AN ESSAY 
 
 OX THE 
 
 STUDY OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. 
 
 BEING AN 
 
 INTRODUCTORY LECTURE 
 
 DELIVERED IN 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY OF LONDON, 
 
 ON THE 23RD OF OCTOBER, 1828 
 
 BY ROBERT E. GRANT, M.D. 
 
 Fellow of the Royal Society and of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh 
 Fellow of the Linna-an and Zoological Societies of London ; Member of the 
 Wernerian Natural History Society, and of the Medico-Chirurgical So- 
 ciety of Edinburgh ; Late President of the Royal Medical Society of 
 Edinburgh; Honorary Memberof the Northern Institution ot 
 Inverness and of the Plinian Natural History Society of 
 
 Edinburgh ; and 
 
 PROFESSOR OF COMPARATIVE ANATOMY AND ZOOLOGY IN THE 
 UNIVERSITY OF LONDON. 
 
 SECOND EDITION. 
 
 LONDON: 
 PRINTED FOR JOHN TAYLOR, 
 
 Bookseller and Publisher to the University of London, 
 30, UPPER GOWER STREET. 
 
 1829. 
 
LONDON : 
 
 PRINTED BY S. AND R. BENTLEY, 
 Dorset Street, Fleet Street. 
 
k-GJL8| 
 
 839 
 
 ADVERTISEMENT. 
 
 IN this Introductory Discourse, the objects and limits 
 of Comparative Anatomy, Comparative Physiology, and 
 Zoology, are defined. The extent and distribution of the 
 Animal Kingdom are briefly described ; and the connec- 
 tions of the study of animals with other branches of 
 science are pointed out. The various uses of animals to 
 man, and in the economy of nature, are enumerated, and 
 also the pleasures and advantages derived from their 
 study. The Lecture concludes with an outline of the 
 Course of Comparative Anatomy and Zoology to be de- 
 livered in the University of London. 
 
 M367750 
 
INTRODUCTORY LECTURE. 
 
 GENTLEMEN, 
 
 THE object of this Course of Lectures is to demonstrate 
 the structure of Animals, to explain their Functions, to 
 detail their History and Uses, and to illustrate the princi- 
 ples of their Classification. 
 
 These subjects constitute the departments of Physical 
 Science, termed Comparative Anatomy or Zootomy, 
 Comparative Physiology, and Zoology, which treat of the 
 forms, the mechanism, the properties, the phenomena, and 
 the relations of all the existing and extinct species of 
 Animals known upon the earth. 
 
 The word Zootomy (derived from coov, an animal, 
 and rspvsiv, to cut,) is employed to express the knowledge 
 acquired by dissecting the bodies of animals. This science 
 makes us acquainted with their organization, or with the 
 structure and form of all their internal parts and organs. 
 It points out the connexions which subsist between the 
 different parts of the animal machine, by which they are 
 all enabled to co-operate towards the same great objects 
 the preservation of the individual, and the continuance of 
 the race. It examines the changes which the organs 
 undergo at different periods of life, to suit them for the 
 various stages of infancy, maturity, and decay. It traces 
 the modifications of form and structure presented by the 
 different organs and parts of the machine, in all the in- 
 ferior tribes of animals, by which the whole organization 
 of the species is always admirably adapted to the circum- 
 stances in which they are placed. 
 
 It points out the regular gradation in the forms of indi- 
 
 B 
 
vidual organs, from their highly complicated and elaborate 
 structure in Quadrupeds, to their simplest forms, and their 
 total disappearance in the lower orders. It shows that, 
 notwithstanding the highly complicated organization we 
 observe in the more perfect animals, and the intimate con- 
 nexion which subsists between all their parts, not one of all 
 their organs is universal in the Animal Kingdom, or essen- 
 tial to the phenomena of animal life. The whole skeleton, 
 the solid frame-work of the body, destined to give 
 strength, form, and support to the entire machine, disap- 
 pears in the class of Molluscous Animals, as in the Doris, 
 Tritonia, Eolis, &c. The muscular system, so essential 
 to all the voluntary and involuntary movements of the 
 higher classes, entirely disappears in the class of Radiated 
 Animals, and with it every trace of nervous system which 
 we are apt to suppose essentially connected with all the 
 motions and functions of animals. The brain, so inti- 
 mately connected with the phenomena of mind, after 
 dwindling into the form of a few separate ganglia placed 
 on the oesophagus, and connected only with the function 
 of digestion, disappears from the Animal Kingdom. The 
 heart, the great centre of the circulation, after diminishing 
 successively the number of its cavities, from four to one* 
 in the higher classes of animals, disappears among insects. 
 The blood-vessels also cease to exist, and, with them, all 
 circulating motion of the blood, as in most Radiated 
 Animals, and in the whole class of Zoophytes. The func- 
 tion of respiration is intimately connected with the circula- 
 tion of the blood, and its organs, after undergoing various 
 modifications of form, suited to the different media in 
 which the animals live, cease to belong to the system. 
 Although the function of secretion is performed by animals 
 very low in the scale, all distinct glandular organs for 
 its performance are lost long before the total disappearance 
 of an internal digestive cavity. Many of the lowest Zoo- 
 phytes, which have no internal digestive sac, and no polypi, 
 (which are only superficial digestive cavities,) absorb their 
 
whole nourishment by the surface of their body, or by the 
 parietes of canals which traverse their interior. The sim- 
 plest gelatinous animalcules, which possess no internal 
 cavity, are also reduced to superficial absorption, and thus 
 form a transition to the mode of nourishment of the vege- 
 table kingdom. 
 
 Besides describing the structure of all the inferior ani- 
 mals, and the changes which the organs and textures un- 
 dergo at different periods of life, this branch of Anatomy 
 examines the nature of the metamorphoses which various 
 classes of animals undergo before arriving at their perfect 
 state. And by comparing the adult organs of the inferior 
 classes, with the embryo state of the same organs in the 
 higher orders of animals, many extraordinary analogies 
 are discovered, which throw much light on the functions 
 of the parts, and serve to unravel the most complicated 
 and difficult forms of organization. By tracing back, for 
 example, the skeleton of fishes to that of quadrupeds and 
 man, the true nature and uses of all their complicated 
 arrangement of osseous parts have been discovered and 
 ascertained. And by comparing the human brain in the 
 earliest stages of its development, with the permanent 
 forms of that organ in quadrupeds, birds, reptiles, and 
 fishes, the most singular resemblances have been dis- 
 covered, which throw a new light on the gradual develop, 
 ment of that organ in the most perfect animals, and on its 
 remarkable structure in the inferior classes. 
 
 By prosecuting these various enquiries* the views of the 
 Anatomist become enlarged, the speculations of the Physio- 
 logist are corrected or extended, and new principles are 
 discovered for the scientific arrangement of the Animal 
 Kingdom. 
 
 Of all animals Man has the most elaborate and compli- 
 cated organization, and the structure of his body has been 
 a subject of constant observation and study, since the in- 
 fancy of the human race. Though debarred from human 
 dissection by superstition in the earliest times, the prac- 
 
tice of physic and surgery, the process of embalming, the 
 catastrophes of the field of battle, the accidents of common 
 life, and the natural curiosity of man, as well as the con- 
 stant habit of examining the structure of the inferior 
 animals, had made men acquainted with the leading facts 
 of human Anatomy before the period of Aristotle, who 
 raised it to the dignity of a science ; and all his successors 
 have endeavoured to extend its bounds. The great body 
 of knowledge respecting his internal economy, accumu- 
 lated from the experience of so many ages, now forms 
 the subject of many separate branches of science, the 
 details of which are conducted with great learning and 
 ability by my distinguished Colleagues in this Institution. 
 The structure and functions of the human body are there- 
 fore objects of attention in this place only as the standards 
 of comparison, from which we trace the modifications of 
 form throughout all the lower classes of the Animal King- 
 dom. We compare the organs of the inferior animals 
 with the similar organs of man, to determine the extent 
 of their deviation, and by watching the result of this 
 change of structure, important light is thrown on the func- 
 tions of the various parts. In animals far distant in the 
 zoological scale, where similar organs no longer exist, we 
 discover analogies of use between parts totally dissimilar 
 in structure, which point out their uses in the economy, 
 and mutually illustrate their functions. From the com- 
 parisons thus constantly instituted in all zootomical en^ 
 quiries, this science has been denominated Comparative 
 Anatomy. 
 
