r..-^ o e.. 
 
 S L ^ n 
 
THE 
 
 SCIENCE OF ETYMOLOGY 
 
 BY THE 
 
 REV. WALTER W. SKEAT, Litt.D. 
 
 LL.D., D.C.L., PH.D., F.B.A. 
 
 ELRINGTON AND BOSWORTH PROFESSOR OF ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 IN THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE 
 
 ANU FELLOW OF CHRIST'S COLLEGE 
 
 'Whoever devotes himself to the study of so comprehensive a science 
 must try never to lose sight of two virtues: conscientiousness and 
 modesty.'— Max Muller, Selected Essays, 1881 ; i. igg. 
 
 , •" 5 o 
 
 • « » ' ' i 
 
 OXFORD 
 
 AT THE CLARENDON PRESS 
 
 191-2 
 
HENRY FROWDE, M.A. 
 
 PUBLISHER TO THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD 
 
 LONDON, EDINBURGH, NEW YORK 
 
 TORONTO AND MELBOURNE 
 
PREFACE 
 
 The object of the present volume is to draw attention to 
 some of the principles that should guide the student of etymo- 
 logy in general, and of English etymology particularly; in 
 order that any one who employs an etymological dictionary 
 may be able to do so with some degree of intelligence and to 
 some profit. It is much easier to accomplish this at the 
 present date than it was some ten or twenty years ago. The 
 steady progress of the New English Dictionary furnishes us 
 with innumerable and indisputable instances of the actual 
 usages of English words, so that the mistakes which formerly 
 arose from a very imperfect knowledge of their history have 
 largely been corrected, and much that was once obscure has 
 been made plain. Meanwhile, the great gains that have 
 resulted from the scientific study of comparative philology 
 as applied to the Indo-germanic languages have been properly 
 formulated and tabulated, to the explosion and exclusion 
 of many hasty inferences that were both misleading and 
 mischievous. It is now possible to introduce science where 
 once there was Httle but guesswork. 
 
 Such science is founded, as all science should be, upon 
 the careful observation of the effects of well-ascertained laws, 
 which have been laboriously evolved from the comparison 
 of innumerable forms of words in many languages. A large 
 number of such laws can now be positively and safely relied 
 upon, because they rest upon the sure foundations of a careful 
 study of phonetics. This study enables us to concern our- 
 selves with something that is far more valuable than written 
 forms, viz. the actual sounds which the symbols employed 
 in various languages actually represent. The most important 
 
 255794 
 
 
iv PREFACE 
 
 of these languages is Latin, because the Latin alphabet has 
 been so widely adopted. Hence it is that all serious attempts 
 to assimilate the lessons and results which have been secured 
 by the strenuous labours of modern philologists must needs 
 begin with a knowledge of the sounds which the Latin 
 symbols denoted in the first century. The first requisite is, 
 in a word, the correct pronunciation of classical Latin, and 
 the lesson is simple and easy enough. When once acquired, 
 there is very litde more to be learnt in order to understand 
 the pronunciation of Anglo-Saxon, and the remarkably 
 musical sounds of the Middle-English period, especially as 
 employed by Chaucer, who was as great a master of melody 
 as the famous Dante. 
 
 A sufficient knowledge of the Chaucerian pronunciation 
 will then afford some guide to the more difficult and some- 
 what uncertain pronunciation of Tudor English ; from which 
 we may reasonably hope to glean some of the reasons why we 
 spell many words as we do. Most of our modern spelling, 
 except in the rather numerous instances where meddling 
 pedants have ignorantly and mischievously distorted it, rests 
 upon the spoken sounds used in the time of our great drama- 
 tists by the best actors of that period. 
 
 The indifferent attitude assumed by the millions of English 
 speakers with regard to the obviously important subject of 
 spelling can only be accounted for by their almost universal 
 ignorance of the subject. Not ten (or even less) in a million 
 of English speakers recognize the fact that our spelling was, 
 once at least, founded on phonetic laws, and that the object 
 of our ancestors was not, as many suppose, to write in accord- 
 ance with ' etymology ' — except when it was too obvious to be 
 missed — but to represent the sounds of the spoken words. 
 And of course, the ' etymological ' spelling of Latin words 
 was really based upon spoken sounds also ; so that the 
 reverence paid to Latin written forms only carries us back 
 to the phonetics of an earlier period, and furnishes one more 
 
PREFACE V 
 
 argument for teaching every child what the Latin symbols 
 implied. The strenuous attempts that are but too often 
 made to evade this plain duty are deplorable for the pupil, 
 and discreditable to the teacher. 
 
 Perhaps I may here usefully introduce a practical sugges- 
 tion, viz. that the reader who comes across a word in this 
 book which he does not know how to pronounce is more 
 likely to approximate to its true sound by pronouncing it as 
 Latin than as modern English. 
 
 It is, in fact, a very grave reproach to all who speak the 
 English language and employ its present spelling, that they 
 will neither, on the one hand, admit of any improvements, 
 nor, on the other, make the slightest attempt to understand 
 the forms to which they cling. How, for example, have we 
 come to employ such a symbol as ou to represent the sound 
 of the ou in house ? I purposely select this as being a ques- 
 tion that admits of a fairly easy answer. 
 
 The word house is one of immense and incalculable anti- 
 quity. The early Teutonic form was hus, pronounced with a 
 voiceless s^ as at present, and with the Latin long «, as in L. 
 and Ital. luna. We might spell it, phonetically, huus, denoting 
 the length of the u by repeating the symbol ; but our ancestors 
 simply adopted the Roman u, and sometimes (by no means 
 always) put a slanting stroke over it to denote vowel-length ; 
 in which case it appeared as hus, or else (without the stroke) 
 as hus\ which was also the spelling in Norse and in Old 
 High German, and remains to this day in Swedish. The 
 sound of the u was preserved till long after the Norman 
 Conquest, and the spelling hus persisted till at least 1250; 
 see the quotations in the N.E.D. Indeed the sound remained 
 unaltered till very much later, and may be heard in the North 
 to this day. But in the days of Edward I, the Norman 
 scribes were extremely busy with their self-imposed task of 
 editing and respelling the English language, which they 
 studied with remarkable intelligence and zeal. They per- 
 
vi PREFACE 
 
 ceived that the form hus was indefinite ; there was nothing to 
 show whether the u was short or long ; and they had decided 
 (except in the case of z') to abandon the A. S. method of 
 using a sloping mark above a vowel. They reserved the u 
 for the short sound, as \n/uU, full, pullen^ to pull ; and then 
 they cast about for a symbol for the long sound. The most 
 obvious symbol was uu, but this was open to the practical 
 objection that it consisted of four consecutive downstrokes, 
 and was liable to be indistinct ; it might be read as uu, or un, 
 or nu, or even as im or mi, if the z was not clearly marked 
 with the sloping stroke which they frequently retained (from 
 A. S.) for that purpose. Moreover, in words like the A. S. 
 dun, a down, a hill, the matter was still worse ; they would 
 have to write duun, which would be easily mistaken for dunu 
 or dtmn. In this dilemma, they naturally adopted the French 
 symbol ou ; and I pause for a moment to notice how cha- 
 racteristic this symbol is of French usage. It not only occurs, 
 over and over again, in English words as spelt by Norman 
 scribes, and in French itself, but even in such words of com- 
 paratively late introduction into English as soup, group, rouge, 
 roulette, routi?te, tour, trousseau, &c. And wherever else it 
 occurs, it is still French. Thus caoutchouc and toucan are 
 French spellings of Brazilian words ; tourmaline, of a Cinga- 
 lese one ; patchouli, of an Indian one ; marabout, of an 
 Arabic one ; and so on. 
 
 Moreover, when the Norman respelt hus as hous, he only 
 altered the symbol. The sound remained the same as ever, 
 until the day came when every Middle English word written 
 with ou acquired a new sound, and changed imperceptibly, 
 through infinitely small gradations, till it acquired the sound 
 which it now usually has in the standard speech, a sound which 
 has not been altered for some time past. We may hope that 
 it will be permanent ; but it is a simple fact that East Anglia 
 influences the speech of London, and even the speech of the 
 empire. I say no more. 
 
 V. 
 
PREFACE 
 
 vn 
 
 We now know, accordingly, the whole story of house} The 
 ou really meant u, and was adopted solely for phonetic and 
 graphic reasons ; but the pronunciation has since changed. 
 The same explanation applies to the A. S. thu^ thou ; ure, 
 our; sur, sour; ful, foul; suih, south; muth, mouth; lus^ 
 louse ; mm, mouse ; Ihusend, thousand ; ut, out ; liifan, to 
 lout (bow down); cliit, clout; abutan, about; prut, proud; 
 Mud, loud ; scriid, shroud. But at the end of a word the 
 scribes often wrote ow ; hence we have hu, how ; nu, now ; 
 cu, cow ; brUj brow ; bugan, to bow. Or they wrote own for 
 oun, for distinctness; as in tun, town; brun, brown; dun^ 
 down. Also (but at a later date) ower for our ; as in sciir, 
 shower ; bur, bower. In the A. S. un-cuth, E. uncouth, the 
 old sound of the ou remains to this day. 
 
 By similar processes, the reader who has any regard for 
 his native language may learn many things regarding spelling 
 that are of high interest and value, and he may easily dis- 
 cover the solutions of such simple problems as the following, 
 viz. why oak is spelt with oa, whilst broke has o; why sea 
 differs from see ; why modern English does not permit a Z' to 
 end a word (except Slav), but insists upon have, love, which 
 are not distinguished, as to their vowel-sounds, from brave 
 and grove ; why height is written for hight, and eye for ie ox ye 
 or y (all once admissible); why the German binden has a 
 short i, whereas the English bind has a long diphthong ; with 
 innumerable other problems of a like kind. Perhaps it is 
 worth while to add that the only safe guide to modern English 
 grammar is Sweet's Anglo-Saxon Primer, supplemented by 
 a moderate knowledge of the habits of Middle English. 
 
 The study of comparative etymology has, in fact, during 
 the last thirty or forty years, made such great advances that 
 the subject is already almost too vast to be fully compre- 
 
 1 All but the final e. The M.E. form was hous', but at a later 
 period a final e was added, to assimilate the final -se to the final -ce in 
 many words of French origin, such as silence, offence, and the like. 
 
 as 
 
viii PREFACE 
 
 hended ; indeed, the only book that deals efficiently with all 
 the Indo-germanic languages is the Comparative Grammar by 
 Brugmann. And even this does not contain all that is 
 required for the study of English ; we further require books 
 by experts in their particular departments, such as the Anglo- 
 Saxon Grajnmar by Sievers, or the Old English Grammar by 
 Wright, the Historical French Grammar by Toynbee, and 
 very many more ; seeing that, at every turn, we require 
 exact particulars as to the operation of special phonetic 
 laws. The object of the present volume is merely to point 
 out some of these particulars, and to indicate some modes of 
 solution ; so that the student who actually undertakes to con- 
 sult the various standard books may have some previous useful 
 information, whilst those who are content to take etymologies 
 on trust from good authorities may at least have some general 
 notion as to what is being done. 
 
 In order to give greater unity to the results here indicated, 
 I consider them all from an English point of view. My exact 
 inquiry is, accordingly, how does this or that result illustrate 
 or admit of comparison with modern English ? 
 
 I begin, accordingly, by considering some general principles 
 and useful Canons, as in Chapters I and II. In Chapter III, 
 I deal with Romanic types, and the forms which they assume 
 in the various Romance languages, and I give a few examples 
 of Romance etymologies in Chapter IV. In Chapter V, 
 I deal with old Teutonic types, and the resulting forms in 
 various Teutonic languages. In Chapter VI, I consider the 
 still wider subject of Indo-germanic types, with particular 
 reference to such English words as are of native origin; 
 followed, in Chapter VII, by particular examples in which 
 English throws a valuable light upon other languages ; for, 
 indeed, it is high time that we should be awake to some sense 
 of its great importance. Chapter VIII is chiefly occupied 
 with examples of ' false analogy ', by way of caution as to 
 the snares that await the heedless. Chapter IX is meant to 
 
PREFACE ix 
 
 remind us of the important Low German and Scandinavian 
 words which we have borrowed to supplement those of native 
 origin. 
 
 Chapter X contains an attempt to show the value of the 
 Celdc languages, and to enumerate the most important of 
 the Celtic words that are cognate with English. 
 
 Chapter XI deals, similarly, with Lithuanian and Slavonic, 
 and Chapter XII with Armenian, Albanian, and Persian ; in 
 order that the reader may gain at least a few useful general 
 notions as to the kind of help which we may expect from 
 consulting them, and as to their nature. Chapter XIII in- 
 stitutes a comparison between English and Sanskrit. 
 
 Chapter XIV, which I call A Philological Ramble, is, 
 purposely, of a somewhat desultory character, and is meant 
 to illustrate some of the ways in which the various Indo- 
 germanic languages throw light upon each other, and to 
 show how many really valuable lessons can be drawn from 
 considering even a single English word from various points 
 of view. 
 
 Chapter XV contains a list of some of the more important 
 English words that have cognate forms in several other 
 languages, and must therefore be considered as being of an 
 extraordinary and unknown antiquity. Nearly all are of the 
 highest interest, and the various forms which they assume, 
 according to the language which employs them, are of very 
 great importance from a phonetic point of view. Each 
 language has its own ways and peculiarities, and we can 
 here quite easily compare them. 
 
 In Chapter XVI I give a few general results, and make 
 a particular comparison between English and Hindi, in order 
 to show explicitly that many words exist to this day in 
 modern India, which have a common origin with words in 
 use in modern England. 
 
 The attempt to explore, for purely etymological purposes, 
 several languages with which my acquaintance is necessarily 
 
X PREFACE 
 
 slight, such as Irish, Lithuanian, Slavonic, and the rest, may 
 seem to many to imply rashness ; but it is rather in appear- 
 ance than reality. For all my illustrations, without exception, 
 are fairly well known, and are merely repeated from others 
 who have given them already. I trust that I have nowhere 
 advanced anything that is new, but only such things as are 
 vouched for by experts who can be trusted. With very 
 slight modification of language, I can say, like the immortal 
 Chaucer when writing the preface to his treatise on the Astro- 
 labe — ' Considere wel, that I ne usurpe nat to have founde 
 this werk of my labour or of myn engin ; I nam but a com- 
 pilatour of the labour of others, and have compiled it in myn 
 English only for thy doctrine; and with this swerd shal 
 I sleen envye/ 
 
 Moreover, I have been so fortunate as to obtain some 
 assistance from masters of their subjects. Mr. Quiggin, 
 Fellow of Gonville and Caius College, has been so good as 
 to read my proofs of Chapter X, which treats of the Celtic 
 languages. My account of Persian has been perused by 
 Professor Browne, and my account of Sanskrit by Professor 
 Rapson ; and to all of these I am heartily obliged, though 
 their attention was chiefly directed to the correction of 
 obvious mistakes in spelling and the like, as the proofs were 
 already in an advanced state before I submitted them. This 
 of course implies that the responsibility is rather mine than 
 theirs, and all blame for errors must fall solely upon myself. 
 
 My good friends, Mr. Henry Bradley, and the Rev. A. L. 
 Mayhew, have kindly read the proof-sheets throughout, and 
 made many useful suggestions. The interest which they 
 have taken in the work has been a great encouragement. 
 
 For the Index of Words, which I have carefully revised, 
 I am indebted to my daughter, Clara L. Skeat. 
 
 Cambridge, /<2«. lo, 191 fi. 
 
LIST OF BOOKS 
 MOST FREQUENTLY CONSULTED 
 
 Brugmann, K., und Delbruck, B. Grmidriss der vergleichenden 
 
 Grammatik der indogermanischen Sprachen, Erster Band; zweite 
 
 Bearbeitung. Strassburg; 1897. 
 FiCK, A. Vergleichendes Worterbuch der indogermatiischen Sprachen. 
 
 Vierte Auflage. Dritter Teil. Wortschatz der germanischen Sprach- 
 
 einheit; unter Mitwirkung vou H. Falk, ganzlich umgearbeitet von 
 
 A. Torp. Gottingen ; 1 909. 
 (The same.) Zweiter Teil. Wortschatz der keltischen Spracheinheit ; 
 
 von Whitley Stokes und A. Bezzenberger. Gottingen; 1894. 
 Horn, P. Grundriss der neupersischen Etymologie. Strassburg; 
 
 1893. 
 Macbain, A. An Etymological Dictionary of the Gaelic Language. 
 
 Inverness ; 1 896. 
 Macdonell, a. a. a Sattsh-it- English Dictionary. London ; 1893. 
 Mayhew, A. L. Synopsis of Old English Phonology. Oxford; 1891. 
 MiKLOSlCH, F. Etymologisches Worterbuch der Slavischen Sprachen. 
 
 Wien; 1886. 
 MuLVANY, C. M. Five Lectures delivered at the Queen's College, 
 
 Benares. Benares; 191 1. 
 N.E.D. — New English Dictionary . Oxford. 
 Nesselmann, G. H. F. Worterbuch der littauischen Sprache. 
 
 Konigsberg; 1851. 
 Prellwitz, W. Etymologisches W67-terhuch der griechischen Sprache. 
 
 Gottingen; 1905 (Second edition). 
 Si e vers, E. An Old English Grammar. Translated and edited by 
 
 A.S.Cook. Third edition. Boston and London ; 1903. 
 Skeat, W. W, Aji Etymological Dictionary of the English Lan- 
 guage. New edition. Oxford; 19 10. 
 Toynbee, p. a LListorical Grammar of the French Language. Oxford ; 
 
 1896. 
 Uhlenbeck, C.C. A Manual of Sanskrit Phonetics. London; 1898. 
 Uhlenbeck, C. C. Etymologisches Worterbuch der gotischen Sprache. 
 
 Zweite Auflage. Amsterdam ; 1900. 
 Uhlenbeck, C. C. Etymologisches Worterbuch der altindischen 
 
 Sprache. Amsterdam; 1898-9. 
 Walde, a. Lateinisches Etymologisches Worterbuch. Heidelberg; 
 
 J 906. 
 
ABBREVIATIONS AND SIGNS 
 
 A. F. — Anglo-French. Alb. — Albanian. Arm. — Armenian. A. S. — 
 Anglo-Saxon. Av. — Avestic. Bret. — Breton. Corn. — Cornish. 
 Dan.— Danish. Du.— Dutch. E.— English. F.— French. G.— 
 German. Gael. — Gaelic. Gk. — Greek. Goth. — Gothic. Icel. — Ice- 
 landic. Idg. — Indo-germanic. Ital. — Italian. L. — Latin. Lith. — 
 Lithuanian. Low G. — Low German. M. E. — Middle English. 
 N.E.D.— New English Dictionary. O.— Old. O.F.— Old French. 
 O. H.G.— Old High German. O.Ir.— Old Irish. O. Merc— Old 
 Mercian. O, N.— Old Norse. O. Pers.— Old Persian. O.Prass.— Old 
 Prussian. O. Sax. — Old Saxon. O. Slav. — Old Slavonic. Pers. — 
 Persian. Pol. — Polish. Port. — Portuguese. Russ. — Russian. Skt. — 
 Sanskrit. Span. — Spanish. Swed, — Swedish. Teut. — Teutonic. 
 W.— Welsh. 
 
 * prefixed to a word indicates that it is a theoretical form, evolved 
 according to known principles of development. It is chiefly used to 
 denote primitive Romance, Teutonic, and Indo-germanic types. 
 
 Note on Indo-germanic gutturals. These are denoted in 
 Walde by the following symbols. Palatals : k g; gh. Velars (without 
 labialization) : q g gh. Velars (with labialization) : qV^ g'H g^h. For 
 these I substitute the following, as being easier to write and print. 
 Palatals: k g gh. Velars (without labialization): q g{w) g{w)h. 
 Velars (with labialization) : qw gw gwh. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 Preface 
 
 PAGE 
 
 iii 
 
 Chapter I.— Some General Principles. § 1. Advance of 
 the study of Etymology. § 2. Etymology in the earlier part 
 of the nineteenth century. § 3. Examples of new etymologies; 
 Carfax, § 4. The word cark. § 5. Kark in the Liber Albus. 
 § 6. The Norman k and the Parisian ch ; catchy caitiff, calumet, 
 capital, &c. § 7. The historical method. § 8. Difficulties in 
 French etymology. § 9. The use of German. § 10. Value 
 of phonetics in explaining historical development. § 11. Pro- 
 nunciation of Latin. § 12. Authorities on phonetics . . i 
 
 Chapter II.— Some Useful Canons. § 13. Ten Canons. 
 § 14. Canon I; the word tratn. § 15. Value of early forms. 
 § 16. Canon II ; the words right and saffron. § 17. Canon 
 III ; the classical d and the English / ; Tuesday ; Deus and 
 0eos; day. § 18. The E. / ; tatrie, tar, tare, team, Sec. § 19. 
 Vowel-gradation. § 20. Values of the Germanic ai ; done, 
 dojigh, grope, home, loam, token. § 21. Boat and soap. § 22. 
 Canon IV; jest and gesticulate. § 23. Canon V; laws of 
 vowel-mutation. § 24. Canon VI; Teutonic strong verbs; 
 wot, loan, stair, clay, dough, sweat. § 25. Canon VII; 
 barnacle, dapple, bloat, &c. § 26. Canon VIII : uselessness 
 of casual resemblances. § 27. False etymologies; caitiff, 
 beltane-, Baal and Thoth. § 28. E. care and L. cUra', E. call 
 and Gk. koK^iv 15 
 
 Chapter III. — The Romance Languages. § 29. Italian, 
 Spanish, Portuguese, French, Proven9al, Roumanian, Ro- 
 maunsch. § 30. The old spoken Latin. § 31. L. capere and 
 capture; Late L. captidre; E. catch and chase. § 32. Diffi- 
 culty of ascertaining early types. § 33. Romanic types. 
 §34. 'Learned' and 'popular' types. §35. Frankish and 
 non-Latin elements in French. § 36. Hints as to French 
 etymologies. § 37. Charm, Joy; chandler and chandelier) 
 rage and rouge; &c. § 38. Medlar, 7nedley, mallard-, M. E. 
 idle. § 39. F. chance from L. cadentia. § 40. Loss of a 
 medial vowel ; debt, doubt, fable, couple, &c. § 41. Tendency 
 to abbreviation. § 42. Works upon French phonetic laws . 31 
 
xiv TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Chapter IV.— Some Selected Examples. § 43. Airaia,bolt, 
 border. § 44. Bronze. § 45. Bullace. § 46. Bun. 
 § 47. Calm. § 48. Canopy. § 49. Censer \ loss of an initial 
 syllable. § 50. Mend, for amend', lone, for alone) crew for 
 afC7-ue. § 51. Cockatrice. § 52. Dismal .... 40 
 
 Chapter V.— Teutonic Types. § 53. The Teutonic languages. 
 § 54. Families of languages ; Semitic and Indo-germanic. 
 §55. The Teutonic group; in three divisions. Teutonic types. 
 § 56. Teutonic types inferred from Anglo-Saxon forms; one, 
 stone, thir-teen, ten. § 57. Original endings of Teutonic 
 types. § 58. Examples of Teutonic types ; English words 
 beginning with a and b. § 59. Vowel-changes in bed, belly^ 
 bench, feed, beech, birch. § 60. The second sound-shifting ; 
 as found in German ........ 47 
 
 Chapter VI. — Indo-germanic Types. § 61. Romanic and 
 Teutonic types. § 62. Comparison of forms found in the 
 Indo-germanic languages. § 63. Great antiquity of Teutonic 
 types. § 64. E, bite and L. Jindere. § 65. E. choose and L. 
 giistdre. E. thirst and L. terra. E. bear and L. ferre. E. 
 eat and L. edere. E. heave and L. capere. E. blow and 
 lu.Jidrere. § 66. The seven ' strong ' conjugations. § 67. The 
 Idg. root ten, to stretch, and its numerous derivatives. 
 § 68. The E. words heti, hare, holt 56 
 
 Chapter VTI. — The Value of English. § 69. How English 
 can illustrate Latin and Greek. § 70. How Roumanian can 
 illustrate French ; as infringe. § 71. The worci jnarmot. § 72. 
 E. star and Skt. tdrd. § 73. Value of native English forms. 
 § 74. E. bind; L. offendix', Gk. ireifffxa. § 75. E. bake and 
 Gk. (}>djy€iv. § 76. E. bre^v and L. defrutum. § 77. E. 
 brook, v., and I^. fructus. § 78. E. yell and Gk, x^^'^'*'''' 
 § 79. E. wharf 2CvA Gk. Kaprros. § 80. E. /ate and L. lassits. 
 § 81. E.>/^and Gk. ^nrXaGios; IE., puttee. § 82. E. low, v., 
 and L. cldmdre. § 83. E. rive and Gk. cpeiireiv ; L. ripa. 
 § 84. English helps to restore Gk. s and zv. § 85. Gk. evetv, 
 L. iirere, and prov. E. easles. § 86. E. w; L. w, E. wall, 
 wick, wine (all from Latin). § 87. Gk. hypos, and prov. E. 
 wake. § 88. Gk. cvvis, E. want; Gk. vhup, E. water; Gk. 
 v(paiv(iv, E. weave; Gk. cAtf (L. helix), E. wilk; Gk. epyov, 
 E. work. § 89. Loss of initial sw in Gk.; Gk. tSpws, E. 
 sweat; Gk. ^Sus, E. sweet; Gk. vrrj/os, A. S. swefn . . 65 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS xv 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Chapter VIII.— Linguistic Errors. § 90. Pedantic inter- 
 ference with English spelling. § 91. Folk- Etymology. § 92. 
 False analogy; M. E. wered, Tudor-E. um-Cy E. wore. § 93. 
 Examples of mistaken forms; strove, dove, hidden. § 94. 
 Mistaken forms of plural substantives; bodice, baize, trace, 
 brace, deuce, quince; sledge. § 95. Chess is the plural of 
 check ; the development of coney. § 96. Loss of final s ; 
 burial, riddle, pea, skate. The singulars, eaves, alms. Cherry, 
 sherry, marquee, &c. ; cherubim, roe, tnistletoe. § 97. Double 
 plurals ; bodices^ traces, &c. ; jesses, kexes, ramsons. § 98. 
 Examples of French plurals that simulate a singular form; 
 such as brace. English singulars from Latin plurals; battle, 
 bible, chronicle, ensign, feast, Joy, legend, manoeuvre, marvel, 
 brune, veil, viatui, say. § 99. Double plurals; entrails, 
 temples .......... 71^ 
 
 Chapter IX — Low German and Scandinavian. § 100. 
 Low German dialects. § 101. English words are sometimes 
 boiTOwed from Low German ; flabby, flaw, lazy, tub. § 102. 
 Dutch words in Shakespeare. § 103. Words of Scandinavian 
 origin ; call, gill, keg', bag, drag, egg, &c. ; scalp, scant, scare, 
 scathe, &c 87 
 
 Chapter X.--The Celtic Languages. § 104. Paucity of E. 
 words of Celtic origin. § 105. Some account of E. basket. 
 List of words of Celtic origin. § 106. Celtic cognates of E. 
 words. § 107. Adder, all, apple, axle. § 108. Barrow, be, 
 bear, belly, &c. § 109. Chin, corn, crane, cow. § 110. Deep, 
 door, dull; ear, eat, &c. § 111. Father, find, floor, foe, &c. 
 § 112. Glow, goose, yard ; hare, hart, hate, &i.c. § 113. Icicle', 
 kin. § 114. Land, lead, leather, leech, &c. § 115. Mane, 
 many, mare, &c. § 116. Naked, needle, nest, new, &c. ; 
 Oath, one. § 117. Quean, quick. Red, ride, right. Sic. 
 § 118. Sad, sallow, salt, seed, &c. § 119. Tame, tear, ten, 
 tooth, town, tree, two. § 120. Thaw, thatch, thick, thin, &c. 
 § 121. Wane, well, widow. See. § 122. Yard, yeast, yoke, 
 young, yew . 91 
 
 Chapter XI. — Lithuanian and Slavonic. § 123. The 
 Balto-Slavonic group. § 124. Slavonic languages. § 125. 
 Lithuanian symbols and pronunciation. § 126. Pronunciation 
 of Old Slavonic. § 127. Ale, am, apple, arm, ash, aspen, 
 axle. § 128. Ban, bare, be, bear, &c. § 129. Indo-germanic 
 gutturals. § 130. Comb, corn, knotv. § 131. Crane, knead. 
 
xvi TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 § 132. Cow ; quean, queen, quell, quern, quick. § 133. 
 Daughter^ day, deal, deep, &c. § 134. Ear, eat, eight, eke, 
 eleven, ewe. § 135. Fallow, farrow, fist, five, &c. § 136. 
 Gang, gold, goose ; yawn, yellow. § 137. Get, glad, guest. 
 § 138. Hare, haulm, heart, hound, housel, hundred; lean, 
 loud; white. § 139. Harvest, heap, hew, hide, hill', whole, 
 hurdle; raw, rick. § 140. Whale, wheel, while, who. § 141. 
 /, in, is. § 142. Lick, lie, life, leave, Sic. Meal, meed, 
 mesh, &c. Naked, neat, new, night, now. § 143. One, other, 
 otter. % 144. Pool. § 145. Red, ruddy, rye. § 146. Salt, 
 sear, seven, sew, &c. § 147. Tear, ten, tooth, tree, true, 
 twelve, two. § 148. That, thigh, third, thin, &c. § 149. 
 Wain, water, weather, wed, &c. § 150. Ye, year, yoke, 
 young 105 
 
 Chapter XII. — Armenian, Albanian, and Persian. § 151. 
 Armenian, Albanian, and Persian are Indo-germanic. § 152. 
 The nature of Armenian. § 153. Notes on Armenian sound- 
 laws, § 154. Armenian resembles Slavonic. § 155. * Sound- 
 shifting' found in Armenian. Labials: bh, b, p. Dentals: 
 dh, d, t. Palatal gutturals : gh, g, k. The Idg. w becomes 
 Arm. g. § 156. The Albanian alphabet. § 157. Labials : 
 Idg. p, bh, b. Dentals : Idg. t, d, dh. Palatal gutturals : 
 Idg. k,g,gh. § 158. Idg. s and w in Albanian. § 159. Sub- 
 divisions of Persian. § 160. Persian written by help of a 
 Semitic alphabet. § 161. Avestic symbols. § 162. Persian 
 values of the Idg. labials : Idg. / = Pers. p (or / before ^). 
 § 163. Idg. bh = Pers. and E. b. § 164. Idg. dentals : Idg. 
 / - Pers. t (rarely s). § 165. Idg. d = Pers. d =Y.. t. § 166. 
 Idg. dh = Pers. and E. d. § 167. Palatal gutturals : Idg. 
 k = Pers. J = E. /^. § 168. Idg. g - Pers. z^Y.. k; or it 
 becomes Pers. d. § 169. Idg. gh = Pers. 2 = E. ^. § 170. 
 Velar gutturals : Idg. ^(w) = Pers. k, ch = E. h, wh. Idg. 
 g{w) = Pers. g, s = E. c, qu. Idg. g(w)h — Pers. g, E. w. 
 § 171. Liquids: Pers. and E. /, m, n, r. § 172. Idg. s : 
 usually Pers. h; but also sh (after ni-), or kh (before H). 
 Treatment in Persian of Idg. sk, ks, sp, st, sr, sw. § 173. Idg. 
 w = Pers. V, g, b. § 174. Idg. y =- Pers. j -^ E. ;/. § 175. 
 Pers. forms of Idg. words beginning with a vowel . . .124 
 
 Chapter XIII. — English and Sanskrit. § 176. The value 
 of Sanskrit in comparative philology. § 177. Confusion of 
 short vowels in Sanskrit. § 178. The Skt. cha was originally 
 '^che. Substitution, in Skt., of a for Idg. e ; and of v for Idg. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS xvii 
 
 PAGE 
 
 w. § 179. Skt. and English illustrate each other. § 180. 
 The Skt. symbols and sounds. Sonant liquids. § 181. The 
 Skt. alphabet. § 182. Labials : examples of Skt. / = E. /. 
 § 183. Idg. 3 = E./ ; no examples in Skt. § 184. Idg. bh = 
 Skt. bh, b^Y..b. § 185. Dentals : Skt. t = E. fh. § 186. 
 Skt. d=E. t § 187. Idg. dk = Skt. dk, d = E. d. § 188. 
 Palatal gutturals : Idg. k = Skt. f c= E. k. § 189. Idg. g = 
 Skt. J ^E. k (c, ck). § 190. Idg. gk = Skt. k =^ E. s, y- 
 § 191. Velar gutturals : Idg. q = Skt. k, ch ^E. h. § 192. 
 Skt. k {cE) - E. wh. § 193. Idg. g{w) = Skt. g, j = E. c. 
 § 194. Idg. gw = Skt. g^E. c, qu. § 195. Idg. g{w)h = 
 Skty = E. g. § 196. The Skt. and E. /; Skt. p^ =. E. /. 
 § 197. The Skt. and E. m. § 198. The Skt. and E. n. 
 § 199. Skt. r(/); E. r, I % 200. Skt. and E. s. § 201. 
 Treatment of sk, sm, sn, sp, st, sw in Skt. and E. § 202. 
 Loss of initial s in Skt. ; preserved in E. § 203. Idg. and E. 
 w = Skt. V. § 204. Idg. jy = Skt. ^ = E. j. § 205. Cog- 
 nate words beginning with a vowel-sound . . . -144 
 
 Chapter XIV. — A Philological Ramble. § 206. Various i 
 examples of phonetic laws. § 207. E. wo^; A.S. wd^; Goth. 
 tvaii; Gk. oUa; Skt. veda. § 208. Examples of A.S. d = 
 Goth, ai = Gk. 01 = Skt. i. Doughy paradise, and dairy. 
 § 209. Idg. w = E. w = Gk. digamma = L. « ; examples. 
 § 210. Preterite forms with a present sense ; can, dare, may, 
 shall, wot. § 211. Idg. rs = L.rr = E. rs, rr. § 212. Idg. 
 Is may become //. § 213. Verner's Law ; effect of stress in 
 Idg. § 214. E. r from Idg. s ; examples. § 216. Compara- 
 tives of adjectives show E. -er from Idg. is- . . .172 
 
 Chapter XV.— Indo-germanic Words. § 216. Many words 
 occur in several Idg. languages. § 217. Acre, am, apple, are, 
 arm, axle. § 218. Be, bear, v., beaver, bid, bind, birch, 
 bottom, bough, brother, brow. § 219. Chin, choose, crane, 
 cow. § 220. Daughter, day, do, door, dough. § 221. Ear, 
 east, eat, eight, ell, ewe. § 222. Fare, father, feather, five, 
 foot, foul, four, frost, full. § 223. Goose, guest. § 224. 
 Hart, harvest, haulm, heart, horn, hound, hundred. § 225. I, 
 is. Kin, knee, know. § 226. Lea, lean, v., lick, lie, v., lief, 
 life, light, s., light, adj., loan, loud. § 227. Mark, marrow, 
 me, mead, meed, mid, milk, mind, moon, mother, mouse, 
 murder. § 228. Naked, name, nave, navel, new, night, nine, 
 nose, now. § 229. Of, off. Quean, quick. § 230. Raw, 
 reave, red, right. § 231. Same, seven, sew, sister, sit, six, 
 
xviii TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 speed, spurn, stand, star, steer, stream, sweat, sweet, swine. 
 § 232. Tame, tear, v., tear, s., ten. That, thatch, thin, thirst, 
 thou, three. Timber, tooth, tree, Tuesday, two. § 233. 
 Udder, un-. § 234. Warm, was, water, wax, v., weigh, white, 
 who, widow, will, v., win, wind, s., wit, v., withy, wool, work, 
 worth, V. § 235. Yard, ye, year, yearn, yeast, yellow, yoke, 
 young 183 
 
 Chapter XVI.— Some Results. § 236. Idg. words distributed 
 into categories. § 237. How the list of Idg. words in English 
 may be increased. § 238. The Idg. words for ' eye '. § 239. 
 Connexion of E. with languages spoken in India, such as 
 Hindi. § 240. English and Hindi equivalents : bind, bough, 
 brother, &c. § 241. Kin, know, comb, calf, cow, quick. 
 § 242. E. initial d, § 243. E. initial/. § 244. E. initial h. 
 § 245. E, initial m. § 246. E. initial n. § 247. E. initial s. 
 § 248. E. initial t, th. § 249. E. initial w and y. § 250. 
 Recapitulation. § 251. How to obtain further examples of 
 co-radicate words. § 252. Words which have no native A. S. 
 root. § 253. Examples of co-radicate words. § 254. Nume- 
 rous derivatives from a single root 202 
 
 Index of Words 21a 
 
CHAPTER I 
 SOME GENERAL PRINCIPLES 
 
 § 1. It must be very difficult for the general public to 
 appreciate, or even to ascertain, the great advances that have 
 been made of late years in the study of etymology. The 
 rnethods now adopted have so entirely changed the aspect of 
 the subject, that what used to be a matter of guesswork or 
 arbitrary suggestion has been largely reduced to law and 
 order. Etymology depends no longer upon barefaced and 
 irresponsible assertion, but has been raised to the dignity 
 of a science. 
 
 § 2. The attitude of the public with regard to etymology, 
 in the former half of the nineteenth century, was so extremely 
 unintelligent that it would almost pass belief, were it not for 
 the lamentable fact that similar notions still prevail to a de- 
 plorable extent. The prevalent idea was to set up some 
 standard authority, which was usually Dr. Johnson's Dic- 
 tionary, and to believe without question whatever happened 
 to be there asserted. It was even esteemed an act of impiety 
 to question his decisions. This is how the ridiculous deriva- 
 tion of beef-eater (which after all is merely derived, as the 
 N.E.D. shows, from beef and eat\ viz. from a wholly 
 imaginary French form beaufeh'er, came into vogue, and was 
 received with a tenacious reverence which admitted of no 
 misgiving. Not to know this ' derivation ' was considered as 
 a note of ignorance ; and to dare to doubt it was to incur 
 pitying contempt. Chapter XXV of my Principles of English 
 Etymology, Second Series, is entirely devoted to * Some False 
 
 1243 1 ^ 
 
2 SOME GENERAL PRINCIPLES chap, i 
 
 Etymologies'; and I there record quite a large number of 
 puerilities of this character, which need not be here recounted. 
 Some of these were actually put forward in the revered name 
 of science. I remember, for instance, a time when some 
 botanical 'authority' drew attention to the fact that harebell 
 is a false name, because it should rather be called hairbell, 
 with reference to the hair-like stem from which the bell 
 depends.^ Surely science ought to refrain most carefully 
 from the circulation of falsehood ; the name was never meant 
 to be scientific, but may rather be considered as expressing 
 a natural inclination on the part of our forefathers to associate 
 plants with the names of animals ; I give some sixty examples 
 of this habit at pp. 391-2 of A Studejifs Pastime. This is 
 by no means a solitary example of the harm done by the 
 meddlesomeness of conceit. Another example occurs in the 
 case oi fox-glove (A. S. foxes glofa, lit. fox's glove), which 
 some wiseacre opined ought to be ' folks' glove ', with refer- 
 ence to the ' little folks ' or fairies. As far as I can discover, 
 this notion was first put forward by Mr. Fox Talbot, who 
 wrote a book on Etymologies in 1851; and I am told that 
 there are some who admire the name, because it is 'so 
 poetical '. But this does not alter the fact that it is entirely 
 false. And, as the great aim of the present treatise is to 
 inculcate sound principles, I am anxious to begin with the 
 /Statement that the business of the student of language is to 
 f ascertain what were the actual forms of names in olden 
 \ times, and not to be wise above what is written by inventing 
 names which our forefathers ought to have employed. The 
 philologist is not concerned with what ought to have been 
 said; his business is to pursue strictly historical methods. 
 It would be strange indeed if we were to extend similar 
 methods to history; as, for instance, by asserting that 
 
 ^ According to the Neiv English Dictionary, this silly conceit was 
 encouraged by Lindley. 
 
§ 2 ORIGIN OF CARFAX 3 
 
 Anne Boleyn was never beheaded, because she ought not to 
 have been. It must have been Henry VIII who suffered, as 
 having better deserved such a fate. 
 
 § 3. The fox-hunter does not content himself by guessing 
 where the fox might be or ought to be; but employs his 
 hounds to investigate his prey's exact position. Similarly, 
 all etymology really depends upon thorough and careful 
 search. In the case of difficult words, it may easily happen 
 that, after all apparent sources of information have been ex- 
 hausted in vain, a new fact or quotation may suddenly present 
 itself, by which the solution is surely indicated. By taking 
 care to be constantly on the look-out for this possibility of 
 the occurrence of fresh evidence, and by waiting patiently 
 till it appeared, I have been successful in discovering a con- 
 siderable number of etymologies that were previously un- 
 known. I give by way of example, the etymology of the 
 interesting word Car/ax, well known at Oxford as applied 
 to a spot where four streets meet. The guide-books were 
 once in the habit of informing the stranger that this curious 
 word was derived either from the French quatre votes ^ ' four 
 ways,' Lat. ace. pi. quatuor uias\ or else from the French 
 quatre faces, 'four faces.' Both these results are manifestly 
 unsatisfactory; since neither -oies nor -aces could produce 
 a final -x', neither are the phrases in question likely ex- 
 pressions to be used for the purpose. But in i866 I was 
 engaged in editing The Romance of Partenay for the Early 
 English Text Society, and on coming to 1. 1819 of this 
 poem, I found the expression — * No place ther had, neither 
 carfouhes non But peple shold se ther come many one ' ; the 
 sense being that ' there was no place there, nor any meeting 
 of crossroads but people saw them well thronged '. Here is 
 the form carfoukes, which agrees sufficiently well with carfox^ 
 an occasional old spelling of Carfax. Blount's Glossographta, 
 ed. 1 68 1, has: — 'Carefox or Carfax, a Market-place in 
 Oxford, so called.' This Romance of Partenay is translated 
 
 B 2 
 
4 SOME GENERAL PRINCIPLES chap, i 
 
 from the French; and on turning to the French original, 
 I found : — * Lieu ny avoit ne carrefourgl which at once gave 
 the clue. Carfax, of which older forms are carfox and cai'/oukes, 
 obviously represents the O. F. plural carrefourcs, later carre- 
 fourgs, from the popular Latin quadrifurcus, ' a place where 
 there are four forks/ It is the right French word to the 
 present day, though now reduced to the form carrefour. 
 The final x is now explained; it simply represents the 
 O. F. cs. The solution, when once obtained, is obvious 
 enough; it was adopted in Wedgwood's Etymological Dic- 
 tionary in 1878, and is now common property. There is an 
 excellent article on Carfax in the N. E. D., where Sir James 
 Murray shows that Phillips, in 1662, gave the explanation: 
 ' Carefox, quasi quatrefour ' ; which fails to explain the x. But 
 he was on the right track. 
 
 § 4. My next example is intended to illustrate another 
 point altogether, viz. the necessity of verification. It is seldom 
 safe to accept an etymology that does not explain the sense 
 of the word as well as the form ; and it has to be remembered 
 that our older Dictionaries cannot always be trusted; they 
 sometimes even assert the existence of forms that are wholly 
 fictitious. Scientific principles demand that alleged facts 
 should be tested wherever practicable ; and nowhere is such 
 scrutiny more necessary than in the establishment of an 
 etymology. A good instance occurs in the case of the 
 poetical word cark, which is used as a sb. by Spenser and as 
 a verb by Tennyson. The former has : — 
 
 — ' and downe did lay 
 His heavie head, devoide of careful carke'. — F. Q. i. it 44. 
 
 And the latter : — ' Thee nor carketh care nor slander ' ; A 
 Dirge, 1. 8. He probably took it to mean ' fretteth ; which 
 is not quite correct. 
 
 Dr. Johnson, following Skinner, derived cark from the 
 A. S. care, sb., and cearcian, verb. Both are entirely wrong. 
 
§ 4 ORIGIN OF CARK 5 
 
 but for different reasons. As for the sb., it is wholly fictitious, 
 and probably owed its existence to the very word which it 
 professes to explain. Somner's A. S. Dictionary has : ' care, 
 care, becarcan, to carke or care for, to take care of.' But 
 both words are unknown, and will remain so until some one 
 produces a quotation in which they occur, which does not 
 seem to have been done as yet. Even then, the difficulty as 
 to the sense remains ; cark has nothing to do with the sense 
 of 'taking care of, but is only equivalent (or nearly so) to 
 care when it has the sense of ' anxiety ', if a sb.; or of ' to fill 
 with care, to vex ', if a verb. Once more, there is indeed 
 such a verb as the A. S. cearcian, but it means ' to creak ', or 
 * to make a disagreeable noise ' ; it passed, in fact, into the 
 form chark, and Wyclif has the expression 'as a wayn 
 charkith ', where the Vulgate version of Amos ii. 13 has ' sicut 
 stridet plaustrum '. It is obvious that this chark has nothing 
 whatever to do with cark. Thus a little research soon shows 
 that there is no pretence for assuming that there ever was 
 any A. S. sb. or verb that has anything to do with cark. 
 It is something to find that a way is positively blocked up, 
 because this suggests trying to find another way out. 
 
 § 5. Accordingly, in the first edition of my Etymological 
 Dictionary, in 1882, 1 gave, in the Supplement, a conjectural 
 derivation of cark from the Welsh care, explained in Spurrell's 
 Dictionary by ' care, solicitude '. Unfortunately, this is open 
 to the grave objection that the derivation runs the other way ; 
 for it was shown by Professor Rhys that Welsh contains a 
 rather large number of words that were borrowed from 
 Middle English ; and this W. care is merely the English 
 word done into Welsh spelling. Here, then, the way is again 
 blocked up; and a new solution must be found. But one 
 day, whilst examining the valuable work known as the Liber 
 Albus, which was written in London and contains records of the 
 thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, my attention was caught 
 by the occurrence, at p. 224, of the word kark (or karke) no 
 
6 SOME GENERAL PRINCIPLES chap.i 
 
 less than thirty-one times, in the sense of ' a load ' or * large 
 quantity ', with reference to pepper, sugar, cummin, almonds, 
 &c. ; whereas, on p. 225, the same thing was expressed, 
 twenty-one times, by la charge. Both pages are written in 
 Anglo-French. The right solution is, accordingly, that cark 
 is from the Old Northern French (or Norman) karke or carke, 
 which is the exact equivalent, in that dialect, of the usual 
 F. charge, a load, a burden. Spenser, accordingly, speaks of 
 a man's head being free from the anxious burden of thought, 
 and Tennyson's expression gains if we understand it to 
 allude to one to whom neither anxiety nor slander is a burden. 
 Both sound and sense are now accounted for. I published 
 this result in 1884, in the second edition of my Dictionary, 
 and it has been generally accepted. The usual sense of cark 
 is a load or burden of care. 
 
 § 6. The investigation of the history of cark has landed 
 us in a question which deserves a further search, viz. the 
 question of varying dialects. The Norman karke and the 
 Parisian charge are doublets, i. e. varying forms of the same 
 word. Both are verbal substantives, from the Late Lat. 
 carricdre, to carry, to transport in a car, used by St. Jerome, 
 and ultimately due to Lat. carrus^ a car, primarily of Celtic 
 origin. This Late Lat. verb was actually developed in three 
 different ways. Sometimes it was contracted to carcdre^ 
 whence the North. F. kerkier, querquier (see the Supp. to 
 Godefroy, s. v. charger^ and the E. cark. Another derivative 
 was the O. F. chargier, F. charger, to load (a car) ; whence 
 E. charge. A third derivative was made by dropping the 
 second c, giving carri'dre, whence the O. F, carter, charier, 
 and the E. carry. The variation between the O. North. F. ca, 
 and the O. F. (i.e. Old Central French) cha, both used 
 initially in place of a Lat. ca, is very striking; and it is 
 worth while to look round to find other examples. The 
 modern Picard is a Northern F. dialect, closely allied to 
 Norman, and abounds with examples. See Corblet's Glossaire 
 
§6 NORTHERN FRENCH 7 
 
 (1851), which has cabre, cabe, cape, a goat, F. chevre; caboche, 
 a great head (cf. F. chef), which is the origin of E. cabbage, 
 orig. ' a head of cabbage ', a word that is obviously of Picard 
 origin ; cacun, F. chaciin ; caine, cagne, a chain, F. chaine, 
 from L. catena ; ^^zr, F. cher, from L. r^zrwj, dear ; caleur, 
 F. chaleur, from L. ace. caldrem, heat, &c. In all these cases 
 Picard is nearer to Latin than the Parisian is. Much more 
 important to us are the Picard or Norman forms that have 
 found their way into English ; such as the difficult verb 
 to catch. Many Latin words were curiously altered as the 
 centuries went by ; so that, e. g., the Lat. captdre, to try to 
 catch, to chase, was turned into captidre^ which regularly 
 became cachier or cacher in North. F., but chacier in O. F. 
 elsewhere. From cachier we have borrowed the form to catch ; 
 but from chacier^ the form to chase. Chacier, in French, is 
 now spelt chasser, with the same sense. There are many 
 more examples in which English similarly prefers the North. 
 F. ca- to the F. cha- ; it may suffice to mention caitiffs from 
 O North. F. caitif, Lat. captluus, a prisoner, a wretch; not 
 from O. F. chaitif (F. che'tif). So also calumet, a pipe, is a 
 Norman form, as distinguished from the F. chaume, a straw 
 (hence, a pipe), which has given us the word shawm ; both 
 are from L. calamus, a reed. The capital of a pillar is a 
 Northern form, as distinguished from chapiter, with the same 
 sense ; and the chapter of a book is a mere doublet of the 
 latter. Car, as already mentioned, is related to the F. char, 
 a car. Carnage is allied to the F. chair, flesh ; and carrion 
 is a doublet of the F. charogne, a carcase ; all from the Lat. 
 caro, flesh. The Lat. capsa, a chest, a box, is represented 
 by the O. North. F. casse, E. case, and by F. chdsse', and 
 further, by the Ital. cassa, a chest, a cash-box, whence M. F. 
 (Middle French) casse, ' a box, case, or chest . . . also a mer- 
 chant's cash or counter,' Cotgrave ; which we adopted, in the 
 form cash, to mean a till for keeping money in ; but it now 
 means the money itself. Castle, O. North. F. castel, is a 
 
8 SOME GENERAL PRINCIPLES chap.i 
 
 doublet of chateau. To cater once meant to act as a cater or 
 caiour, a buyer, a provider, which is a docked form of the 
 M. E. and O. North. F. acatour, from the O. North. F. acater, 
 to buy; but the F. verb, is acheter. A caterpillar is the 
 equivalent of the modern Norman dialectal form catepleuse, 
 with the same sense ; the literal sense of the latter is ' hairy 
 she-cat', since cate is a fem. form allied to F. chat; and 
 pleuse (for peleuse) is from the L. pildsus, hairy. The most 
 striking example is cattle, O. North. F. catel, O. F. chatel, 
 L. capitate, lit. ' capital, property ' ; for we actually also em- 
 ploy the plural chattels, A kennel, in the sense of gutter, 
 represents the A. F. (Anglo-French) canel ; but the O. F. 
 form was chanel, which is our channel, and there is yet a third 
 form, viz. canal, which is very close to the Lat. candlis. The 
 kennel for a dog is from Norman ken (cf. Picard kien), the 
 equivalent of F. chien ; the Late Lat. canlle is explained as 
 meaning * domus canis ' in a glossary. Norman also had the 
 diminutive kenet, a little dog, which is also found in Mid. 
 English. The last form I shall mention is the odd word 
 cause-way, shortened from the older form causey-way ; here 
 causey is due to a North. F. caucie, O. F. chaucie, mod. F. 
 chausse'e, one meaning of which, according to Cotgrave, is 
 ' the causey, bank, or dam of a pond or of a river '. 
 
 Observe how all these results depend upon the simple fact 
 that Norman has ca-, ke-, where Parisian has cha-, chie- ; 
 when once a law is perceived, the rest is easy. 
 
 § 7. The preceding examples have been mentioned merely 
 to give an idea of the nature of some of the problems with 
 which the philologist has to deal; and it has already been 
 suggested that his work must be conducted, not casually or 
 by guess, but in accordance with fixed laws, due to careful 
 deductions from actual observation. This prepares the way 
 for considering the general principles upon which all etymo- 
 logical work must be conducted. In dealing with a given 
 word, the usual course is to trace the history of its varying 
 
§7 HISTORICAL METHOD 9 
 
 forms from age to age ; and, as we frequently do not know 
 what the original form of the word really was, we usually 
 have to begin with the known, i.e. the modern, form, and 
 trace its history backwards. If we can succeed in doing this 
 so as to arrive at a form which is well known, and can be 
 accepted as its original without further doubt, the end of the 
 task is reached ; and it will in such a case be quite easy to 
 reverse the process, and trace its history downwards from 
 the primitive type to the form with which we are all familiar. 
 This is called the historical method, and depends for its 
 success upon the completeness and the perspicuity of the 
 word's records. In the case of terms derived more or less 
 immediately from Latin and Greek, this can often be done 
 easily enough, by any one who has learnt something of the 
 structure of those languages. What are called 'learned words', 
 i.e. words due to Latin or Greek scholars, who have intro- 
 duced them into English as the result of their own reading, 
 are usually transparent enough, and present but little difficulty. 
 A very moderate acquaintance with Latin will solve such 
 words as aberration, accumulation, or agriculture-, and 
 a little Greek will enable the student to understand the sense 
 of amphibious and anthropology. It not unfrequently happens 
 that the longest words are the easiest to account for. As to 
 the large number of words of Latin origin which are current 
 in modern English, see the long list in my Etymological 
 Dictionary (19 10), at pp. 766-8, filling four long columns in 
 rather small print ; and note that many of these are primary 
 w^ords from which other derivatives can be formed ; as, for 
 example, the word describe, from which descriptive and descrip- 
 tion can be deduced. 
 
 § 8. The ease with which such words as description or 
 symptom can be accounted for is often, in practice, a subtle 
 snare. The man who has received a ' classical education ' 
 is only too apt to conceive the erroneous idea that, in the 
 matter of etymology, he has little or nothing to learn. He 
 
lo SOME GENERAL PRINCIPLES chap.i 
 
 may even be tempted to believe that words of native origin 
 are of slight value, which is at once undiscerning and absurd, 
 since they form the backbone of our language, and, as such 
 masters of English as Tennyson and Bright fully realized, 
 supply it with its chief strength and vigour. In addition to 
 this, we have to remember the vast masses of French words 
 with which English abounds. The French words of Latin 
 origin alone fill nearly eight columns in my Dictionary, or 
 nearly double the number of Latin ones ; and those of Greek 
 origin fill more than a column more. And if words of direct 
 Latin origin can be easily traced, the same cannot always be 
 said of such as came through French. What, for example, is 
 the Latin form of ransom, venison, adroit, or adverin, words 
 which are easy enough when their origins are once pointed 
 out ? And is it quite clear in what way menial and menagerie 
 can be connected with the Lat. manere, to remain ? The fact 
 is, rather, that the rules for deducing French forms from Latin 
 ones are numerous and complex, and the perusal of such 
 a book as Toynbee's Historical Grammar of the French 
 Language may well suggest, even to the most confident, 
 some reasons for assuming a humble attitude. It makes 
 a difference whether a given French vowel, say a, is tonic, 
 atonic, or pretonic ; whether it is ' free ' or ' blocked ' ; and 
 whether it is followed or preceded by the ' Romanic >W. 
 Add to this, that the number of French words of which the 
 origin is absolutely unknown is decidedly large. 
 
 § 9. Another not uncommon delusion is that a knowledge 
 of German will solve native English words ; the fact being 
 that, of all the Teutonic languages, the modern German is 
 usually the most remote from Middle English and Anglo- 
 Saxon. German is a help indeed to those who have learnt 
 Old English already, but it is very apt to mislead those who 
 have not done so. For the purposes of etymology, the most 
 useful Teutonic language is Gothic; and it is always advisable 
 to trace native or Scandinavian words back to their A. S. or 
 
§ 9 SPOKEN LANGUAGES 1 1 
 
 Norse forms before attempting to compare them with 
 German. 
 
 § 10. I now come to the discussion of a far more important 
 principle than any that has hitherto been mentioned. It is 
 hardly too much to say that more has been discovered about 
 the laws of etymology during the last fifty years than during 
 the thousands that preceded them ; and this has been done 
 mainly by the application of a new principle, viz. that of strict 
 attention to the exact pronunciation of languages as spoken ; 
 a matter which had previously been contemned as needless, 
 or else left wholly unconsidered. It has come upon modern 
 scholars with the force of a great and real discovery — for 
 practically it is little less — that after all the only true living 
 languages are the spoken ones ; and that even what are called 
 the ' dead ' languages can be vivified if only they be pro- 
 nounced aloud with the same sounds that they had when 
 alive. We know the sounds of Greek and Latin with 
 sufficient accuracy to understand their ways ; and that is all 
 that we want. By giving to the Latin vowels their Italian 
 values, by sounding the Latin c as k under all circumstances, 
 and the like, we can understand the origin of the principal 
 sounds in all the Romance languages, i.e. in the languages 
 that have descended from Latin. We can regain and 
 reproduce the sounds of Old French, including Norman, 
 and we can not only trace the apparent changes in the 
 written forms of French from one century to another, but we 
 can do far more ; for we can really understand what such 
 changes in the symbols signify, and how they came to be 
 made. We truly understand the history of a given word only 
 when we know how its sounds changed from time to time, 
 the true subject of inquiry being the history of its pro- 
 nunciation. All formal changes are meaningless till we know 
 what each form signified; but when these written symbols 
 are translated into actual sounds, we can verify the whole 
 process, and fully perceive the absolutely astonishing precision 
 
12 SOME GENERAL PRINCIPLES chap, i 
 
 and regularity with which ' phonetic laws ' are obeyed. Most 
 languages have their own peculiarities of utterance, but there 
 is a large number of sound-laws that are common to all, and 
 they usually all follow the same direction. The Latin c in 
 centum having once been a k, it is easy to see how that sound 
 of k has been palatalized in the Ital. cento (with c like the ch 
 in chair) ; or has become a th, as in the Spanish ciento ; or 
 was sounded as is in the Old Norman cent ; or has become 
 a mere j" in the modern French cent ; but there is no reverse 
 movement. Neither a ch^ nor a th, nor a ts, nor an s has 
 come to be sounded as k. There is no more difficulty as to 
 the ^'-sound of the initial c in Latin, before all vowels, than 
 there is in Celtic. To this day the Welsh for ' a hundred ' is 
 cant\ the Welsh ci, 'a dog,' is pronounced like the E. key ; 
 and the Welsh cell, * a cell,' is pronounced with an initial k, 
 though it is, presumably, merely borrowed from the Lat. cella^ 
 like the Kil- in the Scotch Kilpatrick or the Irish Kilkenny. 
 And it has to be remembered that the symbols of the Celtic 
 alphabets are of Roman origin. The easiest proof of the 
 original sound of the Latin c is to note that the past tense of 
 cadere, to fall, was cecidi. For either this cecidi must have 
 been pronounced as kekidi, or else there is no such thing as 
 reduplication of sound. Those who think it was pronounced 
 as sesidt would have us believe that cadere was pronounced as 
 sadere ; for this is what the double s of sesidt implies when 
 the words are pronounced aloud. 
 
 § 11. There is no greater help to the right knowledge of 
 the sounds of most of the European languages than to learn 
 the proper pronunciation of classical Latin, for the plain 
 reason that so many of these languages themselves adopted 
 the Latin alphabet ; and they could hardly have done this 
 without knowing what sounds the Latin characters were 
 intended to signify. The odd thing is that many fail to 
 perceive how it came about that, in England, and in the 
 nineteenth century, Latin was sounded like English. It was 
 
§ II PRONUNCIATION OF LATIN 13 
 
 the natural result of pronouncing Latin and English alike at 
 all dates. It began in Beda's time, in the seventh century 
 (or earlier), when Northumbrian English was pronounced 
 like Latin, and conversely, yet very differently from -modern 
 English ; and both have gradually changed together, ever 
 since, pari passu. Chaucer, for example, pronounced Latin 
 and English alike, at any rate as to the vowel-sounds ; and 
 he could not have pronounced either of them like modern 
 English, because he had not the gift of prophecy, and could 
 not tell what modern English would be like. Neither can 
 we tell how ^English will be pronounced in the year 2000. 
 All we know is that the sounds then employed will not be 
 precisely those which we use now : it is likely that they will 
 differ considerably. It is very difficult to bear always in 
 mind the fact that spoken languages vary from decade to 
 decade, and that even a stereotyped spelling has but little 
 effect on many of the sounds, especially the vowels. The 
 present spelling is not very different from that of Elizabethan 
 days ; but the changes in pronunciation since that date have 
 been very serious. Well down to 1 600, and later, our word 
 dame was pronounced as in modern French. 
 
 § 12. Before concluding this chapter, I beg leave to refer 
 the reader to a few authorities on this subject. The sounds of 
 modern English, French, and German, as well as of Latin 
 and Greek, are given in Sweet's Primer 0/ Phonetics. My 
 Primer of Classical and English Philology also gives the 
 pronunciation of Latin ^ and Greek, and shows how English 
 has cognate forms in those languages, in accordance with 
 Grimm's law ; and the principles of ' vowel-gradation ' in all 
 three languages are fully illustrated by comparison. ^ The 
 great work on the variations of English sounds from time to 
 
 1 I recall the statement on p. 9 of this Primer, that the Latin long {0) 
 sometimes had the ' open * sound. 
 
 2 Grimm's Law and vowel-gradation are explained in my Pntner of 
 
 English Etymology. 
 
14 SOME GENERAL PRINCIPLES chap, i 
 
 time is that by Dr. Ellis, on Early English Pronunciation ; 
 it should interest the reader to know that he found the most 
 helpful book to be William Salesbury's Account of English 
 Pronunciation, as given in his Dictionary in English and 
 Welsh, dated 1547. Salesbury here compares the English 
 sounds with Welsh ; and in 1567 he fully explained the Welsh 
 sounds in another treatise. The Welsh spelling is so 
 phonetic that his explanations are intelligible and valuable. 
 Dr. Sweet's History of English Sounds gives a full account of 
 our changing pronunciation from Anglo-Saxon times to the 
 present day, and contains some valuable word-lists. His 
 Handbook of Phonetics (not the same book as the Primer men- 
 tioned above) not only gives the sounds of spoken English, 
 French, and German, but also those of Icelandic, Swedish^ 
 and Danish. A rather full account of the phonetics of Anglo- 
 French, and some account of the pronunciation of Italian 
 and Spanish, are given in my Principles of Etiglish Etymology, 
 Secojid Series. For Anglo-Saxon, we have Cook's trans- 
 lation of the grammar by Sievers, which deals with the 
 phonetics very carefully ; as well as the excellent grammars 
 of Old English and of Gothic by Professor J. Wright, in 
 which particular regard is paid to phonology. We can 
 further consult Mayhew's Synopsis of Old E?iglish Phonology. 
 There is, in fact, no lack of good guides at the present day : 
 and the opportunities for the study of pronunciation of the 
 languages with which we have to deal, in order to understand 
 how they actually sounded, are very different now from what 
 they were a generation ago. 
 
CHAPTER II . 
 SOME USEFUL CANONS 
 
 § 13. At p. xxviii of the Preface to my Dictionary, I give 
 ten useful Canons, explaining that there is nothing new 
 about them, and that their chief utility is due to the fact that 
 they are so frequently disregarded, especially in books that 
 are not of the latest type. I also give a few examples of 
 their neglect, but it may be instructive to give a few more. 
 I discuss each of them separately. 
 
 § 14. Canon i. Before attempting an etymology, ascer- 
 tain the earliest form and use of a word; and observe 
 chronology. 
 
 This has already been said above. Let us see what comes 
 of disregarding so obvious a precaution. In Haydn's 
 Dictionary of Dates, 13th ed., 1868, I find the following: 
 ' Tram-roads, an abbreviation of Outram-roads, derived the 
 name from Mr. Benjamin Outram, who, in 1800, made 
 improvements in the system of railways for common vehicles, 
 &c.' Of course this edition is only an old one, but this does 
 not matter, as the statement is continually being repeated. 
 I saw it in a newspaper in 19 10. At the very outset, the 
 student of phonetics will doubt the story, because it contradicts 
 the widely-spread phonetic law that, when a word is abbre- 
 viated, it is the stressed syllable that survives. The abbrevia- 
 tion for Isaac is not 'saac, but Ike\ which makes short work 
 of a favourite ^ etymology ' adopted by Anglo-Israelites, viz. 
 that Saxon is contracted from Isaac-son. The contracted 
 form of the latter would be Ike-son. So likewise the natural 
 
1 6 SOME USEFUL CANONS chap, ii 
 
 abbreviation of Outram, if it be docked of a syllable, will not 
 be Tram^ but Out. But passing over this, let us examine 
 the chronology. Now the E. D. D. quotes (s. v. Tram) 
 from Heslop's Northumbrian Words (E. D. S., 1892-4) the 
 following statement, * The wages for the barrow-men is 
 usually about twenty pence, or two-and-twenty pence a day, 
 for each tram (that is to say) for putting so many loaden 
 corves [baskets] as are carried on one sledge, or tram, to the 
 pit-shaft'; Compleat Collier (1708), p. 39. In endeavouring 
 to verify this quotation, I failed to find the Compleat Collier 
 itself; but I found a facsimile reprint of it, and thus ascer- 
 tained that the quotation is correct. It is obviously impos- 
 sible that a man who was alive in 1800 could give his name 
 to a sledge that was already called a tra7n in 1708 ! I believe 
 the word to be of Scandinavian origin ; and, as for tracing its 
 early use, I connect it with the tram^ or wheelbarrow-handle, 
 mentioned by Dunbar; see the account in my Dictionary. 
 It is, indeed, to be regretted that the attempt has been made 
 to associate the honoured name of Outram with an untenable 
 etymology. 
 
 § 16. The advisability of ascertaining the earliest form of 
 a word ought to be obvious ; but it can be made clearer by 
 taking a few examples. It is very common for a word to 
 lose a sound in the course of time and even to lose the 
 symbol that stood for it ; but by tracing the history back- 
 wards we can generally recover what was lost; and the 
 recovery may make a great deal of difference. The common 
 adjective raw once had an initial h ; the A. S. form was 
 hi^eaw. But as an A. S. h, by Grimm's Law, invariably 
 answers, in cognate words, to a Latin c and Greek k, we find 
 related forms in the Latin crudus, raw, and the Greek Kpka^, 
 raw flesh. Neither of these relationships would have been 
 possible, nor could have been detected, but for the restored h. 
 It is just the same with the word to listen ; it is connected 
 with the shorter form list (Hamlet, i. 5. 22), A. S. hlyst-an, 
 
§ 15 LISTEN AND BEST 17 
 
 to hearken to, from A. S. hlyst, sb., hearing. And since 
 A. S.^ presupposes an earlier u, the base is hlus-, from the 
 root KLEU, to hear, which gives the cognate forms seen in 
 the Gk. /cXv-etv, to hear, L. clu-ere, Skt. (;ru. Cf. Welsh dust, 
 the ear ; Skt. grustis^ obedience, lit. ' a listening to '. ^ Here, 
 again, until the initial h is restored, none of these relation- 
 ships can be perceived. This example is a convenient one 
 for noting the Skt. g, which is a convenient symbol for 
 denoting a sound that was once a k (and cognate with L. <r, 
 Gk. k), but had come to be sounded as a sibilant, with a sound 
 like the E. sh in shall, shrew. The number of instances in 
 which we can only reason from * restored ' forms is so very 
 great that it is needless to say more. As a very easy case, 
 take the word best. As soon as we know that the A. S. form 
 was heist, i. e. het-st (also bet-est), we can see why best is the 
 superlative of the comparative bett-er, M. E. bet-er, A. S. het-ra, 
 bet-era. Both are from a positive '^bat, i.e. good, closely 
 allied to hot, i. e. boot, profit, advantage. For the mutation 
 of a to e, cf. elder ; p. 181. 
 
 § 16. Canon 2. Observe history and geography; borrow- 
 ings are due to actual contact. 
 
 The spoken sounds of a language must depend upon the 
 speakers; and if we want to know all about the speakers of 
 Old English, we must consult the history of England, which 
 will tell us the essential points. The most important 
 linguistic event was the Norman Conquest in 1066, of which 
 one amazing result was that the Norman scribes, in the 
 thirteenth century especially, took upon themselves to learn 
 our language and to respell it for us ; whilst, at the same 
 time, they very greatly influenced our pronunciation. An 
 extraordinary compromise was effected in the case of such 
 a word as right, from the A. S. riht, in which the ht was 
 
 1 For a- similar change of sense cf. the Avestic nshi, lit. ' the two 
 cars ', whence the Pers. hush, ' understanding.' See p. 143. 
 1343 Q 
 
1 8 SOME USEFUL CANONS chap, ii 
 
 pronounced like the Ger. cht in recht. The scribes invented 
 the symbol gh to express this guttural, but Norman dislike of 
 it gradually prevailed upon the majority to suppress the sound 
 itself! And we have continued for some centuries to submit 
 to this singular arrangement, carefully suppressing the reason 
 for it in all our schools. One cannot help hoping that a time 
 will come when our schoolmasters will awake to a desire to 
 overcome their own unscholarly ignorance of the history of 
 our spelling, will endeavour to learn something about it, and 
 will even go so far as to impart their new knowledge with be- 
 fitting accuracy. 
 
 Geography has also to be considered. If we borrow 
 foreign words, or foreign names for things, the knowledge of 
 the things themselves must have reached us somehow. We 
 do not borrow from foreign lands with which we have no 
 dealings. Names cannot fly through the air like birds, but 
 they can come over in ships. It is rather surprising to find 
 an Arabic word like saffron appearing in our literature (as 
 safran) as early as 1200; but we merely got the word from 
 France, where it was spelt safran in the twelfth century ; and 
 the French could easily have received it from the Mediter- 
 ranean, since at that date the famous Venetian navy and 
 commerce were already active in securing traffic with the 
 East. The thing itself must have been familiar in England 
 at an early date, as the early quotation shows; in fact. 
 Saffron Walden in Essex had its name from the saffron that 
 was early grown there. In all cases, the route by which 
 a word reached us should be ascertained, if possible. 
 
 § 17. Canon 3. Observe phonetic laws, especially those 
 which regulate the mutual relation of consonants in the 
 various Indo-germanic languages, at the same time com- 
 paring the vowel-sounds. 
 
 Something has been said about this already, but more may 
 advantageously be said about consonants and vowels. The 
 success and completeness of the comparison that has been 
 
§17 THE INDO-GERMANIC Z> 19 
 
 instituted between the consonantal systems of the Indo- 
 germanic languages leave little to be desired. Even such 
 brief and partial tables as those given in my Primer of 
 Etymology (pp. 80, 81) and in my Primer of Classical and 
 English Philology (pp. 96, 97) give the more useful facts; 
 but much more can be learnt from tables so complete as 
 those prefixed (at pp. xxii-xl) to Walde's Lateinisches Eiymo- 
 logisches Wbrterhuch. Take, e. g., the statement that the Indo- 
 germanic initial d is usually represented by d in Skt., Gk., 
 Lat., Lithuanian, and Old Irish ; but by / in Gothic, A. S. 
 (and English) ; and by z in German. This is a law that is 
 never broken except when there is some unusual cause for it ; 
 of which the only one that here concerns us is that a Gk. 
 initial d, if followed by z (Eng.^), becomes C, and the Lat. d^ in 
 the same case, becomes /, often written i ox j. This exception 
 is chiefly made in order to cover the case of the interesting set 
 of words presented by the Skt. Dydus, ' the shining one,' 
 Gk. Zevs (gen. Ai6s), L. dies, ' day,' Dies-piter or lU-piter 
 (gen. lou-is, Old Lat. dat. Diouei), Welsh dyw, 'day,' 
 A. S. Tiw, a deity who was made to correspond to the Roman 
 Mars. From the A. S. Tiw we have Tiwes ddeg, i. e. Tuesday, 
 corresponding to the feudi {louis dies) of the French, as 
 regards form, but to Mardi {Martis dies) as regards actual 
 use. We have another derivative, through the French, in the 
 word jovial, originally applied to the sanguine man who was 
 born under the influence of the beneficent planet Jupiter. 
 We have another set of related words in which the initial d is 
 undisturbed ; viz. Skt. devas, divine ; Gk. dlos, divine ; L. diuus, 
 divine (whence E. div-ine) ; L. deus, God (whence E. deily, 
 deify); and even deodar, ' divine tree,' for which see p. 2 1. The 
 only Teutonic initial letter which can be admitted in con- 
 nexion with these words, is /, as seen in Tuesday ; the words 
 jovial, divine, and deity come in only as horroived words from 
 Latin, and are not Teutonic at all. At the same time, two 
 old fables, long believed, have been exploded. The former 
 
 c 2 
 
20 SOME USEFUL CANONS chap, ii 
 
 is, that the L. deus is related to the Gk. 6^6^, which happens 
 to have the same sense, but is quite different in form, since 
 ^eos is for *6^(T-6i (cf. Bi(T-<\>a.Tos, divinely inspired) ; and an 
 initial 6 corresponds in Latin, not to </, but toy^ as in Bepfxds, 
 warm, L./ormus, Brjp, a wild beast, L./eruSy wild. The other 
 fable used to connect L. dm, ' day,' with A. S. ddeg, ' day,' 
 where again the coincidence in sense is accidental, and the 
 vocaHsm is distinct as well as the initial consonant. More- 
 over, the original senses were different, since L. dies is from 
 the idea of ' brightness ' or ' shining ' ; but day meant ' hot 
 time ', being allied to the Lithuanian dagas, ' hot season,' and 
 Skt. ddh, ' to burn ' ; from the root d/iegh, to burn. There 
 are, in fact, two initial d's in Lithuanian and Skt., one of 
 which goes back to an Indo-germanic d, and the other to a 
 DH. The Lat. dies is connected with the former, and the 
 A. S. ddeg with the latter ; a fact which separates them at 
 once. We must ever walk warily, if we are to avoid such 
 traps as this. 
 
 § 18. To make up for these failures, it may be well to 
 give instances in which the Lat. and Gk. initial d correspond, 
 regularly, to the native E. /. Here are some of the most 
 striking.^ i. L. dom-dre, Gk. 8an-av, to tame; E. ^ame; 
 G. za/im. 2. Lithuanian darwa, derwa, resinous wood ; 
 a. /ar. See 13 (below). 3. Skt. diirvd, a kind of grass ; 
 Lith. dirwa^ a cornfield; E. tare, darnel. 4. L. duc-ere, to 
 lead, conduct ; E. tea-vi, a family, set, animals harnessed in 
 a row, whence teem, to be prolific ; allied to tow, to pull along 
 (a boat), tug, to pull, -ton, in wan-ton, M. E. wan-towen, 
 uneducated, tie, a fastening. 5. Gk. 8ep-eiv, to flay ; E. tear, 
 to rend. 6. Gk. 8dKpv, daKpvpo, a tear; O. Lat. dacruma, 
 L. lacrima ; E. tear, sb. From L. lacrivia was formed the 
 F. larme, so that F. larme and E. tear are cognate words, 
 though they are strangely dissimilar. 7. Gk. 8efi-civ, to build ; 
 
 ^ See Principles of E* Etyniology, First Series ^ § 1 1 7. 
 
§i8 VOWEL-GRADATION 21 
 
 L. dom-us, a house ; Goth, tim-r-jan, to build ; E. tim-ber, 
 building material; G. zimmer, a room. 8. Gk. obovs (ace. 
 obovTo), a tooth, L. dens (ace. deniem), Welsh dant; E. tooth, 
 Du. /(3:«^; G. 06Z/^«. 9. O. Irish fl^(?, prep, to ; E. to. 10. O. Lat. 
 di'ngua, L. lingua, tongue ; E. tongue, which is cognate with 
 F. langue. 11. Skt. damgas, a bite, a stinging insect, Gk. SaKi/etv, 
 to bite; E. tongs, for seizing firmly, tang, the part of a knife that 
 is firmly fixed in the handle ; A. S. ge-teng-e, oppressive, close 
 to, toh, tenacious, E. tough. 12. O. Irish dun^ a walled town 
 (cf. E. down, a hill, not a native word, but borrowed from 
 Celtic); Welsh din, a hill-fort, din-as, a town; A. S. tUn, an 
 enclosure, E. town, the native equivalent of the borrowed 
 down. 13. Skt. ddru, wood, deva-ddru, ' divine tree, deodar' 
 (whence E. deodar), Welsh derw, an oak ; E. tree ; also E. 
 trough, lit. ' made of wood \ from the Idg. base dru-, wood. 
 14. O. Prussian druwit, to believe; A. S. treowe, true, 
 'believed in,' E. true; whence also truce, an old plural, 
 M. E. trew-es ; and further allied to trust. 1 5. Skt. dvdu, dvd, 
 two ; Gk. hvo ; L. duo (whence F. deux, E. deuce) ; Welsh 
 dau ; Russ. dva ; E. two, allied to twain, twin, twine, twist, 
 twig (a fork of a branch, hence, a shoot of a tree) ; G. zwei, 
 two. In all these cases, the regularity of the change from 
 d toE.t (G. z), is manifest. 
 
 § 10. It is also highly necessary to consider the vowel- 
 sounds. It is not until the student becomes familiar with the 
 laws of ' vowel-gradation ', as chiefly exemplified in the in- 
 finitive, past tense, and past participle of all the strong verbs 
 (such as drive, drove, driveri), that the strictness of the laws 
 which regulate the diversity of vowels is fully realized. We 
 may connect a drove of sheep, or a snow-drif-t with the verb 
 to drive ; but we must beware of allowing this set of vowels to 
 vary beyond the prescribed limits of the modern z, z, and ; 
 for the only outlying member of this group is the modern 
 ea (A. S. 5e), which rarely appears. 
 
 § 20. It is very difficult for the inexperienced to realize 
 
22 SOME USEFUL CANONS chap, ii 
 
 the extraordinary regularity of the relations between the vowels 
 in various languages. By way of specimen, I take the present 
 Germanic values of the primitive Germanic diphthong ai. 
 Corresponding to the primitive Germanic type '^stainoz,'^ 
 ' a stone/ we find Goth, stains^ A. S. stdn^ E. stone ; Icel. 
 steinn, Dan. and Swed. sten^ Du. steen ; G. stein. If there is 
 any fixed law as to this matter, we might venture to suppose 
 that the Germanic ai always appears as ai in Gothic, a in 
 A. S., ei in Icel. ; &c. Let us inquire, and record what we 
 find, indicating omissions (due to want of information) by 
 a dash. 
 
 1. Germanic (or Teutonic) type ^bainom^ neut. *a bone', 
 also *a leg'. Goth. — , A. S. han^ E. hone\ Icel. bein, Swed. 
 ben, Dan. ben (or been^, Du. been ; G. bein. 
 
 2. Teut. '^daigoz, ' dough.' Goth, daigs, A. S. ddh (gen. 
 ddg-es), E. dough (where the u is due to the influence of other 
 words in -ough) ; Icel. deig, Swed. deg, Dan. deig ; Du. deeg ; 
 G. ieig. 
 
 3. Teut. "^graipojan, ' to grope,' from Teut. base *graip-. 
 Goth. — , A. S. gr apian, to grope, from grdp, a grasp, Icel. 
 greip, a grasp, Swed. grep, a pitchfork, E. grope, verb ; Dan. 
 greb, a grasp, a pitchfork, Du. greep, a grasp, G. greifklauen, 
 talons of a bird. 
 
 4. Teut. "^haivioz, ^haimiz, 'a home.' Goth, haims, a village, 
 A. S. ham, E. home\ Icel. heimr, an abode, Swed. hem, Dan. 
 hjem (wherein a^-sound has been inserted after the Ji) ; Du. 
 heem (also heivi) ; G. heim. 
 
 5. Teut. ^laimoz, 'loam.' Goth. — , A.S. liwi, E. loam] 
 Icel. Swed. Dan. — ; Du. leem; G. Ieh7n (but O. H. G. leim). 
 
 6. Teut. ^taiknom, neut., '^taikniz, fem., ' a token.' Goth. 
 taikns, A. S. tdcen, tdcn, E. token \ Icel. /^//^w, Swed. tecken, 
 Dan. /^^« ; Du. teeken ; G. zeichen. 
 
 ^ Theoretical types are indicated by a preceding asterisk. 
 2 The e is long (^/if«) ; so it might be written steen. 
 
§2o ^O^r AND SOAP 
 
 23 
 
 These six examples are enough to show that these various 
 languages exhibit a highly remarkable regularity in their use 
 of vowels. 
 
 § 21. Beyond this, the formulae tell us a good deal about 
 words that seem to be exceptional. Thus we find A. S. bat, 
 a boat, Teut. Haitoz. But the Icel. is bdtr^ and the Du. and 
 G. form is hoot ; all against rule. What, then, does it mean ? 
 Simply this, that the word was only in use in A. S. and 
 English. The Icel. bdtr was borrowed from the A. S. bdt^ 
 and the Du. and G. boot are both borrowed from E. boat. 
 The Teut. "^ainoz, 'one,' is perfectly regular; Goth, ains, 
 Icel. einn, Du. een, G. ein ; so that the modern one might have 
 been expected to rime with stone. It has actually kept this 
 old sound to the present day in the compounds alone (all 
 one), atone (at one), and only (for one-ly), but the word itself 
 acquired a prefixed sound of w in the fifteenth century (when 
 the spelling won occurs), which lowered the sound of d to 
 that of the 00 in cool, after which it was shortened to the 00 of 
 foot, and then ' unrounded ' to the u mfun. When anything 
 contradicts the formulae, we should try to find out the reason 
 or reasons for it. 
 
 The word soap is perfectly regular as far as it goes. The 
 A. S. is sdpe (whence Icel. sdpa was borrowed) ; the Du. is 
 zeep, and the G. is sei/e\ which proves that it is a true 
 Teutonic word, the Teut. type being *satpdn, a weak feminine. 
 The Latin sdpo (gen. sdpdn-is) is so like the Teut. form that 
 it must have been borrowed from one of the Teutonic 
 languages. Indeed, Pliny says it was borrowed from Celtic, 
 an obvious error for Teutonic. The F. savon is from Latin. 
 
 § 22. Canon 4. In comparing two words, A and B, 
 belonging to the same language, of which A is the shorter, 
 A must usually be taken to be the more original word. 
 
