Southern Branch of the University of California Los Angeles Form L 1 This book is DUE on the last date stamped below OCT 1 / 1924 ' OCT 2 ?. \^76 MOV 1 9 ^^'" JUL 6 l^^"* OCT 2 5 192^ OCT 31 134b Korni Li) -.>w<-12,"2: STUDIES (GENERAL HISTORY. BY MARY D. SHELDON, FORMERLY PROFESSOR OF HISTORY IN WELLESLEY COLLEGE, AND TEACHER OF HISTORY IN OSWEGO NORMAL SCHOOL, N.Y. Stutifnt's HtJttion, Human affairs are iifither to he laughed at nor wept over, but to be understood." BO ST OX: D. C. IIEA rir .^ t'O^IPAXY. lUOO '^- /©05 CoPTRiGHT, Sept. 30, 1885, Bt MARY SHELDON BARNES. TvPOOnAPIIT BT J. B. CUHUINO & Co., Boston. Press WORK by Berwick & Hmitu, Boston. I i D CO ip. \ TO MY PUPILS AT WELLESLEY COLLEGE AND AT OSWEGO, TO WHOSE WARM ENCOURAGEMENT AND SYM- PATHY THIS BOOK IS LARGELY DUE, IT IS MOST LOVINGLY DEDICATED. MARY D. SHELDON. THE MAKINCx OF HISTORY. To THE Student : — How, then, is history made? If a man wanted to write the history of Enghmd, and no one before had ever attempted it, so that no books existed from which he could read it, how would he go to work to find it out? He would go to the "origi- nal sources," as people say ; that is, he would go to Loudon, to Oxford and Cambridge, and hunt through offices, libraries, and museums for all the old records, despatches, and letters, for reports of parliamentary debates, for the manuscripts of the old chroniclers, for copies of treaties and laws ; and from all these things he could find what had been the government of England, what powers she had, from time to time, given to her king, her parliament, and the general mass of her people ; what classes of society were recognized b}' law, and how each class was regarded by the government and by other classes. He would discover what affairs of national importance had hap- pened, what had been the wars of England, and what she had deemed worth fighting for ; what nations she had been con- nected with, and in what relations. And as he went along, he would note down all these things as material for his history. Further than this, he would travel England over from end to end, and see what sorts of buildings these English had left behind them at different times ; he would examine all the old cathedrals, castles, and town walls, study the tombs in churches and graveyards, look out for all the old bits of painting or VI THE MAKING OF HISTORY. sculpture still remaining, and thus discover what had been the state of material civilization at this or that time, and what prog- ress had been made as centuries passed. These old structures would tell him what the English knew of building and engineer- ing, of working in stone and wood and metal, how much wealth they had and how they spent it ; these old bits of architecture, painting, and sculpture would tell him what they admired and loved as beautiful. Not even this would finish his work ; it would be his business to read the English poetry and the English stories, the sermons of famous preachers and the speeches of great orators, for " out of the abundance of the heart the mouth speaketh." In this way he would best learn the English character and temper ; he would know what they liked and disliked, how they thought and felt about all that went on around them. Meanwhile, throughout his studies of chronicles, of laws, of buildings and writings, he would note what men were oftenest mentioned and most highly honored, and thus discover the ideal of the English folk, that is, — what sort of men they tried to be themselves and wanted their children to become. After all these inquiries and labors, our historian would at last be ready to sit down peacefully and write a history of Eng- land ; that is, he would embody in a continuous narrative all that he knew of the growth, development, and character of the English people ; if his judgment were perfect, if he were a man without prejudice and witli a i)eriect sense of the relative value of facts, if he knew how to tell what he knew so that all men could read and understand, and if, at last, he lived to complete his work, no one would care to write a second serious hist(jry of England. Such a work would be uiuiecessary ; it would be easier far for a man to read this history, even if it THE MAKING OF HISTORY. Vii were rather dry, than to go searching through yellow, dnsty, and badly written manuscripts, througli the heavy statute-books, and through volumes of half-forgotten literature, to say nothing of traveling over England, exploring all the old remains and monuments! But since men's judgments widely vary, and since the observation of any single mind is imperfect, the work must be done again and again, and that, too, from the original sources, by different men with all their different points of view and different bents of genius. By reading and comparing these various histories, which would still be easier far than to make one for one's self, we should get a just idea of the history of England. We Americans are situated something like the man who has a Iiistory to write from original sources. We are called upon every day to judge of laws, of men, of events, of poems and stories, to decide between them, to see what they mean and where they are leading us ; and since we are citizens of a republic, we must not only see what they mean and whore they are leading us, but decide whether these laws shall become the laws of the land, whether these poems and stories shall become popular among us and so come to mark our character, whether we shall make this man or that great and powerful among us. In short, we Americans are all making history — an American history, of a sort that no man has ever made before us, and which lies entirely in our own hands to shape according to our best judgment of all that goes on about us from year to year. Now this book is not a history, but a collection of historical materials ; it contains just the sort of things that historians must deal with when the}- want to describe or judge any period of history, and just the kind of things, moreover, which we A.mericans must constantlv attend to and think about. In Vlll THE MAKING OF HISTORY. Greek history, it gives bare chronicles of deeds, pictures of buildings and statues, extracts from speeches, laws, poems ; from these materials you must form your own judgment of the Greeks, discover their style of thinking, acting, living, feeling ; you must, in short, imagine that 3'ou yourself are to write a Greek history, or that you are a Greek citizen, called upon to judge of the life about you. To help you in this, I have inserted in the midst of the material such questions and problems as the historian or citizen must always be asking himself, or rather must always be putting to tlie laws, events, poetry, and ruins which he studies, whether they belong to times and peoples far away or near at hand. In this wa}-, you can learn how to judge and interpret what you see before you iu your own country, and help to make of America that which she may become, — the strongest, noblest, finest nation in all the world. Hoping that you will take kindly to this new way of studying history, I am Very cordially and sincerely your friend, MARY D. SHELDON. TABLE OF CONTENTS. literature I'reface Civilized World befoke 77G i$.c. Introductory .... A. Study on Egypt Historical sources and authorities Organization .... Leading events, works, and names ]\Ieniphite period Thebau period , List of objects found in tombs Illustrative extracts from Egyptian B. Study ox Tigro-Euphrates Valley Historical sources and authorities Periods of history . Leading events, works, and names Illustrative extracts from Assyrian and Babylonian remains . o . . C. Study on Phcenicia . Historical authorities Leading events, works, and names Illustrative extracts D. Study ox the .Ii:w.s . Historical sources and authorities Periods of history . Leading events, names, and works Illustrative extracts from Bible Hellas, 1000 (?)-33S b.c. . Introductory .... A. Study ox Heroic Age Historical sources and authorities Famous events, men, and works of Heroic Age List of Greek gods, with attributes Illustrative extracts from Homer . STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. B. Study on Historic Greece, 776-500 . Historical sources and authorities I. General Hellenic development Organization of people Leading events Famous names and works . . - . Illustrative extracts from original sources II. Constitution and laws of Sparta Spartan constitution .... Institutions of Lycurgus, with illustrative ex- tracts and stories .... III. Development of Athenian constitution . Athens before Solon .... Constitution ..... Legislation of Solon .... Constitution . . • . . Tyranny of Pisistratids Legislation of Cleisthenes . Constitution C. Study on Persian Wars .... Original authorities I. First Persian War (abridged from Herodotus) II. Interval of Preparation (abridged from Hero- dotus) III. Second Persian War (abridged from Herodotus), D. Study on the Athenian Leadership or the Age OF Pericles Historical sources and authorities . . . . Summary of leading events List of famous names and works . . . . Illustrative extracts and stories from original sources, E.F. Spartan, Theban, and Macedonian Leaderships, 431-338 B.c Historical sources and authorities . . . . Summary of leading events Hellenistic or Alexandrian Conquests and King- doms Historical sources and authorities . . . . Summary of leading events List of famous names and works . . . . PAOB. 47-72 47 48-56 48 49-50 51-53 53-56 56-60 57 58-60 61-72 61-63 63 63-65 64 65-69 69-71 70-71 72-87 72 73-76 76-80 80-87 87-113 87 89-96 96-101 102-112 113-117 113 113-117 119-127 119 119-121 122-126 TABLE OF CONTENTS. XI Rome 129-285 Introductory 120-130 A.B. I. Study ok Regal Rome and Pr^e-Punic Re- public 130-151 Organization and constitutions 130-i;3(J Illustrative extract from Livy 136-137 Summary of leading events 137-140 Notable works and innovations of period . . . 140-143 List of religious feasts 143-144 Remains of Twelve Tables 145-146 Illustrative stories from Livy 147-151 B. II. Study on Republican Rome, Punic Period . 152-169 Authorities 152 Note on Carthage 152 Summary of events, 265-201 b.c 153-155 Summary of events, 201-146 b.c 155-158 Extracts from Livy illustrative of Second Punic War, 158-162 List of famous men, deeds, and works . . . 162-163 Incidents, extracts, and facts illustrative of later Punic period 164-169 B. III. Study on Republican Rome, Post-Punic Period 170-189 Authorities 170 Summaries of events 170-175 List of famous men, works, and deeds . . . 175-176 Illustrative extracts from original sources . . . 177-189 C. I. Study on Pagan Empire, Augustus to Diocle- tian 192-221 Authorities 192 Imperial organization according to Augustus . . 193-195 List of emperors, events, and works .... 196-205 List of famous imperial works and names . . . 206-211 Extracts from original sources illustrative of period . 212-221 The Teutonic Barbarians before 476 a.d. . . . 222-227 Authorities 222 Teutonic land-teimre 222 Extracts from " Germania " of Tacitus . . . 222-225 , Extracts from Teutonic sources 226 C. II. Christian Empire, Constantine to Charlemagne, 228-285 Authorities . 228 XU STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. PAGE. A. Christian Empire under Roman Control . . 229-250 Imperial organization . . . . . . 229-231 Summary of leading events 231-235 ^^ List of famous names 236-240 Significant laws and customs 242-244 Illustrative extracts from contemporary sources . 244-250 B. and C. The West under Barbarian Control; Em- pire OF Charlemagne 250-286 Summary of events ....... 250-255 List of famous names and works .... 258-264 Significant laws and customs ..... 267-270 Extracts from contemporary sources illustrative of Christian empire 270-275 Extracts illustrative of first century of Islam . . 276-280 Extracts illustrative of Islam in eighth and ninth centuries . . . 281-285 European History, 814-1880 286-539 Introductory ........ 286 A. Early Medieval Period; Charlemagne to the Crusades, 814-1095 286-318 Historical sources and authorities .... 286 Organizations of period (feudal) .... 287-291 Summary of leading events 293-299 ^-Lists of great names and works of period . . . 300-309 Extracts and stories illustrative of European life of the period 310-314 Facts and stories illustrative of Islam . . . 315-318 B. Study on Crusading Period, 1095-1215 . . . 318-335 Historical authorities and sources .... 318 Summary of leading events 319-324 List of famous names and works of twelfth century . 325-329 Extract and stories illustrative of period . . . 329-335 C. Study on Later Medieval Period . . . 336-395 Historical authorities and sources .... 336 Organizations of period ; state, church, guild, town . 336-342 Summary of leading events 343-353 List of famous names, works, foundations, enterprises, etc., of tlie period ...... 3#3-370 Extracts and notes illustrative of law, custom, and organization of period ..... 378-395 TABLE OF CONTENTS. xin D. Renaissance and Refokmation Era, 1402-1G48 (1640 in England) 390-438 Introductory 390 Historical source and authorities .... 390-397 Events and movements of period .... 398-410 List of famous works, structures, foundations, inven- tions, discoveries, etc., of period . . . 410-'12() Contemporary extracts illustrative of life and thought of the time 421-438 E. Modern Europe 438-538 I. The "Old Regime," 1648-1789; Peace of West- phalia TO French Revolution . . . 438-474 Aa. In Europe in general 438^59 Historical sources and authorities . . . 438-439 Summary of leading events .... 439-4.51 Famous w^orks, foundations, enterprises, etc., of period . 451-4.58 Ab. Special study of "Old Regime " in France . . 459-474 Historical sources and authorities . . . 459 Organization of France ..... 460-461 Extracts illustrative of organization . . . 462—465 Attempted reforms 465-466 Extracts from contemporary sources illustrative of life of period 466-469 Extracts illustrative of thought and feeling . 470—474 II. French Revolution and Wars of Napolp:on . 474-491 Historical sources and authorities .... 474 Summary of leading events ..... 475-484 Special study of the Prussian leadership and the Prussian revolution 486-491 III. The Nineteenth Century 491-538 Historical sources and authorities . . . . 491 Constitutions of modern states ; England, France, Germany 492-500 General summary of events ..... 501-514 Special study on development of the German Empire, 514-525 Special study on development of Italy . . . 525-533 ^Special study on socialism 534-539 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 1. Pyramids of Ghizeh (gee'-za) . 2. Court of Temple of the Sua at Karnak 3. Colossus of Rameses II. . 4. The Sun-god Ra (rii) 5. Winged figure from a gate at Nimroud 6. Lioa-gate at Mycenae (ml-see'-nee) 7. Parthenon 8 Sculpture from Parthenon frieze . 9. Mosaic floor pattern from Olynipia 10. Zeus of Phidias .... 11. Venus of Me' los . . . . 12. Etruscan wall at Volterra . . Y 13. Roman wall of the kings 1^4. Part of Claudian aqueduct . . ; 15. Colise'-ura ..... \jl6. Trajan and the lictors (/17. Mosaic from baths of Caracalla ^8. Pantheon of Agrippa 19. Relief from Christian sarcophagus of fourth century 20. Church of St. Sophia 21. Legend of St. jMartin of Tours (toor) ; tapestry 22. Mosaic of tenth century ; temporal and spiritual powers 23. Interior of mosque at Cordova 24. Feudal interior ; serfs receiving orders from their v/25. St. Mark's, Venice 26. Detail of Ducal palace, Venice 27. Fa9adr of Ducal palace 28. Cathedral of Amiens, France 29. Interior of Cologne cathedral 30. Portal of Notre Dame (notreh-dalim') of Paris 31. ]\Iona'"'^ery court at Pavia .... ^2. Castle of Pierrefouds (pe'-air-fond) near Paris lord XVI LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 33. Castle of St. Ulric, on the Rhine . 34. Cloth hall at Ypres (ee'-p'r) .... 35. Renaissance frieze-pattern from Venetian church 36. Fountains hall, Yorkshire .... 37. Court of Borghese (borga'-zeh) palace, Rome 38. The Escorial 39. St. Peter's . . ... 40. Bird's-eye view of Versailles (ver-salz') 376 377 398 413 415 416 417 457 LIST OF MAPS. 1. Mediterranean lands before 776 b.c. 2. Greece, with shores and islands of the ^gean 3. Greece and the Greek colonies (Freeman) 4. Attica 5. Persian, afterwai'd Macedonian empire 6. Thermopylae 7. Italy 8. Mediterranean lands, 218 B.C. 9. Mediterranean lands, 146 B.C. 10. Roman empire under Trajan 11. Europe in the time of Theodoric (Freeman) 12. Europe in the time of Charlemagne (Freeman) 13. England about 600 a.d 14. Europe in the twelfth century (crusading era) 15. Western Europe in fourteenth century (1360) (Fj 16. Western Europe in time of Charles V. (Freeman] 17. Western Europe in 1648, Treaty of Westphalia 18. Empire of Napoleon; Europe in 1810 (Freeman) 19. Europe in 1815, Peace of Vienna (Freeman) 20. Turkish dominion in Europe before and after Berlin 21 . Europe at the present day .... 22. The World at the present day 23. Italy in 1815 ... • • ■eeman) 2 30-31 44-45 66 74 81 128 152 157 190-191 252-253 256-257 . 299 316-317 347 397 402 482 485 Treaty of 505 516-517 520-521 . 524 I'l-of. P. V. N. Myers, who was so fortunate as to obtain the right tf) use Mr. Freeman's most admirable maps in the preparation of his "Outlines of Mediaeval and Modern History," has been so kind as to share with me the benefits of that permission. m. 8. b. STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY a z 01 5»Y < ^ Cfitd 5 0' \^ jSardin I Palaiapoliss^., GREECE and the GREEK COLONIES. Ionian I I Dorian I I Other Greek Saces I I Phwniciaii 1 I Ln"'' Oltioi .7^ 'T Th'cs3a\j 1 ■>■ rjr?>^^^ > ^^IKllonia ^ Chalcidlce Tr 32 46 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. palace. So feasted they all day till the setting of the -sun.; nor was their soul aught stinted of the fair banquet, nor of the beauteous lyre that Apollo held. . . . Now when the bright light of the sun was set, these went each to his own house to sleep, where each one had his palace made with cunning device by famed Hephaestus." h. The Visit of Odysseus to Hades. Odj^sseus was permitted, while 3'et alive, to visit the homes of the dead; and first he "besought the tribes of the dead in vows and prayers " and offered sacrifice to them ; and then about him came " the spirits of . . . old men of many and evil days, and tender maidens . . . and many . . . wounded with bronze-shod spears, men slain in fight with their bloody mail about them." And among them was the spirit of his mother; but when he tried to embrace her, she flitted away like " a shadow" or " a dream." Among the rest he saw Achilles, who told him : ' ' Rather would I live upon the earth as the hireling or the landless man, who has no great livelihood, than bear sway among all the dead." STUDY ON /, (J, h, REFERRING ALSO TO 2. What did the Greeks believe (a) about the number, (?>) about the power, (c) about the relative rank of their gods ? What part or parts of the world seemed to them under divine direction ? It is said that the Greek gods were anthropomorphic, or like men : prove it from the text. How were they like men ? How unlike ? How did the Greeks believe they could please or persuade their gods? Discover their will? What spirit seemed to pervade their worship? Look over previous work, and find additional facts to prove what you have said. What difference between the Greek, the Egyptian, and the Assyrian gods ? Find three things that the Greeks believed of the future state. STUDY OF HISTORIC GREECE, OR HELLAS. 47 B. STUDY ON HISTORIC GREECE, OR HELLAS, 776-500. I. General Hellenic Development. II. Studies of Special States. 1. The Constitution and Laws of Sparta. 2. The Development of the Athenian Constitution. Principal contemporary sources of history: Herodotus; lyric poets of period ; monuments and remains at Olympia, at Psestura, Poseidonia, Agrigentum, and otlier places in Sicily and Southern Italy ; at Ephesus, Assos ; in Saraos, and other islands of the ^Ega^an. Other principal original sources : Thucydides, Plutarch, Aristotle, Xenophon, Chief modern authorities : Grote, Curtius. Note on the Map. — In Illyria were to be found cattle and slaves, l)itumen, timber, and silver; in exchange for these, the Greeks gave the Tllyrians salt and salt-fish, oil and wine ; while to the Illyrian cliiefs they gave the finely woven wool of Miletus, the famous pottery of Corcyra, or wrought ornaments of gold and silver, whose material had come, perhaps, from the ricli mines of Thrace. The lands about Gyrene and about the Italian and Sicilian towns, as well as the whole of Asia IVIinor, were rich in cattle and wheat, in wine and oil. From Athens went figs and olives, pottery and silver; from Chalcis, famous swords of bronze, wrought from the copper and iron of the neighboring mines; from Corinth, pottery and bronze, and tlie best-built ships. The colonies about the Black Sea were mostly the daughter-cities of Miletus; to those on the southern shore, flocked the caravans of Assyi'ia and India ; to those on the east, the Phasis washed down the gold of Caucasus ; to those on the north and west, came wheat and timber, flocks and herds, and Scythian gold. STUDY ON THE MAP AND NOTE. "What part of each country is occupied by the Greeks? "What objects do you fancy the Greeks have in founding colonies? Why should they choose the locations in which we find them ? "Which of the occupations of Homeric Greece seem to liave become predominant, judging from the map? What occupations supjiort this one? Wliicli of the Greek races lead in tliis occupation ? What effect has this occupation on the unity of Greek territory? AVhv? 48 ^ STUDIES IN GENERAL, HISTORY. What waters are familiar to the Greeks? Name four of their colonies that seem peculiarly important to you by their position. Which of them are placed where important modern cities now stand V Which one would you choose as the most important of all, and why? Why are so many placed at the mouths of rivers ? Make a list of the occupations and trades evidently known to the Greeks at this time. What occupations seem to be most prevalent among the people living near the Greek colonies, and what do you judge their state of civilization to have been ? What effect will the colonies have upon these people ? B. I. Study of General Hellenic Develojnnent, 776-490 B.C 1. CLASSES OF PEOPLE FODND IN GREECE. a. In Laconia. — /Spartans, descendants ul the Dorians who conquered Peloponnesus; they hold the best land, govern, determine peace and war, lead in battle and share its spoils. They are supported by the produce of their own land, which is worked for them by Helots, or serfs ; and the only occupation allowed them is that of war. Perioeci, descendants of the original inhabitants of Laconia. They serve the Spartans in war, but are other- wise free, and engage in all sorts of occupations. Helots ; these are serfs whose duty it is to till the land owned by the Spartan state. b. In Attica. — lonians, descended from Ionian con- querors of Athens; position in Attica similar to that of Spartans in Laconia, but allowed to engage in various occupations. Metics, the free non-Ionian inhabitants of Attica, pro- tected by its laws but having no share in its government. Slaves, the personal and private property of the inhabi- tants of Attica; that is, belonging to individuals, for whom they perform all sorts of service and labor. Similar classes, with local dilferences, are found in all the Greek states. In each state the ruling class believes STUDV OF HISTORIC GREECE, OK HELLAS. 49 Itself descended from some common ancestor of divine or lieroic birth, whom they honor with games, festivals, and saciiiices. Thus, all the Dorians honor Heracles^ and all the lonians, Ion, the son of Apollo ; each tribe of lonians or Dorians has, moreover, its own special ancestor, whom all its members may worship in cumuion. 2. LIST OP LEADING EVENTS OF THE PERIOD. ■776. The Olympic Era. — The Olympic games were celebrated in honor of Olympian Zeus, at his temple at Olympia, in Elis. They consisted in contests in running, leaping, throwing the disk, boxing, and wrestling, and afterward, chariot racing became an important feature. The prize of victory was simply a wreath of the wild olive. Sparta arranged with Elis the laws for the games, to which only Greeks were admitted. Statues were erected to the victors, of which the historian Pausanias, visiting Olympia ill the second century B.C., mentions 200 as noteworthy from a much larger number. During the time of the games, truce was proclaimed in all the states whose citi- zens were engaged at Olympia. In 776, the records of victors in these games began to be kept, and from this year the Greeks reckoned time by Olympiads, or periods of four years each ; for instance, an event occurring by our chronology in 770 B.C. would be dated by them as belong- ing to the second Olympiad. The Spartans conquer Messenia whose inhabi tants either emigrate or become Spartan Helots Those emigrating to Sicily found Messana. The 776 TO 600. Spartans also conquer a mountain frontier for themselves from Arcadia; Syracuse, Tarentum, Massalia, Corcyra, Cyrene, and most of the other Greek colonies, are founded during this period. Egypt is opened to Greek merchants, who also find their way to Spain, and bring thence an 50 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. enormous amount of metal. In gratitude for this dis- covery, they dedicate to the Samian Juno a large bronze vase, richly ornamented and representing a tenth of their gains. In Megara, a man said to have been a cook over- throws the government of nobles, and he and his descend- ants rule the state for about a hundred years. In Corinth, also, the government of the few or of the nobles (Oli- garchy) is overthrown by the leaders of the people, Cypselus and his son Periander, who themselves succes- sively hold the chief power. By these men a gilt colossal statue of Zeus is dedicated to the god at Olympia, and a large chest of cedar-wood, overlaid with carved gold and ivory, is offered to Hera. In other Greek states, also, the oligarchies are overthrown by popular leaders or power- ful men, who become rulers under the title of " Tyrant " or " despot." In several cases these " Tyrants " are put down by the help of Sparta, who always opposes them. For Athens, see B. II. 2. The first sacred war occurs, caused as fol- lows: the pilgrims to Delphi are annoyed and heavily taxed by the neighboring city Cirrha 600 TO 590. and at last, on the motion of the Athenian Solon, the states of the Delphic Amphictyony join forces and destroy Cirrha, and, dedicating the land on which it stood to Apollo, there hold the Pythian games ; these games are at first simple contests in music and poetry, but afterwards races and athletic sports are added. The Nemcan games are established in honor of Zeus, and the Isthmean in honor of Poseidon. Sj)arta gains part of the Argive territory. Croesus, ' 590 TO 500. king of Lydia, asks fur aid from Greece, addressing him- self to the Spartans. STUDY OF HISTORIC GREECE, OK HELLAS. 51 3. LIST OF FAMOUS NAMKS OF THK PKRIOD. Alcaeus. Ale man. Anaximaiuler Archilochtis. Arion. Corinna. Cypselus. llecatiuus. Horaclitus. Hesiod. Mfto. Birth and Circumstance. 5<^ Lesbos: eiti- zen. Sardis : said to liave been a slave. Miletus. Pares : poor ; son of slave- mother. Lesbos : trav- elling harper. Boeotian. Tyrant of Corinth. Citizen of Miletus. Citizen of Ephesus. BaHitia(?) citizen. Crotona, in Italy : citizen and "[eneral. 7th Gth fth 7 th fith 7th t)th Gth 8th tJth Cause of Fame. Lyric poet : tliat is, wrote short poems descriptive of feelings, passions, mo- mentary impressions; many poems on love, on music, on particular events and persons ; invented new poetic measures. Lyric; jioet ; made new arrangements of music. Made the first map, first globe and sun-dial ; geographer, astronomer, geometrician ; taught that the world arose from a chaotic mixture of mat- ter; i>hilosopher. Lyric poet, writing also on war; in- vented new poetic forms. Improvised lyric songs and poems at the festivals and at courts; much patronized by Periander, the tyrant of Corinth. Lyric poetess : teacher of Pindar, froni whom she took the prize at one of the sacred festivals of Thebes. See 2. Geographer ; philosopher. Taught that a fiery ether was the source and original material of the universe ; philosopher. Poet : writing on the gods, on the his- tory of creation, and tiie first races of nuin ; also, didactic poems, giving directions for agriculture. Atldete: si.\ times crowned victor at Olympia, and six times in the Pyth- ian games, for skill in wrestling. 62 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. ai Names. Birth and Circumstance. Cause of Fame. Phitlon. Tyrant of 8th Adopted the Asiatic standards of Argos. weight, measures, and coin, which were introduced into Peloponnesus, and later into northern Hellas. Periander. Tyrant of Corinth. 7tli See 2. Pythagoras. Samos : tauglit 6th Traveller, geometrician: taught that in Magna tlie universe is created after an ex- Grsecia; son act liarmonious order, and that the of a rich mer- end of human life is virtue ; phi- chant; citizen. losopher. Sappho. Lesbos. 6th Poetess : invented new poetic meas- ures ; taught poetry and music among the women of Asia Minor. Solon. Athenian citi- zen of noble birth. 6tli Lawgiver and poet (see p. 63). Stesichorus. Sicily. 6th Lyric poet: made new arrangements of verse. Terpander. Lesbos. 7th Invented a better harp on which to accompany the Homeric hymns ; gained the prize at a great Lacedae- monian festival. Thales. Citizen of 6th Astronomer, physiologist, geometri- Miletus. cian : taught that the original element of the universe is water, and that the universe is animated by a living soul ; philosopher. Thespis. Megara. (itli First dramatic poet: using for ma- terial the stories of Greek mythology. Tyrtcuus. Attica ; lame 7th W^ar songs ; new arrangement of music : schoolmaster. poet. Xenophanc's. Lydia (Ionian (;th Poet, writing on jjiiilosophy ; tauglit Greek). tliat there is one God, "neither in body like unto mortals, neither in mind"; attacked tlie old religious myths. I STUDY OF HISTORIC GREECE, OR HELLAS. 53 Other famous works of this period : The temple of Artemis (Diana) at Ephesns ; of Hera, at Samos ; of Posei- doTi, at Poseidoiiia (Prestum) in Italy; three great temples at Agrigentum in Sicily ; an artificial harbor at Corinth ; the discovery of the casting of bronze in Samos, and of welding iron in Chios ; at the latter place was made a famous iron stand for a silver censer that the king of Lydia sent to Delphi. STUDY ON I, 2, AND 3. What two bonds of union existed among the Dorians? lonians? How far was the i^osition of Perioeci or INletics oppressive? In what regaid was it favorable ? Differences between Helots and slaves. Which was the leading Greek state in this period? Name three facts which prove it. What were the great centres of Greek life in general ? What important common interests had the Greeks ? What institutions and what event prove this? If you read that something occurred in the 15th Olympiad, what date will you assign it in our own chronology ? With what class of people does the Tyrant seem to have been associated, or to have represented? What characterized the Greek worship? Wliat influence would such a worship have on (a) physique, (h) intellect, (c) art? What proofs have we from 2 and 3 that it did have such an influence in dii-ections (i) and (c) ? Was the simplicity of the Olympic prize good or bad ? Why ? Xame all the directions in which Greek activity turns itself during this period. Of these, name the two chief ones. What parts of the Greek world manifest this activity ? What reason can you offer for this? What stimulated poetry among the Greeks? Art? What arts ? What relation between the T^Tants and art and civilization ? What was evidently meant by philosophy among the Greeks ? What position or station or birth was necessary to acipiire greatness among the Greeks? What gave men greatness? Compare with the great men and deeds of Egypt and Assyria. What sort of civilize tion is evidently arising among the Greeks ? i. Extracts Illustrative of Period, a. TJie Founding of Cyrene. (Herodotus.) As the king of Thera was consulting the Delphic oracle about other affairs, the oracle advised Inm to f ;uud a colony in 54 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. Libya [Africa]. Accordingly men set sail from Thera to explore, and lauding on Platea, an island near the Libyan coast, sent back word that they had taken possession of Libya ; "the Theraeans resolved, therefore, to send one of every family " of their own cit}' to the new colony. But nothing turning out prosperously, they inquired at Delphi, saying, " they had settled in Libya and fared no better." But the oracle replied that they had not yet reached Libya ; nor would the god ' ' release them from founding the colony until they had come to Libya itself." So seeking further, they founded Cyrene, establishing there the same religious rites and wor- ship they were accustomed to in Thera. b. Solon and Crxsus. (Herodotus.) When Solon, the Athenian, visited Croesus, king of Lydia, the latter showed him all his splendid treasures; "and when he had seen and examined everything sufficieutl}', Croesus asked him . . . ' Who is the most happy man that ^^ou have seen?'" Solon answered, " Tellus, the Athenian, because he lived in a well-governed commonwealth ; had sons who were virtuous and good . . . and coming to the assistance of the Athenians in a battle ... he put the enemy to flight, and died nobly. The Athenians buried him at the public charge . . . and honored him greatly." Croesus then asked for the next happiest man whom Solon had seen, and Solon gave the names of two youths of Argos, because they had a sufficient fortune, and had withal, such strength of body, that they were both alike victorious in the public games ; and he added this story, that "when the Argives were celebrating a feast of Hera, it was necessary that the mother of these youths be drawn to the temple in a chariot ; and since the oxen did not come from the field in time, the young men . . . drew the car in which their mother sate " ; and the men of Argos, who stood around, praised the strength of the youths, and " the women blessed her as the mother of Vuch sons " ; and after their death, the Argives " caused their statues to be dedicated at Delphi " STUDY OF HISTORIC GREECE, OR HELLAS. 5o c. The Lydian Kings and Delj)hi. Oace, wlien Al3'attes, the father of this Croesus, was making war, a temple of Athena was accidentr Uy burned, and shortly after he fell sick. " When the disease continued a considerable time, he sent messengers to Delphi to consult the oracle. . . . The Pythian, however, refused to give any answer . . . until the temple of Athena was rebuilt." This then Al^'attes imme- diately attended to, and shortly after he recovered, and sent to Delphi a large silver bowl inlaid with iron. The very first of the Lydian kings had been confirmed in his kingdom by the Delphic oracle, to which he sent a great quan- tity of gold and silver, notably, six golden bowls. Croesus himself, to show his esteem for the oracle, had sent thither the figure of a lion in fine gold, bowls of gold and silver of '' no common work," fine-wrought vases, the statue of a woman, and the necklaces and girdles of his wife. d. The Marriage of Clisthenes' Daughter. Clisthenes, the tyrant of Sicyon, had a daughter whom he " resolved to give in marriage to . . . the most accomplished of all the Greeks. When, therefore, the Olympian games were being celebrated, Clisthenes, being victorious in them . . . made there a proclamation," inviting to Sicj'on " whoever of tlie Greeks deemed himself worthy to become the son-in-law of Clisthenes." Thereupon suitors came from Italy and the Adriatic shore ; from Peloponnesus and Athens, and even from Thessaly and tlie Hellespont. "When the day appointed for the . . . marriage arrived . . . Clisthenes, having sacrificed a hundred oxen, entertained the suitors . . . and when they had concluded the feast, they had a contest in music and conversa- tion, in order to show their powers." One of the Athenians now "ordered the flute-player to play a dance; and when the flute-player obeyed, he began to dance . . . Laconian figures . . . and then Attic ones ; and in the third place, having leant his head on the table, he gesticulated with his legs." Then Clis- thenes, " no longer able to restrain himself, said . . . ' You 56 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. have danced away your marriage,'" and chose as his son-in-law the Athenian Megacles. The child of this marriage was Clisthenes, the Athenian law-giver. STUDY ON 4. What were the two bonds of union between the mother-city of Thera and the colony of Cyrene ? Where have we found these bonds of union before ? What sort of power and knowledge displayed by the Delphic oracle ? What men were most admired among the Greeks (their ideals) ? "^Vhat influence had the Delphic oracle on art through its connection with Lydia? Why did Clisthenes choose the Olympic games as the place for his proclamation? What facts justified his choice? What does that story tell us of Greek amusements? Of Greek refinement? In General. — What common bond of union or what common interest have all the Greeks ? What bonds of union in their various units, — colonies, tribes, amphictyonies, social classes? What do the facts of 2, 3, and 4, so far as given, indicate of the position of woman? Of individual liberty? Of the Greek ideal ? Of the leading Greek occupation and source of Greek wealth ? How far does each of these facts find some explanation in the Heroic Age? It is said that Greece was composed of a multitude of little independent states ; what reason have you for thinking so from the facts of this period ? II, 1. The Constitution and Latvs of Sparta, The constitution and laws of Sparta were by antiquity credited to the Spartan Lycurgus, a man of royal blood who was said to liave studied the laws of Crete as a model for those of Sparta, and whose introduction of these laws was sanctioned by the Delphic oracle (see p. 35). The following table represents the various parts of the state, and their relative duties, according to this constitution : — STUDY OF HISTORIC GKEECE, OR HELLAS. 57 us ^ => c . O M a> a ^ f- H :j Si O S ^ O CS 4, -w j3 fci fc O) ra en O O rt S 5 =* c * S « S Ol o Oi ^ (h a> rs C OJ 13 CO O .11 2 o c 01 'o .S .5 E rt C! .Q ^ O O) =! S' S "3 E •? - -. I 2 ^ o o ? e !» ti S o o i« ^3 .5 S Pm C O t^^ - ~ - -" ci ,^ u *j H "o _! = 3 I Qj r;* TO — o 3 2 fi o ? c 'i -5 =; ^ S = ^ c« -B S ^ ti T, 1 -b' i I i I ,58 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. The so-called institutions of Lycui'gus, or laws o\ Sparta, appear in the following account, adapted from Plutarch. According to the legend, Lycurgus, on going to Delphi, obtained the promise that the laws that he should make would be the best in the world: returning to Sparta, he so arranged matters as to give a piece of land in heredi- tary possession to every Spartan family. " Each lot was capable of producing . . . enough for health. . . . He also introduced . . . public tables, where all were to eat in common of the same meat, and such kinds as were ap- pointed by law." Their food was bread, cheese, figs, and wine, with occasional flesh. The women, the men over sixty, the children under seven, ate at home, and on rare occasions the citizens were allowed to join them, but not even the kings found it easy to gain this permission. After dinner " they went home without lights . . . that they might accustom themselves to march' boldly in the darkest night. . . . Another law . . . directed that the ceil- ings of houses should be wrought with no tool but the axe, and the doors with nothing but the saw. . . . He ordered the virgins to exercise themselves in running, wrestling, and throwing quoits and darts," that their children might be strong and vigorous. Every child must be "examined at birth by the most ancient men of the tribe. ... If it were strong and well- proportioned, they gave orders for its education ; . . . but if it were weakly and deformed, they ordered it to be thrown . . . into a deep cavern. . . . The nurses accustomed the children to any sort of food, to have no terrors in the dark, nor to be afraid of being alone. . . . As soon as they were seven year.s old, L^^curgus ordered them to be en- rolled in companies . . . wliere tliey liad tlieir exercises and recreations in common." Tliese exercises consisted STUDY OF HTSTORTC GRKTCCE, OR HELLAS. 5b in military and gymnastic drill, in trials of strength and in mock-battles. '' -They slept in com2)anies, in beds made . . . of reeds which they gathered with their own hands. . . . The old men were present at their diversions ... to observe, instruct, and chastise." From childhood they were accustomed to hear all the discourses of their elders upon the characters and affairs of their countrymen. "If one of them were asked, *Who is a good citizen, or an infamous one?' and hesitated in his answer, he was considered a boy of slow mind, and of a sort that would not aspire to honor. The answer was likewise to have a reason assigned for it." This manner of life was followed by the Spartan citizens till old age. Nor was their life without its j)leasures; when not engaged in war or drill, they were hunting, dancing, or conversing. Such were the institutions of Lycurgus, who was afterwards worshipped as a god among the Spartans. The following are some of the stories told of Spartans : A Spartan boy, having stolen a young fox, and concealed him under his garment, allowed the creature to tear out his vitals with his teeth and claws, rather than suffer detection. As to the question whether they should enclose Sparta with walls, it was answered, " That city is well fortified which has a wall of men instead of brick." Xeuxis, one of the most famous of Greek painters, wishing to make the most beautiful picture of Venus, sought for his models among the Spartan virgins. In one of the plays of Aristophanes, an Athenian lady thus addresses Lampito, a Lacedtemonian wife, "O dearest Spartan, O Lampito, welcome ! How beautiful you look, sweetest one, bow fresh your complexion ! You could throttle an ox." " Yes," says she, "• I thiidc I could." A Spartan mother 60 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. sent her five sons to war, and, knowing that a battle had taken place, she waited for news on the outside of the city. Some one came up to her and told her that all her sons had perished. " You vile slave," said she, " that is not what I wanted to know; I want to know how fares my country." " Victorious," said he. " Willingly then," said she, " do I hear of the death of my sons." When Croesus was ad- vised by the oracle to obtain a Greek ally in an approach- ing war, he sent for aid to Sparta ; and on one occasion, when Athens and Megara had been long at war, they left the decision of their quarrel to a commission from Sparta. STUDY ON II. 1. Who compose the Spartan state? What marks a man as a Spartan ? In other words, what bonds of union exist among the Spartans? Who holds the chief power in the Spartan state ? What checks upon this power ? What resemblances do you find between the Spartan and the Homeric constitution? What difference? What part of the state has lost power since Homeric times ? Whom does the chief power in this government represent? What takes the place nowadays of the general assembly in its function of hearing news, laws, etc. ? What name can you give to this sort of govern- ment, — (a) considering Spartans alone? (J) considering all the inhabitants of Laconia? What gave the institutions of Lycurgus their power over the people, and what enabled them to keep that power ? What seems to have been the great aim of these institutions? How did each provision made help to attain that aim? What means had they for training the intellect? What elements of character were evidently sought for? What sentiment was cherished by the common treatment of all? What effect would such institutions have upon the family life ? Upon the physique? Upon the manners? What adjectives would you apply to the Spartan life? Wiiat do you infer as to the position of women in such a state? How would labor be regarded in such a state? Why? Did the Spartan laws look to the good of the individual, the family, or the state ? What does each story told of Sparta show as to the influence of her discipline? What was her position among Greek states? What was evidently her ideal? STUDY OF HISTORIC GREECE, OR HELLAS. 61 II. 2. The Develojiinent of the Athenian Constitution, a. Athens before Solon. 776-594 b,c. In Athens, before Solon, every family had its own tomb, generally near the house ; here arid at the family hearth they worshipped together their common ancestor. The following is a prayer offered by a daughter at the tomb of her father : " Take pity on me and on my brother Orestes ; make him return to this country ; hear my prayer, O my father; grant my wishes, receiving my offerings." If sons were adopted, or daughters married into a family, this was accomplished by teaching them how to share in its wor- ship, which thus became their own. A union of such faiii- ilies formed a gens or clan, whose members were recog- nized " by the fact that they performed sacrifices in common." A union of clans formed a brotherhood, wor- shipping some common ancestor or hero. Of such brother- hoods were the four Ionic tribes composed ; who, claiming a common descent from Ion, the son of Apollo, and wor- shipping in common at the shrine of Athena on the Acrop- olis ^ of Athens, composed the early city of Athens ; only these tribesmen were her citizens. Even among the tribesmen a distinction had risen between the " well-born " or the Eupatrids, as they were called, and the " Many,^^ the former claiming to be of purer and nobler Ionic blood than the latter. The earliest political constitution of Athens was that of the Heroic age ; just before the time of Solon, us far as known, it appears as follows : — ^The liill-fortross and sliriuo aruuiid whicli Athens was built. 62 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. Parts of the State in War. Law, Religion. Chief-arclion, Judges in all family a Eupatrid. and clan disputes. King-urchon, Judges in religious Offers sacrifices a Eupatrid. matters. and decides on religious matters. War-arclion, Commands in Judges between citi- a Eupatrid. war. zens and strangers. Other archons} Assist the first Assist the first Eujiatrids. three. three. Areopagus,- sitting Decides, proclaims. for life, and and judges in re- composed of ex- gard to all the laws archons. of the state; pre- » serves such rec- ords as are made of them. General Assemhli/ Composes Probably meets Worships together of Ionic tribes- army and to hear the deci- at common men. navy. sions of the Areo- shrines of pagus and archons. Athena, and honors common ancestor. STUDY ON a. Our own cities are made up of " wards " or districts, which may be called the units of which the city is composed ; in Athens, what units do you find? What bonds of union in each of these units? Which of these bonds was fundamental and essential ? Which class of peo- ple held the ruling power ? Which had but little ? What free men in Attica had no power ? What fact detei-mined a man's chance for power? What resemblances between the constitution of Athens and that of Homeric times ? AVhat great changes had taken place ? What class had profited by this change? How had this change probably ' All the arclions were chosen annually from, and probably by, the Eupatrids. 2 In full, the Senate of Areopagus or of Mars' Hill. STUDY OF HISTOltrC GREECE, OR HELLAS, 03 affected the influence of tlie " Many " ? It a man were rich but not a Kupatrid, what would be true of his political power? What name will you give to this form of the Athenian government? What view was evidently taken among the Athenians of the state of the soul after death ? b. The Legislation of SolonA 594 b.c. (Abridged from Plu- tarch.) Solon, being himself of noblest Eupatrid birth, was chosen archon for the purpose of composing the difficulties of the Athenian state. " A saying of his which he had let fall some time before, that ' equality causes no war,' was then much repeated, and pleased both the rich and the poor." The first of his [)ublic acts was to free all lands which had been mortgaged and all citizens who had been enslaved for debt, and to enact tliat in future no Athenian should pledge his own person as security for his debts, nor sell the members of his own family into slavery in order to meet his dues. In confirmation of this meas- ure, the people offered the sacrifice called " Seisachtheia," or the thank-offering for freedom. In the next place, Solon took an estimate of the estates of the citizens. Those whose yearly income was equal to about 700 bushels of barley he placed in the first class. The second consisted of those . . . whose lands produced between 420 and 700 bushels. In the third class came those who were worth from 280 to 420 bushels, and in the fourth, all those whose income fell below this: thns the Eupatrids and the "Many " often found themselves in the same class. He next gave Athens the following political constitu- tion : — iThis IcKishitiou affi-ctiMl homc but the Ionian " tribesmen " of Attica. 64 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. Parts of the State in War. V. Law. Administration. Religion. Archons: eteeted from Solon's ^ Diitie s -and divisions of labor as bef ori '"^ tirst class. VJf Areopagus : com- posed of e.x- archons. 1 Guards the con- stitution. Has a gener- al oversight of the state; punishes men of idle and disso- lute life. Has a general over- sight of relig- ion. Senate: Four Prepares meas- Convokes hundred loni- ans, elected ures for public assembly. general as- sembly and from the first executes its three classes of decrees. General Assembli/ Decides on Discusses and Elects ar- of all four peace and votes on meas- chons and classes. Ec- war, and ures proposed senators. clesia. forms army and navy. by senate; forms courts of law for judgment of Athenian citi- zens; judges ar- chons and other magistrates on tlic'ir leaving office. To this constitution Solon added the following laws: that any one, without children, might will away his prop- erty as he pleased ; that no one should be obliged to main- tain his father, if the latter had not taught him a trade ; that trades should be honorable, and that the Areopagus should examine into each man's way of life and should punish the idle; that the privileges of the city should be forbidden to strangers, except such as were forever exiled from their STUDY OF HISTORIC GREECE, OR HELLAS. 65 own couiitiy, or those who liad come to Attica with their families for the sake of exercising some trade. He ordered also that women should travel with not more than three dresses and with a limited amount of pro- vision ; and that in the night they should go only in car- riages, with torches before them. There should be no mourners hired at funerals, nor should an ox be sacrificed on these occasions, nor more than three garments buried with the body. Such were the laws of Solon ; and they were written and placed in the citadel where all could see them, and where they were under the care of the divinity of the city. STUDY ON b, ^Miat do you judge to have been those difficulties at Athens which Solon was chosen to " compose " ? Why should the rich liave been pleased with his saying about equality ? Why tlie poor? What had been one great cause of slavery? What did Solon make the basis of political power in Athens ? How did the ease of obtaining power under his constitution com- pare with the former ease of gaining it ? ^Vhat new unit appeared in the state ? What was the common bond or mark of the men in each of these units ? In his constitution what people lost political power, comparatively speaking? Who gained it? What part of the state gave power? What part exei-cised it ? What class must be favored by those who wished to exercise power? What name will you give to this new form of government at Athens ? Wliat would be tlie effect of these laws on trade and industry ? Which laws of Solon would not be endured among us ? Wliy ? What great difference do you notice between the laws of Solon and those of Lycurgus? In spirit? In aim? In both cases, were their greatest changes political or social ? c. The Tyranny of the Pisistratids. (Abridged from Plutarch and Herodotus.) Shortly after the new constitution of Solon was given to Athens, three contending parties a|)j>eared in the state: 66 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. the party of the Shore, the party of the Plain, and the ■' Mountaineers," among which last was a multitude of poor laborers. The leader of the Mountaineers was Pisistratus, I. The dwelling of the party of the Shore. II. The dwelling- of the party of the Plain. III. The dwelling of the " Moun- taineers." P P P. Position of Persian fleet after message of Themistokles at opening of the battle of Sa/amix. G. Position of Greek fleet at the same time. X. Throne of Xerxes. Peiraeus = tiie port and harbor of Athens. of one of the oldest Eupatrid families, related to Solon, and in his manners "remarkably courteous, affable, and liberal. lie liad always two or three slaves near him with bags of STUDY OF HISTOKIC GREECE, f)U HELLAS. 67 silver coin; wlieii he saw any man looking sickly, or liearil that any died insolvent, he relieved the one, and buried the others at his own expense. If he })erceived people melancholy, he inquired the cause, and if he found it was l)overty, he furnished them with what might enable them to get bread, but not to live idly. Nay, he left even his gardens and orchards open, and the fruit free to the citi- zens." One day Pisistratus came into the market-place, having intentionally wounded liimself and his mules, and told the people that he had been attacked by his enemies. "Upon this, the multitude loudly expressed their indigna- tion . . . and a General Assembly being summoned," a motion was carried that Pisistratus have a bod^^guard of iifty clubmen; nor did the peo})le "curiously inquire" into the number employed, and presently Pisistratus seized the citadel, and assumed the government of Athens. Herodotus tells us further that he neither disturbed the magistracies nor the laws; but presently the parties of the Plain and of the Shore, uniting, drove him out. "But those who expelled Pisistratus quarrelled anew with one another," and the leader of the Plain, having made terms with Pisistratus, on condition of sharing the power, contrived with him the following jtlan : Tliey selected a woman of connuanding height "and in other respects handsome. Having dressed this woman in a complete suit of armor, and placed her on a chai'iot, . . . they drove her to the city, having sent heralds before, who . . . j)roclaimed ...'O Athenians, receive Avith kind wishes Pisistratus, whom Athena herself . . . now conducts back to her own citadel;' . . . and a report was presently spread among the people that Athena was bringing back Pisistratus; and the people in the city, believing this woman to be the god- dess . . . received Pisistratus." Not long after, however, 68 STUDIES IN GENERAXi HISTORY. the parties of the Plain and the Shore again combined against his power ; and Pisistratus, hearing of it, with- drew from the country for ten years, and collecting as much money as possible, hired mercenary forces,^ with which he marched against the Athenians and overcame them. Thus Pisistratus, having for a third time possessed him-. self of Athens, secured his power more firmly, both by the aid of mercenary forces and by revenues, drawn in part from the Athenians and in part from the silver mines on the Strymon. His power being thus established, he introduced new festivals to the gods and improved the old ; invited to Athens the greatest poets of Hellas; collected the Homeric poems ; gave the public access to his library of manu- scripts ; adorned the city with new buildings ; supplied it with water ; improved the roads of Attica ; improved the culture of the olive ; and preserved the forms of the Solonian constitution, he himself being always chosen the first Archon. At his death, he was succeeded by his sons, who ruled in the same way. But the murder of one of them by a conspiracy of young Athenians caused the other to govern harshly and susi^iciously, and to form an alliance with Darius, the king of Persia, in order that he might have help to uphold his power in Athens. About this time the Delphian temple was burnt, and the rich and powerful Athenian family of Alcmseonids, that had led the party of the Plain, and had been in exile during the Pisistratid tja-anny, took the contract for re- building it ; and " they constructed the temple in a more beautiful manner than the plan required, and . . . built ^ Men liired to fight for others beside their fellow-countrymen. STUDY OF HISTORIC GREECE, OR HELLAS. 69 its front of Pariiui marble. Accordingly, these men . . . prevailed on the oracle, . . . when any Spartans came to consult at Delphi, ... to propose to them to free Athens from the 'J''yi'''^""y* ^^^^ Lacedaemonians, since the same warning was always given them, sent ... an army to expel the Pisistratids, . . . though they were united to them by ties of friendship ; for they considered their duty to the god greater than their duty to men. Thus the Athenians were delivered," and Hippias, the son of Pisis- tratus, becoming an exile, fled to the court of Darius, the king of Persia. STUDY ON c. What fact given on the map shows that Athens was the centre of Attica ? Name all the means which Pisistratus possessed or employed for gaining power. Which of these means had he a perfect right to employ? Which were wrong? What right and what wrong means did he choose ? How did the constitution of Solon help him ? What relation between his tyranny and the spirit of that constitution ? What elements of strength existed in the party of the mountaineers ? Why should the mountain-men all go together, and the men of the plain do the same ? Why will a party of poor men be more ready for revolu- tion and change than one of rich men ? What faults on the part of the Athenians allowed Pisistratus (a) to establish and (b) to main- tain his tyranny? What really sustained the power of Pisistratus? What nominnlbf, and according to the constitution, sustained it? What suspicious circumstance appears in this story concerning Del- phi? What additional confirmation of the strength of Sparta? What resemblances between this tyranny and those before noted? Of what use was this tyranny to Athens? d. The Legislation of Clisthenes. About 500 b.c. The Pisistratids having been expelled, Clisthenes, one of the Alcmaionid family, became the foremost man in Athens, and proposed a new constitution, which was ac- cepted by the people, and consented to by the Delphic oracle 70 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. The Athenian state had hitherto consisted simply of those who had been born into the four Ionic tribes ; now it was to consist of all the free-born native inhabitants of Attica, divided into ten new tribes according to their places of residence. Each tribe took its name from some native hero, in whose honor it built a chapel, where the new tribesmen worshipped and held their sacred feasts in com- mon. Each tribe was composed of demes, or parishes; the demes of the same tribe, however, were not all together, though all the men of the same parish were in the same tribe o The accompanying diagram will explain: let the large square represent Attica, and the small squares the demes ; demes " a," we will say, belong to the first tribe, demes " b " to the second, "6'" to the third, etc. Each deme managed its own local affairs ; for those of Attica, all the demes met by tribes in Athens, where they formed the general Assembly, or Ecclesia. The following table shows the new constitution. a b a 1 * a c c h b c a a c c c b a h (■ Parts of the State in Archons, chosen by lot from three upper classes of Solon. Strategi : ten generals, one from oacli new tribe, an- nually elected from three upper classes of Solon. Areopufjus, as before. Senate of five hundred ; fifty from each new tribe, annually elected. War. Law, Administration, As before, but subordinate to new constitution. Command tlie army in turn. Delibt'rates on foreign af- fairs. As before. Convoke Ec clesia. Convokes Ec- clesia. STUDY OF HISTORIC GREECE, OR HELLAS. 71 Parts of the State in War. Law. Administration. Frrlesia : all ailult hx-v- Composes tlie Adopts or re- Elects oflScers l)()rn iiihaljitiuits of At- army and jects, after and senators. tica. navy. public discus- adopts new sion, propo- citizens into sals of Senate the Attic and magis- state. trates; judges and ostra- cizes.i 1 Clisthenes introduced the " ostracism." If any man seemed to be gaining great power among the people, the Senate announced that the Ecclesia would shortly be called to pass a vote of exile against some citizen, no name being announced. Should 6000 votes be cast against the same man, he must go into exile for ten years. A smaller number passed for nothing. On the day when the Ecclesia met, from the early morn- ing " the priests walked around the Pnyx [the meeting- place of the Ecclesia] immolating victims and calling down the protection of the gods. . . . An altar stood near the speaker's stand. Wlien all were seated, a priest pro- claimed: 'Keep silence, religious silence; pray the gods and goddesses that all may pass most prosperously in the Assembly.' Then the people . . . replied : ' We invoke the gods, that they may protect the city.' " The public income was paid over to " ten treasurers of the o'oddess Athena," one chosen from each tribe ; and the treasury was the inner chamber of the Parthenon, the temple on the Acropolis. STUDY ON (I, What is the unit in the constitution of Clisthenes ? "\ATiat places a man in this new unit ? What interests and duties have these new tribesmen in oommon ? in otlier words, what bond of union in this 72 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. new unit? Compare the distribution of political power under Clis- thenes and under former Athenian constitutions. Compare with the Spartan constitution in this respect. What element appears in Athe- nian warfare not seen in Spartan ? Compare the three Athenian con- stitutions in regard to equality ; justice ; democracy ; the worth of the individual man; size of state entering into each. Illustrate each answer by facts. What Athenian experience may have suggested the ostracism ? The separation of the demes of the same tribe ? What name will you give to this constitution of Clisthenes? AVhat one thing appears as a bond of union in all the constitutions? AVTiat political term derived from deme ? a STUDY ON PEESIAN ¥AES, 490-479 B.O. I. First Persian War : Darius against the Greeks, 490 B.C. II. Interval of Preparation, 490-480 B.C. III. Second Persian War: Xerxes against the Greeks, 480-479 b.c. Chief contemporary authority : Herodotus. Other chief original authority : Plutarch's Lives of Themistocles and Aristides. Chief modern authorities : Grote, Curtius. Note on the Map. — Each of the divisions of the Persian Empire was called a satrapy, and was ruled by a satrap who was appointed by the king and who could manage the satrapy as he pleased, if he only kept the peace and sent the king the soldiers and the tribute money due. In the time of Clisthenes, Darius was king of the Persian Empire and received from it more than ^20,000,000 of tribute every year. STUDY ON MAP AND NOTE. Compare the Persian Empire with Greece and the Greek colonies in regard to amount and distribution of territory. What does the distribution of territory indicate in regard to the leading occupation in each case? Compare the population of the Greek and Persian territories in regard to civilization. What unity did the Persian possessions lack which the Greek possessed? What unity did they possess that the Greek lacked? To whom was the Persian Empire valuable? For what? What was the special value of Phoenicia? STUDY ON PERSIAN WARS. 73 Of Egypt? Of tlie Tigro-Euphrates valley? To whom were the Greek territories valuable ? In case of war, who would be most inter- ested in it on the Persian side ? On the Greek side? I, Account of the First Persian War. (Abridged from Herodotus.) During the reign of Darius, ''some of the opulent men [aristocrats] were exiled from Naxos by the people [dem- ocrats], and . . . went to Miletus," asking aid; but the Tyrant of Miletus advised them to ask it of Persia. When the request came to the ears of Darius, and he heard that Naxos was "beautiful and fertile . . . and in it was much wealth and many slaves," he decided to give the exiles aid. But this expedition sent against the Naxian demo- crats was unsuccessful, and the Tyrant of Miletus, who had promised King Darius rich returns from it, feared that now he would lose his power, if not his life. So " he established an equality in Miletus, in order that the Milesians might more readily join him in revolt." In other Ionian cities, also, he expelled the Tyrants, and estab- lished democracies. Sailing then for Sparta, he asked for their alliance, using words like these: "That the children of lonians should be slaves instead of free is a great disgrace and sorrow." But the Spartans turning a deaf ear, he sailed to Athens, making the same request. Now the Athenians had already declared the Persians their enemies, because the Persian ruler at Sardis had ordered them to take Hippias again as Tyrant. Wlien the Milesian (Aristagoras), therefore, asked for help against the Per- sian, the Athenians voted, in public assembly, tAventy ships for the aid of the lonians. Thus Darius became hostile to the Athenians, and, having put down the Ionian revolt, resolved to conquer them. But first he sent heralds to the various Grecian cities to demand earth and water as tokens of submission bv land and sea ; and the 74 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTOKY. STUDY ON PERSIAN WARS. 76 islanders and many Greeks of the continent gave what was asked; but Athens and S[)arta threw the herakls, the former into a pit, the hitter into a well, and told them to take their earth and water thence. So Darius sent against them an army and a navy; and with them came Ilippias, the Pisistratid. He it was who advised the Persians to land at Marathon, where the ground was good for the Persian cavalry. " The Athenians . . . also sent their forces to Marathon; and ten generals led them, of whom Miltiades was the tenth. . . . But first, while the generals were yet in the city, they despatched a herald to Sparta. . . . On coming into the presence of the magistrates, he said, ' Lacedannonians, the Athenians entreat you to assist them, and not to suffer . . . [tlieni] to fall into bondage to barbarians.' " The Spartans, however, though willing to help Athens, "• were unwilling to violate their law ; for it was the ninth day of the month ; and they said they could not march out " until the full of the moon. Meanwhile the Persians had landed, and the Athenians and their allies were arrayed against them in a place sacred to Hercules ; but the generals were divided about giving battle, half counselling surrender ; but the war- archon had the casting vote ; him, therefore, Miltiades addressed : " ' If the Athenians succumb to the Medes [Persians], it has been determined what they are to suffer when delivered up to Ilippias ; but if the city survive, it will become the first of Grecian cities. . . . All these things . . . depend on you.' . . . jMiltiades, by tliese M^ords, gained over the war-archon, and ... it was determined to engage." On the motion of Aristides, also one of the ten stra- tegi, the other generals resigned their right of command to Miltiades alone. " The Athenians being drawn up in battle array, and the sacrifices offered being })leasing to the gods, they advanced against the barbarians in 76 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. double-quick time." The battle was long and hard-fought, but the Persians, although at least 100,000 strong, while the Athenians were but 10,000 men, were driven back to their ships ; embarking, they wished " to anticipate the Athenians in reaching the city. . . . But the Athenians . . . were . . • beforehand" ;,so the barbarians "sailed away for Asia," and the first Persian war was ended. STUDY ON I. AVho or -what decides on what shall be done in the Persian Empire ? What sort of a government will you name that of Persia? What is the aim of Persian conquest? Prove it. Who or what decides on what shall be done in the various Grecian states ? What are the aims -of the war on the Greek side? What is the political unit on the Greek side ; that is, how much of the Greek territory and population act together in the matters of war, of peace, of alliance? What is the unit on the Persian side ? What forms of government appear in the Greek cities at this time, and by whom is each supported? Instances. Why does the Tyrant of Miletus fear he will lose his power or life? How will "establishing equality " help him? What city ranks first in Greece? Proof. What next? Proof. What spirit in the Athenians makes them hostile to Persia? What party in Athens wall favor Persia ? What city has the most sympathy with other Greek cities? Proof. What part of the new Athenian constitution do we see tested in this war ? To what does it owe its success? What good characteristic does Sparta show when Athens asks her for help? What is your opinion of it in this particular case ? If Persia had conquered, who would have governed Athens ? What advantage would Persia i'>robably have gained in this event ? What (qualities are displayed by the Athenians in the Battle of Mara- thon? by the Athenian generals? Comparing Athens and Persia, why should Athens beat? Write a comparison between Persia and Hellas at 490 b.c. II. Account of Interval of Preparation. (Abridged from Herodotus.) From the day of Marathon to the invasion of Xerxes, the two men most prominent in Attica were Aristides STUDY ON TEESIAN WARS. 77 and Themistocles. The former represented the aristo- cratic, the hitter, the democratic elements at Athens; the rivalry of their partisans so threatened the prosperity of the city, that they appealed to the ostracism, by which Aristides was sent into exile. It was during this time that the Athenians had a surplus in the treasury, and the Ecclesia was about to vote its equal division among all the citizens ; but The- mistocles persuaded them instead to add two hundred ships to their navy, arguing that thus they might better prosecute the war then going on with YEgina, and also be better prepared for any new contest with Persia. He also indicated a better harbor for Athens, which might be well defended by the use of some of the extra funds. Meanwhile, Darius had died ; but his general, Mar- donius, was constantly urging his son and successor, Xerxes, to lead an army against Athens, and the Pisis- tratids urged liini no less. So his satraps gathered troops diligently for three years from all parts of the Empire, and in the tenth year from Marathon, Xerxes marched towards the Hellespont with more than 1,000,000 men of Asia and Africa. " On his arrival at Sardis, he . . . sent her- alds to Greece to demand earth and water . . . but he sent neither to Athens nor Laceda^mon." The Athenians at this juncture asked the advice of Delphi, and were told that they must "inspire their minds with courage to meet misfortunes." Deeply dejected, they sent once more to the oracle, and received the answer that Zeus could not be propitiated, that the Athenians must withdraw from the forces advancing against them, but that Zeus gave a "wooden wall" as an impregnable defence, and that " divine Salamis " should cause many men to perish. Themistocles interpreted this to mean that the Athenians 78 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. should make no defence on land, but should cany their gods, their families, and their goods to Salamis, while they themselves should retreat to the " wooden walls " of their ships and meet the Persians by sea. He further said that Salamis was called "divine" because there the Persian hosts would meet destruction. This interpretation was accepted, and- it was decided to abandon Attica for the straits and the island of Salamis. (See map, p. 6Q.') Themistocles also proposed, and the Ecclesia voted, to revoke all decrees of banishment or ostracism, especially that asfainst Aristides. It was now thought best to call a general Hellenic congress, and while the king was yet at Sardis, " the Greeks who were better affected towards Greece met together [at the Isthmus] . . . and determined all existing enmities and quarrels with each other." Thus ^gina and Athens made peace ; but Argos, being hostile to Sparta, took no part in tlie council. Ambassa- dors were sent even to Sicily to ask the Sicilian Greeks to join the Lacedaemonians, the Athenians, and their allies ; but the Tyrant of Syracuse would only consent on condi- tion of having the command of the war, which neither Athens nor Sparta would allow, and so they missed the help of Sicily. The Corcyrseans were also asked, and promised help ; and preparing their sixty ships, they drew near to the Peloponnesus, but there anchored and watched how events would turn, thinking, if the Persians won,, the}' should get good terms, as not having opposed them ; while to the Greeks they excused tliemselves on accoiint of contrary winds, which, they said, dehiyed them. As to the leadership by sea, "from the first there had been a talk . . . that it would be proper to trust the navy to the Athenians. But as the allies opposed, tlie Atheni- ans gave way, deeming it of high importance that Greece sliould be saved." STUDY ON TEKSIAX WARS. 79 It was also decided at this congress that Greece should make her first stand against Xerxes at Therinopylse. Meanwhile Xerxes advanced to the Hellespont, which liad been bridged by the Phoenicians and Egyptians; but ;i storm had broken the bridges up ; whereupon Xerxes had the engineers beheaded, and the Hellespont scourged with ■]()() lashes, while it M'as thus addressed: "Thy master inflicts this punishment upon thee, because thou hast injured him . . . and King Xerxes will cross over thee whether thou wilt or not.*' New bridges were then built and the army crossed them "under the lash": the passage occupied seven continuous days and nights. In Thrace, the army was numbered, and Herodotus tells us that the land forces alone amounted to more than 1,500,000 ; there were in this army Medes and Persians, armed with spears, bows, and daggers ; Assyrians, with spears, daggers, and clubs knotted with iron ; Scythians, with bows, daggers, and battle-axes ; Arabians and Hin- doos with bows and arrows ; Ethiopians, painted for battle, half in red and half in white, who had arrowheads of stone. Ilei-odotus names more than forty different nations or tribes in the army, and more than twelve on the 1200 ships of the fleet. Provisions had been ordered long beforehand for this host ; heralds had been sent along the route, and every- body " made flour and meal for many months . . . fatted cattle . . . fed land and water fowl in coops and ponds " ; even then, it does not seem that the army was fed more than once a day. As Xerxes marched through Thrace and Macedonia, the tribes submitted without attempting resistance. In Macedonia he received the heralds who had been sent out to demand earth and water from the Greek cities. Many had submitted, and "against these the Greeks who had eno-iiued in war with the barbarians 80 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. made this solemn oath : . . . ' Whatever Greeks have given themselves up to the Persian without compulsion, shall, so soon as their affairs are restored to order, ... be compelled to paj^ a tithe to the god at Delphi.' " STUDY ON II. What sort of a power does Themistocles wish to make of Athens ? What geographical facts favor this policy? What provision of the Clisthenean constitution appears at work in this interval? What advantage does it give the state? What new Greek organization appears during this time, and what has produced it? In order to carry any political or military measure at Athens, what is necessary? What is necessary to accomplish it in Persia ? A\Tiat characteristics shown by the Athenians in the various incidents of the interval? What by Themistocles? What spirit is displayed by the Tyrant of Syracuse ? By the Corcyraeans ? The Argives ? What new proof have we that Hellas is composed of independent states ? What power in Greece is acknowledged to have a right to hold any individual Greek state responsible? Name two occasions in which Athens probably saves Greece during this time. How does she do it each time? How are the forces of Xerxes governed? How is his army a strong one ? How weak ? How does he conquer Thrace and Mace- donia? What Greek city is alone able to meet the Persian fleet? III. Account of Second Persian War. (Abridged from Herodotus.) 