 Comparative Physiology treats of the functions of the 
 lower animals. It considers the organs in a state of action, 
 and determines the purposes they are destined to serve in 
 the living economy. It makes us acquainted with the 
 uses of all the parts of the inferior animals, and investi- 
 gates the physical causes of all the vital phenomena they 
 exhibit. It enquires into the means by which the various 
 motions of animals are effected, whether of the whole body 
 from place to place, or of voluntary or involuntary parts. 
 
It examines into the circumstances which modify their 
 sensations and perceptions, and discovers the sources of 
 their peculiar instincts and habits. It describes the va- 
 rious modes in which the functions of Digestion, Circula- 
 tion, Respiration, and Secretion, are performed in the lower 
 classes of animals, and the duty assigned to each part of 
 their structure in the performance of these functions. It 
 points out the connexion which exists between the forms 
 and mechanism of the various parts and the particular cir- 
 cumstances of each species, and the influence of their inter- 
 nal organization over all the phenomena they exhibit. It 
 unfolds to our contemplation the inexhaustible resources 
 of Nature in the means employed for the propagation of the 
 species, from the simple fissiparous generation of Animal- 
 cules, or the almost equally simple gemmiparous mode of 
 Zoophytes, to the highly complicated viviparous birth of 
 Quadrupeds. In thus investigating the various functions 
 of the animal economy, in all their different stages of 
 simplicity and complication, it determines the true nature of 
 animal life, and the conditions essential to its existence, and 
 discovers the characteristic properties which distinguish 
 animals from the beings belonging to the Vegetable and 
 Mineral Kingdoms. And by the successful applications of 
 the principles of chemical and mechanical science to the 
 explanation of their complicated functions, it shows that, 
 notwithstanding the disturbing forces of the animal econo- 
 my, which have hitherto defied all attempts at generaliza- 
 tion, the true solution of all vital phenomena and the laws 
 of organized beings are to be looked for in those magnifi- 
 cent arrangements which embrace the whole system of the 
 visible universe. 
 
 The term Zoology (derived from the Greek words &ov 
 an animal, and ^oyo; a discourse,) has long been applied 
 to that branch of Natural History which treats of ani- 
 mals. It chiefly considers animals in their entire and 
 living state, and describes their external forms and dis- 
 tinguishing characters, the history of their life, and the 
 principles of their scientific arrangement. It points out 
 
6 
 
 the various external appearances presented by animals 
 and the changes they undergo at particular seasons of the 
 year, or at different periods of life. It examines the kind 
 of food on which they naturally subsist, and the abodes 
 which they frequent, whether in the interior or on the sur- 
 face of the earth, or in the atmosphere, or in the waters 
 which encompass the globe. It makes us acquainted with 
 the remarkable instincts and habits which characterise the 
 different species, the climates they inhabit, the extent of 
 their geographical distribution, and the varieties of form 
 and character which they exhibit in different regions of the 
 earth. It describes the periodical or occasional migrations 
 of the different species; their comparative numbers and 
 longevity; their periods of torpidity and hybernation ; 
 their seasons of moulting, pairing, and propagating ; their 
 periods of gestation ; their cares for the preservation of the 
 infant progeny ; the means employed to distribute the spe- 
 cies over the globe ; and the purposes they appear destined 
 to serve in the economy of Nature. 
 
 This science enquires into the origin and duration of 
 entire species, and the causes which operate towards their 
 increase or their gradual extinction ; the laws which regu- 
 late their distribution, and the changes they undergo by the 
 influence of climate, domestication, and other external cir- 
 cumstances. It acquaints us with the uses of animals and 
 of animal substances, in Medicine, Agriculture, Domestic 
 Economy, and various arts ; and the means of rearing and 
 domesticating useful species, so as to increase their num- 
 bers, improve their breed, or extend their advantages more 
 widely to mankind ; and it likewise points out the most ap- 
 proved methods of preserving and preparing animals, dead 
 or alive, for museums, menageries, transportation, micros- 
 copical or zootomical observation, and other purposes of 
 science, utility, or recreation. 
 
 It investigates the characters and relations of the extinct 
 races of animals, the remains of which are found every 
 where imbedded in the crust of the earth ; and thus ena- 
 
bles us to read, in their imperfect and mutilated remains, 
 the history of the former inhabitants of this globe. It 
 points out to us the order followed in the successive crea- 
 tion of animals, as discovered by their fossil remains, by their 
 degree of organization, and by their relations to the strata of 
 the earth, and unfolds the nature of those remarkable re- 
 volutions which have repeatedly taken place in the Animal 
 Kingdom, in consequence of sudden or gradual changes in 
 the condition of the surface of this globe. 
 
 The study of these various objects forms a vast and 
 interesting department of knowledge, which is intimately 
 connected with the most common wants and enjoyments of 
 man, and forms a subject of contemplation peculiarly cal- 
 culated to gratify, improve, and elevate the human mind ; 
 to extend its acquaintance with the sources of happiness 
 immediately around us ; to store it with useful and prac- 
 tical knowledge; to enlarge our views of the wonderful 
 harmony which everywhere pervades the economy of the 
 universe ; to exalt our conceptions of the infinite wisdom, 
 power, and goodness of the great Author of Nature, as 
 displayed in his minutest works ; and thus to lay the most 
 rational and lasting foundations of piety and virtue, and 
 strengthen the best principles of morality and religion. 
 
 The Animal Kingdom, which forms the exclusive sub- 
 ject of our study in this place, is by far the greatest of 
 the three kingdoms of" natural bodies, in regard to the num- 
 ber of distinct species which it comprehends; and these 
 possess a more complicated and perfect mechanism, exhibit 
 a more interesting series of phenomena, and have a closer 
 relation to the necessities and enjoyments of man, than mi- 
 nerals or plants. Man himself, and all the beings that, 
 like him, enjoy life, motion and feeling, are comprehended 
 in this great division of natural bodies. 
 
 More than a thousand species of Quadrupeds have been 
 described in Zoological works, five thousand species of 
 Birds, and as many species of Fishes, are now known to 
 naturalists. The number and variety of Reptiles is im- 
 
mense ; but as the greater part live in the most concealed 
 situations in tropical deserts, in marshes, heaths, and rivers, 
 and as many of them are armed with the most deadly 
 poison; this class of animals has been a less favourite 
 object of study, fewer of them are known, and they still 
 present to the enterprising naturalist a rich field of inter- 
 esting and important investigation. The species of Shell- 
 fish or Testacea, Crustaceous Animals, Worms, Radiated 
 Animals, and Zoophytes, which almost cover the bottom 
 of the vast abyss, exceed all calculation. The forms of 
 Animalcules vary in almost every infusion of vegetable or 
 animal matter, which nature presents, or art can form. 
 Nine hundred species of intestinal Worms have already 
 been extracted from the bodies of animals, although com- 
 paratively little of the attention of naturalists has hitherto 
 been directed to this extraordinary tribe of beings. The 
 beautiful forms and colours of Insects, their interesting 
 habits and economy, their extraordinary abundance and 
 the facility of obtaining them, their singular metamorphoses, 
 their importance to mankind and in the economy of nature, 
 have long rendered this class a more popular and attractive 
 object of study, and a hundred thousand species of these 
 animals are now known to naturalists, a number which ex- 
 ceeds that of the Vegetable and Mineral Kingdoms taken 
 together. 
 
 The number of individuals belonging to the Animal 
 Kingdom, is not less remarkable than the varieties of their 
 form ; notwithstanding the many obstacles to their increase, 
 from the constant warfare between the different species, 
 from disease, accident, the changes of season, and the de- 
 structive ravages of man. The weakness of herbivorous 
 Quadrupeds, induces them to congregate for protection in 
 large flocks, which cover extensive tracts of country, both 
 in the Old and New World : as the deer, the sheep, the ox, 
 the rabbit, the hare, the paca, and many others. The 
 numbers are still greater in the class of Birds, where the 
 vast flocks sometimes darken the heavens like an eclipse : 
 
as in the wild pigeons of America, crows, gulls, &c. The 
 number of Fishes which people the vast expanse of the ocean 
 may be judged of from the immense shoals of individual 
 species we frequently observe assembled together; as of 
 the cod, the herring, and many other species ; or from the 
 number of ova they produce at every period of spawning ; 
 upwards of 200,000 ova, for example, have been counted 
 in the spawn of a single carp, and more than 1,000,000 
 in that of the flounder. We frequently find our coasts 
 covered, for miles of extent, with a continuous and dense 
 layer of conchiferous or cirrhipedous animals, in a living 
 state, as with the mussel, the oyster, the barnacle; and 
 their debris accumulated, and thrown up by tides and 
 currents of the sea, form hills of shells, or are collected 
 into extensive beds, of some hundred feet in depth. The 
 distinguished Italian naturalist and traveller Donati 
 found the bottom of the Adriatic to be composed of a 
 compact bed of shells, crustaceous animals, and corals, 
 not less than six hundred feet in thickness. These 
 animals are infinitely more abundant on the tropical 
 shores of the New World, and the vast deposits of 
 them found in the interior of the earth, show how ex- 
 tensively they peopled the ancient seas. Myriads of Mol- 
 lusca and Conchifera live even beneath the sands of the 
 sea, as the Cardium, the Mactra, the Solen, the Mya, and 
 the Natica ; and the interior of the rocky strata are peo- 
 pled with living tribes of lithophagous animals ; as the 
 Pholas, the Teredo, the Petricola, and the Saxicava. The 
 moving hills of ants, the countries laid waste by locusts, 
 and the clouds of insects often observed, afford some idea 
 of the immense number of individuals which compose the 
 species of this class. Many Radiated Animals, as Medusa, 
 Actinia, and Asterw, are so numerous, that their carcasses, 
 accumulated on the shores of the sea, are employed to 
 manure the adjacent countries ; their abundance often 
 changes the colour of vast tracts of the ocean, or covers it 
 with a sheet of fire. The waters of the Arctic Seas and 
 
