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ELEMENTS 
 
 COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 
 
ELEMENTS 
 
 OF 
 
 COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 
 
 BY 
 
 E. G. LATHAM, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., Ac, 
 
 LATE FKLLOW OF KING'S COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE; ANU LATE PaOFESSOE OP ENGLISH 
 IN UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, LONDON. 
 
 Library, 
 
 LONDON: 
 WALTON AND MABERLY, 
 
 UPPER GOWER STREET, AND IVY LANE, PATERNOSTER ROW; 
 
 LONGMAN, GREEN, LONGMAN, ROBERTS, AND GREEN, 
 
 PATERNOSTER ROW. 
 1862. 
 
 Tlie, Right of Translation is Reserved. 
 
P/O-/ 
 
 HIS IMPERIAL HIGHNESS 
 
 THE PEINCE LOUIS LUCIEN BONAPAETE, 
 
 EMIFENT FOR THE ZEAL AND EFFICIENCY 
 
 WITH WHICH HE HAS CONTRIBUTED TO OUR KNOWLEDGE OF 
 
 SOME OF THE MOST IMPORTANT BRANCHES OP 
 
 COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY, 
 
 as well as in recognition op much special information, freely 
 
 imparted, 
 
 London, 
 
 June ith, 1862. 
 

 PREFACE. 
 
 Tbe object of the present work is to lay before the 
 reader the chief facts and the chief trains of reasoning 
 in Comparative Philology. 
 
 This last term is by no means unexceptionable. It has 
 the merit, however, of being in general use, and it con- 
 veys no notions which materially mislead even the most 
 uncritical. Neither is it, by any means, an easy matter 
 to supersede it by one which shall be exactly adequate 
 to the subject. Those which have suggested themselves 
 to the present writer or to others convey either too 
 much or too little. 
 
 That such a work is wanted is known to every 
 student. Since the publication of the Mithridates, no 
 work equally extensive and systematic has appeared : 
 nor has the Mithridates itself been re-edited with the 
 proper annotations or additions. 
 
 The main mass of facts lies in the details of the lan- 
 guages themselves. Of these details, the ones wdiich 
 best suit a general exposition are the actual enu- 
 meration of the existing forms of speech and the 
 phenomena connected with their distribution over the 
 earth's surface ; the phenomena of their distribution, 
 taken by themselves, being of great importance and 
 interest. In some respects they are ethnological rather 
 than philological in the strictest sense of the term. They 
 
viii PREFACE. 
 
 must, however, be known before even the rudiments of 
 the subject can be studied ; and it is plain that they 
 must be known in their integrity. Any important 
 omission would damiage the systematic exhibition of 
 the whole. There is no language which does not illus- 
 trate some other ; and the least that is required of any 
 general investigator is that he should know the details 
 of his subject-matter — not some, but all. 
 
 I notice this, because the purely descriptive portion 
 of the work fills more than six-sevenths of the volume ; 
 and has the appearance of starving the remainder, A 
 larger work would have removed this disproportion. 
 Still, with languages and dialects as numerous as they 
 are, the preliminary exposition must be accommodated 
 to the multiplicity of its details. In some cases, no 
 doubt, space might have been saved. In languages, 
 however, which are either known from only a single 
 specimen or are on the verge of extinction I have given 
 more than I should have done otherwise. 
 
 The words which are selected as samples are not 
 chosen on a priori principles. This means that I have 
 not assumed that the names of certain parts of the 
 body, of the sun, moon, &;c., are the oldest and most 
 permanent parts of a language without an approach 
 to something like a preliminary trial. I have not 
 assumed beforehand that they are what is sometimes 
 called words of primary necessity. On the contrary, 
 I have actually tried by the comparison of allied 
 languages what words are the most permanent. It is 
 only, however, where the materials were sufficient that 
 I could thus pick and choose. In many cases, especially 
 with the languages of South America, I have been fain 
 to take what I could find. 
 
 I must also add, that the short lists of the present 
 work are not intended to represent the evidence upon 
 which the affinities between the languages which they 
 illustrate is founded. For this they are insufficient. They 
 
PREFACE. ix 
 
 are rather meant as simple examples. Still, even as 
 evidence, they are valid so far as they show likeness. 
 A few words are enough for this. To predicate difference 
 a greater number i's required. It follows, however, 
 from the fact of their being the words which are con- 
 spicuous for their permanence, that, as a general rule, 
 languages, when taken altogether, are less alike than a 
 list of selected words makes them. 
 
 Failing to find a vocabulary, I have occasionally 
 given a Paternoster as an illustration ; and here the 
 converse is the case. Languages, as a general rule, are 
 Tnore alike than the comparison of their Paternosters 
 suggests. 
 
 As for the words themselves, I am, for an in- 
 ordinately large proportion of them, simply under the 
 guidance of my authorities : indeed, many forms of o^ 
 speech are known only from a single specimen, often the 
 contribution of an imperfect investigator. Upon the 
 whole, however, I have found that they are sufficient 
 for the purpose. At any rate, inaccurate specimens 
 conceal, rather than exaggerate, affinities. 
 
 The several groups, or classes, as given in the classifi- 
 cation of the present volume, so far as they depart from 
 the ones in general currency, may be divided into three 
 classes. 
 
 1. The first contains those where the nuinivfium 
 amount of positive evidence is required. Here, the 
 criticism deals with the real presumptions in favour of 
 my own view as opposed to those against it. This 
 means little more than the expression of an opinion 
 that the current doctrine is, in itself, improbable ; that 
 the onus probandi lies with those -who assert, rather 
 than with those who decline to admit, it ; and that, on 
 the part of those with whom the onus lies, the case 
 has not been made. It is clear that this is a criticism 
 of the common grounds of assent rather than a matter 
 of philological fact. 
 
X PREFACE. 
 
 2. The second contains those members which have 
 the probabilities on their side, but which, from want 
 of data, are susceptible of having their position im- 
 proved, if not absolutely altered, when our knowledge 
 increases. The South-American languages especially 
 belong to this division. There is some evidence in 
 favour of their being what they are here made ; but 
 that evidence is sufficient only because it coincides with 
 the a priori presumptions. 
 
 8. The third class (and this more especially applies 
 to the speculations on the original extent of. the Slavonic 
 and Lithuanian languages) is not only opposed to 
 common opinion but has no presumptions in its favour 
 — except, of course, such as show themselves when the 
 fact is known, and which are, really, no true presump- 
 tions at all. It is the intention of the author, if oppor- 
 tunities permit, to mend the evidence on these points. 
 
 The second part, or the part which treats of lan- 
 guage in general, is short. This arises (as aforesaid) 
 from the great amount of preliminary detail which 
 was absolutely necessary. The notice, however, short 
 as it is, goes at once, to the two main problems, the 
 origin of inflections and the origin of roots. Of the 
 ground covered by these questions it only gives a 
 general view, along with a few suggestions as to the 
 method by which it is to be explored. 
 
 What now follows is the qualification of an expres- 
 sion which will frequently occur, and one which, without 
 explanation, may seem to savour of arrogance. I often 
 allude to what I call the current opinion ; and I gene- 
 rally do so to condemn it. 
 
 The notice, however, does not mean that all the world 
 is wrong, and that it is the mission of the present in- 
 quirer to set it right. Current opinion merely means 
 the doctrine laid down in partial treatises, popular 
 works, and other productions, which either fail to give a 
 sufficiently general view of the subject, or are taken 
 
PREFACE. XI 
 
 from second-band, or third-hand sources; the doctrine 
 of laymen, amateurs, and speculators, rather than pro- 
 fessed philologues, responsible authorities, and cautious 
 critics. With many of these latter, I unwillingly differ. 
 Still, wherever I consider myself right, I give every one 
 else the credit of being so, who, with a first-hand know- 
 ledge of the subject, has not committed himself to any 
 of the notions I have objected to. 
 
 The same principle is extended to what may be called 
 discoveries. -As a general rule, they belong so tho- 
 roughly to the domain of common-sense, that, with a 
 scientific method, they come of themselves, and, so 
 doing, carry with them but slight claims for bold origin- 
 ality and the like heroic qualities. Where I am right 
 in any view not generally received, I am, unless the con- 
 trary be expressly stated, an independent witness : and, 
 in claiming this for myself, I award the same merit 
 (such as it is) to others. Where the line of inquiry lies 
 in a right direction, any amount of similar results may 
 be obtained by independent investigatoi-s ; and that many 
 good results are actually thus obtained is certain. Philo- 
 logical papers are spread over such a vast variety of 
 periodicals, monographs, and difierent works in different 
 languages, that the mere search for them is a matter 
 of time and labour — to which favourable opportunities 
 must be added. If, then, I pass over many important 
 observations without special reference to the observer, 
 I do it without, at all, implying that my own are either 
 the only or the earliest ones. I often find them in 
 other writers ; but I have never encouraged the notion 
 that they were borrowed. A like liberal construction 
 is what I ask from others. The history of the opinions 
 connected with any department of knowledge is one 
 thing ; the investigation of the facts themselves is 
 another ; and, in proportion as any branch of know- 
 ledge advances, agreement independent of communica- 
 tion increases. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Dialects and Languages. — Stages of Languages. — General Distribution. 
 — Large, Small, and Medium Areas. — Insular and Continental Distri- 
 bution. — Obliteration of Intermediate Forms. — Classification by Type 
 and Definition. — General View of Seven Great Divisions. — The Class 
 Natural ........... 1 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 Bhot and Burmese Group. — Bhot of Bultistan, Ladak, Tibet Proper, and 
 Butan. — Written and Spoken. — Local Dialects. — Changlo. — Serpa. — 
 Tak.— Maniak. — Gyarung. — Tochu. — Hor ..... 11 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 Nepalese and Sikkim Languages. — Gurung and Murmi. — Magar and 
 BramM. — Chepang. — Hayti. — Kusunda. — Newar and Pahari. — 
 Kiranti and Limbu. — Lepcha. — Dhimal. — Bodo. — Garo. — Borro. — 
 Sunwar ........... 19 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Languages of Assam. — Northern Frontier. — Aka, Dofla, and Abor. — 
 Miri. — Mishmi. — Soutbern Frontier. — Kasia. — Mikir. — Angami. — 
 Nagas. — Singpho 28 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 Continuation of the Garo Line. — The Khumia, Old and New Kuki. — The 
 Continuation of the Naga Line. — Munipur Group. — Koreng, Luhuppa, 
 Tankhu, Khoibu, &c. — ^The Karens. — The Burmese Proper . . 36 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 The Thay, or Siamese, Group. — Its Extent and Direction. — The Siamese 
 Proper.— The Laos.— The Khamti.— The Ahom.— The Shans.— The 
 Palaong. — Cultivation of the Siamese Proper 50 
 
XIV CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 The Mon Language of Pegu. — The Kho of Kambojia, — Their original 
 Continuity ........... 56 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 The Andaman Islanders . . . . . . . . .58 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 Cochin-China, or Annam, and Tonkin ...... 61 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 China. — Canton, Fokien, and Mandarin Dialects. — Stages. — Are there 
 any? — Gryami. — Tanguti . . . . . . . . 63 
 
 CHAPTER XL 
 Observations on the preceding Oroups. — Brown's Tables. — Affinity be- 
 tween the Burmese and Tibetan. — Direction of the Chinese. — Nearest 
 congeners to the Malay. — Indian Affinities of the Mon . . .68 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 The Tungtis Class. — Mantshfi and Orotshong. — Orthography of Castren's 
 Tungfis Grammar .......... 72 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 The Mongol Class. — Mongolian Proper, — Buriat. — Olot. — Aimauk. — 
 Pelu.— Sok 83 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 The Yeniseians. — Objections to the Name Ostiak. — Castren's Researches. 
 — Northern Branch. — Inbazk, Denka, and Pumpokolsk Vocabularies of 
 the Asia Polyglotta. — Southern Branch. — TheAssan. — Kot. — Castren's 
 Discovery of a Kot Village. — The Ara Legend." — Kanskoi and Kamas- 
 sintzi Vocabularies. — The Grlosses Kot and Kem. — Speculations as to 
 the original Extent of the Yeniseian Area ..... 88 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 The Turk Languages. — Import of the Term.— The Uighur. — Tshagatai. 
 — Uzbek. — Turcoman. — Khirghiz. — Barabinski. — Tshulim. — Teleut. 
 — Koibal. — Karagas. — Soyony . — Yakut. — Bashkir. — Kasan. — Nogay. 
 — Meshtsheriak. — Kumuk. — Kuzzilbash. — Cumanian . . .98 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 The Yukahiri 117 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 The Ugrian Class. — Its Importance and Peculiarities. — Castren's Re- 
 searches. — The Samoyed Division 125 
 
CONTENTS. XV 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 PAGB 
 
 The Ugrian Class. — The Ostiak, the Vogul, and the Magyar . . .138 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 The Volga Fins.— The Mordvin.— The Tsherimis 147 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 The Votiak, Permian, and Zirianian . . . . . . .150 
 
 CHAPTER XXI. 
 
 The Fin Proper. — Division into Tavastrian and Karelian. — The Tver 
 Dialect.— The Vod.— The Estonian 152 
 
 CHAPTER XXII. 
 The Lap of Norwegian, Swedish, and Russian Lapland . . . 161 
 
 CHAPTER XXIII. 
 The Peninsular Languages. — Korean. — Japanese and L6ch6. — Aino or 
 Kurilian.— Koriak and Kamskadal 165 
 
 CHAPTER XXIV. 
 General Observations on the preceding Languages. — Value of the Class. 
 — Original Turk, Mantshfi, Yeniseian, and Ugrian Areas . . .175 
 
 ■ CHAPTER XXV. 
 The Darahi (Denwar) and Kuswar. — The Paksya and Tharu. — The 
 Kooch 179 
 
 CHAPTER XXVI. 
 The Kol Group.— Its Affinities with the Mon 183 
 
 CHAPTER XXVII. 
 The Khond Class. — Khond. — Gadaba and Yerikala. — Savara . . 185 
 
 CHAPTER XXVIII. 
 The Ghonds 188 
 
 CHAPTER XXIX. 
 Uraon and Rajamahali ......... 199 
 
 CHAPTER XXX. 
 
 The Tamul Class. — Telugu or Telinga. — Tamul Proper. — Malayalim. — 
 Canarese. — Tulu or Tulava. — Rude Tribes. — Tuda. — Budugur. — 
 Irular.— Kohatar . ' 202 
 
 CHAPTER XXXI. 
 TheBrahfii 210 
 
XVI CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXII. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Languages akin to the Hindi, — Its Dialects. — The Punjabi, — The Hindos- 
 tani,— The Gujerathi.— The Marathi. —The Bengali, &c.— The Uriya .216 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIII. 
 The Singalese,— The Rodiya,— The Maldivian . . . . .232 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIV. 
 The Paropamisan Group. — The Dard Branch. — The Shina. — The Deer and 
 Tirhai, — The Arniya or Kashkari, — The Cohistani or Lughmani and 
 Pashai.— The Siaposh 236 
 
 CHAPTER XXXV. 
 The Languages pf certain migratory Populations of India . . . 245 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVI. 
 The Gipsy 248 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVII. 
 The Kajunah . .250 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVIII. 
 The Pushtu, Patau, or Afghan . _ 252 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIX.* 
 The Persian. — The Huzyaresh, — The Parsi. — The Modern Persian, — The 
 Biluch.— The Kurd, —The Buruki 254 
 
 CHAPTER XL, 
 The Iron 264 
 
 CHAPTER XLI, 
 The Armenian ..,.,.,.... 266 
 
 CHAPTER XLII. 
 The Dioscurian Group, — Meaning of the Term. — Georgian Division . 268 
 
 CHAPTER XLIII. 
 The Dioscurian Group. — Lesgian Division 271 
 
 CHAPTER XLIV. 
 The Dioscurian Group. — The Tshetsh Division. — Grammatical Structure 
 of the Tushi 274 
 
 CHAPTER XLV. 
 The Dioscurian Group, — The Tsherkess, or Circassian, Division . . 279 
 
CONTENTS. xvii 
 
 CHAPTER XLVI. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 The Malay and its more immediate Congeners. — The Tshampa. — Samang. 
 — Nicobar, — Silong. — Malay of the Malayan Peninsula. — Of Sumatra. 
 — The Rejang and Lampong. — Of the Malagasi of Madagascar. — Of 
 the small Islands off Sumatra. — From Java to Timor . . . 283 
 
 CHAPTER XLVII. 
 Languages of Borneo, &c., to Ceram .,...,. 305 
 
 CHAPTER XLVIII. 
 The Languages of the Sulu Archipelago. — Phillipines. — Formosa . , 312 
 
 CHAPTER XLIX. 
 Micronesia. — Tobi, — The Pelew Islands.— The Caroline and Marianne (or 
 Ladrone) Archipelagoes. — The Polynesia 320 
 
 CHAPTER L. 
 
 The Papua Class. — Gruebe, &c, — New Guinea. — New Ireland, &c., to 
 New Caledonia 329 
 
 CHAPTER LI. 
 The Viti, or Fiji, Group. — Its Relations to the Polynesian and the 
 Papua ............ 345 
 
 CHAPTER LII. 
 The Australian Group ......... 350 
 
 CHAPTER LIII. 
 Van Dieman's Land, or Tasmania 362 
 
 CHAPTER LIV. 
 Review of the preceding Class. —Its Characteristics, Divisions, and Value. 
 — The so-called Negritos 372 
 
 CHAPTER LV. 
 Languages of America. — The Eskimo.— The Athabaskan Dialects. —The 
 Kitunaha. — The Atna. — The Haidah, Chemmesyan, Wakash, and Chi- 
 nuk ... ........ 384 
 
 CHAPTER LVI. 
 
 Languages of Oregon and California. — Cayds, &c. — Lutuami, &c. — 
 Ehnek. — Weitspek. — Kulanapo. — Copeh. — Pujuni, &c. — Costano, &c. 
 — Eslen.— Netela.— San Diego, &c 404 
 
 CHAPTER LVII. 
 
 Old California -. . 422 
 
 b 
 
xviu CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER LVIII. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Languages of Sonora, — Mexico. — Guatimala. — Honduras. — Nicaragua, 
 
 * &c. . . . .427 
 
 CHAPTER LIX. 
 Sahaptin, Paduca, and Pueblo Languages ...... 439 
 
 CHAPTER LX. 
 
 Languages between the Athabaskan, tbe Rocky Mountains, and the At- 
 lantic. — The Algonkin. — The Sioux. — The Iroquois. — The Catawba, 
 Woccon, Uche, Natchez, Chetimacha, Adahi, and Attacapa Languages. 
 — The Pawni, Riccari, and Caddo. — The Languages of Texas . . 447 
 
 CHAPTER LXI. 
 
 Languages of South America. — New Grrenada. — The Quichua. — The Ay- 
 mara.— The Chileno.— The Fuegian 478 
 
 CHAPTER LXII. 
 Languages of the Orinoko, Rio Negro, and Northern Bank of Amazons. 
 — Yarura, &c. — Baniwa. — Juri. — Maipur. — Carib. — Salivi. — 
 Warow. — Taruma. — Iquito. — Mayoruna. — Peba. — Ticuna, &c. . . 485 
 
 CHAPTER LXIIL 
 The Moxos, Chiquitos, and Chaco Languages 499 
 
 CHAPTER LXIV. 
 
 Languages of Brazil. — Guarani. — Other than Guarani. — Botocudo, &c. — 
 Languages neither Guarani nor Botocudo. — The Timbiras. — The Sa- 
 buja, &c. ........... 507 
 
 CHAPTER LXV. 
 General Remarks on the American Languages ..... 517 
 
 CHAPTER LXVI. 
 The Semitic Languages. — The Phenician and Punic. — The Hebrew and 
 Samaritan. — The Assyrian and Chaldee. — The Syriac. — The iEthiopic 
 and Amharic. — Gafat. — Arabic. — Hururgi, the Amazig or Berber . 524 
 
 CHAPTER LXVII. 
 The Agau, Agaw, or Agow, and Falasha. — The Gonga Dialects. — The 
 Kekuafi 542 
 
 CHAPTER LXVIIL 
 The Coptic. — The Bishari. — The Nubian Languages. —The Shilluk, 
 Denka, &c.— The Mobba and Darrunga. — The Galla Group.— The 
 Dizzela, Dalla, Shankali or Shangalla 546 
 
CONTENTS. XIX 
 
 CHAPTER LXIX. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 The KaflSr Class of Languages 558 
 
 CHAPTER LXX. 
 The Bonny, Brass Town, Ibo, and Benin Languages, — The Mandingo, 
 Accra, Krepi, Kru, &c. — Remarks on the Mandingo Class. — The Beg- 
 harmi. — Mandara, — Kanuri. — Hawssa. — Sungai. — Kouri. — Yoruba. — 
 Tapua or Nufi.— Batta— Fula, &c.— The SerawuUi.— Woloff, &c.— 
 Hottentot 567 
 
 CHAPTER LXXI. 
 The Hottentot 598 
 
 CHAPTER LXXII. 
 On the African Languages in General . 599 
 
 CHAPTER LXXIII. 
 The Indo-European Languages (so-called). — The Skipitar, Arnaut, or 
 Albanian ........... 605 
 
 CHAPTER LXXIV. 
 The Sanskrit. — Persepolitan. — Pracrit. — Pali. — Kawi.— Zend . . 608 
 
 CHAPTER LXXV. 
 
 The Lithuanic Division of the Sarmatian Class. — The Lett, Lithuanian, 
 and Prussian . 623 
 
 CHAPTER LXXVI. 
 
 The Slavonic Division of the Sarmatian Class. — The Russian, Servian, 
 and Illyrian. — The Slovak, Tshek, Lusatian, and Polish. — The Kassub 
 and Linonian 627 
 
 CHAPTER LXXVII. 
 The Latin and the Languages derived from it.— The Italian. — Spanish. — 
 Portuguese. — French. — Romance. — Romanyo ..... 632 
 
 CHAPTER LXXVIII. 
 The Greek 651 
 
 CHAPTER LXXIX. 
 The German Class.— The Mo3Sogothic. — The High and Low German. — 
 The Anglo-Saxon and English. — The Frisian. — The Norse, or Scan- 
 dinavian . 658 
 
 CHAPTER LXXX. 
 The Keltic Languages. — British Branch. — Gaelic Branch . . . 664 
 
 b 2 
 
XX CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER LXXXI. 
 
 PAGK 
 
 The Bask, Basque, or Biscayan . . . . . . . ,675 
 
 CHAPTER LXXXTI. 
 General Remarks upon the Indo-European Class . . . . . 689 
 
 PART 11. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 Language in Greneral. — Stages , . 697 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 On Classes .706 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 Analytic and Synthetic View of Methods. — Origin of Derivatives and of 
 Roots.— Of Derived Forms, Voice, &c 713 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 Roots 728 
 
 Addenda and Corrigenda .753 
 
 Index 758 
 
TABULAE VIEW 
 
 LANGUAGES AND DIALECTS, 
 
 FIRST PRIMARY GROUP. 
 
 Tibetan and Burmese. 
 Tibetan. 
 Bultistani of Little Tibet — Ladakhi, Tibetan — written (or older) ; spoken 
 (or newer) — Butani or Lhopa {divisions chiefly political) — Clianglo, 
 Bhot of Kunawer. Milchan — Theburskud — Sumchti. 
 Serpa [details doubtful). Tbaksya — Sunwar. 
 
 Eastern Bbot {transitional to Burmese). Takpa — Manyak — Thochu— 
 Gryami. 
 
 Northern Bhot. Hor, 
 
 Nepalese. 
 (a) Gurung — Murmi ; (6) Magar — Bramhd ; (c) Chepang— Vay6 — Kusunda 
 {Nepalese leading to Northern India) ; {d) Newar — Pahri {do.) ; (e) Kirata — 
 Limbu {do.) ; (/) Lepcha {leading to Asam) ; (g) Dhimal — Bodo — Borro — 
 Garo {leading to Singpho through Jili). 
 
 Asam, <Cr. 
 Dofla, Abor, and Aka. Miri {on the northern frontier) ; Angami {Naga, so- 
 called, on the southern), 
 
 Tayung and Mijhu Dialects {languages) of the Mishmi. 
 (?) Deoria Chutia, 
 
 Manipur, d;c, 
 Kasia. Mikir. 
 
 Jili {running westward through the Garo) — Singpho — Kakhyen. 
 
 Naga Dialects {so-called) minus the Angami {see above) and the Mithan 
 {Singpho or transitional) — numerous. 
 
 Koreng— Songpu— Luhuppa — North Tankhul — Khoibu — Maring — Kapwi 
 — Maram — Manipur. 
 
 Kuki and Luncta — Mru — Kami and Kumi — Sak — Shendu — Khyen. 
 
 Rukheng (Arakan) — Burmese Proper. 
 
 Sgau — Pwo — Thoting-lhu, 
 
xxii TABULAR VIEW OF 
 
 Siamese. 
 Ahom — Khamti — Shan — Laos — Siamese Proper — Palaoung. 
 
 M6n. 
 Mon of Pegu— Kha — Khong of Kambojia. 
 
 Islands. 
 (?) Andaman. 
 (?) Carnicobar. 
 
 Chinese and Oochinchinese. 
 Anam of Cochinchina and Tonkin. 
 Chinese. 
 
 SECOND PEIMAKY GROUP (Tueanian). 
 
 Tungus — Mongol — Turk. 
 
 (?) Yeniseian. 1. Northern Branch of the Sim and the Pit, &c. 2. South- 
 ern Branch — Assan — (extinct) Arini — [extinct) Kot. 
 
 (?) Tshuvash. 
 
 (?) Yukahiri. 
 
 t/grian. 
 
 Samoyed. South-eastern; Motorian (extinct) — Koibal (do.) — Kamass. 
 South-western (Ostiak, improperly so-called) — Northern; Yeniseian — Tawgi 
 — Yurak. 
 
 Ostiak — ^Vogul — Hungarian (Magyar). 
 
 Mord vin — Tsherimis — Votiak . 
 
 Permian and Zirianian — Karelian — Tavastrian and Quain — Fin — Vod — Es- 
 tonian — Lief. 
 
 Lap. 
 
 Peninsular. 
 
 Korean. 
 
 Japanese — Lfichu. 
 
 Aino of Sagalin — of Kuriles — Kamtshatka. 
 
 Gilyak (?) Koriak — Kamtshatkan (leading through the Aleutian to the 
 Eskimo). 
 
 THIED PRIMARY GROUP. 
 
 Indian. 
 
 (1.) 
 Languages with the Sanskrit element not sufficiently large to make their oingin 
 
 Den war and Darahi — Tharu — Kuswar — Pakhya — Kooch. 
 Ho (Kol) of Singbhum— Suntal, &c. 
 
LANGUAGES AND DIALECTS. xxiii 
 
 Khond — Gadaba — Yerakali — Savara (more Kol than the others though 
 further South) &c. — leading to Telugu. 
 
 Ghond. 
 
 Uraon — Rajmahal. 
 
 Telinga or Telugu — Tamul — Malayalim — Canarese — Tuda — Budugar — 
 Irular — Kohatar — Kodagu or Curgi — Tulava. 
 
 Brahui. 
 
 Cant languages, and languages of migratory Indian Tribes. 
 
 Thug — Bagwan — Taremuki — Korawi — Ramus! — Mang — Nut — Katodi — 
 Bowri — Guhuri — Gypsy. Khurbat and Duman of Persia ; Ghager, Helebi, 
 and Nawer of Egypt, &c. 
 
 (2.) 
 With a proportion of Sanskrit sufficiently large to make their origin disputed. 
 
 Cashmirian — Hindi — Punjabi, &c., and Bengali of Asam — as spoken in 
 Arakan — Uriya (Udiya) — Gujerati — Catch {leading to Sind) — Sindhi = 
 Siraiki — Lar — Marathi (Mahratta)— Konkani. 
 
 Singalese — Rodiya — Maldive. 
 
 ******* 
 
 Swauti — Shina — Dir — Tirhai. 
 
 Kashkari (Dard) — Arniya — Kashkari — Chitrali. 
 
 Kaferistani — Siaposh. 
 
 Cohistani — Lughman — Pushai . 
 
 ( ?) Kajunah, 
 
 Persian. 
 Pushtu Patan, or AlFghan ; eastern and western — Biluch — Persian (general 
 language) — dialects of Tajiks out of Persia, Baraki, &c. — Kurd. 
 (?) Iron. 
 
 Dioscurian. 
 Armenian. 
 
 Georgian, Kartulinian — Mingrelian and Imeretian — Suanetian — Lazistani. 
 Tushi— Ingtish— Tshetsh. 
 Kabardinian — Tserkess Proper. 
 Adige, Abchazi — Tepanta. 
 
 Avar — Anzukh — Tsari— Andi, &c. — Dido and Unso — Akush — Kasikumuk 
 — Kurali. 
 
 FOUETH PRIMARY GROUP (Oceanic). 
 
 Malay, <&c. 
 
 Samang of Juru of Kedah. 
 Silong — Nicobar. 
 
 Malay (general language) — Tshamba — Jakun — Atshin — Singkal— Pakpak 
 Toba and Banjak Batta — Korinchi — Rejang — Lampong (with Javanese ele- 
 
XXIV TABULAR VIEW OF 
 
 ments) — Ulu — Lubu (unlettered) — Nias — Maruwi — Poggi, or Mantawa, 
 Islands — Enganho (outlying) — Sunda — Madura — Sumenap — Javanese — Bali 
 — Sasak — Bima — Sumbawa — Timbora — Ende — Mangarei (one of the first 
 languages of the series in which Australian icords were observed) — Ombay 
 (see Mangarei) — Solor — Savu — Roth — Timur — Manatoto — Timorlant — Kissi 
 — Baba (Bebber) — Key Doulan — Wokan, &c. 
 
 Borneo — Parts about Labuan — Banjermassin — Kayan of Centre — Nortbern 
 districts. 
 
 Celebes. Bugis — Mandhar — Macassar — Menadu (dialects numerous) — Gu- 
 nong-Tellu— Buton — Amboyna — Saparua — Temati — Tidor — Ceram— Halma- 
 hera or Grilolo. 
 
 Sulu — Bissay an — Iloco — Cayagan — Tagala — Umiray — D umagat, &c . — 
 Bashi. 
 
 Formosan = Sideia and Favorlaug. 
 
 Micronesia. 
 Tobi — Pelews — Gruaham — Chamor — Ulea — Yap — Satawal. 
 Mille — Tarawan — Fakaafo and Vaitupu. 
 
 Polynesia. 
 Samoan (Navigators" Isle) — Marquesas — Kanaka (Sandwich Isles) — Tonga 
 — Tahitian — Paumotu — Maori — Easter Island— Wabitao — Mayorga— Ticopia 
 — Cocos Island — E-otuma. 
 
 Papuan. 
 Guebe — Waigiu — Parts about Port Dorey — Lobo — Utanata — Mairassis — 
 Triton Bay— Onin-^Miriam — Eedscar Bay and Dufaure Islands — New Ire- 
 land and Port Praslin — Bauro and Guadalcanar — Vanikoro — Tanema and 
 Taneama — 'MallicoUo— Tanna — Annatom — Erromango — Lifu and Mare — 
 Baladea — Dauru. 
 Fiji. 
 
 Australian. 
 
 Cape York — Massied — Kowrarega and Gudang — Moreton Bay— Sidney 
 — Muruya— Peel — Batburst — Mudji — Kamilaroi (Wellington) — Wiradurei — 
 Lake Macquarie — Witouro — Woddowrong — Koligon — Jhongwborong — Gnu- 
 rellean — Corio — Coliak — Lake Hindmarsh — Pinegorine — Dautgart — Lake 
 Mundy — Molonglo — Boraiper — Yakkumban — Aiawong — Pai-nkalla — Head of 
 Bight — ^W. Australia — Port Philip — King George's Sound, &c. 
 
 Tasmanian — Eastern, Western, Northern and Southern dialects. 
 
 FIFTH PRIMARY GROUP (American). 
 
 Aleutian. 
 
 Kadiak — Kuskutshewak — Tstu-gatsi —Labrador, Greenlandic — Namollo. 
 
 Athcibaskan. 
 Kenay — Kutshiu (Loucheux) — Dog-rib, Slave, Beaver, Chepewyan Proper, 
 Takulli — Tsikanni— Sussi. 
 
LANGUAGES AND DIALECTS. xxv 
 
 Atna — Koltshani — Ugalents. 
 
 Tlatskanai — Umkwa— Kwaliokwa. 
 
 Navaho — HUpa — Apatsh — Pinalero — Jecorilla. 
 
 Oregon. 
 
 Kitunaha. 
 
 Kolush — Sitkan — Skittegats — Chemmesyan — Haidah — Hailtsa and Hailt- 
 zuk — Wakash — Chinuk — Watlala. 
 
 Shusliwap. Selish — Okanagan — Spokan — Piskwaus — Billecliula — Skitsuish 
 — Skwali— Kowelitsk — Tsihaili — Nsietshawus. 
 
 Jakon. 
 
 Kalapuya — Willamet {ahin to) Molele — Cayus and Wailatpu {leading to 
 Sahaptin and Wihinast). 
 
 Lutuami. 
 
 Shasti — (ahin to Copeh) Palaik (aJcin to Wihinart) — Bonak. 
 
 California, 
 
 Ehnek. 
 
 Talewah. 
 
 Weitspek — Wishosk and Weiyot. 
 
 Copeh— Mag Readings— Upper Sacramento — Cushna — PujunI— Secumne — 
 Tsamak — Talatui — San Raphael — Tshokoyem ( Jukiousme) — Sacramento — 
 Choweshak — Batemdakai — Yukai — Kulanapo— Khwaklamayu. 
 
 Coconoons — Tulare. 
 
 Costano —Santa Clara — Eslen — Ruslen — Mutsun — Carmel — Soledad -^ San 
 Antonio — San Miguel — San Luis Obispo — Santa Inez — Los Pueblos — Santa 
 Barbara — San Fernando — Los Angeles. 
 
 San Gabriel (Netela). San Juan Capistrano (Kij). 
 
 San Luis Rey. 
 
 San Diego, or Dieguno — Cocomaricopas — Yuma — Mohave. 
 
 Old California. 
 Cochimi of San Xavier — San Borgia — Loretto — Waikur — Ushita? — 
 Pericu. 
 
 Sonora, d-c. 
 
 Pima — Opata — Eudeve — Seres — Hiaqui — Cahita — Tubar — Tarahumara — 
 Cora. 
 
 Otomi — Mahazui. 
 
 Mexican. 
 
 Huasteca. Maya — Katchiquel — Quiche or Utlateca — Zutugil or Zacapula — 
 Atiteca — Chorti — Mam — Manche — Popoluca — Tzendal — Lacondona — Ache — ■ 
 Zapoteca ? 
 
 Pirinda — Tarasca. 
 
 Totonaca — Mixteca — Mixe ? 
 
 Lenca. Guajequiro — Opatoro— Intibuca. 
 
 Nagranda. Chorotega — Wulwa— Waikna. 
 
XXVI TABULAR VIEW OF 
 
 Savaneric. Bayano. 
 
 Cunacuna. 
 
 Cholo. 
 
 Paduca class, 
 Wallawalla — Kliketat — Sahaptin — Wihinasht — Shoshoni — TJta — Pa-uta 
 — Cheniuhuevi — Cahuillo — Cumanch. 
 
 Algonkin class. 
 
 Blackfoot. Arapaho. 
 
 Shyenne — Cree — Ojibwa — Nipissing — Old Algonkin — Messisaugi — Ot- 
 tawa — Knistinaux — Potowattami — Sheshatapush — Skoffi — Montagnards. 
 
 Bettuck. 
 
 Menomeni — Sack and Fox — Kikkapu — Ilinois — Miami — Wea — Piankeshaw 
 — Shawni — Micmac — St. Jolin's— Etshemin — Abnaki— Passamaquoddy. 
 
 Matik — Massachusetts — Narraganset. 
 
 Minsi — Delaware — Lennilenape — Nanticokes — Susquehannok — Mohicans 
 — Manahok— Powhattan — Pampticough. 
 
 Sioux growp. 
 Upsoroka or Crow — Mandan— Assineboin — Yankton — Winehago — Dakota 
 —Osage— Quappa— Teton— loway—Omahaw — Minetari. 
 
 Iroquois group. 
 Wyandot — Huron. 
 
 Iroquois. Mohawk — Cayuga — Onondago — Seneca — Oneida — Tuscarora — 
 Nottoway — Hochalaga. 
 
 Woccon — Catawba— Cherokee — Chikkasah — Muskogulge— Choctah — Semi- 
 nole — Uche — Natchez — Chetimacha — Adahi — Attacapa. 
 
 Caddo — Witshita — Kichai — Hueco — Pawni — Riccaree. 
 
 South American. 
 Muysca or Chibcha — Correguage — Andaqui. 
 
 Quichua = Quiteno — Chinchasuya — Cauki — Lamano — Cuzcucano — Calcha- 
 qui. 
 
 Puquina — Yunga — Mochika. 
 
 Yamea — Mainas. 
 
 Aymara = Lupaca — Pacase — Canchi — Cana — Colla — CoUagua — Caranca — 
 Charca, 
 
 Araucanian — Puelche — Fuegian. Alikhdlip — Tekinica- 
 
 On the Orinoco^ 
 Yarura— Betoi — Otoiaaka. 
 
LANGUAGES AND DIALECTS. xxvii 
 
 On Rio Negro. 
 Baniwa of Isanna — Barree — Baniwa of the Javita — Baniwa of the Tomo 
 and Maroa — TJaenambeu or Mauhe — Juri— Coretu of Wallace — Coretu of 
 Balbi. 
 
 Maipur. 
 Maipur — Achagua — Pareni . 
 
 Carib. 
 Wapisiana — Gruinau — Maionk ong — Woyawai — "Wayamera — Macusi — Are - 
 cuna — Soerikong — Mawakwa — Accaway — Caribisi — Pianoghotto — Tiveri- 
 ghotto — AtOBia and Daurai — Tamanak — Carib — Jaoi — Arawak. 
 
 (?) 
 SaHvi — Macoa and Piaroa. 
 Warow. 
 Taruma. 
 
 Juripixnna — Iquito — Xumano ? 
 Mayoruna — tJrarina. 
 Peba — Yagua — Orejones. 
 Ticunas — Zapara — Yamea ? 
 
 On the Ucayale. 
 Fanos. 
 
 Head-waters of Beni. 
 Yuracares. 
 
 Between Andes and the Moxos area. 
 Sapiboconi. Antes. 
 
 Moxos. 
 Movima — Cayuvava — Itonama — Moxos — Canichana— Chapacura — Paca* 
 guara— (iV^or^A) Itenes {East). 
 
 Chiquitos. 
 Paioconeca (West) — Chiquitos {Central) — Otuke (Bast) — Zamucu {in direc* 
 tion of the Chaco). 
 
 Chaco. 
 Mataguaya {in direction of Chiquitos) — Vilela and Lule {in direction of 
 Aymara) — Mocobi and Toba — Mbaya or Guaycuru — Abiponian. 
 
 Brazilian not Guarani. 
 
 BoroTO. Guachi— Guato — Quskna, {in Matagrosso) . ? — Payagua (m Para- 
 guay). 
 
 On Tocantins. 
 
 Caraja — Apinages — Chuntaquiro, or Piro — Cherente and Chavante — Ca- 
 raho — Tocantins {in Goyaz) — Timbiras— Ge or Geiko — {in Para and Ma- 
 ranham). 
 
 Kiriri — Sabuja. 
 
 Botocudo — Jupuroca — Mucury — Naknanuk — Maconi — Mongoyos — Malali — 
 Machakali — Patacho — Camacan— Purus — Coroados— Coropos. 
 
xxviii TABULAR VIEW OJF LANGUAGES, ETC. 
 
 SIXTH PRIMARY GROUP (African). 
 
 Phenician of Phenicia, of Carthage — Samaritan — Hebrew — Aramaic, 
 Syriac and Chaldee. Gheez — Tigrg — Amharic — Gafat. Arabic — Hururgi, &c. 
 
 Amazig or Berber — Si wall — Tunis — Tripoli — Algiers — Morocco — The Sa- 
 hara — The Canary Isles (extinct). 
 
 Agaw and Falasha. 
 
 Gonga — Kaifa — Woraita — Wolaitsa — Yangaro — Ukuafi. 
 
 Memphitic, Sahitic and Bashmuric dialects of the Coptic. 
 
 Bishari — Kenzy, Nlib and Dongolawy dialects of the Nubian — Koldagi of 
 Kordovan. Shabun — Fertit — Shilluk — Denka — Fazoglo or Qamamyl — Tu- 
 mali and Takeli — Dor — Nyamnam. 
 
 Mobba — Darrunga. 
 
 Danakil (Afer), Somauli and Galla. 
 
 Dizzela — Dalla — Shankali, or Shangalla, of Agaumidr, 
 
 Kaffir. 
 
 Wanika — Pacomo — Wakambo — Msambara — Msequa — Sohili — Suwael, 
 or Suwaheli — Makua — Meto — Maravi — Matalan — Kerimane, or Quilimane — 
 Inhambane dialects — Zulu — Kaffir Proper — Bechuana, Bayeiye {of great Lahe) 
 — Heriro {on Atlantic ahout Walwish Bay) — Benguela — Angola and Congo 
 dialects— Gabfin dialects — Otam {of Old Calabar) and allied dialects. 
 
 Bonny — Brass — Ibo — Benin and of Delta of Niger. 
 
 Dahomey dialects — Anfue — Widah — Mahi — Acra, or Gha, and Adampi 
 — Krepee or Kerrapay — Otshi dialects ; Akkim — Akwapim — Akwambu — 
 Fanti (Fetu) Borom — Amina — Avekvom of Ivory Coast — Kru — Grebo — 
 Bassa — Dewoi — Sokko — Kissi — Mendi — Vey — Mandingo — Bambarra — Jal - 
 lunka. 
 
 Ligurian. Venetian — Carnic. 
 
 SEVENTH PRIMARY GROUP (European). 
 
 L (?)Bask. 
 
 II. Indo-European (so-called). 
 A. Keltic. 
 B. — 1. Albanian or Skipitar. 
 
 2. German. 
 
 3. — A. Samiatian — Sanskrit — Lithuanic — Slavonic. 
 
 B. Latin and Greek, &c. 
 
CHIEF AUTHORITIES 
 
 WORKS ALLUDED TO 
 
 Adelung — Mithridates . 
 
 Ahrens — De Grsecse Linguae Dialectis. 
 
 Arago (Jacques Etienne Victor) — Voyage autour du Monde, 
 
 Baer — Beitrage, &c. , Russian America. 
 
 Balbi — Introduction a 1' Atlas Ethnologique. 
 
 Balfour — Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. Languages of 
 Wandering Tribes of India. 
 
 Barth — Travels in Africa. 
 
 Beitrage zur vergleichenden Sprachforschung auf dem Gebrete der Arischen, 
 Celtiscben, iind Slawischen Sprachen herausgegeben von A. Kuhn und A. 
 Schleicher, Berlin. 
 
 Beke — Transactions of the Philological Society of London. Abyssinian 
 
 Belcher (Sir Edward) — Voyage of the Samarang. Appendix. 
 
 Bille (Steen) — Reise um Jorden i Korvetten Galathee. 
 
 Biondelli — Saggio sui Dialetti Gallo-Italiani. 
 
 Bleek — De Nominum Generibus Linguarum Africse Australis, Copticse, 
 Semiticarum aliarumque sexualium. Bonnae, 1851. 
 
 Papers in Transactions of the Philological Society of London. 
 
 Bonaparte (Prince L. L). — Specimen Lexici Comparativi omnium Lin- 
 guarum. Europsearum Parabola de Seminatore ex Evangelio Sancti Mathsei in 
 Ixxii Europagas Linguas versa. Canticum Trium Puerorum in eleven Basque 
 Dialects. Gallician, Sardinian, and other translations of the Gospel, &c. 
 
 Brooke (Sir James) — Languages of Borneo. 
 
 Brown — Transactions of Asiatic Society of Bengal. Languages of Assam, 
 &c. 
 
 Transactions of American Oriental Society. Naga Languages. 
 
XXX CHIEF AUTHORITIES AND 
 
 Buchanan — Asiatic Transactions. Languages of Burmese Empire. 
 
 Bulletin de la Glasse Historico-Philologico de I'Academie Imperial des 
 Sciences de St. Petersburg. 
 
 Burchardt — Travels in Nubia. 
 
 Buscbman — In Berlin Transactions. Athabaskan, Mexican, Califomian, 
 and Sonora languages. 
 
 Caldwell — Grammar of the Dravirian Languages. 
 
 Castelnau — Expedition dans les Parties Centrales de I'Amerique du Sud, 
 &c. 
 
 Castren — Buriat, Tongus, Samoyed, Yeniseian, Zirianian, Koibal and 
 Karagas grammars. 
 
 Clarke (John) — Specimens of Dialects, short vocabularies, &c., in Africa, 
 1849. 
 
 Crawford — Embassy to Ava ; to Siam ; Malay Dictionary ; Indian Archi- 
 pelago. 
 
 C rowther — Yoruba grammar and vocabulary. Edited by Bishop Vidal. 
 
 Cunningham — Ladak. 
 
 Denham — Narrative of Travels in North Africa. Begharmi and Mandara. 
 
 D'Orbigny — L' Homme Americain. 
 
 Eyre — Travels in Australia. 
 
 Fitzroy (Admiral)— Voyage of the Beagle and Adventure. Appendix by 
 Darwin, 
 
 Forest — Voyage to New Guinea. 
 
 Gabelentz — Die Melanesischen Sprachen. Ueber de Formasanische Sprache, 
 &c. 
 
 Gallatin — In Archaeologia Americana, and Transactions of the American 
 Ethnological Society. 
 
 Gerard — see Lloyd. 
 
 Gily — Saggio di Storia Americana, Otomaka, &c. 
 
 Guimaraes (J. J. da Silva) — Diccionario da Lingua Geral dos Indies de 
 Brasil, com di versos vocabularies, Bahia, 1854. 
 
 Hahn — Albanesche Studien. 
 
 Hale — Philology in the Exploring Expedition of the United States under 
 Captain Wilkes. 
 
 Hodgson (Brian) — Papers in Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. 
 
 Howse — Transactions of Philological Society of London. Kutani, and other 
 vocabularies. 
 
 Jukes — Voyage of the Fly. 
 
 Jiilg — Litteratur de Granmatiken, Lexica und Worterversamlungen aUers 
 Spracken der Erde, 1847. 
 
 King (Dr. Richard) — Bethuck Vocabulary — MS. 
 
 Klaproth — Asia Polyglotta. 
 
 Kolle — Bornu Grammar. 
 
 Larramendi Diccionario Trilingue del Castellano, Vascuence, y Latina. 
 1745. 
 
 Leach — Vocabularies of the Deer, Tirhai, &c., in the Transactions of the 
 Asiatic Society of Bengal. 
 
WORKS ALLUDED TO. xxxi 
 
 Leake— Travels in the Morea. 
 
 Leyden— Asiatic Researches, Indo-Chinese Languages. 
 
 Lisiansky — Voyage round the World. 
 
 Logan — Papers in Journal of the Indian Archipelago. 
 
 Ludwig — The Literature of the American Aboriginal Languages. 
 
 Macgillivray — Voyage of the Rattlesnake. 
 
 Marsden — History of Sumatra — Miscellaneous Works. 
 
 Michel Franscique — Le Pays Basque, Paris. 
 
 Molina — Luis de Neve, Grammatica, Ragionata della Lingua Otomi con un 
 Vocabulario Spagnuolo, Italiano, Otomi. 
 
 Mosbleck — Vocabulaire Oceanien Fran^ais et Fran^ais Oceanien des dia- 
 lectes partes aux Isles Marquises, Sandwich, Gambler, &c. 
 
 Miiller, Max — Lectures on the Science of Language. Paper in Transactions 
 of the British Association for the Advancement of Science. 
 
 Newbold — Settlements in the Malayan Peninsula. 
 
 Osculati — Explorazione, &c., Zapara. 
 
 Petherick — Egypt, Soudan, &c. Nyamnam and Dor. 
 
 Pottinger — Travels in Beluchistan. 
 
 Raffles (Sir Stamford) — History of Java, Appendix. 
 
 Richardson (Dr.) — Expedition in Search of Sir J. Franklin. 
 
 Ridley — Transactions of the Philological Society of London. Kamilaroi 
 Language. 
 
 Riis — Elemente des Akwapim Dialects der Odschi Sprache. 
 
 Rosen — On the Iron, Lazic, Circassian, and Georgian. 
 
 Riippell — Reisen in Kordovan. 
 
 Salt — Travels in Abyssinia. 
 
 Scherzer (Dr. Karl) — Sprachen der Indianer Central Americas, Wien, 
 1855. 
 
 Schleicher — Handbuch der Lithauischen Sprache. 
 
 Schoolcraft — Indian Tribes. 
 
 Scouler — Transactions of the Royal Geographical Society. Oregon and 
 Hudson's Bay Country Vocabularies, collected by Mr. Tolmie. 
 
 Smith (Buckingham) —Grammar of the Heve (Eudeve) language translated 
 from a Spanish MS. 
 
 Spiegel — Grammatik der Huzvareschen Sprache. Grammatik der Parsi 
 Sprache. 
 
 Squier — Transactions of American Ethnological Society. On Central 
 America (Spanish Translation, in which alone the vocabularies for the Lenca 
 dialects are to be found). Monograph of Authors who have written on the 
 Languages of Central America, &c. 
 
 Stewart — Transactions of Asiatic Society of Bengal. Naga and other lan- 
 
 Tasmanian Journal of Natural History. 
 
 Tattam Egyptian Grammar — Lexicon iEgyptiaco-Latinum. 
 
 Tolmie — See Scouler. 
 
 Turner (Professor) — Report, &c. 
 
xxxii CHIEF AUTHORITIES, ETC. 
 
 Tutschek, Lawrence, M.D, — A Grrammar of the Gralla Language, Munich, 
 1845. 
 
 Wallace — Narrative of Travels on the Amazon. 
 
 Williams (Monier) — Sanskrit Grammar. 
 
 Wilson (H. H.) — Ariana Antiqua. Papers in Transactions of Asiatic 
 Society. 
 
 Zeitschrift flir vergleichende Sprachforschung auf dem Gebiete Deutschen, 
 Griechischen und Lateinischen — Herausgegeben von D. A. Knhn, Berlin. 
 
COMPAKATIVE PHILOLOGY. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Dialects and Languages.— Stages of Languages. — General Distribution.— 
 Large, Small, and Medium Areas. — Insular and Continental Distri- 
 bution. — Obliteration of Intermediate Forms. — Classification by Type 
 and Definition. — General View of Seven Great Divisions. — The Class 
 Natural. 
 
 There are slight differences of speecli between members 
 of the same family. Between different villages and 
 towns they increase, and they become greater still, when 
 there is a difference of tribe, clan, or nationality. What 
 this difference consists in varies with the circum- 
 stance of the case. It may be a difference of words, or 
 it may be a difference of pronunciation. Let a Scotch- 
 man, an Irishman, and an Englishman, utter a series of 
 sentences, consisting of exactly the same words, and a 
 difference of some kind or other will be the result — a 
 difference which some may call a difference of tone, 
 others, one of accent ; a difference for which the name 
 may be doubtful ; but, at the same time, a difference 
 which would make the speeches, if heard at a distance 
 too great to allow the exact words to be heard, look 
 like speeches in three different languages. 
 
 When differences of this kind reach a certain point, 
 they constitute dialects ; and when two forms of speech 
 differ so much as to be mutually unintelligible the result 
 is two different languages. Such, at least, is the rule in a 
 
 B 
 
2 DIALECTS AND LANGUAGES. 
 
 rough form. I say in a rougJi, form, because both dialect 
 and language are vernacular, rather than technical, 
 terms ; terms, which, in some cases, mean less than in 
 others ; terms of which no exact definition has been given. 
 Nor is it recommended. On the contrary, latitude must 
 be allowed. So much depends upon the nature of the 
 subject spoken about, and so much on the aptitude of 
 the individuals speaking, that it is difficult to say when 
 mutual unintelligibility begins. Two dull men from 
 different parts of the same country may be puzzled over 
 an out-of-the-way proposition, where a quick wit, with 
 a simple question, would make easy work of things. 
 "When we talk of two dialects being either mutually 
 unintelligible, or the contrary, we should think of this. 
 The dialect itself is but one point. The speaker gives 
 us another : the subject under speech the third. 
 
 Sooner or later, however, the line of mutual intelligi- 
 bility is passed, whether for quick ears or slow, whether 
 for simple questions or complex ones ; and then we have, 
 under all conditions, a change of language. Many a 
 language, however, is little more than a dialect, with its 
 dignity augmented through certain extreme circumstances. 
 Its alphabet (for instance) may be peculiar. It may 
 represent a different nationahty. Its culture may be 
 independent. A Dane and a Swede can understand each 
 other ; but the Danish_can no more be called a dialect 
 of the Swedish, than the Swedish can be called a dialect 
 of the Danish. 
 
 It is safe, however, to consider such forms of speech 
 as are, in all cases, mutually unintelligible as different 
 languages ; and it would be scientific to treat each such 
 language as a philological unit, of which the dialects 
 and subdialects are the fractions. I say that this would 
 be scientific ; but I do not say tbat it would be conve- 
 nient, or, in all cases, practicable. We cannot, as has 
 just been stated, call such forms of speech as the Danish 
 and Swedish dialects : nor yet the Spanish and Portu- 
 
STAGES OF LANGUAGE. 3 
 
 guese, nor yet many others. The philological relations 
 allow, the political relations forbid, us to do so. 
 
 The limitation at the other extremity is somewhat 
 more practicable ; though it is, by no means, without its 
 complications. That certain forms of speech, which, in 
 common parlance, are called dialects rather than lan- 
 guages, are mutually unintelligible, I believe ; though, at 
 the same time, I am sure that they are rarer than is 
 supposed. Are these to be called languages ? If so, it 
 is very possible that there may be more than one lan- 
 guage in both Italy and Germany ; in both Spain and 
 France ; possibly in both England and Scotland. How 
 far this is actually the case is another matter. The 
 question now under notice is the application of certain 
 terms to certain cases. It must not be too strict where 
 the form of speech is new, and the class to which it 
 belongs has been but little studied. We may say that 
 every mutually unintelligible form of speech supplies us 
 with a fresh language ; and, in languages of this kind, 
 Aft'ica and the New World abound. They are con- 
 veniently called languages, because we have never been 
 in the habit of talking about them as dialects ; in fact, 
 we have hardly talked about them at all. 
 
 If the phenomena of transition create difficulties in 
 our classification when we look to the geography of our 
 languages and dialects, still more do they do so when 
 we take cognizance of them in time. Changes of some 
 sort are always going on ; and, as long as any language 
 lasts, such changes afiect it — in the course of a single 
 generation but little, in the course of many genera- 
 tions, much. The result of this is, that extreme forms 
 differ notably ; intermediate ones notably or slightly, as 
 the case may be, i. e, as they approach each other. At 
 the point of contact, the difference is imperceptible. 
 The Latin of Ennius, and the Italian of Leopardi, are 
 the extremes of a long chain. So is the English of 
 the present writer and the Anglo-Saxon of ^Ifric. 
 
 B 2 
 
4 DISTRIBUTION OF LANGUAGES. 
 
 That eacli gives us a different language is beyond doubt, 
 but it is also beyond doubt that there lias been no 
 period in the history of either the Italian or the English 
 when the speech of the grandson was unintelligible to 
 the grandfather, and vice versa. 
 
 Next to the difference between dialects, languages, and 
 groups, comes the notice of the general phenomena con- 
 nected with their distribution over the earth's surface. 
 They m.ay be studied in any one of the great continents. 
 They may be studied in the islands of the Indian Ocean 
 and the Pacific. They repeat themselves. Sometimes 
 there is a vast area with only a single language cover- 
 ing it. Sometimes there is a multiplicity of mutually 
 unintelligible forms of speech within the limits of a 
 narrow area. We find the illustration of this in poli- 
 tics. There are large homogeneous kingdoms, like 
 France. There is a concatenation of petty principalities, 
 like the German states. Hence, there are areas charac- 
 terized by uniformity of language spread over a large 
 surface ; and areas characterized by a multiplicity of 
 mutually unintelligible forms of speech spread over a 
 small one. Besides which, there are languages of a 
 moderate, or medium, area. 
 
 Some of these areas are continental, i. e. extend over 
 vast tracts of continuous land. Sometimes they are 
 oceanic, or spread over islands, archipelagoes, and chains 
 of archipelagoes. Between these two there is one im- 
 portant difference. Languages of a continent touch 
 each other at their circumferences and may or may not 
 graduate into each other. Languages of an archipelago 
 are definitely bounded. We always know where their 
 circumference is limited. The limit is the sea, and the 
 sea is mute. 
 
 The continental areas lead to another matter for con- 
 sideration. Why are the small, small? and the great, 
 great ? 
 
 Whatever may be the extent of the following fact, it 
 
GROUPS. 5 
 
 is for certain great districts, an undeniable one. The 
 present writer may extend it further than others. 
 Every one, however, recognizes it as a fact of some ex- 
 tent, greater or less. Particular languages spread and 
 obliterate intermediate forms, and when these interme- 
 diate forms are obliterated, languages, originally different, 
 come in contact. The lines of demarcation then be- 
 come clear and clean. 
 
 At the present moment there are three languages 
 connected with each other indirectly, and that not very 
 remotely ; but, still, when compared with the inter- 
 mediate forms, separate, substantive languages — lan- 
 guages which no one can confound with each other. They 
 are the French of Paris, the Italian of Florence, the 
 Castilian of Madrid — three lettered and literary lan- 
 guages. The provincial forms of all these are both 
 numerous and well-marked, and at the circumferences of 
 their several areas they stand in strong contrast to the 
 central forms. In still stronger contrast do the northern 
 and southern, the eastern and the western patois stand to 
 each other, e.g. the Bearnais to. the Walloon, the Cala- 
 brian to the Sardinian, the Murcian to the Gallician — 
 the Gallician being, though a dialect of Spain, almost as 
 much Portuguese as Spanish. With differences like 
 these, it is probable that on the French and Spanish, 
 and the French and Italian frontiers there may be 
 dialects of which the philological position is ambigu- 
 ous ; dialects which, whilst they graduate towards the 
 French of Paris in one direction, are intelligible to the 
 speakers of dialects which graduate in the Castilian and 
 tlie Florentine on the other. Such is actually the case. 
 There is more than one patois of French Savoy which 
 may pass for a form of the Northern Italian ; but, on 
 the other hand, there are many dialects of Northern 
 Italy which may be called French. Again, there are 
 forms of the Proven9al which are quite as Spanish as 
 French. 
 
6 CLASSIFICATION. 
 
 The line, then, of demarcation is in some cases ob- 
 scure or faint. Yet the forms of speech are grouped. 
 This is done by arranging them round some centre, and 
 calling them French, Italian, or Spanish, as the case 
 may be. To do this, is to classify according to type. 
 In this way the dialects of the French, and many other 
 languages may be classified : indeed, it is to dialects, or 
 languages that approach them, that the classification by 
 type best applies. The main languages, however, are 
 classified by definition, i. e. by such clear and un- 
 doubted lines of demarcation as separate the English 
 from the German, the Swedish fi:om the Dutch. Between 
 these there is no doubtful frontier. 
 
 Though it cannot be denied that a classification of 
 languages, according to the extent to which they simply 
 bear a likeness to each other, is practicable, it may 
 safely be said that, for all the ordinary classifications, they 
 go upon likeness, and something more. They go upon 
 either a real or supposed affinity . Nor is this difier- 
 ence unimportant. There is, between most languages, a 
 certain amount of liken,ess independent of any historical 
 connection. This means that a certain number of words 
 in different languages will be, more or less, like each 
 other, not because two or more tongues have borrowed 
 and lent, nor yet because one mother-tongue is at the 
 bottom of the whole, but because the human organism 
 (by which is meant the mind and the organs of speech 
 taken together), under certain conditions, acts with a 
 certain amount of regularity. 
 
 Again — languages, between which the relationship or 
 historical connection may be of the slightest, may re- 
 semble each other in points of great importance, simply 
 because they are both in the same stage of growth or 
 development. 
 
 The historical philologue looks upon languages and 
 dialects, as a genealogist looks upon sons and nephews, 
 uncles and cousins. If the family likeness coincide 
 
CLASSIFICATION. 7 
 
 with any nearness of kinmanslnp, well and good ; but 
 it is not necessary that it do so. The grandson may 
 resemble the grandfather, rather than the father, and first 
 cousins may be liker each other than brothers and sisters. 
 If so, he takes the likeness as he finds it. He takes it 
 as he finds it ; inasmuch as it is a family tree, rather 
 than a family picture, with which he deals. 
 
 In one important point, however, this comparison 
 foils. The philologue who looks upon languages from the 
 historical point of view has, in most cases, to infer the 
 relationship from the likeness : in this respect resem- 
 bling the genealogist who is taken into a picture-gallery 
 and required to ascertain the degrees of relationship from 
 the similarity of feature or expression ; assisted in some 
 respect by the style of painting, the dress of the indivi- 
 dual, and other adjuncts. 
 
 For historical purposes the important parts of a lan- 
 guage are the details ; the details in the way of its 
 words, glosses, roots, or vocables ; its nouns and verbs ; 
 its adverbs and pronouns. Where these are common to 
 two languages, the chances are that the actual relationship 
 is in proportion to the extent of the community. This 
 means that 50 jper cent, implies a closer affinity than 40, 
 40 than 30; and so on. I give these figures chiefly for 
 the sake of illustration. Of the application of the nu- 
 merical system in general, I have no great experience — 
 except (of course) in a rough way. No percentage, how- 
 ever, is conclusive. To say this, is merely to say that 
 there are different rates, at which languages alter. If 
 so — the one which either drops or changes the meaning 
 of three words per annwni will lose its likeness to the 
 common mother-tongue, sooner than its congener which 
 drops or changes the same number in a decennium. Per- 
 centages, then, give presumptions only. When these 
 coincide with the geographical relations they improve. 
 
 With these preliminaries, we may lay the map of the 
 world before us, and mark out seven great areas ; — seven 
 
8 CLASSIFICATIOJS". 
 
 great areas coinciding with seven long and broad lines of 
 definite and decided demarcation. Two of these, beinp* 
 effected by the ocean, rather than by displacement and 
 obliteration, command less importance than the rest. 
 They cut-ofi' the New World in the west ; and the islands 
 of the Indian Ocean and the Pacific in the south. For the 
 present, then, little need be said about either A merica or 
 Oceanica. Neither does Africa require any immediate 
 notice. Its Peninsular character simplifies its philology. 
 
 The other four areas lie in the great central nucleus 
 of Europe and Asia combined — Europe and Asia — Asia 
 and Europe. For the purposes of ethnology they form 
 but a single continent. 
 
 The Western division is the one with which we are 
 most familiar. It is bounded on the south and west by 
 the Mediterranean, the Atlantic, and the German Ocean ; 
 on the north, by the line which divides Norway and 
 Sweden from Lapland and Finland. The Gulf of 
 Bothnia then follows, dividing Sweden and Finland. 
 Finland, though deeply indented by both Russia and 
 Germany, is not left behind us before we reach the 
 frontier of the Government of Yitepsk, whence our line 
 is continued along those of Smolensk, Moscow, Vladimir, 
 Riazan, Orlov, Voronezh, and Don Kosaks (in none 
 of which any language other than Russian is spoken), 
 until we reach the sea of Azov ; after which the Black 
 Sea, the Sea of Marmora, and the Greek Archipelago, 
 lead us to the Mediterranean, with which we started. 
 This includes Great Britain, France, Spain, Italy, Ger- 
 many, the valley of the Danube, and Greece — allowance 
 being made for the Turk and Hungarian, which are 
 intrusive. AU this really means Europe minus Lap- 
 land, Finland, and those Governments of Russia, in 
 which Ugrian languages in fragments still continue to 
 be spoken. The displacements that break up any pos- 
 sible transitions, which may originally have existed, are 
 nearly all effected by the encroachment of one language 
 
CLASSIFICATION. 9 
 
 — the Russian ; tbe nearest approach to the original 
 status being in Yilna ; where the Lithuanic come almost 
 in contact with the Fin. 
 
 The great Northern area is, in Russia, conterminous 
 with the western ; Ugrian being spoken (in fragments, 
 and on spots like islands in a Russian Sea) in Curland, 
 Livonia, Estonia, St. Petersburg, Novogorod, Tver, Vo- 
 logda, Viatka, Nizhni Novogorod, Kazan, Penza, Tam- 
 bov, Saratov, and Astrakhan. Its southern boundary 
 is the northern ridge of Caucasus. Then comes the 
 Caspian Sea ; then the frontier between the Turks and 
 the Persians ; then the western and northern boundary 
 of Tibet ; then the western and northern ones of China. 
 This gives us the eastern part of European Russia, the 
 Governments of Caucasus and Orenburg ; Siberia, Mon- 
 golia, and Mantshuria. The boundary then becomes the 
 Sea of Okhotsk, and the northern parts of the Pacific up 
 to Behring's Straits. This means — roughly speaking — 
 northern Asia, with a large part of Europe. 
 
 The chief displacements here have been effected by 
 the spread of the Turk language ; which on the East has 
 done, in the way of the obliteration of possible tran- 
 sitions, aU that has been done by the Russian — all ; 
 if not more. 
 
 The South-eastern area (we unconsciously, but not 
 inconveniently, adopt the phraseology of the railway 
 engineer) begins with the northern frontier of China ; 
 and, as far as China and Tibet are concerned, is conter- 
 minous with the Northern, until we reach the extremity 
 of Tibet. It there, (or thereabouts,) crosses the Hima- 
 layas, so as to include Nepaul, and the Sub-himalayan 
 turais, and, at the head of the Bay of Bengal, takes the 
 sea as its boundary. After this, the coast (with the ex- 
 ception of the Malayan Peninsula) leads us round Ava, 
 Siam, and Cochin-China, to the original starting-point 
 near Pekin. The displacements here have been effected 
 by the Chinese and the Tibetan. The area included 
 
1 CLASSIFICATION. 
 
 gives Tibet, Nepaul, the Trangangetic Peninsula, Asam, 
 Siam, Pegu, Cambogia, Cochin-China, and Cliina. 
 
 The South'ivestern area contains India, Persia, and 
 Caucasus ; and the displacing languages here are the 
 Indian, the Persian, and the Arabian ; the latter being 
 treated as African. Whether African or Asiatic, it 
 covers an enormous area, and has effected corresponding 
 displacements. The fact of its having done this is all 
 that is now under notice. 
 
 1. The languages of the Western group are all in an 
 advanced stage of development. 
 
 2. The languages of the Northern group are all in a 
 Tnedium state of development. 
 
 3. The languages of the South-eastern group are all 
 in an early stage of development. 
 
 With a view to their stage, the first are called Inflec- 
 tional, the second Agglutinate, the third Monosyllabic. 
 
 There are a few exceptions to this statement. As a 
 rule, however, it holds good. 
 
 To enlarge upon this would be to anticipate. A 
 notice, however, is by no means superfluous. It helps 
 to show that the groups are natural. So does the fact 
 that most of the languages of the first class are what 
 is called Indo-European ; most of the languages of the 
 second what is called Turanian. 
 
TIBETAN, BHOT, AND BURMESE LANGUAGES. 11 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 Bhot and Burmese Group,— Bhot of Bultistan, Ladak, Tibet Proper, and 
 Butan. — Written and Spoken. — Local Dialect?, — Changlo, — Serpa. — 
 Tak . — Maniak . — Gyarung. — Tochu. — Hor. 
 
 NowHEKE is it more necessary to remember the difference 
 between classification by the way of type and classifica- 
 tion by the way of definition than it is in the field 
 upon which we are now entering ; the field upon which 
 we break gi^ound in regard to the details of our subject. 
 Roughly speaking, this is that part of Asia which con- 
 tains Tibet and the Burmese Empire — a large and 
 irregular tract of country exhibiting great extremes 
 both in its political and its physical character. What 
 it is that connects them in the way of Philology we 
 shall see as we proceed. 
 
 If we look on to the predominant languages of this 
 vast region, and compare only the literary language of 
 Tibet with the literary language of Ava, nothing is 
 much easier than to draw clear and definite lines of de- 
 marcation between them. They are, at least, as diffe- 
 rent from each other as the Italian of Florence and the 
 French of Paris. But this is only because the forms 
 which we compare are extreme ones. The details of 
 the local dialects give us a very different result. They 
 give us, instead of neat and clean masses of separable 
 languages, transitions of various kinds and in numerous 
 directions ; in other words, they preclude the classifica- 
 tion by definition, and force us upon classification by 
 type. 
 
 The philological boundaries of Tibet are better 
 known than the geographical ; in other words, we 
 know, with the exception of the details of the extreme 
 
12 TIBETAN, BHOT, AND BURMESE LANGUAGES. 
 
 east, all the languages with which the Bhot is conter- 
 minous. At its western extremity it is bounded by the 
 Cashmirian and the Dard, on the north-west by the 
 Turk of Chinese Turkestan, on the north-east by the 
 Mongolian, on the south by the Hindi, the Nepaul forms 
 of speech, the Dhimal, the Bodo, and the Garo. The 
 mountains that bound the valley of Asam to the north 
 are, more or less, Bhot. But of these, more will be said 
 in the sequel. 
 
 The word Bhot, or Bhotiya, meaning a Tibetan, is 
 the root of the words Butan and Bultistan ; Bultistan 
 being the Persian for the land of the Bultis, i. e. Little 
 Tibet. 
 
 In Bultistan, the creed is Mahometan, the frontier 
 Turk and Indian, the blood (apparently) more Paropar- 
 misan than the language. Of the literature and the 
 dialects I can say nothing, having seen no written com- 
 positions from Little Tibet. Neither can I say whetlier 
 the alphabet is exclusively Arabic. The dialect, how- 
 ever, for which we have any specimens, is that of Ladak ; 
 that of Ladak being that of Tibet in general. 
 
 In Ladak, both the creed and literature are Buddhist, 
 and the blood seems to be as purely Bhot as the lan- 
 guage. The political relations, however, are with Britisli 
 India and Cashmir, rather than with China ; and it is 
 only when we reach the Chinese parts of Tibet that 
 we find the Bhot characteristics at the maximum. 
 Here are preserved, in innumerable monasteries, heaps 
 upon heaps of Buddhist literature, in which translations 
 from the Sanskrit take an inordinate degree of promi- 
 nence. The alphabet in which they are written may 
 date from the second centur}^. It is of Indian origin ; 
 though, in its present state, a well-marked variety. 
 
 Between the Tibetan as it is written, and the Tibetan 
 as it is spoken, it is usual to draw a broad distinction, 
 inasmuch as the former either actually preserves, or 
 appears to preserve, a number of letters with which 
 
tlie latter dispenses. 
 
 These are exhibitec 
 
 type. 
 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Wxitten Tibetan. 
 
 Spoken Tibetan. 
 
 Man 
 
 mi 
 
 mi 
 
 Head 
 
 mgo 
 
 go 
 
 Hair 
 
 skra 
 
 kra 
 
 Eye 
 
 mig 
 
 mik 
 
 Ear 
 
 sa 
 
 amch 
 
 Tooth 
 
 so 
 
 so 
 
 Blood 
 
 khrag 
 
 thak 
 
 Bone 
 
 ruspa 
 
 ruko 
 
 Hand 
 
 lagpa 
 
 lango 
 
 Foot 
 
 r kangpa 
 
 kango 
 
 Sun 
 
 nyima 
 
 nyima 
 
 Moon 
 
 2 lava 
 
 dawa 
 
 Star 
 
 s karma 
 
 karma 
 
 Fire 
 
 me 
 
 me 
 
 Water 
 
 chhu 
 
 chhu 
 
 Stone 
 
 rdo 
 
 do 
 
 Tree 
 
 I jonshing 
 
 shingdong 
 
 Oae 
 
 5'cliig 
 
 chik 
 
 Two 
 
 grnyis 
 
 nyi 
 
 Three 
 
 grsum 
 
 sum 
 
 Fowr 
 
 bzhi 
 
 zhyi 
 
 Five 
 
 hna 
 
 gna 
 
 Six 
 
 druk 
 
 thu 
 
 Seven 
 
 J dun 
 
 dun 
 
 Eight 
 
 h rgyud 
 
 gye 
 
 Nine 
 
 dgn 
 
 guk 
 
 Ten 
 
 bchxL 
 
 chu 
 
 — 
 
 thamba 
 
 — 
 
 13 
 
 Btitan differs from Tibet Proper, cliiefly in being 
 more open to influences from India. The Butanis call 
 themselves Lhopa. 
 
 Another, and a more extreme form of the Eastern 
 Bhot, is the language of Takyul, or the land of the 
 Tak, or Takpa, which is the country marked Tovvang 
 and Towang Raj in the ordinary maps. 
 
 English. 
 
 Lhopa. 
 
 Takpa. 
 
 Man 
 
 mi 
 
 men 
 
 Head 
 
 gutoh 
 
 gokti 
 
 Hair 
 
 kya 
 
 pu 
 
 Eye 
 
 mido 
 
 melong 
 
 Ear 
 
 navo 
 
 neblap 
 
14 
 
 
 TAKPA, ETC. 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Llicpa. 
 
 Takpa. 
 
 Tooth 
 
 soh 
 
 wah 
 
 Blood 
 
 tliyak 
 
 khra 
 
 Bone ■ 
 
 rutok 
 
 rospa 
 
 Hand 
 
 lappa 
 
 la 
 
 Foot 
 
 kanglep 
 
 leme 
 
 Sun 
 
 nyim 
 
 plang 
 
 Moon 
 
 dau 
 
 leh 
 
 Star 
 
 kam 
 
 karma 
 
 Fire 
 
 mi 
 
 meh 
 
 Water 
 
 chhu 
 
 chhi 
 
 Stone 
 
 doh 
 
 gorr 
 
 Tree 
 
 shiiig 
 
 shendong 
 
 One 
 
 che 
 
 ' the 
 
 Two 
 
 nye 
 
 nai 
 
 Three 
 
 snm 
 
 sum 
 
 Four 
 
 zlii 
 
 pli 
 
 Five 
 
 gna 
 
 liagni 
 
 Six 
 
 dhu 
 
 kro 
 
 Seven 
 
 dun 
 
 nis 
 
 Eight 
 
 gye 
 
 gyet 
 
 Nine 
 
 gu 
 
 dugu 
 
 Ten 
 
 Chatham 
 
 paki 
 
 Further to the South, in contact with the language of 
 Nepaul, is spoken the Serpa which seems to be all but 
 actual Bhot. 
 
 English. 
 
 Serpa. 
 
 English. 
 
 Serpa. 
 
 Man 
 
 mi 
 
 Hand 
 
 lango 
 
 Head 
 
 go 
 
 Foot 
 
 kango 
 
 Hair 
 
 ta 
 
 Shy 
 
 nam 
 
 Eye 
 
 mik 
 
 Sun 
 
 nimo 
 
 Ear 
 
 amchuk 
 
 Moon 
 
 oula 
 
 Tooth 
 
 so 
 
 Star 
 
 karma 
 
 Blood 
 
 thak 
 
 Water 
 
 chhu 
 
 Bone 
 
 ruba 
 
 Stone 
 
 doh. 
 
 Beside the Bultistani, Ladaki, Thibetan, and Butani 
 varieties, there are several local dialects, of which, as may 
 be supposed, we know but little. In Lower Kunawer 
 the language is Indian rather than Bhot ; but in Upper 
 Kunawer there are the Kanet dialects and sub-dialects. 
 In Kampur, Milchan* is the word for the language in 
 general of the parts around, so that the Milcban is the 
 
 * Probably the Hindu Mlech. 
 
MILCHAN. 
 
 15 
 
 language of the district ; of which the Lubrung (or 
 Kanam) and the Lidung (or Lippa) are varieties. Mean- 
 while ThehuTskud denotes a provincial dialect, such as 
 that of SugQum, and others. 
 
 EngUsh. 
 
 Milchan. 
 
 Tlieburskud 
 
 Sumchu. 
 
 Man 
 
 mi 
 
 mi 
 
 me 
 
 Women 
 
 chismi 
 
 eshrt 
 
 esplung 
 
 Head 
 
 bul 
 
 pisha 
 
 pisha 
 
 Tongue 
 
 le 
 
 le 
 
 le 
 
 Eye 
 
 mlk 
 
 me 
 
 ml 
 
 Ear 
 
 kanung 
 
 rupung 
 
 repung 
 
 Foot 
 
 bung 
 
 bunk 
 
 bunkun 
 
 Sun 
 
 yune 
 
 ne 
 
 nimok 
 
 Moon 
 
 gulsung 
 
 gulsung 
 
 gulsung 
 
 Star 
 
 skara 
 
 karma 
 
 karma 
 
 One 
 
 It 
 
 te 
 
 It 
 
 Two 
 
 nish 
 
 nishi 
 
 nlsh 
 
 Three 
 
 stiin 
 
 sum 
 
 hum 
 
 Fmir 
 
 pu 
 
 Pl 
 
 pu 
 
 Five 
 
 gna 
 
 gnai 
 
 gna 
 
 Ten 
 
 sal 
 
 chui 
 
 sa 
 
 The Infinitives run as follows : — 
 
 
 
 In Milchan . 
 
 . lonJimih or 
 
 lonhmig 
 
 
 — Lippa . 
 
 . lodenh' or 
 
 lodent 
 
 
 — Kanam 
 
 . . . logma 
 
 
 
 — Sugnum . 
 
 . . lopang 
 
 
 
 — Sumchu . 
 
 . . lomma or 
 
 loma. 
 
 The following language, though Bhot, belongs geo- 
 graphically and politically to Nepaul. 
 
 English. 
 
 Tiiaksya. 
 
 English. 
 
 Thaksya. 
 
 Man 
 
 makai 
 
 Fire 
 
 hme 
 
 Head 
 
 ta 
 
 Water 
 
 kya 
 
 Hair 
 
 chham 
 
 Tree 
 
 ghyung 
 
 Hand 
 
 yayathin 
 
 One 
 
 di 
 
 Eye 
 
 mi 
 
 Two 
 
 gni 
 
 Foot 
 
 malethin male 
 
 Three 
 
 som 
 
 Blood. 
 
 ka 
 
 Four 
 
 bla 
 
 Bone 
 
 nati 
 
 Five 
 
 gna 
 
 Ear 
 
 hna 
 
 Six 
 
 tu 
 
 Tooth 
 
 gyo 
 
 Seven 
 
 gnes 
 
 Day 
 
 sar 
 
 Eight 
 
 bhre 
 
 Sun 
 
 ghaw-gni 
 
 Nine 
 
 ku 
 
 Moon 
 
 latigna 
 
 Ten 
 
 chyu 
 
 Star 
 
 sar 
 
 
 
16 
 
 GYARUNG, ETC. 
 
 One of the Butan dialects is known under the name 
 Changlo. It is spoken in the North-east, apparently 
 in contact with some of the languages of the Asam 
 mountaineers. 
 
 The Chinese call certain rude tribes in the south-east 
 of Tibet, and (consequently) to the north-west of their 
 own frontier, Sifan, a term said to mean Western Bar- 
 barian. 
 
 The area to which this name applies is anything 
 but well marked. A line drawn from the Koko Nor to 
 the frontier of Yunnan will pass through it. But the 
 frontier of Yunnan is a long one. The Thochu, Man- 
 yak, and Gyarung vocabularies belong to this district ; 
 all being, inter alia, collected through the exertions of 
 Mr. Hodgson. 
 
 Of these, the Manyak lies to the south, the Gyarung 
 in the centre, and the Thochu to the north. I have 
 little hesitation in saying that, though Chinese in 
 respect to their political relations, and Tibetan in re- 
 spect to their geography, these three forms of speech 
 are as much Burmese as Bhot. 
 
 English. 
 
 Changlo. 
 
 Gyarung. 
 
 Manyak. 
 
 Thochu. 
 
 Man 
 
 songo 
 
 tir-mi 
 
 ohhoh 
 
 nah 
 
 Head 
 
 sliarang 
 
 ta-ko 
 
 wulli 
 
 kapat 
 
 Hair 
 
 cham 
 
 tarni 
 
 mui 
 
 hompa 
 
 Eye 
 
 ming 
 
 tai-mek 
 
 mne 
 
 kan 
 
 Ear 
 
 na 
 
 time 
 
 napi 
 
 nukh 
 
 Tooth 
 
 sliia 
 
 ti-swe 
 
 phwih 
 
 sweh 
 
 Blood 
 
 yi 
 
 ta-shi 
 
 shah 
 
 sah 
 
 Bone 
 
 khang 
 
 syarhu 
 
 rukhu 
 
 ripat 
 
 Hand 
 
 gadang 
 
 tayak 
 
 lapcheh 
 
 jipab 
 
 Foot 
 
 bi 
 
 tami 
 
 lipchheh 
 
 jako 
 
 STcy 
 
 ngam 
 
 tu-mon 
 
 mah 
 
 mahto 
 
 Sun 
 
 lani 
 
 kini 
 
 nyima 
 
 mun 
 
 Moon 
 
 murgeng 
 
 tsi-le 
 
 leh 
 
 chhap 
 
 Star 
 
 mi 
 
 tsine 
 
 krah 
 
 ghada 
 
 Fire 
 
 ri 
 
 ti-mi 
 
 sameh 
 
 meh 
 
 Water 
 
 lung 
 
 ti-chi 
 
 dyah 
 
 chah 
 
 Stone 
 
 shing 
 
 rugu 
 
 wobi 
 
 gholopi 
 
 One 
 
 tliur 
 
 kate 
 
 tabi 
 
 ari 
 
 Two 
 
 nyik-ching 
 
 kanes 
 
 nabi 
 
 gnari 
 

 THE HOR. 
 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Changlo. 
 
 Gyarung. 
 
 Manjak. 
 
 Thocliu. 
 
 Three 
 
 sam 
 
 kasam 
 
 sibi 
 
 ksiri 
 
 Four 
 
 hM 
 
 kadi 
 
 rebi 
 
 gzari 
 
 Five 
 
 nga 
 
 kunggno 
 
 gnabi 
 
 wari 
 
 Six 
 
 khung 
 
 kutok 
 
 trubi 
 
 kbatari 
 
 Seven 
 
 zum 
 
 kushnes 
 
 skwibi 
 
 stari 
 
 Eight 
 
 yen 
 
 oryet 
 
 zibi 
 
 kbrari 
 
 Nine 
 
 gu 
 
 kunggu 
 
 gubi 
 
 rguni 
 
 Ten 
 
 shong, se 
 
 sih 
 
 cbechibi 
 
 paduri. 
 
 17 
 
 The Hor, or Horpa, occupy the western part of 
 Northern Tibet and parts of Chinese Tartary, or Little 
 Bokhara, and Dzungaria. They decidedly touch both 
 the Turk and Mongol areas ; and, as they are nomads 
 rather than agriculturalists, they are more Tartar in 
 habit than Tibetan. At the same time, their language 
 is Bhot ; and so, to a great extent, is their creed. The 
 major part is Buddhist : though there are some Maho- 
 metans amongst them — a few within the frontier of 
 Tibet ; more beyond it. To some of these the Tibetans 
 apply the name Khachhe ; which is, word for word, the 
 Chinese Kao-tse. They call themselves, however, Igur ; 
 and from this, along with a few other facts of less im- 
 portance, I look upon them as Turks in blood, though 
 Bhot in language. 
 
 English. 
 
 Hor. 
 
 Tibetan. 
 
 Uigur. 
 
 Man 
 
 vzih 
 
 mi 
 
 er, kishi 
 
 Head 
 
 gho 
 
 go 
 
 bash 
 
 Hair 
 
 spu 
 
 kra 
 
 satsh 
 
 Eye 
 
 mo 
 
 mik 
 
 kusi 
 
 Ear 
 
 nyo 
 
 amcho 
 
 kulak 
 
 Tooth 
 
 syo 
 
 so 
 
 tish 
 
 Blood 
 
 sye 
 
 thak 
 
 khan 
 
 Bone 
 
 rera 
 
 ruko 
 
 sungguki 
 
 Hand 
 
 Iha 
 
 lango 
 
 iHk 
 
 Foot 
 
 ko 
 
 kango 
 
 adakhi 
 
 Sky 
 
 koh 
 
 Tiamkhah 
 
 tengri 
 
 Sun 
 
 gna 
 
 nyima 
 
 kim 
 
 Moon 
 
 slikno 
 
 dawa 
 
 ai 
 
 Star 
 
 sgre 
 
 karma 
 
 yuldus 
 
 Fire 
 
 umat 
 
 me 
 
 cot 
 
 Water 
 
 hrah 
 
 chhu 
 
 snw 
 
 Stone 
 
 rgame 
 
 do 
 
 tash 
 
18 
 
 
 THE HOR. 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Hor. 
 
 Tibetan. 
 
 Uigur. 
 
 Tree 
 
 nah 
 
 shindong 
 
 yikhatsli 
 
 One 
 
 ra 
 
 chik 
 
 bir 
 
 Two 
 
 gre 
 
 nyi 
 
 iki 
 
 Three 
 
 su 
 
 sum 
 
 utsh 
 
 Four 
 
 pla 
 
 zhyi 
 
 tort 
 
 Five 
 
 gwe 
 
 gna 
 
 bish 
 
 Six 
 
 diha 
 
 tliu 
 
 alty 
 
 Seven 
 
 zne 
 
 dun 
 
 yidi 
 
 Eight 
 
 rMee 
 
 gye 
 
 sekis 
 
 Nine 
 
 go 
 
 guh 
 
 tochus 
 
 Tm 
 
 m> 
 
 chuh 
 
 on. 
 
 The details of the Tibetan, where it comes in contact 
 with the languages of the Paropamisus, are obscure. 
 They will be noticed in the sequel. 
 
NEPAUL AND SIKKIM. 19 
 
 CHAPTER III, 
 
 Nepalese and Sikkim Languages. — Gurung andMurmi. — Magar and Bramhu. 
 — Cliepang. — Hayu. — Kusunda. — Newar and Pahari. — Kiranti and 
 Limhu. — Lepcha. — Dliimal. — Bodo. — Garo. — Borro. — Sunwar. 
 
 It is convenient to speak of the languages of Nepaul and 
 Sikkim as if they constituted a definite group. It is 
 convenient to do this, because these countries, with their 
 peculiar political relations, though Indian in their geo- 
 graphy, and Tibetan in their ethnology, are neither 
 exactly Tibetan, nor exactly Indian as a whole ; but 
 rather a district per se. 
 
 The dialects and sub-dialects of this class are refer- 
 able to the following groups: — (1), the Gurung; (2), 
 Magar; (3), Chepang ; (4), the Hayu; (5), the Ku- 
 sunda ; (6), the Newar ; (7), the Kiranti ; (8), the 
 Lepcha. 
 
 (1). The Magar occupy the lower, the Gurung the 
 higher levels of the Himalaya ; the Gurung being, like 
 the Magars, a military caste ; but (unlike the Magars), 
 being Buddhist rather than Brahminic ; and, as such, 
 more Bhot, in respect to their civilization, than Indian. 
 Some of them are, perhaps, more pagan than Bhot. 
 They are a rude set ; shepherds rather than agricultu- 
 ralists ; but little being known of their language. The 
 Murmi is one of its dialects. 
 
 English. 
 
 Gurung. 
 
 Murmi. 
 
 Man 
 
 mM 
 
 mi 
 
 Head 
 
 ki-a 
 
 thobo 
 
 Hair 
 
 moi 
 
 kra 
 
 Hand 
 
 lapta 
 
 ya 
 
 Foot 
 
 bhale 
 
 bale 
 
 c 2 
 
20 
 
 NEPAUL AND SIKKIM. 
 
 Englisli. 
 
 Gurung. 
 
 Murmi. 
 
 Eye 
 
 mi 
 
 mi 
 
 Ear 
 
 nabe 
 
 nape 
 
 Bone 
 
 nugri 
 
 nakhu 
 
 Blood 
 
 koh 
 
 ka 
 
 Tooth 
 
 sak 
 
 swa 
 
 Bay 
 
 dini 
 
 dini 
 
 Sun 
 
 dhini 
 
 dini 
 
 Moon 
 
 — 
 
 ladima 
 
 Star 
 
 pira 
 
 karehin 
 
 Fire 
 
 mi 
 
 me 
 
 Water 
 
 kyu 
 
 kwi 
 
 Tree 
 
 sindu 
 
 dhong 
 
 Stone 
 
 yuma 
 
 yumba 
 
 One 
 
 kri 
 
 grik 
 
 Two 
 
 ni 
 
 gni 
 
 Three 
 
 song 
 
 som 
 
 Four 
 
 pli 
 
 bli 
 
 Five 
 
 gna 
 
 gna 
 
 Six 
 
 tu 
 
 dhu 
 
 Seven 
 
 nis 
 
 nis 
 
 Eight 
 
 pre 
 
 pre 
 
 Nine 
 
 kuh 
 
 kuh 
 
 Ten 
 
 chuk 
 
 cbiwai. 
 
 (2). Occupants of the lower levels, and the western 
 districts, the Magars have been in more than ordinary 
 contact with the Hindus of the Oude and Kumaon 
 frontiers. No wonder, then, that the blood and lan- 
 guage but imperfectly coincide. Many Hindus are said 
 to speak Magar, whilst numerous Magars have either 
 unlearnt their own tongue or speak the Magar along 
 with it. The creed is imperfectly Brahminic ; the 
 alphabet Indian ; the tendencies and civilization Indian. 
 
 The Bramhti dialect, spoken by a degraded population 
 of the parts about, is more Magar than aught else. 
 
 English. 
 
 Magar. 
 
 Bramhu. 
 
 Man 
 
 bharmi 
 
 bal, bar 
 
 Head 
 
 mitalu 
 
 kapa 
 
 Hair 
 
 cbham 
 
 syam 
 
 Hand 
 
 hutpiak 
 
 bhit 
 
 Foot 
 
 mibil 
 
 imzik 
 
 Eye 
 
 mik 
 
 mik 
 
 Ear 
 
 nakyeh 
 
 kana 
 
NEPAUL AND SIKKBL 
 
 21 
 
 English. 
 
 Magar. 
 
 Bramhti. 
 
 Bone 
 
 miryaros 
 
 wot 
 
 Blood 
 
 hyu 
 
 cbiwi 
 
 Tooth 
 
 siak 
 
 swa 
 
 Day 
 
 namsin 
 
 dina 
 
 Sun 
 
 namkhan 
 
 uni 
 
 Star 
 
 bhuga 
 
 — 
 
 Fire 
 
 mlie 
 
 mai 
 
 Water 
 
 di 
 
 awa 
 
 Tree 
 
 sing 
 
 simma 
 
 Stone 
 
 thung 
 
 kungba 
 
 One 
 
 kat 
 
 de 
 
 Two 
 
 nis 
 
 ni 
 
 Three 
 
 song 
 
 sworn 
 
 Four 
 
 bull 
 
 bi 
 
 Five 
 
 banga 
 
 banga. 
 
 (3, 4). The Chepang and Vayu, or Hayu, is a broken 
 and depressed tribe of this district. The Vayti con- 
 sider themselves a distinct people, falling into few or no 
 subdivisions. Their language is said to be unintelligible 
 to any one else ; and so it seems to be from the speci- 
 men. They believe that at some remote period they 
 were a powerful people, though now reduced. 
 
 (5). The Kusunda are even more broken up than 
 the Vayu, with whom they are conterminous. 
 
 English. 
 
 Chepang. 
 
 Vayu. 
 
 Kusunda. 
 
 Man 
 
 pursi 
 
 sing-tong 
 
 mihyak 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 lon-cho 
 
 — 
 
 Head 
 
 tolong 
 
 pfi-chhi 
 
 chipi 
 
 Hair 
 
 men 
 
 song 
 
 gyai-i 
 
 Hand 
 
 kutt 
 
 got 
 
 gipan 
 
 Foot 
 
 la 
 
 16 
 
 chan 
 
 Eye 
 
 mik 
 
 m6k 
 
 cliining 
 
 Ear 
 
 ne 
 
 nak-chu 
 
 chyau 
 
 Bone 
 
 rhus 
 
 ru 
 
 gou 
 
 Blood 
 
 wi 
 
 vi 
 
 uyu 
 
 Tooth 
 
 srek 
 
 lu 
 
 toho 
 
 Day 
 
 nyi 
 
 numa 
 
 dina 
 
 Sun 
 
 nyam 
 
 nomo 
 
 ing 
 
 Moon 
 
 lahe 
 
 cho-lo 
 
 jun 
 
 Fire 
 
 me 
 
 me 
 
 ja 
 
 Water 
 
 ti 
 
 ti 
 
 tang 
 
 Tree 
 
 sing, singtak 
 
 sing-phung 
 
 i 
 
22 
 
 
 THE 
 
 NEWAR. 
 
 
 Englisli. 
 
 Chepang, 
 
 Vayu. 
 
 Kusuiida. 
 
 One 
 
 yazho 
 
 kolu 
 
 goisang 
 
 Two 
 
 nhizho 
 
 nayung 
 
 ghigna 
 
 Three 
 
 sumzho 
 
 cLuyung 
 
 daha 
 
 Four 
 
 ploizho 
 
 bining 
 
 pinjang 
 
 Five 
 
 pumazho 
 
 — 
 
 pagnangj^ng. 
 
 (6). The Newar belongs to the central valley, or 
 Nepaul Proper, the most favoured tract of the king- 
 dom, and the tract where the rudeness of the original 
 paganism is at its minimum ; the creed being partly 
 Brahminic partly Buddhist. The Pahri, or Palii, one of 
 the broken tribes, is Newar ; in other words, the Pahri 
 is to the Newar as the Bramhu was to the Magar. 
 
 Englisli. 
 
 Newar. 
 
 Pahrf. 
 
 Man 
 
 mijang 
 
 manclie 
 
 Head 
 
 chhong 
 
 chhe 
 
 Hair 
 
 song 
 
 son 
 
 Hand 
 
 pakha 
 
 la 
 
 Foot 
 
 pali 
 
 li 
 
 Eye 
 
 mikha 
 
 mighi 
 
 Ear 
 
 nhaipong 
 
 nhuapuru 
 
 Bone 
 
 kwe 
 
 kusa 
 
 Blood 
 
 hi 
 
 hi 
 
 Tooth 
 
 wa 
 
 wa 
 
 Day 
 
 aM 
 
 nhinako 
 
 Sun 
 
 suja 
 
 suje 
 
 Star 
 
 nagu 
 
 nung-gni 
 
 Fire 
 
 mi 
 
 mi 
 
 Water 
 
 lau 
 
 lukhu 
 
 Tree 
 
 sinia 
 
 sima 
 
 Stone 
 
 lohong 
 
 longgho 
 
 One 
 
 chhi 
 
 Chi 
 
 Two 
 
 ni 
 
 ni 
 
 Three 
 
 son 
 
 sung 
 
 Four 
 
 pi 
 
 pi 
 
 Five 
 
 gna 
 
 gno 
 
 Six 
 
 kha 
 
 ku 
 
 Seven 
 
 nhe 
 
 nhe 
 
 Eight 
 
 chya 
 
 chya 
 
 Nine 
 
 gunh 
 
 gun 
 
 Ten, 
 
 sanho 
 
 gi. 
 
 (7). Occupants of the valley of the Arun, and the 
 district which takes its name from them, the Kirant, 
 
THE KIRATA. 
 
 23 
 
 Kiranti, or Kiratas, are the most eastern of the tribes 
 of Nepaul, being conterminous with the Lepchas of 
 Sikkim. The name is Indian ; so that little is to be 
 inferred from either its antiquity or the extent of its 
 application. Whenever there was a population in a 
 certain relation to the Hindu, the term would apply. 
 
 The Kirata under notice, fall into two primary divi- 
 sions, the Limbu and the Kwombu. The Limbu have 
 an alphabet : the Kwombu dialects are unwritten. 
 
 English. 
 
 Kirata. 
 
 Limbu. 
 
 Man 
 
 mana 
 
 yapme 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 yemboch:-., 
 
 Head 
 
 tang 
 
 thagek 
 
 Hair 
 
 moa 
 
 thagi 
 
 Hand 
 
 chukuphem^i 
 
 huktapbe 
 
 Foot 
 
 iilfhuro 
 
 langdappbe 
 
 Eye 
 
 mak 
 
 mik 
 
 Ear 
 
 naba 
 
 nekho 
 
 Bone 
 
 saiba 
 
 sayet 
 
 Blood 
 
 bau 
 
 makbi 
 
 Tooth 
 
 kang 
 
 hebo 
 
 Bay 
 
 len 
 
 lendik 
 
 Sun 
 
 nam 
 
 nam 
 
 Moon 
 
 lava 
 
 lavo 
 
 Star 
 
 sangyen 
 
 kesva 
 
 Fire 
 
 mi 
 
 me 
 
 Water 
 
 chawa 
 
 chua 
 
 Tree 
 
 sangtang 
 
 sing 
 
 Stone 
 
 lungta 
 
 lung 
 
 One 
 
 ektai 
 
 thit 
 
 Two 
 
 hasat 
 
 nyetsh 
 
 Three 
 
 sumya 
 
 syumsh 
 
 Four 
 
 laya 
 
 lish 
 
 Five 
 
 gnaya 
 
 gnash 
 
 Six 
 
 tukya 
 
 tuksh 
 
 Seven 
 
 bhagya 
 
 nuksh 
 
 Eight 
 
 reya 
 
 yetsh 
 
 Nine 
 
 pbangya 
 
 phangsh 
 
 Ten 
 
 kip 
 
 thibong. 
 
 Until a few months back, the Kiranti lanofuacre was 
 in the same predicament with those that have just been 
 noticed. Perhaps, it was less known. At any rate, it 
 took no remarkable prominence in the philology of 
 
24 
 
 THE KIRATA DIALECTS — LEPCHA 
 
 Nepaul. It miglit consist of a single dialect, or of 
 many. It was akin to tlie Limbu and the Limbu 
 akin to it. Of its other varieties we knew nothing. 
 A recent paper of Mr. Hodgson now supplies vo- 
 cabularies for its dialects and sub-dialects ; for 
 which the following is the suggested classification : — 
 1. Waling; 2. Yakha ; 8. Cliourasya ; 4. Kulung ; 
 5. Thulung; 6. Bahing ; 7. Lohorong ; 8. Lambich- 
 hong. These constitute the Waling branch of the 
 Bontawa group, of which 9. Rungchlienbung ; 10. 
 Chhingtang, are also members. Then come, 1 1 . Cham- 
 ling, or Bodong ; 12. Nachhereng ; 13. Balati ; 14. 
 Sangpang ; 15. Dumi ; 16. Khaling ; 17. Dungmalu. 
 
 (8). The Lepcha spoken in Sikkim, is, like the Limbu 
 dialect of the Kiranti, a written language ; though its 
 literature is of the scantiest. 
 
 English. 
 
 Lepclia. 
 
 English. 
 
 Lepcha. 
 
 Man 
 
 maro 
 
 Fire 
 
 mi 
 
 — 
 
 tagri 
 
 Water 
 
 ong 
 
 Head 
 
 atliiak 
 
 Tree 
 
 kung 
 
 Hair 
 
 achom 
 
 Stone 
 
 long 
 
 Hand 
 
 kaliok 
 
 One 
 
 kat 
 
 Foot 
 
 dianghok 
 
 Two 
 
 nyet 
 
 Eye 
 
 amik 
 
 Three 
 
 sam 
 
 Ear 
 
 anyor 
 
 Four 
 
 phali 
 
 Bone 
 
 arhet 
 
 Five 
 
 phagnon 
 
 Blood 
 
 vi 
 
 Six 
 
 tarok 
 
 Tooth 
 
 apho 
 
 Seven 
 
 kakyok 
 
 Day 
 
 sakne 
 
 Eight 
 
 kaken 
 
 Sun 
 
 sakhak 
 
 Nine 
 
 kakyot 
 
 Moon 
 
 dau 
 
 Ten 
 
 kati. 
 
 Star 
 
 sahor 
 
 
 
 Now, all these languages are not only members of 
 the same great class with the Bhot, but the fact of their 
 being so is clear and patent upon the most cursory 
 inspection. No language, however, of a Brahminic or a 
 Buddhist population, especially if it be on the frontier of 
 Hindostan, can escape the certain results of contact with 
 India ; and this shows itself in the vocabulary. The 
 proportion which these Indian elements bear to the rest. 
 
DHIMAL AND BODO. 25 
 
 varies with the language. It may be but small. It 
 may be moderate. It may be so great as to destroy 
 the original character of the tongue altogether. In 
 the following languages, the numerals are Hindu ; and, 
 though this is an artificial characteristic, it is a convenient 
 one. It gives a Hindu aspect to the vocabulary ; and, 
 as a general rule, where the numerals are Hindu, a very 
 great proportion of the other words is Hindu also — so 
 much so, indeed, as to make the position of the lan- 
 guage, on the first view, equivocal. In some cases it 
 may really be so. The first language of our list is, in 
 the eyes of many, a dialect of the Hindu, containing a 
 few Bhot fragments, rather than a Bhot dialect in what 
 may be called a metamorphic form. 
 
 1. The Kooch of Kooch Behar, as spoken by the 
 Mahometan and Brahminic sections of the name. The 
 Pani Kooch, or unconverted Koocli, are believed to use 
 a more decidedly Bhot form of speech. 
 
 2. The Darahe (or Dahi) and Den war. 
 
 3. The Kuswar. 
 
 4. The Tharu. 
 
 5. The Pakhya. 
 
 The populations which 'speak them are called, by Mr. 
 Hodgson, to whom all the details are due, the Broken 
 Tribes. His list contains, besides the preceding, the Che- 
 pang, the Bhramo, and the Pahri. These, however, are not 
 only clearly Nepalese, but have been referred to a given 
 Nepalese language, and subordinated to it as a dialect. 
 It is the equivocal character of the foregoing languages 
 that places them in a group by themselves ; a group 
 which is merely provisional, as further researches will 
 show. 
 
 The Bhimal, avoiding both the open plains and the 
 mountain heights, occupy the turai between the Konka 
 and Dhorla, where they are conterminous with the Bodo. 
 Nor is this all. The two populations are not only 
 conterminous but intermixed, each inhabiting separate 
 
26 
 
 DHIMAL AND BOBO. 
 
 villages. For all this, there is a notable — I might say 
 a wide — difference between their languages. It is with 
 the Hayti, and Kusunda group, or, at least with the 
 languages to the west, that the Dhiinal appears to have 
 its closest affinities. The Bodo, on the contrary, is all 
 but one with the Borro of Cachar, besides being closely 
 allied to the Garo of the Garo Hills, in the north-east of 
 
 Cll^Cll. 
 
 
 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Pliimal. 
 
 Bodo. 
 
 Garo. 
 
 Borro. 
 
 Man 
 
 waval 
 
 hiwa 
 
 mande 
 
 man.se 
 
 — 
 
 diang 
 
 manshi 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Head 
 
 purling 
 
 khoro 
 
 skho 
 
 khoro 
 
 Ear 
 
 nhatong 
 
 khoma 
 
 nachil 
 
 khama 
 
 Eye 
 
 mi 
 
 mogon 
 
 mikran 
 
 nigan 
 
 Blood 
 
 hiki 
 
 th.oi 
 
 anchi 
 
 thoi 
 
 Bone 
 
 hara 
 
 begeng 
 
 greng 
 
 begeng 
 
 Tooth 
 
 sitong 
 
 hatha! 
 
 jak 
 
 nakhai 
 
 Hand 
 
 khur 
 
 akhai 
 
 jatheng 
 
 atheng 
 
 Foot 
 
 khokoi 
 
 yapha 
 
 sal 
 
 san 
 
 Sun 
 
 bela 
 
 shan 
 
 jashki 
 
 hatolthi 
 
 Star 
 
 pliuro 
 
 hathotkhi 
 
 wal 
 
 wat 
 
 Fire 
 
 men 
 
 wat 
 
 Chi 
 
 doi 
 
 Water 
 
 clii 
 
 doi 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 The Bodo are called by the Hindus, Mekh, or Mlech ; 
 and they are so called because they pass for impure in- 
 fidels. 
 
 The Borro of Cachar take us into Asam ; and (of 
 Asam) towards the southern, rather than the northern, 
 boundary. But the northern boundary is the one that 
 we must first examine ; remembering that the moun- 
 tain-range which forms it runs due east fi'om that part 
 of Butan which gave us the Changlo and the Takpa 
 vocabularies. 
 
 Of the Sun war vocabulary of Hodgson I am unable 
 to give the exact locality. 
 
 English. 
 
 Suuwar. 
 
 English. 
 
 Sunwar. 
 
 Man 
 
 mura 
 
 Foot 
 
 kweli 
 
 Head 
 
 piya 
 
 Eye 
 
 michi 
 
 Hair 
 
 chang 
 
 Ear 
 
 nopha 
 
 Hand 
 
 table 
 
 Bone 
 
 nishe 
 

 THE SUNWAR. 
 
 27 
 
 English. 
 
 Siinwar. 
 
 English. 
 
 Sunwar, 
 
 Blood 
 
 usi 
 
 Thine 
 
 ike 
 
 Tooth 
 
 kryu 
 
 His 
 
 hareake, mereke 
 
 Day 
 
 nathi 
 
 Our's 
 
 go-ainke 
 
 Sun 
 
 na 
 
 Tour's 
 
 gai-ainke, inke 
 
 Star 
 
 soru 
 
 Their's 
 
 hari-ainke 
 
 Fire 
 
 mi 
 
 One 
 
 ka 
 
 Water 
 
 paakliu 
 
 Tico 
 
 nishi 
 
 Tree 
 
 rawa 
 
 Three 
 
 sang 
 
 Stone 
 
 phunglu 
 
 Four 
 
 le 
 
 I 
 
 go 
 
 Five 
 
 gno 
 
 Thwi 
 
 gai^ 
 
 Six 
 
 ruk 
 
 He, she, it 
 
 hari 
 
 Seven 
 
 chani 
 
 We 
 
 govki 
 
 Eight 
 
 yoh 
 
 Ye 
 
 gaivki 
 
 Nine 
 
 guh 
 
 They 
 
 harevki 
 
 Ten 
 
 ■sashi. 
 
 Mine 
 
 ake 
 
 
 
 Of the preceding forms of speech, the Gurung, Magar, 
 and Kiranti, seem to be the most Bhot ; whilst the 
 Newar and Kusunda point the most decidedly towards 
 India ; the Garo to the Singpho ; and the Lepcha to 
 the North Asam, class. 
 
LANGUAGES 
 
 CHAPTER lY. 
 
 Languages of Assam. — Northern Frontier. — Aka, Dofla, and Abor, — Miri. — 
 Mishmi. — Southern Frontier. — Kasia. — Mikir. — Angami. — Nagas. — 
 Singpho. 
 
 Collectively, the Aka, Dofla, Abor, Miri, and Mishmi, 
 may be called the hill-tribes of the northern boundary 
 of Asam. They all, with the exception of a few of the 
 Miris, lie to the north of the Burhamputer, along the banks 
 of which the displacement and obliteration of transitional 
 forms of speech have been great. The chief language 
 of Lower Asam — the valley — is Indian ; the Asamese, 
 properly so-called, being even more Indian than the 
 dialects of the broken tribes. It is limited, however, 
 to the level country ; the mountains of the southern 
 and the northern boundary being held by aborigines. 
 But these are separated from each other ; or if con- 
 tinuous, are only traced in their continuity round the 
 valley, not across it. 
 
 The hills that form the northern boundary of Asam 
 are occupied by numerous rude tribes known as Aka, 
 Dofla, and Abor ; all three using dialects of the same 
 language. That of the Miri is closely allied. Those of 
 the Taying and Mijhu dialects of the Mishmi are further 
 removed. 
 
 Beginning with the eastern boundary of Tibet, the 
 order of the numerous hill-tribes of the northern boun- 
 dary of Asam, of which the languages are known to us 
 through vocabularies, is as has been given — Aka, Dofla, 
 Abor, Miri, and Mishmi. The Miri stretch farthest 
 across the valley, or southwards, while the Mishmi 
 occupy its eastern extremity ; where there has been a 
 
OF ASAM. 
 
 29 
 
 partial displacement — a displacement effected by the 
 Ahom and Khamti of the Thay stock, of whom more 
 will be said as we proceed. 
 
 English. 
 
 Dofla. 
 
 Abor. 
 
 Miri. 
 
 Mail 
 
 bangni 
 
 amie 
 
 ami 
 
 Hair 
 
 dumuk 
 
 dumid 
 
 dumid 
 
 Head 
 
 dompo 
 
 dumpong 
 
 tiipko 
 
 Ear 
 
 niorung 
 
 nanmg 
 
 ieruug 
 
 Eye 
 
 nyuk 
 
 aming 
 
 amida 
 
 Blood 
 
 ui 
 
 yi 
 
 yie 
 
 Bone 
 
 solo 
 
 along 
 
 along 
 
 Foot 
 
 laga 
 
 ale 
 
 leppa 
 
 Hand 
 
 lak 
 
 elag 
 
 elag 
 
 Sun 
 
 dani 
 
 arung 
 
 dainya 
 
 Moon 
 
 polo 
 
 polo 
 
 polo 
 
 Star 
 
 takar 
 
 tekar 
 
 takar 
 
 Fire 
 
 ami 
 
 emme 
 
 umma 
 
 Water 
 
 esi 
 
 asi 
 
 achye 
 
 One 
 
 aken 
 
 ako 
 
 ako 
 
 Two 
 
 ani 
 
 ani 
 
 aniko 
 
 Three 
 
 aam 
 
 angom 
 
 auniko 
 
 Four 
 
 apli 
 
 api 
 
 apiko 
 
 Five 
 
 ango 
 
 pilango 
 
 angoko 
 
 Six 
 
 akple 
 
 akye 
 
 nkengko 
 
 Seven 
 
 kanag 
 
 konange 
 
 kinitko 
 
 Eight 
 
 plagnag 
 
 pini 
 
 piniko 
 
 Nine 
 
 kayo 
 
 kinide 
 
 konangk 
 
 Ten 
 
 rang 
 
 iinge 
 
 uyingko. 
 
 The Mijhu and Tayung forms of speech are called 
 dialects of the Mishmi. Perhaps they are so. At the 
 same time they differ from one another more than the 
 Aka and Abor, which have been quoted as separate sub- 
 
 stantive languages :- 
 
 English. 
 
 Tayung. 
 
 Mijhu. 
 
 Man 
 
 nme 
 
 ktchong 
 
 Head 
 
 mkau 
 
 kau 
 
 Eye 
 
 mollom 
 
 mik 
 
 Ear 
 
 nkruna 
 
 ing 
 
 Blood 
 
 rhwei 
 
 vi 
 
 Bone 
 
 lubunglubra 
 
 zak 
 
 Hand 
 
 ptoya 
 
 yop 
 
 Foot 
 
 mgrung 
 
 mpla 
 
 Smi 
 
 ring-ngiiig 
 
 lemik 
 
30 
 
 
 MISHMI— KASIA- 
 
 -MIKIR. 
 
 English. 
 
 Tayung. 
 
 Mijliu. 
 
 Moon 
 
 hho 
 
 lai 
 
 Fire 
 
 naming 
 
 niai 
 
 Water 
 
 macM 
 
 ti 
 
 One 
 
 eking 
 
 kmo 
 
 Two 
 
 kaying 
 
 kaning 
 
 Three 
 
 kachong 
 
 kacham 
 
 Four 
 
 kaprei 
 
 ka.mbum 
 
 Five 
 
 inangu 
 
 kalei 
 
 Six 
 
 tharo 
 
 katham 
 
 Seven 
 
 uwe 
 
 nun 
 
 Eight 
 
 elyeni 
 
 ngun 
 
 Nine 
 
 konyong 
 
 nyet 
 
 Ten 
 
 halong 
 
 kyep. 
 
 The southern range now claims notice. We touched 
 it when the Garo and Bodo were under notice. 
 
 Due east of the Garo country come the Kasia dis- 
 tricts ; the language of which is less like its immediate 
 neighbour, than its locality suggests. 
 
 The MiJcir believe that their ancestors came from 
 the Jaintia Hills ; but no specimen of the Jaintia 
 dialects, eo nomine, being known, the value of the belief 
 is uncertain. Their present occupancies are in North 
 Cachar, Lower and Central Asam. The "sounds of 
 their language/' writes Robinson, " are pure and liquid," 
 and the gutturals and strong aspirates are but few. 
 There is a "slight nasal inflection and an abrupt 
 cadence." Some of the Mikir are imperfect converts to 
 Brahminism. 
 
 English. 
 
 Easia. 
 
 Mikir. 
 
 Man 
 
 uman 
 
 arleng 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 penso 
 
 Woman 
 
 ka kantei 
 
 arioso 
 
 Head 
 
 kakli 
 
 iphu 
 
 Eye 
 
 ka kamat 
 
 mek 
 
 Ear 
 
 ka skor 
 
 ino 
 
 Nose 
 
 ka kamut 
 
 inokan 
 
 Mouth 
 
 ka shintur 
 
 ingho 
 
 Tooth 
 
 ka baniat 
 
 isso 
 
 Tongue 
 
 
 ade 
 
 Hand 
 
 ka tkallid 
 
 ripa 
 
 Foot 
 
 ka kajat 
 
 kengpa" 
 

 THE ANGAML 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Kasia. 
 
 Mikir. 
 
 Sim 
 
 ka sngi 
 
 arni 
 
 Moon 
 
 ubanai 
 
 cheklo 
 
 Star 
 
 uMur 
 
 cteklo longsho 
 
 Fire 
 
 kading 
 
 me 
 
 Water 
 
 kaum 
 
 lang 
 
 Stone 
 
 man 
 
 arlong 
 
 Wood 
 
 kading 
 
 theng 
 
 One 
 
 
 nisi 
 
 Two 
 
 
 hini 
 
 Three 
 
 
 kithom 
 
 Fov/r 
 
 
 phili 
 
 Five 
 
 
 phanga 
 
 Six 
 
 
 therok 
 
 Seven 
 
 
 tlieroski 
 
 Eight 
 
 
 nerkep 
 
 Nine 
 
 
 serkep 
 
 Ten 
 
 
 kep. 
 
 31 
 
 The Angami succeed the Mikir ; rude hill-men, pagan, 
 and unlettered. Their language seems to fall into 
 dialects and sub-dialects ; its affinities being such as its 
 locality suggests. They are more especially, Mikir, 
 Aka, Dofla, and Abor. 
 
 Eiigliali. 
 
 Angami. 
 
 English. 
 
 Angami. 
 
 Man 
 
 ma 
 
 Fire 
 
 mi 
 
 Woman 
 
 tkenuma 
 
 Water 
 
 zu 
 
 Head 
 
 uchu 
 
 Stone 
 
 kecke 
 
 Eye 
 
 lunhi 
 
 Wood 
 
 si 
 
 Ear 
 
 uneu 
 
 One 
 
 po 
 
 Nose 
 
 unheu 
 
 Two 
 
 kana 
 
 Mouth 
 
 ume 
 
 Three 
 
 se 
 
 Tooth, 
 
 uhu 
 
 Four 
 
 da 
 
 Hand 
 
 ubiju 
 
 Five 
 
 pengu 
 
 Foot 
 
 uphi-ju 
 
 Six 
 
 shuru 
 
 Shy 
 
 keruke 
 
 Seven 
 
 thena 
 
 Day 
 
 ia 
 
 Eight 
 
 thata 
 
 Sun 
 
 naki 
 
 Nine 
 
 tkeku 
 
 Moon 
 
 thirr 
 
 Ten 
 
 kerr. 
 
 Star 
 
 themu 
 
 
 
 And now begins a district where classification by 
 means of definition is impracticable. The Angami, and 
 
 Little moons. 
 
32 
 
 NAGA DIALECTS. 
 
 the tribes to the east of them, are called Naga ; Naga 
 being a generic name for the wild tribes of mountains 
 that homidi . Asam to the south. It is not, however, 
 a name founded on their languages, and I doubt if it be 
 natural. I think that all the Naga dialects might be 
 grouped as Singpho without unduly raising the value of 
 the class so-called. 
 
 The earliest notice of the forms of the Naga (from 
 which I have separated the Angami) is by Brown, the 
 fullest is to be found in the second volume of Trans- 
 actions of the American Oriental Society, where there 
 are specimens of no less than ten of their dialects, or 
 sub-dialects. 
 
 English. 
 
 Nowgong. 
 
 Tengsa. 
 
 Kliari. 
 
 Hatigor. 
 
 Man 
 
 nyesung 
 
 mesung 
 
 ami 
 
 nyesung 
 
 Woman 
 
 — 
 
 anakti 
 
 anudi 
 
 tatsii 
 
 Head 
 
 takolak 
 
 tako 
 
 te-lim 
 
 takolak 
 
 Hair 
 
 ko 
 
 ko 
 
 kwa 
 
 ko 
 
 Eye 
 
 tenok 
 
 te nyik 
 
 te-nik 
 
 te-nok 
 
 Ear 
 
 tenaung 
 
 te-lanno 
 
 te-nbaun 
 
 te-naung 
 
 Tooth 
 
 tabu 
 
 ta-pbu 
 
 ta-pba 
 
 ta-bu 
 
 Hand 
 
 tekha 
 
 ta-khat 
 
 ta-kbet 
 
 ta-kha 
 
 Foot 
 
 tatsiing 
 
 ta-cbing 
 
 ta-cbang 
 
 ta-tsiing 
 
 Shy 
 
 • mabat 
 
 anung 
 
 aning 
 
 anyang 
 
 Sun 
 
 annu 
 
 tinglu 
 
 subih 
 
 annu 
 
 Moon 
 
 yita 
 
 luta 
 
 leta 
 
 yita 
 
 Star 
 
 pitinu 
 
 lutingting 
 
 peti 
 
 pitinu 
 
 Fire 
 
 mi 
 
 masi 
 
 matsii 
 
 mi 
 
 Water 
 
 tsu 
 
 tii 
 
 atsii 
 
 tsii 
 
 Stone 
 
 lungzuk 
 
 lungmango 
 
 along 
 
 lungzuk 
 
 Tree 
 
 santung 
 
 sangtung 
 
 sundong 
 
 santung 
 
 One 
 
 katang 
 
 kbatu 
 
 akbet 
 
 — 
 
 Two 
 
 anna 
 
 annat 
 
 anne 
 
 — 
 
 Three 
 
 asam 
 
 asam 
 
 asam 
 
 — 
 
 Four 
 
 pazr 
 
 pbale 
 
 phali 
 
 — 
 
 Five 
 
 pungu 
 
 pbungu 
 
 pbanga 
 
 — 
 
 Six 
 
 tank . 
 
 tbelok 
 
 tarok 
 
 — 
 
 Seven 
 
 tanet 
 
 tbanyet 
 
 tani 
 
 — 
 
 Eight 
 
 te 
 
 tbesep 
 
 sachet 
 
 — 
 
 Nine 
 
 taku 
 
 tbaku 
 
 taken 
 
 — 
 
 Ten 
 
 tarr 
 
 thelu 
 
 tarah 
 
 — 
 
THE SINGPHO. 
 
 33 
 
 English. 
 
 
 Namsang, &c. 
 
 Joboka, &c. 
 
 Man 
 
 
 minyan 
 
 mi 
 
 Woman 
 
 
 dehiek 
 
 tnnaunu 
 
 Head 
 
 
 kho 
 
 khangra 
 
 Hair 
 
 
 kacho 
 
 kho 
 
 Eye 
 
 
 mit 
 
 Tnik 
 
 Ear 
 
 
 na 
 
 na 
 
 Tooth 
 
 
 pa 
 
 va 
 
 Hand 
 
 
 dak 
 
 cha,k 
 
 Foot 
 
 
 da 
 
 tsha 
 
 Sky 
 
 
 rangtung 
 
 rangphum 
 
 Sun 
 
 
 san 
 
 ranghan 
 
 Moon 
 
 
 da 
 
 letlu 
 
 Star 
 
 
 merik 
 
 letsi 
 
 Fire 
 
 
 van 
 
 van 
 
 Water 
 
 
 jo 
 
 ti 
 
 Stone 
 
 
 long 
 
 long 
 
 One 
 
 
 vanthe 
 
 tuta 
 
 Two 
 
 
 vanyi 
 
 anyi 
 
 Three 
 
 
 vanram 
 
 azam 
 
 Four 
 
 
 
 aU 
 
 Five 
 
 
 banga 
 
 aga 
 
 Six 
 
 
 irok 
 
 azok 
 
 Seven 
 
 
 ingit 
 
 annat 
 
 Eight 
 
 
 isat 
 
 achat 
 
 Nine 
 
 
 ikhu 
 
 aku 
 
 Ten 
 
 
 ichi 
 
 banban. 
 
 English. Mithan. 
 
 Tablun 
 
 ?• 
 
 English. 
 
 Mithan. Tabluug. 
 
 Man mi 
 
 sauniak 
 
 Water 
 
 ti riang 
 
 Woman — 
 
 chikkho 
 
 Stone 
 
 ling yong 
 
 Head khang 
 
 sang 
 
 
 Tree 
 
 pan peh 
 
 Hair kho 
 
 min 
 
 
 One 
 
 atta cha 
 
 Eye mik 
 
 mik 
 
 
 Two 
 
 unyi ih 
 
 Ear na 
 
 na 
 
 
 Three 
 
 azum lem 
 
 Tooth va 
 
 pha 
 
 
 Four 
 
 ali peU 
 
 Hand chak 
 
 yak 
 
 
 Five 
 
 aga nga 
 
 Foot tchya 
 
 yahlan 
 
 Six 
 
 arok vok 
 
 Sun ranghon 
 
 wangh 
 
 i 
 
 Seven 
 
 anath niath, neth 
 
 Moon letna 
 
 ]e 
 
 
 Eight 
 
 ainet thuth 
 
 Star lethi 
 
 chaha 
 
 
 Nine 
 
 aku ther, thu 
 
 Fire van 
 
 ah 
 
 
 Ten 
 
 ban pan. 
 
 The Jactung, JVIalung, and Sima dialects are closely 
 akin to this. 
 
 In a limited sense, Singpho is a convenient name for 
 a group of dialects, of which (1) the Singpho Proper, (2) 
 
 D 
 
S4 
 
 THE SINGPHO. 
 
 the Jili, and (3) the Kakhyen, are known by specimens. 
 On the north-east it touches the Mishmi, and the intru- 
 sive Khamti. On the south-east it comes in contact with 
 certain dialects of the Siamese group ; being itself the 
 nearest congener not belonging to their class. 
 
 The Singpho Proper are Buddhists, with a Shan 
 alphabet. The Muttuk, Moran, or Moameria, are 
 Hindu in creed, though of suspicious orthodoxy. Of 
 their language, eo nomine (unless the Mithan of the 
 foregoing table be one), I have seen no specimen. I 
 find, however, statements to the following effect, viz. 
 that that of the Khaphok tribe is just intelligible to a 
 Singpho Proper ; that in the Khanung there is still a 
 resemblance to the Singpho, but that the language is 
 no longer mutually intelligible ; and thirdly, that the 
 Khalang and Nogmun forms of speech are truly 
 Singpho. 
 
 Of the Jili vocabulary (the only one we have) seventy 
 per cent, is Singpho, twenty-two per cent. Garo. This 
 gives an indirect connection with the Bhot ; a connection, 
 however, which is no closer than that with the Burmese. 
 In short, the Singpho group is eminently transitional, 
 its value being, in the present state of our knowledge, 
 uncertain. 
 
 English. 
 
 Singpho. 
 
 Jili. 
 
 Kakhyeu. 
 
 Man 
 
 singpho 
 
 nsang 
 
 masha 
 
 Hair 
 
 kara 
 
 kara 
 
 kala 
 
 Head 
 
 bong 
 
 nggum 
 
 paong 
 
 Ew 
 
 na 
 
 kana 
 
 na 
 
 Eye 
 
 mi 
 
 njn 
 
 mi 
 
 Blood 
 
 sai 
 
 tashai 
 
 tsan 
 
 Bone 
 
 nrang 
 
 khamrang 
 
 — 
 
 Foot 
 
 lagong 
 
 takkhyai 
 
 nego 
 
 Hand 
 
 letta 
 
 taphan 
 
 letla 
 
 Sun 
 
 jan 
 
 katsan 
 
 tsan 
 
 Moon 
 
 sita 
 
 sata 
 
 tsata 
 
 Star 
 
 sigan 
 
 sakan 
 
 shigan 
 
 Fire 
 
 wan 
 
 tavan 
 
 wan 
 
 Water 
 
 ncin 
 
 mchin 
 
 entsin 
 
 Stone 
 
 nlving 
 
 talong 
 
 long 
 
 Tree 
 
 phun 
 
 phtin 
 
 phoun 
 
THE SINGPHO. — THE DEORIA CUUTIA. 
 
 35 
 
 English. 
 
 One 
 
 Two 
 
 Three 
 
 Four 
 
 Five 
 
 Six 
 
 Seven 
 
 EigU 
 
 Nine 
 
 Ten 
 
 Singpha 
 
 dima 
 
 nkhong 
 
 masum 
 
 meli 
 
 manga 
 
 kru 
 
 sinit 
 
 macat 
 
 tseku 
 
 Jili. 
 
 Kakhyen. 
 
 nge 
 
 onkong 
 
 mesong 
 
 meli 
 
 menga 
 
 kaou 
 
 senit 
 
 matsat 
 
 tiekho 
 
 shi. 
 
 Of the Deoria Cliutia, I only know that the following 
 
 IS a specimen. 
 
 English. 
 
 Man 
 
 Hair 
 
 Head 
 
 Ear 
 
 Eye 
 
 Blood 
 
 Bone 
 
 Foot 
 
 Hand 
 
 Sun 
 
 Moon 
 
 Star 
 
 Fire 
 
 Chutia. 
 
 mosi 
 
 kin 
 
 gubong 
 
 yaku 
 
 mukuti 
 
 chui 
 
 pichon 
 
 yapasu 
 
 otun 
 
 sanh 
 
 yah 
 
 jiti 
 
 nye 
 
 English, 
 
 Chutia. 
 
 Water 
 
 ji 
 
 Stone 
 
 yatiri 
 
 Tree 
 
 popong 
 
 One 
 
 dugsha 
 
 Two 
 
 dukuni 
 
 Three 
 
 dugda 
 
 Four 
 
 duguchi 
 
 Five 
 
 dugumua 
 
 Six 
 
 duguchu 
 
 Seven 
 
 duguchi 1 
 
 Eight 
 
 duguche 
 
 Nine 
 
 duguchuba 
 
 Ten 
 
 dugucbuba and 
 
 It is, probably, Singpho. 
 
 1)2 
 
36 THE BURMESE GROUP. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 Continuation of the Garo line. — The Khumia, Old and New Kuki. — The 
 Continuation of the Naga line. — -Munipur Group. — Koreng, Luhuppa, 
 Tankhu, Khoibu, &c. — The Karens. — The Burmese Proper. 
 
 Caucasus itself, with all its accumulation of mutually 
 unintelligible forms of speech, within a comparatively 
 small area, is less remarkable for the density of its lan- 
 guages than the parts now under notice. Whether we 
 look to the Garo, Kasia, and Mikir areas themselves, or 
 the parts which immediately underlie them, viz : 
 Cachar, Sylhet, Tipperah, and Chittagong ; whether 
 we look to the Naga districts of Asam and the parts 
 that lie due south of them, or the valley of the Upper 
 Irawadi and its feeders, we find an accumulation of 
 actual languages, or possible dialects, such as we rarely 
 find in the Old World elsewhere. 
 
 We may take up our line from either the Garo, Bodo, 
 Kasia, and Mikir, or from the Nagas. I begin with 
 the former. 
 
 The Khumia occupy the skirts, the Kuld the tops of 
 the hills. Except so far as the difierence of level may 
 develope difierences in their mode of life, a Kuki is a 
 Khumia, a Khumia a Kuki. The Kuki, however, are, 
 as may be expected, the ruder and more truly pagan 
 tribe ; the creed being, nevertheless, tinctured with 
 Indian elements. 
 
 The Kuki, who about sixty years ago came from the 
 jungles of Tipperah to settle in Cachar, were, at first, 
 in the same category with the Nagas, i. e. naked. In 
 the course of time they ceased to deserve the name. 
 They not only wear clothes now, but are skilful in the 
 
, THE BURMESE GROUP. 37 
 
 cultivation and weaving of cotton. They are well 
 clothed and well fed ; on a level with the Angami 
 Nagas for physical strength and also with the Kasia. 
 
 In Cachar they are called the Old Kuki. They fall 
 into three divisions — the Ehangkul, the Khelma, and 
 the Betch, the first being the largest. The whole, how- 
 ever, are under 4000. 
 
 The Old Kuki of Cachar have a New Kuki to match. 
 Both came from the south — both from the ruder parts 
 of Tipperah and Chittagong. They came, however, as 
 the name implies, at different times, and, as their lan- 
 guage suggests, from different districts. The New 
 Kuki form of speech is not always intelligible to an 
 Old Kuki. Mr. Stewart saw one of the Khelma tribe 
 as much puzzled with what a New Kuki was saying to 
 him as he would have been with a perfect stranger. 
 On the other hand, the Manipur dialects and the New 
 Kuki are mutually intelligible. I do not think that 
 the vocabularies verify this doctrine, either in the way 
 of likeness or of difference. It may, nevertheless, be 
 accurate. 
 
 Mug is the name by which the native population 
 of the towns and villages of Arakan is designated. 
 The Mugs amount to about six-tenths of the whole 
 population ; one tenth being Burmese, and the remainder 
 Hindu. The only town of importance is the capital. 
 Some of the Mug villages lie but just above the level 
 of the sea ; others are on the sides, others on the tops, 
 of hills. The early history of Arakan, so far as it may 
 be dignified by that name, makes it an independent 
 State, sometimes with Chittagong and Tipperah in sub- 
 jection to it, sometimes with Chittagong and Tipperah 
 separate. The island of Eamri, Cheduba and Sando- 
 way are parts of Arakan ; Mug in language, British in 
 politics. 
 
 In the hill-country the type is changed, and instead 
 
 the comparatively civilized Mug we get tribes like 
 
38 THE BURMESE GROUP. . 
 
 the Kuki and Naga. The best known of these 
 are — 
 
 The Tribes of the Koladyn River, which form a 
 convenient if not a strictly-natural group. The Ko- 
 ladyn being the chief river of Arakan, and Arakan 
 being a British possession, the opportunities for collecting 
 information have been favourable ; nor have they been 
 neglected. Of the names of tribes, and of specimens 
 of language, we have no want ; rather an emharras 
 de richesse. Buddhism, as a general rule, is partial 
 and imperfect ; partial as being found in some tribes 
 only, imperfect as being strongly tinctured with the 
 original Paganism. And of unmodified Paganism there 
 is, probably, not a little. The forms of speech fall into 
 strongly-marked dialects, in some, into separate lan- 
 guages ; by which I mean that, in some cases, they may 
 be mutually unintelligible. The government seems to 
 be patriarchal during a time of peace, ducal during a 
 time of war ; ducal meaning that a tribe, or a con- 
 federacy of tribes, may find themselves, for the time, 
 under the command of some general chief. The story 
 of almost every tribe is the same. It came upon its 
 present locality a few generations back, having originally 
 dwelt elsewhere ; somewhere northwards, somewhere to 
 the south, somewhere to the east. It dispossessed cer- 
 tain earlier occupants. But these earlier occupants may, 
 in their turn, be found in fragments, consisting of a 
 single village, or of a few families. The form that the 
 history, if so it may be called, of these marchings and 
 countermarchings, of these fusions and amalgamations, 
 of these encroachments and displacements, assumes, is 
 deserving of notice. 
 
 One of the forms of tribute to a certain con- 
 queror of one of the branches of the Khyens was 
 the payment of a certain number of beautiful women ? 
 To avoid this the beautiful women tattooed themselves, 
 so as to become ugly. This is why they are tattooed 
 
THE BURMESE GROUP. 89 
 
 at the present time. So runs the tale. In reality, 
 they are tattooed because they are savages. The nar- 
 rative about the conqueror is their way of explaining 
 it. In Turner's account of Tibet, the same story 
 repeats itself, mutatis mutandis. The women of a 
 certain town were too handsome to be looked at with 
 impunity ; for, as their virtue was proportionately easy, 
 the morals of the people suffered. So a sort of sump- 
 tuary law against an excess of good looks was enacted ; 
 from the date o^ which to the present time the women, 
 whenever they go abroad, smear their faces with a 
 dingy dirty- coloured oil, and so conceal such natural 
 charms as they might otherwise exhibit. 
 
 There is another class of inferences ; for which, how- 
 ever, learned men in Calcutta and London are chiefly 
 answerable. Some of the tribes are darker-skinned 
 than others. The inference is that they have Indian 
 blood in their veins. They may have this. The fact, 
 however, should rest upon its proper evidence. I ven- 
 ture to guess that, in most cases where this darkness of 
 complexion occurs, the soil will have more to do with it 
 than any intercourse with the Hindus. There will be 
 the least of it on the hill-tops, less of it on the hill-sides, 
 most of it in the swampy bottoms and hot jungles. 
 At the same time, some Indian influences are actually 
 at work. 
 
 The tribe which, most probably, is in the closest geo- 
 graphical contact with the Kuki of Chittagong is the 
 
 Mru, or Tung Mru, the name being native. It is 
 also Rukheng. It means in Rukheng, or the language 
 of Arakan, over and above the particular tribes under 
 notice, all the hill-men of the surrounding district ; this 
 being the high country between Arakan and Chittagong. 
 That the Mru are the same as the Mrting, who deduce 
 their origin from Tipperah, I have no doubt ; though I 
 doubt the origin. They were all parts of one and the 
 same division. At the present moment, the Mrii are in 
 
40 THE KAMI, ETC. 
 
 low condition ; fallen from their ancient high estate ; 
 for at one time, a Mrti chief was chosen king of 
 Arakan ; and when the Rukheng conqueror invaded the 
 country, the country was Mrti. However, at present, 
 the Mru are despised. Their number in Arakan 
 amounts to about 2800. Their present occupancy is 
 somewhat west of their older one. This was on the 
 Upper Koladyn ; whence they were expelled by — 
 
 The Kami or Kumi, — The Kami or Kumi are them- 
 selves suflfering from encroachments ; gradually being 
 driven westwards and southwards. They state that 
 they once dwelt on the hills now held by the Khyens. 
 What this means, however, is uncertain. The Khyens of a 
 forthcoming section lie south of the Koladyn on the Yuma 
 Mountains. If these, then, were the men who displaced 
 the Kami and Kumi, the Kami and the Kumi them- 
 selves, when they moved upon the Mru, moved north- 
 wards. But this need not have been the case. Khyen 
 is a name given to more populations than one ; and the 
 very Mru of the last noticed are sometimes called 
 Khyen. If so, it may have been from one part of the 
 Mru country that the Kami and Kumi moved against 
 another part. I do not give this as histor}^ ; scarcely 
 as speculation. I only give it as a sample of the com- 
 plications of the subject. Word for word, I consider 
 the Kami and Kumi to be neither more nor less than 
 the name of the Khumia of Chittagong. I also think 
 that Mru is Miri. The Kami (Kumi) of British Arakan 
 amount to 4129 souls. 
 
 The Sak or Thak. — The Sak, or Thak, are a small 
 tribe on the river Nauf 
 
 English. Mrl. Kumi. Kami. Sak. 
 
 Man mrti ku-mi ka-mi lu 
 
 Head 16 a-lu a-lti a-khu 
 
 Hair s'hdm s'ham a-s'ham kfi-mi 
 
 Eye min me a-mi a-mi 
 
 Uar pa-ram ka-no a-ga-na a-ka-n4 
 
 Tooth yun he a-fha a-^Aa-w4 
 
 iTV/ 
 
THE KAMI, ETC. 
 
 41 
 
 English. 
 
 Mm. 
 
 Kumi. 
 
 Kami. 
 
 Sale. 
 
 Mouth 
 
 naur 
 
 li-boung 
 
 a-ma-ka 
 
 ang-si 
 
 Hand 
 
 rut 
 
 ka 
 
 aku 
 
 ta-ku 
 
 Foot 
 
 khouk 
 
 khou 
 
 a-kho 
 
 a-tar 
 
 Shin 
 
 Pi 
 
 pe 
 
 a-phti 
 
 mi-lak 
 
 Blood 
 
 wi 
 
 a-tM 
 
 a-tki 
 
 th^ 
 
 Bone 
 
 a-hot 
 
 a-hu 
 
 a-M 
 
 a-mra 
 
 Sun 
 
 ta-nin 
 
 ka-ni 
 
 ka-ni 
 
 sa-mi 
 
 Moon 
 
 pu-la 
 
 hlo 
 
 14 
 
 f/tat-ta 
 
 Star 
 
 ki-rek 
 
 ka-si 
 
 a-shi 
 
 «Aa-geing-fM 
 
 Fire 
 
 ma-i 
 
 mha-i 
 
 ma-i 
 
 ba-in 
 
 Water 
 
 tu-i 
 
 tu-t 
 
 tu-I 
 
 mi(?) 
 
 Bird 
 
 ta wa 
 
 ta-wii 
 
 ka-va 
 
 wa-si 
 
 Fish 
 
 dam 
 
 ngho 
 
 moi 
 
 pan-na 
 
 Snake 
 
 ta-ro-a 
 
 pu-wi 
 
 ma-khu-i 
 
 ka-pu 
 
 Stone 
 
 ta-wlia 
 
 lun-s'houng 
 
 ka-mn 
 
 ta-lon 
 
 Tree 
 
 tsing-dung 
 
 din-koung 
 
 a-kun 
 
 pung-pang 
 
 Mountain 
 
 shung 
 
 mo-i 
 
 ta-kun 
 
 ta-ko 
 
 Fiver 
 
 au 
 
 ka-wti 
 
 ka-va 
 
 pi-si 
 
 Village 
 
 kwa 
 
 a-v§,ng 
 
 vang 
 
 thing 
 
 Home 
 
 kin 
 
 6m 
 
 in 
 
 kyin 
 
 Egg 
 
 diti 
 
 diu 
 
 du 
 
 wa-ti 
 
 Horn 
 
 anSng 
 
 ta-ki 
 
 at-ta-ki 
 
 a-rung 
 
 One 
 
 loung 
 
 h^ 
 
 ha 
 
 su-war 
 
 Two 
 
 pre 
 
 nhti 
 
 nl 
 
 nein 
 
 Three 
 
 shun 
 
 turn 
 
 ka-tun 
 
 thin 
 
 Four 
 
 ta-li 
 
 pa-lu 
 
 ma-li 
 
 pri 
 
 Five 
 
 ta-ngd 
 
 pan 
 
 pang-nga 
 
 nga 
 
 Six 
 
 ta-ru 
 
 ta-r<i 
 
 ta-6 
 
 khyouk 
 
 Seven 
 
 ra-nhit 
 
 sa-ru 
 
 sa-ri 
 
 tha-ni 
 
 Eight 
 
 ri-yat 
 
 ta-ya 
 
 ka-ya 
 
 a-tseit 
 
 Nine 
 
 ta-ku 
 
 ta-kau 
 
 ta-ko 
 
 ta-fu 
 
 Ten 
 
 ha 
 
 hau 
 
 ha-suh 
 
 si-su. 
 
 The Reuma or Shendu. — In 21° 15' N. L. the 
 Meeykyoung falls into the Koladyn from the east. It, 
 of course, arises on some higher level, and this higher 
 level is the watershed between it and the drainage of 
 the Manipur system. The Shendu is known through a 
 short vocabulary of Captain Ticket's. 
 
 Sylhet and Tipperah are like Asam ; i. e. more or less 
 Indian. The aboriginal dialects, however, are allied to 
 each other and to the Burmese. 
 
 It may safely be said that all the preceding speci- 
 mens represent dialects or sub-dialects of a single group ; 
 
42 THE KOREKG. 
 
 all spoken by rude tribes, and all indigenous to the north- 
 western parts of the Peninsula. 
 
 And now we go on from the Nagas. Of the frontier 
 between the southern members of the group represented 
 by them and the northern tribes of Munipur I can give 
 no account. It seems, however, that over and above 
 the civilized and Buddhist occupants of the capital and 
 the parts around, the phenomena which we have seen in 
 the Naga districts repeat themselves. From the southern 
 slope of the Patkoe range the feeders of the western 
 branch of the Irawadi cut channels and fertilize valleys, 
 the occupancies of rude tribes. 
 
 That some of the forthcoming samples may represent 
 dialects rather than separate substantive languages is 
 probable. If so, as our knowledge increases, the de- 
 tails will be fewer. This, however, is no more than has 
 taken place with the philology of Caucasus itself 
 
 The language of this class which more especially leads 
 to those of the last, is (I think) the Koreng ; so that if 
 we make the Munipur the centre of our group, the 
 Koreng is its osculant or transitional member, leading 
 toward the Naga division. 
 
 The following specimens are all taken from a paper 
 by the Rev. N. Brown in the seventh volume of the 
 Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, and they 
 are. accompanied by a table giving the percentage of 
 words common to any of two of them : — 
 
 (!•) 
 
 English. 
 
 Koreng. 
 
 Songpu. 
 
 Man . 
 
 cha mai 
 
 mai 
 
 Head 
 
 cha-pi 
 
 pi 
 
 Hair 
 
 ta-tham 
 
 sam 
 
 Mouth 
 
 cha-mun 
 
 mhoang 
 
 Tooth 
 
 ahu 
 
 hu, nai 
 
 Eye 
 
 mik 
 
 mhik 
 
 Ear 
 
 kon 
 
 anhukon 
 

 THE KORENG. 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Koreng. 
 
 Songpu. 
 
 Blood 
 
 ta-zyai 
 
 zyai 
 
 Bone 
 
 para 
 
 karau 
 
 Hand 
 
 cha-ben 
 
 ban 
 
 Foot 
 
 cha-pi 
 
 phai 
 
 STcy 
 
 tiBggem 
 
 tingpuk 
 
 Sun 
 
 ting-naimik 
 
 naimhik 
 
 Moon 
 
 charhu 
 
 VM. 
 
 Star 
 
 chagan 
 
 ganchongna 
 
 Day 
 
 nin 
 
 kalhan 
 
 Fire 
 
 cha-mi 
 
 mai 
 
 Water 
 
 ta-dui 
 
 dui 
 
 Bird 
 
 ntliikna 
 
 nroi 
 
 Egg 
 
 pabum 
 
 nroidui 
 
 Earth 
 
 kadi 
 
 kandi 
 
 Fish 
 
 cba-kba 
 
 kha 
 
 Tree 
 
 sing-bang 
 
 thing bang 
 
 Stone 
 
 talo 
 
 ntau. 
 
 43 
 
 (2.) 
 
 English. 
 
 Luhuppa. 
 
 North TankhuL 
 
 Man 
 
 mi 
 
 mil 
 
 Head 
 
 kui 
 
 ak^o 
 
 Hair 
 
 kosen 
 
 sam 
 
 Mouth 
 
 khamor 
 
 ania 
 
 Tooth 
 
 ha 
 
 aha 
 
 Eye 
 
 mik 
 
 amicha 
 
 Ear 
 
 khana 
 
 akhana 
 
 Blood 
 
 ashi 
 
 asii 
 
 Bone 
 
 arii 
 
 arUk^u 
 
 Hand 
 
 pang 
 
 akhui 
 
 Foot 
 
 phai 
 
 akho 
 
 STcy 
 
 kazing 
 
 kazirang 
 
 Sun 
 
 tsingmik 
 
 yimit 
 
 Moon 
 
 kachang 
 
 kacheang 
 
 Star 
 
 serva 
 
 sapachengla 
 
 Day 
 
 ngasun 
 
 masiitum 
 
 Fire 
 
 mai 
 
 mai 
 
 Water 
 
 taru 
 
 aichu 
 
 Bird 
 
 va 
 
 ata 
 
 Egg 
 
 haru 
 
 hachii 
 
 Fish 
 
 khai 
 
 khi 
 
 Stone 
 
 ngalung 
 
 lunggan 
 
 Tree 
 
 thingrong 
 
 thingbang. 
 
44 
 
 THE KORENG. 
 
 (3.) 
 
 English. 
 
 Khoibu. 
 
 Maring. 
 
 Man , 
 
 thami 
 
 hmi 
 
 Head 
 
 lu 
 
 lu 
 
 Hair 
 
 sam 
 
 sam 
 
 Mouth 
 
 mur 
 
 mur 
 
 Tooth 
 
 ha 
 
 ha 
 
 Eye 
 
 mit 
 
 mit 
 
 Ear 
 
 khana 
 
 nhamil 
 
 Blood 
 
 hi 
 
 hi 
 
 Bone 
 
 thuru 
 
 kru 
 
 Hand 
 
 khut 
 
 hut 
 
 Foot 
 
 wang 
 
 ho 
 
 STcy 
 
 thangwan 
 
 nungthau 
 
 Sun 
 
 nongmit 
 
 nungmit 
 
 Moon 
 
 tangla 
 
 tangla 
 
 Star 
 
 tikron 
 
 sorwa 
 
 Day 
 
 nongyang 
 
 nunghan 
 
 Fire 
 
 mai 
 
 mai 
 
 Water 
 
 yui 
 
 yui 
 
 Bird 
 
 watsa 
 
 wacha 
 
 Egg 
 
 wayxii 
 
 wayui 
 
 Fish 
 
 thanga 
 
 hnga 
 
 Stone 
 
 thuUung 
 
 khlung 
 
 Tree 
 
 hingtong 
 
 (4.) 
 
 hingbal. 
 
 English. 
 
 Kapwi. 
 
 Maram. 
 
 Man 
 
 mi 
 
 m 
 
 Head 
 
 lu 
 
 a-pi 
 
 Hair 
 
 sam 
 
 tham 
 
 Mouth 
 
 mamun 
 
 ta mathu 
 
 Tooth 
 
 nga 
 
 agha 
 
 Eye 
 
 mik 
 
 mik 
 
 Ear 
 
 kana 
 
 ink on 
 
 Blood 
 
 thi 
 
 a-zyi 
 
 Bone 
 
 maru 
 
 mahu 
 
 Hand 
 
 kut 
 
 Tan 
 
 Foot 
 
 ki 
 
 phai 
 
 Sky 
 
 tangban 
 
 tinggam 
 
 Sun 
 
 rimik 
 
 tamik 
 
 Moon 
 
 tha 
 
 Iha 
 
 Star 
 
 insi 
 
 chaghantai 
 
 Hay 
 
 tamlai 
 
 lanla 
 
 Fire 
 
 mai 
 
 mai 
 
 Water 
 
 tui 
 
 a-thui 
 
THE KOREKG. 
 
 45 
 
 English. 
 Bird 
 
 Egg 
 
 Fish 
 
 Stone 
 
 Tree 
 
 Kapwi. 
 
 masa 
 
 makatui 
 
 lung 
 thingkung 
 
 Marani. 
 
 aroi 
 
 aroigliuTn 
 
 khai 
 
 akoi 
 
 ntau. 
 
 As the table itself, containing as it does some lan- 
 guages foreign to the present district, will be required 
 elsewhere, I satisfy myself by giving the following 
 extracts from it. The percentage of Munipur words in 
 the preceding vocabularies is as follows : — 
 
 In the Maring 50 
 
 Kapwi 41 
 
 Khoibu 40 
 
 Middle Tankhul .... 35 
 
 South Tankhul .... 33 
 
 Luhuppa 31 
 
 North Tankhul . . . . 28 
 
 Champhung 28 
 
 In the Koreng itself it is 18. 
 
 All dialects giving, in Brown's Tables, more than 25 
 per cent., I have classed as Munipur, the classification 
 being provisional, and, by no means implying that 25 
 jper cent., constitutes a dialect. The great point to 
 work-out here is the direction of the affinities. 
 
 Word for word Koreng seems Karen ; Maring 
 Maram ; and Mru, Mrung, and Miri. 
 
 But it is not only from the Naga that the Koreng leads. 
 The Munipur, which has only a percentage of 16 with 
 the Proper Burmese, has one of 1 5 with the Karen, 1 5 
 with the Abor, 16 with the Jili (decidedly Singpho) 21 
 with the Songphu, 25 with the Maram, and 25 with 
 the Singpho. 
 
 Between the Burmese Proper and the Siamese area 
 there intervene — 
 
 The Karen Dialects. — The Karen tribes are believed 
 to have great extension in a vertical direction, i. e. from 
 
46 
 
 THE KAREN. 
 
 North to South, being said to extend from 28° to 10° 
 N. L. If so, some contain Siamese, some Burmese, and 
 some Chinese subjects. It is the southern section, how- 
 ever, which is best known ; the languages here having 
 commanded great and especial attention on the part of 
 the American missionaries, whose exertions seem to have 
 been rewarded with unusual success. The Proper Karen 
 dialects are the Sgau and the Pwo : to which a third 
 form of speech the Thoung-lhu is closely allied. Limited, 
 as it is, by the literary Burmese, the Siamese, and the 
 Mon of Pegu, the Karen division is a natural one, so 
 far as the dialects that belong to it are known to us at 
 the present time. 
 
 English. 
 
 Sgau. 
 
 Pwo. 
 
 Thoung-IM. 
 
 Man 
 
 po-khwg, 
 
 psh4' 
 
 Ian 
 
 Head 
 
 kh6' 
 
 kho' ■ 
 
 katu 
 
 Hair 
 
 kho-thu 
 
 kh6-thu 
 
 tu-lu 
 
 Eye 
 
 me 
 
 me 
 
 may 
 
 Ear 
 
 na 
 
 na 
 
 nau 
 
 Tooth 
 
 me 
 
 thwa 
 
 ta-gna 
 
 Mouth 
 
 tha-kho 
 
 n6 
 
 proung 
 
 Hand 
 
 tsM 
 
 tshu' 
 
 su 
 
 Foot 
 
 kho 
 
 khan' 
 
 khan 
 
 Skin 
 
 phi 
 
 phi 
 
 phro 
 
 Blood 
 
 thwi 
 
 tshii thwi 
 
 thway 
 
 Bone 
 
 ghi 
 
 ghwi 
 
 htSDt 
 
 Sun 
 
 mu 
 
 mu 
 
 mu 
 
 Moon 
 
 14 
 
 1& 
 
 lu 
 
 Star 
 
 tsM* 
 
 sh&< 
 
 hsa 
 
 Fire 
 
 me'u 
 
 m6* 
 
 may 
 
 Water 
 
 thi 
 
 thi 
 
 htl 
 
 Bird 
 
 tho' 
 
 th6' 
 
 a-wa 
 
 Fish 
 
 nya' 
 
 y4* 
 
 lita 
 
 Snake 
 
 gu 
 
 wgii 
 
 h'm 
 
 Stone 
 
 lu 
 
 Ion 
 
 lung 
 
 Tree 
 
 the' 
 
 th6n 
 
 thing-mu 
 
 Mountain 
 
 ka-tsii 
 
 kh6'-lon 
 
 koung 
 
 Fiver 
 
 thi-klo' 
 
 thi-kl6 
 
 nhrong 
 
 Village 
 
 tha-wo 
 
 ta-wun 
 
 dung 
 
 Home 
 
 hi 
 
 yen 
 
 sam 
 
 Egg 
 
 di' 
 
 di* 
 
 de 
 
 Horn 
 
 ku-nu 
 
 n6n- 
 
 nung 
 
 One 
 
 ta 
 
 kada 
 
 ta 
 
THE BURMESE PROPER. 47 
 
 Two. 
 ni 
 
 thun 
 li 
 
 yei 
 gliii 
 nwi 
 gho 
 khwi 
 Ten ta-tshi ka-tshi 
 
 English. 
 
 Sgau. 
 
 Two 
 
 kM 
 
 Three 
 
 thu 
 
 Four 
 
 Iwi 
 
 Five 
 
 ye 
 
 Six 
 
 ghu 
 
 Seven 
 
 nwi 
 
 Fight 
 
 gh6 
 
 Nine 
 
 khwi 
 
 Thouug-lbu. 
 
 ne 
 
 thung 
 
 leet 
 
 ngat 
 
 ther 
 
 nwot 
 
 that 
 
 koot 
 
 tah-si. 
 
 The Burmese Proper now finds its place. It is a lite- 
 rary language ; and, not only is it this, but it is the 
 only important one of the group. It has been culti- 
 vated as such some centuries — it is not safe to say how 
 many. Perhaps it is six or seven hundred years since 
 the first composition in Burmese was written. The 
 alphabet is of Indian origin, and it came in with Budd- 
 hism and the Pali literature. To this, the ordinary 
 Burmese has always been subservient ; so that it has 
 been limited to secular literature. What this is will 
 appear when we speak of the Siamese ; for the difference 
 between the literary Siamese and the literary Burmese 
 is but small. It is a mere difference of degree. The 
 philological view of the Burmese is, that it was originally 
 a dialect of the parts about Ummerapura, to which, 
 after an alphabet had been supplied, it became current 
 over a large district, and was embodied and kept, more 
 or less, stationary in books. At the same time it was 
 a dialect of a valley belonging to the broader part of a 
 river, and, as such, was a dialect of considerable geo- 
 graphical magnitude in the first instance. 
 
 Its literature is purely Buddhist ; and, in this, it differs 
 from the Munipur form of speech, which, to say nothing 
 about its being a dialect of a smaller area, was, to a 
 great extent, Brahminic as weU. But its true Buddhist 
 literature is Pali. 
 
 The older notices, and they are scarcely older than the 
 early volumes of the Asiatic Researches, wherein we find 
 
48 
 
 THE BURMESE PROPER. 
 
 valuable Papers by Buchanan and Leyden, divide it into 
 four dialects ; the Burmese Proper, the Arakan, the 
 Tenasserim, and the Yo. This means merely the diffe- 
 rent ways in which Burmese, as Burmese, was spoken. 
 It never anticipated such divisions as the present work 
 has indicated, viz. Khen forms of speech from the Yoma, 
 or Yo country ; and dialect after dialect from one river, 
 the Koladyn, along with the several southern forms found 
 in Tenasserim ; though these are less marked than the 
 others. I think that it merely meant the variations 
 which the Burmese, or Avan, eo nomine, as a separate 
 substantive language, underwent. According to the 
 view implied in this division, there would have been 
 one great, and several smaller, languages. 
 
 However, the Burmese and Rukheng (of Arakan), 
 under this view, are as follows : — 
 
 English. 
 
 Burmese. 
 
 Rukheng. 
 
 Man 
 
 lu 
 
 yonkkya 
 
 Woman 
 
 mairima 
 
 mingma 
 
 Head 
 
 k'haung 
 
 gaung 
 
 Eye 
 
 myitsi 
 
 myitsi 
 
 Mouth 
 
 n'hiok 
 
 kandwen 
 
 Sun 
 
 na 
 
 rii 
 
 Moon 
 
 la 
 
 la 
 
 Star 
 
 ke'nekkat 
 
 kre 
 
 Shy 
 
 moh 
 
 kaungkan 
 
 Fire 
 
 mih 
 
 mi 
 
 Water 
 
 re 
 
 ri 
 
 River 
 
 myit 
 
 mrik 
 
 Sea 
 
 pengle 
 
 panle 
 
 Stone 
 
 kj-auk 
 
 kyauk 
 
 Mountain 
 
 toung 
 
 toung 
 
 One 
 
 tit 
 
 taik 
 
 Two 
 
 n'hit 
 
 n'haik 
 
 Three 
 
 thon 
 
 thong 
 
 Fm/r 
 
 le 
 
 le 
 
 Five 
 
 nga 
 
 na 
 
 Six 
 
 k'hyaiik 
 
 khrauk 
 
 Seven 
 
 k'how-n'hit 
 
 k'hu-naik 
 
 Eight 
 
 s'hit 
 
 s'hit 
 
 Nine 
 
 ko 
 
 ko 
 
 Ten 
 
 tase 
 
 tase. 
 
TREATISE OF SCHLEIERMACIIER. 49 
 
 Before the Rukheng became Burmese it, doubtless, gave 
 us the analogues of the Kami, Mru, and Sak, multiplied by 
 the number of the hills and vallej^s. With the Yoma this 
 was still more the case ; less so with Tenasserim, where 
 the Burmese is recent and intrusive and (as such) not to 
 be found in the aboriginal dialects ; or (if found) found 
 in a less degree. 
 
 One of the opera major a in Comparative Philology is 
 connected with the Burmese — a prize essay of Schleier- 
 macher's. The question to be investigated was the 
 effect of writing upon language. Schleiermacher argued 
 that it was slight ; and, to justify his doctrine, compared 
 the Burmese which had, according to all opinions, been 
 written but a few centuries, with the Chinese that had, 
 according to many opinions, been written for almost as 
 many millennia. He showed that both were, essentially, 
 the same ; and he inferred from this that languages 
 could be kept stationary without writing. The merit of 
 Schleiermacher's treatise lay in its inductive character. 
 It took two facts and compared them. Had the 
 work been worse than it is (and it is not unworthy of 
 the great powers of the writer) it would have deserved 
 the prize simply from this fact. I imagine that the 
 majority of the candidates worked the question a priori; 
 but — 
 
 " illacrymabiles 
 
 Urgentur ignotique, long^ .... 
 Nocte, carent quia vate sacro." 
 
 The first I knew of the Burmese was from this 
 dissertation. I have not seen it quoted, either in 
 Germany or in England. Nevertheless, from the simple 
 fact of its inductive character, I look upon it as a 
 landmark ; and that, not only in the philology of these 
 parts, but in comparative philology altogether. 
 
50 , THE THAY LANGUAGES. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 The Thay, or Siamese, Group. — Its Extent and Direction. — Tlie Siamese 
 Proper.— The Laos.— The Khamti.— The Ahom.— The Shans.— The 
 Palaong. — Cultivation of the Siamese Proper. 
 
 The general name for the group now coming under 
 notice is either Thay, or Siamese. It is represented by 
 the literary language of Siam ; so that, being a small 
 class, it is not very important whether we call it by the 
 one name or the other. By a small class, 1 mean one 
 which falls into few minor groups ; also one in which 
 the differences of its two extremes are inconsiderable. 
 In other respects the group is a large one. 
 
 The Thay area is remarkable for its inordinate exten- 
 sion in a vertical direction, i. e. from north to south. A 
 Thay form of speech is spoken at the north-eastern end 
 of Upper Asam, in contact with the Mishmi and the 
 Sing-pho. This is in N. L. 28°. And a Thay form of 
 speech is again spoken at the neck of the Malayan 
 Peninsula, or as far south as N.L. "7°. Meanwhile, the 
 breadth of this preposterously long strip of language is 
 inconsiderable. Neither is its continuity demonstrated. 
 How the Khamti districts meet the Laos, or whether 
 they meet it at all, no one knows ; the details of the 
 Singpho dialects and the Chinese of Yunnan being 
 obscure. 
 
 The Thay of the Lower Menam is the ordinary 
 Siamese ; and it is in Siam where the Thay civiliza- 
 tion is at its maximum. This is essentially Buddhist. 
 I know of no Thay tribes that retain their original 
 paganism. I know of none where Brahminism has 
 
THE THAY LANGUAGES. 
 
 51 
 
 made progress, and the language been j^^reservec?. The 
 sacred literature of Siam is in the Pali tongue ; the 
 secular in the native language. It is pre-eminently 
 metrical ; little beyond the correspondence of ordinary 
 life being in prose. The songs are in verse, the dramas 
 in verse, the histories in verse. 
 
 The Lau occupy the Upper and Middle Menam, their 
 political relations being with Siam rather than Burma. 
 A Lau is a Siamese Shan ; a Shan a Burmese Lau. 
 Ruder than the Siamese of Bankok, the Lau are not 
 only lettered Buddhists, but the possessors of a some- 
 what peculiar alphabet. 
 
 English. 
 
 Laos. 
 
 Siamese. 
 
 Man 
 
 khon 
 
 khon 
 
 Hair 
 
 pliom 
 
 phom 
 
 Head 
 
 ho 
 
 hoa 
 
 Ear 
 
 pu 
 
 pu 
 
 Eye 
 
 ta 
 
 ta 
 
 Blood 
 
 leut 
 
 leut 
 
 Bone 
 
 duk 
 
 kaduk 
 
 Foot 
 
 tin 
 
 tin 
 
 Hand 
 
 mu 
 
 mii 
 
 Tooth 
 
 khiau 
 
 khiau 
 
 Sun 
 
 kangwan 
 
 tawan 
 
 Moon 
 
 denn 
 
 tawan 
 
 Star 
 
 lau 
 
 dau 
 
 Fire 
 
 fai 
 
 fai 
 
 Water 
 
 nam 
 
 nam 
 
 Stone 
 
 pin 
 
 Iftn 
 
 Tree 
 
 ton 
 
 ton 
 
 One 
 
 niing 
 
 nUng 
 
 Two 
 
 song 
 
 song 
 
 Three 
 
 sam 
 
 sam 
 
 Four 
 
 si 
 
 si 
 
 Five 
 
 ha 
 
 ha 
 
 Six 
 
 hok 
 
 hok 
 
 Seven 
 
 tset 
 
 chet 
 
 Eight 
 
 pet 
 
 pet 
 
 Nine 
 
 kau 
 
 kau 
 
 Ten 
 
 sip 
 
 sip. 
 
 The Khamti of the north-eastern parts of Asam are 
 rude tribesmen, though not unlettered pagans. Their 
 
 E 2 
 
52 
 
 THE THAY LANGUAGES. 
 
 creed and alphabet are those of the Siamese. They are 
 intruders, the original population having been akin to 
 the Singpho. Such, at least, is the inference drawn from 
 the condition of the Kbaphok ; the Khaphok being said 
 to be not only serfs to the Khamti but serfs who speak 
 a language which certain Singpho understand. A por- 
 tion, however, of the Khamti area may also have been 
 Mishmi. 
 
 The Khamti, however, are not the first members of 
 the Thay family whose language found its way into 
 Asam. The details of the Ahom conquest are obscure ; 
 as is the date of it. When it took place, however, 
 the Ahom, like the present Siamese, were a lettered 
 nation, with a Buddhist creed and an alphabet like the 
 Lau. Although, at the present time, there may be 
 found much Ahom blood among the men who speak 
 the Indian of Asam, the Ahom dialect itself is nearly 
 extinct. 
 
 The Thay of the Burmese Empire are called Shans ; 
 the Shans being the occupants of a number of small 
 States between the Burmese, the Siamese, and the 
 Chinese frontiers. They are neither pagan nor unlet- 
 tered ; their creed being Buddhist, their alphabet Lau 
 or Thay. Of the Shan dialects, eo nomine^ I know 
 but little. I imagine, however, that the following voca- 
 bularies must represent something like two extreme 
 forms ; the former being from the Tenasserim frontier, 
 the latter from the east of Bhamo. 
 
 EngUsh. 
 
 Ahom. 
 
 Western Shan. 
 
 Eastern Shan. 
 
 Khamti. 
 
 Man 
 
 kun 
 
 ktonputrihn 
 
 koun 
 
 kun 
 
 Hair 
 
 phrum 
 
 khonho 
 
 khounho 
 
 phom 
 
 Head 
 
 kha 
 
 ho 
 
 ko 
 
 ho 
 
 Bar 
 
 pik 
 
 h<i 
 
 mahou 
 
 pu 
 
 Bye 
 
 ta 
 
 matta 
 
 weta 
 
 ta 
 
 mood 
 
 let 
 
 lit 
 
 let 
 
 lilt 
 
 Bone 
 
 tau 
 
 sot 
 
 loak 
 
 nuk • 
 
 Foot 
 
 tin 
 
 ten 
 
 tin 
 
 tin 
 
 Hand 
 
 kha 
 
 ml 
 
 mhi 
 
 mu 
 
 Tooth 
 
 khui 
 
 khyo 
 
 khio 
 
 khui 
 
THE THAY LANGUAGES. 
 
 53 
 
 English. 
 
 Ahom. 
 
 Western Shan. 
 
 Eastern Shan. 
 
 Khani! 
 
 Sun 
 
 ban 
 
 kawon 
 
 kanwan 
 
 wan 
 
 Moon 
 
 den 
 
 len 
 
 leun 
 
 liin 
 
 Star 
 
 dau 
 
 loung 
 
 lao 
 
 nan 
 
 Fire 
 
 fai 
 
 hpihn(?) 
 
 fai 
 
 fai 
 
 Water 
 
 nam 
 
 ndn 
 
 nam 
 
 nam 
 
 Stone 
 
 fra 
 
 mahein 
 
 mahin 
 
 pin 
 
 Tree 
 
 tun 
 
 ton 
 
 toun 
 
 tun 
 
 One 
 
 ling 
 
 nein 
 
 neun 
 
 niing 
 
 Two 
 
 sang 
 
 Ltsoung 
 
 tsong 
 
 song 
 
 Three 
 
 sam 
 
 htsan 
 
 tsam 
 
 sam 
 
 Four 
 
 si 
 
 htsi 
 
 tsi 
 
 si 
 
 Five 
 
 ha 
 
 ha 
 
 ha 
 
 ha 
 
 Six 
 
 ruk 
 
 hoht 
 
 houk 
 
 hok 
 
 Seven 
 
 chit 
 
 tsit 
 
 tsat 
 
 tset 
 
 Eight 
 
 pet 
 
 tet 
 
 piet 
 
 pet 
 
 Nine 
 
 kau 
 
 kown 
 
 kao 
 
 kau 
 
 Ten 
 
 sip 
 
 tseit 
 
 sib 
 
 sip. 
 
 Thei Palaong inhabit the valleys that lie beyond the 
 first range of mountains to the south-east of Bhamo ; 
 the mountains themselves being the occupancy of the 
 Kakhyen — the Kakhyen being decidedly Singpho. To 
 the south and west lie the Shan : to the east the 
 obscure frontiers of the northern and north-western por- 
 tions of the Kambojian and Antlmitic areas. The fullest 
 specimen of the Palaong language, eo nomine, is one 
 collected by Bishop Bigaudet of the Ava and Pegu 
 Mission ; upon which there is a short commentary, by 
 Mr. Logan, with whom I, unwillingly, differ as to its 
 affinities. I cannot connect it with the language of Co- 
 chin -China and Kambojia rather than with those of 
 Siam and Burma ; though it has (as is to be expected 
 fi:om its locality) decided south-eastern affinities. Mr. 
 Logan attributes its Shan elements to contact and inter- 
 mixture ; in my mind, gratuitously. 
 
 English. Palaong. ^ 
 
 Read 
 
 kun 
 
 kho, Shan^ dec. 
 
 Ear 
 
 biok 
 
 pik, Ahom 
 
 Eye 
 
 metsi 
 
 — 
 
 Foot 
 
 djeuri 
 
 tin, Thay 
 
 Sun 
 
 sengee 
 
 — 
 
 Star 
 
 lao 
 
 lao, Shan, <Scc. 
 
54 THE THAY LANGUAGES. 
 
 English. 
 
 Palaong. 
 
 
 Water 
 
 em 
 
 nam, Shan 
 
 Stone 
 
 mao 
 
 mahin, Shan 
 
 Tree 
 
 tangae 
 
 tun, A horn 
 
 One 
 
 he 
 
 — 
 
 Two 
 
 e 
 
 hai, Ana^nitic 
 
 Three 
 
 06 
 
 ba, Anamitic 
 
 Four 
 
 phoun 
 
 bon, Anamitic 
 
 Five 
 
 phan 
 
 nam, Anamitic 
 
 Six 
 
 to 
 
 sau, Anamitic 
 
 Seven 
 
 phou 
 
 bay, Anamitic 
 
 Fight 
 
 ta 
 
 tam', Anamitic 
 
 Nine 
 
 tim 
 
 chin', Anamitic 
 
 Ten 
 
 keu 
 
 mu'oi, Anamitic. 
 
 The extent to wliicTi the Burmese and the Siamese 
 lanofuao^es have been cultivated is much the same in 
 
 CD O 
 
 each. Each is the language of a Buddhist population ; 
 each is embodied in an alphabet of Indian origin ; and 
 each, as a vehicle of literature, is placed in a disadvan- 
 tageous position — each being, for every thing except the 
 most ordinary secular purposes, replaced by the Pali. 
 From this each has taken a great number of words. 
 
 Still there is a native literature in both the Burmese 
 and the Siamese. 
 
 The earliest inscription in the latter language is 
 referred to the beginning of the thirteenth century ; 
 the grounds, however, that justify the assumption of 
 antiquity are not very clear. 
 
 The popular poetry is sometimes sung, sometimes recited : 
 the music of the Siamese being spoken of with higher 
 praise than that of the Burmese. The chief minatrels 
 are from Laos. "When an entertainment is given, a 
 priest is invited to the house who recites a short story 
 or an ode. Hence, a small vernacular literature of a 
 lyric and romantic character — a very small one. Besides 
 this, there is an approach to the drama. Except that 
 the ode appears somewhat worse, and the drama some- 
 
 * The numerals are apparently borrowed. 
 
THE THAY LANGUAGES. 
 
 55 
 
 what better, than in Siaio, this is the character of the 
 Burmese literature as well. 
 
 Siam itself is, as may be expected, the chief seat of 
 the Thay stock ; probably the area which contains the 
 greatest number of Thay individuals ; at any rate that 
 where the Thay civilization is at its maximum. 
 Whether the blood be the purest is another question. 
 It is probable that this is far from being the case. If 
 the dominant population be of northern origin, there is 
 every chance that the conquest of the country was made 
 by a male rather than a mixed population. And even 
 if it were not so, there is an enormous amount of 
 Chinese elements superadded to the original basis. 
 Pallegoix's calculations make the sum-total of the popu- 
 lation of Siam 6^0 00, 000. Dr. Bowring puts it at 
 something between 4,500,000 and 5,000,000. Palle- 
 goix's elements are as follows : — 
 
 Thay 
 
 Laos 
 
 Kan 
 
 Khongs 
 
 Mon 
 
 Kambojians 
 
 Chinese 
 
 Malays . 
 
 ren, \ 
 ongs I 
 
 1,900,000 
 100,000 
 
 50,000 
 
 50,000 
 
 500,000 
 
 1,500,000 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 Like the Burmese, the Siamese have encroached on 
 their neighbours. There has been, as has been stated, a 
 Thay conquest of Asam. Kambojia pays tribute to 
 both Siam and Cochin-China. In the Malay Peninsula, 
 Ligore, Kedah, Patani, Perak, Kalantan, and Tringanu 
 are, more or less, directly or indirectly, under Siamese 
 control. 
 
56 THE MON AND KHO. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 The M6n Language of Pegu. — The Kho of Kambojia. — Their Original 
 Continuity. 
 
 Pegu gives us a new language — the Mon ; the name 
 being native. It is what the inhabitants of the Delta 
 of the Irawadi call themselves. Their neighbours the 
 Burmese call them Talieng. The Mon alphabet is of 
 Pali origin: the Mon literature Buddhist. The Mon 
 themselves are now British subjects. Before the cession 
 of Pegu, they belonged to Ava — a fact which has a 
 bearing on the history of their language. The Burmese 
 has encroached upon it, and is encroaching ; indeed, I 
 am told that there are few M6n who do not speak Bur- 
 mese, some having unlearned their native language. 
 
 In the 16th century the king of Pegu seems to have 
 been a powerful monarch ; inasmuch as the Thay 
 histories speak of a Pegu invasion of Siam, and a Pegu 
 conquest. Whether, however, the leading men in this 
 event were actual Mon is uncertain. A conquest from 
 the kingdom of Pegu may have been effected by Bur- 
 mese. 
 
 But little, too, is known of its nearest congener, the 
 Kho, Kamer, or Chong of Kambojia. Its alphabet is 
 Pali origin ; its literature Buddhist. It appears (though 
 the evidence is not conclusive) to fall into more dialects 
 and sub-dtalects than one. 
 
 Lying between Siam and Cochin-China, the kingdom 
 of Kambojia has had the ordinary history of areas simi- 
 larly situated. When it has been strong it has struck 
 its own blows — to the right and to the left. When it 
 
THE MOH AND KHO. 
 
 67 
 
 has been weak, it has been stricken on both sides. When 
 the Portuguese first discovered the country, its power was 
 at or near its zenith ; and Siam and Cochin-China were, 
 at best, but its equals. At present they encroach upon 
 it ; yet, jealous of each other, leave it a modicum of 
 independence. So that, with the parts to the east of 
 the Mekhong under Cochin-China, and with the western 
 side under Siam, there is still a central portion under 
 the king of Kambojia. The population is about 
 500,000, of which about 400,000 are of the Kho 
 family, the rest being Chinese, Cochin- Chinese, Siamese, 
 Malays, Portuguese, and half-bloods. 
 
 English. 
 
 Mdn. 
 
 Kambojia. 
 
 Ka. 
 
 Khong. 
 
 Man 
 
 bani 
 
 manus 
 
 — 
 
 rum 
 
 Head 
 
 kadap 
 
 kabal 
 
 tuwi 
 
 tos 
 
 Eye 
 
 mot 
 
 panek 
 
 mat 
 
 mat 
 
 Mouth 
 
 pan 
 
 mat 
 
 boar 
 
 raneng 
 
 Sun 
 
 man-tangwe 
 
 tangai 
 
 tangi 
 
 tangi 
 
 Moon 
 
 man-katok 
 
 ke 
 
 kot 
 
 kang 
 
 Star 
 
 nong 
 
 pakai 
 
 patua 
 
 sum 
 
 Sky 
 
 taka 
 
 kor 
 
 krem 
 
 pleng 
 
 Fire 
 
 kamet 
 
 plung 
 
 un 
 
 pleu 
 
 Water 
 
 dat 
 
 tak 
 
 dak 
 
 tak 
 
 River 
 
 bukbi 
 
 tanle 
 
 dak-tani 
 
 talle 
 
 Sea 
 
 taUe 
 
 sarmot 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Stone 
 
 kamok 
 
 tamo 
 
 tamoe 
 
 tamot 
 
 Mountain 
 
 tu 
 
 pnom 
 
 manam 
 
 nong 
 
 One 
 
 mue 
 
 moe 
 
 moe 
 
 moe 
 
 Two 
 
 ba 
 
 pir 
 
 bur 
 
 bar 
 
 Three 
 
 pai 
 
 bai 
 
 peh 
 
 peh 
 
 Four 
 
 pol 
 
 buan 
 
 puan 
 
 pon 
 
 Five 
 
 pasun 
 
 pram 
 
 chang 
 
 pram 
 
 Six 
 
 ka-rao 
 
 pram-moe 
 
 trao 
 
 ka-dom 
 
 Seven 
 
 ka-bok 
 
 pram-pil 
 
 pub 
 
 ka-nul 
 
 Fight 
 
 ka-cliam 
 
 pram-bai 
 
 tam 
 
 ka-ti 
 
 Nine 
 
 ka-chit 
 
 pram- buan 
 
 chin 
 
 ka-sar 
 
 Tm 
 
 cboh. 
 
 dap 
 
 chit 
 
 rai. 
 
 The Carnicobar language is Mon with Malay ele- 
 ments. 
 
58 THE Ai!TDAMAN ISLANDERS. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 The Andaman Islanders. 
 
 So much has been said about the black skins and 
 the savage habits of the Mincopie or Andaman is- 
 landers, that the opinion of many ethnologists has 
 been in favour of separating them from the populations 
 of their neighbourhood, and either mixing them up 
 with the so-called Negritos, or making a separate class 
 of them. They are noticed as early as the twelfth 
 century, i. e. by the two Mahometan travellers of Re- 
 naudot. These write, that beyond the Nicobar Islands 
 " lies the sea of Andaman. The people on this coast 
 eat human flesh quite raw ; their complexion is black, 
 their hair frizzled, their countenance and eyes frightful ; 
 their feet are very large, and almost a cubit in length, 
 and they go quite naked. They have no embarkations ; 
 if they had, they would devour all the passengers they 
 could lay hands on.'' Marco Polo writes equally unfavour- 
 ably — " Andaman is a very large island, not governed 
 by a king. The. inhabitants are idolators, and are a 
 most brutish and savage race, having heads, eyes, and 
 teeth resembling those of the canine species. Their 
 dispositions are cruel, and every person, not being of 
 their own nation, whom they can lay hands on, they 
 kill and eat.'"* 
 
 A Paper, by Lieutenant Colebrooke, is the chief 
 source of our knowledge concerning the Mincopie, the 
 author being indebted to his predecessors Major Kyd 
 and Captain Blair, for some of his facts. He describes 
 them as plunged in the grossest ignorance and barbarity ; 
 
THE ANDAMAN ISLANDERS. 
 
 69 
 
 barely acquits them of the charge of cannibalism ; and 
 unhesitatingly affirms that they are guilty of the 
 murder of the crews of such vessels as may be wrecked 
 upon their coast. Does he do this on the strength of 
 his observation or his reading ? 
 
 The late Sir Charles Malcolm, who had had one of 
 the natives aboard-ship with him, took considerable 
 pains to dilute the charges that lay against this ill-famed 
 population, and spoke in strong terms as to the gentle- 
 ness and docility of the individual with whom he thus 
 came in contact. 
 
 With the last year or two our knowledge of them 
 has increased, and the extent to which they are Burmese 
 is likely to be recognized. 
 
 Englisli. 
 
 Andaman. 
 
 
 Man 
 
 kamolan 
 
 cbamai, Koreng, <i:c. 
 
 Hair 
 
 otti 
 
 kbotu, Sgau. 
 
 Head 
 
 tabay 
 
 tuwi, Ea. 
 
 Eye 
 
 jabay 
 
 
 Ear 
 
 kwaka 
 
 
 Mouth 
 
 morna 
 
 boar, Ka, 
 
 Am 
 
 pilie 
 
 
 Nose 
 
 melli 
 
 
 Finger 
 
 mornay 
 
 
 Hand 
 
 gonie 
 
 
 
 onie 
 
 pang, Lukuppa. 
 
 Blood 
 
 kotsbengoM 
 
 
 Belly 
 
 napoi 
 
 
 Teeth 
 
 mahoi 
 
 
 Breast 
 
 kah 
 
 
 Tongue 
 
 talie 
 
 
 Bone 
 
 gitongay 
 
 ghi, Sgau. 
 
 Chin 
 
 pitang 
 
 
 Foot 
 
 guki 
 
 
 Knee 
 
 ingolay 
 
 
 Leg 
 
 tshigie 
 
 
 Fire 
 
 mona 
 
 in6u, Sgau. 
 
 Water 
 
 migway 
 
 may, Thounglhu. 
 
 Sky 
 
 madaino 
 
 
 &un 
 
 abay 
 
 
 Moon 
 
 table 
 
 
 Star 
 
 tshelobay 
 
 
English. ■ 
 
 Andaman. 
 
 LJ.1 JLtJJLl^X^X/JiiXVO. 
 
 Wind 
 
 tomjamy 
 
 
 Wood 
 
 tanghi 
 
 ton = tree, Siamese; i 
 
 House 
 
 beaday 
 
 Kapwi. 
 
 Bird 
 
 lohay 
 
 tho, Sgau; tawu, Mru. 
 
 Fish 
 
 naboM 
 
 nya, Sgau. 
 
 Black 
 
 tshigiuga 
 
 
 Cold 
 
 tshoma. 
 
 
 thinkung, 
 
 (A^' 
 
COCHIN-CHINA. 61 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 Cochin-China, or Annam, and Tonkin. 
 
 The ethnology of Cochin-China is also that of Tonkin ; 
 the language, manners, and physical conformation of the 
 occupants of the two countries being the same. The 
 collective name for them is Anam, or Annam ; when(;e 
 we get the adjectives Anamese or Anamitic, as the name 
 of the group ; which is a section of the division to which 
 the Chinese belong. The Tonkinese call the Cochin-Chi- 
 nese Kuang and Kekuang ; names which are, probably, 
 the same as Khyen and Kakhyen. The Cochin-Chinese, 
 on the other hand, call the Tonkinese Kebak. 
 
 Tabard, in the preface to the Anamitic Dictionary, 
 expressly states that the language is spoken beyond the 
 boundaries of both Tonkin, and Cochin-China, and that it 
 extends into Siam, Kambojia, and Tsampa. If it ex- 
 tend far into Kambojia, the Kho area must be of the 
 smallest. 
 
 In Kambojia, where we find Buddhism, we find it con- 
 nected with a knowledge of the Pali language and the 
 use of an Indian alphabet. The alphabet, however, 
 in Anam is Chinese ; and it is Chinese which is the 
 learned language. 
 
 English. 
 
 Cochin-China. 
 
 Cochin-China. 
 
 Tonkin, 
 
 Man 
 
 nga'oi 
 
 danon 
 
 nguoi 
 
 Head 
 
 dau 
 
 tu 
 
 drau 
 
 Eye 
 
 male 
 
 mok 
 
 mok 
 
 Mouth 
 
 mieng 
 
 kau 
 
 kau 
 
 Sun 
 
 mat-troi 
 
 nhet 
 
 nit 
 
 Moon 
 
 mat-tran 
 
 blang 
 
 blang 
 
 Star 
 
 sao 
 
 sao 
 
 sao 
 
62 
 
 
 cocHii; 
 
 r-CHINA. 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Cocliin-China, 
 
 Cochin-China. 
 
 Tonkin. 
 
 Sky 
 
 troi 
 
 bloei 
 
 bloei 
 
 Fire 
 
 lu'a 
 
 hoa 
 
 boa 
 
 Water 
 
 nu'oe 
 
 nak 
 
 nak 
 
 River 
 
 song 
 
 sou 
 
 sou 
 
 Sea 
 
 bien 
 
 be 
 
 be 
 
 Stone 
 
 da 
 
 ta 
 
 dra 
 
 Mountain 
 
 nui 
 
 nui 
 
 nui 
 
 One 
 
 mot 
 
 mot 
 
 mot 
 
 Two 
 
 hai 
 
 hai 
 
 hai 
 
 Three 
 
 ba 
 
 teng 
 
 tarn 
 
 Four 
 
 bon 
 
 bon 
 
 bon 
 
 Five 
 
 nam 
 
 lang 
 
 lam 
 
 Six 
 
 sau 
 
 lak 
 
 luk 
 
 Seven 
 
 bay 
 
 bai 
 
 bai 
 
 Fight 
 
 tarn' 
 
 tang 
 
 tarn 
 
 Nine 
 
 chin' 
 
 cbin 
 
 chim 
 
 Ten 
 
 mu'oi 
 
 taap 
 
 tap. 
 
 The An am analogues of the Ka and Chong, the rude 
 tribes of the more impracticable parts, are the tribes of 
 the Nguon, Moi, Romoi, Kemoi and, Diditsh (all un- 
 known in detail), who occupy the mountain ranges 
 between Tonkin and Cochin-China, and Cochin-China and 
 Kambojia. 
 
OHINA. 63 
 
 CHAPTER X 
 
 China. — Canton, Fokien, and Mandarin Dialects. — Stages. — Are there any? 
 — Gyami. — Tangnti. 
 
 Of the dialects of the Chinese Proper, as opposed to the 
 Anamitic of Tonkin, we know but little ; little, at least, 
 for such a country as China, with its vast area and its 
 numerous inhabitants. Indeed, if we consider this, it is 
 a country for which our knowledge of its local dialects 
 is at a minimum. Elsewhere we generally know some- 
 thing of the details of what may be called the fringe ; 
 i. e. the tract where two countries come in contact with 
 each other. But China has so thoroughly overlapped all 
 its neighbouring populations, that knowledge of this 
 kind is out of the question. Add to this, the fact of its 
 being, as China, a terra incognita for anything but a 
 few points on the coast. 
 
 Still there are a few weak lights. They chiefly shine 
 on the south and the west. 
 
 The most southern dialect for which we have speci- 
 mens, is that of the province of Quantong, or Canton — 
 and next to this, that of Hokien, or Fokien, for which 
 we have the elaborate dictionary of Medhurst. Med- 
 hurst himself was not in China ; but he knew the 
 Chinese as a resident in Liverpool, who had made it his 
 business to attend exclusively to the Irish, might know 
 the Irish Gaelic. He was connected with the Chinese of 
 the great immigration to the Malayan Peninsula and the 
 Indian Islands. Of these the majority were from the 
 south. 
 
 Medhurst commits himself most explicitly to the 
 
64 CHINESE DIALECTS. 
 
 statement that there are forms of even the Canton and 
 the Fokien dialects which are mutually unintelligible ; 
 and adds that, in his intercourse with the Chinese emi- 
 grants of the Indian Archipelago, he has more than 
 once had occasion to interpret between them. He also 
 adds that, in the same province, the difference of dialects 
 is sometimes so great, that people divided by a moun- 
 tain, a river, or twenty miles of country, are mutually 
 unintelligible. That statements of this kind must be 
 received with caution has already been suggested. 
 Meanwhile, in the ten divisions of the province of 
 Fokien, there are as many dialects ; Fokien being one 
 of the smallest provinces of the empire. 
 
 The Fokien is not so provincial a dialect as to re- 
 main unwritten. On the contrary, the work from 
 which the preceding observations are drawn, is founded 
 upon a native publication, the Sip gnoe yiTn— fifteen 
 sounds f published in 1818, in which not only the pecu- 
 liarities of the Fokien dialect are given, but the 
 difference between the reading idiom and the colloquial. 
 Another work of the same kind is quoted by Adelung 
 from Bayer, and, doubtless, there are more of the same 
 kind. This means that the Fokien, though not the 
 classical, is one of the written languages of China. 
 
 The classical language of China is the Mandarin, it 
 being in the Mandarin dialect that the business of 
 the empire is carried on. It is also the language of the 
 Chinese literature. Whatever may be the antiquity of 
 this, the antiquity of the oldest specimen of the language 
 is but moderate. It is, of course, as old as the oldest 
 copy of the book that contains it, and it is very probable 
 that it is not much older. At any rate, any antiquity 
 beyond this that may be claimed for it, should be proved 
 rather than assumed. Those who believe in the great 
 age of the earliest Chinese literature, e. g. those who Qot 
 only believe that the works of Confucius (for instance) 
 have come down to us, but that Confucius lived some- 
 
STAGES OF CHINESE. 6*5 
 
 where between the times of Archiloehus and ^schylus, 
 reasonably expect that, as the Greek of the days of 
 Solon differs from the Greek of the reign of King Otho, 
 the Chinese shall do the same ; not, perhaps, to the 
 same extent, but still to some extent — to an extent 
 sufficient to enable us to talk about the stages of the lan- 
 guage, and to compare the old Chinese with the middle, 
 and the middle with the modern. Something, too, they 
 may reasonably expect illustrative of the history and 
 development of the language ; though, from the fact of 
 the present Chinese being in an early stage of develop- 
 ment, not very much. Little, however, of all this will 
 they actually find. The difference between the Manda- 
 rin of to-day, and the oldest classical Chinese is (roughly 
 speaking) the difference of two centuries, rather than 
 two millenniums — assuming, of course, anything like an 
 ordinary rate of change. 
 
 But is there not in China an amount of unchanorinsf 
 immobility, in language as in other matters, which w^e 
 fail to find elsewhere ? To this I answer that such may 
 be, or may not be, the case. Let it be proven, and it 
 is an important fact in the history of mankind. At 
 present it is enough to state that nothing in the 
 way of the language of China is older than the oldest 
 copy which exhibits it, except so far as its antiquity 
 is supported by better reasons than the supposed an- 
 tiquity of the author. 
 
 Concerning the dialect out of which the Mandarin 
 was more especially developed, we may safely say 
 that it must be sought to the north of the province 
 of Fokien, and the south of the province of Pecheli. 
 This means that the group to which it belongs has its 
 area in the middle of the empire. The extent to which 
 it is other than southern has already been indicated. 
 The extent to which it is other than northern, is in- 
 fierred from the direction in which it has extended 
 itself. On some points (at least) it is less archaic than 
 the Canton. 
 
 F 
 
66 
 
 CYAMI VOCABULARY 
 
 English. 
 
 Mandarin', 
 
 Canton 
 
 Head 
 
 teu 
 
 te'u 
 
 Eye 
 
 mu 
 
 mok 
 
 Ear 
 
 61 
 
 y 
 
 Nose 
 
 pi 
 
 pi 
 
 Mouth , 
 
 ke'u 
 
 hou 
 
 Tongue 
 
 Shi 
 
 shit 
 
 Hand 
 
 gheu 
 
 sheu 
 
 Foot 
 
 kio 
 
 koh 
 
 Blood 
 
 khiue 
 
 hint 
 
 Sun 
 
 2hi 
 
 yat 
 
 Moon 
 
 yue 
 
 yuet 
 
 Star 
 
 zing 
 
 zing 
 
 Eire 
 
 kho 
 
 ho 
 
 Water 
 
 shui 
 
 shoi 
 
 Tree 
 
 mu 
 
 mok 
 
 Stone 
 
 Bhi 
 
 shap 
 
 One 
 
 i 
 
 yik 
 
 Two 
 
 ny 
 
 y 
 
 Three 
 
 zan 
 
 zam 
 
 Four 
 
 BZU 
 
 si 
 
 Five 
 
 ngu 
 
 ong 
 
 Six 
 
 m 
 
 lok 
 
 Seven 
 
 tsi 
 
 tsat 
 
 Eight 
 
 pa 
 
 pat 
 
 Nine 
 
 kieu 
 
 kou 
 
 Ten 
 
 Bhi 
 
 shap 
 
 Of tlie Chinese of the extreme west I only know 
 the Gyami vocabulary of Hodgson. A vocabulary 
 of Stra-lenberg's, headed "Tanguhti who belong to the 
 Dalai Lama, and have one religion with the Kalmucs 
 and Mungals/' is Bhot. 
 
 English. 
 
 Gyami. 
 
 English. 
 
 Gyami. 
 
 Man 
 
 rin 
 
 Two 
 
 liangku 
 
 Head 
 
 thau 
 
 Three 
 
 Bangku 
 
 Hand 
 
 syu 
 
 Fowr 
 
 siku 
 
 Foot 
 
 chyaa 
 
 Five 
 
 wuku 
 
 Sun 
 
 rethau 
 
 Six 
 
 leuku 
 
 Moon 
 
 yoliang 
 
 Seven 
 
 chhiku 
 
 Star 
 
 singshu 
 
 Eight 
 
 paku 
 
 Fire 
 
 akkha 
 
 Nine 
 
 chyaku 
 
 Water 
 
 shiu 
 
 Ten 
 
 issha. 
 
 One 
 
 iku 
 
 
 
TANGUHTI VOCABULARY. 
 
 67 
 
 2. 
 
 English. 
 
 Ta^gult'. 
 
 Englsh. 
 
 Tanguliti. 
 
 Father 
 
 pha, abba 
 
 Foot 
 
 kangwa 
 
 Mother 
 
 mha, amma 
 
 One 
 
 dschyk 
 
 Brother 
 
 pungu 
 
 Tioo 
 
 ny, na 
 
 Sister 
 
 poima 
 
 Three 
 
 ssuum 
 
 Wife 
 
 dsgymse 
 
 Four 
 
 dscysz 
 
 Fire 
 
 may 
 
 Five 
 
 duga 
 
 Water 
 
 tzu, loo 
 
 Six 
 
 uruch 
 
 Earth 
 
 tza 
 
 Seven 
 
 dliun 
 
 Mountain 
 
 la, rhe 
 
 Eight 
 
 dsquat 
 
 Sun 
 
 nara, nima 
 
 Nine 
 
 dsgu-tomba 
 
 Moon 
 
 dawa 
 
 Ten 
 
 dsgyn 
 
 Horse 
 
 tha 
 
 Eleven 
 
 dsgii-dschyk 
 
 Dog 
 
 ky 
 
 Twelve 
 
 dsgu-ny 
 
 Head 
 
 mgho 
 
 Twenty 
 
 nyr-dschyk 
 
 Stream 
 
 tzu 
 
 Thirty 
 
 nyr-dsgu-tomba 
 
 Wind 
 
 long 
 
 Forty 
 
 dschyack-dsgu 
 
 Man (homo) 
 
 my 
 
 Fifty 
 
 duga-dsgu 
 
 Eye 
 
 mybi 
 
 Sixty 
 
 dbuin-dsgu 
 
 Tongue 
 
 thgi 
 
 Seventy 
 
 dsguat-dsgu 
 
 Mouth 
 
 cha 
 
 Eighty 
 
 dsgU-tomba-dsgu 
 
 House 
 
 tungwa 
 
 Ninety 
 
 dsgu-dsgU 
 
 Iron 
 
 tscha, tawar 
 
 One Hundred 
 
 yreen 
 
 Gold 
 
 sin-, kinsa 
 
 One Thousand 
 
 namm. 
 
 Silver 
 
 mui, insa 
 
 
 
 F :i 
 
68 
 
 BROWN'S TABLES. 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 observations on the Preceding Groups. — Brown's Tables. — Affinity between 
 the Burmese and Tibetan. — Direction of the Chinese. — Nearest Con- 
 geners to the Malay. —Indian Affinities of the Mon. 
 
 The first reduction of the languages of the preceding 
 chapter to anything like system is to be found in the 
 papers of Buchanan and Leyden in the early numbers 
 of the Asiatic Transactions. The next landmark is 
 Brown's vocabularies and table. Of the former we 
 have already spoken. The latter is as follows : — 
 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 92 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 i 
 
 8 
 
 d 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 i 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 
 
 bf) 
 
 a 
 
 'ft 
 
 o 
 
 
 i 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 ■a 
 1 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 Q 
 
 
 ■a 
 g 
 
 
 
 'o 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 a 
 
 < 
 
 5 
 
 Khamti .... 
 
 Siamese . . . 
 
 92 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 A'ka 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 47 
 
 20 
 
 17 
 
 12 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 5 
 
 11 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 A'bor 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 47 
 
 
 20 
 
 11 
 
 10 
 
 18 
 
 11 
 
 6 
 
 15 
 
 6 
 
 1] 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 Mishirai . . . 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 13 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 13 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 Burmese . . . 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 17 
 
 11 
 
 10 
 
 
 23 
 
 23 
 
 26 
 
 12 
 
 16 
 
 8 
 
 20 
 
 6 
 
 11 
 
 11 
 
 11 
 
 10 
 
 13 
 
 13 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 1 
 
 Karen 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 23 
 
 
 17 
 
 21 
 
 8 
 
 15 
 
 10 
 
 15 
 
 8 
 
 12 
 
 4 
 
 12 
 
 8 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 15 
 
 2 
 
 Singpho . . . • 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 15 
 
 18 
 
 10 
 
 23 
 
 17 
 
 
 70 
 
 16 
 
 25 
 
 10 
 
 18 
 
 11 
 
 11 
 
 13 
 
 15 
 
 13 
 
 25 
 
 13 
 
 20 
 
 18 
 
 5 
 
 Jill 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 15 
 
 11 13 
 
 26 
 
 21 
 
 70 
 
 
 22 
 
 16 
 
 10 
 
 21 
 
 13 
 
 11 
 
 11 
 
 18 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 13 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 3 
 
 Graro 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 6 10 
 
 12 
 
 8 
 
 16 
 
 22 
 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 13 
 
 11 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 Manipuri . . . 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 11 
 
 15 11 
 
 16 
 
 15 
 
 25 
 
 16 
 
 10 
 
 
 21 
 
 41 
 
 18 
 
 25 
 
 28 
 
 31 
 
 28 
 
 35 
 
 33 
 
 40 
 
 50 
 
 6 
 
 Songpu . . . . 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 21 
 
 
 35 
 
 50 
 
 53 
 
 20 
 
 23 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 13 
 
 8 
 
 15 
 
 6 
 
 Kapwl . . . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 11 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 18 
 
 21 
 
 6 
 
 41 
 
 35 
 
 
 30 
 
 33 
 
 20 
 
 35 
 
 30 
 
 40 
 
 45 
 
 38 
 
 40 
 
 5 
 
 Koreng . . . . 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 11 
 
 13 
 
 5 
 
 18 
 
 50 
 
 30 
 
 
 41 
 
 18 
 
 21 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 15 
 
 3 
 
 Mar^m . . . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 11 
 
 11 
 
 8 
 
 25 
 
 53 
 
 33 
 
 41 
 
 
 21 
 
 28 
 
 25 
 
 20 
 
 16 
 
 23 
 
 26 
 
 3 
 
 Camphung . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 11 
 
 4 
 
 13 
 
 11 
 
 5 
 
 28 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 18 
 
 21 
 
 
 40 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 16 
 
 15 
 
 25 
 
 3 
 
 Luhuppa . . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 15 
 
 18 
 
 8 
 
 31 
 
 23 
 
 35 
 
 21 
 
 28 
 
 40 
 
 
 63 
 
 55 
 
 36 
 
 33 
 
 40 
 
 5 
 
 N. T^ngkhul . 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 13 
 
 20 
 
 13 
 
 28 
 
 15 
 
 30 
 
 20 
 
 25 
 
 20 
 
 63 
 
 
 85 
 
 30 
 
 31 
 
 31 
 
 3 
 
 C. Tangkhul . 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 13 
 
 12 
 
 25 
 
 20 
 
 11 
 
 35 
 
 15 
 
 40 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 55 
 
 85 
 
 
 41 
 
 45 
 
 41 
 
 1 
 
 S. Tangkhul . 
 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 13 
 
 13 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 13 
 
 5 
 
 33 
 
 13 
 
 45 
 
 11 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 36 
 
 30 
 
 41 
 
 
 43 
 
 43 
 
 5 
 
 KhoibH . . . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 16 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 5 
 
 40 
 
 8 
 
 38 
 
 10 
 
 23 
 
 15 
 
 33 
 
 31 
 
 45 
 
 43 
 
 
 78 
 
 3 
 
 Maring .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 18 
 
 8 
 
 16 
 
 15 
 
 18 
 
 20 
 
 5 
 
 50 
 
 15 
 
 40 
 
 15 
 
 26 
 
 25 
 
 40 
 
 31 
 
 41 
 
 43 
 
 78 
 
 
 3 
 
 Anamese . . . 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 
DIRECTION OF THE CHINESE. - 69 
 
 Whoever studies it must see that, between the per- 
 centages of the Anamitic and Siamese on one side, and 
 those of the remaining forms of speech on the other, 
 there are the elements of a great class. This comprises 
 the Singpho and the Jili — specially allied to each other. 
 But it also gives a decided affinity between the Jiji and 
 the Garo, which brings the languages of India and the 
 extremity of Asam in connection. 
 
 The affinities of the Garo with the Tibetan were 
 indicated by Robinson, and the indication w^as legiti- 
 mate ; though it would have been better, perhaps, to 
 have made them Burmese. At any rate it was good 
 against Mr. Hodgson's view, which made them Indian 
 rather than Monosyllabic at all — a view wdiich, with 
 laudable candour, he afterwards relinquished. 
 
 Soon afterwards additional vocabularies, accompanied 
 with a few short but sound remarks, added the whole 
 Naga group to this class. 
 
 The relations of the Burmese, Mon, Siamese, Anamitic, 
 and Chinese to each other form the basis of more than one 
 speculation. They bear upon tlie history of the exten- 
 sion and development of the Chinese itself. They bear 
 upon the origin and direction of the Thay and Burmese 
 movements. They bear upon the relations of the Malay 
 languages to those of the continent. Finally, the 
 Indian elements of the Mon have commanded atten- 
 tion. 
 
 1. If the nearest conveners of the Chinese be in the 
 south and east, the lines of conquest and encroachment 
 on the part of that inordinately-extensive population 
 must have run north and west. At present the lan- 
 guages with which the Chinese lies in contact give con- 
 trasts rather than affinities. With the Mantshu and 
 Mongol, and even with the Corean, this is notoriously 
 the case ; and, to a great extent, it is the case with 
 the Tibetan. On the north and west the Chinese keeps 
 encroaching at the present moment — at the expense of 
 
70 PERCENTAGES OF BROWN'S TABLES. 
 
 the Manfcshu and the Mongolian. For the provinces of 
 Chansi, Pe-tche-li, Chantung, Honan, &c., — indeed, for 
 four-fifths of the whole empire, the uniformity of speech 
 indicates a recent difi'asion. In Setshuen and Yunnan the 
 type changes, probably from that of the true Chinese to 
 the Tibetan, Thay, and Burmese. In Tonkin and Cochin - 
 China the language is like but different — like enough to 
 be the only monosyllabic language which is placed by any 
 one in the same section with the Chinese, but different 
 enough to make this position of it a matter of doubt 
 with many. Putting all this together, the south and 
 south-eastern provinces of China appear to be the oldest 
 portions of the present area. 
 
 2. Separated as they are, the Mon and Kho are liker 
 to each other than either is to the interjacent Siamese; 
 the inference from this being that at one time they were 
 connected by transitional and intermediate dialects, ab- 
 original to the lower Menam, but now displaced by the 
 Siamese of Bankok introduced from the parts to the 
 northwards. 
 
 3. If so, the nearest congener to the Malay of the 
 Malayan Peninsula is not the present Siamese, but the 
 language which the present Siamese displaced. 
 
 The southern Thay dialects are not only less like the 
 Mon and Kho than is expected from their locality, but 
 the northern ones are less like those of the Indo-Bur- 
 mese frontier and Asam than the geographical contiguity 
 prepares us to surmise ; since the percentage of words 
 common to the Khamti and the other dialects of Muni- 
 pur and Asam is only as follows. 
 
 Siamese. Kham'I. 
 
 per cent, with the Mar^m. 
 
 , , , Camphung. 
 
 , ,, Luhuppa. 
 
 , ,, Nortli Tankhul. 
 
 , ,, Central Tankhul. 
 
 ,, Khoibti. 
 
 , , , Maring. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
INDIAN ELEMENTS IN THE MON. 
 
 71 
 
 Siamese. 
 
 Khaiiiti. 
 
 
 
 
 per cent. 
 
 with the Kapwr. 
 
 1 
 
 1 n 
 
 , , Koreng. 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 , , Songpu. 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 „ Aka. 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 „ Abor. 
 
 
 
 3 ,, 
 
 ,, South Tankhul 
 
 1 
 
 3 ,, 
 
 , , Garo. 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 , , Munipnri. 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 , , Misshimi. 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 ,, Burmese. 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 , , Karen. 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 ,, Singpho. 
 
 10 
 
 10 „ 
 
 „ Jill. 
 
 The further the Thay runs south, the more it stands 
 in contrast to the languages by which it is bounded. 
 Those with which it has the most affinities are the 
 Singpho dialects, and after these the Western Ehot. It 
 seems as if the Menam directed its course. It follows 
 its stream, displaces the forms of speech by which the 
 Mon and Kho may reasonably be held to have gradu- 
 ated into each other, and, having done this, comes in 
 immediate contact with the Mala}^, with which it has 
 fewer affinities than its juxtaposition suggests. For — 
 
 The true Malay affinities are with the Kho and Mon, or 
 rather with that intermediate variety which the spread of 
 the Thay abolished. No wonder, then, that its connec- 
 tion with the languages of the continent is obscure. 
 
 4. A paper of Mr. Mason's, in the Transactions of 
 the American Oriental Society, exhibits some remarkable 
 points of likeness between the Mon and certain lan- 
 guages of India. The first numerals are especially 
 prominent in this comparison. 
 
 Does this justify us in connecting the two forms of 
 speech ? I doubt it. The question, however, will bo 
 considered when India comes under notice. 
 
72 THE TUNGUS LANGUAGES. 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 The Tungus Class. — Mantshu and Orotshong.— Orthography of Gastrin's : 
 
 Tungtis Grammar. 
 
 The Tungus area is large in extent, irregular in outline, 
 and obscure in its relations. On the south it comes in 
 contact with China and Corea ; on the south-west with 
 Mongolia. Between Corea and the Amtir, it reaches the 
 sea ; the peninsula, however, of Sagalin and the mouth 
 of the Amiir itself are Kurilian. It crops out again to 
 the north ; and the shores of the Sea of Okotsk are 
 the occupancy of the Lamut Tungus to the south and 
 the Koriaks to the north. There are sporadic Tungus 
 further on — on the coast of the gulf of Penjinsk, and 
 even in the peninsula of Kamtchatka. The Aldan, a 
 feeder of the Lena, is pre-eminently a Tungus river : so 
 is the Tunguska (as its name indicates), a feeder of the 
 Yenisey. And this gives us a notion of the magni- 
 tude of the area in its western and northern prolonga- 
 tions. Between the Yenisey and the Kolyma it is con- 
 tinually presenting itself; so that there are Tungus 
 in contact with the Koriaks, the Jukahiri, the Jakuts, 
 and the Samoyeds. There are Tungus on the Wall of 
 China, and there are Tungus on the shores of the Arctic 
 Ocean. 
 
 The class falls into two divisions — the Mantshu and 
 the Orotong or Orotshong ; the former giving the Tungtis 
 of the Amur, the latter the Tungus of the Lena and 
 Yenisey. The former gives the Tungiis of the Chinese 
 Empire, the Tungus of the Imperial Dynasty, the Tungus 
 of a Buddhist literature and Mongol alphabet, the Tun- 
 
THE TUNG US LANGUAGES. 73 
 
 giis of the civilized section of the name. The latter 
 belongs to Russia and Siberia, and, except so far as it 
 has been cultivated by Europeans, is an unwritten lan- 
 guaoje. 
 
 The term Orotong is Mantshti ; being applied by the 
 Mantshlirians to such other members of the stock as are 
 other than Mantshti. The tribes, however, of the Lower 
 Tunguska apply it to themselves. In its more limited 
 sense, Tungiis itself coincides with Orotong. No one 
 ever calls a Mantshti a Tungtis. A Tungus Gramrnar, 
 however, is the title of Castren's work on the Orotong 
 of Irkutsk, and its allied dialects. 
 
 In respect to the direction in which the Tungtis lan- 
 guage has spread itself it is safe to say thus much, viz. 
 that it runs from east to west, and from south to north, 
 rather than vice versa. There are good grounds for 
 holding that both the Corean and the Kurilian extended 
 beyond their present limits ; so that it is likely that the 
 Mantshiis were originally strangers to the Sea of Japan. 
 The evidence that the Tungtis of the Arctic and Sub- 
 arctic regions is intrusive, is more satisfactory still. The 
 head-waters of the Amur, and the parts about Nerts- 
 hinsk, give a good provisional origin to the Tungus. 
 
 The Mantshti alphabet — the alphabet of a language 
 with a very scanty literature — is a modification of the 
 Mongol. The Orotshong dialects, however, are given 
 either in Russian or Italian letters : the Tungtis Gram- 
 mar of Castren being in the latter. 
 
 The following are the more important terms connected 
 with the ethnology and philology of the Tungtis : — 
 
 Lamut. — This means sea, and it applies to the Tun- 
 gtis of the Sea of Okotsk. The affinities of the Lamut 
 dialects run in the direction of — 
 
 Dauria. — The Daurian Tungtis are those of the 
 Baikal Lake, the Sayanian Mountains, and the circles of 
 Yerkneudinsk and Nertskintsk. It is the dialects and 
 
74 THE TUNGUS LANGUAGES. 
 
 sub-dialects of these tribes that are more especially illus- 
 trated in Castren's Grammar, which most particularly 
 gives the dialects of the Urulga and Maniko tribes. Of 
 the language of 
 
 Tshapodzhir Tungus, we have vocabularies only. 
 They occupy the banks of the Yenisey, and constitute 
 the most western division of the stock. 
 
 The differences of the Timgus forms of speech lie 
 within a narrow compass, and (I believe) coincide with 
 the geography of the area. Between the Lamut and 
 the Tshapodzhir there is, apparently, a greater difference 
 than can be found between any interjacent varieties. 
 The same applies to the Nertshinsk dialects of the south, 
 and more northern dialects of the Yakut and Samoyed 
 districts. In short, the different forms of speech gra- 
 duate into each other. They also take slight modifica- 
 tions from the languages of their several frontiers. On 
 the south, the Mantshli is encroached upon by the 
 Chinese. In Siberia, it takes in Russian, Mongol, and 
 Turk words. About the Mantshii of the Kurilian fron- 
 tier more will be said in the sequel. 
 
 The Mongols call the Mantshu either Uzun DzTixirtshit 
 or Angga Dzhurtshit ; and this is a word which appears 
 and reappears under a multiplicity of forms. It is 
 Tshurtshit, Zhudzhi, Nyudzhi, and Geougen ; the 
 latter being a name of some, real or apparent, historical 
 importance. Castren has allowed himself to believe 
 that a population bearing this name in certain of the 
 Chinese compositions, was as old as the eleventh cen- 
 tury before our sera. They were barbarians who paid 
 an insignificant tribute to China. The truly historical 
 Nyudzhi, however, are the founders of the present 
 Chinese dynasty, their conquests having been effected 
 about A.D. 1644 ; and it may be added that a Nyudzhi 
 vocabulary, taken by Klapoth from a Chinese narrative, 
 is Mantshli. 
 
THE TUNGUS LANGUAGES. 
 
 10 
 
 Castren found outlying Tshapodzhirs as far west as 
 the Obi. In Bronson, a vocabulary of the Giliak lan- 
 guage, often — I believe, generally — considered to be 
 
 irilian, is Mantshu. 
 
 
 The Mantshu call — 
 
 
 China .... 
 
 Nikan. 
 
 The Mongolians . 
 
 Monga 
 
 The Russians 
 
 Oros. 
 
 Nertshinsk 
 
 Niptshi 
 
 The Giliak .... 
 
 FiaJca. 
 
 Korea .... 
 
 Solgo. 
 
 The last name is remarkable because the Mantshu 
 tribes of the Upper Sagalin are called Solon ; and 
 because there is evidence of other kinds that a portion, 
 at least, of what is now Mantshuria, was once Korea. 
 
 English. 
 
 Maiitblm. 
 
 Timgus of the Amur. 
 
 Man (homo) 
 
 beye 
 
 
 
 Head 
 
 udzhu 
 
 topti 
 
 Hair 
 
 funiekhe 
 
 nurikta 
 
 Eye 
 
 yasa 
 
 yesa 
 
 Ear 
 
 shan 
 
 syen 
 
 Nose 
 
 okhoro 
 
 ongokto 
 
 Mouth 
 
 anga 
 
 ommiiu 
 
 Tongue 
 
 ilengu 
 
 ini 
 
 Tooth 
 
 veikhe 
 
 ikta 
 
 Hand 
 
 gala 
 
 nyala 
 
 Foot 
 
 betkhe 
 
 adbigi 
 
 Sim 
 
 shlin 
 
 delesa 
 
 Moon 
 
 bia 
 
 bega 
 
 Star 
 
 uzhikha 
 
 ohikta 
 
 Fire 
 
 tua 
 
 toho 
 
 Water 
 
 muke 
 
 mu 
 
 Stone 
 
 vekhe 
 
 dsholo 
 
 One 
 
 emu 
 
 mu 
 
 Two 
 
 dzheio 
 
 dyul 
 
 Three 
 
 elan 
 
 ela 
 
 Four 
 
 diun 
 
 duye 
 
 Five 
 
 sundzha 
 
 tonsa 
 
 Six 
 
 ningsun 
 
 nyuyu 
 
 Seven 
 
 nadan 
 
 nada 
 
 Eight 
 
 dzakun 
 
 tshapku 
 
 Nine 
 
 uyun 
 
 khuyu 
 
 Ten 
 
 dzhuan 
 
 dzh.i. 
 
76 
 
 THE TUNGUS LANGUAGES. 
 
 The following short tables give a notion of the sub- 
 dialects of this division : — 
 
 English. 
 
 Middle Amur. 
 
 Mouth of Sangara. 
 
 Mantshu. 
 
 Kisi. 
 
 One 
 
 amun 
 
 omu 
 
 amoa 
 
 omu 
 
 Two 
 
 dyno 
 
 dzur 
 
 dzhoua 
 
 dyul 
 
 Three 
 
 elan 
 
 ela 
 
 gilang 
 
 ela 
 
 Four 
 
 diyin 
 
 duye 
 
 tuye 
 
 duye 
 
 Five 
 
 tonsya 
 
 tonga 
 
 sundzha 
 
 tonsa 
 
 Six 
 
 nunyun 
 
 nyungu 
 
 nyunguen 
 
 nyungu 
 
 Seven 
 
 nadan 
 
 nada 
 
 nadang 
 
 nada 
 
 Fight 
 
 dzabkun 
 
 dzhakfo 
 
 tsakoi 
 
 tshapku 
 
 Nine 
 
 yogin 
 
 huyu 
 
 uyen 
 
 khuyu 
 
 Ten 
 
 dzhan 
 
 dzhoa 
 
 dzliuyen 
 
 dzha. 
 
 Dialects other than Mantshu. 
 
 1. 
 
 English. 
 
 Nertshinsk. 
 
 Yakutsk. 
 
 Lamut. 
 
 Man (homo) 
 
 boie 
 
 boye 
 
 bye 
 
 Bead 
 
 deli 
 
 dyll 
 
 del 
 
 Hair 
 
 nyurikta 
 
 nyuritta 
 
 nyurit 
 
 Eye 
 
 isal 
 
 eha 
 
 esel 
 
 Ear 
 
 zin 
 
 zen 
 
 korot 
 
 Nose 
 
 ongokta 
 
 ongokto 
 
 ongata 
 
 Mouth 
 
 amga 
 
 hamun 
 
 amga 
 
 Tongue 
 
 ingni 
 
 ingni 
 
 ilga 
 
 Band 
 
 dzhalan 
 
 nggala 
 
 ngal 
 
 Foot 
 
 bokdil 
 
 halgan 
 
 bodan 
 
 Swn 
 
 shivun 
 
 ziguni 
 
 nyultan 
 
 Moon 
 
 biga 
 
 bega 
 
 bekh 
 
 Star 
 
 oshikta 
 
 haulen 
 
 otshikat 
 
 Fire 
 
 togo 
 
 togo 
 
 toh 
 
 Water 
 
 mu 
 
 mu 
 
 ma 
 
 Tree 
 
 too 
 
 mo 
 
 mo 
 
 Stone 
 
 dzhalo 
 
 dzholo 
 
 dzhola 
 
 One 
 
 omon 
 
 omukon 
 
 omin 
 
 Two 
 
 dzhur 
 
 dzhur 
 
 dzhur 
 
 Three 
 
 ilan 
 
 elan 
 
 elan 
 
 Four 
 
 dygin 
 
 dygin 
 
 dugun 
 
 Five 
 
 tongna 
 
 tonga 
 
 tongau 
 
 Six 
 
 nyungun 
 
 nyungun 
 
 nyungun 
 
 Seven 
 
 nadan 
 
 nadan 
 
 nadan 
 
 Eight 
 
 dzhapkun 
 
 dzapkan 
 
 dzhapkan 
 
 Nine 
 
 yagyn 
 
 jagin 
 
 uyun 
 
 Ten 
 
 dzhan 
 
 dzhan 
 
 men. 
 
THE TUNGUS LANGUAGES. 
 
 77 
 
 English. 
 
 Yenesei. 
 
 Tsbapodzliir. 
 
 L. TungiTska. 
 
 Mangasela. 
 
 Man (homo) boya 
 
 doyo 
 
 boya 
 
 boyo 
 
 Head 
 
 dil 
 
 dyl 
 
 dil 
 
 dil 
 
 Hair 
 
 nyurikta 
 
 nyurikta 
 
 nuriktalx 
 
 nyurikta 
 
 Eye 
 
 osha 
 
 esha 
 
 obsah. 
 
 esha 
 
 Ear 
 
 shin 
 
 shern 
 
 syen 
 
 shen 
 
 Nose 
 
 nigslia 
 
 oiokota 
 
 onoktah. 
 
 ongokto 
 
 Mouth 
 
 amga 
 
 amga 
 
 amga 
 
 ammungah 
 
 Hand 
 
 hanga 
 
 nali 
 
 ngala 
 
 ngala 
 
 Foot 
 
 halgar 
 
 bodol 
 
 khalgan 
 
 halgan 
 
 Sim 
 
 shiggun 
 
 dylega 
 
 delatsba 
 
 delyadzya 
 
 Moon 
 
 byega 
 
 
 baga 
 
 beya 
 
 
 Star 
 
 oshikta 
 
 osliikta 
 
 oshikta 
 
 oshikta 
 
 Fire 
 
 toggo 
 
 togo 
 
 toggo 
 
 togo 
 
 Water 
 
 mu 
 
 mu 
 
 muh 
 
 mu 
 
 Tree 
 
 mo 
 
 mo 
 
 mo 
 
 mo 
 
 Stone 
 
 dishollo 
 
 zhynlo 
 
 hysba 
 
 dzyollo 
 
 One 
 
 utninukon 
 
 omukon 
 
 mukon 
 
 ommukon 
 
 Tico 
 
 dzyur 
 
 dzhur 
 
 dyur 
 
 dyur 
 
 Three 
 
 illun 
 
 ilan 
 
 ilan 
 
 illen 
 
 Four 
 
 diggin 
 
 dygyn 
 
 degenn 
 
 diggin 
 
 Five 
 
 • tungya 
 
 tunga 
 
 tonga 
 
 tongna 
 
 Six 
 
 nyungnn 
 
 nugun 
 
 nungun 
 
 nyungun 
 
 Seven 
 
 nadan 
 
 nadan 
 
 naddan 
 
 naddan 
 
 Eight 
 
 dzyapkun 
 
 dzhamkun 
 
 dzhapkul 
 
 dzapkun 
 
 Nine 
 
 yegin 
 
 yegin 
 
 iyogyin 
 
 yogyin 
 
 Ten 
 
 dzyan 
 
 dzban 
 
 dyann 
 
 dzhan. 
 
 Castren's Tungiis Grammar is drawn up in the ordi- 
 nary Roman alphabet, the author having preferred this 
 to the Russian. The latter would, indeed, have fitted 
 the language well, being both more copious than the 
 Roman, and being already applied to more than one 
 language of Northern Asia. More than this : one of 
 Castren's own grammars — that of the Ostiak language 
 — is Russian in respect to its letters. Nevertheless, the 
 Tungus orthography is Roman, the grammar itself being 
 in German. 
 
 The introduction of the European alphabets into Rus- 
 sian Asia is a point which we may advantageously con- 
 template, inasmuch as the principles by which it has 
 been regulated are, if not unexceptionable; at least laud- 
 able. 
 
78 TUKGUS ORTnOGRAPHY. 
 
 These alphabets are two : the Russian and the 
 Koman or Italian. The former is the easier to handle 
 — the easier by far. By this I mean that, when an 
 unwritten language has to be written, and the elemen- 
 tary sounds of that unwritten language are new and 
 strange, the Russian orthography can be applied with 
 greater ease than any other in Europe. Of the pre- 
 viously unwritten languages, the following have, within 
 the last few years, been embodied by means of the 
 Russian alphabet : — 
 
 1. The Aleutian of the Islands between Kamtskatka 
 and America. 
 
 2. The Iron, or Osset, of Caucasus ; the application 
 being made by Sjogren. 
 
 3. The Ostiak ; the application being made by Cas- 
 tren. This was in 1849. 
 
 4. The Yakut ; the application being made by Mid- 
 dendorf and Botlinck. 
 
 What have been the applications of the Roman alpha- 
 bet ? — what the principles on which those applications 
 were made ? To the Fin of Finland it had been applied 
 from the beginning; Finland having, until 1812, been 
 Swedish. On the other hand, the Zirianian and the 
 Permian languages are written in Russian. The Esto- 
 nian, however, and the Magyar are Roman ; so that, on 
 the whole, it is not too much to say that the Roman is 
 the alphabet for the Fin family. 
 