1. According to the decision of the Hellenic congress at the Isthmus, a force of Greeks was sent to await' the Persians at Thermopylae. This force consisted of 300 Spartans and about 5000 other Greeks, whom Leonidas, king of Lacedgemon, was commanding. The Spartans sent so few because a religious festival was then being held, and, moreover, it was the season of the Olympic games. Xerxes having been informed of this, asked what could be the reward for which they so earnestly contended in these games. On being answered, " An olive-wreath," STUDY OX PEKSrAN "WARS. 81 one of his nobles standing by exclaimed, "Heavens, Mardonius, against wliat kind of men have you brought us to fight, who contend not for wealth but for glory ! " Arriving near Thermopylte, Xerxes "let four days joass, constantly expecting the Greeks to take to flight. But on the fifth day, . . . being enraged," he sent men against them " to take them alive " ; so numy of the Persians, hovrever, fell, that the king saw that lie had " many men, Pass of Thermopylae Roufe of Xer;K.es aroun THERMOPYLAE. pass J but few soldiers." Thereupon lie sent his choicest war- riors ; these, too, were beaten back with great loss. While the king was in doubt what next to do, a Malian Greek informed him of a mountain path around the pass. Along this way the Persians marched all night. " Morn- ing appeared, and they were on the sunnnit of the moun- tain. ... To those of the Greeks wlio were at Thermopylae, a priest, having inspected the sacrifices, first made known the death that wauld befall them," and shortlv news came 82 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY, of "the circuit the Persians were taking. . . . Upon this, the Greeks held a consultation, and . . . some departed and . . . others prepared to remain." Among the latter were Leonidas and the Spartans, who " could not honorably desert the post which they originally came to defend." Nor did Leonidas fear for Sparta, but thought by remain- ing to gain glory for himself and safety for her ; since the Delphic oracle had already foretold that, in this war, either Sparta or her king must perish. The Thespians also remained with the Spartans. About noon the figrht began. "Great numbers of the barbarians fell ; for the officers of the companies flogged their men forward with scourges, thus urging them on ; from which it occurred that many fell into the sea, and many more were trampled . . . under foot." Leonidas fell, but the Greeks fought on — with swords when their javelins were broken, with hands and teeth when swords were gone — until, at last, they were overwhelmed with barbarian missiles. " In honor of the slain . . . the follow- ing inscription was engraved over them : ' Four thousand from Peloponnesus once fought on this spot with 300 myriads ' . . . and for the Spartans in particular was written : ' Stranger, go tell the Lacedsemonians that here we lie, obedient to their commands.' . . . The Delphic Amphictyons are the persons who honored them with these inscriptions. . . . Thus the Greeks fought at Ther- mopylae." STUDY ON I. What sort of unity liad the J'ei\siau forces? Wliat sort did they lack? Same of Greek forces. Which side had tlie hest organization for war? How was the other side conqiensated for this lack ? What new proof have we that the object of tlie Persian Empire was wealth? Why are men that fight for glory worse foes than those who fight for wealth ? Why was Thermopyhic well chosen ? Why should Xerxes expect tJic Spartans (o (lee? Exjilain (lu; phrase; "many men, but STUDY ON PERSIAN WARS. 83 few soldiers." What spirit did Leoiiidas slimv ? the Spartans? To whom was a leader more necessary, the I'ersians or the Sj^artans? Two proofs. Name all the facts in this war that wonld prove the statement, " The Greeks honored tlx'ir gods." 2. The Persians, then advancing, wasted the fields and burned the cities as they went ; and the Athenians began to send away their families to the islands; the faster, because the priestess announced that the goddess Athena had left the Acropolis. The fleets of either side liad been stationed near Ther- mopylae, but, on receiving news of the battle there fought, the Greeks sailed for Athens, putting in at Salamis, and the Persians followed. The Grecian fleet, though fur- nished by Athenians, Isthmians, and Islanders, was under the command of the Spartan Eurybiades, who, after reach- ing Salamis, quickly called a council of commanders to decide where to engage the Persians ; the council decided to retreat to the Isthmus, and there defend Peloponnesus, since Athens was now burned and Attica wasted. An Athenian, however, going to Themistocles, argued that if once the ships left Salamis, no power would keep them from dispersing. Themistocles thereupon begged Eurybi- ades to call another council, and therein advised the Greeks to remain in the Salaminian Straits rather than retire to the open waters near the Isthmus (see map, p. 6G^ ; he reminded them, too, of the words of the oracle concerning " divine Salamis," and finally threatened that if the allies would not remain, the Athenians would at once set sail for Italy, and there found a new Athens. Thus persuaded, the allies remained. "Day came, and at sunrise an earthquake passed over land and sea." The Greeks invoked the aid of the gods, as the Persians " drew up near, taking their stations in silence." Xews came now that the Persian army was advancing upon the 84 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. Isthmus, whereupon the Peloponnesians in the fleet once more called a council, still wishing the ships to retire from Salamis. Themistocles, no longer able to dissuade them, secretly sent word to the Persians to close both ends of the Salaminian Strait, and thus the Persians did, under cover of the night. " While the generals were disputing, Aristides , . . crossed over from JEgina," and called Themistocles out of council, and said, " It is right that we should strive . . . which of us shall do the greatest service to our country. . . . We are on all sides surrounded by the enemy. Go in, therefore, and acquaint them with this." Themistocles replied, "■ You . . . have brought good news. . . . Know, then, that this . . . proceeds from me. For, since the Greeks would not willingly come to an engagement, it was necessary to force them against their will. But do you . . . announce it to them yourself ; for if I tell them, I shall appear to speak from my own invention." Aristides then entered the council, and told tliem that they were surrounded by the enemy, and must prepare to fight. Themistocles also spoke with rousing eloquence. The poet jEschylus thus describes the battle, which ended in the victory of the Greeks : — "When now the Day, driving white steeds, filled the wide earth with glory, a shout from the Greeks rang forth, greeted Echo like a song, and Echo answered from the island-rock, inspiring. Then terror fell on the Persian ships and tents ; . . . not for flight were the Greeks chanting tlieir solenni paeans, but for proud and daring battle. The clanging trumpet fired their line ; instant at the word they smote the roaring brine with dashing oars. . . . Then we heard the mighty shout : ' On, Sons of the Greeks, free your land, your children, and your wives ; the tem])les of the gods and tlie tombs of your fathers : T( is day decides for all.' "... Then ship dashed brazen prow at ship. ... At first, indeed, the strong stream of the Persian fleet withstood the STUDY ON PERSIAN WARS. 86 onset; but we were massed within the strait, while they, awkwardly crowding, struck each other witli their brazen beaks ; . . . but the Greelcs were skilfully suiitiiig them round about on every side. . . . The shores and rugged rocks were lined with dead. . . . Never fell in a single day so many men." STUDY ON 2, Why are the Athenians in greater haste to leave Athens because the goddess has left? AVhat reason is there to think that the Greeks will disperse if once they leave Salaniis ? What geographical advan- tage in Salamis? What three different kinds of argument does Theraistocles employ to keep the Greeks at Salamis? AVhat spirit is shown hy Sparta at this time? Themistocles? Aristides? How do you know which of these men has the greater character for hon- esty? Who is the real commander at Salamis? What makes him so? What is the point of his sending word to the Persians to close the straits? What does the event of Salamis prove in regard to the policy of Themistocles from 490 to 480? 3. After Salamis, the Greeks divide the booty, dedicating the first fruits of their victory to Delplii. Xerxes hastily returns to Persia, leaving picked forces with Mardonius, with which to " reduce Greece to slavery." After wintering in Thessaly, INIardonius marched into Greece. Before starting, he sent ambassadors to the Athenians, hoping to make them his allies, and promising them forgiveness, the restoration of their lands, and the rebuilding of their temples, if they would but be friendly to the Great King. Sparta, fearing lest Athens might yield, also sent her an embass}^ promising aid in case of war. To the Persian messenger, the Athenians replied, " We will defend our- selves in such manner as we are able. But do not attempt to persuade us to come to terms with the barbarians, for we will not be persuaded. Go, then, and tell Mardonius that ... so long as the sun shall continue in the same course as now, we will never nuike terms with Xerxes, but 86 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. will go out to oppose him, trusting in the gods, who fight for us." To the Spartans they answered, " There is not so much gold anywhere in the world, nor a country so preeminent in beauty and fertility as to persuade us to side with Persia in enslaving Greece. For there are many and powerful considerations that forbid us to do so, even if we were inclined. First and chief, we must avenge to the uttermost the images and dwellings of the gods now burned and laid in ruins. . . . Secondly, the Grecian race being of the same blood, and of the same language, and having the temples and sacrifices of the gods in common . . . for the Athenians to betray these would not be well. Know, therefore . . . that so long as one Athenian is left alive, we will never make terms with Xerxes." Mardonius, receiving this answer, advanced towards Athens. On reaching Thebes, the Thebans advised him not to fight the Greeks, but to "send money to the chief men in each city," and thus "split Greece into parties, and . . . subdue those not on your side." Mardonius, how- ever, did not take this advice, but marched on and met the Greeks in battle at Platasa. In this battle the Spar- tans held one wing, while the Arcadians and the Atheni- ans each claimed the honor of leading the other ; the Arcadians because they had always had it, the Athenians because of their deeds, especially at Marathon. But the Athenians left it to the Lacedaemonians, saying, " ' It is not becoming on such an occasion as this to contend about position. . . . Command us as ready to obey.' . . . And the whole army of Lacedaemonians shouted out that the Athenians were more worthy to lead the wing than the Arcadians." Sacrifices having been offered by either army, the battle began. In this fight Ma donius fell, and the Greek victory was complete. A tentli of the rich spoils was given to l)eli)lii. Tims the army of Xerxes STUDY ON THE ATHENIAN LEADEllSHIP. K« was finally overthrown, and on the same day his fleet was beaten by Greek ships at Mycale. These two battles effectively broke the strength of the Persian. STUDY ON 3. How does Mardonius try to coiuiuer Atliens? What makes liim naturally suppose this plan would succeed? What three feelings are shown by the Athenians ? What do they name as the bonds of Hellenic union ? Who puts Greece in the greater danger, the Thebans or iVIardonius? Why? What reason have the Thebans to give the advice they do? In the Battle of Plat.iea, what spirit is shown by the Athenians? What proofs have we that war is a religious act among the Greeks ? In General. — In what cases in the Persian wars does the Greek action depend on single men ? How are these men able to accomplisli their will? What is the use of the Battle of Thermopylse? What city of Greece deserves the lead at the close of the wars? Why? What results of Greek organization appear in the Persian wars? (a) at Thermopylae? (b) at Salamis? D. STUDY ON THE ATHENIAN LEADEKSHIP (AGE OF PERICLES), 479-431. Chief contemporary sources: Herodotus, Thucydides; the plays of Euripides, Aristophanes, and the other lit- erary remains of the period; the monuments and remains of Athens, — notably the Parthenon, the temple erected on the Acropolis in honor of Athene, and the fragments of Parthenon sculpture known as tlie " Elgin marbles," and now in the British Museum. Other original sources : Plutarch, Xenophon, Aristotle, Plato, and the extant wiitings of the philosophers, orators, and sophists of the generation succeeding this age. Chief modern authorities : Grote, Curtius, Lloyd. 88 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. P ■& STUDY ON TJIK ATHENIAN LEADERSTTIP. 89 1. Summary of I'rincijxtl JJ vents. (Quotations from Thucy (lick's uiik'ss oilitTwise indicated.) Battles of PlaUua and iMycale; after Plata^a, , 479 Aristides proposed a general Hellenic confed- to sracy against the Persians ; to this the Greeks ^~^- consented. After Mjcale, the Saniians, Chians, and Les- bians were admitted into this confederacy, and the allied Greeks sailed for the Hellespont; all save the Peloponne- sians . . . who decided to sail away home. Under the lead of the Athenians, the allies recovered Lesbos. — State SCULPTURE FROM THE PARTHENON FRIEZE. offices were opened to all classes of Athenian citizens. — The Athenians "set to work rebuilding the city and the walls. . . . The Lacedaemonians would rather themselves have seen neither the Athenians nor any one else protected by a wall ; and their allies dreaded not only the Athenian navy, . . . but also the spirit which had animated them in the Persian war. So the Lacedtemonians asked them not to restore their Avails.'' But the Athenians, "men, women and children," urged on and advised by Themistocles, completed them, before the Spartans could prevent. The 90 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. spoils of Mycale were devoted to adorning public gardens and porticoes. The Hellenic allies under the lead of the Spartan king, Pausanias, sailed for Byzantium, which they recovered from the Persians. But 477 TO 467. Pausanias had already begun to be despotic, and " the allies were offended . . . and had recourse to . . . the Athenians, begging them to be their leaders. . . . Thus the Athenians obtained the leadership. They immediately fixed which of the cities should supply money and which . . . ships for the war against the Barbarian." Aristides, then commander of the Athenian fleet, was chosen by desire of the allies to determine the amount and manner of this tribute for each. " Then was first instituted at Athens the office of Hellenic Treasurers, who received the tribute. . . . The island of Delos [sacred to Apollo] was their treasury, and the meetings of the allies were held in the temple there. The allies were at first inde- pendent, and deliberated in a common assembly under the leadership of Athens." Cimon, son of Miltiades, then took command of the allied fleet, and freed the northern coast of the JEgsdan from the Barbarian. The treasury was transferred to Athens, and many of the allies began to pay in money instead of in men and ships. The island of Scyros, with its fine harbor, was rid of pirates and settled by Athenians. The Naxian allies revolted, and the Athenians "made war against them. . . . This was the fiist of the allied cities which was subjugated contrary 461. to the agreement." About the same time, the Thasian allies revolted, quarreling with Athens concerning their rights to a market and some mines near by. Athens STUDY ON THE ATHENIAN LEADERSHIP. 9l subduing them, compelled them to pull down their walls, deliver up their ships, pay tribute, surrender their claims to the mine and the market. — Pericles carried tlie meas- ure of the " Theoricon," by which every Athenian citizen might obtain from the jniblic treasury, now well-filled by the allies, the money necessary to attend the theatre- The citizens now also began to receive pay for serving in the army and in the courts. — The Helots, aided by the Messenians, revolted against the Spartans. The Spartans, hard pressed, called to their aid the Athenians, who sent them a force under Cimon; but after its arrival, the Lacedaemonians, "fearing the boldness and the progressive spirit of the Athenians, and moreover considering that they were of a different race from themselves, dismissed them alone of all the allies." The Athenians therefore broke their alli- ance with Sparta, and ostracizing Cimon, who had per- suaded them to send her aid, followed rather the lead of Pericles, joined themselves to the enemies of Sparta abroad, and reduced the power of the Areopagus at home. The Phocians attacked towns in Doris and took control of the Delphic oracle ; the Spartans interfering, restored the Doric towns and Delphi 461 TO 450. 458 TO 456. to their previous possessors, strengthened the Oligarchs of Thebes and the neighboring towns, and occupying the for- tress of Tanagra, threatened Athens. At their departure, the A.thenians at once restored the democrats of the Boeotian towns to power. Soon after, the ^Eginetans came to terms with the Athenians, "dismantling their walls, surrendering their ships, and agreeing to pay tribute." The Messenians and Helots were conquered by Sparta ; the Messenians, banished from Peloponnesus, were settled by the Athenians in one of their own towns. 92 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 450 TO 435. Five 3'ears' trace between Athens and Sparta. — ' Pericles proposed a Pan-Hellenic convention "to consult about rebuilding the Grecian temples which the barbarians had burnt, and about providing those sacrifices which had been vowed, during the Persian war, for the preservation of Greece, and likewise to enter into such measures as might secure navigation and main- tain the peace. ... It took no effect, however, nor did the cities send their deputies ; the reason of which is said to be the opposition of the Lacedsemonians." — About this time new offices were established at Athens, for protecting streets and markets, preserving just standards of weight and measure, and overseeing the storing and sale of grain. It is reported that the Persians now made peace with the Athenians, promising the independence of the Asiatic Greeks, and agreeing that no Persian ship should appear in the iEgaean or the Bosphorus. — The exiled Theban Oligarchs [aristocrats] fought and defeated the Athenians at Coronea. — Thirty years' peace was agreed upon between Sparta and Athens. Pericles thoroughly organized the citizen-jury assem- blies, and obtained that those who served upon them should be paid by the city from the treasury, now richly supplied by the confederacy. "Now M^ar broke out between the Samians and Mile- sians . . . ; and the Milesians being worsted . . . went to the Athenians, . . . some private individuals from Samos itself taking part with them, from a wish to effect a revolution. . . . The Athenians therefore sailed to Samos [Pericles commanding] . . . and established a democracy." The exiled Oligarchs, then liiring troops, returned and re-established their power ; but the Athenians, again investing Samos, entirely reduced it, compelling it to "dis- STU1>Y OX THE ATHENIAN LEADERSHIP. 93 mantle its wall, deliver ap its ships, and pay the cost ot the war." STUDY ON I. Why were Sestos and Bj'zantium important to gain? How and wlien had tlie Greelcs k'arned this ? To wliicli Greek state were they the most important, and why ? What was tlie character of Aristides among the allies ? Prove it. Part of this period is called that of the Athenian leadershiji, and part that of the Athenian empire ; when and why will you apply each term ? AVhy "jyas it necessary for every member of the Confederacy of Delos to be held to that vmion by Athens? AVhat difference be- tween this and former Hellenic miions ? AVhat new bond of union in it ? How did Athens obtain leadership ? How empire ? How did she use her imperial power ? Her imperial wealth ? What seems to have been the chief occupation of the Athenians ? Prove it. What policy adopted by the allies weakened themselves and strengthened Athens ? Do you consider the Confederacy of Delos a failure or a success? To whom or what do you attribute this ? What party ruled in Athens ? What proof of this ? How could its leader carry its measures ? What measures of this period were characteristic of the ruling party? What inconsistency between the rule of Athens at home and abroad ? What seems to have been the state of affairs everywhere within the cities at this time? What is the attitude of Athens toward these affairs? of Sparta? What is the general relation of the Greek states to each other ? to Athens ? Where alone do we find a sentiment of PanheUeuism? When does this appear? 2. Summary of Events from 435 to 431. TTte affair of Corcyra and declaration of the Pelopon- nesian war. — Tliese things occurred as follows : In the city of Epidamnus, a colony of Corcyra, herself colonized from Corinth, the aristocrats were driven out by the democrats ; the exiles " went over to the barbarians, and, uniting with them, plundered the remaining inhabitants These, finding themselves hard-pressed, sent an embassy to 94 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. the mother-city, Corcyia, begging the Corcyrseans not to leave them to their fate. . . . But the Corcyrseans would not listen." The Epidamnians then asked at Delphi if they should send for aid to the Corinthians as being their first founders, and " the god answered that they should. . . . The Corinthians took up their cause, partly . . . because they hated the Corcyrseans, who were their own colony, but slighted them and often boasted that they were far superior to the Corinthians by land and sea. Irritated by these causes of offence, the Corinthians were too happy to assist the Epidamnians. . . . Great was the rage of the Corcyrseans when they found . . . that the colony had been given up to the Corinthians. They at once set sail . . . and bade the Epidamnians receive the exiled Oligarchs, who had . . . implored the Corcyrseans to restore them, appealing to the tie of kindred, and pointing to the sepul- chres of their common ancestors. . . . But the Epidamnians would not listen. . . . Whereupon the Corcyrseans attacked them." When the Corinthians heard of this, they set sail to help the Epidamnian democrats ; but were badly de- feated by the Corcyrseans, who then "sailed about plun- dering the Corinthian allies." For two years the Corin- thians took the utmost pains to collect a great fleet ; " and the Corcyrseans, in alarm . . . determined to go to Athens . . . and get what help they could." The Athenians, having "no mind to let Corcyra and her navy fall into the hands of the Corinthians," consented to the alliance, and Corinth was again defeated by the help of the Atheni- ans. The Corinthians, irritated by this and other events, now called for an assembly of the allies at Sparta, and war was declared by the Peloponnesians against the Athenians, unless the latter would restore independence to the allies ; on the motion of Pericles, it was answered that they would do this if the Spartans would allow their subject states RTITDY ON THK ATHENIAN LEADERSHIP. 95 the government each desired. Pericles also asked that arbitration, instead of war, should settle their difficulties. As the Lacedfp.monians made no reply, both parties pre- pared for war. At the opening of this war, tlie chief allies of the MOSAIC PATTERN. From thp floor of the temple of Zeus at Olj'mpia. The outside border is a variation of the " Greek Fret," and the inside border a modification of the favorite convention- alized honey-suckle; the central design represents a Triton blowing his " wreathed horn." Athenians were Islanders and Greeks of the Thracian and Asiatic coasts ; with the Spartans stood most of the Pelo- ponnesians, and the states north of the Corinthian Gulf, 96 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. STUDY ON 2. Why did Athens not wish Corinth to have Corcyra? What rfciotives appeared in the conduct of each Greek state from 435 B.C. onward ? What spirit ? What seems to have been the general com- plaint of the Athenian leadership V of the Spartan ? What state showed most civUization in the declaration of war? What general geographical difference between the Athenian and the Spartan group of states at the close of this pei-iod ? "V\Tiat reason can you give for this difference? What geographical advantage has each group? Name the successive steps by which the Peloponnesian AVar was brought on. What strikes you as its cause? If the affair of Corcyra had not occurred, would war have followed ? Sustain your opinion. 3. List of Famous Greeks living 479-338 B.C. Those marked with a * belong to the age of Pericles, those with a f to the age of the Peloponnesian War, those with a % to that of the Persian War, and those unmarked to period 400-338. Name. Birth, Circumstance, and Training. Cause of Fame. ^ ^Eschyhis *| Atlienian Autlior of sixty or more tragedies citizen, . . . founded on Greek myths, except the " Persians," which tells the story of the battle of Salaniis. Introduces dialogue and action into dramatic writing. iEschines, Atlienian Fatlierofexteiiiiiorary oratory amongst citizen ; actor. the Greeks ; i)arty opponent of Dc- soldier, law- mostlu'iios before Ecclesia. . yer's clerk. Anaxagoras,* Asia Minor; IMatlic'iiiatician and astronomer; as- citizen of serts mind to be the originating Ionian Greek canso of the universe ; philosopher. city. Aristi(les,*t Atlienian citi- Party leader; general and naval zen of noble commander. (See " Suiiiniaries of family. Events.") STUDY ON THE ATHENIAN LEADERSHIP. 97 Name. Birth, Circumstance, and Training. Cause of Fame, Aristophanes,t AtliL-nian Author of more tlian forty comedieSj citizen. . . . satirizing political and military events, tlie people and magistrates of Athens, Socrates and tlie Sophists,' Euripides and other contemporaries. Aristotle, Citizen of Sta- Tutor of Alexander the Great, after- trira, a Greek ward public teacher at Athens ; colony in writes more than four hundred works Macedonia; on politics, rhetoric, and literature. piqiilof riato. morals, natural history; philoso]5hei\_ Demosthenes, Citizen of Sjieeches before Ecclesia, especially Athens; stud- the " Philippics " directed against ied witii fine Philip of Macedon, whose most dan- orators. gerous enemy was Demosthenes. Euripitles,* Athenian citi- Authorof seventy-five tragedies, found- zen; finely ed on Greek myths and stories, but educated ; often adapted to contemporary polit- special athle- ical circumstances. tic training. Epaminondas.t Theban citizen Founder of Theban leadership. (See of fine family, " Summary of Events.") educated in military tac- tics, gymnas- tics, philoso- ])liy, litera- , ture. GorgiaSjt Sicilian-Greek Sophist at Athens ; speculator in the citizen of ology; philosopher; 'still more famous nohlo Ijirth; as a rhetorician. trained by noted philos- ophers. ^ Tliis name was given at Athens to men who taught for pay ; they professed to prepare young men, as Isoorates said, " to think, speak, and act" so as to become inthicntial a. id typical Athenians. 98 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. Nar/te. Birth, Circumstance, and Training. Cause of Fame. Herodotus,*! Greek citizen of Historian of the conflicts of the Greeks Asia Minor ; and Persians, embodying in his ac- travelled count many valuable observations on through the manners, customs, institutions, Egypt, Phoe- beliefs, and ideas of the world of nicia, Pales- his own day. tine, Tigro- Euphrates valley (7), along the ^gasan and Black Sea coasts. Hippocrates, Greek citizen of The first to discard superstition and Cos; studied base medical practice on observed medicine and facts ; wrote on medicine and sur- philosophy at gery. Cos ; trav- elled widely; physician and ' teacher at Athens. Ljoc rates, Rich Athenian Sophist; pupil of Gorgias; essayist citizen ; and orator. trained in music, gym- nastics, litera- ture; pupil of Gorgias. (See p. 97.) Gimon,*t Athenian citi- Party leader at Athens; naval com- zen of noble mander and general. (See " Sum- birth. maries of Events.") Myron,*! Boeotian ; stud- Hronze statues of gods and Olympian ied with an victors. Argive mas- ter-sculptor. STUDY ON THE ATHENIAN LEADEKSHIP 99 Name. Birth, Circumstanoe, and Ttaining. Cause of Fame. Pericles,* Phidias,* Pindar,*! Plato.t Polycletus,t Polygnotus,t Praxiteles, Athenian citi- zen of noble birth ; trained in philosophy, oratory, liter- ature, gym- nastics, music. Athenian citi- zen ; studied with artists and sculjitors. Theban citizen of noble family ; educated in music and poetry. Citizen of Athens; pu- pil of Socra- tes; educated in gymnastics, poetry, music. Citizen of Sicy- on ; pupil of Phidias. Tliasian ; of a family of artists, who instructed and trained him ; adopted citizen of Athens. Athenian. , . . Party leader and orator at Athens ; general and admiral. (See" Summa- ries of Events.") Designs for the Parthenon and the temple of Olympian Zeus at Olym- pia ; statues of Athena and Zeus, and tlie " Elgin marbles." Odes in praise of victors in the games; fragments of many other lyric poems. Counted the foremost lyric poet of Greece. ' Dialogues " upon subjects of mental, moral, and social philosophy; phil- osopher. Statues, mostly of athletes. Interior painted decorations of temple of Theseus at Athens, and temple at Delphi; chief artist of the famous " Painted Porch " at Athens ; chose his subjects from Greek myths. Statue of Hermes ; portrait-statues of contemporaries; his "Marble Faun" is preserved in copies. 100 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY-. Name. Birth, Circumstance, and Training. Cause of Fame. Simonides,*J Citizen of Ceos, Lyric poet ; famous poems on subjects of good fami- connected with Persian wars. ly; trained in music and « poetry. Socrates,*t Athenian citi- Dialogues with Athenian citizens upon zen; son of a subjects of mental, moral, and social sculptor; stud- philosophy, touching often upon the- ied sculpture. ology. Scopas, Parian; of a Engaged with three other Attic mas- family of ar- ters on the Mausoleum ; ^ supposed tists; worked sculptor of the famous group of in Athens. Niobe and her children. Sophocles,* Athenian citizen, Author of about seventy tragedies, of good fami- founded upon Greek myths and ly; trained in stories,- with suspected references to music, gym- contemporary events. nastics, litera- ture. Themistocles,*! Athenian citizen Party leader and orator at Athens; of good fami- naval commander. (See "Summa- ly ; trained in ries of Events.") gymnastics. oratory. music, poetry. Thucydides,t Atlienian citi- zen of good family. . . . Historian of Peloponnesian war. Xenoijlion, Athenian citi- Historian and general of the " Re- zen ; pupil of treat of the Ten Thousand";- his- Socrates ; torian of contemporary and other soldier of Greek events. fortune. 1 The monument raised by Artemisia, queen of Caria, to her husband Mansoliis. 2 ^]^q retreat of ten thousand Greeks employed by Cyrus the Yoimger, from near Babylon to the coasts of Asia Minor; it was a march of nearly 1500 iiiiles, through a hostile and unknown country (401-400). STUDY ON THE ATHENIAN LEADERSHIP. 101 STUDY ON 3 AND ON PICTURES. What seems to be the centre of (ircck greatness (hiring this time? What kinds of greatness centred there? What reason have we for calling Greek literature — drair^atic, historical, and oratorical — origi- nal? Illustrate from each kind. Name thi-ee things that seem good ZlL^S OF OTRICOLE. Late Greek work; possibly iiftcr I'liidean ZeuB. to you about the rarthenon (p. 88); the Parthenon frieze (p. 89); the Olympic Mosaic (p. ij.")) ; the head of Zeus (p. lUl) ; the Venus of Melos (p. 103). Why should Demosthenes be politically dangerous to Philip? 102 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY^ What are evident ideals of this period? What gives material and impulse to most of the great men of this time ? Illustrate from sculp- ture, architecture, literature, politics. What relation do you note between training and the "cause of fame "? To what class do these men mostly belong ? What do you know of free speech in the Athens of this period ? Looking over this list and that on p. 51, what studies do you find included under the name of philosophy ? 4. Stories and Extracts Illustrative of Period, a. Character of Pericles. (Plutarch.) Pericles was of one of the old Eupatrid families, and trained like the ordinary free Athenian, in music, literature, oratory, and gymnastics. Anaxagoras was then in Athens, and this man was " the first who clearly proved that the universe owed its formation ... to a pure . . . mind. . . . Charmed with the company of this philosopher, and instructed by him in the sublimest sciences, Pericles acquired not only an elevation of sentiment and a loftiness and purity of style, . . . but likewise a gravit}' of countenance ... a firm and even tone of voice, an easy deportment, and a decency of dress. . . . We are told, there was brought to Pericles from one of his farms a ram's head with only one horn ; and Lampo, the soothsayer, observ- ing that the horn grew strong and firm out of the middle of the forehead, declared that the two parties in the state would unite . . . and invest the power " in Pericles ; " but Anaxagoras hav- ing dissected the head," discovered the cause of this defect in some internal deformity. " Such was the solicitude of Pericles, when he had to speak in public, that he always first addressed a prayer to the gods, ' That not a word might unawares escape him unsuitable to the occasion.' " "As Cimon was his superior in point of fortune, which he employed in relieving the poor Athenians, in providing food for the needy, and clothing the aged, and, besides this, levelling his fences with the ground, that all might be at liberty to gather his fruit, Pericles had recourse to . . . dividing the public treasure ... by supplying the people with money for theatrical STTJDY ON THE ATHENIAN LEADEKSHIP. 103 STATUE OP AjfHRODITE. The •o-called Venus of Ueloa (Milo) ; marip in fifth century B.C.; attributed t* a .uiUof Pbldiaa. 104 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. diversions and for their attendance in the courts. ... As for the mechanics and meaner sort of people, they went not with- out their share of the public money, nor yet did they have it to support them in idleness. By the constructing of great edifices, they had equal pretensions to be considered out of the treasury . . . with the mariners and soldiers. For th-e different materials, such as stone, brass, ivory, gold, ebony, and cypress, furnished employment to carpenters, masons, brasiers, goldsmiths, paint- ers, turners, and other artificers ; the conveyance of them by sea emplo3'ed merchants and sailors, and by land, wheelwrights, wagoners, carriers, rope-makers, leather-cutters, pavers, and iron-founders. Thus, by the exercise of these diffei'ent trades, plenty was spread among persons of every rank and condition." "Pericles exerted all his interest to have a decree made, appointing a prize for the best performer in music, during the Panafhencea ; ^ and as he was himself appointed judge and distributor of prizes, he gave the contending artists directions in what manner to proceed, whether their performance was vocal, or on the lute or lyre." "The orators of the opposite party raised a clamour against Pericles, asserting that he wasted the public treasure, and brought the revenue to nothing. Pericles, in his defence, asked the people in full assembly, ' Whether they thought he had spent too much?' Upon their answering in the affirmative, ' Then be it,' said he, ' charged to my account, not yours ; but let the new edifices be inscribed with my name, not that of the people of Athens.'" Whereupon "they cried out, 'That he might spend as much as he pleased of the public treasure, without sparing it in the least.' " ******** "Money could not bribe him; he was so much above the desire of it, that though he added greatly to the opulence of the state, which he found not inconsiderable, and though his power exceeded that of mauy kings and tyrants, some of whom have bequeathed to their posterity the sovereignty they had 1 The Athenian festival in honor of Athena. STUDY ON THK ATHENIAN LEADERSHIP. 105 olttained, yet he added not one drdchtiKi ' to his paternal estate." His family, indeed, '•complained of a pittance daily nieasnred out with scruDulous economy." In the early part of the Laceda'monian War, Pericles was opposed to the people at Athens, but remained firm " notwith- standing the importunity of his friends and the threats and accusations of his enemies, and notwithstanding the many scoffs and songs sung to vilify his character as a general." AVlien about to set sail on a naval expedition, " there hap- pened an eclipse of the sun. This sudden darkness was looked upon as an unfavorable omen, and threw the crews into the greatest consternation. Pericles, observing that the pilot was nuich astonished and perplexed, took his cloak, and having covered his eyes with it, asked him, ' If he found anything terrible in that, or considered it as a bad presage?' Upon his answering in the negative, he said, ' Where is the difference then between this and the other, except that something bigger than my cloak causes the eclipse?'" When dying, Pericles said that the greatest and most honorable part of his character was that no Athenian, through his means, ever put on mourning. STUDY ON a. Make a list of the qualities and characteristics of Pericles How many of these helped him attain and keep his power in Athens? I low did each do this ? Which of these were virtues ? How else did lu) gain and keep power ? Did he use any means of which you dis- approve ? AVhy do you disapprove ? What do we learn of the state of religious belief in Athens fi'om these anecdotes ? What was the attitude of Pericles toward religion? of Anaxagoras? What do they teach us of the Athenian people ? lu what ways did Pericles improve the condition of the common people ? Of what use was this to Athens? To the world? b. From the Funeral Speech of Pericles over the First Dead in the Peloponnesian War. (ThnC3'dides, Jowett's translation.) " But while the law secures equal justice to all alike in their private disputes, the claim of excellence is also recognized ; 1 About 18 cents. 106 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. and when a citizen is in anyway distinguished, he is preferred to the public service, not as a matter of privilege, but as a reward of merit. . . . And we have not forgotten to provide for our weary spirits many relaxations from toil ; we have our reg- ular games and sacrifices throughout the year ; at home the style of our life is refined ; and tlie delight which we daily feel in all these things helps to banish melancholy. Because of the greatness of our city, the fruits of the whole earth flow in upon us ; so that we enjoy the goods of other countries as freely as of our own. . . . " And in the matter of education, whereas our adversaries from early youth are always undergoing laborious exercises which are to make them brave, we live at ease, and yet are equally ready to face the perils which they face. . . . ' ' If then we prefer to meet danger with a light heart but without laborious training, and with a courage which is gained by habit and not enforced by law, are we not greatly the gainers ? " We are lovers of the beautiful, yet simple in our tastes, and we cultivate the mind without loss of manliness. Wealth we employ, not for talk and ostentation, but when there is a real use for it. To avow poverty with us is no disgrace ; the true disgrace is in doing nothing to avoid it. An Athenian citizen does not neglect the state because he takes care of his own household ; and even those of us who are engaged in busi- ness have a very fair idea of politics. We alone regard a man who takes no interest in public affairs, not as a harmless but as a useless character. . . . " To sum u\) : I say that Athens is the school of Hellas, aud that the individual Athenian in his own person seems to have the power of adapting himself to the most varied forms of action with the utmost versatility and grace. . . . " I would have you day by day fix your eyes upon the great- ness of Athens, until you become filled with the love of her ; and when you are impressed by the spectacle of her glory, reflect that this empire has been acquired by men who knew STUDY ON THE ATHENIAN LEADERSHIP. 107 their dut}' and had the courage to do it, who in the liour of con- flict had the fear of dishonor always present to tliem. . . . " For the whole eartli is a sepulchre of famous men ; not only are they commemorated by columns and inscriptions in their own country, but in forciign lands there dwells also an un- written memorial of tliem, graven not on stone but in the hearts of men. Make them your examples, and, esteeming courage to be freedom and freedom to be happiness, do not weigh too nicely the perils of war. ..." STUDY ON b. Describe the Athenian ideal of character as shown in the " Speech of Pericles." With wlioni does he contrast Athens in the matter of education ? In what particulars do you think the general American ideal of life agrees with the Atlienian ? Disagrees ? On the whole, which ideal do you thmk preferable? What does Pericles mean by saying that "the whole earth is a sepulchre of famous men"? How is it illustrated by Greek history ? c. The Defence and Death of Socrates. Xenophon tells us that Socrates, the Athenian philosopher, was condemned to death on the following indictment : — • '' iSocrates oft'euds against the laws iu not paying respect to those gods whom the city respects, and introducing other new deities ; he also offends against the laws iu corrupting tlie youtli." When brought before his accusers he defended himself as follows (Plato, Jowett's translation) : — " Let the event be as God wills ; in obedience to the law I make my defense. . . . '' Some one will say : And are you not asliamed, Socrates, of a course of life which is likely to bring you to an untimely end? To him I may fairly answer : Tliere 30U are mistaken : a man who is good for anything ought not to calculate the chance of living or dying ; lie ouglit only to consider wlietlier in doing anything lie is doing right or wrong, — acting tlie part of a good man or a bad. . . . 108 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. "If you say to me, Socrates, this time we will not raiud Anytus, and will let you off, but upon one condition, that 3'ou are not to enquire and speculate in this way an^' more, and that if you are caught doing this again you shall die, — if this were the condition on which you let me go, I should reply : Men of Athens, I honor and love you ; but I shall obey God rather than you, and while I have life and strength I shall never cease from the practise and teaching of philosoph}', exhorting any one whom I meet after my manner, and convincing him, sa3uug : O my friend, why do you who are a citizen of the great and might}' and wise city of Athens, care so much about laying up the greatest amount of money and honor and reputation, and so little about wisdom and truth and the greatest improvement of the soul, which 3-ou never regard or heed at all ? . . . " I tell you that virtue is not given by money, but that from virtue come money and every good of mail, pul)lic as well as private. This is my teaching ; and if this is the doctrine which corrupts the youth, my influence is ruinous indeed. . . . "I do believe that there are gods, and in a far higher sense than that in which any of my accusers believe in them. And to yon and to God I commit my cause, to be determined by you as is best for you and me. ..." Then followed the voting for and against the condemnation of Socrates, and by a very small majority he was condemned to death. After this Socrates still continued; "... Now I depart hence, condemned by you to sulTer the penalt}' of death, and my accusers, too, go their ways condemned b}' truth to suffer the penalty of villainy and wrong : and I must abide by ni}^ reward — let them abide by theirs. . . . " We shall see that there is great reason to hope that death is a good, for one of two things : either death is a state of nothingness and utter unconsciousness, or, as men say, there is a change and migration of the soul from this world to another. . . . " Wherefoi'e, O judges, l)e of good cheer about death, and know tliis of a trutJi — that no evil can happen to a good man, STUDY OF THK ATIIKNIAX J.KAI )i:i:SI 1 1 1'. 100 either in life or iifter death. He and liis are not neglected by the gods ; nor lias my own approaching end happened hy mere chance. l>nt I see clearl}' that to die and be released was l)etter for me ; and thei'efore the oracle gave no sign. . . . " The hour of departure has arrived, and we go our ways — I to die, you to live. Which is better, God only knows. ..." Socrates was then taken to prison, whither Iiis disciples often came. On the morning of their last meeting, Socrates is said to have spoken thus: '''I have good hope that there is yet something remaining for the dead, and as has been said of old, some far better thing for the good than for the evil. . . . '' ' Tlicu the foolishness of the body will be cleared away, and we shall be pure and hold converse with other pure souls, and know of ourselves the clear light everywhere ; and this is surely the light of truth. For no impure thing is allowed to approach the pure. . . . But then, O my friends,' he said, ' if the soul is really immortal, what care should be taken of her, not only in respect of the portion of time which is called life, but of eter- nity ! And tlie danger of neglecting her from this point of view does indeed appear to be awful. If death had only been- the end of all, the wicked would have had a good bargain in dying, for they would have been happily quit, not only of their body, but of their own evil together with their souls. But now, as the soul plainly appears to be immortal, there is no release or salvation from evil except the attainment of the highest virtue and wisdom. . . . Wherefore, . . . what ought we not to do in order to obtain virtue and wisdom in life? Fair is tlie prize and the hope great.' . . . Soon tlie jailer entered . . . and handed the cup to Socrates, who in the easiest and gentlest manner, without the least fear or change of color or feature, looking at the man with all his eyes, as his manner was, took the cup and said : ' "What do you say about making the libation out of tliis cu[) to any god? May I or not?' The man answered : ' AVe only prepare, Socrates, just so much as we deem enough.' "1 understand,' he said, 'yet I may and must pra}' to the gods to )irosi)er my journey from this to that 110 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. other world. May this then, whic^i is my prayer, be granted to me.' '"Then holding the cup to his lips, quite readily and cheer- fully he drank off the poison." STUDY ON c. What qualities of character did Socrates show in his defence? What were his religious beliefs? How far were they like ours? How far diiferent ? Why was the religious belief of a man a matter of political importance in a Greek state ? What was Socrates' ideal of life? What proof can you give that Socrates had a large Athenian following? What qualities of character did Socrates show in his death ? d. Quotations from, the Tragedians. " The lips of Zeus know not to speak a lying speech, But will perform each single word." — ^-Escliylus. " Nor did I deem thy edicts strong enough That thou, a mortal man, should'st overpass The unwritten laws of God that know not change." — Sophocles. " Let those who live do right ere death descendeth ; The dead are dust ; mere nought to nothing teudeth." ******* " For mere high birth I have small meed of praise ; The good man in my sight is nobly born." ******* " For men of courage and of virtuous soul. Though born of slaves, are far above vain titles." * * * * * * * " There are three virtues to observe, my son : Honour the gods, the parents that begot you. The laws of Hellas. Follow these. And you will win the fairest crown ol" honour." STFD7" OlSr TTTE ATHENIAN LEADERSHIP. Ill '' For when the rabble is strong and falling into rage, it is as liard to (juell as a fierce fire. But if one quietly yield, watch- ing well his chance, perhaps it may spend the fury of its blasts and give you your own way as much as you please. For pity and passion are alike inherent in the masses, giving excellent advantage to one who carefully watches his opportunity." ******* "The populace is a terrible thing when it has evil leaders; but when it has good ones, it always deliberates well." " God rules as he wills the events that happen to mortals." " I think not that an}- of the gods is bad." " This is more noble, my son, to honour equality, which ever links friends with friends and states with states and allies with allies ; for equality is sanctioned by law among men." " AVhy dost thou honor so unl)oundedly that prosperous injustice, royalty, and think so highly of her? " " All the life of man is full of pain, nor is there any respite from our toil ; but whatever state there may he better than this is hid in shrouding clouds of darkness. Fond, indeed, we seem of this glittering earthly life through want of trial of any other and through want of proof of what there is beneath the ground." ******* "Confidence is seated in my soul that the man who reveres the gods will fare prosperously." ******* " Ilis state is easiest whose wife is settled in his house, a cipher. ... A wise woman I detest ; may there not be in my house, at least, a woman more highly gifted with mind than women ought to be." 112 STUDIES I2s GENERAL HISTOllY. " Silence and modesty are best for a woman, remaining quietly ^A•ithiu." — Euripides. e. From the Comedies of Aristopliwips. (Frere's translation.) '•'• Demus [the personified Athenian people]. AVhy, sure, you don't believe in the gods. Nicias. I do. Dem. But what's your argument? Where's your proof ? Nic. Because I feel they persecute and hate me ; in spite of ever^'thing I try to please 'em. Dem. "Well, well. That's true ; you're right enough in that. )) In the following extract Aristophanes personifies the Athenian Ecclesia : — "He's a man in years. A kind of a bean-fed, husky, testy character, Choleric and ])rutal at times, and partly deaf." In this same play, the " Knights," the following conversation occurs between a sausage-seller and a leading demagogue : — " /S'./S'. Are there any means of making a great man Of a sausage-selling fellow such as I? Dem. The verj- means you have must make you so. Low breeding, vulgar birth, and impudence, — These, these must make ye what ye're meant to be. Tell me truly : are ye allied To the families of the gentry? ^S'-.S. Naugh. not I ; I'm come from a common, ordinary kindred, Of the lower order. Dem. What a liapi)iness ! What a footing will it give ye ! What a ground- work For confidence and favor at your outset ! S.S. But bless ye ! Only consider my education ! I can but barely read, — in a kind of a way. Dem. That makes against ye ! — The only thing against ye, — The being able to read in any way." STUDY ON PERIOD 431-338. 113 STUDY ON d AND c. What do the extracts Iroiii Kuripides and Ari.stophaues show of the political faults of Athens? Illustrate from the Athenian history. What political virtues do they refer to ? What three religious tenden- cies appear in these extracts and in the account of Socrates? Wliat do these extracts tell us of social life ? In General. — Why is the Age of Pericles thought so great ? Why should not such an age have come to Sparta? What reasons can you find for its comiu"- to Athens ? E.F. STUDY ON PERIOD 431-338. — Prom Opening of the Peloponnesian War to the Battle of Ohaeronea. Chief coiitemporaiy authorities : Xenophon, Demosthe- nes, Isocrates, Plato. Other chief original authorities : Plutarch, Diodorus. Cliief modern authorities : Grote and Curtius. 1. Suininart/ of Principal Political, Militarij, and Naval Events, 431-362. Peloponnesian War, carried on with varying fortunes and with various combinations of the Greek states under the opj)osiMg leaderships of 431 TO 404. Si^arta and Athens. Now a city revolts or changes sides, now enters, now withdraws from the conflict. Persian money often helps the Spartan allies. In 405 occurs tlie battle of ^Egospotami ; the fleet of the Athenians is completel}^ defeated, and the states formerl}^ allied with and subject to her submit to Sparta. Athens herself holds out, though without allies and ill- provisioned. The Athenians, perisliing of famine, accede to the following demands of the Lacedaunonians : the tearing down of their walls, the surrender of 404 TO 399. 114 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. all their ships but twelve, and the taking back of theii exiles; they shall, moreover, have the same friends and foes ai- he Lacedsemonians, and "follow by land and by sea whtx-ever they may lead." The Athenian democracy is now overthrown by the help of Sparta, and an oligarchy of thirty, known as the Thirty Tyrants, is established. These first expel or execute the democratic leaders, confis- cate their property, and finally disarm and exclude from Athenian privilege and protection all but 3,000 citizens, chosen by themselves. They also forbid any sophist to teach in Athens. The exiles return and attack Athens; the Spartan king interferes, expels the Thirty on account oi t^ ^ir atrocities, restores the exiles, ilie Athenians, meeting now in full assembly, vote back a democral'.y, declare a general am- nesty for all save the nl .. conspicuous oligarchs, and decree a revision and publication of the Athenian laws. The Persians autack the Asiatic Greeks, who are under Spartan protection ; war between Per- sia and Sparta ; Rhodes revolts from the Spartan 399 TO 394. leadership ; Corinth, Thebes, and Athens refuse her any aid, and finally themselves attack her. In 394, r-^-' the battle of Cnidus, the Persians overthrow the nava j^..vver of Sparta, and release from her power the ^iries of the iEgtean. War is made on Sparta by Thebes, Athens, Argos, and Corinth; it ends by the "Peace of Antalcidas," which is composed at 394 TO 387. the Persian court by Spartan request, and sent to Greece for the cities to sign. This peace reads as follows : — " Artaxcrxos, the kin^;, thinks it right that the cities in Asia . . . sliould hidong to liiniself, and that he should Icav the other Greek cities, small and great, free. . . . Wliichsoever of the two parties does not assent to those terms of peace, I STUDY ON TERIOD 4ni-3r58. 115 myself, in (•oiijiiuction with lliose who receive them, will make war upon that party both by land and l)y sea, both w'th ships and with money." 387 TO 379. 378 TO 371. Growing dissatisfaction of Orceks witli S})arta; Spartans expelled from Thebes ; Persians dis- tribute money among tlie Greeks to lielp them against Sparta. Athens and Tliebes, in alliance, lead in a war against Sparta. At the battle of Leuctra the Spartan military power on land is broken by Thebes ; S})arta is compelled to withdraw her officers and garrison?, , from all the Greek cities, and leave them independent. ]\Iany of the Greek cit'.es now ally themselves with Thebes, who leads \r • against Sparta, Ejximinondas being the Theban general. 371 TO 362. STUDY ON I. Why should the Persians help Sparta rather than Athens in the Peloponnesian War ? AVhy should the battle of iEgospotami decide this war for Athens ? Why should " the Thirty " forbid any sophist to teanh in Athens? Remark upon the proceedings of "the Thirty" as { "'ed with those of the restored Athenian democracy. What power has r " ia to dictate terms of peace ? What is the attitude of the various states towards Sparta? Prove it. Towards Persia? Prove it. 2. Suinmary of Leading Events, 362-338. Conquests of Philip of Macedon in Thrace, Illy- ria, and along the northern coast of the iEgean ; in spite of Athenian opposition, he conqners the Greek towns of Chalcidice. He threatens the Hellespont and Chersonese. Meanwhile a Sacred War goes on, in ^^^lich various Greek states, led by Theb(?s, war on Pliocis, because the Amphictyony has accused her of desecrating, by cultivation, a part of the sacred fields of Delphi. Philip 363 TO 346. 116 STUDIES IN GEKEKAL HISTOKY. declares himself the champion of Apollo, wins Delphi from the Phocians, and in return gains a seat and two votes in the Araphictyonic council, in spite of strong objections on the part of the Athenians. Difficulties and ill-feeling between those Athen- ians who favor and those who oppose Philij). The latter party is led by the orator Demosthe- 346 TO 340. nes. Philip enters Thrace and advances on Chersonese; the Athenians defend their threatened allies against him, roused to activity by the third Philippic of Demosthenes, in which he says : — " I observe that . . . 3'ou have conceded Philip aright, which in former times has been the subject of contest in every Grecian war. And what is this? The right of doing what he pleases, openly fleecing and pillaging the Greeks, one after another, attacking and enslaving their cities. You were at the head of the Greeks for seventy-three years, the Lacedaemonians for twenty-nine ; and the Thebans had some power in these latter times after the battle of Leuctra. Yet neither of you, my countrymen, nor Thebans, nor Lacedsemonians, were ever licensed by the Greeks to act as you please ; far otherwise. When you, or rather the Athenians of that time, appeared to be dealing harshly with certain people, all the rest, even such as had no complaint against Athens, thought proper to side with the injured parties in a war against her. . . . Yet all the faults committed by the Spartans in those thirt}' years, and by our ancestors in seventy, are fewer, men of Athens, than the wrongs which, in the less than thirteen years that Philip has been uppermost, he has inflicted on the Greeks : . . . AVhat is the condition of Thessaly ? Has he not taken away her consti- tutions and the governments of her cities? . . . Are not the Eubffian states governed now by despots, and that in an island near to Tliebes and Athens ? Does he not expressly write in his epistles, ' I am at peace with those who are willing to obey me '? . . . And we, the Greek community, seeing and hearing STUDY OF PERIOD 431-338. 117 this, instead of sending embassies to one anotlier about it and expressing indignation, are in such a miserable state, so in- trenched in our separate towns, that to this day we can attempt nothing that interest or necessity requires ; we cannot combine or form any association for succor and alliance ; we look uncon- cernedly on the man's growing power, each resolving, methinks, to enjoy the interval that another is destroyed in, neither caring nor striving for the salvation of Greece. ^ ^ ^ ^ '^ ^ ^ " First, let us prepare for our own defense ; provide ourselves, I mean, with ships, money, and troops ; for surely, though all other people consented to be slaves, we at least ought to struggle for freedom. When we have completed our own preparations and made them apparent to the Greeks, then let us invite the rest, and send our embassadors every where . . . to Peloponnesus, to Rhodes, to Chios, to the king. . . . This work belongs to you ; this privilege your ancestors bequeathed to you, the prize of many perilous exertions." The Locrians are accused by the Amphictyony of cultivating the sacred plain of Apollo; war is declared against them and Philip elected general. Thebans and Athenians decline to join under his lead. Philip conquers the Theban and Athenian forces in the battle of Clueronea ; he calls a congress of Greeks at Corinth to settle their common affairs ; there war is pro- posed and declared against Persia, for which each Greek state is to furnish men or ships, while Philip is to be their captain-general. From this time to 146 B.C., in spite of many struggles and much confusion, Greece is under Macedonian leadership or supremacy. STUDY ON 2. Name in order the states which lead tlie Greeks after the Pelopon- nesian War. How in eacli instance is the leadership obtauied? What is the general condition of affairs among the Greek states from 340 TO 338. 118 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 439 to 338 ? The battle of Chseronea is often held co mark the fall o£ Greece. Why ? What seem to you to be the causes of that fall ? Why does Greece fall into the hand of the Macedonian and not into that of the Persian? How might this fall have been averted? By what change in organization ? In spirit ? Illustrate or remark on each paragraph taken from Demosthenes. STUDY ON GENERAL COURSE OF GREEK HISTORY. What characterizes Greek political history? AVhat state appears as the champion of Pan-hellenism ? Give instances. What is the application of the motto on p. 32? How does each Homeric ideal develop in later history ? What relation between the Homeric ideals and the development of the Greek character ? Why does that char- acter develop so differently in different places ? How does it come to vary so widely in Athens ? STUDY ON THE HELLENISTIC KINGDOMS. 119 THE HELLENISTIC OR ALEXANDRIAN CON- QUESTS AND KINGDOMS, 388-146 B.C. " Tliink of tlie crowds of Dionysiac artists, and their joyous wandering life, the festivals and games of old and new Greek cities, even in the far East, to which are gathered from afar festive spectators in a common worship. As far as the colonies on the Indus and Jaxartes, the Greek has kinsmen and finds countrymen. . . . Science orders into system the marvel- lous traditions of the Babylonians, Egyptians, and Hindoos, and strives, from a comparison of them, to gain new results. All these streams o? civilization . . . are now united in the cauldron of Hellenistic culture." — Droysen. No contemporary authority, aside from existing monu- ments, the most famous of these being the remains and the sculptures found at Pergamos ; chief original authorities : Arrian and Plutarch. Chief modern authorities accessible in English: Grote, Thirlwall, Finlay. Chronological Suntinarj/ of Important Events in the Hellenistic World, 338 B.C. to Period of Honian Dominion,, On the death of Philip, Alexander is chosen in | — rrr- a congress of the Greek states at Corinth, as to 334. geiieral-in-chief of the Greek forces against the Persian. Tliebes revolts against him and is subdued. Sparta remains independent. He receives the nominal sanction of Delphi for his enterprise. Alexander crosses the Hellespont, and follows the route indicated in the map (see p. 74) ; at Troy he offers sacrifices and honors to the Greek heroes of the Trojan War, and raises altars to Zeus, Heracles, and Athena. At the Granicus, he wins a victory over the Persians ; from 120 STUDIES IN GENEKAL HISTORY. the spoils he sends three hundred suits of armor to be dedicated to Athena, in the Acropolis ; Phrygia and Sardis submit. Alexander proclaims liberty to the Lydians, and restores the democratic government of Ephesus. Con- tinued success along the coast. Battle at Issus. — Alexander meets Darius, king of Persia, and destroys his army ; Darius, escaping to Babylon, raises a second ; Damascus 334 TO 330. and Sidon submit to Alexander, who wins Tyre by a diffi- cult siege ; lie gains the submission of Egypt and founds Alexandria. On his return to Phoenicia, he celebrates festivals and contests in the Greek style. Thence he starts for Babylon, meets Darius at Arbela, thoroughly defeats him, and becomes the master of the Persian Em- pire; he apportions its satrapies to his followers or friends; occupies Susa and Persepolis. Alexander marches eastward, receiving the submission of the tribes, and founding cities ; pressing through mountain passes, crossing des- r 330 TO 333. erts and rivers, he reaches India. The soldiers refuse to go further. Alexander offei's sacrifice and finds the omens unpropitious ; erects altars to the great Greek gods and starts homeward. He prepares a fleet, which coasts the Indian Ocean from the Indus to the Euphrates, through waters before unknown to Europeans. On his return to Susa he marries the daughter of Darius, and about ten thousand Macedonians also take Persian wives. He goes to Babylon and prepares to circumnavigate Arabia and explore the Euphrates ; but dies from the effect of a drunken revel. Wars of the generals of Alexander for the right of dominion over liis empire. In 301 is fought the battle of Ipsus, in Phrygia, which 383 TO 301. finally settles the division of the Alexandrian or Hellen- STUDY ON THE HELLENISTIC KINGDOMS. 121 istic kingdoms : the chief of these are EgyiJt, which falls to the Ptolemies ; Syria under the Seleucidce ; Peryamos, in the north-western part of Asia Minor, ruled by the line of Attalids ; Macedon itself, to which Greece remains more or less subject. These kingdoms maintain an inde- pendent existence under absolute rulers, supported by standing armies that are officered by Greeks and Macedo- nians, until they become part of the Roman dominion in the first and second centuries B.C. The period from 323 to 146 B.C. is marked in Greece by a series of attempts at local independence and social and political reform ; these attempts are made, — • sometimes by individual cities, no- tably, by Athens under Demosthenes, and by Sparta under its kings Agis and Cleomenes, — and sometimes by the Greek leagues, notably, the Achaean and ^tolian. Each of the cities in these leagues has its own local govern- ment, but their common business is done by an assem- bly or council chosen by all, in which each city has one vote. QUESTIONS ON \. In the name of what people are the conquests of Alexander made? Xame all the proofs of this. How far is he himself Greek? Proofs. Why does the conquest of a country mean the conquest of its cities ? Of what value are his conquests to commerce? Why should the motto on p. 119 be chosen? On the face of it, what fault is there in the Greek attempts at inde- pendence ? In these leagues what new political form do you note ? What modern governments do they somewhat resemble ? See Majy facing li. 75, Note. — Alexander himself is said to have founded more than seventy towns ; in each he left a permanent Greek-speaking garrison, ruling the native population according to Greek political forms and ideas. 122 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. QUESTIONS ON MAP AND NOTE. How does the size of this empire compare with that of those before noticed ? Wliat element of unity does it possess ? What element does it lack ? Why should Alexander turn eastward rather than westward for conquest ? What wisdom is displayed in choosing the coast-route rather than in striking for the interior ? What is the use of his estab- lishing towns along his route ? What great cities of the world are due to the foundations of Alexander and his successors? Of what value is the position of Alexandria ? What does his march alone tell us of the character of Alexander ? Of his greatness ? What civilizations are brought into mutual contact by these conquests? 2. List of FaTHOus N'aines and Works in the Kingdoms of tJie Diadochw (Successors of Alexander). Name. Birth, Circumstance, > Training. Cause of Fame. Language. ApoUonius 3d, Greek; studied Epic poet; took as sub- Greek. of Rhodes, under Callimach- us ; taught rhet- oric at Rhodes ; superintendent of Alexandrian library. ject the early Greek myths of " The Argo- nautic Expedition." Aratus, 3d, Greek of Asia Minor; court physician to Ma- cedonian king ; patronized by Ptolemies. Poet; giving scientific instruction in verse ; his poems were popu- lar among the Ro- mans, and he was imitated to some ex- Greek. I- tent by Virgil. Archimedes, 3d, Greek of Syracuse ; studied at Alex- andria in the Royal School of the Ptolemies; personal friend of Hiero, liis patron, and king of Syracuse. Inventi'd methods of and instruments for investigating natural forces ; greatest math- ematical and mechani- cal genius of antiquity. Greek. STUDY ON THE HELLENISTIC KINGDOMS. 12S Name. Birth, Circumstance, Training. Cause of Fame. Language. 1 o /Aristophanes .3d, Greek of Byzan- Founded a school for Greek. of Byzan- tium; studied grammar and criti- tium, / under Eratosthen- es of Alexandria. cism ; superintendent of Alexandrian libra- ry; Homeric critic ; commented on works of Hesiod, Alcaeus, Pindar, Plato, and Aristotle ; invented Greek system of punctuation and accent. l...„eh„. 3(1, Greek of Samos. Astronomer; the first to maintain that the earth moves around the sun, thus antici- pating the discovery of Copernicus. Greek. Berosus, 3fl, Babylonian priest ; was patronized by the Greek Antiochus. Translated Babylonian history into Greek, from original records. Greek. Bion, 3d, Greek of Asia Minor ; spent the latter part of his life in Sicily. Poet ; wrote on the beauties of nature and the pleasures of life in the country. Greek. Diogenes, 4th, Greek of Sinope ; banished; lived in Athens and Corinth. Cynic philosopher; teaching the vanity of human desires, oc- cupations, and achieve- ments. Greek. 124- STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. Name. Epicurus, 4th, Eratosthenes Euemeros, Euclid, Euraenes II., 3d, 4th and 3d, 3d, 2(1, Birth, Circumstance, Training. Samian Greek ; son of a common school-master ; teacher of phil- osophy in Athens. Alexandrian Greek, born at Gyrene ; superintendent of Alexandrian library. Sicilian Greek; in service of Mace- donian king. Greek; patronized by Ptolemies. Cause of Fame, King of Pergamos. Founder of Epicurean school of jjhilosophy, which teaches that happiness should be the aim of human conduct. Astronomer, geogra- pher, and geometri- cian ; invented present method of measuring the size of the earth, which he taught was round. Author of a work to show that the gods were but heroes dei- fied by men on ac- count of their great deeds. Founded a mathemati- cal school at Alexan- dria; author of " Elements of Geome- try," which for twenty centuries has held its ground as an intro- duction to geometry. Founded the famous library ^ at Pergamos; built the great Porga- mon altar to Atliena, and had Pergamos adorned witli beauti- ful scul])turcs. Language. Greek. Greek. Greek. Greek. Greek. ^ The library contained 200,000 volumes when Antony presented it to Cleopatra. STUDY ON THE HELLENI.STIC KINGDOMS. 12^ . Name. \ / Birth, Circumstance, Training, Cause of Fame. Language. liipparchus, 2d, Greek of Niea^a in Bithynia. Founder of niathcniati- c;al astronomy and of plane and spherical trigonometry ; greatest astronomer of antiquity. Greek. Manctho, 3.1, Egyptian priest and annalist ; patronized hy Ptolemies. Translated orjginal historical records of Egypt into Greek. Greek. Menander, 4t]i, Athenian Greek ; associate of phil- osophers and a man of society. Author of comedies whose material was taken from domestic and common life. [Neia Comedy). Greek. \ yTotlemy 4th General of Alex- Rebuilt and ornament- Greek. »/ Soter, and ander the Great ed the temples of the / 3d, in the Asiatic campaign ; king of Egypt and founder of the Grajco-Egyptian dynasty. Egyptian gods ; col- lected a library and founded the Museum, or college of profes- sors, thus forming a true university .1 / Ptolemyrhil- 3d, Hereditary king of Reopened the canal of Greek. adelpiius, Egypt. Rameses II. ; built Arsinoe on the site of modern Suez, also built cities on the ^ " The Museum, or university building, comprised chambers for the professors ; a common hall where they took their meals together ; a long corridor for exercise and ambulatory lectures ; a theatre for scholastic festivals and public disputations ; a botanical garden and a menagerie." 126 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. Name. =1 Id §00 o 1 Birth, Circumstance, j Training. Cause of Fame. Language, Red Sea coast, through which the merchan- dise of India, Arabia, and Ethiopia reached Europe for several centuries ; had the Arabian coast ex- plored ; the Hebrew Scriptures translated into Greek (Septua- gint), about his time. Pyrrho, 4th Greek of Elis ; Taught that truth from Greek. and high priest ; poet. a scientific point of / 3d, painter, philoso- pher; joined the expedition of Alexander the Great. view was unattaina- ble ; founder of a school of skeptics. / Seleucus 4th, Son of Antiochus, Founded Syrian mon- Greek. Nikator, a general of Philip of Mace- don, who accom- panied Alexander the Great in his Asiatic expedi- tion. archy ; founded the city of Seleucia ; built Antioch. Theocritus, 3d, Greek of Syracuse ; went to Alexan- dria and secured the patronage of Ptolemy I'hila- delphus. Poet ; using same ma- terial as Bion. Greek. STUDY ON THE HELLENISTIC KINGDOMS. 127 QUESTIONS ON 2. It is said that the coii(;[uests of Alexander were tlie con(;[uests of Hellenism ; how far is this true ? Proofs. In what directions was Hellenism developed under the Diadoclue? "What effect had the Alexandrian conquest on language? What historic reason for the rapid development of the Greek civilization in Egypt and in Asia ? What were the centres of this development? On what did this development depend for support? Illustrate from commerce, liter- ature, art. What new forms of literature arose during this period? ('()mi:iare Theocritus and ^-Eschylus ; Menander and Aristophanes; comparing material alone, which poets rank higher? What studies were further developed? What historic reason for this? What did men think about in philosophy? Compare with Socrates and the earlier philosophers. 128 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. I. I,:itiuin. J I. Ktruria. Hi. Saliinc I..ili(l. IV. CiHulpitif (iaul. V. .Siiniiiiiiiu. VI. CaniiKiiiia. y\\. Ajiulia. VIII. liubiia. STUDY ON REGAL AND PKiE-PUNIC ROME. 129 ROME, 753(?) B.C. -800 A.D. S.P.Q.R. (" SenatHS Populusque Bomanus," — The Senate and the People of Rome). "... Others, I grant indeed, shall with more delicacy mold the breathing brass; from marble draw the features to the life; plead causes better; describe with the rod the courses of the heavens, and explain the rising stars : to rule the nations with imperial sway be thy care, O Roman ; these shall be thy arts ; to impose terms of peace, to spare the humbled and crush the proud." — Virgil. Periods of Roman History. A. Regal, 753(?)-510(?) B.C. B. Republican, 510(?)-27. I. Prce-Punic Period, 510 (?) - 264. II. Punic'^ Period, 264-146. III. Post-Punic, 146-27. C. Imperial, 27 B.C. - 1806 A.D. I. Pagan Empire, 21 B.C. -S2S A.D. II. Christian Empire, 323-800, dividing into Holy Roman Empire (Western J, 800-1806, Byzantine or Creek Empire (Eastern), 800-1453. Note on Map of Italy. — The valley.s and table-lands of the Apennines are connected by easy passes, and their slopes are grassy and fertile, — scarcely reaching the snow-line. Th^ products of the land, and the dress and food of the people were similar to those of Greece. Latium on the north " imperceptibly merged into the liroad highlands of Etruria " ; its plain was easily worked and richly productive ; Rome itself was placed on seven hills, where three allied Italian tribes had their strongholds, and controlled either shore of Tiber to the sea. ^ So-called because it is marked by the great wars of Rome and Car- thage; Prae-Punic means the time before these wars, Post-Punic the period after. 130 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. QUESTIONS ON MAP AND NOTE. What are the natural boundaries of Italy? How, and from what do they protect her ? "What geographical reasons can you give for the race-division of Italy? What geographic contrasts do you see between Greece and Italy? What difference will these contrasts cause, (a) in relative dates of the beginnings of Greek and Italian civilization? (b) in the size of Greek and Italian states? (e) in the natural occupations of the inhabitants? Reason for each answer. What advantages of position has Rome ? What advantages of posi- tion have the people of Latium as compared with those of Samnium ? Th3 commerce of what countries can the masters of Italy and Sicily control ? How ? (See map of Roman Empire under Trajan, pp. 190, 191.) A. B. I. STUDY ON EEGAL EOME AND PEil-PUNIO EEPUBLIO, 753(?)-510(?)-264 B.C. Chief contemporary authorities: remains of laws and inscriptions ; the walls and other monuments of the kings and the early republic. Other chief original authorities: Livy, Plutarch, Dionysius. Chief modern authorities : Mommsen, Ihue, Duruy. 1. Classes of Peojyle in Early Monte. ■ Patricians, who claim descent from the founders and settlers of Rome : they belong to three different Italian tribes, each tribe being subdivided into clans, and these again into families. Plebeians, who seem to be the descendants of strangers and unrelated settlers on the Roman hills ; they are not allowed to marry into patrician families, nor to share their religious rites. Slaves, who largely consist of those sold for debt or taken captive in war. STUDY ON nEOAL AND im:.T':-punic home. 131 2. The Political Oi'ffanizations (Constitutions) of the Pei'iod. a. Duties and Powers of Various Parts of Regal Rome, 753(?)-510(?) B.C. Parts of the State in War. Law. Administration. Religion. King, patrician Commands Proposes ; Clrooses and Nominates from any the army ; judges. summons sen- priests and tribe. (Iccideswar with power ate and magis- priestesses ; (except ag- of life and trates; is state offers sacri- gressive) , death. treasurer; de- fices, and and peace. crees and car- ries through public works ; ' nominates successor. consults the gods in behalf of the state. Senate of 300 Approves Consulted Senators rule patricians ; the motion by king ; by turns in 100 clan- for aggres- approves case of an elders from sive war. or disap- interregnum.2 each tribe. proves his measures. ^Curiate Assem- Composes Confirms or Constructs pub- bly, com- army ; rejects lic works ; ac- Worships posed of the votes upon laws ; has cepts nomina- together, men of the aggressive right of tion of king ; grouped in patrician war. pardon if meets to hear curies, each tribes divided king per- commands, cury with into curies.^ mits an aj)- peal ; no discussion allowed. news, etc. its own priest. ^ For public works of Regal Rome, see p. 140. 2 Space of time between the rules of two successive kings. * A " Cury " was a group of clans distinguished from the others by a closer blood-relationship among themselves. 