GIFT OF GoO( GOLDEN ROADS The Good Road is the Golden F LEIGH H. IRVINE Ish Diction fornia, An The National Good Roads Campaign Book. Price 20 cents. GOLDEN ROADS (abridged edition) The Good Road is the Golden Road By LEIGH H. IRVINE Author of: The Struggle -for Bread, The Magazine Style-code, A Cyclopedia of English Diction, The Dictionary of Titles, A History of California, An Affair in the South Seas, A History of Humboldt County, The Palace of the Sun, By Right of Sword and other works. Western Edition Published by LEIGH H. IEVINE San Luis Obispo, Cal. 1916. Copyright, 1916, By Leigh H. Irvine. AN EXPLANATION. THIS epitome of the original work represents Golden Roads as it would be seen through a diminishing glass, or as one would view a landscape by looking through the reverse end of a telescope. Should these pages lead the reader to desire fur- ther information on the subjects treated, I shall be glad to hear from him with a view to supplying amplifications. In sundry respects a digest of a digest, or an epitome of an abridgement, is certain to prove a disappointment. Being a guide-post containing somewhat explicit directions, however, it may serve a useful purpose wherever the people of a commun- ity are earnestly trying to improve city streets and country roads. The author, who is "on the job" to forward the building of a lateral from the beautiful beaches of his own County to the great San Joaquin Valley, and who has long been engaged in good roads cam- paigns by tongue and pen, often "converting" hos- tile audiences to the cause of progress, feels that his experience in field-work enables him to say that Golden Roads supplies the very information the pub- lic requires. As an editor, a public speaker, and an author, the writer of Golden Roads feels that it is a step in the right direction. Leigh H. Irvine, Secretary, Chamber of Commerce and Secretary, Valley to Coast High- way Association. San Luis Obispo, Cal., March, 1916. 3^3577 WHY THIS BOOK? EVERY editor, legislator, public speaker, or other person who advocates the building of modern highways to supplant the haphazard, unimproved roads which disgrace the larger part of every state in the Union should be able to give logical reasons for the faith that is in him. Intelligent readers and auditors, sitting as jurors who are to pass on tax levies and bond issues, demand facts. Why increase taxes? Why vote bonds? How long will the road last? What is the best type of construction for our section? What form of bond is the best? These and scores of like questions can not be evaded without danger to the good roads cause. Talking "in the air" and writing glittering generalities will not make converts who will work for that form of community de- velopment which finds expression in the construction of modern roads. If improved roads have helped farmers and towns, and if bad roads have retarded development, destroyed schools, and made times bad, where are the proofs? Who says this and that? and where and why did he say it? There should be a definite place for information of this character. It is at present scattered and inac- cessible to the general reader. It is impossible for a writer or speaker to convince a doubtful farmer, a hostile clientele, or an audience "from Missouri" unless he can show them just what a modern road can do for the indi- vidual and the community. Yet it is shamefully true that many willing workers are un- able to lay their hands upon the very facts so eagerly desired. The facts are hidden in many scattered volumes and reports. It is common knowledge that whenever bond issues or like propositions affecting highways are submitted to the public there is a demand for information on almost every phase of the good roads problem. Where is this information to be found without ransacking great libraries? Nowhere. This is the regrettable reply to the call for knowledge. There should be a popular book on good roads and why we need them. It should treat of construction, cost, maintenance, and similar features; and it should emphasize the economic, social, and educational benefits of modern highways. Concrete and convinc- ing examples showing the value of good roads should abound in such a work. It should be a book for the average voter rather than a treatise for engineers. 6 GOLDEN ROADS. I am sorry to say that twenty-five large American publishing- houses have recently refused to examine the manuscripts of just such a book, on the ground that there is not sufficient general in- terest in the subject to justify the expenditure of $2,000 to pub- lish the work. A number of wealthy men long prominent in the general good roads campaign, including General Coleman Du Pont, who has spent thousands of dollars to educate public sentiment, express grave doubts whether the public will ever study the good roads problem as it should be studied. In view of the fact that the problems involved in almost every page of the manuscripts referred to in the paragraph before the last are the very questions that are often referred to the voters of cities, counties, and states for final settlement the conclusion of these publishers and others is equivalent to a charge that the pub- lic has not sufficient intelligence for self-government, or that it is too lazy and indifferent to solve the fundamentals of the questions it is called upon to decide. Can this be true? I greatly fear there is more than a half-truth in the charge. The manuscripts submitted to the publishers referred to could be so classified and indexed as to make an indispensable campaign book for everybody interested in spreading the gospel of good roads a thoroughly indexed ready-reference manual of indisputa- ble facts. These data have been gathered and classified by me dur- ing many patient hours of research during the last decade. The manuscripts give the cream of official and independent ex- pert opinion. They really present in a nutshell the substance of large libraries and the wisdom of many men's experience, thereby constituting a time- and labor-saving work, pointing to volume and page of almost every authority on the subject. The contents of all Government and individual publications are "boiled down" and re- told in plain, simple language. Municipal paving problems are also analyzed and discussed; yet I have had to abandon all thought of publishing the work unless I desire to bear the entire financial risk myself, and this I decline to do. Under these circumstances I have here curtailed the larger work, and Golden Roads (abridged) is the offering now before you. It is greatly emasculated and somewhat fragmentary, but its cita- tions and bibliographical features alone should serve a useful pur- pose in guiding investigators in their search for accurate data. I have eliminated ninety per cent of the original work. Where To Get Knowledge. Almost all the valuable and trustworthy information obtain- able about American good roads has been gathered and published during the last twenty-two years, under the direction of the old Office of Public Road Inquiries and the present Office of Public Roads. This work was first undertaken by the Federal Govern- ment in 1893, since which time it has been greatly extended, as appropriations by the Government have been increased. The Year- Books of the Department of Agriculture, large bound volumes is- sued annually, abound in valuable information on the subject of good roads. But So far as the average editor, commercial secretary, supervisor, or general reader is concerned this storehouse of valuable informa- tion drawn from the practical and often expensive experiments and experiences of thousands of engineers and chemists, hundreds of communities and states lies almost hopelessly buried in twenty- three gigantic volumes, hundreds of elaborate special articles, speeches, circulars, and scores of valuable bulletins compiled by experts and published by the Federal Government or in books and magazines. Many of these priceless documents have long been out of print, and many can scarcely be found, even in the largest public libraries in the United States. But if all these rare and scattered works were arranged in good order before the individual investigator about 400 separate articles, volumes, and documents he could not read them in less than 300 working days of eight hours each. It would then require months to classify and index the contents of the library he had read. But after the student had finished this task, there would yet remain for careful consideration dozens of important private con- tributions to the subject of good roads books by masters, reports of conventions, an account of experiments, and synopses of valua- ble discussions. Yet, in spite of the appalling character of the task thus out- lined, the fact remains that every writer and speaker, every intelli- gent advocate of good roads simply must obtain his information from these very inaccessible Government reports and able treatises by individuals, or from some book, speech, or person whose in- formation came from Uncle Sam's great printing-house. In study- ing all these data and conclusions one is impressed that they are the indispensable foundations of all the learning extant on the subject of good roads. 