THE TEACHER'S 
 
 HAND-BOOK OF SLOJD.
 
 Published under ike auspices of the 
 SLOJD ASSOCIATION.
 
 THE TEACHER'S 
 
 HAND-BOOK OF SLOJD 
 
 AS PRACTISED AND TAUGHT AT NAAS 
 
 CONTAINING EXPLANATIONS AND DETAILS OF 
 EACH EXERCISE. 
 
 By OTTO SALOMON, 
 
 Director of the Naas Seminarium. 
 ASSISTED BY CARL NORDENDAHL AND ALFRED JOHANSSON. 
 
 TRANSLATED AND ADAPTED FOR ENGLISH TEACHERS 
 
 By MARY R. WALKER, AND WILLIAM NELSON, 
 
 St. George's Training College, Edinburgh, Of the Manchester Schools for the Deaf 
 
 and Dumb. 
 
 WITH OVER 130 ILLUSTRATIONS AND PLATES. 
 
 SILVER, BURDETT & CO., 
 
 PUBLISHERS, 
 
 BOSTON, NEW YORK, CHICAGO. 
 
 1891.
 
 PREFACE TO THE SWEDISH EDITION. 
 
 A DESIEE has for some time been expressed in various quarters for a 
 Hand-Book of Slojd, written from the educational point of view. There 
 have been many indications, especially in connection with Slojd carpen- 
 try, that teachers are not well enough acquainted with the tools em- 
 ployed to select and manage them properly ; and a degree of uncertainty 
 seems to prevail regarding the right method of executing the exercises. 
 Now, it is true that no one can acquire this knowledge from books ; the 
 way to acquire it is by practical, personal experience. Yet, to retain this 
 experience, and apply it, is partially a matter of memory, and, therefore, 
 systematically arranged directions are capable of rendering aid which is 
 not to be despised. A hand-book like the present does not, and could 
 not, supersede personal experience at the bench, or render a course of in- 
 struction unnecessary. Its sole object is to supplement and complete 
 the notes which every conscientious student takes during such a course. 
 Its aim is, therefore, chiefly to strengthen and confirm knowledge already 
 acquired ; but, though it is thus limited in scope, and, on this account, 
 perhaps to be regarded as in some respects incomplete, the writers 
 venture to express the hope that it will be welcomed by many teachers. 
 
 Books are, perhaps, more frequently published before their time than 
 after it ; and although there have been numerous opportunities for observ- 
 ation in the province of Educational Slojd during the last eighteen years 
 (the Slojd Institution at Naas having begun operations in 1872), the 
 writers are nevertheless uncertain whether the time has really yet come 
 for the publication of definite directions ; or, at least, whether their know- 
 ledge of the subject is yet complete enough to justify their appearance 
 in print. But, if they have been premature, the sole reason is to be 
 found in their desire to satisfy a want, which becomes every year more 
 pressing. 
 
 The views expressed in the book are, for obvious reasons, in full ac- 
 cordance with the system of instruction followed at Na'as. They are the 
 outcome of careful observations, and of experiments tested by practice. 
 Yet, even if these views should be confirmed by many teachers, the 
 writers, knowing that opinions are divided in the matter of instruction in 
 Slojd, as in most other questions, are fully prepared for adverse criticism. 
 Whether this criticism be justified or not, of one thing they are certain, 
 and that is, that in all honesty of purpose and strength of conviction 
 
 2065947
 
 IV. PREFACE. 
 
 they have striven to fulfil a for from easy task. They trust that others 
 with greater ability will succeed them and do it better. So little atten- 
 tion has hitherto been paid to the subject in question that it has been 
 necessary to generalise and draw conclusions almost exclusively from 
 personal experience. But their motto has been " Prove all things, hold 
 fast to that which is good " ; and much that in the beginning and in the 
 light of comparatively limited experience met with their approval, has, 
 on closer examination, been rejected or modified. 
 
 But, though this hand-book is necessarily the outcome chiefly of 
 personal observation and experience, the writers have to some extent 
 been able to avail themselves of the knowledge of others, and to refer to 
 competent authorities. This applies especially to Chapter II., for the 
 contents of which frequent reference has been made to the writings of 
 Karmarsch, Thelaus, and others. The Plates at the end, and most of 
 the Illustrations in the body of the book, are executed from original draw- 
 ings made for the purpose. 
 
 In order to keep within due limits, much has been omitted which, per- 
 haps, ought to have been included. Whether or not, on the other hand, 
 some things have been included which ought to have been omitted, must 
 in the meantime be left an open question. 
 
 The parts taken by the respective authors are as follows : Chapter I. 
 has been written by Otto Salomon ; Chapters II., III., and IV., by Carl 
 Nordendahl, who also undertook all arrangements connected with the 
 illustrations ; and Chapter V., by Alfred Johansson. Looked at as a 
 whole, however, this little book is the product of united labour, and it 
 contains nothing which is not the result of diligent interchange of thought.
 
 TRANSLATORS' PREFACE. 
 
 THIS Hand-book was written originally for Swedish people, and in ac- 
 cordance with the conditions which prevail in Swedish schools ; but the 
 presence of a large body of English teachers at the Autumn Slojd Course 
 at Naas has testified for the last four yeartf to the interest taken in the 
 subject by English people, and the latest modifications of the English and 
 Scotch Codes as regards manual training, point to the introduction at no 
 distant date of systematic instruction in some branch of manual work in 
 our state-aided schools. It has therefore seemed desirable that this 
 Hand-book of Wood Slojd should be translated for English readers with 
 any modifications necessary tb make it suitable for English teachers and 
 students. These modifications consist partly of the omission of matter 
 bearing on conditions peculiar to Sweden, and partly of the addition to 
 the text of certain paragraphs, which seemed necessary from an English 
 point of view. Nothing has been taken away or added without careful 
 consultation with Herr Salomon, and without his approval. At the same 
 time, as any additions to the original text have been made at the suggestion 
 of the translators, and as they are responsible for them, these paragraphs 
 have been enclosed in brackets as translators' notes. The whole trans- 
 lation has been revised under the supervision of Herr Salomon and other 
 competent judges at Naas, and the translators therefore trust that the 
 work they have undertaken is a faithful representation of the views held 
 and acted on at the headquarters of Educational Slojd. 
 
 In giving this book to English readers, they feel, however, that one or 
 two points of detail call for special explanation, particularly as these 
 touch on the fundamental principles of educational Slojd, and as any 
 misunderstanding as to details might lead to a more serious misunder- 
 standing as to principles. One of these details is the use of the knife in 
 educational Slojd. In the following pages the use of the knife is often 
 recommended where the English carpenter would use the chisel, or some 
 other special tool. The defence of the knife in such cases is to be found 
 in the fact that, while it is the most familiar and the simplest tool which 
 can be put into the hands of the pupil, it is full of potentialities in the 
 hands of the intelligent worker, who can perform with it many exercises 
 which the tradesman executes in a more mechanical way with some other 
 tool. 
 
 Again, directions are given which differ in other respects from those 
 which the carpenter would give. The work of the slb'jder is often done
 
 vi. PREFACE. 
 
 not only with different tools, but in a different order from that of the 
 artisan. This inversion of order is a natural consequence of the principle 
 that each article shall be executed entirely by the individual worker. 
 Division of labour, though necessary from the tradesman's point of view, 
 is not permitted in Slojd, deadening, as it does, individuality, and reducing 
 to a minimum the calls made on the intelligence. 
 
 These and other deviations from the methods of the carpenter are made 
 not in ignorance, but of set purpose, and have their grounds in the com- 
 prehensive principle that all method in Slojd must aim in the first 
 place at the physical and mental development of the pupil, and only at 
 the production of articles in so far as this subserves the primary aim. 
 
 In close connection with this stands the question of the place occupied 
 in the system by the articles produced, i.e., by the models. Clear as this 
 question appears in the light of the fundamental principles on which 
 educational Slojd is based, the idea still seems to prevail to some extent 
 that, if the principles are accepted, the Naas models must also be accepted 
 unconditionally, and that the two stand and fall together. So far is this 
 from being the case that, at the present time, one series of Naas models is 
 gradually becoming English in its character, and only waits further sug- 
 gestions from English teachers to become entirely so. The sole reason 
 that it still contains models which do not entirely fulfil the condition of 
 being familiar and useful in the homes of English children, is that English 
 people have hitherto been unable to suggest satisfactory substitutes. The 
 models are merely the expression of the system, and to carry out that 
 system thoroughly they must be national in their character, and ought, 
 therefore, to vary in their nature with the countries into which Slojd is 
 introduced as a subject of instruction. 
 
 The translators are at present engaged on an English edition of Herr 
 Johansson's Manual of Directions for making the models mentioned 
 in the preceding paragraph. This Manual, which will be ready for issue 
 shortly, will complete the Handbook on the purely practical side. As 
 the principles on which Slojd rests as an educational factor are neces- 
 sarily very briefly dealt with in the Handbook, the translators are glad 
 to learn that "The Theory of Slojd," the only authorised English edition 
 of Herr Salomon's Lectures, edited by an Inspector of Schools, will 
 shortly appear, and will form a companion volume to this Handbook. 
 
 As this translation, like the original, is the work of more than one 
 writer, it remains to add that the book has been translated into English 
 by Mary R. Walker, with the assistance of William Nelson on all points 
 relating to technical knowledge and technical terminology.
 
 Table of Contents. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 Introductory Remarks. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 I. Educational Slojd 1 
 
 II. The Teacher of Educational Slojd 2 
 
 III. The special kind of Slojd recommended 6 
 
 IV. Method 9 
 V. The Pupils 17 
 
 VI. The time given to instruction 18 
 
 VII. The Slojd-room - 18 
 
 VIII. The position of the body during work 21 
 
 IX. Some rules for the Slojd Teacher - 24 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 Wood or Timber. 
 
 A. THE STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OP WOOD, Wood- 
 cells, Wood-fibres, Concentric annual layers, Vessels or 
 Air-tubes, Heart-wood and Sap-wood, the Pith and the 
 Medullary Bays, the Sap, Water capacity 27 
 
 B. THE CHANGES WHICH WOOD UNDERGOES 35 
 
 I. Changes in the water capacity. Shrinking, cracking, 
 
 swelling - 36 
 
 II. Means of preventing cracking and warping. Season- 
 ing. Precautions necessary to prevent cracking and 
 warping under special conditions - 40 
 
 III. The decay of timber. Means of preventing decay - 43 
 
 C. DIFFERENT KINDS OF WOOD 45 
 
 I. Comparison of the qualities of different kinds of wood. 
 The strength, cleavage, hardness, toughness, elasticity, 
 texture, colour, smell, weight, and durability of 
 timber 45 
 
 II. Characteristics of different kinds of trees - 51 
 
 1. Needle-leaved trees. 2. Broad-leaved trees. 52
 
 Viii. CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 Tools. 
 
 A. A CHOICE OF TOOLS 59 
 
 B. APPLIANCES FOR HOLDING THE WORK 62 
 
 I. The Bench - 62 
 
 II. Handscrews 68 
 
 C. SETTING OUT 70 
 
 I. The Metre-measure 70 
 
 II. The Marking-point 71 
 
 III. The Marking-gauge 71 
 
 IV. Compasses - 73 
 V. Squares and Bevels. 74 
 
 VI. Winding-laths or Straight-edges - 76 
 
 D. TOOLS USED FOR CUTTING UP THE WOOD AND MAKING 
 
 THE ARTICLES 77 
 
 I. Saws 77 
 
 1. Saws with Frames - 82 
 1. The Frame-saw. 2. The Bow-saw - 82 
 
 2. Saws without Frames 85 
 1. The Handsaw. 2. The Dove-tail saw. 3. The 
 
 Tenon-saw. 4. The Compass-saw. 5. The 
 
 Groove-saw - 85 
 
 II. The Axe 87 
 
 III. The Knife 88 
 
 IV. The Draw-knife 89 
 V. Chisels, Gouges, Carving tools, &c. 89 
 
 1. The Firmer-chisel, and the Mortise-chisel 90 
 
 2. Gouges 91 
 
 3. The Spoon-gouge and the Spoon-iron 92 
 
 4. Carving tools - 92 
 VL Planes 93 
 
 1. Planes with flat soles : 
 
 1. The Jack-plane. 2. The Trying-plane. 
 
 3. The Smoothing-plane. 4. The Rebate-plane 98 
 
 2. Planes for the dressing of curved surfaces : 
 
 1. The Round. 2. The Hollow. 3. The Com- 
 pass-plane - 101 
 
 3. The Old Woman's Tooth-plane, and the Dove-tail 
 
 Filletster 102
 
 CONTENTS. ix. 
 
 4. The Plough 104 
 
 5. The Iron Spokeshave 104 
 VII. Files - 105 
 
 VIII. Methods of finishing work 106 
 
 1. The Scraper. 2. Sandpaper. 
 
 IX. The Brace and Bits. 108 
 
 1. The Shell-bit. 2. The Centre-bit. 
 X. The Mallet, the Hammer, the Hand-vice, Pincers, and 
 
 Screwdriver - 112 
 
 E. THE GRINDING AND SHARPENING OP TOOLS 115 
 
 F. THE TOOL CUPBOARD - 118 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Jointing. 
 
 A. Glueing - 119 
 
 B. Nailing 123 
 
 C. Screwing together - 124 
 
 D. Jointing by means of the formation of the parts of the joint 125 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 I. The Exercises 126 
 
 Plates illustrating various positions, etc. 171 
 
 II. The High School Series of Models - 196 
 
 List of tools required for different numbers of pupils 204 
 
 Index - - 205
 
 FIRST CHAPTER. 
 
 Introductory Remarks. 
 
 Educational Slojd. 
 
 By educational slojd is meant the application of slojd to 
 educational purposes. Slojd is not to be confounded with the 
 work of the artisan a mistake which may easily happen if 
 the distinction is not sufficiently strongly emphasized. Speak- 
 ing generally, the 'slojder' does not practise his art as a trade, 
 but merely as a change from some other employment ; and in 
 the nature of the articles produced, in the tools used in their 
 production, in the manner of executing the work, etc., slojd 
 and the work of the artisan differ very decidedly the one 
 from the other. Slojd is much better adapted to be a means 
 of education, because purely economical considerations do not 
 come forward so prominently as must be the case with work 
 undertaken as a means of livelihood. 
 
 Educational slojd differs from so-called practical slojd, in- 
 asmuch as in the latter, importance is attached to the work: in 
 
 practical 
 
 the former, on the contrary, to the worker. It must, however, siejd* 
 be strongly emphasized that the two terms, educational and 
 practical, ought in no way to be considered antagonistic to 
 each other, as frequently happens in popular language ; for, 
 from the strictly educational point of view, whatever is educa- 
 tionally right must also be practical, and vice versa. When 
 the educational and the practical come into conflict, the cause 
 is always to be found in the pressure of adventitious circum- 
 stances, e.g., the number of pupils, the nature of the premises, 
 and, above all, pecuniary resources, etc. To make educational 
 theory and practice coincide is an ideal towards which every 
 teacher must strive. One man, perhaps, may be able to come 
 
 twnal and
 
 2 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 
 
 nearer to this common ideal than another, but everyone, as he 
 runs his course, must have this goal clearly in view, and in 
 every unavoidable compromise he must endeavour to make- 
 what ought to be done and what can be done come as close 
 together as possible. 
 
 Thtaimo/ What, then, is the aim of educational slojd ? To utilise, as is 
 *> suggested above, the educative force which lies in rightly 
 
 at $16 jd. - 
 
 directed bodily labour, as a means of developing in the pupils 
 physical and mental powers which will be a sure and evident 
 gain to them for life. Views may differ as to what is to be 
 understood by a " cultured " or an " educated " man, but how- 
 ever far apart in other respects these views may lie, they all 
 have at least one thing in common, i.e., that this much dis- 
 puted culture always appears in its possessors in the form of 
 certain faculties, and that therefore the development of faculty, 
 so far as this can be directed for good, must enter into all 
 educational efforts. This being the case, the influence of slojd 
 is cultivating and educative, just in the same degree as by its 
 means certain faculties of true value for life reach a develop- 
 ment which could not be attained otherwise, or, at least, not 
 in the same degree. Educational slojd, accordingly, seeks to 
 work on lines which shall insure, during and by means of the 
 exercise it affords, the development of the pupil in certain 
 definite directions. These are of various kinds. As the more 
 important, it is usual to bring forward : pleasure in bodily 
 labour, and respect for it, habits of independence, order, 
 accuracy, attention and industry, increase of physical 
 Rtrength, development of the power of observation in the eye, 
 and of execution in the hand. Educational slojd has also 
 in view the development of mental power, or, in other words, 
 is disciplinary in its aim. 
 
 The Teacher of Educational Slojd. 
 
 The quali- 
 
 ^lired That no one can teach what he does not know himself is a 
 Tether, proposition the validity of which cannot be called in question.
 
 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 
 
 It is equally incontestable that it is by no means sufficient to 
 be in possession of a certain amount of knowledge and dex- 
 terity in order to follow with success the important and 
 responsible calling of a teacher. Teaching is an art quite as 
 difficult as any other, and for its practice certain qualifica- 
 tions are demanded which are far from being in the possession 
 of all. The teacher must not only know what he has to 
 communicate, but also how he ought to do it. Nor is this 
 all ; for if all instruction is in reality to be education, the 
 teacher must rise from the instructor to the educator; he 
 must not only understand how to impart knowledge and 
 dexterity, but also how to impart both in such a manner that 
 they make for the mental development of the pupil, especially 
 with regard to moral training. But as we cannot give to 
 others what we do not ourselves possess, it must necessarily 
 follow that only he who is himself educated can have an 
 educative influence over another. Therefore, exactly in pro- 
 portion to the educative aim of the teacher does his person- 
 ality enter as an important factor into the work of instruction. 
 Now, since slojd is to be regarded more as a means of education 
 than a subject of instruction, in the common acceptation of 
 the term, the first demand of all made upon the teacher who 
 undertakes it must be that he should feel himself to be an 
 educator, and strive without ceasing to improve himself as 
 such. This, however, is not sufficient. To be a teacher of 
 educational slojd, it is necessary to be familiar with its aims, 
 and with the means by which these are to be attained. One 
 of these means is the possession of what is called technical 
 dexterity, i.e., dexterity in the right use of tools, and in the 
 accurate production, by their means, of articles involving the 
 exercises required by the particular kind of slojd in question. 
 The importance of this dexterity must neither be over-esti- 
 mated nor undervalued. Unfortunately one or other of these 
 errors is frequently committed. On the one hand it is 
 maintained that if a person can only prove that he possesses Technical 
 technical dexterity in sufficient degree, i.e., if he himself can dexterit y-
 
 4 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 
 
 produce good work, lie thereby fulfils one of the most impor- 
 tant requirements of a good slqjd teacher. From this point of 
 view the skilful artisan or "Slqjder" would be the best 
 teacher of slqjd, because he can with justice be held to possess 
 the best technical qualifications. Past experience, however, 
 hasshown that, as a rule, the skilful artisan or " slqjder " is 
 not the best person to fill the responsible post of the slqjd 
 teacher. This follows from the very nature of the case. The 
 artisan has acquired his technical dexterity in a totally different 
 way, and for a totally different purpose, from what is required 
 in educational slqjd. Technical dexterity is the principal thing 
 with him. It is before every other consideration a source of 
 income. In educational slqjd, on the other hand, it is to be 
 regarded only as one means among many whereby the 
 teacher is able to bring an educative influence to bear on the 
 . pupils. The artisan who has great technical skill is too often 
 at a teacher tempted while teaching to use this skill in a way which may 
 fsufl. k e or ^ e advantage of the work with which the pupil is 
 occupied, but is certainly not for the advantage of the pupil 
 himself. His " instruction " consists not infrequently of work 
 which he does for the pupil, with results which are excellent 
 from the economical point of view, but which are very 
 objectionable in their educational aspect. Partly for this 
 reason and partly because the artisan often does not under- 
 stand how to maintain really good discipline with children ; 
 and because, moreover, he is unacquainted with the general 
 principles which apply to all instruction, it has been remarked, 
 that where instruction in slqjd is concerned, even a very 
 capable artisan often falls far behind the results attained by 
 those who are in his opinion little more than bunglers, and 
 who may be far inferior to him in technical dexterity. At 
 the same time, it is by no means intended to convey the idea 
 
 that the skilled artisan may not be a good teacher of slqjd 
 
 provided he understands the difference between slqjd and his 
 trade, and is in possession of the other necessary qualifications 
 but it is maintained that in such a case it is less because
 
 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 5 
 
 he is an artisan than in spite of it, for the first condition is 
 that he must renounce the traditions of his craft, and become 
 penetrated by educational ideas. 
 
 But the truth here, as in so many other cases, lies between 
 the two extremes. It is as hurtful to under-estimate tech- 
 nical skill as it is to over-estimate it. Therefore, let no 
 teacher imagine that he can successfully undertake instruc- under- 
 tion in slojd with slight and superficial knowledge on the l^]"*" 
 purely technical side. It will soon and surely be made clear importance 
 to him that this is not the case. If he has not himself the d^-i^T 
 necessary technical dexterity for his purpose, it will be 
 difficult, indeed almost impossible, for him to make clear to 
 his pupils how they are to handle their tools and execute the 
 work prescribed. Neither will he be able in an efficient way 
 to supervise their work and criticise the quality of what they 
 produce. The feeling of self-mastery which is so essential 
 for the teacher when he stands face to face with his pupils, 
 forsakes him, and the educative results which he intends to 
 attain by means of slojd are diminished in proportion. It is 
 most important that this should be laid down once for all, 
 because some teachers possibly imagine that the technical 
 skill necessary for teaching may be obtained by attending 
 one or two slojd courses. This is by no means the case, and 
 the organisers of such slojd courses are the first to understand 
 and to insist upon the fact, that they can only aim at laying 
 a foundation on which students may afterwards build by 
 means of independent work. Just as little as one can learn 
 to play on any instrument by merely taking lessons for a 
 given time from a music teacher, can skill in the management 
 of tools be acquired and maintained without continuous and 
 earnest practice. The teacher who feels real interest in slojd 
 must therefore, on his own account, endeavour to improve in 
 respect of technical skill, and this will prove a two-fold gain, 
 because the bodily exercise affords a healthy change from the 
 mental work with which the time of the teacher is chiefly 
 filled.
 
 6 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 
 
 To summarise what has been said in the foregoing: the 
 teacher of educational slojd must above all things have the 
 habit of mind which is indispensable for the right perform- 
 ance of the teacher's work ; his personality must be such as 
 renders him fit to be a teacher ; he must know the objects of 
 educational slojd and the means by which they are to be 
 attained ; and finally, he ought to have sufficient dexterity to 
 handle the tools and to execute accurately the work which is 
 incidental to the course of instruction. These are the de- 
 mands made on him ; may he strive to meet them. 
 
 The special kind of Slojd recommended. 
 
 Various materials, e.g., wax, clay, paper, pasteboard, wood, 
 metal, &c., may be used in educational slojd. Wood, however, 
 is for several reasons the most suitable material ; hence ^vood- 
 slojd has been the most popular of all, both in schools and 
 for private instruction. As the name implies, wood-slojd 
 means "slo'jding" in wood. This, again, includes several 
 different kinds of work. Amongst these, however, it is the 
 5^ so-called slojd-carpentry which best fulfils the conditions 
 carpentry, required when instruction in slojd is given with educational 
 ends in view. It is adapted to the mental and physical 
 powers of children. By enabling them to make a number of 
 generally useful articles, it awakens and sustains genuine 
 interest. It encourages order and accuracy, and it is com- 
 patible with cleanliness and tidiness. Further, it cultivates 
 the sense of form more completely than instruction in drawing 
 does, and, like gymnastics and free play, it has a good in- 
 fluence upon the health of the body, and consequently upon 
 that of the mind. Additional advantages are, that it is 
 excellently adapted for methodical arrangement, comprising 
 as it does a great number of exercises of varying degrees of 
 difficulty, some of which are very easy ; and that it gives a 
 considerable degree of general dexterity by means of the 
 many different tools and manual operations which it intro- 
 duces.
 
 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 
 
 We must not confound slojd-carpentry with the work done Difference 
 by the carpenter, properly so-called. This is the more neces- 
 sary because great confusion of ideas prevails on the subject ; 
 not least, remarkably enough, amongst those who are in- 
 terested in slojd, or give instruction in it. 
 
 It must be borne in mind that although slojd-carpentry 
 and ordinary carpentry have something in common, inasmuch 
 as the same raw material (wood) is employed, and to some 
 extent the same or similar tools are used, yet they differ one 
 from the other in several very important respects. For 
 example, the articles made in slojd-carpentry are in many 
 cases quite different from those which fall within the province 
 of the carpenter. The articles made in slojd-carpentry are 
 differentiated partly by their smaller size, for the articles 
 made in workshops are generally much larger ; partly by 
 their form, for they are often bounded by variously curved 
 outlines, whilst articles made by the carpenter are generally 
 rectangular or cylindrical. This is especially shown in the 
 case of the many different kinds of spoons, ladles, scoops, 
 handles, &c., &c., which form such an important element in 
 slojd-carpentry. 
 
 Further, though many tools are common to both kinds of 
 work, there are also considerable differences in this respect. 
 Several tools which are seldom or never used in the car- 
 penter's workshop, e.g., the axe, the draw-knife, and the 
 spoon-iron, occupy an important place in slojd-carpentry. 
 
 The most characteristic tool in slojd-carpentry is, however, 
 the knife, and by the use of this, his chief instrument, the 
 slojder may always be distinguished from the carpenter, 
 whose favourite tool is the chisel, and who, as seldom as pos- 
 sible, and never willingly, takes the knife in his hand. In 
 carpentry, on the other hand, use is made of a number of 
 tools more or less necessary, which are quite unknown to the 
 slojder, who works for the most part under more primitive 
 conditions. Distinct differences can also be pointed out in 
 the manner of executing the work (for while division of
 
 g HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 
 
 labour is practised in carpentry, it is not permitted in slojd} 
 and in the manner of using the tools. It will be seen from 
 the foreo-oing that much may pass under the name of instruc- 
 tion in slojd which, properly speaking, ought simply to be 
 called instruction in carpentry. It is most important that 
 this distinction should be maintained, because otherwise edu- 
 cational slojd will by degrees be lost in instruction in car- 
 pentry as a trade. 
 
 In some schools where slojd is taught we find turning and 
 wood-carving as well as slojd-carpentry. This, however, is 
 not so common now as it was a few years ago. People seem 
 to be coming more and more to the conclusion that both occu- 
 pations are more suitable for the home than for the school. 
 Neither of them is to be commended from the hygienic point 
 of view. As regards turning, the difficulty of procuring 
 suitable turning-lathes presents in many schools a serious 
 obstacle to its general use ; whilst the necessity of perform- 
 ing preliminary exercises, apart from the actual objects made 
 (a proceeding of very doubtful educational value) places 
 turning quite in the shade as compared with slojd-carpentry. 
 Wood carving, on the other hand, does not involve that 
 energetic bodily labour which is of such great importance in 
 connection with educational slojd. Again, wood-carving, 
 classed as it is with the so-called "finer" kinds of manual 
 work, has a tendency to intensify in the child that contempt 
 for rough bodily labour which has already unfortunately 
 done so much social harm. The danger of this is however 
 greatest when the children are imprudently permitted to 
 ornament objects which they have not made. When wood- 
 carving is used, not as a separate kind of slojd, but in order 
 to complete slojd-carpentry, and when ornamentation is only 
 allowed after the children are able in a satisfactory way to 
 execute the articles to be embellished by its means, the dis- 
 advantages are minimised.
 
 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 
 
 Method. 
 
 Systematic action, directed towards an end, is termed The 
 method. Every form of human activity, in. so far as it is meanin a f 
 
 . . -IT method. 
 
 concerned with the attainment of a definite preconceived end, 
 must therefore be regulated according to method, and this 
 universally applicable rule holds good in the case of that 
 activity which is directed towards instruction and education. 
 Hence great importance has always been attached to methods 
 of instruction. In fact, in many cases too much attention 
 has been paid to the study of special methods. Not that we 
 agree with those who, by strange confusion of ideas, regard 
 the rules of scientific method as opposed to practice, saying : 
 " We are practical people, and therefore we mean to teach in 
 our own practical way, not to follow the theoretical methods 
 of others." They thereby show that they do not understand 
 how, in the very nature of things, there can be only one 
 really practical mode of procedure, and that is the method 
 which is in harmony with sound theory,and that any other way 
 of going to work must be more or less unpractical. On the 
 other hand, it cannot be denied that many teachers misunder- 
 stand the true significance of method to such a degree that it 
 becomes the Alpha and Omega of the work. They forget 
 that, strictly speaking, method is merely a tool though a very 
 necessary one in the hand of the teacher ; and that, just as 
 little as a tool can execute a piece of work of its own accord, 
 just so little can method ever be the chief factor in instruc- 
 tion. The teacher's power to apply method is the determining 
 factor. A good method in the hands of a truly capable 
 teacher will always give better results than a bad method. 
 The best method is of comparatively little value if the teacher 
 is inefficient. 
 
 It will now be clear that slojd, whether regarded as a 
 subject of school instruction in the usual sense, or as a purely 
 disciplinary subject, must be treated according to rules of
 
 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 
 
 method. The ordinary rules of method can be applied to it ; 
 and chief amongst them those which are generally regarded 
 as fundamental principles, namely, that instruction shall 
 proceed gradually from the more easy to the more difficult, 
 from the simple to the complex, and from the known to the 
 unknown, it being always understood that the starting point 
 is sufficiently easy, simple, and well-known. 
 
 In drawing up a system of method in slojd teaching it is 
 difficult to find any fully logical principle of arrangement 
 elsewhere than in the exercises. By exercises in this 
 connection is to be understood that manipulation of the 
 materials by means of one tool or more in a definite way, 
 for a definite object. Now these exercises can be arranged 
 in a series, in conformity with the rules given above. This 
 could not be done so easily if the tools themselves constituted 
 the principle of arrangement, because, e.g., in the case of two 
 tools, some exercises performed with the one may be easier, 
 and some on the contrary may be more difficult, than the 
 exercises which are performed with the other. It is obvious 
 that the models cannot constitute the principle of arrange- 
 ment, because they are merely the incidental expressions of 
 the exercises. When, therefore, it is said that the models in a 
 series are graded from the more easy to the more difficult, it 
 is meant that the exercises occurring in these models proceed 
 in this way. The exercises themselves are partly simple, 
 partly complex : the latter consisting of two or more simple 
 exercises in combination. The given number of exercises 
 entering into the work of special kinds of slojd depends 
 more or less upon opinion, for it often happens that what is 
 regarded as one exercise might be analysed into two or more, 
 or might be considered as a part of a more complex exercise. 
 Hence the eighty-eight exercises in slb'jd-carpentry enu- 
 merated further on, might easily be increased or decreased in 
 number, depending entirely upon how far it is considered 
 advisable to carry this analysis or synthesis.
 
 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 11 
 
 The exercises, their number, their names, and their order M ethod 0/ 
 are not, however, the only factors which determine method te hin n 
 in slojd. The way in which they should be taught must be exercises. 
 included. There are different modes of procedure. One of 
 these is to teach the exercises one after the other, simply as 
 isolated or " abstract " exercises, until they have all been per- 
 formed. This may be justified from the point of view of 
 method in general, but opinions may differ, not to put it too 
 strongly, as to its educational soundness. Another mode of 
 procedure is to apply each exercise, after it has been practised 
 separately or in the abstract, in the construction of a given 
 object or model. The exercises themselves are thus given as 
 preliminary practice. This, though certainly a step in the 
 right direction, does not fully satisfy the demands of educa. 
 tional method, which requires us to proceed from the con- 
 crete to the abstract, and not vice versa ; and, moreover, such 
 unnecessarily round-about methods cause the loss of valuable 
 time which might be better employed. Method in slojd only 
 becomes educationally sound when the pupil, by constructing 
 objects which can be used in everyday life, acquires dexterity 
 in performing the exercises as they occur. To take an illus- 
 tration from language teaching, the first mode of procedure 
 corresponds to the learning of abstractions in the form of 
 grammatical rules ; the second corresponds to the application 
 of these rules in sentences after they have been learned ; the 
 third corresponds to the method by which the pupil is led up, 
 through sentences or combinations of sentences, to the laws 
 of language which in them find expression. 
 
 There are, however, other fundamental principles which Arrange- 
 must be adhered to in arranging a series of models in such a ment f a 
 
 series of 
 
 way that the exercises involved shall follow each other in models. 
 methodical order. The general nature of the models and the 
 manner in which the exercises ought to be introduced in them 
 must be considered. In choosing a series of models the best 
 plan is undoubtedly to consider local conditions, and endeavour 
 to make it exactly representative of articles which can be
 
 12 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 
 
 used in the homes of the pupils. By this means interest in 
 the instruction given is better aroused and maintained, not 
 only in the pupils, but and this is quite as important m the 
 parents, and thus the bond between the school and the home 
 is strengthened . Opinion is now probably almost unanimous 
 that all articles of luxury should be excluded. (Such articles, 
 however, are by no means synonymous with articles intrinsi- 
 cally beautiful.) The interest of the pupils is also heightened 
 if the first articles presented to them are no larger or more 
 difficult than can be executed satisfactorily in a comparatively 
 short time. The first models ought, on this account, to include 
 few exercises ; and it may be laid down as a general rule that, 
 as far as possible, each successive model should include only 
 one new exercise, or two at the most. In the arrangement 
 of the series, attention must also be paid to alternation in the 
 form of the models. The articles which are included in slojd- 
 carpentry consist partly of " modelled " articles bounded by 
 curved surfaces, and partly of rectangular articles bounded 
 principally by plane surfaces. It is very important that any 
 arrangement of models in a series should present good alter- 
 nation between these two kinds, and, generally speaking, a 
 modelled object should follow a rectangular object, and vice 
 versa. As a result, each model acquires to some extent the 
 
 * As some confusion of ideas appears to prevail in England between the 
 importance of the educational principles on which slojd is based, and the 
 mo'lels in whicli these principles are exemplified, it seems desirable to draw the 
 attention of readers to this passage. It indicates sufficiently clearly that, in 
 whatever country Swedish slojd may be adopted, the more familiar and the 
 more serviceable the articles made are to the inhabitants of that country, the 
 more nearly will the method of teaching conform to one of the great principles 
 of educational slojd, viz. : that the pupil's interest shall be excited and sustained 
 by the making of articles which he himself or the other members of his 
 family can use. Many of the models at Nails have, within the last year or two, 
 been either modified or changed entirely in order to render them suitable for 
 English students, and it is incumbent upon every slojd teacher to make his own 
 series of models conform to the ideas and requirements of the people among 
 whom he teaches, keeping in view the general principles of method which would 
 apply to any series. Taa.
 
 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 13 
 
 charm of novelty, and this still further increases in the pupils 
 that interest for their work which is of the very greatest 
 importance as regards the educational benefits to be derived 
 from slojd. 
 
 The manner in which the details and finished appearance rnt 
 of the objects he is to execute are made clear to the pupil, * ureo 
 must be included within the province of method. It is instruction. 
 assumed that in this, as in all other instruction, it is of the 
 highest importance that the teacher strives to make his 
 teaching as intuitional as possible. To this end, in the 
 elementary stages, the models should always be executed 
 after drawings and models, and in the first instance invariably 
 after models which are placed before the pupils for accurate 
 imitation. 
 
 As, however, it has been proved to be difficult, in many 
 cases indeed almost impossible, to preserve even a well-exe- 
 cuted wooden model in its original shape and size, and as, for 
 other reasons, it is highly advantageous to connect instruction 
 in slojd with instruction in drawing, the model should be 
 copied to as great an extent as possible by the aid of geo- 
 metrical constructions, sufficiently simple to require in- the 
 pupil only a slight acquaintance with geometrical drawing. 
 In addition to this the most important measurements of the 
 model's dimensions should be given, in order that the pupil 
 may make use of his rule or metre-measure.* By degrees 
 drawings in perspective and projections may be introduced 
 as patterns together with the model; and finally, when the 
 pupil has reached the highest stage, and has attained suffi- 
 cient dexterity in slojd and in the interpretation of a drawing, 
 the model may even be taken away, and the work executed 
 
 * As the metrical system of measurement admits of greater exactness than 
 our English system, and as it seems desirable to accustom English children to 
 its use, teachers of slojd are strongly advised to adopt it in connection with the 
 dimensions of the models. No difficulty need be anticipated. It has been 
 found that, in cases where children were permitted to use either their English 
 foot-rule or the metre-measure, they invariably preferred the latter. TKS.
 
 14 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 
 
 after a drawing only. This may be regarded as the final 
 aim in elementary instruction in slb'jd. 
 
 It is an essential condition of any method of instruction 
 in educational slb'jd, that the work of the pupils shall be 
 independently and accurately executed, for only thus can 
 habits of self-reliance, order, and accuracy, so important in 
 the formation of character, be developed. In order that self- 
 reliance may be developed, the teacher must guard himself 
 against giving more help than is absolutely necessary, whether 
 this help consists in explaining the best way of doing the work, 
 or in doing the work instead of the pupil. As regards the 
 latter, the teacher will do well to lay down, as a general rule, 
 that he never should touch the pupil's work, for only by this 
 means can he avoid the temptation, to which unfortunately 
 many teachers have succumbed, to execute the most important 
 parts of the work instead of the pupil. At the same time he 
 must remember that it is also hurtful to the pupil, and that 
 it deprives his instruction of considerable educational value, 
 if by unnecessary explanations he hinders the pupil from 
 using his own judgment to discover the right way. The 
 teacher's art in educational slb'jd consists essentially in being 
 as passive and unobtrusive as possible, while the pupil is 
 actively exercising both head and hand. Only in this way 
 can the feeling of self-reliance arise and gain strength. 
 Let the teacher content himself with pointing out the way, 
 and watching that the pupil walks in it. Let him as much 
 as possible refrain from leading where this is unnecessary 
 and, it may be, hurtful. 
 