132 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. Note. — Servius Tullius, the contemporary of Solon, adds to this organization the Centuriate Assembly, composed of all land-holding patricians and plebeians, divided into centuries or hundreds ; those possessing property within certain fixed amounts are placed in the same centurj'. This new assembly composes the Roman army, builds public works, and has the right to accept or reject by its vote aggres' sive warfare. STUDY ON a. Of whom is this state practically composed ? Where is its power centred ? Who feels this power? How ? If a revolution occur, what will you expect to find changed ? What are the bonds of union in this state? Why should the plebeians be admitted to the army? What does this change show in regard to their number in Rome ? What power does it give them in case they are wronged ? At what may the plebeians be dissatisfied? What name will you give this form of government? h. Constitution of Rome as changed at 510 B.C. Parts of the State in War. Law. Administration. Religion. Two annual Command Propose Appoint dicta- Offer sacri- consuls; pa- the army. measures to tor, quffistors. fices and tricians. centuries and senators ; consult and senate; accept or re- gods for judge, but ject consular the com- must allow nominations of nmnity, by an appeal centuries. means of to the priests and centuries. augurs,! wlio are patricians. ! Tiie auspices and auguries played llie part in Rome wliich tlie oracles did in Greece. Tlie flight of birds, tlie quivering entrails of freshly slaughtered victims, tlie thunder, lightning, and eartliqualie revealed to the Konians the will of their deities. This will was interpreted to tliem by the augurs, who foniu'd a regular college supported by the state. The STUDY ON REGAL AND PR^-PUNIC ROME. 133 Parts of the State in War. Law. Administration. Religion. One dictator Same powers as those of king in Regal Period. on occasion ; patrician. Senate, essen- Declares Confirms or Confirms or re- Appoints tially patri- war and rejects de- jects elected (lays of spe- cian. peace. cisions of ofiicers ; con- cial suppli- centuries ; trols expendi- cation. debates ture; makes sacrifice, measures to and breaks or thanks- be proposed alliances. giving. by consuls. Curiate Takes oath of Decides on Assembly ; allegiance to some patrician. the consul or dictator. religious matters. Centuriate Composes Confirms or Elects consuls. Is present Assembly, as the army ; rejects pro- at acts of before. consents to posals of public aggressive consuls ; worship. war. has right of pardon on an appeal ; meets to hear com- mands, news, etc.; no debate. Romans did not feel justified in entering on any i)ublic action, unsanctioned by the go<]s ; thus their laws, their treaties, tlieir records, their standards of weight and measure, were ])rotected by tlie temples and the priests. 'I'he former were built, the latter were supported, by the public treasury; the senate-house was a temple ; every public assembly, every expedition, began with prayers to the gods. 134 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. STUDY ON I AND 2, a, 6. What are tlie two greatest differences between this and the formeT constitution ? What is now the strongest part of the state ? In whose hands is the power ? What class has probably made this change, and why ? What name will you give to this sort of govern- ment? What part of the state is now oppressed, and in what does that oppression consist ? What power has this part to overcome this oppression ? What bonds of union are there in this state ? Where does each bond appear ? Which bond is most prominent ? W^hat part of the state is increasing in power ? c. The Roman Coiistitution at 264 b.c. PaHs of the State in War, Law, Administration, Religion. Two annual As before. Propose Convene senate, As before ; Consuls, pa- measures centuries, and but the trician and to centuries tribes. priests and plebeian. and senate. augurs are patrician and plebeian. One annual Judges. Convenes and Praetor, patri- gets decrees cian or from senate. plebeian. Two Censors, Declare who has Perform patrician and the right to sit lustrations.' plebeian. in the senate, vote in this or that assembly, hold this or that office ; look after pre- servation of manners and morals. 1 Sacrifices for purification from some public crime. STUDY ON REGAL AND PRiE-PUNIC ItOMK. 13^ Parts of the State in War. Laiv. Administration. Religion, Ten annual Propose Convene, con- Tribunes, measures sult, obtain, plebeians. to Tribal assembly ; veto ; judge. and veto de- crees from the senate ; convene tribal assembly. One Dictator As befor e, he has abso lute power during office. on occasion. patrician or plebeian. Senate, patri- As before. Deliberates As before. As before. cian and on meas- plebeian. ures to be proposed to the assemblies. Curiate As before. As before. As before. As before. Assembly. Centuriate As before. As before. Elect censors As before. assembly, as before. and praetors ; otherwise as adding free- before. born landless citizens and freedmcn. Tribal or Confirm or Elect tribunes. District reject the assembly ^ of citizens. measures proposed by the tribunes; court of justice. 1 A District Assembly was composed of Roman citizens, divided into tribes according to residence, those living in the same district or ward being placed in the same tribe ; in such an assembly one vote was as good as another, whereas, in the Centuries, the votes of the richest counted for most. 136 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. STUDY ON 2, a, ft, c. What great changes have occurred in the Roman constitution since 510 B.C.? Compare this constitution with the Athenian in regard to, (a) the curies, (b) the centuries, (c) the tribes. How do the classes compare now? What name will you give to this government? What bonds of union are found in it? Which of these is the newest? What part of the state is increasing in power ? Prove it. Comparing tiie three constitutions, — of regal Rome, of 510, of 264 ; what pro- gressive changes do you notice, (a) in regard to the division of power? (6) in regard to the classes holding power? (c) in regard to justice and liberty? What permanent relation between the political and military organization ? d. Story from Livy to illustrate Change from b to c. — How the Tribunes arose (about 494 b.c). One day an old man, ragged, pale, emaciated, " threw him- self into the forum ^ . . . and . . . exhibited scars on his breast, witnesses of honorable battles." To those enquiring, he said " that while serving in the Sabine war, because he had not only been deprived of the produce of his land in consequence of the . . . eneni}', but also his residence had been burned down, all his effects pillaged, his cattle driven off, a tax imposed on him, ... he had incurred debt ; . . . that he was taken hy his creditor . . . into ... a place of execution " : - he then showed his back, disfigured with the marks of recent stripes. "At the hearing and seeing of this . . . sedition came to such a height that the maj- esty of the consuls could hardly restrain the violence of the people. . . ." Amidst those debates " the news came that a hostile army was marching on Rome. The people exulted with joy, and said . . . that the patricians should serve as soldiers . . . so that the perils of war should remain with whom the advan- tages were. But the senate . . . entreated the consul ... to extricate the commonwealth." The consul then proceeding to ^ The public square of Rome, used for a market and meeting-place. 2 See laws of debt, p. 146. STUDY ON REGAL AND PUyE-PUNIC ROME. 137 the assembly declared tluit nothing could take precedence of defensive warfare ; that the enemy was almost at the gates ; and then and there ordained that no Roman citizen should be detained " in chains or in prison," that no one should *' seize or sell his goods," "arrest his children or grandchildi'cn " whifc he himself was enrolled for war. Thus allaying the present difficulty, the consul led forth the citizens and defeated the enemy. But on their return to Rome, new and severer laws regarding debt were decreed ; at the same time, the Sabincs threatened the city with war; but " when a levy was decreed, nobody gave in his name . . . and the people crowding around the consuls . . . said ' The}- should never enlist one soldier till the public faith was made good ; that liberty should be restored to each before arms were given.' " The senate, however, ap- pointed as dictator a man favored b}' the plebeians, and him they followed against the Sabines ; the more so, as he promised to gain them favorable laws. On his return, accordingly, he renewed "the question relative to debt, . . . but the senate refused to consider it"; whereupon the plebeians, still under arms, marched out of Rome to the Sacred Mount, and quietly^ encamped ; nor were they induced to return till the senate promised "that the plebeians should have their own magis- trates." Thus arose the tribunes of the plebs. STUDY ON d, "Wliat parties existed in Rome ? Corresponding to what in Greek history? What seems to have been the trouble between them? What parallel in Greek history ? What spirit was shown by each party in this story ? What united these parties ? What power had eithef to compel the other to do as it wished ? What two things did the ple- beians gain by means of their power ? 3. Sutmnary of Chief External Events and Relations of the Period. From very early times the towns of Latium seem to have formed a league with Rome ; the earliest form of this league accepted as reliable dates from the first cen- 138 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. tuiy of the Republic (about 493 B.C.), and provides that there shall be everlasting peace between Rome and Latium, and that they shall help one another in war. This league is confirmed and maintained by the common worship of Jupiter 1 on the Alban mount. From 753 to about 400 B.C. a constant petty warfare goes on all about the Latin frontier, with varying success, but gradually strengthening the power of the Latin League. The most memorable victory of this series of wars seems to have been the siege and destruction of the Etruscan town of Veii, apparently Rome's most formi- dable neighbor. The Gauls invade Latium from the north, defeat the Roman army, capture Rome, plunder and burn it, but are at last persuaded, by a large pay- ment of gold, to withdraw. Rome is hastily and irregu- larly rebuilt. Continued war of Latium against her neigh- bors ; the whole of southern Etruria is subjected to Roman dominion. — Rome and Carthage make 362 TO 340. a treaty of commerce. — Rome pushes her dominion south- ward to the Samnite border. — Samnite emigrants in Campania ask Roman aid against the Samnites of the mountains; the result of the war is that Rome gains Capua. The Latins demand equal rights with the Romans in the government of Rome and Rome's dominion ; denied, they wage war on Rome, the end of which is that the Latin League is dissolved and the superior power of Rome firmly fixed in Latium. New war with the Samnites, caused by Roman aggression ; Campania is thoroughly conquered : the whole of Etruria comes under the Roman 340 TO 338. 338 TO 264. 'The chief Latin deity, corresponding to the Greek Zeus. STUDY ON REGAL AND PR^-PUNIC ROME. ISV power. Two fine military roads are built, the Flaminian Way northward, the Appian Way southward to Capua, and colonies of Roman soldiers are settled through the cojiquered lands. The Samnites lead in a third war against Rome, and are joined by Etruscans, South Italians, and mountain tribes ; at its close the Romans gain dominion througli tlie lands of the Sabines and the Umbrians, and a name which is feared throughout the yet unconquered parts of Italy. Roman ships of war, contrary to treaty, anchor in the harbor of Tarentum; the people attack them, capture five and kill or sell their crews. A Roman embassy sent to arrange matters is insulted, and war breaks out between Rome and Tarentum. The Tarentines call Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, to their aid, and are joined by the Samnites and South Italians. After nearly ten years of Avar Tarentum is subdued, the lands of the Samnites, Apulians, Campanians, and all other South Italian peoples come under the dominion of Rome. The north is now thoroughly subjugated up to the Rubicon and the Apennines. In the earliest conquests the defeated peoples, together with their gods, become a part of the Roman community and share in the Roman worship. As soon as Rome begins to conquer beyond the borders of Latium, however, she sends forth bands of her own citizens to possess and cultivate a part, and defend the wliole, of her newly acquired territories. These settled bands are the so-called Roman colonies. The only claims which Rome makes througliout her Italian dominion are, — a tribute of armed men or ships, the sole right of making war and peace, and the sole power of coining money. She gives the inhabitants of 140 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. some cities and towns the name, with the duties and privileges, of full Roman citizens : others have the " Latin right," that is, the right of free trade with Rome, and the power, under conditions, of becoming Roman citizens; still others are subject directly to Roman officers and Roman law; others, again, are under their own local laws and government, bound to Rome by a simple treaty of equal alliance. Wherever Rome conquers, she claims at least a third of the land ; this is divided among the citizens of Rome, and its distri]pution causes great strife between the various classes of her people. This struggle gives rise to a long series of " Agrarimi Laws,''^ intended to prevent any monopoly or great inequality in the possession of subject land. STUDY ON 3. In what order does Rome conquer Italy? What advantage for conquest has Rome ? (See map, and pictures, pp. 141, 142.) Name all the measures by which her conquests are secured. Xame two or three things which must become alike throughout Italy by these means. Of what value is this to Rome ? Contrast the Roman and Greek colonies in regard to the purposes and occupations of their founders. Contrast Roman dominion in Italy with the Athenian empire. Which was the stronger, and why? Can you tell in one word in what the strength of Rome consists ? What is the difference between the words " growth " and " development " as used in the phrases, " the develop- ment of the Roman constitution," " the growth of Rome's dominion"? 4. Notable Works and Innovations of Period, a. Under the Kings, 758(?)-r)10(?) b.c. Walls of I{ome ; defences of the Capitol ; prison and treasury ; temple of Jupiter on the Capitol ; forum or {)ublic square for markets and for great meetings of the people, such as the Assemblies; bridges over the Tiber; STUDY ON llE(iAL AND PK^K-PUNIC ROME 141 the Great Circus, a measured level space for games and spectacles; the Great Drain (^Cloaca Maxima)^ iov carrying the sewerase of Rome into the Tiher. PART OF THE ETRUSCAN (ETRURIAN) WALL, at Volterra, near Rome, built about 700 B.C. h. Under Republic, 510(?)-2G-4 B.C. Great military roads, hard, firm, and smooth, going out from Rome in various directions (see map, p. 1;28); tlie most famous is the Apjjian Way, going south to Capua ; 142 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORV the Appian aqueduct; ships of war; bronze image of tlie she-wolf and the twins, made and dedicated in honor of PART OF THE WALL OF THE KINGS (SERVIUS?), on the Aventine Hill in lioine. The arch is believed to be the second oldest in Europe. the wolf who was said to have nursed the deserted twins, Romulus and Remus, the legendary founders of Rome; STUDY ON KEGATi AND PRyK-PUNIC ROME. 143 temple of Ceres, built and adorned with paintings by Greeks; temple of .Vpollo ; twelve tables of Roman law, said to have been drawn up by Roman law-givers after a journey to (Ireece for the })ur[)0se of studying the laws of Solon; beginning of historical annals of Rome, written by priests and laid up in the temples (destroyed at the burning of Rome by the Gauls) ; statues erected in the Forum in honor of generals, law-givers, famous citizens, or public benefactors. Introduction of Greek military tactics, much improved by Roman experience, and the addition of Italian weapons ; military pay introduced ; the draining of Lake Velinus, by which a large portion of fertile land is gained for agriculture. 5. List of JReliffious Feasts of Early Rome (Mommsen). The first month of the Roman year was March. Then came the great three-days' festival of Mars, the god of war, and a feast for the deities who presided at the birth of children. In April, sacrifices were offered to the nourish- ing earth, to the goddesses who favored the germination and growth of the crops, and the increase of herds; to Jupiter, as protector of vines and vats ; and to Rust, the enemy of grain. In May, came another day for Mars, a day to propitiate the god hostile to the vines, and three days sacred to the spirits of the dead. Vesta, goddess of the hearth, the goddess of birth, and the Penates, guardians of the store-chamber, were honored in June. The summer-grove festival came in July, to- gether with a day sacred to the gods of the sea. In August, came a wine-feast, sacrifices to the gods of the harbor and river, twin festivals to the god and goddess of harvest, and a day for Vulcan, god of fire and smith- work. (October saw the consecration of arms to Mars, a thanksgiving to Jupiter, as the wine-god, and a festival for 144 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. the fountain-deities. In December occurred thanksgivings for tlie blessings of the granar}^, the festivals of seed-sowing and of the shortest da3^ In January, feasts for the god- dess of magic spells ; February closed the list with the feast of Lupercalia, sacred to the wolf of Mars; days for Faunus, the shepherd-god; for departed spirits; and for the consecrated boundary-stones of the fields. All the days of the full moon were dedicated to Jupiter, as god of the &kj. Meanwhile, in every house were household gods, especially the Lares or the spirits of dead ancestors, to whom it was always the first duty of the house-father, on returning home, to pay his devotions, and to whom was assigned some share of every meal. STUDY ON 4, 5, AND THE PICTURES. What sort of works are notably absent from this list ? [Compare with Greek lists.] With what sorts of life are all these works connected ? What evident relation between Greece and Rome ? What new mode of construction do you find in the Roman work ? What do you find to admire in the specimen of Roman work given ? With what is art connected, so far as there is any? What do we know of the number of the Roman gods from this list ? Of their rank ? Their relation to human affairs ? The way to gain their favor ? With what sort of affairs are they connected ? Why did the Romans worship them ? Make a list of Roman occupations. Which lead in importance? 6. Note on Vocabulary, In the earliest Latin the names of the following objects are derived from the Greek, or from the East through the Greek : linen, purple, ivorj^, the wine-jug and wine- bowl, mortar, the measuring-rod, a balance, a lyre, a stage. From the Greeks came many nautical terms, names of coins and measures, and even the Latin alpha- bet itself. STUDY ON REGAL AND PR^-PUNIC ROME. 145 7. Remains of the Twelve Tables, or the Earliest Written Law of Rome, dating from about 451 B.C. "A foreigner can gain no pro])erty in a thing by long possession. If a citizen confess a debt, or be adjudged to ])ay it, he shall be allowed thirty lawful days to make Jjay- nient ; after that time he may be arrested. ... If he then do not pay or find somebody to pay for him, the creditor may take him away and bind him with cords or with fetters, which must not be more than fifteen pounds weight, . . . the creditor may keep the debtor sixty days in chains, and in the course of that time shall present him for three successive fair days, . . . and publicly notify the debt. If there be more creditors than one, after the three fair days they may cut up the debtor or sell him beyond the Tiber." " A father may kill at its birth a child monstrously deformed. He shall have a right of life and death over all his lawful children, and also of selling them. If a father sell his child thrice, the child shall afterwards be free from him. . . . Howsoever a father of a family directs by will, as to his property, or the guardianship of his children, such shall be the law." ******* " He who has by incantation blasted another's corn, or who has privily by night fed down or cut up arable produce, shall be put to death by hanging liim as a victim to Ceres. ^ . . . He who has wilfully and maliciously set fire to a house, or to a stack of corn piled up against a house, shall be bound, beaten with rods, and burnt alive ; but if he has done so accidentally, he shall compensate the loss; if unable to make compensation, let him be slightly chastised. He who slightly insults another shall be fined twenty-five pounds of copper. If any one publicly ^ The goddess of the harvest. 146 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. defame another, or make verses ^ to his disgrace or injury, let him be beaten with a stick. If he break another's limb, unless he can settle Avith him, he shall undergo retaliation. If he break the jaw-bone of a free man, he shall pay three hundred pounds of copper; if of a slave, one hundred and fifty. ... "Let there be no exceptional laws in favor of individuals. . . . Let no capital punishment be pronounced against a Roman citizen, except in the Great Assembly of the peo- ple. ... If any one incite an enemy (against Rome), or betray, or deliver up to the enemy, a citizen, let it be a capital offense. " Let not a dead man be buried or burnt within the city. . . . Let not the funeral-pile be made of carved wood. Let there be no more than three mourning-women and ten flute-i^layers. . . . Let the anointing of slaves and the handing round of liquors be abolished. Let no per- fumed liquids be sprinkled upon the deceased. Let no long garlands nor altars covered with perfumes be carried before the corpse. But, if the deceased has gained a crown of honor by his bravery, let the praise of himself and his ancestors be celebrated, and let it be lawful that the crown be placed before the corpse, both within doors and when it is carried forth. ... " Let that which the people has last ordained be settled law. Let there be no right of marriage between the patricians and the j)lebeians." STUDY ON 6 AND 7. What does the vocabulary tell us of tlie early relations of Phoe- nicia, Greece, and Latium? Make a list of the arts and sciences brought from outside into Italy. Which of these came from Phoe- nicia? Which from Greece? Reasons. ^ "The triulc of a poet," says Cato, "in former times was not respected; if any one occuj)ie(l himself witii it, lie was called an idler." STUDY ON KEGAL AND rU.E-l'lTNIC ROME. 147 Wliat is the spirit of tlie Koiiuiii laws in regard to the foreigner? The debtor? What form of family existed in early Rome? What classes of people, and liow was each regarded? From what did these laws protect people? Wliat classes? Select those which you would describe as "sunqstuary." Where have you found such laws before? In General. — What is the ideal of the- early Romans ? What is their attitude to the fine arts ? How does their political constitution discourage oratory? (See Constitutions.) Is the individual for the state, or vice versa ? Proofs. (See Constitutions, as well as other work.) Give two proofs that the Romans were practical. 8. Sto7nes from TAvy, a. Cincinnatus the Dictator, fifth century b.c. In time of great danger from the Sabines, it was determined to make Cincinnatus dictator. This man, "the sole hope of the Roman peoi)le," cultivated a farm of four acres. "There, either leaning on a stake in a ditch which he was digging, or . . . ploughing, . . . being requested by the ambassadors to listen to the- commands of the Senate," he was saluted Dictator of Rome. Going immediately thither, he led the citizens against their foes, and soon returned victorious, " The leaders of the enemy were led before his car ; ... his army followed, laden with spoil." Having finished his task, he resigned his dictator- ship on the sixteenth day of holding it, and returned to his farm. b. " Publius Valerius, allowed by universal consent to be the ablest man in Rome, . . . died in the height of his glory, but so l)oor that means to defray the expenses of his funeral were wanting," and he was buried at the public charge. r. Plutarch tells of M( i n in s Cijrio , "who, though he was the greatest man in Rome, had subdued the most warlike nations, and driven Pyrrhus out of Italy, cultivated a little spot of ground with his own hands, and after three triunii)lis lived in a cottage. Here the ambassadors of the Samnites found him in the chimney-corner, dressing turnips, and offered him a large present of gold ; but he absolutely refused it. and 148 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. gave them this answer : A man who can be satisfied with such a supper hath no need of gold ; and I think it were more glorious to conquer the owners of it than to have it myself." d. The Gauls in Rome^ 390 b.c. " As there was not a hope that the cit\' could be defended, so small a number of troops now remained, it was determined that the youth fit for mi\tary service and the abler part of the senate . . . should retire within the citadel . . . and . . . thence . . . de- fend the deities . . . and the Roman name." The mass of the peo- ple were to be left undefended. "And in order that the plebeians . . . might bear the thing with greater resignation, the aged men, who had enjo3"ed triumphs and consulships . . . declared that they would die along with them and . . . not burden the scanty stores of the armed men ; . . . and having returned to their houses, they awaited the enemy's coming with minds . . . prepared for death. Such of them as had borne offices, . . . arraying themselves in the most magnifice* t' garments worn by persons riding in triumph, seated themselves in their ivory chaii'S, in the middle of their halls. . . . The Gauls . . . enter- ing the city next day . . . beheld with a sort of veneration men sitting in the porches of the palaces who . . . bore a striking resemblance to gods in the majesty of their looks and the gravity of their countenances. Whilst they stood gazing on these as on statues . . . one of them rousec'' the anger of a Gaul by striking him . . . while the lattfir was strok- ing his beard." This act broke the spell under which the barbarians seemed to be, and they slew the senators where the} sat. The Gauls then sacked and burned the city and at last attacked the Capitol.^ Meanwhile, Camillus, who had been exiled from Rome by the people, knowing their great peril, calling many of the countrymen to arms, slaughtered numberp of the Gauls as they roamed tlie fields for plunder ; and ^ The hill fortress of Rome where the chief temple of Jupiter stood. STUDY ON REGAL AND PR^-PUNIC ROME. 149 presently, the Romans without the city, desiring a man to lead them against the common enemy, "resolved that Camilhis should be sent for . . . but not until the Senate at Rome was first consulted. . . . For this purpose a spirited youth . . . offered his services, and . . . made his way into the Capitol over a portion of the rock . . . neglected by the enemy's guard, and . . . having received a decree of the Senate that Camillus should be . . . appointed Dictator . . . passed back the same way." i . Meanwhile, at Rome "the time had come when a sacrifice from the Fabian family was due on the Quirinal Hill." To per- form this, "Caius Fabius . . . descended from the Capitol . . . passed out through the midst of the enemy . . . and after duly performing . , . the sacred rites, came back with the same firm countenance and gait, confident that the gods were propitious, whose worship he had not neglected when prohibited by the fear of death." The men of the citadel were now suffering from famine, but yet spared the geese " as being sacred to Juno," a cireums'-nnce of importance, since by their cacklings they aroused the sentinels upon a night when the Gauls were ascending an unguarded part of the Capitol. At last the Gauls and the men of the citadel, wearied out, were about to come to terms, when Camillus appeared with fresh forces, and compelled the Gauls to retire. It was now necessary to rebuild Rome, but many of the plebeians v e''e desirous of removing to Veil, where man}' dwellings scil' stood emp,ty. But Camillus argued with them, •• 'Consider the events of these latter years. . . . You will hud that all things succeeded with us whilst we followed the gods, and failed when we neglected them. . . . Though de- serted by gods and men, still we intermitted not the worship of the gods. Accordingly they have restored to us our country. We possess a city founded under auspices and auguries ; not a spot is there in it that is not full of religious rites and of the gods. ... Is it right that tliese sacred things, coeval with the city, . . . should be abandoned to profanation ? The assemblies of 160 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. the Centuries . . . whei'e can they be held under auspices, unless where they are wont [to be held] ? . . . For my part I can see nothing more impious.' . . . Caraillus is said to have moved them also In' other parts of his speech, but chiefly bj- that which related to religious matters. But an expression seasonably uttered determined the matter while still undecided ; for when some troops . . . passed through the Forum in their march, a centurion . . . cried out, ' Standard-bearer, fix your standard ! It is best for us to remain here.' Which expres- sion being heard, both the Senate came out from the senate- house, and all cried out that the^' embraced the omen, and . . . the building of the city commenced." e. The Judgment of Manlius and the Devotion of Deems. During the Latin war of 340-338, "Manlius and Decius being consuls, it is said that there appeared to both . . . during sleep, the same form of a man larger and more majestic than human, who said, ' Of the one side a general, of the other an army, is due to the infernal deities and to mother-earth ; from whichever army a general shall devote [to death] himself and the legions of the enemy, to that army shall belong the victory.'" In the morning, the consuls "having brought together the lieutenant-generals and tribunes and having openly expounded to them the commands of the gods, settled . . . that on whichsoever wing the Roman people should commence to give way, the consul on that side should devote himself [to death] for the Roman people." At the same time it was ordered that no one should leave his appointed place in order to fight the enemy. Now it happened that the son of Manlius, ])('ing sent out to reconnoitre, was provoked into a contest, in which however he was victorious. " When the consul heard this, ... he ordered an assembly to be summoned. . . . When these assembled in great numbers, he said : ' Since you, Titus Manlius, revering neither the consular power nor a father's majesty, have fought against the enemy out of your post contrai-y to our orders, and . . . since either tlie authority STUDY ON KEGAL AND Pll^K-I'UNlC KOME. 151 « of consuls is to he established by your death, or l)y your for- giveness to be forever annulled ; . . . go, lictor, bind him to the stake.' . . . The body of the youth, being covered with s[)oils, was burned on a pile."^ Soon afterwards the Romans marched forth to battle. Decius commanding the left. The Roman spearmen on this side were the first to give way, where- u[)()n the consul Decius called upon the Pontifex Maximus to dictate to him the words in wliich he must devote himself. "■ The pontiff directed him to take the gown called x>rcfitexta, and with his head covered, . . . standing upon a spear placed under his feet, to say these words : ' Jupiter, father Mars . . . ye divinities under whose power we and our enemies are, I pray 3'ou . . . that you will prosperously grant strength and victor}' to the Roman people . . . and that ye may afflict the enemies of the Roman people . . . with terror, dismay, and death. In such manner as I have expressed in words, so do I devote the legions and auxiliaries of the enemj^ together with myself, to the infernal deities ... in behalf of the republic' . . . Having uttered this prayer, . . .he, girding himself, . . . and fully armed, mounted his horse and rushed into the midst of the enemy. . . . But when he fell, overwhelmed Avith darts, in- stantly the Latins, thrown into manifest consternation, took to flight ; " while the Romans, " their minds being free from relig- ious dread," fought with new ardor and won the day. STUDY ON 8. What do the incidents, a, h, c, show us of the style of Roman life? Of what they cared for? Throughout the story d, what seems to be regarded as of prime importance? Name three or four qualities of character shown by the patricians. What characteristic appears in the fact that Cauiillus will not lead the army until the Senate has appointed him ? in story e, what qualities displayed by Manlius? By Decius? What do we learn of religion and the importance of forms? Of superstition? Illustrate the same things from d 1 A similar story was told of Brutus, one of the first consuls of Kome, wiio condemned his own sons to death for treason to the state. 152 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. B. II. STUDY ON EEPUBLIOAN EOME, FUNIC PERIOD, 264-146 B.C. Contemporary authority : Polybius. Other original authorities : Livy, Plutarch. Chief modern authority : Mommsen, Duruy. Note on Carthage and Carthaginian Dominion. — At 264 b.c. the Carthaginian 5-201. The Maiuertines, a baud of Canipaiiiau mer- cenaries, hold the Sicilian Messana and are hard beset by the Syracusan Greeks. Among them, one party is for asking Roman, the other, Carthaginian, aid. The former party triumphs, sends an embassy to Rome, whence aid is voted and troops are sent. Before they reach Messana, however, the Carthaginian party brings about a peace, and sends word to the Romans that their presence is no longer necessary. The Romans, however, persist in their advance, expel the Carthaginian garrison, and obtain possession of Messana for themselves. There- upon, the First Punic AVar begins. The Romans build a fleet. — Indecisive war in Sicily, Africa, and the Sicilian waters. Four fleets and four armies and at least a sixth of the citizens of Rome perish. Private Roman citizens equip a new fleet of two hundred ships manned by 60,000 men, and beat the Carthaginians, who at once sue for peace. They gain it on condition of surrendering Sicily and j^a^jhig nearly 14,000,000. Interval between First and Second Punic War. — Carthaginian mercenaries, denied their full pay, mutiny, and ar^ joined by tlie Libyan subjects of Carthage. Thereupon, the mercenary garri- 260 TO 241. 241 TO 218. 154 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. sons in Sardinia oifer to surrender that island to Rome. Rome accepts it, and soon adds Corsica. Appealed to by Greek and Italian mariners and merchants, she puts down the Illyrian pirates. She thus gains dominion in Illyria, becomes the ally of several Greek towns, and is admitted to share in the Greek games and the Greek worship. Attacked by the Kelts of northern Italy, she conquers them, and extends her power to the Alps, planting colonies and building roads throughout her new posses- sions. She also accepts as allies several Spanish towns, notably Saguntum. Hamilcar, general-in-chief of the Carthaginians, retain- ing his command by a free use of money at home, subdues revolted Libya, and makes of Spain a Carthaginian prov- ince, whose wealth maintains a well-trained Spanish army. At his death this force passes under the command of Hannihal, his son. Hannibal besieges and takes Saguntum, and the Second Punic War begins. (See map, p. 152.) Hannibal leads his Spanish and Carthaginian iriiiy over the Alps into Gaul, where he is joined at once by the Kelts, who seize this chance to 218 TO 201. revolt from Rome, and with whom he has already formed alliances. Thence he marches through Italy, which he harries and plunders, and nearly subdues by four great victories. The last of these is at Cannae, where one- seventh of the Italian forces perish. Thereupon, Syracuse and Macedon ally themselves with Carthage ; many of the Italian towns, to which Hannibal promises liberty, accept him as friend, thougli the colonies stand by Rome. Rome now decrees that the days of mourning for the dead of Canna3 shall be shortened ; that new legions shall beat once enrolled, including criminals and slaves; that new weapons shall at once be forged, and that, meanwhile, STUDY ON RP:PUBLICAN ItOME, TUKIC PERIOD. 155 arms shall be taken from the temples, from the dedicated spoils of former victories. Now follow the siege and fall of Syracuse; Macedon is brought to terms; the Scipios, who sailed for Spain when Hannibal crossed the Alj^s, finally wrest it from Carthage ; town by town Italy returns to Rome ; the Carthaginians are niggardly of help to Hannibal; still the war holds on. Rome is pressed for funds ; but her richer soldiers ofl'er to fight without pay ; the creditors of the state delay or decline to demand their dues, and again a ileet is fitted forth by private effort. Hasdrubal, Hannibal's brother, now appears in the north of Italy, but is thoroughly defeated. The greatest of the Scipios now sails for Africa to threaten Carthage itself. Hannibal is recalled, and the battle of Zama is fought, resulting in complete and decisive victory for Scipio and Rome. Carthage accepts the following terms : inde pendence within her own boundaries ; the sur render of all her war-ships but ten ; an annual tribute of $ 240,000 for fifty years ; the formal cession of Spain, Sardinia, and Corsica to Rome ; the acknowledgment of Massinissa as king of Numidia. STUDY ON I. What do we know of the comparative 2")ower and reputation of Ivonie and Carthage at '2CA u.c, and liow do we know it? Wiiat spirit was sliown by the Romans in the First I'unic War? What in the second, and on what occasion? Compare Cartilage Mith Rome in tiiis respect. On what and on wliom was Cartilage dependent for suc- cess in these two wars? On what and whom, Rome? Which had the surer dependence? AMiy did Carthage fail? Where do we find greatness on the Carthaginian side in the second war? Where on the Roman? 2. Suinniari/ of Erentu, 201-146. Rome degrades from their t'oniici' rank and i)rivilege all who failed her in the war with Hannibal, and much of 156 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. Italy thus becomes purely subject territory, throughout which the Romans build fortresses, extend roads, and settle colonies of Punic veterans. The Romans appealed to by the Greeks for aid against Philip, king of Macedonia, enter into war with him, aided by Numidians and Illyrians. The Macedonian war ends with the following treaty : — that Philip shall lose all his posses- 197. sions in Asia Minor, Thrace, and Greece ; shall make no alliance without the consent of Rome, nor make war against civilized states; that his army shall not exceed 5000 men, and that all but five decked ships shall be given to the Romans ; that he shall send troops to Rome when requested, and pay $1,250,000. Greece is declared free from Macedonian and all foreign dominion. Antiochus the Great, of Asia, having harassed or taken possession of various Asiatic Greek cities, lands in Europe, and attacks the Helles- 196 TO 190. pontine Greeks ; Rome interferes in their behalf, and is thus drawn into an Asiatic war with Antiochus. Battle of Magnesia and treaty of peace between Antiochus and Romans, by which Antiochus sur- renders Asia Minor west of the Halys and the Taurus, all his European claims, all but ten vessels of his fleet, and pays to Rome more than 819,000,000. The Asiatic Greeks are for the most part declared independent. Accumulating complaints against the Mace- donian power. Greece divided into parties, of which one looks to Rome, the other to Mace- 190 TO 178. don, for aid. War between Rome and Macedon, each aided by a strong Greek party ; the battle of Pydna and the fall of the Macedonian king close the 173 I TO [_JL68. war ; and the following terms of peace are agreed upon ; STUDY ON REPUBLICAN ROME, PUNIC PERIOD. 157 "The Macedonians are to live free . . . governed by tlieir own laws and . . . magistrates, and . . . pay to the Roman people one-half of the taxes they have paid down. Four days were spent about this precipice, the beasts nearly perishing of hunger." 6. Incidents connected with the Fight at Trasimene. Before the battle, many prodigies were reported at Rome. It was said that " an ox had of his own accord ascended to the third story of a house ; . . . that the appearance of ships had been brightly visil)lc in the sky, aiul that tlie Temple of Hope in 160 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. the herb-market had been struck bj- lightning : . . . that . . figures resembling men dressed in white raiment had been ween in several places at a distance, but had not come close to any one ; that in Picenum it had rained stones." On account of these prodigies, unusual prayers, sacrifices, and gifts to the gods were decreed by the state, and "greatly relieved the public mind." Flaminius was one of the consuls for that year, and he had left Rome for his army without the customary auspices ; where- upon the Senate " unanimousl}' resolved that he should be recalled and brought back, and be constrained to perform in person every duty to gods and men before he went to the army." He did not, however, return, but advanced to meet Hannibal, and fell in the disastrous defeat of Lake Trasimene, where he had thus exhorted the soldiers: ''Stand and fight; for" you " cannot escape ... by vows and prayers to the gods, but by exertion and valor." After this reverse it was deter- mined to appoint a dictator ; but since his nomination rested with the consuls, one of whom was absent and the other dead, the people gave Fabius Maximus tlie powers of dictator, with the title of pro-dictator. He at once assembled the Senate, and, " after he had distinctly proved to the fathers that Caius Plaminius had erred more from neglect of the ceremonies and auspices than from temerity and want of judgment," they ■iecreed new vows, festivals, and sacrifices to the gods. "Divine things having been performed " with due attention and care, Fa])ius turned his attention to the needs of the war. 3o The Battle of Cannce. The consuls commanding on this occasion were Varro and Paulus ; the desire of the former was to fight, the policy of the latter to annoy the Cai'thnginian forces. They held command on alternate days, l)()th iirmies being in camp. Hannibal " provoked tlie enemy l)y a skirmishing attack. . . . Upon this, the Roman camp l)egan again to be embroiled by a nuitiny among the soldiers and tlic dis:igreenients of the consuls"; STUDY ON REPUBLICAN ROME, PUNIC PERIOD. I6l l)ut nothing was done, sineo l*:iulus \v:is for tliat clay goiicral. But " Varro, on the following day, . . . withont consniting his collcagne, displayed the signal for battle, and forming his troops, led them across the river. Panhis followt'd, heeanse lie eonld better disapprove of the proceeding tlian withliold his assistance." Thus, then, the Romans were led at the battle of ('anna', where so many of them perished. When the news of tiiis defeat reached Kome, among other measures, " Quintus Fal)ius Pictor was . . . sent to Delphi to enquire of the oracle by what prayers and offerings they might appease the gods. . . . Meanwhile, certain extraordinary sacrifices were performed, n.ccording to the directions of the books of the fates ; among which a Gallic man and woman and a Greek man and woman were [buried] alive in the cattle-market." As for the captives, the Senate refused to ransom them, partly because they preferred slaves to men who had allowed tliemselves to be taken alive in the midst of " so many examples of courage," and partly because " they were neither willing to drain the treasury . . . nor to enricli Hannibal." d. The Close of the W({r. The Second Punic War was over, and the Carthaginian ambas- sadors came to Rome to treat of peace ; and while negotiations were going on, the " tribunes of the people put them the ques- tion as to whether they willed and ordered that the Senate should decree tliat peace should be made with the Cartha- ginians? Whom they ordered to grant that peace, and whom to conduct the army out of Africa? All the tribes ordered . . . tliat Piil)lius Scipio should grant the peace, and . . . conduct the army home. Agreeabl}- to this order, the Senate decreed that P. Scipio . . . should make peace with the Carthaginian people." The Carthaginians, " finding difliculty in raising the first sum of money to be paid, as their finances were exhausted by a protracted war, and. in consequence, great lamentation and grief arising in tlie Senate-house, it is said tliat Hannibal was 162 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. observed laughing," aud being rebuked for it, he answered, '• When the spoils were torn down from vanquished Carthage, when you beheld her left unarmed and defenceless amid so many armed nations of Africa, none heaved a sigh. Now, because a tribute is to be levied from private property, you lament with one accord." STUDY ON 3, a, h^c, d. What greatness did Hannibal display? What held his army together? What was their motive in fighting? Compare in strength with the Roman motive. Xame all the difficulties met in this pas- sage of the Alps. A^^at do incidents of h show of religious life among the Romans in general? "What seems to have been the religious attitude of Flar minius, of Fabius, and the Senate? What does the incident of the election of Fabius show the Roman people careful for? Where have you seen this same carefulness before? Xame three qualities of Roman character shown in the incidents of the captives. What fault in Roman organization is very plainly shown at Cannse? What Roman magistrate was needed at such a crisis ? Why? What characteristics of Rome appear when she receives news of the defeat ? (See also "List of Events.") In whose hands was the political power at Rome in reality ? In name ? • How did the Carthaginians, in this case, show themselves true to their character and their ideal ? In General. — Describe the ideal Roman of the period of the Sec- ond Punic War. 4. List of the Most Noteworthy Men of the Punic Period, Those marked * belong to the period after the close of the Second Punic War. Name. Birth, Circumstance. Cause of Fame. iEmilius Lepidus, *ilower? Which of the two parties of the period does he represent ? Name in order the men who hold imperial power from 146-27. Xame in order the affairs wliich show the weakness of the Roman government. [Note the length of time of the disturbances at home compared with the foreign wars under Marius, Sulla, Pompey.] In what direction is it strongest? 2. List of Noteworthy Men and Works of Post-Punic Period. Contemporaries of Cicero (106-43 B.C.) marked *. Name. Birth, Circumstance. Cause of Fame. *Antony, Mark, Roman of consu- lar rank, but poor. See 1. b. *Brutus and Roman patrician. Sec 1. b. *Cassius, Roman plebeian. See 1. b. *Ca;sar, Julius, Roman Author of military and liistorical com- patrician. mentaries on tlie Gallic wars ; see 1 b. *Catullus, Verona; of a Lyric poet, at first following Greek wealtliy and models. notable family. *Cicero, Latium ; knight. Senatorial orator; forensic pleader; author of es-'sa^^s on friendsliij), old age, the gods, and other abstract sub- jects ; liis written orations are mus terpieces of elegant and effective eloquence. 176 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. Name. Birth, Circumstance. Cause of Fame. Gracchus, Gaius, Roman patrician. See 1. a. Gracchus, Roman See 1. a. Tiberius, patrician. Lucretius, Rome ; of an- Philosophical poet ; his philosophy. cient family ; founded on the atheistic teaching of knight (?). Epicurus. Marius, Latium ; plebeian. See 1. a. *Nepos, Cisalpine Gaul. . . Historian and biographer. Cornelius, *Pompey, Patrician. See 1. h. *Sallust, Land of the Historian of Catiline's conspiracy Sabines ; and the Jugurthine wars ; imitated plebeian. Greek models. Sulla, Roman patrician. See 1. a. *Varro, Land of the Sa- Author of works on agriculture and bines ; plebe- history ; the " most learned of the ian ; family of Romans." senatorial rank. During this time new and important roads were built in Italy itself, and extended to Gaul, Spain, and Mace- donia; the draining of the great Italian marshes was undertaken ; the old aqueducts were repaired, and new ones built; new bridges were constructed; a new fish- market and forum were made at Rome ; and the Great Circus was enlarged. All these works were inaugurated and executed by the Roman magistrates. STUDY ON 2. Of the works of tliis period, wliicli do you consider as peculiarly Roman ? (Compare with the lists on pp. 9G, 162.) AVhat element REPUBLICAN ROME, POST-PUNIC PERIOD. 177 of character causes the Romans to produce and care for such works ? In what sorts of activity do the greatest Romans earn their fame? What class produces, on the whole, the greatest men of this period ? \\'hence comes the literary greatness of Rome, and how is it in- lluenced? What literary works are original to Rome? 3. Illustrative Extracts from Contetriporary and Or'uji- iial Sources. a. The Jiu/inihine ]V((r. (Abridged from Sallust.) Now Jugtirtha " despatched ambassadors to Eome, with a profusion of gold and silver. . . . When these deputies had arrived at Rome, and had sent large presents, according to the prince's direction, ... so remarkable a change ensued, that Jugurtha, from being an object of the greatest odium, grew into great regard and favor with the nobility. . . . When the ambassadors, accordingly, felt sure of success, the senate, on a fixed day, gave audience to both parties. On that occasioui Adherbal . . . spoke to the following effect : — " ' My father, Micipsa, Conscript Fathers, enjoined me ... to consider the right and authorit}- as belonging to 3'ou ; . . . and to regard you as my kindred and relatives, sa} ing, that ... I should find, in your friendship, armies, riches, and all necessary defenses of my realm. By these precepts I was pi'oceeding to regulate my conduct, when Jugurtha . . . expelled nje, . . . the hereditarv friend and ally of the Roman people, from my king- dom and all my possessions. ... It is what you bestowed that has been wrested from me ; in my wrongs you are insulted. . . . I implore you, therefore, Conscri})t Fathers . . . by the majesty of the Roman people, ... to arrest the progress of injustice, and not to suffer the kingdom of Numidia ... to sink into ruin . . .' " The ambassadors of Jugurtha were then heard, and the senate proceeded to deliberate. ''Yet that party gained the superiority . . . which prt'ftTi'i'd money and interest to jus- tice," and the kingdom was divided in the interests of Jugurtha. AVhen, at last, tlie outrages of Jugurtha in Africa were reported at Rome, ..." the senate . . . from consciousness of 178 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. misconduct, became afraid of tlie people . . . An army was then raised to be sent into Africa." On its arrival, both its commanders were tempted by Jugurtha with bribes, and were "seduced, by a vast sum of money, from integrity and honor to injustice and perfidy, . . . and the next day Jugurtha was formally allowed to surrender [on terms very favorable to him- self] .... When rumor had made known the affairs transacted in Africa, and the mode in which they had been brought to pass, . . . among the people, there was violent indignation ; as to the senators, whether they would ratify so flagitious a proceeding, or annul the act of the consul, was a matter of doubt. At this juncture a tribune of the people entreated them to bring the senators to judgment and to fetch Jugurtha to Rome as a witness." Jugurtha was accordingly brought, but " purchased, by a vast bribe, the aid of ... a tribune of the people, by whose audacity he hoped to be protected against the law." When Jugurtha was called upon to give his testimony, this tribune " enjoined the prince to hold his peace ; and though tlie multi- tude . . . were desperately enraged, . . . his audacity was at last triumphant. The people, mocked and set at naught, with- drew from the place of assembly ; and the confidence of Jugurtha . . . was greatly augmented." Soon after, Jugurtha was ordered by the senate to quit Italy, and the war was con- tinued under new commanders, of whom the best was Metellus. "When he arrived in Africa, the command of the army was resigned to him. . . . But neither had the camp been fortified, nor the watches kept ; . . . every one hud been allowed to leave his post when he pleased. The camp-followers, mingled with the soldiers, wandered about day and night, ravaging the country, robbing the houses, . . . carrying off cattle and slaves, which they exchanged with traders for foreign wine and other luxuries." Metellus at once gave " a general order that no one should sell bread, or any other dressed provisions, in the camp ; . . . and that no common soldier should have a servant, or beast of burden. . . . lie moved his camp daily, exercising the soldiers by marches across the country ; he fortified it with a ]:Ki'Ui{Lr(;AN itOMi:, post-punic period. 179 niiupait and a trencli, exactly as if the enemy lnul l)een at hand. . . . U'hns, by preventing rather than punishing irregu- larities, he in u short time rendered his army effective," and prosecuted (he war witli vigor. lint now as his lieutenant C'aius jNfarius was one day " sacri- licing to the gods, an augur told him that great and wonderful tilings were presaged to him," and having ardently desired the consulship, he asked for leave of absence to offer himself a candidate at Kome. This Metellus refused to give. From tliat time Marius '' allowed tlie soldiers . . . more relaxation of discipline tlian he had ever granted them before. He talked of the war among merchants ; . . . saying ' that if but half of the army were granted him, he would, in a few days, have Jugurtha in chains; but that the war was purposely protracted by the consul.' " He then induced "both soldiers and merchants to write to their friends at Rome, ... to intimate that Marius should be appointed general. The common people at Rome, having learned the contents of these letters," voted that Marius should be general in the African "War, and thus rendered use- less the previous decree of the senate, which had given it to Metellus. "Nor did the senate . . . dare to refuse him any thing," while the people themselves felt an ai'dent desire to serve under ]\Iarius. "Every one cherished the fauc}' that he should return home laden with spoil . . . or attended with some similar good fortune. Marius himself, too, had excited them in no small degree " by speaking as follows: " They reproach nic as being mean, and of unpolished manners, because, for- sooth, I have but little skill in arranging an entertainment, and keep no a(;tor, nor give my cook higher wages than my steward ; all which charges I nnist, indeed, acknowledge to be just. . . . lUit let the nobility, if they please, pursue what is delightful and dear to them'; let them devote themselves to . . . revelry and feasting, the slaves of glutton}' and debauchery ; but let them leave the toil and dust of the field ... to us, to whom they are more grateful than banquets." Setting out for Africa, he continued the war with success; "his soldiers, kept under 180 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. mild discipliue and enriched with spoil, extolled him to the skies." Among his officers, the most famous was Sulla, who became, in a short time, " the most expert of the whole army. He was, besides, affable to the soldiers, and . . . conversed jocosely as well as seriously with the humblest ; ... he was their frequent companion at their works, on the march and on guard." By the aid of Sulla, Jugurtha was captured, and Marius returned to Rome, having ended the war. STUDY ON 3, a. What was the real relation of Xiiinidia to Rome? Why was not Rome able to defend Adherbal ? What other source of Roman weak- ness appeared on the arrival of Metellus in Africa V What did the Romans seem to be caring for at this time ? What proofs that this was general in all classes ? Compare this with the state of affairs iu the Punic period. What two parties were there now in Rome? WhaV seemed to distinguish each according to Marius? What assembly represented each? Which was the stronger, and why? What proof have we of its superior strengtli ? In what did the strength of the other consist ? What feeling seemed to be the cause of the displace- ment of Metellus by Marius? By what means did Marius gain power and influence? By what, Sulla? Xame all the ways in which the Roman power is seen to be weakened and endangered in the events of the Jugurthine War. By whom was she thus weakened and endangered ? 6. Extracts from Cicero's Orations in Behalf of the Sicilians against Verres, tvho had been sent to Sicily as Praetor. " While this man was praetor ... no legal decision for three years was given on any other ground but his will ; no property was so secure to any man, even if it had descended to him from his father and grandfather, but he was deprived of it at his command. . . , Roman citizens were tortured and put to death like slaves ; the greatest criminals were acquitted in the courts of justice through bribery ; . . . the most fortified har- bors, the greatest and strongest cities, were laid open to pirates and robbers ; the sailors and soldiers of the Sicilians, our own REPUBLICAN ROME, POST-PUNIC PERIOD. 181 allies and friends, died of hunger ; the best Iniilt fleets ou the most important stations were lost and destroyed, to the great disgrace of the Roman people. This same man, ... in Achaea demanded money from a Sicyonian magistrate. Do not let this l)e considered a crime in Verres ; others have done the same. AVlien he could not give it, he punished him ; a scandalous, but not an unheard of act. Listen to the sort of punishment. . . . lie ordered a fire to be made of green and damp wood in a nar- row place. There he left a free man, a noble in his own coun- try, an ally and friend of the Roman people, tortured with smoke, half dead. . . . But the storming of that most ancient and most noble tenii)le of the Samian Juno, how grievous was it to the Samians ! how bitter to all Asia ! . . . And when am- bassadors had come from Samos into Asia ... to complain of this attack on that temple, they received for answer, that com- plaints of that sort . . . must be carried to Rome. . . ." ' ' Heraclius is ... a Syracusan ; a man among the very first for nobility of family, and, before Verres came, . . . one of the most wealthy of the Syracusans. . . . An inheritance of at least three millions of sesterces came to him, . , . the house was full of silver plate exquisitely carved, of abundance of embroidered robes, and of most valuable slaves. . . . An action is brought in due form against Heraclius. . . . Judges are ap- pointed, whomsoever Verres chooses. . . . He commands them to condemn Heraclius. ... So they condemn him. What is the meaning of this madness? . . . The first measures which are taken are to carry whatever chased plate there was among that property to Verres : as for all Corinthian vessels, all embroidered robes, no one doubted that they would be taken and seized, and carried inevitably to his house. The land of the province of Sicily liable to the payment of taxes is deserted through the avarice of that man. . . . Wherefore . . . O judges, you can easily see that Sicily, that most productive and most desirable province, has been lost to the Roman people, unless vou recover it bv vour condemnation of that man. 182 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. For what is Sicily if you take away the cultivation of its land, and if you extinguish the multitude and the very name of the cultivators of the soil ? . . . All the provinces are mourning ; all the nations that are free are complaining ; every kingdom is expostulating with us about our covetousness and our injustice ; . . . the Roman people is now no longer able to bear . . . the mourning, the tears, and the complaints of all foreign nations." STUDY ON 3, h. What injury did Verres inflict upon the treasm-y of Rome? Upon her power ? Upon her reputation ? Upon her territory ? Upon religious faith of men? How did he inflict each of these injuries? What proof from Cicero's speech that Verres was not the only case of such a provincial governor? What reason do we find in Verres' conduct for the eagerness for foreign office among the Romans? What do these extracts show to have been a ruling passion witli many Romans ? In what other case have you seen the same thing ? What do the cases of the Jugurthine War and the management of Sicily indicate as to the rule of Rome in her provinces ? What faults had it? c. The Rise of Julius Ccesar. (Abridged from Suetonius.) "Julius Caesar, the Divine, . . . lost his father when he was but sixteen ; shortly after, he married Cornelia, the daugh- ter of a famous Marian leader ; Sulla, being then dictator, desired him to divorce her ; but Ctesar, resolutely resisting, lost his office, his estates, his wife's dowry, and was forced to with- draw from Rome." After changing his place of concealment nearly every night, although he was suffering from ague, and having effected his release by bribing the officers who had tracked his footsteps, he at length obtained a pardon through the intercession of the vestal virgins, and of . . . his near rela- tives. After Sulla's death he returned to Rome, where he obtained several successive minor offices from the people. Dur- ing this time "he not only embellished the Forum, with the adjoining halls, but adorned the Capitol also, with temporary piazzas, constructed for the purpose of dis[)laying some part (>f REPUBLICAN ROME, POST-PUNIC PERIOD. 183 the superabundant collections he had made for the amusement of the people, lie entertained them [also] with the liunting of wild beasts, and with games. . . . llavhig thus conciliated popular favor, he endeavored ... to get Egypt assigned to him as a province, by an act of the people. . . . But . . . there was so much opposition from the faction of the nobles, that he could not carry his point. In order, therefore, to diminish their influence ... he restored the trophies erected in honour of Cains Marius, which had been demolished by Sulla. . . . Hav- ing renounced all hope of obtaining Egypt for his province, he stood candidate for the office of chief pontiff, to secure which he had recourse to the most profuse briber^'. . . . After he was chosen praetor, the conspiracy of Catiline was discovered ; and while every other member of the Senate voted for inflicting capital punishment on the accomplices in that crime he alone proposed that the delinquents should be distributed for safe custody among the towns of Itah', their propert}' being confis- cated. He stood for this, until some knights standing near threatened him with instant death and even thi'ust at him with swords ; whereupon he withdrew, and absented himself from the Senate "during the remainder of that year." Afterward, finding that " preparations were made to obstruct him by force of arms" in the discharge of his duties, "he betook himself privately to his own house, with the resolution of being quiet in a time so unfavorable. . . . He likewise pacified the mob, which ... in a riotous manner made a voluntary tender of their assistance. . . . This happening contrary to expectation, the Senate . . . gave him their thanks." On becoming consul " he introduced a new regulation : that the daily acts both of the Senate and people should be com- mitted to writing and published." He also divided certain Campanian land " among upwards of 20,000 freemen, who had each of them three or more children." During the nine years in which he held the government of Gaul, he reduced it all to the form of a province. " He was the first of the Romans who, crossing the Rhine bv a bridge, attacked the Germanic tribes. 184 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. , . . He also invaded the Britons, a people formerly unknown, . . . With money raised from the spoils of the war, he began to construct a new forum . . . and promised the people a public entertainment of gladiators and a feast . . . such as no one before him had ever given. The more to raise their expecta- tions on this occasion, although he had agreed with victuallers of all denominations for his feast, he made yet farther prepara- tions in private houses. . . . Young gladiators he trained up, not in the school and by tlie masters of defense, but in tlie liouses of Roman knights, and even senators, skilled in the use of arms, . . . He doubled the pay of the legions in pcpetuity, allowing them, likewise, grain, when it was in plenty, without any restriction, and sometimes distributing to every soldier in his army a slave and a portion of land. . . . Ever}' person about him, and a great portion, likewise, of the Senate, he secured by loans of money at low interest or none at all ; and to all others who came to wait upou him, either by invitation or of their own accord, he made liberal presents, not neglecting even the freedmen and slaves. . . . He endeavored with equal assiduity to engage in his interest princes and provinces in every part of the world, presenting some with thousands of captives, and sending to others the assistance of troops . . . without any authority from eitlier the Senate or people of Rome. He . . . embellished with magnificent public buildings the most powerful cities, not only of Italy, Gaul, and Spain, but of Greece and Asia ; until, all people being now astonished, and speculating on the obvious tendency of these proceedings, . . . the consul . . . made a motion in the Senate that some person should be appointed to succeed Caesar in his province, before the tei'm of his command was expired." Caesar, understanding tliat this measure proceeded from Pompey, " wrote a letter to the Senate, requesting that they would not deprive him of the privilege kindly granted him l)y the people," or else that Pom- pey sliould resign the command of his army, as well as himself. But tile Senate declined to interpose, and his enemies consented to no compromise. Cffisar advanced into Hither Gaul with his REPUBLICAN ROME, POST-PUNIC I'EKIOD. 185 troops, and, after once more failing to arrange matters at Rome, crossed tlie Rubicon, — the southern boundary of bis own prov- ince, — and " witli tears in liis eyes, and bis garment rent from bis bosom, called upon tbe troops to pledge him their fidelity." After becoming perpetual dictator, he gave money and land to all the veterans of his infantry ; and to the Roman populace, wheat and oil and money. To all this he added a public enter- tainment and a distribution of meat, and, after his Spanish victory, two public dinners. "... His thoughts were now fully employed from day to day on a variety of great projects for the embellishment and im- provement of the city, as well as for guarding and extending the bounds of the empire. In the first place, he meditated the construction of a temple to Mars, which should exceed in grandeur everything of that kind in the world. . . . He also projected a most spacious theatre . . . ; and also proposed to reduce the civil law to a reasonable compass, and out of that immense an'^ undigested mass of statutes to extract the best and most necessary parts into a few books, to make as large a collection as possible of works in the Greek and Latin lan- guages, for the public use. . . . He intended, likewise, to drain the Pontine marshes, to cut a channel for the discharge of the waters of the Lake Fucinus, to form a road from the upper sea through the ridge of the Apeunine to the Tiber, and to make a cut through the isthmus of Corintli. . . . But in the midst of all his undertakings and projects, he was carried off by death." " He was so nice in the care of his person, that he . . . kept the hair of his head closely cut, and had his face smoothly shaved. . . . His baldness gave him much uneasiness. . . . He therefore used to bring forward the hair from the crown of his head ; and of all the honors conferred upon him bv the Senate and the people, there was none which he eitlier accepted or used with greater pleasure, than the right of wearing eon- stantlv a laurel crown. ... In regard to wine, he was abste- 186 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. mious. ... In the matter of diet, ... he was so indifferent that, when a person in whose house he was entertained had served him with stale instead of fresh oil, and the rest of the company would not touch it, he alone ate very heartily of it, that he might not seem to tax the master of the house with rus- ticity or want of attention. . . . Cicero, in recounting to Brutus the famous orators, declares, ' that he does not see that Caesar was inferior to any one of them,' and says ' that he had an. elegant, noble, and magnificent vein of eloquence.' . . . On &, march, he used to go at the head of his troops, sometimes on horseback, but oftener on foot, with his head bare in all kinds of weather. He would travel post ... at the rate of a hundred miles a day ; and if he were stopped by floods in the rivers, he swam across, or floated on skins inflated with wind. . . . He never marched his army by roads which were exposed to ambuscades, without having previously examined the nature of the ground by his scouts. Nor did he cross over to Britain before he had carefully examined in person the navigation, the harbors, and the most convenient point of landing in the island. . . . He was never deterred from any enterprise, nor retarded in the prosecu- tion of it, by superstition. When a victim which he was about to offer in sacrifice made its escape, he did not therefore defer his expedition." In his speeches he always addressed his men as "fellow-soldiers," and loved them '"to such a degree that, when he heard of the defeat of those under Titurius, he neither cut his hair nor shaved his beard until he had revenged it. . . . Upon his entering on the civil war, . . . the whole army agreed to serve gratis, without either corn or pay, those amongst them who were rich charging themselves with the maintenance of the poor. No one of them, during the whole course of the war, deserted to the enemy ; and man}- of those who were made prisoners, though they were offered their lives upon condition of bearing arms against him, refused to accept the terms." Pompey, when besieged by the.Caesarians, " upon seeing a sort of bread made of an herb which they lived upon, said, ' I have to do with wild beasts,' and ordered it immediately REPUBLICAN ROME, POST-PUNIC PERIOD. 187 to be taken away, because, if his troops should see it, their spirit tnight be broken by perceiving the endurance and the determined resohition of the enemy. . . . When he had pUiced himself at the head of affairs, he advanced some of his faithful adherents, though of mean extraction, to the highest offices. . . . " On the field of Pharsalia he called out to the soldiers ' to spare their fellow-citizens,' and afterwards gave permission to every man in his army to save an enemy. . . . And, finally, a little before his death, he permitted all whom he had not before pardoned, to return into Italy, and to bear offices both civil and military. He even replaced the statues of Sulla and Pompey, wliich had been thrown down by the populace. . . . He not only obtained excessive honors, such as the consulship every year, the dictatorship for life, and the censorship, but also the title of Emperor, and the surname of Father of his Country. . . . He even suffered some honors to be decreed to him which were unbefitting the most exalted of mankind ; such as . . . temples, altars, statues among the gods, ... a priest, and a college of priests dedicated to himself. . . . He admitted into the Senate . . . even natives of Gaul, who were barbarians. . . • Upon the admission of foreigners into the Senate, a handbill was posted up, in these words : ' A good deed ! let no man show a new senator the way to the house.' " The magistrates, the soldiers, the citizens, and the matrons united in paying the honors of his funeral, and "in this public mourning there joined a multitude of foreigners, expressing their sorrow according to the fashion of their respective countries." The people erected in his honor a column of Numidian marble, placing it in the Forum. At this column they continued for a long time to offer sacrifices, make vows, and decide controversies, in which the\" swore by Csesar. The Senate also ranked him among the gods by a formal decree. STUDY ON 3, <'' Make a list of all the qualities of character displayed by Caesar. Of these, which gave Caesar power? Whicli were unfavorable to hini? What material means did he employ to gain power ? Wliat was the 188 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. final and decisive means by which he won it ? What does the fact that he could gain power by such means show of the people of Rome ? What difference between him and the other party-leaders we have seen ? In what was he their superior ? What party did he represent ? What classes of people did he favor ? What was his attitude towards Provincials? Proofs. What classes of people would you expect to favor and support Csesar? Why? What was his object in life? In how many ways was Csesar great ? What opinion have you of the way he gained his power? Of the way he used it? Give reasons for each opinion from the facts before you. What was the reason for the opposition to Csesar ? Why was he killed ? What men may be regarded as the predecessors of Caesar in Rome ? Was his death a fortune or misfortune to Rome ? Why ? What do we learn of religion at Rome from the life of Julius Csesar ? Compare his career with that of Pisistratus. d. Extracts Illustrative of Thought of the Time. " The custom of reverence for, and discipline and rights of, the augurs, and the authority of the college, are still retained for the sake of their influence on the minds of the common people." But "how pitiful is the nature of a science, which pretends that the eccentric motions of birds are full of ominous import, and that all manner of things must be done, or left undone, as their flights and songs may indicate ! . . . How, when, and by whom were such absurd regulations as these invented ? . . . Such signs may be easily explained by refer- ence to the laws of nature." — Cicero. "We may be assured . . . that it makes not the least differ- ence to a man, when immortal death has ended his mortal life, that he was ever born at all." — Lucretius. " Alas ! I am ashamed of our scars and our wickedness. . . . What have we, a hardened age, avoided? Wliat have we in our impiety left unviolated? From wliat have our youth re- strained their liands, out of reverence to the gods? What altars have they spared?" ^ *^ ■)!& '3|E' -sit -)|t ^ " The palace-like edifices will in a short tinu^ leave but a few acres for the plough ; . . . then banks of violets, and myrtle- REPUBLICAN IlOiME, POST-PUNIC PERIOD. 189 groves, and all the tribe of nosegays shall difruse their odors in the olive plantations, which were fruitful to their preceding master. ... It was not so prescribed by the institutes of Romulus, and the unshaven Cato, and ancient custom. Then private income was contracted, while that of the community was great." " AVho can fear the Parthian? Who, the frozen Scythian? Who, the progeny that rough Germany produces, while Caisar is in safety? . . . Every man puts a period to the day amidst his own hills, and weds the vine to the widowed elm-trees ; hence he returns joyful to his wine, and invites thee [Cjfisar], as a deity, to his second course ; thee with many a prayer, thee he pursues with wine poured out [in libation] from the cups ; and joins thy divinity to that of his household gods." — Horace. STUDY ON d. Considering Cicero a typical cultured Roman of his age, how did men of culture regard the popular faith? AVhat was apparently the attitude of the common people towards it ? What does the extract from Lucretius indicate ? Each of the extracts from Horace ? What relation between each of the extracts given under (/, and the facts or characteristics noticed in the later Punic period ? GENERAL STUDY ON ROMAN REPUBLIC. What single ideal had the Romans dm'ing the whole Republican period? Give instances from each period. What new ideals were added? When? How did the ideal of manners change during this time ? Of morals ? Of culture ? What will you select as the most typically ^oma/i age of the Republic? Why? What as the time of its greatest glory? Why? What causes can you give for the fall of the Republic ? When did these causes begin to act ? What part of the civilization of Rome was Roman? Whence came the rest? What general statement can you make as to the way in which Rome secured her dominion? In whiit order did she win it? In what period was religion least prominent? X Hispania n Gallia HI BnUania IF Vlndelica T Rbaelia 'Sfl Noricum inr Italia Vlll Pannonia. ]X lllyricum X Dacia XI Moesia XII Epirus XIII Macedonia SET Achaia XV Thracia SSI Mysia "X Yniydia SSniCarla XI K Ly c 1 a XX BUhy ni a IXXI Phrygi a ZSXttGalatia SXniPonlus XX5rPamphyl,a \2XXS^ \__^^, -XXVll Lycaonid v., ? ■XXVIIl Cilicia '•**Si. ,. . XXIX Armenia X XXlll Ar^ihia ^tre AXX Me«;opnlfimia X XXIV Cyrp.na'r.a X X X ! Syn'a SXXY Africa SXErCappadociaSXXEEgypt SXXYLNumidia N. B. — The iiaiiK's «»f towns app* ^OMAN Empire underTRAJAN - aboui iife a.d ^;';';v;-;-.':'; '.''-':•; ^^ Western Empire of later iimes. JSi^'issSS^is: — Easfern Empire „ ® = Towns of Orienlal foundaiion. ^ = ,11. Greek „ • = ;i j< Roman /. modern, not their Kouian, forms. 