8 GOLDEN ROADS. Not one voter in 50,000 has access to these Government re- ports, few know of their existence, or where to find them, and fewer yet have either the time, patience, or inclination to read and analyze them, even though the volumes really give clear answers to almost every puzzling problem and question that the oldest Silurian, the closest Timothy Tightwad, the most patriotic board of super- visors, or the most progressive commercial secretary might pro- pound. It is evident that the information contained in these volumes should be freely circulated among taxpayers, students, readers, voters, and thinkers; it is exactly the knowledge that every pro- gressive community should have at hand "in black and white." Engineering, chemical, and practical traffic experience from hundreds of sources should interest voters in every community contemplating road improvements. The Government publications and individual engineers' re- ports and books are not in any sense theoretical discussions, but records of achievement, a report on the harvest gathered from the abundant experience of the builders. Their discussions run all the way from convict labor to curves, grades, wearing surfaces, and the mathematical problems connected with taxes, bonding, and cost- accounting. They cover the entire field, dodging none of the fun- damental questions asked by voters and investors, residents, tax- payers, and tourists. The entire record is really a faithful digest, abridgment, or "boiled down" exhibit of facts. Theories are dis- carded almost entirely. In their illuminating pages the reader beholds the lessons and profits by the wisdom acquired by Govern- ment chemists, engineers, accountants, and experts in almost every phase of swamp, mountain, valley, and city road building, road bonding, and road maintenance. Sand-clay roads, earthen or 'dirt' roads, water-bound macadam, oil-bound macadam, bituminous sur- faces, brick, and concrete all these and other questions come under careful review and analysis by the masters. Confidence in conclusions is established when every statement, experiment, law, and fact sighted is based on a careful analysis of an accredited speech, report, bill, laboratory test, or book bearing official or academic sanction. With the extension of automobile traffic, the building of resorts in the scenic belts of many states, and the general growth of agri- culture and commerce the demand for modern roads is destined to become more intense each year. The age demands such a modifica- tion of the surface of the earth as will enable it fitly to receive and accommodate that vehicle which the civilization of the era furnishes which is one definition of a good road, contributed by Colonel W. H. Ashby. A NATIONAL MANUAL ON HIGHWAYS. 9 The Government expert and the field-worker in good roads campaigns are familiar with persons whose pocket-book nerves ache violently whenever bonds and taxes are proposed. They also know the tribe of vanishing mossbacks who say "the roads that daddy traveled are good enough for me." They also meet the woman voter who often gropes vainly for light on the many puz- zling problems of bonds, taxes, and upkeep. Therefore the books and bulletins cited in the pages that follow point the way to vital information; for it is the purpose of the present author to give the reader abundant citations from his own unpublished manu- scripts and from volumes to be found in great libraries throughout the United States. WHERE TO GET INFORMATION. If you want any of the circulars or bulletins cited in this work, address the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C., for detailed information con- cerning cost. Some of the Government publications are now out of print. Y.B. means YEAR-BOOK. BENEFITS OF IMPROVED ROADS. Get Farmers' Bulletin No. 505, Sept. 26, 1912. In ten thousand words it shows the main benefits of modern roads. It treats of economic and social advan- tages, decrease in the cost of hauling, relation of roads to agricul- tural conditions, increase in the value of farm lands, increase of tourist travel, improvement of schools, churches, rural mail delivery, etc. Eight convincing photographic illustrations of improved and unimproved roads drive the argument home. Time reduction in transportation is shown to be equivalent to a decrease of distance from market centers. Grades, curves, surfaces, etc., are considered as affecting horsepower, farmers' profits, and increase of popula- tion. Interesting tables are submitted. The average cost of haul- ing per ton-mile on unimproved roads is 22.7 cents, but the cost on a modern road is less than 13 cents. Sullivan County, Tenn., Crosby, Texas, Jonesville, Va., and other examples of the revolu- tion wrought by good roads are cited. Wear and tear on vehicles, harness, horses, need of extra equipment, interest charges, etc., are considered. Bad roads tie up crops which might otherwise be moved to a favorable market. Bad roads often block the farmer so he can not move his crops when prices are highest. Increase in land values is fully analyzed. How values increased with good roads in Jackson County, Ala. Reports from the Denver Chamber of Commerce on the $3,000,000 annually spent by automobilists lured by good roads. Facts about improved school facilities are convincing. The distance from Dandridge to Jefferson, Tenn., is 10 miles. Two horses could pull only 20 bushels of wheat over the road. The round trip consumed a day, making the cost of transportation (under very low wages for man and team) 15 cents a bushel. A 10 GOLDEN ROADS. development league won a good roads campaign and completed the highway. Result: The load was increased to 50 bushels, the time was reduced a third, and the cost of transportation was cut to 4 cents a bushel. Near Crosby, Texas, two large mules were required to haul 4 thousand pounds of wire over 3 miles of improved road. The haul consumed two hours. But the wire was destined for a place one mile beyond the end of the improved road. It was necessary to throw off 3 of the 4 thousand pounds of wire, and make three trips with four mules hauling ONE thousand pounds to the load. This required 12 hours. Answers from 2,800 county correspondents showed that im- proved roads enable a team to haul from three to five times the load and cover from three to five times the radius or distance dur- ing a given time, also that improved roads are never impassable. Economic and social rewards come by improving the surface of the highway, shortening the length, and reducing the grade. Every county should make a traffic census in connection with its road surveys, so as first to arrive at the cost of transportation per ton- mile and the probabilities of time reduction. In hundreds of instances the Government experts have found that the cost of transportation has been reduced an average of 5 cents per ton-mile. To illustrate: Where the wheat production was 30 bushels an acre there resulted for an average haul of five miles an economic advan- tage of 22% cents an acre, or $36 a quarter section, which is 4 per cent on $900. In view of these facts every community thus benefited was prudent to borrow up to $2,000 per square mile of the wheat area within the belt receiving the reduction of 5 cents per ton-mile. In addition to the reduction per ton-mile, these additional benefits result from good roads: Reduction of the wear and tear on men, animals, vehicles, and harness; a reduction of the investment in horses and vehicles; a gain in tourist traffic, social, and business advantages; increased convenience and a saving of time, reduction in freight rates and the cost of living. Good roads also give the assessor more property from which to gather the taxes necessary to make community life more desirable in town and country. Experts report that the average increase in land values by reason of good roads is from 25 to 50 per cent. The money put into roads returns to the farm or the village lot with compound interest in the form of increased values. SELECTING THE ROAD. Oil macadam, water-bound macadam, earth, sand-clay, gravel, brick, granite blocks, wood, unsurfaced concrete, and questions pertaining to them are discussed by George W. Tillson, one of the ablest living highway engineers, in a paper read at the International Good Roads Convention at Toronto, Can., March 22, 1915. A NATIONAL MANUAL ON HIGHWAYS. 