 Accuracy. In order to develop the habit of accuracy in the pupil by 
 means of slb'jd, it is essential that he should make his 
 model as nearly as possible an exact likeness of his pattern, 
 or when the model has changed in shape and size an 
 exact copy of what it ought to be, as indicated by the 
 geometrical construction, or complete drawing and given 
 measurements. We very often hear people say that it is 
 quite unnecessary to be so particular with the work, since,
 
 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 15 
 
 e.g., a flower-stick can be quite as serviceable whether it is a 
 little shorter or a little longer. This is perfectly true on the 
 assumption that the making of a serviceable flower-stick is 
 our chief end in making it. In educational slojd, however, 
 the principal object is not the article made, but the mental 
 and physical benefits which accrue to the pupil by means of 
 the work. In this case it cannot be unimportant that he 
 should be exercised in the endeavour to execute something 
 as well and as accurately as he is able to do it. For in this 
 way his natural disposition to work carelessly is checked, 
 while at the same time the degree of accuracy to which he is 
 gradually accustomed will be of great advantage farther on 
 in the series of models, when he has to perform such opera- 
 tions as mortising, grooving, dovetailing, &c., which call for 
 no inconsiderable degree of accuracy in their performance. 
 Though a pen-holder need not be of any exact size, this is by 
 no means the case with the joints in dovetailing; and in 
 making the former exact, the latter operation is rendered pos- 
 sible, or at all events easier. At the same time, we must not 
 demand of the pupil work which is absolutely correct in all its 
 details, for this clearly lies beyond his powers. The teacher 
 must exercise his " tact " as an educator in determining the 
 degree of accuracy which is to be demanded of every separate 
 pupil in every separate model, and this being done, the teacher 
 must unhesitatingly reject the articles which fail to come up 
 to the required standard. But in order that the pupil may 
 not be disheartened by repeated rejections, it is advisable not 
 to insist on the repetition of the same model more than, at 
 the outside, three consecutive times. If the pupil fails to 
 succeed the third time, he should be allowed to pass on to 
 the next model, and not required to return to the one he 
 failed to make, until he has succeeded in making the other ; 
 this he usually does easily enough, owing to the increased 
 facility he has gained by practice. If the pupil is permitted 
 to pass over a model altogether without bringing it up to 
 the required standard, it may encourage him in caprice, and
 
 16 HANDBOOK OP SLOJD. 
 
 counteract the development of habits of perseverance, the 
 acquisition of which is of such great importance in life. 
 Further, the general rule should be strictly observed that 
 every article is to be executed as well and as beautifully as 
 possible. In educational slojd it is much more important 
 that what is made should be the product of good and 
 conscientious labour, than that much should be produced. 
 Therefore, whatever bears the impress of carelessness and 
 haste must be rejected without mercy, lest the pupil fall into 
 bad habits, and the educative influences of slojd be weakened. 
 
 individual The question whether individual instruction or class - 
 vttueiatr teaching should be adopted, comes also under the head of 
 
 teaching, method in slb'jd-teaching. As the aim in educational slojd 
 is totally different from mere mechanical instruction in the 
 art of using tools and making articles, it may be laid down 
 as a principle, that only in the degree in which the personal 
 influence of the teacher reaches each individual pupil, can 
 his influence be truly educative. And as human beings 
 differ greatly from one another in natural disposition and 
 other respects, instruction, in order to reach the highest 
 degree of educative value, must be specially adapted to each 
 individual. It is as easy to explain, point out, lead, and 
 help too much as too little, and thus to check that mental 
 development which can only be secured by systematic well- 
 balanced effort. This is, and this will continue to be, the 
 disadvantage of class-teaching: this term being assumed 
 to mean, instruction during which all the pupils taking part 
 in the lesson have their attention directed at the same time 
 to the same part of the subject. This disadvantage can 
 never be lost sight of, but in the case of several subjects of 
 instruction, especially the purely intellectual subjects, it is 
 counterbalanced to some degree, because, by means of class- 
 teaching, the practical benefit is gained that a teacher can 
 teach a larger number of pupils than he could teach individ- 
 ually. Slojd, however, does not belong to these subjects, 
 because in it the teacher's powers are limited, to start with,
 
 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 17 
 
 by the number of pupils he can efficiently supervise at work ; 
 and it can speedily be demonstrated that he cannot, in class 
 teaching, supervise more than by individual instruction, 
 provided that in each case equally good results are aimed at. 
 On the contrary, he may find that he cannot supervise so 
 many. Another practical objection to class-teaching in cases 
 where slb'jd is applied to educational purposes, is the impos- 
 sibility of keeping the class together in the execution of their 
 work. It follows either that the more backward pupils 
 scamp their work or are allowed to pass over some of the 
 models in the series, or else that the superior pupils are 
 checked in their progress, and thereby prevented from doing 
 as many exercises as they otherwise could have accomplished.* 
 The leading question of method in educational slojd 
 teaching ought to be less how much, or how many, as how 
 well. 
 
 The Pupils. 
 
 The age during which instruction can be received with ad- The age o/ 
 vantage in any subject whatever is limited downwards as well 
 as upwards by the work it involves. As regards slojd-car- 
 pentry, children ought to have attained the degree of develop- 
 ment which corresponds roughly to 10 or 11 years. Other- 
 wise they cannot be expected to meet the demands made on 
 the spirit of self-reliance during work. At the same time, as 
 children of the same age differ greatly in point of development 
 our guiding principle should not be the date of birth, but the 
 mental and physical powers which the child has at command. 
 What one child of nine years can accomplish with ease may be 
 beyond the powers of another child of twelve. As regards 
 the upward limit of age, it lies considerably beyond school 
 years. 
 
 * On certain occasions it is advantageous to demand the attention of all the 
 pupils at one time, e.g., when the teacher wishes to explain the properties of a 
 tool and the method of using it, or wishes to examine all the pupils together. 
 These, however, are special cases, which ought to be quite independent of the 
 slojd-work itself. 
 
 B
 
 18 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 
 
 The number of pupils who can be managed individually 
 
 j VI A * 
 
 her o/ tu ty one teacher at the same time varies considerably, ana is 
 *"**' influenced partly by the teacher's general efficiency, partly 
 by his special efficiency, and partly by the stage at which 
 the pupils are. The teacher who is unaccustomed to teach 
 slojd will probably be unable at first to manage with ease 
 more than from 6 to 8 pupils, especially if they are beginners ; 
 later on the number may be increased to 12, and by degrees, 
 under favourable conditions, to 15, 18, or at most 20.* No 
 teacher, however, ought to let his desire to increase the 
 number of his pupils induce him to take more at one time 
 than he can manage in a thoroughly satisfactory way. 
 
 The Time given to Instruction. 
 
 The length j slojd lesson ought not to last less than an hour and a half, 
 
 mto'L'o/ or more than two hours and a half. It ought, if possible, to 
 
 the un<m*. intervene between hours devoted to intellectual instruction, 
 
 because it offers a wholesome variety for mind and body. 
 
 Slojd by artificial light should be avoided as much as possible. 
 
 It is desirable that every pupil should receive three lessons 
 
 a week. They should be given every other day, and if the 
 
 pupils have gymnastics on the intervening days, it will secure, 
 
 to some extent at least, the necessary physical exercise on a 
 
 rational basis. 
 
 The Slojd-room. 
 
 Tke use of Tjj e jayg are pagj. - n g we( j en at least, when it was regarded 
 
 thetctiool- ii.. 
 
 rwnjor as a degradation of the rooms devoted to intellectual instruc- 
 tion to use them for slojd teaching. Since " practical " slojd 
 has been forced to make way for educational slojd, and the 
 importance of the latter has been more and more recognised, 
 no thoughtful teacher can think that his class-room loses 
 dignity because manual labour is carried on in it. In many 
 schools where space is limited, slojd must, at first at least, be 
 
 * This has been proved by observations made in the elementary schools iu 
 Stockholm.
 
 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 
 
 19 
 
 given a share of the school-room. Where this room is large 
 enough, and where the slojd-teacher's spirit of order is suffi- 
 ciently strong to make him keep his department always tidy, 
 this combination may be made without special inconvenience. 
 It is advisable to place the slojd-benches and the tool-cup- 
 board at one end of the room. The removal of desks to 
 make temporary room for benches should only be permitted 
 when such an arrangement is unavoidable. 
 
 The use of the school-room for the double purpose of in- 
 tellectual work and slb'jd is not, however, to be recommended 
 when circumstances permit of separate rooms being fitted up. 
 Different arrangements are required for the two branches of 
 instruction. A description of the general arrangement re- 
 quired in a room devoted to the purposes of educational 
 slojd carpentry follows. This description is based on ex- 
 perience gained in the teaching of slojd up to the present 
 time. It must, however, be borne in mind in this connection, 
 that the conditions in an elementary school in the country 
 and in a school in a large town or in closely-populated manu- 
 facturing districts, vary according to circumstances. 
 
 As regards the former, we must, as a general rule, be less The sigjd- 
 exacting in our demands ; in the latter, on the contrary, room in 
 arrangements may be made which shall meet fully the educa- country 
 tional requirements of a good slojd-room. In an ordinary schcots - 
 elementary school in the country, where there may not be 
 more than from eight to twelve pupils requiring instruction 
 at the same time, a slojd-room measuring 16 ft. in length, 
 13 ft. in breadth, and 10 ft. in height, will 'be large enough. 
 It should be situated on the ground-floor. The walls should 
 be wainscotted, and the room should contain three or four 
 double, or six or eight single, benches ; cupboards for tools, 
 models, and finished articles ; a grindstone, a chopping-block, 
 and, if turnery is included in the course, also a turning-lathe. 
 If the room is kept locked between lessons, the tools may be 
 disposed round the walls instead of being kept in a cupboard. 
 The wood required should be stored in some place adjoining.
 
 20 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 
 
 In a large school, where opportunity is given for making 
 the arrangements for slojd teaching as complete as possible, 
 the following directions may be found useful : 
 
 Situation. The slojd-room (not "work-shop") should 
 open from a lobby either on the ground-floor or on the top 
 storey. It should never be situated in the basement. If it 
 is on the ground floor, care should be taken that it is as far 
 as possible from the other school-rooms, that the noise may 
 not disturb the pupils in the latter. If a slojd-room is situ- 
 ated above a school-room, it should be furnished with a double 
 floor, with an intervening layer of sawdust to deaden the 
 noise. 
 
 Area. To accommodate 20 pupils at one time, the room 
 should be about 50 ft. long and 23 ft. broad. This will give 
 adequate space for 20 separate benches (placed in 5 rows), a 
 turning lathe, a saw-bench, grindstones, chopping-blocks, 
 cupboards for tools, models, and finished articles, and a rack 
 for wood. Wood ought not to be suspended from the roof if 
 this can be avoided, partly because it is unsightly, and partly 
 because it gives unnecessary trouble. The space between the 
 benches ought to be about 2i ft. 
 
 Height. The slojd-room ought to be from 12 ft. to 15 ft. 
 high. 
 
 Windows. The slojd-room should be well-lighted by large 
 and properly placed windows. The area of window surface 
 is generally reckoned as 25 to 30 per cent, of the floor area. If 
 the slojd-room is on the ground floor, windows should, if pos- 
 sible, be placed in three of its walls. If it is 011 the top 
 storey it is better to let the light enter by sky-lights than 
 dormer windows. 
 
 The Walls. To prevent injury to the walls they should be 
 lined with wood, or at all events with a tolerably high waiiis- 
 cotting. The doors and the window-frames should be painted, 
 but the walls need only be varnished. 
 
 Warming. Where there is no central system of heating,
 
 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS, 21 
 
 the best way to heat the slojd-room in winter is by two large 
 stoves. The temperature ought not to be higher than from 
 54 to 57 F. The glue should be melted on a small stove 
 heated by gas or oil. 
 
 Artificial light. As work is done in the slojd room on 
 winter afternoons, arrangements must be made for artificial 
 light. This light, whether furnished by gas or by electricity, 
 must always come from above, in order that no shadows may 
 be cast on the work. 
 
 The Position of the Body during- Work. 
 
 If slojd is to contribute towards physical development 
 a point on which most people are now tolerably unanimous 
 methodical and effectual arrangements must be made to this 
 end. 
 
 It can easily be demonstrated that of all kinds of slojd, Sl i d and . 
 
 J . . gymnastics 
 
 slojd-carpentry in conjunction with gymnastics is the best should go 
 adapted for physical training, but it is equally clear that this hand m 
 can only be the case, provided that the positions assumed and 
 the motions prescribed are well-selected. As regards this we 
 have to find the happy medium. On the one hand it cannot 
 be denied that many of the so-called " instinctive " positions 
 assumed by artisans and " slojders " have reference more to 
 what is advantageous for the work than for the worker. On 
 the other hand it must be granted that though slojd ought to 
 be considered as " applied gymnastics," this principle should 
 not be carried out so pedantically that the idea of work is 
 lost sight of. Slojd is essentially work, and not merely sli >J d is 
 gymnastic exercises with tools as apparatus ; and all that we merely 
 are justified in aiming at is, that when we have a choice gy> nnastic 
 
 exercises. 
 
 between positions and movements favourable to physical 
 development and those which are unfavourable, we must 
 adopt the former. We may rest assured that, in the long 
 run, not only the worker but the work will gain thereby. 
 Harmonious or all-round physical development is mate-
 
 22 
 
 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 
 
 rially advanced when the muscles of both sides are equally 
 exercised during work. This is a fundamental rule in gym- 
 nastics. It is equally binding in slb'jd whenever it is capable 
 of application. The objection we sometimes hear that the 
 left hand has not the same strength and steadiness as the 
 right, depends on a confusion between cause and effect, 
 because this inferiority in most cases is caused by the fact 
 that at an early age the left hand in the matter of exercise 
 is neglected for the right. It is, moreover, easy to enumerate 
 a great number of operations in which both hands execute 
 almost the same work. As examples may be given : sowing 
 seed, kneading dough, weaving, hewing wood, driving, rowing, 
 playing on the piano, &c. In slojd-carpentry the saw, the 
 plane, the centre-bit, and the file may, in particular, be 
 directed alternately by the right and by the left hand, and 
 the change should be made by all the pupils together, at the 
 command of the teacher, about every half hour. On the other 
 hand, the use of the axe or the knife by the left hand is not 
 to be recommended until great experience in the use of the 
 left has been gained, on account of the greater danger of 
 injury should the tool accidentally slip aside. 
 
 The following general rules may be given for the positions 
 and movements in educational slojd-carpentry. 
 
 Position of the chest. The chest encloses the important 
 vital organs, the heart and the lungs, the former of which 
 regulates the circulation of the blood, and the latter the 
 process of respiration. That these may freely and without 
 hindrance perform their functions, the space in which they 
 move must not be diminished. It must rather be enlarged. 
 We must therefore endeavour to prevent any narrowing of 
 the chest, and attention should always be directed to keeping 
 the shoulders well back during work, in order that the chest 
 may be expanded. Inspiration and expiration should take 
 place quietly, without any effort whatever. 
 
 The head should be held as erect as possible, to avoid un-
 
 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 23 
 
 necessary loss of muscular power, to permit greater freedom 
 of circulation, and to preserve the eyesight from injury during 
 work. When the head is bent forwards the veins in some 
 situations are compressed, in others extended ; in both cases 
 their calibre is diminished. In connection with the effect the 
 position of the head may have upon the circulation, the 
 importance of loose clothing should be noticed. Tightly 
 fitting collars and neckties should be above all avoided. To 
 preserve the sight, work should not be held nearer the eye 
 than about 12 in. : for this reason it is very advantageous in 
 educational slojd to use exclusively benches whose construc- 
 tion permits of their being raised to different heights. Thus 
 the work may always be held at the proper distance from the 
 eye, while the position of the head is, from the hygienic point 
 of view, most advantageous. 
 
 The feet should be so placed as to afford the best and firmest 
 support during work. In the execution of every exercise a 
 certain mechanical resistance has to be overcome. For this 
 purpose muscular strength, and in certain circumstances the 
 weight of the body, must be called into play. This resistance 
 must be regarded as force opposing the worker in a certain 
 direction, and he must allow his body to assume the state of 
 equilibrium most favourable in relation to the direction of the 
 force. This is done as regards the feet, when the line of most 
 resistance is in front of the worker, by placing the one foot 
 in front of the other in such a position that a line drawn from 
 the foremost foot in the direction of its length, would meet 
 the heel of the other at right angles ; and when the resistance 
 is from the side, by placing the feet apart sideways. A bad 
 habit of frequent occurrence, especially in planing, is to turn 
 the toes in. This ought to be avoided as much as possible, 
 because it interferes with the natural action of the knee joint. 
 
 The position and movements of the body. The worker 
 should assume a position, in relation to his work, which 
 enables the muscles of his arms to have free play in the most 
 favourable direction for its execution, i.e., in a direction
 
 24 
 
 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 
 
 Order an 
 indispens- 
 able 
 condition. 
 
 The pupils' 
 placet for 
 work. 
 
 Swnbers 
 on the 
 bench** 
 
 fixed 
 placet for 
 tooit. 
 
 opposed to the line of resistance, or friction between the tool 
 and the piece of wood. In certain exercises, such as planing 
 and boring, this friction is, to some extent, increased by the 
 necessary bending of the body over the tool, whereby the 
 weight of the body helps to press it against the wood. In 
 using some tools, e.g., the saw, this weight may also act as a 
 kind of regulator, by gently setting the body in motion back- 
 wards and forwards. The reader is referred to Plates I.- VIII. 
 for illustrations of some of the most important positions.* 
 
 Some Rules for the Slojd Teacher. 
 
 In all teaching, and not least in slojd teaching, the main- 
 tenance of order must be laid down as an indispensable 
 condition. The following simple directions may serve for 
 guidance to the teacher. 
 
 Every pupil should have a fixed place at a bench. When 
 circumstances permit, it is advisable to have at disposal as 
 many benches (or when benches intended for two are used, 
 half as many benches) as there are pupils taking part simul- 
 taneously in a lesson. 
 
 The benches and tools should be furnished with numbers, 
 so that they can easily be distinguished from one another. 
 The following tools should, if possible, belong to each bench, 
 and be marked with its number : knife, trying-plane, smooth- 
 ing-plane, jack-plane, square, marking-gauge, compasses, rule 
 or metre measure, and scraper. t Other tools may serve the 
 whole class in common. 
 
 All tools should have fixed places. Those belonging 1 to the 
 
 * O O 
 
 bench may be allowed to lie upon it until the close of the 
 lesson, but all tools in common use should be laid by or hung 
 up immediately after use, in order that they may be easily 
 found. 
 
 The teacher must take care that all the edge tools in use are 
 
 * These plates are specially intended to illustrate the position of body which 
 the worker should assume when beginning the particular exercise indicated, 
 t These constitute the bench-set.
 
 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 25 
 
 well sharpened, and that any tool which gets out of order, or The 
 is broken, is repaired as soon as possible. If practicable, the 
 pupils should do their own repairs. repairing 
 
 At the beginning of the lesson the pupils should, in an 
 orderly way, get out their tools and work. The latter, if 
 begun in a previous lesson, should be kept in boxes specially 
 provided for the purpose, and should be marked with the 
 pupils' names. 
 
 In order to teach and superintend in the full meaning of Teaeher 
 these terms, the teacher must not stand still in one place, dunny 
 He must go from one pupil to another with advice and criti- work - 
 cism. The pupils, on the contrary, must, as far as possible, 
 remain at their benches. If they desire any advice from the 
 teacher, they must not attract his attention by calling out, 
 but by some signal, e.g., holding up one hand, standing in 
 front of the bench and looking towards him, etc. All un- 
 necessary talking must be carefully avoided. 
 
 The pupil himself, guided by the teacher, must select selection 
 suitable wood. Waste must be avoided as far as possible. of wood. 
 
 The pupil must not be allowed to polish with sand-paper Sand- 
 until the teacher has examined the work and found that^T*"' 
 sufficient use has been made of cutting tools. The sand-paper 
 is to be kept by the teacher and given out by him as required. 
 About 6 sq. in. is calculated for each model. The calculation 
 is founded on the supposition that though the models become 
 larger as the course proceeds, the greater facility of the pupil 
 diminishes in about the same degree his need of sand-paper. 
 
 At the end of the lesson all the tools should be put back putting 
 in their places, care being taken that all the saws are loosened. the slff j d 
 The tools should be counted by the " captain," or monitor, order. 
 appointed for the class, after which the teacher sees that 
 everything is in its right place. The wood and the pieces of 
 work are put away tidily. The benches are brushed and 
 made clean with a brush which should hang by the side of 
 each bench, and the floor is swept. The shavings, however, 
 need not be carried away oftener than once or twice a week.
 
 26 
 
 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 
 
 Fin it lied 
 
 m r . 
 
 Taking tht 
 work homr. 
 
 Irtybook. 
 
 When the finished pieces of work have been " passed " by 
 the teacher, a label should be stuck on, and on this label 
 should be stated the number of the model and its name, the 
 name and age of the pupil, and the number of hours spent in 
 making it. If it is considered desirable to give every piece 
 of work a value, this also may be mentioned on the label. 
 
 Although from the educational point of view it is advisable 
 that the pupils should at once take home their work, it is 
 generally for other reasons more expedient that it should 
 remain in the school in the care of the teacher until it can 
 be exhibited publicly at an examination or terminal break - 
 ing-up. After this has taken place, the articles are to be re- 
 garded as the property of the makers. The sale of work 
 for the benefit of the school should never be thought of. 
 
 A very good plan is to allow the pupils to take home their 
 work as soon as it is finished, in order to show it to their 
 parents, on the understanding that, after they have seen it, 
 it is brought back to the school, to be kept there as long as 
 necessary. 
 
 The teacher should enter in a day-book, arranged for the 
 purpose, careful notes regarding the pupils taking part in the 
 slojd lessons, their presence and absence from lessons, the 
 articles they make, etc., etc.
 
 27 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 Wood, or Timber. 
 
 The material generally used in slb'jd-teaching, and most 
 suitable for the purpose, is wood or timber. 
 
 Intelligent knowledge of the material used is as essential 
 to the teacher as acquaintance with the tools required. He 
 ought, e.g., to be familiar with the qualities which render 
 different kinds of wood more or less appropriate for different 
 purposes. Accordingly the description of the tools given 
 in Chapter III. is here preceded by a brief account of the 
 growth of trees ; of the most important properties of wood, 
 and the principal changes which it undergoes; and by a 
 comparison of the technical qualities of the various kinds of 
 wood in common use. 
 
 A. The Structure and Composition of Wood. 
 
 Wood or timber forms the greater part of the stems and 
 branches of trees and shrubs. 
 
 To examine the inner structure of a tree-stem, a section A tree-stem 
 may be made at right angles to the direction of its length, in section - 
 i.e., a transverse or cross section; or from the pith to the 
 bark in the line of one of the radii and parallel to the direc- 
 tion of the length, i.e., a radial section; or a third section 
 may be made at right angles to both the preceding as a 
 tangent to the circumference, i.e., a tangential section.
 
 28 
 
 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 
 
 On examining 
 the cross-section 
 of a stem we find 
 an outer ring, the 
 bark, consisting of 
 a corky layer, the 
 outer bark, and 
 the inner bark or 
 bast', next comes 
 the wood, consti- 
 tuting the chief 
 portion of the 
 stem, and in the 
 
 Fig. 1. Three sections of a tree-stem, at right 
 angles to one another. 
 
 T. cross section, K. radial section, Tg. tangential section. 
 Lircll paib IS a 3^. me ciulla or pith, B. Bark, C. Cambium, aa. Concentric 
 -.r.1 -fill^ '1, annual layers, mm. Medullary rays, a&. thickness of medullary 
 Canal, mled Wltil raySi cd . height of medullary rays, II. vessels. 
 
 soft cellular tissue called the pith or medulla. Between the 
 wood and the bast lies a narrow, light-coloured ring, the 
 Cambium, This consists of a layer of embryonic cells, from 
 which are developed 011 the one side wood, and on the other 
 bast, and it is here that the growth of the tree takes place. 
 
 The Cambium forms the soft, moist, spongy mass which 
 may be seen under the bark in spring when the sap begins 
 to rise. It consists of microscopic cells, some of which are 
 long, prismatic, and pointed at the ends, while others are 
 shorter and have ends which terminate abruptly. The inner 
 bark and wood are developed chiefly from the long cells, the 
 medullary rays from the short ones. 
 
 Wood Cells. 
 
 The young cells from which wood is developed have at 
 
 which nourishes the growing tree, and which circulates with 
 ease from one thin walled cell to another, and thus permeates 
 the whole of the tissue. Gradually the walls of the cells 
 become thicker ; the cell contents solidify ; the sap flows less
 
 WOOD, OR TIMBER. 29 
 
 and less freely ; the whole tissue assumes the characteristics 
 of wood, and ceases to take part in the circulation and assimi- 
 lation of the sap. 
 
 The cellular tissue consists chiefly of cellulose, the chemical 
 constituents of which are carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. 
 
 Wood Fibres. 
 
 The cells from which wood is developed are principally 
 the long-pointed cells. They lie close together and overlap 
 one another at the ends, thus forming minute tubes or fibres. 
 The zone of wood in any stem consists of these fibres massed 
 together, and extending in the direction of the length of the 
 stem. The connection between separate fibres is often very 
 slight, as is shown by the ease with which they may be 
 separated. 
 
 In trees of regular growth the fibres are straight and 
 parallel. Wood of this kind is called " straight fibred." It 
 is easily split. This is not the case with wood in which 
 the fibres are crooked, or twisted about one another, as in 
 gnarled or mis-shapen trees. The fibres in the root, the lower 
 part of the stem, knotty branches and rough excrescences 
 are always crooked, and sometimes they are twisted and 
 involved in the most remarkable way. This gives rise to the 
 peculiar speckled and veined appearance which is so highly 
 prized in some kinds of wood. 
 
 The bast also consists of fibres, but they are longer and 
 usually tougher than wood-fibres. 
 
 Concentric Annual Layers. 
 
 A new layer of bast and a new layer of wood are formed 
 annually. This new formation goes on rapidly in spring and 
 early summer, when vital activity in the tree is at its height. 
 The cells are then large, and the wood formed from them, i.e., 
 spring wood, is soft and loose in texture and light in colour. 
 After the tree has budded the formation of wood goes on for
 
 30 
 
 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 
 
 of the con- 
 centric 
 annual 
 layer*. 
 
 tion uf the 
 a<je of a 
 tree. 
 
 a time, but less actively. The cells diminish in size and in 
 diameter, and are more closely packed together. The wood 
 formed at this period autumn wood is generally darker in 
 colour and closer in texture than spring wood. There are 
 fewer vessels (see p. 31 ) in autumn wood ; in spring wood, on 
 the contrary, they are numerous and quite visible as pores. 
 
 ** In consequence of the characteristics of autumn wood, the 
 boundary line between two periods of vegetation is clearly 
 defined, and it is easy to distinguish the concentric annual 
 layers which mark each yearly increase in growth. 
 
 These layers are most sharply defined in needle-leaved trees 
 and in some broad-leaved trees, e.g., the oak, the ash, and the 
 elm.* They are less conspicuous in the birch, the aspen, the 
 alder, etc., and in some cases it is even difficult to distinguish 
 
 . them at all. As a new layer of wood is formed every year, 
 the age of a tree may be determined by the number of layers. 
 In the tropics, where vegetation goes on during almost the 
 entire year without any well-marked period of rest, the con- 
 centric annual layers disappear entirely. 
 
 The breadth of the concentric layers varies in different 
 trees. In some cases they are more than 1 inch broad, in 
 others scarcely ^ inch. Their breadth may vary even in 
 the same stem, depending on the more or less favourable 
 weather of successive seasons. The layers 
 on the side exposed to the south are often 
 broader than those on the north. In old 
 needle-leaved trees we usually find very nar- 
 row layers nearest the pith; beyond these 
 the layers widen for the greater portion of 
 the stem, and then contract once more until 
 the outermost ones are often so narrow that 
 they can with difficulty be distinguished by 
 the naked eye. See Fig. 2. 
 
 * The terms needle-leaved trees and broad-leaved trees used throughout this 
 i may be taken as practically synonymous with Conifers and Dicotyledonous 
 trees. TRS. 
 
 2. Showing 
 manner of growth 
 in needle - leaved 
 trees.
 
 WOOD, OR TIMBER. 
 
 31 
 
 Narrow annual layers betoken good wood in needle-leaved close and 
 trees ; but the opposite holds good in the case of broad-leaved Io( 
 trees with large pores, e.g., the oak, the ash, and the elm. 
 Here broad annual layers are characteristic of a good quality 
 of wood, because the pores which render the wood open in 
 the grain occur chiefly in that portion of the layer which is 
 formed in early spring, and are less numerous in the closer 
 tissue of the autumn wood. See Fig. 3. 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 Fir. 
 
 Narrow layers, Broad layers, 
 
 hard resinous loose fibred 
 
 timber. timber. 
 
 Oak. 
 
 Narrow layers, Broad layers, 
 loose fibred hard timber, 
 porous timber. 
 
 Vessels or Air-tubes. 
 
 When a cross-section of a stem is carefully examined a 
 number of minute holes or pores are seen. These are the 
 mouths of vessels or air-tubes, which penetrate the whole 
 substance of the wood, parallel with the fibres. Their func- 
 tion is to enable the air to circulate in the stem, and they The porous- 
 are found even in wood of the closest grain, rendering ]^ ne8 *f wood ' 
 porous. Vessels are most numerous in the wood formed 
 early in spring, and very few are found in autumn wood, a 
 circumstance which helps to make the annual layers more 
 distinct. According to the size of these vessels wood is said 
 to define or coarse-grained. 
 
 Each kind of tree has something peculiar to itself in the 
 manner of distribution, the number, and the size of its 
 vessels. They are most marked in the oak, the ash, and the 
 elm, giving to the wood of these trees, when seen in vertical
 
 g2 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 
 
 section, its striped or streaked appearance. In a number of 
 trees on the other hand, e.g., the birch, the vessels are hardly 
 visible, and they are distributed pretty equally over the con- 
 centric annual layers, making it difficult to distinguish 
 consecutive layers. 
 
 Needle-leaved trees have no air vessels, but have channels 
 to"- filled with resin, i.e., resin-canals. These occur chiefly in 
 the autumn wood, to which they give a darker colour. 
 
 Heart-wood and Sap-wood. 
 
 In many kinds of trees, when the stem is sawn across, a 
 considerable difference may be observed between the appear- 
 ance of the inner and older, and the outer and younger 
 concentric annual layers. The inner layers are usually 
 firmer and closer in texture and darker in colour than the 
 outer, which are less compact, lighter in colour, and full of 
 sap. 
 
 The titan- The firmer, darker wood is called heart-wood or duramen ; 
 uxw, the {.^e i ooser lighter wood, sap-wood or alburnum. As a rule 
 
 valuable 
 
 part of the the latter forms a comparatively narrow ring round the 
 former, which constitutes the greater portion of the stem, 
 and which, when sound, is the valuable portion on account 
 of its firmer texture and greater durability. 
 
 The proportion which the heart-wood bears to the sap- 
 wood varies in different kinds of trees. For example, in the 
 case of broad-leaved trees, the proportion is largest in the 
 oak, the ash, and the elm ; least in the birch, the maple, the 
 alder, the hornbeam, etc. In needle-leaved trees, it is greatest 
 in the larch and the fir ; least in the pine. The resin in these 
 trees is found chiefly in the heart-wood. It greatly increases 
 its closeness and durability, and darkens its colour. 
 
 The most striking example of the difference in appearance 
 between heart- wood and sap-wood is presented by ebony, in 
 which the former is black and the latter white.
 
 WOOD, OR TIMBER. 33 
 
 The Pith and the Medullary Rays. 
 
 The pith forms a column in the central part of the stem, 
 and the medullary rays radiate from the pith towards the 
 bark. 
 
 The pith is looser in texture, and is composed of shorter 
 cells than the wood. The shape and size of the column vary 
 considerably in different trees. In some, e.g., the yew, it is 
 very thin ; in others, e.g., the elder, it occupies a considerable 
 space. 
 
 The medullary rays or " transverse septa " are composed of 
 flat cellular tissue, which forms thin vertical plates radiating 
 towards the bark. During the first year of the growth of 
 the tree, these rays originate in the pith, divide the patches 
 of wood and bast, and reach as far as the bark. In sub- 
 sequent years they are formed in connection with the new 
 wood, not with the pith, and they extend into the bark. 
 The medullary rays are the medium by which the pith and 
 the wood are brought into communication with the bark. 
 They also divide the wood into wedge-shaped bundles. They 
 are seldom so straight and regularly disposed as is represented 
 in the diagram (Fig. 1), but are generally more or less curved, 
 and they often branch out obliquely. They vary considerably Different 
 both in number and appearance in different trees, and thus, kinds ^ 
 
 . wood known 
 
 like the vessels, they serve as a guide to the recognition of by the 
 different kinds of wood. For example, oak is easily known character 
 by the smoothness and glossiness of its broad medullary rays medullary 
 when these are seen in radial section. This gives to oak rays - 
 timber the beautiful figured appearance called " silver grain." 
 The beech has also long, broad medullary rays. The maple 
 is distinguished by the fineness and number of its medullary 
 rays. 
 
 In the greater number of loose-fibred, broad-leaved trees, 
 the rays are very narrow, and scarcely distinguishable by the
 
 34 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 
 
 naked eye. This is also the case with needle-leaved trees, 
 the rays of which are extremely numerous. 
 
 Tht citatage The medullary rays affect to a considerable extent the ease 
 f <*"* or difficulty with which wood may be split. As a general 
 rule, timber is easily split if it has broad rays like the oak 
 and the beech, or if the rays, though numerous, are straight 
 and narrow like those of the fir and the pine. Other circum- 
 stances, however, may determine the greater or less resistance 
 which any given timber presents to cleavage. 
 
 The Sap. 
 
 Next to the wood the sap is the most important element in 
 timber. Its chief constituent is water, which holds in solution 
 various organic and inorganic substances, but its composition 
 undergoes changes in the course of circulation through the 
 different parts of the tree. 
 
 The sap materials are absorbed by the roots, and as crude, 
 or ascending sap, are carried by the still active cells of the 
 sap-wood to the leaves. Here, through the influence of light 
 and air, the crude sap is changed and made fit for the nourish- 
 ment and growth of the tree, and is called elaborated sap. 
 From the leaves it descends in the bast tubes to the cambium, 
 where the new wood and bast are formed. 
 
 The organic Amongst the organic substances which the sap holds in 
 o/"/* '"""* s l u ti n may be named, starch, sugar, colouring matter, 
 tannic acid, and albuminoids. The latter render it very liable 
 to fermentation, and when this takes place the wood decays. 
 This is the reason why timber, felled when the sap is circu- 
 lating, and allowed to lie unbarked, readily becomes " sour." 
 It also explains why sap-wood decays more quickly than 
 heart-wood. 
 
 When wood is burnt the inorganic constituents remain in 
 the ashes. 
 
 Sap also contains substances which are not required for 
 the growth of the tree, but which occupy space and channels
 
 WOOD, OB TIMBRE. 35 
 
 in the wood. Amongst these substances are the volatile oils, 
 which are found chiefly in needle-leaved trees, and of which 
 turpentine is the most important. The resin or gwm found Turpentine, 
 in needle-leaved trees is also formed from these oils. Tannic ^nd tannic 
 acid is found in a great many trees, especially in the bark. acid - 
 It is known by its acrid taste, and it abounds chiefly in the 
 oak, the fir, and the alder. When fresh timber in which 
 there is a great deal of tannic acid is split or sawn, the acid 
 makes the polished edge of the tool become blue-black in 
 colour. 
 
 The destructive effect of the albuminoids of the sap is 
 counteracted by the turpentine, resin, and tannic acid. 
 
 Water Capacity. 
 
 The sap, as stated above, consists chiefly of water ; and, as 
 it circulates in the sap-wood, it follows that the latter con- 
 tains more water than the heart-wood, and more in spring 
 than in the height of summer. As a general rule the water 
 contained in unseasoned wood is about 40 to 50 per cent, of 
 the weight of the wood. In unseasoned ash and beech it is 
 20 to 30 per cent. ; in loose-grained oak, hornbeam, maple, 
 elm, Scotch fir, and spruce fir, 30 to 40 per cent. ; in the looser 
 fibred trees in which sap abounds, e.g., the alder, the lime, 
 the willow, and the aspen, 40 to 50 per cent. 
 
 The presence of water has generally a hurtful effect upon 
 timber, as is shown in what follows. 
 
 B. The Changes which Wood 
 undergoes. 
 
 The changes to which wood is subject are partly mechanical 
 in their nature, consisting of alterations in the water capacity, 
 and consequent alterations in shape ; partly chemical, caused 
 chiefly by the decomposition of the sap, which finally leads 
 to the decay of the wood.
 
 36 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 
 
 I. Changes in the Water Capacity, and the changes in 
 form which are thereby produced. 
 
 Newly felled timber contains, as has been said, a large pro- 
 portion of water sometimes as much as 50 per cent, of its own 
 weight. After lying for some time in a dry and airy place, 
 it loses about half its amount of water by evaporation. 
 Sawn or split wood, dried for a year or two under cover, 
 still retains 10 to 15 per cent, of water, and only by con- 
 tinuous application of heat, or drying in an oven, can the 
 water in timber be completely expelled. 
 
 During the process of drying, timber decreases in volume 
 or shrinks. If exposed again to moisture it increases in volume 
 or sivell*. 
 
 If any given piece of timber were uniform in texture 
 throughout, and if no obstacles in any direction were pre- 
 sented to its expansion, the only result of shrinking or swell- 
 ing would be alteration in volume ; there would be no change 
 in form. This, however, is seldom the case. Generally 
 speaking, the texture of the wood varies in different parts 
 of the same piece. Again, it is often used under conditions 
 which do not permit it to shrink or swell freely in all direc- 
 tions ; consequently, it shrinks or swells more in one place 
 than in another. 
 