 It is a rule in the Indo-germanic languages that words 
 started from monosyllabic roots or bases, and were built up 
 bv the addition of suffixes. This is especially noticeable in 
 
 -) ") 
 
24 SOME USEFUL CANONS chap, ii 
 
 Latin, where we see at once that the adj. cdrus is older than 
 the derivative cart- tat-, nom. cdritds. It is often very necessary 
 to know whether a verb is derived from a related substantive, 
 or, conversely, the substantive from the verb. An example 
 of complete confusion as to this matter occurs in Johnson's 
 Dictionary, in which the verb to jest is derived from the 
 ' Latin gesticulor \ which is also given as the origin of 
 gesticulate. The latter statement is correct, but the former 
 is ridiculous, unless it means that gesticulate was shortened to 
 jest in English, which was not the case. It is impossible that 
 gest- could have been derived from gesticulor in Latin, 
 because the formation of this verb shows that it is later, not 
 earlier, than the use of the original syllable gest-. The 
 matter is made still worse by the statement that, in English, 
 the ^h.jest is derived from the verb to jest, which is contrary 
 to fact. All this confusion might have been saved by analysing 
 the formation of gesticulor. Under the spelling gest, a more 
 rational explanation o^ jest is offered, proving the extreme 
 carelessness with which etymologies are treated in the Doctor's 
 famous work. 
 
 § 23. Canon 5. In comparing two words, A and B, 
 belonging to the same language, the older form can usually 
 be distinguished by observing the sound of the principal 
 vowel. 
 
 This has especial reference to words of native origin, and 
 involves the theory of ' vowel-mutation ', as explained in any 
 Anglo-Saxon grammar. The sound of A.S. e (whence E. ee) 
 is seldom original, but mostly arises from an earlier 0; because 
 the A.S. .? is (except in very rare cases) the 'mutated' form 
 of A. S. 0. Thus goose (A, S. gds) preceded the plural geese 
 (A. S. ges) ; or must, at any rate, be accepted as a simpler 
 form. Similarly, /^^//; is the pi. of tooth, ^nd feet oi foot', 
 deem is derived from doom ; beech is from A. S. hoc, ' beech,' 
 though the latter also came to mean ' book ' ; the verb to beet, 
 i. e. to better, to mend, now only used in dialects, is from the 
 
§ 23 THE STRONG VERBS 
 
 25 
 
 sb. hoot, ' profit,' which is allied to the obsolete *l/af, signifying 
 * good ', which gave us Setter and dest ; steed, a stud-horse, is 
 from stud (A. S. stdd), lit. a ' stand ' of horses ; cf. A. S. stod, 
 pt. t. of standan, to stand ; speed, properly * success ', is from 
 the k.^. spo-wan, \.Q succeed; breed, verb, is from brood \ 
 feed is from food) bleed is from blood (A. S. blod). See 
 Principles of E. Etymology, First Series, § 196; and the 
 whole of Ch. XI in the same, for many more examples. 
 
 § 24. Canon 6. Strong verbs, in the Teutonic languages, 
 and the so-called ' irregular ' verbs in Latin, are commonly 
 to be considered as primary; related forms being derived 
 from them. 
 
 Every one should learn by heart the seven conjugations of 
 the English strong verbs. The easiest examples are the 
 following. I. Drive, drove, driven. 2. Choose, chose, chosen. 
 3. Drink, drank, drunk (orig. drunken). 4. Bear, bare (now 
 usually bore), born. 5. Give, gave, given. 6. Shake, shook, 
 shaken. 7. Fall, fell, fallen. 
 
 The A. S. forms of these verbs furnish the key to the 
 ' gradations ', or regular systems of vocalic variation, which 
 pervade the whole of the native element in our language. 
 They have their equivalents in other Teutonic languages, 
 which can be used in the same way. I have given above 
 (§ 20) the Teutonic values of ai, the equivalent of the 
 modern in drove, the pt. t. s. of drive in Conjugation i. 
 Indeed, similar systems of vocalic variation occur, or once 
 occurred, in all the Indo-germanic languages, though they 
 are not always strictly preserved. My Primer of English and 
 Classical Philology was expressly written for the purpose of 
 comparing the vocalism of the English strong verbs with that 
 of equivalent varieties of vowel-sounds in Greek and Latin. ^ 
 Chapter V is especially devoted to the consideration of our 
 Conjugation I, that of the verb to drive; and as I have 
 already given examples of the Teutonic ai (§ 20), I here 
 proceed to give a few notes upon the Indo-germanic 01, 
 
26 SOME USEFUL CANONS chap, ii 
 
 which usually corresponds to it ; for Idg. o comes out as a in 
 Teutonic. 
 
 1. Gk. ol8a, I have seen, I know, has lost an initial w, and 
 stands for fo28a. Its equivalent is the Goth, wai/, I know, 
 A. S. wd/, M. E. woo/, E. wo/ (with shortened vowel) ; Icel. 
 vei/, Du. wee/, G. wei'ss. (I have already shown that Gk. 
 8 = E./.) 
 
 2. Gk. Xe-XotTT-a, I have left, XotTr-w, remaining. Cf. Goth. 
 lai'/iw, A. S. Idk, I have lent (left to another) ; Icel. Idn 
 (contracted from Heih-n^ Noreen, § 57), a loan. E. loan is 
 not A. S., but borrowed from Norse. 
 
 3. Gk. crroi^-o^, a TOW, allied to oreix-eiv, to go up, ascend, 
 journey. Cf. Goth, s/at'g, pt. t. of s/eig-an, to climb ; A. S. 
 s/dg, pt. t. of s/tg-an, to climb; whence was formed (by 
 mutation of d to se) the sb. s/deger, E. s/az'r (a thing to climb 
 by) ; Icel. s/ei'g, 1 climbed ; M. Du. s/eeg, steep (obsolete). 
 As the A. S. d corresponds to G. ei, we see that the G. s/i'eg, 
 I climbed, is not the original form. In fact, the Old High 
 German had s/e/g ; correctly. 
 
 4. Gk. yXot-ds, sticky substance, gum; A. S. cld-7?i, 'wet 
 earth', hence, earthen-ware; prov. E. cloam, earthenware; 
 Icel. kleima, to daub, to smear; Mid. Du. klee7n, clay 
 (obsolete) ; prov. G. klei, clay, marl (Flugel). The A. S. for 
 clay is cldeg^ from a Teut. type '^klai-jo, fem., with mutation 
 of a to ^ on account of the following/. 
 
 5. Gk. rolx-os, a wall, orig. a mud rampart; Goth, daig-s, 
 dough ; A. S. dag, E. dough ; Icel. deig, Du. deeg, G. /eig. 
 
 6. Skt. sved-as, sweat (where Skt. e = Gk. 01, as in Skt. 
 veda = Gk. oi6a, I know) ; L. sudor (for "^swoidor, with loss 
 of w, and u for oi, as in una = 011/77, ' ace on a die ') ; A. S. 
 swd/, Icel. svei/i, Du. zwee/^ G. schweiss. The A. S. swd/ 
 would have given E. swoa/, but it has long been obsolete ; 
 the present E. swea/ represents the derived verb, viz. A. S. 
 swde/an, made from the sb. swd/ by mutation of d to ae. The 
 vowel was once lonof, so that swea/ once rimed with hea/, and 
 
§ 24 CASUAL RESEMBLANCES 27 
 
 it is still pronounced sweet in Cumberland; 'See ye how's 
 I 's sweetan o'riddy ', i. e. sweating already (E. D. D.). 
 
 § 25. Canon 7. The whole of a word, not a portion 
 only, should be accounted for; and any infringement of 
 phonetic laws should be regarded with suspicion. It is 
 extraordinary that this simple rule should be disregarded; 
 yet it is not uncommon to do so. Thus Johnson derives 
 barnacle, a kind of shell-fish, from A. S. beam, a child, and 
 dc, an oak, which seems sadly irrelevant ; but he does not in 
 any way explain what the final -le means. Dapple he derives 
 from apple, entirely ignoring the initial d. Bloat he derives 
 from blow, to puff out; and here he ignores the final /. 
 Another vagary is to avoid giving too little by giving far too 
 much; as when he derives dangle from down and hang, 
 which would give down-hangle, with a surplusage of ownh. 
 Infringement of phonetic laws appears in his derivation of 
 cove from the Latin cauus, hollow ; for that would give cave 
 (as, in fact, it did); and the change from aioo'is unaccounted 
 for. So also, when he derives the verb to drain from the 
 French trainer, he forgets to quote any instance in which an 
 English initial d supplants a French /. The idea that our 
 language was largely pervaded by ' corruption ' is constantly 
 in evidence ; we see to what an extreme this can be carried 
 when it is asserted, under bawsin, 'a badger,' that bawsin- 
 skin is a mere perversion oi badger s skin, for which Dr. Johnson 
 quotes Ezek. xvi. 10, 'shod thee with badgers' skin,' printing 
 the words in italics as if it clitiched the matter. 
 
 § 26. Canon 8. Casual resemblances between words in 
 two unrelated languages which cannot well be brought into 
 connexion are commonly a delusion, not to be seriously 
 regarded. 
 
 It would be strange if groups of similar sounds did not 
 sometimes denote similar things in unrelated languages ; and 
 sometimes these chance resemblances are so near that the 
 man who observes them cannot be persuaded that he has 
 
28 SOME USEFUL CANONS chap, ii 
 
 made no discovery at all. This is a very subtle snare, to 
 which many fall victims ; the chief way to avoid it is to found 
 the alleged etymology upon really strong evidence. Even 
 then, one may be wrong, and the only wise plan is to 
 abandon every assertion the moment that it is seen to be 
 untenable. The chief value of phonetic laws is that they 
 cannot be disputed ; they often make short work of the most 
 plausible arguments on the part of the guessers. In a large 
 number of instances where a false guess has been made, 
 there is often no reply to the searching question — have you 
 accounted for the right value of the vowel-sound? To 
 take an easy instance ; when Minsheu derived girl from the 
 L. garrula^ he forgot that, however plausible his argument 
 might be from a descriptive point of view, the shortened 
 form oigarrla is noi girl, hut gar I. 
 
 § 27. As an example of a certain similarity in form and 
 sense, I may instance one given in N. and Q. 3 S. x. 491, 
 viz. E. caitiff and the Syriac khdluf, a robber. It was 
 seriously proposed to derive the former from the latter. I 
 have already explained that caitifi^ the Northern F. equivalent 
 of the F. chetif, which khatuf iddXs to explain. Moreover, 
 caihf originally meant * a captive ' ; and robbers are mostly 
 left too much at large. 
 
 Some false etymologies are only too well known, and 
 seem to be ineradicable. One of the most mischievous is 
 that of beltane, a name for Old May-day. It is simply the 
 Old Irish hel-tene, 'fire-kindling'; from an old custom of 
 kindling fires upon that day. The O. Irish bel, fire, is 
 cognate with the A. S. bdel, a blaze, Icel. bdl, a flame, a 
 funeral pile; Skt. bhdla?n^ brightness, &c.; and is further 
 connected with the Celtic words for whiteness, whence we 
 have derived our E. bald. But this explanation of 'fire' 
 from its ' brightness ' was far too prosaic to suit the antiquaries 
 of the eighteenth century and later, who were never tired of 
 repeating that the O, Irish bel really referred to the god 
 
§ 27 CARE AND CURE 
 
 29 
 
 Baal, who was worshipped in Britain by fiery sacrifices; 
 whence it was an easy step to the supposed existence here of 
 'the ancient Phoenicians' and their heathen Semitic rites. 
 Sometimes they strengthened their case by appealing to our 
 Tothills or Toothills, lit. * look-out hills ' ; from the A. S. 
 fdh'an, to peep out ; see Too/ in the E. D. D. Here again, 
 disdaining this explanation from a native source, they ex- 
 plained Toothill as meaning a high place for celebrating the 
 Egyptian divinity Thoth ; and, by combining these pieces of 
 information, produced a theory of the recovered past in which 
 they revelled with a wild delight ; a theory which, as I fear, 
 will long be seductive. For false etymologies have long 
 lives, and die hard. 
 
 § 28. I have already noted the frequent comparison of 
 the English care, 'anxiety,' with the L. ciira, 'attention'; 
 which is a common delusion. The vowel-sounds are quite 
 different, and the initial sounds are really different also, as 
 every one but the merest tiro knows. For an English 
 initial c is equivalent to L. g, and care, A. S. cearu, is the 
 same as the Goth, kara, sorrow, O. H. G. chara, 2i lament ; 
 further allied to the O. Irish gai'r, clamour, Welsh gawr, 
 clamour, and further, to the Gk. yripvs, voice, and the L. 
 garrtre, to chatter. The sense of the A. S. cearu was not 
 that of ' attention ', but of 'sorrow, lament, lamentation', as 
 seen in the G. Charfreitag^ Karfreitag, 'day of sorrow,' a 
 name for Good Friday. In the North of England, the Sunday 
 preceding Palm Sunday was formerly called Care Sunday, 
 or otherwise Passion Sunday ; see the account of it in Brand's 
 Popular AniiquiHes. 
 
 A similar error is that of confusing the E. call with the Gk. 
 KoKfiv ; for in this case also the E. c is equivalent to a Gk. y 
 or a Celtic g, and the real cognate form is the Welsh galw, 
 to call ; whereas the Gk. koK^v, L. caldre, are cognate with 
 the O. H. G. halon, to summon, to call, G. holen, to fetch ; 
 for the riojht sense of Kai^Civ is 'to summon'. From the 
 
30 SOME USEFUL CANONS chap, ii 
 
 O. H. G. haldn was borrowed the F. haler^ whence again the 
 E. hale and haul, ' to fetch by force.' We thus see that call 
 is allied to the W. galw ; while KoKelu is allied to the F. haler ; 
 so that the words are really quite far apart. But these facts 
 will not convince those who are unable to understand 
 phonetic laws or the true modes of formation of language. 
 An uncontrolled and injudicious desire to adopt plausible 
 analogies will always attract light and self-satisfied minds. 
 
CHAPTER III 
 
 THE ROMANCE LANGUAGES 
 
 § 29. It is highly desirable that the mutual relationship 
 to one another of the various Indo-ger manic languages should 
 be rightly understood. But, before considering this subject, 
 it may be well to contemplate a similar example of a set of 
 related languages, formed upon a much smaller scale, and in 
 much more modern times. This we can actually do, by 
 considering the group known as the Romance languages, 
 which, to a very large extent, owed their existence to Latin. 
 
 The Romance languages, excluding dialects, are seven in 
 number, viz. Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, French, Proven9al, 
 Roumanian (or Wallachian), and Romaunsch. Important 
 dialects are the Sardinian, which Schwan counts as a distinct 
 language, though Diez includes it under Italian; as also 
 those of Proven9al or Southern French, the principal ones 
 being the Gascon, the Limousin, the Lyonnais, and those of 
 B^arn, Auvergne, and Dauphind, and of the province of Lan- 
 guedoc, properly so called. In the north of France, Schwan 
 enumerates seven principal dialects — the Norman, the Picard, 
 the dialects of Lorraine, Burgundy, and Poitou, that of the 
 Isle of France, and the Walloon, the last of which is spoken 
 in parts of Belgium. The Romaunsch is spoken in the Swiss 
 canton of Grisons, and is closely allied to the Ladin dialect 
 of the Engadine; both are sometimes included under the 
 title of Rhaeto-romanic. 
 
 § 30. All these languages, with their dialects, are included, 
 as has been said, under the general name of the Romance 
 
32 THE ROMANCE LANGUAGES chap, hi 
 
 languages, as being all of Roman or Latin origin ; or rather, 
 as being spoken in countries over which the Roman dominion 
 extended, whilst at the same time, the Latin language, though 
 not in the purest form, was the chief medium of communica- 
 tion. This spoken Latin was by no means founded upon 
 classical Latin or the language of books, but was the speech 
 of everyday life, as employed by shopkeepers, soldiers, and 
 market-women. In many places, Latin was thus introduced 
 where it had never been spoken before, and did not always 
 succeed in displacing all foreign elements ; and, as this is 
 a matter regarding which we have few available records, it 
 is often difficult or impossible to account for some of the 
 words in each of the languages. The chief help is the Dic- 
 tionary by Ducange, which records many ' Late Latin ' words 
 of popular origin or abnormal formation, the forms of which 
 sometimes solve rather difficult problems. 
 
 § 31. To take an easy example. One of the commonest 
 root- verbs in Latin is capere, to take ; but it is not a very 
 important word in Romanic (i. e. in the Romance languages), 
 not appearing in French at all ; we find, however, Ital. capire, 
 to contain, understand. Span., Prov., Port, caber, to have 
 room for. (The Ital. for ' to take ' is prendere.) The Latin 
 frequentative form is captdre^ whence Ital. cattare, to get, to 
 obtain, regarded as a ' learned ' word, which, like the Span. 
 capiar, to captivate, F. capter, is in somewhat limited use. 
 Old Spanish had the more popular form catar, to catch sight 
 of, hence, to view, to inspect, examine ; cf. Port, catar, vb., 
 to search, and cata, sb., a search. But Ducange notes a 
 popular Latin sb. captia, a chase, in use as early as 1162, 
 a verbal sb. due to an entirely new verb capttdre, to 
 chase, wholly unknown to the Romans. And it was this new 
 and popular form which was really adopted in daily use, and 
 became the fruitful source of such common words as the 
 Ital. cacdare, to hunt, chase. Span, cazar, Port, cagar, to 
 hunt, O. F. chacier (whence E. chase), F. chasser, Picard 
 
§31 ROMANIC TYPES 
 
 33 
 
 cachier (whence E. catcK), Prov. cassar, to hunt. We also 
 find the allied verbal sb. in the following forms : Ital. caccia, 
 Span, caza^ Port. ca(^a, F. chasse, Prov. cassa^ Romaunsch 
 caischa, ' the chase.' 
 
 § 32. The point to be particularly noted is this : that, 
 starting from the modern forms, and reasoning backwards, 
 we should probably arrive at the ' Romanic type ' ^captidre as 
 being the original form ; and with this (if we had no records 
 of Latin) we should have to rest content. This leads at once 
 to the highly important deduction that we cannot, by reason- 
 ing backwards, always be certain that we shall arrive at the 
 true original form ; it may happen that we may come very 
 near it without precisely hitting the bull's eye. This seems 
 to me to be a matter of considerable moment; for, in com- 
 paring the various Indo-germanic forms of a word, with the 
 hope of arriving at the true 'Indo-germanic type', we can 
 hardly be quite sure that there may not have been some 
 deflexion from the original form at the outset. And, in such 
 a case, as the said original form is absolutely inaccessible 
 and unrecorded, we must be content with such a result as 
 the evidence seems to conduct us to. 
 
 § 33. The original Latin, or Late Latin form, such as 
 '^captidre^ from which various forms in the Romance languages 
 can be safely deduced, is called the 'Romanic type'. If 
 such a form actually exists in Latin, as in the case of 
 ndtidnem, the accusative case of ndtio, a nation, which so 
 clearly appears in the Ital. nazione, Span, nacion, Port, nagao, 
 F. nation^ Prov. nacio, Romaunsch naziun, Roumanian natsie, 
 we call ndiidnem the Romanic type ; or we may reduce it to 
 ^natione, as none of the dialects preserves the final m. If 
 such a type goes back to a hypothetical form, we mark it 
 with a preceding asterisk ; thus F. chasser is from the Romanic 
 type *captidre. 
 
 § 34. The reason why some French words are very 
 similar in form to the Latin, whilst others (such as chasser) 
 
34 THE ROMANCE LANGUAGES chap, hi 
 
 are somewhat difficult to trace, is usually due to the fact that 
 the former belong to the category of 'learned' or 'book' 
 words, whilst the others belong to the popular language. On 
 this subject the reader should consult the illuminating preface 
 to Paget Toynbee's edition of Brachet's Historical Grammar 
 of the French Language. At p. lo several words are noticed, 
 such as the F. semaine^ a week, battre^ to beat, bataille^ a 
 battle, baiser^ to kiss, &c., which represent, respectively, the 
 ' popular Latin ' words septimdna, batuere, batdlia, bdsidre, 
 which are totally different from the * literary Latin ' hebdomas, 
 tierberdre^ pugna, and osculdri. From these examples, and 
 many more, he shows ' how incorrect it is to say that French 
 is classical Latin, corrupted by an intermixture of popular 
 forms; it is, on the contrary, the popular Latin alone*. The 
 * learned ' words usually belong to a later date. It was in the 
 sixteenth century that a large number of Italian words were 
 introduced at the French courts, which led up to ' a mania 
 for antiquity'. Men 'wished to reconstruct words already 
 in being, and to bring the whole language nearer to the Latin 
 type. Thus, for example, the Latin otiosus and vindicare had 
 produced oiseux and venger ; these reformers . . . prescribed 
 the use of otieux and vendiquer instead.' Happily, there was 
 soon a reaction, and many, but not all, of the intruding words 
 were thrust out again. 
 
 § 35. It must, however, be added, that all the Romance 
 languages contain non-Latin elements, due to various circum- 
 stances in their national history. The very word French 
 means ' Frankish ', reminding us of the time when the Franks 
 and other Germanic tribes over-ran Gaul, and practically 
 destroyed the literary Latin employed by the more learned. 
 They were ready to accept the popular Latin for their own 
 use ; but in the course of the process they introduced into it 
 some words of their own, especially such as related to military 
 affairs, viz. the O. H. G. halsberc, whence O. F. hauberc (E. 
 hauberk), F. haubert; O. H. G. heriberga, whence F. auberge ; 
 
35 WAJ^ AND CHARM 
 
 35 
 
 O. H. G. werra, confusion, strife, whence F. guerre. Our 
 hauberk is simply the O. F. hauberc, borrowed. But we had 
 no need to borrow the F. auberge, because we already 
 possessed the word harbour^ from the Norse herbergi, which 
 is cognate with the O. H. G. form. The Italians, however, 
 borrowed it in the form albergOy which reminds us that Italian 
 likewise contains some German words. As to the O. H. G. 
 werra, the Norman dialect adopted it in the form werre ; for 
 they were able to pronounce the initial w, which was, at that 
 early date, still sounded as in English. Moreover, they 
 brought the word to England, where it became the M. E. 
 werre, and is still in use in the modern form war. 
 
 § 36. After these preliminary remarks, I come to a more 
 practical consideration. My great object, in the present work, 
 is to show how to make use of an English etymological dic- 
 tionary ; from which it is easy for one who uses it unintelli- 
 gently to draw very false conclusions, however careful the 
 instructions given in the book may be. I will suppose that 
 the reader looks out a word of French origin, as such words 
 are extremely abundant. What are the hints which will help 
 him most, and what are the chief points which it is most use- 
 ful to know ? The most practical way for me to adopt is to 
 select some examples, of various origins. 
 
 § 37. And first, as to the numerous class which I mark as 
 (F. — L.); i.e. French words of Latin origin. They are of all 
 degrees of difficulty. 
 
 I. The word charm seems easy enough; it is from the 
 O. F. charme. And the O. F. charme is from the L. carmen, 
 a song; hence, an incantation. But it really raises an im- 
 portant question, viz. that of pronunciation. The modern 
 F. charme is pronounced like sharm' ; i. e. the initial sound is 
 like the E. sh. But we cannot expect that sh would become 
 ch (as in church) ; it is like expecting water to run up hill, 
 which is contrary to experience. Such changes are almost 
 invariably from a more difficult sound to an easier one ; and 
 
 D 2 
 
36 THE ROMANCE LANGUAGES chap.iii 
 
 ch {=: tsh) is more complex than sh. The difficulty vanishes 
 when we realize that the O. F. and Anglo-F. ch had what we 
 now regard as the common E. sound. The O. F. ch has 
 become sh, but the Anglo-F. sound has not altered ; the 
 curious result being that, as regards this sound, English is 
 older than French by many centuries. Precisely the same thing 
 has happened in the case of initial/ (= dzh)] the Anglo-F./ 
 was like our E. j in joy ; whereas the O. F. / has now the 
 modern sound, as in F. joie. Here again, the E. sound is 
 older by centuries than modern Parisian ; since the O. F. 
 dzh has lost its d in France. 
 
 It has already been explained how the Anglo-French and 
 Picard initial ca- keeps the L. sound, though the O. F. had 
 cha-, che-\ so that E. has carry where F. has charrier. 
 Nearly all difficulties of this sort can be solved by chrono- 
 logy. The pronunciation of an E. word, when borrowed from 
 F., depends upon the date of borrowing. I give several 
 examples at pp. 12, 13 of my Principles of E. Etymology, 
 Second Series ; showing that chandler, chapel, and broach are 
 far older borrowings than chandelier, chaperon, and brochure ; 
 that message and rage are older than mirage and rouge ; quart, 
 than quadrille', feeble, them foible; hostel, than hotel; &c. 
 
 § 38. A curious example is medley, with a Norman d; it 
 is far older than its doublet melee. It is explained in 
 Principles, ^r.. Second Series, p. 236. The Norman dialect 
 had a habit of inserting d after the combination si ( = zl), so 
 as to give sdl (= zdl), after which the j (= z) fell away ; the 
 dl being left. Thus mespilum (Gk. fxeo-niKov), a medlar, had 
 the neut. pi. mespila, which, being treated as a fern. sing. 
 (a common exchange), became O. North. F. mesle ; whence 
 '^mesdle, medle (see Godefroy, Supp., s. v. nesple), meaning the 
 fruit of the medlar-tree ; whence M. E. medler, a medlar-tree, 
 mod. E. medlar. The Central French turned mespilum into 
 nesple, nesfle, mod. F. nefle; and it is not obvious, at first 
 sight, that medk is an exact doublet of nefle. 
 
§ 38 MEDLEY AND MALLARD 37 
 
 In the same way, from L. misculare, to mix up, we have 
 the Anglo-French mesler, mesdler (Wace), viedler, E. meddle, 
 verb ; F. meler. The pp. fem. was viedlee ; whence E. medley. 
 So also the A. F. equivalent of the mod. E. male was mask 
 (L. masculiim\ '^masdle, madle\ see Godefroy, Supp., s. v. 
 mascle. And this enables us, in my opinion, to explain the 
 derivative maslard, ^masdlard, madlard, variant spellings of 
 mallard, * a wild drake.' Godefroy gives the spellings 
 maslart (pi. maslars, which is regular in Anglo-French) and 
 mallart\ s. v. malar t. And, under the spelling malar de, 
 which occurs on the same page, where it is likely to be 
 overlooked, he gives the form madlarde, explained as ' a wild 
 duck ' ; feminine. This implies the masc. madlard, which is 
 a correct Anglo-F. spelling, due to madle, * male,' with the 
 common masc. suffix -art, -ard; so that the idea of 'mascu- 
 line ' is repeated, by a common habit. The M. E. mawdelarde, 
 about 1420, quoted in the N. E. D., can be explained by 
 this A. F. form. Upon the whole, I prefer this explanation 
 to the theory proposed in Hatzfeld's F. Diet., that the 
 mallard was named from the proper name Malarl, from 
 the O. H. G. Madalhard, ' donne plaisamment a un animal/ 
 
 Another very extraordinary result due to the same habit 
 occurs in the case of the O. F. isle, ' an isle.' This similarly 
 became isdle, idle, M. E. idle, y die. 
 
 ' In that water an ydle is, 
 And in that ydle tounes of prys.' 
 
 King Alisaunder, ed. Weber, 1. 4856. 
 
 § 39. The etymology of chance introduces us to a new 
 principle. Of course it is equivalent to the modern F. chance ; 
 but we must further consider the A. F. and M. E. forms, and 
 we have to discover the Romanic type. The early M.E. 
 forms are cheance, cheaunce, later chance, chaunce. The use 
 of aun for an is common in A. F. and M. E., and due to the 
 nasalization of the a before n. Such nasalization is common 
 in the modern F. an, en, in, on, un, but in A. F. it only occurs 
 
38 THE ROMANCE LANGUAGES chap, iii 
 
 in the case of an. It is owing to this that the a in dance, &c., 
 is variable, being sometimes pronounced like the a in man, 
 and sometimes like the a in path. The form cheance suggests 
 that a consonant has disappeared between e and a, viz. d\ it 
 is from the L. type cadeniia ; for the L. cadere often means 
 to happen, to befall, occur. This falling away of a consonant 
 in the middle of a word (often of three or four syllables) is 
 characteristic of French ; and such a consonant usually pre- 
 cedes the vowel that receives the principal accent. There 
 are very many examples of this character, where the con- 
 sonant must be restored before m'c can arrive at the Romanic 
 type. The consonants most frequently lost are /, d, or c. 
 Examples are : round, O. F. ro'dnd, L. ro[f)undum ; allow (2), 
 to approve of, O. F. alouer, L. allau{d)dre; allow (i), to 
 assign, grant, F. allouer, L. allo(c)dre. The last two examples 
 show that we must be guided by the signification. 
 
 § 40. In the case of many Latin trisyllabic types, accented 
 on the first of the syllables, the second vowel invariably dis- 
 appears. Hence, in many F. disyllables, we have to restore 
 the medial vowel. Examples are : debt, M. E. dette, O. F. 
 dette^ L. deh{i)ta, fem., a sum owed, a sum due. The absurd 
 spelling with b was due to a silly pedantry that tried to 
 restore the Latin written form, forgetting phonetic principles. 
 It is rather significant that, after the O.F. dette had been 
 forcibly turned into the M. F. (Middle French) debte, Tudor 
 
 E. dehte, the French had the sense to restore dette to its true 
 form, but the like restoration was too much for ourselves to 
 accomplish ; so that debt is with us still. So also fable, 
 
 F. fable, L. fdb{ti)la ; couple, O. F. couple , cople, L. cop{u)la, 
 a bond ; eagle, M. E. egle, A. F. egle, O. F. aigle, L. aqu{i)la\ 
 daunt, A. F. and O.F. danier, L. dom{i)tdr{e), to subdue; 
 marble, M.E. marbel, also marbre, O.F. marbre, L. ace. 
 marm{o)rem, from marmor. Observe how marmre gave rise 
 to "^marmbre, and that to marbre. 
 
 § 41. The above examples are quite sufficient to show 
 how the forming of Latin types of F. words is largely a pro- 
 
§ 41 POPULAR LATIN 39 
 
 cess of restoration. These abbreviated forms resulted from 
 the fact that the speakers of popular Latin in France were 
 mainly Celts, who had habits of speech very different from 
 those of the inhabitants of Spain and Italy. One effect was 
 a great tendency towards abbreviation ; as when the L. ace. 
 vendtionem was reduced to O. F. and M. E. veneison, which 
 we have further reduced to venison or venson ; and the L. ace. 
 maledictidnem became O. F. maleison, E. malison. In a word 
 like the L. ace. palrem, ' father/ the / was * voiced ' io d m the 
 eleventh century, giving the form pedre^ which is found in 1. 2 
 of the very old French poem entitled Saint Alexis ; and then 
 the d was further weakened till it at last disappeared, leaving 
 the well-known F. pere as the only form in use. 
 
 § 42. It will now be understood that the phonetic laws 
 which govern the formation of French words are numerous 
 and complex ; and must be studied in works that particularly 
 explain them, such as Paget Toynbee's Historical French 
 Grammar, Schwan's Grammatik des Altfranzosischen, Hom- 
 ing's Grammaire, prefixed to La Langue et la Literature 
 /rangaises^ by K. Bartsch, or the Traite' prefixed to the 
 Dictionnaire gene'ral by Hatzfeld, Darmesteter, and Thomas. 
 It is further necessary, for the purposes of English etymology, 
 to study the peculiar habits of Anglo-French, of which I have 
 given some account in the Second Series of my Principles of 
 E, Etymology. We still have no dictionary of Anglo-French, 
 nor any present likelihood of its being made ; and I know of 
 no better Word-list than the one given, with references, at the 
 end of my Notes on English Etymology. 
 
 As I have just been speaking of the excessive abbreviation 
 of Latin words found in French, I may note that I have 
 given many instances of syncope in English ; showing that 
 we ourselves have often further reduced the already brief 
 forms. It is sufficient here to notice butler, A.F. botiller, 
 a bottler; hamlet, a village, A.F. hamelet', Shakespeare's 
 parlous iov perilous, and the like. 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 
 SOME SELECTED EXAMPLES 
 
 § 43. I give here a few select examples of French words 
 that offer considerable difficulty. 
 
 Afraid. This common modern E. word is really a re- 
 spelling of afrayed^ formerly in use as the past participle of 
 affray, to frighten, to alarm, as used, for example, in 
 Shakespeare, Rofneo and Juliet, iii. 5. 33 — * that voice doth 
 us affray \ The M. E. affraien, to frighten, was borrowed from 
 the O. F. ef rater or effreier, oldest form es/reer, to frighten, 
 alarm, disturb, often used in the past participle, as in 1. 438 
 of the Chanson de Roland. This verb arose from a curious 
 blending of the Romance prefix es- (L. ex) with a Germanic 
 root, giving the Low Latin form ex-friddre, to break the king's 
 peace, to cause an affray or fray, to cause a disturbance; 
 compounded of the L. ex, out, and the Germanic /r^'//^//, 
 peace, as found in the O. Sax. fri^u, O. H. G. fridu (G. 
 friede). Hence a disturbance caused by a breach of the 
 peace was denoted in O. F. by effrei ; whence A. F. effrai, 
 affrai. In the Statutes of the Realm, i. 258, * a breach of the 
 peace ' is expressed by affrai de la pees ; which throws a clear 
 light upon the origin of the Mod. Y..fray, a docked form of 
 the verbal sb. affray, cf. pages 43, 44 below. 
 
 Bolt, Boult, to sift meal. The oldest M. E. form is 
 hulten, borrowed from the O. F. hulter, the same word as the 
 Mod. F. hluter. There was an earlier O. F. huleter, represent- 
 ing a still earlier *bureter', a form which can be safely inferred 
 
§ 43 BRONZE AND BULLACE 41 
 
 from comparison with the O. F. bureiel, a meal-sieve (see 
 Hatzfeld's F. Diet. s. v. bluteau\ and the Ital. burattello, 
 a boulting-cloth for meah Florio (1598) has the Ital. burattare, 
 ' to boult or sift meal ' ; from buratto, ' a sieve.' He also has 
 buraitino, ' a kinde of stuffe called Buraio ' ; and Torriano 
 adds buratio, burato, ' a boulting-stuff ' ; showing that the sieve 
 took its name from the stuff of which it was made. It is 
 believed that these words are connected with the F. bure, coarse 
 woollen cloth; whence also the O.F. burel, and F. bureau. 
 
 Border. An older form bordure is retained in heraldry ; 
 and Caxton has bordeure. From the O. F. bordeiire, Late 
 Lat. borddtura, an edging ; from an infin. '^borddre, to edge 
 or border, due to the sb. bordus, a side, edge. This sb. is 
 merely the Latinized form of the Teut. and A. S. bord, 
 a board, also a ship's side, now spelt board. 
 
 § 44. Bronze. From F. bronze, from Ital. bronzo. The 
 ultimate origin is not given in N. E. D. ; but in my Notes 
 on E. Etymology, I show that the suggestion in Hatzfeld's 
 F. Diet, is correct, which connects the Ital. bronzo with the 
 L. Brundusium, now Brindisi. Bronzo seems to be short for 
 bronzino, ' made of bronze ' ; Florio translates it by ' brasen '. 
 But bronzino really represents the L. adj. Brundisinum ; and 
 Pliny calls bronze by the name des brundisinum. The real 
 discoverer of this etymology was M. Berthelot, in his Intro- 
 duction a la Chimie^ pp. 275-279, and in his La Chimie an 
 Moyen Age, p. 21. In the former work he suggests the 
 etymology ; and in the latter he supplies the evidence. 
 
 § 45. BuLLACE. The M. E. form is bolace, from the O. F. 
 belSce. The phonology is explained in my Notes, where I 
 also give the Norman blosse, and the O. Southern Y.pelosse; 
 the Romanic type being *pilottja, for *pilottea, an adjectival 
 form from pilota, a pellet ; from L. pila, a ball. So that the 
 sense is merely ' like a ball ' ; from the spherical shape. 
 
 § 46. Bun. This is a word offering great difficulties ; 
 I give the full solution in my Notes. I suppose it to be 
 
42 SOME SELECTED EXAMPLES chap, iv 
 
 Southern F., not Northern. The M. E. bunne corresponds 
 to Southern F. bugne (the form used at Lyons), mod. Prov. 
 bougneto. Cotgrave gives the dimin. bugnets, pi., as a variant 
 of beignets^ bignets, ' Httle round loaves, buns.' Named from 
 the rounded shape ; M. F. bigne^ Prov. bougno, a swelling. 
 Curiously enough, its augmentative form is the modern 
 E. bunion, M. Ital. bngnone. 
 
 The final F. -gne becomes n in English ; as in je regne, 
 E. / reign (with silent g). 
 
 § 47. Calm. From the sixteenth-century F. calme, which 
 was merely borrowed from the Ital. calma, ' a calme or faire 
 weather'; Florio. We also find Span, and Port, calma, but 
 with a startling difference in the sense, which does not seem 
 to have been stated with sufficient emphasis. For v/hilst the 
 Span, calma means ' tranquillity ', the Port calma means 
 * heat ', and the adj. calmoso means ' very hot '. This goes 
 far to prove the very ingenious explanation of the Ital. calma 
 given by Diez, viz. that the / is unoriginal, and was inserted 
 by association with the L. calidus, hot ; the Ital. word should 
 rather have been cauma, which is the word used in the Latin 
 Vulgate version of Job xxx. 30 to signify the heat of the sun ; 
 which cauma is simply borrowed from the Gk. Kav^a, heat. 
 The Romaunsch cauma means ' a shady resting place ', for 
 cattle ; and ir a caiwia is ' to seek shelter from the heat ', in 
 strange contradiction to the L. usage. The mod.F. chomer, to 
 be without work, to stand still, to do nothing (used, e.g. of the 
 sails of a windmill), and the O. F. chomer, chommer, to leave off 
 work, are certainly derived from L. cauma ; the reference being 
 to the cessation of work during the great heat of a summer's 
 day. Mistral's mod. Prov. Diet, has some remarkable entries, 
 viz. cauma, to be choked with heat, to repose ; caumo, chauf?io, 
 great heat ; caumas, in Toulouse calimas, great heat, a feeling 
 of suffocation due to a South wind ; caumo, chaumo, a shelter 
 from the heat; chauma, cauma, Limousin calma, to repose, 
 used of sheep during the heat of midday ; also, to do nothing, 
 
§ 47 CANOPY AND CENSER 43 
 
 to keep holiday; with other derivatives which it is needless 
 to cite. 
 
 § 48. Canopy. This (like calm) is a very interesting 
 word, as helping to show the extraordinary influence upon 
 the Romance languages exercised by the Vulgate version of 
 the Bible. The use of this word depends upon a single 
 text in the Apocrypha. The mod. F. has canape, but O. F. 
 has the more correct forms conope, conopee. Cotgrave gives : 
 ' Conopee, a canopy, a tent, a pavilion.' From the L. cdno- 
 peum; in Judith xiii. 10. Borrowed from the Gk. KoivcoTvcaiv, 
 K(ovconeiov, an Egyptian bed with mosquito-curtains ; so called 
 because it kept out mosquitos and gnats. From the Gk. 
 KcovioyJA, a gnat, mosquito ; a word of doubtful origin. Prellwitz 
 suggests a comparison with kwvos, possibly with the sense of 
 * sting '. If so, the source of canopy may have been cone, 
 
 § 49. Censer. This word is chiefly remarkable for the 
 complete loss of what was once its first syllable. Its history 
 shows that it was a familiar contraction of the O. F. encensier, 
 a vessel for containing incense. I mention this chiefly for 
 the sake of drawing attention to the rather frequent loss of 
 an unstressed syllable ; note that the M. E. word has the 
 principal stress upon the second e. The loss of a single un- 
 stressed vowel at the beginning of a word is the commonest 
 of such abbreviations. Abbott's Shakespearian Grammar notes 
 the poet's use of 'bove for above, 'nointed for anointed, scape 
 for escape, larum for alarum, and many more ; and frequently 
 the whole of an unstressed syllable is dropped, as in 'cause 
 for because, 'lated for belated, 'parel for apparel. Some of the 
 shortened forms have become standard words, as in the case 
 oi /end, fender, for defend, defender) sport for disport', splay 
 for display ; cheat for escheat, &c. The initial e sometimes dis- 
 appears in escape, and stoty (A. F. estorie) is really a doublet of 
 history. Mend is short for amend, and stain for distain. The 
 loss of an initial syllable, consisting of a single vowel, is so 
 common that Sir James Murray found it advisable, for brevity's 
 
44 SOME SELECTED EXAMPLES chap, iv 
 
 sake, to coin the word aphetic to describe a word thus formed, 
 and the word aphests to describe the process of ' letting go ' ; 
 Gk. a(f>€(ns, a letting go, dismissal. He gives as examples the 
 prep, down (short for adown)^ squire for esquire, Si. Loy for 
 Si. Eloy, limbeck for alembic^ and Uention for attention. It was 
 because Dr. Johnson did not realize that the adv. down was 
 short for a-down (A. S. of dUne, ' off the hill ') that, in the 
 earlier editions of his Dictionary, he explained the sb. down 
 by saying — * it is used now as if derived from the adverb ; for 
 it means (i) a large open plain or valley; and (2) a hill or 
 rising ground, which sense is very rare.' Home Tooke, 
 naturally enough, promptly challenged both of these state- 
 ments, denying that down ever meant ' a valley ', and assert- 
 ing that the sense of ' hill ' was not only not rare, but the 
 only sense in use. 
 
 § 50. Some of the 'restored' forms are not always easy 
 to guess. Thus the E. mend is short for amend^ F. amender^ 
 L. emenddre, to free from faults. Otherwise, mend suggests 
 the idea of * to fill with faults ', the exact converse of what it 
 really denotes. Lone, adj., is not easy, till it is found to be 
 merely short for alone ; and that alone meant ' all one ', all by 
 oneself. The word crew entirely baffled me; it was Sir James 
 Murray who discovered that, although the old sense of ' aug- 
 mentation ' can be explained from F. crue, creue (in Cotgrave), 
 the modern sense of * company of sailors', &c., is best explained 
 by help of the longer form acrew, accrew, or accrue ; as when 
 Holinshed says {Chron. iii. 1135/1): — 'The towne of Calls 
 and the forts thereabouts were not supplied with anie new 
 accrewes [accessions] of soldiers.' Of course, various kinds 
 of syncope have always been common, and examples abound ; 
 I mention it here only to call attention to the fact that 
 abbreviation sometimes makes an etymology very difficult to 
 discover; for we always want to know exactly how a word 
 begins, and how it began in early times. 
 
 § 51. The story of the cockatrice is told by Sir James 
 
§ 51 COCKATRICE AND DISMAL 45 
 
 Murray, in the N. E. D., at some length and with very full 
 particulars. I can only here indicate some of the results. 
 * The Ichneumon, an Egyptian quadruped, said to devour 
 reptiles and crocodiles' eggs (which it searches for in the 
 sand), is called by Pliny, Book VIII. 24 (35), §88, the 
 mortal enemy of the aspis and the crocodile. . . . From an 
 early period, Western writers entertained the notion that this 
 ichneumon was amphibious or aquatic' Many new and 
 contradictory fables arose about these animals ; and some- 
 times the ichneumon, or the crocodile's enemy, was called 
 by a name which in Latin was expressed by calcatrix, i. e. 
 the treader or tracker, one who follows up traces, being, 
 in fact, a Latin version of the Gk. ichneumon {l)(yevfi(ov), from 
 the verb Ixveveiv, to track. Calcatrix became cocatriz, cocatris 
 in O. F., and cocatris in M. E. ; mod. E. cockatrice. Then 
 popular etymology confused cocatris with cocadrill, a spelling 
 of crocodile, thus identifying the crocodile's enemy with the 
 crocodile itself! But the fables did not end here; the 
 cockatrice was further compared with the cock, whence emerged 
 the story that a cockatrice was a serpent hatched by a 
 venomous reptile from a cock's egg ! 
 
 § 52. Dismal. This curious word can only be understood 
 by help of its history. Chaucer uses in the dismal to signify 
 ' at an unlucky time ' ; literally, ' in the evil days/ Here 
 ' evil days ' is expressed by the A. F. dis mal, where mal 
 means ' evil ', and dis is the pi. of di, a day, now only used 
 in Lun-di, Mar-di^ Merer e-di, &c. Unlucky days were once 
 superstitiously regarded, and they were called dismal days, 
 the word days being added because the origin of dismal was 
 forgotten, and it was taken to be an adjective Vike/at-al, &c. 
 The phrase dismal days was once common ; and dismal came 
 to mean gloomy, sad, and not merely ill-omened. The proof 
 of this etymology was given by Mr. Paget Toynbee in 1891, 
 who obtained this result by reading M. Paul Meyer's notes 
 upon Glasgow MSS. In describing a MS. marked Q. 9- ^9 
 
46 SOME SELECTED EXAMPLES chap, iv 
 
 (fol. loo, back), the latter remarks that in a poem written in 
 1256 the phrase dis mal occurs, the words being written 
 separately ; and dis mal is explained to mean les mals jours. 
 I published the explanation of the passage in Chaucer in 
 1888, and again in 1896, in a note to a second edition of 
 Ch.2iViCQv's Minor Poems; seethe Glossary. But in 1888 it 
 was only a guess. Minsheu first suggested a connexion 
 between dismal and dies mains. 
 
CHAPTER V 
 
 TEUTONIC TYPES 
 
 § 53. It has been shown, in § 32 above, that, by com- 
 parison of the various Romance languages, we can construct 
 * Romanic types ' which will include all the forms actually 
 found, and may be considered as their original ; as when, for 
 example, we construct the Romanic type ^captidre^ to account 
 for the Ital. cacciare, F. chasser, &c. In precisely the same 
 way we can construct 'Teutonic types' to represent the 
 original Teutonic forms whence the known forms are de- 
 scended. The first question is, of course, what is meant by 
 the Teutonic languages? And in order to understand the 
 matter properly, it is also necessary to consider the meaning 
 of the Indo-germanic languages, of which the Teutonic 
 languages form but a single branch. 
 
 § 54. All the languages of the world have been distributed 
 into large families, though it is not quite certain that this has 
 been done with sufficient accuracy. They are of various 
 degrees of importance, and amongst these families we may 
 single out, as the two best known, the Semitic and the Indo- 
 germanic. One account of the Semitic languages distributes 
 them as follows. (i) The Northern ; including the old 
 Assyrian or Babylonian in early cuneiform inscriptions ; the 
 Aramaic (a dialect of which became the ordinary language 
 of Palestine shortly before the Maccabean age, when the 
 New Hebrew remained as a language of the schools) ; and 
 the Syriac (an Aramaic dialect); also, the old Phoenician, 
 
48 TEUTONIC TYPES chap, v 
 
 the old Carthaginian or Punic, and the Hebrew. (2) The 
 Southern) including Arabic, Hamyaritic (once spoken in 
 S.W. Arabia); and Ethiopic, the ancient language of 
 Abyssinia, the modern form being called Amharic. 
 
 The other best known family of languages is sometimes 
 called the Aryan,^ and sometimes Indo-European, because 
 it contains the most remarkable languages of India and 
 Europe, and is fairly appropriate ; but the name now most 
 in use is Indo-germanic. This last name gives too much 
 prominence to Germanic, practically substituting Germany 
 for the greater part of Europe ; but as it seems to be well 
 established, it is best to employ it. It is therefore only 
 necessary to define its meaning. The following is the list 
 of groups of languages which the family includes. 
 
 The Indian group (Sanskrit, and many modern languages 
 of India); Iranian (Persian, &c.) ; Armenian; Greek; Al- 
 banian ; Italic ; Celtic ; Germanic (or Teutonic) ; Baltic ; and 
 Slavonic. Most of these have important subdivisions. For 
 a brief account of them, see my Primer of English Etymology^ 
 p. 72. At the present moment, we are only concerned with 
 the Germanic group, or, as I shall here call it, Teutonic. I 
 confess that I prefer this on account of its vagueness, and as 
 suggestive of the inclusion of other languages than German. 
 
 § 55. This group has three chief divisions ; the Western, 
 containing English, Frisian, Dutch, and various dialects 
 of German; the Eastern, containing Moeso-gothic (or 
 Gothic), and the Northern^ or Scandinavian languages, viz. 
 Icelandic (or Old Norse), Norwegian, Swedish, and Danish. 
 In practice, for the purposes of etymological comparison, it 
 is best to consult the older forms of these languages rather 
 than the modern. The most useful are: {Western) Old 
 English, with its three main dialects, the Northumbrian, the 
 Mercian, and the Wessex or Southern (commonly called 
 
 1 Aryan is now used to include only the Indian and Iranian groups. 
 
§ 55 TEUTONIC TYPES 49 
 
 Anglo-Saxon) ; Old Friesic, closely allied to the preceding ; 
 Old Saxon; Old High German; {Northern) Old Norse; 
 [^Eastern) Gothic. Teutonic types are usually inferred from 
 the comparison of the forms found in A. S. (Anglo-Saxon) ; 
 O. Fries. (Old Friesic); O. Sax. (Old Saxon, or Saxon of the 
 continent) ; O. H. G. (Old High German) ; O. N. (Old Norse, 
 or Old Icelandic) ; and Goth. (Gothic, or Moeso-gothic, the 
 Gothic of Moesia, in MSS. of the sixth century, and long 
 extinct). There is no very old Swedish or Danish ; but Middle 
 Swedish and Middle Danish are often helpful. By such com- 
 parison a Dictionary of Teutonic types has been compiled, 
 entitled Wortschatz der Germanischen Spracheinheit, by H. Falk 
 and A. Torp, which forms the Third Part of the Vergleichendes 
 Worterbuch der Indogermanischen Sprachen, by A. Fick (Got- 
 tingen, 1909). The forms there given are a little less archaic 
 than the forms given in Sievers' Grammar of Old English, 
 but they practically mean much the same thing. Thus Fick 
 gives the Teutonic type for the E. one as *aina^ whereas 
 Sievers gives it as ^ainoz. The difference merely consists 
 in these two unessential points; first, that Fick gives the 
 Teutonic ending a, which is equivalent to the Idg. (Indo- 
 germanic) short 0^ whereas Sievers gives the more archaic ; 
 and secondly, Fick gives *aina (= *aina-) as the stem of the 
 word without a case-ending, whereas Sievers adds the final 
 'Z of the primitive Teutonic nominative case-ending, in the 
 mascuHne gender of these c-nouns. This is only a matter of 
 detail, and it is easy to change from one system to the other 
 (if the gender is known) ; the really essential point is that the 
 main part of the type was ain-, as to which no difference of 
 opinion exists. 
 
 § 56. Sievers gives a large number of Teutonic types ; 
 for, indeed, Anglo-Saxon is often an excellent guide to them. 
 
 1 Of course the asterisk is omitted by Fick as needless, since all the 
 forms given are theoretical. 
 
 134S E 
 
50 TEUTONIC TYPES chap.v 
 
 Many can be safely inferred from A. S. and Gothic alone. 
 I give a few examples. 
 
 1. E. one. A.S. an; O. Sax. /« ; O.H.G. em; O.N. 
 einn ; Goth. ains. Teut. type "^ainoz. 
 
 In this case, it is easy to go further ; for since the Teut. a 
 corresponds to Idg. (Indo-germanic) o (Gk. o), the Idg. type 
 is '^oinos. From the latter were derived Gk. '^olvos, found in 
 the fem. oXvr], the ace on a die ; Old L. oinos, whence L. unus ; 
 O. Irish oen, one. 
 
 2. E. stone. Since the word one was formerly pronounced 
 like the on- in on-ly (one-like), it is not surprising to find that 
 Chaucer rimes one and stone together. He says of Hercules 
 ( Cant. Tales ^ b 3 2 9 6 ) — 
 
 Of Achelois two horn-es, he brak oon; 
 
 And he slow [slew] Cacus in a cave of stoon. 
 
 It follows from this that we can obtain the forms for stone 
 by the easy method of prefixing st to all the forms above. 
 They are : A. S. stdn ; O. Sax. sten ; O. H. G. stein ; O. N. 
 steinn; Goth, stains. Teut. type ^stainoz. There is, how- 
 ever, no Idg. *stoinos. Nevertheless, Gk. has the remarkable 
 forms (TTia, arlovy both with long t, and both meaning ' a little 
 stone '. The suffixes are different ; but the stems only differ 
 in gradation. As regards the vowel-sounds only, a-rl- is a 
 slightly weakened grade of the root-form arret; and o-tcl- : 
 aroi- : : A. S. dri/an (to drive) : A. S. drd/ (he drove). Here 
 (TTci exhibits the prime grade, and the Teut. stat- (for o-rot-) 
 the second grade. Such relationship by gradation is not 
 uncommon. 
 
 3. E. 'teen (as in thir-teen); shortened form ten. A. S. tlen 
 (but Old Mercian ten) ; O. Sax. tekan ; O. H. G. ze/ian ; O. N. 
 tlu; Goth, taihun. Teut. type "^tehun or '^tehan; where d 
 represents an obscure vowel, like the sound of the (written) 
 in cannon. Idg. type '^dekf^, ^dekam ; whence L. decern ; Gk. 
 deKa; Skt. dafa. We have here an example of the change 
 from the ' classical ' d and k to the Teutonic / and h respec- 
 
§ 57 TEUTONIC STEMS 51 
 
 lively; a change exemplifying what is known as Grimm's 
 Law. That this change is regular, appears from such ex- 
 amples as L. duo^ E. two ; Gk. Saxpu, E. tear ; L. dens (gen. 
 dent-ts), E. tooth ; L. domare, E. /^w^ ; &c. And again, from 
 L. cornu^ E. horft] L. centum, E. hund-red] &c. 
 
 § 57. Sievers shows, in an interesting way, how English 
 substantives once had endings like those of Latin and Greek. 
 There were Teutonic masculines in *-^2, corresponding to 
 Latin masculines in -us, Gk. masc. in -os; and neuters in 
 ^-om, corresponding to L. neuters in -urn, Gk. neut. in -ov. 
 Also, Teut. feminines in *-d, corresponding to L. fem. in -a 
 (once -a) and Gk. fem. in -a (Attic -?;). The traces of the 
 Teut. suffix *-oz are but slight ; we infer it from the Goth, 
 masc. nom. in -s, and the Icel. m. nom. in -r. The final 
 unstressed s easily became z, as in E. days, and even -r 
 {Primer of E. Etym., p. 85). In A. S., the Teut. *-oz and *-d?w 
 are invariably dropped in the nom. case, but *-d is only lost 
 in ' long * stems, i. e. when a long vowel appears in the 
 preceding syllable ; in ' short ' stems it appears as -0 or -u, as 
 in Teut. *karo, A. S. cearo, cearu, E. care. 
 
 Besides Teut. words in *-oz, *-d, '^-om (cf. L. hon-us, bon-a, 
 bon-um), there are stems in '^-joz, *-j5, *-jom (cf. L. al-tus, al-ia, 
 al-ium), and stems in '^-woz, ^-wo, '^-wom (cf. L. sae-uus, sae-ua, 
 sae-uum). The Teut. -j- {-i-) causes ' mutation ' of a pre- 
 ceding vowel in A. S., and (except after r) also causes ' gemina- 
 tion ' or repetition of the preceding consonant. Thus the Teut. 
 *kunjom, ' kin,' becomes A. S. cynn, with mutation of u to y, 
 and a change from nj {= ny) to nn. The Teut. -w- often 
 betrays itself in A. S. by its appearance in oblique cases, as in 
 teoru, neut. 'tar,' gen. teor-wes', or it appears even in the 
 nom., by analogy with the forms of the oblique cases, as in 
 snd-w, ' snow,' gen. snd-wes. There is also an /-declension, 
 and even a ^-declension ; but not many words belong to the 
 latter. Examples are: E. hand, A. S. hand, Goth, handus, 
 Teut. type ""handuz ; E. ford, A. S. ford, Teut. type ^ur^uz 
 
 E 2 
 
52 
 
 TEUTONIC TYPES 
 
 CHAP. V 
 
 or yurduz, cognate with L. partus (gen. partus), a harbour ; 
 E. son, A. S. sunu, Goth, sunus, Teut. type *sunuz; cognate 
 with Skt. sunus, identical with the Gothic, except that, in 
 Skt., the former u is long. 
 
 § 58. I here give a brief list of some Teutonic types, each 
 preceded by the modern English word to which they gave 
 rise. It is usual to mark these theoretical forms with a 
 preceding asterisk, but as they are all of this character, it is 
 here needless. The words are all substantives. 
 
 acre, akroz, m. 
 (whence) acorn, akranom, n. 
 angle (fish-hook), anguloz, m. 
 ape, apon-, m. 
 apple, apaloz, m. 
 arm (of the body), armoz, m. 
 arrow, arhwon-, f. 
 ash (cinder), askdn-, f. ) 
 asgon-, f. / 
 ash (tree), askoz, m. 
 awl, aloz, m.; aid, f. 
 back, bakom, n. 
 bairn (child), barnom, n. 
 bast, bastom, n. 
 bath, bathom, n. 
 bean, baunon-, f. 
 he2LT,beron-,m. \ 
 beron, f. j 
 beard, bardoz, m. ) 
 bardom, n. J 
 beaver, bebruz, m. 
 bed, badjom, n. 
 (beech-tree), boko, f. V 
 beech, bokjon-, f. r 
 
 book, bok, f. (consonantal I 
 stem). / 
 
 belly, balgtz, m. 
 bench, bankiz, m. 
 birch, berko, f, ) 
 
 berkjon-, f. J 
 bliss, bUthsjo, f. 
 blood, blodovi, n. 
 bloom, blomon-, m. n. 
 boar, bairoz, m. 
 board, burdom, n. 
 bolt, i«//^z, m. 
 bone, bainom, n. 
 bough, boguz, m. 
 bow (weapon), bugon- 
 bread, braudom, n. 
 "bride, brudi'z, f. 
 bridge, brugjon-, f. 
 bristle, burstiz, f. ) 
 
 burston-, f. J 
 brook, brokoz, m. ) 
 
 brokom, n. j 
 broom, brdemoz, m. 
 broth, bruthom, n. 
 brother, brother, m. 
 burr, burzon-, m. 
 
 § 59. There is much to be learnt from a consideration of 
 even so small a collection of types as the above. English 
 almost always drops the suffix, reducing disyllables to mono- 
 
§ 58 EXAMPLES 53 
 
 syllables, and trisyllables to disyllables, but is otherwise fairly 
 conservative. Compare acorn with *akran-, angle with ^angul-^ 
 apple with ^apal- ; and so on. But we should take particular 
 notice of such vowel-changes as occur in ded from *dad/om, 
 beech from Hokjon-, belly from Halgiz^ bench from Hankiz, and 
 the like. All these vowel-changes are due to what is known 
 as ' ?-mutation ', in German called umlaut. The change is 
 due to the fact that the vowel in the first syllable is affected 
 by that in the second, viz. the / in "^balgi'z, Hankiz, or they 
 (i. e. the German j, sounded like E. y, which is the con- 
 sonantal sound very closely allied to i) in "^badjom, &c. 
 When we arrange the vowels according to the musical scale, 
 they take the order «, o, a, e, i, where u is the lowest in tone 
 and t the highest. The word *badjom was reduced in Gothic 
 (by the loss of -om) to badi, the final/ being actually vocalized, 
 and the same form must have been known in prehistoric 
 English. But the man who becomes very familiar with the 
 form "^badi may come in course of time to say bedt\ because, 
 knowing that he has to sound i in the second syllable, he un- 
 consciously somewhat raises the tone of a, by imperceptible 
 gradations, till at last it becomes a clear e ; and there it rests, 
 because e is so well known and so common. Neither is this 
 the sole change; for there was also a strong tendency to- 
 wards turning the dj in oblique cases, such as the genitive 
 Hedjes, into a mere double d, giving the form beddes; and 
 this habit affected even the nominative, especially when the 
 i. dropped off; so that *^^^/ became bedd. The gen. beddes, 
 dat. bedde, with a nominative written as bed or bedd, are forms 
 in actual use in A. S. MSS. Similarly "^balgi- became 
 Helgi-, or rather Helyi- ; because the A. S. g was pronounced 
 as a _y before the vowel /. Hence A. S. belg, M. E. beli, 
 bely, now written with //. ""Banki- became ""benki-y and 
 then — since k before i was regularly ' palatalized ' so as to 
 pass into the sound of ch (as in church^ — Henki became 
 *benchi, benche, bench. The 'mutated' form of o (long o) 
 
54 TEUTONIC TYPES chap.v 
 
 always appears as e; thus the Gothic fodjan, * to feed,' was, 
 in A. S., successively '^fodjan, '^fedjan, fedan^ M. E. feeden, 
 E. feed. Similarly, the fern. Hokjon- became *bdkju, Hekju, 
 bece, E. beech. 
 
 When the vowel in the first syllable was already e, only one 
 change was possible, viz. it could be raised in tone to i. This 
 happened in the case of ^ birch', which had a double form; 
 berkd became the O. Mercian berc, ' birch,' altered in A. S. 
 to beorc, because A. S. preferred the curious 'broken' or 
 diphthongal sound of eo whenever an re followed. But 
 *ber^jdn- became *bi'rkjd-, bt'rce; and the A. S. bt'ree became 
 birche, E. birch. I may here notice that the hyphen (-) 
 written after ' weak ' forms ending in n signifies that the 
 theoretical form is incomplete. There must have been some 
 vowel after the n once, though we do not know how to write 
 it. For the termination -an, so common in A. S. nouns of 
 the -n (or weak) declension, corresponds to the Lat. -in- 
 in hom-in- {hom-m-em), if masculine, or to the Lat. -ton- in 
 ndt-ion- {ndt-ion-em), if feminine. 
 
 § 60. Most of the Teutonic substantives conform to such 
 types as the above fairly well; but modern German often 
 departs from them to an extent which invites consideration. 
 Thus we have E. bed, but G. Beli (with // for dd) ; E. ape, 
 but G. Affe] E. apple, but G. Ap/el; E. thing, G. Ding; 
 E. bath, G. Bad; E. brother, G. Bruder ; with other varia- 
 tions fully enumerated in Principles of Eng. Eiym., First 
 Series, pp. 509-14. This is due to what is called the ' second 
 sound-shifting ', which took place at a much later date than 
 the 'first sound-shifting' which differentiated the Teutonic 
 group of languages from the rest, as when, e. g. initial c was 
 changed into h in such a word as the E. horn as compared 
 with the Latin cornu. This second sound-shifting, which 
 affected the Old High German alone, among all the Teutonic 
 group of tongues, first appeared in the seventh century, when 
 some of the High German dialects began to substitute p for b. 
 
§ 6o LOW AND HIGH GERMAN 55 
 
 / for d^ k iox g\ whilst / became ts (written 0), k became 
 h {ch\ and p became / or pf. This process seems to have 
 come to an end in the eighth century. Examples are : 
 E. bolster, G. Polster ; but usually h remains, as E. bed, G. 
 Bett. E. daughter, G. Tochter. E. goose, O. H. G. kans ; but 
 M. H. G. has gans, as in modern German, so that this change 
 was not ultimately carried out. E. tame, G. zahm ; E. book, 
 G. Buck ; but initial k is unaffected. E. ape, G. Affe ; E. deep, 
 G. tie/; E. pat/i, G. F/ad. The Teutonic types refer to 
 a much more primitive period of linguistic history than this 
 second sound-shifting, so that the peculiar High German 
 consonants need not be considered in forming them. Never- 
 theless, the O. H. G. vowel-system is quite archaic, and must 
 be taken into account. 
 
 It should be understood that the above remarks are merely 
 of a general character, and leave unmentioned many im- 
 portant sound-changes. Particular information as to Indo- 
 Germanic and Teutonic sounds and their variations is fully 
 given in Prof. Wright's Primer of the Gothic Tongue and Old 
 High German Primer. See also his Gothic Grammar, his 
 Old English Grammar^ and his Historical German Grammar. 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 INDO-GERMANIC TYPES 
 
 § 61. We have already seen how ' Romanic types ' can be 
 constructed so as to include all the forms of a word that 
 occur in the Romance languages. Thus the F. chasser, 
 Ital. cacciare, and the rest, are all included under the type 
 '^captidre ; and the F. nation^ Ital. nazione, and the rest, are 
 all included under '^natione. We have also seen how 
 '■ Teutonic types ' can be constructed to include all the forms 
 of a word existing in the Teutonic languages. Thus the 
 E. hed, Du. bed, and Gothic badi, are included under the type 
 *badjom ; it being understood that the G. Bett does not go 
 back to the prehistoric period, but was evolved, not far from 
 A.D. 800, from a form coincident with Low German. The 
 reason why the formation of Romanic types is possible, is 
 because the various Romance languages go back to a common 
 original, which was a form of Folk-Latin, or Latin of the 
 people ; though in some instances they have admitted words of 
 a more learned character, the original forms of which are on 
 record. Similarly, Teutonic types are possible, because the 
 various Teutonic languages evidently go back to a common 
 original, though such an original is not actually recorded, as 
 it had its being in prehistoric times. We treat the Romance 
 languages as being sister-languages, all descended from the 
 same mother ; and we similarly treat the Teutonic group of 
 sister-languages, as being all from the same source. 
 
 § 62. But we can take a much wider view than this, by 
 considering such languages as Teutonic, Latin, Greek, and 
 
§6i DISCOVERY OF SANSKRIT 57 
 
 the rest, as being related to each other in the same sisterly 
 way. This great idea lies at the bottom of all modern 
 philology; until it was grasped, no advance in the subject 
 was made, or was even possible. It came from the discovery 
 of Sanskrit, and may be dated as arising about 1784, when 
 the Asiatic Society was founded at Calcutta ; or rather, 
 perhaps, about 1829, when Jakob Grimm published his 
 Deutsche Grammatik^ which demonstrated the great value of 
 the ' comparative method ' in the study of philology. Pre- 
 viously to this, most of the ideas as to the relationships of 
 various languages to one another were hopelessly wrong. 
 There was a general idea among many that all English was 
 derived from Latin, for no better reason than because this 
 was true of many borrowed words; and further, that all 
 Latin was derived from Greek, a position vigorously defended 
 by the Rev. F. E. J. Valpy, in an undated book entided 
 Virgilian Hours. But, fortunately, Sanskrit was difficult to 
 place ; and though the mistake was at first made of con- 
 sidering Latin and Greek as being derived from it, there was 
 much in the latter languages that refused to be thus explained. 
 The result was a reconsideration of the whole problem, 
 resulting in the new and saner view that, although Latin had 
 borrowed several words from Greek, these two languages 
 stood, as to main words, in sisterly relation. In the same 
 way, it was discovered that each of the Indo-germanic 
 languages had a native stock of its own ; so that, speaking 
 generally and neglecting occasional borrowings, they may be 
 treated as if descended from a parent language, which existed 
 at a wholly prehistoric and very early period. Just as 
 Italian, Spanish, Proven9al, and the rest are sister languages 
 descended from popular Latin, so Teutonic, Celtic, Baltic, 
 Slavonic, Latin, Greek, Sanskrit, and the rest go back to 
 a common origin. One result of this is that they may be 
 practically regarded as coeval, and that it is hardly safe to 
 look upon one of these languages as being older than another. 
 
58 INDO-GERMANIC TYPES chap.vi 
 
 Latin is as old as Greek, and the Teutonic element in English 
 is as old as Sanskrit. The fact is that many are apt to forget 
 the one all-essential consideration, that languages consist, 
 properly speaking, of spoken utterances only, and that the 
 representation of them by means of written symbols is con- 
 ventional and inadequate. Written documents may tend to 
 slacken the rate of change, but that is the most that they can 
 do effectively. The existence of such records is a great help 
 from an historical point of view ; but that is another matter. 
 America existed before Columbus discovered it ; and some 
 archaic form of Teutonic from which Anglo-Saxon is descended 
 was spoken many hundreds of years before Angle, Jute, Frisian, 
 or Saxon set foot upon the shores of Southern England. 
 Greek was surely spoken at the time of the siege of Troy, long 
 before it was written down, even in the poems of Homer. 
 Iceland was colonized in 874, and Icelandic was spoken there 
 in the ninth century; but the extant written documents 
 are of the thirteenth century, four centuries later. The earliest 
 Glossary containing Old English words goes back to the 
 year 700, but English is not any older than Icelandic on that 
 account. The period when a language is first written down 
 affords no sure clue to the time when it was first spoken. 
 
 § 63. Suppose that the sun is shining brightly behind 
 a dark cloud, and throwing out from its lower edge several 
 divergent rays. We see the rays emerge and separate, and 
 we can conjecture the position of the sun, though its actual 
 sphere is hidden from us. We may imagine that this hidden 
 sun represents the original parent language of the Indo- 
 germanic races. It throws out rays as from a centre, but we 
 see nothing of them till they at last emerge ; and one ray 
 may possibly emerge at a point much further from the centre 
 than the rest; for all depends on the shape of the cloud. 
 That is just the case with a given ray, which we may call 
 (if we will) Latin. We see it at last clearly enough, and can 
 trace its course afterwards. And though we cannot see the 
 
§ 63 THE VERB TO BITE 59 
 
 sun itself, the rays, if traced upwards and backwards, converge 
 towards a point where we know that it must be. It is by 
 a similar process that comparative philology conducts us 
 towards an ultimate centre. All that we can do, then, is to 
 take each language as we find it, and to trace it back as far as 
 we can. The Teutonic types, constructed by comparing the 
 various Teutonic tongues, take us back to prehistoric times 
 and to a respectable antiquity ; and they can fitly be com- 
 pared even with Greek and Latin and Sanskrit. Even actual 
 Anglo-Saxon and Old Norse and Gothic forms can be used 
 instead of them, in many cases, without vitiating the conclu- 
 sions to be drawn ; as will appear by taking a few examples. 
 § 64. E. Bite, verb. The E. bite is one of the strong 
 verbs, which are of the nature of Teutonic roots. The 
 pp. bitten is still in use, but the old pt. t., bat, which should have 
 given a modern E. bote, is obsolete. The scheme of Teutonic 
 strong verbs is given at pp. 68, 69 of my Primer of E. 
 Etymology. Bite, A. S. bitan, belongs to the first conjugation, 
 in which the original diphthong of the prime grade was ei. 
 And, as E. b and / correspond, respectively, to the Idg. 
 (Indo-germanic) bh and </, we see that bite is from the Idg. 
 root Hheid) which may be taken as being the Idg. type 
 (without a suffix). It only remains to find the cognate words 
 in other languages. It has no Greek equivalent ; but it is 
 obviously cognate (or intimately connected) with the Skt. 
 bhid, a root meaning ' to split, to cleave, to pierce, to rend 
 asunder '. The Skt. short i merely belongs to another ' grade ', 
 viz. the weak grade seen in the A. S. pp. bit-en, modern 
 E. bitten. The L. cognate verb is fi{n)dere, to cleave, with 
 an unoriginal n inserted in the infinitive, not found in the 
 pt. t. fid-i or the pp. fissus. We can therefore at once 
 set down the result in this form. The E. bite, Skt. bhid, 
 L. findere are all co-radicate (i. e. from the same root) ; 
 from the Idg. type *bheid. This is sometimes printed as 
 a/BHEID ; where V signifies ' root '. 
 
6o INDO-GERMANIC TYPES chap, vi 
 
 § 65. Similarly we can go through examples of the other 
 conjugations ; as below. 
 
 Conj. 2. Choose. The original diphthong of the root was 
 eu. In the A. S. ceosan, the c corresponds to Skt. g, Gk. y, 
 L. g ; and the eu varies to au and u ; as tabulated (p. 69 of 
 Primer). Hence the Idg. type is ^geus. The cognates 
 appear in the Skt. jush (from "^gus, *gus/i), to relish ; Gk. 
 
 yevofiat (for *y€V(r-Ofxai), I taste, yeva-TOS, tasted ; L. gUS-fuS, 
 
 taste. Thus choosing was the result of ' tasting '. See the 
 Dictionary for further particulars. 
 
 Conj. 3. Drink. The Teut. type *drenkan has no cognates 
 beyond the Teut. languages. 
 
 Thirst, sb. The sb. //ii'rs/ has no root-verb in English, 
 though we know that the -/ is only a suffix. But we can 
 always, when there are cognates, make up an imaginary 
 Teutonic verb, such as '^thers-an (pt. t. '^thars, pp. '^thorsen), 
 which will serve the purpose of exhibiting the gradations 
 belonging to the conjugation. The Teut. root '^thers 
 corresponds to Idg. *ters, which is clearly represented by 
 Gk. Tep(T-((T6ai, to become dry. In Latin, rs often becomes 
 rr ; hence */ers-a, ierra^ i.e. ' dry land'. The second grade 
 ^thors corresponds to L. "^tors- ; whence (with rr for rs 
 before a causal suffix) torr-ere, ' to dry extremely, roast,' 
 torr-id-us, ' very dry,' E. /orri'd, and the pp. */ors-/us, 
 shortened to fosf-us, whence E. /oasL 
 
 Conj. 4. Bear, vb. A. S. der-an ; Teut. type *5er-an, 
 pt. t. *dar, pp. *dor-en. Idg. type "^dker, Skt. dhar, Gk. 
 (pep'€iv, L. fer-re ; O. Irish ber-im, I bear ; Russ. br-ate, to 
 take, to carry ; Armenian ber-em, I bear ; Pers. bur-dan, to 
 bear. With many derivatives. 
 
 Conj. 5. E. Eat. A. S. ei-an ; Idg. type "^ed. Skt. ad, 
 to eat ; Gk. c8-fxevai ; L. ed-ere ; Lithuanian ed-mi, I eat. An 
 interesting derivative is the Goih./ra-i/an, to eat up, devour, 
 contracted in A. S. to fretan, whence E. fret, said of 
 a moth, &c. 
 
§ 65 HEA VE AND BLOW 6i 
 
 Conj. 6. E. Heave. A. S. hebban, for *ha/jan (with 
 mutation of « to e, and the usual substitution of bb for j^*) ; 
 Goth, hafjan, to carry, to bear. The A. S. h corresponds 
 both to Idg. k and q ; and f to Idg. />. In the present case 
 the Idg. type is ^qap. Whether the Idg. initial is ^ or ^ is 
 determined by the Lithuanian (or the Lettish) form ; the 
 former answering to Lith. k and the latter to Lith. sz (pro- 
 nounced as sh in show). In the present case we find, as 
 a cognate word, the Lettish kamptu, I catch hold of. Other 
 cognates are the L. cap-ere, to seize ; Gk. Ka-rr-r), a crib, 
 manger (to hold food for cattle; cf. L. cap-ax, capable of 
 holding) ; and even Gk. kcott-t;, a handle. 
 
 Conj. 7. E. Blow, to bloom, to flourish as a flower. 
 A. S. bid-wan, to blow ; blo-ma, a bloom ; and (with added s) 
 blos-tma, a blossom. The Idg. type is *bhld', or (with added 
 s) *bhlos. From the former we have O. Irish bld-th, 
 W. blaw-d, bloom ; from the latter, I^.flos, a flower, whence 
 the vb. flbr-ere (for *flbs-ere\ to flourish, F. fleur-ir, E. 
 ftour-ish. Flower and flour are variants of the same word ; 
 both from k.Y.flur {Y.fleur) ; from the L. z.q,q,. florem. 
 
 § 66. Recapitulating the above examples, we have, as 
 connected with the seven A. S. conjugations, the following 
 Idg. types. I. ""bheid, to bite ; 2. ""geus, to choose ; 3. *iers, 
 to be dry; 4. Hher, to bear; 5. *^^, to eat; 6. ""qap, to 
 seize, carry, lift ; 7. Hhlb, to bloom. The diff"erence between 
 the conjugations really depends upon the vowel'%o\m6s> of the 
 roots, which are all referred to the Greek values of the vowels, 
 as that language has best preserved the vowel-sounds of the 
 parent language. The 'root-vowels' are, respectively, as 
 follows. I. «; 2. eu ; 3. e (before /ze;^) consonants) ; 4. f 
 (before X, /m, v, or p) ; 5. e (before one consonant); 6. a, 
 rarely o; 7. 5, ?;, « (all long). 
 
 § 67. One great advantage of discovering the Idg. type is 
 that some of the roots are prolific, and their numerous 
 derivatives are instructive. A good example appears in the 
 
62 INDO-GERMANIC TYPES chap, vi 
 
 Idg. ""ten i^lon, ""Im), lo stretch. For this root we have evidence 
 in the Skt. tan, to stretch, Gk. reiWiv (for *t€V'J€iv), L. 
 ten-d-ere ; Goth, uf-than-jan^ to stretch out ; O. H. G. den-en, 
 G. dehnen, to stretch. Skt. has several derivatives. Gk. has 
 Ti-rav-os (a reduplicated form), a strain, tension, whence 
 E. tetanus ; t6v-os, a thing stretched, a tone, note, as emitted 
 by a stretched string. L. has not only tendere, to stretch, 
 but ten-ere, to hold fast, connected with the idea of stretching 
 tight or drawing tight, and the pp. tentus (from tenere) is 
 sometimes used instead of tensus, the pp. of tendere. Both 
 verbs have numerous derivatives, as abs-tmere, at-tinere, 
 con-tinere, de-tinere^ dis-tinere, ob-tinere^ per-tinere, re-tinere, 
 sus-tinere ; at-tendere, con-tendere, de-tendere, dis-tendere, 
 ex-tendere, in-tendere, ob-tendere, os-tendere, per-tendere, 
 por -tendere, pr de-tendere, pro-tender e, re -tendere^ sub-tender e\ 
 whence many E. words have been formed which will readily 
 suggest themselves. Other connected words are ten-ax^ hold- 
 ing fast, whence E. tenacious ; ten-on ; ten-or ; ten-uis, thin, 
 whence E. tenuity ; ten-er, slender, tender, whence E. tender, 
 adj. ; and we have the same root in such E. words as tenable, 
 tenant, tenefnent, tenet, tenure, tense, tightly strained, and the 
 verbs to tend, to tender. Also a tent, or pavilion, a tenter, or 
 frame for stretching cloth ; tenter-hooks, &c. Cf. also 
 O. Irish tana, thin, ///, a stretched string (as of a fiddle) ; 
 Welsh tant, a string, teneu, thin. The native E. word from 
 this root is thin, cognate with W. teneu, L. tenuis, &c. The 
 A. S. form is thynne, which can be thus accounted for. From 
 the Idg. */^«, Teut. '^then, form an imaginary A. S. verb 
 '^then-an, to stretch (which may easily have once been real 
 enough) ; pt. t. "^than ; pp. ^thun-en. Then, from the weak 
 grade ^thun-, as seen in the pp., form the adj. '^thun-joz, 
 which is really the Teut. type of thynne. For the j mutates 
 the u to y, and the -nj- becomes -nn- quite regularly, as in 
 many other cases. Even thin has its derivatives, viz. the verb 
 to thin, the adj. thin-nish, the adv. thin-ly, and the sb. ihin-ness. 
 
§ 68 HARE AND HOLT 63 
 
 § 68. In these examples, the Idg. type is rendered by 
 a monosyllable, because the form of the Idg. infinitive mood 
 is uncertain, and cannot well be added. But in the case of 
 sbs. and adjs., we can often obtain the whole Idg. word. 
 
 E. Hen. A. S. henn, G. henne ; Teut. type "^han-jo, fern. 
 The corresponding Idg. type is ^kanjd. The masc. form is 
 A. S. hana, G. hahn \ Teut. type *han-on- ; Idg. type '^kanon-. 
 Here -on- and -jo are the masc. and fem. agential suffixes ; 
 and the base kan- is obviously L. can-ere, to sing, Welsh can-u, 
 to sing; and the senses are 'male singer' and 'female 
 singer ' ; though the feminine may have been formed from the 
 male, which alone had, from the first, the sense of ' singer '. 
 
 E. Hare. A. S. hara] G. hase-, Teut. types "^hazon-, 
 hason-'y Idg. type, '^kason-. The Old Truss, sasnis^ for 
 '^kasnis, a hare, also shows that the third letter was really j ; 
 and that the Skt. gagas, a hare, was originally gasds, but was 
 turned into gagas by assimilation; whence by a popular 
 etymology, as if it meant ' the jumper ', came the verb gag, to 
 jump. But it is supposed to have been connected rather with 
 the A. S. hasu, ' grey,' L. cdnus (for *casnus, the a resulting 
 from as; Walde quotes the old Pelignian casnar, old, i.e. 
 grey-headed). It may be noted that all Idg. colour-names are 
 extremely vague. The fact that the Skt. gagas was accented 
 on the latter syllable explains (by Verner's Law ^), the change 
 from j- to r in the A. S. form hara. 
 
 Holt, a copse, wood. A. S. M/, n. ; G. Mz ; Teut. 
 type '^/lulfom ; Idg. type '^Mdom. Here the h corresponds to 
 Gk. K, the ul to a vocalic /, rendered in Gk. by Xa, and the 
 / to Gr. 8. Thus the near equivalent of kol/ appears in the 
 Gk. KKddos, m., a twig, a branch, connected with Kkdciv, to 
 break, break off. It would appear that a hoU was a place 
 resorted to for obtaining twigs, &c., as firewood. 
 
 1 Vemer's Law is that the non-initial Teut. tA,/, /^, and s became, 
 respectively, d, b,g, and r whenever the position of the accent, in the 
 Idg. word, did not immediately precede these sounds. 
 
64 INDO-GERMANip TYPES chap.vi 
 
 The above examples are sufficient to show that it is often 
 possible to discover the Idg. forms of modern English words. 
 
 The correspondence of initial sounds in the dental and 
 labial series is soon acquired; viz. that the E. d, /, th 
 answer to Idg. dh, d^ /; and that the E. b, p, / answer to 
 Idg. hh^ b, p. But the guttural series are more complex, as 
 there are really triple sets of them, known respectively as the 
 palatal, middle, and labio-velar gutturals; so that it is 
 necessary to consult the best authorities when we have to 
 deal with them. 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 THE VALUE OF ENGLISH 
 
 § 69. I propose to show, in the present chapter, the 
 great value of English in the scheme of comparative philology, 
 quite apart from its extreme usefulness as a medium of com- 
 munication and the proud position which it holds in literature. 
 Next to Gothic, which has long been extinct, it presents, in 
 its oldest forms, the best types of Teutonic words. This 
 alone would render it necessary for all students of the 
 Germanic languages to ascertain the best Anglo-Saxon forms, 
 but English has a value even beyond this, as there are many 
 instances, as I propose to show to some extent, in which it 
 throws much light upon other languages, such as Latin, 
 Greek, or Sanskrit. How this can be the case may best be 
 seen by taking an example or two in which such a language 
 as French can receive light from a Romance language much 
 less widely used, such as Roumanian or Romaunsch. 
 