11 INITIAIr COST, REPAIR, MAINTENANCE. Good Roads (magazine), April 3, 1915, quotes Tillson and J. C. Pennybacker, chief of road economics, U. S. Office of Public Roads 34,000 miles of improved roads built in U. S. in 1913-14. See Good Roads Bul- letin No. 48 on maintenance and repair. It is a mine of informa- tion. "A continuously maintained road seldom needs repair, but a properly repaired road always needs maintenance." The subject is elaborately treated. COST OF MACADAM ROADS. Agricultural Bulletin No. 136 gives average costs from 104 New England points from 1908 to 1911, with figures on drainage, grading, surfacing. BONDS AND MAINTENANCE. This subject is elaborately treated by J. E. Pennybacker in a paper read at the Fourth Ameri- can Road Congress, Atlanta, Nov. 9, 1914. See also Agricultural Bulletin No. 136, Feb. 1915. This publication is exhaustive and invaluable. It covers the field thoroughly and presents valuable tables and data on the elements of cost in road construction and bond calculations. In 1,230 counties in the U. S. (41.1 per cent of the total) there were outstanding highway bonds Jan. 1, 1914. They amounted to $286,557,073. The paper shows that transpor- tation per ton-mile on a poor road costs from 20 to 35 cents. Tonnage is computed by actual count, or by determining traffic areas, supplemented by estimates of tonnage. The Government finds that when an unimproved market road is improved hauling costs are reduced from 2 to 10 cents per ton-mile. It is found that the annual saving per mile in hauling costs at 5 cents per ton-mile reduction amounts to a tremendous sum during a year on a road actively used. Serial, annuity, and sinking-fund bonds are ana- lyzed and fully discussed. The bulletin discusses every phase of cost and maintenance with a view to guiding communities in their investments. Speakers and writers who may be confronted by hostile audiences and readers should have this bulletin at hand. COST OF BAD ROADS. In Y. B. 1897, p. 175, Director Stone ably discusses good and bad roads. Why should the farmer raise a surplus at all if impassable roads bar him from the markets? The cost of bad roads exceeds each year the total expenditures of the Federal Government. The Chamber of Commerce of New York reports that this country is handicapped in world-markets by waste labor and bad roads. The loss from bad roads is equal to one- fourth the home value of American farm products. Perishable crops can not be grown, or if grown they are lost. Enforced idle- ness of men and horses is a source of impoverishment. HOW BAD ROADS CAME. Y. B. 1899, p. 367. Acting Direc- tor Maurice O. Eldridge, of the Office of Public Road Inquiries, shows that the Colonists who first settled America brought to us the English road-building methods of the Dark Ages. The Britons 12 GOLDEN ROADS. neglected the superb roads made by the Romans, so that narrow highways obtained. He shows the long neglect of roads in America and gives interesting glimpses of our crude past. This article presents a splendid review of the progress of the good roads cam- paign and an account of achievements in early days, also during recent years in New Jersey, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, New York, California, and other states. EARLY AMERICAN ROADS. Y. B. 1899, p. 654. Angus Sin- clair shows that during the Colonial period of American history there was not enough State or National feeling to induce the people to join their energies in improving roads and waterways. This article sheds light on the development of roads after the war of 1812. The invention of the steamboat stimulated inland commerce, canal, and road building. MOUNTAIN ROADS. Y. B. 1900, p. 183. This article is by James W. Abbott, special agent of the Office of Good Road In- quiries. Mr. Abbott, who had spent twenty-five years in building mountain roads, concludes that the key to all correct methods of mountain road building is grade. He discusses the maximum grade permissible, loads, brakes, location, avalanches, location of slopes, curves, and like questions. WORK OF DEPARTMENT. Y. B. 1900, p. 53. Efforts to ob- tain and diffuse information are described. Good-roads organiza- tions of thiny-eight states, represented in a convention at Chicago (page 54), asked Congress to allow $150,000 a year to the Depart- ment. Co-operation in general is commended, especially the aid of large transportation companies, which have carried men and ma- chinery free. The scope of Federal aid is discussed and general interest in good roads is noted. FARMERS SLOW TO ORGANIZE. Doctor T. N. Carver, a Harvard University professor of economics, whose services were engaged in 1914 to organize farmers for the purpose of forwarding rural development, concluded that "farmers are temperamentally an independent, headstrong, individualistic class, and therefore difficult to organize." He found that farmers lose $300,000,000 a year by bad roads. Good roads are necessary in the advantageous production and distribution of farm products. MATERIAL FOR MACADAM ROADS. Y. B. 1900, p. 349. An interesting and exceedingly valuable article on this subject is presented by Logan Waller Page, expert in charge of the road material laboratory in the division of chemistry. No one rock can be called universally excellent road material. Climate, volume and kind of traffice require changes of the material to suit requirements. Farmers and owners of automobiles demand high class roads. Cheapness and convenience of location usually determine the char- acter of the road material selected. A road either too soft or too A NATIONAL MANUAL ON HIGHWAYS. 13 hard for the traffic involves the maintenance department in diffi- culties. Consider frost, wind, rain, horses, and vehicles. Some hard rocks are brittle. A tough, fairly hard rock is better. BUBAL DELIVEBY. Y. B. 1900, p. 526. The importance of good roads for rural delivery is discussed. CONVICT LABOB. Y. B. 1901, p. 318. This is a special article by J. A. Holmes, of the Department. He discusses reparation of injuries to society by service on roads, where the cost of the convict's "keep" is often less than in jails and penitentiaries. Their work on roads is shown not to interfere with free labor, if their energies are used where, but for their services, no roads would be constructed. OBJECT-LESSON BO ADS. Y. B. 1901, p. 100, tells of the excellent results that have come from the building of object-lesson roads by the Government. TENNESSEE BOADS. Y. B. 1904, p. 323. An article by Sam C. Lancaster, of the Department, shows cost, construction, and maintenance of a first-class stone road in Madison County, Tenn. The streets of Jackson were disgracefully muddy, so the citizens decided to improve them. After they had made a good start the desire to improve the roads of the County became general. The Young Men's Commercial Club called for Federal advice on good roads in 1893. A good stone road was built and the cost of repair proved to be $33 per mile per annum. In 1901 a good roads con- vention resulted; in 1903 there was a mass meeting, called as a result of a Government object-lesson road. The winter of 1902-03 was one of great mud. Two big mules could travel only a few miles in a day, with two milk cans for a load. For six weeks farmers were hemmed in; business was blocked. At the convention all wanted good roads, but there were dissensions about methods. Some wanted taxes, others bonds. There was dissension until a farmer arose and said: "I'm just a plain farmer*** covered with mud. I walked to this meeting because my horse couldn't travel the roads. I bought some groceries from you (turning to a mer- chant) this month; yes, $5 worth, for I carried them on my back. With a good road it would have been $25." A laugh went round and a $300,OOO bond issue was authorized, bearing 4 per cent, running twenty years. Work began in January, 1903. EXPEBT ADVICE. Y. B. 1905, p. 105 sets forth that wher- ever (in the U. S.) "there is any question as to what road material is best suited for the local conditions, samples of all the available materials may be sent to the laboratory of the Office of Public Roads, where tests" of material will be made. An engineer will be detailed to make the investigation and give advice. If necessary, the Department will supplement this advice with a practical demon- stration of object-lesson road building. Engineers, foremen, and 14 GOLDEN ROADS. machinery operatives are supplied by the Government, and local officials are taught by actual demonstration every step in the proper construction of the road. The local community must furnish rights of way, common labor, teams, and materials. At the time of this report 28 states had availed themselves of this branch of the serv- ice. If there is a highway commission or other body of engineers having charge of state roads the Federal Department declines to extend this service to a county without the request, consent, or approval of the state highway board or commission. OFFICE OF PUBLIC ROADS, WHAT IT DOES. Y. B. 1905, p. 567. The Office of Public Roads collects and disseminates infor- mation concerning systems of road management throughout the United states; conducts investigations and experiments concern- ing road-building materials, and methods of road construction; makes chemical and physical tests of road materials and materials of construction relating to agriculture; gives expert advice on road administration and road construction, and demonstrates the best methods of construction, also prepares publications on these sub- jects. EXPERIMENTAL ROADS. Y. B. 1910, p. 151. In this por- tion of the Secretary's report it is remarked that the principle of localization is breaking up in road building, and centralized meth- ods are coming in. The subject of administration, construction, and maintenance is going through a period of vital change in every state. In this the educational and scientific work of the Govern- ment should prove of great value. PROGRESS IN GOOD ROADS WORK. Y. B. 1910, p. 265, an article by Logan Waller Page, who gives an elaborate history of road-building in Virginia in 1632; Maryland, 1666; South Carolina, 1730; Massachusetts, 1653. Facts concerning Kentucky, Pennsyl- vania, and other states are presented. The Civil War almost stopped road building, and the Federal Government ceased partici- pation in road work; turnpike companies failed, and states paid no attention to roads. But in 1904 there were 2,151,000 miles of roads in the United States of which only 7.14 per cent were im- proved. Reaction against ancient and inefficient methods began in New Jersey in 1881, followed by Massachusetts in 1892; Connec- ticut, 1895; New York, 1898, etc. The article is worth careful study. USE OF BITUMENS. Y. B. 1910, p. 297. Article by Prevost Hubbard, chemist of the Office of Public Roads. He concludes that bitumens are the most important class of material employed as dust preventives and road binders. EVOLUTION OF THE ROAD PROBLEM. Y. B. 1911, p. 144. Secretary Wilson, of the Department of Agriculture, reports that A NATIONAL MANUAL ON HIGHWAYS. 