 In 1830, the great Danish philologue, Rask, found 
 his attention dii'ected to the Georgian and Armenian 
 languages ; each with an alphabet one- third longer than 
 our own, and each with strange sounds for those alpha- 
 bets to express. However, they did express them ; 
 having signs or letters to match. These signs Rask 
 transliterated into Roman ; and that upon a principle 
 which, though negative rather than positive, is worthy 
 of imitation as far as it goes. He avoided the expres- 
 sion of simple sounds by complex combinations. If a 
 
TUNGUS ORTHOGRAPHY. 79 
 
 new sound appeared, a new sign was excogitated. Tt 
 might be wholly new, it might be an old letter modified. 
 The former gives us the better and bolder, the latter the 
 more usual and easier, plan. How^ever, in the proposed 
 alphabet the Georgian runs thus : — 
 
 a, e, i, o, u, p, f, v, jz, 
 
 t, d, ]>, k, g, K, r, q, X, 
 
 s, z, s, z, c, 3, 3, c, i, 
 
 3. j, h, h, 1, m, n, r, 1). 
 
 y:, Ip, and h, were sounded as the 2^K tK f^i^d ^^^^ i^ 
 ha-p/iazard, nu-thook, and in-Morn ; the original alpha- 
 bets having thus compendiously expressed three pairs of 
 compound sounds. If it were not for this, the combina- 
 tions of p, t, k, and h would have sufficed. The y was, 
 nearly or exactly, the Arabic c, a variety of g. The 
 corresponding variety of k is expressed by q, compared 
 to the Arabic -:. Another guttural was expressed by x 
 (Arabic •). For two varieties of h, were proposed h 
 and t) ; for the sibilants s' (sh) ; z' (zh) ; c (ts) ; c' (tsh) ; 
 5 (dz) ; 3 (dzh or the English j). Then, for a pair of 
 sounds described as approaching dhz, and dhzh, 3 and 3. 
 The Ai-menian transliteration had the additional signs e, 
 e, t, and i'. 
 
 a, 
 
 e, 
 
 
 ^, 
 
 i, 
 
 0, 
 
 u, 
 
 P. 
 
 b, u or w 
 
 V, 
 
 F^ 
 
 t, 
 
 d, 
 
 f; 
 
 k, 
 
 g. 
 
 k, 
 
 X or i 
 
 X, 
 
 s, 
 
 z. 
 
 1 
 
 % 
 
 c, 
 
 3, 
 
 3. 
 
 c, 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 1. 
 
 m, 
 
 n, 
 
 1% 
 
 1', 
 
 h 
 
 h. 
 
 Previous to the work in which these two alphabets 
 were proposed, the author had been engaged on the Lap 
 of Norw^egian Lapland, and had published a grammar 
 on it, in which the signs 5 and 3 were introduced ; as 
 well as n for the ng in king, sing, &c. 
 
 Though Castren's Ostiak Grammar, published in 
 1849, is in Russian, his Zirianian Grammar, published 
 
80 NYUTSHI RECORDS. 
 
 in 1844, is in Roman letters; these being those of 
 Rask, except that for 5 and 3, he used dz and dz. 
 The Samoyed was the next sound-system he found 
 it necessary to investigate. Here there were two 
 modifications of I, viz., t, \, and {) the sound of the gii 
 in French words like Boulogne, along with similar modi- 
 fications of d, t, s, z, and c ; which were written dy, ty, 
 sy, zy, tshy — there or thereabouts. 
 
 Lastly, the Tushi alphabet of Schiefner contains x, h, 
 ^, g, c, c, c, i, s, z, t, p, 1, ^ 
 
 All this, though exceptionable in many respects, is 
 better than the system too much in vogue amongst our- 
 selves of making combinations. 
 
 It has already been stated that there is such a thing 
 as a Mantshu alphabet, and that it is a modification of 
 the Mongol. This implies a Mantshu literature. It is 
 a scanty one ; as may be seen from Klaproth's Mantshu 
 Chrestomathy. Neither is it ancient. It is possible, 
 however, that it may be both older and more important 
 than it seems. A paper,* by Mr. Wylie, of Shanghae, 
 gives us the following list of Neu-chih translations from 
 the Chinese, during, or earlier than, the Ming dynasty : 
 (1,) History of Pwan-kti ; (2,) History of Confucius; 
 (3,) Travels of Confucius ; (4,) Domestic Discourses ; 
 (5,) Discourses of the Wise and Able from the Domestic 
 Discourses ; (6,) History of Keang Tae-kung ; (7,) His- 
 tory of Woo Tzye-seu ; (8,) Narrative of the Display of 
 Rarities by Eighteen Kingdoms ; (Q,) History of Sun 
 Pin ; (1 0,) Treatise on Carriage Driving ; (11,) History 
 of Hae Tseen Kung ; (12,) History of Madame Hwang; 
 (13,) National Surnames ; (14,) Ha ta yang urh kan, — • 
 whatever that may mean. 
 
 More interesting, still, is the notice of two Neu-chih 
 inscriptions. The first, which from its locality, may be 
 called the Kin -chow monument, has been seen in situ 
 by no European. Neither is it copied verbatim et 
 
 * Joiirnal of the Royal Society. Vol. xvii. Part 2. 1860. 
 
NEUCHIH RECORDS. 81 
 
 literatiTn in China. Still, there is a Chinese work in 
 which there is a notice of it, and in which there is a 
 translation ; viz. The Choice Selections from Lapidary 
 Literature. This is the translation of the author whom I 
 follow of Shih mih tseuen hwa, by Chaou Han, and is 
 dated 1618. It contains the Chinese equivalent of the 
 Neuchih ; of which the following is the translation in 
 English, by Mr. Wylie : — 
 
 The local military director and prince of the blood, brother to the emperor 
 of the Great-Kin dynasty, having enjoyed a season of tranquillity within the 
 boundary of his jurisdiction, was hunting on the south side of Leang Hill. 
 On coming to Keen -ling (the imperial sepulchre) of the Tang dynasty, finding 
 the pavilion and side buildings in a state of decay, every vestige of magnifi- 
 cence having disappeared, he gave orders to the local authorities to assemble 
 artisans to repair and beautify the place. Now having again visited the 
 sepulchres, finding the paintings all renewed, and the side galleries completely 
 restored, he was inexpressibly delighted, and returned after partaking of an 
 entertainment by the Prefect of Le-yang. 
 
 T'een-hwuy, 12th year (a.d. 1134), being the 51st year of the sexagenary 
 cycle, 11th month, 14th day, Hwang Yung-ke, Territorial Secretary to the 
 Supreme Council, and Wang Kwei, Secondary Prefect of Yew-chow, members 
 of the suite, have written this in compliance with the command. 
 
 Translation of the preceding in^cnption. 
 
 The heading of the tablet reads ' ' Record of the journey of the military 
 director and prince of the blood, the emperor's brother." 
 
 The author of the Shih mih tseuen hwa adds the following note ; — name or 
 surname is mentioned. As the date is 1134, it should be the brother of 
 T'ae-tsung, according to the history of the Kin dynasty. She-tsoo had eleven 
 sons ; there being eight besides Kang-tsung, T'ae-tsoo and T'ae-tsung, it is 
 uncertain which is the one referred to. We cannot decipher a single word of 
 this inscription, which is written in the Neu-chih character. This table cor- 
 roborates what Wang Yuen-mei says : — " When enlightened princes are watch- 
 ful over their virtue, foreigners are attracted from every region. There is a 
 translation at the end, in the Chinese character, consisting of one hundred 
 and five characters, inscribed on the left side, but it is entirely different. 
 The engraved inscription is at Keen-ling, on the characterless tablet." 
 
 This is not the only notice. How far, however, the 
 testimonies of the two authors quoted may be inde- 
 pendent is more than I can say ; but in the Record of 
 the Metal and Stone Inscriptions of Shense {Kwan- 
 chung kin shih ke), dated 1781, the following statement 
 
 G 
 
82 NEUCHIH KECORDS. 
 
 concerning the inscription in question occurs: — "the first 
 part is written in the Neu-chih character, the latter part 
 is a translation written in the ordinary character ; the 
 heading is in the seal character. At Keen-ling, in ^ Kin- 
 chow/'' 
 
 Of the other inscription, we still want even the pre- 
 liminary details. There is only a general notice of its 
 existence. 
 
THE MONGOL LANGUAGES. 83 
 
 CHAPTEK XIII. 
 
 The Mongol Class. — Mongolian Proper. — Buriat. — Olot. — Aimauk. — 
 Pelu.— Sok. 
 
 The Mongol area is large, but not very irregular ; 
 neither are its frontiers very varied. On the south, it 
 marches with China and Tibet ; on the west, with the 
 Turk area ; on the east, with the Mantshu. On the 
 north, there are the Tungus and the Russian of Siberia 
 along with the languages of a few fragmentary abori- 
 gines. There are two isolated offsets, one in Cabul, and 
 one on the Volga. The differences of dialect lie within 
 a narrow compass. The divisions are (1) the East Mon- 
 golian, or Mongol Proper ; (2) the Kalka ; (3) the Buriat ; 
 (4) the Ulut, Olot, or Eleut, or Kalmuk ; (5) the Aimauk. 
 
 1. The Mongol was reduced to writing in (about) the 
 time of Kublai Khan : the alphabet being taken from 
 the Uighur Turks. The classical composition in this dia- 
 lect is a Mongol history by Sanang Seetsen. The literary 
 influences are, at the present time, Chinese and Tibetan. 
 Buddhism, however, was preceded by Fire-worship and 
 (apparently) by an imperfect Christianity. 
 
 2. The Kalka, in which the chief compositions are 
 songs, leads from the Mongol Proper to 
 
 8. The Buriat ; the Buriats being (like the Orotong 
 as compared with the Mantshu) Siberian rather than 
 Chinese. Amongst the Buriats, Buddhism prevails ; the 
 Buriat Christianity being inchoate, the Buriat Maho- 
 metanism inconsiderable in amount. As contrasted with 
 the Mongols Proper, the Buriats are, to a great extent, 
 
 G 2 
 
84j the MONGOL LANGUAGES; 
 
 Pagans and in contact with Pagans — except (of course) 
 so far as they are under the influences of Russia. 
 
 In 1831, they numbered 72,000 males and 80,000 
 females : the present census amounting to about 
 190,000. They fall into the Buriats beyond, and the 
 Buriats on this side of, the Baikal. The former are the 
 Khorin, the Selenga, the Barguzin, the Kudarin, and the 
 Kudin (in part) tribes ; each with some peculiarities of 
 dialect. The latter — named after the rivers along which 
 they lie — are the remainder of the Kudin, the Upper 
 Lena, the Olkhon, the Ida, the Balagan, the Alari, and 
 the Tunka divisions ; the latter being, to some extent, 
 Turk and Samoyed in blood. The Selenga form of speech 
 is spoken in the greatest purity by the Atagan, Tsongol, 
 Sartal, and Tabang-gut. 
 
 The Buriat of the parts about Nizhni Udinsk, the 
 Buriat of the extreme west, call — 
 
 Themselves Buriat, 
 
 The Russians Mangut, 
 
 — Tungus Kaldzhak-shin, 
 
 — Katshintsi Turks Kat-kum, 
 
 — Kot Kotoh-kum, 
 
 — River Birus Byr-hu. 
 
 The chief difference between the Buriat and the 
 Kalka seems to be political. Neither is it quite certain 
 that Castren's divisions between the Buriat of this side 
 of the Baikal, and the Buriat beyond the Baikal, is 
 natural. 
 
 The Selenga forms of speech approach most closely 
 to the written or literary language. 
 
 English. 
 
 Selenga. 
 
 Khorin. 
 
 Nizhni Uda. 
 
 Tunkin. 
 
 Man (vir) 
 
 ere 
 
 ere 
 
 ere 
 
 ire 
 
 Man (homo) 
 
 khung 
 
 khung 
 
 kung 
 
 kung 
 
 Head 
 
 tologoi 
 
 tarkM 
 
 tologoi 
 
 tologi 
 
 Hair 
 
 usu 
 
 uhun 
 
 uhung 
 
 uliung 
 
 Eye 
 
 nyude 
 
 nyudeng 
 
 nyideng 
 
 nyudeng 
 
MONGOL DIALECTS. 
 
 8^ 
 
 English. 
 
 Selenga. 
 
 Kliorin. 
 
 Nizlmi Uda. 
 
 Tunkiu. 
 
 Ear 
 
 shikhe 
 
 shikheng 
 
 shikeng 
 
 shikeng 
 
 Nose 
 
 khamar 
 
 khamar 
 
 kamar 
 
 khamar 
 
 Mouth 
 
 ama 
 
 amang 
 
 amang 
 
 amang 
 
 Tongue 
 
 khele 
 
 kelen 
 
 keleng • 
 
 khelengn 
 
 Hand 
 
 gar 
 
 gar 
 
 gar 
 
 gar 
 
 Foot 
 
 khul 
 
 khol 
 
 kol 
 
 kol 
 
 Sun 
 
 nara 
 
 narang 
 
 narang 
 
 narangn 
 
 Moon 
 
 sara 
 
 hara 
 
 hara 
 
 hara 
 
 Star 
 
 odo 
 
 odon 
 
 odong 
 
 odong 
 
 Fire 
 
 gal 
 
 gal 
 
 gal 
 
 gal 
 
 Water 
 
 oso 
 
 uhan 
 
 uhung 
 
 uhungn. 
 
 4. The Ulut are the Mongols of Dzungaria ; the 
 Kalmuks of the Volga being Dzungarian in origin. 
 
 5. On each side of a line drawn from Herat to 
 Cabul, lies, to the north of the proper Afghan, and to 
 the south of the Uzbek and Turcoman, frontier, a great 
 range of undulating country, often mountainous, almost 
 always hilly, well-watered in some parts, bleak and 
 rough in others. This falls into a western and an 
 eastern division, with an important watershed between 
 them. From the west flow the Murghab, the Tejend, 
 and the Furrarud ; from the east, the Helmund, the 
 south-eastern feeders of the Oxus, and the north-western 
 feeders of the Cabul river. The former of these dis- 
 tricts, lower and less mountainous, is the occupancy 
 of the Tsliehar Aimauk ; the latter that of the Hazara. 
 Both are noticed in Elphinst one's Caubul : both are 
 placed in the same category. The only doubt in the 
 mind of the author is as to the nature of the class that 
 contained them. He hesitates to make them Mongols. 
 They generally spoke Persian. A sample of the lan- 
 guage, since published by Lieut. Leach, settles the doubt 
 — for the speakers of it, at least : — 
 
 English. 
 
 Aimauk. 
 
 Kalka. 
 
 Head 
 
 ekin 
 
 tologoi 
 
 Ear 
 
 tshakin 
 
 tsike 
 
 Nose 
 
 kabr 
 
 khamar 
 
 Eye 
 
 nuddun 
 
 nidu 
 
SQ 
 
 THE SDK VOCABULARY. 
 
 English. 
 
 Aimauk. 
 
 Ralka. 
 
 Tongue 
 
 kel^i 
 
 kole 
 
 Hand 
 
 ghar 
 
 gar 
 
 Fire 
 
 ghar 
 
 gal 
 
 Water 
 
 ussun 
 
 usu 
 
 Tree 
 
 darakt* 
 
 modo 
 
 Stone 
 
 kuri 
 
 tsholo 
 
 One 
 
 nikka 
 
 nege 
 
 Two 
 
 koyar 
 
 klioyiu 
 
 Three 
 
 ghorban 
 
 gurba 
 
 Four 
 
 dorban 
 
 diiiba 
 
 Five 
 
 tabun 
 
 tabu. 
 
 There are a few Mongols in Bokhara ; traces, real or 
 supposed, of some in India ; the same in Persia and 
 Syria ; the same in parts of Russia and Tartary. 
 
 The Soh, or Sokpa, of the northern frontier of Tibet, 
 and, apparently, the most southern member of the group 
 is Mongolian. 
 
 English. 
 
 Sok. 
 
 English. 
 
 Sok. 
 
 Man 
 
 khiin 
 
 Fire 
 
 kwal 
 
 Head 
 
 thola gwe 
 
 Water 
 
 usu 
 
 Hair 
 
 kechige 
 
 Stone 
 
 chhilo 
 
 Hand 
 
 kar 
 
 Tree 
 
 moto 
 
 Mouth 
 
 ama 
 
 One 
 
 nege 
 
 Ear 
 
 khikhe 
 
 Two 
 
 hoyur 
 
 Eye 
 
 nutu 
 
 Three 
 
 korba 
 
 Tooth 
 
 syuchi 
 
 Four 
 
 tirba 
 
 Foot 
 
 khoil 
 
 Five 
 
 thaba 
 
 Blood 
 
 khoro-gwe 
 
 Six 
 
 chorka 
 
 Bone 
 
 yaso 
 
 Seven 
 
 tolo 
 
 Day 
 
 wundur 
 
 Eight 
 
 nema 
 
 Sun 
 
 nara 
 
 Nine 
 
 yeso 
 
 Moon 
 
 sara 
 
 Ten 
 
 arba. 
 
 The Pelii. — From the Japanese encyclopaedia, known 
 in China as Kho-khan Zanzai-tu-khuy, completed A.D. 
 1713, Klaproth gives a specimen of a Mongol dialect 
 entitled Pelu ; adding that Pe means north, and Iw 
 means western barbarians. If so, the Pelu are the 
 north-western barbarians. 
 
 • Persian. 
 
THE PELU VOCABULARY. 
 
 87 
 
 English. 
 
 Pelu. 
 
 Mongol. 
 
 Man 
 
 kore 
 
 ere 
 
 Woman 
 
 khoton 
 
 khatun 
 
 Father 
 
 kozike 
 
 etshige 
 
 Mother 
 
 koke 
 
 eki 
 
 Brother 
 
 teuge 
 
 dagu 
 
 Girl 
 
 oka 
 
 okin 
 
 Sky 
 
 tengri 
 
 tangri 
 
 Sun 
 
 nara 
 
 nara 
 
 Moon 
 
 zara 
 
 zara 
 
 Star 
 
 khuton 
 
 odon 
 
 Sea 
 
 talai 
 
 dalai 
 
 River 
 
 murun 
 
 muran 
 
 Water 
 
 uzo 
 
 uzu. 
 
 Word for word, I hold that Pelu is the same as 
 Paloung, the name of a T'hay popidation already 
 noticed, and of one which lay west of Cochin-China, 
 and, to some extent, north as well. 
 
88 THE YENISEIANS. 
 
 CHAPTER XIY. 
 
 The Yenlseians. — Objections to the name Ostiak.— Castren's Researches. — 
 Northern Branch. — Inbazk, Denka, and Pumpokolsk vocabularies of the 
 Asia Polyglotta.— Southern Branch.— The Assan. — Kot. — Castren's Dis- 
 covery of a Kot Village. — The Ara Legend.— Kan skoi and Kamassintzi 
 vocabularies. — The Glosses Kot and Kem. — Speculations as to the origi- 
 nal extent of the Yeniseian area. 
 
 This is, perhaps, the most broken-up population in the 
 world ; so that I shall say nearly all that I know about 
 it. It is possible that a large proportion of this is 
 ethnographical, rather than philological ; still, it is so 
 fragmentary a population that I shall write a few pages, 
 even though they may be out of place. I shall also add 
 my speculations as to the original importance of the 
 class. 
 
 Yeniseian was the name proposed by Klaproth, 
 though it is not the term used by Adelung before, nor 
 that used by Castren after him. It may, possibly, 
 be exceptionable ; inasmuch as the Yeniseians are, by 
 no means, the only populations of the Yenisey. On the 
 other hand, however, they are nearly limited to the 
 drainage of that river, and they also seem to be the 
 aboriginal occupants of a great portion of its valley. 
 They extended as far south as 53° N. L., and as far 
 north as 67° N. L., at least. Adelung and Castren call 
 them the Yeniseian Ostiaks. They are, however, widely 
 different from the true Ostiaks — those of the Obi. 
 
 It is to be regretted that Castren laas gone back to 
 the old term, and that when he speaks of the populations 
 under notice, he calls them Ostiaks of the Yenisey, just 
 as he calls the Samoyeds of the Ket and Tshulim, Os- 
 
THE YENISEIANS. 89 
 
 tiak Samoyeds. In each case, the word is used impro- 
 perly. Indeed, it is doubtful whether it is the best 
 term for the Ostiaks Proper, though it is a convenient 
 one. It is a convenient one, because they have no other 
 general name at all. 
 
 The Turk is the language to which (in the first in- 
 stance, at least) it belongs ; for it is the Turks who 
 apply the name. And they apply it to more populations 
 than one. They apply it to the Ostiaks Proper and 
 they apply it to the Bashkirs. Whether they have not 
 applied it elsewhere, and that in unexpected quarters, is 
 a question from which, for the present, Ave refrain. 
 
 When Castren undertook his second journey, he was 
 specially instructed to ascertain the ethnological and 
 philological relations of those "tribes which, dwelling 
 between the Yenisey on the east, and the Obi on the 
 west, bore the indefinite name of Ostiak.'' It is un- 
 necessary to say that these instructions were carried out 
 with zeal and skill. The investigation, however, was, at 
 first, left in the hands of his fellow-traveller Bergstadi, 
 who passed a part of the year 1846 in the village of 
 Anzeferova, on the Pit. After a while, however, Castren 
 descended the Yenisey, and, after coming in per- 
 sonal contact with the tribes of the Sym and parts about 
 Turukhansk and Inbazk, made himself master of the 
 language sufficiently to become the author of a grammar 
 and a vocabulary. 
 
 Their most northern limit is the country about Man- 
 gaseia or Turukhansk, in (jQ° N. L., where their neigh- 
 bours to the north are the Avamski and Karasin 
 Samoyeds, to the west the Samoyeds of the Tas, and to 
 the east the Tungtis of the northern Tunguska river. 
 Of the exact dialect here spoken there are no specimens. 
 It seems to be taken for granted that it is the same as 
 that of the next group. 
 
 This appears about 63° N. L., where, in the parts 
 about Inbazk, the Yelogui falls into the Yenisey from 
 
90 THE YENISEIANS. 
 
 the west, and the Bakta from the east. Here the fron- 
 tagers are again Samoyeds (of the Karakon section) 
 and Tungus. An Inbazk vocabulary, eo nomine, is to 
 be found in the Asia Polyglotta : akin to which is a 
 shorter one of the 6dh (or sable) Ostiaks, who, in 1723, 
 called themselves Denka. According to Messerschmidt, 
 they could count no further than five. The Denka were 
 especially found on a stream called 6dh-Shosh {Sable 
 river), a feeder of the Podkamennaya Tunguska — the 
 name being apparently of Tungus origin ; for several of 
 the Tungus tribes call themselves Denka, which means, 
 in Tungus, men. Though it is expressly stated that , 
 this name was native, and as there is no sign of the 
 w^ord under notice having any meaning in any Yeniseian 
 dialect, it is possible that the blood of the Denka was 
 Tungus. Be this as it may, the dialect belongs to the 
 Inbazk division. 
 
 In 60° N. L., the Sym and Pit fall into the Yenisey, 
 much after the manner of the Yelogui and the Bak^ ; 
 the former from the west, the latter from the east. $he 
 banks of each are Yeniseian localities. A little to the 
 south of the latter lies the village of Anzeferova, the 
 spot where Bergstadi and Castren made their chief 
 researches in the Yeniseian. Hence, it must be sup- 
 posed that it is the Pit and Sym forms of speech that are 
 most particularly represented in the grammar. The 
 frontier on the east is Tshapodzhir ; on the west, 
 Samoj^ed and Ostiak. 
 
 To the south and west, the Ket is a Yeniseian locality, 
 the dialect of which is represented by the Pumpokolsk 
 vocabulary of Klaproth, a dialect which, like the last, 
 is in contact with the Samoyed and Ostiak. The 
 river Kem, which falls into the Yenisey, a little below 
 Yeniseisk, bears a Yeniseian name. Of the Yeniseian of 
 the Ket, as represented by the Pumpokolsk vocabulary, 
 I think that thus much may be said, viz. that, notwith- 
 standing certain special affinities with the dialects of the 
 
THE YENISEIANS. 91 
 
 next group, it is a northern rather than a southern form 
 of speech, i. e. that it belongs to the Sym group of 
 dialects. 
 
 About 5*7° N. L. is the boundary of philological 
 area ; and we no longer meet what may be called the 
 proper Siberian populations, like the Samoyeds, Ostiaks, 
 and Tungus, but populations whose language is Turk. 
 In other words, the philological frontier changes ; and, 
 with it, change the Yeniseian forms of speech. All the 
 preceding dialects appear in Castren's Grammar, under 
 the name of Ostiak of the Yenisey. The name that 
 now presents itself is Kot. 
 
 A few Russianized Kot were seen by Gastrin as far 
 west as Ansir, Barnaul, and Yelansk. They stated that 
 they were a remnant of the Baginov Uluss, which mi- 
 grated from the River Poima. These, he thinks, are the 
 Yeniseians, whom Klaproth calls the Kongi'oitshe, a name 
 which, he also thinks, has originated out of the Tartar 
 name for Krasnoyarsk, the town where the tribute was 
 paid. It means, a place with a bell. The Poima is a 
 feeder of the Ana. 
 
 Now, it is on the Ana, along with the Ussolka, that- 
 Klaproth fixes another division of the southern Yeni- 
 seians, of whose language he gives a specimen, which 
 differs from the Kot only as one dialect or sub-dialect 
 differs from another. He calls them the Assan. Gas- 
 tren sought for them with care and pain. He found 
 none on the Ussolka ; though he especially visited the 
 chief or only volost on its drainage. All he found was 
 Russians, who knew of nothing older than themselves. 
 Two families were, apparently, of Tungus blood ; but 
 nothing did either they or any one else know about the 
 Assan. 
 
 Neither was he successful on the Lower Ana. Towards 
 its head-waters, however, he found an account of some 
 Kot who had lived there lately, but who had been 
 ordered to move to the Uda, where they then lived with 
 
92 THE YENISEIANS. 
 
 the Buriat, in a village named Badaranovka, thirty 
 versts below Nizhni Udinsk. Before they left the Ana, 
 they spoke Buriat. They amount, now, to eleven tri- 
 bute-payers, half of whom (the division is difficult) 
 speak Buriat, half Russian. They call themselves Ko- 
 tovzy, the name being native, the form Russian. The 
 Karagas Turks call them Kodeglar. I imagine that 
 these are the Assan, or nearly so. 
 
 At length, he found the Kot, eo nomine and eci lin- 
 gua. But they were but a fragment. Their original 
 area was the drainage of the river Kan. There were 
 Kot settlements near the present villages of Agulskaya 
 and Korastelia. There were Kot settlements about Ansir, 
 Yelansk, and the now important town of Barnaul. A 
 few years ago, seven Kots paid tribute from the neigh- 
 bourhood of Kansk. The Agul, the Kungus, and the 
 XJlka were once Kot rivers. There were Kots on the 
 Mongol frontier, whose language is now that of the 
 Buriats. 
 
 : Nevertheless, a few. speakers of the Kot language still 
 exist ; a single village on the Agul being their locality — 
 their neighbours being Kamass Samoyeds, themselves 
 more than half Turk. 
 
 The Kot of the Agul, being lighter taxed than if 
 they were passed for Russians, make much of their little 
 nationality, and keep up their language accordingly. 
 Five individuals from the settlement were seen by Cas- 
 tren ; and his Kot Grammar was the result. 
 
 The Arini were all but extinct in the middle of last 
 century. A specimen, however, of their language has 
 survived. So has the following legend : — 
 
 Before they left the main stream of the Yenisey for 
 their present occupancy in the district of Sayania, and 
 whilst they called themselves Ara (being called by the 
 Russians Arinzi), they lived part of the year in one 
 place, part in another. Their summer residence was an 
 island in the Yenisey, named, in Russian, the Tates- 
 
THE YENISEIANS. 93 
 
 hewki Ostrog. In winter, they joined the Katsha Turks, 
 and fed their flocks on Mount Kumtige, near the Katsha. 
 Their tribe was, at first, a large one ; but they fought 
 against each other, and became weak. While these wars 
 were going on, a young Ara walked out, and found a 
 snake. He cut it in two. The head, which still kept 
 in a little life, went back to the king of the snakes, and 
 told his tale. So the king of the snakes held a council, 
 and asked the wise men of Snakeland what was to be 
 done. It was summer-time, and ail the Ara were in 
 tlie island. The snakes agreed to do this — they were to 
 swim across to the opposite bank, and then cry out, 
 " Boat ! boat ! " So they swam across, and the Ara 
 heard a cry of " Boat ! '' They went with all the boats 
 they could muster : but, wonderful to relate ! they found 
 no men on the shore (for they thought that it was one 
 of their countrymen who had called), but only snakes — 
 especially young ones. There were more young than 
 old. They were almost all young ones, and they all 
 wanted to speak — all at once. But the old king of the 
 snakes told them to be quiet, and then put as many of 
 them in the boat as it would hold. Then he made the 
 old man row them over to the island, one boatful after 
 another, until they were taken across. Then the king 
 of the snakes himself got in, and was rowed over by 
 the old man in like manner with the rest. 
 
 As they were rowing, the king of the snakes said to 
 the old man, " When you get back again to your own 
 home, remember to strew ashes all round your tent, and 
 then to drag over them a sail-cloth of two different 
 colours, and made of two kinds of horse-hair — one 
 white, the other black.'" So the old man did as the 
 king of the snakes had bid him ; and went home, and 
 took the ashes, and dragged over them a sail-cloth made 
 of two kinds of horsehair, and went to rest. And he 
 awoke in the morning, and, behold ! the whole TJluss 
 was gone, and all the men of the tribe dead. Only the 
 
94 
 
 THE YENISEIANS. 
 
 old man and his family were spared ; and from liim 
 come all the Ara. 
 
 When an Ara dies, his bow and arrows are placed in 
 his grave, over which his best horse is slaughtered, and 
 flayed. The skin is then stretched over a pole, set up 
 on the grave, and the flesh is feasted on. The women, 
 after their confinements, wash themselves three times 
 within the first seven days, and then fumigate them- 
 selves with a herb named irhen. The first friend that 
 visits them names the child. Their oaths are taken 
 over a bear's head, of wliich the swearer fixes his teeth 
 in the nose. When a sentence equivalent to banishment 
 is pronounced against a culprit, he is placed between a 
 dog and a reindeer. These are then set free. Whichever 
 way they run must be taken by the man also, who is no 
 longer allowed to remain where he was. Even a draught 
 of water from his old locality is forbidden. So is all 
 farther intercourse with any of his original neighbours. 
 These remarks apply to the Dzizerti or Yesirti, as well 
 as the Ara ; the Dzizerti being, like the Ara, an extinct 
 or amalgamated tribe. 
 
 The word Ara is said to mean wasps ; the population 
 to which it applies being so denominated from their war- 
 like activity. But it most likely means nothing of the 
 kind. Word for word, it seems to be Yarang. 
 
 English. 
 
 Inbazk. 
 
 Pumpokolsk. 
 
 Assan. 
 
 Kot. 
 
 Arini. 
 
 Man (hoTno) 
 
 ket 
 
 kit 
 
 hit 
 
 Hit 
 
 khitt 
 
 {vir) 
 
 tshet 
 
 ilset 
 
 hadkip 
 
 hatkit 
 
 birkhanyat 
 
 Head 
 
 tsig 
 
 kolka 
 
 takai 
 
 tagai 
 
 kolkya 
 
 Hair 
 
 tonge 
 
 kliynga 
 
 khingayang 
 
 hingayang 
 
 khagang 
 
 Foot 
 
 toigen 
 
 aning 
 
 pulang 
 
 pulang 
 
 pil 
 
 Eye 
 
 des 
 
 dat 
 
 tesh 
 
 tetshagan 
 
 tieng 
 
 Ear 
 
 hokten 
 
 
 klokan 
 
 kalogan 
 
 utkhonong 
 
 Nose 
 
 olen 
 
 hang 
 
 an 
 
 ang 
 
 arkhui 
 
 Mouth 
 
 ko 
 
 kan 
 
 hohui 
 
 hohu 
 
 bukhom 
 
 Tongue 
 
 ei 
 
 iiygyi 
 
 alup 
 
 alup 
 
 alyap 
 
 Sun 
 
 i 
 
 hikhem 
 
 oga 
 
 ega 
 
 ega 
 
 Moon 
 
 kMp 
 
 khep 
 
 shui 
 
 shui 
 
 eshui 
 
 Star 
 
 koogo 
 
 kaken 
 
 alak 
 
 alagan 
 
 . ilkhoi 
 
THE YENISEIANS. 
 
 95 
 
 English. 
 
 Inbazk. 
 
 Pumpokolsk. 
 
 Assan. 
 
 Kot. 
 
 Ariiii. 
 
 Fire 
 
 bok 
 
 butsh 
 
 bat 
 
 kbott 
 
 kbott 
 
 Water 
 
 ul 
 
 ul 
 
 ul 
 
 ul 
 
 kul 
 
 River 
 
 ses 
 
 torn 
 
 ul 
 
 kem 
 
 sat 
 
 IJdl 
 
 kai 
 
 kbai 
 
 yii 
 
 dzbii 
 
 kar 
 
 Tree 
 
 oksa 
 
 oksy 
 
 atsh 
 
 atsbsbi 
 
 kusb-osbtsbe 
 
 Stone 
 
 tshugs 
 
 tsbys 
 
 sbish 
 
 sbish 
 
 kbez 
 
 Egg 
 
 ong 
 
 eg 
 
 sbulei 
 
 sbulei 
 
 ang 
 
 Fish 
 
 isse 
 
 gite 
 
 tyg 
 
 tig 
 
 ilti 
 
 God 
 
 eis 
 
 es 
 
 etsb 
 
 esb 
 
 es 
 
 Sl:y 
 
 eis 
 
 es 
 
 etsb 
 
 esb 
 
 es 
 
 House 
 
 khush 
 
 bukut 
 
 biisb 
 
 busb 
 
 bu 
 
 Milk 
 
 mamel 
 
 den 
 
 
 
 tengul 
 
 Saoiv 
 
 begges 
 
 tyg 
 
 tik 
 
 tik 
 
 tbe 
 
 One 
 
 khus-ein 
 
 kbuta 
 
 hutsba 
 
 butsba 
 
 kbusei 
 
 Ticp 
 
 un-em 
 
 binneang 
 
 una 
 
 inya 
 
 kina 
 
 Three 
 
 dong-em 
 
 donga 
 
 tongya 
 
 tongya 
 
 tyonga 
 
 Four 
 
 zi-em 
 
 ziang 
 
 sbeggiang 
 
 tsbega 
 
 sbaya 
 
 Five 
 
 gag-em 
 
 kbeilang 
 
 geigyan 
 
 kega 
 
 kbala 
 
 Six 
 
 ag-am 
 
 aggiang 
 
 gedudzbiang 
 
 kelutsba 
 
 ogga 
 
 Seven 
 
 enh-am 
 
 onyang 
 
 geiliniang 
 
 kelina 
 
 unnya 
 
 Eight 
 
 unem-boisan 
 
 - bing-basi- 
 
 geiltaniang 
 
 kbeltonga 
 
 kina-mant- 
 
 
 kbogen 
 
 kbaiyang 
 
 
 
 sbau 
 
 Nine 
 
 khusem-boi- 
 
 kbuta-yamos 
 
 - godzbi-buna- 
 
 butsbabunaga kusa-mant- 
 
 
 san-kbogen 
 
 kbaiyang 
 
 giang 
 
 
 sbau 
 
 Ten 
 
 kbogen 
 
 kbaiyang 
 
 bagiang 
 
 baga 
 
 kboa. 
 
 I think that, in investigating the extent of the origi- 
 nal area of the Yeniseians, we may use the words het 
 and hem as instruments ; the first meaning man, the 
 second river. 
 
 Let us consider, then, the presence of these forms as a 
 presumption in favour of Yeniseian blood, and ask how 
 far they lead us. 
 
 (1 .) Kot, het, &;c. — The Mongol form for the Teleuts is 
 Teleng-^i/^ ; the Teleuts being considered to be Mongols 
 in blood, though Turk in language. 
 
 The Iv-het are a small tribe of fifty-seven tribute- 
 payers, near Tunka — at present considered as Soiot. 
 What Castren heard about the Irket was that they had 
 migrated from the river Sikir, and that they had 
 divided themselves into two divisions. One took to the 
 level country belonging to the Bucha Gorkhon tribe of 
 
96 
 
 THE YENISEIANS. 
 
 Buriats. With these they intermarried, probably from 
 the necessity of their taking a wife out of a tribe dif- 
 ferent from their own ; they themselves being only a 
 single tribe. 
 
 (2.) Kemi. — The twenty-eight Dyon or Yon of the 
 Tshulim Turks were originally called Tutal, a name which 
 is now limited to two of these tribes. The people of the 
 towns call them Uriankbai. The Tutal name, however, 
 for the Tshulim river is Tshum. I think that, word for 
 word, this is Tom as well as Kem and Tshem. In the 
 Pumpokolsk dialect this (torn) is the actual word for 
 river. 
 
 The Alakh and the ^em-tshik form the western' 
 soiu-ces of the Yenisey, which is named by the Chinese 
 and the Mongols Ulu Kem = great river, ulu being a 
 Mongol term, but kem a Yeniseian one. Here dwell the 
 Soyon, Soyony, or Sayanzi, the only names, according 
 to Tshitshatsheff, which are known in these parts ; the 
 form Soiot being inaccurate. The language and manner 
 of life of these nomads are partly Mongol, partlj" Turk. 
 At present they fall into two divisions, one of which 
 is directly dependent upon China, whereas the other is 
 under a zaizan, who resides at Urgha. This confirms 
 the doctrine suggested by the word Irket^ viz. that the 
 Soiot are, more or less, Yeniseian in blood. 
 
 I now subjoin the following vocabularies from Stalen- 
 berg : — 
 
 ( I .) That of the Kanskoi, of the river Kan, who call 
 themselves Khotovzi. 
 
 English. 
 
 Khotovzi. 
 
 One 
 
 opp 
 
 Two 
 
 tzida 
 
 Three 
 
 naghor 
 
 Four- 
 
 thseta 
 
 Five 
 
 ssoumbulang 
 
 Six 
 
 muctu 
 
 Seven 
 
 seigbe 
 
 Eifjht 
 
 schidfetse 
 
 Nine 
 
 togus 
 
 English. 
 
 Khotovzi. 
 
 Ten 
 
 bud 
 
 Eleven 
 
 biid-op 
 
 Twelve 
 
 biid-tzida 
 
 Twenty 
 
 tuserm 
 
 Thirty 
 
 nogh-tuserm 
 
 Forty 
 
 nogb-opp-tuser. 
 
 Fifty 
 
 soum-tuserm 
 
 Sixty 
 
 mouck-tuserm 
 
 Seventy 
 
 seig-tuserin 
 
THE YENISEIANS. 
 
 97 
 
 English. 
 
 Khotovzi. 
 
 English. 
 
 Khotovzi. 
 
 Eighty 
 
 
 Fire 
 
 tbuy 
 
 Ninety 
 
 togus-thiserm 
 
 Water 
 
 ai 
 
 Hundred 
 
 thun 
 
 Earth 
 
 dscha 
 
 Thousand 
 
 byat-tun 
 
 Mountain 
 
 bia 
 
 God 
 
 num 
 
 Sun 
 
 kaya 
 
 Father 
 
 abam 
 
 Moon 
 
 kysschtin 
 
 Mother 
 
 imam 
 
 Horse 
 
 nunda 
 
 Brother 
 
 aya 
 
 Head 
 
 stiba 
 
 Sister 
 
 yhse 
 
 Man {homo) 
 
 hya. 
 
 Wife 
 
 nah 
 
 
 
 This is Samoyed. Still, the people call themselves 
 Kotovzi ; as do the existing Kotovzi, who are probably 
 their descendants, but who speak Buriat. 
 
 (2.) That of the Kamacintzi, who call themselves 
 Kishtim, and hve on the River Mana : — 
 
 English. 
 
 Kamacintzi. 
 
 English. 
 
 Kamacintzi. 
 
 One 
 
 chuodschse 
 
 Sixty 
 
 bkelusa-tu 
 
 Tioo 
 
 ynge 
 
 Seventy 
 
 hkelina-tugu 
 
 Three 
 
 tonga 
 
 Eighty 
 
 cbeltong-tugu 
 
 Four 
 
 schagae 
 
 Ninety 
 
 hwelin-tugu 
 
 Five 
 
 bkagse 
 
 Hundred 
 
 dnss 
 
 Six 
 
 hkelusa 
 
 Thousand 
 
 hag-duss 
 
 Seven 
 
 hkelina 
 
 God 
 
 esch 
 
 Eight 
 
 cheltonga 
 
 Heaven 
 
 urach 
 
 Nine 
 
 bwelina 
 
 King 
 
 patschai 
 
 Ten 
 
 haga 
 
 Water 
 
 uhl 
 
 Eleven 
 
 baga-chuodschge 
 
 Earth 
 
 pang 
 
 Tivelve 
 
 haga-inse 
 
 Mountain 
 
 kgy 
 
 Twenty 
 
 yn-tung 
 
 Sun 
 
 egje 
 
 Thirty 
 
 tonga -tu 
 
 Moon 
 
 tzui 
 
 Forty 
 
 tonga-tu-chuodsclia3 
 
 Wind 
 
 japei. 
 
 Fifty 
 
 hkog-tugu 
 
 
 
 These are simply Yenisei an. 
 
 (3.) A Turk dialect in the Asia Polyglotta head Kan- 
 gazen, in the few words, wherein it is other than Turk, 
 is Yeniseian. 
 
 % 
 
 Library. 
 
98 THE TURK DIALECTS. 
 
 CHAPTER XY. 
 
 The Turk Languages. — Import of the term.— The Uighur. — Tshagatai. — 
 Uzbek. — Turcoman. — Kirghiz. — Barabinski. — Tshulim. — Teleut. — 
 Koibal. — Karagas. — Soyony. — Yakut. — Bashkir. — Kazan. — Nogay. — 
 Meshtsheriak. — Kumuk. — Kuzzilbash. — Cumanian. 
 
 When the word Turk is used by either the ethnologist 
 or the philologue, it has so wide a signification that the 
 Turks of European Turkey form but an inconsiderable 
 fraction of the great population to which it applies. The 
 so-called Tartars (or Tatars) of Independent Tartary 
 are Turks ; so are the Turcomans of the Persian fron- 
 tier ; so are the occupants of more than one district 
 named Turkestan ; so are several other populations with 
 several other names. Even in respect to its literary 
 development, the Turkish of Constantinople divides its 
 honours with the Uighur and Tshagatai dialects, 
 which, at the present time, are, comparatively, incon- 
 spicuous dialects, but which, in point of priority of cul- 
 ture, are to be preferred to their congeners of the west. 
 
 Turk, then, is a generic name, and the class it applies 
 to is a large one. Its area is of great magnitude, and 
 that in every direction. A language intelUgible at Bok- 
 hara is spoken on the very confines of Afiica. A lan- 
 guage scarcely unintelligible at Constantinople is spoken 
 at the mouth of the Lena, on the shores of the Arctic 
 Sea. We have a vocabulary of the Cumanian Turk 
 once spoken in Hungary. The Uighur Turk is spoken, 
 at the present moment, on the frontiers of Tibet and 
 Mongolia. 
 
 The Turk area, then, is large, and it is irregular as 
 well ; and very various indeed are the districts with 
 
THE TURK DIALECTS. 99 
 
 which it comes in contact. In the south-east, it touches 
 Tibet ; in the south, India and Persia. By the Kurd, 
 Arabic, Syriac, Armenian, and Greek, the Turkish of 
 Asia Minor is irregularly bounded. It mixes itself with 
 the languages of Caucasus ; is spoken in contact with 
 the Russian in the Crimea ; and with the Bulgarian, 
 Servian, and Romaic in European Turkey. The govern- 
 ment of Caucasus and Astrakan, to the south ; of Viatka 
 and Perm, to the north ; and of Grodno, to the west, 
 contain Turks. Orenberg is Turk in language : so is 
 Kazan. Tobolsk and Tomsk give us the Turks of 
 Southern, Yakutsk those of Northern Siberia. Dioscu- 
 rian, Mongolian, Tungus, and Ugrian forms of speech, 
 all come in contact with the Turkish. 
 
 In some cases, the Turk has been encroached on ; 
 in others it has encroached. In Hungary, it has given 
 way : indeed, as a general rule, it has given way where 
 the language with which it has come in contact has been 
 European. In Siberia, for instance, it yields to the 
 Russian. Where the language is Ugrian, it encroaches. 
 It has most especially encroached on the Samoyed. In 
 consequence of this, the coincidence of Turkish blood 
 with the Turkish language is anj^thing but close. The 
 blood is Turk where the language is Hungarian or Sla- 
 vonic. The language is Turk where the blood is Ugrian or 
 Mongol. 
 
 Notwithstanding the inordinate size of the Turk area, 
 the differences which it presents are but slight. As a 
 general rule, the dialects graduate into each other ; and 
 I doubt whether even the extreme forms — provided that 
 the conversation be on a simple subject — are mutually 
 unintelligible. 
 
 In respect to the direction in which the Turk lan- 
 guage has diffused itself, we may safely say that in the 
 north and west it is intrusive. Except Independent 
 Tartary and Turkestan, there is no spot where Turkish 
 is spoken where it cannot be shown to be exotic. The 
 
 H 2 
 
100 THE UIGHUR. 
 
 claims, however, of Independent and Chinese Turkestan 
 to be considered as the fountain and origin of the Turk 
 language has yet to be examined. These, however, are 
 matters for the ethnologist rather than the philologue. 
 
 The name Turk, totider/i Uteris, first appears in A.D. 
 569, when Justin sent an embassy to the Khan Zemar- 
 chus, whose residence was near the Ek-tagh ; the words 
 in italics being Turkish glosses. 
 
 Of the Turk of this district, Klaproth gives the 
 following words, taken from Chinese authorities, who 
 refers them to the language of the Tuk'iil, i. e. Turks. 
 
 English. 
 
 T'uk'iii. 
 
 Turkish. 
 
 Sky 
 
 tangri 
 
 tiingri 
 
 House 
 
 ui 
 
 ui 
 
 Helm 
 
 t'uk'iii 
 
 tekhieh 
 
 Bair 
 
 shoka 
 
 shadzh 
 
 Chief 
 
 kan 
 
 khan 
 
 Black 
 
 koro 
 
 khara 
 
 Old 
 
 kori 
 
 khan 
 
 Wolf 
 
 furin 
 
 buri. 
 
 As the source of these samples is China, it is fair to 
 suppose that they represent a language of the Chinese 
 frontier, i. e. one of the most Eastern divisions of the 
 group. It to this that the name Uighur most especially 
 applies ; the proper Uighur being the population which 
 most closely came in contact with two of the languages 
 — the Tibetan and Mongol — which lay to the east of it, 
 and approached the third, i. e. the Chinese. This is an 
 inference from the fact that, at the present time, a tribe 
 calling itself Ighnr speaks Tibetan, and touches the Sok 
 districts of Mongolia. 
 
 The Uighur Turks were the first of their stock to 
 use an alphabet, and used it betimes, perhaps as early 
 as the seventh century. The Mantshu alphabet (as has 
 been stated) came from Mongolia ; and the Mongolian 
 from the Uighur Turks, the Uighur Turks having taken 
 it from Syria, under the instructions of the Nestorian 
 missionaries. 
 
THE UIGHUR. 101 
 
 It is chiefly in its descendants — the Mongol and the 
 Mantshti — that this interesting alphabet survives ; since 
 it was replaced by the Arabic when Mahometanism re- 
 placed Christianity. Nevertheless, a few samples of it 
 are extant, viz. (1) the Baktyar Nameh of the Bodleian ; 
 (2, 3) the Miradzh and Tezkirehi Evliyd of the Bihlio- 
 th^que du Roi ; and (4) Kaudatkuhilik in Vienna. 
 None of these, however, except so far as the alphabet is 
 concerned, are much more tlian literary curiosities. The 
 first was written A.D. 1434, the second and third A.D. 
 1436, the fourth, A.D. 1459. The Miradzh, a history 
 of the ascension of Mahomet, is a translation from the 
 Arabic ; the Tezkirehi Evliyd, or Legend of the Saints, 
 being one from the Persian. The Baktyar Nameh is 
 either a translation from the same language, or rifac- 
 ciamento. The Kaudatkuhilik, or Science of Govern- 
 ment, shows a little more originality — the matter, and 
 perhaps the composition itself, being older than the MS., 
 perhaps as old as A.D. 1069. 
 
 The Mogul dynasty was Tshagatai, and the Indian 
 descendants of the Great Mogul are of Tshagatai blood. 
 So are many families in Caubul, just as certain families 
 in England are Norman. The familj^ of Timur was 
 Tshagatai ; Kokan, or Ferghana, being the district where 
 the Tshagatai language was most especially cultivated. 
 The Persian, however, was in immediate contact with it, 
 and in some of the provinces prevailed over it. Ande- 
 jan, however, the district of the capital, was so Turk, 
 that " there was no one/' writes Baber, *' who did not 
 understand the Turki tongue." Asfera and Marghinan 
 were Persian. The languages acted and reacted on 
 each other. Persian models were copied by Tshagatai 
 writers, and Persian works translated by them. 
 
 Of the Tshagatai, eo nomine, as spoken at the present 
 moment, I have seen no specimens. Nor is this strange. 
 The language spread itself beyond its own boundaries, 
 
102 THE UIGHUR. 
 
 and, having found its way into Persia, Afghanistan, and 
 India, became Persian, Indian, or Pushtu. 
 
 Theoretically, the main differences between the Tsha- 
 gatai and Uighur are considerable ; and they would be 
 more so if the existing Uighur works were older. But 
 they must be the newesfc of their class. Were they not 
 all subsequent to the Hegira ? subsequent to the intro- 
 duction of the Arabic alphabet, which must have been 
 used concurrently with the Uighur, and subsequently to 
 the predominance of Persian and Arabic models ? The 
 old Uighur compositions would have been different, they 
 would have been Christian in creed and Syriac in style. 
 But none such exist. Yet they must have existed, or 
 why the alphabet ? Why its extension into Mongolia ? 
 Uighur, then, as the word has been used, means New 
 Uighur. 
 
 But what if the Uighur alphabet, concurrent with the 
 Arabic in the newer Uighur literature, were also concur- 
 rent with the Arabic in the earlier Tshagatai? In such 
 a case, the works in question may be Tshagatai — for, it 
 must be remembered, that it is only the alphabet which 
 makes them Uighur. Their date is that of the Tshaga- 
 tai dynasty. If so, the division between the two groups 
 is either artificial or provisional ; in which case Uighur 
 means the Turk of Chinese Turkestan, Tshagatai the 
 Turk of Bokhara and Ferghana. However, according 
 to common parlance, the works already enumerated are 
 Uighur. A Uighur alphabet makes a Uighur work. 
 At the same time, it should be added that Davies 
 (though without quoting his authority) especially states 
 that during the period immediately subsequent to their 
 conversion, the Tshagatai made use of the Uighur 
 alphabet. 
 
 The Memoirs of Timur, and the Institutes of Timur, 
 though translated from a Persian original, are said to be, 
 in their earliest form, Turkish compositions — the Turk 
 
THE UIGHUR. 103 
 
 dialect being the Tshagatai. These earlier forms, how- 
 ever, have yet to be discovered. Ulug Beg, about A.B. 
 1446, was a Tshagatai poet, as well as a Tshagatai 
 patron of astronomy. His age, it should be observed, 
 is within ten years of that of the Uighur MSS. Then 
 comes Mir Ali Shir, a poet also, whose works, though 
 unedited, are extant. Thirdly, comes the Emperor 
 Baber himself 
 
 The evidence of the Arabic alphabet being used con- 
 currently with the Uighur, is to be found in the MS. of 
 the Koudat, where there are interlineary glosses and re- 
 marks, some in Arabic, some in Persian — all, however, 
 in the ordinary alphabet of the Koran. Now, whether 
 these be as old as the rest of the MS. or not, the reader 
 who wrote them must have been the reader of a work 
 in Uighur. 
 
 The Uzbek has, to a great extent, replaced the 
 Tshagatai, if, indeed, the two dialects were notably 
 different. Khiva is Uzbek. The dominant populations 
 in Bokhara and Ferghana are Uzbek — the remainder 
 being Tajik. So it is elsewhere. This means that, 
 except in the parts about Khiva, there is in the Uzbek 
 countries, side by side with the ruling nation, a subor- 
 dinate population speaking Persian — differing in its 
 numerical proportion to that which speaks according 
 to the country. Thus — 
 
 In Khiva, the Uzbek is at its maxiTnum. 
 
 It preponderates in the parts about Balk. 
 
 So it does in Kunduz. 
 
 So it does in Huzrut, Imaum, and Khullum. 
 
 On the other hand, in Khost, Inderaub, and Taulik- 
 haun, the Tajik element prevails. 
 
 In Meimuna, Andkhu, and Shibbergaun, the second 
 element, though other than Uzbek, is still Turk, i. e. 
 Turcoman. 
 
 The Turcomans are independent nomads between 
 
104 
 
 THE KIRGHIZ. 
 
 Bokhara and the Caspian, bounded on the south by 
 Persia, and on the north by the Uzbeks and Kirghiz. 
 
 Whether the Kirghiz can be separated from the 
 Turcomans and the Uzbeks by any definite line of de- 
 marcation, is uncertain. The central portions, however, 
 of their area may be looked upon as the points where 
 the blood and language most closely coincide : where 
 foreign elements and foreign contact are at the mini- 
 tnum, and where the type of the group is to be sought. 
 On the east and north the character changes. There 
 is contact with strange languages ; those languages being 
 no longer Persian and Tibetan, but the Ugrian and Rus- 
 sian of Siberia. That the Kirghiz of the northern portion 
 of their area are intrusive is certain, though it is difficult 
 to give the exact boundaries of their original occupancy. 
 
 The name deserves notice. In Menander's account of 
 his embassy to the Turk king Dizabulus, whose sove- 
 reignty seems to have lain in the Tshagatai district, we 
 find the word Xep^i'S — a Kirghiz female slave being one 
 of the presents. In the Chinese geographers, Kilikiszu 
 are placed on the Yenisey, where the term is current at 
 the present time. Finally, I believe that, word for 
 word, Kirghiz is Tsherkess, i. e. Circassian. The 
 Kirghiz of Pamer are on the Persian and Uzbek 
 frontier. 
 
 English. 
 
 Uzbek. 
 
 Turcoman. 
 
 Kii-ghiz. 
 
 Head 
 
 bash 
 
 bash 
 
 baz 
 
 Hair 
 
 zatsh 
 
 zatsh 
 
 tshatsh 
 
 Hand 
 
 al 
 
 kol 
 
 kol 
 
 Foot 
 
 ayak 
 
 ayak 
 
 ayak 
 
 Eye 
 
 kyus 
 
 kus 
 
 kus 
 
 Ear 
 
 kulak 
 
 klak 
 
 kolak 
 
 Tooth 
 
 tish 
 
 dish 
 
 tiz 
 
 Blood 
 
 kan 
 
 kan 
 
 kan 
 
 Day 
 
 kUndus 
 
 kyondos 
 
 kundus 
 
 Sun 
 
 kyonash 
 
 koyash 
 
 kUn 
 
 Moon 
 
 ai 
 
 ai 
 
 ai 
 
 Star 
 
 yoldos 
 
 yoldos 
 
 dzhildzhis. 
 
THE BARAMA TURKS. 105 
 
 English. 
 
 Uzbek. 
 
 Turcoman. 
 
 Kirgliiz. 
 
 Fire 
 
 ud 
 
 Ot 
 
 Ut 
 
 Water 
 
 zu 
 
 zu 
 
 zu 
 
 Tree 
 
 agatsh 
 
 agatsh 
 
 agatsh 
 
 Stone 
 
 tash 
 
 tash 
 
 taz 
 
 One 
 
 bir 
 
 bir 
 
 ber 
 
 Ttoo 
 
 ike 
 
 iki 
 
 oki 
 
 Three 
 
 utsh 
 
 utsh 
 
 utsh 
 
 Four 
 
 dyort 
 
 durt 
 
 tyort 
 
 Five 
 
 bish 
 
 bish 
 
 bez 
 
 Six 
 
 alty 
 
 alto 
 
 alty 
 
 Seven 
 
 edi 
 
 edi 
 
 dzhede 
 
 Eight ^ 
 
 zigis 
 
 zikis 
 
 zikes 
 
 Nine 
 
 tokas 
 
 tokos 
 
 tokus 
 
 Ten 
 
 on 
 
 on 
 
 on. 
 
 The Barahinski, Baraha, or Barama Turks, between 
 the Obi and the Irtish, touch the Ostiaks on the north, 
 and are probably the occupants of an originally Ostiak 
 area. At any rate, their language is Turk, the soil 
 Ugrian, their blood, in all probability, mixed. Their 
 political relations are Russian, and their creed Sha- 
 manism, or imperfect Christianity rather than Mahome- 
 tanism. 
 
 Like the Barabinski, the so-called Tartars of Tobolsk 
 are Turks ; occupants of ground originally Ugrian, and 
 so far as it is not Russian, Ostiak. 
 
 The Verkho-Tomski tribes. — Verkho means upper, 
 and is a Russian word. Hence, the Verkho-Tomski are 
 the Turks of the Upper Tom, i. e. the Tom above 
 Kuznetsk. 
 
 The Abintsi are a part of them. Their dialect, pro- 
 bably, graduates into that of 
 
 Kuznetz, where the frontier is Mongol and Samoyed. 
 
 The Teleut are believed to be Mongols in blood, 
 though Turk in speech. Below Kuznetsk 
 
 The tribes of the Tshulim, though occupants of a 
 district originally Ugrian, are said to mix Mongol (? Ye- 
 niseian) words with their vernacular Turkish. Their tribes 
 are called Dyon or Yon. 
 
106 THE TURKISH OF SIBERIA. 
 
 The Turkish of the Yenisey, especially in the circle 
 of the Minusinsk, and in the Sayanian mountains, is 
 spoken by individuals who seem to have adopted it after 
 the abandonment, not only of some native language 
 other than Turk, but after the adoption of some inter- 
 mediate one, different from both the Turk and the ori- 
 ginal mother-tongue. Thus, a language which will be 
 noticed in sequel under the name of Yeniseian, seems to 
 have been replaced by the Samoyed, the Samoyed itself 
 having been replaced by the Turk. Phenomena of this 
 kind make the parts about Minusinsk one of the most 
 obscure areas in Asia. We may advantageously con- 
 sider these strata and substrata of languages in detail. 
 
 1. There is the Kussian — recent in origin, but en- 
 croacbing upon even the Turk. 
 
 2. There is the Turk, which has spread itself in the 
 west, at least, at the expense of the XJgrian, and which, 
 in its Barabinski, Tobolski, and Tshulim elements, so 
 far as it is heterogeneous, is XJgrian. 
 
 3. There is the Mongol, which on the Tom, and in 
 the Teleut districts may have preceded the Turk, itself 
 preceded by something Samoyed or Yeniseian. 
 
 4. There is the Ostiak of the Obi — the language 
 which best represents the Ugrian of the Kirghiz fron- 
 tier. 
 
 5. There is the Samoyed, spoken as far north as the 
 Arctic Sea, and as far south as the parts about Lake 
 Ubsa within the Chinese frontier — the Samoyed which, 
 in some cases, has been replaced by the Mongol, itself 
 replaced by the Turk. 
 
 6. There is the Yeniseian — a language known only 
 in fragments, but which, in one case at least, has been 
 replaced by Samoyed. 
 
THE TURKISH OF SIBERIA. 
 
 107 
 
 English. 
 
 Baraba. 
 
 Tobolsk. 
 
 Tshulim. 
 
 Kuznetik 
 bash 
 
 Head 
 
 bash 
 
 pash 
 
 bash 
 
 Eye 
 
 kos 
 
 kus 
 
 kos 
 
 kus 
 
 Ear 
 
 kulak 
 
 kulak 
 
 kulak 
 
 kulak 
 
 Nose 
 Month 
 
 
 
 
 mondu 
 aksy 
 
 
 parun 
 auus 
 
 murun 
 agus 
 
 XrX UUiHO 
 
 
 Hair 
 
 tshatsh 
 
 tsats 
 
 tshatsh 
 
 tshatsh 
 
 Tongue 
 
 
 til 
 
 til 
 
 til 
 
 Tooth 
 Hand 
 
 
 tish 
 khal 
 
 tish 
 kal 
 
 tish 
 kol 
 
 
 Sun 
 
 kyosh 
 
 kun 
 
 kun 
 
 kun 
 
 Moon 
 
 ai 
 
 ar 
 
 ai 
 
 ai 
 
 Star 
 
 eldar 
 
 yoldus 
 
 yoldus 
 
 tshlitis 
 
 Fire 
 
 ut 
 
 ot 
 
 ot 
 
 ot 
 
 Water 
 
 zuu 
 
 su 
 
 su 
 
 su 
 
 Tree 
 
 agaz 
 
 yagats 
 
 agats 
 
 agatsh 
 
 Stone 
 
 tash 
 
 tash 
 
 tash 
 
 tash 
 
 One 
 
 bir 
 
 bir 
 
 bir 
 
 pir 
 
 TXM 
 
 ike 
 
 ike 
 
 ike 
 
 iki 
 
 Three 
 
 ytsh 
 
 itsh 
 
 itsh 
 
 utsh 
 
 Four 
 
 tyort 
 
 dort 
 
 dyort 
 
 dort 
 
 Five 
 
 bish 
 
 bish 
 
 besh 
 
 bish 
 
 Six 
 
 alte 
 
 alty 
 
 alte 
 
 alty 
 
 Seven 
 
 sette 
 
 siti 
 
 sette 
 
 setti 
 
 Eight 
 
 zogus 
 
 segis 
 
 zegus 
 
 segys 
 
 Nine 
 
 togus 
 
 togus 
 
 togus 
 
 togus 
 
 Ten 
 
 on 
 
 on 
 
 on 
 
 on. 
 
 Respecting the Teleuts, it has already been suggested 
 that though Turk in Lxnguage, they have generally been 
 looked upon as Mongols in blood : and it has also been 
 suggested that, in the way of blood, they may be less 
 Mongol than Yeniseian. The Mongol name is Teleng- 
 gut, as has already been stated ; whereas Abulgazi calls 
 them Uriat, which, word for word, is Urianchaiy Yarang, 
 and the like — all apparent derivatives of Ara. At the 
 time of the Russian conquest they were called White 
 Kalmuks. 
 
 Etiglisb. 
 
 Teleut. 
 
 English. 
 
 Teleut 
 
 Head 
 
 bash 
 
 Sun 
 
 kun 
 
 Eye 
 
 kus 
 
 Moon 
 
 ai 
 
 Ear 
 
 kulak 
 
 Star 
 
 yiltis 
 
 Nose 
 
 muran 
 
 Fire 
 
 ot 
 
 Mouth 
 
 ous 
 
 Water 
 
 su 
 
 Hair 
 
 tshatsh 
 
 Tree 
 
 agash 
 
 Tongue 
 
 til 
 
 Stone 
 
 tash. 
 
 Hand 
 
 kol 
 
 • 
 
 
108 
 
 THE KOIBAL. 
 
 Of the language of the Katshintsi Turks, the Kats- 
 halar, of the Turks of Katsha, although we hear much 
 about them in the way of history, we have, eo nomine, 
 but few words ; mere obiter dicta of Castren's. Their 
 dialect is essentially Koibal or Soiot. 
 
 English. 
 
 Katsha. 
 
 EngUsh. 
 
 Katsha. 
 
 Woman 
 
 ipthi 
 
 Saddle 
 
 izer 
 
 
 epthi 
 
 Butterfly 
 
 irbakai 
 
 Wind 
 
 aba 
 
 Sable 
 
 kish. 
 
 The Koihals form eight tribes ; in two of which the blood 
 is Samoyed, in three Yeniseian. In 1847, a few old 
 people knew a few Samoyed words. From the generation 
 which preceded them a vocabulary in Samoyed was col- 
 lected. Even then, the Samoyed was going out fast. 
 
 English. 
 
 Ktibal. 
 
 English. 
 
 Koibal. 
 
 Man (vir) 
 
 ir 
 
 Snake 
 
 dilan 
 
 {homo) 
 
 kizi 
 
 
 tbilan 
 
 
 er 
 
 Tree 
 
 agas 
 
 Woman 
 
 ipthi 
 
 Earth 
 
 dhir 
 
 
 epthi 
 
 
 tbir 
 
 Head 
 
 baa 
 
 Stone 
 
 tas 
 
 Hair 
 
 sas 
 
 Hill 
 
 tax 
 
 Ear 
 
 kulak 
 
 
 tag 
 
 Eye 
 
 karak 
 
 Fiver 
 
 khem* 
 
 Mouth 
 
 axse 
 
 Ice 
 
 bus 
 
 Bone 
 
 sok 
 
 Village 
 
 &1 
 
 Blood 
 
 kan 
 
 One 
 
 ben 
 
 Hand 
 
 kol 
 
 Two 
 
 ike 
 
 Foot 
 
 azak 
 
 
 iki 
 
 Tooth 
 
 tis 
 
 Three 
 
 tis 
 
 Tongue 
 
 til 
 
 
 us' 
 
 Shy 
 
 tiger 
 
 Four 
 
 t6rt 
 
 
 t^ger 
 
 Five 
 
 bis 
 
 Sun 
 
 khun 
 
 
 bes 
 
 Moon 
 
 ai 
 
 
 bis' 
 
 Star 
 
 .dhetes 
 
 
 bes' 
 
 
 theltes 
 
 Six 
 
 al 
 
 Fire 
 
 ot. 
 
 
 alty 
 
 Water 
 
 sus 
 
 Seven 
 
 dhite 
 
 
 sug 
 
 
 thite 
 
 
 
 8U 
 
 Eight 
 
 sigus 
 
 Bird 
 
 kus 
 
 
 s6gus 
 
 Egg 
 
 numertka 
 
 Nine 
 
 togos 
 
 
 numerka 
 
 
 
 t6gos 
 
 Fish 
 
 balak . 
 
 Ten 
 
 on. 
 
 
 * Yeni 
 
 seian. 
 
 
THE KARAGAS. 
 
 109 
 
 The Koibal is stated by 
 
 Castren to have as dialects, 
 
 the Kondakov and the Salbin. Out of the few words 
 
 he gives, I pick out a few evidently Turk. 
 
 English. Kandokov. 
 
 Salbin. 
 
 Hair 
 
 shash 
 
 Tooth 
 
 tish 
 
 Beard 
 
 sagal 
 
 Belly 
 
 karyn 
 
 Star dhettes 
 
 thythysh 
 
 theltes 
 
 thyltesh 
 
 Earth dMr 
 
 
 
 — - thir 
 
 
 Bain nangmer 
 
 nangmyr 
 
 Tree 
 
 agasb. 
 
 The Karagas, amounting in 1851 
 
 to 284 and 259 
 
 females, fell into 
 
 
 a. The Kas ; 
 
 
 K The Sareg Kash ; 
 
 
 c. The Ty^ptei ; 
 
 
 d. The Tyogde ; 
 
 
 e. The Kara Tyogde. 
 
 
 They all, now, speak Turkish. 
 
 
 English. Karagas. 
 
 English. 
 
 Karagas. 
 
 Man (vir) er 
 
 Water 
 
 sug 
 
 (homo) kishi 
 
 Ice 
 
 tosh 
 
 Woman epshe 
 
 Egg 
 
 Dyumurha 
 
 kat 
 
 Fish 
 
 balak 
 
 £ye karak 
 
 Snake 
 
 thulan 
 
 Ear kulak 
 
 Bill 
 
 tag 
 
 Mouth akse 
 
 
 dag 
 
 Tooth dish 
 
 Stone 
 
 taish 
 
 Tongiie tel 
 
 Village 
 
 nyon 
 
 del 
 
 One 
 
 bira 
 
 Hair thash 
 
 Two 
 
 ihi 
 
 Hand kol 
 
 Three 
 
 ixis 
 
 Foot but 
 
 Four 
 
 tort 
 
 Blood khan 
 
 
 dort 
 
 Beard sahal 
 
 Five 
 
 beis 
 
 Shy t^re 
 
 Six 
 
 alte 
 
 Sun kun 
 
 Seven 
 
 thede 
 
 Moon ?ai 
 
 Eight 
 
 sehes 
 
 Star settes 
 
 Nine 
 
 tohos 
 
 Fire ot 
 
 Ten 
 
 on. 
 
 Water sux 
 
 
 
IJO 
 
 THE SOIONY. 
 
 The Soiony (TshitshatshefF takes pains to tell us that 
 this is the right form of the word) are chiefly within 
 the Chinese frontier. Still some are Russian. Their 
 original language I hold to be Yeniseian ; yet, now, 
 they speak Turkish. In Castren, as obiter dicta, 
 and as illustrations of his Koibal and Karagas vocabu- 
 lary we have a few Soyony words. They are the tribes 
 from whom the Sayanian range takes its name. Some 
 of the Soyony, as here stated, speak Turkish; others 
 Buriat ; some, probably, Saraoyed. The basis, however, 
 seems to be Yeniseian. 
 
 English. 
 
 Soiony. 
 
 English. 
 
 Soiony. 
 
 Head 
 
 pas 
 
 Star 
 
 theltes 
 
 Hair 
 
 tiik 
 
 Fire 
 
 ot 
 
 Tooth 
 
 tes 
 
 Water 
 
 sux 
 
 Tongue 
 
 tib 
 
 
 sug 
 
 Eye 
 
 karak 
 
 
 su 
 
 Ear 
 
 kar 
 
 Earth 
 
 dhir 
 
 Foot 
 
 put 
 
 
 thir 
 
 Beard 
 
 sagal 
 
 Stone 
 
 tas 
 
 Belly 
 
 karen 
 
 Hill 
 
 tag 
 
 Sun 
 
 kar 
 
 Ice 
 
 tosh 
 
 Star 
 
 dheltes 
 
 ■ Tree 
 
 yas. 
 
 The Sayanian tribes, one of which is said to be 
 named Sokha, lead to the Sokhalar of the Lena and the 
 Arctic Sea, the Turks of the extreme north, the Turks 
 who are usually called Yakuts ; but whose native names 
 must be carefully remembered as Sokhalar — lar being 
 the sign of the plural number. The Sokhalar, from the 
 parts about Lake Baikal, are said to have separated 
 from the Bratli (? Buriats), with whom they formerly 
 made one nation, under a chief named Tarkhantegin ; 
 the land upon which they intruded themselves having 
 been Samoyed, Tungtis, and Yukahiri. 
 
 The language of the third column of the following 
 table is from the Asia Polyglotta. It is simply headed 
 Yeniseian, i. e. Turk of the Yenisey. 
 
THE SOKHALAR OR YAKUT. 
 
 Ill 
 
 English. 
 
 Yakut. 
 
 Yeniseian. 
 
 Head 
 
 baz 
 
 basH 
 
 Eye 
 
 kharakh 
 
 karak 
 
 Ear 
 
 kulgakh 
 
 kulak 
 
 Nose 
 
 jnurun 
 
 buruu 
 
 Mouth 
 
 * ayakh 
 
 akay 
 
 Tongue 
 
 til 
 
 tyi 
 
 Tooth 
 
 tiz 
 
 tish 
 
 Sun 
 
 kun 
 
 kun 
 
 Moon 
 
 ai 
 
 ai 
 
 Star 
 
 Zulus 
 
 tshiltis 
 
 Fire 
 
 wot 
 
 ot 
 
 Water 
 
 wi 
 
 su 
 
 Hill 
 
 taz 
 
 tag 
 
 One 
 
 bir 
 
 bir, nagysh 
 
 Two 
 
 iki 
 
 iki 
 
 Three 
 
 uz 
 
 utsh 
 
 Four 
 
 tirt 
 
 tort 
 
 Five 
 
 vez 
 
 besk 
 
 Six 
 
 alta 
 
 alta 
 
 Stven 
 
 seta 
 
 dzhuti 
 
 EigM 
 
 ag,5*r 
 
 segus 
 
 Nine 
 
 dogys 
 
 togos 
 
 Ten 
 
 on 
 
 ongir^. 
 
 Such are the details of the Turks of Siberia, who are 
 so far exceptional as to be, to a great extent, Pagans, 
 rather than Mahometans, and, of course, unlettered. 
 Since the Russian conquest of Siberia, Christianity has 
 made some way amongst them. There is, however, 
 some Mahometanism, and a little Buddhism. 
 
 The Turks of the Khanats of Kazan, Astrakan, and 
 the Crimea now claim notice. They are all intrusive, 
 i. e. other than aboriginal to the countries where their 
 language is spoken. 
 
 The Bashkirs, chiefly occupants of the Government of 
 Orenburg, Turk in tongue, are, more or less, Ugi'ian in 
 blood. So are, probably, 
 
 The Meshtshenaks, who are believed to have immi- 
 grated from the Oka, in the Mordvin and Tsherimiss 
 neighbourhood. 
 
112 
 
 2 
 
 THE 
 
 KAZAN, 
 
 ETC. 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Kazan, 
 
 Meshtsheriak. 
 
 Bashkir. 
 
 Nogay. 
 
 Head 
 
 bash 
 
 bash 
 
 
 bash 
 
 bash 
 
 Hair 
 
 tshatsh 
 
 tsats 
 
 
 zaz 
 
 zatsh 
 
 Homd 
 
 , kol 
 
 kul 
 
 
 kol 
 
 kol 
 
 Eye 
 
 kus 
 
 kus 
 
 
 kyus 
 
 gyos 
 
 Ear 
 
 kolak 
 
 klak 
 
 
 kulak 
 
 kulak 
 
 Tooth 
 
 tyesh 
 
 tish 
 
 
 tish 
 
 tysh 
 
 Tongue 
 
 tyel 
 
 til 
 
 
 tel 
 
 til 
 
 Blood 
 
 kan 
 
 kan 
 
 
 kan 
 
 kan 
 
 Day 
 
 kyun 
 
 kun 
 
 
 kyun 
 
 giin 
 
 Sun 
 
 kuyash 
 
 kuyash 
 
 
 kun 
 
 gyon 
 
 Moon 
 
 ai 
 
 ai 
 
 
 ai 
 
 ai 
 
 Star 
 
 yaldus 
 
 yuldus 
 
 
 yuldus 
 
 ildis 
 
 Fire 
 
 ut 
 
 ut 
 
 
 ut 
 
 ut 
 
 Water 
 
 zu 
 
 zu 
 
 
 zu 
 
 su 
 
 Tree 
 
 agatsh 
 
 agatsh 
 
 
 agatsh 
 
 agatsh 
 
 Stone 
 
 tash 
 
 tash 
 
 
 tash 
 
 tash 
 
 One 
 
 ber 
 
 ber 
 
 
 ber 
 
 bir 
 
 Two 
 
 ike 
 
 ike 
 
 
 ike 
 
 iki 
 
 Three 
 
 utsh 
 
 uz 
 
 
 ysh 
 
 utsh 
 
 Four 
 
 diirt 
 
 dyort 
 
 
 dort 
 
 dort 
 
 Five 
 
 bish 
 
 besh 
 
 
 besh 
 
 bish 
 
 Six 
 
 alty 
 
 alty 
 
 
 alty 
 
 alty 
 
 Seven 
 
 yedi 
 
 idi 
 
 
 yedi 
 
 siti 
 
 Fight 
 
 zigis 
 
 zigis 
 
 
 zigis 
 
 zegis 
 
 Nine 
 
 tokus 
 
 togus 
 
 
 togus 
 
 togus 
 
 Ten 
 
 on 
 
 on 
 
 
 on 
 
 on. 
 
 rhe Kuzzilbash is the Turk of Persia : 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Kuzzilbash 
 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Kuzzilbash 
 
 Head 
 
 bash 
 
 
 
 Hand 
 
 el 
 
 Eye 
 
 gos 
 
 
 
 Sun 
 
 
 gun 
 
 Ear 
 
 kulakh 
 
 
 
 Moon 
 
 a 
 
 Nose 
 
 buruni 
 
 
 
 Star 
 
 
 yuldus 
 
 Mouth 
 
 aghis 
 
 
 
 Fire 
 
 
 oth 
 
 Hair 
 
 sadzh 
 
 
 
 Water 
 
 su 
 
 Tongue 
 
 til 
 
 
 
 Tree 
 
 
 dyadzh 
 
 Tooth 
 
 dish 
 
 
 
 Stone 
 
 dash. 
 
 The Basian, Karatshai, and Kumuk that of Caucasus. 
 
 English. Kumuk. Karatshai. 
 
 Head bash bash 
 
 Eye fljos gos 
 
 Ear kulakh kulakh 
 
 Nose burun burun 
 
 Mouth * aus ul 
 
 Hair sadzh gadzh 
 
 Tongue dil til 
 
 Tooth dish dish 
 
TURK PATER-NOSTERS. 113 
 
 English. 
 
 Kumuk. 
 
 Karatshai, 
 
 Hand 
 
 kol 
 
 kol 
 
 Sun 
 
 gun 
 
 gun 
 
 Moon 
 
 ai 
 
 ai 
 
 Star 
 
 yoldus 
 
 iildus 
 
 Fire 
 
 ot 
 
 ot 
 
 Water 
 
 su 
 
 su 
 
 Tree 
 
 terek 
 
 ayadzh 
 
 Stone 
 
 tash 
 
 tash. 
 
 Of the following Pater-nosters, all of which are taken 
 from the Mithridates, the first three represent the lan- 
 guage of the parts to the north of the Caucasus or to the 
 east of the Caspian, i. e. the Tartar of Independent 
 Tartary. The last three, on the other hand, give the 
 Turkish of Asia Minor. The first of them is from Georgie- 
 wicz, who, in the sixteenth century, lived thirteen years 
 in Anatolia as a slave. The second is the Turkish of 
 Armenia ; the third, like the first, of Anatolia ; its date 
 being A.D. M566 — earlier than the Armenian specimen, 
 but later than that by Georgiewicz. — JDe Turcarum Mo- 
 ribus, Lyons, A.D. 1555. They are given, verbatim, et 
 literatirrij as they stand in Adelung, i. e. they have not 
 been collated with the originals. 
 
 1. 
 
 Atha vizum, ki kok-ta sen ; evlia ol dur senung ad-ung ; kelsen memleket- 
 ung ; olsun senung iradat-ungale jer-dahi gug-de ; ver visum gundelik et- 
 mege-muzi bu-giun ; va vizum jasu-ngisch kail ot-nitegim kail biz juz jasun- 
 gisleru muze ; dahi koima bilzi visvasije ; killa kurta vilzi jeman-dan. Amen. 
 
 2. 
 Atha wisum, chy chok-ta sen ; algusch ludur sinung ad-ung ; kelsuum sen- 
 ung hauluchung ; belsung sinung archung aley gur-da uk ackta ; wer wisum 
 gundaluch otmak cbumusen wou-gun ; kay wisum jasochni alei wis dacha k a 
 yelle nin wisun jasoch lamasin ; dacha koima wisni suna-macha ; ilia garta 
 wisni geman-dan. 
 
 3. 
 
 Ya Ata-muz, ki yuksek ghiogh-da sen ; aadin ari olsun ; padashah-lighin 
 ghelsun ; boiruklerin itsmish olsun giogh-da, kibi dahi yirda ; her-ghuinaghi 
 e kmeki-vir bize bu-ghiun ; muzi va burgjleri-muzi bize bagishla, nitshaki biz 
 dahi burgjleri-muza baghishleriz ; va bizi sinisha ghiturma; likin Yarama- 
 zdiz bizi sali-vir (va kortar va sakla) ; zira-ki senungh-dier padisha-lik, va 
 kadirlik, va bojuklik, ta gjanid gjavidana. Amin. 
 
 I 
 
114 THE CUMANIAN. 
 
 4. 
 
 Baba-moz hanghe gugte sson ; chuduss olssum ssenung ; adun gelsson ssen- 
 ung memleclitun ; olssun sseimng istedgting nycse gugtlie, vie gyrde ; echame 
 gu-mozi hergunon vere bize bu gun ; hem bassa bize borsligo-moze, nycse bizde 
 baslaruz bortsetiglere-mozi ; hem yedma byzegeheneneme ; de churtule bizy 
 Jaramasdan. Amen. 
 
 6. 
 
 Baba-miz ki chioiler-de sin ; senin ad-in mubarek olsun ; senin padischia- 
 lij-in chielsin ; nikhe chi§i-de boile kher-de senin murad-in olun-sun ; her- 
 chiun laziru oalaru ekmekhe-mizi bize ver cu chiun ; ve borglari-mizi bisc 
 baghishla nikhe ki biszde borghila-miza baghishlariz ; ve bizi ighva-den emin 
 eile ; amma bizi fena-den kurtar. 
 
 6. 
 
 Bisum Ata-mus ki kiokler-deh sin ; seniing ad-Ung mulcaddes olsun ; senling 
 7nelait-xmg kielsun ; siniing iradet-ViXig olsun nitekim kioh-deh dachi jer-deh ; 
 her kiunki bisiim etmeke miisi wer bise bu kiun ; we-bisiim burdschler-iimi 
 bise baggischlek, nitekem bis dachi bisiim burdschluler-iimiisi baggischlerus ; 
 w6-bisi tadschnhe adehal etma; lekin scAenV-den-bisi nedschat eile; sira 
 senung-diir melcut, we sultanet, tve Medschi ta ebed. Amin. 
 
 In A.D. 1770 died Yarro, a native of Czarszag, the 
 last Hungarian who spoke the Cumanian dialect of the 
 Turk. For this we have the five following Pater-nosters ; 
 all imperfect. 
 
 1. 
 
 Bezom Afcta-masz, kem-ke kikte. Szelezon szen-ad-on ; 
 
 dosson szen-kiiklon netze-ger-de, ali-kiik-te ; bezom ok nemezne ( ? okne- 
 mezne) glit biittor gungon borberge; eli bezon mene-mezne ther-mez-bezgo 
 ovgyi tengere 
 
 2. 
 
 Bezen Atta-maz, chen-ze kit-te. Szen liszen sin-ad-6n ; 
 
 Boson mittigen kenge .... ale-kik-te ; puthuter kingiri ilt bezen 
 
 iltne, bezen kutin ; Bezen migni bolsotati bocson 
 
 megne tenge nizni. Amen. 
 
 3. 
 
 Bezon Atta-maz kem-ze kek-te. Szen leszen szen-ad-on ; 
 
 mitzi jegen-ger-de, ali kek-te ; bezom akko mozne bergezge pibbiitoor kiingod; 
 lit bezon mene-mezde utrogergenge ilt mebezde. ..... Olyon 
 
 angja manya boka tsali botsanigjs tengere. Amen. 
 
 4. 
 
 Bezam Atta-masz ken-ze kek-te. Szen-lezon szen ad-on ; 
 
 Boson szen-kiiklon netze ger-de, ali guk-te ; bezamok menemezne ( ? bezam 
 okmene-mezne) gutba tergunger ( ? gutbater gunger) ; ali-bezam me-mezne 
 
 tscher-mez-bezga ; kutkor-bezga eniklem-bezda ; 
 
 Ovia malna szembersank bokvesate ; tengeri ovia tengeri 
 
 tengeri. Amen. 
 
THE TSHUVASH. 
 
 115 
 
 5, 
 
 Bezen Atta-maz ken-ze kik-te. Szen leszen szen ad-on ;...., 
 Doson szen kiiklon nicziegen ger-de, ali kek-te ; bezen ako-moze ( ? okne 
 mezne) bergezge pitbiitor kiingon ; il bez mene-mezne neszem-bezde, jermez 
 bezge iitrogergenge iltma tscher-mez-bezga ; bezne olgya> manga kutkor bezne 
 algya manna szen borszong boka csalli {aliter osalli) bocson igyi tengere. Amen 
 
 In the Government of Kazan reside as many as 
 800,000 Tshuvashes, differing from the other Ugi^ian 
 populations in their somewhat superior civilization, and 
 from the so-called Tartars in the fact of their being 
 Christians rather than Mahometans. Respecting their 
 language much has been written ; some inquirers main- 
 taining that it is essentially Ugrian upon which a great 
 deal of Turk has been engrafted ; others that it is Turk 
 at bottom, but Ugrian in respect to its superadded ele- 
 ments. 
 
 English. 
 
 Tshuvash. 
 
 Osmanli. 
 
 Tsheremis. 
 
 Head 
 
 puz 
 
 bask 
 
 bui 
 
 Eye 
 
 kos 
 
 gos 
 
 shinsya 
 
 Ear 
 
 khulga 
 
 khnlak 
 
 piliksh 
 
 Nose 
 
 sumsah 
 
 burun 
 
 ner 
 
 Mouth 
 
 zuvar 
 
 aghis 
 
 usbmu 
 
 Hair 
 
 zuz 
 
 satsh 
 
 ip 
 
 Tongue 
 
 tsbilge 
 
 dil 
 
 elmye 
 
 Tooth 
 
 shil 
 
 dish 
 
 puntshal 
 
 Hand 
 
 alia 
 
 el 
 
 kit 
 
 Sun 
 
 khwel 
 
 gyun 
 
 ketshe 
 
 Moon 
 
 oikb 
 
 ai 
 
 tilsye 
 
 Star 
 
 zuldur 
 
 yildis 
 
 shuder 
 
 Fire 
 
 wot 
 
 od 
 
 tul 
 
 Water 
 
 sbiva 
 
 su 
 
 wut 
 
 Tree 
 
 evyz 
 
 agatsh 
 
 pu 
 
 Stone 
 
 tshol 
 
 task 
 
 ku 
 
 One 
 
 pra 
 
 bir 
 
 iktet 
 
 Two 
 
 ■ ikke 
 
 iki 
 
 koktot 
 
 Three 
 
 vise 
 
 utsh 
 
 kumut 
 
 Four 
 
 dwatta 
 
 dort 
 
 nilit 
 
 Five 
 
 pilik 
 
 besh 
 
 visit 
 
 Six 
 
 alta 
 
 alty 
 
 kudut 
 
 Seven 
 
 sitshe 
 
 yedi 
 
 shimit 
 
 Eirjht 
 
 sakar 
 
 sekis 
 
 kandashe 
 
 Nine 
 
 tukhon 
 
 dokiis 
 
 indeshe 
 
 Ten 
 
 wonka 
 
 on 
 
 lu. 
 
 I 2 
 
]16 THE TSHUVASH. 
 
 The Tshuvash plurals end in -zam or -zem ; the 
 Osmanli in -lai% or -lev. In Tshuvash ap, or a&, in 
 Osmanli, 7nen=-I. The Tshuvash verb substantive is 
 holah zz sum ; the negative, -asb- ; as kazariadip = oro ; 
 kuziarmastap =z non oro. 
 
 Schubert reckoned the Tshuvash at 370,000 ; a high 
 number for a Ugrian, or even a Turk, population in 
 these parts. 
 
 The Pater-nosters of the preceding pages were taken 
 down before the grammatical structure of the dialects 
 which they represent was studied. As such, they are, 
 more or less, inaccurate. On the other hand, they are 
 better samples of the average character of the Pater- 
 nosters of rude languages than more accurate com- 
 positions would have been. 
 
 They show difference rather than likeness : whilst, on 
 the other hand, words like those of our vocabularies 
 show likeness rather than difference. Hence, we get, as 
 a rough rule, the doctrine that, in the present work, 
 languages are more like each other than the Pater-nosters 
 make them, and less like each other than the lists of 
 words make them. 
 
THE YUKAHIRI. 
 
 117 
 
 CHAPTER XYI. 
 
 Tlie Yukahiri. 
 
 Due east of the Sokhalar lie the Yukahiri, or Yuka- 
 giri, who call themselves Andon Domni — Yukahiri being 
 the Turk, and Atal the Koriak, name. ''Their lan- 
 guage/' writes Klaproth, is " one of the most outlying in 
 Asia/' It is one, too, of which next to nothing is known. 
 It is, also, a language of a receding frontier. In a.d. 
 1739 the numbers of the Yukahiri were high. The 
 tribes of the Omolon, according to Sauer, were called 
 Tsheltiere ; those of the Alasey, Omoki ; those of the 
 Anadyr, Tshuvantsi and Kudinsi. A numerous tribe 
 named Konghini occupied the Kolyma. *' Wars,'* 
 writes Prichard, " with the Tshuktshi and Koriaks have 
 almost exterminated them.'' 
 
 But there must (if the views of the present writer be 
 correct) have, also, been encroachment from the West — 
 effected, most probably, by the Sokhalar. 
 
 The language is certainly very different from that of 
 any of the surrounding populations* 
 
 English. 
 
 Yiikahiri. 
 
 Koriak. 
 
 Yakut. 
 
 Tungis. 
 
 Head 
 
 monoli 
 
 lawut 
 
 baz 
 
 dyll 
 
 Eye 
 
 angdzha 
 
 lalat 
 
 kharakh 
 
 eha 
 
 Ear 
 
 golendhi 
 
 vyilut 
 
 kulgakh 
 
 zen 
 
 Nose 
 
 yongyul 
 
 enigytam 
 
 murun 
 
 ongokto 
 
 Mouth 
 
 angya 
 
 zekiangin 
 
 ayak 
 
 liamun 
 
 Hair 
 
 manailae 
 
 katshugui 
 
 az 
 
 nyuritt 
 
 Tongue 
 
 andzhui) 
 
 giigel 
 
 tyl 
 
 ingni 
 
 Tooth 
 
 tody 
 
 wannalgyn 
 
 tiz 
 
 ikta(?) 
 
 Hand 
 
 tolondzha 
 
 myngakatsh' 
 
 ili 
 
 ngala 
 
118 
 
 THE YUKAHIRI. 
 
 English. 
 
 Yukaliiri 
 
 Koriak. 
 
 Yakut. 
 
 Tungus. 
 
 Day 
 
 bondzhirka 
 
 hallo 
 
 kun 
 
 inangi 
 
 Sun 
 
 bugonshe 
 
 tyketi 
 
 kun 
 
 ziguni 
 
 Moon 
 
 kininsbe 
 
 geilygen 
 
 ui 
 
 bega 
 
 Stcbt- 
 
 lerungundzhia 
 
 lelapitshan 
 
 Zulus 
 
 haulen 
 
 Fire 
 
 yenyilo 
 
 milugan 
 
 wot 
 
 togo 
 
 Water 
 
 ondzM 
 
 mimal 
 
 u 
 
 mu 
 
 Tree 
 
 tsbal 
 
 uttepel 
 
 maz 
 
 mo 
 
 Stone 
 
 kaU 
 
 guggon 
 
 taz 
 
 dzholo 
 
 One 
 
 irken 
 
 onnon 
 
 bir 
 
 omukon 
 
 Two 
 
 antaklon 
 
 nioktsh 
 
 ike 
 
 dzhur 
 
 Three 
 
 yalon 
 
 niyokh 
 
 uz 
 
 ilyan 
 
 Four 
 
 yekalon 
 
 niyakh 
 
 tirt 
 
 dygyn 
 
 Five 
 
 onganlon 
 
 myllangin 
 
 ves 
 
 tongo 
 
 Six 
 
 malhiyalon 
 
 onnanmyllaDgin 
 
 alta 
 
 nyungun 
 
 Seven 
 
 purkion 
 
 langin 
 
 seta 
 
 nadan 
 
 Eight 
 
 malhielekhlon 
 
 niyokh-myllangin 
 
 agys 
 
 dzTiapkun 
 
 Nine 
 
 khuni-izkeel- 
 lendzbin 
 
 khonnaitskinkin 
 
 dogys 
 
 yagin 
 
 Ten 
 
 kuniella 
 
 mynegytkin 
 
 on 
 
 dzhur. 
 
 The root malhiy in the Yukahiri numerals for six and 
 eighty is the onalhuk (r\%alguh) — two of several of the 
 dialects of North-west America ; and I may add, that, 
 East of the Lena true American characteristics present 
 themselves, and that prominently. 
 
 In 1850, I published, in my work on the Varieties of 
 Man, the following tables, one of which gave a certain 
 number of affinities between the Yeniseian and the 
 Yukahiri, the other some between the Yeniseian and the 
 Samoyed. I also expressed the opinion that, on the 
 strength of these affinities, the three gi'oups might be 
 thrown into one, and that the name of the class thus 
 formed may be Hyperborean. Whether the tables were 
 sufficient to justify the formation of such a class is 
 another question. They ought to have been fuller. 
 
 A. 
 
 The itenisean and the Yukahiri of the Asia Polyglotta. 
 English, beard Kott, 
 
 Inbask, Tculye, Jculgung 
 Pumpokolsk, clepuk 
 Assan, culup, chulp 
 
 Arinzi, horolep 
 Yukahiri, bu-gylbe 
 
THE YUKAHIRI. 
 
 119 
 
 English, head 
 Inbask, tshig 
 Yukahiri, yoh 
 
 English, moutli 
 Pumpokolsk, Ichan 
 Yukahiri, any a 
 
 English, nose 
 
 Inbask, olgen, olen 
 
 Pumpokolsk, Jiang 
 
 Assan, ang 
 
 Yukahiri, yonyul, iongioula. 
 
 English, tongue 
 Assan, alUp 
 Kott, alUp 
 Arinzi, alyap 
 Yukahiri, andzhub 
 
 English, ear 
 Assan, Jcologan, Mohan 
 Kott, Icalogan 
 Yukahiri, golondzhi 
 
 English, man 
 Inbask, ^et. Net 
 Pumpokolsk, ilset 
 Kott, hatket 
 Yukahiri, yadu 
 
 English, dog 
 Inbask, tsip, tip 
 Yukahiri, tahaka 
 
 English, thunder 
 Arinzi, eshath-yantu 
 Yukahiri, yendv. 
 
 English, lightning 
 Inbask, yakene-hoh 
 Yukahiri, hug-onshe 
 
 English, egg 
 Inbask, onge 
 Arinzi, ang 
 
 Pumpokolsk, tanyangeeg 
 Yukahiri, langdzhango 
 
 English, leaf 
 Assan, yepan 
 Kott, dipang 
 Yukahiri, yipan 
 
 English, eat 
 Assan, rayali 
 Yukahiri, lagid 
 
 English, yellow 
 Kott, shuiga 
 Yukahiri,, tshakatonni 
 
 English, moon 
 Pumpokolsk, tui 
 Arinzi, shui 
 Yukahiri, Tcinin-shi. 
 
 B. 
 
 The Yenisean and the Samoyed of the Asia Polyghtta. 
 
 English, arm 
 Arinzi, Tchinang 
 Mangaseia, kannamunne 
 
 English, finger 
 Inbask, tokan 
 Pumpokolsk, tok 
 Tawgi, fyaaka 
 Yurass, tarka 
 
 English, flesh 
 Arinzi, is 
 Assan, ig, igi 
 Pumpokolsk, zig 
 
 Mangaseia, osa 
 Turuchansk, odzha 
 Narym, &c., ueg 
 Karass, hueg 
 English, fir-tree 
 Inbask, ei 
 Arinzi, aya 
 Obdorsk, ye 
 
 English, egg 
 Inbask, Ong 
 Arinzi, ang 
 Pumpokolsk, eg 
 Tas, iga 
 
120 
 
 THE YUKAHIRI. 
 
 English, egg 
 Assan, shulei 
 Kott, shulei 
 Motorian, shlok 
 
 English, tree 
 Assan, atsh 
 Kott, &c., agshe 
 Motorian, &c., cha 
 
 English, brother 
 
 Assan, pohesh 
 
 Koibal, pa^im— younger 
 
 English, butter 
 Assan, hayah 
 Motorian, chayaJc 
 
 moon 
 Assan, shvA 
 Koibal, Tcui 
 
 English, sun 
 Assan, cfcc, ego, 
 Motorian, haye 
 
 English, stone 
 Inbask, gijgs, tyes 
 Pumpokolsk, <^ys, Tcit 
 
 Kott, 
 Arinzi, Tches 
 Motorian, dagia, 
 
 English, summer 
 Assan, shega 
 Kott, chtishsJtega 
 Arinzi, shei 
 Motor, claghan 
 Koibal, taga 
 
 English, they 
 Asssin,'hatin 
 Arinzi, itang 
 Motor, tin 
 
 woman 
 Inbask, ^ft^fi'm 
 Arinzi, byJc-hamalte 
 
 It is clear that, if Castr^n^s 
 moyed with the Fiu be (as it is) 
 
 Obdorsk, pug-utsu 
 Pustosersk, pug-iga 
 
 English, river 
 Denka, chuge 
 Pustosersk, yaga 
 
 English, great 
 Assan, paga 
 Arinzi, hirhha 
 Pustosersk, pirge 
 
 English, evening 
 Inbask, his 
 Pumpokolsk, bigidin 
 Assan, pidziga 
 Yurass, pausema 
 Obdorsk, paus-emya 
 Pustosersk, paus-emye 
 
 English, hill 
 Inbask, &c., chai 
 Samoyed, syeo, Jco 
 
 English, bed 
 Inbask, chodzha 
 Obdorsk, choha 
 Tawgi, Jcufu 
 
 English, birch -tree 
 Inbask, uusya 
 Assan, uga 
 Kott, uga 
 Pustosersk, chu 
 Tawgi, &c., }:uie 
 Ket, tiue 
 
 English, leaf 
 Yeniseian, yp-an 
 Pumpokolsk, ejig 
 Pustosersk, wyba ] 
 
 Obdorsk, wiibe 
 Yurass, newe 
 Tomsk, tyaba 
 Narym, gabe 
 Kamash, dzhaba 
 
 association of the Sa- 
 right, the Yukahiri and 
 
 o^J 
 
THE YUKAHIRI. 121 
 
 Yeniseian should be in the same category, and, as such, 
 IJgrian also. Does Castren make them so ? The answer 
 to this question is as follows : — 
 
 Of the Yukahiri he says little or nothing any way. 
 
 Of the Yeniseian he expressly states that it is other 
 than Ugrian, 
 
 An opinion to this effect and from such a quarter 
 rendered a re-consideration of the doctrine involved in 
 the previous classification imperative ; and so sensible 
 was I of this that, having published a notice of the 
 tribes under consideration between the publication of 
 the Lectures on the Altaic family, and the Grammar of 
 the Kott and Yeniseian, " in deference to his " (Castren 's) 
 "opinion, I suspended my judgment until the last-named 
 work should be published.'' 
 
 When published, as it was soon after, it' put the 
 Yeniseian as it stands in the present work — -leaving the 
 Yukahiri to be dealt with as it best may. 
 
 In Sauer's account of Billing's Expedition there is a 
 list of 250 Yukahiri words. These, in conjunction with 
 the list of Imperial Vocabularies, and a Pater-noster 
 from Witsen's North and East Tartary, constitute the 
 whole of our data. The greater part of them appears 
 in the Asia Polyglotta ; in the body of the work by 
 itself, and in the Atlas in a tabular form, compared or 
 contrasted with the Koriak, Kamskadale, and Eskimo 
 languages ; from all of which (as aforesaid) it differs 
 visibly. 
 
 How far is it Samoyed — the Pater-nosters being 
 compared? The following are the details, clause for 
 clause. 
 
 Yukahiri. — Otj^ mitsje. 
 Turuklmnslc Samoyed. — Modi Jescje. 
 Tawgi Samoyed. — Mi Jeseme. 
 Arcliangel Samoyed. — Mani Nisal. 
 OstiaJc. — Jez mi. 
 Vogul. — Mem Jef. 
 
122 THE YUKAHIRI. 
 
 (2.) 
 Yukahiri. — Kandi Kudsjunga. 
 TuruJchansh Samoyed. — Teio na Csonaar. 
 Tawgi Samoyed.'- — Neiteio Nuontone. 
 Archangel Samoyed. — Huien tamuva Numilembarti tosu. 
 OstiaJc. — Kundina jejand Nopkon. 
 Vogul. — Conboge Eterdarum. 
 
 (3.) 
 
 YukaJiiri. — Temlalangli nim totlie. 
 
 Turukhansh Samoyed. — Todi nilo torcke csuzuiro. 
 
 Tawgi Samoyed. — Tonon nilo tontokui kusiuro. 
 
 Archangel iSamoT/ec?. —Tadisse pider nim. 
 
 Ostiah. — Nuni nip tat. 
 
 Vogul. — Naerderoin amut nema. 
 
 (4.) 
 YuJcahiri. — Legatei pugandallanpoh tottlie. 
 Turukhansk Samoyed. — Todi naksiaro toretusu. 
 Tawgi Samoyed. — Tonon nuontomeiro tondo tuifantu. 
 Archangel Samoyedj. — Pider parowadie tosu. 
 Ostiah — Tule nutkotsj tat. 
 Vogul. — Nerosia sochtos. 
 
 (5.) 
 
 Ytdcahiri. — Latiot t'sjemol alkatei, konda koet zjuga (? kundsjunga) je 
 leviangh. 
 
 TuruJchansJc Samoyed. — Todi agnaara toretusu tone na csonaar i jacsona. 
 
 Tawgi Samoyed. — Tonon nianzepsialo tuifano, tondone nuontono mamoru- 
 tono. 
 
 Archangel Samoyed. — Pider gior amgade numilembart, tarem jae. 
 
 OstiaJc. — Tat tenel tat tat nopkon its jots jogodt. 
 . Vogul. — Omut nun gerae tegali eterdarum scinan maanki. 
 
 (6.) 
 Yukahiri. — Lunliangel miltj^ monidetjeliih keyck mitin telaman. 
 Turukhansk Samoyed. — Modi puieresiudara kirva toratsin mena ereksone. 
 Taiogi Samoyed. — Mi niliusiame kirvu tozu nanc jele. 
 Archangel Samoyed. — Man jeeltema nan tuda. 
 Ostiak. — Nai me 'tsjelelemi tallet meko shek titap. 
 Vogul. — Candalas tep mi me tiegalgad. 
 
 (7.) 
 
 Yukahiri. — Jeponkatsj mitin taldelponmitlapul, mitkondan (? mit kondan) 
 poniatsjock tannevinol mitlapUl. 
 
 Turukhansk Samoyed. — I kai nene noina oteine, tone imodinani kalodie 
 neine oteoponede. 
 
 Tawgi Samoyed. — Kuoje nane mogorene oteine, tondone oniede kuvojefan- 
 tome naine oteaoponteinianan. 
 
THE YUKAHIRI. 123 
 
 Archangel Samoyed. — Ali ona mani isai, tai mano wangundar mani mi 
 manuo. 
 
 OstiaTc. — Kvodtsjedi mekosjek kolzja mei, tat mei kvodtsjedi kolzja mei. 
 Vogul. — Julokults me gavorant, tuigali menik julgoli amut tzagaraldin. 
 
 (8.) 
 Yuhahiri. — Je kondo olgonilak mitel olo oimik. 
 Turukhansk Samoyed. — Iro sirene ta ora basiedo. 
 Taiogi Samoyed. — Letancto men koli cakento. 
 Archangel Samoyed. — Ja merum haniia sa neninde baka. 
 Ostiah. — Nik jegosjid kvondik mat kekend. 
 Vogul. — An mengolen julvagarias. 
 
 (9.) 
 Yukahiri. — Kondo moliak mitel kimda annelan, 
 Turukhansk Samoyed. — I role sireno kodago chore. 
 Taiogi Samoyed. — Si lupto men muzcy logoto. 
 Archangel Samoyed. — Japtan mane suadera. 
 Ostiak. — Tat . . . mat losogod. 
 Vogul. — Toromalt derku mem kul. 
 
 (10.) 
 
 Yukahiri. — Le dot pugundal lenpoh, je tonbank, je tiindalov kundejank. 
 
 Turukhansk Samoyed. — Tone todi tonea naksiaro i niclioro i su vui-aaro i 
 reine. 
 
 Tatvgi Samoyed. — Tondo tonon noncinu nu ontomouro ni ebomeon ni timeon 
 nlecneeno. 
 
 Archangel Samoyed. — Tekindapt scbin pider parowadea ni hooka, wadado, 
 il iwan. 
 
 Ostiak, — Tat tat nudkotsj, orup, uvorganin, tam nun. Nat. 
 
 Vogul. — Tagolodamu negotsku, vaan booter, nemonsoigi nekostatiu. Peitse. 
 
 Eernarks. 
 1. 
 Otje is, apparently, the Russian otets, otce. That mitsje is the Turuk- 
 hansk modi is probable. Compare totlie (thine) with todi, and the probability 
 increases. 
 
 2. 
 Kandi is the relative pronoun, and, word for word, the Ostiak kundina. 
 
 8-4. 
 
 Nim is German. Totlie has akeady been noticed. 
 
 5. 
 
 Latiot.—Whsit la means is uncertain. Perhaps it should be separated 
 from tiot, which is totlie = thy. T'sjemol is, perhaps, the Ostiak tenel. In 
 leviangh, the -ngh is inflexional, probably the sign of a locative case. The 
 simple form in Billing is hvjie. 
 
124 THE YUKAHIRI. 
 
 Miltje and mitin are the pronouns of the first person. Monidetjelah and 
 telaman = this day and daily. The root is tel; and it appears in both the 
 Samoyed and Ostiak. It appears, too, with the terminations -ma and -mi. 
 In Billing, pondscherJca = day, whilst pondscherJcoma = to-day, the tna 
 being man. 
 
 7-10. 
 
 The likeness here seems limited to the roots pon and tan, in No. 7, as com- 
 pared with the Oiea^^onteinisxnaLTx of the Tawgi. 
 
THE UGRIAN CLASS. 125 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 The Ugrian Class. — Its Importance and Peculiarities. — Castren's Researches. 
 — The Samoyed Division. 
 
 Every language is, in its way, a philological study ; 
 and so is every group of languages. The Ugrian class, 
 however, is one of pre-eminent importance. It is the 
 most northern of all : and, in remembering this, we 
 must also remember that the world is a sphere. It is 
 like an apple or an orange. Now it is one thing to cut 
 round an apple in the latitude of its pips : it is another 
 thing to do so just below its calyx, or just above the 
 stalk. The one section is a long, the other a short, one. 
 A language (if such a one existed) that went round the 
 world at the equator would cover infinitely more ground 
 than one that encircled one of the Poles. Yet the 
 number of degrees would be the same. The Malay 
 tongues are spoken over fewer degrees of latitude than 
 the Ugrian. How different, however, is the real length 
 of their ai*ea. If they were spoken within the Arctic 
 Circle, they would cover less ground than the Turk. 
 Now the Ugrian tongues belong to the region where 
 the degTees of latitude are of the narrowest. Some of 
 them, indeed, lie to the south — e. g. the Magyar. As 
 a general rule, however, they are northern. 
 
 Again — there are certain parallels which may be 
 called zones of conquest and encroachment. The extreme 
 north is unfavorable to the development of mind and 
 muscle. So are the Tropics. Hence, the nations of 
 the medium, or temperate, districts are like two-edged 
 
126 teE UGRIAN CLASS. 
 
 swords. They cut both ways — encroaching accord- 
 ingly. 
 
 The Ugrian tongues are the tongues of the North, 'of 
 the narrow longitudes, and of the un:ftivoured climates. 
 They have been inordinately encroached on. Again — 
 they lie, to a great extent, between Europe and Asia. 
 
 The Ugrian area was once continuous. It is now 
 fragmentary. Many of the Ugrian districts are islands, 
 with a sea of Slavonism around them. Or we may 
 change the metaphor, and call them oases. The desert 
 around them is sometimes Slavonic, sometimes Turk. 
 
 The Tungus, the Mongol, and the Turk were philo- 
 logical classes in the way that the Solidungula con- 
 stituted a class in Zoology. The difference between the 
 horse and the ass was all the difference they embraced. 
 The Ugrian is a class in the way that the Rodentia are 
 a class. There are many members, and the differences 
 embraced are the differences between a mouse and an 
 agouti. 
 
 The chief languages of the Ugrian class are the 
 Ostiak, the Vogul, the Magyar, the Permian, the Votiak, 
 the Tsherimis, and the Mordwin — all recognized by the 
 earlier philologues. Then comes the Samoyed, recognized 
 as Ugrian since the researches of Castren. Then the 
 Yukahiri and the (?) Yeniseian, of which much has al- 
 ready been said. 
 
 The Koriak and its congeners can only be made 
 UgTian by raising the value of the class. 
 
 In three respects Ugrian philology is easy. A lan- 
 guage spoken in the centre of Asia has affinities on each 
 side— north, south, east, and west. A language 
 spoken on the northern end of the world has affinities 
 in one direction only — to the south. The affinities of 
 the Lap are one-sided ; those of the Turk (to borrow an 
 expression from the geologists) quaquaversal. 
 
 Secondly — the boundaries of an island or an oasis 
 are easily marked out. The limits of a tract in tl;^ 
 
THE SAMOYED. 127 
 
 middle of a continent may easily be indefinite. Now, 
 many of the Ugrian tongues are absolutely isolated. 
 
 Thirdly — the Ugrians have generally been encroached 
 on. Hence, there is much. which, though Russian, Li- 
 thuanic, German, or Turkish in speech, is Ugrian in 
 blood ; although the converse is (comparatively speaking) 
 rarely the case. 
 
 There are not ten millions of Ugiians (tested by their 
 language) in the world. Of these nearly half are in 
 Hungary ; three-fourths of the remainder being the 
 Fins of Finland. Assuredly, the Ugrian is a fragmen- 
 tary class. 
 
 The Ugrians lead not only from Asia to Europe, but 
 to America as well. 
 
 The data for the Ugrian languages are ample. This 
 is because the nationality of the Finlanders, not discou- 
 raged by Russia, has been devoted with more than merely 
 laudable activity to the study of them. From the days 
 of Porthan to those of Sjogren and Castren, the inves- 
 tigation of Ugrian ethnology has been pursued with 
 learning and acumen. 
 
 The language of the present group which is best 
 known, and which most especially illustrates the word 
 Fin or Ugrian (for the two terms are nearly synony- 
 mous), is the Fin of Finland. As a literary language it 
 is, by no means, unimportant. Neither is it the lan- 
 guage of a nation destitute of political importance. 
 Still it is not the right language to begin with. It is 
 part and parcel of the present work to make an approx- 
 imate sequence in the way of connection : and the group 
 of prospective languages which comes nearest to the 
 preceding is — 
 
 The Samoyed : this being a name for a class of 
 dialects which, within the last ten years, has commanded 
 more attention than any class of equal political and lite- 
 rary unimportance. Yet fifty years ago they were 
 known only by name. The Mithridates gives us little 
 
128 THE SAMOYED. 
 
 more than a few Pater-nosters. The Asia Polyglotta, by 
 means of the Vocabularies of Strahlenberg and Messer- 
 schmidt, gave us fuller materials. Nor were they neg- 
 lected. Klaproth, who spared so few that few have 
 cared to spare him, has got less credit than he deserves 
 for the amount of arrangement which he introduced 
 amongst them. Castren has been hard upon his errors; 
 — perhaps unduly so : but when men deal in hard mea- 
 sures towards others, hard measures is all they can expect 
 for themselves. I find no notable and really material dif- 
 ferences between his divisions and Castren's — no notable 
 and really material ones. Some, however, exist ; though 
 unimportant. As for Castren^'s own, I take them as I 
 find them ; seeing plainly that they are made on the 
 principle of demarcation rather than type ; and (as such) 
 only provisional. How far they are based upon single 
 characters rather than upon a multiplicity of characters 
 in mass, the incomplete state of his Grammar and Dic- 
 tionary (both of which are posthumous works, with little 
 or no original matter added by the able editor) prevents 
 me from ascertaining. 
 
 The first fact connected with the class is the vast 
 style of its area both in respect to latitude and longi- 
 tude. The first Samoyeds are found as far west as the 
 neighbourhood of Mezen ; the last on the banks of the 
 Chatunga. Considering, however, their Arctic locality, 
 this is nothing very extraordinary. The degrees of 
 latitude in the neighbourhood of the Icy Sea are 
 narrow. Much more interesting is the extension south- 
 ward, or the fact of their being found so low as 50° 
 N.L. within the Chinese frontier. Of these southern 
 Samoyeds there are two divisions ; one on the upper, or 
 middle, Obi ; one on the upper, or middle, Yenisey. 
 Between the two there is this difi^erence — the Samoyed 
 area of the Obi is either nearly, or wholly, continuous; 
 in other words there is a chain of Samoyed localities 
 which, either nearly or wholly, continues the chain of 
 
THE SAMOYED DIALECTS. 129 
 
 dialects fi'om the Barabinski steppe to the mouth of the 
 river. The Samoyeds, however, of the upper Yenisey 
 are utterly isolated. They are found on the Yenisey 
 where it is cut by the Russian and Chinese boundary, and 
 they are not found again until we approach its mouth. 
 
 In man}^ respects these South-eastern Samoyeds (the 
 simple term Southern is insufficient) are the more impor- 
 tant members of the class. In the first place, it is likely 
 that they represent the occupants of the original situs 
 of the family: so that it spread from south to north 
 rather than from north to south. This, however, is a 
 matter which requires more consideration than it has 
 received. Neither is it a doctrine to which the writer 
 commits himself without reserve and conditions. In the 
 next place, it is in the south that the Samoyed has been 
 (what we are scarcely prepared to expect) an encroaching 
 language. 
 
 Who would unlearn his own mother-tongue for the 
 Samoyed ? Not the Turks, not the Mongols, scarcely the 
 Tungus — though it is possible that certain tribes belong- 
 ing to some (or all) of these divisions may have done so 
 to some slight extent. The populations which have most 
 especially, either by amalgamation or conquest, allowed 
 their own language to.be replaced by the Samoyed are the 
 Yeniseians of the Kot and Ara divisions. This, however, 
 we have already seen. On the other hand, the Samoyed, 
 (in some cases as pure Samoyed, in others as Samoyed 
 which has superseded the Yeniseian,) is, itself, replaced 
 by the Turk ; as we saw when speaking of the Koibal 
 and Karagas, and as we suggested when speaking of the 
 Tuba and other dialects. Probably, also, certain Tungus 
 and Buriats are Samoyed in blood though other than 
 Samoyed in speech. Of the Turk language, however, in 
 Samoyed mouths,* there is no doubt. 
 
 Its encroachment is recent. In the Asia Polyglotta, 
 there are two Vocabularies ; one headed Motorip.n, re- 
 presenting tlie language of the Matar, Matlar, or Matorzi, 
 
 K 
 
130 THE NORTHERN SAMOYED. 
 
 and one headed Koibal. Both these were collected by 
 Messerschmidt, in the last century. The Motorian Sa- 
 moyed, then nearly extinct, is now no longer to be found 
 — at least eo nomine. The Koibal may possibly be 
 spoken by a few individuals. Still, the Koibal of the 
 Koibal Grammar of Castren is simply Turkish. The 
 Kamas, the third of Klaproth's (or Messerschmidt's) Vo- 
 cabularies, is still spoken ; and Castren has given us a 
 Grammar of it. Still the main language of the division 
 is Turkish — with the exception of a minimum of 
 Kot. There m^ay be a Soiot form of the Samoyed; 
 though this, if it exist, is, probably, Samoyed in the 
 mouth of Yeniseians. The few words, however, that 
 we know of the Soiot are Turk. Still the details of 
 the country within the Chinese frontier are most im- 
 perfectly known. On the part of the Northern Samoyeds, 
 the philological encroachment has been less. Still there 
 have been encroachments. Castren writes that some of 
 the frontier Ostiaks have learned to speak Samoyed. 
 
 Of the J^orthern Samoyeds the chief divisions, ac- 
 cording to Castren, who founds them upon the differ- 
 ences of dialect, are three ; (1 ), the Yurak ; (2), the 
 Tawgi ; and (3), the Ostiak. 
 
 (1.) The Yurak Samoyeds are those that lie in the 
 closest contact with the Kussians. To them the name 
 Samoyed was first applied. It is a name which is, by 
 no means, native. The native name is Kasovo {Hasa- 
 wayo), or Nyenets ■=. man. 
 
 The Yurak Samoyeds, or the Samoyeds of Yugoria, 
 appear on the eastern coast of the White Sea, towards 
 the mouth of the river Mezene. On the lower course 
 of the Petshora they are more abundant still. They are 
 separated from the Russian Laplanders by the White Sea 
 and by the valley of the Dwina ; fof the parts about 
 Archangel have long been wrested from them and Rus- 
 sianized. 
 
 Between the Petshora and the Ural, the Samoyed is 
 
THE NORTHERN SAMOYED. 181 
 
 bounded on the south by the Zirianian area. On the 
 Obi he comes in contact with the Ostiak ; and that at 
 the very mouth of the river. In the parts, however, 
 about Obdorsk Samoyed is spoken. From tlie Obi to 
 the Tas all is Yurak Samoyed. On the Tas, however, 
 there is a break ; beyond which the details are obscure. 
 The Yurak division is generally carried as far east as 
 the Yenisey. We will here, however, carry it to the Tas. 
 
 The Yurak Proper is only one dialect out of five ; 
 the other four being represented by the (a), Kanin and 
 Timan ; (h), the Ishim ; (c), the Bolshizemla and 
 Obdorsk ; {d), and the Kondin, or Kazym, forms of 
 speech. 
 
 (2.) The Tawgi division reaches from the lower Yeni- 
 sey to the Chatunga ; the tribes which belong to it being 
 sometimes called the Avam, or Avamski, Samoyeds. 
 
 (3.) The Ostiak Samoyeds have the disadvantage of 
 being described by an inconvenient name. The true 
 Ostiaks are something else, as has been seen. 
 
 Of their dialects, however, in situ, the most northern 
 is that of the parts about the Tym and Narym ; next 
 comes that of the river Ket ; thirdly, that of tlie Tshulirm 
 The Ket forms of speech extend as far as the rivers 
 Parabel and Tshaya, feeders of the Obi, on the frontier 
 of the Barabinski steppe. The dialect of the Circle of 
 Pumpokolsk is also akin to the Ket. 
 
 The migrations are represented by the Karasin and 
 Tas forms of speech ; the former being spoken in the 
 parts to the north of Turukansk, on the Yenisey, and 
 the latter by the Tym and Karakon tribes of the Tas ; 
 tribes that use the reindeer and call themselves Mo- 
 kase. 
 
 In the way of language, the Kamash, Kamas, Kang- 
 mash, or Kamasintzi (the Motorian and Koibal being 
 extinct), are the only existing representatives of the 
 Southern Samoyeds. They are Nomads and Shamanist 
 pagans, on the head-waters of the Kan and Mana, 
 
 K 2 
 
132 THE SOUTHERN SAMOYED. 
 
 From one division of them Castren got the materials 
 for his Grammar. 
 
 I have said that between the groups of Klaproth and 
 Castren there were some differences of detail. Klaproth 
 lays the Tawgi in the same class with the Yurak ; along 
 with which he places the Pustosersk, the Obdorsk, the 
 Mansaseia, and the Turukansk dialects. His second 
 class contains the Tas, Tomsk, Narym, Ket, Tym, and 
 Karas forms of speech, along with a short specimen of 
 what he calls the Lak. Finally, a list headed Taigi 
 (the import of which is not explained), finds place in 
 tlie third division, containing the Motorian, the Koibal, 
 and the Kamash. 
 
 Even in Castren the details and value of a fourth 
 section called (most inconveniently) the Yeniseian, are 
 obscure. The class itself is small. Its name gives the 
 locality of its members. They lie between the Yurak 
 and Tawgi divisions on the lower Yenisey. 
 
 It is from Castren that all the following specimens 
 are taken, and it is in the orthography of his Samoyed 
 Grammar and Dictionary that they are given. 
 
 
 NORTHERN 
 
 SAMOYED. 
 
 
 
 
 (!•) 
 
 
 
 
 Yurah. 
 
 
 English 
 
 YuraV. 
 
 
 English, 
 
 Yurak. 
 
 Man {homo) 
 
 nenete 
 
 
 Ear 
 
 h4 
 
 
 nienece 
 
 
 Beard 
 
 munate 
 
 
 nieneca 
 
 
 
 
 munace 
 
 
 nience' 
 
 
 
 munac' 
 
 
 nienec' 
 
 
 
 munabt' 
 
 Man (vir) 
 
 b^sawa 
 
 
 Tongue 
 
 nami 
 
 Head 
 
 ~aewa 
 
 
 Tooth 
 
 tibea 
 
 Hair 
 
 iiotba 
 
 
 
 tiwe 
 
 
 ~6bt 
 
 
 
 teu 
 
 
 6abt 
 
 
 
 tiw 
 
 
 eabt 
 
 
 Hand 
 
 ~uda 
 
 
 tar 
 
 
 Foot 
 
 "ae 
 
 
 tabor 
 
 
 Blood 
 
 h^m 
 
 Eye 
 
 saeu 
 
 
 
 xeam 
 
SAMOYED DIALECTS. 
 
 133 
 
 English. 
 
 Yurak. 
 
 EngHsh. 
 
 Yurak. 
 
 Blood 
 
 horn 
 
 Earth 
 
 ya 
 
 Nose 
 
 puiyea 
 
 
 yea 
 
 Mouth 
 
 na 
 
 Hill 
 
 sea 
 
 Bone 
 
 ly 
 
 
 sa 
 
 
 le 
 
 Tree 
 
 pea 
 
 Sun 
 
 h4yer 
 
 Iron 
 
 yesea 
 
 
 
 haiyer 
 
 
 yese 
 
 
 hayar 
 
 Fish 
 
 halea 
 
 Moon 
 
 yiry 
 
 
 hale 
 
 
 yiry 
 
 
 hale 
 
 
 
 yiri 
 
 Dog 
 
 yandu 
 
 Star ■ 
 
 numgy 
 
 
 yando 
 
 Night 
 
 pi 
 
 House 
 
 h4rad 
 
 Egg 
 
 s^rnu 
 
 
 xdrad 
 
 Fire 
 
 tu ' 
 
 Water 
 
 yi 
 
 Stone 
 
 pae 
 
 Rain 
 
 saru 
 
 Mountain-range soty 
 
 
 sani 
 
 
 soty 
 
 Lake 
 
 to' 
 
 The Kondin vocabulary is 
 the chief words wherein it 
 Yurak : — 
 
 short. The following are 
 differs from the ordinary 
 
 English. 
 
 
 Kondin. 
 
 
 Yurak. 
 
 Man (vir) 
 
 
 huberi 
 
 
 nienece 
 
 
 
 hiiweri 
 
 
 
 Eye 
 
 
 haem 
 
 
 saeu 
 
 Mouth 
 
 
 ivang 
 
 
 »a' 
 
 House 
 
 
 xarad 
 
 
 h&rad 
 
 Iron 
 
 
 wese 
 
 
 yfise 
 
 Rain 
 
 
 satu 
 
 
 s&iu 
 
 Lake 
 
 
 m^ri 
 
 
 lo' 
 
 Water 
 
 
 wit 
 
 (2.) 
 Tawgi. 
 
 
 yi' 
 
 English. 
 
 Tawgi. 
 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Tawgi. 
 
 Man (vir) 
 
 kuayuma 
 
 
 
 Hand 
 
 yutu 
 
 Head 
 
 ~aewa 
 
 
 
 Foot 
 
 ~oai 
 
 
 ~aiwTia 
 
 
 
 Nose 
 
 puiyea 
 
 Hair 
 
 ~apta 
 
 
 
 Mouth 
 
 na 
 
 
 ~&bta 
 
 
 
 Blood 
 
 kam 
 
 Eye 
 
 saime 
 
 
 
 Bone 
 
 lata 
 
 Ear 
 
 kou 
 
 
 
 Sun 
 
 kou 
 
 Beard 
 
 munduis^ang 
 
 
 Moon 
 
 kitada 
 
 Tongue 
 
 sieya 
 
 
 
 Star 
 
 fata 
 
 Tooth 
 
 timi 
 
 
 
 Night 
 
 fing 
 
134 
 
 SAMOYED DIALECTS. 
 
 English. . Tawgi. 
 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Tawgi. 
 
 Egg manu 
 
 
 
 Fish 
 
 kolu 
 
 Fire tui 
 
 
 
 Bog 
 
 b&ng 
 
 Stone fala 
 
 
 
 House 
 
 koru' 
 
 Earth mou 
 
 
 
 Water 
 
 U 
 
 mamara 
 
 
 
 Bain 
 
 soruang 
 
 Tree fa 
 
 
 
 Lahe 
 
 turku. 
 
 Iron basa 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (3.) 
 
 
 
 
 OstiaJc. 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 English — man (homo) 
 
 
 X. 
 
 Tas— sai 
 
 
 Narym — kop 
 
 
 
 Tshwaia — sei 
 
 
 Ket—^vim. 
 
 
 
 Nat-pumpoholsk- 
 
 -saiji. 
 
 Middle Ostia^—'kma. 
 
 
 
 English — hand 
 Ket—uiiQ 
 
 
 Nat-pumpoJcolsJc—knme 
 
 
 
 
 Yelogui — kup 
 
 
 
 Nat-pumpoholsh- 
 
 -utte 
 
 Baihha — ^kup 
 
 
 
 Yelogui—vA 
 
 
 Tas— kup. 
 
 
 
 Tas—ut 
 
 
 English — head 
 
 
 
 Baihha — ut 
 
 
 Ket—o\\Q 
 
 
 
 Karassin — ut. 
 
 
 Nat-pumpoJcolsk — ul 
 
 
 
 English — nose 
 
 
 Yelogui — ul 
 
 
 
 Narym — tob 
 
 
 Baihha — ul 
 
 
 
 ^ei— toppa 
 
 
 Karassin — ul. 
 
 
 
 Nat-pumpoholsk- 
 
 -toppa. 
 
 English — heard 
 
 
 
 Tshwaia — toba 
 
 
 Narym— und 
 
 
 
 Baihha — tobe 
 
 
 Yelogui — unde 
 
 
 
 TfiLS — tope 
 
 
 Baihha — unde 
 
 
 
 Karassin — tup. 
 
 
 Karassin — unde 
 
 
 
 English— 6^ooc? 
 
 
 Middle Obi — umd 
 
 
 
 Narym— kan 
 
 
 JCet — nmdde. 
 
 
 
 Tshulim — kam 
 
 
 English — tongue 
 
 
 
 Nat-pumpoholsh- 
 
 -kame 
 
 Narym — se 
 
 
 
 Yelogui-kem 
 
 
 Tshulim—sie. 
 
 
 
 Baihha — kem 
 
 
 English— eye 
 Narym — hai 
 
 
 
 Tas—kem 
 Karassin— kem. 
 
 
 Ket—a&i 
 
 
 
 English — lone 
 
 
 Yelogui — sal 
 
 
 
 Narym — li 
 
 
 Baihha — sal 
 
 f 
 
 
 Nat-pumpoholsh- 
 
 -le. 
 
 English. 
 
 Uppei 
 
 rObi. 
 
 
 Man (homo) 
 
 kum 
 
 also Middle Obi, 
 
 
 (mr) 
 
 teba, 
 
 also Tshaia. 
 
 
 Hair 
 
 
 opte 
 
 
 
SAMOYED DIALECTS. 
 
 135 
 
 English. 
 
 Upper Obi. 
 
 Beard 
 
 umde 
 
 Eye 
 
 sei, ako Tshaia. 
 
 Ear 
 
 kuc, also Tshulim. 
 
 Nose 
 
 puto; Tshaia, ^vXo; Mid. 05/, pot 
 
 Mouth 
 
 eang ; Tshulim, oang. 
 
 Hand 
 
 ude; Tshulim, uto 
 
 Foot 
 
 tobe ; Tshulim, toba. 
 
 Blood 
 
 kam, also Tshulim. 
 
 Bom 
 
 la, 
 
 Sim 
 
 tel, also Tshaia. 
 
 Moon 
 
 ire, also Tshaia. 
 
 Star 
 
 kasangka; Tshaia, k^sanka. 
 
 Night 
 
 pa ; Middle Obi, pe. 
 
 Fire 
 
 tii, also Tshaia 
 
 Fiver 
 
 kegea, aho Tshulim. 
 
 Stone 
 
 tang ; Tshaia, t4. 
 
 Tree 
 
 puo, also Tshaia. 
 
 House 
 
 muat 
 
 Egg 
 
 kegai, also Tshulim. 
 
 Salt 
 
 seak ; Middle Obi, sak. 
 
 English — earth 
 
 3. 
 
 English — moon 
 
 Middle Ohi—U 
 
 Narym — are 
 
 Ket—tii 
 
 Ket—ivQ 
 
 Narym — 'cu 
 
 Tshulim~\vQ 
 
 Tas— so 
 
 Yelogui — ire 
 
 Iiaikha—%vi 
 
 Tas — irea 
 
 Karassin — sii. 
 
 Nat-pumpoholsh — era 
 
 
 Karassin — era. 
 
 English — hill 
 
 
 Narym — kd 
 
 English — water 
 
 Baikha—\A 
 
 Narym— ixt 
 
 Yelogui—ki 
 
 ot. 
 
 Karassin— M. 
 
 
 English — stone 
 
 English — house 
 
 Narym — po 
 
 Narym — m4t. 
 
 Tshwaia — pii 
 
 
 Nat-pumpokolsk—-pu. 
 
 English — lake 
 
 Yelogui — pd 
 
 Bakta — tu 
 
 Baikha — pd 
 
 Tas— tvi 
 
 Tas—^h 
 
 Karassin — tu 
 
 
 Middle Obi— to 
 
 English — sun. 
 
 Ket— to 
 
 Narym — *cel 
 
 Upper Obi — to 
 
 Yelogui, tfcc. — tel 
 
 Tshwaia — to 
 
 Tshwaia, c&c. — tyel. 
 
 Nat-pumpokolsk — to. 
 
136 
 
 SAMOYED DIALECTS. 
 
 English- 
 
 -rain 
 
 
 Tas—^xji 
 
 
 Narym— 
 
 -liurom3 
 
 
 Baikha — pu 
 
 
 Bailcha — sorom3 
 
 
 Karassin — p<i. 
 
 
 Karassir 
 
 . — sorpma 
 
 English— /s7t . 
 
 
 Ket—^VkTO 
 
 
 Tas— kuele 
 
 
 Middle OU—%oro 
 Tshivaia—soTO 
 
 
 Nat-pumpoJcolsk— kuele 
 Yelogui — kuele. 
 
 Nat-pumpokalsJc— 
 
 -semi. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 English— 6(75^ 
 
 
 English— 
 
 -tree 
 
 
 Narym— yidihi 
 
 
 Narym— 
 
 -po 
 
 
 Ket — napi 
 
 
 TsJuvaia- 
 
 — puo 
 
 
 Yelogui — eng 
 
 
 Nat-picmpoTcolsk— 
 
 -pe 
 
 Tas— eng 
 
 
 Yelogui- 
 
 -pu 
 
 
 Karassin — eng. 
 
 
 
 
 (?4.) 
 
 
 
 
 Yeniseian. 
 
 
 Englisb. 
 
 
 Yeniseian. 
 
 Chant a. 
 
 Baikha 
 
 Man {homo) 
 
 ennete* 
 
 
 
 {vir 
 
 ) 
 
 kasa 
 
 
 
 Head 
 
 
 
 abuli 
 
 eba 
 
 Hair 
 
 
 
 
 to' 
 
 t6' 
 
 Beard 
 
 
 muddute' 
 
 
 
 Eye 
 
 
 sei 
 
 
 
 
 Ear 
 
 
 
 kd 
 
 k6 
 
 Nose 
 
 
 
 fuiya 
 
 puiya 
 
 Mouth 
 
 
 
 t' 
 
 na» 
 
 Tongue 
 
 
 
 siolo 
 
 sioro 
 
 Tooth 
 
 
 tl 
 
 
 
 Hand 
 
 
 
 ura 
 
 uda 
 
 Foot 
 
 
 
 "k 
 
 ~6 
 
 Blood 
 
 
 
 ki 
 
 
 Bone 
 
 
 
 Hri 
 
 lidi 
 
 Sun 
 
 
 kaiya 
 
 
 
 Moon 
 
 
 
 ilio 
 
 yirie 
 
 Star 
 
 
 
 foresee 
 
 fadesei 
 
 Night 
 
 
 
 fi' 
 
 fi 
 
 Fire 
 
 
 
 
 tu 
 
 tu 
 
 Water 
 
 
 
 bi' 
 
 bi' 
 
 River 
 
 
 
 yaha 
 
 yoha 
 
 Rain 
 
 
 
 sale 
 
 sare 
 
 Snow 
 
 
 
 sila 
 
 sira 
 
 Earth 
 
 
 
 da 
 
 y^ 
 
 Stone 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 fu 
 
 Tree 
 
 
 
 fe 
 
 fe 
 
 House 
 
 
 
 kamoro 
 
 kamodo 
 
 Salt 
 
 
 
 si 
 
 si' 
 
 Egg 
 
 
 niona 
 
 
 
 Fish 
 
 
 
 kale 
 
 kare. 
 
SAMOYED DIALECTS, 
 
 137 
 
 B. 
 
 SOUTHERN SAMOYED. 
 
 English. 
 
 Kamas. 
 
 English. 
 
 Kamas. 
 
 Man {homo) 
 
 keiza 
 
 Moon 
 
 khi 
 
 Head 
 
 ulu 
 
 Star 
 
 khinzigai 
 
 Hair 
 
 adde 
 
 Night 
 
 pki 
 
 Eye 
 
 sima 
 
 
 phy 
 
 Ear 
 
 ku 
 
 Eire 
 
 *sii 
 
 Beard 
 
 miiizen 
 
 Bain 
 
 surau 
 
 Tongue 
 
 *sika 
 
 LaTce 
 
 thu 
 
 Tooth 
 
 thima 
 
 Water 
 
 bu 
 
 Hand 
 
 uda 
 
 Stone 
 
 phi 
 
 Foot 
 
 iiyii 
 
 Hill 
 
 
 
 iiyu 
 
 Hill-range 
 
 bor 
 
 Nose 
 
 phiya 
 
 Earth 
 
 tu 
 
 Mouth 
 
 ang 
 
 Tree 
 
 pha 
 
 Blood 
 
 khem 
 
 Iron 
 
 batza 
 
 Bone 
 
 le 
 
 Fish 
 
 kola 
 
 Sun 
 
 kuya 
 
 Dog 
 
 men 
 
 The Yurak Samoyeds call {X\Qms,Q\ve^Hdsawayo = mien; 
 the Tawgi and Yeniseian Samoyeds call them Juraka 
 and Julaka ; the Samoyeds of the Obi, Ko'elak, Kwdlak, 
 and Kwdleng. Meanwhile the Yurak call the Ostiaks 
 Hahi. It is the Yeniseian Samoyeds who give to the 
 great river on which they are fixed the name which 
 nearest approaches its European one. They call it 
 YeddosL The Tawgi call it Yentayea. The Obi 
 Samoyeds, on the other hand, know it as the Nyandesi, 
 the Kola {^rivev), and the Tyagandes Kola — broad 
 river. 
 
138 THE OSTIAK. 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 The Ugrian Class. — The Ostiak, the Vogul, and the Magyar. 
 
 The Ostiah is the language of the Obi and Irtish on 
 the drainage of which it is spoken from about 56° to 67° 
 N.L. I am not aware that it touches any part of the 
 water-system of the Yenisey ; though certain tribe^ 
 belonging to the Samoyed and Yeniseian groups have 
 improperly been called Ostiak. This inaccuracy, with 
 which Klaproth and others found it necessary to contend, 
 is now unimportant. The latest authorities, when they 
 have not discarded the term altogether, have, in general, 
 warned the reader of its impropriety. So influential a 
 writer, however, as Castren still applies the term Yeni- 
 seian Ostiak to a form of speech which, whatever else it 
 may be, is certainly different from the dialects under 
 notice. 
 
 These belong, as has just been stated, more especially 
 to the Obi and the Irtish, where they are bounded on 
 the south by the Barabinski and Tshulim Turks, on the 
 west by the Voguls and Zirianians, on the north by the 
 Samoyeds of the Icy Sea, and on the east by other 
 Samoyeds, and the Yeniseians of the Ket. In 1838 
 the number of Ostiaks was about 19,000. Narym, 
 Surgut, Beresov, and Obdorsk are the towns which lie 
 most especially on the Ostiak frontier. 
 
 The only Grammar of the Ostiak is one by Castren, 
 in which, contrary to his ordinary habit, he has repre- 
 sented the language in Russian, rather than Italian, 
 letters — Russian as adapted by Sjogren to the Iron. 
 The dialect is that of the Irtish ; besides which there 
 
THE OSTIAK. 139 
 
 are, at least, two others on the Obi, viz : the Surgut 
 and the Obdorsk. The former falls into sub-dialects ; 
 at any rate certain words are quoted as belonging to the 
 upper Surgut, or the Surgut of the river above, and 
 others as belonging to the lower Surgut, or the Surgut 
 of the river below, the city. 
 
 That the language of a nation of fishers and foresters 
 should be uncultivated and unlettered is what we both ex- 
 pect and find. That it has been largely superseded by the 
 Barabinski and Tshulim Turk is probable. That cer- 
 tain Ostiaks of the Samoyed boundary have exchanged 
 their mother-tongue for that of their frontagers is es- 
 pecially stated by Castren. 
 
 The Ostiaks call the river Obi As. 
 
 The As~yakh=Men of the As=Asicol3d, or 06icolse, 
 call 
 
 The Ostiaks of the Demianka, Tahonto-yahh. 
 
 Irtysh, Long-gol-yakh. 
 
 other rivers, Nang-wanda-yahh. 
 
 Narym, and the banks of the river Ket, are the 
 most eastern points of the Ostiak occupancy ; and there 
 the Ostiaks come in contact with the Samoyeds. Now 
 the term for ifaan changes here, and is — 
 
 In the singular number, hup = homo, 
 plural ■ kula — homines. 
 
 Hence the compound Gentile names end differently, 
 and a Narym Ostiak calls 
 
 Himself 
 
 The Surgut Ostiaks 
 
 — Russians 
 
 — Turks in general 
 
 Dshumul-hula. 
 Tangyl-hula. 
 Ruzhil-kula, 
 Tul-kula. 
 
 of the Tshulim Tshulim-kti-kula, 
 
 — Tungusians . . Guellon-kula. 
 
 of the river Obi Koldy. 
 
 Tym KoLsukh-ku. 
 
140 
 
 THE VOGUL. 
 
 The Asjakli of Surgut call tbemsolves Naxta-yahh. 
 
 the Ostiaks of Naryrn NyoruTn- 
 
 yakh. 
 — — Samoyeds Yeryan-yaJch. 
 
 Turks . Katan-yakh. 
 
 ■ Russians Rutsh-yakh. 
 
 Germans AHmet-yakh. 
 
 Word for word, Njorum=N'aTym,==fen ; and, as a 
 Ugrian gloss, it is an instruuient of criticism. Where 
 the root n-r-m and a swampy locality go togetlier, we 
 have a presumption in favour of either a Ugrian occu- 
 pancy or a Ugrian neighbourhood. 
 
 The Vogul language belongs to the ridge of the Urals 
 and to its two sides ; being spoken by about 900 indi- 
 viduals in the Government of Perm, and 5000 in that 
 of Tobolsk, a few of whom are tillers of the soil, the 
 majority being fishers and hunters. It is the only 
 Ugrian language of which we have no Grammar ; 
 indeed, it is the one which, upon the whole, has com- 
 manded the least attention. The Vocabularies, however, 
 are sufficient to show not only that it is truly Ugrian, 
 but that it belongs to the same class with the one which 
 now comes under notice. 
 
 English. 
 
 Ostiak. 
 
 Vogul. 
 
 Man {vir) 
 
 kuim 
 
 kom 
 
 (homo) 
 
 koiet 
 
 klas 
 
 Head 
 
 ngol 
 
 pank 
 
 Hair 
 
 upat 
 
 ata 
 
 Eye 
 
 sem 
 
 sliam 
 
 Ear 
 
 pel 
 
 bal 
 
 Nose 
 
 nal 
 
 nol 
 
 Mouth 
 
 lul 
 
 tozh 
 
 Tongue 
 
 nalim 
 
 nelma 
 
 Hand 
 
 ket 
 
 kat 
 
 Foot 
 
 kur 
 
 lat 
 
 Sun 
 
 syunk 
 
 kotal 
 
 Moon 
 
 tylesh 
 
 yankop 
 
 Star 
 
 koz 
 
 kenza 
 
 Fire 
 
 tyod 
 
 taut 
 
THE VOGUL. 14 
 
 English. OstiaV. Vogiil. 
 
 Water ying ^it 
 
 Tree yog yo 
 
 Stone kiw ku 
 
 One ogy , 
 
 Tivo ketto 
 
 Three kholyni • • 
 
 Four nul 
 
 Five uet 
 
 Six kut 
 
 Seven labiit 
 
 -Ei^A< nuul 
 
 yirteng 
 
 iyani 
 
 * 
 
 The Yoguls hold a cheerless and inhospitable tract of 
 land bounded by the Zirianians, the Samoyeds, and the 
 Kondicho, whom Voguls call by the name they give 
 themselves, viz. Mansi. 
 
 In the south part of the Vogul country Christianity 
 has advanced a little ; feebly and imperfectly, but still a 
 little. In the north, paganism prevails. 
 
 The Yoguls caU the Irtish . Simp. 
 
 ■ Tawda . Tagget. 
 
 Konda . Khonda. 
 
 How far the Ostiak and Vogul extended southwards 
 before the encroachment of the Turks is unknown. 
 Neither is it known whether their extension was easterly 
 or westerly. The opinion of the closest investigators, 
 amongst whom may be placed Castren, is in favour of 
 their having extended themselves bodily from the south. 
 Be this as it may, the Government of Orenburg, though at 
 present the chief occupancy of the Bashkirs, was origin- 
 ally Ugrian. More than this, its Ugrian elements, though 
 not exactly either Ostiak or Vogul, were closely akin to 
 both. In Orenburg, however, no one, at the present 
 moment, uses the original language. It is spoken 
 nevertheless. It is spoken elsewhere ; far to the south 
 and far to the west of its original locality. It is 
 
142 THE MAGYAR. 
 
 spoken by more individuals than any Ugrian tongue 
 whatever ; indeed, by more than all the speakers of all 
 the Ugrian tongues put together. It is the language of 
 no less than 4,000,000 Hungarians, the native name of 
 whom is Magyar. 
 
 Magyar, then, is the term by which we denote the 
 descendants of those Ugrians who, in the tenth century, 
 cut their way from the ridge of the Ural and the 
 streams of the Yaik to the rich pastures and fertile 
 tilths of Hungary, as opposed to the Slavonians, 
 Rumanyos, and Germans of that kingdom ; and Magyar 
 is the name of the language as well as the people. The 
 time when it was introduced into Europe is one of 
 which the history is too obscure to allow us to give the 
 exact details of the languages which it displaced. Thus 
 much, however, is certain, viz. : that it came in contact 
 with German on the west, with Rumanyo in the east, 
 and with Slavonic forms of speech on every side ; 
 besides which there were the dialects which it actually 
 displaced, the majority of which, I believe to have been 
 Turkish. 
 
 As the first Magyar Christians were converts to the 
 Latin rather than the Greek Church, their alphabet is 
 Roman, so that the history of their civilization and 
 literature is that of Poland and Bohemia rather than 
 Servia and Bulgaria ; indeed, Poland and Hungary are 
 the two countries where the Latin, from its inordinate 
 use as the language of law, religion, and learning, has 
 made the nearest approach to an actual vernacular 
 without becoming one. 
 
 The early works in Magyar were few and far between. 
 Neither were they important. In a bibliographical list 
 of all the compositions in Magyar, printed in 1803, the 
 total number of works referred to the j^ear 1784 (a date 
 of which the importance will soon appear) amounted to 
 no more than 29 : the majority of which consisted of 
 funeral sermons. Amongst the most important ones of 
 
THE MAGYAR. 143 
 
 the list at large were three translations — one of a for- 
 gotten tragedy of Cronegk's, one of Yoltaire's Zaire^ 
 and one of the Cyropcedia. 
 
 The year 1784 was the year of the Emperor Joseph's 
 famous edict by which he attempted to introduce German, 
 as the language of the Diet, the Law Courts, and all 
 pubHc offices. It enacted, inter alia, that within three 
 years from that time, unless special circumstances could 
 be adduced which should justify him in allowing a 
 respite, all the cases in all the Courts, whether in first 
 instance or as appeals, were to be conducted in German. 
 This excited universal consternation. The Diet at 
 Presburg resolved that the records of its proceedings 
 should be in Magyar ; and that a committee should 
 report on the best means of fostering the study of the 
 native tongue. One of the recommendations of this 
 Committee was the establishment of a national theatre : 
 another was the establishment of an academy. Neither 
 was carried into effect at the time : both bore fruit in 
 the sequel. 
 
 The language of the claims thus enforced was the 
 Magyar. The language, however, against which the 
 edict of Joseph was more especially directed was the 
 Latin ; for it was the Latin, rather than the Magyar, 
 which had up to then become the language of the laws 
 and the constitution. And, to a great extent, it was tlie 
 Latin, rather than the Magyar, which was defended. 
 Still, the upshot of the national movement was the de- 
 velopment of the Magyar. 
 
 The history of the Magyar literature now becomes 
 the personal history of those energetic patriots who 
 availed themselves of the reaction in its favour : first 
 and foremost of whom was Francis Kazinczy. For more 
 than forty years he laboured at the language. I say the 
 language rather than the literature, because his literature 
 was a means rather than an end. It was the language 
 which he wished to improve. The efforts of the Ger- 
 
144 THE MAGYAR. 
 
 mans in the same direction were before his eyes ; and 
 he claimed for the Magyar the same freedom in deahng 
 with its elementary terms and making new compounds 
 out of them as the Germans were indulging in. He 
 substituted home-made terms for terms of foreign origin. 
 In a language upon which both the Latin and the German 
 had so long exercised what he (as a purist) would consider 
 baleful influence, there was much to be done in this way ; 
 yet Kazinczy was not the reformer that was tempted by 
 his opportunities. Some went farther than he did. He 
 was, however, upon the whole successful in his coinage. 
 For secretary and counsellor he introduced titoknok, and 
 tanacsnotj from titok, a secret , and tanacs =^ counsel. 
 
 With the words ending in ne the sign of the feminine 
 gender, he dealt more boldly still. They correspond to 
 the German forms in -inn, as freundinn = female friend, 
 to a certain extent only. Baratne, from harat = a friend, 
 meant, up to 1800, not so much friend of the female 
 gender as a friend's wife. In like manner kircdyne, 
 from kiraly, a king, meant a king's wife rather than a 
 queen or female king. Both these words either changed 
 or enlarged their meaning under the influence of 
 Kazinczy. There was a word for the Latin virtus 
 wanted, and there was a competition between Kazinczy 
 and others as to who was to coin it. There was also 
 a prize of fifty florins oflfered for a native equivalent 
 to spiritus ; another one for universum. These words, 
 though manufactured rather than grown, have kept 
 their place better than was to be expected. 
 
 At the same time, the quantity of still-born words in 
 Magyar is very great. No wonder. The births are nu- 
 merous. In 1845 Dr. Block published a German and 
 Hungarian Lexicon. In 1847 a second edition was 
 
 o 
 
 wanted, and the whole work had to be recast ; so great had 
 been the additions to the language within the last two 
 years. I take this, as Mr. Watts takes it, i. e. as a mea- 
 sure of the rate at which innovation goes on ; adding 
 
FIN AFFINITIES OF THE MAGYAR. 
 
 145 
 
 ?< 
 
 that it is from a paper of Watts' in the Philological 
 Transactions that the whole of the foregoing notice is 
 taken. 
 
 The following list of the Fin affinities of the Magyar 
 is picked out of the tables of the Asia Polyglotta. By 
 going to other sources it might be largely increased. 
 
 English. 
 
 Magyar. 
 
 other Ugrian Languages. 
 
 Eye 
 
 szem 
 
 sem, OstiaJc, d-c. 
 
 Belly 
 
 has 
 
 waz, Fin 
 
 Tree 
 
 fa 
 
 pu, Fin and Permian 
 
 Hill 
 
 hegy 
 
 kuruk, Tsherimis 
 
 Leaf 
 
 lewel 
 
 lybet, &c., Ostiah, d^c. 
 
 Blood 
 
 wer 
 
 wyr, ditto 
 
 Bad 
 
 kar 
 
 kurya, Fin 
 
 Bread 
 
 kenyer 
 
 kinda, Tsherimis 
 
 Thou 
 
 te 
 
 ty, &c., Permian, (be. 
 
 Ice 
 
 jeg 
 
 yenk, &c., OstiaJc, d-c. 
 
 Egg 
 
 mony 
 
 muno, Tsherimis, dsc. 
 
 Feather 
 
 toll 
 
 tuul, Vogul, d'C. 
 
 Fire 
 
 tiiz 
 
 tut, OstiaTc, d'c. 
 
 Finger 
 
 uij 
 
 lui-yoi, ditto 
 
 Fish 
 
 hal 
 
 kul, ditto, d'C. 
 
 Spring . 
 
 tawasz 
 
 kaved, Karelian 
 
 Foot 
 
 lab 
 
 lal, Vogul 
 
 Goose 
 
 lud 
 
 lond, Ostiak, d-c. [vin 
 
 'Grass 
 
 pasit 
 
 ^a.dj,Ostiak ; ^izhe,Mord- 
 
 Throat 
 
 torok 
 
 tun, Ostiak, d-c. 
 
 Good 
 
 30 
 
 joivo, Fin 
 
 Code 
 
 kakas 
 
 kikkas, &c., Estonian 
 
 NecTc 
 
 - nyak 
 
 naugol, Ostiak 
 
 Hand 
 
 kez 
 
 ket, Ostiak, dc. 
 
 House 
 
 haz 
 
 kat, ditto, d'c. 
 
 Heart 
 
 sziv 
 
 sem, ditto 
 
 Spy 
 
 meny 
 
 manen, Mordtin 
 
 Horn 
 
 szarv 
 
 saw, &c., Estonian, dc. 
 
 Cold 
 
 hideg 
 
 itek, Ostiak 
 
 Bone 
 
 czont 
 
 koint, Fin 
 
 Head 
 
 fo 
 
 pa, ditto 
 
 Herh 
 
 fu 
 
 pum, Ostiak 
 
 Slow 
 
 lassan 
 
 lasy, Vogul 
 
 Live 
 
 elet 
 
 let, &c., Ostiak, dc. 
 
 Easy 
 
 konmu 
 
 kunna, Vogul 
 
 Man (vir) 
 
 fery 
 
 veres, Zirianian 
 
 Mouth 
 
 szaj 
 
 su, Fin 
 
 Night 
 
 es 
 
 at, Ostiak 
 
 Take 
 
 elvenni 
 
 wain, Vogul 
 L 
 
146 
 
 FIN AFFINITIES OF THE MAGYAR. 
 
 English. 
 
 Magyar. 
 
 Other Ugrian Languages 
 
 Ear 
 
 ful* 
 
 pel, Ostiak 
 
 Horse 
 
 lo 
 
 lo, Vogul 
 
 Rye 
 
 ros 
 
 oros, ditto 
 
 Reed 
 
 veres 
 
 Tyr, ditto 
 
 Sow 
 
 vetek 
 
 vidit, Mordvin 
 
 Sand 
 
 humok 
 
 yema, Yogul 
 
 Sleep 
 
 alom 
 
 olm, ditto 
 
 Surf 
 
 gyors 
 
 tshuros, Fin 
 
 
 sereny 
 
 saray, Ostiak 
 
 BlacTc 
 
 fakete 
 
 puqqete, ditto 
 
 Sister 
 
 hugom 
 
 iggem, ditto 
 
 Silver 
 
 ezyst 
 
 esys, Permian 
 
 Son 
 
 fui 
 
 pu, Vogul 
 
 Sun 
 
 nap 
 
 nai, Ostiak 
 
 Stone 
 
 ko 
 
 ku, Vogul 
 
 Star 
 
 tzillag 
 
 tisil, Permian 
 
 Deep 
 
 mely 
 
 mil, Ostiak, &c. 
 
 Dead 
 
 hallal 
 
 kul, ditto 
 
 Drink 
 
 iszom 
 
 asokh, Vogul 
 
 Over 
 
 felette 
 
 palla, Fin 
 
 Under 
 
 allat 
 
 alia, ditto 
 
 Water 
 
 viz 
 
 wisi, ditto 
 
 Wind 
 
 szel 
 
 tyl, Permian 5 
 
 Winter 
 
 tel 
 
 telli, Ostiak 
 
 We 
 
 mink 
 
 mung, Vogul 
 
 Worm 
 
 fereg 
 
 perk, ditto 
 
 
 nyii 
 
 nynk, ditto 
 
 Tooth 
 
 fog 
 
 penk, Ostiak 
 
 Tongue 
 
 nyelu 
 
 nalem, ditto 
 
 One 
 
 egy 
 
 ogry, Ostiak 
 
 Two 
 
 ketto 
 
 ketto, ditto 
 
 Three 
 
 harom 
 
 korom, Vogul 
 
 Four 
 
 negy 
 
 niil, Ostiak, 
 
 Five 
 
 ot 
 
 net, ditto 
 
 Six 
 
 hat 
 
 kut, ditto 
 
 Seven 
 
 het 
 
 sat, Vogul 
 
 Eight 
 
 nyoltz 
 
 nuul, Ostiak 
 
 Ten 
 
 tiz 
 
 das, Permian. 
 
 The dialects. of the Magyar are few and unimportant. 
 They are said to fall into two divisions, divided by the 
 Danube. 
 
 Note. — The statement made in the previous sheet, that there is no gram- 
 mar of the Vogul, requires correction. There is a very recent one, in Hun- 
 garian. 
 
THE MORDVm. J 47 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 The Volga Fins. — The Mordvin.— The Tsherimis. 
 
 Next to the Magyars, and the Finlanders Proper, the 
 MordviDS are the most numerous of the Ugrians. They 
 are the most southern members of the family ; the Hun- 
 garians, as strangers to their present locality, being laid 
 out of the account. They are also the most western ; 
 some being found in the Governments of Tambov and 
 Penza. For this reason, the Mordvin area takes great 
 prominence in all speculations as to the original extent of 
 the Ugrians in the direction of the Euxine and Poland. 
 That they have extended further is a matter of history. 
 That they have extended very much further is one of the 
 most reasonable of ethnological opinions. 
 
 They fall into three divisions, the Mokshad, the 
 Ersari, and the Karatai ; of these, the second has a 
 name sufficiently like that of one of the Turkoman 
 tribes, to be, in all possibility, more or less Turk in blood 
 — though the conjecture rests on only colourable data. 
 The same applies to the Karatai ; inasmuch as Karatshai 
 is also a Turk name. The Mokshad give no such com- 
 plications. 
 
 The Mokshad are on the Sura ; 
 
 — Karatai near Kazan ; 
 
 — Ersari on the Oka. 
 
 In the southern part of the Government of Astrakan 
 some fifty Mordvins constitute an outlying group of (I 
 believe) recent settlers. So do 340 individuals in the 
 Crimea. 
 
 L 2 
 
148 
 
 THE MORDVIN 
 
 • 
 
 )utioii of the others is 
 
 as folloA;^ 
 
 In Penza ... 
 
 106,025 
 
 — Simbirsk . . 
 
 98,968 
 
 — Saratov . 
 
 78,010 
 
 — Samar . 
 
 74,910 
 
 — Nizhni Novogorod 
 
 53,383 
 
 — Tambov . . . 
 
 48,491 
 
 — Kazan .... 
 
 14,867 
 
 — Orenbm-g . . 
 
 5,200 
 
 The name Mordvln is native, and signifies man ; as 
 it does, not only in other Ugrian languages but in certain 
 Persian and Indian dialects also. 
 
 The Mordvin, so far as it is written (which is very 
 * little), is written in Eussian letters ; the Mordvin 
 Christianity being that of the Greek Church. 
 
 The Mordvins are far more Russianized than either 
 the Tsherimis or the Votiaks. Their language, too, is 
 one of the most outlying members of its stock. 
 
 The Mordvin Grammar of Gabelentz is founded upon 
 a translation of the Gospels ; the alphabet being the 
 Russian. In this the vocalic harmony shows itself but 
 partially. "Whether this be due to the language or the 
 author, is doubtful. Gabelentz refers to the latter. 
 
 The Tsherimis language is spoken by nearly 200,000 
 individuals, of which nearly three-fourths are inhabitants 
 of the Governments of Viatka and Kazan. The dialects 
 on the two sides of the Volga differ from each other ; 
 and, it is probable, that they fall into sub-dialects ; for 
 the population is sporadic and fragmentary, and the 
 Tsherimis villages stand far apart. The native cultiva- 
 tion of the language amounts to nothing beyond a few 
 songs. The exertions of the missionary have given a 
 Catechism, and a translation of the Gospels — the alpha- 
 bet being Russian. In Gastrin's Grammar, however, it 
 is Roman, and so it is in Wiedemann's German. There 
 is no reason for believing that any notable number of the 
 
THE TSHERIMIS. 
 
 149 
 
 speakers of the Tsherimis language are other than Tsher- 
 imis in blood. The converse, however, is far from being 
 the case. Both Turks and Russians may be, more or 
 less, Tsherimis in blood. 
 
 As a member of the Ugrian group the Tsherimis is 
 comparatively isolate. Its nearest congeners, I believe 
 to be the Ostiak, Yogul, and Magyar. 
 
 The Tsherimis falls into two dialects, divided from 
 each other by the Volga. One has, the other has not, 
 the vocalic harmony. Such, at least, is the statement of 
 Wiedemann. Our data, however, are scarcely sufficient to 
 bear out a negative statement. 
 
 English 
 
 Tsherimis. 
 
 Mordvin. 
 
 Man {vir) 
 
 mara 
 
 mirda 
 
 {homo) 
 
 edem 
 
 loman 
 
 Head 
 
 hui 
 
 pra 
 
 Hair 
 
 ip 
 
 tsher 
 
 Eye 
 
 shinsha 
 
 syalme 
 
 Ear 
 
 piliksh 
 
 pUye 
 
 Nose 
 
 ner 
 
 sudo 
 
 Mouth 
 
 ushma 
 
 knrgo 
 
 Tongue 
 
 yolma 
 
 kel 
 
 Tooth 
 
 pu 
 
 p&i 
 
 Hand 
 
 kit 
 
 ked 
 
 Foot 
 
 yal 
 
 pilge 
 
 Sun 
 
 ketshe 
 
 tshi 
 
 Moon 
 
 tilsye 
 
 kov 
 
 Star 
 
 shuder 
 
 teshtye 
 
 Fire 
 
 tul 
 
 tol 
 
 Water 
 
 wiit 
 
 wat 
 
 Tree 
 
 pu 
 
 tshufto 
 
 Stone 
 
 ku 
 
 kav 
 
 One 
 
 iktet 
 
 wait 
 
 Two 
 
 koktet 
 
 kafto 
 
 Three, 
 
 kumut 
 
 kolmo 
 
 Four 
 
 nilit 
 
 nilye 
 
 Five 
 
 wisit 
 
 waze 
 
 Six 
 
 kudut 
 
 kota 
 
 Seven 
 
 shimit 
 
 sisem 
 
 Eight 
 
 kandashe 
 
 kauksa 
 
 Nine 
 
 indeshe 
 
 waiksye 
 
 Ten 
 
 lu 
 
 kamen. 
 
150 THE VOTIAK. 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 The Yotiak, Permian and Zirianian. 
 
 The Votiah is the TJgrian of the Government of Viatka ; 
 in which the circle of Glasov is the chief Votiak locahty 
 — then, those of Malmysh, Yelabuga, and Sarapul. Into 
 the Yelabuga dialect the Gospel of St. Matthew, into 
 the Glasov dialect that of St. Mark, has been translated. 
 Many of the Votiaks speak Turk as well as their own 
 language ; the Turkish elements being at their maximum 
 in Yelabuga and their minimum in Glasov. In the 
 library of the Bible Society at Viatka is a translation of 
 all the Four Gospels, except a part of St. Luke. Though 
 not without decided Tsherimis elements, the Votiak 
 affinities are less with the languages that have preceded, 
 than with those that are about to follow it ; these 
 being 
 
 The Permian and the Zirianian ; the former, the 
 XJgrian of Perm ; the latter, the Ugrian of Vologda. 
 They are closel}^ allied dialects of one and the same form 
 of speech. The Zirianian section falls into four sub-dialects, 
 three being pretty closely allied to each other, but the 
 fourth being an .outlyer, much mixed up with the 
 Saraoyed. Nevertheless, somewhat unfortunately for the 
 philologue, it was in the northern, the outlying, and the 
 modified dialect of the Zirianian that the first attempts at 
 a grammar were made. This was Florov's, published in 
 1813, the dialect being the Udorian — i. e. that for the 
 parts about Udorsk. Since then, the Gospel of St. 
 
THE ZIRIANIAN. 
 
 151 
 
 Matthew has been translated into the Ustsyssola dialect ; 
 probably the purest of the four. Yet, even here we 
 have a great number of Russian words. The other two 
 forms of speech, allied (as aforesaid) to each other and to 
 the Ustsyssola, are the Zirianian of the Upper Yytshegda, 
 and the Zirianian of the Yaren. 
 
 English. 
 
 Votiak. 
 
 Permian. 
 
 Ziriauian. 
 
 Man (vir) 
 
 kart 
 
 aika 
 
 weres 
 
 (homo) 
 
 mura 
 
 mort 
 
 mort 
 
 Head 
 
 jor 
 
 jor 
 
 jor 
 
 Hair 
 
 jirsi 
 
 jors 
 
 jorsi 
 
 Eye 
 
 sin 
 
 sin 
 
 sin 
 
 Ear 
 
 pel 
 
 pel 
 
 pel 
 
 Nose 
 
 nyr 
 
 nyr 
 
 nyr 
 
 Mouth 
 
 im 
 
 im 
 
 worn 
 
 Tongue 
 
 kyl 
 
 kyl 
 
 kyv 
 
 Tooth 
 
 pin 
 
 pin 
 
 pin 
 
 Hand 
 
 ki 
 
 ki 
 
 ki 
 
 Foot 
 
 pud 
 
 kok 
 
 kok 
 
 Sun 
 
 shunde 
 
 shonde 
 
 shonde 
 
 Moon 
 
 tples 
 
 tyles 
 
 tyles 
 
 Star 
 
 kesele 
 
 kod 
 
 kadzil 
 
 Fire 
 
 tul 
 
 by 
 
 bi 
 
 Water 
 
 . wu 
 
 wa 
 
 wa 
 
 Tree 
 
 pu 
 
 pu 
 
 pu 
 
 Stone 
 
 is 
 
 is 
 
 is 
 
 One 
 
 odyk 
 
 otyk 
 
 ytyp 
 
 Two 
 
 kik 
 
 kyk 
 
 kyk 
 
 Three 
 
 kwin 
 
 kwiu 
 
 kuim 
 
 Foiir 
 
 nU 
 
 njula 
 
 njul 
 
 Five 
 
 ^t 
 
 wit 
 
 wit 
 
 Six 
 
 kuat 
 
 kwet 
 
 kwait 
 
 Seven 
 
 sisim 
 
 sysim 
 
 sisim 
 
 EigU 
 
 kiyamis 
 
 kykamys 
 
 kekames 
 
 Nine 
 
 ukmys 
 
 okmys 
 
 ykmis 
 
 Ten 
 
 das 
 
 das 
 
 das. 
 
 The Zirianians have long been converted to the Greek 
 Church ; being, along with the Permians, the first of the 
 Eastern Ugrians to whom the Gospel was preached. 
 Their apostle was St. Stephanus. 
 
152 THE FIN PROPER. 
 
 CHAPTER XXI. 
 
 The Fin Proper. — Division into Tavastrian and Karelian. — The Tver Dialect. 
 —The Vod.— The Estonian. 
 
 A DISTINCTION, drawn by the native investigators in 
 Fin philology, now requires notice. Whatever may be 
 its real value, it is a distinction upon which much stress 
 is laid. It is that between the Tavastrians and the 
 Karelians. 
 
 The Tavastrians are the Finlanders of the south-west, 
 especially of the parts about Tavastahus, the Karelians, 
 those of the interior; the interior meaning those parts 
 both of the Duchy and of the Government of Olonets 
 which are drained by the Lakes rather than by the 
 Baltic. To either the Tavastrian or the Karelian area 
 belongs the great mass of the Fins of Finland. 
 
 But besides these, and besides the Ugrians of Estonia, 
 of whom more will be said in the sequel, there are 
 several sporadic populations, lying like islands in the 
 midst of a Russian population, sometimes forming an 
 imperfect connection with the Ugrians to the south of 
 the Gulf of Finland, and sometimes absolutely detached, 
 of which the ethnological history has been investigated. 
 Some of these are recent settlers : others the representa- 
 tives of an original population which was once Ugrian, 
 but is now Slavonic. To separate the old from the 
 new has been one of the objects of the n.ative inquirers. 
 To separate the Karelian from the Tavastrian has been 
 another. 
 
 Again — the names Fin and Finland are anything but 
 
THE FIN PROPER. 153 
 
 native. The nearest approacli to a general name is 
 Suomelaini (in the plural Suomelaiset) a word which 
 means the men of the fen, morass, or swamp. Word for 
 word it is the Sabme of the Laps ; a name which will soon 
 re-appear. Suomelaiset, however, is only an approach to 
 a general name. The Quains are Kainulaiset, and the 
 Karelian s Kirialaiset. A third division is Hamalaiset. 
 Now the name Yam is prominent in the history of the 
 early contests between the Slaves and the Ugrians ; as 
 the name of a separate section of the Suomelaiset — the 
 Hamalaiset being supposed to coincide with the Tavas- 
 trians. 
 
 Beyond the proper Fin districts the language of 
 Finland is spoken in Norway, where, in the district of 
 Soloer, on the Glommen, a Fin settlement, from Sweden, 
 was effected in 1624. The chief Fin parishes are Hof 
 and Grue ; where the district is called Finskoven or 
 the Forest of the Fins, and where the settlers amount 
 to about 2000. 
 
 The following populations are al], more or less, spo- 
 radic, and all held to be recent settlers rather than 
 aborigines, as well as to be Karelian rather than Tavas- 
 trian. 
 
 1 . The Auramoiset of the Government of St. Petersburg 
 — 30,000 in number. 
 
 2. The Savakot to the number of 43,000. 
 
 3. Karelians of — 
 
 The Government of Archangel . ] 1,228 
 
 Novogorod . 27,076 
 
 St. Petersburg . 3,660 
 
 Tver . . . 84,638 
 
 Yaroslav . . 1,283 
 
 To which add some in Olonets. 
 
 The following is the Parable of the Sower, in the Fin 
 of Tver, contrasted with that of Finland Proper. 
 
154 THE YOB. 
 
 Tver. 
 Ka laksi kulvaa kulvamax ; I kulvmssa mulvvennet uvat langettyx deda- 
 vas : i tuldyx linnut ; i giat nokittyx. Muvvenet langettyx kivi ruopahilla 
 kumbazien-pzalla yaga oli muS-dda: i tervax guo novstyx, zen-tax, evldu 
 muassa suvax : Paivazen novstuo guo kellissuttix, i kuin evldu uurdunuSt 
 kuivettyx. Muvvennet langettyx tug'iix i kazvo tug'ii i gz'at katto. A muv- 
 vennet langettyx huvalla mu5;lla i kazvettyx lizavon-kera, kumbane toi su&n 
 kumbane kuuzikummenda, kumbane kolmekummenda. Kella ollax korvat 
 kuiilla kuulgax. 
 
 Mn. 
 
 Katso kylwaja mene kylwamaan. Ja hanen kylwaissansa, lankesiwat 
 muutamat tien obeen, ja linnut tuliwat, ja soiwat ne. Muutamamat taas 
 lankesiwat kiwistohon, kussa ei beilla ollut paljo maata, ja nousiwat peari 
 paalle, ettei heilla ollut sywaa maata. Mutta koska aurinko nousi, niin he 
 poudittin : ja orjantappurat kawiwat ylos, ja tukabuttiwat ne. Muutamat 
 taas lankesiwat hywaan maahan, ja tekiwat hedelman, mutuama satakertaisen, 
 muutama kuudenkymmenen kertaisen, ja muutama kolmenkymmenen kertai- 
 sen. Jollo on korwat kuulla, se kuulkaan. 
 
 The Ugrians of the parts to the south of the proper 
 Fin area who pass, and that on good grounds, for 
 aboriginal, are — 
 
 1. The Tshud, or Yesp. 
 
 2. The Izhor. 
 
 3. TheVod. 
 
 1. The Tshud or Yesp (15,617) on the bank of the 
 Onega and Bielozero, speak a dialect which is held to be 
 Tavastrian, and which they call Liudin Kiele, i. e. 
 Lingua Ludina. 
 
 •2. The Izhor (17,800) in the Government of St. 
 Petersburg, who call themselves Ingrikot or Ingriaus. 
 
 3. The Yod, who occupy a few villages in the circles 
 of Yamburg and Oranienbaum, to the number of 
 15,148, who call themselves Yadjalaine and Yadjalaiset 
 and whose language is the Yes — tunnet paiattaa 
 Vaihsi = loquerisne Votice. 
 
 What has been written about the division between 
 the Karelian and Tavastrian deserves notice, as a fact in 
 the history of opinion rather than as a fact in language. 
 It is one, however, that must needs be known if we wish 
 
TAVASTRIAN AND KARELIAN. 155 
 
 to look at the Fin question from a Fin point of view. 
 I have doubts, however, whether it is more — doubts 
 that, coming from an amateur in London, in opposition 
 to the decided and (I believe) unanimous voice of such 
 competent judges as the native philologues themselves, 
 must be taken at the reader's, rather than the writer's, 
 valuation. I cannot, however, see that the report is 
 borne out by the evidence ; admitting, at the same time, 
 that it is very likely that I have not seen the evidence 
 in full. Indeed, it is morally certain that I have not. 
 Still, I see a generalization of great breadth, and along 
 with it probable and particular sources of error — one of 
 which is the love of generalization itself, combined with 
 the fact that in comparative philology it is over-hastily 
 indulged. I think that, "mutatis mnutandis, what the 
 Fins write about Tavastrians and Karelians has been 
 written by Englishmen of equal eminence about the 
 Angles and Saxons ; and, as an Englishman, I am well 
 aware that nine-tenths of what is so written is wrong. 
 It is written by able men, nevertheless. At the present 
 moment, Ahlqvist's Grammar of Vod is lying before me ; 
 and it fully verifies the statement that, even when we 
 have got our results as to the distribution of the 
 several Fin forms of speech over the two divisions, they 
 are, by no means, decided. The Vod, itself, is a Yarn 
 dialect with Karelian elements. The written language 
 itself is more Karelian than is generally believed. The 
 Ugrian of Ingria is, more or less, Vod. Lastly, the 
 Estonian and Vesps are less Karelian than the rest. Upon 
 the recognition of Karehan elements in the literary Fin, 
 great stress is to be laid ; since it is probable that, either 
 consciously or unconsciously, most inquirers have taken 
 it as the standard Tavastrian. 
 
 Such are the qualifications. As to the characteristics 
 themselves, they are, to a great extent, arbitrary ; at 
 any rate, the evidence to any one of them being the 
 sign of others is wanting. Again — though the details 
 
156 , FIN PROPER. 
 
 of the sporadic Fins are numerous, our information 
 as to the local dialects of Finland itself — vast as is 
 its area — are of the scantiest. Lastly, neither the 
 Karelian nor Tavastrian are extreme forms. They may 
 graduate into one another less than the present writer 
 believes them to do. 
 
 All this means, that, in the division before us we 
 have a classification by definition, where, in the pre- 
 sent state of our knowledge, definition by type is alone 
 practicable. 
 
 The earliest specimens of the Fin language are 
 referrible to the fifteenth or sixteenth centuries ; amongst 
 which is a Translation of the Psalms by Agricola, 
 Bishop of Abo. It is preceded by a short poem in 
 which the heathen gods and goddesses, in whom a 
 latent belief, notwithstanding the professed Christianity 
 of the country, still existed. The list contains more 
 than twenty names ; the majority of which can be found 
 at the present time. Indeed from the time of Bishop 
 Agricola till now, the old Fin mythology has commanded 
 the attention of able inquirers ; of Ganander and 
 Porthan, followed by Topelius in the last generation, 
 and Lonrott and Castren in the present. Topelius col- 
 lected more especially the poems which bore upon the 
 history of a particular personage — Wainamoiuen ; so 
 forming what we may call a Wainamoinen cycle. With 
 this the Fin lays took form, until, from accretion upon 
 accretion, the Kalevala was the result. If we look at 
 this remarkable poem in respect to its parts, it is a 
 series of rhapsodies. If we look to it as a whole, it 
 may be dignified by the name of Epic. It is pagan 
 in respect to its machinery and subject-matter, though 
 not without decided Christian elements : indeed, towards 
 the end, the Virgin Mary under the name Marietta, 
 and Herod appear. It should be added, however, that 
 this is in a kind of appendix to the work rather than 
 in the body of the poem itself. 
 
THE ESTONIAN. 157 
 
 Whatever may be the age of either the oldest or the 
 newest portions of the Kalevala, the language is the 
 Fin of the present day. 
 
 The TJgi'ians who occupy Estonia are in contact with 
 the Germans and Lets rather than with the Scandina- 
 vians, For this reason the foreign influences have been 
 German rather than Swedish. The Estonian alphabet 
 is Roman, the religion Protestant. At one time, when 
 all Ingria was Ugrian, the Estonian and Fin populations 
 must have been in contact. 
 
 The Estonians call themselves Rahwa, and their coun- 
 try Marahwa, or Rahwa Land ; the parts north of the 
 river Salis being their chief area. 
 
 In Liefland the Rahwa number . 
 
 — Estonia . 
 
 — Yitepsk — .. 
 
 — Pskov . 
 
 — St. Petersburg 
 
 252,608 
 9,936 
 8,000 
 7,730 
 
 633,490 
 
 The Estonian is divided into two main dialects ; one 
 with Reval, the other with Dorpat as its centre ; so that 
 we hear of the Dorpatian and the Revalian forms of 
 speech as paramount. I believe, however, that almost 
 every parish presents some peculiarities, and I am by 
 no means sure that the distribution of the numerous 
 dialects and sub-dialects thus developed corrresponds with 
 the usual classification. 
 
 A love for son or and music is exhibited throuorhout 
 the Rahwa country ; and of this we may judge by more 
 than one collection of songs, legends, charms, nursery 
 rhymes, and the like. The harp was the instrument — 
 the harp, or kandel. With this the bards, the exact 
 analogues of the Gaelic bards of almost our own days, 
 musical and locomotive, used to wander from place to 
 
158 THE ESTONIAN. 
 
 place, as the harvest-home, or the wedding-feast, might 
 tempt them. The last of them died in 1813. He had 
 no fixed residence ; but was known, and welcomed, 
 whithersoever he chose to roam, as the wanna laulumees, 
 or the old singer. 
 
 Those who apply classical names to modern pheno- 
 mena describe the Ugrian metres in general as trochaic ; 
 sometimes being dactylic, but never iambic. This means 
 that the accent is on the first, third, and fifth syllables, 
 rather than the second, fourth, and sixth ; a fact which 
 arises out of the structure of the language. 
 
 The common formula is -^, -«, -v, -«; sometimes 
 with -»^w» instead of -^, more rarely with --, or the 
 so-called spondee ; e. g. 
 
 Toulis rebbust Korge-sare, 
 Mufla walgest Tiittar-sare, 
 Mufia tumest teised sared. 
 
 or, 
 
 Kotkad lensid Some -male, 
 Some-maalta Soksa-male. 
 
 Within a certain interval, a certain number of words 
 must begin either with a vowel, or, if with a consonant, 
 with the same ; as 
 
 Minna sulg ei annud suda 
 Egga ^arg ei ^obmud ^eada. 
 
 This is the alliteration of the old German metres ; 
 almost to its minutest details. It is held, however, 
 to be no more German in origin than the German is 
 Ugrian. 
 
 Archaic words are, in Estonia, as elsewhere, poetical ; 
 a fact which creates trouble and perplexity to modern 
 commentators ; indeed, many expressions which have 
 wholly dropped out of the current language are to be 
 found in the songs. 
 
FIN AND ESTONIAN. 
 
 159 
 
 English. 
 
 
 I'm. 
 
 
 Yod. 
 
 
 Estoniau. 
 
 Man {vir) 
 
 mios 
 
 
 m^s 
 
 
 mees 
 
 {homo} 
 
 ingemin 
 
 
 mSs 
 
 
 innimene 
 
 Mead 
 
 
 poja 
 
 
 pa 
 
 
 peja 
 
 Hair 
 
 
 iwusa 
 
 
 
 
 karw 
 
 Eye 
 
 
 silme 
 
 
 silma 
 
 
 silm 
 
 Ear 
 
 
 kyrwa 
 
 
 korwa 
 
 
 korw 
 
 Nose 
 
 
 njena • 
 
 
 nena 
 
 
 ninna 
 
 Mouth 
 
 
 suu 
 
 
 s<i 
 
 
 sun 
 
 Tongue 
 
 
 kieli 
 
 
 c'6U 
 
 
 keel 
 
 Hand 
 
 
 kesi 
 
 
 c'asi 
 
 
 kilssi 
 
 Foot 
 
 
 jalka 
 
 
 jalka 
 
 
 jalk 
 
 Blood 
 
 
 weri 
 
 
 weri 
 
 
 werri 
 
 Sun 
 
 
 poiwa 
 
 
 paiwa 
 
 
 paw 
 
 Moon 
 
 
 kou 
 
 
 ku 
 
 
 kuu 
 
 Star 
 
 
 togyt 
 
 
 
 
 tjecht 
 
 Fire 
 
 
 tuli 
 
 
 tuli 
 
 
 tulli 
 
 Water 
 
 
 wesi 
 
 
 wesi 
 
 
 wesi 
 
 Tree 
 
 
 ptiu 
 
 
 vh 
 
 
 pu 
 
 Stone 
 
 
 kiwi 
 
 
 'ciwi 
 
 
 kiwwi 
 
 One 
 
 
 yks 
 
 
 uhsi 
 
 
 yks 
 
 Two 
 
 
 kaks 
 
 
 kahsi 
 
 
 kaks 
 
 Three 
 
 
 kolmi 
 
 
 kolme 
 
 
 kolm 
 
 Four 
 
 
 nelja 
 
 
 nell'a 
 
 
 nelje 
 
 Five 
 
 
 wisi 
 
 
 wtsi 
 
 
 wis 
 
 Six 
 
 
 kusi 
 
 
 kasi 
 
 
 kuus 
 
 Seven 
 
 
 seitseman 
 
 
 seitse' 
 
 
 seitse 
 
 Eight 
 
 
 kadeksan 
 
 
 kahetse 
 
 
 kattesa 
 
 Nine 
 
 
 ydeksan 
 
 
 uhetse' 
 
 
 uttesa 
 
 Ten 
 
 
 kymmemen 
 
 'cijmme 
 
 
 kuemme. 
 
 
 English. 
 
 
 Kareliar 
 
 1. 
 
 Olonets. 
 
 
 Man {vir) 
 
 mizajh 
 
 L 
 
 mes 
 
 
 
 {hx)mo) 
 
 inegmine 
 
 mes 
 
 
 
 Head 
 
 
 pija 
 
 
 pa 
 
 
 
 Hair 
 
 
 tukka 
 
 
 tukka 
 
 
 Eye 
 
 
 silma 
 
 
 silma 
 
 
 
 Ea/r 
 
 
 korwa 
 
 
 korwu 
 
 
 Nose 
 
 
 nena 
 
 
 nena 
 
 
 
 Mouth 
 
 
 shun 
 
 
 su 
 
 
 
 Tongue 
 
 
 kijali 
 
 
 keli 
 
 
 
 Hand 
 
 
 kasi 
 
 
 kasi 
 
 
 
 Foot 
 
 
 jalja 
 
 
 jalgu 
 
 
 
 Blood 
 
 
 weri 
 
 
 weri 
 
 
 
 Sun 
 
 
 paiwane 
 
 pewen 
 
 ■ 
 
 Moon 
 
 
 kuudoma 
 
 ku 
 
 
 
 Star 
 
 
 tagti 
 
 
 techte 
 
 
 Fire 
 
 
 tuli 
 
 
 tuli 
 
 
160 
 
 
 KARELIAN. 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Karelian, 
 
 Olonets. 
 
 Water 
 
 wesi 
 
 wesi 
 
 Tree 
 
 pun 
 
 pu 
 
 Stone 
 
 kiwi 
 
 kiwi 
 
 One 
 
 juksy 
 
 juksi 
 
 Two 
 
 kaksi 
 
 kaksi 
 
 Three 
 
 kolmje 
 
 kolshe 
 
 Four 
 
 neUa 
 
 nelU 
 
 Five 
 
 wiisi 
 
 wizhi 
 
 Six 
 
 kuuzhi 
 
 kusi 
 
 Seven 
 
 zMtslieman 
 
 setshemi 
 
 Fight 
 
 kagekshan 
 
 kaesak 
 
 Nine 
 
 iujekshan 
 
 igokse 
 
 Ten 
 
 kymmen 
 
 kiimmene. 
 
 The Liefs gave its name to Liefland or Livonia. 
 
 In Livonia, about twelve individuals still speak the 
 Lief language.* They are to be found near the mouth 
 of the river Salis. 
 
 In Curland about 2000 use an allied form of speech 
 — falling into an Eastern and a Western dialect. 
 
 * Elsewhere, the number of these Liefs is put at twenty-two. 
 number, however, is only twelve. 
 
 The present 
 
THE LAP. ]C1 
 
 CHAPTER XXII. 
 
 The Lap of Norwegian, Swedish, and Russian Lapland. 
 
 The last division of the Ugrian stock is, at one and 
 the same time, the most northern and the most western. 
 It is also the one whereof the physical form of the men 
 who constitute it is the most abnormal. Notwith- 
 standing a considerable amount of exaggeration as to 
 the shortness of their stature and the slightness of their 
 frames, the Laplanders are an undersized population ; 
 and those who enlarge upon the differences between lan- 
 guage and blood make much of tlie phj^sical contrast 
 between the Lap and his well-fed and warm-housed 
 congeners. They also make much of his nomad habits, 
 as opposed to tlie agriculture of the cow-keeping Fins. 
 Yet the Ugrian character of the Lap language has long 
 been recognized. It was recognized before the word 
 Ugrian came into vogue ; indeed, one of the first 
 inklings as to the true nature of the Magyar arose 
 out of comparisons made with the Lap. 
 
 In the way of dialect the Lap language falls into 
 two primary divisions ; the basis of which is, perhaps, 
 political and religious rather than truly ethnological. 
 There are the Laps of Russia and the Laps of Scandinavia. 
 
 The imperfect Christianity of the Laps of Russia is 
 that of the Greek Church ; the alphabet applied to their 
 languages being Russian. They amount in the Govern- 
 ment of Archangel to 2289. 
 
 The Laps of the Duchy of Finland are Scandinavian 
 rather than Russian ; or, if not actually Scandinavian, 
 transitional. 
 
 The Scandinavian Laps fall into two divisions — one 
 containing those of Sweden, the other those of Norway. 
 
 M 
 
162 THE LAP. 
 
 It is from want of information that I have but little 
 to say about the former. 
 
 The Norwegian Laps are called, by the Norwegians, 
 Fins ; the Fin of Finland being called a Quain — so that 
 Finmarken, the great Lap district, is the March of the Fins. 
 They called themselves Sabme ; but are not displeased 
 to be called Fins by their neighbours. Between the 
 Norwegian Lap and the Fin Proper, there is much in- 
 termarriage ; a little between the Lap and Norwegian. 
 
 Their imperfect Christianity is that of the Latin 
 Church, in its Protestant and Lutheran form. Their 
 alphabet, in its present form, is an improvement on the 
 Norwegian. It is an improvement, because the first of 
 three elaborate Lap Grammars was the work of one of 
 the first of comparative philologists — Rask. He met 
 the fact of the Lap system of elementary articulate 
 sounds being in many respects peculiar, by the bold 
 application of new and well-adapted letters. These 
 have been recognized both by Stockfleth and Friis ; by 
 the former in his Norwegian and Lap Dictionary, by the 
 latter in his Grammar and Reading-book. 
 
 According to Friis, the Lap of Norway falls into two 
 main dialects, a northern and a southern. The north- 
 ern, or that of Finmark, falls into the subdialects of th 
 parishes of 
 
 1. TJtsjok, Tanen, Varanger, Vestertanen, and Lang- 
 :Qord. 
 
 2. Karasjok, Laxfjord, Porsanger:Qord. 
 
 3. Kontokseno, Hammerfest, Lopper, Allen, Skjoervo, 
 Karlso, Lyngen.. 
 
 The southern into those of 
 
 1. Yalsfjorden and Tyfjorden, with the intermediate 
 parishes. 
 
 2. Yessen and Roraas, with the intermediate parishes. 
 South of Roraas the Lap area ceases to be continuous. 
 
 A few outlying families, however, are to be found in 
 Hedemarken. 
 
THE LAP. 
 
 163 
 
 That the extension of the Laps to the south was, 
 at one time, greater than at present is a matter of 
 history. That the whole of the Scandinavian Peninsula 
 was originally Lap is a fair inference. The statement 
 that fragments of a Lap population were to be found on 
 the very shore of the Baltic at the beginning of the 
 historical period is, perhaps, exceptionable. Many, how- 
 ever, of the provincial terms from the parts about Ber- 
 gen are of decided Lap origin. That some of the Fins 
 Proper may be Lap in speech is probable. With this 
 exception the Lap language coincides pretty closely 
 with the Lap blood. 
 
 As a general rule the Russian Lap has fewer details 
 in the way of inflection and vowel-changes than the 
 Norwegian and the Swedish. It has in many cases 
 replaced the final vowel by the Russian liquid. It has, 
 in one district, Norse, in another Karelian, in another, 
 Russian glosses. To judge of it in its purity these must 
 be eliminated. Of the Norse dialects it is the Lap of 
 the Hill Laps to which it comes nearest. It is divided 
 into three main dialects. 
 
 1. That of Petsingi, Muotki, Patsjoki, Synjel, Nuoto- 
 sero, Jokostrov, and Balra. 
 
 2. That of Semiostrov, Lavosero, Voronesk, Kildin, 
 Maanselka. 
 
 3. That of the Terski Peninsula, on the West of the 
 White Sea. 
 
 English. 
 
 Lap. 
 
 English. 
 
 Lap. 
 
 Man {vir) 
 
 olma 
 
 Fire 
 
 tollo 
 
 (homo) 
 
 almaz 
 
 Water 
 
 tatse 
 
 Head 
 
 oike 
 
 Stone 
 
 kedke 
 
 Eye 
 
 tjalme 
 
 One 
 
 akt 
 
 Ear 
 
 pelje 
 
 Two 
 
 kwekt 
 
 Nose 
 
 njuone 
 
 Three 
 
 kolm 
 
 Mouth 
 
 nalme 
 
 Four 
 
 nelje 
 
 Tongue 
 
 njuoktem 
 
 Five 
 
 wit 
 
 Hand 
 
 ket 
 
 Six 
 
 kot 
 
 Foot 
 
 juolke 
 
 Seven 
 
 kjeta 
 
 Sun 
 
 peiwe 
 
 Eight 
 
 kaktsat 
 
 Moon 
 
 mano 
 
 Nine 
 
 aktfe 
 
 Star 
 
 taste 
 
 Ten 
 
 tokke 
 M 2 
 
164* THE LAP. 
 
 The Lap is usually connected more closely with the 
 Fin Proper than the present writer connects it. Klaproth, 
 for instance, throws both into a class headed Germanized 
 Fins; a class which contains the Magyar, the most 
 southern of the Ugrian forms of speech, just as the Lap 
 is the most northern. The languages which this very 
 unnatural class brings together, are simply certain lan- 
 guages which have been in contact with the Germans of 
 either Germany Proper or Scandinavia. The present 
 place of the Lap, which gives it a sub-order to itself, 
 is, more or less, subject to correction. It rests upon the 
 extent to which tlie Lap is a language of which the 
 frontier has receded, rather than upon any minute philo- 
 logical investigation of the structure of the language 
 itself. As far, however, as the writer has examined 
 this, it confirms his view. Upon the whole, however, 
 the displacement of probably transitional forms in the 
 retrocession of the Lap frontier is his chief argument. 
 
 0\y-i 
 
PKNINSULAR GROUP. 165 
 
 CHAPTER XXIII. 
 
 The Peninsular Languages. — Korean. — Japanese and Luchu. — Aino or Ku- 
 rilian. — Koriak and Kamskadal. 
 
 For the group that now comes under notice I have sug- 
 gested the name Peninsular ; inasmaich as the area to 
 which it belongs stands in strong contrast to those of 
 the preceding ones ; all of which lay inland, and con- 
 sisted of large blocks of land. The area, however, under 
 notice, is essentially maritime ; so much so that it has 
 but one large mass of inland district, whereas, on the other 
 hand, it has two (if not three) well-known peninsulas, 
 and one important archipelago. From this we may 
 anticipate its chief details. lb belongs to the north-east 
 of Asia, and contains, along with other tracts of minor 
 importance, Korea, Japan, the Kurile Isles, and Kam- 
 tshatka. 
 
 It is, in respect to its import, a wider class than any 
 one of the last four, — wider than even the Ugrian ; by 
 which I mean that the difference of its extremes is 
 greater than the difference between any two Ugrian 
 forms of speech. It falls, too, into divisions of greater 
 magnitude — indeed, it is possible that there may be 
 points of view from which those who contemplate it may 
 think it should be broken up. Upon the whole, how- 
 ever, I consider that it is natural. 
 
 Upon one condition required to make it so there is 
 neither doubt nor shadow of doubt — viz. : the extent to 
 which it is separated by broad and trenchant lines of 
 demarcation from the other languages of Asia. With 
 the Ocean on one side, and with languages which have 
 
1Q6 THE KOREAN. 
 
 effected such vast displacements as the Chinese and 
 the Tungus on the other, anything like ambiguity in 
 respect to its boundaries is out of the question. 
 
 Its nearest approximations, then, are distant — distant, 
 but important. Nothing is, at one and the same time, 
 other than monosyllabic and even approximately akin to 
 the Chinese. The Korean, however, the most southern 
 continental language of the present group is less distant 
 from the Chinese than anything else — anything else 
 other than monosyllabic. Indeed, if this affinity were 
 all we looked to, the present group would have been 
 taken earlier, i. e. in the place of the Tungus. Se- 
 quences, however, of this kind are impracticable. 
 
 On the north the affinities are decidedly with the lan- 
 guages of America — a fact upon which more will be said 
 when the philology of the New World comes under 
 notice. 
 
 The several members of the group not only stand 
 clearly and definitely apart from one another, but the 
 distances between them are considerable — at least in the 
 present state of our knowledge. In the present state, 
 too, of our knowledge they seem equal — this meaning 
 that the Japanese is (there or thereabouts) as like (or 
 unlike) the Korean on the one side as the Aino on 
 the other. This doctrine, however, will probably be 
 modified as our information increases. 
 
 Of the Korean I know of no grammar, and only a 
 few vocabularies — the chief of which is Medhurst's. 
 Klaproth's, upon which the greater part of the current 
 opinions is founded, is taken partly from Broughton's 
 Voyage, partly from Witsen, and partly from Chinese 
 and Japanese sources. 
 
 To this, as well as to the remainder of our materials, 
 much can, doubtless, be added ; since the Korean is a 
 lettered language, the immediate origin of the alphabet 
 being obscure. 
 

 THE JAPANESE. 
 
 ] 
 
 English. 
 
 Korean. 
 
 English. 
 
 Korean. 
 
 Eye 
 
 nuon 
 
 Tree 
 
 nan 
 
 Head 
 
 mati 
 
 Stone 
 
 tu, tol 
 
 Ear 
 
 kui 
 
 Fish 
 
 koki 
 
 Nose 
 
 ko 
 
 One 
 
 hodzhun 
 
 Mouth 
 
 yip 
 
 Two 
 
 tupu 
 
 Tongue 
 
 hie 
 
 Three 
 
 sai 
 
 Tooth 
 
 ni 
 
 Four 
 
 nai 
 
 Hand 
 
 sun 
 
 Five 
 
 tashu 
 
 Foot 
 
 pal 
 
 Six 
 
 ishu 
 
 Sun 
 
 heng 
 
 Seven 
 
 iki 
 
 Moon 
 
 oru 
 
 Eight 
 
 ita 
 
 Star 
 
 pern 
 
 Nine 
 
 yahao 
 
 Fire 
 
 pol 
 
 Ten 
 
 ye. 
 
 Water 
 
 mu 
 
 
 
 16' 
 
 The Japanese is purely and exclusively insular ; i. e. 
 has no congener on the continent with which it can be 
 immediately connected, or from which it can be definitely 
 derived. The Keltic of the British Isles is nearly in 
 this predicament — nearly, but not quite. It has the 
 Armorican of Brittany as a congener ; not to mention 
 the ancient language of Gaul, which has an historical, 
 though not a present, existence ; whilst the Gaelic of 
 Ireland and Scotland, though itself strange to conti- 
 nental Europe, is, still, indirectly connected with it 
 through the British. There is nothing, however, on the 
 mainland of Asia which is so near to the Japanese as 
 the Armorican is to the Gaelic. In no other island is 
 the isolation (or insulation, as we may call it) so com- 
 plete. The language of the Luchii islanders is Japanese. 
 
 English. 
 
 Japanese. 
 
 Luchu. 
 
 Eye 
 
 mi 
 
 mi 
 
 Head 
 
 kaote 
 
 busi 
 
 Ear 
 
 mimi 
 
 mimmi 
 
 Nose 
 
 khana 
 
 honna 
 
 Mouth 
 
 kuti 
 
 
 Tongue 
 
 sita 
 
 stska 
 
 Tooth 
 
 kha 
 
 kha 
 
 Hand 
 
 te 
 
 ki 
 
 Foot 
 
 ad 
 
 shanaa 
 
168 
 
 THE J 
 
 APANESE.— THE 
 
 Amo. 
 
 Eiiglisli. 
 
 Japanese. 
 
 Lucliu. 
 
 Sun 
 
 fi 
 
 tida 
 
 Moon 
 
 zuki 
 
 gwazi 
 
 Star 
 
 fosi 
 
 fusM 
 
 Fire 
 
 fi 
 
 fi 
 
 Water 
 
 midz 
 
 mizi 
 
 Tree 
 
 ki 
 
 ki 
 
 Stone 
 
 isi 
 
 ishi 
 
 Fish 
 
 ivo 
 
 io 
 
 One 
 
 fito 
 
 tizi 
 
 Two 
 
 fitak 
 
 tazi 
 
 Three 
 
 miz 
 
 mizi 
 
 Four 
 
 yots 
 
 yuzu 
 
 Five 
 
 izuts 
 
 
 Six 
 
 muts ■ 
 
 mutsi 
 
 Seven 
 
 nanats 
 
 nanatsi 
 
 Eight 
 
 yats 
 
 yatsi 
 
 Nine 
 
 kokonots 
 
 kannizi 
 
 Ten 
 
 tovo 
 
 tu. 
 
 The small islands between the Luchii group and For- 
 mosa are in the same category with the Ltichus them- 
 selves, i. e. they are Japanese rather than Malay. The 
 names of them end in -sima (Madzhikosima, &c.) ; sima 
 meaning island. 
 
 In Yesso the Japanese is intrusive ; the original lan- 
 guage being the Aino, or Kurilian. The Kurilians, or 
 Aino, occupy two localities on the main land and all 
 the islands between Kamtshatka and Japan. The locali- 
 ties on the main land have been already mentioned. 
 One was at the mouth of the Sagalin, one at the 
 southern extremity of Kamtshatka. 
 
 That the Kurilian area, like the Korean, once ex- 
 tended beyond its present frontier, is likely. The 
 numerals of the Mantshti of the frontier seem to have 
 taken the Aino ending in /. 
 
 English. 
 
 Aiuo of Kamtsliatka. 
 
 Tarakai. 
 
 YesQ. 
 
 Man 
 
 okkaiyu 
 
 okkai 
 
 oikyo 
 
 {vir) 
 
 ainuh 
 
 ainu 
 
 ainu 
 
 {homo) 
 
 guru 
 
 guru 
 
 
 Eye 
 
 sik 
 
 Bhigi 
 
 *_^— 
 
 Head 
 
 gpa 
 
 shaba 
 
 
 
THE AmO DIALECTS. 
 
 169 
 
 English. 
 
 Aino of Kamtshutka. 
 
 Tarakai. 
 
 Yeso. 
 
 Hair 
 
 ruh 
 
 numa 
 
 karnu 
 
 Ear 
 
 gsahr 
 
 kisara 
 
 
 
 Nose 
 
 ahdum 
 
 idu 
 
 
 Mouth 
 
 tshar 
 
 paru 
 
 
 Tongue 
 
 aukh 
 
 ai 
 
 
 Tooth 
 
 imak 
 
 uimaki 
 
 mimak 
 
 Hand 
 
 dek 
 
 tegi 
 
 
 Foot 
 
 kehmma 
 
 kima 
 
 
 Blood 
 
 kehm 
 
 kim 
 
 
 Sun 
 
 tshupu 
 
 tshukf-kamoi 
 
 touki 
 
 Moon 
 
 tshupu 
 
 tshukf 
 
 zuki 
 
 Star 
 
 kytta 
 
 nodzi 
 
 noro 
 
 Fire 
 
 apeh 
 
 undzhi 
 
 abe 
 
 Water 
 
 peh 
 
 raka 
 
 vakha 
 
 Tree 
 
 nyh 
 
 nii 
 
 
 Stone 
 
 poinah 
 
 shioma 
 
 
 
 Egg 
 
 nokh 
 
 nuku 
 
 _ 
 
 Fish 
 
 tshep 
 
 zepf 
 
 zizf 
 
 One 
 
 syhnap 
 
 shnepf 
 
 senezb 
 
 Two 
 
 dupk 
 
 tup 
 
 zuzb 
 
 Three 
 
 raph 
 
 repf 
 
 rezb 
 
 Four 
 
 yhnap 
 
 inipf 
 
 inezb 
 
 Five 
 
 ahsik 
 
 ashiki 
 
 asaraniof 
 
 Six 
 
 ihguahn 
 
 yuvambi 
 
 yuiwambe 
 
 Seven 
 
 aruahn 
 
 aruvambi 
 
 aruambe 
 
 Eight 
 
 duppyhs 
 
 tubisambi 
 
 zuyemambe 
 
 Nine 
 
 syhna.pyhs 
 
 slinebishambi 
 
 sinesambo 
 
 Ten 
 
 upyhs 
 
 wambi 
 
 fambe. 
 
 The Kamskadal, (or KamtshatJcan,) and the KoriaJc, 
 are members of the same chiss, though separated by 
 Klaproth. 
 
 Engl-sh. 
 
 Koriak. 
 
 Off Karaga.* 
 
 Man (vi')) 
 
 oiakotsh 
 
 
 ■ {homo) 
 
 nuteiran 
 
 nutaira 
 
 Head 
 
 lent 
 
 leut 
 
 Hair 
 
 kytyhuir 
 
 kitigil 
 
 Tongue 
 
 iilygyl 
 
 yilegit 
 
 Mouth 
 
 dzhekergen 
 
 homagalgen 
 
 Ear 
 
 wilugi 
 
 welolongen 
 
 Eye 
 
 lelugi 
 
 lalangen 
 
 Nose 
 
 eyekitshg 
 
 haahgeng 
 
 Beard 
 
 lelyugi 
 
 
 * This means that part of the coast which lies opposite the island of 
 Karaga, in opposition to the island itself, for which see the following table. 
 
170 
 
 
 THE KORIAK. 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Koriak. 
 
 Off Karaga 
 
 Blood 
 
 
 mulumul 
 
 Bone 
 
 khattaam 
 
 komlathom 
 
 Hand 
 
 mynnagylgen 
 
 mylgalgen 
 
 Night 
 
 nigonok' 
 
 kyhmeu 
 
 Sky 
 
 khayan 
 
 haian 
 
 Sun 
 
 titkapil 
 
 dykupyhsol 
 
 Moon 
 
 gdilgen 
 
 yailgat 
 
 Star 
 
 engen 
 
 angehri 
 
 Fire 
 
 milhemil 
 
 milgupil 
 
 Water 
 
 mimel 
 
 mimlipil 
 
 Earth 
 
 nutelkhan 
 
 nutalgan 
 
 Tree 
 
 uttuut 
 
 utut 
 
 Hill 
 
 gyeigor 
 
 knayukM 
 
 River 
 
 weiom 
 
 woyampyh 
 
 Sea 
 Egg 
 
 inung 
 
 inu 
 ligliguh 
 
 Fish 
 
 innaen' 
 
 annaau 
 
 House 
 
 rat' 
 
 
 Horn 
 
 yinnaVgin' 
 
 
 Dog 
 
 atar' 
 
 hathan 
 
 
 
 atan 
 
 
 Milh 
 
 nyokin 
 
 
 One 
 
 onnen 
 
 ahnahn 
 
 Two 
 
 hyttaka 
 
 ytahgau 
 
 Three 
 
 ngroka 
 
 rohgau 
 
 Four 
 
 ngraka 
 
 ragau 
 
 Five 
 
 myllanga 
 
 millangau. 
 
 English. 
 
 The Kolyma. 
 
 Karaga. 
 
 Man (vir) 
 
 khuyukutsh 
 
 inylakhylsh 
 
 (homo) 
 
 uimtahula 
 
 oshamshahal 
 
 Head 
 
 lawut 
 
 tennakam 
 
 Hair 
 
 katshugui 
 
 lankhshakh 
 
 Tooth 
 
 wannalgyn 
 
 
 Tongue 
 
 giigel 
 
 laksha 
 
 Mouth 
 
 shekiangin 
 
 shekshen 
 
 Ear 
 
 wyilut 
 
 ilyufi 
 
 Eye 
 
 lalat 
 
 ellifa 
 
 Nose 
 
 enigytam 
 
 enku 
 
 Beard 
 
 lelu 
 
 lilyuf 
 
 Blood 
 
 mull j omul 
 
 mutl'muth 
 
 Bone 
 
 
 hatamfa 
 
 Hand 
 
 myngakatsh 
 
 k'onmenkhlan 
 
 Night 
 
 nekita 
 
 tenkiti 
 
 Sky 
 
 khain 
 
 shilkhen 
 
 Sun 
 
 tykete 
 
 shahalkh 
 

 THE KORIAK. 
 
 
 English. 
 
 
 The Kolyma. 
 
 
 Karaga. 
 
 Moon 
 
 
 geilygen 
 
 
 shagalkh 
 
 Star 
 
 
 lelapitshan 
 
 L 
 
 engysh 
 
 Fire 
 
 
 milugan 
 
 
 mi'lchamil 
 
 Water 
 
 
 mimal 
 
 
 iin 
 
 Earth 
 
 
 
 
 nyutinnyut 
 
 Tree 
 
 
 uttepel 
 
 
 nguft 
 
 HiU 
 
 
 nayu 
 
 
 mysankosi 
 
 River 
 
 
 waim 
 
 
 gykhi 
 
 Sea 
 
 
 ankan 
 
 
 nyungen 
 
 Bgg 
 
 
 lygby 
 
 
 t'higlhifuha 
 
 Fish 
 
 
 kokayalgating 
 
 tahataha 
 
 House 
 
 
 yayanga 
 
 
 shishtshu 
 
 Dog 
 
 
 attahan 
 
 
 atapela 
 
 
 
 
 khatalan 
 
 
 
 MiUc 
 
 
 lyukhoi 
 
 
 
 One 
 
 
 onnon 
 
 
 ingsing 
 
 Two 
 
 
 niokhtsh 
 
 
 gnitag 
 
 Three 
 
 
 niyokh 
 
 
 gnasog 
 
 Four 
 
 
 niyakh 
 
 
 gnasag 
 
 Five 
 
 
 myllangin 
 
 
 monlon. 
 
 
 English. 
 
 
 Reindeer Tshuktslii. 
 
 
 Man (vir] 
 
 1 
 
 oyakutsh 
 
 
 
 klaul 
 
 
 
 Head 
 
 
 leut 
 
 
 
 Hair 
 
 
 kirtshivi 
 
 
 Tooth 
 
 
 rytlynti 
 
 % 
 
 
 Tongue 
 
 
 gil 
 
 
 
 Mouth 
 
 
 inkigin 
 
 
 
 Far 
 
 
 weliulgin 
 
 
 Eye 
 
 
 lilagin 
 
 
 
 Nose 
 
 
 ekhaekh 
 
 
 Beard 
 
 
 walkalorgiid 
 
 
 Blood 
 
 
 mullumul 
 
 
 Bone 
 
 
 attitaam 
 
 
 Hand 
 
 
 mingilgin 
 
 
 Night 
 
 
 nikittya 
 
 
 Shy 
 
 
 eikhi 
 
 
 
 
 
 ying 
 
 
 
 Sun 
 
 
 titktshit 
 
 
 Moon 
 
 
 geilgin 
 
 
 
 Star 
 
 
 engerenger 
 
 
 Fire 
 
 
 JJiilgin 
 
 
 
 Water 
 
 
 mimil 
 
 
 
 Farth 
 
 
 nutetsh 
 
 in 
 
 
 Tree 
 
 
 uttuu 
 
 
 
 Hill 
 
 
 piet 
 
 
 171 
 
172 
 
 THE KAMTSHATKAN. 
 
 English. 
 
 Reindeer Tsliuktsl 
 
 mu 
 
 khallelegin 
 
 River 
 
 waem 
 
 Sea 
 
 angka 
 
 Egg 
 
 ligli 
 
 Fish 
 
 annegui 
 
 House 
 
 oranga 
 
 Horn 
 
 ritten 
 
 Milk 
 
 lukhai 
 
 One 
 
 ennene 
 
 Two 
 
 giyakh 
 
 Three 
 
 guakh 
 
 Four 
 
 gyrakh 
 
 Five 
 
 millgin. 
 
 The following is the Kamtshatkan of the Middle of 
 the Peninsula. 
 
 English. 
 
 Kamtshatkan. 
 
 English. 
 
 Kanilshiitkan. 
 
 Head 
 
 kobbel 
 
 Fish 
 
 etshuda 
 
 Eye 
 
 elled 
 
 Fiver 
 
 kug 
 
 Ear 
 
 ilyud 
 
 God 
 
 kutkhai 
 
 Nose 
 
 kayako 
 
 
 
 Mouth 
 
 tskhylda 
 
 Sky 
 
 kokhal 
 
 Hair 
 
 tsheron 
 
 
 kollaa 
 
 Tooth 
 
 
 Snow 
 
 kolaal 
 
 Tongue 
 
 dydzil 
 
 One 
 
 dysyk 
 
 Hand 
 
 tono 
 
 Two 
 
 kaas 
 
 Day 
 
 taazh 
 
 Three 
 
 tsuk 
 
 Sun 
 
 koatsh 
 
 Four 
 
 tshaak 
 
 Moon 
 
 quingan-kuletsh. 
 
 Five 
 
 kumnak 
 
 Star 
 
 ezhingin 
 
 Six 
 
 kylkoak 
 
 Fire 
 
 pangitsh 
 
 Seven 
 
 etakhtana 
 
 Water 
 
 1 
 
 Eight 
 
 tshonutono 
 
 Tree 
 
 00 
 
 Nine 
 
 tshanatana 
 
 Stone 
 
 kual 
 
 Ten 
 
 tsliemyktagona. 
 
 Egg 
 
 nygagada 
 
 
 
 To the north of this Kamtshatkan of the Middle dis- 
 trict is spoken the language of the former, to the south 
 of it the language of the latter of the following tables : 
 in the first of which it is to be observed that one of the 
 vocabularies, though it represents a Kamtshatkan form of 
 speech, is headed Koriah, 
 
THE KAMTSHATKAN. 
 
 173 
 
 English. 
 
 Koriuk of the Tigil. 
 
 Kamtsh itkan of the Tigil. 
 
 Man (vir) 
 
 kymshan 
 
 kamzhan 
 
 (homo) 
 
 tshandzhal 
 
 uzhkamzha 
 
 
 kelgola 
 
 
 Head 
 
 komptko 
 
 ktkhyn 
 
 
 koltsli 
 
 
 Hair 
 
 tshelgad 
 
 kuiba 
 
 Eye 
 
 leUe 
 
 ■ lella 
 
 Beard 
 
 luel 
 
 luulla 
 
 
 elnn 
 
 
 Hand 
 
 kh'ketsh 
 
 khkatsh 
 
 Shy 
 
 kysha 
 
 keis 
 
 God 
 
 kuikynakhu 
 
 kutkha 
 
 Fire 
 
 hymlee 
 
 brjuumkhitsli 
 
 Tree 
 
 ua 
 
 uu 
 
 Earth 
 
 nutelehan 
 
 
 Egg 
 
 
 lylkhatsh 
 
 Fish 
 
 nishatkin 
 
 onnitsh 
 
 
 dentsh 
 
 
 River 
 
 kytshme 
 
 
 Hill 
 
 enzalkhen 
 
 aala 
 
 House 
 
 kisht 
 
 kisba 
 
 Snow 
 
 
 
 Dog 
 
 kosha' 
 
 
 
 hetan 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Ukah. 
 
 South Knnitshatkan. 
 
 Man (vir) 
 
 kangge 
 
 elku 
 
 {homo) 
 
 kliyllgoglila 
 
 uzhkamzba 
 
 
 
 kulusanga 
 
 Head 
 
 hbhahel 
 
 tsbysba 
 
 
 kols 
 
 
 
 Hair 
 
 zelgakh 
 
 kubiin 
 
 Eye 
 
 ellath 
 
 nannin 
 
 Beard 
 
 
 kuukun 
 
 Blood 
 
 mythlung 
 
 
 Bone 
 
 kotham 
 
 
 Hand 
 
 sotong 
 
 sytbi 
 
 STcy 
 
 kokhau 
 
 kagal 
 
 Ood 
 
 dusdeakhtshik 
 
 kut 
 
 Fire 
 
 
 blumligtsh 
 
 Tree 
 
 utha 
 
 uuda 
 
 Earth 
 
 b'sjTnth 
 
 ua 
 symmit 
 
 Egg 
 
 
 lylida 
 
 Fish 
 
 entshude 
 
 entsbudu 
 
174 THE KAMTSHATKAN. 
 
 English. 
 
 Ukah. 
 
 South Kara 
 
 River 
 
 kothhoul-kygh 
 
 
 Hill 
 
 pehkugtsh 
 
 namtid. 
 
 Dog 
 
 koslia 
 
 kosha. 
 
 I know of nothing that illustrates the grammatical 
 structure of either the Karatshatkan or the Koriak. 
 
 The Kamtshatkan call themselves Itulman ; the 
 Koriaks call them Kontshala and Numelaha ; the 
 Kurilians call them ArutaTunkar. 
 
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 175 
 
 CHAPTER XXIV. 
 
 General Obsei-vations on the preceding Languages. — Value of tie Class. - 
 Original Turk, Mantshu, Mongol, Yeneseian, and Ugrian Areas. 
 
 In taking a review of the group which has just been dealt 
 with, we cannot but be satisfied with the precision 
 and definitude of all its boundaries : those of the class 
 itself, taken as a whole, being pre-eminently broad 
 and clear. Where the Mantsliu and the Chinese, the 
 Mongol and Bhot, the Turk and Bhot, the Turk and 
 Persian, confront each other, there has been encroach- 
 ment accompanied by the obliteration of transitional 
 forms, on both sides — the Mantshu, for instance, press- 
 ing southward, on the one hand, and the Chinese press- 
 ing northwards on the other. And so on with the rest. 
 Where the Turk and Persian cease to confront each 
 other, the Caspian intervenes with its waters. After 
 this comes the mountain-range of Caucasus, to the 
 very feet of which the Turk and Russian have extended 
 themselves — doubtless at the expense of some language 
 akin to the Circassian, or, at any rate, more akin to it 
 than. they are themselves. In Europe, all beyond the 
 Dnieper, at least, though now Russian, was originally 
 other than Russian ; so that whatever may have been the 
 affinities of the original languages of the Governments of 
 Kursk, Penza and the districts nearest the Mordvin area 
 to the Mordvin and its congeners, all such transitions as 
 they may have efiected are annihilated. Again — ^in 
 Norway and Sweden the present Norwegian and 
 Swedish are intrusive ; so that whatever came in contact 
 
176 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 with the southern area of the Laps is annihilated also. 
 The remaining boundaries are formed by the Ocean. 
 
 Still the distances between the languages of the pre- 
 sent group and those of the rest of the world, though 
 great, are, by no means, equal. There are points where- 
 at there is an approximation. These are the neigh- 
 bourhood of Behring's Straits ; Korea ; and Lithuania 
 —in other words, the Koriak is notably American, the 
 Korean notably Chinese, and the Lithuanic notably 
 Ugrian. This merely means that there are certain points 
 about which the encroachment and displacement have 
 been less than they have been about others. 
 
 This applies, in a less degree, to the minor divisions 
 which lie between the secondary groups. The Tungtis, 
 the Mongol, and the Turk, with their intrusions, have 
 effectually obliterated any such congeners as may have 
 led from one of them to the other. From the small 
 amount of difference between their extreme dialects we 
 infer that their diffusion has been recent. 
 
 The Ugrian, on the other hand, was a large class, 
 falling into divisions and sub-divisions, and covering a 
 surface which grows wider and wider the more we go 
 back. It is now discontinuous ; the result of its dis- 
 continuity being definitude of boundary. In Hungary 
 alone it has been intrusive — we might say protrusive ; 
 for the Magyar of Hungary is separated from its nearest 
 congener by many degrees of latitude, having found its 
 way into Hungary not by any gradual extension of the 
 Ugrian frontier, but by being bodily projected (so to say) 
 into a strange and foreign country. Of pure protrusion 
 and projection — protrusion and projection accompanied 
 with a separation from its congeners — it is one of the 
 most remarkable examples in ethnographical philology; 
 and one which should never be either forgotten or over- 
 looked when we have languages in extraordinary locali- 
 ties to account for. 
 
 Something in the way of an approximation to the 
 
OIT THE TURANIAN CLASS. 177 
 
 original area of the Tiingus, Mongol, and Turk languages 
 is possible. It is the easiest with the Turk. There are 
 many localities where we know that the Turk is not in- 
 digenous. It never came from Hungary ; nor yet from 
 Constantinople ; nor yet from the Lower Lena ; notwith- 
 standing the existence of the Cumanian, the Osmanli, 
 and the Yakut forms of speech in those districts. It 
 scarcely originated on the northern side of the Caucasus 
 in immediate contact with the Tsherkess ; nor yet in the 
 Sayanian range, where it is spreading itself at the 
 present time. It could scarcely have originated in the 
 immediate contact of either the Tunglis or the Mongol, 
 from which it differs as a language which meets another 
 from some distant quarter and in an opposite direction. 
 If the doctrine that it is more L^gi'ian than either Mon- 
 gol or Tungus be true, it must be a language of western 
 rather than Eastern Asia. 
 
 The area for which the evidence of the Turk being 
 intrusive is at its minimuTrt, and (changing the ex- 
 pression) the area for which the evidence of its being 
 indigenous is at its niaxiTiiuin, is Independent Tartary. 
 On the other hand, it is little better than a desert. 
 
 Next to this comes Chinese Tartary. This, however, 
 is unfavourable to its Ugrian and (I may add) its 
 Yeniseian) affinities. 
 
 Next comes the Tshuvash and Tsherimis frontier. 
 
 To go in detail through the remainder of the groups 
 would be to give a theory of the ethnology of Siberia. 
 The conditions, however, which are required are the 
 same throughout. Where can we prove intrusion ? 
 Where is the residuary locality where it cannot be 
 proved ? When this is obtained, how will it account 
 for the affinities ? Such is the method. As far as I 
 have been able to work it, I have been led to place the 
 Mongol nucleus in the parts about the Hi and the lakes 
 of its vicinity ; the Tungus on the Upper Anmr, the 
 Korean somewhat to the west of its present area ; and 
 
 N 
 
178 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 the Aino to some portion of the districts now occupied 
 by the Lamut. The Koriak, the Jukahiri, the Yeniseian, 
 the Samoyed, the Yogul, and the Ostiak, I refer, one 
 and all, to some point considerably to the south of their 
 present northernmost localities. In this, however, there 
 is a mixture of ethnological and philological conside- 
 rations. 
 
 The best name for this class, and perhaps the com- 
 monest, is Turanian : a term which sometimes gives a 
 larger and sometimes a smaller class than the one which 
 we are now leaving, for India, Persia, and Caucasus. 
 
THE PARAHI, ETC. J 79 
 
 CHAPTER XXV. 
 
 The Darahi (Denwar) and Kuswar.— The Paksya and Tharu. — The Kooch. 
 
 The present section of the class now coming into notice 
 is artificial. It is ambiguous. It is more than this. It 
 is only equivocally ambiguous. The languages which it 
 contains take their present place because they are, to 
 some extent, both Bhot and Indian. Yet they may be 
 so much more Bhot than Indian, or so much more 
 Indian than Bhot, as to require no intermediate classifi- 
 cation. Again, one of them may be Bhot, one Indian, 
 and one truly ambiguous. They are so Tamul. What 
 they really represent is the author's want of knowledge 
 and leisure. 
 
 The class, then, is provisional. Thus much, however, 
 may be said of its members. 
 
 1 . That they are Indian in respect to their numerals, 
 throughout ; and Indian in a great many other words. 
 
 2. That, so far as they are other than Indian, they 
 are Monosyllabic and Tamul. 
 
 The degree to which they are this varies with the lan- 
 guage ; and it is possible that, in some of them, the ori- 
 ginal element may be so thoroughly displaced, as to leave 
 the other bases Monosyllabic and Tamul only in the way 
 that a knife with a new blade and a new handle is still 
 the same knife. But, again, the group is artificial, 
 and the Hindii character of the numerals is, to a great 
 extent, an arbitrary test. 
 
 The Darahi and Kuswar are spoken by two broken 
 tribes (I use Mr. Hodgson's expression) in Nepaul. 
 
 N 2 
 
180 
 
 THE DARAHI, ETC. 
 
 English. 
 
 Duralii. 
 
 K us war. 
 
 Man 
 
 manas 
 
 gokchai chawai 
 
 Head 
 
 mud 
 
 kapa 
 
 Han- 
 
 bar 
 
 bar 
 
 Eye' 
 
 ankhi 
 
 ankhi 
 
 Ear- 
 
 kan 
 
 kan 
 
 Mouth 
 
 muhun 
 
 muhu 
 
 Tooth 
 
 dant 
 
 dant 
 
 Hand 
 
 hat 
 
 bath 
 
 Foot 
 
 god 
 
 gor 
 
 Blood 
 
 ragat 
 
 rakti 
 
 Bone 
 
 had 
 
 hadh 
 
 ^Tcy 
 
 sarag 
 
 sarang 
 
 l>ay 
 
 din 
 
 dini 
 
 Night 
 
 rato 
 
 ratbi 
 
 Sun 
 
 gama 
 
 suraj 
 
 Moon 
 
 Janha 
 
 jun 
 
 Star 
 
 tirya 
 
 tarai 
 
 Fire 
 
 age 
 
 aghi 
 
 Water 
 
 hate 
 
 hani 
 
 Earth 
 
 mati 
 
 mati 
 
 Mountain 
 
 danda 
 
 pahar 
 
 Stone 
 
 pathar 
 
 pathar 
 
 Bird 
 
 chari 
 
 chari 
 
 Dog 
 
 kukur 
 
 kukol 
 
 Pm 
 
 anda 
 
 dimba 
 
 Fish 
 
 machha 
 
 jbain 
 
 Floiver 
 
 phul 
 
 phul 
 
 Horn 
 
 sing 
 
 sinjek 
 
 House 
 
 ghar 
 
 ghara 
 
 River 
 
 khola 
 
 kosi 
 
 Snake 
 
 samp 
 
 samp 
 
 Tree 
 
 rak 
 
 gatch 
 
 One 
 
 ek 
 
 ek 
 
 Two 
 
 dwi 
 
 dwi 
 
 Three 
 
 tin 
 
 tin 
 
 Four 
 
 char 
 
 char 
 
 Five 
 
 panch 
 
 panch 
 
 Six 
 
 chah 
 
 chah 
 
 Seven 
 
 sat 
 
 
 Eight 
 
 ath 
 
 „ _ 
 
 Nine 
 
 nou 
 
 
 Ten 
 
 das 
 
 
 The Denwar is nearly identical with the Darahi- 
 differing, however, inter alia, in the following words. 
 