 When one part of a piece of timber shrinks more rapidly 
 than an adjacent part, the wood cracks. If, on the other 
 hand, one part swells more than another, or if the adjacent 
 part meets with some obstacle to its expansion, the timber 
 changes in shape it becomes warped. 
 
 The shrinkage of timber stands in close connection with the 
 amount of water contained. The more water it gives off 
 while drying, the more it shrinks. Similarly the warmer and 
 drier the air in which it is placed, the greater the shrinkage. 
 
 Some kinds of wood shrink more than others, and the 
 same kind of wood shrinks differently in different directions.
 
 WOOD, OR TIMBER. 37 
 
 All wood shrinks least in the direction of the fibres' length, 
 and generally so very little that the difference need not be 
 taken into consideration. But the difference caused by 
 shrinking is very great across the fibres, and in tangential 
 section it is two or three times greater than in radial section, 
 or in the plane of the medullary rays. The sap-wood, which 
 contains more water than the heart-wood, always shrinks 
 more than the latter. 
 
 The following table, taken from " Karmarsch's Technology," 
 shows the results of experiments made on a number of trees, 
 to ascertain to what extent their timber shrinks. It must be 
 observed that (1) the experiments were made with thin pieces 
 of wood ; (2) that the figures are understood to represent the 
 difference between wood which is either quite green or satu- 
 rated with water, and that which has been thoroughly well 
 seasoned ; and that, therefore, (3) the shrinking of partially 
 seasoned wood is considerably less than is stated in the table. 
 (The same applies of course to the swelling of such wood, 
 when it is again exposed to moisture.) 
 
 The last column gives the average degree of shrinkage 
 across the fibres.
 
 38 
 
 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 
 
 Shrinkage of Timber. 
 
 General 
 rtsulti 
 afforded by 
 the above 
 table. 
 
 Name of tree. 
 
 Degree of Shrinkage. 
 
 In length. 
 Per cent. 
 
 Across the fibres in 
 the direction of 
 
 The 
 
 medullary 
 rays. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 The common alder 0.369 
 
 The elm 0.124 
 
 The apple 0.109 
 
 The common ash (young) 0.821 
 
 The common birch 0.222 
 
 The common beech 0.200 
 
 The hornbeam 0.400 
 
 Ebony 0.010 
 
 The oak (young) 0.400 
 
 The oak (old) 0.130 
 
 The Scotch fir 0.120 
 
 The spruce iir 0.076 
 
 The lime 0.208 
 
 The common larch 0.075 
 
 The maple 0.072 
 
 Mahogany 0.110 
 
 Lignum vitae ... .... 0.625 
 
 The pear 0.228 
 
 The rowan ... 0.190 
 
 The common walnut 0.223 
 
 2.91 
 2.94 
 3.00 
 4.05 
 3.86 
 5.03 
 6.66 
 2.13 
 3.90 
 3.13 
 3-04 
 2.41 
 7.79 
 2.17 
 3.35 
 1.09 
 5.18 
 3.94 
 2.11 
 3.53 
 
 The 
 annual 
 layers. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Average 
 
 across the 
 
 fibres. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 5.07 
 6.22 
 7.39 
 6.56 
 9.30 
 8.06 
 
 10.90 
 4.07 
 7.55 
 7.78 
 5.72 
 6.18 
 
 11.50 
 6.32 
 6'59 
 1.79 
 7.50 
 
 12.70 
 8-88 
 6-25 
 
 3.99 
 4.58 
 5.19 
 5.30 
 6.58 
 6.54 
 8.78 
 3.10 
 5.72 
 5.45 
 4.38 
 4.29 
 9.64 
 4.24 
 4.97 
 1.44 
 6.34 
 8.32 
 5-49 
 4-89 
 
 As is seen from the above table, the degree of shrinkage in 
 the direction of the length of the wood is so slight that it 
 may be left entirely out of consideration. In the direction 
 of the breadth, however, it varies from 2 per cent, to 9 per 
 cent. In radial section, the general average is 5 per cent. ; for 
 fir and pine 3 per cent. ; for birch 4 per cent. In tangential 
 section, where shrinkage is greatest, it varies from 2 per cent, 
 to 13 per cent., the general average for wood ill common use 
 being 7 per cent. ; for fir and pine 6 per cent. ; for birch 9 
 per cent.
 
 WOOD, OR TIMBER. 39 
 
 When a tree stem is 
 sawn up into planks by 
 parallellongitudinalcuts, 
 the planks shrink as is 
 shown in Fig. 4. The 
 broadest portion shown, 
 which includes the pith, 
 shrinks least in breadth, 
 Fig. 4. Shrinkage in planks. most in thickness ; least 
 
 nearest the pith, most near the sides. The outermost plank, 
 however, shrinks most in breadth in the direction of the 
 annual layers and least in thickness. The planks lying 
 between shrink differently on different sides, and become 
 concave to the pith, and convex on the other side. 
 
 Of trees in most general use, beech, lime, hornbeam, and 
 pear shrink most ; birch, apple, white-beam, walnut, ash, and 
 oak shrink considerably ; alder, maple, Scotch fir, elm, spruce 
 fir, and larch shrink in a medium degree. Mahogany shrinks 
 least of all timbers. 
 
 Cracks occur in timber, because, as indicated above, it is 
 seldom uniform in texture, and it is therefore liable to shrink 
 in different degrees during seasoning. The parts nearest the 
 sap-wood shrink more rapidly than the heart-wood, and 
 cracks, which run almost invariably in the direction of the 
 medullary rays, are the result. The more rapidly wood dries 
 the more it cracks, consequently timber should always be 
 dried very slowly to prevent the formation of cracks. If it is 
 tolerably uniform in texture, it may, with proper treatment, 
 be kept entirely free from cracks. 
 
 The swelling, or expansion of timber, takes place when it 
 is exposed to damp air or water, and is in direct relation to 
 its shrinkage. When a piece of dried wood is immersed in 
 water, it swells until it occupies the same volume as it occu- 
 pied in its fresh condition, after which no further expansion 
 takes place. Its amount of water, however, and consequently
 
 40 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 
 
 its weight, are greater than in its fresh condition, because 
 the vessels originally filled with air are now filled with 
 water. 
 
 The warping of timber depends on differences in the nature 
 of its texture, and on other circumstances which cause changes 
 in form both when it shrinks and when it swells. For ex- 
 ample, a plank will become twisted or curved if one side 
 only is exposed to the sun without being turned. Thin, flat 
 pieces of wood become convex or concave, according as one 
 or other side is exposed to damp or to drying influences. 
 
 II. Means of preventing Cracks and Warping. 
 
 The means taken to keep timber as far as possible from 
 cracking or warping during the process of seasoning, are very 
 various. They are partly connected with the treatment of 
 the wood when it is cut up into timber, and partly with its 
 treatment for any special purpose. 
 
 1. Seasoning. 
 
 when wood Trees should be felled when the sap is down or at rest. 
 
 'cutdoien The best time is from the the middle of December to the end 
 of February. Too much stress cannot be laid upon the im- 
 portance of felling timber at the right time, for if felled at 
 the wrong season, it will contain too much sap, which will 
 make it very difficult to dry, render it much more liable to 
 swell or shrink, and increase the risk of its becoming worm- 
 eaten. In the case of needle-leaved trees excess of sap gives 
 u bluish tinge to the surface of the timber. 
 
 wood The more slowly timber is dried the less it cracks, and 
 
 dried timber felled at the proper season and allowed to dry slowly 
 cracks very little. Barked timber, which dries more quickly 
 than unbarked, often cracks so widely that it is quite unfit 
 for slb'jd-work. When the bark is left on, the cracks may be 
 numerous, but they will be small. Thick pieces crack more 
 than thin pieces ; logs or round wood more than split wood j
 
 WOOD, OE TIMBER. 41 
 
 sap-wood more than heart-wood. Care should be taken dur- 
 ing seasoning that the air has free access to the wood on all 
 sides. Wood which has been split with the axe is apt to 
 crack at the ends ; this may be prevented by pasting paper 
 over them. Portions of timber containing the pith and the 
 adjacent annual layers, always crack ; such pieces are there- 
 fore unavailable for work. When round timber is split in 
 order to facilitate seasoning, it should be divided through 
 the pith. 
 
 Boards or planks are best dried in a drying shed, where Natural 
 fresh air can circulate freely round each piece. The best *^"*" ' g g ' 
 way is to place the boards on their edges, with sufficient by exposure 
 space between, taking care that they are not twisted in any 
 way. If they are piled one on the other, pieces of dry wood 
 should be placed between them, in order to separate them. 
 For obvious reasons, none of the timber should touch the 
 ground. 
 
 Timber which has been felled at the proper time, takes no 
 harm from exposure to a little rain in spring and early sum- 
 mer, provided always that the air has free access, so that it 
 may dry again quickly. Indeed, timber usually dries very 
 rapidly out in the open air in early summer. The rain helps 
 to wash out the sap, and the timber is thereby rendered 
 more durable when thoroughly dried. 
 
 When wholly or partially finished planks are laid by for 
 future use, care must be taken that they do not lie one close 
 upon the other, but that both sides are fully exposed to the 
 air, to facilitate further drying and prevent warping. 
 
 In the early stages of seasoning, evaporation goes on with 
 tolerable rapidity, but afterwards it takes place more slowly, 
 and timber must be kept in a dry and airy place for two or 
 three years before it can be considered fully seasoned. Tim- when Km, 
 
 * . ... ,. . , ., bercanbe 
 
 ber is said to be seasoned when the quantity or moisture it said to te 
 contains coincides with that contained in the atmosphere. seasoned. 
 As has been said above, the amount of water in timber
 
 42 HANDBOOK OP SLOJD. 
 
 seasoned as indicated, never falls below 10 per cent, of its 
 weight. To decrease the water still further, it is necessary 
 to dry the timber in ovens constructed for the purpose, 
 or in heated air, or else to keep it for a long time in a warm 
 place. 
 
 influent of Drying expels water only, not the essential elements of the 
 the tap on some of which part with great difficulty from water, and 
 
 teasoniiii/. . .., ... , i , i 
 
 also take it up again with great readiness when the timber is 
 once more exposed to moisture. These properties of the sap 
 make seasoning much more difficult than it would otherwise 
 be, and retard the process considerably in wood which abounds 
 in sap e.g., beech, birch, oak, and walnut. 
 
 Removal of To overcome this difficulty, the sap may either be removed 
 altogether, or its action may be neutralised. The first is 
 accomplished by immersing the wood in cold water for some 
 time, or in boiling water for a shorter time ; or, what is still 
 better, by steaming it. In the second case the timber is 
 impregnated with substances calculated to counteract the 
 destructive effects of the sap e.g., a solution of common salt, 
 vitriol, chloride of zinc, etc. These methods can, however, 
 only be mentioned here incidentally, as any detailed descrip- 
 tion would be entirely beyond the limits of this work. 
 
 2. Precautions necessary to prevent Warping and 
 Cracking under special conditions. 
 
 As shrinkage is greater in tangential than in radial section, 
 the wood for any special purpose ought to be sawn out or split 
 in the direction of the radii of the stem, in order that the 
 article may the better preserve its form and size. There are, 
 however, some practical difficulties which render it impossible 
 to carry out this principle in all cases. 
 
 jointing Uniformity of texture, and consequently less tendency to 
 crack or warp, is more easily secured in small pieces of timber 
 than in large pieces, and consequently it is usual in the con- 
 struction of articles to employ smaller pieces of wood than
 
 WOOD, OB TIMBER. 43 
 
 are required, and to joint them together ; and these pieces 
 may often, without any disadvantage, be chosen from different 
 kinds of wood, and may have their fibres running in different 
 directions. Hence it is better in making a broad plane sur- 
 face to select planks which have been divided in two, than 
 to make it of whole planks. Planks containing the heart- 
 wood nearest the pith which is generally cracked, are always 
 divided in two to get rid of this portion. 
 
 Jointing also permits large plane surfaces to shrink with- Frames < d 
 
 panels 
 
 out injury to parts of the work already completed. For 
 example, blackboards, the panels of doors, etc., which are set 
 into a groove in a frame, are thus permitted to shrink with- 
 out cracking. Table-tops are strengthened by blocks which 
 fit into a groove in the framing, and are glued to the under 
 part of the top. Broad pieces of wood are furnished on one 
 side with clamps, the fibres of which run at right angles to 
 those of the broad piece, and which are inserted in such a 
 way that the wood of the broad piece can shrink without 
 hindrance. 
 
 III. The Decay of Timber. 
 
 After vital action ceases in a tree, its substance, like that 
 of other organic bodies, undergoes a process of decomposition, 
 which sooner or later terminates in the total decay of the 
 wood. Decay takes place very rapidly if the timber is ex- 
 posed to alternations of moisture, air, and heat. 
 
 The wood fibres themselves have a high degree of durability, 
 especially if the sap, which is the prime cause of decay, has 
 been removed. Somaof the constituents of the sap, e.g., starch 
 and sugar, neither hasten decay nor retard it, while others, 
 e.g., tannic acid and resin, counteract it. It is the albuminoids 
 which are the cause of decomposition, and the sap-wood in 
 which they abound is the part which decays most rapidly. 
 
 The decay of timber is caused, in the first instance, by the Blue mr- 
 fermentation of the sap, which in this state soon acts in- /a "' 
 juriously on the wood-fibres. The first sign of this is a
 
 44 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 
 
 bluish tinge on the surface of the wood. Timber which has 
 assumed this bluish tinge is not only less durable and strong, 
 but it is also extremely difficult to work. Though the fer- 
 menting elements dry in the wood cells, they do not therefore 
 lose their power. They remain dormant merely, and the 
 application of moisture after the lapse of time is sufficient to 
 wake them into activity. Hence, timber which is exposed 
 to alternations of heat and moisture may very soon acquire 
 a "blue surface," especially if kept where ventilation is 
 deficient. 
 
 If the process of decay goes on further, fungi almost always 
 make their appearance. One of the most destructive forms 
 in which they appear is known as " dry rot." 
 
 offntects Timber is also destroyed by insects or worms, which bore 
 their way through the wood, and often reduce the inner 
 portion completely to dust before any signs of destruction 
 appear on the outside. Wood which is rich in sap, e.g., birch 
 and alder, is most liable to such attacks ; beech is less liable ; 
 while the elm, the maple, and resinous needle-leaved trees, 
 are seldom attacked. 
 
 Means of Preventing Decay. 
 
 As the decomposition of the sap is the real cause of the 
 decay of wood, the means taken to prevent decay are directed 
 either towards the retardation of this decomposition or to 
 the complete expulsion of the sap, e.g. : 
 
 1. The timber is cut down during the season of the 
 
 year when there is least sap in the stem. 
 2. The timber is seasoned as thoroughly as possible, in 
 circumstances which permit free access and circula- 
 tion of air, and is protected not only during season- 
 ing but afterwards, from alternations of moisture 
 and dryness. 
 
 The growth of fungus is prevented by exposure 
 to light, and continuous and uniform ventilation.
 
 WOOD, OR TIMBER. 45 
 
 3. The wood, after it has been made into articles, is 
 
 preserved from damp by varnish, oil paint, etc. 
 4. The sap is got rid of by steeping the timber in 
 water or steaming it in ovens. 
 
 It is to be observed, however, that in this way the 
 constituents of the sap which contribute to the 
 durability of the wood, i.e., resin and tannic acid, 
 are also removed. 
 
 5. The timber is impregnated with some substance in 
 solution which neutralises the effects of the sap. 
 
 The two last named processes are not used for 
 slojd timber. 
 
 In conclusion, it may be added that when the sap is re- 
 moved entirely, or when the timber is impregnated with 
 some neutralising substance, it does not become worm-eaten. 
 When insects attack wood which has not been treated in one 
 of these ways, it is almost impossible to extirpate them. It 
 has been recommended to apply an acid, e.g.. muriatic acid, 
 or a solution of camphor to the worm-eaten holes; but this is, 
 generally speaking, not practicable, and it is, moreover, not a 
 complete cure. 
 
 C. Different kinds of Wood. 
 
 I. Comparison of the Qualities of different kinds 
 of Wood. 
 
 The chief qualities of timber are: strength, the ease or 
 difficulty with which it is split, hardness, toughness, elasticity, 
 texture, colour and smell, weight, durability, and its capacity 
 for shrinking and swelling. The two last mentioned quali- 
 ties have already been taken up. 
 
 It is obvious that most of these qualities depend not only 
 on the kind of tree from which the timber is obtained, but 
 also on many incidental circumstances, such as climate and 
 soil, the age of the tree, the season of the year when it was
 
 46 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 
 
 cut down, subsequent treatment, etc. It is therefore hardly 
 possible to make any general statements regarding them 
 which shall hold good in all cases. 
 
 1. The strength of timber is shown by its power of 
 resistance to pressure, rupture, tearing, and twisting. 
 
 The oak and the Scotch fir present the greatest resist- 
 ance to pressure. The oak, the ash, the spruce fir, and next 
 after them the Scotch fir, the larch, and the aspen, resist 
 rupture best. In this respect the beech and the alder are not 
 so strong. The oak and the ash, and after them the beech, 
 the spruce fir, the Scotch fir, and the elm, present the greatest 
 resistance to tearing. 
 
 2. The ease or difficulty with which different kinds of 
 WOOd may be split. By this is meant the greater or lesser 
 ease with which timber may be divided by a wedge-shaped 
 tool in the direction of the length of the fibres. It is closely 
 related to the quality of the fibres and the manner of their 
 distribution. Wood which has grown quickly has long 
 straight fibres, is free from knots, and is easily split. " Cross- 
 grained " wood, the fibres of which twist and cross each other, 
 and the wood of roots and of branches with knotty excres- 
 cences, is difficult to split. Wood from the lower part of the 
 trunk nearest the roots is the most difficult of all to split. 
 
 When the medullary rays are large and long as in beech 
 and oak, or numerous and fine as in needle-leaved trees, 
 timber is easily split iu radial section, but all timber is 
 harder to split in tangential than in radial section. 
 
 The following timbers are difficult to split : figured birch, 
 hornbeam, elm, maple, and white-beam. 
 
 The following are easy to split: ash, beech, alder, oak, 
 aspen, Scotch fir, spruce fir, lime, poplar, and chestnut. 
 
 Old knotty oak, however, may present great difficulty. 
 
 3. The density or hardness of timber is shown in the 
 resistance it offers to the tools with which it is worked. It 
 is impossible to give definite statistics on this point, because
 
 WOOD, OR TIMBER, 47 
 
 it depends so much on circumstances, e.g., the varieties of 
 texture in the same tree, the nature and arrangement of the 
 fibres, the degree of moisture, the presence of resin, etc., etc. : 
 the general rule, however, holds good, that close-grained 
 timber with high specific gravity is hard (it being under- 
 stood that comparisons are always made with seasoned wood). 
 Seasoned timber is harder than green timber. Green heart- 
 wood is harder than sap-wood. Resinous heart-wood is very 
 hard, and this is also true of timber which has fine annual 
 layers, as is shown especially in the extremely hard resinous 
 knots often seen in planks. 
 
 The resistance which timber presents to the axe is greatest Resistance 
 at right angles to the length of the fibres, and it decreases in totheaxe 
 
 & . and the 
 
 proportion as the angle becomes more acute. It is least when saw. 
 the blade of the axe is parallel with the direction of the 
 fibres' length, as in splitting. 
 
 The saw, on the other hand, works by tearing the fibres, 
 and consequently it meets with most resistance in loose- 
 textured timber with long tough fibres. Such timber makes 
 the edge of the saw uneven. In close-grained timber with 
 short fibres the saw works easily, and the edge keeps more 
 even. Consequently, for heavy close-grained timber the saw 
 does not require to be set so much. In certain kinds of 
 timber moisture increases the toughness of the fibres, and on 
 this account unseasoned timber is more difficult to saw than 
 dry wood. 
 
 The hardness of timber is very important in all cases 
 where it is exposed to blows, concussions, and general wear 
 and tear. 
 
 For ordinary purposes the hardness of any piece of wood 
 may be tested by cutting it with a knife. 
 
 The hardest timbers of all are lignum vitse and ebony. 
 The ordinary kinds of timber may be classified as follows : 
 Hard : hornbeam, maple, apple, pear, oak, and beech. 
 Medium : ash, elm, white-beam, walnut, birch, lime, and 
 chestnut.
 
 48 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 
 
 Soft : Scotch fir, spruce fir, larch, alder, aspen, and poplar. 
 As has, however, been indicated above, spruce fir with fine 
 annual layers and resinous Scotch fir are often very hard, and 
 they might thus find a place in the higher class. 
 
 4. The toughness and elasticity of timber. A piece 
 of timber which may be bent without breaking, and which 
 does not resume its former shape when the bending force is 
 removed, is said to be tough; if it does resume its former 
 shape, it is said to be elastic. Generally speaking, both these 
 qualities co-exist in all timber, but one is usually more pre- 
 dominant than the other, according to the kind of wood. 
 Thus some timbers are said to be elastic and others tough. 
 
 Unseasoned wood is tougher than dry wood, and what it 
 gains in elasticity during seasoning it loses in toughness. 
 Damp heat increases toughness ; hence hoops and sticks are 
 " steamed " in order that they may be bent. 
 
 As a general rule light timber is tougher than heavy 
 timber, roots are tougher than stems ; sap-wood is tougher 
 than heart- wood, and young timber is tougher than old. 
 
 The toughest timbers are the following : hornbeam, elm, 
 ash, aspen, birch, juniper, hazel, osier, maple, and white-beam. 
 
 Lime, alder, beech, and the heart-wood of oak are only 
 moderately tough. 
 
 Elasticity is increased by seasoning, and is generally great 
 ui heavy timbers. It is of great importance in the manufac- 
 ture of many articles, e.g., masts, oars, wooden springs, the 
 handles of spades, axes, hammers, etc. 
 
 The following timbers are elastic: elm, ash, aspen, oak, 
 spruce fir, birch, maple, and poplar. 
 
 Hornbeam, alder, and Scotch fir are less elastic. 
 
 5. The texture, colour and smell of timber. Knowledge 
 of these qualities is very important in connection with the 
 recognition of different kinds of timber, and in estimating 
 their value.
 
 WOOD, OE TIMBER. 
 
 49 
 
 By texture is understood the way in which the vessels, 
 fibres, medullary rays and annual layers are woven or con- 
 nected together. (See fig. 1). 
 
 Wood as it appears in cross section is said to be end way 
 of the grain ; as it appears in radial and tangential section 
 parallel with the fibres it is said to be length way of the 
 grain, or with the grain ; and as it appears when we look 
 across the fibres at right angles to their length, it is said to be 
 across the grain. 
 
 We distinguish between coarse and fine texture according coarse and 
 to the quality of the fibres, vessels, medullary rays &nd fine 
 annual layers, which, taken all together, give to wood its 
 characteristic appearance. Similarly we speak of long-fibred 
 and of short-fibred texture, according as the wood " works " 
 with long or short shavings. 
 
 The colour of wood varies from white to deep black, with Different 
 many intermediate shades of yellow, red, brown, etc., depending e ^ 
 on the kind of tree. It varies not only in different kinds of 
 timber, but in the same kind of timber, and even in the same 
 tree. As has been said above, the heart-wood is always 
 darker than the sap-wood. Certain kinds of timber, again, 
 e.g., oak and mahogany, become darker with time. 
 
 Our ordinary timbers are whitish, yellowish, brownish or 
 reddish, and are not so highly coloured as tropical timbers, 
 some of which are very striking in colour. 
 
 The smell peculiar to many kinds of timber is a mark by The sme u 
 which they may sometimes be recognised. This characteristic f wood due 
 smell does not proceed from the wood itself, for it has none. 
 It is due to the sap, and is always strongest in fresh sappy 
 wood ; though seasoned timber sometimes has a very decided 
 smell, which is often quite unlike that of the unseasoned 
 wood. Needle-leaved trees have a strong smell of turpentine, 
 and certain broad-leaved trees, e.g., the oak, often smell of 
 tannic acid. Many trees have an agreeable smell, e.g., the 
 cedar, juniper, the camphor-tree, etc. The smell of some
 
 50 
 
 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 
 
 timber remains in it for a long time, and communicates itself 
 to food kept in vessels made of it. 
 
 A musty smell in timber is a sign of decay. 
 6. The weight or specific gravity of timber is very 
 variable, depending as it does on a number of different cir- 
 stances. Hence it is impossible to give such, definite 
 statistics under this head as can be given in the case of 
 metals and many other substances. We have to take into 
 consideration the closeness or the looseness of the fibres, 
 which determines the hardness or density of the wood ; the 
 presence of more or less sap ; the climate and soil in which 
 the tree has grown ; its age ; its different parts ; the degree 
 of seasoning, etc. 
 
 Specific The specific gravity of wood properly so called, i.e., of the 
 
 ^kel'eUuiar cellular tissue which composes it, is very similar in all 
 
 titsue. timbers, and even in the lightest kinds it is greater than that 
 
 of water. Nevertheless, most timbers, owing to their porous 
 
 nature, are lighter than water, and float in it. This is the 
 
 case with all our indigenous trees after seasoning. A warm 
 
 climate produces heavy timber ; and the heaviest timbers, 
 
 such as ebony and lignum vitse, are found in the tropics. 
 
 The presence of water is the circumstance which most affects 
 the weight of timber. All timbers are heavier when newly 
 felled than after seasoning. Hence, in determining the 
 
 O ' O 
 
 specific gravity of different kinds of timber, we must assume 
 that the timber is fully seasoned. 
 
 The average specific gravity of the most common kinds of 
 timber is given as follows by competent authorities : 
 
 NEWLY SEAS- | NEWLY SEAS- 
 
 FELLED. OXED. FELLED. O.\ED. 
 
 The Hornbeam ... 1.08 0.72 ! The Spruce Fir ... 0.73 0.47 
 
 The Common Alder 0.82 0.53 The Lime 0.74 0.45 
 
 The Elm 0.95 0.69 The Common Larch 0.76 0.62 
 
 The Apple ... 1.10 0.75 j The Maple 0.90 0.66 
 
 The Common Ash 0.92 0.75 \ The White-beam ... 1.04 0.86 
 
 The Aspen ... 0.80 0.49 
 
 The Birch ... 0.94 0.64 
 
 The Common Beech 1.01 0.74 
 
 The Oak 1.10 0.8S 
 
 The Com. Juniper 1.07 0.61 
 
 The Scotch Fir ... 0.70 0.52 
 
 The Pear 1.01 0.72 
 
 The Rowan 0.96 0.67 
 
 The Common Walnut 0.91 0.68 
 
 Ebony 1.20 
 
 Mahogany 0.81 
 
 Lignum vitas ... 1.40
 
 WOOD, OE TIMBER. 51 
 
 The absolute weight per cubic foot in any given timber is 
 ascertained by multiplying the specific gravity given above 
 by 62.5 = the number of pounds in a cubic foot of water. 
 
 7. The durability of timber. This and the circumstances 
 which favour it have been touched on in connection with 
 the sap, with seasoning, with decay, and the means of its 
 prevention. 
 
 The conditions under which timber is used have the 
 greatest influence on its durability. .Thus, timber which 
 is kept under cover and protected from moisture is very 
 durable, and may last for many centuries. Some kinds of 
 timber are extremely durable if kept under water. Thus, The dura ~ 
 the oak used in ancient lake-dwellings and bridges, or found ivoodunder 
 in bogs, has been preserved for thousands of years. water - 
 
 If timber is exposed to alternations of moisture and dry- when wood 
 ness, its durability is diminished ; and yet, in most cases, it durabu. 
 is precisely in these unfavourable conditions it has to be used. 
 
 Hence it follows that it is impossible to give precise The mot 
 
 durable 
 timbers. 
 
 details regarding the durability of timber. Under this head d " ra 
 
 all that can be done is to mention the trees which in all 
 circumstances give the most durable timbers, viz. : the oak, 
 and resinous, close-grained Scotch fir and larch. The elm 
 comes next to these. If exposed to alternations of moisture 
 and dryness, oak is said to last one hundred years, birch 
 fifteen years, and beech not more than ten. Durability is 
 also mentioned in the description of different kinds of 
 timber, which follows. 
 
 II. Characteristics of different kinds of trees. 
 
 Here follows an enumeration of the different kinds of 
 wood which are available for slojd work, together with a 
 condensed statement of their properties, in order that, as far 
 as is possible in a brief description, the reader may be made 
 acquainted with each kind of timber. 
 
 [The following kinds of wood can be easily obtained in
 
 52 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 
 
 England, and are therefore specially recommended : Scotch 
 fir, spruce fir, alder, birch, beech, oak, chestnut, lime, and 
 poplar. See also p. 204. TRS.] 
 
 1. Needle-leaved Trees. 
 
 The Scotch fir (Finns sylvestris). The ripe timber is 
 yellowish white or reddish white. The boundaries of the 
 annual concentric layers are light brown in the heart-wood ; 
 white in the sap-wood. It is the heaviest, hardest, and most 
 resinous of all the needle-leaved trees, and has a tolerably 
 strong smell of turpentine. Its resinous, fine-grained heart- 
 wood is very durable. 
 
 The spruce fir (Pinus abies). The wood is yellowish 
 white. In a longitudinal section it shows dark reddish 
 streaks. It is very elastic, and is easily split with the axe. 
 As it contains a good deal of resin, it resists damp ; though, 
 being less resinous than the pine, it is more easily glued. 
 Like the pine, it makes excellent timber. Very hard knots, 
 which loosen and fall out when the wood is seasoned, are, 
 however, of frequent occurrence in this wood. 
 
 The common larch (Pinus larix). The wood of this tree 
 is reddish, with dark annual layers and white sap-wood. 
 It warps but little, and does not readily become worm-eaten. 
 It is more durable than the Scotch fir and the spruce fir. 
 
 The common juniper (Juniperus communis). The wood 
 of the young bushes is white, and it deepens from yellow to 
 brown as it increases in age. It is hard, tough, close, strong, 
 
 and durable, and whenever it can be obtained lame enough 
 . . 
 
 it is much in request for slojd articles. The juniper has a 
 peculiar and agreeable smell. 
 
 2. Broad-Leaved Trees. 
 
 The hornbeam (Carpinus betulus). The wood of this 
 tree is white, very hard, heavy, close and very tough. The 
 medullary rays are very little darker than the wood, and are 
 not easily distinguished. They are curved, appearing in a
 
 WOOD, OR TIMBER. 53 
 
 longitudinal section like narrow inconspicuous flecks. The. 
 wood is very difficult to split. It dries slowly and warps 
 easily. It is very durable if kept dry, and is a favourite 
 timber for slojd work. 
 
 The common alder (Alnus glutinosa). The wood is whit- 
 ish or brownish-yellow, often deepening to brown, and in 
 the newly-felled tree light red. The annual layers are diffi- 
 cult to recognise ; the medullary rays are rather broad, and 
 brown in colour. The timber is only of medium hardness, 
 and is neither very tough nor very elastic ; it splits readily, 
 and does not crack or warp easily. It is very durable if con- 
 stantly kept wet, but it is of low durability if exposed to 
 alternations in the degree of moisture. If felled at the wrong 
 time it is speedily attacked by worms. Its close and even 
 texture make it good timber for slojd work. 
 
 The hoary-leaved alder (Alnus incana) furnishes timber 
 which is whiter, finer, and closer than the preceding. 
 
 The elm ( Ulmus montana, U. campestris). The colour of 
 the young wood in general, and of the sap-wood in older trees, 
 is whitish-yellow. The old heart-wood is reddish-brown, 
 streaked and veined. The inner boundary of the annual 
 layers is somewhat lighter in colour and looser in texture 
 than the rest, and has visible pores. The medullary rays are 
 very narrow and numerous, giving to this timber in longi- 
 tudinal section a dotted and streaked appearance. This 
 timber is moderately fine in fibre, tough, hard, given to warp, 
 difficult to split, and not liable to the attacks of worms. Its 
 durability under all circumstances is very great. It is often 
 beautifully marked. 
 
 The common ash (Fraxinus excelsior). The colour of 
 the young wood is white ; of the older, yellowish brown, 
 deepening almost to brown in the heart-wood. The medul- 
 lary rays are not easily distinguished. The annual layers are 
 generally broad, and, as in the case of the oak, the large pores 
 on their inner edge render them very conspicuous. This
 
 54 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 
 
 timber is tough, elastic, very hard, easily split, not liable to 
 crack, and, if kept in a dry atmosphere, extremely durable. 
 If exposed to the open air it is of low durability. It is much 
 esteemed for its strength and toughness, and is used with 
 advantage for springs of all kinds, tool handles, etc., etc. 
 The young wood is used for barrel-hoops, etc. 
 
 The aspen (Populus tremula). The wood is white, with 
 coarse annual rings. It is fine in texture ; tough, easily 
 split, and warps but little. It is very durable if kept under 
 cover or in the ground. It is not of much use in slojd work, 
 and in Sweden it is used chiefly in the manufacture of 
 matches. 
 
 [The poplar (Populus). The colour of the wood is a yellow 
 or brownish white. The annual rings are a little darker on 
 one side than on the other, and are therefore distinct. The 
 texture is uniform, and there are no large medullary rays. 
 The wood is light, soft, easily worked, and does not splinter. 
 When kept dry it is tolerably durable, and it is not liable to 
 shrink. TRS.] 
 
 The common bireh (Betula alba). The wood of the 
 young tree is white. Older wood is reddish white in colour. 
 The medullary rays are very narrow and scarcely distinguish- 
 able. The timber is tolerably hard, and very tough ; it dries 
 very slowly, and swells easily. It is very durable if kept dry, 
 but is of low durability if exposed to the open air, and is very 
 apt to become worm-eaten. 
 
 The quality of birch varies very much, and depends greatly 
 on climate and soil. Birch grown in favourable soil is 
 straight in fibre, easily split and easily worked: Birch 
 grown in dry and stony ground or in marshy places is crook- 
 ed in fibre and more or less knotty, gnarled and cross- 
 grained, and difficult to split. Timber of this kind is beauti- 
 fully marked. In most parts of Sweden birch furnishes the 
 greater proportion of the wood used in slojd, and takes the
 
 WOOD, OR TIMBER. 55 
 
 place of the beech and the hornbeam of southern Sweden and 
 southern countries. 
 
 The common beech (Fagus sylvatica). The wood in the 
 young tree is light brown; old wood is very dark. The 
 medullary rays are large, glossy, and dark brown, and the 
 general colour of the wood is uniform. The concentric annual 
 layers are not specially conspicuous, but they are easily 
 distinguished. Beech timber is hard, close, heavy, and easily 
 split, especially in the direction of the medullary rays. It is 
 inelastic and rather brittle. It dries very slowly, and warps 
 easily. It is very durable under water and when kept dry, 
 but if exposed to varying degrees of moisture it is the least 
 durable of all timbers. It is highly valued for its hardness, 
 and much used for barrels. 
 
 The oak ( Quercus robur). The sap-wood and the wood in 
 young stems is nearly white. The heart-wood in older trees 
 is brownish. The large pores on the inner edges of the annual 
 layers, and the broad, yellowish brown, frequently glossy, 
 medullary rays are specially noticeable. This timber is 
 peculiarly hard, strong, and durable. It is not affected by 
 alternations in the degree of moisture, and it is in all cir- 
 cumstances the most durable of all our timbers. It dries 
 slowly, and is very apt to warp unless thoroughly well 
 seasoned. After being in water especially salt water for 
 many years, its colour becomes bluish black. The oak fur- 
 nishes better timber than any other tree of Northern Europe. 
 
 [The chestnut (Castanea vesca). The colour of the sap- 
 wood is yellowish white ; that of the heart- wood is light to 
 dark brown. The wood of the chestnut resembles that of 
 the oak in colour, but it may easily be distinguished from it 
 by the absence of the broad medullary rays which are found 
 in the oak. The timber is heavy, hard, elastic, and very 
 durable if kept uniformly either dry or wet. If subjected 
 to variations in the degree of moisture it is of low durability. 
 Tils.]
 
 56 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 
 
 The lime (Tilia). The wood is usually white, soft, and 
 light. The medullary rays are extremely fine, and the annual 
 layers can scarcely be distinguished. It does not warp easily. 
 It is of low durability, and is not very serviceable. 
 
 The maple (Acer platanoides). The wood is white, with 
 very narrow and numerous medullary rays of a faint brown 
 colour, which give it a beautifully " waved " lustrous appear- 
 ance. The annual layers are inconspicuous. The wood is 
 uniform in texture, hard, strong, tough, and difficult to split ; 
 it presents a glossy surface to the plane, and does not crack 
 or warp readily. In consequence of these good qualities, it is 
 much sought after for slojd timber. 
 
 The white-beam (Sorb us Scandica). The wood of the 
 young tree is yellowish. Older wood is light brown or red- 
 dish in colour. It is frequently speckled or veined. This 
 timber is fine and uniform in texture, hard, close, and very 
 tough. It warps but little, and is much valued as slojd 
 timber. 
 
 The pear and the apple (Pyrus). The wood of the 
 young tree is nearly white. Older wood is dark brown, 
 sometimes red in colour, and often streaked. It is very fine 
 and close in texture, hard, heavy and tough. The medullary 
 rays are small, and they and the annual layers are incon- 
 spicuous. It can be cut easily in all directions, and does not 
 splinter, owing to the uniformity of its texture. 
 
 The wood of the apple tree has a general resemblance to 
 that of the pear, but it is closer, redder, and harder indeed 
 the apple furnishes one of the hardest timbers. The wood of 
 the wild pear or apple is superior to that of the cultivated 
 varieties. The wood of both trees is much esteemed. 
 
 The rowan (Sorbus Aucuparia). The wood is whitish or 
 light brown. In some respects it resembles the white-beam, 
 but it is not so good. As slojd timber it may often rank 
 with the birch. 
 
