attend the king in his progresses, when they assumed the title of vice-chancellor. Sir Christopher Hatton, who was made chancellor April 29, 1587, always had masters in chancery present when he sat in court, to assist him hi his decisions. The office was abolished by 15 & 16 Viet. c. 80 (June 30, 1852). MASTER AND SERVANT. Various statutes have been passed for the regulation of the law between master and servant. By 32 Geo. III. c. 56 (1792), a master knowingly giving a good character to a bad servant is liable to a fine of 20, or three months' imprisonment with hard labour. The payment of certain classes of servants is required to be made in money by i & 2 Will. IV. c. 37 (Oct. 15, 1831). A commit- tee of the House of Commons appointed to inquire into the law between master and ser- vant issued their report in 1866. MASTER OF THE WARDROBE. This office existed in very early times, and received from Henry VI. (1422 61) important privileges, which were enlarged by James I. (1603 25). The salary attached to the office was ^2,000 per annum, and there were, in addition to the master, many inferior functionaries. They were all abolished by 22 Geo. III. c. 82 (1782), which transferred the duties of the wardrobe establishment to the lord chamberlain's de- partment. MASULIPATAM (Hindostan). This city was mentioned by Marco Polo, in his travels, cir- culated in 1298, and was conquered by the Bhamenee sovereigns of the Deccan in 1480. In 1751 it was taken and fortified by the French, who were expelled by the British, under Col. Forde, April 6, 1759 ; and Masulipa- tam was ceded to the East India Company in MATAMORAS (Battle). The Americans, under the command of Gen. Taylor, defeated the Mexican army at this town, in Mexico, May 8, 1846. MATARO (Spain). This place, made a city in 1701, was sacked by Duhesme, under cir- cumstances of great cruelty, June 17, 1808. The church of St. Maria was founded in 1675, the college in 1737, and it was incorporated with the university of Cervera in 1829. The railroad to Barcelona, the first constructed in Spain, was opened in October, 1848. MATCHES. Friction matches were in- vented by Walker, of Stockton-on-Tees, in April, 1827. (See LUCIFER MATCHES.) MATCHIN (Bulgaria). The Turks con- structed a camp here, which was destroyed by the Russians Oct. 20, 1771. The Russians ob- tained an advantage over the Turks in an MATHEMATICS [ 640 ] MAUVE encounter near this town, July 9, 1791. The Turks defeated the Russians in an engagement here Dec. 24, 1853. M A T H E M A T I C S. This term, which an- ciently signified all knowledge calculated to strengthen the mental powers, is applied to algebra, arithmetic, geometry (q. v.), and kin- dred sciences. MATINS. Prayers were offered in the morn- ing by the early Christians. Clement, who died about 220, declares that men are un- worthy of light who do not offer adoration to its Author at the earliest dawn. The massacre on Bartholomew's Day (q. v.) (Aug. 24, 1572), was termed the French or Paris Matins, and the massacre of the false Demetrius and the Poles at Moscow, May 29, 1606, the Matins of Moscow. MATRIMONIAL CAUSES ACT. (See DI- VORCE.) MATRONALIA. (See JUNONIA.) MATTER HO UN. (See ALPINE CLUB.) MATTHEW, ST. (Gospel), written, according to the best authorities, in 57 or 58, though various dates between 37 and 61 are assigned to it. Home assigns it to 37 or 38. MATTIUM. (See CATTI.) MA TURINES, MATHURINS, or TRINITA- RIANS. This order of friars, founded in France for the redemption of captives, by St. John do Matha and Felix de Valois, about 1197, and at first called Trinitarians, received the name of Maturines, or Mathurines, because, from 1226, they occupied a church at Paris, dedicated to St. Mathurin. They were sup- pressed in France in 1790. The order was in- troduced into England in 1224, and received the lands, revenues, and other privileges of the decayed order of the Holy Sepulchre. The Maturinc friars, who were governed according to the rule of St. Augustine, possessed about 12 houses in this country. MAUBEUGE (France). This town was fovinded in the 7th century, and was for a con- siderable period the capital of Hainault. It was taken by the French in 1649, and was ceded to them by the treaty of Nirneguen, Aug. 10, 1678. Vaubaii erected the fortifications in 1680 ; and in 1793 it was besieged by the Prince of Coburg, who was compelled to retire by Marshal Jourdan. Its manufactory of arms was founded by Louis XIV. in 1704. It has sustained several sieges, and surrendered to the Prussians in June, 1815. MAUL (See HAWAIIAN ARCHIPELAGO.) MAUNDY THURSDAY, the day before Good Friday, is so called because on this day it was usual to distribute to the poor bread and other "doles," contained in maunds or bas- kets. St. Augustine is the earliest who is known to have practised it. It was also cus- tomary to wash the feet of pilgrims on this day. The first English monarch who distri- buted alms to the poor on Maundy Thursday was Edward III., in 1363. The day was some- times called "Shere Thursday," because people vised to shear or cut their hair and beards for the occasion. It was so named in 1511. A money payment was substituted for the "doles" in 1838. MAUPERTUIS.-- (&e POITIERS, Battle.) MAURA SANTA. (-See LEUCADIA). MAURETANIA, or MAURITANIA (Africa). This country, now forming part of Algiers (q. v.), Morocco, and Fez, was unknown to the inhabitants of Europe until B. c. 202, when the Romans fought in Africa against Hannibal. Julius Caesar confirmed Bogudes and Bochus, as joint kings of Mauretania, B.C. 49, and the kingdom was erected into a Roman province B.C. 46. Augustus conferred it upon Juba II., B.C. 25, and on his death it passed to his son Ptolemy, who was slain by Caligula in 41. Claudius I. divided the kingdom into the two provinces of Mauretania Tingitana, and Mau- retania Csesariensis, in 42. It was invaded by a horde of Frankish invaders from Spain, in 256, and was conquered by Genseric the Van- dal in 429. The Arabs first appeared in the country in 667, and completed its conquest in 709. MAURICE, ST. This military order, es- tablished in Savoy in 1434, by Duke Amadeus VIII., was renewed by Emaiiuel Philibert, and joined to that of St. Lazarus in 1572. It was reorganized and extended to civilians in 1816. MAURITIUS, or ISLE OF FRANCE (Indian Ocean). This island was discovered by the Portuguese in 1505. The Spaniards called it Cerne, and in 1598 it was seized by the Dutch, who named it Mauritius in honour of their Stadtholder, Maurice ; but they formed 110 set- tlement till 1644. They abandoned the colony in 1712, and it was neglected until the French formed a .settlement in 1715, and took posses- sion of the island in 1721. It was captured by the English Dec. 2, 1810, and has remained in their possession ever since. It was made a bishopric in 1854. MAUR, or MAUR LES FOSSES, ST. (France), a Benedictine Abbey, founded in 638, and called St. Peter, was named St. Maur in the isth cen- tury. The treaty of St. Maur des Fosses between Louis XI. and the leaders of the League of the Public (luod, was signed here Oct. 29, 1465. Charles IX. issued an edict here against the Huguenots in 1569. It became the home of the celebrated congregation of the Benedictines in 1618. MAUSOLEUM. On the death of Mausolus, King of Caria, B.C. 353, his wife Artemisia tes- tified her affection by erecting at Halicarnas- sus (q. v.) a magnificent building to his me- mory, which received the title of the Mauso- leum, and ranked as one of the seven wonders of the world : hence all sepulchral edifices of more than usual magnificence are styled mausolea. The ruins of this edifice were used by the Hospitallers, who had taken possession of the site in 1404, in the erection of their castle of St. Peter in 1484 and 1522. In 1846 the British Government arranged with the Porte for the purchase of the remaining ruins ; and in 1856 Mr. Charles Newton was appointed vice-consul at Mitylene, with full powers to transmit the acquisitions to England. He formed a valuable collection, including the colossal statue of Mausolus ; and the whole arrived in this country in July, 1857, and was deposited in the British Museum. (See ALBERT MAUSOLEUM.) MAUVE. In 1848 Dr. Stenhouse announced MAXIMIANISTS [ 641 ] MAY-POLE the possibility of extracting purple dyes from lichens by macerating them in lime water. This discovery was applied and extended by Manias, of Lyons, who produced in 1857 the fashionable dye known as mauve. MAXIMIANISTS, a branch of the Donatists, so named from Maximinus, their leader, arose in the Donatist community in Africa towards the close of the 4th century. MAY. This month derives its name either from Maia, the mother of Mercury, or from its having been dedicated by Romulus to the Roman majores, or senators. It was the second month in the old Alban calendar, the third in that of Romulus, and the fifth in that of Numa Pompilius. The Saxons termed it Tri-Milchi, because pasture was so plentiful that they were able to milk their cows thrice during the day. (See FIELD OF MARCH or MAY.) MAYBURY. (See DRAMATIC COLLEGE.) MAY-DAY. From the earliest periods it has been customary to celebrate the return of spring with peculiar sports. The Romans had their Floralia, held 011 the 4th of the calends of May. The earliest recorded circumstance in connection with the celebration of May -day in England is, that the Druids were accustomed to assemble on the night of the last day in April and light large bonfires to hail the return of spring. Chaucer alludes to the universality of its observance in his time ; and as late as the reign of Elizabeth, the queen and court joined in the sports. May Fair was abolished in Lon- don in 1708. (See EVIL MAY-DAY.) MAYENCE, MAINZ, or MENTZ (Hesse- Darmstadt), originated in the Roman fort of Moguntiacum, erected by Drusus, B.C. 13, 011 the site of which the city stands. It was de- stroyed by the Vandals in 406, and was rebuilt by Dagobert II. The archbishopric of Mayence was founded by Boniface in 747, and the cathe- dral was commenced in 978. Councils were held here in 752 or 753, 813, 829, 847, 848, 852, 857, 860, 1023, 1049, 1051, March, 1055, 1069, 1071, 1080, 1085, 1094, 1131, 1159, 1225, 1233, 1239, 1259, 1261, 1310, 1387, 1439, and 1441. Printing is said to have been invented in this city by John Gutenberg in 1440. It was a free and impe- rial city for some years, but submitted to the archbishop in 1462. In 1631 Mentz was taken by the Swedes, and in 1644 and 1688 by the French, who lost it in 1689. It was again seized by the forces of the republic in 1792, and retaken by the Prussians in 1793. It was ceded to France by the treaty of Campo For- mio, Oct. 17, 1797, and erected into the chief town of the department of Mont Tonnerre, and in 1814 it was ceded to the Grand Duke of Hesse-Darmstadt. The university, founded in the i sth century, was suppressed in 1802. It was made a Federal fortress in 1825. The bronze statue of Gutenberg was erected in 1837. A powder magazine exploded in Nov., 1857, and caused a serious loss of life. The Prussians occupied the city Aug. 26, 1866. MAYENNE (France). The Earl of Salis- bury captured this ancient town in 1424. Charles IX. made it a duchy in 1573. The Vendeans took it in 1793. MAYNOOTH COLLEGE (Ireland). The Roman Catholic college of St. Patrick at May looth, in the county of Kildare, was founded n 1795, according to the provisions of an act of the Irish Parliament, for the education of persons destined for the Roman Catholic priest- aood. It was built at a cost of ,32,000, and is supported by an annual parliamentary grant. A lay college was opened in 1802, depen- dent on voluntary subscriptions. By 8 & 9 Viet. c. 25 (June 30, 1845), the college was placed on a new footing, and permanently endowed for the maintenance and education of 500 students and 20 senior scholars. A commission was appointed to inquire into the operation of the institution, Sep. 19, 1853. Several unsuccessful motions have been made .n the House of Commons for the repeal of the Maynooth grant. MAYO (Bishopric), is said to have been es- tablished in 665, though it was not in exist- ence long, and little is known of its history. MAYO (Ireland), forming part of Connaught, was granted by Henry II. to William Fitz- Adelm de Burgho, in i ifo. William de Burgho, Earl of Ulster, was assassinated in 1333, and about this time Mayo was made a county. For two centuries it remained in a very un- settled state. The native chiefs submitted to Elizabeth in 1575, but the supremacy of the English was not acknowledged until 1586. The old families took part in the rebellion of 641, and the French attempted an invasion in 1798. MAYOR. This office dates from the reign of Richard L, who appointed a mayor as chief officer of the city of London, in place of the bailiffs, in 1189, and the precedent was copied by King John, in respect to the bailiff of King's Lynn, in 1204. The first mayor of Dublin was appointed in 1409. (See LORD MAYOR.) MAYOR OF THE PALACE. An important officer of the French court under the Merovin- gian kings. His duty was originally to super- vise the royal funds, and to regulate the government of the household. Afterwards the mayors acquired political influence, and acted as regents during the minority of the sovereign, until ultimately the whole power of the kingdom devolved upon them, and the kings, called Faineants (q. v.} became mere puppets. Gogon, mayor of Austrasia, obtained the direction of the government in 575, and after 679 there were no more kings. The mayor of Burgundy, in 614, induced Clotaire II. to grant that in future the office should be conferred by the great proprietors, not by the king, and held during life. The office became hereditary in 687, and Pepin the Short de- posed Childeric III. and was proclaimed king in his stead in 752. (See FRANCE. ) MAYOTTA ISLAND (Indian Ocean). This volcanic island, which forms one of the Co- moro group, was avoided by Europeans unti 1840. It was ceded to the French in 1841, who commenced their occupation June 13, 1843. MAY-POLE. The custom of rearing the May -pole is traced to the Roman Floralia, but nothing is known respecting the period at which it was introduced into this country. Du Cange speaks of a charter of the year 1207, which states that May -poles were taken by grant, and erected in the streets and at T T MAZACA [ 642 ] MECHITARISTS the houses of great men. The May-pole in the Strand was taken down in April, 1718. MAZACA. (See C^SARKA.) MAZARINS. (See FRONDEURS.) M HAL-TUB PLOT. This was a fictitioxis plot fabricated by a known criminal named Dangerfield, and ascribed by him to the Pres- byterians, lie directed the revenue officers to search the lodgings of Col. Mansel, where they found a number of seditious documents, which were afterwards proved to be forgeries. Dan- gcrficld was accordingly committed to New- gate, where he acknowledged that he had been bribed by the Papists to forge these papers, and that proofs of the truth of his confession were deposited in a ut<' in the house of a Mrs. Cellier, a Roman Catholic and his mistress, where they were in fact found. This took place in 1679. Dangerfield was put in the pillory, and also whipped, and was again con- victed of libel, May 30, 1685. On his return a man named Francis assaulted him, and he died a few days afterwards. Francis was tried and executed. MEALS. (See GRACE AT MEALS.) MKANKE. (See M I:I:AXI:K, Battle.) MEASURES. The English measure of Win- chester was made the general standard by a law of King Edgar, in 974. The first standard ell was established from the length of Henry the First's ana in nor, and the measure for cloth was made uniform througho\it the king- dom by 18 Hen. VI. c. 16 (1439), which estab- lished the yard and the inch as the standards. Public standards of measures were ordered to be deposited in all the principal towns by u Hen. VII. c. 4 (1494); and the capacity of the bushel was regulated by 12 Hen. VII. c. 5 (1496). The length of the statute mile was regulated by 35 Eliz. c. 6 (1593). Charles I. issued a proclamation ordering a uniform measure for every commodity throughout the kingdom in 1636. Parliament attempted to introduce uniformity of measure in 1759, but without success. By 10 Geo. III. c. 39 (i 770*1, a standard Winchester bushel of eight gallons was ordered to be kept in every market-town. The various laws on the subject were amended by 5 & 6 Will. IV. c. 63 (Sep. 9, 1835), which abolished heaped measure, and ordered in- spectors of measures to be appointed. MEATH (Bishopric). This Irish bishopric is composed of several minor sees, which were anciently distinct. The most important appears to have been Clonard, which was founded by St. Finian in 520. Eugene was the first prelate who assumed the title of Bishop of Meath in 1174. MEATH (Ireland) formed one of the king- doms into which Ireland was divided in early times. Richard Strongbow subjected Meath to the English in 1171, and Henry II. (1154 89) conferred it as a county palatine on Hugh de Lacy. For nearly a century and a half it was the theatre of continual warfare ; and in the reign of Henry VIII. (1509 47) the ancient county was divided into East Meath and West Meath. MEAUX (France). This town, supposed to be identical with the Roman latinum, was burned by the Northmen iu the gth century. The bishopric of Meaux was founded in 375, and a council was held here June 17, 845. The cathedral was commenced in the i2th century. It obtained a charter in 1179. Henry V. of England besieged it in 1422, and it surrendered June 5. Artillery is said to have been used in the siege. The French recovered it in 1439 ; it joined the League in 1587 ; and submitted to Henry IV. in 1^94. The prisoners were massacred here by the republicans Sep. 5, 1792. The Russians attacked Meaux Feb. 26, 1814, and the allies passed the Marne, at Meaux, March 28, 1814. MEAUX (Treaty), concluded at this place during the regency of Blanche of Castile rath Raymond VII., April 12, 1229, secured the marquisate of Provence to France, and pro- vided for the marriage of one of Raymond's daughters with a brother of Louis IX. MECCA (Arabia) is celebrated as the birth- place of Mohammed, April, 570, who was ex- pelled July 15, 622, and captured it Jan. n, 630. In 692 it was captured by Abdelmelik, and in 929 it was plundered by the Carma- thians. In 1184 Renaud de Chatillou failed in an attempt upon Mecca. In 1803 it was seized by the Moslem sect of the Wahabees, from whom it was taken in 1818 by Ibrahim I'asha. .M HCI! . \X1CS. The ancients were no doubt acquainted with the application of the me- chanical powers at a very early period, but the principles on which their action depends were not known till a comparatively late period. Aristotle (B.C. 384 322) is the first author who wrote on mechanics, and Archimedes (B.C. 287 212) is the most eminent of ancient mechanicians. A.D. 1577. Stevinus, of Flanders, discovers the true theory of the inclined plane. 1592. Galileo is said to have written his treatise " Delia Seieii/.a .Meranica." 1634. Galileo publishes the work "Delhi Scienza Me- oantca." 1638. Galileo publishes his dialogues on motion, and Cas- telli writes on the motions of fluids. 1661. The laws of percussion are discovered sinmltji- neously by Iluyghcns, Wallis, and Sir Christo- pher Wren. 1670. Wallis publishes his treatise " De Motu." 1687. Newton publishes his " Principia," and Varignon his "New Kyslem of Mechanics." 1695. La Hire publishes a treatise on mechanics. 1736. Euler describes rectilinear and curvilinear motion. 1743. D'Alembert makes important discoveries in dy- namics. 1750. The preservation of areas is discovered simul- taneously by Euler, Daniel Bernoulli, and the Chevalier D'Arci. 175?. Euler, D'Alembert, and Clairault, solve the problem of the tin-,".' hdilii'x. 1788. Lagrang-e publishes the " Mecanique Analytique." 1798. Laplace commences the " Mecnnique C'el 1843. Professor Whewell publishes his treatise on dy- namics. MECHANICS' INSTITUTIONS. The first was established in London by Dr. Birkbeck, at Southampton Buildings, Holborn, Dec. 2, 1823. MECHANICSVILLE. (See CHICKAHOMINY, Battles.) MECHITARISTS, or MEKHITARISTS, Armenian Christians named after Peter Mech- itar, or Mekhitar, who was born at Sebaste in 1676. He repaired to Constantinople in 1700, and having in vain endeavoured to unite the Armenians, was compelled to quit the city and MECHLIN C 643 ] MEDIATIZED took refuge in. the Morea, founding at Modon, in 1708, an Armenian monastery. On the con- quest of the Morea by the Turks in 1717, Mechitar repaired to Venice, and the island of St. Lazaro was granted to him, and here he established a printing press, and formed the society that bears his name, for the diffusion of a knowledge of the Armenian language and literature. Mechitar died at Venice April 27, 1749. The society have branches at Constantinople, Paris, Vienna, and other places, and their publications have a large circulation in the Levant. MECHLIN. (See MALINES.) MECKLENBURG (Germany). This ancient duchy was originally peopled by the Heruli and the Vandals, who were expelled by the Obotrites in 782. Charlemagne failed in his attempts to reduce this tribe to subjection ; but in 1159 Henry the Lion subdued their chief, Niclot, and seized his territories. The two lines of Mecklenburg and Werle were founded by John the Theologian and Niclot, on the death of their father, Henry-Burwin II., in 1236. The latter became extinct in 1436. The entire duchy was conferred upon Wallenstein by the Emperor Ferdinand II., March 4, 1628 ; but in 1631 it was restored to Adolphus Frederick and John Albert, the then existing representatives of the lines of Meck- lenburg-Schwerin and Mecklenburg-Gustrow. The division of the duchy between the great branches of Strelitz and Schwerin was effected March 8, 1701. In 1815 the dukes assumed the title of grand dukes. The two governments assembled at Schwerin, in 1848, to consider the adoption of a new constitution, which was agreed to by the Grand Duke of Schwerin. Owing to the opposition of the nobility, he was compelled to withdraw -his assent in 1850. MEDALS. This term, properly speaking, originated in the Middle Ages. The medal- lions of the Roman empire were large metal pieces, presented by the emperors as tokens of esteem, or by the mint-masters to the em- perors as specimens of workmanship. These were not common until after the accession of Hadrian, in 117; after which they seem to have continued in frequent vise until the end of the Western empire. It is a contested point whether they were or were not current as pieces of coin. The earliest modern medal is one in gold, of David II. of Scotland, thought to have been struck between 1330 and 1370. A medal of John Huss, dated 1415, is of questionable authenticity. The German medals commence in 1453, the Papal medals in 1464, the Danish in 1474, the English in 1480, the Spanish in 1503, and the Venetian in 1509. MEDELLIN (Battle). Marshal Victor, at the head of a French army, defeated March 28, 1809, the Spaniards under Cuesta, near this town, the ancient Metellinum, founded by Q. C. Metellus. MEDIA (Asia). Berosus states that the Medes had conquered Babylon before B.C. 2000, and that the dynasty lasted 224 years. Rawlinson (Anct. Monarch, iii. ch. vi.), who ranks Media third amongst the five great monarchies of the ancient world, declares that Median history from B.C. 2234 to B.C. 835, is a blank. B.C. 7 10. The Medes are subdued by Sargon, King of Assyria. 647. The Medes establish their independence. 634. The Medes invade Assyria, and are defeated with great loss, their king being slain. 63?. Cyaxares leads another Median army into Assyria. He is compelled to withdraw on account of tho invasion of his own territories by the Scythians. 627. Cyaxares again invades Assyria. 635. Cyaxares and his allies capture Nineveh. 615. The war between Media and Lydia commences. 610, Sep. 30. The battle of Halys (q. v.) is interrupted by the eclipse of Thales, and peace is concluded be- tween Media and Lydia. The date of this battle is Sep. 30, 610 B.C., according to Ideler ; B.C. 610, according to Kawlinson ; B.C. 585, according to Bosanquet; and May 38, 584 B.C., according to Airy. 558. Cyrus, King of Persia, rebels. Astyages invades Persia and is victorious in a battle lasting two days. Astyages, who advances on Pasargadse, is defeated in a second battle^ also extending over two days. He continues his advance, and is com- pletely routed in the vicinity of Pasargadas, by Cyrus, who assumes the style " King of Media and Persia." (See PEHSIA.) B, C. 710. Median Revolt and Interregnum. 704. Dejoces. 651. Phraortes. KINGS OF MEDIA. ACCORDING TO HERODOTUS. B.C. 629. Cyaxares. 589. Astynges. 554. Cyrus the Persian. B.C. 710. Arbianes and Inter- regnum. 688. Artacus. 648. Artynes. The lists givi sidered authentic. B.C. 633- Cyaxares. ACCORDING TO CTKSIAS. B.C. 636. Astiharas. 586. Astyigas, or Aspadas. 551. Cyrus the Persian. by Ctesias and Herodotus are not con- B.C. | 593. Astyages. MEDIAEVAL or MIDDLE AGES, according to Hallam (View of the State of Europe during the Middle Ages), comprised about 1000 years, from the invasion of France by Clovis I., in 486, to that of Naples by Charles VIII. in 1494. Dowling, in his " Introduction to the Critical Study of Ecclesiastical History," fixes the Council of Chalcedon, in 451, as the commence- ment, and the revival of classical literature in the isth century as the end, of the period. Fleury fixes the commencement at the fall of the Western empire in 476, and the termina- tion with the capture of Constantinople by the Turks, May 29, 1453. G. T. Manning, in " Outlines of the History of the Middle Ages," makes them extend from 400 to 1500, divided into the following periods : First period 400 to 800 Second period 800 to 964 Third period 964101066 Fourth period 1066 to 1300 Fifth period 1300 to 1500 MEDIATIZED PRINCES. By articles 24 and 25 of the German Act of Confederation, signed July 12, 1806, those German princes and nobles who had been subject to the emperor were designated mediatized princes, being placed under the sovereigns in whose domi- nions their territories were situated. TT 2 MEDICAL [ 644 ] MEDMENHAM MEDICAL COUNCIL. This council was established by 21 & 22 Viet. c. 90 (Aug. 2, 1858), an act to regulate the qualifications of prac- titioners in medicine and surgery. Sir Ben- jamin Brodie, elected the first president of the council in Nov., 1858, died Oct. 21, 1862. MEDICINE.- A writer in the eighth edition of the " Encyclopaedia Britannica" (xiv. p. 450) remarks that " the earliest historical develop- ment of scientific medicine is everywhere traced from a priesthood." The Egyptians were the earliest medical practitioners. With them medicine was under the control of the state, and doctors who departed from the pre- scribed methods of treatment were guilty of a capital offence, in the event of their patient's decease. The earliest work on medicine is the Hindoo Ayur Veda, which is supposed to have been written about B.C. 1400. The worship of ^Esculapius, the god of medicine, was in- troduced into Greece about B.C. 1200 ; but the profession of physic was restricted to the priesthood until about B.C. 500. Hippocrates, born about B.C. 460, founder of the Hippocra- tean or the Dogmatic school, is the father of the Greek system of medicine, which declined about B.C. 336, and was succeeded by the Alexandrian school, B.C. 332. The epistle of Diocles on the Preservation of Health was written about B.C. 312, and continued in high repute for about 400 years. Herophilus, who flourished B.C. 285; Erasistnitus, B.C. 300 260; and Serapion, B.C. 250, were the most eminent practitioners of the Alexandrian school. The medical became a distinct profession at Rome about B.C. 200. It was at first practised ex- clusively by slaves orfreedrnen. Archagathus, a Peloponnesian who settled at Rome, B.C. 200, was the first regular practitioner, but it was not regarded with much interest until after the great pestilence which depopulated the city B.C. 187. Asclepiades, B.C. 90: Themison, B.C. 60 ; Thessalus, in 55 ; and Galen, in 165, are the most eminent Roman physicians ; and after the death of the last-named, medical science suffered a serious decline. The Greek system was revived at Constantinople in 328, and flourished under Oribasius in 360 ; Ae'tius in 525 ; and Paul of ^Egina in 640. The Ara- bian physicians attained celebrity in the 7th century, the most important being Ebu Sina, or Avicenna, whose great work, the "Almalecus," was written about 1020. Mondini, who became professor of medicine at Bologna in 1316 ; Guy de Chauliac, who flourished in 1350 ; and the celebrated painter Leonardo da Vinci (1452 1520) were eminent medical practitioners, and contributed greatly to the advance of the science. The medical profession in Britain owes its rise to Thomas Linacre, who founded the College of Physicians in London in 1518. Har- vey published his work on the circulation of the blood in 1628 ; Pecquet discovered the anatomy of the lacteal vessels in 1647 ; Malpighi demon- strated the relation of the pulmonary tissue to the circulation in 1661 ; and Mayow obtained advanced views on the subject of respiration in 1668. (See DOCTOR.) MEDICI FAMILY, first rose to importance in 1251, and Silvester de Medici became gon- faloniere at Florence in 1378. Cosmo de Medici, called "the father of his country," born in 1389, died Aug. i, 1464, and Lorenzo de Medici, called "the Magnificent," born in 1448, died April 8, 1492, were the most illustrious mem- bers of this family. The last male of the family died in 1737, and the last female in 1743. (See FLORENCE and TUSCANY.) MEDINA DEL CAMPO (Spain). During a revolt in Spain, in 1520, this town was taken by the royal troops, \inder Antonio de Fou- seca, who treated the inhabitants with great cruelty. MEDINA, or MEDINET EL NABI (Arabia), is celebrated as having been the asylum of Mohammed when he fled from Mecca, July 15, 622, and the scene of his death, June 8, 632. The celebrated mosque containing the tomb of the Prophet was totally destroyed by fire in 1508. It was restored by Kayd Beg, King of Egypt, in 1514. Medina was taken by the Wahabees in 1803, but was recovered from them by Ibrahim Pasha in 1818. MKDI.VA DE RIO SECO (Spain), supposed by some authorities to be the ancient Tela, was the scene of a victory gained by the French army, under Bessieres, over the Spaniards, July 14, 1808, when the town of Rio Seco was taken and pillaged. The Spaniards defeated the French here, Nov. 23, 1809 ; but were, in their turn, defeated and dispersed Nov. 26, and the French entered the town Nov. 27. .MKDIXA SIDONIA (Spain) was taken by Abderahman 1. in 764, and surrendered to Ah iln inso X. in 1254. MEDIOLANUM IXSUBRUM (Italy), the capital of Cisalpine Gaul, was taken by the Humans from the Insubres, B.C. 222. A battle between the Romans and the allied Insubrians and Boii, in which the latter lost several thousand men, took place here B.C. 194. It probably submitted with the other towns of the Insubres about B.C. 190. Under the Romans it became a municipium, and rapidly grew in importance. The usurper Aureolus was be- sieged here in 268 by the Emperor Gallienus, who was killed by the hands of his own sol- diers in the course of the siege (March 20). The place subsequently surrendered to Marcus Aurelius Claudius II., sumamed Gothicus, who put Aureolus to death. About 303 it gained in importance by being chosen as the residence of the Emperor Maximian I., who thus made it the capital of Northern Italy. For a cen- tury it was the residence of successive em- perors. Attila ravaged it in 452, and it was selected as a residence by the Gothic king Odoacer in 476. Belisarius having taken the place, it was recovered by the Goths in 539, after a protracted siege, which was charac- terized by great barbarity on the part of the besiegers. They put the male inhabitants, 300,000 in number, to the sword, and reduced the women to slavery. (See MILAN.) MEDJIDIE. This Turkish order was in- stituted in 1852, and was conferred on several English officers who served in the Crimea. MEDLEY CLOTHS. (See CLOTH.) MEDMENHAM CLUB. A society of wits and humorists are said to have assembled at Medmenham Abbey, Desborough, Bucks, in MEDSCHID [ 645 ] MELBOURNE the middle of the i8th century. They took the title of Monks of St. Francis. MEDSCHID or MESCHED ALI (Asia), the ancient Hira (q. v.}, was taken in 1806 by the Wahabees, who were speedily expelled by the inhabitants. MEEANEE, or MIYANI (Battle). Fought Feb. 17, 1843, during the campaign in Scinde. Sir Charles Napier, with a force amounting only to 2,600 men, assailed the Belooches, who mustered 30,000 infantry and 5,000 cavalry, with 15 guns. They were strongly posted, their wings resting on large woods extending on each side of the plain, with a natural ravine in front of their position. After a fierce contest of three hours' duration, the Belooches gave way, leaving their artillery, stores, &c., in the hands of the victors. MEERUT, or MERUT (Hindustan), an an- cient city of Delhi, is mentioned as one of the first conquests of Mahmoud of Ghizni, in 1018. In 1240 it resisted the forces of Turmacherin Khan ; but in 1399 it surrendered to Timour. Together with the rest of the district in which it is situated, Meerut passed into the posses- sion of the British in 1803, and it was selected as the seat of a judicial and revenue establish- ment in 1809. The native troops, after having on several occasions shown signs of insubordi- nation, mutinied here May 10, 1857, and left for Delhi May n. MEGALOPOLIS (Greece), or the "Great City," once the capital of Arcadia, was founded B.C. 370. It was besieged by Poly- sperchon, who failed in the attempt to take it, B.C. 318, it joined the Achaean League, B.C. 239, and was captured B.C. 222, by Cleomenes III., who laid a great part of the town in ruins. It was rebuilt, but never regained its former im- portance. M E G A R A (Greece), according to some authorities, was founded by Car, son of Pho- roneus, while others attribute its origin to Pandion, in the reign of Pylas. At a very early period the city was conquered by the Dorians, and in the 7th century B.C. was one of the most nourishing cities of Greece. The Megarians formed an alliance with the Athe- nians B.C. 455, and surrendered to Philip II. of Macedon after the battle of Chseronea (q. v.), Aug. 7, B.C. 338. Demetrius Poliorcetes de- clared it a free city B.C. 307, and it joined the Achaean League B.C. 242. MEGIDDO (Battles). Joshua (xii. 21) gained a victory over its king B.C. 1451. The Kings of Canaan fought at Taanach (Judges v. 19), near the waters of Megiddo, B.C. 1265. King Josiah was killed by Pharaoh Necho, in the valley of Megiddo, B.C. 610 (2 Chron. xxxv. MEHUDPORE (Battle). Sir Thomas Hislop defeated Holkar and the Mahratta army at this town, in Hindostan, Dec. 21, 1817. MEININGEN (Germany) was made the capital of the duchy of Saxe-Meiningen in 1681. MEISSEN (Saxony). Founded in 922, or, according to some authorities, in 928, by the Emperor Henry I., who built a castle, long the residence of the ancient Saxon princes. The cathedral, founded by Otho I. (936 973), con- tains some antique monuments, and some paintings by Albert Durer and Cranach. Frederick I. founded the prince's chapel in 1425. The castle was almost entirely rebuilt in 1471, and the manufacture of the celebrated china, known as Dresden, commenced here in 1710. Frederick II. of Prussia entered Meissen, on the retreat of the Austrians, Dec. 6, 1745, and 1,400 Prussians surrendered to the Aus- trians at this place, Dec. 3, 1759. A part of the Prussian army attacked the French at the bridge of Meissen, in order to give Blucher an opportunity of crossing the Elbe at another point, Oct. i, 1813. MEISTERSINGERS, or MASTER8INGERS. A corporation of German citizens, formed for the cultivation of poetry in the isth century, and the successors of the Minnesingers (q. v.}. They are said to have originated at Mayence, whence they spread to Augsburg, Nuremberg, Strasburg, and other cities. The Emperor Charles IV. incorporated them in 1378, and they attained great celebrity in the i6th cen- tury. They had rules like other corporations, and the members were obliged to submit to an apprenticeship. The most celebrated poems of this school are, "The History of Reynard the Foxe," translated into English in 1481, and the "Owle Glass," published in London in 1709. Hans Sachs, the shoemaker of Nurem- berg, who wrote much between 1530 and 1538, was a celebrated Meistersinger. MEKHITARISTS. (See MECHITARISTS.) MELAZZO, or MILAZZO (Battle). The Royalist forces were defeated near this town, the ancient Mylse (q. v.}, by Garibaldi, June 20, 1860. The Royalists having taken refuge in the town, surrendered June 21. MELBOURNE (Australia), named after Lord Melbourne, at that time prime minister of Eng- land, made the capital of Port Philip, or Victoria, in 1851, is seated on the River Yarra-Yarra. It was colonized from Van Diemen's Land in 1835, and was officially recognized and desig- nated in 1837. Melbourne was made a muni- cipality in 1843, and the seat of a bishop in 1847. It has increased rapidly since the dis- covery of gold in its vicinity in 1851. It became the seat of the Legislative Assembly in 1852. The hospital was founded in 1846. The university was opened in April, 1855, an d the post-office in 1859. A flood, caused 'by the rising of the waters of the Yarra-Yarra forty feet above their usual level, submerged the greater portion of the city, and destroyed about a quarter of a million of property, Dec. 1424, 1863. The first stone of the Victoria Institution for the Deaf and Dumb was laid by Sir C. Darling, March 6, 1866. MELBOURNE ADMINISTRATIONS. Owing to some disagreement respecting the Irish Coercion Bill, then under the considera- tion of Parliament, Viscount Althorp resigned the office of chancellor of the exchequer, July 7, 1834, and Lord Grey, the Prime Minister, following his example, resigned July 9 . After certain negotiations, Viscount Melbourne kissed hands as Prime Minister, July 16. Several members of the Grey administration re- mained in the cabinet, which was thus con- stituted : MELBOURNE [ 646 ] MELODRAMA Treasury Viscount Melbourne. Lord Chancellor Lord Brougham. President of the Council Marquis of Lansdowne. Privy Seal Karl of Mulgrave. Chancellor of Exchequer Viscount Althorp. Home Secretary Viscount Duncannon. Foreign Secretary Viscount I'almerston. Colonial Secretary Hon. S. Rice. Admiralty Lord Auckland. Board of Control Mr. Charles Grant I'ostmaster-denernl Marquis of Conyngham. Chancellor of the Duchy of 1 rf Holland. Lancaster ) Paymaster of the Korces Lord John Russell. Chief Secretary for Ireland Mr. E. J. Littleton. The death of Lord Spencer, Nov. 10, rendered new arrangements respecting the chancellor- ship of the exchequer necessary, as Viscount Althorp succeeded to his father's title. Vis- count Melbourne went to Brighton Nov. ^ 14, 1834, to make certain propositions to William IV., who informed him that he should not require him to complete the arrangements, and the first Melbourne administration was dissolved. (.SVc l'i:i:i, KIUST A i ..MINISTRATION.) The second Melbourne administration was formed on the resignation of the first Peel administration, April 8, 1835, and was an- nounced in both houses of Parliament, April 1 8. The cabinet consisted of Treasury. nint Melbourne. mi.- of l.;m-il,j\\ lie. ITesid.'i'il of the Council Marquis . *** S " al ? Bice., created Chancellor of the Exchequer < I-ord Monteagle, Aug. Home Secretary Lord John Hussell. Foreign Secretary Colonial Secretary Lord Palinerston. Mr. Charles i ; rant, made Huron Ulcnelg, May 4, IB35- OP I A Lord Auckland. Board of Trade .................. < created Baron s\,leu- ( ham, Aug. IO, 1840. Chancellor of the Duchy of j L d HoUand . Lancaster ..................... ) The great seal was placed in commission. The Earl f Africa in 1213. They made themselves masters of Fez, and before 1268 had established their supremacy throughout Morocco. Under their king, Abu Juzef, they entered Spain in 1274, and withdrew in 1294. (See ECIJA.) .Ml 'Hi I NO SHLK1' were first brought into England from Spain in 1788, and a second fluck was imported in 1791. Some authorities be- lieve that the merinos are descended from English sheep imported into Spain. Edward IV., in 1464, sent a score of Costal ewes and four rams to John II., King of Aragon. Catherine, daughter of John of Gaunt, had a flock of sheep as her dowry in 1390. Merino sheep were introduced into the German states in 1765, into Hungary in 1775, and into France in 1786. .MMIMAID CLUB (London), called by Hal- lam "the oldest, perhaps, and not the worst of clubs," was established at the Mermaid (whence the name) Tavern, in Bread Street, by Sir Walter Raleigh at the beginning of the i7th century. Shakespeare, Ben Jonson, Selden, Donne, Camden, Beaumont, and Fletcher, were members of this celebrated association. MEROE (Africa). This ancient kingdom of Central Africa is considered to have been formed by the military caste which removed from Egypt during the reign of Psammetichus I. (B.C. 660 614). The ruins of the ancient capi- tal were discovered by Caillaud between 1819 and 1822. MEROVINGIANS, the first race of the kings of France (f). v.), who reigned from 418 to 752. The name Merovingian is derived from Mero- vgeus, the third king, who began to reign in 45 T. The French monarchy was founded in 481 by Clovis I., the fifth of the Merovingian race. MERRY ANDREW. Hearne is of opinion that this term originated from Andrew Borde, a physician, who lived in the time of Henry VIII. He says, "Twas from the doctor's method of using such speeches at markets and fairs, that in after-times those that imitated the like humorous, jocose language, were styled Merry Andrews, a term much in vogue on our MERSEBURG (Battles). Henry I. (the Fowler), Emperor of Germany, defeated the Hungarians at this town, in Prussian Saxony, in 934. The Hungarians are said to have lost 40,000 men. This extended plain, between Mcrseburg and Leipsic, became the scene of numerous battles in later times. During the contention between the Emperor Henry i V . and Gregory VII. a great battle was fought here between the papal and the imperial forces. Henry IV. having invaded Saxony, was de- feated in 1080. Rudolph of Swabia was killed in the encounter, and Henry IV. took the city of Morseburg soon after. Mh'USLY ISLAND ,Kssex). The Danes as- sembled here in 895, and made excursions up the rivers Lea and Thames. MKRTIiYU TYDV1L (Wales). This place derives its name from Tydvil, daughter of Brychan, Prince of Brycheiniog in the sth cen- tury. The first congregation of dissenters in Wales was funned here in 1620. The Glamor- ganshire canal, connecting Merthyr Tydvil with Cardiff, was completed in 1796. Serious riots occurred amongst the workmen at the Iron-works, June 3, 1831, when several lives were lost. An explosion of gas that occurred in the Cethin coal-pit at this town, resulted in the destruction of 50 lives, Feb. 19, 1862. A colliery explosion, which caused the death of upwards of 30 persons, occurred here, Dec. 20, 1865. MERTON (Surrey) was anciently called Meretuii. Cynewulph, King of Wessex, was murdered here in 784. Ethelred and his brother Alfred, afterwards king, fought a great battle with the Danes at this place, in the spring of 871. The English, at first victorious, were eventually compelled to withdraw. The priory, built of wood in 1117, was rebuilt in stone in 1130. MERTON COLLEGE (Oxford) was founded at Maiden, in Surrey, by Walter de Merton, Bishop of Rochester, Jan. 7, 1264, and was i-emoved to Oxford in 1274. The library was built in 1376 by William Rede. The outer court was rebuilt in 1589. Dr. Wylliot en- dowed 12 portionistte in 1380, John Chamber two more in 1604, and Henry Jackson four scholarships in 1753. Great changes in the constitution of the college were made by 17 & 18 Viet. c. 81 (Aug. 7, 1854). MERTON STATUTES. A council assem- bled at the abbey of Merton, Jan. 23, 1236, when various enactments were made that MERU [ 65* 3 MESSINA have since formed part of the statute law of England, and are known as the Statutes of Merton. MERU, or MERV (Asia), is said to have been founded by Alexander III. (B.C. 336 323), and having been destroyed, was rebuilt by An tiochus, who gave it the name of Antiochia Margiana. Here Orodes I., or Arsaces XIV., of Parthia, settled the soldiers of Crassus, whom he had made prisoners, B.C. 53. It was a favourite residence of many of the Persian monarchs, and was destroyed by the Uzbeg Tartars in 1786. MESMERISM was first advocated by Fried- rich Anton Mesmer, in 1766, in his treatise " De Planetarum Influxu. In 1778 he settled in Paris, where he opened an establishment for the cure of diseases by his magnetic pro- cess. In consequence of the alleged success of his attempts, the French Government, in 1784, appointed a committee of inquiry to examine into the system, and the result was a report stating it to be a complete im- posture. Mesmer was, in consequence, com- pelled to leave France. He lived in retirement in England until 1799, when he published a new explanation of his theory. He returned to Germany, and died in great poverty at Merse- burg, March 5, 1815. In 1817 the Prussian law prohibited the practice of mesmerism by any except members of the medical profession; and the council of University College, London, passed a resolution to prevent its introduction into their hospitals, Dec. 27, 1838. -An inge- nious correspondent in "Notes and Queries," July 3, 1852, quotes from Apuleius an early allusion to mesmerism ; and Glanvil, in his " Scepsis Scientifica," published in 1665, refers to something very similar. MESNE PROCESS is denned by Wharton as "all those writs which intervene in the progress of a suit or action between its be- ginning and end, as contradistinguished from primary and final process." Arrest on mesne process, where the debt or cause of action was under 20, was abolished by 7 & 8 Geo. IV. c. 70 (July 2, 1827). The change, which did not extend to Scotland and Ireland, was applied to the last-mentioned country by 10 Geo. IV. c. 35 (June 4, 1829) ; and arrest on mesne process in civil actions was abolished, except in certain specified cases, by i & 2 Viet. c. no (Aug. 16, 1838). MESOLONGHI, or MESSOLONGHI. (See MlSSOLONGHI.) MESOPOTAMIA (Asia). This country was called, in the Old Testament, Aram Naharaim, or Syria between the two waters (i. e. the Tigris and the Euphrates), and Padan Aram, i. e. Syria of the Plain. It is first mentioned as the country where Nahor and his family settled (Gen. xxiv. 10), and was inhabited (B.C. 1200 noo) by a number of petty tribes. It passed successively under the sway of the Baby- lonians, the Medes, and the Persians. After the battle of Issus, in Nov., 333 B.C., it fell into the power of the Macedonians. The Romans obtained possession of Mesopotamia in 165. Jovian surrendered it to the Persians in 363. The Carmathians (q. v.} overran it in 902, and the Turks conquered it between 1514 and 1516. MESSALIANS. (See EUCHITES.) MESSANA. (See MESSINA.) MESSAPIANS, said to have been a tribe of lapygians, were the early inhabitants of Cala- bria (q. v.). MESSENE (Greece), the capital of Messenia (q. v.), in the Peloponnesus, was founded by Epaminondas B.C. 369, and maintained its in- dependence until it was conquered by the Romans, B.C. 146. MESSENIA (Greece). The earliest inhabi- tants of this country are said to have been the Leleges. Polycaon named the country Messene, in honour of his wife, B.C. 1499. At the Dorian conquest of the Peloponnesus, Cresphontes obtained Messenia. Numbers of the inhabi- tants left their country and settled in various parts of Greece, Italy, v when it was dissolved. In 1542 the abbey was given to Henry VIII., who granted the revenues to Humphrey Arundell. After his death, in 1550, it was sold to Job Milton. The mount was fortified in the Middle Ages. The Earl of Oxford (John de Vere), a Lan- castrian, surprised it in Sep., 1473, and it was wrested from him by the Yorkists in Feb., 1474. The Cornish rebels seized it in 1549, and the Parliamentarians in 1646. The St. Aubyns purchased it in 1660. The pier was rebuilt in 1726, and Queen Victoria visited the mount Sep. 6, 1846. MICHAEL, ST. Louis XI. of France insti- tuted the order of St. Michael in 1469, and the order of St. Lazarus was joined to it in 1693. A similar order was introduced into Germany in 1618. MICHIGAN (N. America). The French penetrated into this country early in the i7th century, and formed a settlement at Detroit in 1647, founding that town in 1670. Michigan passed into the hands of the English in 1763, and was not entirely relinquished by them to the United States until 1796. Michigan was erected into a territory in 1805, and was admit- ted into the Union as a distinct state in 1836. MICROMETER. This instrument, applied ;o telescopes and microscopes, for measuring very small distances, was first constructed by Gascpigne, an Englishman, in 1640, and used 3y him for measuring the diameters of the sun and moon. Gascoigne, who perished in the 3ivil wars, July 2, 1644, published no account >f his invention. Richard Townley preserved >ne of the instruments, and it was improved jy Hooke. Without any knowledge of these nventioiis and improvements, Auzout and i'icard, in 1666, published an account of a nicrometer invented by them. Christian luygheiis (April 14, 1629 June 8, 1695) effected 'urther improvements, and to each of the fore-mentioned persons, at some period or ther, has this invention been attributed. MICROSCOPE. Single microscopes, in the orm of glass globes containing water, were in ise amongst the ancients. A magnifying lens f rock crystal was found in the ruins of Nine- 'eh. The invention of the compound micro- cope has been attributed to Jansen and Galileo in 1609, and to Cornelius Drebbel in 620. It is now generally believed to have een invented by Zacharias Jansen, assisted by is father, Hans Jansen, spectacle-makers at MMdleburg, about 1590. They presented one Prince Maurice in 1617. Prichard perfected ae diamond microscope, Dec. i, 1824. It was he first in which this precious stone had been sed, and it was found greatly superior to glass 1 power. Professor Riddell, of the university f New Orleans, in 1851 constructed a bino- ular microscope, for rendering both eyes ser- iceable in microscopical observations. u u MICROSCOPICAL [ 658 ] MIGRATORY MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETIES. The Microscopical Society was instituted in Lon- don Sep. 3, 1839, for the promotion and diffu- sion of improvements in the optical and mechanical construction ; for the communica- tion and discussion of observations and disco- veries ; for the exhibition of new or interesting microscopical objects and preparations ; for submitting difficult and obscure microscopical' phenomena to the test of various instruments; and for the establishment of a library of stan- dard microscopical works. The Dublin Microscopical Society, for promoting a know- ledge of the minute structure of organic beings, was founded in Oct. 1840. The Que- kett Microscopical Club was established in London in 1865. MIDDLE AGES. (See MEDIEVAL AGES.) MIDDLEBURG (Holland). The Prince of Orange wrested this strongly fortified town, in the province of Zealand, from the Spaniards, after a two years' siege, Feb. 19, 1574. In 1581 a religious sect, called the Browiiists 7. p.), from their founder Robert Brown, settled at Middleburg. Disunion appeared in their ranks, and Brown left them and returned to England in 1589. The town-hall was founded in 1468. (See EOOA.) MIDDLE-CLASS EXAMINATIONS. The Convocation of Oxford University passed a statute authorizing middle-class examinations, June 1 8, 1857, and the first commenced at Oxford, June 21, 1858. The name has since been changed to University Local Examinations (q. v.). MIDDLESBOROUGH (England). The first house of this thriving town, in the North Riding of Yorkshire, was built in 1830. MIDDLESEX (England), before the Roman invasion, B.C. 5*5, formed part of the territories of the Trinobaiites, the first British tribe which submitted to the Romans. Julius Cfesar in- vaded it B.C. 54 ; it passed under the dominion of Rome in the time of Claudius I. (4154), and formed part of the kingdom of Essex, established in 527. MIDDLE -TEMPLE HALL (London) was builb in 1570. It contains an equestrian pic- ture of Charles I., supposed to be a genuine Vandyke; and portraits of Charles II., Queen Anne, George I., and George II. New buildings were erected in 1831, and the new library, completed in 1861, was opened by the Prince of Wales Oct. 31. MIDDLE THIBET. (See LADAK.) MIDDLETON (England). This parish, in Lancashire, was granted in 1513 to Sir Richard Assheton for his bravery at Flodden Field, and was only a small village in 1775. In 1812 it was the scene of rioting by discontented work- men. The church was built by Sir R. Assheton, in 1524; the grammar-school was founded by royal charter, Aug. n, 1572; and in connection with the grammar-school Samuel Radcliffe founded two scholarships at Brasenose College, Oxford, in 1648. MIDDLETOWN (N. America). This city of Connecticut, called Mattabesick by the Indians, was settled in 1650. The Wesleyan university was founded in 1831. MIDHURST (Sussex) is supposed to have been the Roman Miba, or Mida, described in the Chorography of Ravenna, as existing in the south of Britain. Its free grammar-school was founded in 1672. Cowdry House, the seat of the Montagues, near this town, built in the reign of Henry VIII., was destroyed by fire in 1793. MIDIANITES, deriving their name from Midian, the son of Abraham by Keturah, were early engaged in trade between the East and the West. Joseph was sold by his brethren, B.C. 1728, to a party of Midianites carrying spices, the produce of the East, into Egypt (Gen. xxxvii. 28). They were defeated and almost exterminated by the Jews, B.C. 1451 (Num. xxxi.). The Jews fell under their rule B.C. 1252 (Judges vi. i 6). Gideon triumphed over them B.C. 1245 (Judges viii. 28). (See CRESCENT.) MIDNAPORE (Hindostan). This district and town of Orissa were ceded to the Eng- lish by Cossim Ali Khan, in 1761. They were devastated by a famine, which carried off nearly half of the population in 1770. A similar disaster, but of less severity, occurred MIDWIFERY. In ancient Egypt, Greece, and Rome, the obstetric art was exclusively professed by females, male physicians being only called in when the life of the mother was considered in great danger. The first printed book on the subject was published by Eucharius Roesslin in 1513. The practicability of the Csesarean operation on the living mother was proved by Francis Rousset in 1581 ; and the science was permanently established on a firm foundation by the treatise of Francis Mauriceau in 1668. The invention of the forceps was made by Dr. Paul Chamberlen in 1640. Male accoucheurs were first employed by ladies of the highest rank in France. A school for midwives was established in the Hotel Dieu at Paris in 1745. MIES (Battle). The Hussites defeated a Saxon army, near Mies, July 21, 1426. MIGRATORY BIRDS, or B IRDS OF PASSAGE, the English venial immigrants, generally acknowledged as such, and concern- ing which authentic statistics have been pub- lished, as far as regards the London district, are 25 in number. They make their appearance in the neighbourhood of London in the fol- lowing order : Earliest date of arrival. Latest date of arrival. Order of arrival. Name of Bird. Mar. II Mar. 1 6 Mar. 25 Mar. 27 Mar. 29 Apr. i Apr. 2 Apr. 5 Apr. 6 Apr. 9 Apr. 9 Apr. 9 Apr. 9 Apr. 12 * In IS usual tin Mar. 39 (1834)* April 17 April 20 May 8 (1834)... April 25 April 20 2 3 4 6.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. ChSffchaff. Wheatcar. Wryneck. Sand-martin. Black-cap. Willow-wren. Redstart. Swallow. Whinchat. Martin. Tree-pipit. Nightingale. Yellow-wagtail. Whitothroat. st three weeks after its May 8 (1834)... April 28 May 25 (1834) April 21 8 9 10 12 April 25 April 23 34, every- bird \ e. 13 JA vns at lea MIGUELTTES [ 659 ] MILETUS Earliest date of arrival. Latest date of arrival. Order of arrival. Name of Bird. Apr. 13 Apr. 15 Apr. 16 May 15 May 16(1834) April 29 7 Cuckoo. Sedge-warbler. Lesser-whitethroat. Apr. 20 May ,3 8 Turtle-dove. Apr. 21 May 23 (1834) y i ; ,-i i s.-.i 11 >pper-warbler. Apr. 23 May 13 2,0 Garden-warbler. Apr. 23 Apr. 34 May 31 (1834) May g 23 . Wood-wren. Kedbacked Sliripe. Apr. 30 May i K| ::::::::: 33 34 Spotted-flycatcher. Goatsucker. May i May 29 (1834) 25 Swift MIGUELITES. The supporters of Don Mi- guel, the third son of John VI. of Portugal (q. v.). Soon after his father's death (March 10, 1826) he attempted to obtain the crown to the exclusion of Donna Maria da Gloria, his eldest brother's daughter, who had been proclaimed Queen. He assumed the title of King, June 30, 1828, and after carrying on a civil war for some time signed an agreement at Evora Monte not to interfere in the affairs of Portu- gal, May 26, 1834. MILAN (Italy). This city, the ancient Me- diolanum (q. v.), rose from its ruins, and re- gained some of its former importance in the qth century. Many of the inhabitants of Pavia, after its capture in 924, settled here, and Otho I. was crowned King of Italy at Milan in 961. Conrad II. laid siege to it in 1037, and retired in 1038 without achieving his object. Councils were held here in 346, 347, 355 380, 390, 451, 679, 1009, 1103, in Feb. 1117, and Sep. 12, 1287. A.D. 1041. The people expel the nobles. 1043. The city is blockaded by the expelled nobles. 1044. Peace is restored between the nobles and the people. 1107. Milan becomes a republic. 1137. The people make war upon other Italian cities, and destroy Como. 1154. The Milanese are defeated in a sanguinary battle by the people of Pavia, and they submit to the Em- peror Frederick I. 1158. Frederick 1., with an army of 100,000 men, besieges Mil.-ui, which is reduced by famine and pestilence. 1161. The Milanese having rebelled, Frederick I. again lays siege to their city. 1163, March i. The consuls and chief citizens solicit the clemency of Frederick I. at Lodi. March 4. They deliver up the keys. March 26. Frederick I. enters the city and destroys the fortifications. 1167. The Lombard cities form a league for their defence, and .Milan is restored. 1183. The struggle between Frederick I. and the Lombard cities is brought to a close by the peace of Con- stance. 1187. The citizens choose Uberto Visconti of Placentia as their podesta. 1359. Struggles between the nobles and the people re- commence. 1377, J" 11 - Visconti takes Milan from Napoleone della Torre, and the people salute him " Perpetual Loid." 1337. The government of Milan is remodelled, and 24 nobles, subject to an imperial vicar, are made rulers. 1395. Milan is erected into a duchy, Gian Galeazzo Vis- conti having purchased the title of Duke of Milan from Wenceslaus, King of the Romans. 1425. Commencement of the wars between Milan and Venice. 1438, April 19. Peace is concluded with Florence. 1447, Aug. 13. The rule of the Visconti terminates with the (tenth of Philip Maria Visconti. A.D. 144950. Milan is taken by Sforza, who is proclaimed duke. 1499. Milan is occupied by the French. 1513. It is a '.rain occupied by the French. 1535- Charles V. seizes Milan. 1540. It is given to Philip of Spain by his father Charles V. 1549. The Goldeu Bull of Milan is promulgated. 1603. The Ambrosian (17. v.) library is founded. 1639. Philip IV. signs the treaty known as the Capitula- tion of Milan. 1700. Milan is seized by the Austrians. 1707, March 13. The French sign a treaty at Milan, re- signing all their conquests in Lombardy. ; 733i Dec. 39. The citadel surrenders to the French. 1796. It is taken by the French. 1797, June 14. The Ligurian Republic (q. .) is formed. 179$, June 24. The convention of Milan is signed be- tween France and Sardinia. 1799, May 24. Milan is taken by the Austrians, under Gen. Hohenzollern. 1800, June 2. Napoleon Buonaparte enters Milan. 1805, May 26. Napoleon I. is crowned King of Italy, with the iron crown of Lombardy, at Milan. 1807, Dec. 17. Napoleon I. publishes the Milan decree pro- hibiting the nations of the continent from holding intercourse witli the English. 1815, April 30. Insurrections break out at Milan. I84, March 18. The Milanese rise against the Austrians, and drive them from the city. Aug. 5. Tho Austrian forces re-euter the city. 1849, Au S- 6. Peace is concluded here between Austria and Sardinia. X 8S3, Feb. 6. The Milanese revolt from Austria, but are speedily reduced to order. 1857, J an - '5- l'"e Emperor of Austria visits Milan. 1659, June 8. Napoleon III. and Victor Emauuol enter Milan. 1860, Feb. 15. Victor Emanuel is enthusiastically received at Milan. 1864, April. The Government confiscates some dep6ts of arms. MILAN (Treaties). A capitulation between Philip IV. of Spain and the Swiss cantons was signed here Sep. 3, 1639. A general capitu- lation for the evacuation of Lombardy by the French was concluded here March 13, 3707. A treaty between France and the Venetian Republic, signed on the one part by Napoleon I. and Lallemand, and on the other by Dona, Justiniani and Mocenigo, was concluded here May 16, 1797. The Grand Council of Venice renounced its rights of sovereignty and recog- nized the authority of an assembly of the citizens. This treaty was never ratified. A convention between the French Republic and Charles Emanuel II. of Sardinia, was signed June 24, 1798. Peace was concluded here between Austria and Sardinia, Aug. 6, MILAN DECREE. (See CONTINENTAL SYSTEM.) MILAN EDICT, granting toleration to the Christians, was issued at Milan by Constantino I. in 313. It established universal religious toleration. MILESIAN WAR, waged by the inhabitants of Miletus (q. v.) in defence of their liberties against the Lydians, lasted from B.C. 623 to B.C. 612. The Milesians were defeated in two engagements by Sadyattes, King of Lydia. The war was continued by his successor Aly- attes, who was taken ill, in consequence, "it was believed, of his troops having burned a temple in the territory of Miletus, and he at once made peace with the Milesians. MILETUS (Asia Minor). This city, sup- posed to have been peopled by Carians at an u u 2 MILEVIS [ 660 ] MILL arly period, passed through the hands of everal tribes, and was seized by the lonians, who massacred all the women. Gold coins are said to have been struck here B.C. 800. The inhabitants carried 011 war against the Lydians B.C. 623612. They rose against the Persians B.C. 500, and, after sustaining several defeats, their city was taken B.C. 494, and the inhabitants were carried to Ampe, on the banks of the Tigris. Miletus regained its indepen- dence after the battle of Mycale (q. v.), B.C. 479, and soon after joined the Athenians. Alexander III. (the Great) took the city by assault B.C. 334. It was visited by the Apostle Paul (Acts xx. 17), who summoned the elders of the Church of Ephesus to meet him here in April, B.C. 56, and it was an early see of the Christian Church. MILEVIS (Africa). Councils were held here Avig. 27, 402, and in 416. The French took pos- session of the town, now called Milah, in 1838. MILFORD (Wales). This town, founded in 1790, is connected with London by the South Wales Railway. The church was erected in 1805. The naval establishments were removed to Pembroke in 1814. MILFORD HAVEN (Wales) is an arm of the sea, with deep water and excellent anchorage, capable of sheltering the whole of the British navy. Here Richard II. embarked on his ex- pedition to Ireland in May, 1399. A French fleet, carrying troops intended to assist O\ven Glendower in his opposition to Henry IV., arrived here in 1407. The Earl of Richmond, afterwards Henry VII., who sailed from Jlur- fleur Aug. i, 1485, landed at Milford Haven Aug. 7. Two lighthouses were erected on St. Ann's Head in 1800. The Great K.sburg ascended the throne in 1273, the minnesingers begun to decline. One of the most celebrated minnesingers was Walther von der Vogelweide (1190 1240), who went to the crusades in 1197. Whilst a child he wrote many "lays," one a song of triumph on the coronation of Philip II. at Mentz, in 1198. He assisted as a principal at the famous conten- tion of minnesingers, or poetic battle of Eise- nach, in 1207. (tire MEISTKUSINGERS.) MINNESOTA (N. America) was erected into a territory March 3, 1849, the portion west of the Mississippi having previously formed a part of the territory of Iowa, and that east of the Mississippi a part of Wisconsin. In 1850 it was divided into nine counties. MINOA. (See HERACLKA.) MINORCA, or MENORCA (Mediterranean), the second in size of the Balearic Isles (q. v.), colonized by the Phoenicians at an early period, passed successively under the sway of the Car- thaginians, the Romans, the Vandals, and the Arabs, The Genoese took it in 1146, and in 1229 it was conquered by Don James of Ara- gon ; and in 1287 by Alphonso III., his grand- son, who reduced the Moors to slavery. The English under the Earl of Stanhope captured it Sep. 30, 1708, and held possession, in which they were confirmed by the treaty of Utrecht, April ii, 1713, till June 29, 1756, when it capi- tulated to the French. It was restored to the English at the peace of Paris, Feb. 10, 1763. The French and Spaniards took it Feb. 5, 1782, and the English recaptured it Nov. 15, 1798. It was finally ceded to Spain at the peace of Amiens, March 25, 1802. MINORITES, or MINOR FRIARS. (See CAPUCHINS and FRANCISCANS.) MINSTRELS, described by Percy as "an MINT [ 663 ] MISRULE order of men in the Middle Ages who sub sisted by the arts of poetry and music, an sang to the harp verses composed by them selves or others," called by the monkish his torians joculatores, mimi, and jestours, wen the real successors of the ancient bards Richard I. (1189 99) was a great patron of th minstrels, and his exploits furnished, theme for their lays. It is recorded that in 1374 six minstrels performed at Winchester on the anniversary of Alwyne the bishop. John o Gaunt, in 1380, had a court of minstrels a' Tutbury, and Henry V. was accompanied on his voyage to France in 1415 by 18 minstrels An ordinance was passed in 1456 for the im pressment of youths to supply vacancies bj death amongst the king's minstrels. They found free access amongst all classes as late as the reign of Henry VIII. (150947). A Welsh minstrel was executed for singing a prophecy against Henry VIII., July i, 1541. They afterwards became neglected, and when Elizabeth was entertained at Kenilworth Castle, in 1575, the appearance of a minstrel excited much wonder. By some authorities the decline of the minstrel's art is attributed to the statute 39 Eliz. c. 4 (1597), which included minstrels amongst rogues, vagabonds, and sturdy beggars, and adjudged them to be punished accordingly. MINT. The honour of first establishing a system of metallic currency is ascribed to the Greeks, about the 8th or gth century before Christ. At Home, the mint operations were carried on in the temple of Juno Moneta, or the Adviser. The mint officers formed a cor- poration. It was worked, in the time of the republic, by public slaves ; but freedmen were employed by Julius Caesar (B.C. 60 March 15, 44). The Gothic kings of Rome improved the status of the superior officers. In 274 the workmen rose in rebellion because Aurelian introduced some reforms in the management, and the lives of 7,000 of the Roman soldiery were sacrificed in putting down the disturb- ance. The mints of the Anglo-Saxons were superintended by " moneyers." Barons and bishops were permitted the privilege of issuing coins, and provincial towns of importance were likewise allowed to establish mints. In 1279 the various mints in England were placed under one master. Many privileges, granted by Edward 1. (1272 1307) and his successors to the officers of the mint, have been gradually withdrawn, and are now abolished. In 1643 a mint was established at New Inn Hall, Oxford, where the plate of the colleges was coined to enable Charles I. to provide the means of carrying on hostile operations against the Par- liament. In 1695 there were mints at York, Bristol, Chester, Exeter, and Norwich. The management of the mint was entirely re- modelled by 7 Will. IV. &; i Viet. c. 9 (April 21, 1837). The new building was completed in 1811. MINUET. This dance, said to have been invented in the province of Poitou, in France, and first danced at Paris by Louis XIV. in 1653, was introduced from that country into England in the i8th century. MIRACLE PLAYS. These dramatic enter- tainments were generally founded upon the legendary histories of the saints, thus differ- ing from the mediaeval Mystery Plays (q. v.), which were based on Biblical subjects. A miracle play on the life of St. Catherine was performed at Dunstable late in the nth or early in the i2th centuiy. Pope Urban IV., in establishing the Corpus Christ! festival, about 1264, sanctioned the representation of theso dramas as one of its adjuncts, and they con- tinued popular in England throughout the i5th and following centuries. MIRANDA (Portugal). This bishopric, founded at a very early period, was united with that of Braganga in 1782. MIRANDOLA (Italy). This small town, in Modena, once the capital of a duchy, was cap- tured by the papal forces, after a short siege, Jan. 20, 1511. It was taken in 1707 by the Imperialists, who sold it to the Duke of Modena, and its fortifications were demo- lished in 1746. MIRRORS. (See BURNING, CRYSTAL, LOOK- ING GLASSES, eginning their rule on Allhallow-eve, con- inued the same till the morrow after the east of Purification, commonly called Candle- nas Day." The lord of misrule went under ifferent titles in other countries (See ABBOT MISSAL [ 664 ] MTSSOLONGHI OF FOOLS, &c.), and is not heard of in Eng- land after 1640. MISSAL. (See MASS-BOOK.) MISSIONARY BISHOPS exercise jurisdic- tion over the missionary and other enterprises of the Church of England in places not under British government : A.D. 1841. Jerusalem. i86r. Honolulu, Sandwich Islands. 1861. Melanesian, or South Pacific Isles. 1863. Orange Hiver Territory. 1863. Central Africa. 1864. Africa, Niger Territory. MISSIONARY AND MISSION. In accord- ance with the command given by our Saviour to his disciples when he appeared to them after the resurrection (Mark xvi. 15), " Go ye into all the world, and preach the gospel to every creature," Christian missionaries were sent forth during the ist century. St. Paul, and John the beloved disciple, who flourished about 52, were amongst the first Christian missionaries. Eusebius declares that in the 2nd century the followers of the apostles went forth into distant lands to preach the Gospel ; and in the 3rd and 4th centuries mis- sions spread rapidly. Ulphilas went on a mission amongst the Goths of Moesia about 360. St. Patrick visited Ireland in the sth century ; and Gregory the Great sent a number of Benedictine monks as missionaries to Mri- tain in the 6th century. Marco Polo introduced Christian missionaries into China in 1275. The Portuguese in 1490 and subsequent years sent missionaries to Abyssinia ; and on the discovery of America, missions were sent to all the different European settlements. During the 1 6th century the Romish Church made great exertions for the propagation of the Roman Catholic religion; and in 1549 Xavier landed in Japan, and founded a mission there. Other Roman Catholic missionaries penetrated into Chili and Peru in 1580. The Dutch, in 1621, sent missions to Amboyna. In 1622, Gregory XV. established a congregation of cardinals, for the purpose of forwarding the missionary work ; and in 1627 Urban VIII. added a col- lege, in which missionaries were taught the languages of the countries to which they were to be sent. MISSIONARY RIDGE (Battle). -The Confe- derates were defeated by the Federals, after a severe struggle, at this place, in Tennessee, Nov. 25, 1863. MISSIONARY SOCIETIES. The first mis- sionary society established in London was made a corporation, under the name of " The President and Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in New England, and the parts adjacent in North America," by an ordinance of Parliament, July 27, 1649. The following lists contain the dates of the establishment of the principal missionary societies in England and on the continent : ENGLISH MISSIONARY SOCIETIES. A.T). 1701, June 16. Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Tarts. 1-732. Mora-rlanMissions. 1786. Methodist Missionary Society. 179?. Baptist Missionary Society. A.D. 795. London Missionary Society. 796. Glasgow Missionary Society. 1796. Methodist New Connection. 1796. Scottish Missionary Society. 1797. Baptist Home Missionary- Society. 799. Church of England Missionary Society. 809. London Society for Promoting Christianity among the Jews. 810. Primitive Methodist Missionary Society. 1816. General Baptist Missionary Society. 1816. Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Society. 1819. Home Missionary Society. 1825. General Assembly of the Church of Scotland. 1830. Church of Scotland Mission. 1835. United I'reshyterian Synod. 1836. Colonial Missionary Society. 836. London City Mission. 1837. Town Missionary and Scripture Readers' Associa- tion. 1840. Welsh Foreign Missionary Society. 1840. General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church of Ireland. 1843. British Society for the Propagation of the Gospel among the Jews. 1842. Reformed Presbyterian Synod. 1843. General Assembly of the Free Church of Scotland. [844. Patagonian Missionary Society. 1844. Presbyterian (Free) Churchin England. 1844. Thames Church Mission. 1845. Naval Missionary Society for the Loochoo Islands. 1849. Society for Irish Church Missions to the Roman Catholics 1850. Chinese Kvangelizntinn Society. 1853. Society for English Church Missions to the Roman Catholics. 1853. Open Air Missions. CONTINENTAL, MISSIONARY SOCIETIES. 1714. Royal Danish Mission College. 1732. United Brethren. 1797. Netherlands Missionary Society. 1831. German Missionary Society. 1822. Paris Society for Kvangelieal Missions. 1828. Rhenish Missionary Society. 1833. Berlin Missionary Society. i35. Swedish Missionary- Society (Stockholm). 1836. Evangelical Lutheran Missionary Society. 1836. Gossner's Missionary Society. 1836. North C'.erman Missionary Society. 1842. Norwegian. 1x46. Swedish Missionary Society (Lund). 1850. Berlin Missionary Union for China. (See BIBLE SOCIETIES.) MISSISSIPPI (N. America). De Soto was the first who traversed this region, in 1542 ; and La Salle visited it in 1681. The French made the first settlements in 1698, under D'Iberville, on Ship Island: and in 1700 some Jesuit missionaries were found here. The northern portion of Mississippi was ceded to England by France in 1763. With Alabama it was formed into a territory in 1798. A sepa- ration ensued in 1817, when Mississippi was admitted to the Union as an independent state. It seceded Jan. 9, 1861. MISSISSIPPI SCHEME. (See LAW'S BANK.) MISSOLONGHI, or MESOLONGHI (Greece). This small town became celebrated for the sieges it sustained against the Turks during the war of Greek independence. The Greeks having carried it by storm Nov. i, 1821, the Turks laid siege to it in Oct., 1822. The assault, six times renewed, was repulsed Jan. 5, 1823, and the Turks were compelled to retreat Jan. 27. Lord Byron died here April 19, 1824. The Turkish army returned April 17, 1825, and commenced the bombardment May 7. They received a considerable reinforcement July 10 ; but after making the most extraordinary MISSOURI [ 665 ] MOABITES efforts, were compelled to suspend operations in October. The blockade was renewed in November, and another bombai-dment com- menced Jan. 25, 1826. The garrison, driven to extremities, boldly cut their way through the besieging forces, and the town was captured April 22. The Greeks wrested it from the Turks in 1829, and it was included in the new kingdom of Greece. MISSOURI (N. America). The French worked the Missouri lead-mines in 1720 ; but no permanent settlement was made before 1755, when St. Genevieve was founded. The region now called Missouri was formerly known as Upper Louisiana. Louisiana, on its cession to the United States in 1803, was divided into two governments, viz. Louisiana and Louisiana territory. In 1812 the latter name was changed into Missouri. Application was made in 1817 for its admission as a state into the Federal union. This met with serious opposition on account of its slaves, and it was not admitted until 1821, and then only on the condition that slavery should be recognized in Missouri, but in no other state north of latitude 36 30'. It was very much divided on the outbreak of the civil war in 1861. MISSOURI COMPROMISE, drawn up by Mr. Clay, enacted that slavery should not be re- cognized, except in Missouri, north of latitude 36 30', and passed the United States congress in Feb., 1820. This compromise, after having existed above 30 years, was repealed in 1854, when the inhabitants of every state were left free to regulate their own domestic institu- tions, subject only to the constitution of the United States. MISSOURI, or MUD RIVER (N. America), was explored to its sources by Lewis and Clarke in 1 804-6. MISSUNDE (Battle). The Danes repulsed the Prussians here after a severe struggle during the Sleswig-Holstein war, Feb. 2, 1864. MISTLETOE, or MISLETOE. This para- sitical plant, which grows upon the oak and other trees, was regarded with peculiar ven- eration by the Druids (q. v.). Mistletoe was found growing upon an oak at Ledbury, in Herefordshire, in 1829; and a specimen on an oak -branch was exhibited at the Horticul- tural Society in London, April 4, 1837. This established the fact, long doubted, that the mistletoe grows upon the oak as well as upon other trees. MITHRIDATE, a preparation in the form of an electuary, supposed to be the oldest com- pound known, is said to have been invented B.C. 70, by Damocrates, physician to Mithri- dates "VI., King of Pontus, whence its name. MITHRIDATIC WARS. Mithridates VI., King of Pontus, having defeated the Roman armies in Asia, commanded all the Romans to leave the country ; but before they could do so 80,000 of them were massacred by the inhabit- ants, B.C. 88. This led to the struggle known in history as the first Mithridatic war, which lasted four years. After many battles, Mith- ridates VI. was obliged to sue for peace, B.C. 84. A second Mithridatic war, which was of short duration, broke out B.C. 83, and was brought to a close B.C. 82. The Third, or Great Mithridatic war, commenced B.C. 74. The Romans, under Lucullus, defeated Mith- ridates VI. at Cabira, B.C. 71, and again in B.C. 69 ; but in consequence of a mutiny among his troops, Lucullus was deprived of the fruits of his victories. Mithridates VI. collected another army, but the war was soon brought to a close. Mithridates VI. was totally de- feated by the Romans, under Pompey, on the banks of the Euphrates, B.C. 66. After various efforts, unwilling to fall into the hands of the enemy, he put an end to his life, B.C. 63. MITRE, the episcopal crown, or head-dress, is supposed to have been first worn by bishops about the 7th century. Cardinals wore mitres until 1245, at the Council of Lyons, where they were exchanged for hats. The English bishops wore mitres from the time of the Saxons till the Reformation. (See Ti ABA.) MITTAU, or MITAU (Russia), the capital of the province of Courland, an ancient town, founded by the Teutonic knights in 1271, was captured by Charles XII. of Sweden, in 1701. Peter I. (the Great) seized the town Sep. 14, 1705, and the citadel surrendered on the same day. The castle was erected in 1739. The town was nearly destroyed by fire in 1788, and it was annexed to Russia in 1795. Louis XVIII. resided here from 1797 to 1807. MITYLENE (Sea-fight). During the war of independence, the Turkish and Greek squad- rons fought a battle off Mitylene, Oct. 7, 1824, on which occasion the Turks were defeated and their fleet was destroyed. MITYLENE, or LESBOS (^gean Sea). Lesbos is said to have been peopled by the Pelasgians, who were followed by the lonians and the ^Eolians. It was made a Roman pro- vince about B.C. 48; and during the Middle Ages received the name of Mitylene, from its chief city. Mohammed II. conquered it and annexed it to the Turkish empire, in 1462. MITYLENE, or MYTILENE, the chief town of the island of Mitylene, or Lesbos, is first mentioned in history during the struggle between the ^olians and the Athenians, for the possession of Sigeum, B.C. 606. It re- volted against the Athenians, B.C. 428. The Venetians captured it in 1185, and the Turks U1 MIXED, or SEMI-NORMAN. (-See GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE.) MIYANL (See MEEANEE, Battle.) MNEMONICS, or MNEMOTECHNY, the science of artificial memory, was introduced by Simonides the younger, B.C. 477. Richard Grey, rector of Hinton in Northamptonshire, wrote a work on the subject, entitled " Memoria Technica, or a New Mode of Arti- ficial Memory," published in 1730. MOABITES. The descendants of Moab, the offspring of Lot's incestuous connection with his eldest daughter (Gen. xix. 37), B.C. 1897, dwelt in the land of Ar, from which they expelled the Emims, a race of giants (Deut. ii. 9 n). The Israelites occupied part of the country, and Eglon, its king, oppressed them for the space of 18 years (Judges iii. 12, &c.) B.C. 1343. David subdued the Moabites (2 Sam. viii. i & 2) B.C. 1040, and they invaded Israel B.C. 835. (See KIR OF MOAB.) MOBILE t 666 ] MOHAMMEDANISM MOBILE (N. America). A town with this name was founded at the mouth of Dog river, by Bienville, in 1702. It was almost destroyed by inundations, and another town, at the mouth of Mobile river, was founded in 1711. Mobile was ceded to England by the French r,t the peace of Paris, Feb. 10, 1763. The Spaniards captured it in 1780, and it was ceded by them to the United States in 1813. Farra- gut defeated the Confederate fleet in Mobile Bay, Aug. 5, 1864. MOCKERN (Battles). Wittgenstein, in command of a Russian army, defeated the French, under the Viceroy Eugene Beauharnais, at this place, near Leipsic, April 5, 1813. Blucher, at the head of the Prussians, with some Russian and German allies, defeated the French here, commanded by Ney, Oct. 16, 1813. It was one of the combats in the great battle of Lcip.sic. MODELS. The Greeks attributed the invention of the art of modelling to a potter of Sicyon, named Dilmtades. They relate that his daughter, on the eve .of parting from her lover at Corinth, remarked the shadow of his profile projected on a wall, and traced its outline, thereby producing the first attempt at portrait-painting. Her f.Jh; T i- >;:AKA D. (See MOORHHEDABAD.) MURVIBDRO .Spain .The ancient Saguii- tuin, taken by the Arabs in 713, was recovered by the Spaniards in 1238, besieged by the French under Suchet in Sep., iSn. Blake was defeated in an attempt to raise the siege, Oct. 25. It surrendered Jan. 9, 1812. The French were compelled to retire in June. MUSCAT 'Arabia), the capital of the pro- vince taken by Albuquerque in 1507, was held by the Portuguese till 1648, when the Arabs regained possession. A treaty having reference to the Slave Trade with Great Britain, was signed at Muscat, Sep. 10, 1822, and an ad- ditional article Dec. 17, 1839. A treaty of com- merce and navigation was concluded with the United States at Muscat, March 21, 1833. MUSEUM. Tl:e first institution with this name was founded at Alexandria, about B.C. 280, by Ptolemy (II.) Philadelphia, and was enlarged by Claudius I. (41 54). It was set apart for the worship of the Muses and the cultivation of science. (See ASHMOLEAN, BRI- TISH, I'Yrzwii.LiAM MCSKUM, ivc.) MUSIC. Jubal, the son of Lamcch, was " the father of all such as handle the harp and the organ," Gen. iv. 21 (B.C. 3874). The mythi- cal Orpheus is said to have flourished B.C. 1260. The Greeks and Romans were the only ancient people who possessed a knowledge of musical characters. Lasus of Hermione, in Argos, who flourished B.C. 548, was the first who wrote on the theory of music, and Aristoxenus (B.C. 335) is the most ancient author on the subject whose works are extant. A.D. 374 97. Introduction of the Ambrosian chant. 600. Introduction of the Gregorian chant. 886. Alfred the Great is said to have appointed a musi- cal professorship at Oxford. 1034. Guido Aretinus invents a scale of six notes, and introduces the use of cleffs or cliffs. 10^3. Franco, of Liege, invents metrical music. 1463. Doctors and bachelors of music first mentioned at Cambridge University. 1495. The art of printing music is introduced into Eng- land. 1515. Music printing from metal types is invented by Uttavio de Petrucci. 4350. The Common Prayer of the Church of England is set to music by John Marbeck. 1565. The Accademia degli Filarmonici is established before this year, at Vicenza. 1600. Jacopo Peri invents recitative about this time. 1604. James I. incorporates the Musicians' Company of London. 1605. Ludovieo Viadann invents thorough bass. 1650. The use of bars in music becomes general, and; sonatas are introduced. .1653. A Venetian lady named Barbara Strozzi invents the cantata. 1669, June 2S. Louis XIV. sanctions the establishment of a French Koyal Academy of Music. 1710. George Frederick Handel lirst visits England. (See OIJATORIO.) The Academy of Ancient Music is founded at London. r-738. The Roval Society of Musicians is founded. 1741. The Madrigal Society is founded at London. 1704. Young Mozart visits London. 1791. Haydn visits London. 1833. The Koyal Academy of Music of London is founded. 1860, June 5. The Society of Arts' committee appointed to decide on a uniform musical pitch present their report. (See CONCERT, HANDEL COMMEMORATIONS, LOGIERIAN SYSTEM, OPERA, ORGAN, May 10. The infant Don Carlos enters the Nea- politan kingdom with a force of 30,000 men. May 27- His generals defeat the Imperialists at the battle of Bitonto, which puts an end to the Austrian dominion in Naples. 1735, July 3. Don Carlos is crowned King of the Two Sicilies at Palermo, with the understanding that the crowns of Spain and the Two Sicilies are never to be united. 1738, July 6. Institution of the order of St. Januarius. 1743. Naples is advised by England to preserve neutrality in the war of the Austrian succession. 1759. The King of Naples, succeeding to the throne of Spain, resigns the crown of Naples and Sicily to his son Ferdinand. 1768. The Jesuits are expelled. 1782. The Inquisition is abolished. 1784. Many monasteries are suppressed. 1785. Baro'niul service is abolished. 1788. Naples ceases to be in feudal subjection to Rome. 1793, Sep. 3. War is declared against the French republic. 1796, Oct. ii. Peace is concluded at Paris between Naples and France. 1798, Nov. 29. Ferdinand IV., having published a mani- festo against the French, marches against them in Italy, and enters Rome. 1799, Jan. 4. The French take Gaeta, Jan. 14. On the approach of the French, Ferdinand IV. deserts his capital. Jan. 23. Parthenopean republic is established. June 26. Nelson takes Naples from the French, and hangs Prince Caracciolo. July 12. Fort St. Elmo surrenders to Capt. Troubridge. Aug. 12- The Neapolitans take Rome. 1801, March 28. Peace is concluded with France by the treaty of Florence. 1805, July 26. An earthquake destroys 20,000 lives. Sep. 21. A treaty with France is concluded at Paris, by which Naples agrees to maintain neutrality in the Italian wars, and Napoleon I. consents to withdraw his troops from the Neapolitan states. Dec. 27. Ferdinand IV. is dethroned. 1806, Feb. 8. The French enter Naples. Feb. 15. Joseph Buonaparte is crowned king. July 4. Sir John Stuart defeats the French at Maida. 1808, July 15. Joachim Murat is made king. 1810, July 20. The English take a Neapolitan squadron. 1814. Jan. ii. Murat concludes an nlliance with Austria. Feb. 3. A truce is concluded with the English. 1815. April 10. Austria declares war against Naples. May3- Murat is defeated by the Austrian* at 1 olentino. May 16. Murat flees from Italy. May 20. Tke convention of Casa Lanzi (q. .). June 17. Ferdinand IV. is restored to the throne under the title of Ferdinand I., King of the Two Sicilies. Oct. 8. Murat lands in Calabria with 30 friends, and attempts to recover his throne. Oct. 13. Being taken, he is tried by court-martial, and shot. 1816. A treaty is concluded wit'i Great Britain. 1820, July 13. Gen. Pepe, who heads an insurrection of the Carbonari (q. .), compels the king to grant a new constitution. 1831. The Austiians invade Naples. March 7. They defeat Pepe at Rieti. March 19. Pep_e flees to Barcelona. March 20. Naples capitulates. March 23. A convention is signed for the occu- pation of Naples by the Austrians, and a pro- visional government is appointed. May 15. Fer- dinand I. re-enters his capital. 1825, Jan. 4. Death of Ferdinand I. The Austrian army of occupation is diminished in number. 1827, June. Destructive inundations. 1838. An insurrection of the Carbonari is suppressed. Aug. 23 to 29. A Neapolitan squadron bombards Tripoli without success. 1838, June. Ferdinand II. (Bomba) grants the monopoly of Sicilian sulphur to a private company, in oppo- sition to the treaty of 1816. 1840, April 17. In consequence of the refusal of Ferdi- nand II. to discontinue the monopoly, the English commence hostilities. May. The monopoly is abolished, and peace is restored. 1847, Sep. Numerous insurrections in Calabria and Sicily. 1848, Jan. 28. Ferdinand II. promises to grant a consti- tution. May 15. KiOts in Naples, in which the Lazzaroni assist the military against the revo- lutionists. 1849, Sep. 4. Pius IX. visits Ferdinand II. at Portici. 1856, Oct. The French and English ambassadors are re- called from Naples, owing to the refusal of Fer- dinand II. to attend to the remonstrances of their governments on his oppressive government. Dec. 8. Milano attempts the king's life. 1857, June 27. (See CAGLIARI AFFAIR.) Dec. 16. An earthquake destroys about 10,000 lives. 1858, Dec. 27. A political amnesty is granted. 1859, March 7. Baron Poerio, with 68 Neapolitan exiles, arrives in Queenstown, Ireland. May 22. Death of Ferdinand II. June 16. Another amnesty is proclaimed. July 7. Revolt of the Swiss troops at Naples. 1860, March 26. The foreign ambassadors at the Nea- politan court present an address to Francis II., recommending political reforms. May 14. Gari- baldi assumes the dictatorship of Sicily (q. v.). June 7. Napoleon III. refuses to mediate be- tween Francis II. and the Sicilian revolutionists. June 26. Francis II. proclaims a general am- nesty, promises a liberal ministry, agreement with Sardinia, the adoption of the national flag, and a vice-regal and liberal government for Sicily. June 27. The French ambassador, Baron Brenier, is wounded by the mob. June 28. A liberal ministry is formed. Naples is declared in a state of siege, and the queen-mother flees to Gaeta. July 10. The troops attempt a revolt against the constitution, and proclaim Count Trani king, as Louis I. Aug. 10. Prince Lucien Murat asserts his claim to the throne of Naples. Aug. 17. The Neapolitan provinces rebel. Aug. 19. Garibaldi lands in Naples, and occupies Reggio. Aug. 21. The fort of Reggio surrenders to him. Aug. 27. Garibaldi accepts the title of dictator of the Two Sicilies. Sep. 6. Francis II. leaves Naples for Gaeta. Sep. 7. Garibaldi enters Naples. Sep. 15. He expels the Jesuits, and declares the estates of the crown national pro- perty. Sep. 19. He defeats the royalists at Ca- jazzo. Oct. i. The Neapolitans are defeated at theVolturno. Oct. 6. The Sardinian Government announces that its army is about to enter the Nea- politan territory. Oct. 17. Defeat of the Nea- politans at Isernia. Oct. 18. Garibaldi publishes a decree stating that Naples ought to be incorpo- rated with the Italian kingdom. Oct. 21. The people vote in favour of annexation to Sardinia, the numbers being 1,310,266 for, and 10,103 against. Nov. 2- Capua surrenders to the Sardi- nians. Nov. 3. The siege of Gaeta commences. Nov. 7. Victor Emanuel of Sardinia enters Naples. Nov. 13. The English legation is sup- pressed. Nov. 14. A reaction in favour of Francis II. commences in the provinces. Nov. 27- The army of Garibaldi is disbanded. Dec. 8. Francis II. addresses a conciliatory proclamation to th Neapolitans. NAPLES t 686 ] NAPLES 1861, Jan. 3. Prince Carigiian is named governor-general. Jan. 15. The Bourbon army, under Gen. Lovera, defeats the Sardinians near Tagliacozzo. Feb. 14. Gaeta surrenders to Gen. Cialdini, and Francis II. and the queen retreat thence to Koine. April 5. Francis II. protests from Koine against Victor Emanuel's assumption of the title of '-King- of Italy." June. Attempts are made to restore Francis II. 1863, May 18. The first stone of a new harbour is laid by Victor Emanuel. Dec. 15. The urst stone of an English Protestant church is laid. RULERS OF NAPLES AND SICILY. 1043. William I. 1046. Drogo. 1051. Hunafrey. COUNTS OF APULIA. 1054. Robert Guiscard. 1085. Roger I. 107?. Roger I. COUNTS OF SlflLT. | 1 101. Roger II. KINGS OF NAPLKS AM) SICILY. 1 130. Roger II. 1154. William I. iiM>. Wiiiiam II. 1180. Tailored. 1194. William III. 1194. Henry VI. of Germany. 1197. Frederick I. 1250. Conrad I. 1^54. Conrad II., or Con- radin. 1258. Manfred. 1266. Charles of Anjou. KINGS OF NAPLES. 1283. Charles of Anjou. 1385. Chnik-sII. 1309. Kobert. 1343. Joanna I. 1382. Charles III. of Du- ra /./.n. 1386. Ladislaiis. 1414. Joanna II. 1435. Alphonso I., King of -icily, and Aragon. 145 s . F'Tdinand I. t4')4- Alp!' 1495. Ferdinand II. 1496. Frederick II. KINGS OF SICILY. 1283. Peter I. (the Great). 1285. James I. 1295. Interregnum. 1296. Frederick II. 1337. Peter II. 1342. Louis I. I35S- Frederick III. 1377. Mary. 1391. Mary and Martin I. 1402. Martin I. 1409. Martin II., the f'.lder. 1410. Ferdinand I., King of Ara (,'011. 1416. Alphonso I., King of Sicily, Aragon, and Naples. 1458. John of Arapm. 1479. Ferdinand II., the Catholic, of Spain. KINGS OF NAPLES, SICILY, AND SPAIN. 1503. Ferdinand III. of Na- ples (II. of Sicily). 1516. Charles I. 1556. Philip I. 1598. Philip II. 1631. Philip III. 1665. diaries II, 1700. Philip IV. 1707. Charles HI. of Aus- tria. KING OF NAPLES. 1713. Charles III. KINO OF SICILY. 1713. Victor Amadeus of Savoy. 1720. Charles III. (VI. of Germany). KINGS OF THE TWO SICILIES. 1735. Charles III., Don Carlos. 1759. Ferdinand IV. of Naples (III. of Sicily). KINGS OF NAPLES. 1806. Joseph Buonaparte. | 1808. Joachim Murat. KING OF SICILY. 1806. Ferdinand III. KINGS OF THE TWO SICILIES. 1815. Ferdinand I. (IV.) re- 1859. Francis II. 1826. Francis I. [stored. 1861. Victor Emanuel, 1830. Ferdinand II. King of Italv. NAPLES (Italy). This city was founded by a colony of Cumseans, by whom it was termed Parthenope, about B.C. 1030. About B.C. 416, its inhabitants separated into two commu- nities, who occupied different quarters of the city, distinguished as Palaepolis, or the old town, and Neapolis, or the new town. From the latter designation is derived the modern title of the city. In consequence of tho piracies of the Paljepolitans, the Romans be- sieged and took the city, B.C. 326, and from that period the name Palseipolis disappears from history. Neapolis was admitted to Roman protection, and became a dependency of tho republic. Pyrrhus threatened the city B.C. 280, and it was sacked by^the partisans of Sylla B.C. 82. The poet Virgil was buried here B.C. 19, and the city became a favourite summer water- ing-place of the wealthy Romans. It had its schools and colleges, and was called the learned. The Quinquennalian games (<}. v.) were cele- brated every fifth year. The Emperor Nero made his rirst appearance as an actor at Naples in 64. Theodoric I. (the Great) took the city in 493, and it was captured by Bclisarius, after a long siege, in 536. Totila retook it in 543, it sur- rendered to Narses in 553, and was definitely united to the Eastern empire. In 572 it became a duchy. It was ravaged by the plague in 1020, and in 1139 was made the capital of the kingdom of Naples. Among the most im- portant public buildingsat Naples are, the uni- versity, founded by the Emperor Frederick II. in 1224; the cathedral, commenced in 1272, and completed in 1316 ; the Castel Nuovo, built by Charles I. in 1283 ; the Museo BorbonicO, founded as cavalry barracks in 1586, and con- verted to its present purpose in 1 790 ; the royal palace, begun in 1600, burned down in 1837, and rebuilt and greatly enlarged ; the Teatro Reale di San Carlo, which was opened in 1737, and burned and rebuilt in 1816. The bishopric of Naples is said to have been founded by St. Aspernus, who was consecrated by St. Peter, in 44. It became metropolitan in 966. Councils were held at Naples in 1565, 1568, and 1576. Naples was taken by Manfred in 1250, and by Louis I. of Hungary in 1347 ; it was retaken by John I. in 1348. Louis I. of Anjou seized it in 1383 ; Rene" of Anjou in 1438 ; Alphonso V. of Aragon in 1442 ; and Charles VIII. of France in 1494. It was also taken by the French in 1501, and by the Spaniards in 1503. The French general Lau- trec was compelled to raise the siege in 1528. In 1647 the city was the scene of Masaniello's insurrection, and it was much injured by an earthquake Sep. 8, 1694. It was taken by the Austrians in 1707, submitted to Don Carlos in 1734, and was made the capital of the French Parthenopean republic in 1799. Jo- seph Buonaparte made his entry into Naples in 1806, and resided here till he went to ascend the Spanish throne in 1808. Ferdinand IV. re-entered the city as king in 1815. The rail- way to Nocera was opened in 1839. Naples was again the scene of insurrections in 1848. It was declared in a state of siege June 28, 1860. Francis II. quitted Naples Sep. 6, and it was entered by Garibaldi Sep. 7. Victor Emanuel made his official entry Nov. 7. Popu- NAPLES NATAL lar demonstrations were made in favour of Francis II. Nov. 14. Victor Emanuel returned to Turin Dec. 27. NAPLES (Treaties). Several treaties have been signed here, the principal being A.D. 1759, Oct. 3. With Austria. 1793, July 12,. Alliance with Great Britain. 1-798, Dec. I. Alliance with Great Britain. 1803, June 35. With^the French Republic. 1-14, Jan. ii. Alliance with Austria. 1831, Oct. 31. Military convention with Austria, Prussia, and Russia, for the occupation of Sicily. 1838, Feb. 14. A convention on the slave trade, with Great Britain and France. 1845, April 29. Commerce and navigation with Great Britain. June 14. Commerce and navigation with France. S-'ep. 1301-35. Commerce and navigation with Russia. Dec. I. Commerce and Navigation with United States. 1846, Jan. 13. Commerce and navigation with Denmark. Feb. 7. Commerce and navigation with Sar- dinia. July 4. Commerce and navigation with Austria. 