THE DARAHI, ETC. 
 
 J81 
 
 En-lisli. 
 
 Demvar. 
 
 Daralii. 
 
 Egg 
 
 dimba * 
 
 anda 
 
 Mother 
 
 ambai * 
 
 uya 
 
 Mountain 
 
 pakha * 
 
 danda 
 
 River 
 
 lari 
 
 khola 
 
 Road 
 
 bat* 
 
 panya 
 
 Stone 
 
 donkho 
 
 pathar 
 
 Tree 
 
 gatch* 
 
 rak 
 
 Water 
 
 kyu 
 
 pati. 
 
 The Pakbya and Tharu, like the Daralii and Kuswar, 
 are Nepalese in respect to their geography. 
 
 English. 
 
 Pakhya. 
 
 Tharu. 
 
 Man 
 
 manchha 
 
 manhai 
 
 Head 
 
 manto 
 
 mudi 
 
 Hair 
 
 rawa 
 
 bar 
 
 Eye 
 
 ankha 
 
 ankh 
 
 Ear 
 
 kan 
 
 kan 
 
 Mouth 
 
 mukha 
 
 mukha 
 
 Tooth 
 
 data 
 
 data 
 
 Hand 
 
 hatkela 
 
 tar-hatti 
 
 Blood 
 
 ragat 
 
 lohu 
 
 Bone 
 
 had 
 
 had 
 
 Day 
 
 duiso " 
 
 dina 
 
 Night 
 
 rati 
 
 rati 
 
 Sun 
 
 gbama 
 
 rauda 
 
 Moon 
 
 chandramabel 
 
 chandraraajuu 
 
 Fire 
 
 ago 
 
 agi 
 
 Water 
 
 pani 
 
 pani 
 
 Earth 
 
 mato 
 
 mati 
 
 Mountain 
 
 pahar 
 
 parbat 
 
 Egg 
 
 pliul 
 
 anda 
 
 Fish 
 
 machha 
 
 macheri 
 
 Floiver 
 
 phul 
 
 phul 
 
 Horn 
 
 sing 
 
 sing 
 
 House 
 
 ghar 
 
 ghar 
 
 River 
 
 khola 
 
 khola 
 
 SnaTce 
 
 sapa 
 
 sapa 
 
 Tree 
 
 rukha 
 
 gatch 
 
 One 
 
 yek 
 
 yet 
 
 Two 
 
 dui 
 
 dui 
 
 Three 
 
 tin 
 
 tin 
 
 Four 
 
 char 
 
 char 
 
 Five 
 
 pach 
 
 pacLe 
 
 Six 
 
 chha 
 
 chha 
 
 Agree with Kuswar^ 
 
182 
 
 
 THE 
 
 DARAHI, 
 
 ETO. 
 
 
 English. 
 
 
 Pakhya. 
 
 
 Tharu. 
 
 Seven 
 
 
 sat 
 
 
 sat 
 
 Eight 
 Nine 
 
 
 ath 
 nau- 
 
 
 ath 
 nau 
 
 Ten 
 
 
 das 
 
 
 das. 
 
 The Kooch belong to India (and Sikkim ?) rather 
 than to Nepal ; being occupants of the northern parts 
 of Rungpur, Purnea, Dinajpur, and Mymangsing. The 
 Bodo of their frontier call them Kooch ; the more distant 
 Bodo of Asam call them Hasa. The Dhimal call them 
 Kamul, which, word for word, seems to be Dhimal. 
 For the Brahminic Kooch the following is a vocabulary. 
 For the Kooch, however, who are still the pagan occu- 
 pants of the more impracticable forests, we have no 
 specimens. 
 
 English. 
 
 Kooch. 
 
 English. 
 
 Kooch. 
 
 Man {vir) 
 
 beta clioa 
 
 Star 
 
 tara 
 
 Woman 
 
 beti choa 
 
 Fire 
 
 agni 
 
 Son 
 
 beta 
 
 Water 
 
 jal^ 
 
 Daughter 
 
 beti 
 
 Fiver 
 
 nodi 
 
 Head 
 
 mura 
 
 Stone 
 
 pathar 
 
 Eye 
 
 chakbu 
 
 Wind 
 
 batas 
 
 Nose 
 
 nak 
 
 One 
 
 ek 
 
 Ear 
 
 kan 
 
 Two 
 
 du 
 
 Beard 
 
 dadbi 
 
 Three 
 
 tin 
 
 Mouth 
 
 mukh 
 
 Four 
 
 char 
 
 Tongue 
 
 jivha 
 
 Five 
 
 panch 
 
 Tooth 
 
 dant 
 
 Six 
 
 choi 
 
 Hand 
 
 hatb 
 
 Seven 
 
 sat 
 
 Foot 
 
 bhori 
 
 Eight 
 
 ath 
 
 Blood 
 
 lohu 
 
 Nine 
 
 nou 
 
 Sun 
 
 bela 
 
 Ten 
 
 das. 
 
 Moon 
 
 chand 
 
 
 
 The Kooch, whose separation from the Bodo and Dhi- 
 mal, is philological, rather than ethnological, and which, 
 even philologically, is, to some extent, artificial, are 
 bounded on the south by the Bengali area. The 
 Bengali language, however, is not the nearest congener 
 of the class to which the Kooch, though an outlying and 
 equivocal member, belongs. 
 
THE KOL DIALECTS. 183 
 
 CHAPTER XXYI. 
 
 The Kol group. — Its Affinities with the Mon. 
 
 The dialect, other than Bengali, which, in the way of 
 geography, is nearest to the most southern language of 
 the Tibetan, Burmese, or Nepalese group, is that of the 
 natives of the Rajmahal hills ; but this, for a reason 
 which will appear in the sequel, is pretermitted for the 
 present ; instead of which we notice the Kol dialects of 
 Ramgurh, Mongliir, Chuta Nagpur, Gangpur, Sirgujah, 
 and Sumbhulpur : which fall into divisions and sub- 
 divisions. The Sontals, indigenous to the parts about 
 Palamow, have recently intruded themselves amongst the 
 Rajmahalis, and, having so done, constitute the most 
 northern section of the group. Still they are intrusive, 
 and must be kept separate. 
 
 Ho, meaning man, is the true and native name for 
 the Kol of Kolehan, 
 
 The Singbhum Kol is the same as the Sontal except 
 that some of its forms are somewhat shorter, as ho = horl, 
 ho = huho, moya and turia = mone-gotang, turin- 
 gotang, &c. The same is the case with the Bhumij and 
 Mundala dialects. In these, however, the numerals for 
 7, 8, 9, and 10 are Hindu — sath, ath, nou (noko), and 
 das (dasgo). 
 
 English. 
 
 Sontal. 
 
 English. 
 
 Sontal. 
 
 Man 
 
 horh 
 
 Foot 
 
 suptijanga 
 
 Head 
 
 buho 
 
 Blood 
 
 myun 
 
 Hair 
 
 uh 
 
 Bone 
 
 jang 
 
 Eye 
 
 met 
 
 Sun 
 
 singmanal 
 
 Ear 
 
 lutu 
 
 Moon 
 
 chandu 
 
 Hand 
 
 thi 
 
 Star 
 
 ipil 
 
184 
 
 t 
 
 KOL AND MON. 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Sontal, 
 
 English. 
 
 Sontal. 
 
 Fire 
 
 sengel 
 
 Five 
 
 mone-gotang 
 
 Water 
 
 dah 
 
 Six 
 
 turin-gotang 
 
 One 
 
 midli 
 
 Seven 
 
 lair-gotang 
 
 Tivo 
 
 barria 
 
 Eight 
 
 iral-gotang 
 
 Three 
 
 apia 
 
 Nine 
 
 are-gotang 
 
 Four 
 
 ponia 
 
 Ten 
 
 gel-gotang. 
 
 An observation, and an important one, of Mr. Mason's, 
 respecting the affinities of the Mon of Pegu and the Kol, 
 requires notice. The first numerals and several other 
 words in the Mon are also Kol. I cannot, however, 
 with Mr. Mason, infer from this any affinity between the 
 Kol and Mon which is, at one and the same time, funda- 
 mental and direct. What I see is this — the chances of a 
 considerable influence from the east coast of India upon 
 Pegu and, perhaps, Cambojia at an early period. The 
 Mon are called by the Burmese Talieng ; which is, word 
 for word, Telinga, The number of the monosyllabic 
 languages, which, in an early stage, had no numerals of 
 their own beyond five, is considerable. The Mon nu- 
 merals, then, and the other words may have come from 
 India — imported and incorporated. More than this is 
 not necessary to explain the facts ; which, on other 
 grounds, will scarcely cover the inference of Mr. Mason. 
 
 The eastern coast, however, of India when the words 
 in question were introduced (and, with them, the name 
 Talien), must have been Kol rather than Telinga. 
 
THE KHOND DIALECT. 185 
 
 CHAPTER XXVII. 
 
 The Khond Class. — Khond. — Cadaba and Yerikala. — Savara. 
 
 The Khonds come next ; belonging to Orissa rather than 
 Bengal. The Khond calls his own country Kui Dina or 
 Ku Pruti, and that occupied by the Uriyas Sasi Dina. The 
 word malo is Uriya, and means a Highland. Within 
 the Sircar of Ganjam (in which the Uriya and Telinga 
 languages meet) lie the Zemindaries of Gumsur, Koradah, 
 Souradali, and Kimidi. Each has its "nialo — and the 
 Kimidi Malo is pre-eminently Sour. It falls into — 
 
 1. The Sano Kimidi Malo. 
 
 2. The Bodo Kimidi Malo. Observe the word Bodo. 
 
 3. The Pariah, or Porolah, Kimidi Malo. 
 
 In the Bodo Kimidi Malo the Khond and Sour are 
 both spoken. The Pariah Kimidi Malo being chiefly (or 
 exclusively) Sour. 
 
 On the south-east and east of the Kimidi Malo lies 
 the Souradah — which seems to mean the Sour Country ; 
 though Khond in population. 
 
 The smaller divisions of the dina are called in Khond 
 khand = piece, or part. The dina is specified by the 
 name of the chieftain ; thus Rogo Dina or Gune Dina 
 is the fief (so to say) of Rogo or Guni. The people are 
 Rogo Millaka, or Dina Millako, i. e. Children of Rogo. 
 There is no collective name. The following is Khond, 
 eo nomine ; the numerals being Indian — - 
 
 English. 
 
 Khond. 
 
 English. 
 
 Khond. 
 
 Man 
 
 lokka 
 
 Ear 
 
 kirru 
 
 Head 
 
 tlavu 
 
 Motith 
 
 sudda 
 
 Eye 
 
 kannuka 
 
 Tooth 
 
 ahami 
 
186 
 
 THE KHOND DIALECT. 
 
 English. 
 
 Kliond. 
 
 English. 
 
 Khond 
 
 Hand 
 
 kaju 
 
 One 
 
 rondi 
 
 Foot 
 
 vestamu 
 
 Two 
 
 jodeka 
 
 Blood 
 
 rakko 
 
 Three 
 
 *tini-gota 
 
 Bone 
 
 ■ pasu 
 
 Four 
 
 *sari 
 
 Sun 
 
 bela 
 
 Five 
 
 *paiichu 
 
 Moon 
 
 layadi 
 
 Six 
 
 
 Star 
 
 sukala 
 
 Seven 
 
 *sata 
 
 Fire 
 
 nade 
 
 Eight 
 
 *ata 
 
 Stone 
 
 viddi 
 
 Nine 
 
 *nogatta 
 
 Tree 
 
 mranu 
 
 Ten 
 
 *doso. 
 
 The following, viz. the Gadaba, belongs, I presume, to 
 the TYialo of Gaddapur, one of the districts of Gtimstir : — 
 
 English. 
 
 Gailaha. 
 
 English. 
 
 Gadaba. 
 
 Man 
 
 lokka 
 
 Stone 
 
 birel 
 
 Head 
 
 bo 
 
 Tree 
 
 sunabbo 
 
 Eye 
 
 olio 
 
 One 
 
 vokati 
 
 Ear 
 
 nintiri 
 
 Two 
 
 rendu 
 
 Mouth 
 
 tummo 
 
 Three 
 
 mudu 
 
 Hand 
 
 titti 
 
 Four 
 
 nalugu 
 
 Foot 
 
 adugesananu 
 
 Five 
 
 ayidu 
 
 Blood 
 
 yignan 
 
 Six 
 
 aru 
 
 Bone 
 
 vondramgoyi 
 
 Seven 
 
 yedu 
 
 Sun 
 
 singi 
 
 Eight 
 
 yeni-mede 
 
 Moon 
 
 arke 
 
 Nine 
 
 torn-inidi 
 
 Star 
 
 tsukka 
 
 Ten 
 
 pade. 
 
 Fire 
 
 sungol 
 
 
 
 Of the following I am unable to give the exact lo- 
 cality. 
 
 English, 
 
 Yerukali 
 
 English. 
 
 Yerukali. 
 
 Man 
 
 lokka 
 
 Stone 
 
 kellu 
 
 Head 
 
 talayi 
 
 Tree 
 
 chede 
 
 Eye 
 
 supan 
 
 
 
 marom 
 
 Ear 
 
 soyi 
 
 One 
 
 vondu 
 
 Mouth 
 
 vayi 
 
 Two 
 
 rendu 
 
 Tooth 
 
 pallam 
 
 Three 
 
 mume 
 
 Hand 
 
 ky Kol 
 
 Four 
 
 nalu 
 
 Foot 
 
 keru 
 
 Five 
 
 anju 
 
 Blood 
 
 regain 
 
 Six 
 
 aru 
 
 Bone 
 
 yamaka 
 
 Seven 
 
 yegu 
 
 Sun 
 
 berule 
 
 Eight 
 
 yethu 
 
 Moon 
 
 tarra 
 
 Nine 
 
 ombadu 
 
 Star 
 
 tsukka 
 
 Ten 
 
 pothu. 
 
 Fire 
 
 nerupu Tamil 
 
 
 
 The numerals marked thus are Hind6. 
 
THE SAVARA. 
 
 1 
 
 The village is also named Millaka, preceded by the 
 name of the founder. Thus Diggo Millaka is the village 
 founded by Diggo. In Uriya it is a gam = Diggogam. 
 
 English. 
 
 Savara. 
 
 Man 
 
 mandra 
 
 Head 
 
 abobumu 
 
 Eye 
 
 amu 
 
 Ear 
 
 lav 
 
 Mouth 
 
 amuka 
 
 Tooth 
 
 ajagna 
 
 Blood ■ 
 
 mijamo 
 
 Bone 
 
 ajagna 
 
 Hand 
 
 asi 
 
 Foot 
 
 aji 
 
 Day 
 
 tamba 
 
 Sky 
 
 agasa 
 
 Sun 
 
 Tuyu 
 
 Moon 
 
 vonga 
 
 Star 
 
 tute 
 
 Englisli. 
 
 Fire 
 
 River 
 
 Stone 
 
 Tree 
 
 One 
 
 Two 
 
 Three 
 
 Four 
 
 Five 
 
 Six 
 
 Seven 
 
 Eight 
 
 Nine 
 
 Ten 
 
 Savara. 
 
 togo 
 
 nayi 
 
 aregna 
 
 anebagna 
 
 aboy 
 
 yagi 
 vonjii 
 mollayi 
 kudru 
 
 gulgi 
 tamuji 
 tinji 
 galliji. 
 
 The Savara numerals are Kol rather than either 
 Khond or Tamul, though the Sours are, by no means, 
 the nearest to the Kol area. 
 
188 ^__ THE GHONDS. 
 
 CHAPTER XXYIII. 
 
 The aiionds. 
 
 The barest part of the maps of India (and by hare I 
 mean a district which the paucity of names, whether of 
 villages or natural objects, proclaims to be unexplored) 
 is a large space named Ghondwana — -large and undefined, 
 the occupancy of a population named Ghond. Word 
 for word, this is Khond. Nothing, however, in the 
 way of either affinity or difference between the Khonds 
 and Ghonds is to be inferred from the similarity. 
 Neither is a native name. Each is a name which cer- 
 tain Hindus apply to certain tribes which they consider 
 ruder and more barbarous than themselves. Like other 
 names of the same kind it may denote anything or 
 nothing in the way of relationship. It may apply to 
 tribes closely allied ; or it may apply to tribes, toto coelo, 
 different. 
 
 The western frontier of the Klionds of the Giimsur 
 Malo and the frontier of the most eastern Ghonds touch 
 and run into each other. " At Sarangaddah, the Uriya 
 quarter is situated between a Khond village to the west, 
 and a Ghond settlement to the east. In other places 
 a Khond village aligns with it. 
 
 " A few families of the Ghond race have emigrated from 
 Kalahandi and Bastar at various times. Some have set- 
 tled at Sarangaddah, while others have passed on into the 
 Goomsur Malo, and penetrated as far to the eastward as 
 Udyagiri, near the head of the Kurminghia Pass, where 
 a colony has established itself. They are also met with, 
 as a few families, at Chachingudah, and Kiritingiah, of 
 Goomsur, lying between the above points. These emi- 
 
 ff\:^' 
 
THE GHONDS. 189 
 
 grations still continue in times of scarcity, but their 
 numbers are v^ry trifling. It is in the countries bor- 
 dering this malo to the west that they are known as a 
 people. The Patros of the frontier divisions of Lonka- 
 godah and Bellagodah are of this race, as is also the 
 Chief of Mohangiri, under Kalahandi, not to mention 
 in this place other men of influence. The Gonds settled 
 at Sarangaddah, i^eceive land of the Patro in return for 
 general service. They intermarry with the families of 
 their race in Goomsur : they reside at the godah. With 
 regard to their customs, their mythology difiers from 
 that of the Uriyas or Kondhs. They sacrifice animals, 
 drink ardent spirits, eat flesh, but eschew that of the 
 cow : they will not partake of food with any other 
 class. Their feelings on the question of human sacrifice 
 are not, as yet, accurately ascertained ; but it is asserted 
 that they do not perform the rite. The titles amongst 
 them are Dalbehra and Magi. They esteem them- 
 selves of great purity of race, so that in former days 
 they considered the approach of a Brahman to their 
 dwellings as conveying an impurity to the spot ; they 
 are now, however, somewhat less rigid on this ground. 
 The Uriyas of the hills, while they regard the Khonds 
 as a distinct and inferior race, assign to the Ghonds a 
 common origin with themselves. The tradition received 
 at Sarangaddah is as follows : — 
 
 "A certain raja, named Sobhajoi Singh, being unmar- 
 ried, and desirous of issue, called to his bed four parties 
 in succession. Those selected were the daughters of a 
 washerman, a potter, a distiller of spirits, and a Brah- 
 man ; and the respective issue was a Doholo or Dolo, a 
 Kohouro, a Gond, and the Nolo Benso Patro — the proge- 
 nitors of the four classes now met with in the Malo."* 
 
 The details of the Kol frontier are not so well-known. 
 
 Neither are those of the districts where the Ghond and 
 
 * Paper by Lieut. J. P. Feye, — Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 
 vol. xvii. part 1. 
 
190 
 
 THE GUNDI. 
 
 Mahrafcta, the Ghond and Bengali, the Ghond and Telngu, 
 the Ghond and the Hindi forms of speech come in con- 
 tact. These, however, are the languages by which it is 
 bounded. 
 
 A short vocabulary by Mr. Manger, of the Ghond, is 
 to be found in the 1 45th number of the Journal of the 
 Asiatic Society, and a longer one in a previous number. 
 The former gives the language of the parts about Ellich- 
 poor, where the Mahratta is the language with which 
 it is most in contact. The latter is from the district of 
 Seonee ; on or near the Kol frontier. The following 
 extracts are from Mr. Manger's notice of it; 
 
 English. 
 
 Gundi. 
 
 Englisk 
 
 Giindi. 
 
 MaU 
 
 m^ndsa 
 
 Back 
 
 murchur 
 
 Boy 
 
 perga 
 
 Ai-ms 
 
 kayik 
 
 Infant 
 
 chowa 
 
 Thighs 
 
 kurki 
 
 Young man 
 
 pekur 
 
 Navel 
 
 mud 
 
 Old man 
 
 sena 
 
 Knees 
 
 tungru 
 
 Woman 
 
 maiju 
 
 Legs 
 
 potri 
 
 Girl 
 
 pergi 
 
 Feet 
 
 kal 
 
 Young woman 
 
 rayah 
 
 Water 
 
 er 
 
 Married woman 
 
 lunguriar 
 
 Fire 
 
 kis 
 
 Head 
 
 tulla 
 
 Tree 
 
 murra 
 
 Forehead 
 
 kuppar 
 
 Flower 
 
 pungar 
 
 Eyebrows 
 
 kunkunda 
 
 Firewood 
 
 kuttia 
 
 Eyelids 
 
 mindi 
 
 Salt 
 
 sowur 
 
 Eyes 
 
 kunk 
 
 Oil 
 
 ni 
 
 Nose 
 
 mussur 
 
 Ghee 
 
 palni 
 
 Ears 
 
 kohi 
 
 Milk 
 
 p^l 
 
 Cheeks 
 
 korir 
 
 Butter 
 
 nenii 
 
 Lips 
 
 sewli 
 
 Mare 
 
 kr(ip 
 
 Mouth 
 
 tudhi 
 
 'Cow 
 
 mura 
 
 Tongue 
 
 wuiija 
 
 Heifer 
 
 kullor 
 
 Teeth 
 
 pulk 
 
 Calf 
 
 paia 
 
 Chin 
 
 towrwa 
 
 Bullock 
 
 koda 
 
 Throat - 
 
 gunga 
 
 Udder 
 
 tokur 
 
 Neck 
 
 wurrur 
 
 Horns 
 
 kor 
 
 Shoulders 
 
 sutta 
 
 Buffalo 
 
 urmi 
 
 Nails 
 
 tirrls 
 
 Horse 
 
 perr^l 
 
 Armpit 
 
 k^ukli 
 
 Wheat 
 
 gohuc 
 
 Stomach 
 
 pir 
 
 Bread 
 
 gohuc sari 
 
 Loins 
 
 nunni 
 
 nice 
 
 paraik 
 
 Entrails 
 
 puddu 
 
 She goat 
 
 peti 
 
GUNDI GRAMMAR. 
 
 191 
 
 English. 
 
 
 
 Gundi. 
 
 English. 
 
 
 Gundi. 
 
 Dog 
 
 
 
 naie 
 
 Between 
 
 nuddum 
 
 Cat 
 
 
 
 bhongal 
 
 Behind 
 
 Pija 
 
 Wild cat 
 
 
 
 wurkar 
 
 Above 
 
 purro 
 
 Fowls 
 
 
 
 kiir 
 
 Beneath 
 
 sidi 
 
 Code 
 
 
 
 gunguri 
 
 On account 
 
 lane 
 
 Chickens 
 
 
 
 chlwar 
 
 Hither 
 
 hikkg 
 
 Eggs 
 
 
 
 mesuk 
 
 Thither 
 
 hukke 
 
 Mice 
 
 
 
 uUi 
 
 Now 
 
 indeke 
 
 Serpents 
 
 
 
 turrds 
 
 When 
 
 boppor 
 
 Fish 
 
 
 
 mink 
 
 Here 
 
 iga ^ 
 
 Tiger 
 
 
 
 p611ie 
 
 Thus 
 
 ital atal 
 
 WalTc 
 
 
 
 takana 
 
 Daily 
 
 dink 
 
 Run 
 
 
 
 witt^na 
 
 One 
 
 undl 
 
 Laugh 
 
 
 
 kowana 
 
 Two 
 
 rund 
 
 Sing 
 
 
 
 wurana 
 
 Three 
 
 miind 
 
 Dance 
 
 
 
 yendana 
 
 Four 
 
 nalo 
 
 Speah 
 
 
 
 wtinkana 
 
 Five 
 
 saiyan 
 
 Fight 
 
 
 
 turritana 
 
 Six^ 
 
 s6,r(in 
 
 Beat 
 
 
 
 jittana 
 
 Seven 
 
 6ro 
 
 Weep 
 
 
 
 urtana 
 
 Eight 
 
 armtir 
 
 No 
 
 
 
 hille 
 
 Nine 
 
 urmah 
 
 Yes 
 
 
 
 hinge 
 
 Ten 
 
 pudth 
 
 Near 
 
 
 
 kurrun 
 
 Twenty 
 
 wisa 
 
 Before 
 
 
 
 nunne 
 
 Fifty 
 
 punnas 
 
 Within 
 
 
 
 rupper 
 
 Hundred 
 
 nur. 
 
 Kora 
 
 
 a horse. 
 
 Korank hor 
 
 ses. 
 
 Korana 
 Korada 
 
 \ 
 
 of 
 
 a horse. 
 
 Korankna of horses. 
 
 Korat 
 
 n 
 
 to 
 
 a horse. 
 
 Korankun horses. 
 
 Kor^tu 
 
 
 
 
 
 Koratsfin 
 
 by 
 
 a horse 
 
 Koranksiin by horses 
 
 Nak or nunna 
 
 1 
 
 
 Imma 
 
 thou 
 
 Wur 
 
 he 
 
 Nowa 
 
 my 
 
 
 Niwa 
 
 thy 
 
 Wnnna 
 
 his 
 
 Nakun 
 
 me 
 
 
 Nikiin 
 
 thee 
 
 Wunk 
 
 him 
 
 Naksun 
 
 hy me 
 
 ! Niksiin 
 
 by thee 
 
 Wunksun by him 
 
 Mak 
 
 we 
 
 
 
 Imdt. 
 
 you 
 
 Wurg 
 
 they 
 
 Mowan 
 
 our 
 
 
 
 Miwat 
 
 your 
 
 Wurran 
 
 their 
 
 Makun 
 
 us 
 
 
 
 Mekun 
 
 you 
 
 Wurrun 
 
 them 
 
 Mdksun 
 
 by us 
 
 
 Miksun 
 
 by you 
 
 Wurrunsun by them. 
 
 Yii-g 
 
 this 
 
 
 
 Bur 
 
 who 
 
 Ud he, she, it. 
 
 Yenna 
 
 oft 
 
 his 
 
 
 Bona 
 
 whose 
 
 
 
 Yenk 
 
 this 
 
 
 
 Bonk 
 
 whom 
 
 Ten \ h 
 Tdne; 
 
 im, her, it, 
 
 Yenksun 
 
 hy this 
 
 
 Bons6n 
 
 by wliom 
 
 them 
 
192 
 
 GUJSTDI GRAMMAR. 
 
 Yirg 
 
 these 
 
 Burk 
 
 toho 
 
 
 Yirran 
 
 of these 
 
 Boran 
 
 of whom 
 
 
 Yirkun 
 
 these 
 
 Bonk 
 
 whom 
 
 Tunna, his, hers, theirs. 
 
 Yirruusun 
 
 hy these 
 
 Bonsun 
 
 hy whom 
 
 
 
 Bore, some one. 
 
 Bara, something. 
 
 
 Bora, what ? 
 
 Plural, Barauk, what ? 
 
 
 Wunka 
 
 speah 
 
 
 Wunkunna 
 
 to speak 
 
 
 Wunki 
 
 speaking 
 
 
 Wunktur 
 
 spoken 
 
 
 Wunksi 
 
 having spoken 
 
 
 Nunna wunki 
 
 I speak 
 
 
 Imma wunki 
 
 thou speakest 
 
 
 Wur wunki 
 
 he speaks 
 
 
 Mar wunki 
 
 we speak 
 
 
 I mar wunki 
 
 ye speak 
 
 
 Wurg wunki 
 
 they speak. 
 
 Nunna wunkundan \ 
 
 I Nunna, wunksi howe 
 
 Imma wunkundi > / was 
 
 speaking, &c. \ Imma, wunksi howe, &c 
 
 Wur wunkundur ) 
 
 ( same for all persons. 
 
 
 Mar wunkundum 
 
 ) 
 
 
 Imar wunkundir 
 
 > I shall have spoken. 
 
 
 Wurg wunkundurg 
 
 ) 
 
 
 Nunna wunktan, / spoke. 
 Imma wunkti 
 Wur wunktur 
 
 Wunka, speak thou. 
 
 Mdr wunktum 
 Imar wunktir 
 Wurg wunkttirg 
 
 Nunna wunksi 
 Imma wunksi 
 Wur wunksi 
 Mar wunksi 
 Imar wunksi 
 Wurg wunksi 
 
 Nunna wunkika 
 Imma wunkiki 
 Wur wunkaniir 
 Mar wunklkum 
 Imar wunkikir 
 Wurg wunkanurg 
 
 Wunkar, speak ye. 
 
 I had spoken, &c. 
 
 I shall speik. 
 
 ff\J 
 
GUNDI GRAMMAR. 193 
 
 Nunna ■wunkundan howe 
 
 Imma wunkundi howe 
 
 Wlr wunkundur liowe f- / shall he speaU 
 
 Mar wunkundir howe 
 
 Wurg wunkundurg howe 
 
 1. 
 Mowa Dowial budrut purro muddar-warre ; Niwa purrol dhurmat-ma 
 aie. Niwa nijpat waie. Niwar bichar ital budrit purro mundar atal durtit 
 purro d,ud. Mowa pialda sarin neut mak punkiut : unde babun mar upnun 
 reina dhen-6m kisia-turrum, atal imma mak dherum kisiut, unde makun 
 miwa jhara-jberti te niuni watnat unde burrotsun mak pisib^t, barike 
 niwa rajpat, unni niwa bul, unni niwa dburmat mal sudda mund ital 
 and. 
 
 In English. 
 Our Father heaven above inhabitant ; Thy name hallowed be. Thy king- 
 dom come. Thy will as heaven above is, so earth on be. Our daily bread 
 to-day to us give : and as we our debtors forgive, so thou to us trespasses for- 
 give, and us into thy temptations do not throw, and from evil us deliver, for 
 thy kingdom and thy power and thy glory established remain, so be it. 
 
 2. 
 
 1. Kodawund niwa Purmesur nunna andur, namunne niwur Deo bor6 
 hille audur. 
 
 2. Apun lane kital penk, bore budde ai jins ital budrate nuni dhurtile, 
 unni yete mundar, atal miuni kemut imat wurea k^l minni kurmat, unde 
 wurrun rdmakisni minni kemat ; iden laine laine m^k an mundur, unde 
 dourana papun sate chawtin purro s^siut dusta-tona, nati unni punti-lor 
 purro, wurg admirun bor nowa bairi munda, unde mat awen — men sun 
 hazaron nakun mink pundaturg, unde nowa wunktan purro taki-turg, nunna 
 wurrun purro durmi kia tona. 
 
 3. Purmesur-da parrol labarit purro minni yeumat, tin-lainun papi ainun 
 wurg manwal bor Purmesur-da parrol labarit purro yetanur. 
 
 4. Purmesur-da pidl purriat unde tan swaf ir^t sarrun pialk bunni buta 
 kimpt, unde sub miwa k^m kimpt, at ernfida pi^l Purmesur-da pial mundur, 
 ud pial imma buttiai kam kemut, imma unni niwa pergal unni niwa pergol, 
 unni niwa rutkawal unni niwa kunda, unni niwa pownalur run munddr ; tin 
 laine Purmesur sarun pialk ne budra unni dherti unni sumdur unni cheit- 
 kunne jinsk iwite mundatan, awen kitur, nude yerrfin pial rum tur, tuilaine 
 id pialtun Purmesur dhurmat-mal tane kitur. 
 
 5. Imma upnon babonna unni awunna sewa kimpt, ten sun niwa yarbul 
 durtit purro Purmesisr nikun situr, par^l aud. 
 
 6. Imma mauwan minni jukmat. 
 
 7. Imma pap minni kema. 
 
 8. Imma kulwein minni kema. 
 
 9. Imma upnon biganun purro labari gohai minni sena. 
 
 10. Imma upnon biganun -ta rota lob minni kema. Imma upnon biganun- 
 na maigu-na lob minni kema, unde wunna rutkawal unde wunna kfinda, 
 innui wunnal guddal unde buttie-jins, upnon biganun-na mundar tan purro 
 lob minni kema. 
 
 O 
 
194 SPECIMENS OF THE GUNBI. 
 
 Jn English. 
 
 1. Tlie Lord thy God I am, besides me thy gods not any shall he. 
 
 2. Ta yourselves graven images, any sort of creature such as in heaven and 
 on earth, and in s^, are, such do not make — you their feet do not embrace, 
 and their obeisance do not perform ; because to* me jealousy is, and father's 
 sins for children on, punishment inflict, grand childrea and great-grand chil- 
 dren upon those men who my enemies are, and I from amrnig those a thou- 
 sand (who) me as a friend take, and my commands according to walk, I on 
 them my shadows throw, 
 
 3. God's name in, falsehood do not take, for guilty will be that man who 
 God's name in falsehood shall take. 
 
 4. God's day remember and it holy keep ; six days daily work do, and all 
 thy labour perform, but seventh day God's day is, that day thou any kind of 
 work do not make, thou and thy son, and thy daughter, and thy servants, 
 and thy cattle, and thy stranger (thy) house dwelling ; because God six days 
 in, heaven, and earth, and sea, and each creature in them existing, them 
 made, and seventh day rest took, therefore that day God hallowed estab- 
 lished. 
 
 5. Thou thy father^s and mother's service perform, therefore thy life, the 
 land upon, God to thee has given, prolonged may be. 
 
 6. Thou a man not kill. 
 
 7. Thou adultery not do. 
 
 8. Thou theft not do. 
 
 9. Thou thy neighbour against false witness not give. 
 
 10. Thou thy neighbour's house covet not. Thou thy neighbour's wife covet 
 not, and his ho use -servants, and his ox, and his ass, and anything, that thy 
 neighbour's is it upon covetousness not make. 
 
 3. 
 Sandsumjee-na saka kuydt, ro Bafcan, 
 Sark ask kitur, Sing-Baban hille puttur, 
 Yirrun ask kitur, awlte Sing-Baban autarietur. 
 Aular yetana Baban punwake. 
 Taksitun Baban, tunwa pari sumpte kiale 
 Barike bouke aie penk putta sika. 
 Hikke Sing-Baban putti-le-ai latur. 
 Loro askna sowati, sarun mutta. 
 
 Awitun, koti annate tulla dtirissT, *'assun inga chawa putti," 
 Ud it, ahe kint annate tullatun durritun, 
 Unni Sing-Baban purtUr, 
 Sing-Baban techi urmi sarte michitun, 
 Unni nai-plla taniga dussitfin, 
 Unni itttir, nai-jula wattoni, 
 
 Nai-pilla mis^te ; tank kawai kede kiate tare kitfm, 
 Sing-Baban, urmi ittfin, ke yenk borre minni jera^t, 
 Na tokar jemat, unni torde pal ptirsi ten tihat. 
 Au sarlinge ask whdr setfin, pistur ka satur ? 
 Sing-Baban gursunddr. 
 Augrul tinde techi mfira na sarkte nuchitun. 
 
SPECIMENS OF THE GUNDI. 19. 
 
 Murai itttin Sing-Baban bore jarniut 
 
 Natokar jemat torde pal pirsi ten tihat, 
 
 Agra kubber tuUick setun, satur ke pisltir ? 
 
 Sing-Baban gursunddr, 
 
 Agral techi kuan ruppa nucbitun. 
 
 Tisro dian bur settin, satur ka pistur ? 
 
 Sing-Baban aga tinde gursunddr. 
 
 Agral dnde ttinsi ptillia-na surrit purro. 
 
 Nucbicbi situn, Pfillial ask mandsal wandurg ; 
 
 Sing-Baban na arana kinchturg. 
 
 PuUial mian tras lakt, naur murri atidtir, 
 
 Ingi tecbi ygt, Tunwa rtind wot unni tunwa pilausdn niaro irt, 
 
 Khandk tullana tunwa pilautin tbitana 
 
 Pillan hotlta, pal Sing-Baban uhnud 
 
 Tbe kina kina ke, Sing-Baban husiar atur. 
 
 Undl dian wunna avari tunwa pilanstin 
 
 Milaf kissicblsi, unni pi Ian tin indalat 
 
 Immer urpa mundana turrim^t minni 
 
 Tisro diaii Sing-Baban itturke, mowa kaia desita 
 
 Makun putchial, kor, pheta tuchim 
 
 Adungi battum surde ucclii raimat 
 
 Punkatur unni marratur maralur agdol passiturg 
 
 Tecbi wit, wurg tunwa guttri potri nuchi surrit^rg 
 
 Ud tecbi tuccbit, Sing-Baban tunsi kursi yetiin . , 
 
 Unni tunwa awarinna kal kurttir, 
 
 Munna munnake tinde dian unde indalatur 
 
 Ki nak gullele tuccbim ud benbud 
 
 Uccbi raimat, Wtirrtir sipabi gullele-warre agdol pussittir 
 
 Ud vit ktissi, Gtillele nucbi surrittir. 
 
 Ud tecbi urriwat Sing-Baba sit ; 
 
 Sing-Baba tunna tummtir singne gursi latur, 
 
 Pittun ptidtir tunna tummur tan tindlir 
 
 Tbe kina ke, Sandsumji niga sube wattir 
 
 Unni Sandsumji nida latur peuk bouk wandum ? lour ebat • 
 
 Penk bouke waiyun ? aga Sing-Baba timhen kitun 
 
 Sing-Baba taksittir tunna tummur sungue muttur 
 
 Wasiaauttir, uddam atur wtirrtir Bummenal 
 
 "Wtin Sing-Baba teta latur, Wur tedtir ; 
 
 Tunnardn gussalakt wur Bummenal tingiettir 
 
 Sing-Baba penk tecbietur. 
 
 Sube indalattir ke imma boni audi ? 
 
 Wur ittur ke immer urmitiun unni mtiramtir keat 
 
 Unni tunwa tumman indalatur, hun dain kesi terah 
 
 Wur vittar kesi tuttur. 
 
 Yen mtinte jins unde punchatite puna atur 
 
 .Tub Sing-Baba indalatur k^ iwen puche kimpt 
 
 Awen sun pticbe kial latur, yir btir audtirl 
 
 Mtinne urmi wunktun yir Sandstimjeentir murri audur. 
 
 o 2 
 
196 SPECIMENS OF THE GUNDL 
 
 Wtirg indalatur, imma bane putti ? Awitttin 
 
 Maiga rundidian mungi muttur. Bahur mungi muttur 
 
 Awittun niwa sartinge ask tuttchi maiga pikklle nuchi angi 
 
 Unni igga Mile sai6r, to murana sarte nuchiche sittir 
 
 Awen ptiche kial atlir, Maiga Baban at ? 
 
 Miiraittin ke, Maiga rund dian mungi muttur 
 
 Awen sarlingi ask agral wosi kfiante nuchi sltlin 
 
 Aga tinde bille saitir. To agrul tunsi kojane bewatun 
 
 Sing-Baban pticbe kial attirk^ agral imma behuth ? 
 
 Wtir ittur id nowa awan pucbe kimpt 
 
 Wunna awal ptillian pticbe kia latur 
 
 Imma bugga punne mat! ] Ud it 
 
 Mowa surde awe sardnge ask mucHche mutta 
 
 Nunna techi urri wat^n, nowa pil§,n notita 
 
 P^l y^n iihth^n unni hinda hiinda bala buttir 
 
 Nowa chowanfin thet^n sube j^nk ptilliS.na 
 
 Kal ktirt^r unni tane penk thaira kitur. 
 
 Unni awe sarunge askntin ^den pdllian sitlirg. 
 
 Udnetl t^l Sing-Baban putt41 attir 
 
 Unni pulli^l nlide penk thairi mat 
 
 Sandsumjee Bab^na id saka §,ud 
 
 Bhirri b^ns-BLirri-ta s^ka ^ud. 
 
 In English. 
 Sandsumjee's song hear, Father. 
 Six wives he took, Sing-Baba not bom, 
 Seventh wife took, by her Sing-Baba was conceived. 
 Of her pregnancy Father was not informed. 
 Departed Father, his kinsfolk being assembled together 
 For this reason to some one it happened to offer a sacrifice to a God. 
 Hereupon Sing-Baba began to be bom. 
 Small wife was sleeping, the other six were there. 
 Said they, grain basket's mouth into, her head let us introduce in our hous 
 
 child is bom, 
 So said, so done, into mouth her head introduced, 
 And Sing-Baba was bom, 
 
 Sing-Baba having taken up, into Buffaloes' stable threw, 
 And a puppy instead placed, 
 And said, a puppy is born, 
 
 A puppy having brought forth, thence crows to frighten they set her, 
 Sing-Baba, buffaloes said, that him let none hurt, 
 Nor blow strike, and into his mouth milk having poured him suckled. 
 The six wives said, let us go and see him, is he living or dead 1 
 Sing-Baba was playing. 
 
 Thence indeed having taken him into cows' stable threw. 
 The cows said Sing-Baba let no one hurt 
 Or blow strike, into his mouth milk pouring him suckled, 
 Therefore information they sent to seek, is he living or dead ? 
 
SPECIMENS OF THE GUNDI. 197 
 
 Sing:Bal)a was playing. 
 
 Thence having taken well into threw. 
 
 On the third day having gone to see, is he living or dead ? 
 
 Sing-Baba there indeed was playing. 
 
 Thence indeed having taken, Tiger's path upon. 
 
 They threw him, Tiger's female and male were coming ; 
 
 Sing-Baba's cries they heard. 
 
 Tigress compassion felt, "my child it is." 
 
 Having said so, took him away. Their den came to and their pups from 
 
 apart set, 
 Meat bringing their pups to feed 
 Their pups weaning, with milk Sing-Baba suckled, 
 So continuing to do, Sing-Baba grew up. 
 One day his mother her whelps 
 Together brought, and to whelps began to say 
 Yourselves among together stay, fight not. 
 The third day Sing-Baba said, my body is naked 
 To me a dhoty, dohur, and pugrey give. 
 She going Bazar road seated remained. 
 A muslin-maker and cloth-maker that way came 
 Having got up ran, they their bundles having thrown away fled, 
 She having taken up brought Sing-Baba took and put on 
 And his mother's feet kissed. 
 Staying staid then one day indeed began to say 
 That to me a bow give. She again went 
 Seated remained a sepoy armed with a bow that way came. 
 She ran having cried out. Bow thrown away, he fled. 
 She having it came and to Sing-Baba gave; 
 Sing-Baba big brother little brother together played. 
 Birds shot big brother little brother to them gave to eat 
 So continuing to do, Sandsumji home returned with his friends 
 And Sandsumji began to say has any one become inspired, let him arise ; 
 God into one not entered] Then Sing-Baba inspiration received. 
 Sing-Baba was coming, big brother little brother together were 
 Coming came, in the midst was a brahman 
 Him Sing-Baba required to get up, he refused ; 
 Big brother became angry, the brahman eat up 
 Sing-Baba the image took up. 
 All began to say, that you, who are you I 
 He said that you the Buffaloes and cows ask 
 And to his little brother said, mother go and call. 
 He ran and called. 
 
 These three species before the punchaite assembled came. 
 Then Sing-Baba said that them question. 
 From them they asked, this one who is he ? 
 First the buffaloes said this Sandsumjee's son is. 
 They said, you how understand ? These said 
 In our house two days staid* How did he remain ? 
 
198 SPECIMENS OF THE GUNDI. 
 
 These said thy six wives having taken into our house to kill threw 
 
 And there not injured, then cows' house into threw 
 
 From these asked, How into your house Baba came ? 
 
 The cows said, At our house two days stayed. 
 
 These six wives thence having taken into well threw, 
 
 There indeed not injured, thence taking I know not where took. 
 
 Sing-Baba they questioned that thence you went where ? 
 
 He said of my mother ask. 
 
 They mother-tigress asked 
 
 You where found ? She said 
 
 On my road these six wives threw away ; 
 
 I having taken brought, my whelps weaning. 
 
 Milk him suckled and here there with prey 
 
 My young fed. All-understood, tigress' 
 
 Feet embraced, and her a Grod established. 
 
 And these six wives to this tigress gave. 
 
 That day Sing-Baba illustrious became 
 
 And Tigress indeed as a God established became. 
 
 Of Sandsumjee Baba this song is. 
 
 Of Bhirry bamboo-jungle Bhirri the song is. 
 
 Data for the Gundi are pre-emiuently deficient. 
 
THE URAON AND RAJMAHALI. 199 
 
 CHAPTER XXIX. 
 
 Uraon and Eajmaliali. 
 
 It has already been stated that, though the Kol dialects, 
 eo nomine^ were the ones which were noticed next to 
 those of the class represented by the Darahi and Kus- 
 war, the form of speech, other than Hindu, which lay 
 in the closest geographical proximity to the Himalayas 
 was not, eo nomine, KoL 
 
 The notice of it was postponed for the following 
 reason — its affinities are believed to lie with Khond to 
 the south, and with the Uraon to the west of the Kol 
 area rather than with the Kol itself. 
 
 Such, at least, is the doctrine expressed in a work 
 which, from both its merits and its circulation, is likely 
 to influence the opinion of investigators — Mr. Caldweirs 
 Grammar of the Dravirian Language — Dravirian mean- 
 ing akin to the Tamid and its immediate congeners. 
 That the Tamul is a language of the extreme south we 
 have seen : whereas the language under notice, though 
 scarcely one of the extreme north, is a northern one — 
 northern enough to be spoken along a mountain-range, 
 the foot of which is washed by the Oanges. Near to 
 where this river is cut by the 25 th degree of N. L. 
 stand the Rajmahal Hills : where two forms of speech 
 are used. One is the ordinary Suntal of certain intru- 
 sive Kols. The other is an older, and apparently a 
 native, dialect — which we may call the Eajmahali. 
 
 Now, Caldwell has committed himself to the doctrine 
 that the Rajmahali is more Dravirian than the Kol — 
 though further from the centre of the Dravirian a^rea : 
 
200 
 
 THE URAON AND RAJMAHALI. 
 
 indeed, he excludes the Kol from the Dravirian class — 
 or, at any rate, hesitates to admit it. 
 
 I treat, then, the Rajmahali as more Khond than Kol 
 — only, however, provisionally and until further materials 
 for forming a judgment are supplied. 
 
 In the following table the words marked are from the 
 list in Caldwell's Grammar ; the others from a vocabu- 
 lary by Major Roberts in the fifth volume of the 
 Asiatic Researches : — 
 
 English. 
 
 Rajmahali. 
 
 English. 
 
 Rajmahali. 
 
 Man 
 
 *male 
 
 Nail 
 
 uruk 
 
 Head 
 
 kUk 
 
 Hand 
 
 *sesu 
 
 
 *kupe 
 
 Fingers 
 
 angilli 
 
 Hair 
 
 tuUi 
 
 Foot 
 
 tshupta 
 
 Nose 
 
 moi 
 
 
 *kev 
 
 Blood 
 
 kiss 
 
 Arm 
 
 tat budahi 
 
 
 *kesu 
 
 Sun 
 
 *ber 
 
 Eye 
 
 kun 
 
 Moon 
 
 *bilpe 
 
 Eyebrow 
 
 kunmudha 
 
 Star 
 
 badekah 
 
 Ear 
 
 kydule 
 
 
 bindeke 
 
 
 *khetway 
 
 Fire 
 
 tshutsha 
 
 Tooth 
 
 pul 
 
 Water 
 
 um 
 
 Belly 
 
 kutshah 
 
 Stone 
 
 tshatshar 
 
 Bone 
 
 *koclial 
 
 Tree 
 
 intin 
 
 
 kutshul 
 
 Fish 
 
 min 
 
 Bach 
 
 kukah 
 
 SnaJce 
 
 nlr. 
 
 The following (from Caldwell) is a comparison of the 
 Rajmahali and Tamul pronouns : — 
 
 English. 
 
 £ajmaha,li. 
 
 Tamul. 
 
 / 
 
 en 
 
 en, nan 
 
 Thou 
 
 nin 
 
 nin 
 
 He, she, it 
 
 ath 
 
 &ta 
 
 We 
 
 nam 
 
 nd,nL 
 
 
 om* 
 
 6ni 
 
 Ye 
 
 nina 
 
 nim 
 
 They 
 
 awar 
 
 avar 
 
 This 
 
 Ih 
 
 1 
 
 That 
 
 Ah 
 
 > 
 
 Here 
 
 Irio 
 
 inge 
 
 There 
 
 &no 
 
 ange. 
 
 The Uraon, compared, by Caldwell, with the Raj- 
 
THE URAON AND RAJMAHALL 
 
 201 
 
 maliali, is placed by liim in the same category. It is a 
 language of western rather than the northern frontier of 
 the Kol area, within which it is spoken. It is held, 
 however, to be intrusive from the parts about Hotasghur 
 near the junction of the Coylle and Soone. 
 Its position is provisional. 
 
 English. 
 
 Uraon. 
 
 English. 
 
 Uraon. 
 
 Man 
 
 alia 
 
 Foot 
 
 dappe 
 
 Head 
 
 kuk, M. 
 
 Hand 
 
 khekhali 
 
 Hair 
 
 chutti 
 
 Sun 
 
 dharmi 
 
 Ear 
 
 khebda 
 
 Moon 
 
 chando 
 
 Eye 
 
 khan 
 
 Star 
 
 binka 
 
 Blood 
 
 khens 
 
 Fire 
 
 chek 
 
 Bone 
 
 khochal 
 
 Water 
 
 um. 
 
 The words marked with an asterisk are from Caldwell. 
 
202 
 
 THE TEiiEGU. 
 
 CHAPTER XXX. 
 
 The Tamul Class. — Telugu or Telinga. — Tamul Proper. — Malayalim. — Cana- 
 rese.--Tulu or Tulava. — Rude Tribes. — Tuda. — Budugur. — Irular. — 
 Kohatar. 
 
 The Telugu, or Telinga, is spoken from Chicacole to 
 Pulicat, and extends westwards as far as the eastern 
 boundary of the Marathi ; being the chief language of 
 the northern Circars as well as parts of Hyderabad, 
 Nagptir, and Gondwana. 
 
 English. 
 
 Telugu. 
 
 English. 
 
 Teluo;u. 
 
 Man 
 
 al 
 
 Thou 
 
 nivu 
 
 Head 
 
 tala 
 
 He 
 
 vadtt 
 
 Hair 
 
 ventruka 
 
 She 
 
 ame 
 
 Ear- 
 
 chevi 
 
 It 
 
 adi 
 
 Eye 
 
 kannu 
 
 We 
 
 memu 
 
 Mouth 
 
 noru 
 
 Ye 
 
 miru 
 
 Tooth 
 
 pallu 
 
 They 
 
 varu 
 
 Bone 
 
 emika 
 
 Mine 
 
 nadi 
 
 Blood 
 
 netturu 
 
 Thine 
 
 nidi 
 
 Egg 
 
 gaddu 
 
 His 
 
 vadidi 
 
 Bay 
 
 pagalu 
 
 Our 
 
 madi 
 
 Night 
 
 reyi 
 
 Your 
 
 midi 
 
 Sky 
 
 minnu 
 
 Their 
 
 varidi 
 
 Sun 
 
 poddu 
 
 One 
 
 vokati 
 
 Star 
 
 chukka 
 
 Two 
 
 rendu 
 
 Fire 
 
 tippu 
 
 Three 
 
 mudu 
 
 Water 
 
 nillu 
 
 Four 
 
 nalugu 
 
 River 
 
 €ru 
 
 Five 
 
 ayidu 
 
 Stone 
 
 rayi 
 
 Six 
 
 &TVL 
 
 Tree ■ 
 
 chettu 
 
 Seven 
 
 «du 
 
 Village 
 
 uni 
 
 Eight 
 
 €nimidi 
 
 Snake 
 
 pama 
 
 Nine 
 
 tommidi 
 
 I 
 
 nenu 
 
 Ten 
 
 padi. 
 
THE TAMUL. 
 
 SOS 
 
 The Tamul succeeds the Telinga about Pulicat, and is 
 spoken along the coast of Coromandel as far as Cape 
 Comorin. It then turns north ; but is succeeded in the 
 parts about Trevandrum by the Malay aUm. Inland, it 
 extends to the Ghauts and Nilgherries. It is spoken, 
 also, in the north of Ceylon, and by numerous settlers 
 and emigrants in Pegu, Penang, Singapore, and the 
 Mauritius. 
 
 English. 
 
 Tamul. 
 
 English. 
 
 Tamul. 
 
 Man 
 
 al 
 
 / 
 
 nan 
 
 Head 
 
 talei 
 
 Thou 
 
 ni 
 
 Hair 
 
 mayir 
 
 He 
 
 avan 
 
 Ear 
 
 kadu 
 
 Slie 
 
 aval 
 
 Eye 
 
 kan 
 
 It 
 
 adu 
 
 Mouth 
 
 vayi 
 
 We 
 
 nam 
 
 Tooth 
 
 pal 
 
 Ye 
 
 nir 
 
 Bone 
 
 elumbu 
 
 They 
 
 avar 
 
 Bhod 
 
 udiram 
 
 Mine 
 
 enadu 
 
 Egg 
 
 muttei 
 
 Thine 
 
 unadu 
 
 Day 
 
 pagal 
 
 His 
 
 avanadu 
 
 Night 
 
 ira 
 
 Our 
 
 nam adu 
 
 Sky 
 
 vanam 
 
 Your 
 
 umadu 
 
 Sun 
 
 pakalon 
 
 Their 
 
 avarudu 
 
 Moon 
 
 tingal 
 
 One 
 
 onru 
 
 Star 
 
 vanmin 
 
 Two 
 
 irandu 
 
 Fire 
 
 neruppu 
 
 Three 
 
 mnnru 
 
 Water 
 
 tanni 
 
 Four 
 
 nalu 
 
 River 
 
 aru 
 
 Five 
 
 anju 
 
 Stone 
 
 kal 
 
 Six 
 
 aru 
 
 Tree 
 
 sedi 
 
 Seven 
 
 ezhu 
 
 
 maram 
 
 Eight 
 
 ettu 
 
 Village 
 
 ir 
 
 Nine 
 
 ombadu 
 
 Snake 
 
 pambu 
 
 Ten 
 
 patta. 
 
 The Malayalmi is the language of the western side 
 of the coast of Malabar. On its east lies the Canarese ; 
 on its north the Tulava ; on its south the Tamul. The 
 Tamul touches it at Trevandrum ; the Tulava and Cana- 
 rese of Canara about Mangalore. It stretches over 
 about six degrees of latitude, but only in a narrow strip 
 between the Ghauts and the sea. It is the vernacular 
 
204 
 
 MALAYALIM. 
 
 of Cochin, and the northern and middle parts of Tra- 
 vancore. It is a separate substantive language, possibly 
 more akin to the Tamul than its other congeners — but 
 no Tamul dialect. 
 
 English. 
 
 Ma'ajalim. 
 
 English. 
 
 Malayalim 
 
 Man 
 
 al 
 
 I 
 
 gnan 
 
 Head 
 
 tala 
 
 Thou 
 
 ni 
 
 Hair 
 
 talamudi 
 
 He 
 
 avan 
 
 Ear 
 
 kada 
 
 She 
 
 aval 
 
 Eye 
 
 kanna 
 
 It 
 
 ada 
 
 Mouth 
 
 vaya 
 
 We 
 
 guangal 
 
 Tooth 
 
 palla 
 
 Ye 
 
 ningal 
 
 Bone 
 
 ella 
 
 They 
 
 avara 
 
 Blood 
 
 chora 
 
 Mine 
 
 enre 
 
 Egg 
 
 mutta 
 
 Thine 
 
 ninre 
 
 Bay 
 
 pagal 
 
 His 
 
 avanre 
 
 Night 
 
 rav 
 
 Our 
 
 nangade 
 
 Sky 
 
 manam 
 
 Your 
 
 ningade 
 
 Sun 
 
 surga 
 
 Their 
 
 avarude 
 
 Moon 
 
 tingal 
 
 One 
 
 onna 
 
 Star 
 
 minjawna 
 
 Two 
 
 rendu 
 
 Fire 
 
 tiyya 
 
 Three 
 
 munnu 
 
 Water 
 
 vellam 
 
 Four 
 
 nala 
 
 River 
 
 piizha 
 
 Five 
 
 anja 
 
 Stone 
 
 kalla 
 
 Six 
 
 ara 
 
 Tree 
 
 chedi 
 
 Seven 
 
 ezha 
 
 
 
 maram 
 
 Fight 
 
 etta 
 
 Village 
 
 tara 
 
 Nine 
 
 ombada 
 
 
 desam 
 
 Ten 
 
 patta. 
 
 SnaJce 
 
 The Canarese touches the Telinga in the north-east, 
 and the Tamul in the south-east. Mysore is its centre. 
 It touches the coast between Goa and Mangalore ; where, 
 however, it is intrusive. 
 
 English. 
 
 Canarese. 
 
 English. 
 
 Canarese. 
 
 Man 
 
 alu 
 
 Tooth 
 
 kallu 
 
 Head 
 
 tale 
 
 Bone 
 
 eluvu 
 
 Hair 
 
 kudala 
 
 Blood 
 
 netturu 
 
 Ear 
 
 kivi 
 
 Egg 
 
 tatti, motti 
 
 Eye 
 
 kannu 
 
 Hay 
 
 hagalu 
 
 Mouth 
 
 bayi 
 
 Night 
 
 iralu 
 
THE KODUGU, OR CURGI. 
 
 205 
 
 English. 
 
 Canarese. 
 
 English. 
 
 Canarese. 
 
 Sky 
 
 banu 
 
 They 
 
 avaru 
 
 Sun 
 
 hottu 
 
 Mine 
 
 nannadu 
 
 Moon 
 
 tingalu 
 
 Thine 
 
 ninnada 
 
 Star 
 
 chukki 
 
 His 
 
 avanu 
 
 Fire 
 
 henki {Sing.) 
 
 Our 
 
 nammadu 
 
 Water 
 
 niru 
 
 Your 
 
 nimmadu 
 
 River 
 
 hole 
 
 Their 
 
 avaradu 
 
 Stone 
 
 kallu 
 
 One 
 
 ondu 
 
 Tree 
 
 gida, niara 
 
 Two 
 
 eradu 
 
 Village 
 
 halli, uru 
 
 Three 
 
 muru 
 
 Snake 
 
 havu 
 
 Four 
 
 nalku 
 
 I 
 
 nanu 
 
 Five 
 
 ayidu 
 
 Thou 
 
 ninu 
 
 Six 
 
 aru 
 
 He 
 
 avanu 
 
 Seven 
 
 elu 
 
 She 
 
 avalu 
 
 Eight 
 
 entu 
 
 It 
 
 adu 
 
 Nine 
 
 ombhattu 
 
 We 
 
 navu 
 
 Ten 
 
 hattu. 
 
 Ye 
 
 nivu 
 
 
 
 In Curgi the language changes, and is, as may be ex- 
 pected, of so transitional a character, that whilst Ellis 
 calls it a dialect of the Tulu, Mogling of Man galore 
 states that it is more allied to the Tamul and Malay alim. 
 It is called the Kodugu. 
 
 The Tulu, itself, is the most northern language of its 
 class which touches the sea ; and it is essentially a 
 language of the coast. It has extended further north ; 
 having been encroached on by the Konkani dialect of 
 the Marathi, which abounds in Tulu words, apparently 
 derived from the earlier occupants. It is a language of 
 not only a small area but a decreasing one : being 
 pressed upon by the Canarese. It extends from the 
 Nileswara on the south, in N.L. 18° 30', where it 
 touches the Malayalim to the Bhahavara in N.L. 13° 
 30, four miles north of Upi, where it is succeeded by 
 the Konkani. The German missionaries at Mangalore 
 preach to the upper classes in Canarese, but to the 
 lower in Tulu. 
 
 English. 
 
 Kodugu. 
 
 Tulu. 
 
 Man 
 
 maniis 
 
 al 
 
 Head 
 
 mande 
 
 tare 
 
 Hair 
 
 oraraa 
 
 kudalu 
 
206 
 
 THE KODUGU, OR CURGI. 
 
 English. 
 
 Kodugu. 
 
 Tooth 
 
 pall 
 
 Eye 
 
 ane 
 
 Ear 
 
 kemi 
 
 Mouth ■ 
 
 bayi 
 
 Hand 
 
 
 Foot 
 
 
 Blood 
 
 chore 
 
 Bone 
 
 
 Day 
 
 pagil 
 
 Sun 
 
 
 Moon 
 
 
 Star 
 
 
 Fire ■ 
 
 
 Water 
 
 nir 
 
 Earth 
 
 
 Mountain 
 
 
 Rker 
 
 pole 
 
 Stone 
 
 
 Tree 
 
 mara 
 
 Bird 
 
 pakki 
 
 Egg 
 
 
 Fish 
 
 
 Flower 
 
 
 jiovn 
 Snake 
 
 pamb 
 
 I 
 
 nan 
 
 Thou 
 
 
 He 
 
 
 
 She 
 
 
 It 
 
 
 We 
 
 
 Ye 
 
 
 They 
 
 
 Mine 
 
 
 There 
 
 
 His 
 
 
 Ours 
 
 
 Yours 
 
 
 Theirs 
 
 
 One 
 
 
 Tivo 
 
 
 Three 
 
 
 Four 
 
 
 Five 
 
 
 Six 
 
 
 Seven 
 
 
 
 Tulu. . 
 
 kuli 
 
 ane 
 
 kebi 
 
 bayi 
 
 kai 
 
 tajji 
 
 nettar 
 
 elu 
 
 pogal 
 
 polutu 
 
 tingalu 
 
 daraya 
 
 tu 
 
 nir 
 
 nela 
 
 gudcle 
 
 tude 
 
 kalla 
 
 mara 
 
 pakki 
 
 mutte 
 
 tetti 
 
 min 
 
 pu 
 
 kombu 
 
 parapunu 
 
 en 
 
 aye 
 
 aval 
 
 av 
 
 enklia 
 
 inukulu 
 
 akulu 
 
 ennow 
 
 innow 
 
 ayanow 
 
 enknlanow 
 
 inkulanow 
 
 akulunow 
 
 onji 
 
 erad 
 
 muji 
 
 nalu 
 
 ayinu 
 
 aji 
 
 el 
 
THE KODUGU, t)R CURGL 
 
 207 
 
 English. KodugiL Tulu. 
 
 EifjTit ename 
 
 Nine orambo 
 
 Ten pattu. 
 
 The following are, according to Caldwell, the writer 
 from whose Dravirian Grammar the preceding details 
 are exclusively taken, the statistics of the above-men- 
 tioned languages ; one of which, apparently, includes 
 the Curgi. 
 
 1. Tamul is spoken by 
 
 2. Telinga 
 
 3. Canarese „ 
 
 4. Malay alim „ 
 
 5. Tulu 
 
 10,000,000 
 
 14,000,000 
 
 5,000,000 
 
 2,500,000 
 
 150,000 
 
 3J, 650,000 
 
 The previous forms of speech constitute a natural 
 group — a natural group, and not a very large one. 
 They all belong to the Dekhan. They are all spoken 
 by populations more or less Hindu. They are all t'ue 
 languages of the civilized Indian. Their area is con- 
 tinuous ; in other words, they are all in contact with 
 each other, and their frontiers join. There is nothing 
 between the Telinga and the Tamul, the Tamul and the 
 Canarese, the Tamul and the Malayalim. Their area is 
 continuous. 
 
 The following are from the. Nilgherry Hills. They are 
 all rude dialects of the Canarese ; of the Canarese rather 
 than the Tamul ; though not without Tamul elements. 
 
 1. 
 
 EndLh. 
 
 Erglish. 
 
 Tuda. 
 
 Man 
 
 al 
 
 Wom.an 
 
 knell 
 
 ITead 
 
 madd 
 
 Eye 
 
 kann 
 
 Ear 
 
 kevvi 
 
 Tooth 
 
 parsh 
 
 Mouth 
 
 bor 
 
 Blood 
 
 bach 
 
 Bone 
 
 elf 
 
 Foot 
 
 Hand 
 
 Day 
 
 Sim 
 
 Moon 
 
 Star 
 
 Fire 
 
 Water 
 
 River 
 
 Tuda. 
 kal 
 koi 
 nal 
 birsh 
 teggal 
 
 nebb 
 
 nir 
 
 pa. 
 
208 
 
 THE BUDUGUR, ETC. 
 
 2. 
 
 English. 
 
 Budugur. 
 
 English. 
 
 Budugur. 
 
 Man 
 
 manija 
 
 Star 
 
 
 Woman 
 
 hennu 
 
 Fire 
 
 kichchu 
 
 Head 
 
 mande 
 
 Water 
 
 niru 
 
 Eye 
 
 kannu 
 
 Fiver 
 
 holla 
 
 Ear 
 
 kive 
 
 One 
 
 vondu 
 
 Tooth 
 
 haUu 
 
 Two 
 
 yeradu 
 
 Mouth 
 
 bai 
 
 Three 
 
 muru 
 
 Blood 
 
 netra 
 
 Four 
 
 nalku 
 
 Bone 
 
 yellu 
 
 Five 
 
 eidu 
 
 Foot 
 
 kalu 
 
 Six 
 
 aru 
 
 Hand 
 
 kei 
 
 Seven 
 
 yellu 
 
 Day 
 
 dina 
 
 Eight 
 
 yettu 
 
 Sun 
 
 hottu 
 
 Nine 
 
 vombattu 
 
 Moon 
 
 tiggalu 
 
 Ten 
 
 hattu. 
 
 English, 
 
 Imlar. 
 
 3. 
 
 English. 
 
 Irular. 
 
 Man 
 
 manislia 
 
 Fire 
 
 tu, tee 
 
 Woman 
 
 ponnu 
 
 Water 
 
 dani 
 
 Head 
 
 tele 
 
 Fiver 
 
 palla 
 
 Eye 
 
 kannu 
 
 One 
 
 vondu 
 
 Ear 
 
 kadu 
 
 Two 
 
 erndu 
 
 Tooth 
 
 pallu 
 
 Three 
 
 muru 
 
 Mouth 
 
 vai 
 
 Four 
 
 naku 
 
 Blood 
 
 latta 
 
 Five 
 
 eindu 
 
 Bone 
 
 yellambu 
 
 Six 
 
 aru 
 
 Foot 
 
 kalu 
 
 Seven 
 
 yettu 
 
 Hand 
 
 kei 
 
 Eight 
 
 yettu 
 
 Bay 
 
 nalu 
 
 Nine 
 
 vombadu 
 
 Sun 
 
 podu 
 
 Ten 
 
 pattu. 
 
 Moon 
 
 nalavu 
 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Kohatar. 
 
 English. 
 
 Kohatar. 
 
 Man 
 
 ale, manija 
 
 Moon 
 
 tiggule 
 
 Woman 
 
 pemmage 
 
 Water 
 
 nire 
 
 Head 
 
 mande 
 
 Fiver 
 
 pevi 
 
 Eye 
 
 kannu 
 
 One 
 
 vodde 
 
 Ear 
 
 kive 
 
 Two 
 
 yede 
 
 Tooth 
 
 paUe 
 
 Three 
 
 munde 
 
 Mouth 
 
 vai 
 
 Four 
 
 nake 
 
 Blood 
 
 netra 
 
 Five 
 
 anje 
 
 Bone 
 
 yelave 
 
 Six 
 
 are 
 
 Foot 
 
 kalu 
 
 Seven 
 
 yeye 
 
 Hand . 
 
 kei 
 
 Eight 
 
 yette 
 
 Bay 
 
 nale 
 
 Nine 
 
 vorupade 
 
 San 
 
 potte 
 
 Ten 
 
 patte. 
 
 (^J 
 
THE CANARESE. 
 
 209 
 
 There is an old Literary, or High Canarese (as, 
 indeed, there is an old Literary, or High Tamul, and (?) 
 Malayalim), with a greater admixture of Sanskrit. It 
 gives p rather than A, in which several of its modern 
 congeners agree with it. 
 
 English. 
 
 Old Canarese. 
 
 New Canarese. 
 
 
 Dmj 
 
 pagalu 
 
 hagalu 
 
 pagil — Tulu 
 
 Floxoer 
 
 puvvu 
 
 huwu 
 
 puwu — Tuda 
 
 Horn 
 
 pandi 
 
 lia,Tidi 
 
 pandi — Kodugu 
 
 Name 
 
 pesaru 
 
 hesaru 
 
 pudar — Tula 
 
 River 
 
 pole 
 
 hole 
 
 pole — Kodugu 
 
 Road 
 
 pade 
 
 hadi 
 
 
 Snake 
 
 pavu 
 
 havu 
 
 ^sih—Tuda 
 
 Tiger 
 
 puli 
 
 huU 
 
 pivri — Tuda 
 
 Tooth 
 
 pallu 
 
 hallu 
 
 pall — Kodugu. 
 
 All the languages of this class may be grouped round 
 the Canarese. This, says Mr. Eeeve, is so like the Telugu 
 that, in many cases, the change of an initial or inflection 
 will make a complete correspondence. Still, if many 
 initials or many inflections are changed, the difference 
 will amount to a good deal. That the Tulu and Kodugu 
 of Curg are mutually intelligible is beyond doubt, and it 
 is not unlikely that, for short and simple sentences, the 
 Tulu and Malayalim may be the same. The same is said 
 to be the case with the Tamul and Malayalim. In this 
 (the Malayalim) and the Telinga we have the two ex- 
 tremes ; one for the north-east, one for the south-east. 
 
210 THE BRAHUI. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXI. 
 
 The Bralitii. 
 
 The language which now comes under notice lies not 
 only beyond the proper Tamul area but beyond the 
 geographical boundaries of Hindostan. It is a language 
 of Biluchistan — but not the Biluch itself. That the 
 Brahui, Brahuiki, or Brahooi, differed from the lan- 
 guage of both the Biluches and the Afghans was known 
 to both Elphinstone and Pottinger; for both state the 
 fact. Both, however, treat the Brahui as Biluches with 
 certain differential characteristics ; neither asking how 
 far some of these may be important enough to make 
 them other than Biluch. This is because the political 
 term Biluchistan has concealed one of the most import- 
 ant and interesting affinities in ethnology. 
 
 A short specimen of the Brahui language in Leach's 
 Vocabularies commanded the attention of Lassen, who, 
 after enlarging upon its difference from the Persian, 
 Biluch, and Pushtu, drew attention to some notable 
 similarities between, the numerals and those of the 
 South Indian dialects. Following up this suggestion, 
 the present author satisfied himself that the Brahui 
 tongue was, in many respects, Tamul — an opinion which 
 others have either recognized or been led to form from 
 their own researches. 
 
 In the country, however, which they now occupy, the 
 Brahlii consider themselves aboriginal ; the Biluch, ad- 
 mitting that they are, themselves, of foreign origin. The 
 rugged and impracticable nature of the Brahui moun- 
 tains favours this view. 
 
THE BRAHUI. 
 
 211 
 
 It is from LeacVs notice that the following para- 
 digms are taken. They consist, however, solely of cer- 
 tain Brahlii forms and their English equivalents — 
 grammatical terms, su(;h as Case, Number, and the like, 
 being avoided. They stand in the text of Leach — more, 
 however, in deference to "old-established usage'' than 
 because the Brahui and Latin grammars are believed to 
 give parallel forms. 
 
 Extract. 
 
 To denote abstraction an is introduced, as viatan asit = one from two, and 
 hulidn ditar = hlood from the horse; ustat dua = wishes from the heart. 
 
 To denote donation, ne or e is added, as ddde yete=give to him. 
 
 To make a noun the instrument of a circumstance, ene is added, as zagh- 
 mene=-with a sioord, from zaghm = a sioord; latene^with a stick, from lat = 
 a stick. 
 
 To make a noun the cause of a circumstance, an is added, as ta]pdn =from 
 a wound, the original case being tap=a wound. 
 
 To denote inclusion, tt is added to the noun, as sharti=in the city, from 
 shar=a city ; jangatt TcasTcune = died in battle, from jang = battle. 
 
 Position is denoted by adding at to the noun, as da Tcasarat duzare — there 
 is a thief on that road, from hasar — a road, speaking of a road as a whole, 
 or by adding ai as hasarai pirii araghase — there is an old man on the road, 
 in the limited sense. 
 
 To denote approach or direction, di is added to the noun, as /' Haidrd- 
 hadai kawd'^I will go to Hydrahad. 
 
 Superposition is denoted by the addition of d; as hull d = on the horse ; 
 katd likhakh^put on the bed. 
 
 Companionship is denoted by the addition of to, to the inflected case of the 
 pronouns ; as neto bafar = / \vill not go tvith thee, from ni = thou. 
 
 
 A good Man. 
 
 
 sharanga 
 
 narina 
 
 sharang^ 
 
 narinagh^k 
 
 sharangd, 
 
 narinan^ 
 
 sharang^ 
 
 narinaghata 
 
 sharangd, 
 
 narinaie 
 
 sharanga 
 
 narinaghate 
 
 sharang^ 
 
 narinaghan 
 
 sharang^ 
 
 narinaghatiyan 
 
 Dd, juw£ln e 
 
 
 that is good 
 
 
 D^ juwanosite 
 
 
 that is better 
 
 
 Da kuUn juwanosite 
 
 that is better than 
 
 all 
 
 Dk edan juwan 
 
 e 
 
 this is belter than that 
 
 D^ kul meettyan doulatmand e 
 
 Be is richer than all the Meers. 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 Nan 
 
 we 
 
 Kana 
 
 my 
 
 Nana 
 
 ours 
 
 Kane 
 
 me 
 
 Nana 
 
 us 
 
 Kany^n 
 
 from me. 
 
 Nany^n 
 
 from us 
 
 P 2 
 
212 
 
 THE BRAHUI. 
 
 m 
 
 
 thou 
 
 
 Num 
 
 
 ye 
 
 m 
 
 
 thy 
 
 
 Numa 
 
 
 yours 
 
 Ne 
 
 
 thee 
 
 
 Nume 
 
 
 you 
 
 Ny^ 
 
 from thee 
 
 
 Numyan 
 
 from you 
 
 m 
 
 
 this 
 
 
 Dafk 
 
 
 these 
 
 Bkn^ 
 
 of this 
 
 
 Dafta 
 
 
 of these 
 
 Dade 
 
 to this 
 
 
 Dafte 
 
 
 to these 
 
 Dadan 
 
 from this 
 
 1 Da%an 
 
 from these 
 
 Od or 
 
 that 
 
 Ofk 
 
 
 those 
 
 Ona 
 
 
 of that 
 
 
 ofta 
 
 
 of those 
 
 Ode 
 
 
 to that 
 
 
 Ofte 
 
 
 to those 
 
 Odan 
 
 from that 
 
 
 Oftyna 
 
 from those 
 
 Eor 
 
 ed 
 
 that 
 
 
 Efk 
 
 
 those 
 
 Ena 
 
 
 of that 
 
 
 Efta 
 
 
 of those 
 
 Ede 
 
 
 to that 
 
 
 Efte 
 
 
 to those 
 
 Edan 
 
 from that 
 
 
 Eftyan 
 
 from those 
 
 
 
 Tenat 
 
 self 
 
 
 
 
 
 Tena 
 
 of self 
 
 
 
 
 
 Tene 
 
 to self 
 
 
 
 
 
 Tenyan 
 
 from self 
 
 
 
 
 Tenpaten 
 
 among 
 
 'hemselves {h]^3LB = 
 
 
 
 Der 
 
 who? 
 
 
 
 
 
 Dinna 
 
 whose ? 
 
 
 
 
 
 Dere 
 
 whom ? 
 
 
 
 
 
 Deran 
 
 from whom ? 
 
 
 V asitut 
 
 / am 
 
 alone 
 
 Nan asitan 
 
 We are one 
 
 Ni asitus 
 
 Thou 
 
 art alone 
 
 Num asiture 
 
 We are one 
 
 Od asite 
 
 Re is 
 
 alone 
 
 Dafk asitur 
 
 They 
 
 are one 
 
 I' aret 
 
 I am 
 
 
 Nan aren 
 
 We are 
 
 Ni ares 
 
 Thou art 
 
 Num areri 
 
 You 
 
 are 
 
 Od are 
 
 He is 
 
 
 Dafk arer 
 
 They 
 
 are 
 
 I' asut 
 
 I was 
 
 
 Nan asun 
 
 We were 
 
 Ni asus 
 
 Thou wast 
 
 Num asure 
 
 You 
 
 were 
 
 Od asak 
 
 He was 
 
 Dafk asur 
 
 They 
 
 were 
 
 I' masasut 
 
 I was 
 
 being 
 
 Nan masasun 
 
 We were being 
 
 Ni masusus 
 
 Thou wast being 
 
 Num masasure 
 
 You 
 
 were being 
 
 Od masas 
 
 He was being 
 
 Dafk masasu 
 
 They 
 
 were being 
 
 I' masunut 
 
 I had been 
 
 Nan masunun 
 
 We had been 
 
 Ni masunus 
 
 Thou hadst been 
 
 Num masanure 
 
 You had been 
 
 Odmas 
 
 He had been 
 
 D£ 
 
 ifk masun<i 
 
 They 
 
 had been 
 
 men) 
 
THE BRAHUI. 
 
 213 
 
 T' niarev 
 
 / will nolo he 
 
 Nan marsn 
 
 We will now he 
 
 Ni mares 
 
 Thou wilt noio he 
 
 Num mareri 
 
 You will now he 
 
 Od marek 
 
 He will now he 
 
 Dafk marer 
 
 They will now he 
 
 I' marot 
 
 I will hereafter he 
 
 Nan maron 
 
 We will hereafter he 
 
 Ni maros 
 
 Thou wilt hereafter he 
 
 Num marode 
 
 You will hereafter he 
 
 Od maroi 
 
 He will hereafter he 
 
 Dafk maror 
 
 They will hereafter he 
 
 Ni mares 
 
 Be them 
 
 Num marere 
 
 Be you 
 
 Od mare 
 
 Let him he 
 
 Dafk maror 
 
 Let them he 
 
 
 Preceded by agar=if. 
 
 
 I' masut 
 
 If I might he 
 
 Nan masun 
 
 If we might he 
 
 Ni masus 
 
 If thou mightest he Num masude 
 
 If you might he 
 
 Od masuk 
 
 // he might he 
 
 Dafk masur 
 
 If they might he 
 
 
 Infinitive or verhal substantive, liarrafing. 
 
 I' harraffiva 
 
 I ask 
 
 Nan barrafon 
 
 We ask 
 
 Ni harraffisa 
 
 Thou askest 
 
 Num barraf ore 
 
 You ask 
 
 Od harraffik 
 
 He asked 
 
 Dafk barrafor 
 
 They ask 
 
 I' harraffenut / asked 
 
 Nan barrafFenun 
 
 We ashed 
 
 Ni harraffenus Thou ashedst 
 
 Num barraffenure 
 
 You asked 
 
 Od harraffene He asked 
 
 Dafk barraffenur 
 
 They asked 
 
 I' harraffeta 
 
 I was asking 
 
 Nan barraffena 
 
 We were asking 
 
 Ni harraffesa Thou wast asking 
 
 Num barraffere 
 
 You were asking 
 
 Od harraffek 
 
 He was asking 
 
 Ofk barraffera 
 
 They were asking 
 
 I' harrafesasut / had asked 
 
 Nan barrafesasun 
 
 We had asked 
 
 Ni harrafesasus Thoih hadst asked 
 
 Num barrafesasure You had asked 
 
 Od harrafesas ffe had asked 
 
 Dafk barrafesasti 
 
 They will ask 
 
 I harrafot 
 
 I will ask 
 
 Nan barrafeniin 
 
 We will ask 
 
 Ni harrafos 
 
 Thou wilt ask 
 
 Num barraf onure 
 
 You will ask 
 
 Od harrafo,i 
 
 He will ask 
 
 Dafk barrofen^ 
 
 They will ask 
 
 Harraf 
 
 Ask thou 
 
 Harrafbo 
 
 Ash you 
 
 
 Preceded by agar = if. 
 
 
 
 V harrafut 
 
 If I might ask 
 
 
 Ni harrafus 
 
 If thou mightest ask 
 
 
 Od harrafuk 
 
 If he might ask 
 
 
 Nan hurrafuna 
 
 We might 
 
 ask 
 
 
 Num harrafude^ 
 
 You might 
 
 ask 
 
 
 Dafk barrafur 
 
 They might ask 
 
 
 I' harrafiv 
 
 I shall have asked 
 
 
 Ni barrafos 
 
 Thou shalt have asked 
 
 
 Od barrafoi 
 
 He shall have asked 
 
 
 Nan barafina 
 
 We shall have asked 
 
 
 Num barraf ere 
 
 You shall have asked 
 
 
 DMk barrafenure 
 
 They shall 
 
 have asked 
 
214 
 
 THE BRAHUI. 
 
 Adverbs. 
 
 To-day 
 
 amli 
 
 On this side 
 
 Mudk 
 
 To-morroio 
 
 pagi 
 
 Whence 
 
 arakS, 
 
 Day after to-morrow palrae 
 
 Above 
 
 burzd, 
 
 Day after that 
 
 ktide 
 
 Belotv 
 
 shef 
 
 Day after that 
 
 ktidram^s 
 
 Instead 
 
 3%ai 
 
 Yesterday 
 
 daro 
 
 Every day 
 
 harde 
 
 Day hefore yesterday mulkhudti 
 
 As far as 
 
 iska 
 
 Day before that 
 
 kumulkhudti 
 
 Again 
 
 pada^ 
 
 Day hefore thai 
 
 kudirmulkhudu Whe^'ever 
 
 arangl 
 
 Fwrnerly 
 
 ewadai 
 
 Opposite 
 
 moni 
 
 Midday 
 
 manjan 
 
 Enough 
 
 bas 
 
 Afternoon 
 
 digar (tire pare) 
 
 Instead 
 
 p^rae 
 
 Midnight 
 
 nem shaf 
 
 Successively 
 
 pahn^d,pahndati 
 
 Now 
 
 dksh 
 
 Near me 
 
 knear, as kanek 
 
 After 
 
 guda 
 
 When 
 
 chi wakt 
 
 Here 
 
 dade 
 
 Yes 
 
 hand on 
 
 There 
 
 ede 
 
 No 
 
 a ha 
 
 Out 
 
 pesban 
 
 For saTce 
 
 mat 
 
 In 
 
 fahti 
 
 At first 
 
 awal 
 
 Beyond 
 
 inur 
 
 QuicJcly 
 
 zu 
 
 As far as 
 
 harr^nk 
 
 In the evening 
 
 beg& 
 
 Late 
 
 madana 
 
 Sometimes 
 
 asi asi wakt 
 
 Near 
 
 nrnsti 
 
 Slowly 
 
 mada 
 
 On all sides 
 
 char man kund 
 
 { There 
 
 hamengi 
 
 On the left side 
 
 chapa p^ran 
 
 On the right side r^sta paran 
 
 Also 
 
 tarn 
 
 Even so 
 
 ha mon 
 
 But 
 
 guda 
 
 Besides 
 
 baghair 
 
 According to 
 
 mujibat 
 
 Even so 
 
 handoan 
 
 Merely 
 
 beera 
 
 Without 
 
 baghar 
 
 Where 
 
 ar^de 
 
 
 
 
 Glossal^. 
 
 
 English 
 
 Bralmi. 
 
 English 
 
 Brahui. 
 
 ITead 
 
 katumb 
 
 Face 
 
 mon 
 
 Hair 
 
 pisbkou 
 
 Son 
 
 mar 
 
 Beard 
 
 rish 
 
 Daughter masid 
 
 Mustache 
 
 barot 
 
 Wife 
 
 arwat 
 
 Lip 
 
 ba 
 
 Brother 
 
 celum 
 
 Eye 
 
 khan 
 
 Father 
 
 bav 
 
 Sar 
 
 hhaff 
 
 Mother 
 
 lumma 
 
 Tongue 
 
 duvi 
 
 Sister 
 
 id 
 
 Tooth 
 
 dandan 
 
 Woman 
 
 zaif 
 
 Nose 
 
 bamtis 
 
 Sun 
 
 dey 
 
 Foot 
 
 nath 
 
 Moon (new) nokh 
 
 Nail 
 
 zU 
 
 Star 
 
 istar 
 
 ffa/nd 
 
 du 
 
 Fire 
 
 khakar 
 
 Back 
 
 baj 
 
 Water 
 
 dir 
 
THE BRAHUI. 
 
 215 
 
 English 
 
 Tree 
 
 Stone 
 
 I 
 
 We 
 
 Thm 
 
 Ye 
 
 One 
 
 Two 
 
 Brahui. 
 
 darahht 
 
 khaU 
 
 I 
 
 nan 
 
 ni 
 
 num 
 
 asit 
 
 irat 
 
 English 
 
 Brahtii. 
 
 Three 
 
 musit 
 
 Four 
 
 tshar 
 
 Five 
 
 pandzh 
 
 Six 
 
 shash 
 
 Seven 
 
 haft 
 
 Eight 
 
 hast 
 
 Nine 
 
 nu 
 
 Ten 
 
 dah. 
 
 Data^ for the Bralilii, as for the Gtindi, are pre- 
 eminently deficient. 
 
21 G LANGUAGES AKIN TO THE HINDI. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXII. 
 
 Languages akin to the Hindi. — Its Dialects. — The Punjabi. — The Hindostani. 
 The Gujerathi.— The Marathi.— The Bengali, &c.— The Uriya. 
 
 Of the foUowing languages all that need be said at pre- 
 sent is, that they are akin to the (1 ) Hindi. They are — 
 
 (2) The Gujerati, or Gujerathi, of Gujerat. 
 
 (3) The Mahratta, or Marathi, of Aurungabad, &;c. 
 
 (4) The Bengali of the lower Ganges, the valley of 
 Asam, and parts of Sylhet and Chittagong. 
 
 (5) The Uriya of Orissa. 
 
 I give these divisions as I find them, adding that, 
 though convenient, they are, by no means, unexception- 
 able. In the first place, the difierence between a lan- 
 guage and a dialect has never been satisfactorily ex- 
 plained : so that neither term has yet been defined. It 
 will be seen, ere long, that there are several other forms 
 of Indian speech, of each of which, though we may say 
 with truth that it is more Hindi, more Bengali, or more 
 Marathi than aught else, we cannot say that it is a 
 Marathi, a Bengali, or a Hindi dialect. For this reason 
 it is inexpedient to give the numbers of individuals by 
 which each tongue is spoken. And it is also incon- 
 venient to say whether such and such languages are 
 mutually unintelligible. It is only certain, that whatever 
 difi'erence may exist between any two is exaggerated 
 rather than softened down when they are written. This 
 is due in a great degi*ee to the difierence between the 
 alphabets. Though they are all of Sanskrit origin they 
 differ fi:om each other in detail. 
 
LANGUAGES AEUT TO THE HUTD . 217 
 
 Of the languages und^ notice, the Gashmiii the 
 Gajerati and the IJiija^ are spoken not only over the 
 smallest areas hat hj the fewest individiials ; the hugest 
 areas heing those of the Maraihi and Hmdi ; the largest 
 mass of speakers heing those of the Bengali language. 
 It is the Bengali which has the greatest tendency to ex- 
 tend itself heyond the frontiers of India ; the Bengali of 
 Asam and Chittagong being the form of speedi which is 
 more especially encroaching npon the Tibetan and Bur- 
 mese areas. 
 
 The languages that lie in the closest geographical con- 
 tact with the members of the Tamnl gronp are the Marathi 
 and Uriya. The affinities of the Cashmirian witii the 
 Dard tongues aie decided. 
 
 I guard against the notion that the differenoe be- 
 tween the six tongues of the forgoing list is greater 
 than it reaUy is. A little more Sanskrit or a little 
 less ; a little more Persian or a little less ; a Telinga 
 or a Canarese element more or less; an alphabet of 
 more or less detail — ^in these points and the like of 
 them consist the chief differences of the languages akin 
 to the HindL 
 
 I guard, too, against the notion that the preceding 
 list is exhaustive. Before Hindostan has been traversed 
 we shall hear of such sectional and intermediate forms as 
 the Jutki, the Sindi, the Punjabi, the Hamti, ihe Mar- 
 wari, the Konkani, and others ; of all whereof thus much 
 may be said — 
 
 1. That they are allied to each otiier and to the 
 Hindi. 
 
 2. That they are not akin, to the Sanskrit in the 
 manifest and unequivocal way in whicli the Sanskrit, 
 Pali, and Persepolitan are akin to each other. 
 
 3. That they are not Tamul or Telinga in the way 
 that the Canarese, the KJiond, &c., are Canarese, Tamul, 
 and Telinga. 
 
218 
 
 THE PUNJABI. 
 
 English. 
 
 Hindi. 
 
 Englisli. 
 
 Hindi. 
 
 Man 
 
 manas 
 
 Water 
 
 pani 
 
 Woman 
 
 nari 
 
 Fiver 
 
 nadi 
 
 Head 
 
 sar 
 
 Stone 
 
 pathar 
 
 Eye 
 
 ankh 
 
 Tree 
 
 rukh, &c. 
 
 Ear 
 
 kan 
 
 Wood 
 
 lakri 
 
 Nose 
 
 nak 
 
 One 
 
 ek 
 
 Mouth 
 
 mukh 
 
 Two 
 
 do 
 
 Tooth 
 
 dant 
 
 Three 
 
 tin 
 
 Hand 
 
 hath 
 
 Four 
 
 chhar 
 
 Foot 
 
 pan 
 
 Five 
 
 paneh 
 
 Blood 
 
 lohu 
 
 Six 
 
 chah 
 
 Sky 
 
 nak 
 
 Seven 
 
 sat 
 
 Sim 
 
 snraj 
 
 Eight 
 
 ath 
 
 Moon 
 
 chand 
 
 Nine 
 
 nao 
 
 Star 
 
 tara 
 
 Ten 
 
 das. 
 
 Fire 
 
 ag 
 
 
 
 In Kumaon and Gurwhal this dialect takes the name 
 ^ of Khas ; and in Nepaul, (where it is also spoken, eo 
 nomine) there is another variety of it, the Purbutti. 
 
 These are essentially the same with the following : 
 ■with Gadi (akin to the Handuri) for the parts between 
 Gurwhal aod Cashmir. 
 
 English, 
 
 Punjabi. 
 
 Gadi. 
 
 Man (homo) 
 
 
 manas 
 
 {vir) 
 
 garwali 
 
 zanana 
 
 Head 
 
 
 muna 
 
 Hair 
 
 akh 
 
 akr 
 
 Eye 
 
 kan 
 
 kan 
 
 Ear 
 
 nak 
 
 nak 
 
 Nose 
 
 
 ma 
 
 Mouth 
 
 dand 
 
 dand 
 
 Tongue 
 
 hath 
 
 hath 
 
 Tooth 
 
 pao 
 
 par 
 
 Hand 
 
 
 ragat 
 
 Foot 
 
 
 amr 
 
 Sun 
 
 suraj 
 
 dera 
 
 Moon 
 
 chand 
 
 chandar 
 
 Star 
 
 tara 
 
 tara 
 
 Fire 
 
 ag 
 
 ag 
 
 Water 
 
 pane 
 
 pane 
 
 
 
 nai 
 
 Stone 
 
 patthar 
 
 nar 
 
 Tree 
 
 rukh 
 
 rukh 
 
THE PUNJABI. 
 
 219 
 
 English. 
 
 Punjabi. 
 
 Gadi. 
 
 Tree 
 
 kath 
 
 cliiri 
 
 One 
 
 
 ak 
 
 Two 
 
 
 do 
 
 Three 
 
 
 tre 
 
 Four 
 
 
 char 
 
 Five 
 
 
 panj 
 
 Six 
 
 
 cliek 
 
 Seven 
 
 
 sat 
 
 Fight 
 
 
 ath 
 
 Nine 
 
 
 nao 
 
 Ten 
 
 
 das. 
 
 The following, from Leach, gives a rough sketch of the 
 grammatical character of the Punjabi, eo nomine. 
 
 Ghoda 
 Ghodeda 
 Ghodenu 
 Ghodeton 
 
 Ghodi 
 Ghodida 
 Ghodinil 
 Ghoditon 
 
 a horse 
 of a horse 
 a horse 
 from a horse 
 
 a mare 
 of a mare 
 a mxire 
 from a mare 
 
 Ghode 
 Ghodyanda 
 Ghodyanu 
 Ghodyanton 
 
 Ghodiyan 
 Ghoniyanda 
 Ghodiyanu 
 Ghodiy^nton 
 
 hon 
 of 
 horses 
 from, horses 
 
 mares 
 of mares 
 to mares 
 from mares 
 
 Hacha ghoda a good horse Hache ghode good horses 
 
 Hache ghoded^ of a good horse Hachyan ghodyandA. of good horses 
 
 Hache ghodenu a good horse Hachyjin ghodyanu good horses 
 
 Hache ghodeton from a good horse Hachyan ghodyanton fi'om good horses 
 
 Main or m^n / Asi we 
 
 Meda or mend^ my Asad^ sad^ our 
 
 Menu or maink^ me Asan^ sd,nil vs 
 
 Medekulon J 
 Medethon > or 
 Mede pason ) 
 
 maithon 
 maithin 
 mendekulon 
 
 Tdn 
 
 Teda, tenda, tond^ 
 Tenu, tunnu 
 Tethon, tuthon 
 
 £ 
 
 isda 
 
 Isnil 
 
 Iskulon, isthon 
 
 Asathon sathon 
 Sathi nasathin 
 
 thou 
 thy 
 thee 
 from thee 
 
 this 
 of this 
 this 
 from this 
 
 from us 
 
 TusI, tus^n you 
 
 Tuhada, tusad^ your 
 
 Tuhannu, tusann^ you 
 
 Tuhathon, tus^thon froin you 
 
 E these 
 
 Inh^nda of these 
 
 Inhanu these 
 Inha kulon, inh^ p^on from these 
 
220 
 
 THE PUNJABI. 
 
 
 
 Usda 
 
 Usnii 
 
 Usthon 
 
 that 
 of that 
 that 
 
 from that 
 
 Main h^n, an 
 Tun hen, en 
 hen, en 
 
 Main hais^n, sa 
 Tun haisen, sae 
 haisi si, ah^ 
 
 A'pe 
 A'pna 
 A'pnu 
 A'pthon 
 
 Kouna 
 
 Kisda 
 
 Kisnu or k^nu 
 
 Kisthon 
 
 Kya or ki 
 Kisd^ or kd,da 
 Kisnu, kanu 
 Kisthon, kaithon 
 
 I am 
 thou art 
 he is 
 
 a I was 
 1 thou wert 
 he was 
 
 Main hund^ san / was being 
 Tun hund^ saen thou wert being 
 hunda si he was being 
 
 Main hoy^ san 
 Tun hoya saen 
 hoy^ si 
 
 Main howang£b 
 Tiin liowengEl 
 heveg^ 
 
 Tfin ho, 
 
 / had been 
 thou hadst be 
 he had been 
 
 I shall be 
 thou shalt be 
 he shall be 
 
 be thou 
 
 Main how^n / may be 
 
 Tun hoven thou mayst be 
 
 hove he map be 
 
 Main hundan / had been 
 
 Tun hundon, hun- thou hadst been 
 
 huud^ he had been 
 
 
 
 Onh^nd^ 
 
 Onhanu, onh^nii 
 
 Onakulon 
 
 Onhathon 
 
 Onha pason 
 
 self 
 of self 
 to self 
 from self 
 
 who? 
 whose ? 
 
 from whom ? 
 
 what ? 
 of what ? 
 what ? 
 from what ? 
 
 those 
 of thos 
 those 
 
 from those 
 
 Asi han, an 
 Tusi ho, 
 hain, ain 
 
 Asi haisen, ^he 
 Tusi haisao, ahe 
 haisin, sin 
 
 Asi hunde san 
 Tusi hunde s^,o 
 hunde san 
 
 Asi hoye san 
 Tusi hoye sa,o 
 hoye san 
 
 Azi howange 
 Tusi hovoge 
 ho ange 
 
 Asi hoviye 
 Tusi hovo 
 howan 
 
 Asi hunde 
 Tusi hunde 
 
 hunde 
 
 we are 
 you are 
 they are 
 
 we were 
 you tve7'e 
 they ivere 
 
 we were 
 
 you were 
 
 they were being 
 
 we had been 
 you had been 
 they had been 
 
 we shall be 
 you shall be 
 they shall be 
 
 Tusi hovo, vo be you 
 
 we may be 
 you may be 
 they may be 
 
 vje had been 
 you had been 
 
 they had been, 
 
THE PUNJABI, 
 
 221 
 
 Ism i m^hful hoyS, 
 Ism i fail honewaU 
 Masdar hond, 
 
 been 
 he 
 to he 
 
 Main akhn^ 
 Tun akhnain 
 aMdai 
 
 Main ^khy^ 
 Tun ^khyai 
 Us ^khy^ 
 
 Main a^Ada skn 
 Tun aMd^ saen 
 kJchdsb si 
 
 Main akhd^ si 
 Tun akh^ si 
 Us akhya si 
 
 Main ^khanga 
 Tun akheng^ 
 akhega 
 
 / 
 
 thou 
 
 he speaks 
 
 I spoke 
 thou spokest 
 he spoke 
 
 Asi §,Mnyan 
 Tus^ ^khde,o 
 a^Viden 
 
 Asan akhyl, 
 Tus^n ^khya 
 In^ akhya 
 
 / was speaking Asi hkhde san 
 thou wast speaking Tusi ^Mde s^,o 
 he was speaking a,khde sin 
 
 / had spoken Asan ^khya si 
 
 thou hadst spoken Tus^n akhy^ si 
 he had spoken Ina d,khya si 
 
 / will speak 
 thou wilt speak 
 he will speak 
 
 Tun hkh or akh speak thou 
 
 Main akhan 
 Tun ^klien 
 O^khe 
 
 / may speak 
 thou maysi speak 
 he may speak 
 
 Asi akhange 
 Tusi akhoge 
 akhange 
 
 Tusi akho 
 
 Asi ^khiye 
 Tusi ^kho 
 ^khan 
 
 Maink^Ad^,akMa / might speak Asi ^Mde 
 Tun ^khdo thou mightest speak Tusi akhde 
 
 ^Mdd, he miqht speak kkhde 
 
 we speak 
 you speak 
 they speak 
 
 we spoke 
 you spoke 
 they spoke 
 
 we were speaking 
 you were speaking 
 they were 
 
 we had spoken 
 you had spoken 
 they had spoken 
 
 we will speak 
 you will speak 
 they will speak 
 
 speak you 
 
 we may speak 
 you may speak 
 they may speak 
 
 we might speak 
 you might speak 
 they might speak 
 
 Main kehni an / am telling 
 
 Tun kehni en 
 kehni e 
 
 Main ke,ai 
 Tun keai 
 Usne keai 
 
 thou art telling 
 she is telling 
 
 I told 
 thou toldst 
 she told 
 
 Asi kehni ^n, we are telling 
 
 kehndiyan 
 Tusi kehndiyano you are telling 
 kehndiya en, they are telling 
 
 kehndiyan 
 
 Asan keai 
 Tusan ke,ai 
 Un^ keai 
 
 we told 
 you told 
 they told 
 
 Main kehndi san / was telling 
 
 Asi kehndiyan ^ve were telling 
 
 Tun kehndi s^en thou wast telling Tusi kehndiygln you were 
 
 kehndi si she was telling kehndiyan sin they were telling 
 
222 
 
 THE ] 
 
 PUNJABI. 
 
 
 Main kehS, si 
 Tun ken^ si 
 Us keha si 
 
 / had told 
 thou hadst told 
 she had told 
 
 Asan keha si 
 TusEln keha si 
 Una keha si 
 
 we had told 
 you had told 
 they had told 
 
 Main kahangi 
 Tun kahengi 
 kahegi 
 
 I tcill tell 
 thou tvilt tell 
 she will tell 
 
 Asi kahanginy^n 
 Tusi kahogiyo 
 kahanginyan 
 
 we will tell 
 you will tell 
 they will tell 
 
 Tun koh 
 
 tell thou 
 
 Tusi koho 
 
 tell you 
 
 Main kahan 
 Tun kahen 
 Okahe 
 
 I may tell 
 thou mayst tell 
 she may tell 
 
 Asi kahyye 
 Tusi kaho 
 kehan 
 
 we may tell 
 you may tell 
 they may tell 
 
 Main kehandi 
 Tlin kehandi 
 kehndi 
 
 I might tell 
 thou mightest tell 
 she might tell 
 
 Asi kehndiy^n 
 Tusi kehndiyo 
 kehndiy^n 
 
 we might tell 
 you might tell 
 they might tell. 
 
 In Tirhut the language is transitional to the Hindi 
 and Bengali. 
 
 The Multani of Multan graduates from the Punjabi to 
 the Yutki, or vice versa. 
 
 The Hindi of the Mahratta frontier is called hy the 
 Mahrattas, Rangri Basha ; a contemptuous term, such 
 as barbarous would be in the mouth of a Greek, meaning 
 a language other than Mahratta. Being a negative term 
 we can attach no very definite import to it. 
 
 The Marwari is the Hindi of Marwar — the chief 
 dialect of Rajputana. The Bikaner is another Hindi 
 dialect ; i, e. it is a dialect of Northern India, which is 
 not Gujerathi, not Marathi, not Bengali, and not Uriya ; 
 and which is more Hindi, eo nomine, than aught else. 
 
 In Rohilcund the blood is, more or less, Afghan ; so 
 that Hindi, in its full purity, is not to be found there. 
 This must be sought in Delhi and Oude. 
 
 Bundelcund and Bahar are more Hindi than Bengali ; 
 though, to some extent, Bengali also. In Bahar, how- 
 ever, we are within the old Kooch area ; and in Bundel- 
 cund. on the Ghond, and Khond frontier. 
 
 The Hindustani, which means the language of Hin- 
 dostan in general rather than that of any particular 
 
 0\J 
 
THE HINDUSTANI. 
 
 223 
 
 population, and which differs from the Hindi, eo nomine, 
 much as a King of the French differs from a King of 
 France, is a language with a Persian, rather than an 
 Indian, name. As such, it is a general, ratlier than a 
 particular, term ; and it was originally applied not by 
 the Hindus themselves, but by a population on the 
 Hindu frontier. 
 
 The Hindustani is a mixed tongue, scarcely, however, a 
 Lingua Franca in the way of the Italian of Algiers and 
 Anatolia. It is essentially Hindi, as may be seen from 
 both the vocabulary and the paradigms. At the same 
 time it contains much Persian, and some Arabic which 
 is wanting in the true vernaculars. Above all, it is the 
 lanoruao'e of the Mahometan rather than the Brahminic 
 population of India ; so much so, that in the Grammar 
 of Mr. Hadley, in which we find either the first or an 
 early attempt to reduce it to rule, it is called the Moors, 
 i. e. the Moorish. It is written in the Arabic alphabet, 
 and not in any alphabet derived from the Sanskrit. 
 
 The following details of its Accidence are from the 
 Professor M. Williams' Grammar, in which the English 
 alphabet, with certain modifications, is both used and 
 recommended. The extreme simplicity of the declension 
 should be noticed, as well as the postpositive character 
 of the affixes by which the several relations which in 
 Latin and Greek are rendered by true cases, are ex- 
 pressed. In mardkd, &c., there is no true case at all, 
 but only an approximation to one : in other words, 
 there is merely a noun with a preposition — the Pi'^posi- 
 tion itself being a Pos^-position. 
 
 Nouna. 
 
 Hard 
 
 man 
 
 Mardkg, 
 
 marCs 
 
 ke 
 
 
 kl 
 
 
 Mardko 
 
 man-to 
 
 Mardse 
 
 man-from 
 
 Mardmen 
 
 man-in 
 
 Mardne 
 
 man-by 
 
 •mard 
 
 men 
 
 mard-on-k^ 
 
 mens^ 
 
 ke 
 
 
 kl 
 
 
 mard-on-ko 
 
 m£n-to 
 
 mard-on-se 
 
 men- from 
 
 mard-on-men 
 
 men-on 
 
 mard-on-ne 
 
 men-hy. 
 
224 
 
 THE HINDUSTANI. 
 
 The oblique cases (or rather their equivalents) of the 
 pronouns are formed in the same way. So are those of 
 the adjectives. 
 
 Ver\ 
 
 Main htin 
 Tti hai 
 Wuh hai 
 
 J am 
 thou art 
 he she it is 
 
 Ham hain 
 Tum ho 
 We hain 
 
 we are 
 ye are 
 they are 
 
 Main thg, 
 Ttitha 
 Wuh tha 
 
 z. 
 Masculine. 
 I was Ham the 
 thou wast Tum the 
 he, or it was We the 
 3. 
 Feminine. 
 I was Ham thin 
 thou wast Tum thin 
 she was We thin 
 
 we were 
 ye were 
 they were 
 
 Main thi 
 Tfi thi 
 Wuh thi 
 
 we were 
 ye were 
 they were 
 
 Main m§,r-tin 
 tti m^r-e 
 wuh mare 
 
 / may strike 
 thou mayest strike 
 he may strike 
 
 Ham m^r-en 
 Tum m^r-o 
 We mar-en 
 
 we may strike 
 ye may strike 
 they may strike 
 
 Main mar-tin-g^ 
 Tu mar-e-g^ 
 Wuh mar-e-g^ 
 
 0. 
 
 Masculine. 
 I will striJce Ham m^r-en-ge 
 thou wilt strike Tum mar-o-ge 
 he will strike. We m^r-en-ge 
 
 we will strike 
 ye will strike 
 they will strike 
 
 
 Feminine. 
 Main mar-un-gi Ham mar-en-gin 
 Tu m^r-e-gi Tum mar-o-gin 
 Wuh mar-e-gl We mdr-en-gin 
 
 The participial character of these forms is apparent ; 
 the forms in -a and -i being as truly masculine and 
 feminine as amatus and amata, amaturus and amatura, 
 in Latin. Indeed, if a male, instead of ego amaturus sum, 
 and a female, instead of ego amatura sum, said ego ama- 
 turus, or ego amatura, we should have a participle with 
 the omission of the auxiliar taking the garb of a true 
 tense. The same is the case with main mdr-td and 
 mxiin mdrtt. 
 
 The equivalent to the infinitive ends in -na ; as 
 mdrnd = to strike zzferire = rvirTeiv. 
 
THE HINDUSTANI. 
 
 225 
 
 English. 
 
 Hindustani. 
 
 English, 
 
 Hindustani 
 
 Man {homo) 
 
 admi 
 
 Hand 
 
 hath 
 
 (vir) 
 
 mard 
 
 Foot 
 
 panw 
 
 Woman 
 
 randl 
 
 Sun 
 
 fcuraj 
 
 Head 
 
 sir 
 
 Moon 
 
 chand 
 
 Hair 
 
 bal 
 
 Star 
 
 tara 
 
 Eye 
 
 ackh 
 
 Day 
 
 din 
 
 Ear 
 
 kan 
 
 Night 
 
 rat 
 
 Nose 
 
 nak 
 
 Fire 
 
 ag 
 
 Mouth 
 
 munh 
 
 Water 
 
 pani 
 
 Tongue 
 
 jibh 
 
 Tree 
 
 per 
 
 Tooth 
 
 dant 
 
 Stone 
 
 patthar. 
 
 The geographical boundaries of the Hindustani are 
 indefinite ; inasmuch as it is the language of a creed 
 rather than a locality. It has been placed, however, 
 next to the Hindi Proper because it is the Hindi Proper 
 which has the best claim to be looked upon as its 
 groundwork — the Hindi Proper meaning the Hindi of 
 Delhi and Oude. 
 
 The affinities of the dialects that now come under 
 notice are so thoroughly reticular (by which I mean 
 that the connection between them resembles that of the 
 meshes of a net rather than the links of a chain) that 
 no arrangement of them can be strictly natural. In 
 passing, then, from the Hindustani to the Gujerati I 
 consult convenience rather than aught else. On the 
 south the Gujerati is bounded by the Marathi ; and on 
 the west by the Marwari dialect of the Hindi. It 
 probably comes in contact with certain Bhil forms of 
 speech, though the details upon this point are obscure. 
 In Cutch it graduates into the Sindhi. 
 
 Sir E. Perry expressly states that the Gujerati inter- 
 preters of the Supreme Court can understand the natives 
 both of Sind and Cutch. At the same time there are 
 certain dialects of which they can make little or 
 nothing. 
 
 English. 
 
 Gujerdti. 
 
 English. 
 
 Gujerati. 
 
 Man {homo) 
 
 jana 
 
 Head 
 
 mathum 
 
 {vir) 
 
 manus 
 
 Hair 
 
 nimalo 
 
 Woman 
 
 bayadi 
 
 Eye 
 
 ankh 
 
226 
 
 THE HINDUSTANI. 
 
 English. 
 
 Gujerati. 
 
 English. 
 
 Gujerati. 
 
 Ear 
 
 kan 
 
 Moon 
 
 chand 
 
 Nose 
 
 nah 
 
 Star 
 
 taro 
 
 Mouth 
 
 mohodum 
 
 Day 
 
 din 
 
 Tongue 
 
 jubh 
 
 Night 
 
 rat 
 
 Tooth 
 
 dant 
 
 Fire 
 
 a? 
 
 Hand 
 
 hath 
 
 Water 
 
 pani 
 
 Foot 
 
 pag 
 
 Tree 
 
 jhada 
 
 Sun 
 
 suraj 
 
 Stone 
 
 patthar. 
 
 In the Collectorate of Surat the passage from Gujerati 
 to Marathi begins. In Durhampur and Bundsla, petty 
 States to the south of the town itself, the Marathi shows 
 itself In Penth, still further to the south, though 
 north of Damaun, the language is "Marathi with nu- 
 merous Gujerathi words/' South of Damaun the 
 Marathi, eo nomine, and, in unequivocal forms, extends 
 along the coast of Goa ; and, inland, as far as the Ghond, 
 Telinga, and Canarese frontiers. 
 
 English. 
 
 Mahratta. 
 
 English. 
 
 Mahratta. 
 
 Man {homo) 
 
 maiish 
 
 Foot 
 
 paie 
 
 iyir) 
 
 purush 
 
 Sun 
 
 suria 
 
 Woman 
 
 baiko 
 
 Moon 
 
 tshundr 
 
 Head 
 
 doksheh 
 
 Star 
 
 tshandani 
 
 Hair 
 
 kes 
 
 Hay 
 
 vuas 
 
 Eye 
 
 doleh 
 
 Night 
 
 vatr 
 
 Ear 
 
 kan 
 
 Fire 
 
 vistfi 
 
 Nose 
 
 nakh 
 
 Water 
 
 panni 
 
 Mouth 
 
 • I'hond 
 
 Tree 
 
 . dzad 
 
 Tongue 
 
 jib 
 
 
 bruksh 
 
 Tooth 
 
 dant 
 
 Stone 
 
 duggud. 
 
 Hand 
 
 hat 
 
 
 
 The limits of the Marathi to the east are. obscure. 
 In Candeish it comes in contact with certain Bhil 
 dialects, with their congeners. Aurungabad, Berar, 
 and Poonah are pre-eminently Marathi. Nagpur is 
 Marathi where it is not Ghond. About Berar the 
 Marathi, the Canarese, the Telinga and Ghond meet. 
 In Bejapur and Satpura, Canarese and Marathi villages 
 alternate with each other. In the parts about Pandarpur 
 lie the limits of the Canarese to the north. 
 
THE MARATHI. 227 
 
 Roughly speaking, the Konkani, a well-marked dialect 
 of the Marathi, stretches in a narrow strip, between the 
 Ghauts and the sea, from Goa on the north to Mangalore 
 on the south. The more minute details, as given, on 
 sound authorities, by Sir Erskine, bring the Marathi a 
 little lower down and carry the Tulu a little further 
 up. At Carwar, about 55 miles south of Goa, Konkani 
 is the vernacular; but all the inhabitants can speak 
 Marathi. The limit to the south is a village about 
 four miles from LTdapi near Cundapur, where the Tulu 
 begins. 
 
 In the Konkani there are differences ; though not 
 (perhaps) local ones. It is the mother-tongue of the 
 Shenvi Brahmins in Bombay who pronounce certain 
 words more fully than others. Thus : — 
 
 The Shenvi udak = water = the common udih ; 
 
 vriksh= tree = vrikh ; 
 
 trin = grass = tan. 
 
 For a, the sign of the masculine gender in Hindi and 
 Marathi, the Konkani gives o — as do the Marwd,ri and 
 the Gujerati. 
 
 The Konkani contains numerous Tulu and Canarese 
 words. 
 
 The Bengali, or the vernacular of Bengal as opposed 
 to the Hindustani, is spoken by more individuals than 
 any of its congeners — perhaps, by more than all of them 
 put together. It is the Bengali, too, which more than 
 any other dialect of India has encroached upon the area 
 of the monosyllabic languages of the Bodo, Garo, and 
 Kasia districts ; upon Asam, Sylhet, and Tipperah. 
 
 EngUsh. 
 
 Bengali. 
 
 English. 
 
 BengalL 
 
 Man 
 
 manushya 
 
 
 chul 
 
 Tooth 
 
 danta 
 
 Mouth 
 
 mukh 
 
 Head 
 
 mastak 
 
 Eye 
 
 chhakhyuh 
 
 Hair 
 
 kesh 
 
 Ear 
 
 karna 
 Q 2 
 
228 
 
 THE BENGALI. 
 
 English. 
 
 Bengali. 
 
 English. 
 
 Bengali . 
 
 Hand 
 
 hat 
 
 Moon 
 
 Chandra 
 
 Foot 
 
 haa 
 
 Star 
 
 tara 
 
 Blood 
 
 rakta 
 
 Fire 
 
 agni 
 
 Bay 
 
 din 
 
 Water 
 
 pani 
 
 Night 
 
 ratri 
 
 Stone 
 
 prastan 
 
 Sun 
 
 surjya 
 
 Tree 
 
 gachh. 
 
 English. 
 
 Asam. 
 
 2. 
 
 English. 
 
 Asam. 
 
 Man 
 
 manuli 
 
 Bay 
 
 din 
 
 Tooth 
 
 dant 
 
 Night 
 
 rati 
 
 Head 
 
 mur 
 
 Sun 
 
 beli 
 
 Hair 
 
 suli 
 
 Moon 
 
 jun 
 
 Mouth 
 
 mukh 
 
 Star 
 
 tora 
 
 Eye 
 
 soku 
 
 Fire 
 
 J'ui 
 
 Ear 
 
 kan 
 
 Water 
 
 pani 
 
 Hand 
 
 h^t 
 
 Stone 
 
 hil 
 
 Foot 
 
 bhori 
 
 Tree 
 
 gosh. 
 
 Blood 
 
 tez 
 
 
 
 In Arakan the three following forms of speech are 
 current ; all Indian. The Rtiinga is used by the Mahome- 
 tans ; the Rossawn by the Hindus. 
 
 English. 
 
 Kuinga. 
 
 Rossawn. 
 
 Banga S. 
 
 Man 
 
 manush 
 
 munusa 
 
 manu 
 
 Woman 
 
 mialaw 
 
 stri 
 
 zaylan 
 
 Head 
 
 mata 
 
 mustok 
 
 tikgo 
 
 Mouth 
 
 gab 
 
 bodon 
 
 totohan 
 
 Arm 
 
 bahara 
 
 baho 
 
 palpoung 
 
 Hand 
 
 hat 
 
 osto 
 
 hatkan 
 
 Leg 
 
 ban 
 
 podo 
 
 torua 
 
 Foot 
 
 pan 
 
 pata 
 
 zamkan 
 
 Sun 
 
 bel 
 
 suja 
 
 baylli 
 
 Moon 
 
 sawn 
 
 sundra 
 
 satkan 
 
 Star 
 
 tara 
 
 nokyotro 
 
 tara 
 
 Fire 
 
 aniri 
 
 aagani 
 
 zi 
 
 Water 
 
 pannse 
 
 dzol 
 
 panni 
 
 Earth 
 
 kul 
 
 murtika 
 
 mati 
 
 Stone 
 
 shil 
 
 shil 
 
 hil 
 
 Wind 
 
 ban 
 
 pawun 
 
 bo 
 
 Bain 
 
 jorail 
 
 bisti 
 
 buun 
 
 Bird 
 
 paik 
 
 pukyi 
 
 pakya 
 
 Fish 
 
 maws 
 
 mutsse 
 
 mas 
 
 Good 
 
 gum 
 
 gum 
 
 hoba 
 
 Bad 
 
 gumnay 
 
 gumnay 
 
 hobanay 
 

 THE 
 
 URIYA. 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Euinga. 
 
 Rossawu. 
 
 BangaS, 
 
 Great 
 
 boddan 
 
 danger 
 
 domorgo 
 
 Little 
 
 thuddi 
 
 tsuto 
 
 hurugu 
 
 Long 
 
 botdean 
 
 dingol 
 
 digul 
 
 Short 
 
 baniek 
 
 bati 
 
 bate. 
 
 229 
 
 The Udiya, or Uriya, of Orissa is bounded on the 
 north by the Bengali, on the south by the Telinga, and 
 on the west by certain Ghond and Khond dialects. It 
 is spoken by few individuals and over a small area. 
 
 English, 
 
 Uriya. 
 
 English. 
 
 Uriya. 
 
 Man {homo) 
 
 minipo 
 
 Moon 
 
 chando 
 
 
 
 Star 
 
 tara 
 
 Woman 
 
 •maikiniya 
 
 Fire 
 
 nina 
 
 Head 
 
 motha 
 
 Water 
 
 paid 
 
 Pair 
 
 balo 
 
 Stone 
 
 pothoro 
 
 Eye 
 
 akbi^ 
 
 Tree 
 
 gocbcho 
 
 Nose 
 
 nako* 
 
 One 
 
 eko 
 
 Mouth 
 
 muho 
 
 Two 
 
 dui 
 
 Tooth 
 
 daT.to 
 
 Three 
 
 tini 
 
 Tongue 
 
 jibho 
 
 Four 
 
 chari 
 
 Hand 
 
 hato 
 
 Five 
 
 pancho 
 
 Foot 
 
 goro 
 
 Six 
 
 chlio 
 
 Blood 
 
 rokto 
 
 Seven 
 
 shato 
 
 Day 
 
 dino 
 
 Fight 
 
 altho 
 
 Night 
 
 rati 
 
 Nine 
 
 nov 
 
 Sun 
 
 surjiyo 
 
 Ten 
 
 dosho. 
 
 With the Uriya we take leave of the languages of 
 the eastern side of the Peninsula and the languages of 
 the Khond and Kol frontiers, and pass to the other side 
 of India. 
 
 The Sindhi (of Sind) falls into dialects and sub- 
 dialects ; the Kutch being treated as one of tliem. 
 How this stands to the Gujerathi has already been 
 stated. The Siraiki is the dialect of Upper, the Lar of 
 Lower, Sind : to which may be added a fourth, spoken 
 in the Desert, as far east as Jessulmer. 
 
 English. 
 
 Siraiki. 
 
 Lar. 
 
 Man 
 
 maru 
 
 
 
 
 murs 
 
 
 Woman 
 
 zal 
 
 mihri 
 
 Head 
 
 matho 
 
 sisi 
 
 Hair 
 
 war 
 
 jhonto 
 
230 
 
 
 THE SINDHI. 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Siraiki. 
 
 Lar. 
 
 Hair 
 
 choti 
 
 
 Eye 
 
 ak 
 
 
 Ear 
 
 kan 
 
 
 Hand 
 
 hath 
 
 kar 
 
 
 chambu 
 
 
 Foot 
 
 per 
 
 
 Mouth 
 
 wat 
 
 
 Tooth 
 
 dand 
 
 danda 
 
 Tongue 
 
 jhibh 
 
 
 Day 
 
 dink 
 
 
 Night 
 
 rat 
 
 
 Sun 
 
 srjj 
 
 adit 
 
 Moon 
 
 chandr 
 
 
 Star 
 
 taro 
 
 
 Fire 
 
 bar 
 
 jando 
 
 
 
 
 jeru 
 
 Water 
 
 pani 
 
 
 
 sandaro 
 
 
 Tree 
 
 wan-per 
 
 
 Stone 
 
 rahan 
 khod 
 
 
 
 On the south, and south-west, the Sindhi is bounded 
 by the Biluch and Brahui. 
 
 As the Cashmirian (of Cashmir) belongs geographi- 
 cally to India, I place it in the present division : from 
 which it leads to the next but one. 
 
 English. 
 
 Cashrair. 
 
 English. 
 
 Cashmir 
 
 Man 
 
 manyu 
 
 Water 
 
 ab 
 
 Woman 
 
 zanana 
 
 
 pani 
 
 Head 
 
 kalah 
 
 Fiver 
 
 kul. 
 
 Eye 
 
 ach 
 
 Stone 
 
 kain 
 
 Ear 
 
 kan 
 
 Tree 
 
 kulu 
 
 Nose 
 
 nast 
 
 Wood 
 
 zun 
 
 Mouth 
 
 afio 
 
 One 
 
 ak 
 
 Tooth 
 
 dand 
 
 Two 
 
 zih 
 
 Hand 
 
 atha 
 
 Three 
 
 trah 
 
 Foot 
 
 kor 
 
 Fou/r 
 
 tsor 
 
 Blood 
 
 rath 
 
 Five 
 
 panz 
 
 Sky 
 
 nab 
 
 Six 
 
 shah 
 
 Sun 
 
 aftab 
 
 Seven 
 
 sat 
 
 Moon 
 
 tzandar 
 
 Eight 
 
 ath 
 
 Star 
 
 tarak 
 
 Nine 
 
 noh 
 
 Fire 
 
 nar 
 
 Ten 
 
 dah. 
 
 
 
 agan 
 
 
 
 (r^J 
 
THE CASHMIRIAN. 281 
 
 Such is the vernacular Cashmirian, or the Cashmirian 
 of common life ; the language of literature and polite 
 society being Persian — Persian rather than either Cash- 
 mirian Proper, or Hindi. As far, however, as the 
 Cashmirian Proper is written at all, it is written by 
 means of an alphabet of Sanskrit, rather than Arabic, 
 origin. In creed the Cashmirians are more Mahometan 
 than Hindu. 
 
282 THE SINGALESE. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIII. 
 
 The Singalese. — The Rodiya. — The Maldivian. 
 
 The nearest representatives of the aboriginal language of 
 Ceylon must be sought for in the dialects of the ana- 
 logues of the Khonds, Glionds, Kols, Tudas, and tlie 
 like : and these we expect to find in a rude state in the 
 more impracticable parts of the island. We expect, too, 
 to find them in a broken and fragmentary condition. 
 
 And such is the case. One population which, on the 
 strength of its pagan, or semi-pagan barbarity, has com- 
 manded no little attention on the part of investigators, 
 bears the name Vaddah, a name which is, more or less, 
 general, and which is of Hindu origin. Whether, how- 
 ever, it represents the aborigines of the island, is 
 uncertain. I know of no monograph that gives us 
 the minute details of the Vaddah creed. I learn, how- 
 ever, from Dr. Rost, who has kindly favoured me with 
 more than one valuable fact relating to the population 
 under notice, that their language varies but little fi-om 
 the common Singalese. If so, however much they 
 may represent the indigenous blood of Ceylon, they 
 are no representatives of the aboriginal language, except 
 so far as fragments of it may be preserved in their 
 dialect. However, of the Yaddah, eo nomine, I have 
 seen no specimens. 
 
 Still, there is a representative of the primitive tongue 
 in Ceylon ; and the Rodiyas, a broken and sporadic 
 population, amounting to (perhaps) a thousand in all, 
 give it. 
 
THE SINGALESE. 
 
 233 
 
 English. 
 
 Bodiya. 
 
 Englisli. 
 
 Rodiya. 
 
 Man (vir) 
 
 gawa 
 
 Hand 
 
 dagulu 
 
 Woman 
 
 gawi 
 
 Blood 
 
 talu 
 
 Head 
 
 keradiya 
 
 Sun 
 
 ilay at teriyang^ 
 
 Hair 
 
 kaluwali 
 
 Moon 
 
 Jiapa teriyangd 
 
 Eye 
 
 lawate 
 
 Star 
 
 h^pangawal 
 
 Ear 
 
 irawuw6 
 
 Fire 
 
 dulumvi 
 
 Nose 
 
 galla 
 
 Water 
 
 nilatu 
 
 Mouth 
 
 galagewunu 
 
 Tree 
 
 uhalla 
 
 Tongue 
 
 dagula 
 
 Stone 
 
 boraluwa. 
 
 The Singalese Proper is not only more Hindi than 
 the Tamul, Malayalim, and their congeners, but more 
 Hindi than most of the dialects of the preceding group. 
 It is the language of a Buddhist as well as that of a 
 Brahminic population — the sacred language of the Budd- 
 hists being Pali rather than Sanskrit. 
 
 Englisli. 
 
 Singalese. 
 
 English. 
 
 Singalese. 
 
 Man (homo) 
 
 manushyay& 
 
 Blood 
 
 rudhiraya 
 
 
 
 minih4 
 
 Day 
 
 dawasa 
 
 (vir) 
 
 purshay^ 
 
 Night 
 
 ratriya 
 
 
 pirimay^ 
 
 Sun 
 
 ira 
 
 Woman 
 
 stri 
 
 Moon 
 
 handa 
 
 
 gani 
 
 Star 
 
 taruwa 
 
 Head 
 
 oluda ? 
 
 
 t^ruwaka 
 
 
 isa 
 
 Fire 
 
 ginna 
 
 Hair 
 
 isa kesas 
 
 
 gindara 
 
 Eye 
 
 asa 
 
 Water 
 
 diya 
 
 
 akhsiya 
 
 
 diyara 
 
 
 net 
 
 
 watura 
 
 Ear 
 
 kana 
 
 Tree 
 
 galia 
 
 Nose 
 
 nahe 
 
 Stone 
 
 gala 
 
 Mouth 
 
 kata 
 
 One 
 
 ek 
 
 Tooth 
 
 data 
 
 Two 
 
 de 
 
 Tongue 
 
 duva 
 
 Three 
 
 tun 
 
 Hand 
 
 ata 
 
 Four 
 
 liatara 
 
 
 hastlaya 
 
 Five 
 
 pas 
 
 Foot 
 
 patula 
 
 Six 
 
 ha 
 
 
 pad^ya 
 
 Seven 
 
 hat 
 
 Bone 
 
 ashiya 
 
 Eight 
 
 ata 
 
 
 atiya 
 
 Nine 
 
 nama 
 
 Blood 
 
 le 
 
 Ten 
 
 daha. 
 
 The language of the Maldives and Laccadives is Sin- 
 galese ; the alphabet Arabic. 
 
234 
 
 THE MALDIVE. 
 
 English. 
 
 Maldive. 
 
 Man {homo) 
 
 niihung 
 
 (vir) 
 
 firihenung 
 
 Woman 
 
 ang-henung 
 
 Head 
 
 ho—Kol 
 
 Hair 
 
 istari 
 
 Hand 
 
 aitila 
 
 Foot 
 
 fiyolu 
 
 Tongue 
 
 du 
 
 Tooth 
 
 dai 
 
 Nose 
 
 nefai 
 
 English. 
 
 Mouth 
 
 Eye 
 
 Day 
 
 Night 
 
 StLn 
 
 Moon 
 
 Star 
 
 Fire 
 
 Water 
 
 Tree 
 
 Maldive. 
 
 aga 
 
 lo 
 
 duas 
 
 re 
 
 ini 
 
 hadu 
 
 tari 
 
 alifang 
 
 feng 
 
 The following is a specimen of the language ; it is a 
 copy of a letter written by the Maldive Malim of a 
 boat at Columbo to his countrymen at Galle : — 
 
 At Galle stopping of the Maldives all to the people, Arab boat the Malim. 
 The chiefs salam ; now at this port are boats Arab boat Finladu boat offering 
 boat Fadiyaru's boat Ahanima didi's boat mandu house boat bitter-tree- 
 corner -house boat ; now all people health in remain ; at your port you have 
 news you must send ; at this port there is news I hereby send ; from Europe 
 a new governor is come ; England's king is dead ; lacs many strings salams ; 
 this port's fish we have sold Himiti fish seven tens seven dollars, Male ato?u 
 fish five twelves seven, Fading fulu weighed fish forty seven ; thus having 
 sold it stopping for the price ; lacs many strings salams ; this is written here 
 Thursday on the day. If God permits in fourteen days sailed I shall be ; 
 desire is to me. 
 
 Galigai tibi Diwehing-ge em^me kalungna^r, Arabu od\ Malimi. Kalegefanu 
 salamen ; mifahara^f mirarhugai hurhi oc^i faharhi Arabu-oc?i Finladu odi 
 wedung odi Fac^iydru odi Aham,ma did! oc^i, mandu ge odi hiti gas darhu ge 
 odi ; mifahara^r em^me kalung gada weeba tibuwewe ; tiya rarhugai hurhi 
 kabareng fonuw^ti ; mirarhugai hurhi kabaru mi fonuwie ; welatung au boc?a 
 sahibeng atuewe ; Wilatu rasge maruwej/jewe ; lanka gina farhu^r salamen ; 
 mirarhu mas vik^i Himiti mas hang diha hai riyalaya^/, Male atoZu mas fas 
 doZos hataka^. Fading iwlu kira mas sa^is hatakagr ; mihidang vik^kaigeng 
 tibi agimiwewe ; lanka gina farhung salamen ; miliyunl mitangwl burasfati 
 duwahung. Mai kalageru^fsewiyai sauda duwahu a?ugac?w fur^nemewe ; hitai 
 hurbi mewe. 
 
 In ordinary English, thus : — 
 
 '* The Malim of the Arab boat to all the people of the Maldives stopping 
 at Galle. 
 The chief's greeting ; the boats now at this port are the Arab boat of 
 Finladu, the offering boats * of Fadiyaru and Ahammadidi, and the boats of 
 
 * These are the vessels which bring the annual presents to the Government 
 of Ceylon. 
 
THE MALDIVE. 235 
 
 Manduge and Hiti-gas-darhu-ge ; all the people are in good health ; send 
 what news you have at your port ; I hereby send what news there is at this 
 port. A new governor is come from Europe ; the king of England is dead. 
 Very many greetings. We have sold at this port Himiti fish for seventy-seven 
 dollars, Maleatolu fish for sixty-seven, and Fadingfulu fish weighed (?) for 
 forty-seven ; having sold the fish we are waiting for the price. Very many 
 greetings. This is written on Thursday. If God permits, I shall sail in 
 fourteen days ; such is my wish." 
 
236 THE PAROPAMISAN LANGUAGES. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIV. 
 
 The Paropamisan Grroup. — The Dard Branch.— The Shina, — The Deer and 
 Tirhai. — The Arniya or Kashkari. — The Cohistani or Lughmani and 
 Pashai, — The Siaposh. 
 
 I NOW come to a class for which I propose the name 
 Paropamisan; its chief area being the parts between 
 the southern slope of the Hindukush, and either the 
 main stream of the Indus itself, or that of its feeder, the 
 Caubul river. To these drainages, however, it is by no 
 means limited. Some of its members are on the water 
 systems of the Oxus, some on that of the Yarkend river, 
 some (perhaps) on that of the Amur. They are all 
 mountaineers, most of them being independent, and 
 some being either actual Kafirs (i. e. infidels) or im- 
 perfect converts to Mahometanism. Our knowledge of 
 them is eminently imperfect. 
 
 The language of a Paropamisan is Indian rather 
 than Persian. If so, the class under notice is tran- 
 sitional. I repeat, however, the statement, that it is 
 one concerning which our details are of the scantiest. 
 
 If the district over which the languages of this class 
 are spoken be (as I hold that it is) the country from 
 which the Hindi elements of the Hindi Proper and its 
 congeners was introduced, scanty as the details are, they 
 are important. They are important even if this be not 
 the case : inasmuch as they belong to Persia rather than 
 Hindostan in the ordinary geographical and political 
 sense of the word : and show how little the philological 
 frontiers and the physical frontiers coincide. This, how- 
 ever, is no more than what we found to be the case with 
 the Brahui. 
 
THE PAROPAMISAN LANGUAGES. 
 
 237 
 
 Again — Casbmir is quite as much Paropamisan as it 
 is Indian in the strict sense of the term. 
 
 The dialect spoken due north of Cashmir, and in 
 contact with the Bhot of Ladak and Little Tibet is the 
 Sldna, known through a Vocabulary of Captain Cun- 
 ningham's ; closely akin to which are the Deer and 
 Tirhai Vocabularies of Leech. These latter are spoken 
 in, or about, the Valley of Swaut, and may (perhaps) 
 be called the representatives of the Swauti form of 
 speech. 
 
 English. 
 
 Shina. 
 
 
 English, 
 
 Man 
 
 musha 
 
 
 Fire 
 
 Woman 
 
 grin 
 
 
 Water 
 
 Head 
 
 shis 
 
 
 River 
 
 Eye 
 
 achhi 
 
 
 Stone 
 
 Ear 
 
 kund 
 
 
 Tree 
 
 Nose 
 
 noto 
 
 
 Wood 
 
 Mouth 
 
 anzi 
 
 
 One 
 
 Tooth 
 
 duni 
 
 
 Two 
 
 Hand 
 
 hath 
 
 
 Three 
 
 Foot 
 
 pa 
 
 
 Four 
 
 Blood 
 
 lohel 
 
 
 Five 
 
 Sky 
 
 agahi 
 
 
 Six 
 
 Sun 
 
 suri 
 
 
 Seven 
 
 Moon 
 
 yau 
 
 
 Eight 
 
 Star 
 
 taro 
 
 
 Nine 
 
 Fire 
 
 agar 
 
 2 
 
 Tm 
 
 English. 
 
 
 Deer. 
 
 
 Man 
 
 
 mish 
 
 
 Woman 
 
 
 is 
 
 
 Head 
 
 
 shish 
 
 
 Foot 
 
 
 khor 
 
 
 Eye 
 
 
 achhi 
 
 
 Nose 
 
 
 nistui 
 
 
 Tongue 
 
 
 jib 
 
 
 Tooth 
 
 
 dand 
 
 
 Hand 
 
 
 thoho 
 
 
 Lip 
 
 
 dudh 
 
 
 Ear 
 
 
 kan 
 
 
 Day 
 
 
 dus 
 
 
 Water 
 
 
 wahe 
 
 
 Milk 
 
 
 shid 
 
 
 Shina. 
 
 phu 
 
 wahi 
 
 sin 
 
 bat 
 
 turn 
 
 katho 
 
 ek 
 
 do 
 
 che 
 
 chhar 
 
 shah 
 
 sat 
 
 ast 
 
 no 
 
 dahi. 
 
 Tirhai. 
 
 achha 
 nasth 
 zhibba 
 dand a 
 hast 
 
 kan 
 
 das 
 
 wa 
 
 dudh 
 
 ik 
 
288 
 
 THE PAROPAMISAN LANGUAGES. 
 
 Englisli. 
 
 Deer. 
 
 Tirliai. 
 
 Two 
 
 do 
 
 4u 
 
 Three 
 
 shta 
 
 tra 
 
 Four 
 
 chor 
 
 tsor 
 
 Five 
 
 panch 
 
 pants 
 
 Six 
 
 sho 
 
 kao 
 
 Seven 
 
 sliat 
 
 sat 
 
 Eight 
 
 paslit 
 
 akt 
 
 Nine 
 
 noh 
 
 nao 
 
 Ten 
 
 das 
 
 das. 
 
 I would call the sub-section to which these belong 
 the Dard group. Captain Cunningham would include 
 under this the Arniya of Chitral and Gilghit : which is 
 nearly the Kashkari of Leech. I give, however, less 
 generality to the word, and would simply call the group 
 Kashkari. 
 
 English, 
 
 Amiya. 
 
 Kashkari. 
 
 Man 
 
 rag 
 
 moashi 
 
 Woman 
 
 kamri 
 
 kumedi 
 
 Head 
 
 sur 
 
 sur 
 
 Eye 
 
 ghach 
 
 ghach ? 
 
 Ear 
 
 kad 
 
 kad 
 
 Nose 
 
 naskar 
 
 naskar 
 
 Mouth 
 
 diran 
 
 
 Tooth 
 
 dond 
 
 dond 
 
 Hand 
 
 hast 
 
 
 Foot 
 
 pang 
 
 pong 
 
 Blood 
 
 le 
 
 
 Shy 
 
 asman 
 
 
 Sun 
 
 
 
 Moon 
 
 
 
 Star 
 
 satar 
 
 
 Fire 
 
 ingar 
 
 ingar 
 
 Water 
 
 augr 
 
 ugh 
 
 River 
 
 sin 
 
 
 
 Stone 
 
 
 
 
 Tree 
 
 kan 
 
 
 Wood 
 
 Jin 
 
 
 One 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 Two 
 
 ju 
 
 D'u 
 
 Three 
 
 triu 
 
 trui 
 
 Four 
 
 chod 
 
 chod 
 
 Five 
 
 punj 
 
 punj 
 
 e\J 
 
THE PAROPAMISAN LANGUAGES. 
 
 239 
 
 English. 
 
 Arniya. 
 
 Kashkari. 
 
 Six 
 
 chui 
 
 chui 
 
 Seven 
 
 sut 
 
 sut 
 
 Eight 
 
 ansh 
 
 ansh 
 
 Nine 
 
 neuhan 
 
 nehan 
 
 Ten 
 
 ash 
 
 ja^. 
 
 The south-western sub-section (which we may call 
 the Cohistani) is represented by the Lughman and 
 Pashai of the Cohistan of Caubul. 
 
 English. 
 
 Lughman 
 
 Pashai. 
 
 Man 
 
 adam 
 
 panjai 
 
 Woman 
 
 masi 
 
 zaif 
 
 Head 
 
 shir 
 
 sir 
 
 Nose 
 
 matht 
 
 nast 
 
 Tongue 
 
 jub 
 
 jib 
 
 Eye 
 
 aneh 
 
 anch 
 
 Ear 
 
 kad 
 
 kad 
 
 Hand 
 
 atth 
 
 ast 
 
 Tooth 
 
 dan 
 
 dan 
 
 Foot 
 
 
 pae 
 
 Sun 
 
 thur 
 
 
 Moon 
 
 mae 
 
 mae 
 
 Day 
 
 lae 
 
 dawas 
 
 Night 
 
 veil 
 
 vyal 
 
 Fire 
 
 angar 
 
 angar 
 
 Water 
 
 warg 
 
 wark 
 
 Tree 
 
 kati 
 
 kadi 
 
 Stone 
 
 wad 
 
 wad 
 
 Fish 
 
 mach 
 
 macch 
 
 One 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 Two 
 
 do 
 
 do 
 
 Three 
 
 te 
 
 te 
 
 Four 
 
 char 
 
 char 
 
 Five 
 
 panj 
 
 panj 
 
 Six 
 
 khe 
 
 she 
 
 Seven 
 
 that 
 
 sat 
 
 Eight 
 
 akht 
 
 ash 
 
 Nine 
 
 no 
 
 no 
 
 Ten 
 
 de 
 
 de. 
 
 The populations hitherto mentioned are, one and all, 
 Mahometan : though in different degrees. The nearer 
 they are to Persia the more decided the creed. Some, 
 however, are such imperfect converts that they are 
 
24^0 THE PAROPAMISAN LANGUAGES. 
 
 denominated by their purer neighbours Half Maho- 
 metans. 
 
 But the tribes which now come under notice are not 
 even Half Mahometans. They are, in the eyes of the 
 true behevers, actual infidels ; so that Kafir is what they 
 are called, and Kaferistan is their country. 
 
 That the difference of creed exactly coincides with a 
 difference of dialect is unlikely. Hence, the Kafirs 
 Proper may graduate into the Cohistanis on one side 
 and into the Kashkaris on the other. The particular 
 division for which we have a specimen of the dialect 
 calls itself Siaposh ; its occupancy being the right bank 
 of the Kuner and the watershed which divides it from 
 the eastern feeders of the Oxus. According to Dr. 
 Gardiner* the typical Kafirs, eo nomine^ as opposed to 
 the Half Mussulmen, are — 
 
 The Kafirs of Esh, calculated at 15,000 
 Ushah „ 12,000 
 
 27,000 
 
 Now, whether Kafir, or half Kafir, this, at least, is 
 certain of the western tribes ; viz. that the fragments 
 of their creed are Hindu. 
 
 It is also certain that several legends point to India ; 
 though not exclusively. They point to India on one 
 side, and to Persia on another. 
 
 That they are Franks is believed in some quar- 
 ters. There is, however, a Cohistani population which 
 calls itself Purauncheh. It is just on the cards 
 that this may have given rise to the word Feringi = 
 Frank. Upon their setting on stools and chairs in pre- 
 ference to lying-down like the mass of orientals I lay 
 but little stress. As little do I lay on the fact of their 
 being notorious wine-bibbers. The grape grows in their 
 
 * Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. Vol. xxii. 
 
 o\J 
 
LEGENDS. 241 
 
 country, and they know how to convert it into wine. 
 Under these conditions they may easily indulge in drink, 
 without being, of necessity, Europeans in blood. 
 
 There is a tradition that they are descended from 
 Alexander the Great. 
 
 A small pool, near a place called Door, to the east or 
 north-east of Bamian, where there is an intrusive popu- 
 lation of Kalzubi Turks, but where the aborigines are 
 Therba and Shu Paropamisans, gives us the following 
 legend. 
 
 It is believed to be bottomless. The water is bitter and bituminous, 
 bubbling up with sulphuretted hydrogen, and surrounded by incrustations of 
 sulphur. Lambent flames are said to occasionally play over its surface. Near 
 it is a dark cave, and in this cave are the remains of idols — more than one. 
 The chief of these represent Moh and his wife, Mabun, deities whom even 
 the Mahometans of the district reverence. No one enters the cave with his 
 shoes on. 
 
 Two other caves are dedicated to Sheh, the Destroyer, iand Zhei, the God of 
 Fire. At each new moon the Therba (who reckon by months rather than 
 years) make a fire-offering to Zhei. 
 
 Two other caves are dedicated to Hersh and Maul. Small beads of gold 
 and stone, found in these parts by natives who dig for them, are called Solo- 
 mon's grains, 
 
 Moh created the earth, and his wife Mabun created the wilderness. From 
 them sprang the first giant race. They slept alternately for 999 moons 
 and reigned 450,000 moons. After this period, three sons rebelled, viz. 
 Sheh, the life-destroyer, Zhei, the fire-god, and Maul, the earth-quaker ; and, 
 by their combined efforts, Moh was buried beneath the mountains. Confusion 
 lasted 5000 moons, after which the three victors retired each to his own 
 region for 10,000 moons. Maul was lost in darkness of his own creating, 
 Sheh fled with his family towards the sun, which so much enraged Zhei, that 
 he caused fire to spread over the earth ; this was quenched by the spirit of 
 Mabun, but not till the whole giant race was destroyed, and the earth re- 
 mained a desert for 3000 moons. Then Hersh and Lethram, originally slaves 
 of Moh, and great magicians, emerged from the north, and settled in these 
 mountains. By some Lethram is considered as the incarnate spirit of Mabtin 
 and the Queen to whom Hersh was vizier. Hersh had three sons, Uz, Muz, 
 and Alk. These he left in charge of all their families, while with a large 
 army he travelled toward the sun in pursuit of Sheh, who was supposed to 
 be still living. So the three sons of Hersh and their descendants reigned 
 happily for 18,000 moons, till Khoor (Cyrus?) invaded and conquered the 
 country, but, after many years' struggle, they expelled the invader, and re- 
 tained the name Koorskush (Cyrus killed), now Khirghiz. The descendants of 
 Hersh continued to reign for 10,000 moons more, till Khoondroo (Alexander ?) 
 
 R 
 
242 LEGENDS. 
 
 invaded the country ; after which no separate legend of them seems to be 
 recollected. 
 
 In the same district stands the fort of Khornushi, to which you ascend by a 
 series of steep steps on hands and feet. Then comes a narrow ledge of rock, 
 from which a ladder of skin ropes, or a basket and windlass, takes the ex- 
 plorer upwards. At the top, a bason of bubbling brilliant water, hot in the 
 winter and cold during the summer, always full, and never over-flowing, 
 gives rise to the following legend — an echo of remarkable clearness, adding to 
 the mysterious character of the spot. 
 
 When Noah was at Mecca, Khor, the chief of the district, went to pay 
 homage to him : thereat Noah was well pleased, and promised to grant him 
 any favour for which he should ask. So Khor asked for water, but the 
 voice in which he spoke was rough and loud, and his manner coarse. At this 
 the patriarch was offended. So that instead of blessing the land of Khor he 
 cursed it, and condemned it to become solid rock, nevertheless he kept his 
 promise in the matter of the water, and sent his grandson Shur to carry it into 
 effect. The grandson cried Nu Shu. Echo answered Nu Shu. The sound 
 Nu Shu reached Mecca. And now Nu Shu is the sound which the water 
 murmurs, and which Echo still conveys to Mecca ; the place retaining the name 
 of the three parties concerned— Khor, the prince who spoke so rudely ; Noah, 
 the patriarch who disliked Khor's manners ; and Shu, the grandson who did 
 the work in opening the basin and calling out the words which Echo delighted 
 in repeating. 
 
 As far as this belief in Alexander goes, the Paro- 
 paraisans are simply in the position of the most western 
 of the Bhots ; inasmuch as the same belief prevails in 
 Bultistan or Little Tibet. Indeed, I believe that, at one 
 time, the Paropamisan area extended further to the east. 
 In the collection of ethnographical casts brought home by 
 the brothers Schlagintweit, it was remarked by the col- 
 lectors, and assented to by the present writer, that the 
 faces from the extreme east, though the faces of Bhots, 
 were, to a great extent, Persian in form and feature. If 
 so, there are good grounds for holding that the blood and 
 the language do not, very closely, coincide ; and that 
 there is Paropamisan blood in the veins of men and 
 women whose language is Bhot, and whose creed (in 
 some cases) is Buddhist. And this is borne out by Dr. 
 Gardner's tables — approximations as they are — wherein 
 we find the following statistical catalogue, which is, evi- 
 dently, to a very considerable extent, either inferential or 
 conjectural. 
 

 PAROPAMISANS. 
 
 
 
 (1-) 
 
 
 Bu, or Bull, calculated at 
 
 12,000 
 
 Kahuz, or Huhi „ 
 
 12,000 
 
 Phali, or 
 
 Phagi „ 
 
 12,000 
 
 Aspah 
 
 )j 
 
 12,000 
 
 Kulis 
 
 » 
 
 12,000 
 
 Muklu 
 
 » 
 
 12,000 
 
 Maha 
 
 » 
 
 12,000 
 
 Ka-lesh 
 
 ) 
 
 
 Ma-lesh 
 
 and > 
 
 12,000 
 
 Lesh 
 
 ) 
 
 
 
 84,000 
 
 
 (2.) _ 
 
 
 
 Chinese Subjects. 
 
 
 Beh, or Bethel „ 
 
 12,000 
 
 Plahi, or 
 
 Plaaghii „ 
 
 12,000 
 
 Bhoti (?) 
 
 i} 
 
 12,000 
 
 
 36,000 
 
 243 
 
 In respect to the wine it should be noticed that one 
 of the poetical, or rhetorical, names of the Paropamisus 
 points towards the fact of the grape growing there. It 
 is called in Persia and Cashmir the Wine-cellar of 
 Afrasiab. 
 
 It should also be added that on the western frontier 
 we have the venue of several of Rustam's exploits ; 
 Rustam being the great hero of Persia. 
 
 The Dangri (i. e. Dunger) of Yigne, is Paropamisan. 
 
 There are numerous architectural and sculptured re- 
 mains in the Paropamisan country. 
 
 English. Siali P6sh.* Sanskrit * 
 
 Star tarah tara 
 
 Sun sol ' surya 
 
 Moon 
 Fire 
 
 m^s 
 
 From Prichard, 
 
 R 2 
 
244 
 
 PAROPAMISANS. 
 
 English. 
 
 Siali P6sli. 
 
 Sanskrit. 
 
 Rain 
 
 wash 
 
 varsha 
 
 Snow 
 
 zuin 
 
 himd 
 
 Spnng . 
 
 vastink 
 
 vassanta 
 
 Hot 
 
 tapi 
 
 tap 
 
 Man 
 
 naursta 
 
 nara 
 
 Woman 
 
 mashi 
 
 manuschi 
 
 Mr 
 
 kar 
 
 karna 
 
 Eye 
 
 achan 
 
 aksclian 
 
 Nose 
 
 nasii 
 
 nasa 
 
 Teeth 
 
 dint 
 
 dante 
 
 Finger 
 
 agun 
 
 anguli 
 
 One 
 
 ek 
 
 eka 
 
 Two 
 
 du 
 
 dui 
 
 Three 
 
 tre 
 
 tri 
 
 Four 
 
 chata 
 
 chatur 
 
 Five 
 
 pich 
 
 pancha 
 
 Eight 
 
 asht 
 
 ashtan 
 
 Nine 
 
 nu 
 
 navan 
 
 Ten 
 
 dosh 
 
 dasan. 
 
 The Puraunchehs are mentioned by Elphinstone, who 
 only knows them as a class of carriers, called Hindki 
 or Indians. He adds, however, that Baber gave them a 
 separate language. I have been told that this is still 
 spoken by a few families. 
 
MIGRATORY TRIBES. 
 
 245 
 
 CHAPTER XXXV. 
 
 The Languages of certain migratory Populations of India. 
 
 There are numerous forms of speech iu India, which, 
 like the Hindustani, belong to certain classes of indi- 
 viduals rather than to certain districts. They partake, 
 more or less, of the nature of Cant or Slang. Of many 
 of them a good account is given by Mr. Balfour. 
 The following are the Tkug numerals. 
 
 English. 
 
 
 Thug. 
 
 
 
 Bagwan. 
 
 One 
 
 
 udanka 
 
 
 ungud 
 
 Two 
 
 
 sheluke 
 
 
 duke 
 
 Three 
 
 
 udanu 
 
 
 ruk 
 
 Fmr 
 
 
 poku 
 
 
 phoke 
 
 Five 
 
 
 molu 
 
 
 but 
 
 Six 
 
 
 shely 
 
 
 dag 
 
 Seven 
 
 
 pavitru 
 
 
 puyater 
 
 Eight 
 
 
 mungi 
 
 
 mung 
 
 Nine 
 
 
 tiosu 
 
 
 kone 
 
 Ten 
 
 
 avataru 
 
 
 sula 
 
 Eleven 
 
 
 ekpuru 
 
 
 ekla 
 
 Twelve 
 
 
 habru 
 
 
 jewla. 
 
 le Taremuhi are. wandering 
 
 tinkers. 
 
 
 English, 
 
 Taremuki 
 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Taremuki. 
 
 Man 
 
 lokro 
 
 
 
 Hand 
 
 hath 
 
 Woman 
 
 chaU 
 
 
 
 Foot 
 
 pug 
 
 Head 
 
 mathoe 
 
 
 
 Water 
 
 pani 
 
 Eye 
 
 dolo 
 
 
 
 Stone 
 
 duggru 
 
 Nose 
 
 nak 
 
 
 
 Earth 
 
 mattri 
 
 Ear 
 
 kan 
 
 
 
 Tree 
 
 jhar. 
 
 The Bhatui are jugglers, posture-makers, and exhibit- 
 ors of feats of strength. 
 
246 
 
 MIGRATORY TRIBES. 
 
 English. 
 
 Bhattii. 
 
 Man 
 
 mfins 
 
 Woman 
 
 30 
 
 Head 
 
 mtindhi 
 
 Eye 
 
 akhoe 
 
 Nose 
 
 luk 
 
 Ear 
 
 kunnu 
 
 Hand 
 
 hut 
 
 le Korawi 
 
 are mu 
 
 English. 
 
 Korawi. 
 
 Man 
 
 amlun 
 
 Woman 
 
 punjeri 
 
 Fire 
 
 nerpu 
 
 English. . 
 
 Blmtui. 
 
 Foot 
 
 pae 
 
 Fire 
 
 ugg 
 
 Water 
 
 pani 
 
 Stone 
 
 pathar 
 
 Earth 
 
 bhui 
 
 Tree 
 
 ihar. 
 
 English. 
 
 Korawi. 
 
 Stone 
 
 kellay 
 
 EaHh 
 
 tirri 
 
 Tree 
 
 muru. 
 
 The Ramusis are men of predatory habits in the 
 Mahratta country, but Canarese or Telinga in origin. 
 
 ^Englisli. Ramusi. English. Ramusi. 
 
 Eye 
 
 kunnul 
 
 Fire 
 
 dhupa 
 
 Tooth 
 
 punnul 
 
 Water 
 
 nidul 
 
 Sun 
 
 goanda 
 
 Stone 
 
 ratul. 
 
 Moon 
 
 phakut 
 
 
 
 So are the Mangs who also belong to the Mahratta coun- 
 try. 
 
 English. 
 
 Mang. 
 
 English. 
 
 Maog. 
 
 £ye 
 
 kewrja 
 
 Fire 
 
 dhupa 
 
 Tooth 
 
 chawur 
 
 Water 
 
 nir 
 
 Sun 
 
 goanda 
 
 Stone 
 
 upalla. 
 
 Moon 
 
 goanda 
 
 
 
 There are seven castes of Nuts* or BazighurSj imperfect 
 Mahometans, who dance and juggle in Bengal. 
 
 English. 
 
 Hindostanee. 
 
 Nut. 
 
 Nut. 
 
 Fire 
 
 ag 
 
 ga 
 
 kag 
 
 Bamboo 
 
 bans 
 
 suban 
 
 nans 
 
 Oven 
 
 chilum 
 
 limchi 
 
 nilum 
 
 Breath 
 
 dum 
 
 mudu 
 
 num 
 
 Femembrance 
 
 iad 
 
 dal 
 
 kiad 
 
 Beggar 
 
 fuqir 
 
 riqifu 
 
 nuqir 
 
 Home 
 
 ghur 
 
 rughu 
 
 rhur 
 
 India 
 
 Hindustan 
 
 Dusitanuk 
 
 Kindustan 
 
 Here 
 
 idhur 
 
 dhuri 
 
 bidhur 
 
 Captain Richardson, in Asiatic Transactions, vol. viii. 
 
MIGRATORY TRIBES. 
 
 247 
 
 English. 
 
 Hindostanee. 
 
 Nut. 
 
 WJien 
 
 jub 
 
 buju 
 
 Who 
 
 kon 
 
 onk 
 
 Long 
 
 lumba 
 
 balum 
 
 Mouth 
 
 mas 
 
 samu 
 
 Sect of people 
 
 nut 
 
 tunu 
 
 Age 
 
 omr 
 
 muru 
 
 Saint 
 
 pir 
 
 ripu 
 
 Fort 
 
 qilla 
 
 laqeh 
 
 Opposite 
 
 ruburu 
 
 bururu 
 
 Gold 
 
 sona 
 
 naso 
 
 A search 
 
 tulash 
 
 lashtu 
 
 Disagreement 
 
 iimbunao 
 
 nunbeh. 
 
 Heir 
 
 waris 
 
 ruswa 
 
 Nut. 
 
 nub 
 
 ron 
 
 kumba 
 
 nas 
 
 kut 
 
 komr 
 
 chir 
 
 rulla 
 
 kuburu 
 
 nona 
 
 nulash 
 
 kunbunao 
 
 quaris. 
 
 The Katodi are catechu gatherers in the Mahratta 
 country. 
 
 English. 
 
 Katodi. 
 
 
 English, 
 
 Katodi. 
 
 Call 
 
 akh 
 
 
 Hawh 
 
 moregai 
 
 Boiled rice 
 
 anuj 
 
 
 Take 
 
 li 
 
 Hedgehog 
 
 ahida 
 
 
 Give 
 
 wope 
 
 Kite 
 
 alav 
 
 
 Turban 
 
 salu 
 
 Crab 
 
 kirlu 
 
 
 Dog 
 
 s6na 
 
 Foivl 
 
 kukdai 
 
 
 Boy 
 
 sora 
 
 Iguana 
 
 gohur 
 
 
 Girl 
 
 sori 
 
 Arrow 
 
 cliumboti 
 
 Crow 
 
 hadia 
 
 Munjus 
 
 nagulia 
 
 
 Man 
 
 hodus 
 
 Crane 
 
 bugad 
 
 
 Woman 
 
 hodis. 
 
 To these add the Bowri £ 
 
 tnd Gohuri. 
 
 
 English. 
 
 
 Bowri 
 
 
 Gohuri. 
 
 Man 
 
 
 mank 
 
 hoe 
 
 gohur 
 
 Woman 
 
 
 manu 
 
 ssi 
 
 gohurni 
 
 Head 
 
 
 goddo 
 
 
 mathoe 
 
 Eye 
 
 
 dolo 
 
 
 ankhi 
 
 Nose 
 
 
 nak 
 
 
 nak 
 
 Ear ■ 
 
 
 kan 
 
 
 kan 
 
 Hand 
 
 
 hatha 
 
 
 hath 
 
 Foot 
 
 
 
 
 pae 
 
 Water 
 
 
 pani 
 
 
 pani 
 
 Stone 
 
 
 bhatti 
 
 1 
 
 bhatta 
 
 Earth 
 
 
 bhoe 
 
 
 jami 
 
 Tree 
 
 
 jbar 
 
 
 jhaiT. 
 
 Of the characteristic elements in these forms of speech 
 some are purely artificial like those in the Nut Vocabu- 
 lary) ; others of Tamul origin — Tamul meaning, not 
 only the Tamul proper, but its congeners. 
 
24a 
 
 THE GIPSY. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXYI. 
 
 The Gipsy. 
 
 Wherever we find a Gipsy who retains any portion of 
 his original language, no matter where we find him, that 
 primitive element, be it much or little, is Indian. It 
 is also Indian of the Hindi, rather than Indian of the 
 Tamul type. The first of the following short vocabula- 
 ries of the Gipsy language of different countries, is from 
 Persia, the next from ^gy pt, the last from Norway. 
 
 The Gipsies of Persia are known under the names of 
 Ghurbat (or Khurbat), Goabaz (probably the same word), 
 Duman, and Kaoli. 
 
 
 (1.) 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Khurbat. 
 
 Dumau. 
 
 Head 
 
 sir 
 
 murras 
 
 Hair 
 
 val 
 
 khaUuf 
 
 Ewr 
 
 kan 
 
 priuk 
 
 Eye 
 
 akki 
 
 jow 
 
 Tooth 
 
 dandeir 
 
 ghiolu 
 
 Hand 
 
 kustum 
 
 dast 
 
 SVM 
 
 gaham 
 
 gaham 
 
 Moon 
 
 heiuf 
 
 heiuf 
 
 Star 
 
 astara 
 
 astara 
 
 Fire 
 
 ag 
 
 ar 
 
 Water 
 
 pani 
 
 how 
 
 I 
 
 man 
 
 man 
 
 Thou 
 
 to 
 
 to 
 
 He 
 
 hui 
 
 hui 
 
 One 
 
 ek 
 
 ek 
 
 Two 
 
 di 
 
 di 
 
 Three 
 
 turrun 
 
 sih 
 
 Four 
 
 tshar 
 
 tshar 
 
 Five 
 
 penj 
 
 penj 
 
 Six 
 
 shesh 
 
 shesh 
 
 Seven 
 
 heft 
 
 heft 
 
 Eight 
 
 hest 
 
 hest 
 
 Nine 
 
 na 
 
 na 
 
 Ten 
 
 das 
 
 deh. 
 
THE GIPSY. 
 
 249 
 
 In Egypt they are known as Ghagar, Helebi, and 
 N^wer ; the first being the least Arabic of the three. 
 
 (2.) 
 
 EngUsh. 
 
 Ghagar. 
 
 
 Helebi. 
 
 Nawer. 
 
 Head 
 
 sir 
 
 
 ras 
 
 
 
 shirit 
 
 
 
 
 
 kamoklili 
 
 
 
 
 Hair 
 
 bal 
 
 
 shara 
 
 
 Eye 
 
 hank a 
 
 
 hazara 
 
 
 Ear 
 
 kirkawiyeh 
 
 wudu 
 
 
 Teeth 
 
 dandi 
 
 
 sinnan 
 
 
 
 sinnam 
 
 
 suvan 
 
 
 Sun 
 
 kam 
 
 
 shems 
 
 shems 
 
 
 karzi 
 
 
 
 
 
 karieh 
 
 
 
 
 Moon 
 
 kano 
 
 
 kamr 
 
 mahtaweh 
 
 
 kariz 
 
 
 
 
 
 Star 
 
 astra 
 
 
 nejm 
 
 
 Fire 
 
 ag 
 
 
 meguindara 
 
 ag 
 
 Stone 
 
 path 
 
 
 hajjar 
 
 
 Tree 
 
 kerian 
 
 (3.) 
 
 misbgareh 
 
 kannin. 
 
 Englisli. 
 
 Gipsy of Norway. 
 
 Tater.* 
 
 One 
 
 
 gikk 
 
 
 jek 
 
 Two 
 
 
 dy 
 
 
 dui 
 
 Three 
 
 
 trin 
 
 
 triu 
 
 Four 
 
 
 schtar 
 
 
 schtaar 
 
 Five 
 
 
 pansch 
 
 
 pantsch 
 
 Six 
 
 
 sink 
 
 
 schoov 
 
 Seven 
 
 
 schuh 
 
 
 efta 
 
 Eight 
 
 
 okto 
 
 
 ochto 
 
 Nine 
 
 
 engya 
 
 
 enja 
 
 Ten 
 
 
 ty 
 
 
 desh. 
 
 To which add astro =z star, bal =. hair; si zz heart ; 
 sap zz snake; RorriTnanozz Gipsy. f 
 
 With these specimens for the two extremes we may 
 easily believe that the Gipsy of the interjacent countries 
 is truly Indian in its basis. 
 
 * A variety of the ordinary Gripsy, which, in Norway, is called Fante. 
 t Sundt. Beretning om Fante eller Langstrygerfolket. 
 
250 
 
 THE KAJUNAH. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVII. 
 
 The Kajunah. 
 
 In Cunningham's Ladak is a specimen of the language 
 of Hunz-Nagar, to the north and north-east of the 
 Chitrali : and in contact with it ; with the Bhot ; with 
 the Turk of Chinese Turkestan ; and, probably, with 
 some Mongol form of speech. I cannot, like its collec- 
 tor, connect it, ofi-hand, with the Shin a and Arniya. 
 The following table shows too much difference for this. 
 
 English. 
 
 Sliina. 
 
 Arniya. 
 
 Kajunah. 
 
 Man 
 
 musha 
 
 rag 
 
 hir, er 
 
 Woman 
 
 grin 
 
 kamri 
 
 gus 
 
 Head 
 
 shis 
 
 sur 
 
 yetis 
 
 Eye 
 
 achhi 
 
 ghach 
 
 ilchin 
 
 Ear 
 
 kund 
 
 kad 
 
 iltumal 
 
 Nose 
 
 noto 
 
 naskar 
 
 gomoposh 
 
 Mouth 
 
 anzi 
 
 diran 
 
 gokhat 
 
 Tooth 
 
 duni 
 
 dond 
 
 gume 
 
 Rand 
 
 hath 
 
 hast . 
 
 gurengga 
 
 Foot 
 
 pa 
 
 pang 
 
 goting 
 
 Blood 
 
 lohel 
 
 le 
 
 multan 
 
 Sky 
 
 agahi 
 
 asman 
 
 ayesh 
 
 Sun 
 
 suri 
 
 
 sa 
 
 Moon 
 
 yun 
 
 
 halans 
 
 Star 
 
 taro 
 
 satar 
 
 asi 
 
 Fire 
 
 agar 
 
 ingar 
 
 
 
 phu 
 
 
 phu 
 
 Water 
 
 wahi 
 
 augr 
 
 chil 
 
 River 
 
 sin 
 
 sin 
 
 sindha 
 
 Stone 
 
 bat 
 
 
 dhan. 
 
 Besides which, the numerals are not only different 
 from the Dard dialects, but from those of all other lan- 
 guages known to me. 
 
THE KAJUNAH. 
 
 251 
 
 One 
 
 
 bin 
 
 Seven 
 
 
 talo 
 
 Two 
 
 
 altas 
 
 Eight 
 
 
 altambo 
 
 Three 
 
 
 husko 
 
 Nine 
 
 
 huncbo 
 
 Four 
 
 
 walto 
 
 Ten 
 
 
 tormo 
 
 Five 
 
 
 sundo 
 
 Twenty 
 
 
 altar 
 
 Six 
 
 
 mishando 
 
 
 
 
 Ja ba= 
 
 I am. 
 
 
 Hurtu bai= 
 
 ive are. 
 
 Um ba 
 
 = thou art 
 
 
 Ma bau=ye 
 
 are. 
 
 
 Ai ba = 
 
 -he is. 
 
 
 Menig bau= 
 
 -.they 
 
 are. 
 
 Meanwhile, the following forms are from the Shina ; 
 the first being (apparently) Kajunah ; the second Indian ; 
 the third Brahui. 
 
 1. 
 
 Be = be thou, being. 
 Bilo = <o be. 
 Bo je = being. 
 
 2. 
 
 Mo bos = 7 aw. 
 Tu hsiO = thou art. 
 A'b hao= Jie is. 
 
 Be ha,s:=we are 
 Tso bath=2/e are. 
 A'b 'hk=zthey are. 
 
 Mo asulus = / was. 
 Tu d>&u\\x — thou wast. 
 Ah usulu=Ag xcas. 
 
 Be asilis=:M;e wei'e. 
 Tso asilit=ye were. 
 Ze asili=<Ae2' ivere. 
 
 The Kajunah is just more Paropamisan than aught 
 else. Still, provisionally (and only jprovisionally), I 
 separate it. 
 
252 
 
 THE AFGHAN. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVIII. 
 
 The Pushtu, Patau, or Afghan. 
 
 Afghan and Afghanistan are Persian names. The 
 native name is Pukhtu in one, FusJitu in another dialect. 
 
 English. 
 
 Western Pushtu. 
 
 Eastern Pukhtu. 
 
 God 
 
 khoda 
 
 
 Heaven 
 
 asman 
 
 
 Father 
 
 plar 
 
 
 
 Mother 
 
 mor 
 
 
 Son 
 
 zoe 
 
 
 Daughter 
 
 loor 
 
 
 Brother 
 
 wror 
 
 
 Sister 
 
 khor 
 
 
 Husband 
 
 meru 
 
 
 Wife 
 
 ourut 
 
 khizu 
 
 Girl 
 
 peghlu 
 
 
 
 Boy 
 
 zunki 
 
 huluk 
 
 Man 
 
 uieru 
 
 
 Head 
 
 sur 
 
 
 Nose 
 
 puzu 
 
 pozu 
 
 NostHl 
 
 spuzhmen 
 
 spegme 
 
 Hair 
 
 veshtu 
 
 
 Eyebrow 
 
 w66 rtidzgge 
 
 wrtize 
 
 Eyelashes 
 
 baua 
 
 
 Eye 
 
 sturgi 
 
 
 
 lemu 
 
 
 Forehead 
 
 wuchwely 
 
 wuchwoly 
 
 Beard 
 
 zhiru 
 
 giru 
 
 Nech 
 
 tsut 
 
 tsut 
 
 
 mughzy 
 
 
 Arm 
 
 las 
 
 
 Hand 
 
 mungol 
 
 
 Nail 
 
 nook 
 
 
 Belly 
 
 nus 
 
 gera 
 
 Bach 
 
 sha 
 
 

 THE AFGHAN. 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Western Puslitu. 
 
 Eastern Puklitu. 
 
 Flesh 
 
 ghwushu 
 
 ghwukhe 
 
 Bone 
 
 hudtiky 
 
 
 Blood 
 
 vini 
 
 
 HeaH 
 
 ziru 
 
 
 Ear 
 
 gwuzh 
 
 ghwug 
 
 Mouth 
 
 khoolu 
 
 
 Tongue 
 
 zuba 
 
 zhebu 
 
 Tooth 
 
 gasli 
 
 ghakh 
 
 Foot 
 
 pshu 
 
 khpu 
 
 Day 
 
 rwudz 
 
 
 Night 
 
 shpu 
 
 
 Sun 
 
 nmur 
 
 nwur 
 
 Moon 
 
 spozhmy 
 
 spogmi 
 
 Star 
 
 stori 
 
 
 Fire 
 
 or 
 
 
 Water 
 
 obu 
 
 
 River 
 
 rod 
 
 seen 
 
 Sea 
 
 deria 
 
 
 Tree 
 
 wunu 
 
 
 Stone 
 
 kane 
 
 
 I 
 
 zu 
 
 
 We 
 
 muzh 
 
 mungu 
 
 Thou 
 
 tu 
 
 
 Ye 
 
 tase 
 
 
 One 
 
 yo 
 
 
 Two 
 
 dwu 
 
 
 Three 
 
 dre 
 
 
 Four 
 
 tsulor 
 
 
 Five 
 
 pinza 
 
 
 Six 
 
 spuzh 
 
 
 Seven 
 
 owu 
 
 
 Eight 
 
 uti 
 
 
 Nine 
 
 nu 
 
 
 Ten 
 
 lus 
 
 
 253 
 
 In India the word Fukhtu becomes Patau. 
 
254 THE PERSIAN. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIX. 
 
 The Persian.— The Huzvaresh.— TheParsi.— The Modem Persian.— The 
 Biluch.— The Kurd.- The Buruki. 
 
 I BEGIN the notice of the languages of Persia and its 
 congeners with the following extract from Prichard. 
 
 The first appearance of the ancient Medes and Persians, during the sixth 
 century before our era on the theatre of human affairs, was almost as sudden 
 as that of the Huns, or Turks, or Mongoles, in a later age. Shortly before 
 the period when they gained the mastery of the world, their name seems to 
 have been unknown to Europe and to Western Asia. The Greeks of the 
 Homeric age, and while the kingdom of Lydia was growing up in Asia Minor, 
 appear never to have heard of the Persians ; nor have we any proof that their 
 existence was known except by the predictions of the Prophets to the ancient 
 Hebrews. Even in the historical records referring to preceding times, which 
 the Greeks afterwards found in the east, there is no trace of an ancient 
 empire, or even of an independent nation, in the countries between the 
 Tigris and the Indus, dating its existence many generations before Cyrus. 
 The Assyrian kingdom of Ninus and Semiramis and their successors is said to 
 have reached to the borders of India. Whence, then, came that great and 
 powerful race, who suddenly overturned all the dynasties of Asia, subdued 
 the civilized parts of Africa and of Europe ? Were they one, perhaps the 
 first, of those great swarms, who, from the remote regions of High Asia, have 
 poured themselves down in different ages to overrun the Eastern world ? or 
 had they been, as it is generally supposed, the primeval inhabitants of some 
 region in the vast extent of Iran, who, like the Arabs in later times, after 
 remaining for ages in quiet obscurity, suddenly emerged, as if moved by some 
 inward impulse, and like that people became almost universal conquerors ? 
 
 Samples of the language of the Sassanian period have 
 come down to us as inscriptions, as legends on coins, and 
 as written compositions. As the dynasty reigned from 
 the third to the seventh century, and as the reigns 
 of both the earliest and the latest of the kings are illus- 
 trated by memorials of some kind, the presumption is 
 against uniformity. So is the fact. There are divisions, 
 sub-divisions, and cross-divisions in the criticism of the 
 
THE PERSIAN. 255 
 
 Sassanian memorials. The older differ from the newer, 
 both in respect to the language whicli they exhibit, and 
 in respect to the alphabet in which they are embodied. 
 
 The notice of the inscriptions comes first. The chief 
 are from Nakhsi-Rustam, Persepolis, Kirmanshah, and 
 Hajlabad. They have long commanded the attention 
 of Orientalists. The chief of the earlier memoirs upon 
 them was by De Sacy, and it is a memoir to which later 
 investigators have added but little. The inscriptions are 
 neither numerous nor long : neither are they rich in 
 forms and words. Titles, as in inscriptions in general, 
 form a large part of them. Of verbs, there is no in- 
 stance. The alphabet is Semitic ; and, like the other 
 Semitic alphabets, with the exception of the -Ethiopian, 
 is read from right to left. The alphabet is Semitic, and 
 lapidary, i. e. it is, comparatively speaking, rectilinear 
 and angular rather than curvilinear and round. 
 
 The older the coin, the more lapidary the character of 
 the letters of its legend ; a fact upon which Mordtmann 
 has suggested the following classification; a classification 
 which gives (1 ) coins with their legends in the lapidary 
 alphabet ; (2) coins with their legends in an alphabet 
 more cursive than lapidary ; (3) coins with their legends 
 in an alphabet actually (or nearly) cursive. The first 
 class represents a period from Artaxerxes to N arses, when 
 the tendency to transition begins. All, or almost all, of 
 the bilingual inscriptions belong to this period. 
 
 The second, of which the typical representatives are 
 the coins of Varames lY., reaches from Sapor II. to 
 Chosroes II. : the third from Chosroes II. to the end of 
 the dynasty, and a little beyond it ; a little beyond it 
 inasmuch as some of the early Caliphs used the Sassa- 
 nian alphabet in their legends. A series of coins fi:om 
 Taberistan belongs to this period. That the three classes 
 graduate into each other is plain. 
 
 The same applies to the language, so far as our scanty 
 data allow us to judge. Mordtmann suggests that the 
 
256 THE PERSIAN. 
 
 earliest and the latest legends belong to different lan- 
 guages ; or rather to the same language in stages suffi- 
 ciently different to be treated as such. Spiegel, on the 
 other hand, refers them all to one language. 
 
 So much for the inscriptions and coins. It was ne- 
 cessary to begin with them, because they give us dates, 
 which the literary compositions, though much more valu- 
 able as representatives of the language, do not. 
 
 The particular dialect that the Sassanian memorials 
 represent is that of south-western Persia. The extent to 
 which it is mixed with Semitic elements is in favour of this. 
 So are the localities of the chief inscriptions ; especially 
 those of Persepolis and Nakhsi-Rustam. The dynasty I 
 believe to have been other than Persian ; so that it would 
 take the language of the capital as it found it. The Se- 
 mitic alphabet, also, lay near at hand. It was current 
 in Syria, and Mesopotamia ; not to mention the fact of 
 its having extended itself to Caubul some generations 
 before. The use, however, of it was, as far as we 
 can judge from negative evidence, an innovation — the 
 legends of the Arsacidan coins having been Greek. 
 
 The common name for this form of speech, from the 
 time of D'Anquetil du Perron until the last ten years, 
 was Pehlevi, Spiegel, however, in the preface to his 
 Parsi Grammar, a forerunner of his one upon that of the 
 Sassanian compositions, has named it Huzvaresh ; and 
 given fair reasons for doing so. At any rate, the name 
 Pehlevi is inconvenient. 
 
 What Spiegel calls the Parsi is treated by him as 
 either the actual Huzvaresh, or a near congener of it, 
 in a newer form, and, as a kind of Huzvaresh of the 
 early Mahomedan period, i. e. of the time between the 
 last of the Sassanians and Firdusi who wrote under 
 Mahmud of Ghuzni. The Parsi compositions are, one 
 and all, translations from the Huzvaresh. Their alpha- 
 bet is Huzvaresh. They are without either dates or 
 names. The translations, however, of two works, the 
 
THE PERSIAN DIALECTS. 257 
 
 MmoJchired, and the Shikand-guondni, are held to be 
 older than that of a third, the Patet Irani. Finally, 
 the language is held to be transitional to the Huzvaresh 
 and the modern Persian. 
 
 A well-known statement from the Fevheng-i-Jihdngiri 
 tells us, that when that work was written there were 
 seven dialects of the Persian language, of which four 
 were obsolete, and three in use. These seem to have 
 been literary forms of speech ; or, at any rate, forms 
 of speech which had been subjected to a certain amount 
 of cultivation. I imagine that there were written 
 compositions in all of them, and that they were men- 
 tioned by the writer just as the Sicilian, the Bolognese, 
 or the Milanese might be mentioned by an Italian 
 critic as dialects of the Italian Peninsula. If so, they 
 were provincial or local forms of speech. If so, they 
 were forms of speech which were scarcely dialects in 
 the strictest sense of the word ; inasmuch as literary 
 influence had, to some extent, acted upon them — such 
 influences always having an assimilating tendency. 
 
 Of these, the four obsolete dialects were the Herevi, 
 the Segzi, the Zavuli, and the Sogdi, i. e. the dialects of 
 Herat, Seistan, Zabulistan, and Bokhara — the ancient 
 Sogdiana. The three in use were the Pehlevi, the 
 Parsi, and the Deri. Of these names four are not only 
 geogi'aphical, but are visibly so. Parsi is ambiguous. 
 It may mean eitlier the dialect of the province Ears, or 
 the dialect of certain books belonging to the Parsis. 
 Pehlevi is, perhaps, the Huzvaresh — though the iden- 
 tification is not without its elements of uncertainty. 
 Deri is a difficult term, being, apparently, word for 
 word, the same as Deer, Tirhai, &:c. If so, it is a 
 geographical term. If so, however, is it geographical 
 without being definite? — inasmuch as D-r means no 
 particular place, but any place with certain physical 
 characters. It means no more than the word Highland^ 
 
 s 
 
258 THE PERSIAN DIALECTS. 
 
 a word which may apply anywhere where the Lands 
 are High. 
 
 Simply from finding that the vocabularies headed 
 Der, Tirye, &;c., come from Caubul, and the Indian 
 frontier rather than from the western side of Persia, 
 T am inclined to make the Deri an Eastern dialect. 
 Whether it is that of Firdusi is another question ; indeed, 
 the whole question concerning the seven dialects of the 
 Ferheng-i-JihdngM, is rather one of exegesis than one 
 of proper philology. That a language like the Persian, 
 which is spoken over a vast area, should fall into dia- 
 lects and sub-dialects, is no more than what we expect 
 a priori. We expect, too, a priori, that some of these 
 should be of sufficient importance to command the 
 attention of native commentators. That any such 
 commentator should give us either the whole details, 
 or an accurate classification, is unlikely. It is only 
 likely that he will give some extreme or well-marked 
 forms. 
 
 Upon the actual details of the Persian dialects, as at 
 present spoken, I can give nothing definite. The dialects 
 of Ghilan, Mazenderan, and Aderbijan, are said to ex- 
 hibit notable characteristics — indeed the statement may 
 be found in good books, that Pehlevi is still spoken in 
 certain parts of the last-named province. Whether this 
 be the case or not, depends upon the meaning attached 
 to the word. All that can safely be inferred from the 
 assertion is the existence of some archaic dialect. Upon 
 the dialects of the towns, and upon those of the country 
 in general, the literary language, in its cultivated form, 
 has had great influence ; in other words, the ordinary 
 language of a great part of Persia approaches it in the 
 way that the ordinary language of the towns of England 
 approaches the English. 
 

 THE BILUCH. 
 
 c 
 
 English, 
 
 Persian. 
 
 English. 
 
 Persian. 
 
 Man (homo) 
 
 admi 
 
 Moon 
 
 mah 
 
 (vir) 
 
 mard 
 
 Star 
 
 sitara 
 
 WoTnan 
 
 zan 
 
 Fire 
 
 eatash 
 
 Head 
 
 sar 
 
 Water 
 
 ab 
 
 Hair 
 
 mu 
 
 Stone 
 
 sang 
 
 Eye 
 
 chashm 
 
 Tree 
 
 dara,kht 
 
 Nose 
 
 bini 
 
 One 
 
 yak 
 
 Mouth 
 
 dahan 
 
 Two 
 
 do 
 
 Tooth 
 
 dandan 
 
 Three 
 
 sih 
 
 Tongue 
 
 zabaa 
 
 Four 
 
 cbahar 
 
 Hand 
 
 dast 
 
 Five 
 
 panch 
 
 Foot 
 
 pa 
 
 Six 
 
 sha,Rh 
 
 Blood 
 
 khun 
 
 Seven 
 
 haft 
 
 Day 
 
 roz 
 
 Eight 
 
 hasht 
 
 Night 
 
 shab 
 
 Nine 
 
 nau 
 
 Sun 
 
 aftab 
 
 Ten 
 
 das. 
 
 259 
 
 Of either the Persian eo nomine, or a language which 
 differs from the Persian in name rather than in structure, 
 spoken beyond the boundaries of Persia, the most im- 
 portant are — 
 
 ] . The Persian of the Sarts of Bokhara, on the 
 north-east. 
 
 English. 
 
 Head 
 
 Hair 
 
 Hand 
 
 Foot 
 
 Eye 
 
 Ear 
 
 Bokhara. 
 
 tser 
 
 mui 
 
 dest 
 
 pai 
 
 qush 
 
 2. The Biluch of Biluchistan, 
 
 English. 
 
 Biluch. 
 
 Hair 
 
 phut 
 
 Eye 
 
 tsham 
 
 Tongue 
 
 zawan 
 
 Tooth 
 
 dathan 
 
 Nose 
 
 phonz 
 
 Foot 
 
 path 
 
 Moon (new) 
 
 nokh 
 
 Fire 
 
 as 
 
 Water 
 
 aph 
 
 Tree 
 
 darashk 
 
 St&ne 
 
 sing 
 
 I 
 
 ma 
 
 We 
 
 md 
 
 English. 
 
 Bokhara. 
 
 Sun 
 
 aftab 
 
 Moon 
 
 mah 
 
 Star 
 
 sitara 
 
 Water 
 
 ab 
 
 Stone 
 
 tsenk. 
 
 on the south-east. 
 
 English. 
 
 Biluch. 
 
 Thou 
 
 than 
 
 Ye 
 
 shurn^ 
 
 One 
 
 yak 
 
 Two 
 
 do 
 
 Three 
 
 shai 
 
 Four 
 
 tshyar 
 
 Five 
 
 pantsh 
 
 Six 
 
 • shash 
 
 Seven 
 
 hapt 
 
 Eight 
 
 hast 
 
 Nine 
 
 nu 
 
 Ten 
 
 dah. 
 
 s 2 
 
260 
 
 THE KURD. 
 
 3. The Kurd of Kurdistan, falling into the Luristan, 
 the Felleh, and other dialects. 
 
 English. 
 
 Kurd. 
 
 English. 
 
 Kurd. 
 
 Man 
 
 piaou 
 
 Foot 
 
 peh 
 
 Head 
 
 ser 
 
 Blood 
 
 khura 
 
 Eye 
 
 tshav 
 
 Sun 
 
 hatava 
 
 Nose 
 
 kuppu 
 
 Moon 
 
 mahang 
 
 Ear 
 
 gheh 
 
 Star 
 
 asteria 
 
 Hair 
 
 jakatani 
 
 Bay 
 
 ruzh 
 
 Mouth 
 
 zar 
 
 Night 
 
 show 
 
 Tooth 
 
 didan 
 
 Fire 
 
 aghir 
 
 Tongue 
 
 ziman 
 
 Water 
 
 aw 
 
 Beard 
 
 rudain 
 
 Stone 
 
 bird 
 
 Hand 
 
 dest 
 
 Tree 
 
 dar. 
 
 In the following list (the Zaza is a Kurd dialect from 
 the north-western frontier) observe the affix min. It is 
 the possessive pronoun, upon which more will be said 
 when the American and Kelsenonesian languages come 
 under notice. In a vocabulary which I took from a 
 gipsy in England, I found the same incorporation. 
 
 English. 
 
 Zaza. 
 
 English. 
 
 Zaza. 
 
 Head 
 
 sere-mm 
 
 Star 
 
 sterrai 
 
 Eyes 
 
 tchime-miw 
 
 Mountain 
 
 khoo 
 
 Eyebroios 
 
 burne-mm 
 
 Sea 
 
 aho 
 
 Nose 
 
 zinje-mm 
 
 Valley 
 
 derei 
 
 Moustache 
 
 simile-min 
 
 Eggs 
 
 boiki 
 
 Beard 
 
 ardishe-mm 
 
 A fowl 
 
 kergbi 
 
 Tongue 
 
 zoane-mm 
 
 Welcome 
 
 lebexairome 
 
 Teeth 
 
 dildone-mm 
 
 Come 
 
 beiri 
 
 Ears 
 
 gusbe-mm 
 
 Stay 
 
 roshe 
 
 Fingers 
 
 ingishte-mm 
 
 Bread 
 
 noan 
 
 Ann 
 
 pazie-mm 
 
 Water 
 
 awe 
 
 Legs 
 
 binge -mm 
 
 Child 
 
 katcbimo 
 
 Father 
 
 pre -mm 
 
 Virgin 
 
 keinima 
 
 Mother 
 
 mai-mm 
 
 Orphan 
 
 lajekima 
 
 Sister 
 
 wai-mm 
 
 Morning 
 
 sbaurow 
 
 Brother 
 
 brai-mm 
 
 Tree 
 
 dori 
 
 The back 
 
 pushtiai-mm 
 
 Iron 
 
 asin 
 
 Hair 
 
 pore -mm 
 
 Hair 
 
 aurisb 
 
 Cold 
 
 serdo 
 
 Greyhound 
 
 taji 
 
 Hot 
 
 auroghermo 
 
 Pig 
 
 kbooz 
 
 Sun 
 
 rojshwesbo 
 
 Earth 
 
 ert 
 
 Moon 
 
 hashme 
 
 Fire 
 
 adir 
 

 
 THE B 
 
 ARAKI. 
 
 i 
 
 English. 
 
 Zaza. 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Zaza. 
 
 Stone 
 
 see 
 
 
 Mare 
 
 mahine 
 
 Silver 
 
 sem 
 
 
 Grapes 
 
 eslikiishi 
 
 Strength 
 
 kote 
 
 
 A house 
 
 ke 
 
 Sword 
 
 shimsliir 
 
 Oreen 
 
 kesk 
 
 A fox 
 
 krevesh 
 
 Crimson 
 
 soor 
 
 Stag 
 
 kive 
 
 
 Blach 
 
 siah 
 
 Partridge 
 
 zaraj 
 
 
 TMiite 
 
 supeo 
 
 Milh 
 
 shut 
 
 
 Sleep 
 
 ransume 
 
 Horse 
 
 istor 
 
 
 Go 
 
 shoori. 
 
 261 
 
 4. In Afghanistan and elsewhere, there are certain 
 populations which the Afghans, or whoever may be the 
 predominant population, separate from themselves, some- 
 times under the general name of Tadzhik, Deggaun, or 
 Parsiwan, and sometimes under some specific or particular 
 denomination. Most (perhaps all) of these use a form 
 of speech which is essentially Persian. Such is that of 
 the Barakis, of Afghanistan, a population of which there 
 are two divisions, one in the province of Lohgad, who 
 speak Persian eo nomine^ and one of the town of Barak, 
 " who speak,'' writes Leach, " the language called Baraki/' 
 But this is Persian also — i. e. the Persian of Barak, 
 though not of the purest kind. Possibly it contains 
 an artificial element ; at any rate, Leach's notice of it 
 should be known. 
 
 It makes the Baraki originally inhabitants of Yemen, 
 whence they were brought by Mahmud of Ghuzni, when 
 he invaded India ; the Sultan, pleased with their services, 
 was " determined to recompense them by giving them in 
 perpetual grant any part of the country they chose ; 
 they fixed upon the district of Kaniguram in the country 
 of the Waziris, where they settled. There are 2000 
 families of the Rajan Barakis, under Rasul Khan who 
 receives 2000 rupees a year from Dost Muhammed Khan. 
 The contingents of both these chiefs amount to 50 
 horsemen who are enrolled in the Ghulam Khana divi- 
 sion of the Cabul army. There are also 2000 families 
 of Barakis at Kaniguram under Shah Malak, who are 
 independent. The Barakis of this place and of Barak 
 
262 
 
 THE BARAKI. 
 
 alone speak the Baraki language. We receive a warning, 
 from the study of this vocabulary, not to be hasty in 
 inferring the origin of a people merely from the construc- 
 tion of their language ; for it is well known that the 
 one now instanced was invented by Mir Yu'zu'f, who led 
 the first Barakis from Yemen into Afghanisthan : his 
 design was to conceal and separate his few followers from 
 the mass of Afghans (called by them Kash), who would 
 no doubt at first look upon the Barakts with jealousy as 
 intruders. The muleteers of Cabul, being led by their 
 profession to traverse wild countries and unsafe roads, 
 have also invented a vocabulary of passwords." 
 
 English. 
 
 Baraki. 
 
 English. 
 
 BaraU. 
 
 Head 
 
 sax 
 
 Village 
 
 gram 
 
 Nose 
 
 neni 
 
 House 
 
 ner 
 
 Eye 
 
 tsimi 
 
 Egg 
 
 wolkh 
 
 Ear 
 
 goi 
 
 Milk 
 
 pikakh 
 
 Tooth 
 
 gishi 
 
 Fish 
 
 mahi 
 
 Sun 
 
 toavi 
 
 One 
 
 she 
 
 Moon 
 
 marwokh 
 
 Two 
 
 do 
 
 Star 
 
 stura 
 
 Three 
 
 ghe 
 
 Day 
 
 rosh 
 
 Four 
 
 tshar 
 
 Night 
 
 gta 
 
 Five 
 
 penj 
 
 Fire 
 
 arong 
 
 Six 
 
 ksha 
 
 Water 
 
 wokh 
 
 Seven 
 
 wo 
 
 Stone 
 
 gap 
 
 Eight 
 
 antsh 
 
 Tree 
 
 darakt 
 
 Nine 
 
 noh 
 
 City 
 
 ksliar 
 
 Ten 
 
 das. 
 
 How far the dialects of Wokhan, Shugnan, and Roshan, 
 are Persian rather than Paropamisan, or Paropamisan 
 rather than Persian, or how far they are transitional to the 
 two, is a point for which we want data. 
 
 Note. 
 
 At the risk of appearing unduly speculative and presumptuous, I venture 
 on the following suggestion, viz. that the true name is Husvadesh rather than 
 Huzvaresh. The preliminary remarks of Spiegel (pp. 22-23) supply the 
 bases of this conjecture. Quatremere gives the following translation of a 
 passage in the Kitab-ul-Jihrist — "Zes Perses ont au^si un alphabet Zewaresh 
 dont les lettres sent tantdt li4es, tantdt isoUes,^' &c. This gets rid of the 
 
THE BARAKI. 263 
 
 initial syllable. It also renders it probable that the r is a clerical error for d. 
 If so, it is simply the language, or alphabet, of Siwdd. 
 
 I also suggest, on the strength of Mohl's conjecture, that the root of the 
 word Pehlevi — boundary or march, that the term, like the German Marco- 
 mannic, may be the language of any district which constituted a frontier, so 
 that there may have been more Pehlevis than one. One of these was the 
 district named FeMeh, which, comprised the five towns of Kei, Ispahan, 
 Hamadan, Mah-nehavend, and Aderbijan. The authority for this is Ibn 
 Hauqal, who travelled in Persia in the fifth century of the Hejira. Other 
 statements (which may be found in Spiegel) confirm this by connecting the 
 Pehlevi with the Ghilan dialect. 
 
 Geographically, then, the Pehlevi was a dialect of the north-west, the Deri 
 (which was spoken with great purity in Balkh) being one of the north-east. 
 But it was also used in a chronological sense, and meant (as Spiegel remarks) 
 Old Persian. 
 
 The geographical Pehlevi, then, may be one dialect, the chronological or 
 historical Pehlevi, another. It is this latter which is most especially con- 
 nected with the Huzvaresh. 
 
264 
 
 THE IRON, 
 
 CHAPTER XL. 
 
 - The Iron. 
 
 Iron is the native name for a population which is called 
 by its neighbours Osset : its occupancy being the parts 
 about the Vladikaukasus, where it is bounded by the 
 Georgian on the south, and certain Lesgian and Tshetsh 
 dialects on the north, east, and west. Of all the lan- 
 guages of Caucasus, it is the one which nearest ap- 
 proaches the Persian, and (through it) its real or sup- 
 posed congeners of what is called the Indo-European 
 class : for which reason it has commanded more than 
 ordinary attention. It cannot, however, be separated 
 from the other languages of the great mountain-range 
 to which it belongs. 
 
 English. 
 
 Man 
 
 Head 
 
 Eye 
 
 Nose 
 
 Ear 
 
 Hair 
 
 Mouth 
 
 Tooth 
 
 Beard 
 
 Iron. 
 
 English 
 
 moi 
 
 Hand 
 
 ser 
 
 Foot 
 
 tsaste 
 
 Blood 
 
 findzh 
 
 Sun 
 
 khuz 
 
 Moon 
 
 dzikku 
 
 Star 
 
 dzug 
 
 Fire 
 
 dendag 
 
 Water 
 
 awsag 
 
 Stone 
 
 botso 
 
 
 Iron. 
 
 kukh 
 
 kakh 
 
 thuh 
 
 khor 
 
 mai 
 
 stal 
 
 sing 
 
 dun 
 
 dor. 
 
 The nearest congeners of the Iron are the Persian on 
 the one side and the Armenian on the other, the rela- 
 tionships on each side being distant ; or, at any rate, less 
 near than the geographical relations of the three lan- 
 guages would lead us to expect. 
 
OR OSSET. 265 
 
 Among the Persian forms of speech the Iron is nearest 
 to the Kurd. 
 
 Next to the Georgians, the Iron is the population of 
 Caucasus which is most thoroughly brought under 
 Russia. Hence, the language, so far as it is written at 
 all, is written in Russian characters. Such is the case 
 with the Dictionary of Sjogi'en ; in which the Russian 
 alphabet, with the addition of several new signs, is the 
 medium. 
 
 Of Iron dialects there are, at least, two — the or- 
 dinary Iron and the Dugorian. A third, quoted as 
 the Tagauriany may be one of two things. It may 
 be a real fresh dialect or it may be another form for 
 Bugoo^ian. 
 
 Of the grammatical structure of the Iron, a short 
 sketch (of which an abstract is given in the present 
 writer's Varieties of Man) is published by Rosen. 
 
 That the Iron are the descendants of the Alani, who 
 were, themselves, the descendants of certain Medes, by 
 whom a district of Caucasus was colonized in the time 
 of the Achsemenidse, is a doctrine of Klaproth's, which 
 has met with more approval than it deserves. It rests 
 on a confusion between the name As (=:Ossef) as applied 
 to the Iron by themselves, and the name As ( = Osset) as 
 applied to them by some one else. 
 
 The similarity of form between Iron and Iran, the 
 name of a province of Persia, as well as the Sassanian 
 for Persia in general, is more important. The true ex- 
 planation, however, of this has yet to be given. 
 
 Upon the claims of tlie Iron to be placed in the same 
 class with the Latin, Greek, German, Slavonic, and Li- 
 thuanic, more will be said in the sequel. 
 
266 
 
 THE ARMENIAN. 
 
 CHAPTER XLI. 
 
 The Armenian. 
 
 The nearest congeners to the Armenian are the Iron on 
 the one side, and the Georgian on the other : the rela- 
 tionships on each side being distant ; or, at any rate, less 
 near than the geographical relations of the three lan- 
 guages would lead us to expect. 
 
 English. 
 
 Armenian 
 
 Man (homo) 
 
 mart 
 
 (mr) 
 
 air 
 
 Bead 
 
 klukh 
 
 Hair 
 
 hyer 
 
 
 lav 
 
 
 mas 
 
 Eye 
 
 agn 
 
 
 atsk 
 
 Nose 
 
 untsh 
 
 
 kit 
 
 Mouth 
 
 pyeran 
 
 Ear 
 
 ungn 
 
 Beard 
 Blood 
 
 morusk 
 
 ariynn 
 
 Englisli. 
 
 Armenian 
 
 Tooth 
 
 adamn 
 
 Hand 
 
 dzyern 
 
 Foot 
 
 wot 
 
 Tongue 
 
 tyesu 
 
 Heart 
 
 zird 
 
 Sun 
 
 aryev 
 
 Moon 
 
 luzin 
 
 Star 
 
 azdegh 
 
 Fire 
 
 hur 
 
 
 grag 
 
 Water 
 
 tshur 
 
 Snow 
 
 ziun 
 
 Stone 
 
 khar 
 
 Bill 
 
 sar 
 
 Fish 
 
 tsugn. 
 
 There are Armenians beyond the limits of Arme- 
 nia. There is a colony in Persia near Isfahan, founded 
 by Shah Abbas, the founder of the Georgian colony in 
 Khorasan. There are Armenians in India, and many 
 thousands in Constantinople. In European Russia their 
 census is as foUows : — 
 
THE ARMENIAN. 267 
 
 In the Government of Astrakan . , 5,272 
 
 Bessarabia . . 2,353 
 
 _ Ekaterinoslav .14,931 
 
 St. Petersburg . 170 
 
 Stauropol. . . 9,000 
 
 — - Tauris. . . . 3,960 
 
 Kherson . . . 1,990 
 
 Total . . . 37,676 
 
 But the most important settlement is that of the Mechi- 
 tarist monks on the Island of St. Lazarus, in Venice. 
 Here is the centre of the Armenian literature ; with its 
 library, rich in MSS., some published, some unpublished. 
 Nine-tenths of the Armenian compositions that appear 
 in print proceed from this Venetian press. The Arme- 
 nian literature goes back to the fifth century, and the 
 Armenian alphabet, which, as far as the relation of signs 
 to sounds is concerned, is one of the completest in exist- 
 ence, has, in the form of its letters, deviated from its 
 prototype (whatever that was) to a great degree. It 
 affects straight lines and angles, and exhibits a mini- 
 Tnum of curves. In the order and names of its letters 
 it is Greek. 
 
 The languages that have more especially encroached 
 on the Armenian are the Turk and the Persian. 
 
268 THE GEORGIAN. 
 
 CHAPTER XLII. 
 
 The Dioscurian Group, — Meaning of the Term. — Georgian Division. 
 
 So much is said and written about the Caucasian di- 
 vision of the human species, where the word is used in a 
 general sense, that, when we come to the mountain-range 
 of Caucasus itself, and find ourselves in the midst of 
 details which are truly and strictlj^ Caucasian, we are 
 constrained to either repudiate the current meaning of 
 the word, or to use it with a circumlocution, and talk of 
 Caucasus in the limited, or Caucasus in the geogra- 
 phical, sense of the word. 
 
 We may do this, or we may coin a new term. The 
 term, here and elsewhere, proposed by the present writer, 
 is Dioscurian; Dioscurias being the name of one of 
 those towns of the Caucasian sea-coast which is not 
 only mentioned by ancient writers, but mentioned with 
 reference to one of the most remarkable characteristics of 
 modem, as it also was of ancient, Caucasus. This is the 
 multiplicity of languages and dialects. The business, 
 says Pliny, of Dioscurias had to be transacted through 
 the medium of thirty interpreters. Now, the number 
 that would be requisite for a similar function in modern 
 Caucasus, is undoubtedly less, the Turkish being pretty 
 generally understood, and serving as a kind of lingua 
 franca. Nevertheless, the actual number of separate 
 substantive languages, dialects, and sub-dialects, is, still, 
 considerable, as will be seen when we come to the de- 
 tails. Meanwhile the leading groups are represented 
 
THE GEORGIAN. 269 
 
 by the following languages : (1 .) the Georgian ; (2.) the 
 Lesgian ; (3.) the Tshetsh ; (4.) the Circassian. 
 
 The most northern, and at the same time the rudest, 
 of the Georgian populations, are the descendants of the 
 Suani, lying inland, at the head- waters of the Zkhenist- 
 zkhah, Eguri, and Egrisi, between Sukhumkaleh and the 
 Phasis. They call 
 
 Themselves 
 
 . Suan. 
 
 The Abkhas . 
 
 . Mibkhaz, 
 
 — Kartuelians 
 
 Mkarts. 
 
 — Mingrelians 
 
 . Mimrel. 
 
 — Karatshai . 
 
 Ows. 
 
 — Iron . 
 
 . Sawiar. 
 
 The Mingrelians face the Euxine, belonging to the 
 drainage of the Phasis ; the upper portion of which is 
 
 Imerithi, the land of Imer, or Iber ; word for word, 
 the ancient Iberia. To the east of Imerethi lies the 
 watershed of the Phasis and Kur, the occupancy of the 
 
 Kartuli, Kartueli, or Kartulinians, the Kartueli 
 form of speech being the Georgian of Tiflis ; the Geor- 
 gian of the literature and alphabet. 
 
 Guriel is connected, in the way of dialect, with Min- 
 grelia, being, probably, transitional to the speech of that 
 principality and 
 
 Lazistan, or the country of the Lazi. This extends 
 along the sea-coast, from the parts about Batum, at 
 the mouth of the Tsorok, to Rizeh, east of Trebizond — 
 perhaps further. Inland it extends over the country 
 between Kars and the Black Sea. Its exact boundaries, 
 however, are not known. 
 
 The Lazi are subject to Turkey, and are Mahometan 
 in creed. The other Georgians are Christians, according 
 to the church of Armenia, and subject to Russia. Like 
 some of the Tsherkess, the Lazi were originally Christian ; 
 their conversion having been effected about the seventh 
 
270 THE GEORGIAN. 
 
 century. Even now, they abstain, to a great extent, 
 from polygamy. 
 
 The Georgian alphabet, which, as far as the relation of 
 signs to sounds is concerned, is one of the completest in 
 existence, affects, in the form of its letters, curves, and 
 eschews straight lines and angles. This places it in 
 strong contrast with the Armenian. Yet it is from the 
 Armenian that it was, most probably, derived. Indeed, 
 the ecclesiastical alphabet (for the preceding remarks 
 apply to the vulgar alphabet only) is evidently of Arme- 
 nian extraction 
 
LESGIAN DIALECTS. 271 
 
 CHAPTER XLIII. 
 
 The Dioscurian Group. — Lesgian Division. 
 
 The Caucasians of the Koisu and Terek, rivers whicli 
 fall into the Caspian, constitute the Lesgian group ; occu- 
 pants of Eastern, rather than of Central or Western 
 Caucasus ; occupants of parts of Daghestan and Tabas- 
 seran, and conterminous with Shirvan, a province of 
 Persia. The Georgians call the Lesgians Lekhi, which 
 is the Greek Arlyat,. 
 
 Daghestan, or Leghistan, the country of the Lesgi, is 
 the ancient Albania ; the country conquered by Pompey. 
 
 Lesgian, like Circassian, is no native name ; for the 
 Lesgians, like the Circassians, have no term which is at 
 once native and collective. Its details are to be found 
 in the hilly country out of which the rivers of Daghes- 
 tan arise, the actual coast of the Caspian being Turk 
 and Persian rather than Lesgian. 
 
 In the watershed between the Aksu and Koisu 
 (Turkish terms) lie the Avar and Marulat tribes. Word 
 for word, Marulat, the plural of Marul, from Mehr a 
 hill, is the Greek MavpdXoL. The Marulat tribes are — 
 Khunsag, Kaseruk, Hidatle, Mukratle, Ansokul, Ka- 
 rakhle, GuDibet, Arrakan, Burtuna, Anzukh, Tebel, 
 Tumurga, Akhti, Eutul, Tshari, Belakan. 
 
 The Andi and Kabutsh are outlying members of this 
 group. So are the Dido and Unso, whose districts lie 
 as far south as the upper Samur. 
 
 The Kasi-kumuk lie to the east of the Koisu, in the 
 Kara-kaitak district, and in part of Tabasseran. 
 
272 
 
 LESGIAN DIALECTS. 
 
 The Akush and Kubitsb lie between the Koisu, 
 the upper Manas, and the Buam ; the Kura in South 
 Daghestan. 
 
 The Leso:ians are called 
 
 
 By the Circassians 
 
 Hannoatshe. 
 
 
 
 T<a>iP^-^l-> 
 
 . Sueli, 
 
 Tshari. 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Avar. 
 
 JLoJJc 
 
 \JiDi-k • 
 
 Antsluikli. 
 
 Andi. 
 
 Man (liomo) 
 
 bahardzli 
 
 tehi 
 
 tshi 
 
 
 {vir) 
 
 tshi 
 
 
 bahartsh 
 
 bahartsh 
 
 heka 
 
 Head 
 
 beter 
 
 
 beter 
 
 beker 
 
 mier 
 
 Hair 
 
 sab 
 
 
 sab 
 
 sab 
 
 zirgi 
 
 Eye 
 
 beer 
 
 
 
 beer 
 
 kharko 
 
 
 een 
 
 
 in 
 
 een 
 
 hanka 
 
 Nose 
 
 kbomag 
 
 
 khumug 
 
 mushush 
 
 mahar 
 
 Mouth 
 
 kaal 
 
 
 kaal 
 
 kaal 
 
 kol 
 
 Tooth 
 
 sibi 
 
 
 sibi 
 
 sibi 
 
 solvol 
 
 Tongue 
 
 maats 
 
 
 maats 
 
 maats 
 
 mits 
 
 Foot 
 
 pog 
 
 
 pog 
 
 pog 
 
 tsheka 
 
 Hand 
 
 kwer 
 
 
 kwer 
 
 kwer 
 
 kazhu 
 
 Sim 
 
 baak 
 
 
 baak 
 
 baak 
 
 mitli 
 
 Moon 
 
 moots 
 
 
 moots 
 
 moots 
 
 horts 
 
 Star 
 
 zoa 
 
 
 zoa 
 
 zabi 
 
 za 
 
 Fire 
 
 tsa 
 
 
 tsa 
 
 tsa 
 
 tsa 
 
 Water 
 
 htlim 
 
 
 htlim 
 
 khim 
 
 tlen 
 
 Stone 
 
 itso 
 
 
 teb 
 
 khezo 
 
 hinzo 
 
 Tree 
 
 guet 
 
 
 
 
 tketur 
 
 One 
 
 zo 
 
 
 zo 
 
 hos 
 
 zev 
 
 .Two 
 
 kigo 
 
 
 kigo 
 
 kona 
 
 tshego 
 
 Three 
 
 shabgo 
 
 
 tavgo 
 
 khabgo 
 
 khlyobgu 
 
 Four 
 
 ukgo 
 
 
 ukkgo 
 
 ukhgo 
 
 boogu 
 
 Five 
 
 sugo 
 
 
 shogu 
 
 shugo 
 
 inshtugu 
 
 Six 
 
 antgo 
 
 
 antic 
 
 ankhgo 
 
 ointlgu 
 
 Seven 
 
 antelgo 
 
 
 antelgo 
 
 antelgo 
 
 ot'khkhlugu 
 
 Eight 
 
 mitlgo 
 
 
 mitlgo 
 
 mikgo 
 
 beitlgu 
 
 Nine 
 
 itshgo 
 
 
 itsgo 
 
 itshgo 
 
 hogotshu 
 
 Ten 
 
 anntsgc 
 
 ) 
 
 antsgo 
 
 anzgo 
 
 khotsogu. 
 
 English- 
 
 
 Dido. 
 
 
 Akush. 
 
 Kusi Kuinuk. 
 
 Man {homo) 
 
 
 
 murgul 
 
 viri 
 
 {vir) 
 
 tsekvi 
 
 
 adim 
 
 tshu 
 
 Head 
 
 
 tkin 
 
 
 bek 
 
 bek 
 
 Hair 
 
 
 kMi 
 
 
 ashme 
 
 tshara 
 
 Eye 
 
 
 ozurabi 
 
 uhli 
 
 ya 
 
 Nose 
 
 
 mail 
 
 
 kank 
 
 mai 
 
LESGIAN DIALECTS. 
 
 273 
 
 English. 
 
 Dido. 
 
 Akush. 
 
 Kasi Kumuk. 
 
 Mouth 
 
 haku 
 
 moli 
 
 sumun 
 
 Tooth 
 
 kitsu 
 
 tsulve 
 
 kertsbi 
 
 Tongue 
 
 mets 
 
 limtsi 
 
 maz 
 
 Foot 
 
 rori 
 
 kash 
 
 dzan 
 
 Hand 
 
 retla 
 
 kak 
 
 kua 
 
 Sim 
 
 buk 
 
 beri 
 
 barkh 
 
 Moon 
 
 butsi 
 
 baz 
 
 bars 
 
 Star 
 
 tsa 
 
 zuri 
 
 tsuka 
 
 Fire 
 
 tsi 
 
 tsa 
 
 tsba 
 
 Water 
 
 htli 
 
 shin 
 
 tsbin 
 
 Stone 
 
 gul 
 
 kaka 
 
 tsheru 
 
 Tree 
 
 gurushed 
 
 kalki 
 
 mursh. 
 
 Euglish. 
 
 Curali. 
 
 English, 
 
 Curali. 
 
 God 
 
 Kysser 
 
 Horse 
 
 belgan 
 
 Man 
 
 adam 
 
 Dog 
 
 byz 
 
 Beard 
 
 szrall 
 
 Sheep 
 
 langat 
 
 Hand 
 
 kill 
 
 Finger 
 
 tapalar 
 
 Belly 
 
 sarar 
 
 Cow 
 
 slavra 
 
 Fox 
 
 ihi 
 
 Wolf 
 
 wiUi 
 
 Foot 
 
 kokar 
 
 Mouth 
 
 damni. 
 
 I know of no grammar of any Lesgian form of 
 speech. 
 
274 THE TSHETSH. 
 
 CHAPTER XLIV. 
 
 The Dioscurian Group. — The Tshetsh Division.— Grammatical Structure of the 
 
 Tushi. 
 
 The tribes of the next group occupy the watershed 
 between the Kuban and the Terek, being an inland and 
 central population ; a population with affinities in the 
 way of language which connect it with both its eastern 
 and its western neighbours. 
 
 This population is called by the Russians Tshetshents 
 by the Turks, Tsherkes, and by the Audi Lesgians, Miz- 
 dzhedzhi. One of their tribes is named Kisti, the Georgian 
 name for their area being Kisteti. Guldenstadt has 
 used this name as a general denomination for the whole 
 group ; for which he is blamed by Klaproth. The word, 
 however, has the merit of being pronounceable, which is 
 scarcely the case with the name of Klaproth's choice, 
 Mizdzhedzhi. In the opinion of the present writer, 
 Tshetsh, the Russian word divested of its non-radical 
 elements, is the most eligible. 
 
 The Galga, Halha, or Ingush tribes of the Tshetsh, 
 in contact with the Circassians of the Little Kabarda, 
 are the most western members of the gToup. They call 
 themselves Lamur, or Hillmen. 
 
 The second section is called 
 
 By themselves . . Arshte. 
 
 — the Tshetshents . Aristoyai. 
 
 — certain Turk tribes Kara-hulakh. 
 
 They occupy part of the valley of the Martan. 
 
THE TSIIETSH. 
 
 275 
 
 The third section is that of the Tshetsh, or Tshet- 
 shents Proper, in contact with and to the east of the 
 Arshte. 
 
 English. 
 
 Tshetsh. 
 
 Ingush. 
 
 Man (horno) 
 
 steg 
 
 stag 
 
 (mr) 
 
 maile 
 
 mairilk 
 
 Head 
 
 korte 
 
 koi-te 
 
 Hair 
 
 kazlieresh 
 
 beshkenesh 
 
 Eye 
 
 berik 
 
 berg 
 
 Ear 
 
 lerik 
 
 lerk 
 
 Nose 
 
 mara 
 
 mirha 
 
 Mouth 
 
 bagga 
 
 yist 
 
 Tooth 
 
 tsargish 
 
 tsergish 
 
 Tongue 
 
 mot 
 
 motte 
 
 Foot 
 
 kok 
 
 kog 
 
 Hand 
 
 kuit 
 
 kulg 
 
 Sun 
 
 malkh 
 
 malkh 
 
 Moon 
 
 but 
 
 but 
 
 Star 
 
 seta 
 
 seta 
 
 Fire 
 
 tze 
 
 tze 
 
 Water 
 
 khi 
 
 kha 
 
 Stone 
 
 kera 
 
 kera 
 
 Tree 
 
 khie 
 
 keie 
 
 One 
 
 tza 
 
 tza 
 
 Two 
 
 Shi 
 
 shi 
 
 Three 
 
 koe 
 
 koe 
 
 Four 
 
 di 
 
 di 
 
 Five 
 
 pkhi 
 
 pkhi 
 
 Six 
 
 yalkh 
 
 yalkh 
 
 Seven 
 
 uor 
 
 uor 
 
 Eight 
 
 bax 
 
 bar 
 
 Nine 
 
 ish 
 
 ish 
 
 Ten 
 
 itt 
 
 itt. 
 
 The Tushi lie on the upper Alasani, within, or on, the 
 Georgian frontier. They are the Only members of the 
 Tshetsh group of whose language we know the gram- 
 matical structure ; of which the following is a sketch. 
 
 The declension of the personal pronouns is as follows. 
 With a slight modification it is that of the ordinary 
 substantive as well. 
 
 T 2 
 
276 
 
 THE TSHETSH. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Nominative 
 
 Genitive 
 
 I. 
 
 so 
 sai 
 
 
 
 Dative 
 
 son 
 
 Instructive 
 
 as 
 
 
 
 Affective 
 Allative 
 
 SOX 
 
 sogo 
 
 Elative 
 
 soxi 
 
 Comitative 
 
 soci 
 
 
 
 Terminative 
 
 Adessive 
 
 Ablative 
 
 sogomci 
 
 sogoh 
 
 sogredah 
 
 Thou. 
 
 ho 
 
 hai 
 
 hon 
 
 ah 
 aha 
 
 hox 
 hogo 
 
 hoxi 
 
 hoci 
 
 hogomci 
 
 hogoh 
 
 hogredah 
 
 He. 
 
 o 
 
 oxu 
 
 oux 
 
 oxuin 
 
 oxun 
 
 ouxna 
 
 oxus 
 
 oxuse 
 
 ouxse 
 
 oxux 
 
 oxugo 
 
 ouxgo 
 
 ouxxi 
 
 oxxi (?) 
 
 oxuci 
 
 ouxci 
 
 oxci (?) 
 
 ouxgomci 
 
 ouxgoh 
 
 ouxgore 
 
 ouxgoredah. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 We. 
 
 Ye. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Nominative 
 
 wai 
 
 *txo 
 
 su 
 
 Genitive 
 
 wai 
 
 'txai 
 
 8ui 
 
 Dative 
 
 wain 
 
 'txon 
 
 sun 
 
 suna 
 
 ais 
 
 Instructive 
 
 wai 
 
 a'txo 
 
 
 
 
 asi 
 
 Affective 
 
 waix 
 
 *txox 
 
 sux 
 
 Allative 
 
 waigo 
 
 'txogo 
 
 sugo 
 
 Illative 
 
 wailo 
 
 'txolo 
 
 sulo 
 
 Elative 
 
 waixi 
 
 *tzoxi 
 
 8UX1 
 
 Comitative 
 
 waici 
 
 *txoci 
 
 suci 
 
 Adessive 
 
 waigoh 
 
 'txogoh 
 
 sugoh 
 
 Inessive (c) 
 
 wailoh 
 
 'txoloh 
 
 suloh 
 
 Ablative (c) 
 
 waigre 
 
 'txogre 
 
 sugre 
 
 Elative (c) 
 
 waike 
 
 <txobe 
 
 sulre 
 
 Conversive 
 
 waigoih 
 
 'txogoih 
 
 sugoih 
 
 Thou. 
 
 ohi 
 
 oxri 
 
 oxarn 
 
 oxar 
 oxra 
 
 oxarx 
 
 oxargo 
 
 oxarlo 
 
 oxarxi 
 
 oxarci 
 
 oxargoh 
 
 oxarloh 
 
 oxargore 
 
 oxardah 
 
 oxarlore 
 
 oxargoih. 
 
 That some of these forms are no true inflections, but 
 appended prepositions, is speedily stated in the text. 
 

 THE TSHETSH. 
 
 2' 
 
 Cardinal. 
 
 Ordinal. 
 
 Cardinal. 
 
 Ordinal. 
 
 1. cha 
 
 duihre 
 
 8. barl 
 
 barloge 
 
 2. si 
 
 silge 
 
 9. iss 
 
 issloge 
 
 3. xo 
 
 xalge 
 
 10. itt 
 
 ittloge 
 
 4. ahew 
 
 dhewloge 
 
 11. clia-itt 
 
 cha-ittloge 
 
 6. pxi 
 
 pxilge 
 
 12. si-itt 
 
 si-ittloge 
 
 6. jetz 
 
 jeixloga 
 
 19. tqeex9 
 
 iqeexcloge 
 
 7. worl 
 
 worloge 
 
 20. tqa 
 
 tqalge. 
 
 This last word the author of the gi-ammar connects 
 with the word tqo = also, over again {audi, wied, 
 erum) ; as if it were 10 doubled, which it most likely 
 is. In like manner tqeexc is one from twenty = un- 
 deviginti : — 
 
 100 =pxauztqa = 5x20. 
 200 =i9atatq= 10X20. 
 300 = pxiiseatq =15x20. 
 400 =tquaziq = 20x20. 
 500=tqauzig pxauztqa = 20x 20+100. 
 1000 = sac tqauziqa icaiqa = 2x 400+200. 
 
 The commonest signs of the plural number are -i and 
 -si. The suffixes -^le and -bi, the latter of which is 
 found in Lesgian, is stated to be Georgian in origin. 
 No reason, however, against its being native is given. 
 
 In verbs, the simplest form is the imperative. Add to 
 this -a, and you have the infinitive. The sign of the 
 conditional is he or h ; that of the conjunctive le or I. 
 
 The tenses are — 
 
 (1.) Present, formed by adding -a or -u to the root : 
 i, e. to the imperative form, and changing the vowel. 
 
 (2.) Imperfect, by adding -r to the present. 
 
 (3.) Aorist, formed by the addition ©f -r to the 
 
 (4.) Perfect ; the formation of which is not expressly 
 given, but which is said to differ from the present in not 
 changing the vowel. However, we have the forms xet 
 =Jind, oceti= found (perf.) ; xetin= found (aorist). 
 From the participle of the perfect is formed the 
 
 (5.) Pluperfect by adding -r. 
 
 (G.) The future is either the same as the present, or a 
 modification of it. 
 
278 THE TSHETSH. 
 
 I give the names of those moods and tenses as I find 
 them. The language of the Latin grammar has, pro- 
 bably, been too closely imitated. 
 
 The first and second persons are formed by appending 
 the pronouns either in the nominative or the instructive 
 form. 
 
 Tha participle of the present tense is formed in -in ; 
 as dago = eat^ dagu-in = eating. 
 
 The participle of the preterite ends in -no ; as xace 
 = hear, xac-no = heard. 
 
 There are auxiliary verbs, and no small amount of 
 euphonic changes, of which one, more especially, deserves 
 notice. It is connected with the gender of nouns. When 
 certain words (adjectives, or the so-called verb substan- 
 tive,) follow certain substantives, they change their initial. 
 Thus, hatxleen wd^ = the prophet is, hatxleensi ha. = 
 the prophets are, waso wa, = the brother is, wasar 6a 
 = the brothers are. 
 
 The nearest congeners of the Tshetsh are the Lesgians, 
 and, without unduly raising the value of the group, they 
 could be thrown in the same division. The same is 
 probably the case with the populations who use the next 
 forms of speech. 
 
THE CIRCASSIAN. 279 
 
 CHAPTER XLV. 
 
 The Dioscurian Gfroup.— The Tsherkess, or Circassian, Division. 
 
 The word Circassian is of Italian origin, and should be 
 pronounced as if the initial G were Tsh — ^indeed, the 
 word itself may be written (as it generally is written 
 by foreign authors) Tsherkess. It is no native term ; 
 but one applied by the Turks and Russians. The really 
 native names ai'e Adig^ and Absne ; each denoting a 
 different division of the population — no name at once 
 collective and indigenous being known. 
 
 The Absn^ occupy the sea-coast between Sukhum-kaleh 
 and the Straits of Yenikale, along with the valleys of 
 the rivers that descend from the western slope of Cau- 
 casus. The Georgians call them Mibkhaz, and Abkhazi, 
 their country being Abkhazeti. This ending in -eti ap- 
 pears and re-appears. It is the Georgian for -land; so 
 that Abkhazeti is Abkhaziland. Word for word, Abkhazi 
 is the Greek and Latin *'A^acr<yoc and Abasci. 
 