 § 70. Since all the Romance languages are, to a large 
 extent, from the same source, it may happen now and then 
 that such a language as Roumanian, which is not often taken 
 into much consideration, may sometimes supply a very useful 
 form for comparison. Take, for example, the E. fringe, 
 borrowed from the O. F. frenge (now spelt f range) ; with 
 which we may compare the Ital. frangia, Span, and Port. 
 franja. But the Roumanian form is frimbie, which at once 
 suggests the probability that all these forms go back to 
 a popular Latin *frmbia, which is nothing but a slight per- 
 version of the Late 1.. fimbria. For, though the lu. fimbriae 
 is commonly used only in the plural, to signify ' threads ', we 
 find in the Vulgate version of Matt. ix. 20 the expression 
 
 1343 F 
 
66 THE VALUE OF ENGLISH chap.vji 
 
 ' fimhriam uestimenti eius', the hem of his garment; and 
 with this form as a guide, we find in Florio's Ital. Diet, the 
 entry: ^Fimbria, the hem or skirt, a fringe, a welt,' &c.; 
 which puts the matter beyond all doubt, as regards the sense. 
 Note, however, that the Ital. fimbria is not from the popular 
 Latin, but is the equivalent ' learned form ' ; and perhaps the 
 \\.2\. frangia was borrowed from French. 
 
 § 71. Take again the E. word marmot, borrowed from 
 the F. marmotle, assimilated to F. marmoUe, fem. of marmot, 
 a monkey, but really due to the Romaunsch name murmont, 
 a marmot, lit. 'mountain-mouse,' from the L. ace. murem 
 montis, mouse of the mountain. Hence also the Bavarian 
 murmentel, a marmot, and the perverted G. murmelthier (see 
 Kluge). 
 
 § 72. In like manner, if it be once admitted that native 
 English (as being an excellent representative of Teutonic) is 
 a sister language to Latin, Greek, Sanskrit, and the rest, it 
 may easily happen that not only an Anglo-Saxon word, but 
 even its modern representative, may help us to understand 
 the origin of Latin or Greek or Skt. words. A good 
 example is E. star^ Mid. E. sterre (Chaucer). If we compare 
 this with the L. stella, it is not difficult to see that the latter 
 really represents '^ster-la, and is a diminutive from an Old L. 
 base '^ster- or '^ster- ; cf. Gk. ao-rep-oy, gen. of cuyTr]^ (whence 
 E. aster-isk)', also Gk. ao-rpop, a constellation, whence the L. 
 astrum was borrowed. But when we turn to Skt., the Skt. 
 words are tar a, f., ' a star,' and tar as, m. pi. ' stars ' ; and we 
 can see at once that these words have lost an initial s, and 
 stand for '^stdra and *stdras respectively. The point is that, 
 without any assistance from either Gk. or Latin, the E. star 
 would have been sufficient to show what the original Skt. 
 forms must have been. 
 
 § 73. The above example is of no great consequence, as 
 we had the Gk. and Latin forms to help us. It becomes 
 much more interesting when it is the English word that off"ers 
 
§ 71 THE VERB TO BIND 67 
 
 the best evidence, as may easily happen. It is high time 
 that we woke up to a sense of this possibiHty, which has long 
 been familiar to the student of comparative philology. After 
 centuries spent in the contemplation of the 'derivation' of 
 native English words from Latin, or Greek, or Hebrew, or 
 some other impossible source, it is time to show, not that 
 Latin and Greek can be ' derived '" from English, but that 
 English may be very helpful in determining the original forms 
 of ' classical' words. Surely this ought to be a matter of 
 some interest to a student of the EngHsh language. 
 
 § 74. Take, for example, the common E. verb to bind; 
 and let us see what can be done with it. We at once notice 
 its likeness to the Skt. batidhas, a band, a tie, and the Skt. 
 root bandh, to bind. But an E. b answers to a Skt. initial 
 bh ; from which we at once see that the Skt. root was origin- 
 ally ^bhandh, afterwards changed to bandh merely because 
 a Skt. initial bh becomes a simple b when the syllable ends 
 with an aspirate, such as dh. Both E. bind and Skt. Hhandh- 
 go back to a root of the form *bhendh ; see § 66 above.* 
 But what will ha})pen in Latin .? The bh will be L. /, and 
 the dh will be d, and the root will be yend, with the sense ' to 
 bind '. Obviously, this gives the derivation of the L. offendix, 
 ' a band, knot ' ; where the prefix is the usual L. of-, a form 
 of the prep. ob. Again, what will happen in Gk. ? The 
 Gk. root *(j)€vd- must become *nevd-, to avoid a double 
 aspirate ; if to this we add the suffix -afia, we shall obtain 
 *7r€vd(xna, which will regularly become Trelafxa, the name of the 
 cable or * painter ' by which ships were fastened up or bound 
 to the land. Observe that in this case it is the English word 
 which gives the real clue to the set of derivatives. There is 
 indeed a Pers. bandan, 'to bind'; but this will not tell us 
 whether the root begins with b or bh, whereas the E. form is 
 quite decisive on the point. 
 
 1 The root belongs to the third English conjugation ; Teut. bind- (for 
 *bend-), because e becomes i in Teutonic before nd. 
 
 F 2 
 
68 THE VALUE OF ENGLISH chap, vii 
 
 § 76. The Gk. c})a>yciv, to roast, is easily understood by 
 turning it into Anglo-Saxon. Corresponding to <^coy- is the 
 A. S. doc. But Ifoc is the pt. t. of the strong verb dac-an, ' to 
 bake.' And, in fact, the E. dake (with its Teutonic cognates) 
 is the only word that gives any light here ; there is no such 
 word in Latin, or Lithuanian, or anywhere else. 
 
 § 76. The E. verb /o brew is the A. S. hreow-an^ a strong 
 verb ; from the Idg. root '^bhreu, of which the weak grade is 
 ""hhru, represented in Latin by ^fru. This explains the L. 
 de/rulum, ' must boiled down ' ; lit. ' that which is brewed 
 down '. The Thracian (jypvrov, a kind of beer, is 'that which 
 is brewed'. The long v is closely related to the short v, 
 being considered as a weakened grade, but less weak than the 
 common short v of the * weak ' grade. 
 
 § 77. The E. verb /o brook, to put up with, is obsolescent 
 and archaic ; the M. E. form is brouken, to enjoy, to use ; 
 A. S. brucan, to enjoy, to use. Compare "L. frui^ to enjoy, 
 pp. frucius, and the sb. fruges, fruit. This determines the 
 value of the Latin/; which may represent either Idg. bh, dh, 
 or gh. In this case it represents bh, and the root is the Idg. 
 ^bhreug. The weakened grade is ^bhrug, as in 'L./riig-es, 
 A. S. bruc-an. Andi/ruc-tus is for */rug-tuSj the g becoming 
 c before /. The Skt. bhuj\ to enjoy, seems to have lost an r ; 
 the original form may have been *bhruj. 
 
 § 78. The Gk. x^^^^^v, 'a swallow,' has no obvious root 
 in Greek. But English suggests that it means * singer ', from 
 the Teutonic "^gel- (Gk. x^^-), to sing. Cf. A. S. gellan^giellan, 
 to sing aloud, to shout, mod. E. ioyell (like G. gellen). The 
 second grade is *gal', as in ntghttn-gale, ' the singer by 
 night.' So that the -gale in the latter word gives the sense 
 of the Gk. x<=^- well enough. 
 
 § 79. The Gk. Kapnos means 'the wrist'; but to get the 
 root of it and the true sense, it is best to consult English. 
 In Brugmann's Grundrtss, 2nd ed., § 675, it is shown that 
 Kapn- corresponds to A. S. hwearf, second grade of hweorf-an^ 
 
§ 75 FOLD AND PUTTEE 69 
 
 to turn ; so that fcapTrds is named from ' turning ', just as the E. 
 wrist is allied to the verb to writhe, i. e. to twist about. 
 Whir-l (for ^whirf-le) is the frequentative of an equivalent 
 Old Norse word, and means ' to turn round continually '. 
 
 § 80. The L. lass-us, ' tired/ whence E. lassitude, is best 
 explained by comparison with E. late. The E. late is the 
 A. S. /ae/, late, slow ; from the strong verb to let, A. S. Idet-an, 
 to let alone, let go, forsake ; in mod. E., ' to permit.' Lassus 
 is for *lad-tus, let alone, forsaken ; and so, helpless, tired out. 
 The causal verb let, to hinder, is derived from the adj. late ; 
 lit. ' to make late '. 
 
 § 81. The E. fold is helpful in explaining the Gk. bi- 
 nXdo-ios, doubled. It is, literally, two-fold ; for TrXda-ios is for 
 *7rXaT-toff, ' folded.' Here the Gk. TrXar- is the weak grade of 
 an Idg. */>o//-, whence Goth. /alt/ian, A,S. /ealdan, to fold. 
 The verb TfKdaa-eiv (for ^nXdr-Jeiv) is to mould, to form in clay 
 or wax ; whence the E. plastic and piaster. 
 
 But the most extraordinary use of the E./bld is the possi- 
 bility of employing it to explain the word puttee, meaning 
 'a long strip of cloth wound spirally round the leg from 
 the ankle to the knee ' ; see the N. E. D. It is the Hindi 
 patti, a bandage, from the Skt. patl, a strip of cloth, allied to 
 Skt. paias, a piece of cloth. The Skt. cerebral / shows the 
 loss of a preceding /, so iha,t patas is for '^palt-as, and is allied 
 to fold. The puttee \s folded round the leg several times. 
 
 § 82. Since the A. S. h corresponds to L. f, and the A. S. 
 J to L. (2 (as in A. S. modor, a mother, L. mater), the A. S. 
 hld-wan corresponds to L. cld-mdre. The Latin word means 
 'to cry aloud', whence E. claim^ ex-claim, pro-claim \ but 
 the E. low is far more primitive in sense, as it is strictly con- 
 fined to denoting the sound uttered by cattle. 
 
 § 83. The Gk. ipeiTreiv, ' to tear down,' is well illustrated 
 by the expressive verb to rive, which is not a native E. word, 
 but borrowed from the O. Norse rifa, the exact equivalent of 
 e-pcineiv. The same verb to rive further illustrates the L. rtpa, 
 
70 THE VALUE OF ENGLISH chap, vii 
 
 a bank made by the riving stream, on each side of the rift 
 caused by the course of the water. Hence, the Late L. 
 ripdria, a river-bank, also the river itself. Old F. riviere, 
 Anglo-F. rivere, E. river. So that the E. river is now applied 
 to the course of the stream, though formerly, like the Ital. 
 riviera, it meant the bank caused by the stream, considered 
 as a ' riv-er ' or as riving the sides of its channel. Observe 
 that the v in the verb to rive is from the O. N./"; but the v in 
 river is from the corresponding L. p. 
 
 § 84. One great value of English forms is that they pre- 
 serve s and w, both of which are so easily lost in Greek; 
 indeed, the sound of the latter disappeared in Greek altogether 
 at quite an early date, though traces of its use are found in 
 Homeric verse. Persian and Welsh sometimes replace 
 initial s by h, as in Pers. ha/t^ L. septem, E. seven ; W. hen, 
 O. Irish sen, L. sen-ex, ' old.' In like manner we find the 
 rough breathing or aspirate in the Gk. €-nra, * seven ' ; and in 
 the O. Gk. ev-oy, ' old.' A remarkable instance occurs in 
 the Gk. av-o9, ' dry,' Attic av-oy, where s has been lost twice 
 over, as is seen by comparison with Lithuan. saHs-as, ' dry.' 
 This is further confirmed by the E. sere or sear, 'dry, 
 withered,' Teut. type ^sauz-6z, Idg. type "^saus-Ss. From 
 the same root is the E. austere, O. F. austere, L. austerus^ 
 which is not a true L. word, but is merely borrowed from the 
 Gk. ava-TTjpos, making the tongue dry, harsh; hence, meta- 
 phorically, severe, austere ; from the Gk. avciv, to make dry. 
 Latin usually preserves the s, as in sulc-us, a furrow; allied 
 to Gk. oKko^, a furrow, from the verb eXxeii;, to draw along, 
 with reference to the plough. In this case E. preserves the 
 name of the plough itself, viz. in the A. S. sulh, a plough, 
 preserved to this day in Devonshire in the form zool. 
 
 § 85. The Gk. ^v-uv^ to singe, to burn, has lost an s, 
 and stands for *et>o--eti/. The cognate L. verb is ur-ere, to 
 burn, which certainly stands for ""iis-ere, as appears from the 
 pt. t. ussi and the pp. us-tus. The same Idg. root '^eus is 
 
§84 WALL AND UALLUM ^i 
 
 the origin of the K.^. ys-lan, pi., hot embers; a word which 
 is by no means lost, but appears in many Northern dialects 
 as easles or iseh ; see the E. D. D. The Prompt, Parvu- 
 lorum, compiled in 1440, has ' Isyl of fyre, favilla'. The 
 dialect of modern Cumberland or Yorkshire affords just as 
 good evidence for a Gk. *6{/o--e4j/ or a L. *us-ere as a Sanskrit 
 Dictionary, which gives the root ush (for "^us), to burn. 
 
 § 86. English is at its best when we come to deal with 
 the letter w, which is still preserved among us with its 
 ancient pronunciation, though nearly every other Teutonic 
 dialect pronounces it as v, which is also its sound in all the 
 Romance languages. Latin had it also in early times, but it 
 became a v before the Romance languages were formed. In 
 very early times Gk. had the sound, and denoted it by the 
 symbol digamma (f). Brugmann instances the Doric 
 feUaTi, 'twenty,' L. uigin{i\ fiivos, 'a word,' cognate with 
 L. u5x, &c. But the sound ceased in Greek, and the symbol 
 f went out of use at a very early period, except in so far as it 
 survived in the L. F. But English has kept the sound to the 
 present day in nearly every position ; and in some dialects it 
 has even encroached upon the domain of v, as in wery for 
 very, once common even in London. Before r it is no longer 
 sounded, but is still written, as in write, wrinkle, wreck. Even 
 these written forms are admissible as evidence, because the w 
 only appears in words where it was once heard. The E. 
 words ivall, wick (a village, town), and wine are of especial 
 interest, because they were borrowed from the Romans at so 
 early a date that their initial sounds preserve the Old L. ^^ as 
 used in the forms uallum, ulcus, uinum, i. e. with the sound 
 as of w. In the Epinal Glossary, written about a. d. 700, we 
 find the compounds fore-uuall, ' fore-wall,' and uuin-dern, lit. 
 * wine-shop ', hence, ' a tavern ' ; but they were borrowed long 
 before that, and brought over from the continent by the 
 English invaders. Win, ' wine,' also occurs in O. H. German, 
 with the same initial sound as in English ; but the mod. G. 
 
72 THE VALUE OF ENGLISH chap, vii 
 
 has Wem, with w as v. The A. S. umc, 'a wick, village/ 
 occurs in a Charter dated 740. All three words, in the 
 eighth century, were written, in English documents, with 
 initial uu. The evidence of Welsh is to the same effect ; the 
 British used to prefix g before a. w in borrowed words, as 
 in gwi'ced, ' a wicket,' small gate, borrowed from English ; 
 and the Welsh words for wall and wine are, respectively, 
 gwal and gwi'n. 
 
 § 87. Latin is of course very useful for restoring the Gk. 
 forms that have lost a, w ; as, e. g. in the case of Gk. ox-os, 
 a chariot, allied to L. uehiculum, a vehicle, and ueh-ere, to 
 carry. But Latin is not always available ; and in such cases 
 English may serve. Take, for example, the Gk. vy-p6s, 
 ' wet,' which is derived from an Idg. root *weg(w), with 
 a ' labial ' g, an assumption which is made for the purpose of 
 connecting it (as no doubt it should be) with the L. uu-idus, 
 ' wet.' The initial w is only found in the related Teutonic 
 words, such as Du. wak, 'moist,' Icel. vok (gen. sing, and 
 nom. pi. vak-ar), f. a hole, an opening in ice, lit. ' a wet 
 place ' ; Swed. vak, a hole in ice. The Scand. v was once 
 a w ; and at some early date, we borrowed this Scand. word 
 in the form wak, and it is still known in our dialects. The 
 E. D. D. quotes wake as an East Anglian word : — ' I passed 
 a wake, or open space in the ice, where the swans were 
 swimming.' Gawain Douglas several times uses the adj. 
 wak^ in the sense of ' moist '. Thus he has — 
 
 ' Als swift as dalphyne fysche, swymmand away 
 In the wak sey of Egip or Lyby.' 
 
 The original line in Virgil [Aen. v. 594) is — 
 
 ' Delphinum similes, qui per maria humida nando.' 
 
 It often happened, in winter time, that a vessel, sailing over 
 a lake, had to make its way through thin ice, and thus left 
 a track of open water behind it. This was called the wake, 
 and afterwards became a general name for a ship's track. 
 
§87 HELIX K^T> WILK 73 
 
 Richardson quotes from Dampiers Voyages (1699) ^s 
 follows : — ' in the wake of the ship (as 'tis called) or the 
 smoothness which the ship's passing has made on the sea.' 
 This furnishes a curious commentary on Homer's phrase 
 vypli KeXcvBa, in Od. iii. 71, and elsewhere. 
 
 § 88. The Gk. duis, adj., 'bereaved of/ is allied to the 
 Skt. Unas, ' lacking, incomplete ' ; and further, to the Gothic 
 wans, ' lacking,' and to the E. wan-t-ing. The -/- in the last 
 word is due to the nom. neuter suffix of the Icel. van-r, adj., 
 ' lacking ' ; the neuter form being van-t. 
 
 The Gk. uStop, water, and the L. unda, a wave, are related 
 to the Lith. wandu, water, Slavonic voda, water, and to the 
 E. water. From the Slav, voda comes the Russian vodka, 
 brandy, or spirit. 
 
 The Gk. vc^i-alvav, to weave, is allied to E. weave, A. S. wefan. 
 
 The Gk. eXi^, a twist, a curl, a spiral line, has certainly 
 lost an initial w, as is remarkably shown by the allied A. S. 
 wtloc, now misspelt whelk, the name of a mollusc with a spiral 
 shell. The prov. E. name wtlk is better ; and some dialects 
 even preserve the archaic form willok, as given in the E. D. D. 
 Shakespeare has, in King Lear, iv. 6. 71, the following 
 line : — ' Homes wealk'd, and waned like the enraged Sea ' ; for 
 so it appears in the first Folio. Here wealk'd means ' con- 
 voluted ', and needs no correction, or at any rate needs no h 
 after the w. It is probable that the poet found the expression 
 in Golding's Ovid, where ' welked horns' occurs thrice, as 
 noted in my Etymological Dictionary. 
 
 The lost w at the beginning of the Gk. epyov is preserved 
 in the cognate E. work, A. S. were. 
 
 The E. witch-elm is so named from its pendulous branches ; 
 the A. S. name is wic-e, lit. 'bending', from wic-, the weak 
 grade of the A. S. wlcan, to bend, to yield, give way. The 
 Teut. base is "^weik, answering to the Idg. root *weig ; and it 
 is suggested that from this root we may derive the Gk. otyeiv, 
 to open, which may have meant ' to cause to give way ', in 
 
74 THE VALUE OF ENGLISH chap, vii 
 
 speaking of a door. The usual pres. sing, is o'lywfxi (for *o- 
 Fiypvixi); with an aorist ai^a. Cf. Skt. v?)', to recoil, flee 
 from. It seems probable that the root *we{k, whence the 
 Gk. eUeiu, to yield, give way, is derived, may be a related 
 form, with k for g. Such variants occur occasionally. 
 
 § 89. English is still more helpful in the few cases where 
 Gk. has lost both s and w together, in words that once began 
 with the combination sw. Modern English has two remark- 
 able examples in the words swea^ and sweet) and Chaucer 
 has the word sweven, ' a dream,' which affords a third. 
 
 The E. sweat is really a verbal form, as it represents the 
 A. S. sw^tan, derived from the sb. swat, which should have 
 given a modern E. swote ; but this has long been obsolete, 
 though it occurs, spelt swoot, in Chaucer, Cant. Tales, g 578. 
 The Teut. base is "^sweit, whence the second grade "^swait 
 (A. S. swat\ The Idg. root is "^sweid; second grade '^swoid\ 
 weak grade '^swid. The weak grade gives us (with loss of 
 sw ^) the Gk. tS-pcos, sweat, and the Skt. svid, to sweat. The 
 second grade occurs in the Skt. svedas, sb., sweat, and in the 
 L. sudor (for ^swoidor), sb. 
 
 The E. sweet is the A. S. swete, adj., from a Teut. type 
 "^swot-joz; with the usual mutation of to e. The Teut. 
 '^swbt- answers to Idg. '^swdd-, which occurs in the Skt. 
 svdd-us, sweet, the L. sud-uis (for ^sudd-uis, with loss of d), 
 and the Greek r]hvs (with loss of initial sw, though the s is 
 indicated by the rough breathing). 
 
 Chaucer, in the Cant. Tales, b 3930, has: — 'And eek 
 a sweven upon a night he mette,' i. e. and moreover he one 
 night dreamt a dream. This is from the A. S. swe/n, a sleep, 
 a dream. The Teut. base is "^swef, to sleep, answering to 
 the Idg. root "^swep, to sleep, whence the sb. '^swepnos, repre- 
 sented by the Skt. svapnas, sleep, and, in an altered form, by 
 the L. somnus. From the weak grade "^sup (with h for s) we 
 have the Gk. vttvos, whence E. hypnotize. 
 
 ^ The s is represented, after a sort, by the rough breathing or aspirate. 
 
CHAPTER VIII 
 
 LINGUISTIC ERRORS 
 
 § 90. The chief rule by which modern philology is con- 
 ducted is that phonetic laws operate with almost mathematical 
 regularity, to an extent beyond what might have been ex- 
 pected. This seems to be particularly the case whenever 
 words have been let alone, so as to develop their sounds 
 naturally and regularly, changing from time to time quite 
 imperceptibly, and always in the same direction. Many of 
 our provincial dialects are in this case, and contain old words 
 handed down from quite an early period, the forms of which 
 are of great philological value. There is but little ' corruption ', 
 as it has been called, of popular words ; it is only when the 
 people adopt * learned ' words from without, that the tempta- 
 tion is presented of bringing them into a more acceptable 
 form, as being more in accord with sounds that they know 
 already. Such a word, for instance, as bronchitis is in com- 
 mon use by some doctor whom a poor man consults, and the 
 patient's endeavour is not so much to understand it as to 
 reproduce, approximately, the sound of it in a form which he 
 can himself remember, such as brown-kHus or brown-iitus or 
 brown-typhus, all of which are in actual use. This is, after all, 
 of no very great consequence, as the number of educated 
 people who know the right sound of the word, even though 
 many of these know nothing of its origin, is sufficiently great 
 to preserve the word from alteration. The truth is, after all, 
 that perversions of word-forms by those who are deemed 
 illiterate or ignorant have seldom any great vogue, and can 
 
76 LINGUISTIC ERRORS chap.viii 
 
 at any rate usually be suppressed. The real perverters of 
 language are rather to be found among the learned or edu- 
 cated, who, precisely because they have learnt more or less 
 Latin or Greek, neither of which perhaps they know how to 
 pronounce, are apt to think that they possess the clue to the 
 formation of all the chief words in the English language. 
 Such is not really the case, because there is much of it that 
 can only be explained by help of Anglo-Saxon and Anglo- 
 French, both of which are much neglected. 
 
 In particular, much harm was done by the pedants of the 
 sixteenth century, who took upon themselves to respell many 
 words on a wrong principle. Thus they inserted a ^ in debt 
 and doubt, because there was a ^ in the Latin words from 
 which the Old French dette and doute were derived! Accord- 
 ing to this extraordinary and absurd principle, we ought not 
 to write challenge, but rather challumnge, in order to explain 
 that challenge represents the L. calumnia. Luckily, they were 
 ignorant of the fact. It would indeed be puzzling to know 
 how to spell age, so as to denote its origin from aetdticum ; 
 perhaps etatice might have served the turn. It shows what 
 comes of forgetting the only true principle of spelling, viz. so 
 to write each word as to represent, as nearly as is convenient, 
 its spoken sound. It is constantly being forgotten that our 
 spelling was phonetic once, and is based upon phonetic prin- 
 ciples ; and no great harm came to it till the pedants took it 
 in hand. 
 
 It is just the same with our place-names. As long as the 
 inhabitants of a place are left to themselves, they will faith- 
 fully preserve the sound which fairly represents the original 
 name, with such changes only as the lapse of time brings 
 with it. But when the local antiquary tries to decipher it, 
 being usually altogether ignorant of phonetic laws, he dis- 
 covers an origin that is wholly false, and forces his new 
 representation of it upon the makers of maps. 
 
 § 91. Instances in which words have been perverted in 
 
§91 FALSE ANALOGY 77 
 
 form by the populace or by the meddlesomeness of learned 
 men need not be considered here. I will merely refer the 
 reader to the Dictionary of Folk- Etymology by the Rev. A. 
 Smy the Palmer, which records a large number of instances. 
 Most of his instances are correct and instructive, though I 
 should dissent from a few of them ; and I further think that 
 the case is somewhat over-stated, and that some of the 
 alleged ' corruptions ' are rather forced. His later and smaller 
 work entitled The Folk and their Word-lore is, in my opinion, 
 a better book, and represents the facts with perspicuity and 
 fairness. 
 
 But there is yet another source of difficulty which requires 
 continual care. Quite apart from the ignorance of the un- 
 educated or the mistaken views due to inaccuracy on the part 
 of the pedant, there is a large number of errors in the forma- 
 tion of language arising from blunders of a more venial kind 
 and from unintentional mistakes. It is well to give some 
 instances of this character, as they sometimes sensibly impair 
 true phonetic development, and go to prove that, however 
 inexorable phonetic laws may be in their regular operation, 
 they are sometimes accidentally perverted by some outside 
 influence. Etymology is full of traps of this character, which 
 care and experience cannot always avoid. 
 
 § 92, The commonest source of perversion is well known 
 by the name of ' false analogy ', viz. the drawing of a false 
 conclusion from facts that are not fully understood. A few 
 examples will make this quite clear. 
 
 Analogy in arithmetic means proportion, or the equivalence 
 of ratios, and its practical application is called the Rule of 
 Three. The ratio of 3 to 7 is the same as that 15 to 35, 
 and is written in the form : — ^As 3 : 1 '- : 15 - 36- Or, if only 
 three terms are known, the fourth term (35) can be obtained 
 by multiplying 7 by 15, and dividing by 3. The answer thus 
 obtained must needs be correct. A similar analogy is often 
 applied in the domain of language, but the answer is often 
 
78 LINGUISTIC ERRORS chap, viii 
 
 doubtful and may be quite wrong. If we say — As hear : bore : : 
 wear : wore, we are employing the fact that bore is used as the 
 past tense of bear, in order to discover the past tense of wear. 
 But the first proportion itself is somewhat dubious, since the 
 past tense of bear was once bare, which would lead up to 
 a past tense ware. Such an analogy was once held to be 
 correct, a fact which accounts for the expression in Luke viii. 2 7 
 — ' and ware no clothes.' But, strictly considered, the argu- 
 ment is wholly fallacious ; for it assumes what is untrue, viz. 
 that the verbs bear and wear were originally both strong 
 verbs, and belonged to the same conjugation. But history 
 tells quite a different tale ; for the A. S. beran, to bear, was 
 indeed a strong verb, with the past tense bder, at a later date 
 spelt bare; and bore was a new, and erroneous, past tense, 
 due to confusion with the pp. bor-n. On the other hand, the 
 A. S. werian, to wear, was a weak verb, with the past tense 
 werede, or, at a later date, wered\ a form which, had it been 
 left alone, would now be spelt weared. As late as Chaucer's 
 time, it was still wered ; for he describes the Knight by saying 
 that ' Of fustian he wered a gipoun '. And again, in the 
 Monkes Tale (B3315) he has the pp. wered: — 'er that he 
 had wered it half a day.' This clearly shows that there came 
 a time when some speaker of English, by means of a specious 
 but quite misleading chain of reasoning, came to the con- 
 clusion that the past tense of wear ought to be wore, and the 
 pp. ought to be worn; a view which actually found ready 
 acceptance and has been acted on ever since as if it were 
 correct. 
 
 § 93. There is a large number of similar instances ; and 
 their importance lies in the fact that, when once accepted, 
 they have become ' correct '. Even when we know them to 
 be wrong, we cannot mend them. 
 
 It is a general rule that all verbs of French origin, or 
 indeed, of foreign origin generally, are conjugated as weak 
 verbs, with a pt. t. and a pp. ending in -ed (-d, -/). But 
 
§93 MISTAKEN PLURALS 79 
 
 there are exceptions, due to false analogy, as in the case of 
 strive, from the A. F. estriver. The pt. t. was originally 
 strivede, but (by the influence of drive, thrive, shrive) its past 
 tense became strove, with a pp. striven. Chaucer has the 
 pt. t. str oof {Cant. Tales, a 1038). The verb to dive is likewise 
 weak ; but the pt. t. dove occurs in some dialects, and occurs 
 in canto 7 of Longfellow's Song of Hiawatha. Many similar 
 inconsistencies arise in the conjugation of verbs; thus the 
 verb to hide^ properly a weak verb, has acquired the strong 
 pp. hidden, which is no older than the sixteenth century. It 
 arose from analogy with ridden, the pp. of ride. 
 
 § 94. Other grammatical errors occur in the declension 
 of substantives. The plurals often go wrong, owing to 
 various misunderstandings. Thus the plural of body was 
 bodies ; but bodies was sometimes respelt as bodice, after which 
 it acquired a pi. bodices. Baize is a respelling of bayeSy once 
 the pi. of a cloth of a bay colour. Trace was once the plural 
 of trait, and meant both of the straps or cords by which a 
 vehicle is drawn along ; but it can now only be used of one 
 of them. We can hence explain quite easily more than one 
 difficult passage in Shakespeare, especially one in Othello 
 where the editors have altered the spelling without warrant, 
 and, as it happens, needlessly. For Cotgrave explains the 
 F. traict (as he spells it) by — ' A Dart, Arrow, &c. . . also, 
 a teame-trace or trait [note this^ . . . also, a lime,^ or line 
 wherein a blood-hound is led, and staled in his pursute.' 
 When the word trace acquired the same sense as trait, it also 
 acquired this last sense of * leash '. It also happened that, as 
 recorded in Cotgrave, the verb tracer, to trace, had a by-form 
 iracher, which became in English trash ; and this form trash, 
 when used as a sb., likewise acquired the sense of trace (of 
 which it was a variant), and thus came likewise to mean 
 ' a leash ' ; a sense which Nares duly notes, in his Glossary, 
 
 ^ Also Ham, i. e. a leash ; from O. F. Hem L. ligdmen, a tie. 
 
8o LINGUISTIC ERRORS chap, viii 
 
 s. V. trashy as occurring in Markham's Country Contentments. 
 The E. D. D. duly notes the occurrence of trash, in prov. E., 
 in the sense of ' a cord used in checking dogs '. Hence Nares 
 well explains the passage in The Tempest, i. ii. 8i, where to 
 advance is opposed to to trash, i. e. to hold back. In 
 Othello, II. i. 312, the First Folio has 'whom I trace', i.e. 
 whom I hold back, which is quite correct as it stands. Editors 
 usually adopt Warton's emendation of trash for trace, in 
 ignorance of the fact that the word admits of either spelling. 
 This investigation helps to establish a fact which has already 
 been noticed with respect to Norman French and Old French, 
 viz. that different dialects of a language have different pro- 
 nunciations of the same word; a principle to be borne in 
 mind. Other plurals ending in -ce are brace (O. F. brace, the 
 two arms, L. brdchid)-, deuce, *two' on a die (F. deux, pi.); 
 invoice, used as a singular, though it represents invoys, pi. of 
 itivoy (F. erivoi^ ; and quince, also used as a singular, though 
 guins is the pi. oi quin, also spelt coin (O. F. coin). 
 
 Another curious perversion occurs in the case of sledge 
 (Mid. Du. sleedse), with the same sense as the older sled. This 
 odd form arose from confusion with another sledge, derived 
 from the verb to slay, with the sense ' to strike ', which is now 
 seldom used, except in our dialects, without the addition of 
 hammer. Yet a sledge-hammer means ' mallet-hammer ' ; with 
 a partially duplicated sense. This mode of explaining a 
 word is not uncommon; when a word becomes obscure, 
 a word of similar signification is added as a gloss. The 
 usual example given of this is a curious one, viz. the place- 
 name Torpenhow ; where Tor, i. e. ' hill ', when obsolescent, 
 was explained by Pen, i. e. ' hill ' ; and when Torpen ceased 
 to satisfy, it was explained by How, i. e. ' hill '. The words 
 tor and pen are both Celtic ; how is Old Norse. 
 
 § 95. The game of chess was called, in Late Latin, 
 ludus scaccorum, the game of the shahs, or of the kings. 
 The E. chess likewise means ' kings ', being the plural of check, 
 
§95 APPARENT PLURALS 8i 
 
 a king. It was due to a peculiar way of forming the plural 
 in Norman French, well explained by M. Gaston Paris in his 
 Ex traits de la Chanson de Roland, p. 13. He shows that 
 when a Norman sb. ended in a labial or palatal sound, such 
 terminal sound was lost before the s which, when added, 
 formed the plural. He gives as examples the words colp 
 (blow), r^z'^(head), eschec (check), blanc (white); the plurals 
 being cols, chi/s, esches, Mans. The Norman eschec is our 
 ' check ', lit. ' the king ', of Arab-Persian origin ; and esches 
 is our * chess ', lit. * the kings '. 
 
 A similar grammatical habit explains other words as well. 
 Thus the E. coney, cony, a rabbit, is not derived directly from 
 the O. F. conil, a rabbit, but arose from the plural form contz 
 or corns, in which the / was suppressed. So that cony was 
 due to a mistake ; we did not realize the peculiarity of the 
 F. plural formation. 
 
 § 96. In several cases, a sb. was supposed to exhibit a 
 plural form merely because it happened to end in s. This 
 offered a direct challenge to such as had a turn for grammar 
 to cut off the apparently superfluous suffix, so as to give the 
 word a truly singular appearance ; a ruthless method which 
 was sometimes successfully adopted. Thus the A. S. byrgels, 
 a tomb, became the M. E. byriels ; hence our burial, with loss 
 of s ; and even the sense of the word was affected, as well as 
 its form, by association with funeral. The A. S. rxdels, an 
 enigma, should have become riddles ; but it was shortened to 
 riddle. The word pease, pi. peasen, from the A. S. pisa, 
 borrowed from the 'L. pisum, has hecornQ pea, pi. peas. It is 
 fortunate that cheese escaped this treatment, or it would now 
 be called chee. Our word skate, when used as a fish-name, 
 is correct ; but the skate that traverses ice should be skates, 
 with a pi. skateses or skatesen; from the Du. schaats, pi. 
 schaatsen. We find in Todd's Johnson, a quotation dated 
 1695, referring to 'the nimble Dutchmen on their scatses'. 
 The pi. of eaves (A. S. e/ese) is eaveses, spelt eueses in Piers 
 
 1843 G 
 
82 LINGUISTIC ERRORS chap, viii 
 
 the Plowman, b xvii. 227 ; but few would now venture to use 
 this justifiable form. The word alms has been preserved as 
 a singular mainly by the phrase ' asked an alms ' in Acts iii. 3. 
 Riches had once a pi. richesses, as in Chaucer. A summons 
 is a correct form, as far as the j- is concerned, though the 
 verb is to sum??ion, from the A. F. somoner, L. summonere; but 
 the sb. represents the A. F. somonse, f., orig. the pp. f. of the 
 above A. F. somoner, to summon. 
 
 Other words which have lost the final s, because it seemed 
 to be a plural suffix, are cherry, from O. North. F. cherise, 
 L. cerasus, Gk. Kcpaaos ; sherry, formerly sherris, as in 
 Shakespeare, a word of Spanish origin; marquee, borrowed 
 from the F. marquise^ a large tent ; barberry, from F. ber- 
 beris, the suffix -beris (shortened to -beri) being ingeniously 
 altered to berry. In addition to the word lea, a tract of open 
 land, a meadow (A. S. leaK), there was also an independent 
 word lease, leaze, a pasture, pasture-land (A. S. Ides) ; and it 
 is sometimes impossible to distinguish between the latter and 
 leas, the pi. of lea. There was also a form leasow, a pasture, 
 really due to the A. S. Ideswe, the dative of Ides, a leaze. 
 Assets is merely the A. F. assez, lit. 'enough', in which the 
 z was pronounced like ts ; but it looks like a plural, and has 
 frequently been treated as such by evolving from it a singular 
 asset. When we speak of small-pox, few people recognize 
 tha.t pox is merely a peculiar spelling oi pocks, the pi. of pock 
 ( A. S. poc), a pustule. Cherubim is the Hebrew plural o{ cherub ; 
 but, as this is not always recognized, it has sometimes been 
 treated as a singular, with a pi. cherubims. French turned 
 the final m into n, and treated the word as singular ; Cotgrave 
 has — * Cherubin, a cherubin. Rouge comme un cherubin, 
 Red-faced, Cherubin-faced, having a fiery facies like a 
 Cherubin.* Cherubs were generally painted red in early art, 
 which explains the expression in Chaucer's Prologue, 1. 624 : 
 — ' a fyr-reed cherubinnes face ' ; and Cotgrave shows that 
 this had become proverbial. 
 
§ 97 DOUBLE PLURALS 83 
 
 Roe, i. e. fish's spawn, is really a mistake for roan (Icel. 
 hrogn); the « was dropped because it was supposed to be 
 the pi. suffix, as in shoon, pi. of shoe. The word mistletoe is 
 a similar false form, as it represents the A. S. mtstel-tdn, lit. 
 ' mistle-twig ', from tan, a twig. This error arose from the 
 use in M. E. of toon as the pi. of too, ' toe.* Chaucer says of 
 Chaunticleer (C T. b 4052) — * Lyk asur were his legges and 
 his toon.' But we must not explain effigy as being derived 
 from the L. effigies, with the s lost; for it arose in quite 
 another manner. We simply borrowed it from the F. effigie ; 
 and this, in its turn, was a ' learned ' form due to the L. ace. 
 effigiem, or to the L. phrase in effigie. 
 
 § 97. Some words exhibit a plural form twice over, as 
 brethr-en, child-r-en, formed by adding -en to the old plurals 
 hrether and child-er. As the words bodice and trace and cheru- 
 bim are really the plurals of body and trait and cherub, it will 
 be seen that bodices, traces, and cherubims are double plurals 
 as regards their formation, though the fact is not apparent. 
 The same may be said of invoices and quinces. Other double 
 plurals that are not obvious are jesses, (perhaps) kexes, and 
 ramsons. The strap round the leg of a hawk used in falconry 
 was called in O. F. get or giet. As one was tied to each of 
 the legs, the pair was denoted by the plural ges or gies, the 
 / being dropped before the s of the plural, as in the case of 
 chess (explained at p. 81). Hence the M. E. ges^ pi.; the 
 Book of St. Albans speaks of ^gesse made of leder', i.e. 
 leather. Later, the pi. was jess-es, as in Spenser, F. Q. vi. 
 4. 19. The O. F. get was derived from L. iactum, ace. of 
 iactus, a cast, a throw ; because these straps were used in 
 letting the bird fly. Kecks (also kex) is a name for the dried 
 stalks of large umbelliferous plants, such as the wild parsnip 
 or wild carrot ; also used in the form keck, especially in the 
 phrase 'as dry as a keck\ Hence it is possible that 
 kexes stands for keckses, and is a double plural from keck. 
 The etymology is somewhat uncertain ; but the E. D. D. 
 
 G 2 
 
84 LINGUISTIC ERRORS chap, viii 
 
 shows that another name for a keck is keggas, which is the 
 O. Corn, cegas, hemlock, allied to Welsh cegid, hemlock, 
 words which were probably borrowed from the L. cicuta^ 
 hemlock, rather than cognate with it. At the same time, it 
 is also possible that kecks was borrowed directly from 
 keggas or the O. Corn, cegas^ in which case it would be well 
 to write it kex^ and to regard this kex as a singular. 
 Ramsons is a name for wild garlic. The A. S. name was 
 hramsa, pi. hramsan. Rainson is the equivalent of this A. S. 
 plural, showing that an s has been superadded without 
 warrant. In North Yorkshire it is correctly called rams. 
 
 § 98. Some words existed in a plural form before we 
 borrowed them, as is the case with brace, noted above ; from 
 the O. F. brace, L, brdchta, ' the two arms' ; mod. F. brasse, 
 a fathom, i. e. as far as the extended arms will reach. One 
 way of detecting such words is to observe the gender. The 
 L. brdchium is neuter, but the L. brdchta might easily be 
 mistaken for a feminine singular ; and this mistake actually 
 took place, with the result that the F. brasse is feminine. I 
 proceed to give some further examples, showing that the 
 forms battle, bible, chronicle, ensign^ fi<^st,joy, legend, manoeuvre, 
 marvel, prune, veil, viand, are all plural forms, though not one 
 of them has ever been recognized as such in English use. 
 
 Battle, M. E. bataille, bataile, O. F. battaille, f., is from 
 the Folk-L. battdlia, battudlia, neut. pi. ; from L. battuere, to 
 beat, defeat. We have preserved the verb in the form to 
 batter. 
 
 Bible, F. bible, f., is from the ecclesiastical L. biblia, Gk. 
 ^ij3\ia, neut. pi. of ^i^Xiov, a little book, dimin. of /S/^Xor, 
 a book. The true sense is, accordingly, ' the books,' rather 
 than ' the Book ' ; for it is a collection of many writings, 
 of various dates. 
 
 Chronicle is spelt with a pedantically inserted h after the 
 c, due to the ruthless resolve to force upon us a Greek 
 spelling which is found neither in M. E. nor in O. F., and so 
 
§ 98 FEMININES FROM NEUTERS 85 
 
 to provide one more misery for every poor child who learns 
 to * spell ', as the ironical phrase goes. If the pedants were 
 so desirous of restoring the Latin and Gk. forms, we may 
 fairly ask why they did not strike out the /; for surely no 
 Greek could have put up with xpoviKKd. The obvious reason 
 is that they did not know that the / was unoriginal, or else 
 they did not dare to insult the spoken form to that extent. 
 This is all of a piece with their pretentious mischievousness. 
 The M. E. and O. F. form was crom'cle, formed from an 
 older trisyllabic form crom'k-e or croniqu-'e by the insertion of 
 an / that helped to strengthen the final syllable so as to give 
 it a clearer sound. The form cronik-e was from the Late 
 L. chronica (gen. chromcae), fem., ' a description ' ; altered 
 into a feminine form from chronica^ neut. pi., Gk. ^powxa, 
 neut. pi., 'annals.' 
 
 Ensign, * a flag,' M. E. and O. F. enseigne, f., is from the 
 Late L. insignia, neut. pi. (used as a fem. sing.) from insigne, 
 a standard, neut. of insignis, remarkable. 
 
 Feast, M.E. and O. Y./este, f., is from Late IL. fesia, f. ; 
 from lu.festa, pi. oi/estum, neuter. 
 
 Joy, M. E. and O. F. Joye, f., is from Late L. gaudia, f. ; 
 from 'L. gaudia, pi. oi gaudium, neuter. 
 
 Legend, M. E. and O. F. legende, f., is from Late L. legenda, 
 f., as in Aurea Legenda, the Golden Legend ; from L. legenda, 
 neut. pi. of the fut. pass. part, of legere, to gather, speak, tell. 
 
 Manceuvre, maneuver, formerly manuevre, f. and m., is 
 from Late L. manuopera, manopera ; from manu-, declen- 
 sional stem of manus, hand, and Late L. opera, f., work, 
 L. opera, neut. pi. of opus, work. The older and simpler 
 form was manure. 
 
 Marvel, M.E. mervaile, F. merveille, f.; from the Late 
 L. mirdhilia, 'wonderful things,' neut. pi. of mirdhilis, adj., 
 wonderful. 
 
 Prune, F. prune, f. ; from L,.priina, pi. oi priinum, neuter. 
 
 Veil, M. E. and A. F. veile, f. ; from L. uela, pi. of uelum, 
 
86 LINGUISTIC ERRORS chap, viii 
 
 neuter, a sail, also a cloth or covering. The mod. F. is 
 voile. 
 
 Viand, M.E. and F. viande, f.; from L. uiuenda, 'things to 
 live by,' pi. of muendum, neut. of the gerundive part, of muere, 
 to Jive. 
 
 Say, an obsolescent name for a kind of serge, can be 
 similarly explained. It was borrowed from F. saie, f. ; from 
 L. saga^ pi. of sagum, neut., a cloth used for making the 
 soldier's mantle also called sagum-, adapted from the Gk. 
 aayos, a coarse cloth, a soldier's mantle. 
 
 § 99. In the same way we have obtained words like 
 entrails and temples (of the head) that are etymologically double 
 plurals. 
 
 Chaucer has entraille (i. e. entrail with a pi. sense) from the 
 O. F. entraille, entrails, f. ; from Late L. intralia, a modifica- 
 tion of Late L. intrdnea, contracted from L. inter dnea, entrails, 
 neut. pi. of inter dneus, inward. 
 
 Temples, M. E., O. F., and mod. Norman temples, pi. of 
 temple, fem. From a Late L. *tempula, modification of L, 
 tempora, pi. of tempus, neuter. Cf. mod. F. tempe (with loss 
 of/). 
 
CHAPTER IX 
 LOW GERMAN AND SCANDINAVIAN 
 
 § 100. Speaking generally, English is one of the Low 
 German languages, as distinguished from the High German 
 now in use as the literary language of Germany. But Low 
 German (Platt-deutsch) is used more particularly of such 
 German dialects as exhibit no High German forms, but are 
 closely allied to Friesic, Dutch, and Flemish. Among such 
 Low German dialects may be mentioned the dialects of 
 Hanover and Bremen (as spoken by the populace), Altmark, 
 Gottingen, Pomerania, some parts of Saxony, and Westphalia; 
 of all of which various Glossaries have been published. To 
 these we may add the East Friesic Dictionary by Koolman, 
 which really contains Low German rather than Friesic. The 
 most useful of these Glossaries is that known as the 
 Bremisches Worierbuch, published anonymously at Bremen 
 in 1767, and it may be taken as a type of the rest. Whenever 
 a word is quoted in my Dictionary as 'Low G.', it is to this 
 book that I refer. 
 
 The likeness of Low German to English is frequently so 
 close that they are difficult to distinguish. Examples are : 
 kringel, a cringle ; drillen (Saxon), to drill, to sow corn in 
 rows; fipke^i (Westphalian), a small lie, a litde fib; fohke 
 (Saxon), a little fob or pocket ; foppen, to fob off, cheat 
 fuddeln, to work lazily, to lose time, to fuddle away time being 
 an E. phrase in the eighteenth century, &c. It not unfre- 
 quently happens that such E. words as these are not found 
 in any early author, but seem to have been actually imported 
 from abroad in modern times, which might very easily have 
 been accomplished from such a port as Hamburg. The 
 
88 LOW GERMAN AND SCANDINAVIAN chap, ix 
 
 Hamburg Glossary by Richey (1743) contains such words 
 as bliisen, to blush ; bulgen, a billow ; dilsig, dizzy ; drog, 
 dry ; drohnen^ to make a droning noise ; emern, embers ; 
 flabbe, a broad hanging lip, as of some dogs ; flage, a ' flaw ', 
 or sudden gust of wind ; grabbeln, to seize ; hits sen, to hush 
 to sleep ; klauen, a clew of yarn ; kley, clay ; klotern, to 
 clatter ; kluster, a bunch of hair ; klute, a clot ; krakken, to 
 crack ; losig, lazy ; raren, to roar ; rdteln, to rattle ; rysen^ 
 to rise ; schell, husk of fruit ; sellen, to sell ; slabber n, to 
 slabber, as ducks do with their bills in water ; slick^ sludge ; 
 slumps a mishap ; smoden, to smoothe ; splyten, to split ; 
 stake, a stake ; slubbe, a stub, stump ; swymen, to be giddy 
 (as when one's head swims); to taltern ryten, to tear to 
 tatters ; trampen, to trample ; tn'ppeln, to trip along ; trondeln, 
 to roll, trundle ; tubbe, a tub ; tUss, tush ! ; wtcht, a wight, 
 a creature ; wygelwageln, to be unsteady, to wiggle-waggle ; 
 wyren, wires ; wrack, a wreck ; wrickeln, to wriggle ; wringen, 
 to wring ; wristen, the wrists, or the ankles. 
 
 § 101. Of course, in many of these cases, the Low G. 
 word is merely cognate with the English, as we find A. S. 
 blyscan, to blush, dysig, foolish, dizzy, drjge, dry, &c. ; and 
 again, O. Norse bylgja, a billow, &c. ; but these continental 
 forms are extremely useful for comparison, and in some 
 cases there is no trace of any corresponding term in Early 
 English. The vjoxdi flabby is first used by Dryden, and 
 even the older iorm flappy does not occur till 1598; no 
 doubt it is of imitative origin, from the verb to flap. In such 
 a case the various allied continental forms afford useful 
 evidence. Flaw, in the sense of ' a gust of wind ', is almost 
 certainly a sailor's word; it is not found before 1513, and 
 was probably borrowed fi-om the Swed. flaga (Widegren), 
 sometimes used in this sense ; and the Hamburg y?(2^^ is just 
 the same word. Lazy is no older than 1549, and I can find 
 no sure connexion between it and any word of native origin ; 
 I take it to have been certainly an importation, as it is found 
 
§ioi LOW GERMAN WORDS 89 
 
 in Low G. and Dutch, and nowhere else ; for the G. Idssig 
 is from G. lass, which is E. late. The forms actually found 
 are the M. Low G. lasi'ch, also losich, idle, languid ; Iddst'g 
 (Altmark) ; Pomeranian Idsi'g ; Hamburg losig ; Du. leuzi'g ; 
 Bremen laassam. It seems to be allied to loose. The word 
 Itid occurs in Chaucer, spelt ludde ; but I strongly suspect that 
 the word was imported by Flemish brewers ; cf. West Flem. 
 boter-tubbe, a butter-tub ; melk-tobbe, a milk-tub (De Bo). For 
 further discussion, see my Principles of E. Etymology, Ch. 
 XXIV ; where the Dutch element in English is considered. 
 
 § 102. In the same Chapter, I have further pointed out that 
 many of the slang terms and Gipsy terms that were so freely 
 imported in the sixteenth century certainly came to England 
 from Holland and from Low German dialects, as we learn 
 from Gascoigne and Ben Jonson. and I give a list of some fifty 
 (presumably) Dutch words that occur in Shakespeare ; but 
 the list should be curtailed. However, there can be litde 
 doubt as to boor, burgomaster, canakin, deck (of a ship), deck 
 (to cover), doit, fob (found earlier, as M. E. foppe), frolic, 
 fumble (Du. fommelen. Low G. fuvimeln), gilder (^guilder), 
 glib, adj., groat, hoise (to hoist), hold (of a ship), holland, hoy, 
 hull (of a ship), leaguer, a camp (Du. leger), loiter, manakin, 
 minikin, mop, a grimace, rant, rover, ruffle, to be turbulent, 
 snaffle, snap, snip, snuff, to sniff, sutler, swabber, switch, trick, 
 to delineate arms, uproar, waggon, wainscot. All these occur 
 (as said above) in Shakespeare, and they all seem to be of 
 Dutch origin. 
 
 § 103. Going back to still earlier times, we come to words 
 of Scandinavian origin, to the consideration of which I have 
 allotted a chapter (Ch. XXIII) in my Principles, &c.. First 
 Series. From the nature of the case, ihey are mostly older 
 than 1050, as regards their introduction into the language, 
 yet they were long considered, as some of them still are, as 
 belonging to the dialects rather than to the literary language, 
 and it is remarkable how late their appearance in books is 
 
90 LOW GERMAN AND SCANDINAVIAN chap, ix 
 
 frequently found to be. We are sure, for example, that the 
 verb to call (O. Norse kalld) was known in the year 993, 
 since it occurs in the poem on the Battle of Maldon ; yet we 
 find no more mention of it till the year 1225 (N. E. D.); 
 and many such words first appear at much later dates. Thus 
 gill^ in the sense of ' deep glen \ is certainly Norse, as the 
 initial hard g suggests ; yet it does not appear till the year 
 1400. Cag, an older form oi keg^ is first found in 1452, and 
 keg itself in 1632. 
 
 Worthy of notice is the occurrence, in Scandinavian words, 
 of a hard k before e and /, as in keel, keg, ken, kid, kilt ; the 
 k can only remain hard in native English words beginning 
 with ki- when the original vowel was not really /, but jj/, as in 
 kin (A. S. cynri), king (A. S. cyning\ kiss (A. S. cyssan), kite 
 (A. S. cytd). Final hard g is also found in several of these 
 words, as in bag, cag (above), daggle, drag, egg, egg, vb., 
 leg, rag, sag, slag, wag ; and most words that begin with sc 
 or sk are Scandinavian (unless they are French) ; as scalp, 
 scant, scare, scathe, &c., skid, skill, skim, skin, &c. English 
 prefers sh, as in shade, shaft, ship, &c. Scandinavian 
 words are rather numerous ; the number of main words 
 must be at least 700, and may be more ; so that they must 
 be considered as being of considerable importance. Many 
 of our dialects, especially in the North and East, contain no 
 inconsiderable share of them. Neither must it be forgotten 
 that some of the words which we have borrowed from 
 Norman French are ultimately of Norse origin ; there are 
 probably fifty such. The word Norman is in itself an instance 
 of this ; so are the verbs to abet and to bet. 
 
 A list of interesting compound words, of Scandian origin, is 
 given in vay Principles, Sec, First Series, pp. 477-80; the more 
 modern of our Scandian borrowings are enumerated in the 
 same, p. 480. A list of Dutch words is given in both 
 editions of my Etymological Dictionary ; and a list of 
 Scandian words in the larger edition only. 
 
CHAPTER X 
 
 THE CELTIC LANGUAGES 
 
 § 104. The number of English words of Celtic origin is 
 by no means large, and the idea which once prevailed that 
 some of them have come down to us from the time of the 
 ancient Britons is now almost wholly abandoned. Most of 
 the words borrowed from Welsh, Gaelic, or Irish have found 
 their way into EngHsh in comparatively modern times ; very 
 few are found as far back as the Middle English period. 
 The number of British words found in Anglo-Saxon is very 
 small ; and excluding two or three that are obsolete, are only 
 these following, viz. bannock, bin (a manger, a chest), brat 
 (properly, a cloak, poor garment), brock (a badger), combe, 
 crocks down (a hill), dun. Note also A. S. dry, a wizard ; 
 connected with Druid. Even of these, bannock, A. S. bannuc, 
 is hardly Celtic ; it may have been a Celtic adaptation from 
 the L. pdnicium, a baked cake, or borrowed from Latin. 
 
 § 105. It was once a fashion to make much of the word 
 basket, because Juvenal and Martial have a L. form bascauda, 
 which the latter says was British. But there is no historical 
 connexion, and no proof that bascauda had, originally, that 
 meaning, but rather that of washing-tray or brazen vessel. 
 The Welsh basged is merely the English word in Welsh 
 spelling, and the Welsh basgawd is a coinage made to 
 represent bascauda. Moreover bascauda can easily be traced, 
 as it became the M. F. (Middle French) bachoUe, ' a kind of 
 flat-sided basket,' Cotgrave. The E. basket is not known 
 
92 THE CELTIC LANGUAGES chap, x 
 
 earlier than 1300, and was borrowed from the A. F. basket 
 (pi. baskes), occurring in glosses upon A. Neckam's De 
 Utenstlibus, ab. 1200; see Wright, Vocab.,\. 98, in. The 
 -et is the usual F. diminutive suffix, and the word seems to 
 have been coined in England, as it is little known in France. 
 If I may hazard a guess, it seems possible that it may be 
 a dissimilated form of ^basiety formed from the E. bast (A. S. 
 bdest\ the material of which matting and tool-baskets were 
 made. The E. D. D. has bast, bast, mat made of bast, and 
 basSy bast, matting, a workman's tool-basket. 
 
 Words of Welsh origin, mostly rather modern, are : — 
 bragget, coracle, cromlech, crowd (a fiddle), eisteddfod, 
 flannel, flummery, gull (a bird), kibe, metheglin. Of Gaelic 
 origin : — airt(?), capercailyie, cateran, clachan, clan, claymore, 
 coronach, corrie, crag, duan, dulse, duniwassal, fillibeg, 
 galore, gillie, inch (an island), ingle, kelpie, linn, loch, 
 macintosh, ptarmigan, slogan, sowans, spleuchan, strath, 
 tocher, whiskey. Of Irish origin : — banshee, colleen, cosher, 
 Fenian, gallowglas, hubbub, kern (foot-soldier), lough, 
 mavourneen, ogham, omadhaun, orrery, rapparee, shanty, 
 shillelagh, skain (knife), spalpeen, tanist, Tory, usquebaugh. 
 The word wheal, a mine, is Cornish. 
 
 The word macadamised is probably the most extraordinary 
 compound in any modern or ancient language ; since mac is 
 Gaelic, adam is Hebrew, ise is a Greek suffix, and d an 
 English one. It shows the astonishing power of word- 
 formation which the English language possesses. Codling 
 or codlin, as the name of an apple, is a surprising word; 
 the suffix -ling, -lin is, of course, English ; but Bacon spelt 
 it quadlifig^ and the M. E. form was querd-ling. I have 
 suggested that querd, unknown in English, was borrowed 
 from the Irish cueirt or cuirt, an apple-tree, given as the 
 name of the letter Q in the Ogham alphabet ; but this word 
 is of doubtful authority, and may have been fabricated. 
 
 § 106. We have seen that the Celtic languages have 
 
§io6 CELTIC COGNATES 
 
 93 
 
 originated a certain number, though not a very large number, 
 of English words. I propose now to take a more general 
 survey of these languages, and to consider a question which 
 our grammars never mention, viz. the cases in which they 
 possess forms that are cognate with English, and so illustrate 
 it by way of comparison. For example, brother is not only 
 parallel with the L. f rater, but with the Gael, brathair, Irish 
 brdthair, and the W. brawd (pi. brodyr). This is a very 
 interesting point to a philologist, as it helps to illustrate the 
 sisterly relationship, already noted, of the Indo-germanic lan- 
 guages. Prof. Rh^s, in his Lectures on Welsh Philology, 
 enumerates, among the Celtic languages still spoken, Welsh, 
 Breton, Irish and Gaelic and Manx (very closely related) ; 
 and among the dead Celtic languages, Cornish, Pictish, and 
 Gaulish. Of the Old Pictish only a few words are known. 
 
 The language with which the above group has the closest 
 affinity is, apparently, Latin, especially as regards some 
 grammatical points; and next to that, Celtic has some 
 affinities with Teutonic, Slavonic being more remote. As 
 regards the application of Grimm's Law, Celtic goes with 
 Latin, and both here differ from Teutonic, as will be shown 
 below. I now give some examples of Celtic words cognate 
 with English, taking them in the English alphabetical order. 
 It should be remembered that the list is by no means 
 exhaustive. I use the abbreviations ' W.' for Welsh, ' Gael.' 
 for Gaelic; &c. 
 
 § 107. A. Adder. This word has lost an n, and is short 
 for nadder ; A. S. ndeddre, but Goth, nadrs. Irish nathair, 
 a snake, W. neidr. 
 
 All. Cf. Irish and Gael, utle, all, the whole; for ""oljos. 
 (W. oil, holl, goes with L. sollus, saluus.) All is from the 
 Teut. type "^alnoz, Idg. type *olnos. 
 
 Apple. Irish abhall, 2iH apple; Gael, ubhal; W. a/al; 
 Bret, aval, an apple, avalen, an apple-tree. The W. / is 
 always pronounced as v; our/is W.^. 
 
94 THE CELTIC LANGUAGES chap, x 
 
 Axle. Of Scand. origin; Swed. and Dan. axel. A. S. 
 has the more primitive eax (cf. L. axis). W. echel, an axis, 
 axle-tree. 
 
 § 108. B. The E. initial b is also b (for Idg. bh) in 
 Celtic, Slavonic, and Lithuanian; but Latin hasy^ corre- 
 sponding to Gk. (^, Skt. bh. 
 
 *Bald.^ a word of Celtic origin ; see my Dictionary. 
 
 Barrow, a burial-mound ; A. S. beorh, a hill. Irish bri, 
 a hill ; W. bre, a hill ; W. bry, high. 
 
 Be. O. Irish boi, (he) was ; Gael, bu^ (he) was ; W. bod, 
 to be ; "L./uit, (he) was ; Gk. e-t^u, was ; Skt. bhU, to be. 
 
 Bear, vb. Irish beir-im, M. Ir. ber-im^ I bear, carry (where 
 -im is the ending of the first person present singular) ; W. 
 cym-meryd, to take, accept (from *cof?i-ber-, cf. L. con-ferre) ; 
 l^./er-re, to bear, Gk. (})€p-eiv, Skt. b/iar. 
 
 Belly. Cf. Irish bolg, a bag, sack, the belly ; W. bol, 
 the belly ; Corn. bol. 
 
 *Bile, secretion from the liver ; borrowed from F. bile, 
 L. bilis. L. bilis may be for *bislis; cf. W. busll, Bret. 
 bes/l, bile. 
 
 Birth. Irish breilk, brith, birth ; Gael, breith. 
 
 Bloo-m. Irish and Gael, bld-th, a blossom, W. blaw-d; 
 'h.flo-s, a flower. All from the same root. 
 
 *Blue, borrowed from A. F. blu, blew, O. H. G. bldo, blue, 
 livid. Cf. Irish bid, yellow ; 'L.fld-uus. 
 
 *BooTH ; of Scand. origin. Irish and Gael, both, a hut ; 
 Gael, bothan, a hut (Lowl. Sc. bothie) ; W. bod, a residence. 
 
 Bore, vb. Cf. Irish and Gael, bear-n, a gap, a crevice ; 
 'L./or-dre, to hove ', /or-dmen, a small hole. 
 
 Bottom. Irish and Gael, bonn, foundation ; W. bon, base ; 
 Ij. fundus ) Gk. nv$fXT}v (for *(})v3-fxr]v) ; Skt. budhnas, depth 
 (for *bhudhnas). 
 
 1 I include a few words that are not native English ; they are marked 
 with an asterisk. 
 
§ io8 CELTIC COGNATES 
 
 95 
 
 *Brad, variant of brod, O. Norse broddr, a spike ; O. Irish 
 brot, Irish brod, a goad; W. brath, a sting; Corn. bros. 
 
 Break. Cf. W. brau, brittle, fragile. 
 
 Bright. W. berth, fair ; cf. Gk. (f)opK6s, white. 
 
 Broth. Cf. Irish bruith-iniy I boil; bruith, sb., boiling, 
 broth ; W. brwd, hot, brydio, to heat. 
 
 Brother. Gael, braihair, Irish brdthatr, O. Irish brdthir \ 
 W. brawd; Corn, broder ; Bret, breur; IL. /rater. 
 
 Brow. O. Irish (5r^', pi. brat, an eyebrow ; Gk. 6-(l)pvs. 
 
 Buck, a male deer. Gael, boc, a buck ; Irish boc, a he- 
 goat ; W. bwch, a buck, bwck ga/r, a he-goat ; Bret, bouck, 
 a he-goat. (The Bret, ck means that the ck is guttural, like 
 the G. ch in «c^ ; not the ^/^ in church, ) 
 
 Burst. Irish brts-tm, O. Ir. briss-im, I break. 
 
 *Buss. The earlier word was bass, from F. <5m^r, to kiss. 
 It is possible that the alteration to buss (sixteenth century) 
 was due to the Irish bus, mouth, lip, W. bus, the lip ; cf. 
 Irish bus-og, a kiss. 
 
 § 109. C. The E. c (with the sound of k) usually answers 
 to the Celtic and L. g, Gk. y, Skt. j (or g). The word chin 
 belongs here, as the A. S. form was cinn. 
 
 *Call ; from the O. N. kalla. W. galw, to call ; cf. Mid. 
 Bret, galu, an appeal. 
 
 Chin ; A. S. cinn. Irish gin, mouth ; W. gin, jaw, chin, 
 mouth ; Corn, genau (a pi. form), mouth ; Bret, ge'n, cheek, 
 genou, mouth ; L. gena, cheek ; Gk. yiv-vs, chin. 
 
 Corn. Irish gran ; W. grawn, pi. ; L. grdnum. 
 
 Crane. W., Corn., Bret, gar an, a crane ; Gk. yepavos. 
 See also the word Kin (below) ; § 113. 
 
 Cow. The initial c in cow is of quite exceptional character. 
 It does not answer to the Idg. g {L. g, Gk. y), but to the 
 Idg. gw (L. u, Gk. iS, Celtic b). The cognate words are 
 Irish and Gael, bd, a cow; W. buw, L. bos; Gk. ^ovs; 
 Pers. gdw ; Skt. gaus. The L. form is exceptional, as it 
 ought to be *uds ; which shows that it is not a Roman word, 
 
96 THE CELTIC LANGUAGES chap, x 
 
 but was borrowed from Umbrian. Cf. nylghau^ the name of 
 a kind of antelope ; Pers. ml gdw, ' blue cow.' 
 
 § 110. D. The E. d corresponds to the Idg. dh, which 
 becomes d in Celtic ; but Latin has/"; and Gk. has 6. 
 
 Dep:p. a. S. deop ; O. Irish domain (for *dubn-) ; W. 
 dw/n ; Bret. don. 
 
 Door. Irish dorus ; W. drws ; Corn, daras ; Bret, dor ; 
 L. /br-es, pi. ; Gk. 6vpa. 
 
 Dull. Cf. Irish, Gael., W., Bret, dall, blind ; Corn, dal; 
 Goth, dwals, foolish. It is probable that the extremely 
 difficult and much disputed L. fallere is cognate with dull 
 and the Celtic dall^ blind. 
 
 E. Ear, sb. Irish o ; O. Ir. au^ 6; L. auris ; Gk. ovs ; 
 Lithuan. ausi's. 
 
 Ear, vb., to plough. Irish ar-at'm, I plough ; W. ar, 
 ploughed land (cf. W. arddu, to plough, ardd-wr, a plough- 
 man) ; Lith. ar-lt, to plough; L. ar-dre; Gk. dp-6eip ; Russ. 
 or-af{e), to plough. 
 
 Eat. W. ys-u (for *ed-/u, Stokes), to eat, to devour ; W. 
 ys-tg, fretting, corroding ; L. ed-ere, to eat ; Gk. U-co, I eat. 
 
 Eight. Irish oc/il; Gael. ocM; W. wyl/i; Corn, ealk ; 
 Bret, et'c'/i, eiz ; L. ocio ; Gk. oktw. 
 
 End. Irish ind, the head of an arrow or javelin (Stokes). 
 
 Ewe. Irish oi, a sheep ; L. ouis ; Gk. ol^ ; Lith. awis. 
 
 § HI. F. The E. f answers to L. /». In Celtic, 
 p entirely disappears, so that the L. parens, for example, is 
 represented in Irish by ore. A / appears, however, in some 
 Welsh words, 2,^pedwar^ 'four,' where it does not correspond 
 to Idg. />, but to the Idg. q^ L. qu^ as in L. quatuor, four. 
 The exceptional wordsy^z/r 2in6.five will be considered last. 
 
 Father. A. S. fdeder ; L. pater ; O. Irish athir (for 
 "^pattr) ; Ir. and Gael, at hair. 
 
 Find. O. Ir. et-aim (base ^^pent), I find. 
 
 Floor. A. S. flor ; Idg. stem "^pldr- ; Celtic stem */<7r-. 
 Irish Idr ; W. llawr ; Bret. leur. Cf. L. pld-nus, flat. 
 
§ no CELTIC COGNATES 97 
 
 Foe. A.S./d/i; Teut. type ^faihoz) Idg. type *poikos', 
 Celt, type *otkos ; O. Irish oec/i, a foe (Stokes). 
 
 Ford. A. S./ord; Teut. type Yurduz, ""furduz ; L. portus, 
 a harbour ; O. Breton rit (for */r/'/), a ford ; W. rhyd, a ford ; 
 Corn. rid. 
 
 Furrow. A. ^,furh ; allied to L. porca, a ridge between 
 two furrows ; W. rhych (for ^prych), a furrow, a trench. 
 
 Four. The Idg. type is *qelwer- ; whence ^ki.chatvdras, 
 Gk. (Ionic) rio-o-apes, (Attic) TiTTapes, (^Eolic) niavpes, L. 
 quatuor ; O. Irish <r(?//5/r, Gael, ceithir^ W. pedwar. But 
 Germanic has initial /; as in Goth, fidwor, A. S. feowor. 
 See Wright, Gothic Gram., § 134, note. 
 
 Five. The Idg. type is '^'penqe ; Skt. pancha ; Gk. Tr/n-e 
 (iEolic Tre/xTTf), Lith. penk\\ but with ^ for/ in L. quinque\ 
 cf. O. Irish f^zV (for '^qonqe)) Y^. piwip ; Goth.^/^z/"; A. S./)/" 
 (for *>/, *>/). 
 
 Full. A. S. full (for yulnoz) ; Celtic type '^{p)ldnos ; 
 O. Jr. /i« ; W. llawn ; cf L. plenus. 
 
 § 112. G. The E. g (Idg. ^/^) is also g in Celtic. 
 
 Glow. A. S. glowan, to glow ; W. glo, a coal. 
 
 Goose. Irish g^is, a swan. So also Skt. hamsas, a swan ; 
 but L. anser means a goose. 
 
 Yard. Here also belongs j/^r^, an enclosure, North. E. 
 garth. Cf O. h'lsh. gort, a field, lub-gort, a garden ; V^. garth, 
 an enclosure ; Bret, garz, an enclosure. 
 
 H. The E. h answers to Celtic and L. c, Gk. k, Skt. f. 
 
 Hare. A. S. hara, G. hase ; Teut. type ""hazon- ; Idg. type 
 '^kason-. W. cein-ach, a hare (for '^kasin-acJi) ; Skt. fa^aj, 
 a hare. 
 
 Hart. W. r^rze;, a hart; Bret, karo) L. r^r/z^^j. 
 
 Hate. W. cawdd, displeasure ; coddi, to vex. 
 
 Haulm. W. cala/, 2, stalk; Bret. kSld, straw; L. calamus. 
 
 Haw, Hedge. A. S. haga, an enclosure ; hecg, a hedge ; 
 W. cae, an enclosure, a hedge; Bret, kai, an enclosure, 
 a quay, whence F. quai, E. quay. 
 
98 THE CELTIC LANGUAGES chap, x 
 
 Hazel. Teut. type ^hasolo-; Idg. type '^hosolo-, whence 
 L. corulus (for "^cosulus)^ O. Irish and W. coll^ a hazel. 
 
 Heart. W. craidd, centre, heart ; Bret, kreiz, centre ; 
 Irish cridhe, the heart ; O. Ir. crtde. 
 
 Heath. W. coed, a wood (O. W. coil)', L. bu-cetum, 
 a cow pasture. 
 
 Hell. A. S. hel] allied to L. cella, a cell, celdre, to hide ; 
 W. celu, to hide ; O. Ir. cel-im, Ir. ceil-im, I hide. 
 
 Hen. a. S. henn, fern, of hana, a cock, lit. ' singer '. Cf. 
 Irish can-aim^ I sing ; W. can-u, to sing ; L. can-ere. 
 
 Hide, verb. W. cuddio, to hide ; Corn, cudhe ; Gk. KevOeiv. 
 
 Holly. A. S. hokn ; W. ce/yn, Corn, ceh'n, Bret, /ielen, 
 Gael, cm'h'onn, Irish cuileann. 
 
 Horn. W., Gael., Irish corn ; L. cornu. 
 
 Hound. A. S. hund ; W. ci (pi. cwn), a dog ; O. Irish cu 
 (gen. con) ; L. can-is ; Gk. kvohv (gen. kw-o^). 
 
 Hundred. A. S. ^z^;z<i; L. cent-um; O. Ir. r//; Ir. r/«</; 
 Gael, ceud] W. <r^/z/. 
 
 §113. I. Icicle. A. S. z>^/<r^/, 'little drop of ice.' The 
 form gicel is cognate with Icel. jdkull, an icicle, dimin. of 
 Icel. jaki, a piece of ice, which is cognate with Irish aigh, 
 O. Irish aig, ice, W. ia, ice. Thus icicle = ice-ice-l. 
 
 K. The E. k answers to Celt, g, L. g, Gk. y. 
 
 Kin. Cf. Irish gein, offspring, birth; W.geni, to be born, 
 genid, birth ; L. genus, Gk. yevos, race. See C (above) ; 
 
 § 109- 
 
 § 114. L. The E. /, m, n (and r) are not affected by 
 Grimm's law. 
 
 Land. W. llan, an area (churchyard), gwin-llan, a vine- 
 yard, lit. ' wine-land ' or * vine-land ' ; Gael, and Ir. lann^ 
 Early Ir. land, an enclosure, land ; Bret, lann, a bushy shrub, 
 but the pi. lannou means ' plains ', like the F. landes, which is 
 borrowed from it. E. lawn is from F. lande, sing., a plain. 
 
 Lead, as the name of a metal. Ir. luaidhe\ Gael, luaidh. 
 An O. Irish gloss has : ' luaide, plumbum.' From a Celtic 
 
§ 113 CELTIC COGNATES 
 
 99 
 
 type *Ioudid (Macbain). The E. lead, A. S. lead, is from 
 a Teut. type ^laudom ; but it may have been borrowed from 
 Celtic, instead of being cognate. 
 
 Leather. A. S. leder ; Teut. type '^lethrom, n. ; Idg. type 
 *lelrovi ; O. Ir. leihar ; W. Uedr, 
 
 Leech, a physician. Cf. O. Ir. Itat'g, a physician ; Ir. and 
 Gael, leigh. The E. word may have been borrowed. 
 
 Lick, vb. ; L. lingere, Gk. \eix€Lv ; O. Ir. lig-im, I lick. 
 
 Lie, vb., to rest. O. Ir. laig-im^ I lie down ; lig-e^ a lying 
 down ; Gk. Xex-off? a bed. 
 
 Light. Cf. L. liic-ere, to shine ; Irish luach-air, brightness ; 
 W. Hug, a gleam, llug-yn, a beam of light. 
 
 Loan ; from Icel. Idn, a loan ; from Ijd, cognate with A. S. 
 leon = lihan, to lend, Goth, leihwan, to lend ; cf. O. Irish 
 le'c-im, le'ic-im^ I leave, relinquish (L. linqu-ere). 
 
 Some E. words beginning with / began in A. S. with hi. 
 In such a case the Celtic cognates begin with d. See 
 below. 
 
 Lean, vb., to incline. A. S. hldenan, to make to lean ; 
 cf. O. Ir. cloen, sloping ; Gk. Kkiveiv, to bend. 
 
 Listen. Cf. A. S. hlystan, to hear ; M. Ir. cluin-im, I hear ; 
 cluass, the ear ; W. clywed, to hear ; dust, the ear ; Corn. 
 clewas, to hear. 
 
 Loud. A. S. hlud. Cf. O. Irish doth, renowned ; W. dod, 
 praise, fame. 
 
 § 115. M. Mane. O. Irish mong, mane ; W. mwng. 
 
 Many. O. Irish ?nemce, frequent ; W. mynych, frequent. 
 
 Mare. Cf. Gael, and Ir. marc, a horse ; W., Corn., Bret. 
 7narch, a horse. 
 
 Mark, a march, a boundary. A. S. mearc, O.Ir. mruig, 
 brui'g; W. and Corn, bro, a country, region; L. margo, 
 a boundary. 
 
 Me. It. me; Gael, wz'; W. and Corn, mi, I, me; Bret. 
 me, I, me ; 1^. me; Gk. e^. 
 
 Mead, a sweet drink. O. Ir. mid; W. medd ; Gk. //e^u. 
 
 H 2 
 
loo THE CELTIC LANGUAGES chap, x 
 
 Mere, a lake. W., Bret. mSr, sea ; Corn. mo7' ; Ir. and 
 Gael. ?«^^/r ; 'L.mare. 
 
 Milk, vb. A. S. vielc-an, to milk ; O. Ir. inlig-id, later 
 blig-id, he milks ; Gael, bleagh, to milk ; L. mulg-ere. 
 
 Month. W. ??iis ; Bret. . vu'z ; O. Ir. tni (gen. mis) ; 
 Gael, mios; L. mensis. 
 
 Mother. Gael, mhthair ; O. Ir. mdthir ; cf. W. modr-yb^ 
 an aunt. 
 
 § lie. N. Naked. Cf. Gael, nochd, naked ; O. Ir. nocht ; 
 W. noeth\ Corn. «^M ; Bret. n6az\ Celt, type '^noqios. 
 
 Needle. A. S. nx-del, from Idg. root ^sne; cf. O. Ir. 
 sni-vi, a spinning; Ir. snd-thad^ a needle. 
 
 Nest. O. Ir. w^/; Ir. and Gael, nead', W. nyih\ Corn. 
 ;?^z'^; Bret. «^/jsr. Celt, type *ntzdos. 
 
 New. O. Ir. 7iiiide ; Gael. ;/«^rt'^ ; W. newydd ; Bret. 
 nevez. 
 
 Night. Cf. Gael, nochd^ to-night ; O. Ir. iti-nocht, to-night ; 
 W. tra-noeth, lit. ' beyond the night ', on the morrow ; L. ace. 
 noct-em. 
 
 Nut. a. S. hnutu. The A. S. hn is cognate with Celt. 
 en, O. Ir. cnUy a nut ; W. cneuen (pi. cnau) ; Bret, knaoun, 
 more usually kraoun, a nut. 
 
 O. Oath. A. S. dp ; Goth, aiihs ; Teut. type ^aithoz ; 
 Idg. type ^oitos ; O. Ir. oeth. 
 
 One. Teut. type '^ainoz ; Idg. type ^oims ; O. Ir. ^f;/ ; 
 W., Corn. un\ L. unus. 
 
 § 117. Q. It was shown, in § 109, that the E. c in cow 
 answers to Idg. giv (Celt, b, Gk. ^). This is also the 
 equivalent of E. qu. 
 
 Quean. A. S. cwene ; Goth, kwino. Teut. type '^kwendn- ; 
 answering to Idg. type '^gwenon-. But the Idg. type is mostly 
 *gwend\ cf. Boeotian /3ai/a, a woman (Attic 7^17); Ir. and 
 Gael, bean^ O. Ir. ^^«, a woman ; W. bun ; Russ.yVw^i. 
 
 Quick. A. S. ^ze;/<r, cwicu, living ; Ir. (5^(?, O. Ir. bed, biu^ 
 living; W. byw) Bret, bed, beu] L, uluus. 
 
§ 1 16 CELTIC COGNAT£S^ > i ^ j^ 
 
 R. Red. Gael, and Ir. ruadh) W. rhudd\ Corn, rud) 
 Bret. r^2 ; cf. L. ruber (for '^rudher\ 
 
 Ride. O. Irish rtad-atm, I travel (root "^reidh-). 
 
 Right. Gael. reachd\ O. Ir. r^<r/^/, r^<r/; W. rhaith\ 
 Bret. m2. Idg. type "^rektos, from *'regtos (root *r(?^). 
 
 But some E. words began with ^r in A. S., answering to 
 Celt. cr. See below. 
 
 Raw. a. S. hreaw. Cf. L. cru-dus^ raw ; O. Irish cruaid, 
 hard ; O. Ir. crtc^ crd, blood ; W. crau, Corn, crow, blood 
 (L. cru-or). 
 
 Riddle, a sieve. A. S. hrtdder, hrider ; Gael, criathar ; 
 O. Ir. criathar \ Corn, croider ; L. crJbrum (for *kri-dhrom\ 
 
 Roof. A. S. -^r^. Teut. base */(t^ ; Idg. base */^r<7^- ; 
 Gael, cro, a sheep-cot, pen ; O. Ir. cro, a hut ; W. craiv, 
 a hovel. (The Celtic/ is lost.) 
 
 § 118. S. The s usually remains in Irish ; but the Welsh 
 form often has initial h in its stead. 
 
 Sad. The A. S. j^e^ meant * sated'. Cf. O.Irish sdith, 
 satiety, sdi-lhech, sated ; L. sa-tur, full. 
 
 Sallow, Sally, a kind of willow. A. S. sealh ; L. saltx; 
 Gael, seileach ; Irish sail^ saileach ; W. helyg, pi. of helygen, 
 a willow ; Corn, heltgen, glossed saltx. 
 
 Salt. W. halll, adj., salt ; L. salstis. Cf. O. Ir. sal-ann, 
 W. hal-en, hal-an, sb., salt. 
 
 Seed. O. Ir. sU (for *se-lon), seed ; W. hit, progeny ; 
 cf. W. had, Corn, has, Bret, had, seed ; Bret, hada, to sow. 
 
 Seek. O. Irish saig-im, sag-ini, I seek after. 
 
 Send. Allied to Idg. "^^sentos, a way, as in O. Ir. set (for 
 *sent), a way, Bret, hent (for "^sent), a way; W. hynt, a 
 way. 
 
 Seven. L. septeni] Ir. seacht ; W. saith', Corn, j^///^; 
 Bret, j^zjs. The Celtic forms had kt for//; cf. O.Irish 
 secht «-, where n was prefixed to a following word. 
 
 Shade. Gael, sgath ; O. Ir. scdth ; W. -sgod in cy-sgod, 
 shade ; Corn. j<r^d?. 
 
'lii THJ. CELTIC LANGUAGES chap, x 
 
 Shear. Irish sgar-azm, I separate ; O. Ir. scar-aim ; W. 
 ysgar^ to part. 
 
 Sit. W. sedd^ a seat ; seddu, to be seated. 
 
 Smear. Allied to Gael, smior, smear, marrow; O. Ir. 
 smir, marrow ; W. mer (for '^smer), marrow. Cf. A. S. 
 smeoru, fat, grease. 
 
 Son. Cf. O. Irish suth, birth ; from the Idg. root *seu, to 
 beget, whence also Sow (below). 
 
 Sorrow. Cf. O.Irish serg, illness; serg-aim, I wither, 
 decay. 
 
 Sow. W. hwch^ a sow ; Corn, hoch, a pig ; Bret, houch, 
 a hog. See Son (above). 
 
 Suck. O. Irish sug-tm, I suck ; L. sug-o. 
 
 In some combinations, as sm, sn, sp, the initial s may be 
 lost ; cf. W. mer, marrow, noted under Smear (above). 
 
 Smoke. O. Ir. miic/i, sb. ; W. mwg ; Corn, moc, smoke. 
 
 Snow. W. ny/, snow; L. ace. m'u-em ; Gk. ace. vi(f)a. 
 
 In the case of initial j/ (especially s/r), the / may disappear 
 in Celtic. 
 
 Star. Corn, s/eren (pi. sfer), a star ; but W. seren, a star, 
 pi. ser. 
 