15 changes in road methods have been forced upon the public by rap- idly changing traffic conditions. Scientific and educational work is doing wonders. During the last fiscal year object-lesson roads were built in 52 places, at a cost of $120,000 by local authorities. The article gives many interesting facts regarding materials, re- sults, and the work of the Department. GROWTH OF OFFICE. Y. B. 1912, p. 207. During 16 years, to 1912 inclusive, the Office of Public Roads has grown from a small organization with an annual appropriation of $8,000 employing 7 persons to a thoroughly developed organization with 165 em- ployees and an annual appropriation of $202,120. RURAL BETTERMENT PROBLEMS. Y. B. 1913, p. 37. Sec- retary Houston's report says: "Good roads are prerequisite for bet- ter marketing, for better schools, and for more comfortable rural living." On p. 51 he says: "There has been a steady movement for better roads during the last 20 years, with the result that to-day about 24 states have highway commissions or some other State high- way agency. A few of these are engaged in educational work, but most of them are expending state money in the construction and maintenance of roads. So rapid has been the growth of this work that, while the total annual expenditure of the states for this pur- pose amounted to but $2,000,000 10 years ago, it had grown to $43,000,000 in 1912." IDEAL ROCK FOR ROADS. In bulletin No. 44 of the Office of Public Roads it is said that the ideal rock for a macadam road is one which resists traffic wear to such an extent as to supply enough binding material to cement the road. If there is not suffi- cient traffic to wear off the requisite amount of binder to replace that carried away by wind and rain, the road ravels. If too much fine material wears away, the road becomes either muddy or dusty. A softer rock should be used in the first case, a harder one in the second. A hard, tough rock is required for a road subjected to heavy traffic. A lightly travelled road, or a road for automobile traffic, needs softer material, with high cementing value. Auto- mobiles play havoc with tough rock macadam, for they do not wear off enough binding material. No synopsis can do justice to this excellent Bulletin, which abounds in tables showing the results of both field and laboratory experience. COUNTRY DEMANDS ROAD KNOWLEDGE. Y. B. 1906, p. 112. The Secretary of Agriculture calls attention to the fact that there is a steadily growing demand throughout the country for ex- pert information as to the best methods of road construction. OBJECT-LESSON ROADS. Y. B. 1906, p. 137. This is an excellent special article by Director Page, of the Department. He says information shows that counties and states are spending ap- proximately $70,000,000 annually for road building. Until recent 16 GOLDEN ROADS. years highway engineering has received slight attention in the engi- neering schools of the country, for which reason properly equipped men have not been equal to the demand. With about 2,300,000 miles of rural highways in the United States, the necessity of plac- ing road construction and administration on a correct basis may be realized. Progress in road building has usually followed the construction of object-lesson roads. At Knoxville, Tenn., in 1899 such a road resulted in a bond issue, at first bitterly fought, of $186,000. They sold for $210,000. After the roads were improved, lands advanced from $8 to $10 per acre to $15 and $30 per acre. In Madison County, Tenn., the object-lesson road resulted in the building of 50 miles of first-class macadam roads. At Pensacola, Fla., the result was the raising of $450,000 for a good roads system. At Gaines- ville, Fla., tremendous advances in road building resulted. At Uniontown, Ala., the city spent $25,000 on streets after studying the government methods as shown in an object-lesson road. At Auburn, Neb., it is conceded that the object-lesson roads resulted in building the best roads in Nebraska. WORK OF THE OFFICE OF PUBLIC ROADS. Y. B. 1907, p. 131. The close of the year marked the completion of the first census ever made to determine the road mileage, revenue, and ex- penditures in the United States. The investigation was begun early in 1905, but information covering 1904 was obtained from corre- spondents in every county in the United States, from city officials, and others, including newspapers and agricultural associations. A Bulletin recently issued shows the enormous total of nearly 2,152,- 000 miles of public roads; that 7.14 of the mileage has been im- proved, and that the total expenditure for 1904 was about $80,000,- 000. The Secretary concludes that the results obtained are totally inadequate to the amount of money expended. MODEL COUNTY SYSTEMS. Y. B. 1907, p. 135. The Sec- retary concludes that the roads of a county should be built accord- Ing to a predetermined and unified system, based upon a careful investigation of materials, amount of traffic, revenue available, methods of construction adapted to local needs, organization and administration, and all factors entering directly or indirectly into the road work. Exhaustive and detailed reports were submitted to many counties with plans, estimates, and recommendations in- dicating the locations of all materials, advising which should be used, indicating the roads that should be improved and the method and cost of improvement suggested, needed changes in organiza- tion and methods of administration, affording a guide for future county roacl work. The first assignment was made at Santa Bar- A NATIONAL MANUAL ON HIGHWAYS. 17 bara, Cal., followed by work of similar character in Los Angeles, which proceeded under recommendations made by the engineer of the Federal Road Department. ROADS AND AGRICULTURE. Y. B. 1908, p. 144. The total expenditure upon improved roads in 1908 is estimated by the Sec- retary. Taking the 1904 figures as a basis, and assuming that macadam roads have increased 12.5 per cent, the gravel 15 per cent and those surfaced with special materials 25 per cent, we have 43,450 miles of the macadam, 124,468, of gravel, and 8,512 sur- faced with special materials. The cost of the macadam has been estimated at $4,500 per mile, of the gravel at $1,500, and of other surfacing materials at $1,000. There is about 1,975,000 miles of earth road which has cost for grading, culverts, bridges, and all other items an average of $500 per mile. The right of way, esti- mated at 40 feet in width, is worth $342,000,000, making a total estimated cost of $1,720,339,000 for all the roads of this country. Over these roads 250,000 tons of freight are hauled every year to rail- roads, not including the great tonnage hauled to wharves for water shipment, which the department can not estimate. The hauling is done at an average cost of 23 cents per ton-mile, and the average haul is 9 miles an annual cost of more than half a billion dol- lars. The selling price of farm products is largely determined by factors beyond the control of the farmer. His prosperity must be measured by the margin of profit above the cost of production and transportation; and it is only when the great agricultural popula- tion realizes that the road problem is a farm problem that we can look for substantial progress in this important branch of trans- portation. See p. 145. EFFECT OF EDUCATION. Y. B. 1908, p. 145. It is well known that in four states where the average percentage of im- proved roads is 30.55 the percentage of white illiterates is only 0.34 of 1 per cent of the total population, and in four states in which only 1.51 of the road mileage is improved the percentage of white illiterates is 4.76. It is probable that bad roads are part- ly a cause and partly an effect of ignorance. The two are certain- ly closely related. Universities are coming to realize that they must prepare to meet the increasing demand for men specially qualified in highway engineering. INTERNATIONAL BUREAU OF ROADS. Y. B. 1908, p. 147. An international road congress at Paris was participated in by the representatives of 29 governments, late in the year. Almost 100 valuable papers on sundry phases of the subject were presented and an international bureau of roads was formed at the suggestion of the United States Government. 