 The Great Abaska-land, or Abkhazeti proper, extends 
 from the frontier of the Adig^ to MingreHa and the Suan 
 country — both Georgian. The six tribes of the Little 
 Abaska-land call themselves Tepanta. 
 
 Word for word, A-dig-e is Ztj^oi, the name under 
 which the author of the Periplus of the Euxine, written 
 in the reign of the Emperor Hadrian, speaks of one of 
 the tribes of the coast. In doing this, he places them 
 east of their present locahty ; which is more inland, and 
 lies to the north of the axis of Mount Caucasus, on the 
 drainage of the Kuban. 
 
280 
 
 THE CIRCASSIAN 
 
 The tribes of which the Adig^ are the representatives, 
 although now exclusively mountaineers, were, probably, 
 once spread, more or less, over the plains to the north 
 of the Caucasus, as well as over the hills and valleys of 
 the great range itself No wonder. Both Turks and 
 Russians have encroached on their area, once larger than 
 it is at present. More than one map of the fourteenth 
 century carries a Circassian population from the Straits 
 of Yenikale to the mouth of the Don, along the whole 
 eastern coast of the Sea of Azof; and Klaproth believes 
 that the present Kosaks of these parts are, more or less, 
 Circassian in blood. Equally strong is the evidence to 
 a Circassian population in the Crimea. The upper part 
 of the river Belbek, in the south of that peninsula, is 
 called Tsherkestus, or the Circassian plain, to this day. 
 On it stand the remains of the Tsherkes-kyerman, or 
 Circassian fortress. But this may, possibly, represent 
 an intrusion. 
 
 The A dige dialects are (1.) the Circassian Proper; 
 (2.) the Besleneyevtsi ; and (3.) the Kabardinian. 
 
 English. 
 
 Tsherkess. 
 
 Absiie. 
 
 Man (homo) 
 
 dzug 
 
 agn 
 
 {vir) 
 
 tie 
 
 katzha 
 
 Head 
 
 shha 
 
 kah 
 
 Hair 
 
 shhats 
 
 kuakokh 
 
 Eye 
 
 nne 
 
 uUah 
 
 Ear 
 
 takumah 
 
 lemha 
 
 Nose 
 
 peh 
 
 pintsa 
 
 Mouth 
 
 dzhe 
 
 utslia 
 
 Tooth 
 
 dzeh 
 
 pitz 
 
 Tongue 
 
 bsa 
 
 ibz 
 
 Foot 
 
 ., tie 
 
 shepeh 
 
 Hand 
 
 ia 
 
 meppe 
 
 Sun 
 
 dgeh 
 
 marra 
 
 Moon 
 
 masah 
 
 mis 
 
 Star 
 
 vhagoh 
 
 yetshua 
 
 Fire 
 
 mapfa 
 
 mza 
 
 Water 
 
 pseh 
 
 dzeh 
 
 Stone 
 
 miweh 
 
 kau 
 
 Tree 
 
 dzig 
 
 adzh 
 
THE CIRCASSIAN. 281 
 
 English. 
 
 Tsherkess. 
 
 Absn6. 
 
 One 
 
 se 
 
 seka 
 
 Two 
 
 tu 
 
 nkh-ba 
 
 Tliree 
 
 shi 
 
 khpa 
 
 Four 
 
 ptle 
 
 pshiba 
 
 Five 
 
 tkhu 
 
 khuba 
 
 Six 
 
 khi 
 
 ziba 
 
 Seven 
 
 ble 
 
 bisbba 
 
 Eight 
 
 g» 
 
 akhba 
 
 Nine 
 
 bga 
 
 ishba 
 
 Ten 
 
 pshe 
 
 zbeba. 
 
 The languages of Caucasus have no near congeners ; 
 or, rather, their nearest congeners are remote. This is 
 the case both on the north and the south side of the 
 range. The Tsherkess stands as much by itself as the 
 Armenian ; the Armenian as the Tsherkess. No wonder. 
 In the first place, the relations of the area are only bi- 
 lateral ; i. e. there are no frontagers on the Euxine, and 
 the intrusion has been inordinate. 
 
 And it began betimes on its northern side. Centuries 
 before the time of Herodotus the influx of Asiatic tribes 
 into Europe had set in ; and the level plains to the 
 north of the Caucasus lay in their way, either as roads 
 or as halting-places. The result of these movements 
 was the enormous displacement represented by the term 
 European Scythia. Concurrent with this would be the 
 obliteration of anything in the shape of a northern 
 prolongation of the Tsherkess and its congeners. Nor 
 would any approach to the original situs be obtained 
 until we reached the Mordvin frontier. Here we expect 
 (and find) Caucasian affinities ; but they are (as we expect 
 them to be) few and faint. 
 
 Hence, the apex of the Dioscurian area is what a 
 botanist would call truncate; i, e. it terminates ab- 
 ruptly along its whole northern boundary. 
 
 On each side, too, it ends abruptly. This is because 
 it has the Caspian to the east, and the Black Sea to the 
 west. 
 
282 THE CIRCASSIAN. 
 
 All the languages, however, are, there or thereabouts, 
 in situ ; a condition suggested by the mountainous cha- 
 racter of the district. 
 
 On the south, the Persian, by which the Dioscurian 
 area is bounded, is an encroaching language. On the 
 south-east there is the Turk of Asia Minor, and, before 
 that, there was the Greek. Originally, both the Georgian 
 and Armenian must have extended much further in this 
 direction. The ethnographical archaeology, however, of 
 Asia Minor is obscure. 
 
 With such geographical conditions the Dioscurian 
 tongues seem much more isolated than they really are. 
 Ugrian elements, however, have long been recognized 
 in them ; and lately Tibetan — this being what the situs 
 and the displacements suggest. 
 
 On the other hand, the Persian affinities of the 
 Iron have long been known ; and it is possible that 
 they are closer than the present writer makes them. 
 Bopp has written upon those with the Georgian — 
 though the conclusion at which he arrives, viz. that the 
 latter language is what is called Indo-European, is denied 
 by the present writer. If the Georgian be Indo-Eu- 
 ropean, so many other tongues must be in the same 
 category, as to raise the value of the class indefinitely, 
 and to make it no class at all. 
 
 Upon the Persian and Armenian, more wiU be said 
 in the sequel. 
 
THE MALAY. 
 
 283 
 
 CHAPTER XLVI. 
 
 The Malay and its more immediate Congeners. — The Tshampa. — Samang. — 
 Nicobar. — Silong. — Malay of the Malayan Peninsula. — Of Sumatra. — 
 The Rejang and Lampong. — Of the Malagasi of Madagascar. — Of the 
 small Islands off Sumatra. — From Java to Timor. 
 
 We now return to the frontier of the Mon of Pegu, the 
 Kam of Kambojia, and the Thay of Siam. The con- 
 tinuity, which once existed between the first two, has 
 been broken by the intrusion of the third. Hence, 
 the forms of speech belonging to the Malayan Penin- 
 sula have no longer their nearest congeners with which 
 they can be compared. This gives them the appearance 
 of comparative isolation — but only the appearance. 
 
 If we treat the Malayan Peninsula as an island, all 
 the languages of the group now coming under notice are 
 insular, or, at any rate. Oceanic : with the single excep- 
 tion of the Tshampa, spoken along a strip of land on 
 the coast of Kambojia. 
 
 English. 
 
 Tshampa. 
 
 English. 
 
 Tshamp 
 
 Man 
 
 orang 
 
 Sky 
 
 langi 
 
 Head 
 
 ako 
 
 Fire 
 
 apoi 
 
 Eye 
 
 mata 
 
 Water 
 
 aya 
 
 Mouth 
 
 chabui 
 
 River 
 
 sungai 
 
 Sun 
 
 naharai 
 
 Sea 
 
 laut 
 
 Moon 
 
 bulan 
 
 Stme 
 
 bj^tao. 
 
 Star 
 
 bintang 
 
 
 
 Of the Peninsular forms of speech the most northern 
 for which we have a specimen — is the Samang. It is 
 also the rudest ; the men who speak it being so dark in 
 respect to their complexion as to have been classed 
 among the Negritos. 
 
284 
 
 NICOBAR.— SILONa. 
 
 English. 
 
 Juru Samang. 
 
 Kedah Samang 
 
 Man 
 
 teunkal 
 
 tumkal 
 
 Woman 
 
 mabei 
 
 badon 
 
 Head 
 
 kala 
 
 kay 
 
 Eye 
 
 med 
 
 med 
 
 Nose 
 
 muk 
 
 muk 
 
 Mouth 
 
 temut 
 
 ban 
 
 Tongue 
 
 litig 
 
 
 Tooth 
 
 lemun 
 
 yus 
 
 Ear 
 
 pol 
 
 anting 
 
 Hand 
 
 tong 
 
 chas 
 
 Foot 
 
 chau 
 
 
 Blood 
 
 koad 
 
 cheong 
 
 Bone 
 
 gehe 
 
 aieng 
 
 Shy 
 
 
 kael 
 
 Sun 
 
 mitkakok 
 
 mitkakok 
 
 Moon 
 
 bulan 
 
 kachik 
 
 Star 
 
 
 bintang 
 
 Fire 
 
 us 
 
 us 
 
 Water 
 
 hoh 
 
 bateac 
 
 Tree 
 
 kuing 
 
 chuk. 
 
 Then come the languages of the Nicobar Islands — 
 Nicobar and Carnicobar ; of which all that can be said 
 is, that they have Malay elements. Their place here is 
 provisional. 
 
 English. 
 
 Carnicobar. 
 
 Teressa. 
 
 Nancowry. 
 
 Man (homo) 
 
 bayu 
 
 dzhubayu 
 
 Head 
 
 goseb 
 
 
 Hair 
 
 kbeui hehok 
 
 
 Eye 
 
 obmat 
 
 
 Ear 
 
 nang 
 
 
 Nose 
 
 ebelme mbang 
 
 moah 
 
 Mouth 
 
 monoi 
 
 meno 
 
 Hand 
 
 • 
 
 genas 
 
 Foot 
 
 gundron 
 
 
 
 Blood 
 
 mam 
 
 vboa 
 
 San 
 
 huik 
 
 
 Moon 
 
 tingset hahae 
 
 khaset. 
 
 en those of the Mergui Archipelago ; e. g. that of Sil( 
 
 English. 
 
 Silong. 
 
 English. 
 
 Silong. 
 
 Man 
 
 mesa 
 
 Ear 
 
 tengah 
 
 Head 
 
 atak 
 
 Tongue 
 
 klek 
 
 Hair 
 
 dutak 
 
 Tooth 
 
 lepadn 
 
 Eye 
 
 matat 
 
 Hand 
 
 langan 
 
THE MALAY PROPER. 285 
 
 English. 
 
 Silong. 
 
 English. 
 
 Silong. 
 
 Foot 
 
 kakai 
 
 Fire 
 
 apoi 
 
 Sun 
 
 matai-alai 
 
 Water 
 
 awaen 
 
 Moon 
 
 bulan 
 
 Stone 
 
 batoe 
 
 Star 
 
 bituek 
 
 Tree 
 
 ki. 
 
 The Malay Proper, as far as several important points 
 in its grammar go, is by no means very widely separated 
 from the languages of tlie stock to which the Thay 
 and its congeners belong. As far as the absence of de- 
 clension and conjugation are concerned, both are in the 
 same predicament. The Malay denotes gender by the 
 addition of words meaning male or female; number 
 by that of terras signifying many ; case by prepositions 
 — many of which are themselves nouns. The degrees 
 of adjectives are equally expressed by circumlocutions. 
 Verbs exhibit, as the equivalent to the signs of tense 
 and mood, numerous separable and inseparable particles. 
 Sometimes a singular noun is made plural by simple 
 reduplication, as orang orange men. 
 
 The phonesis, however, which gives so monosyllabic 
 a character to the languages of the Continent, changes 
 its character in the Archipelago. The vowel sounds are 
 simple. Like those of the consonants, they are clean 
 and clear as far as they go — which is not far. The 
 sounds of the so-called aspirates, /, v, th, dh, sh, zh, are 
 wanting — though the latter exist as compound sibilants, 
 tsh and dzh — a phenomenon found elsewhere. The 
 semivowels and liquids are prominent. So is the nasal 
 ng (as in king), and the Spanish n. The former is often 
 initial — which it never is in English. A Malay, for 
 instance, says ang ; but he can also say nga — the 
 sound of the ng remaining the same in both cases. 
 
 The concurrence of consonants, in the same syllable, 
 when both are mutes, is avoided — just as it was in the Fin. 
 
 The majority of the themes are dissyllabic, with the 
 accent on the penultimate. . All this gives the conditions 
 of a soft and melodious language, with an easy intona- 
 tion, and few harsh combinations. At the same time 
 (as aforesaid) the inflection is at a miniTnum. 
 
286 
 
 THE MALAY PROPER. 
 
 I am unable to give the exact locality from -which the 
 Malay Proper was derived. It is believed to have 
 spread from Menangkabaw in Sumatra ; but Mr. Crau- 
 furd remarks that the Menangkabaw form of speech, 
 though truly Malay, was somewhat less so than some of 
 the dialects of the Peninsula. The difference, however, 
 between the Malay of commerce spoken with a difference 
 in a given locality and the true provincial dialects of the 
 same, has not been sufficiently attended to. The Malay of 
 commerce is certainly, in many senses, a lingua franca. 
 In distinction to the proper languages of the islands, it 
 is spoken in Java, in the Moluccas, in Borneo, in Celebes, 
 and elsewhere. It does not seem to have altered much 
 since the time of Pigafetta, who, as a companion of 
 Magalhaens, collected a Malay vocabulary. Its literature 
 is scanty, consisting of little more than songs, tales, 
 and unimportant histories. The language, however, of 
 all is the same ; and few archaic words occur. There 
 are no inscriptions, no old manuscripts, no native al- 
 phabet — the one in use being the Arabic. 
 
 Of foreign elements, the Sanskrit, the Arabic, and the 
 Telinga are the most important. Though rich in little 
 songs and lyrics, the Malay metres are few and rude : 
 the poetical element consisting in the idea rather than 
 in the versification. The language boasts no classic. 
 
 English. 
 
 Malay. 
 
 English. 
 
 Malay. 
 
 Man (homo) 
 
 orang 
 
 River 
 
 kaK 
 
 ivir) 
 
 lake laki 
 
 
 sungi 
 
 Woman 
 
 perampuan 
 
 Bill 
 
 gunung 
 
 Head 
 
 kapkala 
 
 
 ■bukit 
 
 Eye 
 
 matu 
 
 Sun 
 
 mata bari 
 
 Nose 
 
 idung 
 
 Moon 
 
 biilan 
 
 Mouth 
 
 mulut 
 
 Star 
 
 bintang 
 
 Tooth 
 
 gigi 
 
 Day 
 
 hari 
 
 Ear 
 
 talinga 
 
 Night 
 
 malain 
 
 Hair 
 
 rambut 
 
 I 
 
 aku 
 
 Hand 
 
 tangan 
 
 Thou 
 
 angkau 
 
 Foot 
 
 kaki 
 
 One 
 
 satu 
 
 Land 
 
 tanah 
 
 Ten 
 
 sapulu. 
 
 Sea 
 
 laut 
 
 
 
BATTA8, ETC. 
 
 287 
 
 But though not a literary, the Malay is, as aforesaid, 
 pre-eminently a commercial language. Hence, the de- 
 tails of the provincial dialects, as spoken by the Orang 
 Benua, or the Men of the Country, in the Peninsula, 
 though very important, are nearly unknown. 
 
 One of these is the Jakun. 
 
 EngUsh. 
 
 Jakun. 
 
 English. 
 
 Jakun. 
 
 Head 
 
 ulah 
 
 Water 
 
 yeho 
 
 Hair 
 
 bulu-ulah 
 
 EaHh 
 
 bumi 
 
 Hand 
 
 kokot 
 
 Shine 
 
 shongkor 
 
 Day 
 
 trang 
 
 Sun 
 
 matu-hari 
 
 Dead 
 
 mago 
 
 Moon 
 
 hantu-jahat 
 
 White 
 BUlcTc 
 
 balhut 
 hedjeaow 
 
 Star 
 
 cheong. 
 
 The gambler seekers, like the Katodi of India, have a 
 sort of slang of their own. 
 
 The occupants of the extreme North of Sumatra are 
 the Orang Achi, or men of Achin ; a town once famous 
 and powerful, but now reduced, though still independent 
 of the Dutch. The political limits of the State are un- 
 known, or undefined. It is only certain that they have 
 been contracted. The Dutch have encroached on the 
 West ; whilst, on the East, small independent States have 
 been formed — Langkat, Balu China, Dili Sirdang, Batu 
 Bara, and Asahan. The nearer the town, the greater 
 the population. Of all the Sumatrans, the Orang Achi, or 
 Achinese, are the most Arab. I do not mean by this 
 that their Mahometanism is either purer, or more ex- 
 clusive than that of the other Malays ; inasmuch as 
 upon this point I have no accurate information. I 
 only mean that Arab manners and Arab modes of 
 thought are more conspicuous in Achin than else- 
 where. The amount of Arab blood, in the way of in- 
 termixture, is probably in proportion to the other Arab 
 elements. 
 
 South of the Orang Achi lie the Orang Batta, or 
 Battas, a population which has commanded more of the 
 
288 
 
 BATTAS, ETC. 
 
 attention of ethnologists than any other occupants of 
 Sumatra. This is because they are cannibals ; and can- 
 nibals of a peculiar kind, under peculiar circumstances. 
 They are cannibals and yet not Pagans. They are can- 
 nibals, and yet not without an alphabet. They are 
 cannibals with either the germ or the fragments of a 
 literature. 
 
 In respect to creed, the Battas are in the same class 
 with some of the Orang Benua, who have adopted a 
 certain amount of Hinduism without abandoning their 
 original pagan creed. The exact proportion of the two 
 superstitions is not easily ascertained. The Battas, how- 
 ever, seem to be both more Indian, and more Pagan, 
 than the Johore tribes. 
 
 English. Atshin. 
 
 Singkal Batta. 
 
 Pakpak Batta. 
 
 Toba Batta. 
 
 Banjak Batta. 
 
 Man orang 
 
 dyelma 
 
 delma 
 
 dyolma 
 
 atha 
 
 Head uluy 
 
 takal 
 
 dagal 
 
 ulu 
 
 ulu 
 
 Hair ook 
 
 buk 
 
 bee 
 
 obuk 
 
 bo 
 
 Eye mata 
 
 mata 
 
 mata 
 
 mata 
 
 mata 
 
 Nose idong 
 
 igung 
 
 ebgu 
 
 igung 
 
 igong 
 
 Mouth bawa 
 
 bawa 
 
 baba 
 
 baba 
 
 baba 
 
 Tooth gigoi 
 
 eppen 
 
 eppe 
 
 mgiengi 
 
 yeng 
 
 Ear Tiluyung 
 
 tshopping 
 
 penggen 
 
 prengol 
 
 telinga 
 
 Nech takui 
 
 gabarong 
 
 ran 
 
 kukong 
 
 lingau 
 
 Breast dakda 
 
 tandan 
 
 tanden 
 
 andora 
 
 arop 
 
 Arm dzharro6 
 
 tangan 
 
 tangan 
 
 botohon 
 
 gau 
 
 Hand tappa dzharroe tappa tangan 
 
 
 
 Leg kakie 
 
 nehe 
 
 paha 
 
 ha6-hae 
 
 
 Foot udzhung, kakie tappa nehe 
 
 palan paha 
 
 pat 
 
 
 Blood darra 
 
 darro 
 
 daroh 
 
 moedar 
 
 
 Bird tshitshim 
 
 manu 
 
 pedo 
 
 pidung 
 
 mauo 
 
 Fish ilkait 
 
 ekan 
 
 ikan 
 
 dekee 
 
 ennas 
 
 Dog assiu 
 
 biezang 
 
 pangeia 
 
 bieyang 
 
 assu 
 
 Hog bui 
 
 babie 
 
 babie 
 
 babie 
 
 
 
 Ox lemau 
 
 lembu 
 
 lembong 
 
 lomon 
 
 dzhawie 
 
 Sand annu 
 
 grosiele 
 
 grassie 
 
 horsiek 
 
 
 
 Stone batu 
 
 batu 
 
 batu 
 
 batu 
 
 batu 
 
 Earth tano 
 
 tano 
 
 tano 
 
 tano 
 
 leppel 
 
 Fire apui 
 
 apie 
 
 apie 
 
 apie 
 
 ahee 
 
 TTo^er yeyer 
 
 leiy 
 
 leiy 
 
 oek 
 
 oee 
 
 Sky kilet 
 
 kilat 
 
 kilat 
 
 porhas 
 
 kilat 
 

 
 THE KORINCHL 
 
 289 
 
 English 
 
 . Atshin. 
 
 Siugkal Batta. 
 
 Pakpak Batta. Toba Batta. 
 
 Banjak Batta. 
 
 Sun 
 
 matoroi 
 
 mato arie 
 
 mata harie 
 
 mata-ni-harie mata bolal 
 
 Star 
 
 bintang 
 
 bintang 
 
 bintang 
 
 battang 
 
 bintau 
 
 Moon 
 
 buluan 
 
 bulan 
 
 bulan 
 
 bulan 
 
 bawa 
 
 I 
 
 ulun 
 
 aku 
 
 kam 
 
 aho 
 
 rehu 
 
 Thou 
 
 deku 
 
 rona 
 
 rene 
 
 ho 
 
 rio 
 
 He 
 
 dzhie 
 
 iya 
 
 
 yebana 
 
 dio 
 
 We 
 
 ulun ulun 
 
 rita 
 
 kamu 
 
 ha mis 
 
 memainam bune 
 
 Thy 
 
 dzhie dzhie 
 
 adina 
 
 
 nasieda 
 
 
 One 
 
 sa 
 
 sada 
 
 sara 
 
 sada 
 
 assa 
 
 Two 
 
 duwa 
 
 duwa 
 
 dua 
 
 dua 
 
 dua 
 
 Three 
 
 Uo 
 
 telu 
 
 telu 
 
 telu 
 
 telu 
 
 Four 
 
 puet 
 
 ampet 
 
 ompat 
 
 opat 
 
 ampe 
 
 Five 
 
 liman 
 
 limai 
 
 liema 
 
 liema 
 
 lima 
 
 Six 
 
 nam 
 
 anam 
 
 enam 
 
 anam 
 
 anam 
 
 Seven, 
 
 tudzhu 
 
 pitu 
 
 pitu 
 
 pitu 
 
 fitu 
 
 Eight 
 
 lappan 
 
 walu 
 
 ualok 
 
 ualu 
 
 walu 
 
 Nine 
 
 sekurung 
 
 siwa 
 
 siwa 
 
 siea 
 
 siwa 
 
 Ten 
 
 pulu 
 
 sapula 
 
 sapulu 
 
 sappulu 
 
 fulu. 
 
 The Singkal, Pakpak, and Toba of the preceding 
 tables are dialects of the Batta. The Banjak is spoken 
 by the aborigines of a small island off the coast, who 
 must be distinguished from a concuiTent population of 
 settlers from Atshin. 
 
 The Malays of MenaoigJcahaw occupy the most fa- 
 voured parts of Sumatra ; viz. the drainage of the 
 Indrajiri and Lake Sinkara. In one portion of their area 
 the population is reckoned at 128 to the square mile ; 
 in another at 300, and even 400 ; an estimate which 
 gives 385,000 for the whole Menangkabaw district. 
 
 Continued southward the mountain range of the 
 Menangkabaw Malays becomes more and more imprac- 
 ticable ; so that the details of its population are 
 unknown. It is only known that it is Malay ; and 
 that it is thinly spread. Wilier makes a separate 
 division of it, containing the Malays of Sapulo Bua 
 Bandar^ and the Malays of Gunong Sungu Pagu. 
 
 South of these lies the country of the Korinchi, 
 who differ from the Battas in being Mahometans, and 
 from the Menangkabaw Malays in using an alphabet of 
 Indian, rather than Arabic, origin — an alphabet not 
 
 U 
 
290 
 
 THE KORINCHI, 
 
 identical with that of the Battas, though not unlike it 
 in detail, and evidently of the same general character. 
 
 Whether the following list represent a Malay ; a native 
 Sumatran, dialect, pure and simple ; a native Sumatran 
 dialect modified by Malay influences ; or, so much Malay 
 modified in Sumatra, is uncertain. The want of data for 
 the solution of this question has just been indicated. The 
 difference of alphabet tends to disconnect it with the 
 Malay proper. 
 
 English. 
 
 Korinchi. 
 
 English. 
 
 Korinchi. 
 
 Head 
 
 kapala 
 
 Fire 
 
 apui 
 
 Eyes 
 
 mata 
 
 Water 
 
 aiyah 
 
 Nose 
 
 idong 
 
 Earth 
 
 tana 
 
 Teeth 
 
 gigi 
 
 Swine 
 
 jukut 
 
 Hand 
 
 tangan 
 
 Bird 
 
 buhong 
 
 Blood 
 
 darah 
 
 Egg 
 
 tetur 
 
 Day 
 
 ari, hari 
 
 Fish 
 
 ikal 
 
 Night 
 
 mala 
 
 Sun 
 
 mata-awi 
 
 Dead 
 
 mati 
 
 Moon 
 
 bula 
 
 White 
 
 putih 
 
 Star 
 
 binta. 
 
 Blach 
 
 ita 
 
 
 
 The Southern Sumatran s, so far as they are of pure 
 blood, are in the same category with the Korinchi ; i. e. 
 they are Mahometans with alphabets different from 
 that of the Koran, alphabets suggestive of a prior 
 connection with India. Of these there are two ; the 
 JRejang and the Lampong, allied in general character, 
 yet different in detail ; allied, too, in general character to 
 the Korinchi and Batta — different, however, in detail. 
 
 (!•) 
 
 English. 
 
 Rejang. 
 
 English. 
 
 Rejang. 
 
 Head 
 
 ulau 
 
 Sun 
 
 matti-bili 
 
 Eyes 
 
 matty 
 
 Moon 
 
 bulun 
 
 Nose 
 
 long 
 
 Fire 
 
 opoay 
 
 Hair 
 
 bu 
 
 Water 
 
 beole 
 
 Teeth 
 
 aypiri 
 
 Earth 
 
 pita 
 
 Hand 
 
 tangan 
 
 White 
 
 putiali 
 
 Day 
 
 bili-beeng 
 
 Black 
 
 melu. 
 
 Night 
 
 bili-kalemun 
 
 
 / 
 
THE REJANG AND LAMPONG. 
 
 291 
 
 (2.) 
 
 English. 
 
 Lampong. 
 
 English. 
 
 Lampong. 
 
 Head 
 
 iiluh 
 
 Sxm 
 
 mata-ranni 
 
 Eyes 
 
 raattah 
 
 Moon 
 
 bulun 
 
 Nose 
 
 iong 
 
 Fire 
 
 appay 
 
 Hair 
 
 biilio 
 
 Water 
 
 wye 
 
 Teeth 
 
 ipun 
 
 Earth 
 
 tanali 
 
 Hand 
 
 chulii 
 
 Wliite 
 
 mandak 
 
 Day 
 
 ranni 
 
 Black 
 
 mallum. 
 
 Night 
 
 binghi 
 
 
 
 The Eejang alphabet is used by the Orang Serawi, and 
 the Orang Palembang ; the latter being only partially 
 Sumatran. Javanese settlements now become numerous 
 and important ; and it is Javanese blood with which the 
 proper Palembang population is largely crossed. 
 
 According to Zollinger the Lampong language is no 
 original tongue, but a mixture of all the languages of its 
 neighbourhood on a Malay basis. I doubt whether this 
 be the exact explanation of the fact of its containing a 
 notable proportion of Sunda, Javanese, and Bugis words, 
 and but few peculiar ones. It is, probably, more or 
 less, a transitional form of speech. It is strongly 
 accented ; words which are totally different from each 
 other in meaning being distinguished only by either 
 the quantity of the syllables, or their tone. This makes 
 it difficult to write in European letters. 
 
 We now ask whether analogues of the rudest Orang 
 Benua are to be found in Sumatra. The answer will be in 
 the affirmative. That there is something older than the 
 civilization of the Mahometan Malays is clear. There are 
 the influences suggested by the Batta, Korinchi, Rejang, 
 and Lampong alphabets. More than this, there are half- 
 Pagan and half-Indian elements in the creeds of the Battas 
 themselves. This, however, is scarcely the exact parallel 
 to the true aboriginal condition of the rudest — the very 
 rudest — Peninsular tribes. What is there that represents 
 Sumatra before the advent of the Indians ? There are 
 two wild populations, one in the northern, one in the 
 southern parts of the island, unknown to each other, and 
 probably speaking mutually unintelligible languages. 
 
 u 2 
 
292 
 
 LUBU AND ULU. 
 
 The men of the northern division are known under 
 the name, which the Battas give them, of Orang Lubu. 
 They are found up the Mandau river above Siak. 
 
 The southern aborigines are the Orang Kubu ; so- 
 called by the people of Palembang, occupants of the 
 jungle, rude and naked. 
 
 For the former we have specimens in two dialects. 
 
 English. 
 
 Lulju. 
 
 Ulu. 
 
 Man 
 
 obang 
 
 orak 
 
 
 lokiloki 
 
 lokloki 
 
 Woman 
 
 paradusi 
 
 pedjussi 
 
 Head 
 
 kapolo 
 
 kopolo 
 
 Eye 
 
 moto 
 
 motto 
 
 Nose 
 
 hedong 
 
 idung 
 
 Mouth 
 
 muli 
 
 montshong 
 
 Tooth 
 
 gigi 
 
 
 Ear 
 
 talingo 
 
 leliengo 
 
 Hair 
 
 abok 
 
 ebo 
 
 Hand 
 
 palakpak 
 
 tangan 
 
 Foot 
 
 palakpak 
 
 tapa 
 
 Land 
 
 tana 
 
 
 Sea 
 
 loi 
 
 
 
 River 
 
 batang ao 
 
 aiyer 
 
 Hill 
 
 tandzhong 
 
 gunung 
 
 Sun 
 
 motobi 
 
 motori 
 
 Moon 
 
 bulen 
 
 bulet 
 
 Star 
 
 bintang 
 
 bientang 
 
 Day 
 
 obi 
 
 ari 
 
 Night 
 
 kalam 
 
 mallem 
 
 J 
 
 oku 
 
 oku 
 
 You 
 
 aka 
 
 enko 
 
 One 
 
 satu 
 
 eso 
 
 Ten 
 
 sapulu 
 
 sepulu. 
 
 Now follow, for the small islands off Sumatra, the 
 Maruwi and Nias (closely allied), and the Poggi, or 
 Mantawi, forms of speech. 
 
 English. 
 
 Maruwi, 
 
 Nias. 
 
 Poggi. 
 
 Man 
 
 alia 
 
 niha 
 
 mantaow^ 
 
 Head 
 
 ulu 
 
 huhguh 
 
 ootai 
 
 Bye 
 
 matta 
 
 mata 
 
 matah 
 
 Nose 
 
 iahong' 
 
 ihong 
 
 bu 
 
 ighu 
 
 assak 
 
 Hair 
 
 bu 
 
 ali 
 
 * Whence the name of the people and the islands. 
 
SMALL ISLANDS OFF SUMATRA. 
 
 293 
 
 English. 
 
 Maruwi. 
 
 Nias. 
 
 Poggi 
 
 Teeth 
 
 ahean 
 
 ifuh 
 
 chone 
 
 
 ahin 
 
 
 
 Hand 
 
 anaku 
 
 tanga 
 
 kavaye 
 
 Blood 
 
 
 ndob 
 
 logow 
 
 Day 
 
 hallal 
 
 
 
 mancheep 
 
 Night 
 
 bangi 
 
 bongi 
 
 geb-geb 
 
 White 
 
 matti 
 
 mate 
 
 mataye 
 
 Black 
 
 uding 
 
 afusi 
 
 mablow 
 
 Dead 
 
 mutome 
 
 aituh 
 
 mapuchu 
 
 Fire 
 
 awal 
 
 alituh 
 
 ovange 
 
 Water 
 
 wai 
 
 idanau 
 
 jojar 
 
 Earth 
 
 wei 
 
 
 
 
 lansa 
 
 tannh 
 
 polack 
 
 Svdne 
 
 
 bachu 
 
 buku 
 
 
 
 bavi 
 
 babui 
 
 Bird 
 
 manno 
 
 manok 
 
 umali 
 
 
 
 fohfoh 
 
 
 Egg 
 
 antU 
 
 ajuloh 
 
 agoloh 
 
 Fish 
 
 nass 
 
 ia 
 
 eibah 
 
 Sun 
 
 matta 
 
 ballal 
 
 mata-luoh-chulu 
 
 Moon 
 
 bowah 
 
 bawa 
 
 lago 
 
 Star 
 
 bantun 
 
 onoh u'dufi 
 
 panyean. 
 
 The last of these minor islands is that of Enganho, 
 on the southern side of the eastern end of Sumatra. It 
 stands more alone than any of the preceding ones. 
 
 English. 
 
 Enganho. 
 
 English. 
 
 Enganho. 
 
 Man 
 
 taka 
 
 Water 
 
 lewo lewo 
 
 Head 
 
 oeloe 
 
 Stone 
 
 bakoe bakoe 
 
 Hair 
 
 boeloe 
 
 Sand 
 
 hawo hawo 
 
 Eye 
 
 bakka 
 
 Fish 
 
 kwau 
 
 Ear 
 
 kaleha 
 
 Bird 
 
 weo weo 
 
 Nose 
 
 fanoe 
 
 I 
 
 oe4 
 
 Mouth 
 
 haure 
 
 Thou 
 
 bareg 
 
 Tooth 
 
 kaa 
 
 He 
 
 bohej 
 
 Hand 
 
 afa 
 
 One 
 
 dahei 
 
 Finger 
 
 gaheho 
 
 Two 
 
 adoea 
 
 Belly 
 
 koedei 
 
 Three 
 
 agoloe 
 
 Foot 
 
 afo 
 
 Four 
 
 aopa 
 
 San 
 
 kahaa 
 
 Five 
 
 alima 
 
 Moon 
 
 moena 
 
 Six 
 
 akiakia 
 
 Day 
 
 ilopo 
 
 Seven 
 
 alimei-adoea 
 
 Night 
 
 tikodo ilopo 
 
 Eight 
 
 agoloe 
 
 Earth 
 
 tehopo 
 
 Nine 
 
 aopa 
 
 Sea 
 
 parowa 
 
 Ten 
 
 tahapoeloe. 
 
 Fire 
 
 howi howi 
 
 
 
294 MADAaASGAR. 
 
 Now comes an area which, as a phenomenon in the 
 distribution and dispersion of languages, is the most re- 
 markable of all on the earth's surface. Asa general rule, 
 the populations and languages of islands are represented 
 by those of the nearest continent. With the exception of 
 Japan, where a continental congener of the Japanese is 
 wholly wanting, and Iceland, which has taken its language 
 from Norway rather than from Greenland, this is always 
 the case. Britain dates from Gaul : the Canaries from 
 the opposite coast of Africa : Sumatra from the Malayan 
 Peninsula : Newfoundland from North America. 
 
 In conformance with this, Madagascar ought to have 
 been peopled from Africa, and the Malagas! (or language 
 of Madagascar) ought to find its nearest congeners on 
 the coasts of Zanzibar and Mozambique. But it does 
 not. The Malagasi is, essentially, a Malay language ; 
 and that it is so has long been known. The learned 
 Keland knew it two centuries ago. 
 
 Whether it were the first language spoken on the 
 island is another question. 
 
 There is no lack of statements to -the effect that a 
 second population, with black skins, crisp hair, and 
 African features, is to be found in the island. But this 
 may be found, to some extent at least, in the true 
 Malay islands of the Indian Archipelago : and, in many 
 cases where it is not found, it has been invented. I 
 lay, then, but little stress on it. 
 
 Of African elements in the Malagasi none have been 
 pointed out : though it should be added that few, with 
 adequate knowledge, have made a search for them. Of 
 the language itself, I believe that the dialects and sub- 
 dialects are few. If so, we h^ve a fact in favour of its 
 comparatively recent introduction. This, however, is a 
 point upon which our data are deficient. 
 
 The Malagasi grammar is much more complex and 
 elaborate than the Malay, or (changing the expression) 
 the Malay is much less elaborate and complex than the 
 Malagasi. Humboldt has drawn attention to this, and 
 
MADAGASCAR. 
 
 295 
 
 suggested that it is in the Philippine division of the 
 Malay group that the origin of the Malagasi is to be 
 sought. Mr. Craufurd has urged this as an argument 
 against the reality of the affinity. It is, certainly, a 
 fact which requires explanation — perhaps confirmation. 
 
 English. 
 
 Malagasi. 
 
 English. 
 
 Malagasi. 
 
 Man 
 
 ulu 
 
 Swine 
 
 lainbu 
 
 Head 
 
 luha 
 
 Bird 
 
 vurong 
 
 Eye 
 
 maso 
 
 Sun 
 
 aduli 
 
 Nose 
 
 urong 
 
 Moon 
 
 fia 
 
 Hair 
 
 vnlu 
 
 
 masso-auru 
 
 Teeth 
 
 nifi 
 
 
 vula 
 
 Hand 
 
 tango 
 
 Star 
 
 vinta 
 
 Blood 
 
 ra 
 
 One 
 
 issa 
 
 Day 
 
 anru 
 
 Two 
 
 rue 
 
 Night 
 
 halem 
 
 Three 
 
 telu 
 
 Dead 
 
 matti 
 
 Four 
 
 effat 
 
 White 
 
 futi 
 
 Five 
 
 lime 
 
 Black 
 
 mainti 
 
 Six 
 
 ene 
 
 Fire 
 
 afu 
 
 Seven 
 
 fitu 
 
 Water 
 
 ranu 
 
 Eight 
 
 valu 
 
 Earth 
 
 tane 
 
 Niyie 
 
 siva 
 
 Stone 
 
 vatu 
 
 Ten 
 
 fulu. 
 
 The western third of Java is the area of the Siinda 
 language ; the language of the district which gives its 
 name to the Sunda Straits. The little that is written 
 in the Sunda is written in the Javanese alphabet : the 
 language itself being less cultivated, less ceremonial, and 
 less studied by Europeans than the Javanese. 
 
 The Javanese, closely allied to the Malay Proper, is 
 the most cultivated of all the tongues of the Archipelago. 
 It has long been written ; and that in a native alphabet. 
 At present the creed is Mahometan : yet the alphabet, 
 along with the literary influences, is other than 
 Arabic. 
 
 The NgokOy however, or natural vernacular, is used 
 only between equals in rank. For the purposes of 
 ceremony there is an artificial form of speech called the 
 Bhasa Krama. This, with most especial care, avoids 
 such terms as are not merely vulgar in the ordinary 
 
296 
 
 JAVANESE. 
 
 acceptation of the word but current in common life; 
 for which it substitutes paraphrases, archaisms, introduc- 
 tions from the Kawi, the Malay, and the like. In 
 epistolary correspondence the ceremonial language is used 
 even by superiors addressing their inferiors. In books 
 it is mixed up with the Ngoho. 
 
 English. 
 
 Sunda. 
 
 Ordinary Javanese. 
 
 Basa Krama. 
 
 Man {vir) 
 
 mantisa 
 
 manlisa 
 
 jalmi 
 
 
 lalaki 
 
 lanang 
 
 jaler 
 
 
 pa-megat 
 
 
 
 
 jalma 
 
 uwong 
 
 tiang 
 
 Woman 
 
 awewek 
 
 wadon 
 
 istri 
 
 Head 
 
 pulu 
 
 andas 
 
 sirah 
 
 
 sirah 
 
 
 mustaka 
 
 
 mustaka 
 
 
 
 Eye 
 
 mata 
 
 mata 
 
 maripat 
 
 
 panon 
 
 
 tingal 
 
 Ear 
 
 cheuli 
 
 kuping 
 
 talingan 
 
 
 
 
 karha 
 
 Nose 
 
 irung 
 
 chungun 
 
 ru 
 
 
 pangembu 
 
 irung 
 
 grana 
 
 Tooth 
 
 untu 
 
 untu 
 
 waja 
 
 Tongue 
 
 letah 
 
 elat 
 
 lidah 
 
 Hand 
 
 panangan 
 
 tangan 
 
 astah 
 
 Foot 
 
 suku 
 
 sikil 
 
 suku 
 
 Shy 
 
 langit 
 
 langit 
 
 akasa 
 
 Sun 
 
 metapoek 
 
 srengenge 
 
 suria 
 
 Moon 
 
 bulan 
 
 wulan 
 
 sasi 
 
 
 
 rembutan 
 
 
 Star 
 
 benteung 
 
 lintang 
 
 
 Earth 
 
 taneu 
 
 bumi 
 
 buntala 
 
 Stone 
 
 batu 
 
 watu 
 
 sela 
 
 Water 
 
 chai 
 
 banui 
 
 toya 
 
 Fire 
 
 seuneu 
 
 geni 
 
 latu 
 
 
 
 
 brama. 
 
 The learned language of Java — the analogue of the 
 Sanskrit in India and the Pali in Ava — is known under 
 the name of Kawi; a language in which there are 
 numerous inscriptions and, at least, one long poem — the 
 Bratayuda founded on the Sanskrit Mahabarata. The 
 opinion of Sir Stamford Raffles, who first gave pro- 
 minence to this remarkable dialect, was that the Kawi 
 
JAVANESE. 
 
 297 
 
 language was Sanskrit modified by the vernacular Ja- 
 vanese. The opinion of Wilhelm von Humboldt, an 
 opinion in which Mr. Craufurd agrees, is exactly the 
 reverse. It makes the Kawi neither more nor less than 
 archaic Javanese with an inordinate intermixture of 
 Sanskrit. 
 
 The island Madura gives another variety : a variety 
 falling into two divisions, the Madura Proper and the 
 Sumenai^. The language of Bali is closely allied to the 
 Javanese. The alphabet is Javanese also. Bali, how- 
 ever, differs both from Java, and all the other islands 
 of the Archipelago, in being, at the present moment, 
 what it was before the extension of Mahometanism to 
 Sumatra — Braminic and Hindu. The Kawi language in 
 Bali is what the Arabic — the language of the Koran — 
 is in Java. Nor is the native literature unimportant. 
 It is partly Kawi, partly Balinese — -just as, in the middle 
 ages, the literature of Italy was partly Latin, partly 
 Italian. 
 
 English. 
 
 Madura. 
 
 Sumenap. 
 
 Bali. 
 
 Man {vir) 
 
 manosa 
 
 manusa 
 
 mantisa 
 
 
 
 laki 
 
 lalaki 
 
 lanang 
 
 
 
 
 muani 
 
 
 oreng 
 
 oreng 
 
 janma 
 
 
 
 
 
 wong 
 
 Woman 
 
 bini 
 
 bibini 
 
 luh 
 
 
 
 
 histri 
 
 Head 
 
 chetak 
 
 chetah 
 
 tanggak 
 
 
 
 sirah 
 
 tandas 
 
 
 
 
 sirah 
 
 Eye 
 
 mata 
 
 mata 
 
 mata 
 
 
 
 socha 
 
 pening'alan 
 
 Ear 
 
 kopeng 
 
 kopeng 
 
 kaping 
 
 
 
 karna 
 
 karna 
 
 Nose 
 
 elong 
 
 elung 
 
 chunguh 
 
 
 
 grana 
 
 
 Tooth 
 
 gigi 
 
 gigi 
 
 gigi 
 
 
 
 waja 
 
 
 Torigue 
 
 jila 
 
 jila 
 
 layah 
 
 
 
 elad 
 
 elat 
 
 Hand 
 
 tanang 
 
 tanang 
 
 tanang 
 
298 
 
 s 
 
 
 SUMBAWA. 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Madura. 
 
 Sumenjip. 
 
 Bali, 
 
 Foot 
 
 soko 
 
 soko 
 
 suko 
 
 Sky 
 
 lang'it 
 
 lang'e 
 
 lang'it ■ 
 
 
 
 
 ankasa 
 
 Sun 
 
 ngareh 
 
 are 
 
 mata-nai 
 
 
 
 
 
 suria 
 
 Moon 
 
 bulan 
 
 bulan 
 
 bulan 
 
 
 
 
 sasih 
 
 Star 
 
 bintang 
 
 bintang 
 
 bintang 
 
 Earth 
 
 tana 
 
 tana 
 
 gumi 
 
 
 bumi 
 
 bumi 
 
 
 Stone 
 
 bato 
 
 batu 
 
 batu 
 
 Fire 
 
 apoi 
 
 apoi 
 
 api 
 
 geni 
 
 yeh 
 
 Water 
 
 aing 
 
 aing 
 
 
 
 
 
 toya. 
 
 The language of Lombok — the Sasak — belongs to 
 the same group as the Bali. Lombok, however, is 
 Mahometan. What the Sasak contains in the way 
 of literature is unknown. 
 
 Sumbawa contains two written and one unwritten form 
 of speech. The Surnibawa Proper is written in the Bugis 
 character. So is the Biwua, This latter language, how- 
 ever, has also an alphabet of its own — little known, 
 embodying next to nothing of a literature and bearing 
 a general resemblance to those of Celebes and Sumatra. 
 In Sumbawa the decided Malay character undergoes a 
 modification and Bugis elements become somewhat 
 prominent. The Sumbawa, however, and the Bima are 
 as little Bugis, as they are Malay or Javanese, dialects. 
 
 English. 
 
 Sasak. 
 
 Bima. 
 
 Sumbawa. 
 
 Man {homo) 
 
 kelepe 
 
 dho 
 
 tau 
 
 {vir) 
 
 mama 
 
 dho-mone-mone 
 
 lake-laki 
 
 Woman 
 
 nina 
 
 dho -si we 
 
 perampuan 
 
 Head 
 
 otah 
 
 tUta 
 
 ulu 
 
 Eyes 
 
 m^ta 
 
 mada 
 
 mata 
 
 Nose 
 
 irung 
 
 ilu 
 
 ing 
 
 Hair 
 
 bulu 
 
 honggo 
 
 welua 
 
 Teeth 
 
 gigi 
 
 woi 
 
 isi 
 
 Belly 
 
 tian 
 
 loko 
 
 baboa 
 
 Hand 
 
 ima 
 
 rima 
 
 umang 
 
 Fool 
 
 nai 
 
 ede 
 
 aje 
 

 SUMBAWA. 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Sasak. 
 
 Bima. 
 
 Sumbawa. 
 
 Blood 
 
 geti 
 
 rah 
 
 dara 
 
 Day 
 
 kelelie 
 
 mrai 
 
 iso 
 
 Swn 
 
 mota-jelu 
 
 liroh 
 
 singhar 
 
 Moon 
 
 ulan 
 
 wurah 
 
 vrulan 
 
 Star 
 
 bintang 
 
 ntara 
 
 bintoing 
 
 Fire 
 
 api 
 
 api 
 
 api 
 
 Water 
 
 ai 
 
 oi 
 
 jerie 
 
 Stone 
 
 batu 
 
 wadu 
 
 batu 
 
 One 
 
 satu 
 
 sabua 
 
 satu 
 
 Two 
 
 dua 
 
 lua 
 
 doa 
 
 Three 
 
 telu 
 
 toin 
 
 tiga 
 
 Four 
 
 mpat 
 
 opat 
 
 ampat 
 
 Five 
 
 lima 
 
 lima 
 
 lima 
 
 Six 
 
 nam 
 
 Ini 
 
 dnam 
 
 Sei:m 
 
 pitu 
 
 pidu 
 
 tfiju 
 
 Eight 
 
 balu 
 
 waru 
 
 delapan 
 
 Nine 
 
 siwa 
 
 chewi 
 
 sambelan 
 
 Ten 
 
 sapulu 
 
 sampulu 
 
 sapulu. 
 
 299 
 
 The Timhora (perhaps, the same word as Timor) 
 known only through a short vocabulary, is one of the 
 first of languages of the Indian Archipelago in which 
 Kelsenonesian elements were detected ; several of its 
 words being Australian. 
 
 English. 
 
 Timhora. 
 
 English. 
 
 Timhora. 
 
 Man (homo) 
 
 dob 
 
 Star 
 
 kingkong 
 
 — (vir) 
 
 sia-in 
 
 Fire 
 
 maing'ang 
 
 Woman 
 
 onayit 
 
 Water 
 
 naino 
 
 Head 
 
 kokore 
 
 Stone 
 
 ilab 
 
 Eyes 
 
 saing'ore 
 
 One 
 
 sina 
 
 Nose 
 
 saing kome 
 
 Two 
 
 kalae 
 
 Hair 
 
 bulu 
 
 Three 
 
 rub 
 
 Teeth 
 
 sontong 
 
 Four 
 
 kude-in 
 
 Belly 
 
 somore 
 
 Five 
 
 kutelin 
 
 Hand 
 
 taintu 
 
 Six 
 
 bata-in 
 
 Foot 
 
 maimpo 
 
 Seven 
 
 kumba 
 
 Blood 
 
 kiro 
 
 Eight 
 
 koneho 
 
 Bay 
 
 kongkong 
 
 Nine 
 
 lali 
 
 San 
 
 inkong 
 
 Ten 
 
 sarene. 
 
 Moon 
 
 mang'ong 
 
 
 
 Flores, or Ende, gives, according to Craufurd, no less 
 than six forms of speech — the Ende, the Mangarei, the 
 Kio, the Roka, the Konga, and the Galeteng. I only 
 know the first two through any vocabulary. Like the 
 
300 
 
 FLORES. 
 
 Timbora, the Mangarei has Australian elements. The 
 Malay and Bugis words decrease. Neither is the lan- 
 guage written. We are beyond the influences of Maho- 
 metanism as a predominant religion. We are (in the 
 present state of our knowledge) beyond the influences of 
 India, and its literature. 
 
 English,, 
 
 End?. 
 
 Englisli. 
 
 Ende. 
 
 Man (homo) 
 
 dau 
 
 Star 
 
 dala 
 
 (vir) 
 
 uli-dau 
 
 Fire 
 
 a pi 
 
 Woman 
 
 ana-dau 
 
 Water 
 
 wai 
 
 Head 
 
 ula 
 
 Stone 
 
 batu 
 
 Eye 
 
 ana-mata 
 
 One 
 
 sa 
 
 Nose 
 
 niju 
 
 Two 
 
 zua 
 
 Hair 
 
 fu 
 
 Three 
 
 telu 
 
 Teeth 
 
 nihi 
 
 Four 
 
 wutu 
 
 Belly 
 
 tuka 
 
 Five 
 
 lima 
 
 Hand 
 
 lima 
 
 Six 
 
 lima-a 
 
 Foot 
 
 wahi 
 
 Seven 
 
 lima-zua 
 
 Blood 
 
 raha 
 
 Eight 
 
 ruabutu 
 
 Day 
 
 giah 
 
 Nine 
 
 trasa 
 
 Sun 
 
 reza 
 
 Ten 
 
 sabulu. 
 
 Moon 
 
 wMan 
 
 2.) 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Mangarei. 
 
 English. 
 
 Mangarei. 
 
 Man 
 
 amunu 
 
 Swine 
 
 bai 
 
 Head 
 
 jahe 
 
 Bird 
 
 olo 
 
 Eye 
 
 nana 
 
 Egg 
 
 asowa 
 
 
 mate 
 
 Fish 
 
 appi 
 
 Nose 
 
 mini 
 
 Moon 
 
 uru 
 
 Hair 
 
 jahe 
 
 Star 
 
 ipi-berri 
 
 Teeth 
 
 wasi 
 
 One 
 
 isaku 
 
 Hand 
 
 tana-raga 
 
 Two 
 
 lolai 
 
 Bay 
 
 usa 
 
 Three 
 
 lotitu 
 
 Night 
 
 gamu 
 
 Four 
 
 lopah 
 
 
 humu 
 
 Five 
 
 lima 
 
 White 
 
 buti 
 
 Six 
 
 daho 
 
 Black 
 
 metam 
 
 Seven 
 
 fitu 
 
 Fire 
 
 atta 
 
 Eight 
 
 apu 
 
 Water 
 
 ira 
 
 Nine 
 
 siwa 
 
 Earth 
 
 tana 
 
 Ten 
 
 turn. 
 
 The language of Omhay is known through a single 
 vocabulary. It agrees with the Timbora and Mangarei 
 
SAVU. 
 
 801 
 
 in the fact of Australian words having been detected 
 in it. 
 
 Rotti, of which the language 
 fectly, is more Timor than aught 
 scarcely a dialect of that language 
 
 The same applies to the Solor. 
 
 is known but imper- 
 else. It is, however, 
 
 English. 
 
 Hair 
 
 Head 
 
 Blood 
 
 Neck 
 
 Hand 
 
 Svm, 
 
 Moon 
 
 Star 
 
 Solor. 
 
 rata 
 
 kotang 
 
 me joe 
 
 wulin 
 
 liman 
 
 rarak 
 
 wulan 
 
 etak 
 
 English. 
 
 Solor. 
 
 Tree 
 
 pokang 
 
 Fire 
 
 apeh 
 
 Man (homo) 
 
 atadiekan 
 
 (vir) 
 
 bailikej 
 
 Eye 
 
 matan 
 
 Ear 
 
 tilong 
 
 Tooth 
 
 iepang. 
 
 The same to the Savu. 
 
 English. 
 Head 
 
 Eye 
 
 Nose 
 Hand 
 
 Blood 
 
 Day 
 
 Night 
 
 Black 
 
 Dead 
 
 Fire 
 
 Water 
 
 Earth 
 
 Swine 
 
 Fish 
 
 Bird 
 
 Egg 
 
 Sun 
 
 Moon 
 
 Star 
 
 Savu. (1*/ dialect.) 
 naka 
 
 naka-funu 
 
 nah 
 
 namanas 
 
 mesinokan 
 
 muti 
 
 matin 
 
 hai 
 
 owai 
 
 nahieh 
 
 fatu 
 
 fafi 
 
 koloh 
 
 tainoh 
 
 ekan 
 
 nainoh 
 
 fulun 
 
 fafinomi 
 
 Savu. (2n<i dialect.) 
 
 katu 
 
 katu 
 
 matta 
 
 namata 
 
 ingutu 
 
 wulaba 
 
 wolaba 
 
 dupudee 
 bulla 
 
 ailei 
 
 voorai 
 
 wovadoo 
 
 vave 
 
 doleelab 
 
 manoo 
 
 dulloo 
 
 ika 
 
 lodo 
 
 lodo 
 
 wTirroo 
 
 weru 
 
 wetu 
 
302 
 
 SAVU. 
 
 English. 
 
 Savu. {\st dialect.) 
 
 Savu. (2«rf dialect.) 
 
 One 
 
 aisa 
 
 usse 
 
 Two 
 
 nua 
 
 Ihua 
 
 Three 
 
 tenu 
 
 tuUoo 
 
 Fowr 
 
 hah 
 
 nppah 
 
 Five 
 
 lema 
 
 lumme 
 
 Six 
 
 naen 
 
 unna 
 
 Seven 
 
 petu 
 
 pedu 
 
 Eight 
 
 panu 
 
 arru 
 
 Nine 
 
 saioh 
 
 saio 
 
 Ten 
 
 boaisa 
 
 singooroo. 
 
 For Timor itself, although we have an amount of 
 specimens of the most prevalent language, we are greatly 
 in want of details, in the way of dialects. Yet there 
 are few countries in which such details are more needed. 
 Timor is the most eastern island of its range — as its name 
 (which means eastern) implies. This makes it the nearest 
 point in the ordinary Asiatic world to Australia. If 
 this fact stood alone, it would be important. Still more 
 important is it when taken in conjunction with the 
 Australian elements in the Timbora, the Mangarei, and 
 the Ombay vocabularies. For every one of them in these, 
 we may expect two in Timor, i. e, in the languages 
 which are the analogues to the Jakun in the Malay 
 Peninsula, or the Ulu and Lobo in Sumatra. Such, 
 doubtless, exist. What they are has to be learned. 
 
 English. 
 
 Timur. 
 
 Manatoto. 
 
 Rotti. 
 
 Man 
 
 aima 
 
 loh 
 
 ulu 
 
 etobu 
 
 hahalohi 
 
 Head 
 
 ulu 
 
 langa 
 
 
 naka 
 
 
 
 
 
 garain 
 
 
 Eyes 
 
 mata 
 
 matak 
 
 mata 
 
 Nose 
 
 enur 
 
 enol 
 
 pana 
 
 Hair 
 
 fnhk 
 
 garerun 
 
 langa-bulu 
 
 Teeth 
 
 nehan 
 
 nihi 
 
 nesi 
 
 
 resiel 
 
 
 
 Blood . 
 
 rahan 
 
 rahan 
 
 dah 
 
 Day 
 
 loron 
 
 lailon 
 
 laido-anok 
 
 Night 
 
 halan 
 
 hainin 
 
 makah-atuk 
 
 Dead 
 
 matai 
 
 matai 
 
 mati 
 
 White 
 
 mutin 
 
 rabuti 
 
 fulah 
 
 Black 
 
 maitan 
 
 zuamaitan 
 
 mati 
 
TIMOR. 
 
 803 
 
 English. 
 
 
 Timur. 
 
 
 Manatoto. 
 
 Rolti. 
 
 Fire 
 
 
 ahi 
 
 
 amarin 
 
 hai 
 
 Water 
 
 
 vehi 
 
 
 vehi 
 
 owai 
 
 EaHh 
 
 
 rahi 
 
 
 raia 
 
 dahai 
 
 Stone 
 
 
 fatuk 
 
 
 hahe 
 
 batu 
 
 Swine 
 
 
 fahi 
 
 
 hati 
 
 bafi 
 
 Bird 
 
 
 manoli 
 
 
 manoli 
 
 man 
 
 
 
 foheli 
 
 
 
 hoi 
 
 ^99 
 
 
 tolon 
 
 
 tailon 
 
 tolon 
 
 Fish 
 
 
 nahantasi 
 
 elian 
 
 ehak 
 
 Sun 
 
 
 loroh 
 
 
 lairon 
 
 lailoh 
 
 
 
 
 neno 
 
 
 
 
 Moon 
 
 
 fulan 
 
 
 •ulun 
 
 bulak 
 
 
 
 funan 
 
 
 
 
 Star 
 
 
 fetoen 
 
 
 atah 
 
 du 
 
 
 
 k'fun 
 
 
 
 
 One 
 
 
 eida 
 
 
 nehi 
 
 aisa 
 
 Tioo 
 
 
 rua 
 
 
 erua 
 
 dua 
 
 Three 
 
 
 tolo 
 
 
 etellu 
 
 tellu 
 
 Fmr 
 
 
 haat 
 
 
 ehaat 
 
 haa 
 
 Five 
 
 
 lema 
 
 
 lema 
 
 lema 
 
 Six 
 
 
 naen 
 
 
 naen 
 
 naen 
 
 Seven 
 
 
 hetu 
 
 
 hetu 
 
 hetu 
 
 Eight 
 
 
 walu 
 
 
 walu 
 
 falu 
 
 Nine 
 
 
 sioh 
 
 
 sioh 
 
 sioh 
 
 Ten 
 
 
 sapulu 
 
 
 sapulu 
 
 sapulu. 
 
 With the following 
 
 specimens from the small islands 
 
 east of Timor, I conclude the notice of the 
 
 languages of 
 
 the present division. 
 
 
 
 
 Englisli. 
 
 Kissa. 
 
 
 Baba. 
 
 Keh Doulan. 
 
 Wokan. 
 
 Man 
 
 mohoni 
 
 
 amenmeni 
 
 bunran 
 
 lesi 
 
 Woman 
 
 mavek 
 
 
 wata 
 
 wat-waat 
 
 kodar 
 
 Head 
 
 ulu-wakhu 
 
 otone 
 
 uhu 
 
 fuku 
 
 Hair 
 
 murukon 
 
 murutne 
 
 morun 
 
 kuku 
 
 Hand 
 
 liman 
 
 
 liman 
 
 liman 
 
 lima 
 
 Foot 
 
 ehin 
 
 
 logami 
 
 chaa 
 
 ebahi 
 
 Eyes 
 
 makan 
 
 
 makne 
 
 matan 
 
 mata 
 
 Nose 
 
 iruni 
 
 
 irinne 
 
 mirun 
 
 juri 
 
 Mouth 
 
 nuran 
 
 
 norinne 
 
 ngoen 
 
 fafahi 
 
 Ears 
 
 kiUn 
 
 
 telinne 
 
 arun 
 
 tahari 
 
 Sun 
 
 leri 
 
 
 leher 
 
 leher 
 
 larat 
 
 Moon 
 
 woUi 
 
 
 voile 
 
 huan 
 
 fulan 
 
 Star 
 
 kaleor 
 
 
 tiola 
 
 nahr 
 
 tawar 
 
 Earth 
 
 noha 
 
 
 noha 
 
 noho 
 
 fafa 
 
 Fire 
 
 ai 
 
 
 
 
 
 Water 
 
 oira 
 
 
 iera 
 
 wair 
 
 waA'a. 
 
304 
 
 KISSA AND MALAY. 
 
 Of these, the Kissa has commanded attention from 
 the character of its letter-changes when compared with 
 the Malay. 
 
 English. 
 
 M.lay. 
 
 Kissa. 
 
 Stone 
 
 batu 
 
 wahku 
 
 Sea 
 
 tase * 
 
 kahe 
 
 Eye 
 
 mata 
 
 makan 
 
 Dead 
 
 mati 
 
 maki 
 
 HeaH 
 
 ati 
 
 akin 
 
 Heavy 
 
 brat 
 
 werek 
 
 Broken 
 
 »patah 
 
 pahki 
 
 Ear 
 
 telinga 
 
 kilin 
 
 East 
 
 timur 
 
 kimur 
 
 Hog 
 
 babi 
 
 wawr 
 
 Feather 
 
 bubi 
 
 wulu 
 
 Hot 
 
 panas 
 
 manab 
 
 Wrong 
 
 sala 
 
 hala 
 
 Ha/rd 
 
 kras 
 
 kereh 
 
 Milk 
 
 
 huhu 
 
 Wash 
 
 baso 
 
 baha 
 
 New 
 
 bharu 
 
 wohru. 
 
 In this prevalence of the sound of k we have a 
 Polynesian characteristic. 
 
BORNEO. 305 
 
 CHAPTER XLVII. 
 
 Languages of Borneo, &c., to Ceram. 
 
 In Timor (for reasons which will appear in the sequel) 
 it is convenient to finish the present group ; having 
 done which we go back to the longitude of Java, and 
 move along the line of the Equator ; in other words, we 
 begin with a series of languages and dialects, for which 
 the great island of Borneo is our starting-point. 
 
 In Borneo there is no native alphabet ; yet there 
 are traces in the aboriginal creeds, not only of Indian 
 influences, but of Mahometan as well. 
 
 In Borneo there are numerous foreign elements, which 
 vary with the district. As a rule, they attach them- 
 selves to the coast ; but they difier with the different 
 parts of it. On the west the Malays, on the south-east 
 the Bugis, on the north the Sulu populations have made 
 settlements. 
 
 All that belongs to the natives is, roughly speaking, 
 unlettered and pagan. Where they have contracted 
 decided maritime habits, they are Biajuks, Biajus, or 
 Bajovjs ; these terms being (generally) equivalent to 
 Orang Lautzz the Men of the Sea. The rudest among 
 them have been called Sea Gipsies. "^ Where they are 
 river boatmen or landsmen they are Dyaks ; though 
 neither term can be taken absolutely. The division, 
 then, between the two denotes a difibrence of habits 
 rather than of blood. 
 
306 
 
 BORNEO. 
 
 The details for Borneo, until lately, were scanty. 
 Since Labuan, however, has become English, they have 
 increased. For the remainder of the island, the Dutch 
 are our chief authorities ; and it is probable (indeed 
 certain) that the knowledge of what is to be found in 
 Holland is, on the part of the present writer, very 
 imperfect. 
 
 Dialects for the parts about Labuan from Sir J. 
 Brooke. 
 
 English. 
 
 
 Sangouw. 
 
 Biajuk. 
 
 Murung. 
 
 Kupuas. 
 
 Man 
 
 
 ulu 
 
 ulu 
 
 urun 
 
 icho 
 
 Head 
 
 
 
 takulu 
 
 kohong 
 
 utok 
 
 Eyes 
 
 
 
 mata 
 
 mata 
 
 mata 
 
 Nose 
 
 
 ingher 
 
 urung 
 
 
 
 Hair 
 
 
 buk 
 
 balau 
 
 baru 
 
 buru 
 
 Teeth 
 
 
 ifie 
 
 kasingye 
 
 kusing 
 
 kusing 
 
 Hand 
 
 
 tesa 
 
 lengye 
 
 rongo 
 
 renga 
 
 Blood 
 
 
 
 daha 
 
 doho 
 
 doho 
 
 Day 
 
 
 
 andau 
 
 onong 
 
 sunit 
 
 Night 
 
 
 
 malem 
 
 homoram 
 
 kaput 
 
 Dead 
 
 
 matty 
 
 matei 
 
 matoe 
 
 motoe 
 
 White 
 
 
 pute 
 
 bapute 
 
 putich 
 
 mitu 
 
 
 
 toete 
 
 brea 
 
 
 
 BlacTc 
 
 
 menaram 
 
 babilem 
 
 Ttiahuk 
 
 morim 
 
 
 
 apy 
 
 apui 
 
 apoi 
 
 bakok 
 
 
 
 danom 
 
 danum 
 
 bea 
 
 tuhasak 
 
 Earth 
 
 
 boenoe 
 
 petak 
 
 potak 
 
 tanak 
 
 
 
 
 hntn 
 
 botu 
 boui 
 
 botu 
 bowi 
 
 Stoim 
 
 
 bawie 
 
 IJaAiU. 
 
 babui 
 
 Bird 
 
 
 
 
 burong 
 
 burong 
 
 burong 
 
 ^99 
 
 
 
 tantelu 
 
 tolu 
 
 tolu 
 
 Fish 
 
 
 lauk 
 
 lauk 
 
 rouk 
 
 uchin 
 
 Sim 
 
 
 mata-sou 
 
 matan-andau 
 
 ma.ta,n-onong matan-onong 
 
 
 
 bolan 
 
 bulan 
 
 buran 
 
 pun-allah 
 
 
 
 bientang 
 
 bintong 
 
 (2.) 
 
 bintong 
 
 bintong. 
 
 English. 
 
 Suntah 
 
 . Sow. 
 
 Sibnow. Sakarran. Meri. 
 
 Millanow. Malo. 
 
 Man 
 
 dari 
 
 dali 
 
 orang orang 
 
 idek 
 
 tooli babak 
 
 Head 
 
 ubok 
 
 bok 
 
 bok bok 
 
 fok 
 
 bok bok 
 
 Hair 
 
 obak 
 
 bak 
 
 pala pala 
 
 uho 
 
 ulow ulu 
 
 Ear 
 
 kagit 
 
 kagit 
 
 pundin punden telinga 
 
 linga telingj 
 
 Eye 
 
 buttok button 
 
 mata mata 
 
 mata 
 
 matta mata 
 
 Nose undong indong idong idong singote udong ingar 
 

 
 
 BORNEO. 
 
 
 807 
 
 English 
 
 Suntah, 
 
 Sow. 
 
 Sibnow. 
 
 Sakarran. Men. 
 
 Millanow. 
 
 Malo. 
 
 Mouth 
 
 bubbah 
 
 bubbah 
 
 mulut 
 
 mulut munong 
 
 bah 
 
 baba 
 
 Teeth 
 
 jipuk 
 
 jipun 
 
 gigi 
 
 gnali nipun 
 
 nipun 
 
 isi 
 
 Totvgue jurah 
 
 jurali 
 
 dila 
 
 dila jillali 
 
 jullah 
 
 lela 
 
 Hand 
 
 tangan 
 
 tonga n 
 
 lungan 
 
 tangan tujoh 
 
 agum 
 
 tangan 
 
 Shy 
 
 rangit 
 
 longit 
 
 langit 
 
 langit langit 
 
 rangit 
 
 suan 
 
 Sun 
 
 batundu battun unde mata'an 
 
 mata'an mattadullow mattalow 
 
 matasu 
 
 Moon 
 
 buran 
 
 bulan 
 
 bulan 
 
 bulan tukka 
 
 bulan 
 
 bulan 
 
 Star 
 
 betang 
 
 betang 
 
 api undow 
 
 bintang futtak 
 
 bintang 
 
 bintong 
 
 River 
 
 sungei 
 
 sungee 
 
 sungee 
 
 sungei like 
 
 sungei 
 
 simgei 
 
 Egg 
 
 turo 
 
 tulo 
 
 tillo 
 
 tullo tujjoh 
 
 tello 
 
 telui 
 
 Stone 
 
 batu 
 
 batu 
 
 batu batu batow 
 
 sanow 
 
 batu 
 
 Fowl 
 
 siok 
 
 ok 
 
 manuk manuk aal 
 
 slow 
 
 manuk 
 
 Bird 
 
 manuk 
 
 burong 
 
 bukong burong manuk 
 
 manuk 
 
 burong. 
 
 
 For the central parts of the island. 
 
 
 
 
 English. 
 
 
 Kay an. 
 
 Eiighsh. 
 
 Kayan. 
 
 
 
 Man 
 
 
 laki 
 
 Foot 
 
 kasa 
 
 
 
 Woman 
 
 
 doh 
 
 Sea 
 
 kala 
 
 
 
 Head 
 
 
 kohong 
 
 Earth 
 
 tana lim 
 
 
 
 Hair 
 
 
 bok 
 
 Sky 
 
 langit 
 
 
 
 Beard 
 
 
 bulo 
 
 Sun 
 
 matin-dow 
 
 
 Eye 
 
 
 mata 
 
 
 bulan 
 
 
 
 Ear 
 
 
 apang 
 
 
 kraning 
 
 
 
 Nose 
 
 
 urong 
 
 Fire 
 
 apui 
 
 
 
 Mouth 
 
 
 ba 
 
 Water 
 
 atta 
 
 
 
 Tongue 
 
 
 jila 
 
 Fish 
 
 masik 
 
 
 
 Teeth 
 
 
 knipan 
 
 Egg 
 
 tilo. 
 
 
 
 Hand 
 
 
 kama 
 
 
 
 
 Celebes, in respect to our knowledge of its philological 
 details, is more like Sumatra than Borneo ; in other 
 words, we have a fair amount of data for its numerous 
 dialects. 
 
 English. 
 
 Mandhar. 
 
 Macassar. 
 
 Bugis. 
 
 Man (homo) 
 
 tau 
 
 tau 
 
 tawTi 
 
 (mr) 
 
 chacho 
 
 borani 
 
 horoani 
 
 Woman 
 
 bahini 
 
 bahini 
 
 makonrai 
 
 Head 
 
 ul 
 
 uluna 
 
 ulu 
 
 Eyes 
 
 mata 
 
 matana 
 
 mata 
 
 Nose 
 
 eng'a 
 
 ing'a 
 
 ing'a 
 
 Hair 
 
 welua 
 
 rambut 
 
 welua 
 
 Teeth 
 
 isi 
 
 gigi 
 
 isi 
 
 Belly 
 
 porot 
 
 batan 
 
 babua 
 
 Hand 
 
 lima 
 
 liman 
 
 lima 
 
 Foot 
 
 aje 
 
 banuge 
 
 aji 
 
 Blood 
 
 dai-a 
 
 dara 
 
 dai-a 
 
 X 2 
 
308 
 
 English. 
 
 Sun 
 
 Moon 
 
 Star 
 
 Fire 
 
 Water 
 
 Earth 
 
 Stone 
 
 Bird 
 
 ^99 
 Fish 
 
 
 BORNEO. 
 
 
 Maiidhar. 
 
 Macassar. 
 
 Bugis, 
 
 matahari 
 
 singhar 
 
 matasa 
 
 wulan 
 
 bulan 
 
 wulan 
 
 binoin 
 
 bintoin 
 
 bitoin 
 
 api 
 
 pepe 
 
 api 
 
 wai 
 
 jene 
 
 wai 
 
 tana 
 
 bntah 
 
 tana 
 
 batn 
 
 batH 
 
 batu 
 
 mantHnanu jang'anjang'an 
 
 manumanu 
 
 ndoh 
 
 bayu 
 
 iteloh 
 
 bale 
 
 juku 
 
 baleh. 
 
 The Bugis, like the Batta, the Korinchi, the Kejang, 
 and the Lampong, has an alphabet, which, saving such 
 exceptions as may be taken from the fact of its being 
 common to ^ve languages, is a native one, i. e. is neither 
 decidedly Arabic like the Malay, nor decidedly Indian 
 like the Javanese. It is Batta, &c. in its general 
 character — not in its details. It embodies more of a 
 literature than any of its congeners. I have before 
 me a Bugis poem, on the hero of a recent war against 
 the Dutch. 
 
 English. 
 
 Gunnngtello. 
 
 Menadu. 
 
 Man {homo) 
 
 manusia 
 
 to 
 
 (vir) 
 
 satulai 
 
 toama 
 
 Woman 
 
 tabua 
 
 wewone 
 
 Head 
 
 lunggongo' 
 
 ulu 
 
 Eyes 
 
 mata 
 
 waren 
 
 Nose 
 
 ulingo' 
 
 nirung 
 
 Hair 
 
 woho 
 
 wubuk 
 
 Teeth 
 
 dang'eta 
 
 wahang 
 
 BeUy 
 
 mbong'a 
 
 poot 
 
 Hand 
 
 otoho 
 
 leng'an 
 
 Blood 
 
 duhu 
 
 raha 
 
 Sun 
 
 mutuhari 
 
 ndoh 
 
 Moon 
 
 ulano 
 
 lelehon 
 
 Star 
 
 olipopo 
 
 tototian 
 
 Fire 
 
 tolu 
 
 api 
 
 Water 
 
 teloho 
 
 rano 
 
 Earth 
 
 huta 
 
 tana 
 
 Stone 
 
 batu 
 
 watu 
 
 Bird 
 
 burung 
 
 koko 
 
 ErjU 
 
 putitor 
 
 atelu 
 
 Fish 
 
 tota 
 
 pongkor. 
 
 ff^ 
 
CELEBES. 
 
 309 
 
 The Menadu falls into numerous dialects, and sub-dia- 
 lects ; though, probably, into no more than several of 
 its congeners. Its minutice, however, have been given 
 in detail by A. J. F. Jansen, from whose paper the 
 following short extract is taken as a specimen of the 
 amount of variety which obtains in these parts. 
 
 English 
 
 Man {homo) 
 
 Man (vir) 
 
 Sea 
 
 Wind 
 
 Rain 
 
 Tonsea 
 
 touw 
 
 tuama 
 
 laur 
 
 reges 
 
 nuran 
 
 Klabat-atas 
 
 
 
 tasik 
 
 
 uran 
 
 Likwpang 
 
 
 
 laur 
 
 
 
 AHs 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Negrijbaru 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Klabat-bawa 
 
 
 
 
 
 nuran 
 
 Tondano 
 
 
 
 lawanan 
 
 
 naro 
 
 Rembokeng 
 
 
 
 lour 
 
 
 uran 
 
 Kdkas 
 
 
 
 
 
 nuran 
 
 Langowan 
 
 
 
 tasik 
 
 
 uran 
 
 Saroinsoig 
 
 
 
 
 lur 
 
 
 
 Tournshon 
 
 
 
 
 tasik 
 
 
 
 Kahaskassing 
 
 
 
 unner-untasik 
 
 
 
 Tounbaririj 
 
 
 
 laur 
 
 
 
 Bonder 
 
 
 
 
 taasik 
 
 reger 
 
 
 Romohon 
 
 
 
 laur 
 
 reges 
 
 
 Tounbassian 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Touwasang 
 
 
 
 salojon 
 
 kakab 
 
 tukam 
 
 Tounpasso 
 
 
 
 
 lur 
 
 reges 
 
 uran 
 
 Kawangkoan 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ponosakan 
 
 intouw 
 
 lolakij 
 
 balangan 
 
 sompot 
 
 ujan 
 
 Passatig 
 
 tomata 
 
 maanij 
 
 wolangon 
 
 sonsam 
 
 L tihiti 
 
 Ratahan 
 
 
 mouanij 
 
 wolangon 
 
 wahe 
 
 tahiti 
 
 Bantik 
 
 toumata 
 
 mahuanen 
 
 rawdouw 
 
 pipihi 
 
 tahiteij 
 
 Sangij 
 
 
 eseh 
 
 lauduk 
 
 anging 
 
 tahiti 
 
 Tagulangdang 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Talaur 
 
 kawenua 
 
 
 
 angin 
 
 uran 
 
 Hotontalo 
 
 tau 
 
 tololai 
 
 auhu 
 
 dupoto 
 
 didih 
 
 Botango 
 
 momata 
 
 rorach 
 
 augu 
 
 hibuto 
 
 huah 
 
 Parigi 
 
 tau 
 
 langai 
 
 tampanao 
 
 
 uda 
 
 Taheang 
 
 tau 
 
 nganemaini 
 
 
 
 Bolong-mongondo intau 
 
 lolakij 
 
 dagat 
 
 tompot 
 
 ujan 
 
 Bolong-itang-ota 
 
 
 
 bolango 
 
 dupota oha 
 
 Kaidipang 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Biiol 
 
 tau 
 
 maane 
 
 
 
 ulano 
 
 Patos 
 
 tona 
 
 langai 
 
 asih 
 
 poiri 
 
 udah. 
 
 In Buton and Amboyna, the variation of dialect is 
 but slight ; increasing in Saparua, Ternati, and Ceram. 
 
310 
 
 CELEBES. 
 
 English. 
 
 Buton. 
 
 Man {homo) 
 
 tau 
 
 {vir) 
 
 tau 
 
 Woman 
 
 makonrai 
 
 Head 
 
 ulu 
 
 Eyes 
 
 mata 
 
 Nose 
 
 ing'a 
 
 Hair 
 
 welu 
 
 Teeth 
 
 isi 
 
 Belly 
 
 babrea 
 
 Hand 
 
 liman 
 
 English. 
 
 Saparua. 
 
 Man (homo) 
 
 tuma-tawu 
 
 {vir) 
 
 manawau 
 
 Woman 
 
 pipinawa 
 
 Head 
 
 uruni 
 
 Eye 
 
 maani 
 
 Nose 
 
 iiini 
 
 Hair 
 
 rhuwon 
 
 Tooth 
 
 nioni 
 
 Belly 
 
 tebfini 
 
 Hand 
 
 rimani 
 
 Foot 
 
 ahini 
 
 Blood 
 
 lalani 
 
 Bay 
 
 kai 
 
 Sun 
 
 ria-ma-ano 
 
 Moon 
 
 hulano 
 
 English. 
 
 Ternati. 
 
 Man (homo) 
 
 manusia 
 
 {vir) 
 
 nonau 
 
 Woman 
 
 fohekeh 
 
 Head 
 
 dopolo 
 
 Eyes 
 
 t^ko 
 
 Nose 
 
 Idling 
 
 Hair 
 
 rambut 
 
 Teeth 
 
 gigi 
 
 Belly 
 
 hoot 
 
 Hand 
 
 tangan 
 
 Foot 
 
 kaki 
 
 Blood 
 
 dara 
 
 Day 
 
 modiri 
 
 Sun 
 
 m^ta-hdri 
 
 Moon 
 
 btilan 
 
 English. 
 
 Foot 
 
 Blood 
 
 Bay 
 
 Sun 
 
 Moon 
 
 Star 
 
 Fire 
 
 Water 
 
 Stone 
 
 Bird 
 
 English. 
 
 Star 
 
 Fire 
 
 Water 
 
 Stone 
 
 One 
 
 Two 
 
 Three 
 
 Four 
 
 Five 
 
 Six 
 
 Seven 
 
 Eight 
 
 Nine 
 
 Ten 
 
 English. 
 
 Star 
 
 Fire 
 
 Water 
 
 Stone 
 
 One 
 
 Two 
 
 Three 
 
 Four 
 
 Five 
 
 Six 
 
 Seven 
 
 Eight 
 
 Nine 
 
 Ten 
 
 Buton. 
 
 aje 
 
 dara 
 
 matabari 
 
 wulah 
 
 bintoing 
 
 api 
 
 ayer 
 
 batu 
 
 manuk. 
 
 Saparua. 
 
 bumario 
 
 babtilo 
 
 waelo 
 
 hatuo 
 
 isahi 
 
 rua 
 
 oru 
 
 baan 
 
 rima 
 
 nobo 
 
 bitu 
 
 w&m 
 
 siwah 
 
 dbuttibi. 
 
 TematL 
 
 tina-bintan 
 
 ukut 
 
 aki 
 
 marib 
 
 rimoi 
 
 romo-didi 
 
 ra-angi 
 
 raba 
 
 roma-toba 
 
 rara 
 
 tomdi 
 
 tof-kangi 
 
 siyu 
 
 yagiraoi. 
 

 TERNATL 
 
 
 Euglish. 
 
 4 
 
 Ceram. 
 
 English. 
 
 Ceram. 
 
 Mmi {homo) 
 
 tau-mata 
 
 Stars 
 
 butlung 
 
 — (mr) 
 
 ese 
 
 Fire 
 
 putung 
 
 Woman 
 
 babini 
 
 Water 
 
 4ke 
 
 Eyes 
 
 mata 
 
 Stone 
 
 b£tu 
 
 Nose 
 
 irung 
 
 One 
 
 sembua 
 
 Hair 
 
 tita 
 
 Two 
 
 dartia 
 
 Teeth 
 
 isi 
 
 Three 
 
 t4telu 
 
 Belly 
 
 tiang 
 
 Four 
 
 epa 
 
 Hand 
 
 takiar 
 
 Five 
 
 lima 
 
 Foot 
 
 bisi 
 
 Six 
 
 n6ng 
 
 Blood 
 
 d^ra 
 
 Seven 
 
 pltu 
 
 Day 
 
 eloh 
 
 EiglU 
 
 w41u 
 
 Sun 
 
 eloh 
 
 Nine 
 
 sioh 
 
 Moon 
 
 btUan 
 
 Ten 
 
 mapuru. 
 
 311 
 
 Here ends the north-eastern line, from the extremity 
 of which we return to the parts due north of Borneo, i. e. 
 the Sulu Archipelago. 
 
312 
 
 THE SULU. 
 
 CHAPTER XLVIII. 
 
 The Languages of the Sulu Archipelago. — Philippines. — Formosa. 
 
 Of the dialects of the long island of Palawan, I know 
 no specimens. They are probably Sulu like the follow- 
 ing. 
 
 English. 
 
 Sulu. 
 
 EngKsh. 
 
 Sulu. 
 
 Man 
 
 ossoog 
 
 White 
 
 mapote 
 
 Bead 
 
 00 
 
 Black 
 
 maitom 
 
 Eye 
 
 mata 
 
 Fire 
 
 kalaryu 
 
 Ewr 
 
 taingah 
 
 Water 
 
 tubig 
 
 Nose 
 
 ilong 
 
 Stone 
 
 bate 
 
 Hair ' 
 
 bohoe 
 
 Bird 
 
 manok 
 
 Teeth 
 
 nipun 
 
 Egg 
 
 iklug 
 
 Hand 
 
 kamot 
 
 Fish 
 
 ista 
 
 Blood 
 
 dugu 
 
 Sun 
 
 adalow 
 
 Belly 
 
 tian 
 
 Moon 
 
 bulon 
 
 Bone 
 
 btkug 
 
 Star 
 
 bitohon 
 
 Foot 
 
 siki 
 
 Earth 
 
 leopah 
 
 Day 
 
 hadlaou 
 
 Black 
 
 maitum 
 
 Night 
 
 gabi 
 
 Dead 
 
 miatai nah 
 
 In Mindanao the Bissayan falls into no less than Gye 
 dialects. It changes again in lolo, in Bohol, and in 
 Samar where it approaches the Tagala. The Capul or 
 Bissayan of the island of Abac falls into the Inabacnum 
 dialect of the north, the Inagta of the south, and the 
 General Language in which our authority Garcia de 
 Torres preached and administered the sacraments. 
 
 The Bissayan of Panaz also falls into sub-dialects — 
 one of which is the Hiligueina, the other the Haraya. 
 
 The Camarinos of the next group is the most 
 
THE PHILIPPINE LANGUAGES. 
 
 313 
 
 Bissayan of the class, and it is probably transitional. 
 The Tagala is the language of the capital, Manilla. 
 The Pampanga and the Iloco approach the Tagala. Of 
 the Pangasinan I only know the name. The Zambali 
 is a mountaineer, the Maitim a (so-called) Negrito, form 
 of speech. 
 
 English. 
 
 Bissayan. 
 
 noco. 
 
 Cayagan. 
 
 Tagala. 
 
 Man 
 
 lalaqui 
 
 lalaqui 
 
 lalaqui 
 
 tauo 
 
 Hair 
 
 
 
 
 boboc 
 
 Head 
 
 
 
 
 olo 
 
 Tooth 
 
 
 
 
 ngipin 
 
 Tongue 
 
 
 
 
 dilah 
 
 Eye 
 
 
 
 
 mata 
 
 Ear 
 
 
 
 
 tayinga 
 
 Nose 
 
 
 
 
 hilaga 
 
 Hand 
 
 
 
 
 Camay 
 
 Blood 
 
 dugu 
 
 darat 
 
 daga 
 
 dugu 
 
 Day 
 
 adiau 
 
 ad Ian 
 
 aggao 
 
 arao 
 
 Sun 
 
 adlao 
 
 init 
 
 bilac 
 
 arao 
 
 Moon 
 
 bulan 
 
 bulan 
 
 fulan 
 
 buan 
 
 Star 
 
 
 
 
 
 bitoin 
 
 Fire 
 
 
 
 
 apuy 
 
 Water 
 
 tubig 
 
 danum 
 
 danum 
 
 tubig 
 
 Bird 
 
 mamuk 
 
 tumatayab 
 
 mamanu 
 
 ibon 
 
 Fi^k 
 
 isda 
 
 ikan 
 
 sira 
 
 isda 
 
 Milk 
 
 gatas 
 
 tubigtisoso 
 
 gatto 
 
 gatas 
 
 Tree 
 
 ponosacahuy 
 
 kago 
 
 kayu 
 
 cahuy 
 
 Stone 
 
 bato 
 
 bato 
 
 battu 
 
 bato 
 
 One 
 
 usa 
 
 meysa 
 
 tadday 
 
 ysa 
 
 Two 
 
 duha 
 
 dua 
 
 dua 
 
 dalaua 
 
 Three 
 
 tulo 
 
 taUo 
 
 talu 
 
 tatlo 
 
 Four 
 
 apat 
 
 eppat 
 
 appa 
 
 apat 
 
 Five 
 
 lima 
 
 lima 
 
 lima 
 
 limo 
 
 Six 
 
 unum 
 
 innem 
 
 anam 
 
 anim 
 
 Seven 
 
 pito 
 
 pito 
 
 pitu 
 
 pito 
 
 Eight 
 
 ualo 
 
 ualo 
 
 ualu 
 
 ualo 
 
 Nine 
 
 siam 
 
 siam 
 
 siam 
 
 siyam 
 
 Ten 
 
 napulo 
 
 sangapulo 
 
 mafulu 
 
 iangpono. 
 
 The following are said to be Negrito forms of speech. 
 
 1. 
 
 English. 
 
 Umiray. 
 
 St. Miguel. 
 
 St. Matheo. 
 
 Man 
 
 laqui 
 
 lacay 
 
 lacay 
 
 Woman 
 
 tuvanac 
 
 bacus 
 
 bacus 
 
 Ear 
 
 talinga 
 
 talinga 
 
 talinga 
 
314 
 
 THE PHILIPPINE LANGUAGES. 
 
 English. 
 
 Umiray. 
 
 St. Miguel. 
 
 St. Matheo. 
 
 Blood 
 
 saquo 
 
 dalaa 
 
 galaa 
 
 Hand 
 
 cumot 
 
 gumut 
 
 gavat 
 
 Foot 
 
 siquii 
 
 tecut 
 
 daadaa 
 
 Sky 
 
 langot 
 
 
 
 Moon 
 
 panuodan 
 
 bulan 
 
 bnlan 
 
 Star 
 
 butatalaa 
 
 bitung 
 
 bitung 
 
 Fire 
 
 gagavas 
 
 nayan 
 
 nayan 
 
 Water 
 
 urat 
 
 vagut 
 
 lau 
 
 Stme 
 
 batu 
 
 batu 
 
 batu 
 
 Tree 
 
 pamutingueo 
 
 labat 
 
 labat 
 
 Bird 
 
 manoc 
 
 manoc 
 
 manoc 
 
 Fish 
 
 ican 
 
 ican 
 
 isda 
 
 I 
 
 yaco 
 
 tiyac 
 
 heyaco 
 
 Thou 
 
 icamo 
 
 hicamu 
 
 hica 
 
 That 
 
 edu 
 
 yiay 
 
 
 We 
 
 dicame 
 
 Mcami 
 
 
 Ye 
 
 dicamu 
 
 decamu 
 
 hicamu 
 
 They 
 
 ediya 
 
 sediya 
 
 huya. 
 
 English. 
 
 2 
 Dnmagat. 
 
 English. 
 
 Dumagat. 
 
 Hair 
 
 i^ede 
 
 Moon 
 
 bilanc^ 
 
 Eye 
 
 mataade 
 
 Star 
 
 bitone 
 
 Ear 
 
 sugede 
 
 NigU 
 
 alinde 
 
 Beard 
 
 baangc^e 
 
 Sea 
 
 dagat 
 
 Hand 
 
 alemside 
 
 River 
 
 sayogc^e 
 
 Feet 
 
 hitiade 
 
 Earth 
 
 limacdle 
 
 Knee 
 
 bolongde 
 
 Tree 
 
 hapoyofe 
 
 Neck 
 
 liog 
 
 Forest 
 
 cabutanrfe 
 
 Sun 
 
 pigluncZe 
 
 
 
 For the BasM islands, the following vocabulary is 
 taken from E. Belcher's Voyage of the Samarang. 
 
 English. 
 
 Bashi. 
 
 English. 
 
 BashL 
 
 Head 
 
 ogho 
 
 Moon 
 
 bughan 
 
 Hair 
 
 buoc 
 
 Earth 
 
 madedah 
 
 Eye 
 
 mata 
 
 Fire 
 
 apui 
 
 Ear 
 
 titiduan 
 
 Water 
 
 danum 
 
 BeUy 
 
 budek 
 
 Egg 
 
 ocloy 
 
 Bone 
 
 tughan 
 
 Fish 
 
 amon 
 
 Foot 
 
 cocon 
 
 Black 
 
 mabaghen 
 
 Day 
 
 arao 
 
 Dead 
 
 nadiman. 
 
 In FoTTYiosa we reach the end of the long series of 
 languages akin to the Malay in this direction ; for to the 
 
FORMOSAN. 315 
 
 north of Formosa the Japanese dialects begin. That a 
 Malay form of speech was spoken in Formosa was known 
 to Klaproth. That there were more forms of speech than 
 one on the island was also known. Whether they 
 were all Malay was another question. 
 
 Between 1624, and 1661, the Dutch occupied the 
 island, and attempted not without a partial success, to 
 introduce Christianity. The result was the data for 
 what, until lately, was the only Formosan vocabulary 
 known : one of the Sideia dialect. About twenty 
 years ago, however, a Favorlang dictionary by Gilbert 
 Happast, A.D. 1650, was discovered and published. 
 This gave a second dialect — almost a second lan- 
 guage. 
 
 A MS. discovered at Utrecht, and published by Yan- 
 der Vlis, has supplied a sub-dialect of the Sideia, 
 which, inter alia, gives a regular letter change between 
 r and s. 
 
 English. 
 
 Klaproth's Formosan 
 {SideU.) 
 
 Vander Vlis. 
 
 Father 
 
 rama 
 
 sama 
 
 Mother 
 
 rena 
 
 sena 
 
 Water 
 
 ralaum 
 
 salong 
 
 Tlmnder 
 
 rungdung 
 
 singding 
 
 Tree 
 
 parannah 
 
 pesanach 
 
 Foot 
 
 rahpal 
 
 sapal 
 
 Great 
 
 irang 
 
 isang 
 
 Two 
 
 ranka 
 
 (so) soa. 
 
 It is reasonably suggested by Gabelentz that this is 
 a specimen of a dialect, elsewhere called SaJcam. 
 
 The Tackais and Tiloes are apparently dialects, or 
 sub-dialects of the Favorlang. 
 
 Upon the Formosan languages, with the additions 
 supplied to the original Sideia data by the Favorlang, 
 we have a valuable monograph by Gabelentz ; the au- 
 thority for everything contained in the preceding, 
 notice, which is not found in Klaproth. Its main object 
 is the fixation of the places of the Formosan in the 
 Malay class. Gabelentz decides that its affinities are in- 
 
316 
 
 FORMOSAN. 
 
 definite and miscellaneous, i. e. that it is not so decidedly 
 Philippine as its geographical relations suggest. From 
 this work, I take the following tables, which give twenty- 
 four words out of one hundred and twenty-six. In the 
 present work they serve a secondary purpose, viz., the 
 elucidation of the general characters of the affinities 
 which bind the several languages of the present group 
 together. With the exception of Guaham, Chamori, 
 Yap, Ulea, and Satawal, all the names have already 
 been met with ; so that, if the reader will remember 
 that these are names for certain dialects from the 
 Ladrone and Caroline archipelagoes, he will be suffi- 
 ciently master of the nomenclature. 
 
 English. 
 
 Man 
 
 Head 
 
 Hair 
 
 Forehead 
 
 Favorlung bahosa, sjara 
 
 oeno 
 
 tdu, ratta 
 
 tees 
 
 Sida 
 
 paraigh 
 
 vaungo 
 
 vaukugh 
 
 
 Tagala 
 
 lalaqui 
 
 olo 
 
 bolo, bohoc 
 
 noo 
 
 Bissayan 
 
 lalaqui 
 
 olo 
 
 bolbol, bohoc 
 
 adtang 
 
 Pampango 
 
 t lalaqui 
 
 buntuc 
 
 bulbul, icat 
 
 canuan 
 
 Iloco 
 
 lallaqui 
 
 olo 
 
 
 
 
 Malay 
 
 laki 
 
 ulu, kepala 
 
 rambut, bulu 
 
 dahi, batuk 
 
 Javanese 
 
 tijang djaler 
 
 sirah, kepolo 
 
 rambot, woeloe 
 
 bathok 
 
 Bugis 
 
 woroane 
 
 ulu 
 
 weluak 
 
 linroh 
 
 Dayalc 
 
 olo hatu4 
 
 takolok 
 
 bulu, balau 
 
 lingkau 
 
 Sunda 
 
 laki, pamegat 
 
 hoeloe, mastaka 
 
 boe-oek 
 
 tarang, taar 
 
 Bali 
 
 muwani, lanang 
 
 tandas, sirah 
 
 
 
 Lamj)ong 
 
 bakas 
 
 hulu 
 
 buho 
 
 
 Batta 
 
 morah ^ 
 
 ulu 
 
 obu 
 
 
 Guaham 
 
 lahe 
 
 oulou 
 
 gapoun oulou, 
 
 hai 
 
 Chamori 
 
 lahi 
 
 ulu 
 
 gapunulu 
 
 
 Yap 
 
 pimohn 
 
 elingeng 
 
 lalligel 
 
 
 Ulea 
 
 m3,moan 
 
 methackitim 
 
 timui 
 
 
 
 Satawal 
 
 mal, mar 
 
 roumai, simoie 
 
 alerouma, timoe 
 
 man hai 
 
 Malagasi 
 
 ahy 
 
 loha 
 
 volo 
 
 handrina. 
 
 English. 
 
 Eye 
 
 Nose 
 
 Ear 
 
 Mouth 
 
 Favorlang 
 
 macha 
 
 not 
 
 charrina 
 
 ranied, sabbacha 
 
 Sida 
 
 matta 
 
 gongos 
 
 tangira 
 
 motaus 
 
 Tagala 
 
 mata 
 
 ylong 
 
 tayinga 
 
 bibig 
 
 Bissayan 
 
 mata 
 
 ylong 
 
 talinga 
 
 baba 
 
 Pampangc 
 
 1 mata 
 
 arung 
 
 talinga 
 
 asboc 
 
 Iloco 
 Malay 
 
 mata 
 mata * 
 
 idung 
 
 talinga 
 
 miilut. 
 

 
 FORMOSAN. 
 
 317 
 
 English. 
 
 Eye 
 
 Nose 
 
 Ear 
 
 Mouth 
 
 Javanese 
 
 moto 
 
 grono, hiroeng 
 
 taliengngan 
 
 tjangkem, tjotjot 
 
 Bugis 
 
 mata 
 
 ingok 
 
 dachuling 
 
 timu 
 
 Dayah 
 
 mata 
 
 
 pinding 
 
 njama 
 
 Sunda 
 
 mata 
 
 hiroeng 
 
 tjeli, tjepil 
 
 soengoet 
 
 Bali 
 
 mata 
 
 kunguh 
 
 kuping, karna 
 
 bungut, changkam 
 
 Lampong 
 
 mata 
 
 egong, long 
 
 chiuping 
 
 
 Batta 
 
 mahta 
 
 igung 
 
 suping 
 
 bawa 
 
 Guaham 
 
 mata 
 
 goui inn 
 
 talanha 
 
 pashoud 
 
 CTmmori 
 
 mata 
 
 guihin 
 
 talanja 
 
 patjud 
 
 Yap 
 
 eauteg 
 
 busemun 
 
 ilig 
 
 langach 
 
 Vim 
 
 matai 
 
 wathel 
 
 talengel 
 
 eol 
 
 Satawal 
 
 metal, messaii 
 
 poiti, podi 
 
 talinhe 
 
 ewai 
 
 Malagasi 
 
 maso 
 
 orana 
 
 Bofina 
 
 vava. 
 
 English. 
 
 Tooth 
 
 Tongue 
 
 Beard 
 
 NecJc 
 
 Favorlang 
 
 sjien 
 
 tatsira 
 
 ranob 
 
 bokkir, arriborri- 
 bon 
 
 Sida 
 
 waligh 
 
 dadila 
 
 
 taang 
 
 Tagala 
 
 ngipin 
 
 dila 
 
 gumi 
 
 lyig 
 
 Bissayan 
 
 ngipun, salat 
 
 dila 
 
 sulang, bungut 
 
 liog 
 
 Pampangc 
 
 ► ipa,n 
 
 dUa 
 
 baba 
 
 batal 
 
 Iloco 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 atingnged 
 
 Malay 
 
 gigi 
 
 lidah 
 
 janggut, ramos 
 
 leer, jangga 
 
 Javanese 
 
 wodjo, hoentoe 
 
 hilat 
 
 djenggot 
 
 djouggo, goeloe 
 
 Bugis 
 
 isi 
 
 lila 
 
 jangkok 
 
 olong 
 
 Dayah 
 
 kasinga 
 
 djela 
 
 djanggut 
 
 ujat 
 
 Sunda 
 
 hoentoe, waos 
 
 leetah, ilat 
 
 djanggot 
 
 beheng 
 
 Bali 
 
 gigi, untu 
 
 layah, hilat 
 
 
 bahong 
 
 Lampong 
 
 ipon 
 
 ma 
 
 
 galah 
 
 Batta 
 
 ningi 
 
 
 
 
 Guuham 
 
 nifin 
 
 oula 
 
 
 agaga 
 
 Chamori 
 
 nifin 
 
 hula 
 
 atschai 
 
 hagaga 
 
 Yap 
 
 mulech 
 
 athaen 
 
 i-ap 
 
 liigunag 
 
 IJlea 
 
 nir 
 
 luel 
 
 elsa-1 
 
 uel 
 
 Satawal 
 
 ni, gni 
 
 Jouei laouel 
 
 alouzai, alissel 
 
 faloui, ounouga'i 
 
 Malagasi 
 
 nify 
 
 lela 
 
 volom-bava 
 
 tenda, vozona. 
 
 English. 
 
 Breast 
 
 Belly 
 
 Arm 
 
 " Ha/nd 
 
 Favorlang 
 
 arrabis, zido 
 
 chaan 
 
 tea 
 
 rima 
 
 Sida 
 
 av^u 
 
 vauyl 
 
 pariau 
 
 rima 
 
 Tagala 
 
 dibdib, soso 
 
 tiyan 
 
 patay 
 
 Camay 
 
 Bissayan 
 
 dughan, soso 
 
 tian 
 
 butcon 
 
 camot, Camay 
 
 Pampango 
 
 salo, susu 
 
 attian 
 
 tacdai 
 
 camat, camauo 
 
 Iloco 
 
 barucung, susu 
 
 
 
 ima 
 
 Malay 
 
 dada, susu 
 
 prut 
 
 tangan 
 
 asta, tangan 
 
 Javanese 
 
 djodjo, soesoe 
 
 pedahaarrau 
 
 langngen 
 
 hastho, tangngan 
 
318 
 
 
 FORMOSAN. 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Breast 
 
 Belly 
 
 Arm 
 
 Hand 
 
 Bugis 
 
 aroh, susu 
 
 babuwa 
 
 
 lima 
 
 Dayak 
 
 usok, susu 
 
 knai 
 
 lenga 
 
 lenga 
 
 Sunda 
 
 dada, soesoe 
 
 betteng, lamboet 
 
 lengen 
 
 lengen, panangan 
 
 Bali 
 
 niu-niuh 
 
 basang, watang 
 
 
 lima, tangan 
 
 Lampong 
 
 susu-amah 
 
 batong 
 
 
 chiulok, chulu 
 
 Batta 
 
 
 boldok 
 
 tangan 
 
 tangan 
 
 Guaham 
 
 ha ouf, soussou 
 
 touiann 
 
 hious 
 
 kanai 
 
 Chamori 
 
 hauf, susu 
 
 tudjan 
 
 kanei 
 
 kanei 
 
 Yap 
 
 niierungoren, thi 
 thi 
 
 - thugunem 
 
 pach 
 
 karovinarine-pagh 
 
 Ulea 
 
 uwal, thithi 
 
 siel 
 
 bai 
 
 humutel 
 
 Satawal 
 
 loupai, oupoual, 
 ti, toussagai 
 
 segai oubouoi 
 
 rape lepei 
 
 ga leima, pra 
 nema 
 
 Malagasi 
 
 tratra 
 
 kibo 
 
 sandry 
 
 tdnana. 
 
 English. 
 
 Finger 
 
 Foot 
 
 Heart 
 
 • Blood 
 
 Favorlang apillo 
 
 asiel 
 
 totto, tutta 
 
 tagga 
 
 Sida 
 
 kagamos 
 
 rahpal, tiltil 
 
 tintin 
 
 amagh 
 
 Tagala 
 
 dali 
 
 paa 
 
 poso 
 
 dugo 
 
 Bissayan 
 
 torlo 
 
 teel, siqui 
 
 posoposo 
 
 dugo 
 
 Pampango taliri 
 
 bitis 
 
 pusu, busal 
 
 daya 
 
 Iloco 
 
 
 
 naquem 
 
 dara 
 
 Malay 
 
 jari 
 
 kaki, pada 
 
 ati 
 
 darah 
 
 Javanese 
 
 derridji 
 
 soekoe, podo 
 
 batos, hati 
 
 rah 
 
 Bugis 
 
 jari 
 
 ajeh 
 
 ati 
 
 dara 
 
 Dayak 
 
 tundjuk 
 
 pai 
 
 atei 
 
 daha 
 
 Sunda 
 
 ramo 
 
 soekoe, dampal 
 
 djadjantoeng 
 
 gettih 
 
 Bali 
 
 jariji, hanti 
 
 chokor, suku 
 
 jantung 
 
 gateh, rah 
 
 Lampong 
 
 jari 
 
 chiukot 
 
 jantung 
 
 rah 
 
 Batta 
 
 djidi muduk 
 
 
 
 mutter 
 
 Guaham 
 
 kalouloud 
 
 adin 
 
 
 
 Chamori 
 
 kalulud 
 
 adding 
 
 
 haga 
 
 Yap 
 
 pugelipagh 
 
 garovereven 
 
 
 ratta 
 
 Z/lea 
 
 kasthel 
 
 petehl 
 
 
 ta 
 
 Satawal 
 
 attili pai 
 
 pera perai 
 
 
 atchapon 
 
 Malagasi 
 
 rantsan-tanana 
 
 tongotra 
 
 fo 
 
 ra. 
 
 English. 
 
 FUsh 
 
 Bone 
 
 Milk 
 
 Skin 
 
 Favorlang 
 
 ' b6a 
 
 oot 
 
 tach zido 
 
 maram 
 
 Sida 
 
 wat 
 
 toural 
 
 hakey 
 
 validt 
 
 Tagala 
 
 laman 
 
 bot-d 
 
 gatas 
 
 balat, 
 
 Bissayan 
 
 onor, tayor 
 
 tulan 
 
 gatas 
 
 anit, panit 
 
 Pampango 
 
 laman, bulbul 
 
 butul 
 
 gatas, sabad 
 
 balat, catat 
 
 Iloco 
 
 dumara 
 
 
 
 
 Malay 
 
 daging 
 
 tulang 
 
 susu, ayar-susu 
 
 kulit 
 

 • 
 
 FORMOSAN. 
 
 
 31! 
 
 English. 
 
 Flesh 
 
 Bone 
 
 Milk 
 
 Skin 
 
 Javanese 
 
 dhaging 
 
 tosan, baloong 
 
 to jo soesoe 
 
 koelit 
 
 Bugis 
 
 juku 
 
 buku 
 
 susu 
 
 uH 
 
 Dayah 
 
 isi 
 
 tolang 
 
 djohon-tusu 
 
 upak 
 
 Sunda 
 
 laoek, daging 
 
 toelang 
 
 tji-soesoe 
 
 koeUt 
 
 Bali 
 
 hisi, daging 
 
 tulang, balung 
 
 nyonyo 
 
 kulet 
 
 Lampong 
 
 Batta 
 
 Guaham 
 
 dagaing 
 
 tulan 
 
 wai-susu 
 
 bawa 
 
 
 tolan 
 
 
 
 
 Chamori 
 
 
 
 tschugususu 
 
 
 Yap 
 
 
 
 lengiren 
 
 . 
 
 Ulea 
 
 
 
 f &U 
 
 
 Satawal 
 
 fetougoul 
 
 roulou pei 
 
 
 pouai 
 
 Malagasi 
 
 nofo 
 
 taolana 
 
 ronono 
 
 hoditra. 
 
 Whether this be the language of the aborigines of 
 Formosa is doubtful. All that can be said is, that no 
 sample of any second language is known. 
 
320 
 
 TOBI. 
 
 CHAPTER XLIX. 
 
 Micronesia. — Tobi. — The Pelew islands. — The Caroline and Marianne (or 
 Ladrone) Archipelagoes. — The Polynesia. 
 
 By Micronesia is meant everything between Gilolo and 
 the Philippines on one side, and the Navigator's Is- 
 lands, or Sarnoan Archipelago, on the other. The first 
 steps in the passage are long ones, and the group is, to 
 some extent, artificial. 
 
 For Tobi, or Lord North's Island, and the Pelew 
 group ; important as these islands are for any investiga- 
 tion which, like the present, derives Polynesia fi:om 
 Micronesia, and Micronesia from either the Philippines 
 or the parts about Tidore and Gilolo, we have but 
 scanty data. 
 
 English, 
 
 Tobi. 
 
 English. 
 
 Tobi. 
 
 Man 
 
 amare 
 
 Moon 
 
 mokum 
 
 Woman 
 
 vaivi 
 
 Star 
 
 uitsh 
 
 Head 
 
 metshemum 
 
 Fire 
 
 yaf 
 
 Hair 
 
 tshim 
 
 Water (fresh) 
 
 taru 
 
 Beard 
 
 kusum 
 
 {salt) 
 
 tat 
 
 Hand 
 
 kaimuk 
 
 Stone 
 
 vas 
 
 Foot 
 
 petchem 
 
 Bird 
 
 karum 
 
 Bone 
 
 tshil 
 
 Fish 
 
 ika. 
 
 Sun 
 
 yaro 
 
 
 
 For the Pelew islands we have the following voca- 
 bularies, the first of v/hich is from lilarsden, the second 
 from Keate's account of the islands. 
 
 English. 
 
 Pelew (1.) 
 
 Pelew (3.) 
 
 Man 
 
 arracat 
 
 masaketh 
 
 Head 
 
 pudeluth 
 
 botheluth 
 
 Eye 
 
 muddath 
 
 colsule 
 
 Nose 
 
 koyum 
 
 kiule 
 
 Beard 
 
 unwulel 
 
 ungelell 
 
 Hand 
 
 kurruel 
 
 kemark 
 
THE PELEW ISLANDS. 
 
 321 
 
 English. 
 
 Pelew (1). 
 
 Pelew (2). 
 
 Blood 
 
 
 arrasaack 
 
 Day 
 
 kuguk 
 
 cucuk 
 
 Night 
 
 kapisongi 
 
 kaposingi 
 
 Dead 
 
 luathe 
 
 raathee 
 
 White 
 
 kalelu 
 
 kellelu 
 
 Black 
 
 kaletori 
 
 cattetou 
 
 Fire 
 
 ngaou 
 
 karr 
 
 
 miul 
 
 
 Water 
 
 ralm 
 
 an-al 
 
 Earth 
 
 kutum 
 
 
 Storve 
 
 
 path 
 
 Bird 
 
 kochayu 
 
 cockiyu 
 
 
 malk 
 
 
 Egg 
 
 
 niese 
 
 Fish 
 
 nikel 
 
 neekel 
 
 Sun 
 
 kioss 
 
 coyoss 
 
 Mom 
 
 puyur 
 
 pooyer 
 
 Star 
 
 beduk 
 
 bethuck 
 
 One 
 
 tang 
 
 tong 
 
 Two 
 
 urung 
 
 oroo 
 
 J. Iiree 
 
 othay 
 
 othey 
 
 Fwur 
 
 awang 
 
 oang 
 
 Five 
 
 aim 
 
 aeem 
 
 Six 
 
 lollom 
 
 malong 
 
 Seven 
 
 awith 
 
 oweth 
 
 Eight 
 
 ai 
 
 tei 
 
 Nine 
 
 etteu 
 
 etew 
 
 Ten 
 
 truyuk 
 
 tricook 
 
 
 magoth 
 
 makotli. 
 
 Few languages are more important than those of tlie 
 small islands hereabouts. They should be compared not 
 only with the Philippine, but the Formosan — with which 
 the Pelew has some remarkable coincidences. 
 
 The typical languages of Micronesia are the following. 
 
 English. Guaham. 
 
 Chamori. 
 
 Yap. 
 
 Man lahe 
 
 laM 
 
 pimolin 
 
 Woman palawan 
 
 palauan 
 
 wupin 
 
 Ulea. 
 
 Head ouloii ulu elingeng 
 
 Hair gapoun-oulu gapunulu laliigel 
 
 mamoan 
 tabut 
 
 Satawal. 
 
 mal 
 
 rabout 
 
 faifid 
 
 methackitim rouinai 
 
 simoie 
 
 timui aleroumai 
 timoi 
 
 Y 
 
322 
 
 MICRONESIAN LANGUAGES. 
 
 English. 
 
 Guaham. 
 
 Chamori. 
 
 Yap. 
 
 Ulea. 
 
 Satawal. 
 
 Eye 
 
 mata 
 
 mata 
 
 eauteg 
 
 matai 
 
 metal 
 
 Nose 
 
 goniinn 
 
 guihin 
 
 busemun 
 
 wathel 
 
 poiti 
 
 Tooth 
 
 nifin 
 
 nifin 
 
 mulech 
 
 nir 
 
 ni, gni 
 
 Tongue 
 
 oiila 
 
 hula 
 
 athaen 
 
 luel 
 
 laouel 
 
 Beard 
 
 
 atshai 
 
 rap 
 
 elsal 
 
 alouzai 
 
 NecTc 
 
 agaga 
 
 hagaga 
 
 liigunag 
 
 uel 
 
 faloui 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ounougai 
 
 Ear 
 
 talanha 
 
 talanja 
 
 ilig 
 
 talengel 
 
 talinhe 
 
 Mouth 
 
 pashoud 
 
 patjoud 
 
 langach 
 
 eol 
 
 ewai 
 
 Breast 
 
 haouf 
 
 hauf 
 
 niierungoreng 
 
 uwal 
 
 loupai 
 
 
 susu 
 
 susu 
 
 thithi 
 
 thithi 
 
 ti 
 
 BeUy 
 
 touiann 
 
 tudjan 
 
 thugunem 
 
 siel 
 
 segai oubouoi 
 
 Arm 
 
 hious 
 
 kanei 
 
 pach 
 
 bai 
 
 rape lepei 
 
 Hand 
 
 kanai 
 
 kanei 
 
 karovenarenepagh humutel 
 
 galeima 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 pranema 
 
 Finger 
 
 kalouloud 
 
 kalulud 
 
 pugehpagh 
 
 kasthel 
 
 attilipai 
 
 Foot 
 
 adin 
 
 adding 
 
 garovereven 
 
 pethl 
 
 peraperai 
 
 Blood 
 
 
 haga 
 
 ratta 
 
 ta 
 
 achapon 
 
 Sky 
 
 
 langin 
 
 lang 
 
 lang 
 
 
 Day 
 
 
 haani 
 
 — — 
 
 _ — 
 
 
 
 Night 
 
 
 poeni 
 
 kainep 
 
 ebong 
 
 poum 
 
 Sun 
 
 
 addau 
 
 al 
 
 al 
 
 ial, alet 
 
 Moon 
 
 
 pulan 
 
 moram 
 
 moram 
 
 ma.ram 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 alig ouling 
 
 Star 
 
 
 putiun 
 
 tuv 
 
 fiss 
 
 fiez 
 
 aoud 
 
 
 mapagahes 
 
 tharami 
 
 tharami 
 
 saronn 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ieng manileng 
 
 Wind 
 
 
 mangeu 
 
 niveng 
 
 aang 
 
 ianhe 
 
 Rain 
 
 
 utjan 
 
 nu 
 
 uth 
 
 oroo 
 
 Water 
 
 ha,noum 
 
 kanum 
 
 munum 
 
 eliimi 
 
 ral 
 
 River 
 
 
 saddug 
 
 luU 
 
 eatsh 
 
 nao 
 
 eath 
 
 
 Sea 
 
 tassi 
 
 tahsi 
 
 lao 
 
 tati 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 amourek 
 
 Fire 
 
 goifi 
 
 quafi 
 
 
 eaf 
 
 iaf 
 
 Smoke 
 
 assu 
 
 athanenevi 
 
 aevi 
 
 oath 
 
 
 
 Earth 
 
 
 
 tahno 
 
 wunau 
 
 vaUi 
 
 merolo 
 
 Stone 
 
 ashou 
 
 atju 
 
 malang 
 
 vas 
 
 fahou 
 
 Tree 
 
 
 uddunhadju 
 
 pan 
 
 oluel 
 
 pelagoullouk 
 
 Great 
 
 
 dankulu 
 
 poga 
 
 eolep 
 
 etalai 
 
 Little 
 
 
 dikiki 
 
 watich 
 
 edigit 
 
 emouroumors 
 
 Cold 
 
 
 
 
 olliim 
 
 isaleu 
 
 
 Warm 
 
 
 
 eatho 
 
 lass 
 
 issa pouers 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 elief 
 
 I 
 
 
 quaho 
 
 igagk 
 
 ngang 
 
 
 Thou 
 
 
 
 hago 
 
 
 
 
MILLE AND TARAWAN. 
 
 323 
 
 The Marianne islands are continued into the Kingsmill 
 (Tarawan) group, and the Radack and Ralik chains ; our 
 scanty clcda for these being due to Mr. Hale, the philologue 
 under Captain Wilkes in the United States Exploring 
 Expedition. 
 
 (1.) 
 
 English. 
 
 
 Mille. 
 
 English. 
 
 
 Mille. 
 
 Man 
 
 
 momam 
 
 Stone 
 
 
 rukkah 
 
 Head 
 
 
 borrum 
 
 Bird 
 
 
 pao 
 
 Ea/r 
 
 
 ladzhilligin 
 
 Egg 
 
 
 lip 
 
 Eye 
 
 
 middarn 
 
 Fish 
 
 
 ik 
 
 Hand 
 
 
 ban 
 
 I 
 
 
 1 
 
 Foot 
 
 
 nen 
 
 He 
 
 
 ia 
 
 Mouth 
 
 
 langwen 
 
 One 
 
 
 dzhuon 
 
 Nose 
 
 
 bathart 
 
 Two 
 
 
 rua 
 
 Teeth 
 
 
 nin 
 
 Three 
 
 
 tilu 
 
 NaU 
 
 
 agguk 
 
 Four 
 
 
 emen 
 
 Sim 
 
 
 al 
 
 Five 
 
 
 lailem 
 
 Moon 
 
 
 allung 
 
 Six 
 
 
 dildzheno 
 
 Sta/r 
 
 
 edzhu 
 
 Seven 
 
 
 adzheno 
 
 Fire 
 
 
 kidzbaik 
 
 EigU 
 
 
 dzhurigol 
 
 Water (fresh) 
 
 reniun 
 
 Nine 
 
 
 me dzhuon 
 
 {salt) 
 
 
 lajet 
 
 (2 
 
 Ten 
 
 
 dzhuon. 
 
 English. 
 
 
 Tarawan. 
 
 English. 
 
 
 Tarawan. 
 
 Man 
 
 
 umane 
 
 / 
 
 
 ngai 
 
 Head 
 
 
 atu 
 
 Thou 
 
 
 unggoe 
 
 Beard 
 
 
 buai 
 
 He 
 
 
 tena 
 
 Ear 
 
 
 taringa 
 
 One 
 
 
 te 
 
 Eye 
 
 
 mata 
 
 Two 
 
 
 ua 
 
 Nose 
 
 
 bairi 
 
 Three 
 
 
 teni 
 
 Tongue 
 
 
 newe 
 
 Fowr 
 
 
 a 
 
 Sun 
 
 
 tai 
 
 Five 
 
 
 nima 
 
 Moon 
 
 
 makainga 
 
 Six 
 
 
 ono 
 
 Fire 
 
 
 ai 
 
 Seven 
 
 
 iti 
 
 Water (salt) 
 
 taari 
 
 Eight 
 
 
 oanu 
 
 Bird 
 
 
 man 
 
 Nine 
 
 
 rua 
 
 Fish 
 
 
 ika 
 
 Ten 
 
 
 tegaun 
 
 Stone 
 
 
 atip 
 
 
 
 
 
 My house 
 
 im 
 
 ■arh 
 
 
 
 Thy 
 
 house 
 
 im 
 
 -urn 
 
 
 
 His 
 
 house 
 
 im 
 
 -en 
 
 
 
 Our house 
 
 im-erro 
 
 
 
 Their house 
 
 im 
 
 -derh 
 
 
 
 IMiose hmse 
 
 im-en-wen. 
 
 
 Y 2 
 
324 
 
 POLYNESIA. 
 
 The following represent the dialect of De Peyster's 
 Islands : — 
 
 English. 
 
 Fakaofo. 
 
 English. 
 
 Fakaofo. 
 
 Man 
 
 tangata 
 
 Mouth 
 
 ngutu 
 
 Woman 
 
 fafine 
 
 Nose 
 
 isu 
 
 Eye 
 
 mata 
 
 Tongue 
 
 alelo 
 
 Ear 
 
 talinga 
 
 Sun 
 
 la 
 
 Hair 
 
 ulu 
 
 Moon 
 
 masina 
 
 Beard 
 
 kumikumi 
 
 Fire 
 
 afi 
 
 
 talafa 
 
 Bird 
 
 manu 
 
 Tooth 
 
 nifo 
 
 Fish 
 
 ika 
 
 Foot 
 
 vae 
 
 Stone 
 
 fatu 
 
 Hand 
 
 lima 
 
 Tree 
 
 lakau. 
 
 With the Samoan Archipelago begins Polynesia Pro- 
 per as opposed to Micronesia. 
 
 English. 
 
 Marquesas. 
 
 Kanaka (of the Sandwich Islands) 
 
 Man 
 
 enama 
 
 kanaka 
 
 Head 
 
 upoho 
 
 poho 
 
 Eyes 
 
 mata 
 
 maka 
 
 Nose 
 
 ihu 
 
 ihu 
 
 Mouth 
 
 fafa 
 
 aba 
 
 Ear 
 
 puaina 
 
 pepeiac 
 
 Tooth 
 
 niho 
 
 nino 
 
 Tongue 
 
 eo 
 
 lelo, leo 
 
 Back 
 
 tua 
 
 kua 
 
 Beard 
 
 kumikumi 
 
 umiumi 
 
 Blood 
 
 toto 
 
 koko 
 
 Bone 
 
 ivi 
 
 iii 
 
 Hand 
 
 ima 
 
 limo 
 
 Foot 
 
 vae 
 
 vae 
 
 Day 
 
 a 
 
 la 
 
 Night 
 
 po 
 
 po 
 
 Sun 
 
 aomati 
 
 aomati 
 
 Moon 
 
 mahina 
 
 mahina 
 
 Star 
 
 fetu, hetu 
 
 hoku 
 
 Earth 
 
 henua 
 
 honua 
 
 Sea 
 
 tal 
 
 kai 
 
 Fire 
 
 ahi 
 
 ahi 
 
 Water 
 
 vai 
 
 vai 
 
 Stone 
 
 kea 
 
 pohaku 
 
 Tree 
 
 kaau 
 
 laau 
 
 Bird 
 
 manu 
 
 manu 
 
 Fish 
 
 ika 
 
 ia 
 
 One 
 
 tahi 
 
 kahi 
 

 POLYNESIA. 
 
 325 
 
 English. 
 
 Marquesas. 
 
 Kanaka (of the Sandwich Islands). 
 
 Two 
 
 ua 
 
 lua 
 
 Three 
 
 toil, toru 
 
 kolu 
 
 Four 
 
 ha 
 
 ha 
 
 Five 
 
 ' uma 
 
 lima 
 
 Six 
 
 ono 
 
 ono 
 
 Seven 
 
 hita 
 
 hiku 
 
 Eight 
 
 vau 
 
 valu 
 
 Nine 
 
 iva 
 
 iva 
 
 Ten 
 
 onohuu 
 
 umi. 
 
 (•2)- 
 
 English. 
 
 Maori (of New Zealand). 
 
 EngUsh. Maori (of New Zea 
 
 Head 
 
 upoho 
 
 Nose 
 
 ihu 
 
 
 huruhurie 
 
 Day 
 
 ao 
 
 
 makawe 
 
 
 
 mahana 
 
 
 mahunga 
 
 
 ra 
 
 
 whakahipa 
 
 Sun 
 
 ra 
 
 Belly 
 
 kopu 
 
 
 rnamaru 
 
 
 
 m^nawa 
 
 Moon 
 
 komaru 
 
 
 rui 
 
 
 maraina 
 
 Back 
 
 tuara 
 
 Star 
 
 whelu 
 
 Body 
 
 tinana 
 
 Stone 
 
 kamaka 
 
 Bone 
 
 iwi 
 
 
 kohalii 
 
 Ear 
 
 taringa 
 
 
 toka 
 
 Eye 
 
 kanohi 
 
 
 nganga 
 
 
 kara 
 
 Bird 
 
 manu 
 
 Mouth 
 
 mangai 
 
 Fish 
 
 ika 
 
 
 waha 
 
 
 ngohi. 
 
 
 mawhera 
 
 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS VOCABULARIES. 
 
 (!•) 
 
 English. 
 
 Rotiinia. 
 
 English. 
 
 Rotuma. 
 
 Woman 
 
 hani 
 
 Eye 
 
 matho 
 
 Head 
 
 thilu 
 
 Mouth 
 
 nutsu 
 
 Ear 
 
 thalinga 
 
 Blood 
 
 toto 
 
 Tooth 
 
 ala 
 
 Sun 
 
 asa 
 
 Tongue 
 
 alele 
 
 Day 
 
 asa 
 
 Foot 
 
 afthia 
 
 Moon 
 
 hula 
 
 Nose 
 
 isu 
 
 Star 
 
 hethu 
 
 Beard 
 
 kumkum 
 
 Fire 
 
 rahi 
 
 Hair 
 
 levu 
 
 Water 
 
 vai 
 
326 
 
 J 
 
 English 
 
 
 
 Rotunia. 
 
 English. 
 
 Rotuma. 
 
 Water 
 
 (salt) 
 
 sias 
 
 Three 
 
 
 (fresh) 
 
 tan 
 
 Four 
 
 hake 
 
 Stone 
 
 
 
 hathu 
 
 Five 
 
 lima 
 
 Bird 
 
 
 
 Tna.nmanu 
 
 'Six 
 
 
 ^99 
 
 
 
 kalodhi 
 
 Seven 
 
 hithu 
 
 Fish 
 
 
 
 ia 
 
 Eight 
 
 valu 
 
 One 
 
 
 
 esea 
 
 Nine 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ta 
 
 Ten 
 
 pohe 
 
 Two 
 
 
 
 
 
 sanghulu 
 
 (2.) 
 
 English. 
 
 Ticopia. 
 
 English. 
 
 Ticopia. 
 
 Man 
 
 tanhata 
 
 Ear 
 
 tarinha 
 
 Woman 
 
 fefinetapti 
 
 Sun 
 
 lera 
 
 Bea/rd 
 
 tarafa 
 
 Moon 
 
 marama 
 
 Mmth 
 
 nhutu 
 
 Star 
 
 fetu 
 
 Arm 
 
 lima 
 
 Fire 
 
 afi 
 
 Head 
 
 ulu 
 
 Water 
 
 vai 
 
 Hair 
 
 raulu 
 
 Sea 
 
 moana 
 
 Tooth 
 
 nifo 
 
 Fish 
 
 ika 
 
 Blood 
 
 kefo 
 
 Milk 
 
 vaiu 
 
 Tongue 
 
 lelo 
 
 Egg 
 
 fouai 
 
 Nose 
 
 issu 
 
 Bird 
 
 manu 
 
 Eye 
 
 mata 
 
 Stone 
 
 fatu. 
 
 (3.) 
 
 EngUsh. 
 
 Cocos Island. 
 
 English. 
 
 Cocos Island 
 
 Eyes 
 
 matta 
 
 Moon 
 
 massina 
 
 Nose 
 
 esou 
 
 Star 
 
 fittou 
 
 Hair 
 
 urug 
 
 One 
 
 taei 
 
 Teeth 
 
 nifo 
 
 Two 
 
 loa 
 
 Hand 
 
 fatinga-lima 
 
 Three 
 
 tolou 
 
 Fire 
 
 umu 
 
 Fow 
 
 fa 
 
 Water 
 
 waij 
 
 Five 
 
 lima 
 
 Earth 
 
 kiUe 
 
 Six 
 
 houno 
 
 Stone 
 
 fattou 
 
 Seven 
 
 filou 
 
 Swine 
 
 wacka 
 
 Eight 
 
 waJo 
 
 Bird 
 
 Ufa 
 
 Nine 
 
 ywou 
 
 Fish 
 
 ica 
 
 Ten 
 
 ongefoula. 
 
 Sun 
 
 la 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
POLYNESIA. 
 
 327 
 
 (4.) 
 
 English. 
 
 Wahitaho. 
 
 English. 
 
 Waliitaha 
 
 Head 
 
 houpoco 
 
 Star 
 
 ehani 
 
 Eye 
 
 matta 
 
 One 
 
 tahi 
 
 Nose 
 
 hihou 
 
 Two 
 
 houah 
 
 Tongue 
 
 houhoho 
 
 Three 
 
 tohou 
 
 Tooth 
 
 niho 
 
 Four 
 
 fah 
 
 Hand 
 
 mana 
 
 Five 
 
 himali 
 
 Dead 
 
 matte 
 
 Six 
 
 bono 
 
 Swine 
 
 boaca 
 
 Seven 
 
 fetto 
 
 Fish 
 
 eatou 
 
 Eight 
 
 vabo 
 
 
 ehika 
 
 Nine 
 
 hiva 
 
 Sun 
 
 eha 
 
 Ten 
 
 onohohou. 
 
 Moon 
 
 oumati 
 
 
 
 
 (5.) ■ 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Mayorga. 
 
 English. 
 
 Mayorga. 
 
 Head 
 
 hulu 
 
 One 
 
 taha 
 
 Lye 
 
 mata 
 
 Two 
 
 hua 
 
 Nose 
 
 yhiu 
 
 Three 
 
 tolu 
 
 Tongue 
 
 loulu 
 
 Four 
 
 fa 
 
 Tooth 
 
 nifu 
 
 Five 
 
 nima 
 
 Hand 
 
 afi-nema 
 
 Six 
 
 ono 
 
 Dead 
 
 matte 
 
 Seven 
 
 fito 
 
 Water 
 
 bay 
 
 EigJU 
 
 fatu 
 
 Earth 
 
 yuta 
 
 Nine 
 
 giba (?) 
 
 Swine 
 
 pauca 
 
 Ten 
 
 tongoa-fulu. 
 
 Egg 
 
 tomoa 
 
 
 
 (6.) 
 
 English. 
 
 Paumotu. 
 
 EngUsh. 
 
 Paumotu. 
 
 Man 
 
 hakoi 
 
 Sea 
 
 takarari 
 
 Woman 
 
 erire 
 
 Fire 
 
 neki 
 
 Head 
 
 penu 
 
 Water 
 
 komo 
 
 Tongue 
 
 mangee 
 
 Wind 
 
 rohaki 
 
 Bone 
 
 keingi 
 
 Fish 
 
 paru 
 
 Moon 
 
 kawake 
 
 Tree 
 
 moboki. 
 
 Rain 
 
 toite 
 
 
 
 The practice of extending the tabu to words is 
 Polynesian : e. g., when a chief dies the use of such 
 terms as are either identical with, or similar to, his 
 name is forbidden. There is also, in the larger islands, 
 
328 POLYNESIA. 
 
 a kind of ceremonial language. That these are artificial 
 elements is plain. They are elements, however, of which 
 most languages show either the rudiments or the frag- 
 ments. 
 
 In Basque we have a ceremonial conjugation. In 
 South America there is more than one language where 
 the women use one word, the men another ; a fact 
 which has been exaggerated into a pair of languages 
 (one for each sex), with an explanatory hypothesis to 
 match. 
 
 Bating, however, the facts of this kind, the Polyne- 
 sian dialects are those wherein the artificial element is 
 at zero. It is but lately that they have been written at 
 all : nor were they, before the introduction of the pre- 
 sent missionary influences, in either direct or indirect 
 contact with any languages more cultivated than them- 
 selves. For the phenomena, then, of a thoroughly 
 natural and spontaneous development they are materials 
 of pre-eminent value. 
 
NEW GUmKA. 329 
 
 CHAPTER L. 
 
 The Papua Class.— Guebe, &c. — New Guinea.— New Ireland, &c., to 
 New Caledonia. 
 
 In making the Malay division end at Cerara, and the 
 Papua begin at Guebe, I chiefly consult convenience ; 
 inasmuch as, along the line of contact, there are notable 
 signs of transition. 
 
 From the small Archipelago, at the north-western 
 extremity of New Guinea, and from New Guinea itself, 
 the line of Papua languages runs south and south-east, 
 via New Britannia, New Hanover, New Ireland, the 
 Solomon Islands, &c., Malhcollo, Erromango, Tana, Erro- 
 nan, Annatom, to New Caledonia. The Louisiade Archi- 
 pelago is also Papua ; as are the islands in Torres 
 Straits — i. e. they are Papua rather than Australian. 
 Twenty years ago, the languages of this class were all 
 but unknown, not one of them having ever been re- 
 duced to writing, or even learned by an educated Euro- 
 pean. That no Hollander ever spoke any of the dialects 
 of the north-western coast of New Guinea cannot in- 
 deed be asserted unconditionally — though the doctrine 
 de non apparentihus, kc, suggests that such was the 
 case. Nothing, however, of any importance concerning 
 them was communicated to the world at large. Of the 
 Tana language, a MS. grammar by Mr. Heath had 
 been inspected by Dr. Prichard, who stated that 
 the language which it represented differed entirely from 
 
330 
 
 GUEBE AND WAIGIU. 
 
 the Polynesian. It abounded with inflections, and had 
 a peculiar form by which three persons were spoken 
 of — a form distinct from the dual, and distinct from 
 the plural, a form for which the term trinal was sug- 
 gested. 
 
 The little knowledge involved in these fragmentary 
 facts, created a tendency to put a high ordinal value on 
 the characteristics of the Papua grammar ; a value in 
 which there is, probably, a certain amount of exaggera- 
 tion. 
 
 Beginning with the language of the small island of Que- 
 he, which lies somewhat nearer to Gilolo than to New 
 Guinea, we find in the following vocabulary, at least, a 
 notable difference between it and the Waigiu spoken 
 immediately under the Equator and within sight of the 
 mainland of New Guinea itself 
 
 English. 
 
 Gueb6. 
 
 WaigW. 
 
 Man 
 
 syniat 
 
 
 Woman 
 
 pine 
 
 
 Head 
 
 kouto 
 
 kagala 
 
 Eye 
 
 tarn 
 
 
 *EyeB{'t) 
 
 tadji 
 
 jadjiemouri 
 
 Nose 
 
 kassugnor 
 
 soun 
 
 Mouth 
 
 kapiour 
 
 ganganini 
 
 Lips 
 
 kapiondjais 
 
 
 Teeth 
 
 kapiondji 
 
 onalini 
 
 *Tongue 
 
 mamalo 
 
 
 Ear 
 
 kassegna 
 
 
 Cheek 
 
 affoffo 
 
 
 Beard 
 
 ajangout 
 
 gangafoni 
 
 Hair 
 
 kalignouni 
 
 
 Neck 
 
 kokor 
 
 
 Belly 
 
 siahoro 
 
 synani 
 
 Arm 
 
 kamer 
 
 kapiani 
 
 Hand 
 
 fadlor 
 
 konkafeni 
 
 Back 
 
 
 kouaneteni 
 
 Foot 
 
 
 kourgnai 
 
 Shin, 
 
 kinot 
 
 rip 
 
 Swn 
 
 astouol 
 
 
 *Fire 
 
 ap 
 
 
 Sea 
 
 tasfi 
 
 
 ^' 
 

 PORT DOREY. 
 
 English. 
 
 Gueb6. 
 
 * Water (fresh) 
 
 aer omissi 
 
 *Bird 
 
 mani 
 
 *Fish 
 
 hin 
 
 One 
 
 pissa 
 
 Tioo 
 
 pilou 
 
 Three 
 
 pitoul 
 
 Four 
 
 piflfat 
 
 Five 
 
 pileme 
 
 Six 
 
 pounnoun 
 
 Seven 
 
 piffit 
 
 Eight 
 
 poual 
 
 Nine 
 
 pissiou 
 
 Ten ' 
 
 otsha 
 
 831 
 
 WaigilL 
 
 The Papuan Proper is chiefly known from the parts 
 about Port Dorey ; where the first of the following vo- 
 cabularies was collected by Forrest, as early as a.d. 
 1774-1776. 
 
 English. 
 
 Papuan. 
 
 Arago. 
 
 Man 
 
 sononman 
 
 snone 
 
 Woman 
 
 binn 
 
 biene 
 
 Head 
 
 
 vrouri 
 
 Eye 
 
 
 tadeni 
 
 
 
 grarour 
 
 Mouth 
 
 
 soidon 
 
 Tooth 
 
 
 nacoere 
 
 Tongue 
 
 
 ramare 
 
 Ear 
 
 
 kanik 
 
 Hand 
 
 
 konef 
 
 Ai'm 
 
 
 
 bramine 
 
 Leg 
 
 
 oizof 
 
 Foot 
 
 
 oibahene 
 
 Blood 
 
 
 riki 
 
 Day 
 
 
 ari 
 
 Sun 
 
 rass 
 
 rias 
 
 Moon 
 
 hyck 
 
 
 Star 
 
 mak 
 
 
 Fire 
 
 for 
 
 afor 
 
 Water 
 
 war 
 
 ouar 
 
 {salt) 
 
 warmassin 
 
 
 (sweet) 
 
 warimassin 
 
 
 Fiver 
 
 warbike 
 
 
 Sea 
 
 
 sorene 
 
 Fain 
 
 
 meker 
 
 Fish 
 
332 
 
 PORT DOREY, ETC. 
 
 English. 
 
 Papuan. 
 
 Arago, 
 
 Bird 
 
 moorsankeen 
 
 man (?) 
 
 
 
 bourore 
 
 Hog 
 
 ben 
 
 baine 
 
 Tree 
 
 kaibus 
 
 
 House 
 
 rome 
 
 rouma 
 
 Egg 
 
 
 bolor 
 
 
 
 samoure 
 
 Hill • 
 
 bon 
 
 
 Sand 
 
 yean 
 
 iene 
 
 White 
 
 pepoper 
 
 
 Black 
 
 pyssin 
 
 
 One 
 
 oser 
 
 ossa 
 
 Two 
 
 serou 
 
 serou 
 
 Three 
 
 keor 
 
 keor 
 
 Four 
 
 tiak 
 
 tiak, nal 
 
 Five 
 
 rim 
 
 rime 
 
 Six 
 
 onim 
 
 oneme 
 
 Seven 
 
 tik 
 
 sik, fik 
 
 Eight 
 
 war 
 
 Guar 
 
 Nine 
 
 siore 
 
 siore 
 
 Ten 
 
 samfoor 
 
 samefou] 
 
 Taking the numerals as a test, the Archipelago and 
 the neighbourhood of Port Dorey give a multiplicity 
 of sub-dialects. 
 
 (1.) 
 
 English. 
 
 Aiopin, 
 
 Tandia. 
 
 Dasen. 
 
 One 
 
 wosio 
 
 nai 
 
 joser 
 
 Two 
 
 woroe-o 
 
 roesi 
 
 socroe 
 
 Three 
 
 woro 
 
 toeroesi 
 
 toroe 
 
 Fmr 
 
 woako 
 
 attesi 
 
 ati 
 
 Five 
 
 rimo 
 
 marasi 
 
 rembi 
 
 Six 
 
 rimo-wosie 
 
 marasimge 
 
 rimbi-oser 
 
 Ten 
 
 sagoero 
 
 (2-) 
 
 oetiu 
 
 arisa. 
 
 English. 
 
 Jower. 
 
 Wandamin, 
 
 Arfak. 
 
 One 
 
 re-be 
 
 siri 
 
 woam 
 
 Two 
 
 re-doe 
 
 mondo 
 
 jan 
 
 Three 
 
 re-oe 
 
 toro 
 
 kar 
 
 Four 
 
 re-a 
 
 at 
 
 tar 
 
 Five 
 
 brai-a-re 
 
 rim 
 
 maswar 
 
 Six 
 
 brai-a-rebe 
 
 rimmasiri 
 
 kaswar 
 
 Ten 
 
 brai-a-redoe 
 
 rimmasoerat 
 
 marswar. 
 
NEW GUINEA. 
 
 833 
 
 (3.) 
 
 English. 
 
 
 Omar. 
 
 
 Insam. 
 
 
 Amberbaki. 
 
 One 
 
 
 kotim 
 
 
 keteh 
 
 
 toe 
 
 Two 
 
 
 redis 
 
 
 roesi 
 
 
 ker 
 
 Three 
 
 
 etirom 
 
 
 korisi 
 
 
 noer 
 
 Four 
 
 
 eat 
 
 
 aka 
 
 
 boat 
 
 Five 
 
 
 matisi 
 
 
 rima 
 
 
 mer 
 
 Six 
 
 
 kolim 
 
 
 keteh 
 
 
 ebetoe 
 
 Ten 
 
 
 maptides 
 
 boeki, roesi 
 
 
 onger. 
 
 
 
 
 (4.) 
 
 
 
 
 EngUsh. 
 
 Karon. 
 
 
 Pome. 
 
 Seroci. 
 
 
 Moor. 
 
 One 
 
 dik 
 
 
 korii 
 
 bo-iri 
 
 
 tata 
 
 Two 
 
 we 
 
 
 koiroe 
 
 bo-roe 
 
 
 roeroe 
 
 Three 
 
 gre 
 
 
 toro 
 
 bo-toro 
 
 
 oro 
 
 Fowr 
 
 at 
 
 
 at 
 
 bo-ab 
 
 
 ao 
 
 Five 
 
 mik 
 
 
 rim 
 
 rim 
 
 
 rimo 
 
 Six 
 
 mak 
 
 
 ona 
 
 boiri-kori 
 
 i. 
 
 rimo-tata 
 
 Seven 
 
 fret 
 
 
 itoe 
 
 bor-kori 
 
 
 roeroe 
 
 Eight 
 
 ongo 
 
 
 waro 
 
 botd-kori 
 
 
 oro 
 
 Nine 
 
 masiwo 
 
 
 isioe 
 
 boa-kori 
 
 
 ao 
 
 Ten 
 
 mesoe 
 
 
 awrali 
 
 (5.) 
 
 soerat 
 
 
 toverah. 
 
 
 Hillmen 
 
 , to the West 
 
 
 
 
 
 of Amsterdam, 
 
 and 
 
 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Middleburgh 
 
 I. 
 
 Ron. 
 
 Beak & Mefur. 
 
 One 
 
 
 inele 
 
 
 joser 
 
 
 sai 
 
 Two 
 
 
 ali 
 
 
 noeroe 
 
 
 doei 
 
 Three 
 
 
 told 
 
 
 'ngo-kor 
 
 
 kior 
 
 Four 
 
 
 fak 
 
 
 fak 
 
 
 fiak 
 
 Five 
 
 
 mafoek 
 
 
 lim 
 
 
 lim 
 
 Six. 
 
 
 maflenene 
 
 onim 
 
 
 onim 
 
 Seven 
 
 
 ane mele 
 
 onememaeroe 
 
 tiek 
 
 Eight 
 
 
 ali 
 
 
 onemegnokor 
 
 war 
 
 Nine 
 
 
 tolo 
 
 
 onenfak 
 
 
 slew 
 
 Ten 
 
 
 feh 
 
 (6.) 
 
 onemerim 
 
 
 samfor. 
 
 English. 
 
 
 Ansoes. 
 
 Salawatti. 
 
 One 
 
 
 
 koiri 
 
 
 sa 
 
 
 Two 
 
 
 
 korisi 
 
 
 roe 
 
 
 Three 
 
 
 todoe 
 
 
 tor 
 
 
 Four 
 
 
 
 moano 
 
 
 fat 
 
 
 Five 
 
 
 
 di 
 
 
 rim 
 
 
 Six 
 
 
 
 wona 
 
 
 onim 
 
 
 Seven 
 
 '/ 
 
 
 itoe 
 
 
 fiet 
 
 
 Eight 
 
 
 
 India toro 
 
 war 
 
 
 Nine 
 
 
 
 india ato 
 
 
 si 
 
 
 Ten 
 
 
 
 hoera 
 
 
 lafa. 
 
 
334 
 
 t 
 
 NEW GUINEA. 
 
 
 Che following vocabularies are from the south and 
 
 it, being chiefly spoken on the coast. 
 
 
 English. 
 
 
 Loho. 
 
 Utatanata. 
 
 Man 
 
 
 marrowane 
 
 marrowane 
 
 Woman 
 
 
 mawinna 
 
 
 CheeTcs 
 
 
 wafiwiriongo 
 
 awanu 
 
 Eyes 
 
 
 matatongo 
 
 mame 
 
 ■ Hand 
 
 
 nimangouta 
 
 toemare 
 
 Head 
 
 
 umun 
 
 oepauw 
 
 Arms 
 
 
 nimango 
 
 too 
 
 Bach 
 
 
 rasukongo 
 
 urimi 
 
 Belly 
 
 
 kamborongo 
 
 imau 
 
 Foot 
 
 
 kaingo 
 
 mouw 
 
 Hair 
 
 
 monongfuru 
 
 oeirie 
 
 Mouth 
 
 
 oriengo 
 
 irie 
 
 Nose 
 
 
 sikacongo 
 
 birimboe 
 
 Neck 
 
 
 garang 
 
 ema 
 
 Tongue 
 
 
 kariongo 
 
 mare 
 
 Teeth 
 
 
 riwotongo 
 
 titi 
 
 Sun 
 
 
 orak 
 
 
 Watei- 
 
 
 malar 
 
 warini 
 
 Rain 
 
 
 ■ komak 
 
 komak 
 
 River 
 
 
 ■walar nabetik 
 
 warari napettike 
 
 Bird 
 
 
 manoe 
 
 
 Hog 
 
 
 bui 
 
 oe 
 
 Island 
 
 
 nusu 
 
 
 Tree 
 
 
 akajuakar 
 
 kai 
 
 Bow 
 
 
 
 amure. 
 
 English. 
 
 Triton Bay 
 
 Mairassis. 
 
 Onim. 
 
 Man 
 
 marowana 
 
 iohanouw 
 
 
 Head 
 
 monongo 
 
 nangoewoe 
 
 onimpatiu 
 
 Hair 
 
 monongfoero nangoekatoe 
 
 ampoewa 
 
 Eye 
 
 matatongc 
 
 > namboetoe 
 
 matapatin 
 
 Nose 
 
 sikaiongo 
 
 nambi 
 
 wirin 
 
 Mouth 
 
 oriengo 
 
 naros 
 
 soeman 
 
 Tooth 
 
 roewatongo sifa 
 
 Tiifin 
 
 Hand 
 
 nimangoeta okorwita 
 
 
 
 Foot 
 
 
 
 nimin kaki 
 
 Sun 
 
 orah 
 
 ongoerah 
 
 rera 
 
 Moon 
 
 foeran 
 
 foeran 
 
 poenono 
 
 Earth 
 
 ena 
 
 gengena 
 
 gai 
 
 Fire 
 
 iworo 
 
 api 
 
 
 Water 
 
 walar 
 
 wata 
 
 weari. 
 
 For the islands of Torres Straits, viz. : the Darnly 
 
THE LOUISIAPE ARCHIPELAGO. 
 
 335 
 
 Islands (Erroob and Maer) and the Murray Islands, 
 vocabularies in the appendix to Juke's Voyage of the 
 Fly give somewhat full specimens. The tables in which 
 they appear show the difference between the South 
 Papua and the North Australian. It is a difference, 
 however, which is easily exaggerated; as in the first 
 seventeen words we find the following coincidences. 
 
 English. 
 
 Papua. 
 
 Australian. 
 
 Chech 
 
 bag 
 
 bag 
 
 Eye 
 
 iUcap 
 
 danacap 
 
 Eyelid 
 
 illcamush 
 
 
 Eyelash 
 
 
 dammuclie 
 
 Ear 
 
 gereep 
 
 coora 
 
 Nose 
 
 peet 
 
 peecbi. 
 
 The collective name for the Erroob, Maer, and Massied 
 forms of speech is Miriam. 
 
 The Redscar Bay, Dufaure Island, and Brumer Island 
 dialects are known through the vocabularies of the 
 Rattlesnake, collected by Macgillivray. They are allied 
 to each other — the latter being very closely allied to 
 the Duchateau Island of the Calvados, and the Brierly 
 Island of the Louisiade, group. 
 
 English. 
 
 Erroob. 
 
 Redscar Bay. 
 
 Man 
 
 kaimeer 
 
 tau 
 
 
 laminar 
 
 
 Woman 
 
 koskeer 
 
 
 
 mada 
 
 ahine 
 
 Child 
 
 kabelli 
 
 mero 
 
 Head 
 
 kerim 
 
 kwara 
 
 Eye 
 
 irkeep 
 
 mata 
 
 Ear 
 
 laip 
 
 taiya 
 
 
 peU 
 
 
 
 gereep 
 
 
 Nose 
 
 peet 
 
 uda 
 
 Mouth 
 
 nuga 
 
 tae 
 
 meet 
 
 maa 
 
 Lips 
 
 pipina 
 
 Teeth 
 
 tirreg 
 
 isi 
 
 Tongue 
 
 werrut 
 
 mala 
 
336 
 
 NEW IRELAND. 
 
 English. 
 
 Erroob. 
 
 Redscar Bay. 
 
 Hair 
 
 moos 
 
 hui 
 
 Neck 
 
 perreg 
 
 
 Hand 
 
 tag 
 
 ima 
 
 Foot, or Leg 
 
 taertar 
 
 
 
 gab 
 
 
 Blood 
 
 mam 
 
 
 Sky 
 
 baz 
 
 garewa 
 
 Sun 
 
 gegger 
 
 mahana 
 
 Moon 
 
 maeb 
 
 nowarai 
 
 Star ' 
 
 waer 
 
 
 Fire 
 
 lira 
 
 kaiwa 
 
 Water {fresh) 
 
 nea 
 
 goila 
 
 {salt) 
 
 goor 
 
 arita 
 
 Stone 
 
 bakeer 
 
 weu 
 
 Wind 
 
 wag 
 
 
 Sea 
 
 carrem 
 
 
 Sand 
 
 wae 
 
 geragera 
 
 Tree 
 
 igger 
 
 
 I 
 
 cai 
 
 
 Mine 
 
 cara 
 
 
 Thou 
 
 ma 
 
 
 Your 
 
 mara 
 
 
 One 
 
 netat 
 
 ta 
 
 Two 
 
 naes 
 
 ma 
 
 Three 
 
 naesa netat 
 
 toi 
 
 Four 
 
 
 bani 
 
 Five 
 
 
 ima. 
 
 Here we leave the southern, and returning to the 
 parts about Waigiti, follow the northern, eastern, or 
 north-eastern line. 
 
 English. 
 
 New Ireland. 
 
 Port Praslin. 
 
 Head 
 
 ptikltik 
 
 
 
 Ear 
 
 pralenbek 
 
 palalignai 
 
 Eye 
 
 matak 
 
 mata 
 
 Hair 
 
 iuk 
 
 epiu 
 
 Bea/rd 
 
 kambissek 
 
 katissende 
 
 Nose 
 
 kambussuk 
 
 mbussu 
 
 Mouth 
 
 lok 
 
 mlo 
 
 Tooth 
 
 insek 
 
 ninissai 
 
 Tongue 
 
 karmea 
 
 kermea 
 
 Arm 
 
 limak 
 
 
 Finger 
 
 oulima 
 
 lima 
 
 Neck 
 
 kondaruak 
 
 kindurua 
 
 Back 
 
 taruk 
 
 plaru 
 
THE SOLOMON ISLES. 
 
 337 
 
 English. 
 
 New Ireland. 
 
 Port Praslin. 
 
 Foot 
 
 balankeke 
 
 pekendi 
 
 Sun 
 
 kamiss 
 
 
 Moon 
 
 
 kalan 
 
 Fire 
 
 
 bia 
 
 Water 
 
 malum 
 
 molum 
 
 Sea 
 
 
 bun 
 
 Bird 
 
 manuk 
 
 
 Fish 
 
 siss 
 
 sis. 
 
 Bauro, or San Christoval, along with Guadalcanar, 
 belongs to the Solomon Islands. The Rev. J. Patteson's 
 First Attempt in the Bauro Language gives us our ma- 
 terials, which consist of the Lord's Prayer, two short 
 prayers, and a catechism concerning the Fall of Man 
 and his Redemption. 
 
 English. 
 
 Bam-o. 
 
 English. 
 
 Bauro. 
 
 Man (homo) 
 
 inone 
 
 SJcy 
 
 aro 
 
 (vir) 
 
 sai 
 
 Moon 
 
 hura 
 
 Woman 
 
 urao 
 
 Water 
 
 wai 
 
 Hand 
 
 rima 
 
 House 
 
 oma 
 
 Day 
 
 dangi 
 
 Tree 
 
 hasiai. 
 
 English. 
 
 Guadalcanar. 
 
 English. 
 
 Guadalcanar 
 
 Man (Jiomo) 
 
 inoni 
 
 Sit 
 
 tooru 
 
 {vir) 
 
 mane 
 
 I 
 
 inau 
 
 Woman 
 
 kene 
 
 Thou 
 
 io 
 
 Father 
 
 amma 
 
 He : 
 
 ia 
 
 Son 
 
 gare 
 
 Thine 
 
 amu 
 
 Child 
 
 mare 
 
 His 
 
 ana 
 
 Good 
 
 siene 
 
 One 
 
 tai 
 
 Bad 
 
 tos 
 
 Txm 
 
 arua 
 
 Die 
 
 mai 
 
 Three 
 
 oi-u. 
 
 Hear 
 
 noro 
 
 
 
 In Vanikoro, three languages are spoken. 
 
 English. 
 
 Vanikoro. 
 
 Tanema. 
 
 Taneanxu. 
 
 Man 
 
 lamoka 
 
 ranuka 
 
 amualigo 
 
 Woman 
 
 verume 
 
 ranime 
 
 vignivi 
 
 Beard 
 
 tingtime 
 
 kole 
 
 vingumia 
 
 Arm 
 
 me 
 
 menini 
 
 maini 
 
 Tooth 
 
 ugne 
 
 kole 
 
 indzhe 
 Z 
 
338 
 
 THE NEW HEBRIDES. 
 
 English. 
 
 Vanikoro. 
 
 
 
 Tanema. 
 
 Taneamu. 
 
 Mouth 
 
 ugrenili 
 
 
 
 
 Tongue 
 
 mea 
 
 
 mia 
 
 mimiae 
 
 Hair 
 
 wennbadzha 
 
 valanbadzha valanbadzha 
 
 Bach 
 
 dienhane 
 
 
 delenana 
 
 diene 
 
 Leg 
 
 kelenili 
 
 
 alenini 
 
 aeleda 
 
 Moon 
 
 mele 
 
 
 
 
 Fire 
 
 nebie 
 
 
 gnava 
 
 iaua 
 
 Water 
 
 wire 
 
 
 nira 
 
 ero. 
 
 The next 
 
 1 ^-vT%^«i y^ r\n 
 
 two vocabularies are 
 
 from the Ne\ 
 
 leDnaes. 
 
 
 (1.) 
 
 
 
 EugUsh. 
 
 MaUicoUo. 
 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Mamcollo. 
 
 Man (homo) 
 
 nebok 
 
 
 
 Bird 
 
 moero 
 
 (vir) 
 
 bauenunk 
 
 
 
 Fish 
 
 heika 
 
 Woman 
 
 rambaiuk 
 
 
 
 One 
 
 sikai 
 
 
 rabin 
 
 
 
 Two 
 
 e-na 
 
 Father 
 
 aramomau 
 
 
 
 Three 
 
 e-roi 
 
 Child 
 
 urare 
 
 
 
 Four 
 
 e-vatz 
 
 Head 
 
 basaine 
 
 
 
 Five 
 
 e-rima 
 
 Eye 
 
 maitang 
 
 
 
 Six 
 
 su-kai 
 
 Ear 
 
 talingan 
 
 
 
 Seven 
 
 whi-u 
 
 Tooth 
 
 rebohn 
 
 
 
 Eight 
 
 oroi 
 
 
 warrewuk 
 
 
 
 Nine 
 
 wbi-vatz 
 
 Nose 
 
 noossun 
 
 
 
 Ten 
 
 singeap. 
 
 Hair 
 
 membrun baitang 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (20 
 
 
 
 EngUsh. 
 
 Tana. 
 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Tana. 
 
 Man 
 
 aremana 
 
 
 
 Sea 
 
 tasi 
 
 Woman 
 
 peran 
 
 
 
 Good 
 
 niasan 
 
 Father 
 
 rumune 
 
 
 
 
 aumasan 
 
 Son 
 
 mati 
 
 
 
 
 ratutakat 
 
 Body 
 
 nupuran 
 
 
 
 Bad 
 
 ellaha 
 
 Heart 
 
 reren 
 
 
 
 Holy 
 
 ekenan 
 
 Sun 
 
 mere 
 
 
 
 Great 
 
 asori 
 
 Moon 
 
 maukua 
 
 
 
 Many 
 
 repuk 
 
 Bird 
 
 manu 
 
 
 
 Eat 
 
 ani 
 
 Fish 
 
 namu 
 
 
 
 Speah 
 
 mani 
 
 Tree 
 
 nei 
 
 
 
 
 mankeari 
 
 Fire 
 
 nap 
 
 
 
 Hear 
 
 matareg. 
 
 Earth 
 
 tana 
 
 
 
 
 
 The Gospel of St. Luke in Annatom was published 
 in 1852, by the Rev. J. Geddie ; and in 1853, that 
 of St. Mark in Sydney. These, along with other 
 external confluences, have introduced — 
 
ANNATOM. 
 
 339 
 
 From the Oi^eelc. 
 
 
 Agelo 
 
 angel 
 
 Areto 
 
 bread 
 
 Apeitome 
 
 circumcision 
 
 From the English. 
 
 
 Slip 
 
 sheep 
 
 Flaur 
 
 flour 
 
 Mint 
 
 mint 
 
 Waina 
 
 idne 
 
 Mune 
 
 money 
 
 Wik 
 
 week 
 
 English. 
 
 Annatom. 
 
 Man 
 
 atimi 
 
 Husband 
 
 atumnya 
 
 Wife 
 
 ehgai 
 
 Woman 
 
 takata 
 
 Head 
 
 nepek 
 
 Hair 
 
 iimri idjini 
 
 Eye 
 
 esganimtai 
 
 Ear 
 
 intikgan 
 
 Nose 
 
 ingedje 
 
 Mouth 
 
 nipjineucse 
 
 Tongue 
 
 naniai 
 
 Tooth 
 
 nijin 
 
 Band 
 
 ikma 
 
 Finger 
 
 nupsikma 
 
 Foot 
 
 eduon 
 
 Blood 
 
 unja 
 
 Sky 
 
 nohatag 
 
 Aprofeta 
 
 Sito 
 
 Baptizo 
 
 Pigad 
 
 Leven 
 
 Ru 
 
 Kot 
 
 Apalse 
 
 English. 
 
 Day 
 
 Sun 
 
 Moon 
 
 Star 
 
 God 
 
 Wind 
 
 Rain 
 
 Fire 
 
 Water 
 
 Sea 
 
 Stone 
 
 Land 
 
 Rock 
 
 mil 
 
 Dog 
 Bird 
 Fish 
 
 prophet 
 
 wheat 
 
 baptize. 
 
 peg 
 
 leaven 
 
 rue 
 
 coat 
 
 palsy. 
 
 Annatom. 
 adiat 
 
 mahoc 
 
 moijeuw 
 
 Atua 
 
 nimtinjop 
 
 incopda 
 
 caup 
 
 wai 
 
 unjop 
 
 hat 
 
 otohtan 
 
 lo-la eduon 
 kuri 
 man 
 mu. 
 
 With the Polynesian and Malayan languages in gene- 
 ral, the Annatom has, at least, the following words in 
 common — 
 
 English. 
 
 Annatom. 
 
 
 Water 
 
 wai 
 
 wai — Ende 
 
 Fire 
 
 caup 
 
 api — Gu^e 
 
 Bird 
 
 man 
 
 mani — Guebt 
 
 Tooth 
 
 nijin 
 
 nihi — Ende 
 
 Foot 
 
 eduai 
 
 Idi — Bima 
 
 Die 
 
 mas 
 
 mati — Malay 
 
 House 
 
 eom 
 
 umah — Javanese 
 
 One 
 
 ethi 
 
 aida — Timor 
 
 Two 
 
 ero 
 
 erua — Manaioto., t&c. 
 
 God 
 
 Atua 
 
 KlMSi-- Polynesian, d-c. 
 
 z 2 
 
340 
 
 ANNATOM. 
 
 English. 
 
 Hill 
 
 Stone 
 
 Mom 
 
 Hen 
 
 Dog 
 
 Kava 
 
 Annatom. 
 
 eduon 
 
 hat 
 
 atimi 
 
 jaa 
 
 kuri 
 
 wotang — Solor 
 fatu — Timor 
 atoni — Timor 
 jangjang — Macassar 
 kuri — Ticopia 
 kava — Polynesia. 
 
 Words like aJctaJctai, epto, eropse, esvi, inwai, inpas, 
 inridjai, imtak, uctyi, imiisjis, intas, eucjeucjaig, injop, 
 &c., show that the Annatom phonesis is less vocalic than 
 that of the other islands. 
 
 In Erromango there are, at least, two dialects ; 
 apparently three — the third the common language of 
 the island at large, or its central districts. 
 
 
 English. 
 
 
 Northern Dialect. 
 
 Southern Dialect. 
 
 
 Man {homo) 
 
 neteme 
 
 
 yirima 
 
 
 Woman 
 
 
 nasivin 
 
 yarevin 
 
 
 Sky • 
 
 
 unpokop 
 
 nimpokop 
 
 
 Earth 
 
 
 nemap 
 
 
 dena 
 
 
 Sun 
 
 
 nipminen 
 
 umangkam 
 
 
 Moon 
 
 
 itiis 
 
 
 iriis 
 
 
 Star 
 
 
 mose 
 
 
 umse 
 
 
 Sea 
 
 
 t&k 
 
 
 de 
 
 
 HUl 
 
 
 numpur 
 
 numbuwa 
 
 
 Bush 
 
 
 tebutu] 
 
 
 undumburui 
 
 
 Plant 
 
 
 denuok 
 
 
 dokmus 
 
 
 Ood 
 
 
 nobu 
 
 
 uboh 
 
 
 Chief 
 
 
 natA.Tnonok 
 
 yarumne 
 
 
 Father 
 
 
 itemin 
 
 
 rimin 
 
 
 Mother 
 
 
 dinemi 
 
 
 ILnin 
 
 
 W(yrd 
 
 
 nam 
 
 
 novul 
 
 
 Fire 
 
 
 nom 
 
 
 nampevang 
 
 
 Breadfruit 
 
 nimara 
 
 
 nimal 
 
 
 House 
 
 
 nimo 
 
 
 nima 
 
 
 Fruit 
 
 
 nobuwan-ne 
 
 nimil. 
 
 English. 
 
 
 Erromango. 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Erromango 
 
 Man 
 
 
 etemetallam 
 
 
 Yoimger brother abmissai 
 
 
 
 neteme 
 
 
 
 Son 
 
 niteni 
 
 Womom 
 
 
 wasiven 
 nahivin 
 
 
 
 Head 
 Eye 
 
 numpu 
 nimmint 
 
 Father 
 
 
 etemen 
 itemjn 
 
 
 
 Ood 
 Sky 
 
 Nobu 
 pokop 
 
 Mother 
 
 
 dineme 
 
 
 
 Sun 
 
 nitminen 
 
 Wife 
 
 
 retopon 
 
 
 
 Mom 
 
 tais 
 
 Brother 
 
 
 avongsai 
 
 
 
 Star 
 
 masi 
 
THE LOYALTY ISLES. 
 
 341 
 
 English. 
 
 Erromango. 
 
 English. 
 
 Erromango. 
 
 Wind 
 
 mankep 
 
 Hill 
 
 nuinpua 
 
 Fire 
 
 nom 
 
 Stone 
 
 inevat 
 
 Day 
 
 kwaras 
 
 Bird 
 
 menuk 
 
 
 dan 
 
 Fish 
 
 nomn 
 
 NigU 
 
 nimerok 
 
 Tree 
 
 nei 
 
 Earth 
 
 maap 
 
 Fmit 
 
 nobowane 
 
 Sea 
 
 tak 
 
 Leaf 
 
 ankalon 
 
 Water 
 
 nu 
 
 House 
 
 nimua. 
 
 For the language of LifUj a language of the Loyalty 
 group, we have but few data — ^viz., A Book for Boys 
 and Girls ; The Lord's Prayer ; the Creed, Prayers, a 
 Primer (?), A Book for showing the Rule of God ; a few 
 words ; and the numerals. 
 
 English. 
 
 Lifu. 
 
 EngUsh. 
 
 Lifa. 
 
 One 
 
 chas 
 
 Si^ 
 
 chagemen 
 
 Tioo 
 
 luete 
 
 Seven 
 
 luegemen 
 
 Three 
 
 konite 
 
 Eight 
 
 konigemen 
 
 Four 
 
 eketse 
 
 Nine 
 
 ekegemen 
 
 Five 
 
 tipi 
 
 Ten 
 
 luepi. 
 
 It is closely allied to the 
 
 Mare. 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Mare. 
 
 English. 
 
 Mare. 
 
 Man (homo) 
 
 ngome 
 
 Foot 
 
 wata 
 
 (vir) 
 
 chamhani 
 
 
 roata 
 
 Woman 
 
 hmenewe 
 
 Blood 
 
 dra 
 
 Father 
 
 chacha 
 
 God 
 
 Mackaze 
 
 Mother 
 
 ma 
 
 Shy 
 
 dwe 
 
 
 mani 
 
 Sun 
 
 du 
 
 Son 
 
 tei 
 
 Moon 
 
 jekole 
 
 
 tene 
 
 Day 
 
 rane 
 
 Boy 
 
 maichamliane 
 
 Night 
 
 bune 
 
 Child 
 
 wakuku 
 
 Wind 
 
 iengo 
 
 Daughter 
 
 moclienewe 
 
 Fire 
 
 iei 
 
 Brother 
 
 cheluaie 
 
 Water 
 
 wi 
 
 Elder brother 
 
 mama 
 
 Earth 
 
 rawa 
 
 Younger brother achelua 
 
 Hill 
 
 weche 
 
 Eye 
 
 waegogo 
 
 Stone 
 
 ete 
 
 Mouth (lip) 
 
 tubenen-gocho 
 
 Tree 
 
 iene. 
 
 Hand 
 
 ara.Tiine 
 
 
 
 In Xew Caledonia, the language of Cape Queen 
 Charlotte is known under the name of Baladea ; for 
 
342 
 
 NEW CALEDONIA. 
 
 which Gabelentz would substitute the native name 
 Buaura. A small tract published in Rarotonga, in 
 1847, gives us the main materials for this dialect; it 
 consists of passages from the Bible, and either represents 
 the language imperfectly or the language is inadequate 
 to the translation. The sounds of /, ?, ^, and s, are 
 wanting. Many of the roots are monosyllabic ; many, 
 apparently, dissyllabic, the concurrence of consonants 
 being rare. Its proper inflection is of the scantiest. It 
 uses prefixes as weU as sufl^es ; suffixes as well as 
 prefixes. 
 
 English. 
 
 Baladea. 
 
 Man 
 
 ngauere 
 
 
 unie 
 
 Womcm 
 
 vio 
 
 Father 
 
 chicha 
 
 MotJier 
 
 nia 
 
 Child 
 
 vanikor 
 
 Son 
 
 niao 
 
 Daughter 
 
 vanivio 
 
 Hair 
 
 ngo 
 
 Face 
 
 kaua'e 
 
 Eye 
 
 erne 
 
 
 neme 
 
 Eair 
 
 uanea 
 
 Mmith 
 
 uange 
 
 Tongue 
 
 nekune 
 
 Nech 
 
 gouka 
 
 Hand 
 
 imi 
 
 Foot 
 Blood 
 
 inte 
 
 English. 
 
 Baladea. 
 
 God 
 
 Intu 
 
 Shy 
 
 okua 
 
 Srni 
 
 ni 
 
 Bay 
 
 ni 
 
 Moon 
 
 moe 
 
 Star 
 
 veo 
 
 Night 
 
 pune 
 
 Fire 
 
 dadi 
 
 Water 
 
 tei 
 
 Sea 
 
 injo 
 
 Tree 
 
 ngae 
 
 Good 
 
 ade 
 
 Bad 
 
 die 
 
 
 puru 
 
 Great 
 
 akae 
 
 Many (all) 
 
 chapi 
 
 Eat 
 
 ki 
 
 Speah 
 
 ni. 
 
 Compared with the other Oceanic languages it gives- 
 
 English. 
 
 Moon 
 
 Night 
 
 Earth 
 
 Land 
 
 Sea 
 
 Sheep 
 
 Man 
 
 Eye 
 
 Hand 
 
 Baladea. 
 
 moe 
 
 pune 
 
 nu 
 
 nonte 
 
 injo 
 
 mamoe 
 
 unie 
 
 neme 
 
 imi 
 
 mahoc — A nna torn 
 bune — Mare 
 ano — Bauro 
 nonte — Maro 
 injop — Annatom 
 mamoe — Mare 
 inoni — Bauro 
 name — Tana 
 lima — Malay, &c. &c. 
 
NEW CALEDONIA. 
 
 343 
 
 English. 
 
 Baladea. 
 
 
 Blood 
 
 inte 
 
 unja — Annatom 
 
 Name 
 
 vane 
 
 attavanim — Erromam 
 
 Heart 
 
 nue 
 
 mori — Mare 
 
 Kingdom 
 
 toku 
 
 doku — Mare 
 
 House 
 
 tuna 
 
 oma — Bauro 
 
 Clothing 
 
 kui 
 
 kukui — Mare 
 
 High 
 
 toana 
 
 toane — Mare 
 
 Live 
 
 omoro 
 
 amurep— Erroraango. 
 
 The following numerals are from the southern portion 
 of the area under notice : — 
 
 FenvAi 
 
 Oalaio 
 
 Indeni* 
 
 Fonqfono 
 
 Mami 
 
 Twpua 
 
 Fenua 
 
 Galaio 
 
 Indeni 
 
 Fonofono 
 
 Mami 
 
 One 
 
 Two 
 
 Three 
 
 Four 
 
 Five 
 
 touo 
 
 bouiou 
 
 bogo 
 
 mabeo 
 
 kaveri 
 
 '■ tchika 
 
 iou 
 
 too 
 
 djiva 
 
 djini 
 
 tedja 
 
 aH 
 
 adi 
 
 abouai 
 
 naroune 
 
 nenqui 
 
 lelou 
 
 eve 
 
 ouve 
 
 idi 
 
 tat 
 
 loua 
 
 tolou 
 
 fa 
 
 lima 
 
 Six 
 
 Seven 
 
 Eight 
 
 Nine 
 
 Ten 
 
 \ kaveri 
 ( ajouo 
 
 vio 
 
 viro 
 
 reve 
 
 anharou 
 
 tchouo 
 
 timbi 
 
 ta 
 
 toudjo 
 
 nhavi 
 
 teiamoua 
 
 edouma ebouema 
 
 napou 
 
 ekatoa 
 
 1 poulenqui 
 
 polelon 
 
 I pole 
 
 polohoue 
 
 nokolou 
 
 ono 
 
 fitou 
 
 parou 
 
 iva 
 
 kadoua. 
 
 English. 
 
 
 Isle of Pines. 
 
 Yengen. 
 
 
 One 
 
 
 ta 
 
 bets 
 
 
 Two 
 
 
 vo 
 
 heluk 
 
 
 Three 
 
 
 veti 
 
 heyen 
 
 
 Fom 
 
 ^ 
 
 beu 
 
 pobits 
 
 
 Five 
 
 
 tahue 
 
 nim 
 
 
 Six 
 
 
 nota 
 
 nimwet 
 
 
 Seven 
 
 
 nobo 
 
 nimweluk 
 
 Eight 
 
 
 nobeti 
 
 nimweyen 
 
 Nine 
 
 
 nobeu 
 
 nimpobit 
 
 Ten 
 
 
 nokau 
 
 painduk. 
 
 Ueaj though one of the Loyalty Islands, is not 
 
 altogether like the rest of the Papuan districts. Its 
 
 name, even, is foreign ; Uea being the native term for 
 
 Wallis's Island. From this, one of its three languages is 
 
 * Oi Nitendi. 
 
344 UEA, ETC. 
 
 stated to have been introduced ; the present speakers 
 of it being the descendants of settlers of uncertain date. 
 Of the two other forms of speech, one is from New 
 Caledonia the other (that of the following specimen) 
 native. 
 
 Engli8b. 
 
 Uea. 
 
 Englisli. 
 
 Uea. 
 
 One 
 
 pacha 
 
 Six 
 
 Zo-acha 
 
 Two 
 
 lo 
 
 Seven 
 
 Zo-ala 
 
 Three 
 
 kun 
 
 Eight 
 
 Zo-kunn 
 
 Four 
 
 tliak 
 
 Nine 
 
 Zo-thak 
 
 Five 
 
 thabumb 
 
 Ten 
 
 «e-bennete 
 
 In like manner FotuTia, though belonging to the New 
 Hebrides, is Polynesian, rather than Papuan, in speech ; 
 the language being more especially akin to that of 
 Rarotonga. Again — in some parts of Fate^ or Sand- 
 wich Island, a Polynesian dialect is spoken. Thirdly, 
 in Mau, to the north-east of Fate, the people speak the 
 Maori, i. e. the language of New Zealand. 
 
THE FIJI. 345 
 
 CHAPTER LI. 
 
 The Viti, or Fiji, Group.— Its Relations to the Polynesian and the Papua. 
 
 For reasons which will appear in the sequel, the Fiji or 
 Viti is given in a chapter by itself. 
 
 The Fiji or Viti Archipelago extends from 1 6° to 2° 
 S. L. and fr'om 177° to 182° W. L. The islands them- 
 selves amount to more than 200 : of which not less 
 than 100 are inhabited. Yanua Levu and Viti Levu 
 are supposed to contain 40,000 individuals each. The 
 remaining population, spread over the smaller islands, 
 may amount to 90,000 more. The language, however, 
 is the same throughout : though dialects and sub-dia- 
 lects are to be expected. The chief of these are those of 
 Lakemba, or the Windward Islands, Somosomo, Vewa, 
 Inbau, and Rewa. 
 
 The following list, from Gabelentz, shows the extent 
 to which its vocabulary agrees with the Malay and Poly- 
 nesian. 
 
 English. 
 
 Shj 
 
 Moon 
 
 Clouds 
 
 Fain 
 
 Storm 
 
 Wind 
 
 East Wind 
 
 Lightning 
 
 Flame 
 
 Night 
 
 Fiji. 
 
 Malay and Polynesian. 
 
 lagi 
 
 p. langi, m. langit 
 
 vula 
 
 m. bulan 
 
 
 
 p. ao, m. awan 
 
 uca 
 
 p. usa, m. ujan 
 
 cava 
 
 p. afa, awa 
 
 cagi 
 
 p. angi, m. angin 
 
 tokalau 
 
 p. tokelau 
 
 liva 
 
 p. uila 
 
 udre 
 
 p. ura 
 
 bogi 
 
 p. pongi 
 
346 
 
 
 THE FIJI. 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Fiji. 
 
 Malay or Polynesian. 
 
 Shade 
 
 malumalu 
 
 p. malu 
 
 Earth 
 
 vanua 
 
 p. fanua, m. benua 
 
 Land 
 
 qele 
 
 p. kele 
 
 Stone 
 
 vatu 
 
 p. fatu, m. batu 
 
 Hill 
 
 bukebuke 
 
 p. puke, m. bukit 
 
 Banh 
 
 taba 
 
 p. tafa, tapa, m. tepi 
 
 Reef 
 
 cakau 
 
 p. bakau 
 
 Way 
 
 sala 
 
 p. hala, ara, m. djalan 
 
 Ashes 
 
 dravu 
 
 p. lefu 
 
 Bust 
 
 umea 
 
 p. umea 
 
 Water 
 
 wai 
 
 p. wai 
 
 Fresh water 
 
 dranu 
 
 p. lanu 
 
 Sea 
 
 wasa 
 
 p. vasa 
 
 Man (homo) 
 
 tamata 
 
 p. tangata 
 
 (mr) 
 
 tagane 
 
 p. tane 
 
 Father 
 
 tama 
 
 p. tama 
 
 Mother 
 
 tina 
 
 p. tina 
 
 Elder brother 
 
 tuaka. 
 
 p. tuakana 
 
 Younger brother 
 
 taci 
 
 p. tasi 
 
 Son-in-law 
 
 vugo 
 
 p. hungoni 
 
 King 
 
 sau 
 
 p. hau 
 
 Lord 
 
 tui 
 
 p. tui 
 
 Head 
 
 ulu 
 
 p. ulu, m. ulu 
 
 Ear 
 
 daliga 
 
 p. talinga, m. telinga 
 
 Eye 
 
 mata 
 
 p. m. mata 
 
 Nose 
 
 ucu 
 
 p. isu, m. idong 
 
 Mouth 
 
 gusu 
 
 p. ngutu 
 
 Beard 
 
 kumi 
 
 p. kumikumi, m. kumia 
 
 Hand 
 
 Hga 
 
 p. lima 
 
 Breast 
 
 sucu 
 
 p. m. susu 
 
 Belly 
 
 kete 
 
 p. kete 
 
 Leg 
 
 yava 
 
 p. avae, wawae 
 
 Knee 
 
 duru 
 
 p. tuli, turi 
 
 Heart 
 
 loma 
 
 p. uma 
 
 Vein 
 
 ua 
 
 p. uaua 
 
 Bone 
 
 sui 
 
 p. sivi 
 
 Blood 
 
 dra 
 
 m. darah 
 
 Dog 
 
 koli 
 
 p. kuli 
 
 Bat 
 
 beka 
 
 p. peka 
 
 Bird 
 
 manumanu 
 
 p. manu, m. manuk 
 
 Pigeon 
 
 ruve 
 
 p. lupe 
 
 Snake 
 
 gata 
 
 _p, ngata 
 
 Fish 
 
 ika 
 
 p. ika, w. ikan 
 
 Lobster 
 
 urau 
 
 p. kura, ula, m. udang 
 
 Butterfly 
 
 bebe 
 
 p. pepe 
 
 Ant 
 
 lo 
 
 jp. lo 
 
 Fly 
 
 lago 
 
 ^. lango, m. langau 
 
English. 
 
 Midge 
 
 Louse 
 
 Tree 
 
 Root 
 
 Barh 
 
 Leaf 
 
 Fruit 
 
 Banana 
 
 Cocoanut 
 
 milk 
 
 Yam 
 Cane 
 
 Sugar-cane 
 
 Hedge 
 
 Canoe 
 
 Mast 
 
 Rudder 
 
 Sail 
 
 Nail 
 
 Comb 
 
 Bag 
 
 Basket 
 
 Girdle 
 
 Holy 
 
 Soft 
 
 Tarns 
 
 Right 
 
 Ready 
 
 Ripe 
 
 Easy 
 
 Empty 
 
 Weak 
 
 LiUle 
 
 New 
 
 Hot 
 
 Red 
 
 Hear 
 
 See 
 
 Cry 
 
 Eat 
 
 Drink 
 
 Bite 
 
 Spit 
 
 Taste 
 
 Stand 
 
 THE FIJI. 
 
 
 Fiji. 
 
 Malay or Polynesian. 
 
 nana 
 
 p. naonao 
 
 kutu 
 
 p. m. kutu 
 
 kau 
 
 p. kau, m. kaju 
 
 waka 
 
 p. aka, m. akar 
 
 kuli 
 
 p. kili, m. kulit 
 
 drau 
 
 p. lau, m. daun 
 
 vua 
 
 p. fua, m. buab 
 
 vudi 
 
 p. futi 
 
 niu 
 
 p. niu, TO. nior 
 
 lolo 
 
 p. lolo 
 
 bulu 
 
 p. pulu, bulu 
 
 uvi 
 
 p. ufi, TO. ubi 
 
 gasau 
 
 p. kaso, kaho 
 
 dovu 
 
 p. to, tolu, TO. tubbu 
 
 ba 
 
 p. pa, m. pagar 
 
 waqa 
 
 p. vaka 
 
 vana 
 
 p. fana 
 
 voce 
 
 p. fose 
 
 laca 
 
 p. la, TO. layer 
 
 kie 
 
 p. kie 
 
 vako 
 
 p. fao, TO. paku 
 
 seru 
 
 p. selu, heru, to. sisir 
 
 taga 
 
 p. tanga 
 
 kato 
 
 p. kato 
 
 van 
 
 p. fau 
 
 tabu 
 
 p, tabu 
 
 malua 
 
 p. malie 
 
 lasa 
 
 p. lata 
 
 donu 
 
 p. tonu 
 
 oti 
 
 ^. oti 
 
 matua 
 
 2). TTiatua 
 
 mamada 
 
 p. mama 
 
 maca 
 
 p. maha 
 
 malumu 
 
 p, malu 
 
 lailai 
 
 jp. lahilahi 
 
 vou 
 
 J3. foU 
 
 katakata 
 
 p. kasa 
 
 kulakula 
 
 ^. kula, kura 
 
 rogo 
 
 p, rongo, longo, to. di 
 
 sarasara 
 
 p. araara 
 
 tagi 
 
 p. tangi, TO. tangis 
 
 kana 
 
 p. kaina, kainga 
 
 unuma 
 
 p. inu, TO. minum 
 
 kati 
 
 p. kati 
 
 lua 
 
 p. lua 
 
 tovolea 
 
 ^9. tofo 
 
 tu 
 
 p. tu 
 
 347 
 
 ?ar 
 
348 
 
 y" 
 
 English. 
 
 Lie 
 
 Come. 
 
 Go 
 
 Enter 
 
 Creep 
 
 Sleep 
 
 Grow 
 
 Die 
 
 Know 
 
 Enjoy 
 
 Possess 
 
 Hold 
 
 Bring 
 
 Loose 
 
 Bore 
 
 Shoot 
 
 Turn 
 
 Enclose 
 
 Rub 
 
 Sweep 
 
 Cut 
 
 Divide 
 
 Dig 
 
 Fall 
 
 Peel 
 
 Wash 
 
 One 
 
 Two 
 
 Three 
 
 Four 
 
 Five 
 
 Six 
 
 Seven 
 
 Eight 
 
 Nine 
 
 Ten 
 
 Hundred 
 
 THE FIJI. 
 
 Fiji. 
 
 Malay or Polynesian. 
 
 koto 
 
 p. takoto 
 
 coa 
 
 p. tau 
 
 se 
 
 p. se 
 
 curu 
 
 p. uru, sulu 
 
 dolo 
 
 p. tolo 
 
 moce 
 
 p. mose, mohe 
 
 tubu 
 
 p. tupu, m. tumbuh 
 
 mate 
 
 p. mate, m. mati 
 
 kila 
 
 p. ilo 
 
 reki 
 
 p. reka 
 
 rawa 
 
 p. raiaka, rawa 
 
 kuku 
 
 p. kuku 
 
 kau 
 
 p. kau 
 
 talu 
 
 p. tala 
 
 coka 
 
 p. hoka 
 
 Tana 
 
 p. fana 
 
 wiri 
 
 p. viri, viK, m. pilni 
 
 bunu 
 
 p. puni 
 
 solo 
 
 p. holo 
 
 tavi 
 
 p. tafi 
 
 sele 
 
 p. sele 
 
 koti 
 
 p. koti 
 
 tava 
 
 p. tafa, m. tabang 
 
 vaci 
 
 p. fasi 
 
 kelia 
 
 ta 
 
 voci 
 
 vuluvulu 
 
 dua 
 
 rua 
 
 tolu 
 
 va 
 
 lima 
 
 ono 
 
 vitu 
 
 walu 
 
 ciwa 
 
 tini 
 
 drau 
 
 p. vase 
 
 p. keli, m. gali 
 
 p. ta 
 
 p. fohe 
 
 p. fulu, pulu 
 
 p. taha, tai 
 
 p. lua, rua, m. dua 
 
 p. tolu, toru 
 
 j9. fa, wa 
 
 j3. lima, rima, m. lima 
 
 p. ono, m. anam 
 
 p. fitu, witu 
 
 ^. valu, warn 
 
 p. iva, hiva 
 
 ^. tini 
 
 p. lau, rau. 
 
 With the Annatom it has the following amount of 
 likeness. 
 

 THE FIJI. 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Rji 
 
 
 Sun 
 
 siga 
 
 nagesega 
 
 Night 
 
 bogi 
 
 epeg 
 
 Watei' 
 
 wai 
 
 wai 
 
 Stone 
 
 vatu 
 
 hat 
 
 Man {homo) 
 
 tamata 
 
 atimi 
 
 {mr) 
 
 atagane 
 
 atamaig 
 
 Father 
 
 tama 
 
 etmai 
 
 Tongue 
 
 yame 
 
 namai 
 
 Name 
 
 yadha 
 
 idai 
 
 Bird 
 
 manumanu 
 
 man 
 
 Dove 
 
 rui^e 
 
 nalaupa 
 
 Dog 
 
 koli 
 
 kuri 
 
 Bag 
 
 kato 
 
 cat 
 
 Ale 
 
 kedhega 
 
 asega- 
 
 Dark 
 
 buto 
 
 aapat 
 
 Narrow 
 
 warowaro 
 
 ehroehro 
 
 Right 
 
 matau 
 
 matai 
 
 Left 
 
 mawi 
 
 moiii 
 
 Dry 
 
 madha 
 
 mese 
 
 Deep 
 
 nubu, titobu 
 
 obou 
 
 
 bukete 
 
 OJWUC 
 
 Hide 
 
 tabo-naka 
 
 adahpoi 
 
 Turn 
 
 saumaka 
 
 adumoij 
 
 Open 
 
 salia 
 
 asalage 
 
 Sit 
 
 tiko 
 
 ateuc 
 
 Weelc 
 
 ta^ 
 
 taig 
 
 Sleep 
 
 modhe 
 
 timjeg 
 
 Drink 
 
 unuina 
 
 nmni 
 
 Die 
 
 mate 
 
 mas 
 
 Two 
 
 rua 
 
 ero 
 
 Who 
 
 dhei 
 
 di 
 
 They 
 
 era 
 
 ara 
 
 To 
 
 vei 
 
 vai. 
 
 349 
 
 Upon the grammatical relations of this important 
 language more will be said in the sequel. 
 
350 AUSTRALIA. 
 
 CHAPTER LII. 
 
 The Australian Group. 
 
 The isolation of the Australian languages has often been 
 insisted on. Yet they have not only miscellaneous 
 affinities but three vocabularies (1.) the Ombay ; (2.) 
 the Mangarei ; and (3.) the Timbora, have, for some 
 years, been pointed* out as vocabularies from the Malay 
 area with decided Australian affinities. 
 
 The definite line of demarcation which is drawn be- 
 tween them and the Papuan of New Guinea is im- 
 peached by the Erroob and Darnly Island vocabularies of 
 Jukes ; not to niention those of Macgillivray from the 
 Louisiade Archipelago. 
 
 The fact that, notwithstanding the mutual unintelli- 
 gibility of the majority of the forms of speech of which 
 we have specimens, combined with the fact of these 
 being numerous, the languages for the whole of Austra- 
 lia form but one class, has been urged by Grey, Tlired- 
 keld, the present writer, and others' — by all upon inde- 
 pendent researches. Upon the value, however, of the class, 
 but little criticism has been expended. 
 
 Affinities, especially in respect to grammatical struc- 
 ture, with the Tamul languages have been indicated by 
 Norriss. I doubt, however, whether they are the near- 
 est — indeed, I think that indirect relationship and a 
 
 * Appendix to Jukes' s Voyage of the Fly by the present writer. 
 
AUSTRALIA. 
 
 851 
 
 real or apparent partial coincidence in respect to the 
 stage of their development is all that the comparisons 
 warrant. 
 
 The numerals are on the low level of those of South 
 America — rarely reaching five; generally stopping at 
 three. 
 
 Beginning with the north, and more particularly with 
 the parts about the Gulf of Carpentaria, we have — 
 
 EngUsh. 
 
 Cape York. 
 
 (1.) 
 
 Massied. 
 
 Gudang. 
 
 Kowrarega. 
 
 Head 
 
 
 
 pada 
 
 quiku 
 
 Eye 
 
 dana 
 
 dana 
 
 dana 
 
 dana 
 
 Ear 
 
 cartisa 
 
 ctira 
 
 ewunya 
 
 kowra 
 
 Nose 
 
 picM 
 
 pechi 
 
 eye 
 
 piti 
 
 Mouth 
 
 anca 
 
 anca 
 
 angka 
 
 guda 
 
 Teeth 
 
 dang 
 
 danga 
 
 ampo 
 
 danga 
 
 Tongue 
 
 nay 
 
 nay 
 
 untara 
 
 nai 
 
 Hair 
 
 mucii 
 
 
 
 
 (0/ head) yal 
 
 eeal 
 
 odye 
 
 yal 
 
 NecTc 
 
 kurka 
 
 kercuk 
 
 yiiro 
 
 mudul 
 
 Hand 
 
 geta 
 
 geta 
 
 arta 
 
 geta 
 
 Sun 
 
 
 
 inga 
 
 gariga 
 
 Moon 
 
 
 
 aikana 
 
 •kissnri 
 
 Star 
 
 
 
 onbi 
 
 titure 
 
 Fish 
 
 wapi 
 
 wapi 
 
 wawpi 
 
 wawpi. 
 
 Then, for the eastern coast — 
 
 
 
 (2.) 
 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Moreton Bay. 
 
 Sidney. 
 
 Jervis Bay. 
 
 Muruya. 
 
 Man 
 
 
 kure 
 
 mika 
 
 yuen 
 
 Woman 
 
 
 dyin 
 
 kala 
 
 wangen 
 
 Head 
 
 
 kabara 
 
 hollo 
 
 kapan 
 
 Hair 
 
 cubboaeu 
 
 kitong 
 
 tirar 
 
 tiaur 
 
 Eye 
 
 mil 
 
 mebarai 
 
 ierinn 
 
 mabara 
 
 Nose 
 
 moral 
 
 nokoro 
 
 nokoro 
 
 
 Mouth 
 
 
 karka 
 
 kame 
 
 ta 
 
 Teeth 
 
 dear 
 
 yira 
 
 ira 
 
 yira 
 
 Tongue 
 
 dalan 
 
 dalan 
 
 talen 
 
 talang 
 
 Ear 
 
 bidne 
 
 kure 
 
 kouri 
 
 guri 
 
 Hand 
 
 morrah 
 
 damora 
 
 maramale 
 
 mana 
 
 Foot 
 
 
 
 tona 
 
 dana 
 
 Sun 
 
 baga 
 
 gan 
 
 ore 
 
 bogorin 
 
 Moon 
 
 galan 
 
 gibuk 
 
 tahouawan 
 
 dawara. 
 
52 
 
 
 AUSTRALIA. 
 
 
 Inland- 
 
 __ 
 
 (8.) 
 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Peel River. 
 
 Bathurst. 
 
 Wellington. 
 
 Mudji. 
 
 Man 
 
 iure 
 
 mauung 
 
 gibir 
 
 kolir 
 
 Woman 
 
 inor 
 
 balan 
 
 inur 
 
 
 Head 
 
 l?iira 
 
 balang 
 
 budyang 
 
 ga 
 
 Hair 
 
 tR,ikul 
 
 gian 
 
 uran 
 
 
 Eye 
 
 mil 
 
 mekalait 
 
 mil 
 
 mir 
 
 Nose 
 
 mum 
 
 
 murung 
 
 
 Mouth 
 
 ngankai 
 
 nandarge 
 
 ngan 
 
 
 Teeth 
 
 yira 
 
 irang 
 
 irang 
 
 yira 
 
 Tongue 
 
 tale 
 
 
 talan 
 
 talai 
 
 Ear 
 
 bina 
 
 benangarei 
 
 uta 
 
 bina 
 
 Hand 
 
 ma 
 
 
 mura 
 
 mara 
 
 Foot 
 
 tina 
 
 dina 
 
 dinang 
 
 dina 
 
 Sun 
 
 toni 
 
 mamady 
 
 irai 
 
 murai 
 
 Moon 
 
 palu 
 
 daidyu 
 
 
 kilai. 
 
 The Kamilaroi (of which the Wellington and Mudji 
 are dialects) is spoken over a district between 400 
 and 500 miles, and 50 broad: chiefly towards the 
 head-waters of the Hunter river. 
 
 (4.) 
 
 English. 
 
 Kamilaroi. 
 
 
 
 English. 
 
 KamilaioL 
 
 Man 
 
 giwir 
 
 
 
 Sun 
 
 do 
 
 Native 
 
 murri 
 
 
 
 Moon 
 
 gille 
 
 Head 
 
 kaoga 
 
 
 
 Star 
 
 mirri 
 
 
 ga 
 
 
 
 Fire 
 
 wi 
 
 Eye 
 
 mil 
 
 
 
 Water 
 
 koUe 
 
 Nose 
 
 muro 
 
 
 
 Bam 
 
 yuro 
 
 Teeth 
 
 yira 
 
 
 
 One 
 
 mal 
 
 Ear 
 
 binna 
 
 
 
 Two 
 
 bularr 
 
 Tongue 
 
 tulle 
 
 
 
 Three 
 
 guliba 
 
 Chin 
 
 tal 
 
 
 
 Four 
 
 bularrbularr 
 
 NecTc 
 
 nun 
 
 
 
 Five 
 
 bulaguliba 
 
 Foot 
 
 dinna 
 
 
 
 Six 
 
 gulibaguliba. 
 
 Day 
 
 yarai 
 
 
 
 
 
 Conterminous with the Kamilaroi are 
 
 the— 
 
 
 
 (5.) 
 
 
 
 English. 
 
 
 Wiradurei. 
 
 
 Witouro. 
 
 Man 
 
 
 gibir 
 
 
 gole 
 
 Woman 
 
 
 inar 
 
 
 bagorook 
 
 Head 
 
 
 balang 
 
 
 moornyook 
 
 Eyes 
 
 
 mil 
 
 
 mirrook 
 
 Ea/rs 
 
 
 uta 
 
 
 wingook 
 
 Nose 
 
 
 murung 
 
 
 karnyook 
 
 Bme 
 
 
 dal 
 
 >al 
 
 
 goorooh 
 
 ^ 
 
WITOURO, ETC. 
 
 353 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Wiradurei. 
 
 Witouro. 
 
 
 Blood 
 
 r 
 
 kuaiugi 
 
 goortanyook 
 
 
 Teeth 
 
 
 irang 
 
 leanyook 
 
 
 Tongue 
 
 talain 
 
 tallanyook 
 
 
 Hand 
 
 r 
 
 mura 
 
 munangin 
 
 
 Foot 
 
 
 dinang 
 
 tinnamook 
 
 
 Sun 
 
 
 irai 
 
 mirri 
 
 
 Moon 
 
 
 
 menyan 
 
 
 Stars 
 
 
 
 toortbaram 
 
 
 Fire 
 
 
 win 
 
 wing 
 
 
 Water 
 
 kaling 
 
 moabeet 
 
 
 Ea/rth 
 
 
 takun 
 
 dax 
 
 
 Stone 
 
 
 walang 
 
 lax 
 
 
 One 
 
 
 wakol 
 
 koen meet 
 
 
 Twa 
 
 
 buloara 
 
 buUait. 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 ngatoa 
 
 bangeek 
 
 
 You 
 
 
 nngintoa 
 
 (6.) 
 
 bangen. 
 
 English 
 
 
 Lake Hindmarsh. 
 
 Lake Mundy. 
 
 Molonglo. 
 
 Head 
 
 
 boropepinack 
 
 
 kotagong 
 
 Hand 
 
 
 mannyah 
 
 
 marroula 
 
 Feet 
 
 
 jinnerr 
 
 
 jinygy 
 
 Eyes 
 
 
 mer 
 
 meerrang 
 
 magalite 
 
 Nose 
 
 
 kar 
 
 karbung 
 
 noor 
 
 Tooth 
 
 
 
 tungan 
 
 
 
 Sun 
 
 
 narwee 
 
 tharrerong 
 
 eurroga 
 
 
 
 
 
 buggarang 
 
 
 
 
 
 mummait 
 
 Moon 
 
 
 yarrekudyeah 
 
 bambourk 
 
 cobboton 
 
 Star 
 
 
 toura 
 
 yeeringminap 
 
 ginaga 
 
 Fire 
 
 
 wheey 
 wanyup 
 
 wheein 
 
 kanby 
 
 Water 
 
 
 gartyin 
 
 barreet 
 
 naijjon 
 
 
 
 allangope 
 
 (7.) 
 
 
 EugUsh. 
 
 Jhongworong, 
 
 Pinegorlne. 
 
 Gnurellean. 
 
 Head 
 
 
 morromgnata 
 
 poko 
 
 tonggognena 
 
 Eyes 
 
 
 meringgnata 
 
 ma 
 
 meregnena 
 
 Nose 
 
 
 kawinggnata 
 
 kowo 
 
 tandegnena 
 
 Foot 
 
 
 gnenonggnata 
 
 gena 
 
 genongbegnena 
 
 Sun 
 
 
 nowan 
 
 yourugga 
 
 nowwer 
 
 Moon 
 
 
 yambuk 
 
 yourugkuda 
 
 torongi 
 
 Star 
 
 
 fort 
 
 tutta 
 
 tortok 
 
 Fire 
 
 
 
 peda 
 
 wembe 
 
 Water 
 
 
 
 
 
 kordenok. 
 A A 
 
354 
 
 PARNKALLA, ETC. 
 
 
 
 (8.) 
 
 
 English. 
 
 WoddowTong. 
 
 Koligon, 
 
 Dau^gart 
 
 Head 
 
 morrokgnetok 
 
 morrokgninok 
 
 benianen 
 
 Eye 
 
 mergnetok 
 
 mergnetok 
 
 mergnanem 
 
 Nose 
 
 kanugnetok 
 
 konggnetok 
 
 
 Foot 
 
 genongnetok 
 
 kenonggnetok 
 
 
 Sun 
 
 mere 
 
 na 
 
 derug 
 
 Moon 
 
 yem 
 
 bard bard 
 
 barinannen 
 
 Star 
 
 fotbarun 
 
 karartkarart 
 
 bommaramorxig 
 
 Fire 
 
 weang 
 
 wean 
 
 
 Water 
 
 gnobet 
 
 kan 
 
 (9.) 
 
 baret. 
 
 English. 
 
 Boraiper. 
 
 Yakkumban. 
 
 Aiawong. 
 
 Head 
 
 poorpai 
 
 
 
 petpoga 
 
 Hand 
 
 mannangy 
 
 
 mannourko 
 
 Foot 
 
 tshinnangy 
 
 
 dtun 
 
 Eye 
 
 merringy 
 
 
 koUo 
 
 Nose 
 
 cheengi 
 
 
 roonko 
 
 Tooth 
 
 leeangy 
 
 
 ngenko 
 
 Sun 
 
 nauwingy 
 
 ynko 
 
 ngankur 
 
 Moon 
 
 mityah 
 
 paitchoway 
 
 kakkirrah 
 
 Star 
 
 tootte 
 
 poolle 
 
 pille 
 
 Fire 
 
 wannappe 
 
 wheenje 
 
 kabungo 
 
 
 wolpool 
 
 koonnea 
 
 
 
 Water 
 
 tarnar 
 
 tinbomma 
 
 ngookko 
 
 
 konene 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 yetwa 
 
 
 ngappo 
 
 Thou 
 
 ninwa 
 
 nimba 
 
 ngurru 
 
 She 
 
 niyala 
 
 
 nin 
 
 We 
 
 yangewer 
 
 innowa 
 
 ngenno 
 
 Ye 
 
 
 
 nguno 
 
 They 
 
 wootto 
 
 
 ngauo 
 
 One 
 
 keiarpe 
 
 neetchar 
 
 meiter 
 
 Two 
 
 poolette 
 
 parkooloo 
 
 tangkul 
 
 Three 
 
 pooleckwia 
 
 parkool-netcharri 
 
 (10.) 
 
 tangku-meiter. 
 
 English. 
 
 Parnkalla. 
 
 Head of Bight. Westfirn Australia. 
 
 Head 
 
 kakka 
 
 karga 
 
 katta 
 
 Hand 
 
 marra 
 
 merrer 
 
 myrea 
 
 Feet 
 
 idna 
 
 jinna 
 
 jeena 
 
 Eye 
 
 mena 
 
 mail 
 
 mail 
 
 Nose 
 
 mudla 
 
 mullah 
 
 moolya 
 
 Tooth 
 
 ira 
 
 erai 
 
 nelgo 
 
 Sun 
 
 yurno 
 
 tshiadu 
 
 nganga 
 
 
 
 
 batta 
 
PARNKALLA, ETC. 
 
 355 
 
 English. 
 
 Parnkalla. 
 
 Head of Bight. 
 
 Western Australia. 
 
 Moon 
 
 perra 
 
 perar 
 
 meki 
 
 Star 
 
 purle 
 
 kalga 
 
 milyarm 
 
 Fire 
 
 gadla 
 
 kaUa 
 
 
 kalla 
 
 Watet 
 
 kapi 
 
 gaippe 
 
 
 
 kauo 
 
 kauwe 
 
 kowwin 
 
 I 
 
 ngai 
 
 ajjo 
 
 
 nganya 
 
 
 ngatto 
 
 janna 
 
 bal 
 
 Thou 
 
 ninna 
 
 
 
 nginnee 
 
 She 
 
 panna 
 
 
 
 ngangeel 
 
 We 
 
 ngarrinyalbo 
 
 
 
 nganneel 
 
 
 
 
 
 arlingul 
 
 Ye 
 
 nuralli 
 
 
 
 nurang 
 
 They 
 
 yardna 
 
 
 
 balgoon 
 
 One 
 
 kuma 
 
 gumera 
 
 kain 
 
 Two 
 
 kuttara 
 
 kootera 
 
 karclura 
 
 Three 
 
 kappo 
 
 (11.) 
 
 
 ngarril. 
 
 English. 
 
 Port PhUip. 
 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Port Philip. 
 
 Man 
 
 meio 
 
 
 
 Foot 
 
 tenna 
 
 Woman 
 
 ammaik 
 
 
 
 Sky 
 
 poulle 
 
 Tongue 
 
 tatein 
 
 
 
 Moon 
 
 kaker 
 
 Head 
 
 iouk 
 
 
 
 Star 
 
 poulle 
 
 Beard 
 
 molda 
 
 
 
 Sun 
 
 tendo 
 
 Mouth 
 
 ta 
 
 
 
 Tree 
 
 ara 
 
 Nose 
 
 modla 
 
 
 
 Fire 
 
 alia 
 
 Arm 
 
 aondo 
 
 
 
 Water 
 
 kawi 
 
 Eye 
 
 mennha 
 
 
 
 Sea 
 
 kopoul 
 
 ffai/r 
 
 iouko 
 
 
 
 Bird 
 
 pallo 
 
 Ear 
 
 ioure 
 
 
 
 Stone 
 
 poure 
 
 Tooth 
 
 ta 
 
 
 
 Fish 
 
 rouia 
 
 Nail 
 
 perre 
 
 
 
 One 
 
 mangorut 
 
 Finger 
 
 malta 
 
 
 
 Two 
 
 pollai. 
 
 Hand 
 
 malla 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (12.) 
 
 
 
 English. 
 
 King George's Sound. 
 
 
 
 English. 
 
 King George's Sound 
 
 Woman 
 
 iok 
 
 
 
 Tongue 
 
 talin 
 
 Head 
 
 kat 
 
 
 
 
 tarlin 
 
 Hand 
 
 mal 
 
 
 
 Eye 
 
 mehal 
 
 
 mar 
 
 
 
 Nail 
 
 piak 
 
 Beard 
 
 annok 
 
 
 
 
 perre 
 
 
 
 narnak 
 
 
 
 Foot 
 
 kean 
 
 Mouth 
 
 taa 
 
 
 
 
 
 dien 
 
 Arm 
 
 marok 
 
 
 
 
 
 teal 
 
 Hair 
 
 kaat 
 
 
 
 
 
 tchen 
 
 
 tchao 
 
 
 
 Blood 
 
 oop 
 
 Tooth 
 
 ollog 
 
 
 
 Sky 
 
 marre 
 
 
 orlok 
 
 
 
 Moon 
 
 meok 
 A A 2 
 
356 
 
 3 
 
 KAMILAROI. 
 
 
 English. 
 
 King George's Sound. 
 
 English. 
 
 King George's SounJ 
 
 Star 
 
 tchindai 
 
 
 pouai 
 
 Sun 
 
 kiat 
 
 Bird 
 
 kierd 
 
 Fire 
 
 kal 
 
 Stone 
 
 poie 
 
 
 karl 
 
 
 
 boiel 
 
 Water 
 
 kepe 
 
 One 
 
 ken 
 
 Sea 
 
 mamorot 
 
 Two 
 
 kadien 
 
 Tree 
 
 tarevelok 
 
 Three 
 
 taan. 
 
 ^99 
 
 kirkai 
 
 
 
 Some (at least) of the Australian languages are named 
 after the word meaning ]}^o ; so that the Kamilaroi, the 
 Wolaro% the Wailwun, the Wiralhere, and the Pikabuly 
 take their designations from their negatives ; these being 
 ka'inil, woly waily wira, and pika, respectively. Jf this 
 nomenclature be native it is remarkable. In Italy and 
 France the same principles prevailed in the twelfth 
 century. In the early stages, however, of rude lan- 
 guages it has yet to be discovered beyond the area now 
 under notice. 
 
 The following are paradigms for the Kamilaroi : — 
 
 mute, an opossum. 
 mutedu, an opossum (agent). 
 mute-ngu, of an opossum. 
 mute-gOf to an opossum. 
 
 mute-diy from an opossum. 
 mute- da, in an opossum. 
 mute-Tcunda, with an opossum. 
 
 ngaia, I. 
 
 ngulle, thou or you, and I 
 
 , ngedne, we. 
 
 ngai, my. 
 
 ngullina, he and I. 
 
 ngeane-ngu, of us. 
 
 ngaiago, to me. 
 
 ngulle-ngu, belonging to ngeane-go, to us. 
 
 ngai adz, from me. 
 
 you and me. 
 
 ngeane-di, from us. 
 
 ngaiada, in me. 
 
 ngullina-ngu, belonging ngeane-da, in us. 
 
 ngaiakunda, 
 
 to him and me. 
 
 ngeane-Tcunda, with us 
 
 with me. 
 
 nguUe-go, to you and me 
 
 
 ngununda, me. 
 
 &c. &c. 
 
 
 inda, thou. 
 
 inddU, ye two. 
 
 ngindai, ye. 
 
 inda-ngu, "1 ^. 
 or nginnu, J ^' 
 
 indale-ngu. 
 
 ngindai-ngu, 
 
 
 &c. 
 
 inda-go, to thee, 
 
 indale-go. 
 
 
 &c. 
 
 &c. 
 
 
 nglrma, he, she, or that. 
 
 ngdrmd, they. 
 
 numma or ngubho, this. 
 
 nguruma, that (iste). 
 
 "^^rb-'^Mme). 
 
 andi ? who ? 
 
 nunnlma? which? 
 
 minna or minya? what 1 
 
 nyaragedul or ngaragi 
 
 ', another. 
 
 kdnvmgo, all. 
 
KAMILAROL 357 
 
 glr bumalnge, did beat to-day. 
 gir bumalmien, did beat yesterday. 
 gir humallen, did beat some days ago. 
 
 humalda, is beating. humalla, strike. 
 
 bumalle, will beat. bumallawd, strike (empbatic and 
 
 bumabigdrl, will beat to-morroio. earnest). 
 
 bumalmia, strike (ironical — ''if you 
 
 dare''). 
 
 buTnaldai, beat (as yelle inda bumaldendai, beating ; bumahigendai, 
 
 bumaldai, if you beat). having beaten; bumalmiendai, 
 
 bumallago, to beat. baring beaten yesterday ; bumal- 
 
 lendai, going to beat. 
 
 In a systematic and general work like the present, 
 wherein it is scarcely possible for the writer to treat 
 each part of the subject with the care demanded by a 
 special monograph, I may be excused for giving some 
 extracts from certain papers, of comparatively distant 
 dates, bearing upon certain parts of the subject — papers 
 written when our data were scantier than they are at 
 present, and papers of which the object was less to prove 
 certain points, than to prepare the way to the breaking- 
 down of several arbitrary lines of separation and to draw 
 attention to the over-valuation of certain isolated 
 characters. 
 
 And first in respect to the affinities between the Aus- 
 tralian languages taken in mass among themselves. 
 
 That the Australian languages are one (at least in the way that the Indo- 
 European languages are one), is likely from henceforward to be admitted. 
 Captain Grey's statement upon the subject is to be found in his work upon 
 Australia. His special proof of the unity of the Australian languages is amongst 
 the unprinted papers of the Greographical Society. The opinions of Threl- 
 keld and Teichelmann go the same way. The author's own statements are as 
 follows : — 
 
 (1.) For the whole round of coast there is, generally speaking, no vocabu- 
 lary of sufficient length that, in some word or other, does not coincide with 
 the vocabulary of the nearest point, the language of which is known to us. 
 If it fail to do this it agrees with some of the remoter dialects. Flinder's 
 Carpentarian, compared with the two vocabularies of the Endeavour River, 
 has seventeen words in common. Of these, three (perhaps four) coincide. 
 Eye, meal, C. ; meul, E. R. : hair, marra, C. ; morye, E. R. : fingers, mingel, C. 
 mungal bah, E. R. : breast, gummur, C. : coyor, E. R. 
 
358 
 
 AUSTRALIAN LANGUAGES IN GENERAL. 
 
 Endeavour River. — Two vocabularies. — Compared with the vocabularies 
 generally of Port Jackson, and the parts south and east of Port Jackson : — 
 Eye, meul, E. R. ; milla, Limestone Creek : nose, emurda, E. R.: morro, 
 L. C. : ears, mulkah, E. R. ; moTco, Port Macquarie : hair, morye, E. R. : 
 mundah, Burra Burra : breast, coyor, E. R. : Tcowul, Port Jackson : fingers, 
 mungal bah, E. R. : maranga, B. B. : elbow, yeerwe, E. R. : yongra, Menero 
 Downs : nails, Tcolhe, E. R. ; karungun ? P. J. : beard, wollar, E. R. : walo, 
 Jervis's Bay ; woUaJc, Port Macquarie. — The number of words submitted to 
 comparison — twenty two. 
 
 Menero Downs (Lhotsky), and Adelaide (G. W. Earl). — Thirteen words 
 in common, whereof two coincide. 
 
 English. 
 Hand 
 Tongue 
 
 Menero Downs, 
 morangan 
 talang 
 
 Adelaide, 
 murra 
 taling. 
 
 Adelaide (G. W. Earl) and Gulf St. Vincent (Voyage de 1' Astrolabe), 
 Adelaide, Gulf St. Vincent. 
 
 mutta molda 
 
 English. 
 Beard 
 
 Ear 
 Foot 
 Hair 
 Hand 
 
 Leg 
 
 Nose 
 
 Teeth 
 
 in 
 
 tinna 
 yuka 
 murrah 
 irako 
 
 mula 
 
 tial 
 
 ioure 
 
 tenna 
 
 iouka 
 
 malla 
 
 ierko 
 
 mudla 
 
 ta. 
 
 Gulf St. Vincent (Voyage de I'Astrolabe) and King George's Soimd (Nind 
 and Voyage de I'Astrolabe) ; fifty words in common. 
 
 English. 
 
 Gulf St. Vincent. 
 
 King George's Sound. 
 
 Wood 
 
 kalla 
 
 kokol 
 
 Mouth 
 
 ta 
 
 taa 
 
 Hair 
 
 iouka 
 
 tchao 
 
 Nech 
 
 mannouolt 
 
 wolt 
 
 Finger 
 
 malla 
 
 mal 
 
 Water 
 
 kawe 
 
 kepe 
 
 Tongue 
 
 talein 
 
 talen 
 
 Foot 
 
 tenna 
 
 tchen 
 
 Stone 
 
 poure 
 
 pore 
 
 Laugh 
 
 kanghin 
 
 kaoner. 
 
 (2.) The vocabularies of distant points coincide ; out of sixty words in 
 common we have eight coincident. 
 
 English. 
 
 Jervis's Bay. 
 
 Gulf St. Vincent. 
 
 Forehead 
 
 holo 
 
 . ioullo 
 
 Man 
 
 mika 
 
 meio 
 
 Milk 
 
 awanham 
 
 ammenhalo 
 
 Tongue 
 
 talen 
 
 talein 
 
AUSTRALIAN LANGUAGES IN GENERAL. 
 
 359 
 
 English. 
 
 Jervis's Bay. 
 
 Gulf St. Vincent. 
 
 Hand 
 
 maramale 
 
 malla 
 
 Nipple 
 
 amgnann 
 
 amma 
 
 Blaci 
 
 mourak 
 
 pouilloul 
 
 Nails 
 
 berenou 
 
 pere. 
 
 (3.) The most isolated of the vocabularies, e. g. the Carpentarian, if com- 
 pared with the remaining vocabularies, taken as a whole, has certain words to 
 be found in different and distant parts of the island. 
 
 EngUsh. 
 
 Carpentarian. 
 
 Limestone Creek. 
 
 Eye 
 
 mail 
 
 milla 
 
 Nose 
 
 hurroo 
 
 morro. 
 
 The following is a notice of certain words coinciding, though taken from 
 dialects far separated : — 
 
 Lips 
 
 tambana. 
 
 Menero Downs 
 
 tamande, G. S. V. 
 
 Star 
 
 jingi, 
 
 ditto 
 
 tchindai, K. G. S. 
 
 Forehead 
 
 ullo, 
 
 ditto 
 
 ioullo, G. S. V. 
 
 Beard 
 
 yernka. 
 
 ditto 
 
 (arnga, j g. ^ g 
 Inanga, J ^- ^- ^- 
 
 Bite 
 
 paiandi. 
 
 ditto 
 
 badjeen, ditto 
 
 Fire 
 
 gaadla, 
 
 ditto 
 
 kaal, ditto 
 
 Heart 
 
 karlto, 
 
 ditto 
 
 koort, ditto 
 
 Sun 
 
 tindo. 
 
 ditto 
 
 djaat, ditto 
 
 Tooth I 
 Edge S 
 
 tia, 
 
 ditto 
 
 dowal, ditto 
 
 Water 
 
 kauwe, 
 
 ditto 
 
 kowwin, ditto 
 
 Stone 
 
 pure, 
 
 ditto 
 
 boye, ditto. 
 
 (4. ) The extent to which the numerals vary, the extent to which they agree, 
 and the extent to which this variation and agreement are anything but coin- 
 cident with geographical proximity or distance, may be seen in the following 
 table : — 
 
 English. 
 
 One 
 
 Moreton Bay 
 
 kamarah 
 
 Island 
 
 karawo 
 
 Bijenelumbo 
 
 warat 
 
 Limhakarajia 
 
 erat 
 
 Terrutong 
 
 roka 
 
 Limhapyu 
 
 immuta 
 
 Kowrarega 
 
 warapune 
 
 Gudang 
 
 epiamana 
 
 Damley Island 
 
 netat 
 
 Raffles Bay 
 
 loca 
 
 Lake Macquarie 
 
 wakol 
 
 Peel River 
 
 peer 
 
 Two 
 
 Three 
 
 bulla 
 
 mudyan 
 
 poonlah 
 
 madan 
 
 ngargark 
 
 2+1 
 
 ngargark 
 
 do. 
 
 oryalk 
 
 do. 
 
 lawidperra 
 
 2+1 
 
 quassur 
 
 do. 
 
 elabaio 
 
 do. 
 
 nes 
 
 do. 
 
 orica 
 
 orongarie 
 
 buloara 
 
 ngoro 
 
 pular 
 
 purla 
 
360 
 
 AUSTRALIAN LANGUAGES IN GENERAL. 
 
 English. 
 
 One 
 
 Two 
 
 mree 
 
 Wellington 
 
 ngungbai 
 
 Toula 
 
 bula-ngungbai 
 
 Corio 
 
 koimoil 
 
 
 
 Jhongworong 
 
 kap 
 
 
 
 
 Pinegorine 
 
 youa 
 
 
 
 
 Gnurellean 
 
 lua 
 
 
 
 
 King George's Sownd, 
 
 keyen 
 
 cuetrel 
 
 murben 
 
 Karaida 
 
 mal 
 
 bular 
 
 culeba 
 
 Lachlan, Regent Lake 
 
 nyoonbi 
 
 bnlia 
 
 bulongonbi 
 
 Wollmidilly River 
 
 medung 
 
 pulla 
 
 colluerr. 
 
 (5.) In respect to tbe vocabvlarieSy the extent to which the analysis which 
 applies to the grammar applies to the vocables also may be seen in the fol- 
 lowing instance. The word hand Bijenelumbo and Limbapyu is hirgalk. 
 There is also in each language a second form — anbirgalh — wherein the an is 
 non-radical. So, also, is the alk ; since we find that armpit=ingamb-alk, 
 shoulder =mundy-alk, and fingers=:mong alk. This brings the xooi=.hand 
 to hirg. Now this we can find elsewhere by looking for. In the Liverpool 
 dialect, Ur-ilz=.hand, and at King George's Sound, peer=nails. The com- 
 monest Toot=hand in the Australian dialects, is m-r, e.g. : — 
 
 Moreton Bay 
 
 murrah 
 
 Corio 
 
 far-onggnetok 
 
 Karaula 
 
 marra 
 
 Jhongworong 
 
 far-okguata 
 
 Sydney 
 
 da-mora 
 
 Murrumbidje 
 
 mur-rugan 
 
 Mudje 
 
 mara 
 
 Molonglo 
 
 mar-rowla 
 
 Wellington 
 
 murra 
 
 Head of Bight 
 
 merrer 
 
 Liverpool 
 
 ta-mura 
 
 Parnkalla 
 
 marra. 
 
 All this differs from th e Port Essington terms. Elbow, however, in the 
 dialects there spokeu=ioaare smd forearm=am,- ma-woor ; wler, too=palm, 
 in Kowrarega. 
 
 English. 
 
 Hand 
 
 English. 
 
 Foot 
 
 Termtong 
 
 manawiye 
 
 Gnurellean 
 
 gen-ong-begnen-a 
 
 Peel River 
 
 ma 
 
 Moreton Bay 
 
 chidna 
 
 Raffles' Bay 
 
 maneiya. 
 
 Karaula 
 
 tinna 
 
 
 
 Lake Macqaarie 
 
 tina 
 
 English. 
 
 Foot 
 
 Jhongworong 
 
 gnen-ong-gnat-a 
 
 Moreton Island 
 
 tenang 
 
 Corio 
 
 gen-ong-gnet-ok 
 
 Peel River 
 
 tina 
 
 Colack 
 
 ken-ong-gnet-ok 
 
 Mudje 
 
 dina 
 
 Bight Head 
 
 jinna 
 
 Wellington 
 
 dinnung 
 
 Parnkalla 
 
 idna 
 
 Liverpool 
 
 dana 
 
 Aiawong 
 
 dtun 
 
 Bathurst 
 
 dina 
 
 K. George's Sound tian 
 
 Boraipar 
 
 tchin-nang-y 
 
 Gould Island 
 
 pinyun and pinka 
 
 Lake Hindma/rsh 
 
 jin-nerr 
 
 
 
 Murrumbidje 
 
 tjin-nuk 
 
 English. 
 
 Hair, heard 
 
 Molonglo 
 
 tjin-y-gy 
 
 Moreton Island 
 
 yerreng 
 
 Pinegorine 
 
 gena 
 
 Bijenelumbo 
 
 yirka 
 
AUSTRALIAN LANGUAGES IN GENERAL. 
 
 861 
 
 English. 
 
 IIah\ heard 
 
 English. 
 
 Tooth 
 
 Regent's Lake 
 
 ooran 
 
 Moreton Island 
 
 tiya 
 
 Lake Macqimme 
 
 WTirung 
 
 Moreton Bay 
 
 deer 
 
 Goold Island 
 
 kiaram 
 
 Lake Macquarie 
 
 tina 
 
 Wellington 
 
 uran 
 
 Sydney 
 
 yera 
 
 Karaula 
 
 yerry 
 
 Wellington 
 
 irang 
 
 Sydney 
 
 yaren 
 
 MurrumUdje 
 
 yeeran 
 
 Peel River 
 
 ierai 
 
 Gould Island 
 
 eera. 
 
 Mudje 
 
 yarai. 
 
 
 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Tongue 
 
 English. 
 