10 
 
 the floating cliffs of ice which tower above their surface are 
 often tinged of various hues by different kinds of Medusaria, 
 so minute that more than a hundred thousand are contained 
 in a cubic foot of water. The bottom of the vast abyss is 
 nearly paved with Zoophytes, which, in the Southern 
 Hemisphere, rise up from great depths to form extensive 
 reefs and islands. Every drop of the ocean, from the one 
 Pole to the other, teems with animalcules, and Nature has 
 amply provided for all their wants and enjoyments. 
 
 The various classes of animals spread over the globe, 
 whether inhabitants of the dry land, or of lakes and rivers, 
 or of the atmosphere, or dispersed through the boundless 
 deep, find, in the rich and varied clothing of organic mat- 
 ter covering the nakedness of the earth, sufficient nourish- 
 ment, not only for their own subsistence and growth, and 
 for the continuance and increase of their species, but like- 
 wise sufficient to enable each individual to support various 
 tribes of parasitic inhabitants. Innumerable species of 
 Insects, Arachnida, and Annelides, move to and fro, on the 
 surface of their bodies, feeding on the excreted matters of 
 the skin, or sucking the vital fluids from the interior. 
 Various kinds of ova are deposited, matured, and hatched 
 under the skin, although the animals they contain are not 
 destined to a parasitic life. Numerous species of Worms 
 live and propagate, imbedded in the muscular and cellular 
 tissues, in the internal cavities and vessels, and in the 
 parenchymatous substance, even of the best protected or- 
 gans of the body ; as in the substance of the liver, the 
 spleen, the kidneys, and the brain itself. And various 
 fluids and secretions of the living system contain myriads 
 of Infusoria, whose singular forms, phenomena, and modes 
 of generation have been attentively examined and recorded 
 by naturalists. 
 
 Every region of the globe presents distinct species of 
 animals: the animals of America differ from those of Eu- 
 rope; those of Europe, differ from the species of Africa 
 and Asia ; and the species of New Holland, differ from 
 
11 
 
 those of all the other continents of the earth. Every part 
 of the ocean, every lake and river, and every species of 
 plant on the earth, has its particular animated inhabitants. 
 The trees of the forest may be distinguished by the insects 
 that inhabit them, as animals are known by their parasitic 
 worms and epizoaria. From the Mole, the Beaver, the 
 Rabbit, the Paca, that burrow in the earth, or the worms 
 and insects that people its dunnest caverns, to the Chamois, 
 the Deer, the Buctin, that bound along the snow-clad 
 summits of the mountains from the Zoophytes and Radi- 
 ated Animals that line the deepest submarine caves, or the 
 lithophagous tribes that dig their habitation in the rocks 
 at the bottom of the sea, to the Eagles that soar above 
 the clouds from the Walrus, the Seal, the Bear, that 
 people the dreary regions of the frigid Zone, or the gigan- 
 tic Cetacea that gambol beneath the ices of the Poles, to 
 the ferocious Feline tribes that range the sandy deserts of 
 the burning Zone the Animal Kingdom is distributed over 
 every portion of this planet. Every element, and every situ- 
 ation where life could exist, is crowded with animated be- 
 ings, which, like ourselves, have their feelings, their wants, 
 and their enjoyments. 
 
 In this vast host of living beings, which all start into 
 existence, vanish, and are renewed, in swift succession, 
 like the shadows of the clouds in a summer's day, each 
 species has its peculiar form, structure, properties, and 
 habits, adapted to its situation, which serve to distin- 
 guish it from every other species ; and each individual has 
 its destined purpose in the economy of nature. Indivi- 
 duals appear and disappear in rapid succession upon the 
 earth, and entire species of animals have their limited du- 
 ration, which is but a moment, compared with the antiquity 
 of the globe. Numberless species, and even entire genera 
 and tribes of animals, the links which once connected the 
 existing races, have long since begun and finished their 
 career, and their former existence can now only be recog- 
 nized by their skeletons, embalmed in the soft superficial 
 
strata of the earth, or by their casts preserved in the more 
 solid rocks. Of the single genus of shells, called Ammo- 
 nites, for example, upwards of three hundred fossil species 
 have been described; and, of these, a hundred species 
 belong to our own strata ; yet, not a single individual, in a 
 living state, is now found to inhabit the waters of the 
 globe. Almost every stratum, composing the crust of the 
 globe, from the newest alluvial deposits to the oldest tran- 
 sition rocks, abounds with the fossil relics of different 
 classes of the Animal Kingdom, from whose remains, 
 often mutilated, imperfect, or extraordinary in their forms, 
 the Zoologist must learn to decypher the history of the 
 species, and discover their relations to the existing races. 
 A new and boundless field of inquiry is thus laid open 
 to his investigation, in the study of the characters and 
 relations of Fossil Animals a study highly interesting 
 to the Physiologist, as pointing out the successive creation 
 of animal forms, and the changes which organization has 
 experienced since the first appearance of animals upon this 
 earth, and essential to the Geologist, as determining the 
 comparative antiquity and the identity of strata, and 
 unfolding the nature of those terrible events that have 
 repeatedly broken up the surface of this planet, raising 
 the inhabitants of the sea to the summits of lofty moun- 
 tains, and sinking extensive forests with all their animated 
 inhabitants beneath the bed of the ocean. 
 
 The study of the animal kingdom forms an important 
 branch of Natural History, or that science which treats of 
 the properties and relations of all the natural bodies which 
 can be considered as proper objects of human investiga- 
 tion ; and it is intimately connected, not only with all the 
 other branches of that extensive department of knowledge, 
 but likewise with various branches of Medicine, Chemistry, 
 Agriculture, and other sciences and arts. 
 
 The material substances every where surrounding us, 
 and which form the objects of Natural History, are conti- 
 nually acting, directly or indirectly, on our bodily frame, 
 
13 
 
 and, through its medium, on our consciousness. To their 
 incessant operation, indeed, we owe the continuance of our 
 existence, and all the enjoyments and pains with which it 
 is replete. The external form of the different parts of our 
 body, and all our organs of sense, relate to the properties 
 of the objects around us. The structure of our internal 
 organs, and every faculty and instinct we possess, have an 
 intimate relation to the objects of the external world. The 
 elaborate mechanism of the eye would have been useless 
 without light, the ear without the vibrations of the air, 
 and the delicate structure of the organ of smell without the 
 odorous emanations of external bodies. We have conti- 
 nually recourse to external objects to supply the necessities 
 of the body, to repair its losses, and to remedy the injuries 
 it sustains. We ascribe to impressions received from them 
 all the sensations, ideas, or states of the consciousness, 
 which form the first elements of our knowledge, and the 
 materials of all our most complex mental operations. They 
 administer to all 'the wants of the body, to the pleasures of 
 sense, and to the most refined intellectual enjoyments ; so 
 that, in our present state of being, the objects of the mate- 
 rial world are intimately connected even with our intellec- 
 tual existence, with all our instincts and passions, and with 
 every internal feeling of pleasure or of pain. 
 
 These objects, however, are very differently related to 
 us by their natural properties ; some are indifferent to us 
 with regard to pleasure or pain, or to the wants of our 
 body ; others are productive of agreeable sensations, or are 
 essential to our existence ; and others, by their noxious 
 qualities, are injurious or destructive to our nature, and 
 require to be carefully distinguished and avoided. The 
 study, therefore, of the distinguishing properties, and the 
 various relations of natural bodies, forms a most suitable 
 and important occupation of the human mind. 
 