 Stream. O. Ir. sruat'm, a stream ; cf. Skt. sru, to flow ; 
 Gk. p€€ip (for *crp€F-€iv), to flow. 
 
 The E. s/ra/k is derived from Gael, and Irish sra^/i, a flat 
 valley (with a river); cf. W.ys/rad, a strath; L. stratum. 
 
 Stripe. Cf. O. Irish sriab, a stripe. 
 
 Initial sw appears as W. chw. 
 
 Sister. A. S. sweostor, affected by O. Norse syster ; 
 O.Irish stur (gen. sethar)-, W. chwaer \ Corn, huir', Bret. 
 c^hoar (i.e. with guttural ch)) Celtic type *swesor', L. soror ; 
 Skt. svasd. Initial sw becomes O. Ir. s, W. chw ; Brugmann, 
 
 i.§369(7). 
 
 Six. The Idg. forms are *seks, *sweks. From. *seks we 
 have E. six, G. sec^s, L. sex, Lith. szeszi ; Pers. shask ; 
 
§ii8 CELTIC COGNATES 
 
 103 
 
 Skt. shash. From ""sweks we have W. chwech ; Corn, hweh, 
 wheh ; Bret, choueach ; Gael, se^ sea, sia ; Irish si. 
 
 Sweat. W. chwys^ sweat, sb. ; Corn, whys ; Bret, chouez. 
 
 § 119. T. The E. / answers to Celtic d, L. d, Gk. d. 
 
 Tame. W. and Corn, dof, tame, gentle ; Bret, don^ gentle. 
 
 Tear, sb. Irish dear, O. Ir. de'r, W. dagr, a tear ; Corn. 
 dager] Gk. haKpv. 
 
 Tear, vb., A. S. ieran. Cf. W., Corn., Bret, darn, 
 a fragment, a piece. 
 
 Ten. Ir. and Gael, dei'ch, W. </<?^, L. decern, Gk. Se^a. 
 
 Tooth. Ir. de'ad, O. Ir. fl'-f? ; Gael, deud ; W. and Bret. 
 dant ; Corn. ^^«j. 
 
 Town. A. S. tun, an enclosure ; cognate with Ir. dun, 
 Gael, diin, a fortress ; W. din, a hill-fort. 
 
 Tree. Ir. datr, an oak ; W. and Corn, dar, oak ; Bret. 
 der/, dero, an oak. 
 
 Two. Ir. da, Gael, da, do ; W. dau ; Corn, ^^w ; Bret. 
 daou. 
 
 § 120. Th. The E. th answers to Celt. /, L. /, Gk. r. 
 
 Thatch. Cf. Ir. and Gael, tigh, teach, O. Ir. tech, a house ; 
 W. ty (pi. tai), a house ; Corn, and Bret. //, a house ; Gk. 
 Teyos, a roof. 
 
 Thaw. Cf. W. toddt, to melt, dissolve ; tawdd, melted. 
 
 Thick. Ir. and Gael, tiugh; O. Ir. tiug', W. and Corn. 
 tew ; Bret. teS. Celt, type ""tegus. 
 
 Thin. Ir. and Gael, taria ; W. teneu ; Corn, tanow ; 
 Bret, tanav ; L. tenuis. 
 
 Thirst. Irish and Gael, tart, thirst, drought. 
 
 Thorp. O.Ir. treb, a building; W. tref, a homestead, 
 hamlet ; Corn, trev, tre, a homestead, town. 
 
 Three. Ir. tri\ Gael., W., Corn., Bret. tri\ L. tres, n. tria. 
 
 Throstle. Irish truid, a thrush, trod, a starling; W. 
 drudwy, a starling. 
 
 § 121. W. The E. w answers to Ir. and Gael./ W. gw. 
 Corn, gu, gw, L. u (consonant). 
 
104 THE CELTIC LANGUAGES chap, x 
 
 Wane, vb. A. S. waman, from wan, adj., lacking ; cf. Ir. 
 and Gael, fann^ faint, weak ; W. and Corn, gwan, weak ; 
 Goth, wans, lacking, wanting. Quite distinct from E. wan, 
 colourless. 
 
 Well, adv., A. S. wel. Cf. W. gwell, better ; Corn, and 
 Bret, gwell, better, gwella, best. 
 
 Widow. A. S. widwe ; Iv.feadhb ; O. Ix./edb ; W. gweddw ; 
 L. uidua. 
 
 Wield. Allied to A. S. wealdan, to rule, govern. Cf. 
 G2ie\.flath, a chief, prince ; O. Ir.flatih, a ruler ; also O. Ir. 
 flaith, dominion, W. gwlad, a country, region. 
 
 Wind, sb. W. gwyni ; Bret, gwent ; Corn, gwyns, gwens ; 
 L. uentus. 
 
 Wood. A. S. wudu, oldest form widu. Cf Irish fiodh, 
 a wood, a tree, O. Ir. fid, a tree ; W. gwydd, trees. 
 
 Wool. Allied to Ir. and Gael, ola^m (from a base *wlana) ; 
 W. gwlan ; Corn, gluan ; Bret, gloan ; L. Idna. 
 
 Wort, a plant. Cf O. Ir. /rem, a root ; Irish /reamh, 
 a root, stock, origin (base wrd-mu-) ; W. gwreiddyn, a root ; 
 L. radix (for '^urddix). Also Icel. rot (for *wrdt\ a root. 
 
 Worth. Cf. W. gwerth, value, a price. 
 
 § 122. Y. In a few cases, the E. y (initially) represents 
 the Idg.jj^, frequently written/, i. e. with the German value. 
 
 Yard, an enclosure, is an exception, as the A. S. geard 
 begins with Teut. g ', see § 112. 
 
 Yeast. A. S. gist, Teut. base ^yest-, from Idg. root "^yes, 
 to ferment. Cf. W. ias-u, to pervade with a quality. 
 
 Yoke. A. S. geoc ; Teut. type '^yuk-om, n. W. iau, a yoke ; 
 Bret, geo, ie'o] Irish ughaim, horse-harness. 
 
 Young. A. S. geong ; Teut. *yungoz, *yuwungoz. Irish 
 ^g, Gael, bg ; O. Ir. ^ac ; W. leuanc ; Corn, iouejtc ; Bret. 
 iaouanc ; L. muen-is, young, iuuenc-us, a young bullock. 
 
 Yew. In this word, the ^ is a modern prefix ; cf M. E. 
 ew. A. S. iw ; Teut. type *Jw-oz, m. Cf. Ir. eo, yew ; W. 
 yw^ywen ; Corn, hivin ; Bret. ivin. Celtic type "^iwos. 
 
CHAPTER XI 
 
 LITHUANIAN AND SLAVONIC 
 
 § 123. Brugmann speaks of the Baltic-Slavonic branch 
 of the Indo-germanic languages, thereby indicating that the 
 Baltic and Slavonic groups are somewhat near akin. Baltic 
 is used as a collective name for Lithuanian and Lettish, which 
 are very closely allied; and both comprise a considerable 
 number of slightly varied local dialects. The chief difference 
 between these two languages is that Lithuanian usually pre- 
 serves more archaic features than Lettish, and is the more 
 important of the two. Indeed, it frequently presents forms 
 of remarkable antiquity, though its records only go back to 
 the sixteenth century. These languages are spoken in some 
 parts of East Prussia and some of the extreme western pro- 
 vinces of Russia. The old capital of Lithuania was Vilna, 
 now the capital of the Russian province of the same name. 
 The Letts are now chiefly to be found in the Russian pro- 
 vinces of Courland and Livonia. There are also traces of 
 a third Baltic language, now extinct, called Old Prussian, of 
 which we possess some remnants belonging to the fifteenth 
 and sixteenth centuries. 
 
 § 124. The Slavonic languages are spoken over a large 
 area. They have been divided into a South-eastern and 
 a Western group. To the former belong Russian (subdivided 
 into Great Russian, commonly called Russian, White Russian, 
 and Little Russian), Bulgarian and Illyrian (subdivided into 
 Servian, Croatian, and Slovenian). To the latter (Western) 
 belong Czech ^ (or Bohemian), Moravian, and Slovakian ; 
 
 ^ Pronounced check, in which the former ch is like the E. ch in check, 
 but the latter ch like the G. ch in pech, 'pitch.' 
 
io6 LITHUANIAN AND SLAVONIC chap, xi 
 
 Sorabian (or Serbian, or Wendish); and Lechish, which 
 includes Polish and Polabian (or Elbe-Slavonian); but 
 Polabian is now extinct. The most important of all Slavonic 
 monuments is the language of the ninth century employed 
 by the apostles Cyril and Methodius, sometimes called Old 
 Bulgarian, though Miklosich calls it Old Slovenian. This 
 became the ecclesiastical language of the Greek Church, 
 often called Church Slavonic. Brugmann calls this Old 
 Bulgarian by the name of ' Old Church-Slavonic ', for which 
 I substitute ' O. Slav.', i. e. Old Slavonic simply. 
 
 § 125. The following approximate account of Lithuanian 
 pronunciation is mainly from Brugmann. 
 
 Vowels : a e i u, d ey u, e o. Both e and e are to be 
 pronounced very open. Note thatj^ = z. Also, e and o are 
 very close and always long. The vowels ^ ^ / ^ do not differ 
 in pronunciation from a e i u; the hook beneath has only an 
 etymological value, as it signifies that the vowel so marked 
 was originally followed by a nasal. Initially and medially 
 they are always long ; finally they are sometimes long, some- 
 times short. 
 
 Diphthongs : ai ei au di ei du ui oi e u. The o in oi is 
 long. Pronounce e as u with a very open e\ and u as uo 
 with a very open o or as ua. (Note the three values of e^ 
 viz. e, e^ e.) 
 
 In ptktas, 'bad,' the accent denotes that the vowel (though 
 stressed) is short. In vdrpa, ' ear of corn,' g'eras, good, the 
 vowels are long. So also di du /z' are to be read with the 
 former vowel long. The symbol y represents the G./, E.^. 
 Nesselmann's Dictionary has the symbol w^ pronounced as 
 E. V in the Lithuanian of Prussia, but as E. w in one variety 
 of the Lithuanian of Russia. Note the following consonants : 
 c — ts\ cz = 'E. ch; sz = 'E. sh] S or z = F. J (zh). All 
 consonants (except /) are liable to palatalization before 
 palatal vowels. Palatalization before non-palatal vowels is 
 indicated by writing an i after the preceding consonant. 
 
§125 SLAVONIC SYMBOLS 107 
 
 Nesselmann's Lithuanian Dictionary arranges the letters in 
 the following order : a at au e ei i u u ui j w t d c cz dz (E. 
 j) k g p b I m ti r s sz z z. The spelling is not always 
 uniform. 
 
 § 126. The following account of the pronunciation of 
 Old Slavonic is from Brugmann. The vowel-symbols are : 
 a e II u icy e. Both e and are open. Pronounce z as 
 a very close e ; u somewhat like the E. u in buf ; e as long e ^ ; 
 y as long G. u {il in G. griin). Both / and q are nasal 
 vowels ; the former = F. in ; the latter = F. on. The 
 symbol / is the G. j\ E. y ; the v was at first like the E. w, 
 later as E. v. By ch is meant the G. ch in ach] j = E. sh; 
 S = F.J (zh) ; = E. and F. 2 ; c =. fs; c = E. ck in church 
 (Lith. cz\ 
 
 The Etymologisches Worterhuch der Slavischen Sprachen 
 by Franz Miklosich (Wien, 1886) is in roman type through- 
 out. He gives his alphabet as follows : abccde^fgh 
 chijklmnoprsstuvzzu (= Russ. t) y (= Russ. 
 Li) 1 (= Russ. l). This represents the Old Slavonic ; his ^ is 
 the same as the ^ above, and does not occur initially. As 
 indicating the sound of ch, he has ch(^x) ; where x represents 
 the Gk..^. As to the three last letters, we may take as 
 illustrations the three following examples. O. Slav, glazu, 
 ' eye ' ; Russ. glaz-L. O. Slav, synti, * son ' ; Russ. syni, (in 
 the transliteration by Miklosich), printed cbih-b in the Russian 
 Dictionary. O. Slav, zna/t, ' to know ' ; Russ. znatB. The 
 first and third of these examples should be particularly noted, 
 as implying that the Russ. final letters -l and b represent the 
 O. Slav, ii and z respectively. 
 
 § 127. I proceed to give a few selected examples (not 
 exhaustive) of Lithuanian and Slavonic words cognate with 
 
 1 Not further explained ; if the Lith. e is meant, it is long and very 
 close. It must be remembered that we are here dealing with an extinct 
 pronunciation. 
 
io8 LITHUANIAN AND SLAVONIC chap, xi 
 
 or closely allied to English ones ; using the forms given by 
 Nesselmann and Miklosich respectively. The O. Pruss. (Old 
 Prussian) forms are from Die Preussische Sprache, by Dr. 
 E. Berneker. In order to avoid the symbols ^h, t, and ti, I print 
 ' {e) and J/ instead, in the case of Russian words, and u, z,y for 
 O. Slav, words. The two former are mute in Russian ; 
 ' emphasizes a preceding consonant ; whilst {e) may be com- 
 pared to the mute e in French. 
 
 A. Ale. 'Liih. alus -, O. 'Pruss. ^/z/. 
 
 Am. Goth, im ; O. N. tm ; A. S. eo?n ; Lith. esmi', O. Slav. 
 jesmi] Russ. esj?i{e), I am. 
 
 Apple. Lith. oholys^ apple ; O. Slav, abliiko, jabluko ; 
 ^w%^.jabloko\ O. Pruss. ze;^3/^. 
 
 Arm. O. Pruss. irmo ; O. Slav, ram^, ' humerus ' ; Russ. 
 ramo. 
 
 Ash. Lith. usis ; Lettish osis \ O. Pruss. woasis ; Russ. 
 jasen{e)\ Polish y^jw;/. (Here Russ. 7*2 = a.) 
 
 Aspen. O. Pruss. ahse\ Lettish apse (Brugmann); Lith. 
 apuszis ; Russ. osina, an aspen-tree. 
 
 Axle. Swed. and Dan. ax-el. Lith. aszis. an axle ; 
 O. Pruss. assis] O.Slav, ost] Russ. os{e)] L. axis. (The 
 dimin. suffix -el is here of Teut. origin.) , 
 
 § 128. B. The E. b answers to Lith. and Slav, b, L./ 
 Gk. 0, Skt. and Idg. bh. 
 
 Ban. From an Idg. base *bhd', cf. 'L. fd-rl, to speak, 
 fd-ma, a report. Cf. further O. Slav, ba-jati, to speak, Russ. 
 bajat[e) ; Polish bajka, a fable. 
 
 Bare. A. S. bder) Teut. type '^bazoz ; Lith. basas ; O. Slav. 
 hosii^ barefooted. 
 
 Be. Lith. bu-ti\ O. Slav, by-ti^ to be. 
 
 Bear, verb. Russ. brat{e), to take, seize, take away, also 
 to carry (a gun); i pers. sing. pres. ber-u; bremja, a burden. 
 
 Beard. A. S. beard) Lith. barzda ; Russ. boroda. 
 
 Beaver. Lith. bebrus] O. Slav. bebrU^ bobru\ Russ. bobr ; 
 PoHsh bobr. 
 
§128 COGNATES WITH ENGLISH 109 
 
 Bell. A. S. belle, a bell ; bellan^ to roar, E. bell-ow. Here 
 the // probably arose from Is ; cf. Lith. balsas^ voice. 
 
 Birch. Lith. berlas, a birch-tree ; O. Pruss. berse ; O. Slav. 
 breza) Russ. bereza; Pol. brzoza. 
 
 Blind. O. Slav, bl^d^, I wander (base ^^blend) ; Lith. 
 blendzus, I become dim; luiih. pri-blinde, evening twilight. 
 
 Boon. Icel. bon, a prayer ; O. Slav, basniy a fable, a spell, 
 allied to bajati, to speak ; see Ban above. 
 
 Bow, verb. A. S. biigan, to bend ; Lith. baug-us, shy, 
 timid. 
 
 Brother. Lith. broterelis (with e), a litde brother (Brug- 
 mann) ; broluszis, a cousin, child of one's father's brother ; 
 O. Pruss. brote] Russ. brat^ -, Pol. brat. 
 
 Brow. Lith. <5n/z£;/>, the eyebrow; Russ. brov{e)\ Polish 
 brew. 
 
 § 129. C. The English c requires great care. Its 
 ordinary equivalent is the Idg. g. But the latter was soon 
 discovered to have at least two values, and stricter investiga- 
 tions proved that it had three. The Idg. languages originally 
 possessed three distinct sets of gutturals, which have different 
 equivalents in different groups of those tongues. Brugmann 
 distinguishes these sets of gutturals by calling them palatals, 
 pure velars, and labio-velars. 
 
 The palatal sound of k is produced when the middle part 
 of the back of the tongue approaches the back part of the 
 hard palate, as in articulating the k in the English kid. 
 
 The velar sound is produced when the hind part of the 
 back of the tongue approaches the soft palate, as in articulating 
 the k in the German word kunst. 
 
 The labio-velar sound occurs when the velar sound is 
 further accompanied by a rounding of the lips. The E. queen 
 belongs to this last set. 
 
 Some writers (as Uhlenbeck) give to these three sets the 
 names of palatal gutturals, middle gutturals, and velar 
 gutturals. 
 
no LITHUANIAN AND SLAVONIC chap, xi 
 
 § 130. Examples of E. c from a palatal Idg. g. It is by 
 the Lithuanian form that the character of the original Idg. 
 equivalent of the E. c is determined ; for in the present case 
 Lithuanian has I. The other equivalents of this c are Skt.y, 
 O. Slav, z, Gk. y, L. g, Irish g. The following are 
 examples : — 
 
 Comb. Idg. type '^gombhos ; Skt. jambhas, a tooth, jaw ; 
 Lith. ^amba, mouth (Brugmann) ; Lettish zobs, a tooth ; Gk. 
 yo/oK^os-, a peg, yaficptj, a jaw ; Russ. zub', a tooth. The comb 
 is likened to a row of teeth. 
 
 Corn. Lith. Urn-is, a pea (round grain); Russ. zern-o, 
 corn; O. Pruss. syrne ; Pol. ztarno; cf. lu. grdnum, a grain. 
 
 Know, Ken. Cf. Skt. jnd-ias, known, Gk. yj/w-rds, L. 
 (g)nd~/us; Lith. h'nd-/i, to know; O.Slav, zna-ii, \o know; 
 Russ. znat(e). 
 
 § 131. E. r, /^ ; from a pure velar guttural. Examples 
 occur in the following words : — 
 
 Crane. Gk. yepavos ; W., Corn., Bret, garan ; Lith. gerwe, 
 a crane ; O. Pruss. gerwe ; O. Slav, hravi, a crane, Russ. 
 iuravl{e). The c is not from an Idg. palatal g, because the 
 Lith. word begins with g, not with I. And it is not from 
 a labio-velar guttural, because the Celtic word begins with g, 
 not with b\ see below, § 132. 
 
 Knead. A. S. cned-an. Allied to Russ. gnes-ti, to squeeze, 
 press (i pr. s. gnet-u). The Russ. g shows that the Idg. g 
 is velar. 
 
 § 132. E. c ; from a labio-velar guttural. 
 
 Cow. A. S. cu ; Skt. gaus (nom.) ; Gk. /Sow, an ox ; Irish 
 and Gael, bo, a cow, W. buw ; Lettish govs, a cow ; Russ. 
 gov j ado, oxen. The Gk. ^ and the Celtic b clearly show the 
 labialized nature of the guttural. 
 
 Here belong the following words that begin with qu :— 
 
 Q. Quean. A. S. cwene; Goth, kwino, 2i woman;. Skt. 
 gnd, a goddess ; Gk. ywr^, a woman (Boeotian ^avd) ; O. Pruss. 
 genua, Russ. hna, a woman ; Pol. hna. 
 
§i3o COGNATES WITH ENGLISH m 
 
 Queen. A. S. cwen^ Skt. -jdnis, a wife (only used at the 
 end of a compound word). Allied (by gradation) to quean. 
 
 Quell. A. S. cwellan, causal of cwelan, to die. Allied to 
 Lith. gel-ii^ to pain ; O. Slav, iali, pain ; Russ. lalo, a sting. 
 
 Quern, a handmill. K.^.cweorn\ G oih. kwat'rnus ; Lith. 
 gerno, a stone in a handmill ; Russ. lernov\ a millstone. 
 
 Quick, adj. living, alive. ^\X. fivas, living; L. uiuus) 
 Lith. gywas ; Russ. livoj, alive ; Irish beo, W. byw, alive. 
 
 § 133. D. The E. d corresponds to the Idg. dh, Skt. dh, 
 Gk. e, Lith., Slav., Celt, d, L./ (initially), d, b (medially). 
 
 Daughter. Gk. Bvydrijp ; O. Pruss. duckH\ Lith. dukte ; 
 Russ. doc{e). 
 
 Day. a. S. ddeg ; allied to Lith. dag-as, hot time, autumn ; 
 deg-H, to burn. 
 
 Deal, a part, portion. Cf. Russ. delitie), to divide, to part 
 {e = t). With a different gradation, we find Lith. dalts, 
 a share, Russ. dolja, a share. 
 
 Deep. A. S. deop ; Teut. type '^deupoz. Lith. dubus^ deep, 
 hollow; diib-H (i p. s. pr. dumb-u), to be hollow; Russ. 
 dup-lo, the hollow of a tree. 
 
 Deer. A. S. deor, Goth, dius, a wild animal (a general 
 term). Teut. type ""deus-om, a living creature, one that 
 breathes. The root appears in Lith. dwes-ti, to breathe, 
 whence dwds-e, breath, a spirit; cf. dausa (pi. dausos), the 
 air ; Russ. duch' (ch — G. ch), spirit, breath ; Pol. duck. 
 ' Allied to Gk. 6e(r-cJ)aTos, divinely uttered, evdeo9, inspired. 
 
 Deft, dexterous. Allied to A. S. ge-daf-en, fit, Goth, ga- 
 dobs, fitting, ga-dab-an, to befall, to be fit. Cf. Lith. dab-in- 
 it, to adorn, dabnus, fair; Russ. dobryj (or dobruii), good; 
 dobro, goods, property. 
 
 Delve, to dig ; A. S. del/an. Russ. dolb-it{e), to chisel, to 
 hollow out ; O. Pruss. dalptan, a punch. 
 
 Do. A. S. don, to put, to do. Lith. deti, to put ; O. Slav. 
 deti, to put; l..fa-c-ere, to do ; Gk. Ti-erj-fii, I place. 
 
 Door. A. S. duru. Lith. durys, durrys, pi., folding-doors; 
 
112 LITHUANIAN AND SLAVONIC chap, xi 
 
 O. Pruss. daiiris ; Gk. Bv^a^ a door. But Russ. dver{e), a 
 door, answers rather to Gk. 6aip6i, a door-hinge (Brugmann, 
 i. § 509) ; cf. Skt. dvdr, a door. 
 
 § 134. E, Ear, sb., Goih. auso; O. Pruss. ausins; Lith. 
 austs ; Pol. and Russ. uc/io {ch = G. cJi) ; L. auris. 
 
 Ear, vb., to plough. Goth, ar-jan ; Lith. ar-ti^ to plough ; 
 Russ. orat{e). 
 
 Eat. a. S. et-an) L. ed-ere\ Lith. ed-mi^ I eat; Russ. 
 est{e\ to eat [e—^)\ O. Slav. j'adi, food; Russ. jas^va, food. 
 
 Eight. Goth, a/i/au ; Lith. asztoni, eight ; O. Slav. f?j'»zz 
 (for *^j-/-^z, lit. 'eighth'), eight; Russ. oshmoj, eighth. Cf. 
 Lith. aszmas (for *aszt-mas), eighth. The Russ. for ' eight ' 
 is vosem{e). 
 
 Eke. a. S. <?af, also, ucan, to increase ; L. aug-ere, to 
 increase ; Lith. aug-ti, to grow. 
 
 Eleven. A. S. endko/an, endlufon ; O. Fries, elleva ; Goth. 
 ain-lif (from ^m-, one, and -//y, remaining, left over). Lith. 
 weno-lika (from w'en-as, one, and -M«, remaining, allied to 
 L. Hnquere, to leave), is similarly formed. 
 
 Ewe. a. S. eowu ; Lith. awis, a sheep ; L. ouis, a sheep ; 
 Russ. ovtsa, a sheep. Cf. O. Pruss. awins, a wether. 
 
 § 135. P. The E./corresponds to Idg./ (Gk. tt, L./, 
 Lith./, Slav./). 
 
 Fallow, adj., of a pale brown. A. S. fealu) Teut. type 
 '^falwoz, Lith. palwas, fallow ; Russ. polovyj, cream-coloured ; 
 O. Slav, plavu, while ; Pol. plowy^ yellow. 
 
 Farrow, to produce a litter of pigs ; from A. S. fearh^ 
 M. E. farh^ a pig. Lith. parszas, a pig; Russ. poroz , 
 a boar-pig. The weak grade appears in L. porcus. 
 
 Fist. A. S. /yst. Cf. Russ; pjast{e), the fist ; O. Slav. 
 p^sii (for '^pensti); see Brugmann, i. § 647 (6). 
 
 Five. A. S./z/*; Goth./w/; Lith. /^;//^) ; Gk. yrevre; Idg. 
 type '^pen[g)qe. Cf. Russ. pjal{e). 
 
 Foe. a. S./<2/^, adj. hostile ; Idg. type *potkos. Allied to 
 Gk. TTtK-poff, bitter ; Lith. piktas, unkind, bad. 
 
§134 COGNATES WITH ENGLISH 113 
 
 Foul. A. S./i/; allied to \.,pu-s, matter; Lith. pu-lei, 
 pi., matter. 
 
 Full. A. S./«//; Teut. type yz/://^^, from ytt/«<?0. Lith. 
 pilnas, full; Kmss. polnjj ; cf. 1^. plenus. 
 
 § 136. G. The E. g (like c) has three values ; according 
 as it represents Idg. gh, g{w)h, or gwh. See the remarks in 
 § 129. 
 
 When it represents the palatal gh, the Lithuanian equiva- 
 lent is I ; otherwise, it is g. I consider first the g from Idg. 
 palatal gh. It corresponds to the Celtic g, L. h {org), Gk. x, 
 Skt. k (rarelyy), Lith. I, Slav. z. 
 
 Gang. Icel. gang-a, to go ; Lith. hng-iii, I stride ; Skt. 
 iahgha, the lower part of the leg (Brugmann, i. § 617). 
 
 Gold. A. S. gold ; O. Slav, zlato, Russ. zoloto. 
 
 Goose. A. S. gds (for *gons^ from *gans) ; G. gajts. 
 O. Pruss. sansy, a goose ; Lith. Msi's (for ^^anst's) ; L. anser 
 (for ^hanser) ; Gk. XJ?"- The Slav, words should begin with 
 z, but we find O. Slav, gqsi, a goose ; Polish gqsior, a gander, 
 g§s, a goose ; Russ. gus[e), a goose. 
 
 Some think that these Slav, words were borrowed from 
 German. 
 
 In the following words, the A. S. g has become j^ in modern 
 English. 
 
 Yawn. A. S. geoman, ginian, to yawn ; from Idg. base 
 *ghi. Lith. h-ii, to gape (written h'o-ti by Brugmann) ; 
 Russ. zijat{e)j ztnut{e), to gape ; L. hi-are. 
 
 Yellow. A. S. geolu; Teut. type *gelwoz; Idg. type 
 *ghelwos. Lith. Mwys, a green stem ; ^alas, Dallas, green ; 
 M-ti, to become green (said of plants) ; ^al-oti, to become 
 green, bear green shoots ; O. Slav, zelenu, green ; Russ. 
 zelenyj, Pol. ztelony, green ; Russ. zelie, herbs. Cf. L. heluus, 
 light yellow. 
 
 § 137. The E. g answers to a velar guttural when 
 Lithuanian (or Russian) has g as its equivalent, or when Skt. 
 has gh (not h, except before Idg. e, i). Whether the velar 
 
 1343 I 
 
114 LITHUANIAN AND SLAVONIC chap, xi 
 
 guttural is pure or labialized can sometimes be determined 
 by the Gk. or the L. form. 
 
 The following examples seem to go back to an initial 
 pure velar Idg. gh. 
 
 Get. Icel. get-a^ to get ; Goth, bi-git-an, to find, obtain ; 
 cf. Russ. gad-at (e), to conjecture ; Lith. god-yti, to guess ; 
 L. -henderCy in pre-hendere, to seize. 
 
 Glad. A. S. glded] allied to G. glafi, smooth; Lith. 
 glod-as, smooth ; Russ. glad-ktj, smooth ; L. glah-er. 
 
 Guest. A. S. gdest\ Goth. gast-s\ Russ. gost{e\ a guest, 
 alien ; L. host-is, a stranger. 
 
 § 138. H. The E. h has likewise three values, according as 
 it corresponds to the Idg. palatal k, the pure velar k, or the 
 labio-velar k. 
 
 The Idg. palatal k is easily known, as it is equivalent to 
 Lith. sz, O. Pruss. or Slav, j, Skt. g. The following are 
 examples : — 
 
 Hare. A. S. hara ; G. hase ; O. Pruss. sasnis ; Skt. fagas. 
 Haulm, a stalk. O. Merc, halm ; O. Pruss. salme, straw ; 
 Russ. soloma, straw; L. culmus] also calamus, honovfedi 
 from Gk. Kd\ap.os, a reed. 
 
 Heart. A. S. heorie. Lith. szirdis ; Russ. serdce {c = ts\ 
 a diminutive form; Pol. serce\ Welsh craidd; Gk. Kapbia; 
 O. Pruss. seyr (cf. Gk. Krjp). 
 
 Hound. A. S. /lund ; Lith. sz& (gen. szuns) ; O. Pruss. 
 sum's. Cf. Russ. and Pol. su-ka, a bitch. L. cam's, Gk. 
 
 Kvmv (gen. Kvv-6s). 
 
 Housel, the eucharist. A. S. /lusl, Goth, kunsl, lit. ' sacri- 
 fice, offering, consecrated thing'. Teut. type '^ywunt-slom^ 
 Idg. type *kwmtslom ; allied to Lith. szwent-as, holy, Russ. 
 svjatoj, holy ; O. Pruss. swints, holy. 
 
 Hundred. A. S. hund) L. centum ; Lith. szimtas ; O. Slav. 
 suto ; Russ. sto. 
 
 Some English words that began with h in A. S. have lost 
 this initial. Examples are these : — 
 
§138 COGNATES WITH ENGLISH 115 
 
 Lean, vb., to incline. A. S. hldenan, to cause to lean ; 
 hlinian^ to lean; L. in-clindre\ Gk. kKiv^w, Cf. Lith. 
 szlaitas, a declivity ; szleti, to lean. 
 
 Loud. A. S. hlud. Allied to Gk. Kkvro^^ renowned, kKv^w, 
 to hear; Skt. gruias, heard, renowned, from gru, to hear. 
 Lith. szlowe, glory, renown ; Russ. slava, glory ; slysat(e), to 
 hear. 
 
 White. The word white belongs here. The Idg. initial 
 was a palatal k, which was followed by w, and Idg. kw 
 = Teut. hiv. A. S. hwtt. Cf. Skt. gvit-ras (Vedic), white, 
 gvetasj white ; Lith. szwileti, to shine ; Russ. svet\ light, sb. 
 For other words beginning with wh, see § 140. 
 
 § 139. But the E. h arises from an Idg. velar k or q, 
 when the Lith. and Slav, forms begin with k. If, besides this, 
 the L. and Gk. forms begin with qu, or with tt or r, the initial 
 letter will be labio-velar, q{w), and the E. word may be 
 expected to begin with wh (A. S. hw). I take first the cases 
 in which the initial letter is a pure velar. 
 
 Harvest. A. S. hderf-est; allied to Gk. Kapnos, fruit, L. 
 carp-ere, to pluck; from an Idg. root *{s)qerp, whence Lith. 
 kerp-u, I shear. 
 
 Heap. A. S. heap; Teut. *haup-. Brugmann takes the 
 Teut. base to be *haup-n-, from Idg. *kaup-n- ; the / being 
 preserved by the following -n-, Cf. Lith. kaupas, a heap; 
 Russ. and Pol. kupa. 
 
 Hew, v. a. S. heawan ; Teut. type '^hauw-an. Cf. Russ. 
 kov-at(e), to hammer, to forge; Lith. kau-tt,\o fight, kow-a, 
 battle ; Pol. kowal, a blacksmith. 
 
 Hide, sb., a skin. A. S. hyd. Cf. Lith. kiaufas, the soft 
 skin of the grape (or of other fruits) ; O. Pruss. keulo, skin ; 
 L. cutis. 
 
 Hill. A. S. hyll, a hill ; L. collis, a hill. Cf. Lith. kalnas, 
 a hill. The Russ. cholm {ch — G. ch), a hill, seems to be 
 borrowed from the Teutonic (A. S. holm, Dan. holm, G. holm, 
 orig. a rounded eminence). 
 
 I 2 
 
ii6 LITHUANIAN AND SLAVONIC chap, xi 
 
 Whole. The initial w is unoriginal. A« S. hdl. Cf. 
 O. Pr. katlu-stiska-n, sound health (Brugmann, i. § 639) ; 
 Russ. celyj, whole, entire (c =■ ts', e —je; y =■ ui). 
 
 Hurdle. A. S. hyrdel ; cf. Icel. hur9, a hurdle. Allied 
 to Gk. Kapr-aX-os, a (woven) basket ; L. crdt-zs, a hurdle ; 
 O. Pruss. korto, a fence. 
 
 In the E. raw, rick, the initial h has been dropped ; but 
 they belong to this category. 
 
 Raw. a. S. hreaw ; Teut. type *hrawoz (base *hrau). 
 Allied to L. cru-dus, raw, Skt. hravyam, raw flesh, L. crU'Or, 
 blood ; Lith. kraujas, blood ; Pol. krew, Russ. krov[e), blood ; 
 W. crau. 
 
 Rick. M. E. reek, A. S. hreac, a heap ; O. Irish crunch, 
 a heap. Cf. Lith. kruwa, a heap. 
 
 § 140. Examples oiY..wh from an Idg. labio-velar guttural. 
 
 Whale. A. S. hwdel\ Teut. type '^hwaloz. O. Pruss. kalis, 
 a cat-fish; perhaps even L. s-qualus, a kind of sea-fish. 
 
 Wheel. A. S. hweol, also hweogul, hweohol; a reduplicated 
 form. Teut. type *hwegwlom, n., for ^hwe-hwl-om ; Idg. 
 type '^q{p)e-q{w)lo- ; Gk. ku-kXcs, a wheel ; Skt. cha-kras, m., 
 cha-kram, n., a wheel. Without the reduplication, we find 
 Icel. hvel, a wheel, O. Pruss. kel-an, a wheel, Gk. ttoX-os, an 
 axle, L. col-US, a distaff; O. Slav, kol-o, Russ. kol-eso, a wheel. 
 The E. calash, F. caliche, G. kalesche, is from the Polish 
 kolaska, a small carriage, dimin. of kolasa, a (wheeled) 
 carriage. 
 
 While. A. S. hwi-l, a time; Swed. hvi-la, rest; allied to 
 L. qui-es, rest. Cf. O. Slav, root *ki, to rest ; whence Russ. 
 po-Ht{e), to rest, po-koj, repose ; Lith. pa-kajus, peace. The 
 O. Slav, po, Lith. po, pa, is a preposition, also used as a prefix. 
 
 Who, interrogative pronoun. A. S. hwd. Allied to L. 
 quis, Gk. Tis^ Skt. kas, who ? Lith. kas, who ? Russ. ^/^, who ? 
 Ho, what ? O. Slav, kito, who ? Here -to is a suffix. So also 
 E. whether, Gk. Trorepos, Skt. kataras \ Lith. katras] Russ. 
 kotoryj) Pol. ^/(9r>^. So also E. ze;^rd ; Lith. >?;«r. 
 
§i4o COGNATES WITH ENGLISH 117 
 
 N.B. — The word white does not belong here; its initial 
 letter was an Idg. palatal k, followed by w. See § 138 above. 
 
 §141. I. I, pers. pronoun; A. S. ic, O.Norse ek\ L. 
 eg-o. Lith. asz, Lettish es, O. Pruss. es\ Russ. ya (J^y); 
 'Pol ja. 
 
 In, prep. A. S. m, L. m; Lith. m, z; O. Pruss. en. 
 
 Is. A. S. z's, Goth, tsf; Lith. es/i; O. ShY.jes/i. 
 
 § 142. K. From the same source as f ; see §§ 130-2. 
 
 L, M, N. These answer, respectively, to the Lith. and 
 Slav. /, m, n. A few examples may suffice. 
 
 Lick, vb. A. S. liccian ; cf. Lith. leliu, I lick ; Russ. 
 liz-at{e), to lick. 
 
 Lie, vb., to tell a falsehood ; Russ. Igatie), vb., M{e), a lie. 
 
 Life, Leave. A. S. R/^ life ; Idef-an, to leave behind ; from 
 the strong verb llfan in the compound be-li/an, to remain, 
 G. b-leiben. The Idg. root '^leip appears in the Greek 
 Xiiraprjs, persistent, from the idea of adherence. Allied to 
 Lith. h'p-h', to adhere to ; Russ. lip-kij, sticky ; Pol. lip-ki, 
 sticky, /(?/», glue. 
 
 Light, sb. A. S. leoh-t\ Teut. base *leuh ; Idg. base '^leuk, 
 whence Gk. XtuK-op, white, bright, L. luc-ere, to shine. Cf. 
 Lith. lauk-as, adj., marked with a blaze or white spot (as 
 a horse) ; Russ. lu^, a ray of light ; O. Pruss. lauxnos^ stars. 
 Also Lith. lauk-as, sb., an open field ; L. luc-us, a grove, orig. 
 ' a clearing ' ; E. lea. 
 
 Light, adj. (not heavy). Allied to Lith. lengwas, light ; 
 Gk. iXaxvs; Skt. laghu-, light. 
 
 Loan. Icel. Idn ; from the verb Ijd, to lend, cognate with 
 Goth, leihwan, to lend, L. Itnquere, Gk. XeiTreiv, to leave. Cf. 
 Lith. Dk-ll, to leave ; O. Slav, otu-leku, ' reliquiae.' From the 
 same root is the important Lith. suffix -lika, remaining over, 
 which illustrates the synonymous words eleven (one over ten) 
 and twelve (two over ten). See §§ 134, 147. 
 
 Lock, sb. (of hair). A. S. locc\ allied to Lith. lugnas. 
 flexible, orig. ' bent ', i.e. curled. 
 
ii8 LITHUANIAN AND SLAVONIC chap.xi 
 
 Meal, ground corn. A. S. mel-u, from Idg. root '^mel^ to 
 grind. Cf. Lith. mal-H^ to grind ; O. Slav, mel-jq, I grind ; 
 Russ. mol-ot{e\ to grind ; L. mol-ere. 
 
 Meed, a reward. A. S. med, also meor^\ Goth, mizdo'y 
 O. Slav, mizda, Russ. mzda ; Gk. /xto-^ds. 
 
 Mesh (of a net). A. S. max\ Icel. mdskvi', allied to Lith. 
 mezg'Uy I weave, I knot. 
 
 Milk, vb. A. S. melcan. Cf. Lith. mMsz-ii^ to milk ; Russ. 
 mel{e)zit{e), to milk. 
 
 Mind, sb. A. S. gemynd, from gemunan, to remember, 
 Goth, mun-an, to consider. Cf. Lith. min-e/t, to remember 
 Russ. mn-iiie), to opine, to think. 
 
 Mother. A. S. modor ; Lith. mote ; Russ. ma/(e). 
 
 Murder. A. S. morffor; allied to L. mors, death, mor-i, 
 to die. Cf. Lith. mir-ti, to die ; Russ. mer-ei{e), to die. 
 
 Naked. A. S. nacod. Cf. Lith. nugas, naked ; Russ. 
 nagoj \ Pol. «^^z*. 
 
 Neat, cattle. A. S. neat, a domestic animal ; cf. Lith. 
 nauda, usefulness. 
 
 New. a. S. niwe ; Lith. naujas, new^, which is extended 
 from the (older) Lith. nawas, new, cognate with L. nouus, 
 O. Slav, novu, new ; Russ. novyj ; Pol. nowy. 
 
 Night. A. S. mht; O. Merc, ndeht; L. nox (ace. noct-em). 
 Lith. nakti's; O. Slav. «(?M; Russ. noc{e); Pol. «(?f. 
 
 Now^ A. S. «^; Goth, nu ; Lith. wii; (whence jjugi, now) ; 
 Russ. ny ne (cf. Gk. i/C-v). 
 
 § 143. O. There are very few Lithuanian words under 
 the English 0. 
 
 One. a. S. an ; Goth. am-s. Lith. wenas, one ; O. Slav. 
 inii, one ; O. Pruss. ams. 
 
 Other. A. S. offer, Goth, anthar ; Lith. antras. 
 
 Otter. A. S. otor) O. Pruss. udro-, Lith. udra', Russ. 
 vydra ; Pol. wydra. 
 
 § 144. P. The E. and Teutonic p answers to h in other 
 languages. Examples are very scarce, because the Idg. b 
 
§143 COGNATES WITH ENGLISH 119 
 
 seldom occurs initially. There is but one example in which 
 the E. word depends upon the Lith. form. 
 
 Pool. A. S. pdl (where is the second grade of a). Lith, 
 bala, a swamp ; O. Slav, blaio ; Russ. boloto, 
 
 Qu. For examples of ^^^-words, see § 132. 
 
 § 145. B. Initial r does not change. 
 
 Red. a. S. read\ Lith. rauda, sb., red colour; Russ. 
 ruda, blood ; Pol. rudawy, red. 
 
 Ruddy. K.^.rudig; Lith. r/V^j", brownish red ; cf. Russ. 
 ruda, blood (above). 
 
 Rye. a. S. ryge; Lith. ruggei (pi. sb.), rye; O. Pruss. 
 rugi's ; Russ ro^{e). 
 
 For the words raw, rick^ which began with A. S. hr, see 
 
 § 139- 
 
 § 146. S. Initial s does not change, though we some- 
 times find O. Slav, s, Lith. sz, in place of palatal k-, see § 138. 
 
 Salt. A. S. seaU\ Goth, salt-, L.sdl; Russ. sol{e) ; Pol. s^i. 
 
 Sear, Sere, withered. A. S. sear ; Lith. sausas, dry ; cf. 
 Russ. su-)(OJ, dry ; Pol. suchy. 
 
 Seven. A. S. seo/on ; Goth, sibun ; Lith. septyni\ Russ. 
 sem{e) ; Pol. siedm. 
 
 Sew. K,^.siwian\ Goth, siujan ; Lith. suh'; Russ.h'/{e). 
 
 Shall. A. S. sceal, i p. s. pr. ; Goth, skal; Lith. skel-iu, 
 skel-u, I owe, I am liable. 
 
 Sister. Icel. systir) Goth, swistar-, O. Pruss. swestro) 
 Lith. sesu (gen. sesers)', O.Slav, sestra) Russ. i^^j/ra; Pol. 
 siostra. 
 
 Sit. a. S. sitian ; Lith. sed-'eti; Russ. std-et{e). 
 
 Six. K.'^.six] Goth, saihs] Lith. szeszt ] Russ. W(^). 
 
 Sleep, vb. A. S. sld^pan ; Goth, slepan ; cf. Lith. slab-neii, 
 to be weak, to be relaxed ; O. Slav, slabu, Russ. slab-yj, weak ; 
 Pol. slaby. 
 
 Smock. A. S. smoc, smocc ; Teut. type "smug-noz ; Idg. 
 type *smuq-nos (Brugmann). Cf. A. S. smog-en, pp. of 
 smug-an, to creep into; so called because ' crept into ', or put 
 
120 LITHUANIAN AND SLAVONIC chap, xi 
 
 over the head. Cf. Lith. smunku, I glide, from smuk-H, to 
 glide, slip ; tsmunku, I glide into ; O. Slav, smyc-ati, to slip, 
 to draw ; smuc-aii, to creep. 
 
 Snow. A. S. sndw ; O. Pruss. snaygis ; Lith. snegas ; Russ. 
 sn^g\ 
 
 Son. A.S.sunu; Goth, sunus; 'Lith. suniis ; Russ. syn ; 
 Pol. syn. 
 
 Sour. A. S. sur ; Lith. surus, adj., salt ; Russ. surovyj, 
 harsh, rough. 
 
 Sow, verb. A. S. sdwan, to sow; allied to L. serere (pt. t. 
 se-ut) ; Lith. se-ti^ to sow ; Russ. se-jat{e), to sow. 
 
 Speed. A. S. spe-d (cf. spowan, to thrive) ; Lith. sp'e-tas, 
 leisure, convenient time, spe-ti^ to be at leisure, to have 
 opportunity ; Russ. spet{e), to ripen. 
 
 Spin. A. S. spinnan. Cf. Lith. pin-H, to weave ; O. Slav. 
 //-//, to stretch out (with loss of initial s). 
 
 Spur. A. S. spora^ a spur ; cf. Lith. sptr-ii, to kick. 
 
 Stand. A. S. slandan, allied to L. std-re; Lith. sto-h\ to 
 stand; Russ. sto-jat{e). 
 
 Steer, sb., a bullock. A. S. sieor. Cf. L. taurus, a bull ; 
 O. Pruss. tauris^ a bison ; Russ. tur\ an aurochs (with loss of 
 initial s) ; Pol. tur. 
 
 Stone. A. S. std7i ; Goth, stains ; Russ. stena, a wall, 
 a rampart. 
 
 Swine. A. S. swin^ a swine ; Russ. svm{e)ja, a swine ; 
 svinoj, adj., swinish ; svinka, a pig. 
 
 § 147. T. The E. / corresponds to Gk. h, L., Lith., 
 Slav. d. (Th represents a different sound.) 
 
 Tear, vb. A. S. ieran ; Lith. dir-H^ to flay ; Russ. drai{e), 
 to tear. 
 
 Ten. a, S. tlen, tyw, L. decern; Lith. deszim-lis, Russ. 
 desja-t{e) ; (both with a suffix ; cf. Gk. Seica-ros, tenth). So 
 also O. Pruss. dessim-ton, ten. 
 
 Tooth. A. S. tod \ Goth. tunthus\ O. Pr. dantis) Lith. 
 
§147 COGNATES WITH ENGLISH 121 
 
 Tree. A. S. ireo\ Goth, triu (gen. triwis); Litb. derwa, 
 pine-wood ; Russ. drevo, a tree ; Pol. drzewo. 
 
 True. K.'^.treowe. Allied to Lith.^frz^-Za^, firm; O.Pruss. 
 druwis, belief, druwit^ to believe. 
 
 Twelve. A. S. twelf\ Goth. twa-lif\ resembling Lith. 
 dwy-lika, twelve (lit. ' two over ', i. e. over ten). Cf. Lith. lekas, 
 remaining, lik-tt, to remain; see § 134. 
 
 Two. A. S. fwd', Goth, twai ', O. Pruss. dwai] Lith. dwi] 
 Russ. dva ; Pol. dwa. 
 
 § 148. TH. The E. th corresponds, initially, to the Idg. /. 
 
 That. A. S. /ae/ ; Goth, thaia ; Lith. tai, that, neut. of 
 tas, the ; Russ. /^, neut. of tot', that ; Gk. to ; L. -tud {in I's-tud). 
 
 Thigh. A. S. J^eok, thigh (thick part) ; cf. Lith. taukas, fat 
 of animals, tuk-ti, to become fat ; Russ. tucmt{e), to fatten. 
 
 Thin. A. S. pynne ; O. Slav, tinuku ; Russ. tonkij. 
 
 Third. K.^. prtdda; Lith. trecztas', Russ. tretij ; L. 
 ierti'us; Pol. trzeci. 
 
 Thorn. A. S. porn ; Pol. tarn-ka^ a sloe ; Russ. tern\ 
 a sloe-tree, blackthorn ; cf. Pol. cierh, a thorn. 
 
 Thou. A. S. pu ; Lith. tu ; O. Slav, ty ; Russ. ty {tui) ; 
 Pol. ty. Cf O. Pruss. twats, thine ; Lith. tawas, thine ; L. 
 tuus; Russ. tvoj. 
 
 Threat. A. '^.preat, a crowd, trouble, threat ; L. trudere, 
 to push, to crowd ; Russ. trud-it{e\ to trouble, disturb ; trud\ 
 labour ; Pol. trud, fatigue. 
 
 Three. K.'^. prt, preo; l^iih. trys ; Russ. /n"; Pol. trzy. 
 
 Throstle, Thrush. A. S. prost-le, a throstle ; cf. Lith. 
 strazdas, a thrush (with initial s); L. turdus (for '^turzdus), 
 a thrush. Cf also Russ. drozd\ a throstle. 
 
 § 149. W. The E. w is equivalent to Lith. w, also 
 written v, which was at first pronounced as w, but now mostly 
 as V, though the sound of w may still be heard. The O. Slav. 
 w seems to have early become v. 
 
 Wain. A. S. wdegn ; cf. Lith. wez-u, I carry, wehmas, 
 a wain ; O. Slav. vez-(}, I carry ; L. ueh-o. 
 
122 LITHUANIAN AND SLAVONIC chap, xi 
 
 Water. A. S. wdeter ; Goth, wato ; Russ. voda ; Pol. 
 woda ; Lith. wandu ; L. unda, a wave ; O. Pruss. unds, water. 
 
 Weather. A. S. weder. Cf. O. Pruss. we/ro, wind ; Lith. 
 we/ra, a storm ; Russ. ve/r', wind, breeze ; Pol. wia/r. 
 
 Wed, sb., a pledge. A. S. wedd; Goth. wadi. Allied to 
 Lith. wad-oti^ to redeem a pledge. 
 
 Weir, a dam. A. S. wer, allied to werian, to defend, pro- 
 tect, dam up ; Lith. wer-it, to open or shut ; su-wer-ti, to shut, 
 close, ui-wer-ti, to close ; O. Slav, vre-tiy to close, za-voru, 
 a bolt, vora, an enclosure ; Russ. za-vora, a bolt (the prep, za 
 means * after ' or ' to *). 
 
 Well, sb., a spring. A. S. wel/a ; cf. G. wel/e, a wave, 
 Lith. wt'Im's, a wave, Russ. vaP, a wave. 
 
 Whit, a thing. A. S. wi'/i/ ; O. Slav, ves/i, a thing ; Russ. 
 veU{e), a thing. 
 
 Widow. A. S. widuwe ; O. Pruss. widdewu ; Russ. vdova ; 
 Pol. wdowa. 
 
 Wield. A. S. ge-ivyldan, from wealdan^ to rule, govern. 
 Lith. wald-ytiy Russ. vlad-et{e), to rule, possess. 
 
 Will, vb. A. S. willan ; Lith. wel-iii^ to propose, to wish, 
 wale, the will ; Russ. vel-ei{e)^ to order, command, volja, the 
 will; Pol. wola, sb. 
 
 Wit, vb., to know ; Wot, I know. A. S. witan^ pr. t. 
 icwdt; cf. Lith. wetd-as, the appearance, face; Russ. vid\ 
 the face, vid-ei{e), to see, ved-atie), to know; Pol. wid, sight. 
 
 Withe, Withy. A. S. wi^tg^ a willow ; Lith. wytis, a withe, 
 Mwith's, a willow (from Ml-as, grey) ; L. ?^J/z>, a vine. 
 
 Wolf. A.S.wuI/; Liih.wi'i^as; O.'Pruss.wi/h's; Russ. 
 volk' ; O. Slav, vlii/^u ; Pol. ze;///^. 
 
 Wool. A. S. wu/l ; cf Lith. wi7na, wool ; Russ. volna ; 
 Pol. wetna. 
 
 Word. A. S. word] O. Pruss. wirds, a word ; cf. Lith. 
 wardas, a name. 
 
 Worth. M. E. wor/hen, vb., to become, to befall ; A. S. 
 weordan. Cf. Lith. wers-ti, to turn (i p. pr. s. wert-Uy 
 
§149 COGNATES WITH ENGLISH 123 
 
 obsolete) ; wart-yti, to turn round ; Russ. vert-et(e\ to turn 
 round. 
 
 § 150. Y. In some cases E. j/ answers to Teut. g, as in 
 yawn,yellow; see § 136. But in a few words English pre- 
 serves the original Idg.^. 
 
 Ye. a. S. ^^; Goth.y^^i-; luiih.jus-, Skt. yii-yam. 
 
 Year. A. S. gear; Goth. y<?>; Czech Jar, spring; Pol. 
 Jar, early spring-corn, Jarzyna, summer fruits ; Russ. Jar{e) 
 = apL, spring QOxn,Jar-ka, a yearling ewe. 
 
 Yoke. A. S. geoc ; Goth.y«^ ; O. Slav, and Russ. igo (for 
 *Jugo) ; Lith. Jungas, with n inserted by association with the 
 verbjung-h', to yoke. 
 
 Young. A.S, geong ; Goth. Juggs (ior yungs). Allied to 
 L. iuuem'Sy young, luXih.Jaunas, Russ. JunyJ, young. 
 
CHAPTER XII 
 
 ARMENIAN, ALBANIAN, AND PERSIAN 
 
 § 151. Among the Indo-European languages are some 
 that we have not yet mentioned, such as Armenian, Albanian, 
 and Persian. It is worth while to consider the question, 
 whether any of these afford assistance to the etymologist 
 whose special study is English. The result is almost nega- 
 tive, with respect, at least, to the two former ; a fact which 
 will shorten the discussion. 
 
 § 152. Armenian. There are numerous Armenian 
 dialects, spoken in the extreme east of Turkey in Asia, in 
 the neighbourhood of Mount Ararat, on the Persian border. 
 The Armenian treated of by Brugmann is the Old or classical 
 Armenian, chiefly of the fifth century or later, the remains of 
 which are mostly historical and ecclesiastical, and of a monastic 
 character, being largely translated from Syriac and Greek. 
 The actual nature of this language was at first misunderstood, 
 and it was regarded as a variety of Iranian or Persian, but it 
 has been shown that it is so far independent that it must be 
 classed by itself. Perhaps it may be regarded as associated 
 with Persian on the one side, and Balto-Slavic on the other. 
 The Old Armenian abounds with words borrowed from 
 Persian, which to some extent disguises its occasionally inde- 
 pendent character. 
 
 § 153. The Armenian sound-laws are difficult and 
 intricate, so that many of the words assume a disguise in 
 which the connexion with the forms of other Indo-germanic 
 languages is not easy to recognize. Nevertheless, it possesses 
 many words that remind us of cognate forms in some other 
 
§151 EXAMPLES OF ARMENIAN 125 
 
 language, enough to enable us to perceive that it belongs to 
 the set. 
 
 For example, it turns the Idg. initial s into k (which is 
 sometimes dropped). Corresponding to the L. sen-ex, 
 Goth, si'n-ts, ' old/ we find the Arm. h'n, ' old ' ; nearly coin- 
 ciding with W. ken, ' old.' The Arm. evf'n, ' seven,' reminds 
 us of the Gk. eiTTd, Pers. ka/"/, Goth, sih-un, all forms of 
 seven. The symbol / signifies an aspirated /, like the Skt. th. 
 
 The Arm. arj, ' a bear/ is like the Gk. apKros, ' bear.' The 
 Arm. lots, 'light,' is cognate with "L. lux (gen. luc-is); cf. 
 E. luc-id (from French). The Arm. ail, ' other/ is like L. 
 alt-US, O.Irish at'le. The Arm. mard, 'man/ is like L. 
 mori'dlis, mortal ; cf. E. ' a mortal/ The Arm. sterj (with 
 
 E. j), ' barren/ answers to L. steri-lis, ' sterile.' The Arm. 
 astt, 'star/ answers to L. siella-, the prefixed a is seen in 
 the Gk. aoT^p. The Arm. mair^^ 'mother/ resembles the 
 
 F. mere, and arose in a similar way, viz. from the loss of a / 
 between two vowels; cf. L. mater. In precisely the same 
 way, the Arm. for ' father ' is hair, where the h is due to the 
 fact that an original Idg. / (as in L. pater^ becomes h in 
 Armenian; cf. Irish athair, 'father,' in which the / first 
 became h and then disappeared altogether ; moreover, in Ir. 
 athair, the th is sounded as a mere h, so that Arm. hair and 
 Ir. athair differ but little. So also Gk. TreWe, ' five ' ; Arm. hing. 
 
 The Arm. initial sw became kh (Skt. kJi), written h! ; hence 
 the Idg. *swesor, 'sister,' became k^oir (with loss of inter- 
 vocalic s) ; cf. Pers. kh{w)dhar, Mdhar, sister, W. chwaer. 
 
 § 154. In one respect at least Armenian resembled 
 Slavonic, viz. in turning the initial Idg. palatal k into s. 
 Hence, beside the Gk. Kaph-la, ' heart/ we find Russ. serd-ce, 
 'heart,' wdth a dimin. suffix, and Arm. sirt, 'heart.' And 
 beside the Gk. Kdp-a, 'head,' we find, similarly. Arm. sar, 
 • head.' 
 
 Similarly, the Idg. palatal gh becomes Slav, z, as in Gk. 
 \eix-<o, ' I lick,' Russ. liz-at{e), ' to lick ' ; cf. Arm. liz-um, I lick. 
 
126 ARMENIAN, ALBANIAN, AND PERSIAN chap, xii 
 
 § 155. But the most interesting examples are those in 
 which Armenian somewhat resembles English. We know, 
 for example, that (by Grimm's Law) the Idg. hh^ h, p become 
 E. h, pj/'y the Idg. dh, d, t become E. </, /, th ; and the Idg. 
 sK §^ ^ (if palatal) become E. g, k, L Now Armenian 
 actually exhibits a very similar sound-shifting, in which 
 several (about two-thirds) of the results coincide. This may 
 be best shown by the following table : — 
 
 Idg. 
 
 bh b p 
 
 dh d t 
 
 gh g k 
 
 Eng. 
 
 b p f 
 
 d t th 
 
 g k h 
 
 Arm. 
 
 b p h 
 
 d t t' 
 
 J c(k)s 
 
 I give a few examples in illustration. 
 
 Labials, bh : Idg. "^bher, to bear ; hence Arm. ber-em, I 
 bring ; O. Ir. ber-im ; A. S. ber-e ; E. / bear. 
 
 b : Lith. bala, a swamp, E. pool. Cf. Skt. ambu, water, Gk. 
 ofx^pos, rain ; Arm. amp (gen. amboy), a cloud. (Examples 
 of this change from b top are extremely scarce.) 
 
 p: Gk. Treire, five ; Goth. Jim/lE. Jive; Arm, king. Gk. 
 TTvp ; E. Jire ; Arm. hur. 
 
 Gk. nepav, beyond ; E./ar ; Arm. ken, ' far.' Gk. nSBa, 
 ace. of TTouf, foot; E./oo/; Arm. o/n (for "^hot-n). 
 
 Dentals, dh : Idg. root *dheigh, to knead, form ; E. dough, 
 a kneaded lump ; Arm. dez, ' a heap.' (For the change from 
 gh to z see § 154.) 
 
 Gk. Bvyarrjp {6 from dh), a daughter; E. daughter ', Arm. 
 dustr. 
 
 d: L. decern, ten ; E. ten ; Arm. iasn. L. ed-o^ I eat ; A. S. 
 et-e, I eat ; Arm. ut'e?7i, I eat. L. nidus (for ^nizdus), a nest ; 
 E. 7iest', Arm. nist, a situation, position (G. Lage, Sitz). 
 
 /: Lith. tankus, close, tight; E. tight, but prov. E. and 
 M. E. thight) Icel. ////r, water-tight (for ""plhtr', Teut. type 
 "^plhtoz, for '^penxtoz) ; Arm. t'anjr^ tight. 
 
 Palatal Gutturals, gh : Gk. x"P> hand ; Arm. jern. 
 Gk. xi-f^v, snow ; Arm. j'mn. Cf Gk. x^^Vi gall l E. gait. 
 
§155 ALBANIAN ALPHABET 127 
 
 ■ g : Gk. yovvy knee ; E. knee ; Arm. cunr. Gk. epy-ov^ work ; 
 'E.work'y Arm. gore. Gk. ayeiv, to drive; Icel. ak-a, to 
 drive; A. S. ac-an, to ache, E. «/^^ (misspelt ac/ie); Arm. 
 ac-em, I drive. 
 
 /^: Gk. K^p, Kapb-ia, heart; E. ter/; Arm. jzW. L. ac-us, 
 a needle ; Arm. as-etn, a needle. 
 
 The Idg. z£;, which remains as w in English and Latin 
 (L. u\ usually becomes g in Armenian. Cf. E. wafer ; Arm. 
 gef, a river. L. uinum (whence E. wine^ ; Arm. gini. E. ze;//; 
 Arm. ^//-^w, I know. E. z£;^r^; Arm.^^^rc. 
 
 We may further note the following resemblances : — 
 
 Idg. *es-mi, I am ; A. S. eom, E. am ; Icel. em ; Arm. em. 
 E. ^r^«f ; Arm. krunk. E. ^^^^^« ; Arm. kin, a woman. E. 
 <:^ze; ; Arm. kov. E. ««- (negative prefix) ; Arm. an-, 
 
 §156. Albanian. This language is very imperfectly known. 
 It is the language of ancient Illyria, preserved in documents 
 that, for the most part, only go back to the seventeenth cen- 
 tury. Much difficulty has been experienced in separating 
 the pure Albanian words from those which it has freely 
 borrowed from Greek, Latin, Romance, Slavonic, and even 
 Turkish. It has been calculated that, out of 5,000 words, 
 only 400 prove to be of native origin. There is, however, 
 sufficient evidence to show that the Old Illyrian was an inde- 
 pendent descendant from the original Indo-germanic stock. 
 
 Brugmann gives the alphabet as follows : — 
 
 a{Q)b d dzd^b^ e (/) ^/ g g' hxx i (/) j k k' 1 1 1' m 
 n n' o\g) p r r s s t is ts u {ii) u (^•) v z ^. The vowels can 
 be short or long. The symbol e represents a murmured 
 vowel; j is the E.^ (consonant). The vowels a^ &c., are 
 nasalized; fs — E. ch in church \ dl = E.y; s — Y..sh\ z — 
 E. zh (the sound of ge in rouge). 3- and 8 represent, respec- 
 tively, the E. th in breath and breathe. The consonants marked 
 with a dash (as g') are palatalized consonants, with a sound 
 only used before palatal vowels (as e, i). 
 
 § 157. It can hardly be said to throw any light upon 
 
128 ARMENIAN, ALBANIAN, AND PERSIAN chap, xii 
 
 English. It is sufficient to mention some of its chief 
 peculiarities. 
 
 Labials. The Idg. /», b, bh answer to Alb. /, b, b, as in 
 Slavonic and Lithuanian. Examples : prus, a glowing coal ; 
 cf. 'E./ros-t (and l^.pric-na, for *prus-na, a live coal, pru-lna, 
 for *prus-uina, hoar-frost). Gk. -nevTe, five ; Alb. pese. Alb. 
 pal-a, I had ; allied to 1j. pot-is, powerful. L. rap-to, I snatch ; 
 Alb. rjep, I pull away. 
 
 bh : Alb. bak, a star (Skt. bhdlam, splendour, from bhd, to 
 shine). Alb. bare, a burden, with r from rn ; cf. E. bear, 
 bairn. Alb. bar^, white; Goth, bairht-s, E. bright. Alb. 
 bir, a son ; cf. E. bair-n. Alb. bir^, a hole ; cf. E. bore, verb. 
 Alb. bu-r, a man (being) ; cf. Gk. <\)v-t6v, a plant, and E. be. 
 
 Dentals. The Idg. /, d, dh become Alb. /, d{h, .9^), d {8, 3-) ; 
 cf. Lith. and Slav. /, d, d, O. Irish / (M), d, d. Ex. /: L. tu, 
 Alb. ti; E. thou. L. /rffj-, Alb. /r^? ; E. three. L. nod-em, 
 ace. Alb. ««/e ; E. «z^^/. 
 
 d'. Alb. </(?^f, a twig (which, like E. twig, is related to Skt. 
 dvi-, two, double). Alb. hjett, L. ^^c^/^z ; E. ten. Alb. ^r«, 
 a tree ; E. tree. 
 
 dh : Alb. dere, a door ; cf. E. door. Alb. dje/:, I burn ; 
 Lith. degii, I burn ; cf. E. daj^. 
 
 Palatal Gutturals. The Idg. k, g, gh (palatal) become 
 Alb. s (.9^), z (d, 8), z(d, d); much as, in Slavonic, they become 
 s, z, z. 
 
 k : Alb. vis, a place ; cf. L. uic-us, a village, whence E. wick. 
 Alb. ^cnl, a nit; Gk. kovIs (gen. Kovlb-oi); A. S. hnitu, E. nit. 
 
 g : Alb. bemp, a tooth ; Gk. y6n(pos, a pin, peg ; E. comb. 
 Alb. ^^j-«, I loved (chose out) ; cf. Gk. ycva-ros, tasted ; 
 Goth, kius-an, to choose ; E. choose. The same change, from 
 g to d, sometimes occurs in Persian; and the Arm. dela is 
 allied to Pers. dtcst, a friend. Alb. /V3-, I bind ; L. lig-o. Alb. 
 hatk, sour milk ; Gk. yoKa, milk. 
 
 gh : Alb. frS-^, I came ; Gk. epx-ofiai, I come. Alb. der, 
 a swine, pig ; Gk. x^'P-o^) ^ young pig ; perhaps we may 
 
§157 ALBANIAN COGNATES 129 
 
 further compare led. gnss, a young pig, whence prov. E. gn'cg. 
 Alb. dt'men, winter ; Gk. x^^H-^^y L. ht'em-s. 
 
 I do not give examples of velar gutturals. The Albanian 
 equivalents are, however, quite simple, as the velar q, g, gh 
 answer to the Alb. k, g, g, whether they be pure velar or 
 labio-velar. 
 
 § 158. It is worth while to add that the Idg. s (initial) is 
 remarkably unstable in Albanian. It never remains as s, but 
 appears as ^, k, g% or 3-. Thus Alb. saU, a hoe, is from the 
 Idg. root *sek, as in L. sec-dre, to cut. Alb. /iel^k\ I pull, 
 draw, like the Gk. iXK-eiv, to draw, is from the Idg. root 
 *selk, to draw, whence also L. suic-us, a furrow, A. S. sui/i, 
 a plough, Devonshire zooL Alb. g'arp-^r, a serpent, is allied 
 to L. serp-ere, to creep, Gk. epn-fiu. Alb. g'atpe, butter, is 
 allied to Goth, salb-bn^ to anoint, and to E. salve. Alb. g^asU, 
 six, is allied to L. sex, E. six. Alb. g'um^, sleep, is allied to 
 Gk. liT-voi, Skt. svap-nas, sleep, A. S. swef-n, a dream. Alb. 
 9^2, a swine, is allied to L. sus and E. sow. 
 
 The Idg. w (E. w, L. «, consonant) becomes Alb. v. Hence 
 we find Alb. vank, the rim of a wheel (cf. E. winch) ; Alb. ven\ 
 I weave (cf. E. weave) ; Alb. ves, I put on clothes (cf. L. ues- 
 tiSj clothing, and E. wear, verb) ; Alb. vis^ a place (L. ulc-us), 
 § 169. Persian. Persian is a language of the Indo- 
 germanic group, though at the present day nearly a third 
 part of its vocabulary consists of Arabic words, belonging to 
 the unrelated group of Semitic languages. There is a some- 
 what similar example in the case of Spanish, a language of 
 Latin origin abounding in words of Moorish descent. The 
 true nature of Persian is revealed by its earliest forms, of 
 which there are two branches or sub-divisions, which may 
 be called Eastern and Western Iranian. The Eastern Iranian, 
 or Old Bactrian, is represented by the earliest portions of 
 the sacred writing of the Zoroastrians, commonly called the 
 Avesta, the language of which has been often called Zend, 
 though the name (which means 'explanation' or *com- 
 
 134S K 
 
I30 ARMENIAN, ALBANIAN, AND PERSIAN chap, xii 
 
 mentary') is unsuitable. Schlegel calls it Old Bactrian, and 
 Brugmann names it ' Avestic ', a title which I shall here 
 adopt. It was originally deciphered by help of the strong 
 resemblance which it bears to Sanskrit. 
 
 The Western Iranian is the Old Persian preserved in the 
 cuneiform inscriptions of the Achaemenides, including Darius 
 and Cyrus. This form of the language is simply called Old 
 Persian. 
 
 Of much value is the later or ' Middle Persian ' commonly 
 called Pehlevi or Pahlavi, chiefly in use from the third to the 
 seventh century, when much Aramaic (of Semitic origin) was 
 mingled with the Persian element. The word 'Pahlavi' 
 simply means ' Parthian ' ; from Pers. Pahlavi, an adjectival 
 form derived from Pahlav, a later form of Parihava, whence 
 the Gk. napdla, Parthia. 
 
 Modern Persian is remarkable for its highly analytical 
 character and the simplicity of its grammar, having no cases 
 for the nouns, and (like modern English) no genders for 
 them. It is a highly cultured language and widely used. 
 
 § 160. The Persian is the sole Indo-germanic language 
 that has adopted a wholly foreign, that is, an Arabic alphabet, 
 with four letters added to denote the Pers. /, ch, zA, and g ; 
 but some of the letters only occur in Arabic words. I here 
 give the transliteration of that alphabet as it appears in 
 Palmer's Persian Dictionary. 
 
 The order of letters is as follows : a {a, t, &c.), d, p, /, s 
 [=//^],y, ck, h, kh^ d,z \^=dh\ r, s, zh, s, sh, s, z, /, z [or ;?], 
 *j S^^/i ^ \P^ ^]» ^> §> ^i ^^ ^» w{u\ hyy{t). Fortunately, 
 the most troublesome of these symbols seldom or never occur 
 except in Arabic words, and will be here neglected, viz. i, k, 
 z, z, i, z, '. They are practically omitted in the Dictionary 
 of Persian Etymology by Paul Horn (Strassburg, 1893), of 
 which I shall make much use. I also omit k (q). Horn's 
 symbols do not all agree with Palmer's, and a few notes on 
 these are necessary. 
 
§ i6o PERSIAN SYMBOLS 131 
 
 By the symbol 7 is meant the English j in jest. Ch is the 
 E. ch in church, which Horn (like Miklosich) denotes by i. 
 Kh is not the Skt. kh (aspirated U), but represents the sound 
 of the German ch in noch, for which Horn (like many others) 
 uses the symbol x, as in Greek ; the modern Gk. x is, in fact, 
 thus pronounced, though in very early times it was like the 
 Skt. kh. It is worth notice that the modern Pars, kh, though 
 different in sound from the Skt. kh, usually answers to it 
 etymologically, so that there is little practical difficulty in 
 employing it. For sh (E. sh in she) Horn writes s, as in 
 Miklosich. The remaining symbols require no discussion. 
 The J/ is the Y.,y (consonant), Germ.y. There is an excellent 
 article by Prof. Rieu, in the Philological Society's Trans- 
 actions for 1880, on * Phonetic Laws in Persian'. Observe, for 
 example, that the original kt,gt, always become kht in Persian ; 
 and//, bt, become/?. I have also noticed examples in which 
 dt becomes st or sht. Thus the prefix ni-, down, and the 
 base sad, to sit, give the Pers. nishashtan, to sit down ; where 
 'tan is the suffix denoting the infinitive. 
 
 § 161. I denote Avestic (Old Bactrian) by the symbol 
 ' Av. ', for which Brugmann has * Aw. ' ; and Old Persian by 
 * O. Pers.', for which Brugmann has ' ap.', i. e. alt-persisch. 
 
 In transcribing Avestic, Brugmann uses such symbols as 
 these : — a (English aw in awe) ; q (nasalized a) ; x (G. ch, 
 Horn's Xt Palmer's kh\ for which I retain kh\ y, 'voiced' 
 kh] i (E. ch in church); .9" (more conveniently printed 6, 
 denoting the E. th in breath) ; 8 (E. th in breathe) ; s (E. sh 
 in she) ; if (zh, i. e. z in azure). He uses the same symbols 
 for Old Persian, omitting a, g,, y, b, i. 
 
 § 162. I now give a rather full collection (all I could find) 
 in which words occur which have common roots in Persian 
 and EngHsh. I glean them from Horn's book,^ in which 
 every item is numbered, and the numbers mentioned refer 
 
 * Horn very seldom quotes the corresponding Germanic forms. They 
 must be sought elsewhere, viz. in Uhlenbeck and Brugmann. 
 
 K 2 
 
132 ARMENIAN, ALBANIAN, AND PERSIAN chap, xii 
 
 to these. But I retain the spelling in Palmer's Dictionary, 
 as, e. g. in such a word as baslan, to bind, for which Horn 
 has besten. 
 
 Labials. The Idg./>, b, bh answer to Av. and Pers./, b, b 
 initially. Medially, either b can become v. English has 
 /,p,b\ by Grimm's Law. (For Skt. words here quoted, see 
 Uhlenbeck's Skt. Dictionary, where the related English words 
 may be found.) Examples (in English order) are as follows : — 
 
 p\ E./: Vers, plk (365), fat, grease ; Gk. m-cov, fat; A. S. 
 /se-//, fatted, fat ; E./af. 
 
 Pers. pt'dar (286); E. father. 
 
 Pers. pahn (344), broad, wide ; Av. paBana-, broad, wide 
 (Horn) ; cf. Gk. Treravwixi, I spread out ; E./a/h-om, as far as 
 one can stretch with extended arms. 
 
 Vers. par (293), a feather, a wing; Kw.parma (Uhl.) ; Skt. 
 parnavi, wing, feather, leaf; E./ern} 
 
 Pers. panj (328) ; Gk. n-eWe ; Y.,five. 
 
 Pers./>a2'( 281), foot; L./(?j"(gen./^^-zj); AeolicTrcos; E.foot. 
 
 Pers. pu-sidan {'^'^^), to rot; L. pu-trtdus, putrid; A. S. 
 fu-lj E./oul'^ Ictl.fu'inn, rotten. 
 
 Pers. />/^r (294), full ; ^Vx.. piirnas ] lAih. ptlnas ; E./ull. 
 
 Pers. pari-, as in pari-rtiz, the day {rHz) before yesterday ; 
 cf. pdr-sdly last year (303) ; Lith. pernay, adv., last year ; Mid. 
 E. feme yere, last year (Chaucer) ; A. S. fyrn, ancient, 
 belonging to past time (obsolete). 
 
 Prof. Rieu remarks that, when an r follows, the Pers. initial 
 / becomes/^ as in English. I give two examples. 
 
 Vers, fur dkh (810), wide, ample; allied to Kv. fraBo, 
 breadth, Skt. prathas, breadth ; Gk. TrXarus, broad. With a 
 change of the final dental, we find Icel. flatr, flat, whence 
 E.fiai. See ^ki. praihati in Uhlenbeck, and \,. planta, the 
 sole of the foot, in Walde. 
 
 Yexs.fird (809), above, upon; allied to Skt. prd-, as in 
 
 ^ A. S. feartty which should give E. farn ; cf. Famborough, Farn- 
 combe (Surrey), Farndale, Farndon, Farnham, &c. 
 
§ 162 PERSIAN COGNATES 133 
 
 prd-kdra-^ an enclosing wall ; and further allied to Skt. pra, 
 adv., before, Gk. Trpd, and to Y..fore. 
 
 Compare also E. firman, borrowed (through Turkish) from 
 the Vers. /armdn, a mandate; O. VQXs./ramdna- (820), Skt. 
 pramdnam, a measure, scale, authority, decision. 
 
 In one instance only, a word beginning with E.y answers 
 to one beginning with Pers. ch ; viz. Pers. chahdr (452), four ; 
 cf. Skt. chatvdras^ L. quatuor, Goth, fidwor, E. /our. The 
 E.yis here difficult to account for, though it occurs also in 
 Gothic. See Wright's Gothic Grammar, § 134, note. 
 
 § 163. The Idg. b is very scarce, and I know of no Pers. 
 word beginning with b from this source. But the Idg. bh 
 becomes b both in Pers. and E., and there are numerous 
 examples, among which may be mentioned the Pers. bang 
 a narcotic drug, which we have borrowed ; it answers to the 
 Skt. bhahgd, hemp, the drug being made from the wild hemp 
 {Cannabis Indica). See Horn, no. 232. 
 
 bh : Pers. and E. b : Pers. bu-dan (233), to be (where -dan 
 is the suffix denoting the infinitive mood); Skt.(5M,to be; E. be. 
 
 Pers. bur-dan (196), to carry; Skt. bhar-att, he bears; 
 E. bear, verb. 
 
 Pers. bar (156), a burden; A. S. bdr, ber; E. bier. 
 
 Pers. bastan (219), to bind; banda, a servant, bandi, cap- 
 tivity ; Skt. bandh (for *bhandh), to bind ; E. bind. 
 
 Pers. bu'idan (240), to smell, bUy, odour; allied to Av. 
 baoihi-, sweet smell (Horn), Av. baohaite, he perceives, observes, 
 scents, smells (Uhlenbeck); Skt. budh, to awake, perceive, 
 recognize, &c. ; Skt. bodhaya, to arouse, revive, make (a flower) 
 expand, elicit (a perfume) ; Gk. rrevO-ofxai, I inquire, A. S. 
 beodan, to inform, announce, command, bid ; E. bid, to com- 
 mand, bode, to foreshow ; all from Idg. root *b/ieudh. 
 
 Pers. buridan (212), to cut, to cleave; Skt. bhri, to hurt, 
 injure, in the Rig- Veda (Uhlenbeck) ; L. fer-tre, to strike, 
 for-dre, to bore ; E. bore : from the same root is Pers. bil (257), 
 a spade. 
 
134 ARMEiNIAN, ALBANIAN, AND PERSIAN chap, xn 
 
 Pers. barz {198), stature, height; adj. tall, elevated 
 (Richardson); Av. bdr{f)zant-, great, high (Brugmann, i. 
 § 608) ; allied to A. S. heorg, a hill, whence E. barrow^ a 
 tumulus, and to A. S. burg, E. borough. From the same Idg. 
 root *bhergh is the Pers. bul-and, high. 
 
 Pers. bun (229), a basis, foundation (Richardson); Av. 
 buna-, ground ; Skt. budhnas (for *bhudhnas), bottom ; Gaelic 
 bonn, sole, bottom ; A. S. bohn ; E. bottom. 
 
 Pers. bdzu (167), the arm; Skt. bdhus, the arm; Icel. 
 bog-r, the shoulder, hence the bow (shoulder) of a ship ; A. S. 
 boh, orig. an arm, hence a bough of a tree ; E. bough, 
 
 Pers. birddar (192), brother; Y.. brother. 
 
 Pers.rt-^r^ (64), the eyebrow; Gk. o^pvs; '^\X,bhrus\ Y..brow. 
 
 Pers. buz (213), a goat; Av. buza-; A. S. bucca,2. he-goat, 
 ^«^, a male deer ; E. buck. 
 
 § 164. Dentals. The Idg. /, d, dh answer to the Av. 
 /, d (5), d (8) initially, Pers. / {s\ d, d] and to the E. ih, /, d 
 respectively. 
 
 /: E. th: Pers. tu7iuk (397), brittle, slender, shallow; 
 Skt. tanus, thin, slender ; L. tenuis ; E. thm. 
 
 Pers. tanidan (399), to twist, to spin; Skt. tan, to stretch 
 out, extend; from Idg. root '^ten, to stretch, whence also 
 E. thin (as above). 
 
 Pers. tishna (388), thirsty (for ^tirshna, the r being lost); 
 Av. tarshna-, thirst; Skt. trsh, to be thirsty, tarshas, thirst; 
 Goth, ga-thairs-an, to be dry ; E. thirs-t. 
 
 Pers. til, thou ; E. thou. 
 
 Pers. tandar (396), thunder ; E. thunder. 
 
 But the Pers. word for ' three ' has been sadly corrupted ; 
 the Skt. form is tray as, nom. pi. masc. ; but the Avestic form 
 began with 6ri-, which (by loss of r, and change of 6 to s) 
 gave the mod. Pers. si, usually written sih. Hence also Pers. 
 siz-da, thirteen (cf. Av. Oridasa, thirteenth); and Pers. si, 
 thirty (Av. Brisatem, thirty). See Horn § 759. 
 
 § 165. Idg. d] Pers. d; E. /. 
 
§i64 PERSIAN COGNATES 135 
 
 Pers. dam (530), a tame animal (not in Palmer). Richardson 
 has ddm^ ' every kind of quadruped that is not rapacious ' ; 
 ddmaky ' a rabbit, hare, or any small animal that is not carni- 
 vorous ' ; cf. Skt. dam, to tame ; O. Irish dam, an ox ; E. /ame. 
 
 Pers. daridan (562), to tear; Gk. dep-eiv, to flay; A. S. 
 /er-an; E. /ear, verb. Horn suggests that Pers. dard (550), 
 pain, may be a related word ; cf. A. S. /ear/, severe, acrid, 
 mod. E. /ar/, sharp, which also seems to be related to A. S. 
 /er-an, to tear. 
 
 Pers. dak (587), ten; Lat. dec-em; E. /en. 
 
 Pers. dandan (574). a tooth; Welsh dant\ Goth, iunth-us) 
 E. tooth. 
 
 Pers.f/(5rr(52 2),agibbet; also, a tree, wood (Richardson); Skt. 
 ddru, a beam, stick, also a species of pine, whence E. deo-dar; 
 allied by gradation to Skt. dru-, wood, tree, and to E. tree. 
 
 Pers. div (598), a demon, a devil; Av. daevo, a demon; 
 Skt. divas, divine, L. d'mus ; A. S. Tlw, a deity, whence 
 E. Tues-day. 
 
 Pers. du (575), two; L. duo] E. two. 
 
 Here also belongs the E. adj. long (for *tlong). Pers. dardz 
 (547), long (cf. Pers. dir, delay); Av. dar9ya-, long, O. Pers. 
 darga-, long ; Skt. dlrghas ; Gk. boKi^s. Also the Idg. nasal- 
 ized form *dlo(n)ghos, Pers. dirang ; L. longus ; E. long. 
 
 § 166. Idg. dh) Pers. and E. d. [Pers. dara, darah, 
 darrah (560), a valley ; Av. darend, a hollow, glen, ravine. 
 Horn connects this with E. dale, which is impossible, for dale 
 requires the Idg. initial dh ; whereas the Av. darend is lit. 
 ' torn,' hence, ' cleft,' as it is allied to Skt. dirnas, torn (from 
 the Idg. root *-der, to tear) ; cf. Pers. daridan (above), W. 
 darn, a fragment, E. tarn, a mountain pool, ' separated.'] 
 