 Eye 
 
 Moreton Bay 
 
 dalan 
 
 Moreton Island 
 
 mel 
 
 Regent's Lake 
 
 talleng 
 
 Moreton Bay 
 
 mill 
 
 Karaula 
 
 talley 
 
 Gudang 
 
 emeri=eyebrow 
 
 Gould Island 
 
 talit 
 
 Bijenelumho 
 
 mercle=eyelid 
 
 Lake Macquarie 
 
 talan 
 
 Regent's Lake 
 
 mil 
 
 Sydney 
 
 dalan 
 
 Karaula 
 
 mil 
 
 Peel River 
 
 tale 
 
 Mudje 
 
 mir 
 
 K. George's Sound talien. 
 
 Corio 
 
 mer-gnet-ok 
 
 
 
 Colack 
 
 mer-gnen-ok 
 
 English. 
 
 Ear 
 
 Dautgart 
 
 mer-gna-nen 
 
 Kowrarega 
 
 kowra 
 
 Jhongworong 
 
 mer-ing-gna-ta 
 
 Sydney 
 
 kure 
 
 Pinegorine 
 
 ma 
 
 Liverpool 
 
 kure 
 
 Gnurellean 
 
 mer-e-gnen-a 
 
 Lake Macquarie 
 
 ngureong 
 
 Boraipar 
 
 mer-ring-y 
 
 Moreton Bay 
 
 bidna 
 
 Lake Hindmarsl 
 
 . mer 
 
 Karaula 
 
 binna 
 
 Lake Mundy 
 
 meer-rang 
 
 Peel River 
 
 bine 
 
 Mtcrrumbidje 
 
 mit 
 
 Bathurst 
 
 benang-arei 
 
 K. George's Sound mial. 
 
 Gould Island 
 
 pinna. 
 
 The main evidence, however, of the fundamental 
 unity of the Australian languages lies in the wide 
 diffusion of identical names for objects like foot, eye, 
 toothy fire, and the like. 
 
362 
 
 TASMANIAN. 
 
 CHAPTER LIU. 
 
 Van Dieman's Land, or Tasmania. 
 
 The earliest vocabulary we have for Van Dieman's 
 Land is nine words in Cook. Then follows one by La 
 Billardiere, then one by Allan Cunningharj, collected in 
 1819, then one by Gaimard taken from the mouth of 
 a Tasmanian woman with an Englishman as an inter- 
 preter, at King George's Sound, then one by Mr. Geary, 
 published by Dr. Lhotsky in the transactions of the 
 Geographical Society (vol. ix.) ; and lastly one, procured 
 by R. Brown, representing nearly the same dialect as 
 that of La Billardiere. 
 
 The following, however, from the Tasmanian Jour- 
 nal of Natural History, contains more than all put to- 
 gether, and, for practical purposes, all we have. For 
 which reason it is given in extenso. 
 
 English. 
 
 East. 
 
 West. 
 
 South. 
 
 North. 
 
 Uncertain. 
 
 Albatross 
 
 
 
 
 
 tarrina 
 
 
 Arm 
 
 
 altree 
 
 
 
 gouna houana 
 
 Bad 
 
 Badger 
 
 Bandicoot 
 
 publedina 
 padina 
 
 
 ' carty 
 . peindriga 
 
 lennira 
 
 ^ probaluthin 
 ( probylathany 
 
 Baric 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 tolin6 
 
 Basket 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 terri 
 
 Beach 
 
 
 
 minna 
 
 
 quenitigna 
 
 Beard 
 Belly 
 
 minlean 
 
 cawereeny 
 
 
 ( lomongui 
 < tamongui 
 
 canguin^ 
 > mackalenna 
 
 Belonging to 
 
 
 
 { morangui 
 
 patourana 
 
1 
 
 
 TASMANIAN. 
 
 
 363 
 
 l«. 
 
 East. 
 
 West. 
 
 South. 
 
 North. 
 
 Uncertain. 
 
 Bird 
 
 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 mouta-mmita 
 
 Blackmail 
 
 -. 
 
 
 palewaredia 
 
 
 
 Blacl-en 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 langnoiri 
 
 Bleed 
 
 
 
 kenna teewa 
 
 
 
 Blush 
 
 wadebeweanna — — 
 
 
 
 
 Boat 
 
 luirapeny 
 
 lallaby 
 
 
 
 luiropay 
 
 (native) 
 
 
 
 pokak 
 
 
 S luiropay 
 \ picanini 
 
 Bone 
 
 
 
 Teewandrick 
 
 
 
 Boy 
 
 plerenny 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 /7-«7 X fcuckana 
 (^^^^^^)iludawinna| 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bread 
 
 towereela 
 
 
 
 
 
 Breast 
 
 wagley 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' workalenna 
 lere-laidene 
 
 Brother 
 
 pleragenana 
 
 
 
 
 
 BiillocJcs 
 
 
 backalow 
 
 
 
 bacala 
 
 Burn 
 
 
 
 maranneck 
 
 
 
 
 Bush or grass 
 
 
 
 
 
 womy 
 
 Cape Gh'inim 
 
 
 pilree 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cat 
 
 largana 
 
 noperena 
 
 
 
 
 Cave 
 
 
 
 
 pootark 
 
 
 
 
 Cheeh 
 
 
 
 nobittaka 
 
 
 
 Chief 
 
 bimgana 
 
 
 
 
 
 Child 
 
 badany 
 
 
 leewoon 
 
 
 pagarai 
 
 Children 
 
 
 
 
 looweinna \ 
 pickaninny j 
 
 
 Chin 
 
 camena 
 
 
 
 
 anaha haouha 
 
 Circular 
 Head 
 
 
 martula 
 
 
 
 
 Cloud (white 
 
 ) 
 
 
 pona 
 
 
 
 
 (black) 
 
 
 
 roona 
 
 
 
 Coal 
 
 
 
 
 
 conora 
 
 Coal dust 
 
 
 
 
 
 lolra 
 
 Cockatoo 
 
 
 
 
 eribba 
 
 
 Cold 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' tenna 
 ranana 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Come 
 
 tepera 
 
 ganemerara 
 
 tarrabilyie 
 
 
 togannera 
 
 Coj'robory (v) 
 
 
 
 terra gomna 
 
 
 Country , 
 round ' 
 
 
 ( wallantanal- 
 ( inany 
 
 
 
 
 Covering 
 
 legunia 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Coio 
 
 cateena 
 
 
 
 
 
 Crackle 
 
 
 
 
 
 tanina 
 
 Crooked 
 
 powena 
 
 
 
 
 
 Croio 
 
 
 nanapalla 
 
 
 lind 
 
 
 Cry 
 
 
 
 
 
 targa 
 
 
 Crystal 
 
 
 
 keeka 
 
 heka 
 
 
 Day 
 
 lanena 
 
 
 loina 
 
 loyowibba 
 
 
364 
 
 TASMANIAN VOCABULARIES. 
 
 English, 
 
 East. 
 
 Day (a) 
 
 magra 
 
 (to) 
 
 waldeapowel 
 
 {fine) 
 
 lutregala 
 
 "West. 
 
 Dead 
 
 Devil 
 
 comtena 
 
 Die 
 
 
 Dim 
 
 
 Dog {native) 
 
 
 {British) 
 
 Door 
 
 
 Drake 
 
 lamilbena 
 
 {wild) 
 
 malbena 
 
 Dress 
 
 legunia 
 
 Drinl 
 
 leguna 
 
 Drops of rain 
 
 Di-y 
 
 catrebuteany 
 
 Ear 
 
 pelverata 
 
 Earth 
 
 gunta 
 
 Eat 
 
 
 Eggs 
 
 
 
 Elbow 
 
 rowella 
 
 Ermi 
 
 rekuna 
 
 Evacuate 
 
 legana 
 
 patanela 
 
 loputallow 
 
 Eye 
 
 Eyebrow 
 
 Face 
 
 Family 
 
 Fare 
 
 Father 
 
 Feathers 
 
 Fetch 
 
 Fighi 
 
 Finger 
 
 Finger {fore) 
 
 Fire 
 
 Fish 
 
 Fist 
 
 lepena 
 
 niparam 
 
 munlamana 
 
 munwaddia 
 
 patarola 
 
 trew 
 
 lewlina 
 
 poUatoola 
 
 manrable 
 
 tatana 
 
 lopa 
 
 South, 
 
 f lowatka, v. 
 
 (lowatka, p. 
 rargeropper 
 namneberick 
 
 lowdina 
 mooboa 
 temminoop 
 
 North. 
 
 talba 
 
 towrick 
 
 meenawa 
 
 rinadena 
 
 cowanngga 
 
 ( newinna 
 
 \ (gibbee) 
 
 palinna 
 
 leemanrick namericca 
 
 leelberrick 
 
 bringden 
 
 motook 
 unee 
 \ lopa 
 
 ( unee \ 
 
 Uncertain, 
 moogara 
 
 mata 
 buguee 
 
 laina laima 
 
 blatheraway 
 cuegnilia 
 vaiguiouagui 
 coantana 
 tuwie, dodoni 
 malquera topani 
 
 laedae 
 crowdo 
 nubere 
 nubamibere 
 
 tagarilia 
 
 ardoungui 
 
 ringeny 
 
 lorildri beguia 
 logui 
 
 wighana or 
 poper, nvhe 
 penunina 
 penungana 
 
 reannemara 
 
TASMANIAN VOCABULARIES. 
 
 English. 
 
 East. 
 
 ^lame 
 
 
 rimer 
 
 
 
 hy 
 
 
 \- {blow) 
 
 
 flying 
 
 pinega 
 
 p'cetm 
 
 leward 
 
 ^og 
 
 muna 
 
 foot 
 
 langaaa 
 
 frog 
 
 pulbena 
 
 frost 
 
 ulta 
 
 pirl 
 
 ludineny 
 
 
 ( cuckana 
 
 West. 
 
 South. 
 
 lula 
 
 labittaka 
 
 North. 
 
 paraka 
 
 mounga 
 
 labrica 
 
 ,,. , ^ ( cucKana ) 
 <«'«'<=) (ludmeny } 
 
 fo on 
 
 lOo home 
 hod 
 
 Grass tree 
 
 Great 
 
 Ground 
 
 Gull 
 
 Gun 
 
 tabelty 
 
 naracoopa 
 robenganna 
 
 tack any 
 pandorga 
 
 Jmulu \ 
 
 \ manginie | 
 
 haku-tettiga 
 
 rodidana 
 coratlienana 
 
 gunta 
 
 rowenanna 
 
 lUa 
 
 myna or megra neena 
 
 nala 
 lola 
 
 365 
 
 Uncertain, 
 
 weealeena oelle 
 lugna pere 
 
 1 tringena mava 
 < teannie mare- 
 { doungui 
 f jackay (?) 
 \ tangara 
 
 ( wome roonina 
 1 poSne nimene 
 
 lackrana 
 
 longa 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I keelana 
 
 Hair 
 
 cethana 
 
 r palanma or ^ 
 " _ pareata 
 
 
 parba 
 
 < pelilogueni 
 \ peliogirigoni 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 [ henimenna 
 
 Hand 
 
 anamana 
 
 
 
 
 rabalga 
 
 < rilia 
 
 [ reegna ri riri 
 
 Hawk 
 
 pueta 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 {eagle) 
 
 eugenana 
 
 
 
 cowenna 
 
 cockinna 
 
 
 Head 
 
 pathenanadd 
 
 li pulbeany 
 
 
 awittaka 
 
 ewucka 
 
 
 Here 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 lomi 
 
 High 
 
 ma 
 
 
 
 
 neika 
 
 
 weeticita 
 
 Horse 
 
 baricutana 
 
 
 
 
 
 parwothana 
 
 Hunt 
 
 
 
 
 poopu 
 
 
 mulaga 
 
 Hut 
 
 leprena 
 
 
 
 ( temma 
 ( poporook 
 
 tama lebirinna 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 ■ mena 
 . manga 
 
 — - 
 
 f meena 
 \ mana 
 
 Island 
 
 leurewagera 
 
 
 
 
 
 leareaway 
 
366 
 
 TASMANIAN VOCABULARIES. 
 
 English. 
 
 East 
 
 West. 
 
 South. 
 
 North. 
 
 Uncertain. 
 
 Island J 
 {large) S 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 laibrenala • 
 
 
 
 
 
 Kangaroo \ 
 (inale) < 
 
 
 lemmook 
 
 lalliga 
 
 ) lathakar 
 \ leigli lenna, 
 
 {female) 
 
 
 lurgu 
 
 
 
 {pouch) kigranana 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 {rat) 
 
 reprenana 
 
 
 
 
 
 {sJcin) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 boira tara 
 
 Kill 
 
 
 
 
 wanga 
 
 
 manglie 
 
 King 
 
 bungana 
 
 
 
 
 
 Knee 
 
 nannabenana 
 
 
 
 
 ■ ragualia 
 . rouga rouga 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Know 
 
 
 
 ( tunapee 
 
 I manga-namraga . 
 
 tunapry 
 labberie 
 
 Lad 
 
 plerenny 
 
 
 _. — 
 
 
 
 Large 
 
 
 
 marinook 
 
 
 
 Laugh 
 
 
 
 
 tenalga 
 
 
 Leg 
 
 lathanama 
 
 leea 
 
 
 
 ■ lagana 
 
 ■ erai 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lie {verb) 
 
 
 
 katenna 
 
 
 towlangang 
 
 Light 
 
 
 
 
 
 tretetea 
 
 Lightning 
 
 
 
 nammorgun 
 
 
 
 
 Lips 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 mogudelia 
 
 Little 
 
 ■ canara or \ 
 curena j 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lobster 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 nuele 
 
 Long way 
 or time 
 
 }- 
 
 
 manta 
 
 
 relbia 
 
 Love 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 loyetea 
 
 Low 
 
 
 
 
 
 lewter 
 
 Magpie 
 
 canara 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Mahe 
 
 
 — :- 
 
 
 
 pomale 
 
 Man 
 
 ludowing 
 
 
 periTia 
 
 penna (wybra) 
 
 {old) 
 
 ' lowlobengang 
 I or pebleganana 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 
 Many 
 
 
 
 
 nanwoon 
 
 
 tagalinga 
 
 spears 
 
 
 
 
 
 prennatagaling 
 
 Mersey River 
 
 paranaple 
 
 
 
 
 Moon 
 
 lutand 
 
 weena 
 
 weipa 
 
 webba 
 
 luina weedina 
 
 Mosquito 
 
 
 
 
 redpa 
 
 
 
 Mother 
 
 powamena 
 
 pa.Tnena 
 
 
 
 
 
 Mountain 
 
 truwalla 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Mouth 
 
 youtantalabana canea 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 1 weenina 
 I mougui 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Muscles 
 
 .\ — 
 
 
 
 
 mire.mine-mine 
 
 MuMort, {bird) youla 
 
 laninyua 
 
TASMANIAN VOCABULARIES. 
 
 367 
 
 English 
 
 Nails 
 
 Navel 
 
 NecTc 
 
 Night 
 
 No 
 
 Nose 
 
 Nurse 
 
 Oak 
 
 Oar 
 
 Old 
 
 One 
 
 East. 
 
 lepera 
 leware 
 
 lemana 
 
 petibela 
 
 milabena 
 
 West. 
 
 denia 
 
 Other 
 
 Oysters 
 
 Parrot 
 
 Pelican 
 
 Pillow 
 
 Pipe 
 
 Plant 
 
 Plenty 
 
 Porcupine 
 
 Porpoise 
 
 Port Son^el 
 
 PiU away 
 
 Rain 
 
 River 
 
 {large) 
 
 Rivulet 
 
 Rods 
 
 Rojye 
 
 Round (tv/m) mabea 
 Run (verb) moltema 
 
 Sand 
 
 Say 
 
 Scold 
 
 Scorches {it me) 
 
 Scrape {wood) 
 
 Sea 
 
 Sea-weed 
 
 See 
 
 taralanorana 
 
 trewdina 
 
 mena 
 
 trewmena 
 
 warthanina 
 waddamana 
 montumana 
 
 panatana 
 
 nabowla 
 
 mella 
 emita 
 
 cartela 
 
 Seal 
 
 Sharpen 
 
 Sheep nemiwaddinana rulemena 
 
 Shew 
 
 South. 
 
 rorook 
 pootsa 
 rowick 
 ^ makrie J 
 
 North, 
 
 meenamru 
 
 panna 
 
 naba 
 murrock 
 
 nanwoon 
 menna 
 
 taddiwa 
 
 caracca 
 lanaba 
 
 milma 
 parappa 
 
 talawa 
 
 tagowawmna 
 
 kenweika 
 
 nirnpa 
 
 roorga 
 
 lapree 
 
 manga namraja 
 
 keekawa 
 
 neethoba 
 \ lamunika 
 
 Vncertain. 
 pereloJd 
 lue 
 
 leewarry 
 poobyer, nudi 
 mongui mongui 
 
 parmery 
 paunera 
 
 louha or toba 
 mola 
 
 terre 
 cardia 
 
 parragoa 
 
 magog 
 patbana 
 
 reugnie 
 
 carne 
 
 peun-meena 
 I rina-nnigri 
 \ rouigri 
 
 lapey 
 
368 
 
 English. 
 
 Ship 
 
 Shoulders 
 
 Shout 
 
 Sick 
 
 Side (one) 
 
 Sit 
 
 Sit you down 
 
 Sh/ - 
 
 Sleep 
 
 Small 
 
 Snake 
 
 oldina 
 
 East, 
 luiropony 
 
 camey 
 
 crackenicka 
 
 TASMANIAN VOCABULARIES. 
 
 West. South. North. 
 
 cawella 
 
 meevenany 
 loila 
 
 Soon 
 
 Spear 
 
 Stars 
 
 (little) 
 
 Stone 
 
 Stop 
 
 Strike 
 
 Strong 
 
 Sulky 
 
 Sun 
 
 Swan 
 Swiftly 
 
 palaua 
 lenigugana 
 lenicarpeny 
 neckaproiny 
 
 kalipianna 
 ratairareny 
 
 petreanna 
 
 f robigana "1 
 \ wubia J 
 
 yanna 
 
 Tattoo 
 Teeth 
 
 Tell 
 
 They {he, her, 
 
 them or that) 
 
 Thigh 
 
 This 
 
 Throw away 
 
 Thumb 
 
 Thunder 
 
 Tiger 
 
 Tongue 
 
 Tree 
 
 Two 
 
 Waddy 
 
 Wake 
 
 Walk 
 
 nabageena 
 publee 
 
 yannolople 
 tula 
 
 tuUana 
 
 crackena 
 
 roroowu 
 teeboack 
 
 crackena 
 
 loina 
 
 nicka 
 
 wan 
 nawaun 
 
 toronna 
 
 powranna 
 
 poiranapry 
 
 rugga raccah (s) 
 
 moorden murdunnab 
 
 loyna 
 cocha 
 
 lowerinna 
 niamana 
 
 lerga rocah 
 lowenruppa 
 
 (tabelty) 
 
 Uncertain. 
 
 hagny bagny 
 
 raeenattie 
 maubia 
 megH mere 
 medi 
 
 i malougna or lo- 
 ( gouan 
 
 prenna (v & s) 
 
 lonna loine 
 rogueri toidi 
 
 workalenna 
 pajanooboya 
 panubere 
 
 catagunya 
 
 r woorangitie 
 L penutita 
 
 palere 
 
 pegui canan 
 
 came 
 
 I para way 
 Xpegara paguera 
 
 peragui 
 calabawa boula 
 
 tawie mogor 
 
TASMANIAN VOCABULARIES. 
 
 369 
 
 English. East. West. 
 
 Walking 
 
 Wallaby tablety 
 
 Was 
 
 Warm, 
 
 Water (fresh) legani lerui mogo 
 
 Water-bag 
 
 White-man ,-r- — 
 
 Wind 
 
 Wing 
 
 Woman (lubia) 
 
 (old) lowlapewanna 
 
 Wombai 
 
 South. 
 
 Wood 
 
 Yes 
 
 Yonder 
 
 weela 
 
 nitipa 
 
 numeraredia 
 lee wan 
 lappa 
 
 North. 
 ( teiriga ^ 
 (tablee S 
 
 tanah 
 
 moka 
 
 loyoranna 
 
 Uncertain, 
 tolo magara 
 
 tara lo cougane 
 
 crackne 
 ( lini mocha 
 V roti 
 
 moclia carty 
 regaa 
 
 (lubia) lurga lolna (lubia) quanipatarana 
 
 watka 
 
 nana 
 ninga 
 
 quoiba I 
 walliga ' 
 
 renave 
 narapa nina 
 neenie. 
 
 The following, like the extracts of the preceding chap- 
 ter, are from an earlier paper (indeed from the one which 
 gave the others), and are inserted upon the same prin- 
 ciple, and with the same excuse for their incomplete- 
 
 ness. 
 
 Port JDalrijmple and King George's Sound (Nind and Astrol. :)— Wound, 
 barana, P. D. ; bareuJc, N. : wood, moumbra, P. D. ; p&urn, N. ; hair, 
 l-ide, P. D. ; kaat, N. : thigh, degagla, P. D. ; tawal, N. : kangaroo, 
 tarameif P. D. ; taainoiir, N. : lips, mona, P. D. ; mele, K. Gt. S. : no, 
 pouiie, P. D. ; poualt, poort, K. G. S. : egg, Tcomelca, P. D. ; kierl-ee, 
 K. G. S. : bone, j^nale, P. D. ; nouil, K. Gr. S. (bone of bird used to suck 
 up water) N. : skin, Tcidna, P. D. ; hiao ? K. G. S. : two, kateboueve, P. D. ; 
 kadjen, K. G. S. (N.). Fifty-six words in common. 
 
 Po7't Dahymjile and Gulf St. Vincent. — Mouth, mona, P. D. ; tamonde, 
 G. S. V. (a compound word, since taa is mouth, in K. G. S.) : drink, kible, 
 P. D, ; kaive, G. S. V. : arm, an7ne, P. D. ; aondo (also shoulder), G, S. V. : 
 hawk, gan henen henen, P. D. ; nanno, G. S. V. : hunger, tigate, P. D. ; 
 takiou, G. S. V. : head, eloura, P. D. ; ioullo, G. S. V. : nose, medouer 
 (mula), P. D. ; modla, G. S. V. : bird, iola, pallo, G. S. V. : stone, lenn 
 parenne, P. D. ; poure ? G. S. V. : foot, dogna, P. D. ; tenna, G. S. V. : 
 sun, tegoura (also moon), P. D. ; tendo, G. S. V. Seventy words in com- 
 mon. 
 
 B B 
 
370 
 
 TASMANIAN. 
 
 Port Dalrymple and Jerds's Bay. — Wound, barana, P. D. ; Tcaranra, 
 J, B. : tooth, iane, P. D. ; ira, J. B. : skin, kidna, P. D. ; hagano, J. B. : 
 foot, dogna, P. D. ; tona {tjenne, tidna, jeena), J. B. : head, eloura, P. D. ; 
 hollo, J. B, Fifty-four words in common. 
 
 What follows is a notice of some miscellaneous 
 coincidences between the Van Dieman's Land and the 
 Australian. 
 
 English. 
 
 Van Dieman's Land. 
 
 Australia. 
 
 Ears 
 
 cuengilia, 1803 
 
 gundugeli, Menero Downs 
 
 Thigh 
 
 tula, Lh. 
 
 dara, Menero Downs 
 
 Stone 
 
 S pure, Adel. 
 \ voye, K. G. S. 
 
 lenn parene, P. D. 
 
 Breast 
 
 pienenana, Lh. 
 
 voyene, Menero Downs 
 
 Skin 
 
 kidna, P.D. 
 
 makundo, Teichelman 
 
 Day 
 
 megra, Lh. 
 
 nangeri, Menero Downs 
 
 Run 
 
 mella, Lh. 
 
 monri, Menero Downs 
 
 Feet 
 
 perre, D. C. 
 
 birre, generally toe-nail 
 
 Little 
 
 bodenevoued, P. D. 
 
 baddoeen. Grey 
 
 Lip 
 
 mona, P. D. 
 
 tameno {upper lip), ditto. [mar 
 
 Egg 
 
 komeka, P. D. 
 
 muka, egg, anything round, Teichel- 
 
 Tree 
 
 moumra, P. D. 
 
 worra (forest), Teichelman 
 
 Mouth 
 Tongue 
 Tooth 
 
 f kamy, Cook. 
 i kane, P. D. 
 
 ( speak ) 
 kame < mouth > Jervis's Bay 
 
 Speak 
 
 ( cry ) 
 
 Leg 
 
 darra, P. J. 
 
 lerai 
 
 Knee 
 
 gorook, ditto. 
 
 ronga, D. C. 
 
 Moon 
 
 tegoura, P. D. 
 
 kakirra, Teichelman 
 
 Nose 
 
 medouer, P. D. 
 
 V mudla, ditto 
 I moolya, Grey 
 
 Hawk 
 
 gan henen henen, P. D. 
 
 gargyre, ditto 
 
 Hunger 
 
 tegate, P. D. 
 
 taityo, Teichelman 
 
 Laugh 
 
 pigne, P. D. 
 
 mengk, Grey 
 
 Moon 
 
 vena, 1835 
 
 yennadah, P. J. 
 
 Day 
 
 megra, 1835 
 
 karmarroo, ditto 
 
 Fire 
 
 une, 1803 
 
 yong, ditto 
 
 Dew 
 
 manghelena, rain 
 
 menniemoolong 
 ( neylucka, Murray, P. D. 
 
 Water 
 
 boue lakade 
 
 < bado, ditto 
 ( lucka, Carpentarian. 
 
 Papuan affinities of the Tasmanian. 
 
 Feet 
 
 Beard kongine 
 
 C perre 
 
 \ perelia (nails) 
 
 petiran, Carteret Bay 
 
 J gangapouni, WaigiH 
 \ yenga, MallicoUo 
 

 
 TASMANIAN. 3 / 1 
 
 Bird 
 
 mouta 
 
 manouk, Mallicolh 
 
 Chin 
 
 kamnena 
 
 gambape, WaigiH 
 
 Tooth 
 
 ( canan 
 < iane 
 ( yane 
 
 gani, movth, Waigiu 
 
 insik, teeth, Port Praslin, Mallicolh 
 
 Sand 
 
 gune 
 
 coon, yean 
 
 Wood 
 Tree 
 
 |gui 
 
 kaibus, Pap. and Mallicollo 
 
 Ear 
 
 koyge 
 
 gaaineng, New Caledonia 
 
 Mouth 
 
 mougui 
 
 wangue and mouanguia 
 
 Arm 
 
 houana, gouna 
 
 pingue 
 
 Shoulders 
 
 . S bagny ) 
 ' \ taguy j 
 
 bouheigha 
 
 Fire 
 
 nuba 
 
 afi, Mepp, nap, Mallicollo 
 
 Knees 
 
 rangalia 
 rouga 
 
 banguiligha 
 
 Dead 
 
 mata 
 
 mackie 
 
 No 
 
 neudi 
 
 nola 
 
 Ears 
 
 cuegni-lia 
 
 guening 
 
 Nails 
 
 pereloigni 
 
 pihingui 
 
 Hair 
 
 pelilogueni 
 
 bouling, poun ingue 
 
 Teeth 
 
 pegui 
 
 ( penoungha 
 1 paou wangne 
 
 Fingers 
 
 beguia 
 
 badouheigha 
 
 Nose 
 
 mongiii 
 
 mandec, vanding 
 
 Sleep 
 
 makunya 
 
 kingo. 
 
 The Tasmanian, with its four dialects, is spoken by 
 fewer than fifty individuals, occupants of Flinders 
 Island, to which they have been removed. 
 
 B B 2 
 
372 OCEANIC LANGUAGES 
 
 CHAPTER LIV. 
 
 Review of the preceding Class. — Its Characteristics, Divisions, and Value. — 
 The so-called Negritos. 
 
 The details of a large group being now done with we 
 may take a retrospect of the class at large. 
 
 The first thing which commands attention is its thorough 
 insular or oceanic character ; on the strength of which 
 those who choose to give it a general name may call it 
 the Oceanic class. Subordinate to this is the remarkable 
 distribution of some of its members ; even when treated 
 as Oceanic. Easter Island is nearer to America, Mada- 
 gascar nearer to Africa than to Asia. Formosa, on the 
 other hand, is in the latitude of China and on the verge 
 of the Japanese waters. The small islands that lie im- 
 mediately to the North of it end in a compound of sima, 
 which, in Japanese, means island. 
 
 In no one out of the thousand and one islands and 
 islets in which the preceding dialects are spoken, are 
 there any clear and undoubted signs of any older popu- 
 lation than the speakers of the present languages, dialects 
 and subdialects, in their oldest form. I say clear and 
 undoubted, because, in some, they have been either inferred 
 or presumed — it may be on reasonable grounds. The 
 strongest presumptions (not unaccompanied by evidence) 
 in favour of anything of this kind are in Formosa. 
 
 In one great division of the group (i. e. in Polynesia 
 Proper) the diffusion has been decidedly recent ; this 
 
m GENERAL. 373 
 
 being an inference from the great uniformity with which 
 the language is spoken from the Sandwich Islands to 
 New Zealand, from Easter Island to Ticopia. 
 
 That the line of migration for Micronesia and Polynesia 
 was round the Papuan area rather than across it was 
 suggested by Forster. His suggestion, however, has been 
 but imperfectly recognized, so that some writers have 
 unconsciously re-discovered it, and others have speculated 
 from a point of view which they would never have 
 taken had the investigations of that able man been fami- 
 liar to them. In blaming others for this neglect the 
 present writer by no means exculpates himself. 
 
 Of the difference between the Oceanic tongues 
 and those continental forms of speech which lie 
 nearest to them, in the way of geography, too much has 
 been made. Of the continental languages those which 
 are the most monosyllabic, accentuate, and (to European 
 ears) cacophonic, (such as the Burmese and the Chinese,) 
 are those which are the best known in Europe, while, 
 on the other hand, it is the Malay and the Javanese, with 
 their soft sounds, their dissyllabic and polysyllabic voca- 
 bles, and their liquid articulations, which have commanded 
 the most attention. In the Manillas and Madagascar a 
 comparatively complex grammar adds to the elements 
 of contrast. 
 
 That the difference is considerable cannot be denied. 
 The remark, however, upon the extinction of the 
 nearest congener to the Malay, which was made at the 
 beginning of our exposition, helps to account for it. 
 
 Another series of facts that calls for a few remarks 
 lies in the domain of the ethnologist rather than in that 
 of the pure philologue — a series of facts suggested by a 
 term that has been used more than once — viz. Negrito. 
 That the Papuans, and that the Australians are of that 
 colour which the name Negro, as applied to the African, 
 suggests, is well known. As they are not yellow, and 
 as hrown, maroon, chocolate, and the like, are by no 
 
374 OCEANIC LANGUAGES 
 
 means current terms in Geography, we call them some- 
 what laxly, and somewhat too generailiy, Blacks. And Black 
 let them — ^largely and generally — be called. The mam 
 fact connected with their colour lies in the real or sup- 
 posed existence of men and women of the same dark 
 hue, not only in New Holland and New Guinea, but in 
 certain islands of the Indian Archipelago. In what 
 particular islands they are to be found, and what shade 
 of darkness those that are found actually exhibit, is a 
 matter upon which it is difficult to obtain precise in- 
 formation. Twenty or thirty years ago, these indi- 
 viduals — individuals who may conveniently be called 
 the Blacks of the Malay area — were ascribed to almost 
 every island in the Archipelago with the exception of 
 Java. As the islands, however, have become better 
 known, the Blacks have become conspicuous from their 
 non-existence ; the real fact being that in certain localities 
 certain tribes are, at one and the same time, ruder than 
 the rest, more pagan than the rest, darker-skinned, and 
 (in some cases) worse-fed, than the rest. Of the Blacks 
 of the Philippines (the only group wherein their absolute 
 non-existence has not been demonstrated) this is (in all 
 probability) the most that can be said — in other words, 
 it may safely be stated, that the existence of a variety of 
 mankind forming a class to which the term Negrito can 
 either scientifically or conveniently apply is imaginary. 
 How far the same applies to the Samangs of the main- 
 land remains to be seen. Of the Andaman islanders, 
 for the philology of the present group, no cognizance 
 need be taken. Their affinities are with the Mon and 
 Burmese. 
 
 Now, however unreal this Negrito element in the 
 Indian Archipelago may be, it is clear that, so long as it 
 is assumed, it must serve as a basis for a good deal of 
 hypothetical speculation. In the first place, the lan- 
 guages which go with it run a great chance of being 
 separated from their geographical neighbours on a priori 
 
IN GENERAL. 375 
 
 grounds. And on a priori grounds this separation has 
 been imagin'ed. After what has been stated, it is need- 
 less to add that it has no existence. The Umiray, the 
 San Matheo, and the Dun^agat forms of speech are, eo 
 norriine, Negrito, and ed lingua akin to the Tagala or 
 the ordinary Phib'ppine : as may be seen by either the 
 cursory inspection of them supplied by the present work, 
 or a reference to the fuller vocabulary of Steen Bille's 
 Voyage of the Galath^e, from which (the only authority 
 for the class) they are taken. 
 
 In respect to the relations borne by the Papuan lan- 
 guages to the Australian, and those borne by the lan- 
 guages of the two groups (taken together) with the 
 Malay and Polynesian (in the ordinary sense of the terms), 
 this same difference of physical conformation (which 
 is to a great extent real) has had a similar effect in en- 
 gendering guess-work. The statement that, between 
 the Black tongues and the Brown or Yellow there is 
 no affinity, is simply a crudity uttered upon a prioH 
 grounds by authorities who ought to have been more 
 cautious. There are plenty of affinities. What they are 
 worth is another question. Whatever the Papuan and 
 Australian languages may be like, or unlike, they are 
 more like one another than aught else ; they are, also, 
 more like the Malay and Polynesian, however little or 
 great that likeness may be. Whether great or small, 
 however, there is some likeness. 
 
 And, in like manner, whether the likeness be little or 
 much, the Malay languages are liker to the southern 
 members of the monosyllabic class than to any other 
 forms of speech. Indian affinities they may have, and 
 Turanian affinities they may have, but they have only 
 these so far as they have them through the interjacent 
 tongues, or else through being in either the same, or a 
 similar, stage of development. Common sense suggests 
 this, and observation verifies it. 
 
 That the class is a natural one is admitted ; the 
 
376 OCEANIC LANGUAGES 
 
 only doubt being whether it be not too large a one. In 
 other words, it may be a congeries of three or tv»^o classes 
 rather than a single group. The present writer, whilst 
 he insists upon its being single, admits that it is a class 
 of a high ordinal value ; what that value is being unde- 
 termined. It falls into two primary divisions : — 
 
 The first contains the Malay, the word being used so 
 as to include everything from the Siamese frontier to 
 Formosa on the north and the islands beyond Timor 
 to the east. In this, the Malagasi and Formosan are 
 extreme, or aberrant, divisions : the remainder being 
 grouped round Flores, round Celebes, and round Min- 
 doro, as centres, and the principle of classification being 
 that of type rather than definition. The ordinary way 
 of taking the Malay as a starting-point is inconvenient : 
 inasmuch as, the Malay is an extreme rather than a 
 central form of speech. 
 
 The second division of the group begins with Lord 
 North's Island, and ends in the parts between the 
 Kingsraill group and the Samoan Archipelago, contain- 
 ing, inter alia, the Ladrones and Carolines, i. e. Micro- 
 nesia. That the Tobi and Pelew languages (the former 
 apparently with special affinities to the XJlea) belong to 
 this rather than to the Philippines is an inference from 
 the few data we possess : the Pelew being a very out- 
 lying language. That the class ends exactly at the 
 Navigators' Islands is scarcely a safe assertion. That 
 the Kingsmill (or Tarawan) dialects belong to it, and 
 that the Samoan does not, is all that is absolutely cer- 
 tain. It may be added that, in other respects, i. e. on 
 ethnological grounds, the group is a natural one. It 
 is one, however, for which we are greatly in want of 
 data, I know of no grammar for Micronesia ; and, al- 
 though it is nearly certain that more is known in Spain 
 about the Ladrone and Caroline dialects than is current 
 amongst philologues, I know of no written compositions 
 or carefully-constructed vocabularies. 
 
IN GENERAL. 377 
 
 Witli the Navigators' Islands, or the Samoan Archi- 
 pelago, the third class, or that containing Polynesia 
 Proper, begins : the Nukahivan being more especially 
 Samoan, and the Hawaian of the Sandwich Islands 
 being more particularly Nukahivan. Then come the 
 Society and Friendly Islands, forming the central mass, 
 from which Paumoto (Dangerous Archipelago), Easter 
 Island, Rarotonga, the Austral Islands, and New Zea- 
 land — each in their several directions — seem to have 
 been peopled ; with Ticopia, Rotuma, Ilea, &c., as offsets 
 in the West. The minute detail of all this has been 
 carefully investigated by able philologues, missionary and 
 lay ; indeed the amount of material collected for Poly- 
 nesia Proper stands in a favourable contrast to the scanti- 
 ness of our data for Micronesia. 
 
 The ordinal value of the Polynesian class is as low 
 as that of the Turk ; and, if we allow for the difference 
 between a wide diffusion over a continent and a wide 
 diffusion over an ocean, it is with the Turks that the 
 Polynesians must be compared. They have spread both 
 recently and rapidly. In the Micronesian and Malay 
 groups there must be some five or six sections, each of 
 which is of as high an ordinal value as all Polynesia. 
 On the other hand, it is possible that the oldest island 
 beyond the Samoan Archipelago has received its popula- 
 tion from the Navigators' Islands subsequent to the date 
 of the settlement of the Norwegians in Iceland. 
 
 The second grand class may be called Keleno7iesian, 
 (a term which is preferable on etymological grounds to 
 Melanesian,) or the class appertaining to the islands 
 with a dark-skinned population. Of this enough has 
 been said already. It falls into two or three primary 
 divisions as the case may be — certainly into the 
 Papuan and Australian, perhaps into the Papuan, the 
 Australian, and the Tasmanian. 
 
 The Polynesians went round Kelenonesia ; and, ac- 
 cording to many good authorities, the Fijis give us an 
 
878 OCEANIC LANGUAGES 
 
 area where the two streams met. Individually, I think 
 that the Papuan element in their dialects has been over- 
 valued. I commit myself, however, to no decided opinion. 
 The Fiji group was, therefore, dealt with by itself, and 
 the chief Papuan affinities (taken wholly from Gabelentz) 
 which its vocabularies exhibited were given somewhat 
 fully. 
 
 Each of the Kelenonesian groups (even if we take in 
 the Tasmanian as a primary one) is of high ordinal 
 value, especially when it is compared, or contrasted, with 
 the Polynesian Proper, to which it stands much in the 
 same relation as the Ugrian does to the Turk, Mongol, or 
 Tungus. This is an inference not only from certain ex- 
 treme forms but from the decided contrasts which certain 
 languages of islands in close geographical relations to each 
 other present. That certain phenomena of transition will 
 occur when the forms of speech from the central parts of 
 New Guinea become known is what may reasonably be 
 expected. Still, the extremes will remain as distant 
 from one another as before ; and so will the chasms in 
 the interjacent area. As it is, the New Guinea lan- 
 guages appear to constitute a group equivalent to all the 
 rest put together ; beyond which the Soloman Islands, 
 the New Hebrides, the Loyalty Islands, and New Cale- 
 donia, form three subordinate divisions of a second class, 
 themselves falling into sections and sub-sections. With 
 data, however, so scanty as those which we possess, no 
 arrangements can be other than provisional ; so that it is 
 only on the principle that truth comes more easily out 
 of error than out of confusion that the previous classi- 
 fication has been suggested. 
 
 That the grammatical structure of the Papuan lan- 
 guages has been credited with certain remarkable cha- 
 racteristics — characteristics of sufficient importance to 
 be set against a considerable amount of glossarial co- 
 incidence — has already been stated. I think, however, 
 that much of their value depends upon their novelty. 
 
IN GENERAL. 379 
 
 Gabelentz, with whom any investigator must differ with 
 hesitation, lays manifest stress upon two points — the 
 quinary character of the Papuan numeration and the 
 system of personal pronouns. But the former is a nega- 
 tive, rather than a positive, character — all the more so 
 from the fact of the five numerals as far as they go, 
 being undeniably and admittedly both Malay and Poly- 
 nesian. 
 
 With the personal pronouns the matter is less simple. 
 They present two phenomena ; ( I ) the so-called Exclusive 
 and Inclusive forms, and (2) the so-called Trinal num- 
 ber. 
 
 Of these the Annatom gives a fair example ; where 
 
 Ainyak = / 
 Akaijan =^you two + / 
 Ajumrau = you two — I 
 Akataij = you three + / 
 
 Aijumtaij = you three 
 Akaija = you + / 
 Aijama = you — /. 
 
 That these are rare ways of speaking cannot be 
 denied. Few persons in English care to say how many 
 persons they address, or yet to say whether they are 
 themselves included in what is said. What, hov/ever, 
 are such expressions as nos otros, vos otros, in Spanish, 
 and nui altri, vui altri in Sardinian, but plurals, which 
 (whatever they may be at the present time) are exclu- 
 sive in their origin ? It can scarcely, however, be said 
 that these are inflections. 
 
 And the same applies to the so-called trinal number. 
 Who calls vje three, in English, a Number at all, i. e. a 
 Number in the technical and grammatical sense of the 
 word ? Who even calls us two a Dual ? Yet that 
 the Papuan Trinal is neither more nor less than this is 
 plain from the following forms in the MallicoUo : — 
 
 Kba-miihl = you two 
 Na-taroi = you three 
 Na-tavatz = yo^i four 
 Dra-tin = we three 
 Dra-tovatz = toe four. 
 
 Inau = / 
 
 
 
 
 Khai-iin = 
 Na-ii = he 
 
 you 
 
 
 
 Na-muhl i 
 Drivan j 
 
 = we 
 
 two 
 
 1 exclusive 
 \ inclusive 
 
38a OCEANIC LANGUAGES 
 
 As points, then, of grammar, or, at any rate, as points 
 of inflection, I submit that the Quinary Numeration, 
 the Exclusive and Inclusive Pronouns, and the Trinal 
 Number be eliminated from the consideration of the 
 Papuan characteristics ; and I add that, even if they 
 were grammatical they would scarcely be characteristic ; 
 inasmuch as they may be found elsewhere, and that not 
 only sporadically, or among the languages of the world 
 at large, but within the Malay and Polynesian area 
 itself. 
 
 Other points of criticism connect themselves with the 
 phonesis. The Polynesian languages are pre-eminently 
 vocalic. They are vocalic if we look to the paucity of sepa- 
 rate consonantal sounds ; h, d, g, s, and r, being generally 
 wanting. They are vocalic if we look to the fact of few 
 or no words ending in a consonant. They are vocalic 
 if we look to the non-existence of two concurrent conso- 
 nants in the same syllable. 
 
 Now, in all these matters the Papuan tongues present 
 some contrast. In some of the islands there are conso- 
 nantal endings ; in some concurrent consonants ; in all 
 of them more elementary consonants than are to be 
 found in any language of Polynesia. Yet they differ 
 among themselves in the extent to which they are thus 
 consonantal ; some having many, others but few, words, 
 where a consonant is final. None are more vocalic 
 than the most vocalic of the Malay tongues ; and among 
 the Malay tongues themselves some are more consonantal 
 than others. Above all, it is not with the Polynesian 
 that the Papuan tongues are, in the first instance, to be 
 compared — still less exclusively. 
 
 As has already been stated, the ordinal value of the 
 Polynesian class is nil, or nearly so. The real point of 
 contact between the Papuan and Non-papuan tongues 
 lies in the parts about Ceram. From these I think 
 that New Guinea was peopled at a period anterior to 
 the peopling of Micronesia ; at a time when the remote 
 
IN GENERAL. 
 
 381 
 
 ancestors of the Eastern Moluccas were ruder, more un- 
 dersized, and darker-skinned (for in this sense the term 
 Negrito may have an ethnological import), than they 
 are now ; at a time when they were cliiefly pagan ; at 
 a time when the useful arts were in their very rudi- 
 ments ; at a time when the numeration went no further 
 than the five fingers of a single hand. If so, the Poly- 
 nesians should give us the extremities of two chains, 
 rather than any link between them. 
 
 The relations of the Papuans to the Australians is 
 more equivocal. I once suggested, on the strength of 
 certain New Caledonian affinities, that Tasmania was 
 peopled by means of a migration that came via the 
 Papuan islands, i. e, round Australia, lather than across 
 it ; a doctrine which at present I am prepared neither to 
 abandon nor assert. 
 
 In like manner Australia may have been peopled from 
 New Guinea, or from Timor : if from Timor, at a period 
 of greater rudeness and barbarity than even that which 
 (by hypothesis) prevailed in the Eastern Moluccas when 
 New Guinea was first occupied. When Australia was 
 first trod numeration had not even renchad five. 
 
 The numerals are preceded by prefixes (as may be 
 seen in the specimen) throughout the Papuan languages ; 
 and in comparatively distant localities these prefixes 
 coincide — e. g. in the Louisiade and New Caledonia. 
 
 English 
 
 One 
 
 Two 
 
 Brierly Island 
 
 paihe-tia, 
 
 pahi-wo 
 
 Cook's New Caledonia 
 
 wa-geeaing 
 
 wa-roo 
 
 La Billardiere's do. 
 
 oica-nait 
 
 oua-dou 
 
 English 
 
 Three 
 
 Four 
 
 Brierly Island 
 
 paihe-iwaxi 
 
 paihe-^ak 
 
 Cook's New Caledonia 
 
 wa-teen 
 
 wa-mbaeek 
 
 La Billardiere's do. 
 
 owa-tguien 
 
 oua-tbait 
 
 EngUsh 
 
 Five 
 
 Six 
 
 Brierly Island 
 
 paiheAvoao. 
 
 paihe-won 
 
 Cook's New Caledonia 
 
 wa-nnim 
 
 wa-nnim-geeek 
 
 La Billardiere's do. 
 
 o?(a-nnaim 
 
 (m-naim-guik 
 
382 
 
 OCEANIC LANGUAGES 
 
 English 
 
 Seven 
 
 Eight 
 
 Brierly Island 
 
 ^aAe-pik 
 
 paihe-w&n 
 
 Cook's New Caledonia 
 
 ?^-a-nnim-noo 
 
 wa-nnim-gain 
 
 La Billardiere's do. 
 
 owa-naim-dou 
 
 OM-naim-guein 
 
 English 
 
 Nine 
 
 Ten 
 
 Brierly Island 
 
 paihe-siwo 
 
 paiAe-awata 
 
 Cook's New Caledonia 
 
 wa-nnim-baeek 
 
 wa-nnoon-aiuk 
 
 La Billardiere's do. 
 
 owa-naim-bait 
 
 owa-doun-hic. 
 
 Traces of this, however, may be found within the Malay 
 area. 
 
 Another point worth noticing is the following ; a 
 point best illustrated by certain American languages, 
 e. g. amongst others by those of the following table : — 
 
 (1.) 
 
 English. 
 
 Mbaya. 
 
 Abi[)onian. 
 
 Mokohi. 
 
 Head 
 
 wa-guilo 
 
 we-maiat 
 
 
 Eye 
 
 rti-gecoge 
 
 7i«-toele 
 
 m'-cote 
 
 Ear 
 
 wa-pagate 
 
 
 
 Nose 
 
 m'-onige 
 
 
 
 Tongue 
 
 no-gueligi 
 
 
 
 
 Hair 
 
 na-modi 
 
 we-etiguic 
 
 wa-ccuta 
 
 Band 
 
 w^■-baagadi 
 
 wa-pakeni 
 
 %a-poguena 
 
 Foot 
 
 wo-gonagi 
 
 (2.) 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Moxa (1).* 
 
 Moxa (2). 
 
 Moxa (3). 
 
 Head 
 
 ntt-ciuti 
 
 WM-chuti 
 
 7m-cliiuti 
 
 Eye 
 
 mi-chi 
 
 
 nu-ki 
 
 Ear 
 
 wM-cioca 
 
 
 
 Nose 
 
 nw-siri 
 
 nu-siri 
 
 
 Tongue 
 
 WM-nene 
 
 nu-nene 
 
 nu-nene 
 
 Hand 
 
 nu-hoTB 
 
 WM-boupe 
 
 nu-hore 
 
 Foot 
 
 wr-bope 
 
 
 ni-ho-pe. 
 
 Here the prefix is the possessive pronoun, so that na- 
 guilo = TYiy head, &c. ; the capacity of the speaker for 
 separating the thing possessed from the possessor being, 
 apparently, so small as to make it almost impossible to 
 disconnect the noun from its pronoun. 
 
 The Papuan and (?) Tasmanian give the same amalga- 
 mation. 
 
 * These are three diiFerent dialects. 
 
IN GENERAL. 383 
 
 Upon what may be called the Ablative Subject, more 
 will be said in the sequel. 
 
 What follows is an extract from three very short vo- 
 cabularies, illustrating the statement, made some chap- 
 ters back, that the Ombay, the Mangarei, and the Tiw- 
 hora, had Kelenonesian affinities. 
 
 ATm=ibarana, Ombay ; porene, Pine Grorine dialect of Australia. 
 
 'H.a.nd=oidue, Ombay ; hingue, New Caledonia. 
 
 Nose=mow?u', Ombay ; maninya, mandeg, mandeinne, New Caledonia ; 
 mena, Van Dieman's Land, western dialect ; minij Mangerei ; meoun, 
 muidge, imigui, Macquarie Harbour. 
 
 Head=imo«7a, Ombay; 7noos (=hair), Darnley Islands; moochi (=hair), 
 Massied ; immoos (=:beard), Darnley Islands ; eeta moochi (=beard), 
 Massied. 
 
 Knee={cici-houha, Ombay ; bowka, houlkay (=forefinger), Darnley Is- 
 lands. 
 
 Leg=M*aZ;a, Ombay ; horag-nata, Jhongworong dialect of the Australian. 
 
 Bosom=:a7nz', Ombay ; naem, Darnley Island. 
 
 Tliigh=tYg?ia, Ombay ; tinna-mooTc (=foot), Witouro dialect of Australian. 
 The root, tin, is very general throughout Australia in the sense of foot. 
 
 Belly=^e-Z;a_p-awa, Ombay ; coopoi (==navel), Darnley Island. 
 
 Staasz^ipi-herre, Mangarei; bering, hirrong, Sydney. 
 
 'Ha,nd=tanaraga, Mangarei ; taintu, Timbora ; tamira, Sydney. 
 
 Head=ya/<,e, Mangarei ; chow, King George's Sound. 
 
 Sia.rs=:Hngl:ong, Timboro ; chindy, King George's Sound, Australia. 
 
 M.oon=mang'' ong, Timbora ; meuc, King George's Sound. 
 
 Sun=.ingJcong, Timbora ; coing, Sydney. 
 
 Blood =:^•ero, Timbora ; gnoorong, Cowagary dialect of Australia. 
 
 Head =^'oZ:or^, Timbora ; gogorrah, Cowagary. 
 
 'Fisb.=:appi, Mangarei ; ^vapi, Darnley Island. 
 
 Of these affinities nearly all are Australian. In 
 those with the Papuan dialects the parts about Ceram 
 and Gilolo are the most abundant. 
 
384 NORTH-WESTERN AMERICA. 
 
 CHAPTER LV. 
 
 Languages of America. — The Eskimo. — The Athabaskan dialects. — The 
 Kitunaha. — The Atna. — The Haidah, Chemmesyan, Wakash, and 
 Chinuk. 
 
 The languages of the New World now come under 
 notice ; languages of which the origin some few years 
 back was obscure. This was because most of our data 
 for the ethnology of America were derived from the 
 Indians of Canada and the United States rather than 
 from those of the Hudson's Bay Territory and Russian 
 America. As long as the parts between the Rocky 
 Mountains and the Pacific were insufficiently explored, 
 the nearest congeners to the populations of the north- 
 eastern parts of Asia were insufficiently known. With 
 the improvements in this respect the mystery has di- 
 minished — so much so that, even before we leave Asia, 
 decided affinities between the languages of Siberia and 
 the languages of the northern coast of the Pacific pre- 
 sent themselves. 
 
 The lines by which America might be peopled from 
 Asia are three — the first, via Behring's Straits ; the 
 second, via the Aleutian chain of islands — islands run- 
 ning from Kamtshatka to the Peninsula of Aliaska ; the 
 third, via the Kurile islands, from either Korea or the 
 Peninsula of Sagalin. Of these, though the presumptions 
 may be in favour of the first, the phenomena in the 
 present state of our knowledge, favour the second. 
 
 For Europe and Asia the Circumpolar forms of speech 
 
THE ESKIMO. 385 
 
 belong to different genera, if not to different orders ; 
 and they are comparatively numerous. Above all, they 
 have (every one of them) decided southern affinities — 
 so much so as to give them tlie appearance of being 
 intrusive. With the Norwegian and Russian this is 
 not only the case, but it is known to be so. Of the 
 Lap and Samoyed the southern origin is less decided. 
 On each side, however, there are southern affinities. 
 With the Tungus these southern affinities are more 
 decided still. The nearest approacli (after the Lap) to 
 anything like an original Arctic situs is supplied by the 
 Yukahiri and Tshuktshi. Yet even here it is only an 
 approach. 
 
 In America, on the other hand, the Arctic region is 
 mainly covered by dialects of a single language — the 
 Eskimo ; the intrusion from the south being inconsider- 
 able. Hence, the Eskimo area is horizontal rather than 
 vertical ; broad rather than deep ; and running, in its 
 extension, from east to west rather than from north to 
 south. The language of Greenland and Labrador is 
 Eskimo. The language of the eastern extremity of 
 Asia is Eskimo. The language of the Aleutian islands 
 is Eskimo. The language of the interjacent regions 
 is Eskimo also. 
 
 So much for the breadth and continuity of the Es- 
 kimo area. 
 
 In respect to its depth, it has its maximum on the 
 Atlantic, where it reaches the latitude of Newfoundland. 
 
 It is on the side of the Atlantic* that the contrast 
 between the Eskimo and the ordinary Indian of North 
 America — the Red Indian as he is often called — is most 
 
 * It is often useful (not to say necessary) to speak thus ; indeed, we must 
 occasionally write Atlantic and Pacific instead of West and East. This is 
 because we have occasionally to shift our position. The Eskimos of Green- 
 land are an Eastern, and the Konaegi of Kadiak a Western, population, only, 
 when we look at them from Europe. When we begin with the Namollos of 
 the Asiatic side of Behring's Straits, and go on with the Aleutians, and the 
 Konsegi, East ))ecomes West, and vice versd. 
 
 C C 
 
386 
 
 NORTH-WESTERN AMERICA. 
 
 decided. Hence, as long as the phenomena of transition 
 which are exhibited on the side of the Pacific were un- 
 known, the connection between the aborigines with 
 both the Siberians and the Americans was not only 
 doubtful, but the line of demarcation which was drawn 
 between the Eskimo and the Indian was exaggerated. 
 
 The Eskimo is the only language common to the two 
 continents ; and this it is in two ways. The Aleutian 
 dialects are in situ, and, as such, actually transitional. 
 But, besides these, there is, in the parts about the 
 Anadyr and Tshuktshi Noss, a population of compara- 
 tively recent origin, occupant of the parts between the 
 most western of the true Tshuktshi of Be bring 's 
 Straits — a population which seems (so to say) to have 
 been reflected back from America upon Asia. On the 
 other hand, however, no true Asiatic language is spoken 
 in any part of America. 
 
 The best known of the Aleutian forms of speech, 
 which probably represent a group of the ordinal value 
 of all the others put together, is the Unalashkan. 
 
 English. 
 
 Unalashka. 
 
 Kadiak. 
 
 Kuskutshewak. 
 
 Labrador. 
 
 Man 
 
 tayaho 
 
 sli6k 
 
 tatshu 
 
 inuit 
 
 Woman 
 
 anhahenak 
 
 aganak 
 
 
 
 Bead 
 
 kamhek 
 
 naskok 
 
 kainikuk 
 
 niakko 
 
 Hair 
 
 imlin 
 
 neoet 
 
 nuiat 
 
 nuiat 
 
 Nose 
 
 anhozin 
 
 kinaga 
 
 nikh 
 
 kingat 
 
 Mouth 
 
 ahilrek 
 
 kanot 
 
 kanik 
 
 kannerk 
 
 Ear 
 
 tutusak 
 
 khiune 
 
 tshuutuik 
 
 suit 
 
 Ears 
 
 tutasakin 
 
 khiudok 
 
 
 sintik 
 
 Eye 
 
 thak 
 
 inhalak 
 
 vitatuik 
 
 aiiga 
 
 Tongue 
 
 alinak 
 
 ulue 
 
 alianuk 
 
 okak 
 
 Hand 
 
 khianh 
 
 taleha 
 
 yagatshutuik 
 
 aggait 
 
 Foot 
 
 kitok 
 
 looga 
 
 igiit 
 
 itigak 
 
 Tooth 
 
 kiahuzin 
 
 hudeit 
 
 kuutuik 
 
 kiutit 
 
 Blood 
 
 ainak 
 
 auk 
 
 
 auk 
 
 Shy 
 
 inayak 
 
 keliok 
 
 kiilyak 
 
 kiUek 
 
 Sun 
 
 ahhapak 
 
 madzak 
 
 
 sekkinek 
 
 Moon 
 
 tuhedak 
 
 yalok 
 
 tangek 
 
 takkek 
 
 Star 
 
 Rta,Ti 
 
 ageke 
 
 mittit 
 
 ubloriak 
 
 Fire 
 
 keyhnak 
 
 knok 
 
 knuik 
 
 ikoma 
 
 Water 
 
 tanak 
 
 tanak 
 
 muek 
 
 immek 
 

 
 THE ESKIMO. 
 
 387 
 
 English. 
 
 Unalashka. 
 
 Kadiak. 
 
 Kuskutsliewak 
 
 Labrador. 
 
 Rain 
 
 khetak 
 
 ketok 
 
 
 
 River 
 
 khehanok 
 
 kuik 
 
 kvak 
 
 kok 
 
 Sand 
 
 khoohok 
 
 kabea 
 
 kaguyak 
 
 
 Sea 
 
 allauk 
 
 (mak 
 
 immakh-pik 
 
 immak 
 
 Snoio 
 
 kannek 
 
 annue 
 
 kanikh-obak 
 
 kannek 
 
 Stone 
 
 kuwauak 
 
 yamak 
 
 tkalhk-uk 
 
 
 Tree 
 
 yakak 
 
 kobohaktsbalakua 
 
 
 
 One 
 
 atoken 
 
 ataudzek 
 
 atuuchik 
 
 attousek 
 
 Two 
 
 arlok 
 
 azlha 
 
 ainak 
 
 marruk 
 
 Three 
 
 kanku 
 
 pingasvak 
 
 painaivak 
 
 pingasat 
 
 Four 
 
 sikhin 
 
 stam6k 
 
 tshanuk 
 
 sittamut 
 
 Five 
 
 khaan 
 
 talimik 
 
 talemek 
 
 taUek 
 
 Six 
 
 atln 
 
 ahoilune 
 
 akbvinok 
 
 arvanget 
 
 Seven 
 
 ukun 
 
 malehonhen 
 
 ainaakbvanam pingasullo 
 
 Eight 
 
 kankheen 
 
 inglulun 
 
 pinaiviakhvanam pinaiuik 
 
 Nine 
 
 sikheen 
 
 kulnuhin 
 
 chtameakhvanam tellimella 
 
 Ten 
 
 atek 
 
 kulen 
 
 tamemiakhvanam tellimayoktut. 
 
 It 
 
 is to the Eskimo of this 
 
 latter, lai 
 
 •ger, and more 
 
 compl 
 
 ex group 
 
 that the Namollo, or : 
 
 Eskimo of the 
 
 Asiatic continent belongs. 
 
 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Tshuktshi Nos. 
 
 Mouth of the Anadyr. 
 
 
 Head 
 
 nasbko 
 
 
 nashkok 
 
 
 Hair 
 
 nuyak 
 
 
 nuyet 
 
 
 Nose 
 
 tatUk 
 
 
 kbiinggak 
 
 
 Eye 
 
 iik 
 
 
 iik 
 
 
 Ear 
 
 tshintak 
 
 
 tshiftukhk 
 
 
 Blood 
 
 auku 
 
 
 auka 
 
 
 Shy 
 
 kiiilah 
 
 
 keilak 
 
 
 Sun 
 
 shekkinak 
 
 
 matshak 
 
 
 Moon 
 
 tankuk 
 
 
 iralluk 
 
 
 Star 
 
 igalgtak 
 
 
 iralikatakh 
 
 
 Fire 
 
 annak 
 
 
 eknok 
 
 
 Water 
 
 mok 
 
 
 emak 
 
 
 Tree 
 
 unakhtsik 
 
 
 unaktshek 
 
 
 Fish 
 
 salyuk 
 
 
 ikahliik 
 
 
 River 
 
 kuik 
 
 
 kuigutt 
 
 
 Sand 
 
 kannak 
 
 
 kaujak 
 
 
 Snow 
 
 annu 
 
 
 anighu 
 
 
 One 
 
 attashek 
 
 
 attazhbk 
 
 
 Two 
 
 malgok 
 
 
 malgukh 
 
 
 Three 
 
 pegayut 
 
 
 pingayu 
 
 
 Four 
 
 ishtamat 
 
 
 ishtama 
 
 
 Five 
 
 tatlemat 
 
 
 taklima 
 
 
 Ten 
 
 kulla 
 
 
 kuUe. 
 C C 2 
 
388 THE ATHABASKAN GROUP. 
 
 Next to the Eskimo comes the great Athabaskan 
 fiimily, stock, group, or class. 
 
 The Athabaskan area touches Hudson's Bay on the 
 one side, the Pacific on the other. 
 
 With the exception of the Eskimo, the Athabaskan 
 forms of speech are the most northern of the New World. 
 
 For the northern Athabaskan s (the main body of the 
 family) the philological details were, until lately, emi- 
 nently scanty and insufficient. There was, indeed, an 
 imperfect substitute for them in the statements of several 
 highly trustworthy authors as to certain tribes whicli 
 spoke a language allied to the Chepewyan and as to 
 others who did not ; — statements which, on the whole, 
 have been shown to be correct ; statements, however, 
 which required the confirmation of vocabularies. These 
 have now been procured ; if not to the full extent of all 
 the details of the family to an extent quite sufficient 
 for the purposes of the philologue. They show that the 
 most western branch of the stock, the Chepewyan Pro- 
 per, or the language of what Dobbs called the Northern 
 Indians, is closely akin to that of the Dog-ribs, the Hare 
 (or Slave), and the Beaver Indians, and that the Daho- 
 dinni, called from their warlike habits the Mauvais 
 Monde, are but slightly separated from them. Farther 
 west a change takes place, but not one of much import- 
 ance. Interpreters are understood with greater diffi- 
 culty, but still understood. 
 
 The Takulli, Nagail, or Chin division falls into no less 
 than eleven minor sections ; all of which but one end 
 in this root, viz. -tin. 
 
 1. The Tau-im, or Talko-^m. 
 
 (?) 2. The Tsilko-im or Chilko-tin, perhaps the same 
 word in a different dialect. 
 
 3. 
 
 The Nasko-^m 
 
 8. 
 
 The Natliau-^m. 
 
 4. 
 
 The Thetlio-^m 
 
 9. 
 
 The Nikozliau-itm. 
 
 5. 
 
 The Tssitsno-ti7i 
 
 10. 
 
 The Tatshiau-^m, and 
 
 6. 
 
 The Nulaau-^m. 
 
 n. 
 
 The Babin Indians. 
 
 7. 
 
 The Ntaauo-^m." 
 
 
 
THE ATHABASKAN LANGUAGES. 389 
 
 Sir John Richardson has shown, what was before but 
 suspected, that the Loucheux Indians of Mackenzie 
 River are Athabaskan ; the Loucheux being a tribe 
 known under many names — under that of the Quar- 
 rellers, under that of the Squinters, under that of the 
 Thycothi and Digothi, under that of Kutshin. The 
 particular tribes of the Kutshin division, occupants of 
 either the eastern frontier of Russian America, or the 
 north-western parts of the Hudson's Bay territory, are 
 as follows : — 
 
 1. The Artez-kutshi nzH-ard people. 
 
 2. Tlie Tshu-hutshizz Waiter people. 
 
 3. The Tatzei-/<;^6^s/l^ = Rampart people; falling into 
 
 foiu" bands. 
 
 4. The Teystse-hutshi zzTeoiple of the shelter. 
 
 5. The Ysint?i-kutshi nzTeoiilQ of the lakes. 
 
 6. The Neyetse-Zci/is^i = People of the open country. 
 
 7. The Tlagga-silla = Little dogs. 
 
 This brings us to the Kenay. A Kenay vocabulary 
 has long been known. It appears in Lisianisky, tabu- 
 lated with the Kadiak, Sitkan, and Unalaskan of the 
 Aleutian Islands. It was supplied by the occupants of 
 Cook's Inlet. Were these Athabaskan? The present 
 writer owes to Mr. Isbister the suggestion that they 
 were Loucheux, and to the same authority he was in- 
 debted for the use of a very short Loucheux vocabulary. 
 Having compared this with Lisiansky's, he placed both 
 languages in the same category — rightly in respect to 
 the main point, wrongly in respect to a subordinate. 
 He determined the place of the Loucheux by that of the 
 Kenay, and made both Kolush. He would now reverse 
 the process and make both Athabaskan (in the widest 
 sense of the word), as Sir John Richardson has also 
 suggested. 
 
 For all the languages hitherto mentioned we have 
 specimens. For some, however, of the populations 
 whose names appear in the maps, within the Athabaskan 
 
390 
 
 THE ATHABASKAN LANGUAGES. 
 
 area, we must either rest satisfied with the testimony 
 of writers or rely on inference. In some cases, too, 
 we have the same population under difierent names. 
 Without, then, giving any minute criticism, I will briefly 
 state that all the Indians of the Athabaskan area whose 
 names end in -dinni are Athabaskan ; viz. — 
 
 1. The See-issaw-cZin-m m Rising-sun-meTi. 
 
 2 . The-tsawot-(imm z= Birch-rind-me?i. 
 
 3. The Thlingeha-(imm z= Dog-rib-me^i. 
 
 4. The Etsh-tawlit-c?mm = Thickwood-me?i. 
 
 5. The Ambah-tawut-cZmm = Mountain-sheep-me??.. 
 
 6. The TsiUaw-awdut-cZmm zz Bushwood-me'}^. 
 Hare-Indians and Strong-hows are also Athabaskan 
 
 names. The ITare-Indians are called Kanclio. The 
 Nehanni and some other populations of less importance 
 are also, to almost a certainty, Athabaskan. 
 
 English. 
 
 Kenay. 
 
 Kutshin. 
 
 Slave. 
 
 Dog-rib. 
 
 Man 
 
 tinna 
 
 'tinne 
 
 
 
 
 Woman 
 
 mokelan 
 
 tshekwe 
 
 
 
 Head 
 
 shangge 
 
 
 saykwi 
 
 ta 
 
 Hair 
 
 stseahu 
 
 
 sakwigah 
 
 theoya 
 
 Mouth 
 
 shnaan 
 
 
 kwariclil 
 
 
 Teeth 
 
 shrlkka 
 
 
 saygli 
 
 baighu 
 
 Tongue 
 
 stsilue 
 
 
 
 eththadu 
 
 Ear 
 
 stsllu 
 
 
 
 settzay 
 
 bedzegai 
 
 Eye 
 
 snasha 
 
 
 sentah 
 
 mendi 
 
 Hand 
 
 shikuna 
 
 
 siiilaTi 
 
 mila 
 
 Sun 
 
 channu 
 
 sakh 
 
 sah 
 
 sa 
 
 Moon 
 
 nee 
 
 thun 
 
 sah 
 
 tethesa 
 
 Star 
 
 skin 
 
 
 fwun, them 
 
 thiu 
 
 Fire 
 
 taaze 
 
 
 khiin 
 
 khun 
 
 Water 
 
 vllni 
 
 to 
 
 tti 
 
 tu 
 
 River 
 
 katnu 
 
 dessh 
 
 
 
 Rain 
 
 
 dsha 
 
 chon 
 
 tshon 
 
 Day 
 
 chaan 
 
 tzinna 
 
 
 
 Night 
 
 kaak 
 
 hetleghe 
 
 
 
 Snow 
 
 ajjah 
 
 
 
 jeah 
 
 yah, teiU 
 
 Stone 
 
 kaliknike 
 
 
 
 
 thai 
 
 I 
 
 su 
 
 si 
 
 
 .- 
 
 Thou 
 
 nan 
 
 nin 
 
 
 
 FatUr{my) 
 
 stukta 
 
 se-tsay 
 
 
 
 Son {my) 
 
 ssi-jsk 
 
 se-jay 
 
 
 
THE ATHABASKAN LANGUAGES. 
 
 39] 
 
 Kuglish. Kenay. 
 
 Kutshin. 
 
 Slave. 
 
 Dog-rib. 
 
 One tsllgtan 
 
 tilagga 
 
 thelgai 
 
 *enclai 
 
 Two n<itna 
 
 nakhei 
 
 olkie 
 
 *nakha 
 
 Three toluke 
 
 thieka 
 
 tadette 
 
 *ttaglia 
 
 Four tanke 
 
 tanna 
 
 tinghi 
 
 *tting 
 
 Five tskilu 
 
 illakonelei 
 
 .saj^elle 
 
 *sastillai 
 
 Six ktijtoni 
 
 
 etseute 
 
 *utkettai 
 
 Seven kantsehe 
 
 
 thlazadie 
 
 *kliosingting 
 
 Eight Itakule 
 
 
 etzandie 
 
 ♦etzenting 
 
 Nine Ikitslthu 
 
 
 etMMeihiilai *khakuli 
 
 Ten klujfin 
 
 
 kennatai 
 
 *honana 
 
 The Beaver Indian 
 
 is transitional to 
 
 the Slave and 
 
 the Chepewyan Proper. 
 
 The Sikani and Sussi tongues, lying as far south as 
 the drainage of the Saskatshewan, and as far west as 
 the Rocky Mountains, are, and have been for some years, 
 known as Athabaskan. 
 
 English. 
 
 Chepewyan. 
 
 TakullL 
 
 Man 
 
 dinnie 
 
 dim* 
 
 Woman 
 
 chequois 
 
 tsheko 
 
 Father 
 
 2?tah (my) 
 
 apa 
 
 Mother 
 
 zinah (my) 
 
 unnungcool 
 
 Son 
 
 eiazay (my) 
 
 eyoze 
 
 Daughter 
 
 zilengai 
 
 eacha 
 
 Head 
 
 ed thie 
 
 bitsa 
 
 Hair 
 
 thiegah 
 
 ozega 
 
 Ear 
 
 
 
 otso 
 
 Eye 
 
 naekay 
 
 beni 
 
 Nose 
 
 
 paninsrhis 
 
 Tongue 
 
 • edthu 
 
 tsoola 
 
 Tooth 
 
 goo 
 
 ohgoo 
 
 Hand 
 
 law 
 
 la 
 
 Feet 
 
 cuh 
 
 osha 
 
 Blood 
 
 deU 
 
 skai 
 
 Hov^e 
 
 cosen 
 
 kukh 
 
 Axe 
 
 thynle 
 
 shashill 
 
 Knife 
 
 bess 
 
 teish 
 
 Shoes 
 
 kinchee 
 
 keskut 
 
 Sun 
 
 sah 
 
 tsa 
 
 Moon 
 
 sah 
 
 tsa 
 
 Star 
 
 
 shlum 
 
 * The words marked thus are either a second dialect or a second vocabu- 
 lary of the Slave. 
 
392 
 
 THE ATHABASKAN LANGUAGES. 
 
 English. 
 
 Cliepewyan. 
 
 Takulli. 
 
 Fire 
 
 counn 
 
 kwun 
 
 Water 
 
 toue 
 
 too 
 
 Rain 
 
 thynnelsee 
 
 naoton 
 
 Snow 
 
 yath 
 
 ghies 
 
 River 
 
 tesse 
 
 akokh 
 
 Stone 
 
 thaih 
 
 tse 
 
 Meat 
 
 bid 
 
 utson 
 
 Dog 
 
 sliengh 
 
 tkli 
 
 Beaver 
 
 zah 
 
 tsha 
 
 Bear 
 
 zass 
 
 sus 
 
 Great 
 
 unshaw 
 
 tsho 
 
 Cold 
 
 edzah 
 
 hungkaz 
 
 Black 
 
 dellzin 
 
 dulkuz 
 
 Red 
 
 delicouse 
 
 dulkun 
 
 I 
 
 ne 
 
 si 
 
 Thou 
 
 nee 
 
 yin 
 
 One 
 
 slachy 
 
 etkhla 
 
 Txm 
 
 naghur 
 
 nangkakh 
 
 Three 
 
 taghy 
 
 ta 
 
 Four 
 
 dengky 
 
 tingti 
 
 Five 
 
 sasoulacliee 
 
 skunlai 
 
 Six 
 
 alkitachy 
 
 ulkitaki 
 
 Seven 
 
 
 takalte 
 
 Eight 
 
 olkideinghy 
 
 ulkinggi 
 
 Nine 
 
 cakinahanothna 
 
 lanizi etkhlahkula 
 
 Ten 
 
 canotlina 
 
 lanizi. 
 
 The Atna at the mouth of the Copper Kiver, the 
 Koltshani higher up the stream, and the Ugalents 
 around Mount St. Elias, are all Athabaskan — not, indeed, 
 so decidedly as the Beaver, the Dog-rib, or the Proper 
 Chepewyan; but still Athabaskan. They ai^not Eskimo 
 though they have Eskimo affinities. They are not 
 Kolush, though they have Kolush affinities. They are 
 by no means isolated, and as little are they to be made 
 into a class by themselves. At the same time, it should 
 be added that by including these we raise the value of 
 the class, and we raise it stiJl more when we include 
 the Kolush. 
 
 English. 
 Eye 
 Hair 
 Teeth 
 
 Ugaleuts. 
 
 Atna. 
 
 Kolstshani. 
 
 snyga 
 
 tshinfcagi 
 
 stsega 
 
 stshjga 
 
 gu 
 
 nogu 
 
THE ATHABASKAN LANGUAGES. 
 
 398 
 
 English. 
 
 Ugalcnts. 
 
 Atna. 
 
 Kolstshani. 
 
 Nose 
 
 
 sontshis 
 
 santshis 
 
 Hand 
 
 
 sla 
 
 kun 
 
 Head 
 
 
 ttsa 
 
 sla 
 
 Ear 
 
 
 stsega 
 
 stsi 
 
 SU71 
 
 kaketlkh 
 
 naai 
 
 naaitshete 
 
 Moon 
 
 kakha 
 
 goltsei 
 
 sattslietle 
 
 Star 
 
 tlakhekl 
 
 zzliun 
 
 son 
 
 One 
 
 tlkinke 
 
 slielkae 
 
 ilite 
 
 Two 
 
 loate 
 
 natekka 
 
 laken 
 
 Three 
 
 totlkoa 
 
 taakei 
 
 takei 
 
 Four 
 
 kalakakya 
 
 tiJnki 
 
 tani 
 
 Five 
 
 tsoane 
 
 altshen 
 
 taltshan 
 
 Six 
 
 tsun 
 
 kastaan 
 
 kistan 
 
 Seven 
 
 laatetsun 
 
 kontsegai 
 
 kontshaga: 
 
 Eight 
 
 katetsun 
 
 tkkhladenki 
 
 tan 
 
 Nine 
 
 kutkte 
 
 tklakolei 
 
 takolei 
 
 Ten 
 
 takakkh 
 
 plazha 
 
 natitlya. 
 
 The Athabaskan is broadly and definitely separated 
 from the language of its frontiers in proportion as we 
 move from the Pacific towards the Atlantic. 
 
 The most southern of the Athabaskans Proper are 
 the Sussis, in north latitude 5]° — there or thereabouts. 
 But they are only the most Southern of the Athabaskans 
 en masse. There are outlyers of the stock as far soutli 
 as the southern parts of Oregon. More than this, there 
 are Athabaskans in California, New Mexico, and Sonora. 
 
 Mr. Hale showed that the Umkwa, Kwaliokwa, and 
 Tlatskanai dialects of a district so far south as the 
 mouth of the Columbia, and the upper portion of the 
 Umkwa, were outlying members of the Athabaskan stock, 
 which dialects were afterwards shown, by a discovery of 
 Professor Turner's, to be only pe^iultimate ramifications ; 
 inasmuch as in California, New Mexico, Sonora, and 
 even in Ohihuhua, as far south as SO® north latitude, 
 Athabaskan forms of speech were to be found ; viz. the 
 Navaho, the Jecorilla, the Pinalero, along with the 
 Apatsh of New Mexico, California, and Sonora. To 
 these add the Hoopah of California, which is also 
 Athabaskan. 
 
394 
 
 THE ATHABASKAN LANGUAGES. 
 
 (10 
 
 English. 
 
 Tlatskanai. 
 
 Kwaliokwa, 
 
 Umkwa. 
 
 Man 
 
 khanane 
 
 
 titson 
 
 
 taiitsen 
 
 
 tone 
 
 Woman 
 
 tseokeia 
 
 oat 
 
 ekhe 
 
 
 tseake 
 
 
 
 Head 
 
 khostoma 
 
 nin 
 
 suga 
 
 
 stsie 
 
 
 si 
 
 Hair 
 
 khotsosea 
 
 soaktlane 
 
 suga 
 
 
 stsose 
 
 
 sala 
 
 Ear 
 
 khotskhe 
 
 khonade 
 
 tzige 
 
 
 stsakhai 
 
 
 tzuge 
 
 Eye 
 
 nakhai 
 
 
 nage 
 
 Nose 
 
 khointsus 
 
 dalainstzetze 
 
 ziz 
 
 Mouth 
 
 khokwaitzaale 
 
 
 ta 
 
 
 wunaya 
 
 
 
 
 Tongue 
 
 khotzotkhltzitzkhltsaha 
 
 uofaa 
 
 lasom 
 
 
 seqinakal 
 
 
 santkhlo 
 
 Tooth 
 
 khotsiakatatkMtson 
 
 koute 
 
 uo 
 
 
 
 
 cugu 
 
 Hand 
 
 kholaa 
 
 
 zlaa 
 
 
 sla 
 
 
 zila 
 
 Foot 
 
 khoakhastlsokai 
 
 
 zkhe 
 
 
 nokatkh 
 
 
 
 Swn 
 
 iaose 
 
 
 za 
 
 
 szlakhalaklia 
 
 
 khangze 
 
 Moon 
 
 taose 
 
 
 igaltzi 
 
 Star 
 
 
 
 khatlatze 
 
 Fire 
 
 tkhlkane 
 
 
 khong 
 
 Water 
 
 to 
 
 
 tkho. 
 
 (2.) 
 
 English. 
 
 Navabo. 
 
 Apatsh. 
 
 Pinalero, 
 
 Man 
 
 tennai 
 
 ailee 
 
 payyahnah 
 
 Woman 
 
 estsonnee 
 
 eetzan 
 
 etsunni 
 
 Head (my) 
 
 hutzeetsin 
 
 seezee 
 
 
 Hair (my) 
 
 hutzee 
 
 seesga, 
 
 setzezil 
 
 Face (my) 
 
 huunee 
 
 streenee 
 
 
 Ear (my) 
 
 ^wtjah 
 
 seetza. 
 
 sitzchar 
 
 Eye (my) 
 
 hunnah. 
 
 sleeda 
 
 tshindar 
 
 Nose (my) 
 
 Awtchih 
 
 seetzee 
 
 chinchi 
 
 Mouth (my) 
 
 huzz&i 
 
 sheedsi 
 
 
 Tongue (my) 
 
 huttso 
 
 sheedsiTe 
 
 
 Tooth (my) 
 
 hurgo 
 
 sheego 
 
 
 eah 
 
THE ATHABASKAN LANGUAGES. 
 
 895 
 
 English. 
 
 Navaho. 
 
 
 Apatsh. 
 
 Pinalero. 
 
 Sun 
 
 cliokonoi 
 
 skeemai 
 
 yahehe 
 
 Moon 
 
 klaihonoi 
 
 clanai 
 
 ilsonsayed 
 
 Star 
 
 sonh 
 
 
 suns 
 
 ailsonsatyou 
 
 Dap 
 
 cheen-gfo 
 
 eeska 
 
 
 Night 
 
 klai-gro 
 
 
 cla 
 
 
 Light 
 
 lioascen-(70 
 
 skee 
 
 
 Rain 
 
 naheltinh 
 
 nagostee 
 
 
 Snow 
 
 yas 
 
 
 zahs 
 
 
 Hail 
 
 neelo 
 
 
 heeloah 
 
 
 Fire 
 
 konh 
 
 
 koa 
 
 
 Water 
 
 tonh 
 
 
 toa,h 
 
 to 
 
 Stone 
 
 tsai 
 
 
 zeyzay 
 
 tshaier 
 
 One 
 
 tlahee 
 
 
 tahse 
 
 
 Two 
 
 nahkee 
 
 nahkee 
 
 
 Three 
 
 tanh 
 
 
 tau 
 
 
 
 
 (3.) 
 
 
 English. 
 
 
 Hoopah. 
 
 
 Jecorilla. 
 
 Head 
 
 
 okheh 
 
 
 it-se 
 
 Forehead 
 
 
 /lotsintah 
 
 pin-nay 
 
 Face 
 
 
 Aaunith 
 
 
 Eye 
 
 
 Attanah 
 
 
 pindah 
 
 Nose 
 
 
 /mntchu 
 
 -jwtehess 
 
 Teeth 
 
 
 Aowwa 
 
 
 egho 
 
 Tongue 
 
 
 sastha 
 
 
 ezahte 
 
 Ear 
 
 
 Aotcheweh 
 
 wickyah 
 
 Hair 
 
 
 tsewok 
 
 
 itse 
 
 Nech 
 
 
 Aosewatl 
 
 ttvckcost 
 
 Arm 
 
 
 Aoithlani 
 
 witse 
 
 Hand 
 
 
 AoUah 
 
 
 w/slah. 
 
 The Kitunahay Kutani, Cootanie or Flathow area is 
 long rather than broad, and it follows the line of the 
 Rocky Mountains between 52° and 48° north latitude. 
 How definitely it is divided by the main ridge from that 
 of the Blackfoots I am unable to say ; but as a general 
 rule, the Kutani lie west, the Blackfoots east ; the former 
 being Indians of New Caledonia and Oregon, the latter 
 of the Hudson's Bay Territory. 
 
 On the west, the Kutani country is bounded by that 
 of the Shuswap and Selish ; on the north by the Sussi, 
 Sikanni, and Nagail Athabaskans ; on the south (I 
 
396 
 
 THE KUTANI. 
 
 think) by some of the Upsaroka or Crow tribes. All 
 these relations are remarkable, and so is the geographical 
 position of the area. It is in a mountain range ; and, 
 as such, it is a district likely to be an ancient Occupancy. 
 The languages of the frontiers are referable to four 
 different families — the Athabaskan, the Atna, the Al- 
 gonkin, and the Sioux ; from all of which the Kutani 
 differs notably ; though, like all the languages of America, 
 it has numerous miscellaneous affinities. In respect to 
 its phonesis it agrees with the North Oregon languages. 
 The similarity in name to that of the Loucheux, whom 
 Richardson calls Kutshin, deserves notice. 
 
 The Ktitani vocabulary of Mr. Hale was obtained 
 from a Cree Indian, and is not to be depended on. This 
 being the case it is fortunate that it is not the only spe- 
 cimen of the language. There is an earlier one of Mr. 
 Howse's, published in the Transactions of the Philologi- 
 cal Society. It is as follows ; being given in full as 
 representing all that is known of the language : — 
 
 Englisli. 
 
 Kiitani. 
 
 English. 
 
 Kiitani. 
 
 One 
 
 hook cain 
 
 This Indian 
 
 in nai ah quels 
 
 Two 
 
 ass 
 
 
 mah kin nic 
 
 Three 
 
 calie sah 
 
 That Indian 
 
 CO ah quels mah 
 
 Four 
 
 had sah 
 
 
 kin nic 
 
 Five 
 
 yea co 
 
 These Indians 
 
 wai nai ah quels 
 
 Six 
 
 in ne me sah 
 
 
 mah kin nic nin 
 
 Seven 
 
 whist taw lah 
 
 
 tie 
 
 Eight 
 
 waw ah sah 
 
 Which man ? 
 
 cath lah te te calt ? 
 
 Nine 
 
 ky yie kit to 
 
 Which Indians ? 
 
 cah lah ah quels 
 
 Ten 
 
 aye to vow 
 
 
 mah kin nic nin 
 
 An Indian 
 
 ah quels mah kin 
 
 
 tie? 
 
 
 nic 
 
 Which gun ? 
 
 cah lah tah vow ? 
 
 A man 
 
 te te calt 
 
 Who 
 
 cath lah 
 
 A woman 
 
 balle key 
 
 My son 
 
 cah mah hat lay 
 
 A shoe 
 
 cath lend 
 
 His son 
 
 hot lay is 
 
 A gun 
 
 tah vow 
 
 He is good 
 
 sook say 
 
 I 
 
 cah min 
 
 It is good 
 
 sook kin nai 
 
 Thou 
 
 lin coo 
 
 He is arrived 
 
 swan hah 
 
 He 
 
 nin CO is 
 
 I love him 
 
 hones sclah kilt 
 
 We {thou and I) 
 
 cah min nuh lah 
 
 He loves mc 
 
 sclah kilt nai 
 
THE KUTANL 
 
 897 
 
 English. 
 
 Ki'itaui. 
 
 English. 
 
 Kiitani. 
 
 / see him 
 
 hones ze caught 
 
 Brother, youngest 
 
 
 [ see his son 
 
 hones ze caught ah 
 
 {by brothers) 
 
 cats zah 
 
 
 calttis 
 
 Brother, youngest 
 
 
 He sees me 
 
 ze caught tene 
 
 {by sisters) 
 
 cah ze ah 
 
 He steals 
 
 i in ney 
 
 Sister, eldest 
 
 cats sous 
 
 I love him 
 
 hones sch\h kilt 
 
 Sister, youngest 
 
 cah nah nah 
 
 
 ney 
 
 Uncle 
 
 cath ah 
 
 I do not love him 
 
 cah sclah kilt nai 
 
 Aunt 
 
 cah tilt tilt 
 
 My husband 
 
 can no claw kin 
 
 Grandfatli£r 
 
 cah papa 
 
 
 nah 
 
 Grandmother 
 
 cah de de 
 
 He is asleep 
 
 come ney ney 
 
 Thy husband 
 My loife 
 
 in claw kin nah nis 
 cah tilt nah mo 
 
 I am a man 
 
 ,te te calt ne ne 
 
 
 
 
 Thy wife 
 Son 
 
 tilt nah mo nis 
 
 I am a looman 
 miere ? 
 
 balle key ne ne 
 cas kin ? 
 
 can nah hot lay or 
 ah calt 
 
 Where is my gun ? 
 
 cass kin cah tah 
 
 
 
 
 vow? 
 
 Daughter 
 
 cass win 
 
 Where is his r/im ? 
 
 cass kin tah vow 
 
 Come here 
 
 clan nah 
 
 
 I'q ? 
 
 Go away 
 
 cloon no 
 
 
 IS i 
 
 Take care 
 
 ill kilt we In 
 
 A lake 
 
 ah CO CO nook 
 
 Get out of the way you vaw 
 
 How much ? 
 
 cack sah ? 
 
 Come in 
 
 tie cath ah min 
 
 It is cold weather 
 
 kis caw tit late 
 
 Go out 
 
 sclah nah ah min 
 
 A tent 
 
 ah caw slah co 
 
 Sto2y 
 
 mae kaek 
 
 
 hoke 
 
 Run 
 
 sin naek kin 
 
 My tent 
 
 cah ah kit lah 
 
 Slowly 
 
 ah nis cah zin 
 
 Thy tent 
 
 ah kit lah nis 
 
 Miserly 
 
 per tin 
 
 His tent 
 
 ah kit lah is 
 
 Beggarly 
 
 coke CO mae kali 
 
 Our {thy and my) 
 
 cah ah kit lah 
 
 
 knn 
 
 tent 
 
 nam 
 
 I give 
 
 hone silt ah mah tie 
 
 Yes 
 
 ah ah 
 
 
 sis ney 
 
 No 
 Men 
 
 waw 
 
 te te calt nin tie 
 
 Thou givest 
 
 kin nah mah tie 
 
 Women 
 
 balle key nin tie 
 
 
 zey 
 
 Girl {in her teens) 
 Girls {in their 
 
 teens) 
 Boy 
 Boys 
 
 nah oh tit 
 
 He gives 
 
 sclah mah tie zey 
 
 
 He gave 
 
 cah mah tie cates 
 
 nah oh tit nin tie 
 
 I beat 
 
 hone cah slah tea 
 
 stalt 
 
 stalt nin tie 
 
 Thm beatest 
 
 kin cah slah leat 
 
 He beats 
 
 kis kilt cone slah 
 leat 
 
 Little hoy 
 
 stalt nah nah 
 
 
 Child 
 
 cah mo 
 
 Give me 
 
 ah mah tie kit 
 
 Ch lldren 
 
 cah mo nin tie 
 
 
 sous 
 
 Father {by the cah de doo 
 
 He gave me 
 
 nah mah tie kit 
 
 sons) 
 
 
 
 sap pe ney 
 
 Father {by (he call sous 
 
 1 love you 
 
 hone sclah kilt 
 
 daughtei's) 
 
 . 
 
 
 ney 
 
 Mother 
 
 cah mail 
 
 He loves 
 
 sclah kilt 
 
 Brother, eldest 
 
 cah tat 
 
 Bo you love me 
 
 ' kin sclah slap ? 
 
898 
 
 THE KUTANI. 
 
 EngHsh. 
 
 Kutani. 
 
 English. 
 
 Kutani. 
 
 / hate you 
 
 hone cah sclah kilt 
 
 Red pine 
 
 he mos 
 
 
 ney 
 
 Cedar 
 
 heats ze natt 
 
 Thou hatest 
 
 kin cah sclah kilt 
 
 Poplar 
 
 ac cle mack 
 
 He hates 
 
 cah sclah kilt 
 
 Aspen 
 
 ac CO CO zle mack 
 
 I speaJc 
 
 hones ah ney 
 
 Fire 
 
 ah kin ne co co 
 
 Thou speahest 
 
 kins ah 
 
 Ice 
 
 ah CO wheat 
 
 He speahs 
 
 kates ah 
 
 Charcoal 
 
 ah kits cah kilt 
 
 We speak 
 
 hones ah nah slah 
 
 Ashes 
 
 ah CO que me co 
 
 You speaJc 
 
 talk e tea leat 
 
 Kettle 
 
 yeats skime 
 
 They speaJc 
 
 seals ah 
 
 Mat tent 
 
 tah lalt ah kit lah 
 
 I steal 
 
 hone i he ne 
 
 
 nam 
 
 I sleep 
 
 hone come ney 
 
 Head 
 
 ac clam 
 
 
 ney 
 
 Eyes 
 
 ac cack leat 
 
 We sleep 
 
 hone come ney nah 
 
 Nose 
 
 ac coun 
 
 
 lah ney 
 
 Mouth 
 
 ac calt le mah 
 
 I die 
 
 hones alt hip pe 
 
 Chin 
 
 ac cah me zin ne 
 
 
 ney 
 
 
 cack 
 
 Thou diest 
 
 kins alt hip 
 
 Cheeks 
 
 ac que ma malt 
 
 We die 
 
 hone ah o co noak 
 
 Hair 
 
 ac coke que slam 
 
 
 nah slah ney 
 
 Body 
 
 ac CO no cack 
 
 Give me to eat 
 
 he shoe 
 
 Artns 
 
 ac sglat 
 
 Eat 
 
 he ken 
 
 Legs 
 
 ac sack 
 
 My gun 
 
 cah tah vow 
 
 Belly 
 
 ac CO womb 
 
 Thy gun 
 
 tah vow nis 
 
 Back 
 
 ac cove cah slack 
 
 His gun 
 
 •tah vow is 
 
 Side 
 
 ac kin no cack 
 
 Mountain 
 
 ac CO vo cle it 
 
 Ears 
 
 ac coke co what 
 
 Rocky mountain 
 
 ac CO vo cle it nook 
 
 Animals 
 
 yah mo 
 
 
 key 
 
 Horse 
 
 kilt calt law ah 
 
 Snowy mountain 
 
 ac CO vo cle it ac 
 
 
 shiu 
 
 
 clo 
 
 Stallion 
 
 cass CO 
 
 Road or track 
 
 ac que mah nam 
 
 Mare 
 
 stoifgalt 
 
 Large river 
 
 oath le man me 
 
 Bull 
 
 neel seek 
 
 
 took 
 
 Cow 
 
 slouke copo 
 
 Small river 
 
 hah cack 
 
 Birds 
 
 to coots cah min 
 
 Creek 
 
 nis cah took 
 
 
 nah 
 
 Large lake 
 
 will caw ac co co 
 
 Blue jay 
 
 CO quis kay 
 
 
 nook 
 
 Crow 
 
 coke kin 
 
 Small lake 
 
 ac CO CO nook nah 
 
 Raven 
 
 nah nah key 
 
 
 nah 
 
 Snakes (rattle- 
 
 
 Rapid 
 
 ah cah hop cle it 
 
 snake) 
 
 wilt le malt 
 
 Fall 
 
 wheat taw hop cle 
 
 Garter snake 
 
 ah CO new slam 
 
 
 it 
 
 Roots (camass) 
 
 hap pey 
 
 Shoals 
 
 ah coke you coo 
 
 Bitter root 
 
 nah cam me shou 
 
 
 nook 
 
 Tohacco root 
 
 mass mass 
 
 Channel 
 
 hah cath slaw o 
 
 Sweet potatoes 
 
 ah whis sea 
 
 
 weak 
 
 Moose herry 
 
 ac CO mo 
 
 Wood or trees 
 
 ah kits slah in 
 
 Strawberry 
 
 ac CO CO 
 
THE ATNA, OR SELISH, DIALECTS. 
 
 899 
 
 EngUsh. 
 
 Kutani. 
 
 English. 
 
 Kutaui. 
 
 Pipe 
 
 couse 
 
 Red deer 
 
 kilt caw sley 
 
 Pipe stem 
 
 ac coot lah 
 
 Moose deer 
 
 snap pe co 
 
 Axe 
 
 ah coot talt 
 
 Woolvereen 
 
 ats po 
 
 Tobacco 
 
 yac ket 
 
 Wolf 
 
 cack kin 
 
 Flesh 
 
 ah coot lack 
 
 Beaver 
 
 sin nah 
 
 Calf 
 
 ah kin co malt 
 
 Otter 
 
 ah cow oh alt 
 
 Tiger 
 
 s'vie 
 
 MinJc 
 
 in new yah 
 
 Bears of aU kinds 
 
 cap pe tie 
 
 Martin 
 
 nac suck 
 
 Blach or brotcn 
 
 
 Musquash 
 
 an CO 
 
 bears 
 
 nip pe CO 
 
 Small grey plain 
 
 
 Ch'izzle bear 
 
 kit slaw slaw 
 
 wolf 
 
 skin koots. 
 
 Rein deer 
 
 neats snap pie co 
 
 
 
 West of the Kutanis and south of the Takulli Atha- 
 baskans He the northernmost members of a great class, 
 which extends as far south as the Sahaptin fi'ontier. It 
 has been named by Hale and Gallatin Tsihaili-Selish, 
 It contains the Shushwap or Atna Proper, Kuttelspelm 
 (or Pend d'Oreilles), Selish, Spokan (or Kettle Fall), 
 Okanagan, Skitsuish (or Ooeur d'Alene), Piskwaus, Nus- 
 dalum, Kawitchen, Cathlascou, Skwali, Chechili, (Tsihaili,) 
 Kwaintl, Kwenaiwtl, (Kowelitsk,) Nsietshawus (or Killa- 
 muk), and Billechula, spoken at the mouth of Salmon 
 River ; a language to which a vocabulary from Mac- 
 kenzie's Travels of the dialect spoken at Friendly 
 
 Village 
 
 is referable. 
 
 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Atna.* 
 
 Pisl<aws. 
 
 Skwali. 
 
 Kowelitsk. 
 
 Man 
 
 kwlniMkh 
 
 skaltamikko 
 
 stuinsh 
 
 nawetkhlamakb 
 
 Woman 
 
 SMmotkhlitshk 
 
 swrnaem 
 
 stkhladai 
 
 kawitkhl 
 
 Father 
 
 katsa 
 
 laaus 
 
 baa 
 
 koma 
 
 Mother 
 
 kekha 
 
 shkui 
 
 sokho 
 
 kota 
 
 Son 
 
 skusS,a 
 
 ashkusas 
 
 nimjtda 
 
 nwman 
 
 Daughter 
 
 stwmkaalt 
 
 stwmkas 
 
 nibada 
 
 tsimwrnan 
 
 Head 
 
 skapkht^u 
 
 khumukwm 
 
 skhaius 
 
 khomwt 
 
 Hair 
 
 khauitwn 
 
 skhiaukwn 
 
 skhatso 
 
 kwskws 
 
 Ear 
 
 tkhlamt 
 
 tana 
 
 kholane 
 
 khoolan 
 
 Eye 
 
 khukukhlostan 
 
 sinatkhlo- } 
 shomttn S 
 
 khalom 
 
 mos 
 
 Nose 
 
 spitsaks 
 
 muksin 
 
 makiisin 
 
 mwkwsMn 
 
 Mmith 
 
 spiilutsin 
 
 skhumtsliin 
 
 kamukh 
 
 kwnikh 
 
 Tongue 
 
 tikhwatsk 
 
 milik 
 
 tkhlalab 
 
 tekhutsitkhl 
 
 Teeth 
 
 khalakhu 
 
 khalekhu 
 
 tswnis 
 
 yenis 
 
 Hand 
 
 lakhaleakst 
 
 k&likh 
 
 tshalash 
 
 lakhaiaka 
 
 * From Hale, in Gallati 
 
400 
 
 THE ATNA, OR SELISH, DIALECTS. 
 
 English. 
 
 Aina. 
 
 Piskaws, 
 
 Skwali. 
 
 Kovvelitsk. 
 
 Fingers 
 
 lakhaleakst 
 
 kaiikh 
 
 tshalash 
 
 lakhaiaka 
 
 Feet 
 
 leakhin 
 
 stsoohin 
 
 tsMshin 
 
 tsotkhl 
 
 Blood 
 
 metikhea 
 
 mitkhlkaia 
 
 stulikwan 
 
 skwaitkhl 
 
 House 
 
 tshitukh 
 
 stukul 
 
 alwtkhl 
 
 khakh 
 
 Axe 
 
 tkhlumen 
 
 khaweskhan 
 
 khamatn 
 
 kbMstn 
 
 Knife 
 
 khutkhlakst 
 
 mikha.mun 
 
 snokh 
 
 kwakhomim 
 
 Shoes 
 
 skitkhltso 
 
 skhamhin 
 
 ialshin 
 
 tswtkhlshin 
 
 Shy 
 
 slkhleakhwt 
 
 khitmomtaskhut 
 
 tkhltalakun 
 
 San 
 
 skwokwa?/s 
 
 khoslium 
 
 tkhlukhatkhl 
 
 tkhlokliwaokin 
 
 Moon 
 
 makhen 
 
 suakhaam 
 
 stkhliikhwalwm tkhlokhwatkhl 
 
 Star 
 
 sukoshint 
 
 pukhpukliaiauit stshishus 
 
 kase 
 
 Day 
 
 pakhiauit 
 
 skhzdkhztlt 
 
 skhlakhel 
 
 skhaiekh 
 
 Night 
 
 khwtshitshoi 
 
 shtsowi 
 
 tkhlakh 
 
 kwaiekli 
 
 Fire 
 
 teekwu 
 
 shtshiatkitp 
 
 hot 
 
 moksip 
 
 Water 
 
 sliawitkhlkwit 
 
 sliauitkhlkwa 
 
 kho 
 
 kal 
 
 Rain 
 
 klakstan 
 
 stau 
 
 skhaktni 
 
 BtlkvfU 
 
 Snow 
 
 makha 
 
 shmaa 
 
 makho 
 
 skhlakhwit 
 
 Earth 
 
 tklilokalukh 
 
 wmaumit 
 
 suatiukhtin 
 
 twtniikh 
 
 River 
 
 tsuakh 
 
 npukwatkwi 
 
 stulakww 
 
 skewitkhlko 
 
 Stone 
 
 shkhanikh 
 
 khwtkhlot 
 
 tshetkhla 
 
 trtkalis 
 
 Tree 
 
 tsigkap 
 
 sliuopt 
 
 
 iamwts 
 
 Meat 
 
 tshee 
 
 skattk 
 
 maiats 
 
 kos 
 
 Dog 
 
 skakha 
 
 khMkhwtk- \ 
 hltshin S 
 
 skobai 
 
 kakha 
 
 Beaver 
 
 skalau 
 
 skalau 
 
 
 
 Bear 
 
 skkwmkhaes ' ' 
 
 (black) ;; 
 
 mikhatkhl 
 
 
 
 
 Bird 
 
 spiott 
 
 huhuiui 
 
 tkhlitknaalkitm 
 
 Fish 
 
 shuauwitklil 
 
 nacauitkhlkwa 
 
 
 
 
 Great 
 
 khaiom 
 
 kwwtunt 
 
 hekhwo 
 
 tuwuikh. 
 
 Cold 
 
 tshMatkhl 
 
 shtshilt 
 
 tws 
 
 tkhlek 
 
 White 
 
 pewkh 
 
 paiakh 
 
 khokkliwkh 
 
 kskhwokh 
 
 Black 
 
 kwaiokhwaiil 
 
 khwaii 
 
 khaimetsh 
 
 ksnwkhu 
 
 Red 
 
 tshiwkhwt* 
 
 kwil 
 
 khaikwitshltt 
 
 uktseakhu 
 
 I 
 
 ntshatshua 
 
 intsha 
 
 uis,u 
 
 wntsa 
 
 Thou 
 
 anwwl 
 
 inui 
 
 duthwe 
 
 nwwe 
 
 He 
 
 wniiwis 
 
 tswnil 
 
 tsunitkhl 
 
 tsMne 
 
 One 
 
 nkho 
 
 naksh 
 
 nutsho 
 
 ots 
 
 Two 
 
 siselw 
 
 tkhauMs 
 
 sale 
 
 sale 
 
 Three 
 
 ketkhles 
 
 katkhles 
 
 tkhlikho 
 
 katkhle 
 
 Four 
 
 mos 
 
 mushits 
 
 mos 
 
 mos 
 
 Five 
 
 tshelikst 
 
 tshiliksht 
 
 tsilats 
 
 tshelatsh 
 
 Six 
 
 takhamakst 
 
 hotshimakst 
 
 tsilatshe 
 
 takham 
 
 Seven 
 
 tshutsitkhlka 
 
 shispwlkh 
 
 tsook 
 
 tsops 
 
 Eight 
 
 nkoops 
 
 tuwin 
 
 takatshe 
 
 tshamos 
 
 Nine 
 
 twmtkhlin ) 
 wkokaa f 
 
 khakhanot 
 
 khoMn 
 
 tookhu 
 
 Ten 
 
 opitkst 
 
 opanikst 
 
 panutshs 
 
 panutsh. 
 
THE ATNA, OR SELISH, DIALECTS. 
 
 401 
 
 The Tsihaili-Selish languages reach the sea in the parts 
 opposite Vancouver's Island. Perhaps they touch it to 
 the north also. Perhaps, too, some of the TakuUi forms of 
 speech still further north do the same. The current 
 statements, however, are to the effect that to the south 
 of the parts opposite Sitka and to the north of the 
 parts opposite Vancouver's Island the two families in 
 question are separated from the Pacific by a narrow 
 strip of separate languages. These are, beginning from 
 the north — 
 
 1. The Kolush. 
 
 2. The Hccidah, spoken by the Skittegats, Massets, 
 Kumshahas, and Kyganie of Queen Charlotte's Islands 
 and the Prince of Wales' Archipelago. 
 
 3. The Chemmesyan, spoken along the sea-coast and 
 islands in north latitude 55°; 
 
 4. The Hailtsa, containing the dialects of the sea- 
 coast between Hawkesbury Island and Broughton's 
 Archipelago ; also those of the northern part of Van- 
 couver's Island. 
 
 From the Piskwaus, in the preceding group, the tran- 
 sition, in the opinion of the present writer, who only 
 attempts a provisional and approximate arrangement, 
 lies through the Billechula (which he makes Atna) to 
 the Hailtsa and its congeners of the present group. 
 
 English. 
 
 Kolusli of Sitka. 
 
 Skittegats. 
 
 Cliemmesyan. 
 
 Hailtsa. 
 
 Man 
 
 chakleyh 
 
 keeset 
 
 tzib 
 
 numus 
 
 Woman 
 
 shavvot 
 
 kna 
 
 imnaach 
 
 kanum 
 
 Head 
 
 ashaggee 
 
 
 
 hete 
 
 Hair 
 
 ' koshahaoo 
 
 cutts 
 
 
 
 
 Ear 
 
 kakook 
 
 
 
 
 Nose 
 
 kaclu 
 
 coon 
 
 
 
 Mouth 
 
 kake 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 Tongue 
 
 katnoot 
 
 
 
 
 Tooth 
 
 kaooh 
 
 
 
 
 Hand 
 
 kacheen 
 
 
 
 
 haiasi 
 
 Feet 
 
 kahoos 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sun 
 
 kakkaan 
 
 tzue 
 
 kiumuk 
 
 tkhlikshualit 
 
 Moon 
 
 tees 
 
 kukn 
 
 kiumugumaatuk 
 
 nusikh 
 
 Star 
 
 kootahanaha 
 
 kaaldha 
 
 pialust 
 
 
 D D 
 
402 
 
 THE SITKA, 
 
 ETC. 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Kolusli of Sitka. 
 
 Skittegats. 
 
 Chenimesyaii. 
 
 Hailtsa. 
 
 House 
 
 tasnenawin 
 
 tkwutkhle 
 
 
 mukatee 
 
 Axe 
 
 tkhlakatstJiin 
 
 khwestwn 
 
 
 taawish 
 
 Day 
 
 
 koondlain 
 
 tseicoosah 
 
 
 Fire 
 
 haan 
 
 tsinoo 
 
 
 tsultila 
 
 Water 
 
 ieen 
 
 huntle 
 
 use 
 
 waum 
 
 Rain 
 
 sevva 
 
 tuU 
 
 waash 
 
 yukhwa 
 
 Snow 
 
 kleyt 
 
 tuU hatter 
 
 moaks 
 
 kwispish 
 
 Stone 
 
 te 
 
 tlaha 
 
 loap 
 
 
 
 Tree 
 
 shaak 
 
 kyet 
 
 kunagun 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 chat 
 
 cagen 
 
 newyo 
 
 nuka 
 
 Thou 
 
 
 tingkyah 
 
 noone 
 
 tsu 
 
 He 
 
 
 anhest 
 
 qua 
 
 
 One 
 
 tlekh 
 
 skwansun 
 
 kaak 
 
 manuik 
 
 Two 
 
 teeh 
 
 stung 
 
 tupchaat 
 
 maluik 
 
 Three 
 
 nezk 
 
 thkoonweelh 
 
 gundh 
 
 yukhtuk 
 
 Four 
 
 taakun 
 
 stunsun 
 
 tuchaalpuch 
 
 mouk 
 
 Five 
 
 kejetsckin 
 
 kleith 
 
 kuhdhoouis 
 
 shiowk 
 
 Six 
 
 kletuschu 
 
 ktonell 
 
 coald 
 
 ketkhliouk 
 
 Seven 
 
 tachate uschu 
 
 tseekwah 
 
 tupooald 
 
 matkhlius 
 
 Eight 
 
 nesket uschu 
 
 stansanghah 
 
 kundh 
 
 yukhtaksimus 
 
 Nine 
 
 kuschok klathshskwasunha kustamoas 
 
 mumiskumea 
 
 Ten 
 
 tschinkat 
 
 klath 
 
 kippio 
 
 koljushun. 
 
 Next come the languages of Quadra's and Vancouver's 
 Island and a small portion of the opposite continent. 
 Then the Tshinuk and its congeners. 
 
 English. 
 
 Nsietshawus.*- 
 
 WatlalaCT'^Amji/r). 
 
 Ntitka. 
 
 Man 
 
 taiilaho 
 
 tkhlekala 
 
 checkup 
 
 Woman 
 
 suitkhlats 
 
 tkhlkakilak 
 
 klootzmah 
 
 Father 
 
 uluQ, 
 
 tkhlukhlam 
 
 noowexa 
 
 Mother 
 
 u\u& 
 
 waiak 
 
 hoomahexa 
 
 Son 
 
 twuMWon 
 
 itshikhan 
 
 tanassis checkup 
 
 Daughter 
 
 txlwnwwitn 
 
 wkttkhan 
 
 tanassis klootsmah 
 
 Head 
 
 takhen 
 
 kakhstakh 
 
 towhatsetel 
 
 Hair 
 
 tkhluakhen 
 
 wk-Mshshw 
 
 hapscup 
 
 Far 
 
 twne 
 
 amemtsha 
 
 parpee 
 
 Eye 
 
 taskhatkhl 
 
 iakhot 
 
 kassee 
 
 Nose ' 
 
 tiwakhiswn 
 
 imiktshi 
 
 neetsa 
 
 Mouth 
 
 shinuotsins 
 
 emekushkhat 
 
 ictla-tzul {sing. ) 
 
 Tongue 
 
 tikhitsas 
 
 mankhutkonuma 
 
 choop 
 
 Teeth 
 
 tkhlasawin 
 
 tkhlbekatsh 
 
 cheechee 
 
 Hand 
 
 tshalas 
 
 titmekshi 
 
 kookaniksa 
 
 Fingers 
 
 kwkwtsatsha 
 
 titmekshi 
 
 uc-tza 
 
 * 
 
 Or Killamuk ; a language of the Selish, or 
 
 Atna, group. 
 
THE NSIETSHAWUS. 
 
 403 
 
 English. 
 
 Nsietsiiawus. 
 
 Watlala {Tshinuk). 
 
 Ntitka. 
 
 Feet 
 
 nikheicjins 
 
 tumepsh 
 
 kliskin 
 
 Blood 
 
 skiuo 
 
 tkhlkawwlkt 
 
 atzi-mis 
 
 Knife 
 
 tukhaiotkW 
 
 khawekhe 
 
 chiltaj'ek 
 
 Shoes 
 
 mitcinasMtim 
 
 tkaitkhlpa 
 
 
 Sh/ 
 
 taskhitkhwn 
 
 koshakh 
 
 sieyah 
 
 Sun 
 
 tataitkhtMn 
 
 katkhlakh 
 
 oophelth 
 
 Moon 
 
 tttkhosliittMn 
 
 «ktkhl«men 
 
 oophelth 
 
 Star 
 
 nukhikliiaikhia 
 
 tkblkhekhanama 
 
 tartoose 
 
 Day 
 
 \mmiwm 
 
 iotshoktigh 
 
 nas-chitl 
 
 Night 
 
 \xu\U\ 
 
 aiikap 
 
 atajai 
 
 Fire 
 
 tkhlaskhokh 
 
 watotkhl 
 
 eennuksee 
 
 Water 
 
 tkhlakhilo 
 
 tkliltshokwa 
 
 chabak 
 
 Rain 
 
 tkhlasilotkhl 
 
 ishketkhlti 
 
 meetla 
 
 Snow 
 
 tkblaskhwnMn 
 
 tkhtttka 
 
 queece 
 
 Earth 
 
 tawekh 
 
 v-elkh 
 
 klattumiss 
 
 River 
 
 nisatintslii 
 
 tkhlokhonet 
 
 tzac 
 
 Stone 
 
 tashwnsli 
 
 khalainMt 
 
 maoksee 
 
 Tree 
 
 tkhlaasklii 
 
 tkamonak 
 
 soocbis 
 
 Meat 
 
 tatse 
 
 ipkhalewa 
 
 cbis-qui-mis 
 
 Dog 
 
 tsaskhakhea 
 
 khotkliot 
 
 aemitl 
 
 Beaver 
 
 tatokhwoso 
 
 ikhwakhwa 
 
 
 Bear 
 
 tatontshiesbo 
 
 kanokh 
 
 cbi-mitz 
 
 Bird 
 
 tkUaskhokha 
 
 tkalakalabakh 
 
 kaenne 
 
 Fish 
 
 
 
 
 keesapa 
 
 Great 
 
 tuwwtkli 
 
 iakaitkhl 
 
 asco 
 
 Cold 
 
 tatsuwaii 
 
 tsometigh 
 
 ate-quitzi-majas 
 
 White 
 
 tahaklii 
 
 tkhop 
 
 atit-tzutle 
 
 Blach 
 
 tsuwwlMkhi 
 
 tkhM 
 
 
 Red 
 
 tkhlakiil 
 
 tklpal 
 
 
 I 
 
 «ntsM 
 
 naika 
 
 cheUe 
 
 Thou 
 
 ttnaike 
 
 maika 
 
 sua 
 
 He 
 
 tsMnitkhl 
 
 iaklika 
 
 abkoo 
 
 One 
 
 twheike 
 
 ikht 
 
 sahwank 
 
 Two 
 
 tkhlasale 
 
 makusht 
 
 attla 
 
 Three 
 
 tshanat 
 
 tkhlom 
 
 katsa 
 
 Four 
 
 tkhlawos 
 
 laket 
 
 mooh 
 
 Five 
 
 tm\hm 
 
 kwanan 
 
 soocbah 
 
 Six 
 
 tsiilukhatshi 
 
 takh?/m 
 
 noohoo 
 
 Seven 
 
 tutshoos 
 
 SMDitmakust 
 
 attlepoo 
 
 Eight 
 
 tukatshi 
 
 ksotken 
 
 atlabqueltb 
 
 Nine 
 
 tkhleio 
 
 kweos 
 
 sawwaukqueltb 
 
 Ten 
 
 tkhlaahantshs 
 
 tatkheelikma 
 
 hyo. 
 
 The class to which the Nutka and its congeners 
 belong is called the Wakash. The Tlaoquatsh and 
 Wakash Proper belong to it. 
 
 D D 2 
 
404 OREGON AND CALIFORNIAN LANGUAGES. 
 
 CHAPTER LVI. 
 
 Languages of Oregon and California. — Caytis, &c. — Lutuami, &c. — Ehnek. — 
 Weitspek. — Kulanapo. — Copeh. — Pujuni, &c. — Costano, &c. — Eslen. — 
 Netela. — San Diego, &c. 
 
 All the preceding languages belong to the Hudson's 
 Bay Territory and to British Oregon rather than to 
 California. Those that follow belong to California 
 and American Oregon. Though the minute details 
 of the frontier are not accurately known there seems 
 to be a notable change in the parts about it. The 
 nature of this, in a rough way, may be illustrated 
 by the following table. 
 
 Contrast the two columns. How smoothly the words 
 on the right run, how harshly sound (when they can be 
 sounded) those of the left. Not, however, that they 
 give us the actual sounds of the combination hhl^ &c. 
 All that this means is that there is some extraordinary 
 sound to be expressed which neither any existing sign 
 nor any common combination will represent. In Mr. 
 Hale's vocabularies it is represented by a special letter. 
 
 English. 
 
 Selish. 
 
 Tshiuuk. 
 
 Shoshoni. 
 
 Man 
 
 skaltamekho 
 
 tkhlekala 
 
 taka 
 
 Woman 
 
 swma^m 
 
 tkhlakel 
 
 kWMM 
 
 Boy 
 
 skokosea 
 
 tklkaskws 
 
 natsi 
 
 Girl 
 
 shautwm 
 
 tklalekh 
 
 naintswts 
 
 Child 
 
 aktult 
 
 etshanuks 
 
 ' wa 
 
 Father 
 
 iMaus 
 
 tkhliamama 
 
 dpui 
 
 Mother 
 
 sktiis 
 
 tkhlian^a 
 
 pia 
 
 Wife 
 
 makhonakh 
 
 iuakh^kal 
 
 wepui 
 
 Son 
 
 skokosea 
 
 etsokha 
 
 natsi 
 
 Daughter 
 
 stumtshaait 
 
 okwwkha 
 
 nanai 
 
 Brother 
 
 katshki (elder) 
 
 kapkhu 
 
 tamye 
 
 Sister 
 
 tklkikee 
 
 tkhliau 
 
 namei. 
 
OREGON AND CALIFORNIAN LANGUAGES. 405 
 
 As a general rule the harsher phonesis lies to the 
 north, the softer to the south, of the Californian frontier. 
 That the difference, however, is, by no means, absolute, 
 may be seen from the following list : — 
 
 (1-) 
 
 English. 
 
 Wishosk. 
 
 Weiyot. 
 
 Boy 
 
 ligeritl 
 
 kushama 
 
 Married 
 
 wehowut'l 
 
 haqueh 
 
 Head 
 
 wutwetl 
 
 metwet 
 
 Hair 
 
 pah'tl 
 
 paht'l 
 
 Face 
 
 kahtsouetl 
 
 sulatek 
 
 Beard 
 
 tseh'pl 
 
 cheh'pl 
 
 Body 
 
 tah 
 
 Mt'l 
 
 Foot 
 
 wehlihl 
 
 wellih'tl 
 
 Village 
 
 mohl 
 
 katswah'tl 
 
 Chief 
 
 kowqueh'tl 
 
 kaiowuh 
 
 Axe 
 
 mahtl 
 
 mehtl 
 
 Pipe 
 
 malit'letl 
 
 mahtlel 
 
 Wind 
 
 rahtegut'l 
 
 ruktagun 
 
 Duck 
 
 ha,halitl 
 
 (2.) 
 
 hahaUih. 
 
 English. 
 
 Dieguno. 
 
 Cachan. 
 
 Leg 
 
 cwith'l 
 
 
 To-day 
 
 enyat'l 
 
 
 To-morrow 
 
 matinyat'l 
 
 
 Bread 
 
 meyut'l 
 
 
 Ear 
 
 hamat'l 
 
 smytli'l 
 
 Neck 
 
 
 n'yeth'l 
 
 Arm ) 
 Hand t 
 
 selh 
 
 iseth'l 
 
 Friend 
 
 
 Byet'l 
 
 Feather 
 
 
 sahwith'l. 
 
 And the mixture may be seen on the frontier. The 
 Tshinuk, a harsh tongue, has for its nearest congeners 
 the Killamuk on one side and the Lutuami (apparently 
 soft) on the other. 
 
 The Gayus, or Molele, group is, apparently, transi- 
 tional. 
 
406 
 
 
 CAYUS, ETC. 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Cayu9. 
 
 WiUamet. 
 
 Man 
 
 ytiant 
 
 atshanggo 
 
 Woman 
 
 pintkhlkaiu 
 
 pummaike 
 
 Father 
 
 pintet 
 
 sima 
 
 Mother 
 
 penln 
 
 sinni 
 
 Son 
 
 wai 
 
 tawakhai 
 
 Daughter 
 
 wai 
 
 tshitapinna 
 
 Head 
 
 talsh 
 
 tamutkhl 
 
 Hair 
 
 tkhlokomot 
 
 amutkhl 
 
 Ear 
 
 taksli 
 
 pokta 
 
 Eye 
 
 h&kamush 
 
 kwalakkh 
 
 Nose 
 
 pitkhloken 
 
 unan 
 
 Mouth 
 
 sumkhaksli 
 
 mandi 
 
 Tongue 
 
 push 
 
 mamtshutkhl 
 
 Tooth 
 
 tenif 
 
 puti 
 
 Hand 
 
 epip 
 
 tlakwa 
 
 Fingers 
 
 gpip 
 
 alakwa 
 
 Feet 
 
 tisli 
 
 puuf 
 
 Blood 
 
 tiweush 
 
 meeuu 
 
 House 
 
 nisht 
 
 hammeih(=^re) 
 
 Axe 
 
 yengthokineh 
 
 khueshtan 
 
 Knife 
 
 sliekt 
 
 hekemistah 
 
 Shoes 
 
 taitkMo 
 
 ulumof 
 
 Sly 
 
 adjalawaia 
 
 amiank 
 
 Sun 
 
 hue wish 
 
 ampiun 
 
 Moon 
 
 katkhltop 
 
 utap 
 
 Star 
 
 tkhlikhlish 
 
 atuininank 
 
 Day 
 
 eweiu 
 
 umpium 
 
 Night 
 
 ftalp 
 
 atitshikim 
 
 Fire 
 
 tetsh 
 
 hammeih 
 
 Water 
 
 iskkainish 
 
 mampuka 
 
 Rain 
 
 tishtkitkhlmiting 
 
 ukwii 
 
 Snow 
 
 poi 
 
 nukpeik 
 
 Earth 
 
 lingsh 
 
 hunkhalop 
 
 River 
 
 lushmi 
 
 mantsal 
 
 Stone 
 
 apit 
 
 audi 
 
 Tree 
 
 lauik 
 
 huntawatkhl 
 
 Meat 
 
 pithuli 
 
 umh6k 
 
 Dog 
 
 naapang 
 
 mantal 
 
 Beaver 
 
 pieka 
 
 akaipi 
 
 Bear 
 
 limeaksh 
 
 alotufan 
 
 Bird 
 
 tianiyiwa 
 
 pokalfuna 
 
 Great 
 
 yaumua 
 
 pul 
 
 Cold 
 
 shunga 
 
 p^ngkafiti 
 
 White 
 
 tkhlaktkhlako 
 
 kOTTlTnOU 
 
 Black 
 
 shkupshkupu 
 
 maieum 
 
 Red 
 
 lakaitlakaitu 
 
 tshal 
 
LUTUAMI, SHASTI, PALAIK. 
 
 407 
 
 Erxglisli 
 
 Caytis. 
 
 Willamet 
 
 / 
 
 ining 
 
 tsbii 
 
 Thou 
 
 niki 
 
 maha 
 
 He 
 
 nip 
 
 kak 
 
 One 
 
 na 
 
 wrifin 
 
 Two 
 
 leplin 
 
 k^en 
 
 Three 
 
 matnin 
 
 upshin 
 
 Four 
 
 piping 
 
 taope 
 
 Five 
 
 tdwit 
 
 htiwan 
 
 Six 
 
 noind 
 
 taf 
 
 Seven 
 
 noilip 
 
 psMnimua 
 
 Eight 
 
 noimat 
 
 keemtia 
 
 Nine 
 
 tanauiaishimshin 
 
 wanwaha 
 
 Ten 
 
 ningitelp 
 
 tinifia. 
 
 The Lutuami, Shasti, and Palaik are thrown by 
 Gallatin into three separate classes. They are, without 
 doubt, mutually unintelhgible. Nevertheless they can- 
 not be very widely separated. 
 
 The chief language in contact with the Shasti is the 
 intrusive Athabaskan of the Umkwa and Tlatskanai 
 tribes. Hence the nearest languages with which it should 
 be compared are the Jakon and Kalapuya, from which 
 it is geographically separated. For this reason we' do 
 not expect any great amount of coincidences. We find 
 some, however. 
 
 English. 
 
 Lutuami. 
 
 Shasti. 
 
 Palaik. 
 
 Jakon. 
 
 Man 
 
 hishuatsMS 
 
 awatikoa 
 
 yatiu 
 
 kalt 
 
 Woman 
 
 sknawats 
 
 taritsi 
 
 umtewitsen 
 
 tkhlaks 
 
 Father 
 
 kaxiktishap 
 
 
 waii 
 
 • swnta 
 
 Mother 
 
 ankompkiswp 
 
 milatkhi 
 
 taii 
 
 tkhla 
 
 Son 
 
 
 
 yatiitsa 
 
 sinmaats 
 
 Daughter 
 
 
 
 lumauitsa 
 
 
 Head 
 
 nus 
 
 uiak 
 
 lah 
 
 tkhlokia 
 
 Hair 
 
 lak 
 
 inakh 
 
 tiyi 
 
 sinwtkhlosin (my) 
 
 Ear 
 
 mumoMtsh 
 
 isak 
 
 kwrnumtiats 
 
 kwolkwwtsa 
 
 Eye 
 
 lolwp 
 
 oi 
 
 as% 
 
 skikisM 
 
 Nose 
 
 psklsh 
 
 eri 
 
 iami 
 
 titsina 
 
 Mouth 
 
 shum 
 
 an 
 
 ap 
 
 khai 
 
 Tongue 
 
 P^WMS 
 
 ehena 
 
 ipili 
 
 twlela 
 
 Tooth 
 
 tut 
 
 itRa,n 
 
 itsa 
 
 stelieliki 
 
 Hand 
 
 nap 
 
 apka 
 
 il 
 
 
408 
 
 LUTUAMI, SHASTI, PALAIK. 
 
 Englisb. 
 
 Lutuami. 
 
 Shasti. 
 
 Palaik. 
 
 Jakon. 
 
 Fingers 
 
 kop& 
 
 akhasik 
 
 il 
 
 kwotkhl 
 
 Feet 
 
 pats 
 
 akwes 
 
 tsiko 
 
 
 Blood 
 
 poits 
 
 ime 
 
 ahati 
 
 pouts 
 
 House 
 
 latsMsh 
 
 wma 
 
 tiluts 
 
 tsitsaiskia 
 
 Axe 
 
 lakotsish 
 
 aniakidi 
 
 shlakotkis 
 
 pakhtiu 
 
 Knife 
 
 wate 
 
 atsirai 
 
 shatikh 
 
 kiai 
 
 Shoes 
 
 wakslina 
 
 atsitkh 
 
 kelala 
 
 skanaiksealuista 
 
 Sh/ 
 
 paishish 
 
 wwkwe 
 
 Msehela 
 
 Iaa 
 
 Sun 
 
 sapas 
 
 tsoare 
 
 tsul 
 
 pitskom 
 
 Moon 
 
 wokaukash 
 
 apkhatsu 
 
 tsul 
 
 okhon 
 
 Star 
 
 tsliol 
 
 
 tsamikh 
 
 tkhlalt 
 
 Bay 
 
 
 
 matikhtsi 
 
 
 NigU 
 
 pshin 
 
 apkha 
 
 mahektsa 
 
 kaehe 
 
 Fire 
 
 loloks 
 
 im^ 
 
 mails 
 
 kilita 
 
 Water 
 
 ^mpo 
 
 atsa 
 
 as 
 
 kilo 
 
 Rain 
 
 kwtolshas 
 
 titshik 
 
 enwaetsa 
 
 tkhlakos 
 
 Snow 
 
 kais 
 
 khae 
 
 ti 
 
 kimit 
 
 Earth 
 
 kaela 
 
 tarak 
 
 k^la 
 
 onitstuh 
 
 River 
 
 kokai 
 
 asurahaua 
 
 atsMma 
 
 haiu 
 
 Stone 
 
 kotai 
 
 itsa 
 
 ttlisliti 
 
 kelih 
 
 Tree 
 
 
 
 
 tsatiashta 
 
 
 Meat 
 
 
 
 mishuts 
 
 
 Dog 
 
 watsak 
 
 hapso 
 
 watsak lia 
 
 tskekh 
 
 Beaver 
 
 pum 
 
 tawai 
 
 pum 
 
 kaatsilawa 
 
 Bear 
 
 tokwnks 
 
 haukidai 
 
 lokhoa 
 
 kotiimamo 
 
 Bird 
 
 miak 
 
 tarar^kh 
 
 lauitsa 
 
 kv.kwaia 
 
 Fish 
 
 
 
 alish 
 
 
 Great 
 
 moonis 
 
 k^mpe 
 
 waw^ 
 
 haihaiat 
 
 Cold 
 
 kataks 
 
 isikato 
 
 wstse 
 
 kwutitMkhwnu 
 
 White 
 
 palpal 
 
 itaiu 
 
 tiwitsi 
 
 kwakhalt 
 
 Black 
 
 posposli 
 
 epkhotarakhe 
 
 hakutshi 
 
 kaitsht 
 
 Red 
 
 taktakali 
 
 eakhti 
 
 takhlakhe 
 
 pahali^t 
 
 I 
 
 no 
 
 iaa 
 
 it 
 
 kone 
 
 Thou 
 
 i 
 
 mai 
 
 pikhk^ 
 
 nikh 
 
 He 
 
 hot 
 
 hina 
 
 piklika 
 
 kwoutsi 
 
 One 
 
 natshik 
 
 tshig,mu 
 
 um\a 
 
 khwm 
 
 Two 
 
 lapit 
 
 hoka 
 
 kdki 
 
 tsokhwakhwa 
 
 Three 
 
 ntani 
 
 hatski 
 
 tsUsliti 
 
 pusuntkhlkha 
 
 Fowr 
 
 wonip 
 
 iraliaia 
 
 hatami 
 
 tsuikikhatsokhwakia 
 
 Five 
 
 tonapni 
 
 etsha 
 
 molosi 
 
 holatkhlkha 
 
 Six 
 
 nakskishwptane tahaia 
 
 
 
 Seven 
 
 tapkishwptdne 
 
 hokaikinis 
 
 
 
 Eight 
 
 ndanekisll^^ptane 
 
 hatsikiri 
 
 
 
 Nine 
 
 natskaiakish 
 
 kirihariki-ikriu 
 
 
 Ten 
 
 taunip 
 
 etsehewi 
 
 hamish 
 
 sauitiistw. 
 
LUTUAMI, SHASTI, PALAIK. 409 
 
 Neither are there wanting affinities to the Sahaptin 
 and Cayus languages — allied to each other. Thus — 
 
 Ear=mumutsh 'LutviSimi=hu-mumuats Palaik =mw<saw Sahaptin=^8aA; 
 
 Shasti= «a^aA Cayus. 
 Mouth=-shum Lutuami=s7i^tw^-^•a^•sA Cayfis^Aim Sahaptin. 
 Tongue=pawus LutvLa,mi=pawish Sahaptin =j5ws A. Cayus. 
 Tooth=tut Lutuami=:^i7 Sahaptin. 
 Foot=.ahwes Shasti=aMMa Sahaptin. 
 Blood=ahati Va\aJk=.hiJcet Sahaptin. 
 Fire=loloJcs Lutvia,m.i=:ihikska Sahaptin. 
 One=natshih Lutuanii=waA;s Sahaptin:='na Caytis. 
 Two=lapt hx\t\iSLmi=:lapit Sahaptin=:7i Cayds. 
 
 The Lutuami seems somewhat the most Sahaptin of 
 the three ; and this is what we expect from its geogra- 
 phical position. It is also, like the Palaik, conterminous 
 with the Wihinast ; both Palaik and Lutuami, along with 
 the Shasti, having Shoshoni (for which see the sequel) 
 affinities. 
 
 English. Shoshoni. 
 
 Nose . moui=iami, Palaik. 
 
 Mouth timpa=shum, Lutuami. 
 
 Ear inana=:isak, Shasti. 
 
 Sun tava=sapas, Lutuami. 
 
 Water pa=ampo, Lutuami. 
 
 I ni=no, Lutuami. 
 
 Thou - i=i, Lutuami. 
 
 He oo=:hot, Lutuami. 
 
 One shimutsi =te7wamww, Shasti ; umis, Palaik. 
 
 The latter of the following vocabularies, which, with 
 those that follow, belong to California, was taken 
 from a Seragoin Indian, i. e, from an Indian to whom 
 it was not the native tongue. We are warned of this 
 by the collector — the inference being that the Tahlewah 
 vocabulary is not wholly trustworthy. 
 
 English. 
 
 Ehnek. 
 
 Tahlewah. 
 
 Man 
 
 ahwunsh 
 
 pohlusan'h 
 
 Boy 
 
 anak'hocha 
 
 kerrhn 
 
 Girl 
 
 yehnipahoitch 
 
 kernihl 
 
 Indian 
 
 ahrah 
 
 astowah 
 
 Head 
 
 ak houtshhoutsh 
 
 astinthah 
 
 Beard 
 
 merruhw 
 
 semerrhperrh 
 
410 
 
 THE EHNEK, ETC: 
 
 English. 
 
 Ehnek. 
 
 Tahlewah. 
 
 Neck 
 
 sihn 
 
 ichonti 
 
 Face 
 
 ahve 
 
 wetawaluh 
 
 Tongue 
 
 upri 
 
 so'h 
 
 Teeth 
 
 wu'h 
 
 shti 
 
 Foot 
 
 fissi 
 
 stah 
 
 One 
 
 issah 
 
 titskoh 
 
 Two 
 
 achliok 
 
 kitchnik 
 
 Three 
 
 keurakh 
 
 kltchnah 
 
 Four 
 
 peehs 
 
 tshahanik 
 
 Five 
 
 tirahho 
 
 schwallah 
 
 Ten 
 
 trah 
 
 swellah. 
 
 The junction of the Rivers Klamatl and Trinity gives 
 us the locality for the Weitspeh. Its dialects, the 
 Weiyot and Wishosk, extend far into Humboldt County, 
 where they are, probably, the prevailing forms of speech, 
 being used on the Mad River, and the parts about Cape 
 Mendocino. From the Weitspek they differ much more 
 than they do from each other. 
 
 English. 
 
 Weitspek. 
 
 English. 
 
 ^. Weitspek. 
 
 Man 
 
 pagehk 
 
 Moon 
 
 ketnewabr 
 
 Woman 
 
 wintsuk 
 
 Star 
 
 haugets 
 
 Boy 
 
 hohksli 
 
 Day 
 
 tehnep 
 
 Owl 
 
 wai inuksh 
 
 Dark 
 
 ketutski 
 
 Head 
 
 tegueh 
 
 Fire 
 
 mets 
 
 Hair 
 
 leptait] 
 
 Water 
 
 pata 
 
 Far 
 
 spehguh 
 
 I 
 
 nek 
 
 Eye 
 
 mylih 
 
 Thou 
 
 kehl 
 
 Nose 
 
 metpi 
 
 One 
 
 spill ekoh 
 
 Mouth 
 
 mihlutl 
 
 Two 
 
 nuehi- 
 
 Tongue 
 
 melipl'h 
 
 Three 
 
 naksa 
 
 Teeth 
 
 merpetl 
 
 Four 
 
 tohhuniie 
 
 Beard 
 
 mehperch 
 
 Five 
 
 "malirotum 
 
 Arm 
 
 melisheh* 
 
 Six 
 
 hohtcko 
 
 Hand 
 
 tsewush 
 
 Seven 
 
 tchewurr 
 
 Foot 
 
 metske 
 
 Fight 
 
 k'hehwuh 
 
 Blood 
 
 happ'l 
 
 Nine 
 
 kerr 
 
 Sun 
 
 wanoushleh 
 
 Ten 
 
 wert'Ueliwerh 
 
 Mendocino is the name suggested for the Choweshak, 
 Batemdaikai, Kulanapo, Yukai, and Khwaklamayu 
 forms of speech collectively. 
 
 ], 2. The Ghoweshak and Batemdaikai are spoken 
 
THE KULANAPO, ETC. 
 
 411 
 
 on Eel River, and in the direction of the southern 
 branches of the Weitspek group, with which they have 
 affinities. 
 
 3, 4, 5. The Kulanai^o is spoken about Clear Lake, 
 the Yukai on Russian River. These forms of speech, 
 closely allied to each other, are also allied to the so- 
 called Northern Indians of Baer's Beitrdge, &c. — 
 Northern meaning to the north of the settlement of 
 Ross. The particular tribe, of which we have a vocabu- 
 lary, called itself Khwakhlamayu. 
 
 English. 
 
 Khwakhlamayu. 
 
 English. 
 
 Khwakhlamayu 
 
 Head 
 
 khoTTiTno 
 
 Moon 
 
 kalazha 
 
 Hair 
 
 shuka 
 
 Star 
 
 kamoi 
 
 Eye 
 
 iiu 
 
 Fire 
 
 okho 
 
 Ear 
 
 sliuma 
 
 Water 
 
 aka 
 
 Nose 
 
 pla 
 
 One 
 
 ku 
 
 Mouth 
 
 aa 
 
 Tivo 
 
 koo 
 
 Tooth 
 
 00 
 
 Three 
 
 subo 
 
 Tongue 
 
 aba 
 
 Four 
 
 mui-a 
 
 Hand 
 
 psha 
 
 Five 
 
 tysha 
 
 Foot 
 
 sakki 
 
 Six 
 
 lara. 
 
 Sun 
 
 ada 
 
 (2 
 
 .) 
 
 - 
 
 English. 
 
 Kulanapo. 
 
 English, 
 
 Kulanapo. 
 
 Man 
 
 kaah 
 
 Moon 
 
 luelah 
 
 Woman 
 
 dah 
 
 Star 
 
 uiyahoh 
 
 Boy 
 
 kahwih 
 
 Day 
 
 dahmul 
 
 Girl 
 
 dahliats 
 
 Dark 
 
 petih 
 
 Head 
 
 kaiyah 
 
 Fire 
 
 k'hoh 
 
 Hair 
 
 musuh 
 
 Water 
 
 k'hah 
 
 Ear 
 
 shlmali 
 
 I 
 
 hah 
 
 Eye 
 
 ui 
 
 Thou 
 
 ma 
 
 Nose 
 
 labahbo 
 
 One 
 
 k'hahHh 
 
 Mouth 
 
 katsedeh 
 
 Two 
 
 kots 
 
 Tongue 
 
 bal 
 
 Three 
 
 homeka 
 
 Teeth 
 
 yaoh 
 
 Four 
 
 dol 
 
 Beard 
 
 katsutsu 
 
 Five 
 
 lehmah 
 
 Ann 
 
 tsuah 
 
 Six 
 
 tsadi 
 
 Hand 
 
 biyyah 
 
 Seven 
 
 kulahots 
 
 Foot 
 
 kahmah 
 
 Eight 
 
 kokodohl 
 
 Blood 
 
 bablaik 
 
 Nine 
 
 hadarolshuin 
 
 Sun 
 
 lah 
 
 Ten 
 
 hadorutlek. 
 
412 
 
 THE COPEH. 
 
 The Copeh is spoken at the head of Putos Creek. 
 How far this "will eventually turn out to be a convenient 
 name for the group, or how far the group itself will be 
 natural, is uncertain. A vocabulary in Gallatin from 
 the Upper Sacramento, and one from Mag Readings, in 
 the south of Shasti county, belong to the group. 
 
 English. 
 
 Copeh. 
 
 Mag Readings. 
 
 Upper Sacramento. 
 
 Man 
 
 pehtluk 
 
 winnoke 
 
 
 Woman 
 
 mulilteh 
 
 dokke 
 
 
 Mead 
 
 buhk 
 
 pok 
 
 
 
 Hair 
 
 tiih 
 
 tomi 
 
 tomoi 
 
 Eye 
 
 sah 
 
 chuti 
 
 tumut 
 
 Nose 
 
 kiunik 
 
 
 tsono 
 
 Mouth 
 
 kohl 
 
 
 kal 
 
 Teeth 
 
 siih 
 
 sti 
 
 
 Beard 
 
 clielisaki 
 
 khetcheki 
 
 
 Arm 
 
 sa>lila.li 
 
 
 keole 
 
 Hand 
 
 semh 
 
 shim 
 
 tsemut {fingers) 
 
 Foot 
 
 mai'h 
 
 mat 
 
 ktamoso 
 
 Blood 
 
 sahk 
 
 chedik 
 
 
 Sun 
 
 sunh 
 
 tuku 
 
 sas 
 
 Wind 
 
 toudi 
 
 kleyhi 
 
 
 Rain 
 
 yohro 
 
 luhoUo 
 
 • 
 
 Snow 
 
 yohl 
 
 yola 
 
 
 Fire 
 
 poh 
 
 pan 
 
 po 
 
 Water 
 
 mehm 
 
 mem 
 
 mem 
 
 Earth 
 
 kirrh 
 
 kosh 
 
 
 About eighty or a hundred miles from its mouth, the 
 river Sacramento is said to form a division between two 
 languages, one using momi, the other kik, for vjater. 
 
 For the former group we have the (a) Pujuni, (h) 
 Secumne, and (c) Tsa^mak specimens of Hale, as also the 
 Cushna vocabulary, from the county Yuba, of School- 
 craft. 
 
 English. 
 
 Pujuni. 
 
 Sekumne. 
 
 Tsamak. 
 
 Man 
 
 9une 
 
 mailik 
 
 mailik 
 
 Woman 
 
 kele 
 
 kele 
 
 kule 
 
 Child 
 
 
 maidumonai 
 
 
 Daughter 
 
 
 eti 
 
 
 
 Head 
 
 t9ut5(il 
 
 tsol 
 
 t§ult9t 
 
 Hair 
 
 oi 
 
 ono 
 
 oi 
 
THE PUJUNI, ETC. 
 
 413 
 
 English. 
 
 Pujuni. 
 
 Sekumne. 
 
 Ear 
 
 ono 
 
 bono 
 
 Eye 
 
 wat9a 
 
 il 
 
 Nose 
 
 henka 
 
 suma 
 
 Mouth 
 
 molo 
 
 sim 
 
 Neck 
 
 tokot6k 
 
 kui 
 
 Arm 
 
 ma 
 
 wah 
 
 Hand 
 
 t9apai 
 
 ma 
 
 Fingers 
 
 t9ikikup 
 
 biti 
 
 Leg 
 
 pai 
 
 podo 
 
 Foot 
 
 katwp 
 
 pai 
 
 Toe 
 
 ta^ 
 
 biti 
 
 House 
 
 he 
 
 he 
 
 Bow 
 
 olumni 
 
 
 Arrow 
 
 huia 
 
 
 Shoes 
 
 
 sohtm 
 
 Beads 
 
 
 hawitt 
 
 Sky 
 
 hibi 
 
 
 Sun 
 
 oko 
 
 oko 
 
 Bay 
 
 oko 
 
 eki 
 
 Night 
 
 
 po 
 
 Fire 
 
 9a 
 
 sa 
 
 Water 
 
 momi, mop 
 
 mop 
 
 River 
 
 lokolok 
 
 mumdi 
 
 Stone 
 
 
 
 
 
 Tree 
 
 t9a 
 
 tsa 
 
 Grapes 
 
 
 muti 
 
 Deer 
 
 wil 
 
 kut 
 
 Bird 
 
 
 tsit 
 
 Fish 
 
 
 pala 
 
 Salmon 
 
 mai 
 
 mai 
 
 Name 
 
 
 ian6 
 
 Good 
 
 huk 
 
 wenne 
 
 Bad 
 
 
 t909 
 
 Old 
 
 
 hawil 
 
 New 
 
 
 be 
 
 Sweet 
 
 
 suduk 
 
 Sour 
 
 
 oho 
 
 Hasten 
 
 
 iewa 
 
 Run 
 
 tshel 
 
 gewa 
 
 Walk 
 
 iye 
 
 wiye 
 
 Swim 
 
 pi 
 
 
 Talk 
 
 wiwina 
 
 enun 
 
 Sing 
 
 
 tsol 
 
 Dance 
 
 
 paio 
 
 One 
 
 ti 
 
 wikte 
 
 Two 
 
 teene 
 
 pen 
 
 Three 
 
 shupui 
 
 sapui 
 
 Tsamak, 
 
 orro 
 
 hU 
 
 kulut 
 
 kalut 
 
 tamsult or tamt9ut 
 
 tcikikup 
 
 bimpi 
 
 pai 
 
 9a 
 
 momi 
 
 munti 
 
 kut 
 
 huk 
 maidik 
 
414 
 
 i 
 
 THE 
 
 PUJUNI, ETC. 
 
 English, 
 
 Pujuni. 
 
 Sekumne. 
 
 Four 
 
 pehel 
 
 tsi 
 
 Five 
 
 mustic 
 
 mauk 
 
 Six 
 
 tini, (sic) 
 
 tini, a (sic) 
 
 Seven 
 
 tapui 
 
 pensi (?) sic 
 
 Eight 
 
 petshei 
 
 tapau (I) sic 
 
 Nine 
 
 matshum 
 
 mutsum 
 
 Ten 
 
 t.sha.panaka 
 
 aduk 
 
 Tsamak. 
 
 Hale's vocabulary of the Talatui belongs to the 
 group for which the name Moquelumne is proposed ; a 
 Moquelumne Hill and a Moquelumne Eiver being found 
 within the area over which the languages belonging to 
 it are spoken. Again, the names of the tribes that 
 speak them end largely in -mne, — Ghupumne, &c. As 
 far south as Tuol-umne county the language belongs to 
 this division ; viz. (1 .) the Mumaltachi ; (2.) the Mul- 
 lateco ; (8.) the Apangasi ; (4.) the Lapappu ; and (5.) 
 the Siyante or Typoxi bands speak this language. 
 
 (1-) 
 
 English. 
 
 Talatui. 
 
 San Raphael. 
 
 Man 
 
 sawe 
 
 lamantiya 
 
 Woman 
 
 esuu 
 
 kulaish 
 
 Father 
 
 tata 
 
 api 
 
 Daughter 
 
 tele 
 
 ai 
 
 Head 
 
 tikit 
 
 molu 
 
 Ear 
 
 alok 
 
 alokh 
 
 Eye 
 
 wilai 
 
 shuta 
 
 Nose 
 
 uk 
 
 huke 
 
 Mouth 
 
 hube 
 
 lakum 
 
 Rand 
 
 iku 
 
 ak 
 
 Foot 
 
 subei 
 
 koio 
 
 Sim 
 
 hi 
 
 hi 
 
 Dap 
 
 hi umu 
 
 hi 
 
 Night 
 
 ka-wil 
 
 walayuta 
 
 Fire 
 
 wike 
 
 waik 
 
 Water 
 
 kik 
 
 kiik 
 
 Stone 
 
 sawa 
 
 lupoii 
 
 Bird 
 
 lune, ti 
 
 kakalis 
 
 Home 
 
 kodja 
 
 koitaya 
 
 One 
 
 kenate 
 
 kenai 
 
 Two 
 
 oyo-ko 
 
 oza 
 
 TJiree 
 
 teli-ko 
 
 tula-ka 
 

 THE 
 
 TALATUI, ETC. 
 
 41 
 
 English. 
 
 
 Talatui. 
 
 
 San Raphael. 
 
 Four 
 
 
 oi^u-ko 
 
 
 wiag 
 
 Five 
 
 
 kassa-ko 
 
 
 kenekus 
 
 Six 
 
 
 temebo 
 
 
 patirak 
 
 Seven 
 
 
 kanikuk ( 
 
 ?) sic 
 
 semlawi 
 
 Eiglit 
 
 
 kauinda 
 
 
 wusuya 
 
 Nine 
 
 
 ooi 
 
 
 umarask 
 
 Ten 
 
 
 ekuye 
 
 (2.) 
 
 
 kitsLisb. 
 
 English. 
 
 Tshokoyem. 
 
 
 Enghsh. 
 
 Tshokoyem. 
 
 Man 
 
 tai-esse 
 
 
 
 Star 
 
 bittish 
 
 Woman 
 
 kuleh-esse 
 
 
 Day 
 
 biabnab 
 
 Boy 
 
 yokeli (small) 
 
 
 Night 
 
 kawul 
 
 Girl 
 
 koyah 
 
 
 
 Fire 
 
 wikib 
 
 Head 
 
 mololi 
 
 
 
 Waier 
 
 kibk 
 
 Ear 
 
 ahlohk 
 
 
 
 River 
 
 polab 
 
 Eye 
 
 shut 
 
 
 
 Stone 
 
 lepeb 
 
 Nose 
 
 huk 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 kahni 
 
 Mouth 
 
 lapgup 
 
 
 
 Thou 
 
 mib 
 
 Tongue 
 
 lehntip 
 
 
 
 He 
 
 ikkob 
 
 Tooth 
 
 kuht 
 
 
 
 Tliey 
 
 mukkam 
 
 Neck 
 
 helekke 
 
 
 
 All 
 
 mukkam 
 
 Foot 
 
 koyok 
 
 
 
 Who 
 
 mabnti 
 
 Blood 
 
 kichawh 
 
 
 
 Eat 
 
 yoblomusib 
 
 Sky 
 
 lililih 
 
 
 
 Drink 
 
 usbu 
 
 Sun 
 
 hih 
 
 
 
 Run 
 
 bibcbiah 
 
 Moon 
 
 pululuk 
 
 
 
 See 
 
 elHb. 
 
 The tribes under the supervision of the Mission of 
 Dolores were five in number; the Ah wastes, the Olhones, 
 or Costanos (of the coast), the Romonans, the Tulomos, 
 and the Altatmos. Tlie vocabulary of which the fol- 
 lowing is an extract was taken from Pedro Alcantara, 
 who was a boy when the Mission was founded, A.D. 
 1776. He was of the Romonan tribe. 
 
 English, 
 
 Costano. 
 
 English. 
 
 Costano. 
 
 Ma7i 
 
 imben 
 
 Ear 
 
 tuorus 
 
 Woman 
 
 raticbma 
 
 Eye 
 
 rebin 
 
 Boy 
 
 shlnismuk 
 
 Nose 
 
 tis 
 
 Girl 
 
 katra 
 
 Mouth 
 
 werper 
 
 Head 
 
 tile 
 
 Tongue 
 
 tassek 
 
416 
 
 THE COSTANO, ETC. 
 
 English. 
 
 Costano. 
 
 English. 
 
 Costano. 
 
 Tooth 
 
 Slit 
 
 River 
 
 crush 
 
 Neck 
 
 Ian 
 
 Stone 
 
 erek 
 
 Foot 
 
 kolo 
 
 T 
 
 kalinah 
 
 Blood 
 
 payan 
 
 Thou 
 
 mene 
 
 Shy 
 
 reneme 
 
 He 
 
 wahche 
 
 Sun 
 
 islimen 
 
 They 
 
 nekumsah 
 
 Moon 
 
 kolma 
 
 All 
 
 kete 
 
 Star 
 
 agweh 
 
 Who 
 
 mato 
 
 Day 
 
 puhe {light) 
 
 Eat 
 
 ahmush 
 
 Night 
 
 moor {darh) 
 
 Drink 
 
 owahto 
 
 Fire 
 
 roretaon 
 
 Run 
 
 akamtoha 
 
 Water 
 
 sii 
 
 See 
 
 atempimah 
 
 In the north of Mariposa county, and not far south 
 of the Tuolomne area, the language seems changed, and 
 the Goconoons is spoken by some bands on the Mercede 
 
 river. 
 
 The Tulare, akin to it, is probably conterminous with 
 the Mohave of the San Bernardin and the Santa Barbara 
 forms of speech. 
 
 English. 
 
 Coconoons. 
 
 Tulare. 
 
 Head 
 
 etc 
 
 utno 
 
 Hair 
 
 tolus 
 
 cells 
 
 Ear 
 
 took 
 
 took 
 
 Nose 
 
 thedick 
 
 tuneck 
 
 Mouth 
 
 sammack 
 
 shemmak 
 
 Tongue 
 
 talcotch 
 
 talkat 
 
 Tooth 
 
 talee 
 
 talee 
 
 Sun 
 
 suyou 
 
 oop 
 
 Moon 
 
 offaum 
 
 taahmemna 
 
 Star . 
 
 tchietas 
 
 sahel 
 
 Day 
 
 hial 
 
 tahoh 
 
 Fire 
 
 sottol 
 
 ossel 
 
 Water 
 
 iUeck 
 
 illick. 
 
 For the counties (missions) which touch the sea, we 
 have, to the south of the Costanos, the following voca- 
 bularies : — 
 
 (i.) 
 
 Soledad. San Miguel. San Antonio. 
 
 mue loai 
 
 shurishme tlene 
 
 nikana tata tele 
 
 English. 
 
 Eslen. 
 
 Ruslen. 
 
 Man 
 
 ejennutek 
 
 muguyamk 
 
 Woman 
 
 tamitek 
 
 latrayamank 
 
 Father 
 
 aliay 
 
 appan 
 

 
 SANTA 
 
 BARBARA, ETC. 
 
 4n 
 
 English. 
 
 Eslen. 
 
 Rusleu. 
 
 
 Soledad. 
 
 San Miguel. 
 
 Sau Antonio. 
 
 Mother 
 
 azia 
 
 aan 
 
 
 nikana 
 
 apai 
 
 epjo 
 
 Son 
 
 panna 
 
 enshinsh 
 
 nikinish 
 
 paser 
 
 
 
 Daughter tapana 
 
 kaana 
 
 
 nika 
 
 paser 
 
 
 
 Head 
 
 
 
 
 tshop 
 
 tobuko 
 
 traako 
 
 Hair 
 
 
 
 
 worokh 
 
 teasakho 
 
 
 Ears 
 
 
 
 
 otsho 
 
 tentkhito 
 
 tishokolo 
 
 Nose 
 
 
 
 
 us 
 
 tenento 
 
 
 Eyes 
 
 
 
 
 
 hun 
 
 trugento 
 
 
 Mouth 
 
 
 
 
 hai 
 
 treliko 
 
 
 Shy 
 
 imita 
 
 terraj 
 
 
 
 
 napalemak 
 
 Moon 
 
 tomanisaashi 
 
 orpetuei-isbmen 
 
 
 
 tatsoopai 
 
 Day 
 
 asatza 
 
 ishmen 
 
 
 
 
 trokana 
 
 Light 
 
 jetza 
 
 sliorto 
 
 
 
 
 
 Night 
 
 tomanis 
 
 orpetui 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fire 
 
 manamenes 
 
 hello 
 
 
 
 
 
 Water 
 
 azaTia,x 
 
 ziy 
 
 
 
 
 tsha 
 
 Bow 
 
 payunay 
 
 laguan 
 
 
 
 
 kakheia 
 
 Arroio 
 
 lottos 
 
 teps 
 
 
 
 
 tatoyen 
 
 Great 
 
 putuki 
 
 ishac 
 
 
 
 
 katsha 
 
 Small 
 
 ojask 
 
 pisLit 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 More 
 
 nitsclia 
 
 ka 
 
 
 
 
 
 There 
 
 nimetaha 
 
 me 
 
 
 
 
 
 One 
 
 pek 
 
 enjala 
 
 
 himitsa 
 
 toM 
 
 kitol 
 
 Two 
 
 ulhaj 
 
 ultis 
 
 
 utshe 
 
 kugsu 
 
 kakishe 
 
 Three 
 
 julep 
 
 kappes 
 
 
 tkapka 
 
 tlubahi 
 
 klap'hai 
 
 Four 
 
 jamajus 
 
 ultizim 
 
 
 utjit 
 
 kesa 
 
 kisha 
 
 Five 
 
 pemajala 
 
 hali izu 
 
 
 paruash 
 
 oldrato 
 
 ultraoh 
 
 Six 
 
 peguatanoi 
 
 hali shakem 
 
 iminuksha piaite 
 
 painel 
 
 Seven 
 
 jula jualanei 
 
 kapkamai shakem uduksha 
 
 tepa 
 
 t'eh 
 
 EigU 
 
 julep jualanei 
 
 ultumai shakem 
 
 taitemi 
 
 sratel 
 
 shaanel 
 
 Nine 
 
 jamajas jualanei packe 
 
 
 watso 
 
 teditrup 
 
 tetatsoi 
 
 Ten 
 
 tomoila 
 
 tamchajt 
 
 matsoso 
 
 tnipa 
 
 tsoeh. 
 
 
 
 
 (2.) 
 
 
 
 
 
 English. 
 
 
 Santa Barbara. 
 
 San Luis Obispo. 
 
 
 Sh, 
 
 
 alapai 
 
 
 tikbis 
 
 
 
 Sun 
 
 
 alishakua 
 
 s'maps 
 
 
 Moon 
 
 
 aguai 
 
 
 tabua 
 
 
 
 Stars 
 
 
 akehun 
 
 
 k'sbibimu 
 
 
 Water 
 
 
 oh 
 
 
 to 
 
 
 
 House 
 
 
 ahpa 
 
 
 
 
 
 Man 
 
 
 eheye 
 
 
 h'lmono 
 
 
 Woman 
 
 
 elinek 
 
 
 tasiyubl 
 
 
 Child 
 
 
 tupneesh 
 
 
 tschuilmono 
 
 
 Ston£ 
 
 
 kheup 
 
 
 tkhenp 
 
 
 Bay 
 
 
 husiec-esini 
 
 t'chashin 
 
 E E 
 
418 
 
 SANTA BARBARA, ETC. 
 
 English. 
 
 Santa Barbara. 
 
 San Luis Obispo. 
 
 One 
 
 paka 
 
 tskhumu 
 
 Two 
 
 shlfoho 
 
 eshin 
 
 Three 
 
 masekh 
 
 misha 
 
 Four 
 
 skumu 
 
 paksi 
 
 Five 
 
 yiti-paka 
 
 tiyehui 
 
 Six 
 
 yiti shkome 
 
 ksuhuasya 
 
 Seven 
 
 yiti-masekh 
 
 kshuamishhe 
 
 Fight 
 
 malahua 
 
 sh'komo 
 
 Nine 
 
 spa 
 
 shumotchi-makhe 
 
 Ten 
 
 keshko 
 
 tuyimili 
 
 Eleven 
 
 keilu 
 
 tihuapa 
 
 Txvelve 
 
 masekh -eskumn 
 
 takotia 
 
 Thirteen 
 
 kel-paka 
 
 huakshumu 
 
 Fourteen 
 
 kel-ishko 
 
 huaklesin 
 
 Fifteen 
 
 kel -masekh 
 
 huaklmishe 
 
 Sixteen 
 
 peta 
 
 peusi 
 
 Lake 
 
 eukeke 
 
 
 Sea 
 
 skahamihui 
 
 t' shnekhan 
 
 Mountain 
 
 oshlomohl 
 
 tspu 
 
 Bow 
 
 akha 
 
 takha 
 
 Arrow 
 
 yah 
 
 tslehui 
 
 Chief 
 
 huot 
 
 
 Bad 
 
 
 tsohuis 
 
 Earth 
 
 iti-kiala-kaipi 
 
 -. 
 
 River 
 
 shtejeje 
 
 tslimi 
 
 SaU 
 
 tipi 
 
 tepu 
 
 Light 
 
 neuk 
 
 tina 
 
 Night 
 
 sulcuhu 
 
 tch' khime 
 
 Cold 
 
 sokhton 
 
 
 Hot 
 
 sientseuk 
 
 
 White 
 
 ohuokh 
 
 
 BlacTc 
 
 akemai 
 
 
 Doo^' 
 
 ekeipe 
 
 
 Body 
 
 hekiampium 
 
 
 Father 
 
 hokonosh 
 
 sapi 
 
 Mother 
 
 khoninash 
 
 tuyu 
 
 Brave 
 
 akhauishash 
 
 
 Much 
 
 
 
 tsekhu 
 
 Little 
 
 
 tsihuisnin 
 
 Head 
 
 
 p'sho 
 
 Heart 
 
 
 
 nokhop 
 
 Hand 
 
 
 nupu 
 
 Ear 
 
 
 p'ta 
 
 Friend 
 
 
 tsakhsi 
 
 Enemy 
 
 
 tsinayihlmu. 
 
THE NETELA, ETC. 
 
 419 
 
 (3.) 
 
 English. 
 
 Netela. 
 
 Kij. 
 
 Man 
 
 yiits 
 
 woroit 
 
 Woman 
 
 sungwal 
 
 tokor 
 
 Fatlier 
 
 nana 
 
 anak 
 
 Mother 
 
 noyo 
 
 aok 
 
 Son 
 
 nakam 
 
 aikok 
 
 Daughter 
 
 nasuam 
 
 aiarok 
 
 Head 
 
 nuyu 
 
 apoam 
 
 Ear 
 
 nanakwum 
 
 anana 
 
 Eye 
 
 nopulum 
 
 atshotshou 
 
 Nose 
 
 nomuitm 
 
 amepin 
 
 Mouth 
 
 
 atongin 
 
 Tongue 
 
 
 anongin 
 
 Teeth 
 
 noto 
 
 atatwm 
 
 Hand 
 
 natakalom 
 
 aman 
 
 Fingers 
 
 watshkut 
 
 
 Feet 
 
 nee 
 
 
 Blood 
 
 noo 
 
 akhain 
 
 House 
 
 niki 
 
 kitsh 
 
 Sun 
 
 temet 
 
 tamet 
 
 Moon 
 
 moil 
 
 moar 
 
 Star 
 
 suol 
 
 snot 
 
 Day 
 
 teme 
 
 oronga 
 
 Night 
 
 tukmwt 
 
 yauket 
 
 Fire 
 
 mughat 
 
 tshawot 
 
 Water 
 
 pal 
 
 bar 
 
 Rain 
 
 kwast 
 
 akwakit 
 
 Snow 
 
 yuit 
 
 yoat 
 
 Earth 
 
 
 touanga 
 
 Stone 
 
 tot 
 
 tota 
 
 Dog 
 
 aghwal 
 
 wausi 
 
 Bear 
 
 hunot 
 
 hunar 
 
 Bird 
 
 cheymat 
 
 amasbarot 
 
 Fish 
 
 mughut 
 
 kwaiing 
 
 Great 
 
 oboloo 
 
 yoit 
 
 Cold 
 
 
 atsho 
 
 White 
 
 kwaiknot 
 
 arawatai 
 
 Black 
 
 yottatkhnot 
 
 yupikba 
 
 Red 
 
 koiakuiet 
 
 kwauokha 
 
 I 
 
 no 
 
 noma 
 
 Thou 
 
 om 
 
 oma 
 
 He 
 
 wanal 
 
 ahe 
 
 One 
 
 puku 
 
 puku 
 
 Two 
 
 wehe 
 
 wehe 
 
 Three 
 
 pahe 
 
 pate 
 
 E E 2 
 
420 
 
 THE YUMA DIALECTS. 
 
 English. 
 
 Netela. 
 
 Four 
 
 watsa 
 
 Five 
 
 mahar 
 
 Six 
 
 pawahe 
 
 Seven 
 
 aghwohuitsh 
 
 Eight 
 
 weheswatsa 
 
 Nine 
 
 pehelenga 
 
 Ten 
 
 wehkun-mahar 
 
 Kij. 
 
 The Yuma Indians occupy each, side of tlie Colorado 
 both above and below its junction with the Gila. They 
 are also called Cuchans, and are a fierce predatory 
 nation, encroaching equally on tribes of their own lan- 
 guage and on aliens. 
 
 Cocomaricopa. 
 
 English. 
 
 Man 
 
 Woman 
 
 Head 
 
 Hair 
 
 Ear 
 
 Nose 
 
 Mouth 
 
 Tongue 
 
 Tooth 
 
 Beard 
 
 Hand 
 
 Foot 
 
 Sky 
 
 Sun 
 
 Moon 
 
 Star 
 
 Snow 
 
 Fire 
 
 Water 
 
 I 
 
 He 
 
 One 
 
 Two 
 
 Three 
 
 Four 
 
 Five 
 
 Cuchan. 
 epatsh 
 
 sinyak 
 
 metepaie 
 
 ecoutsucherowo 
 
 and 
 umwelthoocouo 
 eetche 
 smythl 
 
 epulche 
 
 aredoche 
 
 yahboineli 
 
 eesalclie 
 
 emetchslipaslapya 
 
 ammai 
 
 nyatch 
 
 huthlya 
 
 klupwalaie 
 
 halup 
 
 apatch 
 seniact 
 
 ametche 
 
 aka 
 
 nyat 
 
 habritzk 
 
 sin 
 
 havick 
 
 hamuk 
 
 chapop 
 
 scrap 
 
 house 
 kaacke 
 
 sandek 
 
 haveka 
 
 hamoka 
 
 champapa 
 
 sarap 
 
 Dieguno. 
 { ^ycutcht 
 ( epatck 
 
 sun 
 
 estar 
 
 hiletar 
 
 hu 
 
 selh 
 hamulyay 
 
 kha 
 nyah 
 
 hina 
 
 hawue 
 
 hamuk 
 
 chapop 
 
 suap. 
 
THE YUMA DIALECTS. 
 
 421 
 
 (2.) 
 
 English. 
 
 Mohave. 
 
 English. 
 
 Mohave. 
 
 Man 
 
 ipali 
 
 Moon 
 
 hullya 
 
 Woman 
 
 sinyax 
 
 Star 
 
 hamuse 
 
 Head 
 
 cawawa 
 
 Fire 
 
 awa 
 
 Hair 
 
 imi 
 
 Water 
 
 aha 
 
 Face 
 
 ihalimi 
 
 T 
 
 nyatz 
 
 Forehead 
 
 yamapul 
 
 Thou 
 
 mantz 
 
 Ear 
 
 esmailk 
 
 He 
 
 pepa 
 
 Nose 
 
 ihn 
 
 One 
 
 setto 
 
 Eye 
 
 idotz 
 
 Two 
 
 havika 
 
 Mouth 
 
 ia 
 
 Three 
 
 hamoko 
 
 Tongue 
 
 ipailya 
 
 Four 
 
 pinepapa 
 
 Tooth 
 
 ido 
 
 Five 
 
 serapa 
 
 Arm 
 
 isail 
 
 Six 
 
 sinta 
 
 Foot 
 
 imilapilap 
 
 Seven 
 
 vika 
 
 Blood 
 
 niawhut 
 
 Eight 
 
 muka 
 
 Sky 
 
 amaiiga 
 
 Nine 
 
 pai 
 
 Sun 
 
 nyatz 
 
 Ten 
 
 arapa. 
 
 The Cocomaricopa Indians are joint occupants of 
 certain villages on the Gila ; the population with which 
 they are associated being Pima. Alike in other re- 
 spects, the Pima and Cocomaricopa Indians differ in 
 language. 
 
422 OLD CALIFORNIA. 
 
 CHAPTER LYII. 
 
 Old California, 
 
 San Diego lies in 32^° north latitude, a point at 
 which the philology diverges. I first follow it in the 
 direction of Old California. It is stated in the Mithri- 
 dates that the most northern of the Proper Old Cali- 
 fornian tongues, the Cochhni, is spoken as far north as 
 33°. If so, the Dieguno maybe Old Californian as well 
 as New; which I think it is, believing, at the same 
 time, that Cochimi and Cuchan are the same words. 
 
 Again, in the following Paternoster the word for sky 
 — am7)ii in the Cuchan vocabulary. 
 
 Cochimi of San Xavier. 
 
 father sky 
 
 Pennayu makenamb^ yaa ambayujui mijk mo ; 
 
 name men confess and love all 
 
 Buhu mombojua tamma gkomend^ hi nogodono demuejueg gkajim ; 
 
 and sky earth favour 
 
 Pennay^a bogodofio gkajim, gui hi ambayujup maba yaa keammete decuiny : 
 mo puegin ; 
 
 sky earth 
 
 Yaa m blihula mujua ambayup mo dedahijua, amet 6 nd guilugui ei pag. 
 kajim ; 
 
 this day day 
 
 Tamad^ yaa ibo ejueg quiluguiqui pemijich 6 m5u ibo yanno puegifl ; 
 
 and man evil 
 
 Guihi tamma yaa gambuegjula kepujui ambinyijua pennayala dedaudug^jua, 
 giulugui pagkajim ; 
 and although and 
 
 Guihi yaa tagamuegla hui ambinyijua hi doomo puhuegjua, he doomo 
 pogonunyim ; 
 
OLD CALIFORNIA. 423 
 
 and earth bless evil 
 
 Tagamuegjua guihi usimahel keammet e decuinyimo, guihi yaa hui ambinyi 
 yaa gambuegpea pagkaudugum. 
 
 Of recent notices of any of the languages of Old Cali- 
 fornia, eo nomine^ I know none. In the Mithridates 
 the information is pre-eminently scanty. 
 
 According to the only work which I have examined 
 at first hand, the NacliriMen von der Americanise] ten 
 Halbinsel Kalifornien (Mannheim, 1772 ; in the Mith- 
 ridates, 1773), the anonymous author of which was a 
 Jesuit missionary in the middle parts of the peninsula, 
 the languages of Old California were — 
 
 1 . The WaiJcur, spoken in several dialects. 
 
 2. The Utshiti. 
 
 3. The Layamon. 
 
 4. The Cochimi, north, and 
 
 5. The PericUj at the southern extremity of the 
 peninsula. 
 
 6. A probably new form of speech used by some 
 tribes visited by Linck. 
 
 This is what we learn from what we may call the 
 Mannheim account ; the way in which the author 
 expresses himself being not exactly in the form just 
 exhibited, but to the effect that, besides the Waikur 
 with its dialects, there were ^\q others. 
 
 The Waikur Proper, the language which the author 
 under notice was most especially engaged on, and which 
 he says that he knew sufficiently for his purposes as a 
 missionary, is the language of the middle part of the 
 peninsula. How far the Utshiti and Layamon were 
 dialects of it, how far they were separate substantive 
 languages, is not very clearly expressed. The writer had 
 Utshis, and TJtshipujes, and Atschimes in his mission, 
 "thoroughly distinct tribes — lauter verschiedene Volck- 
 lein," Nevertheless he always speaks as if the Waikur 
 tongue was sufficient for his purposes. On the other 
 hand, the Utshiti is especially mentioned as a separate 
 
424 OLD CALIFORNIA. 
 
 language. Adelung makes it a form of the Waikur ; as 
 he does the Layamon, and also the Cora and Aripe. 
 Then there comes a population called Iha, probably the 
 Picos or Ficos of Bagert, another authority for these 
 parts. Are these, the sixth population of the Mannheim 
 account, the unknown tribes visited by Linck ? I think 
 not. They are mentioned in another part of the book 
 as known. 
 
 To the names already mentioned — 
 
 1. Ika, 3. Utshipuje, 
 
 2. Utshi, 4. Atschime, 
 add * 
 
 5. Paurus, 9. Mitsheriku-tamais, 
 
 6. Teakwas, 10. Mitsheriku-tearus, 
 
 7. Teenguabebes, 11. Mitsheriku-ruanajeres, 
 
 8. Angukwaros, 
 
 and you have a list of the tribes with which a mission- 
 ary for those parts of California where the Waikur 
 language prevailed, came in contact. Altogether they 
 gave no more than some 500 individuals, so miserably 
 scanty was the population. 
 
 The occupancies of these lay chiefly within the Co- 
 chimi area, which reached as far south as the parts 
 about Loretto in 2 6° north latitude ; the Loretto Ian - 
 guage being the Layamon. This at least is the in- 
 ference from the very short table of the Mithridates, 
 which, however little it may tell us in other respects, at 
 least informs us that the San Xavier, San Borgia, and 
 Loretto forms of speech were nearer akin to each other 
 than to the Waikur. 
 
 English, 
 
 San Xavier. 
 
 San Borgia. 
 
 Loretto. 
 
 Waikur. 
 
 Sky 
 
 ambayujub 
 
 ambeink 
 
 
 terereka-datemba 
 
 Earth 
 
 amet 
 
 amate-guang 
 
 
 datemba y 
 
 Fire 
 
 
 
 usi 
 
 ussi 
 
 ^ 
 
 Man 
 
 tamma 
 
 tama 
 
 tamma 
 
 ti / 
 
 Father 
 
 kakka 
 
 iham 
 
 keneda 
 
 
 Son 
 
 
 uisaham 
 
 
 tshanu. 
 
OLD CALIFORNIA. 
 
 425 
 
 The short compositions of Hervas (given in the Mith- 
 ridates) show the same. 
 
 Waikur Paternoster, with the German Interlineation, from the 
 Mithridates. 
 Kepe-dare tekereka-datembi dai ; 
 unser Vater gehogene Erd du hist ; 
 
 ei-ri akatuike-pu-me ; 
 
 dichodas erJcennen alle werden; 
 tshakarrake-pu-me ti tschie ; 
 
 loben alle loerden Lent und ; 
 ecun gracia-ri acume care tekerekadatembi tschie ; 
 dien gratia o dass haben loerden wir gehogene Erd und ; 
 eiri jebarrakemi ti pu jaupe datemba 
 
 dir dase gehorsamen werden Menschen alle heer Erd, 
 pae ei jebarrakere aena kea ; 
 wie dir gehorsamen drohen seynd; 
 kepecun bu. kepe ken jatupe untairi ; 
 unser Speis uns gebe dieser tag j 
 cate kuitscharake tei tschie kepecun atacamara 
 uns verzehe du und unser Boses ; 
 pae kuitscharrakere cate tschie cavape atukiara keperujake ; 
 wie verzehen loir auch die Boses uns thun; 
 cate tikakamba tei tschie ; 
 uns helfe du und; 
 
 cuvumer^ cate ue atukiara ; 
 
 wollen werden Nicht ivir eticas Boses; 
 kepe kakunja pe atacara tschie. Amen, 
 uns beschutze von Bosen und. Amen. 
 
 The compound tekereka-datembi = hent land — sky =i 
 heaven. 
 
 To this very periphrastic Paternoster we may add the 
 following fragments of the Waikur conjugation : — 
 
 Be ^ 
 Ei 
 
 
 ' ego ludo 
 tu ludis 
 
 Tutau 
 Gate 
 
 - amukirere= - 
 
 ille ludit 
 nos ludimus 
 
 Pete 
 
 
 vos luditis 
 
 Tuc^va . 
 
 
 L illi ludunt 
 
 Be ^ 
 
 
 ' ego lusi 
 
 Ei 
 
 
 tu lusisti 
 
 Tutau 
 Cate 
 
 ■ aniukiririkeri= - 
 
 ille lusit 
 nos lusimus 
 
 Pete 
 
 
 vos lusistis 
 
 Tucava . 
 
 
 ^ illi luserunt. 
 
!26 OLD CALIFORNIA. 
 
 Amukirime = ludere. 
 Amukiri tei=ZMC?e. 
 Amukiri t\i=ludite. 
 
 Be-ri ■) ( I wish I had not played 
 
 Ei-ri 
 
 Tut&u-ri L , . 
 
 Gate ri r ainukinrikankara= 
 
 Pete-ri 
 Tucava-ri 
 
 Thou, <kc. 
 He, <kc. 
 We, c&c. 
 Ye, &c. 
 L They, &c. 
 
 Of the Pericu, spoken at the south extremity of the 
 peninsula, I know no specimens. 
 
 With this concludes the notice of the languages of 
 Old California ; languages belonging to the most neg- 
 lected class in philology ; languages of which our data 
 are pre-eminently fragaientary ; above all, languages 
 which (from the probably approaching extinction) are 
 destined to be but imperfectly known. All that can be 
 said of them is, that they appear to graduate into each 
 other, and that, at the neck of the peninsula, they 
 certainly graduate into those of the mainland. That 
 they are all Yuma is probable. What value is im- 
 pressed upon the class by making them so is another 
 question. 
 
THE PIMA, ETC. 
 
 427 
 
 CHAPTER LVIII. 
 
 Languages of Sonora, — Mexico. — Gruatimala. — Honduras. — 
 Nicaragua, &c. 
 
 With the neck of the peninsula ; the southern bound- 
 ary of California ; the northern boundary of Sonora ; 
 and the line of contact between the Cocomaricopas and 
 the Piraa Indians, begins a new division. Upon the 
 difference between the Pimas and the Cocomaricopas, 
 there is no want of decided statements. Many notices 
 of the two populations are accompanied by comparative 
 vocabularies, in which the difference is manifest — all the 
 more so from the contrast it supplies to their topogra- 
 phical contact, and the similarity of their habits. They 
 " agree in everything but their languages, and in this they 
 differ'' is the common (and true) statement concerning 
 them. 
 
 But though the distinction is real, it must not be 
 overvalued. At the same time the Pima class (of unde- 
 termined value) is a real one. 
 
 That it contains the Pima Proper, the Opata, and 
 the Eudeve, may be seen from the Mithridates. 
 
 English. 
 
 Pima. 
 
 English. 
 
 Pima. 
 
 Man 
 
 huth 
 
 Sun 
 
 tabs 
 
 Woman 
 
 hahri 
 
 Moon 
 
 mahsa. 
 
 Indian 
 
 huup 
 
 Star 
 
 uon 
 
 Head 
 
 mouk 
 
 Snow 
 
 chiah 
 
 Hair 
 
 ptmuk 
 
 Fire 
 
 talii 
 
 Ear 
 
 ptnahauk 
 
 Water 
 
 suutik 
 
 Nose 
 
 tahnk 
 
 I 
 
 ahan 
 
 Mouth 
 
 chinits 
 
 He 
 
 yeutah 
 
 Tongue 
 
 neuen 
 
 One 
 
 ynmako 
 
 Tooth 
 
 ptahan 
 
 Two 
 
 kuak 
 
 Beard 
 
 chinyo 
 
 Three 
 
 vaik 
 
 Hand 
 
 mahahtk 
 
 Four 
 
 kiik 
 
 Foot 
 
 tetaght 
 
 Five 
 
 puitas. 
 
 Sky 
 
 ptchuwik 
 
 
 
428 THE OPATA, ETC. 
 
 In Spanish America the character of our material 
 changes, and we get Artes rather than vocabularies — 
 the Allies, concerning which more will be found in the 
 sequel. 
 
 Opata. 
 
 Tamo mas ie^Miacachigua cacame; 
 
 Amo tegua santo h ; 
 
 Ame reino tame macte ; 
 
 Hinadeia iguati terepa ania teguiacachiveri ; 
 
 Chiama tamo guaco veu tamo mac; 
 
 Guatame neavere tamo cai naideni ac^ api tame neavere tomo opagua ; 
 
 Grua cai tame taotitudare ; 
 
 Cai naideni chiguadu — Apita cachi^. 
 
 That the language of the Papagos, Papagocotam, is 
 also Pima rests upon good external evidence. Whether 
 the speech of the Ciris, and population of the island of 
 Tiburon and the parts opposite, be also Pima, is at 
 present uncertain. 
 
 The Ibequi belongs to the same class — slightly en- 
 larged. 
 
 Hiaqui. 
 
 Itom-didhaA ^eve-capo catecame; 
 
 CLe-cherasu yoyorwa; 
 
 Itou piepsana em yaorahua ; 
 
 Em harepo in buyapo annvM amante (tevecapo?) vecapo annua beni 
 
 Machuveiiom-buareu yem itom a,micsi-itom ; 
 
 Esoc alulutiria ca-aljiton-anecau itepo soc alulutiria ebeni itom veherim 
 
 Caitom butia huenacucbi cativiri betana ; 
 
 Aman -i^om-yeretua. 
 
 So, also, the 
 
 Tubar. 
 
 /<e-canar fe^ruiuicarichua catemat; 
 
 Imit tegrmuarac milituraba teochiqualac ; 
 
 Imit huegmica carinite bacacMn-assifaguin ; 
 
 Imit avamunarir echu naiiagualac imo cuigan amo nachic ie^/mue-caricheri ; 
 
 Ite cokuatarit, essemer taniguarit, iabbe ite mzcam ; 
 
 Ite tatacoli ikiri atzomua ikirirain ite bacachin cale kuegma naiiegua cantem ; 
 
 Caisa ite nosam bacatatacoli ; 
 
 Bacachin ackiro muetzerac ite. 
 
THE CORA, ETC. 4*29 
 
 Soj also, the 
 
 Tarahumara. 
 
 Tami nono, mamu regui guami gatiki ; 
 
 Tami noineruje mu regua ; 
 
 Telimea rekijena ; 
 
 Tami neguaruje mu jelaliki henna, guetshiki, mapu hatschibe reguega 
 
 guami ; 
 Tami nututuge hipeba ; 
 Tami guecanje tami guikeliki, matame hatschibe reguega tami guecanje putse 
 
 tami guikejameke ; 
 Ke ta tami satuje ; 
 Telegatigemeke mechka huU. Amen. 
 
 So, also, the 
 
 Cora. 
 
 Ta yaoape tapahoa, pethebe ; 
 
 Cherihuaca eiia teaguarira ; 
 
 Chemeahuabeni tahemi (to us) eiia chianaca ; 
 
 Cheaquasteni eiia jevira iye (as) chianacatapoan tup up tapahoa, ; 
 
 Eii ta hamuit (bread) eu te huima tahetze rej rujeve ihic {to-day) ta taa ; 
 
 Huatauniraca ta xanacan tetup itcahmo tatahuatauni titaxanacante ; 
 
 Ta vaehre teatcai havobereni xanacat hetze huabachreaca tecai tahemi ruta- 
 
 huaga tehai eu ene. 
 Che-enhuatahua. 
 
 With these end our data, but not our lists of dialects ; 
 the names Maya, Guazave, Heria, Sicuraba, Xixime, 
 Topia, Tepeguana, and Acaxee all being, either in 
 Hervas or elsewhere, applied to the different forms of 
 speech of Sonora and Sinaloa ; to which may be added 
 the Tahu, the Pacasca, and the Acasca, which is pro- 
 bably the same word as Acaxee, just as Huiimi is the 
 same as Yuma, and Zaque as Hiaqui. Of the Guazave 
 a particular dialect is named as the AJiome. Add to 
 these the Zoe and Huitcole, which are probably the 
 same as the Huite. 
 
 That some of these unrepresented forms of speech be- 
 long to the same class with the Pima, Hiaqui, &c., is 
 
430 THE OTOMI. 
 
 nearly certain. How many, however, do so is another 
 question. It may be that all are in the same predica- 
 ment ; it may be only a few. 
 
 These languages lead us to the Mexican Proper ; of 
 which it is difficult to give the true situs. This is be- 
 cause it is a pre-eminently intrusive tongue. It is, pro- 
 bably, spoken beyond its original boundaries in every 
 direction ; sometimes (as in Central America) in isolated 
 patches. Again — there are in many of the districts which, 
 originally, belonged to the Mexican empire, local names 
 of Mexican origin which are as strange to the spot on 
 which they appear as the German or Kussian names in 
 Estonia, or Livonia. Thirdly, the ordinary name for 
 the language — Astek — seems to be, word for word, the 
 same as the Maya term Huasteca ; a fact which sug- 
 gests that the Mexicans were only Asteks in the way 
 that the English are Britons, i. e. not at all, except 
 so far as they took possession of a country originally 
 British. The nearest approach to a true Mexican name, 
 — a name which, in opposition to Asteh, is Mexican in 
 the way that English is English as opposed to British 
 — is Nahuatl. At any rate, Astek is an inconvenient 
 synonym for Mexican. 
 
 Of all the languages hitherto named, the one to which 
 the Mexican is nearest allied, is the Tarahumara, through 
 which it graduates, through the Cora, into the Sonora 
 tongues, and through them to California, &c., &c. 
 
 That the sound expressed by tl is Mexican, may be 
 seen from even the shortest vocabularies. 
 
 More has been written on the Otooni than any other 
 language of these parts ; the proper Mexican not ex- 
 cepted. It was observed by Naxera that it was nioTW- 
 syllabic rather than polysynthetic, as so many of the 
 American languages are, with somewhat doubtful pro- 
 priety, denominated. A Mexican language, with a 
 Chinese characteristic, could scarcely fail to suggest 
 
THE OTOMI, ETC. 431 
 
 comparisons. Hence, the first operation on the Otomi 
 was to disconnect it from the languages of the New, and 
 to connect it with those of the Old World. With his 
 accustomed caution, Gallatin satisfied himself with stating 
 what others had said, his own opinion evidently being 
 that the relation to the Chinese was one of analogy 
 rather than affinity. 
 
 Doubtless this is the sounder view ; and one con- 
 firmed by three series of comparisons made elsewhere 
 by the present writer. 
 
 The first shows that the Otomi, as compared with the 
 monosyllabic languages of Asia, en masse, has several 
 words in common. But the second qualifies our in- 
 ferences, by showing that the Maya, a language more 
 distant from China than the Otomi, and by no means 
 inordinately monosyllabic in its structure, has, there or 
 thereabouts, as many. The third forbids any separation 
 of the Otomi from the other languages of America by 
 showing that it has the ordinary amount of miscellaneous 
 affinities. 
 
 Hence, in respect to the Chinese, &;c., the real question 
 is not whether it has so many affinities with the Otomi, 
 but whether it has -more affinities with the Otom,i than 
 vjith the Maya or any other American language; a 
 matter which we must not investigate without remem- 
 bering that some difference in favour of the Otomi is to 
 be expected, inasmuch as two languages with short or 
 monosyllabic words will, fi^om the very fact of the short- 
 ness and simpHcity of their constituent elements, have 
 more words alike than two polysyllabic forms of speech. 
 
 The fact, however, which most affects the place of 
 the Otomi language is the quasi-monosyllabic character of 
 other American languages, e. g. the Athabaskan and the 
 Attacapa. 
 
 Of the Pirinda and Tarasca we have grammatical 
 sketches, with abstracts of them, by Gallatin. The fol- 
 lowing are from the Mithridates. 
 
432 THE TARASCA, ETC. 
 
 Pirinda. 
 
 Cabutumtaki ke exjechori pininte ; 
 
 Niboteachatii tucathi nitubuteallu ; 
 
 Tantoki hacacovi nitubutea pininte ; 
 
 Tarejoki nirihontamanicatii ninujami propininte ; 
 
 Boturimegui dammuce tupacovi cbii ; 
 
 Exgemundicovi boturicbocbii, kicatii pracavovi kuentumundijo boturicho- 
 
 chijo ; 
 Niantexechichovi rumkuentuvi innivocbocbii ; 
 Moripacbitovi cuinenzimo tegui. 
 Tucatii. 
 
 Tarasca Paternoster. 
 
 Tata uchaveri tukire bacahini av^ndaro ; 
 
 Santo arikeve tucbeveti bacangurikua ; 
 
 Wetzin andarenoni tucbeveti irecbeekua; 
 
 Ukuareve tucbeveti wekua iskire avandaro, na bumengaca istu umengave ixu 
 
 excberendo. 
 Hucbaeveri curinda banganari pakua intzcutzini yaru ; 
 Santzin wepovacberas bucbaeveri batzingakuareta, izki bucbanac wepocbacu- 
 
 vanita baca bucbaveri batzingakuaecbani ; 
 Ca bastzin terubtazema teruniguta perakua bimbo ; 
 Evapentztatzini yaru catzingurita bimbo. Isevengua. 
 
 Totonaca. 
 
 Quintlatcane nac tiayan buil ; 
 Tacollalibuacabuanli 6 mi maocxot ; 
 Niquiminanin 6 mintacaccbi 
 Tacbolabuanla 6 min pabuat 
 Cbolei ix cacnitiet cbalcbix nac tiayan ; 
 quin cboubcan lacalliya 
 niquilaixquiub yanobue ; 
 Caquilamatzancaniub quintacallitcan 
 Cbonlei o quitnan lamatzancaniyaub 
 
 6 quintalac allaniyan ; 
 Ca ala quilamactaxtoyaub 
 Nali yojaub naca liyogni 
 
 Cbontacbolacabuanla. 
 
 The same, from Uervas. 
 
 Kintaccan 6 nitiayan buill ; 
 
 Tacotllali buacabuanla o min pexca maocxot 
 
 Camill omintagcbi, 
 
 Tacbolaca buanla ixcacgnitiet ot 
 
 skiniau ebon cbolacan ocnatiayan ; 
 
 Alyanobue nikila ixkiu ki lacali chaocan ; 
 
THE MAYA LANGUAGES. 433 
 
 Kilamatzancaniau kintacagllitcan 
 
 Kintalacatlanian oclionkinan iclamatzan — 
 
 Caniau kintalacatlanian ; 
 
 Nikilamapotaxtou ala nicliyolau 
 
 Lacotlanaeatalit nikilamapotexto 
 
 Lamatzon lacacoltana. 
 
 Chontacholacahu anla. 
 
 Mixteca Paternoster. 
 Dzutundoo, zo dzicani andihui ; * 
 Naca cuneihuando sasanine ; 
 Nakisi santoniisini ; 
 
 Nacahui nuunaihui saha yocuhui inini dzahuatnaha yocuhui andihui ; * 
 Dzitandoo yutnaa yutnaa tasinisindo hiutni ; 
 
 Dzandooni cuachiisindo dzaguatnaha yodzandoondoonhi hindo suhani sin 
 Huasi kihui nahani nucuitandodzondo kuachi ; 
 Taliui nahani ndihindo sakanayvlmaka dzakua : 
 Nacuhui. 
 
 Hervas writes, that the Zapoteca (probably Maya), 
 Mazateca, Chinanteca, and Mixe were allied. The 
 Mixe locality is the district around Tehuantepec. 
 
 The Maya stsiiids in contrast to the Mexican Proper 
 (how it comports itself to the less known languages of its 
 frontier is uncertain), by having a milder phonesis — 
 such, at least, being the inference from the ordinary 
 specimens. 
 
 The Maya, in the limited, or proper sense of the word, 
 is the language of Yucatan. It is also the name of a 
 group ; i. e. it is used as a general, as well as a parti- 
 cular, term. Mr. Squier, who has done so much for the 
 class that he ought to be allowed to fix its nomenclature, 
 suggests the name Tzendal. I believe, however, that this 
 is simply another form of Ghontal ; a name which will 
 re-appear in the sequel. Maya, too, is the older term. 
 The Maya phonesis, in some of the dialects at least, 
 is that of the Sahaptin and Shoshoni rather than the 
 Atna and Tshintik. 
 
 No tongue has more dialects (for they all seem to be 
 this) which are designated by separate names and (as 
 such) wear the garb of separate languages than the Maya. 
 
 * Possibly the Masya dehmalu. 
 
 F F 
 
434j the MAYA LANGUAGES. 
 
 Some may be so. I think, however, that they are 
 dialects with independent names. The distribution of 
 them is remarkable. There is a northern section, spoken 
 in the parts about Tabasco, which in the present state 
 of our knowledge is isolated. This is — 
 
 The Huasteca — word for word, Asteh The termina- 
 tion -eca, is Maya. The speculations which arise out 
 of this similarity of name, as well as those which are 
 suggested by the prevalence of the termination -eca 
 in Mexican narratives, form no part of our present in- 
 quiries. 
 
 The Kachiquel is Maya : the Kachiquel being one of 
 the chief languages of Guatemala. 
 
 So is the Quiche, called also the TJtlateca, 
 
 So is the Zutugily called also the Zacapula, with 
 the Atiteca. 
 
 So is the Poconchij or Pocoman. 
 
 So is the Chorti. 
 
 The Mam is, probably, the same. Is Manche another 
 form of Mam ? 
 
 So, perhaps, is the Popoluca. 
 
 So is the Tzendal, spoken in Chiapas, 
 
 The Lacandona, spoken by some still independent 
 tribes in Vera Paz, is, probably, in the same category 
 with the Mam. No specimens, however, are known. 
 
 The Ache. — Of this Fray Francisco Gomez Torque- 
 mada writes that, " en a quella tierra (Guatemala) 
 aprendio brevemente la Lengua Ache : que es la de sus 
 Naturales y muy difficultuosa de aprender, porque le 
 avia comunicado Dios el don de lenguas, que refiere su 
 Apostol S. Pablo, y en ella aprovecho algunos aiios.'' 
 Is it the same as the Atiteca ? 
 
 In the Mithridates is the notice of a Zapoteca 
 language, but nothing more. Squier suggests that it 
 may be the Zacapula or Zutugil, — at least his notice 
 of a work by Fray Luis Cancer runs thus — 
 
THE LENCA, ETC. 
 
 435 
 
 Varias Cancionies en Verso Zapoteca (Z acapnia?) sobre los Misterios de 
 la Religion, para el uso de los Neofitos de la Vera Paz. 
 
 Vera Paz is the Zapoteca locality as given by Adelung. 
 
 The displacement in Honduras, Nicaragua, &;c., has 
 been great. Hence of the languages other than Maya 
 little is known ; many of them being extinct. 
 
 The Lenca language is represented by four vocabu- 
 laries from the four Pueblos of Guajiquiro, Opatoro, 
 Intibuca, and Sirmlaton ; that of the last being shorter 
 and less complete than the others. They are quite re- 
 cent, and are to be found only in the Spanish edition of 
 Mr. Squier's Notes on Central America; the English 
 edition being without them. 
 
 
 Honduras, 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Guajiquiro. 
 
 Opatoro. 
 
 Intibuca. 
 
 Man 
 
 
 
 taho 
 
 amashe 
 
 Woman 
 
 
 move 
 
 napu 
 
 Boy 
 
 
 guagua 
 
 hua 
 
 Head 
 
 toro 
 
 tolioro 
 
 cagasi 
 
 Ear 
 
 yang 
 
 yan 
 
 yangaga 
 
 Eye 
 
 saing 
 
 saringla 
 
 saring 
 
 Nose 
 
 napse 
 
 napseh 
 
 nepton 
 
 Mouth 
 
 ingh 
 
 ambeingh 
 
 ingori 
 
 Tongue 
 
 nafel 
 
 navel 
 
 napel 
 
 Teeth 
 
 nagha 
 
 neas 
 
 nigh 
 
 Neck 
 
 ampshala 
 
 ampshala 
 
 cange 
 
 Aiin 
 
 kenin 
 
 kenin 
 
 kening 
 
 Fingers 
 
 iasel 
 
 gualalasel 
 
 
 Foot 
 
 guagi 
 
 quagi 
 
 guaskaring 
 
 Blood 
 
 uahug 
 
 uah 
 
 quch 
 
 Sun 
 
 gasi 
 
 gashi 
 
 gashi 
 
 Star 
 
 siri 
 
 siri 
 
 
 Fire 
 
 uga 
 
 'ua 
 
 yuga 
 
 Water 
 
 guass 
 
 uash 
 
 guash 
 
 Stone 
 
 caa 
 
 caa 
 
 tupan 
 
 Tree 
 
 ili 
 
 iK 
 
 ili 
 
 One 
 
 ita 
 
 ita 
 
 itaska 
 
 Two 
 
 naa 
 
 
 
 Three 
 
 lagua 
 
 
 
 
 Four 
 
 aria 
 
 
 
 Five 
 
 saihe 
 
 saibe 
 
 
 Six 
 
 huie 
 
 hue 
 
 
 
 F F 2 
 
436 
 
 LANGUAGES OF HONDURAS 
 
 English. 
 
 Guajiquiro. 
 
 Opatoro. 
 
 Intibuca. 
 
 Seven 
 
 huis-ca 
 
 
 
 
 Eight 
 
 teef-ca 
 
 
 
 Nine 
 
 kaiapa 
 
 
 
 Ten 
 
 isis 
 
 issis 
 
 
 
 Nicaragua. 
 
 
 
 
 (1-) 
 
 
 English. 
 
 
 Masaya. 
 
 Subtiaho. 
 
 Man 
 
 
 rahpa 
 
 wuho 
 
 Woman 
 
 
 rapa-ku 
 
 w-ahseyomo 
 
 Boy 
 
 
 sai-ka 
 
 w-asome 
 
 Girl 
 
 
 sai-kee 
 
 w-aheoun 
 
 Child 
 
 
 chichi 
 
 ?i-aneyame 
 
 Father 
 
 
 ana 
 
 goo-ha 
 
 Mother 
 
 
 autu 
 
 goo-mo 
 
 / Husband 
 
 
 a'mbin 
 
 'mhohue 
 
 Wife 
 
 
 a'guyu 
 
 wume 
 
 Sm 
 
 
 sacul-e 
 
 w-asomeyamo 
 
 JDaughter 
 
 
 saicul-a 
 
 n-asayme 
 
 Y 
 
 
 ( a'cu 
 |edi 
 
 goochemo 
 
 Head 
 
 
 
 Hair 
 
 
 tu'su 
 
 membe 
 
 Face 
 
 
 enu 
 
 grote 
 
 ^ Forehead 
 
 
 gnitu 
 
 goola 
 
 Ear 
 
 
 nau 
 
 nnhme 
 
 Eye 
 
 
 setu 
 
 nahte 
 
 Nose 
 
 
 ta'co 
 
 mungoo 
 
 Mouth 
 
 
 dahnu 
 
 nunsu 
 
 Tongue 
 
 
 duhu 
 
 greuhe 
 
 Tooth 
 
 
 semu 
 
 nahe 
 
 Foot 
 
 
 naku 
 
 graho 
 
 Slcy 
 
 
 dehmalu 
 
 nekupe 
 
 Sun 
 
 
 ahca 
 
 numbu 
 
 Star 
 
 
 ucu 
 
 nuete 
 
 Fire 
 
 
 ahku 
 
 nahu 
 
 Water 
 
 
 eeia 
 
 nimbn 
 
 
 
 (esee 
 ( esenu 
 
 nugo 
 
 Stone 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 icu 
 
 saho 
 
 Thm 
 
 
 ic-a 
 
 sumusheta 
 
 He 
 
 
 ic-a 
 
 
 We 
 
 
 hechel-u* 
 
 semehmu 
 
 Ye 
 
 
 hechel-u* 
 
 
 They 
 
 
 icanu 
 
 
 This 
 
 
 ca-la 
 
 -— " 
 
 * Compare with the Tarascan uchaveri. 
 
AND NICARAGUA. 
 
 437 
 
 (2.) 
 
 English. 
 
 Wulwa {Chontai). 
 
 English. 
 
 Wulwa (Chontai). 
 
 Man 
 
 all 
 
 Head 
 
 tunni 
 
 Woman 
 
 y-all 
 
 Eye 
 
 minik-taka 
 
 Son 
 
 pau-ni-ma 
 
 Nose 
 
 magni-tuk. 
 
 Daughter 
 
 pau-co-ma 
 
 
 
 
 (3.) 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Waikna {Moskito Coast). 
 
 English. 
 
 Waikna (Moskito Coast) 
 
 Man 
 
 waikna 
 
 Head 
 
 let 
 
 Woman 
 
 mairen 
 
 Eye 
 
 nakro 
 
 Son 
 
 lupia-waikna 
 
 Nose 
 
 kamka. 
 
 Daughter 
 
 lupia-mairen 
 
 
 
 The following is spoken in Costa Rica, between the 
 river Zent, and the Bocca del Tauro. 
 
 English. 
 
 Talemenca. 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Talemenca. 
 
 Ear 
 
 s%-kuke 
 
 
 Star 
 
 bewue 
 
 Eye 
 
 m-woaketd 
 
 
 Fire 
 
 tshuko 
 
 Nose 
 
 s^A-tshiukoto 
 
 
 Water 
 
 ditzita 
 
 Mouth 
 
 «w-'kuwu 
 
 
 One 
 
 e-tawa 
 
 Tongue 
 
 es-kuptu 
 
 
 Two 
 
 ho-tewa 
 
 Tooth 
 
 sa-ka 
 
 
 Three 
 
 msigna,-tewa 
 
 Beard 
 
 as-karku raezili 
 
 Four 
 
 Bke-tewa 
 
 Neck-j&int ? 
 
 tzin 
 
 
 Five 
 
 si-tewa 
 
 Arm 
 
 sa-fra 
 
 
 Six 
 
 si-wo-ske-le 
 
 Hand 
 
 sa-/ra-tem-sek 
 
 Seven 
 
 si-wo-wora, 
 
 Finger 
 
 /ra-wuata 
 
 
 Eight 
 
 " si-wo-magnana 
 
 Nail 
 
 sa-krasku 
 
 
 Nine 
 
 si-wo-sTce-tewa 
 
 Swn 
 
 kanhue 
 
 
 Ten 
 
 sa-flat-ka. 
 
 Moon 
 
 tulu 
 
 
 
 
 St. Salvador — 
 
 
 
 
 English, 
 
 
 Savane 
 
 ric. 
 
 Bayano. 
 
 Woma7i 
 
 
 auich 
 
 
 purra 
 
 Hair 
 
 
 chuga 
 
 ?s 
 
 saglaga 
 
 No8e 
 
 
 vas'e 
 
 
 asagua 
 
 Eyes 
 
 
 siguac 
 
 va 
 
 ivia 
 
 Mouth 
 
 
 ca 
 
 
 cagtLiqui 
 
 Teeth 
 
 
 daj^ 
 
 
 nugala 
 
 Ears 
 
 
 old 
 
 
 ouja 
 
 Hand 
 
 
 covar^ 
 
 
 arcana 
 
 Foot 
 
 
 sera 
 
 
 naca 
 
 Srni 
 
 
 chuhi 
 
 
 
 Moon 
 
 
 datu 
 
 
 
 Sta/rs 
 
 
 behug 
 
 uipa 
 
 
 One 
 
 
 
 
 quenchique 
 
438 
 
 
 VERAGUA. 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Savaneric. 
 
 Bayano. 
 
 Two 
 
 
 povuar 
 
 Three 
 Fowr 
 
 
 pavuar 
 paquevuar 
 
 Five 
 
 
 atate 
 
 Six 
 
 
 nercua 
 
 Seven 
 
 
 cugle 
 
 Eight 
 
 
 pavaque 
 
 Nine 
 
 
 paquevaque 
 
 Ten 
 
 
 ambuc. 
 
 arien — 
 
 English. 
 
 Cunacuna. 
 
 Darien. 
 
 One 
 
 quensa-cua 
 
 conjungo 
 
 Two 
 
 vo-cua 
 
 poquah 
 
 Three 
 
 paa-cua 
 
 pauquah 
 
 Fowr 
 
 paque-cua 
 
 pake-quah 
 
 Five 
 
 atale 
 
 eterrah 
 
 Six 
 
 ner-cua 
 
 indricah 
 
 Seven 
 
 cugle 
 
 coogolah 
 
 Eight 
 
 vau-agua 
 
 paukopah 
 
 Nine 
 
 paque-haguc 
 
 pakekopah 
 
 Ten 
 
 ambegui 
 
 anivego. 
 
 We now leave the Isthmus in order to take 
 cognizance of three other groups, which have, ap- 
 parently, been pretermitted in the preceding notices. 
 These are the languages akin to the Sahaptin ; the lan- 
 guages akin to the Shoshoni ; and the languages of 
 the Pueblo Indians — the groups being, to some extent, 
 artificial. 
 
SAHAPTIN GROUP. 439 
 
 CHAPTER LIX. 
 
 Sahaptin, Paduca, and Pueblo Languages. 
 
 The reason why these languages, with their compara- 
 tively northern situs, have been left until the very 
 frontier of South America is touched, lies in their geo- 
 graphical relations to the languages of the next division. 
 As far as it has been practicable, we have, hitherto, kept 
 to the west of the Rocky Mountains, having begun 
 with the coast of the Pacific, because it was there that 
 lay the nearest points of contact between America and 
 Asia, and we have kept to the west, because, though difier- 
 ent in its character under different circumstances, there 
 has always been a connection between even such ex- 
 treme languages as those of Central America and those 
 of the Arctic Circle. Of course, this does not exclude a 
 similar connection with tlie languages on the other side 
 of the Rocky Mountains. Two chains of affinity, how- 
 ever, cannot be followed out at the same time. Mean- 
 while, that to which the preference has been given 
 is, to say the least, a convenient, as well as a natural, 
 one. The line, however, of the Rocky Mountains, them- 
 selves, is, by no means, purely and simply, a line from 
 north to south. In Utah and New Mexico it takes us 
 in the direction of the Atlantic. 
 
 This turns our attention to the parts about the Great 
 Salt Lake, and (as the dialects there spoken have defi- 
 nite and decided affinities which run as far north as the 
 
440 
 
 SAHAPTIN GROUP. 
 
 Kiver Columbia) to certain districts in Oregon as well. 
 Here present themselves several dialects referable to 
 two groups. (1 .) The Sahaptin, and (2.) the Paduca. 
 
 ' a-) 
 
 (From Dr. Scouler.) 
 
 Euglish. 
 
 Sahaptin. 
 
 Wallawalla. 
 
 Kliketat. 
 
 Man 
 
 nama 
 
 winsh 
 
 wins 
 
 Boy 
 
 naswae 
 
 tahnutshint 
 
 aswan 
 
 Woman 
 
 aiat 
 
 tilahi 
 
 aiat 
 
 Girl 
 
 piteu 
 
 tohauat 
 
 pitiniks 
 
 Wife 
 
 swapna 
 
 asham 
 
 asham 
 
 Child 
 
 miahs 
 
 isht 
 
 mianash 
 
 Father 
 
 pishd 
 
 pshit 
 
 pshit 
 
 Mother 
 
 pika 
 
 ptsha 
 
 ptsha 
 
 Head 
 
 huslms 
 
 tilpi 
 
 palka 
 
 Arm. 
 
 atim 
 
 kamkas 
 
 
 Eyes 
 
 sMlhu 
 
 atsliasli 
 
 atshash 
 
 Nose 
 
 nathnu 
 
 nathnu 
 
 nosnu 
 
 Ears 
 
 matsaia 
 
 matsiu 
 
 
 Mouth 
 
 him 
 
 em 
 
 am 
 
 Teeth 
 
 tit 
 
 tit 
 
 
 Hands 
 
 spshus 
 
 spap 
 
 alia 
 
 Feet 
 
 ahwa 
 
 waha 
 
 waha 
 
 Legs 
 
 wainsh 
 
 tama 
 
 
 Sun 
 
 wishamtuksh 
 
 au 
 
 au 
 
 Moon 
 
 
 ailhai 
 
 ailhai 
 
 Stars 
 
 witsein 
 
 haslu 
 
 haslo 
 
 Clouds 
 
 spalikt 
 
 pashst 
 
 
 Rain 
 
 wakit 
 
 sshhauit 
 
 tohtoha 
 
 Snow 
 
 maka 
 
 poi 
 
 maka 
 
 Ice 
 
 tahask 
 
 tahauk 
 
 toh 
 
 Fire 
 
 ala 
 
 sluksh 
 
 sluks 
 
 Water 
 
 tkush 
 
 tshnsh 
 
 tshaush 
 
 Wood 
 
 hatsin 
 
 slukls 
 
 slukuas 
 
 Stone 
 
 pishwa 
 
 pshwa 
 
 pshwa 
 
 Ground 
 
 watsash 
 
 titsham 
 
 titsham 
 
 Good 
 
 tahr 
 
 skeh 
 
 shoeah 
 
 Bad 
 
 kapshish 
 
 milla 
 
 tshailwit 
 
 Hot 
 
 sakas 
 
 sahwaih 
 
 sahweah 
 
 Cold 
 
 kenis 
 
 kasat 
 
 tewisha kasat 
 
 Far 
 
 waiat 
 
 wiat 
 
 wiat 
 
 Near 
 
 keintam 
 
 tsiwas 
 
 tsa 
 
 High 
 
 tasLti 
 
 hwaiam 
 
 hweami 
 
 Low 
 
 ahat 
 
 smite 
 
 niti 
 
SAHAPTIN GROUP. 
 
 44] 
 
 English. 
 White 
 Black 
 Red 
 Here 
 There 
 Where ? 
 When ? 
 What ? 
 Why? 
 Who? 
 Which ? 
 How much ? 
 So much 
 How far ? 
 So far 
 How long ? 
 Too long 
 This 
 That 
 I 
 
 You 
 
 He, she, it 
 We 
 Ye 
 They 
 Togo 
 To see 
 To say 
 To talk 
 To walk 
 To read 
 To eat 
 To dnnk 
 To sleep 
 To wake 
 To love 
 To take 
 To knoio 
 To forget 
 To give 
 To seize 
 To he cold 
 To he sick 
 To hunt 
 To lie 
 To steal 
 
 Sahaptin. 
 
 naihaih 
 
 sunTilisimuh 
 
 sepilp 
 
 kina 
 
 kuna 
 
 minul 
 
 mana] 
 
 mish] 
 
 manama ? 
 
 ishi ? 
 
 ma? 
 
 mas? 
 
 kala 
 
 miwail ? 
 
 kewail 
 
 mahae ? 
 
 kohae 
 
 ki 
 
 joh 
 
 su 
 
 sui 
 
 ipi 
 
 nun 
 
 kusha 
 
 hakesha 
 
 heisha 
 
 wipisha 
 
 makosha 
 
 pinimikslia 
 
 watanisha 
 
 lukuasa 
 
 titolaslia 
 
 inisha 
 
 inpisha 
 
 iswaisa 
 
 komaisa 
 
 tukuliksa 
 
 mishamisha 
 
 pakwasha 
 
 Wallawalla. 
 
 koik 
 
 tshimuk 
 
 sutsha 
 
 tslina 
 
 kuna 
 
 mina? 
 
 mun? 
 
 misli ? 
 
 maui? 
 
 skiu? 
 
 mam] 
 
 milk? 
 
 kulk 
 
 maal? 
 
 kwal 
 
 maalh 
 
 kwalk 
 
 tsM 
 
 kwa 
 
 su 
 
 su 
 
 ipin 
 
 nama 
 
 ena 
 
 ema 
 
 winasha 
 
 hoksha 
 
 nu 
 
 siniwasa 
 
 winashash 
 
 wasaska 
 
 kwatashak 
 
 matskuskask 
 
 pinusha 
 
 tahshisask 
 
 tkeshask 
 
 apalashask 
 
 askakuaskask 
 
 slakskask 
 
 niskamask 
 
 skutskask 
 
 Kliketat. 
 olask 
 tsimuk 
 sutsa 
 stskiuak 
 skone 
 mam ? 
 mun ? 
 misk ? 
 
 skiu? 
 
 milk? 
 skulk 
 
 tsM 
 
 skwa 
 
 suk 
 
 suik 
 
 pink 
 
 nemak 
 
 imak 
 
 pamak 
 
 winaska 
 
 painskask 
 salaitisas 
 tskiskkskask 
 pakwaskask 
 
 wasaska 
 
 takskaska 
 tkeksak 
 
 skukuaska 
 
 wanapska 
 
 iswaiska 
 
 painska 
 
 nistewasa 
 
 tskiska 
 
 pakwaska. 
 
442 
 
 PABUCA GROUP. 
 
 The Paduca forms of South Oregon and Utah seem 
 to be in situ ; those of New Mexico, Texas, and New 
 Leon, &c. being intrusive. In respect to these, I 
 imagine that a line drawn from the south-eastern corner 
 of the Utah Lake to the source of the Red or Salt Fork 
 branch of the River Arkansas, would pass through a 
 country nearly, if not wholly, Paduca ; a country which 
 would lie partly in Utah, partly in New Mexico, and 
 partly in Kansas. It would cross the Rocky Mountains, 
 or the watershed between the drainages of the Colorado 
 and the Missouri. It would lie along a high and barren 
 country. It would have on its west the Navaho, Moqui, 
 and Apatsh areas ; on its east certain Sioux tribes, the 
 Arapahos, and the Shyennes. It would begin 
 CaUfornia and end in the parts about Tampico. 
 
 in 
 
 
 (1.) 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Shoshoni. 
 
 Wihinasht. 
 
 Man 
 
 taka 
 
 nana 
 
 Woman 
 
 kwuu 
 
 moghoni 
 
 Head 
 
 pampi 
 
 tsopigh 
 
 Hair 
 
 tupia 
 
 ikuo 
 
 Ear 
 
 inaka 
 
 inako 
 
 Bye 
 
 pui 
 
 pui 
 
 Nose 
 
 moui 
 
 moui 
 
 Mouth 
 
 timpa 
 
 tupa 
 
 Tongue 
 
 aku 
 
 eghu 
 
 Teeth 
 
 tangwa 
 
 tama 
 
 Foot 
 
 nampa 
 
 kuki 
 
 Sun 
 
 tava 
 
 tava 
 
 Moon 
 
 mushha 
 
 musha 
 
 Star 
 
 putsihwa 
 
 patuzuva 
 
 Day 
 
 tashun 
 
 tavino 
 
 Night 
 
 tukwun 
 
 tokano 
 
 Fire 
 
 kuna 
 
 koso 
 
 Water 
 
 pa 
 
 pa 
 
 Stone 
 
 timpi 
 
 tipi 
 
 Tree 
 
 shuwi 
 
 
 I 
 
 ni 
 
 ni 
 
 That 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 He 
 
 00 
 
 00. 
 
PADUCA GROUP. 
 
 443 
 
 (2.) 
 
 English. 
 
 
 Uta. 
 
 
 
 Comanch. 
 
 Ma7i 
 
 
 tooonpayah 
 
 tooavishchee 
 
 Woman 
 
 
 naijah 
 
 
 wyapee 
 
 Sun 
 
 
 tap 
 
 
 taharp 
 
 Moon 
 
 
 mahtots 
 
 
 mush. 
 
 Star 
 
 
 qualilantz 
 
 
 taarch 
 
 Boy 
 
 
 ahpats 
 
 
 tooanickpee 
 
 Girl 
 
 
 mahmats 
 
 
 wyapeechee 
 
 Read 
 
 
 tuts 
 
 
 paaph 
 
 Forehead 
 
 
 muttock 
 
 
 
 
 Face 
 
 
 kooelp 
 
 
 koveh 
 
 Eye 
 
 
 puttyshoe 
 
 
 nachich 
 
 Nose 
 
 
 mahvetah 
 
 
 moopee 
 
 Mouth 
 
 
 timp 
 
 
 teppa 
 
 Teeth 
 
 
 tong 
 
 
 tahnee 
 
 Tongue 
 
 
 ah oh 
 
 
 ahako 
 
 Chin 
 
 
 hannockq 
 
 uell 
 
 
 Ear 
 
 
 nink 
 
 
 nahark 
 
 Hair 
 
 
 suooh 
 
 
 parpee 
 
 Neck 
 
 
 kolph 
 
 
 toyock 
 
 Arm 
 
 
 pooir 
 
 
 mowa 
 
 Hand 
 
 
 masseer 
 
 
 mowa 
 
 Breast 
 
 
 pay 
 
 
 toko 
 
 Foot 
 
 
 namp 
 
 
 nahap 
 
 Horse 
 
 
 kahvah 
 
 
 teheyar 
 
 Serpent 
 
 
 toeweroe 
 
 
 noheer 
 
 Dog 
 
 
 sahreets 
 
 
 shardee 
 
 Cat 
 
 
 moosah 
 
 
 
 Fire 
 
 
 coon 
 
 
 koona 
 
 Food 
 
 
 oof 
 
 
 
 Water 
 
 
 pah 
 
 (3.) 
 
 
 pahar. 
 
 English. 
 
 Piede {or Pa-uta). 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Piede {orPa-ida). 
 
 One 
 
 SOOS 
 
 
 
 Six 
 
 navi 
 
 Two 
 
 weioone 
 
 
 
 Seven 
 
 navikavah 
 
 Three 
 
 pioone 
 
 
 
 Eight 
 
 nanneetsooin 
 
 Four 
 
 wolsooing 
 
 
 
 Nine 
 
 shookootspenkermi 
 
 Five 
 
 shoomin 
 
 
 
 Ten 
 
 tomshooin. 
 
 
 
 (4.) 
 
 
 
 English. 
 
 
 Chemuhuevi, 
 
 
 Cahuillo.* 
 
 Man 
 
 
 tawatz 
 
 
 nahanes 
 
 Woman 
 
 
 maruqu 
 
 % 
 
 
 nikil 
 
 * The affinity between the Netela and Kij with the Shoshoni, suggested by 
 Hale and Gallatin, has been enlarged on by Buschmann. The Cahuillo has 
 affinities on each side. It is not in situ. At the same time, it is only by 
 raising the value of the class, that all may be made Paduca. 
 
444 
 
 PADUOA GROUP. 
 
 English. 
 
 Cheniuhuevi. 
 
 Cahnlllo 
 
 Head 
 
 mutacowa 
 
 niyuluka 
 
 Hair 
 
 torpip 
 
 piiki 
 
 Face 
 
 cobanim 
 
 nepush 
 
 Ear 
 
 nancaba 
 
 nanocka 
 
 Eye 
 
 puoui 
 
 napush 
 
 Nose 
 
 muvi 
 
 nemu 
 
 Mouth 
 
 timpouo 
 
 netama 
 
 Tongue 
 
 ago 
 
 nenun 
 
 Tooth 
 
 towwa 
 
 metama 
 
 Hand 
 
 masiwanim 
 
 nemobemosh 
 
 Foot 
 
 nampan 
 
 neik 
 
 Bone 
 
 maiigan 
 
 neta 
 
 Blood 
 
 paipi 
 
 neo 
 
 Sky 
 
 tnup 
 
 tuquashanica 
 
 Sun 
 
 tabaputz 
 
 tamit 
 
 Moon 
 
 meagoropitz 
 
 menyil 
 
 Star 
 
 putsih 
 
 cbehiam 
 
 Fire 
 
 cun 
 
 cut 
 
 Water 
 
 pah 
 
 pal 
 
 One 
 
 shuish 
 
 supli 
 
 Two 
 
 waii 
 
 mewi 
 
 Three 
 
 paii 
 
 mepai 
 
 Fowr 
 
 watchu 
 
 mewitchu 
 
 Five 
 
 manu 
 
 nomequadnun 
 
 Six 
 
 nabai 
 
 quadnunsupli 
 
 Seven 
 
 moquist 
 
 quanmunwi 
 
 Eight 
 
 natch 
 
 qiia,TiTnimpa 
 
 Nine 
 
 uwip 
 
 quanmunwichu 
 
 Ten 
 
 mashu 
 
 noTTiarChumi. 
 
 else, 
 
 The Kioway is, apparently, more Paduca than aught 
 
 English. 
 
 Kioway. 
 
 English. 
 
 Kioway. 
 
 Man 
 
 kiani 
 
 Blood 
 
 um 
 
 Woman 
 
 mayi 
 
 Bone 
 
 tonsip 
 
 Head 
 
 kiaku 
 
 Sky 
 
 kiacoh 
 
 Hair 
 
 ooto 
 
 Sun 
 
 pai 
 
 Face 
 
 caupa 
 
 Moon 
 
 pa 
 
 ForeJiead 
 
 taupa 
 
 Star 
 
 tab 
 
 Ear 
 
 taati 
 
 Fire 
 
 pia 
 
 Eye 
 
 taati 
 
 Water 
 
 tu 
 
 Nose 
 
 maucon 
 
 I 
 
 no 
 
 Mouth 
 
 surol 
 
 Thmi 
 
 am 
 
 Tongue 
 
 den 
 
 He 
 
 kin 
 
 Tooth 
 
 zun 
 
 We 
 
 kime 
 
 Hand 
 
 mortay 
 
 Ye 
 
 tusa 
 
 Foot 
 
 onsut 
 
 They 
 
 cuta 
 
THE TESUQUE, ETC. 
 
 445 
 
 English. 
 
 Kioway. 
 
 English. 
 
 Kioway. 
 
 One 
 
 patco 
 
 Six 
 
 mosso 
 
 Two 
 
 gia 
 
 Seven 
 
 pantsa 
 
 Three 
 
 pao 
 
 Eight 
 
 iatsa 
 
 Four 
 
 iaki 
 
 Nine 
 
 cohtsu 
 
 Five 
 
 onto 
 
 Ten 
 
 cokhi. 
 
 The comparative civilization of the Pueblo Indians 
 has always attracted the attention of the philologue. 
 Until lately, however, he had but a rriinimum amount 
 of trustworthy information concerning either their habits 
 or their language. He has now a fair amount of data 
 for both. 
 
 Of the Pueblo languages two (the Moqui and Zuni) 
 belong to the drainage of the Rio Colorado, and four 
 (the Tesuque, the Taos, the Jemez, and the A coma) to 
 that of the Rio Grande. 
 
 (1.) 
 
 English. 
 
 Tesuque.* 
 
 English. 
 
 Tesuqne. 
 
 Man 
 
 sae 
 
 Snow 
 
 poh 
 
 Woman 
 
 quie 
 
 Fire 
 
 tah 
 
 Boy 
 
 enouh 
 
 Water 
 
 poh 
 
 Girl 
 
 aguuh 
 
 Ice 
 
 ohyeh 
 
 Head 
 
 pto 
 
 Stone 
 
 kuh 
 
 Hair 
 
 po 
 
 I 
 
 nah 
 
 Face 
 
 tzae 
 
 Thou 
 
 uh 
 
 Ear 
 
 oyez 
 
 He 
 
 ihih 
 
 Eye 
 
 tzie 
 
 She 
 
 ihih 
 
 Nose 
 
 heu 
 
 They 
 
 ihnah 
 
 Mouth 
 
 so 
 
 Ye 
 
 nahih 
 
 Tongue 
 
 hae 
 
 We {inclusive) 
 
 tahquireh 
 
 Tooth 
 
 mouaei 
 
 {exclusive) 
 
 nihyeuboh 
 
 Beard 
 
 hompo 
 
 One 
 
 guih 
 
 Hand 
 
 maho 
 
 Two 
 
 quihyeh 
 
 Foot 
 
 auh 
 
 Three 
 
 pohyeh 
 
 Bone 
 
 haehun 
 
 Four 
 
 ionouh 
 
 Blood 
 
 uh 
 
 Five 
 
 pahnouh 
 
 Sim 
 
 tah 
 
 Six 
 
 sih 
 
 Moon 
 
 pho 
 
 Seven 
 
 chae 
 
 Star 
 
 ahgoyah 
 
 Eight 
 
 kuhbeh 
 
 Day 
 
 tahn 
 
 Nine 
 
 kuaenouh 
 
 Night 
 
 kuriri 
 
 Ten 
 
 taheh. 
 