192 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. C. I. STUDY ON THE PAGAN EMPIEE. — AUGUSTUS TO OONSTANTINE, 27 B.C. -323 A.D. Chief contemporary authorities : Seneca, Suetonius, Tacitus, the two Plinys, the New Testament, Dion Cassius, Justin Martyr, Tertullian, Lactantius, the contemporary poets (see lists), the monuments and inscriptions of the empire found throughout its extent. Chief modern historians accessible in English : Gibbon, Merivale, Duruy, QUESTIONS ON MAP. What parts of the empire are most strongly under Roman influ- ence ? Greek and Oriental ? In what countries are vhese three influences mixed? By what fact do you judge of influence? What countries of modern Europe formed parts of the Roman Empire? Compare the location of the cities of modem Europe with the foun- dations of the empire. What great cities of Europe do not owe their foundation to the empire or to Greeks and Orientals ? Name the four cities of the empire which are greatest to-day. What re- lation does the Mediterranean hold to the lands of the empire? What two facts in regard to the foundation of cities indicate that there was much commerce between the various parts of the empire ? What provinces of Rome were uncivilized before their conquest ? What provinces were civilized ? How far are the boundaries of the empire natural ? STUDY ON THE PAGAN EMPIKE. 193 u « 2 _ 4- S c .0 X to 3 be -^ 3 ]5) 1 P S .i CS :j - >-> '3 ;-. -a 3 ■ft QQ r^ -— C 'O oi cS "^ Ol 1— ( «4-l 'u i ii .3 A be _>» tt> to-* "3 .0 ^ H 2 ■cS 13 to .2 -a 2 ~ 'ft CS ^ •2 1 n to 3 3 < '3 to 2 CS <4-l • cS % OS be w Q) 5 D 1 CO 2 -^ -l^ s: S ^ CS cS be t«r ±3 -== s C s X Qj 3 ft +=> < cS ^ ~ 3 'O ;-i cS bO ■— ; q3 .9 S CS to 'cS c B P, t^ Pi CS C 0) ft £ •TJ ^^ C 1 V. c 1 1 » y cS ^ Ol B CS P. .1 ^ CO k < u cS ■*^ _cS in "^ cS tH u CS ^ 0) a; > ■::: p, P .C j^" CO CJ c S c 0^ p g . cS .2 a; 2 "^^ cS g _N -_^2 D •73 C P 3 ~ •— - 00 a» i g gl M X CS r- .C 3 7 i^ 1 ^ S" 3 "t^ t- X rt P< 2 3 <4-l OJ Ph CO S 01 Ph 1 rt Tj ft 0) .& 6 CD r2 pi 3 Ol 0) a S TS £ ■5 "4-( •5 r^ Ph Pi OJ .0 -a c C3 3 i cs — ; g c ^ Oj s 0^ £ bo t/T be ^ •— 1 M 'S ^ a S ^ ;3 «5 *^ § « B! -2 £ <^ s "o ^ « S ^ c ^ .2 3 u - OJ CJ cS 1 ^ c4 p ■^ '0 _5) a s Pi "Ph ft, pLi ^ ce Ph M ^2 3 Sh S < <1 <1 2 ^ 1 a to rj 3 0! 2 ■TV "J bo B B s ^ si c es c a* B -2 Ph "i ■3 .s p< c C '3 Ph 0) .2 Ph 01 Ph Ol B s CO a; >> 0) 'S Is ^ » s a •r-> ■5 ■g :S S 3 *M M a. ^ - a 1^^ B P4 ^ S3 C S S *3 <4-( 0) .S << ~o~ -§ >^„; "7 ^ k a (-> nj bo 0) p. c >: ^ -2 -2" p. bo t^ a; S c 2 r3 C d (H P> 01 .a «+H tH CO 0; .s p^ *j rt 45 ^ '-^ r2 '? <5 .c •73 CO C J' m ^H cu , 'be . '3 to t(_| Cot" 0) ■<-: i '3 A S jh g g Ol > S c3 a; N M c 5 ■" «« bo a P3 .-. •-( 'Tj ^ M c c B 3 ■" "^ 'E rr It ,2 0) 03 g ■n *^ ^ C CO W Pi , STUDY ON THE PAGAN EMPIRE. 105 ^ -- : o c .0 1 Allowed local faith when this does not inter- fere with tiie adoration of Rome and the emperor. 1 c" .0 1 '5 1 'I Often administer their own local affairs. Keep order in the pro- vinces ; execute public works, roads, canals, bridges, aqueducts ; often proclaim and establish the new em- peror ; the troops known as " Prcetori- ans '' form his body- guard.i c Subject to a poll tax, a tax on land, and other imposts. Are paid from the public treasury. 5 -J Governed in general by law of Rome, but often allowed their own local law. Form auxiliary troops, and soon enter largely into the legions. Guard the frontiers. .5 ■S ■e 5 Provincials ; the general mass of subjects through the empire. Army, composed mostly of citizens and provincials. 196 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. STUDY ON I. Note two things which are the same throughout the empire, by its organization. Into whose hands has the power of the republican mag- istrates passed ? Of the republican assemblies ? Name two things which sustain this power. What name will you give to this form of government ? What is the apparent object of holding the provinces ? What differences between the imperial and the republican armies of Rome ? What name is given to such a sort of army as that of the empire? With such a constitution on what does Rome depend for good or bad government ? The inhabitants of the empire gain the rights of Romans by entering what class? What people conquered by Rome had a religion which would not admit of the adoration of Rome and the emperor? 2. Imperial List, Less important emperors omitted, but indicated by a *. Name and Date. Birth and Circumstance. Source of Imperial Power. Famous Works, Events and Changes. Augustus, Of wealthy Relationship Survey of Conquest of Tende- 27 B.c- plebeian to and the whole lica, Rhcetia, and 14 A.D. family of adoption by empire; Pannonia; Romans equestrian Julius building of defeated in Germany rank Csesar; vic- roads, ca- by Arniiniii.'; (Her- (knight), tory in the nals, aque- mann); birth of and Italian civil war ducts, and Christ (4 or 5 b.c.).^ origin ; against baths (see soldier and Mark Agrippa, general. Antony. under ?>}. Tiberius, Of old patri- Adoption by Securing and Election of city 14-37. cian Roman and relation strengtlion- magistrates trans- family; gen- to Angus- - ing of tlie ferred from the oral, promi- tus ; accept- frontier ])()pular assemblies nent in the ed by the lines of the to tlie Senate ; Christ conquests of Senate and empire. crucified. Augustus. the Prae- *i torians. ' Modern criticism has discovered an error in the original date of the year of our Ivord; hence tins apparent contradiction. STUDY ON THE PAGAN EISIPIRE. 197 Name and Date. Birth and Circumstance. Source of Imperial Power. Famous Works. Euents and Changes. Claudius, Grand- Hidationsliip The Claud i- Conquest of Southern 41-54. nephew of to Augus- an aqueduct Britain ; admission Augustus, tus; choice of Rome; of Transalpine Gauls born at of soldiers. f; new har- to the Senate. Lyons. l)or at Ostia. Nero, Latin ; Bribery of A ilace for Visit of Paul to 54-G8. adopted the soldiers 111 nsclf, Rome ; the burning grandson of to proclaim _ca led the of Romeby Nero(?) ; Tiberius. him empe- " Golden the accusation and ror; in- House of persecution of the trigues of Nero." Christians for this his mother. crime. * * * * * * * * * * * * Civil wars for impe- rial office. Vespasian, Sabine, of Proclama- Baths of Conquest of Judsa 70-79. ordinar;" tion by the Titus, and and the destruction family; eastern le- the Colis- of Jerusalem. '■rominent gions at eum ; tri- in conquest Alexandria ; imiphal arch • of Britain; victory over of Titus for commander the armies Jewish in 'jonquest of his rival, victory. of .Tuda;a. and I'^cep- tance by .'i^ Senate. Titus, Son of Ves- B'rth; part- Finished Eruption of Vesu- 79-81. pasian ; gen- nership in Coliseum ; vius; destruction of eral in the empire with rebuilt at Pompeii and Ilercu- East. father; pro- own expense lancum ; persecu- clamation the build- tion of the Chris- by legions ings de- tians. and accep- stroyed at tance by Rome by a Senate. three days' fire. 198 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. PART OF THE CLAUDIAN AQUEDUCT. Built under the Emperor Claudius, in order to bring the pure water of the Latin hills to Rome. The water ran through a stone channel supported on top of the arches; its Bize and shape may be seen at the broken end of the aqueduct in the foreground. Name and Date. Birth and Circumstance. Source of Imperial Power. Famous Worlis. Euents and Clianges. Domitian, Son of Birth; pro- * * * Final conquest of 81-96. Vespasian. clamation of soldiers and accep- tance of Senate. Britain by his gen- eral, Agricola. Nerva, Of Cretan Election of Author of * * * 96-98. extraction ; the Senate ; Agrarian a senator. consent of the armies. law, by which large tracts of land were bought up, and allotted to poor citi- zens ; i)ro- STUDY ON THE PAGAN EMPIRE. 199 ^ J 1 i T< THE COLISEUM. Erected for the accomiuodation of the Koinan people when they wished to see the combats of gladiators, wild beasts, pugilists, and other entertainments furnished by the emperors. The seats surrounded and looked down upon the arena from different heights. The building was planned to hold 80,000 epectators. Name and Date. Birth and Circumstance. Source of Imperial Power. Famous Works. Events and Changes. vided for regular mainten- ance at pub- lic cost of the poor cliildren of Italian towns. Trajan, 98-117. Spaniard ; a prominent general in the East Adoption by Xcrva ; popularity in the ar- Line of de- fences from the Rhino to the Dan- Conquered Dacia for the empire perma- nently ; persecuted the Christians in 200 STUDIES IX GENKRAL HISTORY. 'Jame and Date. Birth and Circumstance. Source of Imperial Power. Famous Works. Events and Changes. and on the Rhine. mies, and acceptance by the Senate. ube>a04 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. Name and Date. Birth and Circumstance. Source of Imperial Power. Famous Worhs. Euents and Changes. Decius, Eoman sen- Declared by Great defeat by the 249-251. ator and the Moesian Goths, who retreated general ; army in re- on being promised Pannonian. volt against reigning emperor. an annual sum of money ; general per- secution of Christians. * * * * * * * * * Wars with Persians and with Goths ; civil wars between various (at one time thirty) imperial can- didates and their armies ; persecution of Christians; empire ravaged by plague.^ Claudius From lUyri- Choice of * * * Great victories over II., 268- cum; low predecessor; the Goths ; a picked 270. birth; sol- acceptance body of Goths placed dier ; gene- of army. in the Roman army. ral. Aurelian, Peasant of Proclama- New defen- Ended the Gothic 270-275. Illyria ; vic- tion by the sive wall for war; drove back the torious legions and Rome. Germans from Italy ; general of acceptance conquered Zenobia, Claudius. by the Senate. empress of Syria ; gave Goths a per- manent settlement in Dacia beyond the Danube ; admitted Goths to imperial body-guard; perse- cution of Christians. 1 Gibbon calculates that nearly half the inliabitants of the empire per- ished at this time by war, famine, and pestilence. STUDY OX THE TAG AN EMPIRE. 205 Name and Date. Birth and Circumstance. Source of Imperiai Power, Famous Woriis. Events and Clianges. * * * « * * * * * * * * * * * * Diocle- Son of Dal- Proclama- Baths in Divided the empire ^ tian, matian tion by the Rome; a between two rulers 284-305, freedman or legions of splendid and two capitals serf; com- the East; and exten- (Nicaja and mander of victory over sive palace Milan). Eacii ruler and the former the army of for himself (Augustus) had an emjjeror's his rival. at Spalatro assistant (Ciesar), body-guard. in Dalmatia. wore a diadem, and required his subjects to approach him prostrate, adoring his divinity; ap- pointed consuls with- out consent of Sen- ate ; general perse- cution of Christians ; subdued rebellion in Egypt. Maximian, lUyrian Choice of Circus, thea- Subdued, by his 286-305. peasant ; Diocletian tre, baths, assistant Caesar, the soldier; and the etc., at revolting provinces general. army. Milan. of the west. * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * STUDY ON 2. Among the events and changes given in the imperial list, select those which were constilutional. What was the teudeucy of these changes? In which century were these changes most radical? I)i whom did tliey culminate ? What effect had they upon the equality of the inhabitants of the empire ? What classes gained in equality ? Under what /or7?is did the empire exist up to the time of Diocletian? How will you describe the form of government established by him ? What was the final basis of the imperial power ? How proved to be so from these lists? What remark can you make of the hereditary ^ The Western division comprised Italy, Gaul, Britain, Spain, Africa ; the Eastern, Greece, Macedonia, Egypt, Asia Minor. (See map.) 206 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. nature of the imperial office ? Illustrate. "Was such a change for the worse or better ? Why ? What part of the empire was represented by the emperors as a whole? Prove it. How were the provinces better off under the emperors than under the republic ? AVhat strikes you as the great fault of the constitution? What light does the origin of the emperors throw on the equality of men in the empire? of equality in the earlier as compared with the later years of the period ? 3. List of Great Men of the Pagan Einjnre, exclusive of Emjierors. Men of the Augustan Age and the First Century. the Augustan Age marked *.) (Meu of Name, *Agrippa. *Diodorus. ♦Dionj'sius. Epictetus, •Horace. Joseplius. Birth and Circumstances. Of obscure birth ; Ro- man general, and associated with Au- gustus in magistracy of Rome. Sicilian Greek ; travelled in all parts of the empire to get material for his his- tory ; lived at Rome. Asiatic Greek ; lived at Rome. A Plirygian slave, owned by a freedman of Nero in Rome. Son of an Apulian freedman. Jew of most illustrious lineage. Cause of Fame. Projected the Panthe- on ; made a survey and map of whole empire for Augustus ; made fine military roads in Gaul and aqueduct of Nimes. Author of general his- tory of the civilized world up to his own time. Author of History of Rome ; literary critic and rhetorician. Teaclier of the Stoic philosophy. Author of poems, satir- izing human nature and contemporary manners. Historian of Judtea. Language used. Latin. Greek. Greek. Greek. Latin. Greek. STUDY ON THE TAOAN EMPIRE. 201 THE PANTHEON OF AGRIPPA The two little bell-topped towers are an addition of modern times. The rest is according to the Roman plan. Name. Birth and Circumstances. Cause of Fame. Language used. *Livy. Paduan by birth and Author of a History of Latin. education ; of consu- Rome from its foun- lar rank. dation. Lucan. Spaniard of Italian Author of poem on Latin orifiin and L-questrian civil wars of I'ompey rank. and Ca3sar. Martial. Native Spaniard. Writer of epigrams, or sliort and pithy poems, generally satirical upon contemporary life and manners. Latin. 208 STUDIES IX GENERAL HISTORY. Name, Birth and Circumstances. Cause of Fame. Language used. *Maecenas. Roman knight. Friend and first adviser or minister of Augus- tus ; patron of literary men, notably Horace Latin. Italian of equestrian and Virgil. Poet, using Greek ma- : *5vid. Latin. rank. terials and forms. "Quintilian. Spaniard of official Writer on rhetoric and Latin. rank. oratory; lawyer. — "' — --f>ii„y the Elder. From Cisalpine Gaul, Writer on natural sci- Latin. and of noble family ; ence, and student. magistrate and inspec- tor of finances. Seneca. Spaniard by birth and Philosophical writer of Latin. education ; knight and Stoic school. senator. ■ -^Virgil. Mantuan freeholder, Author of the "^neid," Latin. educated at Cremona an epic modelled after and Milan. Homer, descriptive of the founding of Rome. *Vitriivius. Ot Verona; inspector Architect, and author Latin. of public buildings for of work on architec- Augustus. ture. h. Men of Second Century. Apuleius. African of magisterial Author of " Golden Latin. rank. Ass," a story founded on Greek originals, but satirizing contem- porary manners. Arrian. Asiatic Greek of poor Biographies of Alexan- Greek. but honorable birth ; der and his succes- high Roman magis- sors ; wrote on geo- trate. grapliy and tlie mili- tary art. STUDY ON THE TAGAN EMPIRE. 209 Name. Birth and Circumstances. Cause of Fame. Language used. flalcn. Son of a wi-altliy archi- Autlior of medical Greek. tect at Pergamos ; works ; physician of studied at Alexandria; Marcus Aurelius. lived at Konie. Justin jNlartyr. Greek of Samaria. Apologist 1 and Cliris- Greek. tian philosopher and martyr, under Marcus Aurelius. \; Juvenal. Son of Italian freed- Author of poems satiri- Latin. man ; Roman magis- zing contemporary trate. life. Lucian. Of a poor Syrian Author of satirical dia- Greek. family. logue dealing with contemporary thought, life, knowledge, and faith. >PlutarL'h. Boeotian Greek of hon- Biographer of famous Greek. orable family. Greeks and Romans. — *tolemy. Egyptian, studying and Astronomer, mathema- Greek observing at Alexan- tician, and geo- dria. grapher; taught that the earth is round and tlie centre about which the heavens turn ; author of the " Almagest," a work on astronomy, con- • taining important lists of stars. ~ Pausanias. Lydian. Traveller; geographi- cal writer. Greek. ^ Pliny the Of Cisalpine Gaul ; T,awyer ; writer of Latin. Younger. Roman magistrate. letters descriptive of contemporary manners. ^ Apologist: one who made a literary defence of Christianity, addressed to the pagan world. :ilO STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. Name, Birth and Circumstances. Cause of Fame. Language used. Suetonius. Son of a soldier. Biographer of the twelve Cajsars (Julius to Domitian). Latin. Tacitus. Italian ; Roman magis- Historian of nearly Latin. trate and patrician. contemporary Roman events ; author of tlie " Germania/' a de- scription of the Germans. During this century tlu- books of the New Testament received their canonical form in Greek. c. Men of Third Century. Cassius, Dion. Of Asia Minor; Roman Author of a history of Greek. magistrate ; senator Rome. and governor. Clement, St. Of Alexandria ; head Author of works on Greek. of the Christian Christian doctrine and school there. practice. Cyprian, St. Born at Carthage ; of a Sold his goods for the Latin. distinguished family ; sake of the poor; well educated in phil- lived austerely and osophy and literature ; alone ; regarded as Bishop of Carthage. fatlior of the poor; wrote moral, religious, and tlieological works and letters. Lactantius. African(?); studied Famous orator and Latin near Carthage. aj)()logist for tlie Cliristians ; poet ; author of philosopliic and religious writings and letters. STUDY ON THE PAGAN EMPIRE. 211 Name. Birth and Circumstances. Cause of Fame. Language used. Origen. Of Aloxandriii ; fiiii'Iy Teacher and preacher Greek c-ducati'd in litcriituri', at Alexandria; of philosophy, theology. ascetic life ; had but one cloak, slept on the ground, ate as little as possible, wrote commentaries and theological works of philosophi- cal character. Porphyry. Syrlo-Phoenician ; Author of philosophi- Greek. studied at Alexandria cal and critical works ; and Rome. opposed Christian doctrine; Platonist. Tertullian. Carthage; sou of a Author of arguments Latin. soldier. against jiagan belief and practice ; of moral and theological writings; Montanist; taught severest asceticism. lllpian. Of Tyre; Roman Author of works on Latin. magistrate. law. STUDY ON 3. What general remark can you make in regard to the origin and 3ircumstances of the great men of the pagan empire ? Compare with republican Rome. What is indicated by this difference ? What does this list indicate in regard to the civilization of the provinces? From whom did the western provinces (Gaul, Spain. Africa) take their civili- zation ? From whom the eastern V Prove it. AA'hat unity does this .same fact prove existed in the empire? With what division? What province came first into prominence ? Wliat reason caii you think of for this ? What kind of work seems to have been the most popular at Rome? What was original to the Romans? What was the strongest intellectual influence felt by the Romans? Instances. — (Take one 212 STUDIES IX GENERAL HISTORY. from the picture of the Pantheon.) Compare the three centuries in point of intellectual activity. To vchat class of Romans is this sort of activity almost entirely confined in the third century? AVhat inference can you draw from this as to the influence and cultm-e of this class ? GENERAL STUDY ON 2 AND 3. Which was the most excellent century of imperial ri;le? Which the worst ? Illustrate by number of emperors, by literatm-e, by events and changes, by imperial works, by comparison of pictures on p. 201 and p. 202. "\^niat kind of things do the imperial works show the Romans to have cared for ? What sort of ability is indicated by these works ? What new construction do you find employed in the Pantheon which you have not seen used by any other people? If Trajan and the Lictors (p. 201) and the Gladiators (p. 202) be typical Roman work, what difference do you note between Greek and Roman material in art ? What outside danger threatened Rome more and more? What indication of this danger in the works of the emperors ? What great change in the population and the army began to take place in the third century ? "\A'hat facts show this change ? Give two proofs of the extensive spread of Christianity. 4. Extracts Illustrative of Life and Thoiight of the Pagan Einpire. a. The Vision and Prophecy of Augustus. (From Yirgil'.o ^neid).^ " This, this is the man whom you have often heard promised to 3^ou, Augustus Caesar, the offspring of a god ; who once more shall establish the golden age . . . and shall extend his empire . . . beyond the sun's annual course, where Atlas, sup- poiting heaven on his shoulders, turns the axle studded with llaujing stars." Thus Yirgil elsewhere speaks of Augustus : "A god hath vouchsafed us this tranquillity ; for to me he shall always be a god ; a tender lamb from our folds shall often stain his altar [with his blood]." ^ According to favorite Roman legend, Rome was fouiuk-d by ^neas, one f)f tljo Trojan liorocs who fled from the ruin of Troy. Ilis adventures form the subject of tbc">Encid." In tbc course of theui lie is foretold the future gniiitncss of Rome, and sees a vision of its lierocs. STUDY ON THE PAGAN EMPIRE. 213 b. Fi'om Epictetus. " Caesar has procured us a profound peace ; there are neither wars, nor battles, nor great robberies, nor piracies ; but we may travel at all hours, and sail from east to west." (^Under Nero.) c. From Tacitus. A Letter of Tiberius to the ^Senate in Answer to a Request for Sumptuary Laws. *• But what is it that I am first to prohibit? what excess re- trench to the ancient standard ? Am I to l)cgin with that of our country seats, sjjacious without bounds ; and with the num- ber of domestics, from various countries? or with tlie quantity of silver aud. gold? or with the pictures, and statues of brass, the wouders of art? or with vestments, promiseuoush' worn by men and women ? . . . It is wonderful that nobody lays before the Senate . . . that the lives of the Roman people are daily exposed to the mercy of uu certain seas and tempests ; were it not for our supplies from the provinces — supplies by which the masters, and their slaves, and their estates are maintained — • would our groves, forsooth, and villas maintain us?" The First Persecution of the Christians. The name of Nero has become the synonym for all that is vile and cruel. He poisoned his rival, the son of the former emperor ; he caused his mother and his first wife to be assassi- nated ; his second wife died from the effects of a kick ; his companions were the vilest men of Rome, in whose company he played the gladiator and the robber ; it was the current belief of antiquit}- that he himself set fire to Rome. " To Bui)press this rumor," says Tacitus, " he falsely charged with the guilt, and punished with the most exquisite tortures, the persons com- monly called Christians. . . . And in their deaths they were also made the subjects of sport, for the}' were covered with the hides of wild beasts and worried to death by dogs, or nailed to crosses, or set fire to, and when day declined, burned to serve for nocturnal lights. Nero offered his own gardens for that spectacle, and exhibited a Circensian game, indiscriminately 214 STUDIES IM GENERAL HISTORY. mingling with the common people in the habit of a charioteer, or else standing in his chariot." How Otlio became Emjyeror. The last of the Caesar family died in Nero, and the legions of Spain proclaimed their general, Galba, emperor ; on arriving at Rome he addressed the praetorian gnards, bnt " added no flattery nor hopes of a donation." Meanwhile Otho, a boon companion of Nero, " had been in the habit of courting the affections of the army. . . . On their march, in the lines, at their quarters, he made it his business to converse freely with all, . . . and with his interest and his purse was ready to be their friend. . . . With malignant insinuation glancing at Galba, he omitted nothing that could fill the vulgar mind with discontent. . . . The loss of the donative, so often promised and still withheld, was the topic enforced to inflame the minds of the common men. . . . The vile and profligate were so ready for mutiny and the upright to connive, that, on the day after the Ides of January, they formed a resolution to take Otho under their care . . . and . . . proclaim him emperor. . . . The whole populace, in the meantime, with a crowd of slaves intermixed, crowded the palace, demanding, with discordant cries, vengeance on the head of Otho and his partisans, as though the}^ were clamoring in the circus or amphitheater for some spectacle. . . . Meanwhile, the praetorian guards with one voice declared for Otho. They ranged themselves in a body round his person, and . . . the whole camp resounded with shouts and tumults and mutual exhortations. . . . The}' rec- ommended the prince of their own choice to the affections of the men, and the men, in their turn, to the favor of the prince. Otho, on his i)art, omitted nothing ; he paid his court to the rabble with his hands outstretched, scattering kisses in pro- fusion, and, in order to be emperor, crouching like a slave. . . . "Galba, meanwlule, was borne in various directions according as the waving multitude impelled him. The temples, and great halls around the forum, were filled with crowds of sorrowing spectators. A deep and sullen silence prevailed ; the very STUDY ON THE PAGAN EMPIRE. 215 rabble was huslied ; umazcintMit sat on every face. . . . Otho, however, received intelligence that the popnlace had recourse to arms, and thereupon ordered his troops to push forward with rapidity. . . . They entered the city, they dispersed the common people, trampled the Senate muler foot ; with swords drawn, and horses at full speed, they l)urst into the forum. . . The people fled in consternation ; such as hesitated were attacked sword in hand." Galbji was slain, and "another Senate and another people seemed now to be in possession of Rome. All pressed forward to the camp. Every man en- deavored to distance those near him, and strive with those before liim. They reviled Galba, and applauded the judgnient of the soldiers. The}- kissed the hands of Otho, and in propor- tion to their want of sincerit}', . . . multiplied their compli- ments. . . . The fathers assembled without delay. The tril»u- nitian power, the name of Augustus, and all imperial lionors enjoyed by former princes, were by their decree granted to 0th J." From the Dialogue on Oratory. "What is our present practice? the infant is committed to some wretched creature in the shape of a Greek chambermaid, assisted in her task by a slave or two, generally the ver}" worst in the whole household, and unfit for the discharge of any office of trust. From the fables, and worse than idle tales of these people, the mind of the child receives its first coloring. There is not a single person in the whole household who troubles himself in the slightest degree about what he says or does before his youthful master. ... In these da^'s the patronage of actors, the passion for horses and gladiators . . . seems im- pressed, if I may say so, upon the very infants ; and when once the mind has been beset . . . by things like these, what room is left for honorable pursuits ; what else is the subject of conver- sation in the domestic circle? If we enter our schools, what else do we hear our boys ttdking about? Nay, this is the most usual topic with which even the teachers amuse their pupils." Says Quintilian on this same subject: "Before the child can 216 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. talk, he understauds all about the merits of the cook ; he calls for delicacies. AVe educate their palates before we teach them how to speak." d. From the Letters of the Younger Pliny. " I had the great pleasure of hearing from our common friends that you take your leism-e and lay it out as a man of your good sense ought ; living down in a charming part of the country, and A-arying your amusements, — sometimes driving, sometimes going out for a sail, holding frequent learned discus- sions and conferences, reading a good deal, and, in a word, daily increasing that fund of knowledge you already possess. This is to grow old in a way worthy of one who has discharged the highest offices both civil and military, and who gave himself up entirely to the service of the state while it became him to do so." ******* ' ' I had taken refuge in my villa at Tuscum, in hopes of passing my time here, at least, in my own way ; but that is a privilege, I find, I am not to enjoy even here ; so greatly am I interrupted with the troublesome complaints and petitions of my tenants, whose accounts I look over with more reluctance than I do my own ; for really it is with great unwillingness I examine even these. . . . Meanwhile, my domestic affairs are neglected as much as if I were away," ******* "The getting in of m}' vintage . . . particularly' employs me at present, if getting it in means gatliering a grape now and then, visiting the winepress, tasting the must In the vat, and saunter- ing up to my servants, who, being all engaged out of doors, have wholly abandoned me to my readers and my secretaries." Tinder Trajan, Pliny was nifide governor of the province of Bithynia ; and the following extracts are from Pliny's corre- spondence with the emperor : — "The Prusenses, Sir, liaving an ancient bath, whicli lies in a ruinous state, desire your leave to re[)air it ; but, upon exami- nation, I am of opinion it ought to be rebuilt." STUDY ON THE PAGAN EMPIRE. 217 Trajan to Pliny. " If the erecting ](! for righting that wrong? In this case what appears as the unit, and what bond makes of it a unit? What is tlie state of security among the Teutons ? How do you know ? What reason for this condition of affairs? What qualities of character appear in these extracts ? Note on Vocabulary. — In general, we find the same roots used in tlie Latin, Greek, Keltic, Slavic,^ and Teutonic tongues for tlie follow- ing words : — (1) Father, mother, brother, sister, daughter, father- and mother-in-law, daughter- and son-, brother- and sister-in-law ; (2) ox, cow, sheep, horse, hog, donkey, goose, mouse, and fly ; (8) plow, yoke, grind, weave, sing, milk, sow, and reap ; (1) house, field, clothes, wool, liides, cart, axe, knife, oar, rudder, boa , hammer. These are but a few out of the many examples that mir i; be given of the similarity of words in these languages. Among 'til these people the children are told the story of "Cinderella" an I of "Prince Hatt under the Earth," and stories of invisible caps and rings and of brave dragon- killers. GENERAL STUDY, What have we found in common between the Greeks, Romans, and Teutons? It is generally held that these common possessions indicate a common origin for all these peoples ; what must have been true in general of the time of that origin compared with the opening of European liistoryat 1000 B.C.? If all these people, Kelts,- Teutons, Slavs, Greeks, and Romans came from Asia, which entered Europe first, judging by geographical distribution? [See map, pp. '252, 253.] Why do you think so? Which last? How did the Greeks and Romans happen to be most quickly civilized ? Look over the above list of words and determine what occupations the Aryans " must have knoN\m before they separated. By what occupations must they have licen supported? What do you think they ate and wore at that time? How did they amuse themselves? ^ The Caucasians of Eastern Europe are mostly Slavs; the purest Slavic blood is found in Russia. - The purest Kelts of Europe arc the Irisli, Welsh, and Scotcli. ^ Aryan is the general name given to Greek, Roman, Keltic, Teutonic. anil Sh^vic stocks. 228 STUDIES IX GENERAL HISTORY. C. 11. THE CHRISTIAN EMPIRE. — CONSTAN- TINE TO CHARLEMAGNE. A. Under Roman control. 323-476 A.D. B. The West under Barbarian Control, 476-800. C. Empire of Charlemagne, 800-814 A.D, "And, behold, the Lord passed by, and a great and strong wind rent the mountains, and brake in pieces the rocks before the Lord ; but the Lord was not in the wind : and after the wind an earthquake ; but the Lord was not in the earthquake : and after the earthquake a fire ; but the Lord was not in the fire : and after the fire a still small voice." — I Kings, XIX. 11, 12. Chief original and contemporary sources, 323-4:76; Ammianns, St. Augustine, St. Jerome, and St. Ambrose, Claudian, Salvian, Zosimus, the Theodosian Code, the Canon-hiw. 476-814. For the Empire, the Justinian Code and Pro- copius ; for Italy, Cassiodorus ; for the Goths, Jornandes ; for France, Gregory of Tours, Eginhard, and the Capi- tularies 1 of Charlemagne ; for England, Gildas, Bede, and the contemporary laws ; for the Church, all the above -sources, and canons of the Councils : for Islam, the Koran. Chief modern authorities accessible in English : for the Church and the Empire, Gibbon, Milman, Finlay, and Bryce ; for France, Guizot ; for England, Stubbs and Green ; for Islam, Gibbon, Muir, Ockloy, Freeman. 1 (^'ipitnlarics [Utile hradini/s), snniinnrics of law and ciistoin. THE CHRISTIAN EMPIRE. 229 II. A. TEE CKRISTIAN EMPIRE UNDER ROMAN CONTROL. 323^76. 1. Facts of Iinjyerial Organization. a. List of Chief Officials of the Roman Empire in the Fifth Century. (Guizot.) First Chamberlain, the chief of those who served the emperor in his apartments ; Coioit of the Palace, the chief of those who served him at table ; Count of the Sacred Wardrobe, the chief of those who cared for the imperial wardrobe ; three Secretaries of the Chamber, private sec- retaries of the emperor, who transacted much public busi- ness for him ; three Guardians of Silence, whose business it was to keep the palace of the emperor quiet ; Steward of the Cajjpadocian Estates; Counts of the Cavalry and Infantry of the Palace, two select bands of soldiery for guarding the imperial person. Each of these officers had under him many subordinates and this whole body constituted the Imperial Court ; each emperor and empress and each Cajsar had a similar court chosen b}' himself or herself. Master of the Offices, administered justice to the people of the palace ; received appeals of private citizens and the petitions of cities ; had charge of the imperial messengers and spies throughout the provinces, and the armorers of the empire. Qiicestor, judged affairs referred to the prince; composed the laws and edicts of the emperor, kept a register of military officials. Count of the Sacred Largesses, treasurer of the empire, receiving and disbursing its funds. Crown Treasurer, who managed the revenues more particularly belonging to the emperor, such as gifts and bequests. Secretary of State, kept the register of public officials, witli their duties and salaries. Each of these officers had under him a great number of 230 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. officials who managed the affairs of his department in all parts of the empire ; it must also be remembered that each emperor had these officers under him. Under Constantine nearly 600 permanent garrisons were kept up, consisting of more than 600,000 men ; the imperial body-guard alone consisted of 3500. h. The Classes of the Empire (fifth century). The privileged classes, including senators and high im- perial officials; officers of the palace; all the clergy; all the soldiers. The Curials, including all citizens possessing a certain amount of landed property. The common people, including the mass, having little or no landed property to speak of. The privilege of the first class was exemption from municipal functions and offices ; this exemption was hereditary. The Curials (Decurions) were so by hereditary right or by acquirement of property ; they could not change their status by a voluntary act. Their duties were, (1) the ad- ministration of municipal affairs; (2) the collection and payment of imperial taxes. They could enter neither the army nor the Church until they had passed through the highest municipal offices. Tliey could neither sell their property nor leave their provinces without permission from the governor or judge of the province. c. Tlte Church. Every little parish with the surrounding country was under a priest, appointed by the bishop ; the union of these parishes formed the bishop's diocese, with a city for its centre. The bishop was generally elected by the clergy and the i^eople, and confirmed by the civil authority; he THE CHRISTIAN EMPIRE. 231 was generally the Defensor of his city, that is, the iiuui through whom appeals for justice passed to the emperor ; often, too, he was an imperial judge, lie ruled in accord- ance with the custom of Rome and with the decrees of Church councils, convened from time to time at various places, and consisting almost entirel}^ of bishops. " Let the domains, estates, vineyards, slaves, and chattels, . . . which are given to parishes," says the council of Orleans, " remain in the power of tlie bishop." STUDY ON I. For whose benefit is the imperial government primarily organized? Compare with republican Rome or with Age of Pericles. In what countries have we before found such governments? What name will you give to such a government ? What is true of its cost ? What makes its cost? How far is this cost unjustifiable ? On which class of the people does the burden of its support come? Who manages the imperial business? On what does its good or bad government depend? What classes will like and uphold it? Of what value to the government is each of these classes? Where and in whom is power centered? In its form, what is the organization of the Church ? Who hold its temporal power, and in what forms ? 2. liist of Itnjyortant Events and Changes, 323-476 A.D. CONSTANTINE, Jirst Christian emperor. . . . By his edicts every man is allowed to follow the religion he prefers. The property and civil rights of Christians are restored, while in the imperial service Christians are preferred to pagans. Byzantium is rebuilt, enlarofed, encircled with walls, enriched witli baths, palaces, and churches, and made the capital of the empire, under the name of Constantinople or New Rome. The Senate is no longer consulted by tlie emjierors in regard to their colleagues, and barbarians^ are enrolled in * Barbarians, in tlu' Roman sense, are the uncivilized Europeans, mostlj Teutonic, who dwell beyond the Kliiiie. 323 TO 337. 232 STUDIE.S IN GENERAL HISTORY. the imperial body-guard. In 325 the Arian controversy (see p. 221) culminates in the Council of Nice,i an assembly of bishops called together by Constantine to decide upon the points of the orthodox creed. This coun- cil condemns Arius as a heretic ; and the emperor declares that those who resist its decisions shall be exiled. The Nicene Creed becomes, henceforth, the standard of faith throughout the empire. A long ecclesiastical quarrel in Africa is settled by imperial authority, in a synod of Italian prelates, the bishop of Rome presiding. Meanwhile, war goes on with the Persians and with various Teutonic tribes. Emperors: . . . Julian . . . Theodosius. . . . Famous bisJiojys : . . . St. Ambrose of Milan. . . . Civil wars between imperial candidates ; frontier 337 TO 410. wars with Persians and Goths. Julian attempts to revive paganism. The Huns^ come from the East and attack the Goths. The Christianized (Arian) half of these ask the shelter of the empire ; large numbers are thus settled in the lands south of the Danube. Grossly deceived by the Romans, they begin to ravage the provinces, and a Gothic war arises, in the midst of which all the Goths in the eastern cities are massacred by a secret imperial order of Theodosius, who brings the war to an end, enrolls the conquered barbarians in the legions, and gives them per- manent settlements in the provinces. Suspicions and quarrels are rife between Romans and Goths. Theodosius suppresses and persecutes paganism ; Chris- tianity becomes the state faith of the empire ; Rome is decreed to liave the first, Constantinople, the second, ecclesiastical rank. After Theodosius, the empire is divided into Western ^ Nica-a, in Billiynia. '^ A people allied to tlio Tartars, Finns, and modern Hungarians. THE CHRISTIAN EMPIRE. 233 and Eastern Empires, Ravenna becoming the capital of the West. The Germans, invading Italy, are repulsed by Stili- cho, the Vandal general of the West, who has already saved Italy from the first invasion of Alaric, the master- general of the Imperial forces in Illyricum, and king of the Visigoths, who comprise his legions. — The Roman troops being withdrawn to defend the continental fron- tiers of the emj)ire, Britain becomes independent under native rulers. Emperors unimportant, ruling in east and west separately. Bishoj^s unimportant, save Leo the Grreaf^ pope 410 TO 476. of Rome, and St. Chrysostom, bishop of Constantinople. Alaric again invades Italy, complaining of delay in the pay of his legions, and of an unprovoked Italian massacre of Goths. Ravaging the country, he advances on Rome and sacks it, sparing, however, the Christians and the Christian churches. After his death, his brother-in-law Athaulf, chosen king by the Gothic troops, is appointed Roman general over his own subjects, and sent with them to fight barbarians beyond the Alps ; they defeat the Vandals in Spain, and finally settle in Aquitaine, taking one-third of the land as their own in return for tlieir services. About the same time the emperors grant per- manent settlement in Gaul to Burgundians and the F'ranks.-^ Throughout the provinces, revolts ; in Africa a Roman general, revolting, calls to his aid G-enseric, king of the Arian Vandals, who crosses into Africa, persecutes and attacks the orthodox ^ provincials, and ultimately con- quers and settles Africa for himself and his people. Attila, king of the Huns, the "Scourge of God," ^ The name given to a confederation (warrior l);ui(l ?) of freemen (Franks) from various Germanic tribes. ^ Those following the Nicene creed, in opposition to Arianism. 234 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. advancing from the north, ravages first the Eastern, then the Western, Empire ; ^Etius, the Scythian master-general of the western legions, now mostly composed of barbari- ans, drives him from Gaul by the battle of Qg^L^S (Strasbourg). He now enters Italy; ruins Aquileia, whose fugitives found Venice; is persuaded to leave by the entreaties of Pope Leo I. Hungary becomes the only permanent European settlement of the Huns. Britain, still Roman in its civilization, is invaded by the Anglo-Saxons (449). Nearly at the same time the Irish are converted to Christianity by St. Patrick. In the east, important heresies cause wide-spread revolt and difficulty. The widow of one emperor, insulted by his successor, asks Genseric the Vandal to avenge her; hence, Genseric and his Vandals sail for Rome and sack it. At the interces- sion of Pope Leo, they forbear to use torture or lire. The Arian and barbarian legions of Italy ask one-third of the land of Italy from the Western 476. Empire ; refused, they mutiny, and declare Odovaker their king. Augustulus, emperor of the West, resigns, and the Senate sends an embassy to Zeno, emperor of the East, to say that they "disclaim the necessity, or even the wish, of continuing any longer the imperial succession in Italy ; since, in their opinion, the majesty of a sole monarch is sufficient to j^ervade and protect at the same time both the East and the West. In their own name, and in the name of the people, they consent that the seat of universal empire shall be transferred from Rome to Constantinople. . . . The republic . . . may safely confide in the civil and military virtues of Odovaker; and they humbly request that the emperor will invest him with the title of patri- cian,^ and with the administration of . . . Italy." This 1 A title used in the late empire, conferring higli honor, generally accompanied with substantial power. THE CHRISTIAN EMPIRE. 235 request granted, Odovaker liecomes ruler of Italy, and grants, with the consent of the Senate, the niU; of (Jaul and Spain to the king of the Arian X'isigotlis. This event of 476 is popiUarly known as the "Fall of the Westekx EMriUK." • STUDY ON 2. What great change has passed over tlie popuhition of the empire? (Compare maps on pp. 190 and 252, 253.) Through what part of the Roman organization has this been accomplislied V Through what faults of Roman character? What in organization on the barl)arian side lias favored this change? In character? In what did the so- called "Fall of the Roman Empire" consist? What proofs did that event give of her weakness? What events prepared the way for this? What tendencies caused the foundation of Constantinople and the establishment of Christianity as the religion of the empire? What facts can you give to illustrate or prove the absolutism of the empe- rors during this period? In what matter do they show themselves especially interested? By virtue of what imperial office may they con- sider this matter their business ? What tendency culminates in the Council of Nice, and what danger does that council enable the Church to avoid? What relation do the barbarians hold to Christianity? To its orthodox form ? AVhat relation between these facts and their peacef id or hostile relations with the provincials ? Illustrate. Do you know of any similar facts in modern times? What are the centres of ecclesiastical power? Why do they become so? Of the two, which centre has the fewer rivals in its own part of the empire? (See map.) Which of the two will be comparatively greater ? Name two or three things which the barbarians learned or adopted from the Romans before 476 a.d. AVhat characterizes this period? Had 3'ou been a Roman living at 47G a.d., how would you have described the event known as the " Fall of Rome " ? 236 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 3. List of Great Natnes of the Period, a. Men of the Fourth Century. Name. Birth and Circumstance. Deeds and Worlis. Language used. Ambrose, St. Born in Gaul, of Roman Author of letters, com- Latin. family of high official mentaries, sermons, rank ; educated at and hymns ; intro- Rome ; lawyer and duced responsive consular magistrate ; singing into church bishop of Milan. service ; founded a monastery in Milan; ransomed from the barbarians, with the wealth of the Church, an enormous number of captives. Ammianus. Greek soldier of Anti- Author of a continua- Latin. och, of good family. tion of the history of Tacitus. Anthony, St. Of a wealthy Christian Lived 'alone in a moun- Egyp- Egyptian family ; tain desert on bread tian supported himself by and water, fasting, trans- cultivating a small praj'ing, laboring; lated field of wheat, and by believed by himself into making mats. and others to work miracles ; father of monasticism; wrote a few letters to Eastern churches. Greek Arius. Egyptian; deacon, Author of the Arian Greek. presbyter of Alexan- heresy. dria ; educated at Antioch. Athanasius. Egyptian ; educated at Defender of orthodoxy Greek. Alexandria, where he against Arius ; con- became archbishop. troversial and theo- logical writings. THE CHllISTrAX K.Ml'li:!:. 237 Name. Birth and Circumstance. Deeds and Worlis, Language used. Augustine, St. Nuinidiaii, of liiiiiililo Professor of rhetoric Latin. liarentagc; bisliop of and writer on Chris- Hippo. tian theology; de- fender of orthodox Christianity against various heresies; founded a convent and monastery; au- thor of letters, com- mentaries, personal confessions, sermons, and of the " City of God," a comparison of Eome and the Church. . Constantine. MoesianC?) ; son of Founder of Constanti- previous emperor ; nople. (See Summary soldier and general. of Events.) Basil, St. Cappadocian ; of noble Teacher of rhetoric ; Greek and wealthy Christian used his wealth for family ; educated at the poor; founded in Caesarea, Constanti- Asia Minor self- nople, and Athens ; supporting monastic bishop of Cassarea. communities devoted to prayer and labor; founded hosjjitals, houses of refuge, orphanages ; author of moral and theo- logical works. Chrysostom" St. Born at Antioch, of Famous orator and Greek high, official, and preacher; author of wealth}' family ; edu- letters, commentaries, cated as a lawyer; sermons, orations ; preacher ; ascetic Iiojjularized the use and monk ; bishop of of hymns in Con- Constantinople. stantinople. 238 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY, Name, Birth and Circumstance. Deeds and Woyhs. Language used. Eusebius. Native and bishop of Author of an ecclesi- Greek. Caesarea. astical history. Eutropius. Soldier, and secretary Author of a summary Latin. for Constantine; a of Roman history. tolerant pagan. Gregory, Cappadocian; studied Poet and orator, speak- Greek. Nazianzen. at Caesarea, Alexan- ing and writing on dria, and Athens ; religious themes ; monk with St. Basil ; gave his property to bishop of Constanti- the poor. nople. Helena, St. Mother of Constantine ; Ransomed captives ; . . . British(?) Christian. gave largely to the needy ; pilgrim to Palestine, where it is said she discovered the Holy Sepulchre and the true cross. Jerome, St. Pannonian; of family Translator of the Bible Latm. in good circumstances into Latin ( Vulgate) ; and position ; studied used his own wealth rhetoric at Rome and to support religious Treves ; hermit in and charitable work; Syrian desert. promoted the found- ing of convents and monasteries ; author of letters, commenta- ries, historical and controversial writings connected with the Church. Julian. Nephew of Constan- Attempts to restore Greek. tine ; emperor of paganism; author of Rome. refutation of Christi- anity and of memoirs of his German campaigns. THE CHRISTIAN EMPIRE. 239 Name. Birth and Circumstance. Deeds and Worhs. Language used. Martin, St. Pannoiiian ; of lespect- Established first French Latin al)le family; soldier; monastery, where monk; bishoi) of l)eautiful manuscripts Tours. were produced ; bril- liant orator and " model of charity." Theoilosius. Son of preceding em- Author of " Theodosian Latin. peror ; military Code," a collection of training. Roman laws. (See 2.) Ulfilas. Goth; hostage at Con- Arranged and complet- Gothic stantinople ; bishop ed a Gothic alphabet and and missionary among and translated the Latin. his own people. Bible into Gothic. h. Men of the Fifth Century, 400-476. iEtius. Scythian; master- general for Romans. See 2. • • • -_ Alaric. "Visigoth, I.e. king, and general of Gothic legions in the pay of Rome. See 2. Attila. Hun; war-chief and king of Hunnic bands. See 2. Claudian. Alexandrian ; patron- ized by Stilicho; j)agan. Wrote poems on con- tem])orary life and events. Latin, Genseric. ^^andal king and war- chief. See 2. Leo I., the Great, St. Roman ; religious edu- cation; deacon; ambassador of the empire; pope. Wrote sermons and letters. (See 2.) Latin. 240 STUDIES IN GENERAl. HISTORY. Name. Birth and Circumstance. Deeds and Wor/is. Language used. Marcella, St. Roman lady of high Founded a " Convent birth and wealth ; of relieving virgins " ; - friend of St. Jerome. instructed by St. Je- rome ; used her wealth and time for religion and charity. Odovaker. Teuton; declared king of barbarian legions of Rome. See 2. ■ * " Patrick, St. Scotch; son of a Ro- Converted the Irish Latin. man decurion ; bishop. and arranged their laws ; is thought to have introduced Ro- man alphabet into Ireland ; established monasteries, schools, and churches. Salvian. Gaul ; born at Cologne Author of works on Latin. or Treves. morals and theology, liomilies, letters. Sozomer . Palestine; studied law Author of history of Greek. at Berytus ; lawyer. the Church. Sidonius, Apol- Of a noble family of Author of poems and Latin. linaris, St. Lyons ; bishop of Clermont. letters. Simeon Syrian shepherd ; after- Lived for 30 years on a • • Stylites, St. ward monk-hermit. pillar 60 ft. high ; believed to possess miraculous power ; councillor of Eastern emperor ; ob- ject of jiilgrimages. Stiliclio. Vandal (?); general of Roman legions of west. See 2. . . . Zosinius Greek ; lawyer and Historian of Roman Greek. magistrate. Empire. THE CHRISTIAN EMPIRE. 241 ■S3 >3 242 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. STUDY ON 3. To what official classes do the great men of this period mostly belong? What two kinds of greatness are prominent? From what parts of the empire, or from what nationalities, does each kind come? What reason can you give for this? Of what use is each kind? Which is of use to Rome in particular? Which to the world in general? What are the centres of intellectual activity in the empire ? What class largely furnish the bishops ? What historic reason for these facts? What are the intellectual tastes of the period? What part of the empire is under predominant Roman influence? Greek? What fact indicates this ? What new ideal appears in this period ? From what part of the empire comes the impulse towards this ideal ? What new countries or peoples receive an impulse toward civilization, and how does the impulse come ? Judging from the picture on p. 241, what remark have you to make of the excellence of art in this period ? What new material appears in literature and in art ? ' 4. Significant Laws and Customs of the Period, a. Under Constantine. — Bishops were made judges of all the officers of the Church, and of all who sinned against her. — The churches in each city were allowed to own land, and were given a regular allowance of grain for distribution among the poor. — Criminals were no longer to be branded on the forehead, since man was made in the " image of God," nor were men to be condemned to fight as gladiators. — Parents were forbidden to expose or sell their children because of poverty,^ and prison regulations became milder. — Two laws were issued in the same year : one, that Sunday should be strictly observed ; the other, that the auguries should be regularl}^ consulted. — From tliis time on, it was legal to use torture with every class of citizens, when the charge was treason against "the prince or republic." — The chief officers of tlie empire were saluted as "Your Sincerity, Your Gravity, Your 1 'V\\v l)iiiiU'M of tiixiition was sucli that these practices were common. THE CHRISTIAN EMPIRE. 243 Excellency, Your Eminence, Your Sublime and Won- derful Magnitude, Your Illustrious and Magnificent Highness." In the reign of Constantine, and even before, many Christians went to the wildest and most solitary places, and there lived, clothed in rags or skins, suffering heat and cold, hunger and thirst, and spending their time in prayer and the various exercises of religion. Such were said to be ascetics ; in many parts of the empire these ascetics were gathered into communities, and lived together under vows of poverty, celibacy, and holiness. Such a com- munity of men (monks') made the monastery ; of women (nuns), the nunnery. h. Julian orders one of his pagan priests to "build nume- rous places of refuge and entertainment of strangers in every city. For it is a disgrace that these impious Christians, besides their own people, should support ours also, while ours are seen of all men to perish without any assistance from us." c. Under Theodosius. — The Theodosian code consisted of 16 books written in Latin, the last being wholly de- voted to ecclesiastical law. In it occurred the following decrees : — " It is our pleasure that all the nations . . . should stead- fastly adhere to the religion which was taught by St. Peter to the Romans ; . . . and as we judge all others are extrav- asrant madmen, we brand them with the infamous name of lieretics." — Curials, who had cheated about the taxes or owed anything upon them, were to be scourged with a whip knotted with lead. " In the churches situated in the domains of any private person, or in a village, or in any other place, let them only ordain as priests the men of the place itself, and not of any other domain, in order that they may continue to bear 244 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. the burden of the poll-tax. . . . With respect to slaves oi laborers, the admonition of their masters, and repeated floggings, will deter them from this perverse faith " of paganism. In the time of Theodosius, the flight of birds was still consulted by the augurs; and, at his death, the same heathen honors were paid him as to the pagan emperors. 5. Illustrative Extracts and Stories from Contempo- rary Sources, a. From Ammianus. (Of the life at Rome.) " In the first place, we will speak of the faults of the nobles. . . . Some men . . . are magnificent in silken robes . . . and are followed by a vast troop of servants, with a din like that of a company of soldiers. . . . Some of these, when any one meets and begins to salute them, toss their heads, . . . offering their flatterers their knees or hands to kiss. A number of idle chatterers frequent their houses, and . . . admire the construc- tion of the lofty pillars, and the walls inlaid with stones of carefully chosen colors, and extol these grandees with snper- human pi'aises. Sometimes scales are sent for at their enter- tainments to weigh the fish, or the birds, or the dormice which are set on the table ; and then the size of them is dwelt on over and over again, to the great weariness of those present . . . especially when near thirt}' secretaries stand by, with . . . memorundnm books, to record all these circumstances. . . . And there are among them some who are such severe judges of offenses, that if a slave is too long in bringing them hot water, they will order him to he scourged with three hundred stripes. . . . ]\Iany among them deny the existence of a superior Power in heaven, and yet neither appear in public, nor dine, nor think that they can bathe . . . before they have consulted an :ilin;in:ic, and learnt where [for example] the planet Mercury is, or in what portion of Cancer the moon is as she passes through tlie heavens. . . . And let us come to the idle and lazv THE CHRISTIAN EMPIRE. 245 common people . . . These men spend their whole lives in drinking, and gambling . . . and pleasures, and public specta- cles ; . . . the Circus JMaximus is their temple, their home, their public assembly' ; in fact, their whole hope and desire. . . . When the wished-for day of the equestrian games dawns . . . they all rush out with headlong haste, as if with their speed they would outstrip the very chariots which are going to race ; while, as to the event of the contest, they are all torn asunder l^y opposite wishes, and the greater part of them, through their anxiety, pass sleepless nights. . . • Among these men are many chiefly addicted to fattening themselves up by gluttony, who, following the scent of any delicate food, . . . get an en- trance into the halls, biting their nails while the dishes are getting cool." Ammianus, writing for the East, tells us that in the Gothic war the Goths were aided by "no inconsiderable number of men . . . who were unable to endure the heavy burden of their taxes." And Orosius, in Spain, says : These same Van- dals " treat the Romans so kindly that there are found those who prefer freedom with poverty among the barbari- ans to a life rendered miserable by taxation among their own countrymen." 6. From a Letter of St. Jerome. "I sat alone; I was filled with bitterness; my limbs were uncomely and rough with sackcloth, and my squalid skin l)ecame as black as an Ethiopian's. Every day I was in tears and groans ; and if ever the sleep whieli hung upon my eyelids overcame my resistance, I knocked against the ground my bare bones, which scarce clung together. I say nothing of my meat and drink, since the monks even when sick use cold water, and it is thought a luxury if they ever partake of cooked food. Through fear of hell, I had condemned myself to prison ; I had sc9rpions and wild beasts for my only companions. . . . My face was white, with fasting, my body was cold; the man, within his own flesh, was dead before his time." J 246 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. STUDY ON 4, AND 5 a AND b, Name all the evidences displayed by these extracts of the power oi Christianity. What kinds of j)ower are shown ? In what way is this power exercised ? Proofs. What does 4 tell us of the form of gov- ernment? Of its spirit? What relation seems to exist between pa- ganism and Christianity? What new persecution arises? What new organization springs from the new ideal which you have noted in such men as St. Jerome ? What evils and vices exist in the Roman Empire of this period ? What relation between these evils and vices and her previous history ? What relation between them and the so- called " Fall of the Western Empire " ? Against what manner of life and what Roman ideal does 5 b show a reaction? c From St. Augustine's '■'■City of God." (Of the pagan gods.) " Why did those gods . . . issue no laws which might have guided their devotees to a virtuous life ? . . . Let them show or name to us the places which were at au}' time consecrated to assemblages, in which . . . the people were commanded in the name of the gods to restrain avarice, bridle impurity, and con- quer ambition, ... as we can point to our churches built for this purpose in every laud where the Christian religion is received." " Know then, that the scenic games, exhibitions of shameless folly and license, were established at Rome, not by men's vicious cravings, but b}' the appointment of 3'our gods. . . . These astute and wicked spirits . . . took occasion to infect, not the bodies, but the morals of their worshippers." (Of Rome.) "To be brief, the cit}- of Rome was founded ... by which Clod was plejised to conquer the whole world, and subdue it far and wide by bringing it into one fellowship of government and laws." d. Theodosius and Ambrose. In a fit of rage the Emperor Theodosius had ordered a gen- eral massacre of the people in one of the cities of the empire. Soon after, he entered the great church of Milan to worshii) THE CHRISTIAN EMPIRE. 247 iliore as usuul. In tlu; doorwa}', Ambrose, the archbishop, met hun with the words: •• Ivobed us you are in the imperial pur- ple, you are still but a man whose body will crumble to dust, whose spirit will return to the God who gave it. AVhat account will you then be able to give of this dreadful massacre of your subjects? Your subjects indeed, but also your fellow-servants, with souls as precious in tlie sight of Ciod as yours." The emperor, full of remorse and repentance, huml)led himself before the archbishop, wlio proposed to liini the following plan : that he should prepare a law tliat no man should be put to death until thirty days after his condemnation. To this the (!mperor agreed. Soon after, he tried to partake of the com- munion within the altar railings ; but Ambrose sent this mes- sage to him: "The emperor must worship outside the rails with the rest of the laity." Thcodosius obeyed, excusing him- self, because in Constantinople he had always come within the altar space. e. From Claudian. (On the prime minister of the Eastern emperor.) "He who was wont to satisfy his greed With pantry pickings, and on crusts to feed, AVho from its hinges wrenched the cupboard door And stuck sly fingers in the housewife's store. Now wastes the ivorlcl ! All lands that intervene Twixt Persia's sands and Balkan's forests green Are set for sale by this base huckstering slave. One governs Asia, for a farm 'twas sold ; Another Syria [sapphires set in gold] His wife's adornment, were the price he paid ; ***** A tariff rules the various nations' fates — Galatia. Pontus, Lydia sold like sheep ; Lycia's a bargain, you shall have it cheap ; For Phrvgia we must char<>:e a little more." 248 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. From Zosimus. (Of the prime ministers of the sons Ov Theodosius.) " By these men, all lawsuits were divided according to their own pleasure, and that litigant departed victorious who had purchased their vote with money, or had in some other way . . . influenced the good-will of the judge ; . . . wealth poured from all quarters into the mansions of Rufinus and Stilicho (the ministers) , while poverty was everywhere overspreading houses once accounted wealthy." /. From Salvian. (On taxation.) "Messengers arrive express, bringing letters from the High- est Sublimities [emperor] which are addressed to a few illus- trious persons to work the ruin of the multitude. These meet ; they decree certain additions to the taxes, but they do not pay these taxes themselves ; they leave that to be done by the poor. . . . Does it seem unreasonable to complain that one class orders the taxes which have to be paid by another? . . . and if it should happen . . . that the emperor should . . . decree a return of some part of the contributions to the poor province, at once these rich men divide among themselves the gift which was meant to help all. ... So far are the barbarian Goths from tolerating frauds like these, that not even the Romans who live under Gothic rule are called upon to endure them. And hence the one wish of all the Romans in those parts is, that it may never be necessary for them to pass under the Roman jurisdic- tion. . . . And thus the name of Roman citizen is now volun- tarily abandoned ; nay, it is shunned." (The vow.) "A powerful [man] . . . wished to take away the last remnant o^ a poor man's substance. Salvian " remonstrated, l)ut " the man replied that the deed was ' now a religious duty which he dared not neglect,' because he ' had sworn by Christ to take that man's property.'" (J. From a Letter of Synesius. In the first years of the fifth century, the bishop Synesius, addressing the Eastern emperor, writes, " There is scarcely one THE CHRISTIAN E:MriUE. 249 of our fiuuilics who has not some Goth as a servant ; in our cities, the masons, the water-earriers, the porters, an; (ioths." h. From Orosius. (The speech of Athaulf, l)i()th('r of Alaric [see 2]). " It was at first my wish to destroy the Roman name, and erect in its place a Gothic empire, taking to myself the place and the powers of Csesar Augustus. But when experience taught me that the untameable barbarism of the Goths would not suffer them to live beneath the sway of law . . ., 1 chose the glorv of renewing and maintaining by Gothic strength the fame of Rome, desiring to go down to posterity as the restorer of that Roman power which it was bej'ond my power to replace." Compare with this the following letter from the Burgundian kjng to the Eastern emperor. He writes to thank the emperor for the titles of Count and Patrician, which were conferred upon him. " My people is j^ours," he writes, " and to rule them delights me less than to serve you. ... Our ancestors have always preferred what an emi)eror gave to all their fathers could bequeath. In ruling our nation, we hold ourselves but your lieutenants : you, whose divinely-appointed sway no barrier bounds, whose beams shine from the Bosphorus into distant Gaul, employ us to administer the remoter regions of your empire ; your world is our Fatherland." STUDIES ON 5, eh. What great contrast between the faitli of paganism and of Chris- tianity? What were the devils and demons of the early Church ? What did Rome seem to the Church and the empire of the fourth and fifth centm'ies ? To the barbarians ? What was the comparative, power of the Church in Rome and Constantinople ? What reason can you think of for this? What power had Ambrose over Theodosius? What influence did he exert? What principle did he announce? In what way was the government carried on, judging from the extracts ? What evils do these extracts prove to exist in the empire ? What light does / throw on the easy change of power from Roman to bar- barian hands? How was Christianity very often understood? What seems to have been the ambition of the barbarians? 250 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. General Questions. — In what capacities did the barbarians enter and become a part of the empire ? What did the empire give tliem ? Prove it. Make a list of all the powers of the Church. What justifi- cation was there for the persecution of heresy by emperors? Who was the head of the Church in the earlier part of the period ? What classes of people did Christianity favor, and by whom would it be supported ? II. BandC. THE WEST UNDEE BAEBAEIAN OONTEOL; EMPIEE or OHAELEMAGNE. 1. Sumtnary of Events from 476-800 A.D. Age of Clovis and Theodoric the Great, known in 476 TO 1 the North as Dietrich of Berne {Verona). j5?Ii_J In the Eaat, important heresies arise, causing revolt and war, especially in Syria and Egypt. In Italy, Theodoric the Goth asks Zeno, for whom he commands the Ostrogoths, to permit him to drive Odovaker from Italy and become patrician in his stead (see [). 234). Zeno consents, and the Arian Ostrogoths enter Italy, where they are granted one-third of the land; constant difficulties arise between them and the orthodox Italians. In Gaul, Clovis, king of the Fi-anks, is converted to orthodox Christianity ; he and his warriors are at once baptized, and Clovis is henceforth regarded by the Gallo- Romans as their protector. He conquers the Arian Visi- goths and Burgundians (see map), receives from Constan- tine the titles of patrician and consul, and becomes the founder of the Merovingian dynasty in France. At his death his dominion is divided amonsr his sons. In Britain, the constant struggle of the native Kelts aijainst the inviidino' Saxons still u'oes on. THE WEST UNDEli BARBARIAN CONTROL. 251 Age of Justinian, Emjyeror of the East. In the East, Justinian makes, through his lawyer, Trebonian, final and authoritative collections of 537 TO 565. Roman law, known as " The Code, the Pandects, and the Institutes of Justinian." Through his general, Belisa- rius, he recovers Italy, Africa, and Southern Spain from the rule of the Goths and Vandals, and places them directly under Byzantine officials, the most important of whom is the Exarch of Ravenna, who rules Italy in the name of the East. Meanwhile, the empire is attacked by Persians, Slavs, and Avars,^ while it nearly loses Egypt and Syria by wide-spread heresies, which cause great dis- affection towards Constantinople. In France, constant strife between kingdoms. In Britain, continual war l)etween Saxon and Kelt. Age of Pope Gregory the Great and Mohammed. In the East, constant wars with Persians and Avars, and constant difficulties with Syrian and 565 TO 632. Egyptian heretics. In Mecca, in Arabia, Moham^ied is born ; claiming divine inspiration, he preaches that there is no God but one, and that Mohammed is his prophet. This doctrine spreads rapidly through the East, but Mohammed is so persecuted at Mecca, that, in 622, he flees to Medina (Hcf/ira^ ; from that time, he preaches to his disciples the duty of fighting for their faith. In Italy, the Lombards seize the valley of the Po ; Italy implores armed assistance from the East, which the East is unable to give. In this crisis Gregory the Great himself directs the movements of troops, urges the Italians to their own defence, and finally makes a truce with the Lombards without appealing to the emperor; soon after, 1 The Avars were of the same race as tlie modern Turks, namely, Turanian. 7 ^ ^ ^ .1^ /^^ ^|_y r \ ^^ '*! \ "i -4 aveAU •^r u^Salona 35 ^0 46 60 55 w \^. THRACEC A\«< '^^Wi r^X- i* NyTVVJ y^tX ^' \ fCThf I A \ ^*-- f. ^o°lg_^ 1 Aj\A ^k!'!- v^''^^ 1 I ^ .^^^^^ \ T\ ^— --rt ^~v r "^ ^^, \ r^^^ Tl? / \~^-^^^''%K^--^^^--?^ \ A \ /' \ ^\ ^" >r~^ "^v / \ CRETE \/-^ / r \^ck.Av- y-X / ♦^ \ S^^^^^^^"'^^ ■* — ^^. 1 /fd-h/'' JO \^^ \ \ -JVU-;:::::^ w Y^i "^^ij?— ^— w h T^T^ v*" * \ 1 \ ^' \ i* \ v^ Tv \ ^A^""""^ \ VViv ^ \ \ \ ^^ \ ^-"'■^^ — ' \ \ X^\ \ \ \ J^^-^ \ 1 M \L--A'' \ \ ^^_______- 1 r"v^ \ 254 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. also through his agency, the Lombards exchange their Arian for the orthodox form of Christianity. In tSpain, the Vandals do the same. I71 Fi-ance, constant strife between the kingdoms. In England^ the Kelts are still resisting the invading Saxons, who are converted to orthodox Christianity by St. Augustine and his missionaries, sent by Gregory the Great. Age of Mohammedan Conquest. In the East, the Bulgarians attack the empire from the north, and settle south of the Danube ; / 632 TO 732. the Mohammedans (Arabians or Saracens) conquer Per- sia, and easily wrest from the empire Syria, Egypt, and Africa ; everywhere they give men the choice of " Koran, tribute, or sword." By the aid of the African Moors, they seize on Spain and enter France. Here they are worsted by the Franks under Charles Martel (the hammer), and with the battle of Touks, in 732, their career of conquest in Europe ends. Meanwhile, they are repulsed from Constantinople by Leo the Isaurian. In the lands they win, the caliphs, or successors of Mo- hammed, are unquestioningly obeyed by all Mohammedans as God-given rulers. In France, continued strife between kingdoms. In Britain, the stronger kingdoms gradually overcome the weaker. Age of Charlemagne. The bishop of Rome and the emperor of the East quarrel over the true use of images. The 733 TO 814. Italians, rising in defence of their faith and their bishop, slay the Exarch. The Lombards, in the same cause, seize on Raveima, and then demand the submission of Rome. The pope now calls on the Franks, who send him effectual aid ; first, in the person of Pippin, who wrests THE WEST UNDER BARBARIAN CONTROL. 255 the Exarchate ^ from the Lombards and gives it to the pope, who, in return, crowns him the king of the Franks ; next, in the person of Charlemagne, who conquers the Lombards for good, confirms the Exarchate to the pope, and is crowned emperor of the West by Pope Leo in St. Peter's in Rome (800). Thus begins tlie Holy Roman Empire, which includes, at Charlemagne's death, the countries marked red on the map, pp. 256, 257. The con- quest of the Saxons is accompanied by their conversion from paganism to Christianity, Cliarlemagne giving them a choice between conversion, and death by the sword. Their territory is made into eight bishoprics, and " these episcojDal seats became the first schools and cities of that savage land." Li Britain^ continued strife of Saxon kingdoms, with tendency toward consolidation. The Mohammedan Caliphate is divided, the eastern lands of Islam having as centre, first, Damascus, then, Bagdad ; the western owning allegiance to the caliph of Cordova. STUDY ON I AND MAP. What appears the most powerful influence of this period ? Xame all the proofs of its power. Under what titles do the barbarians rule the West ? By virtue of what force ? What characterizes this period ? What must have been true of the Roman provincial life during this iine? What kind of duties and powers does the pope exercise? What historic reason is there for the supremacy of the bishop of Rome? What parts of the empire pass under Mohannnedan rule? What old seats of Oriental influence or power does that rule include in Asia, Africa, and Europe ? What prepared the way for this conquest in Syria and Egj^t? What parallel between the history of the Mohannnedan and Roman empires ? What tendencies culminated in the crowning of Charlemagne? Does that crowning represent a revolt from, or a continuation of the Roman Empire ? Compare the ' The city and surrouiulintnry. Name. Birth ami Circumstance. Deeds and Worhs. Language used. Abu-bekr. Father-in-law of Mo- Begins conquests of Arabic. hammed ; elected the Syria and Persia ; col- first caliph or succes- lects the Koran into sor of Mohammed, one volume ; adminis- and "Commander of ters jirovinces mostly the Faithful." by native and Greek- speaking officials. Aidan. Irish ; monk from Missionary to Northum- English. lona ; bishop of bria; founds monas- Lindisfarne. teries and schools, notably that at Lindis- farne, near the Northumbrian coast. Cajdmon. Northumbrian eow- First Christian English English, hi'rd. poet; sings or para- phrases Biblical sul)jects. Cuthbert, St. Nortliumbrian ; jjcasant " Apostle of the low- English. and shepherd ; monk ; lands " of England ; prior of Lindisfarne. ascetic and hermit. i Eloi, St. Gaul ; bishop ; gold- Founds schools of gold- Latin ; smith; treasurer and smiths in connection native minister of Frankish with some of the mon- dialects. kiiitis. asteries ; missionary among the Frisians (in northern part of Holland). Isidorus. Of magisterial family; Writer on historical. Latin. bisliop of Seville. theological, gramma- tical, and scientific subjects. Mohammed. Mecca ; of noblest Founder of Moiia.m- Arabic Arabian blood, but MED.A.NISM ; preacher poor. and teacher; believed by his followers to be 262 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. Name. Birth and Circumstance. Deeds and Worlts. Language used. the inspired author of the Koran and the greatest prophet of God. Oraar. Father-in-law of Mo- Preacher and ruler ; Arabic. liamnied; receives the divides his time be- caliphate by will tween preaching to from Abu-bekr. the people and ad- ministering justice to them ; Egypt and Palestine added to the Saracenic empire ; provinces adminis- tered as under Abu- bekr ; conquest of Syria, and continua- tion of that of Persia. Othman. Son-in-law of Moham- Completes conquest of Arabic. med ; elected to Persia ; begins that caliphate by commit- of Africa; provinces tee of six, chosen by administered as under Omar. Abu-bekr. Theodore. Of Tarsus; Greek Organizes the English Greek, monk sent by Tope Catholic Church much Latin, to be archbishop of in its present form ; English, Canterbury. founds a school at Canterbury ; teaches medicine, astronomy, Greek, Latin, arithme- tic, divinity. Men of Eighth Century. Contemporaries of Cliarlemagne marked *. *Alcuin. English monk of York ; abbot of St. Martin. Writes on philosophy, theology ; invited to Charlemagne's court to ])e chief of the school of the palace. THE WEST UNDER BAIiBAKIAN CONTROL. 