 Pers. durusht (552), harsh, severe, rough; Av. darlis 
 {darshis), vehement (G. ' heftig ') ; Skt. dhrshtas, bold, for- 
 ward, impudent ; Gk. dpaa-vs, bold, Oapa-dv, to dare ; Goth. 
 ga-daurs-an, to dare ; E. dare, pt. t. durs-t. 
 
 Pers. dukhtar (541), daughter; E. daughter. 
 
136 ARMENIAN, ALBANIAN, AND PERSIAN chap, xii 
 
 Pers. ddgh (529), mark, scar (orig. of a brand) ; Av. da-^a-^ 
 Skt. ddh-as, a burning, branding, great heat, from Skt. dah, 
 to burn (Idg. root *dhegh) ; Lith. deg-ti\ to burn, dag-as, hot 
 time, autumn, Goth, dags, day (bright time), E. day. 
 
 ■ Pers. dizh (563), a fortress, castle (Palmer), daz, diz, 
 fortress, castle, city (Richardson) ; Av. daeza-, in the compound 
 
 pai'ri-daeza-, an enclosure, place walled round, whence Gk. 
 irapabHcro^, a park, E. paradise. But the lit. sense is 'sur- 
 rounding mound ', since Av. patri = Gk. Trepi, and daeza- 
 = a mcund, wall of earth, cognate with Skt. de/ms, a mass, 
 dekt, a rampart ; from the Idg. root *d/ietg/i, to mould (L. 
 
 fing-ere^, whence also A. S. ddh, E. dough (kneaded mass). 
 Pers. dig (594), a pot, deg (in Indian pronunciation); 
 
 so called because moulded by the potter (cf. L. fig-ulus) ; 
 
 from the Idg. root '^dheigh, to mould ; like dizh (above). 
 Pers. dad (518), justice, law; cf. Av. and O. Pers. da-, to 
 
 set, establish, cognate with Skt. dhd^ to put, place, set, A. S. 
 
 do-n^ to do, to put, E. do. From the same Idg. root *dhe\vt 
 
 have Gk. ri-Brj-fxi, I place, Oe-fi-is, law ; and the E. dee-d, doo-m. 
 
 The Pers. dad corresponds in form to E. deed, but in sense to 
 
 E. doom. 
 
 Pers. dar (545), a door; Y.. door \ hence Pers. dar-bdr, 
 
 a prince's court, levee, lit. * door of admittance ', from bar, 
 
 admittance, court ; Anglicized as durbar. 
 
 Pers. durtigh (557), a lie, falsehood ; O. Pers. drauga-, a lie ; 
 
 Skt. drohas, injury, perfidy, from druh, to seek to injure ; cf. 
 
 Skt. druh (nom. dhruk), injuring, as sb., an avenger, fiend, 
 
 Icel. draugr, a ghost ; cf. also O. H. G. triogan (G. triigen), 
 
 to deceive, G. trugbild, a mocking phantom: Idg. root 
 
 *dhreugh. Allied to G. traum, a dream (deceitful vision), 
 
 E. dream. See Brugmann, i. §§ 681, 690; Uhlenbeck, Skt. 
 
 Diet. s.v. druhyati. 
 
 § 167. Palatal gutturals. The Idg. palatal gutturals 
 
 k, g, gh answer to Pers. s, z, z ; and to E. h, k, g. 
 
 k\ Skt. g-. Pers. j-: E. h. Pers. swi (764); for which 
 
§i67 PERSIAN COGNATES 137 
 
 Richardson has saym, * the neck-yoke of oxen ' ; Av. strnd- ; 
 Skt. gamyd, the pin of a yoke (Benfey) ; E. hame, one of the 
 bent sticks round a horse-collar. 
 
 Pers. sum (745), a hoof; (perhaps) Av. sa/a-, hoof; Skt. 
 kaphas, a hoof ; A. S. ho/; E. hoof. 
 
 Pers. suru (734), a horn (Richardson); Av. srvd-, a claw, 
 a horn ; allied to Pers. sar, the head, Skt. (tr-as, the head, 
 and therefore to Skt. ^rhgarn^ a horn, Lat. cornu, E. ^^r«. 
 
 Pers. sapid, sa/td (708), white; Av. spaeia- (with j/> for 
 ^w) ; Skt. gvetas, white, (vitras, white ; Goth, hwei'ts, white ; 
 E. ze;^//*?. (Here Idg. kw = Skt. ^rz^ = Av. sp — Pers. j(«)^ 
 = A. S. hw,) 
 
 Pers. sag (743)? a dog (for *spag?); Median a-TraKa, accus. 
 (Herodotus, i. no); in the dialect of Quhrud, ispa; Av. 
 span- ; Skt. fvd (gen. funas) ; Gk. /cvi^a (accus.) ; E. hound. 
 
 Pers. j^fl? (725), a hundred; Skt. fa/am; L. centum; E. 
 hund-red (where the suffix -r^</ signifies by computation or 
 rate). 
 
 § 168. g ; Pers. z; Y..k. Pers. zddan (645), to be born ; 
 zaldan, to beget ; zdda, born, offspring ; from Av. zan, Skt. 
 Z^;?, to beget, L. gi-gn-ere ; cf. E. kin. 
 
 Pers. 0a«z2 (648 3), knee; Ski.jdnw, L. ^^««; E. knee, 
 
 Pers. zanakh (669), the chin ; Skt. ^(Z««-, the chin ; Gk. 
 ycV-us ; Lat. gen-a, the cheek ; A. S. cm, chin ; E. chin (with 
 ^^ for k) ; G. ^/««. 
 
 Sometimes this Pers. initial z (from Idg. g) appears as d. 
 Pers. ddnistan (534), to know, is for *zdnislan; cf. Skt.ywa, 
 to know, whence jd-fid-mi, I know (probably for *jnd-nd-mi, 
 the « of the root being dropped owing to the reduplication of 
 -nd-) ; Skt. Jfid-ias, known ; Lat. ?idius, known (for *gno/us), 
 infin. gno-scere, to know, A. S. cndw-an ; E. know. 
 
 Pers. dUsi (582), a friend, O. Pers. daus-tar-, a friend, is 
 allied to '^Vi.jush-tas, beloved, pp. oi pish, to be pleased, to 
 like, which is cognate with Goth, kius-an, A. S. cios-an, to 
 choose ; E. choose (with ch for k) ; G. kiesen. 
 
138 ARMENIAN, ALBANIAN, AND PERSIAN chap.xii 
 
 In two instances the Idg. g has been kept in Pers., because 
 an r or / immediately followed. 
 
 Pers. giriftan (909), to seize; Av. grab, Skt. grabJi, to 
 seize ; E. grab, 
 
 VQXs.gulula (9 2 9), a bullet; cf. L,. glomus, a ball; E. clew, clue, 
 
 § 169. gh : Pers. ; E. ^. Pers. zahra (678), the gall- 
 bladder, gall, bile ; zarlr^ ' the yellow jaundice,' Richardson. 
 Allied to zard (656), yellow, A v. zairita-^ yellow, Skt. haritas, 
 yellow. From a shorter form zar (654), gold, Av. zairi-y 
 yellow, Skt. haris, yellow, greenish ; Gk. xok-^, gall ; E. gall. 
 E. gold 2Lnd yellow are also related. 
 
 § 170. Velar gutturals. The velar gutturals (whether 
 pure velar or labio-velar) fall together (or coincide) in Avestic 
 and Persian. Thus the Idg. labio-velar gutturals q{w), g(w)y 
 g{w)h answer to the Avestic k, g(j), g\ E. h{wh), qu{c), g. 
 
 q{w) : Pers. k or ch: E. ^ or wh. Pers. ki{h) (876), who; 
 that ; cf. L. quod, that ; E. who, what. Pers. chi{h) (451), what ; 
 cf. L. -quid in ali-quid. [Av. kaidra-, whether (of the two) ; 
 Goth, hwathar; E. whether.'] 
 
 Pers. charkh (437), awheel; Skt. chakras, awheel; Gk. 
 kvkKos ; A. S. hweowol, hweol', E. wheel. 
 
 Pers. chahdr (452), four; Km . chaOwdro ', Skt. chatvdras] 
 L. quatuor'y Goih. fidwdr ; 'E./our (in which the /"is excep- 
 tional); see p. 133. 
 
 g{^) : Av. g or J; Pers. ^ or z;E. c, qu. Pers. gdw (888), 
 a cow, whence Pers. ml-gdw, ' blue cow,' E. nilghau ; Skt. 
 gaus ; Arm. kov ; A. S. cu ; E. cow. 
 
 Pers. zan (668), a woman ; hs. jaini-\ ^Yx. jani-\ Goth. 
 kwino ; A. S. cwene ; E. quean. (E. queen is a related word, 
 but has a long A. S. vowel, as belonging to a stronger grade.) 
 
 Pers. zi (683), life ; zi-stan, to live ; zhlv-ah or jlv-ah, 
 quicksilver ; O. Pers. and Skt. jiv, to live ; Skt. jlv-as, adj., 
 living, quick; L. uiuus] Goth, kwius, living; allied to A. S. 
 cwi'C, E. quick. 
 
 g(w)h'. Av. and Pers. g\ E. w (unusual). Pers. garm 
 
§i69 PERSIAN COGNATES 139 
 
 (911), warm; Av. garma- ; O. Pers. garma-, warm; Skt. 
 gharmasy heat ; Gk. 6epii6s ; Irish gorm ; E. warm. 
 
 § 171. Liquids. The Idg. /, vi, n, r remain unchanged 
 in Pers. and E. ; except that Pers. r may answer to E. /. 
 
 /: Pers. Imdan (954), to lick; Skt. lih (for *ligh), to lick; 
 O. Irish h'g-i'm, I lick ; A. S. licc-ian, to lick ; E. lick. 
 
 Pers. lab (953), the lip; L. lah-ium', E. lip. 
 
 The E. loud, A. S. hlM, has lost the initial h. It is allied 
 to the Skt. grulas, heard, pp. of ^ru, to hear ; and to the Pers. 
 suricd, melody, song (735). 
 
 m: Pers. marz (974), a region, country (Palmer); also, a 
 limit, boundary of a country (Richardson) ; L. margo ; A. S. 
 viearc, a mark, limit, boundary ; E. mark ; O. H. G. viarcha, 
 a boundary (whence O. F. marche, E. marchy a boundary). 
 
 Pers. maghz (986), marrow, pith, the brain ; Av. mazga-, 
 brain ; Skt. majjd, marrow, pith ; O. Pruss. musgeno, 
 marrow; A. S. viearh (dat. mearge)^ with r for z (from s); 
 E. marrow. 
 
 Pers. zw^ (1003), wine; Av. mahu, honey; Skt. madhu, 
 honey ; Gk. fxeOv ; E. mead. 
 
 Pers. muzd (978), a recompense; Gk. /uto-^os; Goth, mizdd; 
 E. ;;zf<f^. 
 
 Pers. miyd?i (1004), the waist, the middle; Av. maibydna-, 
 the middle, maibya-, middle ; L. medius ; E. mid, middle. 
 
 Pers. mdh (968), moon, month ; Skt. mas, moon, month ; 
 Gk. iir]v, L. mensis, month; allied to E. moon, month. 
 
 Pers. mard (972), a man (lit. a mortal); allied to L. 
 morl-dlis, a mortal, A. S. mordor, E. murlher, murder, 
 
 Pers. w^^^r (956), mother ; E. mother. 
 
 Pers. w^j-i^ (995), a mouse ; A. S. mUs ; E. wowj-^. 
 
 ;z: Pers. ndkhmi (1016), a nail, claw; Skt. nakham; Lith. 
 nag-as, a claw; A. S. ndeg-el] E. ;?«/■/. 
 
 Pers. ;2i2W (1022), name; A. S. nama; E. name. 
 
 Pers. 7/4/'(i02o), navel; A. S. naf-ela\ E. w^i'f/. 
 
 Pers. «/-, prefix (1013), down; as in ni-shastan, to sit 
 
140 ARMENIAN, ALBANIAN, AND PERSIAN chap, xii 
 
 down ; A. S. ni-der^ downwards, with the comparative suffix 
 -der from the base ni-, down ; E. ne-ther. 
 
 Pers. nau (1045), new; A. S. ntwe-, E. new. 
 
 Pers. nuh (1056), nine ; Av. and Skt. nava; L. nouem ; E. 
 nine. 
 
 r\ E. r, /. Pers. rubuda?! (608), to seize, to rob (cf. ruftan, 
 to sweep, to weed) ; Skt. lup, lump, to seize, to rob (pp. lup- 
 tas) ; lop-tra-, plunder, whence Hindi lut, E. loot', L. rumpere, 
 to break (pp. rup-tus) ; A. S. reofan, to break, reafian, to 
 despoil, to plunder; E. reave (whence be-7'eave)', also G. 
 rauben^ O. H. G. roubon, to rob, whence O. French rober, 
 E. rob. 
 
 Pers. rdst (603), true, straight, right (orig. set in order) ; 
 O. Pers. and Av. rdsta-, correct, right ; Skt. rdddhas^ per- 
 formed, prepared, ready, pp. of rddh, to achieve, prepare ; 
 allied to this Skt. root is the Pers. drdstafi (11), to set in 
 order (hence, to adorn) : Goth, ga-red-an, to provide, A. S. 
 rdedan, to counsel, lo interpret, to read ; E. read. 
 
 Pers. rakhsh-ldan (610), to shine ; riiz (629), day; rawshan 
 (631), enlightened, manifest, clear; rawshanl, light, splendour; 
 Skt. riich, to shine ; rokas, brightness ; rdchanas, shining ; 
 Idchanas, illuminating ; lochaiiam, the eye ; L. luc-ere^ to 
 shine ; A. S. leoh-t, light ; E. light. 
 
 § 172. S. The treatment of initial s in Persian is 
 variable. If it occurs before a vowel, it sometimes becomes h, 
 as in Greek and Welsh. 
 
 Idg. s; Pers. h. Pers. ham (1102), likewise; bi-ham, 
 together ; ham-dn, that same ; hamin, thus ; Skt. sam^ with ; 
 Gk. cfjLta, together ; allied to Skt. sama-, same, Gk. o/Ltdy, Icel. 
 samr, the same ; E. same. 
 
 Pers. haft (1098), seven; Gk. eTrrd; L. septem\ E. seven. 
 
 After the prefix ?«-, down, this s becomes sh : Pers. 
 ni-shas-tan (1033), to sit down; cf. Av. 7ti-shib-aiti, to sit 
 down ; Skt. niy down, sad, to sit ; L. sed-ere, to sit ; E. sit. 
 
 Before H, we find Pers. kh for s. Pers. khUk (510), a sow, 
 
§ 172 PERSIAN COGNATES 141 
 
 a hog ; Av. hu-, a boar ; Skt. su-karas^ a boar ; cf. L. sus, 
 Irish suig, W. hwch ; A. S. su^ sugu, a sow ; E. sow. 
 
 Idg. sk- (initial) ; Pers. shik-. 
 
 Pers. shikd/lan ('jS'j), to split, to cleave ; (and without the 
 s) kaftan^ to split, to dig ; Gk. aKan-retv, to dig ; Lith. skap-oti, 
 to shave ; Goth, skaban ; A. S. sca/an, sceafan ; E. shave. 
 
 Idg. ks, sk ; Pers. sh. Pers. d-shuftan (32), to be uneasy, 
 to perturb, disturb; cf. Skt. kshubh, to be agitated, kshdbhas, 
 agitation ; Lith. skubiis, hasty ; Goth, skiuban, A. S. scufan^ 
 to push, shove ; E. shove. 
 
 Idg. sk\ Pers. j. Pers. sdya (695), shade, shadow, protec- 
 tion ; Skt. chhdyd, shade, shadow ; also image, reflection, 
 reflected light, glitter ; Gk. vKia, shadow ; from the Idg. root 
 *skei, to shine, whence also A. S. scl-nan, to shine ; E. shine. 
 
 Idg. sp. : Pers. isp, sip. Pers. sipardan (701), to trample 
 on ; apparently allied to Skt. sphur, to spurn, quiver, 
 struggle ; cf. E. spur, spurn. 
 
 Idg. si'. Pers. />/, sit, sut. Pers. istd-dan (84), to stand; 
 Skt. sthd, to stand; L. std-re\ allied to E. stand. 
 
 Pers. sitdra (711), a star; E. star. 
 
 Pers. suttir (720), an animal, cattle; Av. staora-, a beast of 
 burden ; E. steer, a young ox. 
 
 Idg. sr\ Gk. hr] Pers. r (but Teut. j/r). Pers. riid {62^), 
 a river, stream; O. Pers. rautah-, a stream; Skt. sro-ias, 
 a current, stream, from sru, to flow ; Gk. pev-fxa, a flow, 
 rheum ; cf. G. stro-m, Du. siroo-m, E. stream. 
 
 Idg. jzt;; Pers. /^/^ze;, /^/^'. Pers. kKdhar (501) written 
 khwdhar, sister; Skt. jz^^z^ar-; A. S. sweostor, Icel. j^'j/Zr; 
 W. chwaer] E. «j/^r. (The Teut. forms insert / after j.) 
 
 Vti^.kh'ay {khway) (513), sweat; kh'aydan,\.o perspire; 
 Av. xZ'^^S^-, sweat ; Skt. svedas ; W. c/^2£^^ ; E. sweat, 
 
 Pers. kh'dstan (497), written khwdstan, to desire, to wish ; 
 allied to Skt. svad, to relish, sivddu-, sweet ; E. jz£;^^/. 
 
 Idg. *sweks, original form of ' six ' ; Pers. shish (783), six ; 
 Skt. shash ; L. ^^.a; ; E. six. 
 
142 ARMENIAN, ALBANIAN, AND PERSIAN chap, xii 
 
 § 173. W. The Idg. w remains in English. In Avestic 
 it is written as v, though the sound may have been w. It 
 occurs as v in Pers. in the following instance : — 
 
 Pers. varz (warz, Palmer), gain; varzldan (197), to 
 practise, exercise ; Av. vareza-, a working ; Gk. 'ipyov (for 
 fepy-ov), work ; E. work. Here the Av. and Pers. z arose 
 from Idg. g. 
 
 The sound must originally have been w^ which passed into 
 g in Pers. in some words, before a short vowel. Pers. 
 gard-idan (886), to become; gard-dn, turning, revolving; 
 gashtan, to turn, to become; Skt. vrt, to turn; L. uert-ere] 
 A. S. weor^-an, to become; E. (obsolescent) worth, vb., to 
 become (as in worth the day, i. e. evil be the day). 
 
 Pers. gurg (910), a wolf; Av. vehrka-\ SkL vrkas\ Lith. 
 wilkas] cf. E. wolf. 
 
 Before a long vowel, the Pers. v becomes b. Pers. bad 
 (151), the wind ; Av. vdta-, wind; Skt. vd, to blow; allied to 
 L. uentus'y E. wind. 
 
 Pers. b'lva (263), a widow; Horn quotes Pehlevi vepak 
 (from ^vevak\ a widow ; Uhlenbeck quotes Av. vihu-, vibavd-, 
 widow ; Skt. vidhavd ; E. widow. 
 
 Pers. bdftan (168), to weave; cf. the Idg. root ^webh^ to 
 weave, as in Skt. Urna-vdbhi-, a spider; Gk. v(f>-aLV€iv, to 
 weave ; A. S. we/an ; E. weave. 
 
 Pers. bid (2^1), a willow; Av. vaeit-is, a willow; Gk. Ir-ea, 
 a willow; L. mi-is, a vine; A. S. wi^-ig^ a willow; E. withy, 
 withe. 
 
 § 174. Y. The Idg.j/ (initial) is the E.y (consonant); 
 it appears in Pers. as/ 
 
 Fers. jugh (423), a yoke for oxen; L. iug-um) Y^.yoke. 
 
 Vqt?,. juwdn, juvdn (429), young; Av. and Skt. yuvan, 
 young; L. iuuen-is, young; allied to L. iuuen-cus, a heifer, 
 A. S. geong, iung, young ; 'E. young. 
 
 § 175. I add a few words that begin with a vowel. 
 
 Pers. am (107), I am (Richardson); Av. ah-mi; Skt. as-mi 
 
§ 173 PERSIAN COGNATES 143 
 
 (for *es-mt), from the root *«?j, to be, with the suffix -mz 
 representing the first personal pronoun; E. am. So also 
 Pers. /lasf, (he) is (with prefixed h); Skt. as-/t; L. es/; E. is. 
 
 Pers. hush (mi), understanding, intellect, the mind; the 
 h appears to be unoriginal; from Av. uh' (= ushi), lit. 'the 
 two ears', hence, intelligence, understanding. If so, the 
 Av. uh' must be allied to Lith. ausis, the ear, Goth, auso, 
 A. S. eare, E. ear. 
 
 Fers. hash/ (log ^), eight (with prefixed h) ; Av. aha (ashta\ 
 eight; '^'k.t. ashtaw, h.odo; A.S. eah/a; Y.. eight. 
 
 Pers. aranj^i^), the elbow ; Skt. aratnt-, elbow ; Gk. coAeV?;, 
 L. ulna, A. S. eln, lit. * ell ', but orig. ' arm ' ; whence A. S. 
 eln-boga, ' bend of the arm,' the elbow. Cf. E. ell, elbow. 
 
 Pers. htzam (1117), timber, firewood (with prefixed h)\ 
 Av. aes-ma-, firewood ; Skt. ed-has, fuel, from idh, to kindle 
 (whence also idh-mas, fuel); A.S. ad, a funeral pile, ds-t, 
 a burning, whence E. oast-house, a kiln. 
 
 Pers. bar (191), above, upon; Av. upairi', Skt. upari, 
 above ; A. S. ofer ; E. over. 
 
 I have excluded from this survey of the relationship of 
 English to Persian all EngUsh words that are not native; 
 thus the Pers. pukh-tan, to cook, is cognate with the Skt. 
 pach, to cook, and the L. coquere; but the E. cook is not 
 a native word, being merely a loan-word from Latin. 
 
CHAPTER XIII 
 
 ENGLISH AND SANSKRIT 
 
 § 176. The discovery and study of Sanskrit have done 
 more for the science of comparative philology than anything 
 else. In fact, Sanskrit has rendered it possible to formulate 
 exact phonetic laws; and, what is equally important, to 
 explode such derivations, previously arrived at, as did not 
 wholly conform to all that an exact science demands. The 
 extreme antiquity of the Sanskrit forms, and the large number 
 of its symbols and sounds, proved, at the outset, to be some- 
 what misleading. It was not perceived at first that Sanskrit 
 was not the parent language of the rest, but only, at best, an 
 elder sister amongst them. It so happens that, instead of 
 employing all the five short vowels which many of the Indo- 
 germanic languages actually possess, Sanskrit has reduced 
 these five to three, viz. a, t, u. But it has now been shown 
 that this is a defect of the language, which has not only con- 
 fused e with 0, but has further confused both with a. A very 
 little reflection will show the true state of the case. When we 
 observe the elaborate fullness of the Sanskrit consonants, and 
 the great variety of forms which their use involves, we may 
 begin to suspect that all is not right with the vowels ; knowing, 
 as we do, that all languages are subject to change and decay, 
 so that strength in one direction is sure to imply weakness in 
 another. We see the exact counterpart to Sanskrit in Greek. 
 For the Greek vowels are so distinct and regular as to be 
 better preserved than those of any other language in the whole 
 group ; and we may expect, accordingly, that all is not right 
 
§176 SANSKRIT VOWELS 145 
 
 with its consonants. And we find, as a fact, that Greek has 
 lost the w and y, and constantly drops an s between two 
 vowels. There is only one course to be pursued, viz. to 
 combine all that these (and other languages) have preserved, 
 and thus to form an imaginary parent language which is 
 capable of representing the features of them all. This has 
 been actually done, to a high degree of accuracy. 
 
 § 177. To take a simple example. When we find, in 
 Latin, such a pair of words as ed-ere, to eat, and od-or, a 
 sweet smell, we can see at once that the true bases of these 
 words are ed- and od- respectively ; a result which leaves not 
 a shadow of a doubt that the identical imaginary roots ad, to 
 eat, and ad, to smell, as given in the third edition of Pick's 
 Vergleichendes Worterbuch (as far back as 1874), required 
 reconsideration. It is true that there is a Skt. root ad, to eat ; 
 but we must regard other languages, especially the L. ed-ere, 
 the Gk. eS-ety, and the A. S. et-an (with its regular shifting of 
 d to /). Whilst, as to the base od-, we may compare the 
 Gk. oi^iv, to smell, pt. t. oS-wS-a, oh-^i-q, scent, Svo-w8-j;y, evil 
 smelling. Compare also the Gk. /ieVos, strength, with Skt. 
 manas ; where the Greek form is the older one. So also the 
 Gk. ycvos, 'race,' tells us that the Skt.janas hasy^- for^^-. 
 
 § 178. The clearest proof of the fact that the Skt. a is 
 not always original, is afforded by the Skt. cha (also written 
 ca, with c = E. ch), the enclitic particle signifying ' and ', 
 which is identical with the L. -que, Gk. re, and is evidently 
 closely connected with the Skt. kas, ' who.' In the form cha 
 the original k has been 'palatalized', or has become ch, 
 which, according to the experience of other languages, can 
 only occur when a palatal vowel, such as e or i, follows ; just 
 as, in English, the A. S. ceowan (G. kauen) is now chew, and 
 the A. S. cin (G. Kinn) is now chin ; whereas the A. S. ic cann 
 is now / can, the A. S. cocc is now cock, and the A. S. cudu is 
 now cud. It is therefore clear that the Skt. cha was originally 
 "^che, with the same voivel as is found in Latin and Greek. 
 
146 ENGLISH AND SANSKRIT chap, xiii 
 
 In precisely the same way the SVx.janas, race, is for *jenas, 
 from *genas, *genos (Gk. yivos). The same change has taken 
 place everywhere throughout the language, and explains at 
 once such anomalous forms as the following, which are worth 
 notice : Skt. bhar, to bear (Gk. (pepeiv, lu./erre, A. S. heran) ; 
 Skt. as, to exist, be (Gk. eV-/it, I am, L. esse, to be) ; Skt. 
 jan, to beget (Gk. yfy-oy, race, L. gen-us) ; Skt. madhu, honey, 
 sweet drink (Gk. /ue^u, A. S. medu)\ Skt. madhyas, middle 
 (L. medi'us), &c. It is a curious fact that the short vowel e, 
 which does not appear in Sanskrit at all, occurs in many Idg. 
 roots, and is a favourite vowel in many languages. If, for 
 example, we compare the Skt. vas, to abide, to dwell, to 
 exist, with the A. S. wes-an, to be, we shall find that it is 
 the English word which has preserved the true form of the 
 Idg. root WES, to dwell ; whereas the Skt. tells us what was 
 the original sense of the word which is now used in such an 
 abstract sense as / was. Its primary meaning was simply 
 'I dwelt*. And I take this opportunity of remarking that 
 English is the only modern language which has preserved to 
 this day the true sound of the original Idg. W. Even the 
 Latin u (consonant) has become a z' in all the derived 
 Romance languages; and became so some 1,500 years ago. 
 Another primeval sound, that of Idg.j^, still occurs in English 
 in a few words, such as yoke and young. Neither W nor Y 
 is found in Greek; Sanskrit has the^^', but has turned every 
 w into V. 
 
 § 179. The comparison of English with Sanskrit is full 
 of interest, for the reason that Sanskrit, with its vast vocabu- 
 lary and its highly intelligible forms, throws a full flood 
 of light upon a large number of English roots and words. 
 But it will now be understood that the debt is not all on 
 the one side, and that a second source of interest arises from 
 the fact that English can often make the Sanskrit forms a 
 good deal clearer than they might otherwise be. 
 
 The results that may be gathered from comparing these 
 
§179 SANSKRIT SYMBOLS 147 
 
 languages are so many that I can only here point out some 
 of the chief points of similarity or of contact. For this pur- 
 pose I chiefly use Uhlenbeck's Etymologise hes Worterhuch der 
 Altindischen Sprache (Amsterdam, 1898-9); in conjunction 
 with Brugmann's Grundriss der verghichenden Grammatik 
 der Indogermanischen Sprachen (Strassburg, 1897). 
 
 § 180. I make a few preliminary remarks about the Skt. 
 symbols and sounds. 
 
 The Idg. vowels a, a, i, I, u, ft are the same in Skt. But 
 Idg. a, e, are all Skt. a. The Skt. e is always long, and 
 represents Idg. et, oi, ai. The Skt. is always long, and 
 represents Idg. eu, ou, au. The labials are Idg. and Skt. 
 /, />, bh ; where M is a <5 followed by an aspirate or explosive 
 sound : it answers etymologically to Gk. 0. Skt. also had 
 an aspirated/, written />^. 
 
 The dentals are Idg. and Skt. /, d, dh ; where dh is an 
 aspirated d; it answers etymologically to Gk. 6. Skt. also 
 had an aspirated /, written th. It further possessed cerebral 
 dentals, written /, d^ dh, also ih ; these sounds usually 
 arise, respectively, from Idg. //, Id (or zd, z, g), Idh (or 
 zdh), or from Ith. We also find / for / after an sh (also 
 written s). 
 
 As to gutturals, it is now admitted that the original Idg. 
 language had three distinct sets of them, which have been 
 called, respectively, the palatal gutturals, the middle gutturals, 
 and the velar gutturals. In Skt., these three sets were reduced 
 to two, by the coincidence of the two latter sets ; so that we 
 need only consider the palatal gutturals as distinct from the 
 velar gutturals. The palatal gutturals are the Idg. k^ g, gh, 
 represented in Skt. by ^r, /, h. Here f is a symbol for the 
 palatalized k when it takes the sound o{ sh\ they is the E.y 
 in judge. There is also a Skt. kh, or aspirated k ; Gk. x- 
 The Idg. velar gutturals ^, g{w), g{w)h are represented in 
 Skt. by k or ch, g otj\ and gh or /i. Here ck (also written c) 
 = E. c/i in church) it arose from having been originally 
 
 L 2 
 
148 ENGLISH AND SANSKRIT chap, xiii 
 
 followed by one of the palatal vowels {e, i). There is also 
 a symbol written chh (or ch\ which seems to have sometimes 
 arisen from Idg. skh or sk; thus chhinad-mt, I cut off, is 
 related to Gk. o-xtT«^, L. scindo, and Skt. chhdyd to Gk. (tkicl. 
 
 Both Idg. r and Idg. / may become r (initially) in Skt. 
 The Skt. nasal n is denoted by a different symbol according 
 to the sound that follows it. Beside the usual dental n, we 
 find the cerebral (or lingual) n, the use of which is due to the 
 influence of an r or r or of sh ij) occurring in its neighbour- 
 hood, or else arises from Idg. In. Note also the w, occurring 
 before k oy g] and the n, occurring before ch or/ 
 
 Skt. also has sonant liquids, written r^ I, meaning r and / 
 sounded alone, without the accompaniment of an apparent 
 vowel. The Skt. r represents both Idg. r and Idg. /, both 
 sonant liquids. 
 
 § 181. The usual arrangement of the Skt. alphabet is as 
 follows. The letters follow a strict order, viz. (i) vowels, 
 sonants, long vowels and diphthongs; (2) gutturals; (3) 
 palatals; (4) cerebrals or linguals ; (5) dentals; (6) labials; 
 (7) semi-vowels; (8) sibilants and aspirate, (i) a, a, i, J, «, 
 «j .^ f, h ^ (= ^)> ^h ( = 3), au; (2) /', k/i, g, gh, n; (3) 
 ch (or c), chh (or ch),j, jh, n ; (4) /, ih, d, dh^ n; (5) /, /h, d, 
 dh, n; (6) /, ph, h, bh, m; (7) y, r, I, v; (8) f, sh (or 
 s), s, h. 
 
 There is also a nasal symbol written as m ; as in amsas^ 
 the shoulder, Gk. w/xo?, Goth. ams. And a final aspirate, 
 h, called visarga, representing an original s or r. 
 
 For full particulars as to the history of the Skt. sounds and 
 symbols, see A Manual of Sanskrit Phonetics^ by Dr. C. C. 
 Uhlenbeck; London, 1898 (English edition). 
 
 § 182. Labials. The Idg. and Skt. labials />, b, bh corre- 
 spond (by Grimm's Law) to the E./J /, b respectively. 
 
 Examples follow, in the English word-order. 
 
 p\ E. yi Skt. pdg-as, a tie, tether, snare, noose, fetter 
 something that fastens), from a base ""pak ; Gk, Trao-aaXoy, 
 
§i8i SANSKRIT COGNATES 149 
 
 a peg ; a variant of the root (with final g) occurs in L. pang- 
 ere, to fasten, Gk. Trrj-y-wfii, I fasten; nrjy-os, firm, strong; 
 allied to Goth, /agrs, suitable, fit, fair ; A. S. fdeg-er, fit ; 
 Y..fair. 
 
 Further allied to 'L.pang-ere, to fasten (above), is the Goth. 
 fdhan (for */anhan\ to catch, of which the A. S. contracted 
 form is fon, to catch, to seize, pp. ge-fang-en ; whence the 
 A. S./ang, a seizing, and E./ang, a claw. 
 
 Skt. pal-ifas, grey ; Gk. n6k-i6s, grey ; L. pal/zdus, pale ; 
 Lith. pa/was, pale yellow, fallow (in colour); G./a/d; A. S. 
 /eaio, O. Merc. /alu^ pale red, yellowish ; Y.. fallow, as in the 
 phrase ' fallow deer '. 
 
 Skt. />«r-«j, beyond, away, afar; allied to E. far. 
 
 Skt. pr, to bring across, causal pdraya, to conduct across ; 
 Gk. TTopevofxai, I travel, A. S./aran, to go, to travel ; E./are. 
 Other related words 2.xe f erry.f or d^ frith. 
 
 ^\X. past-yd, a homestead ; past-yam, a stall ; QfO/Ca.fast-an^ 
 to keep, hold fast ; E.fast, adj., firm, secure. 
 
 Skt. pl-vas, adj., fat, phvan^ swelling, full, fat ; Gk. tti'-cbi/, 
 fat. From the related Idg. base ^pei- we have Icehfettr^ fat ; 
 and the A. S.fdett, orig. a pp. meaning ' fatted ' ; cf. E.fat. 
 
 Skt. pttr, father ; L. pater ; E. father. 
 
 Skt. pahh-may eyelashes ; paksh-malas, long-haired ; A. S. 
 feax, hair ; E.fax, as in Fair-fax, i. e. 'fair hair.' 
 
 Skt. pattram, pair am, wing, feather {ixom pat, to fly) ; A. S. 
 feder, wing, feather; E. feather. 
 
 Skt. pankas, mud ; O. Pruss. pannean, morass ; Goth./Jzw/*, 
 mud ; A. S.fenn ; E.fen. 
 
 Skt. par nam, a feather, a (feathery) leaf; E.fern. 
 
 Skt. pad, to fall ; also, to go to ; led. f eta, to step, to find 
 one's way ; A. S.fetian, to bring, to fetch ; also found in the 
 form feccan, E. fetch. Allied to Skt. pad-am, a step, stride, 
 and to E.foot. 
 
 Skt. pif-unas, adj., backbiting, slanderous, treacherous; A.S. 
 Jic-ol, deceitful ; E. fickle. 
 
I50 ENGLISH AND SANSKRIT chap, xiii 
 
 Skt piy a, to revile, to scoff; Goih.fijan, to hate, pres. pt. 
 Jijands, a hater; A. S./eond^ a hater, an enemy; 'E. Jiend {iht 
 enemy). 
 
 Skt. parkati, the wavy-leaved fig-tree, Ficus in/ecioria; 
 L. quercus, an oak ; Lombardicy^r^^a, ' aesculus ' ; lce\./ura, 
 a fir; A. ^./urh-wudu, a pine-tree, lit. 'firwood'; 'E.fir. 
 
 Skt. pu, to purify ; pdv-akas, pure, purifying, the purifier, 
 fire ; allied to Gk. nvp, fire ; L. purus^ pure ; A. S. fyr ; 
 E. fire. 
 
 Skt. pancha, five ; Gk. TreVe ; Lith. penkt ; Goth, fimf; 
 A.S./i/; E.five. 
 
 Skt. prthuSj broad, wide ; Gk. TrXarus, broad ; cf. Swed. 
 flundra, a flounder (whence O. F. flondre, A. F. floundre, 
 E. flou7ider). With a different final dental (viz. Idg. d), we 
 find Icel. flat-r, flat, whence E. flat. 
 
 Skt piu, to float, to swim; pluh's, a flood; Gk. ttXcotos, 
 floating, navigable ; Goih.flddus,^n\er; A.S.flod; Y.. flood. 
 Allied to A. S.flowaii, to flow. And perhaps further allied to 
 A. S.flot-ian^ to float ; E. float) and to A. S.fleot-an, to float ; 
 fleet, a ship, also, a collection of ships, E. fleet. 
 
 Skt. phenas (perhaps for ^spenas), foam. The e would 
 regularly result from Idg. oi\ allied to L. spunia (for *spoima), 
 foam; cf.O.Pruss. spoayno, foam; and, as Idg. w' gives Goth, fz/, 
 A. S. a, we have the same vowel-sound in A. S./dni, whence 
 E./oam, with loss of initial s. 
 
 Skt. puias, a fold ; cf. Skt. patt, Hindi patti, a band, a 
 bandage, E. puttee; the / results from //, so that the orig. 
 form was ^pultas', allied to Gk. -TrXao-ios in di-TrXao-ios (for 
 *5t-7rXar-^'os), twofold, Russ. polotno, linen cloth; Goth. 
 falth-an^ to fold; E./old. 
 
 Skt. pddas, a foot ; padam, a footstep ; E./oot. 
 
 Skt. paras, forward, in front ; /wr^, formerly ; /r«, adv., 
 before, Gk. np6 ; allied to E. fore, for. 
 
 ^X.purvas, preceding, former ; allied to E. former, and to 
 %]k\.. paras (above). 
 
§ i83 SANSKRIT COGNATES 151 
 
 Skt. piiya, to become putrid; puyas, purulent matter; 
 lu.pus', h.^./U'l] 'E./oul. 
 
 ^ki.priyas^ dear, beloved ; Goih./reis, free (originally dear) ; 
 A. S. /reo ; l^./ree. 
 
 Skt. prushvd, ice ; plush, to burn ; plushtas, burnt, also 
 frozen ; ploshaSy a burning ; L. prima (for *prus-na\ a glow- 
 ing coal ; prulna (for "^prusulna), hoar-frost ; A. ^.freos-an, 
 to freeze, ybr J-/, frost; 'E./reeze,/ros-t 
 
 Skt.//', to fill; Y>^. pumas, filled, full; U.\h.pilnas, full; Teut. 
 type *fulnoz, full, whence A. '^.full (with // for ln)\ 'E./ull. 
 
 Skt. prataram, adv., further; 'E. further. 
 
 § 183. b: E. /. Owing to the scarcity of initial b in 
 Indo-germanic, there are no examples of this change from 
 Skt. 3 to E. /> initially. 
 
 There are a few examples in which the Skt.<5 appears as E. b, 
 owing to the words in which they occur being purely imita- 
 tive; so that, in fact, this coincidence is practically accidental. 
 
 Uhlenbeck notices the Skt. bababd, a sound meant to denote 
 the crackling of things burning, barbaras, stammering, and 
 balbaldkdras^ a stammer; of similar formation to L. babulus, 
 a foolish person, balbus, a stammerer, Gk. ^ap^apos, stammer- 
 ing, a barbarian ; E. babbie, babbler. Skt. budbudas^ a bubble ; 
 cf. E. bubble. Skt. bambhardlis, a fly, Gk. jSo/xiSos, a humming ; 
 E. bumble-bee. 
 
 The change from Idg. b to E./ may be exemplified by 
 comparing Lith. bala, a swamp, with E. pool) and L. labium, 
 a lip, with E. lip. 
 
 In the case of most of the words beginning with b in Skt., 
 the b stands for the Idg. bh. Thus the Idg. root *bhendh, to 
 bind, is represented in Skt. by bandh, in order to avoid the 
 occurrence of two aspirated consonants {bh and dh) in the 
 same syllable. 
 
 § 184. bh : Skt. bh, b;E.b. Skt. bhan, to speak, declare ; 
 A. S. ge-bann, a proclamation ; E. ban, a proclamation, a sum- 
 mons. 
 
152 ENGLISH AND SANSKRIT chap, xiii 
 
 Skt. hrhant-^ strong, large, from Skt. root harh, causal 
 brmhaya, to augment; Idg. root *bhergh^ whence also G. 
 bergj a mountain, A. S. heorh^ a mountain, hill, mound, 
 funeral mound ; E. barrow, a funeral mound. 
 
 Skt. bhu, to become, to be ; L,.fu-i, I was ; A. S. beon, to 
 be ; E. be. 
 
 Skt. bhallas (for ^bherlas), a bear ; A. S. bera, a bear ; 
 E. bear, sb. 
 
 Skt. bhr, to bear ; bhar-as^ a bearing, burden ; A. S. ber-an ; 
 E. bear, vb. 
 
 Skt. babhrus, reddish brown; as sb., a kind of large 
 ichneumon; Lith. ^^^r^^j, a beaver; 1.. fiber; k.^. beofor \ 
 E. beaver. Idg. type *bhe-bhrus, reduplicated derivative 
 of *bhru-, brown, tawny. Cf. A. S. bru-n, brown ; E. 
 brown. 
 
 Skt. bhdras, a burden, a load ; A. S. bxr, a bier ; E. bier. 
 
 Skt. bandh, to bind ; Idg. root *bhendh ; E. bind. 
 
 Skt. bhurjas, a kind of birch ; E. birch. 
 
 Skt. bhrtis, support, maintenance, nourishment; closely 
 allied to E. birth. 
 
 Skt. bhid, to break, pierce, divide ; L. findere, to cleave ; 
 A. S. bitan ; E. bite. 
 
 Skt. bhud, to awake, to be aware of; bodhaya, to arouse, 
 admonish, make known; Gk. TrcvOofiai (for *(f)€v6oixai\ I en- 
 quire ; A. S. beodan, to command, bodian, to announce ; 
 E. bode, fore-bode, bid (to command). 
 
 Skt. bandhas, a fastening ; bandhakas, a rope ; Icel. band, 
 a bond ; E. bond, band. 
 
 Skt. budhnas, the bottom, depth ; A. S. botm ; E. bottom. 
 
 Skt. bdhus, the arm ; Gk. tvtjxvs (for *<l>rixvs), the fore-arm ; 
 A. S. bog, boh, arm, hence arm of a tree, E. bough. Idg. type 
 ^bhdghus. 
 
 Skt. bhuj, to bend ; pp. bhug-nas, bent ; A. S. bUg-an, to 
 bend, to bow ; E. bow, vb. Also A. S. bog-a, a bow ; E. 
 bow. 
 
§ i85 SANSKRIT COGNATES 153 
 
 Skt. bhrdj, to shine, to glitter; allied to Goth, bairht-s, 
 shining; A. S. beorht; E. bright. 
 
 Skt. bhrstis, a point ; sahasra-bhrsti-, thousand-pointed ; 
 allied to A. S. byrst^ a bristle ; E. bristle. 
 
 Skt. bhrdtd (base bhrdtr), brother ; E. brother. 
 
 Skt. bhrus, brow ; A. S. bru ; E. brow. 
 
 § 185. Dentals. The Idg. /, d, dh answer, respectively, 
 to E. th, t, d. 
 
 t: E. th. Skt. tad, that; E. that. Cf. Gk. r6] L. -tud in 
 is-tud. 
 
 Skt. toyam, water (base *tau) ; Icel. pey-ja, to thaw (become 
 as water), pey-r^ a thaw ; A. S. pawian, to melt ; E. thaw. 
 
 Skt. talam, a plane surface ; L. /^//«j, the earth ; A. S. ptlle, 
 a slip of wood, thin board, flooring ; E. thill, the shaft of 
 a cart. 
 
 Skt. tanus, thin; L. tenu-is; A. ^.pynne; E. Mm. 
 
 Skt. trtiyas, third ; L. tertius ; E. //^/r</. 
 
 Skt. /rji^, to be thirsty, trshnd, thirst ; A. S. />/rj/, thirst ; 
 E. thirst. 
 
 Skt. /«/, to lift, weigh, ponder; tula, a balance, scale, 
 equality with ; L. tollere, to lift ; tolerdre, to support, put up 
 with ; A. ^.polian, to endure, suffer ; E. dial, thole, to endure. 
 
 Skt. tri, three, nom. pi. m. trayas ; L. tres ; E. three. 
 
 Skt. /«, to be strong; Gk. tv-Xt), a swelling; L. tu-m-ere, 
 to swell; A.S.pH-ma, thumb (thick finger); E. thumb. 
 
 Skt. tan, to roar, resound ; tanyatus, thunder ; A. S. pun-ian, 
 to rattle ; pun-or, thunder ; E. thunder. 
 
 Skt. tarkus, a spindle ; L. torquere, to twist; A. ^.pweorh, 
 perverse ; Icel. pvert, neuter of pverr, perverse, transverse ; 
 E. a-thwart, thwart. 
 
 § 186. Skt. d', E. /. Skt. dam (causal damaya), to be 
 tame, to tame ; damas, a taming ; L. dom-dre, to tame ; A. S. 
 tarn, tame ; E. tame. 
 
 Skt. darvd, a kind of millet-grass ; Du. tarwe, wheat ; Mid. 
 E. tare-vetch, darnel-vetch ; E. tares. 
 
154 ENGLISH AND SANSKRIT chap.xiii 
 
 Skt. dar-anam, a splitting, ddr-anas, adj., splitting, bursting ; 
 ddr-aya, to tear asunder ; A. S. ter-an, to tear ; E. tear, vb. 
 
 Skt. daga ; L. decern \ E. ten. 
 
 Skt. damas, a house ; L. dofuus, a house ; Gk. dcfx-eiv, to 
 build ; Goth, tim-r-jan, to build ; A. S. timber, building 
 material ; E. timber. 
 
 Skt. dig, to show ; Gk. deU-wixL, I show ; Idg. root *deik ; 
 allied to Idg. root *deig, whence E. tok-en. 
 
 Skt. damg, to bite, danigas, a bite; Gk. haK-vnv, to bite; 
 A. S. tange, ' biter ' or ' nipper ', a pair of tongs ; E. tongs. 
 
 Skt. dantas, a tooth; L. dent-em, ace; Goth, tunthus, a 
 tooth (with the vowel of the weak grade) ; Du. tand, a tooth ; 
 A. S. tod (for ""tond), a tooth ; E. tooth. 
 
 Skt. ddru, wood ; a species of pine ; dru-, wood ; allied to 
 Gk. hpv-s, oak ; W. derw, oak ; A. S. treo ; E. tree. 
 
 Skt. ^/z;«6", divine, a deity ; A. S. Tiw, the god of war ; 
 whence E. Tuesday, 
 
 Skt. drbh, to make into tufts : darbhas, a tuft of grass ; 
 A. S. turf', E. turf. 
 
 Skt. dvau, two; Goth, twai', A. S. /z<;a; E. two. 
 
 § 187. Skt. d^^, d', E. </. The initial Skt. dh becomes d 
 when another aspirated letter terminates the syllable. 
 
 Skt. dhrsh, to dare; dhrshtas, bold; Gk. Oapa-eiv, to be 
 bold ; Goth, ga-dars, I dare, ga-daursta, I durst ; A. S. ic 
 dearr, I dare, pt. t. dors-te ; E. dare, durst. 
 
 Skt. duhitd (for '^dhughita), daughter ; Gk. OvydTrjp ; A. S. 
 dohtor ; E. daughter. 
 
 Skt. ^«/^ (for '^dhagJi), to burn, ddhas, burning, heat; allied 
 to Lith. dagas, hot time, autunin ; A. S. ddeg, day (the bright 
 time) ; E. day. 
 
 Skt. dhav, to run ; dhdv, to run, to flow ; Gk. 6Uiv, to run, 
 fut. Oevaofxai ; A. S. deaw, dew ; E. ^/^ze;. 
 
 Skt. dhunis, rushing, roaring ; dhvan, to roar, to resound ; 
 dhvanis, a noise, din ; A. S. dyne, a din ; E. din. 
 
 Skt. dhd, to place ; Gk. n-Orj-fii, I put ; A. S. don, to put, 
 
§ 187 SANSKRIT COGNATES 155 
 
 to do ; E. do. Hence Skt. dhdnia, a fixed abode, also, usage, 
 law, order ; A. S. dom, a judgement ; E. doom. 
 
 Skt. dvdr, f. a door (for *dhvdr ; see Uhlenbeck) ; Gk. Ovpa^ 
 a door; A. S. duru, f., dor, n. ; E. door. 
 
 Skt. dehas, a mass (from Idg. root ""dheigh, to form) ; Goth. 
 dai'gs, dough, from detgan, to knead ; A. S. ddh, dough (gen. 
 ddg-es) ; E. dough. 
 
 Skt. druhya, to seek to injure, druh-, nom. dhruk, an 
 injurer, a fiend (Idg. root ^dhreugh), drohas, injury, treachery, 
 perfidy ; allied to Icel. draugr^ a ghost, G. trugbild, a phantom, 
 deceitful, vision, triigen, to deceive; also to Icel. draumr, a 
 dream; O. Friesic drdm, 21. dream, bi-driaga, to deceive; 
 N. Friesic droin, a dream, dreefiie, to dream ; a distinct word 
 from A. S. dream, joy. The E. dream seems to be Friesic. 
 
 Skt. dhran, to resound (Uhl.) ; allied to Old Saxon drdn, 
 a drone, E. drone. 
 
 Skt. dhvr, dhvara, to bend, destroy (Brugmann says, * to 
 destroy deceitfully '), dhur-tas, pp. fraudulent ; allied to Goth. 
 dwals, foolish, A. S. dol, foolish, E. dull. Further allied to 
 E. dwell. 
 
 Skt. dhvams, to fall to pieces, perish, pp. dhvastas ; dhvasHs, 
 disappearance (lit. a perishing) ; O. H. G. tunst, a storm, 
 vapour; A. S. dust, prov. E. doust, dowsl] E. dust (with 
 shortened u). 
 
 § 188. Gutturals. The palatal gutturals are the Idg. k, 
 g, gk ; represented in Skt. by (, J, h ; and in English by 
 h, k {c, ch), g. 
 
 k: Skt. f ; E. h. Skt. gamyd, a stick, peg; Gk. Kafxa^, 
 a pole, rod ; M. E. hame ; E. hames, the bent sticks round 
 a horse-collar. 
 
 Skt. gahk, to hesitate ; L. cunctdrt, to delay ; E. hang. 
 
 Skt. gai^as (for '^gasas), a hare ; G. hase ; A. S. hara ; E. 
 hare, 
 
 Skt. girsham, the head, allied to giras, the head ; L. cernuus 
 (for *cersnuos), with the head forward, allied to cerebrum, 
 
156 ENGLISH AND SANSKRIT chap, xiii 
 
 brain; Late A. S. hdernes, pi. (with rn for rzn), the brains; 
 prov. E. harns, the brains. Cf. Gk. Kopa-ai, the temples. 
 
 Skt. graddhd, confidence, lit. 'putting one's heart in.' 
 The prefix grad- (Idg. *kred-) is allied by gradation to L. 
 cord-, as in cord-is, gen. of cor, heart ; and to Gk. Kap8ia, A. S. 
 heorte, E. heart. 
 
 Skt. <;aranas, protecting; garanam, a shelter, a hut (base 
 (;ar-, for '^ker-, *M-); Gk. KoKia, a hut ; L. cella, a cell; A. S. 
 hel-an, to cover, to hide ; A. S. hel (gen. heUe\ Goth, halja, 
 hell (cell, prison) ; E. hell. 
 
 Skt. garma, a shelter, protection ; A. S. helm, a protection 
 for the head ; E. helm, helmet, allied to hell (above). 
 
 Skt. gi, to lie, rest; gevas, dear, kind, friendly; L. cluis, a 
 citizen ; A. S. hiwan, domestics ; E. hind, a peasant. 
 
 Skt. gdnas, a hone; A. S. hdn', E. hone. Cf. L. cos, a 
 whetstone. 
 
 Skt. gaphas, a hoof ; A. S. hof-, E. hoof. 
 
 Skt. grhgam, a horn ; Gk. Kopvfi^os, highest point, top ; L. 
 cornu, horn ; A. S. horn ; E. horn. Further allied to Gk. 
 K€p-as, horn ; A. S. heor-ot, a hart ; E. hart. Cf. L. cer-uus. 
 
 Skt. gvd (gen. gunas), a hound ; Gk. Kva>v (gen. kui/os) ; A. S. 
 htin-d ; E. hound. 
 
 Skt. gatam, a hundred; Pers. .y^d/; Gk. e-Kuroi/; L. centum ; 
 E. hund-red (where -r^^ means ' by computation '). 
 
 Here also belongs ^\X.grath, to be \<:iO^^,grathaya,X.o loosen ; 
 A. S. hreddan, to rid, set free ; E. rid. 
 
 Skt. gvit-ras, white, gvet-as, white ; from Idg. root '^kweit. Skt. 
 gvind, to be white ; A. S. hwit, white ; E. white ; root "^kweid. 
 
 § 189. g : Skt. y ; E. k {c, ch). Skt. J = E.j in judge. 
 
 Skt. Jan, to beget, generate ; janas, neut., a race ; Gk. 
 y€uos ; L. genus ; E. kin. 
 
 Skt. j'dnu, the knee ; Gk. yow, L. ^^«?/ ; allied to A. S. cneo ; 
 E. knee. 
 
 Skt. jnd, to know; A. S. cndwan; E. ktioiv. 
 
 Skt. j'val, to blaze; perhaps allied to A. S. col; E. coal. 
 
§i89 SANSKRIT COGNATES 157 
 
 Skt. jambhas, a tooth, jaw ; Gk. y6n<l)os, a pin, peg ; A. S. 
 camdt a comb, crest, ridge ; E. comd (row of teeth). 
 
 Skt. j'zrnas, worn out, pp. of j'r, to wear out, cause to 
 decay, make old. It is supposed that this is allied to L. 
 grdnum, grain, corn, as being that which is ' worn down ' by 
 grinding in a mill ; cf. E. cor7i. 
 
 Sometimes the A. S. c becomes M.E. ch, as follows: — 
 
 Ski.jambhy jabh, to snap at, seize with the mouth ; A. S. 
 ceafl, the jaw, pi. ceaflas, jaws, chaps, whence M.E. chavel, 
 chauly chol, later iovrnjoUe, the jowl; 'E,jo'wl,jole. 
 
 Ski. jatharam, the belly, the womb (for "^geltharam) ', Goth. 
 kilthei, the womb ; A. S. did, a child ; E. child. 
 
 Skt. jush, to relish ; L. gus-ldre, to taste ; Gk. ytvofjLai, I 
 taste ; A. S. ceosan, to choose ; E. choose. 
 
 In one instance the Skt. form begins with h (as if from Idg. 
 gh), where Gk. and L. have y, g. Skt. hanus, jaw ; Gk. yeVw, 
 chin ; L. genu, cheek ; Goth, ktnnus, cheek ; A. S. aw, chin ; 
 E. chin. See Brugmann, § 704. 
 
 § 190. gh ; Skt. h; E.g {j/). Skt. hamsas, a swan ; Gk. 
 xqVf a goose ; L. hanser, anser, a goose ; G. Gans ; A. S. gos ; 
 E. goose. 
 
 Skt. hedcis, anger (for *hezdas) ; allied to Icel. geis-a, to rage, 
 Goth, us-gais-jan, to terrify, scare ; A. S. gdst, a ghost ; E. 
 ghost (Brugmann, § 816, sect. 2). 
 
 A. S. initial ge becomes j^'(j/^) in modern English. 
 
 Skt. hird, a vein ; Gk. x^p^, a string of gut, a cord ; L. 
 haru-spex^ i.e. (probably) inspector of the entrails; Icel. 
 garnir, guts ; A. S. gearn, thread ; 'E..yarn. 
 
 Skt. hary-^ to desire; Gk. x^P^i joy, xa^P"", to rejoice; 
 Goth, -gairns, desirous of; A. S. georn, eager for; whence 
 Y.. yearn. 
 
 Skt. haris, yellow ; haritas, yellowish, green ; haritam, sb., 
 gold ; allied to Gk. xK6r], young verdure of trees, L. heluus, 
 light yellow, A. S. geolu, yellow ; 'E. yellow. Further allied to 
 Gk. x^'^nt gall, L.y^/, A. S. gealla, E. gall. 
 
158 ENGLISH AND SANSKRIT chap, xiii 
 
 Skt. hyas, yesterday, Gk. x^«, L. heri\ allied to L. hester- 
 nus, belonging to yesterday, and to A. S. geos/ra, yester-, 
 as in l^.y ester-day. 
 
 § 191. The Idg. q or k (w), g {w), g{w)h, considered as 
 velar gutturals, whether labialized or not, answer to Skt. k or 
 ch, g or j, gh or h. But a distinction is sometimes made in 
 English, as below. 
 
 q (not labialized) : Skt. k {ch) ; E. h. Skt. krpdnas, a sword, 
 from the Idg. root '^{s)qerp, to cut ; Lith. kerpu, I shear, L. 
 carp-ere, to gather ; allied to A. S. hderf-est, ' crop,' also 
 harvest, autumn ; E. harvest. 
 
 Skt. knchas, the female breast (from its swelling form) ; 
 Lith. kaukas, a swelling, kaiikaras, a hill ; Goth, hatihs, high; 
 A. S. heah', E. high. 
 
 Skt. fiupas, a pit, a hole, well ; allied to L. cupa, a tub 
 (whence L. cuputa, a small cask, small vault, Ital. cupota, E. 
 cupota) ; A. S. hyf, a hive for bees ; E. hive. 
 
 Skt. Jiutam (for *kuitam), a horn, forehead, peak, top ; allied 
 to L. cetsuSy high? cutmen, a peak, top ; A. S. hoim^ billow, sea, 
 islet, hyll^ a hill ; E. holm, islet ; hill, 
 
 Skt. kanakam, gold ; allied to Icel. hunang, honey ; A. S. 
 hunig ; E. honey. 
 
 Skt. ketus, a light, a token of recognition, shape, form ; 
 allied to Goth, haidus, a way, manner ; A. S. had, state, 
 quality ; E. -hood, as a suffix in ma7i-hood, &c. 
 
 Skt. katas (for ^kari-as, from the Idg. root *qert^ to plait), 
 a (woven or plaited) mat; allied to Gk. Kaprako^, a basket, 
 A. S. hyrpil, hyrdel, a hurdle ; E. hurdle. 
 
 Here also belong the following English words, which have 
 lost an initial h. 
 
 Skt. kravis, raw flesh, krttras, wounded, sore ; allied to L. 
 crii-dus, raw ; A. S. hreaw, raw ; E. raw. 
 
 Skt. krp, form, appearance; L. corpus, form, body; A. S. 
 -hrif, the belly (body), in the compound mid-hrif; E. mid- 
 riff; where mid means ' in the middle '. 
 
§ I9T SANSKRIT COGNATES 
 
 159 
 
 § 192. In some cases the labialization is clearly shown 
 in English, as the English word begins with wh (A. S. hw) 
 instead of with h. 
 
 Skt. kurp-aras, the elbow, may be allied to Gk. Kapir-os, the 
 wrist, from a root signifying ' to turn ', or * to turn round ', 
 preserved in Goth, hwai'rb-an, Teut. "^hwer/-, to turn; here 
 belongs E. wharfs with a wide range of meanings ; also E. 
 whir-l (for ^whi'rvl). 
 
 Skt. chakras, chakram, a wheel ; Gk. kvkKos^ a wheel ; A. S. 
 hweowol^ hweogol, contracted form hweol, a wheel ; E. wheel. 
 These are reduplicated forms, from Idg. "" q{w)e-q{w)lS- -, 
 without the reduplication, we find O. Slavonic kolo, a wheel, 
 Icel. hvel. 
 
 Skt. chiras, lasting long ; allied to L. qui-es, rest, and to 
 Goth, hwei-la^ a time ; A. S. hwil, sb. a pause, a while ; E. 
 while. 
 
 Skt. kas, who ; allied to Goth, hwas^ who, A. S. hwa, E. 
 who ; compare also Skt. kar-ht, when, with A. S. hwder, E. 
 where, 
 
 § 193. g {w) : Skt. g or J ; E. c (without labialization). 
 Uhlenbeck quotes the imitative Skt. verbs gr-nd-h] he sings, 
 SLudjar-a/e, it rustles, resounds, with which we may connect the 
 Goth, ^ara, A. S. cearu, sorrow, grief, and E. care. A similar 
 root appears in the Skt. garj, to roar, to growl (likewise 
 imitative), which may be compared with the A. S. crac-ian^ 
 E. crack. 
 
 Skt. glauSy a lump ; closely allied to A. S. cleo-wen^ cly-wen, 
 a clew or ball of thread ; E. clew. 
 
 § 194. gw : Skt. g] E. r, qu (with labialization). In the 
 following words, English does not clearly show the labial 
 initial. 
 
 ^kX.garbhas, womb, embryo, offspring ; Goth, kalbo, a calf; 
 O.Merc, calf; E. calf. Allied to the Gk. SeX^uy, womb; 
 which shows the effect of labialization (Brugmann). 
 
 Skt. gam^ to go, to move ; Gk. I3aiveiv (for *^dv-j'€iv) ; L. 
 
i6o ENGLISH AND SANSKRIT chap.xiii 
 
 uen-tre (for *guen-ire); Goth, kwm-an, to come; E. come. 
 (The Gk., L., and Goth, forms all show labialization.) 
 
 Skt. gaus, m., a bull ; Gk. ^ovs, an ox ; L. dos ; Irish do ; 
 A. S. cu ; E. cow. 
 
 In the following forms, the labial initial is shown by the 
 E. gu. 
 
 Skt. gnd, a divine female, goddess ; Gk. ywr], woman 
 (Boeotian ^ava, with labialization) ; Irish den (the same) ; Goth. 
 kwino, A. S. cwene, E. quean, (The E. queen is allied, with 
 a different gradation.) 
 
 Skt. grdvd, a stone used for pressing out Soma-juice ; 
 allied to Lith. g'lrjios, pi., the stones in a handmill ; Goth. 
 kwairnus ; A. S. cweorn, a handmill ; E. quern. 
 
 Skt. yj?:;, to live; allied to Gk. /3ioy, life, L. uiuus, living, 
 and A. S. cwic^ living ; E. quick, 
 
 §195. g[w)h', Skt.y; E. ^. Skt. y^w^^f^, the lower part 
 of the leg ; Icel. ganga, to go, to gang ; E. gang, 
 
 gwh : Skt. gh, h; E. ^. There does not seem to be any 
 clear example. But it is often assumed that the Idg. gwh 
 occurs as initial w in the E. word warm. The forms are : 
 Skt. gharmas^ sb., heat; Gk. OepixSs, warm; Lat. formus, 
 warm; O. Pruss. gorme,\i^2X\ O.Slavonic gor-eti, to burn; 
 said to be allied to A. S. wearm, warm, Ice), varmr, Du. and 
 G. warm ; E. warm. 
 
 The Idg. gwh occurs at the end of a syllable in the follow- 
 ing : Skt. lagh-us, swift, nimble, light (not heavy), Gk. eXaxvs, 
 small, light, L. leu-t's, light ; A. S. leoh/ (for *Ith-^) ; further 
 allied to Lith. kngwas, light, and to E. lung. It also occurs 
 in the Gk. vicfi-a, accus., snow, L. m'u-em, accus., Juiih, sneg-as, 
 A. S. sndw, E. snoiv ; but the cognate word does not appear 
 in Sanskrit. 
 
 § 196. The Skt. and E. liquids, viz. /, m, n, r, correspond 
 initially, and in other positions. But in some cases, Skt. has 
 r for the English /. 
 
 /: Skt. lokas, free space; L. iiicus, a grove; A. S. leah; E. /ea. 
 
§195 SANSKRIT COGNATES i6i 
 
 Skt. lubh, to desire, long for, allied to Goth, liuh-s, A. S. 
 leof, dear ; E. lief. Also to A. S. lufu, love ; E. love, 
 
 Skt. laghus, active, light (of weight) ; Gk. iXaxvs, small ; 
 Goth, leihts, light (of weight); A. S. leoht ; E. light. 
 
 Skt. lihgam^ a mark, token, sign ; allied to Lith. lygus, 
 like, and to A. S. lie, form, shape, body, whence ge-Hcj adj., 
 of similar shape, like ; E. like. Of. G. g-leich. 
 
 Skt. lal (of imitative origin), to sport ; lul^ to move to and 
 fro ; Mas, sb., a moving to and fro. A similar initiative root 
 occurs in the L. lalldre ; and in E. lull, lil-i. 
 
 Skt. lash^ to desire, long for ; allied to Goth, lustus, A. S. 
 lust, pleasure ; E. lust, 
 
 A few English words, as listen, loud, &c., have lost initial h, 
 corresponding to the Skt. ^ (§ i8o) from the Idg. palatal k. 
 
 Skt. (^ru, to hear, listen to ; grutas, heard, known, famous, 
 allied to A. S. hlicd^ loud ; E. loud. Further allied to E. listen, 
 A. S. hlysi-an, to listen, from A. S. hlysi, sb., hearing ; cf W. 
 dust, the ear, Skt. grusiis, willing service (obedience). In this 
 case we have Skt. r = E. /. 
 
 Skt. graya, gr, to lean upon ; allied to Gk. kKIv-hv, to cause 
 to lean, L. in-cUndre, to incline, A. S. hl^nan, to cause to lean, 
 hlinian, to lean over. Here we again have Skt. r = E. /. 
 The Idg. root is *lilei, whence also are A. S. hli-d, E. lid (of 
 a box) ; A. S. hld-w, hldew, a slope, a hill, mound ; E. low, 
 a hill (in place-names). See further under r, § 199. 
 
 § 197. Skt. m, E. m. Skt. manus, a man, mankind; E. 
 man. 
 
 Skt. manyd, the neck ; cf A. S. manu, the hair on a horse's 
 neck ; E. mane. 
 
 Skt. majjd, marrow of bones; Avestic mazga- (the same), 
 which has an older form of the base (Idg. type *mazgho-) ; 
 Russ. mozg ; O. Mercian merg ; E. marrow. 
 
 Skt. medas (for ""mazdas), sb., fat ; A. S. mdest, mast, fruit 
 of beech-trees, for feeding pigs ; E. mast. Cf. G. Mast, mast ; 
 mdsten, to fatten. 
 
 mi* M 
 
i62 ENGLISH AND SANSKRIT chap, xiii 
 
 Skt. viah-as, greatness ; viahd, great ; allied to Gk. ij^vx^^^, 
 means, Goth, mag-an, to be able ; E. may, mighty vb. ; 
 might, sb. 
 
 Skt. mam, ace, me ; E. me, 
 
 Skt. madhu, honey, hence, mead ; Gk. ^xedv ; E. mead. 
 
 Skt. mJdham, a reward (for *mizdham)', Gk. fiiados, pay ; 
 A. S. meord, also med, reward ; E. ?need. 
 
 Skt. mrdus, soft ; O. Slav, mladu, soft ; allied to Gk. 
 fjL€\d-€iv, to melt ; A. S. 7neltan ; E. melt. 
 
 Skt. madhyas, middle ; L. medius ; Goth, midjis ; A. S. 
 midd) E. w?*/, middle. 
 
 Skt. wr^^, to grow weary ; probably allied to Gk. fiaXBaKos, 
 soft, mild ; and to A. S. milde, mild ; E. mild. 
 
 Skt. mrj, to wipe, stroke, clean out; L. mulg-ere, to milk; 
 A. S, melc-an, to milk ; E. milk. 
 
 Skt. matis, thought, purpose ; Lv menti-, declensional stem 
 of mens, mind ; A. S.ge-mj/nd, remembrance, memory ; E. mind. 
 
 Skt. mas, moon, mdsas, month ; allied to Goth, mena, moon, 
 menoth, month ; E. moon, month. 
 
 Skt. maid, mother; L. mater', E. mother. 
 
 Skt. miishas, a rat, a mouse ; L. mus ; A. S. mUs ; E. mouse. 
 
 Skt. mr, to die, mrta-, dead ; L. mor-l, to die ; mort-, decl. 
 stem of mors, death; A. S. mordor, murder; E. murther. 
 (The form murder is from the Anglo-French murdre, which 
 may have been taken from the A. S. form.) 
 
 § 198. Skt. n) E. «. Skt. nakham^ a nail ; A. S. ndegel; 
 E. nail. 
 
 Skt. nagnas, naked ; allied to Goth, nakwoths, A. S. nacod ; 
 E. naked. 
 
 Skt. ndma, name ; A. S. nama ; E. name. 
 
 Skt. nabhyam, the nave of a wheel, the navel ; ndbhis, nave, 
 navel ; A. S. nafu, nave, nafela, navel ; E. ;^^^'^, waz;^/. 
 
 Skt. mdas (for '^nizdas, ^ni-sd-as), a resting-place, a nest ; 
 lit. ' place to sit down in ', from ni, down, and sad, to sit; L. 
 mdus (for *nizdus)', A. S. «^5"/; E. ^z^j-/. 
 
§ 198 SANSKRIT COGNATES 163 
 
 Skt. nitardm^ adv., below; K.'^.m'der, downward, neodera, 
 lower ; E. nether. 
 
 Skt. navas, navyas, new; A. S. niwe\ E. new. 
 
 Skt. naktd, night; L. nociem, ace. of nox; O. Merc, ndeht] 
 A. S. nihi\ E. night. 
 
 Skt. nava, nine ; L. nouem ; A. S. «z^<?« ; E. nine. 
 
 Skt. ««^a (dual form), the nose ; also nas-, nose ; allied to 
 L. ndres, pi., ndsus, sing. ; and to A. S. nosu, E. nose. 
 
 Skt. nu, nH, now ; Goth, nu ; A. S. ;2^ ; E. now. 
 
 § 199. Skt. r .(/) ; E. r, I. Skt. r^^/, to feel spasms, 
 ropqya, to break off; later form lup, to break, spoil, rob ; L. 
 rump-ere (pp. rup-tus), to break asunder ; A. S. reofan, to 
 break, whence reaf, spoil, and reaf-ian, to rob ; E. reave, 
 especially in the comp. be-reave. 
 
 Skt. rudhiras, red ; Gk. ipvOpos, L. r^^^^r ; allied to Goth, 
 raud-s, A. S. read, E. r^^ (with shortened vowel). 
 ?. Skt. /^wj-, adj., straight, right, just ; allied to L. rectus, right, 
 A. S. riht, E. right. 
 
 Skt. rukshas, rough, dry ; cf. A. S. rUh, rough, E. rough. 
 
 Skt. r#/^>^a, a streak, a line, from Idg. root ^reikh, whence 
 also G. Reihe, a row, and A. S, rdw, r^w, a row, line, rank ; 
 E. row. (Teut. type *rai{g)wd, fem.) 
 
 In the following instances, English has initial /. 
 
 Skt. rokas, brightness, ruch, to shine ; from Idg. root ""leuk, 
 to shine, L. lUc-ere, to shine, Gk. XevK-op, white ; A. S. leoh-t, 
 light, brightness ; E. light. From the same root is (probably) 
 Skt. lok-as, a free or clear space, L. lUc-us (a clearing), a 
 glade ; Lith. lauk-as, an open field ; A. S. leah, a meadow, 
 E. lea. 
 
 Skt. /z*>^, to lick ; Gk. Xeix-'iv, lu.ling-ere; Goth, bi-laig -on, 
 to be-lick; also A. S. licc-ian, to lick (with cc = kk, from Idg. 
 ghn). 
 
 Skt. rip, to adhere, lip, to besmear, anoint ; cf. Gk. a\€i(f>€iv, 
 to anoint, Xinapos, fat ; Goth, bi-leiban, to remain, A. S. libban 
 (for ""lif-jan), to remain, dwell, Hve ; E. live. Closely allied 
 
 M 2 
 
1 64 ENGLISH AND SANSKRIT chap, xiii 
 
 are the A. S. llf, E. life\ and the A. S. lde/-an, to forsake, E. 
 to leave, from the A. S. sb. Id/, a remainder. 
 
 § 200. Skt. J- = E. J. The E. initial s not only appears 
 singly, as in salve, but also in many consonantal combina- 
 tions, such as sh, sk, si, sm, sn, squ, si, sw, which can better 
 be considered separately. The symbol sh represents a simple 
 sound, but etymologically it is unoriginal, and represents an 
 earlier sk. The E. single s, followed by a vowel, will be 
 treated first. 
 
 Skt. sarpis, clarified butter, Gk. eXTroy, oil, fat ; Goth, salboti, 
 to anoint ; A. S. seal/; E. salve. 
 
 Skt. gush, to dry up (for *sush, the change from s io ( 
 (pronounced sh) being due to the influence of the following 
 sh) ; (oshas, a drying up, decay ; Lith. sausas, dry ; A. S. 
 sear^ dry ; E. sear, sere. 
 
 Skt. samas, even, similar, like, same ; Icel. sa?nr, the same ; 
 E. same. The strong grade appears in Skt. sdma, neut., 
 conciliation ; Gk. rj^xepos, mild, A. S. seman (for ^somian), to 
 satisfy, conciliate, also, to be like, to seem ; E. seem ; the last 
 sense being chiefly due to Icel. sdemiligr, whence E. seemly. 
 Here (perhaps) belongs E. so/L 
 
 Skt. sapta ; E. seven. 
 
 Skt. sabhd, an assembly, sabhyas, fit for an assembly ; Goth. 
 sibja, relationship ; A. S. sibb, akin to, E. sib, related to, in 
 the compound gos-stp, for god-sib, related in God, as a 
 godfather is. 
 
 Skt. sich, sihch, to pour out, infuse, moisten ; from the 
 same root as A. S. sigan, to drop down, subside, and prov. 
 E. sile, to filter. 
 
 Skt. svasd, a sister ; A. S. sweoslor ; Icel. systir ; E. 
 sister. 
 
 Skt. sad, to sit ; L. sed-ere ; A. S. sittan (for ^set-jan)', 
 E. sit. 
 
 Skt. shashy six ; E. six (original form obscure). 
 
 Skt, sunus, a son ; Goth, sunus ; A. S. stinu ; E. son. 
 
§2oo SANSKRIT COGNATES 165 
 
 Skt. sdd-as, a sitting upon (as on a horse) answers in form 
 to Lith. sodis, soot (as being settled upon), and to A. S. sot, 
 soot ; E. soot, 
 
 Skt. sai-yas, true, actual ; saty being, pres. part, ot as^ to 
 be ; Idg. type ""es-ont-, being ; A. S. sdd (for *s-oftih\ true, 
 sdd, sb., the truth ; E. soolh. 
 
 Skt. su-karas, a boar, a hog ; where su- is allied to A. S. 
 sugu, su, a sow ; E. sow. 
 
 Skt. su, to press out juice ; hence the Idg. roots ^seu-q, 
 '^seu-g, as in L. sucus, juice, and sugere, to suck ; cf. A. S. 
 sugan, sucan, to suck, E. suck ; and A. S. socian, to soak, 
 E. soak. 
 
 Skt. supas, broth, soup ; allied to A. S. supan (from Idg. 
 root *seub\ to sup up, to drink in, E. sup. An allied word is 
 Icel. soppa, a sop, E. sop. (The E. soup is from F. soupe, 
 from the verb souper, which was borrowed from the Low 
 G. supen, allied to the A. S. supan.) 
 
 Skt. samd, a year ; Avestic hama, in the summer ; allied to 
 A. S. sumer, summer ; E. summer. 
 
 Skt. sanutar, adv. far away from ; allied to A. S. sundor, 
 adv., apart, asunder ; E. sunder, asunder. 
 
 § 201. 5* followed by a consonant. 
 
 Sk : Skt. sk {skh) ; E. sh. Skt. skhal, to stumble, to err ; 
 allied to Lith. skil-it, to owe, to be liable ; L. scel-us^ guilt ; 
 A. S. sceal, I must, I shall, orig. * I owe ' ; E. shall. 
 
 Skt. sku, to cover; A. S. scua, shade; Icel. sky, a cloud, 
 whence E. sky is borrowed, as shown by sk in place of the 
 A. S. sc, which always becomes E. sh. 
 
 The E. scu-m, from the same Idg. root '^skeu, is likewise 
 of Norse origin. Allied to L. oh-scurus, E. obscure. 
 
 Sm. Skt. smt, to smile ; cf. L. mir-dri, to wonder at ; 
 Swed. smi-la, to smile ; E. smile. 
 
 Sn. Skt. snd-va, a tendon; A. S. sn5-d, a fillet ; E. snood. 
 
 Sp. Skt. sphiirj, to rumble, rattle, to burst forth ; Gk. 
 a(}idpayos, a crackling ; A. S. spearca, a spark thrown out from 
 
i66 ENGLISH AND SANSKRIT chap, xiii 
 
 burning wood ; E. spark. Further allied to Icel. sprak-a, to 
 crackle, and to A. S. sprec-an (to make a noise), to speak ; 
 E. speak. 
 
 Skt. sphdy, to grow fat, to increase ; sphdlis, increase, 
 prosperity ; A. S. sped, success, E. speed. 
 
 Skt. sprh, to be eager for, to long for; Gk. anepx-^iv, to 
 drive on; allied to A.S. spring-an, to spring, to bound; 
 E. spring. 
 
 Skt. sphur^ to spurn, to spring, quiver, writhe; L. spern-ere, 
 to despise ; A. S. spur-nan, to spurn ; E. spurn. 
 
 Si. Skt. stabh, slambh, to fix, establish, prop ; stambhas, 
 a prop, post ; E. Fries, staf, firm, unmoved ; A. S. side/, a 
 staff, prop ; E. staff. 
 
 Skt. sthd, to stand ; L. std-re ; allied to E. stand. Allied 
 further to Skt. sthitis, a standing, residence, station, abode ; 
 A. S. stede, a place ; E. stead. From the same root we may 
 further deduce the A. S. std4. a seat, chair, mod. E. stool \ and 
 even the E. stud (of horses) and steed. 
 
 Skt. j/2^^, to ascend ; Gk. oreix-ctv, to march ; K.^.stig-an, 
 to climb, whence A. S. staeg-er. E. stair \ also A. S. stig-u, 
 a pen for cattle ; E. sty. 
 
 Skt. sir, to scatter, bestrew ; L. ster-nere (pt. t. strd-ui), to 
 strew ; allied to A. S. streowian, E. to strew, and to A. S. 
 stream, E. straw. 
 
 Sw (Skt. sv). Skt. svar-as, sound, voice, tone ; A. S. 
 swerian, to speak loudly, to swear ; E. swear ; also A. S. and- 
 swerian, to speak in reply, E. answer', also A.S. sivear-m, 
 a noise of bees, swarm, E. swarm. 
 
 Skt. svid, to sweat, svedas, sweat ; A. S. swxtan, to sweat, 
 E. sweat. 
 
 Skt. svad, svdd, to taste well, to relish; svddus, sweet; 
 A. S. swete, sweet ; E. sweet. 
 
 § 202. The most interesting examples are those in which 
 the initial s has been dropped in Skt., but preserved in 
 English ; as follows : — 
 
§ 202 SANSKRIT COGNATES 167 
 
 Skt. k'. Y.. sh (from sli). Skt. kavis, a seer; L. cauere, to 
 take heed ; A. S. sceawian, to look to ; E. show. 
 
 Skt. / : E. si. Skt. la?Jib, to hang loosely, sink down ; 
 L. lab-are^ to totter, Idbi, to glide, slip down; Goth, slepan, 
 to sleep ; A. S. sidepan ; O. Merc, slepan ; E. sleep. 
 
 Skt. ri : E. j-«. Skt. nagas, a serpent ; A. S. snaca, a snake ; 
 E. snake. 
 
 Skt. /: E. j/. Skt. /(Ira, a star; E. siar. 
 
 Skt. j>r, as in sru, to flow; here the sr became sir in 
 Teutonic ; cf. G. strom, Du. siroom, A. S. stream ; E. stream. 
 
 § 203. Skt. z; : E. 2x1 : Idg. w. Skt. z;^?^, to convey, 
 causal vdhaya, to drive (a chariot) ; Goth, wagjan, to shake. 
 Mid. Swed. wagga, E. wag, which is of Scand. origin. From 
 the same root is A. S. Wdegn, a wain ; E. wain ; cf. Skt. 
 vahanam, a conveying, a ship. Also A. S. weg, E. way. 
 
 Skt. z'a/'^j, vigour ; allied to A. S. wacan, to come to life, 
 wacian, to wake, watch; E. wake\ also to A. S. ivdecce, a 
 watch, a guard ; E. watch. 
 
 Skt. ZJ^/, to turn round ; allied to Goth, walus, a round 
 stick, a rod ; and to E. wale (in gun-wale). From the same 
 root (Idg. ^wet) are wallow, welter. 
 
 Skt. valg, to leap, to bound, to dance ; allied to A. S. 
 wealcan, to roll, to walk ; E. walk. 
 
 Skt. vrt, to turn round, revolve, also to remain, abide ; 
 allied to A. S. weor'dan, to become, E. (obsolescent) worth, 
 vb., to become ; also to the -ward in in-ward, out-ward, &c. 
 
 Skt. vas, to dwell ; A. S. wes-an, to be, pt. t. wdes, was ; 
 E. was. 
 
 Skt. vayam, we ; E. we. 
 
 Skt. vr, to cover, conceal, restrain ; vdraya, causal form, 
 to keep back ; Goth, warjan, to defend ; A. S. werian, to 
 defend, protect, also, to dam up, A. S. wer, a dam, a 
 weir. 
 
 Skt. vas, to wear clothes ; Goth, wasjan, to clothe ; A. S. 
 werian, to wear clothes ; E. wear. 
 
1 68 ENGLISH AND SANSKRIT chap, xm 
 
 Skt. viras, a man ; A. S. wer, a man ; E. wer- in wer-wolf, 
 i. e. man-wolf. 
 
 Skt. vatsas, a yearling, a calf; Goth, withrus, a lamb; 
 A. S. wecfr, a wether; E. wether. 
 
 Skt. vtj\ to gush, also to recoil, flee from ; A. S. wic-an, to 
 give way, yield, bend ; A. S. wice, a bending tree, viz. the 
 witch-elm or wych-elm ; better spelt wich-elm ; so named from 
 its pendulous branches. 
 
 Skt. vidhavd, a widow ; A. S. widuwe ; E. widow. 
 Skt. vr, to choose, varas, choice, wish ; L. tielle, to wish ; 
 A. S. willan, to wish for; Y. will, vb., will, sb., desire; 
 cf. E. well J adv. 
 