1847, Jan. 37. Commerce and navigation with Prussia. April 15. Commerce and navigation with Belgium. Nov. 17. Commerce and navigation with Hol- land. NAPOLEON. (See Louis D'On.) NAPOLI-DI-ROMANIA (Greece), the ancient Nauplia, founded by an Egyptian colony, was taken by the Argives in the 7th century B.C. It grew into importance during the crusades, and was taken by the Franks in 1205, and made the capital of a duchy. The Venetians took it in the i4th century, and ceded it to the Turks in 1540. The Venetians regained pos- session in 1686, and it was stormed by the Turks July 4, 1715. The Greeks, who failed in an attempt to take it by escalade, Dec. 15, 1821, having been compelled to withdraw, returned and captured it, Dec. 12, 1823. The seat of government, transferred to Napoli-di- Romania June 24, 1824, was removed to Argos in 1829. Capo d'Istrias was assassinated here Oct. 9, 1831. The town and fort of Napoli, seized by insurgents Feb. 13, 1862, were re- covered by the royal troops March 13. NAPPAGH FLEET. (See DEFENDERS.) NARBONNE (France), the ancient Narbo Martius, was the second colony founded by the Romans beyond the Alps, B.C. 118. Some of Caesar's tenth legion settled here, and it was then called Decumanorum Colonia. It became the capital of Gallia Narbonensis in 309, fell into the hands of the Visigoths in 462, who made it the capital of their kingdom ; and it was captured by the Saracens in 720, from whom it was taken by Pepin le Bref in 759, and annexed to the Prankish monarchy. The Northmen captured it in 859. In 1272 the cathedral, one of the finest specimens of Gothic architecture in Europe, was founded. In 1310, 30,000 of its inhabitants perished by the plague. It was successfully defended by Ayrneri III., Viscount of Narbonne, against the attacks of the Black Prince in 1355, and it was annexed to the crown of France in 1507. In the religious wars of this century, Nar- bonne sided with the League, but in 1596 sub- mitted to Henry IV. Councils were held here Nov. i, 589; June 27, 791 ; March 27, 947; in 990 ; March 17 and Aug. 8, 1043 '> m 1054 ; Oct. i, 1055 ; March 19, 1091 ; in Jan., 1211 ; in 1227 ; in 1235 ; and in April, 1374. NARCEIA. Pelletier produced this alkali from opium, in 1832. NARENTA (Bosnia). This town during the zoth century was inhabited by pirates, who were almost exterminated by the Venetians in 997. (See MYCOLE.) NARVA (Russia). This town, founded in 1213, and sold to the Teutonic knights in 1346, was taken by Ivan II. in 1553. The Swedes recaptured it in 1581. Charles XII. of Sweden, with 8,000 men, attacked the intrenched camp of the Russian army (which had been besieging Narva), and gained a complete victory, Nov. 30, 1700. No less than 18,000 Russians fell in the battle, and 30,000 surrendered themselves prisoners on the following day. The Swedes lost only 600 men. Peter I. (the Great) fled in consternation, leaving to his generals the com- mand of the army. The town was taken by storm by Peter I., Aug. 20, 1704, and it has since remained in the hands of the Russians. NASEBY (Battle), was fought at this village, near Market-Harborough, in Northampton- shire, June 14, 1645, between the Royalists and the Parliamentary army. The latter gained a complete victory, taking 500 officers and 4,000 men prisoners, with all the king's artillery and ammunition. NASHVILLE (Battle). Gen. Thomas de- feated the Confederate forces of Gen. Hood, at this place, Dec. 16, 1864. NASHVILLE (N. America), the capital of the state of Tennessee, contains a university, founded in 1806. Nashville, occupied by the Confederates in 1861, was captured by the Federalists Feb. 25, 1862. The Fenian senate assembled here Feb. 19, 1866. NASSAU (Germany) derives its name from the castle of Nassau, built in the beginning of the i2th century. In 1255 Walram I. and Otho, the sons of Henry the Rich, shared the terri- tory between them. The former became the founder of the present family of Nassau, and the descendants of Otho were the founders of the house of Orange-Nassau, of which William III. of England was a member. In 1605 Louis II. became possessed of all the lands belonging to the elder branch of the family. At his death in 1625, the family was divided into three branches, which, however, had been reunited into one when Napoleon I. founded the Con- federation of the Rhine in 1806, and bestowed the title of duke upon Frederick William. It was occupied by the Prussians and annexed to Prussia in 1866. NASSAU (New Providence). This town, the capital of the island (the smallest of the Ba- hama group), having been destroyed by the French and Spaniards in 1703, and resettled in 1718, was fortified in 1740, and declared a free port in 1787. A museum and library were established in 1847, and improvements were commenced in the harbour in 1848. The town suffered severely from a tornado March 30, 1850. It was made a bishop's see in 1861. During the American civil war, 1861 5, it was used as a harbour for blockade-runners. NATAL (Africa). The Portuguese discovered this country in 1498, and gave it the name of Natal, because they landed on Christmas Day. NATCHEZ NATIONAL ' ire races were swept away by the Zulu Cail'ros in 1810, and the English formed a settle- ment in 1824. They were joined by some Dutch Boers, who left Cape Colony in 1836, and obtained by treaty some land from Dingaan, chief of the Zulu tribes. Several of the Boers were massacred by Dingaan in 1838. They re- moved to Port Natal, and renounced their allegiance to Great Britain in 1839. A small British force was sent in 1842 from the Cape, which the Boers permitted to land, but after- wards commenced hostilities. The British maintained their position until the arrival of reinforcements, when the Boers were defeated and driven out of the territory. It was an- nexed to Cape Colony in 1844, made a separate government in 1845, and a bishopric in 1853. (See COLENSO CASE.) NATCHEZ (N. America). This city of Mis- sissippi, named after an Indian tribe, was settled by the French in 1716. The Indians destroyed it in 1729, but they were nearly ex- terminated by the French in 1730, aud the town was soon after rebuilt. NATIONAL ANTHEM. Much controversy has been excited respecting the authorship of ' God save the King." For many years it was attributed to several persons, the general opi- nion being in favour of Dr. Bull. A writer in " Notes and Queries " (2nd series, vii. 64), who favours the claim of Anthony Young, organist of All-Hallows, Barking, in the reign of James II., draws the following conclusions : " i. The tune, being in Bull's MSS., is of the time of James I. 2. That A. Young united it to a * God save the King' in the time of James II. 3. That it slept until George II., 1745. 4. That Young's granddaughter received a pension for its composition; and 5. That her granddaugh- ter, in 1789, received ,100, the proceeds thereof." Another view is, that both the words and the music were composed by Dr. Henry Carey, in honour of a birthday of George II., and were performed on such an occasion at a dinner given by the Mercers' Company in Lon- don. Henry Carey, who was a natural son of the Marquis of Halifax, was born in 1696, and died Oct. 4, 1743. NATIONAL ASSEMBLIES. A national as- sembly which commenced its sittings at Berlin, May 22, 1848, after coming in collision with the crown, was dissolved by force, Nov. 13. The deputies continued to meet, and the assembly was dissolved by royal proclamation, Dec. 5. The old German Diet at Frankfort passed a resolution, March 30, 1848, summoning a Ger- man national assembly, which met at Frank- fort in April, 1848. Its sittings were removed to Stuttgardt, in Wiirtemberg, May 30, 1849, and the assembly was dissolved by the police June 16. NATIONAL ASSEMBLY (France). This title was asstimed June 17, 1789, by the States- general of France, which had assembled at Versailles May 5. The hall of the Assembly was closed by order of Louis XVI. June 20, upon which the memljers adjourned to the Tennis-court Hall, and took an oath not to dis- solve until they had prepared and voted a constitution. Admission to the Tennis-court having been afterwards refused to them, the members met at the church of St. Louis, 'June 22. Louis XVI. reopened the Assembly June 23. The mob broke in Oct. 5, and compelled the King to remove to Paris Oct. 6. The As- sembly held its lirst meeting after the removal to Paris in the hall of the archbishop's palac.v. (Jet. 9, 1789, from which place it was trans- ferred to the Riding-school Hall, Oct. 19, 1790. Mirabeau, one of the most celebrated leaclcr.s of the Assembly, was made president Feb. i, 1 791 . It declared its sittings permanent J uly 17, 1791; but having entered into an agreement with Louis XVI., was dissolved Sep. 29, 1791. As it had framed the constitution, it is some- times called the Constituent Assembly. A new chamber, under the name of the r* Legislative Assembly, met Oct. i, 17 was dissolved in Aug., 1792. (See NATIONAL CONVENTION.) After the expulsion of Louis Philippe, the provisional government issued a decree summoning a national assembly for April 20, 1848. By a subsequent decree the elections were fixed for April 23, and th- ing was postponed till May 4. The govern- ment decided in favour of a presidency, and a single chamber consisting of 750 members, both to be elected by universal suffrage. A motion for its dissolution, May 19, 1849, was carried Feb. 14, 1850, and the new elections were fixed for May 4. The new assembly met May 28, and was dissolved Dec. 2, 1851, by Louis Napoleon, who introduced a new con- stitution. NATIONAL ASSOCIATION (France) was formed at Paris, by the extreme democratical party, in 1831. The members bound them- selves, on their life and honour, to combat the stranger and the Bourbons by all pecuniary and personal sacrifices, and to come to no ac- commodation with them, to whatever extremi- ties the country might be reduced. NATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR THE PROMOTION OF SOCIAL SCIENCE, formed under the auspices of Lord Brougham, held its first meeting at Birmingham, Oct. 12 16, 1857. Its objects are, " To aid the develop- ment of the social sciences, and to guide the public mind to the best practical means of promoting the amendment of the law, the advancement of education, the prevention and the repression of crime, the reformation of criminals, the establishment of due sanitary regulations, and the recognition of sound principles in all questions of social economy. " The annual meetings have been held at 1857, Oct. 12 16 Birmingham. 1858, Oct. ii Liverpool. 1859, Oct - I0 Bradford. 1860, Sep. 24 (ilasgo\v. 1861, Aug. 14 21 Dublin. 1862, June 613 London. 1863, Oct. 7 14 Edinburgh. 1864, Sep. 23 29 York. 1865, Oct. 4io Sheffield. 1866, Oct. 17 Manchester. NATIONAL ASSOCIATIONS. In conse- quence of the bull of Pius V. against Queen Elizabeth, April 25, 1570, absolving all her sub- jects from allegiance to her, several Roman Catholic zealots believed that in taking her life they would perform a meritorious act. NATIONAL NATIONAL She was in constant danger, and a national association, formed in London about 1582, to protect Queen Elizabeth from assassination, or to revenge her death, was legalized by 27 Eliz. c. i (1584), entitled " An Act for provision to be made for the surety of the queen's most royal person, and the continuance of the realm in peace." After the discovery of the Assassi- nation Plot (q. v.), a, similar association was formed in London, Feb. 27, 1696. The sub- scribers bound themselves to do their utmost to preserve the life of William III., or to avenge his death. Lord Keeper Somers re- moved from the commission of the peace all magistrates who refused to sign it. The asso- ciation was embodied by 7 & 8 Will. III. c. 27 (1696), by which the signature of all persons holding civil or military appointments was rendered imperative. A similar document was signed by the Irish Parliament Dec. 2, NATIONAL CLUB (London^ was founded in 1845. Its objects are to maintain the Pro- testant principles of the constitution in the administration of public affairs ; to uphold a system of national education, based on Scrip- ture ; to preserve the united Church of Eng- land and Ireland in its true Protestant faith as the established religion of the country ; to raise the moral and social condition of the people; to co-operate with all persons who hold these principles, and to present in the metropolis a central place, where they may meet, and devise the fittest means of pro- moting their common object. NATIONAL CONVENTION (France), sub- stituted for the National Legislative Assembly, met in one of the halls of the Tuileries, Sep. 21, 1792. Its sittings were afterwards trans- ferred to the Riding School. Its first act (Sep. 25) was to declare royalty abolished, and to proclaim a republic. By another decree it was ordered that the old calendar should be abandoned, and that all public acts should be dated from the first year of the French re- public. This sera began Sep. 22, 1792. It adopted a new constitution, Aug. 10, 179^. The convention sent Louis XVI. and his queen to the block, and having involved Europe in war, was dissolved Oct. 26, 1795. " The de- struction of human life," says Alison, " which took place during its government, in civil dissension, was unparalleled ; it amounted to above a million of human beings." (See NATIONAL ASSEMBLY and DIRECTORY French.) NATIONAL COVENANT. (See COVE- NANTERS.) NATIONAL DEBT. Some long annuities created by Charles II. are scarcely sufficiently important to be regarded as forming part of the English national debt, which was com- menced by William III. in 1692. A sinking fund for the gradual reduction of the national debt, a million sterling being devoted to that purpose, was proposed and carried by Pitt, March 29, 1786. As there was no surplus to meet the payment, it was determined to appropriate part of the fund to the public exigencies, March 3, 1813. The plan of keep- ing up a nominal fund was abandoned in 1824, and it was directed that one-fourth of the actual surplus revenue should in future be applied to the purpose, July 10, 1828. A.D. Period. Principal. Charges. 1689 I7o At the Revolution Queen Anne's Acces- 664,363 39,855 1714 1737 1763 1775 1784 Accession of George I... Accession of George II. Peace of Paris Commencement of Ame- rican wur Conclusion of American 54,145,363 53,093,338 138,865,430 138,583,635 3,351,353 3,3! 7,551 4,853,051 4,471,571 1793 Commencement of 1817 Conclusion of French 1859 March 31. Total debt and charge 805,078,554 38,6l3,207 NATIONAL DEBT SINCE 1860. A.D. | Funded. Unfunded. Total. 1860 1861 785,963,000 7 8 5, 119,609 16,338,300 16,689,000 803,190,300 801,808,609 1863 1863 784,353,338 783,306,739 16,517,900 16,495,400 800, 770,238 799,8o3,i39 1864 777,439,334* 13,136,000 790,565,334 58 775,768,395 777,687,734 lo,743,5oo 8,187,700 786,510,795 785,875,434 (See AIDS, BENEVOLENCE, and FUNDS.) NATIONAL GALLERY (London). In 1823 Sir George Beaumont expressed his willing- ness to present his collection of paintings to the nation, so soon as the formation of a national gallery should be decided upon. This led to the purchase of the Angerstein collection, March 26, 1824, by the Government, for 57,000. It was opened in Pall Mall, May 10, 1824, and the Beaumont pictures were added in 1825. The Rev. W. Holwell Can- bequeathed his collection of pictures to the National Gallery in 1831 ; Mr. Robert Vernon presented his in 1847 (we MARLBOROUGH HOUSE) ; Turner bequeathed some pictures in 1851, and Mr. Sheepshanks presented his valuable collection Feb. 2, 1857. A select committee of the House of Commons was appointed to inquire into the National Gallery in 1854, and the institution was reconstituted by a Treasury minute dated March 27, 1855. The building in Trafalgar Square, commenced in 1833, was completed and opened to the pub- lic in 1838. The House of Commons voted a sum of money for enlarging the National Gallery, June 19, 1865. NATIONAL GUARD (France), a kind of citizen militia, was first formed in Paris by the Committee of Public Safety in July, 1789. This force became so popular that in 1 790 it was established throughout the kingdom, and *In 1864 the sum of 5,000,000 of the Unredeemed Funded Debt was cancelled, and a Terminable Annui created in lieu thereof, under the 36 Viet. c. 35 s. 3 (J UU 9 8, 1863). Y Y NATIONAL [ 690 ] NATURALIZATION was reorganized in 1795. The command was offered, in 1796, to Napoleon Buonaparte, and refused by him. It was reorganized in 1805, 1813, and 1814 ; was disbanded by Charles X. April 13, 1827, and was re-established by the constitution of 1830. The defection of the National Guard from Louis Philippe in 1848 was one of the principal causes of his over, throw. The National Guard throughout France was reconstructed by a decree dated Jan. n, 1 NATIONAL LIFE-BOAT. (See ROYAL NATIONAL LIFEBOAT INSTITUTION.) NATIONAL POLITICAL UNION (London). This political association, formed for the purpose of giving unity to the proceedings of the various political unions throughout the country, held its first meeting in Lincoln's Imi Fields, Oct. 31, 1831, under the presidency of Sir Francis Burdett. A resolution to resist the payment of taxes until the Reform Bill was made the law of the land was passed May 9, 1 NATIONAL PORTRAIT EXHIBITION (London). Resolutions for holding an ex- hibition of English historical portraits, as suggested by the Earl of Derby, wore passed id a mooting held at the South Kensington Museum, July 13, 1865. The exhibition was opened at South Kensington, Monday, April 16, and closed Saturday, August 18, 1866. NATIONAL PORTRAIT GALLERY (London W;LS established by a warrant of the Treasury Dec. 2, 1856, when a board consist- ing of 13 trustees was appointed. The first meeting was held Feb. 9, 1857, and by a Treasury warrant, Feb. 28, George Scharf, F.S.A., was appointed secretary and keeper. Temporary apartment* were taken at 29, Great George Street, Westminster, and the collection was opened to the public, by tickets only, Jan. 15, 1859. The use of tickets was dispensed with Feb. 25, 1860. The ninth report, pre- sented April 12, 1866, gives the following return of visitors : 1859 5,305 1860 6,392 1861 10,907 1863* iy,927 NATIONAL RIFLE ASSOCIATION. A Committee for a National Volunteer Rifle Meet- ing, appointed at Ilythe Aug. i, 1859, was dis- solved Oct. 29, and the National Rifle Associa- tion, "for the encouragement of volunteer rifle corps, and the promotion of rifle shooting throughout Great Britain," was established at a meeting held at the Thatched House Tavern, St. James's, Nov. 16, 1859. Lord Herbert, the first president of the association, resigned that office Feb. 16, 1861. The annual meetings have been held at Wimbledon as follows : 1863 1865 10,475 . 14,885 . 16,643 i860, July 2 Q. J86l, July 4 13. 1863, July I 13. 1863, July 7 18. 1864, July 1233. 1863, July 1023. 1866, July 931. NATIONAL SCHOOLS, conducted on Dr. Bell's system, were founded by the National Society for promoting the Education of the Exhi'ji(ioNS. (See DITCH, LEIPSIC (Battle), and MOHAMMEDANISM.) NATIVITY. There are three ecclesiastical festivals so called. The first is to coTnmemo- rate the birth of the Saviour (see CHRISTMAS; ; the second in order of appointment is the nativity of St. John the Baptist, which was instituted in 488, and is celebrated June 24 ; and the third is the nativity of the Virgin Mary, which is observed by the Roman Catho- lic church Sep. 8, and was appointed by Pope Scr_ius 1. 1687 701). (See MARIOLATRY.) NATURAL HISTORY. Solomon "spake of trees, from the cedar-tree that is in I., even unto the hyssop that springeth out of the wall: he spake also of beasts, and of fowl, and of creeping things, and of fishes " (i Kings iv. 33), B.C. 1000. The subject was > by Aristotle (B.C. 384 322), Theophrastus (B.C. 394287), Dioscorides (4070), and by Pliny (2379). Otto Brunfels of Strasburg published a work on botany in 1530 ; and a professorship thereof was founded at Padua in 1533. Turner, an Englishman, who became Dean of Wells, published at Cologne a work on birds in 1548. The first part of Gesner's work, " The History of Animals," appeared in 1551. A history of fishes was published by Salviani in 1558 ; Ray's work on ornithology came out in 1676 ; Robert Morison of Aberdeen, who is styled by Hallam "the founder of classification," pub- lished his "Historia Plantarum Univi.- in 1672; and Tournefort his "Elemens de la Botanique" in 1694. Grew, who discovered the sexual system in plants, published his physiological theory in 1682. NATURALIZATION. Children born abroad were, under certain restrictions, entitled to in- herit as if born in England, by 25 Edw. III. si. i (1351). This statute was renewed by 33 Hen. VIII. c. 25 (1541). The laws relating to aliens were amended by 7 & 8 Viet. c. 66 (Aug. 6, 1844). The law for naturalization in a British colony is regulated by 10 & n Viet. c. 83 (July 22, 1847), NATURAL [ 691 ] NAVARRE NATURAL RELIGION. (See FREE THINKERS.) NATURE-PRINTING, an invention for obtain ing an exact reproduction of natural objects, so that numerous impressions may be taken, was perfected in the imperial printing-office in Vien- na, by Andrew Worsing, about 1852. Kniphoff, ol Erfurt, produced something of the kind in a crude form in 1761, and Kyhl, of Copenhagen, in 1833. The process was introduced into England by Henry Bradbury in 1856. NAUCEKUKE POWDER MILLS, situated on the coast of Cornwall, about five miles from Redruth, blew up on the morning of Sep. 9, 1862. The explosion, which was attributed to lightning, caused the death of eight women. NAUMACHIA. Julius Caesar ordered a por tion of the Campus Martius to be excavated B.C. 46, in order to form a lake for the purpose of exhibiting this spectacle, -the imitation of a naval battle, in which great loss of life fre quently occurred. Augustus (B.C. 31 A.D. 14 constructed an artificial lake near the Tiber and Claudius I. (41 54) used Lake Fucinus for similar exhibitions. NAUMBURG (Prussia). The Hussites be- sieged this old town in 1432, but retired with- out securing its capture. A treaty was con- cluded here in 1554, between Augustus, Elector of Saxony, and John Frederick, the deposed Elector. It played an important part during the Thirty Years' War, and was taken by the French in 1806. Napoleon I. advanced to this town April 29, 1813. The see was founded by Otho I. (936 73), and the cathedral was com- pleted in 1249. NAUPACTUS (Greece). The Athenians settled the Messenians at this town B.C. 455, but they were expelled B.C. 405 by the Lo- crians, who retained possession. The Social War was brought to a close by a peace con- cluded here B.C. 217. It frequently changed owners, and having been given by Philip V. to the jEtolians, was by them defended against the Romans for two months, B.C. 191. The modern Lepanto (q. v. ) occupies its site. NAUPLI A. ( See NAPOLI-DI-ROMAN i A) . NAUTICAL ALMANACK. (See ALMA- NACK, NAUTICAL.) NAUVOO (N. America). This town, in Illi- nois, was founded by the Mormons in 1840. Their temple was destroyed in 1848, when the Mormons were expelled, and sought refuge in Utah. NAVAL BATTLES. (See SEA-FIGHTS in Index.) NAVAL COURT-MARTIAL. (See COURT- MARTIAL) NAVAL AND MILITARY CLUB (London), was opened as a club in Sep. 1862, and re- moved to Cambridge House, Piccadilly, April 17, 1866. NAVAL, MILITARY, AND COUNTY SER- VICE CLUB (London), opened at the estab- lishment once occupied by Crockford's Club, May 5, 1849, and closed in 1851. NAVAL RESERVE. (See ROYAL NAVAL RESERVE.) NAVARETTE. (See LOGRONO, Battle.) NAVARINO (Greece) takes its name from a fortress built in the Middle Ages, and called Paleo-Avarino, which stood on the ruins of a fort built by the Athenians on the site of the ancient Pylus, B.C. 424. The name Ava- rino is derived from the Avars, who settled here in the 6th century. The modern town, Navarino, called by the Greeks Neokastoro, or Neocastro, is built at a short distance from the ruins of the old fort, now called Old Nava- rino. The Turks took Navarino in 1500; it was wrested from them by the Venetians in 1686, and it was retaken by the Turks in 1718. The Turkish garrison capitulated to the Greeks Aug. 9, 1821. The Turks recaptured the place after a short siege, May 23, 1825, and evacuated it after the battle of Navarino (q. v. ), by a convention signed Sep. 7, 1828. The French troops, which were sent to the assistance of the Greeks, and entered Navarino Oct. 6, 1828, withdrew from the fortresses of Navarino, Modon, and Cronon, in July, 1833. NAVARINO (Sea-fight), a combined British, French, and Russian fleet, engaged and com- pletely defeated the Turkish and. Egyptian squadrons, under Ibrahim Pasha, in the Bay of Navarino, Oct. 20, 1827. The forts on the coast took part in the engagement, and in- flicted much damage on several vessels be- longing to the allied fleet. The action, fought to secure the independence of Greece, resulted in the annihilation of the naval power of Tur- key. It lasted four hours, and the scene of wreck and devastation which presented itself at its termination was such as has rarely been witnessed. Of the Turkish fleet, which at the commencement of the action consisted of 70 sail, no less than 62 were burned, sunk, or driven on shore complete wrecks ; and from a statement of the Turkish admiral, it appears that on board of two line-of -battle ships, each having a crew of 850 men, 650 were killed in one ship, and 400 in the other. NAVARRE (France), called Lower or French Navarre, was a portion of the Spanish kingdom of Navarre assigned to John d'Albret in 1515, on the extinction of the old kingdom of Navarre. Henry* (afterwards Henry IV. of France) became King of Navarre, June 10, 1572, and on his accession to the French throne, July 31, 1589, Navarre was annexed to France. The formal incorporation took place n 1620. NAVARRE (Spain). This part of Spain, called by Prescott "the little kingdom of Navarre, embosomed within the Pyrenees," was inhabited at an early period by the Vas- cones, wha.were expelled by the Romans. It was seized by the Visigoths in 470, invaded by the Saracens early in the 8th century, and fell under the sway of Charlemagne in 778. It Became an independent state in 858. In 1035 Navarre was divided into three kingdoms, Navarre, Aragon, and Castile. Aragon was re- inited to Navarre in 1076, and separated again n 1134. In 1285 it became an appanage of France, but recovered its independence in 1328. In 1452 it was disturbed by the Agramonts xnd Beaumonts (q. v.}. Ferdinand conquered t in 1512. The estates of Navarre took the xith of allegiance to him March 23, 1513, and t was incorporated with Castile by a solemn ,ct in the cortes of Burgos, June 15, 1515. YY 2 NAVIGATION [ 692 ] NAVY The French, who invaded it in 1516, were de- feated March 25, and Cardinal Ximenes ordered the principal fortresses to be destroyed. Francis I., of France, invaded Navarre in 1521. His army having sustained a severe defeat at Esquiros, June 30, 1521, was compelled to retire. SOVEREIGNS OF NAVARRE. 857. Garcias I. 994. Garcias III. 880. Fortunio. loot. Saivho III. 905. Sancho I. Great.) 92(5. Garcias IT., surnamed 1035. Garcias IV. the Trembler. 1054. Sancho IV. 970. Sancho II. SOVEREIGNS OF ARAGON AND NAVARRE. 1076. Sancho V. I 1104. Alphonao I. 1094. Peter I. KINGS OF NAVARRE. (the 1134. Garcias V. 1150. Sancho VI. (the Wise.) 1194. Sancho VII. (the In- firm.) 1234. Thihaut I. 1353. Thihaut II. 1270. Henry I. 1274. Juanna I. KINGS OF FRANCE AXD NAVARRE. 1285. Philip IV. I 1316. Philip V. ip> Louis X. 1322. Charles IV. 1316. John I. SOVEREIGNS OF NAVARRE. 1328. Juanna II. and Philip d'Evrmix. 1349 Charles II. (the Bad.) 1387. Charles III. 1425. Blanche. 1441. John. 1479. Kleanor. 1479. Francis Phoebus. 1483. Catherine de Foix. 1494. Catherine and John d'Albret. 1517. llcnrv II. 1555. Juanna III. and An- tonv S. (See BELGIUM, HOLLAND, and UNITED PROVINCES.) NETLEY HOSPITAL. The Royal Victoria Hospital at Netley, on Southampton Water, for invalid soldiers, was commenced in 1855. Queen Victoria, who laid the foundation stone, May 19, 1856, visited it May 8, 1863. The Prince of Wales laid the foundation stone of a monument in memory of the medical officers who died in the Crimea, Aug. i, 1864. NEUBURG (Bavaria . The French, who seized this town, in the circle of Swabia, in 1702, abandoned it on the approach of Marl- borough, July 7, 1704. NEUCHATEL, or NEUFCHATEL (Switzer- land), was a fief of the old kingdom of Bur- gundy, and had its line of counts till 1288. It was admitted into the Swiss confederation in 1398, and the county of Valendis having been joined to it in 1579, the counts changed their title to that of Prince of Neuchatel. After the death of William III. of England, on whom the title had devolved, it passed to his nephew, Frederick I. of Prussia, in 1702. Napoleon I. compelled the King of Prussia to surrender it in 1806, and gave it to Gen. Berthier ; but it was restored to Prussia in 1814. A republican government was established in 1848, since which time the King of Prussia's authority has been but nominal. An attempt was made, Sep. 2, 1856, to re-establish the authority of Prussia. It proved unsuccessful, and compli- cations having arisen, the great powers at last mediated between the contending parties in a conference assembled at Paris, March 15, 1857, and a treaty was signed at Paris, May 26, by which the King of Prussia resigned his sovereignty, retaining only the title of Prince of Neuchatel. NEUHAUSEL (Hungary). This fortress, taken by the Turks, Sep. 24, 1663, was wrested from them by the Duke of Lorraine in 1685. NEU-KOLIN. (See KOLIN.) NEUSATZ (Hungary), founded in 1700, was taken by the Austrians from the Hungarian insurgents, June n, 1849. NEUSS (Prussia). The ancient Novesium, sacked by Attila in 451. The Northmen sacked it in the gth century, and the Emperor Philip took it in 1206. The Church of St. Quirinus was built in 1209. Charles the Bold besieged it July 29, 1474, and after making mai;y as- saults raised the siege June 28, 1475, and the Spaniards took it in 1586. The French cap- tured it in 1642 and in 1794, and defeated the Russians in the neighbourhood hi 1813. NEUSTRIA (France). On the death of Clovis I. at Paris, Nov. 27, 511, his kingdom was divided, when Soissons and its territory, afterwards called Neu stria, or West France, was allotted to his son Clotaire L, who reigned from 511 to 561. SOVEREIGNS OF NEUSTRIA. A.n. 561. Chilpericl. 584. Clotiiiiv II. 628. Dagobert I. 638. Clovis II. 656. Clotaiiv III. 670. Thierry III. 691. Clovis 111. 695. Childebert III. 711. Dagobert III. 715. C'hilperlc II. 720. Thierry IV. 743. Chilperic III. 7=;:;. I'i'iiin. 768. Carloman. Carloman died Dec. 3, 771, and his brother Charlemagne became sole King of France. Louis I., in 837, allotted Neustria to his youngest son, Charles the Bald, who in 840 became King of France, and the first of the Carolingian line. NKI TKALITY LAWS. -The plenipotentia- ries of Austria, I-' ranee, Great Britain, Prussia, Russia, Sardinia, and Turkey, assembled in Paris, in 1856, in order to establish a uniform system respecting the relations between belli- gerents and neutrals, agreed to the following points : The abolition of privateering ; the right of a neutral flag to cover enemy's goods, unless contraband of war ; the freedom of neutral goods, not being contraband of war, from capture when under an enemy's ting ; and that blockades, to be binding, must be effective. The declaration embodying these resolutions was signed at Paris, April 16, 1856. (See ARMED NEUTRALITY.) NEVA (Battle). Alexander I. of Russia de- feated the Swedes and the Danes on the banks of the Neva in 1241, and took the surname of Newski in commemoration of the event. NEVA (Russia). Inundations of the Neva occurred in 1728, 1729, 1735, 1740, 1742, and 1777 ; but the most extensive and disastrous happened Nov. 19, 1824, when the river rose to the first story of the houses in St. Peters- burg. Carriages and horses were swept away, and a regiment of carbineers, who had climbed to the roofs of their barracks, were drowned. At Cronstadt a loo-gun ship of the line was left in the middle of the market-place, more than 10,000 lives were lost, and property to the amount of many millions was destroyed by this terrible calamity. NEVADA (N. America), was organized as NEVAHEND t 697 ] NEWCASTLE a territory of the United States, March 2, 1861. Numerous silver mines were discovered in 1862. It was admitted as a state of the Union Oct. 31, 1864. NEVAHEND (Battle), called by the Arabs " the victory of victories," because it subjected the Persians to their sway, was fought in 640. NEVERS (France). The ancient Noviodu- num, the principal stronghold of the Sues- sones captured by Julius Caesar, B.C. 57, was made the seat of a bishopric in 506, and re- ceived the name of Nevirnum. Towards the end of the gth century its rulers obtained the title of count. It was annexed to Burgundy in 1384, and Francis I. made it a duchy in 1538. The town has been frequently besieged. NEVILLE'S CROSS. (See DURHAM or NE- VILLE'S CROSS, Battle.) NEVIS (Atlantic Ocean), one of the Leeward Islands, discovered by Columbus, and named after the mountain Nieves, in Spain, was first colonized by the English in 1628. It was taken by the French Feb. 14, 1782, and restored by the treaty of Versailles, Sep. 3, 1783. Since the emancipation of the slaves, Aug. i, 1834, it has declined. The Wesleyans founded a mission in 1789. NEW ABERDEEN. (See ABERDEEN.) NEW ADELPHI THEATRE. (See ADELPHI THEATRE.) NEW ALBANY (N. America). This city, on the Ohio, in Indiana, was founded in 1813. NEW AMSTERDAM (Berbice). This town was commenced by the Dutch in 1796. (See NEW YORK.) NEW AQUILEIA. (See GRADO.) NEWARK (N. America), in New Jersey, was settled by a Puritan colony from Connecti- cut in 1666. NEWARK (Nottinghamshire). The castle was built in 1125 by Alexander, Bishop of Lincoln, who, having rebelled against King Stephen in 1139, was taken and sent prisoner to his own castle. Here King John died Oct. 19, 1216, and Cardinal Wolsey was a guest after his fall in 1530. Edward VI. granted its first charter of incorporation, which was extended by Charles II. Newark was given up to the Scotch army May 8, 1646. In 1775 the wooden bridge over the Trent was replaced by one of brick. NEW BARCELONA (S. America). This town was founded by the Spaniards in 1634. The province of the same name, of which it was the capital, with six other provinces, formed themselves into the American Confede- ration of Venezuela, April 19, 1810. NEW BLACKFRIARS BRIDGE (London). The works were commenced Feb. 6, 1864 ; the temporary bridge was opened June u, 1864, and the foundation stone of the new bridge was laid by Warren Stormes Hale, Lord Mayor, July 20, 1865. NEW BRITAIN (Pacific Ocean). This island, separated from New Guinea by a narrow strait, was seen by Le Maire and Schouten in 1616. William Dampier was the first to land, Feb. 27, 1700. NEW BRUNSWICK (N. America) originally formed a part of Nova Scotia, at that time called Acadia, or New France. The first attempt to colonize it was made in 1639, and a number of French emigrants settled in the country in 1672. It was ceded to England by the treaty of Utrecht, April n, 1713. In 1764 the first British colonists landed, and in 1785 the country was separated from Nova Scotia and named New Brunswick. A great conflagration occurred in this colony in 1825, when a district of more than 100 miles in length, including many towns, was destroyed. (See FREDERICTON.) NEWBURN (Battle). -The Scotch defeated some of the adherents of Charles I. at this place, upon the Tyne, near Newcastle, Aug. 27, 1640. NEWBURY (Battles). The Royalist army, commanded by Charles I., attacked the Par- liamentarians at this village in Berkshire, Sep. 20, 1643. The cavalry were completely defeated by the Royalists, but the infantry stood firm, and Essex was enabled to retire in good order. Lord Falkland fell in this encounter. A second battle was fought at Newbury, Oct. 27, 1644, when the Parliamentarians, commanded by Waller and the Earl of Manchester, failed in their attack upon the King's forces, and afterwards withdrew into winter quarters. NEW CALEDONIA (Pacific Ocean). Capt. Cook discovered this island Sep. 4, 1774, and lauded upon it and named it the following day. The French took possession Sep. 20, 1853, ar >d made it a convict settlement. British Colum- bia (q. v.) was at first called New Caledonia. (See DARIEN.) NEW CARTHAGE. (-See CARTHAGENA.) NEWCASTLE (N. South Wales). The bishopric was founded in 1847. NEWCASTLE ADMINISTRATION. The death of Mr. Pelham, at that time prime min- ister, occurred March 6, 1754, and his brother, the Duke of Newcastle, a few days afterwards, was appointed head of the Government. The cabinet consisted of, Treasury Duke of Newcastle. Lord Chancellor Earl of Hardwicke. President of the Council Earl Granville. Privy Seal Lord Gower. Chancellor of Exchequer ...Mr. H. Bilson Legge. Principal Secretaries of |g? 1 gi 1 5SSn, after- Me ( wards Lord Grantham. Admiralty Lord Anson. Board of Trade Earl of Halifax. The Duke of Marlborough superseded Lord Gower as privy seal, Jan. 8, 1755 ; and Sir George Lyttleton, bart., afterwards Lord Lyt- tleton, became chancellor of the exchequer, Nov. 22, 1755. Mr. Henry Fox, afterwards Lord Holland, succeeded Sir Thomas Robinson as one of the principal secretaries of state, Nov. 25, 1755. The Duke of Newcastle resigned office Nov. ii, 1756. (See DEVONSHIRE ADMIN- ISTRATION. ) NEWCASTLE AND PITT ADMINISTRA- TION, also called Chatham (First) Administra- tion. The Devonshire Administration was dis- solved April 5, 1757, and after negotiations that extended over nearly three months, the Earl of Newcastle returned to the Treasury, June 29, while William Pitt, afterwards Lord Chat- ham, was the actual head of the Government. The cabinet was thus constituted : NEWCASTLE NEW FOREST Principal Secretaries of State Treasury Duke of Newcastle. Lord Keeper Sir Robert Henley. at of the Council Earl Granville. Privy Seal Earl Temple. Chancellor of Exchequer ...Mr. II. Bilson Lcgge. (William Pitt, afterwards \ Karl Chatham. " (Earl of lioltlernesse. Admiralty Lord AIIMHI. Ordnance Duke of Marlborough. Board of Trade Earl of Halifax. George II. died -suddenly Oct. 25, 1760. The Newcastle and Pitt Administration retained office, though certain changes followed in a short time. Lord Keeper Henley was made Lord Chancellor Jan. 16, 1761. Viscount Bar- rington became chancellor of the exchequer March 12, 1761. Mr. Charles Townshend took the Ordnance March 18, 1761. Lord Sandys succeeded the Earl of Halifax as president of the Board of Trade, March 21, 1761. The Earl of Bute succeeded the Earl of Holdernesse as one of the principal secretaries of state, March 25, 1761. Mr. Legge was also replaced by Lord Barrington. Pitt having obtained information of a secret treaty between France and Spain, urged upon his colleagues to declare war against Spain. This they refused to do, where- upon he resigned, and the Earl of Egremont was appointed in his place, Oct. 9, 1761. His relative, Earl Temple, followed his example, and the privy seal was entrusted to the Duke of Bedford, Nov. 27, 1761. The ministry strug- gled on without its real head until May, 1762, when the Earl of Newcastle resigned. (See BUTE ADMINISTRATION. ) NEWCASTLE- Ul>< >X-TYNE occupies the site of the Poiis yElii, a fortress of the Humans, built about 120. The Saxon kings had a residence here called Ad Murum, which, in 636, was the scene of the baptism of t \vo royal converts, Penda, King of the Mercians, and Sigibert, King of the East Angles. The Danes destroyed all the monasteries and churches of Newcastle, and murdered their inmates, in 876. At the time of the Conquest it was called Monkches- ter, from the number of monks. The castle, which gives its name to the town, was built in 1080 by Robert Curthose, the eldest son of William I. It was seized in 1135 by David I., King of Scotland. The Scotch held it till 1157, when it was restored to Henry II. Baliol, King of Scotland, did homage for that crown to Ed- ward I. in the hall of the castle, in 1292. New- castle coal is first noticed in 1234. The Trinity House was incorporated by Henry VIII. (1509 47). In the war between Charles I. and his Parliament, Newcastle embraced the King's cause. It was besieged by the Earl of Leven, and, after a gallant resistance, was taken, Oct. 29, 1644. Newcastle was the head- quarters of the King's army in the rebellion of 1745. The bridge carried away in 1771 by a flood, was replaced by another in stone. The high level bridge for general traffic and the railroad was erected 1846 50. St. Nicholas' church, built in 1091, and de- stroyed by fire in 1210, was rebuilt in 1359. St. Andrew's church was built in the i2th cen- tury. All Saints' church, commenced in 17 and completed in 1796, stands on the site of an old edifice that existed in 1284. The Literary and Philosophical Society was founded in 1793, and the new lecture-room in 1802. The assem- bly-room was founded in 1766, and the dispen- sary in 1777. St. Thomas's church, commenced in 1828, was opened in 1830. The town gaol was built in 1827 ; and the theatre, built in 1788, was pulled down in 1835, and was re- opened in 1837. The Newcastle and Darling- ton Railway was opened April 15, 1844. A fire broke out about midnight, Oct. 5, 1854, in Gateshead, and, having spread to Newcastle, many lives were lost, and property estimated at more than a million sterling was destroyed. (See HARTLEY COLLIERY. ) NEW CITY CLUB (London) was inaugurated Wednesday, May 30, 1866. NEW COLLEGE (London) was founded at St. John's Wood, in 1850, for the education of dissenting ministers. NEW COLLEGE (Oxford), at first called St. Mary of Winchester, was founded by William of Wykeham, Bishop of Winchester, who was born at Wykeham, in Hampshire, in 1324. The foundation stone was laid March 5, 1380, and the building was completed in six years, the society taking possession April 14, 1386. William of Wykeham died Sep. 27, 1404, and was buried in the chantry of Winchester Cathedral. James I., his Queen, and the Prince of Wales, were entertained in the hall of New College, Aug. 29, 1605. The garden- court was built in 1684, and the chapel was restored by Wyatt in 1789. Great changes in the constitution were made by 17 & 18 Viet. ! Ott. 7, 1854). NKW KM; LA XI) (N. America). The region granted by James 1. totlie Plymouth. Company in 1606, and then called North Virginia, was explored by Capt. John Smith in 1614, and named by him New England. It consisted of the settlements in Massachusetts Bay, and the surrounding districts, and the inhabitants are known as Yankees. The New England Council surrendered its charter to the crown ni NEw' EXCHANGE (London), founded in the Strand June IQ, 1608, was removed in 1737. NKW FnKKST Hampshire) was formed by order of William I. in 1079. William of Malmesbury says that William I. destroyed the towns and churches for more than 30 miles, for the purpose of forming this forest ; and others affirm that he levelled 52 churches to the ground. William II. (Rufus), while hunting in this forest, was killed by an arrow shot by Walter Tyrrell, Aug. 2, noo. In 1788 a survey was taken of the New Forest, when the amount of land was estimated at 92,362 acres. The timber was found to be rapidly decaying in the reign of Charles II. ; and John Norton, woodward of the New Forest, was ordered to enclose 300 acres as a nursery for young oaks, Dec. 13, 1669. A hurricane swept over the New Forest in November, 1703, when no less than 4,000 of the best oaks were destroyed. The right of the Crown to keep deer in the New Forest was extinguished, and arrangements made for enclosure, &c., by 14 & 15 Viet. c. 76 (Aug. 7, 1851). A commis- sion to inquire into the right of pamiage was appointed in 1854. NEWFOUNDLAND [ 699 ] NEW HEBRIDES NEWFOUNDLAND (Atlantic Ocean) was visited by Norwegians about 1000, and re- discovered by John Cabot June 24, 1497. Cor- tereal visited it in 1500. A settlement was attempted in 1536 without success ; and a charter for the colonization of Newfoundland was granted May 2, 1610. Three settlements were afterwards made, viz., by Lord Baltimore, in 1623 ; by Lord Falkland, in 1633 ; and by Sir David Kirk, in 1554. Quarrels between the French and English settlers led to hosti- lities in 1696, and again in 1702. By the treaty of Utrecht Newfoundland was declared to belong to England, April n, 1713. The French took St. John's June 24, 1762, and it was recaptured Sep. 18. Coal was discovered in Newfoundland in 1763. A governor was appointed in 1728. An act passed prohibiting the Americans from fishing, March 30, 1775, was rescinded by the treaty of Versailles, Sep. 3, 1783. The representative assembly was established in 1832, and Newfoundland was made a bishopric in 1839. NEW FRANCE (N. America). A French expedition under Verazzani, sent out by Francis I., took possession of a large extent of territory on the north-east coast of America, and gave it the name of New France, in 1524. It is called Canada (q. ?/.). NEWGATE (London), mentioned as a prison as early as 1207, and burned in the great fire of 1666, was afterwards rebuilt. It was pulled down in 1778, and the new edifice was nearly completed when the Gordon rioters at- tacked it June 6, 1780, liberated the prisoners, and set it on fire. It was rebuilt, and ceased to be a debtors' prison in 1815. Mrs. Fry commenced her labours for improving the con- dition of the female prisoners in Newgate in 1808. She states that the usual amusements were swearing, gaming, and fighting; and that some were destitute even of clothing, while others enjoyed delicacies sent in by their friends. An attempt was made to classify prisoners in 1811; and the inspectors of prisons, in their annual reports of 1836, 1838, and 1843, called attention to the serious evils arising from gaol association. The interior of the prison was repaired in 1851. NEW GENEVA. (-See GENEVA and WATER- FORD.) NEW GEORGIA (Pacific Ocean). Vancou- ver bestowed this name upon the various groups of islands in Nootka Sound, in 1792. The term is sometimes restricted to Solomon's Islands, discovered by the Spaniard Mendana U1 NEW GRANADA (S. America) was dis- covered by Ojeda in 1499. The first settlement in the country was made by the Spaniards in 1510. The people proclaimed their indepen- dence in 1811. The state was united with Venezuela and called Colombia, Dec. 17, 1819, and with other South American states in 1823. The union was dissolved in 1831. New Granada became an independent republic, and Gen. Santander was installed president, April i, 1833. A small part of New Granada is in Central America. A treaty was concluded with Panama Sep. 6, 1861. A new treaty of union was concluded by the plenipotentiaries of the states of New Granada, Sep. 20, 1861, when the republic took the name of the " United States of Columbia." Gen. Mosquera, pre- sident of New Granada, addressed a proclama- tion to the inhabitants of Ecuador, Aug. 15, 1863, inviting them to unite their government with that of the newly formed Union, and proposed a treaty for their signature, Sep. 29. Ecuador having rejected this treaty, he pub- lished a proclamation announcing his desire to "deliver" Ecuador, Oct. 19, which was fol- lowed by a declaration of war on the part of that state, Nov. 20. A battle took place at Cuaspud, between the forces of the two re- publics, Dec. 6, which resulted in the triumph of New Granada. An armistice was concluded Dec. 12, and a treaty of peace signed at Pen- sagni Dec. 30, by which Mosquera renounced the execution of his project by armed force. Insurrectionary movements were made towards the end of 1864 and early in 1865. NEW GUATEMALA (Central America), capital of the republic of Guatemala, was founded in 1776, soon after the destruction by an earthquake of Old Guatemala (q. v.}. NEW GUINEA (Pacific Ocean). (See PAPUA.) NEW HAMPSHIRE (N. America) was first settled in 1623, and placed itself under the jurisdiction of Massachusetts in 1641. It was made a separate province by act of parliament in 1679, and the first congress assembled in 1776. A constitution was drawn up in 1784, and amended in 1792. NEW HARMONY (N. America). The Ger- man Socialists removed to this town, in Indiana, in 1815. (See HARMONISTS.) They sold the place to Robert Owen in 1824, but his attempt to establish a communist town resulted in a failure. NEW HAVEN (Connecticut) was settled in 1638, by a colony of English under Theophilus Eaton, the first governor, and C. Mather, the first minister, called the Moses and Aaron of the settlement. It was united by royal charter to Connecticut in 1665, and New Haven was constituted a city in 1784. The most important institution in this city, and the oldest and most extensive in the United States, is Yale College, founded in 1701 at Saybrook and Hillingworth, and removed to New Haven in 1717. New Haven was taken by the English in July, 1779. The consti- tution of the United States was adopted by New Haven, Jan. 9, 1788. NEWHAVEN (Sussex). This town, called in the Norman survey Meeching, was the scene, in 1545, of an invasion by the French, who were repulsed by the Sussex yeomen. About 50 of the inhabitants entered into a " solemn league and covenant " for the preser- vation of the reformed religion in the Church of Scotland, March 31, 1644. The harbour was repaired in 1731, and an obelisk has been erected in memory of the wreck of the Brazen sloop-of-war, which struck upon the Ave rocks, Jan. 26, 1800, when only one man was saved out of her crew of 104. Louis Philippe, having abdicated the French crown, landed here March 3, 1848. NEW HEBRIDES (Pacific Ocean). One NEW HOLBORN [ 700 ] NEWPORT portion of this extensive group was discovered by Quiros in 1605, and called by him Tierra Australia del Espiritu Sancto. It was explored by Bougainville in 1768. Capt. Cook visited the group, giving it the name of the New Hebrides, in July, 1774. Capt. Bligh dis- covered the most northern portion of the group in 1789. NEW HOLBORN THEATRE (London),' commenced in 1865, was opened Saturday, Oct. 6, 1866. NEW HOLLAND. The name given by the Dutch to Australia (q. v.). NEW ILIUM.. (See ILIUM.) NEW INDEPENDENTS. This aect was founded in 1616 by John Robinson, a Norfolk divine. They maintain that every congrega- tion of Christians has, according to the New Testament, full ecclesiastical power over its members, and hence they are called New Inde- pendents. The Scottish Independents, also called New Independents, and Haldanites, or llaldanite Independents, from their founder, Robert Haldane, arose in 1797. NEW INN (London), founded in 1485, on the old foundation of St. George's Inn, is attached to the Middle Temple. Sir Thomas More (1480 July 6, 1535) studied at New Inn. NEW 1XX HALL Oxford;. A collection of houses called Trilleck's Inns in 1349, from John Trilleck, Hishop of Hereford, were inhe- rited in 1391 by William of Wykeham, who granted them to New College, and they re- ceived the name of New Inn Hall. An addi- tional range of building was added in 1836. NEW IKK LAX I) (Pacific Ocean) was disco- vered and named by Carteret, in 1767. NEW JERSEY (North America) was first colonized by the Dutch from New York, be- tween 1614 and 1620. A colony of Swedes and Finns settled in 1627. Charles II., in June, 1664, separated this territory from the New Netherlands and granted it to his brother, the Duke of York, who sold the patent to Lord Berkeley and Sir G. Carteret. The Dutch in 1673 regained possession, but resigned it in 1674, when Penn and some of his friends pur- chased a portion of the province. It was divided into East and West Jersey in 1676. Great confusion having arisen in regard to the appointment of governors, the proprietors, Lord Berkeley, &c., in 1702, surrendered the government to the crown. New Jersey formed part of the state of New York until 1736, when a separation ensued. It published its consti- tution July 2, 1776, and was one of the original thirteen states of the Union. NEW JERUSALEM. (See ANABAPTISTS and Mt'NSTER.) NEW LANARK (Lanarkshire) was founded by David Dale, in 1783. Robert Owen endea- voured to establish Communism here in 1801, and the first infant school in Great Britain was established here in 1815. NEW LONDON (N. America).- This town, in Connecticut, founded in 1644, was taken and burned by Arnold, Sep. 8, 1781. NEWMARKET (Cambridgeshire). The earliest mention of this town is in 1227, when it is supposed to have derived its name from a market transferred from Exiling on account of the plague. James I. established races here in 1605, and erected a hunting-seat, after- wards called the King's House. Having fallen into decay, it was rebuilt by Charles II. (1660 85), who was a great patron of horse- racing. It was almost entirely destroyed by fire, March 22, 1683, during the races, and a large portion of the town was destroyed. The race-ground became the property of the Jockey Club in 1753. The first and second spring and the July meetings instituted in 1753; the first and second October, in 1762; the third October, or Houghtoii, in 1770 ; and the Craven Stakes, in 1771, are run at New- market. (See HORSE-RACING.) NEW MEXICO (N. America). This terri- tory of the United States was formed Sep. 9, 1850, out of the country ceded by Mexico after the war with the Americans. NEW NETHERLANDS (N. America). The Dutch gave this name to the settlements established by them in Delaware Bay and 011 the western shore of the Hudson, between 1610 and 1623. NEW, or NOVA ALBION. (See BRITISH COLUMBIA and CALIFORNIA.) NEW, or NUKVA ISABELLA. (See DO- MINGO, SAN, or ST.) NEW ORLEANS (Battle), took place Jan. 8, 1815, between the Americans, under Gen. Jackson, and the English, under Gen. Paken- ham, in which the latter were defeated with the loss of 3,000 in killed and wounded. NEW ORLEANS Louisiana) was founded by Bienville, the French governor of Louisiana, in 1717. The colony was conveyed to Spain in 1762, and restored to France in 1801. Napo- leon I. sold it to the United States in 1803. The university was founded in 1849. The Federal fleet, under Commodore Farragut, having arrived in the harbour, April 24, 1862, the town surrendered. It was occupied by Gen. Butler April 26, and the forts capitu- lated April 27. XLW PHILHARMONIC SOCIETY. (See BBT.) NEW PHILIPPINES (Pacific Ocean), more properly called the Carolines, were named from La Carolina, a term applied to one of those islands visited by the Spaniard Lazeano in 1686. An attempt was made by the Jesuits of Manilla to establish missions here about 1600. The small-pox committed great ravages among the natives in 1854. NEW PLATONISTS. (See ECLECTICS and NEO PLATONISTS.) NEW PLYMOUTH (N. America). The Pil- grim Fathers, after landing from the May- ftower, reached this spot in Massachusetts, 'Dec. ii, 1620 (O.S.), and named the town which they founded Plymouth, or New Ply- mouth. An annual festival is held Dec. 22, in what is termed the Pilgrims' Hall, built in 1824, to commemorate the event. NEWPORT (Isle of Wight). The parish church was built in 1172; and the grammar- school was founded in 1619. In the school- room of the town negotiations were opened between Charles I. and the Parliament, Sep. 1 8, 1648, and closed, the King having agreed to some of the demands, Nov. 27, 1648. The NEWPORT NEWSPAPERS coffin of the Princess Elizabeth, daughter of Charles I., who died here of a broken heart, Sep. 8, 1650, was discovered in the church in 1793, and a tablet to her memory was erected by Queen Victoria, in NeAvport church. St. Thomas's church was founded in 1854, on the site of an ancient edifice built in the reign of Henry III. NEWPORT (Monmouthshire). Edward III. (1327 77), granted this town its first charter, which was confirmed by James I. (1603 25). Of the old castle, supposed to have been f oimded by Robert Fitzroy, Earl of Gloucester, only a square tower and a part of the great hall remain. A handsome stone bridge was built over the river Usk in 1800. This town was the scene of Chartist riots, Monday, Nov. 4, 1839. The rioters, led by one John Frost, a retired draper of Newport, amount- ing to 10,000 in number, armed with guns, &c., met in front of the Westgate Hotel, where the magistrates were assembled, with about 30 soldiers and several special constables. The rioters commenced breaking the windows of the hotel, and fired upon the inmates. The soldiers succeeded in dispersing the mob, which, with its leaders, fled from the city, leaving about 20 dead, and many dangerously wounded. Frost and several of his associates were apprehended 011 the following day, tried at Monmouth Dec. 31, and found guilty of high treason, Jan. 5, 1840. Their sentence was subsequently commuted into transportation for life. NEWPORT (N. America). This town of Rhode island was settled in 1639. It was taken by the English Dec. g, 1776. NEW PROVIDENCE (Bahama Islands). The chief island of the group was colonized by the English in 1629. Taken in 1641 by the Spaniards, and occupied for a brief period by the Americans in 1776, it was restored to the English in 1783. (See NASSAU.) NEW RIVER (London). In 1605 the lord mayor and citizens of London were empowered to bring a stream of fresh water to the north parts of the city of London, from Chadwell and Amwell, in the county of Hertford, but nothing was done till Hugh Middleton offered, March 28, 1609, to begin the work within two months, and to make and finish the river, pro- vided the common council would transfer to him the powers vested in them by two acts of Parliament. This was agreed to, and the New River was completed as far as the basin at Islington, Sep. 29, 1613. NEW ROYAL BRUNSWICK THEATRE. (See BRUNSWICK THEATRE.) NEW ROYALTY THEATRE. Known as Miss Kelly's or the Soho Theatre, received the name of the New Royalty in 1861. NEWRY (Ireland). A Cistercian abbey was founded here in 1157, by Maurice Mac Lough- lin, King of Ireland, and a castle was built by John De Courcey. It was destroyed in 1318, and rebuilt in 1480. Marshal Bagnal restored the castle, rebuilt the town, for which James I., in 1613, granted the entire lordship in fee to him and his heirs for ever, and peopled it with Protestant settlers. After the Resto- ration, the town continued to flourish till 1689, when it was burned by the Duke of Berwick in his retreat from the Duke of Schomberg. The custom-house was built in 1726. A very considerable trade was carried on with the West Indies in 1758. NEWS-BOOKS, or pamphlets of news, the forerunners of the modern newspaper, were first issued from the English press in the i6th century. They merely treated of some poli- tical event, either foreign or domestic, and did not appear at stated periods, or even under the same title. A proclamation against certain "bookes printed of newes, of the prosperous successes of the king's majestie's arms in Scotland," was issued^ in 1544. A collection, commencing in 1579, is preserved in the British Museum. The news-books continued to appear until the close of the i7th century. Burton remarks, in the " Anatomy of Melan- choly," of which the first edition was pub- lished in 1614, "If any read now-a-days, it is a play-book, or pamphlet of newes." (See NEWSPAPERS. ) NEWS-LETTERS were used in this country as a medium for the circulation of intelligence before the printed news-book (q. v.), the fore- runner of the modern newspaper, made its appearance. A writer in the eighth edition of the " Encyclopaedia Britannica" remarks (xvi. 1 80), "The first journalists were the writers of 'news-letters.' Originally the dependents of great men, each employed in keeping his own master or patron well informed, during his absence from court, of all that transpired, the duty grew at length into a calling. The writer had his periodical subscription list, and instead of writing a single letter, wrote as many letters as he had customers. Then one, more enterprising than the rest, established an ' intelligence-office,' with a staff of clerks." News-letters, giving an account of events that happened during the Wars of the Roses, are given in Sir John Fenn's collection of the " Paston Letters." NEW SOUTH SHETLAND, or ZETLAND ISLANDS (Pacific Ocean). This group of islands between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, discovered by Gheritz in 1598, was explored towards the south, where it crosses the antarctic circle, by Biscoe in 1832, and by Sir J. Ross in 1842. The latter gave them the name of Danger Islets. NEW SOUTH WALES (Australia). The eastern coast of Australia, from Cape Howe to Cape York, was discovered by Capt. Cook in 1770. He took possession of it in the name of the king, calling it New South Wales, and he named the island in which he performed the ceremony, Possession Island. The first convicts arrived Jan. 20, 1788, and the settle- ment formed at Botany Bay was transferred to Sydney (q. v.} in 1789. Transportation to New South Wales was abolished by an order in council Sep. 4, 1848. The colony received a new constitution in 1855. NEWSPAPERS. The Romans possessed publications agreeing in some respects with the modern newspaper. These manuscript journals, called Acta Diurna, or Journals of Public Events, were, as the title denotes, simply records of daily occurrences. They NEWSPAPERS [ 702 ] NEWSPAPERS were issued by government authority as early as B.C. 691. The privilege was withdrawn about B.C. 40. During the wars carried on between Venice and the Turks, Notizie Scritte, in manuscript, appeared at Venice, of which the first number was issued, it is believed, in 1536, and was continued monthly. Stations were appointed where the people might come _ to hear them read on payment of a small coin called a Gazeta, from which the name Gazette is derived, and 30 volumes are preserved in one of the libraries of Florence. The earliest in the British Museum library is a printed copy, dated 1570. Offices were estab- lished about this time in France, on the suggestion of the father of Montaigne, the essayist, for receiving intimations that any person wished to make public. These were copied out and posted on the walls, and even- tually gave rise to regularly published adver- tising sheets. The "news-letters" v. >. wov introduced during the reign of Henry VI. (1422 61). In these the gossip of the town was collected by "correspondents,'' and posted to their employers in the country, at a salary of a few pounds a year. The collection of newspapers in the British Museum contains seven numbers four in manuscript and three in Roman type of the /iV-'' '>'/' M< rfurie, the first dated July 23, 1588. For many years these were considered the earliest printed English newspapers, but, in 1839, Mr. Watts showed that they were forgeries executed about 1740. The same collection contains what must be considered as the first regularly pub- lished newspaper in England, bearing the title of T/tf. Certamt A< i<-x<>f /he Present Week; the first number being dated May 23, 1622. The Dull// l'i-orri;. liriloiinicux, from 1642 to 1654. During the residence of the court of Charles II. at Oxford, on account of the plague that devastated the metropolis, the first number of the Oxford Gazette appeared, Nov. 13, 1665. It was transferred to London with the court, and took the title of London Gazette, Feb. 5, 1666. Amongst the earliest commercial papers was the City Mercury, with which L'Estrange was connected, commenced Nov. 4, 1675. The first paper circulated gratuitously was Do- mestick Intelligence, in 1679. The forerunner of literary journals is the Mercurius Lil>m- rius, first published April 9, 1680. The Daily Courant, the first morning paper, appeared March n, 1702. Archbishop Laud's licensing decree, aimed at the newspaper press, came into operation July n, 1637 ; the restriction being renewed at intervale by act of Parliament, till it expired in 1693. A stamp duty of one penny was proposed in the House of Commons in 1701, but abandoned. An act (10 Anne, c. 19) was carried imposing the stamp for a period of 32 years, Aug. i, 1712. The bill for the abolition of the stamp duty (18 & 19 Viet. c. 27) received the royal assent June 15, 1855. A duty of one shilling on advertisements had been originally charged, which was raised in time to three shillings ; and May 31, 1815, the Chancellor of the Exchequer imposed an additional sixpence. This tax was abolished by 16 & 17 Viet. c. 63 (Aug. 4, 1853). \\'ar- ri'n/cit Ti>< I'rrcnci^, a daily paper, made its appearance in Ireland in 1700, and was probably the first in that country ; the second, also daily, being Falkener'x Jour- nal, in 1728. The first newspaper published in Scotland, printed by order of the Pro- tector, was called Mercv.r'i:'* /'t y was first issued April 28, 1720. The press in India originated with Hicf.-intf.-- < published at Calcutta, Jan. 29, 1781. The Ul- cutta ffazetfr \vus brought out by the govern- ment, March 4, 1784. The Bengal Ilnrk'K ,-", started in Jan., 1795, appeared as a daily paper April 29, 1819. A censorship was estab- lished by Lord Welleslcy April, 1799. ' Howe, a native of St. Kitt's, established the Gazette, the first Australian newspaper, March 5, 1803. The Boston Ntn-x letter, the first number being dated April 24, 1704, was the first newspaper published in America. The Dull ;i San, of New York, which com- menced Sep. 23, 1833, was the first of the penny papers of that country. French jour- nalism took its rise from Thcjophraste Renaudot, who brought out the Gazette in May, 1631, and obtained a monopoly of the business of sup- plying the Parisians with news by letters patent granted in Oct., 1631. A Frankfort bookseller brought out the first German news- paper in 1615. In 1605 Abraham Verhoeven received from the archduke the exclusive pri- vilege of publishing news, and commenced the Nieuwe Tiii'lmjln-ii, of Antwerp. The I van Gend appeared at Ghent in 1667. Ac- cording to the Newpaper /'/v. Dindory for 1866, there are published in the United King- dom 1,257 newspapers, distributed as f<>l- lows : England, 933 ; Wales, 43 ; Scotland, 139 ; Ireland, 128 ; ' British Islands, 14. Of these there are 43 daily papers published in England, i in Wales, 12 in Ireland, 12 in Scot- land, i in the British Islands. On reference to E receding editions of the Directory, we find iat, in 1821, 267 journals were published in the United Kingdom ; in 1831, 295 ; in 1841, 472 ; in 1851, 563, and in 1861, 1,102. The fol- lowing is a list of the newspapers that have appeared in the metropolis, with the date of their establishment. Many of them enjoyed but a short existence : A.D. 1819, Jan. 24. Age. 1835, May IS- Age. 1860. Age we Live In (-weekly). 1831, Oct. 15. Albion. 1809. Anti-Gallican Monitor. i*53i Jan. V- Associa! ion Medical Journal (weekly). NEWSPAPERS [ 703 1 NEWSPAPERS I 838, Jan. 3. Athenaeum (weekly). 1690, March 17. Athenian Gazette. 1836, May 31. Atlas (weekly). 1863, April. Atlas (for India, weekly). 1850. Australian Gazette (weekly). 1807. Aurora (daily). 1861, Oct. 19. Bee Hive (weekly). 1830. Bell's Life in London (weekly). 1796, May i. Bell's Weekly Messenger (weekly). 1858, Jan. Bookseller (monthly). 1839, April. Britannia (weekly). 1848, Jan. i. British Banner (weekly). 1803. Bent's Literary Advertiser (monthly). 1770. Birigley's Journal. 1732, Sep. 22. British Journal. 1^54^ Jan. British Journal of Photography (weekly). 1863, Jan. British Medical Journal (weekly). 1857, Jan. 3. British Standard (weekly). 1763, May 39. Briton (Norih). 1843, Feb. it. Builder (weekly). 1856. Builders' Weekly Reporter. 1865, Jan. 6. Bullionist (weekly). 1856. Canadian News (fortnightly). 1858, Cape and Natal News (fortnightly). 1843, Nov. I. Chemical Gazette (fortnightly). 1859, Dec. 10. Chemical News (weekly). 1855, Julv27- Christian Cabinet (weekly). 1857, Nov. 13. Christian Chronicle (weekly). 1848, Aug. Christian Times (weekly). 1859. Christian World (weekly). 1861, Jan. Church Review (weekly). 1862, June. Church and State Review (weekly). 1863, Church Standard (weekly). 1863, Jan. Church Times (weekly). 1843, Jan. Churchman (weekly). 1675, Nov. 4. City Mercury. 1857, July 18. City Press (weekly). 1853, Jan. i. Civil Service Gazette (weekly). 1853, May. Clerical Journal (fortnightly).' 1861, Jan. 5. Colliery Guardian (weekly). 1832. Commercial Daily List. 1853. Constitution (fortnightly). 1826. Cooper's John Bull. 1865, Oct. Cosmopolitan (weekly). 1848, Oct. Cottage Gardener (weekly). 1846. County Courts' Chronicle (monthly). 1840. Courier de 1'Europe (weekly). 1631, Oct. 9. Courant (weekly). 1856, April 36. Court Circular (weekly). 1839. Court Journal (weekly). 1753, Jan. 4. Covent Garden Journal. 1726. Craftsman. 1843, Nov. Critic (fortnightly). 1703, March n. Daily Courant. 184(3, Jan. 31. Daily News. 1855, June 29. Daily Telegraph. 17x5, Jan. I3/ Daily Universal Register. 1789. Diary. 1 80 1. Dispatch (weekly). 1641. Diurnal Occurrences (weekly). 1679. Domestiek Intelligence. 1862, Oct. Draper (weekly). 1713. Dyer's News Letter. 11348, Sep. 2- Economist (weekly). 1383, July 10. Ecclesiastical Ga/.ette (monthly). 1857, Eclipse (weekly). 1847, Oct. Educational Times (monthly). 1856, Jan. 4. Engineer (w r eekly). 1843, Jan English Churchman (weekly). 1861, Oct. English Leader (monthly). 1861. English News (bi-monthly). 1841, Jan. I. English Journal of Education (monthly). 1838, Sep. 30. Era (weekly). 1857, June 29. Evening Herald. 1851, Oct. 6. Evening Journal (three times a week). 1789, March 2. Evening Mail (three times a week). 1709, Sep. 6. Evening Post. 1856, March 17. Evening Star (daily). 1808, Jan. Examiner (weekly). 1846, Sep. i. Express (daily). 1853, Jan. i. Field (weekly). 1855, Jan. 24. Freeman (weekly). 1859, July 9. Freemason's Magazine (weekly). 1855, Oct. 13. Free Press (monthly). 1843. Friend (monthly). 1841, Jan. 28. Gardeners' Chronicle (weekly). 1845. Gardeners' and Farmers' Journal (weekly). 1853. Gas and Water Times (monthly). 1 766. General Advertiser 1853, Oct. 3. General Shipping List (weekly). 1803. Globe (daily). :865, June 5. Glowworm (daily). 846, Jan. 31. Guardian (weekly). 859, Jan. Hermann (German, weekly). 847, Jan. Home News (weekly). 857. Homeward Mail (on arrival of each mail from the East). 863, Oct. Illustrated Christian Times (weekly). :S57, Oct. 31. Illustrated Inventor (weekly). 1843, May 14. Illustrated London News (weekly). 855, June 9. Illustrated Times (weekly). 861, Oct. 13. Illustrated Weekly News. 863, Feb. Illustrated Sporting News (weekly). 710. Independent Whig. 843, May. Indian Mail (on arrival of mail vid Marseilles). 840, June. Indian News (on arrival of each Indian mail). 843, July 9. Inquirer (weekly). 808. Instructor. 856, Jan. i. Insurance Gazette (monthly). 747, Dec. Jacobite Journal. 783, Feb. 8. Jesuit (weekly). 845. Jewish Chronicle (weekly). [820, Dec. 17. John Bull (weekly). [778. Johnson's Sunday Monitor (first Sunday Newspaper). :849, Feb. 10. Journal of Gas Lighting (fortnightly). :848, Oct. Journal of Horticulture, Cottage Gardener, and Country Gentleman. 1852. Journal of the Society of Arts (weekly). [853, March. Journal of the Photographic Society (monthly). [837. Jurist (weekly). 1837, Jan. 38. Justice of the Peace (weekly). 1663, Aug. 31. Kingdom's Intelligencer (week 645, Oct. Kingdom's Weekly Po 1855, Nov. Knight's Official Advertiser (monthly). 1693, Feb. 18. Ladies' Mercury. 1847, Jan. 3. Lady's Newspaper (weekly). 1833, Oct. 3. Lancet (weekly). 1854. Law Chronicle (monthly). 1843, Aprils. Law Times (weekly). 1850, March 30. Leader (weekly). 1855, July. Liberator (monthly). 1863, March 6. L'lntemational (daily). 1737. Literary Courier of Grub Street. 1855, Aug. i. Literarium (weekly). 1855, May 5. Literary Churchman (fortnightly). 1817, Jan. Literary Gazette (weekly). 1842, Nov. Lloyd's Weekly London Newspaper. 1842, June 29. London Commercial Record (weekly). 1858. London and China Express (tri-moiithlv). 1858. London and China Telegraph (tri-monthly). 1860. London and Provincial News (weekly). 1665, Nov. 7. London Gazette. 1832. London and Mercantile Journal (weekly). 1852. London Mail (fortnightly). 1864, Jan. Londoner Anzeiger (weekly). 1856, Aug. 4. Londoner Deutsches Journal (weekly). 1696, June 3. London Mercury. 1860, July 7. London Review (weekly). 1837, March. Magnet (weekly). 1832, Dec. Mark Lane Express (weekly). 1858, Dec. 31. Mechanics' Magazine (weekly). 1852, Jan. 14. Medical Circular (weekly). 1850, July 6. Medical Times (weekly). 1832. Mercantile Journal (weekly). 1 86 1, April 1 6. Methodist Recorder (weekly). 1857, Military Spectator (weekly). 1835, Aug. 29. Mining Journal (weekly). 1863, April 35. Mirror (weekly). 1866, Sep. 27. Mitchell's Maritime Register (weekly). 1858, Jan. 5. Monetary Times (three times a week). 1860, June 9. Money Market Review (weekly). 1794, Feb. 8. Morning Advertiser (daily). 1769, June 38. Morning Chronicle (daily). I7i, Nov. i. Morning Herald (daily). 1772, Nov. Morning 1'ost and Daily Advertiser. 1856. Morning News (daily). 1856, March 17. Morning Star (daily). 1856, Jan. 26. Musical Gazette (weekly). 1862. Musical Standard (fortnightly). 1844, June. Musical Times (monthly). 1836. Musical World (weekly). 1860. National Reformer (weekly). i 33, *"eb. 9. Naval and Military Gazette (weekly). 1860. New Zealand Examiner (monthly). 1805. News. 1843, Sep. 39. News of the World (weekly). NEWSPAPERS [ 704 1 NEWSPAPERS 1817. New Times. 1841, April 14. Nonconformist (weekly). 1849, Nov. 3. Notes and Queries (weekly). 1793. Observer (weekly). 1863, Aug. Orb (weekly). 1863, Oct. 3. Orchestra (weekly). 1733- Old Whig. 1855, July 10. Overland Mail (weekly). 1865, Feb. 7. Pall Mall Gazette (daily). 1833, Jan. Patriot (twice a week). 1839. Pawnbrokers' Gazette (weekly). 185 [, Oct. 12. Penny Illustrated Paper (weekly). 1857, April 18. People (weekly). 1853. People's Paper (weekly). 1855, June l. Philanthropist (monthly). 1849, Jan. 6. The Phonetic News. 1853. Photographic Journal (monthly). 1858, Sep. 10. Photographic .News (weekly). 1843. Poor Law Unions' Gazette (weekly). 1853, May 7- Pre - Js (weekly). 1857, Sep. 20. Presse de Londres (weekly). 1657, May 36. Public Advertiser (Newcomb's). 1655, Oct. 8. Public Intelligencer. 1760, Jan. 13. Public Ledger (daily). 1861, Oct. 5. Public Opinion (weekly). I8 37, Sep. Publishers Circular (fortnightly). 1841, July 17. Punch (weekly). 1861, Sep. 7. Queen (weekly). 1851, Feb. 26. Racing Times (weekly). 1845, July 13. Kail way Gazette (weekly). 1835. Railway Journal (weekly). 1844, April 13. Railway Record (weekly). 1837. Railway Times (weekly). 1863, Jan. 3. Reader (weekly). 1838, Jan. Record (three times a week). 1847. Reporter (weekly). 1836, .Inn. 35- Representative (daily). 1833, Jan. 6. Representative (weekly). 1704, Feb. Review (weekly). 1859, Jan. Review (weekly) nd Country Gentleman's Journal 1850, May 5. Reynolds's Weekly Newspaper. 1853, March. Sailors' 1 1 ome Journal (monthly). 1855. Nov. 3. Saturday Review (weekly). 1692, May 8. Scots Mercury. 1863, Nov. 2. Shareholder's Guardian (weekly). 1845, May8. Shipping Advertiser (daily). 1836, Jan. 4. Shipping Gazette (daily). 1857. Solicitors' Journal (weekly). 1838. July 5. Spectator (weekly). 1837. As an evening paper \ Of -, ,, / , ., x 1857, June 39- As a morning paper } Standard (daily). 1857, Oct. 10. Statesman (weekly). 1761. St. James's Chronicle (three times a week). 1788. Star (daily). 1793, Oct. i. Sun (first daily evening paper merged in Albion). 1859, March 1 6. Sporting Life (twice a week). 1863, Oct. Sporting Gazette (weekly). 186=;, Aug. Sportsman (three times a week). 1865, Jan. 7. Sunday Gazette (weekly). 1833. Sunday Times (weekly). 1710, Aug. 3. Swift's Examiner (weekly). 1840. Tablet (weekly). 1788, Jan. T. Times (daily). 1756, Nov. 6. Test. 1745, Nov. 5. True Patriot. 1857, Jan. 3. Union (weekly). 1833, Feb. 9. United Service Gazette (weekly). 1758. Universal Chronicle (weekly). 1839. Universal Corn Reporter (weekly). 1860, Dec. 29. Universal News (weekly). 1860, Dec. 8. Universe (weekly). 1859, Oct. 26. Volunteer Service Gazette (weekly). 1835, Jan. 7. Watchman (weekly). 1860, Jan. 5. Weekly Budget. 1846, July 18. Weekly Chronicle. 1856. Weekly Record. 1849, Oct. 13. Weekly Register. 1853. Weekly Reporter. 1862, April. Weekly Review. 1857. Weekly Star. 1847, Jan. 34. Weekly Times. 1857. Wellington Gazette (monthly). 1849, Jan. 8. Wesleyan Times (weekly). 17-0, Feb. 17. Whisperer. 1840. Witness. J 753i J an - 4- World. PROVINCIAL NEWSPAPERS. 1746 1748. Aberdeen Journal. 1741. Aris's Birmingham Gazette. 1757. Bath Chronicle. 1743. Bath Journal. 1737. Belfast News Letter. 1767. Bristol Gazette. 1715 1735. Bristol Journal. 1773. Bristol Mirror. 1730, April 38. Caledonian Mercury. 1748. Cambridge Chronicle. 1730. Chelmsford Chronicle. 1773. Chester Chronicle. 1730. Chester Courant. 1741. Coventry Standard. 1774. Cumberland Pacquet. 1733. Derby Mercury. 1735. Dublin Evening Post. 1711. Dublin Gazette. 1685. Dublin Newsletter. 1705. Edinburgh Courant. 1718, Dec. 24. Edinburgh Evening Courant. 1669. Edinburgh Gazette. 1763. Exeter Flying Post. 1728. Faulkner's Journal. 1755. Free Public Register. 1763. Freeman's Journal. 1715. Glasgow Courant. 1739. Glasgow Journal. 1733. Gloucester Journal. 1772. Hampshire Chronicle. 1739. Hereford Journal. 1739. Ipswich Journal. 1717. Kentish Gazette. 1774. Kerry Evening Post. 1767. Kilkenny Journal. 1661. Kingdom's Intelligencer. 1720 (about). Leeds Courant. 1718. Leeds Mercury. 1753. Leicester Journal. 1766. Limerick Chronicle. 1765. Liverpool Advertiser. 1772. Londonderry Standard. 17*6. Maidstone Journal 1730. Manchester Gazette. 1660, Dec. 31. Mercurius Caledonius. 1711. Newcastle Courant. 1761. Norfolk Chronicle. 1720. Northampton Mercury. 1714. Norwich Courant, or Weekly Packet. 1720. Norwich Mercury. 1706. Norwich Postman. 1709. Nottingham Journal. 1757. Nottingham and Leicester Journal. 1740. Oxford Journal. 1700. Pue's Occurrences. 1733. Reading Mercury. 1720. Salisbury Journal. 1746. Saunders's (originally Esdaile's) News Letter. 1706. Scots Courant. 1764. Sherborne Journal. 1772. Shrewsbury Chronicle. 1695. Stamford Mercury. 1641. Warranted Things from Ireland. 1736. Western Flying Post. 1709. Worcester Journal. 1720 (about). York Courant. 1730 (about). York Journal. COLONIAL AND FOREIGN NEWSPA I'F.TJS. 1798. Allgemeine Zeitung (Germany). 1830. Argus (Sweden). 1795. Bengal Hurknru. 1749. Berlingske Tidende (Denmark). 1719. Boston Gazette (America). 1704. Boston News Letter (Americ:i). 1784. Calcutta Gazette and Oriental Advertiser. 1763. Christumin tntelligentssedler (Norway). 1843. Djeridei Havadis (Turkey). 1755. Ede's Boston Gazette (America). 1631. Gazette (France). 1650. Gazette I!iii - lesi(ne (France). 1834. Hellenike Salpigz (Greece). Ilicking's Gazette (Calcutta). Indepeiidant. Journal de Paris. NEW STYLE t 705 ] NEW YORK 1789, Aug. 37. Journal des D(bats. 1843. L'Independance Beige. 1837, March 14. La Presse. 1844, L'Oceanie Francaise (Tahiti). 1835. Le Siecle. 1773 (about). Massachusetts' Spy. 1673. Mercure Galant. 1830. Moniteur Beige. 1789. Moniteur Universel. 1731. New England Courant (N. America). 1858. New York Tribune. 1839. New Zealand Gazette. 1605. Niewetijdinghe (Belgium), 1643. Ordinaire Post TiiU-udc- (Sweden). 1739. Pennsylvania Gazette (America). 17111 century irregularly, lielacioues (Spain). 1833. Soter (Greece). 1835. Spectateur de L'Orient (Turkey), afterwards Cour- rier de Smyrne. 1803. Sydney Gazette. 1833. Tabuiini Vaqai (Turkey), formerly Mouiteur' Otto- man. 1719. Weekly Mercury (Philadelphia). 1794 (about). World, The (India). NEW STYLE. Sir Harris Nicolas states, with reference to this change, "The errors in the Julian method of computing the year hav- ing long attracted the attention of astro- nomers, Pope Gregory XIII. undertook to reform the Roman Calendar ; and the altera- tion made by him in October, 1582, created what is commonly termed the New Style, but which was sometimes called the Roman Style ; while the Calendar obtained the name, from its creator, of Gregorian. After great considera- tion, that pontiff published his new Calendar, in which 10 days were deducted from the year 1582, by calling what, according to the old Calendar, would have been the sth of October, the isth of October, 1582." The difference between the Old Style and the New Style from 1582 to 2100 is as follows : From Oct. 5, 1582, to Feb. 39, 1700... 10 days. From March I, 1700. to Feb. 39, i8oo...n days. From March I, 1800, to Feb. 39, 1900.. 13 days. From March I, 1900, to Feb. 39, 3100.. .13 days. The change made by Gregory XIII. was gra- dually introduced into other countries, Eng- land (See OLD STYLE) being amongst the last to make the alteration, whilst Russia and Greece still adhere to the olden mode of computation. The following table shows at what time the New Style was adopted in different parts of Europe : A.D. 1583, Dec. 35. Artois. 1701, Jan. 13. Basel. 1701, Jan. 13. Berne. 1583, Dec. 35. Brabant. 1583. Denmark. 1753, Sep. England. 1583, Dec. 35. Flanders. 1583, Dec. 30. France. 1700, Dec. 13. Friesland. 1584. Germany (Roman Catholics). 1699, Nov. 15. Germany (Protestants). 1700, Dec. 13. Groningen. 1700, Dec. 13. Guelderland. 1583, Dec. 35. Hainault. 1583, Dec. 35. Holland. 1587. Hungary. 1583, Oct. 15. Italy (Parts of). 1583, Dec. 30. Lorraine. 1583, Dec. 25. Malines. 1700, Dec. 13. Overyssel. 1586. Poland. 1583, Oct. 15. Portugal. 1583, Oct. 15. Rome. A.D. 1701, Jan. 13. Schafhauseu. 1583, Oct. 15. Spain. 1683, March i. Strasburg. 1753, March I. Sweden. 15*3 or 1584. Switzerland (parts of). 1701, Jan. 13. Switzerland (Protestants of). 1749 or 1751. Tuscany. 1700, Dec. 13. Utrecht. 1700, Dec. 13. ZUtphen. 1701, Jan. 13. Zurich. NEW SWEDEN (N. America). A band of emigrants from Sweden and Finland settled in 1638, on land in Delaware Bay, near the New Netherlands, which they purchased from the natives. They extended their boundaries over the country now called Pennsylvania, giving it the name of New Sweden. It surrendered to the Dutch in 1655. (See DELAWARE.) NEW TOLEDO. (-See CUMANA.) NEWTONBARRY (Ireland). Some cattle, seized for tithes by the Rev. Alex. M'Clintock, were put up to auction in this village, in the county of Wexford, Saturday, June 18, 1831, when a riot ensued, in which 12 or 13 persons were killed, and several severely wounded. The coroner's jury on the bodies of those that were killed, after sitting several days, being unable to agree, was discharged without giv- ing a verdict. NEWTONIAN PHILOSOPHY. The atten- tion of Sir Isaac Newton (born at Woolsthorpe, Lincolnshire, Dec. 25, 1642), was directed to the subject of gravitation in 1666, by seeing an apple fall from a tree, and the train of thought suggested by this trivial incident led to the philosophical demonstration of this great principle. His views on the subject were explained in the " Principia," which was first published in 1687. Newton was made master of the mint in 1699, he became presi- dent of the Royal Society in 1703, was knighted by Queen Anne, April 16, 1705, and died Mon- day, March 20, 1727. NEWTOWN. (See CAMBRIDGE, U.S.) NEWTOWN BUTLER (Ireland). The Pro- testants of Enniskillen (q. v.) defeated the Jacobites at this town, in Fermanagh, July 30, 1689. In their retreat they set fire to the church, and many of the inhabitants who had sought refuge there perished. NEW TROY. (See LONDON.) NEW WESTMINSTER (British Columbia). A bishopric was ordered to be established here in 1865. NEW YEAR'S DAY. The first of January was observed as a day of rejoicing, and a feast was instituted by Numa, dedicated to Janus, the god of the new year, B.C. 713. During the pontificate of Felix II. or III. (483-92), a Chris- tian festival, called the Octave of Christmas, was instituted. NEW YORK (United States). This city is built on Manhattan Island, which was dis- covered by Henry Hudson in 1609, A.D. 1614. New York, or Manhattan island, is settled by the Dutch. 1633. The Dutch erect a fort on the south of Manhattan island, which forms the nucleus of New Amster- dam. 1643. They build a church in the fort. 1656. New Amsterdam is laid out in streets. Z Z NEW ZEALAND [ 706 ] NIC^EA 1664, Aug. 37. New Amsterdam surrenders to the Eng- lish, who change its name to New York. 1665, June 12. New York is incorporated, and placed under the government of a mayor, five aldermen, and a sheriff. 1667, July 20. New York is formally ceded to Great Bri- tain by the tro:ity of Bredu. lfi-5, July -50. The Dutch take New York. 1674, Feb. 19. It is restored to Great Britain by the treaty of Westminster. 1678. The city is said to contain 343 houses. 1683. New York receives a legisl;>!ive assembly. 1686 James II. grants tin- town its first charter. 1688. New York is added to the jurisdiction of New 1603. The' episcopal church is established in New York, and William Bradford sets up the first printing pren. 1700. The Legislative Assembly passes an act for the 1713. The expulsion of the Jesuit-. Indians city. foiled in an attempt to burn th . 1734. The city is fortified against the Indians. 1741. Another incendiary plot of the Indians is sup- pressed. 17-0. Columbia College is founded. 1765, Nov. 5. Governor ('olden is burned in effigy for supporting the Si:iin;i Act 1775. The inhabitant* send a petition to the English Parliament for a re.tress of grievances. The petition was presented by Edmund Burke, but was not brought up. 1776, Sep. i^. The city, having been evacuated by the republicans, is sei/.ed by the KnglMi troops. 1783, Nov. 25. The English evacuate th.- city. 1785. The, congress meets at New York. 1787, Feb. 4. A bishop for -New York is consecrated at Lambeth. 1788, July 26. New York state adopts the constitution of tiie l'nite.1 States. 1789, April 30. Washington is inaugurated as first pre- sident of the United States, at New York. 1795. The yellow fever rages. 1807. TheColle-eof Physicians is founded. [Six, May 19. Nearly 100 buildings '''' destroyed by fire. 1816 Dec. 4. A destructive lire mires in ;he city. 1826. The National Academy of Design is instituted. I31. The 1'niversity is founded. 1832. The cholera breaks out. 1835, Dec. id. A fire destroys property amounting to 18,000,000 dollars. The Croton waterworks are comin 1842. The Crotou waterworks are Completed. 1845, July 19. A fire destroys 302 houses and property tii the amount of 10,000,000 dollars. 1849, May 9. Serious riots take place at the Astor-IIouse Theatre, in consequence of the rivalry of the American actor Forrest, and Macrcady, who was compelled to quit the theatre in disguise, and the mob was not reduced to order until the military had been called out. 1853, July 14. The Exhibition of the Industry of all Nations is opened. 1857, June 16. Iliots take place. Oct. A commercial panic causes much distress. 1858, Oct. 5. The Exhibition is destroyed by fire. 1860, Feb. 2. Fifty persons perish in a fire. 1863, July 13-16. Hiots, inconsequence of the President's decree ordering a forced conscription, are sup- pressed by the military. (See fxn F.I> STATKS.) 1864, Nov. 35. A project to burn part of the town is dis- covered and prevented. 1865, Julv 13. 1'. T. Barnum's Museum is destroyed by fire. NEW ZEALAND (South Pacific) was dis- covered by Tasman in Dec., 1642; and Capt. Cook sailed round the islands in 1769 and 1770. The Church Missionary Society sent several missionaries out in 1814. The New Zealand Company formed a settlement in 1839; and the British Government established the colony, making Auckland the capital, Sep. 19, 1840. An attempt to execute a war- rant produced a disastrous war with the natives, June 17, 1843, which continued with interruptions till 1847. Another dispute respecting land led to a renewal of hostili- ties May 3, 1860. The Otago settlement was formed by persons connected with the Free Church of Scotland in 1848. The Canterbury settlement was formed by an association of gentlemen connected with the Church of England, in 1850. The New Zealand Com- pany was dissolved in 1851. New Zealand was made the seat of a bishopric in 1841, and it received a new constitution by 15 & 16 Viet. c. 72 (Jan. 30, 1852). New sees were estab- lished at Christchurch in 1856, at Nelson and at Wellington in 1858, at Waiapu in 1859, and at Dunedin in 1865. Two settlers were mur- dered near Auckland, by natives of the tribe of Waikatoes, July 15, 1863, which outrage led to an outbreak of the neighbouring savage population. Gen. Cameron having proceeded against the insurgents with 500 men, defeated them with great loss July 17, and on the 22nd attacked and captured the native village of Kiri-Kiri. Volunteer corps were organized among the colonists, about 4,000 settlers taking arms for the defence of their adopted home. After a long and destructive contest the Maories (q. r.) were reduced to subjection Aug. 6, 1864. The Rev. Carl Sylvius Volkner, a missionary of the Church of England, was taken from the schooner Ecli^f, and bar- barously murdered by the Pai Marire (q.r.) natives, at Opotiki, March 2, 1865. (See DUNE- DIN, (fee.) NEZIB (Battle). Ibrahim Pasha routed the forces of the Sultan under Hafiz Pasha, near this place, in Syria, June 24, 1839, seizing all their baggage, with 10,000 prisoners. The Turks also lost 6,000 men killed and wounded. NGAMI (Africa . Herodotus (B.C. 484 B.C. 408 ) refers to lakes in the interior of Africa. This lake, that appears upon some Por- tuguese charts in 1508, was visited by Living- stone, Murray, and Oswell, July 28, 1849. Livingstone visited it for the second time in 1850. NIAGARA (N. America), the capital of Lin- coln county, Canada West, was burned by the Americans in Dec., 1813. NIAGARA (N. America). The falls of this river were first visited by Father Hennepin, a French missionary, in 1678. The fort of Nia- gara, afterwards called Fort Erie (q. v.), was taken by the English, July 24, 1759. Blondin first crossed the falls on a tight rope, Aug. 1 7, 1 NIC^A, or NICE (Battle). Septimius Severus defeated Pescennius Niger, near this citv, in Bithynia, in 194. NIC2EA, or NICE (Bithynia). This city, called Ancore, or Helicore, is said to have been colonized by Bottiseans, and destroyed by the Mysians. Antigonus rebuilt it B.C. 316, and named it Antigonea ; but Lysimachus, having conquered this part of Asia, changed its name to Nic;a, in honour of his wife Niceea, daugh- ter of Antipater. It became a city of great importance, and the Kings of Bithynia often resided here. The celebrated Council of Nicrea, the first general council, was held from June 19 to Aug. 25, 325. It was greatly NICARAGUA [ 707 NICOMEDIA injured by an earthquake, Oct. n, 368, and was restored by the Emperor Valens. Other councils met here Sep. 24 Oct. 23, 787, in 1232 and 1250. The Greeks held it as a strong bul- wark against the Turks, who captured it in 1078. The Crusaders wrested it from them, June 24, 1097. Nicsea was made the capital of Western Asia by Theodore Lascaris I., in 1204. (See EASTERN EMPIKE, for list of Greek Empe- rors of Nice.) NICARAGUA (Central America) formed part of the Spanish kingdom of Guatemala (q. v.) until Sep. 21, 1821, when the people threw off the yoke of Spain and declared their independence. It subsequently became a member of a confederacy called the Republic of Central America, which was dissolved in 1839. As early as 1527 it was proposed to con- struct a ship canal through Nicaragua, for the purpose of connecting the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. Surveys with this view were made in 1781, 1838, and 1851, and various schemes have been at different times projected. (See BULWER-CLAYTON TREATY.) The American Filibuster Walker having landed here, was totally routed by the Nicaragua troops near San Juan del Sur, June 28, 1855 ; but he afterwards made himself dictator of the state. The Filibusters were expelled in 1857 by the combined action of the several states. A treaty of recognition, peace, and friendship was concluded with Spain, at Madrid, Jiily 25, 1850. The constitution was settled Aug. 19, 1858. A treaty of friendship, commerce, and navigation between Great Britain and Nica- ragua was signed at Managua, Jan. 28, 1860, and ratifications were exchanged at London, Aug. 2. This state joined Guatemala against San Salvador, in consequence of which the latter declared war, March 23, 1863. (See MOS- QUITO COAST and SALVADOR, SAN.) NICE (France), capital of the province of the same name, is supposed to have been colonized by Phocseans from Marseilles in the 5th century. With the neighbouring territory, it was made a Roman province under Augustus, and after undergoing various changes, became a dependency of Genoa in 630. One part of Nice, the Quartierde laCroix de Marbre, is thus named from a marble cross erected to commemorate the reconciliation of Charles V. and Francis I., June 18, 1538, when the treaty of Nice was concluded through the intervention of Pope Paul III. Near this cross stands an obelisk, erected in 1823, in memory of the two visits of Pius VII. in 1809 and 1814. Francis I. took the town, Aug. 15, 1543, but the citadel resisted all his efforts, and his army retired Sep. 8. The Duke de Feuillade invested Nice in 1705, and it surrendered Dec. 9. The Austrians took Nice March 3, 1744, and the French, under Belleisle, obtained possession in June, 1747. The French overran Nice in 1792. It was incorporated with the French republic in Nov., 1792, and formally ceded by the King of Sardinia, May 15, 1796. The Austrians, under Melas, entered Nice May n, 1800, and it was restored to Sardinia in 1814. The Emperor Napoleon III. having demanded the cession of Nice as a return for services rendered to Sardinia in the war against Austria, Nice was annexed to France by treaty signed in Turin March 24, 1860, and the transfer was made Jtme 14. NICENE CREED. A confession of faith, in which the consubstantiality of the Father and the Son is asserted, was drawn up by the first general council, assembled at Nicsea, June 19 Aug. 25, 325. The words "and the Son," after " who proceedeth from . the Father," asserting the divinity of the Holy Ghost, were added at the second general council, held at Constantinople from May to July 30, 381. This clause, which is called the filioque, has given rise to much controversy, and is rejected by the Greek Church. It was accepted by the Spanish bishops in 447, and by those of Rome in 883. NICEPHORIUM (Mesopotamia). This town on the Euphrates is said by some authorities to have been founded by Alexander III. (the Great) (B.C. 336 323), and by others by Seleucus Cal- linicus (B.C. 246 226). Justinian I. (527 65) erected a fortress, and the Emperor Leo III. (717 41) changed its name to Leontopolis. NICHOLAS, ST. (See ARGONAUTS OF ST. NICHOLAS.) NICIAS (Peace). This treaty, establishing a peace of 50 years between Athens and Sparta, and named after the Athenian Nicias, by whom it was negotiated, was concluded April 10, B.C. 421. NICKEL, a white metal that enters largely into the composition of German silver, and is found in most parts of Europe and South America, was first described by Cronstedt in I7 NICOBAR ISLANDS (Indian Ocean), con- sisting of nine larger and several smaller islands, were settled in 1756 and 1768 by the Danes, who on both occasions were compelled to withdraw on account of the unhealthiness of the climate. Some missionaries remained until 1792. The Danes, who laid claim to them in 1841, withdrew it in 1848. NICOLAIEFF, or NIKOLAIEV (Russia), the Erincipal station of the Black Sea fleet, was junded in 1790. The dockyards are very ex- tensive, and numerous schools for naval cadets, shipbuilders, and pilots, exist in the town. Nicholas I. founded another town of the same name, at the mouth of the Amour, in 1853. NICOLAITANES. These heretics of the ist century, mentioned in the Revelation of St. John (ii. 6 and 15), who are said to have taken the name from Nicolas, a proselyte of Antioch, one of the seven deacons (Acts vi. 5), allowed a community of wives, and held that the pas- sions ought to be allowed to exhaust them- selves by indulgence. Further allusion is made to them Rev. ii. 14, where the doctrine of Balaam is said to be to eat things sacrificed to idols, and to commit fornication. A Gnostic sect of the and century revived this heresy. NICOMEDIA (Bithynia), called Ismid, was built upon the ruins of Astacus, by Nicomedes I., B.C. 264, and made the metropolis of Bithy- nia. Hannibal, the Carthaginian general, died here B.C. 183. It prospered greatly, and came into the hands of the Romans, B.C. 74. It was a favourite residence of several Empe- rors, among others of Diocletian and Con- Z Z 2 NICOPOLTS [ 708 ] NILE stantine I. It was nearly destroyed by an earthquake, in Nov. or Dec., 359, and was taken by the Turks in 1327. NICOPOLIS Battle). The Sultan Bajazet I. defeated the Christians under Sigismund, King of Hungary, at a great battle fought near this place, in Bulgaria, Sep. 28, 1396. This is said to have been the first encounter between the Turks and the Christians. XK'OPOLIS (Egypt) was founded by Au- gustus B.C. 24, in commemoration of the sur- render of Alexandria ; and in less than a cen- tury its name disappeared from history. NICOPOLIS, or the City of Victory Greece 1 , w;',s fi Minded B.C. 30, in honour of the victory of AH him, by Augustus, who instituted a quinquennial festival, called Actia, sacred to Apollo, in commemoration of that victory. Christianity was introduced by the apostle Paul, wlio dates his epistle to Titus from this city about Aug. 64. Nicopolis, which was for a longtime the chief city of Western Greece, gradually fell into decay. At the beginning of the sth century it was plundered by the Goths. NIBBLA (Spain was taken from the Moors by Alphonso X. in 1257, and gave the title of count in 1369. NIELLO-WOBK, found in Byzantine works of the 1 2th century, was revived by Thomas Finiguerra (1410 NIEMEN, or liEMEL Russian Poland .