18 GOLDEN ROADS. WHAT A GOOD ROAD DID. A farmer in Sullivan County, Tenn., in 1908 hauled barbed wire 23 miles from Bristol to Kings- port. His maximum load with a two horse team was 200-pounds. Three days were required for a round trip. To haul a ton required 12 days, and at $3 a day for man and team the cost was $36. The County issued bonds for road improvements and under it the road was improved so that the same teams now draw a ton to the load and make one round trip in two days at a cost of $6. The ton- mile cost under unimproved conditions was $1.56, and this cost was reduced to 36 cents by the improved. Farmers' Bulletin No. 505, quoted extensively above, contains many concrete examples like this one from Tennessee. PHYSICAL. TESTING OF ROCK. Bulletin No. 44 of the Office of Public Roads, published in 1912, treats of this subject in detail, covering methods used and the results obtained. It is by Albert T. Goldbeck, testing engineer of the Office, and Frank H. Jackson, Jr., of the Office. The authors treat of agencies destructive of roads mechanical, chemical, and physical. Cementing values, abrasion tests, experiments as to toughness, hardness, etc., are given in de- tail, together with interesting facts concerning resistance to wear, and absorption. DUST PREVENTION AND ROAD PRESERVATION. These two vital subjects are satisfactorily treated in Agricultural Bulletin No. 105 and in Public Roads Circulars Nos. 92 and 98. The results of many practical and scientific experiments are given in detail. Tar, oil, artificial asphalt, brick, cement, and slag are treated. Ce- ment and oil-cement, vitrified brick, tar, macadam, and other ma- terials are fully discussed. MACADAM ROADS. Much valuable information on this sub- ject is contained in Farmers' Bulletin 338, Department of Agricul- ture, 1909. Processes and essential features are exemplified in a clear discussion. THE ROAD DRAG AND ITS WORK. Farmers' Bulletin 597, 1914, contains an interesting discussion of this question. It was prepared by the Office of Public Roads. When it is understood that only about 200,000 miles of the 2,000,000 miles of public roads in the United States have been given a hard surface and that about one-half of the 200,000 miles are surfaced with gravel, the impor- tance of every effective device for maintaining the simpler type of roads becomes apparent. FACTS ABOUT PAVING MATERIAL. An able work entitled Street Pavements and Paving Material, by George W. Tillson, con- tains much valuable material concerning the history and develop- ment of roads and pavements. He says that a stone causeway a mile long has been discovered to the east of the Great Pyramid. This is supposed to be part of a road built by Pharaoh to convey A NATIONAL MANUAL ON HIGHWAYS. 19 stones for the construction of the Pyramid 4,000 B. C. The City of Memphis is said to have been connected with the pyramids by a roadway two leagues long. The Carthaginians are credited with being the first people to construct and maintain a general system of roads. The great Afri- can city was founded about 600 B. C. and became a rival of the Roman Empire. The Appian Way was built by Claudius, 300 B. C., and the Flaminian Way some years later. The Appian Way is said to have been in good repair 800 years after its completion. Professor John Beekman, University of Gottingen, says the streets of Thebes were regularly cleaned, and the Talmud says the streets of Jerusalem were swept daily, so they must have been paved. Genoa boasted of good roads a thousand years before Columbus discovered Amer- ica. Ancient Mexico and Peru had wonderful systems of roads. Those of Peru extended more than a thousand leagues. Many interesting facts concerning ancient roads are to be found in Mr. Tillson's volume. See also Page's Roads, Paths and Bridges. WOOD. In 1839 wood was frequently used as a paving ma- terial in London. Concrete was first used as a base for pavements in that city in 1872. Glasgow first used granite block and wood for pavements in 1841, asphalt in 1873. Macaulay said in his History of England: "Of all inventions, the alphabet and printing-press alone excepted, those inventions which abridge distance have done most for the civilization of our species." The relative cost of paving per square yard complete, in New York City, 1911, was as follows: Granite, $3.50; wood, $3.50; asphalt, $2.00; brick, $2.25; bithulitic, $2.35. Data collected from many American cities show that the life of granite is 25 years; treated wood, 20 years; brick, 15 years, asphalt, 18 years; bithulitic, 15 years. Tillson, page 168. In dur- ability, sanitariness, easiness of cleaning, non-slipperiness, and fa- vorableness to travel, the paving materials named stand in the fol- lowing relations: granite, 97; bithulitic, 93; brick, 91; asphalt, 91. BRICK. Brick pavements have been used in Holland ever since the thirteenth century. Tillson, page 295. Amsterdam and Rotterdam use brick extensively, and the life of a brick pavement there is from 10 to 20 years when the bricks are turned, after which they are good for 4 years longer. Japan has used brick pavements for more than 100 years. In the United States the first brick pavement was laid in Charleston, W. Va., in 1870. It was good after 27 years. The word vitrified, applied to brick pave- ments, does not mean glassy or vitreous, as defined by dictionar- 20 GOLDEN ROADS. ies. It means, in engineering, that a chemical action has taken place so that the clay particles have coalesced and become fused by the action of heat, forming a solid new homogeneous whole, but not that the fusion has been made complete and the entire mass brought to a semi-liquid state. In Bloomington, 111., in 1875, brick pavements were laid and they lasted well until 1894, when it was found that the brick had worn % of an inch. Wheeling, W. Va., adopted brick in 1883, Steubenville, O., in 1884. The Steu- benville pavement was good in 1899, and the street superintendent reported that it would be good for 10 years more. It had required no repairs up to 1899, and there was no prospect that repairs would be required. Galesburg, 111., began using brick in 1884; Zanesville, O., in 1885; Peoria, 111., in 1885; Philadelphia, 1887; New York, 1891. Metropolitan brick, of Canton, 0., is one of the best types made. Brick should be tough, strong, homogeneous, uniform, dense, and impervious to moisture. Some of the pyramids were made of bricks, and bricks were used in the Tower of Babel. The walls and temples of Athens were made in part of brick. The Egyptians knew how to burn good brick. See Tillson, page 99. Vitrified paving bricks have been in general use in the United States ever since 1870. They are made from shales and the less refractory fire clays. NEW YORK. The following subsurface structures are found in New York. Sewers, water mains, gas mains, elevated column foundations, conduits for light and power, telephone conduits, con- duits for electric railroad power, mail tubes, police and fire alarm conduits, cable line conduits for transatlantic lines, steam pipes to convey heat and power, refrigeration pipes, private tunnels connect- ing properties on opposite sides of streets, etc. When the subways were built great difficulties were encountered in caring for these subway improvements, which were obstacles. VITRIFIED BRICK PAVEMENTS FOR COUNTRY ROADS. Department of Agriculture Bulletin No. 246 contains about 25,000 words on this subject by a construction chief and a highway engi- neer. The discussion covers raw materials, manufacture, physical characteristics, construction, cost, maintenance, etc. The conclu- sion urges the importance of proper engineering supervision in this form of construction. As brick pavements are the most expensive types ever constructed on country roads they must be carefully planned, then built right. The cost of upkeep on a properly made brick road is very slight. These pavements need careful inspection during the first few years of their use. They are durable under all traffic conditions, afford easy traction and fair footholds, and are cheaply maintained and easily cleaned. Their crushing strength Is from 10,000 to 20,000 pounds to the square inch. The cost of A NATIONAL MANUAL ON HIGHWAYS. 