 Rain 
 
 kuohn 
 
 
 
 More Pima than aught else. 
 
446 
 
 ACOMA AND COCHETIMI. 
 
 
 
 (2.) 
 
 
 EugUsh. 
 
 Acoma* 
 
 Cochetimi. 
 
 Kiwomi. 
 
 Man 
 
 hahtratse 
 
 hachthe 
 
 hatshthe 
 
 Woman 
 
 cuhu 
 
 coyoni 
 
 cuyauwi 
 
 Hair 
 
 hahtratni 
 
 
 hatre 
 
 Head 
 
 nushkaine 
 
 
 nashke 
 
 Face 
 
 howawinni 
 
 
 skeeowa 
 
 Eye 
 
 hoonaine 
 
 
 shaana 
 
 Nose 
 
 ouisuine 
 
 
 wiesMn 
 
 Mouth 
 
 ouicani 
 
 
 cliiaca 
 
 Tongue 
 
 watchlmiitni 
 
 
 watshin 
 
 One 
 
 
 ishka 
 
 isk 
 
 Two 
 
 
 kuomi 
 
 'tuomi 
 
 Three 
 
 
 chami 
 
 tshabi 
 
 Four 
 
 
 kiana 
 
 kiana 
 
 Five 
 
 
 tama 
 
 taoma 
 
 Six 
 
 
 chisa 
 
 chisth 
 
 Seven 
 
 
 maicana 
 
 maicliaiia 
 
 Eight 
 
 
 cocomishia 
 
 cocumshi 
 
 Nine 
 
 
 maeco 
 
 maieco 
 
 Ten 
 
 
 'tkatz 
 
 cahtz. 
 
 The Moqui has decided Paduca affinities. 
 
 * Perhaps, more Sioux than aught else. 
 
ALGONKIN CLASS. 447 
 
 CHAPTER LX. 
 
 Languages between the Athabaskan, the Rocky Mountains, and the Atlantic. 
 — The Algonkin. — The Sioux. — The Iroquois. — The Catawba, Woccon, 
 Uche, Natchez, Chetimacha, Adahi, and Attacapa Languages. — The 
 Pawni, Riccari, and Caddo. — The Languages of Texas. 
 
 Unlike the Eskimo and the Athabaskan, the Algon- 
 hin area touches the Ocean on one side only — being 
 bounded on the west by the Bocky Mountains. Never- 
 theless, it is of great magnitude, being spoken in Labra- 
 dor, and in North Carolina ; on the Saskatshewan and 
 the Potomac ; in both the Canadas, in Nova Scotia, 
 in New Brunswick, in the Hudson's Bay Country, and 
 in every one of the United States north of Georgia. 
 On the north it is bounded by the Athabaskan, the 
 eastern half of the area whereof it subtends. The whole 
 question, however, of its magnitude, along with that of 
 the direction in which it extended itself, can scarcely be 
 entertained until the main details of the two classes 
 that succeed it, the Sioux and Iroquois, have been gone 
 into. 
 
 Though the Blackfoot is one of the most recent ad- 
 ditions to this class ; in other words, though the Black- 
 foot is one of the languages which were the last to be 
 recognized as Algonkin, I take it first — the Blackfoot 
 being in contact with the Kutani and certain forms of 
 the Athabaskan already named. 
 
448 
 
 ALGONKIN CLASS. 
 
 
 (1.) 
 
 
 EngUsh. 
 
 Blackfoot. 
 
 Menomeni. 
 
 Man 
 
 tnatape 
 
 enainniew 
 
 Woman 
 
 aquie 
 
 metamo 
 
 Boy 
 
 sacomape 
 
 ahpayneesha 
 
 Oirl 
 
 aquecouan 
 
 kaykaw 
 
 Head 
 
 otocan 
 
 maish 
 
 Hair 
 
 otocan 
 
 maynaynunn 
 
 Face 
 
 otochris 
 
 oshkayshayko 
 
 Scaip 
 
 c'otoka.n 
 
 menainhquon 
 
 Ear 
 
 otokis 
 
 maytahwoc 
 
 Eye 
 
 y wapespi 
 
 maishkayshaick 
 
 Nose 
 
 mocquisis 
 
 maycheosh 
 
 Mouth 
 
 naoie 
 
 maytone 
 
 Tongue 
 
 natsini 
 
 maytainnonniew 
 
 Tooth 
 
 nogpeki 
 
 maypet 
 
 Beard 
 
 mongasti 
 
 maynaytonankkonnuck 
 
 Neclc 
 
 nogquoquini 
 
 mayke§ekon 
 
 Arm 
 
 otttis 
 
 maynainh 
 
 Shoulder 
 
 Catsiquin 
 
 ohpaykeko nainh kum 
 
 Bach 
 
 okaquin 
 
 oppainhquon 
 
 Hand 
 
 otttis 
 
 ohnainkonnon 
 
 Finger 
 
 inaquiquitsi 
 
 ohtainiioliaykon 
 
 Nail 
 
 teotenoquits 
 
 meshkanshcon 
 
 Breast 
 
 oquiquini 
 
 ohpaun 
 
 Body 
 
 stomi 
 
 mayeow 
 
 Leg 
 
 ^^- osicsina 
 
 maykaut 
 
 Foot 
 
 ocatsi 
 
 mayshait 
 
 Bone 
 
 osicsi 
 
 oLkonne 
 
 Blood 
 
 apani 
 
 mainhkee 
 
 Sun 
 
 natos 
 
 kayshoh 
 
 Moon 
 
 natoscoucoui 
 
 taypainhkayshoh 
 
 Star 
 
 cacatos 
 
 ahnanlikock 
 
 Day 
 
 ' apinacoush 
 
 kayshaykots 
 
 Night 
 
 coucoui 
 
 wahretopaykon 
 
 Fire 
 
 sti 
 
 ishkotajv^e 
 
 Water 
 
 ocquie 
 
 naypaywe 
 
 Stone 
 
 >',' sococotosc 
 
 ahshen 
 
 Tree 
 
 mistes 
 
 meanshab 
 
 Bird 
 
 picsi 
 
 waishkaynonh 
 
 Egg 
 
 wouaou 
 
 wahwon 
 
 I 
 
 nistoa 
 
 naynanh 
 
 Tlmi 
 
 cristoa 
 
 kaynanh 
 
 He 
 
 • hume 
 
 waynanh 
 
 She 
 
 hume 
 
 aynanh 
 
 They 
 
 
 wanonanh 
 
 Ye 
 
 
 keenwoah 
 
 We 
 
 
 kaynanh {inclusive). 
 
 
 
 
 oshneeshayak {exclusive). 
 
ALGONKIN LANGUAGES. 
 
 449 
 
 (2.) 
 
 English. 
 
 Ojibwa. 
 
 Ottawa. 
 
 Potowatami. 
 
 Head 
 
 ne ostegwon 
 
 ondip (his) 
 
 
 Hair 
 
 mistekiah 
 
 nisis {my) 
 
 win sis 
 
 Ear 
 
 ottowug 
 
 tawag 
 
 
 Eye 
 
 oskingick 
 
 tchkijik 
 
 neskesick 
 
 Nose 
 
 schangguin 
 
 tchaje 
 
 ottschass 
 
 Mouth 
 
 oton 
 
 t6ne 
 
 indoun 
 
 Tongue 
 
 otainini 
 
 tenanian 
 
 
 Tooth 
 
 rrieput 
 
 put 
 
 webit 
 
 Hand 
 
 nenintchen 
 
 
 neninch 
 
 Feet 
 
 ozia 
 
 sit (sing.) 
 
 nesit (sing.) 
 
 Sun 
 
 kisis 
 
 kisis 
 
 kesis 
 
 Moon 
 
 tepeki kisis 
 
 tipiki kisis 
 
 kesis 
 
 Star 
 
 anang 
 
 anang (pi) 
 
 anung 
 
 Day 
 
 kigik 
 
 kijig 
 
 
 Night 
 
 tipik 
 
 tipik 
 
 
 
 Fire 
 
 ishkoda 
 
 ashkote 
 
 scutah 
 
 Water 
 
 neebi 
 
 nipisli 
 
 nebee 
 
 Stone 
 
 ossin 
 
 
 
 Tree 
 
 metik 
 
 
 
 
 Fish 
 
 kekon 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 neen 
 
 
 neenah 
 
 Thou 
 
 keen 
 
 
 keen 
 
 He 
 
 ween 
 
 
 
 weene 
 
 One 
 
 paizMk 
 
 ningotchau 
 
 n'godto 
 
 Two 
 
 neezhwand 
 
 ninjwa 
 
 neish 
 
 Three 
 
 nisswaid 
 
 niswa 
 
 n'swoah 
 
 Four 
 
 newin 
 
 niwin 
 
 nnaeou 
 
 Five 
 
 nahnun 
 
 nanau 
 
 n'yawnun 
 
 Six 
 
 gotoasso 
 
 ningotwaswi 
 
 n'godto wattso 
 
 Seveti 
 
 neezhwawsee ninjwaswi 
 
 nouk 
 
 Ei^ht 
 
 shwawswe 
 
 nichwaswi 
 
 schwatso 
 
 Nine 
 
 shongguswe 
 
 shang 
 
 shocktso 
 
 Ten 
 
 medoswe 
 
 kwetch 
 
 (3.) 
 
 metato. 
 
 English. 
 
 
 Old Algonkin. 
 
 Knistinaux. 
 
 Man 
 
 
 alissinap 
 
 
 
 Woman 
 
 
 ichweh 
 
 esqui 
 
 Head 
 
 
 oostikwan 
 
 istegwen 
 
 Hair 
 
 
 ussis 
 
 mistekiah 
 
 Eye 
 
 
 ooskirishek 
 
 eskisoch 
 
 Nose 
 
 
 yash 
 
 miskeewon 
 
 Tongue 
 
 
 ooton 
 
 otoyanee 
 
 Teeth 
 
 
 tibit 
 
 meepit 
 
 Blood 
 
 
 mishweh 
 
 mithcoo 
 
 Sun 
 
 
 kisis J, 
 
 pesim 
 G G 
 
450 
 
 ALGONKIN LANGUAGES. 
 
 English. 
 
 Old Algonkin. 
 
 Knistinaux. 
 
 Moon 
 
 debikatikisis 
 
 tipiscopesim 
 
 Star 
 
 alank 
 
 attack 
 
 Day 
 
 okonogat 
 
 kesecow 
 
 NigU 
 
 debikat 
 
 tipiscow 
 
 Fire 
 
 skootay 
 
 esquittu 
 
 Water 
 
 nipi 
 
 nepee 
 
 Rain 
 
 kimiwan 
 
 kemeroon 
 
 Snow 
 
 
 mispoon 
 
 Fartk 
 
 ackey 
 
 askee 
 
 Noon 
 
 sispin 
 
 
 Stone 
 
 assin 
 
 assene 
 
 Tree 
 
 metseeb 
 
 ■ mislick acbemusso {wood 
 standing upright) 
 
 
 
 Bird 
 
 piley 
 
 peasis 
 
 Fish 
 
 kikons 
 
 kenosee 
 
 J 
 
 nir 
 
 nitba 
 
 Thou 
 
 kir 
 
 kitba 
 
 He 
 
 wir 
 
 
 One 
 
 peygik 
 
 pauck 
 
 Two 
 
 ninsh 
 
 nisbiib 
 
 Three 
 
 nisswey 
 
 nisbto 
 
 Fowr 
 
 neyoo 
 
 nayo 
 
 Five 
 
 nabran 
 
 nayabnun 
 
 Six 
 
 ningootwassoo 
 
 negoto ahsik 
 
 Seven 
 
 ninsbwassoo 
 
 toboocop 
 
 Eight 
 
 nisswassoo 
 
 ian^naon 
 
 Nine 
 
 sbangasso 
 
 kaga,temetMut 
 
 Ten 
 
 metassoo 
 (4.) 
 
 mitatat. 
 
 English. 
 
 Sheshatapoosh. 
 
 Skoffi. 
 
 Man 
 
 napew 
 
 nabouw 
 
 Woman 
 
 scbquow 
 
 scbow 
 
 Head 
 
 stoukoaau 
 
 oostookooban 
 
 Hair 
 
 peesbquahan 
 
 teepisbquooubn 
 
 Tongue 
 
 tellenee 
 
 eelayleenee 
 
 Tooth 
 
 mepeetbex 
 
 weeeepicb 
 
 Hand 
 
 teekecbee 
 
 mesticbee 
 
 Feet 
 
 neesbetch 
 
 mesbetcb 
 
 Shy 
 
 wasbesbquaw 
 
 walk 
 
 Sun 
 
 besbung 
 
 beesboon 
 
 Moon 
 
 toposbabesbung 
 
 teepeesbowbesbum 
 
 Star 
 
 jobokata 
 
 woocbabaykatak 
 
 Day 
 
 jeesbekere 
 
 jeesbekow 
 
 Night 
 
 tapisbkow 
 
 tapisbkakow 
 
 Fire 
 
 schootoo 
 
 scbkootow 
 
 Water 
 
 nepeee 
 
 nepee 
 
 Stone 
 
 asbenee 
 
 asbenee 
 
 Tree 
 
 mistookooab 
 
 mesbtooquab. 
 
ALGONKIN LANGUAGES. 
 
 451 
 
 (5.) 
 
 English. 
 
 Micmac. 
 
 Etchemin. 
 
 Abenaki. 
 
 Man 
 
 tchinem 
 
 oskitap 
 
 seenanbe 
 
 Woman 
 
 epit 
 
 apet 
 
 phanien 
 
 Head 
 
 wnidgik 
 
 neneagan 
 
 metep 
 
 Hair 
 
 
 
 nepiesMmar 
 
 Ear 
 
 hadougan 
 
 chalkse 
 
 neta^takw (my) 
 
 Eye 
 
 poMogwl 
 
 n'siscol 
 
 tsesiku 
 
 Nose 
 
 uchickun 
 
 nitou 
 
 kitan 
 
 Mouth 
 
 
 neswone 
 
 nedwn (my) 
 
 Tongue 
 
 willenonk 
 
 nyllal 
 
 mirasw 
 
 Teeth 
 
 usibidul 
 
 
 nepit 
 
 Hand 
 
 kpiten 
 
 petin 
 
 nezetsi (my) 
 
 Foot 
 
 wkkttat 
 
 n'sit 
 
 nesit 
 
 Shy 
 
 mooshkoon 
 
 tumoga 
 
 kisukn 
 
 Sun 
 
 nakawget 
 
 asptaiasait 
 
 kizws 
 
 Moon 
 
 topanakoushet 
 
 kisos 
 
 kisous 
 
 Star 
 
 kmaaokoonich 
 
 psaisam 
 
 itatattessM 
 
 Day 
 
 naakok 
 
 kisuok 
 
 kizeuku 
 
 Night 
 
 pishkeeaukh 
 
 
 kizuku 
 
 Fire 
 
 hiikteu 
 
 skut 
 
 skwtai 
 
 Water 
 
 chabuguan 
 
 somaquone 
 
 nabi 
 
 Stone 
 
 kwndau 
 
 panapsqu 
 
 nimangan naz 
 
 Tree 
 
 neepeejeesh 
 
 apas 
 
 abassi 
 
 I 
 
 nil 
 
 nel 
 
 
 
 Thm 
 
 kil 
 
 
 
 He 
 
 negeum 
 
 "WTirt 
 
 
 One 
 
 nest 
 
 naiget 
 
 pezekw 
 
 Two 
 
 tali* 
 
 nes 
 
 niss 
 
 Three 
 
 chicht 
 
 nihi 
 
 nass 
 
 Four 
 
 new 
 
 naho 
 
 ieu 
 
 Five 
 
 nan 
 
 nane 
 
 barenesliw 
 
 Six 
 
 achigopt 
 
 gamatchine 
 
 negitdaus 
 
 Seven 
 
 atwrnoguenok 
 
 alohegannak 
 
 tanbawaus 
 
 Eight 
 
 sgomolchit 
 
 okemulchine 
 
 ntsausek 
 
 Nine 
 
 pechkwnadck 
 
 asquenandake 
 
 nuriui 
 
 Ten 
 
 ptolu 
 
 neqdensk 
 
 mtara. 
 
 
 (6.) 
 
 
 English. 
 
 MiDsi. 
 
 Nanticok. 
 
 Mohikan. 
 
 Man 
 
 lenni 
 
 wohacki 
 
 neemanaoo 
 
 Woman 
 
 ochqueu 
 
 acquahique 
 
 p'ghainoom 
 
 Head 
 
 wilustican 
 
 nulahammou (the) 
 
 ■weensis (his) 
 
 Hair 
 
 weicheken 
 
 nee-eesquat 
 
 weghaukun 
 
 Eye 
 
 wichtawah 
 
 nucksskeneequat 
 
 ukeesquan (his) 
 
 Nose 
 
 wuschginqual 
 
 nickskeeu 
 
 okewon 
 
 Tongue 
 
 wichkiwon 
 
 neeannow 
 
 
 
 Mouth 
 
 M^'doon 
 
 huntowey 
 
 otoun 
 
 
 
 G G 2 
 
452 
 
 ALGONKIN LANGUAGES. 
 
 English. 
 
 Minsi. 
 
 Nanticok. 
 
 Mohikan., 
 
 Tooth 
 
 wicbput 
 
 neeput 
 
 "wepeeton 
 
 Hand 
 
 wanachk 
 
 nuluutz 
 
 oaniskan 
 
 Foot 
 
 wichyat 
 
 nist 
 
 ussutin 
 
 Sun 
 
 giscliuck 
 
 aquiquaqueahquak keesogh 
 
 Moon 
 
 nipahump atupquonihauque 
 
 s nepauhauck 
 
 Star 
 
 alank 
 
 pumioije 
 
 anauquanth 
 
 Day 
 
 gieschku 
 
 nucotucquon 
 
 waukaumauw 
 
 Night 
 
 tpocheu 
 
 toopquow 
 
 t'pockk 
 
 Fire 
 
 tendei 
 
 nip 
 
 stauw 
 
 Water 
 
 ruby 
 
 pamptuckquah 
 
 thocknaun 
 
 Stone 
 
 aclisum 
 
 kawscup 
 
 thaunaumku 
 
 Tree 
 
 michtuk 
 
 peluicque 
 
 (7.) 
 
 machtok. 
 
 English. 
 
 
 Massachusetts. 
 
 Narragansetts. 
 
 Man 
 
 
 wosketomp 
 
 nnin 
 
 Woman 
 
 
 mittamwosses 
 
 squaws 
 
 Head 
 
 
 puhkuk 
 
 uppaquontup 
 
 Hair 
 
 
 meesunk 
 
 wesheck 
 
 Ear 
 
 
 wehtauog 
 
 wuttowwug 
 
 Eye 
 
 
 wuskesuk 
 
 wuskeesuck 
 
 Nose 
 
 
 wutch 
 
 
 Mouth 
 
 
 nuttoon 
 
 wuttone 
 
 Tongue 
 
 
 meenannoh 
 
 weenat 
 
 Tooth 
 
 
 • meepit 
 
 wepit 
 
 Hand 
 
 
 nutcheg 
 
 wunnicheke 
 
 Foot 
 
 
 wusseet 
 
 wussette 
 
 Shy 
 
 
 kesak 
 
 keesuck 
 
 Swn 
 
 
 nepauz 
 
 nippawuz 
 
 Moon 
 
 
 nepaushat 
 
 manepausbat 
 
 Star 
 
 
 annogs 
 
 anockgus 
 
 Day 
 
 
 kesukod 
 
 wompau 
 
 Night 
 
 
 nukon 
 
 tuppaco 
 
 Fire 
 
 
 nootai 
 
 squtta 
 
 Water 
 
 
 nippe 
 
 nip 
 
 Tree 
 
 
 mehtug 
 
 mintuck 
 
 I 
 
 
 neen 
 
 neen 
 
 Thm 
 
 
 ken 
 
 keen 
 
 He 
 
 
 noh 
 
 (8.) 
 
 ewo. 
 
 English. Miami. 
 
 
 Iliuois. Sauki. 
 
 Shawni. 
 
 Man hetaniah 
 
 inim neneo 
 
 ileni 
 
 Woman metamsah i 
 
 ickoe kwyokih 
 
 equiwa 
 
 Head indepekoneli 
 
 WTipip weshi 
 
 weelekeh 
 
 Hair nelissah ^ 
 
 aississah nenossoueh 
 
 welathoh 
 
 Ear 
 
 tawakeh 
 
 nittagai 
 
 nektowakye {my) towakah 
 
ALGONKIN LANGUAGES. 
 
 453 
 
 English . 
 
 Miami. 
 
 Iliuois. 
 
 Sauki. 
 
 Shawui. 
 
 Eye 
 
 keshekweh 
 
 isckengicon 
 
 neskishekwih 
 
 skisseeqwa 
 
 Nose 
 
 kekiwaneh 
 
 
 nekkiwanuek 
 
 ochan 
 
 Mouth 
 
 lonenneh 
 
 
 
 wektoneh 
 
 
 Tongue 
 
 wehla.Tieh 
 
 wilei 
 
 nennaneweh 
 
 weelinwie 
 
 Teeth 
 
 weepitah 
 
 
 nepitan 
 
 weepeetalee {his 
 
 Hand 
 
 oneksah 
 
 nich 
 
 nepakumetcheh 
 
 niligie 
 
 Feet 
 
 katali 
 
 wissit 
 
 nckatcteh (?) 
 
 kussie 
 
 STcy 
 
 kesheweh 
 
 kisik 
 
 apemekeh 
 
 menquotwe 
 
 Sun 
 
 
 kisipol 
 
 kejessoah 
 
 kesathwa 
 
 Moon 
 
 
 kesis 
 
 tepakeeskejes 
 
 I tepethaka- 
 \ kesathwa 
 
 Star 
 
 alangwa 
 
 rangkhoa 
 
 anakwakeh 
 
 alagwa {yl) 
 
 Day 
 
 wasekhe 
 
 kisik 
 
 keeshekeh 
 
 keeshqua 
 
 Night 
 
 pikkuntahkewe peckonteig 
 
 tapakeh 
 
 tepechke 
 
 Fire 
 
 koMeweh 
 
 scotte 
 
 eskwatah 
 
 scoote 
 
 Water 
 
 nepeli 
 
 nipi 
 
 neppi 
 
 neppee 
 
 Stone 
 
 saaneh 
 
 
 asenneh 
 
 
 Tree 
 
 mistaakuck 
 
 toauane 
 
 namateli 
 
 metequeglike(p?.) 
 
 I 
 
 neelah 
 
 nira 
 
 neenah {me) 
 
 nelah 
 
 Thou 
 
 keelah 
 
 kira 
 
 
 kelah 
 
 He 
 
 weelah 
 
 onira 
 
 
 
 welah. 
 
 The Bethuck is the native language of Newfoundland. 
 In 1846, the collation of a Bethuck vocabulary enabled 
 me to state that the language of the extinct, or doubt- 
 fully extant, aborigines of that island was akin to those 
 of the ordinary American Indians rather than to the 
 Eskimo ; further investigation showing that, of the or- 
 dinary American languages, it was Algonkin rather than 
 aught else. 
 
 A sample of the evidence of this is to be found in the 
 following table ; a table formed, not upon the collation 
 of the whole MS., but only upon the more important 
 words contained in it. 
 
 English, son. 
 Bethuck, mageraguis. 
 Cree, equssis. 
 Ojibbeway, ningwisis 
 
 negwis 
 
 Ottawa, hwis. 
 Micmac, unquece. 
 Passamaquoddy, n''kos. 
 
 =my sou. 
 
 Narragensetts, nummuchiese = my 
 
 son. 
 Delaware, quissau = h.is son. 
 Miami, ahwissima. 
 
 ungwissah. 
 
 Shawnoe, hoisso. 
 
 Sack and Fox, neJcwessa. 
 
 Menomeni, tieJceesh. 
 
454 
 
 THE BETHUCK 
 
 English, girl. 
 Bethuck, woaseesh. 
 Cree, squaids. 
 Ojibbeway, ekwaizais. 
 Ottawa, aquesens. 
 Old Algonkin, ickwessen. 
 Sheshatapoosh, squashish. 
 Passamaquoddy, pelsquasis. 
 Narragansetts, squasese. 
 Montaug, squasses. 
 Sack & Fox, skwessah. 
 Cree, awdsis = child. 
 Sheshatapoosh, awash = child. 
 
 English, mouth. 
 Bethuck, mamadthun. 
 Nanticoke, mettoon. 
 Massachusetts, muttoon. 
 Narragansetts, wuttoon. 
 Penobscott, madoon. 
 Acadcan, mefon. 
 Micmac, toon. 
 Abenaki, ootoon. 
 
 nose. 
 Bethuck, gheen. 
 Miami, Jceouane. 
 
 Bethuck, hochodza. 
 Micmac, neebeet. 
 Abenaki, neebeet. 
 
 English, hand. 
 Bethuck, maemed. 
 Micmac, paeteen. 
 Abenaki, mpateen. 
 
 English, ear. 
 Bethuck, mootchiman. 
 Micmac, mootooween. 
 Abenaki, nootawee. 
 
 English, smoke. 
 Bethuck, hassdik. 
 Abenaki, ettoodaJce. 
 
 English, oil. 
 Bethuck, emet. 
 Micmac, memaye. 
 Abenaki, pemmee. 
 
 English, Sun. 
 
 Bethuck, Tceuse. 
 
 Cree, &c., kisis. 
 
 Abenaki, kesus, 
 
 Mohican, kesogh. 
 
 Delaware, gishukh. 
 
 Illinois, kisipol. 
 
 Shawnoe, kesathwa. 
 
 Sack & Fox, kejessoah. 
 
 Menomeni, kaysho. 
 
 Passamaquoddy, kisos=moon. 
 
 Abenaki, kisus = moon. 
 
 Cree, kesecow = day. 
 
 Ojibbeway, kijik = day and light. 
 
 Ottawa, kijik=do. 
 
 Abenaki, kiseoukou=do. 
 
 Delaware, gieshku=do. 
 
 Illinois, kisik — do. 
 
 Shawnoe, heeshqua=do. 
 
 Sack & Fox, keeshekeh=do. 
 
 English, fire. 
 Bethuck, hooheeshaiot. 
 Cree, esquitti, scoutay. 
 Ojibbeway, ishkodai, skootae. 
 Ottawa, ashkote. 
 Old Algonkin, skootay. 
 Sheshatapoosh, schootay. 
 Passamaquoddy, skeet. 
 Abenaki, skoutai. 
 Massachusetts, squitta., 
 Narragansetts, si 
 
 English, white. 
 Bethuck, wohee. 
 Cree, wabisca. 
 
 wapishkawo. 
 
 Ojibbeway, wawbishkaw. 
 
 Old Algonkin, toabi. 
 
 Micmac, ouabeg, wabeck. 
 Mountaineer, loapsiou. 
 Passamaquoddy, wapiyo. 
 Abenaki, wanbighenour. 
 
 ivanhegan. 
 
 Massachusetts, wompi. 
 Narragansetts, ivompesii. 
 Mohican, waupaaeek. 
 
OF NEWFOUNDLAND. 
 
 455 
 
 Montaug, wampayo. 
 
 Delaware, wape, wapsu, wapsit. 
 
 Nanticoke, wauppauyu. 
 
 Miami, wapeTcinggek. 
 
 Shawnoe, opee. 
 
 Sack & Fox, wapesJcayah. 
 
 Menomeni, zvaitbish Tceewah. 
 
 English, black. 
 Bethuck, mandzey. 
 Ojibbeway, mukhudaiwa. 
 Ottawa, macJcateh. 
 Narragansetts, mowesu. 
 Massachusetts, mooi. 
 
 English, house. 
 Bethuck, meeooticJc. 
 Narragansetts, 
 
 English, shoe. 
 Bethuck, mosen. 
 Abenaki, mkessen. 
 
 English, snow. 
 Bethuck, TcaasussabooTc. 
 Cree, sasagun=lasJi\.. 
 Ojibbeway, saisaigan. 
 Sheshatapoosh, shashaygan. 
 
 English, speak. 
 Bethuck, ieroothacTc. 
 Taculli, yaltudk. 
 Cree, athemetakcouse. 
 Wyandot, atal-ea. 
 
 English, yes. 
 Bethuck, 
 Cree, ahhah. 
 Passamaquoddy, netek. 
 
 English, no. 
 Bethuck, newin. 
 Cree, namaw. 
 Ojibbeway, kawine. 
 Ottawa, Tcauween 
 
 English, hatchet. 
 Bethuck, dthoonanyen. 
 Taculli, thynle. 
 
 English, knife. 
 Bethuck, eewaeen. 
 Micmac, uagan. 
 
 English, bad, 
 Bethuck, muddy. 
 Cree, myaton. 
 Ojibbeway, monadud. 
 
 mudji. 
 
 Ottawa, matche. 
 Micmac, matoualkr. 
 Massachusetts, matche. 
 NaiTagansetts, matchit. 
 Mohican, matchit. 
 Montaug, mattateayah. 
 Montaug, muttadeeaco. 
 Dela,ware, mahhtitsu. 
 Nanticoke, mattih. 
 Sack & Fox, moichie. 
 matchathie. 
 
 The Shyenne language was suspected to be Algonkin 
 at the publication of the A ixhceologia Americana. In a 
 treaty made between the United States and the Shyenne 
 Indians in 1825, the names of the chiefs who signed 
 were either Sioux, or significant in the Sioux language. 
 It was not unreasonable to consider this as primd-facie 
 evidence of the Shyenne tongue itself being Sioux. 
 Nevertheless, there were some decided statements in the 
 way of external evidence in another direction. There 
 was the special evidence of a gentleman well-acquainted 
 
456 
 
 THE SHYENNE 
 
 with the fact that the names of the treaty, so significant 
 in the Sioux language, were only translations from the 
 proper Shyenne, there having been no Shyenne inter- 
 preter at the drawing-up of the document. What then 
 was the true Shyenne ? A vocabulary of Lieut. Abert^'s 
 settled this as far as the numerals went. Afterwards a 
 full vocabulary, collated by Gallatin, gave the contem- 
 plated result : — '' Out of forty-seven Shyenne words for 
 which we have equivalents in other languages, there are 
 thirteen which are indubitably Algonkin, and twenty- 
 five which have afiinities more or less remote with some 
 of the languages of that family."* 
 
 English. 
 
 Arapaho. 
 
 other Algonkin Languages. 
 
 Man 
 
 enanetah 
 
 enainneew, Menomeni. 
 
 Father, my 
 
 nasonnah 
 
 nosaw, Miami. 
 
 Mother, my 
 
 nanah. 
 
 nekeah, Menomeni. 
 
 Husband, my 
 
 nash 
 
 nah, Shyenne. 
 
 Son, my 
 
 naah 
 
 nah, Shyenne. 
 
 
 
 nikyfithah, Shawnee. 
 
 Daughter, my 
 
 nahtahnah 
 
 netawnab, Miami. 
 
 Brother, my 
 
 nasisthsah 
 
 nesawsah, Miami. 
 
 Sister, my 
 
 naecahtaiah 
 
 nekoshaymank, Menomeni. 
 
 Indian 
 
 enenitah 
 
 ab wainbukai, Delaware. 
 
 Eye 
 
 mishislii 
 
 maisbkaysbaik, Menomeni. 
 
 Mouth 
 
 netti 
 
 may tone, Menomeni. 
 
 Tongue 
 
 nathun 
 
 wilano, Delaware. 
 
 Tooth 
 
 veathtah 
 
 wi pit, Delaware. 
 
 Beard 
 
 vasesanon 
 
 witonabi, Delaware. 
 
 Back 
 
 nerkorbah 
 
 pawkawniema, Miami. 
 
 Hand 
 
 machetun 
 
 olatsbi, Shawnee. 
 
 Foot 
 
 nauthauitali 
 
 ozit, Delaware. 
 
 Bone 
 
 hahunnah 
 
 obkonne, Menomeni. 
 
 Heart 
 
 battah 
 
 maytab, Menomeni. 
 
 Blood 
 
 bahe 
 
 mainbki, Menomeni. 
 
 Sinew 
 
 anita 
 
 obtab, Menomeni. 
 
 Flesh 
 
 wonnunyah 
 
 weensama, Miami. 
 
 Shin 
 
 tahyatch 
 
 xais, Delaware. 
 
 Town 
 
 haitan 
 
 otainabe, Delaware. 
 
 Door 
 
 tichunwa 
 
 kwawntame, Miami. 
 
 Sun 
 
 nishi-ish 
 
 kaysbob, Menomeni. 
 
 Star 
 
 ahthah 
 
 allangwb, Delaware. 
 
 Transactions of tbe American Etbnological Society, vol. ii. jx cxi. 1848. 
 

 AND . 
 
 ARAPAHO. 4 
 
 English. 
 
 Arapalio. 
 
 Otiier AJgonkin Languages. 
 
 Day 
 
 ishi 
 
 kishko, Delaware. 
 
 Autumn 
 
 tahuni 
 
 tahkoxko, Delaware. 
 
 Wind 
 
 assissi 
 
 kaishxing, Delaware. 
 
 Fire 
 
 ishshitta 
 
 ishkotawi, Menomeni. 
 
 Water 
 
 nutch 
 
 nape, Miami. 
 
 Ice 
 
 wahhu 
 
 mainquom, Menomeni. 
 
 Mountain 
 
 ahhi 
 
 wahcMwi, Shawnee. 
 
 Hot 
 
 hastah 
 
 ksita, Shawnee. 
 
 He 
 
 enun 
 
 enaw, Miami. 
 
 
 
 waynanh, Menomeni. 
 
 That {in) 
 
 hinnah 
 
 aynaih, Menomeni. 
 
 Who 
 
 unnahah 
 
 ahwalinay, Menomeni. 
 
 No 
 
 chinnani 
 
 kawn, Menomeni. 
 
 Eat 
 
 mennisi 
 
 mitishin, Menomeni. 
 
 DHnJc 
 
 bannah 
 
 maynaan, Menomeni. 
 
 Kill 
 
 nauaiut 
 
 osA-nainhaiay, Menomeni. 
 
 457 
 
 Arapaho is the name of a tribe in Kansas ; occu- 
 pant of a district in immediate contact with the Shyenne 
 country. 
 
 But the Shyennes are no indigence to Kansas. Nei- 
 ther are the Arapahos. The so-called Fall Indians, of 
 whose language we have long had a very short trader's 
 vocabulary in Umfreville, are named from their occu- 
 pancy, which is on the Falls of the Saskatshewan. The 
 Nehethewa, or Crees, of their neighbourhood call them 
 so. Another name is Big-helly, in French Gros ventre. 
 This has given rise to some confusion ; Gros-venire being 
 a name given to the Minetari of the Yellow-stone River, 
 who belong to the Sioux family. Not so the Gros- 
 ventres of the Falls. Adelung remarked that some of 
 their words had an affinity with the Algonkin. Um- 
 freville's vocabulary was too short for anything but the 
 most general purposes and the most cautious of sugges- 
 tions. It was, however, for a long time the only one 
 known. The next to it, in the order of time, was one 
 in MS., belonging to Gallatin, but which was seen by Dr. 
 Pri chard and collated by the present writer. His en- 
 quiries were simply to the effect that the language had cer- 
 tain miscellaneous affinities. A vocabulary in Schoolcraft 
 
458 
 
 THE SIOUX LANGUAGES. 
 
 tells us more ; viz. not only that the Arapaho language 
 is the same as the Fall Indian of Umfreville, but that it 
 has definite and preponderating affinities with the Shy- 
 enne, and, through it, with the Algonkin class in gene- 
 ral, especially wibh the Menomeni. 
 
 English. 
 
 Arapaho. 
 
 Shyenne. 
 
 Scalp 
 
 mitliasli 
 
 metake 
 
 Tongue 
 
 nathun 
 
 vetunno 
 
 Tooth 
 
 veathtah 
 
 veisike 
 
 Beard 
 
 vasesanon 
 
 meatsa 
 
 Hand 
 
 mahchetun 
 
 maharts 
 
 Blood 
 
 bahe 
 
 mahe 
 
 Sinew 
 
 anita 
 
 antikah 
 
 Heart 
 
 battah 
 
 estah 
 
 Mouth 
 
 nettee 
 
 marthe 
 
 Qirl 
 
 issaha 
 
 xsa 
 
 Husband 
 
 nash 
 
 Tiah 
 
 Son 
 
 naah 
 
 nah 
 
 Daughter 
 
 nahtahnah 
 
 nahitch 
 
 One 
 
 chassah. 
 
 nuke 
 
 Two 
 
 neis 
 
 neguth 
 
 Three 
 
 nas 
 
 nahe 
 
 Four 
 
 yeane 
 
 nave 
 
 Five 
 
 yortlnin 
 
 noane 
 
 Six 
 
 nitahter 
 
 nahsato 
 
 Seven 
 
 nisorter 
 
 nisoto 
 
 Eight 
 
 nahsorter 
 
 nahnoto 
 
 Nine 
 
 siautah 
 
 soto 
 
 Ten 
 
 malitalitah 
 
 mahtoto. 
 
 The Sioux, second in respect to the magnitude of its 
 area to the Algonkin only, lies west and south, rather 
 than east or north, and belongs to the prairie States, 
 rather than to those of the sea-board. 
 
 
 Sioux vocabularies. 
 
 
 
 ('•) 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Mandan. 
 
 Crow, 
 
 God 
 
 mahhopeneta 
 
 sakahbooatta 
 
 Swn 
 
 menakha 
 
 a'hhhiza 
 
 Moon 
 
 esto menakha 
 
 minnatatche 
 
 Stars 
 
 h'kaka 
 
 ekieu 
 
 Rain 
 
 h'kahoost 
 
 hannah 
 
THE SIOUX LANGUAGES. 
 
 459 
 
 English. 
 
 Mandan. 
 
 Crow. 
 
 Snow 
 
 copcaze 
 
 makkoupah {hail) 
 
 River 
 
 passahah 
 
 ahesu 
 
 Day 
 
 hampah 
 
 maupah 
 
 Night 
 
 estogr 
 
 oche 
 
 Dark 
 
 hampaheriskah 
 
 cMppusheka 
 
 Light 
 
 edayhush 
 
 thieshe 
 
 Woman 
 
 meha 
 
 meyakatte 
 
 Wife 
 
 moorse 
 
 moali 
 
 Child 
 
 sookhomaha 
 
 bakkatte 
 
 Girl 
 
 sookmelia 
 
 meyakatte 
 
 Boy 
 
 sooknumohk 
 
 shakkatte 
 
 Head 
 
 pan 
 
 marshaa 
 
 Legs 
 
 doka 
 
 buchoope 
 
 Eyes 
 
 estume 
 
 meisbta 
 
 Mouth 
 
 ea 
 
 ea 
 
 Nose 
 
 pahoo 
 
 buppa 
 
 Face 
 
 estah 
 
 esa 
 
 Ears 
 
 nakoha 
 
 uppa 
 
 Hand 
 
 onka 
 
 buschie 
 
 Fingers 
 
 onkaha 
 
 buschie 
 
 Foot 
 
 shee 
 
 busche 
 
 Hair 
 
 hahhee 
 
 masheab 
 
 Canoe 
 
 menanko 
 
 mahesbe 
 
 Fish 
 
 poh 
 
 booah 
 
 Bear 
 
 malito 
 
 duhpitsa 
 
 Wolf 
 
 haratta 
 
 chata 
 
 Dog 
 
 mones waroota 
 
 biska 
 
 Buffalo 
 
 ptemday 
 
 bisba 
 
 Elk 
 
 omepah 
 
 eitcbericazzse 
 
 Deer 
 
 mahmanacoo 
 
 ohha 
 
 Beaver 
 
 warrappa 
 
 biruppe 
 
 Shoe 
 
 hoompah 
 
 hoompe 
 
 B&w 
 
 warraenoopah 
 
 bistuheeah 
 
 Arr<yw 
 
 mahha 
 
 ahnailz 
 
 Pipe 
 
 ehudka 
 
 ompsa 
 
 Tobacco 
 
 . mannasha 
 
 hopa 
 
 Good 
 
 shushu 
 
 itsicka 
 
 Bad 
 
 k'hecusli 
 
 kubbeek 
 
 Hot 
 
 dsasosh 
 
 ahre 
 
 Cold 
 
 shineehush 
 
 hootshere 
 
 I 
 
 me 
 
 be 
 
 Thm 
 
 ne 
 
 de 
 
 He 
 
 e 
 
 na 
 
 We 
 
 noo 
 
 bero 
 
 They 
 
 eonah 
 
 mihah 
 
 One 
 
 mahhannah 
 
 amutcat 
 
 Two 
 
 nompah 
 
 noomcat 
 
460 
 
 THE SIOUX LANGUAGES. 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Mandan. 
 
 
 Crow. 
 
 
 Three 
 
 namary 
 
 
 namenacat 
 
 
 Four 
 
 tohha 
 
 
 shopecat 
 
 
 Five 
 
 kakhoo 
 
 
 chihhocat 
 
 
 Six 
 
 kemah 
 
 
 ahcamacat 
 
 
 Seven 
 
 koopah 
 
 
 sappoah 
 
 
 Eight 
 
 tatucka 
 
 
 noompape 
 
 
 Nine 
 
 mahpa 
 
 
 ahmuttappe 
 
 
 Ten 
 
 pei-ug 
 
 
 perakuk. 
 
 
 
 (2.) 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Yankton. 
 
 Winebago. 
 
 Dahcota. 
 
 Osage, 
 
 Man 
 
 weechasha 
 
 wongahah 
 
 weetshahsktah 
 
 L neka 
 
 Woman 
 
 weeah 
 
 nogahah 
 
 weenowkhindgah wako 
 
 Father 
 
 atcucu 
 
 chahchikal 
 
 atag 
 
 indajah 
 
 Mother 
 
 hucoo 
 
 chahcheekah 
 
 eenah 
 
 enauah 
 
 Son 
 
 cheecheeteoo 
 
 eeneek 
 
 r^;i;f**^M-''^"««<»^> 
 
 Daughter weetachnong 
 
 heenuhk'hahhah 
 
 meetshoongkshee 
 
 Head 
 
 pah 
 
 uahsuhhah 
 
 pah 
 
 watatereh 
 
 Hair 
 
 paha 
 
 
 pahkee 
 
 pauha 
 
 Ear 
 
 nougkopa 
 
 nahchahwahhah 
 
 pohe 
 
 naughta 
 
 Eye 
 
 ishtah 
 
 ischuhsuhhah 
 
 ishta 
 
 eghtaugh 
 
 Nose 
 
 pasoo 
 
 pahhah 
 
 poaghay 
 
 pau 
 
 Mouth 
 
 e-e-e 
 
 eehah 
 
 ea 
 
 ehaugh 
 
 Tongue 
 
 chaidzhee 
 
 dehzeehah 
 
 tshayzhee 
 
 
 
 Teeth 
 
 hee 
 
 
 
 
 Hand 
 
 napai 
 
 nahbeehah 
 
 nahmpay 
 
 numba 
 
 Fingers 
 
 napchoopai 
 
 naap 
 
 shake 
 
 shagah 
 
 Feet 
 
 ceeha 
 
 seehah 
 
 seehah 
 
 see {sing.) 
 
 Blood 
 
 uoai 
 
 waheehah 
 
 wey 
 
 
 House 
 
 teepee 
 
 cheehah 
 
 tea 
 
 tiah 
 
 Axe 
 
 
 mahs 
 
 onspa {axe) 
 
 
 
 Knife 
 
 meena 
 
 mahhee 
 
 eesahng 
 
 mauah 
 
 Shoes 
 
 
 waukootshey {sing.) hanipa {sing.) 
 
 analahah 
 
 Shy 
 
 
 mahkheehah 
 
 mahkpeea 
 
 mahagh 
 
 Sun 
 
 oouee 
 
 |haunip {day), 
 \ weeah {sun) 
 
 • weeahnipayatoc 
 
 ^ S haunip {day), weerah 
 ( meah {sun) 
 
 Moon 
 
 hayaitoowee 
 
 ( hahnip {night), 
 \ weehah {sun) . 
 i weehah {sun) ] 
 
 weehyayahatoo 
 
 1 
 
 ( hanip {night), weerah- 
 
 i meumboh {sun) 
 
 ( 
 
 Star 
 
 weehchahpee 
 
 ■ kohshkeh(ms- 
 pended) ] 
 
 1 
 
 ' weeweetheestin 
 
 1 
 
 \ weerah {sun), kohshkeh 
 ) {suspended) 
 
 Day 
 
 aungpa 
 
 haumpeehah 
 
 anipa 
 
 hompahe 
 
 Night 
 
 hahaipee 
 
 
 hiyetoo 
 
 hene 
 
 Fire 
 
 paita 
 
 pegdhah 
 
 paytah 
 
 pajah 
 
 Water 
 
 meenee 
 
 nihah 
 
 mi nee 
 
 neah 
 
THE SIOUX LANGUAGES 
 
 461 
 
 English. Yankton. 
 
 Winebago. 
 
 Dahcota. 
 
 Osage. 
 
 Rain 
 
 mahajou 
 
 neezhuh 
 
 magazhoo 
 
 neighshee 
 
 Snow 
 
 wah 
 
 wuhhah 
 
 tahtey 
 
 pau 
 
 Earth 
 
 mongca 
 
 inah.'nan 
 
 mahkah 
 
 monekah 
 
 River 
 
 wacopa 
 
 olisunwah 
 
 watapafl 
 
 waucbiscab 
 
 Stone 
 
 eeyong 
 
 eenee 
 
 ceang 
 
 
 Tree 
 
 chaongeena 
 
 nahnan 
 
 tschang 
 
 
 Meat 
 
 tado 
 
 chahhah 
 
 tando 
 
 taudocab 
 
 Dog 
 
 saonka 
 
 chohnkeehah 
 
 shoomendokah 
 
 sbongab 
 
 Beaver chapa 
 
 nahapah 
 
 tschawpah 
 
 sbabab 
 
 Bear 
 
 •wahunkcaiceecha 
 
 wauhungkseetshah wasauba 
 
 Bird 
 
 zeecanoo 
 
 "wah.nigohha.h 
 
 zitka 
 
 
 Fish 
 
 hohung 
 
 hohhah 
 
 boa-abug 
 
 bongb 
 
 Great 
 
 
 
 tungkab 
 
 grondab 
 
 Cold 
 
 snee 
 
 seeneehee 
 
 snee 
 
 nubatcha 
 
 Whdte 
 
 scab 
 
 skah 
 
 skah 
 
 skab 
 
 BlacTc 
 
 sapah 
 
 sebhah 
 
 sabpab 
 
 saubab 
 
 Red 
 
 shah 
 
 shoosh 
 
 sbab 
 
 sbugab 
 
 I 
 
 
 neeah 
 
 meeab 
 
 veca 
 
 Thou 
 
 
 ney 
 
 neeab 
 
 deea 
 
 He 
 
 
 neeah 
 
 eeah 
 
 aar 
 
 One 
 
 wanche 
 
 jungklhkh 
 
 wajitab 
 
 minche 
 
 Two 
 
 nopa 
 
 nompiwi 
 
 nompah 
 
 nombaugh 
 
 Three 
 
 yameenee 
 
 tanniwi 
 
 yabmani 
 
 laubenab 
 
 Four 
 
 topah 
 
 tshoplwi 
 
 topab 
 
 tobab 
 
 Five 
 
 zapta 
 
 sahtshkh 
 
 zabpate 
 
 sattab 
 
 Six 
 
 shakpai 
 
 ahkewe 
 
 sbakkopi 
 
 sbapab 
 
 Seven 
 
 shakoee 
 
 shahko 
 
 sbabkopi 
 
 panompab 
 
 Mght 
 
 shakundoliuli 
 
 a-oo-ongk 
 
 sbabundobab 
 
 kelatobaugb 
 
 Nine 
 
 nuhpeet chee- 
 wungkuh 
 
 ■ jungkitshooshkooni noptshi wongbah 
 
 sbankab 
 
 Ten 
 
 weekcheeniiTiuh 
 
 kahapahni 
 
 (3.) 
 
 wiketsbimani 
 
 krabra. 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Omaha. 
 
 Minetari. 
 
 
 
 Man 
 
 noo 
 
 mattra 
 
 
 
 Woman 
 
 waoo 
 
 meeyai 
 
 
 
 Father 
 
 dadai 
 
 tantai 
 
 
 
 Mother 
 
 eehong 
 
 eeka 
 
 
 
 Son 
 
 ee jinggai 
 
 moourisbai 
 
 
 Daughter 
 
 ee jonggai 
 
 macatb 
 
 
 
 Head 
 
 pah 
 
 antoo 
 
 
 
 Hair 
 
 pahee 
 
 arra 
 
 
 
 Ear 
 
 neetah 
 
 labockee 
 
 
 
 Eye 
 
 ishtah 
 
 ishtah 
 
 
 
 Nose 
 
 pah 
 
 apah 
 
 
 
 Mouth 
 
 cehah 
 
 ee-ee-eepchappab 
 
46: 
 
 THE SIOUX LANGUAGES. 
 
 English. 
 
 Omaha. 
 
 Mitietari. 
 
 Tongue 
 
 theysee 
 
 neigh jee 
 
 Teeth 
 
 e-e-e- (sing.) 
 
 ee-ee 
 
 Hand 
 
 nomba 
 
 sbantee 
 
 Fingers 
 
 shagai 
 
 shanteeichpoo 
 
 Feet 
 
 see (sing.) 
 
 itsee 
 
 Blood 
 
 wamee 
 
 eebree 
 
 House 
 
 tee 
 
 atee 
 
 Axe 
 
 mazzapai 
 
 wee-eepsailan^ 
 
 Knife 
 
 mahee 
 
 matzee 
 
 Shoes 
 
 
 opab 
 
 Sun 
 
 meenacajai 
 
 mahpemeenee 
 
 Moon 
 
 meeombah 
 
 obseamene 
 
 Star 
 
 meecaai 
 
 eekab 
 
 Day 
 
 ombah 
 
 mabpaih 
 
 Night 
 
 hondai 
 
 ohseeus 
 
 Fire 
 
 paidai 
 
 beerais 
 
 Water 
 
 nee 
 
 meenee 
 
 Main 
 
 naunshee 
 
 harai . 
 
 Snow 
 
 mah 
 
 mabpai 
 
 Earth 
 
 moneeka 
 
 amab 
 
 River 
 
 watishka 
 
 angee 
 
 Stone 
 
 ee-eeh 
 
 mee-ee 
 
 Tree 
 
 herabaimee 
 
 beeraiechtoet 
 
 Meat 
 
 tanoka 
 
 cuructscbittee 
 
 Bog 
 
 sheenoota 
 
 matsbuga 
 
 Bear 
 
 jabai 
 
 meerapa 
 
 Beaver 
 
 wassabai 
 
 labpeetzee 
 
 Bird 
 
 washingguh 
 
 sacanga 
 
 Fish 
 
 hoboo 
 
 boa 
 
 Cold 
 
 snee 
 
 ceereeai 
 
 White 
 
 ska 
 
 hoteecbkee 
 
 BlacJc 
 
 sabbai 
 
 sbupeesha 
 
 Bed 
 
 jeedai 
 
 isbshee 
 
 I 
 
 
 mee-ee 
 
 He 
 
 
 nee 
 
 One 
 
 meeacbchee 
 
 lemoisso 
 
 Two 
 
 nomba 
 
 noopah 
 
 Three 
 
 rabeenee 
 
 namee 
 
 Fov/r 
 
 tooba 
 
 topah 
 
 Five 
 
 satta 
 
 cbeehoh 
 
 Six 
 
 sbappai 
 
 acamai 
 
 Seven 
 
 painumba 
 
 cbappo 
 
 Eight 
 
 hrairabainai 
 
 nopuppee 
 
 Nine 
 
 shonka 
 
 nowassappai 
 
 Ten 
 
 kraibaira 
 
 peeragas. 
 
THE IROQUOIS LANGUAaES. 
 
 463 
 
 The Iroquois falls into a northern and a southern 
 division, separated from one another by a mass of appa- 
 rently intrusive Algonkin. 
 
 (!•) 
 
 English. 
 
 Mohawk. 
 
 Cayuga. 
 
 Tuscarora. 
 
 Nottoway. 
 
 Man 
 
 oonquich 
 
 najina 
 
 aineehau 
 
 enika 
 
 Woman 
 
 ooonliechlien 
 
 konheghtie 
 
 aitsrauychkaneaweah ekening 
 
 Head 
 
 anoonjee 
 
 onowaa 
 
 oktahreh 
 
 setarake 
 
 Hair 
 
 oonooquiss 
 
 ononkia 
 
 oowaara 
 
 howerac 
 
 Ear 
 
 wahunclita 
 
 honta 
 
 ohhulmeh. 
 
 suntunke {pi-) 
 
 Eye 
 
 ookoria 
 
 okagKha 
 
 ookawreh 
 
 unkoharac {jpl.) 
 
 Nose 
 
 geneuchsa 
 
 onyohsia 
 
 ohtchyuhsay 
 
 oteusag 
 
 Mouth 
 
 "wachsacarlunt sishakaent 
 
 oskawrukweigh 
 
 eskakarant 
 
 Tongue 
 
 oonachsa 
 
 aweanaghsa 
 
 auwuntawsay 
 
 darsunke 
 
 Tooth 
 
 cuhnoojah 
 
 onojia 
 
 otoatseh 
 
 olosag {jpl.) 
 
 Hand 
 
 oochsooclita 
 
 eshoghtage 
 
 okehneh 
 
 nunke 
 
 Foot 
 
 oochsheeta 
 
 oshita {sing.) 
 
 uhsek {sin^.) 
 
 saseeke 
 
 Sun 
 
 kelanquaw 
 
 kaaghkwa 
 
 heetay 
 
 aheeta 
 
 Moon 
 
 kilanquaw 
 
 soheghkakaaghkwa heetay 
 
 tethrake 
 
 Star 
 
 cajestuck 
 
 ojishonda 
 
 otcheesnoohquay 
 
 deeshu 
 
 Day 
 
 wawde 
 
 onisrate 
 
 auwehneh 
 
 antyeke {time) 
 
 Night 
 
 aghsoiithea 
 
 asoke 
 
 oosottoo 
 
 asunta {time) 
 
 Fire 
 
 ocheerle 
 
 ojista 
 
 stire 
 
 auteur 
 
 Water 
 
 oochnecanos 
 
 onikanos 
 
 auwuh 
 
 awwa 
 
 Stone 
 
 oonoyah 
 
 kaskwa 
 
 owrumiay 
 
 okhoutakh 
 
 Tree 
 
 kerlitte 
 
 krael 
 
 oughrukeh 
 
 geree 
 
 Fish 
 
 keiyunk 
 
 otsionda 
 
 kuhtchyuli 
 
 kaiuntu 
 
 I 
 
 ni 
 
 I 
 
 ie 
 
 ee 
 
 Thou 
 
 esse 
 
 ise 
 
 tsthauwuh 
 
 
 He 
 
 longwha 
 
 aoha 
 
 hearooh 
 
 
 One 
 
 oohskot 
 
 skat 
 
 eukche (R.) 
 
 unte 
 
 Two 
 
 tekkinih 
 
 tekni 
 
 nakte (R.) 
 
 dekanee 
 
 Three 
 
 ohson 
 
 segh 
 
 aksunk (R.) 
 
 arsa 
 
 Fwi/r 
 
 kupyayrelih 
 
 kei 
 
 kuntok (R.) 
 
 hentag 
 
 Five 
 
 wissk 
 
 wis 
 
 weesk (R.) 
 
 wkisk 
 
 Six 
 
 yahyook 
 
 yei 
 
 oohyok (R.) 
 
 oyag 
 
 Seven 
 
 chahtakh 
 
 jatak 
 
 ckeoknoh (R.) 
 
 ohatag 
 
 Eight 
 
 soytayhhko 
 
 tekro 
 
 nakreuh (R.) 
 
 dekra 
 
 Nine 
 
 tihooton 
 
 tyohto 
 
 nereuh (R.) 
 
 deheerunk 
 
 Ten 
 
 weeayhrleh 
 
 waghsea 
 
 wakth'siiTik (R.) 
 
 washa. 
 
464 
 
 THE IROQUOIS LANGUAGES. 
 
 (2.) 
 
 English. 
 
 Wyandot. 
 
 English, 
 
 Wyandot. 
 
 Qod 
 
 tamaindezue 
 
 Fingers 
 
 eyingia 
 
 Wicked SpiHt 
 
 deghshurenoh 
 
 Nails 
 
 ohetta 
 
 Man 
 
 aingalion 
 
 Body 
 
 
 Woman 
 
 utehkeh 
 
 BeUy 
 
 undeerentoh 
 
 Boy 
 
 omaintsentehah 
 
 Feet 
 
 ochsheetau 
 
 Girl 
 
 yaweetseutho 
 
 Bone 
 
 onna 
 
 Infant, child 
 
 cheahhah 
 
 Heart 
 
 yootooshaw 
 
 Father 
 
 hayesta 
 
 Blood 
 
 ingoh 
 
 Mother 
 
 aneheh 
 
 Town, village 
 
 onhaiy 
 
 Wife 
 
 azuttunohoh 
 
 Warrior 
 
 trezue (war) 
 
 Son 
 
 hoomekauk (his) 
 
 Friend 
 
 nidanbe {brother) 
 
 Daughter 
 
 ondequieu 
 
 House, hut 
 
 neraatzezue 
 
 Brother 
 
 haenyeha (my) 
 
 Kettle 
 
 yayanetch 
 
 Sister 
 
 aenyaha 
 
 Axe, hatchet 
 
 ottoyaye (axe) 
 
 An Indian 
 
 iomwhen (pi.) 
 
 Knife 
 
 weneashra 
 
 Head 
 
 skotau 
 
 Canoe, boat 
 
 gya 
 
 Hair 
 
 arochia 
 
 Indian shoes 
 
 araghshu 
 
 Face 
 
 aonchia 
 
 Bread 
 
 datarah 
 
 Forehead 
 
 ayeutsa 
 
 Shy, heaven 
 
 caghroniate 
 
 Ear 
 
 hoontauh 
 
 Sun 
 
 yaandeshra 
 
 Eye 
 
 yocliquiendoch 
 
 Moon 
 
 waughsuntayande 
 
 Nose 
 
 yaungah 
 
 Star 
 
 teghshu (pi.) 
 
 Mouth 
 
 esskauliereeli 
 
 Day 
 
 ourheuha 
 
 Tongue 
 
 undauchslieeau 
 
 NigU 
 
 asontey 
 
 Tooth 
 
 uskoonslieeau (jal 
 
 Morning 
 
 asonravoy 
 
 Beard 
 
 ochquieroot 
 
 Evening 
 
 teteinret 
 
 NecJc 
 
 ohoura 
 
 Spring 
 
 honeraquey. 
 
 Hand 
 
 yorreessaw 
 
 
 
 (3.) 
 
 English. 
 
 Onondago. 
 
 Seneca. 
 
 Oneida. 
 
 Man 
 
 etshinak 
 
 unguoh 
 
 loonkquee 
 
 Woman 
 
 echro 
 
 yehong 
 
 acunhaiti 
 
 Head 
 
 anuwara 
 
 oonooen 
 
 onoonjee 
 
 Hair 
 
 onuchquire 
 
 onunkaah 
 
 onanquis 
 
 Ear 
 
 ohucta 
 
 waunchta (pi.) 
 
 ohuntah 
 
 Eye 
 
 ogachra 
 
 kaka 
 
 oliknTilau 
 
 onoo-oolisahonoo-ooh 
 \ sah 
 
 Nose 
 
 oniochsa 
 
 cagonda 
 
 Mouth 
 
 ixhagachrahuta 
 
 wachsagaint 
 
 yesaook 
 
 Tongue 
 
 enachse 
 
 wanuchsha 
 
 owinaughsoo 
 
 Tooth 
 
 onotschia 
 
 kaimujow 
 
 onouweelah 
 
 Hand 
 
 luiages 
 
 liashrookta 
 
 snusagli 
 
 Feet 
 
 ochsita 
 
 oochsheeta (sing.) 
 
 
 Sky 
 
 tioarate 
 
 kiunyage 
 
 ochsheecht 
 
THE IROQUOIS LANGUAGES. 
 
 465 
 
 English. 
 
 Onondago. 
 
 Seneca. 
 
 
 Oneida. 
 
 Sun 
 
 gaxachqua 
 
 kachqua 
 
 
 escalter 
 
 Moon 
 
 garachqua 
 
 kachgua 
 
 
 konwausontegeak Q) 
 
 Star 
 
 otschischtenocqua 
 
 cajeshanda 
 
 yoojistoqua 
 
 Day 
 
 wochuta 
 
 unde 
 
 
 weeneeslaat 
 
 Night 
 
 achsonta 
 
 nehsoha 
 
 
 kawwossonneak 
 
 Fire 
 
 otschischta 
 
 ojishta 
 
 
 ojisthteh 
 
 Water 
 
 ochnecanos 
 
 onekandus 
 
 oghnacauno 
 
 Stone 
 
 onaja 
 
 cosgua 
 
 
 
 Tree 
 
 garonta 
 
 kaeet 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 ee 
 
 
 
 Thwi 
 
 his 
 
 ees 
 
 
 
 He 
 
 rauh 
 
 ahwha 
 
 
 
 One 
 
 skata 
 
 skaut 
 
 
 kuskat 
 
 Two 
 
 tekinu 
 
 ticknee 
 
 
 teghia 
 
 Three 
 
 achso 
 
 shegh 
 
 
 hasin 
 
 Four 
 
 gajeri 
 
 kaee 
 
 
 cayeli 
 
 Five 
 
 wisk 
 
 wish 
 
 
 huisse 
 
 Six 
 
 achiak 
 
 yaee 
 
 
 yahiac 
 
 Seven 
 
 tsoatak 
 
 jawdock 
 
 
 tziadac 
 
 Eifjkt 
 
 tekiro 
 
 tikkeugh 
 
 
 tagheto 
 
 Nine 
 
 watiro 
 
 teutough 
 
 
 wadehlo 
 
 Ten 
 
 wasshe 
 
 wushagh 
 
 
 woyehli. 
 
 The Woccon and Catawba < 
 
 ire two languages of the 
 
 same group, spoken in 
 
 North 
 
 Carolina ; and they are 
 
 the only two languages 
 
 of that State, 
 
 for which we have 
 
 specimens 
 
 — both short. 
 
 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Catawba* 
 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Catawba. 
 
 Man 
 
 yalDrecha 
 
 
 
 Feet 
 
 hepapeeah 
 
 Woman 
 
 eeyauh 
 
 
 
 Blood 
 
 eeh 
 
 Father 
 
 yahmosa 
 
 
 
 House 
 
 sook 
 
 Mother 
 
 yascu 
 
 
 
 Axe 
 
 pot-tateerawah 
 
 Son 
 
 koorewa 
 
 
 
 Knife 
 
 seepah 
 
 Daughter enewah 
 
 
 
 Shoe 
 
 weedah 
 
 Head 
 
 iska 
 
 
 
 Sky 
 
 wahpeeh 
 
 Hair 
 
 gitlung 
 
 
 
 Sun 
 
 nooteeh 
 
 Eye 
 
 doxu 
 
 
 
 Moon 
 
 weechawanooteeh 
 
 Ear 
 
 peetooh 
 
 
 
 Star 
 
 wahpeeknee 
 
 Nose 
 
 eepeesooh 
 
 
 
 Day 
 
 yahbra 
 
 Mouth 
 
 esomo 
 
 
 
 Night 
 
 weechawa 
 
 Tongue 
 
 peesoomoseh 
 
 
 
 Fire 
 
 epee 
 
 Tooth 
 
 heeaup 
 
 
 
 Water 
 
 eyau 
 
 Hand 
 
 ecksapeeah 
 
 
 
 Rain 
 
 cooksoreh 
 
 Finger 
 
 eekseeah 
 
 
 
 Snow 
 
 wauh 
 
 * Slightly more akin to the Cherokee, and the Uchee, on the one side, and 
 the Sioux dialects on the other, than aught else. 
 
 H H 
 
466 
 
 6 
 
 THE Ci 
 
 TAWBA. 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Catawba. 
 
 English. 
 
 Catawba. 
 
 Earth 
 
 munn 
 
 / 
 
 derah 
 
 River 
 
 esauli 
 
 Thou 
 
 yayah 
 
 Stone 
 
 eedee 
 
 He 
 
 oiiwah 
 
 Tree 
 
 yup 
 
 One 
 
 dupunna 
 
 Meal 
 
 weedeeyoyundee 
 
 Two 
 
 naperra 
 
 Dog 
 
 tauntsee 
 
 Three 
 
 namunda 
 
 Beaver 
 
 chaupee 
 
 Four 
 
 purrepurra 
 
 Bear 
 
 nomeh 
 
 Five 
 
 puhte-arra 
 
 Bird 
 
 koching 
 
 Six 
 
 dip-karra 
 
 Fish 
 
 yee 
 
 Seven 
 
 wassinen 
 
 Great 
 
 paukteherd 
 
 Fight 
 
 tubbosa 
 
 Cold 
 
 ckeliulichard 
 
 Nine 
 
 wuncbali 
 
 White 
 Black 
 
 saukchuh 
 haukchuh 
 
 Ten 
 
 pechana. 
 
 The old languages of the CaroliDas, Georgia, and 
 Florida were — 
 
 1. The Wataree.* 
 
 2. The Eeno — Compare this name with the 
 Texian Ini ; 
 
 3. The Chowah, or Chowan ; 
 
 4. The Conpjaree ; * 
 
 5. The Nachee — Compare with Natchez ; word 
 for word ; 
 
 6. The Yamassee ; 
 
 7. The Coosah — Compare (word for word) with 
 Coosada, and Coshatta. 
 
 In the south lay the Timuacana — of which a few 
 words beyond the numerals are known. 
 
 In West Florida and Alabama, the evidence (I still 
 follow the Mithridates) of Du Pratz scarcely coincides 
 with that of the account of Nunez de Vaca. This 
 runs thus. 
 
 In the island of Malhado were spoken languages of 
 
 1 . The Caoques ; 
 
 2. The Han. 
 
 On the coast — 
 
 3. The Choruico — Cherokee? 
 
 The name Riccar(?e, probably, belongs to these parts. 
 
THE CHEROKEE. 4G7 
 
 4. Tlie Doguenes. 
 
 5. The Mendica. 
 
 6. The Quevenes. 
 
 7. The Mariames. 
 
 8. The Gualciones. 
 
 9. The Yguaces. 
 
 1 0. The Atayos — Adahi ? This seems to have been 
 a native name — "die sich Atayos nennen." 
 
 1 1 . The Acubadaos. 
 
 12. The Quitoles. 
 
 13. The Avavares — Avoyelles? 
 1 4. The Muliacone. 
 
 1 5. The Cutalchiche. 
 
 1 6. The Susola. 
 
 17. The Como. 
 
 18. The Camole. 
 
 Of migrants from the east to the west side of the 
 Mississippi, the Mithridates gives — 
 
 1 . The Pacana, conterminous with the Attacapas. 
 
 2. The Pascagula ? Muscogulge. 
 
 3. The Biluxi? Apalach. 
 
 4. The Appalach ? Apelousa. 
 
 The Taensa are stated to be a branch of the Natchez, 
 
 The Caouitas are, perhaps, word for word, the Con- 
 chattas ; also the Coosa, Coosada, Coshatta. 
 
 The Stincards are, word for word, the Tancards = 
 Tuncas = Tunicas. 
 
 The Cherokee is spoken, at the present moment, by 
 more individuals than any other Indian tongue. Many 
 of the Cherokees have taken up a portion of the Ameri- 
 can civilization ; cultivate land, hold slaves, and increase 
 in numbers. The language is also spoken by many 
 who are other than Cherokee in blood. It is written, 
 and that in a syllabic alphabet, excogitated by a native 
 Cherokee, in Africa, named Sequoyah, or Guess. Like the 
 
 H H 2 
 
THE CHEROKEE. 
 
 Vei, however, it is no evidence to the truly indigenous 
 independent growth of an alphabet. Guess knew the 
 English alphabet, i. e. he knew that languages could be 
 reduced to writing, and the principles on which an alpha- 
 bet could be formed. In this lies the real invention of 
 an alphabet ; an invention which the present writer 
 maintains has only been made once. 
 
 English. 
 
 Cherokee.- 
 
 r 
 
 Chocktaw.* 
 
 Muskogulge {or Creek). 
 
 Man 
 
 askaya 
 
 hottok nokni 
 
 istahouamiah 
 
 Woman 
 
 ageyung 
 
 kottok oliyo 
 
 hoktie 
 
 Bead 
 
 askaw 
 
 nushkobo 
 
 ikah 
 
 Hair 
 
 gitlung 
 
 pansh§ {his) 
 
 isti 
 
 Ear 
 
 gule 
 
 hoksi'bbsh 
 
 huchko 
 
 Eye 
 
 tikata 
 
 mishkin 
 
 tolltlowah 
 
 Nose 
 
 koyoungsahli {my) 
 
 ibichulo 
 
 yopo 
 
 Mouth 
 
 tsiawli 
 
 ishte 
 
 chaknoh 
 
 Tongue 
 
 gahnohgah 
 
 issunliisli 
 
 tolasoah 
 
 Tooth 
 
 tetsinatutawgung {my) 
 
 notS 
 
 notte (jsZ.) 
 
 Hand 
 
 agwoeni {my) 
 
 ibbuk {his) 
 
 inkke 
 
 Feet 
 
 tsulahsedane {his) 
 
 iye {his) 
 
 eili {sing.) 
 
 Sun 
 
 nungdohegah 
 
 hashe 
 
 habsie 
 
 Moon 
 
 nungdohsungnoyee 
 
 hushmunokaja 
 
 halbisie 
 
 Star 
 
 nawquisi 
 
 fichik 
 
 kootso Isonibah 
 
 Day 
 
 ikah 
 
 nittok 
 
 nittah 
 
 Night 
 
 sungnoyee 
 
 ninnok 
 
 neillhi 
 
 Fire 
 
 atsilung 
 
 liuok 
 
 totkah 
 
 Water 
 
 ahmah 
 
 oka 
 
 wyvah 
 
 Stone 
 
 mingyah 
 
 tiille {m^tal stone) cbatto 
 
 Tree 
 
 uhduh 
 
 itte 
 
 ittah 
 
 Fish 
 
 atsatih 
 
 nun6 
 
 tlakklo 
 
 I 
 
 ayung 
 
 unno 
 
 unneh 
 
 Thou 
 
 ne 
 
 chishno 
 
 chameh 
 
 He 
 
 naski 
 
 
 muh 
 
 One 
 
 saquoh 
 
 achofee 
 
 hommaye 
 
 Two 
 
 talee 
 
 tuklo 
 
 hokko 
 
 Three 
 
 tsawi 
 
 tuchina 
 
 totcheb 
 
 Fov/r 
 
 nunggin 
 
 ushta 
 
 osteh 
 
 Five 
 
 hiskee 
 
 tahlape 
 
 chahgkie 
 
 Six 
 
 soodallih 
 
 hanali 
 
 ebba,h 
 
 Seven 
 
 gulgwaugih 
 
 untuklo 
 
 koolobah 
 
 Eight 
 
 tsunelah 
 
 untuchina 
 
 chinnabah 
 
 Nine 
 
 sohonhailah 
 
 chokali 
 
 ostabah 
 
 Ten 
 
 uhskoUiih 
 
 pokoli 
 
 pahlen. 
 
 * The CMkkasali belongs to this division. 
 
THE UCHEB, ETC. 
 
 469 
 
 English. 
 
 Uchee.* 
 
 Natchez.t 
 
 A.daihe. 
 
 Chetemaclia.t 
 
 Man 
 
 cohwita 
 
 tomkuhpena 
 
 haasing 
 
 pautchehase 
 
 Woman 
 
 wauhnehung 
 
 tahmahl 
 
 quaechuke 
 
 kithia 
 
 Father 
 
 chitung 
 
 abishnisha 
 
 kewanick 
 
 hineghie 
 
 Mother 
 
 kitchunghaing 
 
 kwalneshoo 
 
 amanie 
 
 haiUe 
 
 Son 
 
 tesunung (my) 
 
 akwalnesuta 
 
 tallehennie 
 
 hicheyahanhase 
 
 Daughtt 
 
 ;7'teyunung {my) 
 
 mahnoonoo 
 
 quolasinic 
 
 hicheyahankithia 
 
 Head 
 
 ptzeotan 
 
 tomne apoo 
 
 tochake 
 
 kutte 
 
 Hair 
 
 ptsasong 
 
 etene 
 
 calatuck 
 
 kutteko 
 
 Ear 
 
 cohchipah 
 
 ipok 
 
 calat 
 
 urahache 
 
 Eye 
 
 cohchee 
 
 oktool 
 
 analca 
 
 kane 
 
 Nose 
 
 cohtemee 
 
 shamats 
 
 wecoocat 
 
 chiche 
 
 Mouth 
 
 teaishhee 
 
 heche 
 
 wacatcholak 
 
 cha 
 
 Tongue 
 
 cootineah 
 
 itsuk 
 
 tenanat 
 
 huene 
 
 Tooth 
 
 tekeing 
 
 int 
 
 awat {'pl.) 
 
 hi 
 
 Hand 
 
 keanthah 
 
 ispeshe 
 
 secut 
 
 unachiekaithie 
 
 Fingers 
 
 coonpah 
 
 
 okinsin {sing.) iinache kitset 
 
 Feet 
 
 tetethah 
 
 hatpeshe i^'mg.) 
 
 nocat {sing.) 
 
 sauknuthe {sing.) 
 
 Blood 
 
 wace 
 
 itsli 
 
 pchack 
 
 unipe 
 
 Home 
 
 . 
 
 hahit 
 
 coochut 
 
 hanan 
 
 Axe 
 
 
 ohyaminoo 
 
 
 
 
 Knife 
 
 eoutchee 
 
 pyhewish 
 
 
 
 Shoes 
 
 tethah 
 
 popatse 
 
 
 
 
 Sky 
 
 houpoung 
 
 nasookta 
 
 ganick 
 
 kahieketa 
 
 Sim 
 
 ptso 
 
 wah {fire) 
 
 naleen 
 
 thiaha 
 
 Moon 
 
 shafah 
 
 kwasip 
 
 nachaoat 
 
 pautne 
 
 Star 
 
 yung 
 
 tookul 
 
 otat 
 
 pacheta 
 
 Day 
 
 uckkah. 
 
 wit 
 
 nestach 
 
 wacheta 
 
 Night 
 
 pahto 
 
 toowa 
 
 arestenet 
 
 timan 
 
 Fire 
 
 yachtah 
 
 wah 
 
 nang 
 
 teppe 
 
 Water 
 
 tsach 
 
 koon 
 
 holcut 
 
 ko 
 
 Fain 
 
 chaah 
 
 nasnayobik 
 
 ganic 
 
 kaya 
 
 Snow 
 
 stahae 
 
 kowa 
 
 towat 
 
 nactepeche 
 
 Earth 
 
 ptsah 
 
 wihih 
 
 caput 
 
 nelle 
 
 River 
 
 tauh 
 
 wol 
 
 gawichat 
 
 koneatineshe 
 
 Stone 
 
 
 ohk 
 
 ekseka 
 
 nonche 
 
 Tree 
 
 yah 
 
 tshoo 
 
 tanaek 
 
 conche 
 
 Meat 
 
 colahntha 
 
 wintse 
 
 hosing 
 
 kipi 
 
 Dog 
 
 ptsenah 
 
 waskkop 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 Beaver 
 
 samkkeing 
 
 
 culawa 
 
 
 Bear 
 
 ptsaka 
 
 tso kohp 
 
 solang 
 
 hacuneche 
 
 Bird 
 
 psenna 
 
 shankolt 
 
 washang 
 
 thia 
 
 Fish 
 
 potshoo 
 
 henn 
 
 aesut 
 
 makche 
 
 Great 
 
 
 lehkip 
 
 tocat 
 
 hatekippe 
 
 Cold 
 
 
 tzitakopana 
 
 hostalga 
 
 kasteke 
 
 * Slightly more akin to the Catawba and Cherokee than aught else, 
 f Slightly more akin to each other and Muskogulge than aught else. 
 
470 
 
 THE UCHEE, ETC. 
 
 English. 
 
 Uchee. 
 
 Natchez. 
 
 Adaihe. 
 
 Chetemacha. 
 
 White 
 
 quecah 
 
 hahap 
 
 testaga 
 
 mechetineche 
 
 BlacTc 
 
 ishpe 
 
 tsokokop 
 
 hatoua 
 
 nappechequineche 
 
 Red 
 
 tshulhuh 
 
 pahkop 
 
 pechasat 
 
 pinnoneche 
 
 I 
 
 'te 
 
 tukehah 
 
 hicatuck 
 
 uteclieca 
 
 Thou 
 
 
 uhkehah 
 
 
 utietmhi 
 
 He 
 
 coheetha 
 
 akoonikia {;tlm 
 
 here) nassicon 
 
 hatche 
 
 One 
 
 sah 
 
 ■wdtahu 
 
 nancas 
 
 hongo 
 
 Two 
 
 nowah 
 
 ahwetie 
 
 nass 
 
 hupau 
 
 Three 
 
 nokah 
 
 nayetie 
 
 coUe 
 
 kahitie 
 
 Four 
 
 taltlah 
 
 ganooetie 
 
 tacache 
 
 mechechant 
 
 Five 
 
 chwanhah 
 
 shpedee 
 
 seppacan 
 
 hussa 
 
 Six 
 
 chtoo 
 
 lahono 
 
 pacanancus 
 
 hatcka 
 
 Seven 
 
 latchoo 
 
 ukwoh 
 
 pacaness 
 
 miclieta 
 
 Fight 
 
 peefah 
 
 upkutepish 
 
 pacalcon 
 
 kueta 
 
 Nine 
 
 'tah'thkali 
 
 wedipkatepish 
 
 sickinish 
 
 knicheta 
 
 Tm 
 
 'tthklahpee 
 
 okwah 
 
 neusne 
 
 heiliitie. 
 
 Allied one to another, the Pawni and Riccari are 
 Caddo languages. 
 
 English. 
 
 Pawni. 
 
 Riccari. 
 
 Woman 
 
 tsapat 
 
 sapat 
 
 Boy 
 
 peeshkee 
 
 weenatch 
 
 Girl 
 
 tchoraksh 
 
 soonahtch. 
 
 Child 
 
 peeron 
 
 pera 
 
 Head 
 
 pakshu 
 
 pahgh 
 
 Ears 
 
 atkaroo 
 
 tickokite 
 
 Eyes 
 
 keereekoo 
 
 cheereecoo 
 
 Hair 
 
 oshu 
 
 pahi 
 
 Hand 
 
 iksheeree 
 
 tehonare 
 
 Fingers 
 
 haspeet 
 
 parick 
 
 Foot 
 
 ashoo 
 
 ahgh 
 
 God 
 
 thouwahat 
 
 tewaroohteh 
 
 Devil 
 
 tsaheekshkakooraiwah 
 
 kakewaroohteh 
 
 Swi 
 
 shakproo 
 
 shakoona 
 
 Fire 
 
 tateetoo 
 
 tekieeht 
 
 Moon 
 
 pa 
 
 wetah 
 
 Stars 
 
 opeereet 
 
 saca 
 
 Rain 
 
 tatsooroo 
 
 tassou 
 
 Snow 
 
 toosha 
 
 tahhau 
 
 Day 
 
 sliakoorooeeshairet 
 
 shacona 
 
 Night 
 
 eeraishnaitee 
 
 eenahgt 
 
 Light . 
 
 Bhuslieegat 
 
 shakoonah 
 
 Dmk 
 
 eeraishuaite 
 
 tekatistat 
 
 Hot 
 
 toueetstoo 
 
 towarist 
 
 Cold 
 
 taipeechee 
 
 teepse 
 
 Yes 
 
 nawa 
 
 neecoola 
 
 No 
 
 kakee 
 
 kaka 
 
THE PAWNI AND RICCARI. 
 
 471 
 
 English . 
 
 Pavvni. 
 
 Riccari. 
 
 Bear 
 
 koorooksb 
 
 keahya 
 
 Dog 
 
 ashakish 
 
 hohtch 
 
 Bow 
 
 teeragish 
 
 nache 
 
 Arrow- 
 
 leekshoo 
 
 neeche 
 
 Hut 
 
 akkaroo 
 
 acare 
 
 Canoe 
 
 lakohoroo 
 
 lahkeehoon 
 
 River 
 
 kattoosh 
 
 sahonnee 
 
 I 
 
 ta 
 
 nanto 
 
 One 
 
 askoo 
 
 asco 
 
 Two 
 
 peetkoo 
 
 pitco 
 
 Three 
 
 touweet 
 
 towwit 
 
 Four 
 
 shkeetish 
 
 tcheetish 
 
 Five 
 
 sheeooksh 
 
 tcheetishoo 
 
 Six 
 
 sheekshabish 
 
 tcheetishpis 
 
 Seven 
 
 peetkoosheeshabish 
 
 totchapis 
 
 Eight 
 
 touweetshabish 
 
 tochapiswon 
 
 Nine 
 
 looksheereewa 
 
 totchapisnahhenewon 
 
 Ten 
 
 looksheeree 
 
 nahen 
 
 Twenty 
 
 petouoo 
 
 wetah 
 
 Thirty 
 
 luksheereewetouoo 
 
 sahwee 
 
 Hundred 
 
 sheekookshtaroo 
 
 shontan. 
 
 In a country like Texas, where the spread of the popu- 
 lation from the other portions of the Union has been so 
 rapid, and where the occupancy is so complete, we are 
 prepared to expect but a small proportion of aborigines. 
 And such, upon the whole, is the case. The displacement 
 of the Indian tribes has been great. Even, however, when 
 Mexican, Texas was not in the category of the older and 
 more original portions of Mexico. It was not brought 
 under the regime of the missionaries. 
 
 The notices of Texas in the Mithridates, taken along 
 with our subsequent data, are to the effect that (a) the 
 Caddo, (b) the Adaize or Adahi, (c) the Attakapa, and 
 {d) the Choktah are the prevailing languages of Texas ; 
 to which may be added a few others of minor import- 
 ance. 
 
 The details as to the distribution of the subordinate 
 forms of speech over these four leading languages are 
 as follows : — 
 
 a. The Nandakoes, Nabadaches, Alich (or Eyish), and 
 Ini or Tachi are expressly stated to be Caddo ; and, as 
 
472 LANGUAGES OF TEXAS. 
 
 it is from the name of the last of these that the word 
 Texas is derived, we have satisfactory evidence that some 
 members, at least, of the Caddo family are truly and 
 originally Texian. 
 
 b. The Yatassi, Natchitoches, Adai^i (or AdaM), 
 Nacogdoches, and Keyes, belong to the Caddo confede- 
 racy, but without speaking the Caddo language. 
 
 c. The Carancouas, the Attacapas, the Apelusas, the 
 Mayes, speak dialects of the same language. 
 
 d. The Tunicas speak the same language as the Chok- 
 tahs. 
 
 Concerning the philology of the Washas, the Bedies, 
 the Acossesaws, and the Cances, no statements are made. 
 
 It is obvious that the information supplied by the 
 Mithridates is measured by the extent of our knowledge 
 of the four languages to which it refers. 
 
 Of these, the Choktah, which Adelung calls the Mo- 
 bilian, is the only one for which the Mithridates itself 
 supplies, or could supply, specimens ; the other three 
 being unrepresented by any sample whatever. Hence, 
 to say that the Tachi was Caddo, that the Yatassi was 
 Adahi, or that the Carancoua was Attacapa, was to give 
 an instance, in the way of explanation, of the obscurum 
 per obscurius. Since the publication of the Mithri- 
 dates, however, we have got, as has been seen, samples 
 of three more — so that our standards of comparison 
 are improved. They are to be found in a tabulated 
 form, and in a form convenient for collation and com- 
 parison, in both of Gallatin's papers. They were all 
 collected before the annexation of Texas, and they 
 appear in the papers just referred to as Louisiana, rather 
 than truly Texian, languages ; being common to the two 
 areas. 
 
 The later the notice of Texas the greater the promi- 
 nence given to a tribe of which nothing is said in the 
 Mithridates, viz. the Gumfianch. As late as 1844 we 
 had nothing beyond the numerals and a most scanty 
 
LANGUAGES OF TEXAS. 473 
 
 MS. list of words to tell us what the Cumanch language 
 really was. These, however, were sufficient to show 
 that its affinities ran northwards, and were with the 
 Shoshoni. 
 
 The tendency of the Mithridates is to give prominence 
 to the Caddo, Attacapa, and Adahi tongues, and to in- 
 cline the investigator, when dealing with the other forms 
 of speech, to ask how far they are connected with one 
 of these three. The tendency of the later writers 
 is to give prominence to the Cumanch, and to suggest 
 the question : How far is this (or that) form of speech 
 Cumanch or other than Cumanch ? 
 
 Working with the Mithridates, a MS. of Mr. Bol- 
 laert, and Mr. Kennedy's volume on Texas before me, I 
 find that the list of Texian Indians, which these authori- 
 ties justified me in publishing in 1848, contained (I) Cos- 
 hattas ; (2) Towiachs, Towakenos, Towecas, and Wacos ; 
 (3) Lipans or Sipans ; (4) Aliche or Eyish ; (5) Acosse- 
 saws ; (6) Navaosos ; (7) Mayes ; (8) Cances ; (9) Tonca- 
 huas ; (10) Tuhuktukis ; (11) Unataquas or Anadarcos; 
 (12) Masco vie ; (13) lawanis or lonis ; (14) Wico ? 
 Waco; (1 5) Avoyelles ; (1 6) Washitas ; (17) Ketchi ; 
 (18) Xaramenes; (19) Caicaches ; (20) Bidias ; (21) 
 Caddo ; (22) Attacapa ; (23) Adahi — besides the Caran- 
 kahuas (of which the Cokes are made a branch) classed 
 with the Attacapa, and not including certain Cherokees, 
 Choktahs, Chikkasahs, and Sioux. 
 
 A Washita vocabulary, which will be referred to in 
 the sequel, concludes the list of Texian languages known 
 by specimens. 
 
 At present, then, the chief question respecting the 
 philology of Texas is one of distribution. Given as 
 centres to certain groups — 
 
 1 . The Choktah, 
 
 2. The Caddo, 
 
 3. The Adahi, 
 
 4. The Attakapa, 
 
474 
 
 LANGUAGES OF TEXAS. 
 
 5. The Cumanch, and 
 
 6. The Witshita languages, 
 
 how do we arrange the tribes just enumerated ? Two 
 works help us here : — 1. A letter from the Ex-president 
 Burnett to Schoolcraft on the Indians of Texas. Date, 
 1847. 2, A Statistical Notice of the same by Jesse 
 Stem. Date, 1851. 
 
 Stem's statistics run thus : — 
 
 THhes. 
 
 
 
 
 Numbers. 
 
 Towacarros 141 ) 
 
 Wacos . 
 
 
 
 
 114 [29 
 
 Ketchies . 
 
 
 
 
 38) 
 
 Caddos 
 
 
 
 
 161) 
 
 Andarcos 
 
 
 
 
 202 [ 47 
 
 loni . 
 
 
 
 
 113 
 
 Tonkaways 
 
 
 
 
 1152 
 
 Wichitas 
 
 
 
 
 • 100 
 
 Lipans 
 
 
 
 
 500 
 
 Comanches . 
 
 
 
 
 20,000 
 
 giving us several of the names that have already ap- 
 peared ; giving also great prominence to the Cumanches 
 — numerically at least. 
 
 In Mr. Burnett's Letter the term Caddo i^ prominent; 
 but whether it denote the Caddo language, or merely 
 the Caddo confederation, is uncertain. Neither can I 
 find fi:om the context whether the statements respecting 
 the Indians of the Caddo connection, for this is what we 
 must call it at present, are made on the personal autho- 
 rity of the writer, or whether they are talcen, either 
 directly or indirectly, fi^om the Mithridates. The term 
 that Burnett used is stock, his statement being that the 
 Waco, the Tawacani, the Towiash, the Aynic, the San 
 Pedro Indians, the Nabaduches, and the Nacodocheets are 
 all both Texian in origin and Caddo in stock. 
 
 His other tribes are — ■ 
 
 1. The Ketchi: a small tribe on Trinity River, hated by 
 the Cumanches as sorcerers, and, perhaps, the same as— 
 
 2. The Hitclii, once a distinct tribe, now assimilated 
 with their neighbours. 
 
LANGUAGES OF TEXAS. 
 
 475 
 
 3. The Tonkaways, a separate tribe, of which, how- 
 ever, the distinctive characters are not stated. 
 
 Whatever may be the exact details of the languages, 
 dialects, and subdialects of Texas, the general outline is 
 simple. 
 
 The Choktah forms of speech are anything but native. 
 They are of foreign origin and recent introduction. So 
 are certain Sioux and other dialects spoken within the 
 Texian area. 
 
 The Gumanch is in the same predicament ; though 
 not, perhaps, so decidedly. It belongs to the Paduca 
 class, and its affinities are with the Shoshoni and Wi- 
 hinast of Oregon. 
 
 The Caddo Proper is said to be intrusive, having 
 been introduced so late as 1819 from the parts between 
 the Great Raft and the Natchitoches or Red River. I 
 hold, however, that some Caddo forms of speech must 
 be indigenous. 
 
 The Witshita is probably one of these : — 
 
 English. 
 
 Caddo, 
 
 Witshita. 
 
 Head 
 
 cundo 
 
 etskase 
 
 Haw 
 
 beunno 
 
 deodske 
 
 Eye 
 
 nockkochun 
 
 kidahkuck 
 
 Nose 
 
 sol 
 
 dutstistoe 
 
 Mouth 
 
 nowoese 
 
 hawkoo 
 
 Tongue 
 
 ockkotunna 
 
 hutskee 
 
 Tooth 
 
 ockkodeta 
 
 awk 
 
 One 
 
 whiste 
 
 cherche 
 
 Two 
 
 bit 
 
 mitcb 
 
 Three 
 
 dowoh 
 
 daub 
 
 Four 
 
 peaweh 
 
 dawquats 
 
 Five 
 
 dissickka 
 
 esquats 
 
 Six 
 
 dunkkee 
 
 kehass 
 
 Seven 
 
 bissickka 
 
 keopits 
 
 Eight 
 
 dowsiekka 
 
 keotope 
 
 Nine 
 
 pewesickka 
 
 shercheke ite 
 
 Ten, 
 
 binnab 
 
 skedorasb. 
 
 'obably, also. 
 
 the following — 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Kichai. 
 
 Hueco. 
 
 Man 
 
 caiuquanoquts 
 
 todekitz 
 
 Woman 
 
 cbequoike 
 
 cabheie 
 
476 
 
 LANGUAGES OF TEXAS. 
 
 English. 
 
 Kichai. 
 
 Hueco. 
 
 Head 
 
 quitatso 
 
 atskiestacat 
 
 Hair 
 
 itscoso 
 
 ishkesteatz 
 
 Face 
 
 itscot 
 
 ichcoh 
 
 Ear 
 
 atikoroso 
 
 ortz 
 
 Eye 
 
 quideeco 
 
 kidik 
 
 Nose 
 
 chuscarao 
 
 tisk 
 
 Mouth 
 
 hokinnik 
 
 ahcok 
 
 Tongue 
 
 hahtok 
 
 hotz 
 
 Tooth 
 
 athnesho 
 
 ahtk 
 
 Hand 
 
 ichshene 
 
 ishk'ti 
 
 Foot 
 
 usinic 
 
 OS 
 
 Fire 
 
 yecenieto 
 
 hatz 
 
 Water 
 
 kiokoh. 
 
 kitsah 
 
 One 
 
 arishco 
 
 cheos 
 
 Two 
 
 chosho 
 
 witz 
 
 Three 
 
 tahwithco 
 
 to-w 
 
 Fowr 
 
 kithnucote 
 
 taliquitz 
 
 Five 
 
 xs'toweo 
 
 ishquitz 
 
 Six 
 
 napitow 
 
 kiash. 
 
 Seven 
 
 tsowetate 
 
 kiownitz 
 
 Eight 
 
 naikinukate 
 
 kiatou 
 
 Nine 
 
 taniorokat 
 
 choskitte 
 
 Ten 
 
 x'skani 
 
 skittewas. 
 
 I conclude with a language which is decidedly Texian 
 -the Attakapa. 
 
 English 
 
 Attakapa. 
 
 Man 
 
 iol 
 
 Woma/n, 
 
 nickib 
 
 Father 
 
 shau 
 
 Mother 
 
 tegn 
 
 Son 
 
 shka 
 
 Daughter 
 
 tegu 
 
 Head 
 
 ashhat 
 
 Hair 
 
 taesh 
 
 Ear 
 
 ann 
 
 Eye 
 
 uiU 
 
 Nose 
 
 idst 
 
 Mouth 
 
 katt 
 
 Tongue 
 
 nedle 
 
 Tooth 
 
 ods 
 
 Hand 
 
 Tiish 
 
 Finger 
 
 nisliagg 
 
 Feet 
 
 tippel 
 
 Blood 
 
 iggli 
 
 House 
 
 ank 
 
 Sky 
 
 tagg 
 
 English. 
 
 Sun 
 
 Moon 
 
 Star 
 
 Day 
 
 Night 
 
 Fire 
 
 Water 
 
 Rain 
 
 Snow 
 
 Earth 
 
 Fiver 
 
 Stone 
 
 Tree 
 
 Meat 
 
 Bear 
 
 Bird 
 
 Fish 
 
 Great 
 
 Cold 
 
 White 
 
 Attakapa. 
 
 tegidlesh 
 
 ish 
 
 iggl 
 
 tegg 
 
 cam 
 
 ak 
 
 caucau 
 
 aalesat 
 
 ne 
 
 aconstuchi 
 
 wai 
 
 oged 
 stigne 
 
 iagghan 
 uishik 
 tsamps 
 cobb 
 
LANGUAGES OF TEXAS. 
 
 477 
 
 r English. 
 
 Attakapa. 
 
 BlacTc 
 
 ianu 
 
 Red 
 
 ofg 
 
 I 
 
 ne 
 
 Thou 
 
 natt 
 
 One 
 
 hanneck 
 
 Two 
 
 happalst 
 
 Three 
 
 batt 
 
 English. 
 
 Attakapa. 
 
 Fwir 
 
 tsets 
 
 Five 
 
 nilt 
 
 Six 
 
 latst 
 
 Seven 
 
 paghu 
 
 Eight 
 
 tsikuiau 
 
 Nine 
 
 tegghuiae 
 
 Ten 
 
 heissigu. 
 
 The Attakapa is one of the pauro-syllabic languages 
 of America, by which I mean languages that, if not 
 monosyllabic after the fashion of the languages of south- 
 eastern Asia, have the appearance of being so. They 
 form a remarkable class, but it is doubtful whether they 
 form a natural one, i. e. whether they are more closely 
 connected with each other in the other elenients of philo- 
 logical affinity than they are with the tongues not so 
 characterized. 
 
 The Adahi or Adaize (? Yatassi) and the Attakapa 
 are the two most isolated languages of North America, 
 each having, however, miscellaneous affinities. 
 
 As the languages to the west of the Attakapa have 
 already been noticed, so those of South America now 
 come under consideration. 
 
478 .LANGUAGES OF SOUTH AMERICA, 
 
 CHAPTER LXI. 
 
 Languages of South America — New Grenada, — The Quichua. — The Ayniara. 
 —The Chileno.— The Fuegian. 
 
 It may safely be said that there is no part of the 
 world, of which the Comparative Philology is more un- 
 certain and obscure than South America. That there 
 are vast tracts elsewhere, for which our data are scan- 
 tier, is not denied. Scanty, however, as they may be, 
 they are, generally, better arranged ; for in South America, 
 though our materials are by no means deficient, our 
 classification is at its minimum. The notices of the 
 Mithridates were chiefiy taken, either at first hand or 
 through Hervas, from the Jesuit missionaries, whose 
 communications were all of the same character. They 
 gave us almost always a Paternoster, occasionally a hymn, 
 sometimes the numerals, more rarely a full and copious 
 general vocabulary. They also, for the most part, gave 
 us a very compendious grammar or Arte ; a grammar 
 or Arte^ in which the principles of the ordinary Latin 
 Grammar of Europe were applied to forms of speech to 
 which they are wholly unsuited. Besides their inherent 
 imperfections, these Artes have the additional demerit of 
 being amongst the scarcest of philological works. They 
 are, for American books, old ; the majority being of the 
 
LANGUAGES OF SOUTH AMERICA. 479 
 
 seventeenth century. They are printed in Lima and other 
 Transatlantic towns, rather than in Madrid or Lisbon. 
 Finally, they are often in MS. That many of these 
 were known to Adelung, is shown in almost every page 
 of his great work. Perhaps he knew of most of them. 
 Nevertheless, as a mere matter of bibliography some 
 have been noticed, and that for the first time, since his 
 death. So far, then, as this is the case, they give us new 
 materials. That the main mass, however, of our fresh 
 data consists of fresh observations is no more than what 
 we expect ; no more than the actual fact. Still, com- 
 pared with what has been done elsewhere, they are few 
 Whoever goes over the elaborate bibhographical work of 
 Ludwig may see this. He may see that the number of 
 languages for which there are few or no authorities later 
 than Hervas is inordinately large ; so large, as to con- 
 vince us that, whether by investigators on the spot or by 
 enterprizing travellers, the philology of South America 
 has been (as compared with that of other countries) greatly 
 neglected. He will see that, for all has been done in 
 recent times, the names of Spix and Martins, Prince 
 Maximilian of Neuwied, Castelnau, D'Orbigny, Sir 
 Robert Schomburgh, and Wallace (each in his own 
 special area), give a monopoly of authority. Where 
 these writers have either observed or collected, we have 
 a fairly-illustrated district. Elsewhere there is sad 
 barrenness. 
 
 The parts, then, where the most has been done, are 
 Brazil (a vast area), the Missions of Moxos and Chiquitos, 
 along with parts of Peru, British Guiana, and the parts to 
 the west of the Rio Negro ; more especially the valley of the 
 XJap^s. In New Grenada also, of the languages whereof 
 the information of the MithHdates is of the scantiest, we 
 have a fair mass of new details collected by the occupants 
 of the republic itself They are, however, from the fact 
 of their being chiefly published in Bogota, pre-eminently 
 
480 LANGUAGES OF SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 inaccessible. To the present writer at the present time, 
 the very existence of them is known almost wholly 
 through Ludwig's notices. 
 
 The parts for which our knowledge is most pre- 
 eminently stationary are, Venezuela, Peru, Chili, the 
 Argentine Kepublics, Paraguay, and Patagonia. 
 
 Again ; as the organization of the Missions is less 
 complete amongst the Portuguese than it is (or was) 
 amongst the Spanish populations of the New World, the 
 diiSerence between the amount of research bestowed upon 
 the aborigines of New Grenada, Peru, &c. and those of 
 Brazil, is considerable. 
 
 The details, then, of Portuguese America are more 
 unsatisfactory than those of Spanish. In those parts of 
 the continent which belong to England or Spain, or 
 which have been Dutch, the philology has been left to 
 accident — so that in respect to them we are in no 
 better position than we are with the languages of the 
 Hudson's Bay Territory and the English portion of 
 Oregon — a worse position than we are in with respect 
 to those of the United States ; where a partial investi- 
 gation has been undertaken by the Government. This 
 means that a list of words has been prepared which is 
 filled up as new languages present themselves ; a plan 
 which, whilst it stimulates and directs inquiry, makes 
 classification a simple matter of inspection. 
 
 The natural road from North to South America is by 
 the way of the Isthmus. At the same time the fact of 
 the West-India Islands forming a second chain of com- 
 munication must not be overlooked. 
 
 In the present chapter, the plan adopted in North 
 America will be followed, i. e. the languages to the 
 west of the Andes will be treated first. The great 
 block of land drained by the Orinoco, the Amazons, 
 and the Rio de la Plata will follow ; and Brazil will 
 come last. 
 
THE CORREGUAGE AND ANDAQUI. 
 
 481 
 
 There are alSinities in both directions. The first line, 
 however, is the one which is most conveniently taken. 
 
 For New Grenada, but few vocabularies are known 
 to me — the Artes, «Sz;c., referred to by Ludwig, being 
 difficult of access. 
 
 Beginning with the parts to the south of the Choi 
 and Muysca (now called Chihcha) areas for which a 
 few words only are known to me, we come to the — 
 
 English. 
 Man 
 
 Correguage. 
 emuid 
 
 Andaqui. 
 
 Woman 
 
 dome 
 
 
 
 Head 
 Hair 
 
 sijope 
 dana 
 
 quinaji 
 
 Eye 
 
 nancoco 
 
 sifi 
 
 Ear 
 
 cajoroso 
 
 sunguajo 
 
 Nose 
 
 jiniquapui 
 
 quifi 
 
 Teeth 
 
 cojini 
 
 sicoga 
 
 Foot 
 
 coaj)i 
 
 soguapana 
 
 Heart 
 
 decocho 
 
 
 
 Tongue 
 
 
 sonae 
 
 Hand 
 
 
 
 sacaa 
 
 Shy 
 
 queneme 
 
 
 Sun 
 
 ense 
 
 caqui-kebin 
 
 Moon 
 
 paimia 
 
 mitae-kede 
 
 Star 
 
 manoco 
 
 fisona-ivine 
 
 River 
 
 siacha 
 
 jiji 
 
 Water 
 
 oco 
 
 
 Earth 
 
 choa 
 
 mijinae 
 
 Stone 
 
 cata, 
 
 
 Egg 
 
 cuejepi 
 
 guaso. 
 
 The title of the earliest grammar of the Peruvian is 
 Gramatica d arte general de la lengua de los Indios 
 del Peru ; nuevamente compuesto por el Maestor Fray 
 Domengo de San TJiomas de la order de Santa Domengo 
 en dichos reynos. The precise date of this is A.D. 1560. 
 In the Dictionary, however, bearing the same date, the 
 language is called the Lengua General de la Peru^ 
 Llamada Quichua. The particular tribe with which 
 this term originated was that of the Quichua on the 
 Aymara frontier and conterminous with the Collas. 
 
 I I 
 
482 THE QUIOHUA AND AYMARA. 
 
 Of the dialects, the most northern is the Quiteno 
 of Quito. Then follow, the Chinchasuya, between 11° 
 and 1 3° S. L. ; the Cauki of certain districts to the 
 south of Lima ; the Lamano of the parts about Truxillo ; 
 the Cuzcucano of Cuzco ; and, finally, the Calchaqui of 
 Tucuraan. 
 
 The A ymara area has its liistorical centre in the parts 
 about the Lake Titicaca, where the famous Peruvian 
 legislator, Mango Capac, first made his appearance. 
 The monuments of Tiaguanaco and Carangas belong 
 to it. So do those numerous tombs containing the 
 artificially flattened skulls upon which so much has 
 been written by ethnologists. According to Garcillasso 
 de la Vega it was the third Inca, Llogue Yupanqui, 
 who brought the Aymaras under the Quichua dominion. 
 They lie between 15° and 20° S. L., occupants of the 
 highest range of the Andes, on both sides. Some of 
 them belong to the drainage of the La Plata, being 
 found on the upper part of the Pilcomayo. This 
 brings tliem in contact with Chaco tribes ; whilst 
 in the direction of Bolivia they touch the Chiquitos. 
 As a general rule, however, they are surrounded by the 
 Quichua dialects, by which they have, to all ap- 
 pearance, being encroached on ; indeed, the capital 
 Cuzco, Quichuan as it is in many respects, is a town 
 upon Aymara ground. So is Potosi ; so also a great 
 portion of the Provinces of Tinto, Arequipa, La Paz, 
 and Chuquisaca, with considerable parts of Tarapaca 
 and Atacama. 
 
 The Mithridates names the Lupaca as the commonest, 
 and the Pacase as the most refined of the Aymara 
 dialects ; amongst wdiich are enumerated the Canchi, the 
 Cana, the CoUa, the CoUagua, the Caranca, and the 
 Charca ; this last being conterminous with the Guarani 
 Chiriguanos. 
 
THE QUICHUA AND AYMARA. 
 
 483 
 
 EngUsb. 
 
 Quichua. 
 
 Aymara. 
 
 Araucanau. 
 
 Man {homo) 
 
 runa 
 
 hake 
 
 che 
 
 {vir) 
 
 ccari 
 
 
 huento 
 
 Woman 
 
 huarmi , 
 
 
 
 Head 
 
 uma 
 
 pegke 
 
 lonco 
 
 Eye 
 
 nain 
 
 naira 
 
 nge 
 
 Ear 
 
 rinri 
 
 
 
 Nose 
 
 cenca 
 
 nasa 
 
 yu 
 
 Tongue 
 
 kallu 
 
 lagra 
 
 gehuun 
 
 Hair 
 
 chuccha 
 
 naccuta 
 
 lonco 
 
 Hand 
 
 maqui 
 
 arapara 
 
 cuugh 
 
 Foot 
 
 chaqui 
 
 cayu 
 
 na,Tnon 
 
 Sky 
 
 hananpacha 
 
 
 
 huenu 
 
 Earth 
 
 allpa 
 
 urakke 
 
 tue 
 
 Sun 
 
 inti 
 
 inti 
 
 antuigh 
 
 Moon 
 
 quilla 
 
 pagsi 
 
 cuyem 
 
 Fire 
 
 nina 
 
 nina 
 
 k'tal 
 
 Watei^ 
 
 unu 
 
 huma 
 
 ko 
 
 
 yaeu 
 
 
 
 
 
 One 
 
 hue 
 
 mai 
 
 quigne 
 
 Two 
 
 ycay 
 
 paya 
 
 epu 
 
 Three 
 
 quinza 
 
 kimsa 
 
 cula. 
 
 Mainas. — The Paternoster. 
 Paparapoa ya-uranso inapaJce; apuri nen kema mucharinso-ni ; kema 
 inapa keyavei ; kema lovanturanso lelinso-ni mompuye inapaJce; napupon- 
 tinati isse-ke-nta ; cus-saru-mpoa taveri rosa nanni ketuke ipure ; huchampo- 
 anta anis nke mompupe campoanta aloyotupe saya-pita amsere campo-anta ; 
 CO apukesne tentacioneke co anotakeve ; ina-kera ateeke campu kera co loyave 
 pita. 
 
 The exact place of the Puquina of Hervas and the 
 Mithridates, as well as that of the Yunga (or) Mochika, 
 is uncertain ; all we have of them being a Paternoster 
 in each, which runs thus :— 
 
 Puquina. 
 
 Seniki, hanigo pacas cunana ascheno pomana upalli suhanta po capaca 
 aschano seilguta huachunta po hatano callacaso hanta kiguri hanigopa casna 
 ehe cahu cohuacasna hamp. Kaa gamenke ehe hesuma : Senguta camen sen 
 tanta sefi hochahe pampache sumao 'kiguiri sen, seiiguta huchachas keno 
 gata hampachanganch cagu : Ama ehe acrosumo huchaguta sen hotonava 
 enahata entonana keipina sumau. 
 
 Yunga (Mochika). 
 
 Muchef, acazloo cuzianqiiic ; Zunkoc licum apmucha ; Piican nof zungcu- 
 zias ; eyipmang zung polengnum mo uzicapuc cuzianguic mun ; Ayoineng 
 inengo much sollon piicam fiof alio molur ; Ef kecan nof ixlllis acan mux 
 efco, xUang museyo much ziomun ; Amus tocum nof xllamgmuse iz puzereric 
 namnum ; Lesnam efco ilof pissin kich. 
 
 I I 2 
 
484 
 
 FUEGIAN. 
 
 Languages 
 
 of the P. 
 
 ^mpas 
 
 3— 
 
 English. 
 
 Puelche. 
 
 
 
 Man 
 
 chia 
 
 
 
 Woman 
 
 yamcat 
 
 
 
 Head 
 
 cacaa 
 
 
 
 Cheek 
 
 yac alert 
 
 ) 
 
 
 Eyes 
 
 yatitco 
 
 
 
 Ea/ra 
 
 jsipcjexl 
 
 e 
 
 
 Hand 
 
 yapaye 
 
 
 
 Sun 
 
 apiucuc 
 
 
 
 Moon 
 
 pioo 
 
 
 
 Fire 
 
 aquacak 
 
 e 
 
 
 Water 
 
 yagup 
 
 
 
 Mountain 
 
 atecq 
 
 
 
 From Tierra del Fue 
 
 go 
 
 English. 
 
 
 Alikhillip. 
 
 Man 
 
 
 ackinish 
 
 Head 
 
 
 ofchocka 
 
 Nose 
 
 
 nohl 
 
 Hair 
 
 
 ayu 
 
 Hand 
 
 
 yuccaba 
 
 Teeth 
 
 
 cauwash 
 
 Eye 
 
 
 telkh 
 
 Ear 
 
 
 teldil 
 
 Foot 
 
 
 cutliculcul 
 
 SJcy 
 
 
 accuba 
 
 Day 
 
 
 anoqual 
 
 Earth 
 
 
 barbe 
 
 Sun 
 
 
 lum 
 
 Moon 
 
 
 conakho 
 
 Star 
 
 
 conash 
 
 Fire 
 
 
 tettal 
 
 Water 
 
 
 chauash 
 
 One 
 
 
 towquiddow 
 
 Two 
 
 
 telkeow 
 
 Three 
 
 
 cupeb 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Puelche. 
 
 Bow 
 
 aeke 
 
 Arrow 
 
 quit 
 
 Young 
 
 yapelgue 
 
 Old 
 
 ictza 
 
 I, me 
 
 kia 
 
 He, she 
 
 sas 
 
 Give me 
 
 chutaca 
 
 Eat 
 
 akenec 
 
 Sleep 
 
 meplaumm 
 
 I will 
 
 kemo 
 
 1 will not 
 
 canoa. 
 
 Tekeenika. 
 oha 
 lukabe 
 cu shush 
 
 marpo 
 
 tuun 
 
 della 
 
 ufkhea 
 
 coeea 
 
 howucca 
 
 tann 
 lum 
 anoco 
 appernish 
 
 shamea 
 ocoale 
 combabe 
 mutta. 
 
 It is needless to state that the Fuegian has affinities 
 in one direction only ; and that, there, it is the point 
 of a pyramid. 
 
YARURA, BETOI, AND OTOMAKA. 
 
 485 
 
 CHAPTER LXII. 
 
 Languages of the Orinoko, Rio Negro, and northern bank of Amazons. — 
 Yarura, &c. — Baniwa. — Juri. — Maipur. — Carib. — Salivi, — Warow. — 
 Taruma. — Iquito. — Mayoruna. — Peba. — Ticuna, &c. 
 
 We now move towards the head-waters of the Orinoko. 
 Furthest to the west and north He the Yarura, Betoi, 
 and Otomaka. 
 
 English. 
 
 Yarura. 
 
 Betoi. 
 
 Otomaka. 
 
 Man 
 
 pumme 
 
 umasoi 
 
 andua 
 
 Woman 
 
 ibi, ain 
 
 ro 
 
 ondua 
 
 Father 
 
 aya 
 
 babi 
 
 
 Mother 
 
 aini 
 
 mama 
 
 
 Head 
 
 pacchil 
 
 rosaca 
 
 
 Eye 
 
 joride 
 
 ufoniba 
 
 
 Nose 
 
 nappe 
 
 jusaca 
 
 
 Tongue 
 
 topono 
 
 ineca 
 
 
 Hair 
 
 keun 
 
 rubuca 
 
 
 Hand 
 
 icchi 
 
 rumcosi 
 
 
 Foot 
 
 tao 
 
 remoco 
 
 
 Day 
 
 do 
 
 munila 
 
 
 Sky 
 
 ande 
 
 tencucu 
 
 caga 
 
 Earth 
 
 dabu 
 
 dafibu 
 
 poga 
 
 Water 
 
 ui 
 
 ocudu 
 
 ia 
 
 Fire 
 
 conde 
 
 futu 
 
 nua 
 
 Sun 
 
 do 
 
 teo -umasoi 
 
 
 Moon 
 
 goppe 
 
 teo-ro 
 
 - 
 
 Beard 
 
 tambe 
 
 
 perega 
 
 One 
 
 caneame 
 
 edojojoi 
 
 
 Two 
 
 noeni 
 
 edoi 
 
 
 Three 
 
 tarani 
 
 ibutu 
 
 
 Word for word, Baniwa is, probably, Maniwa, 
 Maniva, Poignaviy and Guipoignavi of other writers 
 — especially does it seem to be, word for word, the 
 
486 THE BANIWA, ETC. 
 
 G-uipoignavi of Humboldt. Now the Baniwa districts 
 are those through which runs the frontier between Brazil 
 and Venezuela. There are also those which give us the 
 point where the researches of Mr. Wallace from the 
 South, and of Humboldt from the North, respectively 
 terminated ; the former having moved upwards from the 
 Rio Negro, the latter downwards from the Orinoco. 
 Now as Humboldt names the language for the parts in 
 question Poignavi, giving two words of it, one of which 
 (oueni zz water) coincides with the ^lni and weni of 
 Wallace's Bmiivja, the identification under notice is 
 legitimate. 
 
 There are (at least) three dialects of the Baniwa, 
 eo nomine — the Baniwa of the river Isanna, the 
 Baniwa of the Tomo and Maroa rivers, and the Baniwa 
 of the Javita ; this last being spoken beyond the 
 boundary, i. e. in Venezuela. 
 
 The affinities between the five forms of speech 
 under notice appear to run just as Mr. Wallace 
 has arranged his specimens of them, i. e. Tariana, 
 Baniwa of the Isanna, Barree, Baniwa of the Tomo 
 and Maroa, and Baniwa of the Javita. Between 
 the extremes there is a considerable difference : a fact 
 which should lead us to reflect upon what would be our 
 opinion if, instead of being preserved, the intermediate 
 forms had been lost. This would depend, to a great 
 extent, upon the way in which these extremes were 
 represented ; it being certain that, if our specimens 
 represented those parts of the two forms of speech 
 which differed rather than those whicli agreed with 
 each other, we should pronounce them to be separate 
 Icinguages. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Baniwa (Toraa and 
 
 English. 
 
 Baniwa (Isanna). 
 
 Barree. 
 
 Baniwa (Javita). 
 
 Maroa). 
 
 Man 
 
 atchinali 
 
 henul 
 
 henume 
 
 catenemuni 
 
 Woman 
 
 inaru 
 
 ineitutii 
 
 neyau 
 
 thalinaferai 
 
 Boy 
 
 mapen 
 
 hantetchule 
 
 iilubevlil) 
 
 mathicoyou 
 
 Girl 
 
 niapeni 
 
 heineitutchi 
 
 neyauferium 
 
 mathicoyou 
 

 
 THE BANIWA, ETC. 
 
 481 
 
 
 
 
 
 Baniwa (Tonia and 
 
 English. Baniwa (Isanna). 
 
 Banee. 
 
 Baniwa (Javita). 
 
 Maroa). 
 
 Head 
 
 nhuhideu 
 
 nodusia 
 
 nobie 
 
 washio 
 
 Mouth 
 
 nonuma 
 
 nonuma 
 
 enoma 
 
 wanoma 
 
 Eye 
 
 nuiti 
 
 niiita 
 
 nofurli 
 
 waholisi 
 
 Nose 
 
 nitucii 
 
 niiti 
 
 nuyapeu 
 
 wasiwi 
 
 Teeth 
 
 . noyeihei 
 
 nahei 
 
 nasi 
 
 wathi 
 
 Belly 
 
 noshada 
 
 nodullah 
 
 paneni 
 
 wabnwiti 
 
 Arm 
 
 nozete 
 
 nodana 
 
 nanu 
 
 wacano 
 
 Hand 
 
 nucapi 
 
 niicabi 
 
 nappi 
 
 wacavi 
 
 Fingers 
 
 nucapi 
 
 nucabi heintibe napbibre 
 
 wacavitheani 
 
 Toes 
 
 rnihipa 
 
 nisi heintibe 
 
 geiut sisine 
 
 watsisiculoasi 
 
 Foot 
 
 nupepa 
 
 nisi 
 
 nuitsiphabe 
 
 watsisi 
 
 Bone 
 
 noapi 
 
 nabi 
 
 nopuina 
 
 warlaunku 
 
 Blood 
 
 nuira 
 
 niya 
 
 miasi 
 
 wathanuma 
 
 Sun 
 
 camiii 
 
 camu 
 
 namouri 
 
 
 Moon 
 
 keri 
 
 tbekhe 
 
 narhita 
 
 enoo 
 
 Star 
 
 iweri 
 
 wenadi 
 
 uiminari 
 
 
 Fire 
 
 tidge 
 
 cameni 
 
 arsi 
 
 cathi 
 
 Water 
 
 uni 
 
 uni 
 
 weni 
 
 weni. 
 
 The Ghimayios 
 
 is nearer to these than 
 
 to aught else. 
 
 English 
 
 Cliinianos. 
 
 English. 
 
 Chinaanos. 
 
 Head 
 
 nuhla 
 
 
 Sun 
 
 somanlu 
 
 Eye 
 
 nullata 
 
 Moon 
 
 uaniu 
 
 Nose 
 
 intshiuongeu 
 
 Earth 
 
 tocke 
 
 Mouth. 
 
 mima 
 
 
 Fire 
 
 oeje 
 
 Tongue nehna 
 
 
 Water 
 
 ubu 
 
 Tooth 
 
 nihi 
 
 
 One 
 
 apbuUa 
 
 Hand 
 
 gabi 
 
 
 Two 
 
 biagma 
 
 Foot 
 
 nou 
 
 
 Three 
 
 mabaagmamacke 
 
 The tlaenaTYiheu, or Himiming-Blrd Indians, lie 
 beyond the districts personally visited by Mr. Wallace, 
 i. e. on the Lower Japnra. He met, however, with 
 some of them on the Rio Negro, and obtained some 
 information concerning them, as well as a vocabulary of 
 their language. He connects them more especially with 
 the Coretu and the Juri. The point, however, of most 
 importance concerning this Uaenambeu vocabulary is the 
 fact of its representing the language of a group of tribes 
 already known to us — already known to us under the 
 name Mauh^. 
 
 The Coretu lie on the Apaporis, between the Uapes 
 and the Japura. The Tucano belong to the same rivers : 
 
488 
 
 CORETU, ETC. 
 
 the Cobeu to the main stream of the Qap^s. The 
 G obeu, Tucano, and Coretu, are members of the same 
 class ; the exact value of it being uncertain. The 
 Cobeu bore their ears, and enlarge the hole until it will 
 take in a bottle-cork ; hereby illustrating our -remarks 
 on the word Orejones. The reason for writing Coretu 
 of Wallace lies in the fact of there being in Balbi 
 another Coretu vocabulary : which, with the exception 
 of one word {haie zz aoue zn sun) is not the language of 
 the vocabularies more especially under notice. 
 
 The Juri lie between the lea and the Japura, and 
 are called, also, Juripixunas = Black Juri, and Boca- 
 prietos =: Blackmouths from the custom of tattooing the 
 parts about the mouth in such a manner as to resemble 
 the black-mouthed squirrel- monkeys (Callithrix sciureus). 
 A portion of them has migrated to the Rio Negro, settled 
 there, and become more or less civilized. 
 
 English. 
 
 Uaenambeu. 
 
 Juri. 
 
 Coretu. 
 
 Man 
 
 achijari 
 
 tclioucu 
 
 ermeu 
 
 Woman 
 
 inaru 
 
 tchure 
 
 nomi 
 
 Boy 
 
 maishu 
 
 raiute 
 
 ingigu 
 
 Girl 
 
 maishu 
 
 nitemi 
 
 nomi amanga 
 
 Head 
 
 eribida 
 
 tchokireu 
 
 cuilri 
 
 Mouth 
 
 erinuma 
 
 tchoia 
 
 diishi 
 
 Eye 
 
 eridoe 
 
 tchoit 
 
 yealluh 
 
 Nose 
 
 nuetacu 
 
 youcoue 
 
 ergilli 
 
 Teeth 
 
 nuaei 
 
 tchatikou 
 
 gohpecu 
 
 Belly 
 
 nucutu 
 
 turaeh 
 
 tobtono 
 
 Arm 
 
 eribedo 
 
 tchoua 
 
 dicah 
 
 Hand 
 
 erikiapi 
 
 tclioupumau 
 
 muhu 
 
 Fingers 
 
 nucapi 
 
 tchoupei 
 
 muetsbu 
 
 Toes 
 
 nuipamena 
 
 tchoupomoru 
 
 giapa muetsbu 
 
 Foot 
 
 eriipa 
 
 tchouoti 
 
 giapa 
 
 Bone 
 
 nuapi 
 
 tchouino 
 
 gnueh 
 
 Blood . 
 
 nuiri 
 
 ecbonim 
 
 dii 
 
 San 
 
 camui 
 
 iye 
 
 auoue 
 
 Moon 
 
 cari 
 
 noimo 
 
 iamimiaga 
 
 Star 
 
 ibidji 
 
 ouca 
 
 omoari 
 
 Fire 
 
 itchipa 
 
 u 
 
 piulre 
 
 Water 
 
 una 
 
 coora 
 
 deco. 
 
 rhat neither Juri nor . 
 
 Juripixunas 
 
 are native names 
 
 will be seen in the sequel. 
 

 MAIPUR, ETC. 
 
 48 
 
 riie follow 
 
 mg is the Goretu of Balbi. 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Coictu. 
 
 English. 
 
 Core'u. 
 
 Eye 
 
 siroho 
 
 Foot 
 
 namaigo 
 
 Head 
 
 caixmeo 
 
 Sun 
 
 haie 
 
 Nose 
 
 liissapo 
 
 Moon 
 
 haio-pucku 
 
 Mouth 
 
 hiamolocko 
 
 Earth 
 
 gaira 
 
 Tongue 
 
 coahuro 
 
 Water 
 
 cootabu 
 
 Tooth 
 Hand 
 
 simaliapo 
 coholo 
 
 Fire 
 
 aegace. 
 
 The Baniwa of the Tomo and Maroa is more 
 especially Maipur ; that of the Isanna Carib ; whilst 
 that of the Javita leads, more especially towards the 
 languages of Ecuador. Meanwhile, it is generally 
 recognized that (whether the affinity be great or small) 
 there has always been one between the Maipur and the 
 Carib, en Tnasse. 
 
 English. 
 
 Maipur. 
 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Maiptir. 
 
 God 
 
 purruna-minari 
 
 
 River 
 
 ueni 
 
 Man 
 
 cajarrachini 
 
 
 LaJce 
 
 cavia 
 
 Woman 
 
 tinioclii 
 
 
 
 Mountain 
 
 japa 
 
 Shy 
 
 eno 
 
 
 
 Roch 
 
 chipa 
 
 Earth 
 
 peni 
 
 
 
 Tree 
 
 aa 
 
 Sun 
 
 chie 
 
 
 
 Head 
 
 nucliibucu 
 
 Moon 
 
 chejapi 
 
 
 
 Ear 
 
 nuachini 
 
 Star 
 
 urrupu 
 
 
 
 Eye 
 
 nupurichi 
 
 Bay 
 
 pecumi 
 
 
 
 Nose 
 
 nuchirri 
 
 Night 
 
 jatti 
 
 
 
 Mouth 
 
 nunumacu 
 
 Wind 
 
 chipucu 
 
 
 
 Tooth 
 
 nati 
 
 Cloud 
 
 tamana 
 
 
 
 Tongue 
 
 nuare 
 
 Rain 
 
 tia 
 
 
 
 Arm 
 
 nuaua 
 
 Fire 
 
 catti 
 
 
 
 Hand 
 
 nucapi 
 
 Water 
 
 ueni 
 
 
 
 Foot 
 
 nuchii. 
 
 The Achagua is ak 
 
 in to i 
 
 ;his. 
 
 
 
 English. 
 
 
 Maipur 
 
 
 
 A-chagua. 
 
 / 
 
 
 nura or 
 
 cana 
 
 
 nuya 
 
 Thou 
 
 
 pia — 
 
 capi 
 
 
 qiya 
 
 He 
 
 
 ia — 
 
 he 
 
 
 piya 
 
 She 
 
 
 yyya — 
 
 cau 
 
 
 ruya 
 
 We 
 
 
 uaya — 
 
 cavi 
 
 
 quaya 
 
 Ye 
 
 
 nia — 
 
 caui 
 
 
 iya 
 
 They 
 
 
 nia — 
 
 cani 
 
 
 naya. 
 
490 
 
 THE CARIB GROUP. 
 
 So is the Pareni. The next twenty vocabularies 
 belong to the great Garih group. 
 
 (In New Grenada.) 
 
 English 
 
 
 Guaque. 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Guaque. 
 
 Head 
 
 
 jutuye 
 
 
 Tongue 
 
 inico 
 
 Hair 
 
 
 jutuyari 
 
 
 Hand 
 
 ninare 
 
 Eye 
 
 
 emuni 
 
 
 Sun 
 
 vebi 
 
 Ear 
 
 
 janari 
 
 
 Moon 
 
 nuna 
 
 Nose 
 
 
 onari 
 
 
 Star 
 
 cbirique 
 
 Teeth 
 
 
 yeri 
 
 
 Fire 
 
 majoto 
 
 Foot 
 
 
 ijupuru 
 
 
 Earth 
 
 neno 
 
 Bone 
 
 
 yetije 
 
 
 Stone 
 
 jefu 
 
 Mouth 
 
 indare 
 
 
 ^99 
 
 ismu. 
 
 
 (In Demerara and Venezuela 
 
 ) 
 
 Eiiglisli. 
 
 Wapisiana 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Wapisiaua. 
 
 Head 
 
 
 uni'uai-aitana 
 
 Earth 
 
 emu 
 
 Eye 
 
 
 ungwawlien 
 
 Fire 
 
 tegberre 
 
 Nose 
 
 
 ungwiitippa 
 
 Water 
 
 tuna 
 
 Mouth 
 
 untaghu 
 
 
 Bow 
 
 sumara 
 
 Hand 
 
 
 ungwaipanna 
 
 Arrow 
 
 urregburi 
 
 Foot 
 
 
 unketewi 
 
 
 Dog 
 
 arimaragba 
 
 Sun 
 
 
 kamo 
 
 
 One 
 
 peiteieppa 
 
 Moon 
 
 
 keirrh 
 
 
 Two 
 
 tiattang 
 
 Star 
 
 
 weri 
 
 
 Three 
 
 itikineita. 
 
 English. 
 
 Waiyamera. 
 
 Guinau. 
 
 Maiongkong. 
 
 Woyawai. 
 
 Head 
 
 ipawa 
 
 
 intshebu 
 
 bobuba 
 
 igteburi 
 
 Eye 
 
 yenuru 
 
 
 nawisi 
 
 uyenuru 
 
 eoru 
 
 Nose 
 
 yonari 
 
 
 intshe 
 
 yoanari 
 
 younari 
 
 Mouth 
 
 tshuaduru 
 
 noma 
 
 andati 
 
 emdare 
 
 Hand 
 
 yanaroru 
 
 inkabe 
 
 yamutti 
 
 yamore 
 
 Foot 
 
 kiporu 
 
 
 intsbibe 
 
 obutu 
 
 borori 
 
 Sun 
 
 weyu 
 
 
 kamuhu 
 
 tsbi 
 
 kamu 
 
 Moon 
 
 numa 
 
 
 kewari 
 
 nuna 
 
 nuni 
 
 Star 
 
 serrika 
 
 
 yuwinti 
 
 yetika 
 
 serego 
 
 Earth 
 
 nono 
 
 
 kati 
 
 nono 
 
 roon 
 
 Fire 
 
 wata 
 
 
 tsheke 
 
 wato 
 
 wetta 
 
 Water 
 
 tuna 
 
 
 oni 
 
 tuni 
 
 knisbamina 
 
 Bow 
 
 urahaberaglia 
 
 tsbimar] 
 
 -tsbebi tsimare-buru klaffa 
 
 Arrow 
 
 parau 
 
 
 tsbimari 
 
 tsimarei 
 
 woiyu 
 
 Dog 
 
 okheri 
 
 
 kwashi 
 
 tsefete 
 
 tsawari 
 
 One 
 
 tuwine 
 
 
 pareita 
 
 toni 
 
 tioni 
 
 Two 
 
 asare 
 
 
 yamike 
 
 ake 
 
 asake 
 
 Three 
 
 ware 
 
 
 piampai 
 
 yam airtuaba 
 
 soroau. 
 
THE CARIB GROUP. 
 
 491 
 
 English. Caribisi. 
 
 Accaway. 
 
 Macusi. 
 
 
 Ar6ciina. 
 
 Socrikong. 
 
 Head yububo 
 
 yubobo 
 
 pupei 
 
 
 opuwei 
 
 ipei 
 
 Eye yenuru 
 
 yenum 
 
 uyenu 
 
 
 yenuru 
 
 itaana 
 
 Nose yenetari 
 
 yen 
 
 uyeuna 
 
 uyeuna 
 
 akone 
 
 Mouth 
 
 yubotarri 
 
 hunta 
 
 
 undek 
 
 
 Hand yennan 
 
 yenarru 
 
 huyenya 
 
 uyena 
 
 omamiara 
 
 Foot pupu 
 
 yubobo 
 
 hupu 
 
 
 uta 
 
 itua 
 
 Sun wehu 
 
 weyeyu 
 
 web 
 
 
 wae 
 
 
 Moon nuno 
 
 nuno 
 
 kapoi 
 
 
 kapui 
 
 
 Star siriko 
 
 irema 
 
 siriko 
 
 
 serrika 
 
 
 Earth yoporo 
 
 ito 
 
 nung 
 
 
 nunk 
 
 
 Fire watto 
 
 watu 
 
 apo 
 
 
 apok 
 
 
 Water tuno 
 
 tuna 
 
 tuna 
 
 
 tuna 
 
 
 Bow htirapa 
 
 ureba 
 
 hurapi 
 
 a 
 
 urapa 
 
 
 Arroio purrewa 
 
 pulewa 
 
 parau 
 
 
 purrau 
 
 
 Dog keikutshi 
 
 piro 
 
 arimagha 
 
 arimaragha 
 
 One owe 
 
 tigina 
 
 tiwing 
 
 tanking 
 
 
 Ttoo oco 
 
 asakre 
 
 sakene 
 
 atsakane 
 
 
 Three orwa 
 
 osorwo 
 
 etseberauwani 
 
 eserewe 
 
 
 English, 
 
 Mawakwa. 
 
 Pianoghotto. 
 
 Tiverighotto. 
 
 Head 
 
 unkaua • 
 
 
 
 
 oputpa 
 
 Eye 
 
 ngnoso 
 
 
 yenei 
 
 
 oneama 
 
 Nose 
 
 ngndewa 
 
 
 yoanari 
 
 
 
 Mouth 
 
 ngnomiti 
 
 
 yefiri 
 
 
 opota 
 
 Hand 
 
 ngnkowa 
 
 
 yenari 
 
 
 
 
 Foot 
 
 ungeopa 
 
 
 putu 
 
 
 upti 
 
 Sun 
 
 kamu 
 
 
 weh 
 
 
 weh 
 
 Moon 
 
 kirsu 
 
 
 nuna 
 
 
 niano 
 
 Star 
 
 wishi 
 
 
 siriko 
 
 
 seriko 
 
 Earth 
 
 tsbimari 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fire 
 
 tsbikasi 
 
 
 matto 
 
 
 apoto 
 
 Water 
 
 wune 
 
 
 tuna 
 
 
 tuna 
 
 Bow 
 
 thseye 
 
 
 urapa 
 
 
 
 Arrow 
 
 kengye 
 
 
 purau 
 
 
 
 Dog 
 
 
 
 keikue 
 
 
 
 One 
 
 apaura 
 
 
 
 
 
 Two 
 
 woaraka 
 
 
 
 
 
 Three 
 
 tamarsi 
 
 
 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Atoria. 
 
 
 Daurai. 
 
 Head 
 
 unruai-eterna 
 
 wauunbarra 
 
 Eye 
 
 wawanumte 
 
 
 wauuni 
 
 Nose 
 
 wauuni 
 
 
 opebe 
 
 Mouth 
 
 otagh 
 
 lU 
 
 
 otagho 
 
 Hand 
 
 unkuai 
 
 
 okei 
 
 
 Foot 
 
 unkheti 
 
 
 okheti 
 
 Sun 
 
 kamoi 
 
 
 tamoi 
 
 Moon 
 
 keivrhe 
 
 
 kairra 
 
492 
 
 THE CARIB GROUP. 
 
 English. 
 
 
 Atoria. 
 
 
 Daurai. 
 
 Star 
 
 
 watsieirhe 
 
 
 wonari 
 
 Earth 
 
 
 tari 
 
 
 dari 
 
 Fire 
 
 
 tegherre 
 
 
 tekeri 
 
 Water 
 
 
 tuna 
 
 
 onabo 
 
 B(m 
 
 
 parauri 
 
 
 parauri 
 
 Arrow 
 
 
 peiiri 
 
 
 werakure 
 
 Dog 
 
 
 teni 
 
 
 teni 
 
 One 
 
 
 peitaghpa 
 
 
 weitappa 
 
 Two 
 
 
 pauiteitegh 
 
 
 peitategh 
 
 Three 
 
 
 ipiketaub 
 
 
 hikeitaba. 
 
 English. 
 
 Tamanak. 
 
 Carib. 
 
 Jaoi. 
 
 Arawak. 
 
 Man {homo) 
 
 
 oquiri 
 
 
 lukku 
 
 {mr) 
 
 nuani chivacane yon 
 
 
 
 Woman 
 
 aica 
 
 
 
 biara 
 
 
 puti 
 
 apouitime 
 
 
 
 Head 
 
 prutpi 
 
 upupu 
 
 boppe 
 
 
 Eye 
 
 januru 
 
 enuru 
 
 voere 
 
 
 Ear 
 
 parani 
 
 pana 
 
 pannai 
 
 
 Nose 
 
 jonnari 
 
 enetali 
 
 hoenali 
 
 
 Tongue 
 
 nuru 
 
 nuru 
 
 
 
 Hair 
 
 cipoti 
 
 
 
 ubarrahu 
 
 Hand 
 
 janignari 
 
 amecu 
 
 
 ukkabuhu 
 
 Foot 
 
 ptari 
 
 ipupu 
 
 
 
 Shy 
 
 capu 
 
 cabo 
 
 capu 
 
 munti 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 kassaku 
 
 Earth 
 
 nono 
 
 nono 
 
 soye 
 
 wunnabu 
 
 Sun 
 
 
 wey 
 
 weyo 
 
 bR,(1dalli 
 
 Moon 
 
 
 nuno 
 
 nonna 
 
 
 Fire 
 
 
 wato 
 
 uapoto 
 
 elelulun 
 
 Water 
 
 
 
 tuna 
 
 
 wuniabu 
 
 One 
 
 ovin 
 
 aunik 
 
 tewyn 
 
 abba 
 
 Two 
 
 oco 
 
 wecu 
 
 tage 
 
 biarna 
 
 Three 
 
 ooroo 
 
 wua 
 
 terewaid kabbuin. 
 
 For these latter dialects our chief authority is Sir R. 
 Scliomburgh. The number of vocabularies as collected by 
 him during his expeditions into the interior, is eighteen, 
 none of which, he states, bear a closer affinity to each other 
 than the French and Italian. This statement, however, 
 is one which the present writer is not prepared to adopt. 
 Of these eighteen vocabularies, only one or two have 
 been published in extenso. From the report, however, of 
 the British Association for the Advancement of Science, 
 A.D. 1848, the foregoing short extracts have been taken. 
 
WAROW, SALIVI, AND TARUMA. 
 
 493 
 
 (1.) 
 
 Euglisli. 
 
 Salivi. 
 
 En;ilish. 
 
 Salivi. 
 
 Shy 
 
 mumeseche 
 
 Eye 
 
 pacute 
 
 Sun 
 
 miimeseche cocco 
 
 Ear 
 
 aicupana 
 
 Moon 
 
 vexio 
 
 Nose 
 
 inam 
 
 Star 
 
 sipodi 
 
 Mouth 
 
 aaja 
 
 Earth 
 
 seche 
 
 Neck 
 
 uncua 
 
 Water 
 
 cagua 
 
 Arm 
 
 ichechee 
 
 Fire 
 
 equssa 
 
 Hand 
 
 immomo 
 
 Man 
 
 cocco 
 
 Finger 
 
 endecce 
 
 Woman 
 
 gnacu 
 
 Belly 
 
 teacce 
 
 Bird 
 
 gnendi 
 
 Heart 
 
 omagnaa 
 
 Fish 
 
 paji 
 
 Thigh 
 
 icooco 
 
 River 
 
 oclii 
 
 Knee 
 
 gnujui 
 
 Lake 
 
 iboopu * 
 
 Leg 
 
 injua 
 
 Tree 
 
 nonhue 
 
 Foot 
 
 caabapa. 
 
 
 (2.) 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Warow. 
 
 English. 
 
 Warow. 
 
 Man 
 
 nlbur4 
 
 Feet 
 
 miimu 
 
 Woman 
 
 tida 
 
 Blood 
 
 hotuh 
 
 Boy \ 
 Girl ] 
 
 noboto 
 
 Sun 
 Moon 
 
 yah 
 wanehuh 
 
 Head 
 
 makwau 
 
 Star 
 
 keorah 
 
 Neck 
 
 mahaabey 
 
 Rain 
 
 naabaa 
 
 Eyes 
 
 maamu 
 
 Wind 
 
 ahaaka 
 
 Nose 
 
 mayhecaddy 
 
 Fire 
 
 ikkunuh 
 
 Mouth 
 
 maroho 
 
 Water 
 
 he 
 
 Hair 
 
 maaheo 
 
 Earth 
 
 hotah 
 
 Ear 
 
 mahohoko 
 
 Sky 
 
 nahaamtituh 
 
 Arms 
 
 mahaara 
 
 Hill 
 
 hotaquay 
 
 Hand 
 
 maamuhoo 
 
 Wood 
 
 daunah 
 
 Fingers 
 
 mamuhoo 
 
 Rock 
 
 hoeyu 
 
 Bone 
 
 muhu 
 
 Sand 
 
 kahemrah 
 
 Shin 
 
 mahoro 
 
 Island 
 
 bulohoh 
 
 Flesh 
 
 matumuh 
 
 One 
 
 hesacha 
 
 Bad 
 
 maalmh 
 
 Two 
 
 monatnu 
 
 Belly 
 
 mobunuh 
 
 Three 
 
 dianamu 
 
 Breast 
 
 maameyhu 
 
 Five 
 
 mahabass 
 
 Thighs 
 
 marolo 
 
 Ten 
 
 moreycooyt. 
 
 Leg 
 
 maahah 
 
 ^•) 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Taruma. 
 
 English. 
 
 Taruma. 
 
 Head 
 
 atta 
 
 Hand 
 
 ahu 
 
 Eye 
 
 atzi 
 
 Foot 
 
 appa 
 
 Nose 
 
 assa 
 
 Sun 
 
 ouang 
 
 Mouth 
 
 merukukanna 
 
 Moon 
 
 piwa 
 
49-fc 
 
 MURA. 
 
 English. 
 
 Taruma. 
 
 English. 
 
 Star 
 
 wingra 
 
 Arrow 
 
 Fire 
 
 hua 
 
 Dog 
 
 Water 
 
 tza 
 
 One 
 
 Earth 
 
 , toto 
 
 Two, 
 
 Bow 
 
 tzeika 
 
 Three 
 
 
 (4.) 
 
 English. 
 
 Muia. 
 
 Englisli. 
 
 Head 
 
 abbaih 
 
 Foot 
 
 Eye 
 
 gossa 
 
 Sun 
 
 Nose 
 
 jtauhaing 
 
 Moon 
 
 Mouth 
 
 abbassah 
 
 Earth 
 
 Tongue 
 
 abboa 
 
 Fire 
 
 Tooth 
 
 aithoa 
 
 Water 
 
 Hand 
 
 uhna 
 
 
 Taruma. 
 kupa 
 hi 
 oshe 
 tyuwa 
 ungkehah. 
 
 Mura. 
 
 cahaiiang 
 mettie 
 huaing 
 pae. 
 
 The next three lists from the occupancies bearing 
 the names at the head of the several columns, re- 
 present the dialects not of the Juri of Wallace (who 
 seem to be the true Juripixunas or Blackmouths) but 
 of the people who apply that name and in whose lan- 
 guage it is significant. 
 
 Engliah. 
 
 S. Pedro & Alnicida. 
 
 S. Pedi-0. 
 
 Alraei 
 
 Man 
 
 apiaba 
 
 apuava 
 
 
 Woman 
 
 ciinha 
 
 cunha 
 
 
 Head 
 
 acang 
 
 nhacang 
 
 
 
 Hair 
 
 aba 
 
 Java 
 
 ava 
 
 Eye 
 
 ceca 
 
 ceca 
 
 
 Ear 
 
 namby 
 
 namby 
 
 
 Mouth 
 
 juru 
 
 juru 
 
 
 Foot 
 
 py 
 
 iporong ava 
 
 
 Arm 
 
 jyba 
 
 juva 
 
 
 
 Hand 
 
 po 
 
 ipoha 
 
 
 Shy 
 
 ybake 
 
 yuvacca 
 
 
 Star 
 
 jacytata 
 
 cbacauma 
 
 
 Fire 
 
 tata 
 
 tata 
 
 
 Water 
 
 yge 
 
 yg 
 
 yg 
 
 Tree 
 
 ymyra 
 
 vuyra 
 
 
 House 
 
 oca 
 
 joca 
 
 
 Wind 
 
 ybutu 
 
 ynutu 
 
 evatu 
 
 Black 
 
 pixum^auna 
 
 sum 
 
 sun 
 
 One 
 
 oyepe 
 
 oyepenho 
 
 oyepe 
 
 Two 
 
 mocoi 
 
 moca 
 
 
 Three 
 
 mozapyr 
 
 mozapu 
 
 
IQUITO, ETC. 
 
 4 
 
 The Iquito, akin to the preceding — 
 
 
 Englisli. Iquito. 
 
 English. 
 
 Iquito. 
 
 Man icouan 
 
 Ear 
 
 qiiiatoiim 
 
 Woman icouan 
 
 Hand 
 
 yanamaca 
 
 Head manaca 
 
 Foot 
 
 quiainoi 
 
 Eye panami 
 
 Sun 
 
 yanamia 
 
 Nose cachirica 
 
 Moon 
 
 cashi 
 
 Mouth kainga 
 
 Water 
 
 aqua. 
 
 Of the Xumano or Ghomano, I only 
 
 know the i 
 
 ving words. 
 
 
 Englisli. -■ Xumano. 
 
 
 Sun sima 
 
 
 Moon vueta 
 
 
 Star 
 
 vuete. 
 
 
 495 
 
 For the Mayoruna Castelnau has given two voca- 
 bularies, one representing the language of the converted, 
 the other that of the unconverted, tribes. 
 
 English. 
 
 Mayoruna (1). 
 
 Mayoruna (2) 
 
 Man 
 
 dara 
 
 dara 
 
 Woman 
 
 shirawa 
 
 tirahua 
 
 Head 
 
 moho 
 
 macho 
 
 Eye 
 
 bedo 
 
 
 Nose 
 
 delian 
 
 dizan 
 
 Mouth 
 
 ibi 
 
 ira 
 
 Ear 
 
 pabauan 
 
 pahiuran 
 
 Hand 
 
 macou 
 
 poro 
 
 Foot 
 
 tacu 
 
 tahi 
 
 Sun 
 
 bari 
 
 bari 
 
 Moon 
 
 oueu 
 
 houiji 
 
 Water 
 
 waca 
 
 houaca. 
 
 Mayoruna is a name which occurs in the Mithridates ; 
 the Mayoruna language being said to belong, with the 
 Barbudo, Iturale, and Musimo forms of speech, to the 
 Ui"arina class. 
 
 It is safe to say that the Peha, Yagua, and the Ore- 
 jones forms of speech are more closely connected with 
 each other than any of them is with anything else. The 
 exact amount of affinity is uncertain, though there can 
 
436 
 
 PEBA, YAGUA, ETC. 
 
 be but little doubt that the tliree languages are mutually 
 unintelligible. The Aissuari, the Yurumagua, and the 
 Cahumari languages, mentioned in the Mithridates, 
 but not represented by any specimen, are likely to 
 have belonged to this class. It may easily, however, 
 be imagined that the distribution of unrepresented 
 languages over classes like those before us is doubtful. 
 What may probably have been Peba, or Urarina, may, 
 with nearly equal probability, have been Omagua, 
 Iquito, or aught else. 
 
 As Orejones means large-earedy it must be dealt with 
 as a common rather than a proper name. If so, it may 
 occur in more quarters than one ; i. e. whenever ears 
 are either naturally large or artificially enlarged along 
 with a language in a neighbourhood where orejo — ear. 
 The same applies not only to Barbudo, Encahellado, 
 (?) Zapara {Xeherro ?), and other names of European, 
 but to many of even American origin ; as may be seen 
 by paying attention to the manner in which (inter alia) 
 certain words ending in -mayo, and -agua, present 
 themselves at long distances from each other — these 
 words being Guarani. 
 
 English. 
 
 Oregones. 
 
 Peba. 
 
 Yagua. 
 
 Man 
 
 comai 
 
 comoley 
 
 huano 
 
 Woman 
 
 erigno 
 
 watoa 
 
 huatarunia 
 
 Head 
 
 huha 
 
 raina 
 
 firignio 
 
 Eye 
 
 oi 
 
 vinimichi 
 
 huirancai 
 
 Nose 
 
 hoho 
 
 vinerro 
 
 unirou 
 
 Mouth 
 
 huai 
 
 rito 
 
 huicama 
 
 Far 
 
 kinoleo 
 
 mitiwa 
 
 ontisini 
 
 Hand 
 
 onokui 
 
 vinitaily 
 
 huijanpana 
 
 Foot 
 
 etaiboi 
 
 vinimotay 
 
 moumoumatou 
 
 Sun 
 
 idoma 
 
 wana 
 
 ini 
 
 Moon 
 
 hiutsara 
 
 remelane 
 
 alemare 
 
 Water 
 
 ainoe 
 
 ain 
 
 haha. 
 
 Wherever the ticuna poison is used, with a popu- 
 lation in the neighbourhood which uses the name, Ticuna 
 Indians may be expected ; and any two groups of such 
 may be in any degree of relationship. One of Cas- 
 
TICUNAS, ETC. 
 
 497 
 
 telnau's vocabularies gives us a language under this 
 name. It stands well apart from the ones that have 
 already been noticed ; but, as the samples are short, we 
 should remember that Hervas states that the Peba and 
 Ticuna (also called Xumano) are connected. 
 
 English. 
 
 Ticunas. 
 
 English. 
 
 Ticunas. 
 
 Man 
 
 iate 
 
 Ear 
 
 nachinai 
 
 Woman 
 
 niai 
 
 Hand 
 
 tapamai 
 
 Head 
 
 nahairou 
 
 Foot 
 
 nacoutai 
 
 Eye 
 
 nehaitai 
 
 Sun 
 
 iakai 
 
 Nose 
 
 naran 
 
 Moon 
 
 tahuaimaika 
 
 Mouth 
 
 naha 
 
 Water 
 
 aaoitchu. 
 
 Further south on the frontier of the Quichua we 
 have, from a longer list of Osculati's, the following 
 words for the Zapara. 
 
 English. 
 
 Zapara. 
 
 English. 
 
 Znpara. 
 
 Man 
 
 taucko 
 
 Sun 
 
 janockua 
 
 Head 
 
 anackaka 
 
 Star 
 
 naricka 
 
 Ear 
 
 taurike 
 
 Moon 
 
 cacikua 
 
 Eye 
 
 namisia 
 
 Fire 
 
 anamicukucia 
 
 Nose 
 
 mihucua 
 
 Water 
 
 muriccia 
 
 Tongue 
 
 ririccia 
 
 Tree 
 
 nackuna 
 
 Teeth 
 
 icare 
 
 Sand 
 
 hiocka 
 
 Mouth 
 
 atuapama 
 
 Bird 
 
 piscko 
 
 Beard 
 
 amu 
 
 Egg 
 
 ickuqua 
 
 Arm 
 
 curemasaca 
 
 Belly 
 
 raarama 
 
 Hand 
 
 hickoma 
 
 Foot 
 
 hinocka 
 
 Day 
 
 nuackate 
 
 Blood 
 
 nunacke. 
 
 Night 
 
 nignacka 
 
 
 
 To these parts belongs the following Paternoster of 
 the— 
 
 Yamea. 
 Neike alien arrescunia abecin ; termo atiahua renumucha hoe tanla ; habecia 
 nei-nin ; anto nein arresiuma hoe baceiada renua nanca naerra ino popo nin ; 
 mirle termo pahoinlama nei amiziara aintanei errama ; halayan nei nei huchanla 
 tirra nei holayan lobua remorezio-nei ; lara hiamnerra nei han hucha-nen ; 
 tiarre ala ninze harramale nei. 
 
 These languages belong to Ecuador ; soutli of which 
 is a great gap. Hence the next chapters begin on the 
 
 K K 
 
498 ZAPARA, ETC. 
 
 eastern Andes at. the sources of the Beni and Mamore, 
 and (crossing the watershed) of the Vermeyo and Pilco- 
 mayo. The division of these into the languages of 
 (1.) the Missions, and (2.). the Chaco, is, more or less, 
 artificial ; as is the secondary division of the Missions 
 into those of {a) Moxos, and (6) Chiquitos. For the 
 Peruvian affinities of this class the Aymara, from its 
 being in situ, is more important than the Quichua. 
 
THE MISSIONS AND THE CHACO. 
 
 499 
 
 CHAPTER LXIII. 
 
 The Moxos, Chiquitos, and Chaco Languages. 
 
 In the following list, the first language is in contact 
 with the Quichua and Aymara, with which it is, proba- 
 bly, more closely allied than the present classification 
 makes it. Here it is treated as transitional to the 
 Peruvian and the languages of the Missions. 
 
 English. 
 
 Yuracaies. 
 
 Man 
 
 sufie 
 
 Woman 
 
 yee 
 
 Bead 
 
 dala 
 
 Cheek 
 
 pune 
 
 Eyes 
 
 tanti 
 
 Ears 
 
 meye 
 
 Hand 
 
 bana 
 
 Sun 
 
 puine 
 
 Moon 
 
 subi 
 
 Fire 
 
 aima 
 
 Water 
 
 sama 
 
 Mountain 
 
 monono 
 
 The Sapiboconi has s 
 
 English. 
 
 Sapiboconi. 
 
 Mail (homo) 
 
 reanci 
 
 Woman 
 
 anu 
 
 Head 
 
 echuja 
 
 Eye 
 
 etuachuru 
 
 Nose 
 
 evi 
 
 Tmgue 
 
 eana 
 
 Hair 
 
 echau 
 
 Hand 
 
 erne 
 
 Foot 
 
 ebbachi 
 
 English. 
 
 Yuracarcs. 
 
 Bow 
 
 mumuta 
 
 Arrow 
 
 tomete 
 
 Young 
 
 sebebonte 
 
 Old 
 
 calasune 
 
 7, me 
 
 SB 
 
 He, she 
 
 lati 
 
 Give me 
 
 timbucke 
 
 Eat 
 
 tiai 
 
 Sleep 
 
 atesi 
 
 Twill 
 
 cusu 
 
 I mil not 
 
 nis cusu. 
 
 English. 
 
 Day 
 
 Sky 
 
 Earth 
 
 Moon 
 
 Fire 
 
 Water 
 
 One 
 
 Txoo 
 
 Three 
 
 Sapiboconi. 
 
 chine 
 
 euacuepana 
 
 mechi 
 
 bari 
 
 cuati 
 
 eubi 
 
 carata 
 
 mitia 
 
 curapa. 
 
 K K 2 
 
500 
 
 THE MISSIONS AND THE CHACO. 
 
 
 
 0-) 
 
 
 
 
 Moxos Languages. 
 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Saraveca 
 
 1 
 
 English. 
 
 
 Saraveca. 
 
 Man 
 
 echeena 
 
 Bow 
 
 
 echote 
 
 Woman 
 
 acunechu 
 
 Arrow 
 
 
 maji 
 
 Head 
 
 noeve 
 
 
 Young 
 
 
 inipia 
 
 Cheek 
 
 nunaapa 
 
 Old 
 
 
 vuchijari 
 
 Eyes 
 
 nol 
 
 
 /, me 
 
 
 nato 
 
 Ears 
 
 nuniije 
 
 
 He, she 
 
 
 ecbeche 
 
 Hand 
 
 aniquaichi 
 
 drive me 
 
 
 ich a munazii 
 
 Sun 
 
 caame 
 
 
 Eat 
 
 
 inucha 
 
 Moon 
 
 cache 
 
 
 Sleep 
 
 
 itie meia 
 
 Fire 
 
 tikiai 
 
 
 I will 
 
 
 areaca nojajai 
 
 Water 
 
 une 
 
 
 I will not 
 
 maicha nojari. 
 
 Mountain 
 
 uti 
 
 
 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Cliapacura. 
 
 Ecglish. 
 
 
 Chapacura. 
 
 Man 
 
 kiritian 
 
 Bow 
 
 
 parami 
 
 Woman ■ 
 
 yamake 
 
 Arroio 
 
 
 chininie 
 
 Head 
 
 upachi 
 
 ! 
 
 Young 
 
 
 isohuem 
 
 CheeTc 
 
 urutarachi 
 
 Old ' 
 
 
 itaracun 
 
 Eyes 
 
 tucuche 
 
 /, me 
 
 
 huaya 
 
 Ear 
 
 taitataichi 
 
 He, she 
 
 
 aricau 
 
 Hand 
 
 umichi 
 
 
 Give me 
 
 
 niiapache 
 
 Sun 
 
 huapirito 
 
 Eat 
 
 
 cahuara 
 
 Moon 
 
 panato 
 
 
 Sleep 
 
 
 huachia^ 
 
 Fire 
 
 isse 
 
 
 I will 
 
 
 mosicbacum 
 
 Water 
 
 acum 
 
 
 I will not 
 
 masichacum. 
 
 Mountain 
 
 pecun 
 
 
 
 
 
 English. 
 
 
 Movima. 
 
 
 Cayuvav 
 
 a. 
 
 Man {home) 
 
 
 itlacua 
 
 
 jadsi 
 
 
 Woman 
 
 
 cucya 
 
 
 itorene 
 
 
 Head 
 
 
 bacuacu 
 
 a 
 
 abaracama 
 
 Eye 
 
 
 chora 
 
 
 iyocori 
 
 
 Nose 
 
 
 chini 
 
 
 ebarioho 
 
 Tongue 
 
 
 rulcua 
 
 
 ine 
 
 
 Hair 
 
 
 
 
 apotacame 
 
 Hand 
 
 
 chopa 
 
 
 arue 
 
 
 Foot 
 
 
 zoipoh 
 
 
 ahei 
 
 
 Day 
 
 
 ernes 
 
 
 iriarama 
 
 Sky 
 
 
 benra 
 
 
 idah 
 
 
 Earth 
 
 
 llacamb 
 
 11 
 
 idatu 
 
 
 Sun 
 
 
 mossi 
 
 
 itoco 
 
 
 Moon 
 
 
 ychcho 
 
 
 yrare 
 
 
 Fire 
 
 
 vee 
 
 
 idore 
 
 
 Water 
 
 
 tomi 
 
 
 ikita 
 
 
 One 
 
 
 
 
 pebbi 
 
 
 Two 
 
 
 
 
 bbera 
 
 
 Three 
 
 
 
 
 
 kimisa. 
 
 
THE MISSIONS AND THE CHACO. 
 
 501 
 
 EngUsh. 
 
 Moxos. 
 
 English. 
 
 Moxos. 
 
 Man {homo) 
 
 acciane 
 
 Sky 
 
 anumo 
 
 Woman 
 
 eseno 
 
 Earth 
 
 moteji 
 
 Head 
 
 nuciuti 
 
 Sun 
 
 sacce 
 
 Eye 
 
 nuehi 
 
 Moon 
 
 coje 
 
 Ear 
 
 nicioca 
 
 Fire 
 
 une 
 
 Nose 
 
 nusuri 
 
 Water 
 
 jucu 
 
 Tongue 
 
 nunene 
 
 One 
 
 etona 
 
 Hand 
 
 nubu 
 
 Two 
 
 apina 
 
 Foot 
 
 nibope 
 
 Three 
 
 mopona. 
 
 Day 
 
 saccerei 
 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Itonama. 
 
 EngUsh. 
 
 Itonama. 
 
 Mail 
 
 umo 
 
 Bow 
 
 hualic/ikut 
 
 Woman 
 
 caneca 
 
 Arrow 
 
 chere 
 
 Bead 
 
 uchu 
 
 Young 
 
 tietie 
 
 Cheek 
 
 papapana 
 
 Old 
 
 viayachne 
 
 Eyes 
 
 icachi 
 
 I, me 
 
 achni 
 
 Ear 
 
 moc/itodo 
 
 He, she 
 
 oni 
 
 Hand 
 
 malaca 
 
 Give m£ 
 
 macuno 
 
 Sun 
 
 apache 
 
 Eat 
 
 ape 
 
 Moon 
 
 tiacaca 
 
 Sleep 
 
 conejna 
 
 Fire 
 
 bari 
 
 I will 
 
 ichavaneve 
 
 Water 
 
 huanuve 
 
 I will not 
 
 huachichvaco 
 
 Mountain 
 
 iti 
 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Canichana. 
 
 English. 
 
 Canichana. 
 
 Ma7i 
 
 enacu 
 
 Bow 
 
 niescutop 
 
 Woman 
 
 ikegahui 
 
 Arrow 
 
 ichuhuera 
 
 Head 
 
 eucucu 
 
 Young 
 
 ecokelege 
 
 Cheek 
 
 eicokena 
 
 Old 
 
 enimai-a 
 
 Eyes 
 
 eutot 
 
 /, Trie 
 
 ojale 
 
 Ear 
 
 eucomete 
 
 He, she 
 
 enjale 
 
 Hand 
 
 eutijle 
 
 Give me 
 
 sichite 
 
 Sun 
 
 nicojli 
 
 Eat 
 
 alema 
 
 Moon 
 
 nimilacu 
 
 Sleep 
 
 agaja 
 
 Fire 
 
 nichucu 
 
 I will 
 
 huarehua 
 
 Water 
 
 nese 
 
 I will not 
 
 nolmacA. 
 
 Mountain 
 
 comee 
 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Pacaguara. 
 
 English. 
 
 Pacaguai-a. 
 
 Man 
 
 uni 
 
 Hand 
 
 mupata 
 
 Woman 
 
 yucha 
 
 Sun 
 
 vari 
 
 Head 
 
 mapo 
 
 Moon 
 
 ochQ 
 
 Cheek 
 
 tamo 
 
 Fire 
 
 chU 
 
 Eyes 
 
 huiro 
 
 Water 
 
 jene 
 
 Ear 
 
 paoki 
 
 Mountain 
 
 raachiva 
 
502 
 
 THE MISSIONS AND THE CHACO. 
 
 English. 
 
 Pacaguwa. 
 
 English. 
 
 Pacaguara. 
 
 B(m 
 
 canati 
 
 Give me 
 
 ekiahue 
 
 Arrow 
 
 pia 
 
 Eat 
 
 hihue 
 
 Young 
 
 huakehue 
 
 Sleep 
 
 ocAahuan 
 
 Old 
 
 chaita 
 
 I will 
 
 akekia 
 
 /, me 
 
 ea 
 
 I will not 
 
 ojeamakea. 
 
 He, she 
 
 aa 
 
 
 
 Euglish. 
 
 It6n^s. 
 
 Enghsh. 
 
 Iteu^s. 
 
 Man 
 
 huataki 
 
 Bow 
 
 pari 
 
 Woman 
 
 tana 
 
 Arrow 
 
 kivo 
 
 Head 
 
 mahin 
 
 Young 
 
 iroco 
 
 Cheek 
 
 buca 
 
 Old 
 
 ucuti 
 
 Eyes 
 
 to 
 
 /, me 
 
 miti 
 
 Ear 
 
 iniri 
 
 He, she 
 
 comari 
 
 Hand 
 
 uru 
 
 Give me 
 
 huiti 
 
 Sun 
 
 mapito 
 
 Eat 
 
 caore 
 
 Moon 
 
 panevo 
 
 Sleep 
 
 upuiira 
 
 Fire 
 
 iche 
 
 I will 
 
 imere 
 
 Water 
 
 como 
 
 I will not 
 
 inimere. 
 
 Mountain 
 
 pico 
 
 (2 
 
 '■■) 
 
 
 
 Chiquitos J 
 
 Languages. 
 
 
 EngUsh. 
 
 Paioconeca. 
 
 English. 
 
 Paioconeca. 
 
 Man 
 
 uchanenuve 
 
 Bow 
 
 tibopo 
 
 Woman 
 
 esenunuve 
 
 Arrow 
 
 coriruco 
 
 Head 
 
 ipe 
 
 Young 
 
 umono 
 
 Cheek 
 
 ipiki 
 
 Old 
 
 ectia 
 
 Eyes 
 
 ihuikis 
 
 /, r/ie 
 
 neti 
 
 Ear 
 
 isenoke 
 
 He, she 
 
 piti 
 
 Hand 
 
 iruake 
 
 Give me 
 
 pipanira 
 
 Sun 
 
 isese 
 
 Eat 
 
 ninico 
 
 Moon 
 
 kejere 
 
 SUep 
 
 pimoco 
 
 Fire 
 
 chaki 
 
 I will 
 
 nikenino 
 
 Water 
 
 ina 
 
 I will not 
 
 isini kinovo 
 
 Mountain 
 
 • iyepe 
 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Chiquito. 
 
 Zamucu 
 
 
 Man (homo) 
 
 noneis 
 
 nani 
 
 
 Womxin 
 
 pais 
 
 cheke 
 
 
 Head 
 
 taanis 
 
 yatoitae 
 
 Eye 
 
 sutos 
 
 yede 
 
 
 Ear 
 
 umapus 
 
 
 
 
 Nose 
 
 ifias 
 
 yucunachu 
 
 Tongue 
 
 otus 
 
 
 
 
 Hair 
 
 taanis 
 
 
 
 
 Hand 
 
 ees 
 
 yuman? 
 
 ii 
 
THE MISSIONS AND THE OHACO. 
 
 503 
 
 English. 
 
 Chiquito 
 
 
 Zamucu 
 
 
 Foot 
 
 popez 
 
 
 irie 
 
 
 Day 
 
 anenez 
 
 
 dire 
 
 
 Shy 
 
 apez 
 
 
 gnieate 
 
 
 Earth 
 
 quiis 
 
 
 nup 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 numi 
 
 
 &u,n 
 
 suus 
 
 
 guiedde 
 
 Mom 
 
 paas 
 
 
 hetoxei 
 
 
 Fire 
 
 tuus 
 
 
 yot 
 
 
 Water 
 
 peez 
 
 
 pioc 
 
 
 One 
 
 
 
 
 chomara 
 
 Two 
 
 
 
 gar 
 
 
 Three 
 
 
 
 gadioc. 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Otuke. 
 
 English. 
 
 
 Otuk6. 
 
 Man 
 
 vuani 
 
 Bow 
 
 
 revica 
 
 Woman 
 
 vuaneti 
 
 Arrow 
 
 
 tehua 
 
 Head 
 
 ikitao 
 
 Young 
 
 
 ichaoro 
 
 ClieeTc 
 
 irenara 
 
 Old 
 
 
 eadi 
 
 Eyes 
 
 ichaa 
 
 T, me 
 
 
 iki cliaocho 
 
 Ear 
 
 ichaparara 
 
 He, she 
 
 
 iki chaano 
 
 Hand 
 
 seni 
 
 Give me 
 
 
 iyura 
 
 Sun 
 
 neri 
 
 Eat 
 
 
 oaketa 
 
 Moon 
 
 ari 
 
 Sleep 
 
 
 anutake 
 
 Fire 
 
 rera 
 
 I will 
 
 
 wia sike 
 
 Water 
 
 uru 
 
 I will not 
 
 
 oraebiescate 
 
 Mountain 
 
 batari 
 
 
 
 
 In 1831 the number of the Cayuvava was 2073, all 
 of whom were Christians of the Mission of Exaltacion. 
 Their original locality lay about 12° S. L. where they 
 were conterminous with the Movima, and Itenes. 
 
 In 1830, the number of the Movima was 1288, all 
 of whom were Christians in the Mission of Santa Anna. 
 Their original locality was about 14° S. L. where they 
 were conterminous with (inter alios) the Cayuvava and 
 the Moxos. 
 
 In 1830, the number of the Itonama was, at 
 The Mission of Magdalena . . . .2831 
 San Kamon . . . .1984 
 
 Total . . .4815 
 All Christian. 
 At the junction of the Itenes. with the Mamor^, the 
 
504 THE MISSIONS AND THE CHACO. 
 
 Itenh language is spoken by 1000, or 1200 individuals, 
 whose name (Itdnes or Ite) is native. 
 
 Chiquitos is no native, but a Spanish name ; the name 
 which the chief divisions of the group give themselves 
 being J^agiunaneis — men. It is from them that the 
 Mission of Chiquitos takes its name, in the centre of 
 which the Chiquito Troiper is spoken by some 14,000 
 souls. The language is important now, and was im- 
 portant originally. At the present time it serves as a 
 sort of Lingua Franca, being the form of speech which 
 numerous other tribes who, without learning Spanish 
 have unlearned their own language, have adopted. It was 
 important in the time of Hervas, when it fell into two 
 dialects, three older ones having previously become ex- 
 tinct, or nearly so. Of these one was the Manaz ; the 
 tribes that spoke it being — 
 
 The Manzica The Quimomoca 
 
 — Yuracareca — Tapacuraca 
 
 — Sibacca ■ — Yirituca. 
 
 — Cuzica 
 
 The existing dialect of the Tao is spoken by — 
 
 The Tao The Peguica 
 • — Boro — Bocca 
 
 — Tabiica — Tubaciaca 
 
 — Taiiepica — Aruporeca. 
 
 — Xuhereca 
 
 and part of the Piococo — the Pinoco being the language 
 of 
 
 The Pinoco Proper The Poxisoco 
 
 — Quimeca — Motaquica 
 
 — Guapaca — Zamaquica 
 — - Quitaxica — Taumtoca 
 
 and part of the Piococo. 
 
 The termination -ca is specially stated to be a Chi- 
 quito plural. It does not, however, follow that every 
 tribe bearing it was Chiquito. All that is actually 
 
THE MISSIONS AND THE CHACO. 
 
 505 
 
 needful to account for the term is a Chiquito neighbour- 
 hood in which the name may have originated. 
 
 Of the tribes that speak the language known by the 
 general name of Zamucu, or Sarnitcu (this particular 
 form of speech being only one out of several) some are 
 settled in the Missions of San Giovanni, San lago de 
 Chiquiti, and San Ignacio, while some run wild in the 
 more impracticable districts of the forest country around 
 them — conterminous in some part, at least, of their 
 fi'ontier with the Chiriguanos. Hervas gives us three 
 main dialects. 
 
 1. The Zamucu, in the limited sense of the term, 
 spoken by the Zamucu Proper, the Satienos, and per- 
 haps, the Ugarafios — the testimony as to these last 
 being doubtful ; since, according to some, they have a 
 peculiar language of their own. 
 
 2. The dialects of the Caipotocado, Tunachas, Imo- 
 mos, and Timinahas. 
 
 3. The Morotoco of the Morotocos Proper, the 
 Tamoenos, the Cucurates, or Cucutades, the Panonos, and 
 (perhaps) the Careras and the Ororebates. 
 
 Such is the list of Hervas of the Zamucu tribes as they 
 stood in his time. The names that I find in D'Orbigny 
 are Zamucu, Morotoco, Potarero, and Guaraneco. 
 
 
 
 (3.) 
 
 
 
 
 Chaco 
 
 Languages. 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Matagiiaya. 
 
 
 
 English, 
 
 Mataguaya 
 
 Man 
 
 inoon 
 
 
 
 Bow 
 
 luchang 
 
 Woman 
 
 kiteis 
 
 
 
 Arrow 
 
 lotec 
 
 Head 
 
 litec 
 
 
 
 Young 
 
 magse 
 
 Eyes 
 
 notelo 
 
 
 
 Old 
 
 chiut 
 
 Ears 
 
 nokeote 
 
 
 
 /, me 
 
 yam 
 
 Band 
 
 noquec 
 
 
 
 He, she 
 
 atachi 
 
 Sun 
 
 ijuaba 
 
 
 
 Give me 
 
 maletuec 
 
 Moon 
 
 guela 
 
 
 
 Eat 
 
 tec 
 
 Fire 
 
 itag 
 
 
 
 Sleep 
 
 nobina 
 
 Water 
 
 guag 
 
 
 
 I will not 
 
 ykite. 
 
 Mountain 
 
 lesug 
 
 
 
 
 
506 
 
 THE MISSIONS AND THE CHACO. 
 
 Toha Paternoster. 
 Co-taa adoonatil keda piguem ; 
 Yaliateton adenagati ; 
 Llaca-anac comi abogot ; 
 Contidi-neco ked^ piguem nacaeno ena alua ; 
 Canadena cadimeza naax sinaax ocom uadom 
 Caditca mantiguema aditi-ogoden emeke comi scaiiema sitiogodenax 
 Tacame catino 
 Calac sanem comi. 
 
 EngUsh. 
 
 Mbaya. 
 
 Abiponian. 
 
 Mbokobi. 
 
 Vilela. 
 
 Lule. 
 
 Man (Aomo)uneleigua 
 
 joale 
 
 yoale 
 
 nitemoi 
 
 pele 
 
 {mr) 
 
 
 
 cualegzac 
 
 quima 
 
 cumueptito 
 
 Woman 
 
 igualo 
 
 
 aalo 
 
 kisle 
 
 vacae 
 
 
 
 canelma 
 
 coenac 
 
 
 lucueptito 
 
 Head 
 
 naguilo 
 
 napanik 
 
 icaic 
 
 niscone 
 
 tocco 
 
 Eye 
 
 nigecogee 
 
 natoele 
 
 nicote 
 
 toque 
 
 zu 
 
 Ear 
 
 napagate 
 
 [gat 
 
 maslup 
 
 cusp 
 
 Nose 
 
 nionigo 
 
 ncaatagan- 
 
 yimic 
 
 limic 
 
 nus 
 
 Tongue 
 
 nogueligi 
 
 
 lagra 
 
 lekip 
 
 lequi 
 
 Hair 
 
 na,modi 
 
 neetequic 
 
 naccuta 
 
 
 caplhe 
 
 Hand 
 
 nibaagadi 
 
 napakena 
 
 napoguena 
 
 isip 
 
 is 
 
 
 
 
 ycaelgrat 
 
 
 
 Foot 
 
 nogonagi 
 
 
 capiate 
 
 ape 
 
 elu 
 
 Shy 
 
 ytitipigime 
 
 ipigem 
 
 ipiguem 
 
 laue 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 cbajenk 
 
 
 
 
 EaHh 
 
 
 
 
 
 basle 
 
 a 
 
 Sun 
 
 alilega 
 
 grabaulai 
 
 daazoa 
 
 olo 
 
 ini 
 
 Moon 
 
 epenai 
 
 grauek 
 
 chidaigo 
 
 copi 
 
 alit 
 
 Fire 
 
 nuledi 
 
 nkaatek 
 
 anodek 
 
 nie 
 
 icue 
 
 Water 
 
 niogodi 
 
 enarap 
 
 ebagyac 
 
 ma 
 
 to 
 
 One 
 
 uninitegui 
 
 
 iniateda 
 
 yaguit 
 
 alapea 
 
 Two 
 
 itoata 
 
 
 
 inabaca 
 
 uke 
 
 tamop 
 
 Three 
 
 dagani 
 
 
 iiiabacacaocaini 
 
 nipeiuei 
 
 tamlip. 
 
 Of the Chaco languages, the Mataguaya is the most 
 akin to the Chiquitos ; the Vilela and Lule to the 
 Aymara. 
 
THE GUARANI, ETC. 507 
 
 CHAPTER LXIV. 
 
 Languages of Brazil, — Guarani. — Other than Guarani.- -Botocudo, &c. — Lan- 
 guages neither Guarani nor Botocudo. — The Timbiras. — The Sabuja, &c. 
 
 The Lingua Geral, or current Indian of the Empire, is 
 Guarani ; a language which is not only spoken by many 
 Portuguese, but one for which several native tribes of 
 comparatively small importance have exchanged their 
 own. Little, however, will be said about the Guarani, 
 the general phenomena, connected with its remarkable 
 distribution being commonly known. A form of speech 
 akin to it is spoken on, or even within, the frontier of 
 Ecuador ; whilst others are spoken on the Rio Negro, 
 on the lower Amazons, along the coast of the Pacific 
 as far as the neighbourhood of Monte Video, in Para- 
 guay, and by the Chiriguanos and Sirionos on the 
 frontier of Peru. That the tribes which use this tongue 
 are numerous we readily believe : nor are there wanting 
 long lists of them. The present writer has collected 
 more than forty. The statement, however, that 
 such and such populations speak the same language is 
 one thing ; an actual specimen of the language itself, 
 eo nomine^ is another. This is often wanting, or, at 
 any rate, the specimen is a short one. Yet it may consist 
 of only a single word and still have its value. The 
 chief Guarani languages are — 
 
 1 . The Omagua. 
 
 2, 3, 4. The Tupi, Tupinambi, and Tupinaquin. 
 
 5. The Guarani Proper of Paraguay and the South- 
 west. 
 
508 
 
 THE GUARANI, ETC. 
 
 6. The Chiriguano of the South-west on and within 
 the frontier of Peru. 
 
 English. 
 
 
 Guarani. 
 
 
 Tupi. 
 
 Man (homo). 
 
 aba 
 
 
 aba 
 
 — {vir) 
 
 
 me 
 
 
 
 Woman 
 
 
 cugna 
 
 
 cunha 
 
 Head 
 
 
 acang 
 
 
 acanga 
 
 Eye 
 
 
 tesa 
 
 
 teca 
 
 Ear 
 
 
 namby 
 
 
 
 Nose 
 
 
 te, tu, hu 
 
 un 
 
 Tongue 
 
 
 cu 
 
 
 apecu 
 
 Hair 
 
 
 og 
 
 
 oca 
 
 Hand 
 
 
 po 
 
 
 pu 
 
 Foot 
 
 
 pi 
 
 
 pi 
 
 Day 
 
 
 ara 
 
 
 ara 
 
 Sky 
 
 
 ibag 
 
 
 ibaca 
 
 EaHh 
 
 
 ibi 
 
 
 ibi 
 
 Sun 
 
 
 quarassi 
 
 
 coaracy 
 
 Moon 
 
 
 yasi 
 
 
 iacy 
 
 Fire 
 
 
 tata 
 
 • 
 
 tata 
 
 Water 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 i. 
 
 English. 
 
 Omagua. 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Omagua. 
 
 Man (homo) 
 
 ava 
 
 
 Sky 
 
 ehuatemai ritama 
 
 (vir) 
 
 mena 
 
 
 Earth 
 
 tujuca 
 
 Woman 
 
 huaina 
 
 
 Sun 
 
 huarassi 
 
 Head 
 
 yacae 
 
 
 Moon 
 
 yase 
 
 Eye 
 
 ssissa zaicama 
 
 Fire 
 
 tata 
 
 Ear 
 
 nami 
 
 
 Water 
 
 uni 
 
 Nose 
 
 ti 
 
 
 One 
 
 uyepe 
 
 Tongue 
 
 cumuera 
 
 
 Two 
 
 raucuica 
 
 Hand 
 
 pua 
 
 
 Three 
 
 iruaca. 
 
 Foot 
 
 pueta 
 
 
 
 
 East of the Murus on the Madera, extending east- 
 wards still in the direction of the Tapajoz, lie the 
 Mundrucus. 
 
 English. 
 
 Mundrucu. 
 
 English. 
 
 Mimdrucu. 
 
 Sye 
 
 ueta 
 
 Foot 
 
 worcanaputa 
 
 Head 
 
 ija 
 
 Sun 
 
 uashi 
 
 Nose 
 
 heinampo 
 
 Moon 
 
 uashiat 
 
 Mouth 
 
 woropi 
 
 Earth 
 
 ipu 
 
 Tongue 
 
 waico 
 
 Water 
 
 hu 
 
 Tooth 
 
 worno 
 
 Fire 
 
 tasha. 
 
 Hand 
 
 woipo 
 
 
 
BRAZILIAN LANGUAGES. 
 
 509 
 
 I connect the Mura with the Mundrucu, notwith- 
 standing its place in a previous chapter. I also make 
 them both Guarani (raising the value of the class) — 
 but Guarani with Carib affinities. The following voca- 
 bularies from Castelnau, evidently, represent languages 
 of the great Guarani class ; though their exact place in 
 it is uncertain. 
 
 English. 
 
 Apiaca. 
 
 Cayowa. 
 
 Man 
 
 couimahe 
 
 awa 
 
 Woman 
 
 cogna 
 
 coniah 
 
 Head 
 
 ai-acana 
 
 siakan 
 
 Hair 
 
 ai-ava 
 
 siawou 
 
 Eye 
 
 ai-re-coara 
 
 chercisa 
 
 Nose 
 
 a-si-gna 
 
 chanl 
 
 Tooth 
 
 ai-ragna 
 
 ioway 
 
 Tongue 
 
 ai-cona 
 
 iocalike 
 
 Ear 
 
 ai-nembia 
 
 
 
 Hand 
 
 ai-pore 
 
 
 Foot 
 
 arpia 
 
 
 Sun 
 
 
 
 quara-ou 
 
 Moon 
 
 jahi 
 
 yaseu 
 
 Star 
 
 
 yotete 
 
 Fire 
 
 tatan 
 
 tata 
 
 Water 
 
 equat-daramau 
 
 
 To the Botocudo class belong (] .) the Botocudo 
 Proper, spoken between 18" and 20" S. L. (2.) The 
 Jupuroca, spoken on the Mucury near the town of 
 Caravellas, apparently, but not necessarily, falling into 
 six sub- divisions. Such at least is the inference from 
 the statement that the names of the heads of the 
 several Jupuroca chiefs are (1.) Guiparoca, (2.) Potica, 
 (3.) Tupi, (4.) Mechmech, (5.) Megwi Megu, (6.) Uroue. 
 (3.) ? Mucury. 
 
 (1.) 
 
 English. Botocudo. Jupuroca. Mucury. 
 
 Man onaba 
 
 Woman jokounang 
 
 kgipack 
 
 kerang 
 
 Brother 
 
 Hair 
 
 Head 
 
 giaecana 
 euqiiijacca 
 carenqiieti 
 enelem 
 
510 
 
 BOTOCUDO CLASS. 
 
 English. 
 
 Botocudo. 
 
 Jupuroca 
 
 Mucury. 
 
 Eye 
 
 ketom 
 
 equitongh 
 
 
 Ear 
 
 uniaknom 
 
 gioni 
 
 
 Tooth 
 
 kiiomir 
 
 
 
 
 Beard 
 
 giakiiot 
 
 
 
 Blood 
 
 comtjaack 
 
 
 
 
 Hand 
 
 po 
 
 impo 
 
 imp6 
 
 Foot 
 
 po 
 
 impo 
 
 imp6 
 
 Bone 
 
 kiock 
 
 
 
 Belly 
 
 conang 
 
 
 
 
 
 Moon 
 
 concang-eion 
 
 caratuti 
 
 
 
 New 
 
 etran-him 
 
 
 
 Star 
 
 more 
 
 
 
 Fire 
 
 ghompeck 
 
 giompequi 
 
 jampec 
 
 Water 
 
 magnar 
 
 ninhanga 
 
 
 Tree 
 
 tachoou 
 
 
 
 
 ^gg 
 
 bacan-nigcon 
 
 
 
 
 Fish 
 
 impock 
 
 eimpoca 
 
 ep 
 
 Devil 
 
 lantchong 
 
 
 lanchou 
 
 One 
 
 mekenum 
 
 
 
 
 (2.) 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Naknanuk. 
 
 English. 
 
 Naknanuk. 
 
 Head 
 
 kraine 
 
 Tooth 
 
 kiijounne 
 
 Nose 
 
 kujink 
 
 Hand (foot) 
 
 po. 
 
 About the languages of the next class little is said in 
 the Mithridates ; more in the Travels of Spix and Mar- 
 tins, and of Prince Maximilian of Neuwied. Balbi throws 
 them all into a single group, which he calls the Macha- 
 cari-Camacan. The area of this group is conterminous 
 with that of the Botocudos ; whilst the author from 
 whom these vocabularies are taken, commits himself to 
 the statement that the Machakali bears a decided 
 similarity to the Botocudo, having both a guttural and 
 a nasal pronunciation. At any rate the Rio Mucury is 
 occupied by both the Proper Mucury tribes and the 
 Machakali, or Machakaris ; though the present writer, 
 who, without hesitation, treats the Machacari-Camacan 
 of Balbi and the Botocudo as separate sections of the 
 same group, considers that the nearest congeners to the 
 Botocudo are the Mongoyos and Malali. 
 
BOTOCUDO CLASS. 
 
 511 
 
 0.) 
 
 English. 
 
 Mongoyos. 
 
 God 
 
 
 Man 
 
 hoiema 
 
 Woman 
 
 
 Head 
 
 hero 
 
 Hair 
 
 ke 
 
 Eye 
 
 kedo 
 
 Ear 
 
 nikobko 
 
 Hand 
 
 ninkre 
 
 Arm 
 
 nikhona 
 
 Foot 
 
 
 Beard 
 
 nikhran 
 
 Blood 
 
 kedio 
 
 Sun 
 
 hoiseu 
 
 Fire 
 
 diakhkeo 
 
 Water 
 
 sa 
 
 River 
 
 
 Tree 
 
 hanoufe 
 
 Egg 
 
 
 White 
 
 hoai 
 
 Blach 
 
 khokada 
 
 Fish 
 
 hona 
 
 Macoui. 
 
 Machakali. 
 
 amieto, toupa 
 
 toupa 
 
 atempeep 
 
 idijun 
 
 aiento 
 
 abation 
 
 
 etation 
 
 epotoi 
 
 
 endaen, acu 
 
 
 idcai 
 
 idcai 
 
 impeoi 
 
 
 aimke 
 
 aquitktain 
 
 agnim 
 
 niponoi 
 
 ingpata 
 
 idapata 
 
 aquedhum 
 
 
 inken 
 
 kechiniong 
 
 abcaai 
 
 
 coen 
 
 cbechan 
 
 counaan 
 
 counaana 
 
 
 idakeng 
 
 abooi 
 
 abaai 
 
 amnietim 
 
 nipitim 
 
 
 
 crebran 
 
 imraetan taranou 
 
 tapagnon 
 
 maau 
 
 
 (2.) 
 
 English. 
 
 God 
 
 Man 
 
 Woman 
 
 Head 
 
 Hair 
 
 Eye 
 
 Ear 
 
 Hand 
 
 Arm 
 
 Beard 
 
 Blood 
 
 Swn 
 
 Fire 
 
 Water 
 
 Tree 
 
 Egg 
 
 White 
 
 Black 
 
 Fish 
 
 Patacho. 
 
 Camacan. 
 
 nimissoum 
 
 
 
 monactiin 
 
 cahe- 
 
 
 achoun 
 
 totsa 
 
 inro 
 
 epotoi 
 
 ining^ 
 
 angona 
 
 inglento 
 
 
 incoca 
 
 
 incrou 
 
 aguipeaton 
 
 igihia 
 
 
 loghe 
 
 eughem 
 
 iso 
 
 mayon 
 
 chiou 
 
 — : — 
 
 jaron 
 
 
 sin 
 
 mawmipticau 
 
 he 
 
 petitieng 
 
 
 
 hai 
 
 tomeningna 
 micai 
 
 
512 
 
 BOTOCUDO CLASS. 
 
 English. 
 
 Menieng. 
 
 Malali. 
 
 Head 
 
 inro 
 
 akeu 
 
 Eye 
 
 imgutu 
 
 keto 
 
 Nose 
 
 incMvo 
 
 aseie 
 
 Mouth 
 
 iniatago 
 
 aietoco 
 
 Tongue 
 
 
 gnocgno 
 
 Tooth 
 
 io 
 
 aio 
 
 Hand 
 
 iniru 
 
 aiimke 
 
 Foot 
 
 
 apao 
 
 Sun 
 
 chioii 
 
 hapem 
 
 Earth 
 
 e 
 
 am 
 
 Fire 
 
 iaru 
 
 couia 
 
 Water 
 
 sin 
 
 keche. 
 
 Of the languages neither Guarani nor Botocudo, I 
 begin with those on the drainage of the Tocantins. 
 
 English. 
 
 Timbirap. 
 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Tirahiras. 
 
 Head 
 
 jora 
 
 
 
 Sun 
 
 puttu 
 
 Eye 
 
 intho 
 
 
 
 Moon 
 
 putturagh 
 
 Nose 
 
 ingniakra 
 
 
 
 Earth 
 
 pia 
 
 Mouth 
 
 sharicoa 
 
 
 
 Fire 
 
 cochto 
 
 Tongue 
 
 ingnoto 
 
 
 
 Water 
 
 CO 
 
 Tooth 
 
 itzoa 
 
 
 
 One 
 
 itaputshitti 
 
 Hand 
 
 ingniucrahy 
 
 
 
 Two 
 
 ipiacruttu 
 
 Foot 
 
 babalnecrahuk 
 
 
 Three 
 
 ingere. 
 
 English. 
 
 Ge. 
 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Ge. 
 
 Head 
 
 grangbla 
 
 
 
 Sun 
 
 chughera 
 
 Eye * 
 
 alepuh 
 
 
 
 Moon 
 
 paang 
 
 Nose 
 
 aenocopioh 
 
 
 
 Earth 
 
 chgku 
 
 Mouth 
 
 aingco 
 
 
 
 Fire 
 
 ping 
 
 Tongue 
 
 aenetta 
 
 
 
 Water 
 
 aeco 
 
 Tooth 
 
 aijante 
 
 
 
 One 
 
 gumtung 
 
 Hand 
 
 senaenong 
 
 
 
 Two 
 
 uaeu 
 
 Foot 
 
 aepahno 
 
 
 
 Three 
 
 balipe. 
 
 English. 
 
 
 Caraja. 
 
 
 Apinages. 
 
 Man 
 
 
 abou 
 
 
 iprie 
 
 WomoM 
 
 
 awkeu 
 
 
 iprom 
 
 Head 
 
 
 woara 
 
 
 
 Hair 
 
 
 woara-day 
 
 
 
 Eye 
 
 
 wa-a-rouwai 
 
 
 Tooth 
 
 
 wa-a-djou 
 
 
 
 Tongue 
 
 
 wa-darato 
 
 
 
 Hand 
 
 
 wa-debo 
 
 
 
 Foot 
 
 
 wa-av 
 
 ra 
 
 
 
TOCANTINS LANGUAGES. 
 
 513 
 
 V 
 
 English 
 
 
 Cai-Hja 
 
 
 Apinages. 
 
 Water 
 
 
 beai 
 
 
 piacom 
 
 Fire 
 
 
 eatou 
 
 
 COUCOIIDOU 
 
 Sun 
 
 
 
 
 bure 
 
 Moon 
 
 
 
 
 
 burua. 
 
 English. 
 
 Tocautins. 
 
 Caraho. 
 
 Chereiite. 
 
 Chavante. 
 
 Man 
 
 papay 
 
 
 ambeu 
 
 ambei 
 
 Woman 
 
 mentija 
 
 meca-ouare picon 
 
 picon 
 
 Head 
 
 iscran 
 
 icran 
 
 dicran 
 
 dicran 
 
 Hair 
 
 itki 
 
 ikei 
 
 
 
 Eye 
 
 into 
 
 
 datoi 
 
 datoi 
 
 Nose 
 
 
 
 danescri 
 
 danescri 
 
 Tooth 
 
 ninhlou 
 
 itchoua 
 
 daguoi 
 
 dagnoi 
 
 Tongue 
 
 gnoto 
 
 ioto 
 
 
 
 Hand 
 
 gnoucra 
 
 
 danicra 
 
 dai-iperai 
 
 Foot 
 
 it-pari 
 
 
 dapra 
 
 dapra-canou 
 
 Water 
 
 inko 
 
 ko 
 
 
 
 Fire 
 
 couvou 
 
 
 congeu 
 
 congeu 
 
 San 
 
 kathoa 
 
 put 
 
 biuden 
 
 
 Moon 
 
 budouvrou 
 
 
 oua 
 
 oua. 
 
 English. 
 
 Chuntaquiro. 
 
 English. 
 
 Chuntaquiro. 
 
 Eye 
 
 weari 
 
 
 Sun 
 
 katchi 
 
 Nose 
 
 weiri 
 
 
 Moon 
 
 ceri 
 
 Tooth 
 
 weii 
 
 
 Star 
 
 catahiri 
 
 Foot 
 
 waiti 
 
 
 Water 
 
 una. 
 
 Spoken in Bahia. 
 
 EngUsh. 
 
 Kiriri. 
 
 Sabuyah. 
 
 Head 
 
 tzambu 
 
 zabiik 
 
 Eye 
 
 po 
 
 poh 
 
 Nose 
 
 nembi 
 
 nabitzeh 
 
 Mouth 
 
 waridga 
 
 oriseh 
 
 Tongue 
 
 nunu 
 
 nunu 
 
 Tooth 
 
 dza 
 
 zah 
 
 Hand 
 
 mysa-buanghe 
 
 mussoh 
 
 Foot 
 
 by 
 
 puih 
 
 Sun 
 
 uche 
 
 utsheh 
 
 Moon 
 
 cayacu 
 
 gayacu 
 
 Day 
 
 cayapri 
 
 
 Earth 
 
 rada 
 
 rattah 
 
 Fire 
 
 isujiuw 
 
 essu 
 
 Water 
 
 dzu 
 
 tzoh 
 
 One 
 
 bihe 
 
 
 Two 
 
 wachana 
 
 
 Three 
 
 wachanidikie 
 
 
 L L 
 
14 
 
 
 PURUS, ETC. 
 
 
 Spoken 
 
 in Rio Janeiro and Minas Geraes. 
 
 English, 
 
 Purus. 
 
 Coroato. 
 
 Coropo. 
 
 Head 
 
 n'gue 
 
 gue 
 
 pitao 
 
 Eye 
 
 miri 
 
 mere 
 
 ualim 
 
 Nose 
 
 nhe 
 
 nlie 
 
 sMrong 
 
 Mouth 
 
 jora 
 
 tshore 
 
 tshore 
 
 Tongue 
 
 tope 
 
 tompe 
 
 tupe 
 
 Tooth 
 
 dje 
 
 tshe 
 
 shorim 
 
 Hand 
 
 core 
 
 tshopre 
 
 tshambrim 
 
 Foot 
 
 jupre 
 
 kakora 
 
 tshambrim 
 
 Sun 
 
 ope 
 
 hope 
 
 nasceun 
 
 Moon 
 
 petara 
 
 petahra 
 
 nashe 
 
 Day 
 
 bricca 
 
 
 
 Earth 
 
 aje 
 
 uasche 
 
 hame 
 
 Fire 
 
 pote 
 
 pohe 
 
 ke 
 
 Water 
 
 nliama 
 
 nhaman 
 
 teign 
 
 One 
 
 omi 
 
 scombriuan 
 
 nam 
 
 Ttvo 
 
 curiri 
 
 tshiri 
 
 gringrim 
 
 Three 
 
 prica 
 
 patapakon 
 
 pateliackon(?) 
 
 Spoken in Matagrosso and in the direction of the 
 Chaco. 
 
 English. 
 
 Guana. 
 
 English. 
 
 Guana. 
 
 Man 
 
 tabanan 
 
 Ear 
 
 guiaibaino 
 
 Woman 
 
 zeeno 
 
 Hand 
 
 no 
 
 Head 
 
 kom baipoi 
 
 Foot 
 
 djabawai 
 
 Hair 
 
 dooti 
 
 Swi 
 
 kathai 
 
 Eye 
 
 onguei 
 
 Mom 
 
 kobaivai 
 
 Nose 
 
 agueiri 
 
 Star 
 
 ickerai 
 
 Tooth 
 
 onbai 
 
 Water 
 
 bouna. 
 
 Tongue 
 
 nabainai 
 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Guato. 
 
 English. 
 
 Guato. 
 
 Man 
 
 matai 
 
 Tongue 
 
 cbagi 
 
 Woman 
 
 monnagai 
 
 Ear ■ 
 
 mavi 
 
 Head 
 
 dokeu 
 
 Hand 
 
 ida 
 
 Hair 
 
 maeu 
 
 Foot 
 
 apoo 
 
 Eye 
 
 marei 
 
 Fire 
 
 mata 
 
 Nose 
 
 taga 
 
 Water 
 
 maquen. 
 
 Tooth 
 
 maqua 
 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Guachi, 
 
 English. 
 
 Guacbi. 
 
 Man 
 
 cbacup 
 
 Hair 
 
 ioatriz 
 
 Woman 
 
 outie 
 
 Eye 
 
 iataya 
 
 Head 
 
 iotapa 
 
 Nose 
 
 ianote 
 

 PAYAGl 
 
 [JA, ETC. 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Guachi. 
 
 1 English. 
 
 Guachi. 
 
 Tooth 
 
 iava 
 
 1 Sun 
 
 oes 
 
 Tongue 
 
 iteche 
 
 1 Moon 
 
 oalete 
 
 Ear 
 
 irtanmete 
 
 Star 
 
 aate 
 
 Hand 
 
 iolaimason 
 
 Water 
 
 euak. 
 
 Foot 
 
 iacalep 
 
 
 
 English, 
 
 Bororo. 
 
 English. 
 
 Bororo. 
 
 Eye 
 
 itai 
 
 Sun 
 
 cuerou 
 
 Nose 
 
 kinamalo 
 
 Moon 
 
 ari 
 
 Mouth 
 
 noiri 
 
 Star 
 
 ikai 
 
 Tooth 
 
 ita 
 
 Fire 
 
 tola 
 
 Hand 
 
 chetara 
 
 Water 
 
 ikotowai 
 
 Foot 
 
 igoulai 
 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Payagua. 
 
 English. 
 
 Payagua. 
 
 Ood 
 
 haasum 
 
 Leg 
 
 yehega 
 
 Father 
 
 iralgwah 
 
 Water 
 
 waaae 
 
 Brother 
 
 yaguwah 
 
 Bread 
 
 asyah 
 
 Child 
 
 ddawat 
 
 Bow 
 
 s(iu 
 
 Mother 
 
 yosawsah 
 
 Truth 
 
 sahc 
 
 Wife 
 
 elmhirah 
 
 Pretty 
 
 laaa 
 
 Sister 
 
 yagubira 
 
 Ugly 
 
 thlak 
 
 Face 
 
 igwetshogra 
 
 One 
 
 petshaah 
 
 Hand 
 
 sumahyah 
 
 Two 
 
 serac^ 
 
 Foot 
 
 sewti 
 
 Fmr 
 
 pegas. 
 
 Finger 
 
 igutsan 
 
 
 
 515 
 
 The Guanans of Martius live between the Paraguay 
 and the Sierra de Chainez and are stated to be related 
 to the Cahans, Coahunas, or Men of the Wood, whom 
 the Guacurus call Cayubabas. To this add that the 
 Guana vocabulary of Castelnau is given by Ludwig 
 to these same Guanans. If so, we may compare it 
 to the Cayubaba, or Cayuvava, of the mission of 
 Moxos. Doing this we shall find that the resemblance 
 is of the slightest, consisting chiefly (perhaps wholly) in 
 that between 
 
 English. 
 Tongue 
 
 Guana, 
 na-hanai 
 
 Cayubaha. 
 ine 
 
 But Avhat if there are two Cayubabas ? 
 
 L L 2 
 
518 THE AMERICAN LANGUAGES 
 
 on a mere cursory and superficial inspection. The Es- 
 kimo is a definite class, with its maximum of difierence 
 on the side of the Atlantic. The Athabaskan is also a 
 definite class when compared with the Algonkin, which 
 underlies it when we pass the Eocky Mountains. On 
 the side, however, of the Pacific, the phenomena of 
 transition present themselves. The Kenay was not 
 generally recognized as Athabaskan, until compared with 
 the Loucheux ; and, as long as the Kenay was unfixed, 
 the Ugalents and its congeners were unfixed also. As 
 it is, they form a definite sub-class, with Eskimo affini- 
 ties on one hand, and Atna afiinities on the other ; the 
 Kolush being truly transitional. The Chesmesyan, the 
 Hailtsa, the Wakash, and the Chinuk, are connected 
 through their miscellaneous affinities, and are all 
 characterized by their harsh phonesis. The Jakon and 
 Kalapuya lead to the languages of the Sahaptin and 
 Shoshoni phonesis — among the congeners of which the 
 sound of tl appears and reappears. In the Mexican, 
 this becomes prominent ; and in the Maya, to say the 
 least, has no inordinate prominence. 
 
 Between the Rooky Mountains and the Pacific, the 
 Algonkin, with its intrusive character and wide diffusion, 
 has done so much in the way of the displacement and 
 obliteration of such forms of speech as may have shown 
 signs of transition that it is the best-marked class on 
 the continent. Its spread, however, appears to have 
 been from west to east, and the result of it has told most 
 on the fragmentary and isolated languages of the Iroquois 
 family, which it has affected in the way that the Turk 
 and Russian have aflfected the Ugrian. In its ordinal value, 
 it is, apparently, higher than the Turk, the Mongol, or 
 the Tungus ; lower than the Fin. Taking it along with 
 the Athabaskan and its congeners as far as American 
 Oregon, and with the Eskimo, it probably forms a class 
 to which the Iroquois, the Sioux, the Catawba, the Uche 
 (with its congeners), and (perhaps) the Caddo, form a 
 
THE AMERICAN LANGUAGES IN GENERAL. 517 
 
 CHAPTER LXV. 
 
 General Remarks on the American Languages. 
 
 The primary division is that between North and South 
 America ; the difference between them being partly 
 real and partly what may be called subjective. It is 
 real, because the Isthmus of Darien is a narrow neck of 
 land, and the points of contact between the two penin- 
 sulas are few ; nor are they notably increased by taking 
 in the West-Indian Islands as a second passage. 
 
 It is subjective (by which I mean that it is referable 
 to our want of knowledge) through the scantiness of 
 our materials for Nicaragua, Costarica, Honduras, and 
 St. Salvador on the one side, and for New Grenada on 
 the other. There is, then, a true want or deficiency 
 of investigation, and there is, also, the fact of the 
 displacement and obliteration of the native tongues 
 having been great. Nevertheless, the coincidences be- 
 tween the two classes are numerous. 
 
 In North America the connection with Asia is de- 
 cided. Through the Aleutian dialect of the Eskimo, 
 and the Kamtshatkan, it is direct. Through the Yuka- 
 hiri and other tongues it is indirect. That this affinity 
 was concealed so long as we took the Eskimo in the At- 
 lantic portion of its area, and compared, or contrasted, 
 it with the Algonkin — itself on its Atlantic side also — 
 has already been stated ; and it may be added that, even 
 on the side of the Pacific, it is, by no means, apparent 
 
518 THE AMERICAN LANGUAGES 
 
 on a mere cursory and superficial inspection. The Es- 
 kimo is a definite class, with its maximum of difference 
 on the side of the Atlantic. The Athabaskan is also a 
 definite class when compared with the Algonkin, which 
 imderlies it when we pass the Rocky Mountains. On 
 the side, however, of the Pacific, the phenomena of 
 transition present themselves. The Kenay was not 
 generally recognized as Athabaskan, until compared with 
 the Loucheux ; and, as long as the Kenay was unfixed, 
 the Ugalents and its congeners were unfixed also. As 
 it is, they form a definite sub-class, with Eskimo affini- 
 ties on one hand, and Atna affinities on the other ; the 
 Kolush being truly transitional. The Chesmesyan, the 
 Hailtsa, the Wakash, and the Chinuk, are connected 
 through their miscellaneous affinities, and are all 
 characterized by their harsh phonesis. The Jakon and 
 Kalapuya lead to the languages of the Sahaptin and 
 Shoshoni phonesis — among the congeners of which the 
 sound of tl appears and reappears. In the Mexican, 
 this becomes prominent ; and in the Maya, to say the 
 least, has no inordinate prominence. 
 
 Between the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific, the 
 Algonkin, with its intrusive character and wide diffusion, 
 has done so much in the way of the displacement and 
 obliteration of such forms of speech as may have shown 
 signs of transition that it is the best-marked class on 
 the continent. Its spread, however, appears to have 
 been from west to east, and the result of it has told most 
 on the fragmentary and isolated languages of the Iroquois 
 family, which it has affected in the way that the Turk 
 and Russian have affected the TJgrian. In its ordinal value, 
 it is, apparently, higher than the Turk, the Mongol, or 
 the Tungus ; lower than the Fin. Taking it along with 
 the Athabaskan and its congeners as far as American 
 Oregon, and with the Eskimo, it probably forms a class 
 to which the Iroquois, the Sioux, the Catawba, the Uche 
 (with its congeners), and (perhaps) the Caddo, form a 
 
m GENERAL. 519 
 
 co-ordinate. At any rate, the Athabaskan and Algon- 
 kin, the Sioux and Iroquois, belong to the same class 
 with one another, and to different ones when compared 
 in mass — whatever the value of those classes may be. 
 
 The South Oregon languages graduate into the Cali- 
 fornian, and the Californian into those of the Paduca 
 class and those of Sonora ; until we come to the two 
 great divisions of the Mexican and Maya ; the former 
 of the greater historical importance, the latter important 
 from the multiplicity of its dialects — dialects which 
 simulate separate substantive languages. 
 
 The Moqui, a Pueblo language, has decided Paduca 
 affinities. 
 
 If the Attakapa seem to be pre-eminently isolated, the 
 vast displacements which have occurred all around may 
 account for it. It has, for an American language, a 
 monosyllabic look. So has the Otomi, which has been 
 compared with the Chinese. So have some of the 
 Athabaskan tongues. So have some of the Algonkin, in 
 certain vocabularies ; their congeners, meanwhile, being 
 as polysyllabic as the American languages in general. 
 This leads to the consideration of certain doctrines con- 
 cerning what is called the general grammatical structure 
 of the languages of the New Woiid ; in which, we are 
 told, that they all agree in grammatical, though differing 
 in glossarial, detail. The term expressive of this general 
 character is jpoly synthetic. What is its import ? 
 
 It is a fact that in an American sentence the term 
 denoting the object coalesces with the verb ; so that, 
 while a Roman delivered the equivalent to I call in the 
 single word voco, the American can, in a single word, 
 say I call him, her, or therrij as the case may be. 
 
 It is also a fact that there are certain very long 
 words expressive of what in Europe is expressed by 
 short ones, and that out of these long words compounds 
 may be made which are no longer than either of the 
 single elements. This looks as if each were picked 
 
520 THE AMERICAN LANGUAGES 
 
 to pieces, and a part alone taken. There is something 
 in each (ct fortiori in both) of these processes which 
 bears out the term polysynthetic. Valeat quantum. 
 
 The former process is quite as European as American, 
 and is, to a certain extent, a piece of printer's philology. 
 In catch ^em, in je Vaime, &c., there is a true incorpo- 
 ration of the objective pronoun with the verb : which, 
 in the Norse, Lithuanic, and other languages, has given 
 us a passive voice developed out of a middle, itself deve- 
 loped out of the amalgamation of the verb with the 
 pronoun. In the Magyar this incorporation has com- 
 manded no little attention. 
 
 In respect to the other phenomenon — the phenomenon 
 of a composition with a decomposition to precede it — 
 it would be important if proven. The fact, however, of 
 the decomposition is more than doubtful. It is not out 
 of the full-formed pair of primary compounds that the 
 secondary compound is made, but out of the original 
 parts which existed while they — the apparent primary 
 compounds — were merely compounds in iDosse. 
 
 Another fact which suggests the term is the incor- 
 poration of the personal pronoun with the names of cer- 
 tain parts of the body, as shown in the difficulty there 
 is in getting an American to say eye or head^ &c. purely 
 and simply. He always says my-eye, your-head, or 
 something of the kind.* But this is Papuan, not to 
 say Kurd and Gipsy, as well. 
 
 The same criticism applies to the inclusive and ex- 
 clusive plurals ; which are, by no means, American : nor 
 even Asiatic, The Spanish nosotros has already been 
 alluded to. 
 
 Still there is polysyntheticism to a certain degree — 
 though much of it is of the grammarian's making. Ex- 
 isting, however, as it does, it may occur in every degree. 
 
 * This may be seen in almost any one of the vocabularies, wherein the most 
 cursory inspection tells us that the parts of the human body nearly always 
 begin with either the same syllable or the same letter. 
 
IN GENERAL. 521 
 
 Where the amalgamation is perfect we have such voca- 
 bularies as the Iroquois and such paternosters as the 
 Tarasca. Where it is incomplete we have the show of 
 a monosyllabic language. 
 
 The doctrine, then, that the diiferences in grammatical 
 structure are differences of degree rather than of kind, 
 and that there is nothing in one language which, either 
 as a fragment or a rudiment, is not to be found in 
 another, is contravened by nothing from America. 
 
 The languages to which those of America are the nearest 
 equivalents in the way of development are, by no means, 
 their nearest congeners in the way of actual affinity. 
 These are the languages of the Papuan and Australian 
 areas ; and, to a certain extent, those of Polynesia. The 
 limited numeration and the concrete view of plurality 
 are points in which they have a decided likeness ; and 
 it is scarcely necessary to add that the culture of the two 
 families is on a like low level. 
 
 In North America the phenomena in the way of dis- 
 tribution and difiusion which presented themselves in 
 Asia re-appear ; and in South, there is a re-appearance 
 of the phenomena of North, America. Small areas 
 with a multiplicity of mutually unintelligible forms of 
 speech stand in strong contrast to large ones with a 
 minimum of dialectual difference. What the Atha- 
 baskan and the Algonkin are in the one peninsula, the 
 Quichua, the Carib, and, above all, the Guarani, are in the 
 other. From the want, however, of details, the direction 
 of the several movements by which they spread is, for 
 the most part, undetermined. 
 
 With any South American vocabulary of adequate 
 length, some North American root presents itself — some, 
 indeed, from the extreme north, e. g. the Eskimo area. 
 Now, as borrowing is out of the question (whilst the 
 words are not of the sort to be independently excogi- 
 tated by distant speakers), this, along with the phe- 
 nomena of transition, is the chief philological argument 
 
522 THE AMERICAN LANGUAGES 
 
 in favour of the fundamental unity of the two classes. 
 That the transitions are obscure is, from the scantiness 
 of our data for the most important points, what we 
 expect, a priori. 
 
 When well within South America — for New Granada 
 gives us but few materials — however difficult it may be 
 to give a systematic classification of definitely affiliated 
 languages, it is much more difficult to find a language 
 wherein miscellaneous affinities are wanting. The stu- 
 dent from Peru finds Quichua words in every vocabulary 
 he lights upon : whilst the student from Brazil finds 
 Guarani ones. These languages are, certainly, the most 
 widely spread of any : but the same coincidences — 
 allowance being made for the diflference in the number 
 of the words compared — occur in all the other tongues ; 
 even those of which our knowledge is the slightest. 
 
 The details of the classification are given in the pre- 
 liminary table. The ordinal value, however, of the 
 whole American class requires a brief notice. I doubt 
 whether, on the whole, it is higher than that of the so- 
 called Indo-European in its most restricted form, i. e. 
 in the form to which it is limited in the forthcoming 
 chapters of the present work. 
 
 However, in order that this statement may not pass 
 for a paradox, it must be remembered that the value of a 
 class depends not upon the number of the minor divisions 
 and sub-divisions which it may contain, but upon the 
 amount of difference between the extremes. If, (the 
 limits of the English, the German, the Eussian, the 
 Latin, the French, and their congeners being limited to 
 areas no larger than the county of York,) the remainder 
 of Europe were filled-up with some scores or hun- 
 dreds of languages, each as different (and not more 
 different) from one another as the above-named languages 
 are among themselves, the value of the class at large 
 would be the same ; though that of its subordinate 
 sections would be less. Instead of some three primary 
 
IN GENERAL. 523 
 
 divisions with a mass of divisions there would be some 
 scores of genera consisting of either a single species or 
 of few. There would be, in short, a hundred languages 
 resembling the E-ussian and the German in their differ- 
 ence from each other, but not resembling them in being 
 spoken over large areas. Tested by the difference be- 
 tween its extreme members (say the Eskimo and the 
 Fuegian) the American class, in my mind, is one of a 
 very moderate ordinal value ; for, with a view to the time 
 required to effect change, a little consideration tells us 
 that the period which will modify one form of speech 
 may just as easily modify a hundred. 
 
524 THE THENICIAK 
 
 CHAPTER LXVI. 
 
 The Semitic Languages. — The Phenician and Punic. — The Hebrew and Sa- 
 maritan. — The Assyrian and Chaldee. — The Syriac. — The iEthiopic and 
 Amharic. — Graf at. — Arabic. — Hururgi, The Amazig or Berber. 
 
 The Phenician of Tyre and Sidon and the parts 
 around is known only by inscriptions ; and as these 
 are without date the exact state of language which 
 they indicate is uncertain. They are spread over a 
 wide tract of country ; a tract which agrees with the 
 notions suggested by the ordinary historical accounts 
 of the commercial and colonial relations of those two 
 cities. They are either rare or non-existent beyond 
 the range of Mount Taurus. They are rare or non- 
 existent along the eastern parts of Africa. They are nume- 
 rous in Spain, and they have been found in Sicily and 
 Malta. Between those which represent Carthage and 
 those that represent Phenicia the line of demarcation is 
 partly uncertain, partly conventional. Nevertheless, it 
 is convenient to separate, so far as it can be done, the 
 Phenician from the Punic — allied or identical as they 
 may be. 
 
 In the way of language the Phenician inscriptions 
 are unimportant. In the history of the alphabet they 
 are of interest. It was from Phenicia that the Greeks 
 took their letters : the Old Italians theirs ; and from 
 these two all the alphabets of the West have originated. 
 Those of the East (in the mind of the present writer) 
 have, also, a like origin. The proof, however, is less patent. 
 
THE PHENICIAN. 525 
 
 The Phenician alphabet consisted of signs for the mutes 
 and liquids. Then comes what are considered signs for 
 certain breathings, as h and its congeners ; along with 
 certain semi- vowels and nasals. In the Phenician itself, 
 and in its immediate eastern descendants, these are 
 treated as consonants — so that the alphabets under the 
 ordinary doctrine are alphabets without vowels. If 
 so, such a word as Tnilk is written mlk ; the context 
 being held sufficient to say whether the actual word was 
 melek, or milik, or muluk, or melik, or milek, or milk, 
 or melkj or mlik, or mlek, or what not. Meanwhile, 
 the semi- vowels, in many instances, were vowels also, so 
 that swl might stand for sul, or syl for sil. In like 
 manner the sound of what, as a consonant (or rather as 
 a non- vowel), has been compared with the lene breath- 
 ing of the Greeks is, in certain cases, represented by 
 the equivalent of a. 
 
 In the Phenician stage, then, of the alphabet all that 
 can be said of certain letters is that they were occasion- 
 ally vowels. In the Greek and Latin, however, the}' be- 
 came real ones. This is a definite fact. Whatever difficul- 
 ties we may have in reconciling the powers of certain 
 letters on the Phenician inscriptions with the doctrine 
 that they partook so much of the nature of consonants, 
 and so little of the nature of vowels as to be equivalent 
 to the lene and aspirate breathings of the Greeks (' and *), 
 the semi- vowels of the English (y and w), and the na- 
 sals of the Portuguese {a 6), it is beyond all doubt that 
 in the Greek and Latin they became a, rj, e, and o, all 
 trace of their consonantal power having been lost at 
 an early period. This change, however, they underwent 
 only in their progress westward. 
 
 They also underwent another — this, too, in their pro- 
 gress westward. In Phenicia they were written from 
 right to left ; in Greece and Italy (after a time) from 
 left to right. 
 
 Again — the Phenician alphabet, as far as it is known 
 
526 THE PHENICIAN. 
 
 to us, is known to us from inscriptions only. Hence, 
 it consists of capital letters only, and these in a form 
 that suits the carver on stone rather than the writer 
 on paper or parchment. 
 
 The Phenician of Carthage is conveniently called Punic, 
 and, like the Phenician Proper, it is known through in- 
 scriptions. Unlike the Punic it is known by something 
 more than inscriptions. In the Little Carthaginian 
 (Poenulus) of Plautus one of the characters is a Cartha- 
 ginian, who speaks his own Punic. 
 
 On the east the Phenician, in the limited sense of 
 the term, came in contact with the Galilean, into 
 which it probably graduated ; as the Galilean itself did 
 into the Syrian, the dialects of the country beyond 
 Jordan, and (on the south) the Samaritan. That there 
 was some difference between the Galilean and the 
 Hebrew of Jerusalem we learn from the New Testa- 
 ment : the Gahlean being, nevertheless, a Hebrew 
 dialect ; indeed, between the Phenician and the Hebrew 
 the difference was political rather than philological. It 
 is the Hebrew into which the Punic of the Foenulus has 
 been more especially transliterated. 
 
 Concerning the Samaritan, of which the chief original 
 speakers were of the tribe of Ephraim, we know that 
 it wanted the Hebrew sound of either sh or th ; so that 
 Sihboleth, Shibholet, or Sihholeth, was the Samaritan form 
 of Shibboleth. 
 
 The Samaritan alphabet was older, and more like the 
 Phenician than the Hebrew. That a copy of the Pen- 
 tateuch is written in it, that it stiU exists, and that it 
 gives some important variations from the Hebrew text, 
 is well-known, though its age is uncertain. The re- 
 mainder of the literature consists in a chronicle and 
 some private letters, written in Arabic with Samaritan 
 characters. In the neighbourhood of Nablus, fragments 
 of the Samaritans still exist ; some others, I believe, in 
 Cairo. It is the Samaritan characters that give the 
 
THE HEBREW. 527 
 
 legends of the Maccabean coins. That the blood in 
 Samaria differs notably from the language, is an infer- 
 ence from the statement in Ezra, that the men and 
 women who returned to Samaria after the removal of 
 the population by Nebuchadnezzar, were (amongst 
 others) Babylonians, Susanites, and Elamites : i. e. Assy- 
 rians, or Arabs, or Persians, or a mixture. 
 
 The Hebrew of Judea now follows ; the slight differ- 
 ence between which and the Samaritan is enhanced by 
 the difference of alphabet. 
 
 The fundamental date in our criticism of the Hebrew 
 language in respect to its history is the second year of 
 the reign of Darius II., in which were delivered the pro- 
 phecies of Haggai and Zechariah. Though Malachi, as 
 the last of the prophets, is generally, and perhaps rightly, 
 held to follow these two in time, we have no exact dates 
 for him. On the other hand, those of Haggai and Zecha- 
 riah (more or less) are precise. Their compositions cannot 
 be older, though they may be later. This coincides with 
 the time of Thucydides, and Aristophanes in Greece, the 
 culmination of the Attic period. The language of these 
 is essentially that of the oldest composition in the New 
 Testament. Such being the case, one of three things is 
 the inference. 
 
 1. That the older writings, in their transcription, 
 were accommodated to the newer medium, just as was 
 the case with the older compositions in English, where 
 we have not only differences of dialect, but differences 
 of time as well. 
 
 2. That the newer writings were written upon the 
 model of the old, just as Ciceronian Latin is written by 
 late Italians. 
 
 3. That the language actually remained unchanged, 
 just as, to some extent, and for some time, and as, com- 
 pared with certain other languages which changed quickly, 
 the Old Norse of Iceland did. It is unsafe to lay down 
 any general rule for particular cases of this kind. Each 
 
528 THE HEBREW. 
 
 raust be tried on its own merits; and it belongs to the 
 great Biblical and Semitic scholars to investigate the one 
 under notice. The question of permanence is one which 
 is, more or less, regulated by circumstances. A language 
 which resists influences for a century may fail to do so 
 for a millennium ; or a language, which, with no altera- 
 tive influences to touch it, may remain unchanged for a 
 century, may, under conditions unfavourable to its per- 
 manence, transform itself into something else in a gene- 
 ration or two. 
 
 Haggai, then, and Zechariah are loci standi for the 
 typical, historical Hebrew of the Jewish Scriptures, 
 with its massive quadrate alphabet, with Jerusalem as 
 its local centre, with the tribes of Benjamin and Judali 
 as its speakers, with Jewish or Hebrew as its name, 
 and with the middle of the flfth century B.C. as its date. 
 It covers everything in the Old Testament with the 
 exception of Ezra and Daniel, and gives us nothing 
 beyond ; i. e. nothing which exactly coincides with the 
 standard it exhibits. 
 
 From the names of the families or tribes in Ezra, 
 some of which are named from the localities which they 
 inhabited before the Captivity, it was the language of 
 Jerusalem and something more — as is to be expected. 
 That it did not all go back to Jerusalem we learn from 
 the subsequent notices of the Jews in various parts of 
 the Persian Empire, not to mention those of Egypt. 
 
 That Hebrew was the name for the language of the 
 Holy Land at the time of our Saviour's Crucifixion, we 
 learn from the trilingual inscriptions over the cross — in 
 Greek, in Latin, and in Hebrew : and that the Galilean 
 was a well-marked dialect of it, we learn from the 
 answer of the woman to Peter, whose " speech bewrayed 
 him." — St. Matthew xxvi. 73. 
 
 In no part of the world do small differences in the 
 way of speech appear greater than they do about 
 Judaea. The ordinal value of the whole Semitic class 
 
THE HEBREW. 529 
 
 itself is of the smallest ; but in Judaea and on the 
 Hebrew frontier everything creates distinctions. To 
 differences in nationality and religion differences of 
 alphabet are added; and, out of all these combined, 
 come names like Hebrew, Samaritan, and Phenician — 
 names through which dialects take the guise of languages. 
 
 That these complications increase as we proceed we 
 shall soon find. How the Hebrew comported itself to 
 the Syrian on the north, to the forms of speech on the 
 Tigris and Euphrates on the east, and to the Arabic on 
 the south, is a difficult question : for it must be remem- 
 bered that, over and above the differences of name, 
 alphabet, and nationality, there was a difference of 
 time ; the newest Hebrew being older than the oldest 
 Syriac, and much older than the oldest Arabic. 
 