 Skt. van, to wish, to gain, to win ; A. S. winnan, to fight, 
 gain; E. win. Hence also the inchoative form vahch, to 
 wish ; A. S. wiisc (for '^wunsc\ a wish, wyscan, to wish ; 
 E. wish. 
 
 Skt. vd, to blow, vdtas, wind ; L. uentus, wind ; A. S. wind; 
 E. wind. Also A. S. windwian, to expose to wind, to winnow 
 corn; E. winnow. 
 
 Skt. vid, to perceive ; Goth, witan, to know ; A. S. witan ; 
 E. wit, to know. 
 
 Skt. z'(?'(5!'(z, I know; A. S. wdt; E. wot. From z//^/ (above). 
 Skt. vetasas, a kind of (pliant) reed, from Idg. root "^wei, to 
 twine ; allied to L. ui-meji, a twig, «?-//>, a vine; also to A. S. 
 widig, a willow ; E. withy and zf;///^^. 
 
 Skt. vi, apart, vitara?n, adv., farther off; Goth, withra, 
 against ; A. S. wider, against ; E. withers. 
 
 Skt. visham, poison ; L. uirus (with r for >? ) ; A. ^./or-wisnian, 
 to dry up, become shrivelled ; E. wizened, shrivelled up. 
 Skt. vrkas, a wolf; Lith. wilkas; A. S. wulf; E. wolf. 
 Skt. z^a/, to understand, causal vdtaya, to cause to under- 
 stand, to inspire ; L. udt-es, a seer, prophet ; A. S. wod, mad 
 (orig. full of divine frenzy) ; E. wood, adj., mad, furious. 
 
 §204. Idg.j;: Skt.j/: E.j/. In a few English words, 
 initially answers to Idg. y. 
 
§204 SANSKRIT COGNATES 169 
 
 Skt yii-yam, ye ; l^.jye,you. 
 
 ^ki.yas, to hoW, pra-yastas, bubbling over; Gk. C^-eiv (for 
 *^€V-fii^), to boil, C^o-rof, fermented; A. S.^/j/, "yeast; ^. yeast. 
 
 Skt. yugam, a yoke; L. iugum\ A. S. geoc^ Yu.yoke. 
 
 Skt. _>'z^Z'fl(:^,f, young ; Y,. iuuencus^j, heilex) Oo\k\.juggs, 
 young; K.^. geottg, gtung, lung; ^. young. Shorter forms 
 occur in the ^V.\..yuvan-, young; L. iuiienis. 
 
 In the ^oxd^year the initial j' is probably original ; cf. Goth. 
 jer, a year, Avestic ydr{e)^ a year ; perhaps allied to Skt. 
 ydtaniy a course, /<z, to advance. 
 
 § 205. In addition to the above words, in which the more 
 usual correspondences between Sanskrit and English initial 
 consonants are pointed out, there are, of course, several 
 instances of related words that commence with a vowel. 
 Some of the more important of these are noted below. 
 
 A. Skt. apa, off, away ; cf. E. of, off. Hence the comp. 
 aparas, hinder, further off; corresponding to E. af-ter, 
 though the latter has a different suffix. 
 
 Skt. aj, to drive; L. ag-ere, Gk. ay-nv; Icel. ak-a, to drive ; 
 A. S. ac-an, to ache, give pain ; E. ache, vb. 
 
 Skt. ajras, a field, Gk. aypos, L. ager ; A. S. decer, a field ; 
 E. acre. 
 
 Skt. anti, opposite, before; Gk. am, against; L. anie, 
 before ; A. S. and-, prefix, whence E. an- in answer, E. a- 
 in a-long. 
 
 Skt. ahkas, a bend, a hook ; Gk. ajKvpa, a bent hook ; 
 A. S. angel, a fish-hook, whence E. angle, to fish. 
 
 Skt. as-mi, I am ; Gk. el-fxl (for *eo-p), ^olic efi-fxi, Icel. 
 em, A. S. eom, E. am. 
 
 Skt. s-anlt, third pers. pi. pres. (for *es-anlt, from the Idg. 
 root *es, to be, L. esse); L.s-unl; O. Northumb. ar-on (for 
 *as-on-, *es-m-), E. are. 
 
 Skt. Irm-as, the arm; L. arm-us ; A. S. earm; E. arm. 
 
 Skt. ichchhd (or ?Vr/^<z), a wish, ^'jy^-^j-, a seeking, a search, 
 /j/^, to search after, desire ; A. S. dsc-ian, to ask ; E. ask. 
 
lyo ENGLISH AND SANSKRIT chap, xiii 
 
 Skt. aksh-as, an axle; L. ax-is; O.Norse ox-ull, dimin., 
 an axis, axle ; Svved. ax-el] E. axle. 
 
 E. Skt. ag-ris, an edge, ag-ra- (in compounds), an edge ; 
 allied to L. ac-ies, an edge ; A. S. ecg (Teut. type *ag-jd), an 
 edge; E. edge. Further allied to L. ac-us (gen. ac-er-zs), 
 O. Northumb. e^er, an ear of corn ; E. ear (of corn). 
 
 Skt. usk'ds, dawn ; L. aur-ora, dawn ; allied ro Icel. aus-tr^ 
 A. S. eas-ty east; E. east. 
 
 Skt. ady to eat ; L. ed-ere ; A. S. et-an ; E. eat. 
 
 Skt. ashtau, eight ; A. S. eahta ; E. eight. 
 
 Skt. djas, might, ugras, mighty ; L. augere, to increase ; 
 A. S. lecan^ O. Merc, ecan, to increase, eke ; E. eke, vb. ; also 
 eke, adv. 
 
 Skt. ar-atnis^ the elbow; Gk. toX-eVj;, L. ul-na^ A.S.el-n, 
 arm, also ell ; E. ell and el-bow (bend of the arm). 
 
 Skt. ant-as, border, limit, end; A. S. end-e (Teut. type 
 *and-joz)'y E. end. 
 
 Skt. avis, a sheep ; Lith. awis ; L. cw/j ; A. S. eowu, a 
 female sheep ; E. ewe. 
 
 I. Skt. aham] Gk. eywi/, eyco ; L. ^^(7; A. S. ic] E. /. 
 
 Skt. ^j/z; Gk. eWi; L. ^j*/; E. is. 
 
 O. Skt. a/«, off, away from ; A. S. ^; Y^.o/^off. 
 
 Skt. anu, prep., along, towards, over ; Goth, ana ; A. S. on ; 
 E. on. 
 
 Skt. antaras, other ; Goth, anthar ; A. S. ^^(fr ; E. ^M^r. 
 
 Skt. udrasy an aquatic animal; Gk. vhpa^ a water-snake 
 (whence E. hydra) ; A. S. o/^r ; E. otter. 
 
 Skt. «^, up, out; Goth. tit\ A. S. tit\ E. (?z//. 
 
 Skt. upari, adv., above, over ; Gk. vTrep (whence E. hyper- ^ 
 prefix) ; A. S. ofer ; E. over. 
 
 Skt. ^f, to possess, to own ; Goth, aig-an, to possess ; 
 A. S. ag-an ; E. owe, which formerly meant * to possess ' ; 
 hence E. own. 
 
 Skt. ukshan- (nom. uksha), a bull; Goth, auhsa, an ox; 
 A. S. co:^ (pi. oxan) ; E. ^.v (pi. oxen). 
 
§205 SANSKRIT COGNATES 171 
 
 U. Skt. udhar, an udder ; Gk. ovBap ; L. uder (for *udher) ; 
 A. S. iider ; E. udder. 
 
 Skt. an- (before vowels), a-, negative prefix ; Gk. av-, d- 
 (as in an-odyjie, a-byss)\ L. in- (whence F. and E. in-); 
 A. S. un-, negative prefix ; E. un-, 
 
 Skt. adhas, adv., below ; adharas, lower ; allied to L. infra, 
 beneath, Goth, undar, under; A. S. under; E. under. 
 
 Skt. upa, up ; Goth, tif, under, u/aro, over ; further allied 
 to Icel. and A. S. upp, up (with pp for /;/-) ; E. up. 
 
CHAPTER XIV 
 A PHILOLOGICAL RAMBLE 
 
 § 206. I propose in this Chapter to show how the various 
 Indo-germanic languages help to illustrate one another in 
 various ways, and how phonetic laws are required, at every 
 turn, in order to explain fully the various forms of words that 
 are etymologically related to each other. The method here 
 adopted is purposely desultory, in order to show how the 
 consideration of some particular point easily suggests the 
 consideration of some other point, so that there is frequently 
 a connecting link of some kind or other between words that, 
 at first sight, appear to have nothing in common. The 
 advantage of such an investigation is that it leads up to 
 a great variety of results. 
 
 § 207. Let us, for example, discuss the obsolescent word 
 wot, in the sense of (/) know or {he) knows ^ as being a word 
 of very great antiquity. In the first place, we find that the 
 A. S. form is wdt, with a long a. There is here a difficulty 
 at the outset, for the A. S. a usually answers to modern 
 long 0, as in the cases of hdi^ a boat, gat, a goat, stdn, a stone, 
 and very many more. Just as the A. S. gat, a goat, became 
 gooi (pronounced gaut, riming with taui) in Middle English, 
 so did the A. S. wdt, I know, become woot (pronounced waut) 
 in the same, and the A. S. hat, hot, became hoot (pronounced 
 haut\ Even in the sixteenth century we find such spellings 
 as wote, hate, hoot. But the vowels in wote, hote, were gradually 
 shortened, until they at last rimed, as at present, with coiy 
 dot, &c. The reason for this is not very clear, but it is 
 probably due to the fact that, in English, there is a tendency 
 
§2or, THE ENGLISH ITOT- 173 
 
 to shorten vowel-sounds under certain conditions, especially 
 before dentals, and in disyllabic words. If, for example, we 
 take such a sb. as cone (with long 0) and simply add the 
 suffix -ic, the result is c67iic, with a more rapid utterance 
 of the former syllable, causing vowel-shortening. Examples 
 of this kind are very numerous, amounting to several score 
 in number; cf. tone, ionic) cave, cavern; child, children) 
 code, codicil) coal, colly (coal-black); crane, cranberry) creed, 
 credit) croup, crUpper) dear , darling ) &c. The shortening 
 of the in M. E. hoot perhaps began in the derived adv. 
 hotly, and in compounds such as hot-foot (speedily), hotspur ; 
 and was then easily transferred to the adj. hot itself. So also 
 the shortening of the in wote may have begun in the common 
 phrase wot not. At any rate, we know the result, and that 
 the A. S. form wdt had a long a, corresponding to the ai in 
 the Gothic ik wait, I know, to the oi in the Gk. olha, I know, 
 and to the e in the Skt. veda, I know ; so that wot, Goth, wait, 
 olda, and Skt. veda, are varying forms of the same word. 
 
 § 208. Hence we draw new conclusions. The first is, 
 that A. S. a, Goth, ai, Gk. ot, Skt. e, are mere variants of one 
 and the same diphthong, of which the Idg. form was oi. If 
 these equations hold in one word, they must hold in others. 
 Thus the Gk. pi. rol is Skt. te, Goth, thai, A. S. thd, M. E. tho, 
 a word now obsolete, but common in Chaucer, with the 
 sense of ' those '. The Gk. Xomos, remaining, corresponds to 
 the A. S. la/l ' remainder,' still common in the Scottish lave, 
 * remainder,' where the E. appears as Northumbrian a, as 
 in hale or hail for whole. The Gk. toIxos, a wall, orig. a wall 
 of mud or earth, from the Idg. root *dheigh, to mould 
 {L.fing-ere, Goth, deig-an), stands for "^Ooixos,^ and is, letter 
 for letter (or rather sound for sound) the same word as A. S. 
 ddh (gen. ddg-es), E. dough. The Skt. spelling is dehas, ' a 
 mass,' body, and the Avestic form is -daeza-, found in the 
 compounds uz-daeza-, a heaping up, and pairi-daeza-, a place 
 ^ Greek admits but one aspirate in a syllable. 
 
174 A PHILOLOGICAL RAMBLE chap, xiv 
 
 walled round, an enclosure, where pairi— Gk. Trfp/. This 
 Avestic word was spelt TrapciSfio-os in Gk., in the sense ot 
 ' a park ', Latinized as paradisus, and Anglicized 2i% paradise} 
 It will be observed that the prefix is not the Gk. napd^ but the 
 Persian equivalent of Trtpi ; so that paradise is an enclosure 
 surrounded by a wall of earth. A further equivalent of the 
 A. S. a, Goth, ai, Gk. oi, &c., is the Icel. or O. Norse ei; this 
 appears in the O. Norwegian deig-ja, Swed. de-j'a, lit. a kneader 
 of dough, also a milk-woman or female farm-servant, trans- 
 ferred into M. E. in the form deye ; whence, with a French 
 suffix -ri'e or -rye, was made the word deye-rye, a room for 
 such a servant, now spelt dai7y. We have also seen above that 
 the root *dheigh gives the Lat. fig-, as in fig-ura, figure, and 
 the Lat. fi{n)g-ere with the insertion of n in the pres. tense, 
 the pt. tense, and the infinitive mood, the pp. being fic-tus 
 (for ^fig-tus)', E. derivatives htmg figure, fiction, fictile, as 
 well as y^z^w (through the French) 2Sidi fig-ment. It is not 
 a little instructive to find that, from the same root '^dheigh, 
 we have derived such various words as dough, paradise, feign, 
 fiction, fictile, figment, figure, and dairy. 
 
 § 209. But we have by no means exhausted the lessons 
 to be learnt from such a word as wot. For when we place it 
 side by side with the equivalent Gk. olha and Skt. veda, we 
 see that English has preserved the initial letter of the Idg. 
 form "^woida, which Skt. has turned into v, and Gk. has lost 
 altogether. There was once a w in Gk., denoted by the 
 symbol F (di-gamma), and it occurs in Homer, where it 
 prevents an elision of a preceding vowel ; but it was lost at 
 an early period, though English has preserved it to the 
 present day. It is also preserved, as v, in all the Romance 
 languages, in which it represents the Lat. u, which was also 
 
 ^ The i'va. paradise is due to the Gk. form. It represents the Avestic 
 ae, Idg. oi. The ou in E. dough represents the A. S. rt = Goth. ai-=. 
 Idg. oi. So the diphthongs are equivalent. 
 
§209 THE ENGLISH INITIAL W 175 
 
 once a w} It even occurs in three E. words borrowed from 
 Latin at a very early period , viz. wt'ck, a town (L. ulc-us), 
 wall (L. uall-um, a rampart), and wine, A. S. win {l^.tnnum). 
 By help of L. and E. many a Greek initial w may be restored ; 
 thus wick shows that the Gk. oIkos was once FoIko^-, and wine, 
 that Gk. olvos was once folvos. Similarly, the E. wain, A. S. 
 wdeg-n, shows that oxos is for F^xos; E. wallow, A. S. wealwian, 
 allied to L. uoluere, that iXveiv is for feXvciv; E. wary, that 
 opdca is for Fopdoi ; E. wear, to wear clothes, A. S. werian, 
 Goth, was/an, that ewu/Lti was once f^v-vvyn.; E. wether, orig. 
 ' a yearling sheep', that eroy, a year, is for feVos (cf. L. uetus, 
 old) ; E. tf;/*/, A. S. wit-an, to know, that Ih-fiv, to see, is for 
 fih-iiv', E, zf;///^, allied to L. mtis, that tVea is for ftrca; 
 E. Wi?r^, L. tierbum, that eipetf is for feipeiv, Homeric fepe-eiv, 
 and that ^f?rcop, an orator, a speaker, is for fprj-rcop, from the 
 same root *zver or *ivere; and E. !x;6?r/^, that epyov is for 
 re'pyoi'. Besides these, we have words of F. or L. origin, 
 with V ; thus vernal shows that tap, spring, is for F^ap ; vesper, 
 that €(T7r€pos is for feanepos; and Z'Oz'r^, Z^^^fX/, that eVoy is for feVor. 
 § 210. Again, we may regard the word wol from a gram- 
 matical point of view. The A. S. wdl belongs to a very 
 limited class of verbs, viz. those that, whilst they may be 
 translated or explained as having the sense of a present tense, 
 are nevertheless, as far as form goes, representatives of a 
 preterite; exactly as is the case with the Gk. ol8a. Now 
 when the first person olS-a and the third person oi8-e drop 
 the final vowel, the two persons coincide in form ; and this 
 is precisely the case with the Goth, wail, A. S. wdl, which 
 means both ' 1 know ' and ' he knows '. A similar coincidence 
 of form is the invariable mark, in Gothic, A. S., and in 
 English of the past tense of every strong verb, as in A. S. 
 drq/", E. drove, which can equally well be used for either the 
 first person or the third. Very few such verbs have now 
 
 * Even the most perverse of those who sound the L, u as v forget 
 themselves, and pronounce it as w in sudderc and sudtiis. 
 
176 A PHILOLOGICAL RAMBLE chap, xiv 
 
 a present signification. There are, in fact, only five left; 
 viz. / (or he) can ; / (or he) dare ; / (or he") may ; / (or he^ 
 shall', and 1 (or he) wot} There was once a sixth, viz. /(or 
 he) moot, which occurs in Middle English, with a late past 
 tense most-e ; but only most-e now survives, in the form must, 
 the old present moot being only preserved in the obsolescent 
 phrase so mote it be, where mote is rather a subjunctive or 
 optative form than an indicative. Similarly, the old present 
 tense of ought has long been dead ; he owe occurs, for the last 
 time, in Caxton (1490). All these verbs are of great antiquity 
 and much importance, being now freely used as ' auxiliary ' 
 verbs. The one which is least understood is dare, out of 
 which popular ignorance formed a new third person of the form 
 dares^ much patronized by such as evolve English grammar 
 out of their inner consciousness, instead of taking the trouble 
 to study it historically, and who are therefore entirely unable 
 to explain why the past tense is durs-t. The puzzle is to find 
 out where the s in durs-t comes from ; and the answer is, 
 simply, that it forms a part of the root. For the Gk. form 
 is Bapcr-elv, allied to 6paa-vs, bold, and to the Skt. dhrsh, to 
 dare, from the Idg. root *dhers. The Gothic form is ga- 
 daurs-an, infin., pres. t. zk ga-dars, I dare, and pt. t. ga-daurs- 
 ta, I durst. But A. S., hke Latin, had the curious habit of 
 turning rs first into rz, and then into rr, when the rs is final, 
 and in certain other cases ; so that, as a fact, we find A. S. 
 dearr, I (or he) dare ; pt. t. dors-te. Note the usual A. S. 
 * breaking ', i. e. the change of a to ea whenever two con- 
 sonants follow, if the former consonant be r, I, ox h; in the 
 present case, the same consonant is doubled, but the result is 
 the same. The Mid. E. form was simply dar, with only one r, 
 the pt. t. being dors-te or durs-te ; later forms were dare and 
 
 1 We say /(or he) wilt; but will is an altogether exceptional verb; 
 the A. S. ic (or he) wile * shows a mixture of subjunctive forms in the 
 present indicative singular ' ; Sweet (A. S. Primer). 
 
 ^ It first appears as daryth (in 1533). 
 
§2io ENGLISH R FOR S 177 
 
 dursL The use of dares probably arose from the influence 
 of such words as cares, fares, and stares, and the general use 
 of -s in the third person singular of the indicative ; but there 
 is really no good reason why we may not still use the old 
 phrase ' he dare not do it '. 
 
 § 211. The above change from rs to rr occurs not only 
 in English, but in Latin also. Thus the L. curr-ere, to run, 
 is from an Idg. base ^qrs- (see Walde), as seen in the sb. 
 curs-US, a course; and from the same base we have the 
 O. H. G. hros (G. Ross), a horse, and the A. S. hors, E. horse, 
 i. e. ' the runner/ Again, the Idg. root '^ters-, to be dry, as 
 in the Gk. repa-eadat, appears also in the Goih. ga-tkatrs-an, 
 to be dry, and in the Goth, thaurs-tei, A. S. thurs-t, thyrs-t, 
 E. thirst, which has the vowel of the weak grade. From the 
 same root we have the L. terr-a (for '^ters-d), the dry ground, 
 earth, and even the O. Irish tir^ W. tir, earth, land, whence 
 Cantire, ' head of the land,' a promontory. The weak grade, 
 tors-, appears in the L. torr-ere, to dry up, to scorch, whence 
 E. torrid and torrent ; the s is preserved in the pp. tostus (for 
 *torstus), whence the fem. tosta, O. F. tost-e, E. toast. Again, 
 from the Idg. root *ghers^ to bristle, we have the Skt. hrsh, 
 to bristle, and the L. horr-ere (for ^hors-ere), to bristle, 
 whence E. horrid, horrible, horror. Cf. E. gorse, A. S. gors-t, 
 a prickly shrub. Another E. example occurs in the E. vb. 
 to mar, from the O. Merc, -merran, as in the comp. d-merran, 
 to hinder, cognate with the O. H. G. merren, to hinder, to 
 vex, and the Goth, ga-marz-jan, to cause to stumble : from 
 a base '^mars. 
 
 § 212. Just as we thus find a change from rs to rz and 
 rr, so we find examples in which Is becomes Iz and //. Thus 
 the hawse-hole in a ship is the round hole through which 
 a ship's cable passes, and it is so named because it is in the 
 fore part or ' neck ' of the ship ; from the O. Icel. hats, the 
 neck, also, a part of the ship's bows. This is cognate with the 
 O. Merc, hals, the neck, and with the L. collum (for *coh'Um), 
 
 1348 « N 
 
178 A PHILOLOGICAL RAMBLE chap, xiv 
 
 the neck, to which it exactly corresponds. So also the A. S. 
 bell-an, to roar, preserved in the verb to bell, used of the 
 sound made by a stag, and in the sb. bell, named from its 
 loud sound, can be explained from a form Hels-an, allied to 
 Lith. hah-as, voice, and Lith. bils-tu, I begin to speak. 
 
 § 213. Returning to the word wot, with which this dis- 
 cussion began, there is yet one more point relating to it 
 which has not been considered, viz. that the a of the sing. 
 ic wdt changes to i in the plural we wit-on. This is quite 
 regular, as this change occurs in all verbs belonging to the 
 ' drive ' conjugation ; the A. S. drif-an, to drive, has ic draf, 
 I drove, in the pt. t. sing., ist person, but drif-on throughout 
 the plural; with the pp. drif~en. The reason for this is 
 known, as it is in accordance with Verner's Law; the 
 weakened vowel is due to the fact that, whereas there was 
 a strong stress on the a in draf, the stress in the forms 
 drif'on, drif-en was originally upon the suffix, as shown by 
 the accentuation of the corresponding forms in Sanskrit. 
 For example, the A. S. blt-an, to bite, belonging to the same 
 conjugation, is cognate with the Skt. bhid, to cleave, of which 
 the pp. is bhin-nds (for '^bhid-nds). It follows, that the past 
 participle of every A. S. strong verb originally had the 
 accentual stress upon the suffix ; and consequently, that 
 these past participles (except in the case of reduplicating 
 verbs) invariably exhibit the weak grade of the root ; and the 
 same grade occurs in the past tense plural of the verbs found 
 in the conjugations to which belong to drive, to choose, and 
 to drink. The verbs to bear and to mete, in the pt. t. pi., have 
 forms peculiar to Teutonic. 
 
 § 214. We have now seen instances in which rs has 
 become rr', and it will be instructive to collect examples 
 in which j has become r. Verner's Law tells us that this 
 occurs in some past participles of strong verbs, owing to the 
 stress having originally been placed upon the suffix. Thus 
 the A. S. ceosan, to choose, made the pp. cor -en (for *cos-en), 
 
§213 ENGLISH i? FOR ^ 179 
 
 for which chosen was substituted in Mid. E. ; so also leosan^ 
 to lose, made the pp. loren^ afterwards shortened to lorn^ 
 which is still in occasional use; and for-leosan, to lose 
 entirely, made the ^^, forloren^ now s^eXt forlorn. So also 
 /reosan, to freeze, made the pp. froren, for which mod. E. 
 has substituted frozen ; but Milton hasyr<?r^, which vs, froren 
 without the final n, and prov. E. has^orw (sometimes written 
 frawn). The r in the mod. E. learn and lore was also once 
 s, as the history of those words shows. Learn is from the 
 A. S. leornian, which represents a Teut. type '^liznon, allied to 
 *ltz{a)noz, pp. of *letsan, to trace out, of which the regular 
 pt. t. lais actually occurs in Gothic, with the sense * I know,' 
 i.e. 'I have traced out.' Brugmann also calls attention to 
 the Goth, laisjan (Teut. ^^laizjan), to teach, which is exactly 
 equivalent to the A. S. Ideran, to teach (G. lehren), M. E. leren, 
 later lere, to teach, now obsolete. Closely allied to this is 
 the Teut. type ^laizd, fem. sb., ' teaching, doctrine,' A. S. Idr, 
 E. lore. It should be noted that, in the Goth, causal suffix 
 -jan^ the stress was once upon this suffix, not on the root- 
 syllable, which accounts at once for the change from s to 2, 
 and from z to r. Thus the Skt. vrt, to turn, had for its 
 causal form vart-dydmi, '■ I cause to turn,' with the accentual 
 stress on the second short a. So also Goth, hausjan (for 
 *hauzjan), to hear, is the same word as the A. S. hieran, 
 hyran, O. Merc, heran, to hear (with mutation oi au to ie,y, e\ 
 M. E. heren, E. hear ; and the Goth, was/an, to clothe, is the 
 A. S. werian, to wear clothes (with mutation of a to e\ 
 E. wear. Another causal verb is the verb to raise or to rear^ 
 lit. 'to cause to rise.' The former of these (as the preserved 
 s shows) is of Scand. origin. The O. Icel. risa, to rise, had 
 the pt. t. reis^ ' I rose ' ; whence was formed * the causal verb 
 
 1 Such is the practical rule. Of course, it really means that the 
 causal verbs usually (not always) exhibit the same gradation of the 
 vowel-sound as also occurs in the past tense singular of the related 
 strong verbs. 
 
 N 2 
 
i8o A PHILOLOGICAL RAMBLE chap, xiv 
 
 reis-a, to make to rise, to raise. But the A. S. risan, to rise, 
 had the pt. t. rds, E. rose ; whence was formed the causal 
 verb '^rdsian, *rdzian, *rdrian, A. S. rx,ran (with mutation 
 of d to se, and loss of /), E. rear. So that raise and rear 
 are exact equivalents, the former being the Norse, and the 
 latter the native form. The A. S. ivesan, to be, gives the 
 pt. t. wyes, E. / (or he) was ; cf. O. Norse vas, Du. was^ 
 Goth, was (but altered in G. to war). The first person 
 plural is Goth, wesum, but A. S. wxron, E. were ; cf. O. Norse 
 vdrum, Du. and G. waren. Compare the A. S. wdt, I know, 
 wit-on, we know, already explained above (§ 213). The 
 position of the accent in the Gk. [XLo-dos, ' reward,' is original ; 
 and at once explains the Goth, mizdd, with the same sense ; 
 the early A. S. form was meord (with r for z), but another 
 A. S. form was med, E. meed ; apparently for *mezd-, with 
 total loss of z. The mod. E. hoard, A. S. hoard, is cognate 
 with the Goth, huzd, ' hoard,' shortened from the Teut. type 
 *htizdom, neuter; this form is probably related to the L. cus-t-os, 
 a custodian or guardian of treasure ; and both may be derived 
 from the Idg. root *geudh, to hide, Gk. k€v6-€iv, W. cudd-io, 
 A. S. hydan (for "^hUd-ian). Other words in which E. r 
 represents an original s are E. bare, allied to Lith. basas, 
 bare-footed ; berry, allied to Goth, basi, a berry ; burr (base 
 *burs-), allied to bris-tle ; deer, A. S. deor, Goth, dius, neut., 
 Teut. type '^deuzSvi, neut., Idg. type "^dheusom, ' animal,' from 
 the Idg. root '^dheus, to breathe. E. ear, A. S. eare, neut., 
 Goth, auso, Teut. type '^auson-, neut. ; cf. Lith. ausis, L. aiiris 
 (for *auzis). E. gore, vb., from A. S. gar, the point of a spear ; 
 Teut. type *gaizoz^ masc. ; allied to the Gaulish Ijdiim gaesum, 
 a spear, a javelin. E. hare, A. S. hara, G. hase, Teut. type 
 *hazon-, Idg. type *kason- ; cf. O. Pruss. sasnis (for *kasnis), 
 a hare, Skt, fafa (for *fasa), a hare. E. mire appears to be 
 from the same root as moss. E. ransack is borrowed from 
 the O. Norse rannsaka, to search a house ; from ran7i, a 
 house, abode, and sak-, allied to N. scekja, A. S. secan, E. seek. 
 
§2T4 ENCtLISH COMPARATIVES i8i 
 
 Here the Icel. rann is for *razn, the same as Goth, razn, 
 which appears in A. S. in the transposed form aern, whence 
 the compound her-ern (Luke iii. 17), later hern, which is 
 actually the mod. E. ham, of which the literal sense is 
 * barley-house ', from her-e, barley (Lowl. Sc. hear), and d&rn, 
 abode. E. sear, sere, withered, A. S. sear, is cognate with 
 the Lith. sausas, dry, Gk. auos- (for ^(ravuo^, dry ; cf. Skt. 
 <;ush (for ^susK), to dry up. E. twine, sb., A. S. twin, Du. 
 tweern, G. zivirn, are all from a Teut. type *twtz-no- (for 
 '^iwis-no-), i. e. double ; from the base twis' which occurs in 
 the Goth, prefix twis-, double, L. his (for "^dwis), and in 
 E. twis-t. The very form *twis-no-, Idg. '^dwis-no-, occurs 
 in the L. hi-ni (with -i- for -is-). 
 
 § 215. But the commonest example of this substitution 
 of r for s in English is seen in the usual suffix ~er which 
 denotes the comparative form of an adjective. The E. elder 
 is from the O. Merc, deldra, comparative of aid, old (the A. S. 
 or Wessex form being ieldra ox yldra, comparative of eald). 
 These are formed, by mutation, from an older type "^ald-ira^ 
 with r for z, i. e. for ^dld-iza; as proved by the appearance 
 of this suffix in Gothic; cf. Goih. jHh-iza, younger, comp. of 
 juggs ( = yungs), young, &c. Lastly, this -iza is for -is-a, 
 the -is- being preserved in the Goth, superlative suffix -is-ts 
 = Gk. -tcr-roy, as in /SeXr-toros, * best ' ; cf. E. -est myoung-est. 
 Gothic has also the remarkable forms maiza, 'more,' and 
 maists, ' most,' corresponding to the A. S. mdra, more, rnxst, 
 most ; showing that the r in more represents a Teut. z (for s), 
 as in other comparative forms. The Goth. adj. maiza was 
 accompanied by the adverbial form mais, more; which be- 
 came A. S. md, because Old English always dropped a Teut. s 
 when absolutely final. Later, the A. S. mdra, adj., and md, 
 adv., became M.E. more and mo; and, the adverbial origin 
 of the latter being forgotten, both these forms were used 
 adjectivally, but with an altogether new discrimination, viz. 
 that more was used to express 'larger in size', whilst mo 
 
i82 A PHILOLOGICAL RAMBLE chap, xiv 
 
 meant ' greater in number ', a distinction which lasted, more 
 or less clearly, till mo became obsolete, and more had to do 
 duty for both. It is highly probable that mo went out of use 
 because it sounded like the ' positive ' form of mo-re^ to the 
 confusion of its sense. Very clear examples of the old Teut. 
 forms of the comparative and superlative appear in the Goth. 
 batiza, ' better,' and batists, ' best.' The former answers to 
 the A. S. betera, E. better, and the latter to the A. S. betst, 
 E. best\ both with mutation of a to ^ on account of the 
 following 2. Neither in A. S. nor in Gothic does the positive 
 appear, but the forms evidently depend upon a Teut. base 
 *^<2/-, with the sense of ' good ' ; of which the second grade 
 bot occurs in A. S. as a sb., with the sense of ' advantage ' or 
 ' profit ' ; and remains in the E. phrase to boot. Even bat- 
 occurs in the Icel. bat-i, sb., improvement, and in the Icel. 
 vb. bat-na^ to grow better, improve, whence E. batten^ to 
 grow fat. 
 
 Perhaps the least obvious example of r for s occurs in the 
 E. near, now used as a ^ positive ' adjective ; etymologically, 
 it is equivalent to nigher, and is an old comparative. A. S. 
 near is the comparative adverbial form due to neah, ' nigh/ 
 and corresponds to the Gothic form nehw-is in Romans xiii. 
 1 1 : ' nu nehwis ist naseins unsara/ now is our salvation 
 nearer. 
 
CHAPTER XV 
 
 INDO-GERMANIC WORDS 
 
 § 216. It can hardly have escaped notice that, in some of 
 the preceding Chapters, in which English has been compared, 
 successively, with Celtic, Lithuanian, and other languages, 
 the same examples have often recurred. Such a word as 
 brother not only occurs in Irish as brathair^ but in Russian 
 as brat(e), and in Persian as birddar. Such words are of 
 especial interest, as they help to connect the various languages 
 of the Indo-germanic family, and to show that they are all akin. 
 A collection of some such words is here appended, thougb 
 it does not claim to be at all complete. Types marked " 
 are hypothetical. Thus, under Acre, ' Idg. *agros ' signifies 
 that such is, hypothetically, the original Indo-germanic type. 
 The Idg. roots, such as *ag, may be found in the List at 
 p. 752 of my Etymological Dictionary. 
 
 §217. Acre. A. S. decer; Goth, akrs; L. ager\ Gk. 
 aypos', Skt. ajras] Idg. "^agros. Grig, sense (probably) 
 ' pasture ' ; from the verb which appears as Icel. aka, to drive ; 
 L. agere ; Gk. ayciv ; Skt. aj (E. ache). Idg. root "^ag. 
 
 Am. Idg. type *es-mi, from "^es, to be. O. Northumb. am, 
 A. S. eo7n, Icel. em ; Goth, tm ; O. Ir. am ; L. s-um : Gk. ei-/xi ; 
 Lith. es-mi] 0.'^\2iV. jes-mi] O. Pruss. as-mai\ Arm. m; 
 Pers. am ; Avestic ah-mi) Skt. as-mi. Thus am is ultimately 
 from the Idg. '^es-vii. 
 
 Apple. K.S.deppel; Irish abhal; W. afal; 'L\i\\. obolys -, 
 O. ^\2iw.jabIuko ; O. Pruss. imble. 
 
 Are. Idg. type *es-ent-t, from *es, to be. O. Northumb. 
 
1 84 INDO-GERMANIC WORDS chap, xv 
 
 ar-on, A. S. s-ind-on, Icel. er-u\ Goth. S'ind\ O. Ir. it\ L. 
 s-unt; Gk. ela-iv; Avestic h-ent-i', Skt. s-ant-i. Note 
 O. Northumb. (^r^?;?, Goth. sind\ both from the Idg. *esenti. 
 
 Arm. a. S. mr/;^ ; Goth. rt'r/;z-j ; L. arm-us, the shoulder ; 
 O. Pruss. irm-o, arm ; Russ. ram-o, the shoulder ; Arm. 
 arm-ukn^ elbow ; Avestic ar^ma-, arm ; Skt. zrm-as. 
 
 Axle. Icel. dx-ull, Swed. ax-el; cf. W. ^f>^-^/, Dimin. of 
 A. S. ^^.a;, axle, axis ; L. ax-is ; Gk. a^-av ; Lith. ^j2-h ; 
 Russ. os{e) ; O. Pruss. ass-is ; Avestic ^'1-^- ; Skt. aks-as. 
 
 § 218. Be. a. S. beo7t, to be; O. Ir. bSi, he was; W. bod, 
 to be ; Lith. bu-ti, to be ; O. Slav, by-ti, to be ; "L./o-re, pt. t. 
 y^-J, I was ; Gk. (l)v-ofxai, I become ; Pers. bu-dan, to be ; Skt. 
 b/iH, to be ; Idg. root '^b/ieu. 
 
 Bear, verb. A. S. ber-an ; Goth, bair-an ; O. Ir. ber-im, 
 I bear ; Russ. br-at{e), to carry ; Arm. ber-em, I bring, carry ; 
 "L./er-re', Gk. (pep-eiv; Pers. bur-dan, to carry; Skt. bhar-ati, 
 he bears. Idg. root *M^r. 
 
 Beaver. K.^.beo/or] Corn, bef-er-, Lith. bebrus; Russ. 
 ^^<$r ; L. j^^^r ; Avestic bawris ; Skt. babhrus, a large 
 ichneumon. Idg. type *bebhrus. 
 
 Bid, to command. A. S. beod-an ; Goth, biud-an ; Lith. 
 baud-hit, I punish, exhort ; Gk. nevO-onai, nwO-dvo/xai, I ask, 
 learn, understand ; Skt. <5«^/^, to understand. Cf. E. <5d?^f. 
 
 Bind. A. S., Goth, bind-an ; Lith. bend-ras, a partner with 
 another, companion; L. of-fend-ix, a band; Gk. nelcr-ixa, 
 a rope, nevO-epoi, a father-in-law ; Pers. bastan, to bind, <5««^, 
 captivity ; Skt. bandh (for '^bhandh), to bind. Idg. root '^bhe7idh. 
 
 Birch. A. S. beorc, birce ; O. Pruss. berse ; Lith. berzas ; 
 Russ. bereza ; O. Slav, ^r^^i? ; L. frax-inus, an ash ; Skt. 
 bhUrjas, a kind of birch. 
 
 Bottom. A. S. botm ; Irish ^(?«;z, sole of the foot ; W. bon, 
 base, stock; \.. fundus-, Gk. Trv6fifjv; Pers. /;«;/, basis, founda- 
 tion ; Avestic buna-, ground ; Skt. budhnas (for *bhudhnas), 
 bottom. 
 
 Bough. A. S. boh, orig. an arm (hence, arm of a tree) ; 
 
§3i8 INDO-GERMANIC WORDS 185 
 
 Icel. hog-r^ shoulder, bow of a ship ; Gk. Tri};^-^?, the fore-arm ; 
 Pers. bdzu, the arm ; Skt. hdhus, the arm. 
 
 Brother. A. S. brodor ; Goth, brothar ; Irish brathair ; 
 W. brawd; l.. /rater; Gk. 4>pdTr]p, one of a tribe; Lith. 
 brolerelis, little brother; O. Pruss. brofe ; O. ^\2iW.brairu] Russ. 
 braf ', Arm. ekbair \ Pers. birddar\ Avestic ^ra/^; Skt. 
 bhrdtd. 
 
 Brow. A. S. ^r«; Gk. 6~(l>pv-s; Lith. bruw-is; O.Slav. 
 obriivi, bruvi', Russ. brov(e) ; Pers. «^r?? ; Skt. Mrwj". 
 
 § 219. Chin. A. S. an ; Goth, h'nn-us, the cheek ; Irish 
 gin, mouth ; W. ^en, jaw, chin, month • T. cr^'^.n /^Kr»^% . 01. 
 
 ERRATA 
 
 Pa^e 184 /m^ 20 for *bebhriis ^^aoT *bhebhrus 
 Pfl^^ 186 line 22 /;^>r^ root wj^r/ Idg. 
 
 Skeat, Science of Etymology Face page 184 
 
 August 1912 
 
 ^ . ^«.v.vjiiixi,n.. n.. o. uvnior', Vjrotn. dauMar \ Lith. 
 
 rt'z^/^'/^ ; Russ. doch{e) ; Gk. Bvydrrjp ; Arm. ^z/x/r ; Pers. dukhtar ; 
 Skt. duhitd. 
 
 Day. a. S. ^^e^ ; Goth, rt'a^-j" ; allied to Irish daigh, fire, 
 dagh-aim, I burn; Ij./au-tUa, ashes; Lith. dag-as, hot time, 
 autumn, deg-u, I burn ; O. Pruss. dagts, summer ; Pers. ddgh, 
 scar (of a brand) ; Skt. dah, to burn, ddh-as, great heat. Idg. 
 type "^dhaghos. 
 
 Do. A. S. do-n^io put, to do; L. -^^ (in con-do, I put 
 together); Gk. Ti-drj-p-i; Lith. ^(?-w?', I place; O.Slav, de'-tz, 
 to put, place ; Avestic and O. Pers. root da-, to set, establish ; 
 Arm. e-dt, I placed ; Skt. d/id, to set, put. Idg. root *d/ie. 
 
 DooR. A. S. dor, duru ; Goth, daur ; O. Irish dorus ; W. 
 
1 84 INDO-GERMANIC WORDS chap, xv 
 
 ar-on, A. S. s-ind-on, Icel. er-w, Goth. s-ind\ O. Ir. it\ L. 
 s-unt', Gk. cla-iv; Avestic h-ent-i; Skt. s-ant-i. Note 
 O. Northumb. ^r<?;?, Goth, sirid ; both from the Idg. *esenti. 
 
 Arm. a. S. ^^r;?z ; Goth. «r;;z-j ; L. arm-us, the shoulder ; 
 O. Pruss. irm-o, arm ; Russ. ram-o, the shoulder ; Arm. 
 arm-tdn, elbow ; Avestic ardma-, arm ; Skt. irm-as. 
 
 Axle. Icel. ox-ull, Swed. ax-el \ cf. W.ech-el. Dimin. of 
 A. S. ^^jv, axle, axis ; L. ax-is ; Gk. a|^-o)j/ ; Lith. asz-h ; 
 Russ. os{e) ; O. Pruss. ^-w-?!? ; Avestic as-a- ; Skt. aks-as. 
 
 § 218. Be. a. S. beon, to be ; O. Ir. bSi, he was ; W. bod, 
 ^^ u^ . T UK ;;.._/,• f^ Ka • O Slav, hv-fi. to be : L. /^-r^, Dt. t. 
 
 learn, understand ; bkt. ^wtf/j, to unaerstanu. v^i. jj.. c/c/acr. 
 
 Bind. A. S., Goth, bind-an ; Lith. bend-ras, a partner with 
 another, companion ; L. o/-/end-zx, a band ; Gk. 7r€'ia--fia, 
 a rope, rrevB-epo^, a father-in-law ; Pers. bas/an, to bind, bandi, 
 captivity ; Skt. band/i (for *b/iandk), to bind. Idg. root *b/iend/i. 
 
 Birch. A. S. beorc, birce ; O. Pruss. berse ; Lith. berzas ; 
 Russ. bereza ; O. Slav, brha ; L. /rax-mus, an ash ; Skt. 
 bkurjas, a kind of birch. 
 
 Bottom. A. S. bo/m ; Irish (5(?;z;z, sole of the foot ; W. bon, 
 base, stock ; L./wtdus; Gk. 7rv6firjv; Pers. ^z/«, basis, founda- 
 tion ; Avestic buna-, ground ; Skt. budhnas (for *bhudhnas), 
 bottom. 
 
 Bough. A. S. boh, orig. an arm (hence, arm of a tree) ; 
 
§ai8 INDO-GERMANIC WORDS 185 
 
 Icel. bog-r^ shoulder, how of a ship ; Gk. Tr^^-^y, the fore-arm ; 
 Pers. hdzu, the arm ; Skt. hdhus, the arm. 
 
 Brother. A. S. hrddor\ Goth. hrdthar\ Irish brathair -, 
 W. brawd] 1.. f rater; Gk. 4>paTr}p, one of a tribe; Lith. 
 broier'elis, little brother ; O. Pruss. 3r^/^ ; O. Shv.bra/rii ; Russ. 
 bra/' ; Arm. ^Xi^^zV ; Pers. birddar ; Avestic (5r^/a ; Skt. 
 bhrdtd. 
 
 Brow. A. S. bru\ Gk. o-<^py-s; Lith. bruw-is; O.Slav. 
 obruvi, briivi] Russ. brov{e) ; Pers. <z^r?? ; Skt. bhrus. 
 
 § 219. Chin. A. S. cin ; Goth, kinn-us, the cheek ; Irish 
 ^zw, mouth ; W. gen, jaw, chin, mouth ; L. ^f«-«, cheek ; Gk. 
 -yfVvs, chin ; Lith. ^an-das, jaw ; Pers. zanakh ; Skt. hanus. 
 
 Choose. A. S. ceosan ; Goth, kiusan ; lu.gus-tdre, to taste; 
 Gk. yev-ofxaif 1 taste, -yevfr-rdy, tasted ; Skt. yV/j^^, to relish. 
 Idg. root *geus. 
 
 Crane. A. S. cran; W. and Bret, garan; L. grus; Gk. 
 yepavos ; U\.\h. gamys, a stork ; O. Slav. leravi\ Russ. iuravl{e) ; 
 Arm. krunk. 
 
 Cow. a. S. ^«; Irish <5^; W. ^wz^;; Russ. ^oz'-Z^c?!?, oxen; 
 Lettish ^^z^^j ; L. bos ; Gk. jSoC-y ; Arm. ^^z; ; Pers. gdw ; Skt. 
 ^awi-. The initial sound was, originally, that of the Idg. 
 labio- velar g. 
 
 §220. Daughter. A. S. dohtor; Goth. dauhtar\ Lith. 
 dukt'e ; Russ. doch{e) ; Gk. Bvydrrjp ; Arm. dusfr ; Pers. dukhtar ; 
 Skt. duhitd. 
 
 Day. a. S. ^^»e^ ; Goth, dags ; allied to Irish daigh, fire, 
 dagh-aim, I burn; l^./au-tlla, ashes; Lith. dag-as, hot time, 
 autumn, </^^-«, I burn ; O. Pruss. dagis, summer ; Pers. ddgh, 
 scar (of a brand) ; Skt. dah, to burn, ddh-as^ great heat. Idg. 
 type *dhaghos. 
 
 Do. A. S. do-n, to put, to do; L. -do (in con-do, 1 put 
 together) ; Gk. Ti-Brj-fii ; Lith. ^^-;;z2', I place ; O. Slav, de-tz, 
 to put, place ; Avestic and O. Pers. root da-, to set, establish ; 
 Arm. e-dt, I placed ; Skt. dkd, to set, put. Idg. root *dhe. 
 
 Door. A. S. dor, duru ; Goth, daur ; O. Irish dorus ; W. 
 
i86 INDO-GERMANIC WORDS chap, xv 
 
 drws ; L. for-es, plural ; Gk. Qvpa ; Lith. durys, pi. ; Russ. 
 dver{e); Alban. dere) Pers. dar\ Skt. dvdr. 
 
 Dough. A. S. ddh ; Goth, daig-s, a kneaded lump ; allied 
 to L. fing-ere, to fashion, j'f^-z^/wj', a potter ; Gk. reix-o^, toIx-os, 
 a wall (orig. of earth) ; Arm. dez, a heap ; Avest. pairi- 
 daeza^ a place walled round, enclosure, park (paradise) ; Pers. 
 dizh, daz, di'z, a fortress, city ; Skt. de/i-I, a rampart ; deh-as^ 
 a mass. Idg. type ^dhoighos. 
 
 § 221. Ear. A. S. eare ; Goth, auso ; O. Ir. d\ O. Pruss. 
 ausins ; Lith. ausis ; Russ. ucho ; L. «/^m ; Gk. ovs ; Avest. 
 uh\ the two ears, hence, intelligence ; Pers. /liis/i, understand- 
 ing. Idg. bases *dus, *aus. 
 
 Ear, vb., to plough. A. S. er-z'an ; Goth, ar-jan ; Lith. 
 ar-H\ Russ. or-at{e) ; Irish ar-atm, I plough ; W. ar^ ploughed 
 land ; L. ar-dre ; Gk. a^6(o, I plough. Idg. root *^r. 
 
 East. A. S. eas-t\ Lith. ausz-ra, dawn; L. aur-ora^ 
 dawn ; Gk. i]-ixi^, ^olic av-ui^^ dawn ; Skt. ush-as, dawn. Idg. 
 base "^aus-. 
 
 Eat. a. S. ei-an ; W. ys-u (for *ed-tu), to devour ; L. 
 ed-ere ; Gk. eS-w, I eat ; Lith. ed-mi, I eat ; Russ. es-t{e), to 
 eat, ed-a, sb., eating; Arm. ui-em, I eat; Skt. ^^, to eat. 
 root *ed. 
 
 Eight. A. S. eahta; Irish ocht; W. wyth \ L. ^r/<?; Gk. 
 oKTO); Lith. aszfom; Avest. ashta\ Pers. hasht\ '^\X. ashtau, 
 Idg. type ^oktdu. 
 
 Ell (Elbow). A. S. ^/«, an ell, a cubit (length from the 
 elbow to middle finger-tip), eln-boga, el-bow ; Goth, aleina^ 
 ell ; L. ulna, elbow, cubit ; Gk. wXeVjy, elbow ; Lith. al-kune, 
 el-kune, elbow, fore-arm ; Pers. ar-anj, elbow ; Skt. ar-atnis. 
 
 Ewe. a. S. eowu; Ir. oi', Lith. aims, sheep; O. Pruss. 
 awins, wether; O.Slav, ovttsa, Russ. ovisa, sheep; L. ouis\ 
 Gk. oiV ; Skt. avis. Idg. type '^owis. 
 
 § 222. Fare. A. S./aran, to fare, go ; Go\h. faran, to 
 go,/arJan, to travel ; (perhaps O. Slav, pirati, prati, to fly) ; 
 L. ex-per-ior, I pass through ; Gk. Trep-uco, I cross, traverse ; 
 
§221 INDO-GERMANIC WORDS 187 
 
 Gk. nopevonai, I travel ; Skt. pr, to bring across, causal pdraya, 
 to conduct. Idg. root *per {*por). 
 
 Father. A. S. /deder ; Goth, /adar ; O. Ir. a/h'r (for 
 *pa/ir); L. pa/er; Gk. naT^p; Arm. -^^zr; Pers. pidar ; 
 O.Vtxs.ptid', Skt pz/a. 
 
 Feather. A. S. /e3fer ; allied to O. Irish en (for *pe/n), a 
 bird, W. adar, O. W. a^ar (for *pe/ar), birds, W. aderyn, 
 O. W. eterinn^ a bird ; L. /^««^ (for *petna, *petsna), a wing, 
 pet-ere^ to seek, attack (fly at) ; Gk. neTOfxai, I fly, Trrcpoi;, 
 a wing ; Skt. patram, a wing. From Idg. root */>^/, to fly. 
 
 Five. Idg. type *penq{w)e. A. S. /z/" (for *;f;?^/') ; Goth. 
 fim/; W. pumpy O. Ir. ^^/.r ; L. quinque ; Gk. TreVre, ^olic 
 7re/Lt7re ; Lith. /fW/^} ; Russ. pjat{e) ; Pers. /««;'; Skt. pancha. 
 
 Foot. K.S./dt; GoXh. /dt-us ] L.\ih. pad-as, ?>o\q of the 
 foot ; O. Slav, podu, the ground ; Russ. pod*, a hearth ; L. pes 
 (gen. ped-is) ; Gk. irovs (gen. ttoSos) ; Doric Ttm ; Arm. <?/« 
 (for "^hot-n, from '^pot-n), a foot ; Pers. />«/; Skt. pad-am, ace, 
 foot. Idg. base '^ped i^pod, *pod). 
 
 Foul. A. S./u-l, allied to lc&\./u-inn, rotten ; lAih.pul-ei, 
 pi., matter in a wound ; pu-ti {\ pr. s. puwu)^ to rot; IL. pu-s, 
 matter, putere^ to stink; Gk. ttC-oi/, matter, nvd-eiv, to rot; 
 F eis. pu-sJdan, to rot; Skt. /z^y, to stink, to be foul. 
 
 Four. Idg. type *q{w)e/wer-. A. S.feower ; Goth, fidwor 
 {{ox'^hwedwor, see Wright, Goth. Gr., § 134, note); ^.pedwav, 
 0.\x, cethir; Lith. keturt; Russ. chetvero; L. quatuor; Gk. 
 Tcao-apes ; ^olic niavpes ; Pers. chahdr ; Skt. chatvdras. 
 
 Frost. A. S. frost, forst, {xova/reosan, to freeze (Idg. root 
 *preus, (i) to burn, (2) to freeze) ; \u.pru-ina (for "^prus-wind)^ 
 frost, pru-na (for '^pruz-na), a glowing coal, prur-ire (for 
 "^pruz-ire), to itch ; Alban. /rw^, glowing coals, warmth ; Skt 
 prusvd, frozen water, ice, //«J'^, to burn. 
 
 Full. h.S./ull; Goth, fulls (for Teut. yulnoz)', O. Ir. 
 /t?;^; W. //«w«; Lith. pMnas', "^nss. polnyj; L. plenus] Gk. 
 TrXjyp?;? ; Pers. /'«r ; Skt. purnas. 
 
 § 223. GoosE. A. S. ^<9^ (for *^^«f) ; O. H. G. ^^«j ; 
 
1 88 INDO-GERMANIC WORDS chap, xv 
 
 O. Ir. giis, a swan; O.Pruss. sansy; Lith. Iqsis', L. anser 
 (for *hanser) ; Gk. xr]v : Skt, /lamsas, a swan. Allied to 
 gan-der. 
 
 Guest. A. S. gdes/, O. N. gesfr ; Goth, gasfs ; Russ. 
 gosiie), a. guest, an alien ; L. /los/t's, a stranger, an enemy. 
 Idg. type *g/ios/is. 
 
 § 224. Hart. A. S. heor-ot, her-ut ; W. car-w^ hart, 
 horned animal; Russ. serna, chamois; L. ceruus, stag; cf. 
 Gk. Kcpaos, adj., horned ; see Horn. Teut. type *'herut-, from 
 a base y^^rz/-, meaning 'horn'; cf. Gk. Kep-as, horn. 
 
 Harvest. From the Idg. root ""sqerp, to cut. A. S. hder/est, 
 autumn, orig. 'crop'; Lith. kerpu, I shear; L. carp-ere, to 
 pluck; Gk. Kop-rr-os, fruit, Kpan-iov, 2L sickle; Skt. krpdms, 
 a sword. 
 
 Haulm, Halm. A. S. healm, a stalk ; O. Pruss. salme, 
 straw ; Russ. soloma, straw ; L. culmus, stalk ; Gk. KoKapos, 
 reed (whence L. ca/amus, W. ca/a/). 
 
 Heart. A. S. heor/e ; Goth, hair id; O. Ir. cride, Ir. cridhe\ 
 W.craidd] O.Pruss. seyr -, Lith. szirdh ; Russ. serdtse \ L. 
 fd>r (gen. cord-is)] Gk. Kapdio, K^p] Arm. j-/r/. 
 
 Horn. A. S. ^<?r^/ ; L. r6?r;z?^ (whence, perhaps, Ir. and W. 
 corn); allied to Gk. Kep-as, horn, Kop-vfx^os, top, tip (E. corymb) ; 
 Skt. grhgam, horn ; also to Gk. m/j-a, head. Arm. and Pers. 
 sar, head, Skt. f/r^j, head. See Hart. 
 
 Hound. A. S. hund ; Ir. cu (gen. con) ; W. <r/ (pi. cwn) ; 
 Lith. j-0^ (stem .?0?^«-) ; Russ. j^^-^a, a bitch ; L. r^«-/j; Gk. 
 KVdiv (gen. Kuiz-os) ; Arm. lun ; Skt. fz;« (gen. fun-as). Also 
 Pers. j^^ (§ 167). 
 
 Hundred. A. S. hund (with suffix -red, i. e. ' rate of 
 counting'); 1\\ cead\ \\f.cani; lAih. szimias -, Russ. j'^; L. 
 ceniuvi', Gk. Uutov; Pers. sad; Skt. gatam. 
 
 § 225. I. A. S. ic ; Goth, ik ; O. Norse ^/^ ; O. Pruss. es ; 
 Lith. asz; Russ. z'<^; L. ego; Gk. cyw, eywj/; Arm. es; O. Pers. 
 adam ; Skt. aham. 
 
 Is. A. S. /if ; G. ist (from Idg. *^j-/z", 3 p. s. pr. of ^es, to 
 
§224 INDO-GERMANIC WORDS 189 
 
 be) ; O. Norse es, later er] Lith. estt, est] Russ. est{e) ; L. esl\ 
 Gk. eV-Ti ; Skt. asti. See Am, Are. 
 
 Kin. a. S. cynn; Goth, kuni', Ir. ^^z«, offspring, birth; 
 W. genid, birth (W.gem, to be born); L. genus; Gk. yeW; 
 Skt.ya«(2j. Cf. Pers. 0^^^, offspring. From Idg. root *gen, 
 to beget. 
 
 Knee. A. S. cneo ; Goth, km'u ; L. genu ; Gk. ■yoVu ; Pers. 
 zdnu] Skt.jdnu. 
 
 Know. A. S. cndwan (cf. O. Ir. gndth, known, accus- 
 tomed, W. gnawd, a custom) ; Lith. ztnott, to know ; Russ. 
 znai{e) ; Pers. ddnistan (for *zdnistan), to know; ^ktjnd, to 
 know. Cf. L. {g)ndscere, to know, Gk. yi-yvatrK-civ, Idg. 
 base *gne {*gnd). 
 
 § 226. Lea. A. S. lea/i ; Lith. laukas, an open field ; 
 O. Pruss. lauks, a lea ; L. ///(Tz^j-, a grove (glade, clearing) ; 
 Skt. Ibkas, open space, region ; Idg. type '^louqos ; from "^leuq, 
 to shine. 
 
 Lean, verb. A. S. hlxnan, to make to lean, hlinian, to 
 lean ; O. Ir. cloen, sloping ; Lith. szleti, to lean, szlaitas, a 
 declivity: L. in-cRndre, to cause to bend; Gk. KXtWtv; Skt. 
 gntas, resting upon, fray, to lean on, rest on. From Idg. 
 root "^klei. 
 
 Lick. A. S. liccian, allied to Goth, bi-laigon, to be-lick ; 
 O. Ir. lig-im, I lick ; Lith. lez-iu, I lick ; Russ. liz-at{e), to 
 lick ; L. ling-ere ; Gk. Xeix-^iv ; Arm. li'z-um, I lick ; Pers. 
 lis-idan, lish-tan, to lick; Skt. lih, rih, to lick. Idg. root 
 *leigh. 
 
 Lie, vb., to rest. A. S. Itcgan ; Goth. Itgan ; O. Ir. 
 laig-im, I lie down, lig-e\ a grave ; Lith. at-lag-ai, pi, fields 
 lying fallow ; Russ. Mat{e), to lie down ; L. lec-tus, a bed ; 
 Gk. Xf'x-oy, a bed. Idg. root ""legh. 
 
 Lief, Love. A. S. leqf, dear, lufu, love ; Russ. ljub-tt{e), 
 to love, ljub'(yv{e\ love ; L. /«(^^/, libet, it pleases, /«(5zV(9, //^zV<7, 
 desire ; Skt. lubh, to desire, lobh-as, a longing for. Cf. Lith. 
 laup-se, praise. . Idg. root '^leubh. 
 
igo INDO-GERMANIC WORDS chap, xv 
 
 Life, Live, Leave. A. S. Uf, life ; Itbban, to live ; be-lif-an, 
 to remain; lde/-an, to leave behind. From the Idg. root 
 *letp, to smear, to adhere; Lith. lip-tt (is. pr. Itmp-u), to 
 stick to ; Russ. lip-ktj, sticky ; L. lippus, blear-eyed (as if 
 sticky) ; Gk. XiTr-os, fat, oSeicjieLv, to smear, anoint ; Skt. lip, 
 np, to anoint. 
 
 Light, sb. A. S. leoh-/ ; Goth, liuh-ath ; O. Ir. loche, 
 lightning, luach-te\ white hot (//=hot); W. Hug, a gleam, 
 lluch-ed, pi., lightnings; Lith. lauk-as, adj., marked with a 
 blaze (as cattle) ; Russ. luc\ a ray ; L. luc-ere, to shine, lux, 
 light ; Arm. lois, light ; Gk. XevK-oy, white ; Skt. ruck, to shine, 
 rok-as, sb., light. From Idg. root *leuq, to shine. 
 
 Light, adj., not heavy. A. S. leoh-t (for *lih-t) ; Goth. 
 leih-ts (for *lenh'toz) ; Lith. lengw-as. Without the nasal n ; 
 Russ. I'egk-ij ; L. leu-is ) Gk. e'-Xax-vs, small ; Skt. lagh-us, 
 ragh-us, active, light. Idg. root *leng{w)h. 
 
 Loan. O. Norse Idn, a loan, from Ijd, to lend. Goth. 
 leihw-an, to lend ; O. Ir. Uc-im, leic-im, I leave ; Lith. lik-ti, 
 to remain ; L. linqu-ere, to leave ; Gk. Xt/xTr-avfiv, Xein-eiv, to 
 leave, Xoitt-os, remaining ; Skt. rich, to leave. From the Idg. 
 root *lei/". 
 
 Loud. An initial /i has been lost. A. S. hlU-d) O. Ir. 
 cloth, renowned (cf. W. clod, fame) ; L. in-clu-tus, renowned, 
 from clu-ere, to hear ; Gk. kKv-tos, renowned, kKv-clv, to hear ; 
 Skt. fru-las, heard, from fru, to hear. Cf. W. clywed, to 
 hear ; O. Slav, sluii, to be renowned ; Arm. lu (for ^klti)^ 
 audible; Pers. suricd, melody, song. Allied to E. listen. 
 Idg. root ^kleu. 
 
 § 227. Mark, a march, limit, boundary (more commonly 
 March, from A. F. marche, O. H. G. marcha). A. S. mearc ; 
 Goth, marka ; O. Ir. mruig, bruig, Ir. bru, border ; W. bro, 
 country, region ; L. margo, boundary (whence E. margin) ; 
 Pers. marz, a region. 
 
 Marrow. A. S. mearh ; O. Pruss. musgeno ; Russ. mozg' ; 
 Avest. mazga- ; Pers. maghz ; Skt. majjd. Idg. base *7nazg. 
 
§ 227 INDO-GERMANIC WORDS 191 
 
 Me. a. S. me, mec, ace. ; Ir. and W. mi, me ; Lith. manes, 
 gen., man, dat., man§, ace. ; Russ. menja, gen. and ace., mne, 
 dat. ; L. met, gen., mihi, dat., »Z(?, ace. ; Gk. e/aou, /noi), gen., 
 ^\Loi, /loi, dat., e/xe, /AC, acc. ; Pers. »2(2«, I ; Skt. mama, me, 
 gen. ; mahyam, me, dat., mam, ma, acc. 
 
 Mead, a honeyed drink. A. S. medu ; Ir. mid ; W. medd ; 
 Lith. middus; Russ. ^f<3?', Gk. /xe^v; Pers. ;«<2y, wine; Avest. 
 madu, honey ; Skt. viadhu. Idg. type *medhu. 
 
 Meed. A. S. med, meord ; Goth, mizdo ; Russ. mzda, 
 meed, gain ; Gk. fiurOos, pay ; Pers. w?^0^, wages ; Skt. midham 
 (for *mizdham), reward. 
 
 Mid. a. S. midd-, Goth, midjis; Ir. ;;«(i- (as in mid-nog t, 
 midnight); Russ. meMu, prep., between; L. fnedius', Gk. 
 /leVoy, ^ol. fiea-aos ; Pers. miydn, the middle, the waist ; Skt. 
 madhyas, adj. Idg. type *medhios. 
 
 Milk, vb. A. S. melcan, str. vb. ; O. Ir. blig-im, I milk ; 
 L. mulg-ere ; Gk. d-/ieXy-6ii/ ; Lith. milsz-ti, to stroke, to milk ; 
 Russ. mel{e)zit{e), to milk, moloko, milk ; Pers. mush-tan, to rub 
 (Richardson), from the Avestic root "^marz-, to wipe (Horn); 
 Skt. mrj, causal marj-aya, to wipe, rub, stroke, wipe away, 
 remove. Idg. root *meleg. 
 
 Mind. A. S. ge-mynd, memory, mun-an, to think ; Goth. 
 ga-munds, remembrance ; O. Ir. men-ma, thought, mind ; Lith. 
 min-eli, to think upon, ai-mintis, remembrance ; Russ. mn-it{e), 
 to think ; L. mens (gen. ment-is), mind, me-min-i, I remember ; 
 Gk. fxv-dofxai, 1 remember, fiev-os, courage, wrath, fxe-fiov-a, I 
 wish, yearn; Skt. man, to think, man-as, mind, ma-tis, 
 thought. Idg. root '^men. 
 
 Moon. A. S. mdna ; Goth, mena ; Lith. menu, moon, 
 month ; Ir. mi, month ; W. mis, month ; Russ. mes-jats , moon, 
 month ; L. mensis, month ; Gk. /H7W7, moon, /x^y, month ; Pers. 
 mdh, moon, month ; Skt. mas, moon, month, mdsas, month. 
 Idg. root */«/, to measure ; as the moon measures the months. 
 
 Mother. A. S. modor ; Ir. and Gael, mathair ; Lith. mote ; 
 Russ. mati/)] L. mater \ Gk. ixr^rr^p; Pers. mddar\ Skt. mdtd. 
 
192 INDO-GERMANIC WORDS chap.xv 
 
 Mouse. A. S. mm ; G. maus ; O. Slav, myli) Russ. myl{e) ; 
 L. ftius) Gk. ixvi; Pers. mush) Skt. mush-as ] Arm. mu-kn 
 (cf. Skt. dimin. mush-ikas) ; Alban. /^^^. 
 
 Murder. A. S. mordor, from mord, death ; cf. G. mord, 
 murder, death ; O. Ir. ?narb, dead ; W. marw, to die, marw, 
 dead ; L. mor-i, to die, /^^^^/-j-, death, mort-uus, dead ; Lith. 
 mir-it, to die, mirtis, death ; Russ. 7neret{e), to die, ;;2(?r', the 
 plague, smertie) (for '^su-mert{e), death ; Arm. meranim, I die, 
 Arm. mard,\2. man (lit. '^mortal'); Gk. /Sporoy, mortal; Pers. 
 murdan, to die, //z^rc?, a man ; Skt. marlas, a mortal, a man ; 
 mrtas, dead, /wf/Zj, death, /??r, to die. Idg. root *7//^r, to die. 
 §228. Naked. A. S. nacod; Goth, nakwaths; O. Ir. 
 ;?of^/, Ir. nochd^ W. w^^//^; Lith. nogas, older form nugas ] 
 Russ. nagoj \ L. nudus\ Skt. nagnas. 
 
 Name. A. S. «^w^ ; Goth. «(2wJ ; Gk. oW/ia. Also O. Ir. 
 ainm (with a different gradation), W. enw ; O. Pruss. emmens ; 
 O. Slav, imi ; Russ. imja ; Arm. a««« ; Alban. emm. Also 
 L. nometi) Skt. ndma. 
 
 Nave, Navel. A. S. w^z^ (nabu)^ na/ela {nabula) ; Lettish 
 «^<5^, navel ; O. Pruss. nabis, navel ; Skt. nabhyani, nave of 
 a wheel. Also Pers. naf, navel ; Skt. ndbhis, nave, hub, also 
 navel. Also (with a different gradation) O. Ir. wibh'u, imli'u, 
 navel ; L. umbilicus, navel, umbo, the boss of a shield ; Gk. 
 6fi(l)a\6s, navel. 
 
 New. a. S. niwe, neowe ; Goth, niujts ; O. Ir. niie, niiidey 
 Ir. and Gael, nuadh] W. newydd] Lith. naujas ; Russ. /^t?^^'; 
 O. Pruss. nawans ; L. «(?z/2^j ; Gk. I'e'os ; Pers, naw ; Arm. «(?r ; 
 Skt. navas, navyas. 
 
 Night. A. S. niht, neaht\ Goth, nahts ; O. Ir. nocht, Ir. 
 nochd) W. «(7j,- Lith. nakfts] Russ. noch{e); L. ;z^jtr (gen. 
 noctis) ; Gk. I'l'^ (gen. i'vkt-6s) ; Alban. «^/e ; Skt. ?takh'~, f. 
 Idg. base *noq-t-. 
 
 Nine. A. S. nigon\ Goth. ;z2ij^« ; O. Ir. noi{n) ; Ir.naoi; 
 W. ««w ; O. Pruss. newints, ' ninth ' ; Lith. dewym, m. (for 
 *newym', by the influence of deszimlis, ' ten ') ; Russ. devjal{e) 
 
§ 228 INDO-GERMANIC WORDS 193 
 
 (for ^nevjat{e), by the influence of desjat{e), ' ten ') ; L. notiem ; 
 Gk. ivvia ; Arm. inn ; Alban. ne7ide ; Pers. nuh ; Avest. and 
 Skt. nava. 
 
 Nose. A. S. nosu, also nasu ; L. ndres, nostrils, ndsus, 
 nose ; Lith. w^^jzj ; Russ. nos ; Skt. ndsd, fern, dual and sing., 
 nostrils, nose. (The gradation varies.) 
 
 Now. A. S. nuj nu ; Goth, nu ; L. nu-nc ; Gk. w, j/C-j/ ; 
 Lith. nil ; O. Slav, ny-ne; Russ. ny-n^', Skt. w/^, ;??^. 
 
 § 229. Of, Off. A. S. o/-, Goth, a/-, O. H. G. ^3«, ab ; 
 L. «:(5 ; Gk. OTTO ; Skt. apa. 
 
 Quean, A. S. cwene, a woman (allied to cwen, queen) ; 
 Goth, kwino (allied to kwens, woman) ; Ir. ben ; W„ bun ; 
 O. Pruss. genna, woman ; Russ. ^ena ; Gk. yvvr]^ Boeotian 
 ^avd] Arm. kin ; Pers. zan ; Skt. gnd^ a divine woman, allied 
 to jam, a woman. The original initial sound was that of 
 the Idg. labio-velar g. 
 
 Quick. A. S. cwt'c^ cwicu\ allied to the shorter type seen 
 in the Goth. kwius\ Ir. be6\ W. byw\ \!\\ki, gywas \ O.Slav. 
 hvu\ ^Vi%'&.livoj\ L.muus; Skt. Jivas. Cf. Gk. ^lo?, life; 
 Pers. zJf life ; zistan, to live ; jtvah, quicksilver. The initial 
 sound is the same as that in quean (above). 
 
 § 230. Raw. Initial h has been lost. A. S. hreaw. 
 Allied to L. cru-dus, raw ; Skt. kru-ras, sore, cruel ; Ir. cr-d, 
 blood ; W. crau ; Lith. kraujas, blood ; Russ. krov(e), blood ; 
 L. cru-or ; Gk. Kpea?, raw flesh ; Skt. kravyam, raw flesh. 
 
 Reave. A. S. reafian, to despoil, from reo/an, to break; 
 allied to Lith. rupas, rough, uneven, ruple, rough bark on 
 trees ; L. rumpere (pp. ruptus), to break ; Pers. rubudan, to 
 seize, to rob ; Skt. lup, lump, to seize, to rob (pp. luptas\ rup, 
 causal ropaya, to break off. Idg. root *reup. 
 
 Red. a. S. read ; Goth, rauds ; Ir. and Gael, ruadh ; W. 
 rhudd] Lith. rauda, sb., red colour; Russ. ruda, blood; Pol. 
 rudawy, red ; L. ruber ; Gk. ipv6p6s ; Skt. rudhiras. From 
 the Idg. root "^reudh, to be red. 
 
 Right. A. S. rihl) O.Merc, rehr, Goth. raihts\ O. Ir. 
 
194 INDO-GERMANIC WORDS chap, xv 
 
 recht, sb., right, law, rig-im, I stretch out ; W. rhaith, sb., 
 right ; L. rectus, pp. of regere, to rule ; Lith. razyh\ to stretch 
 out ; Gk. opeynu, to stretch out ; Skt. rjus, straight, right, just. 
 From the Idg. root *reg, to stretch out, straighten, rule. 
 
 § 231. Same. A. S. same, adv., sam-, prefix, together ; 
 Icel. samr, adj., same; Goth, sama, same, samana, together; 
 O. Ir. samail, a like shape, Ir. samhail, similar; W. hafal, 
 similar; L. similis, like; Gk. o\x.6s, same, b\ivik6s, like, a\xa, 
 together ; Russ. sam! , self ; Pers. ham, likewise ; hamdn, only, 
 that same, hamdnd, like, again ; hdmun, a (desert) plain ; Skt. 
 samas, similar, like, smooth, level; samdnas, similar; sam^ 
 together. 
 
 Seven. A. S. seofon, sibun ; Irish seacht, O. Ir. secht n- ; W. 
 saith) Lith. sepiyni; O. Slav, sedmi; Russ. sem(e) ; L. septem ; 
 Gk. fWa; Arm. evt'n) Alban. slate; Pers. haft; Avest. hapta; 
 Skt. sapta. Idg. type ^septdm or "^septm. 
 
 Sew. a. S. siwian; Goth, siujan; L. j-^/^r^; Gk. -o-veti' in 
 Ka(T-(Tiieiv, to sew together; Lith. siuti; Russ. shtt{e); Skt. j/z^. 
 Idg. root *^zVtt or ^siu. 
 
 Sister. A. S. sweostor ; Icel. systir ; Goth, swistar ; O. Ir. 
 j/z^r, fiur ; W. chwaer ; O. Pruss. swestro ; Lith. j-^j-^S ; O. Slav, 
 and Russ. sestra ; L. soror\ Arm. >('Vr; Pers. kJidhar; Skt. 
 
 Sit. a. S. sittan; Goth, j'//^;^ ; W. seddu; Lith. sed'eti; 
 O. Slav, j^^/d?, a saddle, j/j"//, to sit; Russ. i-^ls-^^) (i p. s. pr. 
 sjadu); L. seder e; Gk. e^ojuat, I sit; Pers. ni-shastan, to sit 
 down ; Skt. sad, to sit. Idg. root *sed. 
 
 Six. a. S. six ; Goth. 6'^/>^j' ; O. Ir. si; W. chwech ; Lith. 
 j-z^jz?'; Russ. shest{e); L. j(?.:\;; Gk. e^; Pers. shash; Skt. 
 i'-^^j-/^. Idg. types "^sweks, '^seks. 
 
 Speed. A. S. sped^ from spdw-a7i, to succeed ; Lith. sp'e-ti, 
 to have opportunity ; O. Slav, spe-ti, to succeed, Russ. spe-t{e), 
 to ripen ; L. spe-s, hope, spa-ttum, room, space ; Skt. sphdy, 
 to grow fat, increase; sphdtis, increase, prosperity. Idg. root 
 *spiy to increase. 
 
§231 LNDO-GERMANIC WORDS 195 
 
 Spurn. A. S. sptirn-atiy to kick against ; Lith. spir-ti^ to 
 push against, kick; L. spern-erc, Gk. anaip-eiv, to struggle; 
 Pers. sipardan, to trample on; Skt. sphur, to throb, to 
 struggle. Idg. root "^spher^ "^sper. 
 
 Stand. A. S. siandan, pt. t. j/J^(base *sta-d) ; Lith. siat-yii^ 
 to place, set, sto-ti, to stand ; Russ. sioJat{e), to stand ; L. 
 sld-re ; Gk. e-a-Trj-v, I stood ; Pers. st/d-dan, to stand ; Skt. 
 s/M, to stand. Idg. root *s//id, *std. 
 
 Star. A. S. sieorra ; Goth, stair-no ; Corn, steren, W. 
 seren ; L. j/^/-/a (for *ster-la) ; Gk. d-or^p ; Arm. astt; Pers. 
 sitdra ; Skt. /ar^. 
 
 Steer, a young ox. A. S. steor ; Goth, stiur ; O. Pruss. 
 taur-is, a bison ; Russ. /?^r', aurochs ; L. taur-us, a bull ; Gk. 
 ravpos ; Pers. sutiir, an animal ; Avest. siaora-, a steer ; Skt. 
 sthuras, sthulas, large, bulky. 
 
 Stream. A. S. stream ; Icel. straum-r (from the Idg. root 
 '^sreu) ; O. Ir. sruatm, sru-th, stream ; W. ffrw-d ; Lith. 
 sraw-eti, to flow ; Russ. struja, a stream ; Gk. p€v-[ia, a flow, 
 flux, rheum, from pe-eiv (for ^o-peF-eiv), to flow; Pers. riid, 
 O. Pers. rauta-, a river ; Skt. srotas, a stream, river, sru-tas, 
 flowing, streaming, pp. of sru, to flow. Idg. root *s?'eu. 
 
 Sweat. A. S. swdet-an, verb, from swdt, sb. ; W. chwys, sb. ; 
 Lettish swed-ri, pi., sweat ; L. sud-or, sb., sud-dre, vb. ; Gk. 
 tS-po)?, sb. ; tSi'o), I sweat ; Arm. k'irin (for '^k'idrti), sb. ; Skt. 
 sved-as, sb., from jz'/i/, to sweat. Idg. root '^sweid. 
 
 Sweet. A. S. swete (for *swotz-), adj. ; swot-e, adv. sweetly ; 
 Goth. j^/-j ; L. sud-uis (for ^sudd-uis)) Gk. 178-1;?; Skt. svdd-us, 
 from jz^a^, to be palatable. Idg. root '^swad. 
 
 Swine, Sow. A. S. swin, a pig ; sugu, su, a sow ; Goth. 
 swein, a swine ; Ir. suig, a pig ; W. hwch ; L. j/Jj", a sow, 
 sjunus, adj., related to swine ; Gk. i!?, a sow ; Russ. svm{e)ja^ 
 a swine, svinoj\ swinish, svinka, a pig; Avest. hu, a boar; 
 Pers. khiik, a hog, sow, pig ; Skt. su-karas, a boar. Idg. root 
 "^seu. 
 
 § 232. Tame. A. S. tarn; Bret, and W. do/', W. do/-t, 
 o 2 
 
196 INDO-GERMANIC WORDS chap, xv 
 
 to tame; L. dom-are, to tame; Gk. dafx-dcip, to tame; Pers. 
 dam, a tame animal; Skt, dam, to tame. 
 
 Tear, vb. A. S. /er-an ; W. dar-7t, a fragment ; Russ. 
 dr-at{e) (i p. s. pr. der-u), to tear ; Lith. dt'r-it, to flay ; Gk. 
 dep-cip, to flay ; Pers. dar-tdan, to tear ; Skt. dJr-nas, pp. clefl:, 
 rent, torn, dar-i, f., a cleft. Idg. root *der. 
 
 Tear, sb. A. S. /ear, /eagor; O. Northumb. ideher\ Goth. 
 iagr) O. Ir. der; W. dagr) O.L. dacruma, L. lacrima ; Gk. 
 daKpv, daKpvfia. 
 
 Ten. a. S. /j^;/ ; O. Merc, /en ; Ir. and Gael. deicA ; W. 
 ^^^; Lith. deszm/z; Russ. des/a/{e) ; L. decern; Gk. fieica; Arm. 
 /^j-;/ ; Alban. d;V/e ; Pers. dak ; Skt. </(2f ^. Idg. type *dehm. 
 
 That. A. S. J>def, n., the; Goth. /^/^, n., that ; Lith. /as, 
 m., /a, f., the ; /at, that ; Russ../(?/(^) (f. /a, n. •/<?), that ; L. -/?^^ 
 (in ?!f-/?^<7', that) ; Gk. t6, n., the ; Skt. /ad, it, that. 
 
 Thatch, sb. A. S. J>dec ; O. Ir. /eck, a house, Ir. /eagk, 
 Gael, /eac/i, /igh, W. /y; Lith. s/'eg'/i, to thatch, s/og-as, 
 a thatch ; L. /eg-ere, to cover, /^^-^, a garment ; Gk. rey-o?, 
 orrey-o?, a roof, (Triy-eiv, to cover ; Skt. s/hag, to cover. Idg. 
 root, "^s/heg, *s/eg, sometimes shortened to */eg. 
 
 Thin. A. S.Jfynne; W. /eneu; Ir. and Gael. /<7«^ ; O. Slav. 
 /inuku', Russ. /onkij] L. /enuis\ Gk. Twaos; Pers. /unuk, 
 slender ; Skt. /anus. From the Idg. root */^«, to stretch. 
 
 Thirst. A. S. pyrst, purs/, sb., pyrs/-an, vb. ; Goth. 
 ihaurs/ei, sb. ; Ir. /(2r/, thirst, //r, (dry) land ; W. /ir, land ; 
 cf. L. /err-a (for */ers-a), land, earth, /orr-ere (for */ors-ere), to 
 dry up, scorch ; Gk. Tepa-opai., I become dry, rapo-dp, a frame 
 on which to dry things ; Arm. /'arshami-vi, I wither, become 
 dry ; Pers. /ish-na, thirsty ; Avestic /arsh-na-, thirst ; Skt. 
 /rsh, to be thirsty, /rshd, /rshnd, thirst. From the Idg. root 
 '^/ers. 
 
 Thou. K.S. pu\ Goth, /hu; Ir. and Gael, /u; W. /i; 
 Lith. /u ; O. Slav, and Russ. /y ; L. /?it ; Gk. <tv, Doric ry ; 
 Arm. dw, Alban. /?'; Pers. and Avest. /u] Skt. /vam. 
 
 Three. A. S. preo ; Goth, /hrets ; Ir., Gael., W. /rt; Lith. 
 
§232 INDO-GERMANIC WORDS 197 
 
 trys) Russ. tri\ L. tres (n. tria)\ Gk. r/aclff (n. r^ia)', Arm. 
 erek' (for */'rf/^') ; Pers. sih, K^fsX.prdyb ; Skt. trayas, masc. 
 pi. Idg. type *treyes, n. pi. m. 
 
 Timber. A. S. timber, building material, whence tmihrian, 
 to build; Go\h. timrjan, to build (from ^timr-)\ O. Ir, dam, 
 in dam-Hag, a stone house, stone church ; Russ. dom\ a house ; 
 L. dom-us, a house ; Gk. So'/x-o?, a house, hk[i-uv, to build ; 
 Skt. dam-as, a house. From the Idg. root "^dejn, to build. 
 
 Tooth. A. S. tod (for */(?«^) ; Goth, tunthus (from the 
 weak grade) ; O. Ir. d^t ; W. dant ; Lith. dant-h ; L. ^<?^/j 
 (gen. dent-is) ; Gk. ofioi;? (gen. oSdi/r-of) ; Arm. a-tamn ; Pers. 
 dand-dn; Avest. dant-an- ; Skt. ^a;z, nom. m., ace. dant-am, 
 later dantas, nom. m. 
 
 Tree. A. S. /r/^, /r/^jze;, tree, timber ; Goth, triu ; O. Ir. 
 dai'r, daur (gen. daracK), Ir. darag, oak ; W. </(?rz£;, oak ; Lith. 
 derwa, pinewood ; Russ. drevo, tree ; Gk. SpCs, tree, oak, hopv, 
 spear ; L. larix (for "^darix), a larch ; Aiban. ^rz/, wood ; 
 Pers. ddr, wood, beam, tree (Richardson); Avest. dduru, 
 wood ; Skt. ddru, wood, a deodar. 
 