 By means of our senses we are admitted to an acquaint- 
 ance with the external world, and are enabled to dis- 
 tinguish, by their sensible qualities, the objects which we 
 
14 
 
 ought to pursue, from those which are unsuitable to our 
 nature. The descriptions of Natural History, both with 
 relation to the organic and inorganic kingdoms, relate to 
 the sensible qualities of bodies ; and there is this great 
 satisfaction attending all their details, that they are 
 founded on observation and experience, and their evi- 
 dence rests on the established laws of thought. The des- 
 cription of a natural body, whether animal, vegetable, or 
 mineral, consists in an enumeration of its various proper- 
 ties, either ascertained by simple observation, or discovered 
 by the aid of experiment, which is only a more refined 
 mode of observation. By the ordinary laws of asso- 
 ciation, our perceptions are grouped together, to form 
 that assemblage of properties we ascribe to external bodies. 
 And although we have no means of ever discovering any 
 connexion or relation between the immediate objects of our 
 consciousness and the beings to which we refer them, we 
 use the descriptive terms red, green, warm, cold, sweet, 
 bitter, and many others, without the least ambiguity or 
 impropriety, to express the qualities of bodies. It is ob- 
 vious, however, that they express only sensations, which, 
 without mind, could have no existence in the universe. 
 The existence or non-existence of a substratum connecting 
 the supposed qualities of bodies, cannot therefore affect the 
 propriety of the language employed in Natural History, 
 or the accuracy of its descriptions, which, provided they 
 correspond with all the ideas produced by the objects de- 
 scribed, will be equally true, whether the objects be in 
 their essence spiritual or material. 
 
 The definite descriptions which Natural History re- 
 quires, are applicable only to a small portion of the visible 
 universe. The vast distances of the celestial bodies pre- 
 clude all scientific examination of the materials of which 
 they are composed, and the Naturalist merely determines 
 the influence they exert on animate and inanimate beings. 
 Their relations to each other, and the grand and interest- 
 ing phenomena they exhibit, their magnitudes and dis- 
 
15 
 
 tances, and the laws which regulate their stupendous 
 movements, belong to the sublime science of Astronomy. 
 The atmosphere snrrounding this earth, the waters which 
 cover so large a portion of its surface, the solid materials 
 of which the globe is composed, and the innumerable or- 
 ganic productions which clothe its surface, are the objects 
 which the natural historian examines and describes. 
 
 A knowledge of the composition, properties, and phe- 
 nomena of the Atmosphere, throws much light on the 
 history and functions of animals, as this fluid is the great 
 medium through which oxygen, heat, light, electricity, 
 and all imponderable agents, the great springs of vital 
 phenomena, are conveyed to organized beings. It unfolds 
 to us the theory of respiration in all terrestrial and aquatic 
 Animals, and shows the cause of the variety of temperature 
 in the warm and cold-blooded classes. It explains to us 
 the migrations of Animals, the theory of their geographical 
 distribution, and many of their instincts and habits. It 
 illustrates the periodical changes in the plumage of Birds 
 and the furs of Quadrupeds, and the distribution of colours 
 over the animal world. The Atmosphere is the medium 
 by which sounds and odours are transmitted to sensitive 
 beings, and it is intimately connected with irritability, 
 the most general and the most inexplicable property of 
 animal matter. This fluid is indeed the most essential of 
 all the elements to the continuance of animal life, and is 
 abundantly supplied to every individual from the sum- 
 mits of the highest mountains to the greatest depths of the 
 sea. 
 
 The Waters of the earth cover three-fourths of its sur- 
 face, and support a thousand times more animated beings 
 than people the atmosphere or the dry land. The ocean 
 covers vast plains, deep valleys and caverns, stupendous 
 mountains and precipices, rapid gulfs and whirlpools, a 
 rich and dense vegetation, a world of animals, and all the 
 other natural scenery presented by the exposed continents. 
 It is the great oxydizing principle of the metallic nucleus 
 
16 
 
 of the globe, the pabulum of volcanic fires, the source of 
 earthquakes, and the most powerful agent in the changes 
 continually going on in the interior and on the surface of 
 the earth. It gives off the materials of clouds, rain, snow, 
 and hail, which give origin to springs, rivers, lakes, gla- 
 ciers, icebergs, and many grand and interesting appear- 
 ances of nature* Water is the nourishment of the Vege- 
 table Kingdom, and is necessary to the support of most 
 animals. A knowledge of that branch of Natural History 
 which treats of the waters of the globe, is important to the 
 Zoologist, as explaining the physical and geographical dis- 
 tribution, and the habits of aquatic animals. It accounts 
 for the showers of animals that frequently fall from the 
 atmosphere, as of fishes, frogs, shells, worms, &c. The 
 ova of Zoophytes are not, like those of fishes, fixed by the 
 parent in a situation favourable for their development, 
 but are committed, like the seeds of marine plants, to the 
 mercy of the waves, so that their distribution is regulated 
 chiefly by the currents and motions of the sea, which Hy- 
 drography points out. The immense body of heated waters 
 borne by the gulf stream through the Atlantic from the 
 Equator towards the Arctic seas, conveys with it into high 
 latitudes the temperature of tropical seas a circumstance 
 which enables us to account for the occurrence of ani- 
 mals along its course in latitudes far beyond their natural 
 climate. 
 
 The study of the Animal Kingdom is inseparably con- 
 nected with the science of Geology. No useful information 
 respecting fossil animals can be learned or communicated 
 without some acquaintance with the strata in which they 
 occur, and with the general structure of the crust of the 
 earth. And the successful study of extraneous fossils re- 
 quires a very extensive acquaintance with the structure 
 and character of the existing races, the nature and history 
 of extinct animals being determined chiefly by a compa- 
 rison with allied existing species. It is by finding accumu- 
 lations of organic remains, spread over successive strata deep 
 
17 
 
 in the earth, and which must have once lived upon its sur- 
 face, that the Geologist has discovered that the crust of 
 this globe must have undergone very great changes in the 
 course of ages, and that it must have exhibited many a 
 rich and varied surface, crowded with animated inhabit- 
 ants, long anterior to the existence of the busy scene we 
 now contemplate and enjoy. Anterior to the formation of 
 the transition rocks, there appear to have been no animals 
 upon this earth ; and during the formation of all the tran- 
 sition and secondary strata, the animals that existed were 
 almost all marine, which shows that these strata were 
 mostly of marine origin, and that animal life originated 
 and was developed in the bosom of the deep. Besides 
 pointing out the order of succession in the formation of the 
 strata, and their mode of formation by quiet deposition 
 from a fluid, which alone could have preserved the delicate 
 structure of the enclosed relics, these remains of animals 
 show what must have been the nature of the situation 
 where we now find them, at the period of their deposition ; 
 whether it formed the bottom of a fresh-water lake, or the 
 submerged surface of a peopled continent, or the bed of a 
 primeval sea ; and many strata of the earth are character- 
 ized by the particular species of fossil animals they contain. 
 By thus pointing out the extensive and terrible catastro- 
 phes to which the Animal Kingdom has often been subject- 
 ed, we are enabled to perceive a cause of the many ap- 
 parent interruptions in the chain of existing species. 
 
 As the knowledge of Mountain Rocks is founded on an 
 accurate acquaintance with the characters and properties 
 of simple Minerals, the study of Mineralogy is intimately 
 connected with that of Organic Remains, and a previous 
 acquaintance with the practical details of this branch of 
 Natural History will greatly facilitate the most intricate 
 and obscure paths of the Zoologist. He is often unable to 
 obtain any information as to the locality or the geological 
 situation of the fossil animals presented to his inspection, 
 and must judge from the nature of the enveloping mass or 
 
 C 
 
18 
 
 of the petrifying substances, both concerning the mineral 
 strata in which they were imbedded, and the nature of the 
 countries in which they were found. The flinty Echini 
 most generally indicate the chalk formation a formation 
 which we observe to form low and flat districts on the east 
 coast of England. Encrinites mineralized with calcareous 
 spar, we most frequently find in the limestones of the coal 
 formation, which form low and fertile countries, varied only 
 by gentle elevations of the strata, or interrupted by abrupt 
 projections of trap rocks, as in many of the secondary 
 lime-stone districts of Scotland. The external aspect of the 
 skeletons of Fishes, from the Paris gypsum formation, is 
 very different from that of the fresh-water fishes of the 
 bituminous marl-slate, independent of their zoological 
 characters. 
 