-- After the battle of Friedland the Russians re- treated and crossed the Xiemen, at Tilsit, .'lune 18, 1807. The Kivnrh army, under Napoleon I., crossed the Nicnien for the invasion of Russia, June 24, 1812. The wretched . of this imposing army recrossed the Niemen, Dec. 12, 1812, when 3,000 were taken prisoners by Platoff. In the Polish insurrection of 1831 a battle was fought near this river, May 27, in which the Russian general Sacken was de- feated by the Poles, with the loss of 2,000 men. NIENTSCHANTZ Russia . Peter I. (the Great! wrested this fortress, near the river from the Swedes, May 12, 1703, and with some of the materials he laid the founda- tion of St. Petersburg. NIGER EXPEDITION was undertaken for the purpose of planting an English colony in tlie centre of Africa, the Government granting ;6o,ooo for that purpose. The expedition, con- sisting of three ships, the Albert, the Wilber- force, and the Komla,,, sailed May 12, 1841. They began to ascend the Niger Aug. 20. Fever broke out in Sep. The expedition arrived at Adda Kudder Sep. u, when the Xmn/ii.t was sent back with the sick. The Wilberforce fol- lowed directly after, and the Albert, the last vessel, gained the island of Fernando Po Oct. 17, 1841, and thus the Niger expedition, from the unhealthy effects of the climate, became a total failure. It was stated in the House of Commons that the object of the expedition was to secure the effectual abolition of the slave trade. NIGER, or JOLIBA (Africa). Various at- tempts have been made to discover the source of the river Niger. The first, in 1788, under the auspices of the African Association, was entrusted to John Ledyard, who died at Cairo in < >ct. Mungo Park was sent out in 1795, and again in 1805. Though he did not succeed in dis- covering the source of the Niger, he obtained much valuable information respectingthe river. He was killed by the natives on his second journey. Capt. Clapperton went out in 1824, the brothers Richard and John Lander in 1829-30, and Dr. Barthin 1854. (See MISSIONARY BISHOPS and NK;KK EXPEDITION.) NIGHT-CAPS. (& CAP and HATS.) NIGHTINGALE FUND. A meeting was held at Willis's Rooms, Nov. 29, 1855, for the purpose of raising funds to establish an insti- tution for the training of nurses, as an ac- knowledgment of the services of Miss Florence Nightingale in the Russian war. NIGRITIA. (See SOUDAN.) Mill LISTS. (See ABRAHAMITES.) NlillAU (Pacific Ocean). (See HAWAIIAN ARCHIPELACO. Nl KA SEDITION. (See CIRCUS FACTIONS.) NIKOLSIM RG, or NIKALSBURG (Treaties). Bethlen Gabor, by a treaty con- cluded with the Emperor Ferdinand II., at this town in Moravia, Jan. 7, 1622. renounced the title of King of Hungary, receiving in lieu thereof large territories in that country and Silesia, and a yearly pension of 50,000 florins. -The preliminaries of peace between Prussia and Austria were signed here July 26, 1866. N ILK (Battle). Julius Csesar defeated Ptole- nia'iis and the Egyptians on the banks of this river, B.C. 47. Ptolemseus was drowned in attempting to escape. NILE Egypt). Tin's celebrated river, called by the Egyptians the "Abyss of Waters," is formed of two streams, the Blue River and the White River, which How together at Khartoum, and each of which has been re- garded as the main stream of the river. The canal from the Nile to the Red Sea, commenced B.C. 610, and completed B.C. 280, was repaired by C. Petronius, B.C. 22. The Nile was ex- plored 900 miles above Syene in 62. < Indicopleustes heard of the sources of the Blue Nile in the territory of the Agows in the 6th century, and Fra Mauro represented them with some degree of accuracy in the isth cen- tury. Paez discovered and described its source in 1618, and it was also reached by the traveller Bruce, Nov. 4, 1770. M. Linart as- cended the White River as far as El Ais in 1827, ancl it was explored as far as Chanker by a Turko-Egyptian expedition in 1840. M. Brun-Rollet ascended still higher in 1854. Capt. John Banning Speke having discovered the Victoria Nyanza, Aug. 3, 1858, conceived the idea that the Nile probably found its source in its waters. He accordingly obtained facili- ties from the British Government, and in com- pany with Capt. Grant embarked from Ports- mouth April 27, 1860. After great delays, in consequence of difficulties with the native chiefs, they reached the river July 21, 1862, and succeeded in tracing it to the Nyanza or lake, July 28. They were received at a special meeting of the Royal Geographical Society, June 24, 1863, when Speke was presented with a gold medal conferred on him by the King of Italy. Capt. Speke was killed by the accidental discharge of his gun while out shooting at NILE [ 709 ] NINEVEH Corsham, near Bath, Sep. 15, 1864. Samuel White Baker, in March, 1861, commenced an expedition to discover the sources of the Nile, iu which he was accompanied by his wife. They set sail upon the Nile at Cairo April 15, reached the Atbara junction with the Nile June* 13, and after a year's exploration on the Abyssinian frontier, arrived at Khartoum June ii, 1862. Here they remained till Dec. 18, when they commenced their voyage up the White Nile, reaching Gondokoro Feb. 2, 1863. The journey was resumed March 26, and after immense difficulties and delays, arising chiefly from the treachery and rapacity of the native chieftains, they reached Whoa Jan. 13, 1864, and the junction of the Somerset or Victoria White Nile Jan. 22, and discovered the Albert Nyanza, the great reservoir of the Nile's equa- torial waters, March 14. They arrived at Khartoum May 5, 1865, and, continuing their return journey, July i, soon reached Suez and Cairo, whence they took steamer to England. For this discovery Baker received the honour of knighthood, Nov. 10, 1866. NILE (Sea-fight). In the roadstead of Bequiers, between Aboukir and Rosetta, the French fleet, consisting of the flag-ship (120 guns), three 8o-gun ships, nine 74-guii ships, two 4o-gun frigates, and two 36-guii frigates, commanded by Admiral Brueys, was discovered by Nelson, Aug. i, 1798. His fleet consisted of 13 74-gun ships, one so-gun ship, and the brig Mutine. The French vessels were an- chored close into the shorej and were protected by gunboats and a battery erected on Aboukir Island. Lord Nelson, in spite of the superior force and the advantageous position of the enemy, determined upon an attack, which commenced at sunset. Several French ships had been taken when a fire broke out on board L'Orient, and she blew up at 10 o'clock. . Firing ceased for 10 minutes, and was resumed by the Franklin. Another suspension took place, and the contest was again renewed at five o'clock in the morning, Aug. 2. Only two ships of the line and two frigates of the French fleet escaped. The British loss amounted to 218 killed and 671 wounded. Nelson signalled to the fleet his intention to return public thanks to the Almighty for this glorious vic- tory at 2 P.M. Aug. 2. 1798. NILOMETER (Africa). A graduated pillar placed in a square well in the island of Rhoda, opposite Old Cairo, to mark the daily rise of the Nile, was first constructed by Soliinan, seventh caliph of the Ommiades, in 715. Al Motawakkel, tenth caliph of the Abbasides, built a new Nilometer in 860 ; and Mostunser Pillah, fifth of the Fatirnite princes of Egypt, repaired it in 1092. NIMBUS. This halo round the head or body of divine persons is called a nimbus when it surrounds the head, and an aureola when it envelops the whole body the union of the two being called a glory. It is of pagan origin. Images of the gods were adorned with a crown of rays ; and when the Roman emperors assumed divine honours, they appeared deco- rated in the same manner. It afterwards became so common, that it appears on coins, round the heads of the consuls of the late empire. It was for a long tune avoided in the Christian representations, and the first example is a gem of St. Martin iu the early part of the 6th century. After the i ith cen- tury it was employed to distinguish the Saviour, the Virgin Mary, the apostles, saints, &c. From the 5th to the i2th century the nimbus had the form of a disc or plate over the head ; from the i2th to the isth century it was a broad golden band round or behind the head ; from the isth century it was a bright fillet over the head, and in the i7th it dis- appeared altogether. NIMEGUEN (Treaty). Conferences for peace were opened at Nimeguen in July, 1675, and Charles II. of England, having signed a convention with Holland, Jan. 26, 1678, for the withdrawal of the English contingent from the French army, a treaty of peace was con- cluded at Nimeguen between France and Holland Aug. 10. Spain acceded to the treaty Sep. 17, 1678, the Emperor of Germany Feb. 5, 1679, and Sweden March 29, 1679. NIMEGUEN, NYMEGEN, or NJMEGEN (Holland), the ancient Noviomagus of the Batavi, is a strongly fortified town. The castle of Valkenburg, said to have been built by Julius Caesar, was repaired by Charlemagne about 780. William of Holland mortgaged the town to the Duke of Guelderland in 1247. Maurice captured it in 1591. The Duke of Marlborough arrived at Nimeguen July 2, 1702, to assume the command of the allied armies. The stadtholder William V. removed the coxirt here in 1786. The Duke of York, who formed an intrenched camp before Nime- guen in 1794, had an indecisive engagement with the French Oct. 28. The French be- sieged the town Nov. i, and the English made a successful sortie Nov. 3. The French batteries were, however, re-established Nov. 6, and the English garrison was withdrawn Nov. 8, the fortress falling into the hands of the French, who in 1797 destroyed the ancient castle of Valkenburg. The town-hall was built in 1554. NIMROUD, or NIMRUD. (See CALAH.) NINEVEH (Assyria). Nimrod, or Asshur, is said to have founded this city about B.C. 2218, but some authorities believe that it had no existence till the reign of Ninus, B.C. 2182. It is mentioned on the tablet of Karnak (q. v.). Diodorus asserts that Nineveh was destroyed by Arbaces the Mode, B.C. 876; but Layard considers this destruction to have been most probably a mere depopulation. Jonah's pro- phecy to the inhabitants of Nineveh was de- livered some time between B.C. 760 B.C. 750, or B.C. 862, according to some authorities, and the city was conquered and destroyed by Cyaxares, B.C. 625. The extent of the ancient city was 60, or, according to some authorities, 74 square miles. Heraclius defeated Rhazates, the Persian general, in a great battle on its site, Dec. i, 627. Layard's discoveries of antiquities at Nineveh commenced April, 1840, but no excavations of importance were made till the autumn of 1845. In 1848 he published " Nine- veh and its Remains," and in 1853 his " Dis- coveries in the Ruins of Nineveh and Babylon." The antiquities discovered by him have been deposited in the British Museum. (See MOSUL.) NINGPO t 710 ] NIVELLE NINGPO (China) was taken by Sir Henry Pottinger Oct. 13, 1841. The Chinese failed in an attempt to recover it March 10, 1842. A British consul and British subjects were allowed to reside at the port by the terms of the treaty of Nankin, signed Aug. 29, 1842. This city, seized by the rebels, Dec. 9, 1861, was recovered by the Imperial forces, May 21, 1862. NIOBIUM. This metal was discovered by H. Rose in 1845. NIORT (France). This town having passed into the possession of the English with the rest of Poitou in 1151, was wrested from them in 1202. The English recaptured it in 1290, and lost it again in 1308. They took it again in 1361, but the French regained possession by stratagem in 1373. The Huguenots were besieged here in 1569. N1PON. (See JAPAN.) NISHAPORE, or NI8HAPUR (Persia), was destroyed by Alexander HI. (the Great) during his eastern expedition, about B.C. 331. Having been restored and raised to a royal city by the Seljukian Turks, it was .sacked by the Tar- tars in 1269, and taken in 1739 by Nadir Shah, wlio reduced it to ruins. NISIBIS (Mesopotamia;, the modern Nisibin, is .supposed to be the Zobah of scripture, whose kings are mentioned as having been defeated by the Israelites, i Sam. xiv. 47, and 2 Sam. viii. 3, about B.C. 1093 and B.C. 1040. It is said to have been rebuilt by the Mace- donians, and called Antiochea Mygdonise. It was taken from the Parthians by the Romans, under Lucullus, after a long siege, B.C. 68. They did not retain possession, and it was re- captured by Trajan in 116. Lucius Verus took it in 165, and Sapor I., King of Persia, in 256 ; but it was recovered by Odenathus in 264. Diocletian and Galerius met here and received the Persian ambassador, and a peace was con- cluded with the Persians in 298. Sapor II. besieged Nisibis for 60 days in 338, for 80 days in 346, and for 100 days in 350, being on each occasion compelled to retire. The city was, however, surrendered to him by treaty by the Emperor Jovian in 363, and the in- habitants retired to Amida. That rising city, with this accession of inhabitants, recovered its former splendour, and became the capital of Mesopotamia. The Romans, under Arda- biuius, attempted, but without success, to regain Nisibis in 420, and the Saracens, having taken it in 640, levelled its walls with the ground. NISI PRIUS. The clause in the writ sum- moning a jury, from which this legal phrase is derived, was introduced by 13 Edw. I. c. 30 (1285), and enforced by 14 Edw. III. c. 16 (1340). The judges sit in Middlesex at Nisi Prius by virtue of 18 Eliz. c. 12 (1576). NISMES, or NIMES (France). The ancient Nemausus noticed by Strabo as the capital of the Volcse Arecomici, came under the sway of Rome B.C. 119, and was fortified by Augustus B.C. 14. It fell under the power of the Visi- goths, from whom it was wrested by the Moors in the 8th century. Charles Martel took it in 737. In the i6th century it became a strong- hold of the Calviru'sts. By the pacification of Nismes, agreed to in 1629, the Huguenots were secured in the possession of their estates, and the free exercise of their religion, and of all the privileges accorded by the edict of Nantes. They were, however, deprived of their fortified cautionary towns. The fortifications were destroyed by Louis XIII. (161043). The amphitheatre, erected by the Roman Emperor Antoninus Pius (138 161) is still in a state of fair preservation. Nismes retains two of its Roman gates --the Porte d'Auguste, founded B.C. 1 6, and the Porte de France. Councils were held here in 389, July 6 14, 1096, and in 1284. The cathedral was almost destroyed during the wars of the i6th and iyth centuries, and the town suffered much in the French revolution of 1789. NISSA, or NISCH (Battle). Amurath II., Sultan of the Ottomans, sustained a severe defeat from the Hungarians, under John Hunniades and Scanderbeg, near this town in Servia, Nov. 3, 1443. XISSA, or NISCH (Servia). The ancient Naiissus (q. v.), the birthplace of Constantino I. (Feb. 27, 274), was captured by the Turks in 1376, and again in 1389. John Hunniades wrested it from the Turks in 1443. It again fell into their possession, and was recovered by r.miis of Baden, Sep. 24, 1689. The Turks regained possession in 1690. The Austriaus took it July 28, 1737, and it was retaken by the Turks the same year. NIT Jt !:.(,* e SALTPETRE.) NITRIC ACID. -Liquid nitric acid was obtained as early as the yth century. Its nature was demonstrated in 1785 by Caven- dish. Deville made some important discove- ries in 1849. NITROGEN, or AZOTE, was discovered by Dr. Rutherford, of Edinburgh, and described in his " DC Acre Mephitico," published in 1772. Dr. Priestley, who termed it " phlogisticated air," also described it in the Philosophical Transactions for 1772. Lavoisier showed it to be a component of atmospheric air in 1774. NITRO-GLYCERINE. This highly explo- sive compound, discovered by Sobrero in 1847, is described as ten times more powerful than gunpowder. NIVE (Battles). Soult's position on this river was menaced by Hill, Nov. 16, 1813 ; and it was attacked and forced by the English army Dec. 8. Soult, anxious to regain the position, assailed the English army, only 30,000 strong, with 60,000 troops, Dec. 10, and, after making a most desperate attack, was compelled to retire. Other struggles oc- curred Dec. ii and 13, but the English main- tained their ground, and the passage of the Nive was effected. In these actions the French lost 6,000 in killed and wounded, and 2,500 prisoners, whilst the English lost, in killed, wounded, and prisoners, 5,019 men. NIVELLE (Battle). The French position on this river was carried by the English army, commanded by the Duke of Wellington, after an arduous struggle, Nov. 10, 1813. The English army advanced in order or battle Nov. ii, and crossed the Nivelle Nov. 12. Marshal Soult lost 4,265 men, including 1,200 prisoners, and the English 2,294 men. NIVELLES NONSUCH NIVELLES (Belgium). This town origin- ated in an abbey founded by St. Gertrude, about 645. The church dedicated to this saint was built in 1048. NOBILITY. The rank of nobiles, or known meh, among the Romans, was restricted to the patricians till B.C. 336, when the plebeians were permitted to attain the dignity. Hotmail, in his " Franca Gallia," ascribes to Hugh Capet, King of France, the device of making such honours hereditary in 987. The first recorded summons for the creation of an English peer was issued by Henry III. in 1265. Titles were abolished in France June 1 8, 1790 ; but Napoleon I. revived them in March, 1808. The hereditary peerage of that country was extinguished in 1831. NOBLE. This gold coin, of the value of 6s. 8d., was struck in the reign of Edward III., in 1344. George nobles were first coined in I5 N 3 OCERA (Italy), the ancient Nuceria, in- habited by people of the Oscan race, took part with the Samnites against the Romans B.C. 315, for which the consul Fabius besieged and captured the city, B.C. 308. Hannibal reduced it by famine B.C. 216, and in the civil war it was taken by C. Papius B.C. 90. The battle between Narses and Te'ias, which terminated the Gothic monarchy in Italy, was fought near this city in 533. A colony of 20,000 Saracens was established here by Frederick II. (1215 1246), whence its name Nocera dei Pagani. Charles of Anjou assailed it and destroyed its fortifications in 1269. NOLA (Italy) was founded by the Etruscans as early as B.C. 800, according to some authori- ties ; but there is much doubt on the subject. It was conquered by the Samnites about B.C. 440, and by the Romans B.C. 313. Hannibal assailed it in three successive years, B.C. 216 214. The inhabitants took part with Marius in the civil war, and were put to the sword by Sylla, who divided the country amongst his victorious followers, B.C. 82. Alaric 1. laid it waste in 410 ; and Genseric, King of the Vandals, destroyed it, selling the inhabitants into slavery, in 455. Augustus died here, Aug. 19, 14. It was made the seat of a bishop in 254, and St. Paulinus (died in 431), its bishop, is said to have invented church bells, whence they were called " nola " and " campana." The Carbonari attempted a revolution here June 2, 1820. NOMINALISTS AND REALISTS. These celebrated ecclesiastical parties originated in the discussion between Anselm, Abbot of Bee, and Roscellinus, a canon of Compiegne, in 1092, the doctrines of Anselm giving rise to Realism, and those of Roscellinus to Nominalism. The controversy, which raged with great fury during the i2th century and then declined, was revived by the Franciscan Nominalist, Wil- liam Occam, who died April 7, 1347, and founded the sect of the Occamists. His followers were expelled from Prague in 1408, and their books were prohibited in France by Louis XI. in 1473. The Realists maintained that general ideas (uni-cersalia) are real things with positive existence ; the Nominalists, on the other hand, merely regarded them as words or names. The Nominalists were in later times called Concep- tualists. NONCONFORMISTS. The name used gen- erally to describe dissenters from the Church of England, was first applied to those who refused to comply with the Act of Uniformity (2 & 3 Edw. VI. c. i) passed in 1549. A pro- clamation against unlicensed preaching was issued by Elizabeth, Dec. 27, 1558 ; and the Non- conformists, under the name of Puritans (q. v.}, formed their first presbytery at Wandsworth in 1572. On the passing of the Uniformity Act of Charles II., 2,000 clergymen voluntarily resigned their livings, Aug. 24, 1662. James II.'s Declaration of Indulgence was promulgated April 4, 1687, and the Toleration Act(i Will. & Mary, st. i, c. 18) was passed May 24, 1689. The Nonconformists held a Bicentenary on the anniversary of St. Bartholomew's Day, Sunday, Aug. 24, 1862. NONES. This term was applied by the Romans to the sth day of each month, excepting in March, May, July, and October, when it was applied to the seventh. The nones formed part of the system of com- puting time ascribed to Romulus, B.C. 753. (See IDES. ) NON JURORS, headed by Bancroft, Arch- bishop of Canterbury, and the Bishops of Bath and Wells, Ely, Gloucester, Norwich, and Peterborough, who refused to take the oath of allegiance to William III., were deprived Feb. i, 1691. The Bishops of Chichester and Worcester, who had also declined to take the oaths, died in the interval. To these men and their followers the term Nonjurors was applied. They divided into two sections in 1720, in consequence of a dispute respecting the administration of the communion. By 9 Geo. I. c. 18 (1723), they were subjected to similar taxes as Papists. Their worship was conducted in hired rooms or private houses ; and they became extinct in 1780. NON, or NUN (Africa). This cape, which long formed the boundary of ocean navi- gation, was doubled in 1412, by an expe- dition fitted out by John I. of Portugal. Some writers contend that a Catalan doubled it as early as 1346, and that some Dieppe mariners penetrated as far as Sierra Leone in 1364. The story is not supported by satis- factory evidence. NON-RESISTANCE OATH, inserted in the Corporation and Test Act ( 13 Charles II. st. 2, c. i) of 1 66 1, and required to be taken by all corpo- ration officers, was to the following effect : " I do declare and believe that it is not lawful, upon any pretence whatsoever, to take arms against the king, and that I do abhor that traitorous position of taking arms by his authority against his person, or against those that are commissioned by him." It was re- pealed by 5 Geo. I. c. 6, s. 2 (1719), an act for quieting and establishing corporations. A homily on the subject was written in 1569, and the doctrine was laid down in the canons of convocation of 1606. (See FIVE-MILE ACT.) NONSUCH PALACE (Surrey). Henry VIII. having purchased the manor of Ewel cum Cuddington, ordered two parks, called the Great and the Little, to be laid out. In the NOOTKA NORMANDY latter he began to build the palace of No-asuch in 1543. Queen Mary, Nov. 23, 1557, granted Nonsuch to the Earl of Arundel, by whom it was completed. Camden says it is built with so much splendour and elegance that it stands a monument of art, and you would think the whole science of architecture had been ex- hausted on the building. Queen Elizabeth visited Nonsuch in 1559, 1567, 1579, and 1580. She purchased it, and it became her favourite residence. Here the Earl of Essex first ex- perienced her displeasure on his sudden return from Ireland, Sep. 28, 1599. James I. settled Nonsuch upon his queen, Anne ; and in 1650 a survey was taken of it by the Commonwealth commissioners, and it was sold. At the Resto- ration, Nonsuch and all the lands were restored to the queen-mother, and George Lord Buckley was appointed keeper Sep. 5, 1660. A pro- clamation was issued July 26, 1665, for re- moving the receipt of the exchequer from Westminster to his Majesty's honour of Nonsuch, in the county of Surrey. In 1760 it came into the possession of Barbara, who had been created Duchess of Cleveland and Baroness of Nonsuch, and by her Nonsuch was pulled down, and the parks were turned into farms. NOOTKA SOUND. (See KING GEORGE'S SOUND.) NO POPERY. This cry was raised by the ringleaders in the Gun inn rints Ul>AI,BINGIA. Charlemagne expelled the Saxons from Holstein (q. v.}, and formed it into the margraviate of Nordalbingia, about Sir. NOHDKX Battled The Danes, under Hast- ings, defeated the army of Charles the Fat at this town, in East Friesland, in 882. NORDKOPING, or XORKOPING (Sweden). At a diet held at this town, in 1769, the French, or the Hat party, who had long opposed the Russian and English, called the I 'a] i party, obtained the ascendancy. NORDLINGEN (Battles'. Two battles were fought at this walled town, in Bavaria, the first between the Austrians and Bavarians, under the Archduke Ferdinand, and the Swedes, commanded by the Duke of Saxe- Weimar and Count Horn, Aug. 27, 1634. The latter were defeated. In the second, the Spaniards and Austrians were defeated by the French, under Turenne and the Duke d'Enghien, in 1645. NORE (Mutiny). Great discontent pre- vailed amongst the sailors in the English navy early in 1797. They complained that, although the price of the necessaries of life had increased, they received the same amount of wages as that paid during the reign of Charles II. In April the men broke into open mutiny at Spithead. They refused to obey the commands of their officers, appointed delegates, and drew up petitions to Parlia- ment for redress of grievances. Lord Howe succeeded in repressing this mutiny, but another broke out May 27, 1797, in the fleet lying at Sheerness. The ringleader was one Richard Parker, who was nicknamed Rear- Admiral Parker. The mutineers removed the ships to the Nore, hoisted the red flag, sent their officers on shore, and made the most extravagant demands. They seized some store-ships, and blockaded the mouth of the Thames. Owing to the energetic measures of the authorities, the mutineers began to waver, and fired a royal salute on the king's birthday, June 4. One by one the ships returned to their stations, the last red flag having been hauled down June 13. Richard Parker, president of the delegates, arrested with others June 14, was executed on board the ^i/ndwicli, at Sheerness, June 30. (See CORRESPONDING SOCIETY.) NOREIA, or NOREJA (Styria), the capital of Noricum, celebrated for the great defeat in- flicted upon the Romans by the Cimbri and Teutones, B.C. 113. The Boii besieged it B.C. 59. The modern town of Neumark occupies its site. NORFOLK ISLAND (Pacific Ocean) was discovered in 1774 by Capt. Cook, when it was uninhabited. A settlement of freemen and convicts, made in 1787, was abandoned in 1810. It was made a penal settlement in 1825, and on the withdrawal of the convict establishment in 1856, the inhabitants of Pitcairn's Island took possession. XOKKTM Kurope), the country forming a large portion of the Austrian empire, is sup- posed to have received this name from Noreia, its capital, and was inhabited by a Celtic race, anciently called Taurisci. The Boii settled in the northern part of Noricum, B.C. 58. It was made a Roman province B.C. 15. (-See AUSTRIA.) XOKIvITTKN, or GROSS JAGERNDORF (Battle .The Prussians attacked the Rus- sians, 30,000 strong, in an intrenched camp near the forest of Norkitten, in Prussia, Aug. 30, 1757, and after gaining some advantages, were compelled to retire in confusion. At the commencement of the battle they captured 80 pieces of cannon, which they were obliged to relinquish, with 13 pieces of their own artillery. NORMAL SCHOOLS for the training of teachers were instituted in France in 1795. The Normal school at Paris, suppressed in 1821, was re-established June 28, 1833. Normal schools were introduced into England in 1808, and into Tuscany by a decree issued Dec. 3, 1846. N( )RMAN ARCHITECTURE. Fergusson (Illustrated Handbook of Architecture, ii. 643), says of the round-arched Norman Gothic, "No building in this style is known to have been even commenced before the year 1050, and before 1150 the pointed style had super- seded it. Indeed, practically speaking, all the great and typical examples are crowded into the last 50 years of the nth century." NORMANDY (France). This duchy, which comprises part of the ancient kingdom of Neustria, was ceded to Rollo, Rolf, or Haoul, the Norseman or Norman, by Charles III. (the Simple), according to the treaty or conference of St. Clair-sur-Epte, which was concluded between them in 911. (See NORTHMEN.) Rollo is believed to have held it as a fief of the French NORROY NORTH ALLERTON 9*7- crown, but the subject is involved in con- siderable obscurity. A.D. 913. Hollo is baptized at Rouen by the name of Robert. 933. The Franks invade Normandy under Raoul of Burgundy, who is compelled to retire and pay a heavy Danegelt as the price of peace. . Rollo abdicates in favour of his son, William Long-lie- Kpee, -who does homage to Charles III. 931. William I. invades Britanny, and annexes part of that country. 933. William I. takes the Channel Islands and sup- presses an insurrection under Count Riulpb, whom he puts to death. 937. Cornouaille is permanentlv annexed to Normandy. William I. revolts against Louis IV. of France. 938. William I. ravages Flanders. 940. William I. swears fealty to Otho I. of Germany, but after many vacillations returns to his alle- giance to Louis IV. 942, Dec. 17. William I. is murdered by Balzo, the nephew of Count Rlulph. 944. Normandy is invaded by the French and Flemings, who defeat the Normans at the battle of Arques. 945. Richard I. (the Fearless) is restored by the aid of Harold Blaatand, King of Denmark. 960. A confederacy, headed byLothaire, King of France, is formed against Richard I. 961. Richard I. defeats Lothaire at the battle of the Fords. 963. Thibaut, Count of Chartres, invades Normandy, and is defeated at the battle of Hermondeville. 996. Richard II. suppresses an insurrection occasioned by the tyranny of the nobles. 1003. Ethelred II. of England makes an unsuccessful de- scent upon the Norman coasts. 1035. The Normans form settlements in the south of Italy. 1035, July 3. Robert I. undertakes a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, and dies from poison at Niceea, in Bithynia. 1064. William II. (the Bastard) annexes Maine to Nor- mandy. 1066. William II. (the Bastard) invades England. 1106, Sep. 38. Henry I. of England defeats Robert Court- hose and conquers Normandy at the battle of Tinchenbray. 1151. Henry Plantagenet receives the investiture of Nor- mandy. 1204. Philip II. (Augustus) annexes Normandy to France. 1339. Philip VI. re-establishes the duchy of Normandy in favour of his son John. 1346. Normandy is ravaged by Edward III. of England. 1360, May 8. The treaty of Bretigny. 1364, May 16. Battle of Cocherel (?. .). 1417. The English seize Normandy. 1450. Normandy is restored to France. 1468. The states-general declare that Normandy shall never be detached from the French crown. 1499. Louis XII. establishes the parliament of Rouen. 1639. The sedition of the Nu-pieds, or Barefeet, is sup- pressed. 1654. Louis XIV. suppresses the Norman states. 1771. The parliament of Rouen is suppressed. 1774. Louis XVI. restores the parliament of Rouen. 135- 144. 151- 189. DUKES OF NORMANDY. Rollo. William I., Longrie-Ep6e, or Long-sword. Richard I., the Fearless. Richard II., the Good. Richard III. Robert I., le Diable. William II., the Bastard (I. of England). Robert II., suruamed Courthose. Henry I. Stephen. Geoffrey Plantagenet. Henry II. (i 154 King of England). Richard IV., Cceur-de-Lion (I. of England). John. Normandy is reunited to France. NORROY KING-AT-ARMS. The office of this herald, whose province comprises the whole of England north of the Trent, is traced by Edmondson to 1323, but Anstis states that it was created by Edward III. (1327 1377). Richard II. changed the title to "March King- at-Arms " in 1386, and Henry VI. to " Lancas- ter King-at-Arms " in 1423, but the original name was restored by Edward IV. in 1468. NORTH ADMINISTRATION. Frederick, Lord North, created Earl of Guildford in 1790, who filled the office of Chancellor of the Ex- chequer in the Graf ton administration^. v.), became First Lord of the Treasury Jan. 28, 1770, on the resignation of the Duke of Graf- ton. The cabinet was thus constituted : President of the Council ......... Earl Gower. Privy Seal ........................... Earl of Halifax. , Earl of Hillsborough, Principal Secretaries of -"* *"** * " e .............................. Earl of Rochford. V Lord Weymouth. Admiralty .............................. Sir Edward Hawke. The Great Seal was at first placed in commis- sion. Lord Apsley, afterwards Earl Bathurst, was made Lord Chancellor Jan. 23, 1771. He resigned in 1778, and Lord Thurlow was ap- pointed June 3. Lord Weymouth resigned, and the Earl of Sandwich became one of the principal secretaries of state in his place Dec. 19, 1770. Sir E. Hawke resigned the Admi- ralty, and was succeeded Jan. 12, 1771, by the Earl of Sandwich, whose place as Secretary of State was supplied by the Earl of Halifax Jan. 22, the Earl of Suffolk and Berkshire taking the Privy Seal. The Earl of Halifax died June 8, 1771, and was succeeded, June 12, by the Earl of Suffolk and Berkshire, the Privy Seal being filled by the Duke of Grafton. The Earl of Dartmouth succeeded the Earl of Hillsborough as Secretary of State, Aug. 14, 1772. The Earl of Dartmouth replaced the Duke of Grafton as Privy Seal, Nov. 4, 1775. Viscount Weymouth and Lord George Sack- ville Germaine, afterwards Viscount Sackville, became Secretaries of State in place of the Earls of Rochford and Dartmouth, Nov. 10, 1775. Earl Bathurst became President of the Council as successor of Earl Gower, Nov. 24, 1779. Lord Weymouth resigned his secretary- ship of State, and was succeeded by the Earl of Hillsborough, Nov. 24, 1779. Mr. Welbore Ellis, afterwards Lord Mendip, succeeded Vis- count Sackville as Secretary of State, Feb. 22, 1782. The ministry grew extremely unpopu- lar on account of the American war, and Lord North announced, his resignation in the House of Commons, March 20, 1782. (See ROCKINQ- HAM, Second, ADMINISTRATION.) NORTH ALLERTON (Yorkshire).- This town is supposed to have been originally a Roman station, and subsequently a Saxon borough, but the date of its foundation is unknown. In Domesday Book it is called Alvertine and Alreton. The church is said to have been built by the Northumbrian apostle Paulinus, about 630. In the reign of Henry I. (uoo 1135) a castle was built on the west side of the town by the Bishop of Durham. This is supposed to be the one destroyed by order of Henry II. about 1174. NORTH AMERICAN NORTH-EAST Near the town the famous battle of the Standard was fought between the English and the Scotch, the latter being defeated with a loss of 10,000 men, Aug. 22, 1138. About 1345 a monastery of Carmelites was founded, and in 1476 an hospital, which has since been rebuilt. During the rebellion of 1745, the English, under the command of the Duke of Cumberland, encamped here. NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS, consisting of about 1 20 tribes, or nations, each speaking a different language, were estimated, in 1853, by the United States commissioner of Indian affairs, to amount to 400,764. The state of Georgia expelled the Cherokees from their territory in 1834. This induced the Federal government to take measures to fix a boun- dary for their residence ; and all the tribes living east of the Mississippi have been re- moved to the west of that river since 1836. NORTHAMPTON (Battle). Margaret, Queen of Henry VI., raised an army to main- tain the cause of the house of Lancaster, early in 1460. The Duke of Buckingham, who took the command, engaged with the Yorkist forces near Northampton, July 10, 1460, when he was totally defeated. Henry VI. was taken pri- soner, and Queen Margaret was compelled to take refuge in Scotland. NORTHAMPTON (Northamptonshire), the Autona of Tacitus, was anciently known as North An.i'tHt/ii/', according to some anti- quarians, and, according to others, a.s Jlnm/i- tune, to which the word North was after- wards prefixed. In 921 it was in the pos- session of the Danes, who made it their principal station when their forces were pre- paring to besiege Towcester. In 1010 it was again attacked and burned by the Danes. At the Norman Conquest the town was bestowed on Earl Waltheof. Having conspired against the king, he was executed April 29, 1075, and his possessions were given to the Earl of Hunt- ingdon and Northampton, who erected a strong castle for the defence of the town. The priory of St. Andrew was founded in 1076, and the abbey of Black Canons about 1 1 12. Henry I. assembled a great council here, Sep. 8, 1131. The parliament held at Northampton, Jan. 26, 1176, ordered Justices in Eyre (q. v. ) to be sent round the kingdom once in seven years. A convention of barons and prelates assembled here in 1180 to con- sider the laws of the realm. King John, in the ioth year of his reign, being displeased with the city of London, removed his court of exchequer here. Northampton was one of the strongholds placed in the hands of the barons as security for the fulfilment of the conditions of Magna Charta. The last parlia- ment held here was summoned Monday, Nov. 5, 1380, when a poll-tax was ordered, which led to the rebellion of Wat Tyler. The town was nearly destroyed by fire in 1675. It received a charter of incorporation from Henry II. (1154 89). The church is said to have been built by the .Knights Templars, after a model of the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem. Of the castle, only a few remains are to be traced, the em- battled walls and gates having been demo- lished in 1662. A flood did great damage in 1720, and shocks of an earthquake were felt in 1750 and 1776. St. Thomas's Hospital was founded in 1450, the free grammar-school in 1556, the infirmary in 1747, and the present building in 1793. The bluecoat-school was founded in 1700; the barracks were opened in 1796, and the gaol in 1846. Dr. Wiseman opened the new Roman Catholic Cathedral, April 21, 1864. NORTHAMPTON (Treaty). The peace con- cluded with Scotland at Edinburgh, March 17, 1328, was ratified at Northampton May 4, 1328. NORTH BRITON NEWSPAPER was brought out May 29, 1762, in opposition to Lord Bute's administration, by John Wilkes, M.P. for Aylesbury. In the 45^1 number, Saturday, April 23, 1763, George III. was ac- cused of falsehood, and a general warrant was issued, April 26, against the authors, printers, and publishers, who were taken into custody April 30, and released May 6. They brought an action against the King's messengers for false imprisonment. It was tried at Guildhall July 6, and resulted in a verdict in their favour, with .300 damages. Parliament met Nov. 15, 1763, and the house resolved, by a majority of 237 against m, that the paper entitled the Nurth Briton, No. 45, was a false and scandalous libel, and that it should be burned by the common hangman. This sen- tence was carried out in Cheapside Dec. 3, under the direction of Alderman Harley, sheriff of London, when a riot ensued. The hangman only succeeded in burning part of the paper, and the remainder was carried away in triumph by the mob. NORTH CAROLINA (United States). This province was formed in 1729, when George II. divided Carolina into two divisions, known as North and South. The Mecklenburg Declara- tion of Independence, made in this state ,May 20, 1775, was the lirst proposal for a separation of the American colonies and the British crown. North Carolina was admitted a state of the American Union Nov. 27, 1789. North Carolina University, situated at Chapel Hill, Orange county, was founded in 1791, and Raleigh was erected into the capital in 1792. It seceded May 21, 1861. NORTH-EAST PASSAGE. The first expe- dition to discover a route to Eastern Asia by coasting along the north of Europe and Asia, was despatched from England under Sir Hugh Willoughby in 1553, and after discovering Nova Zenibla (q. v.), was laid up in winter quarters on the coast of Lapland, where the crew were frozen to death. Other expeditions were con- ducted by Burroughs in 1556, and by Pet and Jackman in 1580. William Barentz made three voyages for this purpose on behalf of the Dutch government, between 1594 and 1596, and Henry Hudson in 1608 resumed the at- tempt for the English. In 1609 he conducted a Dutch expedition, and in 1676 a voyage was made for the same nation by Wood. Behring nade an abortive attempt in 1741, and several sledge expeditions sent out by the Russian b (18201823), established the im- possibility of opening the passage in con- sequence of the alternations of open sea with fields of ice. NORTHERN NORWAY NORTHERN CANARIES. (See MADEIRA.) NORTHERN C1RCARS (Hmdostan). The Mohammedans first appeared in this extensive province about 1471 ; and in 1541 and 1550 added considerably to their conquests. It formed part of the empire of Aurungzebe in 1687. In return for military services, the dis- trict was granted by the Nizam to the French East India Company ; but on the capture of Masulipatam, April 6, 1759, by the English, the maritime ports fell under their dominion. Four of the Circars were ceded to the East India Company by treaty, Nov. 12, 1766 ; and Guiitoor was obtained in 1788. The tribute of ^70,000 annually paid by the Company was redeemed by a payment of ,1,200,000 in 1823. NORTH FORELAND (Sea-fights). Monk, afterwards Duke of Albemarle, and Penn, de- feated the Dutch fleets off the North Foreland, June 2 and 3, 1653. The second and most memorable engagement, which extended over four days, commenced June i, 1666. The Duke of Albemarle, with an English fleet of 54 ships, attacked a Dutch fleet of 80 ships, under De Ruyter and Tromp. Darkness separated the combatants, and the contest was renewed June 2, when a squadron of 16 ships joined the Dutch, and the English, having only 28 ships with which to contend against this superior force, were compelled to withdraw, in order to repair damages. Rupert, with 20 ships, joined Albemarle's fleet June 3, and the battle was renewed that afternoon, and again in the morning, June 4, on which day the combatants separated, each side claiming a victory. The third sea-fight off the North Foreland took place July 25, 1666. The fleets were nearly equal in point of numbers, each commander having about 80 sail. The Dutch were totally defeated with great loss, and Prince Rupert and the Duke of Albemarle chased De Ruyter and his retreating squadrons to their own shores and insulted the Dutch hi their own harbours. The English fleet captured Schelling Aug. 9, and destroyed 200 Dutch ships. (See GOODWIN SANDS.) NORTH, or ICY CAPE (Arctic Sea). An Englishman, named Richard Chancellor, was, in 1553, the first to pass this, the most northerly point in Europe, in the island of Mageroe, and anchor in the White Sea. In his own account of the expedition he relates that " he came at last to the place where he found no night at all, but a continual light and brightness of the sun shining clearly upon the huge and mighty sea." NORTHMEN, or NORSEMEN. The Scan- dinavian pirates of the gth and ioth centuries were so called by the inhabitants of the main- land of Europe. The English called them Danes (q. v.). A.D. 830. The Norsemen attack the French coasts, but are unable to penetrate into the interior of the country. 830. They ravage the banks of the Loire. 837. They plunder the coasts of the Netherlands. 841, May. Uouen is burned and pillaged by Osker. 845, March 28. Reyner Lodbrok takes Paris, and levies heavy subsidies from Charles I. (the Bald). 850. Korie receives Kustringia from Lothaire. 855. The Northmen engage in civil war, and fight the great buttle of Flensborg, in Jutland, in which Eric the lied is slain. A.D. 861, 865. 866, 8 7 o. 876, 879, April 6. The Northmen under Jarl Welland sail up the Seine and seize Paris. Kobert-le-Fort is defeated by the Northmen at the battle of Melun. July 25. Kobert-le-Fort is killed by the Northmen in a great battle. Charles I. (the Bald) encourages the Northmen to settle peaceably in France. Sep. 16. Kollo or Kolf enters the Seine. Nov. 30. Louis III. defeats the Northmen at the battle of the Vigenne. 880. They are defeated at the battle of Ardennes. Feb. 2. They defeat the Germans with great slaughter at Ebbsdorf, or Luneburg Heath. 881. Louis III. defeats the Northmen at the battle of Saulcourt. The Northmen invade the Khiue, Scheldt, and Meuse country in this and the fol- lowing years. 883. Friesland is ceded to Godfrey the Northman. 885, July 25. Kollo occupies Kouen and besieges Paris. 888, June 24. Eudes Capet defeats the Northmen at the battle of Montfaucon. 891. Arnolph defeats the Northmen at the battle of Louvain. 911, July 20, Saturday. Eollo sustains a severe defeat from the Frankish and Burgundian forces at Chartres. A treaty is concluded shortly after at Suint -Clair-sur-Epte. by which Kollo receives in marriage Eisella, daughter of Charles III. (the Simple), agrees to become a Christian, and is in- vested with the sovereignty of part of Neustria, which was afterwards known as Normandy. NORTHUMBRIA (England). This kingdom was founded by Ida in 547. NORTH-WEST PASSAGE. The idea that a shorter track to India might be discovered than that round the Cape of Good Hope, was first broached by John Cabot about 1496, and in 1500 the Portuguese despatched the first expe- dition sent out for the express purpose of dis- covering the passage, under the command of Caspar de Cortereal. A reward of ,20,000 was offered for the discovery of the north-west passage by 18 Geo. II. c. 17 (1745), and a like sum, with ,5,000 for the first approach within one degree of the North Pole, by 16 Geo. III. c. 6 (1776), and 58 Geo. III. c. 20 (May 8, 1818). The last-mentioned act was amended by i & 2 Geo. IV. c. 2 (Feb. 23, 1821). The passage was discovered by Capt. M'Clure, of the Investi- gator, Oct. 26, 1850, and in May, 1854, the Royal Geographical Society awarded him its gold medal for the discovery. For the various voyages undertaken in search of the north- west passage, see ARCTIC CIRCLE, and FRANK- LIN'S EXPEDITIONS. NORWAY (Europe). The traditions of Nor- way point to Odin, who is said to have arrived in the north about B.C. 70, as the founder of the nation. Olaf Troetelia founds the province of Vermeland. Harold I., Harfager, vows neither to cut nor comb his hair until he has completed the conquest of Norway. Harold I., Harfager, defeats the provincial rulers at the sea-fight of Hafursfiord, which establishes his authority over the whole of Norway, and releases him from his vow. Eric I., deposed for his ; tyranny by his brother Haco, embraces Christianity, and is invested by Athel- stan with the sovereignty of Northumbria. Haco I. proposes to establish Christianity, but is opposed by his subjects. Harold II., Blaatand, King of Denmark, establishes Harold II., Graafeld, son of Eric I., on the Nor- wegian throne. Olaf I. overthrows the idols in the temple at Dron- theim. NORWAY [ 716 ] NORWICH A. 1). A.D. A.D. looo. Olaf I. is defeated and slain by the Danes and 963. Harold II., Graafeld. 1157. Inge I. Swedes, who divide Norway between them, 977. Haco II., Jarl. 1161. Haco III. under the lieutenancy of Eric II. and Swevii I., 995. Olaf I. ! HIS VI. sons of llaco II. ooo. Eric II. and Sweyn I. 1186. Swerro. 1015. Olaf 11. defeats the fleet of Sweyn off the coast of 015. Olaf II., the Saint. 1202. llaco IV. Vikia, and thereby secures the Norwegian 030. Sweyn II. 1204. (iuthrum. tin-one. 035. Magnus I., the Good. 1205. Inge II 1028. Canute the Great invades Norway, and compels 04-. Harold III., Hardrade. 1407. Ilaeo V. Olaf II. to flee into Sweden. 066. Magnus II. and Olaf 1247. llaco VI. 1030, July 29. Olaf II. is slain in an endeavour to recover his kingdom, bv the forces of Canute, at the battle of Sticklastadt. 111. 069. Olaf III. (alone). 093. Magnus III., Barefoot. 1263. Magnus VII., the Le- gislator. 1280. Eric III., the Priest- 1047. Denmark is separated from Norway. 103. Olaf IV., Sigurd I., hater. 1066, Sep. 2,S. Harold III., H.irdrade, falls in battle and Eysteiu II. 1299. llaco VII. against the English at Stanford Bridge. After his Il6. Eystein 11. and Si- 1319. Magnus VIII. Sweden death Norway is divided between Olaf III. and gurd I. (II.)- Magnus II. 122- Sigurd I. 1343. llaco VIII. lofx;. Olaf III. reigns alone. 130. Magnus IV. and Ha- 13*0. Olaf V., III. of Den- 10*9. The Hebrides become independent of Norway. rold IV. mark. I 190. Magnu-i III. invades Britain. 134. Harold IV. (alone). After the death of Olaf V., 109*. Magnus III. conquers the Isle of Man, the Hebrides, and the Orknev and Shetland islands. 136. Sigurd II. and Inge I. 140. Sigurd II., Inge I., Aug. 3, 1387, Norway and Denmark were united 1103. Magnus III. is killed by the Irish, and his kingdom Magnus V., and under one crown till 1*14, is divided between his sons Sigurd, Eysteiu, and Eystein III. when Xorwav was added Olaf. 1 155. Ky.steiii 111. and Inge I. to Sweden. 1186. Magnus V. is defeated and slain by Swerro, natural (See SOVKUKKINS OF DENMARK AND SWEDEN.) son of Sigurd 11. 1240. The jarl Skule, half-brother of Inge II., asserts his claim to the Norwegian throne. NORWICH (Bishopric). The see of the East Angles was founded about 630, by a Burgun- 1242. Skule is defeated and slain by llaco V. 1250. The Hanse league obtains exclusive privUeges in Norway. 1261. Iceland (q. v.) is annexed. 1263. Haco VI. invades Scotland, and is defeated. (See I.AIIOS, Battle.) 1286. Margaret, the Maid of Norway, daughter of Eric III., is heiress to the throne of Secithmd. 1319. Death of Hueo VII., with whom the greatness of Norway becomes extinct. The sceptre devolves on Magnus VIII.. King of Sweden. 1343. Magnus VIII. resigns the throne of Norway in favour of his son, llae., Mil. 1349. Norway is ravaged by the plague. 1380. Iceland is eeded to Denmark. 1387. Norway is annexed to Denmark and Sweden, under the government .if Margaret. 1397, July 12. Denmark, Nuru ay, and Sweden are for- mally united into one kingdom by the union of C'almar. 1448. Norway and Sweden are separate from Denmark. 1450, Aug. 29. Norway and Denmark are reunited. J5r/>- The Reformation is introduced into Norway. 1567. The Swedes invade Norway. 1812, Aug. 27. Norway is guaranteed to Sweden by the Emperor of Ku.-sia in exchange for Finland. 1814, Jan. 14. Norway is ceded to Sweden by ihe treaty of Kiel (7. r.), which creates great dissatisfai-tii.il among the Norwegians. April II. A constitution is adopted by the diet of Kidsvold. May 17. 1'rince Christian, afterwards Kingof Denmark, is elected king. Aug. 14. An armistice is concluded with the Swedes, who compel Christian to abdicate the throne. Nov. 4. Charles XIII. of Sweden ac- cepts the constitution of Eidsvold, which declares Norway a free, independent, indivisible, and inalienable state, united to Sweden under the same king. 1821. The law for abolishing hereditary nobility is pawed. 1844. King ( )scar grants the Norwegians a national flag. 1847, Aug. The order of St. Olaf is instituted for Nor- 1860, Aug. ChariM XV. of Sweden and his Queen are solemnly crowned, atDrontheim, King and Queen of Norway. 1864, Nov. 4. Celebration of the soth anniversary of the union of Sweden and Norway. 1865, May r. A commission for discussing the revision of the treaty of union between Sweden and Norway assembles at Stockholm. SOVEREIGNS OF NORWAY. A.D. A.I). 630. Olaf Troetelia. 824. Olaf Geirstada. 640. Half dan I. 840. HalfdanlH. the Black. 700. Eystein I. 863. Harold I., Harfager. 73 Halfdan II. 934. Eric I. 74- Endrod. 940. llaco I., the Good. iliuu named Felix, who fixed his seat at Sil- thestur, or Dunwich, in Suffolk. Bishop Bi.sus, or Bosa, divided the diocese into two seen, fixing- the new one at North Elmhani, in Nor- folk, in 673. Wylred, or Wildred, reunited them in 870, making Elmhani the episcopal town ; and, after his death, the country was in .such a disturbed state, owing to the ravages of the Danes, that the see remained vacant till about 955. It was transferred to Thetford by Herfast about 1078, and to Norwich by Her- bert de Losinga in 1092. NORWICH (Norfolk) is supposed to have originated in a castle, built near the Venta Icenorum of the Romans. It was called North- wic, or Northern town. Uffa, King of the East Angles, is said to have built the castle in 575, and under the Anglo-Saxon princes the town became a place of some importance. Alfred the Great fortified it against the Danes, who plundered and burned it in 1004. It was re- built, and the castle restored, in 1018. From this time it rapidly increased in size and im- portance. Henry I. held his Christmas here in 1 1 22, and raised it to an equality of fran- chise and privilege with London. Some Flem- ings introduced the art of weaving in 1132. In 1189 the Jews were almost exterminated, on the ground of having permitted the cruci- fixion of a Christian boy. The town was plundered and the castle taken by the dauphin of France in 1210. A great number of worsted and woollen manufacturers from the Low Countries settled here about 1337. Nearly one-third of the inhabitants fell victims to the plague in 1349. The city was sepa- rated from the county of Norfolk, under the name of the city and county of Norwich, in 1403. A fire destroyed 718 houses in 1507, and a rebellion broke out in 1549. The rebels, 20,000 strong, under the brothers Ke1 were defeated with great slaughter, Aug. 27, by the Earl of Warwick. Upwards of 300 Flemings settled here, and established the manufacture of bombazine, in 1565. During the civil war the city was held by the Parlia- mentary army. The cotton manufacture was NORWOOD NOVA ZEMBLA introduced in 1784, and a fabric called "Nor- wich crape" was produced in 1819. The ca- thedral, commenced in 1094, was completed in 1280, and the spire was erected in 1361. A Benedictine monastery, founded in 1094, was completed in noi. St. Andrew's Hall was built in 1415. The free grammar-school was founded in 1547, and the Norfolk and Norwich Hospital in 1771. The first musical festival was held in 1824. The railroad to Yarmouth was opened May i, 1844, the line to London through Cambridge in 1845, and the line to London through Colchester in 1850. Its first public library was established in 1784, and a new free library was opened in 1857. The church congress met here Oct. 37, 1865. NORWOOD (Surrey). The school of indus- try for girls was founded in 1812. Norwood has long been celebrated as the haunt of gyp- sies, many of whom were apprehended and sent to prison as vagrants in 1815. St. Luke's church was completed and consecrated July 15, 1825; Beulah Spa was opened in Aug. 1831 ; and the South Metropolitan, commonly called Norwood cemetery, covering 40 acres of land, was consecrated Dec. 6, 1837. NOTABLES. One of the stipulations ob- tained by the nobles from Louis XI. of France, by the treaty of St. Maur (Oct. 29, 1463), was, that he should call an assembly of notables, to consist of 12 prelates, 12 knights and squires, and 12 lawyers. The Guises sum- moned an assembly of notables at Fon- tainebleau, Aug. 20, 1560. L'Hopital caused one to be assembled at Mouliiis in Jan., 1566. Richelieu assembled one in Paris in 1626. An assembly of notables was summoned by the advice of Calonne, to consider how the finan- cial difficulties of the country were to be met, Jan. 29, 1787. It met Feb. 22, and was dismissed May 25. They were again convoked by the King, with the concurrence of Necker, Nov. 6, 1788. Napoleon I. summoned an assembly of Spanish notables, which met at Bayonne, June 15, 1808. NOTARIES PUBLIC. Short-hand writers among the Romans received the name of Ex- ceptores, when employed to draw up public documents in the 4th century. Persons who performed duties corresponding to those of the modern notary were styled tabelliones at the same period. By a decree of the Council of Cologne, in 1310, notaries were ordered to make use of seals. In England they executed royal charters, 1043 1066 ; and power of ad- mitting to practise was vested in the Arch- bishop of Canterbury by 25 Hen. VIII. c. 21, s. 4 (1533). The terms of their apprenticeship and admission to practice were regulated by 41 Geo. III. c. 79 (June 27, 1801), and by 6 & 7 Viet. c. 90 (Aug. 24, 1843). NOTRE-DAME-DES-ERMITES. (See EIN- SIEDELN.) NOTTINGHAM (England) resisted an in- cursion of the Danes, who were defeated near the town by Alfred in 866. Its castle was forti- fied and bestowed on his natural son Peverel, by William the Conqueror, in 1068. Richard I., having captured the castle, held a council here March 30, 1194 ; and it obtained the privileges of a county from Henry VI. (1422 1461). Charles I. erected his royal standard hero Aug. 22, 1642 ; and the castle was taken by the Parliamentarian forces, after a brave defence, in Sep. The Luddite riots (q. v.) of 1811 and 1814 originated here ; and during the reform excitement, much property was destroyed, and the castle of the Duke of Newcastle was burned Oct. 10, 1831. St. Mary's church, supposed to have been erected in the isth century, was repaired at a cost of ,9,000, and reopened in 1848 ; and St. Barnabas, a Roman Catholic cathedral, built at a cost of ^20,000, was con- secrated in Aug., 1844. The free grammar- school was founded in 1513 ; the general hos- pital in 1781 ; the general lunatic asylum in 1810 ; the dispensary in 1831 ; and the founda- tion stone of the new lunatic asylum was laid Oct. 30, 1857. The barracks, built in 1792, were ordered to be renewed by a resolution of Government in 1857 ; and the People's Col- lege was founded by George Gill in 1847. An act for the inclosure of 1,300 acres of pas- ture land was passed June 30, 1845. A new church was consecrated by the Bishop of Lin- coln Nov. 3, 1864. The new theatre was opened Sep. 25, 1865. The British Association held their meeting here Aug. 22 31, 1866. NOVARA (Battles). The Duke of Orleans surprised this town in Italy, June u, 1495. The French and Milanese fought a battle in the neighbourhood, April 5, 1500, which did not lead to any important results. Leo X. having engaged a large body of Swiss to defend his newly-acquired territory, they obtained a victory over the French here, June 6, 1513. The French, under Lautrec, captured it in 1527. The Sardinian army was totally defeated by the Austrians under Radetsky, March 23, 1849. Charles Albert abdicated after this defeat, and the whole of Lombardy was restored to Austria. NOVA SCOTIA (N. America), discovered in 1497, settled by the French in 1604, and called by them Acadia, was granted by charter to Sir W. Alexander in 1621, when its name was changed to Nova Scotia. The French, however, were not expelled until 1654 ; and the colony was restored to them by the treaty of Breda, July 25, 1667. War having again broken out, Port Royal, in Acadia, was cap- tured in 1710, and named Annapolis, in honour of Queen Anne, and the whole colony was secured to England by the treaty of Utrecht, April ii, 1713. The French and Indians frequently attacked the new colony, until finally conquered in 1758. The bishopric of Nova Scotia was founded Aug. n, 1787. Gold was discovered on the Tangier river in March, 1861. Joseph Howe, provincial secretary, presented an official report on the subject, Sep. 4, 1861. NOVATIANS, the followers of Novation, a presbyter at Rome, who denied the right of the Church to restore the "lapsed," took their rise in 250. Novatian, consecrated Bishop of Rome in opposition to Cornelius, was con- demned by a council in 251 ; Marcianus, Bishop of Aries, was deposed for holding these tenets in 2^4. They assumed the name of Cathari, or Puritans. The sect declined in the 5th century. NOVA ZEMBLA (Arctic Ocean), known at NOVELLA t 718 ] NUBIA an early period to the Russians, was discovered by an English seaman named Willoughby in 1553. Stephen Bin-roughs made a voyage to Nova Zembla in 1556 ; and the Dutch navigator Barentz between 1594 and 1596. NOVELISE, or NOVELS, forming part of the Justinian code, were prepared and pub- lished in 534. NOVELS. The "Decameron" of Boccaccio, published in 1358 ; " Don Quixote," the first part of which was produced in 1605, by Miguel (Jervantes (1547 April 23, 1616); and "Gil Ulas," and similar works, by Le Sage (1668 Nov. 17, 1747), are early examples of novels as distinguished from the romance 'q. v.}, popular in the Middle Ages. The most celebrated English novels are those of AphraBehn (1642 April 16, 1689', Daniel Defoe (1663 April 24, 1731), Henry Fielding (1707 Oct. 8, 1754), Samuel Richardson (1689 July 4, 1761), Law- rence Sterne (1713 March 18, 1768), Tobias Smollett (1721 Oct. 21, 1771), Oliver Gold- smith (1728 April 3, 1774), Charlotte Smith (1749 Oct. 28, 1806), Jane Austen (1775 July 24, 1817), Ann Radcliffe (1764 Feb. 7, 1823), Henry Mackenzie (1745 June 14, 1831), Anna Maria Porter (1781 June 21, 18321, Sir Walter Scott (1771 Sep. 21, 1832), William Godwin (1756 April 7, 1836), John Gait (1779 April it, 1839), Frances Burney, afterwards Madame D'Arblay(i752 Jan. 6, 1840), Theodore Edward Hook (1788 Aug. 24, 1841), Capt. Frederick Marryat (1792 Aug. 2, 1848), Maria Edge- worth (1767 May 21, 1849), James Fenimore Cooper (1789 Sep. 14, 1851), Amelia Opie (1769 Dec. 2, 1853), Susan Ferrier (1782 Nov., 1854), Charlotte Bront<5 (1816 March 31, 1855), Sidney Owenson, afterwards Lady Morgan (1783 April 13, 1859), Washington Irving (1783 Nov. 28, 1859), George Payne Rainsford James (1801 June 9, 1860), Catherine Grace Frances Gore (1799 Jan. 29, 1861), Frances Trollope (1778 Oct. 6, 1863), and William Makepeace Thackeray (iSu Dec. 24, 1863). NOVEMBER, called blnt-monath, blood- month, or month of sacrifice, by the Sax- ons, consisted of 30 days in the time of Romulus (B.C. 753 715); increased to 31 by Julius Caesar (B.C. 60 44); and was again re- duced to 30 by Augustus (B.C. 31 A.D. 14). An annual thanksgiving, Nov. 5, in commemo- ration of the deliverance of the nation from the perils of the Gunpowder Plot (q. v.), ap- pointed by 3 James I. c. i (1606), was discon- tinued by Royal Wai-rant, Jan. 17, 1859. NOVGOROD (Russia). The Russian monar- chy was founded here under Ruric in 862. Kief was made the capital in the gih century, and Novgorod became an independent republic in 1150. The church of St. Sophia was founded in the nth century. It joined the Hanseatic league in 1272 ; and one of their factories was established, which led to such a degree of prosperity, that the saying arose, "Who can resist God and the great Novgorod ?" Ivan I. or III. (Vasilivitch) destroyed its independence in 1477 5 an d Ivan II. or IV. massacred 25,000 of the inhabitants in 1570. A monument in com- memoration of the arrival of Ruric was erected in Sep., 1862. A large amount of property was destroyed by a fire June 16, 1864. NOVI (Italy). The King of Sardinia drove Marshal Maillebois from his position at this town, near Genoa, in 1746. It capitulated to Marshal London, Oct. 3, 1788. The French, commanded by Jornbert, were signally de- feated by Suwarrow, when 15,000 men were put hors de combat, Aug. 15, 1799. NOVIODUNUM. (See NEVEES.) NOVIOMAGUS. (See LISIEUX, NIMEGUEN, and NOYON.) NOVUM ORGANUM. This work of Lord Bacon, first made known by his treatise on the " Advancement of Learning," -in 1605, was published with a dedication to James 1., in 1620. It was entitled " Instauratio Magna (i. e. Novum Organum, sive Indicia vera de Inter- pretatione Nature)." NOYADES. Jean Baptiste Carrier was sent by the Montagnards to Nantes, with procon- sular powers for the suppression of all opposi- tion to their party, in 1793. He arrived Oct. 8, and immediately commenced operations for the extermination of the Royalists. The guil- lotine and discharges of musketry proving too slow in their effects, he placed 94 priests in the hold of a ship stationed on the Loire, and having secured the hatchways, scuttled the vessel, which, of course, sank with all on board, Nov. 15, 1793. This mode of execution was repeated till the Loire had received between 4,000 and 5,000 victims, whose bodies so in- fected its water that it was rendered illegal to drink of them, or to use fish caught in its stream. These wholesale executions were termed the nni/mfrx im,//'UKef>, from tmt/i /, to drown. Carrier himself termed them revolu- tionary Imtks; and in four months the number of his victims amounted to 18,000. He wa.s recalled to Paris, and after a long trial was condemned and executed, Dec. 16, 1794. NO YON (France), the ancient Noviomagus Verornanduorum, a town of the Veromandui, WHS made a bishopric in 531. It was the resi- dence of Charlemagne, who was crowned here Oct. 9, 768 ; and Hugh Capet was crowned King of France here, July i, 987. Councils were held here in 814, in Lent, 1233, July 26, 1344. A treaty was concluded at Noyon between Francis I. and Charles, afterwards Charles V., Aug. 13, 1516. Charles engaged to marry Louisa, the French king's infant daughter, on her at- taining her twelfth year, and was to receive as her dowry the claims of France on Naples. Charles was to pay 100,000 gold crowns every year until the marriage took place. The treaty was not executed. The cathedral was founded by Pepiii-le-Bref, and the town-hall was built in 1499. (See BRENNEVILLE, Battle.) NUBIA (Egypt), comprising part of the ancient Ethiopia, formed a treaty with the Emperor Diocletian (284 305), and was con- verted to Christianity at an early period, con- tinuing in that faith till the i^th century. The caliph Omar I. exacted from it an annual tribute of 360 slaves, about 637, which was maintained till about 1150. Contests were carried on almost uninterruptedly between the people of Nubia and the sultans of Egypt during the i4th century ; and they ended in the extinction of Christianity and the breaking up of the kingdom into a number of petty NUISANCES NURSIA Mohammedan states. An expedition by Me- hemet Ali brought it into nominal subjection to the pashas of Egypt in 1820. The architec- tural ruins at Sabooa are ascribed to the age of Rameses, B.C. 1355 B.C. 1289. NUISANCES. The mayors and bailiffs of towns were ordered to compel the inhabitants of the districts under their jurisdiction to remove all filth and other nuisance by 12 Rich. II. c. 13 (1388). Numerous sanitary regulations were made by the Nuisances' Re- moval and Diseases' Prevention Act, n e reckoned and numbered in the same order, md the feast of Easter and other Movable easts thereon depending shall be ascertained 3 A 2 OLD TOWN [ 724 1 OLMUTZ according to the same method, as they now are, until the 2nd of September, 1 752 ; that the natural day next immediately following the 2nd of September, 1752, shall be called and reckoned as the i4th day of September, omitting the eleven intermediate nominal days of the common Calendar ; that the day which followed next after the said i4th of September shall be reckoned in numerical order from that day ; and all public and private pro- ceedings whatsoever after the ist of January, 1752, were ordered to be dated accordingly. III. That the several years of our Lord 1800, IQOO, 2100, 2200, 2300, or any other hundredth years of our Lord, which shall happen in time to come (except only every fourth hundredth year of our Lord), whereof the year 2000 shall be the first, shall not be deemed Bissextile or Leap-years, but shall be considered as common years, consisting of 365 days only ; and that the years of our Lord 2000, 2400, 2800, and every other fourth hundredth year of our Lord, from the year 2000 inclusive, and also all other years of our Lord, which by the present suppu- tation are considered Bissextile or Leap-years, shall for the future be esteemed Bissextile or Leap-years, consisting of 366 days. TV. That whereas, according to the rule then in use for calculating Easter-day, that feast was fixed to the first Sunday after the first full moon next after the 2ist of March ; and if the full moon happens on a Sunday, then Easter-clay is the Sunday after, which rule had been adopted by the General Council of Nice, A.D. 325 ; but as the method of computing the full moons then used in the Church of England, and according to which the table to find Easter prefixed to the Book of Common Prayer was formed, had become considerably erroneous, it was enacted that the said method should be discontinued, and that from and after the 2nd of September, 1 752, Easter-day and the other Movable and other Feasts were henceforward to be reckoned according to the Calendar, Tables, and Rules annexed to the Act, and attached to the Books of Common Prayer." (See NEW STYLE.) OLD TOWN. (See CIVITA VECCHIA.) OLEAROS, or OLIAROS. (See ANTIPAROS.) OLERON (British Channel). This island, the ancient Uliarus Insula, was ceded to England by the treaty of Bretigny, May 8, 1360. It was retaken by the French, and has frequently been attacked. Louis XIV. (1643 1715) fortified it. OLERON (France). Under the mediation of Edward 1. of England, a treaty of peace was signed at this town of Beam, in 1288, between Philip IV. of France and Alphonso III. of Aragon. OLERON LAWS. Hallam (Middle Ages, ch. ix. pt. 2) remarks, with reference to this celebrated code of maritime law "A set of regulations, chiefly borrowed from the Conso- lato, was compiled in France under the reign of Louis IX., and prevailed in their own coun- try. These have been denominated the laws of OleYon, from an idle story that they were enacted by Richard I., while his expedition to the Holy Land lay at anchor in that island." Cleirac, in his " Us et Coutumes de la Mer," published in 1621, assigns 1266 as the date of production. At the time this code was formed the English navy consisted of 33 ships. OLIVA. A treaty of peace "was ratified at this town, in Prussia, May 3, 1660, between Poland, Denmark, Sweden, and the Emperor Leopold I. Casimir V., King of Poland, re- lounced all claim to the crown of Sweden. Drontheim and Bornholm were ceded to Den- mark, and Esthonia and Livonia to Sweden. OLIVE, "in the western world," says Gib- bon, ' ' followed the progress of peace, of which it was considered as the symbol. Two centu- ries after the foundation of Rome, both Italy and Africa were strangers to that useful plant ; it was naturalized in these countries, and at length carried into the heart of Spain and Gaul." It was so highly valued by the Israel- ites that it was planted in the outer court of the second temple. A law of the Roman republic prohibited the culture of the vine and the olive beyond the Alps, that the value of those in Italy might be kept up. Olive-trees were cultivated in the botanic gar- den at Oxford in 1648 ; and some planted in the open ground at Camden House, Kensington, in 1719, produced fruit. The Cape olive, and the wave-leaved olive, were introduced from the Cape in 1730, the sweet-scented olive from China in 1771, and the laurel-leaved olive from Madeira in 1784. OLIVENZA (Spain). This town, belonging to Portugal, was taken by the Spaniards May 20, 1801, and a treaty was concluded by which Olivenza was confirmed to Spain, Sep. 29, 1801. The French, under Soult, captured it Jan. 22, 1811, and it was retaken by the English, under Beresford, after a few days' siege, April 17, 1811. It was again occupied, June 24, 1811, by the French, who blew up the fortifications. Olivenza was restored to Portugal by the con- gress of Vienna in 1814; but Ferdinand VII. refused to give it up, and the town is held by Spain in spite of the treaty. OLIVETANS, or BRETHREN OF OUR LADY OF MOCXT OLIVET. This branch of the Benedictines was founded by John Tolom- mei, at a solitary place near Sienna, in 1319. OLMO. (See MADONNA DELL' OLMO.) OLMUTZ (Austria). This town, at a later period the capital of Moravia, resisted an attack by the Mongols in 1242. Here Mathias Corvinus concluded what was termed the per- petual peace with the Kings of Bohemia and Poland, in July, 1479. Sigismund I., King of Poland, held a congress in April, 1527. It was taken by the Swedes, under Torstenson, during the Thirty Years' War, in 1642, and was be- sieged unsuccessfully by Frederick II., for seven weeks, in 1758. It was made an arch- bishopric in 1777. Here Lafayette was im- prisoned in 1794, and Ferdinand I. resigned the crown to his nephew, Dec. 2, 1848. The cathedral was founded about 1300. Its uni- versity, founded in 1527, transferred to Brunn in 1778, and reorganized in 1827, was transferred to Kremsier in consequence of the outbreak in 1848. A conference, under the auspices of Nicholas I. of Russia, at which the plenipotentiaries of Austria and Prussia came to terms on the Hesse-Cassel dispute, was held here Nov. 29, 1850. OLNEY [ 725 ] OMMIADES OLNEY. (See ALNEY.) OLOT (Spain). This ancient town, of which some Roman remains exist, was almost en- tirely destroyed by an earthquake in 1427. It was rebuilt, and suffered severely during the war of independence. The Spaniards were defeated by the French in a battle here, Dec. 1 8, 1809. OLP^E (Greece). The Ambraciots captured this town of Argos Amphilochium, B.C. 426. They were defeated by the Acarnanians in a battle fought in the neighbourhood the same year. OLTENITZA (Battle). About 12,000 Turks, who crossed the Danube from Turtukai, Nov. 2 and 3, 1853, established themselves at Olten- itza, where they were assailed by the Russians, Nov. 4. The engagement terminated in favour of the Turks, who only lost 106 men. The Russian loss amounted to 1,000 in killed and wounded. OLYMPIA (Battle). The Eleians were de- feated by the Arcadians, in the neighbourhood of Olympia, B.C. 364, and at the time of the celebration of the io4th Olympiad, the Arca- dians were in possession of Olympia. Assisted by the Achaians, the Eleians surprised the Arcadians in the celebration of the games, and obtained a complete victory. OLYMPIA (Greece). The temple and sacred grove of Zeus Olympius were planned by Libon of Elis, after the destruction of Pisa by the Eleians, B.C. 572, when the spoils of the conquered cities were devoted to the erection of a temple, which was completed about B.C. 472. Phidias executed the colossal statue of Zeus in ivory and gold, and the figures in the pediments, B.C. 437 433. The site, plan, and dimensions of the temple have been shown by the excavations of the French commission made in 1829. OLYMPIAD, a term of four years, deriving its name from the Olympic games, commenced with the new rnoon of the summer solstice, July i, 776 B.C. This system of computing time was employed by the ancient Greeks, and it ceased after the 305 th Olympiad, in OLYMPIC GAMES. The chief of the four great national festivals of the ancient Greeks, celebrated every fifth year at Olympia (q.v.), whence the name. The exact interval at which they recurred was one of 49 and 50 lunar months alternately. The origin of the games, which lasted five days, is unknown. Some authors assert that they were founded by the Idaji Dactyli, B.C. 1453. There was a tradition that Iphitus, King of the Eleians, had revived the festival B.C. 884 according to Eratos- thenes, B.C. 828 according to Callimachus, and B.C. 776 according to other authorities. Hero- dotus recited parts of his history at the Olym- pic games B.C. 456. They were celebrated at Antioch in 44, and were discontinued at Elis in 394, and at Antioch by a decree of Justin I. OLYMPIC THEATRE (London) was built in 1805, by Philip Astley, of Astley's Amphi- theatre, and opened Sep. 18, 1806. It was burned March 29, 1849, and having been rebuilt, was opened Dec. 26, 1849. OLYNTHI ACS. Three orations, delivered by Demosthenes, towards the end of B.C. 350, in behalf of the Olynthians, assailed by Philip II. of Macedon. OLYNTHIAN WARS. The Olynthians had become so powerful that Acanthus and Appol- lonia, jealous of their supremacy, applied to Sparta for aid, B.C. 383. The Spartans sent an army, under Eudamidas, B.C. 382, and Teleu- tias joined him soon after with 10,000 men. Both generals were defeated, and Teleutias lost his life, B.C. 381. In the next campaign the Olynthians submitted to Polybiades, the Spartan general, B.C. 379. War broke out between the Olynthians and Philip II., King of Macedon, B.C. 350, which ended iu the entire destruction of the city of Olynthus, B.C. 347 . OLYNTHUS (Greece). Artabazus, the Per- sian general, having captured the town and put all the inhabitants to death, gave it to the Chalcidic Greeks, B.C. 480. From its situation it became of great importance, B.C. 392. (See OLYNTHIAN WARS.) OMAGH (Ireland), anciently called Oigh- Magh, signifying " the seat of the chiefs," is supposed to have been founded in 792. The soldiers of James II. set fire to the town, and destroyed it, with its church and castle, in 1689. The town, having been rebuilt, was again destroyed by fire, in 1743. The county infirmary was established in 1796. OMENS. The belief in Omens, or signs received by the ear, and in Prodigies, or signs conveyed by extraordinary phenomena, occurrences, and events out of the ordinary course of nature, prevailed at a very early age, and was common amongst the Greeks and Romans. (See AUGURY, HARUSPICES, &c.) OMERCOTE (Scinde). This fortified town was taken by the Ameers of Scinde from the Rajah of Joudpore in 1813. The north-west tower of the fort was swept away in 1826 by the overflowing of a branch of the Indus. OMER, ST. (France), called Sithieu or Sithiu, an abbey said to have been founded by St. Omer about 648. The town received a charter in 1127. The cathedral, a fine building in the Gothic style, was completed in the middle of the 1 6th century. Within the walls of the abbey of St. Bertin, the only remaining frag- ment of which is a tower built in the i^th century, Childeric III., the last of the Mero- vingian kings of France, was confined by Pepin in 752. Louis XL captured St. Omer in 1477, the Imperialists in 1489, and Louis XIV. in 1687. It was made a bishopric in 1650. William III., Prince of Orange, was defeated in battle here by Marshal Luxem- burg in 1677, and the town was ceded to France by the treaty of Nimeguen, Aug. 10, 1678. OMMIADES. This dynasty was founded in Arabia by Moawiyah, in 655 or 66 1. Merwan II., the fourteenth and last caliph of this race, was slain in a mosque on the banks of the Nile, Feb. 10, 750, when the Abbassides (q. v.) assumed the reins of power. Abderahman, the only member of the Ommiades who escaped the massacre at Damascus, founded a caliphate in Spain in 755. Eighteen caliphs OMNIBUS [ 726 ] OPERA reigned, Hixem III., who resigned in 1031, being the last. ARABIA. Began to reign. A.D. 655 or 661. Moawiyab. I. 680. Yezid I. 683. Moawiyahll. 684. Merwau I. 6S 4 . Abdalmolik. 705. Walid I. 715. Soliman. Began to reign. A.i). 717. Omar II. 740. Yezid II. 724. Hashem, or Hixem. 743. Walid II. 744. Yezid III. (5 months). 744. Ibrahim (3 months). 744. Mervvan II. SPAIN. Began to reign. A.D. 1009. Mohammed II. loot). Soliman. 1016. Ali Ben Hamnd. 1017. Abderahman IV. 1021. Alcassim. 1033. Abderahmnn V. 1023. Mohammed III. (cou- sin of Hixem II.) 1035. Hixem III. Began to reign. A.L>. 755. Abderahmau I. 787. Hixem I., or Hashem. 796. Alhakein. 821. Abderahman II. 852. Mohammed I. 886. Alnuindhir. 888. Abdullah. 913. Abderahman III. 961. Allia'.tcm I. 976. Hixem II. OMNIBUS. Conveyances of the kind began to run in Paris March 18, 1662, and though at first much used, fell into neglect until revived early in the century. Charles Knight says " the omnibus was tried about 1800, with four horses and six wheels ; but we refused to accept it in any shape till we imported the fashion from Paris in 1830." The omnibus was introduced there in 1827, and Mr. Shillibeer started the first pair in the metropolis, from the Bank to the Yorkshire Stingo, New Road, July 4, 1829. Omnibuses began to run in Amsterdam in Sep., 1839. They are regulated by 16 iu', which is produced upon the French 1677. Purcell (born 1658) produces his first opera, Dido and /Eneas. 1678. Thiele's Adam and Eve, the first opera produced in public in Germany in the German language, is played at Hamburg. 1685. Dryden's celebrated opera, the music by Grabut, Albion and AlbdMtu, is performed at the Duke's Theatre. 1690. Purcell composes music for the Tempest. i6;l. Purcull produces his King Arthur in England. 1705. The Opera liou.se (7. v.) in the Haymarket is opened. 1710. Italian opera is introduced into England about this time. Buononcini's Alinnliiilf is produced in England, being the first work performed entirely in the Italian language. 1711. Handel's first opera, Hinaldo, is produced at the Opera House, in the Haymarket. 171?. Handel's 11 Pastor Fido is produced at the Opera House. 1713. Handel's Teseo is produced. 1715. Handel's Amadigi w brought out. 1722. Buononcini's Griselda is produced. 1723. Handel's Ottone and Flavin are brought out. 1724. Handel's Giulio Cesare and Tamerlatto are produced. 1727. Buononcini's last opera, Astyanax, is produced. 1733. Rameau's Hippolyte et Aricie is produced at Paris. 1737. Kameau produces his Castor and Pollux. 1752. Pergolese's Serva Padrona is produced in Paris. This opera causes the celebrated dispute between the French and Italian stage. 1760. Galuppi's Mondo delta Luna is represented in Lon- don. 1780. Paisiello's Barbiere di Siviglia is produced at St. Petersburg. 1794, Jan. 21. Admission to the National Opera of Paris is granted free of charge. 1806. C.it.-iiani appears in London. 1841. Weber's Der Freischutg is performed at Berlin. OPERA HOUSE [ T21 ] OPTICS 1836. Oberon Weber's last opera, is produced at Covent Garden. 1838. Catalani sings for the last time in Dublin. 1849, Aug. 3. GuiUaume Tell, the last opera written by Rossini, is represented for the first time at the Academic Royale, Paris. 1831. Meyerbeer's Robert le Diable is produced at the AcadtSmie Koyale. 1833. Giulia, or Giulietta, Grisi first distinguishes herself as Adalgisa, in Norma, at Milan. 1835. I Puritani is played for the first time in London, for Grisi's benefit. 1836, Jan. 36. Meyerbeer's second grand opera, Les Hugue- nots, is produced at the Academic Royale. 1840. Donizetti's Lucresia Borgia is produced at Paris. 1844. Donizetti's last opera, entitled Calarino Comoro, is performed at Naples. 1847. Mademoiselle Alboni appears at the Royal Italian Opera, Covent Garden. 1848. April 8. Donizetti dies at Bergamo, in his 52nd year, having composed 64 operas. 1849. Meyerbeer's third opera, Le Prophets, is produced at the Academic Royale. l86t. Giulia Grisi retires from the stage. 1865. Meyerbeer's last v,-ork, the Africaine, is performed in Paris and London. OPERA HOUSE (London). The Italian Opera House, or Her Majesty's Theatre, built by Sir John Vanbrugh, was opened April 9, 1705, and was burned down June 18, 1789. It was rebuilt in 1790, by an architect named Novasielsky. The colonnade and arcade were added in 1818. OPHIR, the name of an ancient country celebrated for gold. Its position has not been ascertained, and Arabia, India, and Africa are contended for by different authorities. Jose- phus considers Malacca to be Ophir, and Sir Emerson Tennant supports this view. Purchas says Ceylon. The ships of Solomon and of Hiram, King of Tyre, brought 450 talents of gold to Jerusalem, B.C. 1000 (i Kings ix. 26 28, x. ii, and 2 Chron. viii. 17, 18, and ix. 10 & 21). Jehoshaphat built ships at Tarshish, to go to Ophir for gold, about B.C. 913 (i Kings xxii. 48, and 2 Chron. xx. 36, 37). Gold from Ophir is also mentioned Job xxii. 24, and xxviii. 16; Psalm xlv. 9 ; and Isaiah xiii. 12. (See BATHURST and GOLD DISCOVERIES.) OPHITE, or OPHITES, an Anti-Jewish Gnostic sect, so called from " o$i?," a serpent, arose in Egypt about 140. Some of them sup- posed the serpent (Gen. iii.) to have been the Divine Wisdom, or Christ himself, come to set men free from the ignorance in which the Demiurge (Son of Darkness or of Chaos) wished to enthral them. The sect lasted till the 6th century. (See ANOINTING, CAINITES, &c.) OPHTHALMIC HOSPITAL. The first in- stitution of this description in England was founded in Moorfields in 1804. (See HOSPITALS.) OPHTHALMOSCOPE was invented by Helhmoltz in 1851. OPIUM, chiefly obtained from Persia, Arabia, and India, was anciently prepared at Thebes. The opium trade to China became a monopoly in the hands of the East India Company in 1773, and was transferred to the Board of Trade in 1793. The Chinese pro- hibited the importation in 1796. The culti- vation of opium in India was restricted to the districts of Bahar and Benares in 1797. Ser- turner proved opium to be a compound sub- stance in 1812. Turkey opium was introduced into the Indian Archipelago in 1815. On the cessation of the East India Company's trading powers in 1834, a superintendent of trade was sent out to China by the British Government. Disputes arose with the Chinese, who, in 1839, destroyed 20,000 chests of opium. OPORTO (Portugal) stands near the site of the ancient Cale, or Calem, also called Portus Cale, whence the name Portugal is by some writers derived. The Alani afterwards founded Castrum Novum, of which Oporto, i. e. the Port, is supposed to occupy the site. It was taken by the Arian Goths, under Leovogildo, in 540. The Goths gave way to the Moors in 716, and the town was destroyed by Almansor of Cordova in 820. It was rebuilt and re- peopled by Gascons and French in 999, and it again fell into the hands of the Moors, who retained possession till 1092, when it was finally taken by the Christians. A tax having been laid upon linen manufactures, the women rose and routed the soldiers in 1628. Another riot ensued in 1661, on account of a tax im- posed upon paper. An insurrection occurred in 1756, when the wine monopoly was created by Pombal, and for this insurrection 26 persons were put to death. The French, under Soult, took Oporto by storm March 29, 1809. Sir Arthur Wellesley passed the Douro May n, 1809, and surprised Soult, who was obliged to retreat. The Miguelites seized Oporto July 3, 1828. Don Pedro landed near Oporto, of which he took possession, July 8, 1832. The Miguel- ites attacked Oporto Sep. 19, and were re- pulsed with great slaughter. They continued the siege, and failed in another assault, March 4, 1833. An exhibition was held in Sep., 1865. OPPIDO (Italy), supposed to occupy the site of the ancient Mamertium, was made a bishop's see about 1301. The town was almost entirely destroyed by an earthquake in 1783. O. P. RIOTS (Covent Garden Theatre). The new theatre was opened Monday, Sep. 18, 1809, and the prices of admission having been raised, the public assembled in large numbers, and by uttering loud cries of O. P., or old prices, prevented the actors from being heard. This was repeated night after night. The managers, having tried in vain to overcome the opposition by the aid of a pugilistic corps, with Dutch Sam at their head, submitted Dec. 16, 1809, by returning to the old prices. OPSLO (Battle). Christian of Denmark suppressed a revolt of the Norwegian nobles at this town, the ancient capital of Norway, in 1508. Opslo was almost completely de- stroyed by fire May 24, 1624, and Christiania was soon after founded upon its site and made the capital. OPTICS, the science which treats of the nature of light and vision, was very imper- fectly known until the i6th and i7th cen- turies. B.C. 434. Buniing glasses are mentioned by Aristophanes, in the comedy of the " Clouds." 300. Euclid writes the first treatise on Optics. A.D. 65. Seneca observes the magnifying power of convex lonot-s and the refraction of light by prisms. OPTIMISTS [ 728 ] ORANGEMEN A.D. 140 (about). Claudius Ttolemy, the astronomer, writes his five books of optics, in which the subject is first treated in a scientific manner. 174. Galen announces the principle of binocular vision. 1030 38. The Arabian philosopher Alhazen makes impor- tant discoveries in the theory of vision, and in the laws of reflection and refraction. 1366 (about). Roger Bacon, in his Opus Majus, describes the application of lenses to aid defective sight, or to counteract the effects of distance. 1370. The science is cultivated by Vitello. 1535. Maurolycus makes important researches into the laws of light and shade. 1571. J. Fleschier publishes a work on the rainbow. I58. Baptista I'orta publishes his MagiaNaturalis, which contains a description of the camera obscura (t iMid in 1809, and the great survey of India in 1804. OREBRO, or OEREBRO (Sweden). A .national council assembled here in 1529 abo- lished the Roman Catholic and adopted the Lutheran system. Here, in 1540, the act of succession in favour of Gustavus I. ;Vasa) originated. It was confirmed at Westeras in 1542. The castle was built in the i 3 th century. Bernadotte was elected Crown Prince of Sweden at Orebro in 1810, and a treaty of peace was signed here between Great Britain and Sweden, July 18, 1812. It consisted of four articles, and was ratified by the Prince Regent of England Aug. 4, and by the King of Sweden Aug. 17. OREGON (N. America) is said to have been visited by the Spaniard Bartolomi Ferrelo, in 1543. Sir Francis Drake touched here in 1579 ; Capt. Gray, an American trader, sailed along part of the coast in 1789; Capt. Baker, an Englishman, entered the mouth of the Colum- bia, or Oregon River, in 1792 ; and Lieut. Kroughton, R.N., sailed 100 miles up the river, taking formal possession in the name of George III., 1111792. A dispute having arisen between Spain and England as to the sove- reignty, both countries relinquished exclusive possession by the convention of Madrid, in 1791, when Nootka Sound was ceded to Eng- land. An American company, formed by Astor, of New York, made a settlement at a point in the mouth of the Columbia which was named Astoria, March 24, 1810. It fell into the hands of the English in 1814. The United iovernmeiit laid claim to the territory, and after much negotiation, it was agreed by treaty, June 12, 1846, that the United States should possess up to 49 N. latitude, leaving free to England the navigation of the Columbia. Oregon, constituted a territory by act of con- gress, Aug. 14, 1848, was admitted into the Union in 1859. OREL (Russia), the chief town of a govern- ment of the same name, founded in 1566, first rose into importance during the i7th century. It has been several times assailed. A great part was destroyed by fire June 7, 1848. ORELLANA. (See AMAZON.) ORENBURG (Russia), the chief town of a government of the same name on the river Ural, was founded in 1742. ORFAH. (See EDESSA.) ORGAN. An instrument of an inferior kind was in use at a very early period. Athenjeus says the organ was invented by Ctesibius, a native of Alexandria, B.C. 150 120. Other authorities assert that it was used in Spain as early as 450 ; that Pope Vitalian invented it in 660, and that the first organ erected in France was in the church of St. Corneille, at Com- piegne, in 757. Theophilus, a monk, wrote a treatise on organ building in the nth century. According to the best authorities, the organ did not assume its present form until the isth century. Bingham contends that the use of ORGANO-LYRICON [ 73t ] ORLEANS organs was introduced into the Church after the time of Thomas Aquinas (1224 March 7, 1274). According to his view, Marino Sanutus, who nourished about 1300, first introduced wind organs into churches, whence he was surnamed Torcellus, the Italian term for an organ. Bingharn shows that the story of the in- vention by Pope Vitalianis unworthy of credit. ORGANO-LYRICON, a musical instrument invented by M. de St. Pern at Paris, in 1810. ORIEL COLLEGE (Oxford) was founded, under the name of St. Mary's House, by Edward II., Dec. 6, 1324, at the instigation of his almoner, Adam de Brome, who became its first provost in 1326. Edward III. granted the college, in 1327, a large messuage, called La Oriole, to which it was removed, and from which it takes its name. The south and west sides were rebuilt in 1620, and the north and east between 1637 and 1642. The first library was built in 1444, and lasted till the rebuilding of part of the college in 1637. In 1372 the students obtained a licence for a chapel within their premises, which was built at the expense of the Earl of Arundel. This chapel was pulled down in 1620, and the new edifice was finished in 1642. Carter's Building was erected in 1729. The library was commenced in 1788, and the college was enlarged in 1817. Great changes were made in the constitution of the college by 17 & 18 Viet. c. 81 (Aug. 7, 1854). ORIENTAL CLUB (London) was founded by Sir John Malcolm in 1824. ORIFLAMME, or AURIFLAMMA, of St. Denis, or royal banner of France, was borne at the head of the French armies from the i2th to the isth century. Fabian, quoting a de- scription from Robert Gaguin, whom Erasmus calls a discreet historiographer, says it was " a cloth of red silk, which was named the auri- flamme, and borne for a banner in the field against the barbarian or heathen people, by virtue whereof the French princes won many victories ; but after, when this precious relic, or aurifiamme, was borne against Christian princes, the virtue thereof ceased, and was at length lost, but yet the like thereof is kept at St. Denys, and had in great reverence of the bishops and abbots of the same place." Louis VI. (the Fat) used it for the first time as a royal standard in his war against Henry I. of England, in 1424, and he afterwards took it from the altar of St. Denis whenever he went on an expedition ; and Louis VII. of France took it with him in the second crusade, in 1148. Fabian relates that it was borne by the French in the battle of Poitiers, in 1356 ; and it is said to have been borne in battle for the last time by Louis XI. at the battle of Montlhery (q. v.~), July 16, 1465. It was comprised in an in- ventory of the treasury of St. Denis made in ORIGENISTS. The supporters of Origenes, or Origen, a Christian father, born in Egypt in 184 or 185. He was ordained a presbyter at Caesarea, in Palestine, in 228, and he died in 253. In the 4th century a great controversy arose respecting Origen, whose name, in spite of his various erroneous opinions, had always been held in veneration. The orthodox con- demned his writings in 378. Justinian I. issued an edict against the Origenists in 544, and they were condemned by the second council of Constantinople, being the fifth gen- eral council, May 4 June 2, 553. ORIHUELA (Spain). The Romans are sup- posed to have had a station at this town. Though it was not, as some writers assert, the ancient Orcelis, it might have been the ancient Thiar. The Moors took it in 713, and it was finally wrested from them by Jayme I. of Aragon in 1265. It was sacked in 1520, and has suffered severely from the ravages of war, inundations, and plagues. An earthquake did considerable damage March 21, 1829. It was made a bishopric March 23, 1 566. The univer- sity, established in 1568, was suppressed in 1835. The episcopal palace and the theological seminary of San Miguel were both founded in 1733. The poor-house, founded in 1743, was enlarged in 1818. The hospital was founded in 1764, and the cathedral was extended in 1829. ORION. A steam-ship thus named, plying between Glasgow and Liverpool, was lost on the rocks near Portpatrick lighthouse, June 18, 1850, when about 100 passengers perished. ORISSA, or ORIXA (Hindostan). This ancient kingdom existed as early as 473. It fell under the Mongol yoke in 1558, and the country was wrested from its Hindoo princes by Akbar in 1592. The English received per- mission to trade to Piplee, in Orissa, in 1634. Clive captured it in 1755, and the East India Company were empowered to receive the revenues of Orissa, Bahar, and Bengal, by the treaty of Allahabad, Aug. 12, 1765. It was ceded to the English in 1803. The inhabitants suffered from famine in 1866. ORIZABA (Mexico). The peak of Orizaba, an extinct volcano near the town of the same name, was explored by Lieut. Reynolds iu 1848. (See MEXICO.) ORKNEY (Bishopric), said to have been founded by St. Columba, or St. Servianus, in the 6th century, was suppressed in 1689. The earliest authentic date connected with this see ^ORKNEY and SHETLAND ISLES, or ORCADES (North Sea), originally peopled by Scandinavians, were seized by the Scotch in 889. The Norwegians conquered them in 1098, and held them till 1263, when they were driven out by Alexander III. The islands were afterwards retaken by the Danes. James III. of Scotland, who married Margaret, daughter of the King of Denmark, in 1469, received the Orkney and Shetland Isles as her dowry, and they have since remained part of Scotland. The harvest was destroyed by a hurricane in 1778. A lighthouse was built in 1806 on the Point of Start. Some ancient relics of the early Scandinavian or Scottish kings were discovered in. these islands April 6, 1858. ORLEANS (France), the Genabum of the Romans, was afterwards named Aurelianum, from Marcus Aurelius, who rebuilt it in the 2nd century. Caesar mentions an insurrec- tion which occurred B.C. 52, after which he burned, the town. Attila, who besieged Orleans in 451, was defeated under its walls by Jitius. JEgidius defeated the Visigoths in ORLEANSVILLE [ 732 ] ORSINI a battle in the neighbourhood in 463. A council was held, July 10, 511, to regulate ordination and the use of litanies ; and ano- ther, May 7, 538, by which many indignities were inflicted on the Jews. Other councils were held June 23, 533; in 541 ; Oct. 28, 549 ; in 638 ; and in 1022, when 13 Manichfeaiis were condemned to be burned. On the death of Clotaire I., in 561, his kingdom was divided among his sons, and Orleans fell to the lot of Gontran. The Northmen captured it in 855, and again in 865. The university was founded in 1309. The siege of Orleans was commenced by the English Oct. 21, 1428. Joan of Arc, called the Maid of Oileans, relieved the city April 29, 1429, and the siege was raised May 8. She was taken at Compiegne May 26, 1430, and was burned at Rouen May 30, 1431. The Etats-Generaux assembled here Dec. 13, 1560, and the edict of Orleans, abolishing the con- cordat, and the sale of offices, appeared Jan. 15, 1561. The Huguenots, under the Prince of Conde" and Admiral Coligni, assembled here in 1562. Orleans was besieged Feb. 24, 1563, by the Duke of Guise, who was assassinated under its walls by Poltrot de Mere". The struggle was brought to a close by the edict of Amboise, March 19, when the two parties united for the purpose of wresting Havre do Grace from the English.. The cathedral was begun by Henry IV. in 1601. (See BOURBONS, COLLATERAL BRANCHES.) ORLEANSVILLE (Algeria) was founded by the French in 1843. Bon-Maza surrendered to the French here, April 13, 1847. ORLOFF DIAMOND. (See DIAMOND.) ORMUS, orHORMUZ (Persian Gulf). -The kings of Ormus, celebrated for its pearl-fishery and great wealth, became tributaries of the sultans of Kerman, until they were delivered, about 1505, by the Portuguese, who took pos- session of this island in 1507. They were expelled by the Persians, assisted by the English, in 1622. The disciples of Zoroaster took refuge in its caves, and were afterwards called Parsees (g. v.). Milton, in " Paradise Lost" (b. ii.), alludes to its reputation for wealth " High on a throne of royal state, which far Outshone the wealth of Ormus and of Ind." ORNAMENTED GOTHIC. (See GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE. ) ORNITHOLOGY. Aristotle, in his "His- tory of Animals," B.C. 350, gives a brief .account of birds ; and Pliny (23 79) in his " Natural History," in 72, also deals with the subject. Pierre Belon wrote upon it in 1551 ; Conrad Gesner of Zurich in 1555 ; and the three volumes of Ulysses Aldrovandus appeared in 1559 1603; Willughby's " Ornithologise Libri tres" was published posthumously in 1676, and Ray's "Synopsis" in 1713. The first edition of " Systema Naturae," by Limijeus, was published at Leyden in 1735 ; Wilson's "American Ornithology," 1808 1814 ; Cuvier's "Animal Kingdom" in 1817; and Latham's "History of Birds" 1821 1824. The Ornithological Society was established in 1837, and the Acclimatization Society was amalgamated with it in 1866. ORONTES. (See HITTITES, and HOMS, Battle.) OROPUS (Greece), a Boeotian town, was taken at an early period by the Athenians, who were expelled B.C. 412. Some of the in- habitants founded another town of the same name, farther inland, B.C. 402. It was a frequent source of strife between the Boeo- tians and the Athenians ; and it was given to the latter by Philip II. B.C. 338. The inhabi- tants recovered their independence B.C. 318, and Cassander obtained possession of the town B.C. 312, but did not hold it long. The inland town is supposed to have been aban- doned soon after this time. ORPHAN INSTITUTIONS. It is not known when asylums for the maintenance of orphans were first established, though they existed among the Romans. Trajan (98117), the Antonines (138 180], and Alexander Seve- rus (222 -235), founded several, but they do not appear to have become frequent until the introduction of Christianity. During the Middle Ages they were very numerous, espe- cially in the Netherlands. One of the most celebrated orphan asylums in the world is that established by A. 11. Franke at Halle in 1698. The following are the principal orphan asylums in the metropolis and its vicinity : A,D. I8 2 0. 