 Tuesday. A. S. Ttwes dxg, the day of Tiw, the god of 
 war. (The divinity Tiw signified the same as the L. Mars, 
 but the word is allied formally to L. deus and io/u-piter; also 
 to L. dies, day.) O. Ir. in-diu, to-day, dia, day; W. dyw, 
 day ; O. Pruss. deiws, God (gen. deiw-as) ; Lith. dew-as, God ; 
 Russ. divo, a wonder, miracle ; L. deus, God, diu-us, Godlike ; 
 dies, day; Dies-piter, lU-piter, Jupiter; Gk. Zeu? (gen. ^i-6s\ 
 Jupiter, Zeus ; Arm. tiv, day ; Pers. div, a demon ; Skt. devas, 
 adj., godlike, sb., God, diva, by day, divyas, celestial, dyaus, 
 sky, day. Idg. root *dyeu, *deiw, to shine (Uhlenbeck). 
 
 Two, Twain. A. S. twegen, m., twd, f. and n. ; Goth, twai, 
 two; Ir. and Gael, da; W. daw, Lith. dwi', O. Pruss. dwai\ 
 Russ. dva', L. ^/z^^; Gk. hvo, Svw; Pers. ^^; Skt. dvau, m., 
 ^z*^, f. and n. 
 
 §233. Udder. K.'S>.uder', O.H.G.utar; luiih. udroti, 
 vb., to have a full udder ; L. uder ; Gk. oy^ap ; Skt. Udhar. 
 
1 98 INDO-GERMANIC WORDS chap, xv 
 
 Un-, neg. prefix. A. S. and Goth, un- ; Ir. and W. an- ; L. 
 in- ; Gk. av-, a- ; Arm. a7i- ; Avest. an-^ a- ; Skt. an-, a-. 
 
 §234. Warm. A. S. wearm-, Ir. gorm, hot, gor-aim, 
 I heat ; W. gwres, heat, warmth ; Lith. garas, vapour ; 
 O. Pruss. gorme, heat; Russ. goret{e), to burn; lu. formus, 
 warm; Gk. BepfxSs, warm, ^ep-o/xai, I become hot; Arm. j'erm 
 (withy= dz/i), warm; Vers, gann, warm, gar mi, heat; Skt. 
 gharmas, heat. From the Idg. root *gwher, to glow. 
 
 Was. a. S. wdes, from wes-an, to be ; Goth, was, from 
 wis-an, to be ; Ir. /os-aifn, I rest, stay, dwell ; W. ar-os (for 
 *(p)ara-wos), to stay, wait ; L. Ves-ta, goddess of the hearth 
 or household ; Gk. aa-rv (for "^Fda-rv), a dwelling-place, city ; 
 Skt. vas, to dwell. Idg. root "^wes. 
 
 Water. A. S. wxter] Goth, walo; O.lr. /and, a tear; 
 Lith. wandh, water ; O. Pruss. unds^ water ; Russ. voda ; L. 
 unda, a wave ; Gk. vS-cop (gen. vharo^^^ water ; Arm. get, 
 a river ; Skt. ud-an-, water. Idg. root *z£;^</. 
 
 Wax, vb., to grow. A. S. weaxan; Goth, wahsjan ; allied 
 to O. Ir. 6s, uas, over, above ; Hassal, Hasal (for *oukselos), 
 high ; W. uchel, high ; L. aux-ilium, help (from aug-ere, to 
 increase) ; Gk. av|&), av^avco, I increase ; Lith. auksztas, high ; 
 Skt. w^j/^, to grow up (perf. va-vaksh-a). Idg. root *aweg(w), 
 "^wegiw), in L. aug-ere, with j^ added. 
 
 Weigh, Wain, A. S. weg-an (pt. t. wdeg^, to carry ; Goth. 
 ga-wig-an, to shake up, move about; Lith. wesz-H (i pr. s. 
 wez-u), to carry ; Russ. ves-ti (i pr. s. vez-u), to carry, lead ; 
 L. ueh-ere, to carry; Gk. oxeofxai, I am carried out; Avest. 
 vazaiti, he carries; Skt. vah, to carry. Hence A. S. wdegn, 
 a wain; O.lr. fen, a car; Lith. we^wias] L. uehiaduni; Gk. 
 o^oy; Skt. vahitram, a boat. Cf. Russ. ^'f?^', a load. Idg. 
 root '^wegh. 
 
 White. K.'^.hwtt) (jO\}[i. hweits \ lAih. szwtdus, swidus, 
 bright, shining ; Skt. gvind, to be white. Cf. also Russ. svet*, 
 light, svetat^e), to dawn; Avest. spaeta-, white; Pers. sapid, 
 white ; Skt. gvitras, white' Idg. root ^kweid. 
 
§334 INDO-GERMANIC WORDS 199 
 
 Who, What. W/ia/ is the neuter form (A. S. hwdt-C) from 
 hwd, who. A. S. hwd) Goth, hwas) Ir. and Gael, co, who; 
 W. pwy, who, pa, py, what ; L. qm's (n. quid), who ; Gk. 
 tIs (n. Ti) ; Lith. kas, m., who (f. /^(2) ; O. Slav, ku-to, who ; 
 Russ. /^/^, who, <r/^/^, what ; Pers. cht, what ; Skt. kas, who 
 (Vedic n. kad). 
 
 Widow. A. S. wtduwe; Goth, widuwo', O.lx. fedb^ Ir. 
 feadhb) '^ . gweddw] O.Pruss. widdewu; Russ. vdova\ L. 
 «z'</«^ ; Pers. (5Jz'^; Skt. vidhavd. From the Idg. root *widh, 
 to lack. 
 
 Will, vb. A. S. willatt; Goth, wiljan) Lith. zi;^////, to 
 propose, to wish, wale, sb., will ; Russ. velet{e), to order, com- 
 mand, volja, the will ; L. w^//^ (i pr. s. nolo) ; Skt. z^/*, to 
 choose, varas, choice. Idg. root *wel. 
 
 Win. a. S. winnan ; allied to W. gwen, a smile (of 
 pleasure); L. iien-us, desire, uen-erdri, to honour, uen-ta, 
 favour; Skt. van, to beg, ask for, honour. Further allied to 
 A. S. wen, expectation, and E. ween ; A. S. wunian, to dwell, 
 and E. wont, custom. Idg. root "^wen. 
 
 Wind, sb. A. S. zvind] Goth, winds ; W. gwyni ; L. uentus. 
 Formed, as a pres. part., from the Idg. root '^we, to blow ; cf. 
 Goth, waian, to blow ; O. Slav, vejati, to blow, vetru, wind ; 
 Russ. vejai{e), to blow, veier , wind ; Lith. wejas, wind ; O.Ir. 
 /eih, wind ; Gk. armi, I blow, pres. part. ace. m. a^vra (for 
 d-FiVT-a), blowing ; Pers. 6dd, wind ; Skt. vdias, wind, vd, to 
 blow. Allied also to E. weather. 
 
 Wit, vb. A. S. witan, to know, wdt, I wot; Goth, witan, 
 to know, wait, I wot. O. Ir. fiss (for "^wid-tu-), knowledge 
 (Stokes) ; L. uld-i, I have seen, I wot, pt. t. of uid-ere, to see ; 
 Gk. olh-a, I wot, from Ih-^lv, to see ; Lith. weizd-mi, I see, 
 perceive, weid-as, the face; Russ. vid-et{e), to see, vid', the 
 look ; ved-at{e), to know ; Arm. git-em, I know ; Skt. vid, to 
 perceive, ved-a, I know. Idg. root "^weid. 
 
 Withy, Withe. A. S. wicfig, a willow (hence the sense of 
 pliant rod) ; W. gwden (from "^weit-), a withe ; Lith. wytis, 
 
200 INDO-GERMANIC WORDS chap, xv 
 
 a willow twig, a withe, lil-wittis, a willow (from Ull-as, gray) ; 
 Russ. vii[e), to wind, to twine, vetv{e), a twig, vitsa, a withe ; 
 L. tdt-is, a vine, m-ere, to twine ; Gk. Ir-ia, a willow ; Pers. 
 bid, a willow ; Skt. ve-tras, a large reed, a cane. From the 
 Idg. root "^wei, to wind. 
 
 Wool. A. S. wull; Goth, wulla ; Irish olann ; W. gwlan ; 
 Lith. wilna ; Russ. volna [perhaps L. uelliis, fleece, or less 
 probably Idna, wool] ; Skt. urnd, wool. 
 
 Work. A. S. weorc, were ; Gk. epy-ov, work, opy-avov, an 
 implement ; Arm. gore, work ; Pers. warz, gain, acquisition ; 
 warz-idan, to practise. Idg. root '^werg. 
 
 Worth, vb., to become. (Obsolescent.) A. S. weord-an^ 
 to become ; Goth, wairth-an ; W. gwerth-yd, a spindle ; L. 
 uert-ere, to turn ; Lith. wart-yti, to turn hither and thither, to 
 turn round ; Russ. vert-it{e), to turn, bore, vert-lo, an auger ; 
 Pers. gash-tan, to turn, to become, gard-idan, to become ; 
 Skt. vrt, to turn, revolve, also to remain, abide, exist ; vrttis, 
 course of action, conduct. Idg. root '^wert. 
 
 § 235. Yard, an enclosed space. A. S. geard, an 
 enclosure ; Icel. gardr (whence E. garth) ; Goth, gards, 
 a house ; O. Irish gort, a field, lub-gort, a garden ; L. horius ; 
 Gk. xopTo?, a court-yard. Idg. root "^gher, to hold. 
 
 Ye. a. S. ge, nom., ye ; eower, gen., of you (whence 
 your)] eow, dat. and ace, you; Goih.jus, ye; lAiKjus, ye; 
 Gk. v-iifh, ye; ^k\.. yu-yam, ye. 
 
 Year. A. S. gear, ger ; Goth, jer ; Russ. jar{e), spring- 
 corn ; Bohem.y^r, spring ; Kv^ss.jarka, a yearling ewe ; Avest. 
 ydr-, year ; Gk. Z>p-os, a season, year, ap-a, season, hour. Cf. 
 Skt.yd-tafn, a course, past time. 
 
 Yearn, to long for. A. S. giern-an, from georn, adj., 
 desirous ; Goth, gairnjan, from -gairtis, desirous (Teut. root 
 *^<?r). Allied to L. horior, I encourage, hor-tdri, to exhort ; 
 Gk. xap-a, joy, x«'p-f*^j to rejoice ; Skt. hary, to desire. Idg. 
 root '^gher, to desire. 
 
 Yeast. A. S. gist) Du. gest, gist; W. tas, that which 
 
§235 INDO-GERMANIC WORDS 201 
 
 pervades, ias-u, to pervade with a quality ; Gk. ii-nv (for *^eo-- 
 iiv\ to boil, Cfo--rdy, boiled, boiling hot; '^iVi. yas,yas-ya, to 
 bubble, boil, heat oneself. Idg. root '^yes, to ferment or boil. 
 
 Yellow. A. S. geolu ; Lith. zelzvys, a green stem, ^el-h\ 
 to become green, ^al-as, green ; Russ. 2^/-z*<?, herbs, zel-enyj, 
 green ; Gk. x^-6r], young verdure of trees (allied to Gk. x^^-h, 
 gall, L. /el, E. ^«//) ; Skt. hari's, yellow, hari-tas, greenish, 
 yellowish. Idg. root "^-ghel. 
 
 Yoke. A. S. geoc ; Goth, juk ; W. tau ; Lith. jung-as ; 
 Russ. 2^-^ ; L. iug-um ; Gk. ivy-ov ; Skt. ytig-am. Cf. Skt. 
 j;«;*, to join or yoke together; L. lung-ere, to join. Idg. root 
 *yeug. 
 
 Young. A. S. geong, giung ; Goth, juggs (written for 
 *jungs)] Teut. *yung'OZ, short for *yuwung-oz, Cf. L. 
 iuuenc-us, a young heifer; W. ieuanc, young. Also (from 
 the base *yuwen-), L. iuuen-is, young ; Russ. junyj (with 
 initial y=j^). 
 
CHAPTER XVI 
 
 SOME RESULTS 
 
 § 236. The previous Chapter furnishes some interesting 
 results. We find that many words were known to several of 
 the Indo-germanic groups, and are to be found in Asia as 
 well as Europe. We can, to a certain extent, distribute them 
 into categories, as follows. 
 
 (a) Terms of relationship, and the like : — brother, daugh- 
 ter, father, mother, sister ; kin, widow. We may here add : — 
 guest, quean. 
 
 {d) Parts of the body, and the like : — arm, brow, chin, ear, 
 elbow, foot, heart, knee, marrow, navel, nose, tooth ; tear, sb., 
 udder (of a cow). 
 
 (c) Birds and animals : — beaver, crane, cow, ewe, goose, 
 hart, hound, mouse, sow (swine), steer; feather (of a bird), 
 horn (of an animal), wool. 
 
 (d) Seasons : — day, harvest, night, year. Natural objects, 
 and the like : — apple, birch, bough, east, frost, haulm, light, 
 moon, star, stream, tree, water, wind, withy (withe). 
 
 (e) Home and employments : — acre, axle, door, dough, lea, 
 mark (a boundary), mead, nave (of a wheel), thatch, timber, 
 wain, work, yard (a court), yeast, yoke. 
 
 {/) Miscellaneous substantives : — bottom, Hfe, loan, love, 
 meed, mind, murder, name, speed, sweat, thirst. 
 
 {g) Some adjectives: — foul, full, lief, light, loud, mid, 
 naked, new, quick, raw, red, right, same, sweet, tame, thin, 
 warm, white, yellow, young. 
 
 {k) Numerals : — eight, five, four, hundred, nine, one, seven, 
 six, ten, three, two. 
 
§ 236 THE ENGLISH HORSE 203 
 
 {t) Pronouns: — I, me, that, thou, what^ who, ye (you). 
 Adverb : — now. Preposition : — of (off). 
 
 (k) Verbs : — am, are, be, is, was. Also : — bear, bid, bind, 
 choose, do, ear (plough), eat, fare, know, lean, lick, lie (recline), 
 live, milk, reave, sew, sit, spurn, stand, tear, wax (grow), 
 weigh, will, win, wit, work, worth (become), yearn. 
 
 § 237. This list is obviously imperfect, but it may suffice 
 to give at least a general idea of the nature of the words that 
 were most widely spread. Further information can easily be 
 obtained from works that deal particularly with the civilization 
 of the Indo-germanic peoples. This is hardly the place to 
 enter into fuller particulars ; otherwise, many words might 
 be discussed having reference to interesting objects. To 
 take a single obvious omission, I have not given the name 
 for the horse, because the word ^ horse ', though allied to the 
 Lat. curs-US, a course, and curr-ere, to run, is not known 
 outside the Teutonic languages. Nevertheless, there was a 
 wide-spread name for it, showing that the animal was familiar 
 to all the Indo-germanic tribes. We find, e. g. the Skt. agvas, 
 Pers. asp, Gk. Xkkos, imros, L. eguus (fem. equa), O. Ir. ech, 
 Gael, each, W. eb-ol, dimin., a colt ; Lith. aszwa, f., a mare, 
 Goth, aihwa-, in the comp. aihwa-iundi, a ' horse '-bramble, 
 i. e. a rough bramble, A. S. eoh, eh. But the A. S. name was 
 only used in poetry ; in common language the name was 
 hors, which superseded the earlier synonym. Perhaps the 
 form eoh (or eJi) had become too attenuated; it represents 
 an early Teut. type '^ehw-oz, and the form that resulted from 
 the loss of the nom. suffix -oz was not a happy one. 
 
 § 238. I have also purposely omitted the word eye, owing 
 to the uncertainty of its etymology. The L. oc-ulus, Russ. 
 ok-o, Lith. ak-is, Skt. ak-shi. Arm. ak-n, * eye,' suggest a 
 Goth, equivalent "^ago. But the actual Goth, form is aug-o ; 
 and as the Teut. a and au are never found to belong to 
 varying gradations of the same vowel-sound, we cannot 
 admit of any connexion (as to sound) between the Latin and 
 
ao4 SOME RESULTS chap, xvi 
 
 the Teutonic forms. An ingenious suggestion has been made 
 that the orig. Teut. '^agb was altered to augo by association 
 with the Goth, auso, the ear. But this must remain a mere 
 conjecture, from the nature of the case. 
 
 § 239. I now pass on to a new consideration. It has 
 been shown above, in Ch, XIII, that there is a considerable 
 number of English words that have their equivalents in San- 
 skrit. It is true that Sanskrit is no longer a spoken language, 
 but it has given rise to a large number of living words in the 
 modern dialects of India. It follows that we ought to find in 
 India, even at the present day, a goodly number of English 
 words, or rather, their equivalents. The corresponding words 
 are, however, necessarily much disguised, both by the ' sound- 
 shifting' from which the Teutonic languages once suffered, 
 and from a difference of vocalization. The Englishman who 
 listens to the talk of a native of India would probably fail, in 
 almost every case, to perceive any relationship to his native 
 tongue ; but the student of philology can nevertheless detect 
 it, and the enquiry is of much interest. This subject has, in 
 fact; been considered in 'Five Lectures delivered at the 
 Queen s College, Benares, by C. M. Mulvany, M.A., B.Litt., 
 sometime Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Benares, 
 published by the author ; 1 9 1 1 .' Mr. Mulvany has been so 
 good as to send me a copy of this book, because one of the 
 authorities which he used was my Etymological Dictionary. 
 He says that he has ' conveyed ' his results from Brugmann, 
 Fick, Horn, Prellwitz, Kluge, and others; and I now beg 
 leave to 'convey' examples from his work to mine. The 
 words which he gives are all to be found, he tells us, in Piatt's 
 Dictionary of Urdu and Hindi, and he calls them Hindi ; but 
 I only include such as are also given in the old Hindustani- 
 English Dictionary by D. Forbes, LL.D., London, 1848. In 
 nearly every case Forbes gives just the same words, with the 
 same spellings. The numbers included below in a parenthesis 
 refer to the pages of Mr. Mulvany's book. 
 
§ 239 HINDI COGNATES 205 
 
 § 240. The H. (Hindi) bh corresponds to the Skt. hh, and 
 becomes h whenever the Skt. bh does so ; § 184. The follow- 
 ing are examples of E. and H. equivalents : — 
 
 E. bind'y H. bdhdhnd, to tie ; Skt. bandh, to bind, to tie (91). 
 E. bough ; A. S. bdh, orig. ' arm ' ; H. bdhh^ the upper arm ; 
 
 Skt. bdhus, arm (87). 
 E. brother \ H. bhdt] Skt. base bhrdtr (5). 
 E. brow, H. bhauh, eyebrow; Skt. bhrus (14). 
 E. brown ; H. bhurd, brownish ; Skt. ba-bhrus (89). 
 The following are closely connected : — 
 E. be ; H. bhqyd, was ; Skt. a-bhav-am, I was, first pret. 
 
 of bhu, to be (88). 
 E. bear; H. bhar^ full as much as; Skt. bhar-as, adj., 
 
 bearing, sb., burden, quantity, bulk, from bhr, to bear 
 
 (88). 
 § 241. The H. / corresponds to Skt. j, Idg. palatal g) 
 
 E. f , k. 
 E. kin ; H. Jan, a person, j'and, a person, a son, jannat, 
 
 birth; Skt.y^w^j, a race, Gk. yeVos (85). 
 E. know; Yl.jdnnd, to know; ^kX.jnd (85). 
 E. comb; H. jabrd, jaw; Skt. jambhas, a tooth, jaws 
 
 (85); see §189. 
 But sometimes the E c answers to Skt. and H. g, Idg. 
 labio-velar^; see § 194. 
 
 E. cal/\ H. gdbh, pregnancy, gdbh-in, pregnant ; Skt. 
 
 garbh-as, embryo (85). 
 E. cow ; H. gde, cow (printed gd,e by Forbes, where the 
 
 comma within the word denotes a very light pause in 
 
 the utterance of the word, requiring, as it were, a fresh 
 
 impulse of breath) ; Skt. gaus, a bull (85). 
 In some words beginning with the same Idg. gw, E. has 
 initial qu; and Skt. may have/ 
 
 E. quick ; allied to H. ji, life i^jtid, alive, Forbes), find, to 
 
 live; Skt.yz>, to live (85). 
 § 242. The E. d answers to H. and Skt. dh, which be- 
 
2o6 SOME RESULTS chap, xvi 
 
 comes d before another aspirate in the same syllable ; or dh 
 when followed by Skt. r, which disappears. 
 
 E. dare ; H. dhiih, impudent, presumptuous (lit. daring) ; 
 
 Skt. dhrshia-, bold, impudent (88). 
 E. day (hot time) ; H. ddh, sb._, burning, ddhnd, to burn ; 
 
 Skt. dah, to burn, ni-ddgh-as, hot season (52). 
 E. eight; H. dth', Skt. ashtau (6). 
 § 243. The E./ answers to H. and Skt. p. See § 182. 
 E. far ; H. par-am, first ; Skt. par-a-mas, farthest 
 
 (81). 
 
 E. fang ; allied to A. S. fon, to seize, L. pang-ere, to 
 
 fasten, fix, set; also to H. past, a net, tether, Skt. 
 
 pdgas, a tether, snare, from pag, to bind (35). 
 Y.. father; H. and Skt./z'/<2 (5). 
 E. fern ; H. pdn, a betel-leaf ; Skt. parn-am, a feather, 
 
 wing, leaf, betel-leaf (81). The fern is here likened to 
 
 a feather. 
 'E.five; Yi.pdhch; Skt./<2«^/^«, five (80). 
 'E.fold, sb.; H. paltl, a bandage, Skt. paft; allied to Skt. 
 
 /^//aj, a fold ; see § 182. 
 E. foot; H. />a^«, feet, pi. of pair, foot ; Skt. pddas, 
 
 a foot (15). 
 E./^//; U.pUrd, full; Skt. /)?^rij^«^, full (81). 
 E. greedy ; H. ^/.j/^/^, a vulture ; Skt. grdhras, a vulture, 
 
 ixomgrdh, to be greedy (48). 
 § 244. The E. h answers (in some cases) to H. s, Skt. (. 
 
 See §188. 
 E. hone; H. sdn, a whetstone; Skt. gdnas, a whetstone 
 
 (Uhlenbeck), f^^ gi, to sharpen (34). 
 E. ho7'n ; allied to H. sing, a horn ; Skt. grhg-am, a horn ; 
 
 Gk. Kopvfi^os, highest point, Kepas, horn (13). 
 E. hound; H. j-^^zw, swdn^ hound; Skt. gvd (gen. gunas), 
 
 hound; Gk. kvchv (29). 
 E. hundred; A. S. >^?^«</; H. sau; Skt. f^/^?;z (29). 
 § 245. E. marrow ; H. maghz (Forbes) ; Skt. majjan. 
 
§ 243 HINDI COGNATES 207 
 
 E. me ; H. maih^ I ; Pers. man, I ; Skt. mam, ma, me, 
 
 ace. (11). 
 E. mind', H. man, mind; Skt. maitas^ mind (18). 
 E. mother', H. /«<zz'; Skt. vidtd (5). 
 E. mouse', H. waj; Skt. mushas (19). 
 E. murder \ cf. H. mama, to die; Skt. maras, death (12). 
 § 246. E. ;^«z7; H. «^>^>^, finger-nail; Skt. «^>^^i7/7Z (13). 
 E. naked] H. nahgd, naked ; Skt. nagnas (85). 
 E. navel', H. «a3>^ (Mulvany); Skt. ndhhis (13). 
 E. «2«^; H. w^z^; Skt. ««z;^ (6). 
 
 E. ^z;^r: H. upar, above; Skt. upari, above, over (12). 
 § 247. E. seven ; H. sdt'^ Skt. sapta (6). See § 200. 
 E. sevu', H. j^/, thread; Skt. sutram, thread, from siv, to 
 
 sew (8). 
 E. six; H. chha', Skt. j/mj^ (ii). 
 E. son-, cf. H. sut, a son ; Skt. sutas, a son, from jw, to 
 
 beget, whence also sunus, a son (8). 
 E. SOW', H. suar, a wild boar; Skt. su-karas, a boar (6). 
 E. sweet) H. sawdd, relish, flavour; Skt. svddas, (good) 
 
 flavour (5). 
 § 248. The E. / answers to H. and Skt. d', § 186. 
 E. tear, vb. ; H. dardr, a crack, rent (Forbes); Skt. 
 
 daranam, a splitting. 
 E. ten; H. das', Skt. daga (78). 
 E. tooth', H. ddht; Skt. dantas (85), 
 E. /^^; H. </(9; Skt. dvdu, dvd (85). 
 The E. th answers to H. and Skt. / ; § 185). 
 E. thin ; H. tan, the body, person (cf. tannd, to stretch) ; 
 
 Skt. tanus, adj., thin; as sb., the body, person (79). 
 E thirst ; H. tis, thirst (cf. tishna, thirsty, Forbes) ; Skt. 
 
 trsh, to thirst, trshnd, thirst (80). 
 E. thow, H. tH', Skt. tvam, thou (79). 
 E. three', H. tin-, Skt. trt, ace. /rm (79). 
 § 249. E. war?n. Supposed to be allied to the Skt. 
 
 gharmas, heat (§195); cf. H. ghdm, sunshine (51). 
 
2o8 SOME RESULTS chap, xvi 
 
 But the E. w usually answers to Skt. v^ H. b. 
 
 E. was, from A. S. wes-an, to be, cognate with Skt. vas, to 
 dwell, remain, whence vas-tyam, a dwelling, house ; cf. 
 H. has-ti, a village (22). 
 
 E. wear ; A. S. werian, Goth, wasjan, to clothe ; cf. Skt. 
 vas-tram, a garment; H. bas-iar, garments (24). 
 
 E. wether; Skt. vat-sas, a yearling, a calf; H. bachhrd, 
 a calf (20). 
 
 E. wind, from the root *we, to blow, Skt. vd ; Skt. vd-tas, 
 wind; H. bdo, wind (17). 
 
 The 'E.y sometimes answers to Idg.^ (Skt. j/, H.y). 
 
 ^.yoke\ Skt yugapi, a yoke, a pair; H.jug, a pair (85). 
 Cf. H.juyd, a yoke (Forbes). 
 
 'E. young I Skt.yuvan-; H. jawdn, young {^^). 
 
 § 250. The above sixty examples are quite sufficient to 
 prove the point, viz. that some Hindi words are still in use 
 in India which are really the precise equivalents of modern 
 English ones, and may be derived from the same Indo- 
 germanic types, in spite of such differences (introduced by 
 a long lapse of time) as now appear. And there are other 
 words which, though not precisely equivalent, are derived 
 (both in English and Hindi) from the same Indo-germanic 
 root, and are therefore cognate. I beg leave to recapitulate 
 the results, giving the English form in roman type and the 
 Hindi in italics. 
 
 The following may fairly be considered as equivalent or 
 allied ; note that there is sometimes a change in the sense. 
 
 Bind, bahd/ind; hough, bank; hrothQr, b/idt ; hrow, b/iaun; 
 brown, bMrd ; calf, gdbk (pregnancy) ; comb, jabrd (jaw) ; 
 cow, gde ; day, dd/i (a burning). 
 
 Eight, dt/i ; father, pi'td ; fern, pdn (betel-leaf) ; five, pdnck ; 
 fold, paffi ; foot, pat'r ; full, purd. 
 
 Hone, j^w; hound, swdn; hund{Ted), sau; kin, /«« (person) ; 
 know, jdnnd ; marrow, maghz ; me, main (I) ; mind, man ; 
 mother, mdi\ mouse, mus ; nail, nakh ; naked; nahgd ; navel, 
 7idbh) nine, nau\ over, upar. 
 
§ aso HINDI COGNATES 209 
 
 Seven, sd/; six, chha; sweet, sawdd {s., relish); ten, das; 
 tooth, dan/; two, do; thin, /an (s., person); thirst, /is; thou, 
 /u ; three, /J» ; wether, hachhrd ; wind, to ; yoke, jug (a 
 pair); yo\yci%, jawdn. 
 
 The following words are allied. Be, bhayd (was) ; bear, 
 hhar (full as much as, orig. burden) ; dare, dhi/h (impudent) ; 
 day, ddh (a burning) ; far, param (first) ; fang (that seizes), 
 pdst (net, tether); greedy, giddh (vulture); horn, sing; 
 murder, marnd (to die) ; quick, fi/d (living) ; sew, su/ (thread) ; 
 son, su/ ; sow, suar (boar) ; tear, dardr (a rent) ; warm, ghdm 
 (sunshine) ; was, has/i (village) ; wear, bas/ar (garments). 
 
 § 251. I pass on to another subject. All the examples 
 hitherto given have been chosen frorn native English. But 
 our language abounds with foreign words, notably French 
 and Latin ; indeed, the words of Latin origin are very 
 numerous. These Latin words may be divided into two 
 sets, viz. such as are cognate with or allied to native English 
 words, and such as are not so. 
 
 An example of the former set is the word corner, a deriva- 
 tive from the L. cornu, which is co-radicate with horn. In 
 such a case, we learn nothing new as to the cognate forms, 
 since they have already been considered under the form horn, 
 under which head cognates are also given in my Etymological 
 Dictionary. Similarly grain is allied to the E. corn ; course* 
 to the E. horse ; cri/ic, to the A. S. hrtdder, a large sieve, and 
 to the E. riddle, used in the same sense. Other less obvious 
 cases may be cited, which soon bring us back to roots that 
 are not really new to the student of the native portion of the 
 language. Examples (taken at random) are ex-cel and 
 col-umn, from the root *M, to rise up, appearing again in 
 the E. hol-m ; colour, from the L. col-or, orig. ' a covering, 
 allied to cel-dre, to hide, to cover up, and to the E. hell, hall, 
 and hull (a husk) ; pure, L. pu-rus, allied to the Skt. pu, to 
 purify, and to the great purifier called fire ; and so on. Of 
 course such examples are numerous, and many are interest- 
 
 1843 P 
 
210 SOME RESULTS chap.xvi 
 
 ing ; but I have no space to enlarge upon them. The student 
 who desires to find more may learn a good deal by endeavour- 
 ing to do so. 
 
 § 252. On the other hand, we have words that introduce 
 us to new roots, words to which our native language affords 
 neither clue nor help. I give a few examples. 
 
 Candle ; a very early borrowing from the L. candela, from 
 candere, to shine ; allied to the Skt. chhand, to shine. The 
 form of the root appears to be '^sqend. 
 
 Case ; F. cas^ L. cdsum (ace), from cad-ere, to fall ; allied 
 to Skt. gad, to fall off or out. Root "^kad. 
 
 Chalice ; A. F. chalice, L. calicem (ace), nom. calix, a cup ; 
 allied to Gk. kvKi^ (with v\ = Idg. /), a cup, Skt. kalagas, a 
 jar, a cup. Further allied to calyx, Gk. koKv^, cup of a flower, 
 Skt. kalikd, a bud. Usually derived from the root */^^/, to 
 hide (cover) ; but this must be abandoned, as the Skt. k can 
 only be due to a velar guttural, such as q. 
 
 I purposely refrain from going further, because the chief 
 object of this work is to discuss the native element of the 
 language. Moreover, the etymologies of words of this class 
 can be found without any difficulty in the usual authorities ; 
 see the Latin Etymological Dictionary by Walde, the Greek 
 one by Prellwitz, and Giles's Manual of Comparative Philology. 
 It is worth notice that several well-known and prolific sources 
 occur in the classical languages which are absent from 
 Teutonic. A striking example appears in the case of the 
 Latin dare, to give (whence date, donation, con-done, «fec.), 
 which is cognate with the Russ. dat(e), to give, Gk. didcofii, 
 I give, Skt. daddmi, I give, Armen. /a-m, I give, Alban. dah, 
 I gave. The allied Teutonic words should begin (as in 
 Armenian) with / ; but they are not forthcoming. 
 
 § 253. The list of Idg. Roots in my Etymological Dic- 
 tionary furnishes a considerable number of pairs of co-radicate 
 words, i. e. pairs of which one member is of native origin, 
 and the other is borrowed from Latin and Greek. Thus 
 
§253 CO-RADICATE WORDS 211 
 
 from the root *ag, to drive, we have the Gk. agony and the 
 E. ache ; with many more. I here cite a considerable number 
 of these, which furnish good exercise for the etymologist. If 
 he is, in any case, in doubt, he will usually see his way if he 
 consults the account which I give of the root referred to. 
 I quote the above as — ' Ag — agony, ache ', mentioning the 
 native word last. The following is the list which I propose 
 for verification. 
 
 Ag — agony, ache. Ak — acme, edge. Al — altitude, old. 
 Angh — anxious, anger (Norse). Anq — anchor, angle (to 
 fish). Ar — arable, ear (to plough). Aweg{w) — augment, eke. 
 Bheid — fissure, bite. Bher — fertile, birth. Bher — perforate, 
 bore. Bheu — physic, boor. Bhle — flatulent, bladder. Bhlo — 
 flower, blossom. Bhreg — fragile, break. Bhreu — ferment, 
 barm (yeast). Dam — daunt, tame. Deiw — deity, Tuesday. 
 Dem — domicile, timber. Der — epidermis, tear {tj\ Deuk — 
 duke, team. Z)/^— fact, deed. Dheigh—^ciion, dough. 
 Dhers — thrasonical, dare. Dhren — threnody, drone. Dhwes — 
 theology, deer. Ed — edible, fret ; &c. 
 
 § 254. The same list frequently gives a considerable 
 number of words, often very diverse in appearance, that can 
 all be traced back to the same root without much trouble. 
 Thus the root ""ak, to be sharp, has given us the following 
 words through Greek : — acacia, acme, aconite, acrobat, acrostic; 
 also, through Latin or French : — acid, acumen, acute, acrid, 
 ague, aglet, eager ; and lastly, the following native words : — 
 ear (of corn), edge, awn, e^g (to instigate, of Norse origin). 
 Similarly, from the root "^es, to be, we have the following : — 
 suttee (Skt.) ; ontology (Gk.) ; absent, present, essence, entity 
 (L.) ; am, art, are, is, sooth (E.). Of course, in such a word 
 as ontology, the root *es only accounts for onto- ; but that is 
 the more essential part of the word. 
 
 p 2 
 
The languages in the following Index are arranged in alphabetical 
 order, as follows : — Albanian. Anglo-Saxon. Armenian. Breton. 
 Cornish. Dutch. English. French. Gaelic. German. Gothic. 
 Greek. Hindi. Irish. Italian. Latin. Lithuanian (with Lettish). 
 Old Norse. Old Prussian. Old Slavonic. Persian. Polish. Portu- 
 guese (with Proven9al). Romaunsch and Roumanian. Russian. 
 Sanskrit. Spanish. Swedish. Welsh. 
 
INDEX OF WORDS 
 
 ALBANIAN. 
 
 batf, 128. 
 bare, 128. 
 barS-, 128. 
 bir, 128. 
 birf, 128. 
 bur, 128. 
 dege, 128. 
 derf, 128, 186. 
 der, 128. 
 de§a, 128. 
 dimcn, 129. 
 djek, 128. 
 dm, 128, 197, 
 Sate, 128. 
 8emp, 128. 
 Sjete, 128, 196. 
 em«i, 192. 
 erSa, 128. 
 g'alpf, 129. 
 g'arpfr, 129. 
 g'aStf, 129. 
 g'ume, 129. 
 ViB-, 128. 
 ml, 192. 
 nate, 128, 192. 
 iifnde, 193. 
 pata, 128. 
 pese, 128. 
 pru§, 128, 
 rjep, 128. 
 §ate, 129. 
 State, 194. 
 ti, 128, 196. 
 tre, 128. 
 9-enT, 128. 
 S-I, 129. 
 vank, 129. 
 ven', 129. 
 ve§, 129. 
 vis, 128, 129. 
 
 [87. 
 
 ANGLO-SAXON. 
 
 (Old Mercian words 
 are marked as 'O. 
 Merc' ; and Old 
 Northumbrian 
 words as ' O. 
 North.'). 
 
 acan, 169. 
 
 ad, 143. 
 
 secer, 169, 183. 
 
 seppel, 183. 
 
 sem, 181. 
 
 agan, 170. 
 
 am, 183 (O. North.). 
 
 and-, 169. 
 
 andswerian, 166. 
 
 angel, 169. 
 
 aron, 169, 184 (O. 
 
 North.), 
 ascian, 169. 
 ast, 143. 
 aj), 100. 
 b^r, 133, 152. 
 bellfan, 190. 
 belle, 109. 
 
 beodan, 133,152,184. 
 beofor, 152, 184. 
 beon, 152, 184. 
 beorc, birce, 184. 
 beorg, 1 34 ; beorh, 
 
 94, 152. 
 beorht, 153. 
 bera, 152. 
 beran, 152, 184. 
 bere, 126, 181. 
 bindan, 184. 
 bitan, 152. 
 bloma, blostma, 6r. 
 bodian, 152. 
 bog,b6h, 1 34, 152,184. 
 boga, 152. 
 
 botm, 134, 152, 184. 
 
 broSer, 185. 
 
 bru, 153, 185. 
 
 brun, 152. 
 
 buc, 134. 
 
 bucca, 134. 
 
 bugan, 109, 152. 
 
 burg, 134. 
 
 byrst, 153. 
 
 calf, 159 (O. Merc). 
 
 camb, 157. 
 
 ceafl, 157. 
 
 cearu, 159. 
 
 ceosan, 137, 157, 185. 
 
 cild, 157. 
 
 cinn, cin, 95, 137, 
 
 I57> 185. 
 cleowen, clywen, 159. 
 cnawan, 137, 156,189. 
 cnedan, no. 
 cneo, 156, 189. 
 col, T56. 
 cracian, 159. 
 cran, 185. 
 
 cu, no, 138, 160, 185. 
 cwen, III, 193. 
 cwene, 100, no, 138, 
 
 160, 193. 
 cweom. III, 160. 
 cwie, 100, 138, 160, 
 
 193. 
 cynn, 51, 189. 
 daeg, 20, 154, 185. 
 dah, 136, 155, 173, 
 
 186. 
 dearr, dorste, 154, 
 
 176. 
 deaw, 154. 
 delfan, in. 
 deop, 96, III. 
 deor, III. 
 debtor, 154, 185. 
 
214 
 
 ANGLO-SAXON WORDS 
 
 dol, 155. 
 
 dom, 155. 
 
 don, 136, 154, 185. 
 
 dor, duru, 155, 185. 
 
 dorste, 176. 
 
 dream, 155. 
 
 dry, 91. 
 
 duru, 155. 
 
 dust, 155. 
 
 dyne, 154. 
 
 eac, 112. 
 
 eahta, 143, 170, 186. 
 
 eare, 143, 186. 
 
 earm, 169, 184. 
 
 east, 170, 186. 
 
 eax, 94, 184. 
 
 ecan, 170 (O. Merc). 
 
 ecg, 170. 
 
 eher, 170(0. North.). 
 
 eln, 143, 170, 186. 
 
 elnboga, 143, 186. 
 
 ende, 170. 
 
 endleofan, 112. 
 
 eom, 108, 169, 183. 
 
 eow, eower, 200. 
 
 eowu, 112, 170, 186. 
 
 erian, 186. 
 
 etan, 60, 170, 186. 
 
 ete, 126. 
 
 feeder, 96, 187. 
 
 fseger, 149. 
 
 fett, 132, 149. 
 
 fah, 97. 
 
 falu, 149 (O. Merc). 
 
 fam, 150. 
 
 fang, 149. 
 
 faran, 149, 186. 
 
 fealu, 112, 149. 
 
 feax, 149. 
 
 feccan, 149. 
 
 fenn, 149. 
 
 feond, 150. 
 
 feowor, 97, 187. 
 
 feSer, 149, 187. 
 
 fetian, 149. 
 
 ficol, 149. 
 
 fif, 97, 112, T50, 187. 
 
 fleot, 150, 
 
 fleotan, 150. 
 
 flod, 150. 
 
 flor, 96. 
 
 flotian, 150. 
 
 flowan, 150. 
 
 fon, 149. 
 
 forst, 151, 187. 
 
 forwisnian, 168. 
 
 fot, 187. 
 
 freo, 151. 
 
 freosan, 151, 187. 
 
 fretan, 60. 
 
 frost, forst, 187. 
 
 ful, 113, 132, 151, 
 
 187. 
 full, 113, 151, 187. 
 furh, 97. 
 furhwudu, 150. 
 fyr, 150. 
 fyrn, 132. 
 fyst, 112. 
 gsest, 114, 188. 
 gast, 157. 
 ge, 123, 200. 
 gealla, 157. 
 gear, 123, 200. 
 geard, 200. 
 gearn, 157. 
 gebann, 151. 
 gedafen, iii. 
 gellc, 161. 
 gemunan, 118. 
 gemynd, 118, 162, 
 
 191. 
 geoc, 123, 169, 201. 
 geolu, 113, 157, 201. 
 geong, 104, 123, 142, 
 
 169, 201. 
 geonian, ginian, 113. 
 georn, 157, 200. 
 geostra, 158. 
 getenge, 2i. 
 giernan, 200. 
 gist, 169, 200. 
 glffid, 114. 
 gold, 113. 
 gos, 113, 157, 187. 
 had, 158. 
 
 hserfest, 115, 158,188. 
 hsernes, 156. 
 haga, 97. 
 hal, 116. 
 
 halm, 114 (O. Merc), 
 han, 156. 
 hara, 114, 155. 
 hasu, 63. 
 
 heah, 158. 
 
 healm, 188. 
 
 heap, 115. 
 
 heawan, 115. 
 
 hebban, 61. 
 
 hecg, 97. 
 
 hel, 98, 156. 
 
 helan, 156. 
 
 helm, 156. 
 
 henn, 98. 
 
 heorot, 156, 188. 
 
 heorte, 114, 156, 188. 
 
 hi wan, 156. 
 
 hlsenan, 99, 115, 161, 
 
 189. 
 hlaw, hlsew, 161. 
 hlid, 161. 
 
 hlinian, 115, 161, 189. 
 hlud, 99, 115, 139, 
 
 161, 190. 
 hlyst, s., 161. 
 hlystan, 99, 161. 
 hnitu, 128, 
 hof, 137, 156. 
 holen, 98. 
 holm, 158. 
 horn, 156, 188. 
 hreac, 116. 
 hreaw, loi, 116, 158, 
 
 193. 
 hreddan, 156. 
 hridder, hrlder, 10 1. 
 -hrif, midhrif, 158. 
 hr5f, 10 1, 
 hund (dog), 98, 156, 
 
 188. 
 hund (100), 98, 114, 
 
 188. 
 hunig, 158. 
 husl, 114. 
 
 hwa, 116, 159, 199. 
 hwser, 159. 
 hwset, 199. 
 hweowol, hweol, 116, 
 
 1.38, 159- 
 hwil, 116, 159. 
 hwit, 115, 156, 198. 
 hyd, 115. 
 hydan, 180. 
 h^f, 158. 
 hyll, 115, 158. 
 hyrdel, 116, 158. 
 
ANGLO-SAXON WORDS 
 
 215 
 
 ic, 117, 170, 188. 
 lecan, 112, 170. 
 is, 117, 188. 
 Isgicel, 98. 
 iw, 104. 
 
 Isefan, 117, 164, 190. 
 laf, s., 164, 173. 
 leah, 160, 163, 189. 
 leof, 161, 189. 
 leoht, s., 117, 140, 
 
 163, 190. 
 leoht, adj., 160, 161, 
 
 190. 
 leon, 99. 
 libban, 163, 190. 
 lie, 161. 
 liccian, 117, 139,163, 
 
 189. 
 llf, 117, 164, 190. 
 locc, 117. 
 lufu, 161, 189. 
 lust, 161. 
 msest, 161. 
 manu, 161. 
 max, 118. 
 me, mec, ace, 191. 
 mearc, 99, 139, 190. 
 mearh, 139, 190. 
 med, 118, 162, 191. 
 medu, 191. 
 melcan, 100, 162, 191. 
 meltan, 162. 
 melu, 118. 
 
 meord, 118, 162,191. 
 merg, 161 (O. Merc), 
 midd, 162, 19T. 
 milde, 162. 
 modor, 118, 19T. 
 mona, 191. 
 mordor, 118, 139, 
 
 162, 192. 
 munan, 191. 
 mus, 139, 162, 192. 
 nacod, 118, 162, 192. 
 nseddre, 93. 
 n^del, 100. 
 nsegel, 139, 162. 
 naeht, 163 (O. Merc.)- 
 nafela, 139, 162, 192. 
 nama, 139, 162, 192. 
 neoSera, 163. 
 nest, 162. 
 
 nigon, 163, 192. 
 niht, 118, 163, 192. 
 nifSer, 163, 140. 
 niwe, 118, 140, 163, 
 
 192. 
 nosu, 163, 193. 
 nu, nu, 163, 193. 
 of, 170, 193. 
 ofer, 143, 170. 
 on, 170. 
 otJer, 118, 170. 
 otor, 170. 
 oxa, 170. 
 p51, 119. 
 rsedan, 140. 
 raw, r£ew, 163. 
 read, 163, 193. 
 reafian, 140, 193. 
 reht, 193 (O. Merc), 
 reofan, 140, 163, 193. 
 riht, 163, 193. 
 rudig, 119. 
 ruh, 163. 
 ryge, 119. 
 saed, loi. 
 sam-, same, 194. 
 sawan, 120. 
 scafan, sceafan, 141. 
 sceal, 119, 165. 
 sceawian, 167. 
 soman, 141. 
 scua, 165. 
 sciifan, 141. 
 sealf, 164. 
 sealt, 119. 
 sear, 119, 164. 
 seman, 164. 
 seofon, 119, 194. 
 sibb, 164. 
 slgan, 164. 
 sindon, 184. 
 sittan, 119, 164, T94. 
 siwian, 119, 194. 
 six, 119, 194. 
 sl^pan, 119, 167. 
 smeoru, 102. 
 smocc, 119. 
 snaca, 167. 
 snaw, 51, 160. 
 snod, 165. 
 socian, 165. 
 sot, 165, 
 
 s5?y, 165. 
 
 spearca, 165, 
 
 sped, 120, 166, 194. 
 
 spowan, 120, 194. 
 
 sprecan, 166. 
 
 springan, 166. 
 
 spurnan, 166, 195. 
 
 stsef, 166. 
 
 stseger, 166. 
 
 Stan, 22. 
 
 standan, 119, 195. 
 
 stede, 166. 
 
 steor, 195. 
 
 steorra, 195. 
 
 stigan, 166. 
 
 stigu, 166. 
 
 stol, 166. 
 
 Stream, 167, 195. 
 
 streowian, 166. 
 
 su, sugu, 141, 165, 
 
 195- 
 sugan, sucan, 165. 
 sulh, 70, 129. 
 sumer, 165. 
 sundor, 165. 
 sunu, 120, 164. 
 supan, 165. 
 sur, 120. 
 
 sw^tan, 166, 195. 
 swat, 26, 74, 195. 
 swearm, 166. 
 swefn, 74, 129. 
 sweostor, 102, 141, 
 
 164, 194. 
 swerian, 166. 
 swete, 166, 195. 
 swin, 120, 195. 
 swote, adv., 195. 
 tffiher,i96(0. North.), 
 tam, 153, 195. 
 tange, 154. 
 tear, teagor, 196. 
 teart, 135. 
 ten, 196 (O. Merc), 
 teoru, 51. 
 teran, 120, 135, 154, 
 
 196. 
 J)a, 173. 
 Jjsec, 196. 
 ])8et, 121, 196. 
 J)awian, 153. 
 })eoh, 121. 
 
2i6 ANGLO-SAXON. ARMENIAN. BRETON 
 
 ]>ille, 153. 
 
 folian, 153. 
 
 porn, 121. 
 
 preat, 121. 
 
 preo, 121, 196. 
 
 pridda, 121. 
 
 pu, 121, 196. 
 
 puma, 153. 
 
 punian, 153. 
 
 punor, 153. 
 
 pweorh, 153. 
 
 pynne, 121, 153, 196. 
 
 Pyrst,_i53, 196. 
 
 tien, tyn, 120. 
 
 timber, 154, 197. 
 
 Tlw, 19, 135, 154, 197. 
 
 t5h, 21. 
 
 t5S, 120, 154, 197. 
 
 treo, 121, 154, 197. 
 
 treowe, 21, 121. 
 
 tun, 21. 
 
 turf, 154. 
 
 twa, 121, 154, 197. 
 
 twelf, 121. 
 
 tyn, 196. 
 
 uder, 171, 197. 
 
 un-, 171, 198. 
 
 under, 171. 
 
 iipp, 171. 
 
 ut, 170. 
 
 wacan, wacian, 167. 
 
 wsecce, 167. 
 
 wsegn, 121, 167, 198. 
 
 wses, 167, 198. 
 
 wseter, 122, 198, 
 
 wat, 168, 172. 
 
 wealcan, 167. 
 
 wealdan, 104, 122. 
 
 wearm, 160, 198. 
 
 weaxan, 198. 
 
 wedd, 122. 
 
 weder, 122. 
 
 wefan, 142. 
 
 weg, 167. 
 
 wegan, 198. 
 
 wella, 122. 
 
 wen, 199. 
 
 weorc, were, 200. 
 
 weorSan, 122, 142, 
 
 167, 200. 
 wer (man), 168. 
 wer (weir), 122, 167. 
 
 werian (to defend), 
 
 122, 167. 
 werian (to wear), 167. 
 wesan, 167. 
 wetJr, 168. 
 wican, 73, 168. 
 wice, 73, 168. 
 widuwe, 122, 168, 
 
 199. 
 wint, 122. 
 willan, 122, 168. 
 wind, 168, 199. 
 windwian, 168. 
 winnan, 168, 199. 
 witan, wat, 122, 168, 
 
 199. 
 wiSer, 168. 
 wiSig, 122, 142, 168, 
 
 199. 
 wod, 168. 
 word, 122. 
 wudu, widu, 104, 
 wulf, 122, 168. 
 wull, 122, 200. 
 wunian, 199. 
 wusc, 168. 
 wyscan, 168. 
 yslan, 71. 
 
 ARMENIAN, 
 acem, 127. 
 ail, 125. 
 amp, 126. 
 an-, 127, 198. 
 anun, 192. 
 arj, 125. 
 armukn, 184. 
 asetn, 127. 
 astt, 125, 195. 
 atamn, 197. 
 berem, 60, 126, 184. 
 cunr, 127. 
 dez, 126, 186. 
 du, 196. 
 dustr, 126, 185. 
 edi, 185. 
 eAbair, 185. 
 em, 127, 183. 
 erek', 197. 
 es, 188. 
 
 evt'n, 125, 194. 
 get, 127, 198. 
 
 gini, 127. 
 gitem, 127, 199. 
 gore, 127, 200. 
 hair, 125, 187. 
 heri, 126. 
 hin, 125. 
 hing, 125, 126. 
 hur, 126. 
 inn, 193. 
 jerm, 198. 
 jern, 126. 
 jiun, 126. 
 kin, 127, 193. 
 kov, 127, 138, 185. 
 kfunk, 127, 185. 
 k'irtn, 195. 
 k'oir, 125, 194. 
 lizum, 125, 189. 
 lois, 125, 190. 
 lu, 190. 
 mair, 125. 
 mard, 125, 192. 
 meranim, 192. 
 mukn, 192. 
 nist, 126. 
 nor, 192. 
 otn, 1 26, 187. 
 sar, 125, 188. 
 sirt, 125, 127, 188. 
 sterj, 125. 
 Sun, 188. 
 tasn, 126, 196. 
 tiv, 197. 
 t'anjr, 126. 
 t'arshamim, 196. 
 utem, 126, 186. 
 
 BRETON, 
 aval, 93. 
 be6, beu, 100. 
 bestl, 94. 
 bouc'h, 95. 
 breur, 95. 
 c'hoar, 102. 
 c'houeac'h, 103, 
 c'houez, 103. 
 daou, 103. 
 derf, dero, 103. 
 dof, 195. 
 don, g6, 103. 
 dor, 96. 
 eic'h, eiz, 96. 
 
CORNISH. DUTCH. ENGLISH 
 
 217 
 
 galu, 95 (M. Bret.). 
 
 garan, 95. 
 
 garz, 97. 
 
 g^n, genau, 95. 
 
 geo, ieo, 104. 
 
 gloan, 104. 
 
 gwent, 104. 
 
 had, hada, 10 1. 
 
 hent, loi. 
 
 houc'h, 102. 
 
 iaouanc, 104. 
 
 ivin, 104, 
 
 kae, 97. 
 
 karo, 97. 
 
 kelen, 98. 
 
 knaoun, loo. 
 
 kolo, 97. 
 
 kraoun, 100.' 
 
 kreiz, 98. 
 
 lann, 98. 
 
 leur, 96. 
 
 marc'h, 99. 
 
 me, 99. 
 
 miz, 100. 
 
 neiz, 100. 
 
 nevez, 100. 
 
 noaz, 100. 
 
 reiz, 10 1. 
 
 rit, 97 (O. Bret.). 
 
 rflz, loi. 
 
 seiz, loi. 
 
 tanav, 103. 
 
 t6d, 103. 
 
 CORNISH. 
 
 befer, 184. 
 bro, 99. 
 broder, 95. 
 bros, 95. 
 celin, 98. 
 clewas, 99. 
 croider, loi. 
 crow, loi. 
 cudhe, 98. 
 dager, 103. 
 dal, 96. 
 dans, 103. 
 daras, 96. 
 dew, 103. 
 dof, 103. 
 eath, 96. 
 garan, 95. 
 
 genau, 95. 
 gluan, 104. 
 gwell, 104. 
 gwyns, gwens, 104. 
 has, loi. 
 heligen, loi, 
 hivin, 104. 
 hoch, 102. 
 huir, 102. 
 hweh, wheh, 103. 
 iouenc, 104. 
 march, 99. 
 mi, 99. 
 moc, 102. 
 mor, 100. 
 neid, 100. 
 noth, 100. 
 rid, 97. 
 rud, loi. 
 scod, loi. 
 seith, loi. 
 steren, 102, 195. 
 tanow, 103. 
 ti, 103. 
 trev, tre, 103. 
 wh^s, 103. 
 
 DUTCH. 
 
 been, 22. 
 deeg, 22, 26. 
 gest, gist, 200. 
 steen, 22. 
 stroom, 141, 167. 
 tand, 21, 154. 
 tarwe, 153. 
 wak, 72. 
 warm, 160. 
 zweet, 26. 
 
 ENGLISH, 
 a- (in a-long), 169. 
 abet, 90. 
 ache, v., 169, 183 
 
 ake, 127. 
 acorn, 52, 53. 
 acre, 52, 169, 183. 
 adder, 93. 
 afraid, 40. 
 after, 169. 
 age, 76. 
 airt, 92. 
 ale, 108. 
 
 all, 93. 
 
 allow, (i) and (2), 
 
 38. 
 alms, 82. 
 alone, 23. 
 am, 108, 127, 143, 
 
 183. ^ 
 angle, v., 169; s., 52. 
 answer, 166, 
 ape, 52, 54, 55- 
 apple, 52, 54. 93) 
 
 108, 183. 
 are, 169, 183. 
 arm, 52, 108, 169, 
 
 184. 
 arrow, 52. 
 ash, 52, 108; (cinder), 
 
 52. 
 ask, 169. 
 aspen, 108. 
 austere, 70. 
 awl, 52. 
 axle, 94, 108, 170, 
 
 184. 
 babble, 151. 
 back, 52. 
 .bag, 90. 
 bairn, 52. 
 baize, 79. 
 bake, 68. 
 bald, 28, 94. 
 ban, 108, 151. 
 bannock, 91, 
 banshee, 92. 
 barberry, 82. 
 bare, 108, 180 ; pt. t., 
 
 78. 
 bam, 181. 
 barnacle, 27. 
 barrow, 94, 134, 152. 
 basket, 91, 
 bass, v., 95. 
 bast, 52. 
 bath, 52, 54. 
 batten, 182. 
 battle, 84. 
 bawsin, 27. 
 be, 94, 108, 128, 133, 
 
 152, 184. 
 bean, 52. 
 bear, s., 52, 152. 
 bear, v., 25, 60, 78, 
 
2l8 
 
 94, io8, 126, 128, 
 
 133, 152, 184- 
 beard, 52, 108. 
 beaver, 52, 108, 152, 
 
 184. 
 bed, 52, 53, 54, 55, 
 
 56. 
 beech, 24, 52, 53, 54. 
 beefeater, 1. 
 beet, v., 24. 
 bell, 109, 178. 
 belly, 52, 53, 94- 
 beltane, 28. 
 bench, 52, 53. 
 bereave, 163. 
 berry, 180. 
 best, 17, 182. 
 bet, v., 90. 
 better, 182. 
 bible, 84. 
 bid, 133, 184. 
 bier, 133, 152. 
 bile, 94. 
 bin, 91. 
 bind, 67, 133, 152, 
 
 184. 
 birch, 52, 54, 109, 
 
 152, 184. 
 birth, 94, 152. 
 bite, 59, 152. 
 bleed, 25. 
 blind, 109. 
 bliss, 52. 
 bloat, 27. 
 blood, 25, 52. 
 bloom, 52, 94. 
 blow, v., 61. 
 blue, 94. 
 boar, 52. 
 board, 52. 
 boat, 23. 
 
 bode, 133, 152, 184. 
 bodice, 79, 83. 
 bolster, 55. 
 bolt, s., 52. 
 bolt, boult, 40. 
 bond, band, 152. 
 bone, 22, 52. 
 book, 24, 52, 55. 
 boon, 109. 
 boor, 89. 
 boot, 24, 182. 
 
 ENGLISH WORDS 
 
 booth, 94. 
 
 border, 41. 
 
 bore, v., 94, 128,133. 
 
 born, 78. 
 
 borough, 134. 
 
 bottom, 94, 134, 152, 
 
 184. 
 bough, 52, 134, 152, 
 
 184. 
 bow, s., weapon, 52, 
 
 152. 
 bow (of a ship), 134, 
 
 185. 
 bow, v., 109, 152. 
 brace, 80, 84. 
 brad, brod, 95. 
 bragget, 92. 
 brat, 91. 
 bread, 25, 52. 
 break, 95. 
 brew, 68. 
 bride, 52. 
 bridge, 52. 
 bright, 95, 128, 153. 
 bristle, 52, 153, 180. 
 broach, 36. 
 brochure, 36. 
 brock, 91. 
 bronze, 41. 
 brood, 25. 
 brook, 52. 
 brook, v., 68. 
 broom, 52. 
 broth, 52, 95. 
 brother, 52, 54, 95, 
 
 135, 153, 185. 
 brow, 95, 109, 134, 
 
 153, 185. 
 brown, 152. 
 bubble, 151. 
 buck, 95, 134. 
 bullace, 41. 
 bun, 41. 
 burial, 8r. 
 burr, 52, 180. 
 burst, 95. 
 buss, 95. 
 butler, 39. 
 cabbage, 7. 
 cag, 90. 
 caitiff, 7, 28. 
 calf, 159. 
 
 call, 29, 95. 
 
 calm, 42. 
 
 calumet, 7. 
 
 canakin, 89. 
 
 canal, 8. 
 
 canopy, 43. 
 
 Cantire, 177. 
 
 capercailyie, 92. 
 
 capital, 7. 
 
 car, 7. 
 
 care, 29, 51, 159. 
 
 Carfax, 3. 
 
 cark, 4. 
 
 carnage, 7. 
 
 carry, 6, 36. 
 
 case, 7. 
 
 cash, 7. 
 
 castle, 7.* 
 
 catch, 7. 
 
 cate, cater, 8. 
 
 cater an, 92. 
 
 caterpillar, 8. 
 
 cattle, 8. 
 
 causey, c/auseway, 8. 
 
 censer, 43. 
 
 challenge, 76. 
 
 chance, 37. 
 
 chandler, chandelier, 
 
 36. 
 channel, 8. 
 chapel, 36. 
 chaperon, 36. 
 chapiter, chapter, 7. 
 chark, 5. 
 charm, 35. 
 chase, 7, 32. 
 chattels, 8. 
 chavel, chaul (M.E.), 
 
 157- 
 cheat, 43. 
 check, 81. 
 cherub, 83; cherubim, 
 
 82. 
 cherry, 82. 
 child, 157. 
 chin, 95, 137, 157, 
 
 185. 
 choose, 25, 60, 128, 
 
 138, 157, 185. 
 chronicle, 84. 
 clachan, 92. 
 clan, 92. 
 
clay, 26. 
 
 claymore, 92. 
 
 clew, clue, 138, 159. 
 
 cloam (prov. E.), 26. 
 
 coal, 156. 
 
 cockatrice, 44, 45. 
 
 codling, 92. 
 
 colleen, 92. 
 
 comb, no, 128, 157. 
 
 combe, 91. 
 
 come, 160. 
 
 cony, 81. 
 
 cook, 143. 
 
 coracle, 92. 
 
 com, 95, no, 157. 
 
 coronach, 92. 
 
 corrie, 92. 
 
 corymb, t88. 
 
 cosher, 92. 
 
 couple, 38. 
 
 cove, 27. 
 
 cow, 95, no, 127, 
 
 138, 160, 185. 
 crack, 159. 
 crag, 92. 
 crane, 95. no, 127, 
 
 185. 
 crew, 44. 
 crock, 91. 
 cromlech, 92. 
 crowd (fiddle), 92 
 cupola, 158. 
 daggle, 90. 
 dairy, 174. 
 dale, 135. 
 dangle, 27. 
 dapple, 27. 
 dare, durst, 135, 154, 
 
 176. 
 daughter, 55, ni, 
 
 126, 135, 154, 185. 
 daunt, 38. 
 day, ni, 128, 136, 
 
 i54» 185- 
 deal, in. 
 debt, 38, 76. 
 deck, s. and v., 89. 
 deed, 136. 
 deem, 24. 
 deep, 55, 96, ni. 
 deer, in, 180. 
 deft, III. 
 
 ENGLISH WORDS 
 
 deify, deity, 19. 
 delve, III. 
 deodar, 19, 21, 135. 
 deuce, 21, 80. 
 dew, 154. 
 dm, 154. 
 dismal, 45, 46. 
 dive, dove, 79. 
 divine, 19. 
 do. III, 136, 155, 
 
 185. 
 doit, 89. 
 
 doom, 24, 136, 155. 
 door, 96, III, 128, 
 
 136, 185. 
 doubt, 76. 
 dough, 22, 26, 126, 
 
 136, 155, 173, 186. 
 doust (prov. E.), 155. 
 down, 21, 44, 91. 
 drag, 90. 
 drain, 27. 
 . dream, 136, 155. 
 drift, 21 ; drive, 25. 
 drink, 25, 60. 
 drone, 155. 
 drove, 21. 
 Druid, 91. 
 duan, 92. 
 dull, 96, 155. 
 dun, 91. 
 duniwassal, 92. 
 durbar, 136. 
 dust, 155. 
 dwell, 155. 
 eagle, 38. 
 ear, 96, 112, 143, 
 
 180, 186. 
 ear (of corn), 170. 
 ear, v., 112, 186. 
 easles, isels (prov. E.), 
 
 71. 
 east, 170, 180. 
 eat, 60, 96, 112, 126, 
 
 170, 186. 
 eaves, 81. 
 edge, 170. 
 effigy, 83. 
 
 egg, 90- , 
 
 eight, 96, 112, 143, 
 
 170, 186. 
 eisteddfod, 92. 
 
 219 
 
 eke, v., 112, 170. 
 elder, 181. 
 eleven, 112. 
 ell, elbow, 143, 170, 
 
 186. 
 end, 96, 170. 
 ensign, 85. 
 escape, 43. 
 ewe, 96, 112, 170, 
 
 186. 
 fable, 38. 
 fair, 149. 
 fall, 25. 
 
 fallow, 112, 149. 
 fang, 149. 
 far, 126, 149. 
 fare, 149, 186. 
 farrow, 112. 
 fast, adj., 149. 
 fat, 132, 149. 
 father, 96, 132, 149, 
 
 187. 
 fathom, 132. 
 fax, 149. 
 feast, 85. 
 feather, 149, 187. 
 feeble, 36. 
 feed, 25, 54. 
 feet, 24. 
 feign, 174. 
 fen, 149. 
 fend, fender, 43. 
 Fenian, 92. 
 fern, 132, 149. 
 feme yere (M.E.), 
 
 132. 
 ferry, 149. 
 fetch, 149. 
 fickle, T49. 
 fictile, 174. 
 fiction, 174. 
 fiend, 150. 
 figment, 174. 
 figure, 174. 
 fiUibeg, 92. 
 find, 96. 
 fir, 150. 
 fire, 126, 150. 
 firman, 133. 
 fist, 112. 
 five, 97, 112, 132, 
 
 150, 187. 
 
220 
 
 ENGLISH WORDS 
 
 flabby, 88. 
 
 flannel. 92. 
 
 flappy,' 88. 
 
 flat, 132, 150. 
 
 flaw (wind), 88. 
 
 fleet, 150. 
 
 float, 150. 
 
 flood, 150. 
 
 floor, 96. 
 
 flounder, 150. 
 
 flour, flower, 61. 
 
 flummery, 92. 
 
 foam, 150. 
 
 fob, 89. 
 
 foe, 97, 112. 
 
 foible, 36. 
 
 fold, 69, 150. 
 
 food, 25. 
 
 foot, 24, 126, 132, 
 
 149, 150, 187. 
 ford, 51, 97, 149. 
 fore, for, 133, 150. 
 forlorn, 179. 
 former, 150. 
 foul,ii3,i32,i5i,i87. 
 four,97,i33,i38,i87. 
 foxglove, 2. 
 free, 151. 
 freeze, frost, 151. 
 fret, 60. 
 fringe, 65. 
 frith, 149. 
 frolic, 89. 
 frore, 179. 
 frost, 128, 187. 
 frozen, 179. 
 full,97, 113, 132, 151, 
 
 187. 
 fumble, 89. 
 furrow, 97. 
 further, 151. 
 gall, 126, 138, 157, 
 
 201. 
 gallowglas, 92. 
 galore, 92. 
 gander, 188. 
 gang, 113, 160. 
 garth, 97, 200. 
 gesticulate, 24. 
 get, 114. 
 ghost, 157. 
 gilder, guilder, 89. 
 
 gill, 90. 
 
 gillie, 92. 
 
 girl, 28. 
 
 give, 25. 
 
 glad, 114. 
 
 glib, adj., 89. 
 
 glow, 97. 
 
 gold, 113, 138. 
 
 goose, 24, 97, 113, 
 
 157, 187. 
 gore, v., 180. 
 gorse, 177. 
 gossip, godsib, 164. 
 grab, 138. 
 
 grice, 129 (prov. E.). 
 groat, 89. 
 grope, 22. 
 guest, 114, 118. 
 gull (bird), 92. 
 hale, v., 30. 
 hame, 137, 155. 
 hamlet, 39. 
 hand, 51. 
 hang, 155. 
 harbour, 35. 
 hare, 63,97, 114, 155, 
 
 180. 
 harebell, 2. 
 hams, 156 (prov. E.). 
 hart, 97, 156, 188. 
 harvest, 115,158, 188. 
 hate, 97. 
 hauberk, 34. 
 haul, 30. 
 
 haulm, 97, 114, 188, 
 haw, 97. 
 hawse-hole, 177. 
 hazel, 98. 
 heap, 115. 
 hear, 179. 
 heart, 98, 114, 156, 
 
 188. 
 heath, 98. 
 heave, 61. 
 hedge, 97. 
 hell, 98, 156. 
 helm, helmet, 156. 
 hen, 63, 98. 
 hew, 115. 
 hide, s., 115. 
 hide, v., 79, 98, 180. 
 high, 158. 
 
 hill, 115, 158. 
 hind, 156. 
 history, 43. 
 hive, 158. 
 hoard, 180. 
 hoise, hoist, 89. 
 hold (of a ship), 89. 
 holland, 89. 
 holly, 98. 
 holm, 158. 
 holt, 63. 
 home, 22. 
 hone, 156. 
 honey, 158. 
 -hood, 158. 
 hoof, 137, 156. 
 horn, 51, 54, 98, 137, 
 
 156, 188. 
 horrid, 177. 
 horse, 177. 
 hostel, 36. 
 hound, 98, 114, T37, 
 
 156, 188. 
 housel, 114. 
 hoy, 89. 
 hubbub, 92. 
 hull (of a ship), 89. 
 hundred, 51, 98, 114, 
 
 137, 156, 188. 
 hurdle, 116, 158. 
 hypnotize, 74. 
 I, 117, 170, 188. 
 icicle, 98. 
 idle, 37 (M.E.). 
 in, 117. 
 
 inch (island), 92. 
 ingle, 92. 
 invoice, 80. 
 inward, 167. 
 is, 117,143, 170,188. 
 jesses, 83. 
 jest, 24." 
 jovial, 19. 
 jowl, jole, 157. 
 joy, 85. 
 keel, 90. 
 keg, 90. 
 kelpie, 92. 
 ken, 90, no. 
 kennel (for dog), 8. 
 kennel (gutter), 8. 
 kern, 92. 
 
ENGLISH WORDS 
 
 kex, kexes, 83, 84. 
 
 kibe, 92. 
 
 kid, 90. 
 
 kilt, 90. 
 
 kin, 51, 90, 98, 137, 
 
 156, 189. 
 kiss, 90. 
 kite, 90. 
 knead, no. 
 knee, 127, 137, 156, 
 
 189. 
 know, no, 137, 156, 
 
 189. 
 land, 98. 
 lassitude, 69. 
 late, 69. 
 lave, s., 173. 
 lawn, 98. 
 lazy, 88. 
 lea, 82, 117, 160, 163, 
 
 189. 
 lead, s., 98. 
 leaguer, 89. 
 lean, v., 99, 115, 189. 
 learn, 179. 
 lease, leasow, 82. 
 leather, 99. 
 leave, v., 117, 164. 
 leech, 99. 
 leg, 90. 
 legend, 85. 
 let, V. (to allow), 69. 
 let, V. (to hinder), 69. 
 lick, 99, 117, 139, 
 
 163, 189. 
 lid, 161. 
 
 lie, v., 99, 117, 189. 
 lief, love, 161, 189. 
 life, 117, 164, 190. 
 light, s., 99, 117, 
 
 140, 161, 163, 190. 
 light, adj., 117, 190. 
 like, 161. 
 limbeck, 44. 
 linn, 92. 
 lip, 139. 
 list, listen, 16, 99, 
 
 161, 190. 
 live, leave, 163, 190. 
 loam, 22. 
 loan, 99, 117, 190. 
 loch, 92. 
 
 lock, s. (hair), 117. 
 loiter, 89. 
 lone, 44. 
 
 long, 135- 
 loot, 140. 
 lore, 179. 
 lorn, 179. 
 loud, 99, 115, 139, 
 
 161, 190. 
 lough, 92. 
 love, 161. 
 low, v., 69. 
 low (hill), 161. 
 lull, lilt, 161. 
 lung, 160. 
 lust, 161. 
 macadamised, 92. 
 macintosh, 92. 
 mallard, 37. 
 man, 161. 
 manakin, 89. 
 mane, 99, 161. 
 manoeuvre, 85. 
 many, 99. 
 mar, v., 177. 
 marble, 38. 
 march, 139, 190. 
 mare, 99. 
 margin, 190. 
 mark, 99, 139, 190. 
 marmot, 66. 
 marquee, 82. 
 marrow, 139, 161, 
 
 190. 
 marvel, 85. 
 mast, 161. 
 mavoumeen, 92. 
 may, might, v., 162. 
 me, 99, 162, 191. 
 mead, 99, 139, 162, 
 
 191. 
 meal, 118. 
 meddle, 37. 
 medlar, 36. 
 medley, 36, 37. 
 meed, 118, 139, 162, 
 
 180, 191. 
 melt, 162. 
 mend, 43, 44. 
 mere, 100. 
 mesh, 118. 
 message, 36. 
 
 metheglin, 92. 
 
 mid, middle, 139, 162, 
 
 191. 
 midriff, 158. 
 might, s., 162. 
 mild, 162. 
 milk, 100, 118, 162, 
 
 191. 
 mind, u8, 162, 191. 
 minikin, 89. 
 mirage, 36. 
 mire, 180. 
 mistletoe, 83. 
 month, 100, 139, 162. 
 moon, 139, 162, 191, 
 mop, 89. 
 more, mo, 181. 
 moss, 180. 
 mother, 100,118, 139, 
 
 162, 191. 
 
 mouse, 139,162, 192. 
 murder, 118, 139, 162, 
 
 192. 
 must, 176. 
 nail, 139, 162. 
 naked, 100, 118, 162, 
 
 192. 
 name, 139, 162, 192. 
 nation, 33. 
 navel, 139, 162, 192. 
 near, 182. 
 neat, s., 118. 
 needle, 100. 
 nest, 100, 126, 162. 
 nether, 140, 163. 
 new, 100, 118, 140, 
 
 163, 192. 
 
 night, 100, 118, 128, 
 
 163, 192. 
 nightingale, 68. 
 nilghau, 96, 138. 
 nine, 140, 169, 192. 
 nit, 128. 
 nose, 163, 193. 
 now, 118, 163, 193. 
 nut, 100. 
 oast-house, 143. 
 oath, 100, 
 obscure, 165. 
 of, off, 169, 170, 193. 
 ogham, 92. 
 on, 170. 
 
222 
 
 ENGLISH WORDS 
 
 one, 23, 49, 50, 100, 
 
 118. 
 only, 23. 
 orrery, 92. 
 other, 118, 170. 
 otter, 118, 170. 
 out, 170. 
 over, 143, 170. 
 owe, own, 170, 176. 
 ox, 170. 
 
 paradise, 136, 174. 
 parlous, 39. 
 path, 55. 
 pea, peas, 81. 
 plastic, 69. 
 pool, 119, 126. 
 prune, 85. 
 ptarmigan, 92. 
 puttee, 69, 150. 
 quart, 36. 
 quay, 97. 
 quean, 100, no, 127, 
 
 138, 160. 
 queen, in, 138, 160. 
 quell, III. 
 quern, in, 160. 
 quick, 100, III, 138, 
 
 160, 193. 
 quince, 80. 
 rag, 90. 
 rage, 36. 
 raise, 179. 
 ramsons, 83, 84. 
 ransack, 180. 
 rant, 89. 
 rapparee, 92. 
 raw, 16,101, 116,158, 
 
 193. 
 read, 140. 
 rear, 179. 
 
 reave, 140, 163, 193. 
 red, 101, 119, 163, 
 
 193. 
 rick, 116. 
 rid, 156. 
 riddle, 81, loi. 
 ride, loi. 
 right, 17, loi, 163, 
 
 193- 
 rive, 69. 
 river, 70. 
 rob, 140. 
 
 roe, 83. 
 
 roof, 1 01. 
 
 rough, 163. 
 
 round, 38. 
 
 rover, 89. 
 
 row, s., 163. 
 
 ruddy, 119. 
 
 ruffle, 89. 
 
 rye, 119. 
 
 sad, loi. 
 
 saffron, 18. 
 
 sag, 90. 
 
 sallow, sally, loi. 
 
 salt, loi, 119. 
 
 salve, 129, 164. 
 
 same, 140, 164, 194. 
 
 say, s., 86. 
 
 scalp, 90. 
 
 scant, 90. 
 
 scare, 90. 
 
 scathe, 90. 
 
 scum, 165. 
 
 sear, sere, 70, 119, 
 
 164, 181. 
 seed, loi. 
 seek, I 01. 
 seem, 164. 
 seemly, 164. 
 send, loi. 
 sere ; see sear, 
 seven, 70, loi, 119, 
 
 140, 164, 194. 
 sew, 119, 194. 
 shade, 90, loi. 
 shaft, 90. 
 shake, 25. 
 shall, 119, 165. 
 shanty, 92. 
 shave, 141. 
 shawm, 7. 
 shear, 102. 
 sherry, 82. 
 shillelagh, 92. 
 shine, 141. 
 ship, 90. 
 shove, 141. 
 show, 167. 
 sile, 164. 
 sister, 102, 119, 141, 
 
 164, 194. 
 sit, 102, 119, 140, 
 
 164, 194. 
 
 SIX, 102, 119,139, 141, 
 
 164. 
 skain (knife), 92. 
 skate, 81. 
 skid, 90, 
 skill, 90. 
 skim, 90. 
 skin, 90. 
 sky, 165. 
 slag, 90. 
 
 sled, sledge, 80, 83. 
 sledge-hammer, 80. 
 sleep, 119, 167. 
 slogan, 92. 
 small- pox, 82. 
 smear, 102. 
 smile, 165. 
 smocic, 119. 
 smoke, 102. 
 snaffle, 89. 
 snake, 167. 
 snap, snip, 89. 
 snood, 165. 
 snow, 51, 102, 120, 
 
 160. 
 snuff, 89. 
 soak, 165. 
 soap, 23. 
 soft, 164. 
 
 son, 52, 102, 120, 164. 
 soot, 165. 
 sooth, 165. 
 sop, 165. 
 sorrow, 102. 
 soup, 165. 
 sour, 120. 
 sow, s., 102, 120, 129, 
 
 141, 165. 
 sow, v., 120. 
 sowans, 92. 
 spalpeen, 92. 
 spark, 166. 
 speak, 166. 
 speed, 25, 120, 166, 
 
 194. 
 spin, 120. 
 splay, 43. 
 spleuchan, 92. 
 sport, 43. 
 spring, 166. 
 spur, 120, 141. 
 spurn, 141, 167, 195. 
 
ENGLISH WORDS 
 
 223 
 
 squire, 44. 
 staff, 166. 
 stain, 43. 
 stair, 26, 166. 
 stand, 120, 141, 166, 
 
 195. 
 star, 66, 102, 141, 
 
 167, 195. 
 stead, 166. 
 steed, 25, 166. 
 steer, s., 120, 141, 
 
 195. 
 stone, 22, 50, 120. 
 stool, i66. 
 story, 43. 
 strath, 92, 102. 
 straw, 1 66. 
 stream, 102, 141,167, 
 
 195- 
 strew, 166. 
 stripe, 102. 
 strive, 79. 
 stud, 25, 166. 
 sty, 166. 
 suck, 102, 165. 
 summer, 165. 
 summons, 82. 
 sunder, asunder, 165. 
 sup, 165. 
 sutler, 89. 
 swabber, 89. 
 swarm, 166. 
 swear, 166. 
 sweat, 26, 74, 103, 
 
 141, 166, 195. 
 sweet, 74, 141, 166, 
 
 195- 
 sweven, 74 (M.E.). 
 swine, 120, 195. 
 switch, 89, 
 swoot, 74 (M.E.). 
 tame, 20, 51,55, 103, 
 
 135, 153, 195- 
 tang, 21. 
 tanist, 92. 
 tar, 20, 51. 
 tares, 20, 153. 
 tarn, 135. 
 tart, 135. 
 team, 20. 
 tear, s., 20, 51, 103, 
 
 196. 
 
 tear, v., 20, 103, 120, 
 
 135. 154, 196. 
 teem, 20. 
 -teen, 50. 
 teeth, 24. 
 temples, 86. 
 ten, 50, 103, 120, 126, 
 
 135, 154, 196. 
 tenable, tenacious, 62. 
 tend, 62. 
 
 tender, v. and adj., 62. 
 tenement, tenet, 62. 
 tenon, tenor, 62. 
 tense, tent, 62. 
 tenuity, 62. 
 tetanus, 62. 
 that, 121, 153, 196. 
 thatch, 103, 196. 
 thaw, 103, 153. 
 thick, 103. 
 thigh, 131. 
 thill, 153. 
 thin, 62, 103, 121, 
 
 134. 153, 196. 
 thmg, 54. 
 third, 121, 153. 
 thirst, 60, 103, 134, 
 
 153, 177, 196. 
 thole, 153 (prov. E.). 
 thorn, 121. 
 thorp, 103. 
 thou, 121, 128, 134, 
 
 196. 
 threat, 121. 
 three, 103, 121, 128, 
 
 153, 196. 
 throstle, 103, 121. 
 thumb, 153. 
 thunder, 134, 153. 
 thwart, athwart, 153. 
 tie, 20. 
 tight, 126. 
 
 timber, 21, 154, 197. 
 to, 21. 
 
 toast, 60, 177. 
 tocher, 92. 
 token, 22, 154. 
 tone, 62. 
 tongs, 21, 154. 
 tongue, 21. 
 toon(toes),83(M.E.). 
 toot, 29. 
 
 tooth, 24, 51, 103, 
 
 120, 135, 154. 
 torrid, 177. 
 Tory, 92. 
 tough, 21. 
 tow, 20. 
 town, 21, 103. 
 trace, 79, 80, 83. 
 tram, 15, 16. 
 trash, 79, 80. 
 tree, 21, 103, 121, 
 
 128, 135. i54> 197- 
 trick, 89. 
 trough, 21. 
 true,2i,i2i ;truce,2i. 
 trust, 21. 
 tub, 89. 
 Tuesday, 19, 135, 
 
 154. 197. 
 tug, 20. 
 turf, 154. 
 twain, 21. 
 twelve, 121. 
 twig, 21, 128. 
 twine, 21, 181 ; twin, 
 
 21. 
 twist, 21. 
 two, 21, 51, 103,121, 
 
 i35j 154, 197. 
 udder, 171, 1 97- 
 un-, 127, 171, 198. 
 under, 171. 
 up, 171. 
 uproar, 89. 
 usquebaugh, 92. 
 veil, 85. 
 venison, 39. 
 vernal, 175. 
 vesper, 175. 
 viand, 86. 
 voice, 175. 
 wag, 90, 167. 
 wain, T2I, 167, 175; 
 
 waggon, 89. 
 wainscot, 89. 
 wake, v., 167 ; s., 72, 
 
 73. 
 wale, 167. 
 walk, 167. 
 wall, 71, 175- 
 wallow, 167, 175. 
 wane, s., 104. 
 