 As far, at least, as name went, the Aramaic of 
 the time of the kings of Judah was recognized as 
 a different language from the Hebrew, both before 
 the Captivity and afterwards. " Then said Eliakim, 
 Speak, I pray thee, to thy servants in the Aramaic 
 language ; for we understand it : and talk not with us 
 in the Jews' language in the ears of the people that are 
 on the wall.'' "Then Rabshakeh stood and cried 
 with a loud voice in the Jews' language, and spake," &;c. 
 (2 Kings xviii. 26, 28.) Then they cried "in the 
 Jews' speech unto the people that were on the walls," 
 &;c. (2 Chron. xxxii. 18.) This applies to an ad- 
 dress of Rabshakeh, on the part of the King of As- 
 Syria, who, as speaking to Jews, addressed them in their 
 language — not in his. I do not look, however, upon 
 this answer as conclusive to the fact that, on all occasions 
 and under all circumstances, the Syrian was unintel- 
 ligible to a Jew. All that it tells is, that Eliakim, who 
 understood Syrian, considered that Rabshakeh, who was 
 unnecessarily departing from the use of his own mother 
 tongue, would do well in using, out of two languages, 
 the one which, besides being his own, was less patently 
 
 M M 
 
530 THE HEBREW. 
 
 plain to the common people than the one he was using. 
 A latent wish too, to let Rabshakeh know that he (Eli- 
 akim) could speak Aramaic is not to be overlooked. All 
 that Eliakim said to Rabshakeh might be said by a 
 Dane who spoke Swedish to a Swede unnecessarily talk- 
 ing Danish, or by a Portuguese to a Spaniard under 
 similar circumstances. This means, that I do not look 
 upon the passage as conclusive to the Aramaic and the 
 Judsean having been mutually unintelligible languages ; 
 which I think they were not. 
 
 In thus calling these two forms of speech Judaic and 
 Aramaic I give the original terms of the Jews them- 
 selves. The Greek, Latin, and ordinary equivalent of 
 Aramaic is Syrian. Here it applies to the Assyrian, 
 i. e. the language of the subjects of Sennacherib rather 
 than those of Benhadad. 
 
 In Ezra we find a similar distinction, the date being 
 the time of Artaxerxes ; when the notification that the 
 re-constitution of Jerusalem was going on, and that it 
 ought to be stopped, is written in Aramaic ; as were other 
 documents appertaining to the administration of Judea. 
 But too much stress must not be laid on this ; inas- 
 much as a slight difference between the languages would 
 be enhanced by the difference between the alphabets. 
 
 In Daniel we get a new term, and it is because this 
 name is an important one ; an obscure one ; one which, 
 firom its ambiguity, has created no little confusion ; and 
 one of which the history is mixed up with that of the 
 Aramaic and Jewish, that the preceding minutice have 
 been indulged in. Along with Shadrach, Meshach, 
 and Abednego, Daniel is brought up under the master 
 of the eunuchs to be taught "the learning and the 
 tongue of the Ghasdim (Chaldees)/' Elsewhere the 
 Chasdim and Arameans (Chaldees and Syrians or 
 Assyrians) are associated. Now, it is only in the 
 latter half of the book of Daniel, and only when the 
 kingdom of which Babylon was the capital is con- 
 
THE SYRIAC. 531 
 
 trasted with that of the Medes and Persians, that Chas- 
 dim is a national name. In the earlier chapters, and 
 when the contrast is between the Babylonians and Jews, 
 it means astrologer. 
 
 The Aramaic that was spoken by Rabshakeh was the 
 language of ^t<?syria rather than Syria. It was also 
 the language of Nineveh rather than Babylon. The 
 Aramaic of Ezra and the earlier chapters of Daniel was 
 also Assyrian rather than Syrian ; but it was the 
 Assyrian of Babylon rather than Nineveh. 
 
 It is from the Assyrian of Babylon that Chaldee, as 
 a name of the later Hebrew, is taken, and it is from 
 Nineveh that we get Gccldaiii, as a name of the exist- 
 ing Christians of the parts about Urumiah. 
 
 Of the true Syriac of Damascus, Emesa, and Edessa, 
 the literary history begins no earlier than the fourth 
 century. 
 
 It is Christian. It is embodied in an alphabet 
 which, though it agrees with the Hebrew in the number, 
 order, and names of its letters, difters from it in the 
 form of them : the language itself being in contact with 
 the Greek and encroached upon by it. If it were 
 really spoken in Cappadocia it was the most northern 
 dialect of its class. The Palmyrene, known only by 
 inscriptions of the third century, is either a peculiai- 
 alphabet or the ordinary alphabet adapted to lapidary 
 purposes. 
 
 In the third century, as now, Irak and Khuzistan 
 were districts in which the Persian and the Arab popu- 
 lations came in contact ; and in the third century (and 
 even earlier) the Syrian language was widely current in 
 both Arsacidan and Sassanian Persia. In his life of 
 Antony, Plutarch tells us how Mithridates, a cousin of 
 Moneses, asked for some one who could communicate 
 with him in either Parthian or Syrian. In the seventh 
 century a Syrian abstract of Aristotle's Dialectic is said 
 to have been made for Chosroes Nushirvan. More than 
 
 M M 2 
 
532 THE SYRIAG. 
 
 this, the geographical details of the Semitic tribes of 
 south-western Persia are known. The particular popula- 
 tion which occupied Khuzistan and Irak was that of the 
 Nabatheans ; so-called by both the Arabian and Persian 
 historians ; though the name has a wide as well as a 
 limited signification. Masudi writes that Ardeshir Ba- 
 began besieged a Nabathean king in Sevad. The date, 
 however, is too early for this to pass as actual history. 
 Tabari, however, states that "at this present time the 
 Nabatheans who dwell in Sewad are descended from the 
 Arameans." 
 
 That these Nabatheans were of the rudest is likely 
 enough ; indeed, it is specially stated that such was the 
 case. Nevertheless, they could mix up their language 
 with that of the traders, the soldiers, and the common 
 people as well as more learned men. Meanwhile but a 
 little beyond them was the alphabet, the literature, and 
 the civilization of Palmjrra — largely Greek; but, at the 
 same time, Semitic as well. It is to the Palmyrene that 
 the lapidary Sassanian most closely approaches. 
 
 It is not for nothing that I have gone into these 
 details. With the multiplicity of names and alphabets, 
 the differences between the languages under notice have 
 been exaggerated. Let any one who doubts about 
 their being essentially dialects of a single language pre- 
 pare himself for the investigation by a due valuation of 
 the extreme differences between the different dialects of 
 Germany, France, or Italy. If he come to the conclu- 
 sion that such an examination proves too much, and 
 that the result of it is a splitting up of several French, 
 Italian, and German dialects into so many separate 
 substantive languages, I have nothing to say against his 
 conclusion. I have only to ask him to suppose the 
 Arabic, the Syriac, and Hebrew all written in the same 
 alphabet, and compared with one another in the same 
 stage. Unless this be done, differences will be exagge- 
 rated and names will mislead. 
 
THE GHEEZ AND TiaRE. 533 
 
 If this uniformity be admitted, the conclusion must 
 give the comparative recent diffusion of the forms of 
 speech in which it appears — either this or a great indis- 
 position to change. Of the two alternatives, the former 
 is the more likely, though I do not press it as the only one. 
 
 The direction in which the stream of language moved 
 is obscure ; all that can be said is, that there are none of 
 the languages on the Asiatic side of the Red Sea into 
 which they graduate. The converse is the case in 
 Africa. This induces me to leave the Arabic for the 
 present, and to begin at the other side of the Semitic 
 area, and, having first considered the extremes, to pro- 
 ceed to the consideration of the middle ground. 
 
 The Gheez is the language of the earliest -^thiopic 
 translation of the canonical Scriptures, of more than oue 
 apocryphal portion of them, and of a few writings on 
 ecclesiastical subjects. It is read, at the present time, in 
 the churches, in the way that the Latin is read in the 
 Roman Catholic countries, and the Old Slavonic in 
 Russia. Its alphabet is syllabic, and the writing runs 
 from left to right, and not from right to left, as is the 
 case with the Hebrew, Syriac, and Arabic. The details 
 of its origin we cannot give, nor name its immediate 
 prototype. 
 
 Of the descendants of the Gheez, the nearest is that 
 of the present province of Tigr^ ; indeed, the Tigre is 
 generally looked upon as modem Gheez, the Gheez as 
 ancient Tigr^ — the Tigr^ being a written language ; its 
 alphabet, the Gheez with modifications. Of its dialects 
 and sub-dialects we know nothing. The parts about the 
 ancient city of Axum are the probable localities of these 
 two varieties of the ^thiopic. 
 
 Gondar, on the other hand, and the southern pro- 
 vinces of Abyssinia, give the Amharic area : the Am- 
 haric language being spoken at the present time by the 
 majority of the southern Abyssinians ; and being written 
 in an alphabet of Gheez origin. 
 
 The Oaf at lies in contact with the Amharic and Agaw 
 
534 
 
 THE GAFAT. 
 
 on the north, and the Galla on the south ; by both of 
 which it has been encroached on — by the former first, 
 by the latter recently : indeed, the Galla encroachment 
 is still going on. Bruce has given a specimen of it, so 
 has Dr. Beke : who remarks that his own vocabulary is 
 more Amharic than his predecessor's. 
 
 English. 
 
 Gafat (1). 
 
 Gafat (2). 
 
 Man {homo) 
 
 sabush 
 
 sebew . 
 
 (vir) 
 
 People 
 
 tab^tish 
 s^boach 
 
 
 
 Woman 
 
 ^nsit 
 
 anset 
 
 Boy 
 
 busb^n 
 
 
 
 Girl 
 Head 
 
 ^skbarai 
 damoa 
 
 
 demow 
 
 Hair 
 
 tsagera 
 
 chegur 
 
 Eye 
 
 yena 
 
 eiu 
 
 Ear 
 
 ankwagi 
 
 ankwagi 
 
 Nose 
 
 ^unfwa 
 
 anfu 
 
 Mouth 
 
 simota 
 
 semota 
 
 Lip 
 
 kanfarish 
 
 semota 
 
 Tongue 
 
 melasish 
 
 melasi 
 
 Tooth 
 
 sinna 
 
 sena 
 
 Hand 
 
 tsatan 
 
 edzhedzhe 
 
 Foot 
 
 cbamme 
 
 chama 
 
 Bone 
 
 damush 
 atsemo 
 
 
 atsant 
 
 STcy 
 
 samai 
 
 
 Sun 
 
 dzh^mber 
 
 cheber 
 
 Moon 
 
 chereka 
 
 tserakit 
 
 Star 
 
 kokab 
 
 kokeb 
 
 Fire 
 
 esatsh 
 
 satawi 
 
 Water 
 
 ega 
 
 ege 
 
 Stone 
 
 dzhindzish 
 
 denguish 
 
 Tree 
 
 zafi 
 
 mazafash 
 
 One 
 
 Two 
 
 Three 
 
 Four 
 
 Five 
 
 Si:)c 
 
 Seven 
 
 Eight 
 
 edzhe 
 
 helitta 
 
 sosta 
 
 arb^tta 
 
 hamista 
 
 sedista 
 
 sebatta 
 
 seminta 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . ,... 
 
 Nine 
 
 zateiia 
 
 
 
 Ten 
 
 asser 
 
 
 It is into the Amharic that Dr. Beke believes that the 
 Gafat is gradually merging. The special Gafat locality is 
 
THE GAFAT. 535 
 
 a small district in the south of Damot. It apparently falls 
 into dialects, or sub-dialects ; since the language of Dr. 
 Beke's informants varied according to the district from 
 which it came. Some gave to almost every word the ter- 
 mination ~ish ; others -oa ; others no addition at all. The 
 former of these affixes is truly Gafat : the latter is Agaw 
 as well. 
 
 The alphabet of the present Arabic is closely akin to 
 that of the Syriac ; from an early form of which, the 
 Cuhc, it seems to have been derived. But the Arabic of 
 the Koran is not the oldest language of which we find 
 memorials in Arabia. Neither does it give us the only 
 Arabic dialect. Certain valleys in the south-east abound 
 in inscriptions to which the name Himyaritic has been 
 applied. The alphabet of these is the ^thiopic, which 
 differs from all the other Semitic alphabets in being not 
 only written from right to left, but in being syllabic. 
 Whether this give us a new language in the strictest 
 sense of the term is uncertain. It is certain that it 
 gives us as much of one as is given by the Phenician, or 
 even the Syriac. At any rate, it gives us a dialect of 
 the south-east rather than one of the parts about Mecca ; 
 a dialect of the fourth century, rather than one of the 
 seventh ; and, finally, a dialect which, in its literary as- 
 pect, at least, connects Arabia with Ethiopia. 
 
 In favour of JEthiopic elements thus introduced upon 
 the cognate Arabic, the Himyaritic inscriptions only give 
 us a presumption. Arabic elements, however, in Africa 
 are important realities. That the present language of 
 -^gypt, Barbary, and large tracts elsewhere, is Arabic is 
 well-known. In all these cases, however, the analysis 
 is, comparatively, easy — the mixture being heterogeneous. 
 Arabic, however, introduced into Ethiopia would be 
 like Dutch introduced into England ; in which case it 
 would, with certain words, be hard to say to which lan- 
 guage they belonged. Even if the language were, for 
 all practical purposes, Dutch, there might still be a basis 
 in the older tongue. 
 
536 
 
 TIGRE, AMHARIC, ETC. 
 
 Mutatis mutandis, this applies to several forms of 
 speech on the ^Ethiopic frontier — in all of -which 
 analysis is required ; in all of which, amid much which 
 is Semitic, there is something that is ^thiopic rather 
 than Arabic. When the Arabic has overlaid two lan- 
 guages instead of one the analysis becomes more intri- 
 cate. 
 
 The languages of Hurur and Adaiel are of this kind. 
 
 English. 
 
 Tigr6. 
 
 Amharic. 
 
 Arkiko. 
 
 Hurur. 
 
 Adaiel. 
 
 Man 
 
 saboi 
 
 wond 
 
 nas 
 
 abbok 
 
 adma 
 
 Woman 
 
 saboite 
 
 set 
 
 eseet 
 
 edok 
 
 barra 
 
 Head 
 
 
 ras 
 
 ras 
 
 roos 
 
 mooiya 
 
 Hair 
 
 tsuqure 
 
 tsequr 
 
 
 tsequr 
 
 
 Eye 
 
 aire(ou) 
 
 ain 
 
 en 
 
 ain 
 
 
 Nose 
 
 
 afintcha 
 
 anf 
 
 oof 
 
 
 Mouth 
 
 
 
 af 
 
 af 
 
 adde 
 
 aof 
 
 Teeth 
 
 sinne 
 
 ters 
 
 inob 
 
 sin 
 
 
 Tongue 
 
 melhas 
 
 melas 
 
 
 arrat 
 
 
 Ear 
 
 izne 
 
 djoro 
 
 izun 
 
 ut'hun 
 
 
 Beard 
 
 tchame 
 
 tim 
 
 dimne 
 
 dubun 
 
 
 Hand 
 
 eed 
 
 eedgekind 
 
 
 
 
 
 Leg 
 
 iggere 
 
 
 igger 
 
 igger 
 
 
 Foot 
 
 
 tscbama 
 
 
 
 
 God 
 
 esger 
 
 igzer 
 
 
 goeta 
 
 alia 
 
 Sun 
 
 tsai 
 
 tsai 
 
 tsai 
 
 eer 
 
 aire 
 
 Moon 
 
 werhe 
 
 tcherka 
 
 werhe 
 
 werhe 
 
 alsa 
 
 Star 
 
 
 quokub 
 
 kokub 
 
 toowee 
 
 urtoohta 
 
 Fire . 
 
 howwe 
 
 a'sat 
 
 essaat 
 
 issat 
 
 2;ira 
 
 Water 
 
 mi 
 
 waha 
 
 mi 
 
 mi 
 
 ii 
 
 Wind 
 
 nefds 
 
 nefas 
 
 nefas 
 
 doof 
 
 arhoo 
 
 Rain 
 
 _ — 
 
 zinam 
 
 
 zenab 
 
 rooboo 
 
 River 
 
 kolle 
 
 babr 
 
 
 zer 
 
 
 Earth 
 
 midre 
 
 mider 
 
 midur 
 
 diche 
 
 bare 
 
 Hill 
 
 amba 
 
 amba 
 
 dubr 
 
 
 
 Mountain 
 
 
 tarara 
 
 
 sare 
 
 alii 
 
 Stone 
 
 hemne 
 
 dengea 
 
 
 un 
 
 daha 
 
 Fountain 
 
 ain 
 
 mintch 
 
 
 ain 
 
 
 Fish 
 
 
 assa • 
 
 assur 
 
 tulum 
 
 kullum 
 
 Horse 
 
 f'ras 
 
 feras 
 
 feras 
 
 feras 
 
 ferasa 
 
 One 
 
 adde 
 
 and 
 
 ante 
 
 ahad 
 
 * 
 
 Two 
 
 kiUete 
 
 quillet 
 
 killi 
 
 kout 
 
 
 Three 
 
 selaste 
 
 sost 
 
 selass 
 
 sheeste 
 
 
 Four 
 
 erbahte 
 
 arrut 
 
 ubah 
 
 harrut 
 
 
 Five 
 
 aumishte 
 
 aumist 
 
 amoos 
 
 hammest 
 
 
 Six 
 
 sedishte 
 
 sedist 
 
 soos 
 
 sedeest 
 
 
 
 * Numerals said to be the same as 
 
 the Danakel. 
 
 
TIGRE, AMHARIC, ETC. 
 
 537 
 
 EngUsh. 
 
 Tigr6. 
 
 Amharic. 
 
 Arkiko. Hurur. 
 
 Adaiel. 
 
 Seven 
 
 shubarte 
 
 subhat 
 
 subbu sate 
 
 
 Eight 
 
 shumunte 
 
 semint theman sut 
 
 
 Nine 
 
 tishate 
 
 zetti 
 
 fcse 
 
 zeythan 
 
 
 Tm 
 
 ashur 
 
 assin assur assir 
 
 
 Another language of this kind is the 
 
 
 English. 
 
 
 Gindzhar. 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Gindzhar. 
 
 Man 
 
 
 radzMl 
 
 
 Leg 
 
 kurah 
 
 Woman 
 
 
 marra 
 
 
 Foot 
 
 kafat kurai 
 
 Boy 
 
 
 dzhenna 
 
 
 Day 
 
 mabar 
 
 Girl 
 
 
 bint 
 
 
 Night 
 
 liel 
 
 Father 
 
 
 dbu 
 
 
 Morning 
 
 sobabh 
 
 Mother 
 
 
 urn 
 
 
 Evening 
 
 asbir 
 
 Brothei 
 
 
 akbu 
 
 
 Earth 
 
 wota 
 
 Sister 
 
 
 okbt 
 
 
 Water 
 
 alma 
 
 Head 
 
 
 ras 
 
 
 Grass 
 
 gesh 
 
 Hair 
 
 
 shar 
 
 
 Mountain 
 
 gallah 
 
 Eye 
 
 
 ein 
 
 
 River 
 
 hor 
 
 Nose 
 
 
 ad^n 
 
 
 Good 
 
 sammi 
 
 Month 
 
 
 shamak 
 
 
 Bad 
 
 fassil 
 
 Neck 
 
 
 raggaba 
 
 
 Black 
 
 aswad 
 
 Hand 
 
 
 id 
 
 
 White 
 
 abiad 
 
 Arm 
 
 
 derah 
 
 
 Red 
 
 ahmar. 
 
 Of the following, the fornier is the dialect which 
 most approaches the Himyaritic ; the latter that of the 
 island of Sokotra. 
 
 English. 
 
 Mahari. 
 
 Sokotran 
 
 Back 
 
 dara mothan 
 
 tadah 
 
 Belly 
 
 djof 
 
 
 Cow 
 
 bakaret 
 
 
 Donkey 
 
 heir 
 
 
 Eyebrow 
 
 ahajor 
 
 hajhar 
 
 Fire 
 
 sbeewot 
 
 sheiwat 
 
 Father 
 
 heb 
 
 
 Fish 
 
 seit 
 
 sodab 
 
 Frog 
 
 dthafzat 
 
 
 God 
 
 bal 
 
 
 Hair 
 
 shof 
 
 shif 
 
 Knee 
 
 barak 
 
 
 Milk 
 
 isbakbof 
 
 huf 
 
 Mouth 
 
 warak 
 
 
 Nose 
 
 nakhrir 
 
 nabir 
 
 Red 
 
 aufar 
 
 aufer 
 
 Rice 
 
 hiraz 
 
 arbaz 
 
 Sun 
 
 beiom 
 
 sbobum 
 
 Star 
 
 kabkob 
 
 kokab. 
 
538 MODERN SYRIAC 
 
 We now return to the Hebrew and Syriac in the 
 newer forms. The language of the Talmud, written 
 in a modification of the Hebrew alphabet, represents 
 the language of the Jews after the destruction of 
 Jerusalem. It has largely influenced the Hebrew of 
 common life in conjunction with other causes ; so much 
 so that it may be doubted whether this latter be a true 
 vernacular ; by which I mean, that is it to be compared 
 with Latin as spoken by a mass of individuals who have 
 learned it either directly or indirectly through books rather 
 than with the Italian or Spanish which have developed 
 themselves freely and spontaneously. In all languages 
 the continual reference to written works developes an 
 artificial element. In the modern Jewish this is believed 
 to be considerable. It is a matter, however, upon which 
 no one but a learned and critical Jew can speak with 
 confidence. 
 
 The same applies, in a still greater degree, to the 
 fragmentary Samaritan. 
 
 The same, too, to the modern Syriac. It is said to 
 be spoken by a few individuals in the Lebanon. It 
 would, perhaps, be better to say that there are some 
 individuals in the Lebanon who can speak it. 
 
 Further north, the evidence of either it or an allied 
 dialect being a true vernacular improves ; it being spe- 
 cifically stated that most of the Nestorians, though they 
 use their own language in intercourse with each other, 
 are able to speak the so-called Tartar of the Turks around 
 them with ease and fluency. Very few, however, have 
 any tincture of literature ; their MSS. being scarce, and 
 printed works, up to A.D. 1829, non-existent. In that 
 year, however, the Gospels were printed from a copy, ob- 
 tained from Bishop Mar Johannan, through Dr. Wolff*, 
 by the British and Foreign Bible Society. In 1840, the 
 American missionaries introduced a printing-press ; so 
 that, over and above some important translations from 
 the Scriptures, a series of tracts, from the Dairyman's 
 Daughter to Dr. Watts's hymns, has been published. In 
 
AND HEBREW. 
 
 539 
 
 thus adapting an ancient language to the spiritual wants 
 of a poor and illiterate community of oppressed Chris- 
 tians, the names Perkins, Halliday, Grant and Stoddart, 
 to the preface of whose grammar of the Modern Syrian 
 the foregoing facts are due, are honourably conspicuous. 
 The schools of the mission have gradually increased in 
 number, and in 1853 they amounted to eighty. 
 
 We can scarcely consider either the modern Syriac 
 or the modern Hebrew as a true spontaneous develop- 
 ment of the old language. Literary influence has en- 
 gendered an artificial element in them ; and the fact of 
 every community where either is spoken using a second 
 language has taken them out of conditions under which 
 true philological growth proceeds. What they do illus- 
 trate is, the laws by which such forces as the ones just 
 noticed act — and, in this respect, they deserve all the 
 attention that has been awarded them. 
 
 Even the Arabic is scarcely a language that has been 
 left to its own natural growth. Except in the ruder 
 dialects of Arabia itself, of which we know little or 
 nothing, the Koran has always exercised a conservative 
 influence ; whilst, in Malta, where there is no Koran, 
 there is a second language. 
 
 English. 
 
 Arabic. 
 
 Syriac. 
 
 Hebrew. 
 
 Head 
 
 ras 
 
 rish 
 
 rosli 
 
 Hair 
 
 saro 
 
 shar 
 
 sear 
 
 Eye 
 
 ayn 
 
 eyn 
 
 ayn 
 
 Ear 
 
 adzn 
 
 adno 
 
 ozen 
 
 Nose 
 
 anph 
 
 hhatm 
 
 aph 
 
 Mouth 
 
 pham 
 
 plLum 
 
 pi 
 
 Tooth 
 
 sen 
 
 sheno 
 
 shen 
 
 Tongue 
 
 lishan 
 
 leshono 
 
 lashon 
 
 Hand 
 
 yad 
 
 yad 
 
 vad 
 
 Foot 
 
 rigl 
 
 reglo 
 
 regel 
 
 Sun 
 
 shams 
 
 shemsho 
 
 shemesh 
 
 Star 
 
 kaukab 
 
 kiikbo 
 
 kokab' 
 
 Bay 
 
 yawm 
 
 yeum 
 
 yom 
 
 Night 
 
 laila 
 
 lailo 
 
 laila 
 
 Fire 
 
 anisat 
 
 eshotto 
 
 esli 
 
 Water 
 
 nia 
 
 mayo 
 
 mayim 
 
540 
 
 THE AMAZIG OR BERBER GROUP. 
 
 English. 
 
 Arabic. 
 
 Syriac. 
 
 Hebrew. 
 
 One 
 
 akhad 
 
 hhad 
 
 ebbad 
 
 Two 
 
 thuna 
 
 tharin 
 
 shanim 
 
 Three 
 
 thaleth 
 
 tholth 
 
 sbelosh 
 
 Four 
 
 arbat 
 
 arba' 
 
 arba' 
 
 Five 
 
 hhams 
 
 hhamesh 
 
 bbamesh 
 
 Six 
 
 sit 
 
 sheth 
 
 sbesh 
 
 Seven 
 
 sab' 
 
 sheba' 
 
 sbeba 
 
 Eight 
 
 sam^a 
 
 tbmon 
 
 shemoneh 
 
 Nine 
 
 tish 
 
 tsha 
 
 tesha' 
 
 Ten 
 
 asliar 
 
 'sar 
 
 'asar. 
 
 The Amazig (or Berber) area is the largest in Africa, 
 extending from the confines of Egypt to the Atlantic 
 Ocean. More than this — the Canary Islands, until the 
 extermination or fusion of their aborigines, were Amazig. 
 
 Again — the ancient Mauritanians and Gsetulians 
 were not only the occupants of the Amazig area, but of 
 Amazig blood. Of Amazig blood were the native tribes 
 with which the Greeks of the Cyrenaica came in con- 
 tact. Of Amazig blood were the native tribes with 
 which the Phenicians of Utica and Carthage came in 
 contact. The subjects of Masinissa and Jugurtha occu- 
 pied localities of which the ancient names are explained 
 by means of the modern Amazig. 
 
 At the present time there are ^wq names for ^ve 
 divisions of the Amazig populations, and seven names 
 for the Amazig forms of speech. How far either series 
 is natural is another question. 
 
 (] .) The Kahails — who speak the Kabail language, 
 are the Amazig of the northern part of Algiers rather 
 than Morocco. 
 
 (2.) The Showiah are the Amazig of Morocco rather 
 than Algiers. They occupy, however, some of the 
 central districts of Algiers ; their language being the 
 Showiah. 
 
 (3.) The Shiluk lie to the south of Morocco, their 
 language being the Shiluk. 
 
 (4.) The Berbers belong to the south-eastern parts of 
 Algiers, to Tunis, to Tripoli, and the corresponding 
 
THE AMAZia OR BERBER GROUP. 
 
 541 
 
 parts of the Sahara. Their dialects are the Larua and 
 Zenaitia. 
 
 The extent to which the few fragments of the Lance- 
 rotta and Fuerteventura dialects of the Canary Islands 
 agree with the Shelluh may be seen from the following 
 table : — 
 
 English. 
 
 Canary. 
 
 Shellub. 
 
 Barley 
 
 temasin 
 
 tumzeen 
 
 Sticks 
 
 tezzezes 
 
 tezezerat 
 
 Palm-tree 
 
 taginaste 
 
 taginast 
 
 Petticoat 
 
 tahuyan 
 
 tahuyat 
 
 Water 
 
 ahemon 
 
 amen 
 
 Priest 
 
 faycag 
 
 faquair 
 
 God 
 
 acoran 
 
 mkoorn 
 
 Temple 
 
 almogaren 
 
 talmogaren 
 
 House 
 
 tamoyanteen 
 
 tigameen 
 
 Hog 
 
 tawaeen 
 
 tamouren 
 
 Ch-een Jig 
 
 arclLormase 
 
 akermuse 
 
 Sky 
 
 tigot 
 
 tigot 
 
 Mountain 
 
 thener 
 
 athraar 
 
 Valley 
 
 adeyhaman 
 
 douwaman. 
 
 The Canary Islanders were called Guances, and their 
 language the Guanch. 
 
542 
 
 THE AGAW. 
 
 CHAPTER LXVII. 
 
 The Agau, Agaw, or Agow, and Falasha. — The Gronga dialects. — The Kekuafi. 
 
 AgaumidrzuAgau-land, and one of the vocabularies 
 of Dr. Beke, is headed Agau of Agaumidr : a name 
 which suggests the notion that one part of the Agau area 
 was more decidedly Agau than the remainder. And 
 this seems to have been the case ; since Agaw is either 
 an Amharic or a Gheez term ; Aghagha being the native 
 name. 
 
 English. 
 
 Waag, 
 
 Faslaha. 
 
 Agaumidr. 
 
 Man (homo) 
 
 egir 
 
 ira 
 
 aghi 
 
 {vir) 
 
 gelua 
 
 garwa 
 
 ngardzhi 
 
 People 
 
 yek 
 
 
 aghi 
 
 Woman 
 
 yehona 
 
 yewina 
 
 hona 
 
 Boy 
 
 ashkir 
 
 korri 
 
 ansai 
 
 Girl 
 
 yehon-ashkir 
 
 korra 
 
 ansagha 
 
 Head 
 
 aur 
 
 agher 
 
 ngari 
 
 Hair 
 
 tsabka 
 
 aghet 
 
 tsitsifi 
 
 Eye 
 
 yel 
 
 ill 
 
 el 
 
 Ear 
 
 keretz 
 
 anko 
 
 - ankwagi 
 
 Nose 
 
 yassin 
 
 komba 
 
 san 
 
 Mouth 
 
 miya 
 
 af 
 
 kambi 
 
 Lip 
 
 kifar 
 
 kanfer 
 
 kanfar 
 
 Tooth 
 
 erruk 
 
 irku 
 
 arkui 
 
 Tongue 
 
 lakh 
 
 lanah 
 
 tsangi 
 
 Hand 
 
 nen 
 
 nan 
 
 taf 
 
 Foot 
 
 tsab 
 
 
 chappi 
 
 
 chafu 
 
 . lukkokocham 
 
 chammi 
 
 Bone 
 
 ngas 
 
 ngach 
 
 ngats 
 
 Blood 
 
 bir 
 
 karbat 
 
 beri 
 
 Sun 
 
 kwora 
 
 kuara 
 
 awas 
 
 Moon 
 
 arba 
 
 serk 
 
 arfa 
 
 Star 
 
 tsegaloa 
 
 chingaroa 
 
 bewa 
 

 THE 
 
 AGAW. 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Waag. 
 
 Faslaha. 
 
 Agauniidr. 
 
 Wind 
 
 figia 
 
 
 nefas 
 
 Rain 
 
 suwa 
 
 sua 
 
 heri 
 
 Fire 
 
 lia 
 
 ea • 
 
 ag 
 
 Water 
 
 akwo 
 
 agho 
 
 agho 
 
 Hill 
 
 aroa 
 
 debba 
 
 kan 
 
 Plain 
 
 shuwa 
 
 wulagha 
 
 wutaghi 
 
 Stone 
 
 kamga 
 
 kiinga 
 
 karing 
 
 Tree 
 
 zaf 
 
 chafa 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 satsi 
 
 
 haa 
 
 kana 
 
 kani 
 
 Eivei's 
 
 wirba 
 
 kiira 
 
 beni 
 
 Lake 
 
 bahar 
 
 
 bar 
 
 One 
 
 Iowa 
 
 lagha 
 
 laghu 
 
 Two 
 
 linga 
 
 linga 
 
 langa 
 
 Three 
 
 sbakwa 
 
 sigha 
 
 shuga 
 
 Four 
 
 siza 
 
 sigba 
 
 shuga 
 
 Five 
 
 akwa 
 
 ankua 
 
 ankua 
 
 Six 
 
 walta 
 
 wolta 
 
 walta 
 
 Seven 
 
 langata 
 
 langatta 
 
 langatta 
 
 Eiylit 
 
 sohota 
 
 saghotta 
 
 saghatta 
 
 Nine 
 
 tsaicha 
 
 sessa 
 
 sesta 
 
 Ten 
 
 tsikka 
 
 cliikka 
 
 tsikka. 
 
 543 
 
 The Agaw is bounded on the east, north, and north- 
 east by the Tigre ; being spoke in the province of 
 Lasta, and along the banks of the Tacazze. The par- 
 ticular dialect of the district named Waag is called 
 Hhamara — which, word for word, seems to be "Kafiapa 
 and Amhara ; the former term being as old as the time 
 of Agatharchides, who uses the expression Ka/ndpa Xe^ts 
 for one of the languages of these parts. In the southern 
 parts of Lasta, the Agaws are genuine mountaineers. In 
 Waag, and along the Tacazze, the land lies somewhat 
 lower. As a general rule, however, the Agau districts 
 lie in the more impracticable parts of Abyssinia, and the 
 dialects, pro tanto, take the appearance of aboriginal 
 forms of speech. The Agaws of Waag are the Tsherats 
 Agaws of Bruce. 
 
 Gonga is a name found in Ludolf : who places the 
 tribes to which he applies it in the Bahr-el-Abiad, 
 about 10° N. L. Dr. Beke has supplied as vocabu- 
 laries for the forms of speech referable to this class ; (1.) 
 
544 
 
 THE GONGA DIALECTS. 
 
 the Kaffa; (2.) the Woraita; (3.) the Wolaitsa; (4.) the 
 Yangaro. Word for word, I imagine that Yangaro is 
 Zinzero or Gingero, a name which in the old maps de- 
 notes one of the most southern provinces of Abyssinia. 
 To this district belongs Enarea, believed to have been 
 once a Christian kingdom. Now, however, it is over- 
 run by the Galla. 
 
 The name Gonga is native. In the western parts 
 of the valley of Bahr-el-Abiad, visited by Dr. Beke, 
 and named in the native dialect Shinasha, in Agawi, 
 Tsintsi, in Amharic and Gafat Shinasha, and con- 
 verted by the Portuguese into Chinchon, the natives 
 believe that, before the invasion of the G alias, their 
 country was both populous and powerful, and their lan- 
 guage was spoken far, to both the south, and the west. 
 They also apply the name Gonga to a large tract of 
 country to the south. 
 
 English. 
 
 Gonga, 
 
 Kaffa. 
 
 Woratta. 
 
 Yangaro. 
 
 Man (homo) 
 
 aso 
 
 
 asso 
 
 assu 
 
 (vir) 
 
 lugsho 
 
 
 atuma 
 
 gunagtisba 
 
 People 
 
 asachi 
 
 
 
 
 Woman 
 
 macha 
 
 
 machoa 
 
 nawase 
 
 Boy 
 
 lolo 
 
 
 naha 
 
 nangoto 
 
 Girl 
 
 na 
 
 
 macbenat 
 
 keredzho 
 
 Head 
 
 toko 
 
 tommo 
 
 kommo 
 
 
 Hair 
 
 chig 
 
 fungilla 
 
 kommo (?) 
 
 
 Eye 
 
 abo 
 
 afi 
 
 afo 
 
 
 Ear 
 
 wadzho 
 
 wamo 
 
 aitsa 
 
 
 Nose 
 
 sicho 
 
 suUia 
 
 sidi 
 
 
 Mouth 
 
 nono 
 
 nona 
 
 nona 
 
 
 Lip 
 
 lelfo 
 
 nono 
 
 mitharsa 
 
 
 Tooth 
 
 gasso 
 
 gasho 
 
 acha 
 
 
 Tongue 
 
 elbeto 
 
 milaso 
 
 intsarsa 
 
 
 Hand 
 
 kiso 
 
 knsha 
 
 kusbia 
 
 . 
 
 Foot 
 
 cha,TnTni 
 
 
 
 
 God 
 
 Yiko 
 
 Yero 
 
 Tsossa 
 
 Balamo 
 
 Shy 
 
 daro 
 
 
 
 bidani 
 
 Sim 
 
 aba 
 
 abo 
 
 awa 
 
 knwa, 
 
 
 ainehei 
 
 
 
 
 Moon 
 
 azicha 
 
 agino 
 
 agena 
 
 kita 
 
 
 gumbehei 
 
 
 
 
 Star 
 
 keno 
 
 kurchihe 
 
 tsolentsa 
 
 garkamo 
 

 
 THE KEKUAFI. 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Goiiga. 
 
 Kaffa. 
 
 Woratta. 
 
 Yangaro. 
 
 Earth 
 
 decho 
 
 showo 
 
 saha 
 
 donokamo 
 
 
 aifareni 
 
 
 
 
 Wind 
 
 dzhongo 
 
 
 agatsa 
 
 kocho 
 
 Rain 
 
 amso 
 
 
 ira 
 
 iro 
 
 Fire 
 
 tamo 
 
 kako 
 
 tammo 
 
 gea 
 
 Water 
 
 acho 
 
 acho 
 
 hatsa 
 
 akka 
 
 Stone 
 
 suco 
 
 hechechence 
 
 shucha 
 
 shuha 
 
 Tree 
 
 mitto 
 
 mitto 
 
 mitsa 
 
 ihho 
 
 One 
 
 ikko 
 
 ikka 
 
 itta 
 
 isso 
 
 Two 
 
 gitta 
 
 gutta 
 
 laha 
 
 hep 
 
 Three 
 
 kedzha 
 
 kedzha 
 
 hezza 
 
 kes 
 
 Fmr 
 
 auda 
 
 haudda 
 
 hoida 
 
 achech 
 
 Five 
 
 hucha 
 
 hucha 
 
 huchesa 
 
 huch 
 
 Six 
 
 shirta 
 
 shii-ita 
 
 husupona 
 
 isson (?) 
 
 Seven 
 
 sabata 
 
 shehata 
 
 lapona 
 
 nafun 
 
 Eight 
 
 seminta 
 
 shiminta 
 
 hospona 
 
 nangiri 
 
 Nine 
 
 dzheta 
 
 yidea 
 
 hodiipona 
 
 izgin 
 
 Ten 
 
 tacha 
 
 ashiri 
 
 tama 
 
 assir. 
 
 545 
 
 Word for word, Kekuaji is Eloikob. Let us see how 
 this can be. Eloikob is the native name : the name 
 which certain tribes of the part of Africa now under 
 notice give themselves. Their neighbours, the Wakamba, 
 who lie between them and the coast, and from whom 
 the term has been taken, change it into Akahij for the 
 singular, and Mukahi, for the plural, number. A further 
 change converts it into Mkuafi, and Wakuqfi. The 
 Eloikob, or Kekuafi, area, lies, then, in contact with that 
 of the Wakamba 
 
 English. 
 
 Ukuafi. 
 
 Man 
 
 ortaba 
 
 Nose 
 
 orldungnana 
 
 Head 
 
 eluginia 
 
 Hair 
 
 orlbabid 
 
 Face 
 
 engomon 
 
 Ear 
 
 engiok 
 
 Eye 
 
 engon 
 
 Tooth 
 
 orlala(?) 
 
 Tongue 
 
 orlala (?) 
 
 Back 
 
 orl-gunim 
 
 Beard 
 
 osirlrimi 
 
 Blood 
 
 osarge 
 
 English. 
 
 Ukuafi. 
 
 Bone 
 
 orl-oido 
 
 Hand 
 
 engaina 
 
 Foot 
 
 engeju 
 
 Day 
 
 engorlon 
 
 Shy 
 
 engadambo 
 
 Sun 
 
 engorlon 
 
 Moon 
 
 orlaba 
 
 Star 
 
 orlogirai 
 
 Earth 
 
 engui-lu 
 
 Bird 
 
 enkeni 
 
 Fish 
 
 esingeri. 
 
 N N 
 
54G THE COPTIC. 
 
 CHAPTER LXVIII. 
 
 The Coptic. — The Bishari. — The Nubian Languages. — The Shilluk, Denka, 
 &c. — The Mobba and Darrunga. — The Galla Group. — The Dizzela, 
 Dalla, Shankali or Shangalla. 
 
 The language of ^gypt in its oldest form is that 
 of the oldest hieroglyphic inscriptions. Upon the 
 details of the interpretation of the hieroglyphics them- 
 selves I can form no independent opinion. I can only 
 remark that the strictest test of a deciphered cypher, 
 viz. that of enabling the master of it to apply it 
 according to the rules of its decipherers and to obtain a 
 result of literal and self-apparent accuracy, is one which 
 in the existing transliterations is not come up to. If 
 otherwise, why have we not a series of old ^Egyptian 
 texts in the ordinary Coptic alphabet, of which an ordi- 
 nary Coptic student could judge ? 
 
 The language in its newer form is written in an 
 alphabet derived from the Greek, and embodies an early 
 translation of the New Testament, parts of the Old, and 
 several ecclesiastical compositions. It falls into three dia- 
 lects: the Sahitic, or Thebaic, of Upper, the Memphitic 
 of Middle, iEgypt, and the Bashmuric of the Delta ; all 
 giving a considerable mixture of Greek words : which, 
 in the Bashmuric, are the most numerous. 
 
 As a true vernacular it is extinct ; at least, though I 
 have heard of its being still spoken, I have not succeeded 
 in finding the details of the evidence. Neither would 
 the mere fact of its being spoken make it a true verna- 
 
THE COPTIC. 547 
 
 cular. It might be spoken merely as any other literary 
 language might be used in conversation. It is the Arabic 
 that has superseded it ; in the case of which language the 
 difference, in JEgypt, between the blood and the speech 
 is considerable. 
 
 In structure the Coptic is more simply agglutinate 
 than the full Semitic tongues, with which it chiefly 
 agrees in the personal and possessive pronouns. It is 
 often (perhaps generally) treated as Sub-semitic ; though 
 in the application of this name ethnographical reasons 
 have, either consciously or unconsciously, been mixed up 
 with philological ones. That it is, to some extent, Se- 
 mitic is true ; but it is inconsistent to make it this to the 
 exclusion of other languaojes that are more so. It will 
 be noticed again in the sequel when a language from a 
 very different quarter — the Basque — comes under notice. 
 
 It is the valley of the Nile which gives us Egypt ; 
 the plateaux and hills between the river and the Red 
 Sea being other than Egyptian. This is what they 
 are now. This is what they seem to have been at the 
 beginning of the historical period. That the Arabic 
 , prevails largely in these districts is well-known : indeed, 
 in the northern half it prevails exclusively. The blood, 
 however, is less Arab than the language : while the lan- 
 guage itself, as we proceed southwards, becomes other than 
 Arabic. In the parts about Kosseir, the Bishari, or Beja, 
 is spoken ; the Bishari tribes being the conquerors of 
 the Ababde ; the Ababde being Bishari, and the Bishari 
 Ababde, with this difference — the Bishari speak their 
 own language, the Ababde have exchanged it for the 
 Arabic. Such, at least, is the common statement ; the 
 presumptions being in favour of it. At the same time 
 the evidence is capable of improvement. That the 
 Ababde are other than Arabs is shown by their colour 
 and by the texture of their hair. They may, however, 
 have been other than Arab, and yet not, necessarily, 
 Bishari. The presumptions, however, as aforesaid, are in 
 
 N N 2 
 
548 THE BISHARI. 
 
 favour of the common doctrine. The Ababde lie nearer 
 to the Nile ; the Bishari to the sea. Both extend into 
 Nubia ; both into Egypt. 
 
 The country about Suakin is the occupancy of the' 
 Adareb, of whose language, eo nomine, I have seen no 
 specimen. A Suakin vocabulary, however, eo nomine, 
 is Bishari. 
 
 No Bishari compositions are known ; nor is it known 
 that the Arabic alphabet has been applied to the language 
 — though the tribes that speak it are, with few or no ex- 
 ceptions, real or nominal Mahometans. For the Haden- 
 doa and Hallenga languages, vocabularies, iis nominihus, 
 are wanted. They are spoken between the Mareb and 
 the Tacazze ; the few words known as Taka or Boje 
 (? Beja) probably represent them. 
 
 In language, as well as in physical form, and in geo- 
 graphical position, the nearest neighbours to the Bishari 
 are the Nubians. 
 
 Nubia begins where Egypt ends, i. e. at Assuan, 
 or Syene ; and where Nubia begins a new language 
 presents itself We may call it Nubian : subject to the 
 necessity of remembering that the term has a wide and 
 a restricted sense. There is the name of the class and 
 there is the name of a special dialect. 
 
 The Nubian class falls into two divisions of uncertain 
 value ; (1 .) the Nubian Proper, (2.) the Koldagi, 
 
 The Nubian Proper is spoken along the Nile, from 
 Egypt to Sennaar ; falling into three dialects, (1 .) 
 the Kensy of Kenuz on the north, (2.) the Noub, or 
 Nubian, in the limited sense of the word, in the middle 
 districts, and (3.) the Dongolawy of Dongola. The 
 Nubians are also called Berbers, Berberins, or Barabbra ; 
 a term which, from being applied to the Amazig tribes, 
 has occasionally created confusion. It is the Nubians, 
 however, to whom it applies with the least impropriety. 
 
 One of the numerous languages of Kordovan is named 
 the Koldagi, and I believe that it is the language of the 
 
THE BISHARI. 
 
 549 
 
 capital. It is, liowever, only one form of speech out of 
 many. Like the Nubian, it is known through vocabu- 
 laries only. Like the Nubian, it is the language of a 
 rude and imperfectly Mahometan population. Its Nubian 
 affinities were pointed out by Riippell. 
 
 Englislt. 
 
 Bishari. 
 
 Nubitin. 
 
 Koldagi. 
 
 Man 
 
 otak 
 
 itga 
 
 kordu 
 
 Woman 
 
 tataket 
 
 ideynga 
 
 
 Bead 
 
 ogurma 
 
 urka 
 
 oar 
 
 Hair 
 
 tamo 
 
 shigertyga 
 
 
 Eyes 
 
 tilyly 
 
 mainga 
 
 kale 
 
 Nose 
 
 ogenuf 
 
 soringa 
 
 hein 
 
 Tongue 
 
 medabo 
 
 
 
 Mouth 
 
 oyaf 
 
 akka 
 
 aul 
 
 Teeth 
 
 tongrek 
 
 nyta 
 
 gehl 
 
 Ear 
 
 toiigy 
 
 okiga 
 
 uilge 
 
 Beard 
 
 hamoi 
 
 sameyga 
 
 
 
 Foot 
 
 ragad 
 
 oyga 
 
 kuddo 
 
 Shy 
 
 otryk 
 
 sema 
 
 
 
 San 
 
 toyn 
 
 mashakka 
 
 es 
 
 Moon 
 
 ondzliim 
 
 inatiga 
 
 mindo 
 
 Star 
 
 
 windzhega 
 
 ondu 
 
 Fire 
 
 toneyt 
 
 ika 
 
 eka 
 
 Water 
 
 ayam 
 
 amanga 
 
 otu 
 
 Tree 
 
 
 dzhollaga 
 
 saleg 
 
 Stone 
 
 awey 
 
 
 
 kagen 
 
 One 
 
 engaro 
 
 werka 
 
 
 Two 
 
 molobo 
 
 onogha 
 
 
 Three 
 
 mehay 
 
 toskoga 
 
 
 Four ' 
 
 fadyg 
 
 kemsoga 
 
 
 Five 
 
 eyyib 
 
 didzha 
 
 
 
 Six 
 
 essagour 
 
 gordzhoga 
 
 
 Seven 
 
 essarama 
 
 kolodga 
 
 
 Eight 
 
 essambay 
 
 idonoga 
 
 
 Nine 
 
 ogamhay 
 
 oskoda 
 
 
 Ten 
 
 togaserama 
 
 dimaga 
 
 
 To the south of Obeyd, the capital of Kordovan, the 
 geography is obscure. In Africa, however, we may often 
 procure specimens of a language where we fail in finding 
 the place where it is spoken. This is because it is the 
 land of slavery ; and because residents in any of the 
 great centres of the traffic may generally find representa- 
 tives of even very distant languages. The vocabularies 
 may be relied on ; because when a man says that such 
 
550 THE SHABUN, FAZOGLO, ETC. 
 
 or such a word means horsey man, and whatever else it 
 may be, he is to be believed. Their geography, however, 
 is to be criticized ; because when we hear that such or 
 such a place lies so many miles west of so and so, the 
 likelihood of error, both in respect to distance and in 
 respect to the points of the compass, is considerable. 
 
 I find it difficult to say where Kordovan ends and 
 Sennaar begins. Sennaar, pre-eminently an African — 
 not to say a Negro — country, is also the occupancy of 
 the Sheyga Arabs ; and where Arabic is the current 
 language, the indigenous dialects stand a fair chance of 
 being neglected. Such is the case with Sennaar. Of 
 non-Arab vocabularies brought from Sennaar, in the 
 limited sense of the term, I know none. All I know is 
 certain vocabularies brought from certain frontier dis- 
 tricts, which may reasonably be believed to belong to 
 Sennaar forms of speech. The proportion that the in- 
 digence bear to the Arabs is unknown. The chief native 
 population, however, is called Funge. But who has ever 
 seen a specimen of the Funge, eo nomine ? 
 
 That some, however, of the languages spoken to the 
 south of Obeyd represent the Funge is probable. Of 
 these we have samples in Riippell, and others. Thus — 
 
 The Shabun is said to be spoken to the south of 
 both the Kordovan and the Sennaar fi-ontiers. It is 
 not very closely allied to anything. It is nearest, how- 
 ever, to the Fertit — the most southern of the languages 
 of Riippell. 
 
 The Shilluk, whose name, from the fact of its appear- 
 ing elsewhere, I imagine to be Arab rather than native, 
 lie on the Bahr el Abiad, and, like the Denka, their 
 frontagers, are Pagans. 
 
 The Fazoglo language is the same as the Qamamyl 
 of Caillaud, and — less like the Shilluk than is the 
 Denka — apparently belongs to the same class ; that 
 class being one of small dimensions. 
 
 There is an imperfect Mahometanism in Darfur, the 
 country of the Furian language ; of which only one 
 
THE FURIAN, SHILLUK, ETC. 
 
 551 
 
 language 
 
 (probably one out of many) is 
 
 known by vo 
 
 cabularies 
 
 
 (!•) 
 
 
 
 Euglish. 
 
 I'urian. 
 
 Takeli. 
 
 Fertit. 
 
 Shabun. 
 
 Man 
 
 duedeh 
 
 ead 
 
 kosbi 
 
 le 
 
 Head 
 
 tobu 
 
 aik 
 
 kummu 
 
 eldah 
 
 Eye 
 
 kuli 
 
 undik 
 
 allah 
 
 leg 
 
 Nose 
 
 dormi 
 
 endir 
 
 alu 
 
 nagul 
 
 Mouth 
 
 udo 
 
 engiarr 
 
 ammah. 
 
 keing 
 
 Tooth 
 
 kaki 
 
 nim 
 
 ensi 
 
 engar 
 
 Tonfjue 
 
 dali 
 
 auga 
 
 timi 
 
 denkela 
 
 Ear 
 
 dilo 
 
 hennu 
 
 utai 
 
 neni 
 
 Hand 
 
 donga 
 
 ora 
 
 adgianas 
 
 nimel 
 
 Foot 
 
 taroh 
 
 dakaak 
 
 tibrenu 
 
 ongi 
 
 Fire 
 
 utu 
 
 ebe 
 
 ouwe 
 
 yab 
 
 Water 
 
 kori 
 
 ek 
 
 ongou 
 
 knaf 
 
 Sun 
 
 dulle 
 
 ani 
 
 aloh 
 
 kwedyude 
 
 Moon 
 
 dual 
 
 oai- 
 
 ibue 
 
 eiwah 
 
 Star 
 
 ui'i 
 
 lain 
 
 berabe 
 
 robah 
 
 Tree 
 
 kurne 
 
 fa 
 
 donzu 
 
 yareh 
 
 Stone 
 
 dete 
 
 arnan 
 
 (2.) 
 
 ekbur 
 
 kokol. 
 
 EngUsli. 
 
 ShiUuk. 
 
 
 Denka. 
 
 Fazoglo. 
 
 Man 
 
 uguilu 
 
 
 moed 
 
 meloko 
 
 Head 
 
 uidzh 
 
 
 nam 
 
 alio 
 
 Eye 
 
 uang 
 
 
 ninu 
 
 are 
 
 Nose 
 
 ung 
 
 
 oum 
 
 kara 
 
 Mouth 
 
 dok 
 
 
 tok 
 
 antu 
 
 Tooth 
 
 lek 
 
 
 ledzh 
 
 dovidit-ufuti 
 
 Tongue 
 
 leb 
 
 
 leb 
 
 halla 
 
 Ear 
 
 yib 
 
 
 yet 
 
 ilai 
 
 Hand 
 
 kiam 
 
 
 ruib 
 
 raba 
 
 Foot 
 
 lustiella 
 
 kwen 
 
 
 Fire 
 
 maidzb 
 
 
 maid 
 
 mo 
 
 Water 
 
 fi 
 
 
 fiou 
 
 fi 
 
 Sun 
 
 kiong 
 
 
 akol 
 
 mondzo 
 
 Moon 
 
 goi 
 
 
 fai 
 
 shig 
 
 Star 
 
 kielo 
 
 
 kuol 
 
 iso 
 
 Tree 
 
 yad 
 
 
 tiem 
 
 engoule 
 
 Stone 
 
 niarkiddi 
 
 kur 
 
 bale. 
 
 The following are to the south of the Denka and 
 ShiUuk areas. 
 
 (3.) 
 
 EngUah. 
 
 Dor. 
 
 English. 
 
 Dor. 
 
 Man 
 
 boodoo 
 
 Hair 
 
 biddoo 
 
 Woman 
 
 koomara 
 
 Forehead 
 
 hickomoo 
 
552 
 
 2 
 
 THE MOBBA. 
 
 
 Enalisli. 
 
 Dor. 
 
 English, 
 
 Dor. 
 
 Eye 
 
 komo 
 
 Sun 
 
 kade 
 
 Nose 
 
 honiogi 
 
 Star 
 
 kir 
 
 Lip 
 
 taragi 
 
 Water 
 
 mini 
 
 Beard 
 
 betara 
 
 Wood 
 
 ungor 
 
 Foot 
 
 umbundo 
 
 Fish 
 
 gooboo 
 
 Fire 
 
 fudoo 
 
 Bird 
 
 umboroam. 
 
 Shj 
 
 hitero 
 
 
 
 
 (4.) 
 
 
 Euglish. 
 
 Nyamnnra. 
 
 English. 
 
 Njamnam. 
 
 Man 
 
 koombai 
 
 Flowed' 
 
 mooma 
 
 Boy 
 
 godee 
 
 Shield 
 
 abrooda 
 
 Girl 
 
 umbagadda 
 
 Lance 
 
 baasoo 
 
 Slave 
 
 buroo 
 
 Trombash ? 
 
 gangoo 
 
 Chief 
 
 mumba kindoo 
 
 Knife 
 
 sali 
 
 Woman 
 
 ineckeri 
 
 Pig 
 
 akoroo 
 
 Hut 
 
 beia 
 
 Fire 
 
 yaw 
 
 Elephant 
 
 omburra 
 
 Wood 
 
 naaki 
 
 Buffalo 
 
 jari 
 
 Pipe 
 
 cabunga 
 
 Antelope 
 
 ombuddi 
 
 Tobacco 
 
 goondoa 
 
 Fmvl 
 
 kundoo 
 
 Come here 
 
 moicundoora 
 
 Ivory 
 
 rinda omburra 
 
 Go 
 
 mundo. 
 
 The Mohha, Maba, or Bora Mdhang is the lan- 
 guage of Waday Proper, and the chief tongue of Dar- 
 saleh : being understood by many populations to whom 
 it is not vernacular. It is known by a few specimens 
 in the Mithridates, and by a longer vocabulary of Bur- 
 chard t's. Barth, too, has collected more than two thousand 
 words of it, along with some phrases and a translation 
 of the Lord's Prayer, a part only of which is published. 
 The tribes who speak it are — 
 
 ]. The Kelingen. 7. Kumo. 
 
 2. Kajanga. 
 
 3. Mald,nga. 
 
 4. Madaba, 
 
 5. Madala. 
 
 6. Kodoyi. 
 
 13. Bili. 
 
 14. Bilting. 
 
 8. Jambo. 
 
 9. Abue Gedam. 15. Ain Gamara. 
 10. Ogodongda. 16. Kororaboy. 
 
 11. Kawak. 
 
 12. Ashkiting. 
 
 17. Girri. 
 
 18. Sheferi. 
 
 Mararit and Menagon are the names of two tribes 
 of the Abu Sharib, who are specially stated to speak the 
 same language — a language in which Barth has collected, 
 but not published, about 200 words, along with a trans- 
 
THE GALLA CLASS. 
 
 553 
 
 lation of the Lord's Prayer. The Tama speak an aUied 
 dialect. As for the remainder of the group, it is said 
 to consist of numerous tribes whose dialects differ so 
 much, that one can scarcely understand the other with- 
 out recourse to the Mobba. The Mimi are said to 
 speak a peculiar language, so are the Kaudard : as also 
 the Koringa, about 17° N. L. 
 
 (1.) 
 
 Engliih. 
 
 Mobba 
 
 English. 
 
 Mobba. 
 
 Head 
 
 kidjy 
 
 Sun 
 
 anyk 
 
 Hair 
 
 soufa 
 
 Moon 
 
 ayk 
 
 Eye 
 
 kapak 
 
 Stars 
 
 meniet 
 
 Nose 
 
 kharsounak 
 
 Day 
 
 dealka 
 
 Cheek 
 
 ghambilanak 
 
 Night 
 
 kosonga 
 
 Beard 
 
 gamur 
 
 Fire 
 
 wossyk 
 
 Mouth 
 
 kana 
 
 Water (rain) 
 
 andjy 
 
 Teeth 
 
 saateni 
 
 Stone 
 
 kodak 
 
 Tongue 
 
 adalmek 
 
 Mountain 
 
 
 Ear 
 
 kozah 
 
 Wood 
 
 songou 
 
 Nech 
 
 bitik 
 
 Fiver 
 
 bettak 
 
 Arm 
 
 galma 
 
 Bird 
 
 abyl 
 
 Hand 
 
 kara 
 
 Fish 
 
 hout 
 
 Foot 
 
 djastongoly 
 
 Milk 
 
 sila. 
 
 Blood 
 
 ary 
 
 (2 
 
 •) 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Dar-runga. 
 
 English. 
 
 Dar-runga. 
 
 Man 
 
 kamere 
 
 One 
 
 kadenda 
 
 Woman 
 
 mimi 
 
 Two 
 
 embirr 
 
 Eye 
 
 khasso 
 
 Three 
 
 attik 
 
 Ear 
 
 nesso 
 
 Four 
 
 mendih 
 
 Hand 
 
 tusso 
 
 Six 
 
 sabotikeda 
 
 Foot 
 
 itar 
 
 Seven 
 
 ow 
 
 Sun 
 
 agning 
 
 Eight 
 
 sebateis 
 
 Water 
 
 tta 
 
 Nine 
 
 atih 
 
 Fire 
 
 nissiek 
 
 Ten 
 
 buf. 
 
 The Bishari (for it is to them that we must now 
 I'eturn) are succeeded by the most northern members of 
 the great Gcdla class. 
 
 Next to the Caffre and Berber this is the largest of 
 all the Afi'ican groups. It is also a complete one ; 
 at any rate, it falls into three well-marked divisions : 
 (1 .) the Danakil ; (2.) the Somctuli; (3.) the Ilmormo, or 
 
554 THE GALL A CLASS. 
 
 Galla Proper. It has a vast knovjn extent from north 
 to south. It has a vast unknown extent from east to 
 west. It has an irregular outline, being deeply indented 
 by the languages of the Abyssinian class ; or, rather, it, 
 itself, cuts deeply and irregularly into Abyssinia — ^for 
 the Galla tribes have long encroached upon the southern 
 provinces of that empire ; and much that was once 
 Semitic is now Galla. Bounded on the north by the 
 Bishari and Nubian, and on the east by the sea, it is 
 limited by the Tigre, Amharic, and other languages in the 
 north-west. South, however, of the latitude which coin- 
 cides with the southern boundary of Abyssinia, it ex- 
 tends indefinitely inland. In the parts about Hurur the 
 Semitic forms of speech protrude themselves largely and 
 irregularly. To the south-east it comes in contact with 
 the northernmost members of the Kaffir family : the 
 boundary lying near, but not on, the Equator. The 
 Ukuafi seem to touch it on the interior. 
 
 The Galla population is pastoral rather than agricultural, 
 and African rather than either Negro or Arab in 
 physiognomy ; i. e. the colour is more brown than black, 
 the features more prominent than depressed, the hair long 
 and twisted, rather than woolly. Paganism is still rife 
 amongst the southern, or pure Galla (or Ilmormo) tribes : 
 an imperfect Mahometanism is adopted by the Danakil. 
 Fragments of an early Christianity — Abyssinian in its 
 origin — are believed to be discoverable. The language 
 is known both by grammars and vocabularies. It is 
 unwritten ; i. e. there is no native alphabet, and no appli- 
 cation of the Arabic. 
 
 The Danakil call themselves Afer^ and it is not im- 
 probable that the term Africa comes from them. The 
 Egyptians may have diffused it. Danakil itself is, like 
 so many others, a word strange to the language to which 
 it applies. I cannot but think that, word for word, it 
 is Dongola, yet the Dongolawy are Nubians. Probably, 
 some third population gave them both the same name. 
 
THE GALLA CLASS. 
 
 ODD 
 
 The Danakil begins between Suakin and Arkiko, and 
 extends from the Red Sea to the frontiers of Abyssynia. 
 
 The Somauli area begins near the straits of Babel- 
 niandel, and runs southward and inland; Berbera, the 
 great slave mart being the chief Somauli town : the 
 Somauli tribes, too, being the occupants of the parts about 
 the Semitic town of Hurur. 
 
 The Galla Proper, or Ilmormo, belong to the interior 
 rather than the coast, their area being one of great, but 
 unknown magnitude, with a sinuous outline, and an en- 
 croaching frontier. Sometimes this encroachment is 
 effected at the expense of the Danakil : sometimes (per- 
 haps oftener) at that of the Abyssinians. The former, 
 for instance, has given way before the Asubu, the latter 
 before the Edjow, tribes. The kingdoms of Shoa and 
 Efat are, now, more Galla than Abyssinian. The town 
 of Ankober is a Galla capital : though mixed in respect 
 to its population. No tribe in Africa has the discredit 
 of being ruder and more savage in its warfare than the 
 Gallas. Their physical appearance is that of the Bishari 
 rather than the Negro. 
 
 English. 
 
 Galla. 
 
 Danalfil. 
 
 Sliiho (about Arkiko).* 
 
 Man 
 
 nama 
 
 
 
 Woman 
 
 rete 
 
 
 
 Head 
 
 mata 
 
 ammo 
 
 ammo 
 
 Hair 
 
 refensa 
 
 
 
 Eye 
 
 hedzha 
 
 inte 
 
 inte 
 
 Nose 
 
 funyan 
 
 san 
 
 san 
 
 Tongue 
 
 arruba 
 
 
 
 Mouth 
 
 affan 
 
 afa 
 
 afa 
 
 Teeth 
 
 ilkae 
 
 budeua 
 
 ekok 
 
 Ear 
 
 gura 
 
 
 
 Beard 
 
 arreda 
 
 
 
 Foot 
 
 fana 
 
 
 
 Sun 
 
 addu 
 
 aero 
 
 airo 
 
 Moon 
 
 dzhea 
 
 alsa 
 
 alsa 
 
 Star 
 
 urdzhe 
 
 ettukta 
 
 ittuk 
 
 Fire 
 
 ibiddeh 
 
 gira 
 
 gera 
 
 Water 
 
 veshan 
 
 leh 
 
 le 
 
 Tree 
 
 niouka 
 
 
 
 The Arkiko of the town is Amharic. 
 
556 
 
 THE GALLA CLASS. 
 
 English. 
 
 Galla. 
 
 Danakil. 
 
 Shiho (about Arkiko) 
 
 Stone 
 
 dagga 
 
 data 
 
 dak 
 
 One 
 
 toko 
 
 inneke 
 
 inek 
 
 Two 
 
 lumma 
 
 lumma 
 
 lamma 
 
 Three 
 
 sedde 
 
 sudde 
 
 adda 
 
 Four 
 
 affar 
 
 fere 
 
 afur 
 
 Five 
 
 shur 
 
 konoyoie 
 
 kon 
 
 Six 
 
 dzha 
 
 lelehe 
 
 leh 
 
 Seven 
 
 turbah 
 
 melhene 
 
 melhen 
 
 Eight 
 
 seddet 
 
 bahara 
 
 valir 
 
 Nine 
 
 suggul 
 
 segala 
 
 suggai 
 
 Ten 
 
 kudun 
 
 tubban 
 
 tummum. 
 
 The following are languages, more or less isolated, of 
 the Abyssinian frontier. 
 
 English. 
 
 Dizzela. 
 
 
 
 English. 
 
 
 Dizzela. 
 
 Man 
 
 gunza 
 
 
 
 Tree 
 
 
 gea 
 
 Woman 
 
 kwa 
 
 
 
 One 
 
 
 metama 
 
 Head 
 
 illukoma 
 
 
 
 Tioo 
 
 
 ambanda 
 
 Eyes 
 
 illikumah 
 
 
 
 Three 
 
 
 kwokaga 
 
 Nose 
 
 kotuma 
 
 
 
 Four 
 
 
 zaacha 
 
 Ear 
 
 tsema 
 
 
 
 Five 
 
 
 mankus 
 
 Teeth 
 
 kuusma 
 
 
 
 Six 
 
 
 wata 
 
 Tongue 
 
 kotettuma 
 
 
 
 Seven 
 
 
 linyeta 
 
 Sun 
 
 woka 
 
 
 
 Eight 
 
 
 sugguata 
 
 Moon 
 
 bega 
 
 
 
 Nine 
 
 
 sasa 
 
 Star 
 
 bega 
 
 
 
 Ten 
 
 
 . chik'ka. 
 
 Water 
 
 iah 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (2.) 
 
 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Ualla. 
 
 
 
 English. 
 
 
 DaUa. 
 
 Man 
 
 kwa 
 
 
 
 One 
 
 
 ilia 
 
 Woman 
 
 dukka 
 
 
 
 Two 
 
 
 bella 
 
 Head 
 
 annasunga 
 
 
 
 Three 
 
 
 sette 
 
 Eyes 
 
 wa 
 
 
 
 F(mr 
 
 
 salle 
 
 Nose 
 
 bubuna 
 
 
 
 Five 
 
 
 bussume 
 
 Ear 
 
 ukuna 
 
 
 
 Six 
 
 
 erde 
 
 Sun 
 
 wah 
 
 
 
 Seven 
 
 
 varde 
 
 Moon 
 
 terah 
 
 
 
 Eight 
 
 
 kwon kweda 
 
 Stars 
 
 shunda 
 
 
 
 Nine ' 
 
 
 kwuuntelie 
 
 Fire 
 
 tuma 
 
 
 
 Ten 
 
 
 kwuuUakudde 
 
 Stone 
 
 uga 
 
 (i 
 
 !•) 
 
 
 
 
 English.. 
 
 Shankali. 
 
 
 Agawmidr. 
 
 Seven 
 
 langitta 
 
 
 langata 
 
 , &c. — Agaio 
 
 Sun 
 
 oka 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sky 
 
 
 
 
 
 wak — 
 
 9alla 
 
THE SHANKALI, OR SIIANGALLA. 
 
 557 
 
 English. 
 
 Sliankali. 
 
 Agawmidr. 
 
 Star 
 
 bawa 
 
 bewa — Agaw 
 
 Water 
 
 aya 
 
 ahu — Agatv 
 
 Rain 
 Cloud 
 
 dema 
 
 
 dimna — Agaio 
 
 Smoke 
 
 tukwa 
 
 tikki—Tigre 
 
 Clay 
 
 tukwa 
 
 dhoke—Galla 
 
 Tree 
 
 mugha 
 
 muka — do. 
 
 Shade 
 
 gisa 
 
 cbiso — Gong a 
 
 SpHnfj 
 
 aimusa 
 
 mincha — A ga w 
 
 Market 
 
 gabea 
 
 gebaia — Galla 
 
 Bridle 
 
 sugha 
 
 lughwam — A gawi 
 
 Whip 
 
 jilanda 
 
 halinga — do. 
 
 Mouth 
 
 sima 
 
 simota — Gafat 
 
 Tooth 
 
 kussa 
 
 gSiSso—Gonga 
 
 Rainy season 
 
 china 
 
 gana — Galla. 
 
 In Salt, the Dalla and Dizzela, like tlie language 
 represented by the third vocabulary, are given as Shan- 
 galla. They are all spoken by Negroes rather than 
 true Abyssinians. 
 
558 THE KAFFIR CLASS. 
 
 CHAPTER LXIX. 
 
 The Kaffir Class of Languages. 
 
 Within a degree or two of the Equator the Galla and 
 Ukuafi are succeeded by that large class of languages, 
 which those who have no dislike to double names call 
 South African, whilst others, who have no objection to 
 using a word in a general as well as a particular sense, 
 call Kaffre or Kaffir ; a word which is both the name 
 of a class and the name of a particular division. 
 
 On the western coast the languages of this group ap- 
 pear north of the Equator, and, with the exception of 
 the Hottentot area, they cover all the intervening space. 
 
 Their peculiarities of grammar have been carefully 
 studied and illustrated. 
 
 (1 .) If a new word be introduced into the language of 
 the Amakosa Kaffres, it takes an inseparable prefix 
 before it can become naturalized. Priest, for instance, 
 becomes it'TTi-priest ; Pharisee, f7'?7i-pharisee. In the 
 words um-tu -zz person ; ^-hashe =i horse ; m-kosi =. cap- 
 tain ; i^i-caca — servant ; u-sana, zz infant ; ^tm-lambo 
 zz river ; u-hu^o zzface ; aku-tysizzforce ; aba-ntuzz: 
 people; ama-zwe zz words ; in-homo = cattle ; imi^tizz 
 trees, &c., the syllables in Italics are wholly foreign 
 to the root. Adventitious, however, as they are, the 
 system of prefixing them is general. 
 
 (2.) When two words come into certain syntactic 
 relations, one of them changes its initial letter according 
 to that of the other, just as if, in English, w^e said, for 
 
THE KAFFIR CLASS. 559 
 
 sunbeam or white manf bunheam (or sunseam) for 
 wJiiteman (or miteman). 
 
 (3.) Tlie prefix, however, is part of the word ; 
 whence it follows that, for the purposes of determining 
 the change which one word, in these syntactic relations, 
 impresses on another, we must look to the initial letter 
 (or letters) of the prefix rather than to those of the 
 words to which it is united. A word (no matter how 
 it begins) takes U7)i as its prefix ; the rule being that 
 when one word begins with um the other begins with 
 w. The Kaffre for a Tnan of the people is um-tn wa- 
 bantu, whereas a captain of the people is m-kosi ya- 
 bantu. 
 
 In this way the System of Prefixes and the System 
 of Alliteration, in the Amakosa Kaffre at least, are con- 
 nected. 
 
 That facts of this kind should tell upon the phrase- 
 ology of the grammarian is only natural. They give 
 him his declensions ; for it is clear that according to the 
 nature of the prefix we may arrange the noims to which 
 they are united into classes. Doing this, we may talk 
 of the Classification of Nouns, just as Latin scholars 
 talk of the Declensions. 
 
 Again — the form of the Plural is often determined 
 by the prefix. Thus, in Bakeli : — 
 
 
 First Declension, 
 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 a-\a.ta,=ckest 
 
 
 6i-vata=:chests 
 
 a-hohi=hat 
 
 
 hi-hohi=:hats 
 
 i-eli=tr€e 
 
 Second Declension. 
 
 je-]i=trees. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 di-'kaki=zstone 
 
 
 ma-\iaki:=stones 
 
 di-eki=lato 
 
 
 m-eki=:lav's. 
 
 And so on for seven other classes or declensions ; the 
 number of classes in the Bakeli being nine. In other 
 languages, however, they are more numerous ; e. g. in 
 the Herreo they are eighteen. 
 
560 
 
 THE KAFFIR CLASS. 
 
 The origin of these prefixes is another question. They 
 are noticed here for the sake of ascertaining their value 
 as characteristics. 
 
 The forms of speech which immediately underlie the 
 Galla and XJkuafi are the following — belonging to the 
 inland districts rather than to the coast. On the coast 
 the language is the Suaheli, Suwaheli, or Sohili, contain- 
 ing numerous Arabic elements and partaking of the na- 
 ture of a Lingua Franca. 
 
 English. 
 
 Wanika. 
 
 Wakamba. 
 
 Msambara. 
 
 Sohili. 
 
 Man 
 
 muta 
 
 muntu 
 
 mgossi 
 
 mtu 
 
 Woman 
 
 mtsheta 
 
 muka 
 
 mdere 
 
 mtunke 
 
 Head 
 
 dzitzoa 
 
 mutue 
 
 mtoe 
 
 kitoa 
 
 Eye 
 
 dzitjo 
 
 ido 
 
 yisso 
 
 dshito 
 
 Nose 
 
 pula 
 
 embola 
 
 pum 
 
 pua 
 
 Tongue 
 
 lamini 
 
 uimi 
 
 uraka 
 
 ulimi 
 
 Tooth 
 
 dzino 
 
 ino 
 
 zino 
 
 dzhino 
 
 Ear 
 
 sikiro 
 
 idu 
 
 gutui 
 
 shikio 
 
 Hand 
 
 mukoTio 
 
 mukono 
 
 mukono 
 
 makono 
 
 Foot 
 
 gulu 
 
 mudumu 
 
 emrondi 
 
 gu 
 
 Sun 
 
 dzua 
 
 kua 
 
 zua 
 
 dzhua 
 
 Moon 
 
 muesi 
 
 moi 
 
 muesi 
 
 muesi 
 
 Star 
 
 nioha 
 
 nioa 
 
 niniesi 
 
 niota 
 
 Fire 
 
 muotto 
 
 muagi 
 
 muotto 
 
 muotto 
 
 Water 
 
 madyi 
 
 mandzi 
 
 mazi 
 
 madzhi 
 
 Stone 
 
 dziwe 
 
 dziwe 
 
 ziwe 
 
 dzhiwe 
 
 Tree 
 
 muhi 
 
 inutte 
 
 muti 
 
 mti 
 
 One 
 
 emmenga 
 
 umue 
 
 mosi 
 
 emmodsha 
 
 Two 
 
 embiri 
 
 ili 
 
 kaidi 
 
 embili 
 
 Three 
 
 tahu 
 
 itatu 
 
 katatu 
 
 tatu 
 
 Four 
 
 enne 
 
 inna 
 
 kanna 
 
 enne 
 
 Five 
 
 tyano 
 
 idano 
 
 kashano 
 
 tano 
 
 Six 
 
 tandaho 
 
 dandatu 
 
 ententatu 
 
 setta 
 
 Seven 
 
 fungahe 
 
 mama 
 
 fungate 
 
 sabaa 
 
 Eight 
 
 Dane 
 
 munda 
 
 nane 
 
 nani 
 
 Nine 
 
 kenda 
 
 kenda 
 
 kenda 
 
 kenda 
 
 Ten 
 
 kumi 
 
 kumi 
 
 kumi 
 
 kumu. 
 
 The Makua extends, at least, as far as Quilimani. 
 
 The Monjii, Muntu, or Makoa, is spoken to the back 
 of the Mozambik coast ; of which the Maravi of KoUe's 
 Polyglotta is, perhaps, the most inland dialect. In In- 
 hambane, where Portuguese influences succeed to Arabic, 
 
LANGUAGES OF THE GABUN, ETC. 
 
 561 
 
 such differences as exist are, probably, political rather 
 than philological. At any rate, the dialects seem to 
 graduate into each other. South of. Inhambane and 
 Sofala begins the Kaffraria of the British and Dutch 
 frontiers with, iis nominibus, the Zulu, the Kaffre 
 Proper, and the Bechuana as important and well-illus- 
 trated lano^uaojes — the last in contact with the Hotten- 
 tot ; to the north of which the Heriro, a true Kaffir 
 tongue, appears in the parts about Walwisch Bay. To 
 this, on the north, succeed the Benguela, the Angola, the 
 Congo, and, on the Equator, the Rungo, or Orungo, of the 
 Gabun. For the parts about Corisco Bay, we have 
 evidence that the language is essentially the same ; 
 whilst for Fernando Po and the Cameroons we have 
 abundant details — the languages being the Ediya of 
 Fernando Po and the Isubu and Dualla (little more than 
 dialects) of the Cameroons. 
 
 At the head waters of the Gabun lie the districts of 
 the Bakele, estimated by the missionaries at about 
 100,000 — lighter coloured than the tribes between them 
 and the sea ; darker than those of the mountains 
 behind them. Compared (as it is by either the author 
 or the editor of the grammar) with the Mpongwe of 
 the Gabtin it differs very materially ; the verbal resem- 
 blances being about one in ten. The present list, 
 however, makes them more. 
 
 English. 
 
 Mpongwe. 
 
 Bakele. 
 
 Man 
 
 kadia 
 
 makalie 
 
 Woman 
 
 owanto 
 
 raiali 
 
 Child 
 
 onwana 
 
 mana 
 
 
 erumbe 
 
 ndenbisliili 
 
 White man 
 
 otangani 
 
 ntanga 
 
 Head 
 
 ewonjo 
 
 langaka 
 
 Hair 
 
 orue 
 
 lashoi 
 
 Tongue 
 
 onleme 
 
 latheni 
 
 Mouth 
 
 ogwana 
 
 gwana 
 
 Tooth 
 
 ina 
 
 dishoa 
 
 Eye 
 
 intya 
 
 dishi 
 
 Ear 
 
 oroi 
 
 gwale 
 
 
562 
 
 LANGUAGES OF THE GABUN, ETC. 
 
 English. 
 
 Mpongwe. 
 
 Bakele. 
 
 Nose 
 
 inyoi 
 
 dioi 
 
 Beard 
 
 ilelu 
 
 jeli 
 
 Blood 
 
 ntyina 
 
 dikitha ' 
 
 Belly 
 
 iwumu 
 
 mai 
 
 Bone 
 
 epa 
 
 avesha 
 
 Heart 
 
 ntyondo 
 
 lema 
 
 Foot 
 
 ntyozyo 
 
 dibo 
 
 Arm 
 
 oga 
 
 mbo 
 
 NecTc 
 
 ompele 
 
 kinh 
 
 Nail 
 
 ntyanga 
 
 landaka 
 
 Milk 
 
 ambeningo 
 
 manyadibo 
 
 House 
 
 nago 
 
 mbank 
 
 Hill 
 
 nomba 
 
 mbeka 
 
 Sun 
 
 nkombe 
 
 dioba 
 
 Moonlight 
 
 ilanga 
 
 mieli 
 
 Star 
 
 ogegeni 
 
 vietch 
 
 Cloud 
 
 evindi 
 
 avingi 
 
 Flower 
 
 olonda 
 
 tapesha 
 
 Tree 
 
 erere 
 
 jeli 
 
 Sand 
 
 intya 
 
 dishi 
 
 Fire 
 
 inu 
 
 du 
 
 Water 
 
 aningo 
 
 madiba 
 
 Wind 
 
 ompunga 
 
 punga 
 
 Fat 
 
 nye 
 
 dia 
 
 Burn 
 
 pia 
 
 dika 
 
 Bite 
 
 noma 
 
 kiele 
 
 Dig 
 
 tumba 
 
 kwete 
 
 Write 
 
 ten da 
 
 lenda 
 
 Fill 
 
 jonia 
 
 lonisha 
 
 Speak 
 
 kamba 
 
 lubila 
 
 Drink 
 
 jonga 
 
 nata 
 
 Run 
 
 pula 
 
 punda 
 
 Die 
 
 juwa 
 
 shasha 
 
 Boil 
 
 benla 
 
 taka 
 
 Kiss 
 
 samba 
 
 viba. 
 
 The following are miscellaneous illustrations of the 
 languages on the north-western portion of the Kaffir 
 area. 
 
 (From the Polyglotta Africana.) 
 
 Woman Head 
 
 muhata muntue 
 
 mehetu mutue 
 
 mbant umodsh 
 
 English 
 
 Man 
 
 Kisama 
 
 diala 
 
 Songo 
 
 diala 
 
 Runda 
 
 ekiunds 
 
 Luhalo 
 
 diyala 
 
 muhetu 
 
 muntue 
 
LANGUAGES OF THE GABUN, ETC. 
 
 563 
 
 English 
 
 Man 
 
 Woman 
 
 Read 
 
 Basunde 
 
 bakala 
 
 kento 
 
 tu 
 
 Nyombe 
 
 iyakala 
 
 nkelo 
 
 ntu 
 
 Kasange 
 
 diala 
 
 muketu 
 
 motue 
 
 Bumhete 
 
 balera 
 
 okasu 
 
 modsue 
 
 Babuma 
 
 balga 
 
 mokas 
 
 modsue 
 
 Mutsaya 
 
 lebalaka 
 
 mukeat 
 
 motsue 
 
 Ntere 
 
 bara 
 
 mokas 
 
 motsue 
 
 Kanyilca 
 
 muanumulon 
 
 muanumekas 
 
 motu 
 
 Mbamba 
 
 balera 
 
 okas 
 
 otue 
 
 Musentando 
 
 yakala 
 
 kento 
 
 ntu. 
 
 English 
 
 Nose 
 
 Eye 
 
 Far 
 
 Kisama 
 
 dizolu 
 
 diso 
 
 ditue 
 
 Songo 
 
 dizunu 
 
 liso 
 
 litu 
 
 Runda 
 
 mushor 
 
 liz 
 
 didsh 
 
 Lubalo 
 
 lizulo 
 
 liso 
 
 litue 
 
 Basunde 
 
 mbombo 
 
 odiz 
 
 kutu 
 
 Nyombe 
 
 dizulu 
 
 liso 
 
 kutu 
 
 Kasange 
 
 dizolu 
 
 aso 
 
 kutue 
 
 Bumbete 
 
 yolo 
 
 odisn 
 
 ledsue 
 
 Babuma 
 
 yulo 
 
 dsis 
 
 dsue 
 
 Mutsaya 
 
 yul 
 
 dsijs 
 
 dsui 
 
 Ntere 
 
 yilo 
 
 dsis 
 
 dsue 
 
 Kanyika 
 
 muol 
 
 diz 
 
 ditu 
 
 Mbamba 
 
 yolo 
 
 diz 
 
 tue 
 
 Musentando 
 
 luzunu 
 
 dizu 
 
 kutu. 
 
 English 
 
 Mouth 
 
 Tooth 
 
 Tongue 
 
 Kisama 
 
 dikanu 
 
 diso 
 
 demi 
 
 Songo 
 
 ndikanon 
 
 lizo 
 
 lemi 
 
 Runda 
 
 mulam 
 
 dizeu 
 
 ardim 
 
 Lubalo 
 
 likano 
 
 lizo 
 
 limi 
 
 Basunde 
 
 noa 
 
 dinu 
 
 ludimi 
 
 Nyombe 
 
 monu 
 
 dieno 
 
 ludimi 
 
 Kasange 
 
 kanua 
 
 lizu 
 
 limi 
 
 Bumbete 
 
 moyu 
 
 dinu 
 
 ukumonyui 
 
 Babuma 
 
 monyua 
 
 dsino 
 
 lelim 
 
 Mutsaya 
 
 monyua 
 
 dseni 
 
 lilim 
 
 Ntere 
 
 monyua 
 
 dsina 
 
 limi 
 
 Kanyika 
 
 mosuk 
 
 din 
 
 ludim 
 
 Mbamba 
 
 onyun 
 
 dini 
 
 lelemi 
 
 Musentando 
 
 nua 
 
 dinu 
 
 ludimi. 
 
 English 
 
 Fire 
 
 Wafer 
 
 Sun 
 
 Kisama 
 
 tuwia 
 
 menya 
 
 de kombi 
 
 Songo 
 
 tubia 
 
 menya 
 
 moanya 
 
 Runda 
 
 kasli 
 
 menyi 
 
 muten 
 
 o 2 
 
564 
 
 LANGUAGES OF THE GABUN, ETC. 
 
 Water 
 
 raema 
 
 nlangu 
 
 nlangu 
 
 meya 
 
 andsa 
 
 madsa 
 
 madsa 
 
 madsa 
 
 moaz 
 
 andsa 
 
 maza 
 
 To these add the numerals of the Fan, 
 much is made in Mr. Du Chaillu's work, 
 to the same class as the rest. 
 
 English 
 
 Fire 
 
 Lubalo 
 
 tibia 
 
 Basunde 
 
 mbazu 
 
 Nyombe 
 
 mbazu 
 
 Kasange 
 
 tubia 
 
 JBumbete 
 
 mba 
 
 Babuma 
 
 mbaa 
 
 Mutsaya 
 
 mba 
 
 mere 
 
 mba 
 
 Kanyika 
 
 mudil 
 
 Mbamba 
 
 mba 
 
 Musentando 
 
 tiwia 
 
 Sun 
 
 moanya 
 
 muini 
 
 tangu 
 
 likombi 
 
 ntangu 
 
 mi 
 
 mui 
 
 tari 
 
 munyenyi 
 
 nyango 
 
 tango. 
 
 of which so 
 They belong 
 
 English. 
 
 One 
 
 Two 
 
 Three 
 
 Fov/r 
 
 Fan. 
 
 fo 
 
 vei 
 
 m 
 
 tani 
 
 English. 
 Six 
 
 Nine 
 Ten 
 
 Fan. 
 sheme 
 zangoua 
 moftm ouam 
 iboum ibou 
 woom aboum. 
 
 On the Old Calabar the change is somewhat greater. 
 Still, the so-called Kaffir or South-African characters 
 have long been recognized in these parts ; and the 
 nearest congeners of the Otam, TJdom, or Old Calabar, 
 are the Isubu and Dualla. 
 
 {Languages with Otam, Isubu, Bakele, and Nufi, 
 affinities from the Polyglotta Africana.) 
 
 English. 
 
 Afudu. 
 
 
 Mfut. 
 
 Mbe. 
 
 
 Nso 
 
 
 Nose 
 
 idsion 
 
 
 nkodiu 
 
 etsoei 
 
 
 dzui 
 
 Eye 
 
 edsi 
 
 
 dsit 
 
 ero 
 
 
 ze 
 
 
 Ear 
 
 kato 
 
 
 ti 
 
 atone 
 
 
 ketor 
 
 Mouth 
 
 akuan 
 
 ndum 
 
 etsou 
 
 
 su 
 
 
 Tooth 
 
 edsin 
 
 
 dedson 
 
 ason 
 
 
 son 
 
 
 Tongue 
 
 nyuam 
 
 derim 
 
 inemi 
 
 
 kendemi. 
 
 EngUsh, 
 
 Murundo. 
 
 Undaza. 
 
 Ndob. 
 
 Tumu. 
 
 Nkele. 
 
 
 Konguan 
 
 Nose 
 
 mofiki 
 
 dsolu 
 
 dsu 
 
 edsu 
 
 diodsu 
 
 
 nyuen 
 
 Eye 
 
 diso 
 
 diz 
 
 dziet 
 
 dzid 
 
 dis 
 
 
 nies 
 
 Ear 
 
 ditoi 
 
 eloi 
 
 inyu 
 
 eyu 
 
 ore 
 
 
 atu 
 
 Mouth 
 
 mombo 
 
 madumba num 
 
 num 
 
 wuana 
 
 
 nyu 
 
 Tooth 
 
 disonga 
 
 dini 
 
 min 
 
 dzen 
 
 disuna 
 
 
 nenyan 
 
 Tongue 
 
 woena 
 
 lelimi 
 
 demog 
 
 demo 
 
 lawem 
 
 
 deler. 
 
 r^ 
 
LANGUAGES OF THE GABUN, ETC. 
 
 665 
 
 English. 
 
 Mbarike. 
 
 Tiwi. 
 
 
 Boritsu. 
 
 Nose 
 
 ruan 
 
 
 ehinga 
 
 
 geu 
 
 Eye 
 
 ayip 
 
 
 asie 
 
 
 egi 
 
 Ear 
 
 aton 
 
 
 ator 
 
 
 atu 
 
 Mouth 
 
 ndso 
 
 
 itsoa 
 
 
 onu 
 
 Tooth 
 
 anyi 
 
 
 inyik 
 
 
 odun 
 
 Tongue 
 
 odsia 
 
 
 nomboro 
 
 
 omien. 
 
 English. 
 
 Yala.* 
 
 
 English. 
 
 
 Yala. 
 
 Man 
 
 onuro 
 
 
 Tongue 
 
 
 ugblenye 
 
 Woman 
 
 onya 
 
 
 Fire 
 
 
 ola 
 
 Head 
 
 lefu 
 
 
 Water 
 
 
 yenyi 
 
 Hair 
 
 ndsirehu 
 
 L 
 
 Sun 
 
 
 yeno 
 
 Nose 
 
 leni 
 
 
 One 
 
 
 osi 
 
 Eye 
 
 eyi 
 
 
 Two 
 
 
 epa 
 
 Ear 
 
 •woro 
 
 
 Three 
 
 
 eta 
 
 Mouth 
 
 okono 
 
 
 Fowr 
 
 
 ene 
 
 Tooth 
 
 anuro 
 
 
 Five 
 
 
 erua. 
 
 English Mmth 
 
 Tooth 
 
 Tongi 
 
 he Nose 
 
 Eye 
 
 Ear 
 
 Bayon ndsu 
 
 sonta 
 
 lem 
 
 dsi 
 
 li 
 
 eton 
 
 Pati nso 
 
 nzou 
 
 lim 
 
 adsi 
 
 all 
 
 aton 
 
 Kum ndso 
 
 son 
 
 den 
 
 nkontse 
 
 tse 
 
 ton 
 
 Bagha ndsu 
 
 aso 
 
 alo 
 
 atse 
 
 ali 
 
 aton 
 
 Balu nsud 
 
 nzon 
 
 lem 
 
 le 
 
 le 
 
 ntud 
 
 Bamon ndsot 
 
 nson 
 
 alem 
 
 edyi 
 
 ele 
 
 atot 
 
 Ngoala atsor 
 
 ason 
 
 andio 
 
 esuye 
 
 ndi 
 
 atonuri 
 
 Momenya ndsue 
 
 son 
 
 lam 
 
 dzoti 
 
 litab 
 
 tonti 
 
 Papiah nsu 
 
 esan 
 
 alam 
 
 nquerse 
 
 arse 
 
 tonule 
 
 Param ndzue 
 
 izon 
 
 titep 
 
 atsi 
 
 eti 
 
 eton. 
 
 English 
 
 Fire 
 
 
 Water 
 
 
 Sun 
 
 Bayon 
 
 mu 
 
 
 ndsib 
 
 
 nyum 
 
 Pati 
 
 mu 
 
 
 ndsi 
 
 
 nyu 
 
 Kum 
 
 mu 
 
 
 ndsab 
 
 
 nyam 
 
 Bagha 
 
 mu 
 
 
 ndsab 
 
 
 no 
 
 Balu 
 
 mu 
 
 
 . nke 
 
 
 ngam 
 
 Bamon 
 
 mu 
 
 
 nke 
 
 
 nyam 
 
 Ngoala 
 
 mu 
 
 
 nki 
 
 
 muno 
 
 Momenya 
 
 mu 
 
 
 ndsob 
 
 
 no. 
 
 Papiah 
 
 mu 
 
 
 nsi 
 
 
 nyam 
 
 Param 
 
 mo 
 
 
 nzi 
 
 
 minoch. 
 
 English. 
 
 Ngoten. 
 
 
 Melon. 
 
 
 Nhalemoe. 
 
 Nose 
 
 die 
 
 
 dio 
 
 
 do 
 
 'Eye 
 
 dis 
 
 
 dek 
 
 
 deih 
 
 Ear 
 
 eto 
 
 
 eto 
 
 
 eto 
 
 Mouth 
 
 nsiol 
 
 
 nsol 
 
 
 nsear 
 
 Tooth 
 
 esyon , 
 
 
 eson 
 
 
 ason 
 
 Tongue 
 
 egeam 
 
 
 egiera 
 
 
 egiem. 
 
 
 * 
 
 See pa 
 
 ge 688. 
 
 
 
566 
 
 LANGUAGES OF THE GABUN, ETC. 
 
 English. 
 
 Ekamtulufu. 
 
 Udom. 
 
 Mbofon. 
 
 Eafen. 
 
 Man 
 
 manum 
 
 manu 
 
 manun 
 
 nindun 
 
 Woman 
 
 raanka 
 
 manka 
 
 manka 
 
 nike 
 
 Head 
 
 esi 
 
 esi 
 
 esi 
 
 idsi 
 
 Hair 
 
 nnji 
 
 nnu 
 
 nyu 
 
 ndu 
 
 Nose 
 
 miu 
 
 ntanaman 
 
 ntanamin 
 
 nnui 
 
 Eye 
 
 amar 
 
 lemar 
 
 amoramer 
 
 ayet 
 
 Ear 
 
 eton 
 
 eton 
 
 etun 
 
 otun 
 
 Tooth 
 
 aman 
 
 leman 
 
 nemen 
 
 eyin 
 
 Tongue 
 
 liliwi 
 
 leliwe 
 
 neriwe 
 
 erib 
 
 Sun 
 
 no 
 
 ndsol 
 
 ndon 
 
 ndsudsi 
 
 Fire 
 
 ngon 
 
 ngun 
 
 ngon 
 
 ngun 
 
 Water 
 
 alap 
 
 alap 
 
 aneb 
 
 ayib. 
 
 The languages akin to the Otam have been so 
 thoroughly recognized as Kaffir, or South African, that 
 they are given in the present chapter ; though they are, 
 really, transitional. Of those that next come under 
 notice all that can be said is that they have, gene- 
 rally, been associated with their congeners to the north 
 rather than the south. They have, however, affinities 
 on either side. 
 
BONNY AND IBO DIALECTS. 
 
 567 
 
 CHAPTER LXX. 
 
 The Bonny, Brass Town, Ibo, and Benin languages. — The Mandingo, Accra, 
 Krepi, Kru, &c. — Remarks on the Mandingo class. — The Begharmi. - 
 Mandara. — Kanuri. — Hawssa. — Sungai. — Kouri,— Yoruba. — Tapua or 
 Nufi — Batta.— Fula, &c.— The Serawulli— WolofF, &c.— Hottentot. 
 
 The Okiiloma and Udso are Obane (or Bonny), the Aro 
 and Mbofia, Brass Town (Oro or Ejo), dialects. The 
 remainder belong to the interior of the Delta of the 
 Niger ; the Isoama and Isiele being Iho Proper, or Ibo in 
 the limited sense of the term. It is a name, however, 
 which may be given to the whole class. 
 
 English. 
 
 Okuloma. 
 
 Udso, 
 
 Aro. 
 
 Mhofia, 
 
 Sobo. 
 
 Man 
 
 oubo 
 
 owebo 
 
 nowoke 
 
 unyoka 
 
 osale 
 
 Woman 
 
 erebo 
 
 yorobo 
 
 unwai 
 
 nuame 
 
 aye 
 
 Head 
 
 dsibe 
 
 tebe 
 
 isi 
 
 isi 
 
 uhiomi 
 
 Hair 
 
 nume 
 
 dime 
 
 abosi 
 
 ebesi 
 
 eto 
 
 Nose 
 
 nini 
 
 nine 
 
 imi 
 
 imi 
 
 unwe 
 
 Eye 
 
 toru 
 
 toro 
 
 anya 
 
 enya 
 
 ero 
 
 Ear 
 
 beli 
 
 beri 
 
 nte 
 
 nte 
 
 eso 
 
 Tooth 
 
 aka 
 
 aka 
 
 eze 
 
 ezie 
 
 ako 
 
 Tongue 
 
 bele 
 
 belo 
 
 ile 
 
 ile 
 
 ereme 
 
 Sun 
 
 erua 
 
 erei 
 
 anyano 
 
 enyan 
 
 ore 
 
 Fire 
 
 fene 
 
 fene 
 
 oko 
 
 oko 
 
 esale 
 
 Water 
 
 minqi 
 
 beni 
 
 mmeli 
 
 min 
 
 ame. 
 
 English, 
 
 Egbele. 
 
 Bini. 
 
 Olomo. 
 
 Isoama. 
 
 Isiele. 
 
 Man 
 
 omoi 
 
 okpea 
 
 asi 
 
 nuoke 
 
 onyeke 
 
 Woman 
 
 ogbutso 
 
 ogwoho 
 
 asarae 
 
 ndiora 
 
 onyui 
 
 Head 
 
 usumi 
 
 oh una 
 
 qika 
 
 isi 
 
 isi 
 
 Hair 
 
 etc 
 
 eto 
 
 ehu 
 
 asi 
 
 edsi 
 
 Nose 
 
 isue 
 
 ihue 
 
 iso 
 
 imi 
 
 imi 
 
 Eye 
 
 eloe 
 
 aro 
 
 ilogo 
 
 anya 
 
 enya 
 
 Ear 
 
 eo 
 
 eho 
 
 goso 
 
 nte 
 
 anti 
 
 Tooth 
 
 ako 
 
 ako 
 
 ako 
 
 eze 
 
 esi 
 
568 THE DAHOMEY DIALECTS. 
 
 English. 
 
 Egbele. 
 
 Bini. 
 
 Olonio. 
 
 Isoama. 
 
 Isiele. 
 
 Tongue 
 
 olemi 
 
 oneme 
 
 ore 
 
 ile 
 
 ile 
 
 Sun 
 
 ele 
 
 ufore 
 
 ahoni 
 
 anyanu 
 
 enyanu 
 
 Fire 
 
 itari 
 
 . etare 
 
 igesane 
 
 oko 
 
 oko 
 
 Water 
 
 ame 
 
 ame 
 
 ame 
 
 mmeli 
 
 mmi. 
 
 I now come to a group, which, in the present state 
 of our knowledge, must be treated as the Bhot and 
 Burma group was treated in Asia. It is a large one in 
 every respect : large in respect to its geographical area ; 
 large in respect to the members of which it consists. 
 It is a complex one as well : inasmuch as it falls into 
 divisions -and sub-divisions. And it is also a wide one ; 
 i. e. its extremities differ greatly from each other. 
 Lastly, it is provisional, and, more or less, artificial. 
 I shall exclude from it the Woloff and some other 
 tongues on the north. I have excluded from it the Ibo 
 and some other tongues on the south. Yet, I fail to 
 find a clear line of demarcation. The class, in short, is 
 certainly either too large or too small. It stands, how- 
 ever, as it is, because it is valid as far as it goes ; be- 
 cause it is convenient ; and, finally, because any miscon- 
 ception as to its character, any possibilitj^ of mistaking 
 it for a natural instead of an artificial one, has been 
 guarded against. 
 
 Eoughly speaking, it extends from the Niger to 
 the Gambia, and includes the numerous dialects and 
 subdialects of the Slave, Gold, Ivory, Pepper, and Grain 
 Coasts, along with the Mandingo languages. Towards 
 the interior its extent is uncertain ; whilst, on the coast, 
 there is a strip of low land not belonging to it : so 
 that, in tracing it along the Atlantic, we first lose and 
 then find it again. 
 
 At the mouth of the Formosa the Yebu dialect of 
 the Yoruba touches the sea with the Benin at its back 
 stretching inland. The main language, however, is that 
 of Dahomey, spoken (there or thereabouts) from Lagos to 
 the Volta, and extending far inland, with ^he Anfue, the 
 
THE DAHOMEY DIALECTS. 
 
 569 
 
 Dahomey Proper, and the Mahi as its chief dialects ; 
 each with divisions and subdivisions. The numerous 
 vocabularies headed Fot, Popo, Widah, Atye, Mahi, 
 and Badagry, &;c., belong to this great group. 
 
 English. 
 
 Widah. 
 
 Dahomey. 
 
 Mahi. 
 
 Man 
 
 sunu 
 
 sunu 
 
 nyaneou 
 
 Woman 
 
 nyoni 
 
 nyonu 
 
 iyon 
 
 Head 
 
 Ota 
 
 ta 
 
 onta 
 
 Hair 
 
 da. 
 
 da 
 
 oda 
 
 Nose 
 
 awoti 
 
 asti 
 
 awote 
 
 Eye 
 
 nuku 
 
 nuku 
 
 onuku 
 
 Ear 
 
 oto 
 
 to 
 
 otogue 
 
 Tooth 
 
 adu 
 
 adu 
 
 adu 
 
 Tongue 
 
 ede 
 
 de 
 
 ede 
 
 Sun 
 
 ohwe 
 
 pewesiwo 
 
 uque 
 
 Fire 
 
 ozo 
 
 zo 
 
 uzo 
 
 Water 
 
 zi 
 
 zi 
 
 ezi. 
 
 The Accra, Inkra, or, as the natives call it, the Gha 
 language, is nearly related to the Otshi, being spoken 
 near Cape Castle ; the Ada^npi being a dialect of it. 
 
 The Kerrapay is spoken in Abiraw, Odaw, Aokugwa, 
 Abonse, Adukrum and Apiradi, villages or towns of 
 Akwapim, other than Otshi ; in which, however, the 
 Otshi, as the language of the dominant population, is 
 generally understood. 
 
 Date and Kubease, like Abiraw, &;c., are Akwapim 
 villages, whereof the language is other than the Otshi. 
 It is, also, other than the Kerrapong, Kerrapay, Kerrapi, 
 or Krepee ; what it is being uncertain. * 
 
 (1-) 
 
 English. 
 
 Adampi. 
 
 Anfue. 
 
 Man 
 
 nuzu 
 
 nutsu 
 
 Woma'-i 
 
 nyoru 
 
 lonu 
 
 Head 
 
 eta 
 
 ita 
 
 Hair 
 
 eda 
 
 eda 
 
 Nose 
 
 DOti 
 
 anati 
 
 Eye 
 
 onku 
 
 anku 
 
570 
 
 THE GOLD COAST DIALECTS. 
 
 English. 
 
 
 Adampi 
 
 
 Anfae. 
 
 Ear 
 
 
 eto 
 
 
 eto 
 
 Tooth 
 
 
 adu 
 
 
 adu r' 
 
 Tongue 
 
 
 ade 
 
 
 ade 
 
 Sun 
 
 
 ewo 
 
 
 oudo 
 
 Fire 
 
 
 ezo 
 
 
 itso 
 
 Water 
 
 
 ezi 
 
 
 edsi. 
 
 
 
 (2.) 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Accrah. 
 
 
 Adampi. 
 
 Krepee. 
 
 God 
 
 mah'u 
 
 
 mab'wu 
 
 mah'nu 
 
 Devil 
 
 bo'san 
 
 
 az'za 
 
 baiya 
 
 Man 
 
 bom' ma 
 
 
 nu'mu ** 
 
 u'chu or amiLa 
 
 Woman 
 
 yo 
 
 
 ye'o 
 
 yonno 
 
 Boy 
 
 Vaka 
 
 
 j ho' qua 
 
 deyve 
 
 Girl 
 
 ob'bli'o 
 
 
 ya'yo 
 
 tubboqua 
 
 Infant 
 
 abbe'fah'o 
 
 
 jho'qvia-borbio 
 
 veve'ahja 
 
 White man 
 
 blofonyo 
 
 
 blofon'o 
 
 yovo 
 
 Wife 
 
 n'yah 
 
 
 a'yo 
 
 sun'no 
 
 Head 
 
 echu or echo 
 
 ye 
 
 tab 
 
 Hair 
 
 echawe 
 
 
 yebuob 
 
 dah 
 
 Bye 
 
 emay or hingma 
 
 hingmai 
 
 unku 
 
 Nose 
 
 gungo 
 
 
 gugon 
 
 watt6 
 
 Mouth 
 
 narbo 
 
 
 ny'am 
 
 nume 
 
 Teeth 
 
 ngoneeng 
 
 
 lun'go 
 
 addu 
 
 Tongue 
 
 lilla 
 
 
 lilla 
 
 adda 
 
 Ear 
 
 toe or toy 
 
 
 toe 
 
 etto 
 
 Sun 
 
 un 
 
 
 pun 
 
 awa 
 
 Moon 
 
 yon'che'16 
 
 
 u'ramme 
 
 wa:a 
 
 Star 
 
 ou'rabme 
 
 
 ii'ramme dodo'e 
 
 rotev'e 
 
 Air 
 
 koy'ah 
 
 
 koiyo 
 
 av'vu-voh 
 
 Fire 
 
 lab 
 
 
 lah 
 
 edjo 
 
 Water 
 
 noo 
 
 
 Tiyu 
 
 ech^ 
 
 SJcy 
 
 n'wa 
 
 
 e'om 
 
 jimma 
 
 One 
 
 eku'me 
 
 
 kok'ka 
 
 dek'kah 
 
 Two 
 
 en'yo 
 
 
 en'yo 
 
 a'ya 
 
 Three 
 
 etta 
 
 
 et'ta 
 
 atong 
 
 Four 
 
 edj'wa 
 
 
 adj'way 
 
 en'ua 
 
 Five 
 
 en'nu'mo 
 
 
 en'nuo 
 
 atton 
 
 Six 
 
 ek'pah 
 
 
 ek'pah 
 
 ad'da 
 
 Seven 
 
 pah' wo 
 
 
 m'pah'go 
 
 adderre 
 
 Eight 
 
 pah'no 
 
 
 pahn'yo 
 
 en'yg 
 
 Nine 
 
 na'ing 
 
 
 na 
 
 en'yeda 
 
 Ten 
 
 nu'mah 
 
 
 nu'mah 
 
 a' wo. 
 
 The Otshi is the language of the Gold Coast ; such, 
 at least, is the name given by the chief authority for 
 
THE AVEKVOM. 
 
 571 
 
 its grammatical structure — Riis. The numerous vocabu- 
 laries of Bowdich named Inta belong to this class. 
 Another general name, (and perhaps) the best, is Fanti. 
 
 The Ashanti of Coomasee, the capital, along with 
 the Coromantin and the Boroom, belongs to this group. 
 So do the numerous vocabularies of the Mithridates 
 headed Akkim, Akripon, Fetu, &c. 
 
 For the Ivory coast the following vocabulary of the 
 Avekvom is the only one I know. 
 
 English. 
 
 Avekvom. 
 
 Other Languages. 
 
 Arm, 
 
 ebo 
 
 ubok, EJih 
 
 Blood 
 
 evie 
 
 eyip, EJik; eye, Jebu. 
 
 Bone 
 
 ewi 
 
 beu, Fanti. 
 
 Box 
 
 ebru 
 
 br^nh, G7'ebo. 
 
 Canoe 
 
 edie 
 
 tonh, Grebo. 
 
 Chair 
 
 fata 
 
 bada, Grebo. 
 
 Dark 
 
 eshim 
 
 esum, Fanti ; ekiin, EJik. 
 
 Dog 
 
 etye 
 
 aja, ayga, Jebu. 
 
 Door 
 
 esliinavi 
 
 usuny, EJik. 
 
 Ear 
 
 eshibe 
 
 esoa, Fanti. 
 
 Fire 
 
 eya 
 
 ija, Fanti. 
 
 Fish. 
 
 etsi 
 
 eja, eya, Fanti. 
 
 Fowl 
 
 esu 
 
 suseo, Mandingo ; edia, Jebu. 
 
 Ground-nut 
 
 ngeti 
 
 nkatye, Fanti. 
 
 Hair 
 
 emu 
 
 ihwi, Fanti. 
 
 Honey 
 
 ajo 
 
 ewo, Fanti ; oyi, Jebu. 
 
 House 
 
 eva 
 
 ifi, Fanti ; ufog, Efik. 
 
 Moon 
 
 efe 
 
 h&.bo, Grebo ; ofiong, EJik. 
 
 Mosketo 
 
 efo 
 
 obong, Fanti. 
 
 OU 
 
 inyu 
 
 ingo, Fanti. 
 
 Main 
 
 efuzumo-sohn 
 
 sanjio, Mandingo. 
 
 Rainy season 
 
 eshi 
 
 ojo, mm, Jebu. 
 
 Salt 
 
 etsa 
 
 ta, Grebo. 
 
 Sand 
 
 esian-na 
 
 utan, Efik. 
 
 Sea 
 
 etyu 
 
 idu, Grebo. 
 
 Stone 
 
 desi 
 
 sia, shia, Grebo. 
 
 Thread 
 
 jesi 
 
 gise, Grebo. 
 
 Tooth 
 
 enena 
 
 nyeng, Mandingo; gne, Grebo. 
 
 Water 
 
 esonh 
 
 nsu, Fanti. 
 
 Wife 
 
 emise 
 
 muso, Mandingo ; mbesia, 
 
 Cry 
 
 yaru 
 
 isu, Fanti. [Fanti 
 
 Give 
 
 nae 
 
 nye, Grebo; no, Efik. 
 
 Go 
 
 le 
 
 olo, Jebu. 
 
 Kill 
 
 bai 
 
 fa, Mandingo ; pa, Jebu. 
 
572 
 
 THE MANBINGO LANGUAGES. 
 
 That the Kru languages are either actually Man dingo, 
 or members of a closely-connected class, is certain. Dr. 
 Kolle, indeed, separates them. The present writer did 
 so in 1847 ; the data being, at that time, both insuffi- 
 cient and imperfectly known to him. Soon, however, 
 after the publication of his treatise Mr. Dupuis informed 
 him that he held the two groups to be intimately allied ; 
 if, indeed, they, really, were two. Dr. Bleek has expressed 
 himself (and I believe he is the first writer who has done 
 so in print) to the same effect: — "The Mena " (Man- 
 dingo) " family which includes the dialects spoken by the 
 Krumen,"" &;c. 
 
 . {From the Polyglotta Africana.) 
 
 English. Dewoi. 
 
 Woman 
 
 
 nyero 
 
 ma 
 
 Head 
 
 
 duru 
 
 
 tru 
 
 Hair 
 
 
 mi 
 
 
 mi 
 
 Nose 
 
 
 mera 
 
 mola 
 
 Eye 
 
 
 gire 
 
 
 gire 
 
 ■ Ear 
 
 
 lo 
 
 
 lo 
 
 Tooth 
 
 
 mire 
 
 
 nire 
 
 Tongue 
 
 
 mia 
 
 
 mio 
 
 . SVM 
 
 
 owu 
 
 
 giro 
 
 Fire 
 
 
 nae 
 
 
 nye 
 
 Water 
 
 
 ni 
 
 
 ni. 
 
 English. 
 
 Km, 
 
 
 Grebo. 
 
 Gbe. 
 
 Man 
 
 nyiyu 
 
 
 nyebeyu 
 
 gandsie 
 
 Woman 
 
 nyiro 
 
 
 nyire 
 
 nyiro 
 
 Head 
 
 debo 
 
 
 lu 
 
 duru 
 
 Hair 
 
 nui 
 
 
 pumle 
 
 mi 
 
 Nose 
 
 mera 
 
 
 mia 
 
 mra 
 
 Eye 
 
 gie 
 
 
 yie 
 
 girie 
 
 Ea/r 
 
 nogu 
 
 
 nua 
 
 dohu 
 
 Tooth 
 
 nye 
 
 ' 
 
 nye 
 
 nyire 
 
 Tongue 
 
 me 
 
 
 mme 
 
 meo 
 
 Swn 
 
 giro 
 
 
 unwe 
 
 giru 
 
 Fire 
 
 ne 
 
 
 na 
 
 nasuru 
 
 Water 
 
 ni 
 
 
 ni 
 
 ni. 
 
 The Mandingo Proper is the language of the Maho- 
 metan Blacks of Medina and the Lower Gambia. Being 
 occasionally written in the Arabic character, it has a 
 
THE MANDINGO LANGUAGES. 573 
 
 tincture of cultivation. Though we can scarcely call it 
 classical, the Mandingo of Medina is the standard dialect 
 of the group. 
 
 If we look to the Polyglotta Africana for the proper 
 Mandingo forms of speech we find the following thir- 
 teen : — 1 . Mandingo z= Kalbunga, Toronka, Jallunka, 
 Kankanka ; 2. Bambarra ; 3. Kono ; 4. Yei ; 5. Soso 
 (SlisTi, or Soosoo) =: Solima and Kisekise ; 6. Tene ; 
 7. Gbandi ; 8. Landoro ; 9. Mendi ; 10. Gbese ; 11. 
 Toma; 12. Mano ; 13. Gio. 
 
 The differences between the Mandingo, Jallunka, and 
 Bambarra, have always been considered small. The 
 Kono is an allied form of speech under a new name. The 
 Yei is more like the Mandingo Proper than its geogra- 
 phical position suggests. 
 
 The Susu, probably, includes the Tene. 
 
 In Jallonkadu the language is in contact with the 
 Fulah of Futa-torro. 
 
 In Bambarra, the language is said to be mixed 
 with the Woloff and Fulah. 
 
 In Bambarra, too, it has departed considerably from 
 the strict Mandingo type, and becomes either a well- 
 marked dialect, or a fresh language. Between Sego and 
 Jenn^ (both on the Niger) it is replaced by the Sunghai. 
 
 More divergent than the Jallunka and Bambarra, 
 but, still, visibly .Mandingo, the Susu is spoken over a 
 large unexplored tract at the back of Sierra Leone, of 
 which the best-known tribes are the Sulimas, described 
 by Major Laing. Bounded on the north by the Fulahs 
 of Futa-dzhallo, they are Black Pagans, with warlike 
 dispositions, and commercial aptitudes. 
 
 The Kissi lies to the south of the Sulima ; being, 
 probably, a dialect of the Susu. 
 
 Between the Vei district about Cape Mount and the 
 Kissi country, lies the 'Mendi. 
 
 The Vei, spoken over a small tract of country, extends 
 
574 THE VEI ALPHABET. 
 
 from tlie Gallinas to Cape Mount : extending inland 
 40 or 50 miles. It seems to be intrusive; and there 
 is a belief amongst the Yei themselves that they 
 migrated from the Mani country under the captainship 
 of two brothers Fabule and Kiatamba. When this took 
 place is uncertain. 
 
 The existence of a native alphabet has given promi- 
 nence to the Yei language. The first notice of it was 
 given by Lieut. Forbes, in 1849, who inquired whether 
 the missionaries of Sierra Leone had ever heard of a 
 written language amongst the natives of the parts about 
 Cape Mount. He also showed a MS. which was soon 
 afterwards in England and in the hands of Mr. JNorriss, 
 who deciphered and translated it. Meanwhile the 
 missionary committee appointed Mr. Kolle to visit the 
 country referred to by Lieut. Forbes and to make 
 inquiries on the spot. This led him into the presence 
 of a Yei native, named Doalu Bukere, about forty years 
 old ; who, assisted by ^ye of his friends, invented the 
 alphabet in question. 
 
 Without undervaluing Doalu Bukere's ingenuity, we 
 must remember that, as a boy, he had learned to read 
 English, and afterwards, Arabic. When grown-up to be 
 a man he was all but a regular letter-carrier. His 
 masters, who were slavers, and traders, despatched him 
 to distant places as a messenger, and he told Mr. Kolle 
 that the communication of distant events by means of 
 the letters he conveyed struck him forcibly. " How is 
 this, that my master knows everything I have done in 
 a distant place ? He only looks at the book, and this 
 tells him all. Such a thing we ought to have, by which 
 we could speak to each other even though separated by 
 a great distance." 
 
 The Sokko is associated with the Jallonka in the 
 Mithridates ; and when we remember how scanty 
 were our data when that great work was composed. 
 
THE SOKKO, ETC. 575 
 
 we may readily infer that its affinity is pretty palpable. 
 It probably belongs to the most eastern division of 
 the proper Mandingo class ; since it must be looked 
 for in the district of the Kong Mountains, with their 
 direction from west to east, and their parallelism with 
 the coast of the Gulf of Guinea. Whether it lie to 
 the back of the Grain Coast, where the Kru prevails, 
 is uncertain. It is more likely to be found to the north 
 of the Ivory Coast. At any rate Oldendorp, who took 
 his information from three individuals of three tribes, 
 states that their country bordered on that of the Amina 
 — the Amina belonging to the Fanti class, the Fanti class 
 of which the Gold Coast is the special occupancy. I 
 have enlarged upon this, because the extent to which an 
 undoubted Mandingo tongue comes in contact with both 
 the Fanti and the Kru areas is a point in favour of the 
 affiliation of the three groups. 
 
 I now give a sketch of eleven languages which are 
 conveniently taken together. They form as natural a 
 group as circumstances permit ; and are as follows ; — 
 
 1. Begharmi, the most eastern of the group. 
 
 2. The Mandara. 
 
 3. The Kanuri of Bornii. 
 
 4. The Hawsa. 
 
 5. The Sunghai. 
 
 6. The Kouri. 
 
 7. The Yoruba. 
 
 8. The Tapua or Nufi. 
 
 9. The Batta. 
 
 10. The Fula. 
 
 11. The Tibbu. 
 
 Their general order is from east to west ; and the dis- 
 trict to which they belong reaches from Lake Tshad to 
 the Niger. It is pre-eminently an inland district. It is 
 an intertropical one. It is, to a great extent, destitute 
 of great rivers ; without being a desert. It is sub- 
 tended by the parts below 9° N. L., or, the terra incog- 
 
S'je THE BEGHARMI, ETC. 
 
 nita, for the northern half of Africa ; from which it 
 follows that, whether the lano^uao*es under notice have or 
 have not affinities on their southern frontiers, such affi- 
 nities as may exist are unknown. This is much the 
 same as saying that the further we go south, the farther 
 we recede from Mahometan, and advance into Pagan, 
 Africa. 
 
 So much for its southern limit. On the north it under- 
 lies the Sahara in respect to its geography, and the 
 Arab and x^Lmazig areas in respect to its ethnology and 
 philology — the Arab and Amazig areas both being 
 Mahometan. It may be added (though the remark is 
 in anticipation of what will appear as we proceed) that 
 it is nearly co-extensive with the ground covered by 
 the Fula conquests. 
 
 It is a zone, or band, and, though some of its occu- 
 pants have comparatively light-coloured skins, it is, as 
 contrasted with the broader zone to the north, a Black 
 Band. It has been called Nigritia. It has been called 
 Sudania. But it is a Black Band only when contrasted 
 with northern Africa. 
 
 All the above-named languages are, in the present state 
 of our knowledge, separated from each other by definite 
 lines of demarcation. It may, perhaps, be added that 
 they are all equi-distant from each other, i. e. the first 
 on the list is (about) as like or unlike the second as the 
 second is like or unlike the third. They have all miscel- 
 laneous affinities ; though the special ones are less than the 
 geographical relations suggest. At the same time, as far 
 as they go, it is with the geographical relations that 
 the affinities coincide. Tlie intrusive Fula, with its 
 wide and irregular distribution, is, perhaps, an exception 
 to this rule. 
 
 To the north of Lake Tshad, along with the Tibbu of 
 Kanem, the Arabic of the Beni Suliman and other tribes, 
 is spoken; whilst farther to the west lies Darsaleh, Wa- 
 day, or Borgho, of which notice has already been taken. 
 
THE BEGHARMI, ETC. 
 
 577 
 
 ( 1 .) The Begharmi is conterminous with the Tibbu, the 
 Bornui, and the Mandara on the north, west, and south, 
 the details of its eastern frontier being unknown. It 
 may or may not touch the Mobba and Dar-runga areas. 
 It is known by vocabularies only, of which Denham's is 
 the chief. 
 
 (2.) The Mandara is the nearest approach we have to 
 a language of the interior of Africa, being the only one 
 spoken south of the tenth degree of latitude in any part 
 of the continent equally central. Indeed, the tenth 
 degree on each side of the equator bounds the terra 
 incognita. Towards the eastern and western extremi- 
 ties of the zone thus described, Burton, Livingstone, 
 and others have explored ; but for the interior Denham 
 and Barth are our only authorities. The Mandara is 
 one of the languages^ given in the forthcoming list of 
 the languages of Adamowa, Hamarua, and the parts 
 around. (See p. 589.) 
 
 English. 
 
 Begharmi. 
 
 Mandira. 
 
 Man 
 
 gaba 
 
 geela 
 
 Woman 
 
 nee 
 
 mugsa 
 
 
 
 gala (cfirl) 
 
 Head 
 
 geujo 
 
 erey 
 
 Eye 
 
 kammoo 
 
 echey 
 
 Teeth 
 
 nganah 
 
 
 Mouth 
 
 tara 
 
 okay 
 
 Nose 
 
 amo 
 
 ukteray 
 
 Feet 
 
 njanja 
 
 
 Sun 
 
 kaja 
 
 
 Fire 
 
 heddoo 
 
 
 Water 
 
 mane 
 
 yowah 
 
 Wind 
 
 belee 
 
 
 Wood 
 
 clieree 
 
 
 One 
 
 keddy 
 
 mtague 
 
 Two 
 
 sub 
 
 sandah 
 
 Three 
 
 mattah 
 
 kighab 
 
 Four 
 
 soh 
 
 fuddah 
 
 Five 
 
 mee 
 
 elibab 
 
 Six 
 
 meeka 
 
 n'quaha 
 
 Seven 
 
 chilly 
 
 ^ oubay 
 
 Eight 
 
 marta 
 
 teesa 
 
 Nine 
 
 doso 
 
 musselman 
 
 Ten 
 
 dokemy 
 
 klaon. 
 
 P P 
 
578 THE KANURI, ETC. 
 
 (3.) It is a current statement that as many as thirty 
 different tongues are spoken in Bornu. This we get 
 from a notice by Lucas whose informant was an official 
 of that country. Seetzen throws a httle light upon this ; 
 his informant having been a negro of Affadeh. The first 
 language enumerated by him is — 
 
 1 . The Mana Birniby, or speech of Bornu itself. 
 
 2. The Amszigh Mpade, a country six days' journey 
 northwards. 
 
 3. The Mszaiin onkalone Karama, or the speech of a 
 country seven days east of Affadeh, called by the Arabs 
 Kalphey. 
 
 4. The Amszigh Affadeh. 
 
 Towards our knowledge of the other twenty-six, the 
 following list was obtained by Seetzen from a negro of 
 Mobba, whom he met at Cairo. 
 
 5. The Kajenjah. 6. The Upderrak 7. The Alih. 
 8. The Mingon. 9. The 3faraTet. 10. The Massalit 
 11. The Szongor, 12. The Kuka. 13. The Dadshu. 
 14. The Bandalah. 15. The Masmajah. 16. The 
 Njorga. 17. The Dembe. 18. The Malangoe. 19. The 
 Mime. 20. The Koruboih. 21. The Gonuk 22. The 
 Kabha. 23. The Guranguk 24. The Dshellaba. 
 
 Of these the Amszigh Mpade may be the Amazigh, 
 a language of the Sahara rather than Bornii itself. In 
 like manner some of the others may belong to the Bornu 
 Empire rather than to the district so-called. Of the 
 Affadeh, however, we have, eo nomine^ short specimens. 
 It is closely akin to the Mana Birniby, the Proper 
 Bornui, or Kanuri. 
 
 The Arabic alphabet hg^s been applied to the Kanuri ; 
 the data for Norriss's Kanuri Grammar having been a 
 collection of dialogues from Madame de Genlis's Manuel 
 de VoyageuT, a translation of two chapters of the New 
 Testament, and the draft of an agreement to be made 
 with one of the petty kings of the interior of Africa. 
 These were written at Tripoli, and sent to England by the 
 late Mr. Richardson ; there was a similar translation into 
 
THE KANURI, ETC. 
 
 the Hawsa. The author 'was an Arab. Kolle's grammar 
 was framed upon conversations with a native of the pro- 
 vince of Gazir whom the author found at Sierra Leone. 
 Mr. Norriss, enlarging upon the extent to which the 
 Kanuri differs from the other languages, compares its 
 structure with that of the Turk dialects. Its roots are 
 not subject to any modification ; it forms its plural by 
 adding a syllable, and it has a somewhat full inflection, 
 consisting wholly of postpositions. 
 
 (Bornu dialects.) 
 
 English. 
 
 
 Bode. 
 
 Ngodzen. 
 
 Dodi. 
 
 Man 
 
 
 gemsenen 
 
 gemseg 
 
 amsey 
 
 Woman 
 
 
 game 
 
 ama 
 
 uma 
 
 Head 
 
 
 adatka 
 
 ada 
 
 ada 
 
 Hair 
 
 
 dadsin 
 
 yat 
 
 yad 
 
 Nose 
 
 
 iskinen 
 
 ten 
 
 Stan 
 
 Eye 
 
 
 dat 
 
 da 
 
 ida 
 
 Ear 
 
 
 gutanen 
 
 aqut 
 
 quat 
 
 Tooth 
 
 
 yanuanen 
 
 yanou 
 
 nayou 
 
 Tongue 
 
 
 muret 
 
 marinyi 
 
 
 Sun 
 
 
 afan 
 
 afa 
 
 afa 
 
 Fire 
 
 
 akan 
 
 aka 
 
 aka 
 
 Water 
 
 
 amu 
 
 am 
 
 aam. 
 
 Englisli. 
 
 Kanuri. 
 
 Munio. 
 
 Nguru. 
 
 Kanem. 
 
 Man 
 
 koa 
 
 kangoa 
 
 kangoa 
 
 koa 
 
 Woman 
 
 kamu 
 
 kamu 
 
 kamu 
 
 kamu 
 
 Head 
 
 kala 
 
 kala 
 
 kala 
 
 kela 
 
 Hair 
 
 kanduli gazi 
 
 kanduli 
 
 kundali 
 
 Nose 
 
 kentsa 
 
 kindsa 
 
 kindsa 
 
 kenza 
 
 Eye 
 
 sim 
 
 sim 
 
 sim 
 
 asim 
 
 Ear 
 
 sumo 
 
 sumo 
 
 sumo 
 
 tsumo 
 
 Tooth 
 
 timi 
 
 temi 
 
 temi 
 
 temi 
 
 Tongue 
 
 telam 
 
 telam 
 
 tetam 
 
 tatam 
 
 Sun 
 
 kau 
 
 kau 
 
 ka.u 
 
 kengal 
 
 Fire 
 
 kanu 
 
 kanu 
 
 kanu 
 
 kanu 
 
 Water 
 
 nki 
 
 engi 
 
 ngi 
 
 ngi. 
 
 English. 
 
 
 Buduma. 
 
 English, 
 
 Buduma. 
 
 Man 
 
 
 hagoei 
 
 Ear 
 
 homogu 
 
 Woman 
 
 
 ngerem 
 
 Tooth 
 
 haneni 
 
 Head 
 
 
 kodagu 
 
 Tongue 
 
 talamdagu 
 
 Hair 
 
 
 ndsige 
 
 Sun 
 
 adsi 
 
 Nose 
 
 
 dsenegu 
 
 Fire 
 
 ou 
 
 Eye 
 
 
 yelegu 
 
 Water 
 
 amei. 
 
 p p 2 
 
680 THE KANURL ETC. 
 
 English. 
 
 Logone.* 
 
 Mobha* 
 
 One 
 
 teku 
 
 tek 
 
 
 ser^dia 
 
 
 Two 
 
 ksde 
 
 bar 
 
 Three 
 
 gaxkir 
 
 kungal 
 
 Four 
 
 gade 
 
 asal 
 
 Five 
 
 sesi 
 
 tor 
 
 Six 
 
 venaxkir 
 
 settal 
 
 Seven 
 
 katul 
 
 mindri 
 
 Eight 
 
 venyade 
 
 Tya 
 
 Nine 
 
 disxien 
 
 adoi 
 
 Tm 
 
 xk^n 
 
 atuk. 
 
 (4.) Whatever may be the areas for the (?) twenty- 
 seven unknov^n languages of Bornti, they are not on any 
 of the explored portions of the Hawsa frontier, inasmuch 
 as the two languages meet. The Hawsa, like the 
 Bornu, has been written in Arabic characters, whilst 
 from Schon's grammar we learn the details of its struc- 
 ture. It gives either the germ or the fragment of a pe- 
 culiarity, of which more will be said when the Yoruba 
 comes under notice. 
 
 (5.) Roughly speaking, the Sunghai area is bounded 
 by 1 3° N. L. and the Niger ; the line of demarcation 
 being a chord and an arc. The line of latitude runs 
 straight, whilst the river, which meets it at both its 
 extremities, approaches N. L. 18°. Between these lies 
 the great mass of the Sunghai area, though not ex- 
 clusivety. On the north it is bounded by the Arabic 
 and the Amazig, both encroaching languages ; on the 
 west by the Serawulli (?) and the Bambarra ; on the 
 East by the Fula and Hawsa ; on the south by the 
 Kouri of Tombo, Mosi, and Gurma ; the line of de- 
 marcation here being pre-eminently obscure. All along 
 the northern frontier there is great intermixture — 
 men of Sunghai blood using the Fula, Hawsa (?), 
 Amazig, Arabic, Serawulli (?), and Mandingo dialects, 
 and vice versa. Gogo, the ancient capital of a kingdom, 
 stands in Sunghai ground. Timbuktu, more famous 
 
 * For the explanation of these two columns see the appendix. 
 
TUB KOURI. 
 
 581 
 
 still, does the same. To the south of Timbuktti the 
 Ireffenaten Tuariks have intruded far in the direction of 
 the Kouri frontier ; between whom and the Niger lie 
 several independent tribes ; amongst whom, it is proba- 
 ble, that foreign admixture is at the 'ininimuTii. Their 
 land, however, is a terra incognita. Of their language 
 I only know one sample from the extreme west, and 
 one from the parts about Timbuktu. 
 
 (6.) The chief districts of the Kouri area are Gurma, 
 Tombo, and Mosi. Of these, the former is less Kouri 
 than the other two ; this is because Gurma is on both 
 the Sunghai and the Bambarra frontiers, from each of 
 which there have been pressure and encroachment. Pres- 
 sure, too, and encroachment have also been effected by 
 the Fulas. That Gurma is a Sunghai name, as sug- 
 gested by Barth, is probable. At any rate, it is not 
 native. The Gurma people call the Hawsa people 
 Jongoy. The Tombo, like Gurma, has been encroached 
 upon by the Fulas, so that Mosi is the district which 
 is most especially Kouri. It is Pagan, and broken up 
 into small principalities. The Bambarra name for the 
 Mosi is Moreba. The Mosi themselves call — 
 
 The Fulas . 
 
 — Sunghai 
 
 — Gurma 
 
 Chilmigo, 
 Marenga, 
 Bimba, 
 
 — Wangara 
 
 — Hawsa 
 
 — Ashantis 
 
 Taurearga, 
 
 Zangoro, 
 
 Santi. 
 
 Kolle calls it the North-Eastern High Soudanian, but 
 the present writer, in 1855, suggested the name under 
 notice on the strength of a vocabulary of Mrs. Kil- 
 ham's, representing the same language with the Tembu 
 of the Mithridates. In the Polyglotta Africana there 
 is also a Kaure, as well as a Kiamba, Dzhamba, or 
 Tem specimen. 
 
 The members of this group, according to Kolle, are 
 
582 THE KOURI. 
 
 1. Mose ; 2. Dselana ; 3. Guren ; 4. Gurma ; 5. Le- 
 gba ; 6, Kaure ; 7. Kiamba ; 8. Koama ; 9. Bagba- 
 lan ; 10. Yula ; 11. Kasm. Of all of these forms of 
 speech KoUe gives specimens. 
 
 To this we may add the Yngwe, and Dagwhumba 
 numerals of Bowdich. 
 
 In Clarke we get the following additions: — ^1. Yana; 
 
 2. Brinni ; 3. Nibulu ; 4. and no less than 4 Tsham- 
 bas. 
 
 Yana is stated to be near Appa and Tshamba. It is, 
 probably, a transitional dialect, with Inta, Mandingo, 
 Yoruba, and I bo affinities. 
 
 The Brinni are called a tribe of the Fula race in the 
 interior, not far from Umwalum and Tshamba. Bangsa 
 and Pumpluna are near to Tshamba. This statement as 
 to the Fula affinity is exceptionable. They are de- 
 cidedly in the same class with the Nibulu. 
 
 Nibulu is simply said to be in the Tshamba country. 
 
 When we look to the word Tshamba itself, we learn 
 that there are three or more places of this name, 1st, 
 near Igarra, on the river Odu ; 2nd, between Mandingo 
 and the Kong Mountains ; 3rd, near Corisco Bay at 
 Nibulu. Now as Tshamba is the word of salutation 
 at this place, some confusion may have arisen, which 
 future researches will explain. At any rate, the 
 combination mb preceded by k, t, sh, &c., is common. 
 There is the Tim6u country on the Senegambia, Kim6o, 
 Tim6u-ctu, Aquim6o, Adampi. In Balbi there is a 
 Tjem6u or Kassenti. The Tambu of Oldendorp is the 
 TdamY>i of the Gold Coast. Whatever may be the 
 explanation of all this, it is clear that the word as a 
 name of the class under consideration is inconvenient. 
 Whether Kouri (the term proposed by the present writer) 
 be the best name is another question. It is less am- 
 biguous than Tshamba ; shorter than North-Eastern High 
 Sudanian. 
 
 The watershed, marked in the map as the Mountains 
 
THE KOURI. 
 
 583 
 
 of Kong, between the rivers which empty themselves into 
 the Gulf of Guinea (the Yolta, &c.) and the feeders on 
 the right bank of the Niger, belongs to the Kouri country, 
 which, in some parts, touches the Niger itself It lies in 
 the longitude of Greenwich, and (perhaps) 8 degrees on 
 each side of it, and in 1 N. L. It is certainly a broken 
 and mountainous country with a pagan population. 
 
 The question which now arises touches the accuracy 
 of the boundary by Kolle, who limits the group under 
 notice to the forms of speech enumerated by him. I 
 would add to it, at least, two of his South African lan- 
 guages, the Barba, and the Boko. The Barba he iden- 
 tifies, from memory, with the Borgu of the Hawsa. 
 Boko touches Busa on the Koara. 
 
 English, head, hair. 
 Barba, wiru, siru. 
 Mose, zuru. 
 Legba, nyoro. 
 Kaure, nyoro. 
 Kasm, yum. 
 Aku, &c., oru. 
 
 English, face. 
 Barba, wusoa. 
 Legba, esa. 
 Kaure, esa. 
 
 Kiamba, esancla. 
 Aku, odsu. 
 Kambali, Hsu. 
 
 English, nose. 
 Barba, nueru. 
 Mose, nyore. 
 Guresa, nyor. 
 
 English, eye. 
 Barba, noni. 
 Mose, nini. 
 Gruresa, nun. 
 
 I English, ear. 
 j Barba, so. 
 
 Boko, zea. 
 
 Guresa, tui. 
 
 English, mouth. 
 Barba, no. 
 Legba, nolo. 
 Koama, ni. 
 Kasm, ni. 
 
 That the Boko and Barba should be Kouri is only 
 what we expect from their geographical situation. 
 
 Is there any other class besides the Kouri for the un- 
 explored parts between the Kong Mountains and the 
 Niger ? In other words, do we, when we get the Kouri 
 class, get a class that completes our ethnographic and 
 philologic knowledge for these parts? We do. No 
 unplaced language is likely to be discovered. This is 
 inferred from the fact of the limits of the Kouri class, 
 being formed, on all sides, by some known language. 
 Thus: 
 
 I. On the north, it touches, and, perhaps, graduates 
 into, the Mandingo, Sunghai, and Hawsa. 
 
684 
 
 THE KOUKI. 
 
 2. On the south, it touches the Km, the Avekvom, 
 the Inta, the Dahomey, and Yoruba groups of the 
 Grain, Ivory, Gold, and Slave coasts. 
 
 3. On the east it reaches the Hawsa, and 
 
 4. On the east, and south-east, the Nufi. 
 With all of which it has miscellaneous affinities. 
 
 If the Kouri has relations to the Mandingo and the 
 Nufi on one side, it has also relations to the Sunghai of 
 Timbuktu on the other. Perhaps, it is the language to 
 which the Sunghai of Timbuktu is most especially like. 
 The pronoun of the first person singular is ai, or a in 
 both the Timbuktti of Kolle, and his Yula and Kasm ; 
 to say nothing of other definite glossarial likeness. 
 
 That the so-called South-African characteristics were 
 likely to be found in the Kouri is stated in the paper 
 of April 27, 1855. I now add that ahalo — man. 
 The name of a Kouri population is nibalu ; probably 
 =2 men. Should this be shown to be the case, we have 
 the Kaffir-like plurals in a fresh language. 
 
 {Kouri dialects.) 
 
 English. 
 
 Koama. 
 
 Bagbalan. 
 
 Man 
 
 mbal 
 
 bala 
 
 Woman 
 
 hal 
 
 hala 
 
 Head 
 
 nynn 
 
 nyi 
 
 Hair 
 
 nyipose 
 
 nyupun 
 
 Nose 
 
 mese 
 
 misan 
 
 Eye 
 
 se 
 
 sian 
 
 Ear 
 
 dera 
 
 deral 
 
 Tooth 
 
 kele 
 
 nila 
 
 Tongue 
 
 mandelem 
 
 dendelman 
 
 Sun 
 
 iya 
 
 iwia 
 
 Fire 
 
 nien 
 
 nyin 
 
 Water 
 
 le 
 
 uen. 
 
 English. 
 
 Kasm. 
 
 Yula. 
 
 Man 
 
 nokio 
 
 baro 
 
 Woman 
 
 kam 
 
 kam 
 
 Head 
 
 yiru 
 
 yuru 
 
 Hair 
 
 iye 
 
 yua 
 
 Nose 
 
 moe 
 
 mui 
 
 Eye 
 
 yi 
 
 yibn 
 
 Ewr 
 
 ze 
 
 zoa 
 

 THE YORUBA. 
 
 
 5 
 
 English. 
 
 
 Kasm. 
 
 
 
 Yula. 
 
 Tooth 
 
 
 nyal 
 
 
 
 iyele 
 
 Tongue 
 
 
 dendele 
 
 
 
 dendele 
 
 Sun 
 
 
 iya 
 
 
 
 we 
 
 Fire 
 
 
 men 
 
 
 
 men 
 
 Water 
 
 
 na 
 
 
 
 na. 
 
 English. 
 
 Kambali. 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Kambali. 
 
 Man 
 
 wale 
 
 
 
 Ear 
 
 
 atsuvu 
 
 Woman 
 
 waha 
 
 
 
 Tooth 
 
 uno 
 
 Head 
 
 adsin 
 
 
 
 Tongue 
 
 anga 
 
 Hair 
 
 hondsi 
 
 
 
 Sun 
 
 
 urana 
 
 Nose 
 
 vunu 
 
 
 
 Fire 
 
 
 ahina 
 
 Eye 
 
 lisn 
 
 
 
 Water 
 
 moni. 
 
 English. 
 
 Mose. 
 
 Dzelana 
 
 
 Guresa. 
 
 Gurma. 
 
 Man 
 
 dawa 
 
 do 
 
 
 nedo 
 
 odso 
 
 Woman 
 
 para 
 
 pora 
 
 
 pura 
 
 wopua 
 
 Head 
 
 zuru 
 
 zoh 
 
 
 zu 
 
 yuli 
 
 Hair 
 
 kodwdo 
 
 zuih 
 
 
 su 
 
 tiyudi 
 
 Nose 
 
 nyore 
 
 mer 
 
 
 nyuara 
 
 amiare 
 
 Eye 
 
 nine 
 
 nump 
 
 
 nun 
 
 numu 
 
 Ear 
 
 towre 
 
 tepar 
 
 
 tui 
 
 tuwili 
 
 Tooth 
 
 nyena 
 
 nor 
 
 
 nanbana nyawu 
 
 Tongue 
 
 zilamd 
 
 dselenk 
 
 gingelona lamba 
 
 Sun 
 
 nuende 
 
 gmint 
 
 
 wumbr 
 
 oyenu 
 
 Fire 
 
 burum 
 
 borom 
 
 
 bolam 
 
 omu 
 
 Water 
 
 kom 
 
 nyam 
 
 
 nylam 
 
 nyima. 
 
 English. 
 
 Legba. 
 
 
 Kaure. 
 
 
 Keamba. 
 
 Man 
 
 abalo 
 
 
 abalo 
 
 
 ebalo 
 
 Woman 
 
 alo 
 
 
 alo 
 
 
 alo 
 
 Head 
 
 nyoro 
 
 
 nyoro 
 
 
 kudyo 
 
 Hair 
 
 nyos 
 
 
 nyos 
 
 
 nyoz 
 
 Nose 
 
 mire 
 
 
 moro 
 
 
 numbon 
 
 Eye 
 
 esire 
 
 
 esire 
 
 
 esire 
 
 Ear 
 
 mungbanuro 
 
 tingbanu 
 
 eligbamu 
 
 Tooth 
 
 nolo 
 
 
 nor 
 
 
 noa 
 
 Tongue 
 
 isuromule 
 
 nsolumere 
 
 esuromo 
 
 SVM 
 
 elim 
 
 
 wes 
 
 
 woze 
 
 Fire 
 
 koko 
 
 
 gmin 
 
 
 nimin 
 
 Water 
 
 lam 
 
 
 
 lem 
 
 
 lem. 
 
 585 
 
 (7.) The YoTuha area lies, there or thereabouts, be- 
 tween 2° and G° W. L., and 6° and 10° N. L., being 
 bounded by the Dahomey, the Kouri (?), the Nufi, and 
 the Ibo languages and the sea. The Fula has en- 
 croached upon it. It has a well-defined boundary, and the 
 
586 THE YORUBA. 
 
 language is well defined also : indeed, few African lan- 
 guages are better capable of being definitely limited. So 
 is it geographically, so philologically. Its nearest con- 
 geners are the Kouri, Nufi, and Ibo, and it has miscel- 
 laneous affinities besides. Until the publication of Crow- 
 ther's grammar, the author of which, himself a native 
 of the country, is a clergyman of the Church of Eng- 
 land, little was known of it beyond a few vocabulary 
 specimens. It has now been studied with more than 
 average attention. A paper upon it by D'Avezac in 
 the Transactions of the lYench Ethnological Society 
 enlarged upon the extent to which it was what was 
 called a monosyllabic language. . But are not all lan- 
 guages, when we get to the roots, something of the 
 kind ? The real fact is this — without being more mono- 
 syllabic than many other tongues, the Yoruba is more 
 easily than many others reducible to its elements. The 
 best analysis of it is by Bishop Vidal the editor of Crow- 
 ther's second edition. He enlarges upon the extent to 
 which it is deficient of inflection. This means that the 
 relations of time and place are expressed by separate 
 words. He takes note of the important part played by 
 accents. 
 
 He notes, too, what he calls the Vocalic Euphony. 
 Let the vowels be separated into two classes, and let o, e, 
 i, ^, u, and u be called open ; whilst o, e, a, and a, are 
 close. Let the full forms of the pronouns be erne z=. I, 
 iwo — thou, on — he, she, or it. When these precede 
 verbs like ko, shi, she, shi, ku, or lu, they are mo, o, and 
 6, i. e. open. Whereas if they precede verbs like ko, fe, 
 la, or kco, they are close. The same is the case with the 
 negative particle which is ki, ko, or kg, according to the 
 vowel of the verb. He indicates either a germ or a 
 fragment of a like system in the Hawsa. 
 
 Another reniarkable phenomenon — by means of a 
 regular system of prefixes we get fi'om a root like shezz 
 sin, the following derivatives : — 
 
THE YORUBA. 587 
 
 a. Prefix i, and the root becomes either an infinitive 
 verb, or something closely akin to it, i. e. if she =. do, fe 
 -zzlove, mo=:knoWy or loz=.go, ise, ife, irao, ilgzzthe act 
 of doing, loving, &c. 
 
 h. A more concrete meaning is given by substituting 
 a for i. Thus, afe iz a state of loving, alozna going. 
 
 c. Ali gives an inchoative sense ; thus atilozzthe act 
 of going ; atife-zzthe act of loving, considered as not 
 yet in full exercise, but about to be so. 
 
 d. A 'w, B, negative ; hence, a-imo =. not knowing, or 
 igno7^ance. 
 
 e. A also denotes an agent; thus, from pejja=:fish, 
 and konrin =. sing, we get apejja =. a fisherman, aJconrin 
 zza singer. 
 
 f Ni = have ; and, as a prefix, implies the posses- 
 sion of the attribute suggested by the verb. Thus, 
 idajq zz. judgment comes nidajo =. to j^ossess judgment. 
 In certain cases in which the vocalic euphony plays a 
 part, this n becomes I, as it is in the example of tbe 
 table. 
 
 g. Prefix, where ni is retained, o, and, in other 
 cases, the initial vowel of the word which it precedes, 
 and it gives a noun like onidajo — one who judges, or 
 judge. 
 
 Vocabularies headed (1) Ota, (2) Egba, (3) Idsesa, 
 (4) Yagba, (5) Eki, (6) Dsumu, (7) Oworo, (8) Dsebu, 
 (9) Ife, (9) Ondo, (10) Dsekiri, in addition to the 
 Yoruba Proper, are all to be found in Kolle, as sub- 
 dialects of the Aku : followed by one of the Igala as a 
 separate dialect — falling, however, into no sub-dialects. 
 
 (8.) The Nufl Class. — Mutatis mutandis, the criticism 
 which applies to Kolle's North-Eastern High Sudanian, 
 applies to his Niger-Tshadda, class. It may more con- 
 veniently be called Nufi, from its chief language. 
 
 Additions are to be made to it from the pages of the 
 Polyglotta Africana itself ; viz. : — 
 
588 
 
 THE NUFI. 
 
 1. The Yala, an unclassed language, is Nufi. 
 
 2. The Dsuku and Eregba, which Kolle makes South 
 African, are Nufi. 
 
 In the Polyglotta Africana, the Dsuku, along with 
 the Eregba, forms the third section of the eighth group, 
 headed Atam Languages ; whilst the first of Part 2 
 contains South African Languages, distinguished by 
 an initial inflection. As such, it is separated from 1. 
 Nupe ; 2. Kupa ; 3. Esitako ; 4. Musu ; 5. Goali ; 6. 
 Basa ; 7. Ebe ; 8. Opanda ; 9. Egbira-Hima. To 
 these, however, the vocabulary connects it, at least, as 
 much as to any other group. 
 
 English. 
 
 Appa. 
 
 Eregba. 
 
 Dsuku. 
 
 One 
 
 uniieen 
 
 unye 
 
 atsu 
 
 Two 
 
 ifa 
 
 ifa 
 
 apiana 
 
 Three 
 
 ita 
 
 ita 
 
 atsala 
 
 Four 
 
 ini 
 
 ini 
 
 anyera 
 
 Five 
 
 itun 
 
 ithu 
 
 tsoana 
 
 Six 
 
 teniieh 
 
 itinye 
 
 tsindse 
 
 Seven 
 
 tifa 
 
 itafa 
 
 atsumpi 
 
 Eight 
 
 tita 
 
 itita 
 
 tsuntsa 
 
 Nine 
 
 tini 
 
 itini 
 
 tsunyo 
 
 Ten 
 
 ubo 
 
 ubo 
 
 atsue. 
 
 If we now look back upon the details of these two 
 classes, we find them to run as follows : — 
 
 1. In the Kouri, we have the Kouri of Mrs. Kilham, 
 the Tembu of Oldendorp, and the Mithridates, the Hio, 
 Ypgwe, and Dagumba of Bowdich, the Mose, Dselana, 
 Guren, Gurma, Legba, Kauri, Kiamba, Koama, Bagba- 
 lan, Barba, and Boko of Kolle ; the Yana, Brinni, 
 Nibulu, and 4 Tshambas of Clarke. 
 
 2. The Nufi contains the forms of speech illustrated 
 by the following vocabularies : Nupi, Appa, Kupa, 
 Esitako, Musu, Goali, Basa, Ebe, Opanda, Egbira-Hima, 
 Ergeba, Dsuku, Tapua (Tappa), Biyanni, Shabbie, Ka- 
 kanda, Nupaysi. 
 
 Apparently, a language of Kolle's, called the Kambali, 
 is intermediate to the Nufi and the Kouri. 
 
THE BATTA. 
 
 589 
 
 (9.) The preliminary remarks of Dr. Barth on the 
 Batta lano^uage are as folloAVs : — '' The Batta-ntshi is 
 spoken from Garrua, a place three days E. of Yola, in the 
 district of Kokorni, as far as Batshama, three days E. of 
 Hammarua. To this language belong the names of the 
 two large rivers of Adamawa, Faro, ' the river/ and 
 Benoe, Hhe mother of waters/ 
 
 " The other languages are the following : — The Btima- 
 ntshi, spoken by the Umbum and in Baia ; the Dama- 
 ntshi, the language of Bobanjidda ; the Buta-ntshi ; the 
 Tekar-tshi ; the Munda-ntshi ; the Fala-ntshi ; the 
 Marga-ntshi ; the Kilba-ntshi ; the Yangur-tshi ; the 
 Guda-ntshi, spoken by a very learned people, the Gudu, 
 living on a plain surrounded by mountains, near Song ; 
 the Tshamba-ntshi ; the Kotofa-ntshi, spoken by the 
 Kotofo, whose large river, the Dewo, comes from Kout- 
 sha and joins the Benue ; the Wera-ntshi ; the Dura- 
 ntshi ; the Woka-ntshi ; the Toga-ntshi : the Lekam- 
 tshi ; the Parpar-tshi ; the Kankam-tshi ; the Nyang- 
 eyare-tshi ; the Musga-ntshi ; the Mandara-ntshi ; the 
 Gizaga-ntshi ; the Ruma-ntshi ; the Gidar-ntshi : the 
 Daba-ntshi ; the Hina-ntshi ; the Maturna-ntshi ; the 
 Sina-ntshi ; the Momoyee-ntshi ; the Fani-ntshi ; the 
 Nyega-ntshi ; and finally the Dewa-ntshi ; all these lan- 
 guages being so widely different from each other, that a 
 man who knows one of them does not at all understand 
 the others/' 
 
 English. 
 
 Batta. 
 
 English. 
 
 Batta. 
 
 Sun 
 
 motslie 
 
 Water 
 
 be 
 
 Heaven 
 
 kade 
 
 Fire 
 
 die 
 
 Star 
 
 motshe kan 
 
 People 
 
 manope 
 
 Wind 
 
 koe 
 
 Man 
 
 mano 
 
 Rain 
 
 bole 
 
 Woman 
 
 metslie 
 
 Dry season 
 
 ptia 
 
 Mother 
 
 nogi or noi 
 
 Rainy 
 
 bole basi 
 
 Father 
 
 bagir 
 
 Day 
 
 motsbe 
 
 Child, hoy 
 
 labai 
 
 NiyU 
 
 motsheken 
 
 Daughter 
 
 jetslie 
 
 Yesterday 
 
 zodo 
 
 Brother 
 
 labenno 
 
 To-day 
 
 fido 
 
 Sister 
 
 jetsbono 
 
 To-morrow 
 
 tua 
 
 Friend 
 
 dawai 
 
590 
 
 THE BATTA. 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Batta. 
 
 English. 
 
 Batta. 
 
 Enemy 
 
 kawe 
 
 Mountain 
 
 faratshe 
 
 Sultan, king 
 
 homai 
 
 Valley 
 
 kadembe 
 
 Slave 
 
 keze 
 
 River 
 
 be-noe, faro 
 
 Female slave 
 
 kezametshe 
 
 River overfloio 
 
 Mg be-bake 
 
 Bead 
 
 l)6daslii 
 
 Garden 
 
 wadi. 
 
 Eye 
 
 bashl 
 
 Well 
 
 btilambe 
 
 Nose 
 
 ikilo 
 
 Tree 
 
 kade? 
 
 Ear 
 
 kakkilo 
 
 Grass } 
 Herbage y 
 
 
 Mouth 
 
 bratshi 
 
 tsbame 
 
 Tooth 
 
 nesudabtshe 
 
 Small 
 
 keng 
 
 Tongue 
 
 ateazido 
 
 Large 
 
 baka 
 
 Arm 
 
 boratshe 
 
 Far, distant 
 
 bong 
 
 Heart 
 
 teleshe 
 
 Near 
 
 abong 
 
 Leg 
 
 bora 
 
 Good 
 
 Izedo 
 
 Milk 
 
 pamde 
 
 Bad 
 
 azedo 
 
 Butter 
 
 mare 
 
 Warm 
 
 tenibo 
 
 Ghussuh 
 
 lamashe 
 
 I hear 
 
 hakkeli 
 
 Ghafuli 
 
 kakasbe 
 
 I do not hear 
 
 takeU 
 
 Rice 
 
 boiyanga 
 
 I see 
 
 hiUe 
 
 Baseen 
 
 dabtshe 
 
 I do not see 
 
 tale 
 
 Honey 
 
 moratshe 
 
 I speak 
 
 nabawata 
 
 Salt 
 
 fite 
 
 I sleep 
 
 bashlno 
 
 Meat 
 
 lue 
 
 I eat 
 
 nazumu 
 
 Fruit 
 
 nawa dokade 
 
 Eat, imp. 
 
 ZTiazum, zuengosso 
 
 Shirt 
 
 tirkute 
 
 / dnnh 
 
 nasa 
 
 Spear 
 
 kube 
 
 Drink, imp. 
 
 zuabasa 
 
 Sword 
 
 songai 
 
 I go 
 
 nawado 
 
 Bow 
 
 rie 
 
 Go, imp. 
 
 joado 
 
 Arrow 
 
 galbai 
 
 I come 
 
 nabasi 
 
 Quiver 
 
 kossure 
 
 Come, imp. 
 
 sua 
 
 Boat 
 
 damagere 
 
 Give, imp. 
 
 tenigo 
 
 Hut, home 
 
 final 
 
 Take, imp. 
 
 zu^ngura 
 
 Nat 
 
 kaje 
 
 / 
 
 hennebo 
 
 Cooking-pot 
 
 borashe 
 
 Thou 
 
 mano 
 
 Basket 
 
 sbilai 
 
 One 
 
 hido 
 
 Horse 
 
 dual 
 
 Two 
 
 pe 
 
 Mare 
 
 dometsbi 
 
 Three 
 
 makin 
 
 Ox 
 
 nakai 
 
 Four 
 
 fat 
 
 Cow 
 
 metsbe nakai 
 
 Five 
 
 tuf 
 
 Camel, donkey 
 
 do not exist 
 
 Six 
 
 tokuldaka 
 
 Sheep 
 
 bag^mre 
 
 Seven 
 
 tokulape 
 
 Goat 
 
 bagai 
 
 Eight 
 
 farfat 
 
 Bog 
 
 borashe 
 
 Nine 
 
 t^mbido 
 
 Lion 
 
 turum 
 
 Ten 
 
 bu 
 
 Fish 
 
 rufai 
 
 Eleven 
 
 bu umbidi hide 
 
 Bird 
 
 yaro 
 
 Twelve 
 
 bu 6mbidl pe 
 
 A plain 
 
 yolde 
 
 Thirteen 
 
 bu timbidi makin 
 

 THE 
 
 FULA. 
 
 69 
 
 Englisli. 
 
 Batta. 
 
 English. 
 
 Batta. 
 
 Twenty 
 
 raanobupe 
 
 Eighty 
 
 manobu farfat 
 
 Twenty-one 
 
 manobupe hido 
 
 Ninety 
 
 manobu t^mbido 
 
 Thirty 
 
 manobumakin 
 
 One hundred aru 
 
 Forty 
 
 manobufat 
 
 One thousand debu (Hausa) 
 
 Fifty 
 
 manobutuf 
 
 
 Forms of Salutation. 
 
 Sixty 
 
 manobutokuldaka 
 
 
 bokuda yo 
 
 Seventy 
 
 maonbu tokulape 
 
 
 yalabare bide. 
 
 (10.) A few remarks may now be made upon another 
 language : one of greater political and geographical im- 
 portance than any of the preceding class ; a language 
 hitherto uncultivated, but one which is, by no means, un- 
 likely to develope itself as the medium of an imperfect 
 native literature, nor yet likely to be overlooked by the 
 missionary and merchant for religious and commercial 
 purposes. I mean the Fula, Fulah, Felletta, Fellata, 
 Fulani, Fulanie, Filani, and Filanie tongue. A native 
 conqueror, scarcely a generation back, named Danfodio, 
 spread the Fula conquests as far west as Bornu and the 
 frontier of Waday. He carried them far into the Hawsa, 
 Yoruba, Sunghai, and Kanuri countries. He was a Ma- 
 hometan, and, as such, the leader of a population strongly 
 contrasted with the native pagans of the true and typical 
 Negro conformation. From this the Fula physiognomy 
 departed, though not always to the same extent. As a 
 general rule, however, the Fula skin was lighter ; so 
 much so, that one section has long been known as the 
 Eed Peuls or Fulas. 
 
 The chief languages with which the Fula was at 
 first compared, were those of the countries into which 
 it intruded ; the Hawsa, Yoruba, Bornui, &c. It was 
 not likely to show very decided affinities with these ; 
 inasmuch as they lay beyond the pale of its proper and 
 original situs. What this original situs, however, was 
 is easily investigated. The home of the race seems to 
 have been the highlands that form the watershed of the 
 Senegal and Gambia ; so that the languages with which it 
 originally came in the closest contact were the Woloff 
 and Mandingo. But as the Mandingo itself has en- 
 
592 THE SERAWULLI. 
 
 croaclied on the forms of speech in its neighbourhood, 
 much displacement and obliteration of such intermediate 
 forms of speech as ma}^ have originally existed has been 
 effected. We do not, then, expect very decided affinities 
 even here. It is tlie opinion of the present writer, how- 
 ever, that, whether great or small, they are greater in 
 this direction, than any other ; the Woloff being the 
 nearest congener, and the nearest approach to a tran- 
 sitional tongue being the SerawuUi. The very scanty 
 specimens of the Mitlividates are enough to suggest this 
 — these making the Serawulli partly Woloff, partly 
 Mandingo, partly Fula. If so, the affinities are thus : 
 
 Woloff Serawolli 
 
 Felup, &c., Serere Fula 
 
 I I 
 
 Mandingo 
 
 This, however, is in anticipation of the languages of 
 another group. 
 
 (11.) The Tibbu will be noticed in the Appendix. 
 
 The jfirst language of the next class is the Sera- 
 wulli or Seracolet, conterminous with the Arabic on the 
 north, and the Woloff on the west, and spoken over an 
 extensive, but imperfectly-explored district towards the 
 Fouth-western frontier of the Sahara. Parts of Ludamar, 
 Galam, Kaarta, and the Bambarra country, are Sera- 
 wulli. Kolle states that there are six Serawulli tribes, 
 the Gadsaga, the Gidemara, the Hanyaga, the Dzafuna, 
 the Haire, and the Gangari. Their physical form is that 
 of the Woloff, and Sereres ; their Mahometanism equally 
 imperfect. Their energy and intelligence have been 
 extolled. 
 
 The area given to the Azeriye, Aswarek, or Swaninki, 
 by Barth, is of considerable size and importance : ex- 
 tending from the parts about Sangsangdi, which he par- 
 ticularly says was, originally, an "Aswarek town, to Wa- 
 nad, in N. L. 21°. Now this is the most northern spot 
 where a Negro population is found in situ. The lan- 
 guage is, of course, in contact with the Arabic and 
 
THE WOLOF, ETC. 593 
 
 Amazig, or with the Arabic by which the Amazig has 
 been replaced, no Negro language being at this degree of 
 latitude in contact with it. On the south, it is met by 
 the Wolof, the Sungai, the Fula, and the Mandingo of 
 Barabarra : possibly by some of the Kouri dialects. 
 The blood of many a man who speaks Arabic must be 
 more or less Azeriye. 
 
 The great centre of the Aswarek seems to have been 
 El Hodh ; Baghena being the district wherein, at present, 
 they are most numerous. 
 
 The Sereres is spoken about Cape Verd, the Wolof 
 being spoken all round it. It is isolated, but has 
 miscellaneous affinities. We have no grammar of it and 
 but few vocabularies. 
 
 The Wolof, or Jolof, is spoken between the Senegal 
 and the Gambia ; not, however, continuously. It is 
 interrupted in the parts about Cape Yerd. On the 
 north it is bounded by the Arabic of Ludamar. 
 
 It is the first true Negro language of the seaside 
 which is met with on the western coast of Africa. 
 The States or kingdoms of Walo, Baol, and Kayor 
 (this last being to the north of the Senegal), are 
 Wolof. Kajaga, or Galam, is partly so. 
 
 A grammar by Dard {Grammaire Ouloff) is our chief 
 authority for its structure ; in which the peculiarity 
 which has attracted most attention is the initial change 
 of the article. It begins with the consonant of the noun 
 to which it belongs ; whatever that consonant may be. 
 
 Such congeners as the Wolof may have had to the 
 north have been swept away by the Arabic of the 
 Moors ; so that on one side, at least, it is an isolated 
 language. Neither are its other affinities either very 
 decided or very numerous ; but, on the contrary, few and 
 miscellaneous. They are greatest, however, with the 
 languages with which it is conterminous. On the west, 
 it is cut off by the ocean. In the direction of Cape 
 Verd it seems to have encroached. 
 
 Q Q 
 
594 
 
 PAPEL, ETC. 
 
 Now comes a group of a miscellaneous, artificial, and 
 provisional character ; consisting of certain true Negro 
 languages spoken between the Wolof and Mandingo 
 areas and the Ocean. 
 
 Padsade is the name of a vocabulary in Kolle, taken 
 from a native of a town called Udadsa three or four 
 days' journey from the sea. 
 
 English. 
 
 Padsade. 
 
 English. 
 
 Padsade. 
 
 Man 
 
 usia 
 
 Ear 
 
 kunofe 
 
 Woman 
 
 udsafe 
 
 Tooth 
 
 manye 
 
 Head 
 
 pofa 
 
 Tongue 
 
 pulema 
 
 Hair 
 
 pasads 
 
 Sun 
 
 pudyade 
 
 Nose 
 
 nyasin 
 
 Fire 
 
 nukus 
 
 Eye 
 
 masa 
 
 Water 
 
 mambea. 
 
 The Biafada, akin to it, is spoken on some, but not 
 on all, of the islands of the Bissago group. 
 
 English. 
 
 Biafada. 
 
 English. 
 
 Biafada. 
 
 Man 
 
 usa 
 
 Ear 
 
 gunufa 
 
 Woman 
 
 unali 
 
 Tooth 
 
 akede 
 
 Head 
 
 buofa 
 
 Tongue 
 
 w'udema 
 
 Hair 
 
 gamboei 
 
 Sun 
 
 wunari 
 
 Nose 
 
 gandzini 
 
 Fire 
 
 furu 
 
 Eye 
 
 agiri 
 
 Water 
 
 mambia. 
 
 The Pap el, a representative of a fresh class, lies to 
 the south of the Cacheo and on one or more of the 
 Bissaofo islands. 
 
 English. 
 
 Papel. 
 
 Kanyop. 
 
 Man 
 
 nyient 
 
 nent 
 
 Wom^n 
 
 nyas 
 
 nat 
 
 Head 
 
 bene 
 
 behen 
 
 Hair 
 
 oyele 
 
 uel 
 
 Nose 
 
 bihl 
 
 bies 
 
 Eye 
 
 pekil 
 
 kikasi, behen 
 
 Ear 
 
 kebars 
 
 kabat 
 
 Tooth 
 
 pinyi 
 
 iromagi 
 
 Tongue 
 
 perempte 
 
 priamd 
 
 Sun 
 Fire 
 
 ono 
 buro 
 
 buno 
 
 Water 
 
 inunsop 
 
 mleg. 
 
THE FELUP, ETC. 
 
 595 
 
 English. 
 
 Sarar. 
 
 Bolar. 
 
 Man 
 
 nyient 
 
 nyendz 
 
 Woman 
 
 nyat 
 
 nyadz 
 
 Head 
 
 bugou 
 
 bukou 
 
 Hair 
 
 wel 
 
 wuel 
 
 Nose 
 
 biz 
 
 biz 
 
 Eye 
 
 pugas 
 
 pekatz 
 
 Ear 
 
 kewat 
 
 kebadz 
 
 Tooth 
 
 punin 
 
 punyi 
 
 Tongue 
 
 pundiamont 
 
 pndemnt 
 
 Sun 
 
 onuar 
 
 onor 
 
 Fire 
 
 budua 
 
 mel 
 
 Water 
 
 budo 
 
 mel. 
 
 The Bulanda, akin to the Papel, &;c., is spoken in a 
 part of the Bissago archipelago and on the continent. 
 
 English. 
 
 Bulanda. 
 
 English. 
 
 Bulanda. 
 
 Man 
 
 nyendz 
 
 Ear 
 
 gelo 
 
 Woman 
 
 gnin 
 
 Tooth 
 
 ksit 
 
 Head 
 
 ko 
 
 Tongue 
 
 demadn 
 
 Hair 
 
 wul 
 
 Sun 
 
 lehn 
 
 Nose 
 
 pfuna 
 
 Fire 
 
 kledsa 
 
 Eye 
 
 fket 
 
 Water 
 
 wede. 
 
 Three populations are named Bago ; one of which 
 — that of the Kalum Bago — speaks a dialect of the 
 Timmani. 
 
 English. 
 
 Timmani. 
 
 Bago. 
 
 Landoma. 
 
 Man 
 Woman 
 
 wanduni • 
 wunibom 
 
 iriquni 
 irani 
 
 oruni 
 orani 
 
 Head 
 Hair 
 
 rabump 
 rafon 
 
 dabomp 
 kofon 
 
 dabump 
 kofon 
 
 Nose 
 Eye 
 
 asot 
 rafor 
 
 tasot 
 dafor 
 
 tasut 
 dafor 
 
 Ear 
 
 Tooth 
 
 Tongue 
 
 Sun 
 
 alens 
 rasek 
 ramez 
 ret 
 
 aranes 
 dasek 
 darner 
 det 
 
 alenas 
 dasik 
 da,inir 
 keten 
 
 Fire 
 Water 
 
 nant 
 mant 
 
 nants 
 namun 
 
 nents 
 damun mants 
 
 The Felups lie along the coast between the Gambia 
 and the Casamanca. 
 
 Q Q 2 
 
596 
 
 English. 
 
 Man 
 
 Woman 
 
 Head 
 
 Hair 
 
 Nose 
 
 Eye 
 
 THE 
 
 FELUP, 
 
 ETC. 
 
 Felup. 
 
 
 
 English. 
 
 aneine 
 
 
 
 Ear 
 
 aseh 
 
 
 
 Tooth 
 
 fokou 
 
 
 
 Tongue 
 
 wal 
 
 
 
 Sun 
 
 enyundo 
 
 
 
 Fire 
 
 gizil 
 
 
 
 Water 
 
 Felup. 
 
 gano 
 
 finin 
 
 furcrop 
 
 bunah 
 
 sambul 
 
 momel. 
 
 Two other languages still stand over for notice ; the 
 I^alu and the Bagnon, spoken on and to the south of 
 the Nunez. Of the Sapi, eo nomine^ we have no 
 specimens. 
 
 English. 
 
 
 Nalu. 
 
 
 Bagnon. 
 
 Man 
 
 
 lamkiele 
 
 
 udigen 
 
 Woman 
 
 lamfai 
 
 
 udikam 
 
 Head 
 
 
 konki 
 
 
 bigof 
 
 Hair 
 
 
 mileou 
 
 
 dsegan 
 
 Nose 
 
 
 miayeni 
 
 
 nyankin 
 
 Eye 
 
 
 nkiet 
 
 
 kegil 
 
 Ear 
 
 
 mineau 
 
 
 kinuf 
 
 Mouth 
 
 
 misole 
 
 
 bure 
 
 Tooth 
 
 
 mfet 
 
 
 harl 
 
 Tongue 
 
 
 milembe 
 
 
 buremudz 
 
 Sun 
 
 
 miyakat 
 
 
 binek 
 
 Eire 
 
 
 met 
 
 
 kuade 
 
 Water 
 
 
 nual 
 
 
 mundu. 
 
 English. 
 
 Wolof. 
 
 Serawulli. 
 
 Mandingo 
 
 Bullom. 
 
 Man 
 
 gor 
 
 yugo 
 
 ke 
 
 nopugan 
 
 Woman 
 
 dzhigen 
 
 yahare 
 
 muso 
 
 noma 
 
 Head 
 
 buob 
 
 yime 
 
 ku 
 
 bol 
 
 Nose 
 
 bokan 
 
 norune 
 
 nu 
 
 umin 
 
 Eye 
 
 bot 
 
 yare 
 
 nya 
 
 llfol 
 
 Ear 
 
 nop 
 
 taro 
 
 tulo 
 
 nui 
 
 Mouth 
 
 gemei 
 
 rake 
 
 da 
 
 nyen 
 
 Tooth 
 
 bei 
 
 kambe 
 
 nyi 
 
 idsan 
 
 Tongue 
 
 lamei 
 
 nene 
 
 ne(i 
 
 limelim 
 
 Sim 
 
 dzhagat 
 
 kiu 
 
 tele 
 
 lepal 
 
 Fire 
 
 sefara 
 
 imbe 
 
 ta 
 
 dyom 
 
 Watei^ 
 
 ndoh 
 
 dsi 
 
 dsi 
 
 mem. 
 
 The system of affinities here is complex. In the 
 Mandingo class the Gbandi, Landoro, and Mendi, appear 
 to lead, through the Kissi, the Timmani, and the Bullom, 
 and through these to the Papel, Felup, Wolof, &;c. 
 
TABLE OF AFFINITIES, ETC. 
 
 597 
 
 The Gbese, Toma, Mano, and Gio lead (as their geo- 
 graphy suggests) to the Kru forms of speech ; these 
 leading to the Inta tongues of the Gold Coast, &c. 
 
 Lastly, the Mandingo Proper points to the Wolof, 
 through the Serawulli. 
 
 If so, the classification is that of the following map, 
 table, or diagram : — 
 
 Wolof- 
 
 Felup 
 
 Serawulli, &c. 
 
 Mandingo 
 
 Susu 
 
 I 
 Mendi 
 
 Kissi 
 
 I I 
 
 Timmani 
 
 I 
 Mano and Gio 
 
 I 
 Kru 
 
 I 
 Inta, &c. 
 
 Of these the Timmani and Wolof, from the con- 
 spicuous character of their initial changes, which, in the 
 latter of the two languages, are well known, have gene- 
 rally been treated as either isolate or South African. 
 
598 
 
 THE HOTTENTOT. 
 
 CHAPTER LXXI 
 
 The Hottentot. 
 
 With the Hottentots, decided philological, coincide with 
 decided anatomical, differences ; though, with each, there 
 has been exaggeration. In the Danimara country the 
 difference between the Hottentot and the Kaffir is at 
 its minimum. 
 
 English. 
 
 Bushman. 
 
 Korana. 
 
 Saldanha Bay. 
 
 Hottentot. 
 
 Man {homo) 
 
 t'kui 
 
 t'kohn 
 
 
 quorque 
 
 (vir) 
 
 t'na 
 
 kouh, kauh 
 
 
 
 Woman 
 
 t'aifi 
 
 chaisas 
 
 ankona 
 
 kyviquis 
 
 Mead 
 
 t'naa 
 
 minuong 
 
 
 biqua 
 
 Eye 
 
 t'saguli 
 
 mumh 
 
 
 mu 
 
 ^ar 
 
 t'no-eingtu 
 
 t'naum 
 
 nabo 
 
 nouw 
 
 Nose 
 
 t'nuhntu 
 
 t'geub 
 
 tui, zakui 
 
 thuke, quoi 
 
 Tongue 
 
 finn 
 
 tamma 
 
 tamme 
 
 tamma 
 
 Hair 
 
 t'uki 
 
 t'oukoa 
 
 
 nuqua-an 
 
 Hand 
 
 t'aa 
 
 t'koam 
 
 onecoa 
 
 orama 
 
 Foot 
 
 t'o6ah 
 
 t'keib 
 
 coap 
 
 itqua, yi 
 
 SJcy 
 
 t'gachuh 
 
 
 
 homma 
 
 
 Earth 
 
 t'kanguh 
 
 
 
 bo 
 
 kamkamma 
 
 Hun . 
 
 t'koara 
 
 sorohb 
 
 sore 
 
 sorre 
 
 Moon 
 
 tkaukSruh 
 
 t'kaam 
 
 
 toba 
 
 Fire 
 
 t'jih 
 
 t'aib 
 
 
 ei 
 
 Water 
 
 t'kohaa 
 
 fkamma 
 
 ouata 
 
 kam 
 
 One 
 
 t'koay 
 
 t'koey 
 
 
 q'kui 
 
 Two 
 
 t'kuh 
 
 t'koam 
 
 
 k'kam 
 
 Three 
 
 
 t'norra 
 
 
 k'oune. 
 
 The sound expressed by t' is what is generally known 
 as the Hottentot click. It is said to be found in some 
 of the Bichuana dialects of the Kaffir. 
 
 r^ 
 
THE AFRICAN LANGUAGES IN GENERAL. 599 
 
 Library^ 
 
 Of 
 
 CHAPTER LXXII. 
 
 On the African Languages in general. 
 
 Like Polynesia, Africa is connected with Asia by an 
 isthmus ; a fact which narrows the range of its philolo- 
 gical affinities. 
 
 Like South America, Africa is separated from its 
 nearest continent not only by an isthmus but by a 
 narrow pass of water besides ; a fact which gives two 
 lines of migration — neither of them either implied or 
 excluded by the other. 
 
 In the way of displacement on the frontier between 
 Africa and Asia, the movement has been double. 
 From Arabia there has been an extension northward ; 
 from Tartary and Persia an extension southwards and 
 westwards. Add to this that for the whole of northern 
 Africa we have little but the dialects of the Berber 
 and Arabic, and the great width of the separation of 
 the languages on the outcrop becomes evident ; for, 
 from Nubia and Abyssinia there is little in situ 
 before we reach Caucasus on the one side and the 
 Brahui districts of Persia on the other. Let those, how- 
 ever, who believe that any amount of displacement pro- 
 duces anything like absolute isolation (i. 6. a language 
 without, at least, miscellaneous affinities,) compare, en 
 masse, Beke's Abyssinian and Klaproth's Caucasian vo- 
 cabularies. Should they put down the coincidences to acci- 
 dent, let them compare the vocabularies of either series 
 with something still further apart and they will find a de- 
 
600 THE AFRICAN LANGUAGES 
 
 crease. Whether few or many, coincidences are distri- 
 buted regularly rather than hap-hazard. 
 
 The African and Semitic languages are said to be cha- 
 racterized by a great development of the predicate, the 
 Indo-European by a great development of the copula. 
 This means, so far as it means anything, that whilst 
 certain modes of action, such as the inchoative, fre- 
 quentative, and the like, are predicative ; others, like 
 those involving the ideas of certainty, contingency, and 
 time — those that give us the moods and tenses — are 
 copular. As a matter of fact this is absolutely erro- 
 neous : inasmuch as the copula merely denotes agree- 
 ment or disagreement between the subject and the 
 predicate, having nothing to do with modes of any kind. 
 There are few elementary works upon logic, which fail 
 to tel] us this. All, then, that can be said concerning 
 the difference between a form giving a tense or mood, 
 and a form giving an inchoative or a causative verb, 
 is that, though they are both modes, they are modes 
 belonging to different divisions of the genus ; and this 
 the grammarian well knows, or, not knowing, acts upon 
 it unconsciously ; making words like now and then 
 adverbs, whilst he makes words like frequently, often, 
 &;c., no more — the one adverbs of time, the other of 
 manner. Whether he be consistent in drawing so broad 
 a distinction between ^^rnood and tense (vocavi and vo- 
 carem) on one side, and simple mode, &c. (yocito), on 
 the other, is a different question. 
 
 The expression, then, is exceptionable. How stands 
 the fact it is meant to convey ? As far as it goes it is 
 real. It is, however, anything but the fact in its integ- 
 rity. The dictum applies to other languages besides the 
 African : indeed, to all in an early stage of their de- 
 velopment. In other words, forms like vocito, fee, origi- 
 nate earlier than forms like vocavi, vocem. 
 
 Upon the African character here given to the so- 
 called Semitic languages, I should find it necessary to 
 
IN GENERAL. 601 
 
 enlarge had there been any definite criticism applied to 
 the question. However, what with mixing up ethno- 
 logy with philology and looking out for Indo-European 
 affinities in grammar because the Jews and Arabs are 
 liker to Europeans than to Negroes ; what with treating 
 an order consisting of a single genus as a large 
 family or sub-kingdom ; what with the fanciful dicho- 
 tomy between the Semitic and the Hamitic — what with 
 these and similar elements of confusion, the main facts, 
 (viz. those found in the actual examination of the African 
 languages themselves) have been omitted ; the researches 
 upon the Berber and Coptic being exceptions. Out of 
 these has come the term iS^u^-semitic ; a term which tells 
 its own story. More than this — philologues, like Newman 
 and others, have recognized beyond the pale of the Berber 
 (or Amazig) Berber (or Amazig) affinities ; the Hawsa 
 and other languages being what they might (but do not) 
 call Sub-amazig, or Sub-coptic ; affinities which, in- 
 directly, extend the Semitic class Still, unless I read 
 them wrongly, all these observations, however true, seem 
 to be run one way only, i. e. they make the Hawsa, the 
 Galla, and their congeners, Asiatic, rather than the 
 Arabic, &c., African. 
 
 Yet the system of initial changes with the conso- 
 nants and of medial changes with the vowels — characters 
 which have always been held Semitic — is far commoner 
 in Africa than it is in Asia, and far more characte- 
 ristic of many African languages than it is of any 
 Asiatic ones. 
 
 Something of the same kind of single-sightedneps 
 appears in the criticism upon the Kaffir cliaracteri sties. 
 They have been found far beyond the Kaffir area. But 
 the effect has been to get the Fanti, tlie Grebo, and 
 other languages, called South, rather than to get the 
 Kaffir called JS^orth, African. 
 
 The Semitic and the Kaffir (laying aside the Hot- 
 tentot) are the two classes for which the lines of demar- 
 cation have been the strongest. They are, also, those 
 
602 THE AFRICAN LANGUAGES 
 
 which I confidently predict that further inquiry will, 
 more especially, break down. Kespecting the other 
 groups, it need only be added that Africa is the land 
 which, above all others, requires us to classify by type 
 rather than definition ; and that, where the divisions are 
 the clearest, and the isolation the greatest, the evidence of 
 encroachment and obliteration is, sometimes, historical 
 as well as inferential. It is pre-eminently historical 
 with the Fula. It is a most legitimate inference with 
 the Hottentot. It is historical with the Galla. It is a 
 legitimate influence with the Berber. 
 
 On the direction in which the languages of the 
 larger groups seems to have extended themselves I 
 have but little to suggest. The uniformity of speech, 
 primd facie evidence in favour of recent diffusion, 
 seems to point in the great Galla class to the Danakil 
 area as the starting-point. The Berber has, apparently, 
 moved from east to west ; the Fula from the 
 high regions between the Senegal and Gambia. The 
 Hottentot, probably, has its nearest congeners to the 
 north of the great Kaffir area ; but where does this 
 end ? The Semitic dialects are, perhaps, Abyssinian in 
 origin. 
 
 The phenomena of distribution are those of Asia and 
 America, giving large groups, like the Berber and Kaffir, 
 in contrast with moderate, though rarely with excessively 
 small, ones. The difficulty, however, in the present state 
 of our knowledge, of saying where the dialect ends and 
 where the language begins prevents us from generalizing 
 here. 
 
 The range of type, as well as the multiplicity of 
 types, is greater in Africa than elsewhere ; by which I 
 mean that, if we look to single characters alone, there 
 are more languages in Africa which exhibit strong 
 single characteristics, than there are in Asia, America, 
 or Europe. Of the internal changes of the Semitic, 
 and of the alliterations and prefixes of the Kaffir, 
 languages, notice has already been taken. The Man- 
 
IN GENERAL. 603 
 
 dingo, as far as it is known, is distinguished by the 
 want of them ; whilst the Timmani and Wolof exhibit 
 them. The Coptic has long been recognized as pre- 
 eminently agglutinate. The Galla and Kanuri run 
 strongly on ^^os^-fixes rather than ^re-fixes. The Yoruba 
 has been called monosyllabic — which it may be in the 
 way that some American languages are, i. e. sporadi- 
 cally. 
 
 In respect to the value of the classes, the Semitic and 
 Berber, on one side, and the Kaffir on the other, may, 
 each, be held as equivalent to all the others put together. 
 Of the languages between the Mobba and Yoruba 
 districts (both inclusive) the affinities are obscure 
 from the linear character of the district they cover. 
 To the south lies a terra incognita ; to the north the 
 intrusive Amazig. Hence, they have, as a general 
 rule, possible (to say nothing of actual) congeners 
 on their sides only, and, at the extremities of the 
 range, only on one side. 
 
 In considering their stage of development we must 
 criticize the African languages from some average series of 
 examples rather than from either of their extremes, such 
 as the Semitic languages on one side, and the Hottentot 
 on the other. Those of central Africa, the Hawsa and 
 Kanuri for instance, are fair ones to go by. They are, 
 undoubtedly, on a higher level than the Polynesian, the 
 Kelanonesian, and the American. They are this, at 
 least, in the greater development of their numeral 
 system, and, apparently, in many other details besides. 
 No wonder. Great contact with the civilization of 
 Europe and South-western Asia has given this as its 
 result ; in other words, new wants, new ideas, and an 
 enlarged experience have played their part in Africa as 
 elsewhere. In favour of any inherent superiority or in- 
 feriority of the African family Afi^ican philology supplies 
 no argument. The common-sense doctrine that the 
 development of language follows the development of 
 civilization, and that the development of civihzation is 
 
604; THE AFRICAN LANGUAGES IN GENERAL. 
 
 determined by the points of contact between different 
 populations of different habitudes, is the true rule in all 
 these matters. 
 
 Blood and language, upon a whole, coincide but 
 slightly. In Northern Africa the difference is pre-emi- 
 nently great. The Arab blood of the millions who speak 
 Arabic is at a minimwm. With the Berber this is 
 largely, though to a less degree, the case. The Kaffir, 
 too, must have encroached inordinately on the language 
 represented by the Hottentot. Again, the Galla, the 
 Mandingo, and the Fala are all encroaching languages. 
 Lastly, with Africa as the land, wherein, of all others, 
 slavery has been chronic, the intermixture, on that score 
 only, must be great. 
 
 Of the numerous grammatical processes which 
 (though found sporadically, in their fragments, or in 
 their rudiments,) are, nevertheless, found in certain 
 areas with a greater development than elsewhere, 
 Africa is the country wherein three attain inordinate 
 prominence, viz : (1 .) internal change of vowels and 
 accents which goes to the extent of altering even the 
 syllables of the words in which they occur ; (2.) the 
 system of initial consonantal changes ; and (3.) the 
 system of prefixes. The first of these is Semitic, 
 but not exclusively so. The second is Kaffir, Wolof, 
 and much else besides. The third is chiefly Kaffir ; 
 but is found elsewhere. On the habit of the Galla 
 and Kanuri to prefer post-fixes to prefixes I lay 
 but little stress. The whole class is, in the main, 
 agglutinate ; but I lay little stress on this. With the 
 exception of the languages of South-eastern Asia, repre- 
 sented by the Chinese on one side, and languages like 
 the Greek, Latin, Sarmatian, and German on the other, 
 agglutination is the rule rather than the exception all 
 the world over. 
 
 ^ 
 
SKIPITAR OR ALBANIAN. GO 5 
 
 CHAPTER LXXIII. 
 
 The Indo-European languages (so-called).— 'The Skipitar, Arnaut, or 
 Albanian, 
 
 The class which now comes under notice contains as 
 primary groups — (1.) the Skipitar ; (2.) the Sarmatian ; 
 (3.) the Latin and Greek ; (4.) the German ; (5.) the 
 Keltic ; — the Sarmatian containing the Lithuanic, the 
 Slavonic, and the Sanskrit. 
 
 It is submitted that the Keltic division is of the 
 ordinal value of all the others put together ; the Skipitar 
 of the ordinal value of the rest of the section ; the 
 German of the value of the Sarmatian and Latin and 
 (or) Greek. 
 
 Oceanica, America, and Africa, touched Asia by either 
 narrow isthmuses or a strait between two (comparative) 
 points ; a kind of contact which defined the lines of 
 their affinities. Europe touches Asia along the whole 
 long stretch of the Uralian range, not to mention the 
 minor points of approximation at the Hellespont and the 
 Crimean Bosphorus. Hence the lines of affinity may 
 vary, i. e. there may be one for the north, one for the 
 centre, one for the south. This, however, creates no 
 difficulty. Omitting the fact of the XJgrian tongues 
 being, to a great extent, European, the displace- 
 ments effected by the Russian and Turk have so tho- 
 roughly obliterated everything that could ever have 
 been transitional, that the line of demarcation between 
 
606 SKIPITAR OR ALBANIAN. 
 
 our present class and our second is both broad and defi- 
 nite. 
 
 The encroachments and obliterations have been great. 
 They, also, began early. The Herodotean Scythians, or 
 Skoloti, show this for a part of the area. But it may 
 also be inferred, for the remainder, by a consideration of 
 the condition of x'^ sia Minor at the beginning of the his- 
 torical period. Over the whole of that peninsula the 
 presumptions are in favour of a form of speech akin 
 to the most southern and western of the Dioscurian 
 group having been originally spoken. Still, there was 
 intrusion, upon even this, by the languages of Persia, of 
 Tartary, of Greece, and of the Semitic area. Nor was 
 it one-sided. There is a fair amount of evidence in 
 fixvour of Europe having projected itself eastward as 
 well as of Asia having projected itself westward. 
 
 If we took the whole frontage between the two con- 
 tinents a case might be made out in favour of the 
 nearest congeners of the most western of the Asiatic 
 languages having been either Slavonic or Lithuanic ; and, 
 if we took up our line at the end of the notice of the 
 Mordvins, such might be really the case. The Lithuanic 
 and Slavonic, however, have such undoubted European 
 affinities that, even if the conditions were equal, the lan- 
 guage with which we now begin is the fit one. 
 
 This is the Shiintar, Epirot, Arnaut, or Albanian of 
 Albania, with a harsh phonesis, and with {inter alia) a 
 post-positional article. It was the language of the ancient 
 Illyrians (in the Greek sense of the word) ; perhaps the 
 language of the bulk of the Macedonians ; a language, 
 perhaps, of the whole of ancient Greece ; and a language 
 which was almost certainly spoken far to the north, 
 the east, and the north-east of its present frontiers ; in 
 other words, it is a language which has receded. 
 
 It falls into two main divisions, the Tosk and the 
 Gheg : is spoken beyond the boundaries of Albania, in 
 Greece, in Calabria, and in Sicily, doubtless with varia- 
 
 ^ 
 
SKIPITAR OR ALBANIAN. G07 
 
 tions in tlie way of dialect which have yet to be studied 
 in detail. It is written by means of the Greek alphabet 
 adapted to the Skipitar phonesis. Such, at least, is the 
 common practice. There is, however, a second set of letters 
 restricted to the town of Elbassan ; which, is, apparently, 
 more of a cipher than a true alphabet. Hahn considers 
 that it is of great antiquity ; possibly running back into 
 the times when the spelling on the coasts of the Adriatic 
 was Phenician rather than ordinary Greek. In my own 
 mind it is founded on the Glagolitic. The national 
 songs of the Albanians are numerous ; and one poet, 
 at least, has written classically, i. e. as a man with an 
 artificially cultivated taste and after Turkish and (at 
 second-hand) Persian models. 
 
 Of the two main dialects it is the Ghegh which lies 
 on the northern, or Slavonic, the Toski which touches the 
 southern, or Greek, frontier ; the valley of the Skumbi, or 
 Stirnatza, between Berat and Elbassan, being (there or 
 thereabouts) tlie division between the two. In the 
 Ghegh district the Mirdites are Roman Catholics. Of 
 the Tosks, the Lyapid and Tshamid tribes are sub-divi- 
 sions ; among which are numerous Christians of the 
 Greek Church. The mass, however, of the Skipitar are 
 Mahometans ; though the use of the Arabic alphabet is 
 at a minimum. 
 
uOS 
 
 THE SANSKRIT. 
 
 CHAiPTER LXXIV. 
 
 The Sanskrit. — Persepolitan.— Pracrit, — Pali. — Kawi. — Zend, 
 
 The Sanskrit is the old literary language of India. 
 Indian, however, as it is in respect to the country in 
 which it was cultivated, the following short tables are 
 amply sufficient to prove that its nearest congeners are 
 the Sarmatian, the Classical, and, to a great extent, the 
 German tongues of Europe. 
 
 They give a selection from its inflections — a selection. 
 This means that those only are taken which, in form and 
 name, run on all fours with either the Latin and 
 Greek or the Lithuanic. By taking the Slavonic, or 
 even the German, a similar result would have been 
 obtained. 
 
 The Latin and Lithuanic best illustrate the substan- 
 tives and pronouns ; the Greek (with special reference 
 to the conjugation in -fii) the verbs. 
 
 
 Singular 
 
 
 Plural 
 
 
 
 Sanskrit. 
 
 Latin. 
 
 Sanskrit. 
 
 Latin. 
 
 Nominative 
 
 agnis 
 
 ignis 
 
 agnayas 
 
 ignes 
 
 Genitive 
 
 agnes 
 
 ignis 
 
 agninam 
 
 ignium 
 
 Dative 
 
 agnaye 
 
 igni 
 
 agnibhyas 
 
 ignibus 
 
 A ccusative 
 
 agnim 
 
 ignem 
 
 agnln 
 
 ignes. 
 
 Nominative 
 
 pitd 
 
 pater 
 
 pitaras 
 
 patres 
 
 Genitive 
 
 pitus 
 
 patris 
 
 pitrinam 
 
 patrura 
 
 Dative 
 
 pitre 
 
 patri 
 
 pitribhyas 
 
 patribus 
 
 Accusative 
 
 pitaram 
 
 patrem 
 
 pitrin 
 
 patres 
 
 Nominative 
 
 naus 
 
 navis 
 
 navas 
 
 naves 
 
 Genitive 
 
 navas 
 
 navis 
 
 navam 
 
 navium 
 
 Dative 
 
 nave 
 
 navi 
 
 naubhyas 
 
 navibus 
 
 Accusative 
 
 n^vam 
 
 navem 
 
 ndvas 
 
 naves. 
 
THE SANSKRIT. 
 
 609 
 
 Sanskrit. Latin 
 
 Litlmanic. 
 
 
 Sanskrit. La.tin. Lit 
 
 Nominative aham ego 
 
 asz 
 
 
 twam 
 
 tn 
 
 Genitive mama mei 
 
 mano 
 
 
 tava 
 
 tui 
 
 Dative mahyam mihi 
 
 manim 
 
 
 tubhyam tibi 
 
 A ccusative mam me 
 
 mane 
 
 
 twam 
 
 te 
 
 He. 
 
 
 She. 
 
 Sanslsrit. 
 
 Litlmanic. 
 
 Sanskrit. 
 
 Lithuanic. 
 
 Nominative sas 
 
 szis 
 
 sa 
 
 szi 
 
 Genitive tasya 
 
 
 tasyas 
 
 tos 
 
 Dative tasmai 
 
 tamui 
 
 tasyai 
 
 
 A cciisative tarn 
 
 ta 
 
 tarn 
 
 ta 
 
 Ablative tasmat 
 
 
 tasyas 
 
 tas 
 
 Locative tasmin 
 
 
 tasyam 
 
 — . — . 
 
 Instrumental tena 
 
 tumi 
 
 taya 
 
 ta. 
 
 They (Masculine). 
 
 They(i 
 tas 
 
 feminine). 
 
 Nominative te 
 
 te 
 
 tos 
 
 Genitive tesh^m 
 
 
 
 tas^ra 
 
 
 Dative tebhyas 
 
 temus 
 
 tabhyas 
 
 tomus 
 
 A ccusative tan 
 
 tus 
 
 tas 
 
 tas 
 
 Ablative tebhyas 
 
 
 tabhyas 
 
 
 Locative teshu 
 
 tuse 
 
 tasu 
 
 tose 
 
 Tnstrumental tais 
 
 tais 
 
 tabbis 
 
 tomis. 
 
 Nominative 
 
 yas (qui) 
 
 
 kas (quis) 
 
 Genitive 
 
 yasya ^ 
 
 
 kasya 
 
 Dative 
 
 yasmai 
 
 
 kasmai 
 
 Accusative 
 
 yam 
 
 
 kam 
 
 Ablative 
 
 yasm^.t 
 
 
 kasTTi^t 
 
 Locative 
 
 yasmin 
 
 
 kasmin 
 
 Instrumental 
 
 yena. 
 Creo, <fcc. 
 
 
 kena. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Dual. 
 
 plural. 
 
 1. srijami creo 
 
 srijavas 
 
 sri jamas 
 
 creamus 
 
 2. srijasi creas 
 
 srijathas 
 
 srijatha 
 
 creatis 
 
 3. srijati creat 
 
 srijatas 
 Creem, &c. 
 
 srijanti 
 
 creant. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Dual. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. srijeyam creem 
 
 srijeva 
 
 srijema 
 
 creemus 
 
 2. srijes crees 
 
 srijetham 
 
 sri j eta 
 
 creetis 
 
 3. srijet creet 
 
 srijetam 
 Creavi, d-c. 
 
 srijeyus 
 
 creent. 
 
 Compare loith GreeJc Aoristus Primus — (augmented). 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Dual. 
 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. a-srijam 
 
 a-srijava 
 
 
 a -sri jama 
 
 2. a-srijas 
 
 a-srijatam 
 
 
 a-srijata 
 
 3. a-srijat 
 
 a-srijatam 
 
 
 
 a-srijan. 
 
 tu 
 tavo 
 tavim 
 tave. 
 
 R R 
 
610 
 
 THE SANSKRIT. 
 
 
 Creav 
 
 ,cfcc. 
 
 
 
 [Compare with ri-ru 
 
 fa and mo-mordi. 
 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Dual 
 
 
 Plural. 
 
 
 1. sa-sarja 
 
 sa-srij 
 
 iva 
 
 sa-srijima 
 
 2. sa-sarjifha 
 
 sa-srijathus 
 
 sa-srija 
 
 
 3. sa-sarja 
 
 sa-srijatus 
 
 sa-srijus. 
 
 Sanskrit. Latin, 
 
 Lithuanic. 
 
 Sanskrit. 
 
 Latin. 
 
 Lithuanic. 
 
 1. asmi sum 
 
 esrui 
 
 1. syama 
 
 simus 
 
 
 2. asi €s 
 
 esu 
 
 2. syata 
 
 siiis 
 
 
 3. asti . est 
 
 esi 
 
 3. syus 
 
 slnt 
 
 
 1. smas sumus 
 
 esme 
 
 1. asam 
 
 eram 
 
 
 
 2. stha estis 
 
 este 
 
 2. asis 
 
 eras 
 
 
 3. santi sunt 
 
 
 3. asit 
 
 erat 
 
 
 1. sy^in sim 
 
 
 1. dsma 
 
 eramus 
 
 
 2. syas sis 
 
 
 2. asti 
 
 eratis 
 
 
 3. syat sit 
 
 
 3. asan 
 
 erant 
 
 
 Compare with 
 
 (j)VfjLL conji 
 
 igated as 
 
 a verb in 
 
 -fJ.1. 
 
 1. bhavami fui 
 
 huvao 
 
 1. bhavamas fuimus 
 
 buvoim 
 
 2. bhavasi fuisii luvai 
 
 2. bbavata 
 
 fuistis 
 
 luvote 
 
 3. bhavati fuit 
 
 huvo 
 
 3. bhavanti fuerunt 
 
 
 
 Upon the whole the Lithuanic is the nearest congener 
 of the Sanskrit, and, after it, the old Slavonic ; though, 
 in asserting this, there is a certain amount of assump- 
 tion. It is assumed not only that the Slavonic 
 languages (especially in respect to their verbs) had a 
 fuller inflection than they have now, but that that 
 inflection delivered reduplicates, verbs in -fjn, and 
 (perhaps) augments, which, now, either no longer exist, 
 or exist only in fragments. With the analogies of the 
 Latin and Italian, of the Moesogothic and English, &;c., 
 this is not too much to assume ; indeed, it is what, 
 either consciously or unconsciously, most philologues, 
 when they are constrained to compare one language in 
 a late with another in an early stage, do assume. 
 The present assumption, however, is subject to the 
 criticism of professed Slavonic scholars. 
 
 In the phonesis, especially with reference to the use 
 of the sibilants rather than k or g, the Sanskrit is 
 pre-eminently Slavono-Lithuanic. 
 
THE SANSKRIT. 611 
 
 If this be the case the original situs of the Sanskrit 
 must have been in either approximate or actual contact 
 with that of the Slavono-Lithuanic ; nor is this a matter 
 upon which there is much (if any) difference of opinion. 
 
 The Sanslo-it, however, with its congeners, comes from 
 India ; the Lithuanic, the Slavonic, the Latin, the Greek, 
 and the German, from Europe ; and between the areas 
 of the two groups there is a wide geographical interval. 
 
 Has the Sanskrit reached India from Europe, or have 
 the Lithuanic, the Slavonic, the Latin, the Greek, and 
 the German, reached Europe from India ? If historical 
 evidence be wanting, the a priori presumptions must 
 be considered. 
 
 I submit that history is silent, and that the presump- 
 tions are in favour of the smaller class having been 
 deduced from the area of the larger rather than vice 
 versa. If so, the situs of the Sanskrit is on the 
 eastern, or south-eastern, frontier of the Lithuanic ; and 
 its origin is European. 
 
 As I know of no one else who maintains this hypothe- 
 sis, and as the opposite doctrine of the Asiatic origin of the 
 so-called Indo-European languages is dominant through- 
 out all the realms of philology, I must be allowed to ex- 
 plain what I mean by it. I do not deny the fact, as it is 
 usually stated, as a fact. It may be one in spite of any 
 amount of presumptions against it. If sufficient evi- 
 dence be brought forward in favour of it, I am prepared 
 to take it as it is given ; just as, upon sufficient evidence, 
 I would believe that sixes with the dice might be thrown 
 two, three, four, five, or any number of times running. 
 The fact may be real ; but it is against the chances. 
 To assume it, however, when there is nothing but the 
 chances to go by, is illegitimate. 
 
 I may be wrong, however, in asserting the absolute 
 non-existence of evidence ; in other words, in holding 
 that the presumptions are, really, all we have to go on. 
 Upon this I am open to correction. I can, however, truly 
 
 R R 2 
 
612 THE SANSKRIT. 
 
 say, that, if there be evidence on the matter, T have failed, 
 after a careful search, to find it. What I have found in 
 its stead is a tacit assumption that as the East is the 
 probable quarter in which either the human species, or 
 the greater part of our civilization, originated, every- 
 thing came from it. But surely, in this, there is a con- 
 fusion between the primary diffusion of mankind over 
 the world at large and those secondary movements by 
 which, according to even the. ordinary hypothesis, the 
 Lithuanic &c. came from Asia into Europe. A mile is 
 a mile and a league a league from whichever end it is 
 measured, and it is no further from the Danube to the 
 Indus than it is from the Indus to the Danube. In 
 zoology and botany the species is always deduced from 
 the area of the genus, rather than the genus from the 
 area of the species ; and this is the rule which I go upon 
 here. To the actual fact I do not absolutely commit 
 myself — not, at least, in the present work, which 
 troubles itself more about methods than results. 
 
 The fact of a language being not only projected, so to 
 say, into another region but entirely lost in its own is 
 anything but unique. There is no English in Germany. 
 A better example, however, is found in the Magyar of 
 Hungary ; of which no trace is to be found within 
 some 700 miles of its present area. Yet the Magyar 
 is not twelve hundred years old in Europe. 
 
 As to the a priori presumptions against a language 
 being introduced from Eastern Europe into Western 
 India, they are no greater than those which lie against 
 one being carried from the Jaik to the Danube. No one 
 derives the Fin tongues from Hungary ; though Hun- 
 gary is the country in which more than half the indivi- 
 duals who use a Ugrian language of any kind, dwell. 
 That this is an important fact is clear ; yet it is nothing 
 when compared with the weightier ones connected with 
 its situs. The Magyar stands in contrast with the lan- 
 guages with which it comes in contact. The languages 
 
THE SANSKRIT. 613 
 
 with which it stands in connection are at a distance. 
 Where they are spoken, they form an order. Where 
 the Magyar is spoken it forms a species. 
 
 The relations of the existing languages of India to 
 the Sanskrit have but a slight bearing upon the question. 
 They may, one and all, be her true daughters (though I 
 maintain that none of them are) without the Sanskrit, 
 on that account, being indigenous to the soil. Whether 
 a language introduced from without take sufficient root 
 to retain its identity for a thousand (or ten thousand) 
 years, or merely take root enough to modify the original 
 languages to such an extent as to give them the guise 
 of its own descendants, is a question of degree. 
 
 As slight a bearing upon the question has the anti- 
 quity of the Indian literature. Those (with whom I 
 unwillingly differ) who carry it high, only make the 
 intrusion of the language in which it is embodied so 
 nmch the earlier. 
 
 At the same time these doctrines, as they are com- 
 monly represented, are more for than against the 
 common notion ; in other words, they are not against 
 it at all. As far as they are relevant they are favour- 
 able. Their relevancy, however, is only apparent. 
 
 Treating, then, the Sanskrit in Asia as (with an allow- 
 ance for its difference of antiquity) the Magyar in 
 Hungary or the English in England might be treated, 
 and taking its locality as we find it ; the nature of the 
 memorials in which it has come down to us, along 
 with the question of their date, locality, and authorship, 
 presents itself And here the uncertainty is great. 
 
 The few remains that have either date or place are 
 the best to begin with. 
 
 Of the remains of any language belonging to the 
 same class with the Sanskrit with an approximate 
 date, the earliest are the cuneiform inscriptions deliver- 
 ing the edicts of the kings of Persia, ranging from 
 B.C. 470 to B.C. 370 — there or thereabouts. Of these 
 
61-4 THE SANSKRIT. 
 
 the following specimen is from the tomb of Darius at 
 Naksh-i-Rustam, according to the text and translation 
 of Sir H. Rawlinson : — 
 
 1 Baga wazarka Auramadzd, hya im 
 
 2 am bumim ada, hya awam asm 
 
 3 anam ada, hya martiyam ada, h 
 
 4 ya shyatim ada martiyahya, 
 
 5 hya D^r(a)yavum khsh%athiyam ak 
 
 6 unaush aivam paruwanam khshayath 
 
 7 iyam, aivam paruwanam framata 
 
 8 ram 
 
 The Great God Ormazd, {he it was) who gave this earth, who gave that 
 heaven, who gave mankind, who gave life (?) to mankind, who made Darius 
 King, as well the King of the people, as the lawgiver of the people. 
 
 It is the edicts of the Achseraenian kings which this 
 language more especially embodies. In respect to its 
 structure it is closely akin to the oldest Sanskrit. 
 There is no evidence, however, to it having ever been 
 spoken in India, nor yet in the east of Persia. It is 
 on the Kurd frontier and in Fars that samples of it 
 most abound. It is only in inscriptions in the 
 cuneiform character that it is found. Whether these 
 give us the oldest compositions, in the class of languages 
 to which they belong, is uncertain. Most Sanskrit 
 scholars would say that they do not. It is certain, 
 however, that they are the oldest compositions that bear 
 a date. 
 
 The next in order of time is the language of the 
 Caubul coins, in an alphabet written, like the Semitic 
 ones, from right to left ; the latest of which are (so to 
 say) overlapped by a second series for the same parts in 
 an alphabet (like the Devanagari) written from left to 
 right. The vocabulary they exhibit is, of course, of the 
 scantiest. 
 
 Later than the earliest, but earlier than the latest of 
 the coins, are certain inscriptions bearing the name of 
 Priyadasi. We may call them the Priyadasi Edicts. 
 There are four of them — all with the same text ; the 
 
THE SANSKRIT. 615 
 
 most western of which is the famous Kapar-di-giri 
 inscription from Caubul, the most eastern in Orissa. 
 One in Ceylon is said to exist, but has yet to be dis- 
 covered. 
 
 All these have dates — the coins, that of the kings 
 whose approximate superscription they bear, the Priya- 
 dasi edicts, not only the name of Priyadasi (which would 
 be but little), but that of one of the Antiochi. Hence, 
 roughly speaking, we may refer them to the early part 
 of the dynasty of the Seleucidse. 
 
 After these, there are no definite dates until after the 
 Mahometan conquest. 
 
 The conquerors found a literature in a native lan- 
 guage and a native alphabet — a native literature and a 
 rich one. As such it was, of course, older than their own 
 conquest. How much ? The historical portion of this 
 literature was of the smallest, and in what there was 
 of it there was but a minimum amount of chronology 
 and topography. Everything in this way was, to say 
 the least, indefinite. Still, there were the real dates of 
 the edicts and the coins, and there were certain names 
 in certain Indian works which could be connected with 
 these important landmarks. There was especially the 
 name of Chandragupta, which was identified with the 
 Sandracottus mentioned by Justin, and, though the 
 true dynasty of consecutive Gupta kings with a real 
 historical coinage lived several centuries later, the 
 identification has passed muster, and serves as an 
 instrument of criticism. The process, then, by which 
 approximate dates are found in Sanskrit is to find some 
 one mentioned within or near the historical, or Ma- 
 hometan, period, who is stated to have stood in some 
 relation to some one else, who stood in some relation 
 to some third person, v/ho was a contemporary of 
 .Chandragupta, who was Sandracottus, whose date is 
 known. 
 
 I give this train of argument — the argument which 
 
6J6 THE SANSKRIT. 
 
 rests upon external, as opposed to internal evidence, and 
 which, as such, is historical rather than inferential — 
 as I find it. It has been worked with skill, ingenuity, 
 and learning. The facts, however, which it deals with 
 are of the inconclusive kind here indicated. 
 
 Similarly inconclusive, though obtained by equal 
 learning, ingenuity, and skill, are the results got by 
 inference. In form (or language), in matter, or both, 
 certain systems of literature, philosophy, or religion not 
 only differ from each other but differ as older and 
 newer. As factors in the appreciation of these differences 
 approximate measures of both the differences themselves, 
 and the average rate of change are required ; that of the 
 latter being founded upon a careful induction from the 
 phenomena presented by languages, religions, and philo- 
 sophies during periods of change, over the whole world, 
 sufficiently long and sufficiently diversified to give a 
 constant. Add to this the avoidance of the confusion 
 between changes in consecutive time and concurrent 
 changes (by the neglect of which we may make the 
 present Islandic older in the way of actual date than 
 the Danish of the fifteenth century) and a provisional 
 approximation is the result. That more than this is 
 claimed by almost every Sanskrit scholar is well- 
 known. 
 
 The difference, however, finds no support on the part of 
 the present writer ; who simply admits that in Sanskrit 
 there is something more archaic than something else. 
 
 The term archaic is used with a purpose. It means 
 antiquity ; an ambiguous or equivocal antiquity ; one of 
 two kinds, as the case may be. It may mean antiquity 
 in the way that Chaucer is older than Addison, or it 
 may mean antiquity in the way that the Icelandic news- 
 paper of the present week is older than the Copenhagen 
 Morgenblad of the year 1820. Chronological, serial, 
 or linear, antiquity is one thing ; developmental, dialec- 
 tual, or concurrent antiquity is another. 
 
THE SANSKRIT. 617 
 
 Still the comparative archaism is a fact. Apply it, 
 and — 
 
 The Sanskrit falls into two divisions — 
 
 1. The Vedaic of the Yedas, older in language and 
 matter than — 
 
 2. The Non-vedaic, classical, or ordinary, Sanskrit. 
 This falls into sub-divisions. There is a Sanskrit drama, 
 and, just as in Moliere, certain characters talk Gascon or 
 something else equally provincial and French, so do 
 certain dramatis personce of Asia talk a certain amount 
 of something equally provincial and Indian. These 
 popular dialects are called Pracrits. 
 
 If we call everything that is neither Vedaic nor 
 classical Sanskrit a Pracrit, a language of, at least, 
 equal political importance with the Sanskrit itself, the 
 Pali, is one. 
 
 The Pali is the language of Buddhism ; be it that of 
 the Singalese, of the Burmese, the Siamese, the Mon of 
 Pegu, the Kambogians, the Tibetans, the Mongols, or 
 the Mantshus ; the Sanskrit being the language of Brah- 
 'ininismi. We may call it a Pracrit, if we will, but we 
 can scarcely do so if we attach to the term even the 
 slightest notion of disparagement. 
 
 The alphabet of the Sanskrit — Yedaic and Non- 
 vedaic — is the Devanagari ; no specimen of it being 
 older than the Mahometan conquest. The later Puranas 
 which are truly Sanskritic, are, as far as form goes, later 
 still. Hence, the triple alternative (if the phrase may 
 be used) which was suggested when the Hebrew of the 
 Holy Scriptures was under notice has its application here. 
 It is merely referred to. It is always repeating itself; 
 and it will again have an application when we come to 
 Greece. 
 
 The Sanskrit, as we have it, has a great number of 
 words which re-appear in the existing languages of India. 
 It may be that they are all of Sanskrit origin, and 'all 
 borrowed by the modern tongues. It may, also, be that 
 
618 THE SANSKRIT. 
 
 they are all Indian, taken up into the Sanskrit. Either 
 generalization is exceptionable. Each word must be 
 tried on its own merits. 
 
 The Sanskrit has a series of true aspirates (i. e. aspi- 
 rates like the ph, kh, and th in hap-hazard, ink-horn, 
 and nut-hook, rather than false aspirates like the 2^h and 
 th in Philip and thin) which are wanting in its Euro- 
 pean congeners, but which are common in Tibet and the 
 Himalayas. Did it take these in India, or did its 
 western congeners lose it in Europe ? I cannot say. I 
 can only say that the doctrine that the Sanskrit takes 
 nothing, whilst other languages lose what they may fail 
 to have in common with it, is illegitimate. 
 
 The Sanskrit has a series of cerebral letters common 
 in Southern India but foreign to Europe. To these 
 apply the preceding question. 
 
 The expositors of the Sanskrit language are the Brah- 
 mins. The evidence, however, that they are the descend- 
 ants of the men with whom it was vernacular is defi- 
 cient. They are known to have kept their blood pretty 
 pure for a certain number of centuries. They are, how- 
 ever, presumed to have kept it so for a much longer period, 
 because the documents for which they are repositories 
 enjoin that such should be the case. The importance of 
 this is shown in the question of phonesis. The purity 
 of the source from which the present stream of Sanskrit 
 learning flows has never been shown ; and except under 
 undue assumptions, by which alone the objection may be 
 rebutted, the facts of the phonesis are against it. 
 
 The cultivation of the Sanskrit language is partial. 
 In poetry with compounds after the fashion of the 
 Orphic hymns it is rich. It has a code of laws, and 
 innumerable logographies. The matter of its philoso- 
 phical works has commanded attention which it has not 
 disappointed. Its grammar is a very remarkable phe- 
 nomenon — so remarkable as to have reflected many of its 
 merits on the language. There are approaches to the Ian- 
 
THE SANSKRIT. 619 
 
 guage of common life in the drama. For real common 
 life, however, for history and oratory, it gives us nothing. 
 From what we know of it, it can hardly be realized as 
 a truly vernacular and generally spoken language. 
 
 If this be the case, it has no true vernaculars as its 
 descendants : indeed, it is only known to us as a language 
 of either a few dialects or a few stages, with a purely 
 literary cultivation (and that partial), with an im- 
 perfect claim for being accurately handed down, with a 
 questionable date, and an uncertain locality. 
 
 On the other hand, it gives us a third member to that 
 class of languages which, up to the time at which it be- 
 gan to attract notice, consisted only of the Latin and the 
 Greek, with, perhaps, the addition of the Moeso-Gothic 
 — a class wherein true inflection is at its maximuTn ; 
 this inflection being, in the Sanskrit, exhibited in an 
 independent and native grammar. To this add its great 
 political value as the language of Brahminic India, and 
 the mystery connected with its localization in Asia is en- 
 hanced by its real importance ; which is great, but limited. 
 After a series of exceptions like the preceding, it is 
 needless to add that the writer is (to say the least) 
 adverse to the whole system on which the well-known 
 merits and importance, as currently claimed for the 
 Sanskrit, are based. That the whole tenor of his 
 mental habitudes and aptitudes is against them is saying 
 too much. There is nothing condemned in the preced- 
 ing remarks which he has not, at one time of his life, 
 supported. What they are opposed to are his rules of 
 evidence. The fact may be all that the extreme San- 
 skrit scholars make it, provided the evidence make it so. 
 Upon this, as an advocate (to draw an illustration from 
 the common-sense of the English world at large as 
 shown in the courts of law) he has no authority to 
 speak. The facts lie in the Sanskrit language itself, of 
 which he has no more cognizance than is shown in the 
 foregoing statements. As a judge he has a voice less 
 
620 THE SANSKRIT. 
 
 important still. The knowledge of the facts and the 
 law combined is, a fortiori, beyond him. Still more, ct 
 fortiori (he might say a fortissimo) is the private cog- 
 nizance of any material data which are not vouchsafed 
 to him, in common with the least Sanskrit-minded man 
 in England, by the Sanskrit scholars themselves. His 
 position is simply that (if he may use the word with- 
 out presumption) of an intelligent jury-man, who, 
 knowing that he is no judge, putting a wholesome dis- 
 trust in the barrister, and ignoring anything which he 
 may or may not know aliunde, simply looks to the 
 evidence ; feeling sufficient confidence in himself to trust 
 his judgment in determining whether it bear, or do not 
 bear out, the case. Upon this point, without con- 
 demning it, or (what is the same thing) only condemn- 
 ing it provisionally, he pronounces it insufficient for the 
 present. 
 
 As far as he goes beyond this, and, instead of being 
 satisfied with a merely negative condemnation on the 
 score of insufficiency, ventures upon an approximation 
 in the way of anything positive, he is not afraid of com- 
 mitting himself to the doctrine that, when philologues 
 make the Vedas 3000 and odd years old, and deduce 
 the Latin and its congeners from Asia, they are wrong 
 to, at least, a thousand miles in space, and as many 
 years in time. Of course, with views of this kind, he 
 looks upon the Sanskrit as a language towards which, 
 rather than one from which, we are to argue. We are 
 to end, rather than begin, with it. 
 
 The last congener of the Sanskrit is the Zend, or 
 the language of the Parsi Scriptures. It is written in 
 the alphabet of the Sassanian inscriptions in a cursive 
 form, and with the addition of the Sanskrit system of 
 vowels. It was discovered in the last century by 
 DAnquetil Perron, among the Parsis of Bombay. Older 
 in form than the Huzvaresh and Parsi, and more decidedly 
 akin to the Sanskrit, it is written in a newer alphabet. 
 
THE SANSKRIT. 
 
 621 
 
 and it was discovered in the eleventh hour, and in India. 
 The notion of its being anything but a genuine lan- 
 guage (whatever might have been the case in the last 
 century) finds, at present, but few supporters. 
 
 Perhaps, however, certain loose generalizations, con- 
 cerning what is called the impossibility of forging a lan- 
 guage have had much to do with the opinions which are 
 favourable to its antiquity. Fictitious languages, how- 
 ever, are entirely questions of more or less ; in which the 
 nature of the subject, the skill of the forger, and the 
 acumen of the critics are the factors — just as they are 
 in any other forgery. This, however, is merely a sug- 
 gestion. I put a courteous, and otiose belief in the 
 teaching of the special Zend scholars ; though I know 
 of no one amongst them who has fairly met the difficulties 
 involved in the contrast between the ^7i^e-Sassanian 
 structure of the language and Pos^^Sassanian character 
 of the alphabet, combined with the fact of the additions 
 to the alphabet being, like the differentiae of the lan- 
 guage, Sanskrit from a Sanskrit locality. 
 
 In the following table the Kawi is the sacred lan- 
 guage of Java, which, according to some, is Sanskrit 
 with a mass of Javanese incorporated ; according to 
 others, Javanese with so much Sanskrit superadded. 
 
 English. 
 
 Sanskrit. 
 
 Pali. 
 
 Kawi. 
 
 Man 
 
 nianusha 
 
 manut 
 
 manusa 
 
 
 jana 
 
 
 jana 
 
 
 purdsha 
 
 burutsa 
 
 purusia 
 
 Woman 
 
 stri 
 
 itthi 
 
 istri 
 
 
 varangani 
 
 
 warraggana 
 
 Head 
 
 siras 
 
 siro 
 
 
 
 '' mastaka 
 
 ket 
 
 mastaka 
 
 Eye 
 
 netra 
 
 . net 
 
 sotia 
 
 
 akshi 
 
 akkhi 
 
 
 Nose 
 
 nasa 
 
 nasa 
 
 
 
 glirana 
 
 
 grana 
 
 Mouth 
 
 mukham 
 
 mukham 
 
 
 Hair 
 
 kesa 
 
 kesa 
 
 kesa 
 
 TeetJi 
 
 danta 
 
 danto 
 
 danti 
 
 Tongue 
 
 jivha 
 
 jivha 
 
 
622 
 
 THE SANSKRIT. 
 
 English. 
 
 Sanskrit. 
 
 
 
 Pali. 
 
 Kawi. 
 
 Belly 
 
 garbha 
 
 
 
 
 gerba 
 
 
 udara 
 
 
 
 tithon 
 
 
 Hand 
 
 hasta 
 
 
 
 hat-tho 
 
 asta 
 
 Foot 
 
 pada 
 
 
 
 pado 
 
 pada 
 
 Blood 
 
 lohitam 
 
 
 
 lohitam 
 
 
 
 
 raktam 
 
 
 
 
 rap 
 
 
 sonita 
 
 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 rudhira 
 
 
 
 
 ludira 
 
 Day 
 
 dinam 
 
 
 
 
 dinam 
 
 
 divasa 
 
 
 
 
 raera 
 
 Night 
 
 ratri 
 
 
 
 ratti 
 
 ratri 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 kulam 
 
 Sun 
 
 surya 
 
 
 
 suriyo 
 
 suria 
 
 
 prabahkara 
 
 
 
 prabang-kara 
 
 
 Mitya 
 
 
 
 athit 
 
 raditia 
 
 Moon 
 
 Chandra 
 
 
 
 pera-chang chandra 
 
 
 sitangsu 
 
 
 
 
 
 sitangsu 
 
 Star 
 
 tara 
 
 
 
 dara 
 
 tara 
 
 Fire 
 
 agni 
 
 
 
 ak-khi 
 
 agni 
 
 Water 
 
 jala 
 
 
 
 khonkha 
 
 jalanioli 
 
 Stone 
 
 apa 
 
 sila 
 
 
 
 sinla 
 
 sela. 
 
 The following 
 
 ■ is Sanskrit from a 
 
 Chinese grammar 
 
 English. 
 
 
 Chinese. 
 
 
 Sanskrit. 
 
 He is 
 
 
 po' 
 
 -po-ti 
 
 
 bhavati 
 
 They two are 
 
 
 po' 
 
 -po-pa 
 
 
 bhavapa 
 
 They are 
 
 
 po' 
 
 -fan-ti 
 
 
 bhavanti 
 
 Thou art 
 
 
 po' 
 
 -po-ss€ 
 
 
 bhavasi 
 
 You two are 
 
 
 po' 
 
 -po-po 
 
 
 bhavapa 
 
 You are 
 
 
 po' 
 
 -po-ta 
 
 
 bhavatha 
 
 I am 
 
 
 po' 
 
 -po-mi 
 
 
 bhavami 
 
 We two are 
 
 
 po' 
 
 -po-hoa 
 
 bhavavak 
 
 We are 
 
 
 po' 
 
 -po-mo 
 
 bhavamah 
 
 Man 
 
 
 pu- 
 
 ■lu-sha 
 
 
 purushah 
 
 Two men 
 
 
 pu- 
 
 lu-shao 
 
 purushau 
 
 Men 
 
 
 pu- 
 
 •lu-shaso 
 
 purushas 
 
 Of a man 
 
 
 pu- 
 
 ■lu-sha-tsie 
 
 * purushasya 
 
 Of two men 
 
 
 pu- 
 
 -lu-sba 
 
 -pien 
 
 purushabhyara 
 
 Of men 
 
 
 pu 
 
 -lu-sha 
 
 -nan 
 
 purush^nam. 
 