 The branches of Natural History we have hitherto men- 
 tioned, as connected with or illustrative of Zoology, relate 
 only to bodies of a simple composition, and whose pheno- 
 mena, depending on the ordinary affinities of matter, exerted 
 at insensible or at perceptible distances, admit of rigorous 
 explanation on chemical principles, or are regulated by the 
 laws of mechanical philosophy. The composition of organ- 
 ized bodies is more complex : they assume more regular 
 and determinate forms, the affinities of their component 
 elements are more nicely balanced, and they exhibit a 
 series of phenomena, for a definite period, too complicated 
 to be explained in the present state of science, either on the 
 principles of Chemistry or Mechanics. From numerous 
 experiments, Naturalists have been led to believe that the 
 simplest organized bodies, as Monads and Globulin^ ori- 
 ginate spontaneously from matter in a fluid state, and that 
 these simple bodies, of spontaneous origin, are the same 
 with the gelatinous globules which compose the soft parts 
 of Animals and Plants. Many of the phenomena of Plants, 
 as the absorption of moisture by their roots, the respira- 
 tion of the leaves, their turning in the direction of the sun, 
 and the passage of fluids through their inert tubes, are 
 
19 
 
 dependant on the common laws of inorganic matter ; the 
 pulpy matter of ripe fruits has its particles arranged in 
 strict conformity with the laws of crystallization, and often 
 possesses a power of double refraction, as in the gooseberry 
 and the orange ; and in'the Animal Kingdom the same laws 
 operate in the formation of the silicious crystals, which com- 
 pose the skeleton of many Zoophytes, as the Cliona, Ha- 
 Una, Leucalia and Tethya, and the calcareous crystals of 
 many Radiated Animals, as the Asterias and Echinus. 
 This, however, does not affect the great characters which 
 distinguish organized from inorganic bodies, and the Vege- 
 table from the Animal Kingdom. 
 
 Organic bodies have an arrangement of internal parts 
 adapted for the transmission of fluids through every part 
 of their structure, which enables them to grow by a pro- 
 cess of internal developement. They subsist on fluids, 
 which in vegetables are sucked up by external filaments 
 or roots from the soil in which they are fixed, or by their 
 whole external surface as in Hydrophytes ; and in animals 
 the fluid aliment is absorbed from an internal reservoir 
 or stomach, by ramified vessels, like internal roots, or it 
 transudes through the surface of their body, as in those 
 animalcules which have no internal cavity. The chemical 
 composition and the whole organization of vegetable bodies 
 are more simple than those of animals, and their phe- 
 nomena are more obviously dependant on physical laws. 
 Their analogies, therefore, with the complicated mechanism 
 and functions of the human body are very remote, and the 
 science of Botany, which forms an important branch of the 
 healing art, owes its high importance and attractions to 
 circumstances totally different from those close analogies, 
 which connect the study of animals, with the practice 
 and pursuits of medical science. 
 
 The elegant forms and delicate structure of Plants, the 
 beauty and harmony of their colours, and the fragrant 
 odours they exhale, the refreshing verdure, the variety, and 
 the richness which they spread over the face of nature, the 
 
 c 2 
 
20 
 
 delicious fruits they yield, and the raiment and shelter they 
 afford, the interesting series of changes they undergo at dif- 
 ferent seasons of the year, the support they yield to the ani- 
 mal world, their various medicinal virtues, and their nume- 
 rous useful applications in domestic economy and the arts, 
 have long rendered this branch of Natural History a popu- 
 lar and favourite object of study. Plants afford hemp, 
 cotton, flax, and many other articles employed in forming 
 clothing. Wood, of all natural substances, is the most 
 extensively employed in the arts ; it forms the frame- 
 work of cities ; and fleets, which are bulwarks of empires, 
 and convey population and the productions of commerce 
 over the globe, are built of it. Opium, Camphor, Squills, 
 Belladonna, Chincona, Jalap, Fox-glove, Ipecacuan, Rhu- 
 barb, and many other of the most active remedies em- 
 ployed in medicine, are derived from Plants ; they yield 
 also many of the most common articles of food, and the 
 most favourite dainties of the table. Spirits, wines, and the 
 various products of fermentation, are derived from vege- 
 table substances. There are few plants which do not 
 afford sustenance to some kind of animals; and as they 
 grow by absorbing inorganic matter, they are a kind of 
 laboratory, in which matter is organized to suit it for 
 the digestive organs of animals. Many plants which are 
 poisonous to one kind of animals, are the proper food of 
 another kind. Numerous species of insects reside and 
 subsist only on particular species of the Vegetable King- 
 dom, and most of the feathered inhabitants of the air 
 select the seeds and fruits of particular Plants. The 
 forests of marine plants at the bottom of the sea, are 
 covered with animated inhabitants, which depend on them 
 for subsistence, or cling to them as points of support. 
 The Animal and Vegetable Kingdoms are so intimately 
 blended at their origins, that Naturalists are at present 
 divided in opinion as to the kingdom to which many well- 
 known substances belong as the Codium tomentosum, 
 Alcyonium bursa, the Corallina officinalis, rubra, and 
 
id) Dichotomari^ Tremella, Globulin^ &c. Seve- 
 ral organized bodies, as Oscillatoria, Conferva, and Mo- 
 nadesy which have neither roots, nor capillary vessels, nor 
 a digestive stomach, nor other distinct organs of plants or 
 animals, connect the Vegetable and Animal Kingdoms by 
 imperceptible gradations. Many Plants, as the Cistus he- 
 lianthemum, Hedysarum gyrans, Mimosa pudica, and Ber- 
 beris vulgaris, exhibit motions similar to those which we 
 ascribe to irritability in animals. The study of the al- 
 most mechanical functions of plants, enables us better to 
 comprehend the mechanism of the complicated functions 
 of animals. An acquaintance with the species and history 
 of Plants is indispensable to the Entomologist, and is ne- 
 cessary to the successful study of Ornithology. It ex- 
 plains to us many of the most remarkable habits of insects, 
 and the reasons of the periodical flight of migratory birds 
 over vast tracts of the ocean. When we consider, in- 
 deed, the importance of a knowledge of Plants in the do - 
 mestication of useful animals, in the rearing of foreign and 
 domestic species, and in illustrating the history and eco- 
 nomy of most animals, we find that an acquaintance with 
 the Vegetable Kingdom is calculated to facilitate the path 
 of the Zoologist in every department of his investigations. 
 
 In the infancy of Botany it was pursued only by medi- 
 cal men, and with a view to the medicinal virtues of plants. 
 The numerous useful applications and the extended rela- 
 tions of the science, however, in modern times, have raised 
 this interesting study to a high rank in the scale of human 
 knowledge ; and by the zeal and industry of its cultivators 
 in all parts of the earth, nearly seventy thousand species of 
 Plants have been discovered and characterised. The study 
 of the Vegetable Kingdom is an inexhaustible source of 
 innocent and rational recreation, has given rise to many of 
 the most brilliant and useful productions of human genius, 
 and has long been an independent branch of academical 
 instruction in most of the Universities of Europe. 
 
 Although the study of the Animal Kingdom has not 
 
hitherto met with the same fostering care in the establish- 
 ed Universities of Britain, it embraces the consideration 
 of a series of beings, whose relations to the wants and 
 comforts of man, are not less numerous and important 
 than those of Plants, and it has long been cultivated with 
 advantage and success in the Universities of France, 
 Italy, and Germany. Whether, indeed, we consider Ani- 
 mals as affording to man materials for the maintenance 
 and growth of the body, or medicines to prevent, alle- 
 viate, or remove its diseases, or clothing to protect his 
 frame against the vicissitudes of temperature, and the 
 inclemencies of the seasons, or physical power to aid 
 him in the operations of art, or protection against the at- 
 tacks and depredations of foes, or ornaments to please and 
 cultivate his taste, or luxuries to gratify the sense, or know- 
 ledge extensively applicable to his necessities and enjoy- 
 ments, or an endless source of intellectual amusement and 
 gratification, their study forms a department of knowledge 
 which yields to no other in its immediate importance to the 
 existence and happiness of man. 
 