263 Name. Birth and Circumstance. Deeds and Works. Language used. r?ode. Nortiiuiiiliriaii monk ; Author of "Ecclesiasti- Latin student and teaciier cal History of Eng- and in tlie school of land"; translates Gos- English. Jarrow. pel of St. John into English ; Greek and Latin scholar ; writer of hymns. Benedict. Enjflish ; noble birth ; Founds school and Latin monk. monastery of Jarrow, and causing the church to English. be built by French workmen in the Roman style, and adorned with glass windows, inserted by French glaziers ; brings many books into England from Rome. Boniface, or Anglo-Saxon monk ; " The Apostle of Ger- Latin. Winifried. afterward bishop of many," sent by the Mayence. Pope ; founds many bishojjrics and fiionas- teries, which often become towns ; mas- sacred hy the pagan Frisians ; author of sermons, letters, and theological writings. ("liarlemagne. King of the Franks; Collects and arranges Latin son of " Pepin the the " Capitularies," and Short." or the body of preced- ing French law. French. Charles Martel. Frank ; mayor of the palace of the French king. SeeL 264 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. Name. Birth and Circumstance. Deeds and Worlis. Language used. *Dungal. Born and educated in Helps Charlemagne Latin. Ireland. reform the calendar ; makes astronomical annals ; chief teacher in school at Paris. Cynevvulf. Northumbrian bard. Composes riddle-songs ; writes poems on sub- jects connected with the life of Christ and the saints ; their forms show Latin influence. English. *Eginhard. Frank ; of good birth ; Author of Life of Latin. archchaplain ; super- Charlemagne ; annals intendent of public and letters. works, and secretary for Charlemagne ; abbot in Germany. *Haroun al- Most famous of the Head of a brilliant Arabic. Raschid. caliphs of Bagdad ; Oriental court; sends son of former caliph. a clock to Charle- magne, which is a wonder to the court by reason of its fine mechanism and its metal work of brass and gold. Geber, or Jeber. Mesopotamian Arab ; Discovered and ana- Arabic, physician. lyzed various chemical translat- combinations ; called ed into , master of masters by English. Ivogcr Bacon ; was thought to have dis- covered the art of creating gold. THE WERT UNDER BARBATIIAN CONTROL. 265 ^ ^ s ^ s 'r^ C3 < ii a) ^ c C3 e hy taught is that of Aristotle. Damascus, Cordova, Cairo, and Bagdad are made the capitals and centres of Mohammedanism. The two latter cities are pure Moorish foundations. Splendid domed mosques and palaces built in all these cities. Schools are founded at Bagdad in reign of Al-]Mansour in the eighth century, where Aristotle and Galen are translated into Syriac ; the same authors are translated for the use of the schools of Granada and Cordova. STUDY ON 2 AND 3. What is the literary language of Europe ? What is the subject of intellectual interest? Who make the books and direct the thought of Europe? What special art does the Church cultivate? What special sort of literature? What division of the empire is most fertile in great men ? What still marks this division ? What kinds of great- ness are lacking in this period ? What reason can you find for this ? Make a list of all the things which prove that the Church is the civilizing power of Europe during this period. "What is the source of the civilization which she gives ? What organization is most active in this work? What people possess the military and governmental genius of Europe during this period ? What historic reason for this ? In whom does this genius culminate ? What new languages appear in literature? What does that indicate of the peoples speaking them? What marks the religious spirit of the period? How does the Church tend to bring the various parts of Europe into unity and sympathy ? AVluit proofs that the Mohannnedans obtained their civilization from the Eastern, or Greek Empire? What architectural construction did they take ? (See St. Sophia.) Of what great cities were Cairo and Bagdad successors? THE WEST UNDER BARBARIAN CONTROL. 267 4. Significant Laws and Customs, a. Under Justinian and other Eastern Emperors. The Justinian Code was composed of twelve books written in Greek and Latin, the first one being devoted to ecclesiastical matters and opening with the imperial creed of the Trinity ; the rest consisted of a collection of previous Roman law. In its newer portions we find: . . . "What- ever the prince wills has the force of law, because the peo- ple have yielded to him their own sovereignty." — Church lands were still further freed from taxes, and the bishop of each city was made the inspector of its accounts and of the moneys used for the public good in baths, markets, bridges, aqueducts. — In all quarrels in the East, Constantinople was declared arbiter. After the Council of Chalcedon (near Constantinople) the Emperor Marcian issued two laws : one forbade the future agitation of all questions concerning the nature of Christ, and affixed severe penalties to their discussion; the other confirmed the conclusions of the Council, and declared that no private man could hope to reach so sound a conclusion as the Council. This Council also made Rome and Constantinople equal seats of episcopal authority and the highest of appeal. h. Under the Barbarians. In Italy. — Theodoric wore the official dress and bore and gave the official titles of Rome. He swore in the Senate to maintain the imperial laws, which Latin coun- cillors helped him to interpret and apply. He it was who charged the prefect of the city to keep up the " forests of stately buildings, the statues which peopled the city, the herds of equestrian images." In France. — During this period, Romans were judged 268 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. by RoiTian, Franks by Frankish, Burgundians by Burguri- dian law, though they might be living on the same territory and under the same ruler. Church law, however, was the same for all, as were many of the laws of Charlemagne. The first considerable collection of Frankish law was the Capitularies^ of Charlemagne. Of these, 621 were acts of civil, and 415 of religious, legislation. These laws imposed the death penalty on any Saxon who should refuse baptism, return to idolatrj^, murder a priest or bishop, offer human sacrifice, eat meat in Lent. — Baptism or repentance could atone for every crime. — " Not too many slaves were allowed to flee to the monasteries, lest the country estates become desolate." — " The king must walk uprightly. . . . If he act with piety, justice, clemenc}^ he deserves the name of king ; otherwise, he is not a king, but a tyrant. . . . [He is] the defender of the churches, of the servants of God, of the widows, of the other poor, of all who are in distress." One of the earliest collections of Visigothic law opened as follows : — "In this volume are contained the laws or decisions of equity, selected from the Theodosian Code and other books. . . . With the aid of God, occupied with the inter- ests of our people, we have corrected, after mature delib- eration, all that seemed iniquitous in the laws, in such manner that, by the labor of the priests and other noble- men, all obscurity in the Roman and in our own ancient laws is dissipated." Li England. — - Ethelbert, that king of Kent who was converted to Christianity by Augustine, issued the first English laws extant; among them were the following: " Property stolen from the Church [shall] be restored twelve-fold, that taken from the king but nine-fold." — 1 Capitularies, " little hcadiiifj.s," tlie written summaries of law and custom made' liy early I'reiicli rul'Ts. THE WEST UNDER BARBARIAN CONTROL. 269 Withred, king of Kent, thus decreed : " For I, Withred, an earthly king, stiinuhated by tlie heavenly king, and kindled witli the zeal of righteousness, have learned from the institutes of our forefathers that no layman ought to appropriate to himself a church or any of tlie things which to a church belong. And therefore ... we decree, and in the name of Almighty God and of all saints, we forbid to all kings our successors, and to aldermen, and to all laymen, any lordship over churches and over any of their possessions." c. In the Church. (Extracts from the "Rule of St. Bene- dict," generally followed in the monasteries of the West.) "Laziness is the enemy of the soul, and consequently tlie brothers should, at certain times, occupy themselves in manual labor ; at others, in holy reading. ... If the poverty of the place, necessity, or the harvest keep them constantly employed, let tliem not mind that, for they are truly monks if they live by manual labor, as our brothers the apostles did ; but let every thing be done with moderation, for the sake of the weak. . . . During Lent all shall receive books from the library, which they shall read one after another, all through. . . . On Sunday let all be occupied in reading, except those who are selected for various functions. If au}' one be negligent or lazy, so that he wishes neither to meditate nor read, let some labor be enjoined upon him, so that he may not remain doing nothing. ... If, by chance, anything diflicult or impossible be imposed upon a brother, ... let him explain fitly and patiently to his superior the reason of the impossibility, not inflamed with pride, not resisting, not contradicting. If, after his observation, the prior persists in his opinion and his conunand, let tlie disciple know that it ought to be so, and confiding in the aid of God, let him obey. . . . Let no person dare to give or receive without the order of the abbot, nor have anything of his own i)ecnliar prop- ert}', not a book, nor tablets, nor a pen, nor anything whatso- ever." " Love the Lord thy Ood with the whole heart, whole 270 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. soul, whole strength, aud thy neighbor as thyself. Renounce luxuries. Relieve the poor. Clothe the naked. Do no injuries, aud bear them patiently. When you see anything good in 3'our- self, attribute it to God and not to yourself." Among the ordinances of Gregory the Great are the fol- lowing : "We understand that the price paid for corn to the peasant subjects of the Church is lowered in times of a]:)und- ance ; we desire that they shall always be paid according to the current price. We forbid that the farmers shall pay more than the rate fixed in their locality. . . . Every pagan or Jewish slave who desires to become a Christian should be freed at the cost of the Church." "We have learned also that in some farms of the Church there exists a most unjust system, namel}', that out of seventy bushels, the farmers exact (from their tenants, or serfs) three and a half. . . . We wholly detest this custom. . . . Do you appoint . . . that they ma}- pay in the whole two bushels in seventy ; but that, beyond this, no shameful exaction be made." STUDY ON 4. What were the sources of law during this time ? What was the most powerful influence at work upon the laws ? Among whom was this influence strongest? Name the changes evidently due to this influence. What form did the government of the empire positively assume ? Make a list of the powers given to the Church during this time. What determined by what law a man should be judged? What would determine it now ? What class of men in the Church held the most power ? What kinds ? What effect had the Church on regard for labor? Through what organization did she work this effect? Describe the ideal monk. What faults in human nature were attacked by this ideal? 5. Stories and Extracts Illustrative of Period in the Christian Empire. a. Tlie Founding of Mont (> Qcssino. At the command of Benedict, the Goths of Theodoric " ai-med themselves with axes and hatchets, and employed their robust THE WEST UNDER BAUBAlirAN CONTROL. 271 strength in rooting out the l)ru.sliwood and clearing the soil, which, since the time of Nero, had again become a wilderness. . . . Many young men of rich and noble families . . . labored with the other bretln-en in the cultivation of the soil and the building of the monastery, and were bound to all the services imposed by the rule." b. From Sermon of St. Eloi. " Do not consult . . . the diviners, or the sorcerers, or the enchanters, for any cause, even for illness ; pay no heed to omens or to sneezing ; do not be influenced by the singing of birds when you hear them in your journey's. . . . Let no Chris- tian pay heed to the day he leaves a house, or that upon which he returns to it. . . . Let no one seek to invoke the demons, such as Neptune, Pluto, Diana, Minerva, or the evil genius. . . . Let no one ol)serve the day of Jupiter [Thursday] as a day of rest. Let no Christian make vows in the temples, or by the side of fountains, or gardens, or stones, or trees." c. The Conversion of Clovis. (Gi'egory of Tours.) "The queen did not cease to urge the king to acknowledge the true God, and to put away his idols ; but he could in no wise be moved to believe on these things until at length, at a certain time, a war Was set on foot against the Germans ; in which war he was compelled to confess what before he had denied. For it came to pass that as the two armies were fighting, there was great slaughter, and the army of Clovis was a))()ut to be utterly destro3'ed. Clovis, seeing this, was grieved in heart, and moved even to tears, and raising his eyes to heaven, said, ' O thou Christ Jesus, whom Clotilda declares to be the son of the true God, thou who art said to . . . grant the victory to those who put their trust in thee, to thee I make my vows. ... If thou grant me the victory over these, mine enemies, and if I find in thee that power which those who call on thy name declare that the}' have proven, I will believe on thee, and will bo baptized in thy name. For I have called upon my gods, but I find that they are far from assisting me ; where- 272 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. fore, I believe that they have no power.' . . . Even while he was saying these things, the Germans turned their backs and fled. . . . After the victory, the bishop of Rheims was sent for, and preached the gospel to Clovis, who consented to be baptized if his people would follow." " But as he came into the presence of his folk, their hearts were moved by the power of Clod, so that before he spoke they THE LEGEND OP ST. MARTIN OF TPURS. (From a piece of tapestry of the tliirteentli century in tlic Louvre.) 1. St. Martin shares his cloak with a poor man. 2. Sees in a dream Jesus Christ clad with this half of his cloak. 3. The saint's baptism. 4. lie brings to life a catechumen, who had died without baptism. 5. Tie recalls to life a slave, who is first represented as hung from a gibbet, and afterwards standing on the ground and giving him thanks. 6. St. Martin is consecrated Bishop of Tours. 7. He evokes the spectre of a protended martyr, and when it appears and avows that it had been executed for its crimes, the chapel is demolished. 8. He gives his tunic to a poor man. 9. ITe brings to life the son of a peasant. 10. He drives out the evil spirit from the body of a mad cow. 11. Seeing on the banks of a river some birds watching to catch fish, lie bids them fly away. 12. Death of Ht. Martin. His soul, in the form of a child, is being boroc off to beuven by two angels. THE WEST UNDEll BARBAllIAN CONTROL. 273 all cried out, ' AVe cast away <^)uv false gods, O righteous king, and wo are ready to follow the true God ! ' " These thmgs are announced to the priest, who, filled with great joy, orders the baptistery to be made ready. The altar is decked with richW wrought coverings . . . ; the baptismal font stands read3', the incense pours forth, and the lighted candles send forth such sweet odor that the whole church is filled with heavenl}' fragrance ; and such grace does God grant to those standing l)y that they think themselves in the midst of the per- fumes of Paradise. . . . Therefore, the king, having acknowl- edged the omnipotent Godhead of the Trinity, is baptized in the name of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost, anointed with the baptismal oil, and sealed with the sign of the cross of Christ. More than three thousand of his army are baptized with him, d. Oswald, lung of Northumberland. " ' By reason of his constant habit of praying or giving thanks to the Lord, he was wont, wherever he sat, to hold his hands upturned on his knees.' As he feasted with Bishop Aidan by his side, the thane, or noble of his war-band, whom he had set to give alms to the poor at his gate, told him of a multitude that still waited fasting without. The king at once bade the untasted meat before him to be carried to the poor, and his silver dish to be parted piecemeal among them. Aidan seized the royal hand and blessed it. ' May this hand,' he cried, ' never grow old.' " e. T7ie Abbot and the Cart. "There was a poor man whose cart had been overthrown before the very gate of the king ; many people passed in and out, and not only did they not lend him any aid, but many . . . trod him under foot. . . . When the abbot arrived, he saw the im{)icty which these children of insolence connnitted, and inune- diately descending from his horse, he held his hand out to the poor man, and, both together, they raised the cart. Many of those present, seeing him all soiled with mud, mocked and insulted him, but he cared not, following with humility the huiniile example of his IMaster." 274 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. /. The Croivning of Charlemagne. (From contemporary monkish chronicles.) "And becanse the name of emperor had now ceased among the Greeks, and their empire was possessed b}' a woman, it seemed both to Leo the pope himself, and to all the holy fathers who were present in the self -same council, as well as to the rest of the Christian people, that they ought to talce to be emperor Charles, king of the Franks, who held Rome herself, where the Caesars had always been wont to sit, and all the other regions which he ruled through Italy and Gaul and Germany ; and inasmuch as God had given all these lands into his hand, it seemed right that with the help of God, and at the prayer of the whole Christian people, he should have the name of emperor also. Whose petition King Charles willed not to refuse, but submitting himself with all humility to God, and at the prayer of the priests, and of the whole Christian people, on the day of the nativity of our Lord Jesus Christ, he took on himself the name of emperor, being consecrated by the pope Leo." . . . ' ' For this also was done by the will of God . . . that the heathen might not mock the Christians if the name of emperor should have ceased among the Christians." From Letters of Alcuin to Charlemagne. " In obedience to your exhortation and wise desire, I apply myself in serving out to some of my pupils in this house [monastery] of Saint Martin the honey of the holy writings ; I essay to intoxicate others with the old wine of antique studies ; one class I noin-ish with tin; fruits of gram- matical science ; in the eyes of another, I display the order of the stars." . . . "I have schools of singers, many of whom are already suffi- ciently instructed to be able to teach others. ... I have also doiK; in tliis cluirch what lay in my i)Ower, as to copying books. ... I have roofed the great cluirch of tliis town, . . . and have reconstructed a portion of the walls ; . . . for the priests, I have coustructcd a cloister." THE WEST UNDER BARBARIAN CONTROL. 275 MOSAIC OP TENTH CENTURY. From Church of St. John in Lateran in Rome; it represents Christ giving the spiiitual power to Peter with the keys, and the temporal power to Coustantine, with the etaudard. STUDY ON 5. What effect would the monasteries have on the regard for labor ? On the spread of knowledge ? "NAliat sorts of useful knowledge would be especially favored by them ? What studies were pursued in them V What in the Roman Emjiire and the Roman Church made a strong impression on the barbarians, and thus became a source of power over them ? What sort of Christians were Clovis and his followers ? How- did they regard Christianity? What does the sermon of St. Eloi indicate about the beliefs of the common people and the influence of 276 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. the Church ? What elements of character entered into the ideal set by the Church ? Whence did Charlemagne and his contemporaries believe his power proceeded? What does the Lateran mosaic (p. 275) teach us of the ideas of the time ? If the picture on p. 272 with its explanation were all that we possessed to tell us of this age, what could we learn from it ? In General. — Of what is the Church the successor in Europe? What are its bonds of union ? What good reason for the persecution of heresy by popes and emperors ? 6. Extracts Illustrative of the First Century of Mohatn- inedanism. a From the Koran. "God, there is no God but he, the living, the eternal. Slumbex" doth not overtake him, neither sleep ; to him belongeth all that is in heaven and earth. . . . He knoweth that which is past and that which is to come unto them, and they shall not comprehend anything of his knowledge, but so far as he pleaseth. His throne is extended over heaven and earth, and the upholding of both is no burden to him. . . . " There is no piety in turning your faces towards the east or the west, but he is pious who believeth in God, and the last day, and the angels, and the Scriptures, and the prophets ; who for love of God disburseth his wealth to his kindred, and to the orphans, and the needy, and the wayfarer, and those who ask ; . . . who observeth prayer, and payeth the legal alms, and who is of those who are faithful to their engagements . . . and patient under ills and hardships, and in time of trouble ; these are they who are just, and those who fear the Lord. . . . Whoso doeth the good works and is a true believer, whether male or female, shall be admitted into Paradise. . . . "Verily we have revealed unto thee, [() Mohammed], as we revealed unto Noah and the prophets after him, and as we revealed unto Abraham and Ishmael and Isaac and Jacob . . . and Jesus and Job and . . . Solomon. . . . " They to whom we have given the book of the Koran, and THE WEST UNDER BARBARIAN COJSTROL. 277 o — P • .5 0) u > 4. 278 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. who read it with its true reading, they believe therein ; and whoever belie veth not therein, they shall perish. . . . ' ' Perform the pilgrimage of Mecca. . . . Make provision for your journey ; but the best provision is piety ; and fear me, O ye of understanding. It shall be no crime in you, if ye seek an increase from your Lord, by trading during the pilgrimage. . . . " They will ask thee concerning wine and lots [lottery, gam- ing]. Answer, In both there is great sin, and also some things of use unto men ; but their sinfulness is greater than their use. They will ask thee also, what they shall bestow in alms. Answer, What ye have to spare. . . . " On the last day, every soul shall find the good which it hath wrought, present ; and the evil which it hath wrought, it shall wish that between itself and that were a wide distance. . . . " What befell them was so ordained. . . . God giveth life and causeth to die. . . . Moreover, if ye be slain, or die in defence of the religion of God, verily pardon from God, and mercy, is better than what they heap together of worldly riches. . . . " Fear God by whom ye beseech one another; and respect women who have borne you, for God is watching over 3'ou. , . . Take in marriage of . . . such . . . women as please you ; two, or three, or four, and not more. But if ye fear that ye cannot act equitably towards so many, marry one only. . . . " Men shall have the pre-eminence above women, because of those advantages wherein God hath caused the one of them to excel the other. . . . Honest women are obedient, careful in the absence of their husbands, for that God preserveth them, by committing tliem to the care and protection of the men. But those whose perverseness ye shall be apprehensive of, rebuke ; and remove them into separate apartments and chastise them. . . . "... Verily those who disbelieve our signs, we will sui'ely cast to be broiled in lu-U fire ; so often as their skins shall be well burned, we will give them otlit-r skins in exchange, that they may taste the sharper torment ; for God is mighty and wise. ... THE WEST UNDER BARBARIAN CONTROL. 279 " But for him who (h'cudcth the tribunal of his Lord are pre- pared two gardens, planti' C3 > •5b g^ 4J" «4-l ^ M-i ^ Qi O S -^ S -f-i > H O cS oi __o 1 +2 « S .2 o 8 ^ O) H 3. c3 ^ o Ci. H Izi e3 1 O r^ o <« B ^ o a o I^ >. '3 £ g S IH a M C/-J ct O j; bo CS " o 5 >-• -, ■^ -a ^ :i C O « 01 bo a 'S ^ o o 2 3 ^ ■p oi t/j o "E, o QJ <1 •^ ^ ;-■ ^ o «r ^ «4-l c o , 1^ s o O o o S "^ 'cS _« be 2 tj 2 1 a 2 o C 'S S > 2 tc £ £ rt c c t^ ti a> o c o <- O o ^ b o >J g g ;i OS H a> a -^ -S [I « *^ ?- i£ o ^ ^ o c o Vj o o -<-» .S O CS f- tH ►^ w „ (U ^-^ 3 «»-i ^ g 0) '^ Is = c .2 ■« - B <« o B w :« .ft I*: "u CO "o U T3 o a c^ •2» n ? 0) tn :£ S ^. 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O rs s* it .2 <4-l ';-■ f^ 0^ 6 s ^ O ft^ ^ o t^ <-* •-S o b '-^ i) S -^ f^ 290 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORYo to u a o .~ J^ (1 <<-l o ^ OJ c3 o o o a o a tl Oj ^ C c 1— 1 03 (U OJ ■^ c CJ (H Ch "2 0) <4H o Pm S o o £ ^ •5 fcD o bo 1 OJ & to i O O o Ph o Cj (]> eS o < .c s >> « o o o to .s - o (U 3 O "S ci .s '5 .s bo .2 !s '3 2^ to g to Ph O 8 cS 'rt I-, o o o !-. 0) CJ )3 o rt "1 > OJ o c '2 .^ •S & O o ^ G tJD rt Pm S-. S tH «*-( Ph M 0^ " "~ O CC , to ^f-i o '« CS o o o ;h C ■■,•. 1 Ph O (D .s o CO CO s to s J5 m to C a : ■a B 2 00 o c o s 'B Ph o CO C o 1— 1 S 1-1 CO to 3 )3 o CO o S ! tu 0) -"S — — TS "s" 'C .5 o o tl 5(-l «*-l o s o cS es > • ^ u tn n3 OJ c ^73 o c to ^ 5 QJ C .2 3 — "o Ol to o 0) s S b tH ■2 c O o "o j2 <1> o 02 ^ p _"el Ol ao~ 2 O c lA -TS . o „ o CS ^ "S -C 0) g 5(-l c e 0) 5 CI ^ O CS i O (ij ^ ^ rt u* % •^ ««-i o o t-. c 3 . Ol ■2 t-> "S -TJ 1 a! P< o Ph to to >2 c* tH o s S to > EARLY MEDIEVAL PERIOD. 291 c. Li England. Before William the Conqueror, the organization of Eng- land was similar to that of France, with the following differences : the great lords and bishops formed a council of wise men, or Witenagemot, with whom the king advised in regard to war, to law, and the grants of land he gave from time to time ; by this council levies were ordered for war, laws were assented to, grants confirmed. These great lords and bishops were in England called king's Thcnies, and that which was called a fief in France was in England named a 3Ianor\ and to the Seigniorial Court corresponded the 3Ianorial Court of England. When William the Conqueror entered England, he de- manded from every freeman, irrespective of his immediate feudal lord, an oath, to " be faithful to King William within England and without, to join him in preserving his lands and honor with all fidelity, and to defend him against his enemies." In a council held shortly after the Conquest, a chronicle tells us that "all the landholders of substance in England, whose vassals soever they were . . . became his [William's] men, and swore . . . that they would be faith- ful to him against all others." STUDY ON I. A\Tiat must a man possess in order to hold power during this period ? What kinds of power did this possession give ? What sort of an aristocracy would thus develop ? In what country is there now an example of such an aristocracy? Compare the power of the king and the barons. Of the emperor and the pope. Of the emperor and the king of Germany. Throughout the feudal organization, what does the superior give the inferior ? What does the inferior give the si'- ' What effect would you expect this systeiu to have on the unity and strength of kingdoms? On justice in the administration of law? On trade? On manners? On liberty? On equality? What was t!le political unit of feudalism? What held men together in this unit? What class in England seemed to have more power than the 292 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. same class in France ? What great change introduced by William th« Conqueror into feudal i-elations in England? Whose j^ower would thus be strengthened? Who was the "immediate" lord of English- men? What had the emperor by which to maintain his imperial power? If one baron did wrong to another, or refused to abide by SERFS RECEIVING ORDERS PROM THEIR LORD BEFORE GOING TO WORK. Interior of fourteenth or fifteenth century ; from a French manuscriiit of fifteenth century. the judgment of his peers, what was the only way left to gain justice? What effect would constant foreign warfare have upon the power of the king and the unity of the people? Why? Before the time of Charlemagne, we noticed that law was personal ; that is, that a man EARLY MEDIAEVAL PERIOD. 293 was judged by the laws of his people, whetlior Roman, Burgundian, Saxon; — under the feudal system, what fact determines tlie law by which he shall be judged? 2. Suinniartj of Events, 814-1005. a. In the Byzantine Empire. About 900, the Magyars or Hungarians (Turanians) attack both east and west i repulsed by the German em- perors, and foiled by the defences and gold of Constanti- nople, they settle in Pannonia ; soon after, converted to Christianity by the missionaries of Rome, they become shepherds and farmers, and thus begin modern Hungary. Continued quarrels of Constantinople and Rome over image-worship and other questions of doctrine and prac- tice ; these quarrels culminate in 1054 in the great "• Schism of the Church," which divides the Christians of Europe and Asia into two communions ; that of the Greek Church, to which the Bj'zantines and tiieir converts belong, and that of the Latin Church, to which the Latin and German-speaking peoples adhere. The Saracens seize on Sicily ; soon after, the Normans invade Greece, and wrest Southern Italy from the East ; of this, together with Sicily, of which they dispossess the Saracens, they form the Norman Kingdom of Sicily. The pope confirms the new kingdom, and the Normans become his armed allies and defenders (1062). The Turks take Asia Minor from the Empire. h. In Islam.^ (Eleventh Century.) The Spanish Arabs are slowly driven back towards the south by the Spanish Christians, and lose Toledo ; the Asiatic Arabs are conquered by the Turks, who accept 1 Islam is applied to the wliole body of Ab)hannncdans and their gen- eral status and civilization, as Christendom is applied to the peoples and cultus of Europe. 294 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. Mohammedanism as their faith; a third caliphate is founded at Cairo. Christian pilgrims to Jerusalem meet constant insult, cruelty, and all manner of persecution from the Turks. c. In Holy Roman Empire. At Charlemagne's death, the Empire is divided among his successors ; their dissensions and wars end in roughly- defining the three kingdoms of Italy, Germany, France. At first, the imperial title belongs to the king, now of one and then another land ; but after Otto the Great the rulers of Germany are also kings of Italy and emperors of the Holy Roman Empire, which from this time on practically includes Germany and Italy. During this period, Germany suffers on the south-east from the Magyars or Hungarians, on the north from the Danes or Northmen, on the north-east from Slavs. Against the first, the emperors found the Eastern-Mark,^ the begin- ning of modern Austria; against the second, the Mark of Sleswig ; against the third, the North-Mark, the beginning of modern Prussia (through Brandenburg). These marks are given into the charge of the best fighters and com- manders among the imperial vassals. (For the division of the Empire among its various rulers, see map, pp. 316, 317.) In the beginning of Otto's reign, the Dukes of Fran- conia, Bavaria, and Lorraine rise against him, but with the help of French nobles who are in revolt against their own king, he subdues them. The Danes obtain peace on condition of the baptism of their king ; the Bohemians, on condition of ceasing to persecute Christianity ; the Poles, on condition of allowing the founding of a bishopric. — In 1 " Mark " or " march " means a border state whose defence and govern- ment is particularly strengthened in order to make it a bulwark against a foreign foe. EARLY MEDIAEVAL I'lOllIOD. 295 1046, three candidates at once claim tlio papal chair ; the em2)eror deposes them all, and makes a German bishop pope. Pope Gregory the Seventh, known also as Gregory the Great and as Ilildebrand, insists on the celibacy of the clergy througliout Chris 1073 TO 1095. tendom ; this causes a dissension amounting to war between Lombard and German prelates, on the one hand, and the Italians and Normans supporting Ilildebrand, on the othei ; but the pope, with the help of the monks, succeeds in mak- ing celibacy the rule of the Church. — The famous (piarrel over "lay investiture"^ now occurs between Ilildebrand and the Emperor Henry IV., king of Germany. The emperor claims the right of investiture, as being the theo- retical owner of the domains of the bishops, who are in their relation to him " lords spiritual," and whose lands amount to half the German territory ; the pope claims the right because the bishops are Church officials, and insists upon it, lest the king use the rich abbey-lands to reward his own men. Neither pope nor emperor yield the point ; the pope writes to Henry, urging him to " pre- fer the honor of Christ to his own, and give full libert}^ to the Church, the Spouse of God " ; he threatens him with excommunication unless on a fixed day he shall appear in Home to be judged by the pope for all his offences. Henry, in answer, calls a council of German prelates, from whom he asks the deposition of the pope. They grant it " with loud unanimous acclamation " ; the decision is sent to Rome, where Gregory sits in council in the midst of his bishops ; it is addressed, '• To the false monk, Hildebrand." The pope immediately passes sentence on the emperor: "I absolve all Christians from the -oaths they have sworn ' "Lay investiture" simply means the appointment of bishops and other prehitcs to their otfices by a hiynian. 296 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. or may swear to him, and forbid all obedience to him as king." The Bishop of Utrecht, on the king's behalf, ex- communicates the pope, but soon and suddenly dies. This death, with other causes, turn men more and more against the excommunicated emperor ; all who have any talk or dealing with him are themselves declared excom- municated. The pope commands the Germans to elect a new emperor if Henry do not at once repent ; the Imper- ial Diet accordingly meets to choose " a man to go before them, and to wage the war of the Lord." Henry, desir- ous of saving his kingdom, goes across the Alps in the dead of winter to seek the forgiveness of Hildebrand (1077). The pope is at Canossa, a strong fortress of the Apennines ; in its outer courtyard, barefoot, in the white robes of a penitent, for three days and nights the emperor awaits the pleasure of Gregory. Even this grace is not given until the emperor promises to confess himself " unworthy of the royal name and dignity." At last, admitted to the papal presence, he is required to attend the pope where and when Hildebrand desires, to answer the charges of his people ; if cleared, the pope will restore him to imperial power ; if not, Henry is to remain a private man. In 1095 the Council of Clermont is called by Pope Urban II., and a " Holy War," or " Crusade," of Chris- tian Europe is declared against the Turks who hold Christ's Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, and who greatly persecute the pilgrims who come from all parts of Europe to visit this sacred place, and to expiate their sins by tliis long and dangerous journey. (For Schism of the Church, see above.) STUDY ON 2, rt, 6, c. What ill the history and eircuiiistances of the East and the West have prepared the way for the " Schism of the Cliurch " ? Why is it EAKLY MEDIAEVAL PERIOD. 297 useless for the pope to oppose this " Schism " ? IIow does the history of the Turks resemble that of the Teutons ? What events strengtlien and form the German frontier? What fact in their origin accounts for the long succession of strong rulers in Austria and Prussia? In order that new peoples may enter tbe empire, what is necessary ? What relation between this fact and the imperial organization ? Why does the Holy Roman Empire practically include only Germany and Italy ? What or who has the chief power in this empire ? Prove it. Some time ago Bismarck said, " We will not go to Canossa " ; explain the reference. On what does the papal power rest? What are its Vv'eapons? On what the imperial? What is, shown by the imperial title in regard to the imperial office? What ideal does Gregory VII. insist upon in the Church? What does he make the central power in its organization? In calling the peoples of Europe to a crusade, what does Pope Urban assume in regard to their comparative allegiance to himself and their own princes ? d. In France. The kings are often fighting against the counts of Fhxnders, the dukes of Burgundy, the princes of Brittany and Aquitaine. In 877 the king, needing help in his wars, grants his vassals hereditary possession of their lands ; the nobles compel his successor to confirm the grant, and at the death of the latter, divide the realm between his two sons. In the early ninth century, Northmen (Normans) in- vade and ravage France ; in company with the Duke of Lorraine, they besiege Paris ; deserted b}' then" king, the Parisians choose their heroic defender, the Count of Paris, as their monarch. The great nobles build castles to de- fend themselves and their folk against the invaders ; the Normans continue to harry the land ; at last, in the tenth century, the Frankish king sends the archbishop of Rouen to tell their famous M'ar-chief Ilrolf (Rollo) that if he will become a Christian, acknowledge tlie king of France his lord, and live in peace, he shall have the dukedom of 298 STUDIES IN GENEKAL HISTORY. Normandy as his hereditary possession. Hrolf accepts the offer, and his followers settle Normandy. In 987, the line of Charlemagne having come to an end in the person of an inefficient monarch, the nobles choose Hugh Capet as their king, and from him all the succeed- ing kings of France have sprung. This election is con- firmed by the Archbishop of Rheims. In the time of Hugh, there are fifty-five feudal units in France. In the eleventh century the clergy declare the "Truce of God," or a cessation of quarrels and warfare from Wednesday night to Monday morning of every week. e. In England. At 800 there are still seven different English kingdoms, often hostile, sometimes partially united, but always fight- ing Picts and Scots to the north, and Welsh to the west ; but early in the ninth century, Ecgbehrt, king of the West- Saxons, becomes overlord of all the other kings, forming the so-called " Saxon Heptarchy " ; under him and his successors the Northmen constantly invade and harry England, and settle in Northumbria, East Anglia, and parts of Mercia. Under Alfred the Great the struggle of Englishmen and Northmen still continues; Al- fred builds a fleet, and ends invasion for a time ; 871 TO 1066. issues a body of English law, founds new monasteries, has the monastery-schools teach all who wish to attend them, reading, writing, and theology ; but instruction in English is to precede that in Latin. After his death border-wars with Picts, Scots, and Welsh continue, as well as constant struggle with Danes, ending at 1017 in the elevation of Danish monarchs to the English throne. In 1042 the English kings are restored, and Edward the Confessor becomes king under EARLY MEDIEVAL PERIOD. 299 1060. the leadership of powerful nobles, notably Earl Oorlwin, whose daughter he marries. William the Conqueror, Duke of Normandy, claims a right to the English throne on a promise of his cousin, Ed- ward the Confessor ; llie pope declares in his favor, and en- joins him to bring England into due obedience to the Papacy ; he leads a Norman army into England, and at the battle of Sen- lac, or Hastings, makes good his claim. The Eng- lish king is support- ed by his earls ; but by threatening their domains, and forc- ing them to desert ,1 . 1 -fTfi I.Kent. II. Sussex. ITT. Wesses. IV. Essex. their monarch, Wil- ^ ^,^^^ ^^^^u^ ^^ ^^^^.^ vn. .Nonim.nbru. liam gains London, cliief seat of Danish settlement. and the English nobles choose him king. ENGLAND aboui 600 A.D. h/x">j = Kel+s or Brilons. I I = Teutons or. Angles, Saxons.J Lt+es. STUDY ON 2,a-e, What case in France parallels the entrance of the IIungarian.s into the European commonwealth? Xanie t^YO points of resemblance. "What facts can you find in c, d, and e to confirm your statements in regard to the effects of feudalism ? Name two things shown hy the "Truce of God." From what great external disturl>auce does ihe whole of civilized Eiu-ope suffer during this period? "What luarl: distinguishes civilized from uncivilized Europe? 300 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. Xame the modern countries or provinces of Europe which begin their individual existence during this period. At whose expense does each begin it ? Wlaat organization is steadily increasing its power in Europe? What sorts of power? Give two jjroofs. In the study of organization, we noted that the lords and bishops apparently had more power in England than on the continent ; what events would neu- tralize this power, and make the king stronger and England more miited ? AYhat races of people are mingled at the close of this period in France? In England? In Italy? In Spain? In the Byzantine Empire ? In what places and in what ways do Mohammedans and Christians come into contact in this period ? What facts would make the whole journey to Jerusalem a dangerous one? Contrast the journey then and the same journey now. 3. List of Great Names of the Period, a. Of the Ninth Centw'y. Name. Birth and Circumstances. Deeds and Works. Languagts used. Alfred the English ; king of Eng- Translator of History English. Great. land. of Orosius, Bcethius' Consolation of Phil- osophy, and Bede's Ecclesiastical His- tory ; establishes a school at his court for young nobles. (See 2 e.) Albumazar. Arabian, of Turkestan. Writes on astronomy. Arabic. Al Mamun. Son of Ilaroun-al- Causes to be translated Arabic. Ilashid ; caliph of into Arabic the manu- Bagdad. scripts sent by the Greek emperor to his father; sends a com- mission to Cyprus for books ; erects two observatories, founds colleges, has a degree EARLY iMEDI.EVAL PEKTOD. 301 Name. Birth and Circumstances. Deeds and Works. Languagt used. of the earth meas- ured ; calls Syrian and Egyptian physi- cians to his court; autiior of theological and critical works ; causes the great work of Ptolemy on astron- omy and geometry to be translated from Greek into Arabic ; makes very accurate astronomical tables. Asser. Welsh monk, afterward Author of Life of King Latin. bishop. Alfred(?) ; assists in the king's literary reforms. Hincmar. Of noble French fami- Autlior of tlieological Latin. ly ; monk; adviser of and political writings; the French court; defends the doctrine archbishop of Rheims. of "Free Will"; causes a splendid shrine in silverwork, adorned with statu- ettes, to be made in his church. John, called Irish layman ; is said Writes on philosophic Latin. the Soot or to have travelled in and theological sub- Erigena. the East ; liead of jects; defends abso- palace school of lute freedom of the Prankish kings. will ; is considered heretical; shows ten- dencies toward the Platonic philosophy ; makes translations from tlie Cireek. 302 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. Name. Birth and Circumstances. Deeds and Worlok ought to have been sent to us according to custom, and approved by our judgment ; the more so, that this John . . . has not always, it is everywhere said, been sound in his views upon certain subjects. "We recommend, therefore, very strongly, that you cause the said John to appear before our apostleship, or, at least, that you do not permit him any longer to reside at Paris in the school of which he is stated for a long time to have been the chief, in order that he may no longer mingle his tares with the wheat of the holy word ; giving poison to those who seek for bread." /. From Ordencus Vitalis, on the State of Normandy, a.d. 1094. "At this time, sharp hostilities took place between William de Breteuil and Ascelin Goel [two powerful Norman barons] ; . . . there was a great feud between them, and each tried to injure the other. '• In the month of Febyuar3% Ascelin called to his aid Richard de Montfort and the retainers of King Philip, and engaging in battle with William . . . defeated him and made him a captive. . . . Elated with the victory, he became exceedingly arrogant, and cruelly tormented ... his captives. He kept them in close confinement in his castle, . . . and often, in the severest weather, . . . exposed them in their shirts, well soaked in water, at a \vindi)\v ill tlie highest stage of the tower to the blasts of the north or south winds, until their onl\' covering was frozen into a sheet of ice around their ])odies. At length, by the interfer- ence of friends, peace was concluded, and William was let out of prison ; . . . but the peace was of short duration. " The year following, AVilliam . . . renewed his hostilities, and established ... a garrison in the convent of monks, which 814 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. Robert d'lvri had founded in honor of the Virgin Mary. Upon this, Gioel, who held the castle, led a body of troops to the convent. . . . AVilliam de Breteuil made his escape with more difficult}-, and ... at length engaged to pay Philip, king of France, seven hundred livres, as well as large sums to Robert, duke of Normandy, ... if they would faithfully succor him. ''In consequence, during Lent, the king of France and the duke of Normandy laid siege to Breval. . . . The priests and their parishioners brought their banners, and the abbots, assem- bling then- vassals, joined the besieging army. . . . Goel was a most desperate fi*eebooter, daring and crafty, and a violater of churches . . . who till that time had been used to laugh at kings and dukes in his secure retreat. . . . He had noble and brave kinsmen, by whose aid he had fortified the castle of Breteuil . . . aud with their courage and succour he had manfully sus- tained the burden of such frequent hostilities. But now finding that so many great and valiant princes were firmly leagued against him, he sued for peace." STUDY ON 4. "What changes in the direction of civilization does Christianity encourage in Bulgaria? What is evidently the aim of Danish invasion as shown in b ? What does this fact indicate incidentally of the com- parative prosperity of England just before the invasion ? "What spirit shown by Byrhtnoth's answer to the Danes ? What feeling or senti- ment? What do we know of Byrhtnoth's religious belief? Of his religious feeling? AVhat sentiment shown by his followers? What barbarian organization appears in this battle? What spirit sho-\vn by Byrhtwold ? Make a list of the English virtues displayed in this story. What seems to be the aim of Erigena? What his spirit? What diff(!rence between his attitude and that of Anselm? What resem- blance? What right does the pope claim in regard to the thought of Eurojx- ? Wliat harm can heresy do to the Church ? What conclusions previously nuide in regard to the feudal system are confirmed by the chronicle of Ordericus. "Vitalis ? EARLY IVIEDI^VAL PERIOD. 315 5. Facts and Stories Illustrative of Islam during this Jferiod. * a. The Greek Embassy to Bagdad. "In the beginning- of . . . 1)17, two ambassadors from the Greek emperor . . . urrived in Bagdad on a mission to its ealiph, bringing an abnndance of costly presents. . . . The caliph, having appointed a day on which he would receive them, ordered that the courts and passages and avenues of his })alace should be fiUod with armed men, and that all the apartments should be furnished with the utmost magnificence. A hundred and sixty thousand armed soldiers were arranged in ranks in the api)roach to the palace ; next to these were the pages of the closets, and chief eunuchs, clad in silk and with belts set with jewels, in number seven thousand, — four thousand white, and three thousand black, — besides seven hundred chamber- lains ; and beautifully ornamented boats of various kinds were seen floating on the Tigris hard by. The two ambassadors passed first by the palace of the chief chamberlain, and, aston- ished at the splendid ornaments and pages and arms which they there beheld, imagined that this was the palace of the caliph. But what they had seen here was eclipsed by what they beheld in the latter, where they were amazed by the sight of thirty- eight thousand pieces of tapestry of gold-embroidered silk brocade, and twenty-two thousand magnificent carpets. Here, also, were two menageries of boasts, by nature wild, but tamed by art, and eating from the hands of men : among them a hun- dred lions, each with its keeper. They then entered the palace of the Tree, enclosing a pond from which rose the Tree : this liad eighteen branches, with artificial leaves of various colors, and with birds of gold and silver [or gilt and silvered] of every kind and size perched upon its l)ranches, so constructed that each of them sang. Thence tliey passed into the garden, in which were furniture and utensils not to be enumerated ; in the passages leading to it were suspended ten thousand gilt coats of mail. Being at length conducted before the caliph himself, they found liim seated on a coucli of ebony, inlaid with gold 318 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. and silver, to the right of which were hung nine necklaces of jewels, and the like to the left, the jewels of which outshone the light of day." h. A Present made to a Spanish Caliph. In 937, a Spanish caliph received as a gift from a wealthy subject hundreds of pounds of coined and virgin gold ; Indian aloes and aloe-wood of the finest quality ; camphor, amber, and musk ; thirty pieces of silk, painted and embroidered with gold ; ten long mantles, lined with marten's fur, from Khorassan ; a hundred sable-skins ; raw and spun silk, woolen carpets and rugs ; Arabian horses and suits of armor for men and horses ; male and female slaves, the latter adorned with jewels, and hav- ing various musical instruments on whicli they could perform. STUDY ON 5. ]\Iake a list of the industries and arts that must have been known at Bagdad in 917. Compare the visit of the Greek ambassadors to Omar (p. 280), with their visit to this Caliph ; what great change has occurred ? With what countries must the Moors of Spain have had some commerce? From 5, and the Mohammedan names and works in 3, what adjectives will you apply to the civilization of Islam ? B. STUDY ON OEUSADING PEEIOD. Chief contemporary authorities : Monkish chroniclers, such as Ordericus Vitalis ; soldier chroniclers, such as Joinville ; laws of the period, canon and secular. Chief modern authorities accessible in English : Same as in preceding period : special for crusades, Michaud, Sybel, Cox. Questions on Map. — Compare the size of the divisions of Europe with tlie size of th(^ modern divisions. What cause can you give for their number and comparatively small size at the opening of the twelfth century ? What countries of Europe have positive natural boundaries? Which countries are badly defined by nature, and in which directions? Which countries will most easily become settled units, and why ? STUDY ON CllUSADlNG TElllOD. 319 1. Chronological Suimnari/ of Lcadhif/ Events, 1095-1215. a. In general. First crusade (see p. 2'J()) preached every- 1090 ! where by the clergy and b}^ special emissaries of | to j the pope, notably Peter the Hermit. Men of all — ^'^^iJ classes and sorts start in great disorder for the Holy Land after Peter the Hermit and other fanatical lead- ers; many perish by the way; in Germany they massacre the Jews ; in Bulgaria, not being able to buy provisions, they devastate the country, carry off the Hocks, burn the houses, massacre the inhabitants who oppose their violence. ' As soon as possible, organized forces of French and Germans, amounting to two or three hundred thousand warriors, under the lead of Duke Godfre}- of Bouillon, Count Hugh of Vermandois, — the French king's brother, — Raymond, Count of Toulouse, Aymer (Adhemar), bishop of Puy, set forth for Jerusalem. Their followers are largely knights, who mortgage or sell their lands to other knights, and largely to the Church. After crossing the Bosphorus they wage a constant war against the 'Mnfidel "' ; besiege and take Nicica ; Baldwin, brother of Godfrey, takes Edessa, and rules its territory as its king. The crusaders besiege Antioch, and after nine months gain it. Jerusalem is captured, and a promiscuous massaci-e of its inhabitants follows, during which the Jews are burned alive in their synagogues. Godfrey of Boulogne is chosen king of the Latin King- dom of Jerusalem. Constant petty war in the East ; on the fall of Edessa into the hands of the Moslem, a new appeal for help is made to Europe. 1099 TO 1145. 320 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. St. Bernard as an emissary of the pope preaches the second crusade. The king of France and the emperor lead its forces, but return unsuccess- ful after a disastrous march and heavy losses in Palestine. I 1149 TO 1171. I * * * 1145 TO 1149. 1171 TO 1187. Saladiu deposes the Moslem rulers at Cairo, and restores it to the caliphate at Bagdad ; re- conquers Jerusalem for Islam, but allows the Latins to leave the city. A third crusade is preached in Europe. Rich- ard I. the Lion-Heart, of England, Pliilip Augus- tus of France, and the Emperor Frederick I. the 1187 TO 1194. Red-bearded (Barbarossa) set forth for the Holy Land. In England, the Saladin tithe, a tax of a tenth, is levied on all who do not personally join the crusade. Frederick dies in Asia Minor ; during the siege of Acre the soldiers die by thousands of a pestilence. Philip Augustus and Richard quarrel on the way and after their arrival at Acre. On the surrender of this town, Philip returns to France ; quarrel between Richard and the Duke of Austria ; the armies, too much weakened to attack Jeru- salem, are broken up, and make their way as they can back to Europe. Richard, passing through Austria in dis- guise, is recognized and imprisoned ; for a heavy ransom raised from the English people the emperor releases him. | ) 1194 TO 119 8. I Unsuccessful crusading. Innocent III. commissions Fulk of Neuilly to preach a new crusade, the chief leaders of Avhicli are French barons ; they ask the Venetians for 1198 TO 1204. provisioned ships; unable to pay for them in money, they agree with the Doge to pay for them by conquering Zara ; the Doge himself joins the crusade, and the Vene- tians arc to have lialf of all tlu; contjuests made; Zara coiupiered, tin; crusaders take; uj) tlie cause of a dethrunp-d STUDY ON CRUSADING PKIMOD. 32t Byzantine prince, whom they undertake to restore to the throne ; the pope protests ; nevertheless they depose tlie reigning emperor on behalf of his rival, wlioni they in turn dethrone, since he fails to pay the money promised to the crusaders. P)ald\vin, Count of Flanders, is now chosen emperor of tlie East, and the Latin Empire of Constanti- nople is founded. STUDY ON I a. What and who has the coniinanding force in Europe in l()!i5? What facts show this ? Wliat does the long siege of Antioch show in regard to the comparative military power of Christian and Turk? What is the cause of the third crusade? Compare the treatment of Jerusalem by the cru.'aders and by Omar and Saladin. What do many of the crusaders evidently consider their first Christian duty? What civilizations are brought into contact by the crusades? What new material forces do they put at the disposal of the pope ? What increase of wealth do they bring to the Church? What proof can you find that the crusading zeal diminishes during this period? What reason can you assign ? AVhy should France lead in these movements rather than Germany? Wliy should the French empei'ors of Constan- tinople and the kingdom of Jerusalem be called Latin ? ^Vhy should Europeans still be called "Franks " throughout the East? b. Summary of Events in Empire. Quarrel of investitures settled by the Concordat of Worms^ by which the emperor retains but one- half his former rights. It is established that the emperor must receive his power from a conclave of Ger- man princes, temporal and spiritual. — Under Arnold of Brescia^ Rome attempts to revive her old republican gov- ernment, free from the rule of the pope. — The Polish dukes conquer West Pomerania, whose people promise to recognize the lordship of Poland, and to become Christians. Frederic Barbarossa, of the Swabian house of Hohenstaufen, is elected emperor ; the cities of Northern Italy form the Lombard League to pre- 1133 TO 11.53. 1153 TO 1190. 322 STUDIES IK GENERAL HISTORY. serve their independence against him ; long waf s with the League end in the emperor's acknowledging the rights of the cities ; war with Henry of Saxony and Bavaria, and quarrels with the popes, in which the papacy comes off victorious. The followers of the emperor are named Ghibelins, those of the popes, Guelfs. — Frederic dies while engaged in the third crusade. Continued strife of pope and emperor, — of Guelph and Ghibelin ; strife of emperor and powerful Ger- man princes ; large privileges granted to cities. — 1190 TO 1315. Naples and Sicily won from the Normans by the emperor. c. In France. King Lewis VI. (the Fat) fights with several of his great feudal lords over questions of sovereignty and the administration of justice, in behalf of the 1108 TO 1137. church and their own vassals ; is on the whole victorious, and gains much love from the common people. King and pope quarrel over investitures ; the king having burned a church full of people, makes peace with the pope on condition of going upon a 1137 TO 1180. crusade (second). Suger, abbot of St. Denis, is regent during his absence; on his return, war breaks out with Henry H. of England, who has claims to various parts of the French territory. Philip Augustus upon the throne ; the great vassals make war upon him, but the king, victor- ious, gains control of new lands ; goes upon third 1180 TO 1233. crusade ; on his return, vv^ars with Richard and John of England for Normandy, which he wins from the latter, and makes a part of France. In the south, the sects of the Albigenses and Waldenses are spreading doctrines denying the spiritual lordship of Rome ; the pope, unable to convert them, declares a cru- STUDY ON CIlUSADTXr; I'EFMOD. 323 sade against tlieiu ; the Soulli ol" France is ravaged by men from all parts under the lead of Simon of Montfort, and the heresy is practically exterminated. Disaflected Flemish barons, joined by John of England and the German emperor, make war on Philip ; the latter, assisted by the burghers of the Flemish cities, defeats them at Bouvinea (1214). d. In E}i(jla7id. The barons oppose King Henry I. ; he grants a charter, giving privileges to them and to the clergy; helped by the common people of the realm, whom Anselm rouses to his aid, he defeats a rival claimant to the throne. His successor wages war with various aspi- rants to the royal power. King Henry II. makes Thomas Beket arch- bishop of Canterbury and liis chief councillor. The latter insists that the clergy shall be judged 1100 TO 11C4. 1154 TO 1189. by the law and the officers of the Church alone, while the king insists that they shall be judged by the common law of England, and in the king's courts. To decide it, bishops and barons meet at Clarendon, and issue the "Constitutions of Clarendon," by which the king's court is to decide in each case to whom the judgment shall belong, and which otherwise strengthen the king against the pope. The quarrel of Henry and Thomas continues, ending in the murder of Thomas, who is declared a saint by Rome, and greatly honored by the English people. With the approval of the pope, Henry invades Ireland, and makes it a part of the English realm. Wars with the French and Scotch, in the midst of which, Henry, fearing defeat, does penance at the tomb of Thomas IJeket. He establishes circuit courts to do the "king's justice," and collect the "king's dues," and allows appeals from 324 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. these to himself and his own councillors ; imposes the " Saladin tithe," a tax levied on all goods and chattels, to support a contemplated crusade. Richard, the Lion-hearted, sells bishoprics, sher- iffdoms, and other offices, and with the money goes on a crusade, leaving England under the regency 1189 TO 1315. of bishops ; on his return, he meets revolt and disaffec- tion in England and Normandy, and under his successor, John, Normandy is finally lost to the English crown; John quarrels with the pope over the election of the arch- bishop of Canterbury ; his kingdom is put under interdict, and himself excommunicated ; his barons are against him, because of his failure to keep his promises to redress their wrongs ; he seizes their castles and confiscates the lands of the Church; the pope deposes him and proclaims a cru- sade against him ; John yields, surrenders England as a fief to Rome, and receives it again as " pope's man " ; under the lead of the archbishop of Canterbury, the English barons demand a recognition of the rights given by the charters of former kings; John promises, but delays to fulfil. STUDY ON b, Cfd, What facts show uneasiness under papal rule? Compare this uneasiness with that shown in preceding period. What facts show increase of papal power? The weakness of the imperial name ? What new opposition has the emperor to meet? What does the fact and the result of this opposition show of the power of those making it? What part of the government is increasing in power in France? In England ? What reason can you find for this in the crusading movement? What efforts made by the pope in the interest of Christian unity ? What class shows itself on the side of the kings ? What reason can you imagine for this? What significant fact ap- pears in the victory of Bouvines? Explain the loss of Normandy to England. Name three things shown by the affair of Thomas Beket. STUDY ON CRUSADING PERIOD. 325 2. Ijist of Famous Names and Works of Twelfth Century. Names. Birth and Circumstance. Education. Cause of Fame. Language. Abelard. French ; of Wanders Teacher in Latin. a noble from school schools of house. to school, studying with fa- mous mas- ters ; stu- dent at Paris. Paris ; applies the doctrines of Nominalism (see p. 304) to tlieology, and con- demned as a heretic. Aben-Ezra. Jew of Toledo. Rabbinical. First to write exhaustive and scholarly criti- cisms on the Holy Scriptures. Hebrew. Averroes. Spanish Studies the- Teaches phil- Arabic. Arab ; ology, juris- osophy, law, judge in prudence, and medicine Seville, mathema- at Cordova ; Cordova, tics, medi- author of a and cine, and complete trans- Morocco. philosophy. lation of and commentary on Aristotle. Arnold of Italian Studies in Attacks the ■* * » Brescia. priest. France under Abelard. temporal power of the pope and the wealth of the clergy ; agitates for the restoration of the ancient republic. 326 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY Names. Beket, Thomas. Bernard, St. Frederic Barbarossa Geoffrey of Monmouth Godfrey of Bouillon. John of Salisbury. Birth and Circumstance. Education. Cause of Fame. Language. Son of a Studies at See L Latin and London University English. trader and of Paris ; magis- court-life. trate; of Norman descent. Frenchman ; Monastic. Orator; commis- Latin and of noble sioned by the pope French. birth ; to preach the abbot. second crusade; author of sermons, letters, moral and religious works; founds many mon- asteries of the Cistercian order. Son of Swa- Life in See 1. German. bian duke ; camp and elected court. emperor. Welsh ; arch- Monastic. Translates the his- Latin. deacon and tory of the Bri- bisliop. tons from the Welsh. Frencli count Social and See 1 ; author of * * * of the military Assizes of -Icrusa- lMiij)ire life. lem, the best col- (Nether- lection of feudal landish). law. Saxon ; arch- Studies at Writes a satirical Latin. bishop of Paris work on " The Canter- under frivolities of bury. Abelard. Courtiers, and the footsteps of Philos- ophers"; poet. STXTDY ON CRUSADING PEllIOD. 32T Names. Birth and Circumstance. Education. Cause of Fame. Language, Maimonides. Cordovan Proficient in Mathematician, Hebrew Jew ; ])liy- theology astronomer, plii- and sician to and medi- losopher, and theo- Arabic. Saladin. cine; mas- ter of Greek and Arabic philoso- phy. logian, following Moses and Aristotle. Malmesbury, English ; Monastic ; Author of chroni- Latin. William of. monk ; studied cles of contempo- monastery with rary and tradition- librarian. learned bishop. al English history. Map, Walter. Anglo-Nor- Studies at Poet, using Keltic Latin and man ; arch- Paris. stories; writes French. deacon of satirical poems. O.xford , friend and counsellor of the English king ; diploma- tist. Ordericus Anglo- Studies in Poet; author of Latin. Vitalis. Norman ; Frcncli general Ecclesias- monk. monaster- ies. tical History. Peter the Italian; of Studies at Founds the Latm. Lombard. obscure Bologna, Scholastic birth ; Riieims, philusophy, an at- bishop of and Pans. tempt to reconcile Paris. \ the philosophy of Aristotle with the theology of the , Church. 328 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. Names. Birth and Circumstance. Education. Cause of Fame. Language. I^hilip Hereditary Life of court See 1. French. Augustus. king of France. and camp ; crusading. Richard I. of Hereditary Life of camp Poet, musician, and French. England. king of England. and court ; crusading. knight. Roger of English ; Studies at Historian of con- Latin. Hoveden. legal ad- viser of Henry II. of Eng- land; magistrate. OxfordC?). temporary events. Saladin. Arab sol- dier; sul- tan of Egypt and Syria. * * * See 1. Eoimder of Mohammedan dynasty, ruling from Cairo. ArabiCc Wace. Of a noble Studies in a Uses the chronicle French, (baronial) monastic of Geoffrey of Norman school at Monmouth for family ; Caen. French poetical monk. romances of Ar- thur and early Britons, and writes a poetical history of Rollo and the Norman dukes. STUDY ON CRUSADING PERIOD. 329 Famous Foundations^ Enterprises^ Works not named in Lists. School of Bologna, founded at least as early as begin- ning of twelfth century; famous for the study of Roman and canon law. The Roman law there taught (Justin ian's) translated into Frencli in this same century; the canon law, based on the Pseudo-Isidorean Decretals (see p. 309), codilied by a Benedictine monk, one of the Bo- lognese professors. Schools of Paris, famous for the study of Scholastic phi- losophy ; a study which received much impulse from various students and teachers who had studied Averroes in Spain. Turpin^s Chronicle, a half-romantic work written in Latin by German and Spanish monks, and forming the basis of much of the mediaeval romance in regard to Charlemagne. Foundation of Orders of Military Monks : a. Knights of St. John, or Hospitallers ; b. Templars; c. Teutonic Knights. These orders were great brotherhoods of knight- monks wliose duties were to defend and care for all Chris- tian people and places, while their vows bound them to a half-monastic life. Their property was held in common ; the care of sick or disabled pilgrims or knights was one of their special duties. STUDY ON 2. Write a statement, in the form of a tabular view or an essay, of all that is taught us by 2. 3. Extracts and Stories Illustrative of the Period. a. Appeal of Pope Urban II. at the Council of Clermont. (Ordericus Vitalis.) " ' The Turks and Persians,' said Pope Urban, ' the Arabians and Saracens, have seized Antioeli, Niciea, and Jerusalem itself . . . with other Christian cities, and have now turned tlieir mighty power against the Empire of the Greeks. . . . 330 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. In the churches, where the divine sacrifice was once celebrated by tlie faithful, the Gentiles now stable their horses. . . . They have dragged away captives into far-distant countries, into the seats of barbarism, and yoking them with thongs, set them to labor in the fields, compelled them to plow the land like oxen, and to undergo other toils befitting beasts rather than men, . . . Our brethren are flogged with Avhips, urged with goads, and abominably subjected to innumerable suffer- ings. . . .' No sooner had Pope Urban eloquently poured forth these complaints into the ears of Christians, than, by the inspira- tion of God's grace, thousands were inflamed with excessive zeal for undertaking the enterprise, and resolved to sell their lands and leave all they had for the sake of Christ. Rich and poor, monks and clerks, townsmen and peasants, were all seized with a wonderful ardour to march to Jerusalem or succour those that became pilgrims. . . . Estates of great value were sold for a trifle, and arms were purchased to inflict divine vengeance on the Saracens. Robbers, pirates, and other criminals, touched by the grace of God, rose from the depths of iniquity, con- fessed and renounced their sins, and . . . joined the ranks of the pilgrims. The prudent Pope stirred up all who were able to bear arms, to fight against the enemies of God, absolving b}^ his authority all penitents from their sins from the hour they should take the cross, and releasing them from all obligations of fasting and other mortifications of the flesh." b. The Same. (From another contemporary chronicler.) The Pope addressed himself to all the nations represented at the Council, particularly to the French, who were in the major- ity : " Nation beloved by God," said he, " it is in your courage tliat the Christian church has placed its hop(>. . . . Recall, without ceasing, to your minds the danger and the glor}' of your fathers. . . . More noble triumphs await you, under the guidance of the God of armies ; you will delivcu- Europe and Asia; you will save the city of Jesus Christ, — that Jerusalem whic;h was chosen by the Lord, and from whence the law is STUDY ON CKUSADIN(^ PERIOD. 331 come to us. . . . Christian warriors, who seek without end vain pretexts An- war, rejoice, for you have to-day found true ones. You, who have been so often the terror of your fellow- citizens, go and light against the l);iil):ii-ians, go and light for the deliverance of the holy places ; ... if you ti'iuniph over your enemies, the kingdoms of the East will 1k> your lieritage ; if you are conquered, you will have the glory of dying in the very same place as Jesus Christ, and God will not forget that he has found 3'ou in his holy ranks. . . . Remember well what the Lord has said to you : ' He who loves his father and his mother more than me is not worthy of me ; whoever will aban- don his house or his father, or his mother, or his wife, or his children, or his inheritance, for the sake of my name, shall be recompensed a hundredfold, and possess life eternal.' " Rising as one man, with one voice, the i)eople answered, "It is the will of ( ;(kI ! It is the will of Clod ! " c. The Sacred Spear. "When the Christians were besieged in Antioch, they suffered fearfully from famine and weakness ; their commander even had to burn down some sections of the city in order to force them to fight with the Moslem. The Count of Flanders became a beggar in the streets for the coarsest and poorest food, and many a knight sold all his arms for the food for a single night. In the midst of this misery, one of the princes cried out, "O God, what is become of thy power? If thou art still an all- powerful (Jod, what is become of thy justice? Are we not tin- children, are we not thy soldiers?" At this critical state of affairs, a priest declared that it had been revealed to him l)y a thrice-repeated vision that near the altar of one of the churches of Antioch lay buried the heail of the spear which pierced our Lord, and that if this were found and borne at the head of the army, certain victory would follow. The report flew among the soldiers ; for three days they prayed and fasted so as to prepare to find the lance. On the morniuo- of the third tlav, twelve chosen crusaders began 332 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. the search. At midnight the lance was found, the city resounded with shouts of joy, and the Christians were eager to meet their foes. The next night was passed in prayer and devotion. On the following day the plains of Antioch rang with the battle- cry of the crusaders: "It is the will of God." This army, ragged, famished, sick, but inspired by faith in the divine aid promised by the lance, advanced in perfect order and certain of victory, to attack the Moslem thousands. The battle went hard ; but as victory waned, say the historians, there appeared a squadron descending from the mountains, led ])y three horse- men in white, and clad in shining armor. "Behold," cried a bishop, " the holy martyrs, George, Demetrius, and Theodore, come to fight for you." Again the war-cr}' sounded: "It is the will of God " ; the Saracens were put to flight, and the Chris- tians fell on their deserted camp, where they found food and raiment and "admirable riches." For days they were busy carrying the spoil into Antioch, and " every crusader," according to the remark of Albert d'Aie, " found himself much richer than when he quitted Europe." When afterwards, the vision of the lance was questioned, the priest who saw it resolved to end all doubt by submitting to the ordeal by fire. In the presence of the army, and full of faith, he entered the high flaming blaze in his simple robes. He passed the ordeal alive, but not unscathed, and in a few days died ; ' ' and the miraculous lance from that time ceased to work miracles." d. From the Bulls of the Pope regarding the Second Crusade. " We grant to those who will devote themselves to this glori- ous enterprise the privileges which our predecessor Urban granted to the soldiers of the cross. We have likewise ordered that their wives and their children, their worldly goods, and tluiir possessions, should be placed under the safeguard of the Church, of the archbishops, the bishops, and other prelates. We order, by our apostolic authority, that those who shall have taken the cross shall be exempt from all kinds of pur- suit on acccMuit of tlu'ir i)ropert3'." STUDY ON CRUSADING PERIOD. 333 ******* " He who shall Iiave contractod debt shall pay no interest. ... If the lords of whom he holds will not, or cannot lend him the money necessary, he shall be allowed to engage his lands or possessions to ecclesiastics or any other persons. As our predecessor has done, by the authority of the all-power- ful God, and by that of the blessed St. Peter, prince of the apostles, we grant absolution and remission of sins, we promise life eternal to all those who shall undertake and terminate the said pilgrimage, or who shall die in the service of Jesus Christ, after having confessed their sins with a contrite and humble heart." e. After the Second Crusade. Many com[)laints were made of its preacher, St. Bernard, and his partisans, "struck with stupor," could only say among themselves: "God in these latter days has neither spared his people nor his name ; the children of the Church have been given over to death in the desert, or massacred by the sword, or devoured by hunger ; the contempt of the Lord has fallen even upon princes ; God has left them to wander in unknown ways, and all sorts of pains and afflictions have been strewed upon their paths." f. Impressions of the Crusader's. During the first crusade "they believed at every moment that they were approaching the end of their pilgrimage. . . . Many of the great lords, who had passed their \\\cs in their rustic donjons, knew very little more on this head than their vassals ; they took with them their hunting and fishing appoint- ments, and marched with their falcons on their wrists, preceded by their hounds." As the crusaders approached Palestine, "in the plains and on the hills were oranges, pomegranates, and many other sorts of trees unknown in the West. Among these new productions was the sugarcane," which the [)ilgrims brought back to Europe, 334 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. whilst the Saracens introduced it into the kingdom of Grenada, whence the Spaniards afterwards conveyed it to America. The chroniclers exclaim over the beauty of the gardens of Damascus and its "variegated" marble edifices; they admire "the industry and the commerce of Tyre, the fertility of its ter- ritory, its dyes so celebrated in all antiquity, that sand which is changed into transparent vases." " As for Antioch," says one of the chroniclers, " this place was an object of terror to those who looked upon it, for the number of its strong and vast towers, which amounted to three hundred and sixty," while its ramparts, solid as rock, were three leagues in extent. On reaching Constantinople, a French chronicler exclaims: "Oh, what a vast and beautiful city is Constantinople ! " A German histo- rian says that " such magnificence could not be believed were it not seen." It is said that the French knights, on seeing its towers and palaces, " could not persuade themselves that there could be such a rich city in all the world." When, finally, Constantinople fell into the hands of the cru- saders, knights, barons, and soldiers exclaimed in delight, " Never was so rich a booty seen since the creation of the world ! " " The Venetians, more enlightened than the other crusaders, and born in a city constructed and embellished by the arts, caused several of the monuments of Byzantium to be transported into Italy." g. From a Letter of Saladin. " God has performed the promise he made to raise his reli- gion above all religions. Its light is more brilliant tlian that of the morning; the Mussulmans are restored to their heritage, which had l)ecn wrested from them. ... He only made war on those who opposed Him, that the word of God might be spread ; for the word of God is exalted." h. The Bargain of the Venetians with the Crusaders. (Villehar- douin.) When the doge of Venice granted aid to the crusaders, he said, " Wc will make transports which will carry 4r)0U horses STUDY ON CKUSADINO PKRIOD. 