1758. 1839. 1837. 1749- 1837. 1831. I8l 3 . 18^7. 1849. IS 44 . Sg Adult Orphan Institution, Regent's Park. Asylum for Friendless and Deserted Orphan Girls, Lambeth l!:iys\v;itcr Kpisropal Chapel Female Orphan School. liritish Orphan Asylum, Cluplmm Rise. Incorporated Clergy Orphan Society, St. John's Wood. Infant Orphan Asylum, Wansti-ad. .lews' Orphan Asylum, (iimdinim's Fields. London Orphan Asylum, ('lapton. Merchant .Seamen's Orphan Asylum, Bow Road. National (late Cholera) Orphan Home, Ham Com- mon. New Asvlum for Infant Orphans, Stamford Hill. Orphan Working School, H.iverstock Hill. Sailors' Orphan Girls' School and Home, White- chapel. 1786. School of Industry for Female Orphans, St. John's Wood. ORPHEONISTS. A party of 3,000 arrived in London from France to fulfil a musical engagement at the Crystal Palace, June 24, 1860. ORPHEUS STEAMER. H. M. S. steam- corvette Orpheus, 21 guns, struck on a sand- bank at the entrance of the harbour of Ma- iiukau, New Zealand, Feb. 7, 1863, and soon after foundered. Commodore Burnett, C.B., 23 officers, and 166 seamen and marines, pe- rished, only 70 being saved out of a crew of 260. ORRERY. The Chinese are said to have constructed such pieces of mechanism to illus- trate planetary motion, B.C. 2000. Archimedes (B.C. 287212) constructed one, and Posidonius B.C. 51. Huyghens (1629 1695) attended to their construction ; and Roemer invented one which he described in 1705. Graham con- structed one, which was presented to the Earl of Orrery, from whom it derives its name, about 1700. The Royal Institution, London, had one made in 1801, and another, on a much larger scale, by Dr. Pearson, in 1813. ORSINI CONSPIRACY. This attempt t> ORSINI FACTION [ 733 1 OSTEND assassinate the Emperor Napoleon III. and the Empress, on their way to the opera at Paris, by throwing hand-grenades at the carriage, was made Jan. 14, 1858. Orsini, Rudio, and Fieri, were condemned to death, and Gomez to hard labour for life, Feb. 26. Orsini and Fieri were guillotined at Paris, and Rudio's sentence was commuted to penal servitude for life, March 13. Dr. Bernard was arrested at Bayswater, London, Feb. 14 ; and, after a trial at the Old Bailey extending over six days, was acquitted April 17. Violent addresses against England, from the colonels of the French army to the Emperor, appeared in the Moniteur, Jan. 27, 1858. Lord Palmerston's conspiracy-to-murder bill was introdviced into the House of Commons Feb. 8, 1858 ; and defeated on the second reading by a ma- jority of 19, Feb. 19, 1858, which led to the resignation of the Palmerston (first) adminis- tration. ORSINI FACTION, opposed to the Colonna family, .adherents of the Ghibelline party at Rome, joined the Guelphs about 1200. Their influence declined in 1280. The Orsini and Colonna factions raged at Rome in 1339. ORSOVA (Turkey). This strongly fortified town of Wallachia, taken by the Turks in 1738, was ceded by Austria to the Porte, Sep.i, 1739. The Austrians were defeated near Orsova by the Turks, Aug. 8, 1788, when the victors set fire to the town. New Orsova, which forms part of Servia, was captured by the Austrians, April 1 6, 1790. ORTEGAL (Sea-fight). Commodore Fox attacked a French fleet and convoy, amounting in all to 170 sail, off Cape Ortegal, June 20, 1747. The ships of war, being fast-sailing vessels, escaped, but 48 merchantmen were captured. Their gross tonnage amounted to 16,051 tons, and the crews to 1,197 men. ORTHES, or ORTHEZ (France), was the residence of the princes of Beam till 1460 ; and of Jeanne d'Albret, mother of Henry IV., who founded a Protestant college about 1^62. The castle of Moncada was built by Gaston de Foix in 1240, and formed for two years the prison of Blanche of Navarre, poisoned by her sister in 1462. A year's truce was con- cluded at Orthes by Ferdinand V. of Spain with Louis XII., April i, 1513. The governor, Vis- count d' Orthes, refused to obey the royal order for the massacre of St. Bartholomew, Aug. 24, 1572. In the vicinity, Sir A.Wellesley gained a victory over Soult, Feb. 27, 1814. ORVIETO (Italy). This town, the seat of a bishop since 509, built upon the site of the ancient Herbanum, possesses one of the finest churches in Italy, founded in 1290, and com- pleted in the i4th century. A league between the Pope, Venice, and Naples against the Greek empire was concluded here in 1281. It was dissolved by the Sicilian Vespers (q. v.} in 128?. OSACA (Japan). Permission was given to British subjects to reside here for purposes of trade, from Jan. i, 1863, by the treaty of Jeddo, Aug. 26, 1858. OSBORNE HOUSE (Isle of Wight). The original name of this manor was Austerborne. It was purchased by Queen Victoria from Lady Isabella Blatchford, in 1845, when the old house was pulled down, and the present mansion erected from the designs of Mr. Cubitt. OSCA. (See HUESCA.) OSCHOPHORIA. A festival thus named, from the practice of carrying boughs hung with grapes, was instituted at Athens, in honour of Minerva and Bacchus, or Ariadne and Bacchus, by Theseus, about B.C. 1235. OSIANDRISTS. The followers of Andrew Osiander, a Lutheran, who was deprived of his office as preacher at Nuremberg in 1548, because he would not agree to the Augsburg Interim. Appointed to the divinity chair at the university of Konigsberg, he published, in 1550, a treatise, " De Lege et Evangelic," in which his views respecting justification gave offence. Osiander died Oct. 17, 1552. OSIMO. (See AUXIMUM.) OSMA, or UXAMA (Spain). This town, taken and destroyed by Alphonso I. of Leon, in 746, was rebuilt in 938, and fortified in 1019. The cathedral was founded in 1232, and the university in 1550. The see was established about 597. OSMIUM. This metal was discovered by Tennant in the grains of native platinum, in 1803. OSNABURG, or OSNABRUCK (Hanover), on the site of the ancient Wittekindsburg, was surrounded by walls in 1082. The cathedral was built in the i2th century, and a council against heretics was held in 1538. A univer- sity, established in 1632, was suppressed in 1633. The treaty of Westphalia was signed at Osnaburg and Miinster, Oct. 24, 1648. Charle- magne founded the bishopric of Osnaburg in 780. Since the peace of Westphalia it has been held by a Roman Catholic and a Protestant bishop alternately. It was secularized and united to Hanover in 1802. OSSORY (Bishopric), regarded as the most ancient in Ireland, was founded by St. Kiaran, in 402, at Saighir, or King's county, and was transferred to Aghabo, or Aghavoe, in 1052, and to Kilkenny in 1180. According to the provisions of the Church Temporalities Act, 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 37 (Aug. 14, 1833), the sees of Ferns and Leighlin were united to Ossory on the death of Bishop Elrington in 1835. OSTEND (Belgium), from a small village in the gth century, had become an important seaport about i loo. It was destroyed by the sea in 1334. Having been rebuilt, it was walled by Philip the Good in 1445 ; and fortified by the Prince of Orange in 1583. The siege by the Spaniards, commencing in 1601, terminated, after a loss of 50,000 men to the garrison, and 80,000 to the besiegers, Sep. 20, 1604, with the capitulation of the town. It again capitulated to the allies July 16, 1706 ; was ceded to the Emperor in 1715 ; and surrendered to the French Aug. 15, 1745. The French took possession of Ostend July 13, 1794 ; and the English assailed it un- successfully May 20, 1798. It was given up by the treaty of Paris, May 30, 1814. The town suffered considerable damage by the explosion of a powder magazine in 1826. The railway to Ghent was opened Sep. 2, 1838. OSTEND COMPANY, for carrying on trade with the East Indies, was established here in OSTIA [ 734 OTTOMAN 1719 ; received from the Emperor Charles VI. in Aug., 1723, a charter, which was suspended in 1727. The company was dissolved in 1731. OSTIA (Italy) was founded by Ancus Mar- tins B.C. 640, and exempted from military levies B.C. 207. Application for exemption from naval levies was also made, but refused, B.C. 191. A squadron in its harbour was de-- stroyed by Cilician pirates B.C. 67 ; and in the civil wars the town was taken by Marius and given up to plunder by his soldiers, B.C. 87. Claudius I. (41 54) cut a new channel called Portus Romanus, or Augusti. It declined gra- dually, and had fallen into a state of ruin by 827. Another town having been erected at a short distance from the site of the old one, was occupied by Ladislaus, King of Naples (1386 1414), and fortified by Sixtus IV. (1471 i484),who built the castle. The French seized it, and were driven out by Pope Julius II., who formed a " holy league " against them, Oct. 4, 1511. OSTRACISM. This mode of banishment among the Athenians, at first for a term of 10 years, afterwards reduced to five, is said to have been established by Cleisthenes, B.C. 510. It was discontinued B.C. 452. OSTROGOTHS, or EASTERN GOTHS, with the other branches of the same nation, took possession of Dacia in 270, and were sub- jected by the Huns in 376. Their king, Theo- doric the Great, served under the Emperor Zeno in 482 0^483, and from Pannonia marched with all his tribe into Italy in 489, and con- quered and put to death ( kloacer, establishing his authority over that country in 493. The Ostrogoths were overthrown by Belisarius and Narses about 553. O S T R O L E N K A (Battle). The Russians were defeated by the French under Marshal Oxidinot, at this town, in Russia, in 1807. The Poles gained a victory over them at the same place, May 26, 1831. OSTHOWNO (Battles). The French fought some severe battles with the Russians near this town, on the Dwina, July 25, 26, and 27, OSWEGO (N. America). This town, situ- ated on both sides of the Oswego River, was founded in 1722. A fortress was built on the western side of the river in 1727, and a fort was erected on the opposite bank in 1755. They were both captured by Montcalm in 1756, and were afterwards given up to the English, who held them till 1795. Oswego was taken by the English May 6, 1814. OSWESTRY (Shropshire), anciently called Oswaldstree, is said to have been named after Oswald, King of Northumbria, killed by Penda in the battle of Maserfeld, Aug. 5, 642. By some authorities the site of the battle is fixed at Winwick, in Lancashire, and by others at Oswestry. Oswald was honoured as a saint, his day falling on the anniversary of his death, Aug. 5. Edward I. ordered it to be walled in 1277. OTAGO (New Zealand). This province was settled by members of the Free Church of Scotland in 1848. Gold was discovered here in June, 1861. Dunedin, its chief town, became the seat of a bishopric in 1865. OTAHEITE (Pacific Ocean), the chief of the Georgian or Tahitian Islands, w.as discovered by the Spaniard Qiiiros in 1606; visited by Capt. Wallis in 1767, and by Cook several times between the years 1769 and 1778. (8<>e BREAD-FRUIT TREE, and MUTINY OF THE BOUNTY.) Missionaries arrived in 1797, and the king, Pomaree II., embraced Christianity in 1816. By a treaty with the queen, Pomare, it was placed under French protection, Sep. 9, 1843 ; and the French admiral on that station asserted the complete sovereignty of France over it in Nov., 1843. This led to a remon- strance on the part of England, and his pro- ceedings were disavowed by the government Feb. 29, 1844. OTCHAKOF, or OTCHAKOW. (See OCZA- KOW.) OTFORD (Battle). The Kentish men were defeated at Otford, by Offa, King of Mercia, and his army, in 774. OTRANTO(Italy). The ancient Hydruntum, or Hydrus, founded at a very early period, probably by Greeks, was a port of some im- portance B.C. 191, and the usual place of pas- sage from Italy to the East in 400. .It was one of the last cities in the south of Italy held by the Greek emperors, who lost it in the nth century. About 12,000, being more than one-half the population, were slaugh- tered by the Turks when they sacked it in 1480. OTTAWA (Canada), founded in 1827 and called Bytown, which name was changed to Ottawa on its incorporation as a city in 1854, was made the capital of Canada in 1858. OTTERBURN, or CHEVY CHASE (Battle\ on which the well-known ballad seems to bo founded, was fought between the English, under Henry Percy, son of the Earl of Nor- thumberland, and the Scots, commanded by the Earl of Douglas, Aug. 10, 1388. The for- mer having been taken prisoner and the latter slain, the victory remained undecided. OTTOMAN EMPIRE, or TURKEY. This empire was founded by Osman, the son of Ertoghrul, " The Right-hearted Man," whose name has been corrupted into Othman, or Ottoman. Gibbon (ch. xlii.) says the name Turks (q. v.) first became known in Europe in the 6th century, but later writers believe the Huns, who appeared in Europe in the sth century, to have been Turks. The Ottomans style themselves Osmanlis. Bajazet I. wa,-> the first who took the title of sultan, his predecessors having been styled emirs. A.D. 258. Birth of Othman, or Osman. 299. Othmnn, or Osman I., murders his uncle Deinclar, and founds the Ottoman empire. 321. The Turks enter Europe, and ravage Thrace and Macedonia. 326. Death of Othman I., who is succeeded by his son Orchan. 1337. Orchan makes Bnjsa, or Boursa, his capital, and completes the conquest of BittivMia. 1329. The Janissaries (q. v.) are orfriiiii/.cil. 1330. The Turks conquer Nicsca, in Bithynin. 1333. Orchan forms an alliance with the Greek Emperor Andronicus III. (Prtlrcologus). 336. Korasi, the ancient Mysia, is conquered by the Turks. 338. Caramania, the ancient Phrygia, is reduced under the Turkish yoke. OTTOMAN t 735 1 OTTOMAN 1346. The Turks take the Morea (q. r.). 1356. The Turks make their first ponnanent settlement in Europe, on the coast of Thrace. 1357. Amurath I., son of Orchan, captures Gallipoli. 1360. Amurath I. takes Hadrianople. 1363. Amurath I. invades Bulgaria. 1360. He makes Hadrinnople his capital. 1376. Kerman is annexed to the Ottoman dominions. 1380. Amurath I. purchases the territories of the Emir of Hamid. 1388. Part of Albania is brought under the Ottoman yoke. 1389. June 15 or Aug. 27. Battle of Cossova (q. v.). 1390. Bajazet I. invades Philadelphia, in Asia Minor. 1391. Bajazet . I. conquers Wallachia, and obtains a foot- ing in Constantinople. 1396, Sep. 28. Battle of Nicopolis (q.v.). Bajazet I. annexes 1400, Sep. i. War commences between Bajazet I. and 1403, July 28. Battle of Angora (q. v.). 1403, March. The death of Bajazet I. in captivity is fol- lowed by the dismemberment of his empire by his three sons. Soliman establishes his govern- ment at Hadrianojile, Isa at Brusa, and Moham- med in Amasia, an'i the three wage civil war. 1419. Mohammed I. annexes Wallachia. 1422. The Ottoman empire is reunited by Amurath II. 1430. Macedonia is conquered and annexed by Amurath 14351437. War with Venice. 1440. Amurath II. fails in an attempt to capture Belgrade. 1442. The Turkish army is almost annihilated at the battle of Vasag. 1443. Scanderbeg restores Albania to independence. Nov. 3. Battle of Nissa (q. .). Dec. 24. Battle of Kunobitza (q. v.). 1444. July 12. The treaty of Segedin (q. .). Nov. 10. Battle of Varna (q. v.). 1448, Oct. 17-19. Second battle of Cossova (q. v.). 1453, May 29. Constantinople is captured by Mohammed II., and the Eastern empire is dissolved. 1456. Battle of Belgrade (q. v.). 1460. Greece is conquered by the Turks. 1463. War is declared against Venice. 1466. Epirus is annexed. 1472. The Turks enter Italy. 1475. The Genosse possessions in the Crimea are seized by the Turks. 1479, Jan. 26. Peace is restored with the Venetian Re- public. 1480. Mohammed II. takes Otranto, and is defeated in an attempt upon Rhodes. 1484. Spain is invaded by the Turks. 1499. Aug. Battle of Lepanto (q. v.). 1503. Peace is concluded with Venice, whose possessions on the mainland of Greece are ceded to the Turks. 1513. The Janissaries dethrone Bajazet II., and confer the sceptre on his son Selim. 1514. Battle of Shaldiran, or Kalderoon. 1515. Selim I. defeats the Persians at Khargandede, and subdues Mesopotamia and Kurdistan. 1516. Aug. 24. Battle of the Darik (q. v.). 1517. Selim I. annexes Egypt to his dominions, and takes Jerusalem. 1518. Selim I. conquers part of Arabia, 1521, Aug. 20. Soliman I., the Magnificent, takes Bel- grade. 1522. Soliman I. conquers Rhodes (q. v,). 1526. Soliman I. assails Austria and Hu Battle of Mehacs. ungary. Aug. 29. 1529, Sep. 26 Oct. 14. Siege of Vienna. 1=33. Peace is restored with Austria and Hungary. 1536. Soliman I. forms an alliance with Francis I. of France against Charles V. 1539. The southern parts of Arabia are subdued, and as unsuccessful invasion of India is conducted by Suleiman Pasha. 1541. War recommences in Hungary, and the Turks take Buda. 1552. Transylvania is made tributary to the Turks. 1560. Bajazet, son of Soliman I., rebels against his father. 1571, May 24. Pius V. forma a Holy League against the Turks. Aug. I. The capitulation of Famagusta completes the conquest of Cyprus. Oct. 7. Sea- fight of Lepanto (q. v.). 1574. Amurath III. signalizes his accession by the murder of his five brothers. 1583. Commercial relations are first established with England. 1589. The Persians obtain pence by ceding the provinces of Georgia, Azerbijan, Shirwan, and Loristan to Turkey. 1595. Mohammed III. succeeds his father, and murders his 19 brothers and the concubines of his father. 1600. Abd-al-Kulim Karayasiji, the "Black Scribe," com- mences a formidable revolt in Asia, 1602. The Black Scribe is defeated and slain. 1603. The accession of Achmed, or Ahmed I., is memo- rable from his refusal to murder his brothers. 1606. Treaty of Litvatorok (q.v.). 1609. Tobacco is introduced into Turkey. 1618. Georgia, Erivan, and Tabriz are ceded to Persia. Mustapha I. is deposed. 1622. Otlnnan, or Osman II., is murdered by his subjects, who restore Mustapha I. 1632. An insurrection of the Janissaries is suppressed with great cruelty. 1635. Amurath IV. murders his brothers Bajazet raid Soliman. 1636. Amurath IV. murders his brother Kazim. 1637. Azof is taken by the Cossacks. 1638. The Turks take Bagdad and massacre the inha- bitants. 1639. v (? "), in Armenia, is ceded to Turkey. 1642. Azof is recaptured. 1615, March. War is declared against Venice. 1664, Aug. i. Battle of St. Gotthard. 1669. Candia (q. v.) is taken from the Venetians. 1673, Nov. I. Battle of Choczim (q.v.). 1678. War is commenced against Russia. 1681. The Ukraine and Cossack territories are ceded to Russia, and peace is restored. 1683, Sep. 12. Vienna, on the point of surrendering to Mohammed IV., is relieved by John Sobieski. 1686. Sep. 2. Buda is retaken by the Austrians. 1687. Mohammed IV. is depose'd by his brother, Soliman 1688. Belgrade, Bosnia, Croatia, and Slavonia are wrested from the Turks. 1690. Belgrade is recovered. 1691, Aug. 19. Battle of Salankeman (q.v.). 1697, Sep. II. Battle of Szenta (q. v.). 1699, Jan. 26. Treaty of Carlowitz (q. v.). 1703. The Janissaries revolt and depose Mustapha II. 1710. The Turks declare war against Russia. 1711, July 10. Treaty of Falczi (q. v.). 1713. Charles XII. of Sweden is made prisoner at Bender (q. v.). 1715. The Turks reconquer the Morea. 1716. The Austrians seize Temeswar. Battle of Peter- wardein (q. v.). 1717, Aug. 16 (N.S.). Battle of Belgrade (q.v.). 1718, July 21. Treaty of Passarowitz. 1726. War is declared against Persia. The printing-press is introduced into Turkey. 1730, Sep. 17. Achmet,or Ahmed III., abdicates in favour of his nephew, Mohammed V., or Mahmoud I. 1732. Peace with Persia is restored by the treaty of Erivan, which cedes all the territory beyond the Araxes to the Sultan. 1739, July 22- Battle of Krotzka. Sep. 18. Treaty of Bel- grade (q.v.). 1743. Turkey is recognized by the great powers as an in- tegral portion of Europe. 1749. Insurrection of the Wahabees (q. v.). 1766. Insurrections break out in Georgia. 1768. War is declared against Russia. 1770. Sea-fight at Tchesme. AH Bey revolts in Egypt. The Russians take Akermanu, Azof, Bender, and Crim Tartary. I 773- Tne Egyptian insurrection is quelled. June 19. Battle of Brailow (q. r.). 1774, July 21 (X. S.). Treaty of Kutschouc-Kainardji (q.v.). 1784, Jan. 8. Cession to Russia of the Crimea (q.v.). 1787. War is renewed with Russia. 1788. War with Austria recommences. Dec. 17. Storming of Oczakow (q.v.). 1790, Dec. 22- Storming of Ismail (q. v.). 1792, Jan. o. Treaty of Jassy (q. v.). 1798. War is declared against France. (See EGYPT.) 1799. An alliance is formed with England.-^July 25- Bat- tle of Aboukir (q. r.). 1801, March 13 and 21. Battles of Alexandria (q. v.). OTTOMAN [ 736 ] OTTOMAN 1802, Jan. 25. Peace with France is restored by the treaty of Paris. 1807, Jan. 7. War is declared against Russia. Feb. 19. Sir John Duckworth forces the passage of the Dardanelles (q. v.). May 29. Selini III. is deposed by Mustapha IV. 1808. The Janissaries revolt at Constantinople and mas- sacre the regular troops. 1810, Sep. 7. Battle of Battin (q.v.). 1812, May 28. Treaty of Bucharest (q. t).). 1813. A Turkish army of 1 00,000 men ravages Servia. 1818. The Wahabees are finally subdued. 1820, Revolt of Ali, Pasha of Albania. 1821, March. Moldavia and Wallachia rebel. April 22 (Easter Sunday). The Christians are persecuted, and the Greek Patriarch of Constantinople is hanged by the Turkish mob. (Sec GREECE.) 1822, April n. The Turks take Scio (q. v.), and massacre the inhabitants. 1823, The Greek inhabitants of Pergamo are massacred. 1824, March 2. Mehemet Ali revolts. July 28. Treaty of Erzeroum (q. r.). Oct. 7. The Turkish fleet is almost annihilated by the Greeks at Mitylene. Nov. 23- The Turks evacuate Moldavia. 1826, June 15. Massacre of the Janissaries (q. v.). 1827, Oct. 20. Sea-fight at Xavarino (q. r.). 1828, Jan. 5. 132 French residents, 120 English, and 85 Russians, are expelled from Turkey. April 26. War is declared by Russia. May 20. The Em- peror of Russia heads his army in person. .lune 18. Brailow (q. v.) surrenders to the Russians. June 23- They seize Anapa. July 20. They gain the heights of Schumla. Aug. 24. Battle of Akhalzikh. Sep. 8. The Turks close the Ros- phorus. Sep. <). The Russians take the fortress of Bajazet. Sep. 24. They take Toprak-Knli.- Oct. II. Surrender of Varna ('/.>.). Oct. 15. The Russians retire from Schumla and reeross the Danube. Oct. 18. The Russians blockade the Dardanelles.-- Oct. 30. The garrison of the castle of the Morea surrenders to the French general Motion. 1829, May 6. The Russians again cross the Danube. June II. Battle of Kouleftscha. June 3 - Loss of Silistria (q. v.). Prince Paskewitch gains a great victory over the I'asha of Erzeroum. July 2. Battle of Milliduse. July 9. Paskcwitch seizes Erzeroum. Inly 27. Battle of Schumla. Aug. 20. The Russians occupy Hadriauople. Sep. 14. Treaty of Iladrianople. 1830, April 23. Turkey acknowledges the independence of Greece. May 7. A treaty is concluded with the United States. May. Albania rebels against the Porte. 1831, The Albanian Insurrection is suppressed, the first Turkish newspaper is established, and the cholera appears in the country. Mehemet Ali revolts in Egypt, and invades Syria. 1832, April 15. War is declared against Mehemet Ali. (See SYHIA.) 1833, Feb. 18. A Russian squadron arrives at Constanti- nople to assist the Sultan against Mehemet Ali. Feb. 21. The Porte accepts the mediation of France to arrange its disputes with Mehemet Ali. May 6. The Porte concludes a peace with Mehemet, who is declared independent, and invested with the government of Syria and Adana. July 20. A treaty of peace and alliance is concluded with Russia. 1834, A regular postal system is established in Turkey. 1838, March 30. The office of grand vizier is abolished. Aug. 16. A commercial treaty is concluded with England and France. 1839, Mehemet Ali revolts in Syria (q. v.). 1840, July 15. Treaty of London (q. i:). 1842. War is declared against Persia. 1843. Insurrection in Albania (q.v.). 1846, April 30. A commercial treaty is concluded with Russia. 1848. Insurrections in the Danubian Principalities. 1849, April 30. A treaty relative to the government of the Danubian Principalities is concluded with Russia. Aug. 21. The Hungarian generals, Bern and Kossuth, take refuge in New ( >rsova. (See HUN- OAKY.) Sep. 16. The Porte refuses to surrender the Hungarian refugees to Austria and Russia. Nov. 3. The Hungarian fugitives are transferred to Schumla, A.D. 1849, Nov. 4. The English fleet under Sir William Parker arrives in the Dardanelles. Dec. 31. Russia re- sumes diplomatic relations with Turkey, which had been suspended in consequence of the Hun- garian refugee difficulty. 1850, April 6. Austria resumes diplomatic relations. 1851, Feb. I. Mustapha I'asha suppresses an insurrection in Samos. March 4. An insurrection breaks out in Turkish Croatia. March 19. Battle of Jayca. 1852, Feb. 14. A treaty respecting the Holy Places '(q. v.) of Palestine is concluded with France. 18 53, Feb. 28. Prince Menschikoff arrives at Constanti- nople as ambassador extraordinary from the court of Russia, to insist on the repeal of the concessions made to Roman Catholic Christians respecting the Holy Places. May 5. Menschikoff presents his ultimatum. May 19. The Porte concedes some points to Russia. May 21. They are deemed un- satisfactory, and the Russian ambassador quits Constantinople. June 6. All Christian nations receive a confirmation of the privileges and rights granted to their worship in Turkey. June 26. The r.i.iperor of Kussia publishes a manifesto against Turkey. July 2. A Russian army of occu- pation, under Prince Gortschakoff, enters the Danubian Principalities. July 14. The Porte pro- tests against the occupation of the Principalities. Sep. 26. A grand national council of the Turkish nation insists on the evacuation of the Princi- palities. t Jet. 5. War is declared against Russia. (See RUSSIAN WAB.) 1854, Jan. 28. The Greek provinces of Epirus and Al- bania revolt. March 14. The rebels an; assisted by volunteers from Athens. March 19. The Porte demands that the Greek Government should prevent its subjects from aiding the Al- banian rebels. March 21. His ultimatum is re- jected. March 28. The Greek ambassador quits Constantinople. April 22. Abdi I'asha defeats the Greeks at Damoko. April 25 Osman I'asha seizes Peta, the head-quarters of the insurrection. May 26. Greece (q.v.) promises to preserve strict neutrality in the Turkish question. June 14. A convention respecting the Danubian Prin- cipalities is signed with Austria, and she agrees to occupy the Principalities with her troops until the conclusion of peace. June 18. The insurgent camp at Kalabak is taken by Abdi I'asha. Sep. 20. The Russians evacuate the Principalities. 1855, March 15. A treaty of alliance is concluded with Sardinia. 1856, March 30. Peace with Russia is restored by the treaty of Paris. May. An insurrection breaks out 1857, Jan. 21. A treaty is concluded with Austria for the establishment of telegraphic communication. 1858, Jan. 7. Death of Rescind Pasha. May 23. Death of Abdi I'asha. June 15. Massacre of the Christian inhabitants of Jeddah (q. v.). July 21. The Montenegrins are defeated near Kostainizza. July 28. The Montenegrins seize Kolaschin. Aug. 1 8. The Sultan adopts important financial reforms. Nov. 8. The Montenegrin boundaries are fixed by the commissioners of the allied powers at Constantinople. 1859, July 31. The Christians are persecuted in Candia. Sep. 17. A plot against the Sultan is discovered at Constantinople. 1860, May 5. Prince Gortschakoff states that the Chris- tians in Turkey are again subjected to ill treat- ment. May 30. The Turkish Government ex- amines the charge. June i. England refuses to interpose in favour of the Christians, such inter- ference beingcontrary to the treaty of Paris. June 3. The French and Russian ambassadors declare that their governments are satisfied with the conduct of Turkey towards the Christians. (See DRUSES and MAROXITKS.) Oct. 23. A large proportion of the Bulgarian clergy join the Romish communion. 1861, Jan. 28. A revolution breaks out in Herzegovina. April 29. A commercial treaty is concluded with France. May 16. Omar Pasha, with an inter- national commission of foreign consuls, goes to Herz govina to restore order. June 5. The French evacuate Svria. June 2s. Death of the Sultan Abdul Medj'id, who is succeeded by his brother Abdul Aziz. OUDENARDE 737 ] OVERTURES 1861, Sep. I. Omar Pasha commences operations agains Luca Vukalovitch, the leader of the insurgent of Herzegovina (q. v.). 1863, May 23. Ihe Turks invade the Montenegrin terri- tory. (Sea MONTENEGRO.) June 15. A dispute breaks out in Belgrade between the Turks and Servians. (See SERVIA.) Sep. 5. A conventior is concluded at Constantinople by Russia, France, and Turkey, respecting the preservation of the Holv Sepulchre at Jerusalem. 1863, April 7. The Sultan visits Egypt (q. v.) and lands Alexandria. 1864, June 8. I'riiice John Couza of Roumania visits the Borte. Aug. I. An amnesty is published in favour of political offenders. Aug. 19. Polish refugees are expelled from the Ottoman terri- tories. Aug. 26. The peasantry are emancipated. 1805, Jan. 20. Death of Mehemed Pasha, minister of marine. June 23. Changes take place in the cabinet. Aug. The cholera (7. v.) breaks out and rages with great violence. Sep. 5 8. A fire destroys about 15,000 houses. Oct I. Lord Lyons arrives as British ambassador. 1866, Feb. 13. The cholera conference at Constantinople. Aug. 9 Xov. Revolt in Candia. OTTOMAN RULEES. A.n. A.D. 1299. Osman, Othman, or 1618. Osman II. Ottoman I. 1623. Mustaplia I. (again). 1326. Orchan. 1633. Amtirath IV. 1360. Amurath I. 1640. Ibrahim. 1389. Bajazet I., Ilderim, i6|3. Mohammed IV. or The Lightning. 1687. Soliman II. 1403. Soliman,* Isa, and 1691. Ahmed, or Achmet II. Mohammed. 1695. Mustapha II. 1410. Musa-Chclebi. 1703. Ahmed, or Achmet III. 1413. Mohammed I. 1730. Mohammed V., or 1431. Amurath II. Mahmoud I. 1451. Mohammed II. 1754. Osman III. 1481. Bajazet II. 1757. Mustapha III. I5'3. Selim I. 1774. Abdul-Ahmed. 1530. Soliman I., the Mag- 17^9. Selim III. nificent. 1807. Mustapha IV. 1566. Selim II. 1808. Mohammed VI., or 1574- Amurath III. Mahmoud II. 1595. Mohammed III. 1839. Abdul-Medjid. 1603. Ahmed, or Achmet I. 1861. Abdul- Viz. 1617. Mustapha I. OUDENARDE (Belgium), surrendered to a force of French and English in 1658, was besieged by the stadtholder in 1674, and the Duke of Marlborough took it in 1706. The French were defeated here July u, 1708, by the Duke of Marlborough, and Prince Eugene, when Prince George, afterwards George II., distinguished himself. OUDH, or OUDE (Hindostan), supposed to be the ancient Kosala, the earliest seat of civi- lization in India, was conquered by the Mo- hammedans in 1195. Baber's army, which had been sent to subdue the country, was defeated by the Affghans in 1528. It was con- quered by Akbar in i 559 , and the dynasty of Saadat Ali established in 1720. An action, in which the English were victorious, under Major Hector Munro, was fought at Buxar Oct. 23, 1764, and the rulers of Oudh became tributary to the English. A treaty with Warren Hastings was concluded in 1773 ; and another, which resulted in the spoliation of the Begums and the subsequent impeachment of Hastings, was signed Sep. 19, 1781. The nuwab was deposed, and Saadat II. raised to the throne Jan. 21, 1798, and Wajid Ali was * Tlii.s prince is sometimes designated Soliman I., and the other two of the name respectively Soliman II. and pensioned off with ,120,000 per annum, the territory annexed, and the title of king abo- lished Jan. i, 1856, the fact being announced by official proclamation Feb. 7, 1856. Oudh joined in the mutiny of 1857 (See INDIA), and its pacification was announced Jan. 25, 1850. (See FYZABAD and LUCKNOW.) OULART (Battle). A picked detachment of no men, chosen from the North Cork militia, under Lieut.-Col. Foote, attacked the Irish rebels under Father John Murphy at the hill of Oulart, in Wexford, Whitsunday, May 27, 1798. The rebels were driven from their position and were in full retreat, when an alarm that they were rushing on a body of cavalry caused them to turn upon their pur- suers, who were all slain except Col. Foote, a sergeant, and three privates. OURIQUE (Battle). Near this small town of Portugal, Count Alphonso Henriques, with a force of 13,000 soldiers, defeated the com- bined armies of five Moorish sovereigns, July 25, 1139. The five leaders of the infidels fell in the action, and the victorious Alphouso was immediately hailed King of Portugal OUR LADY. (See MERCY, MONTESA, MOUNT CARMEL, OLIVETANS, &c.) OUR LADY OF BETHLEHEM (Order). A military order which Pius II. instituted, Jan. 18, 1459, in honour of the recovery of Lemnos from the Turks. It again fell into their power, and the order was not established OUZEL GALLEY SOCIETY (Dublin). The origin of this society, for deciding commercial difficulties by arbitration, was as follows. Early in 1700 much legal per- plexity was occasioned by the case of the Ouzel Galley, a vessel in the port of Dublin, and it was referred to the arbitration of a committee of merchants, who decided to the satisfaction of all parties. A permanent society was established in consequence, which received the name of the Ouzel Galley Society, in 1705. Its members consist of a captain, lieutenants, and crew, elected from the most respectable merchants of Dublin, and the general business of the society is transacted at periodical convivial meetings OVATION. The first ovation, or lesser triumph among the Romans, was accorded to Publius Postumius Tubertus, after his victory over the Sabines, B.C. 469. It received the name from the fact that a sheep was sacrificed. OVERLAND MAIL. The overland route :o India via Marseilles was established in 1837. A new route via Trieste, on the Adriatic, was "ried by Lieut. Waghorn, under whose superin- tendence the express which arrived at Suez Oct. 19, 1845, reached Alexandria Oct. 20, and was by him conveyed to London, where it arrived Oct. 31, at 4.30 A.M. OVERSEERS of the poor were appointed or parishes by 43 Eliz. c. i. (1601), and for townships by 13 & 14 Charles II. c. 12 (i6) See BISHOP.) OVERTURES, called sinfonia by the Ita- ians, originated in France, where Lulli , l6 33 87), the father of French dramatic music, assisted in giving them a settled form. They were introduced into concert-rooms and thca- res abovit the end of the i8th century. OVIEDO t 738 ] OXFORD OVIEDO (Spain), the capital of a province of the same name, and known in the Middle Ages as Civitas Episcoporum, from the number of bishops who took refuge in it from the Mors, is believed to have been founded by Froila I. in 759. A great part of the town was destroyed by fire in 1521. The fortress was built by Alphonso III. in 912, and th university was founded by Philip III. in 1604. The church, erected in the gth century, was taken down and the cathedral commenced in the i4th century, one of the towers having been finished in 1575. The library was founded in 1764 ; the provincial hospital in 1752 ; and the consolidated hospitals of San Francisco in 1837. (.SW- A.STURIAS.) OWENITES, or OWKNISTS. The name sometimes given to English Communists (q. v.) or Socialists (q. v.}, from Robert Owen .May 14, 1771 Nov. 17, 1858), who is regarded as their founder. OWHYHEB. (See HAWAII, or OWIIVHI i:. o.\ FOI; i Bishopric). This see was founded by Henry VIII. in 1541. 'OX l'< ) It I ) < )xfovdshire), called Oxnaford by the Saxons ;md Oxeneford in Domesday Book, existed as early as the 8th century. It was burned by the Danes in 1010. Edmund Iron- side died here Nov. 30, 1017, and Canute held several national councils, infusing to admit the Normans, it was stormed by William I. in 1067. It sustained a three mo7iths' siege from Stephen. The Kmpross .Maud made her escape, and it surrendered Dec. 21, 1142. The great charter, with all the privileges ami lil> London, was granted by Henry II. '1154 1189). The Mad Parliament assembled here June n, 1258. John .Hereford's riot, when the colleges and halls were sacked by the townsmen, took place in 1355. Councils were held in 1160, June n, 1222, Nov. 29, 1241, in 1322, Nov. 18, 1382, and Jan. 14, 1409. Henry VIII. made it liis residence for some time in 1518. Queen Elizabeth delivered a long Latin speech on her visit in 1592. Latimer and Ridley suffered at the stake Oct. 16, 1555, and Cranmer March 21, 1556. After the battle of Edgehill, Charles I. took possession of the town, Oct. 26, 1642. He established a mint, where the plate of New Inn Hall was coined for his use, and settled the exchequer here Feb. 13, 1643. Charles I. also summoned a parliament, which sat from Jan. 22 till April, 1644. The city surrendered to the Parliamentary forces June 24, 1646. Parliament met here Oct. 9, 1665, during the plague of London (See GAZETTE), and March 91, 1 68 1. The family of the Veres, to whom it gave a title, became extinct in 1702 ; but the title was revived in 1711. The botanical gar- den, the first in England, was formed in 1632 ; the town -hall was erected in 1753 ; the new county hall and courts in 1840. OXFORD ADMINISTRATION. (See HAR- LEY ADMINISTRATION.) OXFORD, or ARUNDELIAN MARBLES. This collection of relics of antiquity, found in the island of Paros, early in the 1 7th century, was purchased by Thomas, Earl of Arundel, in 1624, and brought to England in 1627. It con- sisted, when entire, of 37 statues, 128 busts, and 250 inscriptions, besides sarcophagi, altars, fragments, and gems ; and having been dis- persed, the remains were presented to the university of Oxford, in 1667, by Henry Howard, afterwards Duke of Norfolk. Another portion, called the Pomfret Marbles, was trans- ferred to Oxford in 1755. Amongst the re- mains presented by Henry Howard, is the Parian chronicle, which contains a chronologi- cal compendium of the history of Greece from B.C. 1582 to B.C. 355, the 90 years to B.C. 264 having been lost. The accuracy of these tables has been questioned, and even their authen- ticity denied. Clarendon (ch. i. 119! .says O f the Earl of Arundel, their collector, "lie was willing to be thought a scholar, and to under- stand the most mysterious parts of antiquity, because he made a wonderful and costly pur- chase of excellent statues whilst he was in Italy and in Rome (some whereof he could never obtain permission to remove from Rome, though he had paid for them), and had a rare collection of the most curious medals ; whereas in truth he was only able to buy them, and never to understand them." OXFORD AND (JAMB RIDGE BO AT I;A< !;. (&< UNIVERSITY P.OAT RACE.) OXFOKD AND CAMIMIIKJK CLUB (Lon- don) was founded in 1829, and is sometimes erroneously called the Junior University Club ('/ '- OXFORD'S ATTEMPT. Edward Oxford fired two pistols at Queen Victoria and Prince Albert as they were passing up Constitution Hill, June 10, 1840. He was found guilty July 10, and being insane, was imprisoned for life. OXFORD STREET (London). By 2 & 3 Viet. c. 80 (Aug. 24, 1839 , permission was given to the authorities to extend this street to Holborn. OXFORD UNIVERSITY. The Britons and Saxons established schools of learning at Ox- ford, which were restored by Alfred the Great, the reputed founder of the university, about 879. In Alfred's time, the institution was styled the school or the schools, and it is men- tioned as the university in a deed dated 1 190. Edward III. granted a great charter to the students, June 27, 1355, and their privileges were confirmed by a charter of Henry VIII. in 1510. The university was incorporated by 13 Eliz. c. 29 (1570). The privilege of returning two members to the House of Commons was accorded to the university by letters patent of James I., in 1604. During the civil war the colleges espoused the cause of Charles I., and in Jan., 1643, they sent their plate to the mint to be coined for his use. A commission of in- quiry into the state of the university was issued Aug. 31, 1850, and the report of the commissioners was presented April 27, 1852. The constitution of the university was changed by 17 & 18 Viet. c. 81 (Aug. 7, 1854), which was amended by 19 & 20 Viet. c. 3 (June 23, 1856). The theatre, by Sir C. Wren, was founded Jnly 26, 1664, and opened July 9, 1669. The first stone of the museum was laid by the Earl of Derby, June 20, 1855, and it was opened in June, 1860. The difference between colleges and halls is, that the latter are not incorpo- rated. OXFORD [ 739 OYSTERS The following is a list of the colleges anc A.D. halls, with date of establishment : !75S) i>ec. 30. Vinerian, Fellowship and Scholarships. 1853. Five Scholarships. COLLEGES. A.D. A.D. 1825. Dean Ireland's, four Scholarships. 1830. Eldon, Law Scholarship. 873. University. 1508. Brasenose. 1830 and r86o. Four Boden Scholarships. 1263 and 1268. Baliol. 1516. Corpus Christi. 1831. Three Mathematical Scholarships. 1864. Increased 1264. Merton. 1524. Christ Church. to four. 1314. Exeter. 1554. Trinity. 1831. Two Kennicott Hebrew Scholarships. 1863. Re- 13-4. Oriel. I5S7* St. John's. duced to one. 1340. Queen's. 1386. New. 1571. Jesus. 1613. Wadhatn. 1832. Three Pusey and Ellerton Scholarships. I8 33i Feb. Two Johnson's Scholarships. 1428. Lincoln. 1437. All Souls. 1624. Pembroke. 1714. Worcester. 1863. Three Denver and Johnson Scholarships. 1834. Hertford Scholarship. 1458. Magdalen. 1857. Four Taylor Scholarships. 1860. Two Burdett-Coutts Scholarships. HALLS. A.D. 1 269. St. Edmund's. 1333- St. Mary. 1393. New Inn. A.D. 1487. Magdalen. I547(shortly after) St. Alban 1855. Litton's. (See ASHMOLEAN MUSEUM, BAMPTON LECTURES, BODLEIAN LIBRARY, CLARENDON PRESS, RAD- CLIFFE LIBRARY, &c.) 1762-72. Chancellor's Prizes, for Latin Verse, English Essay, and Latin Kssay. 1810. Xewdcgatc. Kngli.-h Verse. 1825. Ellerton, Theological ivssay. 1835. Two Denver, Theological Essays. 1863. Merged in Denyer and Johnson Scholarship. 1848. English I'oem on Sacred Subject. 1850. Arnold, Historical Essay. 1*55. Stanhope, Historical Essay. 1856. Gaisford Prizes, Greek Verse and Greek Prose. 1862. Johnson, Memorial Prize Essay. PROFESSORSHIPS. 1503. Margaret, Divinity. 1546. Regius, Civil Law. 1546. Regius, Divinity. 1546. Regius, Greek. 1546. Regius, Hebrew. 1546. Regius, Medicine. 1618, Oct. 29. Sedleian, Natural Philosophy; commenced 1621. 1619. Savilian, Astronomy. 1619. Savilian, Geometry. 1631. Whyte's Moral Philosophy. 1622- Caniden, Ancient History. 1624. Tomlins, Anatomy. 1858. Annexed to Linacre, Physiology. 1626. Music. 1636. Laudian, Arabic. 1669. Botany. 1708. Poetry. 1724. Lord Almoner's, Arabic. 1724. Regius, Modern History. 1749. Experimental Philosophy. 1755, Dec. 30. Vinerian, Common Law; commenced 1758. 1780. Clinical. 1795. Rawlinsonian, Anglo-Saxon. 1798, Jan. 36. Aldrichian, Anatomy; commenced 1803. 1798, Jan. 36. Aldrichian, Chemistry; commenced 1803. 1798, Jan. 26. Aldnchian, Practice of Medicine; com- menced 1803. 1825. Political Economy. 1830. Boden, Sanscrit. 1839. Logic. 1843. Regius, Ecclesiastical History. 1*4,'. Uririns, Pastoral Theology. 1842. Exegesis of Holy Scripture ; commenced 1847. 1854. Latin Literature. 1854. Chichele, Modern History ; commenced 1863. 1854. Chichele, International Law and Diplomacy ; com- menced 1859. 1854. Waynflete, Chemistry. 1854. Waynflete, Moral and Metaphysical Philosophy. 1854. Linacre. Physiology. 1861. Hope, Zoology. UNIVERSITY FELLOWSHIPS AND SCHOLARSHIPS. 1647, May 38. Craven, two Scholarships. 1649. Com- menced. 1819, March. Increased to five. 1858. New regulations made, and increased to six. 1715, July. Two Radcliffe's Travelling Fellowships. In- creased to three under Act of 1854. OXYGEN was discovered by Dr. Priestley, who termed it Dephlogisticated Air, Aug. i, 1774, and by Scheele, who called it Empyreal Air, in 1775. Lavoisier made a series of ex- periments in 1789, and gave it the name of O y x e YRYNCHUS, or OXYRHNCHUS (Egypt). The name is derived from a fish of the sturgeon species, worshipped in Egypt in early times. This town, the modern Behneseh, was made the seat of a bishop in the 4th cen- tury. The first bishop, Theodore, is repre- sented in 372 occupying the episcopal throne. According to Gibbon, this stately and po- pulous city, the seat of Christian orthodoxy, had devoted the temples, the public edifices, and even the ramparts, to pious and charitable uses. OYER AND TERMINER. Writs of Oyer and Terminer were only to be granted before justices of either bench in eyre, save in excep- tional cases, when a special royal warrant was required by 13 Edw. I. st. i, c. 29 (1285). These regulations were enforced by 2 Edw. III. c. 2 (1328); 9 Edw. III. st. i, c. 5 (1335); and by 20 Edw. III. c. 3 (1346). The rule by which no judge or other lawyer could act in this commission within his own county where he was born or lived, was abolished by 12 Geo. H. c. 27 (1739). O YES ! In the old Norman law courts the crier pronounced oyez, "hear ye," to enjoin silence. This injunction, corrupted into the meaningless phrase, " Oh yes," is still used by public criers and heralds. OYSTER POINT. (See CHARLESTON and CHARLESTOWN.) OYSTERS. British oysters were much es- ;eemed by Roman epicures, and Juvenal, in lis 4th satire, commemorates those of Rich- jorough in Kent as possessing peculiar excel- ence. The stealing of oysters, or oyster orood, from the beds, was declared larceny by 7 & 8 Geo. IV. c. 29, s. 36 (June 21, 1827). A convention was signed Aug. 2, 1839, bv France and England, for settling the limits of the >yster-beds of each nation. The regulations ;hus established were embodied in 6 \v it, reached its shores in 1573. (See DARIF.N.) PACIFIC STEAMER, belonging to the Collins line, running between New York and Liverpool, was totally lost, with all on board, in the early part of 1856. She left Liverpool Jan. 23, 1856, with 45 passengers and a crew of 141 men, and was never heard of after- wards. It is supposed that she struck sud- denly 011 an iceberg, and foundered with all on board. PACTE DE FAMINE. A company called the Societe Malisset, under government con- trol, had been formed in Paris in 1767, for the purpose of buying and storing grain in order to keep up the price. The conduct of Louis XV. , in making vise of the society to fill his treasury, excited much public indignation in 1774, and it was called the Pacte de Famine. It wars suppressed in 1789. PA DAN -ARAM. (See HARAN and MESOPO- TAJ1 fA.) PADERBORN (Prussia). This ancient town of Westphalia, made a bishopric by Charle- magne, in 795 was a member of the Hanseatic League. Councils were held here in 777, 780, 782, and 785. At the first, generally desig- nated the diet of Paderborn, multitudes of the Saxons were baptized. The cathedral, commenced early in the nth century, was not finished till 1143. The Lutheran religion was suppressed and the Roman Catholic re- stored in 1604. The town was taken and pil- laged by the Duke of Brunswick in 1622, and was annexed to Prussia hi 1803. It afterwards formed part of the kingdom of Westphalia, and was restored to Prussia in 1813. PADLOCK. Ducange states that a lock of this description was in use as early as 1381, though a later date is usually assigned for the invention. PADSTOW (Cornwall). This town was de- stroyed by the Danes in 981. PADUA (Italy), the ancient Patavium, was, according to Virgil, founded by Anterior, who escaped thither after the fall of Troy. The Pataviaiis were constantly at war with the Cisalpine Gauls, and B.C. 301 they defeated Cleonyrnus the Lacedaemonian, who had landed at the mouth of the Medoacus. Patavium gra- dually fell into the power of Rome, though it seems to have retained some of its former independence, as M. jEmilius, a Roman consul, was sent to quell a riot, B.C. 174, and the in- habitants refused to receive the emissaries of M. Aiitonius, B.C. 43. Patavium was occupied, in 69, by Primus and Varus, the generals of ;n, 011 their advance into Italy. Attila d it in 452 ; it is mentioned as one of the chief cities when the province was overrun by the Lombards under Alboin in 568 ; and was burned to the ground by Agilulplb of the Longobardi, in 601. In 1164 Padua formed a league with other states against Frederick I. ; in 1167 it joined the L<> league ; and by the peace of Constance, in 1183, its freedom was recognized. Eccelino da Romano, who made himself master of Padua Feb. 25, 1237, was driven out in 1256, by a coalition of the towns of Upper Italy. A council was held here in 1350. In 1337 it came under the sway of the Carrara family, who held it till 1405, when it was taken by the republic of Venice. Maximilian I. besieged it Sep. 15, 1509, and retired Oct. 3. The French occupied it April 28, 1797, and it passed into the power of Austria by the treaty of Campo-F< >rmio. The university was celebrated as early as 1221, the hospital was founded in 1420, the bank in 1490, the public library in 1540, and the library of the university in 1629. The botanical garden was instituted by the Venetian senate in 1545, and the observatory dates from 1767. In consequence of disturb- ances among the students which took place Feb. 9, 1848, the university was closed, and it was not reopened until 1850. P/EONIA (Macedonia). This district, inha- bited by the Pseones, was overrun by Mega- bazus B.C. 506, and was finally annexed to Macedon by Alexander III. (the Great). PAGANS. This term, from pagani, or dwellers in the pagi, was applied to the heathens, because the inhabitants of the country districts were the last to receive Christianity. Theodosius I. promulgated an edict against pagan sacrifices in 385, and soon after closed all the heathen temples and shrines. After his death (Jan. 17, 395), few vestiges of paganism remained. Pagan cere- monies were revived in Christian churches in the beginning of the 5th century. Paganism was imputed to the classic enthusiasts of the 1 5th century, who professed a secret devotion to the gods of Homer and Plato. PAGAS^iE (Thessaly), celebrated in mytho- logical history as the port at which Jason built the ship Argo, was conquered by Philip II. PAI MARIRE PAL^OLOGI of Macedon B.C. 353. The inhabitants were transferred to Demetrias, founded B.C. 290, Pagasae was afterwards restored, and became a flourishing city. PAI MARIRE. The name, the exact mean ing of which is unknown, though it is sup- posed to signify "wait,"or "bide your time," is applied to a new religion that appeared in i among the Maori converts to Christianity, and spread with great rapidity through every part of New Zealand. This new faith is described as the original heathenism of the natives, slightly modified by Judaism, and partaking as much of the character of a political revolution as of a religious system. Cannibalism is en- joined as a religious rite, and the initiated profess to have the power of speaking in a language revealed by heaven and unintelligible to the vulgar. The Rev. Carl Sylvius Volkner, a missionary of the Church of England, was barbarously murdered at Opotiki, on the east coast, by the Pai Marire fanatics, March 2, 1865. PAINS AND PENALTIES. Certain bills, passed by the legislature to inflict specified penalties for particular acts against state offenders, were known by this title. The last instance was the bill of pains and penalties introduced against Queen Caroline in 1820. It passed the House of Lords, but was not in- troduced into the House of Commons. PAINTING. This art appears to have ori- ginated in Egypt, where it was employed 2,000 years before the Christian gera. The Greeks, however, attribute its origin to their ancestors. (See DRAWING.) Greek art was not established on an independent basis until the Persian invasion in the sth century B.C., it having previously been a mere adjunct to architecture and the celebration of religious mysteries. Polygnotus, who removed from Thasos to Athens about B.C. 463, painted the first portrait, and is regarded as the founder of historic painting. Apollodorus of Athens (about B.C. 408) first practised nice discrimi- nation of light and shade, in which he was much excelled by the celebrated Zeuxis of Heraclea (B.C. 455 B.C. 400). Apelles (about B.C. 332) was remarkable for his delicacy of finish, and is regarded as the chief of ancient portrait painters. The classic period of paint- ing began to decline about B.C. 300, when Antipholus the Egyptian, and others, intro- duced caricatures and pictures of still-life. Fabius Maximus introduced painting into Rome B.C. 289, but the greatest impetus was given to the art by the number of master- pieces which Mummius brought from Corinth, B.C. 146. The materials of ancient art appear to have been wood, clay, plaster, stone, parch- ment, and canvas, on which pictures were painted in distemper or with a medium of wax. The establishment of Christianity, and the subversion of the Roman empire by the northern barbarians, caused a decline in painting as well as in the other arts ; and the Iconoclasts (q. v.) destroyed many valuable specimens of the semi-barbarous Byzantine school, which was chiefly employed in the decoration of churches. (See ILLUMINATION.) Giovanni Cimabue (1240 1300) is regarded as the restorer of painting and the founder of the Italian school ; but the trammels of the Byzantine school were first shaken off by Giotto di Bondone (1276 Jan. i8 t 1336). Leo- nardo da Vinci (1452 May 2, 1520) and Michael Angelo Buonarroti (1474 Feb. 17, 1564) were the most eminent artists of the Floren- tine school. Raphael Sanzio da Urbino (April 6, 1483 April 6, 1520) founded the Roman school; and Tiziano Vecelli, better known as Titian (1477 1576), was the greatest master of the Venetian school. Antonio Allegri, better known as Correggio (1494 March 5, 1534) was also a great master in the Italian school. The earliest master of the German school was Wilhelm von Coin, or William of Cologne, who flourished in 1380. Hubert van Eyck (1366 Sep. 18, 1426; and his brother John (1370 July 14, 1441) are eminent masters of the Flemish school, which they established at Bruges. They are also the reputed inventors of oil-painting, although there is no doubt that art was only considerably improved by them, having been known as early as the 8th century. The Spanish school was founded by Antonio del Ruicon about 1446 ; the Dutch by Luke van Leyden (1494 1533); the French by Jeannet Clouet about 1523 ; and the Eng- lish school may be said to have commenced when Holbein settled at the court of Henry VIII. in 1526. PAISLEY (Scotland) originated in a monas- tery founded in 1160 by Walter, high steward of Scotland. Pope Honorius III. erected it into an abbey in 1219. It was burned by the English in 1307, and afterwards rebuilt with great splendour. James IV. erected the small town into a burgh in 1488. In the times of the Reformers the abbey was stripped of its altars and figures, and the only part of the edifice that remains is used as a parish church. The races were established in 1608. Linen thread was first made in Paisley in 1722 ; silk gauze in 1760; and nearly 27,000 people were employed in the manufacture in 1784. Towards the end of the i8th century the manufacture of shawls was introduced. The grammar-school was founded Jan. 3, 1576 ; and the county hall or castle in 1818. A society for the promotion of the fine arts, established here, held its first exhibition in May, 1831. PALACE COURT, superseding in many re- spects the ambulatory court of the Board of Green Cloth, or Court of Marshalsea, was in- stituted by Charles I. in 1631, and had juris- diction over all personal actions whatsoever ithin 12 miles of His Majesty's Palace at Whitehall. It was removed from Southwark ;o Scotland Yard in 1801, was abolished by k 13 Viet. c. 101 (Aug. i, 1849), and its powers ceased Dec. i. PALAEOGRAPHY, or the art of deciphering ancient manuscripts and inscriptions, was greatly improved by the Benedictines of St. Maur, who published a compilation of palseo- ^raphical knowledge in 1748. It is also called diplomatics (q. v.). PALJiOLOGL This illustrious Byzantine amily is first mentioned about 1078, when Jeorge Palaeologus was a faithful servant PALEONTOLOGY I 742 ] PALERMO of the Emperor Nicephorus III. He was killed while defending Dyrrhachium, or Du- razzo, against the Normans in 1081. The PaL-eologi, the last Greek family that occupied the throne of Constantinople, reigned from 1260 to 1453. A branch of the Palreologi ruled over Montferrat in Italy from 1305 to 1530. PALEONTOLOGY. This science, treating of the evidences of the fossil remains of plants and animals in the earth's crust, has received illustration from the works of Olivier (Aug. 23, 1769 May 13, 1832), Owen, Forbes (1815 Nov. 18, 185^), and others. The Pa- Iseontological Society, for the illustration and description of British fossil organic remains, was founded in London in 1847. PAL/EP< >LIS. (See NAPLES.) PALAMITES, the supporters of Gregory Palamas, a Greek ascetic of the i4th century, who renounced the world, retired into a cell, and practised great austerities. Having spent ten years at Mount Athos, and ten years at Beroea, he repaired to Thessalonica for the restoration of his health. He took the lead of the monks against Barlaam, and gained a triumph over him at a council held at Con- stantinople, June ii, 1341. At another council, held at Constantinople in 1345, the Palarnites were condemned, and Palamas was cast into prison in 1347. Having obtained his release, he was nominated though not ordained pa- triarch, and in 1354 was consecrated Arch- bishop of Thessalonica, but the magistrates refused to admit him, and he retired to Lunmos. I'AI.ATIXATK Germany). This division, consisting of two parts, the Upper or Bava- rian and the Lower or Ithenish palatinate, was under one sovereign until 1620, when the Elector Ferdinand, having accepted the crown of Bohemia, was defeated in a battle near Prague, and lost his dominions and electoral dignity, which were given by the Emperor Ferdinand II. to Bavaria. Charles Louis re- covered the Lower or Rhenish Palatinate by the treaty of Westphalia 1111648. Maximilian Emmanuel, Elector of Bavaria, having been placed under the ban of the empire, the Elector Palatine, John William, recovered the Upper Palatinate and the ancient rights of his house in 1 706 ; but by the treaty of peace between Charles VI. and Louis XIV. in 1714, the Elector of Bavaria regained the Upper Palatinate. In the wars of the French Revo- lution, the French took possession of that part of the Palatinate which lay on the left bank of the Rhine, and retained it by the treaty of Luneville, Feb. 9, 1801. The territory on the right bank of the Rhine was ceded by Bavaria in 1802 for other possessions. By the treaty of 1819, Bavaria regained the greater part of the territory on the left bank of the Rhine which it had lost in 1801, the remainder being allotted to Prussia and Hesse Darmstadt. PALATINATK CATECHISM. (See HEIDEL- BERG, or PALATINATE CATECHISM.) PALATINE COUNTIES. -Selden, referring to counts palatine, says : " The name was received here doubtless out of the use of the empire of France, and in the like notions as it had in that vise." Three English counties viz., Chester, Durham, and Lancashire, and one Welsh county, viz., Pembroke, were counties palatine. The palatine of Chester was conferred by William I. upon Hugh Lupus in 1077. In the reign of Henry III. (1216 72 it was annexed to the crown, giving the title of Earl of Chester to the king's eldest son. Its jurisdiction was abolished by i Will. IV. c. 70, s. 14 (July 23, 1830). The palatine of Lan- caster was instituted by Edward III., who created Henry, Earl of Derby, Duke of Lan- caster, March 6, 1351. In the reign of Edward IV. (146183) it was vested in the crown. Durham was made a county palatine by William I. (106687). By 6 Will. IV. c. 19 (June 21, 1836), the jurisdiction was trans- ferred to the crown. The palatine jurisdic- tion of Pembroke was taken away by 27 Hen. VIII. c. 26 (1536). 1'ALATINES. Protestant refugees from France and the Rhine provinces, who arrived in England in 1709. They lived in tents on Blackheath, and other open places in the vicinity of the metropolis, and numbers were sent to Ireland and N. America. 1'ALK Cephalonia). This town, first men- tioned in the Persian war, when 200 of its cili/ens fought at the battle of Plataea, B.C. 479, joined the Athenian alliance B.C. 431, sur- rendered to the Romans B.C. 189, and after- wards became the capital of the island. PALEMBANG Sumatra .In 1780 the Dutch placed the rajah Muda on the throne, Palem- bang being his capital. They had only a factory at, Palenibang in 1811, when the Sultan began hostilities against them, and, under pretence of carrying them to Batavia, sunk their ships. The Dutch regained their East India possessions in 1816, but the country remained in rebellion till 1821. PALENCIA Spain, the ancient Pallantia, the chief town bf a province of the same name, was made a bishop's see of the early Church. Councils were held here Oct. 25, 1114, in 1129, and Oct. 4, 1388. In the ioth century Al- phonso founded the celebrated school, which as transferred to Salamanca in 1240. The cathedral, commenced in 1321, was completed in 1504. The French captured Palencia in 1808; the English entered in Sep., 1812 ; and Sir A. Wellesley defeated the French in some warmly contested combats in the neighbour- hood a few davs afterwards. PALEOPOLL (See MANTINEA.) PALERMO (Sicily), the ancient Panormus, is first mentioned in history B.C. 480, when the great Carthaginian armament, under Ha- milcar, landed and made it their head-quarters. It was a principal naval station B.C. 406, and was one of the few cities that remained faithful to the Carthaginians at the time of the siege of Motya, B.C. 397. Pyrrhus at- tacked and made himself master of Panormus B.C. 276; but it was soon retaken by the Car- thaginians, who held it at the outbreak of the first Punic war, B.C. 264. The Roman consuls, Atilius Calatinus and C. Scipio, captured Panormus B.C. 254, and it became one of their principal naval stations. (-See PANORMUS, Battle.) It received a Roman colony B.C. 20, fell, with PALESTINE f 743 PALLENE the rest of Sicily, into the hands of the Goths in 493, and was the last city of the island wrested from them by Belisarius, in 535. The Saracens captured it in 855. From the top of the royal palace, built by King Roger the Norman in 1129, Father Piazzi discovered the planet Ceres in 1801. The cathedral, a magnificent Gothic structure, was built in nSo by Archbishop Walter, an Englishman, and contains the tombs of Roger the Nor- inaii and the Emperor Frederick II. When Sicily was united to Naples, the Court was removed from Palermo, but again resided here from 1806 to 1814. Palermo revolted Dec. 12, 1848, against Ferdinand II., King of the Two Sicilies, and, after three days' fighting, a provisional government was proclaimed. The King issued the charter of a constitution for his Sicilian subjects Feb. 28, 1849; but hosti- lities were resumed March 26. Through the mediation of the French and English admirals, the city was given up to Gen. Filangieri, May 13. Palermo was attacked by Garibaldi May 27, 1860, and the royal troops were driven out of the town, and took refuge in the citadel, which afterwards surrendered. The Two Sicilies were annexed to Sardinia Nov. 3, 1860. The university was founded in 1447. A council was held at Palermo Nov. 10, 1388. A revolt occurred in Sep., 1866. PALESTINE ASSOCIATION. (See GEO- GRAPHICAL SOCIETY.) PALESTINE, THE LAND OF ISRAEL, THE HOLY LAND, JUDAH, or JUDAEA (Syria). At the time of the call of Abraham, B.C. 1921, this country, called the land of Canaan, was inhabited by the Jebusites, Amorites, Gir- gashites, Hivites, Arkites, Smites, Arvadites, ^emarites, and Hamathites, descendants of Ham, or Canaan, son of Noah. The Perizzites are first mentioned Gen. xiii. 7 (B.C. 1918) ; and at the time of the Exodus, B.C. 1491, it was peopled by seven tribes, viz. , the Cauaan- ites, Hittites, Amorites, Perizzites, Hivites, Je- busites, and Girgashites. Antiochus the Great, King of Syria, reduced the whole of Palestine under his authority B.C. 198, and it was erected into a Roman province by Augustus in the year 6. The division of the country into First, Second, and Third Palestine, is first mentioned in the Theodosian code in 409. The term Holy Land, so generally employed in modern times, occurs but once in the Bible (Zech. ii. 12). Albert Edward, Prince of Wales, left England on a visit to the Holy Land, Feb. 6, 1862. After visiting the Pyra- mids, Philse, Thebes, &c., Jemsalem was reached March 31, Mount Carmel April 15, Mount Lebanon May 12, and the Prince arrived in England June 14. PALESTRINA (Italy), the ancient Prseneste, became the stronghold of the Colonna family in the Middle Ages, and capitulated to the papal crusaders in 1299, when Boniface VIII. expelled its rulers. After his death, Oct. n, 1303, it was recovered and fortified by the Colonna family. Rienzi, the Roman senator, made a vain attempt to take it in 1354. It was wrested from the Colonna family by Eugenius IV. in 1437, and Urban VIII. (1623 44) con- ferred it upon the Barberini, whose palace still exists. Fragments of a Roman calendar, discovered here in 1773, were published at Rome, under the title of Fasti Prsenestiiii, in PALESTRO (Battles). Two were fought near this town, in Piedmont, between the Austrians and the Sardinians aided by the French, in 1859. The first took place May 30, when the French and Sardinians were vic- torious, capturing more than 1,000 prisoners and 80 cannon; and the second May 31, when the French and Sardinians were again successful. PALIMPSESTS. The term is applied to parchments from which the original writing has been erased by means of pumice-stone or some other substance, to make room for a fresh subject being written thereon. The practice became general with the Latins in the 9th and loth centuries, and reached its greatest height in the i ith century. Edicts forbidding it were issued in Germany in the i3th and i4th cen- turies. The Clementine constitutions were printed by Nicholas Janson upon palimpsest parchment in 1476. Cicero's treatise " De Republica," written on a palimpsest, was dis- covered in the Vatican library at Rome, and printed in 1821. The New Testament, written on palimpsest fragments, was published in Paris by Dr. Tischendorf in 1843, an d he com- pleted the work by the addition of the frag- ments of the Old Testament in 1845. PALINDROMES, words or sentences that read the same backwards or forwards, are frequently known as Sotadic verses, from their alleged inventor, Sotades of Thrace, who flourished at Alexandria about B.C. 280, and was put to death for the licentiousness of his writings by Ptolemy (II.) Philadelphia. They were very common among Latin authors, but are rare in English. (See LYON VEBSES.) PALLADIUM, generally found as an alloy with platinum and other metals, but some- times in a pure state, was discovered by Dr. Wollaston in 1803. PALLADIUM. Ancient authors give different traditions respecting the origin of this celebrated statue of Pallas or Minerva ; some stating that it fell from heaven during the building of Ilium, others that it fell at Pessinus, in Galatia, others that Electra gave it to her son Dardanus, and others that it was merely an ingenious automaton ; but all agree that the fate of Ilium depended on its pre- servation. Its capture consequently became a great object with the Greeks during the siege, and it was stolen by Ulysses and Dio- medes, B.C. 1183. Other authorities state that only a fictitious statue was stolen, and that the real palladium was conveyed into Italy by .ZEneas, B.C. 1181, and was preserved with great secrecy in the temple of Vesta. Elagabalus attempted to carry it off in 219, but a counterfeit image was substituted for it. The Roman palladium was a small statue, three cubits and a half in height, and it was kept in a barrel and placed near other barrels to prevent theft. PALLAS. This planet was discovered by Dr. Olbers, of Bremen, March 28, 1802. PALLENE (Sea-fight). The knights of .PALL MALL [ 744 PALMERSTON Rhodes destroyed a Turkish fleet off this head- land, in the ^]gean Sea, in 1344. PALL MALL (London) derives its name from the game of Pailee MaiHe", somewhat analogous to cricket, introduced from France into England in the reign of Charles II. (166085), and at that time played in St. James's Park. Pell Mell is first mentioned by Pepys July 26, 1660. PALL, or PALLIUM. The origin of this vestment, sent from Rome to all archbishops of the Roman Catholic Church, is disputed. It was worn by the bishops at Ravenna as early as 540. In the time of Gregory VII. (1073 85) arch- bishops were in the habit of going to Rome to receive it. The popes derived a large revenue from the sale of pallia in the isth cen- tury. Gregory XI. (1370 78) issued a, decretal which declared that an archbishop could not call a council, bless the chrism, consecrate churches, ordain a clerk, or consecrate a bishop, before he had received his pallium ; and that before any archbishop could obtain this sacred vestment he should swear fidelity to the Pope. It WHS also decreed, that upon the translation of an archbishop he was not to carry away his pall, but apply to the Pope for a new one, and that his successor should make no use of the one left behind. Tertulliau (160 240) \rote a treatise entitled " De Pallio." Augustine, the first Archbishop of Canterbury, received the pall from Rome in 601. (Bet I>K<;II.MIATION.) PALLONIO, or GItKAT BALL, was known amongst the Romans as " Follis pugillatorius." A game called Pallone, in some respects re- sembling Tennis, is very common in Italy. A treatise on the game was published in Venice in 1555. PALMARY SYNOD, held at Rome by Theo- doric the Great, Nov. 6, 502, was called the Palmary synod from an edifice or hall of that name in which it was held. Its object was to investigate charges brought against Pope Sym- machus, who was declared innocent ; and he resumed the pontifical throne with the full au- thority of the synod, composed of 120 bishops. i'.VLMERSTON ADMINISTRATIONS. The vote of censure against the Aberdeen adminis- tration (q. v.), for its conduct of the war against Russia, having been carried in the House of Commons, Jan. 29, 1855, by 305 against 148, the resignation of that ministry was announced Feb. i. After various negotiations, an intima- tion was made in Parliament, Feb. 8, to the effect that Lord Palmerston had accepted office as prime minister, and the cabinet was, Feb. 1 6, announced as follows : Treasury Viscount Palmerston. Lord Chancellor Lord Cranworth. President of the Council Karl Granville. Privy Seal Duke of Argyle. Chancellor of Exchequer Mr. Gladstone. II' inic Secretary Sir George Grey, Bart. Foreign Secretary Earl of Clarendon. Colonial Secretary Mr. Sidney Herbert. Admiralty Sir James Graham, Bart. Board of Control Sir Charles Wood, Bart. Seeretary at War Lord Panmure. Pul.lic Works Sir Wm. Molesworth, Bart. Without onice Marquis of Lansdowne. The Peelite section of the cabinet objected to the appointment of the committee of inquiry into the conduct of the war ; and the resigna- tion of Sir James Graham, Messrs. Sidney Herbert and Gladstone, was announced Feb. 22, whereupon the following changes and ad- ditions were made in the cabinet : Chancellor of Exchequer ..... Sir G. Coruewall Lewis. Colonial Secretary ............... Lord John Russell. Admiralty ........................... Sir C. Wood, Hart. Board of Control .......... ....... Mr. Vernou Smith. Board of Trade ................... Lord Stanley of Alderley. Postmaster-General ............ Viscount Canning. Earl of Hanowby. Lord John Russell, on his return from the Vienna mission, was sworn into office May i. He resigned for the second time during the same year, July 16, and his place was filled by Sir William Molesworth, Bart., who died Oct. 28, and was succeeded as colonial minister by Mr. Henry Labouchere. The Duke of Argylc was made postmaster-general on the appoint- ment of Lord Canning to the governor-general- ship of India, and the Earl of llarrowby became lord privy seal. He was succeeded in the chancellorship of the duchy of Lancaster by Mr. M. T. Baiues. An amendment on the second reading of the Conspiracy Bill (See OI;SIM CONSPIRACY) was carried against the Palmerston administration in the House of Commons, Feb. 19, 1858, by 234 to 215, and the members of the cabinet resigned office on the following day. (See DERBY ADMINIS- TRATIONS.) - The second Palmerston adminis- tration was formed on the resignation of the second Derby administration, June n, 1859. The cabinet, announced in Parliament June 30, was thus constituted : Treasury Lord Chancellor President of the Council Privy Seal Chancellor of Exchequer.... Home Seeretary 1'oreign Seeretary Colonial Seeretary Admiralty India Secretary at War Postmaster-General Duchy of Lancaster Poor LAW Board Chief Secretary for Ireland.. Viscount Palmerston. Lord Campbell. Earl Granville. Duke of Argvle. Mr. Gladstone. Sir ( I. Cornewall Lewis, Bart. Lord John Kussell. Duke of Newcastle. Duke of Somerset. Sir Charles Wood, Bart. 'Mr. Sidney Herbert, i n ated Lord Herbert Juuei "Earl of Elgin. Sir George Grey. Mr. Milner Gibson. Mr. CardweU. 1861. Mr. Milner Gibson was appointed president of the Board of Trade with a seat in the cabinet, his place at the Poor Law Board being supplied by Mr. C. P. Villiers, who also obtained a scat in the cabinet. The Earl of Elgin was sent on a mission to China, and Lord Stanley of Alderley succeeded him as postmaster-general in 1860. Mr. Sidney Herbert was created a peer in 1861, and died Aug. 2, when his place as secretary at war was supplied by Sir G. Cornewall Lewis, Bart., who died April 13, 1863, and was succeeded by Earl de Grey. Sir G: Cornewall Lewis was succeeded in the home secretaryship by Sir George Grey, whose place at the duchy of Lancaster was filled by Mr. CardweU, Sir Robert Peel taking the Irish secretaryship. Lord Campbell died June 23, 1861, and Sir Richard Bethell became lord chancellor with the title of Lord Westbury. He resigned July 4, 1865, in consequence of PALM PLAY C 745 PANEEPUT the vote of censure passed by the House of Commons July 3 (See EDMUNDS SCANDAL and LEEDS BANKRUPTCY COURT AFFAIR), and was succeeded by Lord Cranworth. The Duke of Newcastle resigned the colonial secretaiyship oil account of ill health. He died Oct. 18, 1864, and his place was filled by Mr. Card well, who was succeeded in the duchy of Lancaster by the Earl of Clarendon. Lord Palmerston died Oct. 18, 1865, and new arrangements were made. (See RUSSELL [Second] ADMINISTRATION.) PALM PLAY. (See FIVES.) P A L M S U N D A Y, also called Passion Sunday, the last Sunday in Lent, is so named from the ovation received by our Saviour on his way to Jerusalem to present himself in the temple (Matt. xxi. 8 & 9, and John xii. 12 16), April i, 30. The custom existed in the yth century. Caxton, in his directory for the festival, 1483, says that the yew was our sub- stitute for the palm. In 1548 Edward VI. issued proclamations abolishing many of the ceremonies connected with this day. PALMYRA (Syria), the Tadmor or Thadmor of the Hebrews (i Kings ix. 18, and 2 Chron. viii. 4), was founded, or enlarged, by Solomon, about B.C. 1001. Both its Greek name Palmyra, and its Hebrew name Tadmor, signify the city of palms, and the Arabs call it Tedmor. It (submitted to the Emperor Hadrian in 130, and rose to its highest power in the 3rd century. Sapor I., King of Persia, was defeated here by Odenathus in 262. Odenathus was murdered about 267, and his wife Zeiiobia assumed the title of Queen of the East. Her army having been defeated at Antioch and at Emesa, Zeno- bia was besieged in her capital by the Emperor Aurelian in 272. She attempted to make her escape, but was taken prisoner, and Palmyra surrendered in 274. The citizens slew the Roman garrison, and Aurelian destroyed Pal- myra. It was restored by Justinian I. in 527, and again destroyed by the Saracens in 744. It was plundered by Tamerlane in 1400. The ruins were discovered by some English mer- chants in 1691. Their account was not be- lieved ; but these reports were confirmed in 1751, when Palmyra was visited by Wood and Dawkius, who published an elaborate account of the ruins and the inscriptions. Tiby and Mangles visited the ruins in 1816. PALOS (Spain). From this small seaport town of Andalusia, Christopher Columbus sailed on the voyage in which he discovered America, Friday, Aug. 3, 1492, and here he landed on his return, March 15, 1493. Vin- cent Pinzon sailed from Palos in Dec., 1499, on the voyage in which he discovered the Amazon, and Cortes landed here after the conc.uest of Mexico in 1528. PAMPELUNA, or PAMPLONA (Spain). - This town, rebuilt by the sons of Pompey, and called Pompeiopolis, B.C. 68, was taken from the Romans by Euric, in 466. Childebert I. sacked it in 542, and Charlemagne captured it in 778. The Saracens captured it in 802, and it was recaptured in 806 by the Franks, who repulsed an attack by the Saracena in 868. It became the capital of Navarre in 978. The bishopiic was founded in 1130. The Moors, who held it some time, called it Bambilonah, whence the modern name Pamplona. The Gothic cathedral was built by Charles III. of Navarre in 1397, on the site of an older edifice, founded in 1 100 ; the citadel was strengthened in 1521 by Charles V., and enlarged by Philip II. in 1557. A council was held here in 1023. Pampeluna was seized by the French general d'Armagnac, Feb. 9, 1808. The English, under Gen. Hill, blockaded Pampeluna, in June, 1813. The blockade, raised July 27, was renewed in Sep., and the town surrendered Oct. 31, 1813. The French occupied it in 1823. The citadel was seized by Marshal O'Donnell, and held for a short period, in Sep., 1841. PAMPHLETS were in common use in England, in political and religious contro- versy, about the middle of the i6th century. The term occurs in the Philobiblon of Richard de Bury, .written in the i 4 th centiiry, and is used in Caxton's translation of Virgil, pub- lished in 1490. The publication of pamphlets without a licence was declared illegal by the judges, May 16, 1680, and a stamp duty was first imposed upon them by 10 Anne, c. 19, 1712. (See NEWS-BOOKS.) PANAMA (Central America). The Isthmus of Panama or Darien, connecting North and South America, was first seen by Columbus, in 1502, and the first Spanish settlement was made in 1510. Sir F. Drake visited Panama in 1573. The town of Panama was destroyed by the buccaneer Sir Henry Morgan, in 1670, and a new town -was founded four miles to the westward in 1671. The Scotch attempted to found a colony on the west coast of Panama in 1698. (See DARIEN.) The city, which has been restored, is the capital of a state of the same name. The Panama railway, commenced in 1850, and completed in 1854, was opened throughout for traffic, Jan. 27, 1855. (See NEW GRANADA.) PANATHEN/EAN GAMES, or PANA- THEN^EA. The Athensea (q. v.), instituted at Athens in honour of Minerva, received the name of Panathensea about B.C. 1234. The greater Panathenaea were celebrated in the third year of every Olympiad, and the lesser Panathensea were celebrated annually. PANDECTS, the chief rules of law con- tained in the writings of the Roman juriscon- sulti, were ordered by Justinian I. to be pre- pared in 530. They were published at the end of three years (Dec. 16, 533), although he had granted ten for the performance of the work. A story was long current that a copy of the Pandects had been found by the Emperor Lothare II. at Amalphi (q. v.}, after the cap- ture of the town in 1137. PANDOSIA (Battles). Alexander, King of Epirus, lost his life in a battle with the Bruttians near this town, B.C. 326. Pyrrhus defeated the Romans in a battle at a town of Lucania of the same name, B.C. 280. He is said to have employed 2,000 archers. PANDOSIA (Greece). The date of the foundation of this city of Bruttium, fixed by Eusebius B.C. 774, is uncertain. It was captured by the consul P. Sempronius, in the second Punic war, B.C. 204. PANEAS. (See OESAREA PHILIPPI.) PANEEPUT (Hindostan). The Delhi PANG^UM [ 746 ] PAPAL AGGRESSION- dynasty was defeated at this town, and the Mongol dynasty founded by the Sultan Baber, in 1525. Here the Affghans, under Ahmed Shah in 1761, gained a victory over the Mah- rattas, of whom 60,000 were slain, and 20,000 made prisoners. PANG/KUM, or PANG/EUS (Macedonia). Gold is said to have been discovered in this mountain B.C. 1550. There were also silver PANIUS, or PANIUM (Battle). Antiochus the Great defeated Scopas and the vEtolians at this town, on the coast of Thrace, B.C. 198. PAXMELODICON. This musical instru- ment was invented by Leppich, at Vienna, in 1810. PANNONIA. This country, inhabited by Celtic tribes, was attacked by the Romans, under Octavianus, B.C. 35, and made a Roman province by Tiberius in 8. It was ceded to the Huns by Theodosius II. about 447; came into the hands of the Ostrogoths at the death of Attila 111453 ; and to the Longobardi (527 65) from whom it passed to the Avari in 568. The Uiigri, or Hungarians, settled here in 889, and from them it received the name of Hungary. PANOPTICON (London). The Royal Pa- nopticon Institution was incorporated by charter, Feb. 20, 1851, and the building in Leicester Square, from the designs of T. Hayter Lewis, was opened March 16, 1854. It failed as a scientific institution, and was converted into a circus for equestrian perfor- mances, and its name changed to the A Him libra Palace. It was opened with a religious service, and a concert of sacred music, Sunday, Feb. 7, 1858. PANORAMA, This pictorial contrivance was invented by Robert Barker, an English artist, about 1794. His first work of the kind was a view of Edinburgh. Thomas Girtin produced a semicircular view of London, taken from the top of the Albion mills, near Blackfriars bridge, about the same time. PANORMUS (Battle). During the first Punic war the Roman consul C. Csecilius Metellus defeated the Carthaginians, com- manded by llasdrubal, under the walls of this city, the modern Palermo, B.C. 250. In this struggle the elephants, which on former occasions had been used with such effect against the Romans, were driven back and spread confusion in the ranks of the Cartha- ginians. PANTALONE. This musical instrument was invented by Hebenstreit towards the end of the 1 7th century. PANTALOON appears to have been first introduced on the English stage early in the reign of Elizabeth (1558 1603). PANTALOONS, trousers fitting tight to the leg or knee, with this name, came into fashion about 1790. The word was in use before that time. PANTHEISM is fully developed in the " Vedas " of the Hindoos, a compilation which, according to some Oriental scholars, dates as far back as B.C. 1600. Speculations of this kind, among the Greeks, seem to have originated with Anaximander, of Miletus (B.C. 610 547) ; and were prosecuted by Py- thagoras (B.C. 580 B.C. 507) ; by Heraclitus ^B.C. 513) ; and by Xenophaiies (B.C. 540 B.C. 500). The system was supported by John Scot us Erigena, 875 ; and Giordano Bruno, burned alive as a heretic, in the Campo di Fiore, at Rome, Feb. 17, 1600. It was advocated by Spinoza (1632 Feb. 21, 1677), followed by Kant (1724 Feb. 12, 1804), Fichte (1762 Jan. 28, 1814), Frederick Schelling (1775 Aug., 1854), and Hegel (1770 Nov. 14, 1831). The admirers of Spinoza and Kant refuse to in- clude them in the list of atheistical writers. PANTHEON (London). This building, ori- ginally designed by James Wyatt as a theatre and public promenade, was opened in Jan., 1772. (See HANDEL COMMEMORATIONS.) It was burned down Jan. 14, 1792. The new building erected in its place was taken down and restored in 1812, and was converted into a bazaar by Sydney Smirke in 1834. PANTHEON (Rome) was built by Agrippa, son-in-law of Augustus, and dedicated to Cybele and Neptune, B.C. 25. It was con- secrated as the church of Santa Maria ad Martyres, by Boniface IV., on the calends of Nov., 608. P ANTIC AP2EUM (Tauric Chersoncsus), sometimes called Bosporus, of which it was the capital. Justinian I. (527 65) repaired its walls. Its site is occupied by Kertch, also called Bospor. PANTOGRAPH, or PENTAGRAPH. This instrument for copying, reducing, or en- larging plans, was invented by Christopher Schemer in 1603. Professor Wallace improved upon it, and produced the eidograph (c- rus papyrus, probably as early as B.C. 2000, and appears to have become of considerable commercial importance B.C. 330. A fine qua- lity made at Rome was called August, after the emperor. A tumult arose owing to its scarcity, in the reign of Tiberius (14 37). The demand for paper throughout the world had increased to such an extent, that Finnus de- clared he had seized as much .in Egypt as would support his whole army, 273. The ex- port duty was abolished by Theodoric the Great (493 526). Paper from cotton, called by the Greeks charta bombycina, was made by the Arabs in the 7th century, and a factory was established at Samarcand in 706. Meer- man fixes the date of the invention of linen paper between 1270 and 1300. The Chinese discovered the art of manufacturing it from fibrous matter in 95. The manufacture was commenced in the Netherlands in 1613. A person named Tate had a paper-mill at Hert- ford in 1490. A German, named Spielmah, who was knighted by Queen Elizabeth, had one at Dartford, in Kent, in 1580. Charles Hildeyerd took out a patent for paper-making in 1665. Thomas Watson effected important improvements in 1713. Fine paper was made by Whatman, at Maidstone, in 1770. The art was introduced into Scotland in 1695. It seems to have come into France from Spain about 1260, and to have been practised in Germany in 1312. A patent was granted to Jerome Lanyer in London, for a method of making " velvet-paper," May i, 1634 ; and a similar article would appear to have been pro- duced by a Frenchman at Rouen in 1620 or 1630. The first paper-mill in North America was erected at Roxburgh, Philadelphia, in 1690. The second was built in 1710. France erected its first paper-machine in 1815, and Berlin in 1818. The duty was abolished in England by 24 Viet. c. 20 (June 12, 1861). A summary of the patents for making paper from various materials, with the dates, is given in " Cham- bers's Encyclopaedia," vol. vii. p. 242. The paper-stainers were incorporated in 1582. PAPER MONEY. Banking establishments for the issue of notes, or paper money, have existed in England since the end of the i7th century. The Bank of England, founded by William Paterson, and incorporated by royal charter July 27, 1694, has long been the greatest circulator of paper money in the world. ^5 notes were first issued in 1795. An act was passed for the issue of notes under .5, March 3, 1797 ; and ,1 and 2 notes were issued March 10. During the great monetary panic of 1825, the temporary issue of 1 notes proved of much service. PAPHLAGONIA (Asia Minor)- is mentioned by Homer, B.C. 962 ; was incorporated in the Lydian empire by Croesus, B.C. 560 546 ; and in that of Persia by Cyrus, B.C. 546. Nominally independent for some time afterwards, it fell to the share of Eumenes, B.C. 323. It was united to Pontus by Mithridates III., B.C. 290 ; formed a part of the province of Galatia, under the Romans, B.C. 25 ; and was made a separate province by Coustantine I. (323 337)- PAPIAN LAW, proposed and carried B.C. 65, by C. Papius, one of the tribunes, required all foreigners to depart from Rome. PAPIER MACHE. The date of the origin of the manufacture of articles for use or orna- ment from paper, ascribed by some writers to the French, and by others to the English, is PAPUA [ 748 ] PARDON uncertain. Many of the fine old ceilings, in deep relief, in the time of Elizabeth (1558 1603), are of paper pulp, moulded into form, much after the manner of papier mache'. The process was known at Paris in 1740, and papier niache was used for snuff-boxes about the same time. John Baskerville, a printer at Birmingham, manufactured it in 1745, and from that time its use has gradually spread throughout the country. PAPUA, or NEW GUINEA (Pacific Ocean), was discovered by the Portuguese in 1511. Saavedra, a Spaniard sent from Mexico by Cortes, visited it in 1528 and 1529. Villabos changed its name from Papua to New Guinea in 1543. Dampier sailed along the northern coast in 1699. Capt. Cook ascertained it to be an island in 1770 ; Mac Cluer gave his name to that bay in 1 792 ; and Flinders surveyed the coast in Torres Strait in 1802. In consequence of a survey made of the south-west coast by Kloff, the Dutch founded a colony, and erected Fort Dubus in Triton's Bay, in 1828. Parts of Papua were surveyed in 1845, 1848, and 1858. Protestant missions were established in 1855. 1'AL'Y'RUS, the name given to the paper made by the Egyptians from the papyrus plant, was used for writing about B.C. 2000. The rolls of that material were made known in Europe through the French expedition, in 1798 ; specimens of which were printed by Cadet in 1805. Of the funereal papyri in the Turin museum a fac-simlle was published by Dr. Lepsius in 1842. The books of Numa Pompilius, containing the earliest Roman laws, probably consisted of this substance. Philostratus mentions it as a staple manu- facture of Alexandria, in 244. It continued to be used in Italy till about the i 2 th century. In the ruins of Herculaneum 1,756 rolls were found about 1753. PARA, or BELEM (Brazil), capital of a province of the same name, was founded by l'rain:is Caldeyni, in 1615. It was attacked in 1834 and 1835 by the Indians, who took it and kept possession for six months in 1836. i 'ARABLE. Under this figurative form of speech, Nathan reproved David, B.C. 1035 (2 Sam. xii.) ; and our Saviour taught the Jews about 30 (Matt, xiii., &c.). PARACHUTE. -A machine of this kind was used in Siam about 1650. The first ex- periment in Europe was made by Normand, at Paris, in 1783. Blanchard made a successful experiment at Strasburgh in 1787. Garneriii, a Frenchman, descended in London from a height of 8,000 feet, narrowly escaping with his life, Sep. 2, 1802 ; and his daughter twice performed the feat in 1816. Cocking was killed in making a descent in a parachute from a balloon at Lee, near Blackheath, July 24, 1837. PARADISE LOST. This epic poem was commenced by Milton about 1658, and com- pleted in 1665. It was published by Simmons in 1667, the terms being an immediate pay- ment of 5, another instalment to the same amount when 1,300 copies had been sold; a third payment of 5 when the same number of the second edition was disposed of ; and .5 after the sale of the third. After the poet's death, his widow cancelled her claims on the publisher for ^8, and the third edition was issued in 1678. The Paradise Regained ap- peared in 1671. PARAFFIN was discovered by Reichenbach in coal, wood, and tar, in 1830; and Young patented his process for procuring it from bituminous coal in 1850. (See NAPHTHA and PETROLEUM. ) PARAGUAY (S. America). A large colony of Spaniards founded the city of Assumption in 1535. The Jesuits, who established nu- merous missions, and received a mandate from the Spanish court, prohibiting others from entering without permission, in 1690, were ex- pelled in 1767. (See ABIPONIANS.) Rebelling against the Spaniards in 1810, the country formed itself into a republic in 1811, of which Dr. Francia was made dictator in 1814, an office he held till his death in Sep. 20, 1840. Another republican constitution was adopted in 1844. A commercial treaty with the Argentine Re- public was signed in 1852 ; with the United States, Franco, and Sardinia, in 1853 ; and with Great Britain, March 4, 1853. New Bor- deaux, a French colony 011 the banks of the Paraguay, established in 1855, was soon after abandoned. The Paraguay fleet seized two Argentine war steamers, and occupied Cor- rientes, April 13 and 14, 1865 ; and war was declared April 16. The Argentine Republic, Brazil, and Uruguay, signed a treaty of al- liance against Paraguay, May 4, 1865. The Paraguayans were defeated near Yatah, Aug. 17, 1865, and they evacuated the Argentine territory Nov. 3. (See URUGUAY.) PARANA S. America .The English and French signed a treaty with the Argentine Confederation, respecting the navigation of the river Parana, July 10, 1853. This province of Brazil, formed in 1855, is named after the PAR ANILINE. (See ANILINE.) I' A 11 A SOLS were used by the ancient Greeks, and the Romans employed them as a protection against the sun at the theatre. During the Middle Ages they were borne by horsemen in Italy. The modern parasol was first used in France about 1680. 1'ARCHMENT. The term is derived from C/,n,'/a Pergccmma, said to be taken from Pergamus, to whose king, Eumenes II. (B.C. 197 159), the invention has been attributed. It was, however, in use among the Persians long before that period ; and among the lonians, as mentioned by Herodotus, B.C. 450. Parchment superseded papyrus for public documents in Europe about the end of the 7th century. Vegetable parchment was described by Gaine in 1854, and by Barlow in 1857. PARCHWITZ. (See PFAFFENDORF, Battle.) PARDO (Treaty). Concluded at this town in Spain, between the Portuguese and Spanish Governments, March 31, 1778. It confirmed the treaty of Ildefonso. PARDON, a branch of the royal prerogative in England, and said by the Saxons to be derived a lege SUCK dignitatis, was declared to belong solely to the king, "united and knit to the imperial crown of this realm," by 27 PARGA [ 749 PARIS Hen. VIII. 0.24(1536). BytheActof Settlement (12 &i3 Will. III. c. 2, June 12, 1701), no pardon under the great seal of England is pleadable to an impeachment by the House of Commons. PARGA (Turkey) maintained its municipal independence after the fall of the Eastern empire, under the protection of Venice, till that state was taken by the French, Oct. 17, 1797. Ali Pasha endeavoured to capture it after the treaty between Russia and the Porte, signed in March, 1800, when a Turkish bey was sent, who held it until a Russian garrison arrived in 1806. They gave way to a French force, by the terms of the treaty of Tilsit, July 7, 1807. The fortress was taken by the English March 22, 1814. It was handed over to the Porte, by agreement, May 28, 1817 ; and the entire population of 800 families, having received from Turkey ^150,000, the value of their immovable property, emigrated to Paxo and Corfu in May, 1819. PARIAN CHRONICLE. (See OXFORD or AEUNDELIAN MARBLES.) PARIS (France), the Roman lutetia, was the capital of the Parisii. Julius Csesar summoned the Gauls to assemble here B.C. 53, and the city was taken by his lieutenant Labienus B.C. 52. Coxmcils were held at Paris in 360; 551; 557; Sep. u, 573; in 577; Oct. 18, 615 ; in Nov., 825 ; June 6, 829 ; Feb. 14, 846 ; in 849; 853 ; 1024 ; Oct. 17, 1050 ; Dec. 2, 1104; in 1147; Jan., 1185; in 1196; 1201; Oct., 1210; in 1212; Aug., 1215; July 6, 1223; May 15, 1225; Jan. 28, 1226; in 1229; 1248; Nov. 12, 1253; July 13, 1255; in Feb., 1256; April 10, 1261 ; Nov. 18, 1263; Aug. 26, 1264; in Dec., 1281 ; April 10, 1302; March 12, 1303 ; Oct. ii to 26, 1310; May 7, 1314; March 3, 1324 ; March 9 to 14, 1347 ; Feb. 4, 1395 ; May 22, 1398; Oct. 21, 1404; in 1406; Aug. ii to Nov. 5, 1408 ; March i to April 23, 1429 ; and Feb. 3 to Oct. 9, 1528. 350. St. Penis introduces Christianity. 355. Julian the Apostate visits Lutetia. 361. Julian is proclaimed emperor at Paris. 451. The city is preserved from the Huns by St. Gene- vieve. 46. Clovis I. occupies Paris. 507. Clovis I. makes it his capital city. 522. Childebert I. founds the cathedral of Notre Dame. 841. Paris is ravaged by the Northmen. 845. The Northmen make another attack upon Paris. 850. A famine prevails. 855. The Northmen again attack Paris, which suffers from famine. 861, April 6. Another attack by the Northmen. 868. It suffers from famine. 873. Another famine. 885. The Northmen, who had besieged Paris for 13 months, are repelled by Count Eudes and Bishop Goslin. 896. Another famine. 899. Another famine. 940. Another famine. 975. A famine carries off numbers of the inhabitants. 987. Hugh Capet becomes King of France. 998. The church of St. Germain 1'Auxerrois is founded. 1160. Notre Dame is rebuilt 1163. The church of St. Germain is completed. 1169. The university is founded. 1183. The first portion of the cathedral of Notre Dame is consecrated. 1190. Paris is surrounded by walls by Philip II. (Augus- tus). 1223. The Temple is built. 1223. The western front of Notre Dame is built. A.D. 1248. The Sainte Chapelle is completed. 1253. Robert of Sorbonne founds the school of La Sor- bonne. 1302. The parliament of Paris is organized. 1306. The inhabitants rebel, and besiege Philip IV. in the palace of the Temple. 1313. Philip IV. divides Paris into three districts, and rebuilds the Palais de Justice. 1350-64. John II. founds the Imperial Library. 1357. The first Hotel de Ville is founded. 1383. The insurrection 'of the MaiUotiia breaks out, in consequence of an unpopular tux. 1391. The French artists form themselves into a society called the Academy of St. Luke. 1396. The arsenal is founded. 1418. The English enter Paris at the invitation of John the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy. 1422. Henry VI. is crowned King of England and France 1436. The English are expelled. 1469. The Ecole de Mddeciii is founded. 1500. The Pout Notre Dame is constructed. 1528. Francis I. commences the Louvre (q. .). 1533. The church of St. Eustaclie is founded. I 533- The Hotel de Ville is founded. 1544. Charles V. marches on Paris, the north-east and south quarters of which the Duke of Guise surrounds with a ram j, art. 1551. The Fontaine des Innocents is erected. 1564. The palace of the Tuilcries is commenced. 1572, Aug. 24. The massacre of St. Bartholomew. 1578. Henry III. founds the Pont Neuf. 1583. The original Palais de Luxemburg is completed. 1604. The Pont Neuf is completed. 1610. The Jardin des Plantes is formed. 1612. The Place Royale is completed. 1616. The Champs Elysees are laid out. 1622- Paris is erected into an archbishopric. 1645. The church of the Val-de-Grace is founded. 1648. The Itoyal Academy of Painting is founded. 1662. Louis XIV. holds a carrousel in honour of Madlle. de la Valliere. 1670. The boulevards are opened. The Hotel des Inva- Jides is founded. 1671. The Uoyal Academy of Architecture is founded. 1672. The Porte St. Denis is erected, and the Observatory is completed. 1674. The Porte St. Martin is built 1684. The Pont Royal is built. 1685. The Place des Victoires is formed. 1706. The Hotel des Invalides is completed. 1716, May 20. Law receives permission to establish a bank. (See LAW'S BANK.) 1718. Peter I. of Russia visits Paris. The palace of the Elysee is founded. 1722- The Palais Bourbon, or Chamber of Deputies, is founded. 