 The form and disposition of the human teeth, the struc- 
 ture of the digestive organs, the natural instincts and appe- 
 tites, and the results of constant and universal experience, 
 show that man was designed to subsist partly on animal 
 flesh ; and almost every class of animals supplies him with 
 abundant and wholesome food. The whole class of Quad- 
 rupeds, and almost every part of their body, the muscles, 
 the brain and spinal cord, the lungs, the heart, the stomach 
 and intestines, the liver and pancreas, the kidneys, the ute- 
 rus, the placenta and udder, the skin, the fat, the marrow 
 and gelatinous substance of the bones, the blood, and the 
 milk, are used as alimentary substances. All the species 
 of Birds, and their eggs, afford a wholesome nutriment to 
 man, and even their nests are sometimes used as articles of 
 food. The flesh and the eggs of many species of Reptiles, 
 form also esteemed and highly nutritious articles of food. 
 Several kinds of turtles, as the Testudo ferox, Lin. which 
 
abounds in the rivers of South America ; the Testudo 
 Gr&ca, an inhabitant of Africa and Sardinia ; the Testudo 
 squamata of Java ; and the Testudo Europea, which is the 
 species most abundantly distributed over the southern 
 countries of Europe, are prized as dainties of the table. 
 Some species of the lizard tribe are also used as food. 
 Both the flesh and eggs of the Iguana are eaten. Some 
 species of the viper are prepared as food, and several kinds 
 of frogs are in common use on the Continent, as delicate 
 articles for the table. Nearly the whole class of Fishes are 
 employed as articles of food, and in many parts of the 
 globe they form almost the entire support of extensive 
 populations. On the coasts of Lapland, Siberia, and the 
 western parts of Africa, many rude tribes make bread 
 of dried or pounded fishes. Most of the marine and 
 fresh-water Molluscous and Conchiferous Animals afford 
 a wholesome and palatable food, and are very extensively 
 used by those who inhabit the shores of the sea; the 
 cuttle-fish, the oyster, the mussel, the clam, the cockle, 
 the whelk, the limpet, and the snail, are among those in 
 common use. The Romans were supplied with oysters from 
 the British coasts. Numerous Crustacea, as all the larger 
 species of crabs and lobsters, the prawn, the shrimp, 
 &c., are extensively employed as articles of diet, and as a 
 highly flavoured condiment to more substantial aliment. 
 Even the classes of Insects, Tunicata, and Radiata, supply 
 articles of nutriment to man ; the locust is extensively used 
 as an article of food, the honey of the bee, some species of 
 ascidcz and actin& t and the ovaria of the Echinus esculen- 
 tus are also employed. 
 
 Many Animals which feed on substances obnoxious 
 to us, afford, notwithstanding, a wholesome nourishment. 
 Numerous insectivorous Quadrupeds subsist entirely on 
 the most loathsome and indigestible insects and worms. 
 Birds, which feed on the most poisonous reptiles and insects, 
 yet afford a wholesome flesh ; and crabs, which feed on the 
 most putrid carcasses of fishes, yet yield a highly palatable 
 
nutriment. There is so close a chain of connection and 
 dependence between all the different classes of the Animal 
 Kingdom, that even the lowest may be said to contribute, 
 though indirectly, to the sustenance of man. Animalcules 
 are the food of Zoophytes, which, in their turn, are con- 
 sumed by Radiated Animals and worms; these are devoured 
 by Crustaceous and Molluscous animals, which serve as the 
 food of Fishes ; and Fishes, which are born to a constant 
 warfare, feed on each other, or are pursued by the amphi- 
 bious and cetaceous Mammalia which inhabit the deep, 
 or are seized by the clouds of birds which watch their 
 motions from above, or they are dragged from their secret 
 recesses by the artifice of man. The different classes of 
 Animals generally subsist on those beneath them in the 
 scale of being, or they derive their support from the Vege- 
 table Kingdom, so that matter is perpetually advancing to 
 higher states of organization. 
 
 An acquaintance with the composition, and the degree 
 of digestibility of alimentary substances derived from the 
 various classes of the Animal Kingdom, would prove an im- 
 portant acquisition to medical science. It would greatly 
 extend the powers of the practitioner, by enabling him 
 to derive from animal substances, nutriment adapted to the 
 various states of the digestive organs, in health, conva- 
 lescence, debility, or disease. Thus, in the class of Quad- 
 rupeds, the muscular parts, which consist chiefly of fi- 
 brine, with a little gelatine and osmazome, are the most 
 nutritious; the brain and the glandular parts, which are 
 composed chiefly of coagulated albumen, are less nutri- 
 tious ; and the tendons, ligaments, and membranous parts, 
 which consist principally of a condensed gelatine, afford 
 the weakest nourishment. 
 
 The Animal Kingdom not only presents an inexhaustible 
 supply, and an endless variety of wholesome food, adapted 
 to every state of the constitution, to every taste and 
 idiosyncrasy, to every age, sex, and climate, but likewise 
 
25 
 
 affords many of the most useful and powerful remedies 
 employed in the treatment of disease. 
 
 Castor, a powerful antispasmodic medicine, employed in 
 hysteric affections, is a secretion of two glandular sacs, 
 which terminate at the prepuce of the Beaver. 
 
 The well-known powerful aromatic substance, Musk, 
 which is extensively used in epilepsy, hysteria, and other 
 spasmodic diseases, is obtained from two glandular sacs 
 placed before the prepuce of the Moschus mosc h iferus, an 
 animal like a small goat, which inhabits the most dreary, 
 rocky summits of the high mountains of India, China, 
 Thibet, and other countries in the east of Asia. 
 
 Spermaceti, which is used internally in catarrh and 
 gonorrhoea, and externally in ointments to wounds and 
 excoriations of the skin, is procured from an unctuous 
 matter, filling numerous cartilaginous cavities on the upper 
 part of the head of the Cachalot, a cetaceous animal as 
 large as a whale, which abounds in various parts of the 
 South Sea. The highly esteemed odoriferous Ambergris is 
 an induration of feculent matter found in the large intes- 
 tine of this animal in a state of disease. 
 
 The crustaceous coverings of Crabs, which consists of the 
 carbonate and phosphate of lime, and certain concretions 
 of a similar composition, found in their stomach, have long 
 been employed as medicines to remove acidity of the di- 
 gestive organs. And various other calcareous substances 
 derived from the Animal Kingdom, as the burnt shells of 
 the common oyster, the egg-shells of the domestic fowl, 
 and the Corallina qfficinalis, have been extensively em- 
 ployed in medicine as antacids. These earthly products 
 of organization, when levigated and washed with water, 
 afford a calcareous powder, more free from silicious par- 
 ticles, or other impurities, than any other form of the 
 carbonate of lime. In the article sold by the apothecaries 
 of France, under the name of the Corallina officinalis, 
 Lamouroux detected more than a hundred distinct species 
 
26 
 
 of calcareous Zoophytes, which shows how extensively this 
 class of animals is capable of contributing to the articles of 
 the Materia Medica. 
 
 Other Zoophytes, containing Iodine, have been employed 
 with great success in the cure of bronchocele, and in the 
 removal of chronic glandular tumors, particularly in Sa- 
 voy, Switzerland, and other mountainous districts of the 
 Continent, and are recommended in all the British phar- 
 macopoeias. Flustrce are used in Iceland for the removal 
 of scorbutic affections. 
 
 The horns of the Deer, when filed down and boiled in 
 water, afford a transparent, colourless, and inodorous jelly, 
 which is advantageously employed internally, as a demul- 
 cent, in dysentery and diarrhoea, and as a light nutritive 
 article of diet for convalescents. The burnt horns of this 
 animal, from the quantity of phosphate of lime they con- 
 tain, have been used with much success in rickets and 
 mollifies ossium. 
 
 The Phosphate of Soda, used in medicine as a cathartic, 
 is procured by a complicated process from the burnt bones 
 of Quadrupeds. And Phosphoric Acid, which enters ex- 
 tensively into chemical compounds, and from which that 
 remarkably inflammable substance, Phosphorus, is obtain- 
 ed, is procured by a chemical process from animal sub- 
 stances. Empyreumatic animal oil, an antispasmodic, is 
 obtained, by distillation, from the bones and horns of 
 animals. 
 
 The basis of Sal Ammoniac, or Muriate of Ammonia, 
 which is used internally as a diuretic and diaphoretic, and 
 externally as a discutient to indolent tumors, is procured 
 by distillation from the urine and bones of animals. From 
 the quantity of ammonia disengaged during the combus- 
 tion of animal substances, the ammoniacal odour is fre- 
 quently adopted as a test of the animal nature of doubtful 
 organized bodies. 
 
 Isinglass (which consists of the dried coats of the swim- 
 ming bag of the sturgeon, and several other cartilaginous 
 
27 
 
 fishes,) the adipose substance of the common hog, and the 
 wax and honey of the bee, are extensively used for medical 
 and pharmaceutic purposes. And Prussic Acid, the most 
 powerful of all narcotic substances hitherto discovered, is 
 obtained from animal matter in a state of purification. 
 