21 shaping and rolling the subgrade after rough grading is completed usually runs from 3 to 5 cents per square yard. Stone curbs cost from 25 to 75 cents per linear foot, while cement curbs run from 20 to 50 cents per linear foot. ROAD MODELS. Agriculture Bulletin No. 220 is interesting. It treats of Roman roads, French roads, macadam, telford, align- ment, location, foundation, subgrade, shoulders, earth and sand- clay roads, cement concrete roads, bituminous concrete roads, "To- peka specifications," paved roads other than concrete, culverts and bridges, roadside treatment, and road machinery. A score of beau- tiful illustrations add to the value of the treatise. PORTLAND CEMENT CONCRETE. Agriculture Bulletin No. 249 is on Portland Cement as a pavement for country roads. It discusses materials, construction, cost, and maintenance. It con- cludes that the economic efficiency of concrete roads is undeter- mined, but the indications are that this type will prove to be well suited for certain conditions. Thin bituminous wearing surfaces for concrete pavements are not justified. This bulletin is exhaus- tive and the question is presented in detail. WOOD FOR PAVING. Persons who desire information as to manufacturers who will supply literature on this subject free of cost, should consult the Good Roads Year-Book lists in the volume for 1915. Spalding's Text-Book on Roads and Pavements has a good chapter on this subject. It treats of types, tests, treatments, construction, and maintenance. Almost all the recognized engi- neering journals and text-books discuss this subject. See next paragraph. GOVERNMENT ADVICE. If in doubt concerning any phase of road work, or if in need of general information, remember that the one unfailing and painstaking source is the Office of Public Roads, Washington, D. C. Write for information. A GREAT TASK. The National Highways Association, Wash- ington, D. C., estimates that more than twenty-five billion dollars will be spent in the next 25 years on the 2,300,000 miles of high- ways in the United States. The Association advocates a National highway commission to aid in the construction and maintenance of 50,000 miles of trunk highway lines in the United States. The Association publishes many interesting booklets and maps. It maintains that 50,000 miles, properly located, would serve half the population of the United States. In view of the fact that two horses haul one bale of cotton a few miles a day on a bad road and 12 bales double that distance over a good road, the Association is for immediate action. On a poor country road, say their engi- neers, it costs from four to ten times as much to carry farm prod- uce as on a good road. More than five billion tons a year pass over the country roads. These engineers estimate a saving of three 22 GOLDEN ROADS. billion dollars a year in cost of transportation alone over the sys- tem they propose. They also estimate that the improvement of two million miles of the country's roads would increase land values ten billion dollars. These are some of their arguments for National aid in building roads. The ambition of the National Highways Association to have an expert commission appointed by Congress before that body com- mits itself forthwith to the spending of large sums seems just and logical. Charles Henry Davis, C. E., who is president and founder of the Association, has established a large library of highway engi- neering, located at Columbia University, New York City. It is for the benefit of all persons interested in any phase of highway engineering or associated fields of activity. It is known as the Davis Library of Highway Engineering. NATIONAL GOOD ROADS. The National Highways Associa- tion gives the following interesting facts: There are about 1,000,000 automobiles in the United States. If they average 25 miles a day for 300 working days we get a mileage of 7,500,000,000 per annum. At 15 cents a mile operating expenses the total exceeds $1,000,000,000 a year. A goodly sum. Will not good roads save 10% of this? We think more. This means not less than $100,000,000 per annum saving. There are more than 27,000,000 horses and mules, 4,000,000 horse-drawn vehicles, 2,000,000 bicycles, 100,000 motor-cycles, and 1,000,000 automobiles in the United States. These are valued at more than $5,000,000,000. If from good roads only 10% in de- preciation per annum were saved it would amount to the enormous sum of $500,000,000 every year. How long would it take us to give our great country good roads, from North to South and East to West, out of such savings? Congress now appropriates annually $1,000,000,000, distributed as follows: War, past, present, and to come, 420 millions, or 42% of the total; postal service, 230 millions, 23%; Governmental ex- penses, legislative, executive, etc., 200 millions, 20%; public works buildings, rivers, harbors, the Canal, etc., 110 millions, 11%; education and statistics, 40 millions, 4%. The total is 1,000 million, or 100%. How absurd to liberty-loving, peace-loving Americans to spend any such amount on war past, present, and to come and to refuse to spend $50,000,000 per annum on a road system that will be a benefit far outstripping any other within the knowledge of mankind! Such appropriations would build a system of 50,000 miles of National Highways in 20 years. Such a system would encourage and accentuate the building of good roads everywhere A NATIONAL MANUAL ON HIGHWAYS. 23 by states, counties, townships, and towns as the collecting and distributing medium of these National Highways and for the use and benefit of all the people of the Nation. CALIFORNIA'S PROGRESS. From 1895 to 1898 appropria- tions were for repairs, but under Governor Gillett a movement for improvement on a large scale was started and it has been prose- cuted vigorously by the Johnson administration. The State High- ways Act providing $18,000,000 for the construction of a system of highways distinct from the state roads built under Legislative appropriations became available so that work was started May 21, 1912. Plans were soon drawn for 1164 miles, including a trunk line down the central valleys of the Sacramento and the San Joa- quin and a trunk following the Coast. Other surveys making a total aggregate of 2150 miles were made later. In March, 1915, the Legislature submitted a bond issue for $15,000,000 to com- plete the projected trunk lines and about eight laterals intercepting trunks or uniting Coast and Valley trunks so as to join Valley and Coast sections. The act provided that the electors shall vote on this issue in November, 1916. The highways thus far constructed are largely of cement concrete with a thin bituminous top. COUNTY BOND ISSUES FOR ROAD IMPROVEMENT. An interesting pamphlet of some 15,000 words on this subject gives a series of controversial letters written by D. H. Barger, L. E. Johnson, and others regarding the advisability of a bonding of Taze- well County, Virginia, for good roads. The entire question of "paying as you go" or "bond as you require" is discussed by able antagonists. The first letter is addressed to L. E. Johnson, president of the N. & W. Ry. Co., Roanoke. The writer asks whether the Company, a heavy tax-payer, favors the $625,000 bond issue. The President answers YES in capital letters, and proceeds to give some con- vincing reasons in a 2,000 word reply. He holds that economic wisdom and business judgment favor the bonds. Educational and social reasons also appeal to him. He quotes from such documents as have been quoted in the preceding pages of Golden Roads, and argues for every reasonable step that will remove the wastes and burdens of high transportation charges, due to bad roads. He calls attention to the fact that the cost of hauling per ton-mile is very low on the famous highways of Prance, Belgium, and particularly in Germany, where it amounts to an average rate of 8.5 cents per ton-mile. He concludes that the Tazewell bond issue would be a great investment for that County. Mr. D. H. Barger complains to Mr. Johnson that excessive taxation is even more fatal than bad roads. He insists that coun- ties should pay as they go. 24 GOLDEN ROADS. The railroad president comes back with a scathing 5,000 word reply in which he says that the whole structure of our industrial and governmental fabric rests upon the mechanism of credit. He adds: "The amount of legal tender actually in circulation in the United States in 1910, was only $34.52 per capita, and would be pitifully inadequate to meet the demands of business if all trans- actions were conducted on a cash basis. The building of our great railroads, the financing of our war of independence, and subse- quent conflicts, have been conducted through the powerful agency of credit. Our entire banking system, involving $1,852,834,000.00, rests upon the foundation stone credit. Would you carry your theory so far as to advise a thrifty young farmer to refrain from buying a farm because he had not the entire purchase price in cash? Would it have ever been possible for the vast domains of the eariy landed proprietors to be divided up into small farms if the practice of partial payments had not been introduced? Do you think that a man who owns an unimproved piece of city property and pays taxes upon it should hold it as an unproductive property, rather than borrow money with which to put up buildings which would yield him a return over and above his outlay? "You say this is a fundamental feature which good business men practice in their private affairs. I believe that 99 per cent of the fortunes which have been made in America have been based upon the theory and mechanism of credit. The only examples of fortunes accumulated by the 'pay as you go' plan are those of the miser who hoards his gold, and thus demoralizes the legitimate channels of business by withholding from it a medium of exchange." The writer makes it plain that a tax for road improvement is an invesment and not a loss. He holds that the direct return to the farmer will be many times greater than the tax. He adds that the increase in farm values as a direct result of good road im- provement is so great that the tax rate is often less than before the issuing of bonds. He adds many interesting examples, from which the following are selected: Mecklenburg County, N. C., built 150 miles by convict labor; cost about $3,500.00 per mile. Land 8 miles from Charlotte $10.00 to $25.00 per acre then, but now from $50.00 to $100.00 per acre. Jackson County, Ala., $250,000.00 bonds, built 125 miles in 2 years. Census value land in 1890 averaged $4.80 per acre, Ready purchasers now at $15.00 to $25.00 per acre. In Bradley County, Tenn., population of 16,000 in 1900, issued $90,000.00 in bonds. Bitter opposition, but before money was half spent, amount increased to $186,000.00, selling for $120,000.00. Before roads were built land went begging at from $8.00 to $10.00 per acre, and now sells easily for from $15.00 to $30.00 per acre. A NATIONAL MANUAL ON HIGHWAYS. 