1728. The names of the streets are first put up. 1752. Louis XV. founds the Ecole Militaire. 1761. The southern boulevards are completed. 1764, Feb. The Pantheon, or church of 81 founded. 1779. The Odeon is built. 1781. The Theatre de la Porte St. Martin is built. 1784. The Burse is established. The bones and human remains from the cemeteries, which are sup- pressed, are deposited in the catacombs. 1786. The Palais de la Legion d'Honneur is built. 1787. The Theatre Francais is founded. 1790. The Pont de la Concorde, or Pont de Louis XIV., is completed. 1791. The Pantheon, or church of St Genevieve, is com- pleted. 1792. Sep. 3. Massacre of the Abbaye (q. .). 1798. The first National Exposition is held at Paris. 1799. The Ode'on is destroyed by fire. 1800. The cemetery of Pere la Chaise (q. v.) is formed. 1802. The Rue Rivoli is commenced. Gas is introduced. 1806. The Pont de Jena, the Arc de 1'Etoile, and Arc de Triomphe du Carrousel, are founded. Numbers are first placed on the houses. 1807. The OdcSou is rebuilt. 1808. Napoleon I. founds the Bourse, or Exchange. 1810, Aug. 15. The column in the Place Vendome is com- pleted. 1814. March 30. Paris surrenders to the Allies. 1815. The English encamp in the Bois de Boulogne. 1816. The Ecole des Beaux Arts is founded. St Genevieve, PARIS 750 ] PARLIAMENT A.D, 1819. Gas is introduced. 1820. The Theatre du Gymnase Dramatique is erected. 1837. The Theatre du Vaudeville and the Cirque < >lym- pique are built. June 1 1. The Royal Society of Horticulture is established. 1829. The Pont des Invalides is completed. 1831, July 28. Louis Philippe founds the column of July. 1832, March 28. The cholera appears in 1'aris. 1836. The Arc de 1'Etoile is completed. 1840. The fortifications of Paris are commenced. July 38. The column of July is inaugurated. 1842. Thechurchof the Madeleine is consecrated. 1844. The first Creche, or public nursery, is established. 1845. The Jardin d'lliver is opened. 1847, April. The Theatre Lyrique is opened. 1848, Feb. 22. A revolution breaks out at Paris. (See FlIANCE.) 1852, July. The New Louvre is commenced. 1855, May 15. The Industrial Exhibition is opened. The International Statistical Congress meets at Paris. 1859, I'd'- 9- An imperial decree orders important ex- tensions of the Parisian boundaries. 1860, The Fontaine St. Michel is erected. Dec. 20. The Moniteur contains a decree admitting English subjects to travel without pas-iports after In-e. Jl. The population of Paris is returned at 1,500,129. 1861, March 31. The remains of the Emperor Napoleon are removed from the Chapel of St. Jerome, in the church of the Invalides, to the tomb beneath the dome. 1866, May i, Tuesday. The Fine Arts Exhibition is opened. (See FRANCE, PARLIAMENT (FRENCH), UNI- VERSAL EXHIBITION (Paris), &c.) PARIS (Treaties). The following are the most important treaties concluded at Paris : A.D. 1229, April 12. Between Louis IX. and the Count of Toulouse, who ceded Languedoc to the French crown. This treaty put an end to the war of the Albigenscs. 1303, May 20. Between Edward I. of England and Philip IV. Aquitaine is ceded to England. 1635, Feb. 8. France and the Dutch States-General form an alliance against Spain. 1763, Feb. 10. Between France and Spain, and Great Britain and Portugal. France eeiles Nova Scotia and Canada to England, and Spain, Florida. This treaty, with that of Mubertsburg (q. p.), be- tween the German Powers and Poland, con- cluded the Thirty Years' war. 1796, May 15. P.. 'tween France and Sardinia. Savoy and Nice are ceded to the French republic. Oct. n. Between Naples and France. 1810, Jan. 6. Between France and Sweden. Sweden receives Rligen and Pomerania, and agrees to exclude English commerce. 1814, April H. Between the Allies and Buonaparte, who renounces the rulership of France. This is also called the treaty of Fontainebleau. May 30. Between France and the Allied powers. France is confined within the limits of 1792. 1815, Aug. 2. Convention between Great Britain and Austria, Prussia, and Russia. Napoleon I. is committed to the custody of the English. Sep. 26. (See HOLY ALLIANCE.) Nov. ^. Between France and the Allied powers, to settle the French boundaries, &c. France promises to pay an in- demnity of 700,000,000 francs, and allow certain fortresses to be garrisoned by the Allies for three years. 1817, June 10. Between Austria and Spain, confirming the congress of Vienna. Nov. 23. (See CON- CORDAT.) 1856, March 30. Between Russia and Turkey, Great Britain, France, and Sardinia. 1857, March 4. Peace between England and Persia. May 26. Between England, France, Austria, Prussia, Russia, and the Swiss Confederation, respecting Neuchatel. 1860, Jan. 23- Commercial treaty between France and England. 1861, Feb. 2. Between France and the Prince of Monaco, for the cession of Mentone and Roquebrune to France. A.T>. 1864, Sep. 15. A convention is signed with Italy respect- ing the withdrawal of the French troops from Rome, and the substitution of Florence for Turin as the capital of Italy. PARISH. The name was sometimes applied to a bishop's see among the early Christians. Alexandria is said to have been the first city divided into parishes. According to Cam- deu, England was divided into parishes by Honoriusl., about 630, though some authorities attribute it to Alfred the Great in 890. Lay parishes existed, according to Bede, about 700, and the division is to be found in the laws of Edgar in 970. The creation of parishes was Srobably not fully effected till the time of the orinan conquest, 1066. The parish clerks were incorporated in 1233. By 7 & 8 Viet. c. 59 (July 29, 1844), a person in holy orders is allowed to act as parish clerk. PARIS INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION. The "Palais de I'lndustrie" was opened at Paris by Napoleon III., May 15, 1855, when Prince Napoleon, president of the commission, read a report giving an account of its rise and progress. It was visited by Queen Victoria and Prince Albert, Aug. 24, 1855. The price of admission was half a franc, and on Sunday, for the working classes, two sous. It was closed Nov. 15, 1855. PA UK was originally a portion of the forest appropriated by the lord of the soil for the use of animals of the chase. The first park was that of Woodstock, made by Henry I. in 1123. St. James's Park is the oldest in Lon- don, having been formed by Henry VIII. in 1530. (See BATTERSEA, GREEN, HYDE, ST. JAMES'S, REGENT'S, and VICTORIA PARKS.) 1 ' A I ! K. E R S O C I E T Y. Named after Dr. Matthew Parker, Archbishop of Canterbury (1559 76), was established at Cambridge in 1840 for the purpose of publishing the works of the fathers and early writers of the Reformed English Church. The last work in the series appeared in 1855. I'ARKHURST. (See JUVENILE OFFENDERS.) PARLIAMENT. Parry (Parliaments and Councils of England, Introd. x.) remarks:-- "At the close of the reign of Henry III. the Curia Regis was called the King's Parlia- ment, a term then employed to express any assembly met for purposes of conference." It did not then denote a legislative assembly, though the term began to be used in that sense at the commencement of the reign of Edward II. (1307 27). The two branches of the legislature assembled in the same room as late as 1342. Their joint assent became necessary before any act could become law in the reign of Edward IV. (146183). A.D. 1205. The first writ on record is issued by John. 1244. The prelates and barons deliberate separately. 1254- A representative parliament, composed of two knights from every shire, is convened to grant an aid. 1258, June n. The Mad Parliament (q. i'.)meets at Oxford. This is the first called a parliament. 1265. The earliest writ extant is issued. 1295. Borough representation is said to commence. 1311. Annual parliaments are ordered. 1322. Wales is represented in Parliament. 1327, Jan. 20 or 31. Edward II. is deposed by both houses of Parliament. PARLIAMENT 7Si ] PARLIAMENT 1399, Sep. 29. llichard II. is deposed by Parliament, and the House of Commons begins to assert its control over pecuniary grants. 1404, Oct. 6. The Unlearned Parliament, or the Parliament of Dunces, so called because lawyers were pro- hibited from attending, meets at Coventry (q. v.). 1407, Nov. 9. The Lords and Commons are permitted to assemble and transact business in the sovereign's absence. 1413, May 25. Members of Parliament are ordered to reside in the cities and boroughs they represent. 1430, Feb. 23. The Commons adopt the 4os. qualification for county electors. 1459. The Purliamentum Diabolicum is held at Coven- try (q. v.). 1483. The statutes are first printed. 1543. Members of Parliament are exempted from arrest. (See FERBABS'S ARREST.) 1549. The eldest sous of peers are permitted to sit in Par- liament 1614, April 5. The Addled Parliament (q. v.). 1640, Nov. 3. The Long Parliament assembles. 1649, l'^' 1 '- T' le House of Lords is abolished. 1653, April 20. Cromwell dissolves the Long Parliament. 1660, April 25. The House of Lords is restored, but only consists of peers temporal. 1661, Nov. 20. The bishops are permitted to resume their seats in the House of Lords. 1667. An attempt is made to unite the English and Scotch Parliaments. 1677. Roman Catholics are excluded from sitting in either house, by 30 Charles II. st. 2. 1694. Triennial parliaments are ordered by 6 Will, and .Alary, e. 2. 1707, May i. The Parliaments of England and Scotland are united by 5 Anne, c. 8. Oct. 23. The first Par- liament of Great Britain assembles. 1715. Septennial parliaments are ordered by I George I. st. 2, c. 38. 1800, July 2. The Irish Parliament is incorporated with that of Great Britain by 39 & 40 Geo. III. c. 67. 1801, Jan. 33. The united Parliament of Great Britain and Ireland holds its first meeting. 1829, April 13. The Koman Catholic Emancipation Act (10 Geo. IV. c. 7) permits Roman Catholics to sit and vote in either house of Parliament on swearing fidelity to the king and constitution. 1833, June 7. Passing of the Reform Bill (.). 1858, July 23. Jews are admitted to sit in both houses by 21 & 33 Viet. c. 49. LIST OF PARLIAMENTS SINCE THE UNION BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. Royal Assembled. Speech delivered. Dissolved. GEORGE III. 1st. 796, Sep. 27- 2nd. 802, Nov. 16. 3 rd.- 806, Dec. 15. 4th. 807, June 22. Oct. 6. Nov. 33. Dec. 19. June 36. 1803, June 39. 1806, Oct. 34. 1807, April 37. 1813, Sep. 39. 5th. 813, Nov. 34. 6th. 1819, Jan. 14. Nov. 30. Jan. 31. 1818, June lo. 1830, Feb. 38. GEORGE IV. 7th." 1820, April 31. 8th. 1836, Nov. 14. April 37. Nov. 31. 1836, June 14. 1830, July 33. WILLIAM IV. 9th. 1830, Oct. 36. loth. 1831, June 14. Nov. 3. June 21. 1831, April 33. 1^32, i?ec. 3. nth. 1833, Jan. 2> Feb. 5. 1834, Dec. 29. 13th. 1835, Feb. 19. Feb. 34. I8 37 , July 17. VICTORIA. 1 3th. 1837, Nov. 15. Nov. 30. 1841, June 33. I4th. 1841, Aug. 19. I5th. 1847, Nov. 1 8. loth. 1852, Nov. 4. Aug. 34. K: 1847, July 33. 1853, July I. 1857, March 31. I7tli. 1857, April 30. l8th. 1859, May 31. May 7. June 7. 1859, April 33. 1865, July 6. I9th. i.s66, Feb. i. Feb. 6. (See HOUSE OF COMMONS, HOUSE OF LORDS, HOUSES OF PARLIAMENT, &c.) PARLIAMENT (French). The ancient French parliament, which existed as early as the accession of the Capetian dynasty, in 987, was a movable court, composed of the great seigneurs and prelates of the realm, who as- sembled under the presidency of the king, and accompanied him in his removes from place to place. In 1190, Philip II. (Augustus) insti- tuted the parliament of Paris, which as- sembled three times a year ; and, in 1302 Philip IV. (the Fair) divided it into three chambers, the Grande Chambre, or Chambre ties Plaids, for the decision of causes relating to the crown and matters of public import- ance ; the Chambre des Enquetes, which regu- lated appeals ; and the Chambre des Requeles, for the transaction of ordinary parliamentary business. The first public ministry was formed in 1312, when avocats and procureurs geiufraux were appointed. In 1453 Charles VII. formed the Enquetes into two chambers, and created a new chamber, entitled the Tournelle Criminelle, as a final court of appeal. In 1598 a Chambre de I' Edit was erected, for deciding cases re- ferring to Protestants it became extinct in 1669 ; and in 1667 the Tournelle Civile was in- stituted, to relieve the Grande Chambre of some of its business. In 1753 Louis XV. tried un- successfully to substitute a Chambre Roy ale for the parliament, but in 1771 it became ob- noxious on account of its unwise proceedings, and was suppressed. There were parliaments at Aix, Bordeaux, Dijon, Grenoble, Rouen, and Toulouse, which were all suppressed at the same time. The parliament of Paris was restored by Louis XVI. Nov. 12, 1774. PARLIAMENT (Ireland). The Irish Parlia- ment was modelled on that of England, and exhibited much the same progressive develop- ments. In 1494 Sir Edward Poynings, one of the lord deputies, obtained the passing of the act which bears his name. It rendered the assent of the English Parliament essential to all laws made in Ireland, and ordered all for- mer English statutes to be deemed binding in Ireland. This act was repealed in April, 1782. The Irish Parliament was united to that of Great Britain by the third article of the Act of Union, 39 & 40 Geo. III. c. 67 (July 2, 1800). It was prorogued for the last time Aug. 2, 1800, and met at London as an integral portion of the Parliament of Great Britain Jan. 22, 'PARLIAMENT (Scotland) .The ancient forms of government in Scotland seem to have been nearly analogous with those adopted in this country, the legislature being conducted by the sovereign with the advice of his council. The first assembly properly called a parliament was convoked at Scone by John Baliol, Feb. 9, 1292. Burgesses were admitted by Robert Bruce July 15, 1326, when a grant of the tenth penny of all rents was made to the king by the earls, barons, burgesses, and free tenants in full parliament assembled. The Scotch Par- liament differed from that of England in having only one house, but a committee, known as the Lords of Articles (q. v. }, answered, to some extent, the purpose of a hotise of peers. The Parliaments of England and Scot- land were united by 5 Anne, c. 8 (May i, 1707). PARMA [ 752 ] PARTITION PARMA (Battles). The Austrians and Sar- dinians fought an indecisive battle near this town in Italy, June 29, 1734. Suwarrow, at the head of a Russian army, defeated the French, commanded by Marshal Macdonald, June 19, 1799. PARMA (Italy), in the ancient GnUia Cis- ', was colonized by the Romans after the subjugation of the Boii, B.C. 183. It re- ceived a colony of Goths by order of Gratian, in 377 ; was included in Lombardyin 572 ; and was transferred by Charlemagne to the papal see about 774. The cathedral, which contains a fresco by Correggio, was consecrated in 1106. The government was usurped by the Correggio family in 1334. The French, who obtained possession in 1499, were expelled in 1513 by Maximilian I., Parma and Piacenza being given to Pope Leo. X. In 1543 Paul III. erected Parma and Piacenza, with the sur- rounding territory, into a duchy in favour of his natural son, Peter Louis Farnese, who was assassinated Sep. 10, 1547. The duchy was held for the Emperor till 1557, when it was restored to the Farnese line, which became ex- tinct in 1731. The duchy passed to Don Carlos, who exchanged -it with Austria for the Two Sicilies, in 1735. Parma and Piacenza were, with Guastalla, restored to Spain in 1748. The Academy of Painting was founded in 1716, and that of the Fine Arts in 1752. When Napoleon Buonaparte invaded Italy, he com- pelled the duke to furnish supplies for his army, May, 1796; but peace was agreed to Nov. 6, 1796. In 1815 Parma, Piaceuza, and Guastalla were formed into a duchy, and be- stowed upon Maria Louisa, wife of Napoleon I. After her death, Dec. 18, 1847, certain territories were exchanged with Modem. An insurrection took place, and the Austrian garrison was expelled, March 19, 1848; and Charles II. resigned in favour of his sou, Charles III., March 14, 1849. Charles III. was assassinated March 20, 1854, and his wi.low, Marie Therese de Bourbon, became regent for her infant son. An insurrection occurred April 30, 1859, when the duchess left the capital, to which she returned May 4. An alliance with Tuscany and Modena was signed Aug. 20. Another revolution occurred soon after, and Parma was annexed to the new kingdom of Italy in 1860. Col. Anviti was seized at Parma and put to death with great cruelty, Oct. 6, 1859. PAROS, or PARUS (/Egean Sea). This island, one of the Cyclades, is said to have been originally inhabited by Cretans and Arcadians. The loiiians colonized it at an early period. The Oxford, or Arundelian marbles, were found here. PAR RUT (Battle!. Ethelwulph defeated the Danes at the mouth of the river Parretin 845. PARRICIDE. The Athenians had no law against parricides, as they professed to believe that nobody could be so wicked as to kill a parent. This was also the case with the Romans until L. Ostius killed his father, about B.C. 172. It was then enacted that the criminal, after he had been first scourged until the blood came, should be sewn up in a leathern sack with a dog, an ape, a cock, and a viper, and thrown into the Tiber. This punishment was changed by the Lex Pompeia into that of the sword, or burning, or throwing to wild beasts. PARSDORF (Armistice). A truce, con- cluded at Alessandria between France and Austria, June 16, 1800, was extended to Ger- many, under the name of the armistice of Parsdorf, July 15. Hostilities ceased at all points, and could not be resumed without 12 days' notice. Negotiations were resumed, and the preliminaries of peace, on the basis of the treaty of Campo-Forrnio, were signed at Paris July 28, 1800. PARSEES. Owing to the persecutions of the Mohammedan conquerors of Persia, the Guebres, descendants of the ancient fire-wor- shippers, sought refuge in the north-western parts of Hindostan, chiefly Bombay and Goo- jurat, about 652, when they were called Par- sees, or Persians. PARTHENON, or "HOUSE OF THE VIRGIN." The temple of Minerva, protectress of Athens, was built in that city in the time of Pericles, Callicrates and Ictinus being the architects, and Phidias the chief sculptor, about B.C. 448. It suffered from the ex- plosion of a powder magazine during a siege by the Venetians in 1687. (See ELGIN MARB i PARTHENON CLUB (London), with which the Erectheum was amalgamated in 1854, was dissolved in 1862. PARTHENOPE. (See NAPLES.) PARTHEXOPEAN REPUBLIC was estab- lished in the kingdom of Naples by the French, after its conquest, Jan. 23, 1799. Cardinal Ruffo took the field, at the head of 17,000 Calabrians, and Macdonald received orders from the Directory to abandon Naples, May, 1799, and the short-lived republic came to an end in J uno. PARTMIA (Asia), subject at an early period to Media, to Persia, and subsequently to Alexander III. and his successors, threw off the Hyro-Macedonian rule, when tle dynasty of the Arsacidsu was established, B.C. 250. On the death of Artabanes, the last king, Ar- taxerxes usurped the supreme power, and founded the new Persian dynasty, called the Sassanides, in 226. The empire extended from the Euphrates to the Indus, and from the Oxus to the Persian Gulf, at the death of Mithridates, B.C. 130. It was invested by the Romans, under the triumvir Crassus, B.C. 55, who was defeated at the battle of Carrhse B 'PARTITION TREATIES. A treaty, regu- lating the succession of the Spanish monarchy, and its partition, was concluded between Eng- land and Holland Aug. 18, 1698. Another treaty for the same purpose, between England, France, and Holland, was signed in London Feb. 21, 1700, andat the Hague, by the French envoy and the plenipotentiaries of the States- General, March 25. The first treaty for the partition of Poland, between Austria, Prussia, and Russia, was made in Feb., 1772. A second was signed at St. Petersburg Aug. 5, 1772. The third, for the final partition of the kingdom, was concluded Oct. 24, 1795. PARTRIDGES [ 753 1 PATHOS PARTRIDGES AND PHEASANTS. It is recorded that Becket dined off a pheasant on the day he was assassinated, Dec. 29, 1170. Fine and imprisonment for taking partridges and pheasants were awarded byn Hen. VII. c. 17 (1497). PASARGAD^E (Persia). The name of this town is sometimes written Passagarda an " Pasargada. It is said to have been built by Cyrus B.C. 558, after his defeat of Astyages near this spot. The kings of Persia were consecrated here by the magi. PASCHAL CYCLE, formed by the multi- plication of the sun's cycle, 28 years, with that of the moon, 19 years, to ascertain when Easter occurs, was adopted by the general Council of Nica^a, 325. It was discontinued in England by act of Parliament, Sep. 2, 1752. PASQUINADE. This name, given to a short satirical poem, is derived from Pasquino, a tailor of Rome, who, towards the close of the isth century, wrote lampoons, and hung them up on a mutilated statue during the night. PASSARO, CAPE (Sea-fight). Admiral Byng, created Viscount Torrington in 1721, defeated the Spanish fleet off this cape, on the coast of Sicily, July 31, 1718. The English captured five ships of the line and eight frigates. PASSAROWITZ (Peace). A treaty of peace between Charles VI., Emperor of Germany, the Venetians, and the Turks, was concluded at Passarowitz, the ancient Margus, in the province of Servia, July 21, 1718. The congress opened June 5. The Sultan ceded Belgrade, Temeswar, and parts of Bosnia, Servia, and Wallachia, to the emperor. The Venetians lost the Morea. PASSAU (Bavaria). The bishopric, of which it is the capital, founded in the 7th century, and for a long time an independent state, was secularized in 1803, and united to Bavaria in 1809. A treaty, securing religious freedom to the Protestants, and terminating the first war of religion in Germany, was signed in the build- ing now used for the post-office, on behalf of Charles V., July 31, 1552. The cathedral and part of the town were destroyed by fire in 1662. The colossal bronze statue of Maximilian Joseph was erected in 1828. PASSENGERS in public vehicles are pro- tected by i & 2 Will. IV. c. 22 (Sep. 22, 1831), by i & 2 Viet. c. 79 (Aug. 10, 1838), and by 16 & 17 Viet. (June 28, 1853). The laws relating to passengers by sea were amended and consoli- dated by 15 & 16 Viet. c. 44 (June 30, 1852), repealed by 18 & 19 Viet. c. 119 (Aug. 14, 1855), which substituted new regulations, and was amended by 26 & 27 Viet. c. 51 (July 13, 1863), that came into operation Oct. i. (See DEATH BY ACCIDENTS COMPENSATION ACT.) PASSIONISTS, a congregation of Roman Catholic priests founded by Paul Francis (1694 1775), surnamed Paul of the Cross, in 1737. The first convent was established on the Celian Hill, at Rome. It has been revived since 1830. PASSOVER, or Feast of Unleavened Bread, commemorating deliverance from the destroy- ing angel when the first-born of Egypt were smitten, was ordained by God to be observed by the Jews for ever, B.C. 1491 (Exod. xii.). PASSPORTS are of ancient date. A pass- port granted by Julius Csesar to a philosopher ran thus : " If there be any one, on land or sea, hardy enough to molest Potamon, let him consider whether he be strong enough to wage war with Csesar." The system became very oppressive in Europe at the end of the i8th century. British subjects were allowed to travel in France without passports from Jan. i, 1861, and in Italy from June 26, 1862. A convention for the abolition of passports, con- cluded by Bavaria, Hanover, Saxony, and Wtirtemberg, came into operation Jan. i, 1866. PASTOUREAUX, or SHEPHERDS, fol- lowers of an impostor in Flanders, called the Master of Hungary, arose in 1251. They spread into France, entering the city of Orleans on St. Barnabas day, June n, and committed dreadful outrages on the inhabitants. At Bourges the leader was slain, and his followers massacred. A similar rising in France led to a general massacre of the Jews in 1321. PATAGONIA (S. America), so named by Magalhaens, who discovered it in 1520. Sir Francis Drake sailed along the coast in 1578, and Capt. Cook explored it in 1774. A settle- ment, formed by the Chilians at Port Famine in 1843, wa ? removed to Sandy Point in 1850. An expedition to discover a suitable site for a new colony was despatched in 1854. PATAY (France). Lord Talbot was defeated and taken prisoner by the French, under Joan of Arc, at this town, June 18, 1429. PATENTS for titles of nobility were first made in the reign of Richard II. (1377 1399). Patents for new inventions are founded upon a statute passed in 1623, which grants the pri- vilege " of the sole working or making of new manufactures within the realm to the true and first inventor and inventors of such manufac- tures." An act (5 & 6 Will. IV. c. 83) for im- proving the patent laws was passed, under the auspices of Lord Brougham, Sep. 10, 1835. Commissioners of patent laws were appointed by 15 & 16 Viet. c. 83 (July i, 1852). The Commissioners printed the specifications of all the patents granted in England from 1711 to 1852, in volumes, of which the first appeared in 1853, and the last in 1858. The first number of the Commissioners of Patents' Journal ap- peared in Jan., 1854. The Library and Read- Ing-Room, in Southampton Buildings, were opened in March, 1855, and the Museum at South Kensington in 1859. The charge for admis- sion made on certain days has been abolished since May, 1858. (See INVENTORS' INSTITUTE.) PAT BRINES, holding Gnostic opinions, [leaded by a certain Gerard, made their ap- pearance at Monteforte, and were, many of them, burned at Milan by Archbishop Heri- bert, about 1026. The term Paterini, or Pate- nes, was also applied to the Paulicians, the Manichseans, and other sects. PATERSON (N. America). This town, in New Jersey, was founded in 1791 for the ma- nufacture of cotton. PATMOS, PALMOSA, or PATINO (JSgean Sea)/ St. John is said to have been banished PATNA [ 754 1 PATRIPASSIANS to this island, one of the Sporades, according to some authorities during the persecution ol Nero in 64, and according to others during that of Domitiau in 95. Here he received the Revelation (i. 9, &c.). PATNA, or PATTANA (Hindostan), in San scrit, Pataliputra, the Palimhothra of the Greeks and Romans, supposed to have been the capital of Bengal, B.C. 419, was visited by Megasthenes, as ambassador from Seleucus Nicator to Sandracottus, B.C. 305. It was in corporated with the empire of Delhi in 1194. The English failed in an attempt to establish a factory here in 1620. Major Camac defeated Shah Alum II. here in Jan., 1761. Ellis cap- tured it June 25, 1763 ; but the troops having been made prisoners while engaged in plunder, it was retaken Nov. 6. An action, in which Mir Casim was defeated, secured the town to the English, Oct. 23, 1764. A column marks the grave of 200 English prisoners murdered in cold blood by Mir Casim in 1763. Dr. Lyell was murdered by the mutineers in the streets, July 3, 1857. PATOCHIN (Battle). Louis of Baden de- feated the Turks in this battle, fought Aug. 30, 1689. PATRyE, PATRAI, or PATRAS (Greece), one of the 12 Achaean cities, was founded by the lonians, took the Athenian side in the Peloponnesian war, B.C. 431 ; and, through the persuasion of Alcibiades, connected itself by a wall with the port of Athens, B.C. 419. Casaaader. one of Alexander the Thirds generals, having taken it, was driven out by Aristodcmus B.C. 314. The inhabitants ex- pelled the Macedonians and renewed the Achaean League with Dyme, Phane, and Tritsea, B.C. 280. After the battle of Phar- salia it was taken by Cato, B.C. 48. Antony and Cleopatra chose it for a winter residence B.C. 32-31. It was restored and colonized with Roman soldiers by Augustus, about B.C. 20 ; sent an archbishop to the Council of Sardica in May, 347 ; and was destroyed by an earthquake in the 6th century. It was restored and purchased by the Venetians in 1408 ; was captured by the Turks in 1446 ; and recovered by the Venetians in 1533. The Turks burned it in 1770, and the Russians destroyed a Turkish fleet off Patras in 1772. The Turks held it till the revolution in 1828, when it capitulated to the French, and forms part of the modern kingdom of Greece. PATRIARCH. The appellation was given to the early ancestors of the Jews; also to certain governors among the Jews after the destruction of Jerusalem, 70. The order became extinct in the end of the 4th century. It was first applied to bishops, by authority of the Church, in the Council of Chalcedon, 451, although Socrates in his history says it began to be used as the title of eminent bishops after the second general council held at Constantinople in 381. There were four great patriarchates in the early Church, viz : Alexandria, Antioch, Constantinople, and Rome, to which a fifth, Jerusalem, was added in 451. The Patriarch of Constantinople was distinguished as oecumenical or universal patriarch, and the Bishop of Rome as prince of the patriarchs. PATRICIANS, an appellation given to the Roman populace by Romulus. It belonged to every Roman citizen till the creation of the patres minorum gentium by Tarquin, and formed the exclusive source of the senate, consuls, and pontifices, till B.C. 365. Headed by L. Tarquinius, they conspired against King Servius and murdered him, B.C. 534. The dignity censed to be hereditary in the reign of Constantino I. (323 337). The Patres were the heads of the Patrician houses. PATRICK, ST. (Order), consisting of the sovereign, a grand master, and 15 knights, was founded in Ireland by George III., Feb. 5, 1783. The number was increased to 22 by the new statutes of 1833. PATRICK'S (ST.) CATHEDRAL (Dublin) was founded by Archbishop Comyn, in 1190, destroyed by fire in 1283, and having been rebuilt, was dissolved at the Reformation, and used for courts of justice about 1539. Mary ( I 553~8) restored it to its original use. It was re-opened, having been restored by Mr. Guiness, Feb. 24, 1865. PATRIOTIC FUNDS. After Admiral Jervis's victory over the Spanish fleet, a sub- scription was made at Lloyd's for the relief of the widows and orphans of those who had fallen in the engagement, March 3, 1797. At a meeting of merchants, under-writers, and other subscribers to Lloyd's, July 20, 1803, it was resolved to raise a fund on an extended scale for the widows and orphans of those killed in defence of their country, and up- wards of ,100,000 was subscribed by the end of the month. The committee voted swords, pieces of plate, and sums of money, to the officers and men engaged in the gallant defence of Dominica, May i, 1805. In the House of Commons, Lord Howick characterized it as "that mischievous system of rewards," tend- ing to bring the government into contempt, Dec. 19, 1806. InCobbett's " Political Register" it was represented as a " grand means of making a formidable opposition to govern- ment." Its funds amounted to more than a quarter of a million of money, Jan. 24, 1807. A commission was issued June 13, 1854, by Queen Victoria, presided over by Prince Albert, to raise and distribute a fund for those engaged in the Russian war. A military musical fete in aid of the fund was given at the Crystal Palace, Oct. 28, 1854 ; a great meeting was held in London, Nov. 2 ; and a million was soon collected. Out of the fund, which eventually amounted to 1,458,000, an nstitution for the education of 300 daughters of soldiers, sailors, and marines, was esta- }lished, the foundation-stone being laid by Queen Victoria, on Wandsworth Common, July ii, 1857. Another patriotic fund, for the elief of the sufferers by the Indian mutiny, >riginated at a public meeting held in London Aug. 25, 1857. The sum collected amounted L o 434,729 in Nov., 1858. PATRIPASSIANS, the followers of Praxeas, a Phrygian, who maintained that the Father was born of the Virgin, died upon the cross, %nd was buried, arose at Rome towards the PATTEN MAKERS [ 755 1 PAUL'S end of the 2nd century. They were called Mo- narchians. Tertullian wrote against Praxeas. The term was also applied to the followers of Noe'tus called Noetians or Callistiaus a native of Smyrna, who early in the ^rd century maintained that God was united with the man Christ, and in him was born and suffered ; and to the Sabellians (q. v.). PATTEN MAKERS (London). This com- pany was formed in 1670. PAULIANS, PAULINIANS, or PAULIAN- ISTrf. The followers of Paul of Samosata, who held some peculiar notions respecting the Godhead. Bingham asserts that he denied the divinity of Christ, and introduced a new form of baptism. Paul of Samosata was accused of heresy at the Council of Antioch in 264, but escaped censure. He was con- demned by another council held at Antioch in 269, and was expelled. The Council of Nicaea (June 19 Aug. 25, 325) ordered the Paulians to be re-baptized previous to admis- sion into the Church. PAULICIANS, or Disciples of St. Paul, originated with one Constantino, of Mananalis, near Samosata, in 660. He fell a martyr to his principles in 687. According to other autho- rities they were followers of Paid and John, two brothers living at Jerusalem, who held Gnostic or Manichsean opinions, and were named after the former. They were frequently persecuted, and it is said that 100,000 were extirpated by the sword, the gibbet, or the flames, by order of the Empress Theodora, about 845. Carbeas, commander of the guards, followed by 5,000 of the sect, renounced the allegiance of Rome, leagued with the Moham- medans, founded and fortified the city of Tephrice, and defeated the Emperor Michael III. (842867) under the walls of Samosata. Led by Chrysocheir, successor of Carbeas, they pillaged Nicsea, Nicomedia, Ancra, and Ephesus in 868, turning the cathedral of the latter city into a stable for mules and horses, to manifest their abhorrence of images and relics. They were attacked by the forces of Basilius I., their leader slain, and Tephrice, their strong- hold, taken, in 871. Constantino V. (Copro- nymus) having discovered a great number of them in Melitene and Theodosiopolis, trans- planted them to Constantinople and Thrace, and so introduced their doctrine into Europe, about 750. John I. (Zimisces) removed a powerful colony of the sect from the Calybiaii hills to Philippopolis, in Thrace, in 970. Having spread through Italy into the southern pro- vinces of France, a persecution was raised against them, and large numbers were slain in 1200. The charge of Manichseism is said to be unfounded. Mosheim says that a remnant of the sect existed in Bulgaria in the i7th cen- tury. (See PATERINES.) PAUL'S (ST.) CATHEDRAL (London). Sir Christopher Wren denies Camden's state- ment that St. Paul's Cathedral occupied the site of a Roman temple to Diana, and asserts that " there is authentic testimony of a Chris- tian church planted here by the apostles themselves, and, in particular, very probably by St. Paul." It is, however, doubtful whether any such edifice existed in London till the reign of Lucius, in 185, when St. Faganus and St- Uamianus visited England to consecrate build- ings, which had been devoted to the service of pagan divinities, to the worship of the true God. The church they founded or consecrated was destroyed during the Diocletian persecution in 303, and another erected on its site was burned by the Saxons in the sth or 6th cen- tury. Ethelbert, King of Kent, and his nephew Sebert founded a new church in 610, which was severely injured by a fire in 962, and totally burned in 1087, after which, Maurice, Bishop of London, commenced the erection of Old St. Paul's. This cathedral was much damaged by fire in 1137. In 1221 a new steeple was erected. The choir was completed in 1240, and in 1256 Fulco Basset, Bishop of London, added the subterranean church of St. Faith. The spire was struck by lightning Feb. i, 1444, and again June 4, 1561, when a fire was kindled which rendered the removal of the roof and steeple a matter of necessity. Various attempts were made to effect a com- plete restoration, but no active measures were taken till 1632, when Inigo Jones commenced the portico. All works were stopped by order of the Long Parliament in 1643. St. Paul's Cathedral was totally destroyed by the great fire of 1666. The ground was cleared for a new building May i, 1674, and the warrant to begin the works was granted May i, 1675. The first stone was laid June 21, and divine service was celebrated for the first time in the uncom- pleted edifice on the occasion of the public rejoicings for the peace of Ryswick, Dec. 2, 1697. The last stone was set up in 1710, the whole building having been completed by Sir Christopher Wren, and by the same master- mason, and during the presidency of one Bishop of London. The expense was defrayed by a tax on the coal consumed in London, and amounted to 747,954 28. gd. The iron railing cost 11,202 os. 6d. The principal dimensions of St. Paul's are as follows : length from east to west, 510 ft. ; breadth from north to south porticos, 282 ft. \ breadth of west entrance, ioo ft. ; circuit, 2,292 ft. The extreme height is 404 ft. ; that of the campanile towers, 222 ft., and of the west pediment, 120 ft. The dome is 420 ft. in circumference, and the ball 6 ft. in diameter. The anniversary musical festivals for the benefit of the orphans and widows of the clergy have been solemnized in the cathedral since 1697. The organ was built by Bernard Schmydt in 1694, and the bell was recast by Richard Phelps in 1716. Gas was first employed in the cathedral May 6, 1822, and it was first opened for evening service Sunday, Nov. 28, 1858. PAUL'S (ST.) CROSS (London). This ancient pulpit cross of timber stood at the north side of St. Paul's Cathedral. The date of its erection is not known, but in 1259 Henry III. summoned a general assembly to meet there. In 1382 it was struck by light- ning, and was restored by Thomas Kempe, Bishop of London (1448 1489). It was taken down by order of the Long Parliament in 1643. PAUL'S (ST.) SCHOOL (London). This institution was endowed in 1512 by John 302 PAUPER [ 756 ] PAWNBROKERS Collette or Colet, Dean of St. Paul's, for 153 Eoor men's children, a school having existed rom 1509. Having been destroyed in the great fire, a new building was erected by Sir C. Wren, in 1673. This was replaced by the rsent edifice, completed by George Smith 1826. PAUPER COLONIES. Establishments with, this name originated in Holland, in 1818. Gen. Van den Bosch, on his return from Java, laid before the King of Holland a plan for a pauper colony ; a meeting was held at the Hague, and a regular society formed. A writer in the British Almanack for 1829 says : " Having received the sanction of the king, the society was recommended to all the local authorities, and soon found itself in possession of .5,380, obtained from more than 20,000 members. With these funds, having been enabled to make the necessary arrangements, the society purchased the estate of Wester- bech Sloot, on the east side of the Zuyder Zee, and not far from the town of Steenwyk. This estate cost them ^4,660, and it contained from 1,200 to 1,300 acres, about 200 of which were under a sort of culture, or covered with bad wood, and the rest a mere heath. They let the cultivated land, about one-tenth of the whole ; deepened the Aa (which runs through the estate), so that it is navigable for boats ; and built storehouses, a school, and dwellings for about fifty -two families, of from six to eight persons each. Their operations were begun in Sep., 1818 ; by Nov. 10 the houses were ready ; and the communes sent some poor families." The expense of each family was as follows : s. d. Building each house 4113 4 Furniture and implements 868 Clothing IX 10 o Two cows, or one cow and ten sheep 13 10 o Cultivation and seed, first year 33 6 8 Advances in provisions 434 Advances of other kinds 434 Flax and wool to be spun 10 13 4 Seven acres uncultivated land, net 868 Total establishment .141 The writer, after entering into various details, gives the result of the experiment as follows : " In the course of seven years from its first establishment, the colony of Fredericks Oord contained a population of 6,778, including that of Omme Schanze, which is under a more rigid control. Among the number were 2,174 orphans and foundlings. The total number forming all the colonies in Holland, were stated to Mr. Jacob at 20,000 ; but he thinks it exaggerated : there were, however, 8,000 in North Holland." The society having suspended payment in 1858, the state under- took the temporary management, and the system was reorganized. PAUPERS. (See POOR-LAWS.) PAVEMENT. The Carthaginians are said to have been the first who paved their towns with stones ; and the practice was introduced into Europe by the Romans, who paved their streets B.C. 174. London was first paved about PAVIA (Battle), sometimes called the second battle of Marignauo or Malegnano, was fought Feb. 24, 1525, between the French, under Francis L, at that time besieging Pavia, and the Imperialists, assisted by the garrison of Pavia. The action began at midnight, Feb. 23, with an attack upon the French, who were encamped in the park of Mirabella, on the bank of the Ticino ; and in two hours the Im- perialists gained a complete victory, losing only 700, whilst the French lost 8,000 men. The latter immediately retired from Italy. It was after this action that Francis I., who had a very narrow escape for his life, is said to have written in a letter to his mother : " All is lost except honour." (See MARIGNANO, Battle.) PAVIA (Italy), the ancient Ticinum, after- wards Papia, founded by the Ligurii, is first mentioned in history as the place where Au- gustus met the funeral procession of Drusus, in the year 9. A sedition among the troops of Vitellius broke out in 69 ; and while command- ing its garrison, Claudius II. was saluted with the imperial title in 268. It was taken by Attila in 452, by Odoacer in 476, and by Alboin, after a siege of more than three years, in 570, when it became the residence of the Lombard kings and the capital of Italy, under the name of Pavia. It surrendered to Charlemagne, at the close of a 15 months' blockade, in 774. It was, with its 43 churches, reduced to ashes by the Magyars in 924. The people of Pavia defeated the Milanese in 1154. Victor IV. was elected pope by a council held here Feb. 5, 1160, and the Emperor Frederick I. held his stirrup and kissed his feet. The uni- versity, supposed to have been founded by Charlemagne in 774, was restored in 1361 by Galeazzo Visconti, who. was styled Count of Pavia, and conferred many privileges upon it in 1396. The church of St. Michael, perhaps the oldest in Italy, dates from the beginning of the 7th century; and the church Del Car- mine, which contains valuable paintings, was built in the i4th century. A cathedral was commenced in 1484. The citadel, completed in 1469, was partly destroyed in 1527, and suf- fered from the French in 1796. Councils were held herein 1128, and Feb., 1160 ; and the i8th general council was transferred from Pavia. (See BASEL.) It was made a county in 1395. The army of Charles V., under the viceroy Lannoy, came to its relief when besieged by Francis I. ; and in the battle which ensued Francis I. was defeated and taken prisoner, Feb. 24, 1525. Lautree took it in 1527. It was occupied by the French and Sardinian army Oct. 29, 1 733 ; and again by the united troops of France, Spain, Naples, and Genoa, in July, 1745. The populace rose against the French occupants, and took the castle, May 26, 1796. It was annexed to the kingdom of Italy in 1 PAVILION THEATRE (London) was de- stroyed by fire Feb. 13, 1856, and the new edifice was opened Dec. 30, 1858. PAVLOGRAD (Russia) was founded in 1780. The garrison (consisting chiefly of Corsicans) of Fort Magon, in Minorca, captured in 1782 by the Spaniards, were allowed to settle here. PAWNBROKERS. The Emperor Augustus established a fund at Rome for lending money to those who could leave a sufficient pledge, PAWTUCKET [ 757 PEARLS B.C. 31 ; Tiberius lent money on lands in 14 ; and Alexander Severus advanced money to the poor without interest, in 222. (See MONT DE PIETE.) Maximilian I. permitted the citi- zens of Nuremberg to drive out the Jews and establish an exchange bank, where those re- quiring money might leave their effects in pledge, in 1498. In the Netherlands, France, and England, such houses were known under the name of Lombards, and to evade the pro- hibition of the Church against interest, it was exacted beforehand, as a present. Thelombard, or lending-house, at Brussels, was established in 1619, at Antwerp in 1620, at Ghent in 1622. The mont de piete of France was instituted by royal command in 1777. The present system in England was established by De Northburgh, Bishop of London, the practice being for the preacher at St. Paul's Cross, in his sermon, to declare, at the end of a year, that the article pledged would be foif eited if not redeemed in 14 days. The rate of interest is fixed by 39 & 40 Geo. III. c. 99 (July 28, 1800). The law was amended by 19 & 20 Viet. c. 27 (June 23, 1856), and by 23 Viet. c. 21 (May 15, 1860). PAWTUCKET (N. America). The first cloth factory in America moved by water was es- tablished at this town, situated partly in Rhode Island and partly in Massachusetts, in 1790. PAX. This instrument, used in the Roman Catholic Church, and sometimes called the Tabula Pacis, Pacificale, or the Osculatorium, was introduced in the i2th or isth century. The custom of giving the kiss of peace (q. v.) before the communion, prevailed until the pax was introduced. The priest kissed the instru- ment first, then it was kissed by the clerk, and finally by the laity ; and this process was substituted for the former general exchange of salutations. A pax appears amongst the regular ecclesiastical instruments ordered in the parish churches of Yorkshire in 1250. PAYMASTER GENERAL was first ap- pointed in the reign of Charles II. (1660-85). The duties are regulated by an act passed in 1848. Pursers received the name of naval paymasters in 1844. PAZ DE AYACUCHO (3. America). This town in Bolivia was founded by the Spaniards in 1548, under the name of Nuestra Seiiora de la Paz. It was made the seat of a bishop in 1605, and its name was changed, in 1825, to Paz de Ayacucho, in honour of the victory of Ayacucho. PAZZI CONSPIRACY, formed by Fran- cesco Pazzi, and sanctioned by Pope Sixtus IV., to murder Lorenzo and Julian de Medici, at Florence. The attempt was made during the celebration of high mass in the cathedral. The work of assassination was undertaken by two priests, and the elevation of the host was the signal agreed upon for the onset, April 26, 1478. Julian fell beneath their daggers, but Lorenzo escaped with a slight wound. The populace took up arms ; 70 of the Pazzi party, including the two assassins, were killed ; Sal- viati, Archbishop of Pisa, one of the conspi- rators, was hanged in his robes : and altogether more than 200 persons were put to death. PEABODY GIFTS. George Peabody, an American merchant, born at Danvers, Massa- chusetts, Feb. 18, 1795, came to England in 1827, settled in London in 1837, and commenced business as a banker in 1843. On retiring after having amassed a large fortune, Mr. Peabody, by a letter dated March 12, 1862, presented .150,000 to be applied for the amelioration of the condition of the poor of London. The first block of buildings known as the Peabody Dwellings, erected in Spitalfields, were opened in 1864. Mr. Peabody made a second donation of 150,000 for the same purpose in 1866. In 1852, the 2ooth anniversary of the settlement of his native town, Danvers, Mr. Peabody founded there an Educational Institute and Library. He contributed largely to the Grin- nell Arctic Expedition, to the Baltimore Insti- tute of Science, Literature, and the Fine Arts, and other institutions. PEACE. (See CONSERVATORS and JUSTICES OF THE PEACE, Kiss OF PEACE, LANDFRIEDE, and TRUCE or PEACE OF GOD.) PEACEABLE CATHOLICS. (See POLITI- CIANS.) PEACE OF CLEMENT IX. (See JANSENISTS.) PEACE OF RELIGION, or RELIGIOUS PEACE, confirming the treaty of Passau (q. v.), was concluded at Augsburg and published by a recess of the Diet, Sep. 26, 1555. It granted toleration to Protestants who accepted the Confession of Augsburg. One article, called the Ecclesiastical Reservation, which provided that all ecclesiastics who left the Roman Catholic Church should forfeit their prefer- ments and benefices, caused much dissatisfac- tion. PEACE SOCIETY, for the promotion of permanent and universal peace, was estab- lished in 1816 ; held a meeting at Paris, Aug. 22, 1849 ; in Exeter Hall, Oct. 30, 1849 ; at Frankfort, Aug. 22, 1850; at Birmingham, Nov. 28, 1850; at Manchester, Jan. 27, 1853; and at Edinburgh, Oct. 12, 1853. -A- deputation from the society had an interview with Nicho- las I., Emperor of Russia, at St. Petersburg, Feb. 10, 1854. The soth anniversary meeting was held in London, May 22, 1866. PEACH was introduced into England from Persia in 1562. PEAK'S STATION. (See HANOVER COURT- HOUSE, Battle.) PEAR was introduced into England during the Roman occupation. The snowy pear was brought from N. America in 1746. PEA RIDGE. (See ELKHOKN, Battle.) PEARLS are mentioned by Job (xxviii. 18) as possessing considerable value, B.C. 2130. Clodius, the tribune, gave a pearl, dissolved in vinegar, to each of his guests, B.C. 61. Cleo- patra made a wager with Antony to serve up her pearl eardrops, worth 76,000, at a repast, in 32. Ceylon was famed for its fisheries in the time of Pliny (2379). Britain was cele- brated for its pearls in the ist century B.C. Scotch pearls were in demand in the i2th cen- tury. Seville imported upwards of 697 lb. weight in 1587. A pearl was obtained from Margarita, by Philip II., worth 31,875, in 1574. Joint stock companies, formed to prosecute the Columbia fishery in 1825, were abandoned in 1826 ; and an English company PEASANTS' WAR [ 758 ] PEEL ADMINISTRATIONS undertook the same enterprise at Algiers in 1826. The total value imported into the United Kingdom in 1856 was 56, 162. Linnasus announced the discovery of a method of pro- ducing them artificially in 1761, and an imita- tion was devised by a Parisian bead-maker, named Jaquin, about 1656. The Scotch pearl fishery was revived in 1860. (See ORMUS.) PEASANTS' WAR. A struggle, called the Bundschuh, broke out in 1502, and another, the War of Poor Conrad, in Wiirtemberg, in 1514. The peasants of the small towns rebelled in Swabia, and those of the Thurgau rose in arms in June, 1524, when many outrages were com- mitted. After a temporary lull it broke out again early in 1525, on a more extended scale, the peasants of Alsace, Franconia, Lorraine, the Palatinate, and Swabia joining in the movement. They published a manifesto con- taining their demands, embodied in 12 articles. The insurgents, after some successes, were defeated by the army of the Archduke Fer- dinand, May 2 ; again at Konigshofen, June 2 ; and were put down after 100,000 persons hud perished, in June, 1525. The Anabaptists (q. v.) took part in the movement. (See BEAU- VAIS, JACQUERIE, PRAOUERIE, &c.) PECQUIGNY, or PICQUIGNY (Peace). The treaty of Amiens (q. v.), Aug. 29, 1475, was ratified at Pecquigny, near Amiens, on which account it sometimes passes by that name. It was renewed for the lives of Louis XI. and Edward IV. in 1477. PEDA8U8. (& METHONE.) PEDLARS. (SeeCHApBooKS,HAWKERS,&c.) PEDOM ETBB. ( < OUOM KTER.) PEEL A I )M I X 1ST UATI < >XS. The first was formed on the resignation of the first Mel- bourne administration (7. v.), Nov. 14, 1834. William IV. applied, Nov. 15, to the Duke of Wellington, who advised that Sir Robert Peel, Bart., at that time travelling in Italy, should be summoned to form an administration. The Duke of Wellington became prime minister, provisional arrangements were made, and Sir Robert Peel obeyed the call, and reached London Dec. 9. He immediately assumed the responsibilities of office, and his cabinet, formed at the end of the month, was thus constituted : First Lord of the Treasury) and Chancellor of the { Sir Robert Peel, Bart. Exchequer .................. ) Lord Chancellor ............... Lord Lyndhurst. President of the Council ...... Earl of Kosslyn. Privy Seal ........................ Lord Wharncliffe. Home Secretary .................. Mr. Ili-nry (ioulhurn. .Korean Secretary ............... Duke of Wellington. Colonial Secretary ............... Earl of Aberdeen. Admiralty ........................ E:ivl de Grey. Board of Control ............... Lord Kllenborough. Secretary at War ............... Mr. Herriea. Chief Secretary for Ireland Sir Henry Hardinge. Master of the Mint and) President of the Board V Mr. A. Baring. of Trade ..................... ) Paymaster of the Forces ...Sir E. Knatchbuli, Bart Parliament was dissolved Dec. 29, 1834, and a new parliament was summoned to meet Feb. 19, 1835. A coalition having been formed between, the Whigs and the Radicals, an amendment to jbhe address was proposed in the House of Commons, and carried, Feb. 26, by 309 to 302. Three adverse divisions having taken place respecting the appropriation of the revenues of the Irish Church namely, first, a resolution proposed by Lord John Russell, carried April 2, by 322 to 289 ; secondly, the resolution carried in committee, April 6, by 262 to 237 ; and thirdly, a further resolution in favour of the appropriation prin- ciple, carried against ministers, April 7, by 285 to 258 Sir Robert Peel announced the resignation of the ministry April 8. (See MELBOURNE SECOND ADMINISTRATIONS.) The second Peel administration was formed on the resignation of the second Melbourne administration, Aug. 30, 1841. The cabinet, formed by Sep. 8, was thus constituted : Treasury Sir Robert Peel, Bart. Lord Chancellor Lord Lyndhurst. President of the Council Lord Whamcliffe. Privy Seal Duke of Buckingham. Chancellor of Exchequer ...Mr. Goulburn. 'retury Sir James Graham, Bart. Foreign Secretary Earl of Aberdeen. Colonial Secretary Lord Stanley. Admiralty Karl of Iladdington. (Lord Ellenborough, created Board of Control -! Earl of Elleuborough Oct. I 14, is. 14. Secretary at War Sir II. Hardinge. Board of Trade Earl of Kipon. Treasurer of the Navy) and Paymaster of the V Sir E. Knatchbuli, Bart. Forces ) Chief Secretary for Ireland Lord Eliot. Without office Duke of Wellington. Lord Ellenborough accepted the governor- generalship of India, and was succeeded at the Ijuard of Control by Lord Fitzgerald and Vesci, Oct. 23, 1841. The Duke of Bucking- ham resigned the privy seal Jan. 31, 1842, and it was intrusted to the Duke of Buccleuch and Queensberry Feb. 2. The Duke of Wellington was made commander-in-chief Aug. 15, 1842. The Eurl of Ru>on succeeded Lord Fitzgerald and Vesci (who died May n, 1843) a * the Board of Control, May 17, 1843 ; and Mr. Gladstone was made president of the Board of Trade and master of the mint, June 10, 1843. Sir Henry Hardinge was succeeded, May 17, 1844. as secretary at war, by Sir Thomas Fremantle, Bart., who, having been appointed chief sec- retary for Ireland, was replaced by Mr. Sidney Herbert, Feb. 4, 1845. Lord Somerset, made chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster Sep. 3, 1841, and the Earl of Lincoln (afterwards Duke of Newcastle), made first commissioner of woods and forests Sep. 16. 1841, were both admitted to seats in the cabinet in 1845. A division ensued in the cabinet respecting the expediency of an immediate repeal of the corn laws in the autumn of 1845, and ministers resigned Nov. 25. Lord John Russell failed in his attempts to form an administration, Dec. 20, and the Peel administration, with the exception of Lord Stanley, who, in 1844, had been summoned to the House of Peers as Baron Stanley, returned to office. Lord Stanley (became Earl of Derby in 1851, See DERBV ADMINISTRATIONS) resigned the colonial sec- retaryship, and was succeeded by Mr. Glad- stone, Dec. 20, 1845. The Earl of Lincoln succeeded Sir Thomas Fremantle, Bart., as chief secretary for Ireland, Feb. 14, 1846. PEEL ISLAND t 759 3 PEKIN Sir Robert Peel carried the repeal of the corn laws ; but this change in his policy produced a division amongst his followers, the two parties being afterwards called Peelites (q. v.) and Protectionists (q. v.). The latter, availing themselves of the opportunity afforded by the second reading of the Irish Coercion Bill, voted against ministers, who were defeated by 292 to 219. The division took place early in the morning, June 26, 1846, the day on which the bill for the repeal of the corn laws passed the House of Lords. The resignation of the Peel administration was announced in both houses of Parliament June 29. (See RUSSELL FIRST ADMINISTRATION. ) PEEL ISLAND (Pacific), in the centre of the Bonin or Archbishop group, was settled by about 20 persons engaged in whaling, in 1830. PEELITES. This name was given to that section of the Conservative party which, after the rupture caused by the repeal of the corn laws (q. v.) in 1846, adhered to Sir Robert Peel. They were thus designated as opponents to the Protectionists (q. v.}. Some of them joined the Liberal party. (See PALMERSTON ADMINIS- TRATIONS.) PEEP-O'DAY-BOYS. This Irish faction ori- ginated at Market-hill, in Armagh, July 4, 1784. (See DEFENDERS.) PEERS AND PEERAGE. The nobility of the realm, consisting of barons, dukes, earls, marquises, and viscounts (q. v.), are called peers, or equals, because they enjoy an equality of right in all public proceedings. They are created either by tenure, by writ, or by patent. Peerage by tenure originated at the Norman conquest, when the land was divided between the followers of William I. The earliest peerage by writ is of 1265, when a writ of summons to Parliament was issued by Henry III. The first peer created by patent was John de Beau- champ, made Baron of Kidderminster by Richard II., Oct. 10, 1387. Peers are free from arrest in civil, but not in criminal cases. In cases of treason and felony, they can only be tried by their fellow peers ; but in misde- meanours they are tried by an ordinary jury. Peeresses are tried by the same tribunals as peers, by 20 Hen. VI. c. 9 (1442). By 4*5 Viet. c. 22 (June 21, 1841), peers convicted of crimes were rendered liable to the same penal- ties as commoners. The elevation of Sir James Parke to the peerage for the term of his na- tural life, by the title of Lord Wensleydale, Jan. 16, 1856, led to the appointment of a com- mittee by the House of Lords to inquire into the legality of liie-peei - ages. A report, de- ciding that such peerages could not entitle their holders to sit or vote in Parliament, was presented Feb. 25, in consequence of which Lord Wensleydale received a patent with the usual remainder to " the heirs male of his body lawfully begotten," the following July. The Irish peers form part of the nobility of the realm ; and by the 4th article of the Irish Act of Union, 39 & 40 Geo. III. c. 67 (July 2, 1800), four of the Irish bishops and 28 temporal peers are permitted to sit in the House of Lords. The same act permits the sovereign to create one new Irish peerage whenever three of those existing become extinct ; and when the number is reduced to 100 noblemen, every vacancy may be immediately supplied. The peers of Scotland are regarded as forming part of the nobility of Great Britain. By the 2 3rd article of the Act of Union, 5 Anne c. 8 (1706), 1 6 of their number are permitted to sit in the House of Lords as representatives of the rest. As this act limits the right of election of these representatives to the Scotch peers then existing, it follows that no new Scotch peerages can be created. Sir William Dugdale's " Baronage of England," which was published in 1675-6, is the earliest work on the English peerage. The first edition of Collins's " Peerage" was published in 1709. PEG-TANKARD. Invented by Dunstan, Archbishop of Canterbury (960-88), to prevent one guest from taking a larger draught than his companions. The divisions were marked by pegs or pins; hence the expression, "A peg too low." PEGU (Asia), capital of a province of the same name, was besieged by the Burmese, and capitulated in 1757. The English obtained pos- session of Pegu in 1824, and, having restored it at the conclusion of the war with Burmah, it was again taken, Nov. 21, 1852. The whole province was annexed by proclamation, Dec. 30, 1852, and the close of the war officially pro- claimed, June 30, 1853. PEIHO (China). An attempt to force a pas- sage up the mouth of this river by a French and English squadron, under Admiral Hope, June 24, 1859, was resisted by th^ Chinese forts, and resulted in a disastrous repulse. The English lost 25 men killed and 93 wounded on board the gunboats, and 64 killed and 252 wounded in the attempt to effect a landing. The Taku forts at the mouth of the Peiho were captured by the allied French and English squadron Aug. 21, 1860. PEINE FORTE ET DURE, the penalty for those who, being arraigned for felony, refused to plead and remained mute, was substituted for close imprisonment with scanty diet, about 1406. It meant " strong and hard pain ; " for the sufferer was literally pressed to death, large weights being placed upon him. This punish- ment, inflicted at Cambridge as late as 1741, was abolished by 12 Geo. III. c. 20 (1772). PEISHWA, or PRIME MINISTER, among the Mahrattas, seized the supreme power, and fixed his residence at Poonah in 1749. The title, which originated in 1708, was abolished in 1818. PEKIN (China) was besieged and taken by the Mongols, led by Zingis Khan, when the in- habitants, for want of ammunition, are said to have discharged ingots of gold and silver upon their assailants, 1214. Kublai Khan rebuilt it, and made it his capital in 1260. It is divided into Neitching, the Northern, or Exterior, and Waitching, the Southern, or Interior City ; the former the Tartar, and the latter the Chinese portion. A British embassy, intrusted to Lord Macartney, arrived Sep. 14, 1793. The city was entered by the allied armies of France and England, Oct. 12, 1860. A convention was signed Oct. 24, and they evacuated Pekin Nov. 5, 1860. The English plenipotentiary took up his residence at Pekin Feb. 26, 1861. PELAGIANISM [ 760 ] PELUSIUM PELAGIANISM, so named from Pelagius, supposed to be the Greek name for Morgan, or Seaborn, a native of Britain, its founder, who began to disseminate his views respecting ori- ginal sin and grace, maintaining man's com- plete Free Will, at Rome, in 404 ; and after the capture of that city, in 1410, in the Holy Land was examined by a council at Jerusalem, Aug. i," and another at Diospolis, Dec. 20, 415, at both of which the tenets passed without condemnation. It was condemned by a council at Carthage ; 18 bishops in Italy were deposed for their ad- herence to it ; and Pelagius himself was banished from Italy by the Emperor Honorius in 418. Having extended into Britain, two Gallic bishops were summoned over to suppress the doctrine in 442. A conference was held at Veru- lam between its supporters and the orthodox party in 446, and the Pelagians were banished from Britain in 452. The Council of Orange decreed the doctrine of Augustus, in opposi- tion to Pelagian! sm and Semi-pelagiaiiism, to be established, July 3, 529. Their decree was confirmed by the Council of Valencia, and by Pope Boniface II. in 530. PELAGONIA (Macedonia). The name, at first applied to a district, was afterwards con- ferred upon the chief town of the Pelagones, the capital of the Fourth Macedonia. PELASGI, an ancient race spread over Greece, and the islands of the yEgean Sea, are first mentioned by Homer as furnishing a con- tingent under Achilles at the siege of Troy, B.C. 962. ,Niebuhr considers them to have been the original inhabitants both of Greece and Italy. PELEKANON (Battle). Orchan defeated Andronicus III., who was wounded in the en- counter, in 1329. PELEW ISLANDS (Pacific Ocean), said to have been discovered by the Spaniavi! 1545, were first brought into notice through the wreck of the Antelope, East-Indiaman, in 1783. Prince Lee Boo, .son of King Abba Thulle, who had been intrust ed by his father to Capt. Wilson, was brought in 1 784 to Engla?: i he only survived five months. The East India Company sent information of the event to the islands in 1790, together with a pre- sent of live stock and vegetables, which were found to have flourished well when the place was re-visited by an English vessel in I7 PELHAM ADMINISTRATION. The death of the Earl of Wilmington rendered new ministerial arrangements necessary, and Mr. Pelham, brother of the Duke of Newcastle, was made first lord of the treasury and chan- cellor of the exchequer, Aug. 25, 1743. His colleagues in the cabinet were : Lord Chancellor ............... Lord Hardwicke. 1'ivsidciit of the Council ...Eurl of Harrington. Privy Seal ........................ Earl Oower. Secretaries of State ......... Ordnance ........................... Duke of Montagu. Paymaster of the Forces ...Sir T. Winnington, Bart. Earl Gower was succeeded by the Earl of Cholmondeley, as lord privy seal, in Dec., 1743. Lord Carteret, who had succeeded to the title of Earl Granville, resigned Nov. 24, 1744, and the Pelham administration was re- constructed. The chiefs of several parties coalesced ; from which circumstance the new ministry was called the Broad Bottom Admi- nistration (q. v.}. PELIGNI, a people of central Italy, and, ac- cording to Ovid, of Sabine descent, are first mentioned in Roman history as having been attacked by the Latins, B.C. 343. They entered into a treaty of peace with the Romans, B.C 304 ; afforded them material aid against the Samnites at the battle of Sentinum, B.C. 295; and raised volunteers for Scipio, B.C. 205. At the outbreak of the Social War, B.C. 90, they joined the Marsi, making their chief city, Cor- finium, the capital of the confederate states. They submitted to the Romans B.C. 88, and were soon after admitted to the franchise. In the civil war between Csesar and Pompey, their chief town, Corfiuium, was garrisoned to op- pose Caesar, B.C. 49 ; and they espoused the side of Vespasian against Vitellius, in 69, which was their last appearance in history. PHI, LA (Macedonia). Philip II. made this a royal residence, and it became the capital instead of Edessa (q. v.}. Alexander III. (the Great 'i was born here in July, B.C. 356. JEmi- lius Paulus took it B.C. 168, and it became a Roman colony. PELLA (Palestine), also called Butis, is said to have been colonized by Macedonians. An- tiochus III. (the Great) took it B.C. 198, and it troyed by Alexander Jannseus (B.C. 104 B.C. 77), King of the Jews. Pompey restored it, B.C. 50, and the Jews took refuge here in 66, when Jerusalem was threatened. (See EBION- rn:s, NAZARENES, &c.) PELLS. (See EXCHEQUER, Comptroller- General.) PELOPIUM, discovered in columbite by 1 802, is now known as niobium. PELOPONNESIAN WAR, between Athens and Sparta, at the head of a confederacy, commenced with the siege of Potidsea by the Athenians, B.C. 431. The contest continued 27 years, and was terminated by the defeat of the Athenians at yEgospotami, after which Ly- sander sailed to Athens, compelled it to sur- render, and demolished the walls, B.C. 404. PELOPONNESUS. The southern part of Greece received this name from Pelops, of Lydia, who, according to the legend, settled there B.C. 1283. The name was changed to that of Morea after 1205. PELUSIUM (Egypt;. The modern Tineh, called Sin by the Hebrews (Ezekiel xxx. 15), and by the Copts Peromi, is supposed to have been the ancient Abaris or Anaris, founded B.C. 2000. The Assyrians, under Sennacherib, encamped under its walls, when the field-mice gnawed asunder their bow-strings and shield- straps, about B.C. 710, or, according to Raw- linson, B.C. 698. Cambyses took it when he invaded Egypt, B.C. 525, and it fell before the Persian arms B.C. 456. Alexander III. (the Great) entered it B.C. 333. It was captured by the Persians B.C. 309, by Antiochus Epiphanes B.C. 173, and by Marcus Antonius B.C. 55. When Amrou subdued the country, in 618, it surrendered, and afterwards fell into decay. PELWORM [ 761 1 PENNY PELWORM.- This island, off the coast of Sleswig, belonging to Denmark, was detached from the larger island of Nordstrand by a flood PEMANEON (Battle). John Ducas Vataces, Emperor of Nicsea, defeated the Latin Em- peror, Robert of Courtenay, in this battle, fought in 1224. PEMBROKE (Wales). The shire of which this town is the capital was a county palatine until 1536. The castle, a Norman structure, came into the hands of Gilbert Strongbow, who received the title of Earl of Pembroke from Henry I., in 1107. Henry VII. was born in the castle Jan. 21, 1456. In the suburbs are the ruins of a priory founded in 1098. It was captured" in 1648, after a six weeks' siege, by Cromwell. The royal dockyard was removed from Milford to this place in 1814. PEMBROKE COLLEGE (Oxford), built on the site of Broadgates Hall, and sometimes called Segrim, or Segreve Hall, was established by letters patent June 22, 1624. The chapel was consecrated in 1732. PEMBROKE HALL (Cambridge) was founded under the name of Valence-Mary, by Mary de St. Paul, widow of Aymerde Valence, Earl of Pembroke, in 1347. The chapel, built by Matthew Wren, Bishop of Ely, from the designs of his nephew, Sir Christopher Wren, was consecrated in 1665. PENAL SERVITUDE was substituted for transportation by 16 & 17 Viet. c. 99 (Aug. 20, 1853), which took effect from Sep. i, 1853 ; and was amended by 20 & 21 Viet. c. 3, June 26, 1857, ana 27 & 28 Viet. c. 47 (July 25, 1864). PENANCE. The practice of performing penance as expiation for sin was introduced into the Roman Catholic Church about the middle of the 2nd century. In the 4th cen- tury they were divided into four classes, weepers, hearers, kneelers, and standers. The laws on the subject became so numerous that the penitents were compiled into a sepa- rate code by John Jejunator, Patriarch of Constantinople, about 595. Public penance gradually ceased in the lath century. Bing- ham states that the performance of penance always necessitated the penitent to assume sackcloth and ashes, and either to shave the head, or wear the hair dishevelled. It is one of the seven sacraments of the Roman Catholic Church. PENANG, or PRINCE OF WALES' ISLAND (Strait of Malacca), was bestowed_ by the King of Keddah as a marriage portion on Capt. Francis Light, an Englishman who had mar- ried his daughter, in 1785. He transferred it to the East India Company, and was made governor July 7, 1786. It was made an inde- pendent presidency in 1805; and, with other settlements in the strait, was again brought under the government of Bengal in 1830. It was placed under the general government of India in 1851. PENATES. (See LAKES AND PENATES.) PENINSULAR AVAR. Application for aid against the French invaders having been made by Spain, Sir Arthur Wellesley sailed from Cork with 10,000 men, July 12, 1808, and the troops landed at Figueras, in Portugal, Aug. i 3. He defeated the French at VimeiraAug. 21. A convention, called the convention of Cintra, by which Junot agreed to evacuate Portugal, was signed Aug. 30. The English army entered Lisbon, and Wellesley obtained leave to return home in Sep. The command of 20,000 men having devolved upon Sir John Moore, he com- menced his retreat before Soult, and reached Corunna Jan. 13, 1809. A battle was fought, in which Moore lost his life, Jan. 16 ; and the em- barkation of the troops was completed Jan. 1 8. Sir Arthur Wellesley again received the command, and arrived at Lisbon April 22, 1809. After several successful campaigns, the French were driven out of the country, April 5, 1814. PENISCOLA (Spain) was taken from the Moors in 1233 by James I. of Aragon. It ca- pitulated to the French marshal Suchet, with 74 pieces of cannon and 1,000 men, in Feb., 1812. It was strengthened and garrisoned, June, 1813, and was invested by the Spaniards in March, 1814 ; but held out until after peace had been concluded, in April, 1814. PENITENCE. The order of Penitence of St. Magdalen was founded by Bernard, a native of Marseilles, for the reformation of fallen women, in 1272, and was constituted by Pope Nicholas III. (1277-80) under the rule of St. Augustine. PENITENTIARY. The first was established by the Quakers of Pennsylvania in 1786. (See MAGDALENS.) PENITENTIARY PRIESTS, whose duty was to receive the confession of offenders and direct them in the conduct of repentance, were established in some of the eastern churches in the 3rd century. The office of penitentiary presbyter was abolished at Constantinople in i, and other churches followed the example, office of penitentiary at Rome is filled by a cardinal. PENITENTS. (See BIANCHI.) PENNSYLVANIA (N. America) was first settled by the Swedes and Finns in 1627. They were reduced by the Dutch in 1655 ; and the whole territory passed under English rule in 1664. It was granted by letters patent to William Penn, in consideration of a debt due by government, March 4, 1681. He founded Philadelphia in 1682, where the delegates of the colonies assembled to resist taxation by the mother country in 1774. The constitution was adopted Dec. 13, 1787. PENNY. This coin, originally of silver, is first mentioned in the laws of Ina, King of Wessex (688 727). It was reduced by Edward III. from 22j to 20 grains in weight, in 1346. The first legal copper coin was introduced in the reign of James I., about 1609. PENNY BANKS were established in 1851. PENNY POST. (-See POSTAGE and POST OFFICE.) PENNY READINGS. Mr. J. R. Planche delivered an address at a series of readings blended with music, given at the Crown and Anchor Tavern, in the Strand, in 1830. Penny readings, established at Ipswich by Scully and Go wring in 1859, were gradually introduced as an amusement for winter evenings in various parts of the kingdom. " Penny Read- ings in Prose and Verse," by J. E. Carpenter, K PENON DE VELEZ [ 762 ] PERE-LA-CHAISE the circulation of which has extensively popu- larized the movement, was issued by Wanie and Co., London, in 1865. TENON DE VELEZ (Morocco) was founded by Pedro of Navarre, in 1508. The Moors seized it in 1522, and the Spaniards regained possession in 1664. PEN, PEONNA, or PETHERTON (Battle). Cenwalch, King of Wessex, defeated the Britons in this battle, fought in 658. PENRUDDOCK'S REBELLION, in favour of monarchy, was suppressed in Devonshire, whither the Royalists had retreated, Col. John Penruddock being taken, amongst others, and executed, May 16, 1655. PENSACOLA (N. America). This town in Florida was captured by the Spaniards May 10, 1781. The English occupied it in 1814, it passed to the United States in 1820, and it was evacuated by the Confederates May 9, 1862. PENSIONARY PARLIAMENT. This name was given to the second Parliament summoned by Charles II., from the number of pensions conferred during the session. It met May 8, 1661, and consisted of 16 sessions, the last of which terminated Dec. 30, 1678. It was dis- solved Jan. 24, 1679, and has also been called the Long Parliament. PENSION LJST. To prevent the crown from burdening the revenue with improvident grants, a law (i Anne c. 7) was passed, regu- lating all made after March 25, 1702 ; and a civil list was settled on George III., in lieu of the larger branches of the hereditary revenue, in 1760. The pension list was examined by a committee of the House of Commons in 1837. 1'UNTAG HAPH. (See PANTOGRAPH.) PKXTA l>< )LIS. (See CYRENA PENTATEUCH, or the five books of Moses, were written by the Hebrew lawgiver about B.C. 1452. (See COLENSO CASE, DKCKIOTALS, ttc. ; PENTECOST, or FEAST OF WEEKS, ob- served seven weeks after the Passover, was es- tablished by M uses, at the command of God, B.C. 1491 (Lev. xxiii. 15). The Holy Ghost descended upon the apostles at Jerusalem, according to the promise of our Saviour, on the day of Pentecost, May 26, 30 (Acts ii. i 6). PENTLAND HILLS (Scotland .An insur- rection having broken out in Scotland, on account of the feelings of hatred entertained towards Archbishop Sharp, the insurgents were defeated here Nov. 28, 1666. PENZANCE (Cornwall) received a charter for a market and fair in 1332 ; was incorporated in 1615 ; was burned by the Spaniards in July, 1595 ; and was taken by Fairfax, the Parlia- mentary commander, in 1646. Sir Humphry Davy was born here Dec. 17, 1778. PEPPER, first noticed by Hippocrates (B.C. 460 357), was a favourite ingredient in Roman cookery. Alaric I. demanded 3,000 Ib. weight of pepper as a portion of the ransom of Rome, in 409. A few pounds of pepper was considered a rich present in the i3th century. PEPPERERS. (See GROCERS' COMPANY.) ^PEPUZIANS. The patriarch of the Monta- riists resided in 171 or 172 at Pepuza, to which they gave the mystical name of Jerusalem, a small town in Phrygia ; and on this account they are called Pepuzians and Cataphrygians. PERA. The residence of the English am- bassador is situated in this suburb of Constanti- nople, which suffered severely from a fire in 1831, when the ambassador's residence was destroyed. Pera has frequently suffered from conflagrations. (See GALATA.) PERAMBULATOR. (See ODOMETER.) PERCEVAL ADMINISTRATION. On the death of the Duke of Portland, Oct. 30, 1809, Mr. S. Perceval became first lord of the treasury. The cabinet was thus constituted : First Lord of the Treasury,-) Su^a'nd "S *he> M ''- Spencer Perceva,. Duchy of Lancaster ) Lord Chancellor Lord Eldon. Pivsiilent of the Council Eiirl CanuU-n. Privy Seal Karl of Westmoreland. Home Secretary Mr. Iticluinl Uyder. Foreign Secretary Marquis of Welledey. Colonial Secretary Earl of Liverpool. Admiralty Lord Miiluruve. ( )rdnu.iicu Earl of Chutlmm. Board of Trade Earl Bathurst. Lord Mulgrave became master-general of the ordnance May i, 1810, and was replaced at the Admiralty by Mr. Charles Yorke, June 23. Viscount Melville succeeded Mr. Charles Yorke at the Admiralty in March, 1812. Viscount Castlereagh became foreign minister, in place of the Marquis of Wellesley, who resigned ; and Viscount Sidney became president of the council in April, 1812. As the prime minister, Mr. Perceval, was entering the lobby of Die House of Commons, May n, 1812, he was shot by a man named Bellingham. Death was almost instantaneous. (See LIVERPOOL ADMI- NISTRATION.) PERCUSSION GUNS. The substitution of detonating powder for flint and steel in dis- charging firearms was the invention of the Rev. A. J. Forsyth, of Belhelvie, Aberdeen- shire, whose patent was dated April n, 1807. Percussion-cup guns were introduced into the French army in 1830. (See FIRE ARMS.) PERCY SOCIETY (London), named after Dr. Thomas Percy (17281811), Bishop of Dro- more, was founded in 1840 for the purpose of bringing to light important but obscure speci- mens of ballad poetry or works illustrative of that department of literature. PERED (Battle). The allied Russian and Austrian array defeated the Hungarians, com- manded by Georgey, in this battle, fought June 20, 1849. PEREKOP (Russia). The Tartar lines, ex- tending across the isthmus of Perekop, from the Sea of Azof to the Black Sea, were forced by the Russian marshal Mtinnich, May 27, 1736. The fortress of Perekop, situated on the isthmus, was assailed by Marshal Lacy, and capitulated in two days, July 10, 1738. It was carried by assault, against a defending army of 50,000 Tartars and 7,000 Turks, the Russian assailants being commanded by Prince Dolgo- ruki, in 1771. PERE-LA-CHAISE (Paris). This most im- portant cemetery of the French metropolis is named after Pere-la-Chaise, the confessor of Louis XIV., who occupied a house on its site Aug. 25, 1624- Jan. 20, 1709). The ground PERFECTIBILISTS [ 763 1 PERJURY had for about 150 years been the property of a convent of Jesuits, who were compelled to sell it to pay their debts, in 1763. In 1800 it by the municipali who employed M. Brongniart to convert it was purchased by the municipality of Paris, into the French National Cemetery. It was consecrated in the early part of 1804, and was first used for interments May 21, 1821. On the approach of the Allied armies to Paris in 1814, Pfere-la-Chaise was strongly fortified by the pupils of the schools of Alfort, who were, however, driven from their position by the Russians, March 30. PERFECTIBILISTS. -(See ILLUMINATI.) PERFUMERY. The use of perfumes (Pro- verb xxvii. 9) is of the highest antiquity. They were employed by the Egyptians in the embalming of the dead, and by the Jews in the service of the temple. Babylon was cele- brated by the ancients for the excellence of its perfumes. The Greeks and Romans used them extensively, and regarded them as an offering acceptable to the gods ; and their poets always accompany the description of the appearance of any of their divinities by a notice of the ambrosial odour which they diffused. The taste for perfumes reached its height in this country in the reign of Elizabeth, and pomander balls and pounce-boxes figure largely in the writings of her time. Perfumery was taxed, and dealers were compelled to take out a licence by 26 Geo. III. c. 49 (1786). PERGAMUS, or PERGAMUM (Asia Minor). This city, said to have been founded by a colony of Arcadians, and to have been named after Pergamus, a son of Pyrrhus, was, with the surrounding districts, formed into a king- dom by a Paphlagonian eunuch, named Phile- tserus, B.C. 283. Lysmiachus, one of Alexander the Third's generals, had selected this place for the reception of his treasures, amounting to 9,000 talents, and he committed its govern- ment to PhiletaBrus, who revolted. Attains I., one of his successors, who assumed the title of king, died B.C. 197. Eumenes II., his son, who rendered it a large and powerful kingdom, and collected a library only inferior to that of Alexandria, died B.C. 159. It was bequeathed to the Romans by Attalus III., B.C. 133, and, having revolted, was subdued and made a Roman province, under the name of Asia, B.C. 1 30. It contained one of the seven churches of Asia, mentioned Rev. ii. 12. A council was held here in 152. A.D. 383. Philetffirus. 263. Eumenes I. 241. Attains I. 197. Eumenes II. SOVEREIGNS OF PERGAMUS. \.~D. 159. Attains II. (Philadel- phus). 138. Attalus III. (Philo- metor). PERGA, or PERGE (Pamphylia). At this city, renowned for the worship of Artemis, Paul and Barnabas preached with great suc- cess (Acts xiii. 13 and xiv. 25), in 45. PERIGUEUX (France). This town, in the old province of Purigord, stands near the site of the Roman Vesunna, the capital of the Petrocorii. Louis IX. (1226-70) ceded it to the English, from whom it was finally wrested by Charles V. (1364-80). It was a stronghold of the Huguenots, was several times assailed, and was annexed to the French crown in i6. PERIM, or MEHUN (Strait of Bab-el-Man- deb). This island, commanding the entrance of the Red Sea, was occupied by the English in 1799, on account of the French invasion of Egypt. They withdrew in 1801, but sent another expedition, which landed here Feb. i, 1857, and took formal possession Feb. 14. PERINTHUS (Thrace), originally a Samian colony, was founded, according to Syncellus, B.C. 599, but Panofka places its origin as early as B.C. looo. It was taken by the Persians B.C. 506, and besieged B.C. 340 by Philip II. of Macedon, who was compelled to abandon the enterprise B.C. 339. It was at one time called Mygdonia, and assumed the name of Hera- clea in the 4th century of the Christian sera ; and its old imperial palace and aqueducts were restored by the Emperor Justinian I. (527565)- PERIODICALS. (See MAGAZINES, NEWS- PAPERS, and REVIEWS.) PERIPATETIC PHILOSOPHY was founded by Aristotle the Stagirite, who became a pupil of Plato B.C. 367. He was appointed tutor to Alexander III. of Macedon, at that time 13 years old, B.C. 342, and was assigned the Lyceum at Athens as a school wherein to teach his disciples, B.C. 333. Having been charged with impiety and condemned to death, he fled to Chalcis, where he died in Aug. B.C. 322. From his habit of giving lessons while walking in the groves of the Lyceum at Athens, his system has received the title of the Peripatetic school. PERISABOR (Assyria). This city, also called Anbar, was destroyed by Julian during his invasion of Assyria in 363. PERJURY. The Levitical law punished the crime of wilful perjury with death (Lev. v. i). The Greeks had severe laws against it ; but it was, notwithstanding, so common amongst them that Grceca fides became a proverbial expression for false witness. Other ancient nations punished it with death or fines ; but most frequently it was regarded as an offence of so serious a nature that the criminal was left to the justice of the gods. The early Christians had various laws on the subject ; by some of which it was atoned by severe penances, while others rendered the perjurer excommxmicate for life. The Anglo-Saxons inflicted whipping, and sometimes death, on perjurers. By n Hen. VII. c. 25 (1494), per- jury committed by unlawful maintenance, imbracing, or corruption of officers, or in the chancery, or before the king's council, shall be punished by the discretion of the lord- chancellor, treasurer, both the chief justices, and the clerk of the rolls ; and if the com- plainant prove not, or pursue not his bill, he shall yield to the party wronged his costs and damages. By 5 Eliz. c. 9 (1562) perjurers were rendered liable to six months' imprison- ment, with a fine of ^40, and in default of payment, to have both ears nailed to the pillory. By 8 Geo. I. c. 6 (1722), a quaker making a false affirmation incurred the penal- ties of a wilful perjurer. By 2 Geo. II. c. 25, s. 2 (1729), the judges were empowered to PERNAMBUCO [ 764 J PERSIA sentence persons convicted of this crime to transportation or imprisonment for seven years ; and the modes of indictment and pro- secution were regulated by 23 Geo. II. c. n, ss. i & 2 (1749). The last-mentioned act was amended by 14 & 15 Viet. c. 100, s. 19 (Aug. 7, 1851). The Abolition of Oaths bill, 5 & 6 Will. IV. c. 62 (Sep. 9, 1835), declares the making of- a false declaration to be a misdemeanour. PERNAMBUCO (Brazil). This city, com- prising the towns of Recife, San Antonio, Boa Vista, and Olinda, was founded by Duarte Coelho in 1530, and was seized and occupied for 30 days by the English in 1594. It was taken by the Dutch Feb. 16, 1630, and was the scene of an insurrection in 1661, when the governor was arrested by the populace, and sent home to Portugal. In 1676 it was erected into a bishop's see. An insurrection resulted in the flight of the governor, Nov. 7, 1710. Insurrections occurred in March, 1817, in 1821, and in 1829. PERNAU, or PERNOW (Russia). Charles XII. of Sweden landed here Oct. 17, 1700, in his campaign against the Russians. PERONNE (France). Charles III. (the Simple) died a captive in its castle, Oct. 7, 929. Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, held Louis XI. prisoner here in 1468, extorting from him (Friday, Oct. 14) a treaty by which he abandoned the sovereignty of Burgundy, and consented to aid in the suppression of the revolt which he himself had excited in Lk'^u. (See IKON CAGE.) The assembly of notables that met at Tours in Nov., 1470, declared the treaty null and void, and pronounced the Duke of Burgundy guilty of high treason. Peronne was unsuccessfully besieged by the troops of Charles V. in 1536 ; and here the Roman Catholic league was organized by the Duke of Guise in 1576. Never having been captured, it was styled La Pucelle (the maiden), a designation rendered no longer appropriate, as Sir Arthur Wellesley carried it by assault June 26, 1815. PERPENDICULAR, ENGLISH. (See GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE.) PERPETUAL CURACY. (-See CURATE.) PERPETUAL EDICTS. One was compiled under the directions of the Emperor Hadrian, by Salvius Julianus, in 132 ; another, stipu- lating terms of peace between Spain and the Netherlands, was signed at Marchc-en- Famine Feb. 12, and at Brussels Feb. 17, 1577, and published March 12. The brothers John and Cornelius De Witt induced the states of Hol- land to pass a perpetual edict abolishing the office of stadtholder in 1667. It was repealed July 3, 1672, and William Prince of Orange appointed stadtholder July 8. PERPETUAL MOTION. The Marquis of Worcester, who died in April, 1667, Bishop Wilkins (1614 Nov. 19, 1672), and others, constructed machines to establish perpetual motion, which was shown to be impossible by Sir Isaac Newton (1642 March 20, 1727), and De La Hire in 1678. The French Academy, in 1775, declared "The construction of perpetual motion is impossible." Various patents have been taken out for machines of the kind. PERPIGNAN (France), said to have been founded in 1068, was taken from Spain by Louis XI. in 1474. It was restored to Spain in 1493 ; again besieged, without effect, in 1542 ; retaken by France in 1642 ; and ceded to that country, with the province of Roussillou, by the treaty of the Pyrenees, Nov. 7, 1659. The university was founded by King Pedro in 1349, and a council was held here in 1408. Its de- fences were thoroughly repaired in 1823. PERS ARMENIA. -The nobles of Armenia rebelled against Artasires about 440, and re- duced his kingdom to a province of Persia, under the name of Persarmenia. PERSECUTIONS. The most important are the ten general persecutions to which the early Christians were subjected by the Roman emperors. They are as follows : A.D. 64. The Christians are first persecuted by Nero, on a charge of having set fire to Rome. Tacitus enumerates crucifixion, burning alive, and bait- ing by dogs and wild beasts, among their tortures. 95. The second, under Domitian, commences with the banishment of his niece Domitilla, and the exe- cution of the consul Clemens. 106. The third under Trajan. 166. The fourth by Marcus Aurelius. 198. Septimius Severus publishes his edict against the Christians. 335. The favourites of Alexander Severus arc barba- rously massacred by Maximin I. As there were many Christians among them, it is styled the sixth persecution. 350. The Kmpenir Decius exceeds all his predecessors hi the severity of his persecutions. 358. Valerian adopts severe measures against the Chris- tians. 375. Aurclian publishes edicts against Christianity. 303, Feb. 24- Diocletian publishes his first edict against the Christians, ordering the demolition of their churches and the execution of all who refused to renounce their worship. The persecution thus commenced was continued with great barbarity for ten years. (See MAKIAN PERSECUTION.) PERSEPOLIS (Persia), supposed to have been from the earliest times the capital, con- tained the magnificent royal palace which, together with a large portion of the city, was burned by Alexander III. (the Great) in his drunken frenzy, B.C. 331. PERSIA, or IRAN (Asia). According to the national traditions, its first king was Mah-a- bad, who taught the inhabitants agriculture and the manufacture of metals, and introduced other arts of civilization. Rawlinson makes it fifth in order of the " Five Great Monarchies of the Ancioiit Eastern World." Its early his- tory is involved in obscurity. B.C. 2160. Kaiumarath, or Kaiomurs (according to national traditions), founds the Pischdadiau dynasty. 2010. Persia is tributary to Syria. 1740. Parhang, King of Turan, invading Persia with an army of 400,000 men, defeats Nodar, and es- tablishes his own son Afrasiab on the Persian throne. 1730 (about). Afrasiab retires to his own country, and is succeeded in Persia by Zu or Zoab. 1661. Afrasiab invades Persia, and subverts the 1'isrh- dadian dynasty. 643. Kai-Kobad, or Cyaxares, expels the Turani from Persia, and establishes the Kaianite dynasty. 640 (about). Persia is invaded and made tributary by the Scythians. 625. The Persians assist in the capture of Xineveh. 598. Kai-Kaus, King of Persia, is defeated and made prisoner by the King of Turan, from whom he is rescued by Bustem. PERSIA 765 PERSIA 538. Cyrus conquers Babyl 1'iicenicia is annexed to Persia. The religion of .. 596. Egypt, Syria, Arabia, and Asia Minor ar sub- jected by the Persians. 559. Cyrus, or Kai-Khosru, becomes King of Persia, and defeats the Assyrians and the Babylonians. 558. On the death of Astyages of Media, that country is annexed to Persia by Cyrus. 548. Battle of Thymbra (q. v.). 554. According to Rawlinson, Cyrus seizes Sardis and takes Croesus, King of I>ydia, prisoner. Most chronologers give the date B.C. 546. 543. Cyrus annexes Asia Minor. 538. Cyrus conquers Babylon. 536. Zoroaster is established. Cyrus issues his decree for the rebuilding of the Temple at Jerusalem (q. r.). 529. Death of Cyrus. 525. Cambyses conquers Egypt and makes it a Persian province. 522. Cambyses is slain by accident, and the sovereignty is usurped by Smerdis the Magian. 521. Assassination of Smerdis by seven conspirators, the chief of whom, Darius I. (Hystaspis), ascends the throne. 517. Darius I. takes and destroys Babylon. 513. Darius I. invades Macedonia. Death of Zoroaster. 508. Darius I. makes Macedon, Thrace, and the countries north of the Indus, tributary to his power. 501. The Persians are defeated in the Naxian war. 500. The lonians revolt. 499. The Athenians assist the Ionian rebels against Persia. 495. The Ionian revolt is suppressed. 494. The Greeks are defeated in the naval battle of Lade. 492. Mardonius invades Greece (q. t>.), and is defeated both by sea and land. 490. Datis and Artaphernes invade Greece without success. (See MARATHON.) 486. The Egyptians revolt. 485. Darius I. (Hystaspis) dies, and is succeeded by Xerxes I. (the Ahasuerus of the book of Esther). 480. Xerxes I. invades Greece. (See ARXEMISIUM, SALAMIS, and THERMOPYLAE.) 4*79. The Persians, after the defeats of Mycale and Plataea (q. v.\ retreat from Greece, and lose their supremacy in Macedon and Thrace. 466. The Persians are defeated at the Eurymedon (q. v.). Ionia regains her independence. 465. Assassination of Xerxes I. by Artabanus and the eunuch Spamitres. 464. Artaxerxes I. (Longimanus) succeeds. 458. Artaxerxes I. marries the Jewess Esther. 455. An Egyptian revolt is suppressed. 449. The Greeks defeat the Persians at Salamis, in Cyprus. 447. Megabyzus, Satrap of Syria, rebels, and compels Artaxerxes I. to concede his demands. 425. Artaxerxes I. falls a victim to a conspiracy. Xerxes II. reigns for two months, and is succeeded by Sogdianus. 413. The Egyptians shake off the Persian yoke. 401. The Spartans send an army into Persia to assist the rebel Cyrus, who is defeated and slain at the battle of Cunaxa (q. v.) ; and his Greek allies, under Xenophon, commence the memorable retreat of the Ten Thousand (q. v.). 396. Agesilaus, King of Sparta, invades Persia, and pains many important victories. 394. The Spartans are defeated by the Persians and Athenians at the naval battle of the Cnidus (q. .). 387. Clazomense and the Greek colonies of Asia Minor are restored to Persia by the peace of Antalcidas (q. v.). 383. The Bithynians render themselves independent of Persia. 359. Artaxerxes III. (Ochus), on his accession, murders all his relations and many of the nobility. 354. The Thebans assist Artabazus in his revolt against Artaxerxes III. (Ochus). 351. The Sidonians revolt. In dread of being defeated by Artaxerxes III., they burn their city and perish in the flames. 350. Artaxerxes III. (Ochus) invades and subjugates Egypt 338. Artaxerxes III. (Ochus), with all his family, is poisoned by Bagoas. 334. Persia is invaded by Alexander III. (the Great). (See MACEDON.) 331, Oct. i. Alexander III. makes himself master of Persia by his victory at Arbela (q. v.). 330. Darius III. (Codomannus) is assassinated by Bessus, and Persia is added to the Macedonian do- minions. 323. On the death of Alexander III., Persia is seized by Seleucus Nicator, King of Syria. 256 or 250. Persia passes under the Parthian dynasty of the Arsacidse. A.D. 226. Artaxerxes, or Ardshir, founds the dynasty of the Sassanides (q. v.). 240. Ardshir abdicates in favour of his son Shahpoor or Sapor I. 258. Shahpoor I. annexes Mesopotamia. 260. Shahpoor I. takes the Roman Emperor Valerian prisoner. 383. The Roman Emperor Carus invades Persia and subdues Mesopotamia and Ctesiphon. 297- Galerius invades Persia and is defeated by Narses, King of Persia. 298. Galerius defeats Narses, and compels him to sur- render Mesopotamia, Kurdistan, and other pro- vinces to the Romans. 326. Christianity is prohibited in Persia. 337. War is renewed with Rome. 348. The Romans under Constantius II. are defeated at Singara. 363, April 7. The Emperor Julian invades Persia. June 26. Julian is killed while pursuing the fugitive Persians on the banks of the Tigris. 366. Iberia is added to Persia. 412. Yezdijird I. reconquers Armenia. 420. The death of Yezdijird I. is followed bv a war of succession, which terminates in favour of Vah- ranes or Baharam V. 421. Arabia Felix is made tributary to Persia. 422. Another Roman war is commenced. 428. Armenia is permanently united to Persia. 430. The Huns invade Persia. 488. Firoze and most of his sons fall in battle against the Huns. 502. Anastasius I. refuses to pay tribute to Kobad, King of Persia, who declares war against the Eastern empire. 540. Chosroes, or Nushirvan I., invades Syria and sacks Antioch. 550. The Persians attack the Lazi (q. .). 572. Dara is taken by the Persians. 586. The Romans gain a great victory over the Persians at Solaion. 590. Baharam heads a general insurrection against Hoormuz, or Hormisdas, who is deposed and put to death. Baharam is defeated by the Greeks and Persian loyalists at the battle of Balarath. 6ll. Chosroes, or Nushirvan II., overruns Syria. (See ANTIOCH.) 614. Chosroes, or Nushirvan II., completes the conquest of Palestine. 616. Chosroes, or Nushirvan II., conquers Egypt and Asia Minor. 622. Heraclius invades Persia and defeats the Persians in several battles. 628. Chosroes, or Nushirvan II., is murdered by his son Siroes, and peace is concluded with the Eastern empire. 629. Ardshir, the last male descendant of the Sassanides, is murdered. 636. The Saracens invade Persia and gain the battle ol Cadesia (q. v.). 651. Yezdijird is betrayed to the Saracens, and the whole of Persia passes under their yoke. 813. Taher revolts from the caliph, and establishes the Taherite dynasty. 872. Yakoub-ben-Seis establishes the Soffaride dy- nasty. 874. Ismael Samanee establishes the Saminide dynasty. , 932. The Bowides (q. .) establish their authority in some parts of Persia. 957. Alp Tegin founds the independent principality of Ghizni (q. .). " 1026. The Persian poet Ferdusi flourishes. 1038. The Seljukian Turks take Persia, and establish their dynasty. 1068. Alp Arslan conquers Georgia and Armenia. 1157. Persia is convulsed with civil war. PERSIA [ 766 ] PERTH A.D. 1194. Defeat and death of Togrel, the last Seljukian sultstn of Persia. 1318. The Mongols (q. v.) invade Persia. 1323- Persia U subdued by the Mongols under Zingis Khan. 1258. Holagou Khan, grandson of Zingis, conquers and governs I'ersia. 1299. A famine and pestilence ravage Persia. 1345. Bagdad is made the capital. 7380. Timour invades I'ersia. 1387. Timour takes Ispahan (q.v.). 1393. Timour completes the conquest of Persia. 1437. Jehan Shah conquers Georgia and great part of Persia. 1468. The White Sheep (q. v.) obtain possession of the western portion of the countrv. 