 Scarcely any article employed in medicine or surgery 
 is more extensively beneficial than the Spanish Fly (Can- 
 tharis vesicatoria), both from its external and internal 
 action on the living body. These beautiful, shining, 
 green-coloured insects, swarm in the forests on the south- 
 ern shores of Europe, feeding on the leaves of the ash and 
 the elder tree, and spread a strong and unpleasant odour 
 around them. Although some insectivorous Quadrupeds, 
 as the hedgehog, can eat large quantities of them with 
 impunity, their corrosive action on the human system is so 
 great, that they frequently inflame and excoriate the hands 
 of those who are incautious in collecting them ; and on this 
 corrosive property their chief medicinal virtue depends- 
 In cases of violent visceral inflammation, the external use 
 of Cantharides, as rubifacients or vesicatories, cannot be 
 supplied by any other medicine. They create a powerful 
 determination to the surface, and cause a copious effusion 
 of the serous part of the blood, by which the internal 
 action is relieved. They have so remarkable a determi- 
 nation to the urinary organs, that strangury is sometimes 
 occasioned by their external use ; and when administered 
 internally, they sometimes act so violently on the kidneys 
 and bladder, as to induce inflammation of these organs, 
 and a discharge of blood. From this tendency to excite 
 the urinary organs, they are employed in various diseases 
 connected with debility of the urinary and genital systems, 
 and likewise as a diuretic in dropsy. 
 
 The Leech has been employed in blood-letting for more 
 than two thousand years ; its medical application is des- 
 cribed by Themison, who wrote before Celsus and Galen, 
 in the time of Augustus. Its use is likewise described 
 by Pliny } and is celebrated in the lines of Horace. This 
 
28 
 
 small simple vermiform Annelide has a dark colour 
 and forbidding aspect, and inhabits the foul stagnant 
 marshes and pools of fresh water throughout Europe. It 
 perforates the skin of animals by its three sharp teeth, and 
 by a constant sucking from the wound it fills its body with 
 their blood. From the smallness and superficial nature 
 of their wound, the mildness and safety of their opera- 
 tion, the facility of regulating the quantity of blood they 
 extract, and the local nature of the depletion, they are in 
 most inflammatory affections more convenient and effica- 
 cious than the lancet, much safer in their operation, and, 
 in many cases, nothing could supply their place. 
 
 I shall not here make any allusion to the innumerable 
 applications of animals and animal substances to the cure 
 of disease, recorded in the writings of the ancients, founded 
 for the most part on superstitious notions or on virtues 
 altogether imaginary, and which the more scientific prin- 
 ciples of modern medicine have entirely discarded from 
 practice. They will be found recorded in the Natural 
 History of Pliny, or scattered through the writings of 
 Hippocrates, Galen, Dioscorides, Avicenna, and other 
 Greek and Arabian physicians. 
 
 Man, though the most naked, helpless, and delicate of 
 animals, is the most extensively distributed over the globe, 
 and enjoys health and vigour in the torrid, temperate, and 
 frigid Zones, from the 74th degree of North Latitude, to 
 the 56th degree South of the Equator. Without fur, fea- 
 thers, scales, shells, or other natural covering, he is enabled 
 to endure the most opposite extremes of climate by the re- 
 markably accommodating power of his constitution, and 
 by his superior sagacity in devising artificial means to 
 defend his frame against all the vicissitudes of the seasons, 
 and the varieties of climate. He covers the nakedness of 
 his body with spoils from almost every class of animals. 
 The wool, the furs, and the skins of Quadrupeds are 
 manufactured into garments, or are worn in their natural 
 state. The plumage of Birds, the scaly coverings of Rep- 
 
29 
 
 tiles, the skins of Crocodiles, and even of some Fishes, and 
 the shells of the inferior tribes, are employed to cover his 
 body, and in many countries canoes and houses are also 
 covered with the skins of animals. In Polar regions, 
 where the scanty vegetation can supply him neither with 
 clothing nor food, the periodical migrations of Quadru- 
 peds and birds, and the great abundance of the lowest 
 tribes of animals, more than supply all his wants. The 
 rein-deer, the Polar-bear, the musk-bull, the wolf, and 
 several other Quadrupeds, were found by our enter- 
 prizing countrymen in the sterile and frozen solitudes 
 of Melville Island. The Naturalist who accompanied 
 Kotzebue, describes the waters of the Polar seas as swarm- 
 ing with animal life. " Medusae and Zoophytes, Mol- 
 lusca and Crustacea, innumerable species of Fishes in 
 incredibly crowded shoals, the gigantic swimming Mamma- 
 lia, whales, physeters, dolphins, morses, and seals, fill the 
 sea and its shores ; and countless flights of water-fowl rock 
 themselves on the bosom of the ocean, and in the twilight 
 resemble floating islands." 
 
 The productions of nature are subjected to numerous 
 changes tp suit them for administering to our wants and 
 enjoyments : hence have arisen the various arts which oc- 
 cupy so large a portion of the intellectual and physical 
 powers of man. The employment of the physical powers 
 of the lower animals in conducting the operations of art, 
 enables mankind to devote a larger share of intellectual 
 energy towards their improvement, and affords a power 
 more certain in its operation, more susceptible of every 
 modification, more extensively applicable, and more com- 
 pletely under control, than any mechanical forces ever 
 contrived by man. The employment of animals in the 
 operations of agriculture is almost coeval with the exist- 
 ence of the human race. Their use is no less ancient and 
 important in the operations of war, in travelling, hunting, 
 conveying over land the productions of industry and com- 
 merce, and in communicating or regulating the motion of 
 
30 
 
 engines and machinery used in the arts, or in the common 
 intercourse of society. The horse, the elephant, the camel, 
 the dromedary, the ox, the ass, the mule, the rein-deer, the 
 dog, the lama, and the buffalo, have long employed their 
 physical strength in the service of mankind. Horses were 
 as common in the armies of the Pharaohs, and of the 
 Israelites, and at the Trojan war, as at the present day. 
 Soloman had forty thousand stalls for the horses of his 
 household, and employed dromedaries as beasts of bur- 
 then. Armed elephants were used in the Persian ar- 
 mies before the invasions of Alexander the Great, and 
 were even marched into the centre of Italy. Dogs were 
 employed by the Lydians to hunt the boars of Mount 
 Olympus before the time of Herodotus. Regular posts 
 were established in Persia by means of horses before the 
 time of Xerxes. Camels were used in travelling in the 
 days of Abraham, about 2000 years before Christ, and 
 they were employed as beasts of burthen by the Persians 
 in their wars against the Lydians. Cyrus gained a signal 
 victory over the forces of Croesus, by employing a troop of 
 camels to frighten the horses of the Lydian Prince. Han- 
 nibal struck terror into the Roman army by a night stra- 
 tagem, with oxen. Asses were employed by the Israelites 
 as beasts of burthen four thousand years ago, as they are 
 employed in the same countries, at the present time. 
 
 We employ the watchfulness of the dog, the cat, and 
 some other domestic animals, to protect our property. We 
 employ the strength of the elephant, and the fleetness of 
 the horse, to defend our lives from danger. Bats, birds, 
 and insectivorous Quadrupeds, check the ravages of insects, 
 and protect the fruits of the field for our use. Birds and 
 insects, by devouring the putrid carcases of animals, check 
 the infectious emanations, which otherwise would corrupt 
 the air. Carnivorous Quadrupeds and rapacious Birds 
 form a necessary restraint to the too rapid increase of the 
 weaker tribes, which find a never-failing abundance of food 
 in the vegetable covering of the earth. 
 
31 
 
 We make use of innumerable productions of the Animal 
 Kingdom, to ornament our person or property. The tusks 
 of the Elephant, and of many other Quadrupeds, supply us 
 with ivory ; Reptiles yield us the tortoise-shell ; Molluscous 
 Animals the China ink; Conchiferous animals the rich 
 pearls of commerce ; and Zoophytes the beautiful red 
 coral. No art can imitate the fleece of the Tiger, or 
 the Leopard, or the Panther, or the Beaver, or the Er- 
 mine, nor the brilliant plumage of the Humming-birds, 
 nor the snow-white down of the Eider, nor the splendid 
 plumes of the Ostrich and the Birds of Paradise. The lustre 
 of the polished Nautilus, the Haliotis, the Turbo, the Os- 
 trea, and many other shells, surpasses that of the precious 
 metals; and no production of human industry equals the 
 rich product of the Silk-worm. Leather, hair, bristles, wool, 
 parchment, bladder, catgut, feathers, quills, down, sha- 
 green, horn, bone, whalebone, spermaceti, tallow, train-oil, 
 wax, honey, lac, cochineal, ivory-black, glue, China-ink, mo- 
 ther-of-pearl, are among the useful substances derived from 
 the Animal Kingdom. Ivory and tortoise-shell are exten- 
 sively used in the arts for ornamental purposes ; the red coral 
 and the sponge form valuable articles of commerce in the 
 East ; houses and pavements are built of madrepores on 
 the shores of the Red Sea and in the Ladrone Islands, and 
 they are also burnt to manure the land. 
 