 The common walnut (Juglans regia). The wood of
 
 WOOD, OR TIMBER. 57 
 
 the young tree is almost white, loose in texture, and soft. 
 Older wood is brownish grey or dark brown, and is often 
 beautifully marked. It is hard and strong, and generally 
 close in texture, though, like the oak, it has particularly 
 large pores. The medullary rays are almost invisible. It 
 dries very slowly, and shrinks a good deal. It is one of the 
 most beautiful European timbers, and is extensively used. 
 
 The following tropical timbers may also be mentioned : 
 
 Ebony (Diospyros). From Africa and the East Indies. 
 The sap-wood is quite white, the heart-wood generally quite 
 black, though sometimes brownish black with white streaks 
 and flecks towards its inner edge, which detract from the 
 value of the wood. Its texture is so uniform that it is im- 
 possible to distinguish the annual layers or the medullary 
 rays. The timber is brittle, but very hard, close and heavy. 
 On account of the three last named qualities, and its beauty, 
 it is much esteemed, but it is too expensive to be used to 
 any great extent. 
 
 Mahogany (Swietenia Mahogani). From Central America 
 and the West Indies. Other kinds of timber are also sold 
 under this name. When fresh the wood is generally reddish 
 or brownish yellow, but it gradually darkens, and finally 
 becomes almost black. It has narrow, rather inconspicuous 
 annual layers, and small but distinctly visible pores. In 
 longitudinal section the figuring of this timber is very 
 beautiful. It has fleck-like or pyramidal markings, with a 
 fine satin-like lustre. It varies much in hardness, weight, 
 closeness, and general texture in different varieties. Ma- 
 hogany is under all circumstances very durable. It warps 
 but little ; shrinks less than any other timber ; and is never 
 attacked by worms. It is highly esteemed as timber, and is 
 very extensively used. 
 
 Lignum vitse (Guaiacum officinale). From Central 
 America. The wood is greenish or blackish brown, with
 
 58 HANDBOOK OP SLOJD. 
 
 yellowish and dark streaks in longitudinal section. It is 
 heavy, resinous, very close-grained, and almost as hard as 
 metal. It is twisted in fibre, very difficult to split, and there- 
 fore not easy to work. Its extraordinary hardness and great 
 durability make it valuable in the case of articles which are 
 exposed to much wear and tear.
 
 59 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 TOOLS. 
 A. Choice of Tools. 
 
 The tools used in slojd teaching must be chosen with due choice of 
 regard to the pupil's capacity. They ought to be neither ^/teach- 
 too large nor too heavy, but such as can be easily handled, tw- 
 it might perhaps be considered advisable to use tools slighter 
 in make than those generally employed in slqjd-carpentry, 
 and the question might be raised whether such small tools as 
 are to be found in "children's tool-boxes" should not be 
 procured. Tools of this description are, however, usually too 
 inferior to be taken into consideration at all ; and, if specially 
 ordered in a good quality, they would be much dearer than 
 those sold in the ordinary course of trade. This applies 
 particularly to tools made of iron or steel. Moreover, such 
 small tools are particularly difficult to keep in order, because 
 they are very slight and brittle. And further, a little 
 experience in teaching proves that children from eleven to 
 fourteen years of age require tools quite as substantial and 
 durable as their elders. Whether or not a tool is too heavy 
 depends upon the person who uses it, for one child may have 
 the strength required to use a much heavier tool than can be 
 used by another. In connection with this it should be noted, 
 that if children are not accustomed, while receiving instruction, 
 to use and to keep in order the tools used in ordinary life, it 
 will be very difficult for them to manage them when they are 
 older. It may be objected that if children use the ordinary 
 knife, saw, axe, etc., they may easily hurt themselves ; but 
 this is quite as likely to happen with " toy tools." Besides, 
 it is the duty of the teacher to insist that the children pay
 
 60 HANDBOOK OP SLOJD. 
 
 attention to the manner of using the tools, and use them in 
 such a way that they do not hurt themselves. 
 
 . Although we maintain that the tools used in slojd teaching 
 should be of the size generally employed, it does not therefore 
 follow that the largest size is to be selected, but rather that 
 the smallest should be chosen, such as the little hands of the 
 youthful pupil can efficiently wield without much trouble. 
 The handle of the knife should not be larger than can be 
 grasped, though the blade maybe of the usual size. The smooth- 
 ing plane should be 7 inches long and 2f inches broad. The 
 trying plane should not be unnecessarily long ; 22 inches is long 
 enough, though the breadth ought to be 3 inches, or broad 
 enough for an iron of 1\ inches. If the trying plane is 
 narrower, it is difficult to plane a surface of any size, and 
 the smaller tool would occasion more work and trouble than 
 one of the dimensions given above. The handles of chisels 
 and similar tools should not be larger than is necessary. 
 The axe should not weigh more than 2 Ibs. The frames of the 
 bow saws should be of the lighter description of those used 
 in carpentry. 
 
 As one of the aims of slb'jd teaching is to develop the 
 physical powers of the pupil, each separate exercise must 
 lead up to the next in such a way that the pupil proceeds 
 from easier to more difficult work. But the most perfect 
 gradation of exercises arranged on this principle will not en- 
 sure success if the teacher does not know how to choose 
 suitable wood for the pupils' work, and does not take care 
 that they have good tools in good condition. As we demand 
 of the pupils work well executed and accurate in all its 
 details, we are bound to see that they are provided with 
 suitable wood and good tools. 
 
 As regards suitable wood, the reader is referred to Chapter 
 II. It need be merely named here that the wood must be 
 Bound, well seasoned, straight in fibre, and, as far as possible, 
 free from knote.
 
 TOOLS. 61 
 
 The tools selected should always be of the best quality, Quality of 
 even if these should prove rather more expensive. Instead of 
 buying a large number of inferior tools at once, a few good 
 ones should be procured. But it is not enough to buy good 
 tools, they must be kept in good order. Ability to keep 
 tools in order is an indispensable qualification in a good 
 teacher of slojd, for if he lacks skill in this respect his Good tool* 
 teaching will also lack one of the first conditions of success. t pen 
 There are two rather complicated tools which are particularly 
 difficult to keep in order, i.e., the plane and the saw. A 
 great deal of energy is wasted in slojd teaching if the pupils 
 work with badly set planes or with blunt saws. Hence 
 special care should be bestowed on these tools. 
 
 Practice in grinding tools and keeping them in order must Grinding 
 be included in the instruction given. Great demands in this tools ' 
 respect must not be made at first, but they may be gradu- 
 ally increased until the pupils, at least towards the end of 
 the course, are able to grind a plane iron and sharpen a 
 saw. If this is expected of the pupils, so much the more 
 must it be demanded of the teacher. 
 
 The description which follows attempts to give, to some 
 extent, detailed knowledge of the tools which are used in 
 educational wood - slojd, together with instructions for 
 keeping them in good condition. The illustrations accom- 
 panying the description are taken from selected tools and 
 appliances, and the scale is indicated by the fraction after 
 the name of the figure. Want of space prevents the insertion 
 of complete representations of all the tools, etc. A few 
 illustrations of this kind, particularly of benches and of a 
 cupboard for tools, have been added on separate plates at 
 the end of the book, for the guidance of those who wish to 
 make these articles. The technical names are, generally 
 speaking, those employed in carpentry ; but a proportion of 
 the names of tools, exercises, and methods of manipulation, 
 have originated and been adopted in the course of the de- 
 velopment of slojd teaching.
 
 62 
 
 HANDBOOK OP SLOJD. 
 
 B. Appliances for holding the work. 
 
 1. The bench is the article most frequently used for 
 holding the work steady during its execution. It is the 
 most indispensable part of the apparatus required for slojd 
 
 A complete 
 bench. 
 
 Fig. 5. Bench. Vao- 
 
 A bench top, B front bench vice, C back bench vice, D bench well, E bench 
 drawer or till, F front rail of bench box, aa bench pegs or hooks, 66 holes for 
 bench pegs, c vice tongue or key, ee screw-bolts, / back rail of bench box, gg vice- 
 screws, h front rail of bench. 
 
 The Single Bench (Fig. 5) is practically a strongly con- 
 structed table, heavy enough to stand steady during the work. 
 
 The bench top consists of a strong, hard, close piece of 
 plank about 3 inches thick. For the purpose of holding the 
 work fast it is provided either with one screw or two, ar- 
 ranged in a particular way, called the back bench vice and the 
 front bench vice. A complete bench (Fig. 5) has both ; one 
 Back bench of simpler construction (Fig. 8) has only the back bench vice. 
 At one end of the bench-top, to the right of the worker, a 
 rectangular piece is cut away from the anterior edge, its 
 length being parallel to the edge, and where this piece has 
 been cut away a prismatical frame- work is moved by the 
 turning of a wood-screw. The nut into which this screw 
 catches is firmly fixed to the end of the bench top. The 
 frame-work is directed partly by the screw, partly by 
 separate bolts, and the screw is held fast by means of a wedge 
 or flat pin, which catches like a fork in a groove on the screw.
 
 TOOLS. 
 
 63 
 
 This arrangement is called the back bench vice. The frame- 
 work is perforated perpendicularly by one or more square 
 holes, from 4 to 6 inches apart, and a row of similar holes is 
 introduced in the bench top, in a straight line with those in 
 the frame-work. When a plank is to be held in a horizontal 
 position on the bench, a bench peg is placed in a hole in the 
 bench vice, and another in a hole in the bench top at a dis- 
 tance corresponding to the length of the plank, and the screw 
 is applied. Care must be taken that the head of the bench 
 peg does not rise above the upper surface of the wood, and 
 also that, during planing, the iron of the plane does not come 
 in contact with the head of the peg, a fault often committed 
 through carelessness by beginners. 
 
 The bench pegs (Fig. 6) are rectangular pieces of iron from 
 8 to 10 inches long, which fit rather loosely into the holes of 
 the bench top, and are provided on one side with a steel 
 spring, in order that they may remain fixed at 
 any desired height. The head of the peg is 
 double-grooved, to hold the work securely. To 
 make room for the head of the peg, the holes in 
 the bench top are usually sufficiently enlarged 
 at the upper end to permit the head to be 
 pushed down, until its top is level with the 
 bench top. 
 
 The arrangement of the screw, to the left of Front bench 
 the worker, is termed the front bench vice. It is much mce - 
 simpler in construction than the back bench vice. Fig. 5 
 shows its construction. A movable piece of wood is placed 
 in front of the end of the screw, called the vice tongue or key 
 
 (Fig. 7), partly to hold the work 
 more securely, partly to prevent 
 its being injured by the screw. 
 When a long piece of wood is 
 fastened into the front bench 
 vice for edge-planing, it is ad- 
 Fig. 7. Vice Tongue or Key. Vio- visable to allow the under edge 
 
 Q 
 
 Fig. 6. 
 Bench Peg. V
 
 64 
 
 HANDBOOK OP SLOJD. 
 
 to rest upon a little block on a swivel, attached to the under 
 side of the bench top. If the screws do not turn easily, the 
 friction may be reduced by rubbing them well with pul- 
 verised plumbago. 
 
 On the side of the bench farthest from the worker is a 
 trough or channel, called the bench ivell, in which tools not 
 in actual use may be laid. Triangular pieces of wood, firmly 
 attached to the ends of this well, facilitate the sweeping out 
 of shavings, etc. 
 
 The different portions of the bench are fastened together 
 by dovetailing, mortising, and iron screws. 
 
 The bench top rests upon feet or rails, and it is often 
 furnished on the under side with a drawer or till. A similar 
 drawer may be connected with the rails. 
 
 The wood used for the bench top should be oak, ash, beech, 
 or hard pine ; for the screws, horn-beam or " figured " birch ; 
 for the well and the rails, fir or pine. 
 
 The complete bench described above is too large for 
 general use in school slojd, the space for which is usually 
 limited. As only one person can advantageously work at it, 
 it is also too expensive. 
 
 Fig. 8. Single Bench. l /*o- 
 Top, 5 feet long by 1 J feet broad. Height, 2 feet 7 inches. Na.is pattern. 
 
 The bench represented in Fig. 8 is more suitable for schools
 
 TOOLS. 
 
 65 
 
 where many benches are required. It is at once simple and Bench after 
 practical. It takes up little space, and it can be procured for 
 one-half indeed for one-fourth of the cost of the bench 
 first described. It is furnished with a back bench vice only, 
 consisting of a piece of wood moving on bolts, and worked 
 by a screw fixed with a forked ^uedge to the movable front 
 jaw of the vice. The bolts must be firmly inserted in the 
 detached portion of the vice, and must have their anterior 
 ends made fast in a cross-piece ; otherwise the movable por- 
 tion of the vice will not move easily and surely backwards 
 and forwards by means of the screw. To fasten a piece of 
 wood quite steadily in the vice it should be balanced as nearly 
 as possible on the top of the screw. When this is not done, 
 it has a tendency to fall to one side, and if this frequently 
 happens the vice will finally be destroyed. 
 
 2 S 
 
 m a m m " ~ 
 
 pj prrvrr: 
 
 
 -Pi 
 
 ^ 
 
 _::I:::LJ lEnw 
 
 NjllHre.. 
 
 :,". 
 
 IK 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^-,,4^ /' I' i . if if /f jf niiIJ |,C 
 
 I? 
 
 1 ' 1 
 
 
 " ' " ' ' ' '' rt ' * 'li'n'lu'Vitfrttti 
 
 F 
 
 
 4W -too can* 
 
 Fig. 9. Double Bench. 
 
 This bench may also be adapted for two persons by intro- Adjustable 
 ducing a screw in each end of the bench top, as indicated in benehf 
 Fig. 9. The bench top in this instance ought to be rather 
 broader than in the preceding. The height of the bench 
 ought to be adapted to the height of the worker, and ac- 
 cordingly separate pieces of wood, provided with hinges, are 
 attached to the upper or lower cross-bars of the feet, and by 
 the raising or letting down of these the bench top is raised 
 or lowered.
 
 66 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 
 
 R. Trainer-* Fig. 10 is a bench of English manufacture, well adapted for 
 *"** slojd work, and is known as R Trainer's Improved Bench. 
 
 h 
 
 Trainer's Bench 
 
 A bench top, B tool tray or bench well, C back strip, d tail (or back) bench 
 vice, side (or front) bench vice, / plane rest or fillet, g Merrill's bench stop, 
 hh bench pegs, n joint bolts, MM fore legs, JVJV rear legs, front bottom rail, 
 P back bottom rail. 
 
 This bench is constructed so as to be portable. It consists 
 of a hard wood top A, 4 inches thick, made of beech or 
 birch, and is supported by a strong framework MM NN PO 
 made of fir, and bolted and framed together. The forelegs 
 MM are " strutted," in order to prevent the framework from 
 shaking loose through constant use and pressure. The bench 
 is 5 ft. long, and 2 ft. wide ; and it can be made from 2 ft. 6 
 in. to 3 ft. high. 
 
 The side or front bench vice, e, attached to the bench is 
 made of metal, and is called " Crossley and Macgregor's Patent 
 Instantaneous Grip Vice." The tail or back bench vice, d, is 
 of German pattern, and acts as a cramp vice in conjunction 
 with the bench pegs hh. Only the screw part of this vice is 
 made of metal. 
 
 As was said above, this bench is well adapted for slojd 
 work. It stands firmly in position without being screwed to 
 
 * For prices of this bench see p. 215.
 
 WOOD, OE TIMBER. 
 
 67 
 
 the floor ; its vices, pegs, and stops are all new designs, and 
 being made of metal, they are easy to work, and do not 
 readily get out of order. The space Z underneath is specially 
 constructed to admit of the fitting up of lookers and drawers. 
 The Holdfast is a simple appliance which is often used to 
 secure pieces of wood to the bench in sawing, boring, chiselling, 
 etc. The holdfast (Fig. 11), con- 
 sists of a round iron or steel rod, 
 furnished at the upper end with 
 a strong arm. It is inserted in a 
 hole bored in the bench top, the 
 diameter of which is very little 
 larger than that of the cylindri- 
 cal portion of the holdfast. The 
 piece of work is laid under the 
 arm, and secured by a stroke Fig. 11. Holdfast. V 8 
 from the mallet on the heel, in the direction a, and is 
 loosened by a stroke in the direction 6. The holdfast may 
 therefore serve the same purpose as the back bench vice. 
 
 The shooting board is a contrivance which may be 
 advantageously used when a partially planed piece of wood 
 has to be squared up at right angles to a plane surface or a 
 straight edge. 
 
 The shooting-board (Fig. 12) consists of a piece of hard 
 pine 1J inches thick, 8 inches broad, and from 2 to 2| feet 
 long, on one side of which there is a rebate, which serves as 
 a guide to the trying plane when in action. At the further 
 end there is a smooth rectangular block, the inner side of 
 which is carefully 
 secured at right 
 angles to the re- 
 bate of the plane 
 rest. Under this 
 plane rest a groove 
 is hollowed out, in Kg. 12. Shooting-board, Vis- 
 
 rvrrlpr i'hat the shaV- a. Plane rest, b. Block for square shooting, c. Rest for 
 wood, d. Rebate and groove, e. Block for mitre shooting at 
 
 ings may not pre- a n angle of 45*.
 
 68 HANDBOOK OP SLOJD. 
 
 vent the plane from lying close to the rebate during work. 
 Instead of a rebate made in a thick piece of wood, two pieces 
 may be fastened together, a narrower above a broader piece. 
 In this way a rebate will be formed. Before they are fas- 
 tened together, the under part of the inner edge of the top 
 piece must be cut away so as to form the groove for shavings. 
 
 When the shooting-board is in use, it is secured between 
 two. bench pegs. The piece of wood which is to be squared 
 is held and pressed against the trying-plane with the left 
 hand, the plane being directed by the right. Care must be 
 taken not to plane anything off the edge of the rebate, or to 
 hurt the fingers. 
 
 The shooting-board may also be used for mitre shooting 
 pieces of wood which are to be fastened together at an angle 
 of 45, by placing before the block for square-shooting a 
 triangular block whose anterior edge forms an angle of 45 
 with the edge of the rebate. See Fig. 12. 
 
 II. Handserews. 
 
 Handscrews are used to secure the work to the bench, 
 and to hold several pieces of work fast while a drawing is 
 being made or while glue is drying. The bench itself, when 
 not otherwise engaged, may be used with advantage in the 
 case last named. 
 
 Handscrews are made of wood or of iron, and are of 
 various sizes. 
 
 Wooden handserews (Figs. 13, 14), consist of three 
 straight pieces of wood, two of which are joined to the third 
 on the same side, and at right angles to it. Horn-beam or 
 tough birch is the best wood for the purpose. A strong 
 wooden screw passes through one of the parallel arms and 
 gives the necessary pressure. 
 
 As the handscrew is sometimes subjected to a greater 
 strain than the construction just described can bear, it is 
 often strengthened by an iron rod. (See Fig. 14.)
 
 TOOLS. 
 
 69 
 
 Fig. 13. Handscrew. 
 
 Fig. 14. Handscrew. 
 
 Fig. 15. Adjustable 
 Handscrew. -fa. 
 
 When the screw is applied, one hand only should grasp the 
 handle, and the other should take hold of the screw either 
 above or below the nut. Otherwise, if the pressure is great, 
 the screw may break. If the screw should go off the 
 straight during the process, a light blow from the mallet on 
 the lower part will put it right. A piece of wood should 
 always be laid under the point of the screw, to prevent 
 marks on the work. 
 
 [The English hand- 
 screw (Fig. 16) differs 
 from the Swedish 
 
 Q 
 
 handscrew in having 
 two screws a a in- 
 stead of one. These 
 screws work in oppo- 
 site directions,through 
 two square wooden 
 cheeks, b b. Tus.] 
 
 Fig. 16. English Handscrew. 
 a a screws, & 6 cheeks.
 
 Fie:. 17. Iron Handscrew, 
 or Thumbscrew cramp, i. 
 
 HANDBOOK OP SLOJD. 
 
 Thumbscrew cramps are now made 
 of wrought iron. This gives strength 
 without weight or clumsiness. These 
 screws are very useful, and easily 
 managed. (See Fig. 17). 
 
 When broad pieces of wood have to 
 be glued together, and the handscrews 
 already described are not large enough, 
 and the bench is not available, use is 
 made of a screw in which a movable 
 block is substituted for one of the 
 parallel arms. Such screws are called 
 adjustable handserews (see Fig. 15). 
 
 C. Setting out. 
 
 It is often necessary for accurate workmanship to draw 
 or mark the outlines of the pattern object on the wood, at 
 various stages of the work. This is done by tracing round 
 the outline of the model, by copying a drawing, or by means 
 of given measurements. 
 
 The following tools are necessary : 
 
 I. The metre-measure 
 
 for measuring off and 
 subdividing measure- 
 ments. A rule of hard 
 wood, one metre or half 
 a metre long, divided 
 into centimetres and 
 Fig. 18. Folding Metre-measure, i. millemetres, is the best 
 
 for the purpose. A thin 
 
 folding rule of strong wood or ebonite may be used for less 
 exact measurements, and is convenient to carry about, but is
 
 TOOLS. 
 
 71 
 
 not altogether trustworthy, on account of the looseness of its 
 construction, and the gaps at the joints.* 
 
 II. In drawing 1 straight lines use is made of 
 an ordinary ruler and a lead pencil, but when 
 great accuracy is required a marking" point 
 should be used. This consists of a piece of steel, 
 tapering to a sharp point, about 4 inches long and 
 \ inch thick, inserted in a handle (Fig. 19). 
 
 III. In drawing- lines parallel to the edges of 
 a piece of wood, the marking g'auge is used. 
 
 Many different kinds are made, but those gener- 
 ally used agree in the main details. They consist 
 of a piece of wood, the stock, which has at least 
 two parallel plane surfaces. A spindle, either 
 circular or square in cross-section, passes through 
 a mortise in the stock. At one end of the spindle Fi ig 
 is a sharp lancet-shaped steel marker. Some Marking-point 
 Swedish marking gauges have two spindles. Vs- 
 That side of the stock which is placed against the edge to 
 which the lines drawn are to be parallel, may vary in length, 
 but when lines are drawn parallel to a straight edge (the 
 most usual case), the longer the stock is the better, because 
 this facilitates the accurate management of the tool, and 
 enables even an inexperienced hand to gauge. 
 
 (1.) Marking gaug>e 
 with rectangular long 
 stock and cylindrical 
 spindle (Fig. 20). The 
 stock is sawn into at one 
 end as far as the mortise, 
 
 Fig. 20. 
 
 Marking gauge, 
 patent. */* 
 
 Lundmark's 
 
 and to secure the spindle after insertion this end is furnished 
 with a screw, by means of which the spindle is held fast in 
 
 * Where the English system of measurement is followed, a two foot rule is used, 
 divided into eighths of an inch on one side, and into sixteenths on the other. 
 The use of the metre-measure is, however, strongly recommended. (See foot- 
 note, page 13). TBS.
 
 72 
 
 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 
 
 the manner indicated in Fig. 20. If a thumbscrew and nut 
 are substituted for this screw, the necessary pressure can be 
 more easily and surely produced. (See Plate X). 
 
 (2.) Marking 1 gauge (Fig. 21) with rectangular long stock 
 and rectangular spindle. The spindle is held in place by 
 wedges. This is a simple and inexpensive marking gauge, 
 invented by Herr Alfred Johansson, head-teacher at Na'as. 
 It is recommended as a useful and practical tool for school 
 purposes. (See Plate X.) 
 
 The long stocks of both 
 these marking gauges 
 give them the advantage 
 already indicated over 
 those hitherto in use, i.e., 
 Fig. 21. Marking-gauge. */4- they enable inexperi- 
 
 enced workers to gauge without difficulty. 
 
 The English mark- 
 ing gauge (Fig. 22) 
 differs from the 
 Swedish one in 
 having a thumb- 
 Fig. 22. English Marking-gauge. screw a on one side 
 
 a. Thumbscrew. Of the Stock, which 
 
 works against the spindle and holds it in position. 
 
 The marker must be kept well filed and pointed to secure 
 fine distinct lines, parallel throughout with the edge. The 
 side farthest from the stock should be straight, and as nearly 
 as possible parallel with the side of the stock. The inner 
 side of the marker, on the contrary, should be slightly convex. 
 The marker is thus calculated to cut inwards away from the 
 edge, and does not " run off the lines " as a bad marker does, 
 when it meets with a hard layer of autumn wood in cutting 
 in the direction of the grain. With a good marker the gauge 
 should act easily and well without exertion of any kind on 
 the part of the worker.
 
 TOOLS. 
 
 73 
 
 (3) The cutting 1 gauge has a parallelepiped shaped spindle 
 secured by a wedge (Fig. 23). Instead of a pin-shaped 
 marker it is provided 
 with a thin steel cutter, 
 adjusted by means of a 
 pin. Cuttings more or 
 less deep may thus be 
 made on the surface of 
 the work. This tool is Fig. 23. Cutting Gauge. J. 
 
 chiefly used for gauging across the grain, and in setting out 
 for grooving and dove-tailing. 
 
 In this, as in all marking gauges, it is important that the 
 marker should be inserted in such a way that the inner side, 
 and consequently the point, is slightly inclined outwards from 
 the side of the stock. 
 
 IV. Compasses. 
 
 1. The compass generally used in slojd is 
 a simple one made of steel with a hinge. As 
 it is often necessary to maintain the distance 
 between the arms unaltered, this compass is 
 provided with a bow, which is attached to 
 one arm, and which can be secured to the 
 other by a screw. A compass of this kind is 
 called a bow-compass (Fig. 24). 
 
 When segments of large circles have to be 
 described, beam-compasses are used. In 
 place of the arms of the ordinary compass, 
 these are furnished with trammels, aa, united 
 by a cross-piece or beam, 6, and pointed at 
 
 Fig. 24. 
 Compasses. 
 
 one end, where there is a steel pin. One of the trammels is 
 fixed to the cross-piece ; the other is movable, and is adjusted 
 by means of a pin.
 
 74 
 
 HANDBOOK OF SLO.TD. 
 
 Fig. 25. Trammel Heads, or Beam Compasses, 
 aa. Trammels, 66, Beam. 
 
 Fig. 26. Caliper Compasses. 
 
 2. The Caliper Compass 
 
 is used to measure the 
 thickness of round or oval 
 objects. This compass has 
 very strong curved arms 
 with points which taper 
 obliquely. The ordinary 
 caliper compass may be 
 used to measure the dia- 
 meter of a hole, by turn- 
 ing the arms round the 
 hinge until the points are 
 
 turned away from one another (Fig. 26). 
 
 V. Squares and Bevels, 
 
 Squares are used for testing right angles, bevels for testing 
 angles of various sizes.
 
 TOOLS. 
 
 75 
 
 The Square consists of a short 
 thick piece called the stock, with a 
 longer, thinner piece at one end, and 
 at right angles to it, called the blade. 
 The stock projects beyond the sides 
 of the blade, and the tool can be 
 easily applied to the straight edge of 
 a piece of wood, that lines may be 
 drawn on the surface at right angles 
 to this straight edge. All the angles 
 of the square, exterior as well as 
 interior, must be perfect right angles. 
 This is not only essential for the 
 operation just described, but also Fig. 27. Wooden Square. *. 
 because the square is used for testing solid angles, e.g., the 
 edge of a plank, a corner, etc. 
 
 Every good collection of tools should 
 include several squares of different sizes, 
 e.g., with blades 6, 8, 12, and 18 inches 
 long. 
 
 The square should be made of hard 
 well-seasoned wood, warranted not to 
 warp. To give greater durability the 
 blade is often made of steel, and the wood 
 of the stock faced with brass on the inner 
 side (Fig. 28). Still stronger and more 
 trustworthy squares are made with steel 
 blades and cast-iron stocks. Squares of Fig. 28. 
 this kind are particularly useful as testing 
 squares, and one ought to be included in every good collection 
 of tools. 
 
 To test a square. The blade is laid on the plane surface 
 of a block of prepared wood, with the stock against a 
 perfectly straight edge. Lines, drawn against each side of 
 the blade, are then made on the wood. The square is next 
 
 Wooden 
 squares. 
 
 Square with 
 steel blade -
 
 76 
 
 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 
 
 To test a 
 plane ur- 
 ja.ce. 
 
 mitre-bevel. 
 
 reversed, the stock is placed as before, and the edges of the 
 blade are placed close to the lines previously made. Lines 
 are then drawn once more along the edges of the blade. If 
 these lines coincide, or are perfectly 
 parallel with those made first, the square 
 is correct. 
 
 2. The set-bevel (Fig. 29) consists, 
 like the preceding, of a stock and a blade, 
 but the latter, which generally extends 
 beyond the end of the stock, is attached 
 in such a way that it forms on one side 
 an angle of 45, and on the other an angle 
 of 135, or the complementary angle of a 
 straight angle. It is used when a rec- 
 tangular corner is made by joining 
 Fig. 29. Set-bevel or together pieces cut at an angle of 45. 
 Such pieces are said to be mitred. 
 
 In the wooden bevel the 
 
 blade rotates on a screw in 
 the stock. To secure the 
 blade in any given position 
 the screw is furnished with 
 a nut, by means of which it 
 may be screwed fast. (Fig. 
 Fig. 30. The Wooden Bevel. \. 3Q.) 
 
 VI. Winding laths or straight edges. To test the ac- 
 curacy of plane surfaces, a long, perfectly straight ruler or 
 straight edge is used. When this is placed on the surface 
 in various directions, there must be complete contact be- 
 tween it and the surface. A still more delicate method of 
 proof is furnished by the double straight edge, or two 
 straight edges exactly the same (Fig. 31). In applying the 
 test the straight edges are placed one at each end of the 
 piece of wood, and parallel to one another. On careful
 
 TOOLS. 77 
 
 Fig. 31. Winding laths or straight edges. . 
 
 inspection, if the surface is level the upper edges of the 
 rulers will be found to be in the same plane. The straight 
 edges, when not in use, are held together by a couple of pegs. 
 
 The edge of the trying-plane is often used instead of the 
 straight edge, and two trying-planes instead of the double 
 straight edge. See further under "face planing," p. 132. 
 
 D. Tools used for cutting up wood and 
 making the articles. 
 
 I. Saws. 
 
 The saw is an indispensable tool, and in the case of most 
 articles it is the first used. The blade is made of thin steel 
 of various breadths, on one edge of which a series of sharp 
 points form the teeth. The steel must be soft enough to be 
 acted on by the file, and to admit of the teeth being slightly 
 turned aside without breaking off. 
 
 The saw acts by tearing or cutting the fibres of the wood 
 as the teeth of the blade pass over them. The teeth are, 
 therefore, the characteristic part of the saw, and its efficiency 
 depends on their form, size, and quality. 
 
 The shape and size of the teeth vary considerably in 
 different kinds of saws. The form generally used in wood 
 slqjd is shown in Fig. 32. The form of the teeth is that of
 
 78 
 
 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 
 
 Form and 
 position of 
 the teeth, of 
 a saw. 
 
 Lfnith oj 
 the teeth. 
 
 Fig. 32. 
 
 a scalene triangle, the base 
 of which is formed by the 
 blade. The shortest side 
 froms an angle of 80-90 
 with the base. In the frame 
 saw (Fig. 37, B), the angle 
 
 Teeth of a bow saw for 
 ripping-. } 
 is 90 ; in the bow-saw, the dove-tail saw, etc., it is 80-S5. 
 
 The teeth of any given saw must always be alike in size 
 and shape, and must always be set at the same angle. The 
 shorter side of the teeth, being nearly at right angles with 
 the blade, is the cutting side, and in working the saw this is 
 the side which should enter the wood. When the saw is 
 drawn back, the more sloping side of the teeth has very little 
 effect upon the fibres, and the saw "goes empty." 
 
 The teeth of the bow-saw 
 for cross cutting form an isos- 
 celes triangle of 50 between 
 the teeth. A saw of this 
 Fig. 33. Teeth of a bow-saw for description cuts equally well 
 cross-cutting, or wood-saw, -j- backwards or forwards 
 
 The space between the teeth must be great enough to leave 
 room for the sawdust until the saw has carried the latter 
 beyond the wood. Now, as the sawdust occupies more 
 space than the wood from which it is produced, the teeth 
 of the saw must be considerably longer than the depth of the 
 cut made each time the saw passes through the wood, and 
 the point only of the teeth must be allowed to cut the wood, 
 to prevent hindrance to their action by an accumulation of 
 sawdust. If the sawdust prevents the free passage of the 
 saw, or if it clings about the teeth, it is either because the 
 teeth are too small, or because too much pressure is laid on 
 the saw. 
 
 Why the saw 
 must be let. 
 
 It is almost impossible to avoid considerable friction 
 between the blade and the sides of the cut, and this friction 
 is increased by the sawdust which accumulates at the sides
 
 TOOLS. 
 
 79 
 
 of the blade. It is therefore necessary to give the blade a 
 certain amount of "play ;" in other words, the breadth of the 
 cut must be greater than the thickness of the blade. This is 
 effected by bending the teeth alternately a little to the one 
 side and to the other, or, as it is termed, by setting the saw. 
 
 Setting is performed by means of the Saw-set, a steel 
 blade T V inch 
 thick, the edges 
 of which are 
 indented by 
 notches of var- Fig. 34. Saw-set. . 
 
 ions breadths. Some English Saw-sets are furnished with 
 an adjustable slide rest. In setting a saw the blade is 
 fastened into Saw Sharpening 1 Clamps (Fig. 35) and these 
 are screwed to the bench. One tooth after another is grasped 
 by the notch of the Saw-set best adapted to the thickness of 
 the tooth, and the blade of the Saw-set being held in such 
 a way as to conceal the point of the tooth, the latter is then 
 turned sharply aside. It must not, as is 
 sometimes done, be twisted at the same time 
 in the direction of the length of the blade, 
 as this may cause it to break off. Great 
 accuracy is required in the operation, and 
 the setting should never be so extreme that 
 the width of the cut is more than double the 
 thickness of the teeth. If this width is 
 exceeded the saw will not act easily. 
 
 Considerable practice and skill are requir- Flg> 35> Saw sharp " 
 , , m , . , , , , . ening clamps. One 
 
 ed to set a saw. The points of the teeth half loosely fastened 
 should form a line exactly parallel to the to the other by means 
 length of the blade, but it often happens that of wood screws. ^. 
 some teeth project beyond this line and others fall within it. 
 This fault may be remedied to some extent by drawing the 
 blade between a couple of gouges, fixed points downwards in 
 a piece of wood, with the convex sides facing one another. 
 
 set saws.
 
 80 HANDBOOK OP SLOJD. 
 
 The blade of the saw is placed between them, teeth upwards, 
 and the points turned from the operator, or in the direction 
 from d to c (Fig. 32), the handles are grasped with one hand 
 to bring the gouges close together, and the blade of the saw 
 is drawn forwards between them. 
 
 setting In consequence of the difficulty of setting a saw evenly 
 
 t>w- and at a good angle, many different kinds of saw-sets and 
 setting-tongs have been devised. The latter are intended 
 to be adjustable for any desired inclination of the teeth. 
 Some of these tools, however, are not practically useful, and 
 those which are fully adapted for use are generally too expen- 
 sive for ordinary purposes. 
 
 As indicated above, setting must not go beyond a fixed 
 limit. Provided that the saw has free passage through the 
 wood, the finer the cut it makes the better ; and much less 
 inclination of the teeth is necessary, in the case of dry timber, 
 than in unseasoned or loose-fibred wood. 
 
 saw blades Less setting is also necessary in the case of saw-blades 
 which increase in thickness towards the teeth. These are 
 made in the best manufactories, and are always preferable 
 to blades of equal thickness throughout. So-called compass 
 saws often have blades of this kind, and require no setting. 
 
 sharpening Quite as important as the setting of the saw is its sharpen- 
 ing, and it is often necessary to perform both operations at 
 the same time. 
 
 To sharpen a saw, it is secured in the saw-sharpening 
 clamps; and the ordinary kinds of saw used in wood slojd 
 are sharpened by means of a triangular file (Fig. 36). 
 
 Fig. 36. Triangular or Three-square File. /' 
 
 Care must be taken that the two sides of the file which 
 
 * The file represented in the illustration is a single-cut file ; but a double- 
 cut iile should be used. Tus.
 
 TOOLS. 81 
 
 are to be used form the angle necessary to produce the in- 
 clination in the edges of the teeth indicated above. This 
 being secured, the file is drawn across the blade at right 
 angles to it. Every indentation must be filed equally deep, 
 or, in other words, the point of each tooth must stand equally 
 high. The row of teeth is next tested with the straight edge, 
 and if any of the teeth stand higher than the others, they 
 must be topped or filed down with a fine broad file, and then 
 sharpened once more. 
 
 Sharpening is begun at the end of the blade, towards 
 which the points of the teeth are turned, or from c to d 
 (Fig. 32). The degree thus produced on the points is always 
 in the direction to which the teeth are turned, not away from 
 it. In the latter case, the saw would be rather blunt. Each 
 tooth must be carefully filed, that its edges may be quite 
 sharp, and the cutting side quite straight. 
 
 Should the saw, after sharpening, be insufficiently set, it 
 must be set again, after which the file must be once more 
 passed over the teeth to remove any irregularities. Generally 
 speaking, setting precedes sharpening. 
 
 Sharpening is sometimes performed by passing the file 
 obliquely over the edge of the blade, instead of at right angles 
 to it. The edges of each tooth are thus sharpened obliquely 
 from within outwards (see Fig. 33). The file is first passed 
 obliquely through every alternative tooth-space. The saw is Obli v uel v 
 
 , . sharpened 
 
 then reversed, so that its ends change places, and the remaining teeth. 
 spaces are operated on in the same way. This gives a knife- 
 like edge to both sides of the teeth, and makes the saw cut 
 particularly swiftly and well. The common wood-saws, some 
 tenon-saws, and hand-saws, are sharpened in this way. 
 
 It need hardly be added that setting and sharpening are 
 not only necessary in the case of new saws, but also as often 
 as the teeth become worn or blunt. 
 
 F
 
 82 
 
 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 
 
 The saws now to be described may- be classed in two groups, 
 
 i.e., saws with frames, and saws without frames. 
 