336 and 0000 squires ; and in shii)s we will convey' 4500 knights and 20,000 foot-soldiers. And tlu; contract shall cover nine months' provision lor all these horses and all these people. This is what we will do on condition that we are paid four rnarcs for every horse and two for every man ; and the contract shall begin to take effect from the day in which we set sail from \'enice, in the service of (Jod and Christendom." The doge also promised fifty armed galleys "• for the love of God," on condition that French and Venetians should share half and half in all (heir gains. STUDY ON 3. Name all tlie motives wliicli, in your opinion, moved men ''o go crusading. Of these, which were characteristic of the time? Which common to all times ? What is the relation of the pope to the cru- sades ? AVhat historic reason why the pope should appeal especially to the French? What was the value of the saci^d lance to the cru- saders? "What would naturally become of much feudal land as a result of such circumstances as the crusaders found themselves in at Antioch? What effect would such circumstances have upon their faith? What proofs that this effect was produced? What effect upon the population of Europe? What class would become relatively weak in point of numbers? What did crusading evidently teach the cru- saders? AVhat benefits evidently accrued to Europe from this cru- sading? AVhat occupations would rise in value in men's regard? To whom would the power formerly exercised by the perished knights now pass? What do we learn as to the comparative amount of civil- ization in the West and in the I^ast? In what ways was the West be- hind? Why should the Venetians be more enlightened than the other crusaders ? What practical proof in their own city of their civilization V What motives and what spirit seem to have actiiated Saladiu ? State all that you learn about the Venetians from their bargain with the crusaders. 336 STUDIES IN GENEKAIi HISTORY. C. LATEE MEDIEVAL PERIOD, 1215 - 1492. — From the Great Charter to the Discovery of America. Chief contemporary authorities and sources of informa- tion : Laws of England, France, the Empire, and the Church ; charters and petitions of guilds, towns, orders ; the monastic chroniclers, such as Matthew Paris and the monks of St. Denis; the chronicles of courtiers and travel- lers, such as those of Joinville, Froissart, Marco Polo ; literary remains^ in poetry and prose, notably of Chaucer, Dante, Roger Bacon ; monuments of period, — its castles, cathedrals, town-defences and town-halls ; frescoes and tapestries, painted and wrought for churches, castles, or town-halls. Chief modern, authorities in English, as before, adding Rogers' " Six Centuries of Work and Wages," and Bren- tano's " Essay on Guilds " for industrial history. 1. Organizations of the Period, a. States. The kingdoms of Europe are still, in theory, feudal monarchies ; the Empire still the Holy Roman Em- pire ; in each country, however, now appear prominently Assemblies of Estates; that is, assemblies composed of men from the Estate (rank or order) of Nobility^ to which men are admitted by birth and training ; from the Estate of the Clergy., to which they are admitted by vows of devo- tion to the Church ; and from the Tlilrd Estate., the Estate of Commons, that is, of free, untitled men. In France, this assembly is called into existence by King Philip the Fair, and is named the States- General ; in Spain, it is the Cortes ; in England, i\\Q Parliament ; in German3\ the 1 For the liti-rary remains of England, see the publications of the Early English Text Society. LATER MEDIiEVAL PERIOD. 337 Diet. Practically, on the continent, the merchants pre- dominate in the third estate ; in England, the merchants and the country gentry (knights of landed property) alike compose it. These assemblies of estates are called together at the desire of kings or emp^ ors, to vote sup- plies of money for the needs of the monarch, and some- times to be consulted on the affairs of the realm. In the empire the emperor is now elected by a body of seven tlectors, three of them archbishops, four of them princes or dukes of great German fieffc. h. The Church. The following table shows the elements and relations of the ecclesiastical organization : — Pope, elected by cardinals ^ for life, or until neces- sary cause of deposition. General councils of bish- ops and archbishops, called together by pope or emperor. Archbishops and bishops, appointed or confirmed by the pope. Appoints cardinals, archbishops, and often bishops ; determines in regard to the forma- tion of new religious orders, and appoints their generals ; has general oversight of university instruction, and suppresses books and men whose teachings seem injurious to religion ; appoints papal legates (ambassa- dors to various European courts) ; calls from all Christendom for money -contributions, the expenditure of which he himself directs ; final judge in all cases pertaining to arch- bishops and bishops ; maker of all new canon law, and final judge in regard to the old. Decide in cases of conflicting authority be- tween popes ; determine what is heretical and what orthodox in regard to points of dis- puted doctrine. Same as before ; ecclesiastical rulers of prov- inces and towns, under the general super- vision of the pope; judges, amenable to pope and papal legates. 1 Cardinals, ecclesiastics chosen by the pope fft.r his chief advisers and administrators. 338 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. Secular clergy. Monastic orders author- ized by pope. Mendicant orders, Domin- icans and Franciscans. Military orders, authorized by the pope, who con- firms or appoints their masters or generals. Papal legates. Same as before ; resident preachers and pas- tors under the bishops. Same as before ; bound together by oaths of poverty, chastity, and obedience, living in communities under strict rules of labor and worship. Bound by vows of poverty, chastity, and obedi- ence ; itinerant preachers, living on the alms of the people. Bound by the vows of pc verty, chastity, and obedience, and enjoined to duties of hospi- tality and of arms, exercised in behalf of pilgrims, and in general of Christians in the East ; defend and hold Eastern fortresses. Represent the interests of the pope at various courts; ambassadors; pleniiiotentiaries of the pope, whose decisions overrule those of bish- ops and archbishops in disputed cases. All this body of clergy claim and obtain freedom from all taxation by secnlar princes, excepting only feudal dues and voluntary grants ; they are also generally free from the jurisdiction of the secular courts, being judged by ecclesiastics. c. The Cruild. In the towns of this period we see men binding them- selves together in Guilds ; their organization may best be studied from the following extracts fi'om their consti- tutions : — From the Guild of BerwicJc-on-Tioeed, 1283-1284. " Common fines shall go into tlie stock of tlij guild. Brethren shall bequeath something to the guild, if they make wills. If a brother be foul-mouthed to another, ho shall l)e lined ; and, on repetition, shall be furtlier punislied. Heavy lines shall be paid for bodily hurt done. Weapons sliall not be brought to truild-meetiniis. None sliall be taken into the jruild witliout LATER MEDIAEVAL PEIIIOD. 339 paying at least forty shillings, saving the sons and daughters of <)-uildnien. Help shall be given to poor and ailing brethren. Dowries shall be given to poor maidens of good repute [in the guild]. Poor brethren shall be buried at the cost of the guild. Help shall be given to brethren charged witli wrong-doing. If the brother has been rightly charged, he shall he dealt with as the aldermen ^ and brethren think well. No lepers shall come into the borough, a place for them being kept outside the town. No dung or dust-heaps shall be put near the banks of the Tweed. "Underhand dealings in the way of trade shall be punished. If any one buy goods, misled by false top samples, amends must be made. Forestalling of the market shall not be allowed. Wools and hides shall not be engrossed by a few buyers. The affairs of the borough- shall be managed by twent^'-four discreet men of the town, chosen thereto, together with the mayor and four provosts. The mayor and provosts shall be chosen by the commonalty. " Bewrayers of the guild siiall ])e heavily punished. Out- dwelling brethren of the guild nuist deal in the town on market- days. . . . " No woman shall buy at one time more than a chaldron (36 bushels) of oats for making beer to sell. . . . Whoever buys a lot of herrings, shall share them, at cost price, with the neigh- bors present at the buying. . . . Tanned leathers, brought in by outsiders, must be sold in open market and on market-day. . . . No one shall have more than two pair of mill-stones." The Carpenters' Guild at Norwich promises "help to those fallen into poverty or mishap, if not brought about through folly or riotous living." From the Lancaster Guild of the Holif Trinity and St. Leonard. " No guild-brother shall wrong the wife or daughter or sister of another, nor shall allow her to be wronged so fi\r as he can hinder it." 1 Aldermen, = Eldermen, the chief elected officers of the guild. '- In tiiis ciise all tlio cltizL'us of the borough were guildsmen. 340 STUDIES EST GENERAL HISTORY. "A wax light shall be kept burning before the holy cross, on the days when they go in procession in honor of the holy cross." "None of them shall work after dinner on Satui'days, nor on an}^ days which they ought to keep as festivals, according to the law of the Church. " If any one wishes to learn the craft, no one shall teach it to him until he has given twopence to the wax [for the light]. " If any of the brotherhood is justly charged with theft to the value of a penny, he shall be put out of the company." From the Bakers' Guild at Exeter. " Search shall be made at hucksters' houses for bread made outside the town. Such bread is forfeited. " Horse loaves shall be made two for a penny, of clean beans ; otherwise, a fine must be paid, which goes half to the city and half to the guild. No baker shall be allowed in the town, unless a freeman, and also one of the guild." d. The Town. The organization and relations of the town may be seen the fo charters : in the following extracts and summaries of various town- From the English Charier of Leicester. " The townsmen made a covenant with the Earl of Leicester that they should give him threepence yearly for each house in the High Street that had a gable, on condition that he should grant to them that the twenty-four jurors who were in Leices- ter from ancient times should from that time forward discuss and decide all pleas they might have among themselves." From French Charters given by the King to Orleans (of twelfth century, but typical of this period) . "We will and order that all men who live and shall live at Orleans be henceforth free and exempt from all tax and duty, and we will seize neither them nor their goods, their wives, LATER IMEDI.EVAL rEIlIOD. 341 sons, nor daughters, and will do them no violence, so long as they desire to and do receive the judgment of our court, . . . Now we make them all these concessions, on condition that all those to whom we give this grace . . . henceforth, each year, upon each four gallons of wine or corn which they shall have, shall pay us two deniers.' . . . Now, every year, we will send to Orleans one of the people who serve us in our house, and who, with our other sergeants in the town, and ten good burghers [peers], whom tlie burghers of the town shall elect in common, shall annually collect this tax of In'cad and wine. . . . All men dwelling within the inclosure of the walls of the town and in the suburbs, of whatever seignior the land which they inhabit be held, shall swear to the borough, unless some of them abstain by the advice of the peers, and of those who have sworn the borough. ... If he who has committed a crime take refuge in any strong castle, the peers of the borough shall confer with the seignior of the castle. And if satisfaction be done upon the enemy of the borough according to their sentence, let that suf- fice ; but if the seignior refuse satisfaction, they shall them- selves do justice, according to their judgment, upon his property or his men. . . . The peers of the borough shall swear to favor no one out of friendship, and to give up no one out of enmity, and do all things in justice according to their conviction, . . ." Under Philip Augustus, " Thirteen peers are to be elected in the boiK)ugh, among whom, if it be the wish of those who have sworn the borough, one or two shall be made mayors." The Charter of Beaumont, granted by its Bishop, •• made all the inhabitants of the commune of Beaumont proprietors of a sufficient quantity of land to give them means of subsistence, with the use of the woods and water-courses ; every precaution was taken to prevent frniid in commerce and trade, especially in regard to the millers, the bakers, and the butchers ; and the administration of the commune was entrusted to a number of burgliers, elected by the most notable citizens." 1 A Froiicli coin of k-t^s value than an Englisli pcnry. 342 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. STUDY ON I. In whose interest are the assemblies of estates evidently called together? For what object? What does the presence of the third estate show in regard to its wealth? What kind of importance do these assemblies give to this estate? What does the composition of the third estate in England show? What characterizes the organization of the Church? Of what advantage is this characteristic ? What acts as a check on the central power? At what part of its organization has the Church entirely sepa- rated itself from the empire ? What actual material powers has the papacy at its command? What kinds of power does it exercise? AVhat spirit in the Church is embodied in the mendicant orders? In the military orders? What point of contact has this organization with a ? In what way is the papacy better as a form of government than an ordinary monarchy ? What two points of Church organization threaten the prosperity and peace of states? What class of men compose the guilds? Make a list of the objects of guilds. What is their attitude toward morality? Peace? Pub- lic cleanliness and health ? Of what value is each of these things to the guildsmen? What is the political organization of the guild? Make a list of all the benefits you can think of as likely to result from such organizations to the guildsmen. To the community at large. Towards what injustice do you see a tendency? What two bonds of union exist within them? What do they constantly seek to pre- vent in trade ? What do the extracts tell you of the position of women in the class represented by the guilds ? What great difference between the relation existing between men of tlie same occupation in the same town then and now? What kind of power are the towns gaining? Men of what occu- pations and classes are gaining this power? What is the political constitution of the towns? What power have they by which to gain libertias and privileges? Whose i)ower must decline, theirs rising? What kinds of oppression and injustice evidently existed before the granting of their charters? Whom will they favor, kings or nobles, and why? IIow is the work of tlie towns and guilds now done? In General. — It may be said that this is a period in which powers and (^lassos are being de/ineil ; give illustrations from the organizations. What sort of organizations are the town and the guild as contrasted with the kingdom, the empire, and the ])a])acy? "yAHiat general effect would they have on peace and order? On poliiicial indejiendeuce ? LATER MEDIAEVAL rEIlIOD, 343 2. Siininiary of Events, 1215-1492, a. In the Umpire. 1815 TO 1354. Jenghiz Khan and his Mogul successors ravage Eastern Europe, threatening the empire, — Con- stant strife of papal [(rweZf] and imperial [^Ghi- ftclin'] parties over dis])Uied rights of appointment and of jurisdiction in various territorial possessions, notably in Sicily. — The emperor grants bishops and nobles legal sovereignty in their own domains when he is not in person present. '■^ Great Interregnum^'' ; the electors being di- vided in their votes for emperor, the pope threat- ens to appoint one if they do not choose. They 1251 TO 1373. then elect Rudolf of Hapsburg, founder of the House of Austria, and the pope confirms their choice. — During this time, the Duke of Poland has himself crowned its king, and l*oland thus becomes independent of the empire. — The pope offers the crown of Sicil}^ to the French count of Anjou, who conquers it by force of arms. — More than sixty cities of the empire, under the lead of archbishops, form the League of the Mhine, for mutual defence against the nobles. About the same time, eighty other German cities form the League of the Hanse^ with Lubeck, Cologne, Brunswick, and Dantzig at their head. This league has four principal foreign stations, — London, Bruges, Bergen, and Novgorod. Its objects are, common defence, security of routes by land and sea, a court of arbitration in case of dispute, and the extension of trade to foreign parts. Wars and dissensions of nobles, princes, cities, parties, and emperors : the })apal chair [1309] is removed from Rome to Avignon, which is the pope's residence during nearly the whole century. — The three forest cantons of Switzerland form a leagne for mut- ual defence. — The island of Sicily revolts against Anjou, 1373 344 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. and chooses a Spaniard of the House of Aragon for its king. Thus " The Two Sicilies " were separated, one being under French, one under Spanish rule. — In 1338, the electors of the empire declare that "the imperial dignity is derived from God alone," that " it is by their choice " the titles of king and emperor are given ; and that it is unnecessar/ for the pope either to approve or confirm. In Rome, Cola di Rienzi, who takes the title of tribune of the people, attempts to revive the old Roman republic, — In 1356, the emperor, Charles IV., issues the Golden Bull^ by which it is formally declared that the emperor shall gain his office by the choice of the seven electors of the empire. Continued residence of popes at Avignon ; continued wars of parties and cities in Italy. " Great Schism of the West," caused by a double election of popes, one at Rome, one at Avignon, dividing the allegiance of Western 1356 TO 1378. 1378 TO 1418. Europe. A series of Church councils are held, to settle the papal disputes, and to try to limit the papal power ; a settlement is finally accomplished by the Council of Con- stance, which is called by the emperor, and elects a single pope to rule from Rome. By this same council, John Huss and Jerome of Prague are burned, because they are preaching through Bohemia doctrines opposed to the papacy, following the lead of Wiclif, w'ho had preached similar doctrines in England. War in Bohemia between the followers of Huss and the king. A large and formidable Ijody of the former, under the name of Taborites, 1418 TO 1492. cry out for "e(;[uality! no more kings! no more priests ! " During this time the imperial dignity passes permanently to the House of Austria. — War between the various Italian cities ; war between cities and military adventurers and LATER JVfEDIiEVAL PERIOD. ,^45 lords of the empire ; the cities .sometimes iii(lcpoii(h/iit, sometimes in leagues, sometimes under the tyranny of other cities, sometimes under that of a wealthy family. h. In the East. Jerusalem is retaken by Mohammedans (Chorasmians), who are fleeing from the Moguls, and the Christian king- dom of Jerusalem ends ; the Moguls seize upon Bagdad, thus endhig its caliphate in 1258. — Constantinople is re- gained by the Greek emperors, 1261, and held by them until 1453, when, after vain appeals to the West, and promises of reunion of the Eastern and Western Church, it is taken by the Ottoman Turks, and made the capital of Turkey in Europe ; the Turkish conquest of Greece and the Greek islands soon follows. e. In France. 1315 TO 1826. 1336 TO 1370. Time of Lewis IX., the Saint. War of the barons against the king, whom Paris and all the communes (towns) of France swear to defend. Unsuccessful struggle of the bishops against the king. In all these troubles, Blanche of Castile, the king's mother, is the regent of the realm, the king being a minor. New war of barons, with some help from England, against the king ; the king proclaims that every baron holding; fiefs both under him and the English kincr must choose one of them for his master ; most of them choose Lewis. — Two unsuccessful crusades, one practically end- ing in Egypt, and one in Tunis. During this reign, the royal domain is enlarged towards the south by purchase and by conquest. The whole of Toulouse falls to the crown on the death of its childless count. — The king, in want of money, taxes the clergy, sells privileges to 13T0 346 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. towns, and freedom to serfs ; the pope issues a bull, for- bidding the clergy to pay taxes to any civil power, without his permission. Thereupon, a violent quarrel arises be- tween the pope and the king ; the latter calls to his sup- port the estates of France, — the nobility, the clergy, the burghers or third estate. This meeting of the estates at Paris is the first " States-General." This body declares for the king ; revolt in Flanders ; the French nobility march to put it down, but are beaten by the Flemish burghers, and their golden spurs are hung as trophies in the cathe- dral of Courtrai. In this " Battle of the Spurs " many lords of fiefs perished. Continued quarrel of king and pope. The king grants the independence of Flanders, except from his feudal lordship. The knights templars are suppressed, and their wealth passes to the king. Hundred year^ ivar between England and France. Edward III. of England claims the right to the French throne and the lands of 1337 TO 1453. Aquitaine ; war follows. Under Edward III. and his son, the Black Prince, the English win the victories of Crecy and Poitiers ; later still they win Agincourt, and the English right to the throne is conceded. France refuses to acknowledge the treaty, and war continues. Jeanne d'Arc, claiming the direct inspiration of God, appears, rouses the French to enthusiasm and faith. They drive the English from France, and the whole land except Calais comes under the lordship of the king of France. Jeanne d'Arc, delivered a captive to tlic English, is burned for witchcraft and heresy. In the midst of the war comes the lUack Death, taking lialf the population and visiting all ranks; the king, in need of money for the war, convokes the States-General; the nobles vote for war and taxes, the clergy and the third estate ask delay and reform. In this demand, Etienne 348 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. INIarcel, provost of the Paris merchants, leads ; the king, paying no heed, and dismissing the estates, Paris is forti- fied. The king still delaying reform, Paris revolts, and demands (1) taxes levied by the States-General ; (2) checks to the extravagance of the court; (3) reform in the administration of justice; (4) good money; (5) the arming of all men as a national guard. The king promises to jdeld to the conditions ; breaks his promise. Paris revolts again ; war between the king and Paris ; meanwhile, in the country, Jacques (the peasant) rises against the nobles " with iron-shod sticks and knives " ; this revolt is known as a " Jacquerie " / castles are ruined and burned, nobles and peasants slain ; but the peasants in the country, and the burghers in Paris, are alike sub- dued by king and noble. The great nobles and lords form the " League of the Public Good," and make war on king Lewis XI. in behalf of their ancient independence 1453 TO 1498. and privilege, but the king at last subdues them. During this time the territorial gains of the French monarchy are as follows : Dauphiny and Montpellier are bought from their heirs ; Provence on the death of its last count goes to the French king; Aquitaine is conquered from the English in the hundred years' war ; Burgundy is annexed by Lewis XL By sale, inheritance, dowry, or conquest, the roj-al domain in France very nearly comes to correspond to that indicated in the map, p. 397. STUDY ON 2. ^lake a list of all the signs of weakness that you see in the imperial office. What signs that the towns are strong? The Church? The nobles? What proof that no one of these powers predominates? Xame two evidences of the special relation between France and the papacy. What evidences of German hostility to the papacy? What political reason for tliis hostility? AVliat is meant by referring to the liATEIi .MKDI^EVAL PERIOD. 349 imperial title as a dignity rather than a power? "\\1iat states come to an end during this period, what l)egin, and what arc fully formed? What strong parties appear in France, and how related? Compare with Germany. Of what value is the enlargement of the royal do- main? What new powers and resources does the king thus gain? What does the king appear to feel an especial need for during this period ? What gain to the people arises from this necessity ? What special reason why the desire for territorial possession should be a cause of war between England and France ? Why sliould the nobles vote for war? Why the clergy for peace? Why the third estate? What evils evidently exist in France at the time of this war ? On the W'hole, what part of the state gains power during this period, and by what means ? d. In England. The barons in arms under Stephen Langton, Archbishop of Canterbur}', with the nation to back them, demand of Jolm the signing of the 1315, 1316. Great Charter (Magna Charta), in confirmation of ancient rights ; at Runnymede they force him to sign it ; the pope excommunicates the barons ; war between them and the roAul and papal forces; John dies, and the charter is pro- claimed in the name of his successor, Henry III. The khig wanting money, gets it on condition of a fresh confirmation of tlie charter ; the pope needs money, and sends to England for it ; the 1316 TO 1373. king promises it; the barons refuse, but a tithe of all cleri- cal property is demanded ; the king surrounds himself Avith foreigners, to whom he gives nuich money, and with whom he keeps an extravagant court ; again in need of mone}', he calls the great council of the realm ; they grant it on condition of economy and confirmation of the charter ; the king promises, but breaks his faith ; the clergy complain of the heavy papal taxes that are sanctioned by the king; under the lead of Simon de Montfort the baronage in arms demand their liberties from the crown. The king 350 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. yields and makes new promises ; breaks them, the pope ab- solving him from his oath ; the barons and the towns, under Simon, make fresh war upon him ; the king is captured, and Simon calls a parliament, summoning nobles, clergy, and commons ; the latter comprising knights, two elected from each shire, and citizens, two from every borough. War continues, but finally ends with the fresh confirmation of the rights of the realm, and the promise that taxation shall only be imposed with the consent of the great council. Edward 1. reigning, confirms the charter and keeps his word. Needs money for conquest of Wales ; parliament grants him a tax on every sack 1373 TO 1307. of wool exported; Wales is subdued and joined to the Eno-lish realm. War threatens from Scotland and from France ; Edward calls (1295) a parliament of the realm to aid him with counsel and gold ; to it he calls knights, nobles, barons, clergy, and two burgesses, "from every city, borough, and leading town." The money granted is spent in the war, and more required; tax on wool is raised and grows oppressive ; forced contributions of money and corn ; barons revolt ; Edward confesses himself wrong; is granted new moneys by clergy and commons in return for the confirmatioir of their rights, and the promise not to tax without the consent of the taxed. Victory over the Scotch under Wallace, but new war against them under their new leader, Bruce, in the midst of which King Edward dies. Contests between the royal power and the baronage over supplies and charters ; the Scotch Avar presses ; the king confirms tlic charters before 1.307 TO given, and parliament grants supplies ; the Scotch under Bruce beat the English at Batinockhurn; truce between England and Scotland made by tlie king under the inilu- ence of his favorites ; parliament thereupon deposes hiro LATER JVEEDLEVAL PERIOD. 351 on the charges of " indolence, incapacity, the loss of Scot- land, the violation of his coronation oath, oppression of the Church and baronage," and his son reigns in his stead under a council of barons. Scotch war renewed; all south of the Frith of Forth is ceded to England, and hom- age is done for tlie rest. Hundred years' war breaks out, and Scotland becomes independent. Constant war; con- stant demand on the part of the king for money ; parlia- ment meets every year, and many laws favorable to the trading classes are passed; the House of Connnons sits as a separate body, and its petitions often become law. Victories over the French, at Crecy, Calais, Poitiers ; meanwhile the exactions of the court of Avignon increase, the pope appoints foreigners to English livings, and finally demands the payment of the annual sum promised by John Lackland, in token of the temporal lordship of Rome. King Edward refers the matter to parliament. Both houses answer that " neither King John nor any king can put himself, his kingdom, nor his people, under subjection save with their accord or assent." Wiclif, scholar and preacher at Oxford University, boldly preaches the inde- l^endence of the English Church, and attacks the practices and the doctrines of Rome. His foUowers are known as ^'' Lollards^'' and their revolt against established belief and practice produces nnicli agitation and disturbance (Lollardry). In the midst of the French war pomes the '-'■Black Death,''' destroying more than half tha English folk. Laborers ask for higher wages ; employers refuse them ; taxes gro\\' heavier. The peasants revolt, demanding the abolition of serfdom ; by fair promises the king disperses them. Their leaders are punished, and the king refuses to keep his word ; nevertheless, from that time serfage begins to dis- appear and labor to be paiil in wages. 352 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 1455 " Wars of the Roses " ; wars between the houses of York (white rose) and Lancaster (red rose) over their rights of succession to the English crown ; settled at last by the marriage of a York and a Lancaster, from which union springs the Tudor line of the sixteenth century. e. In Other Countries of Europe. In Spain and Portugal continual strife of Christian and Moor ; the Arabs driven back to the sole j)ossession of Granada ; Sicily joined to Aragon ; just before the sixteenth century, by the marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella, Castile and Aragon are united ; by conquest of Ferdinand, Gre- nada is freed from the Moors and joined to the Spanish realm. — In 1283 the General Privilege, the Magna Charta of Aragon, is granted, which provides for the fair and open administration of justice, for defining the powers of cities, for securing property against the arbitrary use of crown, for preserving the privileges of towns and nobles. In the north and east of Europe, a crusade is preached against the heathen of the Baltic, to which the pope and the emperor commission the Order of Teutonic Knights, who win from heathendom Prussia and Baltic lands adjoining. — The Moguls invade Europe and conquer Russia, which comes again, however, under native rule before the close of the period. — Hungary and Poland become the bulwarks of Christendom against the Turk, beating him back south- ward from the imperial frontier. STUDY ON d. Make a list of the facts in England which correspond to facts in France during this same time. What great difference do you notice in the outcome of events in these two countries ? What occupation would seem to be a source of English wealth, which we have not LATER MEDIAEVAL TERIOL, 353 noticed on the continent as sucli? Give two indications pointing to this conclusion. What great and constant clieck on despotism in England? What new class appears as a contending party in Eng- land ? What indication that this class is more intelligent in England than in France ? How far is this a proof ? What relation between the "Black Death" and the demand for higher wages? IIow is a wage- laborer better off than a serf ? A serf than a slave ? IIow does the power of Ferdinand, king of Spain, compare with that of other kings ? W^hy? In General. — Against what barbaric races is Europe called upon to protect herself ? What additions are made to the European com- monwealth? What is lost to it? What fact do you see common to the Empire, France, England, Spain? What to the Empire, France, and England? What general cause for the calling of estates? What acts as a check upon roj'al power? On the power of the nobles? What does the fact that the events in each country must be treated separately indicate ? 3. List of Famous Names of Period, a. Thirteenth Century (1215-1300). Names. Birth and Circumstance. Education. Cause of Fame. Language. Albertus Swabian ; of Student at Follows Abelard Latin. Magnus, old family ; Padua, with caution ; stud- the " Uni- student ; Bologna, ies, teaches, and versal Dominican Paris. writes on all sub- Doctor." monk ; lec- tures in Paris and Cologne ; bishop. jects then pursued ; seeks in natural science the basis of knowledge ; writes on proper- ties of stones, plants, and ani- mals ; author of many chemical re- cipes ; accused of na*gic. 354 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. Names. Birth and Circumstance. Education. Cause of Fame. Language, Alfonso the Hereditary Life at his lias Bible translated Spanish. Wise, of king of father's into Spanish; Castile. Castile. court at Castile. author of poetical and scientific works; codifies Spanish law on basis of Eoman and native laws. Aquinas, Neapolitan ; Studies at Lectures at Paris Latin, St. Thomas, Dominican Naples and to great audiences the "Angel- monk ; lec- Paris ; pu- on theological ic Doctor." tures in pil of philosophy ; his Paris, and Albertus theology forms many Ital- Magnus. the basis of that ian towns. afterward taught; inclines to Real- ism ; seeks in theology the basis of knowledge. Bacon, Franciscan Studies at Realist; author of Latin. Koger, monk. Oxford and the "Great Work" the ""Ad- Paris. (See a cyclopedia of the mirable Geber, p. thirteenth century Doctor." 2G4.) knowledge of geography, mathe- matics, music, astrology, physics, anatomy ; invents the telescoiie and discovers gun- powder; accused of heresy and imprisoned. Ciraabue. Florentine; Watches the Fresco-painting, * * * of noble Greek studied from family. painters nature ; - who had paints for LATER IvrEDI^EVAL TERIOD. 355 Names. Birth and Circumstance. Education. Cause of Fame. Language. been called churches ; emjiha- to Florence sizes expression to decorate in painting. a chapel. Dominic, St. Spaniard ; Studies at Religious zealot ; # * » of honora- the Univer- champion of the -< ble family; sity of Sal- Church ; becomes monk. amanca. a mendicant preacher, hoping to work reforms in Church abuses ; establishes the Dominican order of monks. Edward I., King of Life of camp Organizes and ar- English. 1272-1307. England by and court, ranges the body licreditary abroad and of English law ; right. in England. gives form to House of Com- mons; conquers Wales. (See 2.) Francis, St., Italian ; son A little Establishes Francis- * * « of Assisi. of a trades- study with can order of man ; monk. the parish priests. monks, vowed to poverty and simplicity of life; preaches self-renunciation in Illyrica, Spain, Holy Land, — everywhere gaining disciples. 356 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. Names. Birth and Circumstance. Education, Cause of Fame. Language. Grosseteste, English; Studied law, Author of a treatise Latin. Robert. bishop of theology. on the sphere; Lincoln. and medi- cine at Oxford ; Greek and Hebrew at Paris. author of about 200 books ; trans- lates from Greek ; poet, writing short poems on moral and religious subjects. Joinville. French ; Life of Author of chronicles French. knight. camp and court. of the Crusades, in which he took part, and life of St. Lewis ; author of a chronicle of contemporary events ; employed in matters of state. Layamon. English ; Studies in Translates Wace's English. priest. English monastic school. Chronicle of Britain (the "Brut"). Langton, English ; Studies at Involved in consti- Latin and Stephen. archbishop University tutional struggles ; English. of Canter- of Paris ; instigator of the bury ; chan- distin- demands of the cellor; mem- guished in Magna Charta. ber of pope's theology household ; and philos- cardinal- ophy. priest. Lewis, St. King of Educated at Author of the French. France. court under the direc- tion of his mother, Blanche of Castile. " Establishments of St. Lewis," a fa- mous collection of French legislation, largely modified by Roman law. LATER MEDIAEVAL PERIOD. 357 Names. Birth and Circumstance. Education, Cause of Fame. Language. Matthew English - Studied at Author of chronicle Latin and Paris. monk ; friend and advisor of English king, Henry III. Paris Uni- versity (?). of contemporary events; employed in matters of state. French. Montfort, French ; * * * See 2. French Simon de. noble ; English king's seneschal and am- bassador. • and English. Peter de Crescenzi. Italian ; of wealthy * * * Writes a cyclopedia of all the botanic Latin, translated Bolognese family. knowledge of his time, adding there- to his own obser- vations ; this work goes through fif- teen or twenty editions before close of period. into French and other languages. Polo, Marco. Venetian ; Travel and Travels in Asia and French high officer of Great life. dictates an account of his travels, and Italian. Khan of Tartary. wliicli is published; first to make the existence of Japan known to Europe. Villeliardou- Noble and Life of Author of " Con- French. in. warrior of Cham- pagne. camp and court ; crusading. quest of Constan- tinople," very pop- ular in the middle ages. 358 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. b. Names of Fourteenth Century. Names. Birth and Circumstance. Education, Cause of Fame. Language. Artevelde, Of distin- Society and Leader of citizens * * * Jacob van. guished and wealthy family ; member of brewer's guild, which he joins to gain influ- ence. politics. in their struggle for independence against the Count of Flanders. Boccaccio. Italian ; son Studies in Author of the " De- Italian. of a mer- Florence, cameron," a series chant ; travels in of stories or novels poet; pat- France. based on real life ronized by or on mediaeval queen of French romances. Naples. Bruce, Scottish Life in camp Leader of Scotch Scotch. Robert. noble ; king of Scotland. and court. revolt against Eng- lish rule ; compels recognition of Scotch independ- ence. Chaucer. Londoner; Student at Father of English English. son of a Oxford or poetry ; author of merchant ; Cam- " Canterbury courtier. bridge(?). Tales," a series of scholar, stories told in soldier, verse, partly origi- poet. nal, partly taken from French, Italian, and classi- cal sources. Dante, Florentine Studies the Author of the Italian. Alighicri. patrician. classics ; " Divine Comedy," LATER MEDLEVAl. PERIOD. 359 Names. Birth and Circumstance. Education. Cause of Fame. Language. also philos- a poem describing ophy, the visions of a astrology, journey through mathema- Hell, Purgatory, tics, rhe- and Paradise ; toric. lover of Beatrice, in whose honor he writes " The New Life." Froissart. Frenchman ; Life in camp Author of " Chroni- French. priest, poet, and court. cles " of contempo- musician. rary French and English history. Giotto. Italian Pupil of Paints frescoes for * * * shepherd- Cimabue. churches ; archi- boy. tect of the famous bell-tower of Florence cathedral. Glanvil, English ; Studies at Compiles a cyclo- Latin, Bartholo- monk. Oxford, pedia dealing with translated mew. Paris, all kinds of natu- into Konie. ral objects, which is reprinted ten times. French, English, Spanish, Dutch. Langland, English ; Monastic. Author of the " Vis- English. William. monk. ion of Piers Plow- man," a satirical allegory of human life, especially sharp against the clergy. Mandeville, English; Society and E.xplorcs parts of French, Sir John. knight. travel. Africa and Asia, and writes a book of his travels. English, Latin. 360 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTOKY. Names. Birth and Circumstance, Education. Cause of Fame. Language. Marcel, Son of a Business See 2. French. Etienne. Parisian draper ; rich mer- chant. and affairs. Occam, English ; Studies at Nominalist ; lec- Latin. William of, Franciscan Oxford; at tures at Paris ; aids the " In- monk and Paris with the French king in vincible physician ; Dims Sco- his quarrel with Doctor." teacher of theology. tUB. the pope ; author of many philosoph- ic and theologi- cal works. Petrarch. Italian; son Studies the Author of sonnets Italian, of a no- classics; in honor of his Latin. tary; poet lives at lady Laura ; found- and prose- courts. er of "Humanism," writer, or the interest in patronized the life and litera- by various ture of classic / princes ; antiquity. ambassa- dor. Eienzi, Roman; of Well- Attempts to re- Italian. Cola di. obscure birth ; no- tary ; papal ambas- sador. educated. store the ancient Roman liberties under the forms of the old rei)ub- lic ; the " Last of the Tribunes." Tyler, Wat. English peasant. * * * Leader of the peo- ple unsuccessfully revolting against the king because of oppressive taxation. English. LATER MEDIEVAL PERIOD. 361 Names. Birth and Circumstance. Education. Cause of Fame. Language. Wallace, Sir Scotch Life of Leader in Scottish Scotch. William. knight; camp and wars for independ- guardian of court. ence. Scotland. Wiclif. English Studies at Translates the Bible English. preacher Oxford. from Latin into and lect- English; eloquent urer at Ox- preacher; urges ford; pat- reform in the doc- ronized by trine and practice English of the Church; king. denounces the begging friars (Dominicans and Franciscans). ;. J^ames of Fifteenth Century. ^neas Italian ; of Studies clas- One of the first Latin. Sylvius, old but sics and mathematicians Pius IL poor fami- ly ; diplo- mat for emperors and popes ; pope. law. of his age ; cosmog- raphist; writes on geography and his- tory. Angelico, From a Monastic Paints miniatures * » » Era. wealthy and ele- for manuscripts; family near mentary. also many pictures Florence ; on religious and monk. scriptural subjects for churches. Brunelles- Florentine ; Apprenticed Architect of the * « « chi. son of a to a gold- great dome of notary ; smith ; Florence. member of studies 362 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. Names. BiHh and Circumstance. Education. Cause of Fame. Language. the gold- sculpture. smith's perspective, guild. and geome- try. Cardan. Son of a lawyer and physician ; professor * * * Writes a famous treatise on mathe- matics; writes Latin, also on scientific of mathe- and philosophic matics and subjects. medicine at university of Pavia. Caxton, English ; Mercantile ; First English prin- English William. merchant learns art ter ; translates and official. of printing in Flanders. many foreign (mostly French) works into English. Comines, French ; Life at Author of " Me- French. Philip de. noble ; councillor and cham- berlain of King Lewis XI. court. moirs," which give a vivid picture of Lewis XI. and his time. Cusanus German ; Studies law Writes on philoso- Latin. (Nicolas cardinal- and matlie- phy ; in astronomy, Krebs). bishop. matics at Padua ; studies theology. the forerunner of Copernicus ; mathematician, theologian, philos- opher. Donatello. Florentine ; Apprenticed Makes beautiful « « « of noble to a gold- statues and carv- family ; smith ; ings, mostly of sculptor studies religious subjects ; and painter. antique models. studies from nature. LATER MEDIEVAL PERIOD. 863 Names. Birth and Circumstance. Education. Cause of Fame. Language. Ghiberti. Florentine. Apprenticed to a gold- smith. Sculptor of reliefs on the famous bronze doors of the Florence Baptistery; sub- jects scriptural, but studies from nature; famous jeweller. * * * Gutenberg. German ; of noble descent. * * * Invents printing by movable types. * * * IIuss, John. Bohemian ; Studies at Follower of Wiclif ; Latin. peasant ; University preacher and professor of Prague. writer; accused in Univer- of heresy, and sity of condemned to Prague. death. Jeanne d'Arc. French ; peasant- girl. Religious instruction from her mother. See 2. French Jerome of Bohemian ; Studies at Follower of Wiclif * * * Prague. of good Prague, and associate of birth. Paris, Oxford. IIuss; condemned and burned for heresy. Kcinpis, German ; Religious Reputed author of Latin. Thos. a. monk. and nu)n- astic. the " Imitation of Christ." Machiavelli. Florentine ; of the pros- perous mid- dle class ; lawyer, clerk, diplomat. Classical. . . Author of a history of Florence, and of "The Prince," a work on states- manship, showing how princes may gain and keep their power. Italian. 364 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTOP.Y. Names. Birth and Circumstance. Education. Cause of Fame. Language. Masaccio. Italian ; son Studies with Disregards conven- * * * of a notary ;' otlier Ital- tionalities of for- belongs to ian artists. mer artists, and a guild of studies nature for druggists. his types. then of painters. Medici, Wealthy Literary Founds House of « * * Cosimo di. Florentine ; and com- Medici, long the merchant. mercial culture. practical rulers of Florence; imports into Italy many Greek manu- scripts new to Europe. Medici, Son of Studies with Ruler of Florence; * * * Lorenzo. Cosimo. famous men of letters ; travels to various European courts. statesman, poet, scholar; patron of artists and authors; spends much on public buildings and in founding schools and libraries. Mirandola. Italian; of Studies at Author of a cyclo- Latin. princely Bologna pedia of mediasval birth ; and otlier knowledge, con- patronized universi- taining much of an , by the ties. astronomical and Medici. mathematical nature ; attempts to reconcile re- ligion and i)hiloso- phy ; condenmed as a heretic. LATER IMEDI.EVAL PERIOD. 36.5 Names. Birth and Circumstance. Education. Cause of Fame. Language. Pcrugino. Italian ; Studies with Teacher of Raph- * * * painter. other Italian artists. ael ; paints madon- nas, holy families, and other scrip- tural subjects. Savonarola. Ferrara ; of Studies Foretells and Italian. noble Ital- Aristotle preaches tiie ian family ; and reformation of the Dominican Aquinas. Church. friar ; preacher. Van Eycks, Flemings ; Study Painters; one of * * » brothers court paint- with father them reputed to and sister. ers for and other have invented oil- various artists. painting, so much princes and does he improve wealtliy its methods ; merchants. pictures of madon- nas and other scriptural subjects; portraits. STUDY ON 3. In what new ways (io men now achieve greatness ? Men of wliat clas.ses? INFake a list of all tlie different directions in wliicli the intellect manifests itself. In what country is each manifestation strongest? In what class of men? What classes patronize art? What three influences enter into this art? What intellectiuil intlu. ences are felt throughout Europe? AMiat do you notice about the laws of Spain, France, and England ? Wliat about language in Spain, France, England, Italy, Germany? What countries are the most famous centres of learning? Contrast this list with the corresponding list, pp. 286-'2i0; what great differences strike you? In what new ways are men educated? What relation between a man's education and his work? What activities are on the increase during these three centuries ? What on the decrease? Wliat effects of crusading do you think you see here ? 366 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTOKY. 4. List of Famous Inventions, Discoveries, Enterprises, Foundations, and Works, Unnamed in 3. Cathedrals, — of Notre Dame in Paris, of Cologne, Strasbourg, Westminster in London, York, Exeter, Canter- bury, Toledo, Seville, Milan, Rheims, Amiens, Florence, Prague, and many others. French and Norman architects very generally superintend their erection ; from the four- teenth century on these cathedrals are decorated with magnificent windows of stained glass. — Castles on the Rhine and in other parts of Germany, in France, England, and Spain. These castles are built by great feudal lords, and defended by walls and moats, by position and con- struction. — Cit^ Walls, notably of Cologne, Nuremberg, Paris (1180, Philip Augustus), Florence, Vienna, Prague. — Guild Halls and Town Halls, notably in Antwerp, Brus- sels, Ypres, Bruges, Cologne, Florence. The University of Paris, modelled after the schools of Alexandria, and much favored in its beginning by Philip Augustus, king of France ; it was especially famous for medicine and Roman law; the universities of Prague, Vienna, Heidelberg, Erfurt, and of Leipzig, Basle, Tubin- gen, and Mainz, all modelled after the University of Paris; their statutes sometimes begin with a eulogy on their Parisian Alma Mater ; the universities of Cordova and Seville in Spain ; in Italy the University of Bologna, especially famous for the study of Roman law, now much aided by the discovery of an excellent manuscript of Jus- tinian's Pandects at Amalfi ; the University of Salerno was famous for medicine, as well as that of Montpellier in France. In the fiftccntli century nearly forty new univer- sities on the continent, and many of the English colleges were founded. In these universities the courses included grammar, rhetoric, logic, arithmetic, geography, music. LATER MEDIiEVAL PERIOD. 367 astronomy, theology, law, iiiuiliciiie. TIk' language of their books, their professors, and often of the students, was Latin ; the instruction was generally given by monks and other churchmen. After the fall of Constantinople, however, the study of Greek Avas very generally intro- duced, and the philosophy of Plato was taught as well as that of Aristotle. Numberless 'popular songs and romances belong to this ]»eriod ; in Germany alone were to be found, in the twelfth century, more than three hundred Minneshujers^ or wan- dering poets and bards, who livc(l b}' singing from castle to castle and from town to town. They sang of love, of the beauties of nature, of contemporary events and per- sons ; all the old myths of the German heroes appeared in their ballads, and at this time were produced in their present form the Hero-book and the Song of the Niblungs, long poems full of the mythical adventures of national heroes ; all this mass of poetry was sung or written in German, while the romances were largely translations fiom French stories. In the fifteenth century appeared an illustrated " Book of Nature," which was one of the tirst to be printed ; '' Reynard the Fox,'' a satirical poem keenly attacking the vices and faults of all classes of society, notably of the clerg}-, was widely read and widely translated. In France we lind the same class of wandering singers as in Germany, under the name of Troubadours in the south and Tronveres in the north, Romances of King Arthur and Charlemagne were very popular, and Alexander the Great was a favorite hero. In general, the subjects of mediseval romance were taken from the crusades, from national chronicles and traditions, from classical or Bibli- cal sources. The famous chronicles of the monks of St. Denis were translated from Latin into French. 368 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. Ill England, the romances of the period were translated from the French, but a collection of homilies appeared in English, and the period was rich in chronicles. Printing 2yresses were set up in Italy, France, and Eng- land ; the most famous of all being that of Aldi in Venice (Aldine editions), and that of Caxton in England. Before 1500, 1G,000 editions of printed books had appeared. The following is a list of the books printed by Caxton : Pil- grimage of the Soul; Directions for keeping Feasts all the Year ; Four Sermons ; The Golden Legend (a collec- tion of lives of the Saints), three editions ; The Art and Craft to know well to Die, from the French ; The Infancy of our Saviour ; The Life of St. Catherine of Sens ; Mirror of the Blessed Life of Jesus Christ ; A Directory of Church Worship ; A Book of Divers Ghostly Matters ; The Life of St. Wynefrid; The Provincial Constitutions of Bishop Lyndwood of St. Asaph, in Latin ; The Profitable Book of Man's Soul, called the Chastising of God's Children ; The History of Troy, translated from the French ; The Book of the Whole Life of Jason ; Godfrey of Boloyn ; The Knight of the Tower, from the French ; The Book Royal, or the Book for a King ; A Book of the Noble Histories of King Arthur and of Certain of his Knights ; The History of the Noble, Right Valiant, and Right Worthy Knight Paris and of the Fair Vieniie ; The Book of Feats of Arms and of Chivalry, from the French of Christina of Pisa ; The History of King Blanchardine and Queen Eglantine his Wife. To these may })e added, the History of Renard the Fox, translated by Caxton from the Gerpian; The Subtle Histories and Fables of iEsop, from the French ; The Works of Chaucer, Gower, and Lydgate ; Translations of Cicero, Boethius, Virgil, from the French, and Cato ; Chronicles ol' England; The Description of Britain; The Polychroiiicoii ; 'I'lii' liil'c of Cliarles the (^reat, twice LATER MEDIiEVAL PERIOD. 369 printed ; Siege of the Noble and Invincible City of Rhodes ; Statutes of the First Year of Richard III., and those of the first, second, and third parliaments of Henry VII. ; The Game of Chess ; The Moral Proverbs of Christina of Pisa; The Book of Good Manners; The Doctrinal of Sapi- ence, from the French; A Book for Travellers. The following inventions and improvements were either new or now first came into general use ; the application of (jimpowder to artillery (Germany) ; its composition seems to have been known in China, whence the knowledge of it perhaps came into Europe by way of India and Arabia ; the mariner's compass, also previously known in the East; cliimneys, clocks, ivatches ; paper, similar to that now made ; the paving of streets ; Paris was paved in the twelfth, London in the fifteenth century ; engraving on wood and metal, by means of which books were illustrated as well as })rinted ; fine grades of decorated pottery, embroidered tapestries, lace, linen, and woollen cloths. The inquisition was established, a commission appointed by the pope for searching out and trying heretics ; confession of heresy was often extracted by torture, and the witnesses were concealed from the accused ; those condemned were executed at the order of the civil powers of the various European countries. The possession of a translation of the Bible unauthorized by the popes was considered a mark of heresy. Canon law was thoroughly coditied by the pope. Mendicant friars were sent as missionaries into Asia to convert the Mongols and Chinese. STUDY ON 4. What new activities does 4 reveal ? What country leads in each ? What country, on the \Yhole, seems to you to be first in civilization, judging from 4 alone? What kind of civilization? To what facts 370 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. noticed in 1, 2, and 3 does the building of cathedrals correspond? The founding of universities? The building of the castles on the Rhine? Of guild-halls and town-halls ? "What does the fact of such a body of literature in the national tongues of Europe show about the taste of the people? What do the subjects show? What influences do you see at work in this literature ? Why is a list of the first printed books a very valuable index to the tastes and knowledge of the people, and the influences and interests felt by them? What does Caxton's list tell us of England in each of these respects? What advantages have printed books over manuscripts ? Of what did they take the place for the common people ? What new influences would printing bring to bear on them which they had not before felt? What influence would it have upon the accuracy and clearness of their thought ? What foundations and enterprises of this time display a genuine spirit of Christianity ? Why should the pope be unusually troubled by heresies during these centuries? What new power or comfort given to people by each of the inventions named? What depart- ment of life do they more especially serve ? What traces do you think you see of the influences of the crusades? LATER JMEDLEVAL PERIOD. 371 a. CATHEDRAL OF AMIENS, FRANCE. Thirteenth century; built of «touo, with staiued-glas. windows; the highest tower JlO leet in height. ' 372 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. h. INTERIOR OF THE CATHEDRAL OF COLOGNE. Fourteenth century. LATER MEDIEVAL PERIOD. 875^ C. PORTAL OP NOTRE DAME OP PARIS. 'riiiiUuiitli ci'iitury; dedicated to the Virgin Mary, whose statue ia ou the ceutnil coluiuu, and whose burial is represented al)Ove: stc.iie-earvini;. 374 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. d. VIEW IN THE COURT OF THE CARTHUSIAN MONASTERY AT PAVIA. «. BraD'S-EYE VIEW OP THE CASTLE OF PIERREFOND. A short distance north of Paris; built in fourteenth century by tlio king's brother; stood four royal siesos ; stands on a rocky height, covering nearly o"nc acre and a half of ground; towers 1T2 feet high, with walls" fifteen to twenty feet 'thick ; approach to the castle over two permanent bridges and a drawbridge; within the castle is a reception- room, a chapel, a library, living rooms for its master and for soldiers; dungeons; the whole mass built around the court «. /. OASTLB ST. TTLRIO. Fifteenth century; one of the three caMtlcs of the OountB of Rappoltstein, who hore the here my litle of '• kiiiCH" of all tlu' iiiusic-i;in» •■md iiiinstrclM of the Upper Rhine, who puid them a yea »:ix 111 return for their iirotcction, and who once a year gathered at the castle for a joyous festh "ailed the " I'iper'H day." l^VIEll MEDIJ2VAL, PEEIOD. 377 g. THE CLOTH HALL OP YPRES. Thirtcmth and fourteenth centuries; Ypres was formerly the capital of West Flanders, and at the time when this hall was built was one of the most famous seats of the maaufac ture of linen and of lac«. 378 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. STUDY ON PICTURES. What parts of a serve as a basis for decoration? What new formis of architecture do you see in a, b, c, g? What new material is used for decoration ? AVhat subjects ? What forms are employed (see c) ? Find something Greek, something Moorish, something Roman, in the pictures from ato d inclusive. In which of these pictiu'es is everything pui-ely original to this period ? What beauties do you find in a, b, and d ? Why call c a portal instead of a door ? Name two facts you have before discovered which are illustrated by a, b, and d. Compare e and /with picture of Fountains Hall (p. 413) ; what notable differences in construction and location? Explain the points you have mentioned in regard to the castles, by reference to the events and organizations of the time. Supposing we knew nothing about this pei'iod except what we knew of these two castles, how much could they tell us ? What coidd g tell us, if it were the only source of information iu regard to this time that we possessed ? 5. Extracts and Notes Illustrative of Ziaw, Custom, and Organization of Period, a. From the Great Charter {3fagna Charta)} 14. No scutage or aid shall be imposed in our kingdom, unless by the common council [parliament] of our kingdom, except to redeem our person, and to make our eldest son a knight, and once to marry our eldest daughter ; and for this there shall only be paid a reasonable aid. 15. In like manner, it shall be concerning the aids of the city of London, and tlie city of London shall have all her ancient liberties and free customs, as well by land as by water. 16. Furthermore, we will and grant that all other cities, and boroughs, and towns, and ports shall have all their liberties and fi'ce customs, and shall have the common council of the kingdom concerning the assessments of their aids, except in the three cases aforesaid. * ****** 20. We will not, for the future, grant to any one that he 1 All laws and charters wure in Latin till towards the close of the thirteenth century. LATEU .MEDLEVAL I'EIMOD. 379 may take the aid of his own free tenants, unless to redeem his body, and to make liis eldest son a knisjjit, and once to marry bis eldest daughter, and for this tliere shall only Ix; [laid a rea- nable aid. ^ ^ ¥lt ^ ^ ^ ¥lk 22. Common pleas shall not follow our court, hut he holden m some certain place. . . . ******* 33. No constable oi- bailiff of ours shall take corn or other chattels of any man, unless he presently give him money for it. ******* 3G. No sheriffs or bailiffs of ours, or any others, shall take horses or carts of any man for carriage. 37. Neither we, nor our officers, or others, shall take any man's timber, for our castles or other uses, unless by the con- sent of the owuef of the timber. 41. There shall be one measure of wine, and one of ale, through our whole realm, and one measure of corn, that is to say, the London quarter ; and one breadth of dyed cloth ; . . . and the weight shall be as the measures. 45. No liailiff, for the future, shall put any man to his law upon his single accusation, without credible witnesses produced to prove it. 4C). No freeman shall be taken, or imprisoned, or disseised, or outlawed, or banished, or anyways destroyed ; nor will we pass upon him, or commit him to prison, unless by the legal judgment of his peers, or by the law of the land. [^Habeas corpiis.'] 47. AYe Avill sell or deny, or defer, right or justice to no man. 48. All merchants shall have secure conduct to go out of England and to come into England, and to stay and abide there, and to pass as well by land as by water, to buy and sell, by the ancient and allowed customs, without any evil toils, except in time o{ war. . . . 380 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 60. If any one hath been dispossessed or deprived by lis, without the legal judgment of his peers, of his lauds, castles, liberties, or rights, we will forthwith restore them to him ; and if any dispute arises upon this head, let the matter be decided by the five-and-twenty barons hereafter mentioned, for the preservation of the peace. ^ ^ -Jif 3p ^ ^ ^ 69. All the aforesaid customs, privileges, and liberties which we have granted to be holden in our kingdom, as much as it belongs to us towards our people, — all our subjects, as well clergy as laity, shall observe . . . towards their dependents. 78. Wherefore, we will and firml}- enjohi that the Church of England be free, and that all men in our kingdom have and hold all the aforesaid liberties, rights, and concession, truly and peaceably, freely and quietly, fully and wholly, to them- selves and their heirs, of us and our heirs, in all things and places, forever, as is aforesaid. 79. It is also sworn, as well on our part as on the part of the barons, that all things aforesaid shall faithfully and sincerely be observed. Given under our hand, in the presence of the witnesses above-named and many others, in the meadow called liunnyinede, l)etwecn Windsor and Stanes, on the fif- teenth da}' of June, in the seventeenth year of our reign. b. From the EstahlisJiments of St. Lewis. " We prohibit all private battles throughout our domains ; . . . whatever peaceful modes of settling disputes have been in force hitherto, we fully coutinue ; but battles' we forbid; instead of them, we enjoin proof by witnesses." St. Lewis decreed that the clergy should not bear arms ; that their gold-studded belts and gilded spurs should disappear ; that 1 It wiis the ordinary cu.stoin in the middle ages to settle disputes by " Wager of Battle," it being believed that (Jod would give victory to truth and right. LATER IMEDI.KVAT. 3'ERIOD. 381 the mojia.sterles sliould follow the strictest discipline, and that tlie election of bishoi)S should no longer be tampered with by the king or his nobles. He also gave every man of the realm a right of appeal to the king. By him, the goldsmiths of Paris were freed from feudal dues. His successor (Philip IH.) allowed those not noI)les to gain the lands of nobles; titled the laAvyers "knights of the law," and made them chief advisors of the Crown. c. Protest of the Nobles and Commons in 1314. " AVe, nobles and commons of Champagne, for ourselves, . . . and for all our allies and associates within the limits of the kingdom of France, to all who shall see and hear these presents, health. It is known unto 3^ou all, that . . . our dearly l)eloved and redoubtable loi'd Philip, I)y the grace of God king of France, has made and imposed various taxes, . . . wherel)}" and by several other things which have been done, the nobles and commons have been sorely aggrieved and impoverished, and great evils have ensued, and are still taking place. . . . We have at various times devoutly requested and humbly suppli- cated the said lord king to discontinue and utterly put an end to these grievanc(>s, but he has not attended to our entreaties. . . . And just lateh^, in this present year, 1314, the said king has made undue demands upon the nobles and commons of the kingdom, and unjust subsidies which he has attempted b}' force to levy ; these things we cannot conscientiously sulmiit to, for thereby we shall lose our honors, franchises, and liberties, both we and those who shall come after us." d. From Law of Lewis X., the Turbident [Hutin], 1315. "As, according to the law of nature, each must be born free, and by some usages or customs, . . . many of our common people have fallen into servitude and divers conditions which very much disjilease us ; we, . . . wishing that . . . the condi- tion of the people should improve on the advent of our new government, upon deliberation with our great council, have 382 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. ordered an order, that, generally throughout the kingdom, so far as may belong to us and our successors, such servitudes be brought back to freedom, . . . and especially that our common people . . . be . . . no longer molested nor grieved in these respects as they have hitherto been, whereat we are displeased, and to give an example to other seiguiors who have men in like tenure to give them freedom." e. Law of 1439. The king was given power to appoint the officers of the army, to fix the number of foot-soldiers ; to levy taxes without the consent of the estates with which to pay the levies. The great nobles opposed this by war, but were overcome. /. From the Oath of a Knight. The knight promised " to fear, revere, and serve God relig- iously, to fight for the faith with all his strength, and to die a thousand deaths rather than renounce Christianity ; to serve his sovereign prince faithfully, and to fight for him and his country most valiantly ; to maintain the just right of the weak, such as of widows, orphans, and maidens, in a good quarrel ; . . . never to offend any one maliciously, nor usurp the possession of another, but rather fight against those who did so. They swore that avarice, recompense, gain, or profit, should never oblige them to do any action, but only glor^^ and virtue ; . . . that they would never fight more than one against one, and that the}' would avoid all fraud and deceit ; . . . that having made a vow or promise to go upon some quest or strange adventui-e, they would never lay aside their arms except to repose at night ; that in the jjursuit of any quest or adventiue, they would never avoid bad and perilous passages, nor turn off from the straight road for fear of encountering powerful knights, monsters, savage beasts, or any other impediment which the body and coui-age of a single miin might overcome ; . . . tli;i,t they would hold them- selves bound to conduct a Indy or maiden, tliey would serve her, protect her, and save licr from nil danger, and all insult, or die in the attempt ; . . . that . . . they would be faithful observers LATER MEDIAEVAL PERIOD. 383 of their word and pledged faith, and that being taken prisoners* in fair war, tliey would pay exactly the promised ransom, or return to prison at the day and time agreed upon." h. From the Evglish Laivs. Every man was bound to hold himself in readiness, duly armed, for the king's service in case of invasion or revolt. . . . All brushwood was ordered to be destroyed within a space of two hundred feet on either side of the pul)li(! highway as a security for travellers against sudden attacks from robbers. (Edward I.) An ordinance was passed in Edward the Second's time, that no person, whether an inhabitant of London or otherwise, should be admitted to the freedom of the city unless he were a member of one of the trades or mysteries. — Under Edward III., the right of election of all city dignitaries and officers, including members of parliament, was transferred from the ward-repre- sentatives to the trading companies. " Know all men, that we have been assured that John of Rous and Master William of Dalbj' know how to make silver by the art of alchemy ; that they have made it in former times, and still continue to make it ; and, considering that these men, by their art, and by making the precious metal, may be profita- ble to us and to our kingdom, we have commanded our well- beloved Thomas Car}- to apprehend the aforesaid John and William, wherever they can be found, within liberties or with- out, and l)ring them to us, together with all the instruments of their art, under safe and sure custody." Edwai-d also imported and protected Flemish weavers to si)in the English wool. In 1450, Parliament confirmed the permission of the king to three famous men who wore experimenting to find a •' certain most precious medicine, called by some the mother and queen of medicines ; . . . by others, the philosophers' stone ; by others, the elixir of life ; which cures all curable diseases with ease, prolongs all human life in pei-fcct liealth and vigor of faculty to 384 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. its utmost term, is a most sovereign antidote against all poisons, and is capable ... of preserving to us and our kingdom other great advantages, such as the transmutation of other metals into fine gold and silver." STUDY ON 5. Make a list of the wrongs and oppressions that had evidently existed before the time of a. Judging from internal evidence, what classes of people pi-esent it, and in whose interests? What modern principle in regard to taxation does it state ? In regard to the trial of a man charged with crime ? What extract is similar to a ? AVhat reforms does St. Lewis endeavor to make? Against what part of the state are b and d directed? c? What powers does e show in the hands of the king? AVhat adjective will you apply to his jjower in 1439 ? Which is most civilized in political directions during this period, England or France ? Prove it. What was the occupation of the knight? ]\Iake a list of his duties. AVhat feeling w'ould he have toward men who worked for money? AA'hy ? In what ways was the knight like the ideal gentleman of to- day? AVhat feelings woidd his vows encourage? What virtues? AVhat does the first law in h prove in regard to the good govern- jnent of England ? AVhat does each of the other English laws given indicate ? 6. Illustrative Extracts from Literature of tlie Period. a. From Boger Bacon. The pope asked Bacon for a copy of his writings, and Bacon writes : " The head of the Church has sought out me, the un- worthy sole of its foot ; the vicar of Christ and ruler of the world has condescended to ask a favor of me, who am scarcely to ])e lunnbcred among the units of the world." ******* " Of natural philosopliy there aie many . . . special divisions ... 1. optics; 2. astronomy; .'1. gravity; 4. alchemy; r>. agri- fultun; : C>. modiciue ; 7. experimental science." Spenking of Ivomc, lie says, "Morals there are most per- verted ; pricU' reigns, avarice is rampant, envy corrodes all." LATEi; MEDIAEVAL PERIOD. 385 " A knowledge of reasoning is given to man by nature as the means I'or investigating all other sciences." Writing of alchemy, ho says : — "There is anotlier science which treats of . . . the elements and liquids simple and compound, common stones, gems and marbles, gold and other metals ... of which we find nothing in the books of Aristotle ; nor are . . . any of the Latins acquainted Avith these things. . . . Neither the names nor the significations of medicines can be learned, except from tliis science, that is, from speculative alchemy. . . . There is also a . . . practical alchemy which . . . not only provides money for a state, l)ut teaches the means of prolonging life, so far as nature will allow. . . . But this . . . alclieniy is scarcely imderstood by any ; for although many throughout the world labor to make colors truly and usefully, scarcely any know how to make metals, and still fewer tliose things which avail for the prolonga- tion of life. There are ver^- few who can distil properly." h. From German Minnesingers. " When C'onstantine gave to the Koman chair a lance . . . and crown, the angels wept, and rightly, too, for now we see the pope abuse this power, to ruin tlie emperor and set his princes all against him. . . . How can the pope at Kome look Christ- like when he sees the good-hearted Germans fast ... to fill his coffers with their silver. I fear me, little of it reaches the Holy Land, for the priests are loath to give it up." " I am noble, says many a man in whom we can see neither virtue, nor honor, nor modesty, nor any sort of worth to rever- ence. . . . Nobles are of two kinds : he who is noble by birth, who yet may be a fool ; and he who is noble by virtue, and not by an honored name. c. From Wiclif. In Wiclif 's Apology for the Lollards, he maintains : (1) That the pope is not the vicar of Christ, nor of Peter. (2) That the pope selleth indulgences. ... (G) That every priest is 386 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY, bound to preach. . . . (10) Fastings are not necessary, while a man abstaineth himself from other sin. ... (IG) That there is no pope, nor Christ's vicar, but an holy man. (22) That no man is Christ's disciple unless he keep Christ's word. . . . (24) That images of the saints are not to be worshipped. (25) That the written gospel is not to be worshipped. (2G) That charms are not lawful. These points he maintains by reference to the Canon law, the Scriptures, the Church fathers, and the early Church history. By the first point Wiclif explained that he meant that the pope is no vicar " when he filleth not in deed, nor in word, the office of Peter . . . but doeth coutrarily ; . . . the Apostle Paul saith thus : ' If any man has not the spirit of Christ, he is not of him . . . the name maketh not the bishop, but the life. . . .'" In preaching to the English peasants, Wiclif says, "Good people, affairs can only go well in England when there shall be neither serfs nor nobles, and when all shall be equal." d. From a Song of the Time of Edward I. " . . . It is not sound law which gives my wool to the king. . . . Since the king is determined to take so much, he may find enough among the rich ; and he would get more and do better ... to have taken a part from the great, and to have spared the little ; ... it is no trouble to the great thus to grant to the king a tax ; the simple must pay it all, which is contrary to God's will . . . for those who make the grant give nothing to the king. It is the needy only who give ; . . . with other people's goods they hold great court. . . , To tell unvarnished truth, it is mere robber}'. ... If the king would take my advice, I would praise him then to take the vessels of silver and make money of them." e. From Dante. "To Rome, which taught the ancient world good deeds. Two suns were wont to point the twofold way, That of the world and that to (iod which leads. LATER MEDIEVAL TKUlOl). 387 The one hath quenched tlie other, — and scarce it need l)e told How ill the twain such combination brook. . . . Know then, Rome's church, oppressed by too niudi weight, Confounding the two governments, hath brought Herself into the mire with all her freight." ^ ¥^ ^ ^ ^ ^ " O glorious stars ! () light abounding in exceeding life ! To you whate'er of genius lifteth me Above the common herd, I grateful owe ; . . . . . . To you my soul Devoutly sighs for courage even now To meet the hard em})rize that draws me on." " Ah, slavish Italy ! thou inn of grief ! Vessel without a pilot in loud storm! . . . Thy living ones In thee abide not without war ; and one Malicious gnaws another ; ay, of those Whom the same w^all and the same moat contains. Seek, wretched one ! around thy sea-coasts wide ; Then homeward to thy bosom turn ; and mark. If any part of thee sweet peace enjoy. ****** Oh German Albert ! who abandon'st her [//«///] That is grown savage and unmanageal)le. When thou shouldst clasp her flanks with forked heels. Just judgment from the stars fall on thy l)lood ; ****** For that thy sire and thou have suffer'd thus. Through greediness of yonder realms, detain'd, [Germany'] The garden of the empire to run waste. . . . Come, cruel one ! Come and behold thy Rome, who calls on thee, Desolate widows day and night with moans, 'My Ciesar, why dost thou desert my side?'" 388 STUDIES IX GENERAL HISTORY. Ill the A'isit to Infemo (Hell) , Virgil thus speaks to Daute : — ' ' There above [ou earth] How many now hold themselves mighty kings "Wlio here like swine shall wallow in the mire." And as the}' proceed ou their way from circle to circle of miserv, Dante finds immersed within the " crimson seething flood" '• . . . the souls of tyrants, who were given To blood and rapine. . . . Here Alexander dwells And Dionysius^ fell, who many a year Of woe wrought for fair Sicily. ^ 7^5 ■5^ * ■*" * Christ said not to his first conventicle, ' Go forth and preach impostures to the world.' But gave them truth to build on ; and the sound "Was mighty ou their lips ; nor needed they. Beside the Gospel, other spear or shield To aid them in their warfare for the faith. The preacher now provides himself with store Of jests and gibes ; and, so there be no lack Of laughter, while he vents them, his big cowl Distends, and he has won the meed he sought." f. From Man deville's Travels. (Time of King Edward III.) "In that countree of Libye is the See more higlie than the Land ; and ... in lliat See of I^ibye is no Fissche, for thei mowe [may] not lyve in dare, for the gret liete of the Sonne ; for the watre is evermore l)oyllynge, for the gret hete. ..." " And in that Tie there is a gret marvayle, more to speke of xlian in an}' other partie of the world. For all mannere of Fisches, . . . comeu ones in the Zeer [year] . . . and casten hem self to the seebank of tl):it Yle, so gret plentee and multitude that no man may unnethe [nothing] see but Fissche ; and there 1 Tvriint of Svrjiouso. LATER MEDI-'EVAL I'KWroD. 