 We are indebted to the Animal Kingdom for the de- 
 lightful and invigorating amusements of hunting, shooting, 
 and fishing, the pleasures of falconry, and the sanguinary 
 sports of the arena. Menageries have been the delight of 
 princes since the collection formed by Alexander for his 
 master Aristotle at Babylon. We feel an irresistible de- 
 light in watching the interesting habits, or in contemplating 
 the beautiful forms and structure of the lower animals, 
 and from the indications of mind and feeling which accom- 
 pany all their diversified movements, thev are much more 
 calculated to awake our sympathy and engage our affections 
 than the automatic phenomena of plants and minerals. 
 
We admire the elegance and fleetness of the horse ; we 
 view with terror the strength and fierceness of the lion 
 and tiger ; we are astonished at the magnitude of the whale, 
 the giraffe, and the elephant ; we make a companion of the 
 dog from its attachment and fidelity ; we are amused with 
 the grotesque vocal imitations of the parrot, and the in- 
 telligent airs of the monkey ; we admire the industry of 
 the ant, the mechanical skill of the beaver, and the syste- 
 matic economy of the bee ; we contemplate with pleasure 
 the soaring flight of the eagle, the immense velocity of 
 the falcon, and the strength of the ostrich ; we listen with 
 delight to the warbling of birds, and are charmed with the 
 melodious notes of the nightingale. 
 
 No department of science indeed is calculated to present 
 the mind with more interesting objects of contemplation, 
 or enrich it with more affecting imagery, than the study 
 of animated nature. It has called forth the intellectual 
 energies, and enriched the compositions of all the philoso- 
 phers, historians, and poets of antiquity, and has been a fer- 
 tile theme of the profoundest disquisitions in modern times. 
 The writings of Moses, and Solomon, of Homer, Hesiod, 
 and Oppian, of Herodotus, Plato, Xenophon, Aristotle, 
 Diodorus, and JElian, abound with interesting descriptions 
 and metaphors taken from the Animal Kingdom ; and in- 
 deed they constitute the most striking and affecting objects 
 of the works of genius in every language, in every coun- 
 try, and in every age. An accurate acquaintance with the 
 forms, characters, and habits of animals, gives energy and 
 life to the productions of the painter, the statuary, and 
 the sculptor ; and as they constitute the chief natural 
 riches of a country, they equally interest the navigator, 
 the traveller, the geographer, the historian, and the le- 
 gislator. They occupy a prominent part in the hierogly- 
 phics of Egypt, the sculptures of Greece, the mosaics of 
 ancient Rome, and in the great productions of Raphael, 
 Michael Angelo, Canova, and other artists of modern 
 times. They were the gods of the Egyptians, and are 
 
33 
 
 preserved, embalmed with their kings, in the Pyramids of 
 Memphis. The zoological traveller can never feel listless- 
 ness nor despair, whether he traverse the sandy deserts 
 of the torrid Zone, the ices of the Poles, or the trackless 
 expanse of the ocean, as, in the dreariest solitudes, every 
 element is to him peopled with interesting objects, all pro- 
 claiming the presence and the watchful care of the Great 
 Author of his being. 
 
 The natural philosopher, who contemplates the mechan- 
 ism of animals under all their diversified forms, to discover 
 the structure and connections of the various parts, their 
 adaptation to the purposed ends, and the laws which regu- 
 late their complicated movements, is lost in admiration of 
 the endless resources of Nature for the accomplishment of 
 the same design, the regularity and simplicity of the laws 
 which regulate the motions of living matter, and the 
 exquisite mechanism of the parts in all their minutest de- 
 tails. Even in the most complicated animals he finds the 
 solid frame-work, the skeleton and its joints, constructed 
 according to the strictest laws of mechanics, and the 
 muscles act in exact accordance with the principles of the 
 lever ; the functions of respiration, digestion, and nutri- 
 tion, are simple chemical processes, and the various se- 
 cretions of the living body are complicated products of 
 chemical action ; the nerves are a kind of galvanic wires, 
 which establish an instantaneous communication between 
 the most distant parts, and the whole circulating system, 
 with its tubes, valves, fluids, and moving powers, is a com- 
 plicated hydraulic machine ; the larynx, the organ of voice, 
 is an exquisite wind instrument, and the ear is admirably 
 constructed according to the principles of acoustics ; the 
 eye is the most perfect of optical instruments, and indeed 
 every part of the animal frame is constructed according 
 to the strictest rules of proportion, fitness, and beauty. 
 
 The study of the systematic arrangements of Zoology, 
 or the principles according to which the innumerable 
 species of animals spread over the globe are distributed 
 
 D 
 
into groups, as genera, orders, and classes, to point out 
 more readily their mutual relations, and aid the memory 
 in acquiring knowledge concerning them, is a kind of prac- 
 tical logic eminently calculated to exercise and improve 
 our faculties of observation, perception, memory, and rea- 
 son. Comparative Anatomy is a study of analysis, which 
 discovers to us the chain of connection between all the 
 apparently isolated facts of Zoology ; it continually un- 
 folds to our view new scenes of wisdom and design in every 
 part of the animal creation ; it accustoms us to patient 
 and connected inquiry ; it begets a habit of minute ob- 
 servation and accurate discrimination ; and it alone has 
 conferred the rank of science on the study of animated 
 nature. It has engaged the attention of the most distin- 
 guished philosophers from the time of Democritus to the 
 present period; it has contributed largely to the advance- 
 ment of all the branches of the healing art, and to the 
 progress of Geology, Zoology, and the philosophy of 
 mind ; and it has afforded many of the most useful and 
 brilliant discoveries recorded in the history of science, as 
 of the Lacteal Vessels, the Absorbent System, the Thoracic 
 Duct, the Circulation of the Blood, and the great principle 
 of Galvanism. ^ f ' 
 
 The course of instruction to be delivered on these two 
 extensive branches of science will embrace an account of 
 the structure, functions, history, and classification of ex- 
 isting animals, and a description of the fossil species. The 
 lectures and demonstrations will be illustrated by an ex- 
 tensive series of zoological specimens, drawings, and zoo- 
 tomical preparations, the greater part of which are already 
 collected and arranged. The classes, orders, and genera 
 of every division of the Animal Kingdom will be examined, 
 and the most useful and interesting species of each group 
 will be selected for illustration. 
 
 After a few preliminary Lectures, detailing the objects 
 and relations of the study of Animals, and explaining the 
 technical language of the science, the Comparative Ana- 
 
35 
 
 tomy will occupy the first half of the course, and will com- 
 prehend the demonstration and description of the organs 
 of motion, sensation, digestion, circulation, respiration, 
 secretion, and generation, in all the various tribes of the 
 lower animals. The physiological details, and the appli- 
 cations of the facts to Zoology, Medicine, and other sci- 
 ences, will accompany the demonstrations of structure ; 
 and this part of the course will conclude with observations 
 on the mode of conducting zootomical inquiries, and on 
 the art of making and preserving zootomical preparations. 
 
 The Zoology will succeed the anatomical details, as all 
 scientific arrangements of animals are founded on struc- 
 ture, and will be divided into two distinct departments ; 
 the first treating of existing animals, and' the second of 
 extinct species. 
 
 The history of the existing species of the Animal King- 
 dom will comprehend the characters, classification, habits, 
 and uses of the animals belonging to the classes, Mammalia, 
 Aves, Reptilia, Pisces, Mollusca, Conchifera, Tunicata, 
 Cirrhipeda, Anne tides, Crustacea, Arachmda, Insect a, Ver- 
 mes, Radial a, Zoophyta, and Infusoria, commencing with 
 the natural history of the human species. This division of 
 the course will be terminated with practical observations 
 on the methods of collecting, preparing, transporting, and 
 preserving zoological specimens. 
 
 The history of the known species of Fossil Animals will 
 be detailed in the same descending order of the classes, and 
 will contain an account of their distinguishing characters, 
 their physical condition, their geological situation, their 
 geographical distribution, and their relations to the exist- 
 ing species. In this part of the course, the connections of 
 the study of Fossil Animals, with the doctrines of Physio- 
 logy, will be pointed out, and also their relations to the 
 past revolutions of the globe. 
 
 THE END. 
 
LONDON : 
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Oct. 1, 1828. 
 
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