 ' The former have the ends of the blade fastened into a 
 
 frame, the tension of which may be regulated to produce the 
 
 necessary amount of resistance. In the latter kind of saw 
 
 this power of resistance is 
 given by means of the greater 
 breadth and thickness of the 
 blade, or by setting the back 
 of the blade in a binding of 
 metal. This binding is called 
 the saw-back. 
 
 1. Saws with Frames. 
 
 1 . The Frame Saw (Fig. 37) 
 is the largest saw used in 
 Slb'jd. It is used for sawing 
 up planks and other pieces 
 of wood lengthwise into thin- 
 ner pieces. It is worked by 
 two people, and in a hori- 
 zontal direction. The blade 
 has from 3 to 4 teeth per inch, 
 and it is fastened into an 
 oblong wooden frame, mid- 
 way between the side-rails. 
 
 The ends of the blade are 
 enclosed in and strengthened 
 by pieces of white-iron, and 
 are fastened by the attached 
 pieces running through each 
 top-rail. Tension is produced 
 
 Fig. 37. A. Frame Saw. by turning the winged nut. 
 
 blade, b side-rail, c top-rail, d winged The cutting side of the teeth 
 
 nut and saw-blade attachment. ^. 
 
 B. Saw blade end with attachment. ]. is at an angle of 90.
 
 TOOLS. 
 
 83 
 
 2. Bow Saws (Fig. 38) are of different sizes. They are 
 much used in wood-slojd, not only in the earlier, but in the 
 later stages of work. Bow saws have all the same kind 
 of frame, consisting of a bar called the stretcher, longer than 
 the blade and parallel to it, at each end of which there is 
 either a square mortise or a fork-like notch for the recep- 
 tion of the cross-pieces or side-arms. The latter, though care- 
 fully fitted in, yet have a certain amount of play at the ends 
 of the stretcher, in order that they may be drawn closer 
 to each other on either side of the stretcher when the saw is 
 tightened. At one end of each side-arm there is a round 
 hole, through which passes a well- 
 fitting peg with a handle. This peg 
 is sawn through the middle length- 
 wise to form a slot for the saw blade, 
 which often extends a certain length 
 into the handle. The blade of the 
 saw is narrower at the ends where it 
 enters the handle. In it are one or 
 two holes, through which the fasten- 
 ing pin runs. 
 
 Blades fastened in this way often 
 twist when tightened, and conse- 
 quently cut badly. This happens 
 especially when the axis of the handle 
 is not exactly in line with the blade. 
 This defect may be remedied by sub- 
 stituting for prolongations of the 
 blade itself, the white-iron attach- 
 ments (Fig. 39), and securing them in 
 the usual way. The ends of the 
 blade are fastened between the plates 
 of the attachment merely by a screw a Bi 
 or nail, in order that the blade may 
 be freely adjusted. 
 
 tt 
 
 ff 
 
 Fig. 38. Broad-webbed 
 
 rms. c blade. 
 
 d tightener, e string. / end 
 of blade with attachment. 
 g handle. T V.
 
 84 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 
 
 The side-arms are connected at the other end by several 
 strands of strong string, which are twisted together by a 
 tightener, in order to give the required tension to the blade. 
 When the string is put on, the frame is fastened between the 
 bench pegs. 
 
 The stretcher is made of fir or pine; the side-arms of harder 
 wood, e.g., beech or oak. The different parts of the frame 
 are made as light as is compatible with strength, that the 
 saw may not be too heavy to manage with one hand. 
 
 In working, the saw should be 
 firmly grasped by the side-arm 
 just above the handle. In the 
 case of the lighter description of 
 saws, the handle, as well as the 
 Fig. 39. Saw-blade end, lower part of the side-arm, should 
 with attachment. 4. be held in the hand, and the index 
 finger should steady the blade. 
 
 Generally speaking, the blade is fixed obliquely to the 
 plane of the frame; partly that the worker may saw deeply 
 without hindrance from the frame, and partly that he may 
 be able to see the line which the saw is to follow. 
 
 In tightening the blade which is best done by turning 
 both handles simultaneously care must be taken that it is 
 perfectly straight. Otherwise a straight cut can hardly be 
 obtained. 
 
 If the saw is out of use for any length of time, the tightener 
 should always be slackened. When this is not done the side- 
 arms may become twisted. 
 
 Bow-saws have different names, depending on the nature 
 of the blade. The " hook," i.e., angle of the teeth is shown 
 in Fig. 32.
 
 TOOLS. 
 
 85 
 
 A. The Broad-webbed Bow-saw is shown in Fig. 38. Its 
 blade is 1 to 1^ inches broad. It is used 
 
 in numerous cases, e.g., in sawing off long 
 slips of wood, where a straight cut is all 
 that is required. It has 4 to 5 teeth 
 per inch. 
 
 B. The Turn-saw (Fig. 40). The frame 
 resembles the preceding, but the blade is 
 very narrow about inch, or very little 
 more because it is used to produce cur- 
 vilinear cuts. The toothing is very fine 
 7 teeth per inch and the setting is 
 sometimes less than in the bow-saw, that 
 the cut may be accurate, and not unneces- 
 sarily broad. Fig. 40. Turn-saw. 
 
 Turn-saws, the blades of which are over half an inch in 
 breadth, are also used. These are called broad-webbed turn 
 saws. 
 
 2. Saws without Frames. 
 
 1. The Hand-saw (Fig. 41) has a very broad blade, which 
 is narrower at one end, and is provided at the broader end 
 with a convenient handle. The large blade gives it sufficient 
 strength, and this is often increased by the thickness of the 
 blade, which may exceed that of the frame-saw. The teeth 
 are set to cut when the worker pushes the saw away from 
 him, but not when the saw is drawn back. 
 
 This saw, distinguished for its simplicity and convenience 
 in working, is in general use in England and North America, 
 but is not much used in Sweden. 
 
 Fig. 41. Hand-saw.
 
 gg HANDBOOK OP SLOJD. 
 
 2 The Dovetail saw (Fig. 42) has a very broad blade of 
 equal breadth throughout, with a handle. To give sufficient 
 strength to the blade, its upper edge is enclosed m an 
 
 iron back. This 
 thick back 
 limits the depth 
 of the cut ; con- 
 sequently this 
 saw is only 
 ^w. ^^^.^w^^v vv~~ usedfor shallow 
 
 Fig. 42. Dovetail-saw. . incisions, e.g., 
 
 in sawing out tenons, dovetails, etc. This saw has 10 to 12 
 teeth per inch. The shape of the teeth is shown in Fig. 32, 
 but they are often sharpened with advantage in the manner 
 shown in Fig. 33. 
 
 [3. The Tenon-saw is practically the same as the dovetail- 
 saw, but it is rather larger, and it has what is called a Box- 
 handle, somewhat like that of the hand-saw. TRS.] 
 
 4. The Compass-saw (Fig. 43). The blade is very nar- 
 row, and terminates in a point. This saw is used when 
 
 an excision 
 has to be 
 made in the 
 centre of a 
 piec e of 
 Fig. 43. Compass-saw. . work, and 
 
 cannot be begun from the edge. For this purpose a hole must 
 be bored, into which the point of the saw can be inserted. 
 To give the blade sufficient strength it is made tolerably 
 thick, but it becomes thinner towards the back. Compass- 
 saws are of various sizes, and the teeth are set in different 
 ways. The number of teeth varies from 5 to 12 per inch, but 
 their form is in most cases that shown in Fig. 32. 
 
 4. The Groove-saw * (Fig. 44) has a tolerably thick blade 
 
 * Unknown in England, but recommended as useful. TRS.
 
 TOOLS. 
 
 87 
 
 of equal breadth throughout, the upper edge of which is 
 entirely enclosed by a handle, which is worked by both 
 hands. The teeth are inclined towards the worker, and 
 consequently act when he draws the saw towards him. 
 
 It sometimes 
 happens, especi- 
 ally in clamping 
 and grooving, 
 that an incision 
 must be made in 
 a broad flat piece 
 of wood, and in 
 many cases it 
 must not be Fig. 44. Groove-saw. \. 
 
 carried to the edge. With the exception of the tenon-saw, 
 the saws hitherto described cannot be used for this purpose. 
 The groove-saw is perfectly adapted for it, whereas the tenon- 
 saw is not quite so convenient, because the setting of its teeth 
 is not suitable, and it has only one handle. 
 
 II. The Axe. 
 
 After the saw the axe is one of the most useful tools in the 
 earlier stages of any piece of work. Axes are of various 
 kinds, manufactured for different purposes. An axe of 
 American construction, very suitable for slojd work, is shown 
 in Fig. 45. The edge and faces are slightly curved, and 
 ground on both 
 sides. The axe 
 should not weigh 
 more than about 
 21bs., that it 
 may, without 
 trouble, be wield- 
 ed by one hand. Fig. 45. Axe. Ohio pattern, f. 
 The handle, of hard and tough wood, such as oak or ash, 
 should be curved so as to fall well into the hand, and the axe
 
 88 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 
 
 shaft must be firmly secured by wedges into the eye of the 
 axe-head. 
 
 In working with the axe the wood is supported on a block, 
 formed of an evenly sawn-off piece of the trunk of a tree. 
 The best tree for this purpose is the poplar. 
 
 The surface of the block must always be kept free from 
 sand, which would destroy the edge of the axe. 
 
 It is of the utmost importance for beginners to hold the 
 piece of wood in such a way that the hands may receive no 
 injury. 
 
 Grinding In grinding (see under this head, pp. 115-118) the axe 
 
 the axe. anc [ a n other edge-tools, the tool must be held steadily 
 
 against the grindstone, in order that the bevelled edge may 
 
 be quite regular and of the same breadth, not waving. The 
 
 two bevelled edges should form an angle of about 20. 
 
 III. The Knife. 
 
 Atw'tabie The knife is the slojder's indispensable and most important 
 
 1 * rni/ '- tool, and it is the first to be placed in the hands of a beginner. 
 
 It is therefore important to select for slb'jd suitable knives 
 
 of the best quality. The blade of the slojd knife should be 
 
 made of good steel, about 4 inches long, and not more than 
 
 f inch broad. 
 The edge 
 should be 
 
 Fig. 46. Slojd-knife Naas pattern. . straight, and 
 
 the two faces which form it should extend over the entire 
 breadth of the blade. The back of the knife should not be 
 more than T 3 jj- inch thick. The blade ought not to taper to a 
 dagger-like point, but should terminate as is shown in Fig. 
 46. The best angle for the edge is 15. The other end of 
 the blade terminates in a tang which slots into the handle.
 
 TOOLS. 
 
 89 
 
 A commoner, 
 though by no 
 means so suit- 
 able form of 
 knife is shown Fig. 47. Slojd knife, i. 
 
 in Fig. 47. Directions for using the knife are given in Chap. 
 V. 
 
 IV. The Draw-Knife. 
 
 This consists of a steel blade with an edge formed by 
 grinding on one side only. This blade is furnished at both 
 ends with handles, at right angles to it, and in the same 
 plane. The tool is worked with both hands, so that the 
 
 Fig. 48. Draw-knife. J. 
 
 whole strength of the slojder can be thrown into its use. use of the 
 The draw-knife is chiefly used in modelling and smoothing 
 objects with curved outlines. It is also used in making 
 hoops for barrels, &c. Directions for its use are given in 
 Chap. V. 
 
 V. Chisels, Gouges, Carving- Tools, &e. 
 
 These terms include a whole group of tools which are used 
 in wood-slojd for the removal of small pieces of wood, in 
 cases where the knife, the saw, or the plane could not advan- 
 tageously be used. 
 
 They consist of a flat or concave blade made of steel, the Pa>-t* of a 
 cutting end of which is cut straight across and sharpened to chuel * &c '
 
 90 
 
 HANDBOOK OP SLOJD. 
 
 an edge, and the other wrought into a four-sided tang, which 
 is set into a wooden handle. The tool in working is driven 
 into the wood either by the pressure of the hand, or by 
 blows from a mallet. In order that the handle may not slip, 
 or twist round when grasped, it is generally made with four 
 sides, greater in breadth than in thickness, and with the 
 broader sides rounded.* To keep the handle from splitting 
 under violent pressure, the base of the 
 tang is furnished with a shoulder, on 
 which the handle rests. 
 
 These tools vary greatly in size both as 
 regards length and breadth. The latter 
 dimension determines the dimensions of 
 the edge. The broadest tools are gener- 
 ally also the longest. 
 
 In order to be able to execute all the 
 different kinds of exercises which occur, 
 it is necessary to have a complete set of 
 each description of tools. There are 
 usually 12 in a set, all of different breadths. 
 Tools of this kind are classified accord- 
 ing to the different shapes of the blade 
 and edge, and the different methods of 
 sharpening as follows : 
 
 Fig. 49. Firmer Chisel^ 
 
 A. Blade anil handle. 
 
 B. Klade showing a face 
 
 and edge. 
 
 C. liliidc. c. shoulder, d. 
 
 tang. 
 
 1. Chisels. 
 
 These tools have a straight edge ground on one side. 
 
 1. The Firmer Chisel (Fig. 49). The breadth of the blade, 
 which varies from 1 inches to inch, is generally much 
 greater than its thickness. The face of the edge in all such 
 tools forms with the front side an ande of 20 to 25. 
 
 O 
 
 The firmer chisel is used in paring plane or convex surfaces; 
 in mortising, when it often does duty instead of the mortise 
 * English handles are generally turned in boxwood or beech. TKS.
 
 TOOLS. 
 
 91 
 
 chisel ; in curved work ; in facing off; and, generally speak- 
 ing, in all cases where no other tool can be made use of with 
 advantage. 
 
 2. The Mortise-chisel (Fig. 50). . The thickness of the 
 blade generally exceeds its breadth, which varies from % inch 
 to 1 inch. The front face of the blade is always a little 
 broader than the back. 
 
 The mortise-chisel is used for mortising ; and, whenever 
 possible, a blade of the same breadth as the mortise to be 
 made should be selected. The great thickness of the tool 
 enables its sides to act with 
 steady force upon the sides 
 of the mortise, and makes 
 accurate execution of the 
 operation much easier. It 
 is driven into the wood by 
 blows from a mallet. The 
 angle of the edge is the 
 same as in the firmer chisel. 
 
 2. Gouges. 
 
 These tools have a 
 curved edge. 
 
 The blade of the gouge is 
 concave. The face of the 
 edge may either be (a) 
 ground from within out- 
 wards, in which case the 
 edge will lie upon the inner 
 or concave side, or (6) in 
 the reverse way, when the 
 edge will lie upon the outer Fig 50. Mortise-chisel, 
 
 n/PnnvPv sidfl B - shows breadth and 
 
 01 Convex Side. &ngle of theedge> _ 
 
 Gouges ground in the 
 first mentioned manner are used in the formation of grooves 
 or bowl-shaped depressions. Those ground in the other way 
 
 Fig. 51. Gouge i. 
 A - with ed & e on 
 
 th fj nn f side ' 
 B. with edge on
 
 92 HANDBOOK OP SLOJD. 
 
 are used chiefly in perpendicular paring to produce concave 
 and cylindrical surfaces. 
 
 The breadth of the gouge varies from- inch to 1^ inches, 
 and the curve of the edge may include from one-tenth to one- 
 half of a circle, or 36 to 180. All the gouges in one set 
 should have the same curve in the edge. The gouge is driven 
 into the wood by the hand, or in the case of gouges of large 
 size, by the mallet. 
 
 3. The Spoon Gouge and the Spoon Iron. 
 
 Ordinary gouges are often used in forming the bowls of 
 spoons and similar articles, but the tools specially adapted, 
 and best for the purpose, are the spoon gouge and spoon iron. 
 The larger illustration (Fig. 52) shows the spoon gouge. In 
 construction, and in the way it is used, it somewhat resembles 
 A (Fig. 51); but it differs from it in having the blade curved 
 lengthwise, to facilitate the work of hollowing out. 
 
 The spoon iron is 
 different in form. 
 It is shown in the 
 smaller illustration 
 (Fig. 52), and re- 
 sembles a knife 
 Fig. 52. Spoon Gouge and Spoon Iron. \. with a lancet- 
 shaped blade, with two edges, curved like a bow, and taper- 
 ing to a point at the end. It is worked with both hands, and 
 cuts to either side. 
 
 4. Carving Tools. 
 
 A number of tools, more or less like the preceding, are used 
 in wood-carving. Some of these carving tools are flat, with 
 rectangular edges; others are oblique to the direction of their 
 length, with a bevelled edge on both sides ; others are concave, 
 with a circular edge, or have two edges meeting in a point. 
 They are straight in some cases ; in others, curved. 
 
 As only a few of these tools are used in slojd carpentry, to
 
 TOOLS. 
 
 93 
 
 any extent worth mentioning, no description of them is given; 
 but those in most common use, with their names, are shown 
 in Fig. 53. The full size of the edge is given in the outline 
 beside the representation of each tool. 
 
 Fig. 53. Carving Tools. 
 
 Firmer. 
 Corner firmer. 
 
 Straight gouge. 
 Straight gouge. 
 
 Curved gouge. 
 Front bent gouge. 
 
 Straight parting tool. 
 Bent parting tool. 
 
 Bent chisel. 
 Parting gouge. 
 
 VI. Planes. 
 
 The edge tools hitherto described consist of a single steel 
 blade, with a cutting edge of various descriptions, and a 
 handle for one or both hands. The inclination of the edge 
 to the surface of the wood may thus be altered at will, as the 
 circumstances of the case require. Narrow surfaces, or sur- 
 faces of generally circumscribed area, may thus be levelled 
 and smoothed to a certain extent (though not perfectly) by 
 the knife, the axe, the chisel, etc. ; but when long and broad 
 surfaces have to be made absolutely smooth, we require an
 
 94 HANDBOOK OP SLOJD. 
 
 edge-tool which, by attacking in the first place all the eleva- 
 tions, and by always cutting equally deep on a plane surface 
 (i.e., by always removing shavings of the same thickness), 
 finally reduces the surface to one uniform level. 
 
 The plane is the tool which fulfils these requirements. 
 In the plane, the steel blade called the plane-iron is wedged 
 tightly into a parallelopiped-shaped wooden block, called the 
 plane stock, which is formed in various ways for various 
 purposes. The edge of the blade extends slightly beyond the 
 under side of the block. 
 
 The plane is used not only in the dressing of plane surfaces, 
 but also in the preparation of all surfaces on which straight 
 lines can be drawn in at least one direction ; e.g., in smoothing 
 the surface of cylindrical and conical objects, etc. Con- 
 sequently, many different kinds of planes are required. 
 
 The plant- All planes, however, consist of two principal parts : the 
 sole or stock, and the iron. The stock is formed of hard, 
 tough, straight-fibred wood in the form of a parallelepiped, 
 the under side of which, the sole, glides over the work when 
 the tool is used. The best wood is elm, beech, pear, or box- 
 wood, which has been well seasoned to prevent warping. 
 The plane is worked with both hands. The front part of 
 Swedish planes is often provided with a rest for the hand, 
 called the horn. The larger kind of planes have a handle 
 behind the iron. 
 
 rhe plane- The plane-iron is placed obliquely in a hole in the stock, 
 called the socket (Figs. 54 and 56), with its edge extending a 
 very little beyond the sole, and it is secured by a wooden 
 wedge. It is made of iron, with a steel front. In shape it 
 resembles a wedge, the thicker end of which is sharpened. 
 The wedge-like shape gives the required thickness and 
 strength to the sharpened end, leaves more room towards the 
 upper end, and also helps to keep the plane-iron firmly in its 
 place when the edge comes against hard knots in the wood 
 and the pressure tends to force the iron upwards. 
 
 trou.
 
 TOOLS. 95 
 
 To form the edge, the plane-iron is ground on the posterior Ang i e O f the 
 or bevelled edge. This forms an angle of from 20 to 25 e ^ eo /"' 
 with the front face of the plane-iron. The former angle is and its po3 i_ 
 suitable for loose fibred timber ; the latter for hard or knotty tion in the 
 
 stock. 
 
 wood. The edge must not be too thin, for if so, the iron will 
 fly, i.e., become jagged. The iron is generally placed in the 
 socket at an angle of 45 to the plane of the sole, with the 
 bevelled edge downwards. 
 
 It occasionally happens, e.g., in small American planes with 
 iron stocks, that the bevelled edge of the plane-iron is turned 
 upwards at an angle of 25 to the plane of the sole. It may 
 also be mentioned, in passing, that in planes manufactured for 
 special purposes, e.g., planing particularly hard kinds of wood, 
 the irons are placed at an angle of 50, 55, 60, or even 90. 
 
 As indicated above, the plane acts by removing thicker or 
 thinner shavings, according as the plane-iron extends more 
 or less beyond the sole. In working with the knife it is 
 always possible to alter the position of the edge in order to 
 prevent its cutting in the same direction as the fibres run, 
 which would tear them, and render the surface uneven. But 
 it is not always possible to guide the stationary plane-iron 
 in this way. Hence in cross-grained wood, or in timber 
 where the fibres lie parallel with the surface, the plane has a 
 tendency to split or tear them, and the resistance offered by 
 the torn fibres is often so great that the plane cannot be 
 driven forward. The fibres also, by their elasticity, tend to 
 drag the iron downwards. To prevent the fibres tearing in 
 front of the iron, provision must be made (1) for breaking 
 them off at once, and (2) for bringing at the same time pres- 
 sure to bear on them from above, just over the edge of the 
 iron, by means of which their elasticity may be diminished 
 or wholly neutralised. The^irs^ object is attained by placing 
 a cover above the iron, the effect of which is to break off the The cover. 
 fibres as quickly as they are detached; the second, by re- 
 ducing the set or opening in front of the iron as much as is 
 compatible with the free passage of the shavings through it.
 
 96 
 
 HANDBOOK OP SLOJD. 
 
 To put on 
 t.'ii cover. 
 
 _b'ig. 54. Trying Plane. . 
 A stock, B handle, C socket, D D cheeks, E wedge, F cover, G iron, H. boss. 
 
 A rectangular opening in the iron, enlarged and rounded 
 at one end, admits the screw of the cover, and permits of its 
 adjustment. The lower end of the 
 cover is curved, with the concave side 
 inwards, and it terminates in a sharp 
 edge. When the screw is tightened 
 this sharp edge must lie close against 
 the surface of the iron (see Fig. 55). 
 If the slightest space is left the shav- 
 ings will force their way through. 
 The other side of the cover must be 
 carefully rounded to permit the shav- 
 ings to glide freely over it. The edge 
 of the cover should be very near the 
 edge of the iron. In finishing up a 
 surface, and plain jointing, the dis- 
 tance should be about ~ 2 inch, and about double that distance 
 in cases where coarser shavings may be removed. The dis- 
 tance between the socket and the edge of the plane in front 
 should be about T V inch for fine planing, and not more than 
 $ inch for coarser work. 
 
 Theu>edge In planes like the smoothing-plane and the trying-plane, 
 
 keL where the iron is narrower than the sole, and is inserted in 
 
 the socket from above, the front side of the socket should be 
 
 at right angles with the plane of the sole, and of the same 
 
 Fig. 55. Plane Iron. 
 
 A seen from the front \. 
 
 B seen from the side {, 
 
 a iron. l> cover.
 
 TOOLS. 
 
 97 
 
 breadth as the iron. The inclination of the side of the socket 
 on which the iron rests has been already indicated ; the other 
 two sides, i.e., the cheeks, are thicker towards the iron, in order 
 to give support and steadiness to the wedge, and the sides of 
 the wedge are inclined towards one another at an angle of 
 about 8. If this angle is much greater the wedge fits 
 loosely ; if it is less it may fit so tightly that it cannot with- 
 out difficulty be loosened. The wedge, which, is forked at 
 the lower end, 
 must fit accur- 
 ately into the 
 space in the 
 socket left by the 
 iron, otherwise 
 shavings may 
 gather round its 
 points (see Fig. 
 56). These points 
 require frequent- 
 ly to be trimmed, 
 because from re- 
 peated sharpen- 
 ing the wedge- 
 shaped plane- 
 iron gradually 
 sinks deeper in 
 the socket, caus- 
 
 Fig. 56. Portion of Plane. Socket. . 
 
 F section through e d showing plane iron, wedge and 
 
 piece of wood inserted. 
 
 ing the wedge to do the same. 
 
 Should the sole of the plane become warped, or uneven planing the 
 through wear, it must be carefully planed. It follows from ^u and in- 
 
 fc> . . ,, n i sertiny a 
 
 the construction of the socket that the opening in tront ot tne piece of 
 iron, after repeated planing, becomes too large. It is usual wood - 
 to remedy this by inserting in front of the iron a piece of 
 very hard wood, e.g., ebony, beech, or boxwood (see Fig. 56). 
 Brass is also used for this purpose. New planes are also 
 
 G
 
 98 HANDBOOK OP SLOJD. 
 
 often furnished with such pieces, in order that the portion in 
 front of the plane-iron's edge may longer resist the wearing 
 effect of the shavings. 
 
 Putting in the Plane-Iron or Setting the Plane. 
 
 The cover is screwed tightly on the iron, with its sharp 
 edge at the proper distance from the edge of the iron, which 
 is then laid in the socket, just deep enough to allow its edge 
 to lie in the same plane as the surface of the sole. The 
 wedge is then put in, and secured by a couple of light blows 
 from the hammer. The plane is then taken in the left hand, 
 with the thumb resting on the wedge in the socket. The 
 sole is turned upwards, and the iron is carefully driven in a 
 little more, so that its edge shows just as much beyond the 
 plane of the sole as the occasion requires. If it seems crooked, 
 i.e., if one corner seems lower than the other, this must be 
 rectified by light taps on its free edges. When its position 
 appears to be right, the iron is secured by driving the wedge 
 in more firmly. If, after this, the iron is found to be too low, 
 it may be made to recede by a blow on the back part of the 
 stock, or, in the case of the trying-plane, by a blow on the 
 boss, a piece of hard wood or metal inserted in front of the 
 socket (see If, Fig. 54). [This boss is not always found in 
 English planes. It is useful in slb'jd as indicating the place 
 to which the blow should be directed, and thus saving the 
 stock of the plane from injury. TRS.] The loosened wedge 
 is then fastened once more, and the position of the iron is 
 tested by the thickness of the shavings it removes, and raised 
 or lowered, if necessary, according to the above directions. 
 When the iron is removed, the plane is held in the way 
 indicated above. 
 
 1. Planes with Flat Soles for the dressing of plane 
 surfaces. 
 
 1. The jack-plane (Fig. 57). To give certainty and ease in 
 working, the front portion of the stock of a Swedish jack- 
 plane is furnished with a horn for the hand, and a metal
 
 TOOLS. 
 
 99 
 
 support of American invention is sometimes placed behind ' 
 the iron to prevent the other hand from coming in contact 
 with its sharp edges. The iron is single, i.e., it has no cover, 
 and the edge is curved, not square. The Swedish jack-plane 
 is 9 inches long. [The English jack-plane is 16 inches 
 long. TRS.] 
 
 The jack- 
 plane is used 
 on rough un- 
 planed sur- 
 faces as a pre- 
 paration for a 
 finer plane, 
 when the ob- 
 ject in view is 
 more to re- 
 
 Lemjlh of 
 the jack- 
 plane. 
 
 move thick 
 
 Shavings 
 
 ra- 
 
 Fig. 57. Jack-plane. J. 
 A horn, B support for hand, C single iron. 
 
 pidly by an iron which cuts deep, than to produce a smooth 
 surface. As the iron is single, and the opening in front of it 
 tolerably wide, the jack-plane has a tendency to tear up the 
 wood ; and it is therefore not advisable to use this tool very 
 near the surface which is ultimately to be produced. 
 
 2. The trying-plane is the largest and most indispensable 
 of all the planes in use. That it may be wielded steadily it 
 is provided with a handle for one hand. The iron is double, 
 i.e., provided with a cover. Its various parts and their con- 
 struction are fully described in connection with Fig. 54, and 
 the method of using it is described in Chap. V. 
 
 It is employed in shooting, i.e., in producing level surfaces use of the 
 of all kinds, and it is sometimes used in preparatory work 
 instead of the jack-plane, in which case the iron should be 
 set rather deeper than for shooting. When the trying-plane 
 is used instead of the jack-plane, the space between the socket 
 and the edge of the iron in front should be wider than 
 in the later stages of planing.
 
 100 
 
 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 
 
 Length of 
 the tryinj 
 plane. 
 
 Grinding j n a ]j pl ane s used for shooting, the surface of the sole must 
 iron. lie altogether in the same plane ; and the edge of the plane- 
 iron must be ground quite straight, and at right angles with 
 the middle line of the iron. As, however, the corners of a 
 perfectly straight-edge are apt to tear up the fibres by the 
 side of the iron, or at least to leave a mark on the wood, they 
 should be very slightly rounded. The sole is sometimes 
 rubbed with raw linseed oil, that it may glide more smoothly 
 over the wood. 
 
 The trying-plane should always be worked in the direction 
 of its length, not obliquely to it, as is often improperly done. 
 
 The trying-plane should be about 20 inches long. [The 
 English trying-plane is 22 inches long. TES.] 
 
 3. The smoothing-plane (Fig. 58) resembles the jack- 
 plane, but is broader, and has a double iron. 
 
 The smoothing- 
 plane is used after 
 the trying-plane to 
 produce a very 
 smooth polished sur- 
 face. As the shav- 
 ings it removes must 
 be extremely fine, the 
 edge of the cover is 
 placed very close to 
 
 the edge of the iron, or, as it is called, is " set fine in front." 
 The smoothing plane should be about 9|- inches long. [The 
 
 English smoothing-plane 
 is 7| inches long. TES.] 
 The smoothing-plane and 
 planes like it may be fur- 
 nished with a support for 
 
 Iron Smoothing-plane (American the hand > behind the iron, 
 pattern]. . like the jack-plane. 
 
 As mentioned above, the stocks of planes are sometimes 
 
 Fig. 58. Smoothing-plane.
 
 TOOLS. 
 
 101 
 
 made of iron. Planes of this kind are used in England, and 
 to a still greater extent in America. The plane-iron is ad- 
 justed by means of a screw. Small iron smoothing-planes 
 are very useful for children, whose hands are not large enough 
 to hold planes of the ordinary size. A plane of this pattern 
 is shown in Fig. 59. 
 
 4. The rebate-plane (Fig. 
 60). When the adjacent sur- 
 faces of a rebate have to be 
 planed, the ordinary smoothing- 
 plane does not answer because 
 the iron is narrower than the 
 sole. In the rebate-plane the 
 
 edge of the iron is as broad as Fig- 60. Rebate-plane, i. 
 the sole, sometimes even a little broader. The upper part of 
 the iron is much narrower, and it is wedged into a mortise 
 in the stock. The iron is single, and the shavings escape 
 through an opening above its edge. 
 
 2. Planes for the Dressing of Curved Surfaces. 
 1. The round. This plane is used for hollow grooved 
 surfaces. It resembles the smoothing-plane and the jack- 
 plane, but differs from them in the more or less convex sole, 
 the degree of convexity depending on the degree of concavity 
 it is desired to pro- 
 duce. The iron 
 may be single or 
 double, and the 
 edffe is rounded 
 
 O 
 
 to correspond with 
 the sole. An ordi- 
 nary jack-plane 
 
 may easily be con- 
 verted into a 
 round, by round- 
 
 Fig. 61. Round. 
 
 P seen from behind. 
 
 the sole and the edge of the iron. In working the round
 
 102 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 
 
 it must always be driven forward in a line with its length. 
 In consequence of the shape of the tool, any other method 
 would destroy the surface required. 
 
 [2. The hollow, another plane of this kind, has the sole 
 concave, and an iron to correspond. It is used in planing 
 round surfaces. TRS.] 
 
 3. The compass plane. In this plane the sole is curved 
 lengthwise, and the iron is an ordinary double one with a 
 straight edge. It is used in planing hollow curved surfaces. 
 Soles of different degrees of curvature are required, according 
 to the radii of the surface to be planed, but it is not necessary 
 that the two should accurately correspond. The curvature 
 
 of the sole must not be less 
 than the curvature of the 
 surface of the work, but it 
 maybe greater. The differ- 
 ence, however, if any, must 
 be slight, because the two 
 opposing surfaces must 
 correspond closely enough 
 to permit of the steady 
 Fig. 62. Compass Plane, i. guidance of the tool. One 
 
 compass-plane, therefore, will not suffice for surfaces of 
 greatly varying curvature. 
 
 American compass-planes of iron, called adjustable planes, 
 have flexible steel soles, which can be adapted to surfaces of 
 different degrees of curvature. One plane of this kind is 
 therefore enough. 
 
 3. The Old Woman's Tooth-Plane, and Dove-tail FiUetster. 
 The old woman's tooth-plane is quite unlike the planss 
 hitherto described. It consists of a block of wood on the inner 
 side of which is fastened an iron, secured by a thumb-screw. 
 (Fig. 63). The construction of some planes of this kind is 
 much simpler ; they consist merely of a parallelepiped piece
 
 TOOLS. 
 
 103 
 
 of wood, in the middle of which is wedged a straight or curved 
 iron. In this case the blade of a firmer chisel is often used. 
 
 Fig. 63. Old Woman's Tooth-Plane, seen from above and from the side. $. 
 
 The dove-tail filletster is like the rebate plane, but differs 
 from it in having the plane of the sole oblique to the sides of 
 the stock, instead 
 of at right angles 
 to them, and also 
 in having a rebate 
 either in a piece 
 with the sole, or 
 attached to it for 
 the purpose of Fig. 64. Dove-tail Filletster, seen from the side 
 guiding the plane and from behind, i. 
 
 along the line of the dove-tail rebate to be formed. 
 
 In the simple kind of filletster shown in Fig. 64, the rebate 
 is fixed, but in the more complicated kind (Fig. 65), the 
 rebate is adjustable to suit deeper or shallower work ; the 
 latter is also provided with a " cutter" which determines the 
 line within which the surface is to be planed. This line, in 
 other cases, must 
 first be gauged 
 with a cutting 
 gauge; otherwise 
 the plane will 
 tear the fibres on 
 that side and 
 make it uneven. Fig- 65. Dove-tail Filletster.
 
 104 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 
 
 Both these planes are used in making dove-tail rebates ; 
 the old woman's tooth in smoothing and levelling the bottom 
 of the groove into which the dove-tail is shot, and the 
 filletster in working the dove-tail. 
 
 4. The Plough. 
 
 When a rectangular groove is made in a piece of wood the 
 plough is used (see Plate X.) The breadth of the iron must 
 not exceed the breadth of the groove to be made, and the 
 sole consists of an iron splint set into the stock. The plough 
 is furnished with a directing gauge, adjustable by bolts and 
 wedges or screws. From 6 to 12 irons of different breadths 
 accompany each plane. 
 
 5. The Iron Spokeshave. 
 
 The spokeshave may be included in the same class as the 
 plane. It is made entirely of iron, with two handles, and is 
 worked with both hands. The sole is very short shorter 
 than the breadth of the iron and this renders the tool very 
 useful in forming narrow convex or concave surfaces. 
 
 The iron is se- 
 cured by a screw 
 and a fixing plate. 
 The latter also 
 does duty as a 
 Fig. 66. Spokeshave. . cover, and makes 
 
 the tool more serviceable (see Fig. 66). 
 
 The spokeshave is a simple, practical, and easily-managed 
 tool. It is made in several sizes, and the iron may have a 
 straight edge, or one which curves outwards. The former is 
 more common. 
 
 [The spokeshave described above is an American pattern. 
 English spokeshaves are made of wood, and are recommended. 
 TRS.]
 
 TOOLS. 
 
 105 
 
 VII. Files. 
 
 The files used in wood-slb'jd are the same as those used in 
 metal work. The file plays, however, a much less important 
 part in the former than in the latter. In wood-slb'jd it is 
 used chiefly to smooth curved surfaces, the interior of holes 
 and depressions, and the ends of pieces of wood, in all cases 
 where edge-tools cannot be used advantageously. 
 
 The file consists of a piece of steel, the shape of which may 
 vary, and on the surface of which sharp ridges have been cut 
 with a chisel. These ridges are equidistant the one from the 
 other, and oblique to the length of the file. They form the 
 file-grade (Fig. 67) the essential characteristic of the tool. The & 
 
 A single-cut file is cut in one 
 direction only ; in a double-cut file 
 the cuts cross one another. Both 
 
 cuts incline towards the point of Fig. 67. File-grade, f. 
 the tool, the result of which is that the file acts chiefly when 
 driven forward, and has little effect when drawn back. The 
 files used in wood-slb'jd have usually a tapering point. All 
 files terminate at the other end in a tang which slots into 
 the handle. 
 
 Fig. 68. Files. . 
 a flat file, b half-round file, c round file. 
 
 Files are called triangular, square, flat, round, half-round, 
 etc., according to the form of the blade in cross-section. Flat
 
 106 HANDBOOK OP SLOJD. 
 
 round, and half-round files are most used in wood-slojd 
 (Fig. 68). The triangular file is used for sharpening saws 
 (Fig. 36). 
 
 The fineness of the file depends on the number of cuts per 
 inch. They are usually classified as coarse, medium, fine, 
 and very -fine. 
 
 Medium files, about 12 inches long, are the most useful for 
 working in wood, but coarse files, or rasps, may be used in 
 the first stages of work. 
 
 Method of When in use, the file is grasped by the handle by one hand, 
 and the wrist or fingers of the other are laid on the point to 
 produce the required pressure. The file is passed steadily 
 and slowly backwards and forwards over the work if the 
 surface desired is level, and with a circular motion if it is 
 curved. Pressure is exerted only when the file is driven 
 forward ; when it is drawn back again it is allowed to glide 
 over the surface. When the work cannot be made fast, the 
 file must be worked with one hand ; but, whenever possible, 
 the work should be secured to the bench, that both hands 
 may be free to direct and steady the file. 
 
 cleaning the In filing resinous or unseasoned wood, the cuts of the file 
 are apt to become clogged with sawdust. The file may be 
 cleaned with a stiff steel brush, but the simplest method of 
 cleaning a wood-file is to wash it in hot water. The same 
 file should never be used for wood and metal. 
 