389 thei ab3'den 3 dayes ; and every man of tliis ooniitree taketh of hem as many as liim lykethe. ..." " And alle the men and women of that Yle [Nacumera] have houndes hedes. ... In that contree . . . there been wylde Gees, that have 2 Iledes." "And in another YU', toward the Sonthe dwellen folk . . . that have no Iledes ; and here Eeyen ben in here schokh-es." " At myn Horn Corny nge I cam to Rome, and schewed . . . to on re holy Fadir the Pope . . . this tretys . . . and besoughte Ills holy Fadirliode, that my Bokc myghteu be examyned and corrected be avys of his wyse and discreet conseille. ... By the whiche, my Boke was prnved for trewe." (J. From the Prologue to Chaucer's Canterbury Tales} " A knight there was, and that a worthy man, That from the tim6 that he first began To ride ont, he lov^d chivalry, Trnth and honor, freedom and courtesy. . . . And though that he was worthy, he was wise And of his port as meek as is a maid. He never yet no mean, rude thing had said In all his life, unto no manner wight. He was a very perfect, gentle knight ^'Witli him there was his son, a young squire, . . . Eml)roidered was he, as it were a mede All full of freshe flowers, white and red. Singing he w^as or fluting all the day . . . Well could he sit on horse, and fairly ride, And songs he could compose, and stories tell, Joust and eek dance, and well portray- and write. . . . Courteous he was, lowly and serviceable, And carved before his father at the table. ^ In the following extracts, all the accented syllables should be pro- nounced. 2 Paint. 390 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. ****** " There was also a mm, a prioress, That of her smiling was full simple and C03' ; Her greatest oath was but by Saint Loy ; And she was clep6d madame Eglantine. Full well she sang the servic^ divine. . . . And French she spoke full fair and cleverly. . At meat well-taught was she withal ; She let no morsel from her lipp6s fall. Nor Avet her fingers in her saucer deep. . . . In courtesy was set full much her heart. ****** '' A monk there was, that lov6d hunting well ; . Full mau}' a dainty horse had he in stable : . . Greyhounds he had as swift as fowl in flight ; Of riding and of hunting for the hare Was all his love, for no cost would he spare. I saw his sleeves adorned at the wrist With costly fur, the finest of the land. And for to fasten his hood under his chin He had a curious pin of well-wrought gold : A love-knot in the greater end there was. . . . He was a lord full fat, and in good point ; . . . A fat swan loved he best of any roast. ****** ^' A friar there was, a wanton and a merry, . . . He was an easy man in giving penance. Where'er he knew he'd get a goodly pittance ; He knew the taverns well in every town, And every worthy host, and hostess too, Better tlian any leprous beggar folk . . . It looks not well, and i)r()fils not To deal at all with folk of that low sort, . . . And over all, wlierever prolit could arise. Courteous he was, and lowly of service. * * * * * * • LATER MEDIAEVAL PERIOD. 391 ' ' A Hatter and a Carpenter, A Weaver, Dyer, and Upholsterer And tliey were clotW'd all in livery Of an important, great fraternity. . . . Their knives were plated not with brass, But all with silver wrought full clean and well. Their girdles and their pouches (juite the same. . . . And each one b}- the wisdom that he had, Was fitted for to be an alderman ; For goods had they enough and rent. ******* " A good man was there of religion, And was a poor parson of a town ; But rich he was in holy thought and work. . . . Wide was his parish, with houses far asunder. But yet he ceased not for rain nor thunder, In sickness and in mischief for to visit. The farthest in his parish, great and small, Upon his feet, and in his hand a staff. This noble ensample to his sheep he gave, That first he wrought, and afterward he taught. . . . And Christ, his lore, and his apostles twelve. He taught, but first he followed it himself." li. From Froissart. (The Prince of Wales entertains his prisoner, the king of France, after the battle of Poitiers in 1356.) "• AVlien evening was come, the Prince of Wales gave a supper in his pavilior to the king of France, and to the greater part of the princes and barons who were prisoners. The prince seated the king of France and his son, the Lord Philip, at an elevated and well-covered U\h\v ; with tliom were Sir .lames de Bourbon, the Lord John d'Artois. the cnrls of Lancarville, of Estampes, etc. The other knights and squires were placed at different tables. The prince himself served the king's table as well as the others, with every mark of humility, and wt)uld not 392 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. sit down Jit it, in spite of all his entreaties for him to do so, saying, that ' he was not worthy of such an honour, nor did it appertain to him to seat himself at the table of so great a king, or of so valiant a man as he had showu himself by his actions that day.' He added also with a noble air, ' Dear sir, do not make a poor meal because the almighty God has not gratified your wishes in the event of this day ; for, be assured that my lord and father will show you every honor and friendship in his power. ... In my opinion, you have cause to be glad that the success of this battle did not turn as you desired ; for j'ou have this day acquired such high renown for prowess, that you have surpassed all the best knights on your side ; I do not, dear sir, say this to flatter you, for all those of our side who have seen and observed the actions of each party have unanimously al- lowed this to be your due, and decree you the prize and garland for it.' At the end of this speech, there were murmurs of praise heard from every one ; and the French said the prince had spoken truly and nobly, and that he would be one of the most gallant princes of Christendom, if God should grant him life to pursue his career of glory. When they had sujjped and sufficiently regaled themselves, each departed to his own lodg- ing with the knights and squires they had captured. Those that had taken them asked Avhat they could pay for their ran- soms, without much hurting their fortunes, and willingly be- lieved whatever they told them ; for they declared publicly that they did not wish to deal harshly with any kniglit or squire, that his ransom should be so burdensome as to prevent his following the profession of arms, or advancing his fortunes." The Common Peoj^le in England. "It is customary in England, as well as in several other countries, for tlie n()l)ility to have great privileges over the commonalty, whom they keep in l)ondage, that is, they are l>ound Ity law and custom to i)lough the lands of gentlemen, to harvest the grain, to carry it home to the ])arn, to thresh and winnow it; they are also ])()und to harvest the hay and carry it LATER jMKDLEN'AL TKIMoD. 393 homo. . . . The evil-disposed . . . begun to rise, saying they were too severely oppressed ; that at the beginning of the world there were no slaves, and that no one ought to be treated as such, unless he had conunittcd treason against his lord, as Lucifer had done against God ; but they had done no such thing, for they were neither angels nor spirits, but men formed after the same likeness with their lords, who treated them as beasts. This the\' would not longer bear, but had determined to be free ; and if they laboured or did any work for their lords, they would be paid for it." i. From Sermon of John Ball. "Good people, . . . things will never be well in Kugland so long as goods be not in common, and so long as there be vil- leins and gentlemen. By what right are they whom we call lords greater folk than we? On what grounds have the}^ de- served it? Why do they hold us in serfage? If we all came of the same father and mother, of Adam and Eve, how can the}' sa}' or prove that they are better than we, if it be not that they make us gain for them by our toil what they spend in their pride ? They are clothed in velvet and warm in their furs and their ermines, while we are covered with rags. They have wine, and spices, and fair bread ; and we oat-cake and straw, and water to drink. The}' have leisure and fine houses ; we have pain and labour, the rain and the wind in the fields. And yet it is of us and of oiu' toil that these men hold their state." j. From the Memoirs of Philip de Comines. "The hearts of kings being in the hands of God Almighty nlone, he disposes them in such important affairs as is most proper for the events which He, in His heavenly wisdom, has determined to bring to pass. For. certainly, had it been His Divine pleasure that our king should have continued in the resolution which he had formed ])efore the Duke of Burgundy's death, the wars which have since occurred, and still continue, would never have hap|)ened. But we were not ready on either hand to receive so lasting a peace." 394 STUDIES IX GENERAL HISTORY. ' ' For if great princes ouce get possession of any towns or castles, though they may belong to their nearest neighbors . . . neither natural reason, nor love of our neighbor, nor anything else . . . will prevail with them to restore them ; and after they have once published some artful reasons or specious pretence for keeping them, every])ody applauds their reasons, especially those that are nearest about them. . . . The brutishness and ignorance of princes are very dangerous and dreadful, because the hai:)piness or misery of their subjects depends wholly upon them. . . . AVho can apply any remedy in this case but God alone." " There is a necessity that every prince or great lord should have an adversary to restrain and keep him in humilit}' and fear, or else there would be no living under them, nor near them." Tc. Astrological Prescription. " Engrave the image of Jupiter, who is a man with a ram's head, upon tin or upon a white stone, at the day and hour of Jupiter, when he is at home, as in Sagittarius, or in the Pisces, or in his exaltation, as in Cancer, and let him be free from all obstruction, particularly from the evil looks of Saturn or of Mars ; let him be rapid, and not burnt by the sun ; in a word, wholly auspicious. Carry this image upon 3'OU, made as above, and according to all the above-mentioned conditions, and you will see things which will surpass your belief." STUDY ON 6. From (I, f, and k, what opinion do you gain of tlie scientific knowl- edge of tlie period ? (Compare laws, p. 383.) For what objects was nuicli of it pursued? To what sciences would alchemy lead ? Astrol- ogy ? What opinion do you gain of the attitude of the people towards the Church? What class of the clergy seems to have excited this attitude? What reason can you give for tliis? In what countri^^s is this feeling expressed most strongly? (Compare lists.) What LATER MEDIEVAL PERIOD. 396 abuses seem to have existed within the Church? What strong senti- ineuts are expressed in regard to human equality? What social oppression is strongly felt? By what class? AVith what other feel- ing does it appear associated ? What excuse for this feeling in the laws and organizations of the period? (See h also.) What class on the whole do you judge were the oppressors of the period? Proofs. Was Dante Guelf or Ghibelin? What fact is illustrated by each quotation from him? Make a list of knightly qualities and accomplisliments. In what extract do we see an illus- tration of the chivalric spirit? In what way was this spirit limited? Wha.t was the great desire of each of the characters described by Chaucer? What characteristics of the period illustrated by each extract? To what class did Froissart belong in his sympathies? WHiat proof do these extracts give of the pope's endeavor to direct the thought and knowledge of his time? What would h, i, j, and k teiu'h you of the history of this period, if you had no other source of information ? In General. — What is your judgment in regard to the jus- tice of applying the term " Dark Ages " to this period ? Why ? What nations lead during this time in politics, in art, in material civiiizatioii t 396 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. D. RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION ERA, 1492-1648 (1049 IN England). Discovery of America to Treaty of Westphalia. " Thundering and bursting, In torrents, in waves ; Carolling and shouting O'er tombs, amid graves ; See on the cumbered plain, Clearing a stage, Scattering the jiast about. Comes a new age ! All things begin again ; Life is their prize ; Earth with their deeds they fill ; Fill with their cries." Emerson. " Up friends, forsake these secondary schools, Which give grains, units, inches for the whole ! The world's the book where the eternal Sense Wrote his own thoughts. ... Turn we to read tlie one original." Campanella. STUDY ON EEFOEMATION AND EENAISSANOE ERA, 1490-1648. Chief contemporary sources of history : State papers of various European courts, consisting of treaties, diplomatic correspondence, official records ; laws ; contemporary liter- ature of France, England, and Germany ; contemporary works of art, consisting chiefly of Italian and German pictures ; formulated creeds and confessions of various sects, such as the Augsburg Confession, Theses of Luther, Scotch Covenant ; Hakluyt's Voyages ; private letters and diaries. Chief modern authorities in English : In general. Dyer's Modern History ; Ileeren's Works upon the period; Von Raumer's History of the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Cen- 398 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. turies; for tlie Reformation, Ranke's Era of the Reforma- tion ; for the Thirty Years' War, Gardiner ; for Spain, Prescott's Ferdinand and Isabella, and Philip II.; for the Netherlands, the works of Motley ; for England, Green's History of the English People, Gardiner's England under the Stuarts, and Civil War, Ranke's Seventeenth Century in England ; for France, Guizot, Crowe ; for Italy, Sj'mond's Italian Renaissance. RENAISSANCE FRIEZE-PATTERN FROM A VENETIAN CHURCH. Questions on Map. — Compare this map "with that of Europe in the twelfth century ; — what great changes have occurred, and in what countries ? "What part of the feudal organization has been strength- ened by these changes? How does the map show this ? What great differences between such states as France, Sj^ain, and England, and such states as you studied in ancient Greece ? What was the centre of political power in the Greek, and later in the Roman state? What fact constitutes the basis of power in these states of the Renaissance ? 1. Events and Movements of Period, a. In ge7ieral. Three great facts characterize this epocli : 1st, a revolt from the ecclesiastical headship of Rome, known as the Prot- estant Reformation; as a consequence of this revolt, Germany and P^ngland are entirely separated from the Latin Church, and form independent churches under the control of their own political rulers ; 2d, a great artistic and literary out- burst, called the Renaissance^\?irgQ\j influenced by the study of ancient art and ]ioetry ; and Bd, the foinirfation of Euro- 1493 ] TO 1519. KEFORMATION AND RENAISSANCE ERA. 399 pean colonies along the American coast and in the newly opened East (India). In the first of these movements Germany leads ; in the second, Italy ; in the third, Sjjain and Portugal, the former opening the Western, the latter opening the Eastern world to Europe. h. Imperial (German). Maximilian, emperor-elect, takes the title of King of Germany. — Luther, an Augustinian monk, attacks the abuses of Church practice and certain points of doctrine by ninety-five theses, which he nails upon the church-door in Wittenberg, and declares himself ready to defend (1517) ; this act is held to date the opening of the Reformation. — Zwingli preaches ref- ormation doctrines in Switzerland. Charles K, Emperor ; — from his grandfather, Ferdinand, he inherits Spain, Sardinia, and the Two Sicilies ; through his grandfather, Maxi- milian, he is archduke of Austria, and is thus naturally elected emperor ; from his grandmother he inherits the Netherlands. — Pope and emperor force the Florentines to receive as rulers the Medici, to whom they give the title of Grand Dukes of Tuscany ; the popes gain new Italian territory, claiming it as overlords of reverting fiefs. — The pope issues a bull against Luther, who burns it (1520). Luther is condemned by a diet of the empire at Worms, but is protected by his own sovereign, the Elector of Saxony, and many princes and cities receive his doctrines; a peasant's war against Church and State breaks out, and proves cruel and difficult to end. — The Diet of Spires (Speyer, 1529) passes a decree against any change in the Church ; against this the Lutherans protest^ and are hence- forth called Protestants. The Turks meanwhile push northward, seize Belgrade, 1519 TO 1556. 400 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. besiege Vienna, and conquer large parts of Hungary. The Hungarian king perishing in battle, his title passes into the hands of the House of Austria, who thus become rulers of Bohemia and Hungary. During this same time the emperor is disputing with the king of France over various Italian territories. Protestants make a formal statement of their faith in the Confessio7i of Augsburg (1530), and the Protestant cities and princes form the League of Smalkald. — Calvin preaches Protestantism in its Presbyterian form in Geneva; his followers spread through France under the name of Huguenots, while Knox preaches his doctrines in Scot- land. — The Council of Trent is called by pope and emperor, in order to reform practical abuses in the Church, and fix its doctrines more definitely (1545). After the death of Luther (1546) war breaks out be- tween the Catholic and Protestant princes of the empire ; war closed by the Peace of Augsburg (1555), which al- lows the prince or ruling power of each state to establish the religion of his own domains at his own will. While war thus goes on within the empire, the king of France and the emperor are fighting over their border territories; in the end, France wins from the empire the bishoprics of Metz, Toul, Verdun. A Protestant union and a Catholic league are formed under leadership of strong princes of the empire. The Thirty Years' War. — The king of Bohemia, who becomes Emperor Ferdinand the Sec- ond, oppresses and persecutes his Protestant sub- jects; Catholic princes join the emperor, Protestant princes, the people ; general war follows between the Catholic and Protestant princes of Germany. The emperor with his generals, Tilly and Wallenstein, is gaining the upper hand; REFORMATION AND RENAISSANCE ERA. 401 tlie Protestant princes, forming a Protestant league, get help from the Protestant king of Denmark; when he is defeated, Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, leads the Protestants, and with him they are for a time successful : but at the battle of Lutzen (1632) he is killed. The French now enter the war, giving very effective aid against the emperor, and in 1648 affairs are settled by the Treaty of Westphalia, whose important conditions are as follows : — A general and complete amnesty to political offenders, and a restoration of their territories, rights, and dignities ; every estate of the empire allowed to vote in the Diet, which is to be summoned regularlj^ ; the vote of the ma- jority to stand as its decision, except in case of questions of religion ; each prince to be sovereign in his own province, under the emperor, — that is, his territorial power is com- plete ; he can levy tolls and taxes, coin money, and make alliances as he himself pleases ; the right of each prince to rule the religious affairs of his own province reestab- lished with modifications; an end put to the ecclesiastical jurisdiction of Catholics over Protestants. The entire independence of the republics of Switzerland and the United Provinces (Holland, Netherlands) is ac- knowledged by the emperor and by Europe ; Sweden re- ceives some territory in the north of Germany; France gains a footing in Elsass (Alsace) ; the lands of Branden- burg are increased. c. Imperial (Italy). Savonarola, leader of the democratic party in Florence, preaches and popularizes asceticism, and violently attaclvs the papacy. Charles VIII. of France invades Ttal}', and conquers the kingdom of Naples. Wars between the empire, France, and Spain over Naples, end in 1504 in the 402 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. Zl = Poitugal , England , Scoiland , Ireland , Norway , Russia , Germany (Tbe Empirel , France , Lands of ChurcK . 3 = Holland .Switzerland (VeneHan Republic , Genoese Republic. F = Franche Comte. M = Milan. T = Tuscany. LL = Lorraine. ■' '-''■^' 1 = Spanish Possessions , Poland . " ^ "I = Mohammedan Lands , Denmark. Illlllllll = Swedish Possessions >•••... =r Jhe Imperial Boundary REFORMATION AND RENAISSANCE ERA. 403 S])anisli possession of the Two Sicilies. Ferdinand, king of Spain, Lewis, king of France, Maximilian, eniperor-elect, and Pope .Inlius the Second, form the League of Cambray (1508) in order to divide the territories of Venice between them. War between Venice and the Leagne ; Venice is weakened, but survives. War between the members of the League, ending in the expulsion of the French from Italy. Francis L of France attempts a new invasion of Italy ; war between him and the pope and emperor ; Francis is forced to renounce his Italian claim to the emperor, Charles v., who is crowned king of Italy. The smaller Italian states are ruled by the dictates of pope and emperor, who support their influence by force of arms. STUDY ON I, a, h, AND c. Wliat tendencies and events of the later mediaeval period culminate in each of the three great facts named in a ? What historic or geo- graphic reason can you give for the special lead taken respectively by Italy, Germany, Spain, and Portugal ? What fact makes Charles V. the strongest monarch of his age? How does America compare in political value with his other possessions? In what does its value consist? What tendencies and facts noticed in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries make Luther's success certain ? Judging from these facts, is the Reformation movement dependent on Luther for its strength? What facts prove that he is a representative man of his own time ? What historical fact or relation tends to ex[)lain the popularity of the Refornuition movement in Germany? What quality of Teu- tonic character? IIow does Charles V. acquire the right to govern the lands of Spain, Austria, Naples, and the Netherlands? This fact plainly shows that land is regarded by the monarchs of Europe in what way? Prove from the facts of the century 1519-1618 that the imperial power in Germany is exceedingly weak. In whose hands is the political power of the empire? What event proves that the Church is in need of reformation ? Why should the religious differ- ences of European states cause war between them? What injustice in the Peace of Augsburg ? AVhat plausible reason could be given to sustain this injustice? Of what tendencies is the Thirty Years' 404 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. War the culmination ? Do you consider this war important or not, and why ? AVhat proofs have we in the Peace of Westphalia that the emperor is weaker than any of his neighbors ? How was it for the interest of France to fight against the emperor? How would you describe the government of Germany at the close of this war? Judging from c, what is the great ambition of the European, powers ? When we say European powers at this period, what have we in mind? d. Spanish. Age of Ferdinand and Isabella. Columbus takes possession of his American discoveries in the name of the sovereigns of Spain and the Holy 1493 TO 1516. Catholic faith. Florida is discovered and claimed for Spain. 3(fVl Ferdinand conquers Granada and that part of Navarre J^ lying south of the Pyrenees; holds Sardinia and Sicily, and conquers Naples from its rival claimants. Age of Charles I. (^Emperor Charles Fi). Con- quest of Mexico for Spain by Cortez ; of Peru by Pizarro; Chili and New Granada are also con- 1516 TO 1556. quered and claimed by Spaniards. — Negro slaves are im- ported from Africa to work the silver mines of the New World, under Spanish direction. Age of Philip II. Persecution of Moors, Jews, and Christian heretics (Protestants) ; Philip de- crees that death shall be the penalty for any one 1556 TO 1648. who sells, buys, or reads a book proscribed by the Church. Tlie Inquisition condennis heretics to the lire by whole- sale (^autos-defe}. — Protestantism spreads through the Northern Netherlands (Holland), where the tyranny and intolerance of Philip rouse all classes to revolt. Thoug-liViuiet is restored, Philip sends the Duke of Alva, with 20,000 Spanish troops, into the Netherlands, and taxes and restricts them more than before. New revolt breaks forth, ending in the practical independence of the BEFORMATION AND RENAISSANCE ERA. 405 seven northern provinces of tlie Netherlands under the rule of William of Orawjc. (1579). The help rendered to the Netherlands by Elizabeth of England, together with her treatment of the Catholic Mary Queen of Scots, induces Philip to fit out against England the Great Armada. This famous fleet is de- stroyed partly by terrible tempests, and partly by English seamanship and valor (1558). — 800,000 peaceful and in- dustrious Moors (Moriscoes) are expelled from Spain. e. Portuguese. Portugal (Vasco da Gama, 1498) discovers the Eastern Ocean route to India round the Cape of Good Hope; colo- nizes all along the coasts of Guinea, Liberia, Mozambique, and the Congo in Africa ; in Asia, places commercial sta- tions (^factories') on the eastern and western coasts of India (Malabar and Golconda), and in Java, Sumatra, and the other East India Islands ; in America, she occupies and settles Brazil. /. Dutch. Holland, having become practically independent, from 1602 onward, begins to send out trading expeditions to America and India. In 1613 the Dutch establish a trading colony (New Amsterdam) on Manhattan Island, thus be- coming the founders of IVew York City. They make vari- ous settlements along the Hudson (notably Albany), and also in Connecticut, whence, however, they are driven by the English. g. French. Age of Francis I. Francis makes a "Con- cordat" with the pope, by which he gains the right to appoint bishops and abbots, on condition 1492 TO 1547. 406 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. of giving the pope the first year's revenue from their lands. Persecutes the Huguenots. Wars with Charles V. (see 5); Continued persecution of the Huguenots ; war of the French king with Charles V., resulting in the French seizure of Metz, Toul, Verdun, three 1547 TO 1563. bishoprics lying toward the Rhine. France is largely ruled by Catherine de Medici, the Italian queen-mother. Age of the Civil Wars and Henry IV. The period is full of the civil wars of Catholics and Protestants, the former under the lead of the 1563 TO 1610. French monarchs, the latter headed by great nobles, the chief among whom is Henry of Navarre. In 1572 the king, urged on by the queen-mother, orders the 3Iassacre of St. Barthohjyieiv, in which more than 30,000 Huguenots are slain. In the course of these wars, the succession falls to Henry of Navarre (Henry IV.), who is not recognized as king until 1593, when he professes himself a Roman Catholic. He finally brings the conflict to a close by the Edict of Nantes, which gives political equality to Catho- lics and Huguenots, and allows the freedom of the new faith to certain nobles and to the citizens of certain towns, l)ut forbids its exercise at the Court or in Paris, or in any cities where bishops and archbishops reside. French colonies settle Quebec and Port Royal (Annap- olis in Nova Scotia). Age of Richelieu and Mary de Medici (Italian queen-mother). States-general called together in 1614 for the last time before the French Revo- 1610 TO 1648. lution (1789). Wars of king with the nobles and with the Huguenots ; wars with Spain over territories in Italy, and on the Spanish-French frontier ; alliance with German princes against the emperor in the Thirty Years' War; at the Peace of Westphalia, new gains of territory Rhine- ward (see p. 402). 1493 TO 1509. REFORMATION AND RKN'AISSANCE ERA. 407 In America, the progressive settlement of St. Lawrence region and of Nova Scotia (Acadia). INIany Ilnguenots emigrate. — Constant (j^iiarrels with English over disputed territories. N. Vi. During all this period, it may be considered that there is a constant struggle between the crown and the powerful nobles. //. English. Contests of king and parliament; the whole North American coast claimed by reason of the vo3'ages of the Cabots, who discovered uncertain portions of it between Newfoundhind and Florida. A~), by compromises, made mostly by the king, (c), by pensions to Charles from Lewis XIV. of France. That is, during this reign the great measures of state are mostly planned and urged by a small group of the king's advisers or friends, who form a sort of min- istry, but whom the king changes when they too greatly displease either himself or parliament ; now, too, the king adopts a regular policy of compromise, thus often obtain- ing his own way while warding off the civil conflict of the preceding reign. When, however, parliament pushes him too hard, Charles has recourse either to some pretext for foreign war, which forces parliament to grant supplies and troops, or else obtains a pension from Lewis, which enables him to live and reign without calling on parlia- ment. Although no serious break occurs between the nation and the king, great discontent is caused by the leaning of the court toward Catholicism, by the shifting policy of Charles, and by his secret and disgraceful de- pendence on the French king. In 1685 James II., his brother, accedes. He allows Ro- man Catholic worship, favors Papists, brings them into ofiice, and forbids Protestant clergymen to preach doctri- nal sermons; he forms a camp of 13,000 men near London, declares liberty of conscience thronghont the realm, and orders this declaration to be read in all the churches; seven prominent bishops petition liim not to insist upon this reading ; the king commits them to the tower, and brings them to judgment; they are, however, acquitted, and on the day of their accpiittal an invitation, signed by 450 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. noble and leading Englishmen, is sent to William of Orange, husband of Mary, daughter of James II., to "save England from a Catholic tyranny." William comes at once to England, James II. flees to France, parliament oifers the crown to William and Mary jointly (1689), on condition of their agreeing that law shall neither be imposed nor suspended, nor moneys levied without the consent of parliament ; that it shall be lawful to petition the sovereign ; that no standing army shall be maintained without the consent of parliament ; that elec- tion for parliament and debates within it shall be free, and that jDarliaments shall be frequently held (^Declara- tion of Rights). William and Mary accept, and the so-called " Revolu- tion of 1688 " is accomplished. The government moves on in accordance with the Declaration of Rights, which becomes a settled part of the constitution; from this time on, moreover, the Commons assume as their right the practices which had grown up under Charles II. of giving the king a fixed income ; of demanding from the king and his ministers estimates and accounts of supplies de- manded, and of voting definite sums for definite purposes. An act of toleration is passed, freeing dissenters from punishment for not attending the services of the Estab-. lished Church, and the censorship of the press is abolished. Lingering dissatisfaction and revolt in Scotland and Ire- land suppressed. During this reign the Ministry^ led by some chief, or Prime Minister^ becomes a recognized and constitutional part of the government, and the ministers are held re- sponsible for the measures of the monarch. Anne, second daughter of James II., queen. Ill 1707 England and Scotland are united by the name of Great Britain, under one monarch and MODERN EUROPE. 451 one parliament. During this reign the custom is estab- lished that the ministry shall belong to the party which has the majority in the House of Commons, Parties (Whig and Tory) become a strongly marked feature of English politics. House of Hanover or Brunsivick ; William and the first three Georges. Chief interests of Great IJritain, forei^'u and colonial. See a. 1714 TO 1789. STUDY ON b. What is the real nature of the government named the Common- wealth? The Protectorate? What resemblance between Crom- well and the kings of the "Old Regime "? What difference ? What two important changes in the relation to the king and the state are made at the time of the Restoration ? What do the acts of the first freely elected parliament of the Restoration indicate in regard to the religious attitude of the majority of English people? How will you describe their nature ? After the Restoration, what or who holds the .strongest political power in England? Prove it. What are the two points, of James' offence against England? In what ways is the acceptance of the " Declaration of Rights " a revolution ? In whose hands does it place the chief political power of England ? What power has the House of Commons to force the government to yield to its wishes? Illustrate. What new organ becomes a part of the British government ? Whom does this organ represent? What new organization among the people is called forth by this organ ? When does the government of F^ngland cease to be properly classed as a feudal government? What remains of its old feudal organization? 2. Famous Works, Foundations, Enterprises, Inven- tions, Investigations, and Discoveries of the Period. a. Publications of the Press. In England, the most important books of the last half of the seventeenth century are Milton's " Paradise Lost," a poem based on the story of the temptation and fall of Adam; Bunyan's '•'Pilgrinrs Progress," an allegory 452 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. describing the progress of the liiiman soul from sin to full salvation and a heavenly home ; Butler's •■' Hudibras," a poem satirizing the English Puritans ; Hobbes' " Levia- than " (see p. 434) ; Newton's " Principia," enunciating the principle of gravitation and the system of the physical universe ; this work is made known to France by Vol- taire ; the poems of Dryden, the most famous of which satirize contemporary events and persons in political life ; Locke's " Essay on the Human Understanding," written to show that human sensation and experience are the only sure bases of human knowledge^ and happiness the final aim of conduct, a work popularized in France by Voltaire; a mass of ephemeral pamphlets, written on the various political and religious questions which are agitating Eng- land. The notable wcft-ks of the eighteenth century are : Adam Smith's " Wealth of Nations," a book setting forth the natural laws of trade, especially that of "Supply and Demand," and considered to have founded the science of " Political Economy " or the study of these laws, at least among English speaking nations ; Gibbon's " Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire," a history of Rome founded on the study of original and contemporary authorities ; Hume's "■ History of England." A mass of controversial books and pamphlets, on the one side attacking, on the other defending, the established dogmas of the Christian church. On both sides the argu- ments are drawn from the observed facts of nature, from history, and from the conclusions of the human reason. Of the opponents of Christianity Hume and Gibbon are the most famous, while Butler's "Analogy" and Bishop Berkeley's writings are perhaps its strongest defences. Pope's "Essay on Man," a didactic poem, dealing with the powers, relations, and aims of human existence ; Swift's MODERN EUKOrE. 453 "■Gulliver's Travels," an imagiiiaiy journey, satirizing exist- ing social and political institutions and customs; Addison's "Spectator," and other periodical papeis designed for popular reading and discussing questions of mental and moral philosophy, of society, and politics; Johnson's " Rasselas " or the " Happy Valley," a romance showing that every condition of life has its miseries, which should be met by a spirit of philosophic or religious content. The novels of Richardson, De Foe, Goldsmith, Smollett, and Fielding, conveying moral teaching through stories whose characters and situations are drawn from the study of contemporary life, often from that of the middle classes. — The parliamentary speeches of the elder and younger Pitt, of Burke and Fox, on the political issues of the day. The philosophic and legal writings of Jeremy Bentham, who maintained that the fundamental aim of society, law, and government should be " the greatest happiness to the greatest number," and that utility should be the prime consideration of all actions and institutions. His writings were very famous on the continent, especially in France. Johnson's Dictionary and Chamber's Cyclopedia, the first important publications of this sort in the English lan- guage ; before the close of the century, the first edition of the Cyclopedia Britannica aj)})eared. In France, from 1G48 to ITOO, the most famous writings are the tragedies of Racine and Corueille, written on clas- sical themes and models, and the comedies of Moliere, satirizing affectation in contemporary literary, social, and religious life ; — the mathematical discoveries and specula- tions of Pascal, who was also noted as a religious writer. The famous French books of the eighteenth century are the "Social Contract" and the "Emile" of Rousseau, the former a powerful, bitter, and popular criticism on existing governments and societies ; the latter a work on 454 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. education, proposing the study of physical nature as the basis of all culture, a theory of education largely borrowed from Locke ; — the essays, letters, and historical works of Voltaire, containing the keenest and most effective satirical attacks upon the contemporary state, church, and society; — Montesquieu's "Spirit of the Laws," a book in which he discussed the philosophy of states, the benefits, the dan- gers, and evils of various forms of government, the relations of liberty and taxation ; througliout this work, the British constitution is regarded as the best existing form ; — the philosophical writings of the sensationalists, who followed Locke's philosophy to the extreme, in maintaining that sensation is the basis of morals as well as of knowledge; — ■ the "Natural History" of Buffon, containing a brilliant and accurate description of a large portion of the animal king- dom, together with pliilosophical theories of their relations to each other and their environment ; — the "Cyclopedia," a work perhaps suggested b}^ that of Chambers, edited and written by tlie best contemporary authors ; it paid especial attention to all subjects connected with natural science; — the first standard Frencli dictionary also ap- peared in this century. In Germany, the most famous publications of the seven- teenth century were the philosophic works of the Dutch- man, Spinoza, who sought to discover by reason the nature of God and the universe, and their rehitions to the human mind, and who claimed that his conclusions were in accord- ance with the teachings of Christianity. Li tlie eighteenth century appeared the works of Leib- nitz, dealing with problems of mental philosophy, matlic- matics, and optics ; in phih)S0phy, he contested the conclusions of the Frencli sensationalists; — the most fa- mous philosophic work of the age, Kant's "Critique of Pure Reason," in which he examined the origin, extent, MODERN EUROPE. 455 and limits of human reason, and argued for the existence of God and the absolute obligations of morality ; — Goethe's "Faust," a drama embodying the temptations, fall, and restoration of a human soul ; the dramas of Goethe and Schiller, dealing largely with historical epochs and charac- ters, studied from historical sources, and from observation of actual life ; — a mass of lyric poetry ; — Lessing's " Nathan the Wise," a dramatic poem in which a Jew, a Christian, and a Mohammedan discuss religious tolerance and uni- versal morality, reaching conclusions favorable to both. The famous publications of other countries during this period were, in Italy, the writings of Vico, who was the first to found any philosophy of history, and who main- tained the existence of Providence in the greater affairs of men ; the dramas of Alfieri, who founded Italian tragedy, using classical materials, but pure and noble Italian forms. — In America, the political speeches, pamphlets, and essays of Franklin, Washington, Jeiferson, Adams ; -the Declara- tion of Independence. — In Sweden, the botanical work of Linnaeus, who was the first systematically and thoroughly to classify the various genera of plants. h. Important Investigations, Studies, and Researches of the Period. Many experiments to separate matter into its original elements, resulting in Priestley's famous discovery of oxy- gen in the seventeenth century in England, followed by the discovery of many new elements, and the clear defini- tion of chemistry. — The observations and experiments of Huygens in Holland and of Newton in England on the nature of light aiid its action on various sorts of lenses ; the telescope is consequently greatly improved, and new laws of optics are discovered. — During the whole period liieu are engaged in observing and experimenting and 456 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. theorizing on the nature of light, heat, and electricity. (See also Newton, Linnaeus, Buffon.) c. Material Improvements of Period. Lewis XIV. began to improve French roads during his reign, an improvement slowly extended to other European countries. — During his reign also (1067), Paris was wel) and thoroughly lighted, and before the close of the period Vienna and London had followed this example. — The building of canals, especially in England. — The invention of the " sj)inning-jenny," by which the work of many hand- laborers could be done by one machine (developed by Har- greaves, Arkwright, Crompton, weavers) ; the invention of the Steam-Engine, by the Scotch working-engineer James Watt, and its application to manufactures and to mining ; — the discovery of how to smelt iron with coal instead of with wood, — Many small and progressive improvements in microscopes, telescopes, clocks, pumps, electrical conductors, and all sorts of scientific apparatus. d. Artistic Productions. The most famous are the musical compositions of Bach, Beethoven, and Mozart (German) ; — the landscape-paint- ings of Claude Lorraine (French) ; — the portrait-paintings of Gainsborough and Reynolds (English) ; — the carica tures of Hogarth (English), satirizing contemporary life. e. Famous Foundations, Institutions, and Movements. The, foundation of European colonies in North America ; the English and Dutcli (in New York) established the thirteen colonies which became the United States; — the French settled more thoroughly ('anada and Nova Scotia and established scattered forts along the Great Lakes, the St. Lawrence, the Mississippi, and their tributaries. In MODERN EUROPE. 457 India, English and French established trading-posts, and the English established a system of govennnent by which India was more or less ruled by English merchants in the interests of English enterprise. — The establishment of great business or trading corporations^ such as the Bank of England and East India Company of London. — The establishment of societies or academies of wealthy and learned men, for the advancement of science and learning. BIRDS-EYE VIEW OP THE PALACE OF VERSAILLES. Of these the most famous was " The Royal Society " in England, whose " business was," says one of its early mem- bers, " to discourse and consider of philosophical enquiries and such as related thereunto, as Physick, Anatomy, Geometry, Astronomy, Navigation . . . Chymicks, iMechan- icks, and Natural Experiments"; such academies were founded also in Germany, Russia, and France during the period under royal patronage. — The observatory id Green- 458 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. wich was established under Charles IL, and that at Paria under Lewis XIV. — In the middle of the eighteenth century, the British Museum was founded to serve as a depository for collections to illustrate art, history, and science. — Under Charles II. the Chelsea hospital for dis- abled soldiers, and under William and Mary that at Green- wich for disabled sailors were established ; in Paris, Lewis XIV. built the "Hotel des Invalides" for old and sick soldiers. — This age saw the erection of many royal j^cilaces and fine town and country houses for the nobility ; of the palaces, Versailles, built by Lewis XIV., has become the most famous. The latter part of the eighteenth century was marked, especially in England, by much agitation for the improve- ment of human conditions, especially among the silent and neglected classes. This agitation was cari'ied on in behalf of the poor and sick, in behalf of the imprisoned and the enslaved, in behalf of the savages of America and the Hindoos of Asia; it resulted in the establishment of various hospitals and charities, in prison reform (John Howard), in the condemnation of British cruelty and oppression in India, and, under the lead of Wilberforce, in the abolition of negro slavery in the British colonies (early in following period). These movements were accompanied by a great religious revival among the lower classes (Wesleys), and by a reform within the English Church. STUDY ON 2. What relation between the literature and the events of the last half of the seventeenth century in J^ngland? Give five illustrations. What do you find common to the literature of France and England? What subjects are of general interest throughout Europe? Wliat three subjects new to European thought appear during this time ? What bases of truth are men seeking for? Ilhistrate. What rela- tion between the literature and the life of this period, religious, sociaf. MODERN EUllOPE. 459 moral ? "What new classes of lileralure appear ? What does each of these classes tell us of the taste, intelligence, or interest of the time? Of these classes, which has developed greatly in our own day? In which country is the literature most revolutionary ? What relation between English and French thought? What is the general attitude of the publications of the period toward toleration? Freedom? IMoraiity ? Make a list of the new arts, sciences, industries, or activities shown by h, c, d, and e. Which of these has further developed in our own century? What relation between the material and intellectual prog- ress of the period and the kings ? I. A6. Special Study of the "Old Itefjime^^ in France, Age of Lewis XIV., Lewis XV,, and Lewis XVI, (EigJiteenth Century ). Chief contemporary sources of its history : The '• Ca- Jiiers " of the departments of France, called in by the States-General of 1789, and containing memoranda of griev- ances, and official statements of conditions; private letters and diaries ; the travels of Arthur Young, an Englishman who made careful observations in France on the eve of the Revolution ; the works of Voltaire, Rousseau, and other writers of the time. Chief historians of period : De Tocqueville, 1'aine, Stephens. 460 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. p- 73 - 13 fl ■*-* ■— 1 (h c C! si . s s g .0 = 5 J3 S rt C 'S OS 3 ^^ t" «i bX) ^ cS <" t- ci 0; bb 0^ .tn •S C3 cS "o "3 Ph Ph 1 0) be K a be ft ft C S c .2 S i 2 rt C 0) ^ r* M E 0) '3 CI OJ 2; J, »i "ZT" QJ « Itj ,i !-■ ff ^ ^ to ■«' 'rS CJ a; u '0 ft '0 c ,^ 1 2 cS CO m 0) 't^ =* "ft c e w 3 B tn "be C )3 -a 6 .^8 s Hj X en -d s: 0) B c« H 2 1 _bc ,C t« 1 5 f ft "ft C 0; " :: s A bX) Ol >^ Oi to P5 .s m .2 C' 1^ bfj 1 "S -Sis 2 MODERN EUROPE. 461 a -o aj a; «M r^ ■5 ° c S ~ 5j -s c s i - ? ji S ^ <« == 2 ^ s '3 bJO 01 ^ .„ *. <1 'Ci 9i ■g -3 C "i a ^ m ~ ^ _> rt b * * |.s,e s 0) i3 W5 i J -1 ;- c "blj P C p to * * si .o » • a jk CO • 40 s s « » e 2 2 1 c c3 C « * ^ £» >» r^ .« )K " M "S 5 fe £ 3 C3 S S <- m eS 0) B a " — ' >^ * •~J S 1 2 ^ ^ * CC c '6 !<1 TJ c rt a> II c: c S p Eh w g 3 -2 >> < cs ; c; to ■*-■ rr 5 PQ Pi 462 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 2. Extracts and Facts Illustrative of Organization, Six nunisters divide the kingdom geographically be- tween them ; thus the minister of war has charge of all the affairs of Dauj)hiny and some other territory ; the minister of foreign affairs regulates pensions and all the affairs of Normandy and a few other provinces. Some of these provinces largely manage their own affairs ; others, the king rules absolutely ; in some, one per cent of taxes is assessed, in others, a large per cent; in taking goods from one province to another, duties are always exacted at the frontier, but the amount levied varies with every boun- dary. If a village church needs repairing, if the road is bad, if a parish-meeting is to be called, if the "falling gables of the parsonage even of a village most remote from Paris" are to be rebuilt, the king's officer attends to it. If the king wants to make a new road or a new palace, he seizes the land and tears down the houses of those who live on the spot. Perhaps he pays them, perhaps not. Punishments are left to the discretion of the judges ; but in general, when death is the penalty, nobles are be- headed, others burnt, broken at the wheel, torn in pieces, or hung. Says one writer, " A poor wretch, whose chil- dren have nothing to eat, engages in some contraband trade ; is found out and punished. A gentleman, riding in his post-chaise, is caught doing the same thing ; he kills the custom-house officer and gets off free." Sometimes men are judged by the king's law, sometimes by the law of the Church, sometimes by tlie law of the province or the town ; in one part of Auvergne, the people obey the written Roman law, in another the customary law. In one part of France, a brigand with a band of two hundred men is able to desolate the country for ten years without being brouglit to judgment. Not only do the judges buy their places, but sometimes MODERN EUROPE. 463 t-rro or three men hold the same office at the same time. " An officer, instead of raging and storming over the year- book, busies himself in inventing some new disguise for a masked-ball; a magistrate, instead of counting the con- victions he has secured, provides a magnificent supper." In 1G92, Lewis XIV. displaces in favor of his own nomi- nees the elected mayors and judicial assessors of every city except Lyons ; in one city alone he creates and sells nineteen royal offices. The sixty royal tax-collectors sometimes levy twice as much as they give to the treasury. From the close of the sixteenth to the end of the eigh- teenth century, the royal government breaks its word fifty-six times. — For the war of 1688, the French people pay about |!200,000,000, for that of 1701, twice that amount ; not to mention a heavy pension paid to the king of England during several years to keep him quiet and to help him in his despotic designs at home. In the army there are more than one thousand generals; in one single regiment of four hundred eighty-two men, there are one hundred and forty-two officers. One duke be- comes a colonel at eleven, another at seven, another a major at twelve. These boys are relations or favorites of people at court, who buy or beg the offices for them from the king. The common soldiers are chosen by lot from the lowest class. Those chosen "conceal themselves in the forest, where they must be pursued with arms in the hand. In one canton . . . the young men cut off their thumbs to escape the draft." The officers have plenty of money, good living, leisure, pleasure; the soldier "has six sous a day, bread fit for dogs, and . . . kicks like those given to a dog"; add to this, no chance of promotion. Catholicism is the religion of the State ; in 1685, by the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, Protestants are forbidden to worship in public ; all pastors must leave the 464 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORYo realm in fifteen days ; the galleys for life ... if they dare to officiate again ; all children must be educated as Catholics. The " bank of conversions " is an institution peculiar to the " Old Regime." It is a fund out of which people are hired to be converted; some need conversion several times ; others have troops billeted on them until they subscribe to the religion of the State, when they are to be free for two years. This last arrangement is known by the name of the " Dragonnades." The income of the Church may be reckoned at f 26,000,- 000 ; in some parts of France, the clergy own more than one-half the territ' jy. Over these domains they have the same feudal rights as the nobles. On the other hand, the parish priest gets about $100 a year ; he may have several parishes to look after and visit, perhaps on foot; he must teach the village school ; advise and comfort the peasants. In trade, if a man wants to sell hats, he must belong to the hatter's guild ; this may be entered by being the son of a guildman, by paying a large sum of money, by passing a severe examination set by the guild ; once in, he can neither sell caps nor gloves, but only hats, for other guilds have the exclusive right to sell caps, others to sell gloves. So with other trades; at Rouen, one company buys grain for the city, another delivers it, another grinds it; not only must each company do its own particular work and no other, but the people must deal with it and with no one else. The guilds })ay the king large sums of money for tliese exclusive privileges. The king's government, we are told by De Tocqueville, constantly dictates how long pieces of cloth shall be woven, and what pattern is to be chosen. Voltaire, wishing to ])ublish in France the wonderful discoveries of Newton, is forbidden, by the autliorities to MODERN EUROPE. 466 print his work. — In 1770, Imbert translates Clarke's letters on Spain, one of the best works then existing on that country, but it is suppressed as soon as it appears ; the reason given is that it contains some remarks on the pas- sion of Charles III. for hunting, which are considered disrespectful to Lewis XV., himself very fond of the chase. These instances are typical out of a large number. 3. Atteinpted Reforms in 1. Turgot, the first minister of Lewis XVI., 1774, proposes to do away with the forced and unpaid labor of the peas- ants ; to tax the lands of the nobles and clergy ; to give a larger part of the revenues of the clergy to the parish priests ; to allow men to worship according to their con- sciences ; to fix one code of law for the whole kingdom ; to abolish the guilds and the fees for engaging in trade, and to make the trade in grain entirely free ; to make thought free, and to establish a great system of public schools ; but in 1776 the king dismisses him, because the queen, the nobles, and the clergy oppose him. Necker, liis next minister, suppresses many of the offices about the king's household ; he frees the serfs on the king's domain, is the first to publish to the French people any account of the income and outlay of the government ; but courtiers and officials alike demand his dismissal. Necker's successor, Calonne, is obliged to own an annual deficit of 120,000,000 ; calls for a land tax on all classes, for economy in the administration and in the king's house- hold, and at last threatens to ap})eal to the people. His dis- missal is demanded from the king, and he is sent into exile. Brienne, the next royal minister, can find no way t)t raising money, and resigns after having proposed to reform the administration of justice, the system of education, and abolish Protestant disabilities. 466 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. Necker is now recalled, and advises that all citizens be admitted to public employments, that the press shall be free ; but the opposition is such as to force the calling of the States-General (see p. 336) in order to raise money for the king, and to deliberate on the unfortunate affairs of the realm. STUDY ON I, 2, 3. What name do you give to such a government as that of France under the " Old Regime " ? Make a list of the ways iir which it is an unjust government. An oppressive one. A weak one. What is its support ? What great difficulty evidently hampers it ? What grave evils follow from this difficulty ? What governments does it in any way resemble ? What do you think about the changes proposed by the king's ministers ? What interests evidently stand in the way of reform ? 4. Extracts, Stories, Facts, and Statistics Illustrative of Life of tJie Time, The king lives mostly in his palace at Versailles. He has some ninety gentlemen to take care of his bed-chamber, nearly five hundred for his table, and more than fifteen hundred to attend to his horses. These offices about the royal person and household are considered the most honorable in the kingdom, since they are all filled by nobles whose pay is high, while their duties are very light or even nominal. Besides the household officers, the king has his guards, French and Swiss, cavalry and infantry, more than nine thousand men, costing the people annually more than $1,500,000. When the king makes a jour- ney, all these people must accompany him, at the expense of tlie State. In 17.S3, no less than $83,800 is paid for feeding the king's horses, and more than $10,000 for feeding liis Inmting-dogs. The coffee and bread for each of the ladies of tlie bed-chamber costs $400 a year. Tiu; court-kitchen, according to the printed register, employs two huiulred and ninety-five cooks, and the MODERN EUROPE. 467 total number of persons to be supported b}' the king amounts to more than lifteen thousand. The king also gives many presents ; this is especially true of Lewis XV. ; but we find that Lewis XVI., in 1785, gives away more than S'27,000,000, and Von S^'bel reckons that the annual average given in this way should be reckoned at $20,000,000. As for Lewis XV., it is known that in one year he spends about $36,000,000 on his own pleasures. As for the palace of Versailles itself, it costs more than S")0,00(),000, while "on the bridges, roads, public and scientific institutions" not more than $7,000,000 are expended. Around the king are the dukes, counts, and marquises, who care for his household ; among them are a few men, mostl}' of the middle class, whom tlie king has asked to take charge of public business. These are the ministers ; as for the nobles, they spend their time with the king, gaming, hunting, making a fine appearance, amusing themselves. All these nobles have great estates in the country, which they rareh' visit. Arthur Young, an English traveller of the time, tells us that the nobilitj' neither practise nor talk of "agriculture" ; and as for their own lands, two of the greatest properties of the time are described as being " wastes, deserts, bracken," while the residence is "probably found in the midst of a forest, very well peopled with deer, wild boars, and wolves" ; the owners are so lightly taxed that it is generally said that they pay no taxes. Yet one fails on a debt of $7,000,000, and another dies owing $15,000,000, and a third when charged by the king with being largely in debt, replies, "I will ask my agent and inform your majesty." Another owes more than $10,000 to her shoemaker, another more than $30,000 to a tailor. "Waljiole writes, " It is no dishonor (in Paris) to keej) public gaming-houses ; there are one hundred and fifty of the first quality in Paris who live l)v it. . . . Even tlic princesses of the blood have their share in it." St. Simon tells us that a baron, finding that the hut of a 468 STUDIES. LNT GENERAL HISTORY. peasant destroyed the symmetry of his park, brought the man to his own house, and kept him there while they removed the poor man's cottage elsewhere ; a joke at which the king and his court laughed heartil}'. St. Simon also tells us of a duke who "was better liked by the king and had more influence in society than anybody,", but was a cheat and a gambler, while there were young men in " this singular society " who admitted to their tables notorious crimi- nals, who had "animating stories to tell" of their own deeds " as forgers or highway-men." The daughter of the king's nephew and many of her compan- ions are carried home drunk to Versailles, one night, while on another occasion the king finds the ladies of his household engaged in smoking, with pipes which they have borrowed from the Swiss guards; during the reign of Lewis XIV., many of the nobility are detected in secretly poisoning people. The great middle class {bourgeoisie) compose the guilds, and are the artisans and merchants, manufacturers and traders of France. If a man pays his debts or has none, he is called " bourgeois" ; if he marries the woman he loves, " verj- much of a bourgeois," the term being used as one of ridicule. Among the bourgeois, says an observer, " every one speaks according to his views, inclinations, and genius ; the women look after the house, the men after the day's business, coming home to some quiet game." " While the great neglect to learn anything ... of the interest of princes and public affairs, and even of their own, . . . citizens instruct themselves in the . . . interests of the kingdom, study the government, . . . know what are the strong and weak points of a whole State." The peasants live in houses of stone or earth, without windows and with earth chlmnej's. They are dressed in rags, and never taste meat ; there are whole districts where they eat grass, and thousands who live on the bark of trees ; they can neither take game from the forest, nor fish from tlie stream, for these belong to the lord of the estate. They have old and MODERN EUROPE. 469 awkward tools, and can got no liottor ; whon the crops are up, the pigeons and the rabhits and the ileei' destroy much that the peasant can raise ; but he cannot protect himself under pain of lieavy punishment, since the lord nnist have the pleasure of the hunt, and when the hunt comes, horse and hound may trample down his only wheat-lield. The tax-gatherer never fails to come to get monc}' for the king or money for the Church. Land worth S800 ma}- pay SOOO for taxes ; it will surely pay 8400 ; can the peasant not pay, his furniture must be sold to meet the tax. If he want salt, he must buy it of the king ; should he not need it, still he must buy or go to prison or the galleys ; this is the hated ^^Gabelle." As for his lord, to him be must pay for feudal dues, a part of all his fields, his orchards or his vine- yard yield. For a certain number of days each 3'ear he must give his own labor and that of his oxen and his horses, even though the lord should choose to take him from the very harvest- field (^coiT^es) . If he is bound to give five days of such labor, and has a bad lord, he ma}- be forced to give one hundred. He must bake in the lord's oven and grind at the lord's mill, though the miller and baker would do it cheaper and better. He can sell no wine after vintage, until the lord has had a chance to sell for thirt}- or fort}- days in the first market ; he must pay a toll on the road, a toll at the feriy, a tax on all he takes to the fair. If he wish to cure the sick or discover a thief, he will "go to a sorcerer, who divines this by means of a sieve." In 1789, it is told and l)elieved among the soldiers, that the princes and counts of Paris are throwing flour into the Seine so as to starve the people. " In Auvergne ... a conta- gious fever making its appearance, two hundred men assemble to destroy the house of a man whom they believe has caused it by sorcery." There are very few schools ; in one part of France but ten in fifty parishes. For two centuries, at least, before the devolution, the favorite •resoi't of the Parisian populace is the place of execution, where they see the law carrying out its horrible punishments with all sorts of tortures, such as tearing by red-hot pincers. 470 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. STUDY ON LIFE OF THE "OLD REGIME." Make a list of all the ways in which the king injures France by his style of life. To what class is he evidently in debt? In what way will they regard his style of life? What other classes injure France ? What part of France or of her people is injured ? How injured? What part of the French people is sound? Name the ways in which it is sound. Name all the ways in which the French peasant, or man of the fourth estate, is an undesirable citizen. What part of the French people will try to destroy this "Old Regime"? What part will try to reform it? Give reasons for each of these two answers. How far do you attribute the character of French life under the " Old Regime " to the organization of the State ? Illustrate from each class of people. What were the ideals of this period? How were these ideals injurioiis? 6. Extracts and Sayings Illustrative of TJionght and Feeling under '* Old Regime.^' a. From Bossuet. '* The royal authority and person are sacred." " Kings are gods, and share in a manner the divine independence." " As all perfection and every virtue is united in God, so all the power of private individuals is united in the person of the king." b. From the Kings. " I myself am the State." " The worst calamity which can befall a king is ... to be obliged to receive the law from his people." " All property of whatever sort within our realm belongs to us in virtue of the title of king." " It is the will of God, who has given kings to man, that they should be served as his vicegerents." "It is the will of God that every subject should implicitly obey his king." " In dispensing with the exact observance of treaties, we do not violate them ; for the language of such instruments is never to be understood literally." "We ought to consider the good of our subjects more than our own, . . . and it is a fine thing to deserve from them the name of father as well as master." (Lewis XIV.) MODERN EUROPE. 471 " I know what are the rights of the authority I have received from God. It is not for any of ni}- subjects to decide what are Iheir extent or to endeavor to Umit them." (Lewis XV.) "It is legal," said Lewis X\'I., in speaking of a very illegal act, " it is legal because I will it." c. From Voltaire. " It may be a question which is the most' useful member of llie State, the well-powdered nobleman who knows the precise hour at which the king rises and retires for the night, ... or a merchant who enriches his country, issues orders from his counting-house to JSurat and Cairo, and contributes to the world at large." ******** "How I love the boldness of the English! how I love men who say what they think ! " " I wish to write a history, not of wars, but of society ; and to ascertain how men lived in the interior of their families, and what were the arts which they commonly cultivated." ^ d. From Rousseau. "Your very governments are the cause of the evils which they pretend to remedy. Ye scepters of iron ! ye absurd laws, ye we reproach for our inability to fulfil our duties on earth ! " "I am ... an active and intelligent being, and ... I dare claim the honor of thinking." " O conscience, divine instinct, immortal and celestial voice, the unfailing guide of an ignorant and fuiite but free and intel- ligent being." " There is no sacred and inviolable charter bintUng a people to the forms of an established constitution. The rii>ht to chan<;e these is the first guarantee of all rights." 1 In an iini)ortant liit^tory of France i)Ut forth in 1770, the authors regret that historians had always given the history of a single man rather than that of a people. " In the work of MtJiitesijuieii, on the ' Spirit of the Laws,' he studies the way in whieh . . . the legislation of a people is connected with their climate, soil, and food." 472 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. " All being equal through the law, they must be brought up together and in the same manner. The law must regenerate . . . their studies. They must, at the very least, take part in public exercises, in horse-races, in games of strength and of agility." " He who first enclosed a plot of ground, and took it into his head to say,' This belongs to me,' and found people simple enough to believe him, was the true founder of civil society. AVhat crimes, what wars, what murders, what misery, and what horrors would have been spared the human race if some one, pulling up the landmark and filling up the ditch, had cried out to his fellows : Be wary of that impostor, you are lost if you forget that no one has the right to the ground, and that its fruits are the property of all ! " "The deputies of the people are not, nor can the}' be, its representatives ; they are simply its commissioners, and can establish no final compact. Every law not ratified by the people themselves is null and is no law." The new "Heloise" of Rousseau was onl}- let out of the public libraries for an hour at a time, and in 17'^^. ) I \ M.nJZ ..- '•■ -^••.BOSNIW ■■•••■..;■ RODMAN lA ify^^ ^-r-/' ,,, ;.v=^'- BULGARIA J/ ■•■""■■■-- "e TURKISH DOMINION in EUROPE before and afterTREATY of BERLIN* M^aMM = Turkish dominion. pose the existing difficulties. The Porte being unwilling to submit to their dictation, they leave Constantinople, and Russia makes war on Turkey (^Turco-Iiusalan war, 1877-78). The war ends in the Peace of San Stefano, which makes Servia and jNIontenegro independent, and enlarges their boundaries at Turkey's expense : Roumania becomes independent, while liulgaria remains tiibulary to the Porte, but with a Christian prince and independent administration and troops ; the Porte promises reform 506 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. within his European lancis, and agrees to give Russia large parts of Armenia and some new European territory. England and Austria, being dissatisfied with this treaty, threaten to make war on Russia ; Germany mediates for peace, and the Congress of Berlin is called, under the presidency of Prince Bismarck, prime minister of Prussia ; the Peace of San Stefano is somewhat modified in favor of Turkey ; Southern Bulgaria is restored to the immediate rule of the sultan, under the name of East-Roumelia ; Russian troops are to leave the Christian provinces within a year ; Turkey is advised to cede a part of Epirus and Thessaly to Greece ; in all the states of the Turkish penin- sula political equality is to exist for men of all creeds ; Austria is allowed military occupation and administra- tion of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Porte delays to deliver over the promised territories, and is threatened into obedience by the presence of a squadron sent bj all the Great Powers. A conference of their ambassadors, mean- while, meeting at Constantinople, persuades the sultan to yield to Greece territories on her northern frontier. Russia threatening Germany by an alliance with France, Bismarck negotiates a defensive alliance of Prussia and Austria. STUDY ON 2, a. What check is placed upon the aggressive tendencies of any great power of Europe ? Wliat protection have the smaller states of Europe against such a fate as Poland suffered? What are the political units of Europe? What bonds of unity exist within these units? What natural reasons for war between the two parts of the kingdom of the Netherlands ? What new states have been formed within our cen- tury? At whose expense? How far are these true political units of the kind nain(>d above? What true political units exist still unre- cognized? What tendency is shown in the political congresses, con- ferences, and treaties of this time ? What do the wars of our century show to be the leading desires of the European peoples and govern- ments? What great good has been accomplished by these wars? 1815 TO 1848. MODERN EUROPE. 507 What injustice appears in some of them? What state is Europe especially watchful of V Which of the wars of this century do you regard as notably important? Why? Why should Turkey be called the " sick man " ? b. France. Lewis XVIII. proclaims a liberal constitution, but presently hiAvs are i)assed that restrict the freedom of the press and of elections. Parties arise, in favor of the '' Old K6gime," in favor of consti- tutional monarchy, in favor of the J3onapartes, in favor of a repul)lic. Under his successor, Charles X., the na- tional guard is disbanded. — Algeria is conquered and occupied by the French (1830). — New elections take place, wliich return a liberal majority to the parliamentary chambers ; the government declares the elections illegal, restricts the right of suffrage to rich land-owners, pro- hibits the publication of newspapers and pamphlets %vith- out the permission of the king. The Parisians revolt, and Thiers protests; a national guard is again formed, luider Lafayette. Charles X. abdicates and Louis Philippe, of the younger line of the House of Bourbon (Orleans), comes to the throne ; he proclaims liberal measures and better constitutional government. His life is attempted by means of an "infernal machine," and laws are once snore passed restricting the liberty of the press. Louis Napoleon, the nephew of Bonaparte, tries to get iimself proclaimed as emperor; still further development )f parties ; demands for reforms in elections and in the iivil service rejected by the government (1848). Revolu- tion, largely conducted by members of secret socialistic ^ societies. Louis Philippe abdicates, and a republic is. ^ In general, the aims of socialism are to organize society in tlie inter- ests of labor rather than capital ; and to substitute for tlu- ])rincijde of competition in industry sonif form of social and cooperative labor. 508 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. proclaimed. Louis Blanc, a leading socialist, agitates for the organization of labor, and public Avorkshops are estab- lished at tlie expense of the State, although not in accord- ance with the designs of Blanc ; they are closed, and an insurrection of laborers ensues, which is suppressed by the government troops and the national guard. Louis Napoleon is elected president of the republic. Louis Napoleon, by a " stroke of state " (^coup tVetat of Dec. 2, 1851), causes the leaders of the Republican and Orleanist parties to be arrested 1848 TO 1870. and imprisoned, dissolves the national assembly, annuls the constitution, crushes the rising revolt of Paris, and summons the whole people to an election. They elect Louis Napoleon president of the republic for ten years. He banishes his most important political enemies, establishes a constitution like that of the First Empire, and restricts the liberty of the press ; in the following year he is made Napoleon III., Emperor of the Freiich, by decree of the senate, confirmed by vote of the whole people (plebiscite'). During the siege of Paris the socialistic party in Paris gain the upper hand, and hold rule for a short time under the title of the Paris Commune. 1870 TO 1871. They are aided by socialists from all nations. The na- tional troops attack and conquer them ; 40,000 or 50,000 socialists are arrested, and their leaders are sliot or trans- ported. Meanwhile, after the defeats of Sedan and the fall of Paris into the hands of the Prussians, France is proclaimed for the third time a republic, with Thiers for its first president. Owing to a hostile combination of the various monarchical parties, Thiers is forced to resign, and MacMahon is chosen president by the National 1871 Assembly. The long discussions over the constitution end hi 1875, with the form given on p. 405. The president, MODERN EUROPE. 609 MacMahon, unable to work effectively and harmoniously with the legislative chambers, resigns, and Grdvy takes his place. Education is taken entirely out of the hands of the priests. c. Great Britain. During the period of the French Revolution England had granted representative institutions to Canada ; an agitation had arisen in Ireland for entire separation from England, and a national government. This agitation was put down by force of arms and by " cruel severities," and the act of union was passed, by which the government of Ireland and England was combined under a single imperial parliament, while the Irish and English Churches were united into one " Protestant Episcopal Church." In 1807 the slave-trade had been abolished in the British domin- ions. The sudden and extensive introduction of machinery into many important manufactures had thrown many hand- workers out of employment, and produced great misery in the manufacturing districts. This misery led to riot, ma- chine-breaking (^Ltiddites^, and demands for legal protec- tion for the rights of laborers ; the newspaper called the "Weekly Political Register" did much to foment discon- tent, and from every side came demands for social and political reforms. Holland having joined France in war against England (1795), England seized the colonial possessions of the latter, notably the Cape of Good Hope and Ceylon, which, from this time forward, British colonists began to settle and rule. Australia was also taken possession of, the fu-st colonists being British convicts. The British compel the dey of Algiers to abol- ish Christian slavery. — The sufferings of the la- boi'ing classes cause violent agitations, culminating 1815 TO 1848. 