25 Hall County, Ga. (Gainesville), 65-acre farm bought for $1,800.00. Macadam road built through farm and owner offered $4,500.00 for same. Hamlin County, Tenn. (Morristown), farm sold for $6,000.00 before roads were built; and afterwards sold to Mr. Campbell, of Hancock County, for $15,000.00. Apex, N. C., farm before gravel road built sold for $700.00, after road built, sold for $4,500.00. The Williamsburg and Jamestown Highway, built under the direction of the United States Office of Public Roads in 1907, ex- tends from Williamsburg to Jamestown Island, and is part macadam and part sand-clay. Since its construction a farm with a good standing of timber, offered before the road was built for $4,500.00 without a taker, was sold soon after the road was completed for $8,000.00. Since then the owners have been hauling 1,800 to 2,000 feet of lumber with two mules, where before it was impos- sible to haul more than 600 feet. Another tract of land of 205 acres, of which 100 acres were in timber, was sold before the road was built for $4,000.00, and since the road was built, the standing timber alone has sold for $3,500.00. In Bond Issues for Road Improvement (the Honorable Lee McClung, treasurer of the United States when he wrote the paper) says some pertinent things on this vital subject. This paper, re- printed from the proceedings of the American Highway Associa- tion, 1912, gives some valuable tables and data. He shows that $1,000,0000 at 4 per cent for twenty years brings these results: By sinking fund method the interest is $800,000; by serial bond method, $420,000. The difference in interest in favor of the serial method is $380,000. Again: $1,000,000 sinking fund require- ments for 20 years on a 4 per cent basis, the decimal for $1 being 0.034749, $660,231. And $1,000,000 at 4 per cent for twenty years yields interest in the sum of $800,000. The cost of the loan by the sinking fund method is therefore $1,460,231. The cost by the serial method is $1,420,000. The difference in cost in favor of the serial bond is thus $40,231. Add the interest saving of $380,000 and you have an advantage of $420,231 in favor of the serial bond method. Mr. McClung adds: "One of the objections advanced to the serial plan is that the earlier payments are too large on account of the large interest payments and a heavy drain on the taxpayers. However, this only applies to the plan of paying an equal amount on the principal each year; the annual charge would be made less from the beginning than the sinking fund requirements would be. The scheme is flexible and a plan can be worked out to suit almost 26 GOLDEN ROADS. any condition. Naturally the larger the payments on account of principal in the early years the larger will be the saving in interest on the loan." Agriculture Bulletin 136, entitled Highway Bonds, calls atten- tion to the fact that a sinking fund is a constant temptation to use it for purposes other than those originally intended, especially if officers in charge of operations are changed frequently, as they are during a long term of years. The annuity and the serial methods are shown to be cheaper than the sinking fund plan. SERIAL BONDS. The serial bond differs somewhat from the annuity bond, because, instead of keeping the annual payment of both principal and interest constant, the principal alone retired each year remains fixed. This type of bond has become common for highway purposes in recent years, and during 1912 and 1913 the number of serial issues exceeded the number of issues for any other single given term. The total expense to the community under the serial plan is somewhat less than under the annuity plan. The expense by either method is, however, considerably less than the expense under the sinking-fund plan. By the annuity method, if $100,000 is to be issued at 5 per cent annually and retired in 20 years, the annual amount of in- terest and principal is at once determined to be approximately $8,000. For the same bond issue under the serial plan, the total annual payment varies because the interest varies, but each yearly payment of interest and principal is nevertheless fixed. Under the sinking-fund plan the annual payment necessary for principal and interest is theoretically constant, but is depends upon the interest realized upon the sinking fund. It is not safe, as a rule, to estimate this interest at more than 3 % per cent. Then for a $100,000 20-year loan, with annual interest on the sinking fund, the total annual payment would be $8,536.11. If the sinking fund could earn the rate of interest which is paid upon the loan there would be no advantage in expense to the community in the annuity or the serial bond over the sinking-fund bond. It is an unfortunate fact that most highways do not have a life of 30 years, and it is now quite evident that the life of the high- way and not the apparent economic term of the bond should deter- mine the length of the loan. Many miles of natural soil roads are annually built by 30-year bond issues. There is usually no pro- vision for repair and maintenance charges, and little business organization in the county road system. This practice is finan- cially dangerous. By the annuity method both the principal and interest are discharged by constant annual or semi-annual payments. The amount of each payment or installment is determined by the rate A NATIONAL MANUAL ON HIGHWAYS. 27 of interest and the term of the bond. It usually is necessary to subdivide the bond issue into individual bonds of $100, $500, or $1,000 each. "The resulting periodic payments of principal and interest must vary slightly because of this adjustment. See Agri- culture Bulletin 136 (also heretofore analyzed), p. 16 for complete tables and details of cost and comparison of advantages. It should be remembered that the first cost of construction is not the total cost of a highway. There is some difference of opinion among engineers as to what constitutes the total cost of a high- way during a given term of years. Questions arise over the in- terest charge on the original cost, the annual payments to amortize or retire the loan, the depreciation charge, and the repair and maintenance charge. Sources of Road Information. Persons interested in forwarding good roads campaigns should know where to obtain specific information. Here is a list of some valuable publications: Good Roads, a weekly journal of road and street engineering and contracting, 52 numbers, $2 a year; or twelve numbers (the first issue in each month) $1 a year; 150 Nassau Street, New York City. The American City, 87 Nassau Street, New York City; $3 a year; a high-class illustrated magazine which frequently discusses streets and roads. The Good Roads Year-Book, published by the American High- way Association, Washington, D. C., once each year; $1 a copy; abounds in tables, lists of road associations, summaries of laws, progress, etc. American Highways Association, Washington, D. C. This So- ciety publishes elaborate booklets, bulletins, and reports. Write for details. The organization is prominently back of the American Road Congress, which publishes valuable reports each year at $1 for each copy. U. S. Bulletins on every phase of good roads. Address the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C., for lists and prices. See many of these cited in the foregoing pages. Road Construction and Maintenance, published as an adver- tisement by the E. I. du Pont de Nemours Powder Company, Wil- mington, Del; an illustrated pamphlet of more than 120 pages, containing much valuable information. 