 VIII. Methods of Finishing Work. 
 1. The Scraper. 
 
 This tool consists of a highly-tempered piece of steel (Fig. 
 69). The edges of the scraper are 
 generally straight, but sometimes the 
 ends are rounded or hollowed to suit 
 concave or convex surfaces. The two 
 longest parallel edges are ground at 
 Fig. 69. Scraper. *. r j g ht angles to the sides.
 
 TOOLS. 107 
 
 scraper is sharpened, it is placed at the edge of a plank, 
 and a very hard piece of steel is drawn against its edge as 
 nearly as possible on the plane of the plank. This, when 
 repeated several times backwards and forwards, levels the 
 sharp edge of the scraper, which is raised up again by having 
 the steel once, steadily but not too heavily, passed along it. 
 During this the steel is held almost perpendicular, with its. 
 upper end inclined very slightly towards the upper side of 
 the plank. The raised edge of the scraper now forms a fine 
 edge, which takes hold of the wood when drawn across its 
 surface, and removes minute shavings. When it becomes 
 blunt, it must be sharpened once more, and as its edge, after 
 repeated sharpening, becomes uneven, it must finally be re- 
 ground. A worn saw-file, the cut of which has been carefully 
 ground off, and the edges slightly rounded, or a firmer chisel,, 
 may be used. 
 
 The scraper should be held easily in the hand. In polish- Method of 
 ing a plane surface, the tool should be taken in both hands, scraper. 
 The scraper should incline towards the surface of the work 
 (see Chap. V., page 136), and should be worked always in the 
 direction towards which it leans, and with the grain of the 
 wood, but somewhat obliquely to the direction of the fibres. 
 Towards the end, pressure should be diminished, to produce a 
 finer polish. Care must be taken lest the cutting edge 
 become ragged from careless "setting," and scratch the 
 surface. Should this be so, the scraper must be re-ground, 
 and then sharpened. 
 
 2. Sand-Paper. 
 Sand-paper is made of paper with a coating of finely- sand-paper 
 
 -, n . , i i i rru made of flint 
 
 ground flint, glass, or quartz glued on to it. I he grams on and ofgiau. 
 the same paper are always of the same size, and, according to 
 the finer or coarser quality, the paper is numbered from to 
 rough 2. 
 
 [Sand-paper made of flint is generally used in Sweden. 
 In England, glass-paper is considered the best. TBS.]
 
 108 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 
 
 When in use, the sand-paper should be torn off in pieces 
 of convenient size, and a bit laid on the plane surface of a 
 piece of cork or wood, f -inch thick, and of a good size to be 
 held in the hands. If a sufficiently thick piece of cork can- 
 not be obtained, a thin piece should be glued on a piece of 
 wood, or, failing cork, a piece of card-board will answer the 
 purpose. This serves the purpose of a soft rubber (wood 
 alone being too hard), and gives the necessary support to the 
 sand-paper, which, used in this way, acts much in the same 
 manner as the file, and may be considered to all intents and 
 
 Sand-paper 
 
 really a tool, purposes as a tool. 
 
 Sand-paper may be used without a rubber only in the 
 case of concave or convex surfaces, where there are no sharp 
 edges. Care must be taken in finishing off not to work the 
 paper in the direction of the fibres, but either at right angles 
 or obliquely to it, in order to produce a smooth surface. Just 
 at the last, the paper may be passed once or twice in the 
 same line as the fibres, to remove any ridges or marks which 
 may have been produced. For similar reasons, the paper last 
 used should be finer than that first employed, in order to 
 secure a perfectly smooth surface. 
 
 Sand-paper should never be used to form, or smooth up the 
 surface of objects. The knife, the file, the smoothing-plane, 
 
 Sana-paper the scraper, etc. are the proper tools for this purpose. Sand- 
 paper should be used only in finishing off, and when the use 
 
 Daringly, of the smoothing-plane is understood, it is not much needed 
 for plane surfaces. In the case of objects with curved 
 surfaces, on the other hand, it is almost indispensable. 
 
 Finishing off with sand-paper should never be done in a 
 thoughtless, mechanical way. To attain a satisfactory result 
 the greatest attention is requisite. 
 
 IX. Brace and Bits. 
 
 Bits of different kinds are used in making round holes. 
 Bits for wood are made of a special kind of steel, one end of 
 which forms the cutting portion of the tool, and the other is
 
 TOOLS. 
 
 109 
 
 wedge-shaped, that it may be securely fastened into a handle 
 or brace, by means of which it revolves. In working, the 
 brace is always turned to the right, and the bits are made to 
 cut in the same direction. The edge of the bit is designed to 
 make its way into the wood without great pressure, and 
 without risk of splitting it. The bit must work without 
 hindrance from the shavings ; otherwise 
 it will become hot from friction, and 
 boring will be difficult. A good bit cuts 
 like a knife, detaches smooth spiral 
 shavings, and becomes only moderately 
 warm, even when worked quickly. 
 
 The brace may vary in construction. 
 Fig. 70 shows a very strong Swedish 
 brace made of iron. The upper end, or 
 tang of the bit, forms a square truncated 
 pyramid, which slots into a hole in the 
 brace socket, and is fastened by a spring. 
 Fig. 71 shows an American brace, also 
 made of iron. It has a screw adjustable 
 socket, into which the bit is secured. The 
 tang of the bit may be of any form, pro- 
 vided it is somewhat rectangular. 
 
 Fig. 70. Swedish Brace. 
 
 Fig. 71. American Brace ; section of screw adjustable socket, or bit holder,
 
 no 
 
 HANDBOOK OP SLOJD. 
 
 The bits in most general use are shell-bits and centre-bits. 
 Small shell-bits are called pin-bits. 
 
 D 
 
 Fig. 72. A, Auger-bit. B, Centre-bit. C, Shell-bit or pm-bit. D, Hole-rimer 
 drill, .ft 1 , Screwdriver bit. F and G, Counter-sink drills. ^. 
 
 1. The shell-bit (Fig. 72, C) is gouge-shaped, with the end 
 curved like the point of a spoon. Unlike the centre-bit, it 
 has no middle point, and it is therefore more difficult to gauge 
 to holes of any given size, especially if the latter are large. 
 
 This bit is better than the centre-bit for boring end pieces. 
 Shell-bits are made in various sizes, from those adapted for 
 holes of r V inch in diameter to those suitable for holes of 
 1| inch in diameter. The smallest kind, the pin-bit, is most 
 used in wood slojd. A set of pin-bits includes from 8 to 10, 
 varying in size from -| inch to inch. 
 
 2. The Centre-bit. 
 1. The ordinary centre-bit (Fig. 72, B, and 73, B) has a flat 
 
 The ordi- 
 nary centre- 
 blade, the lower portion of which is broader than the upper, 
 as is shown in the illustrations. In the middle of the lower 
 edge is the centre-point a, and at one side is the cutter b. In
 
 TOOLS. 
 
 Ill 
 
 Fig. 73. A, Portion of Auger- 
 bit. , Portion of Centre-bit. 
 
 boring, the cutter makes a circular incision corresponding 
 
 to the circumference of the hole, and thus determines its 
 
 diameter, prevents the wood from splitting, and facilitates 
 
 the removal of shavings and sawdust by the lip c, the edge 
 
 of which is horizontal to the point 
 
 and oblique to the blade, and which 
 
 cuts at right angles to the cutter. 
 
 The centre point is longer than the 
 
 cutter, which again cuts deeper than 
 
 the lip. In sharpening the centre- 
 
 bit, which may be done with a small 
 
 half-round file, care must be taken 
 
 that the edge of the cutter is on the 
 
 j. J J J.T- j J.-L v aa Centre-point, 666 Cutter, ccc Lip. 
 
 outer side, and the edge of the lip 
 
 on the under side. A set of bits should contain 8 to 12 centre- 
 
 bits, from -| inch to 1 inch broad. 
 
 2. The auger (Fig. 72,^1) belongs to the same class. In 
 boring with the bits previously described, it is necessary to 
 exercise a certain degree of pressure, but the auger works its Wa v in 
 
 A j.1, JV ^ 1 1,-'U vhichthe 
 
 way into the wood by means or the conical screw which torms auger wor ks. 
 its centre point, and after the screw has once started all that 
 is needed is to make it revolve. The auger is besides fur- 
 nished with a cutter and a lip on both sides of the screw. 
 (See Fig. 73, A.) 
 
 Above the cutting portion it is spiral in form, and thus we 
 have a double spiral with sharp edges. This gives plenty of 
 room for the sawdust and shavings which are worked out of 
 the hole without the removal of the auger. The American 
 augers are the best. A set includes 6 to 12 pieces, 
 
 o . i , -, r 
 
 inch to 1 inch. 
 
 augers. 
 
 Fig. 74. Expansion bit 3.
 
 112 
 
 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 
 
 Adjustable 
 or expansion 
 bitt. 
 
 Screwdriver 
 bit, counter- 
 link drill, 
 ami hole- 
 rimer. 
 
 The expansion bit (Fig. 74) is of American construction. 
 Within certain limits it admits of holes of different sizes 
 being bored with one and the same bit. Its point, lip, and 
 cutter are tolerably like those of the auger, but it is furnished 
 with two loose cutters, which may be screwed in to suit the 
 diameter desired. The adj ustable cutter does the work both of 
 lip and cutter. The expansion bit makes holes with remark- 
 ably even surfaces, and with two different sizes it is possible 
 to bore holes varying in diameter from ^ inch to 3 inches. 
 
 A screw-driver bit (Fig. 72, E), two or three counter-sink 
 drills (Fig. 72, F and G), and a couple of square or hexagonal 
 hole-rimers (Fig. 72, D) are usually included in 
 a complete set of bits. The counter-sink drill 
 is used to produce a conical hole in wood or 
 metal, suitable for sinking screw-heads. The 
 rimer enlarges holes in thin metal plates, e.g., 
 screw holes in hinge-plates. 
 
 3. The Bradawl (Fig. 75). This tool consists 
 of a steel bit T V inch to inch thick, and 2 inches 
 long. Its point is like that of an awl, or it may be 
 chisel-pointed. The bit is secured in the handle 
 by a screw-socket. Several bits of different 
 sizes belong to the tool, and the handle, which 
 is hollow, serves as a case for them. The brad- 
 awl is used to bore holes for sprigs, nails, etc. 
 When holes are bored with the chisel-pointed 
 bit, the edge is placed across the grain of the 
 Fi S- 75. Brad- wood, and pressure is exerted in this direction 
 to prevent the splitting of the wood. 
 
 X. The Mallet, the Hammer, the Hand Vice, Pincers, 
 and Screwdriver. 
 
 The Mallet (Fig. 76) is made of hard, strong wood, pre- 
 ferably of figured beech. It is used for striking tools with 
 wooden handles, because the hard hammer in such cases
 
 TOOLS. 
 
 113 
 
 would not only do damage, but would not serve the purpose 
 so well. 
 
 The Hammer (Fig. 77) con- 
 sists of a piece of steel with a 
 hole for the handle, called the 
 eye. One end is cylindrical and 
 terminates in a flat surface, 
 called the face; the other end, 
 which is called the pane, is 
 wedge-shaped, with a rounded 
 edge. That the handle may be 
 quite firm, the eye widens at the 
 sides, and wedges driven hard 
 into the end of the handle cause 
 it to fill up the cavity entirely. Fig. 76. Mallet, 
 
 Fig. 77. Ham- 
 mer. I 
 
 There are various kinds of pincers, but only those used 
 in wood slojd need be named here. Pincers have two steel 
 arms rivetted together. The rivet divides the arms into two 
 unequal portions, 
 the longer, or 
 handles, and the 
 shorter, or jaws. 
 
 The ordinary 
 pincers have Fig. 78. Pincers. J. 
 
 short, broad, sharply curved jaws, and are used to extract 
 nails, etc. 
 
 The wire-cutter resembles the preceding, but is slighter in 
 make, and its 
 arms are curved 
 and its jaws 
 sharper. It is 
 used to snap off 
 pieces of wire, tin- Fig. 79. Wire-cutter. . 
 
 tacks, etc. The jaws of the flat pliers are flat on the inner
 
 114 
 
 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 
 
 Fig. 81- Round-jawed Pliers. 
 
 Shape of the 
 fcrewdriver. 
 
 side, which is file- 
 cut to enable 
 them to take fast 
 hold of small 
 pieces of metal to 
 be filed, bent, &c. 
 In the round 
 pliers the jaws 
 are more or less 
 conical in shape, 
 for the bending of 
 i- . wire, etc. 
 
 The hand-vice is not so 
 much employed in slb'jd- 
 carpentry as in metal slojd. 
 Its chief use is to secure 
 small pieces of metal for 
 filing. It may be held in 
 the hand, or, after the piece 
 of metal has been made 
 fast, it may itself be screwed 
 into a hand-screw or to the 
 bench, that both hands may 
 be free for the work of 
 filing. 
 
 The screwdriver is used for driving in screws, 
 and is made of hard steel. At the end it is bev- 
 elled to a thick point, which varies from / T -inch 
 to jV-inch in thickness, depending on the size of 
 . the screw for which it is to be used. 
 Fig. 83. The bevelled edges should be parallel, and the 
 , ' point should be as little as possible like a wedge 
 in shape, but should lie flat in the slit of the nail. 
 
 a the point, ., . ' . mi 
 
 full size, seen otherwise it will have a tendency to slip and 
 from the suie. become chipped. 
 
 Fig. 82. Hand-vice.
 
 TOOLS. 115 
 
 E. The Grinding and Sharpening of Tools. 
 
 Work 'must never be done ^uith blunt or badly-set tools. 
 Tools must always be kept sharp and in good order. 
 
 These rules should ahvays be kept in mind. Many a 
 slojder toils in the sweat of his brow with a blunt saw, or a 
 badly set blunt plane, rather than take time to put his tool 
 in order, though tools in good condition save hours of work, 
 much unnecessary trouble, and needless vexation. Blunt 
 tools demand more strength and exertion than sharp ones, 
 and seldom, if ever, produce such good results. The rules 
 given above are especially important in the case of children, 
 for whom work ought not to be made unnecessarily difficult. 
 The sharpening of edge-tools is performed on the grind- 
 stone and the oilstone. The method of sharpening a saw has 
 already been described (pp. 80, 81). 
 
 The ordinary Grindstone consists of a circular slab of 
 sandstone, which rotates on an axle, and is provided with a 
 handle for turning. It is supported on a grindstone stand 
 or bench. Below the stone is a wooden well, lined with zinc, 
 partially filled with water, into which the stone is sunk 
 about one inch when in use. The stone should not be too 
 fine in the grain or too hard. 
 
 The grindstone should never be used dry, because the steel care of the 
 does not " catch " well unless the stone is wet, and the friction 
 on a dry stone " burns " the steel and makes the edge of the 
 tool soft. Exposure to the sun for any length of time makes 
 the stone too hard, while prolonged immersion of any portion 
 of it in water renders that portion soft. Consequently it 
 wears faster, and the stone becomes uneven or eccentric. 
 The stone should therefore be kept dry except when in use. 
 
 A frame-work attached to the stand prevents splashing 
 when the stone rotates by directing the water down into the 
 well, and splashing may still further be avoided by fastening 
 a thick piece of stuff in front so that it trails upon the stone
 
 116 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 
 
 and absorbs a portion of the surplus water. The stone must 
 always be turned towards the worker and towards the edge 
 of the tool, which must be moved steadily, and with equal 
 pressure from side to side, across the whole breadth of the 
 stone, to prevent the formation of scratches or depressions on 
 its circumference. The bevelled edge produced by grinding 
 must present either a flat or a concave surface to the convex 
 surface of the stone. It must never be convex. The con- 
 
 stmight cave form of the bevelled edge is advantageous, because it 
 materially lightens the final sharpening on the oilstone. 
 The edge must also be quite straight unless a curved edge is 
 actually required. 
 
 As it is difficult, especially for the inexperienced, to hold 
 the steel steadily enough against the stone, a grinding sup- 
 
 Accurate port has been invented. Such a support of American make 
 
 dtllg - is shown in Fig. 84. It consists of an iron frame into which 
 
 the plane-iron or the chisel is screwed. A small wheel below 
 
 Fig. SI. Grinding support, i. 
 
 the frame revolves upon the grindstone, and the desired angle 
 on the edge of the tool is obtained by fastening it in with 
 the edge at a shorter or longer distance from the frame. By 
 means of this simple contrivance even an inexpert pupil is 
 able to grind a plane-iron correctly. 
 
 A very common fault in grinding is to make the angle 
 which the bevelled edge makes with the face of the tool too
 
 TOOLS. 
 
 117 
 
 great, i.e., to make the edge too thick. This is often done 
 by beginners in their haste to be relieved from grinding. 
 
 The tool must be ground till a raw edge appears, i.e., the The raw 
 very thin " film " or hair produced by the grindstone's remov- edye - 
 ing the very edge of the steel. This, in its turn, is removed 
 by the oilstone. 
 
 Sharpening with the oilstone is necessary, because the edge 
 produced by the coarse-grained grindstone is neither fine 
 enough nor even enough for immediate use. 
 
 The oilstone is a 
 slab of specially fine- 
 grained stone. "Wash- 
 ita" and "Arkansas" 
 stones from America, The & 
 
 ^ tt m i L oilstones. 
 
 and "Turkey stones 
 Fig. 85. Oilstone and case. i. ,, -, , rT r 7 -, , 
 
 are the best. [Welsh 
 
 oilstones are less expensive, and can thoroughly be recom- 
 mended. TRS.] The oilstone should be 8 inches long and 2| 
 inches broad, and it should be kept in a wooden box with a 
 cover (Fig. 85). A good oilstone is very hard and close- 
 grained, and it " takes well," i.e., it acts almost like a very 
 fine file on the steel. The colour is yellowish-white. They 
 last a long time, but are expensive to buy. 
 
 When in use, the oilstone should be moistened with veget- 
 able oil. The addition of a little paraffin is an improvement. Method of 
 The tool is held in both hands, and the bevelled edge is applied M */ nflr the 
 
 oilstone. 
 
 closely to the stone in such a way that, while the bevel is 
 altogether in contact with the stone, the edge presses rather 
 more heavily on it, and this angle of inclination must be 
 steadily maintained to prevent the edge from becoming 
 rounded. The steel is now drawn over the stone with a slow, 
 steady, backward and forward motion. When this has been 
 repeated often enough, it is turned over and passed once over 
 the stone with the face flat. The worker must not confine 
 his operations to the middle of the stone, but must use the 
 whole of the surface.
 
 118 HANDBOOK OP SLOJD. 
 
 An oilstone slip, i.e., a piece of the same kind of stone as 
 the oilstone, but smaller and thinner, and rounded at the 
 edges, is required for the sharpening of gouges, spoon-irons, etc. 
 A sharp Sharpening must be continued until the edge itself is not 
 visible when held up against the light, or until it no longer 
 appears white and rounded. Its sharpness is tested by touch 
 ing it lightly with the finger. 
 
 F. The Tool Cupboard. 
 
 For the benefit of those who wish to procure a tool cup- 
 board, complete drawings of one are given in Plate XI. It 
 is so arranged that every tool has a fixed, easily observed 
 place, in order that the absence of any may be readily dis- 
 covered when the tools are laid past. Tools must further be 
 so arranged that when one is taken out another is not dis- 
 placed ; and all sharp edges must be protected. 
 
 Any alterations in the size of the cupboard, required by a 
 larger or smaller stock of tools, could easily be made.
 
 119 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 JOINTING. 
 
 Different parts of articles are connected or jointed partly 
 by glue, nails, or screws, and partly by the special adaption 
 of the parts themselves, as in mortising and dove-tailing. 
 
 A. Glueing. 
 
 The simplest way of jointing two pieces of wood is to 
 introduce between them a connecting medium in liquid form, 
 i.e., glue. 
 
 Glue is made from the refuse, clippings, etc., of tanneries 
 and glove manufactories. After being subjected to a boiling 
 process, these materials are reduced to a viscous fluid, which 
 solidifies on cooling into a stiffish jelly, which is then cut 
 into thin slices and dried upon nets stretched on frames. 
 
 Good glue is known by its light brown or brownish yellow 
 colour ; its sparkling transparency ; its hardness and elas- 
 ticity ; by the way it breaks off in flakes and whitens in the 
 line of fracture ; and by its power of resistance to the damp- 
 ness of the air. It swells if steeped in cold water, but does 
 not melt even after one or two days' immersion. The ulti- 
 mate test of good glue is, however, its cementing power. 
 
 1. The Preparation of Glue. 
 
 The cakes of glue, either entire or in pieces, are first 
 soaked in cold water. After the glue swells it is put in a 
 glue-pot (Fig. 86) and melted by heat. The glue-pot consists 
 of two pans usually made of cast-iron or tin-plate. The 
 larger of these, the outside pan, is, when in use, half filled
 
 120 
 
 HANDBOOK OP SLOJD. 
 
 with water, and the smaller one, the inside pan or glue-pot 
 proper, in which the glue is placed, rests upon a rim or flange 
 round its mouth. This inner pan should always be lined 
 with tin. The water in the outer pan prevents the glue from 
 burning, (an accident which must always be carefully 
 avoided), and as the contents of the glue-pot are surrounded 
 by warm water, they may be kept fluid and fit for use a con- 
 siderable time after the pan has been removed from the fire. 
 If glue is wanted in a hurry, the cakes may be put in a 
 towel or a similar piece of stuff to keep the glue from being 
 scattered about, and broken to pieces with a hammer. The 
 pieces are then put into the glue-pot and stirred during boil- 
 ing, to prevent unmelted glue sticking to the bottom. This 
 mode of preparation is quite as good as the preceding. 
 
 Fig. 80. Glue Pot Outside Pan. J-. 
 
 (inside pan) and Brush. 
 
 Glue is applied with a strong brush, of which there should 
 be two sizes, one for large surfaces and one for small sur- 
 faces, e.g., mortise holes, etc. 
 
 Liquid Glue. The addition of acetic acid to melted glue 
 prevents putrefaction, and, without lessening its cementing 
 power, keeps it liquid at ordinary temperatures. " Liquid 
 glue " may be made as follows : Four parts of good glue are 
 melted in four parts diluted acetic acid, in the outer pan, or
 
 JOINTING. 121 
 
 on the top of an oven. One part spirits of wine and a small 
 quantity of alum are then added, and the mixture is kept in 
 a wide-mouthed bottle, the cork of which has a hole to admit 
 the brush. 
 
 This glue remains liquid at + 14 to 18 C., and does not 
 solidify until + 8 to 12 C. ; it is very convenient for small 
 articles, as it is always ready and in good condition, and its 
 cementing power is quite equal to that of glue prepared in 
 the ordinary way. Its only drawback is that it dries more 
 slowly. 
 
 In the case of articles exposed to moisture, the addition of 
 10 per cent, of boiled linseed oil is advantageous. The glue 
 to which it is added should be hot and strong, and should be 
 stirred till the varnish has been thoroughly mixed. The 
 wood to which this wood-cement is applied should be dry and 
 warm, and the pieces should be firmly pressed together until 
 the glue dries. 
 
 2.. Glueing. 
 
 The process of glueing is very simple, but it must be care- 
 fully performed to ensure a strong inconspicuous joint. The 
 general rule holds good that the layer of glue shall be so 
 thin that the seam can hardly be seen, and this presupposes 
 that the pieces fit accurately (see page 146), that they are 
 kept in sufficiently close contact while the glue is drying, 
 and that the glue itself does not cool before they are put 
 properly together. 
 
 To keep the glue from cooling, the wood should be warmed warming 
 as well as the glue, and the operations of applying the latter, the wood ' 
 putting the pieces together and applying the required pressure, 
 must be rapidly performed. Generally speaking, it is suffi- 
 cient if one of the wooden surfaces is warmed : thus in dove- 
 tailing and slotting the pins only are warmed ; in blocking, 
 the blocks only, etc. 
 
 The glue, which must be neither too thick nor too thin, is Laying on 
 laid evenly and quickly, in as small a quantity as possible, the glwe - 
 over the surface of the wood with the brush.
 
 122 HANDBOOK OP SLOJD. 
 
 In the case of pins for mortising, the glue should be thicker 
 than for jointing boards, and the glue is generally applied to 
 the hole as well as to the previously warmed pin, though 
 sometimes only to the latter. 
 
 Screwing together is performed either in the bench, which 
 is the simplest method, or in hand-screws, or in a press with 
 wedges. The article must remain under pressure till the 
 glue dries. If the glue is too thick or the wood cold, or if 
 the glue cools before screwing up, the joint will show, and 
 will not be good. A joint of this kind does not look well, 
 and is less durable than one properly glued together. 
 a The bench pegs or the hand-screw should always be in 
 joint. order before glueing, to save time. Just before the final 
 tightening of the screw, the work should be carefully ex- 
 amined to see if the parts are in their right places. If not 
 they must be made to fit. If the staves of a barrel are not 
 in the same plane, the screw must not be loosened, but the 
 stave which is not Hush must be hammered into place, and 
 the screws tightened. The work must not again be disturbed 
 till the glue has hardened. 
 
 In screwing up finished pieces of work, bits of wood must 
 always be put between the work and the bench-pegs or the 
 point of the screw, to prevent marks. When large plane 
 surfaces are glued together, it is necessary to use several 
 cramps to obtain strong enough pressure. 
 
 Removal of The glue which exudes from the joints of objects which 
 are finished off before glueing, e.g., the inside of a drawer, 
 must be carefully wiped off with a clean sponge or rag dipped 
 in warm water immediately after glueing together, before it 
 completely dries. Care must be taken not to wet the wood 
 unnecessarily. 
 
 The better the glue penetrates the pores of the wood, the 
 stronger the joint. Consequently, glue holds better in loose- 
 fibred than in close-grained wood, which presents a hard, 
 smooth surface. Broad surfaces of the latter description are 
 roughened a little before glueing, by drawing a coarse file
 
 JOINTING. 123 
 
 over them.* Glue which dries slowly is stronger than that 
 which dries quickly. 
 
 A well-fitting joint made with good glue is so strong that, strong and 
 when long boards are joined together, the wood itself gener- We _ ak lue 
 
 J joints. 
 
 ally gives way before the joint. This, however, is not the 
 case when end pieces are joined together, or when the wood 
 is very hard or close-grained. 
 
 Two pieces of wood may be glued together without cramp- 
 ing or screwing together, e.g., a block of wood on a plank. 
 The block only is warmed, but glue is laid upon both. The 
 former is then pressed upon the latter, and rubbed backwards 
 and forwards to get rid of the superfluous glue, until it be- 
 gins to adhere. Care must now be taken that it is in its 
 right place, and is not further disturbed. The two pieces 
 adhere by atmospheric pressure. 
 
 B. Nailing. 
 
 Sprigs of different lengths and thicknesses are generally 
 used for nailing together slojd-work, but for large or heavy 
 articles cut or beat nails are employed, because their uneven 
 surface is more tenacious, and thus gives greater strength to 
 the joint. Before the nail is hammered in, a hole should be 
 bored with the pin-bit or the bradawl to prevent splitting. 
 The diameter of this hole should not exceed two-thirds of 
 that of the thickest part of the nail, and the nail should be hit 
 straight on the head, to prevent it from bending or going in 
 crooked. 
 
 The firm hold of the nail in the wood depends partly on The strength. 
 the more or less rough nature of its surface, partly on its f 
 length and thickness, partly on the kind of wood, and partly 
 on the direction of the nail in relation to the fibres, i.e., 
 whether it is driven into a long board or into an end piece. 
 The strongest joint is made with beat nails in a cross piece ; 
 
 * There is a special tool for this purpose used in veneering, &c., called the 
 " toothing-plane." TBS.
 
 124 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 
 
 the weakest with beat sprigs in an end piece. The pre- 
 liminary boring does not affect the hold of the nail in the 
 wood unless it is too deep or too wide. A hole half the 
 depth and half the diameter of the thickest part of the nail 
 exercises no noticeable influence on the strength of the joint. 
 
 Sometimes it is necessary to sink the nail under the plane 
 of the surface, that it may not present any obstacle to 
 smoothing up or finishing off the work. After the nail has 
 been hammered in by the ordinary method, a small steel 
 punch about 4 inches long and inch thick, tapering to a 
 thick point rather less in diameter than the head of the 
 nail, is used to sink it. The punch is placed on the head of 
 the nail, and hammered till the head sinks to the depth re- 
 quired. 
 
 Wooden pins are sometimes used for jointing. They are 
 made of straight, split wood, and have four sides, often with 
 bevelled corners, tapering slightly to a blunt point. They 
 are driven into holes previously bored which their bevelled 
 corners enable them to fit closely without splitting the wood. 
 Glue is often added to strengthen their hold. These wooden 
 pins are called dowels. 
 
 C. Screwing together. 
 
 Wood-screws, i.e., metal screws with thin, deep, sharp- 
 edged tap-worms, are used for screw-joints. Screws which 
 are gimlet-pointed penetrate the wood more easily than 
 others. 
 
 The wood-screws used in screw-joints are of different 
 kinds, with half-round, curtailed conical, or square heads. 
 The two first only are used in wood-slojd. In both, the head 
 of the nail is furnished with a slit for receiving the screw- 
 driver.
 
 JOINTING. 
 
 125 
 
 When A (Fig. 87) is used, the head of the 
 screw remains above the surface of the wood. 
 In joints made with B, the head is made to lie 
 level with the surface, for which purpose the 
 hole bored for its reception is afterwards 
 counter-sunk. Wood-screws are made in many 
 lengths from about inch to 3 inches, and of 
 varying thickness. They are very generally 
 Fig. 87. used, and are especially useful for articles 
 
 I T J C1 f It 
 
 i*. u , c , rews ' which require sometimes to be taken apart 
 
 A. with half-round, 
 
 B with conical head, and put together again. 
 
 In consequence of their peculiar form, screws give a much strength, of 
 stronger and firmer joint than nails, which hold the pieces a ' 
 together simply by friction. A screw cannot be drawn out 
 without unscrewing, unless the wood around it is cut away. 
 The hole bored for the reception of the screw should be as 
 deep as the length of the unwormed portion. 
 
 D. Jointing by means of the formation 
 of the parts of the joint. 
 
 The names only of the various kinds of jointing of this 
 nature are given below. A description will be found in 
 Chapter V. 
 
 1. Halving. 
 
 2. Mitreing. 
 
 3. Slotting. 
 
 4. Mortise and Tenon-jointing. 
 
 5. Groove-jointing. 
 
 6. Dove-tailing. 
 
 7. Hooping.
 
 126 
 
 FIFTH 
 E X E R 
 
 5 s 
 
 X 
 F-4 53 
 
 Name of Exercise. 
 
 Purpose of Exercise. 
 
 Long cut. 
 
 2 ' Cross cut. 
 
 3 Oblique cut. 
 
 4 Bevel cut. 
 
 To cut off a piece of wood in the direction 
 of the leno-th of the fibres. 
 
 Fig. 88. 
 
 To cut off a piece of wood at right angles to 
 the fibres. 
 
 Fig. 89. 
 
 To cut off a piece of wood obliquely to the 
 fibres. 
 
 To cut off a piece of wood in the direction 
 of the length of the fibres in such a way 
 as to produce a surface at an oblique 
 angle to the adjacent surfaces.
 
 CHAPTER. 
 
 C I S E S . 
 
 127 
 
 Tools required. 
 
 Directions for Work. 
 
 Knife. 
 
 Knife. 
 
 Knife. 
 Knife. 
 
 The knife is taken firmly by the handle, and the cut is made 
 always in the direction of the fibres, but away from the 
 worker. To steady and strengthen the hand which 
 holds the wood, and to render the exercise easier, the 
 piece of wood should always rest upon a board laid on 
 the bench. 
 
 The cut is made from both sides to avoid splitting (a 6). 
 If the cut is short, the wood is laid upon the bench. 
 If it is long, the wood is held in one hand and the upper 
 arm is pressed against the body to secure greater 
 strength and support during the exercise. For the 
 manner of holding the knife see Ex. 1. For the proper 
 position see Plate I. 
 
 The cut is made in the direction of the fibres, not contrary to 
 it. For the manner of execution see No. 2 (Fig. 89 c d). 
 
 For the manner of execution see No. 1.
 
 128 
 
 -j 
 
 2 1 
 
 Name of Exercise. 
 
 Purpose of Exercise. 
 
 Sawing off. 
 
 6 Convex cut. 
 
 To saw off a piece of wood at right angles to 
 the fibres. 
 
 To cut off a piece of wood, convex in shape. 
 
 X 
 
 ell 
 
 Long-sawing, 
 
 Edge-planing. 
 
 Fig. 90. 
 To rip up a piece of wood lengthwise. 
 
 To plane a piece of wood, the surface of 
 which is narrower than the plane-iron. 
 
 Fig. 91.
 
 129 
 
 Tools required. 
 
 Directions for Work. 
 
 Broad-webbed 
 bow-saw. 
 
 Knife. 
 
 The piece of wood is screwed into the bench, and the saw is 
 worked with long, gentle strokes parallel with the edge 
 of the bench (see Fig. 89 a b, and page 84). The final 
 strokes must be made cautiously, because the wood may 
 easily be split. Before beginning the exercise, the 
 worker should see that both edges of the saw are in the 
 same plane, and that the teeth of the saw point away 
 from him. 
 
 The fibres are cut obliquely (a 6). See further under No. 3. 
 (See also Plate I. for the position of the worker.) 
 
 Broad-webbed 
 bow-saw. 
 
 Trying-plane. 
 
 For the method of execution, see No. 5. 
 for the position of the worker. 
 
 See also Plate II. 
 
 The piece of wood is fastened between the bench-pegs so 
 that it lies firmly and evenly upon the bench. Before 
 the plane is used it should be carefully set for the par- 
 ticular kind of wood to be planed, i.e., the plane-iron 
 should corne lower down in the case of loose-fibred wood 
 than for hard wood, and the cover should be placed 
 farther from the edge of the iron in the former case than 
 in the latter (see page 98). The handle of the plane is 
 firmly grasped in one hand,"and the other is placed right 
 in front of the socket. The plane is then worked 
 briskly to and fro over the surface. The path of the 
 plane must always be horizontal, regulated by the 
 difference in the pressure given by one or other of the 
 hands. For the position of the worker, see Plate III.
 
 130 
 
 I J 
 
 Name of Exercise. 
 
 Purpose of Exercise. 
 
 Squaring. 
 
 To prove whether two plane surfaces in a 
 piece of wood are at right angles. 
 
 10 
 
 Gauging. 
 
 Fig. 92. 
 
 To produce parallel lines at a given distance 
 from the edge of the work. 
 
 Fig. 93.
 
 131 
 
 Tools required. 
 
 Directions for Work. 
 
 Square. 
 
 The stock of the square is grasped in one hand ; and its 
 inner surface is applied close to the face of the work 
 (i.e., the side first planed), while the blade rests upon 
 the other side. 
 
 Marking gauge. 
 
 The stock of the marking gauge is held steadily and closely 
 to the faced-up sides of the work parallel to which the 
 line is to be made.
 
 132 
 
 Name of Exercise. 
 
 Purpose of Exercise. 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 Boring with the 
 shell-bit (pin- 
 bit). 
 
 Face-planing. 
 
 Filing. 
 
 Boring with the 
 centre-bit. 
 
 To make a hole of small diameter. 
 
 To plane a piece of wood when the surface 
 is broader than the plane-iron. 
 
 To dress up rough surfaces. 
 
 To make a hole of large diameter.
 
 133 
 
 Tools required. 
 
 Directions for Work. 
 
 Shell-bit (pin- 
 bit). 
 
 Trying-plane. 
 
 File. 
 
 Centre-bit. 
 
 The object in view is partly to make a hole and partly to 
 avoid splitting the wood, when sprigs, larger nails, or 
 screws are put in. The left hand is laid upon the brace 
 stock, to give pressure from above downwards ; the 
 right hand grasps the handle in the middle, and the 
 brace is turned towards the right, care being taken that 
 the centre of the bit enters the right place in the wood, 
 and that the direction of the hole is perpendicular to 
 the plane of the work or the bench. The latter con- 
 dition presents some difficulty, especially to beginners, 
 and is best fulfilled by the slojder's standing alternately 
 in one of two positions, in order that he may see the bit 
 from each side of a right angle. To give greater pres- 
 sure and steadiness, the chin may be made to rest on 
 the left hand. For the position of the worker see 
 Plate IV. and V. 
 
 The manner of execution is shewn in No. 8 and in Fig. 91. 
 The broader the surface, the more difficult is the exercise. 
 To test whether the surface is really level, the plane is 
 laid across it ; or, better still, winding laths are laid, one 
 on each end of the piece of work. If the upper edges 
 lie in the same plane the surface is true. 
 
 When the plane surface of an end piece is to be dressed up, 
 the piece of wood should be secured in the carpenter's 
 bench. If, on the other hand, the surface is convex, the 
 work should merely be supported on it. In the former 
 case the handle of the file is firmly grasped in one hand, 
 whilst the other rests upon the back of the blade near 
 the point. The tool is then passed steadily and evenly 
 over the surface, pressure being exerted only when the 
 file is going from the worker. If the work merely rests 
 on the bench, the file can of course only be worked with 
 one hand. When rounded surfaces are filed, the tool is 
 worked in the direction of the fibres, or when this is 
 impossible, obliquely to them. 
 
 For method of execution see No. 11. Care must be taken 
 that the bit cuts evenly.
 
 134 
 
 .Name of Exercise. 
 
 Purpose of Exercise. 
 
 15 
 16 
 
 Convex sawing. 
 Concave cut. 
 
 To saw out a shape following a curved line. 
 To cut out a concave shape. 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 Bevelling. 
 
 Convex model- 
 ling ivith the 
 plane. 
 
 Sawing with 
 tenon-saw. 
 
 Wave-sawing. 
 
 Fig. 94. 
 
 To plane a bevelled edge. 
 
 To plane a convex surface. 
 
 To saw carefully when no other saw can as 
 advantageously be used. 
 