1488. Death of the Sultan Hyder in battle with the King of Shirwan at Gulistan. 1502. Ismail Shah expels the Turks of the White Sheep, and esMlilishes the Snllide dynasty. 1514, Aug. 17. Battle of Shaldiran (q. v.). 1519. Ismael reconquers Georgia. 1534. The Persians defeat the Turks at the battle of Sul- tamah. 1571. Persia is desolated by plague and famine. 1574. Casbin, or Kasviii, is made the capital. 1584. Shah Abbas I. takes Casbin. 1590. Peace is purchased from the Turks by the cession of Georgia, Erivan, and Tabreez. Ispahan is made the capital. 1606. Shah Abbas I. annexes Laristan and Kandahar to Persia. 1618. The Turks, defeated at the battle of Shiblai, are compelled to surrender Servia, Erivan, and Tabreez. 1634-5. The Turks again take Erivau and Tabreez. 1631 The Turks take Bagdad and massacre 30,000 Persians. 1709. The Affghans take Kandahar. 1722- The Affghans defeat the Persians at the battle of Goolnabad, and take Ispahan. The tin-one is usurped by the Affghan chieftain Meer .Mah- inoud. PetK I. of ilussia invades I'ersia. 1724, June 23. A treaty for the partition of Persia is signed between K'.i-.-ia and Turkey at Constan- tinople. 1726. War with Turkey. 1734, Nov. 2rt. The 'I urks are defeated at Bagdad by Nadir Klmuli, with the loss of 30,000 men. 1739. Nadir Shah invades India and sacks Delhi. 1747. Assassination of Nadir Shah, and establishment of the Affghan kingdom of Persia. 1749. The Affghaus lay siege to Herat. 7757. Mazenderan is annexed to Persia. 1760. The seat of government is transferred to Shiraz. 1768. Khorassan becomes a Persian province. 1783. Georgia revolts and joins i; 1794. Aga Mohammed establishes the Knjaror Turkoman dynasty, and makes Teheran his capital city. 1797, May 74. Aga Mohammed is assassinated. 1800, Nov. An English mission has an interview with the shah. 1801, Jan. A treaty is concluded with Great Britain. 1805. The Persians defeat the Affghans. 180;;, March 73. A preliminary treaty of alliance with Great Britain is concluded at Teheran. Xov. 9. A British naval expedition carries on war against the pirates in the Persian Gulf. 1813, Oct 73. Treaty of Gulistan (q. v.). 1874, Nov. 25. A definitive treaty of peace is concluded with Great Britain at Teheran. 1837. The cholera rages in Persia. 1831-5. An English expedition explores the Persian Gulf. 1833, July 28. Treaty of Erzeroum with Turkey. 1826, Sep. 28. War i's declared by Kus.-ia.. 7827, July 31. Capture by the Russians of Abbassabad 1828, Feb. 23- Treaty of Turkmanshai. 1839, Feb. 73. The Kussian ambassador and several members of the legation at Teheran are assassi- nated. 1830. Several shocks of an earthquake are felt in I'ersia. 1847, Oct. 28. A treaty of commerce is concluded with Great Britain at Teheran. 1847. Salar revolts against the shah in Khorasean, 1857, Aug. 15. The shah's life is attempted. A.D. 1353, 1857, 1858, Jan. 5. The shah signs a convention agreeing not to send troops to Herat (q. t>.), unless that terri- tory is invaded by a foreign power. April. A treaty is concluded with Russia. Oct. 36. The Persians seize Herat. Nov. I. The English Government declares war. Dee. 7. An English force disembarks near Bushire (q. .). Jan. 27. A strong detachment, under Gen. Outran!, lands at IJushire. Feb. 8. The Persians are de- feated near Khooslinb. March 4. Treaty of Paris (q. r.}. March 36. The Persians are driven from their intrenehments at Mohammerah. July 37. Herat is restored. June 39. Mohammed Khasim Khan, hereditary Prince of Persia, dies at Teheran, aged 13 years. Sep. 9. Important administrative reforms are announced. ANCIENT SOVEREIGNS OF PERSIA. B.C. 559- Cyrus. 529. Cambyses. 523. Smerdis. 531. Darius I. (Hystaspis). 485. Xerxes I. 465. Artabanus. 464. Artaxerxes I. (Longi- 435. Xerxes 1 1. 435. Sog.lianus. 434.' Darius II. (Nothus). 405. Artaxerxes II. (Mne- 359. ArtaxerxcsIII. (Ochus). 338, Arses. 33',. Darius III. (Codo - manna). 331. Alexander III. (the Great). From B.C. 323 to 226 A.D. the throne was oc- cupied by the dynasties of the Seleucid;- and >f the Arsacidai 7. r.). The Sassanides I 837). (See SLAVE-TRADE.) PIRAEUS. (See GREECE.) PIRMASENS (Battle). The French, under Gen. .Moreau, were defeated by the Prussians, commanded by the Duke of Brunswick, at this town in Bavaria, with a loss of 22 pieces of artillery and 4,000 men, Sep. 14, 1793. PIRN A (Germany). This town, to Saxony, was taken by the Swedes in 1639. The united Austrians and Saxons were defeated here by the King of Prussia in 1745; and the King of Poland blockaded the Saxon camp in Sep., 1756. The suburbs were fired by the Prussians, and 260 fine houses destroyed, Nov. 10, 1758. The intrenched camp at Pirna, strengthened by Napoleon 1. in 1813, was taken by the Allies. PISA 'Italy). Nothing certain is kiio\\n uf the origin of this town. Livy states that a Latin colony was sent to Pisa, at the request of the inhabitants, about B.C. 179. It became subject to Rome in the middle of the sth cen- tury, and passed successively to the Goths, the Longobardi, and the Carolingians. Under the last it became an independent community, with a nominal allegiance to the emperors. The Saracen pirates were defeated near the town by the Pisans in 874. Hugo of Provence came to Pisa in 926, and received the homage of the great feudatories as King of Italy. The Saracens made an attack on the town in 1005, and again invested it in 1012. The Pisans, in conjunction with the Genoese, wrested the island of Sardinia from the Moors in 1022. At this time Pisa was a republic, and, during the century, maintained the maritime supremacy of the Mediterranean. A war commenced be- tween Pisa and Genoa in 1070, which lasted for more than two centuries, and ended in the ruin of Pisa. Horse-races were run in 1264. In a naval battle, off Melora, Aug. 6, 1284, the Pisans lost the greater part of their fleet, and above 16,000 men in killed and prisoners. The Genoese attacked and destroyed the Porto Pi- sano, and blocked up the entrance with sunken ships filled with stones in 1290. The cathedral, a magnificent Gothic building, commenced in 1068, was completed in m8. The Campo Santo, or national cemetery, was formed in 1228, and the university in 1330. Councils were held at Pisa, May 30, 1134 ; March 25 Aug. 7, 1409 ; and Sep. i, 1511. In 1341 Pisa made war on Lucca, which submitted in 1342. In 1405 the citadel and other strongholds were sold to the Florentines by Marshal Boucicault; but the citizens soon retook the citadel. The Floren- tines then blockaded Pisa, and took possession of the town Nov. 8, 1406. When Charles VIII. of France visited Italy in 1494, and showed hos- tility to Florence, the Pisans drove out the Florentines and restored the republic under the protection of France. Pisa was besieged by the Florentines, without success, in 1499 ; again in 1504 ; and they took the town by blockade June 8, 1509. Pisa was then united to Florence. The first public botanical garden was formed at Pisa in 1545. It was taken by the French in 1799, and delivered up by them to the Allies Feb. 20, 1814. It was annexed to Sardinia by a vote of the people taken March ii and 12, 1860. l'l I CULTURE, or ARTIFICIAL FISH- CULTURE, practised amongst ancient nations Isaiah xix. 10), was revived by Reiny, a fisherman of the Vosges, in 1842. The estab- lishments at Huningue, erected in 1852-4; at Stormontfield, near Perth, in 1853 ; and at Arca- chon, in France, are the most extensive. (See ACCLIMATISATION SOCIKTV, &c.) I ' 1 S 1 1 ) I A A sia .Minor . The inhabitants were never subdued, though part of their country was included in the Roman province of Cilicia, B.C. 64. PI SOX. (See EDEN and GOLD.) PISTOJA, or PISTOIA (Italy .This town, anciently called Pistorium, was of no import- ance in the time of the Romans. It was in- closed within walls by Desiderius, the last of the Lombard kings, who reigned from 756 to 774. It became an independent municipality, and was subjugated by Florence about 1150. A citadel was built in 1252. The feuds between two branches of a Pistojaii family, named Cancellieri, at the close of the i3th century, originated the factions of the Bianchi (q. v. ) and Neri, which spread to Florence, and caused much misery to both cities. The Florentine Neri blockaded Pistoja, which surrendered. April 14, 1306, on condition of safety to life and property. The victors, however, committed great barbarities, and razed the walls to the ground. It became subject to Florence in 1329. The cathedral was built early in the i2th century. The palace del Commune, or degli Anziani, dates from the 1 3th century, and the episcopal palace from the i3th century. The Jaiisenist prelates and PISTOL [ 779 1 PITTSBURG clergy of Tuscany drew up the Propositions of Pistoja, at a council summoned by Scipio Ricci, Bishop of Pistoja, in 1787. PISTOL. Grose states that this fire-arm derives its name from having been invented at Pistoja, in Tuscany. The wheel-lock pistol was common in Germany as early as 1512, and became the characteristic weapon of the Reiters, or Pistoliers, who were enrolled soon after. Pistols were used in France in 1544. A clumsy pistol, called a dag, was carried by the English cavalry in the reign of Henry VIII. (1509-47). Double-barrelled pistols, and pistols capable of discharging two or three balls from a single barrel without reloading, were invented about the middle of the i6th century ; and the flint- lock is first mentioned in connection with pistols in 1588. PITCAIRN'S ISLAND (Pacific Ocean), dis- covered by a young officer named Pitcairn, belonging to the ship Carteret, in 1768, was visited by Capt. Cook in 1777. The mutineers of the Bounty established a colony, consisting of 9 British sailors, 6 native Tahitian men, and 12 women, on this island, in 1790. Through dissensions and massacres, there remained, in 1800, only one Englishman, Adams, the Tahi- tian females, and 19 children. Capt. Beechy found an interesting colony of 66 persons here in 1825. A scarcity of water caused the colo- nists to repair to Tahiti in 1831 ; but after re- maining five months, they returned to Pit- cairn's Island in 1832. The islanders, who were placed under the protection of England in 1839, removed to Norfolk Island in 1856. Some of them returned to Pitcairn's Island in 1 PITT ADMINISTRATIONS. The first Pitt administration was formed soon after the dis- missal of the Coalition (North and Fox) Min- istry (q. v.), Dec. 18, 1783. William Pitt, at that time not quite 24 years of age, was made first lord of the treasury and chancellor of the exchequer, Dec. 19. Lord Stanhope remarks that it consisted of seven cabinet ministers, of whom only one, the prime minister, was a member of the House of Commons. It was thus constituted : First Lord of the Treasury) and Chancellor of the > Mr. Pitt. Exchequer ) Lord Chancellor Lord Thurlow. i * f *!, r> -i /Earl Gower, afterwards Mar- President of the Council... { quis of s ^ afford . Privy Seal Duke of Rutland. I? f /Lord Sydney, made Viscount Foreign Secretary j Sydney June 9, 1789. _ c /Marquis of Caermarthen, af- Home Secretary j towards Duke of Leeds. . . /Lord .Howe, created Earl Admiralty | Howe in Julyj ^gg The ministry held its first meeting Dec. 23, 1783. After an interval of a few weeks, the Duke of Richmond, as master-general of the ordnance, was admitted to a seat in the cabi- net. The Marquis of Caermarthen was suc- ceeded in the home office, June 5, 1789, by Mr. William Wyndham Greiiville, afterwards Lord Grenville, who took the foreign office in May, 1791, and was s\icceeded at the home office by Mr. Henry Dundas, afterwards Lord Mel- ville. He became colonial secretary July n, 1 794, and was replaced at the home office by the Duke of Portland. Viscount Sydney re- signed the secretaryship for foreign affairs in May, 1791, and was succeeded by Lord Gren- ville. The third secretaryship of state for war and colonies, suppressed at the peace of 1782, was re-established in 1794, when Mr. Henry Dundas, afterwards Lord Melville, received the appointment. Mr. Windham, as secretary at war, obtained a seat in the cabinet in 1794. The privy seal was placed in commission March 8, 1784, Earl Gower, afterwards Marquis of Stafford, receiving the appointment Nov. 24 ; it passed to Earl Spencer July u, 1794 ; to the Earl of Chatham Dec. 17, 1794; and to the Earl of Westmoreland Feb. 14, 1798. Lord, afterwards Earl Camden, replaced the Marquis of Stafford as president of the council, Dec. i, 1784. He was succeeded, July n, 1794, by Earl Fitzwilliam, who gave place to the Earl of Mansfield, Dec. 17, 1794. The Earl of Chat- ham was made lord president Sep. 21, 1796. The Earl of Chatham succeeded Earl Howe at the admiralty in July, 1788, and was replaced by Earl Spencer March 4, 1795. Lord Thurlow resigned the lord chancellorship June 12, 1792, the great seal being placed in commission until Jan., 1793, when Lord Loughborough became lord chancellor. Difficulties respect- ing Roman Catholic emancipation led to the resignation of Mr. Pitt early in 1801. The acceptance of office as prime minister was communicated to the House of Commons by 'Mr. Addington, Feb. 10, and his name appeared in the Gazette as chief of a new administration. (See ADDINGTON ADMINISTRATION.) Pitt's second administration was formed on the dis- solution of the Addington administration, May 10, 1804 ; and Mr. Pitt's appointment was gazetted May 12. The cabinet was thus con- stituted : First Lord of the Treasury') and Chancellor of the [ Mr. Pitt. Exchequer ) Lord Chancellor Lord Eldon. President of the Council... Duke of Portland. Privy Seal Earl of Westmoreland. Foreign Secretary Lord Harrowby. TT Q * /Lord Hawkesbury, after- Home Secretary | wardg Earl Q{ U verpoo\. Colonial Secretary Earl Camden. Admiralty Viscount Melville. Sir Charles Middleton, afterwards Lord Bar- ham, succeeded Viscount Melville at the ad- miralty April 30, 1805. The Duke of Portland was succeeded, Jan. 14, 1805, as privy seal, by Mr. Addington, created Viscount Sidmouth Jan. 12, who was followed by Earl Camden, July 10, 1805. Lord Mulgrave succeeded Lord Harrowby as foreign secretary, Jan. n, 1805; and Viscount Castlereagh became colonial se- cretary when Earl Camden took the privy seal, July 10, 1805. This administration was dis- solved by the death of Mr. Pitt, Jan. 23, 1806. (See ALL THE TALENTS ADMINISTRATION.) PITT or REGENT DIAMOND. (See DIAMOND.) PITTSBURG (N. America). This place in Pennsylvania, called Fort du Quesne, was the scene of the defeat of the English army under Gen. Bradock, by the French and Indians, July a, 1755. It was taken, Nov. 25, 1758, by the English under Gen. Forbes, who strengthened PITTSBURG I 780 ] PLAGUE the fort and named it Pittsburg, or Fort Pitt, in compliment to the minister. The town, chartered in 1816, was almost destroyed by fire in 1845. PITTSBURG LANDING (Battle). The Federals were defeated with great loss by the Confederates at Pittsburg Landing, or Shiloh, in Mississippi, Sunday, April 6, 1862. The. Federals, having received large reinforcements during the night, attacked the Confederates Monday, April 7. The latter, being greatly outnumbered, were compelled to retire, which they did in good order, and unmolested. PIURA, or SAN MIGUEL (Peru). This city, founded by Pizarro in 1531, was the first Spanish settlement in Peru. FIX. (See ASSAY.) PLACENTIA. (See PIACENZA.) PLAGUE AND PESTILENCE. "The terms pest, pestilence, and plague," Bays a writer in the eighth edition of the ' ' Encyclopaedia Britan- nica," " were long employed in Great Britain, as were the corresponding terms in other languages, both in ancient and in modern times, to denote rightly a disease attacking a great number of persons simultaneously and in succession, and destroying a large proportion of those whom it attacked ; in short, a widely- diffused and malignant epidemic." Provisions for the relief of plague-stricken persons were made by 2 James I. c. 31 (1604), which was re- pealed by 7 Will. IV. and i Viet. c. 91, s. 4 .July *7, 1837). (See LAZARETTO and QUARANTINE.) B.C. 1491. The Egyptians are visited by a pestilence during the Israeiitish exodus. (See CATTLE PLAGUE.) 1471. The mutinous companions of Korah, Oathan, and Abiram, to the number of 14.700 persons, perish by pestilence (Numbers xvi. 4649). 1017. A pestilence in Palestine destroys 70,000 persons in three days. 790. A plague devastates Italy. 710. The army of Sennacherib perishes before Jerusalem. 594. A third part of the inhabitants of Jerusalem fall victims to a plague. 480. The Persian army in Greece loses 150,000 men from pestilence. 453-2. Nearly half the population of Rome perishes from plague. Uhens is 430. Athens is visited by the first of what from their intensity are termed the oecumenical plagues. 437. A pestilence commences in Egypt, and extends almost throughout the known world. It breaks out afresh at Athens. 366. The plague rages at liome, where, at its height, it is said to have destroyed 10,000 citizens daily. 201. The destruction of swarms of locusts occasions a plague in Italy, an I it continues for many years. 187. Rome suffers from a plague. 126. Africa is devastated by a plague occasioned by putrid swarms of locusts, and *Soo,ooo persons die in Numidia, and 300,000 in Carthage. 89. The Roman army loses 10,000 men from a plague. 30-25. A pestilence rages throughout the known world. A.D. 40. Babylon and all the countries between Italy and India suffer from plague. 64. A plague breaks out in Home. 80. At Rome 10,000 persons perish daily. 88. Kome loses a large number of inhabitants daily for some time from pestilence. 93. A plague in Scotland destroys about 160,000 persons. 114. A pestilence breaks out in Wales, where 45,000 per- sons die. 166. The Syrian army brings back the Oriental plague, which spreads throughout Italy. 195. Italy is ravaged by the plague. 218. Scotland loses 100,000 of its populace from a pesti- lence. 250265. Plague rages throughout the world. A.D. 362. The mortality in Rome from plague is said to amount to 5,000 persons daily. 325. Britain is visited by a pestilence. 450-67. Pestilence rages at Rome. 502. Scotland is visited by a fatal epidemic. 532. An oecumenical plague ruges at Constantinople. 565. Europe is ravaged by pestilence, which continues several years. 590. A plague desolates Rome. One of its symptoms was a violent tendency to sneeze, in consequence of which it became usual to address a person sneezing with the words Duminui tecum, " God bless you," or similar expressions. 664. A plague rages in Britain. 717. 30,000 people die of the plague at Constantinople. 749. Another plague breaks out at Constantinople, and rages with such malignity that the survivors are too few to bury the dead. 762. England and Wales are visited by pestilence, which is said to have carried off 34,000 persons in Chichester alone. 874. A destructive epidemic, caused by the putrid bodies of swarms of locusts, desolates the northern parts of Gaul. 940. The northern countries of Europe are desolated by a plague, 40,000 persons dying in Scotland. 1005. The plague appears in various parts of the globe, and carries off more than half its inhabitants. 1068. A pestilence rages in England and Constantinople. 1096. England, Holland, and Palestine are desolated by a pestilence. 1 1 20. A pestilential period of 272 years commences. England suffers from erysipelas, and loses one- third of its inhabitants in five years. 1173. Dysentery is fatal to many in England. 1221. Europe is visited by famine and plague. 1235. England suffers from famine and leprous diseases, 20,000 persons dying in London. 1314. The plague rages in Europe. 1316. Fever and dysentery prevail in England. 1334. China is visited by a pestilence. 1337. A f amme occasions a pestilent epidemic in China. 1340. A plague commences in China, ravages the whole of Asin, and spreads over the entire extent of Europe. 1348-9. The ciicumenical plague rages at Florence. In London 50,000 die in one week. Venice loses 100,000 of its inhabitants, Liibeck 90,000, and 300,000 perish in Spain. 1352. Another plague destroys 900,000 people in China, 14,000 at Basel, 16,000 at Erfurt, 50,000 at Paris, 50,000 at Norwich, 56,000 at Marseilles in one month, 62,000 at Avignon, and 100,000111 London. Spain loses two-thirds of its inhabitants, and Ireland is nearly depopulated. 1361. The plague rages at Liverpool. 1365. Cologne and its neighbourhood lose 20 ooo of its inhabitants. 1374. St. Vitus's Dance rages at Aix-la-Chapelle, and extends to nearly all the towns in the Low Countries. 1394. Spain is visited by a plague, which destroys 10,000 persons in the city of Valencia. 1401. London loses 30,000 persons, and 14,000 die of dysentery at Bordeaux. 1406. A plague breaks out in London. 1418. In Paiis 50,000 die of the plague in five weeks. 1437. A plague rages in France. 1445-60. Asia, Italy, Germany, France, and Spain suffer from pestilence. 1485. The "sudor Anglicus," or sweating sickness, breaks out with great violence in the army of the Earl of Richmond, afterwards Henry VII. 1489. The plague rages in the Low Countries. 1493. The venereal disease appears at Rome, where it rages as a pestilential fever. 1499. A great plague breaks out in England. London loses 30,000 of its inhabitants, and the king and court retire to Calais. 1504. China is visited by a pestilence. 1517. The sweating sickness again rages in England, carrying off its victims within three hours after the first attack. 1^34. Milan loses 50,000 of its inhabitants. 1535. The sweating sickness extends its ravages to Ger- many, Holland, Norway, Denmark, and France. 1541. A plague rages in Constantinople and parts of France. PLAGUE PLANETS A.D. 1548- The plague breaks out at Liverpool. 1551. The sweating sickness rages for the last time in London. 1557. Spain is nearly depopulated by a new pestilence, which originates among the Spanish Arabs. 1563. Famine and pestilence destroy 20,000 people in London. 1565. A fatal epidemic prevails in France, and destroys many lives at Constantinople, Alexandria, Vienna, Cologne, Dantzic, Leyden, and London. 1577. July 6. The gaol fever breaks out at Oxford. (See BLACK ASSIZE.) 1578. A plague rages in the Low Countries. 1579. A pestilential catarrh destroys 8,000 persons in Ltibeck, 4,000 in Rome, and 3,000 in Hamburg. A plague also breaks out at Grand Cairo, where 50,000 people die in eight months. 1582. A plague breaks out in London. The plague Russia suffers from a famine and plague, of which 37. The plague reappears in L< persons 500,000 die, and 30,000 perish in Livonia. 1603. A plague ravages England, and destroys 36,000 persons in London. Paris also suffers from a similar epidemic. 1604. The plague reappears in London. 1610. Spain suffers from epidemics, and 200,000 people die of plague at Constantinople. 1618. A plague rages in N. America, and reduces the Massachusetts tribe of Indians from 3, to 300. 1625. The whole of England is visited by the plague, and 30,000 persons perish in London. 1626. Pestilence destroys 60,000 persons at Lyons. 1630. An extraordinary pestilential fever destroys many lives in France. It was attended by mortification of the extremities, which frequently dropped off suddenly. The oecumenical plague rages in Milan. 1635. Leyden loses 20,000 of its inhabitants from an epi- demic pestilence. 1645. A plague breaks out at Manchester. 1646. The yellow fever rages with great violence in the West Indies, 12,000 persons dying at Barbadoes and St. Christopher's. 1649. Epidemics carry off 200,000 persons in the southern provinces of Spain. 1654. A pestilence rages in several parts of Eui-ope, and destroys 200,000 lives in Moscow, 13,200 at Amsterdam, 13,000 at Leyden, and 9,000 at R!ga. 1656. The Neapolitan territories are desolated by the plague, which carries off 400,000 of the inhabi- tants. 1662. Venice loses 60,000 of its inhabitants from a pes- tilence. 1664, Nov. 2. The Great Plague (also called oecumenical) commences in London. 1665, The Great Plague carries off 68,596 persons in London, and spreads over England. 1666, May. The plague ceases. 1675. The plague destroys 11.500 persons at Malta. 1 68 1. The plague rages in Germany. 1710. The sweating sickness carries off 30,000 persons in Stockholm, and 25,000 in Copenhagen. 1717. The true plague destroys 8o,oco lives at Aleppo. 1720. Marseilles and its neighbourhood suffer from a visitation of the plague. One district loses 87,659 persons out of a population of 247,899. 1736, Feb. and March. A pestilence rages at Grand Cairo, and destroys 100,000 people. 1743. Messina suffers from the plague. 1751. A contagious fever carries off 150,000 persons at Constantinople, and 30,000 people die of famine and plague in Cyprus. 1763. Naples loses 20,000 of its inhabitants from a malig- nant fever. 1769. A famine, attended with pestilence, carries off 3,000,000 people in Bengal. 1770. Famine and pestilence destroy 168,000 persons in Bohemia, 20,000 persons in Russia and Poland, and occasion a weekly mortality of 1,000 persons at Constantinople. 1772. The plague carries off 133,299 persons at Moscow, and 80.000 persons at BassoraU. 1781. The Asiatic cholera breaks out in Hindostan, and destroys 20,000 lives. (See CHOLERA.) 1793. Egypt loses 800,000 of its population from the plague. JK..U. 1799. A pestilence destroys 247,000 persons in Fez, and occasions an average mortality of 3,000 daily throughout the Barbary states. 1810. A pestilence of the yellow fever type breaks out at Gibraltar, and devastates Italy. 1813. The plague carries off 160,000 persons in Constan- tinople. 1813. The plague at Malta destroys 4,483 lives. 1825. Grand Cairo loses 30,000 persons from a pestilence. 1834. The plague rages with great fatality in Egypt. 1847. In Glasgow about 15,000 persons die ol an epidemic remittent fever. (See CATTLE PLAGUB, CHOLERA, June 9. The inhabitants of Devon and Cornwall rebel under Arundel. Ket's insurrection (q. v.). 1553. The Duke of Northumberland conspires in favour of Lady Jane Grey. 1554. Wyatt's insurrection (q. v.). 1556. Clever's rebellion is suppressed in Norfolk. 1557. Sir Thomas Stafford heads a rebellion in Yorkshire. 1559. l )r - Story plots against Queen Elizabeth. 1564. The sons of Cardinal Pole conspire against Queen Elizabeth. 1569. The Earls of Northumberland and Westmoreland rebel. 1529- FiUMaurice's rebellion. (See IRELAND.) 1581. The Jesuit Campion conspires against Queen Elizabeth. 1581. Throgmorton's conspiracy is defeated. 1586. Babyngton's conspiracy (q. r.). 1594. The plot of Roderigo Lopez is detected. 1597. Tyrone's rebellion. (See IRELAND.) roor. The Essex conspiracy (q. v.). 1603. Sir Walter Raleigh and others conspire against James I., and in favour of Arabella Stuart. (See BVE and MAIN" PLOTS.) rwickshire and . 1608. Sir Cahir O'Doberty's insurrection. (See IRELAND.) 641. Oct. 23. Phelim O'Neil's Ulster rebellion (q. r.). 642. The Great Rebellion commences. 643. Waller's plot (q. v.). 654. Gerard, nicknamed " tha Generous," conspire* against Cromwell. 655. Penruddock's rebellion (q. v.). '-.". Syuilercombe's plot (q. v.). 658. Sezby conspires to assassinate Cromwell. 1661. Insurrection of the Fifth-monarchy men (q. v.). Venner's insurrection (q. .). 665. The plot of Col. Danvers is frustrated. 670, Dec. 6. Col. Blood's conspiracy commences with tha seizure of the Duke of Ormond. 678, Aug. 12. Oates's Popish plot is disclosed. (See POPISH PLOTS.) 679. The Meal-tub plot (q. v.~). 683, June 12. The Rye-house plot (?..). 685, June 20. The Duke of Moumouth rebels atTaunton. 689. Claverhouse, Lord Dundee, rebels in Scotland against William and Mary. 696. The Assassination plot (q. v.). 703. Simon Frazer's plot for placing the son of James II. on the throne is frustrated. 711. Guiscard conspires against the ministers. 715, Sep. 6. Mar's insurrection (7. .). 718. James Sheppard, a madman, conspires against tha life of George I. 722. Layer's conspiracy (q. t'.). 740. A Jacobite confederacy in favour of the Pretender is formed in Scotland. 745, Aug. 19. The Scotch rebellion in favour of the Pre- tender commences. 761. Insurrection of the Whitcboys (q. v.). 762. The Levellers rise in Ireland. 769. The Steelboys' insurrection breaks out in Ireland. 775. The American rebellion commences. 784. Rise of the Defender* and Peep-o'-IMy-Boy* (q.v .). 1605, Nov. 4. The Gunpowder Plot (q.v.). 1607. Capt. Pouch's insurrection in Wa Northampton is suppressed. '' PLOWCZE [ 785 PNEUMATIC DESPATCH 1786. The Rightboys rebel in Ireland. 1794. Conspiracy of the Corresponding Society (q. .). 1798. A rebellion, under Lord Edward Fitzgerald, breaks out in Ireland (q. v.). 1803, July 23. Emmett's insurrection in Ireland. 1815. A rebellion breaks out in Tipperary. 1817. The Green-bag inquiry (q. v.). 1820. The Cato Street conspiracy (q. v.). 1837. Papineau's "Sons of Liberty" rebellion in Canada is suppressed. 1848. Smith O'Brien's insurrection in Ireland is suppressed. 1857. The Sepoys rebel in India (q. .). 1858. The Phoenix clubs (q. v.) are suppressed. 1863. The Fenians (q. v.) hold secret meetings at Clonmel. PLOWCZE (Battle). The Teutonic knights were defeated by the Poles and Lithuanians at this place, in Poland, in 1331. According to Polish historians, 20,000 of the vanquished were left dead on the field, while they them- selves only lost 500 men. PLUMBERS were incorporated in 1612. PLUM.STEAD MARSH. (See ERITH.) PLUM-TREE. It is believed that some va- rieties of the plum are indigenous in England. Pliny (23 Aug. 24, 79) states that it was brought from Syria to Greece, and that it was after- wards imported into Italy and France. Lord Cromwell imported several varieties from Italy during the reign of Henry VIII. (1509 47). The date-plum was introduced from Bar- bary before 1596, and the Pishamin plum from N. America before 1629. The green-gage was introduced into France by Claude, queen of Francis I. ; the American red-gage was first raised in 1790 ; and the Washington plum was imported from America in 1821. PLURALITIES. The holding by the same person of more than one benefice with cure of souls was strictly prohibited by the Council of Lateran, in 1215, except in the case of men specially eminent for learning, who were some- times permitted to enjoy more than one bene- fice, provided they were not more than 30 miles distant from each other, and the holder agreed to reside in each of them for some rea- sonable time every year. The holding of plu- ralities in the Anglican Church was restrained by 21 Hen. VIII. c. 13 (1529), which was amended by 57 Geo. III. c. 99 (July 10, 1817). Both these statutes were repealed by i & 2 Viet. c. 106 (Aug. 14, 1838), which prohibited more than two preferments, or one preferment and one benefice, to be held together, and re- duced the distance permitted between two benefices enjoyed at the same time to 10 miles. The laws relating to pluralities were amended by 13 & 14 Viet. c. 98 (Aug. 14, 1850) ; and provisions for the union of contiguous benefices were made by 18 and 19 Viet. c. 127 (Aug. 14, 1855). "PLUS" AND "MINUS." The signs + " plus," or more, and "minus," or less, em- ployed in algebra and arithmetic, and first used in their present sense in 1522, 1524, or 1526, by Christopher Rudolph, were afterwards employed by Michael Stifelius, whose work on algebra appeared in 1544. He published a second edition of Rudolph in 1571. PLYMOUTH (Devonshire) is supposed to have been the Tameorwerth of the Saxons. At the time of the Conquest (1066) it was known as Button, or South Town ; acquired the name of Sutton Prior and Button Falletort in the reign of Edward I. (1272 1307) ; and was incor- porated by the name of Plymouth in 1439. Here Edward the Black Prince embarked on his expedition to France in 1355, and landed on his return with his royal captives. In the reigns of Edward III. (132777) and of Henry IV. (1399 1413), the French landed and at- tempted to burn the town, but were driven back to their ships. The plague committed great ravages in 1579 and 1581. A body of Spaniards made a descent on the coast in July, 1595; but their progress was soon checked, and 22 chests, full of papal bulls, dis- pensations, and pardons, were seized and burned in the market-place. Charles I. and his court, with 120 ships and 6,000 troops from Portsmouth, remained here for 10 days in 1625. The Royalists besieged the town from Sep., 1643, to the end of the year, and it was afterwards blockaded for nearly a year and a half; but the Parliamentarians kept possession. After the Restoration the present citadel was built, and the fortifications were improved. The dockyard, commenced in 1688, has been called Devonport dockyard since 1824. A fire' oc- curred in the dockyard, and destroyed 500 tons of cordage, 700 sails, and 1,050 tons of hemp, during the night, July 3, 1761. Another fire broke out in the dockyard in five different places simultaneously, and consumed stores and buildings to the value of .149,880, July 27, 1770. The last fire occurred Sep. 27, 1840, when several ships and a large quantity of timber were destroyed. The celebrated break- water at Plymouth, commenced Aug. 12, 1812, was completed in 1841. The grammar-school was founded in 1572 ; the Red-boys' school was established by will dated 1632 ; a school and an asylum for orphans was founded in 1625 ; Charles's almshouses were built in 1679 ; the Grey school was founded in 1713 ; and the Athenamm was opened Feb. 4, 1819. A me- chanics' institute was established in Dec., 1827. A fire broke out in the theatre, Jan. 6, 1863. The Prince and Princess of Wales visited Ply- mouth, July 1 8, 1865. (See DEVONPORT, EDDY- STONE LIGHTHOUSE, Ac.) PLYMOUTH (N. America). This town, in North Carolina, was taken by the Confederates, April 28, 1864. (See NEW PLYMOCJTH.) PLYMOUTH BRETHREN received the name from having originated at Plymouth about 1830. The chief doctrinal peculiarities of the brethren are their professed adherence to the Christianity of the New Testament, and their condemnation both of established and nonconformist churches, the former of which they consider too latitudinarian, in desiring to embrace within their pale the whole popu- lation of a country, and the latter too sectarian, because they exclude all but the members of their own party. They are called Darbyites, from Mr. Darby, who is sometimes regarded as their founder. A schism occurred when Mr. Darby and his adherents separated from the rest of the brethren. PNEUMATIC DESPATCH. This mode of conveying mails was suggested in two pamph- lets published by Medhurst early in the igth century. A company was formed in 1859, for 3 E PNEUMATIC FOUNTAIN POISONING establishing in the metropolis a system of pneumatic despatch tubes, adapted for the conveyance of parcels and light goods. The project was sanctioned by 22 & 23 Viet. c. 137, Local and Personal (Aug. 13, 1859) ; and a permanent tube was laid down between the Eustoii Station and the Post Office in Eversholt Street, for the conveyance of mail-bags. This tube was opened Feb. 20, 1863. The continua* tion from Euston Square to Holborn was opened Nov. 7, 1865. PNEUMATIC FOUNTAIN. (See HYDRO- STATICS.) PNEUMATIC RAILWAY. Henry Pinkus, an American, took out a patent for a railway on the atmospheric principle, called by him the Pneumatic Railway, in 1835. (See ATMO- SPHERIC RAILWAY.) A model pneumatic rail- way was established in the grounds of the Crystal Palace, in Aug., 1864. PNKUMATOMACHIANS. (See MACEDO- NIANS and SEMI-AIUANS.) POACHERS. >c- GAME LAWS.) POCLOC (Battle). The Prussians, under Gen. Van Horn, defeated the Austrian brigade of Gen. Potschappel, taking 7 officers and 500 men prisoners, at this place, near Turiiau, Tuesday, June 26, 1866. PODELWIT/. (See LEIPSIC, or BREITEN- FELD, Battles.) PODESTA, termed by Hallam (Middle Ages, chap. iii. p. i) "a new and singular species of magistracy," was introduced into the Lombard cities about the end of the i2th century. Frederick I. appointed podcstas, instead of the elective consuls, at Milan in 1158, and this office was abolished in 1159. When revived by the citizens themselves, after the peace of Constance in 1183, the podesta was made the criminal judge, and preserver of the peace. PODOLIA, or KAMINEIECK (Russia). This Polish province was ceded to the Turks in 1676, and having been recovered by the Poles, was conquered and annexed to Russia in 1772. (See KAMINEIECK.) POETICAL SOCIETIES. (See COURTS OF LOVE. ) POET-LAUREATE. Disraeli remarks (Cu- riosities of Literature), "The custom of crown- ing poets is as ancient as poetry itself." Fred- erick II. crowned the King of Verses, at Ancona, in 1220. Petrarch received the laurel crown at Rome on Easter Day, 1341. Maximilian I. founded a poetical college at Vienna in 1504. In England the king's versifier existed as early as 1251. Gulielmus Peregrinus and Robert Baston acted as royal poets to Richard I. (1189 99) and Edward II. (1307 27). Chaucer assumed the title of poet-laureate about 1369. The title of king's poet-laureate first occurs in the reign of Edward IV. (1461 1483), when John Kay held the office. The first patent was granted in 1630. The ode performed at the court on New Year's Day was discontinued in 1790. POETS-LAUREATE. Appointed 1470. John Watson. 1485. Andrew Bernard, died after 1523. 1489 and 1493. John Skelton, died June 25, 1529. 1512. Robert Whittington, died in 1530. ? Edmund Speuser (1553 Jan. 16, 1599). Appointed 1599. Samuel Daniel* (1562 Oct., 1619). 1619. Ben Jonsoii (1574 Aug. 16, 1637). 1637. William Davenant, Sir (1605 April 7, 1668). 1670, deposed 1688. John Dryden (1630 May I, 1700). 1688. Thomas Shadwell (1640 Dec. 6, 1692). 1692. Nahum Tate (160 Aug. 12, 1715)- 1715. Nicholas Howe (1673 Dec 6, 171). 1718. Lawrence Eusden(llev.), died Sep. 27, 1730. 1730. Colley Cibber (1671 Dec. 12, 1757). 1757. William Whitehead (1715 April 14, 1785). 1785. Thomas Warton (1728 May 21, 1790). 1790. Henry James Pye (1745 Aug. n, 1813). 1813. Kobert Southey (1774, Aug. 121843, March 31). 1843. William Wordsworth (1771 April 21, 1850). 1850. Alfred Teimyson, born in 1809. POETRY has in all ages, and amongst all nations, been the original form of literary composition. "It is the first step by which our nature raises itself above the physical im- pulses to which we are subject in common with the lower order of creation, the first attempt to embody thought in a connected and permanent form." (Mure, Language and Literature of Greece, i. 146.) The song of thanksgiving uttered by Moses and the Israel- ites after their deliverance from Pharaoh, B.C. 1491 (Exod. xv. i 19), is the most ancient poetical composition extant. Among the Greeks poetry was coeval with their national existence. They referred its origin to Orpheus, who is reputed to have lived B.C. 1397 ; but the poetic period of the Greeks did not commence till the time of Homer (B.C. 962 B.C. 927), and continued till B.C. 560. The early history of Rome was preserved in the rude Baturnian bal- lads of the reigns of Tullus Hostilius and Tar- quinius Priscus; but the chief Roman poets did not flourish till a much later period, Virgil being born B.C. 70, and Horace B.C. 65. Modern poetry may perhaps be regarded as commencing with the rude songs of the Germans, one of which, composed about 883, in honour of a victory over the Normans, possesses much merit. The Provencal bards of France, whose productions date from 1096, are the real origi- nators of modern poetry. Lawrence Minot, whose poems on the wars of Edward III. were composed in 1352, is the earliest original Eng- lish poet ; and John Barbour, who completed his great work "The Bruce" in 1373, produced the first Scotch poem. Geoffrey Chaucer, the father of English poetry, died Oct. 25, 1400. The Earl of Surrey, who was executed Jan. 19, 1547, was the first English author who wrote blank verse. POINT DE GALLE. (?eGALLE.) POISONING. This crime prevailed to a great extent among the ancient Greeks and Romans. A vegetable poison for destroying life easily and without pain was much used about B.C. 200, at Rome, where the professional poisoners were chiefly women. One of these, named Locusta, is notorious as having fur- nished the potion administered to the Emperor Claudius L, Oct. 12, 54. By 22 Hen. VIII. c. 9 (1531), poisoners were ordered to be boiled to death. (See BOILING TO DEATH.) A confe- deracy of secret poisoners was discovered at * Since the appointment of Daniel, the office has, with the exception of the case of Dryden, been held for life. POITIERS [ 787 ] POLAND Borne in 1659. Margaret d'Aubrai, the wife of the Marquis of Brinvilliers, pursued her fatal career of poisoning in 1670 ; and the crime had become so prevalent in France at this period, that a special court was, in 1679, established to deal with the evil. The most notorious of modern poisoners in England was William Palmer, who poisoned his friend Cook, Nov. 21, 1855. Palmer's wife and brother, it is supposed, previously suffered the same fate. He was executed at Stafford June 14, 1856. (See FIERY CHAMBER and WATER TOFANA.) POITIERS, or POICTIERS (Battles). Alaric II., King of the Visigoths, was defeated and slain by Clovis I. in a great battle fought at a place called Vougle (after which it is sometimes named), near Poitiers, in 507. (See CAGOTS.) The Saracens were defeated between Poitiers and Tours, the battle being known under both names, Oct. 10, 732. The Saracen caliph, Abd- el- Rahman, was slain, and the victory put an end to the invasion. A third great battle was fought on the plain of Maupertuis, be- tween Tours and Poitiers, and known by each of these names, Sep. 19, 1356. The English, commanded by Edward the Black Prince, gained a complete victory over the French; and their king, John I., and his son Philip, were taken prisoners. POITIERS, or POICTIERS (France), the capital of Poitou, known to the Romans as Limonum, afterwards took the name of its inhabitants, the Pictavi or Pictones, who sub- mitted to Julius Caesar B.C. 52. It was pillaged by the Vandals in 410. Poitiers surrendered to the English in 1360, but reverted to France in 1372. The church of Montierneuf, which belonged to a Benedictine abbey, was finished in 1096, and the cathedral of St. Pierre, which was commenced by Henry II. of England in 1154, was not finished till 1379. The univer- sity, founded in 1431, was abolished in 1789. Councils were held here in 590 ; Jan. 13, 1000; in 1023; in 1073 ; Jan. 13, 1074; Jan. 15, 1078 ; Nov. 1 8, 1 100 ; and June 25, 1106. During the religious wars of the i6th century it was taken from the Huguenots by the Roman Catholics, who committed great cruelties. An unsuc- cessful attempt was made to retake it in 1569 by Coligni. (See BERGERAC, Treaty.) POITOU (France). This ancient province formed part of Aquitania Secunda, and was held successively by the Vandals, the Visi- goths, and the Franks. It came into the pos- session of England by the marriage of Henry Plantagenet to Eleanor of Guiemie in 1151, and was recovered in 1202 by Philip II. Having been ceded to France in 1259, it was overrun by the English , under Edward the Black Prince, in 1356, and was ceded to Eng- land in 1361. It reverted to the crown of France in 1373. POISCHWITZ (Armistice), concluded June 4 , 1813, soon after the battle of Bautzen (q. v.), at this village, near Jauer, in Silesia, between Napoleon I. and the allied Russian and German sovereigns. It was to last till July 20, with six days' notice of termination. POISSY (France). -Charles I. (the Bald) held a council here in 869. It was taken by the English in 1346 and 1419, and by the army of the League in 1589. (See COLLOQUY OF POISSY.) POLA (Sea-fight). The Venetian captain- general Vettore Pisani was defeated off this town of Illyria, by the Genoese fleet of Luciano Doria, May 7, 1379. The loss on both sides was heavy, the Genoese admiral being among the slain. POLAND. The Poles regard Duke Lech or Lesko I., who began to reign in 550, as the founder of their nation. His successors held the country for about 300 years; but the history of this dynasty is not considered trustworthy. The authentic history of Poland commenced with the establishment of the Piast dynasty in 842. A.I>. 843. The peasant Piastus is elevated to the throne, and founds the dynasty of the Piasts. 965. Miecislaus I. is converted to Christianity. 968. Miecislaus I. defeats the Saxons at Cidin. 983. Miecislaus I. is compelled to submit to the Emperor Otho II. The Graud-duko Vladimir the Great invades Poland. 989. MiecisJaus I. invades Bohemia, looi. Poland is erected into a kingdom. 1005. Boleslaus I. invades Bohemia. 1018. Boleslaus I. concludes a treaty with the Emperor, who absolves him from paying homage for his kingdom. 1034. The death of Miecislaus II., whose eldest son is an infant, plunges the kingdom into civil anarchy. 1043. Casimir I. subdues the rebel Masos at the battle of Plocsko. ic6r. The Poles invade Hungary. 1079, May 7. Boleslaus II. murders St. Stanislaus, Bishop of Cracow, by whom he had been excommuni- cated. io8t. Boleslaus II. is expelled from Poland in conse- quence, and commits suicide. 1096. Sbigniew rebels against his father. 1 109. Henry V. of Germany is compelled by the Poles to raise the siege of Glogaw. 1116. Sbigniew is assassinated by order of his brother Boleslaus III. 1138. Boleslaus III., having been defeated by the Rus- sians, dies of grief. 1177. Miecislaus III. is deposed. 1227. Assassination of Lesko the White. 1333. The knights of the Teutonic order settle in Poland. 1241. Poland is ravaged by the Tartars. 1204. Boleslaus V. subdues the Jadvingi. 1389. The death of Lesko the Black is followed by frightful anarchy. 1296. King Premislaus is assassinated by his cousin, the Margrave of Anhalt. 1337. Silesia is seized by the King of Bohemia. The Inquisition is introduced. 1335. Casimir III. cedes Pomerania to the Teutonic knights. 1347. A code of laws is prepared at Wisliza. 1370. At the death of Casimir III. the Piast dynasty becomes extinct, and the crown is conferred upon Louis I. of Hungary. 1386. Ladislaus V. compels the Lithuanians to embrace Christianity. 1410, July 15. Battle of Tannenburg (q. v.). 1440. Ladislaus VI. succeeds to the throne of Hungary. 1498. The Wallachians invade Poland, and carry into captivity 100,000 of the inhabitants. 1569. Lithuania is finally united to Poland. (See LUBLIN.) 1577. The Poles subdue the Cossacks of the Ukraine. 1579. The Poles invade Ingria. 1502, Jan. 15. Treaty of Kiwerowa-Horka (q. v.). 1586. Stephen organizes a militia composed of Cossacks. 1620. Poland is invaded by the Turks. 1635. The Cossacks revolt. 1654. The Russians invade Poland. 1655. Charles X. (Gustavus) of Sweden subjugates Po- land. 1660. The Poles recover their independence. 1668. John II. abdicates the throne. 1673. Annexation of the Ukraine (q. t'.). 3 E 2 POLAND 788 ] POLAND 1673, Nov. II. Battle of Choczim (q. .) 1674. John Sobieski is elected king. 1683, Sep. 12. John III. (Sobieski) delivers Vienna from the Turks. 1690. The Polish army mutinies. 1699, Jan. 26. Treaty of Carlowitz (q. .). 1704. Charles XII. of Sweden deposes Frederick Au- gustus I. 1724. A conflict between the Jesuits and Lutherans takes, place in the streets of Thorn. I 733- On the death of Frederick Augustus I. the succession to the crown is dispute:! by Stanislaus Leso/.inski, who is supported by the French, and Frederick Augustus II., son of the late kin;?, whose cause is espoused by Russia, Prussia, and Germany. 1768. The Confederation of Bar (q. v.). 1772, Aug. 5. A treaty for the partition of Poland is signed at St. Petersburg by Austria, Prussia, and Russia. 1789, The Poles declare themselves independent of the Russians. 1790, March 29. An alliance is concluded with Prussia. 1791, May 3. A now constitution is granted. 179-j. W.ir is declared by Russia. 1793. Another partition treaty is signed. 1794, March 24. Koseiusko expels the Russians from Cracow. May 15. He seeks aid from the French. June 15. Cracow surrenders to the Prussians. Nov. 4. Suwarrow defeats Kosciusko at Praga, where 12,000 Poles are slain. Nov. 9. Suwarrow enters Warsaw. 1795. Tin- third treaty of partition is signed, by which the kingdom of Poland becomes extinct. Nov. 25. Stanislaus II. abdicate* at Grodno. 1796, Nov. Kosciusko is set at liberty by the Emperor Paul. 1798, Feb. ii. Death of the ex-king Stanislaus II. at St. 1'eterslmrg. 1804, Nov. 27. Napoleon I. fixes his head-quarters at Posen, 1806, Dec. 18. Napoleon I. enters Warsaw. 1807, Jan. 14. A supreme legislative commission isopened at Warsaw. July 7. The treaty of Tilsit (?. r.) is concluded. 1809. The Poles assist the French. April 15. The Austrian army, under the Archduke Ferdinand, enters Poland. April 19. The Austrians defeat Ponia- towski. April 23. They occupy Warsaw. May 14. Dombrowski defeats the Austrians at the battle of Thorn. June I. The Archduke Fer- dinand evacuates Warsaw. 1812, June 28. The general diet at Warsaw proclaims the re-establishment of the kingdom of Poland. 1813, Aug. Sep. Owing to an inundation, the country suffers from famine. 1815, June 20. Cracow is made a free republic. The .Czar Alexander 1. is proclaimed King of Poland at Warsaw. Dec. 21. A new constitution is com- pleted. 1818. Personal slavery is abolished in Courland, and the lir.^t Polish diet is summoned. 1819, July 31. Liberty of the press is abolished in Poland. 1833, Sep. 13. The Polish diet is opened at Warsaw. 1830, Nov. 29. An insurrection breaks out at Warsaw. Dec. 20. Gen. Chlopicki is made dictator. 1831, Jan. 25. The diet declares Poland independent, and proclaims the throne vacant. Jan. 30. Prince Adam Czartoryski is elected president of the national government. Feb. 6. The Russian army enters Poland. Feb. 19 and 20. Battle of Gro- chow. March 31. Battle of Wawz. April 3. The Czar Alexander I. publishes a ukase against the insurgents in Wilna. April 5. The Russians are compelled to evacuate Wilna, and Courland is declared in a state of war. April 6. The Rus- sians are defeated with a loss of 12,000 men at the battle of Zelichow. April lo. The Poles, who are victorious, fix their head-quarters at Seidlice. May 18. The Poles seize Ostrolenka. May 26. Battle of Ostrolenka. May 29. Tine Poles defeat the Russians under Gen. Sacken. June 10. Gen. Diebitsch, commander-in-chief of the Russian forces, dies of cholera at Pultusk. Tune 19. The Russians defeat the Poles at Wilna. July 12. The Polish general Gielgud is hot by one of his own officers Tuly 14. Battle of Minsk. Aug. 15 and 16. Disturbances at Warsaw. A.r>. 1831, Sep. 7. The Russians attack Warsaw. Sep. 8. Warsaw surrenders. Oct. 20. Nicholas I. an- nounces the termination of the Polish war. 1834, Feb. 26. An imperial ukase is published, consti- tuting Poland an integral part of the Russian empire. 1838, Feb. 10. A treaty for the surrender of Polish refugees is signed by Russia, Austria, and Prussia. 1836, Feb. 16. An insurrection in Cracow is suppressed by the Austrians. 1841. The incorporation of Poland with the Russian empire is rendered complete. Russian laws, taxes, and language, are introduced. 1845, A conspiracy for the restoration of Polish inde- pendence is discovered and suppressed. 1846, Feb. 22. A general Insurrection against Russia breaks out. The Austrians under Gen. Collin are expelled from Cracow. Feb. 26. Gen. Collin defeats the insurgents at Gdow. Feb. 27. They take refuge in Cracow. Nov. 16. The republic of Cracow is disfranchised, and is annexed to Austria. 1847, May. Poland is made a Russian province. 1848, April 26. A revolt breaks out at Cracow. May u. The insurgent leader Mieroslawski is taken prisoner. 1851, Jan. 13. The customs barrier between Russia and Poland is abolished. 1856, May 27. Alexander II. grants an amnesty in favour of Polish refugees. June 6. It is rejected by the central committee of the Polish Democratic Society. 1857, Sep. 7. Alexander II. visits Warsaw. Dec. 2. Decrees ure issued for the amelioration of the posiiion of the rural population of Poland. 1860, Oct. 22 26. The Kmperors of Russia and Austria, and the' Prince- regent of Prussia, have an inter- view at Warsaw. 1861, Feb 25. Disturbances break out at Warsaw. Feb. 8. An address is delivered to Alexander II., praying for the restoration of Polish nationality. March 9. Alexander II. refuses, but agrees to redress certain grievances. April 8. Warsaw is kept in order by a military force. May 30. Death of Prince Gortchakoff, lieut.-general of Poland. Oct. I. The law for abolishing serfdom among rsantry takes effect. Oct. 14. The kingdom declared in a state of siege. Oct. 15. Dis- turbances at Warsaw on the anniversary of the death of Koseiusko. 1862, June 8. The Grand Duke Constantino is appointed lieut. -general of Poland. Inly 3. His life is at- tempted. Aug. 7. An attempt is made on the life of the Marquis Wielopolski, chief of the civil administration. Aug. 15. His life is again attempted. 1863, Jan. 23- The Poles rise against the conscription and attack the Russian forces. Jan. 24. The king-, dom is proclaimed in a state of siege. Jan. 31. Lithuania and Volhynia are declared in a state of siege. Feb. 2. The national committee of insurrection issues its first proclamation from Warsaw. Feb. 8. A convention is signed at Warsaw by Russia and Prussia for the co-ope- ration of the last-named country in suppressing the rebellion. Feb. 19. The insurgent leader, Louis Mierosluwski, announces that he has en- tered the Polish territory, and received the com- mandership-in-chief of the insurrection from the national provisional government Feb. 23. Miero- slawski is defeated and put to flight by the.lf ussians. March 7. Langiewicz is defeated. March 10. The insurgent chief Langiewicz declares himself dictator of Poland, by virtue of a decree of the central revolution ary committee. Mieroslawski protests against the dictatorship of Langiewicz. March 19. Langiewicz, having been defeated in several important engagement*, crosses the Aus- trian frontier. March 20. Langiewicz is arrested, and the central committee at Warsaw resumes the direction of the insurrection. March 24. The insurgent leaders address an appeal for help to the people of Europe. April 12. An amnesty is published in favour of all the rebels who shall have laid down their arms by May 13. May 3. The central committee of the revolution declares itself a "provisional government.'' POLARIZATION [ 789 POLLENTIA 1863, Aug. 35. The Grand Duke Constantino quits Warsaw for St. Petersburg. Sep. 3. Lelewel, at the head of 700 Poles, attacks and defeats a much superior Russian force, but sustains great losses in the encounter. Sep. 6. The Russians attack Lelewel, who falls in the ting into made upon engagement ; his followers Galicia. Sep. 19. An attempt the life of Count Berg, lieut.-general of the king- dom. Nov. 6. Czachowski, defeated and made prisoner by the Kussians, dies of his wounds soon after. 1864, March 6. An imperial ukase is published, relieving the Polish peasantry from the oppressive rights of the nubility and lauded proprietors. Sep. II. An imperial rescript orders the creation at War- saw of a Kussian university. Nov. 8. Many lioman Catholic convents are secularized. 1865, Feb. Langievvicz takes refuge in Switzerland. 1866, June. Much agitation prevails in Poland. POLARIZATION. (See OPTICS.) POLAR REGIONS. (See ARCTIC CIRCLE, FRANKLIN'S EXPEDITIONS, FROZEN OCEAN, NORTH-WEST PASSAGE, &c.) POLAR STAR, the name given to a star of the second magnitude, the nearest visible star to the North Pole, in the constellation called the Little Bear. Its discovery is ascribed by the Chinese to the Emperor Yong-Cheng, who reigned B.C. 1970. POLICE. Henry Fielding, the author, when acting as a stipendiary magistrate, intro- duced, in 1753, a system of paid police, who were placed under the orders of the acting magistrate at Bow Street. The Thames police was established in 1798. The new police force for the metropolis was formed by 10 Geo. IV. c. 44 (June 19, 1829), and was to extend to 12 miles from Charing Cross. By 2 & 3 Viet, c. 47 (Aug. 17, 1839), this distance was ex- SOVEREIGNS OF POLAND. DUKES. A.D. A.D. 43. Piastus. 913. Ziemomislaus. 861. Ziemovitus. 964. Miecislaus I. 893. Lesko, or Lescus IV. KIXGS. 992. Boleslaus I. 1445. Interregnum. 1025. Miecislaus II. 1445. Casimir IV. 1034. Richense, or Richsa. 1493. John (Albert I.). 1037. Interregnum. 1501. Alexander. 1041. Casimir I. 1506. Sigismund I. 1058. Boleslaus II. 1548. Sigistnund II. 081. Ladislaus I. 1573. Interregnum. 102. Boleslaus III. 1574. Henry of Valois. 138. Ladislaus II. 146. Boleslaus IV. 1575. Stephen Batthori. m86. Interregnum. 173. Miecislaus III. 1587. Sigismund III. 177. Casimir II. 1633. Ladislaus VII. 194. Lesko V. (the White). 200. Miecislaus IV. 303. Ladislaus III. 306. Lesko V. (again). 327. Boleslaus V. 1648. John II., or Casimir V. 1668. Interregnum. 1669. Michael - Koributh - Wiesnowiski. 1674. John III. (Sobieski). 379. Lesko VI. (the Black). 1697. Interregnum. 389. Interregnum. 1697. Frederick- Augustus I. 295. Premislaus. l"oi. Stanislaus I. (Lesczin- 296. Ladislaus IV. ski). 1300. Wenceslaus. 1709. Frederick- Augustus I. 1304. Ladislaus IV. (again). (again). 1333. Casimir III. (the 1733. Frederick - Augustus Great). II. 1370. Louis I. of Hungary. 1763. Interregnum. 1383. Interregnum. 1764. Stanislaus II. (Augus- 1385. Hedwige and Ladis- laus V. 1399. Ladislaus V. (alone). tus Poniatowski). 1794. Extinction of the kingdom. 1434. Ladislaus VI. I tended to 15 miles from Charing Cross ; and the force was placed under the control of two commissioners. The city police, though similar in organization, remains under the control of the corporation. By 19 Viet. c. 2 (Feb. 28, 1856), the metropolitan police was placed under the management of one commis- sioner. The police for counties and boroughs is regulated by 19 & 20 Viet. c. 69 (July 21, 1856), and the police for Scotland is regulated by 20 & 21 Viet. c. 72 (Aug. 25, 1857). POLITICAL ECONOMY. This science, which teaches the principles which goveni the production and accumulation of wealth, and its distribution and consumption, was little understood by the Greeks and Romans. It may be said to owe its origin practically to the free towns that rose in Europe in the Middle Ages, though the system was not expounded until a later period. The English claim to be the first who established the just principles of commercial intercourse. Some continental writers award the honour to the Italians and the French. Sir Dudley North's "Discourses upon Trade, "published in 1691; Hume's "Poli- tical Discourses," in 1752 ; Harris's "Essay on Money and Coins," in 1757 ; Adam Smith's "Wealth of Nations," in 1776; and Mill's " Political Economy," in 1821, are the principal English works on this science. POLITICIANS, or POLITIQUES. This term, at first applied, during the religious wars in France, to both Huguenots and Roman Catholics of moderate opinions, was in 1572 given to the faction headed by the Duke d'AlenQOii and the sons of Montmorenci. The Duke was arrested, the sons of Montmorenci were sent to the Bastille, and several of their subordinates were executed. At a later period, the Roman Catholics who desired to make peace with the Huguenots, were termed Politiques, or " Peaceable Catholics." POLKA. The lavolta described by Sir John Davies in The Orchestra (1596), is supposed by a writer in Notes and Queries (xii. 152) to have resembled the modern polka, intro- duced into England about 1842. POLL ACT, putting a price upon the heads of many Irishmen of distinction, was passed at Trim, in Ireland, by the Junto of the Pale, 1465. It was first put in force by the Earl of Desmond. POLLALORE (Battle). Sir Eyre Coote defeated Hyder Ali at this place, in Hindostan, Aug. 27, 1781. The battle lasted from nine in the morning till sunset, and was very hotly contested. POLL, or CAPITATION TAX, was levied in the Roman empire. It was first imposed in England by the Parliament held at Northamp- ton, Nov. 5, 1380.. The severity employed by the tax-gatherers in its collection led to the rebellion of Wat the Tyler, in 1381. (See WAT TYLER'S INSURRECTION.) In 1667 every subject was assessed by head according to his rank. The tax was abolished by William III. in 1690. (See POLL ACT.) POLLENTIA (Battle). A great victory was gained by the Roman general Stilicho over the Goths, under Alaric I., at this place near Turin, Easter Day, March 29, 403. Immense quan- POLOCZ I 790 1 POMPEIOPOLIS titles of spoil were secured and some thou- sands of prisoners released. POLOCZ, or POLOTZK (Russia). This town was in existence as early as the time of Buric (847 79), the founder of the Russian power. It contains a ruined castle and a handsome church and college, which formerly belonged to the Josuits. The French seized the town in July, 1812, and it was retaken by the Russians Oct. 20. POLTAVA, or PULTAVA (Russia), founded in 1608, was besieged by Charles XII. in May, 1709, with an army of about 18,000 men. Peter I. (the Great) came to its relief with a force of between 50,000 and 60,000 men, and the celebrated battle of Poltava was fought, June 15, in which the Swedish monarch was defeated with great slaughter and compelled to take refuge in Turkey. POLYANDRIA, or POLYANDRY, the system which allows a woman to have several husbands, existed amongst many ancient nations, and, according to Julius Csesar (B.C. 100 44), prevailed in Britain. It was common amongst the Picts. POLYGAMY was allowed among the Jews ; has prevailed in Asia from time immemorial ; and is still permitted among the Moham- medans. Polygamy was made felony in Eng- land by an act passed in 1 604. POLYGLOTT. A name given to Bibles with the text printed in many languages. The idea appears to have originated with Origen, who arranged the Old Testament in several lan- guages in the 3rd century. The principal Poly- glotts are, i. the Complutensian Polyglutt (q. v.), in four languages, prepared under the superintendence of Cardinal Ximenes, 1502 1515 ; 2. the Antwerp Polyglott, in eight volumes folio, edited by Montanus, and brought out 1569 72 ; 3. the Parisian Polyglott, in ten volumes folio, edited by Le Jay, and brought out 162845 ; 4. the London Poly- glott, in six volumes folio, edited by Brian VValton, and brought put 1654 57 (it con- sisted occasionally of nine languages) ; and 5. Bagster's Polyglott, in one volume folio, pub- lished in London in 1831, the Old Testament being in eight, and the New in nine languages. POLYNESIA. This term, signifying "many islands," is applied to the numerous groups scattered over a great part of the Pacific Ocean. The work of discovery in this region was commenced by Magalhaens, who reached the Ladroiie Islands March 6, 1520. He was followed at the close of the century by Men- daua and other Spanish navigators. The Dutch made further discoveries in the i7th century, and these were considerably extended by the English navigators, the most celebrated of whom, Capt. Cook, was killed in a collision with the natives of Hawaii, or Owhyhee, Feb. 14, 1779. (See AUSTRALASIA, FEEJEE, FRIENDLY, and LA DRONE ISLANDS, OCEANIA, &c., &c.) POLYPLECTRON. This musical instru- ment was invented by Dietz about 1828. POLYSTYLUS. (See ABDERA.) POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTION (London), for scientific studies and amusements, was opened to the public Aug. 6, 1839. A serious accident occurred here, by the fall of a staircase, Jan. 3, 1859, when one person was killed and nearly 40 injured. (See ECOLE POLY- TECHNIQUE.) POLYTHEISM appears to have originated from a superstitious feeling regarding the heavenly bodies, and the great powers of na- ture. The Egyptians in the time of Moses (B.C. 1570) were polytheists. The Greeks and Romans, though acknowledging a supreme god, worshipped the lesser gods, and were essentially polytheists. In many parts of the world polytheism still prevails. POMEGRANATE. This tree, a native of most parts of the south of Europe, and of China, introduced into England in 1548, was cultivated by Gerard, in 1596. POMERANIA (Prussia). This province de- rives its name from the Wends, who settled in it about the beginning of the 6th century, and called it Po More (beside the sea). Mesti- bock, who flourished about 960, was the first prince of Pomerania. On the death of Sam- bor, in 1107, the country was divided into two parts. The eastern part came into the posses- sion of the Teutonic knights in 1296, and rather more than a century afterwards was annexed to the Polish crown. The princes of the other part of Pomerania were recognized as princes of the German empire and dukes of Pumerania in 1182. This dukedom separated into two in 1295; was reunited in 1478; and the ducal line becoming extinct on the death of Boleslaus XIII. in 1637, the country was afterwards divided between Prussia and Swe- den. The latter relinquished to Prussia part of the territory in 1720, and the remainder, some of which had been previously ceded to Denmark, in 1815. POMEROY (N. America). This town of the state of Ohio was founded in 1841. POM FRET. (-See PONTEFRACT, OXFORD MARBLES, &c.) POMONA, or MAINLAND (Orkney Islands), the largest of the group, supposed to have been colonized by the Picts, was conquered by the Normans about 876, and remained subject to the kings of Norway and Denmark till 1468, when it was annexed to the Scottish crown by treaty. POMPEII (Italy). The date of the founda- tion of this city is unknown. It is said to have been conquered, by the Samnites about B.C 440, from whom it was taken by the Ro- mans about B.C. 360. In the Social war, which began B.C. 91, Pompeii, with the other towns of Campania, revolted and joined the Marcian confederacy ; but it escaped the punishment which was inflicted on some of the other cities. A quarrel between its inhabitants and those of Nuceria, in which the latter were defeated, occurred in 59 ; and Pompeii was almost de- stroyed by an earthquake, Feb. 5, 63. Other shocks followed at intervals. The first recorded eruption of Vesuvius occurred Aug. 24, 79, and overwhelmed the town. It remained buried till accidentally discovered in 1748. Excava- tions were commenced in 1755, and the whole city was recovered. POMPEIOPOLIS (Paphlagonia) is said to have been founded by Pompey the Great POMPEY'S PILLAR PONZA (B.C. 106 Sep. 29, B.C. 48). Eupatoria (q. v.}_ Pampeluna, Soli, and other towns bore this name. POMPEY'S PILLAR, near Alexandria, was erected by Publius, Prefect of Egypt, in com- memoration of the capture of Alexandria, in 2 97> ty Diocletian, who in the inscription is termed the invincible. POMPTINE, or PONTINE MARSHES (Italy), in the south of Latium, received this name from their proximity to the town of Suessa Pometia. The first attempt to drain them was made B.C. 160. Trajan commenced a road through them in 107, and it was opened in no. Theodoric, King of the Visigoths, drained them in 500. Boniface VIII. (1294 1303) constructed a canal, and Martin V. ano- ther in 1417. Pius VI. 1111778 commenced a system of drainage which was completed in 1798. PONDICHERRY (Hindostan), the capital of the French possessions, was purchased by them from the Rajah of Bejapore in 1672, though they did not form a settlement till 1674. It was taken by the Dutch in 1693, but restored in 1697. Peace between the English and the French was concluded here, Dec. 26, 1754. Pondicherry, unsuccessfully attacked by the English in 1748, was taken by them, Jan. 15, 1761; Oct. 17, 1778; Aug. 23, 1793; and 1803. It was restored to the French in 1815. PONT-A-CHIN, orTOURNAY (Battle), was fought near Tournay, in Belgium, between the French, nearly 100,000 strong, under Pichegru, and the Allies, May 23, 1794. After a despe- rate struggle, which lasted from five in the morning till nine at night, the Allies made a tallant charge and drove the enemy from the eld. It is sometimes erroneously called the battle of Espierres. PONTEFRACT, or POMFRET (Yorkshire). In the time of the Saxons this town was called Kirkby. Its present name is derived from the ] .atin pons fractus, from the breaking of a bridge over the Aire. Pomfret Castle, the remains of which still exist, built in 1080, was, during the civil war, garrisoned by Charles I. It was attacked by the Parliamentarians in 1644, and taken by them in 1645 ; retaken by the Royalists in 1648 ; and surrendered to Lam- bert, March 25, 1649, when it was destroyed by order of Parliament. The workhouse was built in 1864. The story of the assassination of Richard II. is doubted, and by some authorities he is supposed to have escaped from Pontefract Castle early in 1400. The accounts of the Cham- berlain of Scotland, as late as 1417, contain an entry of expenses for "the custody of King Richard of England," who is said to have died in Stirling Castle in 1419. Lords Rivers and Grey, Sir Thomas Vaughan, and Haute, seized by order of Richard III., April 30, 1483, were executed in Pontefract Castle about June 26. PONTIANAK (Borneo), the chief of the Dutch settlement in the island, was founded in 1823. They had a factory as early as 1776. PONTIFEX MAXIMUS.-The office of chief pontiff among the Romans is said to have been instituted by Numa Pompilius (B.C. 715 B.C. 673). Tiberius Coruncanius (B.C. 254) was the first plebeian who obtained the office. The Emperor Augustus was made Pontifex Maxi- mus in 12, and the office was held by the emperors after his time until discontinued by Gratian in 375. Maximilian I., of Germany, assumed the title in 1511, and it is borne by the popes. PONTIFFS, five in number, including the Pontifex Maximus, according to tradition were appointed by Numa Pompilius (B.C. 715 B.C. 673). The number was increased to nine, four being plebeians, by the Ogulnian Law (B.C. 300), to 15 by Sylla (B.C. 81), and to 16 by Julius Caesar (B.C. 46 B.C. 44). PONTIGNY (France). -To the hospitable care of the abbot of this monastery, some miles from Sens, founded in 1114, the Pope commended Thomas Becket, when he was exiled from England, in 1164. Henry II. caused the fugitive to be driven from his retreat in 1165. PONTOISE (France) was fortified by the Capetian kings, who made it their residence. The Northmen took it in 885, the English in 1419 and in 1437. Charles VII., who failed in an attempt in Aug., 1441, captured it before the end of ^ the year, and it was besieged in 1589. The Etats Generaux met here Aug. 27, 1561, and the Parliament of Paris was trans- ferred to this town in 1652, 1720, and 1753. PONTUS (Asia Minor). This country, the name of which signifies the Sea Province, was the home of the Amazons, and was visited by the Argonauts. It originally formed part of Cappadocia, and was a satrapy of the Persian empire. This satrapy, afterwards called Pon- tus by the Macedonians, was bestowed on one of the royal family of Persia, named Ariobar- zanes (B.C. 480). In the time of Mithridates VI. (the Great), Pontus included the whole of Paphlagonia and part of Bithynia. Mithri- dates VI. assisted the Greeks against the Scythians, B.C. 112 no, and after conquering many petty Scythian princes in Europe, formed connections with the Germanic na- tions as far as the Danube, B.C. 108 105. His first war with Rome, B.C. 88 84, arose through bhe attacks of his neighbour Nicomedes III., King of Bithynia, at the instigation of the Romans. He lost Bithynia, Cappadocia, and Paphlagonia. A second war with Rome took place B.C. 83 B.C. 82, and a third war occurred 3.0. 74 B.C. 66, which ended in the defeat of Vlithridates VI. and the reduction of Poiitus ;o a Roman province. (See MITHBIDATIC WARS.) KINGS OF PONTUS. B.C. Date f Ariobarzanes I, unknown \Mithridates I. 363. Ariobarzunes II. 337. Mithridates II. 303. Mithridates III. 366. Ariobarzanes III. 340. Mithridates IV. 190. Pharnacesl. B.C. 156. Mithridates V. 120. Mithridates VI. (sur- named Eupator, and the Great). 63. Pharnaces II. 47. Made a Roman pro- vince. PONZA(MediterraneanSea). This island,the ancient Pontia, was ravaged by the Saracens, and remained uninhabited till 1760. It was ittacked by the English, Feb. 26,1813, and after i short conflict the governor capitulated, and POONA [ 792 ] POPE the garrison of the fortress surrendered as prisoners of war. Some Sicilians captured it June 28, 1857. (See CAGLIARI AFFAIR.) POONA, or POONAH (Hindostan), chief town of the coilectorate of the same name, was included in the estate of Shahjee, who built the palace for his own residence in the lyth century. The power of the minister was made" supreme by Balajee, and that of the rajah merely nominal, in 1749. (See PEISHWA.) The minister Bajee Rao allied himself with Scindia against Holkar ; but having been defeated in an engagement, he sought the aid of the English in 1802. Col. Wellesley, after marching at the head of his horse a distance of upwards of 60 miles in 32 hours, took possession of the city in time to save it from being burned by the enemy, April 19, 1803. Having leagued with the native powers against the English in 1817, a treaty was concluded at Poona, by which the Mahratta confederacy was dissolved, his claims limited to his own possessions, and Ahmednuggur and other places were ceded to the English, June 13, 1817. In the progress of the war the Peisliwa was compelled to flee, and ultimately resigned his office, and retired to Benares on a pension, June 3, 1818. An earthquake occurred June 10, 1819. Water- works were completed, chiefly at the expense of Sir Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy, in 1850. The government school is united with the Sanscrit college, established in 1821. The railroad to the Ghauts was opened in April, 1863. Sir Bartle Frere held a grand durbar here, Sep. 5, 1865. POOR CLARES. (See CLARE, ST.) POOR CONRAD LEAGUE. (See PEASANTS' WAR.) POOR KNIGHTS OF WINDSOR, or, KNIGHTS OF THE CHAPEL, were first es- tablished by King Edward III. in 1348, and consisted of 26 veteran knights, "infirm in body, indigent, and decayed." The original consti- tution of the order was altered by EdwardlV. in 1482-3, after which it fell into a state of decline, from which it was raised by Elizabeth, who re-established it for 13 poor knights, Aug. 30, 1559. T1 8 number was raised to 18 in 1659. William IV. changed the title of the order to " Military Knights of Windsor," its present designation, in Sep., * POOR- R-LAWS. By 23 Edw. III. c. 7 (1349), it was declared illegal to give anything to a beggar who was able to work. Poor people were ordered, to abide in the place of their birth by 12 Rich. II. c. 7 (1388). Appropriators of benefices were ordered to distribute an an- nual sum to their poor parishioners by 15 Rich. II. c. 6 (1391). Paupers were prohibited from begging, except in the hundred where they last dwelt, by n & 19 Hen. VII. (1495 and 1504), and if able-bodied, were to be whipped, by 22 Hen. VIII. c. 12 (1530). The first act enjoin- ing the systematic maintenance of the aged and impotent poor was 27 Hen. VIII. c. 25 ( I 53S)- The present system of poor-laws was commenced by 43 Eliz. c. 2 (1601), which appointed overseers of the poor, authorized the erection of poor-houses, and taxed the house- holders in order to raise a poor-rate. This was followed by numerous statutes, which were consolidated and amended by the Poor-Law Amendment Act, 4 & 5 Will. IV. c. 76 (Aug. 14, 1834). This act instituted the " Poor Law Commissioners," whose period of office was extended by subsequent acts till they were superseded by the "Commissioners for ad- ministering the Laws for the Relief of the Poor in England," who were appointed by 10 & ii Viet. c. 109 (July 23, 1847). Their name was changed to that of the ' ' Poor-Law Board" by 12 & 13 Viet. c. 103 (Aug. i, 1849). The removal of the poor is regulated by 9 & 10 Viet. c. 66 (Aug. 26, 1846) and n & 12 Viet. c. 1 10 (Sep. 4, 1848). The first poor-law act for Ireland was i & 2 Viet. c. 56 (July 31, 1838). The Scotch poor are regulated by 8 & g Viet. c. 83 (Aug. 4, 1845), which has been amended by subsequent acts. (See METROPOLITAN HOUSE- LESS POOR ACT.) POORUNDAH (Hindostan). A treaty of peace was concluded here with the Mahrattas, England acquiring the island of Salsette and other territory, June 3, 1776. POP AY AN (New Granada), founded by Ben- alcazar, in 1537, was much injured by an earthquake in 1827. POPE, from the Greek iran-as, or irana, signifying a father, was the common name of all bishiips in the early Church. Gregory VII., at a council held at Rome in 1076, ordered the title to be restricted to the bishops of Rome. (See ABDICATION, ANTI-POPES, AVIGNON, LE- GATES, NUNCIO, PAPAL SCHISM, Sep. 16. Pedro V. assumes the government. 1856, June 6. The Saldanha ministry resigns, and is suc- ceeded by that of the Marquis of Louie. The cholera rages in Lisbon. 1857, April 29. The marriage of the king with the Princess Stephanie of Hohenzollera-Sigmaringen is celebrated by proxy at Berlin. Nov. 27. The French slaver Charles et Georges is seized by a Portuguese cruiser and taken to Mozambique. The French Government maintains that the negroes found on board were free labourers. 1858, May 27. The king receives the investiture of the Garter. Aug. 13. The Charles et Georgts arrives at Lisbon. Oct. 13. The French Government demands the restoration of the vessel. Oct. 25. It is surrendered by the Portuguese Government. 1859, March 16. A new ministry is formed under the Duke of Tereeira. July 17. Death of the young queen, from diphtheria. 1860, April 26. Death of the Duke of Tereeira, president of the council. Aug. 3. A commercial treaty is concluded with Japan. 1861, Nov. II. Death of King Pedro V., who is suc- ceeded by his brother Louis Philippe, Duke of Oporto, their father Ferdinand II., husband of the late queen Maria II., acting as regent. Dec. 33. Solemn inauguration of the reign of King Louis I. POSEN [ 802 ] POSTS 1862, Feb. 19. A new ministry is formed, under the Marquis Louie. Aug. 13. By a treaty signed at Tien-tsin, Macao is definitively ceded to Por- tugal. Oct. 2. Louis I. marries Pia, youngest daughter of Victor Kmiinuel I. 1863, Sep. 38. Birth of Carlos, the heir apparent. 1864, May 27. The hereditary peerage is abolished. 1865, July 31. Another prince, named Alphonso, is born. Sep. 3. The Aguiar ministry is formed. .Seji, 18. The Portuguese International Exhibition is opened at Oporto. SOVEREIGNS OF PORTUGAL. COUNTS. A.D. I A.D. 1095. Henrique, or Henry of 1112. Theresa, queen regent. Burgundy. | 1138. Alphonso. KI? 1139. Alphonso I. GS. 1385. Joam, or John I., the 1185. Sancho I. Great. 1212. Alphonso II. (the Fat). 1433. Edward. 1223- Sancho II. 1248. Alphonso III. 143-1. Alplionso V., the African. 1379. Denis, or Dionysius. 1481. Joam, or John II. 1325. Alphonsi, IV. 1495. Einanuel. 1357. Pedro, or Peter I., the 1521. Joam, or John III. Sr\ en-. I.SS7- Sebastian. 1367. Ferdinand I. [9& lli-nry the Cardinal. I PORTUGAL UNDKIt SPANISH KINGS. 1580. Philip II. 1623. Philip IV. 1590. Philip III. HOUSE OF BUAGAXf/A. 1640. Joam, or John IV. I76. Maria I., Francesca (the Fortunate). (alone). 1656. Alphonso VI. iKifi. Joam, or John VI. 1683. Pedro, or Peter II. 1706. Joam, or John V. ]K26. Pedro, or Peter IV. iH 4 f,. Mariu 11. (da Gloria). 1750. Jose | ill. 1828. Miiruc-1. 1777. Pedro, or Peter III. and Maria I. (Fran- 1833. Maria 11. (restored). [853. Pedro, or Peter V. cesca). 1861. Louis I. POSEN (Prussia). This province formerly belonged to the kingdom of Poland. Part of it was annexed to Prussia in 1772, and the remainder in 1793. It was taken from Prussia and annexed to the duchy of Warsaw in 1 807, and restored in 1815. The secret societies for the deliverance of Poland from foreign do- minion, which led to the revolution of 1830, had their ramifications in the duchy of Posen. An insurrection of the Poles took place in April, 1848, attended by great atrocities on the part of the peasants, which were retaliated by the German troops. The revolt was put down in May, 1848. POSEN (Prussia), the capital of the pro- vince of the same name, was erected into a bishopric on the introduction of Christianity into Poland in the ioth century, and became the residence of the dukes of Poland in the i3th century. A large part of the older por- tions of Posen were destroyed in the great fire of 1803. Napoleon I. gave an audience here to the deputies of Poland on behalf of that kingdom, Nov. 29, 1806. Murat threw up his command in the French army here, and aban- doned the cause of Napoleon I., Jan. 17, 1813. Eugene made a resolute stand at Posen for three weeks, on the retreat of the French from Russia, and evacuated the city Feb. 12, 1813. An insurrection, which broke out in Feb., 1846, was soon suppressed. POSTMASTER-GENERAL. The first post- master in England was Sir Thomas Randolph, who received the appointment in 1581. James I. constituted the office of postmaster for foreign parts, which was bestowed upon Mat- thew de 1'Equester, in 1619. This office he assigned to William Frizell and Thomas Witherings, who were protected by royal denunciation against private adventurers, in 1632. The office of postmaster was regulated by 12 Charles II. c. 35 (1660), which was repealed by 9 Anne, c. 10 (June i, 1711). This act ordered the establishment of one post- master-general, to be made and constituted by letters patent under the great seal. POST-OFFICE (London). A letter office, in connection with the principal mails, was estab- lished in 1635, under the superintendence of Thomas Witherings, whose receiving-house was in Sherbome Lane. By an act of the Long Parliament, passed in 1656, the erection of a central general office was ordered ; and after the Restoration the measure was con- tinued by 12 Charles II. c. 35 (1660), and it was amended by 9 Anne, c. 10 (June i, 1711). At the commencement of the last century, the General Post-office was situated in Cloak Lane, near Dowgate, whence it was transferred to Bishopsgate Street, and afterwards to Lombard Street. In 1765 four houses in Abchurch Street were added to the establishment ; but the accommodation proving insufficient, com- missioners for choosing a new site were appointed by the private act, 55 Geo. III. c. i (1815), and a spot at the junction of Newgate trect and St. Martin's-le-Grand was selected. Excavations for the new building were com- menced in 1818, but the proceedings were suspended, and the first stone was not laid till May, 1824. It was opened for business Sep. 23 POST-OFFICE SAVINGS BANKS. By 24 Viet. c. 14 (May 17, 1861), the postmaster- general was empowered to direct his officers at various places to receive cash deposits for remittance to the general office at London, to be repaid at 2^ per cent, interest. No deposit may be of less value than is., and all the existing act relating to savings banks apply to the Post-office banks. In accordance with this act, Post-office savings banks were opened throughout Great Britain, Sep. 16, 1861. It was amended by 26 Viet. c. 14 (May 4, 1863). POSTS AND POSTAGE. Cyrus the Elder, Kingof Persia, 6.0.559, is believed to have been the first to establish a regular system of post- ing. Herodotus (B.C. 4848.0. 408) describes the Persian mode of forwarding communications by what they called relays, couriers being stationed along the road, one man and horse to every day's journey. A somewhat similar course was pursued by the Romans in the time of Augustus, B.C. 31. Prescott states that the Mexicans and Peruvians possessed insti- tutions of the kind long before they were introduced into modem Europe. Establish- ments of this kind existed in France under Charlemagne (768 814), and Charles V. (1364 80). In England royal messen-ws were employed, under the name of cokinus, nuncius, and garcio, for the conveyance of letters, as early as 1252. Sir Bryan Tuke exercised supervision over these officials, hold- POSTS [ 803 ] POUGHKEEPSIE ing a situation analogous to the modem postmaster-general (q. v.), in 1533. Edward IV. established post-stations at distances of 20 miles from each other, between Eng- land and Scotland, about 1470. By 2 Ma ,.nici;iu-.s as godfather at the baptism of the Prince of Wales. 1844, July 26. The King's life is attempted by Tesch. 1848, March 14. An insurrection breaks out at Berlin. April 23. A military insurrection is suppressed at Warsaw. Nov. 12. Berlin is declared in a state of siege. Nov. 29. The Constituent Assembly meets in the castle of Brandenburg. Dec. 5. A new constitution is promulgated. 1849, March 28. The King of Prussia is elected hereditary emperor of the Germans. April 28. The King declines to accept the title. May 10. Martial law is proclaimed. June 12. An attempt is made on the life of the Prince of Prussia. June 23. The Prussians occupy Carlsruhe. July ic. An armis- tice is concluded with Denmark. Sep. 8. The Frankfort assembly declares Frederick William IV. the head of the Bavarian imperial consti- tution. Sep. 30. An interim is concluded with Austria. Nov. 12. Austria protests against the Bavarian constitution, and the alliance of Prussia with the minor states of Germany. Dec. 7. A convention is signed between the King of Prussia and the Prince of Uohenzollern and Sigmaringen. 1850, Feb. 6. The King swears fidelity to the consti- tution. Feb. 21. Hanover withdraws from the Prussian alliance. March 20. Hohenzollern-Sig- maringen is Incorporated with Prussia. May 22. The King's life is attempted. June 20. Hesse - Darmstadt secedes from the Prussian league. July 2. A treaty of peace is concluded with Den- mark. July 6. A congress of deputies from the Zollverein meets at Cassel. Aug. 25. The King refuses to acknowledge the Frankfort diet. Nov. 6. Death of the prime minister, Count Branden- burg. Nov. 7. The entire Prussian army is called out. Dec. 10. The army is reduced to its former footing. 1851, Jan. 18. The isoth anniversary of the Prussian monarchy is celebrated. May 18. The King visits the Emperor of Russia. May 27. The two sove- reigns leave Waraw, to meet the Emperor of Austria at Olmiitz. May 31. The statue of Frede- rick II. (the Great) is erected at Berlin. Sep. 7. A commercial treaty is concluded with Hanover. 1852, Jan. 12. The council of state is revived. May 28. The industrial exhibition of Berlin is opened. June 7. A customs union with Austria is refused. Nov. 21. The minister of state, Gen. Thule, dies at Frankfort-on-the-Oder. 1853, Feb. 19. A commercial treaty is concluded with Austria. March 26. A democratic plot is dis- covered at Berlin. May 19. The King visits Vienna. Nov. 14. The naval affairs of the king- dom are separated from the military department, and an admiralty board is established. Dec. 25. Death of Gen. Radowitz at Berlin. 1854, Jan. 13. Protocols are signed with the Allies. April 9. A new protocol is concluded. April 20. A treaty is signed with Austria. June 8. The King has an interview with the Emperor of Austria at Tetschen. Sep. 6. The Prussian Government declares its intention to remain neutral in the Eastern question. 1856, March 10. M. Hinckeldy, the superintendent of the Prussian police, is killed in a duel. March 18. Prussia is permitted to take part in the con- ference of Paris. May 4. Public rejoicings are held in Berlin in consequence of the end of the Russian war. Sep. An insurrection commences in Neufchatel, and royalist subjects of Prussia are imprisoned. Dec. 8. The Prussian Govern- ment threatens war unless they are set at liberty. 1857, Jan. 15. The captives are released. March 15. A conference for the adjustment of the Neufchatel difficulty assembles at Paris. May 26. A treaty between Prussia and Switzerland is signed at Paris, and terminates the dispute. Sep. 9. A treaty with the Argentine confederacy is signed at Parana. Oct. 23. In consequence of the severe illness of Frederick William IV., the Crown Prince is appointed regent for three months. PRUSSIA [ 813 ] PRUSSIA .. l8srf, Jan. 6. The regency is continued. Jan. 25. Marriage of Prince Frederick William, eldest son of the Crown Prince, to the Princess Royal of England. Aug. 10. Queen Victoria and Prince Albert visit their daughter in Prussia. Oct. 7. The Crown Prince is made regent during the King's life. Oct. 25- The Prince-regent swears fidelity to the constitution. Nov. 5. Buron de Manteuffel's ministry resigns, and is succeeded by that of the Prince of Hohenzollern-Sig- maringen. 1859, Jan. 27. Birth of Frederick William Victor Albert, eldest son of the Princess Royal. May 5. The Prussian Government asserts its intention of en- deavouring to terminate the Italian war. June 19. The government states that the Prussian army has been called out for the protection of Germany. July 25. The army is restored to a peace footing. 1860, Jan. 13. In opening the diet, the Prince-regent an- nounces important changes in the military organi- zation of the kingdom. March 27- Prussia pro- tests against the French annexation of Savoy. April 25- Jews are admitted to judicial appoint- ments. May 4. The Prussian chambers express their intention of aiding the Sleswig-Holsteiners in the maintenance of their political rights. June 16. The Prince-regent, with other German sovereigns, has an interview with Napoleon III. at Baden-Baden. Oct. 12. Queen Victoria has an interview with the Prince-regent at Coblentz. 1861, Jan. 2- Death of Frederick William IV., who is succeeded by the Prince-regent as William I. Jan. 13. An amnesty is published in favour of political offenders. Jan. 24. A commercial treaty with Japan is signed at Jeddo. Feb. 6. The Baron de Vincke carries an amendment on the address of the chambers to the King, to the effect that Prussia should not oppose the con- solidation of Italy. May I. The Macdonald affair is amicably adjusted. June I. A general commercial code for Germany is adopted by the chambers. July 14. Oscar Becker, a Leipsic student of unsound mind, attempts the .King's life at Baden. Sep. v>. The Society of the Prussian People (Preussicher - Volks - Vereiri) is founded at Berlin. Oct. 6. William I. and Napo- leon III. meet at Compiegne. Oct. 18. William I. and Queen Augusta are crowned at Konigsberg, and an amnesty is issued. Dec. 6. The election of members of the Chamber of Deputies results in the victory of the party of progress. 1862, Jan. I. German is substituted for the French lan- guage in Prussian diplomatic despatches. March II. The chambers, having resisted the military expenditure of the government, are dissolved. March 18. A new ministry is formed by Von der Heydt. May 19. A new parliament assem- bles, with a large majority against ministers in the Lower House. May 20. Diplomatic relations are suspended with Electoral Hesse, in conse- quence of disrespectful treatment experienced by the Prussian envoy. June 7. William I. signifies his assent to the policy of the cabinet. Sep. 23. After a long and violent debate, the chambers reject, by 308 to n votes, the govern- ment proposition for the military expenses of the kingdom. Van der Heydt resigns in consequence, and is succeeded by Herr Othon von Bismarck- Schoenhausen. Oct. I. M. de Bodelschwingh is appointed minister of finance. Oct. 1 1. The Chamber of Peers passes the military budget, which had been rejected by the deputies. Oct. 13. The assent of the peers being declared un- constitutional by the deputies, William I. closes the session, and announces his intention of go^- veming independently of the constitution. 1863, Feb. 3, William I. refuses the lower chamber the right of controlling the expenditure of the nation. Feb. 8. A convention with Russia, by which Prussia agrees to aid in suppressing the Polish insurrection, is signed at Warsaw. Feb. 17. France remonstrates against the Russo- Prussiaii convention. May n. In consequence of a dispute in the Chamber of Deputies between the vice-president De Bockum-Dolffs and the minister of war, De Roon, relative to the right of the president to interrupt the ministers, the latter decline in future to appear in the chamber. 1863, May 22. The Chamber addresses the King on its relation with the ministers. May 27. William I. replies and closes the session. May 31. The Crown Prince remonstrates with his father upon von Bismarck issues a royal decree, suppressing all journals, foreign or Prussian, expressing ten- dencies " dangerous to the welfare of the state." June 3. The Crown Prince formally protests against this decree. July 18 and 19. A fete is held in honour of the liberal members of the Chamber of Deputies. Aug. 2. William I. and Francis Joseph I. of Austria meet at Gastein. Aug. 4. William I. declines to attend the congress of German sovereigns at Frankfort. Sep. 2- The Chambers are dissolved by royal decree. Oct. 20. The party of progress obtain a majority in the elections for the Chamber of Deputies. Nov. 9. Opening of the Chambers. Nov. 21. In conse- quence of a vote of the Deputies, William I. recalls his decree respecting the press. Dec. z- The Chamber, by 231 to 63 votes, resolves that " the honour and interest of Germany demand that all the German states should preserve the rights of the duchies of Sleswig and Holstein, that they should recognize the hereditary Prince of Sleswig - Holstein - Sonderburg - Augusten- bourg as Duke of Sleswig-Holstein, and that they should lend him assistance in the vindication of his rights." 1864, Jan. 16. Prussia unites with Austria in an ulti- matum addressed to the Danish Government. Jan. 21. An allied Prussian and Austrian army enters Holstein. (See DENMARK.) Jan. 22. The Chamber of Deputies rejects a demand for money to carry out military intervention in Sleswig-Holstein. Jan. 25. Closing of the Chambers. March 15. The Prussian ports are blockaded by Denmark. April 25. Meeting of the London Conference (q. v.). May 3. Deatli of Count de Rantzau. Aug. 20-25. William I. visits the Austrian court at Vienna. Oct. 27. Herr von Bismarck visits Napoleon III. at Paris. Oct. 30. Peace is restored with Denmark (q. v.). Nov. 36. Prussia advances claims to the succession of the Elbe duchies. 1865, Jan. 14. Opening of the diet. March 24. A minis- terial order is published for the transfer of the depot of the Prussian fleet on the Baltic from Dantzic to Kiel. April 14. Austria protests against the Prussian occupation of Kiel. May 5. A project for the reorganization of the army is rejected by the Deputies. May 15 and 16. The 5oth anniversary of the union with the Rhine provinces is celebrated. May 23. A treaty with Belgium is signed at Berlin. May 30. A com- mercial treaty is concluded with Great Britain. June 8. The soth anniversary of the annexa- tion of Pomerania and Rtigen is celebrated at Stralsund. June 17. The diet is closed. June 21. A postal convention is concluded with Den- mark. June 24. Kiel is made the principal station of the Prussian fleet. July 5. William I. issues a decree estimating the revenue and ex- penditure, and prescribing the regulation of the finances. July 22. An intended banquet of liberal deputies is prohibited at Cologne. Aug. 14. Signing of the convention of Gastein (q. v.). Aug. 16. A treaty of navigation is concluded with Great Britain. Aug. 20. William I. meets Francis Joseph of Austria at Salzburg. Sep. 15. Acquisition of Lauenburg. Sep. 16. Herr von Bismarck is raised to the rank of count Nov. 4. Count Bismarck is received by Napoleon III. at Paris. Nov. 8. Count Bismarck returns to Berlin. Dec. 19. Count Eulenberg is sentenced to four and a half months' imprisonment for being concerned in the death of M. Ott, a cook. 1866, Jan. 15. The Chambers are opened by Count Bis- marck. Feb. 33. The Chambers are unexpectedly closed. May 7. Count Bismarck's life is at- tempted at Berlin by Ferdinand Blind, who after- wards commits suicide. May 13. A conditional treaty of alliance is concluded with Italy. June 7. The Prussians enter Holstein. June 12. The Prussians enter Altona. The Austrian ambas- sador leaves Berlin. PRUSSIA [ 814 ] PTOLEMAIC SYSTEM 1866, June 15. An ultimatum is forwarded by Prussia to the governments of Saxony, 'Hanover, Hesse Cassel, and Nassau, and is rejected by all. War is declared against Snxouy, which is entered by Prussian troops. June 16. Aus- tria declares her intention to afford Saxony military aid against Prussia, who accepts this statement as a declaration of war. June 17. William I. and Count Bismarck leave Berlin fo.r the army. The Prussians enter Hanover and occupy Dresden. Prussia formally declares war against Austria. June 18. Hostilities are com- menced by the Austrians, who fire upon a Prussian patrol. June 2,0. The Prussians enter Pirna and Freiberg. June 34. The Prussians are repulsed in Galicia. June 36. Battle of Pocloc ( was the seat of the parliament insti- tuted by Henry II. in 1555. A council was held here May 22, 1273. Rennes was devastated by a fire, which lasted from Dec. 22 to 29, 1720, consuming 850 houses. The parliament house of the states of Britanny, now the Palais de Justice, was erected in 1670. In 1788 1,200 gentlemen of the states of Britanny met at Rennes and St. Brieux and chose 12 of their number as a deputation to bear the remon- strances of the various states to the king. An insurrection broke out Jan. 26, 1789. RENTS. The system of paying rents in money instead of in kind was introduced in 1136. Sir Richard Phillips estimates the pro- portion of rents to produce as follows: "In the age of the Plantagenets, rents were to produce as i to 30 ; at the Revolution i to 12 ; under the funding system they rose as i to 7. In the paper-money times they became as i to 5 and 4 ; and under the fall of markets, have, since 1830, been as 3-5, and 3 ' i." A great reduction in rents was made in 1621, owing to the cheapness of wheat ; and in 1703 a sudden fall in prices rendered farmers unable to pay their rents, which experienced the greatest rise about 1812. By 8 Anne, c. 14 (1709), no goods could be taken in execution unless the sheriff has previously paid the landlord the rent due ; and by 4 Geo. II. c. 28 (1731), arrears of all kinds of rent were made recoverable by distress. No arrears can be recovered for more than six years, by 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 27, ' REPEAlTljF THE UNION. The agitation for the repeal of the union commenced in 1810, and Daniel O'Connell formed associations with that object in 1829. The House of Commons, by a majority of 485, rejected his motion for repeal, April 27, 1834. The National Loyal Repeal Association, which had been formed in 1840, was again in active operation early in 1843, and a monster meeting was held at Trim, March 16, 1843. O'Connell was tried for con- spiring, Jan. 15, and convicted Feb. 12, 1844. Having appealed to the House of Lords, the sentence was reversed, Sep. 4, and he was released from custody Sep. 5. REPHAIM. (See GIANTS.) REPHIDIM (Battle). The Israelites, who, after the passage of the Red Sea, suffered from thirst at this place, where Moses smote the rock, and water gushed forth (Exod. xvii.), defeated the Amalekites, B.C. 1491. REPORTING. Sir Symonds D'Ewes's (1602 1650) Journal of the Parliaments of Queen Elizabeth appeared in 1682. As the publica- tion of the proceedings of Parliament was declared to be a breach of privilege, various expedients were adopted in order to give the public the necessary information, and reports appeared in the "Gentleman's Magazine," the "London Magazine," and other periodicals. Some newspaper proprietors were in 1771 summoned to appear at the bar of the House of Commons for having published an account of the debates, but after a struggle the point was conceded. (See JOURNALS OF THE HOUSE OF LORDS, JOURNALS OF THE HOUSE OF COMMONS, &c.) REPUBLICAN CALENDAR. (See REVOLU- TIONARY CALENDAR.) REPUBLICANS. A party in the United States, in favour of the abolition of slavery, received this name in 1856. They secured the election of Abraham Lincoln in 1860, and have since been called Unionists. Their opponents go under the general designation of Democrats. REPUBLIC OF CENTRAL AMERICA. (See CENTRAL AMERICA and NICARAGUA. ) REQUESTS. (See CONSCIENCE.) RESERVE FORCES. By 22 & 23 Viet. c. 40 (Aug. 13, 1 859), the Admiralty was empowered to raise a body of men, not exceeding 30,000, to be called the Royal Naval Coast Volunteers ; and by 22 & 23 Viet. c. 42 (Aug. 13, 1859), * ne sovereign was empowered to raise and keep up in the United Kingdom a reserve force of soldiers not exceeding 20,000 men. (See ROYAL NAVAL RESERVE.) RESTITUTION (Edict). Issued during the Thirty Years' war, by the Emperor Ferdinand II., was published March 6,. 