28 GOLDEN ROADS. The Highway Magazine, another advertisement, but valuable withal; published by the California Corrugated Culvert Co., Los Angeles; illustrated; monthy; full of interesting and valuable in- formation. Address National Corrugated Culvert Association, Mid- dletown, Ohio, the main firm. The Oregon Voter, Vol. 1, No. 7, Portland, Oregon, 10 cents, but probably out of print; contains almost 40,000 words on high- way construction, cost, and maintenance, being a stenographic re- port of the findings of a Chamber of Commerce committee. This is of great value to persons interested in improving city streets, for the information is detailed. The investigation of modern paving materials and methods was comprehensive and thorough. Write to the author of Golden Roads for synopsis. The High Cost of Hauling, an able paper by Logan Waller Page, director of the Office of Public Roads. Address him con- cerning type-written copies. Why Do We Want Good Roads? An able paper, 1912, full of examples. A satisfactory summary in 1,000 words; will probably be supplied by the Office of Public Roads. Road Improvement in the South, an article by Logan Waller Page in Manufacturers' Record, Baltimore, Md., January, 1912. Address the Office of Public Roads for information. Good Roads the Way to Progress, being an elaborate article by the director of the Office of Public Roads. See World's Work, July, 1909, or address the Office of Public Roads. Roads and Pavements, by I. O. Baker, published by John Wiley & Sons, New York. Highway Engineering, by Blanchard & Drown, John Wiley & Sons, New York. Address the E. L. Powers Co., 150 Nassau Street, New York, for a list of more than fifty books on road and street construction. Bibliography of Valuable Books. In the Good Roads Year- Book, 1915, page 320, is a complete list of documents, treating of road, bridge, and culvert construction. STATE HIGHWAY DEPARTMENTS OP THE UNITED STATES. See a complete list in the Good Roads Year-Book, 1915, page, 229. See also an exhaustive list of good roads associations in the U. S. following page 242. SHADE TREES ALONG ROADS. The U. S. Government has no publications on this subject. Leigh H. Irvine, San Luis Obispo, Cal., will supply a long list for 5 cents. Haveners Road Primer, published by A. C. McClurg & Co., Chicago, is a wonderful book of 159 pages, written for children, but worth adult attention. It covers most of the fundamental problems clearly and satisfactorily. A NATIONAL MANUAL ON HIGHWAYS. 29 American Highways, by N. S. Shaler, published by the Century Co., is a trustworthy popular book on road conditions and the means by which they may be bettered. The author is of the staff of the Lawrence Scientific School of Harvard University, and his book is well worth a place on the shelf of the student of the road question. Roads, Paths, and Bridges, by Logan Waller Page, published by Sturgis & Walton, New York City, is a valuable work by the director of the Office of Public Roads of the U. S. The author discusses types of roads and road problems. Spalding's Text-Book on Roads and Pavements, John Wiley & Sons. The author treats the entire subject. He is an able engi- neer and writer. The book contains more than 400 pages and is unusually clear and interesting. BRICK ROADS. For further information on brick roads see Good Roads Year-Book, 1915, p. 140; Ravenel's Road Primer, also, p. 140; Spalding's Text-Book, p. 222; Tillson's Street Pavements, also an article by him in the American Highway Association's re- ports for 1912; Road Congress Reports, p. 157, year 1913; Agri- cultural Bulletin No. 323; Good Roads (magazine), May, 1915, page 190; American City, February, 1915, p. 121; American City, October, 1914. METHODS AND MATERIALS. The Good Roads Year-Book contains detailed information concerning treatises on road and bridge construction, road periodicals, bulletins, circulars, and docu- ments, permanent road congresses and societies, manufacturers of machinery and material, road contractors by states, and much kindred useful information. Good Roads, The American City, and other technical publications contain much data of this character. Consult the nearest public library. Town Development, an entertaining monthly magazine, 118 East 28th St., New York City. This is a high-class publication which frequently has illuminating articles on good roads and their benefits. The subscription price is $3 a year. The World's Work, 11 W. 32d Street, New York. This famous magazine conducts a promotion department and its columns fre- quently contain valuable articles on good roads. The subscription price is $3 a year. If you do not take this or other publications named in this department you may be able to consult them at your public library. Aitken, Thomas Road Making and Maintenance, London, 1907. Baker, Ira O. A Treatise on Roads and Pavements, New York, 1905. Bergier, Nicholas. History of Great Highways of the Roman Empire, Brussels, 1728. 30 GOLDEN ROADS. Bruce, P. A. Economic History of Virginia in the Seventeenth Century, Vol. 1. Byrne, Austin T. Highway Construction, New York, 1907. Coane, John Montgomery Australasian Roads, Melbourne, 1908. Elliott, Charles G. Engineering for Land Drainage, New York, 1910. Frost, Harwood The Art of Road Making, New York, 1910. Gallatin, Albert. Roads and Canals, Report to U. S. Senate, April 6, 1808. Gillespie, W. M. A Manual of Road Making, New York and Chicago, 1871. Gillette, Halbert P. The Economics of Road Construction, New York, 1906. Green well, Allan and Elsden, J. V. Roads, London, 1901. Herschel, Clemens The Science of Road Making, New York, 1894. Hooley, E. Purnell Management of Highways, London. Hubbard, Prevost Dust Preventives and Road Binders, New York, 1910. Hulburt, Archer Butler Historic Highways of America, 16 Vols., Cleveland, O., 1902. Jeffreys, Rees Dust Problem Statistics, London, 1909. Jenks, Jeremiah W. Road Legislation for the American State, Baltimore, Md., 1889. Johnson, J. B. Engineering Contracts and Specifications, New York, 1902. Judson, William Pierson Road Preservation and Dust Pre- vention, New York, 1908. Latham, Frank The Construction of Roads, London, 1903. Lovegrove, E. J. Attrition Tests of Road-Making Stones, Lon- don, 1906. Low, Henry and Clark, D. K. The Construction of Roads and Streets, London, 1901. Preliminary Report of Inland Waterways Commission, U. S. Senate Document 325, 60th Congress, 1st Session. Richardson, Clifford The Modern Asphalt Pavement, New York, 1908. Gingwalt, J. L. Developement of Transportation Systems in the United States, Philadelphia, Pa., 1888. Ryves, Reginald The King's Highway, London, 1908. Searight, Thomas B. The Old Pike, Uniontown, Pa., 1894. Tucker, James Irwin Contracts in Engineering, New York, 1910. A NATIONAL MANUAL ON HIGHWAYS. 31 Aimales Fonts et Chaussees, Paris. Engineering and Contracting, Chicago. Engineering News, New York Engineering Record, New York. Surveyor, London. Zeitschrift fur Transportwesen und Strasseiibau, Berlin. Street Pavements: Their Selection, Care, Maintenance, by George W. Tillson. This is a reprint from the proceedings of the American Highways Association, 1912. Valuable. National Highways, by C. H. Davis, C. E., Washington, D. C., is an interesting and valuable booklet of 27 pages. FURTHER INFORMATION. The author of Golden Roads may be able to suggest ways and means of obtaining books, circulars, and general information, if the reader finds difficulty in getting what he requires. SPECIAL SERVICE. More detailed reports from the un- abridged manuscripts of the larger Golden Roads, or from any of the works in the author's library will be supplied for the cost of the stenographic fee, plus postage, the author's desire being to make it as easy as possible for co-workers to be supplied with ammunition. Address Leigh H. Irvine, San Luis Obispo, California. BY RIGHT OF SWORD, an exhaustive defense of the death penalty for the cold-blooded murderer, is a work by the author of GOLDEN ROADS. It has been highly praised by press, pulpit, educators, statesmen, judges, and others. It won several battles in deliberative bodies and was used to defeat the anti capital-pun- ishment forces at the New York State Constitutional Convention, 1015, and before the California Legislature, same year. The au thor appeared in joint debate before the Judiciary Committee of the Assembly, being opposed by Rabbi Nieto and Assemblyman Harris. Their measures were defeated. The volume converted one of the most active leaders of the opposition in Kansas. The Baker & Taylor Co., 354 Fourth Ave., New York, are trade sales-agents, as are A. C. McClurg & Co., Chicago. The retail price of the volume, in cloth only, is $1. The author will prepay postage and send a copy anywhere on receipt of $1, or will send elaborate circulars concerning the work free of cost. UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY BERKELEY Return to desk from which borrowed. This book is DUE on the last date stamped below. 29Apr'52J LD 21-95m-ll,'50(2877sl6)476 Makers Syracuse, N. Y. . PH. JM*. 2t- 1908 TU UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY BERKELEY THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE STAMPED BELOW Books not returned on time are subject to a fine of 50c per volume after the third day overdue, increasing to $1.00 per volume after the sixth day. Books not in demand may be renewed if application is made before expiration of loan period.