 To saw out after a curved line. 
 
 21 
 
 Plane surface 
 cut. 
 
 Fig. 95. 
 To form a broad surface with the knife.
 
 135 
 
 Tools required. 
 
 Directions for Work. 
 
 Turn-saw. 
 Knife. 
 
 Trying-plane. 
 
 Smoothing- 
 plane. 
 
 Tenon-saw. 
 
 Turn-saw. 
 
 Knife. 
 
 The saw is worked in the direction of a curve previously 
 
 drawn (see Fig. 90, a 6). 
 The knife is worked both from the worker and towards him, 
 
 while the arm is pressed gently against the side, to 
 
 steady the hand which holds the work. See farther 
 
 No. 1. 
 
 The plane is made to produce a surface at an oblique angle 
 to two others, in the same direction as the fibres. See 
 farther No. 8. 
 
 The work is fastened between the bench-pegs. See No. 8 
 for method of execution. 
 
 As the tenon saw has smaller teeth than the other saws used 
 in slojd carpentry, it is very suitable in cases where 
 there is danger of splitting the wood. The tool should 
 be worked with a light hand, and all pressure avoided. 
 
 For the method of execution see No. 7, bearing in mind that 
 the frame of the saw must be inclined to the one side or 
 to the other, according to the curves of the line (c d, 
 Fig. 95). 
 
 Greater strength is required for this than for the preceding 
 cuts, as almost the entire length of the blade is used.
 
 136 
 
 g*o 2 Name of Exercise, 
 
 a v i 
 
 * B 
 
 Purpose of Exercise. 
 
 22 
 
 23 
 
 Scraping. 
 
 To finish up surfaces. 
 
 Stop-planing 
 (obstacle- 
 planing). 
 
 24 Perpendicular 
 
 chiselling, or 
 paring. 
 
 25 Oblique chisel- 
 
 ling, or par- 
 ing. 
 
 Fig. 96. 
 
 To plane a piece of wood which presents 
 obstacles to the advance of the plane. 
 
 Fig. 97. 
 To cut down and smooth a surface. 
 
 To pare off a piece of wood obliquely to the 
 fibres, but in the direction in which they 
 run.
 
 137 
 
 Tools required. 
 
 Directions for Work. 
 
 Scraper. 
 
 Smoothing- 
 plane. 
 
 Firmer chisel. 
 
 Firmer chisel. 
 
 The tool is worked, as far as possible, in the direction of the 
 fibres ; in every other case obliquely to them. When 
 the scraper is efficiently used, other means of finishing 
 need only be sparingly employed. 
 
 The method of execution is, as nearly as possible, that de- 
 scribed under No. 33, with this exception, that the tool 
 is passed somewhat obliquely over the surface, in order 
 to smooth it as near the obstacle as possible. [There is 
 an English plane specially adapted for this sort of work 
 called a Stop Champher Plane. TRS.] 
 
 The tool is grasped firmly by the handle in one hand, and 
 worked perpendicularly, the upper arm being pressed 
 firmly against the side to give the necessary support. 
 The other hand holds the work on a cutting-board on 
 the bench. (See Plate VI. for position of worker.) 
 
 The piece of work must either be held firmly on the bench 
 with one hand, or, when it seems necessary, fastened be- 
 tween the bench-pegs. The tool is firmly grasped by 
 the other hand, and its face pressed against the wood 
 (see Fig. 89, c d). Oblique chiselling is always done in 
 the direction in which the fibres run.
 
 138 
 
 s s 
 
 
 
 1*1 
 
 Name of Exercise. 
 
 Purpose of Exercise. 
 
 .; x 
 
 A (a 
 
 
 26 
 
 Gouging with To produce depressions of various degrees of 
 the gouge and depth in a piece of wood. 
 
 the spoon-iron. 
 
 27 Concave chisel- To produce a concave surface. 
 ling. 
 
 28 
 
 29 
 
 30 
 
 31 
 
 Chopping. 
 
 Smoothing or 
 dressing up 
 with the spoke- 
 shave. 
 
 To split up and dress off rough and uneven 
 surfaces. 
 
 To dress up rounded surfaces. 
 
 Modelling with 
 the spokeshave. 
 
 Oblique salving. 
 
 Fig. 98. 
 To model rounded surfaces. 
 
 To saw off a piece of wood obliquely to the 
 fibres.
 
 139 
 
 Tools required. 
 
 Directions for Work. 
 
 Gouge and 
 spoon-iron. 
 
 Firmer chisel. 
 
 Axe. 
 
 Spokeshave. 
 
 The coarser preliminary work is done with the gouge, and 
 the necessary pressure is given by mallet blows on the 
 handle. The spoon-iron is worked with both hands, and 
 the pressure thus given, being lateral, serves to remove 
 the inequalities left by the gouge. 
 
 The handle of the tool is firmly grasped in one hand, and the 
 other hand rests upon the face of the blade to direct its 
 course, which must always be in the direction in which 
 the fibres run. The article should be made fast in the 
 back bench-vice. (See Fig. 95, a o.) 
 
 One hand supports the piece of wood on the chopping-block ; 
 the other hand wields the axe. Should the wood be 
 " contrary " it must be turned the way of the grain, or 
 "humoured." For the position of the worker, see 
 Plate VII. 
 
 The work is fixed in the bench-vice. The tool is firmly 
 grasped in both hands, with heavy forward pressure 
 from the thumbs, and downward pressure from the 
 fingers. When necessary, the forward direction of work- 
 ing may be reversed. For the position of the worker see 
 Plate VIII. 
 
 Spokeshave. I For method of execution see No. 29. 
 
 - 
 I 
 
 Broad webbed i For method of execution see No. 5, and Fig. 89, cd. 
 bow-saw.
 
 HO 
 
 Name of Exercise. 
 
 Purpose of Exercise. 
 
 32 
 33 
 
 Oblique planing, j To smooth surfaces in an oblique direction, 
 over the fibres. 
 
 Dressing u-ith To produce a smooth and finished surface. 
 the smoothing- 
 plane ; or 
 smoothing up. 
 
 End squaring. To smooth up the surfaces of end pieces 
 across the fibres. 
 
 35 
 
 Halving ivith 
 knife. 
 
 36 
 
 Work in hard 
 wood. 
 
 To fasten two pieces of wood together as 
 shown in Ficr. 100. 
 
 Fig. 100. 
 To manipulate very close-grained hard wood.
 
 141 
 
 Tools required. 
 
 Directions for Work. 
 
 Smoothing- 
 plaue. 
 
 Smoothing- 
 plane. 
 
 Smoothing- 
 plane. 
 
 Knife. 
 
 For method of execution see No. 33. 
 
 For directions for fastening the work into the bench see 
 No. 8. The plane is firmly grasped in front and at the 
 back (see Fig. 99), and worked briskly over the surface 
 of the work. To produce a fine surface, the iron must 
 be very sharp and lie as nearly as possible in the same 
 plane as the sole, while the cover must lie close to the 
 edge to prevent the fibres from splitting, whatever 
 direction the plane may take. (See p. 1 00.) 
 
 The piece of wood is fastened vertically into the bench. To 
 avoid splitting at the corners, the work should proceed 
 from corners to centre. 
 
 1. The work is set out with square, compass, and marking 
 
 gauge. 
 
 2. It is cut out with the knife. 
 
 3. The parts are fitted together. 
 
 This exercise requires great care and accuracy. 
 
 As a general rule greater strength is required for wood of 
 this kind than for softer wood.
 
 142 
 
 37 (a) 
 
 1= 
 
 37(6) 
 
 38 
 
 Name of Exercise. 
 
 Fitting in pegs. 
 
 Plugging. 
 
 Bevelled edge- 
 planing. 
 
 Purpose of Exercise. 
 
 To joint two pieces of wood together by 
 means of a dowel or pin which fits 
 accurately into a hole bored with cen- 
 tre-bit or aufifer-bit. 
 
 Fig. 101. 
 To fill up a hole by means of a round plug. 
 
 To produce a plane surface at oblique angles 
 to two other plane surfaces.
 
 Tools required. 
 
 Directions for Work. 
 
 Square ; centre- 
 bit ; knife. 
 
 Centre-bit ; 
 knife ; firmer 
 chisel. 
 
 Trying-plane. 
 
 1. The hole is drilled with the centre-bit. 
 
 2. After finding the centre of the peg, a circle is described 
 
 with the bit to be used in order to get the size of the 
 Peg- 
 
 3. The dowel or pin is set out with the square and made 
 
 cylindrical with the knife, so that it may fit closely and 
 steadily into the hole. 
 
 The centre-bit used for the hole is used for marking out the 
 size of the plug, and the fitting is done with the knife 
 and chisel. 
 
 The exercise is performed according to the directions given 
 in No. 17, with this exception, that the work is laid flat 
 on the bench, and the plane is held obliquely at the 
 angle required.
 
 144 
 
 S 
 
 Name of Exercise. 
 
 Purpose of Exercise. 
 
 39 
 40 
 
 41 
 
 42 
 
 43 
 
 44 
 
 Glueing. 
 
 Boring with 
 bradaid. 
 
 Sinking and fix- 
 ing metal 
 plates, and 
 other metal 
 fittings. 
 
 Nailing. 
 Punching. 
 
 Bevelling with 
 the draw- 
 knife. 
 
 To fix pieces of wood together. 
 
 To produce small holes in a piece of wood. 
 
 To fix simple metal plates, etc. on a piece of 
 work. 
 
 To fasten pieces of wood together with nails. 
 
 To sink a nail-head below the surface of the 
 wood. 
 
 To produce a broad bevel in the same direc- 
 tion as the fibres run. 
 
 45 
 
 Perpendicular 
 gouging. 
 
 Fie. 103. 
 
 To produce a concave excavation, perpen- 
 dicular to a plane surface.
 
 145 
 
 Tools required. 
 
 Purpose of Exercise. 
 
 Bradawl. 
 
 Screw-driver ; 
 firmer chisel ; 
 bradawl. 
 
 Hammer. 
 Punch; hammer. 
 
 Draw-knife. 
 
 Gouge with 
 edge on the 
 convex side. 
 
 See Chap. IV. pp. 121, 122. 
 
 The tool is worked with one hand, and turned steadily back- 
 wards and forwards under even pressure. 
 
 1. If the plate, etc. is to be sunk, the firmer chisel is used. 
 
 2. The plate is screwed on with the screw driver care being 
 
 taken that the screw passes right down into the wood. 
 
 See jointing, Chapter IV., pp. 123, 124. 
 
 The punch is held steadily on the head of the nail and struck 
 sharply with the hammer ; otherwise it may slip aside 
 and make disfiguring holes in the work. 
 
 The article is screwed into the bench, and the tool, held firmly 
 by both handles, is worked steadily over the wood. The 
 exercise is rendered considerably easier if the draw-knife 
 is held obliquely, i.e., if the one end is somewhat in ad- 
 vance of the other. If contrary wood is encountered, the 
 work should, if possible, be turned to allow the knife to 
 cut in the direction of the fibres. [The face of the tool 
 should be held towards the worker, with the bevelled 
 edge on the work. TRS.] 
 
 For method of execution see No. 24.
 
 146 
 
 Name of Exercise. 
 
 Purpose of Exercise. 
 
 46 
 
 Plain jointing. 
 
 To plane pieces of wood intended to bo 
 jointed by glueing. 
 
 47 
 
 48 
 49 
 
 Dove-tail clamp- 
 ing. 
 
 Oblique gouging. 
 Champhering. 
 
 To insert a clamp in a broad piece of wood, 
 to prevent warping. 
 
 Fig. 104. 
 
 To pare a piece of wood in the direction of 
 the fibres, but obliquely to them. 
 
 To pare a piece of wood at an obtuse or at 
 an acute angle to its surface.
 
 147 
 
 Tools required. 
 
 Directions for Work. 
 
 Trying-plane. 
 
 Compass ; 
 square ; 
 marking- 
 point ; bevel ; 
 marking- 
 gauge; knife; 
 tenon-saw ; 
 groove-saw ; 
 firmer chisel ; 
 old woman's 
 tooth-plane ; 
 jack-plane ; 
 trying-plane. 
 
 Gouge. 
 
 Firmer chisel. 
 
 The greatest care is required in plain jointing in order that the 
 surfaces which are to be united may fit accurately. The 
 directions given in No. 8 must be followed. The trying- 
 plane should be very finely set for this exercise, in order 
 that it may remove very thin shavings. The angle 
 which the edge makes with the side of the work must 
 be frequently tested with the square ; the straightness 
 of the edge must also be tested by the eye. The second 
 piece of wood is treated in the same way, and when it is 
 ready, the edge of the first piece is placed upon it for 
 trial. If the joint is accurate, the two surfaces will 
 touch at all points, and when placed against the light 
 will not allow a single ray to pass through. If any light 
 shines through, the parts which are too high must be 
 carefully planed down with long, steady strokes. If two 
 or more planks are to be jointed for broad work, the sur- 
 faces must lie in the same plane, and this must be tested 
 by placing against them the straight-edge or the blade 
 of the square. 
 
 1. The groove for the clamp is set out with the compass, 
 
 square, marking-point, bevel, and marking-gauge ; and 
 a start for the saw is made with the knife. 
 
 2. It is cut out with the tenon-saw or groove-saw, firmer 
 
 chisel, and old woman's tooth-plane. 
 
 3. The clamp is made ready with the jack-plane and the 
 
 trying-plane, care being taken that it fits accurately all 
 round. 
 
 For method of execution see No. 25, with this difference, that 
 the gouge is used instead of the firmer chisel. 
 
 For method of execution see No. 25.
 
 148 
 
 Name of Exercise. 
 
 Purpose of Exercise. 
 
 50 
 51 
 
 52 
 53 
 
 54 
 
 K P* 
 
 oo 
 56 
 
 57 
 
 Circular saw- 
 ing. 
 
 Screwing to- 
 gether, or fix- 
 ing with screws 
 
 Modelling with 
 the draw-knife, 
 
 Planing across 
 the grain. 
 
 Wedge planing 
 with smooth- 
 ing plane. 
 
 Planing with 
 round-plane. 
 
 Fixing with 
 wooden pegs, 
 for planing 
 thin wood. 
 
 To saw out a circular shape. 
 
 To fasten two pieces of work together by 
 means of screws. 
 
 To produce a rounded surface of large extent. 
 To plane up a broad surface across the grain. 
 
 To plane an article not only in the direction 
 of the fibres, but obliquely to them (or 
 to form an oblique object). 
 
 To dress up broad concave surfaces. 
 
 To fix down, by means of wooden pegs, a thin 
 piece of wood on the surface of a larger 
 piece, in order to plane the former. 
 
 Fig. 105. 
 
 Single dove-tail- 1 To dove-tail two pieces of wood together by 
 
 ing at right 
 angles. 
 
 means of one dove- tail pin. 
 
 Fig. 106.
 
 149 
 
 Tools required. 
 
 Directions for Work. 
 
 Turn-saw. 
 
 Screwdriver ; 
 pin-bit. 
 
 Draw-knife. 
 Trying-plane. 
 
 Smoothing- 
 plane. 
 
 Round-plane. 
 
 Pin-bit; knife; 
 hammer. 
 
 Compass ; 
 square; 
 marking- 
 point ; bevel ; 
 cutting- 
 gauge; knife; 
 tenon-saw ; 
 groove-saw ; 
 firmer chisel ; 
 old woman's 
 tooth-plane. 
 
 The piece of wood is fastened into the back bench-vice, and 
 the saw is used according to the directions given in 
 No. 15. 
 
 For method of execution see No. 41, and also jointing, Chap. 
 IV., p. 124 
 
 For method of execution see No. 44. 
 For method of execution see No. 12. 
 For method of execution see No. 33. 
 
 For method of execution see No. 33. To produce a good 
 result the plane must be worked very smoothly and 
 steadily. 
 
 Care must be taken that the under piece is level. The wood 
 to be planed is placed on it, and holes are drilled with 
 the pin-bit, close to each end of the upper piece, through 
 to the under piece. Suitable pins are then driven into 
 these holes, and a stable foundation is thus provided for 
 the work of the plane. 
 
 1. The groove is set out with compass, square, marking point, 
 
 bevel and cutting-gauge, and a start for the saw is made 
 with the knife. 
 
 2. It is cut out with the tenon-saw or groove-saw, firmer 
 
 chisel, and old woman's tooth-plane. 
 
 3. The clamp is set out with the cutting-gauge, and cut out 
 
 with the knife. 
 Care must be taken that the dove-tail fits accurately.
 
 150 
 
 58 
 
 59 
 
 Name of Exercise. 
 
 Purpose of Exercise. 
 
 Common dove- > To "corner-joint" by dove-tailing, i.e., to in- 
 
 tailing. 
 
 Square shooting, 
 or planing 
 with shooting- 
 board. 
 
 sert bevelled pins into tightly fitting- 
 sockets. 
 
 Fig. 107. 
 
 To plane a narrow piece of wood across the 
 grain by means of the shooting-board. 
 
 Fig. 108.
 
 151 
 
 Tools required. 
 
 Directions for Work. 
 
 Cutting-gauge ; 
 compass ; 
 bevel ; square ; 
 dove-tail saw ; 
 marking- 
 point ; firmer 
 chisel. 
 
 Trying-plane ; 
 shooting- 
 board. 
 
 1. The thickness of the wood to be dove-tailed is marked with 
 
 the cutting-gauge across the ends of the pieces of wood 
 on both sides. 
 
 2. The required bevel of the pins is indicated with compass, 
 
 bevel, and square. 
 
 3. The pins are cut out with dove-tail saw and firmer chisel. 
 
 4. The pin end is held steadily on the other piece of wood at 
 
 right angles to it, and the pins are marked out with the 
 marking point. Then these marks are squared across 
 the end of the wood. 
 
 5. They are cut out with the dove-tail saw and the firmer 
 
 chisel. 
 
 6. The parts are carefully fitted together. 
 
 For the proper setting of the plane see No. 8. Great care 
 is necessary when the shooting-board is in use, because 
 the worker may easily hurt himself. See p. 67.
 
 152 
 
 Name of Exercise. 
 
 Purpose of Exercise. 
 
 CO 
 
 Cl 
 
 62 
 
 63 
 
 64 
 
 Hollowing out ; 
 or scooping 
 out with gouge 
 
 Axle fitting. 
 [This exercise 
 only applies 
 to one Swedish 
 model, i.e., the 
 shuttle. TRS.] 
 
 Housing, or 
 square groov- 
 ing. 
 
 Long oblique 
 planing. 
 
 Setting out. 
 
 To produce narrow concave depressions ; or 
 to hollow out with the gouge. 
 
 To fit an axle into a hole. 
 
 To divide boxes, etc. into two or more rec- 
 tangular portions by means of pieces of 
 wood. 
 
 Fig. 109. 
 To plane a long bevelled edge. 
 
 To set out divisions in the work.
 
 153 
 
 Tools required. 
 
 Directions for Work. 
 
 Gouge. 
 
 Compass ; brad- 
 awl ; firmer 
 chisel. 
 
 Compass ; 
 square ; 
 marking- 
 gauge ; saw ; 
 firmer chisel ; 
 smoothlng- 
 plane. 
 
 Trying-plane. 
 
 Compass ; 
 marking- 
 point; square. 
 
 For method of execution see No. 26. 
 
 1. The axle is set out with the compass. 
 
 2. The hole and the slot are made with the bradawl and 
 
 chisel. 
 
 1. The groove is set out by means of the compass, square, 
 
 and marking-gauge. 
 
 2. It is cut out with the saw and the firmer chisel. 
 
 3. The tenon, i.e., the piece which is set into the groove, is 
 
 made to fit by means of the smoothing-plane. 
 
 For method of execution see No. 8. 
 
 1. The length is divided with the compass, first into larger, 
 
 and then into smaller parts. 
 
 2. The lines are drawn with the marking-point at right angles 
 
 to the edge of the object. Great accuracy is required in 
 marking off the divisions.
 
 154 
 
 Number 
 of 
 Exercise. 
 
 Name of Exercise. 
 
 Purpose of Exercise. 
 
 65 
 
 Panel-grooving. 
 
 To produce rectangular depressions in an 
 object, into which a flat piece of wood is 
 to be slotted. 
 
 
 
 ; a '- *n ,v 
 
 
 
 'vpT_ . _=-- =-~~ ~~ - ~n . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fig. 110. 
 
 66 
 
 Glueing ivith 
 aid of hand- 
 
 To glue together with the aid of the hand- 
 screw. 
 
 
 screw. 
 
 
 07 
 
 Sawing with 
 compass (or 
 keyhole) saw. 
 
 To saw out a hole in a piece of wood. 
 
 68 
 
 Oblique edge- 
 grooving. 
 
 To join two pieces of wood together by means 
 of a single dove-tail, at an obtuse angle. 
 
 
 
 Fig. ill.
 
 155 
 
 Tools required. 
 
 Directions for Work. 
 
 Cutting-gauge ; 
 knife ; firmer 
 chisel; plough. 
 
 Handscrew. 
 
 Centre-bit ; 
 compass-saw. 
 
 Compass : 
 
 square; mark- 
 ing point ; 
 Level: cutting- 
 gauge; knife ; 
 tenon-saw or 
 groove-saw ; 
 firmer chisel; 
 old woman's 
 tooth-plane ; 
 smoothing- 
 plane. 
 
 1. The groove is set out with the cutting-gauge. 
 
 2. It is cut out with the knife and the firmer chisel. In the 
 
 case of many objects the plough may be employed with 
 advantage to cut out the groove. 
 
 Before the glue is applied to the joint, the parts must fit 
 accurately ; otherwise the pressure of the handscrew will 
 be of little service. A piece of wood should be laid 
 between the work and the screw to prevent injury to the 
 surface of the article, and also to distribute the pressure 
 more equally. 
 
 Two holes are drilled in the piece of work with the centre- 
 bit. The article is then fastened vertically into the 
 bench and the saw is worked from one hole to the other, 
 following lines previously set out. (In the case of small 
 articles, use may be made of a turn-saw, the blade of 
 which is detachable at one end.) 
 
 1. The groove is set out with the compass, square, marking- 
 
 point, bevel, and cutting-gauge ; and a start for the saw 
 is made with the knife. 
 
 2. It is cut out with the tenon-saw or groove-saw, firmer 
 
 chisel, and old woman's tooth-plane. 
 
 3. The required form of the end of the dove-tail is set out 
 
 with the cutting-gauge and the bevel, and it is bevelled 
 with the smoothing-plane. 
 
 4. The clamp is cut out with the knife. 
 
 5. The parts are fitted together.
 
 156 
 
 Name of Exercise. 
 
 Purpose of Exercise. 
 
 69 
 
 Slotting. 
 
 To join two pieces of wood, of which one is 
 thinner than the other, in such a manner 
 that the former slots into the latter at 
 a right angle. 
 
 70 
 
 Dove-tailing in 
 thick wood. 
 
 71 
 
 Mitreing. 
 
 Fig. 112. 
 
 To make a rectangular corner-joint by dove- 
 tailing two pieces of thick wood. 
 
 To make an end-joint with two pieces of 
 wood at an angle of 45. 
 
 72 
 
 Common mor- 
 tise and tenon 
 
 Fig. 113. 
 To join by means of a mortise and tenon.
 
 157 
 
 Tools required. 
 
 Directions for Work. 
 
 Square; mark- 
 ing gauge ; 
 tenon-saw (or 
 dove-tail saw) 
 firmer chisel ; 
 mallet. 
 
 Cutting-gauge ; 
 compass ; 
 bevel; square; 
 dove-tail saw ; 
 marking- 
 point; firmer 
 chisel. 
 
 Square; com- 
 pass; firmer 
 chisel ; 
 smoothing- 
 plane. 
 
 Square; mortise 
 gauge ; 
 
 mortise chisel ; 
 mallet ; 
 tenon-saw. 
 
 1. The tenon (A a} and (B a), and the slot (B b), are set 
 
 out with the square and the marking gauge. 
 
 2. The slot ( B b) is cut down with the tenon (or dove-tail) 
 
 saw, and cut out with a coarse firmer chisel, (or mortise- 
 chisel) by aid of the mallet. 
 
 3. The tenon (B a) is made with the tenon (or dove-tail) 
 
 saw and the firmer chisel. It is called a shoulder tenon. 
 The tenon (A a) is simply fitted into the slot with the 
 smoothing plane. It is called an unshouldered tenon. 
 
 4. The parts are fitted together, and if necessary the firmer 
 
 chisel is used. 
 
 For method of execution see No. 58 ; but note that still 
 greater accuracy is required, because exercises with the 
 saw and the firmer chisel are always more difficult when 
 the thickness of the wood either falls under a certain 
 limit, or exceeds it (Fig. 107). 
 
 For method of execution see No. 25. The completion of the 
 joint depends on the nature of the object in which the 
 exercise occurs. It may require mortising, glueing, 
 nailing, screwing together with wood screws, etc. When 
 the object is large, the smoothing-plane is used in 
 mitreing. [The English method of making this mitre is 
 by means of a mitre-box and shooting-board, in which 
 case the saw and trying-plane are used. TBS.] 
 
 1. The mortise is set out by means of the square and the 
 
 mortise gauge. 
 
 2. It is cut out with the mortise-chisel with the aid of the 
 
 mallet. 
 
 3. The tenon is cut out with tenon-saw and firmer chisel. 
 
 4. The parts are fitted together, the firmer chisel being 
 
 employed when necessary.
 
 153 
 
 ? K 
 
 f> v. 
 
 Name of Exercise. 
 
 Purpose of Exercise. 
 
 73 
 
 75 
 
 Half -lapping. 
 
 Rebating. 
 
 Graving with 
 V-tool or 
 parting-tool 
 (fluting). 
 
 To joint together two pieces of wood by half- 
 lapping the broad sides together, i.e., by 
 cutting half the depth of the wood away 
 from each. 
 
 Fig. 114. 
 
 To make a rebate. 
 
 Fig. 115. 
 To hollow out depressions or edges.
 
 159 
 
 Tools required. 
 
 Square ; mark- 
 ing point ; 
 marking- 
 gauge; tenon- 
 saw ; firmer 
 chiseL 
 
 Marking-gauge; 
 knife ; firmer 
 chisel. 
 
 Partinsr-tool. 
 
 Directions for Work. 
 
 1. The half-lapping parts are set out with the square, marking- 
 
 point and marking-gauge. 
 
 2. They are cut out with tenon-saw and firmer chisel. 
 
 3. The parts are fitted together with the aid of the chisel. 
 
 1. The breadth and thickness of the rebate are set out with 
 
 the marking-gauge. 
 
 2. It is cut out with the knife and the firmer chisel. [This 
 
 holds good only of the small rebates which occur in 
 Slojd carpentry. The plough and the rebate plane are 
 used for larger work. Tus.] 
 
 The object is screwed tightly into the bench, and the part- 
 ing-tool is wielded with a steady hand.
 
 ICO 
 
 Name of Exercise. 
 
 Purpose of Exercise. 
 
 76 
 
 Half-lap dove- 
 tailing. 
 
 To produce a rectangular end joint by dove- 
 tailing together two pieces of wood, so 
 that the dove-tailing does not show on 
 one side. To do this, one-third of the 
 wood is not cut through on the side 
 where the pins are. The socket piece is 
 cut right through and dove-tailed in 
 the ordinary way. 
 
 Fig. 116. 
 
 77 
 
 78 
 
 Hinge-sinking, 
 or fixing 
 hinges. 
 
 Lock-fitting. 
 
 Fig. 117.
 
 161 
 
 Tools required. 
 
 Directions for Work. 
 
 Cutting-gauge; 
 compass; 
 bevel ; square ; 
 tenon-saw 
 (dove-tail 
 saw) ; mark- 
 ing point ; 
 firmer chisel. 
 
 Square ; firmer 
 chisel ; brad- 
 awl ; screw- 
 driver. 
 
 Pin-bit ; firmer 
 chisel ; knife ; 
 bradawl ; 
 screwdriver ; 
 compass-saw. 
 
 For method of execution see No. 58, paying special attention 
 to setting the piece on which the pins are in an oblique 
 position in the back bench-vice. The pins are sawn out 
 to the lines indicated by the marking point, which deter- 
 mine the thickness of the wood to be left. The spaces be- 
 tween are smoothed by perpendicular paring with the 
 firmer chisel. (See No. 24.) 
 
 1. The position of the hinge is decided on and set out. 
 
 2. The depth to which the hinge has to be sunk is taken and 
 
 gauged. 
 
 3. This part is then cut out with the firmer chisel. 
 
 4. For screwing on, see No. 41. 
 
 1. The position of the lock is decided on. 
 
 2. The place is cut out with the phi-bit and the firmer chisel 
 
 to a depth which permits the metal plate to lie on the 
 same plane as the wood. 
 
 3. The hole for the key is cut out with the centre-bit, knife 
 
 and chisel. (In larger work with the compass-saw). 
 
 4. For screwing on, see No. 41. L
 
 162 
 
 Name of Exercise. 
 
 Purpose of Exercise. 
 
 79 
 
 I 
 
 Oblique dove- 
 tailing. 
 
 80 
 
 Oblique slotting 
 
 To make a rectangular end -joint with ob- 
 lique pieces of wood. 
 
 To make an oblique angled joint with a pin 
 and a slot. 
 
 Fig. 119.
 
 163 
 
 Tools required. 
 
 Directions for Work. 
 
 Bevel ; dove- 
 tail saw ; com- 
 pass ; square ; 
 tenon saw ; 
 firmer chisel ; 
 smoothing- 
 plane. 
 
 Compass ; 
 square ; 
 bevel ; 
 marking- 
 gauge; knife; 
 firmer chisel ; 
 dove-tail saw. 
 
 1. Set out the angle at the ends with the bevel and saw off. 
 
 2. Bevel off the edges to correspond with the angle at the 
 
 ends of the adjacent sides. 
 
 3. To get the angle in the horizontal plane at the ends, use 
 
 the square in the following way : Place the face against 
 the side of the wood, and let the blade rest flat on the 
 plane of the bevelled edge. Then draw the line and 
 plane off. 
 
 4. The required thickness of each piece is set out with the 
 
 cutting gauge. 
 
 5. The pins are set out at right angles to the oblique end 
 
 with the compass, bevel, and square. 
 
 6. They are made with the dove-tail saw and the firmer 
 
 chisel. 
 
 [Another method of working this joint is by means of a 
 prepared shooting board, by which the two angles at the 
 ends can be obtained at once. 
 
 It may also be mentioned, that in the English method of 
 oblique dove-tailing, the dove-tail pins run in the same 
 direction as the gram, or obliquely to it, and are consequently 
 stronger: There are theoretical reasons why this method is 
 not followed at Naas. TRS.] 
 
 1. The slot is set out with compass, square, and bevel. 
 
 2. The depth of the groove is set out with the marking- 
 
 gauge, and cut out with the knife and firmer chisel. 
 
 3. The slot is sawn out with the dove-tail saw, and cut out 
 
 with the firmer chisel. 
 
 4. The parts are fitted together with the aid of the firmer 
 
 chiseL
 
 164 
 
 Name of Exercise. 
 
 Purpose of Exercise. 
 
 81 
 
 Notched dove- 
 tailing (half 
 concealed edge 
 grooving). 
 
 To insert a dove-tail, the outer edge of which 
 conceals the groove, into a piece of wood. 
 
 Concave model- 
 ling with 
 plane (hollow- 
 ing with 
 plane). 
 
 Staving. 
 
 Fig. 120. 
 To produce a concave surface with the plane. 
 
 To fix concave-shaped pieces of wood or 
 staves to a curvilinear bottom piece, to 
 make a barrel or bucket. 
 
 Fig. 121.
 
 165 
 
 Tools required. 
 
 Directions for Work. 
 
 Compass ; 
 square; mark- 
 ing point ; 
 bevel; cut- 
 ting gauge ; 
 knife ; tenon- 
 saw or groove- 
 saw ; firmer 
 chisel; old 
 woman's 
 tooth plane ; 
 dove-tail saw. 
 
 Round plane. 
 
 Compass; bow- 
 saw ; spoke- 
 shave ; bevel ; 
 markingr 
 point; mark- 
 ing gauge ; 
 knife ; firmer 
 chisel; trying- 
 plane ; 
 smoothing- 
 plane; brad- 
 awl. 
 
 1. The groove is set out with compass, square, marking- 
 
 point, bevel, and cutting gauge; cut out with knife, 
 tenon-saw or groove-saw, firmer chisel, and old woman's 
 tooth-plane 
 
 2. The shape of the dove-tail is set out with square and 
 
 cutting gauge, and cut out with dove-tail saw and 
 knife. 
 
 3. The parts are fitted together with the aid of the knife. 
 
 1. The required curve is set out at both ends. 
 
 2. The shape is produced by means of the roughing plane 
 
 and the "round " plane. (See Fig. 121.) 
 
 1. The bottom is made in the shape required. 
 
 2. The edge of the bottom is bevelled to the angle required 
 
 for the sides of the article. 
 
 3. The position and breadth of the groove are set out with 
 
 the marking-point. 
 
 4. The necessary inclination of the sides of the staves is 
 
 determined by the bevel. 
 
 5. The depth of the groove is set out with the marking-gauge 
 
 and cut out with the knife and the firmer chisel. 
 
 6. The edges of the staves are planed and fitted together. 
 
 7. The staves are held together by means of wooden phis 
 
 inserted into the edges from the inside.
 
 166 
 
 mb 
 of 
 rcis 
 
 Name of Exercise. 
 
 Purpose of Exercise. 
 
 84 
 
 Hooping. 
 
 To fix iron hoops round a barrel or bucket, 
 to hold the staves together. (The wooden 
 hoops frequently seen are not suitable for 
 slojd work.) 
 
 85 
 
 Concealed tenon-] To joint two pieces of wood together at 
 
 ng. 
 
 right angles by means of a concealed or 
 haunched tenon. 
 
 Fig. 122 a. 
 
 Fig. 122 b.
 
 167 
 
 Tools required. 
 
 Directions for Work. 
 
 Cold chisel ; 
 punch ; ham- 
 mer; set 
 hammer. 
 
 1. The length of the hoop is taken and cut off with the cold 
 
 chisel. 
 
 2. A hole is made with the punch and hammer about half an 
 
 inch from each end. 
 
 3. The hoop is rivetted by means of a rivet, the head of 
 
 which is larger than the hole. 
 
 4. The head of the rivet is then made to rest on a block of 
 
 metal, and the rivet itself is hammered until a head is 
 formed on thelother side. 
 
 5. The hoop is hammered from the inside of the article as it 
 
 rests on the block, and thus made to fit. 
 
 6. The hoops are put on from the narrowest portion of the 
 
 article, and driven home by blows from the set hammer. 
 
 Square; mortise 
 gauge; firmer 
 chisel ; mor- 
 tise chisel ; 
 mallet;, bow- 
 saw; tenon- 
 saw. 
 
 1. The tenon and the mortise are set out at right angles. 
 
 2. The breadth of the mortise and the thickness of the tenon 
 
 are set out with the mortise gauge. 
 
 3. The mortise is cut out with the mortise chisel. 
 
 4. The tenon is made with the bow-saw, firmer chisel, and 
 
 tenon-saw. 
 
 5. The parts are fitted together with the help of the firmer 
 
 chisel.
 
 168 
 
 Name of Exercise. 
 
 Purpose of Exercise. 
 
 86 
 
 87 
 
 Blocking. 
 
 Mortised block- 
 ing. 
 
 Up and down, 
 sauring. 
 
 To strengthen by means of blocks. 
 
 N.B. In the illustration the fibres of the 
 block are accidentally shown running in the 
 wrong direction. 
 
 Fig. 123. 
 
 To strengthen by means of mortised blocks. 
 [Sometimes called " button blocks." TES.] 
 
 Fig. 124. 
 
 To divide a long piece of wood into small 
 pieces.
 
 169 
 
 Tools required. 
 
 Directions for Work. 
 
 Dove-tail saw ; 
 firmer chisel ; 
 square. 
 
 Square; mark- 
 ing gauge ; 
 firmer chisel ; 
 dove-tail saw. 
 
 Broad-webbed 
 bow-saw. 
 
 1. The piece to be strengthened is held close to the other 
 
 piece with the handscrew. 
 
 2. The blocks are made with the dove-tail saw and the chisel. 
 
 3. The blocks are warmed, glued, and put into their places. 
 
 4. Before the handscrew is taken away, the glue must be 
 
 quite dry. 
 
 1. The mortise in the rail is set out at right angles with the 
 
 square and the marking-gauge, and cut out with the 
 firmer chisel. 
 
 2. The tenon on the block is set out in accordance with the 
 
 size of the mortise with the square and the marking gauge ; 
 cut out with the dove-tail saw, and fitted with the firmer 
 chiseL 
 
 3. Previous to the blocking, the object to be fixed is held in 
 
 position with the^handscrew. 
 
 4. The blocks are wanned and glued on the two sides next 
 
 the object, and put in their places. 
 
 The plank is placed on the bench and held in place by a hand- 
 screw. The blade of the saw is set almost at right angles 
 to the plane of the frame, and the handle is grasped by 
 one hand, while the other holds the upper end of the 
 side arm, and the saw is worked vertically with long easy 
 strokes, with the blade at right angles to the plane 
 surface of the plank.
 
 171 
 
 Plate I. Position : Convex Cut.
 
 173 
 
 Plate II. Position: Long-sawing.
 
 175 
 
 Plate III. Position : Edge-planing.
 
 177 
 
 Plate IV. Position : Perpendicular boring with the brace.
 
 179 
 
 Plate V. Position : Horizontal boring with the brace.
 
 181 
 
 Plate VI. Position : Perpendicular chiselling.
 
 183 
 
 Plate VII. Position: Chopping
 
 185 
 
 Plate VIII. Position: Smoothing, &c., with the spokeshave.
 
 187 
 
 Plate IX. Plan of SISjd-room in Katarina Elementary School, Stockholm. 
 
 A. Slojd room. 
 
 1. Benches. 
 
 2. Cupboard with two divisions : 
 
 (1) for tools ; (2) for models. 
 