1629. The object of the measure was to restore ecclesiastical matters to the state they were in at the peace of Passau (q. v.}. It was altogether in favour of the Roman Catholics, and having excited great opposition, was revoked at the end of the Thirty Years' war (q. v.), in 1648. RESTORATION. (See INTERREGNUM.) RETFORD, EAST (Nottinghamshire). The first charter was granted to this town, by Henry III., in 1246, and a second by Edward I., Nov. 27, 1279. It first sent representatives to Parliament in 1315, but in 1330 the bur- gesses petitioned the king to release them from the privilege, oil account of their being too poor to pay the expenses of their repre- sentatives. A fresh charter, granted by Ed- ward III. in 1336, was confirmed by another granted by Henry VI. in 1424. The town-hall was built in 1388, and rebuilt in 1755. East Retford again sent representatives to Parlia- ment in 1571, but, owing to the bribery and corruption of the voters, an act was passed, July 23, 1830, which extended the franchise of Retford to the whole of the freeholders of the hundred. A great flood happened in 1795, which caused much damage to the town. Retford was first lighted by gas Dec. 22, 1831. RETHEL (France) is supposed to have been 3 H 2 RETREAT [ 836 ] REVIEWS built on the site of a Roman fort. In the Middle Ages it was ruled by its own counts, and was, in 1581, made the seat of a duchy, conferred by Henry III. on the Duke of Nevers, whose descendants sold it to Cardinal Mazarin, and it was called Rethel Mazarin. It was taken by the Spaniards in 1650, and was retaken by Turenne in 1655. The Aus- trians were defeated by the French in a battle fought near this town, Dec. 13, 1650. RETREAT OF THE TEN THOUSAND, known to the ancients as the "Return of the Cyreian Greeks." Cyrus II., King of Persia, took the field with 100,000 barbarians and 13,000 Greeks, commanded by Clearchus, and en- countered the army of his brother, Artaxerxes II., near Cunaxa, losing the engagement and his own life, B.C. 401. The Greeks were vic- torious on their part of the field, and commenced their return homewards to the city of Ephesus, in Ionia. Clearchus having fallen by the treachery of the Persians, Xen- ophon was chosen leader. The march termin- ated at Cotyora, after many dangers and difficulties, as narrated by Xenophon in his " Anabasis, " the distance, 3,465 English miles, having been accomplished in 15 months, B.C. 400. REUNION. (See BOURBON, CLUBS, Foreign, GEORGE, ST., &c.) REUS (Spain). This town of Tarragona was founded in 1151, and its commerce was established by some English merchants, who settled here in 1750. REUSS Germany'. Several small states of Germany were thus designated, and three of them became extinct, one in 1236, another in 1532, and the third in 1550. Two only, namely Reuss Greiz and Ileuss Schleiz, exist, derived from the two sons of Henry the Peaceful, who died in 1535. The rank of counts of the empire was bestowed upon them in 1673, and the title of prince was conferred upon the elder, or Reuss Greiz line, in 1778, and upon the younger, or Reuss Schlcix; line, in 1806. They both joined the Germanic Confederation in .1813. They ceased to exist as independent states by treaties concluded with Prussia in 1866. REUSS (Germany). Pope Benedict XII, the tool of Philip VI. of France, having re- newed the excommunication of the Emperor Louis V., the electors met at Reuss in 1338 and declared that the Pope had no jurisdic tion over the German empire. They pro- hibited the publication of papal bulls in Ger- many without the previous consent of the German bishops. REVELATION OF ST. JOHN THE DI- VINE, or THE APOCALYPSE, was written ir the island of Patmos in 96 or 97. The Alogians (q. v.) in the 2nd century rejected it, attri- buting the authorship to Cerinthus. Justin Martyr (103 167), andlrenseus, about 200, give important evidence in its favour. Dionysius, Bishop of Alexandria (247 265), states that it was rejected by many persons of good character. Jerome, writing early in the sth century, says that the Oriental Church did not admit it into the canon, and it is not included in the list oi books declared canonical by the Council oi Laodicea, in 366. The Council of Toledo, Dec. 9> 633, excommunicated those who refused to acknowledge its inspiration. Erasmus and Luther doubted its authenticity. It is in- cluded in the canon, and accepted as the work of St. John. Several counterfeit books of the kind appeared in the early ages of the Church, h as the Apocalypse of St. Peter, mentioned ay Eusebius, and the Apocalypse of St. Paxil, said :o have been found in a stone chest at Tarsus. REVEL, or REVAL (Russia), was founded as a bishopric by Valdemar II. of Denmark, about 1218. The oldest church is the Estho- nian, mentioned in 1284. That of St. Olai was founded in 1329, and having been destroyed by fire, was rebuilt in 1820. Revel, fortified in 1360, and held for some time by the Lithua- nian knights, was ceded to Sweden in 1562. The Danes bombarded it in 1569; the Russians attacked it in 1577 ; and it was captured by Peter I. (the Great), in 1710. The harbour \vns much improved in 1713. (See ESTHONIA.) REVELS. (See MASTER OF THE REVELS, MISRULE, Lord of, y an act of legis lature in 1742, was made the seat of govern- ment in 1780. A fire, which broke out in the theatre Dec. 26, 1811, caused the death of 72 persons. Richmond became the capital of the Confederate States in July, 1861, and the Congress assembled July 20. The Federals under Gen. Kilpatrick and Col. Dahlgreen attempted to seize the city, March i, 1864, bui were repulsed with great loss. It was taken April 3, 1865. (See CHICKAHOMINY, Battles, and UNITED STATES.) RICHMOND PARK (Surrey), enclosed by Charles I. in 1636, was thrown open to the public Dec. 20, 1752. RICHMOND SHILLING. (See COAL.) RIETI (Battles). The French defeated th Neapolitans at this place in Naples, the ancient Reate, in 1798. The Austrians defeated Gen. Pepe here, March 7, 1821. RIFLE CORPS. (See NATIONAL RIFLE AS- SOCIATION, VOLUNTEERS, &c.) RIFLED FIRE-ARMS. The citizens of Leipsic are said to have possessed arms with a grooved bore as early as 1498, and Sir Hugh Plat, in the "Jewel House of Art and Na- ture," of which the first edition appeared in 594, alludes to the principle. Various im- jrovements were made and many patents were aken out for rifled arms, which were first ntroduced into the French army in 1826, Capt. Delvigne's plan being adopted. It was much improved in 1846. A cannon, rifled in :6i5, is in the Museum at St. Petersbiirg. See ARMSTRONG GUN, BULLETS, ENFIELD MUS- KET, LANCASTER GUN, MINIE RIFLE, n of a statue to Daniel O'Connell at Dublin. Seven persons are killed, and 150 sustain serious injury. 1866, July 23. A monster meeting in Hyde Park (q. v.), summoned by the Reform League, ends in a riot. RIPAILLE (Savoy). Amadeus VIII., Duke of Savoy, founded a convent of the Knights of St. Maurice, near Thonon, to which he retired after the death of his wife in 1434. The her- mits lived so well, that faire ripaille passed into a proverb denoting a life of ease and dis- sipation. Amadeus VIII. was elected Pope, Nov. 17, 1439, by the Council of Basel, which deposed Eugenius IV., and he took the title Felix V. He was not recognized by several states, and at the dissolution of the Council of Basel in 1449, he renounced the tiara. 1UPON (Bishopric). The erection of this see, recommended in a report of the Ecclesias- tical Commissioners, dated March 17, 1835, was carried into effect Oct. 5, 1836. RIPON (Yorkshire). This town is first no- ticed hi 661. The monastery, built by Arch- bishop Wilfrid in 678, having been totally destroyed by the Danes, was restored and in- corporated by Alfred in 886. It was again de- stroyed by the Danes in the middle of the ioth century, was afterwards rebuilt, and for the third time destroyed by William I. in 1069. It soon revived, but, with its monastery, was "burned by Robert Bruce in 1323. Ripon minster was built in 1140 by Thurstan, Arch- bishop of York, who founded St. Mary's hos- pital in 1144. During the plague in London in 1401, Henry IV. retired with his court to Ripon, and James I. rested here in 1617, 011 his way to Scotland. The grammar-school was founded in 1546. Charles I. was at Ripon in 1633. An agreement with the Covenanters (q. v.) was signed at Ripon, Oct. 26, 1640. It was taken by the Parliamentary forces under Sir Thomas Mauleverer in 1643, and again occupied by Charles I. in 1644. In 1767 an act was passed for making the river Ure navigable from its junction with the Swale. The market was built in 1781, the theatre in 1792, the town- hall in 1801, Trinity Church in 1826, and Ripon minster was erected into a cathedral in 1836. RIVOLI (Battles). Davidowich, at the head of iin Austrian army, defeated the French be- tween Bardolino and Rivoli, near Verona, Nov. 17, 1796. The French, under Napoleon I., defeated the Austrians, under Alvinzi, at the same place, near Verona, Jan. 17, 1797. ROAD Ml'ltDKK. Francis Saville Kent, a child about four years of age, was found on the morning of June 30, 1860, in an outhouse close to his father's dwelling at Road, near Frome, Wilts, with his throat cut. Suspicion fell upon several persons, but in spite of the efforts made to discover the perpetrator of the crime, it remained a mystery, until Constance Emily Kent surrendered at Bow Street, April 25, 1865, on her own confession of having killed her brother, she being at the time only 16 years of age. The prisoner, who pleaded guilty, was tried at Salisbury, July 21, 1865. The capital sentence was commuted, and she was transported to Freemantle. ROADS. The invention of paved roads has been ascribed to the Carthaginians, and the Greeks are regarded as the earliest nation that legislated for their repair and maintenance. The Romans were celebrated for the excellence of their military roads, the earliest of which, the Via Appia, was constructed by Appius Claudius B.C. 312. Julius Caesar caused roads to be made between all the chief cities of Italy, which were thus brought into connec- tion with the Roman forum, the centre of the internal communication of the empire. Mile- stones were established throughout their entire length, and a system of post-houses was insti- tuted, which enabled the traveller to progress at the rate of 100 miles per day. Gibbon states, "If we carefully trace the distance from the wall of Antoninus to Rome, and from thence to Jerusalem, it will be found that the great chain of communication, from the north- west to the south-east point of the empire, was drawn out to the length of four thousand and eighty Roman miles," of which only 85 miles was by water-communication. He adds : ROANOKE [ 843 1 ROCHELLE " They united the subjects of the most distant provinces by an easy and familiar intercourse ; but their primary object had been to facilitate the marches of the legions ; nor was any country considered as completely subdued, till it had been rendered, in all its parts, pervious to the arms and authority of the conqueror." The most important Roman roads in Britain are Watling Street, Hermin Street, Ikenild Street, and the Fosse. The first, and most celebrated of these, ran from Richborough, in Kent, through London, to Chester, and was named by the Saxons in honour of the sons of Watln, one of their mythic heroes. Hermin Street extended from Pevensey to the south- east of Scotland, and was called Hermin Street by the Saxons, in honour of one of their divi- nities. Ikenild, or Iknield Street, extended from the coast of Norfolk to the south-west of Cornwall, and is of uncertain etymology ; and the Fosse, or Ryknield Street, from the mouth of the Tyne to St. David's, in Wales. From the time of the Romans no measures were taken to secure the proper regulation of the roads of the kingdom, until the passing of 13 Edw. I. stat. 2, c. 5 (1285), which ordered high- ways between market-towns to be increased in breadth. Toll was first levied in 1346. The earliest statute providing for the systematic repair of roads was 2 & 3 Philip & Mary, c. 8 (1555), which ordered two surveyors of high- ways to be elected annually in every parish. Turnpikes were established by 16 Charles II. c. i (1663), though the system did not become general till 1767, when it was extended to all the chief roads of the kingdom. The use of the spirit-level in laying out roads was commenced in Scotland by Lord Daer in 1790 ; and in 1815 Thomas Telford introduced his system of road- makiiig in the Holyhead Road. John Lou- doii Macadam introduced his method, named after him, Macadamizing, about 1815. Wooden pavement was introduced in London about 1839, but proved unsuccessful, and was re- moved. Agdn tried in Holborn in 1841, it again failed. Prescott states that the art of roadmaking was carried to extraordinary per- fection by the incas of Peru. ROANOKE (N. America). This island of N. Carolina was discovered by Sir Walter Raleigh in July, 1584. Another expedition, under Sir R. Greenvill, sailed April 9, 1585, landed at Roanoke June 26, 1585, and formed the first settlement in N. America. It did not, however, prove successful, and the settlers, rescued by Sir Francis Drake, arrived at Ports- mouth July 27, 1586. Another band of settlers, left at Roanoke by Sir R. Greenvill in 1586, perished. Albemarle Island and Plymouth, at the mouth of the river Roanoke, were taken by the Federals in 1864. ROASTING ALIVE. -Servetus was, at the instigation of John Calvin, roasted alive at Geneva, 011 a charge of heresy, Oct. 27, 1553. (See BURNING ALIVE.) ROBBERS. According to the English laws, robbery is the crime of theft attended with threats or violence. Hallam (Middle Ages, ii. 376) states that "highway robbery was, from the earliest times, a sort of national crime." The Anglo-Saxons punished it with fine, and in the reign of Henry I. (noo 35) it was made a capital offence. It was included in the list of capital crimes by 7 & 8 Geo. IV. c. 29 (June 21, 1827), which was repealed by 7 Will. IV. & i Viet. c. 87 (July 17, 1837), except in cases where the offence was attended with cutting and wounding. (See LATBOCINIUM.) ROBERVALLIAN LINES, named after M. de Roberval (1602 75), who claimed to be their inventor, are said to have been first known in Italy in 1644. They were noticed by James Gregory on his visit to Padua in 1668, and published in his "Universal Geo- metry" in 1692. ROBES (Mistress of) was formerly (Thorns, The Book of the Court), during the reign of a female sovereign, held conjointly with that somewhat incongruous office for a lady, the Groom of the Stole. The Duchess of Marl- borough held both offices in the reign of Qvieen Anne (1702 14), and the Countess of Suffolk was in 1734 appointed Mistress of the Robes and Groom of the Stole to Caroline, queen of George II. ROBINSON CRUSOE.- (See JUAN FERNAN- DEZ.) ROCCA, or ROCCHA. (See ALUM and EPESSA.) ROCCASECCA (Battle). Ladislaus, King of Naples, was defeated by Louis of Anjou, in this action, fought May 19, 1411. ROCHDALE (Lancashire). A church ex- isted here prior to 1193. Edmund De Lacy obtained a charter for a market in 1241, and the grammar-school was founded in 1564. John Byron was created Baron Byron of Roch- dale by Charles I. in 1642. St. Mary's Church was erected in 1740, St. James's Church in 1814, and the Presbyterian chapel in 1717. The Rochdale canal was opened in 1804. Rochdale first sent a member to Parliament in 1832. The new town-hall was commenced in 1865. (See COTTON FAMINE.) ROCHEFORT (France) was founded by Louis XIV. in 1644, and made a naval station in 1666. An expedition against Rochefort, contemplated by the English in 1757, was not carried out. The Seamen's Hospital was founded in 1787. In 1809 Lord Cochrane burned five French vessels which lay at anchor here. Napoleon I., defeated in a vain attempt to escape to America after the battle of Waterloo, gave himself up at Rochefort, July 15, 1815, to Capt. Maitland, of the Bellerophon. A million of francs was voted in 1840 for building a fort to profbct the roadstead. The convict establishment was closed in 1852. ROCHELLE (France). By the marriage of Eleanor of Guienne with Henry Plantagenet, afterwards Henry II., May 18, 1152, this town came into the hands of the English, and was captured by Louis VIII. in 1224. In 1360 it was ceded to England, but was recovered by Bertrand du Guesclin in 1372. The Huguenots held it from 1557 to. Oct. 28, 1628, when it surrendered to Louis XIII., who razed it to the ground. They had sustained a siege from Dec., 1572 to 1573, when peace was made. It was again fortified by Vauban in the reign of Louis XIV. An attempt made by the English in 1809 to destroy the French fleet here, was only ROCHESTER [ 844 ] ROGATION WEEK partly successful. The Carbonari raised an insurrection here in 1821. ROCHESTER (Bishopric). This diocese was founded by Ethelbert, King of Kent, in 604, and St. Augustine ordained Justus as its first bishop. The patronage of the see was vested in the Archbishop of Canterbury by King John, Nov. 22, 1214. By an order in council, Aug. 8, 1845, great alterations were made in its extent and territory, large districts in Kent being separated from Rochester and added to Canterbury and London, in exchange for the whole county of Hertford and the greater part of Essex. ROCHESTER (Kent). A missionary church, afterwards the cathedral, was established here in 600, by St. Augustine, who consecrated Justus first Bishop of Rochester in 604. The cathedral suffered much from the incursions of the Danes, and at the Norman conquest was in ruins. Gundulph, who was made bishop in 1077, restored it, and it was dedicated in 1130. The castle is supposed to have been built by Odo of Bayeux in 1088. The cathedral was roofed with lead in 1199, and it suffered much in 1264 from the troops of Simon de Montfort, who used it as a stable while they were besieging the castle. Queen Elizabeth visited Rochester in 1573, and James I. and the King of Denmark in 1606. Watt's hospital was built, in 1579, the church of St. Nicholas was rebuilt in 1624, and the town-hall was founded in 1687. A free school was founded in 1701. The bridge was rebuilt in 1857. ROCHESTER (N. America , in New York, was incorporated as a village in 1817, and as a city in 1834. In 1812 the post was brought on horseback by a woman. ROCKETS for war purposes were invented by Sir W. Congreve, Bart. (See CONGREVE ROCKETS.) At the siege of Acre, Nov. 3, 1840, the explosion of the powder magazine, which proved so disastrous to the enemy, is said to have been caused by a rocket. ROCK I X( i 1 1 A M A DM I NISTRATIONS. The first was formed on the dissolution of the Grenville administration (q. r. , in July, 1765, and the Marquis of Rockingham was gazetted first lord of the Treasury July 13. The cabinet was thus constituted : Treasury Marquis of Ttockiiipham. Lord Chancellor Karl of Xorthington. President of the Council Earl of Windid-ra. Privy Seal Duke of Newcastle. Chancellor of Exchequer Mr. Uowdeswell. ;l)uke of Grafton and Gen. Conway, who acted as leader of the House of Commons. Admiralty Earl of Egmont. Board of Trade Earl of Dartmouth. The Duke of Grafton resigned, and Lord Hardwicke having refused the Secretaryship, though he accepted a seat in the cabinet, the Duke of Richmond was appointed one of the principal secretaries of state in his place, May 6. 1766. Lord Rockingham made overtures to Mr. Pitt (afterwards Lord Chatham), and Lord Shellmrne ; and negotiations having been carried on for some time, the Rockingham ministry was dismissed, being succeeded by the Chatham (second) administration (.). 1791. Roman Catholics arc released from various penal- ties and disabilities by 31 Geo. III. c. 32. 1824. The Roman Catholic Association is founded. 1829, March 30. The Roman Catholic Relief Hill passes the Commons by a majority of 178. April 10. It is passed by the Lords, majority 104. April 13. It receives the royal signature, and appears among the statutes as lo Geo. IV. c. 7. April 28. The Dake of Norfolk and Lords Clifford and Doimer take their oaths ami seats in the house of Peers, being the lirst Roman Catholic members of that house. 1832, Aug. 15. Roman Catholics are placed on the same footing as Protestant Dissenters with respect to their places of worship, &e., by 2 & 3 Will. IV. c. 115. 1840. St. George's Roman Catholic Cathedral is erected in Southward 1844, Aug. 9. Further concessions are made to Roman Catholics bv 7 & 8 Viet. c. 102. 1850, Sep. 24. Pius IX. publishes a bull establishing a Romish priesthood in Great Britain. 1851, April 22. The Roman Catholic Defence Associa- tion is formed at Dublin. Aug. I. 'Ihe establish- ment of a Roman Catholic hierarchy in Great Britain is prohibited bv 14 & 15 Viet. c. 60, the Ecclesiastical Titles Bill (q. v.). ROMANCE. The earliest work in this species of writing is a Greek romance, called "Theagenes and Chaiiclea," by Heliodorus, Bishop of Tricca, in Thessaly, who flourished about 390, and is called the " Father of Romances." European romantic fiction may be said to have originated with the legendary stories, of English origin, relating to Arthur and the knights of the Round Table, which were turned into prose in the course of the i3th, 1 4th, and isth centuries. (See LANGUE D'oc.) ROMAN CREED. (See APOSTLES' CREED ) ROMANESQUE. A debased style of archi- tecture and ornaments, said to have been brought from Egypt, adopted by the Romans in the reign of Augustus (B.C. 31 A.D. 14), and prevailed till about 800. ROMAN LAW. The civil law is thus designated because it is based upon the old Roman law, said to have been founded by Servius Tullius, B.C. 566. (See CODES, &c.) ROMAN LITERATURE. The earliest literary efforts recorded at Rome were ballads and private and political squibs ; written in the Saturnian. and Fescemiine metres. (See AVERSE. ) Roman literature originated at a later period, being founded upon that of Greece. Browne (Hist, of Roman Classical Literature, preface, p. v.), says: "The Roman mind, naturally vigorous and active, was still uncul- tivated, when about two centuries and a half before the Christian era (B.C. 240), conquest made the inhabitants of the capital acquainted for the first time with Greek science, art, and literature ; and the last rays of classic taste and learning ceased to illumine the Ro- man world before the accession of the Anto- nines (138)." The most eminent Roman poets and dramatists were Livius Androiiicus (flourished B.C. 240), Nasvius (B.C. 274 202), Plautus (B.C. 254184), Csecilius Statius (died B.C. 168), Ennius (B.C. 239 169), Terence (B.C. 194 159), Lucilius (B.C. 148 103), Lucretius (B.C. 95 Oct. 15, B.C. 55), Catullus (B.C. 87 47), Virgil (B.C. 70 Sep. 22, B.C. 19), Tibullus (B.C. 5418), Propertius (B.C. 51 after B.C. 16), Horace (B.C. 65 Nov. 27, B.C. 8), Ovid (B.C. 43 A.D. 1 8), Persius (34 -Nov. 24, 62), Lilcan (39 April 30, 65), Statius (61 96), Juvenal flourished 83100), Martial (43 104), and Claudian (died after 404). The chief prose authors were Fabius Pictor (B.C. 225 216), Cato the Censor (B.C. 234149), Cicero (B.C. 106 Dec. 7, B.C. 43), Julius Caesar (B.C. 100 March 15, B.C. 44), Sallust (B.C. 86 May, B.C. 34), Cornelius Nepos (died about B.C. 32), Varro B.C. 116 28), Pollio (B.C. 76 A.D. 4), Livy (B.C. 59 A.D. 17), Seneca (died in 65), Pliny the Elder (23 Aug. 24, 79), Tacitus (61117). (See COMEDY, DRAMA, SATIRE, TRAGEDY, VERSE, &c.) ROMANOFF. (Sf.e COSTROMA, RUSSIA, &c.) ROMAN REPUBLIC was proclaimed March 20, 1798, and terminated Nov. 29. A republic was again established Feb. 8, 1849, and dissolved after the capture of Rome by the French, July 4. ROMAN ROADS. (See ROADS.) ROMANS. (.See KING OF THE ROMANS.) ROMANS (Epistle). According to Greswell and Neander, this epistle was written by the apostle Paul, at Cenchrea, near Corinth, in 56. Alford dates its production at Corinth, in 58. A person named Tertius acted as his amanu- ensis. ROMA SECUNDA, or NEW ROME. (See AQUILEIA, BYZANTIUM, &c.) ROMAN STATES. (See PAPAL STATES.) ROMAN STYLE. (See NEW STYLE.) ROMAN WALLS were erected to defend Britain from the incursions of the Picts and Scots. The first wall, 80 Roman miles -in length, extended from the Tyne to the Solway Frith, and was constructed by the Emperor Hadrian in 121. (See HADRIAN'S WALL.) The second wall, 32 Roman miles in length, extended from the Firth of Forth to the Firth of Clyde, and was built by Lollius Urbicus, in the reign of Antoninus Pius, about 140. (See ROME t 847 1 ROME AGRICOLA'S WALL. ) The fi rst wall was renewed and strengthened by Septimius Severus, 208 10. It had battlements and towers to contain soldiers. Many remains of these walls still exist. ROME, ROMAN EMPIRE, ROMAN RE- PUBLIC (Italy). Chronologists have referred the foundation of Rome to various dates : Varro, to April 21, B.C. 753 ; Cato, to B.C. 751 ; Polybius, to B.C. 750; Fabius Pictor, to B.C. 747 ; and Cincius, to B.C. 728. The computa- tion of Varro is usually adopted. The diffi- culty of discriminating between truth and fiction in the early history of Rome, has been pointed out by various writers. Smith in his comprehensive work (A History of the World from the earliest records to the present time, Ancient History, vol. ii. ch. xx. ) remarks : " We cannot make out a true and consistent history "by eliminating the improbabilities of these legends, or by selecting from the interpreta- tions of the ancients that which may seem to us the most reasonable. But, by a careful com- parison of language, antiquities, institutions, traditions, and other real elements of fact, illustrated by light reflected on them by the legends, we can arrive at certain broad conclusions. They may be summed up in the steady growth of the city, till it became the head of Latium, on the one hand, and derived wealth and commercial importance from its connection with Etruria on the other. A constitution, based on a patriarchal aristocracy, with an elective monarchy at its head, was modified by the introduction of new elements, chiefly from the conquered Latin states, till the necessity arose for a new military organization, and a new distribution of political power among all classes of the citizens." Councils were held at Rome in 197 ; 251 ; 256 ; 258 ; 260 ; 313 ; June, 342 ; 349 ; 352 ; as 8 ; 364 ; 366 ; 367 ; 369 ; 372 ; 374 ; 375 ; 377 ; 37 8 ; 379 ; 3 82 ; Jan - 6 > 386 ; in 390 ; 400 ; Aug. 11, 430 ; in May, 431 ; July 31, 433 ; in 444 ; 445 ; Sep. 29, 447; Feb. 22, 449; in Oct., 449; 451; 458 ; 462 ; Nov. 17, 465; July 28, 484 ; Oct. 5, 485 ; March 13, 488 ; in 495 ; 496 ; March i, 499 ; in 501 ; Nov. 6, 502 ; in 503 ; 504 ; 530 ; Dec. 7, 531 ; in 534; Dec., 590; Feb., 591 ; July 5, 595 ; in 600 ; April 5, 601 ; in 606 ; Feb. 27, 610 ; in 640 ; Jan., 641 ; 648 ; 650 ; Dec. 19, 667 ; in Oct., 679 ; March 27, 680 ; in 704 ; 721 ; 731 ; 732 ; March 22, 745 ; Oct. 25, 745 ; April 12, 769 ; in 774 ; 799; Dec., 800; 816; 823 ; Nov. 15, 826 ; in 848 ; Dec. 8, 855 ; in 860 ; 861 ; 862 ; 863 ; 868 ; Oct. 4, 868 ; in 872 ; 875 ; in April, 876 ; July, 877 ; 878 ; May i, 879 ; in Aug., 879 ; 896 or 897 ; 898 ; 949 ; Nov. 6 22, 963 ; Feb. 26, 964 ; in Jan., 967 ; 968 ; 969 ; April 23, 971 ; in 975 ; 989 ; 996 ; April 24, 998 ; Jan. 6, 1001 ; Dec. 3, 1002 ; Nov. i, 1007; April 6, 1027; in 1044; Jan., 1047; April ii, 1049; May 2, 1050; in 1051; 1053; April 18, 1057 ; April 13, 1059 ; in 1061 ; 1063 ; 1065 ; 1070 ; 1072 ; Feb. 24, 1075 ; in 1076 ; in Lent, 1078 ; Nov., 1078 ; Feb., 1079; 1080; May 4, 1081 ; Nov. 20, 1083; in 1084; Jan., 1085 ; 1089; Aug. 7, 1098 ; April 25, 1099; in March, 1102; 1104; March 26, 1105; in Slay, 1105; March 7, ino ; in 1144 ; 1200 ; Nov., 1210 ; Nov. 18, 1227 ; in 1228 ; Oct. 30, 1302 ; in 1412 ; and 1413. Landon (Manual of Councils) omits many of the above given by Sir H. Nicolas (Chronology of History), and mentions in addition councils in March, 487 ; in 639 ; in 703 ; in 744 ; in 792 ; in 993 ; and in 1725. (See EASTERN EMPIRE, HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE, ITALY, POPES, WESTERN EMPIRE, &c.) B.C. 753, April 21. Romulus, according to the legend, founds Rome on the Palatine Mount. 750. The forcible abduction of the Sabine women leads to a war with the Sabines. 747. The Sabines settle on the Capitoline and the Qui- rinal, and form a league with Romulus. 733. Romulus founds the Circensian games. 716. Romulus is assassinated by the senators, and an in- terregnum of one year ensues. 715. The Romans elect Nunia Pompilius as his successor. 710. Numa regulates the priesthood. 670. The combat between the Horatii and the Curiatii (q. v.). 665. Tullus Hostilius defeats the Albans and destroys their city. 640. Ancus Marcius succeeds Tullus Hostilius. Rise of the plebeian order, and foundation of the port of Ostia. 621. The Larentalia festivals are established. 616. Accession of Tarquinius Priscus. 615. Foundation of the Capitol (q. v.). 605. The Circus Maximus is erected. 600. The Cloacae are built. 578. The first Roman money is coined. Death of Tar- quinius Priscus, and accession of Servius Tullius. 566. The first census (q. .), the number of citizens being estimated at ^4,700. 550. Servius Tullius divides the Romans into six classes, institutes the Comitia Centuriata, and surrounds Rome with a wall and ditch. 534. Servius is murdered by his daughter, Tullia, and her husband, Tarquinius Superbus, who succeeds. 530. The Sibylline books are removed from Cuma or Cumae to Rome. 510. The violation of Lucretia by Sextus Tarquinius leads to the expulsion of the Tarquins (See REGIFU- GIUM), and the establishment of a consular go- vernment, under L. Junius Brutus and Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus. 509. The Romans conclude a commercial treaty with Carthage. 508. A new census is taken. 507. The Capitol is dedicated. 502. War is commenced against the Latins. 501. The dictatorship is instituted. 500. The patricians and plebeians commence their civil contests. 498 or 496, July 15. The Romans are victorious at Lake Regillus (q. v.). 496. The Romans take Fidenas (q. v.). 494. The plebeians secede to Mons Sacer, the Sacred Mountain. 493. Rome is compelled to acknowledge the independence of the Latins. Caius Mariius takes Corioli (q. v.). The Comitia Tributa are established, and the city is visited by a famine. 491. Coriolanus is banished, and takes refuge with the Volscians. 489. Coriolanus leads a besieging army of Volscians against Rome. 488. At the intercession of his mother, Volumnia, he withdraws from Rome, and is murdered by the incensed Volscians. 485. Quaestors are appointed. 484. The first Agrarian law (9. v.) is proposed, for the division of the conquered territory of the Her- nici. 477, July 16. The family of the Fabii, with the exception of one child, perishes in battle with the Veieutea at the Cremera. 474. A truce of 40 years is concluded with Veii. 471. The Publilia lex is passed, which vests the election of the plebeian magistrates in the Comitia Tri- buta. 468. The Romans take Antium. 460. L. Quinctius Cincinuatus, "awful from the plough," is elected to the consulship. 458. Cincinnatus is made dictator, and delivers the Romans from the Sabines and the JEqui. ROME ROME B.C. 456. The Aventine Mount is assigned to the plebeians. 454. An embassy is despatched to Greece to investigate the Grecian laws. 451. Appointment of the Decemviri. 449. Ill consequence of the attempted violation, by Appius Claudius, of Virginia, who is killed by her father Virginius, to save her from dishonour, the d cem- virate is abolished ; and the plebeians secede a second time to the Sacred Hill. 445. Marriage between patricians and plebeians is per- mitted by the Lex Caiiuleia. 44. Three military tribunes are elected, but the election is annulled. 43. The office of censor and that of the naval duumviri arc instituted. 440. Rome is visited by a famine. 438. The Fidena'aiis revolt. 437. The Fidemeans are reduced to subjection the fol- lowing year. Three military tribunes are in office. 434. War is declared against the Etruscans. 433. The Temple of Apollo is dedicated. 43t. Tubertius defeats the ^Equi and Volsci at Mount Al- gid us. 436. Fidena; again revolts, and is taken and destroyed by the Romans. 435. A truce for zo years is concluded with the Veii. 433. Vulturnium is taken by the Samnites. 420. The number of quaestors is raised from two to four. The Samnites take Cumin. 418. Lavici is taken from the ^Cqui, and erected into a Roman colony. 414. Bola is taken and colonized by the Romans. 409. Three plebeiuii qiux-stors are elected. 407. The Romans are defeated by the Volscians. 406. War is declared against the Veii. The Roman army first receives regular pay. 405. The Romans lay siege to Vrii. 403. Bachelors nrc taxed by the " JEa Uxorum." 402. The Volscians recapture Anxur. 400. The first Lectisterniam, or public banquet of the gods, is celebrated, in consequence of a plague. -lilencc prevails. . Veii is taken by the dictator Camilla* 393. The lands of the Veiicntes are partitioned among the plebeians. A truce for 2 years is concluded with the Etruscan confederacy. 391. Camillus, who is impeached, goes into exile. 3yo, July 1%. The Gauls, under Hrcnnus, defeat the Romans at the battle of Allia. July 31. They enter and burn Rome. The Gauls besiege the Capitol. 389. The city is rebuilt. 3.7. Institution of the Capitoline games. 3x4. Manlius Capitolinus, convicted of having aimed at sovciviiru power, is hurled from the Tarpeian rock. 380. Prwneste is taken by the Romans. 376. Civil war recommences between the patricians and plebeians. The "Licinian Rogations," enacting that one of the consuls shall be a plebeian, are passed. 375. Lucius Sextus is the first plebeian elevated to the consular dignity. The office of prajtor is insti- tuted ; and curule nediles are first appointed. 364. The Ludi Scenici, instituted in consequence of a pestilence, are the earliest dramatic performances held at Rome. 363. M. Curtius, in obedience to an oracle, leaps into a gulf opened in the Forum. 361. Manlius Torquatus defeats the Gallic champion. 351. An alliance is concluded with the Samnites. 350. The Gallic invaders of Italy are defeated by the consul Popilius. 348. The treaty with Carthage is renewed. 343. The first Samnite war commences. 343. The army mutinies at Capua, and the plebeians rise in insurrection. 341. End of the first Samnite war. 340. The great Latin war commences. 338. The great Latin war is concluded, after three cam- paigns, by the triumph of the Romans. The Campaiiiaiis submit to Rome. 337. The vestal Misurtia is buried alive for breaking her vow of chastity. The praitorship is thrown open to the plebeians. 334. Cales, in Campania, is made a Roman colony. 333. A league is concluded with Alexander of Epirus. 326. The Second, or Great Samnite war, commences. Publius Philo takes Palacopolis. 333. A league is concluded with the Apuleians and the Leucanians. 331. The Romans are defeated at the Caudine Forks (.). Gladia- tors first exhibit at Rome. 361. The Romans build their first fleet. 356. M. Atilius Regulus gains a naval victory over the Carthaginians at llimera. 354. Pauormus, in Sicily, is besieged and taken by the Romans. 350. The Roman commander Regulus is cruelly executed at Carthage (q. v.) and the revolt of the Falisci is suppiv.-sed. 247. The Carthaginians invade Italy. ' 341. End of the first Punic war. Sicily is reduced to a Roman province; and a revolt of the l-'alisri is suppressed. Overflow of the Tiber. 235. A revolt is suppressed in Sardinia ; and, the empire being at peace, the temple of Janus is closed. 331. Corsica and Sardinia are annexed to the R-jman dominions. 338. The Romans send an embassy to Greece for the first time. 32=;. The Gauls invade Italy, and are defeated at Clu- sium. 333. Marcellus defeats the Gauls at Clastidium. 330. The Circus Flaminius is built, and the Via Flaminia constructed. 318. Commencement of the second Punic war. Battle of the Ticinus. 317. Hannibal defeats Flaminius at Lake Thrasymene. 316, Aug. 2. The battle of Cannae (q.v.). 215. The extravagance of the Roman ladies is restrained by the Lex Oppia. 213. The Romans engage in war with Philip V. of Mace- don. 208. Marcellus is defeated and slaiu by Hannibal near Venusia. 202. The battle of Zama (q. v.). 201. End of the second Punic war. 197. Philip V. of Macedon is defeated at the battle of Cynoscephahe (q. r.), which ends the war against him. Citizens are exempted from scourging and capital punishments by the Lex Porcia. 192. War is commenced against Antiochus III. (the Great of Syria. 1 88. Peace with Antiochus the Great is ratified. 183. Death of Scipio Africanus. 181. Discovery of the sacred books of Numa Pompilius. ROME ROME 179- Tiberius Gracchus subdues the Celtiberians (q. .). 174. The Roman streets are paved. 171. Another war against Macedonia is commenced. 168, June 23. Perseus, King of Macedon, is defeated the battle of Pydiia, and his kingdom is added to . the Roman states. 167. The first public library is opened at Rome. 161. Philosophers and orators are banished from the x city. 156. Commencement of the wars with Dalmatia (q. v.). 153. The first Celtiberian war. 149. Commencement of the third Punic war. 146. Subjection of Epirus, and destruction of Carthage and Corinth. 143. The Celtiberian takes the name of the Numantine war (q. v.). 138. Lusitania is annexed to Koine. 134. Commencement of the first Servile war in Sicily. 133. Pergamus and Spain become Roman province^ Legislation and murder of Tiberius Gracchus. 133. Conclusion of the Servile war. 131. Civil war, in which Caius Gracchus is killed. 115. Submission of the Ligures. 113. Commencement of the Cimbrian war. III. The Jugurthine war (q. v.) is commenced in Africa. 106. Jugurtha is made prisoner, and Numidia becomes a Roman province. Birth of Cicero and of Pompey. 104. The eagle becomes the national standard. 103. The second Servile war breaks out in Sicily. ici. Defeat of the Cimbri at Campus Raudius (q. v.). .- T/T WV- r J 2- Birth of Julius Ca;sar. 967rynenaica is bequeathed to the Roman republic. 91. Commencement of the Marsian or Social war. 88. the inhabitants of Southern Italy are admitted to the rights of Roman citizens. The Mithridatic war and the civil wars of Marius and Sylla commence. 87. Anarchy prevails at Rome, owing to the factions of Sylla and Marius. 86. Death of Caius Marius. 84. End of the fir^t Mithridatic war. 83. The Capitol (q. v.) is destroyed by fire, and the second Mithridatic war commences. 83. Sylla, having taken Rome, and published his pro- scription, is declared perpetual dictator. The second Mithridatic war is concluded. 79. Abdication of Sylla. 74. Commencement of the third Mithridatic war. Bi- thyiiia and Cyrenaica become Roman provinces. 73. The Servile war of Italy is commenced by the revolt of 70,000 slaves under Spartacus. 71. Spartacus is killed, and the insurrection is sup- pressed. 69. War against the Cretans. 67. Crete is erected into a Roman province. 65. Catiline's conspiracy. 64. Pompey erects Syria into a Roman province. 63. Pompey captures Jerusalem. Suppression of Cati- line's conspiracy (q. v.). 60. Julius Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus form the first triumvirate. 58. The aedile Scaunis erects his marble theatre, which is said to have accommodated 30,000 persons. Banishment of Cicero, and commencement of Caesar's campaigns in Gaul. 55. Csesar invades Britain (q. v.). Commencement of the Parthian war. 53. The murder of Claudius by the partisans of Milo occasions a riot at Rome, in which the senate- house is burned down. 51. Gaul is erected into a Roman province. 49. Civil war commences between Pompey and Cassar. 48. Pompey is defeated at Pharsalia (q. v.). 47. Caesar defeats Pharnaces, King of Pontus, at Zela 46, April 6. Caesar defeats Scipio and Juba at Thapsus. Suicide of Cdto at Utica. Cassar is made dictator for 10 years. 44, March 15. Assassination of Julius Caesar, by Brutus, Cassius, and other conspirators. 43. The second triumvirate is formed by Octavius Caesar, Marcus Antonius, and Lepidus. Dec. 7. Cicero is put to death. 43. Brutus and Cassius are defeated by the forces of the 40. Marcus Antonius is reconciled to Octavius Cajsar, and marries his sister Octavia, 36. Lepidus is excluded from the triumvirate. 34, May. Death of the historian Sallust. Dalmatia is made a Roman province. 33. Civil war commences between Antonius and Oc- tavius. 31, Sep. 3. Defeat of Antonius at Actium (?..). 30. Octavius Caesar is sole master of Rome. The temple of Janus is again closed. 37, Jan. Rome becomes an empire under Octavius, who assumes the title of Augustus Caesar. ^_25- The Pantheon is built. 23- The conspiracy of Murenais suppressed. 12- Augustus is made pontifex maximus. 9. Battle of Teutoberg (q. .). 8. Death of Horace and his patron Maecenas. 4, April 5. Jesus Christ is born in Judaea. 41 triumvirate at the battle of Philippi (q. v.). . The Perusian war breaks out between Marcus An- tonius and Octavius Ca-sar. s 9Tl)almatia is subdued by Tiberius. Ovid is exiled to Tomis. 14, Aug. 19. Death of Augustus. 17. Cappadocia becomes a Roman province. Livy dies. 18. Death of Ovid. 33. Sejanus, the praetorian prefect, obtains absolute ascendancy over Tiberius, and poisons Drusus. 37. Tiberius retires to Capri, and Thrace becomes a Roman province. 31. Condemnation and execution of Sejanus. 43. Conquest of Mauritania, which is divided into two provinces. 48. Messalina, wife of Claudius I., is put to death on a charge of conspiracy. Lycia is made a Roman province. So. The British chief Caractacus, King of the Silures, is carried prisoner to Rome. 60. Nero puts his mother Agrippina to death. Nero in- stitutes the Quinquennalian Games, or the Nero- nian festival. 64. Home is nearly destroyed by a fire, said to have been occasioned by Nero. 65. St. Paul, St. Peter, the poet Lucan, and the philo- sopher Seneca, are put to death by order of Nero, who kills his wife Poppaea. 68, June 9. Kero, alarmed at the revolt of Vindex in Gaul, and Otho in Lusitania, stabs himself. 69, April 4. Vitellius secures the sceptre by his victory of Bedriacum (q. v.). 71. Titus and Vespasian celebrate their triumph for the capture of Jerusalem (q. v.), and the temple of Janus is closed. 75. Vespasian founds the Coliseum (q. v.). The Temple of Peace is completed. 80. A fire rages at Rome for three days. 84. Domitian assumes the surname of Germanicus. 86. The Dacian war is commenced. 93. Commencement of the Sarmatian war. [co. Dacia is made a Roman province, and Arabia Petra?a is conquered. Trajan marches into the r-.. East. 113. Trajan*s^ealuHinisereeted in the Forum. ^ 130. Hadrian commences a tour through the provinces. 131. War is commenced with the Jews. 135. End of the Jewish war. loo. The pillar of Antoninus is erected at Rome. 183. Lucilla is exiled and put to death, for conspiring against her brother Commodus. 191. A destructive fire at Rome. 196. Capture and destruction of Byzantium (q. v.~). 303. The triumphal arch of Severus is erected. 315. Caracalla extends the privileges of Roman citizens to all his subjects who are willing to pay for 318, May 16. Elagabalus revolts at Antioch, and secures the imperial throne. 236. The Goths exact tribute from the Romans. 350. Invasion of the Goths. 353. Peace with the Goths is purchased. 355. The barbarians invade the empire on every side. 358. The legions in various provinces set up numerous candidates for the empire; who are known as the Thirty Tyrants; although- Gibbon states that their number did not exceed 19. 269. Claudius II. defeats the Goths at the battle of Naissus. 370. Dacia is separated from the empire, and surren- dered to the Goths. 31 ROME [ 850 ] ROME A.I). 270. The Alemanni and the Marcomanni are defeated, and the walls of Rome are restored. 27? 4. Siege and capture of Palmyra. Aurelian founds the Temple of the Sun. 284, Aug. 29. Commencement of the Diocletian sera (q.v.). 286, April i. Diocletian associates Maximian with him- self in the government. 292, March r. The empire is divided into four sove- reignties, under Maximian (at Milan), Diocletian, Galerius (sometimes called Maximian II.), and Constantius. 298. Galerius extends the empire eastward as far as the Tigris. 303. Diocletian's Persecution. 305. May i. Abdication of Diocletian and of Maximian. 306. Maxh'iiait resumes the purple. Constaiitius dies at York, and is succeeded by his son Constantine I. 307. Constantine I. marries Fausta, daughter of his rival Maximian. 308. Six emperors contend for the Roman empire: viz., ins, Lieinius, Maximin, Maximian, " s, and Constantine I. Max- 310. Maximian is captured by Constantine I., and Strangled nt Marseilles. 311. Death of Galerius, or Maximian II. 312. Constantine I. adopts as his ensign the sign of the cross (rsus shortly afterwards. 314. Oct. K. Constuntiiiu I. defeats his rival Liciuius at Cibalis (,,.,:). 323, Sep. i. Lieinius is defeated at the battle of Chry- sopoHs. after which Constantine I. reigns alone. 324. Lieinius is murdered by order of Constantine I., who removes to Constantinople (q.v.). 337. The empress Kausta is put to death. 330. The seat of government is transferred to Constan- tinople, and Christianity is formally reeo-ni/.ed as the established religion. C'onsta'ntine I. di- vides the empire into the Kastem, Illyrian, Italian, and Gallic prefectures. 331. The heathen temples are destroyed. 334. A revolt of 300,000 Sarmatian slaves is suppressed. 337, May 23- Doath of Constantino I. Sep. n. Constan- tine II. reigns in Caul, Con-tans I. in Italy and Afriea. and Constantius II. in the Kast. 340, Mareh. Constans I. defeats his rival Constantine II. at Aquileia, and ])iits him to death. 350. Constans I. is put to death in Gaul by the rebel Magnentius. 355. Julian marries Helena, sister of the Emperor, and is proclaimed < 361. Julian, proclaimed Augustus by the legions at Paris, immediately abjures Christianity, but publishes a decree of universal toleration. 363. Julian invades Persia. .lime 26. He is killed in battle, and is succeeded by Jovian, who restores ianity. 364, March 28. Valentinian I. shares the empire with his brother Valens, who reigns as Augustus at Con- stantinople. This originates the Eastern and 'Western empires (i i:.. lOC'ldcd in favour of the 1 impel ial ;nil I in rii.V in i ll()N< in i in- \ aii,-\ , .1 i in- same n celel.raled :r< tin- s|i,,| \\ | 1( -|-,- !;,,[ :i i p -. i ,>i I i HI,,-, \\lin II.-K! invade. I Spain in i, ,l,-l,-:it,.i| ami . ..us, li-il liy Ilii-ir dnl.e, l.ii|i. ire ;i limnhvil pl.i. inoii mill. I keep t he \\ lmlc \\-iirlil from pa-;sinr. Tin- III. irk I'i inrr invaded Spain through MII i ll l'i-a I ,-, I lici-c 1 1\ t lif I'Yriii Ii in .1 inn', 14, Sit- \ Wi'llrslcy .1 Sniilt in his atli-nipl-i In I'l.n-c Ihc RONCIO LION E (Italy), Thisoounty, wi,i,-i. lii-ramr par! nl' ! lie I'apal Slat, annexed i lln- m-\\ l.in;-,,l,.in ( Italy in iH.,,, (,. HONDA Spain \\.-r. t',,un,lr,l l,y Hi- anil l.d-alii.- !lu- capital ,.!' Ill,' iM,.,.ii.--li cl.icl M.oii Mi-lir n. : [ Cj :m ,| doomed ml of Spain ill i. (!'.,. The Span i:< nth. i hi old i, t m fi i, or a in MKS. I:y t In- Khn.i the n.th century i< , n l>y I In- Sara . n l.y the French In 1645. in 10 i'hev were defeated In- .- l.\ tin , i arm, d VOH el I, anehored in the .av, protected I ,y t he p, ,wei fn I I >al I , i n-; of t he to\sii ami oaitle, were out out l.y ti,,- i.oais ,.f ROSBACE 853 .m i ,n h H quadrou, and i I.K- nt. T.ui'.m , ,,,,i bolo "i i ii' HI captured . I. ll Ml I,, . . |.i.-.| l,\ tliO I IpOUiai ' I'V I. IK: French, uudi . I -UK! I 1 '' i| ! I I II IK I.I' I , . 'I'll!', K ovfllioi w.i.i :ili..ii! fco "i NMldl i , when l.i. nl Hi!,, l-i ! I I,, 'I v, i! ii in 1 IngU Ii foi repulwjd I w o u uiltM ol i be I i' 1 n< ii wil !,' i , Iliri m. i i,.. i, i Coohran Ith i be i i j| I h.- Ii >i i ' 'i i I < '-i i . I 1 1 1 . . . . I I ' ' i I In I'M ucli in ,\|H il, [8l | l,i ., i; Mil. oi KOSSHAt'll i;.,ii ii 1 1 1 1 < I : 1 1 I 1 1 1 ; , | . I i . , in i II.. '.'-.I |0,OOO I i' ii'-ll :ilnl :iii i onen , i be i> ii 1 1. m M .,i i i.y Napoleon I. i it., bl M In- ' in Ifl'f i I lln: ruliiin n . i i I" COD m, i. Hi- I In: vn-t.oiy, Io I,. . Ill :i .: :i I |i.|iliy L. l':irlH. i;< >, IUEI '. i.' 1 '.'.Kill';!,!!;!':. or i;i WIIH of f ll| in . I h y III.: I'. . I .III. I I IK <)'(' i I lir < ) Kf lly:i. Mil. an l'.n:-h,,li adventurer, tii - L.I i>, Mm, .u^ii MOM <>i' i:< . m I it lit 1 1 I , , i , i i . .1 1 in IO7J. It, W:IH i by William do Uurgo Fitzafdi lin, Lord i, i i .inn IP -i ,ni i 104, 'Hi. abbe] i "' i IK order i.l I'M n I, n. I i i.ii WOH lniiii.li'. I l.y < H '..IKH , i Connaught, about > - , / . ' IK i i IK- ili. i u i n . , . ,1 --. li K l> .M , I 1 1 1 to WHH i.niii, i.y sir ftoberl di i fiord In . 68 Aliilt.i, I. mil HI i [6, 'I'll.' jinVVcr <>i i in: ( ( lonon >'' ; brol n in a ;,.! .IK . i over i M' i M i . , HK LU 1 1 i> in ii Ivided ini" IM i i, ...I .,i i. if -..,!,. MI. 1 1,. Q'( lonor i'on bavlug |'.n I wil.ll Mir. II I. i in MI ',. nl/, In in i.,| i ; I. ill, In; W:IM . ' ' I I n | >' . | 1:1 l I nl n :it i IM- I:. Btoral K.n in n.i. . i ; oi I'.oyif, now in M mnded in xi i ;. , I II. .-In. I I',/, u ..I I IK: munly, l :i OKU, I In |.l.i. m I M I. m. I. .ili.l ll I, ol .|.h'"< ' |, .ill' ' I I o K I ll.llot: ,i I Mill I I ; ' i, . i', 'I'd, l'i . > i n 1 1 ' >, | IK-, , I 1 oi 1 1 1 1., i y befon i ,'.'., 1 1 1, .1.0 III. oi 1 1 li ol I i .UK, I ii loi i- l ,/ ; ; I In , i oiu N. Ann rn -:i,, I I In 10 . willnilll. llioniM, :il:o lloni N. \nnrif.-i, lirlor. i.n'1 I In; 'Imi.-i rOtC, Irom ( liin.-L, iilion uoNi'i.M \ i: . [ttLAND DAicnu \\:u- of). (See LANKJAHTIUA:, if O K K 1 1 i ROSI'/ITAf BgJ ptt, kid I" I'''.. l ' n It nil nh il i MK i ni . .1 I In .-> |. 1 ,1 :i I , . I I In ' 'ini ,i I I ,'.i, Ii n I , lii.Mll :;/ ,, \v,i, I il ' n aDd lorl lln .1 I.y lln: ''n in-li in [708, .m. I v. l . I , I lioni lln in I.-, lln- pril 19, 1801 AH bJuglinh . It I. .1 1 , . I I, .i -.-. In I on n I in I i li I, i.i ITA MToM'; i, UK IIMIII. c,iv.-n Io ... .1 l''rt- iii- 1 IK linn , -I I .u I , '.! .Inli. n. EU) ' H.,. in i /. M llf. n i . . I In- | to: ,::< ;;:,!. Hi i ,1 I If mil on lln- < .1 1 ,i I u l:i I ion ol Alt UKliii. in Hoi, illld WUM I l"lll I" I'.lfllll.l n II i . .1 |,K ,-. ..I 1,1 ,, i bfl Mil I lOfig ml ' h ,-|, will.-, wil li .in in; 'i i|'i in in HIM-,- iMKUHK< ; ; vi/.., iin-io"! vein*', < fifiiii or .'i i in oouni 1-1 :nni Qreek, 'l im m . i M.I o. i , Hi..- i ' in. . o . ii-uiy (V.) i';|.i|iii;iiK:M, win. m . eeded io i im I In 1.0, - i, wln-n only loiir 0* li\ ' M. it appeari to 1 rooted uhoui, I I I l.i.i i. .1.'. I'M K!H.) IM CSK'IMH'I A.NS. A M.-fl of v i 1 1 1 i i . ,i i n l .1 ny , \\ In .: ..- . i ,1 , i K . l.i-.railH! In I I DOW!] l I In- pnlilii' ill I In- l /I II t . 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I i. ..IK , RO.SH (Bl ihoprio) HI.. l''uiKiin:in founded " WIIM ^I'.'lililillly I'oriiK-tl .-noiiinl I In- ii 1 1 ilt. y ,|.K . mil. I, m, I in -,70, A Of I ll I I .1 1,1 ,ln,|,l I, ..ml. il l,o Cork in , I {OSS II. n I OK I ATM in , l, ili., I l.y I I. in -, III., m. I < nl nn nil' nn III III i ... .. Tin privill ". '/.M ; It lilioiil In .1 on lln petition "I lln mli.il.il.iMl < 'liol' I l . ited IK'' "L I iifl ' '.i I I. in i'. | , .li.liii K -, i |. . ininioi ! i li/.i-il l.y l'"|" , III. "Man Of I.'" , ' 'h. 'I In K :il lln- .1 1 ". |. m i / , |, d ill tin: U,OSS, or M<;\V HOSS ll, I.,,K||. ,i,,,,mnl..! with w.-iiin in i !',,, V..IM taken D iwrii, :nnl tin- loi I iln .ilion, '.VIM- t|i OK'll IK ,| in if. t ., ROSTOCK [ 854 ] ROUEN Some insurgents who attacked the town were defeated with great slaughter by Gen. John- ston, June 4, 1798. ROSTOCK (Germany), raised to the rank of a, city in 1030, was taken and burned by Val- demar I., King of Denmark, in 1161. It was annexed to Mecklenburg in 1323, and joined the Hanseatic League, from which it separated in 1492. St Peter s Church, remarkable for a steeple 420 feet in height, was founded at the end of the i2th century. The university was founded in 1419. Rostock was repeatedly oc- cupied in the 1 8th century. II' )TA, or COFFEE CLUB (London). This political society, for contriving an equal govern- ment by rotation, was formed in 1659. All the principal officers of state were to be chosen by ballot, and a certain number of members of Parliament were to be changed annually by rotation whence its name. ROTHENBURG (Bavaria) was long in the possession of the counts of Rothenburg, who became extinct about noo, when the town was ceded to the Emperor. It was mortgaged by Conrad IV. and Louis V. to the house of Hohenlohe ; but on the last occasion the town redeemed itself, and obtained a promise from Louis V. in 1335 that it should not be mort- gaged again. This promise was confirmed by Charles IV. and Wenceslaus. RothenbtUV remained in possession of the empire till 1802, when it was bestowed on the Elector of Bavaria. ROTHERIIAM (Yorkshire) is supposed to have been founded early in the Saxon period, and possessed a weekly market and annual fair before the Conquest. Roche Abbey, in the neighbourhood, was built in 1147. A second market and fair were granted by Edward I. in 1307. The parish church, a handsome Gothic structure, was built in the reign of Edward IV. A college, founded in 1482, was suppressed in the reign of Edward VI. The remains still exist, and are used as an inn. The Free Grammar-school was founded in 1584. Hollis's schools, for the education of 30 children, were founded in 1663. A meeting-house for DLiseiiters was built in 1705. Almshouses for four aged .females were founded in 1780. A public library was established in 1 775, which, with the news-room and dispensary, founded in 1806, occupy a substantial building erected in 1828. The new Poor-house was built in 1839. ROTHERHITHE (Surrey), commonly called Redriff, a parish and suburb of London, is noted for its numerous docks. The great dock, finished in 1700, was leased by the South-Sea Company in 1725, and called Greenland dock. It was purchased by a company of merchants in 1807, and afterwards much enlarged, and called the Commercial dock. A new dock was added to it Jan. 22, 1812. The church was built in 1714 and 1715 ; but the tower was not finished till 1739. It contains a monument to Lee Boo, Prince of the Pelew Islands, who died of small-pox Dec. 29, 1784. A fire, which consumed 206 houses, occurred June i, 1765. The Asiatic cholera broke out here in Feb., 1832. ROTHESAY CASTLE. This stcarn-packet was wrecked on the voyage from Liverpool to Beaumaris, near the latter place, Aug. 17, 1831. From 135 to 145 persons were sxipposed to have been on board, of whom only 22 were saved. ROTHIERE. (See LA ROTHIERE, Battle.) ROTHWEIL (Germany) was seized by the French in 1643. The imperial forces were de- feated here by the French, under Turenne, in 1644, and it was taken by the French in 1796. It was bestowed 011 the Duke of Wurternberg in 1802. ROTTERDAM (Holland) derives its name from the river Rotte, which runs through the town. It was surrounded by walls in 1270. Maximilian besieged it in 1489, and after an ubVdn-ito defence of six months, the city sur- rendered, on condition of an amnesty. A body of Spaniards, retreating from the siege of Bricl in 1572, were allowed to pass through the town in bodies of 50, with unloaded arms. The first detachment on entering slew the guard at the gates ; the rest then rushed in, and all persons found in arms were slain. The inhabitants were treated as if the town had been taken by assault. Rotterdam was at the height of its prosperity in the i7th and 1 8th centuries. It was occupied by the French in .Ian., 1795. The Bank was founded in 1635, the Exchange was built in 1736, and the Aca- demy of Sciences was founded in 1771. The Mouse overflowed in 1775 and 1825. The Mu- seum was destroyed by fire in 1863. ROUEN France, anciently called Rotoma- gus, is first mentioned by Ptolemy (139 161), as the capital of the Velocasses, a Celtic peo- ple. It was taken and sacked by the North- men in May, 841, and July 25, 885 ; was ceded with the whole of the province of Neustria, of which it was then the capital, to the Normans, under Rollo, about 911 or 912 ; was unsuccess- fully besieged by the Count de Cotentin in 930, and by Otho I. and Louis IV. of France in 948. Prince Arthur was murdered here by order of his uncle John, April 3, 1203. It was conquered by Philip II. June 4, 1204, and remained subject to the kings of France until taken by the English, led by Henry V., Jan. 19, 1419. Joan of Arc was burned here May 30, 1431. The town was recovered by the French, under Charles VII., in 1449. It revolted against Louis XI. in 1465, and was retaken by him in 1466. The Huguenots cap- tured it in 1562, and it was immediately be- sieged by the Royalists, and captured by the Duke of Guise, Oct. 20, 1562, when it was given up to pillage for eight days. The cathedral of Notre-Dame, a splendid Gothic edifice, was commenced in the i3th century, but not com- pleted till the 1 6th. Rouen was made an archbishopric in 260 ; and councils were held here in 689, 1049, 1055, 1072, 1073, 1074 ; Feb., 1096; Oct. 7 Nov. 5, 1118; in Nov., 1119; Oct., 1128; Feb. n, 1190; March 27, 1223; in 1231 ; June 18, 1299 ; and Dec. 15, 1445. Four or five hundred Protestants were massacred here on St. Bartholomew's day, Aug. 24, 1572. It was besieged for eight months by Henry IV. in 1593, and at last taken by the treachery of its governor. Its parliament, established in 1499, and suppressed in 1771, was restored for a third interval in 1774. An assembly of notables met here in 1596. A famine occurred in 1 789 ; and the Revolution gave rise to some ROUGE CROIX 855 ] ROYAL ACADEMY troubles in 1792, 1793, and 1795. Louis Philippe visited it in May, 1831, and again in 1832. The abbey church of St. Ouen, founded in the 6th century, was rebuilt in the i2th century, and having been destroyed by fire, was again rebuilt in the i4th and following centuries. It was much damaged by the Huguenots in 1562. The great clock-tower was built in 1389, and the court-house was completed in 1499. The railway to Havre was opened May 13, 1847. ROUGE CROIX, or RED CROSS. This pursuivant was established, according to Noble, by Henry V. (1413 22). ROUGE ET NOIR, called also TRENTE- ET-QUARANTE, a game of chance introduced into France about 1789, was prohibited in 1838. ROUGE or RED DRAGON. This pursuivant was established by Henry VII., Oct. 29, 1485. ROULETTE TABLE was introduced on the continent at the commencement of the iqth century. ROUM. (See ICONIUM.) ROUMANIA. The Danubian Principalities, Wallachia and Moldavia, were proclaimed at Jassy and Bucharest to be united into one state under the title of Roumania, Dec. 23, 1861. The first meeting of the elective assem- blies of both states as a common legislative chamber, was held Feb. 6, 1862, when a ministry was appointed, and Prince Alexander John Couza declared that Roumania should for ever form an independent state. A body of Polish exiles who sought a retreat in the principalities, were disarmed and their leaders arrested, April 15, 1864. The people accepted by vote a new constitution, May 10 14, 1864. A conspiracy was discovered against Prince John, for alleged complicity in which Dr. D. Lamberti and Prince G. Soutzo were arrested, May 22. A large body of troops seized Prince Couza in his palace, and compelled him to sign his abdication, Feb. 22, 1866. The chambers proclaimed the Count of Flanders, the brother of the King of the Belgians, Hospodar, Feb. 23, and on his refusal Prince Charles of Hohen- zollern-Sigmaringen was chosen. A congress on the affairs of Roumania met at Paris, March 10, 1866. ROUMELIA, or ROMANIA (Europe). Corresponding to the ancient Thrace and Macedonia, v/as ravaged by the Turks in 1321, and portions were annexed to their empire in 1356 and 1430. ROUND, CATCH, and CANON CLUB. (See CONCERTS.) ROUNDHEADS. (See CAVALIERS.) ROUND TABLE. (See GARTER, KENILWORTH CASTLE, KNIGHTS OF THE ROUND TABLE, &c.) ROUND TOWERS. (See TOWERS.) ROUNDWAY DOWN (Battle). An encounter between the Royalists and the Parliamentarians took place on Rpundway Down, near Devizes, July 13, 1643, in which the latter were routed with great slaughter. ROUSSILLON (France). This old province, nearly identical with the modem department of the Pyrenees-Orientales, obtained its name from the town of Ruscino, afterwards called Rosciliona, now Tour de Roussillon, near Per- pignan (q. v.). The province was made subject to the Romans about B.C. 58. It was taken by the Visigoths in 462, and by the Saracens in 720, from whom it was wrested by Pepin in 759. It was united in the gih and loth centuries with the county of Ampurius, in Spain ; from which it was separated towards the close of the latter century, and governed by its own counts, the last of whom bequeathed it to the kings of Aragon in 1178. John II. of Aragon ceded it to Louis XI. of France, in 1462, as security for money borrowed. It was restored by Charles VIII. to Ferdinand of Aragon, in 1493. It was conquered by Louis XIII. in 1642, and was annexed to France by the treaty of the Pyrenees in 1659. The Spaniards invaded it in 1793, and were expelled in 1794. ROUT. The name given to a fashionable evening assembly in London towards the end of the 1 8th century. ROUTIERS. (See BRABAN ? ONS.) ROVEREDO (Battle). The Austrians were defeated by the French near this town, in the Tyrol, Sep. 4, 1796. So close was the pursuit, that the republicans entered Roveredo pell- mell with the fugitives. ROVEROY, or ROUVRAY. (See HERRINGS, Battle of.) ROXBURG CASTLE (Scotland), supposed to have been built by the Saxons while they held the sovereignty of the Northumbrian kingdom, was made a royal palace by David I. on his accession to the throne in 1124 ; was surrendered to the English by William the Lion in 1174, as a part of the price of his freedom ; but was restored in 1189. The castle was seized by Edward I. ; and the court of King's Bench was held here in 1292. It was taken by Sir James Douglas by stra- tagem March 6, 1313, and was shortly afterwards demolished by Robert Bruce. Edward III. restored the castle, and kept Christmas here in 1335. Sir Alexander Ram- say took it by escalade in 1342 ; but it was regained by the English in 1346, who held it till Aug. 3, 1460, when James II. of Scotland lost his life in besieging it. His widowed queen, Mary of Gueldres, then captured the castle, and it was entirely demolished. The Duke of Somerset partly restored it in 1547. It was given 'up to the Scotch in 1550, and again destroyed. ROXBURGHE CLUB (London). Insti- tuted in 1812, in commemoration of the sale of the library of John, third Duke of Roxburghe, who died March 19, 1804, for the purpose of printing a limited number of impressions of MSS. and rare books. ROXBURY (N. America), in Massachusetts, was incorporated in 1630, and was made a city by charter in 1846. ROYAL ACADEMY (London). The Society of Artists, formed in 1761, obtained a charter Jan. 26, 1765. A rupture occurred in Oct., 1768. This led to the formation of the Royal Academy, under the patronage of George III., Dec. 10, 1768. The Associates were created in 1769. The first exhibition of the academicians took place in Pall Mall, Jan. 2, 1769. George III. in 1771 granted them apartments in Old Somerset House ; and afterwards, in 1780, in New Somerset House. Their first exhibition at the latter took place in May, 1780. They ROYAL ACADEMY t 856 ] ROYAL COLLEGE removed to the National Gallery, where the first exhibition was opened May i, 1838. The report of the Royal commissioner appointed Feb. 2, 1863, to inquire into the state of the Royal Academy, appeared in 1863. PRESIDENTS. 768. Sir Joshua Reynolds. 793. Ui-.ijiunin \\Y-t. 830. Sir Thomas Lawrence. 830. Sir Martin A. Shee. 850. Sir Clmrles Kastlake. 866, Feb. I. Francis Grant. ROYAL ACADEMY OF MUSIC (London'. A society bearing this title was established in 1720 for the encouragement of the Italian opera. George Frederick Handel, Giovanni Bononcini, and Attilio Ariosto, the three most eminent composers of the day, were engaged to supply works and superintend arrangements ; but the institution was not successful, and after an existence of about nine years was dissolved in consequence of the quarrels of the singers. The Academy of Music was founded by the Earl of Westmorland in 1822. The first concert took place Dec. 8, 1828, and the charter of incorporation was granted in 1830. ROYAL ADELAIDE. This steamer, from Cork to London, which arrived at Plymouth Mardi 28, 1850, and left March 29, with about 180 passengers and a crew of 24 men, was totally wrecked on the Tongue Hand, <>ii Mar- gate, on the night of Saturday, March 30, when all 011 board perished. ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. (See ACKKT'LTURAL SOCII < ROYAL ASSENT is given to bills by the Sovereign in person in the House of Lords, or by letters patent, under the great seal, com- municated to both houses by commissions. The assent is expressed, " Le roy (lareyne 1 le veult," and refused, " Le roy (la reyne) s'avisera." A militia bill for Scotland in 1707, to which Queen Anne refused to give her assent, is the last instance of a refusal. ROYAL ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON. The Astronomical Society was founded in 1820, and its charter was granted March 7, 1831, since which time it has taken the title of the Royal Astronomical Society of London. ROYAL CARRIAGE DEPARTMENT (Woolwich), for making gun carriages, was organized as a distinct establishment in 1803. ROYAL CHARTER screw steamer, Capt. Taylor, bound from Port Phillip, Australia, to Liverpool, was totally wrecked in Redwharf Bay, on the Anglesey coast, during the night, Oct. 25, 1859, 459 lives being lost. The vessel had from 500,000 to ,800,000 worth of gold on board, much of which was recovered. ROYAL CHARTERS. (See CHARTER.) ROYAL CIRCUS THEATRE (London). Opened for equestrian performances in 1783, and destroyed by fire Aug. 12, 1805, was rebuilt and its name changed to Surrey Theatre (q. v.}, April 23, 1810. ROYAL COLLEGE OF CHEMISTRY. (See CHEMISTRY, College.) ROYAL EXCHANGE (Dublin), founded Aug. 2, 1769, and opened in 1779, was built at a cost of ,40,000. This sum was raised partly by Parliamentary grants, partly by subscrip- tions, and partly by lotteries. ROYAL EXCHANGE (London). The foun- dation of the original edifice was laid by Sir Thomas Gresham, June 7, 1566. Queen Elizabeth opened it Jan. 23, 1571, and by the ound of trumpets her herald named it the Royal Exchange. It was destroyed in the great fire in Sep., 1666. Charles II. laid the foundation of another structure, Oct. 23, 1667, and it was opened Sep. 28, 1669, having cost 58,962. It was repaired and extended in 1769, Parliament contributing 10,000 towards the expense. This edifice was destroyed by fire, Jan. 10, 1838. The new Royal Exchange, commenced in 1838, was opened by Queen Victoria in state, Oct. 28, 1844. ROYAL FORESTS. See FORESTS.) ROYAL GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY. (See GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY.) ROYAL GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY. (See GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY.) ROYAL GEORGE, of 108 guns, commanded by Admiral Kempenfelt, sank at Portsmouth, nearly 900 lives being lost, at 10 o'clock in the morning, Aug. 29, 1782. A court-martial which was held on Capt. Waghonie, relative to the catastrophe, acquitted him, Sep. 9. Sixteen guns and other things were recovered by the diving-bell, Nov. 21. The wreck was surveyed by aid of the diving-bell, when the whole of the decks were found to have fallen in, May 24, 1817; and much property was red ill 1839. HoYAL (ilFT. (See BASILIKON DORON and Rttill'M DONUM.) ROYAL If os I ' IT A LS. -(See HOSPITALS.) ROYAL HOUSEHOLD. The duties of the different officers of the royal household were first defined and reduced to order by Edward III. (1327 77). The expenses connected with it were fixed at ,12,059 9 s - lld - b y tbe private act, ii Hen. VII. c. 36 (1494), which was amended by subsequent statutes. The duties of the great master of the king's household were regulated by 32 Henry VIII. 0.39(1540), which was repealed by i Mary, st. 3, c. 4(1553). (See LORD STEWARD OF THE HOUSEHOLD.) The purveyance system, which empowered the officers of the royal household to purchase goods for their master's use without the con- sent of the vendors, was abolished by 12 Charles II. c. 24 (1660). Edmund Burke com- menced his efforts against the extravagance of this department in 1780, and procured the suppression of several unnecessary offices by 22 Geo. III. c. 82 (1782). (See MARSHALSEA COURT.) ROYAL HUMANE SOCIETY, for the re- covery of persons from drowning, was founded in London, by Drs. Hawes, Fothergill, and Cogan, in 1774. There were 221 depots for drags, l of Carlisle be- came chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, March 6, 1850, in place of Lord Campbell, ap- pointed lord chief justice. Sir Thomas Wilde, created Baron Truro and lord chancellor July 15, 1850, Lord Cottenham having resigned June 19 ; and Mr. Fox Maule obtained a seat in the cabinet as secretary at war. The Government, having been for some time in a precarious state, was defeated by 100 to 52, Feb. 20, 1851, upon a motion to bring in a bill to make the franchise in the comities of Eng- land and Wales the same as that of the boroughs, and resigned office Feb. 21. The Earl of Aberdeen and Sir James Graham biaving refused to assist Lord John Russell in the reconstitution of his cabinet, and Lord Stanley (became Earl of Derby June 30) having declined the task of forming an administration,, the Russell ministry resumed office, and the ministerial crisis terminated March 3. Earl Granville, who had succeeded Mr. Macaulay as paymaster of the forces, and Lord Seymour, made first commissioner of works April 15, [850, obtained seats in the cabinet in 1851. Lord Palmerston resigned the foreign secretary- ship, and Earl Granville was appointed as his successor, Dec. 26, 1851. Mr. Fox Maule,. :reated Baron Panmure April 13, 1852, and Became Earl of Dalhousie in 1860, replaced Lord Broughton at the Board of Control, Feb. 5, 1852. An amendment proposed by Lord Pal- merston to the Government Militia Bill was carried by 135 to 126, Feb. 20; and the an- nouncement of the dissolution of the Russell administration was made in both branches of he legislature Feb. 23. (See DEKBY ADMINIS- RUSSELL INSTITUTION [ 860 ] RUSSIA TRATIONS.) The Second Russell, sometimes called the Russell-Gladstone administration, was a reconstruction, soon after his death (Oct. 18, 1865), of Lord Palmerston's Second Administration (q. v.). The principal appoint- ments appeared in the London Gazette, Nov. 6 ; and the cabinet was thus constituted : Treasury Lord Chancellor President of the Council Privy Seal Chancellor of Exchequer Home Secretary Foreign Secretary Colonial Secretary Admiralty India Secretary at War Postmaster-General Poor Law Board Board of Trade ...Earl Russell. ...Lord Craii worth. ...Earl Granville. ...Duke of Argyle. ...Mr. Gladstone. ,...Sir G. Grey, Bart. ...Lord Clarendon. ....Mr. Cardwell. ....Duke of Somerset. ...Sir Charles Wood, Bart. ...Earlde 6rey and Ki|,<>n. ...Lord Stanley of Alderley. ...Mr. C. Pelham Villk-rs. ...Mr. T. Miluer Gibson. The Right Hon. Chichester Fortescue succeeded Sir Robert Peel as chief secretary for Ireland, Nov. 20, 1865. Mr. Goschen, who became vice- president of the Board of Trade, in place of Mr. (afterwards Sir William) Hutt, Dec. i, 1865, was appointed chancellor of the duchy of Lan- caster, with a seat in the cabinet, Jan. n, 1866. At the India Office, Earl de Grey and Ripon succeeded Sir Charles Wood, created Viscount Halifax, Feb. 20, 1866, and the Marquis of Hartington took Lord de Grey and Ripon's place as secretary at war, Feb. 16. Lord Dunkellin's amendment, proposed in com- mittee on the Reform Bill, for a rating instead of a rental qualification, having been carried by a majority of n, June 18, the resignation of the administration was announced June 25. (See REFORM BILLS, THIRD DERBY ADMINIS- TRATION, &c.) RUSSELL INSTITUTION (London). A lease for the ground was obtained from the Duke of Bedford, July 26, 1802, by James Burton, who proposed to erect a suite of as- sembly and ball-rooms. The progress of the work was delayed by a fire, which occurred in 1802. The Russell Assembly-rooms were opened in Feb., 1804. This speculation failed, and early in 1808 meetings were held for the establishment of a literary and scien- tific society, and it was agreed to raise 12,500 guineas in 500 shares of 25 guineas each. General meetings were held April 20 and July 7, and the property was transferred to trustees for the formation of the Russell Institution, Oct. 8. The news-room was opened June 4, 1808, the circulation of books commenced Jan. 2, 1809, and lectures were first delivered in 1810. The ball-room, con- verted into a library, was opened March 23, 1814. The first catalogue was published in 1809, the second in 1814, the third in 1820, the fourth in 1826, the fifth in 1835, and the sixth in 1849. RUSSIA. The kingdom, extending over large portions of Europe and Asia, correspond- ing in some respects with the ancient Sarma- tia, is said to derive its name from the Rhoxo- lani or Roxolani, a Gothic people that settled there at a very early period, though several other derivations are given. It is first men- tioned as Russia about 839. A.D. 863. Kuric the Norman, chief of the Varangians, estab- lishes his government at Novgorod. 865. The Russians attack Constantinople, and are de- feated by the Emperor Michael III. 879. Death of Ruric, who is succeeded by his infant son Igor I., under the regency of his kinsman Uleg. 883. Oleg makes Kief his capital. 907. Another expedition against Constantinople is con- ducted by Oleg, who receives tribute from the Emperor Leo VI. 913. A commercial treaty is concluded with the Eastern empire. 941. Igor I. invades the Eastern empire, and is repulsed by the Emperor Romanus I. 945. A second treaty is signed with the Emperor. Igor I. is assassinated at Korosten, and is succeeded by his sou Sviatoslaf I., his widow Olga acting as regent. 957. The queen regent, Olga, visits Constantinople, wheiv she is baptized, and abdicates in favour of her son. 966. Sviatoslaf I. overthrows the empire of the Khozars. 068. He defeats the Bulgarians in battle. 970. He cresses the Balkan and invades Thrace. 971, July. He sustains a defeat from John I. at Dory- stolon or Durostole. 077 Civil war breaks out between the brothers Vladi- mir I., Yaropolk, and Oleg. 980. Yaropolk I. is assassinated by his brother Vladimir I. 988. Vladimir I. (the Great) takes Cherson from the Greek Emperor Basil II., whose sister Anne he marries, and he embraces Christianity. 1015. On the death of Vladimir I., his dominions are divided. 1036. Yaroslav I. re-unites his father's dominions. 1038. Yaroslaf, Prince of Novgorod, promulgates the first Russian code of laws. 1043. Vladimir I., Prince of Novgorod, attacks Constan- tinople, and is defeated with great 1 1054. Civil war breaks out at the death of Yaroslav I. 1158. Yury I. founds Vladimir and makes it his capital. 1224, June 16. The Tartars of the Golden Horde defeat the Russians in a great battle on the Kalka, and establish themselves in the south-east parts of Russia. 1235. Russia is invaded by the Mongols, under Batou Khan. 1241. Alexander (Newski) defeats an invading army of Swedes and Danes at the battle of the Neva (q.v.). 1253. Alexander I. (Newski) receives the title of Grand Duke from the Tartars. 1300. The Russians make Moscow their capital, and in- vade Finland. 1330. The principality of Kief is seized by Ghedemin, Duke of Lithuania. 1338. Ivan I., surnamcd Kalitu, becomes grand 'prince, and establishes the principle of hereditary suc- cession. 1340. Red Russia is conquered by the Poles and Hun- garians. 1352. Red Russia is seized by the Lithuanians. 1380. Dimitri, or Demetrius III., defeats the Tartars at the battle of the Don, and is surnamed Donskoi. 1382. War is carried on against the Tartars, who burn Moscow. 1395. Russia is invaded by Timour the Tartar. 1425. Death of Vasili, or Basil IV., in whose reign the first Russian coinage was established. 1462. Accession of Ivan III., or John Vasilowitz the Great, the founder of the modern Russian empire. 1473. Ivan III. marries Sophia, niece of the last Greek Emperor Constantine XIII., and adopts the two- headed eagle as his badge. 1476. The Russians cease paying tribute to the Tartars. 1477. War with the Tartars. Jan. 15. Novgorod submits to Ivan III. 1480. The Mongol power in Russia is destroyed by Ivan 1481. Ambassadors are first received at the Russian court. 1483. The Russians first use artillery. 1487. Battle of Sviaga. 1488. War with Sweden. UQ-I A league against Denmark is concluded with Sweden. The punishment of the knout is intro- duced into Russia. RUSSIA RUSSIA A.D. 1506. A war is undertaken against Poland. 1510. The Tartars invade Kussia. 1531. Battle of Kazan. 1523. Peace is concluded with Poland. 1534. The Russians sustain a defeat from the Tartars on the Volga. 1530. Peace is concluded with the Tartars. 1538. Death of the Queen-regent Helena, whose young son, Ivan IV., is kept in tutelage by the three brothers Shuiski. 1541. A Tartar invasion, under the Khan of the Crimea, is repelled. 1543. Ivan IV. (the Terrible), at the age of 14, puts to death Andrew Shuiski and assumes the govern- ment. 1545. Ivan IV. is solemnly crowned czar by the patriarch, being the first Russian monarch crowned with public and ecclesiastical ceremony. 1546. The "Strelitzes," the first standing army in Russia, established. 1550. War is resumed with the Tartars. 1553. Oct. 2. Cazan is captured by the Czar, and its in- habitants are massacred. 1554. The Russians discover .Siberia. 1555. Tribute is exacted from the Siberians. 1557. The peasantry are declared the property of the landowners. 1558- War is commenced with the Teutonic knights. 1563. Russia and Sweden unite in a war against Poland. 1570, Jan. In consequence of a pretended insurrection at Novgorod, Ivan IV. massacres 25,ooo of the in- habitants. 1571. Russia is overrun by the Tartars, who burn Moscow. 1579. Ivan IV. solicits the hand of Elizabeth, Queen of England. He puts his eldest son to death. 1589. The Greek Church in Russia is declared inde- pendent of the Patriarch of Constantinople. 1598. Death of the Czar Feodor I., and extinction of the Ruric dynasty. 1604. A monk pretends to bo Demetrius, a deceased son of the Czar Ivan IV. 1605. On the death of Boris Godunow, the throne is seized by the pseudo Demetrius. 1606. May 39. The Matins (q. v.) of Moscow. 1607. An alliance is concluded with Sweden. 1609. A second impostor asserts himself to be Demetrius. 1610. The Poles are expelled from Moscow. 1613. Accession of the Romanoff dynasty. 1617, Feb. 37. Treaty of Stolbova. 1618. Ladislaus of Poland marches as far as Moscow. 1634, June 15. Treaty of Wiasma. 1649. The laws are revised. 1651. English traders are excluded from Russia. 1654. The Cossacks are taken under Russian protection, which occasions a war with Poland. 1656, Oct. 3. The truce of Wilna, or Niemetz, is con- cluded with Poland. 1657. The Czar refuses to receive an ambassador from Oliver Cromwell. 1660, May 3. The peace of Oliva (q. .). 1667, Jan. 30. The treaty of Andrussow (q. v.). 1668. Russian ambassadors are first sent to the courts of France and Spain. 1671. The insurrection of Stenko Radzin, who is executed. 1673. Submission of the Tourgouth Tartars. 1678. War is commenced against the Turks. 1681. By the treaty of Bakhtchisarai, the Turks resign all claim to the Ukraine and the Cossack terri- tory, and peace is restored. 1683. A mutiny breaks out among the Strelitzes. 1686, May 6. An alliance between Russia and Poland against Turkey is signed at Moscow. 1688. The Czar Ivan V. resigns his share of the govern- ment. 1696. The Russians take possession of Kamtschatka. 1697. Peter I. visits England and Holland. 1698. In consequence of a revolt, Peter I. massacres the Strelitzes. 1700, Nov. 30. Peter I. is defeated by the Swedes at Narva. He builds the first Russian frigate, and founds the navy. 1703, May 37. Foundation of St. Petersburg (7. v.}. Ingria is invaded by the Russians. 1704, Aug. 30. The Russians recover Narva. 1706. Kamtschatka (q. v.) is subdued. 1708. Revolt of the Cossacks under Mazeppa, who is as- sisted by Charles XII. of Sweden. 1709, July 8. Charles XII. is defeated by Peter I. at Pol- tava (q. v.). 1710, War is commenced with Turkey. (See OTTOMAlf EMPIKE.) 1711, July 10. The treaty of Falczi (q.v.). A directing senate is established. 1713. Catherine I., the wife of Peter I., receives the title of Czarina. St. Petersburg is made the capital. 1718, July 7. Death of the Czarowitz Alexis, who is sup- posed to have been murdered by his father. 1731, Aug. 30. The peace of Nystadt (q.v.). The Czar Peter I. assumes the style of " Emperor of all the Russias." 1733. Persia cedes territory to Russia. 1735, Feb. 8. Death of Peter I., or the Great. 1730, Jan. 39. Death of Peter II., and extinction of the Romanoff dynasty; the throne is conferred upon Anne of Courland. 1733. The Russians invade Poland. J 735- The Russian possessions in Persia are relinquished. 1739, Sep. 18. The treaty of Belgrade (q.v.). 1740, A conspiracy against the Czarina is detected. 1741, War against Sweden. 1742, Dec. 15. The army revolts and deposes Ivan VI. The throne is conferred on Elizabeth, youngest daughter of Peter I. and Catherine I. 1743, Aug. 17 (O. 8.). Treaty of Abo (q.v.). 1748. An alliance is concluded with Austria. 1752. Sir Charles Hanbury Williams is sent to Warsaw by the English Government, to effect a union between Russia, Poland, and Saxony. 1757. Russia takes part in the Seven Years' war, and invades Prussia. 1760, Oct. 9. The Russians and Austrians take Berlin. 1763, May 5. Peace is concluded with Prussia at St. Petersburg. July 10. A revolution breaks out at St. Petersburg, and Peter III. is deposed. July 14. Death of Peter III. (See HOLSTEIN.) 1764. The imprisoned czar, Ivan VI., is put to death. 1760, June 30. A treaty of commerce with England is signed at St. Petersburg (q. .). 1768. Turkey declares war against Russia. (See OTTO- MAN EMPIRE.) 1773. Russia participates in the first partition of Poland. 1773. Rebellion of the Cossack Pugatcheff, who claims to be the deceased Czar, Peter III. 1774. July 10 (O. S.). Treaty of Kutschouc-Kainardji (q. v.). 1775. The impostor Pugatcheff is broken on the wheel. 1778. Prince Potemkin is made minister. 1780. The Armed Neutrality (q. v.). 1787. The war with Turkey is renewed. 1788. War against Sweden. 1790. The Swedes fail in an attack upon St. Petersburg. Aug. 14. The treaty of Wereloe. 1793, Jan. 9. The treaty of Jassy (q. v.). June 8. War is declared against Poland. 1793, March 35. An alliance is concluded with England against France. Russia acquires considerable territory by the second partition of Poland. 1795. Final partition of Poland between Russia, Prussia, and Austria. 1798, Dec. 29. Russia joins England and Austria in a coalition against France. 1799, Suwarrovv assists the Austrians in Italy. Russia secedes from the Anglo-Austrian alliance, and forms a coalition with France. 1800, Dec. 30. The Czar invites the contending sove- reigns of Europe to meet at St. Petersburg, and settle their differences by a private combat, in which their ministers should act as squires. 1801, March 24. Paul I. is assassinated by a party of noblemen under Gens. Benningsen and Pahlen. May 17. A convention is signed with England. 1805, April ii. Russia again joins the coalition against France. 1806, A Russian army occupies Moldavia and Walla- chia. Nov. 28. The French enter Warsaw for the purpose of aiding the Poles against the Russians. 1807, June 25. Alexander I. has an interview with Napo- leon I. on the Niemen, at Tilsit. July 9. Treaty of Tilsit Oct. 6. War is declared against Sweden. Nov. 8. War is declared against Eng- land. 1809, May 5. War is declared against Austria. Sep. 17. Treaty of Frederickshamm (q. P.). RUSSIA [ 862 ] RUSSIA 1813, April 5. A coalition is formed w ith Sweden against France. June 34. The French, under Napoleon I., cross the Niemen (q.v.). July 18. Treaty of ( irebro. Aug. 17. The Russians are defeated at Smo- lensko. Sep. 7. The French engage the Russians at the Borodino (q. .). Sep. 14. The French enter Moscow (q. v.), which is burned by the in- habitants. Oct. 19. The French commence their retreat. Nov. 2638. Battles of the Beresina ('/. v.). The French lose about 2S7,ooo men in the campaign. 1813, Feb. 28. Treaty of Kalisch (q. v.). June 4. The armistice of Poisehewitz ('/ *') June 14. The convention of Reichenbnch {q. r.). 1814, March 31. Alexander I. and the Allies enter Paris. June 6. Alexander I. visits England. 1815, June 20. Alexander I. is proclaimed King of Poland. 1817, Dec. 27. The ministry of public instruction is united to that of religions affairs. 1820. The Jesuits are expelled from K 1823. 1'he Grand-duke Constantino resigns his right to the throne. 18^5. Alexander I. sets out on a tour through his do- minions. Dec. i. Alexander I. dies at Taganrog, and is succeeded by his brother, .'Si- Dec. 26. A military "revolt, under '<'..; suppressed at St. Petersburg. Dec. 29. The troops at Moscow proclaim Cun.stautine, uud 300 are slain. 1826, Feb. The Duke of Wellington visits . St. IVleivbnrg. Sep. 3. Coronation of .Nicholas I. at MOSCOW. Sep. 98. Will- is declared ag.iins; Persia (7. :.). 1837, July 9. Nicholas I. visits England, find ;. garter. 1828, Feb. 22. The treaty of Turkmanshai. April 26. War is declared against the (q. .). 1829, May 24. Coronation of Nicholas I. at W King of Poland. Sep. 14. Treaty of lladriu- nople (q. .). 1830, Nov. 29. An insurrection breaks out in i'oland 1831, June 27. Death of the fi rand-duke Constant inc. Sep. 8. Capture of Warsaw by the l; 1834, Jan. 29. A treaty for the surrender of Polish refugees to the Russian authorities is concluded with Austria and Pr: 1840, Jan. Failure of the expedition against the Turco- mans of Khiva, in Central Asia. .Inly 15. 1,'u- i:i. England, Austria, Prussia, and Turkey conclude a treaty at London for the expulsion of Ibrahim Pasha from Syria. 1841. The Circassian war commences. 1844, June 18. Nicholas I. visits England. 1845, An insurrectionary movement is suppressed in Poland (q. v.). 1846, June 9. The Grand-duke Constantine visits Ports- mouth. 1847, Poland is made a province of the empire. 1848, March 3. The French revolution occasions great excitement at St. Petersburg. April. An insur- rection commences in White Russia. 1849, May. A Russian force is sent to the assistance of the Austrians in Hungary (?..). Nov. R of Hu from Turkey. demands the expulsion ngarian refugees 1850, Jan. 6. A conspiracy against Nicholas I. is de- tected. 1851, The St. Petersburg and Moscow railway is com- menced. 1852, May 8. Nicholas I. visits Vienna. May 16. Nicho- las I. goes to Pots, lam. 1853, Feb. Dispute with Turkey (See OTTOMAN EMPII;K) respecting the Holy Places (q.v.). July 2. The Russians occupy the Danubian principalities. Sep. 24. The Emperors of Russia and Austria have an interview at Ohniitz. Oct. 2. Nicholas I. meets the Emperor of Austria and the King of Prussia at Warsaw. Oct. 5. War is declared by Turkey. (See RUSSIAN WAK). 1854, Feb. 7. Baron Brunow, the Russian ambassador, leaves England. March 5. Ten of the northern governments, inclusive of Poland, are declared in a state of siege. April 23. Nicholas I. is- sues a manifesto asserting that his only object in the war is the defence of the Christian faith. 1855, March 2. Death of Nicholas I. at St. Petersburg. Sep. 25. Alexander II. visits Nicolaieff. Oct. 15. Alexander II. orders a levy of 10 men in 1,000 throughout the empire, seven provinces only excepted. Nov. 9. Alexander II. visits xov. 1 8. Alexander II. returns to St. Petersburg. Xov. 21. A treaty is signed by France and England with Sweden, by which the latter power engages to cede no territory to Russia, anil receives the promise of assistance from the other parties in the event of K* aggression. 1856, Jan. 29. Death of Prince Paskewitch at Warsaw. March 30. The treaty of Paris. May 17. The department of public instruction is placed under the immediate control of tiie Emperor. May 22. Alexander II. visits Warsaw. .May 27. Alex- auder II. grants a political amnesty "to the Poles. Sep. 2. Alexander 11. publishes' a manifesto against English and French interference in UKS affairs of Naples. Sep. 7. Alexander II. is solemnly crowned at Moscow. 1857, Jau - 26. The works of the St. Petersburg and War- saw railway are entrusted to a company of Kus-iaii and foreign capitalists. June 14. A commercial treaty is signed with France. S An interview between the emperors of i and of France takes place at Stutgardt Oct. i. Alexander II. meets the Emperor of Austria nt Weimar. Dec. 16. The department of military colonies is abolished. 1858, Jau. 15. A committee is established under the idency of the Emperor, to consider tl i-ares for ameliorating the condition of tho -.May 28. A frontier treaty is coiieladi d with China. June 9. A treaty of 'commerce and navigation is concluded with Belgium. July 2- The royal peasants are admitted to personal rights. Dec. 31. A commercial treaty is con- cluded with Great Britain. 1859, May 27. The Kussian Government protests any intervention on the part of the Germanic Confederation in the Italian question. July 27. An expedition against Schamyl is sent into Dag- hestan. Aug. 5. Ulu- Kale, in the Ca; surrenders to the Russians. Aug. 8. Prince Ba- riatinski announces the subjection of the tribes of the Caucasus. Aug. 26. Extension of po- litical rights among the serfs. Sep. 7. Capture of the Circassian lender Schamyl. Sep. -40. The Czarowit/. Nicholas attains his majority. 1860, Feb. 13. Russia rejects the principle of the sove- ily of the people. May 5. The Russian Go- vernment invites a conference of the European powers to assemble in Russia for considering the condition of Christians in Turkey. June 12. New regulations are made respecting the national bank. June 19. War recommences in the Cau- casus. Sep. 14. A commercial treaty is con- cluded with Austria.- Oct. 10. The Russian am- bassador is recalled from Turin. Oct. 22- The emperors of Russia and Austria, and the Prince- ',it of Prussia, have an interview at Warsaw. Xov. 14. Treaty between Russia and China, 1 y which the former obtains lerritorv on the Amur. 1861, Feb. Troubles in Poland (q. .). March i. An imperial manifesto is published, which decrees the total emancipation of the serfs of the umpire within two years. April lo. A commission of the States of Finland is summoned to meet at llelsingfors in 1S62. May 30. Death of Prince Gortschakoff. 1862, Jan. ii. A treaty for the establishment of electric raph communication with Turkey is signed at St. Petersburg. March 20. Death of Count Nesselrode. June 10. A destructive fire at St. Petersburg. 863, Jan. 22. Difficulties recommence in Poland. (See POLAND.) Feb. 8. A treaty with I'm- - concluded at Warsaw for united action in sup- pressing the Polish insurrection Feb. 18. France remonstrates with Russia on the condition of Poland, and invites the C/.ar to adopt recon- ciliatory measures. April 7. England, France, and Austria send separate notes to St. Petersburg, remonstrating against the Russian cruelties in Poland. Sep. 7. The French proposal for a congress is rejected. RUSSIA [ 863 ] RUSSIAN WAR A.D. 1864, March 31. Major-gen. Heymann defeats three independent Circassian tribes, the remnant of which retreat into Turkey. (See ClRCASSlA.) June z. Circassia la declared to be entirely subject to Russia. Sep. 16. Sir A. Buchanan is appointed ambassador from England. 1865, April 24. Death of the Czarowitz Nicholas at Nice. June 6. His funeral takes place at the cathedral of St. Petersburg. 1866, April 16. Karakasovv fails in an attempt to assassi- nate Alexander II. July 37. The Abasians defeat the Russians. Aug. Insurrection in the Cau- casus. Sep. 15. Karakasovv is executed. Sep. 17. Railway from Rostor to Moscow is opened. Nov. 17. Marriage of the Princess Dagmar with the Czarowitz. RULERS OF RUSSIA. DUKES AND GRAND-DUKES. A.I). A.D. 863. Rurie. 879. Oleg. 913. Igor I. 945- Olga. o^-j. Sviatoslav I. 973. Yaropolk I. 980. Vladimir I., the Great. 1015. Sviatopolk I. 1018. Yaroslav I. 1054. Isiaslav I. 1067. Vseslav. 1073. Sviatoslav II. 1078. Vsevolod I. 1093. Sviatopolk II. 1113. Vladimir II. 1125. Mstislav. 1 133. Yaropolk II. 1137. Viatcheslav. 1138. Vsevolod II. ru6. Igor II. 1146. Isiaslav II. 1149. Yury I. SCHISM OF EIGHTY-SIX YEARS. AT KIEF. 1154. Kostislavl. >. Isiaslav III. 1. Mstislav II. - . i. Gleb. lourievitch. 173. laroslav II Isias- lavitch. 179. Roman I. 179. Sviastolav III. 193. Ruric II. 193. Roman II. 306. Vsevolod III. 1313. Mstislav III. 1330. Vladimir III. 1339. Michael I., Vsevolo- dovitch. AT MOSCOW. 154. AndrowI.Bogolioubski. 1175. Michael I. 1177. Vsevolod HI. 1313-38. Yury II. (1317-18. Constantin.) 1338. Yaroslav II., Vsevolo- dovitch. AT VLADIMIK. 1340. laroslav II., Vsevolo- dovitch. 1347. Sviatoslav III., Vse- volodovitch. 1349. Andrew I., Yaros- lavich. 1252. Alexander I., Newski. 1363. Yaroslav III., Yaros- lavitch. 1373. Vassili or Basil I. 1376. Dmitri I. 1294. Andrew II. 1295. Daniel. 1304. Vassili or Basil II. 1304. Michael II. 1319. Yury III. 1333. Dmitri II. 1336. Alexander II. 1338. Ivan I., Kalita. AT MOSCOW. 1340. Simeon, the Proud. 1353. Ivan II. 1359. Dmitri III. 1363. Dmitri III. or IV., Donski. 1389. Vassili or Basil III. 1435. Vassili or Basil IV., the Blind. 1463. Ivan III., the Great. 1505. Vassili or Basil V. Ivan IV., the Terrible. ; 1610. Vladislaus of Poland. Feodor I. Boris Godunow. Feodor II. Dmitri V. (the False). Vassili or Basil VI. (Chouiski). 1613. Michael III. 1645. Alexis I. 1676. Feodor III. 1683. Ivan-V. and Peter I. (the Great). 1689. Peter I., the Great (alone). 1735. Catherine I. 1737. Peter II. 1730. Anne. 1740. Ivan VI. 1743. Elizabeth. EMPERORS. 1762. Peter III. 1763. Catherine II. 1796. Paul I. 1801. Alexander I. 1835. Nicholas I. 1855. Alexander II. RUSSIA COMPANY. The English trade was opened by some Englishmen who formed a company under the direction of Sebastian Cabot in 1553. Sir Hugh Willoughby and the crews of two vessels perished in 1553 (See NORTH-EAST PASSAGE), but a third vessel under Richard Chancellor entered the White Sea. Chancellor, who reached Archangel, was sent for by Ivan IV., and visited Moscow, when in- ternational commerce was established, and the company was incorporated as the Russia Com- pany in 1554, Richard Chancellor and Anthony Jenkinson being the agents. Chancellor paid another visit to Moscow in 1555, and the Russia Company was confirmed by the first express statute passed in England in 1566. RUSSIAN AMERICA consists chiefly of territory used for hunting, and is in the pos- session of the Imperial Fur Company. New Archangel, on the island of Sitka, is the only town. RUSSIAN WAR. The Sultan of Turkey finding it impossible to comply with the demands of the Czar respecting the Holy Places and Turkish subjects professing the Greek religion, the Russian embassy was re- called from Constantinople, May 21, 1853. 1853, May 38. A manifesto is issued to the great powers by the Sultan. June 8. The English fleet, under Admiral Dundas, is ordered to the Dardanelles. July 3. The Russian army crosses the Pruth. Oct. 5. Turkey declares war. Oct. 23. The first encounter takes place at Isatcha. Oct. 30. The English fleet enters the Dardanelles. Nov. 4. The Turks are victorious at Oltenitza, the Russians losing 1,000 men. Dec. 31. The " Iden- tic Note " is accepted by the Sultan. 1854, Jan. 3. Sweden and Denmark declare in favour of neutrality. Jan. 4. The Allied fleets of England and France enter the Black Sea. Jan. 6. The Turks are victorious at Citate, with a loss to the Russians of 3,000 men. Jan. 8. The Russians enter the Dobrudscha. Feb. 33. English troops embark for the East. March n. The Baltic fleet, under Napier, sails from Spithead. March 19. The _French troops for the East begin to embark. March 20. The French Baltic fleet sails from Brest. March 38. Declaration of war by England and France April 14. The siege of Silistria is commenced by the Russians. April 15. A convention is concluded between France, Turkey, and England. April 18. Lliders is de- feated by Omar 1'asha near Rassova. April 30. Austria and Prussia agree to remain neutral. April 23. Bombardment of Odessa by the French and English fleets. May 13. The Tiger is lost off Odessa, and her crew are made prisoners by the Russians. June 14. Treaty of Boyadji-Keuy between Austria and Turkey. June 33. The siege of Silistria is raised by the Russians. July 7. The Turks are victorious at Giurgevo. July 38. Wallachia is evacuated by the Russians. July 39. The Turks are defeated by the Russians near Bayazid. Aug. 6. The Turks are again defeated at Kurekdere. Aug. 13 15. Bomar- sund, besieged by the Allied fleets, surrenders unconditionally. Aug. 30. The Austrians enter the principalities. Aug. 34. Kola, in the White Sea, is bombarded by the Miranda, and com- pletely destroyed. Sep. 7. The Allies are foiled at Petropaulovski. Sep. 14. The Allies (25,000 French, 25,000 British, and 8,000 Turks) land at Old Fort, in the Crimea. Sep. 15. Moldavia is evacuated by the Russians. Sep. 30. Battle of the Alma (den, fined ,40,000, Feb. 6, 1684. The con- ntlors intended to murder Charles II. and the Duke of York. I! V M !: \AXTS. (See RIMENANT, Battle.) II YS WICK (Treaty). Negotiations were opened at this village, between Delft and the Hague, in Holland, May 9, 1697, to terminate the war which had commenced in 1688, with France against Holland, Germany, Spain, and England. Three separate treaties, by which l.miis XIV. resigned some of his conquests and recognized William III. as King of Eng- land, were signed by England, France, Spain, and Holland, Sep. 10 (O. S.) or Sep. 20 (N. S.), 697, and by Germany Oct. 30. S. SAALFELD (Germany). This small walled town of Saxe-Meiningen contains the ruins of an old castle erected in the 8th century. The cathedral of St. John, built in 1212, is remark- able for its fine painted windows. It was the capital of an independent principality till 1749, when it was joined to Saxe-Coburg, passing to Saxe-Meiningen in 1826. Bavaria entered into an alliance with the confederates of Smalcald at this town, Oct. 24, 1531. Lannes, at the head of the French, defeated the Prus- sians here, Oct. 10, 1806. Prince Louis Ferdi- nand of Prussia was killed in the encounter. SAARBRUCK, or SARREBRUCK (Prussia , founded in the icth century, was united to Nassau in 1380. The town, taken by the French in 1676, was soon after re-captured and burned by the Imperialists. The palace, which at one time belonged to the princes of Nassau-Saarbrucken, was destroyed by the French in 1793. Saarbriick belonged to France from 1749 to 1814, and was given to Prussia "VAARDAM, or ZAANDAM (Holland), cele- brated as the place where Peter I. (the SAARLOUIS [ 865 ] SACRAMENTARIAN CONT. Great) resided, when working as a common shipwright, under the name of Peter Mik- ha'ilov, iu. 1696. SAARLOUIS, or SARRELOUIS (Prussia). The town was founded by Louis XIV. in 1680, and the fortress was erected by Vauban in 1681. It was ceded to Prussia in 1815. SAAZ, or SAATZ (Battle). Ziska defeated the Germans, Sep. i, 1421, at this place in Bohemia, founded in the jih century. SAB/EANS. (See SHEBA.) SABA, ST. The Venetians erected Herze- govina (q. v.) into a duchy, under the name of St. Saba. SABBATARIANS. The term was applied in the 4th century to the followers of Sabba- tius. (See MARCIANISTS.) In the i6th century some Anabaptists, who observed the seventh, instead of the first day of the week, received the name of Sabbatarians. It is uncertain when they first appeared in the Protestant Church, but Fuller says they existed as early as 1633. The republication of King James's Book of Sports (q. v.