510 STUDIES IN GENERAX, HISTORY. in giant meetings at Manchester, demanding parliamentarji reform. These meetings are broken up by government troops ; the " habeas corpus " is temporarily suspended, and acts are 'passed in parliament, designed for the suppression of publications and assemblies calculated to disturb the peace. From this time dates the rapid development of Conservative and Liberal parties in English politics. Lord John Russell moves the repeal of the corporation and test acts, thus admitting Protestant dissenters to pub- lic ofl&ce. This is soon followed by the Catholic relief act, which opens government positions to Catholics also. Un- der William IV. (1830-1837), Lord John Russell brings forward a reform bill, by which the right of suffrage is much more widely and more justly given ; rejected by parliament, parliament is dissolved ; brought forward in the next parliament, it is passed by the Commons, rejected by the Lords ; riots ensue throughout England. In 1832 it is finally passed, and thus the large manufacturing towns more nearly receive a due share of political power. In the same year a bill passes parliament abolishing slavery throughout the British dominion, and giving a recompense of 1100,000,000 to the slave-owners. Acquisition of new territory and new dominion in India; in some cases the English become, by request, the guar- dians or protectors of Hindoo chiefs or monarchs. Widow- burning is abolished, and the order of Thugs^ or hereditary assassins, suppressed. Accessioti of Victoria. — The working people of Birmingham and vicinity (^Chartists') meet and 18.37. draw up a people's charter, which asks for annual parlia- ments, universal manhood suffrage, vote by ballot in- stead of by acclamation, abolition of any property qualifica- tion for seats in parliament, and the payment of members. Parliament rejects their demands ; riots follow, which are MODERN EUROPE. 511 put down. — At Manchester John Bright and Richard Cobden form an Anti-Coni-Laiv League in fiiv(jr oi' free tri le. Owing to this agitation the Corn-Laws ^ are re- pealed, and many other duties are either al^olished ov lessened (1846). — Famine in Ireland and commercial dis- tress in England. — Continued difficulties with the labor- ing classes, many of whom are thrown out of work, while the rest work at starvation prices on account of the in- troduction of machinery. Legislation to fix wages and supj)ress discontent proves inefficient. — Li the East the British try to force a ruler on Afghanistan, suliservient to their interests. The Afghans revolt and expel the British, who soon return with strong military forces and* replace their own appointee. The Chinese emperor forbids the o|)ium-trade, and the Chinese destroy great quantities of opium in the hands of the British ; the latter continue the trade and claim redress, whereupon the Chinese make war uj)on them, but are in the end forced to meet their demands (^ Opium war}. Rebellion in Ireland and renewed chartist agita- tion in England ; both suppressed. The navigation laws are repealed in favor of free trade. Property qualification of members of iDarliament removed, and Jews admitted to seats ; 1848. 1848 TO 1868. the British dominion in India constantly extends, and the queen gains the title of sovereign of India (1858). — ' In general, the term applied to laws intended to protect grain- growers from foreign competition by forbidding importation of wlieat without heavy duties, which shall raise its price to that demanded by native land-owners. Tlie Corn-Laws here referred to, however, were especially notorious and grievous, since a succession of bad harvests and the Napoleonic wars had raised the price of English wheat to absolutely famine prices. In order to profit by these circumstances as long as possi- ble, the Corn-Laws of 1815 were passed in order to force a continuation of the high prices of corn. 1868 TO 1880, 512 STUDIES IK GENERAL HISTORY. The suffrage is greatly extended. — Submarine cables unite England with France and America. — Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick are formed into the Dominion of Canada, each province managing its own local affairs ; representative governments are formed for Australia and other Pacific colonial possessions. Liberal elections in Great Britain, resulting in placing Gladstone, the Liberal leader, at the head of affairs ; the Irish Church is disestablished, thus freeing Catholic Ireland from the injustice of supporting a Protestant Church. — The Suez Canal is opened. — The Irish land act is passed (1870), an act which endeavors to correct some of the unjust and oppressive conditions of the tenants of Irish landlords, compensate them for im- provements and protect them from sudden and unreasonable eviction. Education is made compulsory, and provided for by the State ; voting by ballot is introduced. Disraeli, prime minister ; shares in the Suez Canal are bought from the khedive of Egypt; the queen receives the title of Empress of India. — Constant agitation in Ireland for juster arrangements in the management of land, the relations of land-owners and tenants, and above all, for independence from English control in local govern- ment. The most notable leader in these agitations is Parnell. In 1880, under Gladstone, an Irish land act is passed, which provides for free sale, fair rents, fixed ten- ure (the three ^'s), and establishes a special court for trying differences between landlords and tenants. Colonial difficulties with frontier tribes : in Africa, with Zulus and Ashantees ; in India, with Afghans. d. Notable Events and Changes in other Countries. The Spanish and Portuguese colonies in South America become independent states of the constitutional, and very MODERN EUROPE. 513 generally of the republican, type. — Mexico revolts against Spanish rule, and becomes a republic (1823). — The Pules revolt against the Russians in favor of national independ- ence ; they are subdued by force of arms, aiid deprived of their former constitution. — In Russia serfdom is abolished by an imperial decree (1858-1863) ; — a strong Nihilist party is formed opposing the whole Russian system ; having no legislative bodies and no free press by which to urge re- form, modify the absolutism of the czars, and correct the abuses of tlie State, they diffuse as widely as j:)ossible, through secret organizations and publications, extreme revolutionary ideas of society and politics. — Austria, after her defeat at Sadowa, reorganizes her government in ac- cordance with constitutional principles, becomes reconciled with Hungary, and restores her constitution. — Civil wars in Spain between various parties and rival claimants to the throne end in the establishment of a constitutional monarchy. — In the United States, long agitations against slavery end in the Civil War and the Emancipation Proc- lamation of Abraham Lincoln, which gives freedom to the negroes without compensation to their masters. STUDY ON 2, b-d. What point in the remark tliat the kings of the Hestoration (Bour- bons) " had learned nothing and had forgotten nothing"? From the events and measures of the period in France, what would seem to be regarded as the most formidable of modern political forces? Why sliould it be so regarded ? How can you account for the popularity of Louis Napoleon ? What new revolution threatens France? What principle seems to have been thoroughly established by the first French Revolution ? What political tendency is growing in England during this whole century ? What common measures are taken in both countries to suppress agitation ? Compare the demands of the " Chartists " with the various acts of ]iarlianient fi-om 181S onward ; how far have they been answered? What acts of injustice in the colonial policy of 514 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. England ? What beneficial measures has she initiated ? What long- standing religious injustices are righted in this century ? Whom did the corn-laws benefit, and how ? Whom injure ? Explain how it was that the introduction of machinery caused great misery among the arti- san classes. What social and what political trouble appears in Ireland ? What is the impoi-tance of the Suez Canal to England ? What great social revolution has taken place in this century, both in England and the United States? With what difference? In what other country has a similar revolution occurred ? What other facts do you find in d similar to facts and tendencies noticed in h and c ? Compare Hun- gary and Ireland. What acts of civilized countries in this century would you name unchristian ? STUDY ON MAP, PAGES 516, 517. What countries in Europe have political boundaries corresponding with their natural boundaries? Within these natural boundaries, what bonds of imion exist among the people ? Between what coun- tries will you expect to find ill-feeling on account of the question of boundaries ? AVhat natural geographical units are not yet political units ? What events or agitations correspond to this fact ? Judging from the map alone, what part of Europe would you expect to find most easily involved in war? STUDY ON MAP, PAGES 520, 521. What relation between Europe and the rest of the world ? What great movement of population is evidently taking place ? What must result to the world from this movement in point of material civiliza- tion? In point of cosmopolitanism? Of community of institutions and thought ? How does this movement correspond to the Greek, Macedonian, and Roman movements of population? How does it differ? What countries are likely to crowd each other in this move- ment? What effect will this have on the international relations of Europe ? Compare the civilized area shown by this map with that seen in ma,]} on p. 2. Compare the civilizations. 3. Sjtecial Study on the Development of the German Empire, 1815-1880. At the Congress of Vienna, Stein demands that TO I constitutional governments be established in the ^^^ 1 states of the new German Confederation. This MODERN EUJIOPE. 515 proposition is overruled by the influence of the Austrian minister, Metternich, and each prince is left free to rule as he pleases, with or without a constitution. Metternich's view of the matter appears in the following extract from his political " Confession of Faith " : — " Kiugs have to calculate the chauces of their very existence in the immediate future ; passions are let loose and league to- gether to overthrow . . . religion, public inorulity, laws, customs, rights, and duties, . . . " Union between the monarchs is the basis of the policy which must now he followed to save society from utter ruin. . . . " We are certainly not alone in questioning if society can exist with the liberty of the press, a scourge unknown to the world before the latter half of the seventeenth century, and restrained until the end of the eighteenth, with scarcely any exception but England. . . . " The first principle to be followed b}' monarchs . . . should be that of maintaining the stability of political institutions against the disorganized excitement which has taken possession of men's minds ; . . . and respect for laws actually in force against a desire for their destruction. . . . " The first need of societ}^ is to be maintained by strong authority, and not to govern itself. . . . The first and greatest concern for the immense majority of every nation is the stability of its laws, . . . never their change." The action of the Congress of Vienna rouses great in- dignation throughout the German universities. Student- societies and gymnastic-unions are everywhere formed, with German unity and liberty for their real aim. In 1817 occurs the three-hundredth anniversarv of the nailing of Luther's theses to the church-door of Wittenbero;. The students hold a commemoration festival on the Wartburg, when, with speeches and huzzas, they burn in a roaring 30 liongitude 20 West 10 Loiif^itude 518 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. bonfire certain writings favoring absolutism, and form upon the spot a new association for the advancement of liberty and unity. This outburst is deemed worthy of serious attention on the part of the Great Powers of Europe, who regard the universities with suspicion ; their feeling is thus expressed by a writer of the time: "What are the Universities? Gothic remains of the Middle Ages, irreconcilable with the institutions and need of our own century. They confuse our youth ; they mislead public opinion. . . . " They are archives of all the errors of centuries ; they beget anew and perpetuate the false theories of the past." Another writer of the time says : " Ignorant professors tell the young student that it is his duty to reform his country." It follows that, in 1819, a Congress of German minis- ters, under the control of Metternich, issues the following law : " A censor appointed by government shall reside at every university to control the student societies there, to watch the instruction given, and to dismiss immediately any professor whose teaching may be injurious to the gov- ernment. No book of less than twenty pages shall be published without the consent of the governments ; a royal commission shall sit at Ma^^ence to examine and punish any person who may be suspected of having used seditious language against the government." In carrying out these decrees, "Houses are entered everywhere ; private correspondence is examined. When letters are discovered expressing dismay at the new tyr- anny, the writers are instantly and often severely pun- ished. To have been heard singing a patriotic song, to have been seen wearing the old German colors, are crimes that can be punislied with many months' imprisonment." In Austria, however, the school-children are tauglit MODERN EUROPE. 519 "to honor the sovereign as they would their father and mother, and to remember that he has absohite power over their bodies and over all their goods." After the news of revolutions in favor of constitutional liberty and national independence in Spain, Greece, and Italy, three new German societies are formed to agitate for similar ends, — the Teutoiiia, Germania, and Arminia ; the latter is named after Arminius or Hermann, the old defender of Germany against the Romans. Of these, the Germania consists of the followers of Victor Hugo and of Heine, and spreads the doctrine, " Forget nationality ; think only of humanity ; princes only have diverse inter- ests; the people of all countries are friends." Continual agitation, met by the continual o2)}K)sition of princes, in- stigated, and to some extent forced, l)y JMetternich. In some of the states, the princes try palliative, in others, repressive measures. During this period occurs at Hambach the festival of the German May. More than 25,000 people, from all classes and from all parts of Germany, are present ; bands play the national airs that princes have forbidden ; the feasters wear the old German colors of black, red, and gold ; and upon a banner are inscribed the words, " Ger- many desires ' Unit}^ Freedom, Equality! ' " But the chief speakers at this German May are arrested and convicted ; speech and press are more strictly gagged ; even those princes who have promised constitutions, " mostly forget," as Freeman says, '' to give them." ^Meanwhile, a new king, Frederick William the Fourth, has come to the throne of Prussia, and the people hope for a change ; but he declares : " A sheet of pa})er shall not come between me and my subjects : paragraphs shall not rule us, nor shall they replace our time-honored reli- ance on one another.*' 522 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 1848 TO 1870. With the news of the second French Revolu- tion, and the establishment of a new French re- public, the agitation in Germany increases; excited political meetings are held, and street fights (barricades') occur in Berlin and in Vienna. The latter city falls into the hands of citizens and students, and Metternich is, for the time being, compelled to flee. These disturbances result in the calling of a German National Assembly at Frankfort, for the purpose of making a constitution for Germany. This Assembly discusses a union of the Ger- man states, and decides upon a central government with two representative bodies, one of which is to be elected by universal suffrage. Two parties now arise in Germany, one wishing to re- tain, the other to exclude, Austria from the Confederation ; the latter party looks to Prussia as its natural leader. The period is full of quarrels and of discontent over the con- stitution of Germany as a whole, and over the constitutions of separate states. As a result of these long agitations, it may be said in general, that nearly all the German states gain some form of constitutional government; about half of these constitutions are granted between 1818 and 1848, and the rest between 1848 and 1870. As for the long-growing jealousy of Austria and Prussia, it culmi- nates at Sadowa (see p. 503) with the exclusion of Austria from the Confederacy and the formation of a North Ger- man Confederation, under the leadership of Prussia, with Bismarck for its chancellor. This government has two rep- resentative chambers, one representing the governments of the various states, the other elected by universal suffrage. During the progress of the Franco-Prussian war, Lewis, king of Bavaria, sends the following circular-letter to the king of Saxony and to the 1870 TO 1871. other rulers of tlie various German states: — MODEKN EUROPE. 523 " Most serene and powerful Prince, dear Friend, Brother, and Cousin : — "Victoriously led by Prussia's heroic King, the German tribes, who for centuries have been united in language, manners, science, and art, now celebrate a brotherhood of arms which gives a glorious proof of the importance of the power of a united Germany, ... I now address myself to the German Sovereigns, and especially to 3'our majesty, to propose that you should, together with me, urge upon his majesty the King of Prussia, that the exercise of the presidential rights be united with the title of Emperor." The king of Prussia accordingly, on Jan. 17, 1871, thus addresses the German armies : — "On this day, ever memorable to me and my House, I take, with the consent of the German Princes, and the ad- hesion of all the German people, in addition to my rank as King of Prussia, that of German Emperor. Your brav- ery and endurance, which I again recognize to the fullest extent, have hastened the work of the unification of Germany, a result which you have achieved at the sacrifice of so much blood. " Let it always be remembered that brotherly feeling, brav- ery, and obedience, have rendered the army victorious.*' On the next day, at Versailles, in the palace of Lewis XIV., the German Empire is solemnly proclaimed with the constitution given on p. 497. Two great agitations mark this decade for Ger- many, the struggle with the Ultramontanists, who assert the power of the pope as against that of 1871 TO 1880. the State, and the struggle with the Socialists. In both of these conflicts compromise measures have been adopted on the part of Bismarck. 524 STUDIES IN GENERAIi HISTORY. STUDY ON 3. What are the two aims of agitation in Germany np to 1870? Whicli of these aims is peculiar to Germany? Wliich is character- istic of the century ? What advantages does Metternich see in kings ? Why does he call the " liberty of the press " a scourge ? What power SAVO\>;-,. .^ ■■...- h ^ . Parma '^ ITALY ["v^y 1 = Papal dominion. 1 = Territory under foreign dominion or influences; Spanish orAustrian. is closely allied with this in Germany? What power is set to work to counteract it in Austria? Wliat oppressions in Germany are peculiar to this century? What is the weak point in what Frederick Wil- liam IV. says ? What events prove that the internal peace and order of one European country are of value to every other? How far do events in (Jermany prove the use of the agitations and difliculties of MODERN EUliOrE. 525 the century? "\Miat principle of government Jo they tlioroughly recognize ? What feelings lire shown in the circular letter of Lewis of Bavaria? Tn the aikh'ess of the I'russian king to the army? AVhat troul)le does Oermany experience from 1871-1880, in common with other countries of Europe? 4. Special Study on the Develojyment of the Kinydom of Ititly. a. STUDY ON MAP OF "ITALY IN 1815." What part of Italy is under native Italian rule? What liistoric reason is there for the i^resence of Austrian and Spanish rulers ? For the pope as a temporal ruler? Of these various rulers, which will appeal most to Italian sympathies, and why? h. Summary of Leading Italian Events^ 1815-1870 ; (com- pare with 2). Revolution in Spain ; the Spaniards demand and temporarily obtain a written constitution of the English type. — The Neapolitans at once revolt 1820 and declare their right to the same privileges as the Spaniards ; their king yields, and swears to rule by a free constitution. An unsuccessful Sicilian revolt for inde- pendence follows. The Austrian prime minister, Metter- nich, calls a congress of the kings, emperors, and prime ministers of Europe, and Austria, Russia, and Prussia com- bine to suppress the south Italian rebellions ; this congress issues the following manifesto : " The events that have recently taken place in Naples have necessarily created a sentiment of profound uneasiness in the minds of the Sov- ereigns who have charged themselves with the duty of watching over the tranquillity of Europe. They have recently crushed the Revolution, and yet they now find that it is still alive. . . . They have, therefore, agreed to hold counsel together, and, if necessary, to take up arms in connnon with the view of puttnig an 626 STUDIES rN" geistebal history. end to the disturbances in the kingdom of the Two Sicilies. ..." — An Austrian army enters the kingdom of the Two Sicihes and restores the absolute royal power; " about a thousand persons are condemned to death, j)ri- son, or exile ; " to all this the Neapolitan king voluntarily consents. Meanwhile "Young Italy," a secret society for making Italy free and independent, is growing up under the leadership of Mazzini. The Sardinian king grants a new constitution to his people ; Sicily and Naples revolt, and a free 1831 TO 1848. 1848. constitution is again granted by their king. — Northern Italy revolts against Austria ; the Sardinian king joins the insurgents, and Austria is for the time worsted. The re- volts in southern and central Italy increase in fury, and the Sicilian king is compelled to grant a new democratic constitution; Venice, temporarily free from Austria, is proclaimed a republic under the leadership of Manin. — ■ The Sardinians fight the Austrians at Novara; are de- feated and submit to peace on condition that all shall be as before. — Victor Eivimanuel becomes king of Sardinia. Revolution in Rome against the papal govern- ment ends in the establishment of the Roman republic. Garibaldi is its general, and Mazzini its most prominent leader. Insurrection for popular rights breaks forth in Genoa, Leghorn, Florence ; France, Spain, and Austria send troops into Italy to restore the old order. The French enter Rome; Garibaldi and Mazzini escape; Venice is retaken, and the Austrian power re-established in north- ern Italy. Sardinia, in alliance with France and England, gives them effective aid in the Crimean war. _ Wlien the peace of Paris is concluded, Cavour, the MODERN EUROPE. 527 prime minister of Victor Emmanuel, urges strongly the dangers to Italy from Austrian occupation; Napoleon III. agrees to help Sardinia in case of a war with Austria, and Victor Emmanuel's daughter is married into the Napoleon family. Austrian troops are now concentrated on the Sar- dinian frontier, and Sardinia prepares for war; volunteers from all Italy join her; Florence, by a popular vote, de- clares that Italy shall be independent of Austria, and places herself under the leadership of Sardinia and Victor Enunanuel. Austria now demands that Sardinia shall dis- arm and dismiss the Italian volunteers. War follows ; the Italians under Victor Emmanuel, allied with the French under Napoleon III., mn the victories of Magenta and Solferino. Milan, evacuated by the Austrians, declares itself ainiexed to Sardinia. Modena and Parma likewise declare themselves to be under the lead of Victor Em- manuel. The war ends with the peace of Villafranca; Austria cedes the greater part of Lombardy to Napoleon, who is to give it to Sardinia ; the two emperors promise to urge an Italian confederation, with the j^ope for its hon- orary president, but the rights of the Austrian dukes ruling in north Italy are expressly reserved. Romagna at once declares in popular assembly for annexation to Sardinia, and its government is organized by Victor Emmanuel. The pope excommunicates all the promoters of this usur- pation ; but the placai'ds of excommunication require an armed force to protect them. Tuscany, in popular assem- bly, votes that the Austrians are deposed and the country annexed to Sardinia. Northern Italy, except Venice, is now united under Sardinian rule ; Sicily desires to join this union, but Victor Emmanuel hesitates to accept I860 TO 1870. this new responsibility. Garibaldi, however, aided by Mazzini antl a band of volunteers, enters Sicily, heads 528 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. a revolt against the Spanish Bourbons, wins Sicily and Naples, becomes their dictator, but shortly declares Victor Emmanuel " king of Italy." The king, however, does not accept this trust until he is chosen ruler by the votes of the people themselves. This following soon, he becomes king of all Italy save of Venice, still in the hands of Austria, and Rome, under the temporal rule of the pope, upheld by French troops. In 1866, comes the battle of Sadowa, after which Austria surrenders the possession of Venice ; Venice at once, by universal suffrage, votes her- self a part of the new Italy. Rome alone remains under foreign influence ; but, on account of the Franco-Prussian war, France is forced to recall her troops from Rome. Victor Emmanuel enters the city, and the Romans enthu- siastically vote themselves his loyal subjects. Thus Italy is united under the constitutional rule of Victor Emmanuel, and is once more governed from its historic centre. STUDY ON 6. What are the two leading movements in Italian history, 1815-1870? What great feeling inspires each movement ? Name the other events in Europe which correspond to each of these movements. What facts of Italian history stimulate each of these movements ? What logical reason is there for the interference of European monarchs in Neapo- litan affairs? What facts sustain this logic? How could the Nea- politan king have secured his power and established peace ? What power is on the side of Austria ? On the side of the Italian agita- tors ? Of what use to Italy was the participation of Sardinia in the Crimean war? Of what political value is the marriage of Victor Emmanuel's daughter ? Of what historic enmity does Cavour take advantage in his alliance with Napoleon III. ? What two facts make Victor Emmanuel the natural leader in the two Italian movements of our century? What great modern principle is recognized in the union of the various states of Italy to Sardinia? What two facts make Rome the natural capital of Italy ? MODERN EUROPE. 529 c. Incidents and Sayings Illustrative of the Life and Charactef of Victor Emmanuel. (Dicey.) Victor Eunnanuel and his brother rose at dawn, " studied hard, hved simply, and were trained, almost before they were out of short clothes, to wear a uniform and carry arms." " Summer or winter, wet or dr}', Charles Albert [their father] never missed the weekly reviews of the garrison of Turin, . . . and at these reviews he was invariably accompanied by his two boys." "Victor Emmanuel . . . learned to speak Italian per- fectly, as well as French, the former accomplishment being by no means a common one in Piedmont, where Fx'eneh was the language of society, while the people spoke Piedmontese, a strange patois^ ... in Avliich the Italian element is barely pre- dominant, lie was also taught Latin, Roman historv, the Catechism, and the art of war." After the battle of Novara, " as Victor Emmanuel rode away at the head of his shattered regiments, he turned around towards the Austrian columns, which were pressing close upon his heels, brandished his sword towards the enemy, and said with a deep curse, ' But Italy shall be.' . . . Whether the words were used or not at the time assigned, it is certain that, from the day of Novara to that on which he entered Rome as king, Victor Emmanuel never wavered in his resolve that ' Italy should be.' " In 1849, in an appeal to the electors, Victor Emmanuel writes : "Never till the present day has the House of Savoy appealed in vain to the loyalt}', the good sense, and the affection of its subjects ; I have therefore the right to trust in my people at the present moment, and to feel assured that, united one with the other, we shall be able to uphold the Constitution, and to pre- serve the country from the dangers which threaten us." In 1859, referring to obligations alike to European powers and to Italy, Victor Emmanuel thus speaks to his parliament : "Our condition is not free from danger, because, although we respect treaties, we are not, and cannot be, insensible to the cry of anguish which is raised towards as from so many parts of Italy. Strong, however, in union, confident in our good 630 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. right, we await, at once prudent and determined, the decrees of Divine Providence." When war was finally declared by Sardinia against Austria, and Cavour returned from Paris with the pi'omise of French aid, he was welcomed with strong enthusiasm by the people of Turin. When he went to tell the king of his reception, Victor Emmanuel interrupted with the words: "•There is no need for 3'ou to tell me anj'thing, for while you were standing on the balcony, I was standing amidst the crowd below, shouting, ' Hurrah for Cavour ! ' with the best of them." For this war, as he said, the king "had prayed and waited ten long years." Speaking of Mazzini at this time, he said: "You may depend upon it that, if I had believed Mazzini had had it in his power to make Italy independent, I should long ago have been a Mazzinean myself." "Indeed, at this moment Victor Emmanuel's elation of spirit was so great, that his generals and ministers thought it necessary to caution him against any reckless exposure of his person on the field of battle ; but to all these remonstrances the king turned a deaf ear. ' I am going,' he said, ' to send some thousands of men to death, and how could I ask them to die for Italy if I was not prepared to show them by my own example that the cause was one worth dying for?' " After the Peace of Villafranca, " the advice tendered to the leaders of the National movement in tlie insurgent provinces was to continue their preparations for resistance, and to trust, in case of need, to the House of Savo}'. ' You ma^' promise the Bolognese,' said tlie king, ' that if the Austrians sliould invade the sacred soil of our country, I will al)dicate as my father did, and will come and take service as a private soldier in the ranks of their Volunteers.' " When the news came to Victor Emmanuel tluit Rome was again free to l)e the capital of Italy, he exclaimed: "At last . . . our arduous task is accomplished, and our country is recon- structed. The name of Rome, which is the grandest name MODERN EUROPE. 531 nttered by the mouths of men, is joined with the name of Italy, the name which is dearest to my heart." d. Words of Count Cavour. "I am an honest middle-course man, desiring and hoping for social progress with all m}' might, but resolved not to purchase it at the cost of a universal overthrow. ... I foresee that a tolerably violent crisis is inevita])le. But I would have that crisis brought about with all the discretion compatible with ex- isting circumstances ; and, besides this, I am more than per- suaded that the mad attempts made by the men of action do but retard and render it more risky." Cavour writes in 1854: "Since Providence has so willed it that Piedmont should alone be free and independent in Italy, it is the duty of Piedmont to use tliat liberty and independence in pleading the cause of our unfortunate peninsula before Europe. We will not shrink from that perilous task ; the king and the country are determined to accomplish it to the uttermost. . . . My whole life is consecrated to one object, — that of the eman- cipation of ni}- country." In the Sardinian parliament Cavour writes thus in regard to sending soldiers to the Crimean war: " Our country must give evidence that her children can fight courageously on the field. Believe this, that the glory our soldiers will know how to achieve on the P^astern coast will do more for the future of Italy than all the noisy talking in the world. . . ." Again, and later, "111 luck to him who renounces the land of his birth ; who renounces his brothers as unworthy of him. For myself, I am decided. . . . Happy or unhappy, my coun- tr}' shall have my whole life." At twenty-four he writes: "Society' is marching Avith long strides toward democracy. ... Is it a good? is it an evil? I know little enough; but it is, in my opinion, the inevitable future of humanity. Let us prepare ourselves for it, or, at least, let us prepare our descendants, whom it concerns more than us." 532 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORi:. e. Extracts from Mazzini (from a pamphlet published in Lon- don after the battle of Novara) . Mazziui describes his followers as " the sole party deser-ving the name of National, because while leaving intact each man's individual convictions, whether monarchial or republican, and asserting that the form of government shall be decided by the whole nation, legally represented, it inscribes upon its banner, ' War by all, and for all : The Nation for the Nation. . . . ' "The path, I repeat, is clear. It is the path of Action, and they must pursue it, regardless of persecutions, delusions, or calumny ; they must live and die in faith and in action. The creation of Italy is an aim, which, achieved, will change the fate of Europe, and of Humanity. They must rise to the height of the Idea, and learn to truly love and to despise, — to love their Italian country with all their heart and soul, and to despise with all their soul the sufferings that inexorably attend upon that love. . . ." " To labour to destroy the dualism set up between Piedmont and Italy ; to Italianize Piedmont, and convince her that she is but a zone of Italy, — the freest, — therefore having the great- est duties to perform. . . . " To unceasingly recall the Italians to the worship of the True ; to the adoration of principles ; to morality, without which they cannot exist as a Nation ; to teach them to abhor all those paltry falsehoods, small artifices, and cowardl_y trans- actions, which profane and degrade the cause of a People, the number of whose martyrs alread}' suffices to found a religion. "And, above all things, to prepare Action — Insurrection. " This is the program of all who profess theuiselves Apos- tles of the Nation." " We recognize no judges but God, our own consciences, and the Italy of the future. ..." "We hold it important to say that ... we have no duties, Bave to the common country ; tliat wc hold omnipotent the duty MODERN EUROPE. 533 of aiding the emancipation of our brethren ; that we believe the material means of every Italian city sacredl}^ to belong to the National enterprise, that wheresoever the people desire to mobilise them for that intent we will encourage them to do it, as to a holy act." "When a people is enslaved, encircled by terror, bayonets, and spies, I know of but one possible educational initiative, — that of violently exterminating spies, baj'onets, and terror, and setting the people free and emancipated, face to face with their own mission. " Even if the Italians knew how and were allowed to read, I would therefore still say to those who cry, ' Books, systems, not arms,' ' Arms and Boolis ; first conquer yourselves a country, — Countrj' is Duty, acknowledged, recognized, and felt. Your country is the idea of a mission to be fulfilled. Your country is a link, a communion, a visible Evangel of love among twenty- five millions of men, destined to become a Nation.*" STUDY ON c, df c. IIow does each point in Victor Emmanuel's training help fit him for the work he is to do for Italy? Make a list of the qualities of cliaracter and feeling shown by Victor Einniauue]. IIow does each one of these qualities and each one of these feelings fit him for his work ? Considering the character of the time and the feeling of the people, what quality or feeling is perhaps most valuable ? "What qualities of character shown l>y Cavoin-? IIow is each one valuable to a statesman in his circumstances ? "What quality has he that unites him to Victor Enunauuel ? "What (piality necessary to supplement Victor Emmanuel? Kame three aims of the policy of Cavour as seen in d. "What two things are indicated by the fact that INIazzini's pamphlets are published in London? AVliat fundamental difference between !Mazzini's plans and ideas and those of Cavour? In what does the strength of each lie? Under the existing circumstances of Italy, which does she need most? Describe Mazzini's policy. "What has he in common witli Victor Eniiuanuel and Cavour? "What lias the feel ing felt by Mazzini in common with a religious faith? 534 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 5. Special Study on Socialism, a. Extracts from St. Simon. (French Socialist of Revolution ary period.) " Sire," he writes to the king, " the fundamental principles of society require men to regard each other as brothers, and to work together , . . for^their common welfare." " Religion ought to direct society towards the great end of ameliorating, as rapidly as possible, the condition of the most numerous and least wealthy class." ' ' Do not forget this ! Remember that to do grand things we must have enthusiasm. . . . All my life resolves itself into one great thought, — to secure for all mankind the most unfettered development of their faculties." " What is competition as far as the laborer is concerned? It is work put up at auction. An employer wants a man. Three men present themselves. . . . One demands sixt}' cents, a day because he has a wife and children to maintain ; another has a wife but no children, and will take fift}' cents. A third, who has neither, is satisfied with forty. . . . What becomes of the other two ? . . . Who then is so blind as not to see that under the empire of unlimited competition wages must reach their lowest ebb?. . ." St. Simon proposes cooperation, the motto of which is to be : " Every one to work according to his capacity and to receive the means of enjoyment according to his refpiirements. . . ." " The day will come wlien it will ha recognized that he who has received from God more strength and intelligence owes more to his fellow-men in pr<)})()rti()n." The program of the St. Simoiiists, appearing on the first page of their organ, the "Globe," on the .'Hstof Jan., l^^JH, reads thus : — Religion. Science. Industry. Universal Association. " All social institutions must have for their end the moral, MODERN EUROPE. 535 iutellectufil, and phy.sicul iini)i'oveineiit of the hirgest aud poorest class." "All privileges ol" biilli witliout exception are abolished." "To every one according to his capacity, to every capacity according to work done." h. From Karl Marx (German ; author of " Capital," the lead- ing Socialist work on political economy ; Ibuuder of theory of Social Democracy) . ' ' Capital is the most terrible scourge of humanity ; ... it fattens on the misery of the poor, the degradation of the worker, and the brutalizing toil of his wife and children : just as capital grows, so grows also pauperism . . , the revolting cruelties of our factory system, the squalor of great cities, and the presence of deep poverty seated hard by the gates of enormous wealth." " Our objects can only be attained by a violent subversion of the social order." , "We must appeal to force to establish the rule of the laborers." c. FromLassalle (German ; founder of Social Democratic party). "Here I stand; I cannot do otherwise; God help me; Amen ! Even if it lead to my moral death ... I cannot act otherwise. An agitation of laborers exists ; they must have tlieoretical knowledge, they must have a watchword given them. They shall have it, even if it cost the head." "The alliance of science and the laborers, these two oppo- site poles of society, when once they shall have met and embraced each other, will crush all the impediments of culture witliin their brazen arms. This is the object for which I am determined to spend my life so long as there is any breath in me. . . ." " Let otliers be happy ! In natures like mine it is enough to go on struggling, ... to waste away one's own heart, and yet to appear smiling while death is gnawing away at one's inmost soul." 536 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. d. From the Program of the International (a society of work- ing-meu of all countries, founded in 1804).^ ' ' In consideration that the emancipation of the laboring classes must be accomplished by the laboring classes, that the battle for the emancipation of the laboring classes does not signify a battle for class privileges and monopolies, but for equal rights and duties and the abolition of class-rule ; "That the economic dependence of the laboring man upon the monopolist of the implements of work [land, machinery, build- ings, capital] . . . forms the basis of every kind of servitude, social misery, of spiritual degradation, of political dependence ; ' ' That the emancipation of labor is neither a local nor a na- tional, but a social problem which embraces all countries in which modern society exists, and whose solution depends upon the . . . cooperation of the most advanced lands ; " In consideration of all these circumstances, the First Inter- national Labor Congress declares that the International Working- men's Association . . . recognizes truth, right, and morality as the basis of their conduct towards one another and their fellow-men, without respect to color, creed, or nationality. This congress regards it as the duty of man to demand the rights of a man and a citizen, not only for himself, but for ever}' one who docs his duty. No rights without duties ; no duties without rights." e. From the Program of the Socialist Laborer Party in Germany. "1. Labor is tlie source of all wealth and all culture, and, as in general, productive labor is only possible through society, to society, that is, to all its members, ])el<)ngs the aggregate pi-()duct of labor, with the imivt'rsal duty of labor according to equal rights to each according to his reasonal)le wants. "In the present society the means of labor [land, machinery, 1 For this extract, I am indebted to Richard S. Ely's book on "French and German Socialism," a clear and admirable work. MODERN EUROPE. 637 buildings, capital] are a monopoly of the capitalist class ; the hereby conditioned dependence of the laborer class is the cause of misery and slavery in all their forms. ' ' The liberation of labor requires the conversion of the means of labor into common property of society, and the regu- lation by the connnanity of the aggregate labor, with a spend- ing for the common benefit and an equitable distribution of the product of labor. "The liberation of labor must be the work of the laborei class, in opposition to which all other classes are only a reac- tionary mass. " 2, Starting from these principles, the Socialist Laborer Party of Germany strives with all legal means after the free state and the Socialist society, the destruction of the law of wages through the abolition of the system of labor for wages, the al)olition of plunder in every shape, the removal of every social and political inequality. " (1) The Socialist Laborer Party of Germany, though work- ing within the national framework, is conscious of the interna- tional character of the laborer movement, and determined to fullil all duties which the same imposes on the laborers, in order to make tlie brotherhood of all men a reality. '" (2) Tlie Socialist Laborer Party of Germany demands, in order to pave the way for the solution of the social question, the establishment of Socialist producing associations, with state help, under the domestic control of the laboring people. The producing associations are to be called into life for manufac- tures and agriculture, to such an extent that out of them the Socialist organization of the aggregate labor may arise. "The Socialist Laborer Party of Germany demands as the principles of the state : — "1. Universal, equal, direct right of election and voting, the giving of the vote being secret and obligatory for all persons i>olonging to the state, from their twentieth year, for all elec- tions and votings in state or parish. The day of election or voting must be a Sundav or holiday. 538 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. "2. Direct legislation by the people. Decision on war and peace by the people. "3. Universal bearing of arms. Defense l)y arming of the people instead of the standing army. "4. Abolition of all exceptional laws, particularly the laws as to the press, as to associations, and as to assemblies. Es- pecially all laws which limit the free expression of opinion, free thinking, and investigation. " 5. The decision of law-suits by the people. The free ad- ministration of justice. " 6. Universal and equal education of the people by the state. Universal school attendance. Free instruction in all educational institutions. Religion to be declared a private matter. ' ' The Socialist Laborer Party demands under the present society : — "1. The utmost possible extension of political rights and liberties in the direction of the above demands. . . . " 3. Unrestricted liberty to combine. "4. A fixed labor-day corresponding to the requirements of society. The prohibition of Sunday labor. "5. The prohibition of children's labor and of the labor of women that is injurious to health or morality. " f). Laws protecting the lives and health of laborers. Sani- tary control of laborers' dwellings. The superintendence of mines, factories, workshops, and domestic manufactures by oflicials elected by the lal)orers. An effectual law making em- ployers responsible for injuries to their workmen. " 7. The regulation of prison labor. "8, Complete independence of administration of all funds for the relief or maintenance of laborers." STUDY ON 5. What feeling and what qualities of character displayed in n, h, c'i What principle oi' action is asserted? Make a list of the aims of the socialists. What modern institutions and theories are threatened by MODEKN EUROPE. 539 tliese aims? Which of these aims appear to you praiseworthy? W'liat have these aims in common with tlie teachings of early Chris- tianity (pp. 21S-'J2U) ? By wliat force are these demands backed ? ({, Great Works, Foundations, Enterprises, Ifiventions, Investigations of the Century, STUDY ON 6. IMake lists for the nineteenth century corresponding to those given in preceding parts of this book for other periods. What do these lists teach you of the characteristics of our own age? In what does our own superiority or originality lie? GENERAL REVIEW STUDY. In what period have the teachings of Christianity been most prac- tically regarded ? What is the force of each of the mottoes on p. l!)l? AVliat contribution to civilization has been made by each na- tion you have studied ? When did the peculiar tendencies and pecu- liar culture of the Middle Ages culminate? W^hat justice in opening modern history, as some writers do, with the date 1789 ? About what body of water did the Greek and Oriental groups of civilization centre? The Roman group? The modern? In what age would you rather live if you could choose your place and rank? In what, if you nnist take your chance? What answer will you give to one who says, " llistoi-y repeats itself"? To one who says, "There is no real prog- ress in human affairs ; nations rise, decline, and die " ? INDEX. INDEX. Explanation. — S, 6, I, 6, ii, y, indicate the sliort sounds of these letters, and a, e, i, o, a, y, their long sounds ; a = a as, in fall ; c and <'h — k ; g = j, and g = g as in get. In dii)hthongs the combination is pro- nounced like tlie marlied letter. The pronunciation followed is that ot Webster. Ab'elard, 325. A 'ben-Ezra, 325. Aboukir (a-boo-kecr'), 479. A'bu-biikr, 261. Acfi'dia, 407, 442. Achae'an League, 121. Acrop'olis, 61, 83, 120. Act'ium, 174. Addison, 453. Aegos-pot'amT, 113. Aene'as Sylvius, .301. Aene'id, 208, 212. Aes'chincs, 96. Aes'«liylus, 96 ; extracts from, 84. Ae'tius, 2.34. Aetolian League, 121. Agamen/non, 35. Agincourt (iizliankoor'), 346. A'gis, 121. Agrarian laws, 140, 170, 174, 183, 198. Agrip'pa, 200. Ai'dan, 201, 273. Aix-la-Chapolle (aks-lii- shjipel'), peace of, 444. Albategni (iil-ba-ta- nce), 302. Albert'us Mag'nus, 353. Al'aric, 233, 239. Albigen'ses, 322. Albany, 405. Albucri''sis, 303. Albuma'zar, 300. Alcuiii (rd'kwin), 262; extracts from, 274. Alchemy, 383. Al'dlne press, 368. Alexander the Great, 97, 119-126. Alexandria, 120, 122, 124. Alexandrian kingdoms, 119-126. Alexandrian library, 122-124. Alfieri (al-fe-ii'-ree), 455. Alfonso the Wise of Castile, 354. Alfred the Great, 298, 300, 309. Alhiiz'cn, 303. Alcae'us, 51. Alc'man, 51. Al Ma'mun, 300. Algeria, 507, 509. Al'mag(?st, 209. Alphabet, 24, 144,240; Gotiiic, 239. Alsace', 401, 440, 441, 504. Al'va, Duke of, 404. Ambrose, St., 232, 236, 246. Anmiian'us, 236. Ampliictyon'ic Council, 36, 82, 116. Amiihic'tyony, 35, 50, 115, 117. Anaxilg'oras, 96. Anaximiln'der, 51. Andruiii'cus, 163. Angel'ico, Frii, 361. Anglo-Saxons, 234. Anne, 450. An'sehn, 303, 323; extract from, 312. Anthony, St., 236. Anti-corn-law-league, 511. [334. Antioeli, 126, 319, 331, Aiiti'uchus the Great, 156. 544 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. Antony, Mark, 174, 175. Antum'nus Pi'us, 201. Apologists, Christian, 209, 210. [122. Apollun'ius of Rhodes, Apule'ius (yus), 208. Aquilei'a (see Venice). Aqui'nas, St. Thomas, 354. Ara'tus, 122. Arbe'la, 120. Arehil'ochus, 51. Arehime'des, 122. Arch'ons, 62, 64, 70. Areup'agus, 62, 64, 70, 91. Ar'gonauts, 34. A'rian controversy, 221, 232, 233. Aristid'es, 77, 78, 84, 96. Aristot'le, 97, 266, 325. Aristar'chus, 123. Aristuph'anes, 97 ; extracts from, 112. Aristoph'anes of By- zantium, 123. Arios'tS, 411. Ari'on, 51. A'rius, 236. Army, Roman, 195, 230. Arnold of Brescia (brcsh'a), 325. Ar'rian, 208. Arteveld'e, Jacob van, ^358. A'ryans, 227. Asceticism, 220, 243, 245. Assemblies of Estates, 336. Assemblies, popular, of Rome, 131-13.3, 135. As'ser, 301. Athanil'sius, 221, 236. At'talids, 121. At'tila, 233, 239. Auguries, 132, 149, 188. Augustine, St. (of Hip- po), 237, 246. Augustine, St., 254, 258. Augustus Caesar (see Cffisar). Augsburg Confession, extracts from, 426. Aurel'ian, 204. Auspices, 132, 149. Austerlitz, 481. Australia, 509, 512. Austria, beginning of, 294 ; imion with Hungary, 400. Austria, House of, 343, 344. Austrian Succession, War of, 443, 444. Austro-Prussian war, 503. Autos-da-fe (au't5s-da- fa), 404. Avars', 251. Aver'roes, 325. Avicen'na, 304, 308. Avignon (iiveenyon'), 343, 344. Bab'ylon, 16, 17. Ba'con, Francis, 411, 419. Ba'con, Roger, 354 ; extracts from, 384. Bagdad, 281, 282, 315, 34r.. Biilbo'a, 418. Baldwin, 319, 321. " Bank of Conversions," 464. Ban'nockburn, 350. "^■ Barbarians, 231. Barons, feudal, 288. Bas'il, St., 237. Bastille (bas-teel'), 475. Battle of the Pyramids, 479. " Battle of the Spurs," 346. Baj'eux (ba-yuh') tapes- try, 309. Bede, 263. Bek'et, Thomas, 323, 326. Belgium, 501. Belisa'rius, 251, 258. Benedict, St., 258. Benedict, 263. Benedictine monks, 258, 269. Ben'tham, Jeremy, 453. Beo'wulf, 266. Berkele}', Bishop, 452. Berlin, treaty of, 506. Bernard', St., 320, 326. Bero'sus, 123. Bible (see Scptuagint). Bible (Tyn'drile's),407; (King James' ver- sion), 408; (transla- tions of), 412; ex- tracts from, 27-29 ; 218-220. BiT.n, 123. Bishops, 2.30, 231, 242, 288, 337. Bismarck, 506, 523. "Black Death," 346, 351. " Biack Prince," 346, 391. Bliinc, Louis, 508. " Bloody Mary," 407. Boccaccio (bolt- cho), ;^58. Boe'thius, 258 Bologna (bOlda) 829. " Book of tlie ad," 5. Boniface, Wiied, 263. I Borghese (boj'-sa), 415. Bosnia, 506. | IJourgcoisie (pr- zhwaw'-zieitOl, 468. Bouvines (b^een'), 323. Bramante (b-nian'- ta), 417. ;440, 442. Brandonbur)21)4, 401, Brazil, 405. Brt'da (bnT'ii), decla- ration of,48. Broda (brfifii), treaty of, 441. Brienne (bf-enne'), 465. Bright, Jo^, 511. Bruce, Rojfert, 350, 358. Brunellesdi (broo- nelles'kic), 361. Brutus, 11, 174, 175. Buf'fon, 54. Bulga'ri^ 310, 505, 500, Bundesath (bunt'es- rat), ids. Bunyai, 451. Buonixiot'ti, Michael Angflo, 412. Burgundians, 233, 250. Burgundy, 348. Burke, 453. Butler's "Analogy," 452. Byrhtnotli's (buert'- note) death, 310. INDEX. ByzSn'tiuin, 90 (see Constantinople). Cabinet, French, 495. Cabinet, English, 493. Cab'ots, 418. Caecil'ius, 163. Caedmon (kild'nion), 261. Cae'sar, Augustus, 174, 189, 190, 212. Caesar, Julius, 174, 175, 182-187. Caesar, Octavian (see Augustus CfBsar). Cai'ro, 294, 320. Calais (kalu'), 408. Caliphate, 255, 262, 294. Calonne (kjilonn'), 465. Calvin, 400. Canada, 509, 512. Ctln'nae, 154, 160. Ciinos'sti, 296. " Canterbury Talcs," 358. Camil'lus, 148, 150. ■Gfun'oens, 411. Ciinipo Form'io, i)eace of, 478. Cri'i)et, Hugh, 298, 303. Capit'ularies, 228, 263, 268. Curacal'lti, 203. Car'dan, 362. Cardinals, 337. Ciir'thage, 3, 23, 138, '- 152, 155, 158 (see Punic Wars). Cassiodo'rus, 259. Cas'sius, 174, 175. Cils'sius, Di'on, 210. Castle of San Angelo, 200. Cathedrals, 366, 414. 545 Catherine of Aragon, 407. Catherine the Second (of Russia), 445. Catholic relief act, 510 Cat'iline, 173, 183. Cato the Elder, 163, 189. Cato the Younger (of Utica), 163. Critul'lus, 175. Cavour (cjivoor'), 526 ; extracts from, 531. Caxton, 362, 368. Celibacy of clergy, 295 Censors, 134. - Centur'iate Assembly, • 132, 133, 135, 146. Cervan'tes, 411. Cesaire (sfisair'), St., 259. •Chai^rone'a, 117. Chalons (shiilon'), 234. Chancellor, German, 498. Charities, 199, 201, 237. 238. Charlemagne (shii!"'- le-milne), 255, 203, 274. Charles T. (England), 408, 409. Charles II. (of Eng- ^ land), 440, 447, 448. Charles V. (emperor), 399, 404. Charles X. (France), 507. Charles Martel', 254, 263. Chartists, 510, 511. Chaucer, 358 ; extracts from, 389-391. 546 STUDIES IN GENEKAL HISTOE Chemistry, 455. Che'ops,' 5. China, French and English war with, 503. Chivalry, 382. Choras^mians, 345. Christians, 204, 213, 217, 231, 233 ; extracts from writings, 218- 220. Christianity, 232, 267. -ehrysos^tom, St., 237. Church of England, 2G2, 407, 408, 509. Church law, 309, 3G9. Church organization, 337. Church and State, struggle of, 504. Cic^ero, 173, 175, 180, 188. Cid, 304. Ciraabue (che-ma- boo'a), 354. Ci'mon, 90, 91, 98, 102. Cincinna'tus, 147. Circus, Koman, 141, 245. Cisalpine Republic, 478. Citizenship, English, 494. Citizenship, French, 497. Citizenship, German, 499. Citizenship, Greek (see Constitutions). Citizenship, Koman, 140,170,172,174,194, 203 (see also Con- stitutions). Citizenship, 'iViitonic, 224. Civil war in England, 432-436. Civil war in France, 406. Clar'endon, 448. - ClSr'endon, constim- tions of, 323. Claud'ian, 239 ; extracts from, 247. Claud 'ius, 197. Claud'ius II., 204. Clem'ent, St., 210. ClC'um'enes, 121. Clergy, estate of, 330. Clis'thenes, 69. ClOa'ca Max'ima, 141. C15'vis, 250, 259, 271. Coalition, Second, 480. Cobden, 511. Code Napoleon, 479. Co'la di Rienzi (dee ree-en'tze), 344. Col'Gt, 416, 419. Colise'um, 197. Colonies, Dutch, 405. Colonies, English, 409, 509, 512. Colonies, European, 456. Colonies, Greek, 47, 49. Colonies, Roman, 139, 170, 171, 174. Colonies, Si)anish and Portuguese, 405, 512. C5luma)a, St., 259. CGlumba'nus, St., 259. Columbus, 404, 418, 421. Comines (komeen^), Philip de, 362 ; ex- tract from, 393. Committee of Public Safety, 477. Commons, estate of, 336. Commons, House of, 350, 351, 494. Connwealth, Eng- lis47. Comie, Paris, 508. Com>, 369. Concat of Francis I-, ■. Concdt of Worms, 321. Confeation of the Rhij481,486. Confe&n of Augs- burgOO. Congreof Vienna, 48.3, i, 515. Con^staJne, 231, 237. Constaniople, 231, 232, 2t 334, 345. Constitu.ns of Claren don, 3i Constitutn, English, 492-494 Constitutii, French, 495; un.r Old Re- gime, 46 461. Constitutio, German Empire, 41. Constitutioijjf the Year VIII 479. [522. Constitutioni (Jcrman, Constitutions Greek : Spartan, 57 Athe- nian, 62, 64,70. Constitutions, Ionian'. republican, i;i-135 ; imperial, 193-'.96, 229, 247, 248. Consuls, 132, 134. Corey r'a, 93, 94. " Corin'na, 51. Corneille (cornal'), 453. Corone'a, 92. Corn-laws, 170, 511. Corporation act, 510 INDEX. 547 Cor'tiis (Spanish), 836. Cor'tez, 404, 418. Council of Chalce''don, 267. Council of Clermont, 296, 329. Council of Constance, 344. Council of Nice, 232. Council of Trent, 400; extracts from, 424. Court, Roman Imperial, 229. Court, French, 466-468. Cras^sus, 173, 174. Crecy (cres''sy), 346. Crime''a, 445. Crime''an war, 502. Cromwell, Oliver, 409, 447. Cromwell, Richard, 448. Crusade, First, 329-332, 333. Crusade, Second, 332. Cu'rials, 230, 243. Crir''iate Assembly, 131, 133, 135. Cusa''nus, 362. Cuthbert, St., 261. Cyclopedias, 453, 454. Cynewulf (kuen''ewulf ), 264. Cynic philosophy, 123. Cyprian, St., 210. Cyp'selus, 51. Da^cia, 199. Danes, 294, 298, 310. Darl^us, 73, 75, 77, 120. Dan^te, 358 ; extracts from, 386. Dan^ton, 476. Dauphiny, 348. Debt-laws, 63, 145. Decftin'eron, 358. Decius, 204. Declaration of Riglits, 450. Decfir^ions, 230. Delphi and Delphic oracle, 35, 30, 50, 55, 56, 68, 69, 77, 85, 86, 91, 94, 115, 119, 161. Delphic Amphictyons, 36, 50, 82, 115-117. Dc^los, 90. Demos''thenes, 97, 116, 121. Denmark, 502. Deputies, French Cham- ber of, 496. Descartes (dfi-ciirt'), 419. Dirid'ochae, 122. Dictator, 133, 135. Dictionaries, 453, 454. Diet, German, 337. Dietrich (deefrik) of Berne, 250. DloclC'^tian, 205. Diodo^rus, 206. Dlu^r/enes, 123. Dinnys'ius, 206. Directory, 478, 479. Disestablishment of Irish Church, 512. DisnVeli, 512. Dissenters, 408, 448. Divine Comedy,358,359. Division of Roman Empire, 232. Domesday Book, 309. Donnn^icans, 355. Dominic, St., 355. Domi'tian, 198. DonatcFlo, 362. " Don Quix'otc," 411. Dorian migration, 35. " Dragonnadcs," 464. Drake, Sir Francis, 408. DQngaP, 264. Duiistan, St., 302. Dryden, 452. Df/rcr, Albert, 413. East India Company, 408. Eastern question, 502, 505. Eccle'sia, 70, 71, 77, 78. Ecgbehrt (eg'bert),298. Edda, extracts from, 22(!. Edes'sa, 319. Edict of Nantes (nflntz), 400, 463. Edward 1., 350, 355. Edward III., .340, 351. Edward VI., 407. Eg'inliard, 264. Egyi)t and Egyptians, 4,49,79,121. • P>gyi)tian literature, extracts from, 10-15. Eloi', St., 261. El 'gin marbles, 87. Eliot, Sir John, 408. Elizabetli, 408, 429, 430. Elsass (see Alsace). Emancipation in Prus- sia, 487 ; in Russia, 513; in U.S., 513. Emigrants, French, 475. Emperor, (.uTiuan, 497. 504 ; of Holy Roman Empire, 289, 337 ; Roman, 103, 548 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. Engraving, 369. En^nius, 163. EpJlminon'das, 97, 115, Eph^ors, 57. Epicte'tus, 206, 213. Epicure^'an philosophy, 124. Epicu''rus, 124. Eras'mus, 411, 419. Eratos^thenes, 124. Erige''na, 301 ; extracts from, 312, 313. EsC(Vrial, 414. Established Church (see Church of England). Establishments of St. Lewis, 356, 380. Estates, 336. Euclid, 124. Euem'eros, 124. Eugene, Prince, 442,443 Eurip'ides, 97 ; extracts from, 110, 111. Eu'menes II., 124. Eu''patrids, 61. Euse^bius, 238. Eutrr/pius, 2.38. Exarch and exarchate, 251, 255. Exodus, 6, 26. FtVbius Max^imus, 160, 163, 164. "Faery Queen," 410. Fall of the Western Empire, 2.35. False Decre^tals, 309. " Faust," 455. Ferdinand and Isabella, 3.52, 404. Feudalism, 287-291. Fichtc (fikaeh), 488. Fiefs, 287. Florida, 404, 445. Fontainebleau (fontan- blG'), 414. FG^rum, 140, 143. Fox, 453. Francis I., 405. Francis, St., of Assisi (asee''se), 355. Franciscans, 355. Franche-Comte' (fronsh k.jn^ta), 440. Franco-Prussian war, 504, 522. Franks, 233. Frederic Barbarossa, 320, 321, 326. Frederic the Great, 443- 445. Frederic William IV., 519, French and Indian war, 444. French Revolution, 474-479. Froissart (frois^silrt), 359 ; extracts from, 391, 393. Fulk of Neuilly (nweeP- eh), 320. GaPba, 214.' Gfi'len, 209, 266. Galile'o, 419. Gall, St., 259. " Garganfua and Pan- tag^ruel," 411. Garibaldi, 527. Gaul, 171, 174. Gauls, 138, 148. Geb''er, or Jeber (yeb''- er), 264. General Councils, 337. General Privilege, 352. Gen^ghiz Khan, 343. Gen^seric, 233, 234, 239 Geoffrey of Monmouth, .326. Gerbert (Sylvester II.), 302. " Germa'nia," 210 ; ex- tracts from, 222. German Confederation, 517. German Confederation (North), 522. German Empire, 523, Ghib^elin, 322, 343. Ghiberti (ge-bar^tee), 363. Gibbon, 452. ' Gibraltar, 442. . GiKdas, 259. Giotto (jot^to), 359. Girondists, 477. Gladiators, 167, 173,184, 215, 242. Gladstone, 512. Glanvil, Bartholomew, 359. Gnostics, 220. Godfrey of Bouillon, 319, 326, 411. Goethe (gu!-teh), 455. " Golden Bull," .344. Gor^gias, 97. (Joths, 204, 232, 249. Grac^chi, 170, 171, 176.> Grand Alliance, 441. Grain distribution, 165, 213, 242. Granii'dji, 3.52, 404. Gran'icus, 119, (ircat Armfi'da, 405, 428. (ireat Charter, 349, 37& INDEX. 549 Great Interregnum, 343. Greek Church, 203. Greek deities, 36. Greek leagues, 121. Greek tragedians, ex- tracts from, 110. (irego'rian chant, 260. Gregory tlie Great (First), 251, 260, 270. Gregory tlie Great (Seventh), 295, 296, 305. Gregory Nazian'zen, 238. Gregory of Tours (toor), 259; extracts from, 271. Grosseteste (gros''-test), Robert, 356. Grotius (gro''shus), Hugo, 419. Guelph(g\velf),322,343. Guilds, 338-340. Gunpowder, 309, 420. Gustavus Adolphus, 401. Gutenberg, 363. Hfi''boas Corpus, 379. IluMrian, 200. Iiam'baeh festival, 520. HampdejL 409. nannibarir)4, 158, 101. Hanse, 343. Harvey, 419. Haroun-al-Kaschid (h;l- roon'-iilrash'id), 204, 281, 284. Hastings, 299. Ilecatae'us, 51. Hegi'ra, 251. Hellenic convention and confederacy, 89, 90,92. Hellespont, bridging of, 79. He^lots, 48, 91. Helve 'tins, extracts from, 472. Helvetic Republic, 479. Henry I., 323. Henry II., 323. Henry IV., 295, 290 ; (of France), 400. Henry VIII., 407. Henry of Navarre, 400. Heradi'tus, 51. Herodotus, 98 ; extracts from, 53. Herzegovina (hert-se- go-vee^-na), 506. Hesiod (hee'-she-ud),51. Hildebrand (see Grego- ry VII.). Hinc'mar, 301. Hippar''chus, 125. Hip^pias, 00, 73, 75. Hippoc'rfites, 98. Hobbes, extract from, _ 434. Hr/garth, 450. Holbein (hul-l)ine), 414. Holland, 401, 404. ~ Holy Alliance, 483. Holy Roman Empire, 255,294,481. Homage, 288. Homer, 103, 208. Homeric poems, 35, 37. Horace, 20(); extracts from, 188, 189. Hospitals, 308, 458. Hos'pitallers, 329. Howard, John, 458. Ilrr.lf (seo Rollo). "Hii'dibras," 452. Hu^guenots, 400, 400, 407. Humanism, 300. Hume, 452. Hundred Years' War, 340, 351. Hungarians, 293, 294. Hungary, 234, 352, 400. 441, 502. Huns, 232, 233, 234. IIuss, 344. Iluygens (hi-gens), 455. Ilyk'sos, 0. Image-worship, 293. Inquisition, 300, 404. " Instrument of Govern- ment," 447. International, the, 530. 1(3 'na, 250. lon^ians, 48. Ireland, 323, 500, 512. Irish, 234, 240. Irish Church disestab- lished, 512. Isidore''an decretals,309. Isido'rus, 201. Islam, 293. Isi3 cerates, 98. Is^sus, 120. Isth'mean games, 50. Jacquerie (zhakrec'), 348. Jahn (y:in),489. James I., 408, 432. James II., 449, 450. Jeanne d'Arc (zhjin darkO, 340, 303. Jena (ya'na), 481. Jerome, St., 238. Jerome of Prague, 344, 363. 550 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. Jerusalem (Omar's con- quest of), 280; 320,345. " Jerusalem Delivered," 410. Jesuits, 418. John Ball, extract from, 393. [349. John Lackland, 323, 324, John of Salisbury, 320. John Sco'tus (see Erigena). Johnson, 453. Joinville, 356. Jonson, 410. Jorda^nis, 260. Jose^phus, 206. Jugurth^a, 171, 177, 178, 180. Julian, 232, 238; 243. Julius Csesar (see Caesar). Justinian, 251, 260. Justinian Code (see Roman Law). Ju'venal, 209. Kant, 454. Kiir'nak, 6. Kelts, 154, 227. Kcm'pis, Thomas a, 363. King, Assyrian, 17 ; English, 492; feudal, 268,287,437; French, 460, 460, 467, 470 ; Roman, 131; Teuton- ic, 2P3. King George's War, 444. Kirk, 409. Knights of St. John, 329. Knox, 400, 408. Koran, 261; extracts from, 276, 279. Labor agitations, 509, 510 (see Socialism). Laborers, English, 392. Labyrinth, 5. Lactan^tius, 210. Lancaster, House of, 352. Land acts, Irish, 512. Land distribution (see Agrarian Laws.) Land tenure, Teutonic, 222. Lanfranc (lunfron''), 305. Langland, William, 359. Langton, Stephen, 349, 356. La'res, 144. Lassalle', extracts from, 535. Last Supper, 412. Latin Church, 293. Latin Empire of Con- stantinople, 321. Latin Kingdom of Jeru- salem, 319. Latin league, 138. Latin right, 140. LtVtium, 129, 137, 138. L;i Vend'.'e (von-da'), 477. Law, Church, 208, 329. Law, international, 419. Law, feudal, mediajval, 207, 268. Law, Roman, 143, 145, 200, 239, 251, 267. Layamon (Iy''-a-mon), 356. Lay investiture, 295, 321, 322. League of Cambray', 403. League of the Ilanse, 343. League of the "Public Good," 348. League of the Rhine, 343. League of Smalkiild, 400. Leibnitz (lip^'nits), 454. Le^o I., the Great, St., 234, 239. Leon^idas, 80, 82. Lep''idus, 174. Lessing, 455. Leuk^tra, 115. " Leviathan," 434, 452. Lewis VI., 322. Lewis IX., the Saint, 345, 356. Lewis XI., 348. Lewis XIV., 439, 440, 441. Lewis XVI., 465, 475. Lewis XVIIL, 483, 507. Linnae'us, 455. Li^vy, 207. Locke, 452, 454. LoFlards, 351. Lombards, 251. Lombard league, 321. Lorraine'', Claude, 450. Louisiana, 445. Louis Napoleon, 507, 508(see Napoleon III.). Louis Pliilippe, 507. Louvre (loo''ver), 414. Loyola (loio^la), 418. INDEX. 551 Lu'can, 207. Lu'ciaii, 209. Lucre^tius, 176, 188. " Lu^siad," 411. Luther, 399; extracts from, 423. Lutzen (loot^zen), 401. Luxor, 0. Lykurgus, 56, 58. jNLicedon, 121, 15G, 157. Macedonian War, 165. MiichiaveFli, 363. MacMahon (mac-ma- onO, 508. Macce^nas, 208. Magellan, Magalhacs (magalyii'-os), 418. Magenta, 503, 527. Mag'na €l)ar'ta, 349. Magnes'ia, 156. Magyars (see Hunga- rians). MaTmon''idos, 327. Miihnes'bury, William of, 327. Man'deville, Sir John, 359; extracts from, 388. Mane^tho, 125. Munichae'ans, 220. Manin (ma-neen^), 526. Manor, 291. Manorial court, 291. Map, Walter, 327. Milr'athon, 75. " ^Lirble Faun," 99. MilrceF, Etienne, 348, 360. Marcella, St., 240. Marcellus, 163. Marcus Aurel'ius, 203, • 217. Maria Theresa, 443, 444. Marie Antoinette (mii- re' on-twa-net'), 477. Ma'rius, 171, 172, 176, 180, 183. Mark, march, 294. Mark, Teutonic, 222 ; mark-moot, 223. Mark's, St., 308. Marlborough, 442. Martial, 207. Martin, St., 239. Mary Queen of Scott', 408. Marx, Karl, extracts from, 536. Masaccio (ma-zat''-cho), 364. Massinissa, 155, 158. Matthew Paris, 357. Mausoleum, 100. Maxim^ian, 205. Mazzini (matzee'neh), 526, 527; extracts from, 532, 533. Medici, Cosimo di and Lorenzo, 364 ; ilary and Catherine de, 406. Melanc'thon, 419.' Mcmnon, colossi of, 6. Menrin''der, 125. Mendicant orders, 338. MetelTus, 178. Metrics, 48. Met'ternich, 515, 518, 525. Mexico, 404, 513. Michael Angelo (see Buonarotti). Military orders, 338. IMilti'ades, 75, 90. Milton, 451. Ministry, 449, 450, 451. Minnesingers, 367 ; extracts from, 385. Mirandola (mee-riin'-da la), 364. Missionaries, 419,369. Mithrida^tes, 172, 173. Moe'ris, Lake, 5. Moguls, 343, 345, 352. Mohfim'med, 251, 2G1. Mohammedan conquest, ^ 254, 279, 280. Mohammedan civiliza- tion, 300-304, 309, 315-318. Moliere (mo-le-air^), 453. Monasteries, 258-260, 269, 274, 298 ; disso- Ktion of, 407. Monasticisni, 235, 237, 238, 240, 243. Monastic orders, 338. Monk, Gensral, 448. Montaigne (mon-tan''), 411. Mnn'tanists, 220. Mon'te Cassino (kiiy- seen^o), 258, 270, 308. Montenegro (montii- nfi'-gro), 505. Montesquieu (mon'-tes- ku), 454. More, Sir Thomas, 419; extract from, 431. Moors, 254 ; in Spain, 293, 318, 352, 405. Mns'cow, Napoleon at, 483. Mummies, 7. Museuni; Alexandrian, 125. Museum, British, 458. 552 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. Myc^alg, 87. My'ron, 98, Nao/vius, 163. Napoleon Bonaparte, 478-484, 487, 489, 490. Napoleon III., 507, 508, 527. National Assembly, French, 475. National Assembly, German, 522. Naval warfare, laws of, 503. Navigation act, 439. Nebuchadnezzar, 17. Necker, 465, 466. Nelson, 479, 481. Ne''mean games, 50. Ne''pos, Cornelius, 176. Nero, 197. Nerva, 198. Netherlands, 404 ; Span- ish, 441, 442. New Comedy, 125. Newton, 452, 455. New York City, 405, 441 Nibelungen Lied (leed) 307. NFcene Creed, 232. Nihilists, 513. Nilom''cter, 5. Nimwegen (ne-mil'-gen) peace of, 440. Nineveh, 17. Nobility: Frencli, 460, 467 ; IJoinan, 244 ; Teutonic, 226. Nominalism, 304. Normans, 293, 297. Normandy, 298. Northmen (see Danes and Normans). Novii'ra, 526, 530. " No^vum Orga^num," 419. " Oath of the Tennis Court," 475. Observatories, 457. Oc^cam, William of, 360. Udova^ker, 240. Olympic games, 49, 80. O^mar, 262, 280. Opium war, 511. Order-'icus Vita'lis, 327 ; extracts from, 313, 329. Organs, 308. Or^igen, 211. Orlan^do Furios^o, 410. Oro^sius, extracts from, 249. Os'tracism, 71. Oth^man, 262. Otho, 214. Otto the Great, 290, 303. O^vid, 208. Oxygen, 455. " Painted porch," 99. Paiat^inate, 441. ranatiienao'a, 104. Pan^dccts (see Roman law). Pantheon, 206. Papal legates, 337. Pfi^phos, 23. I'aper, 308, 369. Papy^ri, 7. Paris, 348 ; schools of, .329 ; peace of, 444, 502 ; and Versailles (ver-sillz^), treaties of, 446. Parisians, 297. Parliament, 336, 350, 493 ; " Barebones," 447 ; " Hump," 447, 448. Parnas''sus, 36. Par^thenon, 71, 87, 99. . Parties, French, 507 ; English, 510. Pas'cal, 453. Patriarchal power, 145. Patricians, 130, 146; ■ title of, 234. Patrick, St., 234, 240. Pausfi'nias, 90, 209. "Peace of Antal'cidas," 114. Peace of Augsburg, 400 Peace of Oliva, 440. Peace of Pyrenees, 439, 440. Peace of Westphalia, 401. Peasants, French, 461, 468. Peasant revolt, Eng- land, 351. Peasants' war, 427. Peloponne'sian war, 93, 113. Pentarchy, 483. Pena'tes, 143. Per'gamos, 121 ; library of, 124. Perian'der, 52. Per'icles, 91, 92, 95, 99» 102 ; extracts from, 105-107. Perioo'ci, 48. Perseus, 106. I'ersian wars, 73 et seq. Perugino (pa-roo-jcc'- no), 366. Peter the Hermit, 319. INDEX. 653 Peter's, St., 414. Tetition of Right, 433. Pe'trarch, 3(50. Pharsfi'lia, 174, 187. PhT'dias, 99. Phi'don, 52. Philip of Macedon, 115, 117. Philip Augustus, 320, 321, 328. Philip II. of Spain, 404. Philippi, 174. " Philippics," 97, 116. Philosophy, Greek, 2G0; inductive, 419 ; Pla- tonic, 419 ; eighteenth century, 453-455. Phoenicians, 79. (See study on.) Picts' wall, 200. I'ilgrinis, 294,296. " Pilgrim's Progress," 451. Pin'dar, 99. Pisis'tratus and Pi- sis'tratids, 65-09, 77. Pitt, 453. Pi^us II., 361. Pizar^ro, 404, 418. Platc^a, 80. Pla'to, 99. Plautus, 163. Plobci^ins, 130, 146. I'liny tlie Elder, 208 ; tlie Younger, 209 ; extracts from, 210. Plu'tarch, 209. Poitiers (poytecrs'), 346, 391. Poland, 321, 343, 352, 513 ; partitions of, 446, 484. Polish succession, war of, 443. Po'16, Marco, 357. Polyb^ius, 163. Polygno'tus, 99. Polycle^tus, 99. Pumpe^il, 197. Pompey, 173, 174, 176. Pope, 290, 337, 343, 344. Pope, Alexander, 452. Por''phyry, 211. Prae^tor, 134, 157. I'raet5''rian guard, 195, 203. Pragmatic Sanction, 444. Praxit^eles, 99. President, French, 495. Priestley, 455. Prime Minister,450, 492, " Principia," 452. Printing, 368. Proconsul, 157. Proco'pius, 260. Protectorate, 447. Protestants, 399. Protestantism, 404. Provinces, Roman, 157, 194, 195, 217. Prussia, 294, 352, 442, 522. Ptolemies, 121,122,125. Ptolemy, 209. Punic wars, 153 ct seej. Puritans, 408, 432. Pyd'na, 156, 168. Pym, 409. Pyramids, 9. Pyr^rho, 126. Pythag'oras, 52. Pythian games, 50. Quadruplr Alliance, 443. Quintil'ian, 208. Ruhelais (rii'-be-la), 411. Racine (rii^-seen), 453. Raleigh (raw^li), 408; r^ extract from, 422. Rilme^ses II., 6. Ra^phael, 3G5, 412. Rastadt (riistiit), treaty of, 442. Ra^zl, or Rhu^zes, 302. Realists, 304. Real Presence (see Transuhstantiation). Reform bill of 1832, 510. Reformation, 398, 422- 427, 432 ; in England, 407; in Scotland, 409. Reichstag (rlks-tiik), 498. Reign of Terror, 477. RSm^brandt, 413. Restoration, English, 448. " Retreat of the Ten Thousand," 100. Revolution, Italian, 501, 525-528 ; Spanish, 501,525; of 1088, 450. Richard I. of England, 320, 324, 328. Richelieu (resh-eh-loo), 406. Rien^zi, Co^a di, 360. Roatls, Roman, 139, 154, 171, 176, 185. Robespierre (ro''-bi's-pe- air), 477, 478. Roger of Iloveden, 328. Rollo, 297, 303. 554 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. Roinan Republic, mod- ' crn, 479, 526. Roses, wars of, 352. Rouma'nia, 505. Rousseau (roo-s5'),453; extracts from, 471. Royal Society, 457. Ru'bicon, 185. Rudolf of Hapsburg, 343. Rys'wick, peace of, 441. Sadow'a, 503, 522, 528. Saint (for saints, see respective names, as Ambrose, Augustine, etc.). SaFadin, 320, 324, 328. Salamis, 77, 78, 83, 84. SaFlust, 176. Sal'vian, 240; extracts from, 248. Samnite war, 138, 139. S^n Stefan''o, peace of, 505. Sappho (saf'o), 52. Sardtlnapa'lus, 17. Sardinia, 152, 155, 442, 443. Siivrmaroaii, 365. Savoy, 442, 478. Saxons, 255. Saxon Heptarchy, 298. SchisMi of the Cliurch, 203. Scliism of the West, 344. Schleswig-IIolstein (liol-stlne), 502, 503. Sclu.Iasti(!isni, 303, 327. ScipioK (sip'idze), 155, 101, 103, 164. Scotland, 350, 351 ; united with England, 450. Sedan^ 504. Seleuc'idae, 121, 126. Sen^lac, 299. Senate, French, Greek, etc., see Constitutions. Sen^eca, 208. SCnnach''erib, 17. Sensationalists, French, 454; extracts from, 472. Septim^ius Seve^rus, 203. Septu^agint, 126. Servia, 505. Servius Tullius, 132. Sesos^tris, 6. Seven Years' war, 444. Sicily, 152-154, 181,182, 293,322,343,404,443. Sicilies, the Two, 344, 403, 443, Sid5''nius, Apollina''ris, St., 240. Silesia, 444. Simeon StyFites, St., 240. Simon ^ides, 100. Simon of Montfort, .323, 357. Simon (sce'mon), St., extracts from, 534. .Sistine (sis''teen)Chapel, 412. Sco'pas, 100. Slaves, in antiquity, 48, 130, 107, 170, 171, 173, 244 ; Teutonic, 225, 22(i; medieval, 268, 270; modern, 404, 442, 458, 509, 510. Slavs, 227, 294. Sleswig, 294. Smith, Adam, 452. Soblus^ki, 441. Social war, 171. Socialism, 507, 508, 523, 534-539. Socialist Laborer Party, 536. S6c''rates, 100; extracts from, 107-110. Solemn League and Covenant, 409, 436, 448. Solferino, 503, 527. So'lon, 52, 54, 63, 143. Sophist, 97, 114. Soph'ocles, 100. Sozom''en, 240. Spain, 155, 157. Spanish Armada, 405, 428. Spanish Succession, war of, 441, 442. " Spectator," 463. Spenser, Edmund, 410. Sphynx, 5. Splno'za, 454. Spires, diet of, 399. States-general, 336, 346; 406, 466, 475. Stein (stinc), 487-490. Stesicho^rus, 52. StiFicho, 233, 240. Stoicism, 203, 206, 217. Strasbourg. 234, 440, 441. Strate^gl, 70. Stuarts, 408, 442. Sueton^ius, 210. Sulla, 171, 172, 173, 176. 180, 183. Switzerland, 343, 401. INDEX. 555 Taborites, 344. Tacitus, 210 ; extracts from, 213, 222. Templars, 329. Ter^ence, 163. Terpan^der, 52. ■TertfiFlian, 211. Test act, 448, 510. Teutonic Knights, 329, 352. Thames, 52. Tlianes, 201. Thebes (theebz), 5, 86. Themis^tocles, 77, 78, 83, 89, 100. Theud-'oric the Great, 258, 200, 207. Theodo'sius, 232, 239, 240. Theodosian code, 243, 268. Theoc^ritus, 126. Thermop'ylae, 80, 83. Thes'pis, 52. Third estate (see Estates). Thirty Tyrants, 114. Tliirty Years' war, 400. Thugs, 510. Thucyd^ides, 100. • Tiberius Cajsar, 196. Titus, 196. Tigiath-Pile'ser, 17 ; extract from, 18. Tilsit, peace of, 481, 486. Tours (toor), battle of, 254. Towns (cliartcrs), 340, 341. Trafalgar', 481. Trajan, 199, 216, 217. Transubstantiation, 304, 425, 426. Trasimc'nt^ 159. TrebO'nian, 251, 260. Tribunes, 135, 136. Triple Alliance, 440. Triumvirate, first, 174. Trojan war, 35. Troubadours (troo'-bii- doors), 367. Trouveres (troovairs'), 367. Troy, 35, 119, 212. " Truce of God," 298. Tudor, 352. Tuilerics (twee'Icrec)', 414. Turks, 293, 296, 345, 399, 441,44.3,445, 501. Turco-llussian war, 505. Turgot (toorgo'), 405. Turn-vereine (fe-rln'- eh), 489. Turpin's Chronicle, 329. Twelve Tables (see Ro- man law). Tyrtae'us, 62. Tyler, Wat, 300. Tyrants, Greek, 50, 73. Tyre, 23, 24, 27. UFfilas, 2.39. IJKpian, 211. Ultramon'tanists, 623. United Provinces of Netherlands, 401. Universities, 366, 414 ; Bologna, 366 ; Ger- man, 501, 515, 518; of Paris, 366. Utrecht (utrekf), treaty of, 442. Vandals, 233. Vandyck', 414. Viin Eycks (iks), .365. ~^~ Var^ro, 176. Venice and Venetians, 234,320,3.34,40.3,478, 504, 526, 527. Versailles (ver.salz), 458 ; convention of, 504. Vespii'sian, 197. Vico (vec'ko), 4.55. Victor Emmanuel, 526-.' 531. Villafriin'ca, 50.3, 527. Villains, 289. Villehardouin (vel-ar- doo-an''), 357. Vinci, Leonardo da (lii-on-ard'o dii vin'- chee), 412. Virgil, 122, 208; extracts from, 212. Visigoths, 233, 236,250.T~ Vitru'vius, 208. Voltaire', 452, 454,464; extracts from, 471. Wace (vas), 328. AVager of Ijattle, 380. Wil'griim, 481. Waldenses (wall-den'- ses), 322. Wales, 350. Wallace, Sir William, 350, 361. Wal'lenstein, 400. " War of Liberation," 483, 490. Wartburg festival, 616. Waterloo, 483.^ Weslcys, 458. ^ Westplialia, treaty of, 401. Whiteliall, 414. 556 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORYo Wiclif, 351, 3G1 ; ex- tracts from, 385. Wilberforce, 458. William the Conqueror, 291, 299, 305. William of Jumieges (zlioo-mi-azli^), 305. William and Mary, 450. William of Orange, 405. William of Toitiers, 305. | York, House of, 352. Wit^enagemot, 291. Wolsey, 407. Worcester, 447. Worms, diet of, 399. Xenoph'anes, 52. Xen^ophon, 100. Xerxes, 77-81. Za''ma, 155. Za^rii, 320. Zos''imus, 240 ; extracts from, 248. Zwingli (tswing''lee), 399. -H UC SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY AA 001 266 313 4 en' i-^'^l