 3. Cupboard with two divisions : 
 
 (1) for unfinished work. 
 
 (2) for finished articles. 
 
 4. Teacher's desk. 
 
 5. Cupboard : 
 
 a. Iron vice. 
 
 b. Iron saw file vice. 
 
 c. Anvil. 
 
 6. Lathe. 
 
 7. Racks for hand-screws and 
 
 shooting-boards. 
 
 8. Vices for rough work. 
 
 9. Boring-stools. 
 
 10. Saw-bench. 
 
 11. Glue-pot. 
 
 12. Chopping-block. 
 
 13. Flat grindstone. 
 
 14. Revolving grindstone. 
 
 15. Wood-racks. 
 
 16. Wash-hand basins. 
 
 17. Stoves. 
 
 3 racks for saws are introduced 
 between the windows on the 
 long wall. 
 B. Lobby.
 
 189 
 
 Plate X. 
 
 A. Marking gauge (Johansson's) with stock adjusted by wedges. \. 
 
 B. Marking gauge (landmark's modified) with stock adjusted by thumb-screw. 
 D. Plough-gauge, a and b, different methods of adjustment, i.
 
 192 
 
 9 
 
 a 
 
 Lr 
 
 to I * 
 
 ? V S 6 7 
 
 Plate XI. Tool Cup
 
 193 
 
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 201 
 
 Lists of Tools required for different numbers of Pupils. 
 
 A. List of Tools required for one pupil. 
 
 1 Shooting-board. 
 
 1 Hand-saw. 
 
 1 Half-round file. 
 
 2 Handscrews. 
 
 1 Tenon-saw. 
 
 1 Round file. 
 
 1 Metre-measure or 
 
 1 Compass-saw. 
 
 1 Scraper. 
 
 Rule. 
 
 1 Groove-saw. 
 
 1 Brace, with set of 
 
 1 Marking-point. 
 
 1 Axe. 
 
 bits. 
 
 1 Marking-gauge. 
 
 1 Knife. 
 
 1 Bradawl. 
 
 1 Cutting-gauge. 
 
 1 Draw-knife. 
 
 1 Mallet. 
 
 1 pair of Compasses. 
 
 4 set (6) Firmer- 
 
 1 Hammer. 
 
 1 Square. 
 
 Chisels. 
 
 1 pair of Pincers. 
 
 1 Bevel. 
 
 2 Mortise Chisels. 
 
 1 Wire-cutter. 
 
 1 Saw-set. 
 
 i set (6) Gouges. 
 
 1 pair flat-jawed Pliers. 
 
 1 Saw-sharpening 
 
 1 Spoon-iron. 
 
 1 pair round-jawed 
 
 clamps. 
 
 1 Jack-plane. 
 
 Pliers. 
 
 1 Triangular file. 
 
 1 Trying-plane. 
 
 1 Screwdriver. 
 
 1 Bow-saw. 
 
 1 Smoothing-plane. 
 
 1 Glue-pot and Brush. 
 
 1 Dove-tail saw. 
 
 1 Compass-plane. 
 
 1 Grindstone. 
 
 1 Turn-saw (broad- 
 
 1 Old woman's tooth- 
 
 1 Oilstone. 
 
 webbed). 
 
 plane. 
 
 1 Oil-can. 
 
 1 Turn-saw (narrower 
 
 1 Spokeshave. 
 
 Sandpaper. 
 
 webbed). 
 
 1 Flat file. 
 
 
 B. Minimum number of Tools required for the simul- 
 taneous instruction of 6 to 8 pupils. 
 
 1 Shooting-board. 
 
 2 Handscrews. 
 
 6 to 8 Metre-measures 
 or Rules. 
 
 2 Marking-points. 
 
 3 to 4 Marking-gauges.* 
 3 pair Compasses. 
 
 3 to 4 Squares.* 
 
 Bevel. 
 
 Saw-set. 
 Saw-sharpening 
 clamps. 
 
 [* With regard to the minimum number of tools required, the reader is 
 referred to Chapter I., p. 24, and is strongly recommended to provide 
 each child, if possible, with a complete bench, set, viz : knife, jack-plane, 
 trying-plane, smoothing-plaue, square, marking-gauge, compass, rule or 
 metre-measure, and scraper. TRS.]
 
 202 
 
 HANDBOOK OP SLOJD. 
 
 2 Triangular files. 
 2 Bow-saws. 
 1 Dove-tail saw. 
 
 1 Turn -saw (broad- 
 
 webbed). 
 
 2 Turn-saws (narrower 
 
 webbed). 
 1 Hand-saw. 
 1 Tenon-saw. 
 1 Compass-saw. 
 1 Groove-saw. 
 1 Axe. 
 
 6 to 8 Knives. 
 1 Draw-knife. 
 1 set (12) Firmer 
 
 Chisels. 
 
 | set (4) Mortise 
 Chisels. 
 
 set (6) Gouges. 
 
 3 Spoon-irons. 
 I 2 Jack-planes.* 
 I 3 Trying-planes.* 
 I 3 Smoothing-planes.* 
 
 1 Compass-plane. 
 i 1 Old woman's tooth - 
 plane. 
 
 2 Spokeshaves. 
 
 1 Flat file. 
 
 2 Half-round files. 
 1 Round file. 
 
 3 Scrapers.* 
 
 1 Brace, with set of 
 bits. 
 
 1 Bradawl. 
 3 Mallets. 
 
 2 Hammers.* 
 
 1 pair Pincers. 
 1 Wire-cutter. 
 1 pair flat Pliers. 
 
 1 pair round Pliers. 
 
 2 Screwdrivers. 
 
 1 Glue-pot and Brush. 
 
 1 Grindstone. 
 
 2 Oilstones. 
 1 Oil-can. 
 
 Sandpaper. 
 
 C. Minimum number of Tools required for the simul- 
 taneous instruction of 12 pupils. 
 
 2 Shooting-boards. 
 
 3 Handscrews. 
 
 12 Metre-measures or 
 Rules. 
 
 4 Marking-points. 
 
 8 Marking-gauges.* 
 2 Cutting-gauges. 
 6 pair of Compasses. 
 8 Squares.* 
 2 Bevels. 
 2 Saw-sets. 
 
 2 Saw-sharpening 
 
 clamps. 
 4 Triangular files. 
 
 3 Bow-saws. 
 
 2 Dove-tail saws. 
 2 Turn-saws (broad - 
 
 webbed). 
 2 Turn-saws (narrower 
 
 webbed). 
 
 1 Hand-saw. 
 1 Tenon-saw. 
 1 Compass-saw. 
 1 Groove-saw. 
 1 Axe. 
 12 Knives. 
 1 Draw-knife. 
 1 set (12) Firmer 
 
 Chisels. 
 -3 set (4) Mortise 
 
 Chisels. 
 \ set (6) Gouges. 
 
 3 Spoon-irons. 
 
 4 Jack-planes.* 
 
 8 Trying-planes.* 
 8 Smoothing-planes.* 
 1 Compass-plane. 
 4 Spokeshaves. 
 1 Flat file. 
 3 Half-round files. 
 
 2 Round files. 
 6 Scrapers.* 
 
 1 Brace, with set of 
 
 bits. 
 
 2 Bradawls. 
 4 Mallets. 
 
 3 Hammers.* 
 
 1 pair of Pincers. 
 1 Wire-cutter. 
 1 pair flat Pliers. 
 1 pair round Pliers. 
 6 Screwdrivers. 
 1 Glue-pot with Brush. 
 
 1 Grindstone. 
 
 2 Oilstones. 
 1 Oil-can. 
 
 Sandpaper. 
 
 * See note, page 201.
 
 LIST OF TOOLS. 
 
 203 
 
 D. Complete list of Tools required for the simultaneous 
 instruction of 12 pupils. 
 
 3 Shooting-boards. 
 
 4 Handscrews. 
 
 12 Metre-measures. 
 8 Marking-points. 
 12 Marking-gauges. - 
 2 Cutting-gauges. 
 6 pair of Compasses. 
 12 Squares. 
 2 Bevels. 
 2 Saw-sets. 
 
 2 Saw-sharpening 
 
 clamps. 
 
 4 Triangular files. 
 4 Bow-saws. 
 
 3 Dove-tail saws. 
 
 4 Turn-saws (broad- 
 
 webbed). 
 4 Turn-saws 
 
 (narrower webbed). 
 
 3 Hand-saws (tenon- 
 saws). 
 
 1 Groove-saw. 
 
 2 Axes. 
 
 12 Knives. 
 
 2 Draw-knives. 
 
 2 sets (24) Firmer 
 Chisels. 
 
 1 set (8) Mortise 
 Chisels. 
 
 1 set (12) Gouges. 
 
 6 Spoon-irons. 
 
 12 Jack-planes. 
 
 12 Trying-planes. 
 
 12 Smoothing-planes. 
 
 1 Compass-plane. 
 
 1 Old woman's tooth- 
 plane. 
 
 6 Spokeshaves. 
 
 4 Flat files. 
 6 Half-round files. 
 4 Round files. 
 6 Scrapers. 
 
 1 Brace with set of 
 
 bits. 
 
 3 Bradawls. 
 8 Mallets. 
 12 Hammers. 
 
 2 pair of Pincers. 
 1 Wire-cutter. 
 
 1 pair flat Pliers. 
 1 pair round Pliers. 
 6 Screwdrivers. 
 1 Glue-pot with Brush. 
 1 Grindstone. 
 
 3 Oilstones. 
 1 Oil-can. 
 
 Sandpaper.
 
 204 HANDBOOK OF SLOJD. 
 
 The cost of providing the above tools, calculated according to the 
 prices* now current (in Sweden), is as follows : 
 
 List (A) about 50 Kronor.t 
 
 CB) 85 
 
 (CT) 135 
 
 (D) 205 
 
 The number of benches required is as follows : 
 
 For List (A) 1 
 (B) 3 or 4 
 
 (C) 8 
 (D} 12 
 
 If double benches are used, only half the number will be required in 
 the cases of (B), (CJ, and (D) respectively. As double benches are 
 cheaper in proportion to single benches, they may in some cases be 
 preferred to single ones. 
 
 Tools of the best quality should always be procured ; they are the 
 cheapest in the long-run. 
 
 It is also desirable that drawings and constructions of the models 
 should be procured. 
 
 In connection with this, it may be mentioned that the annual cost of 
 timber and other materials in a small country school in Sweden, where 
 10 to 15 children receive instruction, is from 10 to 20 kroner, exclusive of 
 the outlay of replacing worn-out tools. 
 
 The same materials for a class of 16 boys in England would cost about 
 l 10s. annually. Red deal pine is the best solt-wood for Slojd, and can 
 be obtained at any good timber yard. Lime-tree, sycamore, and chestnut 
 all make good substitutes for birch. The two former are very fine in the 
 grain, and are good for scoops, bowls, etc. They are a little dearer than 
 birch. American canary wood can also be recommended as a wood 
 suitable for flat articles ; it is a little harder than deal, and works easily. 
 This wood can be obtained anywhere, and is not dear. 
 
 * The English prices for the tools are given on page 214. 
 
 t The Swedish krona is worth Is. IJd. Eighteen kronor = 1.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Absolute weight of timber, 51. 
 
 Accuracy, habits of, 2, 14, 15. 
 
 Adjustable bench, 65. 
 bit, 112. 
 handscrew, 69. 
 planes, 102. 
 
 Age of the Slojd-pupil, 17. 
 of trees, 30. 
 
 Aim of Slojd, 2. 
 
 Air-tubes, 31, 32. 
 
 Albuminoids in sap, 34. 
 
 Alburnum, 32. 
 
 Alder, the, 32, 35, 38, 39, 46, 48, 50, 
 52, 53 ; the hoary-leaved, 53. 
 
 American Canary wood, 204. 
 
 Angle formed by the bevelled edge 
 and front face of the plane-iron, 
 95 ; by the bevelled edges of the 
 axe, 88 ; by the face and front 
 side of chisels, 90, 91 ; by the 
 faces of the Slojd-knife, 88. 
 
 Annual layers, concentric, 29-31. 
 
 Apple, the, 38, 47, 50, 56. 
 
 Area of Slojd-room, 20. 
 
 Articles of luxury, 12. 
 
 Articles, modelled, 12. 
 rectangular, 12. 
 rejected, 15. 
 sale of, 26. 
 
 Artificial light in Slojd-room, 21. 
 
 Artisan, work of the, 1. 
 
 Ash, the, 31, 32, 35, 38, 39, 46-48, 53. 
 
 Aspen, the, 35, 46, 48, 50, 54. 
 
 Attachments of saw-blade, 82-84. 
 
 Attention, habits of, 2. 
 
 Auger-bit, the, 110. 
 
 Autumn wood, 30-32. 
 
 Axe, the, 7, 22, 47, 59, 60, 87, 88. 
 
 Axle-fitting, 152. 
 
 B 
 
 Back bench-vice, the, 62, 63, 65, 66. 
 
 Bark, 28. 
 
 Bast, 28. 
 
 Beam-compasses, 73, 74 
 
 Beech, the, 33-35, 38, 39, 42, 44, 46- 
 
 48, 50-52, 55, 198. 
 Bench, the, 62-67, 204. 
 
 adjustable, 65. 
 
 double, 65. 
 
 Naas pattern, 64, 65. 
 
 single, 62-64. 
 
 Trainor's, 66, 67. 
 Bench-drawer, the, 62, 64. 
 Bench-pegs, 62, 63, 66. 
 Bench-rails, 62, 64, 66. 
 Bench-top, 62, 64-66. 
 Bench-well, 62, 64, 66. 
 Bench-set, the, 24, 201. 
 Benches required, number of, 204. 
 Bench-vice, back, 62, 63, 65, 66. 
 
 front, 62, 63, 66. 
 Bevel cut, 126. 
 Bevel, mitre, 76. 
 
 set, 76. 
 
 wooden, 76. 
 Bevelled edge-planing, 142. 
 Bevelling, 134. 
 
 with draw-knife, 144. 
 Birch,'the, 32, 38, 39, 42, 44, 46-48, 
 
 50-52, 54, 196-198. 
 Birch, figured, 46. 
 Bits, 108-112. 
 Blade of a saw, 77, 80. 
 Blocking, 168. 
 
 mortised, 168. 
 Blocks, for table tops, 43. 
 " Blue surface," 40, 43, 44. 
 Bodily labour, 2, 8.
 
 206 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Body, position of, during work, 21-24, 
 127, 129, 133, 137, 139. 
 Plates L VIII. 
 Bolts, 62, 65. 
 
 Boring, with bradawl, 144. 
 with centre-bit, 132. 
 with pin-bit, 132. 
 with shell-bit, 132. 
 Boss of a plane, 96, 98. 
 Bow-compasses, 73. 
 Bow-saw, the, 83. 
 
 ., broad-webbed, 83, 85. 
 Brace, the, 108, 109. 
 American, 109. 
 Swedish, 109. 
 Bradawl, the, 112. 
 
 boring with, 144. 
 Broad-leaved trees, 30, 31, 33, 52. 
 Brushes for glue, 120. 
 
 Caliper-compasses, 74. 
 
 Cambium, 28. 
 
 Camphor, solution of, 45. 
 
 Camphor-tree, 49. 
 
 Canary wood, American, 204. 
 
 " Captain " of Slojd-class, 25. 
 
 Carpentry, 7, 8. 
 
 Slojd, 6, 7, 21. 
 Carving-tools, 89, 92, 93. 
 Carving wood, 8. 
 Cedar, the, 49. 
 Cells, wood, 28. 
 Cellulose, 29. 
 Centre-bit, the, 22, 110, 111. . 
 
 boring with, 132. 
 
 sharpening the, 111. 
 Champhering, 146. 
 Changes which wood undergoes, 35. 
 Chestnut, the, 52, 55, 204. 
 Chisel, the, 7, 89-91. 
 
 bent, 93. 
 
 firmer, 90. 
 
 ,, mortise, 91. 
 Chiselling, concave, 138. 
 
 Chiselling, oblique, 136. 
 
 perpendicular, 136, 
 Chopping, 138. Plate VII. 
 Chopping-block, 88. 
 Circular sawing, 148. 
 Clamping, dove-tail, 146. 
 Clamps, 43. 
 
 saw-sharpening, 79. 
 Class-teaching, 16, 17. 
 Cleavage of wood, 34. 
 Colour of wood, 48, 49. 
 Colouring matter, 34. 
 Common dove-tailing, 150. 
 
 mortise and tenon, 156. 
 Compasses, 24, 73, 74. 
 beam, 73, 74. 
 bow, 73. 
 caliper, 74. 
 Compass-plane, the, 102. 
 
 saw, 80, 8(5. 
 Concave chiselling, 138. 
 
 cut, 134. 
 
 modelling with the plane, 164. 
 Concealed tenoning, 166. 
 Concentric annual layers, 29-31. 
 Constituents of sap, 34, 35. 
 Constructions, geometrical, 13, 204. 
 Convex cut, 128. 
 
 modelling with plane, 134. 
 
 sawing, 134. 
 Corky layer, the, 28. 
 Cost of providing tools, 204. 
 
 timber, &c., 204. 
 
 Counter-sink drill, the, 110, 112. 
 Cover of the plane, 95, 96. 
 Cracking of timber, 36, 39, 40-43. 
 Cramp, thumb-screw, 70. 
 Cross-cut, the, 126. 
 " Cross-grained " wood, 46. 
 Cross-section of stem, 27, 28. 
 Cut, bevel, 126. 
 concave, 134. 
 convex, 128. 
 cross, 126. 
 long, 126.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 207 
 
 Cut, oblique, 126. 
 
 plane surface, 134. 
 Cutting-gauge, the, 73. 
 
 Day-book, teacher's, 26. 
 Deal, red, 204. 
 Decay of timber, 43. 
 Dexterity, technical, 3-5. 
 Dove-tail clamping, 146. 
 filletster, 103. 
 saw, 86. 
 Dove-tailing, 15, 73, 125. 
 
 common, 150. 
 
 half-lap, 160. 
 
 ,, in thick wood, 156. 
 
 notched, 164. 
 
 ., oblique, 162. 
 
 , , single, at right angles, 148. 
 Dowels, 124. 
 Drawings, 13, 204. 
 Drawings in perspective, 13. 
 Draw- knife, the, 7, 89. 
 
 bevelling with, 144. 
 
 ., modelling with, 148. 
 Dressing up with the smoothing- 
 plane, 140 ; with spokeshave, 
 138. 
 
 " Dry-rot," 44. 
 Durability of timber, 45, 51. 
 Duramen, 32. 
 
 Ebony, 32, 47, 50, 57. 
 Edge-grooving, half concealed, 164 ; 
 
 oblique, 154. 
 Edge-planing, 128. 
 
 bevelled, 142. 
 
 Edges, straight, 76, 77. 
 Educational and practical Slojd, 1. 
 Educational Slojd, aim of, 1, 2. 
 Elasticity of timber, 48. 
 Elder, the, 33. 
 Elm, the, 31, 32, 35, 38, 39, 44, 46-48, 
 
 50, 51, 53. 
 End-squaring, 140. 
 
 English handscrew, 69. 
 
 marking-gauge, 72. 
 Exercises, the, 6, 10, 11, 60, 126-169, 
 
 196, 199. 
 
 Expansion- bit, the, 111, 112. 
 Eye of the axehead, 88. 
 
 Face of chisel, 90. 
 Face-planing, 77, 132. 
 Fermentation of sap, 43. 
 Fibres of wood, 29. 
 File, the, 22, 80, 105, 106. 
 
 to clean, 106. 
 
 to use, 106. 
 
 triangular, 80. 
 File-grade, the, 105. 
 Filing, 132. 
 
 Filletster, the dove-tail, 103. 
 " Finer " kinds of manual work, 8. 
 Fir, the, 31, 32, 34, 35, 38, 39, 46, 48, 
 
 50, 51, 52, 196. 
 Firmer, the, 93. 
 
 the corner, 93. 
 Firmer-chisel, the, 90. 
 Fitting in pegs, 142. 
 Fixing hinges, 160. 
 Fixing with wooden pegs, 148. 
 Fixing with screws, 148. 
 Fluting, 158. 
 Frame-saw, the, 78, 82. 
 Fungi, 44. 
 
 Gauge, cutting, 73. 
 
 marking, 24, 71, 72. 
 Gauging, 130. 
 
 Geometrical constructions, 13. 
 Glue, 21, 119-123. 
 
 liquid, 120. 
 Glue-brushes, 120. 
 
 pot, 120. 
 Glueing, 121-123, 144. 
 
 with aid of hand- screw, 154. 
 Gouge, the, 89, 91. 
 
 scooping out with, 152.
 
 208 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Gouge, curved, 93. 
 
 front bent, 93. 
 
 parting, 93. 
 
 spoon, 92. 
 
 straight, 93. 
 Gouging, oblique, 146. 
 
 perpendicular, 144. 
 Gouging with gouge and spoon-iron, 
 
 133. 
 Grain, against the, 49. 
 
 endway of the, 49. 
 
 lengthway of the, 49. 
 
 with the, 49. 
 
 the silver, 33. 
 Graving with V tool or par ting- tool, 
 
 158. 
 
 Grinding tools, 88, 115. 
 Grinding-support, 116. 
 Grindstone, the, 115, 116. 
 Groove-jointing, 125. 
 Groove-saw, 86, 87. 
 Grooving, 73, 87. 
 Gymnastics, 18, 21, 22. 
 
 H 
 
 Habits of accuracy, 2, 14, 15. 
 attention, 2. 
 industry, 2. 
 order, 2. 
 self-reliance, 2, 14. 
 Half-concealed edge-grooving, 164. 
 Half-lap dove-tailing, 160. 
 Half-lapping, 158. 
 Halving, 125. 
 
 with knife, 140. 
 Hammer, the, 113. 
 
 the set, 167. 
 Hand, use of the right and left, 22. 
 Handle of a saw, 83. 
 Hand-saw, the, 85. 
 Handscrew, the, 68, 69. 
 adjustable, 69. 
 English, 69. 
 iron, 70. 
 wooden, 68. 
 
 Handscrew, glueing with, 154. 
 Hardness of timber, 46-48. 
 Harmonious physical development, 
 
 21, 22. 
 
 Hazel, the, 48. 
 Heart-wood, the, 32, 47. 
 Height of Slojd-room, 20. 
 High School series of models, 196. 
 Hinges, fixing, 160. 
 Hinge-plates, 112. 
 Hinge-sinking, 160. 
 Hold-fast, the, 67. 
 Hole-rimer drill, 110, 112. 
 Hollow, the, 102. 
 Hollowing out with gouge, 152. 
 
 with plane, 164. 
 Hooping, 125, 166. 
 Hoops for barrels, 89, 166. 
 Horn of the plane, 94, 99. 
 Hornbeam, the, 32, 35, 38, 39, 46-48, 
 
 50, 52. 
 Housing, 152. 
 
 I 
 
 Impregnation of timber, 42, 45. 
 Individual instruction, 16. 
 Industry, habits of, 2. 
 Insects, attacks of, 44, 45. 
 Instruction, individual, 16. 
 
 intuitional, 13. 
 
 time given to, 18. 
 Intuitional instruction, 13. 
 Iron handscrew, the, 70. 
 plane, the, 100, 101. 
 
 Jack-plane, the, 24, 98, 99. 
 Jointing, 119, 125. 
 
 plain, 96, 146. 
 Juniper, the, 48-50, 52. 
 
 K 
 
 Knife, the, 7, 22, 24, 88, 89. 
 Key of bench, 63. 
 Key-hole saw, the, 154.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 209 
 
 Labour, bodily, 2, 8. 
 
 Larch, the, 32, 38, 39, 48, 50-52. 
 
 Light in Slojd-room, artificial, 21. 
 
 Lignum vitae, 47, 50, 57. 
 
 Lime, the, 35, 38, 39, 46-48, 50, 56, 
 
 204. 
 
 Liquid glue, 120. 
 Lock-fitting, 160. 
 Long-cut, 126. 
 Long oblique planing, 152. 
 Long-sawing, 128. 
 Luxury, articles of, 12. 
 
 H 
 
 Mahogany, 38, 39, 49, 50, 57. 
 
 Mallet, the, 113. 
 
 Maple, the, 33, 35, 38, 39, 46-48, 50, 
 
 56. 
 
 Marker, the, 71, 72. 
 Marking-gauge, the, 24, 71, 72. 
 
 English, 72. 
 
 Johansson's, 72. 
 
 Lundmark's, 71. 
 
 Marking-point, the, 71. 
 Measurements, 70, 71. 
 Medulla, the, 33. 
 Medullary rays, the, 28, 33. 
 Metal plates, &c., sinking and fixing, 
 
 144. 
 
 Method, 9. 
 
 Metre-measure, the, 13, 24, 70, 71. 
 Mitre-bevel, the, 76. 
 Mitreing, 125, 156. 
 Mitre-shooting, 68. 
 Modelled articles, 12. 
 Modelling, convex, 134. 
 Modelling with the draw-knife, 148 ; 
 
 with the spokeshave, 138. 
 Models, the, 11-14, 196 ; rejected, 15. 
 Monitor of Slojd-class, the, 25. 
 Mortise and tenon, common, 156. 
 Mortise and tenon-jointing, 125. 
 Mortise-chisel, the, 91. 
 
 Mortise blocking, 168. 
 Muriatic acid, 45. 
 
 N 
 
 Nailing, 123, 144. 
 Nails, beat, 123. 
 
 cut, 123. 
 Needle-leaved trees, 30-32, 34, 40, 
 
 49, 52. 
 Notched dove-tailing, 164. 
 
 
 
 Oak, the, 31-35, 39, 46-52, 55, 198. 
 Oblique chiselling, 136. 
 
 cut, 126. 
 
 dove-tailing, 162. 
 
 edge-grooving, 154. 
 
 gouging, 146. 
 
 paring, 136. 
 
 ,, planing, 140. 
 
 sawing, 138. 
 
 slotting, 162. 
 Obstacle-planing, 136. 
 Oil-paint, 45. 
 Oils, volatile, 35. 
 Oilstone, the, 117. 
 
 method of using, 117. 
 Oilstone-slip, 118. 
 Order, habits of, 2. 
 Osier, the, 48. 
 Outside-pan of glue-pot, 119, 120. 
 
 P 
 
 Panel-grooving, 154. 
 Panels of doors, 43. 
 Paring, perpendicular, 136. 
 
 oblique, 136. 
 Parting-gouge, 93. 
 Parting-tool, bent, 93. 
 
 straight, 93. 
 
 Pear, the, 39, 47, 50, 56. 
 Peg of a saw, 83. 
 Pegs, fitting in, 142. 
 Pegs, fixing with wooden, 1 48. 
 Perpendicular chiselling, 136. 
 gouging, 144.
 
 210 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Perpendicular paring, 136. 
 
 Perspective drawings, 13. 
 
 Physical development, harmonious, 
 
 21, 22. 
 
 Pin-bit, the, 110. 
 Pincers, 112, 113. 
 Pine, the, 32, 34, 196-199. 
 Pins, wooden, 124. 
 Pith, the, 28, 30, 33, 41 
 Plain-jointing, 96, 146. 
 Plane, the, 22, 61, 93-104. 
 
 the adjustable, 102. 
 
 the compass, 102. 
 
 the hollow, 102. 
 
 the iron, 100, 101. 
 
 the jack, 24, 98, 99. 
 
 ,, old woman's tooth, 102, 103. 
 
 the rebate, 101. 
 
 the round, 101. 
 
 the smoothing, 24, 60, 96, 100, 
 101. 
 
 the toothing, 123. 
 
 the trying, 24, 60, 96, 99, 100. 
 Plane, concave modelling with, 164 ; 
 convex modelling with, 1 34 ; 
 hollowing out with, 164. 
 Plane, setting the, 98. 
 Plane-cover, the, 95, 96. 
 Plane-horn, the, 94, 99. 
 Plane-iron, the, 94, 96-98. 
 Plane-sole, the, 94, 97. 
 Plane-stock, the, 94. 
 Plane-surface cut, the, 134. 
 Planing across the grain, 148. 
 
 with round plane, 14S. 
 
 with shooting board, 150. 
 
 bevelled edge, 142. 
 
 edge, 128. 
 
 face, 77, 132. 
 
 long oblique, 152. 
 
 oblique, 140. 
 
 stop, or obstacle, 136. 
 
 wedge, 148. 
 Pliers, flat-jawed, 114. 
 round-jawed, 114. 
 
 Plough, the, 104. 
 
 Plugging, 142. 
 
 Plumbago, 64. 
 
 Poplar, the, 52, 54. 
 
 Pores in wood, the, 31. 
 
 Position of the body during work, 
 
 21-24, 127, 129, 133, 137, 139. 
 
 Plates I VIII. 
 Preliminary exercises, 11. 
 Projections, 13. 
 Punch, the, 124. 
 Punching, 144. 
 Pupils in Slojd-class, number of, 18. 
 
 R 
 
 Radial section, 27, 28. 
 
 Rails of the bench, 62, 64, 66. 
 
 Rasps, 106. 
 
 " Raw edge," 117. 
 
 Rebating, 158. 
 
 Rebate-plane, the, 101. 
 
 Rebates, dove-tail, 104. 
 
 Rectangular articles, 12. 
 
 Red deal, 204. 
 
 Resin, 32, 35, 43, 45. 
 
 Resin-canals, 32. 
 
 Rowan, the, 50, 56. 
 
 Rule, the two-foot, 13, 24, 71. 
 
 Ruler, the, 71. 
 
 Rules for the Slojd-teacher, 24. 
 
 Sand-paper, 25, 107, 108. 
 Sale of articles, 26. 
 Sap, the, 28, 34. 
 
 ,, constituents of, 34, 35. 
 
 crude or ascending, 34. 
 
 elaborated, 34. 
 
 fermentation of, 43. 
 
 removal of, 42, 44, 45. 
 Sap-wood, the, 32, 47. 
 Saw, the, 22, 25, 47, 61, 77. 
 
 the bow, 83. 
 
 the broad-webbed bow, 83, 85. 
 
 ,, the compass, 80, 8(5.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 211 
 
 Saw, the dove-tail, 86. 
 
 the frame, 78, 82. 
 
 the groove, 86, 87. 
 
 the hand, 85. 
 
 the tenon, 86. 
 
 the turn, 85. 
 
 the wood, 78, 81. 
 Saw, frame of, 60. 
 Saw, setting the, 78 81. 
 Saw, sharpening the, 80, 81. 
 Saw, working the, 84. 
 Saw-blade, the, 77, 80. 
 Saw-blade, attachments of the, 82-84. 
 Saw-cut, width of the, 79. 
 Saw-peg, the, 83. 
 Saw-set, the, 79, 80. 
 Saw-stretcher, 83. 
 Saw-sharpening clamps, 79. 
 Sawing, circular, 148. 
 convex, 134. 
 long, 128. 
 oblique, 138. 
 up and down, 168. 
 wave, 134. 
 Sawing off, 128. 
 Sawing with compass-saw, 154. 
 
 with tenon-saw, 134. 
 Scraper, the, 24, 106, 107- 
 Scraping, 107, 136. 
 Screw-driver, the, 110, 112, 114. 
 Screw-driver bit, the, 110, 112. 
 Screwing together, 122, 124, 148. 
 Screws, fixing with, 148. 
 Screws, wood, 124, 125. 
 Seasoning of timber, 40-42, 44. 
 Section of stem, cross, 27, 28. 
 radial, 27, 28. 
 
 tangential, 27, 28. 
 
 Self-reliance, habits of, 2, 14. 
 Septa, transverse, 33. 
 Set-bevel, the, 76. 
 Set-hammer, the, 167. 
 Setting out, 70, 152. 
 Setting the plane, 98. 
 Setting the saw, 78-81. 
 
 Setting-tongs, 80. 
 Sharp tools, 24, 25, 61, 115. 
 Sharpening the centre-bit, 111. 
 the saw, 80, 81. 
 tools, 88, 115. 
 Shell-bit, the, 110. 
 Shooting-board, the, 67, 68. 
 Shoulder of chisel, 90. 
 Shrinkage of timber, 36-39, 45. 
 Silver grain, the, 33. 
 Single dove-tailing at right angles, 
 
 148. 
 Sinking and fixing metal plates, &c., 
 
 144. 
 
 Situation of Slojd-room, 20. 
 Size of tools, 59, 60. 
 Slojd, aim of, 2. 
 
 educational, 1. 
 Slojd and gymnastics, 21. 
 Slojd-carpentry, 6, 7, 21. 
 Slojd knife, 88, 89. 
 Slojd-room, 18-21. Plate IX. 
 Slotting, 125, 156. 
 
 oblique, 162. 
 Smoothing up, 140. 
 Smoothing with the spokeshave, 138. 
 Smoothing-plane, the, 24, 60, 96, 100, 
 
 101. 
 Smoothing-plane, dressing up with 
 
 the, 140. 
 
 Sole of the plane, 94, 97. 
 Specific gravity of timber, 50. 
 Spindle of marking-gauge, 71-73. 
 Spokeshave, the, 104. 
 
 modelling with the, 138. 
 
 smoothing up with the, 138. 
 Spoon-gouge, the, 92. 
 Spoon-iron, the, 7, 92. 
 Sprigs, 123. 
 Spring-wood, 29. 
 Square, the, 24, 74, 75, 76. 
 
 ,, steel, 75. 
 
 wooden, 75. 
 
 to test the, 75, 76. 
 Square-grooving, 152.
 
 212 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Square-shooting, 150. 
 
 Squaring, 130. 
 
 Starch, 34. 
 
 Staving, 164. 
 
 Steaming, 42, 45. 
 
 Stock of marking gauge, 71, 72. 
 
 of plane, 94. 
 
 of set bavel, 76. 
 
 of square, 75. 
 Stop champher-plane, 137. 
 Stop-planing, 136. 
 Straight-edges, 76, 77. 
 Straight-fibred wood, 29, 46, 94. 
 Strength of timber, 45, 46. 
 Stretcher of saw, 83. 
 String of saw, 83. 
 Sugar, 34. 
 
 Support for grinding, 116. 
 Support for hand, in jack-plane, ( Ji). 
 Surface-cut plane, 134. 
 Swelling of timber, 36, 39, 45. 
 Sycamore, the, 204. 
 
 Tang of knife, 88. 
 of chisel, 90. 
 
 Tangential section of stem, 27, 28. 
 Tannic acid, 35, 43, 45. 
 Teacher of Slojd, the, 2-6, 61. 
 Technical dexterity, 3-5. 
 Teeth of the saw, 77, 78, 81, 84. 
 Tenon, common mortise and, 156. 
 Tenon-saw, the, 86. 
 Tenoning, concealed, 166. 
 Texture of timber, 48. 
 Thumb-screw cramp, the, 70. 
 Tightener of saw, 83, 84. 
 Timber (see also Wood), 27. 
 
 absolute weight of, 51. 
 
 colour of, 48, 49. 
 
 decay of, 43. 
 
 durability of, 45, 51. 
 
 ,, elasticity of, 48. 
 
 hardness of, 46, 48. 
 
 seasoning of, 40-42, 44. 
 
 Timber, smell of, 48, 49. 
 
 Specific gravity of, 50. 
 
 strength of, 45, 46. 
 
 texture of, 48. 
 
 time for cutting down, 40, 44. 
 
 toughness of, 48. 
 
 ., warping of, 36, 40-42. 
 
 weight of, 50. 
 Time given to instruction, 18. 
 Tools required for different numbers of 
 
 pupils, 201-203 
 Tools, choice of, 59-61, 204. 
 
 ., cost of providing, 204. 
 
 cupboard for, 1 18. Plate XL 
 sharp, 24, 25, 61. 
 
 ,, sharpening, 88, 115-118. 
 
 size of, 59, 60. 
 
 toy, 59. 
 
 Tool-cupboard, the, 118. Plate XI. 
 Too thing -plane, the, 123. 
 Trainer's bench, 66, 67. 
 Trammel-heads, 74. 
 Transverse septa, 33. 
 Trees, broad-leaved, 30, 31, 33, 52. 
 
 needle-leaved, 30-32, 34, 40, 44, 
 
 49, 52. 
 
 Trying-plane, the, 24, 60, 96, 99, 100. 
 Turning, 8. 
 Turn- saw, the, 85. 
 Turpentine, 35. 
 
 u 
 
 Up-and-down sawing, 168. 
 
 Varnish, 45. 
 Vessels, 31, 49. 
 Vice-tongue, 63. 
 Volatile oils, 35. 
 V-tool, 158. 
 
 w 
 
 Walls of the Slojd-room, 20. 
 Walnut, the, 38, 39, 42, 47, 50, 56. 
 Warming the Slojd-room, 20, 21.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 213 
 
 Warping of timber, 36, 40-42. 
 
 Water-capacity, 35, 36. 
 
 Wave- sawing, 134. 
 
 Wedge of the plane, the, 94, 96, 97. 
 
 Wedge-planing with smoothing-plane, 
 
 148. 
 Weight of timber, 50. 
 
 absolute, 51. 
 White-beam, the, 39, 46-48, 56. 
 Width of saw-cut, 79. 
 Willow, the, 35. 
 Winding-laths, 76. 
 Windows of the Slojd-room, 20. 
 Wire-cutter, the, 113. 
 Wood (see also Timber), 27. 
 
 autumn, 30-32. 
 
 colour of, 48, 49. 
 
 cross-grained, 46. 
 
 Wood, spring, 29. 
 
 straight-fibred, 29, 46, 94. 
 
 work in hard, 140. 
 Wooden bevel, the, 76. 
 
 handscrew, the, 68. 
 Wooden pins, 124. 
 Wood-carving, 8. 
 Wood-cells, 28. 
 Wood-cement, 121. 
 Wood-fibres, 29. 
 Wood-saw, the, 78, 8J. 
 Wood-screws, 124, 125. 
 Wood-Slojd, 6. 
 Work in hard wood, 140. 
 Working the saw, 84. 
 
 Yen, the, 33.
 
 A 000039518 6