}, Oct. 18, 1633, revived the Sabbatarian controversy. There are two congregations of Sabbatarians in London, the first dating as far back as 1678. One is among the General, and the other among the Parti- cular Baptists. A tract supporting this doc- trine was published in 1740. They are some- times called the Seventh-Day Baptists. SABBATH, as a name for Sunday (q. v.), was, according to the elder Disraeli, first used in England in 1554. In Low Latin, and the languages derived from the Latin, the term designates Saturday. SABBATICAL YEAR. The Jews received the command for its observance every seventh year, in which they were neither to sow their fields nor prune their vineyards (Exod. xxiii. TO & n), B.C. 1491. The injunction, repeated Lev. xxv. 2 7, is referred to Deut. xv. i u, and xxxi. 10 13. The Jews observed it after their return from the Babylonish captivity. SABELLIANS. The followers of Sabel'lius, according to some authorities a bishop, and according to others a presbyter of .Upper Egypt, who flourished 256 270, and taught that the Father suffered on the cross, and that there is but one person in the Godhead. Pope Dionysius pronounced condemnation of the doctrines of Sabellius in a council held at Rome in 260. Marcellus, Bishop of Ancyra, maintained the doctrine in 325. The " His- toria Sabellina" was published by Wormius in 1696. The Sabellians were also called Patri- passians (q. v.). Hallam says that Servetus held what were nearly Sabellian opinions. SABINES, an ancient people of Italy, sup- posed to have been named from Sabus, one of their deities. Little is known of their history. They were at war with the Romans at a very early period. A contest broke out between them B.C. 504, and a body of the Sabines mi- grated to Rome, where they were welcomed, and founded the powerful family and tribe of Claudii. The Sabines carried their ravages to the very gates of Rome, B.C. 469. On their defeat by Marcus Horatiiis, B.C. 449, their camp was found full of plunder obtained in the Roman territories. They were again at war with the Romans B.C. 290, and having been vanquished many of them were sold as slaves. The remaining citizens were admitted to the Roman franchise, but without the rights of suffrage. These were granted to them B.C. 268, and from that time they en- joyed all the privileges of Roman citizens. The last time they are mentioned as a distinct people is during the second Punic war (B.C. 218 B.C. 202), when they served as volunteers in the army of Scipio. SABRINA LAND (Antarctic Ocean) was discovered by Balleny, March 20, 1839. SAC (BRETHREN OF THE). This religious order, established in the beginning of the 1 3th century, had monasteries in France, Germany, Italy, and England. They never ate flesh or drank wine, and only wore wooden sandals in addition to the sac, from which they took their name. SACCATOO, or SO KOTO (Africa). A king- dom under this name was established in Soudan in 1816. The town of Saccatoo was founded in 1803. The traveller Clappertoii died here, April 13, 1827. SACHEVERELL RIOTS (London). Dr. Henry Sacheverell, rector of St. Saviour's, Southwark, preached two sermons, one at Derby and the other at St. Paul's, the latter Nov. 5, 1709, of which Mr Dolben complained as being contrary to Revolution principles. The House of Commons voted them " scan- dalous and seditious," and ordered Dr. Sache- verell to be impeached, Dec. 13. Dr. Sache- verell, brought to trial Feb. 27, 1710, was found guilty March 23, and sentenced to sus- pension for three years. The people, con- ceiving the Church in danger, during the progress of the trial broke into several meet- ing-houses, tore down the pulpits and pews, and made a bonfire of them in Lincoln's Inn Fields. Soldiers were called upon to disperse the mob, and the London trained bands were kept -on duty. In 1713 Sacheverell was pre- sented to the living of St. Andrew's, Holborn, and he died June 5, 1724. SACRAMENT. In the primitive ages of hristianity there were but two sacraments, Baptism and the Lord's Supper. Otho, Bishop of Bamberg, was the first who, in 1124, enu- merated seven sacraments. Through the in- fluence of Peter Lombard and of Gratian, this number was generally adopted by the Romish clergy, and received the approval of Pope Eugeiiius IV. at the Council of Florence in 1439. The Council of Trent (Dec. 13, 1545 Dec. 3, 1563) decided that there were seven ; namely, Baptism, Confirmation, the Eucharist, or Supper of the Lord, Extreme Unction, Marriage, Ordination, and Penance, instead of the two instituted by Jesus Christ. The Be- lediction with the Sacrament arose in the Romish Church soon after the institution of the Festival of Corpus Christi in 1264. A sect sprang up in England early in the i8th cen- tury, founded by Dr. Deacon, who increased their number to 12. The founder published his views on Christianity in 1748. SACRAMENTARIAN CONTROVERSY, amongst the Lutherans, commenced in 1524, when Martin Luther engaged in a dispute 3* SACRAMENT ARIES [ 866 ] SADLER'S WELLS with Andrew Carlstadt. Luther taught the real presence of Christ in the elements of the Lord's Supper, as fire is in heated iron, the doctrine being termed Consubstantiation. Carlstadt, who was supported by Bucer and Capito, maintained that the Eucharist was only a commemoration of the Saviour's sacri- fice. Zwinglius took the same view in 1525, and Luther's doctrine was condemned by an assembly of Swiss divines at Berne in 1528. The diet of Spires, in 1529, resolved to sup- press the Sacramentarians or Sacramentaries, as the opponents of Luther were called. Their supporters drew up the Tetrapolitan Confession (q. v.), for presentation to the diet of Augsburg, in 1530. They existed in Eng- land in considerable numbers about 1537. SACRAMENTARIES .These liturgical books, containing the prayers and order of the celebration of mass and of the sacraments, wore used in the Roman Catholic Church. The most celebrated sacramentaries are those of Pope Gelasius I. (492 496) and of Pope Gregory I. (the Great) (590604). About the nth or 1 2th century they were incorporated with the mass-books or missals (q. v.}. No sacramen- taries were employed by the Greek Church. (See SAOKAMBNTARIAN CONTROVERSY.) SACRAMENTO (California). A settlement was made in 1839, and the first house wa,s built in the spring of 1849. Gold was discovered in the Sacramento River, in Sep., 1847. It became the capital of California in 1854. SACRED. The Christian emperors did not use the term until the time of Justin II., in S'S. It was first added to the title of majesty, this country, by .lamus I., in 1603. SACRED COLLEGE. (fite CARDINAL.) SACRED FIRE. (-See KILDAKE, VESTALS, &c.) SACRED HARMONIC. (.See CONCERT, LONDII- IARMONIC SOCIETY, /. v. . SAMIAN WAR, between the Athenians and the Samians, occurred about B.C. 440. In the beginning of this war Pericles, the Athenian commander, defeated the Samian fleet, landed his troops on the island, and besieged Samos. Having heard that a Phoenician fleet was com- ing to the assistance of the Samians, he drew off part of his forces to intercept it. The be- sieged, taking advantage of his absence, carried the naval encampment of the Athenians by surprise. Pericles returned, and again closely besieged the town. The Samians, who ventured upon another battle, in which they were de- feated, defended the town for nine months, when they capitulated through famine. They were condemned to dismantle their fort, deliver up their ships, and pay the cost of the siege by instalments. SAMNITES. This people, of Sabine origin, conquered Campania between B.C. 440 and B.C. 420, afterwards overran Lucania, and within a century spread to the southern extremity of Italy. The Samnites concluded a treaty with Rome B.C. 354. The first Samnitc war began B.C. 343, and after several victories gained by the Romans, was concluded B.C. 341. In the Great Latin war, B.C. 340 B.C. 338, the Samnites were allies of the Romans. The second or Great Samuite war commenced B.C. 326. The Roman army, having been decoyed by the Samnites into a narrow pass called the Caudiiie Forks (q. v.) in the spring B.C. 321, had to pass under the yoke in the presence of the whole Samnite army. A truce for two years was made B.C. 318 ; but the war was renewed, and, after suffering many defeats, the Samnites were com- pelled to sue for peace, which was granted B.C. 304. The third Samnite war commenced B.C. 298. The Samnites, with their allies the Gauls, were defeated in a great battle B.C. 295, and were compelled to sue for peace B.C. 290. They joined Pyrrhus B.C. 282, and again submitted to Rome B.C. 272. The Samnites declared for Hannibal B.C. 216, but renewed their submis- sion to Rome B.C. 209. They joined in the Social war, and many of them were in the army of the younger Marius, which was defeated at Sacriportus (q. v.) B.C. 82. The Samnites, hav- ing again revolted, were defeated by Sylla at the battle of the Colline gate, Nov. i, B.C. 82. SAMOAN ISLES. (See NAVIGATORS' IS- LANDS.) SAMOSATA (Syria). The capital of Com- magen (q. v.), taken by Ventidius, the general of Marcus Antonius, B.C. 38, was the native place of Paul, Bishop of Antioch, who denied the divinity of Christ, and was deposed in 269. Captured by Chosroes II. in 609, it was reco- vered by Heraclius in 625. . SAMOS, or SAMUS (vEgean Sea), called by ancient writers Anthemus, Cyparissia, Dryusa, Melamphylus, and Parthenia, was occupied by Carians and Lieges, and afterwards by lonians. The Samians became remarkable for their com- merce about B.C. 776. During the rule of Polycrates, B.C. 532 522, the Samian navy was the most powerful in Greece. Near this island was fought the celebrated battle of Mycale, B.C. 479, in which the Greeks gained a decisive victory over the Persians. The maritime strength of Samos was broken B.C. 44o( I't:i:UC I5ATHS AND V,'A*II-H<>! Common ' M Act, 14 & 15 Viet. c. 38 (July 34, 1851), extended by 16 & 17 Viet. c. 41 (Aug. 4, 1853). Diseases Prevention Act, 18 & 19 Viet. c. 116 (Aug. 14, iS?5). Labouring" Classes Lodging-houses Act, 14 & 15 Viet. c. 3^ (.Inly 24, 1851). (See LAum Metropolitan Interments Acts, 13 & 14 Vicr. c. 53 (Aug. 5, 1850), repealed by 15 & 16 Viet. c. 85 (July i, 1853), which was amended by 16 & 17 Viet. c. 134 (Aug. 20, 1853), and by 18 & 19 Viet. c. 138 (Aug. 14, 1855). Nuisances Kcmoval Act, 9 & lo Viet. c. 96 (Aug. 28, 1846), renewed, amended, and made perpetuul byll & 13 Viet. c. 133 (Sep. 4, 1848), and by 13 & 13 Viet. c. ill (Aug. i, 1849). The provisions on the suli: consolidated by 18 & 19 Viet. c. 121 (Aug. 14, 1855), which was amended by 23 & 24 Viet. c. 77 (Aug. 6, 1860), and by 26 & 37 Viet. c. 117 (July 28. i Public Health Act, II & 12 Viet. c. (^ < amended by 14 & 15 Viet. c. 50 (Aug. i, 1851), by 21 & 22 Viet. c. (>S (An-. 2, 185 '<), by 34 & 35 Viet. c. 61 (An--. I, 1861), and by 39 & 30 Viet c. 99 (Aug. 7, 1866). Smoke Nuisance Abatement Act, 16 & 17 Viet. c. 128 (Aug. 20, 1853), amended by 19 & 30 Viet. c. 107 (July 29, 1856). Towns' Improvement Clauses Act, 10 & II Viet. c. 34 (June 31, 1847). (See ALKALI WORKS ACT, BOARD OF HEALTH, THAMES, VACCINATION, &c.) SAN JOSE, or SAN JOSE DEL INTERIOR (Central America^ the capital of Costa Rica, was nearly destroyed byan earthquake in 1831. SAN JUAN. (See GREY TOWN, NICARAGUA, &c.) SAN LU CAR. (See CIRCUMNAVIGATION, LUCAR, SAN, &c.) SANQUHAR (Scotland) is supposed to have originated the old castle of Sanquhar, the ruins of which exist on an eminence to the south-east of the town. Taken by the English in the reign of Edward III., it was made a burgh in 1484, and a royal burgh by James VI., in 1596. (See CAMERONIANS.) The town -hall was built and presented to the town by the Duke of Queensberry in 1734. The old church, part of which is supposed to have been built by the Picts, was taken down, and a new one erected on its site, in 1823. SAN REMO (Italy) was a republic in 1170, and entered into an alliance with the Pisans against Genoa. The English bombarded it in SANSCRIT, or SANSKRIT, the ancient language of the Hindoos, is a branch of the Indo-European family of languages. It was introduced into India by the Brahmins. Its earliest literature is the Vedas, in which it is nearly related to the Zend, the ancient lan- guage of Persia. Sir William Jones (1746 April 27, 1794) translated the books of Mana and other Sanscrit works. A professorship of Sanscrit was founded at Oxford in 1830. SANSCULOTT1DES. (See REVOLUTIONARY CALENDAR.) SANTA CRUZ, or ST. CROIX (Canary Isles), the chief town of Teiieriffe, and the capital of the Canary Islands, was founded by Bartholo- mew Diaz in 1486. A Spanish fleet of 16 vessels, protected by the guns of the castle and seven batteries erected on the shore, was attacked and destroyed by Admiral Blake, April 20, 1657. An unsuccessful attempt to take Santa Cruz was made by Nelson, who lost his right arm in the engagement, July 24, 1797. It is the name of one of the Virgin Isles belonging to Denmark. SANTA Pfi DE BOGOTA (S. America), the capital of New Granada, was founded by the Spaniards in 1538, was the seat of the Congress of Columbia in 1811, and remained the capital till 1831. The Spaniards took it in 1816, audit was delivered by Bolivar in 1819. An earth- quake did much damage in 1827. SANTA HERMANDAD. (See HOLY BROTHERHOOD. ) SANTA LUCIA (Battle). An indecisive :: tent took place at this village, near Verona, between the Sardinian forces under Charles Albert, and the Austrians under Radctsky, May 6, 1848. The Sardinians lost 98 killed and 694 wounded, and the Austrians nearly as many. SANTA MARIA DE LA VITORIA. (See CEUTLA.) SANTA MAURA. (See LEUCADIA.) SANTANDER (Spain;. This seaport town, capital of a small province of the same name, was taken and sacked by the French in June, and again in Nov., 1808. The Spaniards carried it by assault in the beginning of June, 1809 ; and it was retaken with great slaughter by the French, June 10. It was evacuated by them Aug. 15, 1812. Santander was declared a free port by a government decree, March 30, 1818. SANTAREM (Portugal). Alphonso I. wrested it from the Moors in 1147, an d it was much improved by Alphonso III. in 1254. SANTIAGO, or SANTIAGO DE COMPOS- TELIA (Spain), was one of the first towns wrested from the Moors by the sxiccessors of Pelayo, and was held by them until 997, when it was retaken by the Moors, who destroyed the temple, and placed its bells in the mosque at Cordova, where they remained till that town was taken by Ferdinand III. in 1235. They were then brought back to Santiago on the shoulders of his Moslem captives. On the building of the cathedral, about the end of the gth century, the bodies of the apostle St. James, and two of his disciples, Athanasius and Theodorus, were, according to tradition, discovered, and placed in a subterranean SANTIAGO t 875 1 SARAH SANDS chapel, underneath the principal altar. It became a resort for pilgrims (See JAMES, ST., Order) ; and no less than 916 left England for Santiago in 1428 ; and this number increased to 2,280 in 1433. The offerings of the pilgrims were supposed to have made the church im- mensely rich. The cathedral was founded in 1082. An hospital for pilgrims was erected in the isth century. Santiago is the see of an archbishop, and the seat of a \\niversity founded in 1533. When the town was taken by the French in 1809, Marshal Ney ordered half of the money to be handed over to pay his troops, and it amounted to ,40,000. The town was abandoned by the French in 1814. (See CARACAS, CUBA, HOLY COAT, &c.) SANTIAGO, ST. IAGO, or ST. JAGO DE CHILI (S. America), the capital of Chili, was founded by Pedro de Valdivia, Feb. 24, 1541. It suffered severely from earthquakes in 1822 and 1829. A fire broke out in the Jesuit church of La Compania, during the celebration of a feast in honour of the Immaculate Conception, Dec. 8, 1863. The interior of the building, with the roof, being constructed of timber, the flames spread with great rapidity, and as there was only one door for egress, upwards of 2,000 victims, mostly women and children, perished. One hundred and sixty waggon- loads of corpses were taken from the ruins. SAP1ENZA (Mediterranean). This island, on the south coast of the Morea, anciently called Sphacteria, is celebrated for a naval vic- tory, gained in the vicinity, by the Athenians over the Lacedaemonians, B.C. 425. The Geno- ese captured and destroyed the Venetian fleet here, Nov. 4, 1354. SAPPERS AND MINERS. (-See EN- GINEERS.) SAPPHIC VERSE, attributed to the poetess Sappho, who was born at Mitylene, in the isle of Lesbos, about B.C. 610. In consequence of a hopeless love for Phaon, a young Lesbian, Sappho is said to have thrown herself into the sea from Mount Leucas, B.C. 590. (See LEU- CADIA.) The Lesbians paid her honour after her death, and stamped then- coinage with her image. SAPPHIRE was one of the jewels em- ployed in constructing Aaron's breast-plate, B.C. 1491 (Exod. xxviii. 18), and mention is made of it Job xxviii. 6. It* was used in the costume of the Tyriau nobles. Sapphires are found in greatest abundance in Pegu, Ava, and Ceylon. A few specimens have been found in Bohemia, France, and Saxony. They are, next to diamonds, the hardest and most valuable of precious stones, although their constituents are almost entirely clay, with a little iron as colouring matter. (See CORUNDUM.) SARACENS, the name of an Arab tribe, is by some authorities derived from Sarah, the wife of Abraham, whom they are said to claim as their foundress, to avert the stigma of their descent from the bond-woman Hagar. Bo- chart denies this theory, and asserts that they were called Saracens in consequence of their nomadic and predatory habits, Saraka being the Arabic verb " to plunder." Reland states that the word simply denotes the eastern ori- gin of the Saracens, Sharaka being a modifi- cation of the Arabic " to rise," and applied in this case because the east is the quarter in wlu'ch the sun rises. They are mentioned by the classical geographers, who do not define very exactly the locality they occupied. In consequence of their predatory encroachments, the Emperor Decius caused a number of lions to be conveyed into their country from Africa, and turned loose among them, in 251. The name, at first applied to a tribe, then to the Bedouin Arabs, was afterwards given to all Moorish and Mohammedan people, and espe- cially to the opponents of the Crusaders, and in fact to all opponents of Christianity. (See CRUSADES, MOORS, MOHAMMEDANISM, OTTOMAN EMPIRE, &c.) SARAGOSSA, or ZARAGOZA (Spain), capi- tal of the old kingdom of Aragon, said to have been founded by the Phoenicians or Cartha- ginians, was rebuilt by the Roman Emperor Augustus, who gave it the name of Csesarea Augusta. It was taken in 470 by the Goths, who were expelled by the Saracens in 712. It was made the capital of a separate Moorish state in 1017. Alphonso I. of Aragon besieged and took it in m8, and it was subsequently united to the kingdom of Castile. Councils were held here in 381 ; Nov. i, 592; Nov. i, 691 ; and Dec. 15, 1318. Saragossa is celebrated in modern history for the two sieges it sus- tained during the Peninsular war. The French, who attempted to carry it by assault, June 16, 1808, were repulsed with great loss. They then commenced a, regular siege, and succeeded in effecting an entrance, Aug. 4, when a deadly struggle commenced, which lasted for n days. The Spanish commander Palafox having been reinforced, the French abandoned the siege during the night, Aug. 14, with the loss of several thousand men. The second siege com- menced Dec. 20, 1808. The outworks were soon taken by the French, and a series of san- fuinary combats ensued day and night until an. 27, 1809, when a general assault was made, and the French succeeded in getting within the walls. The garrison made an obstinate de- fence ; but an epidemic fever broke out amongst them, and Palafox surrendered on honourable terms, Feb. 20, 1809. During the siege, 54,000 persons perished, of whom only 6,000 were killed by the enemy, the rest having been de- stroyed by the plague. The Spaniards were defeated in the neighbourhood by the French, June 1 6, 1809. Saragossa was abandoned by the French in July, 1813. A body of Carlist troops occupied the principal posts, March 2, 1838. The inhabitants, without chiefs, and badly armed, attacked the assailants, made 2,000 prisoners, and expelled the remainder. SARAH SANDS. This iron screw steamer, with 300 soldiers on board, left Portsmouth for Calcutta in the middle of Aug., 1857. A fire broke out in the hold Nov. u. The sol- diers succeeded in clearing out the powder- magazine, with the exception of two barrels, one of which exploded shortly afterwards, and the ship became a mass of flames. The fire, after raging 24 hours, was subdued by the exertions of the soldiers and the crew. A strong gale sprang up, and the vessel, with 15 feet of water in the hold, succeeded in SARATOGA t 876 ] SARDINIA reaching the Mauritius, Nov. 21, aud not a single life was lost. SARATOGA (N. America). Near this to^vn an English force under Gen. Burgoyne sur- rendered to the revolted Americans under Gen. Gates, Oct. 17, 1777. SARAWAK (Borneo), the capital of a settle- ment of the same name, was founded in 1841 by Sir James Brooke, who was appointed its rajah. An outbreak of the Chinese settlers took place Feb. 18, 1857. They attacked and burned the dwelling-houses of the Europeans and killed several persons. Sir James Brooke and the greater part of the English escaped. The arrival of a small steamer enabled the rajah to drive the Chinese out of the town, when they were attacked by the native Dyaks, and after a guerilla warfare of several days, utterly routed. The Chinese settlements were destroyed, and out of a population of 4,000 or 5,000, not more than 2,000 escaped. SARDICA. This ancient town of Illyriawas considerably enlarged by the Emperor Trajan (98 117). According to Zonaras, the Emperor Basil I. besieged it without success in 876. A council, at which English bishops are said to have been present, was held here in 347. SARDINIA (Mediterranean Sea). This island, which was also called Ichnusa and Sandaliotis, is said to have been originally peopled by a colony of Libyans, who crossed over from Africa under the leadership of Sardus, whence the name Sardinia, about B.C. 1200; but the traditions relating to its early history are obscure and conflicting. Its authentic history commences with its capture by the Carthaginians, of which the precise date is unknown. From Sardinia the Romans obtained large supplies of corn. B.C. 510-480. Sardinia is conquered by the Carthaginians. 379. The Sardinians revolt against the Carthaginians. 359- L. Cornelius Sci]>io defeats the Carthaginian licet off Olbia, in Sardinia, and uftcrxvaru- city. 358. The island is ravaged by the Romans, under C. Sulpicius. 238. The Carthaginians cede their right to the island to the Romans. 237. Corsica and Sardinia, erected into the second of the Koman provinces, are placed under a prn-tor. 335. T. Mitnlius Torquatus gains several victories over the inhabitants. 315. The inhabitants revolt under the native chief Hampsicora, who is subdued by Torquatus, and commits suicide. 177-5. A revolt is suppressed, with great severity, by the consul Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus. 114. An insurrection is suppressed by M. Csecilius Me- tellus. 49. Julius Caesar expels the forces of the Roman senate from Sardinia. 39. It is ceded to Sextus Pompeius by the treaty of Misenum. A.D. 456. Sardinia is wrested from the Roman empire bv Genseric the Vandal. 534. It is recovered for Justinian I. by Cyrillus. 551. It is seized by the Goths, under Totila. 594. Zabardus, governor of Sardinia, compels the bar- barous mountaineers to embrace Christianity. 730. The Saracens obtain a footing in the island, and pillage Cagliari. 739. The Saracens are expelled, looo. It is conquered by the Moor Musat, who assumes the title of King of Sardinia. 1033. Musat is expelled by the allied forces of Genoa and Pisa. 1164. Frederick I. (Barbarossa) sells Sardinia to Bari- sona, native prince or judge of the province of Arborea, who adopts the royal title, and is crowned at Pavia, but is unable to support the dignity. 1165. The Pisans obtain the sovereignty of Sardinia. 1309. James II. of Aragon receives the investiture of Sardinia and of Corsica from Pope Clement V. 1334, Feb. 38. The infant Don Alphonso of Aragon con- quers the Pisau admiral Manfred, at the battle of Lucocisterua. 1353. The defeat of the Pisan fleet, under Gaspar Doria, by the Aragonese admiral Francisco Carroso, in the bay of Cagliari, establishes the authority of the King of Aragon over the greater part of the island. !355, April 15. Pedro IV. of Aragon establishes the re- presentative government of the Stumeuti. 1395. The code of laws known as the " Carta de Logu " is promulgated. 1409, June 36. Don Martin, Infant of Sicily, gains a great victory over the rebellious Sardinians near Cagliari. 1438. Alphonso V. of Aragon obtains the formal cession of the province of Arborea, and thereby extends his authority over the whole island. 1478. A rebellion, headed by the Marquis of Oristano, is suppressed. 1493. The Inquisition is established. 1547. Andrea Doria, with the combined fleet of the Holy League, fails in an attack upon Sardinia. 1540. The island is desolated by a famine. 1637, Feb. 31. Sardinia is invaded by the French, under Count Harcourt. 1668, July 31. Assassination of the Marquis of Cama- russa, the Spanish viceroy, in Sardinia. 1708, Aug. 13. An English fleet, under Sir John Leake, anchors off Cagliari, and conquers the island. 1710. The Spaniards, under the Duke of Tursis, fail ill an attempt at its recapture. 1714. Sardinia is ceded to the Kmperor by the treaties of Utrecht, Kadstadt, and Baden. 1717, Aug. 33. A Spanish tleet, under the Marquis de Lede, arrives at Cagliari, and recovers the whole island in less than two months. 1730, Feb. 17. Sardinia is restored to the Kmperor Charles VI., who cedes it to Victor Amadeus II. of Savoy, in exchange for the island of Sicily. (See SARDINIA, KINGDOM.) SARDINIA, KINGDOM (Italy), comprising Savoy, Piedmont, and the island of Sardinia, was established by Victor Amadeus I. (II. of Savoy; in 1720. (See SAVOY.) A.D. 1730, Sep. 3. Abdication of Victor Amadeus I. in favour of his son Charles Emanuel I. 1733, Oct 31. Victor Amadeus I. expires in prison, where he is confined for an attempt to regain the throne. I 733i Se P- 26. Chartes Emanuel I. engages in the war of the Polish succession. 1736, June 6. Tortona and Novara are ceded to Sardinia by the treaty of Luxemburg. 1743, Feb. i. A convention is signed at Turin with Maria Theresa. 1743, Sep. 13. By the alliance of Worms, Sardinia obtains the marquisate of Finale on condition of assisting Austria against Spain. 1745, Dec. 26. By the preliminary treaty of Turin, peace with France is restored, and Sardinia acquires the Milanese. 1748, Oct. 18. By the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, Milan reverts to Austria, and Finale to Genoa. 1763. A decree is issued liberating the serfs in Savoy. 1770. A new code of laws is adopted in Savoy. 1793, Sep. The French invade the Sardinian territories, and occupy Savoy and Nice. Nov. 37. Savoy and Nice are annexed to France. [796, May 15. Peace with France is restored by the treaty of Paris, by which Savoy and Nice are ceded to France. Oct. 16. Death of Victor Amadeus II. 1798, Dec. 9. Charles Emanuel II. is deposed by the French, and compelled to retire to Leghorn. SARDINIA [ 877 SARDINIA 1799, March 3. Charles Emanuel II. removes to Cagliari, and is acknowledged king by the Sardinian islanders. May 27. Turin is occupied by the Austrians and the Russians. 1803, June 4. Abdication of Charles Emanuel II. in favour of his brother, the Duke of Aosta. Sep. II. Piedmont is incorporated with the French republic. 1805. May 26- Napoleon I. is crowned King of Italy at Milan, and includes Sardinia in his kingdom. 1814. Victor Emanuel I. is restored, and returns to Turin. Dec. 14. Genoa is annexed to the kingdom of Sardinia. 1821, March 13. Abdication of Victor Emanuel I. in consequence of a popular insurrection. 1824, Jan. 10. Death of the ex-king Victor Emanuel I. 1830. The army is increased by 120,000 men. 1839, Nov. 28. A commercial treaty is concluded with Sweden. 1847, The department of public instruction is created. 1848, Feb. 8. A ne\r constitution is granted, establishing a free press and two legislative chambers. March 23. Charles Albert joins Milan and Venice against Austria. April 3 and 4. A revolution is suppressed in Savoy. April 8. The Austrians are defeated by the Sardinians at Goito (q. v.). April 15. Charles Albert decrees that the national flag of Italy shall be a tricolour of green, white, and red. May 30. Peschiera is surrendered by the Austrians to Charles Albert. June 28. The Sar- dinian chambers vote the annexation of Lom- bardy to Sardinia. July 4. The Venetian as- sembly votes the incorporation of Venice with Sardinia. Aug. 5. Milan capitulates to the Austrian marshal Radetsky. Aug. 9. An armis- tice is concluded between the Sardinian and Austrian armies. 1849, Feb. i. Meeting of the Sardinian parliament. March 12. Sardinia announces the termination of the armistice. March 20. Hostilities are re- sumed. March 2,1. The Austrians defeat the Sardinians at Gambolo, and take Mortara. March 23. Battle of Novara. Charles Albert abdicates in favour of his son Victor Emanuel II. March 25. The new king has an interview with Kadetsky, at Novara. March 26. They conclude an armistice. July 28. The ex-king Charles Albert dies at Oporto. Aug. 6. A peace is con- cluded with Austria at Milan. Sep. 24. A com- mercial treaty is concluded with Tuscany. 1850, April 9. All ecclesiastical jurisdiction is abolished by the Siccardi law. April 18. The Archbishop of Turin publishes a pastoral letter to his clergy, enjoining regulations opposed to this law. May 4. He is arrested. May 14. The papal govern- ment protests against his imprisonment. Nov. 5. A commercial treaty is concluded with France. 1854, Jan. 20. The corn laws are repealed in Sardinia. 1855, Jan. 10. Sardinia joins the Allies against Russia. March 2. The chambers pass a bill for the abolition of convents. March 15. A treaty of alliance is concluded with Turkey. May 9. A Sardinian army, under Gen. de la Marmora, lands in the Crimea. Aug. 16. The Sardinian general Montevecchio is mortally wounded in the battle of the Tchernaya. Nov. 23. Victor Emanuel II. visits Paris. Nov. 30. He visits London. 1856, April 16. The Sardinian plenipotentiaries request England and France to decide against any mili tary occupation of Italy by foreign powers.- May26. Lord Clarendon replies, condemning such occupation. 1857, March 16. In consequence of the attacks of the Sardinian press upon the Austrian government, the Austrian ambassador is recalled from Turin. March 23. Count Cavour recalls the Sardinian representative from Vienna. (See CAGLIARI AFFAIR.) June 29. An insurrection is suppressed at Genoa. Oct. 30. Death of Count Josepl: Siccardi. 1859, Jan. 30. Marriage of the Princess Clotilde, eldest daughter of Victor Emanuel II., to Prince Napo- leon, cousin of the Emperor of the French. April 19. The Austrian government demands that the Sardinian army should be restored to a peace footing. April 25- A French force disembarks Genoa to the assistance of the Sardinians. A.D. 859, April 26. The Sardinian government rejects the Austrian ultimatum. April 29. The Austrians, under Gen. Gyulai, enter the Sardinian terri- tory. April 39. Victor Emanuel II. confides ' the government to his cousin, Prince Eugene of Savoy-Carignan, and takes the command of his army in person. (See AUSTRIA, and ITALY.) July n. The preliminary treaty of Villa Franca is signed. July 13. Resignation of the Cavour ministry. July 19. It is succeeded by the Ratazzi administration. Aug. 8. Victor Emanuel II. makes his solemn entry into Milan. Sep. 3. A deputation from Tuscany requests Victor Emanuel II. to incorporate that countiy with his own kingdom. Sep. 15. He receives the oaths of deputies from Parma and Modena. Sep. 24. A deputation from Bologna requests him to annex the Legations. Oct. 10. The customs barriers between Lombardy, Piedmont, Modena, Parma, and the Romagna, are abolished. Oct. 20. The Emperor of the French, in a letter to Victor Emanuel II., advocates the formation of an Italian confederation, which the latter declares impracticable. Oct. 31. The enlarged kingdom of Sardinia is divided into 17 provinces. Nov. 10. The preliminary articles of Villa Franca are confirmed by the treaty of Zurich. Dec. 7. The Sardinian constitution is proclaimed. [860, Jan. 15. Count Cavour undertakes the formation of a new ministry. Feb. 25. The French govern- ment recommends the complete annexation of Parma and Modena to Sardinia ; the establish- ment of a protectorate, administered by the King of Sardinia in the name of the Pope, in the Romagna ; the re-establishment of the duchy of Tuscany, and the incorporation of Savoy and Nice with the French empire. Feb. 29. Sardinia accedes to the French propositions, except in the cases of Tuscany, Savoy, and Nice, which are re- ferred to the votes of the people. March n. A public demonstration is made in Nice against annexation to France. March 15. France repeats her desire for the preservation of the duchy of Tuscany. March 16. The result of the public votes in Tuscany is declared to be in favourof annexation to Sardinia. March 18. ^Emilia is annexed to Sar- dinia. March 22. Tuscany is annexed to Sardinia. March 24. Savoy and Nice are ceded to France by a treaty signed at Turin. March 27. Prussia protests against the annexation of Savoy and Nice by France. March 31. Victor Emanuel II. releases the inhabitants of the ceded provinces from their allegiance, and officially announces the approaching annexation to France. April 15. The inhabitants of Nice vote in favour of annexation to France. April 22. The inhabi- tants of Savoy declare in favour of annexation to France. May 18. The government asserts its disapprobation of Garibaldi's expedition to Sicily. May 29. The Chambers confirm the cession of Savoy and Nice. June 14. The French take possession of their Piedmontese acquisitions. July 31. Lord John Russell addresses a note to the Sardinian government, dissuading it from attacking Austria and Naples. Sep. 7. Count Cavour demands that the foreign troops shall quit the Roman states. Sep. 11. The papal go- vernment rejects the Sardinian ultimatum, in consequence of which Gen. Cialdiui enters the Roman states. (See ROME.) Sep. 18. The French ambassador quits Turin. (See NAPLES.) Oct. 10. The Russian ambassador is recalled from Turin. Oct. 26. The Spanish minister is summoned from Turin. Nov. 3. The results of the voting in Naples in favour of annexation to Sardinia are published. Nov. 7. Victor Emanuel II. enters Naples, and announces his assumption of the sovereignty of the country. Dec. 26. Four decrees are published, annexing the Marches, Umbria, Naples, and Sicily to the dominions of Victor Emanuel II. 1861, Feb. 18. The first national parliament of Italy as- sembles at Turin. March 7. A frontier treaty is concluded with France. March 17. Publication of the law conferring upon Victor Emanuel and his descendants the title of King of Italy. June 6. Death of Count Cavour at Turin. (See ITALY, &c.) SARDIS SARZANA KINGS OF SARDINIA. A.D. 1730. Victor-Amadeus I. 1730. Cliarles-Emanuel I. 1773. Victor-Amadeus II. 1796. Charles-Eniiinuel II. 1803. Victor-Emanui-1 I. 1805. Continental Sardinia forms part of the kingdom of Italy. 1814. Victor- Emanuel I., again. 1831. Charles-Felix. 1831. Charles-Albert. 1849. Victor-Emauuel II. SARDIS, or SARDES (Asia Minor), the ancient capital of Lydia, was taken by the Cimmerians about B.C. 635, and remained in their possession until Alyattes II. drove them out of Asia, B.C. 617. It became subject to the Persians B.C. 554, and was taken by the I on inns, assisted by the Athenians, B.C. 499, when the town was destroyed by fire. The Persians were defeated by the Greeks in the plain before Sardis, B.C. 395. It surrendered to Alexander III. (the Great), B.C. 334, and was taken by Seleucus I., in his war against Lysi- machus, B.C. 283. Antiochus the Great made himself master of it B.C. 214, and held it for 25 years, when the inhabitants, in his absence, delivered it up to the Romans, in whose custody it remained. It was destroyed by an earthquake in the reign of Tiberius (14 37), who ordered it to be rebuilt. Sardis v. of the first towns to embrace Christianity, its people having, it is said, boon converted by the apostle John. It is one of the seven churches of Asia mentioned in Revelation i. u). It was captured by the Turks in the i ith century, nnd again in the i4th century. It v. taken by Tamerlane (1370 1405). Sart, which now occupies the .site of rtardis, is a miserable place, consisting of a few mud lints. SA RKPTA (Russia' 1 . This fortified town, on the Volga, was founded by a colony of Mora- vian Brethren in 1765. S ARM ATI A, a name given by the Romans to all the countiy in Europe and Asia between the Vistula and the Caspian Sea. The people inhabiting this country were usually called Bauromatpe by the Greeks, and Harmatse by the Romans. The Sarmatians began to threaten the Roman empire in the reign of Nero (5468). They assembled on the borders of Thrace in 64, for the purpose of invading that province ; some of them having been defeated by the Romans, the rest dispersed. They entered Mcesia in 69, defeated 10 Roman cohorts, and ravaged the country, but were* de- feated and driven across the Danube. Hadrian defeated them in 119, and Marcus Aurelius in 161, and again in 180; and the Emperor Caracalla gained some victories over them in 215, assuming, on that account, the surname of Sarmatieus. They were defeated by Aure- lian in the reign of Claudius II., and by the Emperor .Cams, 16,000 having been cut to pieces and compelled to recross the Danube in 282. They were subdued by Constantino I. (the Great) in 322 ; and he espoused their cause in 332 against the Goths, whom he de- feated, and nearly 100,000 perished by famine and the sword. The Goths defeated them in 334. The Sarraatians joined the Goths against the Romans in 378, and were defeated with great slaughter by Theodosius I. They joined the Vandals and other barbarians in an inva- sion of Gaul in 407. Those who remained in Sarmatia were afterwards subdued by Attila, and, with their princes, served in his army when he invaded Gaul in 451. Upon his death, in 453, they recovered their liberty, and were allowed by the Roman emperor to settle in Pannoiiia, Moesia, and other provinces on the Danube, where they remained in peace, till finally subdued by the Goths, with whom, in process of time, they were amalgamated. SARMIZEGETHUSA, or ZARMIZK- QETHU8A (l)acia\ for some time the capital, was taken by Trajan in 101. SARXO (Battles). A battle was fought near this river, in Italy, between the troops of Justinian I. under Narses, and the Goths, under their king Teias, in 553. The battle lasted two days, and ended in the defeat of the Goths, whose king fell in the en- counter. John of Anjou defeated Fer- dinand I. of Naples near the Sarno, July 7, 1460. SAROSCHUTZ (Moravia). After the battle of Austerlitz, Francis I. of Austria opened negotiations with Napoleon I., who received him, Dec. 4, 1805, in his tent at Saroschlitz, when an armistice was agreed upon that was definitively concluded at Austerlitz, Dec. 6. SAKUM, or OLD KARUM (Wiltshire), ori- ginally a British settlement, is supp< have been taken by Vespasian (48 50), and made a Roman station, called Sni-liiix/nni'i.i or Sorviodun <>>,<. The Faxons wrested it from the Britons in 552, and named it SKiir'j. It was the residence of the kings of Wesscx till the octarchy. The town was fortified by Alfred the Great, and here Edgar convoked a witenagemot in 960, to deliberate on the best means of defence against the incursions of the Danes. It was taken and burned by Sweyn, afterwards King of Denmark, in 1003. The scat of the bishopric of Sherborne was removed to this place in 1072, and a cathedral founded which was finished in 1092. On the completion of the Norman survey in 1086, William I. summoned all the bishops, abbots, barons, and knights of the kingdom to Sarum, to do homage for the lands they held by feudal tenure. William II. assembled a council here in 1095 or 1096, in which William, Count of Ku, was impeached for high treason. Henry I. resided here in noo, in 1106, and in 1116. A council was held here, at which Henry I. was present, March 20, 1116. The castle was repaired on the accession of Henry II. in 1154. The oppressions of the castellans, or captains of the castle, and their disputes with the bishops and clergy, led to the removal of the cathedral to its present site at New Sarum, or Salisbury (q. v.), in 1220. Old Sarum returned two members to Parliament from 1294 until the passing of the Reform Bill. The inhabi- tants gradually established themselves in the vicinity of the new cathedral, and Old Sarum began to decay. SARZANA (Italy). This town, founded B.C. 176, was taken from the Florentines by the Genoese in 1407, and ceded to Thou SASSANIDES 879 SAVINGS-BANKS Campo Frggoso, on his abdication of the dignity of Doge of Genoa, in 1421. It was recovered for Florence by Lorenzo de Medici, May 22, 1487. It is the seat of a bishopric, which was founded at Luna, under Bishop Habetdeus, who flourished in 484, and removed to Sarzana in 1204. The cathedral was founded in 1200, and a fortress was built in 1262. SASSANIDES, a name given to the Persian dynasty, founded by Artaxerxes or Ardshir I. about 226. They governed Persia until the Mohammedan conquest in 651. SATARA, or SATTARA (Hindustan), taken by the English in 1818, was absorbed in the Indian empire in 1848. SATELLITES. (See GEORGIUM SIDUS, JUPITER, PLANETS, SATURN, &c.) SATIN. This variety of silk is mentioned in the i^fh century. It was originally im- ported into Europe from China. SATIRE, from the Latin safura, originally signifying a collection of various things, is said to have been first written by Ennius (B.C. 235 169). Lucilius was the first who used it in a regular poetical form, B.C. 148, and formed the model which Horace avowedly followed (B.C. 65 A.D. 8). Varro, B.C. 116 28, the most learned of all the Romans, wrote the " Menippean," or cynical satires. Juvenal (59128) adopted it to lash the vices of his age. Persius, who lived in the reign of Nero, applied it with great circumspection to' that tyrant (34 62). In this country it was used by Butler to ridicule the Puritans in his " Hudi- bras," the first part of which appeared in 1663. Dryden (1631 1700) and Pope (1688 1744) em- ploved it in numerous compositions. SATURDAY, the seventh and last day of the week, so called from the idol Seater, wor- shipped on this day by the ancient Saxons. Others say it derived its name from having been dedicated by the Romans to Saturn. SATURN. This planet was known to the ancients. Its ring was first noticed by Galileo (1564 Jan. 8, 1642). Huyghens discovered the first of its satellites in 1655 ; four more were discovered by Dominic Cassini between 1671 84. Two more were discovered by Sir "VV. Herschel in 1 789 ; and the eighth was dis- covered by Lassell in England, and by Bond in America in 1848. Goldschmidt, in April, 1 86 1, believed that he had discovered a ninth. SATURNALIA, festivals in honour of Saturn, instituted, according to some author- ities, before the foundation of Rome. Others assert that the Saturnalia were first observed at Rome in the reign of Tullus Hostilius (B.C. 673 B.C. 640), after a victory gained over the Sabines ; whilst some maintain that they were first celebrated B.C. 497, after a victory obtained over the Latins by the dictator Pos- thumius. SATURNIANS. The followers of Saturnius, a Gnostic of Antioch, who founded a school between no and 134. The sect, which did not extend beyond Syria, soon came to an end. SAUCHIEBURN. (See BANNOCKBURN, Battle.) SAUGOR AND NERBUDDA TERRI- TORIES (Hindostan), conquered by Akbar and annexed to the empire of Delhi about 1599. The peishwa obtained a nominal su- premacy when Delhi fell in 1803. The country was ceded to the English in 1818. In the fort of Saugor the 42nd native regiment attempted to incite the 3ist to mutiny. The latter not only remained faithful, but drove the 42nd from the station, July 7, 1857. SAUMUR (France), the capital of the Sau- murois, was taken from the Count of Blois by Fulk of Anjou, in 1026, and was annexed to the French crown in 1570. It was captured by the Vendeans after a brilliant victory over the republican army, June 7, 1793. They were forced to abandon it June 24. The castle was constructed at different periods between the nth and i3th centuries. A Protestant aca- demy, founded by Duplessis Mornay, while governor of the town, in the reign of Henry IV. (1589 1610), was dissolved by Louis XIV. in 1684. Gen. Berton, who in 1822 raised an insurrection and marched upon Saumur, was taken and executed. Councils were held at Saumur Dec. 2, 1253 ; Aug. 31, 1276 ; March 9, 1294 ; May 9, 1315 ; and in 1342. SAUROMATvE. (See SARMATIA.) SAVAGE'S STATION. (See CHICKAHOMTNY, Battle.) SAVANDROOG (Hindostan). This strong fortress of Mysore, seated on the top of a rock, was, notwithstanding its great strength, taken by the English, after a siege of seven days, in 1791. SAVANNAH (N. America). This town in Georgia, founded by Gen. Oglethorp in 1733, was taken by the English in 1776, and held by them till 1782, when it was abandoned. A fire, which desti-oyed 463 buildings, and other property to the value of nearly ^800,000, occurred June 10, 1820. It was taken by Sherman, Dec. 20, 1864. SAVENAY (Battle). The Vendeans were defeated at this town on the Loire, near Nantes, by Kleber and Marceau, Dec 22 1703 SAVIGLIAN, or SAVILLIAN (Italy). This town of Sardinia, taken by Francis I. (1515 47), was restored by Henry III. in 1574. The battle of Genola (q. v.} was fought near this town. SAVINGS-BANKS. Defoe, in his "Giving Alms no Charity," published in 1704, suggested a substitution of savings for poor-rates, by passing acts of Parliament " which shall make drunkards take care of wife and children ; spendthrifts lay up for a wet day ; lazy fellows diligent ; and thoughtless, sottish men careful and provident." Francis Maseres carried a billfthrough the Commons, which was, how- ever, rejected by the Lords, to enable rate- payers of parishes to receive and invest savings, in 1771. A savings-bank was established at Hamburg in 1778, and one at Berne about 1787. Mrs. Priscilla Wakefield opened one for children at Tottenham in 1798, and another for adults in 1804. The Rev. J. Smith, of Wendover, issued propositions to his parish- ioners on the subject iri 1799. One was . founded at Bath, by eight ladies and gentle- men, in 1808. The first institution carefully organized was the Parish Bank Friendly Society of Ruthven, by the Rev. H. Duncan, in 1817. Savings-banks were first placed under the protection of Government by 57 Geo. SAVIOUR SAVOY PALACE III. cc. 105 & 130 (July ii & 12, 1817). By 9 Geo. IV. c. 92 'July 28, 1828), the laws relating to savings-banks in England and Ireland were consolidated, and all former statutes repealed. This act was slightly amended by 3 & 4 Will. IV. (June 10, 1833). These acts were extended to Scotland by 5 & 6 Will. IV. c. 37 (Sep. 9, 1835). Further amendments to the savings- banks acts were made by 7 & 8 Viet. c. 83 (Aug. 9, 1844). The laws respecting the purchase of Government Annuities by means of savings- banks were consolidated and amended by 16 & 17 Viet. c. 45 (Aug. 4, 1853). Further provision was made by 23 & 24 Viet. c. 137 (Aug. 28, 1860), and by 26 Viet. c. 25 (June 3, 1863). (See POST-OFFICE SAVINGS-BANKS.) SAVIOUR. (See BLOOD OF OUR SAVIOUR, BRIGETTINES, y forms part of Aries. 1027. Death of lierthold, Count of Maurienne, and founder of tin- house of Savoy. 1034. Humbert I. ree.ei.es large accessions of territory from the Emperor Conrad II. IIII. Amadens II. of Mauriennc receives the title of Count of Savoy from the Emperor Henry V. 1174. Savoy and Piedmont are invaded by the Emperor F.vderick I. 1207. Count Thomas receives large grants of hind in Piedmont from Philip of Germany. 1220. The remainder of Piedmont, is annexed to Savoy. 1362. Count Boniface is made prisoner by his subjects at Turin. 1266. Peter of Savoy acquires the city of Berne, which lie greatly improves. 1285. Geneva enters into alliance with Savoy. 1316. Amadeus V., or the Great, receives Maulevrier, in Normandy, from Philip V., or the Long, of France. 1416, Feb. 19. Savoy is erected into a duchy under AniMiiens VMI. Onevn is brought under the dominion of the Counts of Savoy. 1418. The territory of Piedmont is added to Savoy. 1419, Oct. 5. Nice and other territories are ceded to Savoy by the treaty of Chambery. 1487. Charlotte, Queen of Cyprus, confers thnt isl-ind upon tiie dukes of Savoy, who assume the title of King of Cyprus, though they never take pos- session of their kingdom. A.D. 1534- Tlie inhabitants of Geneva rebel against Charles III., and are assisted by Francis I. of France. 1537, Feb - Francis I. claims Piedmont as part of his hereditary kingdom. 1557, Aug. 10. Battle of St. Quentin. 1559, April 2. The French conquests in Savoy are re- stored by the treaty of C&teau-Cambresis (q.r.). 1564. The (ienevois passes to the house of Sa\oy. 1601, Jan. 17. By the treaty of Lyons the rnarquisate of Saluces is ceded to Savoy. 1656, Jan. 22. Death of Thomas Francis, founder of the house of Savoy-Curignan. 1659. The Oenevois is incorporated with Savoy. 1703. Victor Amadeus II. declares war against France and Spain. 1706, Sej). 7. The French, under the Duke of Orleans and Marshal Marsin, are defeated by Victor Aniiideus II. and Prince Eugene at the battle of Turin, and compelle 1 to leave Italy. 1707, March 13. '1 he treaty of Turin. 1713, April n. Savoy is recognized as an independent state by the treaty of Utrecht, and Sicily is annexed. 1720. By the Quadruple Alliance, the Duke of Savoy ex- changes Sicily for Sardinia, and assumes the title Of King of Sardinia (q. V.). 1860. Savey and Nice are ceded to France. RULERS OF SAVOY. A.D. 1383. Amadens VII. 1391. Amadeus VIII. 1451. Louis. [465. Amadens IX. 1472. Philibert I. 1482. Charles I. 14-9. diaries II. 1496. Philip II. 1497. Phiiibert II. 1504. Charles III. 1553. Emanuel F'hilibert. 1580. Charles Emanuel I. 1630. Victor Amadens I. 1637. Francis Hyacinth. idtf. Charles Emanuel II. 1675. Victor Amadens II. 1 020. Berthold. 13^7. Humbert I. I-.4H. Amadous I. 1060. Amadens II. 107.!. Humbert IF. 1108. Amadens III. 114*. Humbert 111. 1 1.-.-!. Thoma.-. 12.33. Amudeus IV. 1253. Boniface. Peter. bilipl. 12X5. Amadeus V., the Great. 1323. Edward. 1329. Aimon. 1.34.5. Amadeus VI. (See SARDINIA.) SAVOY CONFERENCE, between the Epis- copalians and the Presbyterians, was held at the Savoy Palace in 1661. The meeting, arranged for March 25, was put off till April 13. The conference was dissolved, without coming to any agreement, July 25. SAVOY PALACE (London) was built by Peter, Earl of Savoy and Richmond, in 1245. He bestowed it upon the friars of Montjoy, from whom it was bought by Queen Eleanor, wife of Henry III., for her son Edmund. Bar] of Lancaster. John II., King of France, resided here, when a prisoner in England, in 1357, and again in 1363, and died here April 8, 1364. It was destroyed by Wat Tyler, May 24, 1381, and was restored by Henry VII., who endowed it, in 1505, as the hospital of St. John the Baptist, for the relief of 100 poor people. Henry VIII. completed the building and granted the hospital a charter, July 5, 1513. Edward VI. (15471553) suppressed the hos- pital, but it was re-endowed by Queen Mary (1553 1558). The sick and wounded in the Dutch war of 1666 were lodged in the Savoy. The hospital, dissolved in 1702, was removed to make way for Waterloo Bridge and the Strand approaches in 1819. The old Savoy chapel, which formerly possessed the right of sanctuary, repaired in 1721, and restored in 1843, was burned down July 7, 1864. It was restored and reopened for public service, Nov. 26, 1865. SAW SAXONY SAW. According to Pliny, the saw was invented by Daedalus, an Athenian, who flourished about B.C. 1000. Others attribute the invention to Talus, the nephew of Daedalus. S;iws to work with water-power, first intro- duced at Augsburg in 1322, were erected in Madeira in 1420, at Breslau in 1427, and in Norway about 1530. The Bishop of Ely, ambassador from Mary, Queen of England, to the court of Rome, describes a saw-mill he inspected at Lyons in 1555. The attempts to introduce them into England met with great opposition, and the attempt to erect one near London, in 1663, had to be abandoned. When again introduced, in 1767 or 1768, the first mill erected at Limehouse was destroyed by the mob. The damage was made good by the Government, and a new one erected. SAXA RUBRA, or the RED ROCKS (Battle). Constantine I. defeated his rival Maxentius at this place on the river Cremera, about nine miles from Rome, Oct. 28, 312. SAXE-ALTENBURG (Germany), a small duchy on the northern frontiers of the Thurin- gian forest, formed part of the ancient Oster- land, and appears to have been governed by the margraves of Meissen from a very early period. After undergoing many changes, it was formed into a separate principality hi 1603. The house of Altenburg becoming extinct in 1672, the greater part of the principality fell to Ernest the Pious, Duke of Gotha, and from this period it remained in the Saxe-Gotha family, till the decease without issue of Frederick IV., in Feb., 1825, when by a compact between the three junior branches of the house of Gotha (Meinin- gen, Hildburghausen, and Coburg), the Duke of Hildburghausen resigned his own terri- tory to Meiningen, and received in lieu the duchy of Altenburg, Nov. 15, 1826. The Duke of Saxe-Altenburg was a member of the Ger- manic Confederation, and joined the Prussian alliance Sep. 8, 1866. S AXE -COBURG -GOTHA (Germany), for- merly dependent upon the Emperor, came into possession of the house of Meissen in 1348, and fell to the house of Saxony in 1428. By the treaty of Leipsic in 1485, it was allotted to the Ernestine branch of that family, was made a separate duchy in 1542, and became an independent state in 1640. Ernest left seven sons, who reigned jointly from 1675 till 1680, when they partitioned the country and formed seven new lines. That of Coburg ex- pired, and the division was annexed to Saalf eld, in 1699. The line of Eisenberg having become extinct, its possessions were united to Gotha in 1707. Frederick II. introduced the right of primogenitxire into Gotha in 1710. Gotha was joined to Coburg, and Saalfeld to Meiningen, in 1826. The constitution of the duchy was reformed by Ernest II., brother of Prince Albert, in 1846. Prince Alfred was formally recognized as heir Aug. 6, 1865. It joined the Prussian alliance Sep. 8, 1866. SAXE-LAUENBURG. (See LAUENBURG.) SAXE-MEININGEN (Germany), originally a portion of the domains of the counts of Henne- berg, fell to Bernhard, third son of Ernest the Pious of Gotha, in 1680. The line of Co- burg became extinct in 1699, a part of its territory was adjudged to Meiningen by the Aulic council in 1723 ; and it acquired nearly the whole of the duchy of Hildburghausen in 1826. It formed an alliance with Prussia Sep. 8, 1866. SAXE - WEIMAR - EISENACH (Germany) formerly belonged to the electorate of Saxony, and was apportioned to the Ernestine line, in 1485. John Frederick I. was deposed in 1547, and Weimar was given to his eldest son, the remaining portion being awarded to the second son in 1566. A subdivision took place in 1672 ; and a reunion by the extinction of the line of Jena in 1690, and that of Eisenach in 1741. The right of primogeniture was introduced in 1719. Charles Augustus received some acquisition of territory and the title of Grand-duke from the congress of Vienna, June 9, 1815. Represen- tative government was introduced in 1816. It joined the Prussian alliance Sep. 8, 1866. SAXON BLOOD ORDER. (See BLOOD ORDER.) SAXONS the name probably derived from saJis or sacks, a knife are first mentioned by Ptolemy (139 161), who describes them as occupying the country now called Holstein, together with three islands off the coast, in 140. Their descents upon the eastern shore of England became so frequent, that the Roman emperor appointed an officer, who afterwards received the title of ' ' Count of th e Saxon shore, " in 286. Eutropius represents them in alliance with the Franks infesting the coast of Armorica and Belgica in 287. A horde of Saxons, in one of their predatory excursions to the coast of Gaul, was almost exterminated by the Roman army under Valentinian I., in 371. Stilicho erected several fortifications to defend Britain from their attacks in 399. A large body under Hengist and Horsa succeeded in forming per- manent settlements in the country after the departure of the Romans about 449. (See ANGLO- SAXONS. ) Some Saxons, aided by the Franks, conquered, but afterwards abandoned, the northern part of Thuringia, about 530. The southernmost part was made tributary to the Franks about 550. Their long contest with Charlemagne was brought to a close by the treaty of Salz, by which they consented to become Christians, and were put upon a foot- ing of equality with the Franks, 803. SAXONY (Germany), invaded by Charle- magne, who compelled the inhabitants to em- brace Christianity, in 804, was made a duchy in 850. Henry I. (the Fowler), elected em- peror in 919, was the first of the Saxons who obtained that distinction. He erected the inargraviate of Meissen in 922, as a bulwark against the Slavonians, and so formed the nucleus of the kingdom. The family of Wettin, in whom the oftice has become hereditary, added their own possessions to the margraviate in 1130. The Emperor Sigismund invested Frederick the Warlike with the electoral title and the duchy of Saxony in 1422. Ernest and Albert, sons of Frederick II., by the division of the country at their father's death, founded the two lines that bear their names in 1464. Frederick III. (1486 1525) supported the cause of the Reformation and patronized Luther. John the Constant headed the Protestant SCACCARIUM [ 882 ] SCEPTRE princes at the diet of Spires in 1529. John Frederick the Magnanimous took a prominent part in the war against Charles V., and was defeated and made prisoner at the battle of Miihlberg, April 24, 1547. He was deprived of his dignities, which were transferred to his cousin Maurice, of the Albertine line, in 1548. John George I. obtained part of the see of 'nrrg, and the two Lusatian margra- viates in 1635. Frederick the Strong, made King of Poland, had to defend his territory against Charles XII. of Sweden in 1697. His son Frederick Augustus II. was also elected King of Poland in 1733. He took part with ['ranee and Prussia in the war of the A Succession in 1740, but sided with the. in the Seven Years' war 1756 1763^. A rising of the peasantry led to the redress of some of their grievances in 1790. Having sup- ported Prussia against France for some time after the battle of Jena, Frederick A allied himself with Napoleon I., taking the title of king, by treaty Dec. 11, 1806, and becom- i ember of the confederacy of the Rhine. The territory was nearly doubled by : sionsfrom Austria in 1809. It became the theatre of the struggles wilh Napoleon I. in r the king was . dominions by the trea'y of peace with Prussia., signed May 18, 1815. \ new CODStituti in 1831. The old by the diet elected in 1852. The IV iy in June 1866, and by a treaty signed Oct. 21, the King of Sa<> pay about a. million and a half stcrli ceded the fortress of Konigstein. RULERS OF SAXONY. DUKKS. Began to reign Begun to reign A.I). 880. Otho I. 912. llcnrv I., the Fowler. 936. otiio II. 960. Herman-Killing. 973. Hern.ird I. 1010. Bern.ird II. icfo. Othn IIT. 107.3. '*' haire. 136. Henry It., tl Proud. 1139. Henry III., the l.ii.ii. 1180. Bernard III. 1213. Albert I. I26o. Albert If. 1398. Rodoli.h I. 1356. Koiloli.li II. ELECTORS. 1370. I:I:M:STIXE LINE. 146'. Kriiost. 1486. Frederick III. 1535. John. IS33- John Frederick. 1548. Maurice. 1553. Augustus. 1586. Christian I. 1591. Christian II. ion. John Georgo I. 1656. Jolm George II. 1680. John George ill. 1464. 1500- IS39- "541- ELECTORS. 1691. 1694. Wenceslau*. KlMlol|>h III. All en tn. Fivderi.-k I. l-re.'.erirk II. ALBERXINE LINE. Albert. Muurice. John George IV. Frederick Augustus I. Frederick Augustus Frederick Christinn. Frederick Augustus III. KIXGS. 1806. Frederick Augustus I. I 1836. Frederick Augustus II 1837. Antony Clement. | 1854. John. SCACCARIUM. (See EXCHEQUER.) SCALPING appears to be alluded to in Psalm Ixviii. 21, B.C. 1045, and according to Herodotus (Book iv. 64) was practised by the Scythians upon their enemies, B.C. 678. The custom was found to exist among the Indians of America on its discovery, in 1492. SCAM AND Ell. (See ILIUM.) S ( : A X D A L U M M A G N A T U M, or scandal against peers, judges, or other officers of state, was denned with its penalties by 2 Rich. II. c. 5 (1378). Although this statute is still in force, it has not for a long period been resorted to, the last instance being that of the Duke of Richmond against Castcllom in 1710. SCANDINAVIA, or SCAXIUA Europe), the ancientname of the modern Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, is first mentioned by Pliny (23 Aug. 24, 79), who speaks of it as an island. It native land of the Vikings or Sea kings who invaded different parts of Europe in the 8th, gth.and ioth centuries. (Sen DAM:S, IH;\- : . ' IDAS, NORMANDY, NORTHMEN, NORWAY, Su-i:i>;;x, &c.) The monarchies of Sweden and \or\vay were formed by a combination of numerous small sovereignties in the i2th and 1 3th centuries. Margaret, Queen of Denmark, obtained Sweden by conquest and Norway by inheritance; and by the union of Calmar, con- cluded July 12, 1397, they were never to be led. I A HANTIA. (Sfe OEDENBURG.) SCARBOROUGH (Yorkshire), probably of Saxon origin, the name signifying a fortified rock, was incorporated by Henry II. (115489). The castle was built in 1136. Tostig, Earl of Northumberland, having failed in his attempt to effect a landing on the isle of Thanct, arrived here in 1066. Piers Gaveston, having been besieged by the barons in the castle, was obliged to surrender, May 19, 1312. The town was made a bonding port in 1841. Christ's Church was erected in 1828. ">A'l'r, the oriental kermes dye, was known from the earliest times. The dye, made from cochineal and tin, was accidentally discovered in 1634. A bailiff of Shrews- bury, Thomas Edwards, refused, on religious -. to wear robes of that colour in 1599. It is recorded by Julius Ferretus that soldiers commonly wore a short red sagum to conceal the blood from their wounds, about 1550. SCAHLKT FKYKU. (,Vr FKVER.) " SCKATT.K. Small silver coins used by the Anglo-Saxon occupants of Britain during the 6th century, probably struck before the con- version of Ethclbert in 597, as several speci- mens exist unstamped with the cross. The term sceatta was used by the Saxons for money in general. SCEPTICS. Socrates, who flourished B.C. 468 B.C. 399, has been called the founder of this sect, from his acknowledgment that " all he knew was, that he knew nothing;" although its real founder was Pyrrho of Elis, B.C. 340. (See PYRRHONISM.) The schools called the "latter sceptics," originated with ./Enesidemus, a physician, about the and cen- tury. Of modem sceptics, the most noted are Montaigne (1533 1592) ; Glanvill, a member of the Royal Society (163680); Peter Baylo 1647 1706) ; and David Hume (1711 1776). (See RATIONALISM.) SCEPTRE, originally a mere walking-staff, came to be the symbol of sovereign authority, SCHAFFHAUSEN SCHWE1DNITZ and is mentioned by the patriarch Jacob "the sceptre shall not depart from Judah, &c." when imparting counsels to his sons (Gen. xlix. 10), B.C. 1689. Achilles swears by his staff or sceptre (Iliad, i. 246), B.C. 1193. Cyrus, according to Xenophon, was always attended by 300 sceptre-bearers, B.C. 401. It was first assumed among the Romans by the elder Tarquin, B.C. 621. The sceptre of the Merovingian kings of France, in 448, was a golden rod the same height as the monarch himself. SCHAFFHAUSEN (Switzerland), the prin- cipal town of the canton of the same name, originated in the building of a large monas- tery in the neighbourhood in the nth century. It was walled and received imperial rank in the 1 3th century. The cathedral was founded in 1052. Austria acquired possession in 1330. It recovered its independence, and joined the Swiss cantons in 1415 ; became a member of the confederation in 1501, and of the new league in 1815. The single arch bridge across the Rhine was burned by the French in 1799. The constitution of the canton became democratic in 1831. It was revised in 1834. SCHASBURG, or SCHASSBURG (Battle). The Hungarian insurgents, commanded by Bern, were defeated by the Russians under Gen. Lliders, at this town, in Transylvania, July 31, 1849. SCHAUM13URG. (See LIPPE.) SCHEHALLIEN (Perthshire). The Royal Society having resolved, in 1772, to make some experiments to determine the mean density of the earth, Mason selected this mountain for the purpose in 1773. Dr. Maskelyne effected the measurements between June 30 and Oct. 24, 1774. The subsequent calculations, entrusted to Dr. C. Hatton, were published in the Philosophical Transactions of 1778. SCHELDT TOLLS. The navigation of the Scheldt was closed by the i4th article of the treaty of Miinster, Jan. 30, 1648. The Emperor Joseph II. having demanded the free naviga- tion of the Scheldt in 1784, France came to the aid of the Dutch, and the dispute was settled by a treaty signed at Fontainebleau, Nov. 8, Z 7SS, by which the restriction was maintained. Regulations were made by the Congress at Vienna in 1815, and a treaty signed in London, April 19, 1839, settled the amount of toll, which was abolished, compensation being granted Toy another treaty signed at Brussels July 16, 1863. SCHELLENBERG (Battle). The Duke of Maryborough drove the Bavarians from a for- tification erected by them on this eminence, near Salzburg, July 2, 1704. SCHEMNITZ (Hungary). In consequence of the importance of its mines, yielding 3oolb. of gold and 43,400^. of silver annually, a mining academy was founded here by Maria Theresa, in 1760. It must not be confounded with Chemnitz, a mining town in Saxony. SCHENECTADY (United States) . The inhabitants of this town of New York, settled by the Dutch in 1661, were massacred by the French and Indians in 1690. SCHISM ACT (13 Anne, c. 7, 1713), requiring, from those desirous of exercising the profes- sion of a teacher, a licence from the bishop, and a declaration of conformity to the Estab- lished Church, was repealed by 5 Geo. I. c. 4 1 SCHISM OF THE WEST. (See PAPAL SCHISM.) SCHLESTADT, or SCHELESTADT (France), in the Bas-Rhin, occupies the site of the ancient Elsebus, destroyed by Attila. Having been restored in the i3th century, it became one of the 10 imperial cities of Alsace, was taken by the Swedes in 1632, and by the French in 1648. SCHLESWIG. (See SLESWIQ.) SCHMALKALD. (See SMALCALD.) SCHOLASTIC PHILOSOPHY. The name given to the philosophy of the Schoolmen, which took its rise in Europe in the gth century, lasted till the i4th, and was at its height in the i2th and i3th centuries. (See NOMINALISTS AND REALISTS, MYSTICS, SCOTISTS AND THOMISTS, &c.) SCHONBRUNN (Peace), between Prance and Austria, was signed at the palace of Schonbrunn, near Vienna, Oct. 14, 1809, and consisted of six articles. France obtained possession of Trieste, Carniola, Friuli, and several other places. Russia, Saxony, and the Confederation of the Rhine gained some advantages, and the Tyrol was given up to Bavaria. SCHOOLS. (See [CHARITY SCHOOLS, EDU- CATION, GRAMMAR, INDUSTRIAL, AND PUBLIC SCHOOLS, &c.) SCHUMLA, or SHUMLA (Turkey), was taken by the Turks in 1389. The Russian general Rudiger, who had intrenched himself at this town, July 20, 1828, was driven from his position by the Turks, under Hussein Pasha, Aug. 25. The Russians defeated the Turks in a battle fought near Schumla, July 27, 1829. SCHWABACH (Bavaria). The earliest Protestant confession was drawn up here by Luther, in Oct., 1529, and its articles were adopted by the Smalcald League in 1531. The handsome fountain in the mai-ket-place was erected in 1716. SCHWARZBURG (Germany). A party of the electors assembled here and chose Gunther emperor, in opposition to Charles IV., in 1347. The town, originally dependent upon Saxony, purchased its independence in 1699. The two reigning families of Schwarzburg-Rudol- stadt, and Schwarzburg-Sondershausen, are descended from the two sons of Gunther IX., who died in 1552. Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt received a representative constitution in 1816, and an alliance was concluded with Prussia Sep. 8, 1866. SCHWEIDNITZ (Prussia), having sustained several sieges during the Thirty Years' war, was fortified by Frederick II. in 1747 ; taken by the Austrians, after a siege of 16 days, Nov. 12, 1757 ; recovered by the Prussians April 16, 1758 ; and carried by assault by the Austrian marshal Laudohn, Oct. i, 1761. The Austrians, under Marshal Daun, were attacked and defeated near this town by Frederick II. of Prussia, May 16, 1762. In this battle the Prussians put feathers in their caps to enable their Cossack allies to distinguish them 3 L 2 SOHWEIZ [ 884 ] SCOTISTS from the Austrians, a practice since gene- rally adopted in European armies. Frederick's campaign in Silesia was closed by the sur- render of its garrison, after a siege of 64 days, Oct. 9, 1762. It was captured by the French in Feb., 1807. SCil WEI Z, or SCHWYZ (Switzerland), which has given its name to the country, declared its independence of the house of Austria in Jan., 1308. It had a dispute with Zurich respecting the county of Toggenburg in 1436. The French defeated the Swiss here in 1799, and the Austrians Aug. 14, 1799. In a diet convoked here in 1802, the ancient democratic constitution was re-established. It declared against Napoleon I. Dec. 31, 1813, and joined the Sonderbund '/. v.} in 1844. SCII Y It K M < >TES. County-courts, held in English shires, twice every year, by the bishop and the ealdorman or sheriff, during the Anglo-Saxon period. In the reign of Canute (1017 35) the Schyremotes were held thrice a year. Edward the Confessor, in 1065, appointed the Schyremote to be held 12 times a year. SCIACCA (Sicily,, the ancient Thermse Selinuntife, of which the waters are men- tioned by Strabo B.C. 60 A.D. 21). (See GRA- HAMK'S I'SJ ; ANI>.) SCIUA ISI.KS Cornwall, known to the ancients under the name of Cassite rides, or Tin Islands, were used by the Romans as a place of banishment. In the ioth century they were annexed to the English crown by Athelstan. They were held from the rime of Elizabeth till 1830 by the family of (lodolphin. After the defeat of the Royalists in the west, in 1645, they afforded shelter to Prince Charles. They were fortified in 1649 by Sir John Grenville, the Royalist, who converted the rocks into a stronghold for privateers, and did so much damage to the trade of the Channel that the Parliament fitted out a powerful fleet under 1 Slake, which compelled Sir John to surrender in June, 1651. The fleet under Sir Cloudesley Shovel was wrecked off these islands, Oct. 22, 1707, when upwards of 2,000 lives were lost. They were declared to belong to the diocese of Exeter, July 30, 1838. The Prince of Wales visited the Scilly Islands July 26, 1865. SCINDE (Hindostan) was occupied by the Aryan nation B.C. 1400, and they possessed the country when Alexander III. made his Indian expedition, B.C. 326. It was subdued by the Mohammedans in 711, and held by the caliphs till conquered for Mahmoud of Ghizni in 1026. The Sumna tribe acquired it about 1200. They were supplanted by another native tribe, the Sammao, in 1340. Shah Beg Arghun reduced them in 1541, and Akbar brought the country under Mongol sway in 1591. The Kalhoras threw off their allegiance to Delhi in 1736, and that of the kings of Cabul, which they had previously acknowledged, was alto- gether renounced in 1813. It was conquered by the English and annexed March 24, 1843. SCIO (^EgeanSea), the ancient Chios q. v.), was taken in the early part of the i4th cen- tury by the Turks, who massacred the inha- bitants. The Genoese seized it in 1346, and retained it until it was again taken by the Turks in 1566. In the war with the Greeks the Turks massacred nearly all the inhabi- tants, April ii, 1822. Out of a population of 100,000, only 10,000 are said to have escaped. SCOLDS. (-See CUCKING STOOL.) SCONE (Scotland). A monastery founded at a very early period was replaced by an abbey for regular canons in 1115. It "was destroyed by the mob in 1559. The first Scotch parliament assembled at Scone Feb. 9, 1292. Kdward I., King of England, brought away, in 1296, from this village, near Perth, the stone upon which for many ages the kings of Scot- land had been crowned, and placed it in Westminster Abbey. (See CORONATION S T< >N r.. ) Charles II. was crowned here, Jan. i, 1651. SCORPION, a kind of tube for firing gun- powder, was in use about 1440. It was held in the hand, and called by the English hand- cannon, or hand-culverin, and was introduced into England by the Flemings in 1471. SCOTCH BISHOPRICS. Episcopacy was abolished in Scotland in 1561, restored in 1606, again abolished in 1639, again restored in 1661, and abolished at the Revolution in 1689, when the bishops were expelled. Before the Revo- lution there were two archbishoprics and 12 bishoprics in Scotland, the last, that of Kdin- burgh, having been founded by Charles I. in 1633. Though the Presbyterian Church was acknowledged as the national church at the Revolution, some of the old Episcopalian bishoprics have been revived. There are now seven, the last being that of Argyle and the Isles, re-established Oct., 1847. ARCHBISHOPS. A.D. | A.n. 1477. St. Andrews. | 1488. Glasgow. 360. Isles. 500. Gallmvny. 560. Gliis_mv. 800. St. Ainlrcxv 1010. Mortlncli. 1066. raiHiness. 1115. Moniy. 1124. Koss. BISHOPRICS. 1130. Dnnki'lcl. 1139. Aberdeen. 1150. Brecliin. 1153. Dunblane. II*K. Orkney. 1200. Arjryle. 1633. Edinburgh. The above were suppressed at the Revo- lution, and the following Sees have since been erected : 1713. Aberdeen and Orkney. 1718. Edinburgh. 1727. Dunkeld. 1727. Moray. 17-51. Hrechin. 1731. Dunblane. 731. Glasgow. ' 1743- '''.'> 17*6. Dunbl ' ' ane and Dun- 1796. Ross. 1837. Fife, Dnnkeld, and DvnNane. 1837. Glasgow and Gallo- way. 1838. Moray, Koss, and Caithness. 1844. St. Andrews, Dnn- keld, and Dunblane. 1.847. Argyle and the Isles. (The Sees printed in Italics have either been suppressed or merged in others.) SCOTCH GUARDS. (See GUARDS.) SCOTISTS AND THOMISTS. With refer- ence to these parties, who long divided the schools, Milman (Lat. Christ, b. xiv. ch. iii.) remarks, "It is not easy to define in what consisted their implacable, unforgiven points of difference. If each combatant had been compelled rigidly to define every word or term which he employed, concord might not perhaps have been impossible; but words SCOTLAND [ 885 ] SCOTLAND wore their warfare, and the war of words their business, their occupation, their glory. The Conceptualism or Eclecticism of St. Thomas (he cannot be called a Nominalist) admitted so much Realism under other forms of speech ; the Realism of Duns Scotus was so absolutely a Realism of words, reality was with him something so thin and unsubstantial; the Augustinianism of St. Thomas was so guarded and tempered by his high ethical tone, by his assertion of the loftiest Christian morality ; the Pelagianism charged against Scotus is so purely metaphysical, so balanced by his constant, for him vehement, vindication of Divine grace, only with notions peculiar to his philosophy, of its mode of operation, and with almost uutraceable distinctions as to its mode of influence, that nothing less than the invete- rate pugnacity of Scholastic Teaching, and the rivalry of the two Orders, could have perpetuated the strife. That strife was no doubt heightened and embittered by their real differences, which touched the most sensitive part of the Mediaeval Creed, the worship of the Virgin. This was coldly and irreverently limited by the refusal of the Dominican to acknowledge her Immaculate Conception and birth ; wrought to a height above all former height by the maintenance of that tenet in every Franciscan cloister, by every Franciscaxi Theologian." The controversy commenced about 1299, an( i the Scotists received the name as followers of John Duns Scotus (1265 Nov. 8, 1308), and the Thomists as followers of Thomas Aquinas (1224 March 7, 1274), called the Angelic Doctor. SCOTLAND. The ancient Caledonia, after- wards called Scotia. According to tradition, the Scots derive their origin from Gathelus, sou of the Athenian king Cecrops, who married Scota, daughter of Pharaoh, King of Egypt, and removed with his family into Spam. Here he is said to have established a government over a nation whom he called Scots, in honour of his wife Scota. Under his descendants the Scots removed into Ireland, and subsequently into the northern part of Albion. War after- wards broke out with the Picts (q. v.}. Pliny (23 Aug. 24, 79) is the first author who uses the term Caledonia, and the name Scotia, which for a long time referred exclusively to Ireland, was about the gth century applied to the kingdom formed by the union of the Picts and Scots. It was also called Scotia Nova, or New Scotland. 55. The Scots assist the Britons against Julius Cwsar. A.I). 84. Battle of Ardoch (q. v.). 184. The Caledonians are repulsed by Ulpius Marcellus. 360. The Picts and Scots invade Britain. 36*. Theodosius defeats the Picts and Scots. 383. Maximus drives the 1'icts and Scots out of Britain. 394. Ninian, a Briton, is ordained to the bishopric of the Southern Picts by Pope Sirieius. 413-33. Ninian is believed to have preached among the Picts. 445. The Britons are harassed by the Picts and Scots. 563. St. Colunibii lands in Scotland. 843 (about). The Picts and Scots become one nation under Kenneth II. 881. The Danes ravage Scotland. 933. Scotland is ravaged by Athelstan. 1010. Battle of Mortluch (q. v.). 1031. Scotland is invaded by Canute, who exacts tribute. 1040. Duncan I. is murdered by his cousin Macbeth who usurps the crown. , July 37. Battle of Dunsinane (q. v.). '. Macbeth is slain at Lanphananan. 1061. The Scotch invade Northumberland. 067. Malcolm III. marries Margaret, sister of Edgar Atheling, the Saxon heir to the English tliroue. 093, Nov. 13. Battle of Alnvvick. 094. The throne is usurped by Duncan II , who is assassi- nated by his subjects after a reign of about six; months. 136. David I. captures Alnwick. 138, Aug. 33. David I. invades Northumberland, and is defeated at the battle of Cuton Moor, or North- allerton (q. v.). 1139. By the treaty of Durham the entire earldom of Northumberland, except Newcastle and Bam- borough, is ceded to Scotland. 174, July 13. William I., or tfie l.ion, is made prisoner by the English at Alnwick. Dec. By the treaty of Falaise, Henry II. agrees to liberate him on con- dition of his paying homage to England for his kingdom. 1181. Scotland is laid under a papal interdict. 189. Kichard I., on his accession to the English throne releases William I. from his feudal subjection on the receipt of 10,000 marks. 363. Haco VI., of Norway, invades Scotland Oct -5 Battle of Largs (q. v.). 1366. The Hebrides (q. v.) are ceded to the Scotch, who invade the Isle of Man (q. v.). 1390, Oct. 7. Margaret, the maid of Norway, dies at Orkney on her voyage to Scotland, and the ques- tion of the succession is referred to Edward I. 1391, June 3. Eight competitors for the Scotch crown assemble at Norham, ami submit their claims to the arbitration of Edward I. Aug. 3. Twelve competitors appear. 393, Nov. 30. Edward I. decides in favour of John Baliol. 1393- John Baliol supports his claim in presence of the English Parliament. 1396- John Baliol renounces his homage, in consequence of which he is dethroned by Edward I., who invades Scotland, and receives the submission of the Scotch nobility. 1397, Se P- I0> Battle of Cambuskenneth (q. v.). 1398, July 33. Battle of Falkirk (q.v.). 1303, Feb. 34- Sir John Comyu and Sir Simon Fraser defeat an English army near Roslin. 1305, Aug. 33- Execution of Sir William Wallace at Smithfield. 1306, Jan. 39 or Feb. lo. Murder of Sir John Comyn by Robert Bruce at Dumfries March 35. Bruce is crowned king, as Robert I., at Scone. July 33, Aymer de Valence defeats the Scotch under Robert 1., who quits the kingdom. 1310, Sep. Edward II. invades Scotland. 1313, Jan. 8. Robert I. takes Perth from the English. 1313, March 6. Roxburgh Casile is taken from the English March 14. Edinburgh Castle is taken. 1314, June 34. Battle of Bannockburn (q. v.). 1318, Oct. 14. Death of Edward Bruce at Dundalk in Ireland. 1330. A conspiracy is formed against the king by his nephew, the Earl of Brechin, and others, who are detected and executed. 1338, March 17. Peace with England is concluded at Edinburgh. May 4. It is ratified at North, ampton (q. .). 1339, June 7. End of the reign of Robert I. 1333. Edward III. invades Scotland. Aug. n. The battle of Dupplin Moor (q. v.). Sep. 34- Edward Baliol is crowned at Scone, and young David Bruce is sent to France, where he remains for nine years, although his rival only enjoys the crown for three mouths. 1333, Julv 19. Battle of Hali Ion Hill (q. v.), 1336. A famine desolates Scotland. 1341, June 4. David II. returns tiom France. 1346, Oct. 13. Battle of Durham, or Neville's Cross (q. v.). '357, Oct. 3 David II. is released qn payment of 100,000 1363. Death of Edward Baliol, the last of the familv Nov. 36. David II. acknowledges Edward III. of England as his successor in the event ol his decease without male issue. SCOTLAND [ 886 ] SCOTLAND A.I). 1371, Feb. 33. Death of David II. without an heir. March 36. The Stuart line commences by the coronation at Scone of tliQ nephew of David II. as Robert II. 1388, Aug. 10. Battle of Chevy- Chase or Otterburn (q. i\). 140.3, Sep. 14. Buttle of Homi'ldon Hill (q.v.). 1405, March 30. James, only son of Robert III., is made prisoner by the English off Flamboroagh Head. 1406, April 4. Death of Robert III., who is succeeded by his imprisoned son, .lames I., under the regency of the Duke of Albany. 1411, July 34. The Highlanders, under Donald, Lord of the Isles, an: defeated by the Lowland for.-;- ; n{ the Earl of Mar, at the battle of Harlaw, which establishes the superiority of the Lowlands. St. Andrew's university is founded. 1436. A treaty is concluded with Denmark, by which James 1. agrees to pay an annual sum of loo marks for the sovereignty of the Hebrides and the Isle of Man. 1437, Feb. 31. James I. is murdered by a band of con- spirators, under Sir Robert Graham. 1453. Shrove Tuesday. The Karl of Douglas is murdered by James II. at Stirling Castle, and civil contests commence between the king and his nobles. 1460, Aug. 3. James II. is killed at the siege of Roxburgh by the accidental bursting of a cannon. 1488. James III. is killed after the battle of Sauchie Burn (q. v.*), near Baunoekburn. 1503, Aug. 8. Marriage of James IV. with the Princess Margaret, daughter of Henry VII. 1513, Aug. 33. .lames IV. invades England. Sep. 9. H.-itlle of Flodden Field (>/. r.). 1536, June. Buttles of Linlithgow (q. V.). 1533. James Y. banishes the Doiiglast'-, in consequence of the tvra minus treatment received by him from his stepfather, the Karl of Angus. 1533, May 17. James V. founds the Court of Session. 1537, July 17. Lady Glumis is burned for conspiring to poison .lames V . iq.3, Dec. 7. Birth of Mary, afterwards known as the Queen ,,f Scots. Dee. 14. Death of James V., her father, whom she sin 1543, Jan. 36. Imprisonment i . -April 10. He is liberated, and secures :-sion of the infant queen's person, 1544-5. .Scotland ' n Kni;lish army- under the Karl of Hertford. 154'-, March 3 K . Execution Of George Wisl;;n! fi by order of Cardinal Beaton. May 38, Beaton is assa>sinat.-d at St. Andrew's. J547, Sep. 10. Battle of 1'inl.ie. 1546, Aug. 7. The young Queen Maiy is removed to France. 1554, April 3. The Queen dowager, Mary of made regent. 155 : \ Marriage of Queen Mary to the Fivneh dauphin. 1559, May 31. 1'eace is concluded with England nl Norham. Oct. 31. Deposition of the queen- rcgent. 1560, June 10. Death of the queen-regent. Aug. An act is passed abolishing the papal power. Dec. 5. Death of the French king Francis li. of Queen Marv. 1561, Aug. 19. Queen Mary returns to Scotland. 1563, Revolt and death of the Earl of Huntley. 1564, Elizabeth proposes the Earl of Leicester as a match for Mary. 1565, July 39, Sunday. Mary marries her cousin, Henry .Stuart, Lord Darnley. 1566, March 9, Saturday. Murder of the queen's favourite, David lli/.x,io, by Durnley and others. June 19. Birth of James VI. of Scotland and I. of Eng- land, in Edinburgh Castle. 1567, Feb. 10, Monday. Lord Darnley, the king-consort, is blown up by gunpowder at Edinburgh. April 13. James Hepburn, Earl of Bothwell, is tried for the king's murder, and acquitted. April 31. Bothwell seizes the queen, and conveys her to Dunbar. May 15. They are married at Holyrood. June 15, Sunday. Mary is made prisoner by the confederate lords at Carberry Hill. July 34. She is confiued in Lochleven Castle, and compelled to abdicate iu favour of her son James VI. July 39 He is solemnly crowned at Stirling. Aug. 23. James Stewart, Earl of Murray, is declared regent. Sop. Bothwell escapes to Norway. 1568, May 3. Mary escapes from Lochleven Castle. May 13. She is defeated by Murray at the battle of Langside. May 17. She takes refuge in Eng- 1569, The rebellious Earls of Northumberland and West- moreland seek shelter in Scotland. 1570, Jan. 33. Murder of the regent Murray at Linlith- gow, by James Hamilton of Bothwellhaugh. July 13. The regency is conferred upon the Earl of Lennox. 1571, Sep. 4. Lennox is assassinated by Capt. Calder. The Earl of Mar is elected regent. 1573, Oct. 38. Death of the regent Mar. Nov. 34. The Earl of Morton is made regent. John Knox expires at Edinburgh. 1578. Janus VI. dismisses the regent, and assumes the government iu person. 1581, June 3, Friday. Execution of the ex-regent Morton, for implication in the murder of Lord Darnley. 1583, Aug. 23. The raid of Ruthven. James VI. is willed by a confederacy of the Scottish nobles, under the Earls of Mar and Cowrie, at Ruthven Castle. Sep. 38. Death of George Buchanan. 1583, June 37. James VI. escapes from the Ruthven con- federacy. 1584. Trial and execution of the Earl of Gowrie. 1586, April. A treaty is concluded between James VI. and QIKCII Elizabeth. Aug. 8. Mary, Queen of S.'ots. is imprisoned on a charge of participating in Babyngton's conspiracy. Aug. 35. Mary is removed to Chartley, under the custody of Sir Amias 1'auli 1. ( >ct. II. Her trial enmine:ie:'S at Foiheriugay Castle, Northamptonshire. Oct. 15. It is adjourned. Oct. 25. It is resumed at Westminster, and Mary is condemned to death. 1587, Feb. 8. Mary, Queen of Scots, is beheaded at Fotheriugav : 159}. Jai:: -sa rebellion under the Earl of Huutley. 1600, March 38. Episcopacy is established in the Scotch Church. Aug. 5. "Failure of the Gowrie con- spiracy. 1603, March 34. James VI. is proclaimed King of Eng- land as James 1. April 5. James I. leaves Edin- burgh, and arrives in London May 36. July 35. James I. is crowned King of England at West- minster. i6o5. The English and Scotch parliaments reject a pro- po,:il for union between the two nations. iGlo. J. lines J. establishes two courts of high commission in Scotland. 1617. James I. revisits Scotland. 1633. Charles I. visits Scotland, and is crowned at Holy- rood (q. v.). 1637. Charles I. fails in an attempt to introduce the Church of England liturgy into Scotland. (>Ve EDINBURGH.) 1638. March I. The Solemn League and Covenant is sub- 1639. The Scotch appeal to arms. June 7. Episcopacy is aboli 1641. Charles 1. again visits Scotland. 1644. An army of 20.000 Scots enters England to assist the ruiHainentariaiu. id.;.;, Sep. 13. Battle of rhiiiph.augh (q. r.). 1646, May 5. Charles I. takes refuge with the Scotch army. 1647, Jan. 30. Charles I. is surrendered to the Round- heads for 300,000. 1648, A Scotch force, under the Duke of Hamilton, enters England for the liberation of Charles I., and is defeated by Cromwell. 1649, March 9. Execution of Hamilton. 1650, May 21. Execution of the Marquis of Montrose at Edinburgh. June 33. Charles II. arrives in Scotland. July 32. Cromwell invades Scotland. 1651, Jan. 1. diaries II. is crowned at Scone. Sep. 3. Battle of Worcester (q. v.). Scotland is declared to be united with the English commonwealth. i66t, May 37. Execution of the Marquis of Argyle. 1666. The Scottish covenanters resort to arms, and arc defeated iu a battle on the Pentland Hills (q. v.). 1669, Oct. 19. A union with England is proposed and abandoned. 1678, Jan. The " Highland Host," an army of lo.ooc men. chiefly from the Highlands, is employed by government in suppressing conventicles. SCOTLAND [ 887 ] SCULLABOGUE A.D. A.D. A.D. 1679, May 3. Murder of James Sharpe, Archbishop of St. Andrew's, by the covenanters. June i. The 973. Kenneth III. 994. Constautine IV. 1349. Alexander III. 1380. Margaret. Covenanters defeat Claverhouse at Loudon Hill. 997. Grimus. 1292- John Baliol. (See DKUMCLOG.) June 33. They are defeated at Bothwell Bridge (q. v.). 1003. Malcolm II. 1033. Duncan I. 1396. Interregnum. 1306. Robert I. 1685. A rebellion breaks out under the Earl of Argyle. 1040. Macbeth. 1339. David II. June 30. The Earl of Argyle is executed. 1687, Feb. 13. James II. abolishes tests and penal laws 1056. Malcolm (Canmore) 1333. Edward Baliol. 1333. David II., again. throughout Scotland. 1093. Donaid (Bane) VI. 1371. Robert 11. 1689, March 14. Meeting of the Scotch convention, which 1095. Duncan II. 1390. Robert III. accepts William and Mary and abolishes episco- 1095. Donald VI., again. 1406. James I. pacy. A rebellion in favour of James II. breaks 1096. Edgar. 1437. James II. out under John|Graham of Claverhouse. July 37. 1 107. Alexander I. 1460. James III. He is killed at Killiecraiikie (q. .). 1:34. David I. 1488. James IV. 1692. The Glencoe massacre (q. v.). 1153. Malcolm IV. 1513. James V. 1707, May i. The legislative union of England and Scot- 1 166. William I., or the 1 54^. Mary. land is completed by 5 Anue, c. 8. Lion. 1567. James VI. 1708. A French squadron in favour of the exiled Stuarts 1314. Alexander II. is driven from the Scottish shores by Admiral Byng. (See ENGLAND.) 1715, Sep. 6. A rebellion in favour of the Stuarts breaks out under the Earl of Mar. Nov. Battles of Preston and Sherriff-muir (q. v.). The disarma- ment of the Scotch clans is ordered by I Geo. I. st. 3, c. 54. 1719, June 10. Battle of Glensheil. 1734. Numerous riots against the malt-tax. 1736, Sep. 7. Cant. Porteous is hanged by the mob at 1740. A Jacobite confederacy, in favour of the Pretender, is established. 1745. July 25. The young Pretender lands at Moidart. (See ENGLAND.) 1746. The Highland costume is prohibited by 19 Geo. II. c-39- 1747. Abolition of hereditary jurisdictions, by go Geo. II. c. 43. 1778. Lord George Gordon forms an anti-Catholic asso- ciation in Scotland. 1782. The Highland costume is again permitted by 2,2, Geo. III. 0.63. 1793. The Scotch National Convention is organised. 1796, July 21. Death of Robert Burns. 1797. The country is in a disturbed state on account of the militia act. 1807, Aug. 31. Death of Henry Benedict Stuart, cardinal Duke of York, and claimant of the English crown as Henry IX. With him the family of the Stuarts becomes extinct. 1822. George IV. visits Scotland. (See EDINBURGH.) 1842. Queen Victoria visits Scotland. 1843. Establishment of the Free Church (q.v.). 1853. The association for the vindication of Scottish rights is founded at Edinburgh. 1854, July 31. The Scottish Jury Act is passed (17 & 18 Viet. c. 59). 1860, Nov. 21. The Lord Provost of Edinburgh presents an address to the Kmjuvss Eugenie. 1861, Oct. 23. Prince Albert lays the foundation stone of the new General Post-Office and of the Industrial Museum of Scotland. 1862, Oct. 13. An accident on the Edinburgh and Glasgow Railway causes the death of 15 persons. 1863, March 31. Freedom of the city of Edinburgh pre- sented to Lord Palmerstou. KINGS OF SCOTLAND. A.D. A.n. 403. Fergus II. 721. Mordacus. 419. Eugenius II. 730. Etfinus. 453. Dongardus. 457. Constantine I. 761. Eugenius VIII. 764. Fergus III. 475. Congallus I. 767. Solvathius. 501. Goranus. 787. Achaius. 535. Eugenius III. 55-5. Congallus II. 819. Congallus III. 824. Dougal. 568. Kinatellus. 831. Alpin. 570. Aidanus. 834. Kenneth II. 604. Kenneth I. 854. Donald V. 605. Eugenius IV. 858. Constantine II. 622. Ferchardus I. 874. Ethus. 636. Donald IV. 876. Gregory. 650. Ferchardus II. 892. Donald VI. 668. Malduiiius. 904. Constantino III. 688. Eugenius V. 692. Eugenius VI. 944. Malcolm I. 958. Indulphus. 703. Amberkelethus. 968. Duff us. 704. Eugenius VII. 973. Cullenus. SCOTS GREYS. (See DRAGOONS.) SCOTTISH INDEPENDENTS. (See NEW INDEPENDENTS.) SCOTUSSA (Thessaly). The inhabitants joined the other towns of Thessaly in resisting the march of Agesilaus II., B.C. 394. Alexander, Tyrant of Pherse, seized the town B.C. 367 ; and in its neighbourhood the battles of Cynosce- SCBEW. Archimedes is said to have in- vented a screw for facilitating irrigation in Egypt, about B.C. 250. A screw, called by the Germans a water-screw, was invented in 1 746, by Andrew Wirtz, a pewterer at Zurich. A patent was obtained in 1800 by Maullin for casting screws, and in 1817 a patent was obtained for making wire screws. SCREW PROPELLER. A screw to work in water, on the plan of a windmill, was invented by Robert Hooke, in 1680. This was improved by the aquatic propeller, patented by Win. Lyttleton, Nov. u, 1794; by the perpetual sculling machine, patented by Edward Shorter, March i, 1800 ; by an invention patented by B. Woodcroft, Sep. 20, 1832 ; and by many others. F. P. Smith, a farmer at Hendon, took out a patent for a screw propeller, May 31, 1836. It was first fitted to a model boat which worked on a pond at Hendon ; and a boat of six tons burden, propelled by a screw, was exhibited to the public on Paddington canal, Nov. i, 1836. The Admiralty, wishing the invention to be tested on a larger scale, built the Archimedes, of 237 tons burden, which was launched Oct. 18, 1838, and made her first trip in 1839. The Rattier, 888 tons, the first screw vessel built for the Royal Navy, was laid down at Sheerness in 1841, and launched SCRIBLERUS CLUB (London), of a literary rather than a political character, was formed by Dean Swift in 1714, in place of "The Brothers Club." Arbuthnot, Bolingbroke, Gay, Harley, and Pope were members. SCRIVENERS (London) were incorporated in 1616. SCROFULA. (See KING'S EVIL.) SCROPE'S LNN (London) was inhabited by Serjeants in the reign of Richard III. (1483-5). Little is known of its history. SCULLABOGUE MASSACRE. During the rebellion in Ireland, 184 Protestants, men, women, and children, were forced into a barn by the Roman Catholic rebels, who then set SCULPTURE SEALED LETTERS fire to it, and every soul perished, June 5, 1798. SCULPTURE. The inventor of this art, and indeed the nation with which it originated, are alike unknown. Sculptured monuments have been discovered in Egypt of as early a date as B.C. 1700, and the art was brought to its greatest perfection in that country about B.C. 1350. The Assyrian school of sculpture ranks next to the Egyptian in point of antiquity, and after that the Etruscan. The Greek school became celebrated in the yth century B.C., and attained its greatest perfec- tion about the middle of the sth century B.C., when Pheidias, or Phidias, Myron, and Poly- cletus nourished. Praxiteles, who lived B.C. 360, and introduced statues of the nude female figure, and Cleomenes, who probably nourished :ii out, B.C. 220, are among the most celebrated Greek sculptors. The reigns of Trajan, Ha- drian, and the Antunincs (98180: are usually regarded as the golden age of Roman sculpture, though it is doubtful whether the art was practised by the natives. After the decline of the arts, sculpture remained in abeyance till the early part of the i3th century, when it was revived by Nicolo Pisano. Dona- tello (1383 Dec. 13, 1466) ; Michael Angclo, (1474 Feb. 17, 1564); Roubiliac (1695 Jan. u, 17621; Thomas Banks, R.A. (1735 Feb. 2, 1805) ; Joseph Nollekens (1737 April 23, 1823) ; liacon (1740 Aug. 7, 1795); and John Flax-man (1755 Dec. 7, 1826) arc amongst Hie most celebrated of modern sculptors. (See Loi VKK, I'HOTO Srrr/PTURE, e signed as well as sealed. (See GREAT SEAL, INTAGLIO,