224 
 
 ENGLISH. FRENCH. GAELIC 
 
 wanting, 73. 
 
 war, 35. 
 
 ware, 78. 
 
 warm, 139, 160, 198. 
 
 wary, 175. 
 
 was, 167, 180, 198. 
 
 watch, 167. 
 
 water, 73, 122, 127, 
 
 198. 
 wax, v., 198. 
 way, 167. 
 we, 167. 
 wealk'd, 73. 
 wear, 78, 129, 167, 
 
 I75> 179- 
 weather, 122, 199. 
 weave, 73, 129, 142. 
 wed, s., 122. 
 ween, 199. 
 weigh, 198. 
 weir, 122, 167. 
 welked, 73. 
 well, adv., 104, 122, 
 
 168. 
 wered, 78 (M.E.). 
 wether, 168, 175. 
 whale, 116. 
 wharf, 159. 
 wheal (mine), 92. 
 wheel, 116, 138, 159. 
 whelk, 73. 
 where, 116, 159. 
 whether, 116, 138. 
 while, 116, 159. 
 whirl, 69, 159. 
 whiskey, 92. 
 whit, 122. 
 
 white, 137, 156, 198. 
 who, 116, 138, 159, 
 
 199. 
 whole, 116. 
 wick, 71, 128, 175. 
 widow, 104, 122, 
 
 142, 168, 199. 
 wield, 104, 122. 
 wilk, 73. 
 
 will, v., 122, 168, 199. 
 willok, 73 (prov. E.). 
 win, 168, 199. 
 winch, 129, 
 wind, s., 104, 142, 
 
 168, 199. 
 
 wine, 71, 127, 175. 
 winnow, 168. 
 wish, 168. 
 wit, v., 122, 127, 168, 
 
 175. 199- 
 witch-elm, wich-elm, 
 
 73, 168. 
 withers, 168. 
 withy, withe, 122, 
 
 142, 168, 175, 199. 
 wizened, 168. 
 wolf, 122, 142, 168. 
 wont, 199. 
 wood, s., 104. 
 wood, adj., 168. 
 wool, 104, 122, 200, 
 word, 122, 175. 
 wore, 78. 
 work, 73, 127, 142, 
 
 175, 200. 
 wort, 104. 
 worth, s,, 104. 
 worth, v., 122, 142, 
 
 167, 200. 
 wot, 26, 122,168,172. 
 wrist, 69. 
 writhe, 69. 
 yard, 97, 104, 200. 
 yarn, 157. 
 yawn, 113. 
 ye, 123, 169, 200. 
 year, 123, 169, 200. 
 yearn, 157, 200. 
 yeast, 104, 169, 200. 
 yell, 68. 
 yellow, 113, 138, 157, 
 
 201. 
 yesterday, 158. 
 yew, 104. 
 yoke, 104, 123, 142, 
 
 169, 201. 
 young, 104, 123, 142, 
 
 169, 201. 
 zool, 70 (prov. E.). 
 
 FRENCH. 
 (Words marked O. F. 
 
 are Old French ; 
 
 those marked A. F. 
 
 are Anglo-P'rench.) 
 
 See also pp. 84-6. 
 auberge, 34. 
 
 baiser, 34, 95. 
 
 bataille, 34. 
 
 battre, 34. 
 
 blu, blew, 94 (A. F.). 
 
 cachier, 33 (Picard). 
 
 charge, 6. 
 
 chasse, 33. 
 
 chasser, 32. 
 
 deux, 21. 
 
 floundre, 150 (A. F.). 
 
 flur, 61 (A.F.). 
 
 frange, 65. 
 
 guerre, 35. 
 
 karke, 6 (A. F.). 
 
 kenet, 8 (A. F.). 
 
 langue, 21. 
 
 larme, 20. 
 
 marche, 139, 190 
 
 (A.F.). 
 murdre, 162 (A. F.). 
 oiseux, 34. 
 pere, 39. 
 
 rober, 140 (O. F.). 
 semaine, 34. 
 soupe, 165. 
 venger, 34. 
 werre, 35 (A. F.). 
 
 GAELIC. 
 athair, 96. 
 bean, 100. 
 beam, 94. 
 bleagh, 100. 
 bo, no. 
 hoc, 95. 
 
 bonn, 94, 134, 184. 
 both, 94. 
 bothan, 94. 
 brathair, 95. 
 breith, 94. 
 bu, 94. 
 ceithir, 97. 
 ceud, 98, 
 CO, 199. 
 criathar, loi. 
 cro, loi. 
 cuilionn, 98. 
 da, do, 103, 197. 
 dall, 96. 
 deich, 103, 196. 
 deud, 103. 
 dim, 103. 
 
GERMAN. GOTHIC 
 
 225 
 
 fann, 104. 
 flath, 104. 
 lann, 98. 
 leigh, 99. 
 luaidh, 98. 
 marc, 99. 
 
 mathair, 100, 191. 
 mi, 99. 
 mios, 100. 
 muir, 100. 
 nead, 100. 
 nochd, 100. 
 nuadh, 100, 192. 
 ochd, 96. 
 bg, 104. 
 olann, 104. 
 reachd, loi. 
 ruadh, loi, 193. 
 seileach, loi. 
 se, sea, sia, 103. 
 sgath, loi. 
 smior, smear, 102. 
 srath, 102. 
 tana, 103, 196. 
 tart, 103. 
 teach, tigh, 196. 
 tiugh, 103. 
 tri, 103, 196. 
 tu, 196. 
 ubhal, 93. 
 
 GERMAN. 
 Old High German 
 forms are marked 
 (O.H.G.). 
 
 aba,ab,i93(O.H.G.). 
 
 affe, 54, 55. 
 
 apfel, 54. 
 
 bad, 54. 
 
 bein, 22. 
 
 berg, 152. 
 
 bett, 54, 55. 
 
 blao, 94 (O. H. G.). 
 
 bruder, 54. 
 
 buch, 55. 
 
 dehnen, 62. 
 
 ding, 54. 
 
 falb, 149. 
 
 gans, 113, 157, 187. 
 
 glatt, 114. 
 
 gleich, 161. 
 
 hahn, 63, 
 
 hase, 63, 114, 156, 
 
 180. 
 holen, 29. 
 holz, 63. 
 
 leans, 55 (O.H.G.). 
 kiesen, 137. 
 kinn, 137. 
 marcha, 139, 190 
 
 (O.H.G.). 
 mast, masten, 161. 
 maus, 192. 
 mord, 192, 
 murmelthier, 66. 
 pfad, 55. 
 polster, 55. 
 rauben, 140. 
 reihe, 163. 
 schweiss, 26. 
 stein, 22. 
 Strom, 141, 167. 
 teig, 22, 26. 
 tief, 55. 
 tochter, 55. 
 traum, 136. 
 trugbild, 136, 155. 
 triigen, 136, 155. 
 timst, 155(0. H.G.). 
 utar, 197 (O. H. G.). 
 warm, 160. 
 welle, 122. 
 werra, 35 (O. H. G.). 
 zahm, 20, 55. 
 zahn, 21. 
 zimmer, 21. 
 zwei, 21. 
 
 LOW GERMAN. 
 A list of some Low 
 
 German words is 
 
 given at pp. 87, 88. 
 
 A few others are 
 
 here noted, 
 bidriaga (O. Fries.), 
 
 155- 
 dram (O. Fries.), 155. 
 dran (O.Saxon), 155. 
 dreeme (N. Fries.), 
 
 155. 
 drSm (N. Fries.), 155. 
 fereha (Lombardic), 
 
 150. 
 staf (E. Fries.), 166. 
 
 Q 
 
 GOTHIC. 
 
 ahtau, 112. 
 
 aigan, 170. 
 
 aiths, 100. 
 
 akrs, 183. 
 
 aleina, 186. 
 
 ana, 170. 
 
 anthar, 118, 170. 
 
 arjan, 112, 186. 
 
 arms, 184. 
 
 auhsa, 170. 
 
 auso, 112, 143, 180, 
 
 186. 
 bairan, 184. 
 bairhts, 153. 
 basi, 180. 
 bigitan, 114. 
 bilaigon, 163. 
 bileiban, 163. 
 bindan, 184. 
 biudan, 184. 
 brothar, 185. 
 dags, 136, 185. 
 daigs, 22, 26, 155, 
 
 186. 
 dauhtar, 185. 
 daur, 185. 
 deigan, 155. 
 dius, III, 180. 
 dwals, 96, 155. 
 fadar, 187. 
 fagrs, 149. 
 fahan, 149. 
 falthan, 69, 150. 
 fani, 149. 
 faran, 186. 
 farjan, 186. 
 fastan, 149. 
 fidwor, 97, 133, 138, 
 
 187. 
 fijan, 150. 
 fijands, 150. 
 fimf, 95, 112, 150, 
 
 187. 
 flodus, 150. 
 fStus, 187. 
 fraitan, 60. 
 freis, 151. 
 fulls, 187. 
 
 gadaban , gadobs, 1 1 r. 
 gadars, 154, 176. 
 
226 
 
 GOTHIC. GREEK 
 
 gadaursan, 135. 
 gadaursta, 154. 
 -gairns, 157. 
 gamarzjan, 177. 
 garedan, 140. 
 gasts, 114. 
 gathairsan, 134. 
 hafjan, 61. 
 haidus, 158. 
 halja, 156. 
 handus, 51. 
 hauhs, T58. 
 hunsl, 114. 
 huzd, 180. 
 hwairban, 159. 
 hwas, 159, 199. 
 hwathar, 138. 
 hvveila, 159. 
 hweits, 137. 
 im, 108, 183. 
 ist, 117. 
 jer, 123, 169. 
 juggs, 123, 169. 
 juk, 123. 
 jus, 123. 
 kalbo, 159. 
 kara, 159. 
 kilthei, 157. 
 kinnus, 185, 187. 
 , kiusan, 128, 137, 185. 
 kwairnus, iii, 160. 
 kwiman, 160. 
 kwin5, 100, no. 138, 
 
 160. 
 kwius, 138. 
 leihts, 161. 
 leihwan, 99, 117. 
 Hubs, 161. 
 lustus, 161. 
 magan, 162. 
 mena, menoth, 162. 
 midjis, 162. 
 mizdS, 139, 180. 
 munan, 118. 
 nadrs, 93. 
 nakwoths, 162. 
 nehwis, 182. 
 nu, 163. 
 rauds, 163, 
 razn, 181. 
 saihs, 119. 
 salbon, 129, 164. 
 
 salt, 119. 
 sibja, 164. 
 sibun, 119, 125. 
 sind, 184. 
 sinis, 125. 
 siujan, 119. 
 skaban, 141. 
 skal, 119. 
 skiuban, 141. 
 slepan, 119, 167. 
 stains, 22, 120. 
 sunus, 52, 120, 164. 
 swistar, 119. 
 thai, 173. 
 thata, 121. 
 timrjan, 21, 154. 
 tunthus, 120, 135, 
 
 154- 
 twai, 121, 154. 
 tvvalif, 121. 
 uf, ufarS, 171. 
 uftbanjan, 62. 
 undar, 171. 
 usgaisjan, 157. 
 ut, 170. 
 wadi, 122. 
 wagjan, 167. 
 walus, 167. 
 wans, 73. 
 warjan, 167. 
 wasjan, 167. 
 
 WatO, 12 2. 
 
 witan, 168. 
 withra, 168. 
 withrus, 168. 
 
 GREEK. 
 ayeiv, 127, 169, 183. 
 ayKvpa, 169. 
 dypos, 169, 183. 
 arjfii, 199. 
 dKeicpeiv, 163, 190. 
 cifia, 140, 194. 
 dfji.e\yeiv , 1 9 1. 
 dv', d-, 171, 198. 
 dvTi, 169. 
 d^(uv, 184. 
 diTo, 193. 
 dpKTOS, 125. 
 dpSfiv, 96, 186. 
 darrip, 66, 125, 195. 
 dcTv^ iq8. 
 
 av^oj, av^avoj, 198. 
 aSoj, avos, 70, 1 81. 
 avffTTjpos, 70. 
 avoji, 186 (iEolic). 
 Paiveiv, 159. 
 ^avd, 100, no, 160, 
 
 T93 (Boeotian). 
 0dp0apos, 151. 
 jSt'oj, 160, 193. 
 Povs, 95, no, 160, 
 
 185. 
 /BpoTos, 192. 
 yd\a, 128. 
 yap-cp-q, I lo. 
 yevos, 98, 156, 189. 
 yews, 95, 137, 157, 
 
 ,185. 
 yipavos, no, 185. 
 yevopxxi, 60, 157, 185. 
 yevaros, 128, 185. 
 yiyvwcTKfiv, 189. 
 yXoios, 26. 
 yvwTos, no. 
 yo/jicpos, no, 128, 157. 
 yovv, 127, 156, 189. 
 7W17, 100, no, 160, 
 
 193. 
 SdKVfiv, 21, 154. 
 daKpv, 20, 51, 103, 
 
 196. 
 dapidfiv, 20, 196. 
 SeiKuvpi, 154. 
 SiKa, 103, 196. 
 hcKaros, 120. 
 heKcpvs, 159. 
 5€>eii/, 20, 154, 197. 
 Upuv, 20, 135, 196. 
 ^los, 19. 
 
 bitrXdaios, 69, 150. 
 hoXixos, 135. 
 86pos, 197. 
 bopv, 197. 
 hpys, 154, 197. 
 
 dvo, dvw, 21, 197. 
 
 cap, 175. 
 
 €yuv, kyw, 170, 188. 
 fSw, 60, 96, 186. 
 eCopai, 194. 
 eipi, 169, 183. 
 eipeiv, 175. 
 (laiv, 184. 
 iKaT6v, 156, 188. 
 
GREEK 
 
 227 
 
 f\axv9, 117, 160, 161, 
 190. 
 
 f;^, 73- 
 
 e\Kuv, 129. 
 IAttos, 164. 
 
 k\v€lV, 175. 
 
 eH€,^ 99. ^ 
 6/ioi}, /^oC, 191. 
 fvOeos, III. 
 €vv4a, 193. 
 6J/j/v/it, 175. 
 eVos, 70. 
 
 <^ 194- 
 
 trros, 175. 
 
 Itttc, 70, 125, 140, 
 
 194. 
 ipyov, 73, 127, 142, 
 
 175, 200. 
 epdveiv, 69. 
 epnfiv, 129. 
 Ipu^pos, 163, 193. 
 epXOfiai, 128. 
 'danepos, 175. 
 €(rT7;i/, 195. 
 cart, 170, 189. 
 (Tos, 175. 
 eufii', 70. 
 «5</t9, 73. 
 ecpv, 94. 
 ^e'eti/, 169, 201. 
 ^earos, 169, 201. 
 Zews, 19, 197. 
 Cvyov, 201. 
 ^Svs, 74, 195. 
 fipLepos, 164. 
 ^ws, 186. 
 Oaipos, 112. 
 OapaiTv, 135, 154. 
 ^€n;', fut. Oevaopiai, 
 
 154- ^ 
 0eA«s, 136. 
 ^fp^Mos, 20, 139, 160, 
 
 198. 
 Oepofiai, 198. 
 6€a(paTos, iii. 
 ^77/), 20. 
 ^pacrus, 135. 
 6vydTT]p, III, 126, 
 
 154, 185. 
 evpa, 96, 112, 155, 
 
 186. 
 I8civ. 175. 
 
 iStcy, 195. 
 ISpdjs, 74, 195. 
 iTf'a, 142, 175, 200. 
 KaXapLos, 114, i88. 
 KaXeTv, 29. 
 /ifa\td, 156. 
 
 «aM<, 156- 
 Kdin), 61. 
 «dpa, 125, 188. 
 KapSia, 114, 125, 127, 
 
 156, 188. 
 Kapiros, 115, 159,188. 
 Kapiros (wrist), 68. 
 KapraXos, 116, 158. 
 Kfpaos, 188. 
 /fc'pay, 156, 188, 
 KCvOeiv, 98, 180. 
 /f^/), 127, 188. 
 kXclSos, 63. 
 K\ivHv, 99, 115, 161, 
 
 189. 
 /fAi/6ti', 17, 115, 190. 
 kXvt6s, 115, 190. 
 «om, 128. 
 Kopaai, 156. 
 Kopv/x^os, 156, 188. 
 Kpeas, 193. 
 Kpoumov, 188. 
 kvkXos, 116, 138, 159. 
 /fuj/a, 137. 
 /fnwj/, 98, 114, 156, 
 
 188. 
 
 KOUTTT], 61. 
 
 \eiiT€iv, 117, 190. 
 Act'xfti', 99, 125, 163, 
 
 189. 
 
 XeAoiTra, 20. 
 
 Aeu/fos, 117, 163, 190. 
 
 A^XOS, 99 J i?9- 
 Xi/xvdveiv, XeiiTtiv, 190. 
 Xiirap-qs, 1 1 7. 
 AiTrapoy, 1 63. 
 AtTTOS, 190. 
 AotTTOS, 173, 190. 
 fjiaXdaxos, 162. 
 fie'^v, 99, 139, 162, 
 
 191. 
 fxeXdiiv, 162. 
 fic/xova, 191. 
 fiivos, 191. 
 piicros, 191. 
 /*V, 139, 191. 
 Q 2 
 
 /*»?''»?. 191. 
 /*77TJ7p, 191. 
 firjxavfi, 162. 
 pLiaOos, 118, 139, 162, 
 
 180, 191. 
 fivdofMi, 191. 
 ftCs, 192. 
 ve'os, 192. 
 rt^a, 102, 160. 
 vv, vvv, 118, 193. 
 "^^j 192. 
 6S0US, 21, 197. 
 ofcij/, 145. 
 oh/iiv, 73. 
 olSa, 26, 174, 199. 
 oiKos, 175. 
 
 orj/os, 175. 
 
 ois, 96, 186. 
 
 O^TW, 96, 186. 
 
 ofxppos, 126. 
 
 0/ios, 140, 194; 
 
 ofxaXos, 194. 
 6ix<paX6s, 192. 
 ovofia, 192. 
 opdcw, 175. 
 opyavov, 200. 
 opeyeiv, 1 94. 
 ovOap, 171, 197. 
 oSj, 96, 186. 
 o^pvs, 95, 134, 185. 
 oxfofxai, 198. 
 
 oxoy, i75» 198- 
 7rapd5e«ros, 136. 
 riapdta, 130. 
 TrdorcaAos, 148. 
 irar-qp, 187. 
 ireiapia, 67, 184. 
 -rrepnc, 97, 187 
 
 (iEolic). 
 nevOepos, 184. 
 TTcWf, 97, 112, 125, 
 
 126, 128, 132, 150, 
 
 187. 
 irepav^ 120. 
 rrepdoj, 186. 
 Trept, 136. 
 ircTavyu/ii, 132. 
 ireTOfiat, 187. 
 TTeveo/xai, 133, 152, 
 
 184. 
 TrqyvvfUf I49. 
 iTTjyos, 149. 
 
228 
 
 GREEK. HINDI. IRISH 
 
 rr^XVs, 152, 185. 
 
 1TlKp6s, 112. 
 
 mffvpes, 97, 187 
 
 (iEolic). 
 irioiv, 132, 149. 
 -irXdffios, 150. 
 irXarvs, 132, 150. 
 trXrjpTjs, 187. 
 ttAwtos, 150. 
 TToAtoy, 149. 
 TToAoj, 116. 
 TTopevofiai, 149, 187. 
 
 TTOTfpOS, 116. 
 
 •jTous, 187 ; TToSa, 126. 
 
 'Tpo, i33> 150- 
 ■nrepoVy 187. 
 irvOfiv, vvov, 187. 
 TTvOfxrjv, 94, 184. 
 ttC/), 126, 150. 
 TTcOs, 132, 187 (Doric). 
 pidv, 102, 195. 
 ^6{5//a, 141, 195. 
 P^TCop, 175. 
 aKOLTtrnv, 141. 
 (r/f<d, 141. 
 airaipeiy, 195. 
 awcpxfiv, 166. 
 CTeyeiv, 196. 
 areixftv, 26, 166. 
 cTTorxos, 26. 
 
 <TU, 196. 
 
 -cuctv (in /fa<r-(ri;€tr), 
 
 194. 
 acpapw^os, 165. 
 
 o-xiC«f, 148. 
 
 TOJ/aos, 196. 
 rapffos, 196. 
 TttCpos, 195. 
 Te7oy, 103, 196. 
 Tcivetv, 62. 
 Tcrxoy, Torxos, 186. 
 Tcpaeadai, 60, 177, 
 
 196. 
 reaaapes, 97, 187. 
 Tt'y, 116, 199. 
 Tt0J7/it, III, 136, 154, 
 
 185. 
 t6, n., 121, 153, 196. 
 Tot', 173. 
 
 ToTxos, 26, 173, 186. 
 rpeis (n. rp/a), 197. 
 Tu, 196 (Doric). 
 
 TvKr], 153. 
 {/7pds, 72, 73. 
 vSpa, 170. 
 uScyp, 73, 198. 
 vfxeTs, 200. 
 uTTfp, 170. 
 vjrvos, 74, 129. 
 5s, 195. 
 
 vcjxiiveiv, 73, 142. 
 (pepeiv, 60, 94, 184. 
 (/)opA:6s, 95. 
 (pparrjp, 185. 
 
 (ppVTOV, 98. 
 
 (pvofiai, 184. 
 
 (pVTOV, 128. 
 
 (puyciv, 68. 
 XC">"i'j 157, 200. 
 Xapd, 157, 200. 
 Xei/^ojv, 129. 
 Xctp, 126. 
 XeAtSwi', 68. 
 
 x'?", 113, 157, 188. 
 
 X^fs, 158. 
 
 Xttt'i', 126. 
 
 X\077, 157, 201. 
 
 Xoipos, 128. 
 
 X0A77, 126, 138, 157, 
 
 201. 
 XopS-f], 157. 
 
 XOpTVS, 200. 
 
 wAcV?;, 143, 170, 186. 
 S)pos, upa, 200. 
 
 HINDI. 
 
 See pp. 205-9. -^^so : 
 lut, 140. 
 patti, 150. 
 
 IRISH. 
 Old Irish words are 
 
 marked fO.). 
 abhal, abhall, 93, 183. 
 ahair, 96, 125 ; O. 
 
 athir, 187. 
 aigh, O. aig, 98. 
 aile (O.), 125. 
 ainm (O.), 192. 
 am (O.), 183. 
 an-, 198. 
 araim, 96, 186, 
 
 bean, 100; ben, 160, 
 
 193; O. b^n, 100. 
 beam, 94. 
 beirim, 94. 
 beo, 100, III, 193; 
 
 O. beo, biu, 100. 
 berim (O.), 60, 126, 
 
 184. 
 bla, 94. 
 blath, 61, 94. 
 bligim (O.), 191. 
 bo, 95, no, 160, 185. 
 boc, 95. 
 
 boi (O.), 94, 184. 
 bolg, 94. 
 bonn, 94, 184. 
 both, 94. 
 bra (O.), 95. 
 brathair, 93, 95, 185. 
 breith, brith, 94. 
 bri, 94. 
 brisim, 95. 
 brod, 95. 
 bru, 190. 
 bruig ; se^ mruig. 
 bruith, bruithim, 95. 
 bus, busog, 95. 
 canaim, 98. 
 cead, 98, 188. 
 celim (O.), 98. 
 cet (O.), 98. 
 cethir (O.), 97, 187. 
 cloen (O.), 99, 189. 
 cloth (O.), 99, 190. 
 cluass, 99. 
 cluinim, 99. 
 cnu (O.), 100. 
 CO, 199. 
 
 coic (O.), 97, 187. 
 coll (O.), 98. 
 corn, 98, 188. 
 criathar (O.), loi. 
 cridhe, 98, 188; O. 
 
 cride. 
 cro (O.), 1 01. 
 cru, cro (O.), loi, 
 
 193- 
 cruach (O.), 116. 
 cruaid (O.), loi. 
 cu, 98, 188. 
 cuileann, 98. 
 da, 103, 197, 
 
IRISH. ITALIAN. LATIN 
 
 229 
 
 daghaim, 185. 
 
 daigh, 185. 
 
 dair, daur (O.), 103, 
 
 197. 
 dall, 96. 
 dam (O.), 135. 
 damliag (O.), 197. 
 darag, 197. 
 ddad, 103. 
 dear, 103. 
 deich, 103, 196. 
 der (O.), 103, 196. 
 ddt (O.), 103,197. 
 dia (O.), 197. 
 do (O.), 21. 
 domain (O.), 96. 
 dorus (O.), 96, 185. 
 dun (O.), 21, 103. 
 6n (O.), 187. 
 eo, 104. 
 dtaim (O.), 96. 
 fand (O.), 198. 
 fann, 104. 
 feadhb, 104, 199 ; O. 
 
 fedb. 
 fdn (O.), 198. 
 feth (O.), 199. 
 fiodh, 104 ; O. fid. 
 fiss (O.), 199. 
 flaith (O.), 104. 
 fosaim, 198. 
 freamh , 1 04 ; O . fre m . 
 gein, 98, 188. 
 geis (O.), 188. 
 gin, 95, 185. 
 gnath(0.), 189. 
 gorm, 139, 198; gor- 
 
 aim, 198. 
 gort (O.), 97, 200. 
 gran, 95. 
 imbliu, imliu (O.), 
 
 192. 
 ind, 96. 
 
 indiu (O.), 197. 
 innocht (O.), 100 
 it (O.), 184. 
 laigim (O.), 99, 189. 
 Ian (O.), 97, 187. 
 lann, 98 ; (Early) land, 
 lar, 96. 
 
 \6cim (p.), 99, 190. 
 leigh, 99. 
 
 lethar (O.), 99. 
 liaig (O.), 99. 
 lige (O.), 99, 189. 
 ligim (O.), 99, 139, 
 
 189. 
 loche (O.), 190. 
 luachair, 99. 
 luachtd (O.), 190. 
 luaidhe, 98 ; O. lu- 
 
 aide. 
 lubgort (O.), 200. 
 marb (O.), 192. 
 marc, 99. 
 mathair, 191 ; O. 
 
 mathir, 100. 
 me, 99. 
 
 menice (O.), 99. 
 menma (O.), 191. 
 mi (O.), 100, 191. 
 mid, 99, 191. 
 midnogt, 191. 
 mligid (O.), /a/er 
 
 bligid, 100. 
 mong (O.), 99. 
 mruig, bruig, 99, 190. 
 much (O.), 102. 
 naoi, 192. 
 nathair, 93. 
 net (O.), 100. 
 nochd, 192 ; O. nocht, 
 
 100, 192. 
 n6i(n) (O.), 192. 
 nuadh, 192. 
 nuide (O.), 100, 192. 
 6, 96, 186. 
 oac (O.), 104. 
 ocht, 96, 186. 
 oech (O.), 97. 
 oen (O.), 100. 
 oeth (O.), 100. 
 6g, 104. 
 oi, 96, 186. 
 olann, 104, 200. 
 ore, 96. 
 
 OS, uas (O.), 198. 
 recht, rect (O.), loi, 
 
 194. 
 riadaim (O.), loi. 
 rigim (O.), 194. 
 ruadh, loi, 193. 
 saigim, sagim (O.), 
 
 lOI. 
 
 sail, saileach, 101. 
 saith (O.), loi. 
 saithech (O.), loi. 
 salann (O.), loi. 
 samhail, 194 ; O. 
 
 samail. 
 scaraim (O.), 102. 
 scath (O.), 101. 
 se (O.), 103, 194. 
 seacht, loi, 194 ; O 
 
 secht, 194. 
 sen (O.), 70. 
 serg, sergaim (O.), 
 
 102. 
 set (O.), loi. 
 sgaraim, 102. 
 sil(0.), loi. 
 siur (O.), 102, 194. 
 smir, 102. 
 snathad, 100. 
 snim (O.), 100. 
 srath, 102. 
 sriab (O.), 102. 
 sruaim (O.), 102, 
 
 ,195- 
 sugim (O.), 102. 
 suig, 141, 195- 
 suth (O.), 102. 
 tana, 103, 196. 
 tart, 103, 196. 
 tigh, teach, 103, 196 ; 
 
 O. tech, 103, 196. 
 tir, 177, 196. 
 tiugh, 103 ; O. tiug. 
 treb (O.), 103. 
 tri, 103, 196. 
 trod, 103. 
 truid, 103. 
 tu, 196. 
 uassal, uasal (O.). 
 
 198. 
 ughaim, 104. 
 uile, 93. 
 
 ITALIAN, 
 caccia, 33. 
 cacciare, 32. 
 cupola, 158. 
 nazione, 33. 
 
 LATIN. 
 
 ab, 193. 
 
23© 
 
 LATIN 
 
 acies, 170. 
 
 acus, 127, 170- 
 
 ager, 169, 183. 
 
 agere, 169, 183. 
 
 alius, 125. 
 
 anser, 97, 113, 157, 
 
 188. 
 ante, 169. 
 arare, 96, 186. 
 armus, 169, 184. 
 augere, 112, 170, 198. 
 auris, 96, 112, 180, 
 
 186. 
 aurora, 170, 186. 
 auxilium, 198. 
 axis, 94, 108, 170. 
 
 184. 
 balbus, 151. 
 bilis, 94, 
 blni, 181. 
 bos, 95, 160, 185. 
 bucetum, 98. 
 cadere, 12. 
 calamus, 97, 188. 
 calare, 29. 
 canere, 63, 98. 
 canis, 98, 114, 188. 
 capax, 61. 
 capere, 32. 
 *captiare, 32, 33, 56. 
 carpere, 115, 158,188. 
 cauere, 167. 
 cecidi, 12. 
 cella, 98, 156. 
 celsus, 158. 
 centum, 51, 98, 114, 
 
 137, 156, 188. 
 cerebrum, 155. 
 cernuus, 155. 
 ceruus, 97, 156, 188. 
 ciuis, 156. 
 cluere, 17, 190. 
 collis, 115. 
 collum, 177. 
 colus, 116. 
 coquere, 143. 
 cor, 156, 188. 
 cornu, 51, 54, 98, 
 
 137, 156, 188. 
 corpus, 158. 
 cornlus, 98. 
 cos, 156. 
 
 cratis, 116. 
 cribrum, loi. 
 crudus, loi, 116, 158, 
 
 193- 
 cruor, loi, no, 193. 
 culmen, 158. 
 culmus, 114, 188. 
 cunctarl, 155. 
 cupa, cupula, 158. 
 cura, 29. 
 cursus, s., 177. 
 cust5s, 180. 
 cutis, 115. 
 dacruma, 20, 196. 
 decem, 103, 120, 126, 
 
 128, 135, 154, 196. 
 defrutum, 68. 
 dens (dent-), 21, 51, 
 
 154, 197. 
 deus, 19, 20, 197. 
 dies, 19, 20, 197. 
 Diespiter, 197. 
 dingua, 21. 
 diuus, 19, 135, 197. 
 -do, 185. 
 domare, 20, 51, 153, 
 
 196. 
 
 domus, 20, 154, 197. 
 duo, 21, 51,135, 197. 
 edere, 60, 96, 112, 
 
 126, 170, 186. 
 ego, T17, 170, 188. 
 est, 143, 170, 189. 
 experior, 186. 
 facere, in. 
 fallere, 96. 
 fari, fama, 108. 
 fauilla, 185. 
 fel, 157, 201. 
 ferire, 133. 
 ferre, 60, 94, 184. 
 ferus, 20. 
 fiber, 152, 184. 
 figulus, 136, 186. 
 fimbriae, 61. 
 findere, 59, 152. 
 fingere, 136, 186. 
 flauus, 94. 
 fl5s, 61, 94. 
 forare, foramen, 94, 
 
 134- 
 fore (pt. t. fui), 184. 
 
 fores, 96, 186. 
 formus, 20, 160, 198, 
 frater, 93, 95, 185. 
 fraxinus, 184. 
 frul, frfiges, 68. 
 fuit, 94 ; fui, 152. 
 fundus, 94, 184. 
 gaesura, 180. 
 gena, 95, 137, 157, 
 
 185. 
 genu, 137, 156, 189. 
 genus, 98, 156, 189. 
 gignere, 137. 
 glaber, 114. 
 glomus, 138. 
 (g)n6scere, 137, 189. 
 (g)n5tus, no, 137. 
 granum, 95, 110,157. 
 grus^ 185. 
 gustare, 157, 185 • 
 gustus, 60, 
 haruspex, 157. 
 heluus, 113, 157- 
 heri, 158. 
 hestemus, 158. 
 hiare, 113. 
 hiems, 129. 
 horior, 200. 
 hortarl, 200. 
 hortus, 200. 
 hostis, 114, 188. 
 in-, 171, 198. 
 inclinare, 115, 161, 
 
 189. 
 inclutus, 190. 
 infra, 171. 
 istud, 153. 
 
 iugum, 142, 169, 201 
 iungere, 201. 
 lupiter, 19, 197. 
 iuuencus, 104, 142 
 
 169, 201. 
 iuuenis, 104, 123, 142, 
 
 169, 201. 
 labare, labi, 167. 
 labium, 139. 
 lacrima, 20, 196. 
 lallare, 161. 
 lana, 104, 200. 
 larix, 197. 
 lassus, 69. 
 lectus, 189. 
 
LATIN 
 
 231 
 
 leuis, 160, 190. 
 ligo, 128. 
 
 lingere, 99, 163, 189. 
 lingua, 21. 
 
 linquere, 99, 117, 190. 
 lippus, 190. 
 longus, 135. 
 lubet, libet, 189. 
 lubido, libido, 189. 
 lucere, 99, 140, 163, 
 
 190. 
 lucus, 117, 160, 163, 
 
 189. 
 lux, 125, 190. 
 mare, 100. 
 margo, 99, 139, 190. 
 mater, 125, 162, 191. 
 me, 99, 191. 
 medius, 139, 162, 191. 
 mei, mihi, 191. 
 memini, 191. 
 mensis, 100, 139, 191. 
 menti-, mens, 162, 
 
 191. 
 mirari, 165. 
 molere, 118. 
 morl, 162, 192. 
 mors, 118, 162, 192. 
 mortalis, 125, 139. 
 mortuus, 192. 
 mulgere, lOO, 162, 
 
 191. 
 mus, 162, 192. 
 nares, 163, 193. 
 nasus, 193. 
 nidus, 126, 163. 
 niuem, 102, 160. 
 noctem, 100, 128, 
 
 163; nox, 118, 
 
 163, 192. 
 nomen, 192. 
 notus, no, 137. 
 nouem, 140, 163, 193. 
 nouus, 118, 192. 
 nudus, 192. 
 nunc, 193. 
 obscurus, 165. 
 octo, 96, 143, 186. 
 offendix, 67, 184. 
 ouis, 96, 112, 170, 
 
 186. 
 pallidus, 149. 
 
 pangere, 149. 
 pater, 96, 149, 187. 
 penna, 187. 
 pes, 132, 187. 
 petere, 187. 
 planta, 132. 
 planus, 96. 
 plenus, 97, 113, 132, 
 
 187. 
 porca, 97. 
 porcus, 96, 112. 
 portus, 52, 97. 
 potis, 128. 
 prehendere, 114. 
 pruina, 128, 151, 
 
 187. 
 pruna, 128, 151, 187. 
 prurire, 187. 
 purus, 150. 
 pus, 113, 151, 187. 
 putridus, 132. 
 quatuor, 96, 97, 133, 
 
 138, 187. 
 quercus, 150. 
 -quid, 138 ; quid, 
 
 199. 
 quies, 159. 
 
 quinque, 97, 116, 187. 
 quis, 116, 199. 
 quod, 138. 
 rapio, 128. 
 rectus, 163, 194. 
 rlpa, 69. 
 
 ruber, 101, 163, 193. 
 rumpere, 140, 163, 
 
 193- 
 sal, 119. 
 salix, 10 1. 
 salsus, 1 01. 
 satur, loi. 
 scelus, 165. 
 scindo, 148. 
 secare, 129. 
 sedere, 140, 164, 194. 
 senex, 70, 125. 
 septem, 70, loi, 140, 
 
 194. 
 serere, 120. 
 serpere, 129. 
 sex, 102, 141, 194. 
 similis, 194. 
 somnus, 74. 
 
 soror, 102, 194. 
 spatinm, 194. 
 spernere, 166, 195. 
 spes, 194. 
 spuma, 150. 
 squalus, 116. 
 stare, 120, 141, 166, 
 
 195- 
 Stella, 66, 125, 195. 
 sterilis, 125. 
 sternere, 166. 
 stratum, 102. 
 suauis, 74, 195. 
 sucus, 165. 
 sudare, 195. 
 sudor, 26, 74, 195. 
 sueie, 194. 
 sugo, 102, 165. 
 sulnus, 195. 
 sulcus, 70, 129. 
 sum, 183; sunt, 169, 
 
 184. 
 sus, 129, 141, 195. 
 taurus, 120, 195. 
 tegere, 196. 
 tellus, 153. 
 tendere, tenere, 62. 
 tenuis, 103, 134, 153, 
 
 196. 
 terra, 60, 177, 196. 
 tertius, 121, 153. 
 toga, 196. 
 tolerare, 153. 
 tollere, 153. 
 torquere, 153. 
 torrere, 60, 196. 
 tres, 103, 128. 153, 
 
 197. 
 trudere, 121. 
 to, 128, 196. 
 -tud {in istud), 121, 
 
 196. 
 tumere, 153. 
 turdus, 121. 
 tuus, 121. 
 uber, 171, 197. 
 ulna, 143, 170, 186. 
 umbilicus, 192. 
 umbo, 192. 
 unda, 73, 122, 198. 
 unus, 100. 
 urere, 70. 
 
232 
 
 LATIN. LITHUANIAN 
 
 uates, 1 68. 
 uehere, 121, 198. 
 uehiculum, 198. 
 uelle, 168, 199. 
 uellus, 200. 
 uenire, 160. 
 uentus, 104, 142, 168, 
 
 199. 
 uenus, uenia, 199. 
 uertere, 142, 200. 
 Vesta, 198. 
 uestis, 129. 
 ulcus, 128, 129. 
 uldl, 199. 
 uidua, 104, 199. 
 uiere, 200. 
 uimen, 168. 
 uirus, 168. 
 uitis, 122, 142, 168, 
 
 200. 
 uTuus, 100, III, 138, 
 
 160, 193. 
 
 LITHUANIAN & 
 LETTISH, 
 alkune, elkune, 186. 
 alus, 108. 
 antras, 118. 
 apse, 108 (Lettish), 
 apuszis, 108. 
 arti, 96, 112, 186. 
 asz, 117, 188. 
 aszis, 108, 184. 
 aszmas, 112 
 asztoni, 112, 186. 
 atlagai, 189. 
 atmintis, 191. 
 augti, 112. 
 auksztas, 198. 
 ausis, 96, 112, 143, 
 
 180, 186. 
 auszra, 186. 
 awis, 96, 112, 170, 
 
 186. 
 bala, 119, 126. 
 balsas, 109, 178. 
 barzda, 108. 
 basas, 108, 180. 
 baud2iu, 184. 
 baugus, 109. 
 bebrus, 108, 152, 184. 
 bendras, 184. 
 
 berXas, 109, 184. 
 blend^us, 109. 
 broterelis, 109, 185. 
 brotuszis, 109. 
 bruwis, 109, 185. 
 buti, 108, 184. 
 dabinti, 11 1. 
 
 iS, 20, III, 136, 
 
 154, 185. 
 dalis, III. 
 dantls, 120, 197. 
 darwa, derwa, 20. 
 dausa, iii. 
 degti. III, 136. 
 degu, 128, 185. 
 demi, 185. 
 derwa, 121, 197. 
 deszimitis, 120, 192, 
 
 196. 
 deti, III, 
 dewas, 197. 
 dewyni, 192. 
 dirti, 120, 196. 
 dirwa, 20. 
 drutas, 121. 
 dubti. III. 
 dnbiis, III. 
 dukte, III, 185. 
 diirys, 11 1, 186. 
 dwase, iii. 
 dwesti, III. 
 dwi, 121, 197. 
 dwylika, 121. 
 edmi, 60, 112, 186. 
 es, 117. 
 
 esmi, 108, 183. 
 esti, est, 117, 189. 
 garas, 198. 
 gamys, 185. 
 gelti, III. 
 gerno, 11 1. 
 gerwe, no. 
 girnos, 160. 
 glodas, 114. 
 godyti, 114. 
 govs, guws, no, 185 
 
 (Lettish), 
 gywas, III, 193. 
 in, i, 117. 
 ismunku, 120. 
 jaunas, 123. 
 
 jungas, 123, 201. 
 jungti, 123. 
 jus, 123, 200. 
 kalnas, 115. 
 kampiu, 61 (Lettish), 
 kas, 116, 199. 
 katras, 116. 
 kaukaras, 158. 
 kaukas, 158. 
 kaupas, 115. 
 kauti, 115. 
 
 kerpii, 115, 158, 188. 
 keturi, 187. 
 kiautas, 115. 
 kowa, 115. 
 kraujas, 116, 193. 
 kruwa, 116. 
 kur, 116. 
 laukas, s., 117, 163, 
 
 189. 
 laukas, adj., 117, 190. 
 laupse, 189. 
 lekas, 121. 
 
 lengwas, 117,160, 190. 
 leXiii, 117, 189. 
 -lika, 117. 
 likti, 121, 190. 
 lipti, 117, 190. 
 lugnas, 117. 
 lygus, 161. 
 malti, 118. 
 manes, 191. 
 menu, 191. 
 mezgu, 118. 
 middus, 191. 
 milszti, 118, 191. 
 mineti, 118, 191. 
 mirti,mirtis, 118, 192. 
 mote, 118, 191. 
 naba, 192 (Lettish). 
 nagas, 139. 
 naktis, 118, 192. 
 nauda, 118. 
 naujas, 118, 192. 
 nawas, 118. 
 nogas, nugas, 192. 
 nosis, 193. 
 nu, 118, 193. 
 nugas, 118, 192. 
 obolys, 108, 183. 
 osis, 108 (Lettish), 
 padas, 187. 
 
LITHUANIAN. OLD NORSE 
 
 233 
 
 pakajus, 116. 
 palwas, 112, 149. 
 parszas, 112. 
 penki, 97, 112, 150, 
 
 187. 
 pernay, adv., 132. 
 piktas, 112. 
 pilnas, 113, 132, 151, 
 
 187. 
 pinti, 120. 
 priblinde, 109. 
 pulei, 113, 187. 
 puti, 187. 
 rauda, s., 119, 193. 
 raXyti, 194. 
 rudas, 119. 
 ruggei, 119. 
 rupas, 193. 
 ruple, 193. 
 sausas, 70, 119, 164, 
 
 181. 
 sedeti, 119, 194. 
 septyni, 119, 194. 
 sesu, 119, 194. 
 seti, 120. 
 siuti, 194. 
 skapoti, 141. 
 skeliu, skelu, 119. 
 skilti, 165. 
 skubus, 141. 
 slabneti, 119. 
 smunku, smukti, 120. 
 snegas, 120, 160. 
 sodis, 165. 
 
 spetas, speti, 120, 194. 
 spirti, 120, 195. 
 sraweti, 195. 
 statyti, 195. 
 stegti, 196. 
 stoti, 120, 195. 
 strazdas, 121. 
 sunus, 120. 
 surus, adj., 120. 
 suti, 119. 
 suwerti, 122. 
 swedri, 195 (Lettish), 
 szeszi, 102, 119, 194. 
 szimtas, 114, 188. 
 szirdis, 114, 188. 
 szleti, szlaitas, 115, 
 
 189. 
 szlowe, 115. 
 
 szu, 114, 188. 
 szwentas, 114. 
 szwidus, swidus, 198. 
 szwiteti, 115. 
 tankus, 126. 
 tas, 121, 196. 
 taukas, 121. 
 tawas, 121. 
 treczias, 121. 
 trys, 121, 197. 
 til, 121, 196. 
 tiikti, 121. 
 udra, 118. 
 udroti, v., 197. 
 u2werti, 122. 
 usis, 108. 
 wadoti, 122. 
 waldyti, 122. 
 wale, 122, 199. 
 wandu, 73, 122, 198. 
 wardas, 122. 
 wartyti, 123, 200. 
 weidas, 122, 199. 
 weizdmi, 199. 
 wejas, 199. 
 weliti, 122, 199. 
 wenas, 118. 
 wenolika, 112. 
 wersti, 122. 
 werti, 122. 
 vveszti, 198. 
 wetra, 122. 
 wegimas, 121, 198. 
 wezu, 121. 
 
 vvilkas, 122, 142, 168. 
 wilna, 122, 200. 
 wilnis, 122. 
 wytis, 122, 199. 
 z5bs, no (Lettish). 
 2alas, 113, 201. 
 Xaloti, 113. 
 2amba, no. 
 zandas, 185. 
 2asis, 113, 188. 
 2elti, 201. 
 2elwys, 113, 201. 
 2engiu, 113. 
 ^ilwittis, 122, 200. 
 ?.in6ti, no, 189. 
 2irnis, no. 
 zoti, n3. 
 
 OLD NORSE 
 (ICELANDIC). 
 
 aka, 169, 183. 
 
 austr, 170. 
 
 band, 152. 
 
 bein, 22. 
 
 bogr, 134, 185. 
 
 broddr, 95. 
 
 deig, 22, 26. 
 
 draugr, 136, 155- 
 
 draumr, 155. 
 
 ek, 117, 188. 
 
 em, 169, 183. 
 
 eru, 184. 
 
 es, er, 189. 
 
 feitr, 149. 
 
 feta, 149. 
 
 flatr, 132, 150, 
 
 flundra, 150. 
 
 fura, 150. 
 
 fuinn, 132, 187. 
 
 ganga, 113, 160. 
 
 garSr, 200. 
 
 garnir, 157. 
 
 geisa, 157. 
 
 gestr, 188. 
 
 geta, n4. 
 
 griss, 129. 
 
 hals, 177. 
 
 hunang, 158. 
 
 hvel, 116, 159. 
 
 jaki, 98. 
 
 jokuU, 98. 
 
 kalla, 95. 
 
 Ian, 117, 190. 
 
 Ija, 190. 
 
 moskvi, 118. 
 
 rot, 104. 
 
 samr, 140, 164, 194. 
 
 sky, 165. 
 
 soppa, 165. 
 
 spraka, 166, 
 
 steinn, 22. 
 
 straumr, 195. 
 
 systir, 119, 141, 164, 
 
 194. 
 ssemiligr, 164. 
 upp, 171. 
 vanr, 73. 
 varmr, 160. 
 vok, 72. 
 
234 
 
 OLD PRUSSIAN. OLD SLAVONIC 
 
 )>eyja, 153. 
 >eyr, 153. 
 \>ettT, 126. 
 >verr, 153. 
 oxull, 170, 184. 
 
 OLD PRUSSIAN. 
 
 abse, 108. 
 ains, 118. 
 alu, 108. 
 asmai, 183. 
 assis, 108, 184. 
 ausins, 112, 186. 
 awins, 112, 186. 
 berse, 109, 184. 
 brote, 109, 185. 
 dagis, 185. 
 (lalptan, iii. 
 dantis, 120. 
 dauris, iii. 
 deiws, 197. 
 dessimton, 120. 
 druwis, 121. 
 druwit, 21, 121. 
 duckti, III. 
 dwai, 121, 197. 
 emmens, 192. 
 en, 117. 
 es, 117, 188. 
 genna, 110, 193. 
 gerwe, no. 
 gorme, 160, 198. 
 irmo, 108, 184. 
 kailustiskan, it 6. 
 kalis, 116. 
 kelan, 116. 
 keuto, 115. 
 korto, 116. 
 lauks, 189. 
 lauxnos, 117. 
 musgeno, 139, 190. 
 nabis, 192. 
 nawans, 192. 
 newTnts, 192. 
 pannean, 149. 
 rugis, 119. 
 salme, 114, 188. 
 sansy, 113, 188. 
 sasnis, 63, 114, 180. 
 seyr, 114, i88. 
 snaygis, 120. 
 spoayno, 150. 
 
 sums, T14. 
 swestro, 119, 194. 
 swints, 114. 
 syrne, no. 
 tauris, 120, 195. 
 twais, 121. 
 udro, 118. 
 unds, 122, 198. 
 wetro, 122. 
 widdewu, 122, 199. 
 wilkis, 122. 
 wirds, 122. 
 woasis, 108. 
 woble, 108, 183. 
 
 OLD SLAVONIC. 
 
 abluko, 108. 
 bajati, 108, 109. 
 basni, 109. 
 bebrii, bobrii, 108. 
 blato, 119. 
 blgd^, 109. 
 bosu, 108. 
 bratrii, 185. 
 brfiza, 109, 184. 
 byti, 108, 184. 
 deti, III, 185. 
 g§si, 113. 
 goreti, 160. 
 igo, 123. 
 img, 192. 
 inu, 118. 
 
 jabluko, 108, 183. 
 jadi, 112. 
 jesmi, 108, 183. 
 jesti, 117. 
 kite, 116. 
 kolo, 116, 159. 
 kuto, 199. 
 meljg,, 118. 
 mizda, 118. 
 mladu, 162. 
 mysi, 192. 
 nosti, 118. 
 novu, 118. 
 nyne, 193. 
 obruvi, 185. 
 osi, 108. 
 osmi, 112. 
 otuleku, 117. 
 ovitsa, 186. 
 pgsti, 112. 
 
 pgti, 120. 
 pirati, prati, 186. 
 plavu, 112. 
 podu, 187. 
 ramg, 108. 
 sedlo, 194. 
 sedmi, 194. 
 sesti, 194. 
 sestra, 119, 194. 
 slabu, 119. 
 sluti, 190. 
 smu^ati, 120. 
 smycati, 120. 
 speti, 194. 
 siito, 114. 
 linukii, 121, 196. 
 ty, 121, 196. 
 vejati, 199. 
 vest!, 122. 
 vetrii, 199. 
 vezg,, 121, 
 vluku, 122. 
 voda, 73. 
 vera, 122. 
 vreti, 122. 
 zavcru, 122. 
 zelenu, 113. 
 zlato, 113. 
 znati, no. 
 gall, III. 
 zeravi, no, 185. 
 zivii, 193. 
 
 (I) PERSIAN, 
 abru, 134,185. 
 am, 142, 183. 
 aranj, 143, 186. 
 arastan, 140. 
 ashultan, 141. 
 bad, 142, 199. 
 baftan, 142. 
 banda, 133. 
 bandan, 67. 
 bandi, 133, 184. 
 bang, 133. 
 bar, 143. 
 bar, 133, 136. 
 barz, 134. 
 
 bastan, 132,133, 184. 
 bazu, 134, 185. 
 bid, 142, 200. 
 biham, 140. 
 
PERSIAN 
 
 235 
 
 bil, 133- 
 
 biradar, 134, 184. 
 biva, 142, 199. 
 budan, 133, 184. 
 buldan, 133. 
 buland, 134. 
 bun, 134, 184. 
 burdan, 60, 133, 184. 
 burldan, 133. 
 buy, 133- 
 buz, 134. 
 
 chahar, 133, 138, 187. 
 charkh, 138. 
 chi(h), 138, 199. 
 dad, 136. 
 dagh, 136, 185. 
 dah, 135, 196. 
 dam, 196. 
 dam, 135. 
 damak, 135. 
 dandan, 135, 197. 
 danistan, 137, 189. 
 dar, 136, 186. 
 dar, 135, 197. 
 dara, darah, 135. 
 daraz, 135. 
 darbar, 136. 
 dard, 135. 
 dandan, 135, 196. 
 daz, 136. 
 dig, deg, 136. 
 dirang, 135. 
 dir, 135. 
 div, 135, 197. 
 dizh, 136, 186. 
 du, 135, 197- 
 dukhtar, 135, 185. 
 durugh, 136. 
 durusht, 135. 
 dust, 128, 137. 
 farman, 133. 
 fira, 132. 
 furakh, 132. 
 gardan, 142. 
 gardidan, 142, 200. 
 garm, 138, 198. 
 gashtan, 142, 200. 
 gaw, 95, 138, 185. 
 giriftan, 138. 
 gulula, 138. 
 gurg, 142. 
 haft, 70, 125,140,194. 
 
 ham, 140, 194. 
 haman, 141, 194. 
 hamana, 194. 
 hamin, 141. 
 hamun, 194. 
 hasht, 143, 186. 
 hast, 143. 
 hizam, 143. 
 hush, 143, 186. 
 ispa, 137 (Quhriid). 
 istadan, 141. 
 jivah, 138, 193. 
 jugh, 142. 
 juwan, juvan, 142. 
 kaftan, 141. 
 kh'ay (khway), 141. 
 kh'aydan, 141. 
 kh(w)ahar, kh'ahar, 
 
 125, 141, 194. 
 kh(w)astan, 141. 
 khuk, 140, 195. 
 ki(h), 138. 
 lab, 139. 
 lisldan, 139, 189. 
 madar, 139, 191. 
 maghz, 139, 190. 
 mah, 139, 191. 
 man, 191. 
 mard, 139, 192. 
 marz, 139, 190. 
 may, 139, 191. 
 miyan, 139, 191. 
 murdan, 192. 
 mush, 139, 192. 
 mushtan, 191. 
 muzd, 139, 191. 
 naf, 139, 192. 
 nakhun, 139. 
 nam, 139. 
 nau, naw, 140, 192. 
 ni-, 139. 
 
 nil gaw, 96, 138. 
 nishashtan, 131, 194. 
 nuh, 140, 193. 
 Pahlavi, 130. 
 pahn, 132. 
 pai, 132, 187. 
 panj, 132, 187. 
 par, 132. 
 panrviz, 132, 
 parsal, 132. 
 pidar, 132, 187. 
 
 pih, 132. 
 pukhtan, 143. 
 pur, 132, 187. 
 pusidan, 132, 187. 
 rakhshidan, 140. 
 rast, 140. 
 rauta-, 195. 
 rawshan, 140. 
 rubudan, 140, 193. 
 ruftan, 140. 
 rud, 141, 195. 
 ruz, 140. 
 
 sad, 137, 156, 188. 
 safid, 137. 
 sag, 137, 188. 
 sapid, 137, 198. 
 sar, 137, 188. 
 saya, 141. 
 saym, 137. 
 shash, 102, 194. 
 shikaftan, 141. 
 shish, 141. 
 si, si, 134. 
 sih, 197. 
 sim, 136. 
 
 sipardan, 141, 195. 
 sitadan, 195. 
 sitara, 141, 195. 
 sizda, 134. 
 sum, 137. 
 suru, 137. 
 surud, 139, 190. 
 sutur, 141, 195. 
 tandar, 134. 
 tanidan, 134. 
 tishna, 134, 196. 
 tu, 134, 196. 
 tunuk, 134, 196. 
 varz, 142, 200. 
 varzldan, 142, 200. 
 zada, 137, 189. 
 zadan, 137. 
 zahra, 138. 
 zaidan, 137. 
 zan, 138, 193. 
 zanakh, 137, 185. 
 zanu, 137, 189. 
 zar, 138. 
 zard, 138. 
 zarlr, 138. 
 
 zi, 138, 193- 
 zistan, 138, 193. 
 
236 
 
 OLD PERSIAN. POLISH 
 
 (2) OLD PERSIAN 
 AND AVESTIC. 
 
 I. Old Persian. 
 
 adam, 188. 
 da-, 136, 185. 
 darga-, 135. 
 dauStar-, 137. 
 drauga-, 136. 
 framana-, 133. 
 garma-, 139. 
 pita, 187. 
 rasta-, 140. 
 rautah-, 141. 
 air&Ka, 137 (Median). 
 
 II. Avestic. 
 
 ahmi, 142, 183. 
 an-, a-, 198. 
 arama-, 184. 
 asa-, 184. 
 
 asta(ashta), 143, 186. 
 baoSaite, 133. 
 bawris, 184. 
 b3r(9)zant, 134. 
 brata, 185. 
 buna-, 134, 184. 
 buza-, 134. 
 cha^waro, 138. 
 da-, 136, 185. 
 da7a-, 136. 
 daevo, 135. 
 daeza-, 136. 
 dantan-, 197. 
 dar37a-, 135. 
 d arena, 135. 
 darsis, 135. 
 dauru, 197. 
 fra^o, 132. 
 garama-, 139. 
 grab, 138. 
 hama, 165. 
 hapta, 194. 
 henti, 184. 
 hu, 141, 195. 
 jaini-, 138. 
 katara-, 138. 
 maSu, 139, 191. 
 maiSya-, 139. 
 mazga-, 139, 161, 
 
 190. 
 nava, 193, 
 
 nishiSaiti, 140. 
 pairi, 136. 
 pairidaeza, 136, 173, 
 
 186. 
 parana, 132. 
 pa^ana-, 132. 
 rasta-, 140. 
 safa-, 137. 
 sima-, 137. 
 spaeta-, 137, 198. 
 span-, 137. 
 srva-, 137. 
 staora-, 141, 195. 
 tarshna-, 134, 196. 
 to, 196. 
 J)rayo, 19 7. 
 0ridasa, 134. 
 ^risatem, 134. 
 upairi, 143. 
 u§i, 143, 186. 
 vaeitis, 142. 
 vareza-, 142. 
 vazaiti, 198. 
 vata-, 142. 
 vehrka-, 142. 
 vepak, 142 (Pehlevi). 
 viSu-, viSava, 142. 
 yar(e), 169, 200. 
 zairi-, zairita-, 138. 
 zan, 137. 
 XvaeSa-, 141. 
 
 POLISH, 
 bajka, 108. 
 bobr, 108. 
 brat, 109. 
 brew, 109. 
 brzoza, 109. 
 drzewo, 121. 
 duch, III. 
 dwa, 121. 
 ciern, 121. 
 g§,sior, 113. 
 g§s, 113- 
 ja, 117. 
 
 jar, 123 ; {a/so Bohe- 
 mian), 123, 200. 
 jarzyna, 123. 
 jesion, 108. 
 kolaska, 116. 
 kowal, 115. 
 krew, 116. 
 
 ktory, 116. 
 lep, 117. 
 lipki, 117. 
 nagi, 118. 
 noc, 118. 
 nowy, 118. 
 plowy, 112. 
 rudawy, 119, 193. 
 serce, 114. 
 siedm, 119. 
 siostra, 119. 
 slaby, 119. 
 sol, 119. 
 suchy, 119. 
 syn, 120. 
 tarnka, 121. 
 trud, 121. 
 trzeci, 121. 
 trzy, 121. 
 tur, 120. 
 ty, 121. 
 wdowa, 122. 
 wetna, 122. 
 wiatr, 122. 
 wid, 122. 
 wilk, 122. 
 woda, 122. 
 wola, s., 122, 
 wydra, 118. 
 ziamo, no. 
 zielony, 113. 
 zona, no. 
 
 PORTUGUESE. 
 ca9ar, 32. 
 naqao, 33. 
 
 PROVENCAL, 
 cassa, cassar, 33. 
 
 ROMAUNSCH. 
 catscha, 33. 
 murmont, 66. 
 naziun, 33. 
 
 ROUMANIAN, 
 frimbie, 66. 
 natsie, 33. 
 
 RUSSIAN. 
 bajat(e), 108. 
 bereza, 109, 184. 
 beru, 108. 
 
RUSSIAN 
 
 237 
 
 bobr', 108, 184. 
 boloto, 119. 
 boroda, 108. 
 brat', 109, 185. 
 brat(e), 60, 108, 184. 
 bremja, 108. 
 brov(e), 109, 185. 
 celyj, 116 (c = ts). 
 chetvero, 187. 
 
 cholm(e),ii5(ch = x). 
 Cto, 116, 199. 
 clelit(e), III. 
 deru, 196. 
 desjat(e), 120, 193, 
 
 196. 
 devjat(e), 192. 
 divo, 197. 
 dobro, III. 
 dobryj, iii. 
 dofi(e), III, 185. 
 dolbit(e), III. 
 dolja, III. 
 dom', 197. 
 drat(e), 120, 196. 
 drevo, 121, 197. 
 drozd', 121. 
 duch', III. 
 duplo, III. 
 dva, 21, 121, 197. 
 dver(e), 112, 186. 
 eda, 186. 
 esm', 108. 
 est(e), 189. 
 est(e), 112, 186. 
 gadat(e), 114. 
 gladkij, 114. 
 gnesti, no. 
 goret(e), 198. 
 gost(e), 114, 188. 
 govjado, no, 185. 
 gus(e), 113. 
 igo, 123, 201. 
 imja, 192. 
 ja, 117, 188. 
 jabloko, 108. 
 jar(e), 123, 200. 
 jarka, 123, 200. 
 jasen(e), 108. 
 jastva, 112. 
 jena, 100. 
 jnnyj, 123, 201. 
 koleso, 116. 
 
 kotoryj, 116. 
 kovat(e), 115. 
 krov(e), 116, 193. 
 kto, 116, 199. 
 kupa, 115. 
 legkij, 190. 
 Ie2at(e), 189. 
 Igat(e), v., 117. 
 lipkij, 117, 190. 
 lizat(e), 117,125,189. 
 Ijubit(e), 189. 
 Ijubov(e), 189. 
 ]o2(e), 117. 
 Iu6', 117, 190. 
 mat(e), 118, 191. 
 med', 191. 
 
 mel(e)zit(e), 118, 191. 
 menja, 191. 
 meret(e), 118, 192. 
 mesjats', 191. 
 meidu, 191. 
 mnit(e), 118, 191, 
 moloko, 191. 
 molot(e), 118. 
 mor', 192. 
 mozg', 161, 190. 
 my§(e), 192. 
 mzda, 118, 191. 
 nagoj, 118, 192. 
 noc(e), 118, 192. 
 nos', 193. 
 novyj, 118, 192. 
 nyne, 118, 193. 
 orat(e), 96, 112, 186. 
 os(e), 108, 184. 
 os(e)moj, 112. 
 osina, 108. 
 ovtsa, 112, 186. 
 pjast(e), 112. 
 pjate, 112, 187. 
 podit(e), 116. 
 pod', 187. 
 pokoj, 116. 
 polnyj, 113, 187. 
 polotno, 150, 
 polovyj, 112. 
 poroz', 112. 
 ramo, 108, 184. 
 ro2(e), 119. 
 ruda, 119, 193. 
 sam', 194. 
 sejat(e), 120. 
 
 sem(e), 119, 194. 
 serdtse, 114, 125, 188. 
 serna, 188. 
 sest(e), 194. 
 sestra, 119, 194. 
 sid6t(e), 119. 
 slabyj, 119. 
 slava, 115. 
 sly§at(e), 115. 
 smert(e), 192. 
 sneg', 120. 
 sol(e), 119. 
 soloma, 114, 188. 
 spet(e), 120, 194= 
 stena, 120. 
 sto, 114, 188. 
 stojat(e), 120, 195, 
 striya, 195. 
 suka, 114, 188. 
 surovyj, 120. 
 suxoj, 119. 
 svet', 119, 198. 
 svin(e)ja, 120, 195. 
 svinka, 120, 195. 
 svinoj, 120, 195. 
 svjatoj, 114. 
 syn', 120. 
 §est(e), shest(e), 119, 
 
 194. 
 sit(e), shit(e), 119 
 
 194. 
 tern', 121. 
 tonkij, 121, 196. 
 tot(e), to, 121, 196. 
 tretij, 121. 
 tri, 121, 197. 
 trudit(e), trud', 121. 
 tuenit(e), 121. 
 tur', 120, 195. 
 tvoj, 121. 
 ty, 121, 196. 
 ucho, 112, 186. 
 val', 122. 
 vdova, 122, 199. 
 vedat(e), 199. 
 vejat(e), 199. 
 velet(e), 122, 199. 
 vertet(e), 123, 200. 
 vertlo, 200. 
 vesfi(e), 122. 
 vesti, 198. 
 veter', vetr', 122, 199. 
 
238 
 
 RUSSIAN. SANSKRIT 
 
 vetv(e), 200. 
 vid', 122, 199. 
 videt(e), vedat(e), 1 2 2 , 
 
 199. 
 vit(e), 200. 
 vitsa, 200. 
 vladet(e), 122. 
 voda, 122, 198. 
 vodka, 73. 
 volja, 122, 199. 
 volk', 122. 
 volna, 122, 200. 
 voz', 198. 
 vydra, 118. 
 zavora, 122. 
 zelenyj, 1 13, 201. 
 zelie, 113, 201. 
 zemo, no. 
 zijat(e), zinut(e), 113. 
 znat(e), no, 189. 
 zoloto, 113. 
 zuV, no. 
 2alo, III. 
 2ena, no, 193. 
 2ernov', in. 
 2ivoj, in, 193. 
 2uravl(e), no, 185. 
 
 SANSKRIT. 
 a9ris, a9ra-, 170. 
 ad, 60, 170, 186. 
 adhas, adharas, 171. 
 aham, 170, 188. 
 aj, 169, 183. 
 ajras, 169, 183. 
 akshas, 170, 184. 
 ambn, 126. 
 an-, a-, 171, 198. 
 ankas, 169. 
 antaras, 170. 
 antas, 170. 
 anti, 169. 
 anu, 170. 
 
 apa, 169, 170, 193. 
 aparas, 169. 
 aratnis, 143, 170, 186. 
 ashtau, 143, 170, 186. 
 asmi, 142, 169, 183. 
 asti, 143, 170, 189. 
 avis, 170, 186. 
 bababa, 151. 
 babhrus, 152, 184. 
 
 balbalakaras, 151. 
 bambharali-, 151. 
 bandh, 133, 152, 184. 
 bandhakas, 152. 
 bandhas, 67, 152. 
 bahus, 134, 152, 185. 
 bodhaya, 132, 152. 
 brhant-, 152. 
 brrhhaya, 152. 
 budbudas, 151. 
 budh, 133, 184. 
 budhnas, 94, 134, 152, 
 
 184. 
 bhallas, 152. 
 bhan, 151. 
 bhanga, 133. 
 bhar, 60, 94. 
 bharas, 152. 
 bharati, 133, 184. 
 bhalam, 128. 
 bharas, 152. 
 bhid, 59, 152. 
 bhr, 152. 
 bhrstis, 153. 
 bhftis, 152. 
 bhraj, 153. 
 bhrata, 153, 185. 
 bhn, 133. 
 
 bhrus, 134, 153, 185. 
 bhud, 152. 
 bhugnas, 152. 
 bhuj, 68, 152. 
 bhu, 94, 133, 152, 
 
 184. 
 bhurjas, 152, 184. 
 9a9as, 63, 97, 114, 
 
 155, 180. 
 camya, 137, 155. 
 9ank, 155. 
 9aphas, 137, 156. 
 9aranam, 156. 
 9arma, 156. 
 9atam, 137,156,188. 
 9anas, 156. 
 9evas, 156. 
 cha, 145. 
 chakras, 116, 138, 
 
 159- 
 chatvaras, 97, 133, 
 
 138, 187. 
 chhaya, 141. 
 chinadmi, 148. 
 
 chiras, 159. 
 
 9iras, 137, 155, 188. 
 
 91, 156. 
 
 9irsham, 155. 
 
 9oshas, 164. 
 
 9rngam, 137, 156, 
 
 188. 
 9raddha, 156. 
 9rath, 156. 
 9raya, 9r, 161. 
 9ritas, 9ray, 189. 
 9111,17, n5, 139, 161, 
 
 190. 
 9rustis, 17, 161. 
 9nitas, 139, 161, 190. 
 9ush, 164, 181. 
 9va, I37> 156, 188. 
 9vetas, 115, 137, 156. 
 9vind, 156, 198. 
 9vitras, 115, 137, 156, 
 
 198. 
 da9a, 154, 196. 
 dah, 136, 154, 185. 
 dam, 135, 153, 19*6. 
 damas, 153, 154, 197. 
 damaya, 153. 
 daTh9, 154. 
 dam9as, 21, 154. 
 dantas, 154, 197, 
 daranam, 154. 
 darbhas, 154. 
 dari, 196. 
 dah, 20. 
 
 dahas, 136, 154, 185. 
 daranas, 154. 
 daraya, 154. 
 daru, 21, 135, 154, 
 
 197. 
 dehas, 136, 155, 173, 
 
 186. 
 dehl, 136, 186. 
 devadaru, 21. 
 devas, 19, 135, 154, 
 
 197. 
 di9, 154. 
 divyas, 197. 
 dirghas, 135. 
 dlrnas, 135, 196. 
 drbh, 154. 
 dr5has, 136, 155. 
 dru-, 135, 154. 
 druh, 136. 
 
SANSKRIT 
 
 239 
 
 druhyati, 136; druh- 
 
 ya, 155- 
 
 duhita, 154, 185. 
 
 durva, 20, 153. 
 
 dvar, 113, 155, 186. 
 
 dvau, 21, 154, 197. 
 
 dyaus, 19, 197. 
 
 dhav, 154. 
 
 dha, 136, 154, 185. 
 
 dhama, 155. 
 
 dhav, 154. 
 
 dhrsh, 154. 
 
 dhrshtas, 135, 154. 
 
 dhran, 155. 
 
 dhruic, 136, 155. 
 
 dhnnis, 154. 
 
 dhurtas, 155. 
 
 dhvams, 155. 
 
 dhvan, 154. 
 
 dhvastas, 155. 
 
 dhvr, dhvara, 155. 
 
 edhas, 143. 
 
 eshas, 169. 
 
 gam, 159. 
 garbhas, 159. 
 garj, 159- 
 gaus, 95, no, 138, 
 
 160, 185. 
 glaus, 159. 
 gna, no, 160, 193. 
 grnati, 159. 
 grabh, 138. 
 grava, 160. 
 gharmas, 139, 160, 
 
 198. 
 haihsas, 97, 157, 188. 
 hanus, I37» 157.185. 
 haris, 138, 157, 201. 
 haritam, s., 157. 
 haritas, 138, 157, 201. 
 hary, 157, 200. 
 hedas, 157. 
 hira, 157. 
 hyas, 158. 
 ichchha, 169. 
 idh, 143. 
 idhmas, 143. 
 ish, 169. 
 I9, 170. 
 
 irmas, 169, 184. 
 jambh, jabh, 157. 
 jambhas, no, 157. 
 
 Jan, 137, 156- 
 
 janas, 145, T46, 156, 
 
 189. 
 jangha, 113, 160. 
 jam, 138, 193. 
 jarate, 159. 
 jatharam, 157. 
 janami, 137. 
 -janis, III. 
 jann, 137, 156, 189. 
 jirnas, 157. 
 jiv, 138, 160. 
 jivas, III, 138, 193. 
 jna, 137, 156, 189. 
 jnatas, no, 137. 
 
 jh 157. 
 
 jush, 60, 137, 157, 
 
 185. 
 jushtas, 137. 
 jval, 156. 
 kad, 199 (Vedic). 
 kanakam, 158. 
 karhi, 159. 
 kas, 116, 159, 199. 
 kataras, 116. 
 katas, 158. 
 kavis, 167. 
 ketus, 158. 
 krp, 158. 
 
 krpanas, 158, 188. 
 kravis, 158. 
 kravyam, 116, 193. 
 kruras, 158, 193. 
 kshobhas, 141. 
 kshubh, 141. 
 kuchas, 158. 
 kupas, 158. 
 kurparas, 159. 
 kutam, 158. 
 laghus, 117, 160, 161, 
 
 190. 
 lal, 161. 
 lamb, 167. 
 lash, 161. 
 lih, 139, 163, 189. 
 lihgam, 161. 
 lip, 163, 190. 
 lobhas, 189. 
 lochanam, 140. 
 lokas, 160, 163, 189. 
 lolas, 161. 
 Idptra-, 140. 
 
 lubh, 161, 189. 
 
 lul, 161. 
 
 lump, 140, 193 ; lup, 
 
 140, 163, 193. 
 madhu, 139, 162, 191. 
 madhyas, 162, 191. 
 mahas, maha, 162. 
 majja, 139, 161, 190. 
 mama, mahyam, 191. 
 man, 191. 
 manas, 145, 191. 
 manus, 161. 
 manya, 161. 
 marjaya, 191. 
 martas, 192. 
 matis, 162, 191. 
 mam, 162. 
 mas, 139, 162, 191 ; 
 
 masas, 162, 191. 
 mata, 162, 191. 
 medas, 161. 
 midham, 162, 191. 
 mr, 162, 192. 
 mrdh, 162. 
 mrdus, 162. 
 mrj, 162, 191. 
 mrtas, 162, 192. 
 mushas, 162, 192. 
 nabhyam, 162, 192. 
 nagnas, 162, 192. 
 nakham, 139, 162. 
 nakta, 163. 
 nakti-, 192. 
 nava, 140, 163, 193. 
 navas, navyas, 163, 
 
 192. 
 nabhis, 162, 192. 
 nagas, 167. 
 nama, 162, 192. 
 nasa, 163, 193. 
 ni, 140, 162. 
 nitaram, 163. 
 nidas, 162. 
 nu, nu, 163, 193. 
 ojas, 170. 
 pach, 143. 
 pad, 149 ; padam, 
 
 149, 150. 
 pakshma, 149. 
 pakshmalas, 149. 
 palitas, 149. 
 paiicha, 97, 150, 187. 
 
240 
 
 SANSKRIT 
 
 pankas, 149. 
 paras, 149, 150. 
 parkati, 150. 
 parnam, 132, 149. 
 pastyam, 149. 
 pat, 149. 
 patT, 69, 150; patas, 
 
 6(). 
 patram, 149, 187. 
 pa9as, 148. 
 padas, 150, 187. 
 paraya, 149, 187. 
 pavakas, 150, 
 pi^unas, 149. 
 pitr, 149; pita, 187. 
 pivan, pivas, 149. 
 plya, 150. 
 ploshas, 151. 
 plu, 150. 
 plush, 151, 187. 
 plush tas, 151. 
 plutis, 150. 
 pr, 149, 151, 187. 
 prthus, 150. 
 pra, adv., 133, 150. 
 pramanam, 133. 
 prataram, 151. 
 prathas, prathati, 132. 
 prayastas, 169. 
 priyas, 151. 
 prusva, 151, 187. 
 pura, 150. 
 putas, 150. 
 pu, 150. 
 
 purnas, 132, 151, 187. 
 purvas, 150. 
 puy, 187. 
 puya, piiyas, 151. 
 phenas, 150. 
 rjus, 163, 194. 
 raghus, 190. 
 radh, raddhas, 140. 
 rekha, 163. 
 rich, 190. 
 rih, 189. 
 rip, 163, 190. 
 rochanas, 140. 
 rokas, 140, 163, 190. 
 ropaya, 193. 
 ruch, 140, 163, 190. 
 rudhiras, 163, 193. 
 rup, 163, 193. 
 
 rukshas, 163. 
 sabha, 164. 
 sabhyas, 164. 
 sad, 140, 162, 164, 
 
 194. 
 sahasra-bhfsti, 153. 
 sam, 140, 194. 
 samas, 140, 164, 194. 
 sama, 165. 
 samanas, 194, 
 santi, 169, 184. 
 sanutar, 165. 
 sapta, 164, 194. 
 sarpis, 164. 
 satyas, sat, 165. 
 sadas, 165. 
 sama, 164. 
 shash, 103, 141, 164, 
 
 194. 
 sich, sinch, 164. 
 siv, 194. 
 skhal, 165. 
 sku, 165. 
 smi, 165. 
 snava, 165, 
 sprh, 166. 
 sphay, sphatis, 166, 
 
 194. 
 sphur, 141, 166, 195. 
 sphurj, 165. 
 sm, 102, 141, 167, 
 
 195. 
 srutas, 195. 
 srotas, 141, 195. 
 stabh, stambh, 166. 
 stambhas, 166. 
 stigh, 166. 
 str, 166. 
 sthag, 196. 
 stha, 141, 166, 195. 
 sthitis, 166. 
 sthuras, sthulas, 195. 
 su, 165. 
 sukaras, 141, 165, 
 
 _i95- 
 sunus, 52, 104. 
 supas, 165. 
 svad, 141, 166, 195. 
 svapnas, 74, 129. 
 svaras, 166. 
 svasa, 102, 141, 164, 
 194. 
 
 svadus, 74, 141, 166, 
 
 195. 
 svedas, 26, 74, 141, 
 
 166, 195. 
 svid, 74, 166, 195. 
 tad, 153, 196. 
 talam, 153. 
 tan, 62, 134, 153. 
 tanus, 134, 153, 196. 
 tanyatus, 153. 
 tarkus, 153. 
 tarshas, 134. 
 tara, 66, 167, 195. 
 te, 173- 
 loyam, 153. 
 trsh, 134, 153, 196. 
 trshna, 153. 
 trtiyas, 153. 
 trayas, 134, 1 53. 1 97- 
 tri, 153. 
 tu, 153. 
 tul, 153. 
 tula, 153. 
 tvam, 196. 
 ud, 170. 
 udan-, 198. 
 udras, 170. 
 ugras, 170. 
 uksh, 198. 
 ukshan-, 170. 
 upa, 171. 
 upari, 143, 170. 
 ushas, 170, 186. 
 udhar, 171, 197. 
 unas, 73. 
 
 urna-vabhi-, 142. 
 urna, 200. 
 vail, 167, 198. 
 vahanam, 167. 
 vahitram, 198. 
 val, 167. 
 valg, 167. 
 van, 168, 199. 
 varas, 168, 199. 
 vas, 167, 198. 
 vat, 168. 
 vatsas, 168. 
 vayam, 167. 
 va, 142, 168, 199. 
 vahaya, 167. 
 vajas, 167. 
 vanch, 168. 
 
SPANISH. SWEDISH. WELSH 
 
 241 
 
 varaya, 167. 
 
 vatas, 168, 199. 
 
 vataya, 168. 
 
 veda, 168, 174, 199. 
 
 vetasas, 168. 
 
 vetras, 200. 
 
 vi, 168. 
 
 yid, 168, 199. 
 
 vidhara, 142, 168, 
 
 199. 
 vij, 74, 168. 
 visham, 168. 
 vitaram, 168. 
 viras, 168. 
 vr, 167, 168, 199. 
 vrkas, 142, 168. 
 vrt, 142, 167, 200. 
 yas, 169, 201. 
 ya, 169. 
 
 yatam, 169, 200. 
 yugam, 169, 201. 
 yuj, 201. 
 yuva9as, 169. 
 yuvan, 142, 169. 
 yuyam, 123, 169, 200. 
 
 SPANISH. 
 caza, 33. 
 nacion, 33. 
 
 SWEDISH. 
 
 axel, 94, 108, 170, 
 
 184. 
 ben, 22. 
 deg, 22. 
 smila, 165. 
 sten, 22. 
 vak, 72. 
 wagga, 167 (Mid. 
 
 Swed.). 
 
 WELSH. 
 aderyn (pi. adar), 
 
 187. 
 afal, 93, 183. 
 an-, 198. 
 ar, 96, 186. 
 arddwr, 96. 
 aros, 198. 
 berth, 95. 
 blawd,6i, 94. 
 bod, 94, 184. 
 
 bol, 94. 
 
 bon, 94, 184. 
 
 brath, 95. 
 
 brau, 95. 
 
 brawd, 93, 95, 185. 
 
 bre, bry, 94. 
 
 bro, 99, 190. 
 
 brwd, 95. 
 
 brydio, 95. 
 
 bun, 100, 193. 
 
 bus, 95. 
 
 bustl, 94. 
 
 buw, 95, no, 185. 
 
 bwch, 95. 
 
 byw, 100, III, 193. 
 
 cae, 97. 
 
 calaf, 97, 188. 
 
 cant, 12,98, 188. 
 
 canu, 63, 98. 
 
 carw, 97, 188. 
 
 cavvdd, 97. 
 
 ceinach, 97. 
 
 cell, 12. 
 
 celu, 98. 
 
 celyn, 98, 
 
 chwaer, 102, 125, 141, 
 
 194. 
 chwech, 103, 194. 
 chwys, 103, 141, 195. 
 ci, 12, 98, 188. 
 clod, 99, 190. 
 clust, 17, 99, 161. 
 clywed, 99, 190. 
 cneuen, 100. 
 coddi, 97. 
 coed, 98. 
 coll, 98. 
 corn, 98, 188. 
 craidd, 98, 114, 188. 
 crau, loi, 116, 193. 
 craw, 1 01. 
 cuddio, 98, 180. 
 cymmeryd, 94. 
 cysgod, loi. 
 dagr, 103, 196. 
 dall, 96. 
 dant, 21, 103, 135, 
 
 197. 
 dar, 103. 
 
 darn, 103, 135, 196. 
 dau, 21, 103, 197. 
 deg, 103, 196. 
 
 derw, 21, 154, 197. 
 din, 21, 103. 
 dinas, 21. 
 dof, 103, 195 ; dofi, 
 
 195- 
 drudwy, 103. 
 drws, 96, 186. 
 dwfn, 96. 
 dyw, 19, 197. 
 echel, 94, 184. 
 enw, 192. 
 eterinn (pi. atar), 187 
 
 (Old W.). 
 ffrvvd, 195. 
 galw, 29, 95. 
 garan, 95, no, 185. 
 garth, 97. 
 gen, 95, 185. 
 geni, 98, 189. 
 genid, 98, 189. 
 
 gloj 97- 
 
 gnawd, 189. 
 
 grawn, 95. 
 
 gwal, 72. 
 
 gwan, 104. 
 
 gwden, 199. 
 
 gweddw, 104, 199. 
 
 gwell, 104. 
 
 gwen, 199. 
 
 gwerth, 104. 
 
 gwerthyd, 200. 
 
 gwin, 72. 
 
 gwinllan, 98. 
 
 gwlad, 104. 
 
 gwlan, 104, 200. 
 
 gwreiddyn, 104. 
 
 gwres, 198. 
 
 gwydd, 104. 
 
 gvvynt, 104, 199. 
 
 had, loi. 
 
 hafal, 194. 
 
 halen, halan, loi. 
 
 hallt, loi. 
 
 helyg, loi. 
 
 hen, 70, 125. 
 
 hil, loi. 
 
 hwch, 102, 141, 195, 
 
 hynt, loi. 
 
 ia, 98. 
 
 ias, iasu, 200, 201 ; 
 
 iasu, 104. 
 iau, 104, 201. 
 
242 
 
 WELSH 
 
 ieuanc, 104, 201. 
 llan, 98. 
 llawn, 97, 187. 
 llawr, 96. 
 lledr, 99. 
 lluched, 190. 
 
 Hug, 99» 190- 
 llugyn, 99. 
 march, 99. 
 marw, 192. 
 medd, 99, 19T. 
 mer, 102. 
 mi, 99, 191. 
 mis, 100, 191. 
 modryb, 100. 
 mor, 100. 
 mwg, 102. 
 mwng, 99. 
 
 mynych, 99. 
 naw, 192. 
 neidr, 93. 
 newydd, 100, 192. 
 noeth, 100, 192. 
 nos, 192. 
 nyf, 102. 
 nyth, 100. 
 oil, holl, 93. 
 pedwar, 96, 97, 187. 
 pump, 97, 187. 
 pwy, pa, py, 199. 
 rhaith, loi, 194. 
 rhudd, loi, 193. 
 rhych, 97. 
 rhyd, 97. 
 saith, loi, 194. 
 sedd, seddu, 102, 194. 
 
 seren, 102, 195. 
 tawdd, 103. 
 teneu, 103, 196. 
 tew, 103. 
 ti, 196. 
 tir, 196. 
 toddi, 103. 
 tranoeth, 100. 
 tref, 103. 
 tri, 103, 196. 
 ty, 103, 196. 
 uchel, 198. 
 un, 100. 
 wyth, 96, 186. 
 ysgar, 102. 
 ystrad, 102. 
 ysu, ysig, 96, 186. 
 yw, ywen, 104. 
 
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