 It is called Sanskrit rather than Pali from having a 
 dual number. 
 
THE LITHUANIC CLASS. 623 
 
 CHAPTER LXXY. 
 
 The Lithuanic Division of the Sarmatian Class. — The Lett, Lithuanian, and 
 
 Prussian. 
 
 LiTHUANic means the languages of the group at large; 
 Lithuanian the Lithuanian Proper or the Lithuanian of 
 Lithuania. 
 
 The Lithuania falls into three branches : (1 .) the Li- 
 thuanian Proper, (2.) the Lett, (3.) the Prussian, or (as 
 the language has been extinct for nearly three centui'ies) 
 the Old Prussian. 
 
 The Lett is spoken in Estonia, Livonia, and ClirlancI, 
 as well as in some of the neighbouring Governments ; 
 the Lithuanian in Grodno, Vilna, and Kovno, and parts 
 of East Prussia. The Prussian is known only through 
 some Paternosters and a catechism of the sixteenth cen- 
 tury. 
 
 The chief locality for the chief dialect of the Lithu- 
 anic is Samogitia. 
 
 Encroached upon by the Russian, the German, the 
 Polish, and (perhaps) even the Estonian, the Lithuanian 
 (with all its high philological importance) is a broken and 
 fragmentary language, with only one author who has 
 any pretension to the rank of even a minor classic ; but 
 with a large mass of simple popular poetry, little of 
 which is older, in the way of language, than the date of 
 the first collection. This was made A.D. 1 745. Hence, 
 there are no stages in the Lithuanian languages, a cir- 
 cumstance which largely subtracts from their value as a 
 
624 THE LITHUANIC CLASS. 
 
 philological study — which in other respects (especially 
 from the affinities between the Lithuanic and the Sans- 
 krit, not to mention others with the Latin and the 
 Greek) is of the highest. Nor does it make up for this 
 want of lineal history through either its local dialects or 
 through its congeners, the Lett and the Prussian. I have 
 met with the statement that the former of these stands 
 in the same relation to the Lithuanian that the Italian 
 does to the Latin — a statement of mischievous inac- 
 cm-acy. In some points the Lett forms are the older, 
 and throughout the languages the difference of develop- 
 ment is but slight. The same applies to the Prussian : 
 which is often called the Old Prussian ; and, if we only 
 compare the modern Brandenburghers with the ancient 
 Lithuanians, the prefix is a good one. But it is of 
 doubtful fitness if Ave look to the structure of the lan- 
 guage. In some points the Prussian is really the Li- 
 thuanic with certain old forms ; but in others it is a 
 younger and more advanced language. It has a definite 
 article, which the other Lithuanian languages, as well as 
 their Slavonic congeners, want — an article which has 
 grown, like the article in Greek, out of the demonstra- 
 tive pronoun. 
 
 One language of the Lithuanic class is extinct ; the 
 population by w4iich it was spoken having been perma- 
 nently broken-up as early as the thirteenth century. 
 This bore the name of Jaczwing (YatsJiving), Jatwag, 
 or something similar — according as the spelling of it was 
 Polish, Russian, German, or Latin. 
 
 All that remains of this language is a few proper 
 names. The external evidence, however, to its having 
 been Lithuanic is sufficient. 
 
 The Lithuanian is written in Roman letters ; and in 
 an orthography for which tlie Polish has served as a basis. 
 Unlike most other languages it ignores the principle by 
 which an Englishman, in order to show that the preced- 
 ing vowel is short, repeats the consonant which follows 
 
 ^f^' 
 
THE LITHUANIC CLASS. 625 
 
 (as in 'pitted, flitting, &lq.), and has no double letters. 
 It has, on the other hand, an over-abundance of dia- 
 critical marks in the way of accents, superfixes, and 
 suffixes. One of these represents a sound which no 
 longer exists, but which must have existed when the 
 modification was first resorted to. The signs of a and g, 
 originally represented nasals. At present, they are 
 sounded as the ordinary e and a. A change, then, of 
 some importance in the phonesis has taken place since 
 the language was first reduced to writing. 
 
 The Lithuanic, as a language, is full of interesting 
 points ; though it may easily be imagined that its affini- 
 ties with the Sanskrit have commanded almost exclu- 
 sive attention. Its affinities with the Latin and Greek 
 showing themselves every now and then, in unexpected 
 words, are also remarkable. 
 
 It has an approximation to the post-positive article, 
 i. e. it has a definite inflection of the adjective formed 
 by the incorporation, as an affix, of the demonstrative 
 pronoun. Thus geixcs = good, geramzzto good, geroin 
 of good ; whilst the good, to the good, and of the good 
 are gerasis, geramjam, gerojo, the pronoun being jis, 
 jam, and jo. On the other hand, except in the 
 Prussian, there is no definite article, eo nomine, at all. 
 
 With a language so fragmentary as the one before us, 
 everything connected with the question of its original 
 diffusion is of value ; and one of the points thus in- 
 vested with interest is this same approximate post- 
 position of the article. The four languages in Europe 
 where it is most conspicuous, are the Rumanyo, the Norse, 
 the Bulgarian, and the Albanian. That the Albanian lies 
 both too far south, and too much in situ to belong to an 
 area originally Lithuanic is denied by no one. That the 
 language of the Dacians, before the Roman conquest, 
 was Lithuanic, is held by many, and that on pre-emi- 
 nently good grounds ; its relations to the Scandinavian 
 being more doubtful. Elsewhere the present writer has 
 
 S S 
 
626 THE LITHUANIC CLASS. 
 
 given reasons for holding that before Scandinavia became 
 German it was, to a great extent, Prussian or Lithuanic 
 — in other words, he has given reasons for transferring 
 a great many of the conquests of the Goths, usually 
 given to the Germans, to the Lithuanians ; who he 
 holds were, at one and the same time, the Gothini 
 of the Marcomannic frontier and the Gothones of the 
 Amber coast ; their area being, then, continuous — i. e. 
 extended from the most southern point of their present 
 occupancy in Grodno to Gallicia. If so, of the two 
 languages mentioned by Tacitus, one as Gallica, the 
 other as Britannicce proprior, the former was Galician, 
 the latter Prussian (Pruthenian) ; or, as the informants of 
 Tacitus (who, on other grounds, seem to have been 
 Germans) would have called it, Pryttisc. 
 
 At present the coincidence between the blood and the 
 language in Lithuania is only partial. The Letts, at 
 least, have encroached on the Fins. 
 
 The Lithuanic area, then, originally lay south- 
 wards ; its direction being from south to north ; the 
 south being the quarter in which it has, itself, been 
 the most displaced. 
 
 The Lithuanic area lies east of the Slavonic. This is 
 noted because its present relations to the Russian and 
 the German conceal the true character of its early situs. 
 The German touches it in the Baltic provinces : the 
 Russian stretches far beyond it into Asia. Both, how- 
 ever, have spread within the historical period. Mean- 
 while, on the Polish frontier there is an approach to the 
 original relations ; whilst, of all the Sarmatian languages, 
 it is the Lithuanic which is in the fullest contact with 
 the Fin. 
 
THE SLAVONIC LANGUAGES. 627 
 
 CHAPTER LXXVI. 
 
 The Slavonic Division of the Sannatian Class. — The Russian, Servian, and 
 lUyrian. — The Slovak, Tshek, Lusatian, and Polish. — The Kassub and 
 Linonian. 
 
 The most eastern, and, by extension, the most northern 
 member of the Slavonic division of the Sarmatian class, 
 the Russian, is spoken from Galicia to Kamtskatka, 
 with a minimum amount of variation ; the reason for 
 this lying in the recency of its diffusion. In the older 
 portions of its area, however, there is the distinction 
 between the Little Russian of Galicia and the Ukraine, 
 and the Gi^eat Russian of Muscovy. This latter, again, 
 falls into subdivisions, of no great value, except so far 
 as they supply information concerning those populations 
 of Ugrian origin whose mother-tongue was displaced by 
 the Russian — for in Russia the coincidence between the 
 blood and the language is, by no means, close. In 
 Archangel a,nd Olonets the Fin words are (I believe) 
 more numerous than elsewhere ; and, then, in the Sus- 
 dalian dialect to the east of Moscow. In Kursk they 
 would probably be found if looked for ; and a fortiori^ 
 in the districts further east. In the White Russian of 
 Smolensko and the Black Russian of Grodno Lithuanian 
 elements may be expected. With the exception, how- 
 ever, of the Malo-Russian, Ruthenian, Russinian, Rusniak, 
 or Little Russian, rich in national songs, none of the 
 dialects of Russia have commanded much attention. 
 From its nearest congener, the Servian, the Russian 
 
 s s 2 
 
628 THE SLAVONIC LANGUAGES. 
 
 is separated by the Wallachian — the Servian, like the 
 Malo-Russian, rich in national songs, being the chief 
 representative round which we may group the Bosnian 
 (spoken by a Mahometan population, and, perhaps, 
 w^ritten in the Arabic alphabet) ; the Herzegovinian ; the 
 Montenegrin (where h is used, in the place of g) ; the 
 Croatian ; and the Slavonian Proper of that part of 
 Hungary so-called. 
 
 The alphabet of the Servian and Russian is that of 
 the old Slavonic translation of the Scriptures, attributed 
 to the missionaries Methodius and Cyrill. Its basis is 
 the Greek. 
 
 The exact dialect which the old Slavonic represents is 
 doubtful. 
 
 A priori, and upon geographical grounds, the Bul- 
 garian has the best claims. The Old Slavonic wants, 
 however, the chief Bulgarian characters ; a fact which 
 transfers the claim to the Russian or the Servian. Con- 
 sidering, however, the great displacement that has taken 
 place in these parts, it may easily be the descendant of 
 some division or sub-division now extinct. 
 
 The Illyrian or Slovenian of Carinthia and Carniola, 
 closely akin to the western dialects of the Servian 
 group, is the language of the Roman rather than the 
 Greek, church, and is written in Roman characters rather 
 than in an alphabet of Greek origin. I can give no 
 account of its dialects, nor of the links which connect it, 
 with the Croatian and Dalmatian into which it probably 
 graduates. One of these was originally written in an 
 alphabet akin to the Old Slavonic and called the Glago- 
 litic. 
 
 In the northern and north-western counties of Hungary, 
 separated from the Poles and Rusniaks of Gallicia by 
 the Carpathians, and from Croatia, fee, by the intru- 
 sive Magyar, the Slovak, with a minimura amount of 
 literary culture, is spoken — the language of Moravia or 
 Bohemia being preached. Into the Moravian it, probably, 
 
THE SLAVONIC LANGUAGES. 629 
 
 graduates ; the details of the Moravian dialects being un- 
 known. The common Moldavian language differs from 
 the Bohemian in little except name ; the native name 
 for the Bohemian being Tshek. 
 
 The Sorb, Serhy or Sorahian of Lusatia, and 
 a part of the circle of Cotbus, intermediate to the 
 Bohemian and the Polish, falls into two dialects — a 
 Protestant dialect to the north and a Roman Catholic 
 dialect to the south. 
 
 The Kassuh and the Linonian (extinct) are frag- 
 mentary forms of a near congener of the Polish spoken 
 in Pomerania and Luneburg. 
 
 The Sarmatian languages may easily have their in- 
 flectional character (by which is meant their approxima- 
 tion in the way of stage to the Latin, Greek, and Sans- 
 krit) overvalued. Take their declensions and compare, 
 or contrast, them with the English or Italian, and they 
 look like languages of the classical, rather than the 
 modern, period. Their conjugation, however, by no 
 means, bears out this inference. Taking, however, this 
 view, we must disconnect the participle from the verb, 
 and treat it as a noun ; for the Lithuanic, which has 
 dropped, or is dropping, even the signs of the third 
 person, is pre-eminently rich in participles. Like most 
 other languages, however, these are in different degrees 
 of development in different parts ; a fact which, 
 except with extreme languages like the English on one 
 side and the Latin on another, should caution us against 
 any general predications of old or new, synthetic or 
 analytic, and the like, as terras applied to languages in 
 general. 
 
 Though it is scarcely safe to compare the Sarmatian 
 tongues with the Latin and Greek, they are nearer the 
 Latin and Greek stage than the Italian or English. 
 Their nearest analogues, however, in this respect, are, the 
 Icelandic and Anglo-Saxon. At any rate, it is unsafe to 
 suppose that they are in so early a stage as to have lost 
 
630 THE SLAVONIC LANGUAGES. 
 
 nothing : a fact which, in comparing them with the 
 Sanskrit, is important. We must think what they were 
 when they had a full conjugation of verbs in -yttt, and 
 a system of reduplicate perfects (the latter being a 
 phenomenon which we should never have known to have 
 been German if it were not for the Moeso-Gothic) ; and 
 what the Sanskrit would have been if it had come 
 down to us after these had (as in the newer German and 
 Latin tongues) been dropped. 
 
 The phonesis of all the Sarmatian tongues is peculiar. 
 Less vocalic and liquid than the Greek, they are pre- 
 eminently sibilant. They are this ; though their ortho- 
 graphy exaggerates their sibilancy. In separate sounds, 
 indeed, they are scarcely richer than the English or 
 Italian ; but they do what both those languages eschew. 
 They combine two. To the cli in chest they will prefix 
 the sh in shire, so as to give the combination shish. 
 All this disguises their Latin and Sanskrit affinities. 
 As many of these sibilants represent a. g or k, preserved 
 in German, Latin, and Greek, they must be considered, 
 in this point, at least, as new ratlier than old. However, 
 as has been stated, they are new in some points, old in 
 others. The oldest Slavonic is not old in the way that 
 Latin is old as compared to Italian. It is rather old in 
 the way that the Moeso-Gothic is old as compared with 
 the Anglo-Saxon — if, indeed, it be this. Still, Old 
 Slavonic is the name for the nearest congener of the 
 Russian, Servian, and Bulgarian in its oldest form. 
 
 In parts of Poland, in Lusatia, in Bohemia, and Mo- 
 ravia, in the Slovak parts of Hungary, in the Ruthe- 
 nian parts of Gallicia, in Carinthia, Carniola, Croatia, 
 Bosnia, and Servia, the blood and language coincide. 
 In Muscovy, or Great Russia, the blood is largely Fin. 
 
 The original situs and direction of the Sarmatian 
 languages now comes under notice. How far did they 
 reach eastwards ? How far did they reach northwards ? 
 
 This depends upon the original extent of the Ugrian 
 
 ^-^ 
 
THE SLAVONIC LANGUAGES. G31 
 
 area. For other i-easons besides those suggested by the 
 mere similarity of name, I imagine that it may in (say) 
 the time of Herodotus, have stretched as far as Minsk 
 and Pinsk ; its southern districts being overrun by in- 
 trusive Scythians, or Skoloti — ethnologically Turks. 
 Along the Baltic we may carry it, even at the beginning 
 of the historical period, to the frontier of East Prussia ; 
 and upon a few slight facts, at a still earlier period, to 
 the Elbe. This, however, is a point which I do not press. 
 I only remark that if I brought it to the Weser, or the 
 Rhine, I should not be supporting the Fin hypothesis 
 which carries it all over Europe. What is suggested 
 here is merely a question of more or less. That the 
 Pomeranian Slaves, and the Lithuanian Prussians, were 
 on the Baltic before the Christian era is nearly certain. 
 I think, however, that they had reached it from the 
 South, and that there were intruders there as truly as 
 were the Scythians, at even an earlier period, in South- 
 ern Russia. 
 
 How far did they reach westwards ? This depends 
 on the area allotted to the Germans and the Kelts ; 
 points which will be considered in the sequel. 
 
632 THE LATIN, ETC. 
 
 CHAPTER LXXVII. 
 
 The Latin and the Languages derived from it. — The Italian. — Spanish. — 
 Portuguese. — French. — Romance — Romanyo. 
 
 If the views to which the writer committed himself in 
 the last chapter, as to the antiquity of the Slavonic lan- 
 guage in the Carnic Alps and the probability of its 
 having extended as far westwards as Savoy, be accurate, 
 we must suppose that, in the first instance at least, 
 either the northern frontier of the class of languages to 
 which the Latin belonged touched the southern frontier 
 of the Slavonic, or that some intermediate class has been 
 annihilated without leaving any sign whatever of its 
 existence. To do this, however, is to assume phenomena 
 unnecessarily. 
 
 Imagine, then, that (say) one thousand years B.C. the 
 Slavonic and Latin frontiers touched each other, and 
 that throughout the whole length of the latter — a doc- 
 trine which treats the Gallic of Cisalpine Gaul as intru- 
 sive and comparatively recent ; a doctrine, however, 
 which, though it connects the Latin far more closely 
 with the Slavonic than with the Keltic (or indeed any 
 other language except the Greek), by no means denies 
 the existence of Keltic elements in it. 
 
 This, however, is a question connected with the 
 analysis of the Latin language itself rather than with 
 its geographical distribution. 
 
 Where the Slavonic ended and where the most northern 
 congeners of the Latin, previous to the Gallic in- 
 vasions, began is unknown. Neither do we know 
 
THE LATIN, ETC. C33 
 
 what was the philological ethnography of Etruria before 
 the descent of the Etruscans. When Latium first 
 becomes known to us its area is eminently truncate, i. e. 
 cut ofi" abruptly on the north by the Tibur ; beyond 
 which lay the Etruscan. On the south lay the Yolscian, 
 and on the east and north-east the dialects of the 
 Hernici and the Sabines, all three of which appear to 
 have been other than Latin in the strict provincial sense 
 of the term. 
 
 The Sabine led from the Latin to the Umhrian, 
 wherein the differences were sufficient (the Umbrian 
 being known to us from the Eugubine inscription) to 
 either simulate, or constitute, a fresh language ; how far 
 the Umbrian extended beyond the Rubicon being uncer- 
 tain. In Gallia Togata the intrusive Gallic, the Etruscan, 
 and the (Slavonic) Venetian prevailed. 
 
 The third congener of the Latin for which we have any 
 beyond mere glosses is the Oscan, known to us through the 
 Bantine and other inscriptions. It was spoken in parts 
 of Samnium and Campania ; and probably graduated 
 into the Latin through the Volscian, and into the 
 Umbrian through the dialects of the Peligni, Vestini, 
 and Piceni. 
 
 Of the languages of the south of Italy more will be 
 said in the sequel. Among those in the centre of the 
 peninsula, it is manifest that, before the spread of the 
 Latin, the dialects were numerous, well-marked, and in 
 two cases, at least, of sufficient importance to pass as 
 separate substantive languages. 
 
 Of the Latin Proper the history, as compared with 
 that of the Greek, begins late : the remains of what 
 may be called the Latin of the Early Republican 
 period being scanty. The details of the changes 
 which took place during the lifetimes of Caesar and 
 Cicero, and which give us the difference between 
 Virgil and Horace on one side, and Catullus and 
 Lucretius on the other, are obscure ; and are, perhaps. 
 
634 THE LATIN, ETC. 
 
 connected with the orthography rather than the lan- 
 guage itself. This, however, has now taken its literary, 
 classical, and standard form ; and, unfortunately, it is 
 in this form alone that it has come down to us. The 
 analogue of the classical Latin is not the Greek language 
 en masse, but the Greek of the Attic, the Ionic, or some 
 single dialect. The language of the cultivated classes of 
 Kome may have differed from the vernaculars of its 
 immediate neighbourhood as the Florentine of Dante 
 differed from the dialect of the nearest Apennines, or 
 as the Athenian of Pericles from that of the neighbour- 
 ing Megara. The local dialects of the Latin are known 
 less than those of the Greek, and of the common lan- 
 guage of the lower Romans and of the army we know 
 nothing. Yet to this rather than to the classical Latin 
 were those forms of speech out of which the modern 
 derivatives of the Latin have been developed, in all 
 probability, akin. 
 
 These derivative languages are, roughly speaking, the 
 Italian, the Spanish, the Portuguese, the French, the 
 Romance of the Grison Cantons in Switzerland, and 
 the Rumanyo, or Roumain, of Wallachia and Moldavia. 
 Of these, the last alone is isolated. The others all 
 touch each other on their frontiers. How far they 
 graduate into each other will be seen as we proceed. 
 
 In the growth of the modern languages out of the 
 Latin three questions command attention — 
 
 1. The condition of the Latin itself, both in respect 
 to the stage of its development, and the class of indi- 
 viduals by which it was introduced : 
 
 2. The language or languages with which it came in 
 contact : 
 
 3. The changes which have subsequently taken place ; 
 especially with reference to the introduction of foreign 
 elements. 
 
 In the history of all mixed languages these three ele- 
 ments must be recognized. In the Latin, however, and 
 
ETC. 635 
 
 its derivatives the phenomena with which they are 
 connected are to be studied on a great scale. 
 
 The Etruscan, and its own immediate congeners, such 
 as the Sabine, and the Volscian, were the first languages 
 and dialects other than Latin in the limited sense of the 
 term upon which the Latin of Latium encroached — then 
 it touched the Gallic of Cisalpine Gaul and Liguria, the 
 Euganean and Venetian dialects of (?) the Slavonic, the 
 Umbrian, the Oscan, the Greek of the southern extremity 
 of the peninsula, and, perhaps, certain offshoots of 
 the Epirot, Illyrian, and Dalmatian from the opposite side 
 of the Adriatic in the parts between Mount Garganus 
 and the lapygian promontory. Extended to Sicily it 
 came in contact with the Greek of the colonies, as well 
 as with the original language of the island (so far as it 
 was spoken at all) ; which was probably Greek, though 
 of a peculiar kind. In Sardinia and Corsica it is 
 diflicult to say with what vernaculars it met. They may 
 have been, like itself, Italian, They may have been 
 Gallic, Slavonic, Iberic, African. They may have been 
 some or all of these : dashed, perhaps, with intrusive 
 Greek and Phenician. In Spain, the Keltic and Iberic 
 languages were spoken widely ; and, in special localities, 
 the Punic of Carthage along with, perhaps, the Numi- 
 dian, the Mauritanian, or some other (? Amazig) lan- 
 guage of Africa. In Gaul there was the Iberic on the 
 south, the Keltic on the north, and, perhaps, along the 
 Rhine some German ; and in Savoy (by hypothesis) some 
 Slavonic. In the Grisons I believe the basis to have 
 been by no means Keltic, but a near congener of the 
 Etruscan ; and (as such) Slavonic. That Slavonic was 
 the chief language of Pannonia I have no doubt ; though 
 I would not say that Lithuanic forms of speech were 
 wholly wanting. In Dacia I believe that the two 
 existed concurrently : possibly in concurrence with a 
 southern offset of the Scythian — a doctrine for which 
 I have given my reasons elsewhere. 
 
636 TIIR LATIN, ETC. 
 
 The changes that have subsequently affected the several 
 portions of this area belong to general history rather 
 than to comparative philology. So do the details of 
 the conquests of Spain, Gaul, Dacia, and the like. 
 Between the first and last of these there was an 
 interval of more than four hundred years ; and between 
 the character of the different settlers there was a corre- 
 sponding difference. Dacia, the last to be reduced, was 
 the first to be given up. Nevertheless (as already 
 stated) the Wallachian and Moldavian of tlie present 
 time is a daughter of the Latin. 
 
 Every language that has grown out of the Latin 
 is either decidedly Latin or something else ; i. e. it is 
 either Latin or French, Latin or Italian, and the like. 
 In other words, there is no such thing as an equivocal or 
 ambiguous language. The earliest French, the earliest 
 Proven9al, the earliest Italian, are just as Italian, Pro- 
 vengal, or French as are the latest. In no sense of the 
 term can any of them be called Latin or even Semi- 
 Latin. The Sardinian is believed to have the best 
 claim to this name : but it has only an imperfect one. 
 It is essentially a derivative of the Latin and not the 
 Latin itself 
 
 This absence, however, of intermediate forms is only 
 subjective, i. e. it rests upon our want of data rather 
 than upon any real fact. The Latin served for the 
 little writing that was wanted so long after it had 
 ceased to be spoken as Latin that every one of its 
 modern descendants may reasonably be supposed to have 
 undergone notable modifications long before the earliest 
 record of them. This want of data for the French, 
 Italian, and their congeners during the period between the 
 last days of the pure and simple Latin and the eleventh 
 century (the date of the earliest Proven9al compositions) 
 is the great desideratum in the philological history of 
 this great language — in other respects so prolific in 
 valuable details. 
 
THE LATIN, ETC. 637 
 
 That it is the Latin, eo nomine, rather than the 
 Umbrian, the Oscan and their congeners, out of which 
 the modern dialects of the Italian in Oscan, Um- 
 brian, and similar localities have grown, is a reason- 
 able presumption : though it is possible that the Oscan 
 and Umbrian, &c., if known in their full details, 
 might fairly be considered to have been the direct 
 progenitors of some of them. Upon this, and its 
 allied questions, much close thinking is wanted — all the 
 more because what may be called the break-up of the 
 Latin language is the great field for the study of all 
 similar break-ups. 
 
 In a notice of the numerous and well-illustrated 
 dialects of modern Italy it is convenient to begin 
 with :— (] .) The Sicilian, (2.) The Calabrian, (3.) The 
 Neapolitan, and (4.) The Roman : to which we may 
 add the dialects which (whatever they were originally) 
 are so modified by the influences of the literary 
 Italian, or Florentine, as to be independent of the 
 dialects of the districts around them. This means, in 
 general, those of the towns ; a difference recognized by 
 the admission of a Lingua Urbana and Lingua Rustica. 
 The former, as a general rule, means the language of the 
 towns ; every one of which is more Italian, even when 
 beyond the proper Italian boundary (a term which will 
 soon make itself understood) than the dialects of the 
 parts around it. 
 
 In Tuscany the difference between the rural and 
 urban dialects is at its minhnum. 
 
 Not so, however, in the district circumscribed by the 
 Alps, the Apennines, and (there or thereabouts) the 
 drainage of the Foglia. On the south of this area 
 those strong characteristics which distinguish the 
 literary Italian from the French of Paris on the one 
 side, and the Romance of the Grisons on the other, 
 suffer diminution. 
 
638 THE LATIN, ETC. 
 
 All these dialects are called by Biondelli Gallo- 
 Italian, and whether we attribute the name to their 
 belonging to that part of Italy which constituted Cisal- 
 pine and Cispadane Italy (Gallic districts) or to the 
 occurrence of French characteristics in the existing 
 dialects, the name (except so far as its compound form 
 makes it cumbrous) is a fair one. It falls into families. 
 (1.) the Piedmontese ; (2.) the Lombard; and (3.) the 
 Emilian, these latter lying on the line of the Via Emilia ; 
 just as, in England, we might make a group of the 
 dialects lying along the whole, or a part, of the Watling 
 Street. The classification is definitional ; in each case, 
 however, it is specially stated that the continuous dia- 
 lects graduate into each other. A little alteration, 
 therefore, enables us to convert the arrangement into 
 a typical one, the arrangement itself being natural. 
 
 To this, add the Ligurian family on the one side, and 
 the Venetian and Carnic on the other ; the former 
 giving the Lingue Eustiche for Genoa, the other the 
 Lingue Rustiche for Venice and Fiume. The extreme 
 members of this latter graduate into the Romance ; 
 and it is because some of the north-western members 
 of the so-called Gallo-Italian do the same that I make 
 the very slight objections which I do make to either 
 the name or the class. 
 
 The Emilian dialects which come nearest to the 
 Tuscan and Ligurian in structure seem to be those of the 
 frontier. Of these the following extracts from the 
 Parable of the Prodigal Son (Luke xv.) in the dialect 
 of Bobbio may serve as specimens. 
 
 Bohhiese. 
 
 11. Un om 11 gh' aviva dli fio ; 
 
 12. Al pti giuvan d' lur 1' k dit so p^dar ; PapS,, dem la part di ben ch a 
 m' tocca ; e lii u gh' ^ sparti la sostanza. 
 
 13. Da li a pochi di, miss tiitt insem, al fio minur, u s'n' e anddt an 1' un 
 pais lunt^n, e 1' ^ consUm^ tiitt al fat so in bagurd. 
 
THE LATIN, ETC. 639 
 
 14. E cina, r e stat nett dal tixtfc, u gh'e vnii na gran caristia in 1' quel pais, 
 e a lii u gli' e cmens^ a manca al nesessari. 
 
 15. E r e andat, e u s' e miss con un paisan d' quel pais, ch 'u 1' ^ mand^ a 
 la so campagna apriss ai purse. 
 
 16. E u dessiderava d' impiniSs la panz a die giande cli 'i mangiavan i 
 giugnen ; ma nsiin gh' in dava. 
 
 As we move northwards the dialects of Mh'andola and 
 Mantua take us into the Lombard and Venetian areas ; 
 while the Broni leads to Piedmont. 
 
 The Lombard family falls into two primary divisions, 
 the western and the eastern, the former represented by 
 the Milanese, the latter by the Bergamasco. Here, as 
 before, I shall take more special cognizance of the 
 Alpine varieties. 
 
 The Valteline and Ticino dialects are nearly as much 
 Romance as Italian. 
 
 Ticinese {Val Maggia). 
 
 11. U jera un um con dii tosoi ; 
 
 12. El piii piscen de gnist 1' a die al padri ; atta, dem al me part da quel 
 che m' toca ; e liJ 1' a fee i divisivi e u gh' 1' a deci. 
 
 13. Da li a poc, V k ramassd,o el fa2 su, e u s' n' e ne2 in pais da lunz, e 1' ^ 
 raffabiao tiitt coss vivend da pore. 
 
 14. E dop ch' r k bill fee net, 1' e vegnii in quel pais una gran carestia, e 
 r k comenzao a senti la sgajosa ; 
 
 15. E r e ne8, e F ^ scercao apress a un scior i da quel pais, e quest u 1' sL 
 mand^o al bosc'a ciir^ i pore. 
 
 16. E u scercava da mangia i giand, cb' k mangia i por2 : ma i un gh' dava 
 gnanc da quii. 
 
 Valtelinese {Val Pregallia). 
 
 11. Un 6m veva diii fi ; 
 
 12. A plii gidvan dget con se bap : Bap, dam U me part de roba ; a '1 lur 
 gpartit i se ben. 
 
 13. A poc di dre, cur ch' al plii gijivan vet tiit quant robaca, al get davent 
 in iir paes Ionian, a 1^ '1 dissipat la se roba, menant na vita deSmresiirada. 
 
 14. A cur ct 'el vet tiit fat andaal nit na gran famina in quel paes, a '1 
 scomanz^t a senti la misera ; 
 
 15. Alua '1 get, a s'metet al servisei pet' iin da qui dal paes, ch' it mand^t 
 in t' i si fond a ciira i pore. 
 
 16. A '1 ves dgiii giidgent da s' pode sazia da quel ch' a mangiavan i por8 ; 
 ma nagiin n' i am deva. 
 
 The dialect of the valley of the Borniio is peculiar ; 
 it having constituted a separate estate upon certain 
 
640 THE LATIN, ETC. 
 
 conditions ; one of which was to have nothing to do 
 with the men of either Ticino or the Valteline. 
 
 Bormio. 
 
 11. Un omen el gh' avea dol fioi ; 
 
 12. E '1 plu gi6en de qui al gh' k dit al pd ; P^, dam la part de roba. 
 
 13. E poc di dop, mess insema tot, al fiol plu gioen 1' e gi in paes lontan e li 
 I^ sciolt al fat se, a far al putaneir. 
 
 14. E popo clie r a avu consumd, tot, 1' e vegni fora una gran penuria in quel 
 paes, e 1' ^ scomenz^ a sentir la miseria : 
 
 15. L' e gi, e '1 s' e met^ con un de qui de quel paes, ch' el 1' d, manda fora in 
 tin se loc a past coi porcei. 
 
 16. E '1 desideraa de impleniss ol se ventro deli giande, che i mangiaan i 
 porcei ; ma nigun i gh' en daan. 
 
 The Bergomasco is one of the most marked dialects 
 of Italy. 
 
 Bergomasco. 
 
 11. On om el gh' ia du fioi ; 
 
 12. E '1 pio zuen de lur 1' a deg a s5 pMer : Tata, dem la porsi^ de sostansa 
 ch' el me toca ; e lu '1 ghe divide la sostansa. 
 
 13. Dopo poc de, ol pio yuen 1' h regondit tot ol s5, e 1' e 'ndac in pais lont^, 
 8 la, r k dissipat quat al gh' ia a viv de baracher. 
 
 14. E dopo ch' el s' e maj^t tot ol s6, al s' e, fag in quel pais ona carestea 
 gajarda, e '1 comense e ess al bisogn ; 
 
 15. L' e 'ndac doca a tac-dss a ii benest^nt de quel pais ch' el 1' amandat 
 fo 'n da so campagna a fa pascola i porsei. 
 
 16. E la il desiderd,a de impieniss la pansa di giande ch' i mangi^ a i stess 
 Buni ; ma nissU gh' en dia. * 
 
 The rustic Brescian from the Yal Camunica is as 
 follows. 
 
 Brescian. 
 
 11. On om el gh' ia du matei. 
 
 12. E '1 pio zuen de lur el gh' k dit al pare ; Bub^, dam la part de la sos- 
 tanza che m' toca : e lii 1' ^ diidit a lur la sostanza. 
 
 13. E poc de dopo, el fiol pio zuen, tot so tota la so roba, 1' e 'ndat en d'iin 
 pais lonta, e la 1' a consomat el fat so a godisla. 
 
 14. E dopo i consomat tot, el gh' e gnit ima gran caristia en quel pais, e' lii 
 r a scomensat a pati ; 
 
 15. E r e 'ndat a ier con giii de quel pais, ch' el'l' k mandat en d' ona so cam- 
 pagna a pasture i porsei. 
 
 16. E '1 gh' ia via d' empienis el veter de le giande ch' i majad, i porsei ; e 
 nigu i gh' en daa. 
 
 The sub-division of the Piedmontese family is into 
 
DIALECTS OF THE ITALIAN, ETC. 
 
 641 
 
 three primary groups: (1.) the Montserrat on the south, 
 which is especially stated to approach the Ligurian, (2.) 
 the Piedmontese Proper on the east, and (3.) the Canavese 
 on the north. But, besides this, there is a division of the 
 Piedmontese Proper into the dialects of the comparatively 
 level country and those of the Alpine district. I have no 
 hesitation in calling this a cross-division, and in adding 
 that it finds a place in the other two divisions, as well as 
 in the Lombard, the Venetian, and the Carnic families. 
 The extent to which the Alpine division is French may 
 be got from Biondelli himself; the following contrasts 
 being taken from him. 
 
 
 
 
 (1-) 
 
 
 
 Italian 
 
 
 padre 
 
 fratello 
 
 muojo 
 
 tocca 
 
 Piedmontese Pi 
 
 'optr 
 
 pare 
 
 fratel 
 
 mori 
 
 toca 
 
 A Ipine 
 
 
 paire 
 
 fraire 
 
 (2-) 
 
 muero 
 
 tudccia. 
 
 Italian 
 
 
 peccato 
 
 capretto 
 
 cantare 
 
 calzare 
 
 Piedmontese Propei' 
 
 peca 
 
 cavret 
 
 cante 
 
 causse 
 
 Alpine 
 
 
 peci^ 
 
 ciabn 
 
 ciantd,r 
 
 ciaussar 
 
 French 
 
 
 peclie 
 
 chevreau 
 
 (3.) 
 
 chanter 
 
 chausser- 
 
 Italian 
 
 
 detto 
 
 fatto 
 
 quanti 
 
 quinto 
 
 Piedmontese Proper 
 
 dit 
 
 fait 
 
 quanti 
 
 riva 
 
 Alpine 
 
 
 dig 
 
 fag 
 
 (4.) 
 
 quang 
 
 giiing. 
 
 Italian 
 
 
 i porci 
 
 i mei amici 
 
 le femmini 
 
 allegri 
 
 Alpine 
 
 
 lus cusciuns 
 
 muns amis 
 
 les femmes 
 
 allegres 
 
 French 
 
 
 les cochons 
 
 mes amis 
 
 les femmes 
 
 allegres. 
 
 Italian per levarsi 
 
 Piedmontese Proper pr levese 
 Alpine per se lev^r 
 
 (5.) 
 
 di ritomarmene per godermi 
 d'artornemne pr godemla 
 
 de m' entournEir per me regiui 
 
 French 
 
 Italian 
 
 Turin 
 
 Cureo 
 
 pour se lever de m'en retourner pour me rejouir. 
 
 • (6.) 
 
 andato fatto dato 
 
 and^it fait dait 
 
 andeit feit deit 
 
 mandate stato 
 
 mandait stait 
 
 mandeit steit. 
 
 T T 
 
642 
 
 DIALECTS OF THE ITALIAN, ETC. 
 
 Italian 
 
 mangiamo 
 
 (7.) 
 
 anddvano 
 
 facevano 
 
 avevano 
 
 Piedmontese Proper 
 
 mangio 
 
 andavo 
 
 fasio 
 
 a 710 
 
 Corio 
 
 mangien 
 
 and^ven 
 
 (8.) 
 
 fasien 
 
 avien. 
 
 Italian 
 
 dir6 
 
 fard 
 
 portero 
 
 custodiro 
 
 Valdieri 
 
 vai dir 
 
 vai far 
 
 vai porter 
 
 vai gardar 
 
 French 
 
 vais dire 
 
 faire 
 
 porterai 
 
 garderai. 
 
 In the Yinadio the nasals prevail ; as does the 
 habit of laying an accent on the last syllable. As far 
 as the specimens go, the pre-eminently French dialects 
 are those of Graglione, Oulx, Yiu, Usseglio. 
 
 The Genoese has the sound of ng between two vowels, 
 as well as the French eu and u. The word lunha=z 
 luna = moon is a sort of Genoese shibboleth. 
 
 Of the Piedmontese dialects those of Garessio and 
 Ormea are pre-eminently Ligurian — being spoken on the 
 frontier. 
 
 Less Italian than these, though, perhaps, not more 
 French, is the dialect of the valley of the Soana, as 
 spoken in Ingria, Ronco, Roncato, and Campiglia. 
 
 Italian. 
 
 ha, avesse viene 
 
 era aveva 
 
 voleva 
 
 entrasse 
 
 Soana. 
 
 hat iisset vint 
 
 eret aveit 
 
 (2.) 
 
 voleit 
 
 intrasset. 
 
 Italian. 
 
 fossero morlvano 
 
 mangiano 
 
 davano 
 
 av^nzano 
 
 Soana. 
 
 fussent crevavont 
 
 cucunt 
 
 donavant 
 
 avansunt. 
 
 Castelmagno. 
 
 11. tin ome avia diii figi ; 
 
 12. E tu pii giijve da chisti k diti a, sun pMre ; "Fkire diineme la part dia 
 roba ch' me toca. E el ^ fa2 tra tur les part dies sostanses. 
 
 13. E papa car'che gium, biitt^ tut ensem, lu figi pii picot se n' e an^ en te 
 d' pais logn, e isi a 1' £l consiima tut tu fac sio en d' porcheries. 
 
 14. E eart a 1' a gu fini tutes es coses, gli es sagli na gran earestio eu 
 I'achet pais, e el a cumens^ a patir lu fam. 
 
 15. En I'acliest mentre gli es vengii en t'la testa d'an^r trub^r tin sitadin 
 d'acbet pais, cb' a 1' d, mand^ a gardar i puerc. 
 
 16. Ea I'avia voglia d'empirse ta tripa dies giaudes cbe mingiaven i puerc, 
 degijn guen douava. 
 
SARDINIAN. 643 
 
 Oulx. 
 
 11. Un omme avie dus eifans ; 
 
 12. Le plii zune d' iellus di a sim paire ; Paire, duname la purziun de ben 
 che me reven ; e ie lus a paitaS^ le ben. 
 
 13. Coches zurs apre aien tut rebata le plii zuve garsrin parti par I'eitrangi, 
 par tin pai eilunia, e ithi u 1' d, dissipa sun ben en viven luxuriusmen. 
 
 14. Me apre ch' ul' a agii tut cunsiimd, 1' es siirvegU Une grande famine dins 
 que pai, eje meime u 1' a cumensa a esse in besun. 
 
 15. Alure u se n' ei an^, e u s' ei attasa a iin dus abitan de qu6 pai, e set- 
 issi r a mand^ a sa meisun de campagne, par fa paisse lus cusciuns. 
 
 16. Ithi u deisirave rempli sun ventre de las crofas cbe mijaven tus cus- 
 ciuns, e nengii n' 1 en dunuave. 
 
 In Sardinia, with su for its definite article, and with 
 its plural ending in s, we have, inter alia, the elements 
 of, at least, as good a language (as opposed to a dialect) 
 as the Portuguese is to the Spanish and the Danish to 
 the Swedish, or vice versa. It falls into dialects and 
 sub-dialects ; the main divisions being apparently — 
 
 (] .) The Southern, represented in its Lingua Urbana 
 by the Cagliari form of speech. 
 
 Ruth I. 1. 
 A su tempus de is giugis candu unu solu fiat autoridadi, est accuntessin unu 
 grandu famini in sa terra. Eun omini de Betlem de Giudas fiat andau a 
 biviri in su paisu de Moab cun sa muUeri sua e cun duus fillus. 
 
 Matthew ii. 1, 2. 
 
 1. Essendi duncas nascin Gesus in Betlem de Giudas a tempus de su rei 
 Erodis, eccu cbi benint a Gerusalemmi is Magus de orienti. 
 
 2. Narendi ; Aund'est su, ch' est nascin rei de is Giudeus ? poita nos heus 
 bistu sa Stella sua in s' orienti e seus benius a ad' adorai. 
 
 (2.) The Central Sardinian. 
 
 Ruthi. 1. 
 Ad SOS tempos de unu Juighe quaudo sos juighes guvernaiant, succedesit 
 una carestia in sa terra. Et un' homine de Bethlehem de Juda sind' andesit 
 pro peregrinare in sa terra de Moab, cum sa muzere sua et cum duos fizos. 
 
 (3.) The Northern Sardinian. 
 
 Matthew ii. 1, 2 (Logudore). 
 
 1. Essende edducas naschidu Jesus in Bethlehem de Juda in sas dies de sn 
 rp Herodes, ecco qui sos magos dai s'oriente benzesint a Jerusalem. 
 
 2. Narzende : " Ue est su naschidu Re de sos Judeos? hamus bidu s'istella 
 sua in s'oriente, et semus bennidos a lu adorare." 
 
 T T 2 
 
644 THE DIALECTS OF THE FRENCH, ETC. 
 
 Ruth i. 1 (Tempio). 
 Alu tempu d'un giudiei, candu li giudiei cuman daani, accadisi una caristia 
 in la tarra. Un omu di Betlem di Giuda andesi a pilligrin^ in Tincuntiata 
 di Moab, cu' la mudderi e cu' li so' dui fiddoli. 
 
 The plural in s is, at least, a point wherein the Sar- 
 dinian is Spanish rather than Italian. 
 
 Through its northern dialects, the Sardinian graduates 
 into the Corsican. 
 
 Matthew ii. 1, 2 (Corsican). 
 
 1. Adunque essendu natu Grhiesu in Betlemme di Grhiuda, in tempu che 
 regnana lu re Erode, eccu che i Maghi arrivonu da I'oriente in Ghierusa- 
 lemme. 
 
 2. Dicendu : Duv' e quellu ch' e nalu re di li Grhiudei 1 Avemu vistula so 
 setter nel' oriente, e semu ghiunti per adurallu. 
 
 Between the Proven9al of Southern, and the French 
 Proper of Northern, France, the Loire is generally con- 
 sidered the boundary. The forms of speech themselves 
 are separate languages rather than dialects of any single 
 one. At present the French has the prerogative. It 
 was the Proven9al, however, which was first cultivated. 
 The following is the earliest specimen of it. 
 
 Oath of the King (a.b. 842). 
 Pro Deo amur et pro Xristian poblo et nostro commun salvament, d' ist di 
 en avant, in quant Deus savir et podir me dunat, si salverai eo cist meon 
 fradre Karlo, et in ajudha et in cadhun a cosa, si cum om per dreit son 
 fradra salvar dist, in o quia il mi altresi fazet ; et all Ludher nul placa nun- 
 quam prindrai uni, meon vol, cist meon fradre Karlo in damno sit. 
 
 Oath of the People. 
 Si Loduwigs sagrament, que son fradre Karlo jurat, conservat ; et Karlus, 
 meos sendra, de suo part non lo stanit ; si io returnar non Tint pois, ne lo, 
 ne nuls cui eo returnar int pois, in nulla ajudha contra Lodhuwig nun li 
 iver. 
 
 Vaudois. 
 Luke XV. 11-15. 
 
 11. Un horn avia du fill ; 
 
 12. E lou pi giouvon di k so pare, "Pare; donne-me la part de ben que me 
 b6n." Et a r i ha partagia seni ben. 
 
 13. E un poc apreu, quant lou fill pi giouvon ha agii tut rabast^, a se n' 6 
 anil forca ent un pais lengu ; et lai a 1' ha dessip^ so ben en vivant ent la des- 
 bancia. 
 
THE DIALECTS OF THE FRENCH, ETC. 645 
 
 14. E apreu qu' a 1' ha agu tut despendxi, una gran fanina e vengvia ente 
 quel pais lai : e a 1' e aresta coun ren dar tout. 
 
 15. Aloura a se n' e ana, et a s' e butta d patroun coun un di habitant 
 d' aquel pais, que 1' ha mandzi ent seui poussess per gard& li pueic. 
 
 Northern French. 
 Luke XV. 11-14. 
 
 11. Un home avi6 dous enfans. 
 
 12. Lou plus pichoun diquet a son paire, ''Moun paire, dounas mi ce que 
 mi reven de vouastre ben ;" Lou paire faquet lou partage de tout ce que pous- 
 sedavo. 
 
 13. Paou de jours apres, lou pichoun vendet tout se que soun paire il avi6 
 desamparat, et s'en anet dins un pais fourco luench, ounte dissipet tout soun 
 ben en debaucho. 
 
 14. Quand aquet ton arcaba, unogrosso, f amino arribet dins aqueou pais, et 
 leou, si veguet reduech k la derniero misero. 
 
 South-western French. 
 
 Luke XV. 11-14. 
 
 11. Ain hommeavouait deeux garoheons. 
 
 12. L'pus jone dit a sain pere, "Main pere, bailie m' chou qui doiio me 
 'r 'venired vous bren," et leu pere leu partit sain bren. 
 
 13. Ain n'sais yur, tro, quate, cheon jours apres 1' pus ti6 d' cries deeux 
 ef eans oyant r'cuelle tout s'n peritt main , sot' ain voye dains nain pahis gra- 
 mair toiion, du qu" il echillatout s'n argintain fageant 1' braingand dains ches 
 cabarets. 
 
 14. Abora qu'il o eu tout bu, tout mie et tout drele, il o 6nu adonc dains 
 eh' pahis lo ainn 'famaire cruUele, et i c'mainchouait d' avoir fon-ye d' pon-ye. 
 
 The Provencal is common to France and Spain ; for, 
 between the Catalonian and the Castilian, there is much 
 the same difference as between the French Proper and 
 the Provencal. Indeed, the Catalonian is, really, Pro- 
 ven9al spoken in Spain. Again — the Gallician of Spain 
 is, in like manner, Portuguese — the difference between 
 the Portuguese and the Spanish being, to a great ex- 
 tent, political. Throughout, however, the whole range 
 the general phenomena are those of transition. In 
 Liege the language bears the name of Wallon : and is, as 
 we expect from its locality, an extreme form of the north- 
 ern French. Contrasted w4th the French of Paris it is 
 a different language. This, however, may be said of so 
 many other dialects that it means but little. 
 
646 THE DIALECTS OF THE FRENCH, ETC. 
 
 Catalonian. 
 Luke^y. 11-15. 
 
 11. Un home tenia dos fills : 
 
 12. Yl mes petit dique a son pare : "Pare, donaume la part quern toca de 
 vostres bens." Y ell los reparti bens. 
 
 13. Y al cap de poehs dias, juntant lo fill menor tot lo que era sen, seu 
 and illuny k un pais estrany, y alii dissipa tots sos bens vivint dissolutament. 
 
 14. Y quant ho hagne gastat, vingue una gran fam en aquella terra y 
 comensd k patu miseria. 
 
 15. Llarors seu and, y s'arrimd 4 un dels ciutadans d'aquella terra, qui 
 I'enira 's sa granja 4 guardar porchs. 
 
 S'paiih'K. 
 Lulce XV. 11-15. 
 V 11. Un hombre tuvo dos hijos. 
 
 12. Y dico el menor de ellos k su padre : Padre, dame la parte de la haci- 
 enda, que me toca. Y el les repartio la hacienda. 
 
 13. Y no muchos dias despues juntando todo lo suyo el hijo menor se fue 
 lejos £i, un pais muy distante, y alll malroto todo su haber, viviendo disoluta- 
 mente. 
 
 14. Y* quando todo lo hubo gastado, vino una grande hambre en aquella 
 tierra, y 61 comenzo a padecer necesidad. 
 
 15. Y fue, y se arrlmo a uno de los curdadanos de aquella tierra : el qual lo 
 envida a su cortijo 4 quardar puercos. 
 
 Matthew ii. 1-6. 
 
 1. Habendo pois nacido Xesus en Belen de Xud^ reinando Herodes, ve 
 aque que uns magos vineron do oriente a Xerusalem. 
 
 2. Preguntando : j Onde estd o nacido rei dos Xudios ? porque nosoutros 
 vimos en oriente a su estrella, e habemos chegada con fin de adorarlo. 
 
 3. Oindo esto o rei Herodes, turbouse, e consigo toda Xerusalem. 
 
 4. E chamando a todas os principes dos sacerdotes, e aos escribas do pueblo, 
 purguntaballes onde tina que nacer o Cristo ou Mesias. 
 
 5. Ao cal eles responderon ; en Belen de Xuda ; que asi se ten escrebido 
 no profeta ; 
 
 6. E ti Belen terra de Xuda, non eres certamente a mais cativa entre as 
 principales vilas de Xuda ; pois que e de ti que ten de salir o xefe, que 
 gobeme o meu pueblo de Israel. 
 
 Portuguese. 
 Luke XV. 11-15. 
 
 11. Hum homem teve dous filhos ; 
 
 12. E disse o mais mogo delles a seu pai, Pai, dd-me a parte da fazenda, qua 
 me toca. E elle repartio entre ambos a fazenda. 
 
 13. E passados n^o muitos dias, entrourando tudo o que era seu, partia o 
 filho mais mo90 para huma terra muito distante n'hum paiz estranho, e Ik 
 dissipou toda a sua fazenda vivendo dissolutamente. 
 
 14. E depois de ter consumido tudo, succedeo haver naquelle paiz huma 
 grande fome, e elle coma90u a necessitar. 
 
 16. Returoi-se pois dalli, e accommodou-se com hum dos Cidadaos de tal 
 terra, Este porein o mandou para him casal seu a guardar os porcos. 
 
ROMANCE. 647 
 
 Swiss and Protestant, the Grisons are separated from 
 Italy ; the language of the Grisons being called the 
 Bumonsch or Romance. Its orthography, too, is 
 German rather than Itahan. So that it passes for a 
 separate substantive language ; as, in its extreme forms, 
 it is. Except in name, however, several of the Italian 
 dialects are Komance. 
 
 Of the Romance Proper, the two main dialects are — 
 
 1 . That of the valley of the Rhine ; 
 
 2. That of the valley of the Inn — this latter falling, 
 at least, into the Upper and the Lower Engadino. 
 
 The elements subsequent to the Latin are chiefly Ger- 
 man. The language upon which the Latin, chiefly intro- 
 duced by the conquest of Drusus and Tiberius, encroached, 
 was a near congener of the Etruscan. At the present 
 time the Romance phonesis is largely Slavonic. 
 
 Romanese, 
 Luke XV. 11-15. 
 
 11. Un Hum veva dus filgs. 
 
 12. Ad ilg juven da quels schet alg ball ; *' Bab, mi dai la part da la 
 rauba c' aud' S, mi;" ad ed parcbe or ad els la rauba. 
 
 13. A bucca bears gis suenter, cur ilg filg juven vet tut mess ansemel, scha 
 til a 1 navent en iinna terra dalunsch ; a lou sfiget el tut sia rauba cun viver 
 senza spargn. 
 
 14. A cur el vet tut sfaig, scha van git ei en quella terra iin gronae fumaz: 
 ad el antshavel a ver basengs. 
 
 15. Ad el m^, a sa plide cun iin burgeis da quella tetra : a quel ilg tarma- 
 tet or sin ses beins a parcherar ils pores. 
 
 Engadin. 
 Luhe XV. 11-15. 
 
 11. Un crastien haveiva dos filgs. 
 
 12. E '1 plii juven d' els diss al bap, "Bap, da 'm la part dalla raba ch' Im 
 tocca." E '1 bap partit ad els la raba. 
 
 13. E pane dids davo, il filg plU juven, haviand miss insemmel ogni chi- 
 aussa, giet el inavaunt seis viadi in pajais luntaun, e qua dissipet el sias 
 facultads, vivana dissoluta maing, 
 
 14. E dapo ch' el ha vet spais ogni chiaussa, vene iina greiva charestia in 
 quel pajais : tal ch' el cumanzet ad havair bsceng, 
 
 15. E giet, e s' matel cun un dais havadaduors da quella contrada, il qual il 
 tramatet siin seis bains, k perchDrar ils pores. 
 
648 THE RUMANYO. 
 
 As a division in the class containing the derivatives 
 of the Latin, the E-umanyo, or Roumain, of Wallachia, 
 Moldavia, Bessarabia, and parts of the Bukhovinia, and 
 Transylvania, stands (to repeat a well-worn illustra- 
 tion) as a genus with a single species ; being, single- 
 handed, of equal value with all the others. Nor is this 
 wholly due to its geographical isolation. It has true 
 points of internal difference — inter alia the post-posi- 
 tive article Qiomulzuhomo illezzil uomo, el hombre, 
 rhomme elsewhere) like the Bulgarian and the Albanian, 
 to the south, and the Lithuanian and the Norse lan- 
 guages to the north, of it. The change, too, from c to ^ 
 is very regular. 
 
 English. 
 
 Latin. 
 
 Rumanyo. 
 
 Breast 
 
 pectus 
 
 Vepie 
 
 Milk 
 
 lac 
 
 la2)te 
 
 Hip 
 
 coa;a 
 
 koa^jsa, &c. 
 
 Night 
 
 noa; 
 
 nqpte. 
 
 The glossarial elements which have been engrafted on 
 the fundamental are what we expect a priori — Turk, 
 Greek, Slavonic, and German. The remains of the lan- 
 guage upon which the Latin itself intruded, would be, 
 if collected, neither more nor less than the original 
 Dacian. That they are Sarmatian is the decided opi- 
 nion of the present writer as well as of other better 
 judges. So influential an authority, however, as Grimm 
 has persuaded himself, and perhaps others, that the 
 Dacian names of certain plants and animals in Diosco- 
 rides are German. 
 
 Rumanyo. Latin. 
 
 Bela in larga valle ambU, Puella in larga valle ambulabat, 
 
 Erba verde lin cale^ : Herbam viridem leniter calcabat, 
 
 Cantd,, qui cantand plangea, Cantabat, et cantando plangebat, 
 
 Quod toti munti resun^, Ut omnes montes resonarent : 
 
 Ea in genunchi se pune^, Ilia in genna se ponebat, 
 
 Ochi in sus indirept^ : Oculos sursum dirigebat ; 
 
 Ecce, Asi vorbe face^ : Ecce, sic verba faciebat : 
 
 Domne, dorane, bune domne. Domine, domine, bona domine. 
 
 Mica, fugu, frassinu Nux, fagus, fracinus, 
 
THE RUMANYO. 
 
 649 
 
 Rumanyo. 
 Mult se certa intra s6ne 
 Nuce, dice frassinu, 
 Quine vine, nuci cuUege. 
 Cullegend si ramuri frange : 
 Vaide dar de pelle a tua ! 
 Da tu fage, mi vecine, 
 Que voi spune in mente tene : 
 Multe fere saturasi : 
 Qui prebene nu amblasi ; 
 Quum se an geru apropiat 
 La pament te an si culcat, 
 Si in focu te an si aruncat, &c. 
 
 Latin. 
 Multine certant inter se. 
 Nux, dicit fracinus 
 Quisquis venit, nuces legit, 
 CoUigendo ramos frangit : 
 Vse itaque pelli tuae ! 
 At tu fage, mi vicine, 
 Quae exponam mente tene ? 
 Multas feras saturasti. 
 At baud bene ambulasti : 
 Quum gelu appropinquat 
 Ad pavimentum te deculcant, 
 Ad focum projiciunt. 
 
 In French Philology, the Norman -French, or Anglo- 
 Norman, is simply so much French in an older form. 
 For English Philology it must be treated as a separate 
 language ; the words introduced from it being fuller in 
 form, and, often different in meaning, from their descen- 
 dants in the present French, 
 
 The Latin of the classics, notwithstanding its value, 
 its antiquity, and the fact of its being the standard or 
 typical dialect, is, in the way of bulk, a mere fraction 
 of the language. The Low Latin is full of incorporated 
 words, expressive of new ideas, and of foreign (often of 
 German) origin. Besides this, in Poland, in Hungary, 
 in Croatia, and elsewhere, the Latin has partaken of the 
 nature of a vernacular ; and is, more or less, modified by 
 the true vernaculars along with which it has been con- 
 cuiTently spoken. Even in the Latin of French, Ger- 
 man, Italian, and other scholars, who have used it as a 
 learned language, traces of the several native languages 
 are to be found. In this respect it is to be compared 
 with the Hebrew of the dispersed Jews. The Latin is, 
 undoubtedly, of more importance than any two lan- 
 guages put together ; and if it were not for one great 
 desideratum would be nearly perfect as a disciplinal 
 study in the field of philological induction. What we 
 miss is the knowledge of the exact nature of that 
 Roman language which has so decidedly impressed itself 
 
650 THE RUMANYO. 
 
 on so many of the nations conquered by Rome. It can 
 scarcely have been the only Roman which is known to 
 us, i. e. the Latin of the classics. However extreme 
 may be the character of certain opinions, and however 
 illegitimate many of the current statements concerning 
 the differences between the Classical Latin and the 
 Lingua Rustica may be, no one believes that every 
 legionary of every legion in every portion of the Roman 
 dominions spoke the Latin of Caesar and Cicero. Not 
 to mention the very evident fact that many legions 
 bore the name of foreign populations, there were the 
 differences, within Italy itself, of the Samnite, Etruscan, 
 Marsian, Campanian, and what not, as compared with 
 either the Latin of Latium, or the pure Roman of Rome. 
 And that these differences were real, there is a fair 
 amount of historical evidence. 
 
 There Tnust have been a Lingua Rustica, though 
 what this was is unknown ; and, of all the languages of 
 Latin origin, it is the Rumanyo which this question 
 touches the most closely. 
 
THE GREEK. 651 
 
 CHAPTER LXXVIII. 
 
 The Greek. 
 
 The situs of the Greek is on the frontier of the Latin. 
 No one who recognizes the close affinity between these 
 two languages can doubt as to their having, at some 
 early period, graduated into one another. If, however, 
 our views concerning the original diffusion of the Sla- 
 vonic be right, it was only on its southern frontier that 
 the Latin (through the Oscan of Campania) could ever 
 have touched the Greek area ; inasmuch as on the east 
 and west lay the sea. 
 
 In order, however, to come to what the writer feels 
 to be a philological paradox, viz. that the Greek lan- 
 guage, foreign to the soil of Greece itself, was indigenous 
 to Southern Italy and Sicily, and that it comports itself 
 to the Italian of its original, and to the Albanian of its 
 secondary area, much as our own English comports 
 itself towards the German on the one side and the 
 Welsh on the other — the English and the Greek being 
 equally foreign to Greece and England — in order, I say, 
 to have this apparent improbability forced upon us, one of 
 the last vestiges of what may be called the Oriental 
 hypothesis must be cast away. To the inquirer who 
 beheves that both the Latin and the Greek can be de- 
 rived from Asia (or, indeed, any other country), or who 
 considers that anything in the way of history is to be 
 got out of the current doctrines concerning the Pelasgi 
 and others, no such necessity suggests itself 
 
652 THE GEEEK. 
 
 But if the languages of Southern Italy and Sicily were 
 Greek, how came the fact to be unknown to the early 
 Greek colonists in those parts, who treated the abori- 
 gines as barbarians ? In this lies the main objection to 
 the present hypothesis, 
 
 I do not altogether deny its validity. I only re- 
 mark that, even if it were ever so much of a fact, it 
 would only give the grounds of a slight objection. Let one 
 district supply a colony to another, and let the country 
 thus settled, after even a few generations, re-colonize the 
 mother- country, and, what with change, on the one side, 
 the other side, or both sides, the chances are that the 
 original relationship will not be recognized. That this 
 is scarcely what we expect a priori may be true. It is 
 a fact nevertheless ; and it is not, improbably, the rule 
 rather than the exception. The best instance known is 
 that supplied in the Malayan peninsula, where the 
 Malays of Sumatran origin, with the Mahometan re- 
 ligion and with a fair amount of civilization, either 
 overlook or ignore the close affinity between themselves 
 and the aborigines ; and, just in this way, may the co- 
 lonial Greeks have overlooked the fundamental affinity, 
 assumed by the present writer, between themselves and 
 the Siculi, the Sicanians, and their congeners. 
 
 The arguments deducible from the Greek character of 
 the local names in Sicily contrasted with the i\^o?i-Greek 
 character of those in Hellas, and other points of minute 
 criticism, find no place here. In a work like the pre- 
 sent, all that is given is a notice of the conditions re- 
 quired for the situs of language in hand, and it is 
 submitted that the only possible situs for the Greek is 
 Southern Italy — Southern Italy including Sicily. 
 
 If this be the case, the analysis of that part of the 
 Greek language which is other than Latin must be made 
 with a special view towards the Albanian. 
 
 If this be the case, the affinities of the Greek with 
 the Sarmatian and German will, as a general rule, be 
 
 ^ 
 
THE GREEK. 653 
 
 indirect, i. e. the Greek will be what is called Indo- 
 European chiefly, so far as it is Latin — chiefly, but not 
 wholly. That such is the case with the German may 
 be seen by any one who will make a list in English, 
 Latin, and Greek. The words which are Greek and 
 English will be Latin also. The words which are Eng- 
 lish and Latin will not so frequently be Greek. That 
 there are exceptions — -such as OvyaTrjp, daughter^ filia — 
 is true. The rule, however, is as it has just been given. 
 With the Slavonic the case is somewhat difierent ; 
 the proportion of words other than Latin, but common 
 to the Slavonic and the Greek, being greater. Subse- 
 quent, however, to the (hypothetical) Italian conquest of 
 Hellas, there has been (and is) a great amount of 
 Slavonic and Hellenic contact. The Non-latin elements 
 common to the Lithuanic and the Greek, and the Sans- 
 krit and the Greek, though not numerous, are obscure. 
 
 If this be the case, some of the differences between 
 the Greek dialect may be due to differences originated 
 on the soil of Italy. That the Doric took some of its 
 Doric characteristics is probable : Ionian, however, and 
 JEolian seem to belong, in the first instance, to the seas 
 and shores of Italy rather than Asia. 
 
 If this be the case, there is between the Greek lan- 
 guage and the Greek blood a minimum amount of 
 coincidence. 
 
 If this view be right, the ordinary views of the Greek 
 dialects are materially affected ; and the Ionic and ^olic, 
 instead of having become what they were in the Ionia, 
 and iEolia of Asia, may have become what they were on 
 the shores of the Ionian Sea and the ^olian Islands. 
 At any rate, the fact of there being two lonias, and two 
 -^olias (one of each being Italian), must not be ignored. 
 Neither must the circumstance of the Italian havino^ been, 
 apparently, the older ones. The Doric, on the other 
 hand, seems to have taken its name, and some, at least, 
 of its characteristics on the soil of Hellas. The evidence 
 
Q5i! THE GREEK. 
 
 of this, however, lies beyond the pale of the present 
 notice. 
 
 Different from the question concerning the local origin 
 of the Greek dialects is the question as to their value. 
 That the division named Doric is of the same ordinal 
 import as the other three is held by few. It is, rather, a 
 co-ordinate of the .^olic Proper, and other forms of speech. 
 If measured by their external relations, i. e. by the ex- 
 tent to which they differ, or agree, with other Hellenic 
 dialects, the Attic and Ionic are classes of considerable 
 value. If measured by their contents, i. e. by their 
 divisions and subdivisions, they are small ones. In a 
 great degree, however, they are scarcely dialects at all 
 — not, at least, truly vernacular ones. They are literary 
 languages ; or, at any rate, literary languages in the 
 way that the Lingua Urbane of Italy are literary lan- 
 guages as compared with the Lingue Rustiche of their 
 neighbourhoods. 
 
 The real data for anything beyond a general and 
 conventional view of the ancient Greek dialects are the 
 fragmentary compositions of minor writers, glosses, local 
 decrees, inscriptions, and, to a slight extent, theatrical 
 imitations or caricatures. From these, taken altogether, 
 we may safely infer that the true vernaculars of the 
 Athenian frontier and the Ionian area were anything 
 but the Attic of the dramatists, and the Ionic of Hero- 
 dotus. 
 
 The ancient Greek, as it sounded in the ears of the 
 common people, is as little known to us as the Lingua 
 Kustica of the Romans : and it is well to be aware of 
 the extent of our ignorance concerning it. When the de- 
 tails of the modern dialects shall have commanded the 
 attention they deserve, the question which, has already 
 suggested itself in Italy will suggest itself in Greece. 
 Is this the descendant of the languages of Archilochus, 
 of Pericles, of Sappho, of Epicharmus, or of some obscure 
 dialect, which in the time of the classical writers was 
 
THE GREEK. 655 
 
 really or nearly a different language ? Such is the ques- 
 tion which will be asked frequently. Such is the ques- 
 tion which is asked (but not answered) now. 
 
 With the dialects of the modern Greek, or Eomaic, 
 more has been done than I have had the opportunity of 
 studying. I have seen thirteen given as the number of 
 them. This is, probably, either too much or too little. 
 It is too much if we look at the primary groups ; and 
 too little if we take in the Tninutice. The departures, 
 however, in the few dialects I have inspected, from the 
 ordinary Greek of any classical writer are so consider- 
 able, that an independent origin must be assumed. 
 There is also a great range in the phonesis ; the Lesbian 
 dialect, for instance, being, like the dialects of Northern 
 Italy as compared with the Itahan Proper, characterized 
 by a nasal n like that of the French. 
 
 The form of speech, however, which has most especi- 
 ally stimulated the curiosity of scholars is the Tzakonian 
 (Laconian), spoken in a few villages on the eastern slope 
 of Mount Taygetus. This it is which is more especially 
 set-up as an independent language, a language bearing 
 the same relation to the ordinary Romaic that the Pro- 
 ven9al does to the French. 
 
 This may be the case. That it is the descendant of 
 some extreme form of ancient Greek — the Cynurian 
 dialects as suggested by Thiersch who has carefully 
 studied it — is certain. 
 
 It is from Thiersch that the following extracts are 
 taken : — 
 
 Singular. — Nom. 
 
 iffOU 
 
 ixtou 
 
 
 Gen. 
 
 fii 
 
 Tt 
 
 ffi 
 
 Dat. 
 
 fit 
 
 Vi 
 
 vi 
 
 Ace. 
 
 iviou 
 
 xiou 
 
 ffi 
 
 Plural. — Nom. 
 
 ii/v, ifiu 
 
 \fA,OV 
 
 
 Gen. 
 
 veifiou 
 
 VIOVfiOV 
 
 ffOU 
 
 Dat. 
 
 voifjt,ov 
 
 VlOVfAOU 
 
 ffOU 
 
 Ace. 
 
 Ificovvavi 
 
 ifcov 
 
 
 Of the so-called verb substantive the following is 
 
656 
 
 THE GREEK. 
 
 the conjugation for the Present and Preterite Indica- 
 tive. 
 
 
 Present, 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. 'in 
 
 1. 'ifA.[X,% 
 
 2. Ui 
 
 2. Uri 
 
 Preterite. 
 Siny. Plural. 
 
 1. %(/.» 1. iufjt,a'i 
 
 2. irai 
 
 2. 
 
 'Ui 
 
 3. 
 
 tyxixi 
 
 The following for the Aorist and Perfect. 
 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. 
 
 2. 
 3. 
 
 y^oi-4'Oi 
 
 y^a-^t^i 
 
 y^d^i 
 
 1. y^a^pafis 
 
 2. yca-^oiTi 
 
 3. y^a-v^ai* 
 
 Aorist. Perfect. 
 
 Sing. Plural. 
 
 1. iy^a(ioi 1. iy^ecfiaf^s 
 
 2. iy^ajis^i 2. iy^oifiart 
 
 3. iy^oi(ii 3. ly^a(iai 
 
 The Paternoster. 
 
 'A(psvy« vdfiov 5r' iV/ 'j tav ovpavi. Na Ivvi ayiafl"T« ra ovoficivri, va fioX^ a 
 (iatriXudvTi, \a, vocSri ro hkyif/uvri trav 'tov ot/^avi 'i^^ov ^s 'rav lytj. Toy oLvh rov 
 Wiovffiov Vi tdfiov VI ffd.fjt.ipi, ^ a(p£ vdfji.ov ra, x,^li vd[/,ou xadou ^s hv ififji.a <p7vTS 
 rov ^piou(psX7<ri vetfjcou, p f^i] vx (ps^i^i^e If/.ovvavi 'j xii^afffio, ocXXa ikiu^i^DV d'Zo 
 TO xaxo. 
 
 On the other side of Mount Taygetus the Mainot dia- 
 lect is spoken, being Messenian rather than Laconian. 
 An offset of the Mainot is spoken by the Greeks of 
 Corsica — of which the following is an extract from the 
 only-known specimen. 
 
 Luhe XV. 11-19. 
 
 11. "Eva? aS^wTfos ti^i ^vo vous. 
 
 12. Ka/ i'tfi TXio fiix^os asro' avrevs r u<pt^ov rov, 'Ai^eJj?, lof^ov ro fM^'^ixa 
 rod <!r^oixiov otov fiou r^i^it. Ka.) rovg lf.ci^a,ffi to ir^oixio. 
 
 13. Ka} vffTi^a. OCT okiyocis rif4.i^Kis fjiotZ,ofji.ivo Toiffoi, -r^'dyficx. o tXio fitx^o;, 
 l5/«}' its [Jt,iix, x^i'^ dkd^yev xoi\ ixi7 iffxo^Tiffi to T^oixto Z^uvtu ffct^xixd, 
 
 14. Ka.) vffTi^a, OCT ov s'^o^iaffi Taffoi ^^a,y/jt,a, Yi^Ti fjt,ia /.aydXri tH^o, i'lg 
 IxiTvyi rh X'^i"'' *'*' IxiTvcs ei^x^"'^ "' ^^" Xi'-'"- 
 
 15. Ka) i^ict)' xa) iff/^i^i yX 'Ivocv toXity^v \xi7vns i^VS X^i^^' "■"" '''^^ 'iffrnXi 
 its ra x^^^^'^ '^"'^ ''^ jSaVxjj revs X'""?""'^- 
 
 16. Ka) dyd<ra vx yofji,iff^ rriv xeiXixv rov xto tx /SsXav/a oTou 'ir^uxvi o) 
 ^lov^ot' xx) xxvivxs ^iv rov 'i^i^i. 
 
 17. 'Epx^f^^^"* "'» ixvrov roV) iJ-TS, Toffoi ^avXoi r xi^ihoZ f^ev ;(^a{T£y(««v8 xTo 
 i^ufi), xx) lyu ipo(pu XTO "Xilvx ! 
 
 18. Inxovofjuxi xx) 9rda ffr x(pi^ov fzoVy xx) rev Xiu, 'A(psJ»j, ifix^rx us rov 
 ol^xvev xx) xt^offrx gov, 
 
 19. Ka) ^sv uiAXi TXio oi^ios vx ((uvax^^ "°( '*''' ««V*' i*** ^* tvxvi x-ro rovs 
 ^eZXovs ffov. 
 
THE GREEK. 657 
 
 Though the earliest specimens of the Greek are 
 earlier than the earliest specimens of the Latin, it by no 
 means follows that the Greek is the older language : 
 indeed, as it rarely happens that any one language is 
 wholly and in every part more archaic in its form than 
 another, the terms older and newer must be used with 
 extreme caution.' As far as the Latin preserves the 
 neuter and accusative forms in -m (which in Greek become 
 v), along with other characteristics, it is, jpro tanto, older. 
 With its preterites in ~ka, its greater amount of verbs in 
 -fii>, as well as in other points, the comparative antiquity 
 is on the side of the Greek. In its eschewal of conso- 
 nantal terminations, (no words in the standard language, 
 with the exceptions of €k and ovk, ending in any con- 
 sonant but (7 or V,) the Greek reminds us of the modern 
 Italian rather than the ancient Roman : indeed, for any 
 language but the Greek, its extreme liquidity and 
 vocality would earn for it the character of weakness 
 or something equally disparaging. 
 
 XT U 
 
658 THE GERMAN LANGUAGES, 
 
 CHAPTEE LXXIX. 
 
 The German Class. — The Moesogothic. — The High and Low German. — The 
 Anglo-Saxon and English. — The Frisian. — The Norse, or Scandinavian. 
 
 The language belonging to the German group, for which 
 we have the earliest specimens, is known by the some- 
 what exceptionable name of Moesogothic ; wherein we 
 have a large portion of the Gospels, as translated by 
 Ulphilas, in the fourth century, for the Goths of the 
 Lower Danube ; along with a few other minor fragments. 
 It is the earliest as well as the latest member of its 
 class. It was spoken by a population projected into 
 a foreign locality, and by a population of which the 
 original locality has been filled up by dialects from 
 another area. Its original area was probably Thuringia. 
 As compared with the modern German dialects (the word 
 being taken in its widest sense, so as to comprise the 
 English and the Swedish), it is old : and it is old even 
 when compared with the Anglo-Saxon, the Icelandic, and 
 the Old German : though not in every point. It has (as 
 stated) no direct descendants. 
 
 Then come the languages of Southern Germany, in 
 which we have compositions as old as the eighth cen- 
 tury : some being what is called Alemannic or German 
 of the Upper Rhine, rather than Bavarian or German 
 of the Upper Danube, and vice versa. They graduate, 
 however, into each other. 
 
 The German of the Middle Rhine, often called Frank, 
 is intermediate in character to the German of the 
 
THE GERMAN LANGUAGES. Go 9 
 
 South and North, the former being called High, the 
 latter Low, German. And, in their extreme forms, they 
 are so named with propriety. They graduate, however, 
 both in the older and newer dialects, into one another, 
 and can only be separated by an arbitrary line ; in other 
 words, by fixing upon some single character — and even 
 that is not constant. 
 
 In these two divisions the modern literary German 
 is the cultivated representative of the High, the Dutch 
 of Holland, of the Low group. Neither, however (as is 
 the case with literary lang-uages in general) represents 
 any dialect exactly. 
 
 The old standard of the High German is the Bible 
 translation of the reformers ; and, as Luther was a 
 Saxon, it passes for being more akin to the language of 
 the parts about Dresden and Leipzic than aught else. 
 When it was pressed upon the Low Germans it was con- 
 temptuously called Luther's Misnian. Yet the dialect 
 of Meissen is, by no means, either the literary German 
 or its pure and simple progenitor. 
 
 The High German dialects are numerous ; and it 
 is probable that some are, in complex sentences, 
 mutually unintelligible — especially in certain outlying 
 districts, such as Monte Rosa, the Italian Tyrol, 
 the Sette and Tredici Commune in Yenetia, and the 
 Siebenbiirgen in Transylvania. The Swiss German be- 
 longs to this division ; indeed, it is probable that the 
 Swiss, the Suabian, and the Bavarian all form divisions 
 of equal value with that of the High German itself. 
 
 At present there is (with one small exception) nothing 
 spoken in Germany Proper but dialects belonging to 
 one of these two divisions. A thousand years ago, 
 however, in the parts about the Sauerland and the Ysel, 
 the language of Northern Germany was Saxon. Herein, 
 the most southern dialect was the Old Saxon of West- 
 phalia, of which a few specimens have been preserved. 
 To the north and north-east of this lay the Anglo- 
 
 u u 2 
 
660 THE GERMAN LANGUAGES. 
 
 Saxon, or the English in its oldest form — bounded on the 
 one side by the sea, on the other by the Danish and Sla- 
 vonic. Little more than a variety, to the west lay the 
 Frisian of Friesland : of which a modification named the 
 North Frisian is spoken in Sleswick. In Saterland, too, 
 one of the fenniest districts of Germany, Frisian is still 
 spoken; and this exception to the general statement that 
 there is nothing in Germany but the German is the one 
 alluded to. The statement itself meant that the Saxon 
 forms of speech have been obliterated. In Holland it is 
 spoken largely. 
 
 The Frisian is transitional between the German and 
 the Scandinavian (or Norse) branch of this important 
 class ; the Scandinavian or Norse languages being the 
 Icelandic, the Feroic, the Danish, the Swedish, and the 
 numerous dialects of Norway — the literary Norwegian 
 being the Danish. With a post-positive article, and a 
 so-called passive voice (arising out of a middle ; itself the 
 result of a fusion between the verb and the reflective 
 pronoun), the Norse languages are sufficiently separated 
 from the German — neither of these characteristics being 
 found in even the Frisian. At the same time they are 
 phenomena of wliich we may easily overvalue the 
 import. Both are of comparatively recent origin ; and 
 in the Danish of Sleswick, the post-positive article is 
 wanting. The other Danish dialects are the Northern 
 and Southern Jute ; the island dialects (of which those 
 of Sealand and Fyen are the chief) ; and the dialect 
 of Bornholm. In Sweden, that of Scaane is sufficiently 
 Danish to have been ascribed to Denmark — probably 
 on insufficient grounds. 
 
 North of Scaane the main dialects are those of East 
 and West Gothland, of the island of Gothland, of 
 Upland, Smaaland, and Dalecarlia. More outlying still, 
 is the dialect of the free Swedish yeomen (Jria Svenska 
 bonder), of parts of Estonia and some of the small 
 islands opposite. 
 
THE GERMAN LANGUAGES. 661 
 
 In Norway, where the dialects have met with more 
 than ordinary attention, and where some extreme 
 patriots hope to evolve out of them a literary language 
 by which the novj foreign Danish may be superseded, 
 the approach to the old Norse, accurately represented 
 by the Icelandic, and approximately by the Feroic, is 
 closer than in any part of Denmark, and (with the 
 doubtful exception of Dalecarlia) any part of Sweden 
 either — the characteristic which has drawn the most 
 attention being a third gender ; the feminine. In the 
 literary language there is only a common gender and a 
 neuter. 
 
 Among the Norwegian dialects we have specimens of 
 twenty in the curious work of Aasen. 
 
 Northern. — Lofoden, Helgeland, Inderoen, Stjordalen, 
 Orkedalen, Nordmor. 
 
 Western. — Sondmor, Sond^ord, Sogn, Nordhordland, 
 Yoss, Hardanger, Sondhordland, Ysederen. 
 
 Southern. — Ssetersdalen, Tellemarken, Valders, Hal- 
 lingdal, Gullbrandsdal, Osterdalen. 
 
 It is difficult to arrange these ; inasmuch as the speci- 
 mens are either short narratives taken from the mouth 
 of the common people or descriptions of some locality : 
 the object of the collector being less the exhibition of so 
 many forms of his mother-tongue as dialects, than the 
 collection of materials for the development of a common 
 Norwegian language, as opposed to the Danish now 
 current. 
 
 It is evident, however, that they all agree on one 
 point, viz. in approaching nearer than the present lite- 
 rary language to the Old Norse. Generally, if not al- 
 ways, they have a feminine gender ; often a dative case. 
 In the use of a instead of e, at the end of words, many 
 of them approach the Swedish. 
 
 For the new Norwegian dialect to be obtained by a 
 free and eclectic use of these materials there are sugges- 
 ted {inter alia) an infinitive in a, giving fara^ doma, 
 
662 THE GERMAN LANGUAGES. 
 
 fee, instead of the existing fare, dome, &lc., and a femi- 
 nine gender — a restoration which few Englishmen will 
 mistake for an improvement. 
 
 A series of facts upon which the evidence of the 
 Greek and Latin languages is silent, is well exhibited in 
 the history of those of the German group — best, perhaps, 
 and most especially by that of the Norse tongues. This 
 is because (out of it) no fewer than three literary languages 
 have been evolved ; not to mention numerous dialects and 
 sub-dialects. Of these — 
 
 1 . The modern Icelandic has preserved the old lan- 
 guage with a oninimum amount of alteration ; practically 
 speaking, indeed, the modern Icelandic and the Old 
 Norse are synonymous. 
 
 2. The Swedish either changed more slowly than 
 Danish or began its changes later. 
 
 3. The Danish either changed more quickly than the 
 Swedish or began its changes earlier. Petersen, to whom 
 the best investigation of these interesting points is due, 
 considers that Denmark was (so to say) about a century 
 ahead of Sweden ; in other words, that if the Danish had 
 reached a given stage in (say) A.D. 1400, the Swedish 
 reached it about A.D. 1500. Meanwhile, the Norwegian 
 remained in a comparatively unaltered condition until 
 the Reformation, when change set in so rapidly that half 
 a century put it on the level with its sisters. 
 
 I lay this before the reader not because the statement 
 can be taken strictly and literally (which was, by no 
 means, the author's intention), but, because (being true 
 in the main), it illustrates phenomena, for which we 
 have no superabundance of data, but, unfortunately on 
 the contrary, a deficiency — viz. the conditions under 
 which change sets in, and the rate of the change itself. 
 Incidentally, too, they show what is even of greater in- 
 terest, i. e. the regularity with which the same changes 
 are undergone by different forms of speech. Roughly 
 speaking, we may say that in the break-up of the Old 
 
THE GERMAN LANGUAGES. 663 
 
 Norse the same inflections are lost, in the same order ; 
 and that they are replaced by the same substitutes. 
 The changes (in other words) are the same ; the rate 
 only being different. 
 
 The blood and language in this family coincide but 
 slightly — the range of the latter being the widest. 
 Before the spread of the German, Scandinavia was 
 Ugrian, and, probably, to some extent Prussian or 
 Lithuanic ; Denmark, whether Ugrian or Sarmatian, 
 other than German ; all the parts beyond the Elbe, and, 
 possibly beyond the Teutoberger Wald, Slavonic ; all 
 the parts to the South of the Mayn (in the opinion of 
 the present writer) the same ; Britain, Keltic Koman 
 and mixed. Hence, the original area of the Germans is 
 included by the Teutoberger Wald, the Elbe and Saale, 
 the Mayn, and the Rhine — an area which, small as it 
 is, when compared with the present magnitude of the 
 German, is greater than that of the Latin family. 
 
 It should be added, however, that these limitations 
 are, by no means, currently admitted ; least of all in 
 Germany itself, and that they are incompatible with 
 two current doctrines — (1.) that all the populations 
 mentioned in the Germania of Tacitus were German, 
 and (2.) that the name Goth indicates a German popula- 
 tion. His objections to both these doctrines have been 
 given by the present writer elsewhere. The Germans 
 were Goths just as the English are Britons, i. e. they 
 took the name when they settled in a country originally 
 Gothic. 
 
664^ 
 
 THE KELTIC. 
 
 CHAPTEK LXXX. 
 
 The Keltic Languages. — British Branch. — Gaelic Branch. 
 
 Of the Keltic Stock there are two Branches. 
 
 (1.) The British, represented by the Welsh, the 
 Cornish and the Armorican, or Breton, of Britany. It 
 is almost certain that the old British, and the ancient 
 language of Gaul, belonged to this branch. 
 
 English. 
 
 Welsh. 
 
 Head 
 
 pen 
 
 Hair 
 
 gwallt 
 
 Eye 
 
 Uygad 
 
 Nose 
 
 trwyn 
 
 Mouth 
 
 ceg 
 
 Teeth 
 
 dannedd 
 
 Tongue 
 
 tafod 
 
 Ear 
 
 clust 
 
 Bach 
 
 cefn 
 
 Blood 
 
 gwaed 
 
 Arm 
 
 braich 
 
 Hand 
 
 Haw 
 
 Leg 
 
 coes 
 
 Foot 
 
 froed 
 
 Nail 
 
 ewin 
 
 Horse 
 
 . cefiyl 
 
 Cow 
 
 buwch 
 
 Calf 
 
 Ho 
 
 Sheep 
 
 dafad 
 
 Lamb 
 
 oen 
 
 Goat 
 
 gafr 
 
 Dog 
 
 ci 
 
 Fox 
 
 llwynog 
 
 Goose 
 
 gwydd 
 
 Crow 
 
 bran 
 
 Bird 
 
 adar 
 
 Fish 
 
 pysg 
 
 Cornish. 
 
 pen 
 
 bleu 
 
 lagat 
 
 tron 
 
 genau 
 
 dyns 
 
 tavat 
 
 scovom 
 
 chein 
 
 guit 
 
 brech 
 
 lof 
 
 coes 
 
 truit 
 
 ivin 
 
 march 
 
 bugh 
 
 loch 
 
 davat 
 
 oin 
 
 gavar 
 
 ky 
 
 lonvem 
 guit 
 bran 
 ezn 
 
 pysg 
 
 Breton. 
 
 penn 
 
 bleo 
 
 try 
 
 guenon 
 
 dant 
 
 teod 
 
 scouarn 
 
 chein 
 
 brech 
 
 doum 
 
 garr 
 
 troad 
 
 ivin 
 
 march 
 
 vioch 
 
 leue 
 
 danvat 
 
 oan 
 
 chaour 
 
 chy 
 
 louarn 
 
 oaz 
 
 vran 
 
 ein 
 

 ■ TI 
 
 m KELTIC. 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Welsh. 
 
 Cornish. 
 
 Breton, 
 
 One 
 
 un 
 
 onan 
 
 unan 
 
 Two 
 
 dau 
 
 deu 
 
 daou 
 
 Three 
 
 tri 
 
 try 
 
 tri 
 
 Four 
 
 pedwar 
 
 peswar 
 
 pevar 
 
 Five 
 
 pump 
 
 pymp 
 
 pemp 
 
 Six 
 
 chwech 
 
 whe 
 
 chuech 
 
 Seven 
 
 saith 
 
 seyth 
 
 seiz 
 
 Eight 
 
 wyth 
 
 eath 
 
 eiz 
 
 Nine 
 
 naw 
 
 naw 
 
 nao 
 
 Ten 
 
 deg 
 
 dek 
 
 dec 
 
 Twenty 
 
 ugain 
 
 ugenis 
 
 ugent 
 
 Hundred 
 
 cant 
 
 cant 
 
 cant. 
 
 665 
 
 The Cornish hterature is of the scantiest. A poem 
 called Calvary, three religious dramas or mysteries, 
 and a vocabulary, are, perhaps, as old as the fifteenth 
 century. Then there is another religious drama, by 
 William Jordan — A.D. 1611, a few songs, a f^w pro- 
 verbs, a short tale, two translations of the first chapter 
 of Genesis, which Mr. Norriss (the authority for all 
 these statements) says are very poor, translations of the 
 Commandments, Belief, and the Lord's Prayer, one of 
 which is called ancient, the other modern ; but this (I 
 again quote Mr. Norriss) without any apparent reason 
 for the distinction. 
 
 Cornish. 
 Bens Pater. 
 Adam, otte an puskes, -„,^ 
 
 Ythyn a'n nef ha'n bestes, 
 
 Kefrys yn tyr hag yn mor ; 
 Ro thethe aga hynwyn, 
 Y a thue the 'th workemmyn, 
 Saw na byhgh y war nep cor. 
 
 Adam. 
 Yt 'hanwaf bugh ha tarow, 
 Ha margh, yw bast hep parow 
 
 The vap den rag ymweres ; 
 Gaver, yweges, karow, 
 Daves, war ve (?) lavarow 
 
 Hy hanow da kemeres. 
 
 In English. 
 God the Father. 
 Adam, behold the fishes, 
 The birds of heaven, and the beasts. 
 
 Equally in land and in sea ; 
 Give to them their names, 
 They will come at thy command. 
 But do not mistake them in any 
 sort. 
 
 Adam. 
 I name cow, and bull. 
 And horse, it is a beast without 
 equal 
 For the son of man to help himself ; 
 Goat, steer, stag. 
 Sheep, from my words 
 To take their names. 
 
666 
 
 THE KELTIC. 
 
 Lemyn hanwaf goyth. ha yar, 
 A sensaf ethyn hep par 
 
 The vygyens den war an beys ; 
 Hos, payon, colom, grvgyer, 
 Swan, bargos, bryny ha'n er, 
 
 Moy drethof a vyth hynwys. 
 
 Y wf hynwyn the'n puskes, 
 Porpus, sowmens, syllyes, 
 
 01 thy'm gustyth y a vyth ; 
 Leneson ha barfusy, 
 Pysk ragof ny ura skvsy 
 
 Mar corthyaf dev yn perfyth. 
 
 Deus Pater. 
 Eag bones ol tek ha da. 
 
 In whed dyth myns yw formyys, 
 Aga sona a wra : 
 
 May fe seythves dyth hynwys. 
 Hen yw dyth a bowesva 
 
 The pup den a vo sylwys ; 
 Yd dysguythyens a henna, 
 
 Ny a boves desempys. 
 
 Now I name goose and fowl, 
 I hold them birds without equal 
 
 For food of man on the earth ; 
 Duck, peacock, pidgeon, partridge, 
 Swan, kite, crows, and the eagle. 
 
 Further by me are named. 
 
 I give names to the fishes. 
 Porpoises, salmons, congers. 
 
 All to me obedient they shall be ; 
 Ling and cod, 
 A fish from me shall not escape 
 
 If I honour Grod perfectly. 
 
 Ood the Father. 
 For all that is fair and good. 
 
 In six days all that is created. 
 Bless them we will : 
 
 Let it be called the seventh day. 
 This is a day of rest 
 
 To every man that may be saved ; 
 In declaration of that 
 
 We will rest forthwith. 
 
 The Pater-nosteb. 
 Older Form. 
 An Taz, ny es yn nef, bethens thy hannow ughelles, gwr^nz doz thy gulas 
 ker : Bethens thy voth gwr&z yn oar kepare hag yn nef : ro thyn ny hithow 
 agan peb dyth bara ; gava thyn ny ny agan cam, kepare ha gava ny neb es 
 cam ma erbyn ny ; nyn homfrek ny en antel, mez gwyth ny the worth drok : 
 rag gans te yn an mighterneth, an creveder, hag an' worryans, byz a venitha. 
 
 Newer Form. 
 Agan Taz, leb ez en n6v benigas beth de hanno, gurra de gulasketh deaz, de 
 voth beth gwrez en' oar pokar en nev ; ro dony hithow agan pyb dyth bara ; 
 ha gava do ny agan cabmow, pokara ny gava an gy leb es cam ma war bidn 
 ny ; ha na dege ny en antail, brez gwitha ny dort droge : rag an mychteyr- 
 neth ew chee do honnen, ha an crevder, ha an 'worryans, rag bisqueth ha 
 bisqueth. 
 
 (2.) The Gaelic or Erse Branch, represented by the 
 present Irish Gaelic^ the Gaelic of the Highlands of 
 Scotland, and the Manks of the Isle of Man. 
 
 English. 
 
 Irish. 
 
 Scotch. 
 
 Manks. 
 
 Head 
 
 cean 
 
 ceann 
 
 kione 
 
 Hair 
 
 folt 
 
 folt 
 
 folt 
 
 Eye 
 
 stiil 
 
 siiil 
 
 scoil 
 
 Nose 
 
 sron 
 
 srdin 
 
 stxpln 
 

 
 THE KELTIC. 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Irish. 
 
 Scotch. 
 
 Manks. 
 
 Mouth 
 
 beul 
 
 beul 
 
 beeal 
 
 Tooth 
 
 fiacail 
 
 fiacal 
 
 feeackle 
 
 Tongue 
 
 teanga 
 
 teanga 
 
 chengey 
 
 Ear 
 
 duas 
 
 duas 
 
 cleaysh 
 
 Bach 
 
 druim 
 
 druim 
 
 dreem 
 
 Blood 
 
 full 
 
 full 
 
 fuiU 
 
 Arm 
 
 gairdean 
 
 gairdean 
 
 clingan 
 
 Hand 
 
 laiah 
 
 lamb 
 
 lave 
 
 Leg 
 
 cos 
 
 cos 
 
 cass 
 
 Nail 
 
 iongna 
 
 iongna 
 
 ingin 
 
 Horse 
 
 each 
 
 each 
 
 agh 
 
 Cow 
 
 bo 
 
 bo 
 
 booa 
 
 Calf 
 
 laogh 
 
 laogh 
 
 Iheiy 
 
 Sheep 
 
 caor 
 
 caor 
 
 keyrrey 
 
 Lamb 
 
 uan 
 
 uan 
 
 eayn 
 
 Goat 
 
 gabhair 
 
 gabhar 
 
 goayr 
 
 Dog 
 
 cu 
 
 cu 
 
 coo 
 
 Fox 
 
 sionnacb 
 
 sionnach 
 
 shynnagh 
 
 Goose 
 
 geodh 
 
 geodh 
 
 guiy 
 
 Crow 
 
 feannog 
 
 feannag 
 
 feeagh 
 
 Bird 1 
 
 -ban 
 
 eun 
 
 eean 
 
 Fish 
 
 iasg 
 
 iasg 
 
 eeast 
 
 One 
 
 aon 
 
 aon 
 
 unnan6 
 
 Two 
 
 do 
 
 dha 
 
 dhaa 
 
 Three 
 
 tri 
 
 tri 
 
 tree 
 
 Four 
 
 ceathar 
 
 ceithin 
 
 kiare 
 
 Five 
 
 cuig 
 
 cuig 
 
 queig 
 
 Six 
 
 se 
 
 se 
 
 shey 
 
 Seven 
 
 seaclit 
 
 seachd 
 
 shiaght 
 
 Eight 
 
 ocht 
 
 ochd 
 
 hoght 
 
 Nine 
 
 naoi 
 
 naoi 
 
 nuy 
 
 Ten 
 
 deich 
 
 deig 
 
 jeih 
 
 Twenty 
 
 fitche 
 
 fichead 
 
 feed 
 
 Hundred 
 
 cead 
 
 ceud 
 
 keead. 
 
 667 
 
 The Cornish and Armorican are more closely allied 
 than the Cornish and Welsh. 
 
 The Armorican, or Breton, falls into (at least) two 
 dialects, the Breton Proper and the Yannetais of Vannes. 
 
 Song of Solomon ii. 1-4. 
 
 Breton Ordinary. 
 
 1. Me eo ar rosen Sharon, hag el lilien ann traouennou. 
 
 2. Evel a lilien e-kreiz ar spern, evel-se e-ma va miiiounez e-kreiz a 
 mere' bed. 
 
668 THE KELTIC. 
 
 3. Evel eur -wezen avalore e-kreiz gwez ar c'hoadou, evel-se e-ma va 
 minoun e-kreiz ar vipien. Dindaw he skeud ounn bet azezeb, hag he frouez 
 a oa c'houek d'am genou. 
 
 4. Va lekeat en dedz da ront 6 ti ar gwin ; hag he arwez dreist-ounn a oa 
 karantez. 
 
 (2.) 
 
 Breton of Vannes, or Vannetais. 
 
 1. M6 zou er rosen Sharon, hag el lilien en douareu-izel. 
 
 2. El nl lilien e creis e spem, el-c6 e-'ma me harante etre er merhed. 
 
 3. El ur hueen-aveleu 6tve que er hoedeu, el-c6 e-ma me muian-caret e 
 mesq er pautred. Azeet e-on bet idan e squoed quet ur vourradiqueah bras, 
 hag e freh e oe huek a p'en tanhouas. 
 
 4. Ean em gassas d'en ty a chervad, hag e arres, dreist-on, e oe carante. 
 
 The following is the parable of the Sower in (1.) the 
 Gaelic of Connaught, (2.) the Gaelic of Munster. 
 
 Feuch, do chuaidh sioladoir a mach do chur sil: 
 
 Agus ag cur an tsil do, do theut cuid dhe chors na sligheadh, agus tangadar 
 na he^nlaith, agus a d6adar 6 : 
 
 Agus do thuit cuid eile dhe a bhfearan chlochach, mar nach raibh moran 
 uire aige : agus do fhas se go luath, do brigh nach bhfuair s^ dorinhneachd na 
 talmhan : 
 
 Agus ar n6irghe don ghrein, do doidheadh e ; agus ar son nach raibh 
 freumh aige, do shearg se. 
 
 Agus do thuit cuid eile dhe eidir mhuineach ; agus do eirghe an muineach 
 s<ias, agus do mhuch se e : 
 
 Agus do thuit cuid eile dhe a dtalamh mhaith, agus tus se toradh, cuid 
 ceuduired, cuid tri fichid uiread, cuid a deich fichead uiread. 
 
 Gidh be agd bhfuillia cluS,sa chum eisdeachda, eisdeagh se. 
 
 (2.) 
 
 Feuch, do cheiaid sioladoir amach ug cur sil. 
 
 Agus ag cur an tsil do, do thuit cuid de cois na sllghe, agus thainigh na 
 heanlacha agus d'itheadar suas d ; 
 
 Do thuit cuid eile dhe air thalamh bhi Ian do chlocha, ait, na raibh mo- 
 r^n cr§ aige ; agus dfh^s se suas a' urchar, mar na raibh doimhnios na talm- 
 han aige ; 
 
 Agus air eirlghe don ghrein do doghag 6 ; agus mar na raibh aon phreumh 
 aige, do chrion se ; 
 
 Agus do thuit cuid eile dhe a measg deilgnidhe ; agus dfhas na deilgnidhe 
 suas, agus do mhfichadar § ; 
 
 Ach do thuit cuid eile dhe air thalamh mhait, agus thug toradh uaig, cuid 
 de a chead uiriod f em, cuid a thri fichid uiriod, agus cuid a dheich der fhichiod 
 uiriod. 
 
 Pe duine go bfuil cluasa chum eisdeachta aige, eisdigheach se, 
 
 1. In Irish there is a peculiar fcrm for the dative 
 plural as cos —foot, cosaibh = to feet (-ped-ibus) ; and be- 
 yond this there is little else whatever in the way of case 
 
THE KELTIC. 
 
 669 
 
 as found in the German, Latin, Greek, and other tongues. 
 Even the isolated form in question is not found in the 
 Welsh and Breton. 
 
 2. In Welsh the pronouns for we, ye, and they, are ni, 
 chwyi, and hwynt respectively. In Welsh also the root = 
 love is car. As conjugated in the plural number this is- — 
 
 car- lu n = am-a772 us. 
 
 car- ych = am-af is. 
 
 car-a?i^ = ^mi-ant 
 Now the -w)i, ~ych, and -ant of the persons of the 
 verbs are the personal pronouns, so that the inflection is 
 really a verb and a pronoun in a state of agglutination ; 
 i. e. in a state where the original separate existence of 
 the two sorts of words is still manifest. 
 
 3. The Keltic noun changes its initial letter according 
 to its relation to the other words of the sentence ; of 
 course subject to rule. 
 
 {From the Welsh.) 
 Ca,r, a kinsman. 
 
 l.fonn, CSiragos, a near kinsman. 
 
 2. Ei gdr, his kinsman. 
 
 3. Ei ch4r, her kinsman. 
 
 4. Yy nghdr, my kinsman. 
 
 T4d, 
 1. 
 
 2. 
 3. 
 4. 
 
 a father. 
 
 form, Tad y plentyn, the child's 
 father. 
 
 Ei dad, his father. 
 
 Eithad, her father. 
 
 Yy nhad, my father. 
 
 Pen, 
 
 a head. 
 
 1. 
 
 2. 
 3. 
 4. 
 
 form, Pen gwr, the head of a 
 man. 
 Ei ben, his head. 
 Ei phen, her head. 
 Yy mhen, my head. 
 
 Gwds, a servant. 
 
 1. 
 3. 
 
 form, Gwks ijdhlon, a faithful 
 servant. 
 Ei wds, his servant. 
 . ^> ngwas, my servant. 
 
 Duw, a god. 
 
 1. form, Duw trugarog, a merciful 
 
 god. 
 
 2. form, Ei dhuw, his god. 
 
 3. Yy nuw, my god. 
 Bara, bread. 
 
 1. form, Bara cann, white bread. 
 
 2. Ei vara, his bread. 
 
 3. Yy mara, my bread. 
 Lhaw, a hand. 
 
 1. foim, Lhawwenn, awhitehand. 
 
 2. Ei law, his hand. 
 Mam, a mother. 
 
 1. form, Mam diiion, a tender mo- 
 
 ther. 
 
 2. Eivam, his mother. 
 Rhwyd, a net. 
 
 1. form, Rhwyd lawn, afidl net. 
 
 2. Ei rwyd, his net. 
 {From the Erse.) 
 
 Suil, an eye. 
 
 1. /(WW, Suil. 
 
 2. A htiil, his eye. 
 Slainte, health. 
 
 2. form. Do hliinte, yow health. 
 
670 THE KELTIC. 
 
 The following is found in the fly-leaf of a copy of 
 Juvencus. It is pronounced to be not Welsh ; not 
 Cornish ; but Pict. 
 
 (1.) 
 
 Ni guorcosam nemheunaur henoid 
 
 Mi telun it gurmaur 
 
 Mi am franc dam an calaur. 
 
 (2.) 
 Ni con ili ni guardam ni cusam henoid 
 Gel iben med nouel 
 Mi am franc dam an patel. 
 
 (3.) 
 Na mereit nep leguenid henoid 
 Is discinn mi coweidid 
 Don nam Riceur imguetid. 
 
 Translation of Mr. Nash.* 
 
 I shall not sleep a single hour to-night, 
 
 My harp is a very large one, 
 
 Give me for my play a taste of the kettle. 
 
 (2.) 
 I shall not sing a song, nor laugh or kiss to-night, 
 Before drinking the Christmas mead. 
 Give me for my play a taste of the bowl. 
 
 (3.) 
 Let there be no sloth or sluggishness to-night, 
 I am very skilful in recitation. 
 God, King of Heaven, let my request be obtained. 
 
 Translation of Archdeacon Williams. 
 
 (1.) 
 I will not sleep even an hour's sleep to-night. 
 My family is not formidable, 
 I and my Frank servant and our kettle. 
 
 (2.) 
 No bard will sing, I will not smile nor kiss to-night ; 
 Together .... to the Christmas mead 
 Myself and my Frank client and our kettle. 
 
 (3.) 
 Let no one partake of joy to-night. 
 Until my fellow soldier arrives. 
 It is told to me that our lord the King will come. 
 
 * Taliessin ; or, the Bards and Druids of Britain, p. 79. 
 
THE KELTIC. 671 
 
 I have given it as I found it. The word Noel^ 
 ChHstmas is Anglo-Norman. It is not an impossible, 
 though not a likely, word to be found in the Pict ; 
 though it is quite as likely as the fact of a Pict reading 
 Juvencus. 
 
 For the details of the early stages of the Keltic lan- 
 guages the valuable work of Zeuss is the great reper- 
 torium, the materials being for — 
 
 The Irish. — 1 . Glosses on Priscian, in. the library of 
 St. Gallen. They are marginal and interlinear ; written 
 in three hands. A few are in the Ogham character ; 
 the majority in the ordinary Latin. The seventh century 
 is the assigned date of these glosses on Priscian. 
 
 2. The glosses of the Codex Paulinus. — This is a 
 MS. in the library of the University, originally of the 
 Cathedral of Wirtzburg. They apply to the Epistles of 
 St. Paul. The PauUne glosses are possibly as old as the 
 Priscian. 
 
 3. The Milan glosses. — These are a Commentary on 
 the Psalms, rightly or wrongly ascribed to St. Jerome. 
 They are, perhaps, as old as the preceding. 
 
 4. The glosses on Beda, in the Carlsruhe Library. — 
 Somewhat later than the Milan, Wirtzburg, and St. 
 Gallen MSS. 
 
 5. The Carlsruhe glosses on Priscian. — In some parts 
 these are based upon the St. Gallen MSS., or, at any 
 rate, originate in a common source. In others they are 
 independent. 
 
 6. The St. Gallen Incantations, or formulae for effect- 
 ing charms ; more or less metrical, if not poetical, in 
 character. 
 
 7. The Codex Camaracensis. — This contains Canones 
 Hihernii Concilii, A.D. 684. The MS., however, belongs 
 to the ninth century. 
 
 Of works of equal antiquity with these, in the Bri- 
 tish division of the Keltic tongues, Zeuss gives fewer for 
 Wales than for Ireland. They are — 
 
672 THE KELTIC. 
 
 The Welsh: — 1. Codex Oxoniensis "prior (Bodleian, 
 origiDally NE. D. 2. 19, now F. 4. 4 — 32), containing 
 glosses on Eutycliius and Ovid's Ars Amandi, also the 
 alphabet of coelbren y heirdd, along with De mensuris 
 et jponderihus qucedam, Camhrica intermixta Latinis, 
 pp. 22^ — 23^ 
 
 2. Codex Oxoniensis ^posterior (Bodleian, originally 
 NE. B. 5. 9, now MS. Bodl. 572), membranaceus, 
 formae rainoris, res theologicas continens, in medio autem ; 
 and p. 41*, usque ad 47''' persa qusedam Latina ad prse- 
 bendam pueris verborum copiam (ut videtur) cum vocibus 
 Cambricis, quae scriptse sunt aut supra vocabula Latina 
 aut post ea in linea cum signo i. glossatorum solito. 
 
 3. Codex Ecclesice Lichfeldensis (an tea Landavensis). 
 The Gospels, with certain entries of donations made to 
 the Cathedral of Landaff — adnotatse sunt Latine, sed 
 cum nominibus vel etiam sententiis Cambricis. Pub- 
 lished by Wanley. 
 
 4. Folium Luxemhurgense. Published by Mone, in 
 Die Gallische Sprache Karlsruhe, 1851. 
 
 5. Liber Landavensis. 
 
 6. Codex Legum Venedotianus. — The Laws of 
 Howell Dda. 
 
 7. Codex Ruber Hergestensis (the Red Book of Her- 
 gest). In the library of Jesus College. Intermediate 
 between the Old and Middle British. 
 
 The Cornish. — 1. The Cotton MSS., British Museum, 
 Yesp. A. 14. 
 
 2. Carmen de Passione Christi. 
 
 The Breton. — 1. Glosses in the Chartularies of the 
 Monasteries of Rhedon and Landevin. 
 
 2. Vita S. Nonnce. A mystery of the twelfth cen- 
 tury. Published as the Buhez santez Nonn, with an 
 Introduction by the Abb^ Sionnet, and with a literal 
 translation by M. Legonidec. Paris, 1837. 
 
 The researches of Mr. "Whitley Stokes have added to 
 our materials for the Irish, and Er. Bradshawe, of 
 
THE KELTIC. 
 
 673 
 
 Cambridge, has made the important discovery of a 
 specimen of what may be called the Middle Scotch 
 Gaelic ; in which language there had previously been 
 nothino^ older than the Reformation. 
 
 The following inscriptions are from Gaul (i. e. un- 
 doubted Keltic ground), and they are treated by Keltic 
 scholars as Keltic — so far, of course, as they are not 
 Latin. 
 
 a-) 
 
 lAPTAI :• i : i AAAN01TAK02 AEAE 
 MATPEBO NAMAY2IKAB0 BPATOYAE 
 
 (2.) 
 
 CErOMAPOG 
 OYIAAONEOC 
 TOOYTIOY 
 NAMAYCATIC 
 EICDPoYBHAH 
 CAMICOCIN 
 NEMHTON 
 
 (3.) 
 
 MARTIALIS • DANNJli 
 lEVRV • VCVETE • SOSIN 
 CELICNON ctETIC 
 GOBEDBI • DVGIIoNIiIo 
 5|cVCVETIN. 
 IN ALISIIA. 
 
 (4.) 
 
 BVSCILLASOSIOLEGASITINALIXIEIMAGALV 
 
 (5.) (6.) 
 
 DOIROS • SEGOMARI 
 lEVRV • ALISANV^ 
 
 (7.) 
 
 ICCAVOS • OP 
 PIANICNOSIEV 
 RVBRIGINDON . 
 CANTABOIX . . . 
 
 LICNOS CoN 
 TEXTOS • lEVRv 
 ANVALoNNACV 
 CANECoSEDLoN 
 
 (8.) 
 ANDE 
 CAINIV 
 LOSTOVTI 
 
 SSICNOS 
 lEVRV 
 
 (9.; 
 
 .CRISPOS BOVI 
 
 . RAMEDON 
 
 . . AXTACBITIEV5 .... 
 OO CARADITONV . . . 
 
 VTASEIANISEB0DDV5 . . 
 
 REMIFILIA 
 DRVTA GISACICIVIS SV 
 
 X X 
 
674 
 
 THE KELTIC. 
 
 (10.) 
 
 RATN BRIVATIOM 
 FRONTV TARBEL j INOS 
 lEVRV 
 
 (11.) 
 IVBRON 
 SVMELI 
 VORETO 
 VIRIVS^F 
 
 (12.) 
 . N • H • D 
 DEO • MERCV 
 VASSO • CALETI 
 MANDALONIV 
 GRATVS • D 
 
 (13.) 
 
 BISGONTAVRIONANALABISBISGONTAVRION 
 CEANALABISBISGONTAVRIOSCATALASES 
 VIMCANIMAVIMSPATERNAMASTA 
 MASTARSSETVTATEIVSTINA QVEM 
 PEPERIT SARRA 
 
 The following are from Italy, i. e. from ground not 
 undoubtedly Keltic. Keltic scholars treat them as Kel- 
 tic, nevertheless. 
 
 I. II. 
 
 . . S.. V 
 
 OISIS • DRVTIF 
 
 RATER EIVS 
 
 INIMVS LOCAVIT 
 
 . ATVITQV . 
 
 . EKNATI • TRVTIK • I 
 
 . .NITV.LOKAN- OISIS 
 
 . VTIKNOS 
 
 MEP . CRVM 
 
 .... IS 
 
 DRVTEIFFRATER 
 
 EIVS 
 
 MINIMVS LOCAV 
 
 IT • ET STATVIT 
 
 ATE KN ATI TRVT 
 
 IKNI • KARNITV 
 
 ARTVA>cKOISIS • T 
 
 RVTIKNOS 
 
 The range of the Keltic blood is inordinately larger 
 than the range of the Keltic language : the former 
 being found, to a great extent, in the French parts of 
 France, and the English parts of England, and North 
 America. 
 
THE BASK. 675 
 
 CHAPTER LXXXL 
 
 The Bask, Basque, or Biscayan. 
 
 This is the language with which I conclude ; and 
 although it is a language which comes at the end 
 of a work which professes to have dealt with nearly 
 all the known forms of speech in the world, it is, 
 in the way of philological importance and interest, equal 
 to any two of the ones which have preceded it. That 
 this interest and importance arise, to a great extent, out 
 of the mystery with which it is enveloped, is easily 
 surmised. 
 
 No language stands so much alone as the Basque. 
 To a certain extent this is what we expect. In the 
 first place it is spoken on the side of the vast Atlantic 
 Ocean, with nothing nearer to it, due west, than the 
 languages of America, and with nothing nearer to it on 
 the south than the languages of Africa ; for the Spanish, 
 a descendant of the Latin, must, in respect to its origin, 
 be looked upon simply as a language of Italy. 
 
 Nor is this all — Spain and Portugal constitute a 
 peninsula rather than an ordinary part of a continent ; 
 so that it is only on one side (a broad one no doubt) 
 with which it comes in contact with anything but the 
 speechless sea ; and that sea a sea of the extreme west. 
 
 More still — on few (if any) portions of the earth's 
 surface have the displacement and obliteration of what, 
 in an earlier period of the world's history, may have 
 been transitional forms, been greater. The Latin has, for 
 above two thousand years, been dominant in Spain. The 
 
 X X 2 
 
676 THE BASK. 
 
 Latin hap, for more than fifteen hundred years, been 
 dominant in Gaul. Of the original languages of 
 Corsica and Sardinia nothing except what can be ob- 
 tained by minute trains of inferential instances exists. 
 Nor is the case very different when we go further. 
 Beyond the Slavonic, the Keltic, the German and the 
 Latin, what is there with which the Bask can, in the 
 first instance, at least, be compared ? To assume the 
 prior existence of a family or families of languages now 
 lost is to explain the igjiotum per ignotius ; whilst (as 
 has just been stated) the Bask has on the west, the 
 south, and the east nothing but the sea. Many lan- 
 guages, such as those in the centre of a continent, have 
 what may be called quaquaversal aspects. Most lan- 
 guages have frontagers on two sides. The Bask never 
 had frontagers except in one direction ; and in that 
 direction those frontagers have been displaced. 
 
 In all this we have real, material, external and 
 objective elements of mystery. The others are subjec- 
 tive ; i. e. they relate to our ignorance as it arises from 
 the neglect of our data rather than from the non-exist- 
 ence of the data themselves. Except for philological 
 purposes, the Bask has never been a language to com- 
 mand attention ; and for philological observation (unless 
 an exception can be made in their favour on account of 
 the researches of the Jesuits upon the rude languages of 
 such pagans as they either failed or succeeded in con- 
 verting to Christianity) the natives of the Spanish 
 peninsula have never been eminent. 
 
 That the Basks themselves should have studied their 
 language is what we expect ; but knowing how, until 
 lately, the Keltic tongues were studied by patriotic 
 amateurs in the way of philology, we are fully prepared 
 to find that they have done it with more zeal than 
 criticism. 
 
 Much of the Bask area is now covered by the philo- 
 logical descendants of the Latin. The Keltic, that pre- 
 
THE BASK. 677 
 
 vailed in Gaul before the time of Caesar, although the 
 extent of its diffusion has been enormously overrated, 
 was, in Gaul and on the German frontier at least, 
 an encroaching language ; so that, even if we should 
 have succeeded in reconstructing the original situs of 
 the languages before the time of Caesar, the recon- 
 struction of an earlier $itus would still stand over. 
 
 Taking things, then, as we find them, the nearest 
 Keltic to the present Bask area is in Brittany, the 
 nearest German in French Flanders, and the nearest 
 Slavonic in Bohemia. The original extension of these 
 lanofuaofes towards the south, the west, and south-west 
 no one knows in its details. Even its generalities are 
 a matter of surmise and inference. 
 
 In all this we find an approximate reason for the 
 great extent to which the Bask has been either sepa- 
 rated from other languages or connected with the most 
 improbable ones. 
 
 The Fin hypothesis, in the technical sense of the 
 term, and in opposition to the opinion of those who 
 have merely found Fin and Siberian coincidences with the 
 Bask, — the Fin hypothesis, which taught that not only 
 did the Kelts, the Germans, the Sarmatians, the Latins, 
 and the Greeks come from Asia, but that before their 
 advent into Europe there was a population of congeners 
 continuously spread over the whole continent from 
 Hammer fest to Gibraltar, of course, gave much import- 
 ance to the Basks ; giving them also their nearest exist- 
 ing kinsmen in Lapland, in Estonia, and in the Govern- 
 ment of Penza — the three points nearest to tlie Pyrenees 
 which are, at the present moment, occupied by Ugrians. 
 Little has come out of this beyond some incidental 
 assertions resting on an otiose belief in the doctrine. 
 At the same time, it is probable that, as far as there are 
 any positive opinions at all on the matter, they are 
 more or less connected with the Fin hypothesis. Nor 
 is this unnatural. 
 
678 THE BASK. 
 
 Of the fifty-six words in Bonaparte's Specimen 
 Lexici Gomparativi omnium Linguarum Europoe- 
 arum the isolation of the Basque is most conspicuous ; 
 even after we have made due and full allowance for the 
 fact of its being the only member of its class. Herein — 
 
 The words like Spirit, Angel, Paradise, &;c. are, as 
 is to be expected, Latin ; being which they may be 
 eliminated. 
 
 With the Latin, however, beyond these, there is no 
 Bask word in common. Nor yet with the Greek. Nor 
 yet with the German. Nor yet with the Keltic. Nor 
 yet with the Skipitar. There is nothing, in short, like 
 anything in Southern, Central, or Western Europe. 
 What is more legitimate than to look for them in the 
 parts beyond — at the outcrop, so to say, of the secondary 
 and later layers of populations ? 
 
 With the Fin there are the following approxima- 
 tions : — 
 
 English. 
 
 Basque. 
 
 Ugrian. 
 
 God 
 
 jainco 
 
 jen, Zirianian 
 
 Thunder 
 
 turmoi 
 
 diermes, Lap 
 
 NigU 
 
 gau 
 
 gi) jy, Vogul 
 
 Rain 
 
 uri, euri 
 
 jor, Tsheremiss. 
 
 with the Slavonic the following : 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Bask. 
 
 Slavonic. 
 
 LaTee 
 
 aintzira 
 
 ezero 
 
 River 
 
 errio (? Spanish) 
 
 re'ka 
 
 Ice 
 
 lei 
 
 led. 
 
 This is Httle enough : nor do we find much more if 
 we look in a direction, first suggested (I believe) by 
 Leibnitz, viz. : towards Africa : where Semitic afiini- 
 ties, Berber affinities, Egyptian affinities have been 
 noticed. Of these the latter has commanded attention 
 from the remarkable coincidence it gives us in the names 
 for the numerals one, six and seven ; where accident and 
 borrowing seem to be equally out of the question. Add 
 
THE BASK. 
 
 079 
 
 to these the words for evening and rain, and the Coptic, 
 the Fin affinities become about equal. 
 
 English. 
 
 Basque. 
 
 Coptic. 
 
 English. 
 
 Basque. 
 
 Coptic. 
 
 Head 
 
 burua 
 
 afe 
 
 Fire 
 
 sua 
 
 klom 
 
 Hair 
 
 illea 
 
 bo 
 
 Water 
 
 ur 
 
 mau 
 
 Eye 
 
 beguia 
 
 bal 
 
 Rain 
 
 uri 
 
 eroou 
 
 Ear 
 
 belarria 
 
 maake 
 
 Cloud 
 
 odei 
 
 kloole 
 
 Nose 
 
 sudurra, 
 
 sha 
 
 Earth 
 
 lur 
 
 kab 
 
 Mouth 
 
 aboa 
 
 ro 
 
 Sea 
 
 itsaso 
 
 iom 
 
 Tongue 
 
 mingana 
 
 aspe 
 
 Bird 
 
 egastia 
 
 halet 
 
 Hand 
 
 escua 
 
 tot 
 
 Fish 
 
 arraya 
 
 tebt 
 
 Foot 
 
 oina 
 
 rat 
 
 Egg 
 
 arraultza 
 
 soouhi 
 
 Blood 
 
 odola 
 
 snab 
 
 Stone 
 
 arria 
 
 al 
 
 Bone 
 
 ezurra 
 
 kas 
 
 Tree 
 
 an-ecba 
 
 khaf 
 
 Beard 
 
 bizarra 
 
 malt 
 
 One 
 
 bat 
 
 ouot 
 
 Day 
 
 egun 
 
 meri 
 
 Tivo 
 
 biga 
 
 snau 
 
 Night 
 
 gau 
 
 eusbi 
 
 Three 
 
 hiru 
 
 shonit 
 
 Sun 
 
 eguzqui 
 
 ri 
 
 Four 
 
 laur 
 
 fto 
 
 Moon 
 
 illargui 
 
 ioh 
 
 Five 
 
 bortz 
 
 tiou 
 
 Star 
 
 izar 
 
 siou 
 
 Six 
 
 sei 
 
 soou 
 
 Morning 
 
 goiz 
 
 atooni 
 
 Seven 
 
 zazpi 
 
 shashp 
 
 Evening 
 
 aiTats 
 
 aroupi 
 
 Eight 
 
 zortzi 
 
 shmen 
 
 Shy 
 
 ceru 
 
 pe 
 
 Nine 
 
 bederatzi 
 
 psit 
 
 Wind 
 
 aiz 
 
 nibe 
 
 Ten 
 
 amar 
 
 met. 
 
 Amongst the other languages of Northern Africa, with 
 which the Bask could, with any likelihood of success, be 
 compared, I have found no more than is found in the 
 Coptic: and, recognizing the bare possibility of the 
 Alani, who, in conjunction with the Silingian Vandals, 
 invaded Spain in the fifth century, having introduced it, 
 I have brought even the Turk dialects within the range 
 of my comparison ; finding as little as I expected. Still, 
 to some slight extent, the ground has been cleared. 
 Tentavimus hcec ne iterum tententur. 
 
 The Afi^ican affinities, however, few as they are, create 
 a serious complication. They suggest the notion that 
 the Bask language is not in situ : sl fact which cer- 
 tain speculations concerning the old Celteberians sup- 
 port ; these being to the effect that the Keltic element 
 suggested by the name was the older, the Iberic, the 
 
680 THE BASK. 
 
 newer : the Kelts being aborigines, the Iberians in- 
 trusive. Hence, even the important preliminary ques- 
 tion as to whether the Basque be the original language 
 of the peninsula can scarcely be considered as finally 
 settled ; though the significance of the old geographical 
 names therein is strongly in favour of it. 
 
 The exact geography of the Bask part of Spain gives 
 us the Caristi and Farduli as the most definite ancestors 
 of the present Biscayans and Na'yarrese. Roughly 
 speaking, however, the indomitable Cantabri are fair 
 representatives of the Old Bask spirit — the Cantabri 
 belonging to Asturias rather than Biscay ; in which 
 province, however, Bask is still spoken. But the whole 
 of Spain appears to have been what the north was ; at 
 any rate, the termination -am, as in Carpetam, -uli, as 
 in Turduli, -bed, as in the Iduhedsb Mons, and the Oros- 
 heda Mons, are generally distributed. More characte- 
 ristic still are the names of towns ending in -gurris and 
 'beris, as CsHeLgurris and Illi6eHs .* and, in a somewhat 
 less degree, the forms in -asc-, -ucca-, -br-, -murg-, -urc-, 
 -issa-j -bare-, -lamhr-, as Mendascus, Morasgi, Yerea- 
 succa, Artabrum, Lacomurgis, Illurco, Nebrissa, Uxa- 
 mabarca, and Flaviolarabris. 
 
 With the distribution of these we may compare that 
 of the Keltic elements. That the names for the River 
 Duria and the Mons Vinnlus are the Keltic dwr and 
 pen is possible. If so, they are Keltic names for na- 
 tural objects : which none of the others are. There is 
 a town or two, like Sebendunnm, in -dun, and, perhaps, 
 a few places in -mag : but, as a general rule, the Keltic 
 names are all of one sort — towns ending in -briga : 
 many of which have, for their first element, the name of 
 one of the Emperors, e. g. Augusto-briga, Julm-briga. 
 These look as if they represented military colonies, with 
 Gallic garrisons, rather than true Keltic localities — add 
 to which, that they are found sporadically and indiffe- 
 rently all over the peninsula. Whatever may have been 
 
THE BASK. 681 
 
 the Keltic population of Celtiberia, all this is against its 
 having been aboriginal. 
 
 As to the area of the Bask in France, there is no 
 need to refine upon the statements which carry it 
 as far north as the Garonne, and as far west as the 
 Rhone. Climherris and IWiberis are decidedly Bask 
 names ; though they will not carry us very far. 
 
 Individually, I think that (early though they show 
 themselves in history) the Kelts of both the Narbonensis 
 and Aquitania were intrusive ; and that (say) a thousand 
 years B.C. the Iberic and Slavonic frontiers touched at 
 some point between the Rhone and the Alps. If so, 
 the Keltic and Slavonic languages are the nearest con- 
 geners to the Bask which the situs suggests — and they 
 are very distant. 
 
 Everything, in Bask, is an a/fix, sufTix, or post^x, 
 rather than a prefix ; i. e. the inflection is the preposi- 
 tion incorporated with the theme, and the p?'eposition is 
 a 2^os^-position. 
 
 What is roughly called the declension runs thus : — 
 
 mendis = mountain 
 mendik = mountain 
 mendiz = mountain-by 
 menditan = mountain-in 
 mendiri = mountain-to 
 
 mendiren = mountain-of 
 mendirekin = m^imtain-with 
 menditako = mountain-for 
 menditarik = mountain-from 
 menditarat = mountain-towards. 
 
 Insert a between the theme and affix, and it becomes 
 definite : — 
 
 mendia = the mountain j mendiarehin = the mountain-with. 
 
 It is clear that the number of possible cases is that of 
 the possible affixes. Some of these, however, express 
 notions which are so different from those ordinarily . 
 represented by the case-endings of other languages that 
 they are conveniently separated from the declension. 
 More than this, they can themselves be declined ; thus 
 from handizz great, we get handiago z=: greater, handi- 
 shagozna little greater, handiegi-=.too great, JiandisheH 
 zza little too great, all of which may take the endings 
 
682 THE BASK. 
 
 in tan, rekin, toko, &;c., and comport themselves as 
 nominatives. 
 
 Like mendi are declined the personal pronouns, ni 
 = 1, gu=z we; niketin =. me-with; gurekin =z us-with ; 
 and, in like manner, hi =. thou ; zu =i ye, &c. 
 
 In this way, too, are declined all the pronouns and 
 all the participles. 
 
 The possessive pronouns precede, the adjectives follow, 
 the substantive.^ The Basks say mea mater, but matres 
 honce. 
 
 When a substantive and adjective agree and come 
 together the latter only is declined ; just as if we said 
 in Latin vir bonis instead of viris bonis. 
 
 The possessives — enia = my or mine, guria = our, 
 &;c., seem to be little more than the pronoun plus the 
 letter a — ^the definite article if we choose to call it so : 
 indeed this, the postpositious, and the change from a to 
 e in the plural seem to be chief, if not the sole factors 
 in the declension. Of course there is great regularity, 
 just as there is great regularity in English in the use of 
 to, by, on, &c. 
 
 After recognizing the difierence between (say) voco 
 and vocito, let us extend it to many shades of difference 
 between many verbs. That this will give us the basis 
 of a number of moods and tenses is clear. But the 
 form itself is, if not a mood, like vocem, a mode. Let 
 it be called so, and instead of potentials, and subjectives, 
 we may have inchoatives, frequentatives, desideratives, 
 and what not ? In this the Bask is rich. 
 
 Its deferential conjugation is another characteristic. 
 Deferential modes of address are at their Tnaximum, 
 in the Oceanic languages : though found in either frag- 
 ments or rudiments elsewhere. What is our fiction of 
 treating the single person spoken to as two and saying, 
 you for thou but this ? Still, for a European language 
 though in contact with the Spanish, the deferential style 
 in Bask is highly developed. 
 
THE BASK. 683 
 
 The main dialects of the Modern Basque are (!) the 
 Biscayan ; (2) the Guipnscoan ; (3) the Labourd ; (4) 
 the Soule — the first two exclusively Spanish. How 
 they fall into sub-sections is seen from the following ex- 
 tracts of the apocryphal song of the Three Children, 
 from the Bonaparte repertorium of facts on those 
 
 points. 
 
 I. 
 
 Ordinary Biscayan. 
 
 1. Jaunaren obra guztiak, bedeinkatu egizue Jauna : alabau ta guztien 
 ganetik goratu egizue beti. 
 
 2. Jaunaren Angeruak, bedeinkatu, &c. 
 
 3. Zeruak, bedeinkatu, &c. 
 
 4. Zeruen ganean dagozan ur guztiak, bedeinkatu, &c. 
 
 5. Jaunaren birtute guztiak, bedeinkatu, &c. 
 
 6. Eguzkia ta irargia, bedeinkatu, &c. 
 
 7. Zeruko izarrah, bedeinkatu, &c. 
 
 8. Euri ta inontz guztiak, bedeinkatu, &c. 
 
 9. Jaungoikoaren espiritu guztiak, bedeinkatu, &c. 
 
 10. Sua ta beroa, bedeinkatu egizue, &c. 
 
 11. Otza ta beroa, bedeinkatu, &c. 
 
 12. Inofitzak eta zurdea, bedeinkatu, &c. 
 
 13. Leya ta otza, bedeinkatu, &c. 
 
 14. Karraldoa ta edurrah, bedeinkatu, &c. 
 
 15. Gawak eta egunak, bedeinkatu, &c. 
 
 Ochandian, 
 
 1. Jaunen obea gustijek, bedeinketu eisuku Jaune : alabau da gustijen 
 ganetik goratu eisube heti. 
 
 2. Jaunen Angerubek, bedeinketu, &c. 
 
 3. Serubek, bedeinketu, &c. 
 
 4. Seruben ganien daosan ur gustijek, bedeinketu, &c. 
 
 5. Jaunen birtute gustijek, bedeinketu eisube, &c. 
 
 6. Eguskije da iretargije, bedeinketu, &c. 
 
 7. Seruko iserrak, bedeinketu, &c. 
 
 8. Euri da iflontz gustijek, bedeinketu, &c. 
 
 9. Jaungoikuen espiritu gustijek, bedeinketu, &c. 
 
 10. Sube da berue, bedeinketu, &c. 
 
 11. Otza da berue, bedeinketu, &c. 
 
 12. Iflontzak da surdie, bedeinketu, &c. 
 
 13. Leije da otza, bedeinketu, &c. 
 
 14. Leije da edurrek, bedeinketu, &c. 
 
 15. Gaubek da egunek, bedeinketu, &c. 
 
 Marquenese. 
 1. Jaunaren obra guztijak, bedeinkatu ezigube Jauna : alubau ta guztige 
 ganetik goratu egizube beti, &c. 
 
684 THE BASK. 
 
 2. Junnaren Aingerubak, bedeinkatu, &c. 
 
 3. Zerubak, bedeinkatu, &c. 
 
 4. Zeruben ganian dagozan ur gustijak, bedeinkatu, &c. 
 
 5. Jaunaren birtute guztijak, bedeinkatu, &c. 
 
 6. Eguzkija ta illargija, bedeinkatu, &c. 
 
 7. Zeruko izarrak, bedeinkatu, &c. 
 
 8. Euri ta iflontz guztijak, bedeinkatu, &c. 
 
 9. Jaungoikuaren espiritu gustijak, bedeinkatu, &c. 
 
 10. Sube ta berua, bedeinkatu, &c. 
 
 11. Otza ta berua, bedeinkatu, &c. 
 
 12. Iruntzak eta intzierra, bedeinkatu, &c. 
 
 13. lyotza ta otza, bedeinkatu, &c. 
 
 14. lyotza ta edurrak, bedeinkatu, &c. 
 
 15. Grabak eta egunak, bedeinkatu, &c. 
 
 11. 
 
 Guipuscoan {Central}. 
 
 1. Jaunaren obra guztiyak, bedeinkatu ezazue Jauna, alabatu eta guztiyen 
 gafietik goratu ezazue beti. 
 
 2. Jaunaren Aingerubak, bedeinkatu, &c. 
 
 3. Zerubak, bedeinkatu, &c. 
 
 4. Zeruben ganian dauden ur guztiyak, bedeinkatu, &c. 
 
 5. Jaunaren birtute guztiyak, bedeinkatu, &c. 
 
 6. Eguzkiya ta illargiya, bedeinkatu, &c. 
 
 7. Zeruko izarrak, bedeinkatu, &c. 
 
 8. Euri eta intz guztiyak, bedeinkatu, &c. 
 
 9. Jaungoiknaren espiritu guztiyak, bedeinkatu, &c. 
 
 10. Suba eta berua, bedeinkatu, &c. 
 
 11. Otza ta berua, bedeinkatu, &c. 
 
 12. Intzak eta intziarra, bedeinkatu, &c. 
 
 13. Izoztea eta otza, bedeinkatu, &c. 
 
 14. Izotza eta elurrak, bedeinkatu, &c. 
 
 15. Gabak eta egunak, bedeinkatu, &c. 
 
 Guipuscoan (2). 
 
 1. Jaunaren obra guziak, bedeikatu ezazute Jauna : alabatu eta guzien 
 gafietik goratu ezazute beti. 
 
 2. Jaunaren Aingeruak, bedeikatu, &c. 
 
 3. Zeruak, bedeikatu, &c. 
 
 4. Zeruen gaiiean dauden ur guziak, bedeikatu, &c. 
 
 5. Jaunaren birtute guziok, bedeikatu, &c. 
 
 6. Eguzkia ta illargia, bedeikatu, &c. 
 
 7. Zeruko izarrak, bedeikatu, &c. 
 
 8. Euri eta intz guziak, bedeikatu, &c. 
 
 9. Jaungoikoaren espiritu guziak, bedeikatu, &c. 
 
 10. Sua eta beroa, bedeikatu, &c. 
 
 11. Otza ta beroa, bedeikatu, &c. 
 
 12. Intzak eta intziarra, bedeikatu, &c. 
 
THE BASK. 685 
 
 13. Izotza eta otza, bedeikatu, &c. 
 
 14. Orma eta elurrak, bedeikatu, &c. 
 
 15. Gauak eta egunak, bedeikatu, &c. 
 
 III. 
 Upper Navarre {Baztana). 
 
 1. Yaunaren obra guziat, benedika, zazue Yauna: lauda eta guzien ga- 
 netik goratu zazue beti. 
 
 2. Yaunaren Aingeruak, benedika, &c. 
 
 3. Zeruak, benedika, &c. 
 
 4. Zeruen gafiean dirin ur guziak, benedika, &c. 
 
 5. Yaunaren birtute guziak, benedika, &c, 
 
 6. Iguzkia eta ilargia, benedika, &c. 
 
 7. Zeruko izarrak, benedika, &c. 
 
 8. Uri eta intz guziak, benedika, &c. 
 
 9. Yaungoikoaren izpiritu guziak, benedika, &c. 
 
 10. Sua eta beroa, benedika, &c. 
 
 11. Otza eta beroa, benedika, &c. 
 
 12. Intzak eta izotza, benedika, &c. 
 
 13. Izotza eta otza, benedika, &c. 
 
 14. Orma eta eturrah, benedika, &c. 
 
 15. Gavak eta eguanak, benedika, &c. 
 
 Laburtanian. 
 
 1. Yaunaren obra guziak, benedika zazue Yanna : lauda eta ororen gain- 
 etek alcha zazue bethi. 
 
 2. Yaunaren Aingeruiak, benedika, &c. 
 
 3. Zeruah, benedika, &c. 
 
 4. Zeruen gainean diren ur guziak, benedika, &c. 
 6. Yaunaren bertbute guziak, benedika, &c. 
 
 6. Iguzkia eta ilhargia, benedika, &c. 
 
 7. Zeruko izarrak, benedika, &c. 
 
 8. Uri eta iliintz guziak and benedika, &c. 
 
 9. Yinkoaren iziritu guziak, benedika, &c. 
 
 10. San eta beroa, benedika, &c. 
 
 11. Hotza eta beroa, benedika, &c. 
 
 12. Nintzak eta izotza, benedika, &c. 
 
 13. Izotza eta hotza, benedika, &c. 
 
 14. Horma eta elburrah, benedika, &c. 
 
 15. Granak eta egunak, benedika, &c. 
 
 Lower Navarre (Baigorres). 
 
 1. Yaunain obra guziak, beneika zazi. ZazI Yauna: lauda eta oroin 
 
 gainetik alcba zazi bethi. 
 
 2. Yaunain Aingeriak, beneika, &c. 
 
 3. Zeriak, beneika, &c. 
 
 4. Zerien gainian diren ur guziak, beneika, &c. 
 6. Yaunain berthute guziak, beneika, &c. 
 
 6. Tuzkia eta ilhaigia, beneika, &c. 
 
686 THE BASK. 
 
 7. Zeruko izzarak, beneika, &c. 
 
 8. Euri eta ihintz guziak, beneika, &c. 
 
 9. Yinkoain izpiritu guziak, beneika, &c. 
 
 10. Suya eta beroa, beneika, &c. 
 
 11. Hotza eta beroa, beneika, &c. 
 
 12. Ihintzak eta izotza, beneika, &c. 
 
 13. Izotza eta notza, beneika, &c. 
 
 14. Khairoina eta elhurrah, beneika, &c. 
 
 15. Granak eta eunak, beneika, &c. 
 
 IV. 
 Lower Navarre (Mixe). 
 
 1. Yaunain obra guziak benedika zazie yauna lauda eta oroin ganetik 
 
 aloha zazie bethi. 
 
 2. Yaunain Ainguriak, benedika, &c. 
 
 3. Zeriak, benedika, &c. 
 
 4. Zerien ganan dien un guziak, benedika, &c, 
 
 5. Yaunain berthiite guziak, benedika, &c. 
 
 6. Ekbia eta argizaitia, benedika, &c, 
 
 7. Zeriiko izarrak, benedika, &c. 
 
 8. Euri eta izarrihitz guziak, benedika, &c. 
 
 9. Yinknain ispiritii guziak, benedika, &c. 
 
 10. Suya eta berua, benedika, &c. 
 
 11. Hotza eta berua, benedika, &c. 
 
 12. Izarriliitzak eta izotza, benedika, &c. 
 
 13. Izotza eta hotza, benedika, &c. 
 
 14. Kharrona eta elhurrah, benedika, &c. 
 
 15. Ganak eta egunak, benedika, &c. 
 
 Soule {French). 
 
 1. Jaunaren lanhegin guziak, benedik' ezazie Jauna, lauda eta orotan 
 gainti alch' ezazie bethiere. 
 
 2. Jaunaren Ainguriak benedik', &c. 
 
 3. Zeliak, benedik', &c. 
 
 4. Zelietan ganendiren her gUziak, benedik', &c. 
 
 5. Jaunaren berthiite giiziak, benedik', &c. 
 
 6. Ekhia eta argizazia, benedik', &c. 
 
 7. Zeliiko izarrah, benedik', &c. 
 
 8. Euri eta ihitz guziak benedik', &c. 
 
 9. Jinkuaren izpiritii giiziak, benedik', &c. 
 
 10. Suya eta berua, benedik', &c. 
 
 11. Hotza eta berua, benedik', &c. 
 
 12. Thitzak eta izotza, benedik, &c. 
 
 13. Kbarruntia eta hotza, benedik, &c. 
 
 14. Kharruak eta elhiirrah, benedik, &c. 
 
 16. Gayak eta egiimak, benedik', &c. 
 
 Soule (Spanish). 
 1. Jeinaren obra guziah, benedika zazei Jeina; alaba eta guzien gain- 
 etik aska zazei beti. 
 
THE BASK. 687 
 
 2. Jeinaren Ainguriak, benedika, &c. 
 
 3. Zeuriak, benedika, &e. 
 
 4. Zeurien gainian danden ur guziak, benedika, &c. 
 
 5. Jeinaren birtute guziak, benedika, &c. 
 
 6. Eguzkia eta argizagia, benedika, &c. 
 
 7. Zeuriko izarrak, benedika, &c. 
 
 8. Euri eta aguada guziak, benedika, &c. 
 
 9. Jangoikoaren espiritu guziak, benedika, &c. 
 
 10. Sua eta beroa, benedika, &c. 
 
 11. Otza eta beroa, benedika, &c. 
 
 12. Aguadak eta arrosoda, benedika, &c. 
 
 13. lyotza eta otza, benedika, &c. 
 
 14. Karroya eta elurrah, benedika, &e. 
 
 15. Gayak eta egunak, benedika, &c. 
 
 Even with a reconstitution of its grammar the Bask 
 stands alone. It stands alone when all allowance has 
 been made for the efiects of displacement and en- 
 croachment on its frontier. If in situ, it ought to be 
 nearer the Keltic and Slavonic than it is. If African, 
 it ought to be more Berber, Coptic, Hawsa, Sungai, 
 than it is. If introduced by the Phenicians (a bare pos- 
 sibility, but entertained as such in order to clear the 
 ground), it ought to be more Semitic than it is : and if 
 Scythian, introduced by the Alans (a barer possibility 
 still, but entertained for the same reason), it should be 
 more Tm^k than it is. As far as its grammar and pho- 
 nesis goes, it is, certainly, more Ugrian than aught else 
 — a fact which is, to some extent, in favour of the Fin 
 hypothesis, and against the views of the present writer. 
 Still; the UgTians may possibly (though not probably) 
 have covered Western Europe, and, yet, left room for 
 the so-called Indo-European languages in the more cen- 
 tral parts. I do not hold this to have been the case. 
 I onl}^ hold that such a primeval distribution of them 
 is compatible with the European origin of the European 
 languages. I admit any amount of "more or less in the 
 question. I oply hold that they were never in Bohemia, 
 Italy, Greece, and elsewhere, to exclusion of the Slaves, 
 Latins, and German from each and every part of the 
 wide districts west of the Dai-danelles. The Fin hypo- 
 
688 THE BASK. 
 
 thesis which requires all Europe for some population 
 anterior to the chief Europeans, and Asia as the home 
 and origin for them, is the Fin hypothesis I oppose. 
 
 With the present tendency of certain opinions among 
 the naturalists, opinions which recent speculations upon 
 recent facts have led to favour the claims of the genus 
 Homo to a high antiquity, it is scarcely superfluous 
 to say a little upon a question even more tran- 
 scendental than the Fin hypothesis. They suggest the 
 possibility of certain outlying members of our kind 
 having belonged to certain continents now under water. 
 One of these, or a part of one, was in the parts beyond 
 Spain. If so the Bask area may be the remains of a 
 vast Atlantic system, of which Madeira and the Azores 
 are fragments, belonging to the Miocene period. 
 
 If the language belong to this, it forms a class of 
 equal value with all the other languages of the world 
 put together. But the proper geological evidence of 
 mankind having existed at this period is wanting ; so 
 that we had better confine our attention to an accurate 
 valuation of the peculiarities which have supplied the 
 text of the preceding overlengthy dissertation — pecu- 
 liarities which, great as they are, have possibly been 
 exaggerated. Not only may the Bask be liker to other 
 languages than it is considered, but other languages may 
 be liker to the Bask. A Greek grammar wliich made, 
 out of words like ovpdvoOev and ovpdvovBe, cases, (as, 
 upon Fin principles, it might,) would do something 
 towards an approximation. The differences that gram- 
 matical manipulation makes it may also unmake. Be- 
 fore this problem is thrown-up as insoluble let some 
 competent Slavonic and Keltic scholar consider what 
 may have been the condition of each of their respective 
 languages in an early period of the agglutinate stage, 
 and then compare it with the Bask. 
 
GENERAL REMARKS. 689 
 
 CHAPTER LXXXII. 
 
 General Remarks upon the Indo-European Class. 
 
 In several of the preceding notices there is so much at 
 variance with the doctrines of the highest authorities 
 that the present chapter must, perforce, be, to a great 
 extent, purely critical : the points whereon the little 
 that our space allows an opportunity of writing being 
 four in number, viz. (1.) the value of the primary and 
 the subordinate groups; (2.) the European origin of 
 the Sanskrit ; (3.) the original area of the Slavonic ; 
 and (4.) the stage of the Keltic. 
 
 (1.) Of the outlying character of the Skipitar we 
 have a good measure in the fact of its having been, with 
 the doubtful exception of the Keltic, the last to be re- 
 cognized as Indo-European. 
 
 That the value of the classes is exactly what it is said 
 to be is scarcely likely. Few such valuations run quite 
 on all fours. It is well, however, to indicate them ; 
 inasmuch as nothing is more productive of careless phi- 
 lology than the otiose belief that when once you have 
 got a class of languages it matters little whether one or 
 the other be the nearest congener of a third. It is held, 
 for instance, to be a serious error to treat the Sanskrit 
 at one time as if it were as much Greek as Latin, at 
 another as if it were as much Slavonic as German. 
 This class, like all others, arranges its members round 
 some common centre, and the nearer two languages are 
 
 Y T 
 
690 GENERAL REMARKS. 
 
 to the two extremes the greater the difference between 
 them. In the present group it is the Slavonic lan- 
 guages which are the centre, from which the Greek and 
 German are, decidedly, more distant than the Latin and 
 the Sanskrit. 
 
 The magnitude of the group itself is involved in the 
 doctrine explicitly stated in the first chapter, that the 
 distance of groups from each other is determined by the 
 amount of the actual or hypothetical obliteration of the 
 transitional forms, and implicitly suggested, by almost 
 every page of the work, in the doctrine that, if it were 
 not for these obliterations, forms of speech would graduate 
 into each other. If so, it is clear that it is a mere waste of 
 power for one writer to circumscribe a class of languages 
 by means of a particular denomination, and for another 
 to show that some member of some other class has a 
 certain amount of affinities with it. 
 
 That this is done largely is true, and it is a pity that 
 it is as true as it is. Most of the so-called discoveries 
 and generalizations in Comparative Philology consist in 
 some one correcting an overdrawn distinction of some 
 one else's. Hence, it must create no surprise if we hear 
 that certain Asiatic languages have European character- 
 istics of an important kind. Their existence is not 
 denied. It is only asked whether they are numerous 
 enough to make (say) the Armenian or the Fin allied to 
 (say) the Slavonic or the Latin as those two languages 
 are to each other. If they fail in this they fail alto- 
 gether ; being merely facts in favour of the fundamental 
 unity of languages in general ; facts of great importance 
 in their proper place, but irrelevant in a question of 
 classification, where we deal not with mere afiinities but 
 with afiinities in their different degrees. 
 
 Those, however, who have not taken this view, have, 
 after making the Persian Sanskrit, made the Iron Persian, 
 and the Georgian Iron. Others have made the Malay 
 Indian : others, the Fin and Armenian, Indo-European 
 
GENERAL REMARKS. 691 
 
 in general. All this (except in the eyes of those who 
 deny an affinity of any kind) is merely raising the 
 value of a class ; which is, in other words, merely alter- 
 ing the import of a term. This is legitimate enough, 
 provided that fair notice be given of exactly what is 
 done, and if any good come from the change. All, how- 
 ever, that is, at present, apparent is, that if we take one 
 language into a given class we must take its congeners 
 — and where this will end few know beforehand. The 
 persons of the verbs, especially in the first person, are 
 very permanent. They seem to have been adopted as 
 inflections early, and to have been kept long. They 
 occur in languages which, in other points, differ notably. 
 They are common to the Iron and the Armenian. If this 
 make those languages Indo-European, well and good. 
 But they also occur in the Lap. If this make the Lap 
 Indo-European, better still. But all Caucasus must 
 follow the Iron, and all Siberia the Lap. Then, with 
 the outliers of Caucasus, there are Tibetan, and with 
 the outliers of Siberia, American affinities. When are 
 we to stop ? Only when the whole world shall have 
 made one great class which has to be divided afresh. 
 But that is where we begun. 
 
 (2.) Of the European origin of the Sanskrit it is 
 held that enough was said when the presumptions 
 against the Asiatic origin of its undoubted European 
 congeners was stated. It showed where the onus pro- 
 handi lay. 
 
 Upon its value, however, as a language, much depends 
 upon the relation which it bears to the modem dialects 
 of India. If it be the mother-tongue of them it shares 
 with the Latin, the Greek, and the German, the merit of 
 giving us an older and a newer stage of growth ; and, 
 so doing, rivals those languages in value as a philological 
 datum. There are no reasons, a priori, why it should 
 not do this ; or rather (roughly speaking) the presump- 
 tions on each side are equal. The Sanskrit may have 
 
 Y Y 2 
 
692 GENERAL REMARKS.' 
 
 fixed itself in India as the Anglo-Saxon did in England. 
 Or it may have fixed itself only after the fashion of the 
 Anglo-Norman. The actual fact must be determined by 
 examination. 
 
 A common way of speaking of the modern languages 
 of Northern India is to say that they contain nine out of 
 ten, eight out of ten, five out of ten, or any number out of 
 any other number, as the case may be, of Sanskrit words 
 — the maximum being in either the Hindi or Bengah, 
 the minimum in the Mahratta. This may or may not be 
 the case. The details, however, have never been given, 
 except in the way that the pedant of Hierocles gave the 
 details of his house by showing a brick. Say, however, 
 that the fact is, to a great extent, true. Nineteen- 
 twentieths would not prove a lineal descent unless the 
 field over which the induction extended were sufficiently 
 wide. An Englishman who goes through the letter A 
 in Johnson's dictionary scarcely finds one word in 
 fifty of Anglo-Saxon origin, though in B he finds a 
 preponderance of them, and in K a larger one. 
 
 Again, many of the comparisons are founded on the 
 translations of the Lord's Prayer, a series of sentences 
 which pre-eminently requires, in most rude languages, 
 exotic words. The real data lie in the unwritten local 
 dialects, of which we know little. Yet the more we 
 know of them the more we find them containing ele- 
 ments other than Sanskrit. 
 
 Another assumption is, that everything* (with few 
 exceptions) which is common to the Indian vernaculars 
 and the learned language is treated as if the borrowing 
 were all on one side — all on the side of the vernacular, 
 and nothing on the side of the learned, language. Yet 
 such is rarely the case. The only undoubted Sanskrit 
 elements are those which are Greek, Latin, Slavonic, 
 Lithuanic, or German as well. The others may or may 
 not be aboriginal. Some of them, in all probability, 
 are so. 
 
GENERAL REMARKS, 693 
 
 In the matter of grammar, the reader of the present 
 work can, to some shght extent, judge for himself. If 
 he know French and Latin, let him compare the grammar 
 of the former hinguage with that of the latter. Let 
 him see how they agree and how they differ ; let him 
 then compare the Sanskrit inflections with the Hindi or 
 Punjabi. Great as is the difference between the French 
 and Latin, the difference between the two Asiatic tongues 
 is greater. What likeness the Mahratta, &lc., in the way 
 of grammar, bear to any languages at all, is borne to 
 languages in other quarters. 
 
 The relations of the Persian to the language of the 
 Achsemenian inscriptions are by no means the parallel 
 of the relations of the modern languages of India to the 
 Sanskrit. The Persian can be traced through the Parsi 
 to the Huzvaresh. Can the Huzvaresh be traced to the 
 Persepohtan ? The presumptions balance each other. If 
 the Persepolitan can fairly be compared, a priori, with 
 the Anglo-Norman in England, it can also, a pHori, be 
 compared with the Anglo-Saxon. The result lies in the 
 details of the facts. On these, the writer has no means 
 of passing an opinion. Upon the Sanskrit and its 
 Western origin he spoke, not as a scholar, but as a logi- 
 cian. In Persia, however, where there is less play for 
 for the antiquarian imagination than in India, there is 
 less to be condemned on merely general grounds. 
 
 Still, it is probable that those points of grammar 
 wherein the Persian is Indo-European are not the result 
 of Indo-European descent. They may be of the same 
 kind as the personal endings of the verbs in the Iron, 
 Fin, and Armenian, a fact which connects itself with 
 another, which will be noticed in the sequel. Mean- 
 while, the classification just suggested is the one which, 
 subject to correction, is adopted in the present volume. 
 
 Whether we deduced the Sanskrit from Asia or Europe 
 its affinities with the languages of Armenia and the dis- 
 tricts around would be nearly the same. As an Asiatic 
 
694 GENERAL REMARKS. 
 
 language it would touch them on its western, as a Euro- 
 pean one, on its eastern extremity. Hence, in either 
 case, we get a situs which supplies some affinities. One 
 of the difficulties in making the Persian Indo-European 
 lies in its relations to the Iron, which is essentially Dios- 
 curian — so much so that, on the strength of these very 
 affinities, Bopp makes the Georgian (which is, undoubtedly, 
 Dioscurian) Indo-European. This is but a different read- 
 ing of the same fact. To the fact itself it is very decided 
 evidence ; though, like many others, it proves too much. 
 
 To conclude : it by no means follows that, because 
 a writer doubts as to the modern languages of India 
 being of Sanskrit origin, he, therefore, makes them 
 Tamul. The fact of the Brahui being, at one and 
 the same time, Tamul in its affinities and Persian in 
 its locality, suggests the possibility of even the Tamul 
 family having been originally of foreign origin. Other 
 reasons suggest the doctrine that, at a very early 
 period, the congeners of the Himalayan languages 
 reached from the Ganges to Cape Comorin ; so that the 
 Sanskrit belongs to the third rather than the second 
 layer of languages introduced from without. This, 
 however, is a point which, in the present work, is only to 
 be taken as a suggestion. It is certain that, in many 
 respects, the Ghond, Khond, and Kol tongues are largely 
 Himalayan, Tibetan, Nepalese, or whatever the class to 
 which the languages of the northern frontier of India 
 belong, may be called. 
 
 (3.) That the early area of both the Lithuanians and 
 the Slaves was very different from what it is at present, 
 has been suggested. The limit of the Slavonic on the 
 south-west has not, however, been considered : the 
 original extent of the Keltic and German tongues east- 
 ward and southward being one of the preliminaries to 
 its consideration. I find no occasion for carrying either 
 the original Germans to the south of the Mayn or the 
 Iberians and Gauls much beyond the Rhone. On the con- 
 
GENERAL REMARKS. 695 
 
 trary, I find some reasons for believing that some Sla- 
 vonic form of speech of which the present Tshek is the 
 nearest existing representative extended both far to the 
 west and far to the south of the present Slavonic 
 frontier. 
 
 Indeed, I carry it as far as Savoy ; the reasons for 
 which I hope to exhibit in some special m.onograph. 
 They lie chiefly in the Slavonic character of numerous 
 local names in the Alps : especially in the root k-m-n zz 
 rock, and k-r =: boundary, which I hold to be the etymons 
 of the Yal Camunica, Charnouni, Ingria, the Alpes 
 Graice and many other obscure names. These (two out 
 of many) are given as illustrations of the criticism 
 applied to the question rather than as anything which 
 can be mistaken for even approximate evidence. 
 
 (4.) The Keltic, in respect to its stage, I place in the 
 same class with the Ugrian, &c., rather than in that of 
 the English and the French ; so that what are fragments 
 of inflection in the eyes of the best Keltic scholars are, 
 in mine, rudiments. That there are minute facts in 
 favour of the opposite opinion which I cannot deal with 
 offhand, I admit. Still, under a general view of the 
 subject the main principles are these. There are a 
 few languages concerning the stage of which there 
 are doubts, and there are the modern descendants of 
 the Latin, the Greek, and the old German, of which 
 the advanced character is beyond doubt. With these 
 three we may begin as absolute and primary data, and 
 with no others. Will anyone, after a due consideration 
 of the real characteristics of the English, Frencl?, Ko- 
 maic, Danish, and Swedish, say that they are to be 
 found in the Gaelic and British ? Let anyone gen- 
 eralize the differentice between a language in the fourth 
 and a language in the second stage, and he will know 
 what to answer. 
 
696 
 
 GENERAL REMARKS. 
 
 Albanian. 
 
 Lithuanic. 
 
 Slavonic. 
 
 Latin. 
 
 Greek. 
 
 English. 
 
 0*0 
 
 akis 
 
 oko 
 
 ocidua 
 
 e^6a,Xfi»s 
 
 Eye 
 
 yon 
 
 burn^ 
 
 geba 
 
 OS 
 
 ffrofjLoe, 
 
 Mouth 
 
 Jij^i 
 
 ranka 
 
 reka 
 
 marnis 
 
 z^'e 
 
 Hand 
 
 filtK^t 
 
 barzd^ 
 
 broda 
 
 barba 
 
 ruyeav 
 
 Beard 
 
 hrt 
 
 diena 
 
 dzien 
 
 dies 
 
 ^m"- 
 
 Day 
 
 van 
 
 naktia 
 
 noc 
 
 nox 
 
 ^vl 
 
 Night 
 
 htk 
 
 saule 
 
 stonce 
 
 BOI 
 
 nXiof 
 
 Sun 
 
 ;^"«^ 
 
 menu 
 
 miesiac 
 
 luna 
 
 ffiXrivn 
 
 Moon 
 
 iXt 
 
 zvaigzdo 
 
 gviazda 
 
 BteUa 
 
 etirrYi^ 
 
 Star 
 
 f^iyyts 
 
 rytas 
 
 ranek 
 
 mane 
 
 yiui 
 
 Morning 
 
 fi^^tfit 
 
 vakaras 
 
 wieczon 
 
 vesper 
 
 tffCTf^OS 
 
 Evening 
 
 Xlt\ 
 
 dangua 
 
 nebo 
 
 coelum 
 
 ovpavos 
 
 Sky 
 
 HS* 
 
 vejas 
 
 viatr 
 
 ventus 
 
 avtf^oi 
 
 Wind 
 
 ovys 
 
 vandu 
 
 voda 
 
 aqua 
 
 V^O)^ 
 
 Water 
 
 l^o^it 
 
 snegas 
 
 snieg 
 
 nix 
 
 Xiojv 
 
 Snow 
 
 fAyn^EovXi 
 
 debesis 
 
 oblok 
 
 nubes 
 
 vi<ptXn 
 
 Cloud 
 
 h 
 
 zieme 
 
 ziemia 
 
 terra 
 
 yn 
 
 Earth 
 
 hr 
 
 jures 
 
 morze 
 
 mare 
 
 SxXuffcra 
 
 Sea 
 
 Z^oxyev 
 
 pauksztis 
 
 ptak 
 
 avis 
 
 e^vts 
 
 Bird 
 
 'JCKfKoa 
 
 zuwik 
 
 ryba 
 
 pisus 
 
 iX^vs 
 
 Fish 
 
 yoo^ 
 
 akmu 
 
 kamiens 
 
 lapis 
 
 Xthi 
 
 Stone 
 
 Xuffffi 
 
 medis 
 
 drzewo 
 
 arbor 
 
 Jsv^^av 
 
 Tree 
 
 vtt 
 
 Y^nas 
 
 jeden 
 
 anus 
 
 us 
 
 One 
 
 2u 
 
 da 
 
 dwa 
 
 duo 
 
 "^vu 
 
 Two 
 
 vtt 
 
 trys 
 
 try 
 
 tres 
 
 v^tos, 
 
 Three 
 
 XUTtt 
 
 keturi 
 
 cztery 
 
 quatuor 
 
 TiTTa^a 
 
 Four 
 
 trto't 
 
 penki 
 
 piec 
 
 quinque 
 
 ^TiVTl 
 
 Five ' 
 
 yiaa-Tt 
 
 szeszi 
 
 szesc 
 
 sex 
 
 jl 
 
 Six 
 
 ffran 
 
 Beptyni 
 
 siedm 
 
 septem 
 
 iTra 
 
 Seven 
 
 rtrt 
 
 asztuni 
 
 osin 
 
 octo 
 
 OKTCa 
 
 Eight 
 
 vivh 
 
 devyni 
 
 dziewiec 
 
 novem 
 
 tvntx. 
 
 Nine 
 
 htTl 
 
 deszimtis 
 
 dziesiec 
 
 decern 
 
 tixa 
 
 Ten. 
 
 Here the English column not only translates the 
 other languages, but stands as the representative of the 
 German group. 
 
LANaUAGE. 697 
 
 PART II, 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Language in General. — Stages. 
 
 Language begins with voice. The language of the 
 eyes is a mere metaphor. Gesticulation on the part of 
 men and women is mere mimesis. Movements on the 
 part of the lower animals, however much they may 
 express, are merely dumb show. 
 
 Language ends with voice. Written language, as a 
 genus of speech, is a misnomer. It is a mere record, 
 register, or representation ; and is as different from real 
 language as a portrait is from the person who sat for it. 
 
 Whether every significant vocal sound be conveniently 
 called language is another question. If it be, laughing, 
 crying, and groaning give us language. This, however, 
 may be disposed of by dividing language into articulate 
 and inarticulate. 
 
 As there is no reason to believe that the vocal sounds 
 uttered by the lower animals are destitute of significance, 
 we cannot deny to the great mass of air-breathing 
 animals an inarticulate, or, at least, an imperfectly articu- 
 late, language. 
 
 Every animal that can make its breathing heard can 
 make an approximation to the sound of h. When it 
 does this by drawing-m its breath there is an mspira- 
 
698 LANGUAGE IN GENERAL. 
 
 tion. When it does it by giving it out there is an ex- 
 piratiou. H, then, though an articulate sound (inas- 
 much as it can be united with other sounds so as to 
 form syllables) is scarcely a vocal one. Its connection 
 is with respiration rather than language. It is common 
 to man and all the air-breathing animals. 
 
 Vocal sounds begin with the batrachians. Snakes can 
 utter hisses which are of the same degree of sonancy as 
 the letters which we call sharp or surd, i. e. the sounds 
 of/?, /, t, h and s. Sounds of the same degree of sonancy 
 as 6, Vy d, g and z they cannot utter ; though most of the 
 batrachians can. The other sounds to which the nearest 
 approach is made by the lower animals are those of 
 b, rrij and n, by sheep, oxen, and horses, respectively. 
 They are those which require the least special aptitude 
 on the part of the tongue. The sounds of v, and /, 
 which require the contact of upper teeth and the under 
 lip, are harder. So are those of t and d, requiring a 
 delicate manipulation of the tongue and teeth. 
 
 The nearest approach to a true articulation, i. e. the 
 union of one elementary sound to another, is exhibited 
 in the mu and haa of oxen and sheep. 
 
 No animal has the command of two consonantal 
 sounds. No one articulates freely and distinctly. 
 
 Domestic animals have the greatest compass ; and it is 
 probable that this is due to the imitation of man, rather 
 than to any special organization. Parrots and starlings 
 confirm this position. The simiadse, which are not do- 
 mesticated, approach man nearer in shape than voice. 
 
 Human language begins when the elementary sounds 
 are combined so as to form syllables ; in which case they 
 are not only articulate but articulated. 
 
 The case of syllables consisting of only a single sound 
 is, here, put out of the question. Indeed, etymologically 
 speaking, they are not syllahles. In this case (a hypo- 
 thetical one) language consists of nothing but interjec- 
 tions : using the term with sufficient latitude to include 
 
STAGES. 699 
 
 commands like go^ vocatives like puss, and demonstra- 
 tives like lo ! 
 
 A word may either coincide with the syllable, or 
 exceed it — i. e. it may be monosyllabic or other than 
 monosyllabic. That no word is unnecessarily long is 
 an inference ct lyriori, suggested by the rule which 
 forbids us to multiply causes unnecessarily. The de- 
 duction from it, that all roots were originally monosyl- 
 labic, partakes of this a priori character ; and, although 
 it is, to a great extent, borne out by actual investigation, 
 it can scarcely be taken absolutely and applied indis- 
 criminately. In a rough way, however, and provision- 
 ally, most philologues, either consciously or unconsciously, 
 act on it. 
 
 Syntax, or the combination of words in a state of 
 mutual relation to each other, begins when out of two 
 or more words we deliver either a proposition or the 
 part of one.* 
 
 Agglutination begins when one of two words in a 
 syntactic relation to one another, is so subordinated to 
 its fellow that it undergoes a change in either form or 
 meaning — a fortiori, when it does so in both. 
 
 To this it should be added that the change need not 
 be a change of its component articulate elements. It is 
 enough if it be a change of accent. Indeed, the change 
 of accent is, in many respects, the more important one of 
 the two. A word thus affected becomes enclitic. Hence 
 we may say that agglutination begins when one of two 
 words becomes enclitic or suffers any greater change than 
 that term implies. 
 
 * I think that the term Syntax may fairly be used here ; because, though 
 even when there are no inflections and no approach to them (so that the 
 phenomena of concord, government, and the like, are out of the question), 
 there is still the necessity for some Syntaxis or Arrangement. This, of 
 course, consists in the order in which the words follow each other, i. e. in 
 position. Without, then, pressing the term, I submit that, in a proposition 
 consisting of two or more words differently arranged, there is not only a 
 difference but a difference of what may conveniently be called Syntax. 
 
700 STAGES. 
 
 When one word in a language is thus affected, the 
 language to which it belongs is, pro tanto, agglutinate, 
 and when all the words are thus affected, the whole lan- 
 guage becomes so. Between these two extremes there 
 is every intermediate degree. When, however, a notable 
 majority has thus presented the phenomenon of aggluti- 
 nation, tlie language, unless there are other reasons against 
 it, may be classed as Agglutinate. 
 
 Inflection begins when a word originally enclitic loses 
 its capability of being separated from its principal and 
 being presented in an isolated form. 
 
 When the word has not only lost its individuality, but 
 is so far transformed as to be incapable of being explained, 
 i. e. incapable of having its original form re-exhibited, 
 the inflectional character has taken the most decided 
 form it is capable of taking. 
 
 When one word in a language is thus affected, the 
 language to which it belongs is, jpro tanto, inflectional ; 
 and when all the words are thus affected the whole lan- 
 guage becomes so. Between these two extremes there 
 is every intermediate degree. When, however, a 
 notable majority of words has thus presented the 
 phenomenon of non-individuality, the language itself, 
 unless there are reasons against it, may be classed as 
 Inflectional. 
 
 Inflections may be lost : the loss of them being 
 either pure and simple, or attended with the evolution 
 of some equivalent circumlocution. When one inflec- 
 tion is thus dropped, the language to which it belongs 
 has, pro tanto, departed from its inflectional character, 
 and when all inflections are dropped, the whole lan- 
 guage has become something else. Some writers apply 
 the term analytic to this stage ; but there is no good 
 name for it. It is, however, the stage which the 
 English and French, as contrasted with the Anglo- 
 Saxon and the Latin, represent. 
 
 Simply considered with a view to their want of in- 
 
LANGUAGES PROPAGATED BY IMITATION. 701 
 
 flection, languages in their fourth resemble languages in 
 their second stage. The resemblance, however, is only ap- 
 parent ; in other words, there is no such thing in language 
 as a true anamorphosis, i. e. a simple repetition of the 
 same forms. The prepositions and auxiliar verbs which, in 
 many cases, serve as equivalents to the ejected inflections, 
 are of a more general and abstract character than the 
 words used in the infancy of language. Again ; inflec- 
 tions often impress on the main word certain secondary 
 changes, which may remain as efiects after the inflection 
 out of which they originated has departed. The 
 difference, however, between the fragments and the 
 rudiments of an inflection has already been noticed. 
 
 In whatever way language originated it is by 
 imitation that it is propagated. With the exception 
 of the cry uttered by the infant at birth, which is a 
 purely reflex action, and which is of the same kind 
 for infants of all nations and countries, with the addi- 
 tion of, perhaps, a few others, everything that is 
 uttered by the child is the effect of imitation. He 
 speaks as others speak about him, as he has heard them 
 speak, and as he strives to imitate them. Hence all 
 known philological phenomena are facts in the history 
 of the communication, reception, and representation of 
 language rather than facts in its birth, or origin. 
 They all assume a language as it is — ready-made and 
 previously existing. They are facts of transmission 
 rather than of aught else. 
 
 After a time, however, simple imitation ceases, 
 and differences between the speech of two or more 
 speakers develope themselves. Of that particular form 
 of his mother- tongue which any individual uses, the 
 speaker is thoroughly, and in every sense, the master. 
 He uses it as an instrument of his own. He uses 
 it as he uses his arms and legs ; to a great extent 
 unconsciously, but almost always instinctively. He 
 
702 SPONTANEITY OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 cannot err in this, so long as he is at one and the same 
 time, unconscious, spontaneous, and intelligible. If he 
 think about grammar, and, by so doing, modify its spon- 
 taneity, it is, 23TO tanto, a language influenced aliunde. 
 In all cases, however, it is the only language he under- 
 stands in full. As long as he speaks it simply from his 
 instincts, it is in good grammar ; being simply what he 
 makes it. What is called bad grammar is a detail in 
 which he differs from some one else who calls his form 
 of speech good grammar. This means that there is no 
 such a thing as bad grammar. For every apparent 
 solecism there is a reason. If it were not so, bad gram- 
 mar would be a force exerting itself as such. That 
 these reasons have been but imperfectly investigated is 
 true, and it is true that the imperfect investigation which 
 has neglected them so thoroughly passes for a good one, 
 as to have obscured the philological truth that whatever 
 is, is right Such, however, is the fact : whatever comes 
 spontaneously comes naturally, and whatever comes 
 naturally is a growth which we must take as it comes, 
 and not regulate by any preconceived notions. The real 
 bad grammar is on the part of those grammarians who 
 venture to lay down rules for the representation of 
 language which they cannot complete, rather than on 
 that of the speakers. To cut down language to gram- 
 mar is to regulate faces by pictures of them. 
 
 The man who, instead of / am, says / are, so speaks 
 because the unconscious analogies which regulate his 
 expression suggest these words. What he does others 
 will do also. Of such as do so aU that can be said is, 
 that they use a dialect which is limited to the illiterate ; 
 and, amongst them, only to those who are within the 
 range of a certain set of philological influences. Yet, if 
 these men formed a community by themselves in (say) 
 an island of the Pacific, and were visited by a mis- 
 sionary there, who formed his grammar solely on what 
 
INCORRECTNESS OF GRAMMAR ONLY APPARENT. 703 
 
 he found, and, by forming such a grammar, had fixed 
 the language, the vulgarism would become classical ; for, 
 if the language stood quite alone, tliere would be no 
 means of seeing that (even in the eyes of the gram- 
 marian) it had once been what he would call wrong. 
 No one calls jeg er, bad Danish. Yet, word for word, 
 it is the English / are. In Danish, as in English, there 
 was the older form in -m; and in Danish, as in 
 English, some one spoke what is called bad grammar 
 when he, for the first time, used the form in -r in its 
 stead. In Denmark, however, the so-called bad lan- 
 guage has prevailed, i. e. has become good. 
 
 But how was it that the bad preference set in ? 
 We cannot say. This, however, we can say — that it 
 was determined by the forces which determine the 
 growth of language ; and that, as a force, it is as 
 little to be condemned as the conservative force which 
 would have resisted it is to be praised. Each is simply 
 to be investigated ; in the neglect of which investigation 
 lies the real fault, whatever that may be. 
 
 It does not follow, however, from this, that there is 
 no such a thing as bad grammar. The term has two 
 meanings. It signifies the actual representation of a 
 language, and the formal scheme of a language. Lan- 
 guage, as a fact, must be taken as it is, and represented 
 as it best may be. Nevertheless there is a standard by 
 which it must be measured. In one sense the words myself 
 and himself are good English ; so good that men may 
 be laughed at for saying his-self In another sense, one 
 of them must be wrong. If self mean exactly the same 
 in each compound, and if the two compounds stand in 
 exactly the same ratio to the pronouns I and he, and if 
 "my and him be in decidedly different cases, there must be 
 something wrong somewhere ; the wrong being a formal 
 one. 
 
 The rule in English that two negatives make an 
 affiTmative is, as a rule of language, absolutely incom- 
 
704 INCORRECTNESS OF GRAMMAR ONLY APPARENT. 
 
 patible with the rule that du(B aut plures negativoi 
 apud Grcecos vehementius negant, so long as we keep 
 the word negative to one precise signification. By 
 making the second negative, however, an expletive, by 
 ignoring it altogether, or by making it express, in some 
 vague manner, the mode of the negation, we can recon- 
 cile the two. 
 
 Again — whatever may be the origin of the sign of 
 the first person in verbs, it is beyond doubt that, in cer- 
 tain stages of certain languages, it was the equivalent to 
 the first personal pronoun as the name of the subject of 
 the proposition. This is what the -m in am is : just like 
 the -fjLi in elfjil. When / am, then, was first said there 
 was one of four things. The combination meant the I 
 which is is I ; or J, / am with emphasis ; or it was 
 a simple piece of tautology ; or the -m was entirely 
 merged in the a. So far as it was purely tautological, 
 it was (so far as grammar is formal) a paralogism. Yet 
 it was, and is, a fact in language ; and its evolution was 
 the efiect of some philological force which it is the 
 business of philologues to elucidate. Anything short of 
 this, such as the mere condemnation of certain expres- 
 sions on the score of bad grammar, is only cutting 
 the knot when it ought to be undone. There is, doubt- 
 less, wrong somewhere ; but the language adopts the 
 wrong, and the language we must take as we find it : 
 in other words, the wrong rights itself. And this (if we 
 may speak in metaphors without coming under the 
 charge of haziness) is the fact. Wrongs in language 
 have a tendency to right themselves ; language itself 
 being, at one and the same time, in a state of unstable 
 equilibrium and incapable of disorganization. 
 
 Its primary function is to be a medium of com- 
 munication, and it is impossible to imagine any na- 
 tural change in it which is not regulated by the con- 
 ditions herein applied. Men and women may have 
 more or less to say according to the range of their wants 
 
INCORRECTNESS OF GRAMMAR ONLY APPARENT. 705 
 
 and experience ; but if language, at all times and in all 
 places, stands in the same relation to its ideas as an 
 exponent, it is equally good as language. What certain 
 changes do is this — they modify the particular phases 
 of the language, and, so far as they do this, change its 
 individual character. 
 
 Lest this should be thought incompatible with the 
 acknowledged fact that languages differ from each other 
 in copiousness, harmony, and development of inflection ; 
 lest it should seem to cut at the root of the doctrine 
 implicit in much of what this work is intended to 
 convey, I guard against any misinterpretation of my 
 meaning by saying (what is, perhaps, superfluous) that 
 a language representing a high state of civilization is 
 one thing, the manner in which it represents it is 
 another. All that is here argued is that, given a 
 certain range of ideas on the part of the speakers, all 
 languages represent it with an equal degree of ade- 
 quateness — the relation of the language, as a medium 
 to the ideas represented, being constant. A picture of 
 a stunted idiot is as good, as a mere representation, 
 as the picture of equal artistic skill of a genius, an 
 athlete, or an Antinous. The matter alone difiers. 
 The relation of the representation, supposing it always 
 to be adequate, (as it is held to be in the case of 
 language,) is the same. 
 
 z z 
 
70G CLASSES. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 On Classes, and affinity. 
 
 Observe, in the remarks upon the several stages in which 
 languages are to be found, the word classed. Koughly 
 and practically speaking, a language may be agglutinate 
 or inflectional, and yet, on the first view, cannot be 
 treated as such, without inconvenience. Such is the 
 case when it belongs to a large class, wherein its 
 congeners are in a different stage of development. It is 
 only, however, laxly and superficially that this exception 
 holds good. The real view is, that agglutination or 
 inflection, as the case may be, is to be treated as a 
 single character overbalanced by others. Some of the 
 Ugrian forms of speech exhibit this complication. Their 
 congeners are agglutinate, whereas, the Fin is (in the 
 eyes of many) at least sub-inflectional. Still the original 
 classification holds good ; inasmuch as we classify by 
 affinity, rather than form. 
 
 Languages, in other respects but distantly related, 
 may agree with each other by being in the same stage : 
 this being agreement without affinity. Languages, 
 on the other hand, closely connected with each other 
 in the way of descent, may be in different stages ; in 
 other words, languages are related to each other according 
 to the time at which they are either known or believed 
 to have diverged from some common stock. 
 
 Differences in the rate of change, complicate, without 
 altering, this principle. 
 
 How far physical conformation coincides with blood, 
 or descent, is another question ; a question that belongs to 
 
CLASSES. 707 
 
 the ethnologist almost exclusively. It is a question upon 
 which many extreme opinions are afloat ; but it is not a 
 question upon which the study of language has any 
 direct bearing, though it is one upon which many 
 philologists have committed themselves. 
 
 Several of the writers who have done me the honour 
 of either adopting or disparaging my opinions have been 
 pleased to look upon me as an investigator who lays 
 undue value upon the evidence of language as a test of 
 ethnological affinity. Having written on philology 
 before I touched the study of medicine, I may, many 
 years ago, have held opinions that justify this view. I 
 am not, however, aware of having ever expressed them 
 in any published work, or, indeed, of having entertained 
 them at all for upwards of twenty years. In aU works on 
 ethnology, philology must preponderate ; simply because 
 the facts of language are numerous, definite, and, above 
 all, capable of being studied anywhere and at all times, 
 at first, or second, hand ; in the closet, or museum, as 
 well as in the country or open field. But identity 
 of language is, at the most, only a presumption in 
 favour of identity of blood. Being this, it must stand 
 as an important test — a provisional test no doubt ; 
 but, still, as a test that is satisfactory and valid so long 
 a3 nothing is brought against it. It fits, however, but 
 loosely. 
 
 It is clear that changes in the physical conformation 
 of a population of speakers and changes in the language 
 they speak may go on at different rates. A thousand 
 years may pass over two nations undoubtedly of the 
 same origin, and which were, at the beginning of those 
 thousand years, of the same complexion, form, and lan- 
 guage. 
 
 At the end of those thousand years there shall be 
 a difi*erence. On the one the language shall have changed 
 rapidly, the physical structure slowly. On the other 
 the physical conformation shall have been modified by a 
 
 z z 2 
 
708 CLASSES. 
 
 quick succession of external influences, whilst the lan- 
 guage shall have stayed as it was. 
 
 With an assumed, or proved, original identity on each 
 side, the difference in the rate of action on the part of 
 the different influences is the key to the discrepancies 
 between the two tests. The language may remaiu in 
 statu quo, whilst the hair, complexion, and bones change ; 
 or the hair, complexion, and osteology may remain in 
 statu quo, whilst the language changes. 
 
 Apparently this leaves matters in an unsatisfactory 
 condition ; in a way which allows the ethnologist any 
 amount of assumption he chooses. Apparently it does 
 so ; but it does so in appearance only. In reality we 
 have ways and means of determining which of the two 
 changes is the likelier. 
 
 We know what modifies form. Change of latitude, 
 climate, sea-level, conditions of subsistence, conditions of 
 clothing, &LG., do this ; all (or nearly all) such changes 
 being pliysical. 
 
 We know, too (though in a less degree), what modifies 
 language. New wants gratified by objects with new 
 names, new ideas requiring new terms, increased inter- 
 course between man and man, tribe and tribe, nation 
 and n-atiou, island and island, oasis and oasis, country 
 and country, do this. It is our business to learn from 
 history what does all this. 
 
 In the assumption of an original continuity (running 
 through the whole of this book, though subject to 
 con-ection from new facts) of aUied forms of speech 
 there is, doubtless, hypothesis ; and in the doctrine of 
 the obliteration of intermediate forms and the outcrop 
 of affinities there is hypothesis also. How much ? 
 In the facts themselves none. The hypothetical element, 
 such as it is, lies in the application of them. For 
 the French, Italian, and Spanish, the former is a 
 matter of history. It has gone on to some extent 
 already. To some extent it is going on before our 
 
CLASSES. 709 
 
 eyes at the present time. In like manner, the out- 
 crops of the Fin languages, which lie in fragments 
 like islands in a Russian sea (as aforesaid), are simple 
 facts — without an atom of hypothesis in them. The 
 nearest congener of A is not the contiguous B but dis- 
 tant C. It accounts, then, for something. The present 
 writer makes it account for much ; perhaps for too 
 much. Let those who differ with him, then, take ex- 
 ceptions to his several applications in detail, each on the 
 merits of the particular case ; not to the primary fact. 
 The primary fact with a partial application is a truism. 
 How far it extends is a oase of more or less. 
 
 Coincidence is an actual fact in more parts of the 
 world than one. As a general rule, however, neither 
 the phonesis of a language, nor the stage of its develop- 
 ment, are of much value in a question of relationship 
 — at any rate, they are not of primary importance. 
 Neither is the character of the grammatical structure. 
 Of two nations closely allied the one may prefer prefixes 
 to postfixes, whilst the other uses the postfix rather than 
 the prefix ; or, again, two languages may agree in 
 preferring prefixes which agree in little else. In the 
 way of generalizing the phonetic and ideologic character 
 of large groups of languages much good work has been 
 done. For the investigation, however, of affinities a 
 great deal of it is out of place. It is only to a certain, 
 though, doubtless, to a considerable, degree that languages 
 genealogically allied are also in the same stage of de- 
 velopment. This means that no single character is worth 
 much. 
 
 We may have, however, likeness without a cor- 
 responding affinity. Some thousand years hence, when 
 the differences between the English of America and of 
 Australia will have notably increased, the genitive cases in 
 -s may still exist. Their history will be known. They 
 will be known to have existed in the mother tongue at 
 the time of tlie division of the languages, and that as signs 
 
710 SCHEMATIC FORMS. 
 
 of the genitive case. They will, therefore, represent 
 an inflection ready-made in or before the nineteenth 
 century : facts which will amply account for their ex- 
 istence elsewhere and at a later period. They mighty 
 however, represent something else. It might be that all 
 that the Australians on their part, and the Americans, on 
 theirs, took with them from their mother-country was a 
 series of uninflected substantives, a short word of which 
 the letter s was the main element with a meaning 
 akin to the meaning of the inflectional s, and a tendency 
 to combine the two. In this case the combination it- 
 self would have been efiected within each of the two 
 countries at a period subsequent to the division from the 
 mother-tongue, and independently, as far as the combi- 
 nation went, of the mother-tongue itself. 
 
 But it was not so : as the critics of the time in pros- 
 pect will know from history. It was not so ; for the 
 inflection was part and parcel of the paradigms and 
 scheme of the mother-tongue. Let us call an inflec- 
 tion of this kind — imported rather than developed — 
 schematic. 
 
 Schematic inflections tell us that the languages in 
 which they appear broke off* from the mother-tongue 
 during a stage of its development sufficiently advanced 
 to be, jpTO tanto, at least, inflectional. 
 
 With the other alternative the case is different, and 
 separation took place during a stage of which all that 
 can be said is, that a tendency to inflection existed, and 
 that the elements out of which it was evolved along 
 with the tendency to combine them, existed also. This 
 stage was, of course, an earlier one. 
 
 Nevertheless, a separation during the inflectional stage 
 is simulated. 
 
 This is no hypothetical case ; on the contrary, it is a 
 real one. The root of. the Latin se, the so-called reflec- 
 tive pronoun, is common to the Norse and Lithuanian 
 languages. It is common to many other forms of 
 
ISOMORPHISM. 711 
 
 speecli besides ; but these two are the only ones now 
 under notice. The Lithuanians append it in the way of 
 an agglutination to the verb, making thereby an ap- 
 proximation to a reflective, or middle, voice. The Scan- 
 dinavians did the same. They did more. Within the 
 historical period we have seen this same reflective pro- 
 noun (] .) as a full appendage like kalla sik-zicall him^ 
 self; (2.) as a modified appendage, kallasc ; (8.) as 
 kcdlast, applying to all three persons, and meaning not 
 only call himself, but call one's self, call thyself, call 
 myself, call ourselves, yourselves, and themselves ; (4.) 
 as kallas and kalles, in which forms it is treated 
 both in Danish and Swedish as an ordinary passive 
 voice. Now, if it were not for the older forms we 
 might never have known all this ; and if it were not 
 for the known newness of its origin, we might fancy 
 that it originated at a period when the mother- 
 tongues of the Norse and Lithuanian were one. We 
 might, also, entertain the notable blunder that, as it is 
 wanting in the allied languages of Germany and Eng- 
 land, it is the fragment of a full inflection once pos- 
 sessed by the whole class. 
 
 Let the Lithuanian and Norse middles be called 
 isomorphic. 
 
 If isomorphic combinations be something less as signs 
 of affinity than schematic the forms which we are 
 about to call isomeric are somewhat less than isomor- 
 phic. In Norse and Rumanyo the article is post-posi- 
 tional, i. e. the former language has mand=zonan, and 
 mand-enz=.the man, whilst the latter has omozzman 
 and om-ulzzthe man. The Norse -e?! is hin, the Ruman- 
 yo -I- is ille, each being the pronoun of the third person. 
 Here, though the words difier, the logical elements of 
 the com.bination are the same. This, in logic, is the 
 parallel to isomorphism. It wil\ never be true isomor- 
 phism ; but always run parallel with it ; isomorphism 
 being inchoative, possible, or contingent schematism. 
 
712 CLASSES. 
 
 But in order to have either isomerism or isomorphism, 
 full and perfect, we must take cognizance of the logical 
 import of the fundamental, as well as of the appended or 
 sub-inflectional, element : inasmuch as it is not only a 
 possible, but a highly probable, phenomenon in language 
 that the same process may give a different result. Let a 
 word be doubled. The result will be different accord- 
 ing as the word itself is the name of a substance or an 
 action. I say man man or heat heat where the parts 
 in combination are the same ; or, rather, where there is 
 only one part made two by doubling or gemination. 
 But we can see our way to the results being dif- 
 ferent. The former may come out the equivalent to 
 avOpcoTTOL, i. e. a plural number. The latter may come 
 out an equivalent to T6Tu<^a. In each case we can see 
 our way to the ideas associated. In the first it is that 
 of repetition, pure and simple, which gives a plural at 
 once. In the latter there is the notion not only of 
 repetition, but of repetition combined with continuance, 
 in which idea of continuance that of past time is 
 implicit in the idea of the connection between a 
 beginning and an end. Let this element preponderate, 
 and we have a perfect tense, i, e. a tense combining a past 
 with a present meaning. But in order for this to be 
 possible the notion of time must be implicit in the word 
 doubled, i. e. it must be a verb. 
 
ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 713 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 Analytic and Synthetic View of Methods. — Origin of Derivatives and of 
 Koots — of derived Forms, Voice, &c 
 
 The difference between Analysis and Synthesis, which 
 is good in so many departments of inquiry is pre- 
 eminently good in Comparative Philology. Each has 
 its own proper ground ; each illustrates its own definite 
 portion of the subject ; ea,ch requires appropriate 
 aptitudes and appropriate knowledge on the part of 
 the investigator. 
 
 Analysis, taking language as it finds it, is glad to 
 find it in as advanced a condition as possible ; every 
 element of complexity giving it fresh details in the way 
 of material. Its special fields are languages like the 
 English and French with such others as approach them 
 in character. These it traces back to the Anglo-Saxon 
 and Latin ; and, beginning at the latest, and working 
 back to the earliest, known point, gets its results. In 
 this all those etymologies which deal with both secondary 
 forms and secondary meanings find their application. 
 So does all the excellent information concerning letter- 
 changes and the like. 
 
 Synthesis has its basis in psychology and logic, 
 rather than in proper philology. It strives at a picture 
 of the earliest form of the earliest language, and asks 
 how, by addition after addition, it has become complex. 
 It is to a great extent a priori in its arguments : yet 
 not wholly so ; indeed, it would be an unsafe method 
 if it were. It owes much to the anal3^ical method, 
 
•714' ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 
 
 and is, to a great extent, dependent on it. If we 
 wish to know what language was at first there is no 
 better way of learning than by beginning at the end, 
 and by eliminating such elemetits of which the com- 
 paratively recent origin can be shown, to come to an 
 approximation of the simplicity of its original form. 
 Still, the two methods begin at different ends of the 
 subject, and require different aptitudes and different 
 masses of information. Synthesis is deduction based 
 on previous induction. 
 
 Respecting each, there are two facts of primary im- 
 portance ; which are these — each method covers a certain 
 amount of ground, and each leaves an enormous amount 
 of ground uncovered ; neither do the two combined, 
 when we consider the width of the field, cover much. 
 Yet there is no third method. 
 
 The view taken in the preceding pages was syn- 
 thetic, i. e. it began with the earliest stage of lan- 
 guage and went on to the latest. Yet the other might 
 just as easily have been taken, and I might, after writing 
 on the English or the French of the present year, have 
 asked what it was out of which they were developed, 
 and then what it was which preceded — so going back- 
 wards instead of forwards. 
 
 A competent inquirer should be able to take either 
 line as occasion requires ; the advantages which the 
 one has over the other, being different under differ- 
 ent circumstances ; just as it is in chemistry and else- 
 where. 
 
 Let us apply this. The palmary problems in Com- 
 parative Philology are two, and two only — the me- 
 chanism of derivative forms (especially the inflections) 
 and the origin of roots. Everything else is subordinate 
 and auxiliary to these two main questions. Whether all 
 the points concerning them will ever be solved is another 
 matter. It is only certain that they give us the s^vmma 
 genera of the inquiry. What do we know about them ? 
 
ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 715 
 
 How far are we on the right road for discovering them ? 
 It is enough, for the present, to state that the analytic 
 method does the most for the one, the synthetic method 
 the most for the other, department. 
 
 The mechanism of derivatives most especially appeals 
 to the analytic method for elucidation. The very fact 
 of a secondary form, or a secondary meaning, implies 
 this. 
 
 It is consequently worked from the scholastic, rather 
 than the logical, side ; and deals most especially with 
 languages of which we have the longest history and the 
 most stages. Practically, it draws half its facts from 
 the Latin and its derivatives. 
 
 Hence, the order in which the primary divisions of 
 the facts which are now coming under notice are ex- 
 hibited is the reverse of that in which they are exhibited 
 in the general outline. 
 
 1. Roots are what we Uegan with. They are what 
 the sequel will end with. 
 
 2. Then come those modifications of the root which 
 give such differences as those between (pXejo) and (piXeyeOco, 
 voco and vocito, &lc., modifications which do not aflfect, or 
 only indirectly aflfect, the inflections. These give us 
 what is called crude forms or themes — which may, how- 
 ever, as they often are, be limited to the distinct root. 
 The so-called frequentative, inchoative, causal, diminutive, 
 and other modifications, belong to this class. 
 
 3. Thirdly comes modification in the wety of Accidence 
 or Inflection. As the ordinary Accidents of the current 
 grammar contain something more than true and proper 
 inflections, this class, like the last, is not strictly defined. 
 As tlie error, however, is on the side of comprehension, it 
 is excusable. Useless as they are for investigation of the 
 phenomena of growth and development in language, such 
 terms as Voice, Mood, Tense, &c., are such familiar, tan- 
 gible, and definite terms that, with all the exceptions 
 which lie against them, they will determine the extent 
 of the class : though it is clear that the -im in words 
 
716 ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 
 
 like injiraus, the -er in words like miserrimus, are 
 as little inflectional as the -it' in vocito. I admire, 
 then, rather than imitate, the boldness of one of the 
 ablest living philologues, Schleicher, who, in his Lithu- 
 anic grammar, has ejected them from the category in 
 which he places the case-endings of Nouns and the per- 
 sons and tenses of Verbs — recognizing comparative and 
 superlative degrees, only so far as they agree with the 
 positive in its signs of Case, Number, and Gender, 
 the true accidents of nouns. 
 
 The boundary in each of these classes is uncertain. 
 Many elements which seem to be adjuncts may really 
 be radical. More elements, apparently radical, will 
 really, when more carefully studied, prove adjuncts. 
 The class of Diminutives more especially simulate 
 radical forms ; but the refined investigations of Key 
 and others have put many of them in their true light. 
 The question most especially connected with this class of 
 words is the formation of Decomposites, or words con- 
 taining more superadded elements than one. Are these 
 elements ever added at once ? In the earlier stages of 
 languages, though the matter is difficult to prove, No. 
 In the later stages the compound affixes are common, 
 witness the number of words which, in the present Eng- 
 lish, end in -ally, where the adjective ends in -ic. Many 
 a man has said characteristically without having recog- 
 nized such a form as characteristical. 
 
 Of inflections, the separable ones are the simplest. 
 In many words, however, as in domin-CBy a single sound 
 expresses case, number, and gender at once. 
 
 To begin with the simpler forms. In the Greek 
 perfects the reduplication gives us a part of the original 
 as a prefix. Here we have a secondary element without 
 a second word to evolve it from. The same is the case 
 with the Malay orang orang = men. 
 
 Again, tip differs from top, without any second word 
 to give the difference. 
 
 That these exceptions are not universally allowed is 
 
INFLECTIONS. "717 
 
 probable. Whether any one hold that t eruc^a = reru^a 
 TeTV(j)a (a true reduplication in full) I cannot say. 
 That many hold that changes like tip and top are 
 secondary results is beyond doubt. No fact is more 
 certain than that many additions effect a change in 
 the contiguous syllables, and that the addition may 
 drop off whilst the change remains. Such, indeed, 
 is the case with our own perfects, which were once, 
 like the Greek, reduplications with a change of 
 vowel. The reduplication is lost ; the changed vowel 
 remains. That this explains many apparently simple 
 changes of vowels is certain. How many it explains 
 is another question. 
 
 Let us caU this accommodation. It is of two kinds. 
 Sometimes the vowel of the theme is accommodated to 
 the vowel of the addition. Sometimes the vowel of 
 the addition is accommodated to the vowel of the theme. 
 Again, the addition may be either a prefix or an affix ; 
 so that the change may be effected from the beginning 
 and proceed forwards, or from the end and proceed 
 backwards. 
 
 Sometimes the vowel may be wholly elided ; in which 
 case there is the actual dislocation of the syllables. 
 
 Again, the consonant may be changed, as it is in the 
 Keltic and other inflections. 
 
 All these processes are factors in numerous important 
 changes of words ; and, as a general rule, each is more 
 especially afi^ected by some languages than by others. 
 But they are only factors — not principles. 
 
 Subject to exceptions of the kind indicated, I believe 
 that it is now the current doctrine that all modifica- 
 tions in the form of words are the result of secondary 
 changes, and that derivation is only composition in 
 disguise. If so, the disguise must be taken away. 
 
 I begin with the verbs. 
 
 In many of these the agglutination is simply a 
 matter of history. In combinations like the English 
 
718 INFLECTIONS. 
 
 cant, and the Scotch canna, the negative has lost its 
 original form. 
 
 In the Italian 'parlero=:I shall speah, the analysis is 
 parlare +ho — I have to speah. 
 
 Even in a language in the stage of the Sanskrit the 
 future is the verb plus the auxiliary am. 
 
 1. Sr&sht'dsmit 1. Sraslit-(fswias. 
 
 2. Srasht-asi. 2. Srasht-as^Aa. 
 
 Equivalent to the Latin 
 
 1. Creabo. 1. Creabimus. 
 
 2. Creabis. 2. Creabitis. 
 
 In the Greek passives, i. e. the true ones for the 
 Aorist (all the rest being middles with a passive power), 
 the addition is that of the same auxiliar; the power 
 of the original word being participial. 
 
 In catch'em and thank'ee the name of the object is 
 incorporated with that of the action by which it is 
 affected ; these expressions though vulgar being real, and 
 the independent existence of the pronominal elements 
 being concealed by the fact of their amalgamation. 
 Grammarians, it must be allowed, have not admitted 
 these forms into their grammars ; but that is merely 
 because their grammars only partially represent the 
 language. In the Italian, similar amalgamations are 
 recognized — indeed greater and more complex ones — 
 such as darmilo :=. give it me, where the object con- 
 veyed as well as the object to which it is made over is 
 named. In many rude languages these facts are 
 noted ; and, when this is done, pass for peculiarities. 
 They merely show that the principles of language are 
 general ; the practice of grammarians partial, irregular, 
 and inconsistent. 
 
 The formation of much which is called voice is 
 equally agglutinate ; so much so that it can scarcely be 
 called an inflection. 
 
 The combination of a term denoting an action with 
 
INFLECTIONS. 719 
 
 a term denoting the object which that action effects is 
 sufficiently common ; though its great prevalence in cer- 
 tain rude languages has been treated as if it were a com- 
 parative rarity elsewhere. The ordinary reflective con- 
 struction, however, supplies its elements — which in the 
 French places the pronoun before, in the Italian after, 
 the verb. 
 
 Let us apply this to voice. When two out of the 
 three reflective pronouns, thus brought into contact 
 with the governing verb, have not only been super- 
 seded by the third, but have become so far incorporated 
 with the word expressive of the action as to have lost 
 their independent form, the result is a middle voice. 
 
 A man who heats or washes himself is beaten or 
 washed, and, on the strength of this fact, middles be- 
 come passives. The palmary illustrations of this, as 
 may be anticipated, are to be found in the Norse 
 languages. Here sikz=.sezzself, in its original the 
 equivalent of Mmself, hei'self, or themselves. From 
 an extension to ones-self it proceeds to represent 
 myself, thyself, ourselves, and yourselves, just like 
 e and even iavrov in Greek. This gives, in the oldest 
 Norwegian of Norway, from kalla = call, Jcalla-sezz 
 call ones-self, myself, thyself &c. ; wherein the change 
 is limited to the elimination of the i. In the Icelandic 
 of the same period the form is generally (though not al- 
 ways) -st : the sense being more middle than passive : 
 thus, whilst hann var nafnadr means he was called, 
 hann nefdist means he gave as his name, or called 
 himself. 
 
 In modern Swedish and Danish the t is lost ; and 
 words like hallas in the one language, and halles in the 
 other, are treated as simple passives, just like vocor, or 
 amor. 
 
 The languages just referred to give some interesting 
 examples of the reciprocal, or doubly-reflective, power of 
 
Y20 INFLECTION OF VERBS. 
 
 these forms in -st, such as oettust =. fight one another, drepiz 
 = kill one another, and which, in a later stage, give us 
 such words as vi slas, vi brottas, vi modes, vi skilles, 
 ha. z=. we fight, we wrestle, we meet, vje part, 8zc., isomeric, 
 and, indeed (with the difference of arrangement), iso- 
 morphic with the French se hattre, se quereller, ha. 
 This gives us certain, perhaps all, deponents. 
 
 The nearest known approximation to a true series of 
 passive, rather than middle, verbs is that given by the 
 Aorist Passive in Greek, where e-TV<f> O-rjv, e-rv^-O-rjs, 
 
 €~TV<f)-67], TV(f)-0 7]Ti, TV(j)-0 CLTJV, TV(f)-0-Ci}, and TVcfi-O-TJVai, 
 
 shew a verb plus the participle of the substantive 
 verb, i. e. the addition of 7)v, tjs, 7)tc, eLrjv, ©, and eivai. 
 
 Concerning passives not accounted for by either of 
 the preceding two methods I have nothing definite to 
 suggest. 
 
 The general nature, however, of the participle, along 
 with that of the infinitive (the two forms wherein the 
 verb passes into the noun or vice versa), demands 
 notice, since it breaks down the distinction between the 
 noun and the verb. 
 
 Infinitives are verbs in respect to what they mean, 
 but Substantives in every other respect. They are 
 names of actions with abstraction of the agent. In 
 this respect they comport them like words like 
 redness. They are names, though not concrete ones ; 
 being the names of substances with single attributes. 
 All we know of a runner, when we know not 
 whether it be a man or a horse, or what it is, is, 
 that it runs ; and all that we know of running is, 
 that it is the act of a runner. This act may take 
 place in past, present, or future time ; so that Infinitives 
 are susceptible of what is called Tense. It may also be 
 an act on the part of one who is more noted for what 
 is done to him than what he does ; so that voice is one 
 of these accidents. 
 
INFLECTION OF VERBS. 721 
 
 These actions may be either singular or plural, or 
 even dual ; two acts of running, or a hundred acts of 
 running, being just as intelligible as one ; besides which, 
 they may have the same relations in the way of space 
 that a tovjn or a house may have, i. e. we may go 
 towards such or such an action or come froon it.! 
 
 In one sense the Infinitive is susceptible of Gender, 
 though not in the way that a Participle is so. The 
 gender of a Participle is that of the agent. This for an 
 Infinitive is as impossible as it is for an ordinary verb ; 
 inasmuch as such gender as full verbs are supposed, in 
 some cases, to possess, is only the gender of their parti- 
 ciple. But the kind of gender which makes gladius 
 masculine and hasta feminine may make the same dis- 
 tinction between two kinds of actions. The Greek In- 
 finitives are all neuter ; but, logically, they might just 
 as well be masculine or feminine, as may be seen from 
 the way in which they are translated into Latin. 
 Though TO /jLtaeiv =2 odium,, to (pOoveiv zzijiwidia. 
 
 Of person, however, ex vi termini, they are essen- 
 tially destitute ; person being the character of the agent 
 from which they are abstracted, or changing the expres- 
 sion, which is abstracted from them. 
 
 All this is made plain by reference to those languages 
 which contain true verbal abstracts, one of them being 
 our own. Cleansing, from the Anglo-Saxon cleansung, 
 is simply a substantive of the feminine gender. 
 
 Whether we can think the import of words like 
 PaTTTLa67)vaL, fie^aTTTKrOai, &;c., exactly as it was 
 thought by an ancient Greek, is uncertain ; and it is 
 even more uncertain, from the fact of his having no 
 experience of such recent forms as our own, whether an 
 ancient Greek could think the import of such a phrase 
 as to have been dipped exactly like an Englishman. It 
 is only certain that both expressions are substantially 
 one ; and we can talk of wishing to have been dippedy 
 just as we can of wishing for a dipping. 
 
 3 A 
 
722 INFLECTION OF VERBS. 
 
 It is not by accident that Gender and Number, 
 though possible inflections of an Infinitive Verb, are 
 either rare or non-existent. 
 
 For gender the great determinant, viz. the difference 
 of real or supposed sex on the part of the agent is 
 wholly wanting ; all that remains being the hypothetical 
 or conventional gender of the action. 
 
 In respect to number, we must remember that even 
 in words like redness plurality is an exceptional pheno- 
 menon. Abstracts are essentially one and indivisible ; 
 so that such plurals as we have, are, in the very strictest 
 sense of the word, no abstracts at all. We can only 
 talk of rednesses when we mean either two different 
 shades of red, in which we really have two abstracts so 
 much alike as not to be distinguished, or the reds of 
 two different concrete substances, in which we have an 
 abstract with a substance in the background. 
 
 In respect to what they mean, participles, like infini- 
 tives, are verbs ; except that, instead of being actual 
 names of actions, they are words which suggest an action 
 and denote an agent ; whereas infinitives, whilst they 
 only suggest the agent, denote the action. Hence, the 
 participle has voice and tense to about the same extent as 
 the Infinitive ; but case, number, and gender to a much 
 greater. In all these it follows the substantive, towards 
 which it comports itself like an ordinary adjective. As 
 to Mood, the Infinitive is one ; the Participle being with- 
 out it — or rather, being, in some sense, a mood itself. 
 
 Have participles Persons .^ I know of no lan- 
 guage wherein the participle, preceded by a pronoun 
 of the first person, has a different form from a participle 
 preceded by a pronoun of the second, or a participle 
 attended by a pronoun of the second person from a par- 
 ticiple attended by one of the third. At the same time 
 there is no logical reason against such a concord. From 
 this point of view, participles converted into tenses, by 
 losing their auxiliaries, cease to be participles. 
 
INFLECTION OF VERBS. '723 
 
 The participle of the middle voice seems to have 
 arisen late, and to have been lost early ; such being the 
 inference from the Greek rvTrrofievos and the Latin 
 regimini, amamini, &c. ; these last, though nominally 
 persons plural being really for the second person plural 
 just what T6TV/jifjL€voL {eLaC) is for certain third persons 
 in Greek. In Latin, however, they have lost their auxi- 
 liary, and exist only as fragments of a participial in- 
 flection — fragments unless we prefer to consider them as 
 rudiments. 
 
 In these, as well as in rvwrofj^evoL, with which they 
 are isomorphic, the sign of the participle (y) follows the 
 sign of the voice (fi) ; so that rvTrro/jbevos is newer than 
 
 TVTTTO/jUaC. 
 
 Passives like rv^Oeus are merely participles upon a 
 participle, just like having been in English. Whether 
 TV(f>6eis or eTv^6r)v be the older form, is not the present 
 question. It is certain that tv(J>'0- is the basis of both. 
 
 In the Middle voice, then, the participle is later than 
 the tenses and the persons, whilst in the Passive it pre- 
 cedes them. Indeed, it is (as has been stated) the only 
 element which is truly and primarily passive. As for the 
 V in TVTTTOfjbevos it is active^ being part of a word de- 
 noting an action, in which the complementary noun is 
 both the name of the agent and the person suggested as 
 the object. I am not aware of any successful or even 
 plausible attempt at isolating any participial element and 
 even guessing at what it was as an independent word. 
 
 The contrast between the r in rvc^Oeis and the n in 
 stricken is remarkable. In languages like our own, 
 where the Passive Participles stand either alone or with- 
 out any such agglutinate passives, as erv^Orjv, &c. in 
 paradigm with them, there is the perplexing fact of 
 such connections as they have at all, being Active. 
 Form for form sivum and burnt, the passive participles 
 are identical with swum and burnt, the active preterites. 
 In an earlier stage of our language there was a differ- 
 
 3 A 2 
 
724 THE PERSONS OF VERBS. 
 
 ence, and whilst the participles were svjummen and 
 hoerned, the preterites were swummon, swumme or 
 swam, and hoernde. Even this, however, is but a slight 
 distinction. 
 
 Participles by losing their auxiliars simulate tenses — 
 often tenses with gender. But, then, as before stated, 
 they are something more than participles. 
 
 Now comes a short notice of the Persons. Many 
 grammarians have suggested that the signs of the 
 persons in the verb might be neither more nor less than 
 the personal pronouns appended, in the first instance, 
 to the verb, but, afterwards, amalgamated or incorporated 
 vsdth it. Mr. Garnett, however, observed that the ap- 
 pended pronoun was not so much the personal as the 
 possessive one : that the analysis of a word like inqua-m 
 was not so much, say + /, as saying + my ; in short, 
 that the verb was a noun, and the pronoun either an 
 adjective (like mens) or an obhque case (like mei), 
 agreeing with, or governed by, it. 
 
 It is certainly so in some cases. The Magyars, in- 
 stead of saying my apple, thy apple, say what is equi- 
 valent to apple-m, apple-th, &c. ; i. e. they append the 
 possessive pronoun to the substantive, and, by modifying 
 its form, partially incorporate or amalgamate it. They 
 do more than this. They do precisely the same with 
 the verbs in their personal, as they do with the nouns 
 in their possessive, relations. Hence, olvas-om, &c., is 
 less I read than m^/ reading ; less read + /, than read- 
 ing -h m^y. 
 
 (1.) 
 
 Olvas — om =: I read = reading -my. 
 
 od :=. thou readest = reading-thy. 
 
 uk = we read = reading-otir. 
 
 atok = ye read = reading -your. 
 
 (2.) 
 
 Almk — m = my apple = apple-my. 
 
 d = thy apple = apple-thy. 
 
 nk =: our apple = apple-our. 
 
 tok = your apple := aptple-your. 
 
THE ARTICLE. 725 
 
 From the verb, I pass to the Article. If we look to 
 the derivation of the word article = joint, it suggests 
 nothing more than one word so united, or articulated, 
 with another as to have lost its own separate existence. 
 Such is the case with a which is an, an being ane or 
 one. Without a substantive it is nothing : though ane 
 is a separate and separable word. The same is the case 
 with the, which is a derivative of the root of this and 
 that. Yet it only exists as a prefix : however much its 
 congeners may exist as separate terms. Some years back 
 I found no added to the list of English articles, and, at 
 once, admitted that it was one. I have since added every. 
 None of these words can exist without a substantive of 
 which they are a concomitant part — separable, inasmuch 
 as the substantive can exist without them ; separable, 
 inasmuch as they are full words in the matter of pro- 
 nounceability ; but inseparable, inasmuch as when away 
 from their noun, they are only words iii posse. 
 
 All these words are pronominal in origin, and they are 
 all recognized articles. They form a natural class, inas- 
 much as they are the terms which play an important 
 part in Logic. They convey the notions of quantity or 
 its absence, of definitude or its opposite. They are a 
 natural class : but it does not follow from this that they 
 constitute the whole of the group to which the term 
 article may apply. Nothing in the etymology of the 
 names conveys this. All that the etymology requires is 
 their nou -independent character. It does not even 
 limit them to nouns, still less to pronouns. When the 
 so-called possessive pronouns,' instead of constituting a 
 whole term (as in onine is here, this is mine), form only 
 a part of one, they change their form, and are just as 
 articular in their construction as the, a, no, and every. We 
 say my, thy, our, your, their, or her — horse, but no one 
 says this horse is my, or this hat is thy. When the 
 article becomes post-positive it becomes a recognized 
 inflection ; pre-eminently agglutinate in its origin. 
 
726 THE ARTICLE. 
 
 Certain participles simulate (we may say become) 
 tenses. Cases may simulate (or become) adjectives. 
 Cujum is a neuter of cujus, word for word, koIov ; 
 which in Greek is treated as an actual adjective. Let a 
 case denote a quality (and, in the Fin, cases do so) and it 
 may take the gender of its substantive ; in other words, 
 agree with, instead of being governed by, it. Which 
 is the case is a mere point of grammatical phraseology. 
 Wallis calls mans in a mans hat an adjective. It is, 
 and it is not. 
 
 The above shows that parts of speech grow out of 
 parts of speech, and accidents out of accidents ; yet 
 little or nothing has been done towards even getting 
 to the fundamental inflection. 
 
 This alone implies a great deal of work as a mere 
 preliminary to the origin of the primary agglutination. 
 
 That all the preceding examples of inflection reduced 
 to agglutination are in reality no cases of inflection is 
 an objection easily made ; and it is one which the 
 author admits. When all inflections have been analyzed 
 and reduced, our phraseology may require alteration. 
 The present notices are based on the current language 
 of grammarians as it is found. How far a higher phi- 
 lology than the present will recognize the present gram- 
 matical nomenclature, no man can tell. For two sets, 
 however, of languages,— for languages in the most ad- 
 vanced, and languages in the most rudimentary, stage — • 
 they are, for the most part, useless or something worse. 
 
 Numher in some cases arose out of reduplication. 
 
 The following from a' rude African language, the 
 Tumali, is a suggestive instance of another origin : — 
 
 Ngi =: /. Ngi-n-de = we. 
 
 Ngo = thou. Ngo-n-da = ye. 
 
 Ngu = he. Nge-n-da =: they. 
 
 Da = with. 
 
 Me -cum = me. 
 
 The da (or de) in the second column^ is the sign of 
 
CASES WITH GENDER. 727 
 
 the plural number. It is also the preposition with. Now 
 with denotes association, association plurality. Hence 
 
 Ngi-n-de = 7 +>= "^oe. 
 Ngo-n-da = thou +, =■ y€. 
 Nge-n-da= Ae +, = they. 
 
 This is just as if the Latins, instead of nos and vos, 
 said me-cum and te-cum. 
 
 Such are some selected instances out of those recog- 
 nized inflections which can be traced back to agglutina- 
 tion. Strictly speaking, indeed, they are not so much 
 inflections as agglutinate forms in a language otherwise 
 inflectional. 
 
728 SUBSTANCE AND ATTRIBUTE. 
 
 CHAPTER lY. 
 
 Roots. — Attributes and Substances. 
 
 Here we begin with the difference between the Attri- 
 bute and the Substance. 
 
 A yellowish, round, sapid, fragrant object, in a certain 
 place, of a certain size, and one in number, provided 
 it have other characters as well, is an orange. Its 
 colour, its roundness, its sapidity, its fragrance, its place, 
 its size, and the fact of its being of a certain number, 
 are so many attributes. The complex of these gives us 
 a substance ; such as the orange under notice, and many 
 millions of other objects besides are known to be. Let 
 us, however, strip it of its attributes one by one, with- 
 out replacing them by fresh ones. If we begin with its 
 place, the matter is easy. It is abolished at once. It 
 is not in its old, and, by our hypothesis, we find it no 
 new, one. It is nowhere, i. e. non-existent. Let this, 
 however, pass. When one after one all the attributes, 
 even to the very last, have disappeared, what remains ? 
 This is easier asked than answered. All we need know 
 at present is, that attributes are single, and that (with 
 one exception, which has no bearing upon our present in- 
 quiries) substances are complex. These last are the result 
 of a certain number of attributes combined. I do not 
 say that by dint of profound thought in the higher 
 regions of metaphysics this complex character on the 
 part of substances may not be done away with, and 
 that with all their multiplicity of attributes they may not 
 be reduced to unity. They may be looked upon as forms. 
 
SUBSTANCE AND ATTRIBUTE. 729 
 
 ideas, or archetypes ; or they may be looked upon as 
 bonds of union, or nexus {nexusses), by which the attri- 
 butes are held together. For inquiries, however, like the 
 present, a substance which is other than a complex of 
 attributes is impossible. So much follows from the dis- 
 tinction that the reader's attention is especially directed 
 to it. 
 
 More important than the fact that metaphysicians can 
 give unity to a substance is the fact that the language 
 itself does so. It names many of them as if they were 
 the simplest of the simple. Orange is as simple a name 
 as fragrant, and it is older than orange-coloured. A 
 pebble is hard, round, smooth, and heavy, yet no one 
 knowingly calls it the hard, the smooth, the heavy, 
 or the round. Still less do they call it by a name 
 which implies hardness, smoothness, heaviness, and 
 roundness all at once. Yet, without more than one of 
 some such attributes it is no pebble ; and without more 
 than one of some attributes or other no substance is 
 what it is. They are all complex : yet most of them are 
 named as if they were simple. I leave this for the pre- 
 sent, and, for the sake of impressing the fact on the at- 
 tention of the reader, I call it a philological paradox; of 
 course, in preparation for an attempt at an explanation. 
 
 Attributes fall into two primary divisions ; (1 .) Attri- 
 butes of Quality, (2.) Attributes of Relation. Attributes 
 of Quality tell us what an object is in itself, and with- 
 out relation to other objects around it ; and are charac- 
 terized by being fixed, permanent, or invariable in mean- 
 ing, and inconvertible in respect to their application. 
 Red and white apply to colour : siveet and bitter to 
 tastes, and what they mean in the mouth of one 
 speaker they mean in the mouth of all others 
 also. Contrast with these such words as I and thou. 
 The first means the speaker, whoever he may be ; the 
 second the person spoken to; and if ten different persons 
 address ten different persons in succession, each word 
 
730 QUALITY AND RELATION. 
 
 means ten different individuals. The same with this and 
 that. Talk of two balls at different distances, and 
 change their relative places, and this becomes that, and 
 vice versa. In short, attributes of relations give 
 convertible terms, terms of which the import is only 
 temporary ; and which may mean men, horses, stones, 
 and what not, ad infinitum, and in succession. 
 
 Another difference between attributes of Quality and 
 Attributes of Relation is that, while the former can form, 
 by themselves, only the predicates of propositions, the 
 latter can form both subjects and predicates. Thus we 
 can say — 
 
 The fire is hot. 
 
 but not 
 
 Hot is fire. 
 
 If we do, we either use hot for heat, or hot thing, or 
 else transpose the order of the terms. IMeanwhile we 
 can say — 
 
 This is fire. 
 These are hot. 
 
 This is in favour of the division being natural. Indeed, 
 it is not only natural, but generally acknowledged. 
 
 As to the grounds of this difference of power as 
 measured by the part which the two classes of words 
 play in propositions, they are sufficiently patent. Rot 
 means nothing, except so far as it applies to some object 
 endowed with heat ; and what this object is no one 
 knows without being told. With words like this and 
 that it is different. They are never used except when 
 the object to which they apply, either from having been 
 mentioned before, or from being within sight (perhaps 
 within touch), is already known. For this they are, 
 simply, not a qualifying word, but another name — tem- 
 porary and ephemeral indeed, and, except so far as they 
 are interpreted aliunde, obscure, but still neither more 
 nor less than a second name. If John Smith says *' /,'' 
 
QUALITY AND RELATION. 731 
 
 he knows well enough who he means, and so does the 
 man whom he addressed as you. 
 
 Words like red and hitter are no true names, but 
 only words suggestive of names. Words like / and 
 this are, if not true names, their equivalents in every- 
 thing but steadiness of application. In grammar they 
 comport themselves as names. 
 
 Attributes of Quality fall into two divisions, which, 
 though they graduate into one another on their confines, 
 are sufficiently distinct when we take extreme, or even 
 medium, instances. In the one, the words express con- 
 ditions rather than actions, in the other actions, rather 
 than conditions. The sun is round gives us an instance 
 of the first ; the sun is scorching of the second. Be- 
 tween, however, the sun is shilling and the sun is 
 bright the difference is comparatively slight. 
 
 Attributes of Kelation do the same. 7, thou, he, this, 
 that, convey Relation in the limited sense of the term. 
 One, two, three, and the other numerals convey the attri- 
 bute of Quo tie ty, or Howmanyness. 
 
 Quantity, as applied to mass, comes between the two 
 primary classes. To the question. What is the size of Lake 
 Superior ? we may answer, either as large as Yorkshire, 
 or so many square miles ; according as we betake oiu*- 
 selves to mass or numbers. 
 
 It is because terms like this, &c., are terms of Re- 
 lation, Relations being changeable, that they are con- 
 vertible ; and it is because they are explained by some- 
 thing within either the context or the actual range of 
 the speakers' senses that they can be used by them- 
 selves. The two properties are connected, and their con- 
 nection makes the division natural. This, however, is 
 not all. Words like me, thou, this and that must be 
 among the oldest of the languages. More than this. 
 They are words that play an important part in the 
 secondary formations — constituting, as we have seen. 
 
732 QUALITY AND RELATION. 
 
 articles, and the personal affixes of verbs, to a certainty 
 — and, probably, much more. 
 
 A rose, besides being fragrant, and endowed with a 
 certain form, is red, in other words, besides possessing 
 certain other qualities, it has that of redness. The idea 
 of redness by itself, I get by neglecting the other quali- 
 ties and contemplating that of redness only. I may 
 also get it by drawing off and throwing aside all the 
 other qualities until redness alone is left, which I take 
 as a residuum. In either case I get redness. If I do 
 this without connecting it with any other substance, 
 such as a boiled lobster or a soldier's coat, I get redness 
 jper se. In the first case, I get it as an abstract proper, 
 by having selected it from so many other qualities, and 
 drawn it off. Here it is an abstract properly so called ; 
 inasmuch as the process that gave it was one which 
 made it an abstractum — i. e. a thing drawn off. In 
 the other, as far as the result obtained is the test, it is 
 just the same : only the name abstract is less proper. 
 The result is a relict, or thing left, rather than an ab- 
 stract proper. The result is the same (redness per se, or 
 redness without any particular thing to which it be- 
 longs) ; but the process in the first instance is one of 
 selection ; in the second one of exhaustion. If the 
 logicians, who have most to do with the distinction, 
 find it necessary, they will distinguish between the two 
 when the distinction is needed. Meanwhile, let it be 
 neglected. 
 
 Abstracts of the kind in question are common, and 
 very intelligible. We know how to make them. We 
 do it in English by adding -th, or -ness, as in length and 
 happiness. The basis is an adjective ; and there is no 
 doubt as to what an adjective is. The only question is 
 whether an abstract term is the name of a substance 
 or an attribute. It is the name of an attribute and it 
 is not. It is the name of an attribute, inasmuch as it is 
 
QUALITY AND RELATION. 733 
 
 a name which arises out of red^ which is undoubtedly 
 attributive : and it is not the name of any red object, 
 inasmuch as it is an abstract solely and wholly on the 
 ground of its being separated from any object and from 
 all. It is also the name of a substance, and it is not. 
 If qualities be substances, the name of a quality is the 
 name of a substance also. In fact it is substantive with- 
 out being concrete : and herein lies its peculiarity. As 
 a general rule, substances are substances because they 
 give a concretion of attributes. An abstract, however, 
 must be looked upon as a substance with a single attri- 
 bute. These may exist, like as corporations sole, or 
 corporations consisting of a single individual, may exist. 
 In this view I differ from so high an authority as Mr. 
 Mill, who states that abstracts are the names of attri- 
 butes. Is he prepared to deny that a name is a sub- 
 stance ? I admit that the vast extent to which concretes 
 and substances coincide (a fact upon which no one builds 
 more than myself) makes substances with single attri- 
 butes no better than concretes — concretes which have no 
 greater content and extent than an abstraction — and that 
 it reduces the doctrine just propounded to a very near 
 approximation to a philological fiction ; and I also admit 
 that for the question which Mr. Mill has to deal with, 
 his own definition may, possibly, be the right one. I 
 insist, however, that in philology substances with single 
 attributes must be recognized. In the way of declen- 
 sion length and redness, with their genitive cases and 
 plural numbers, are substantives, if not substantial. 
 
 I urge, then, the doctrine for philology only : and 
 even here I admit that, wlien we talk of length and 
 redness in the plural number, the pure abstract idea is 
 relinquished, and that we mean sorts, kinds, or varieties 
 of redness, rather than the indefinite unity suggested 
 by the pure abstract itself Substances, then, with 
 single attributes, are admitted laxly, exceptionally, and 
 
734 QUALITY AND RELATION. 
 
 as philological fictions. They are admitted laxly, because 
 in some of the substantival forms the strict abstract 
 meaning is departed from ; exceptionally, because there 
 are not many of them ; by a philological fiction and 
 partially, because it may be that it is only in philology 
 that their recognition is required. 
 
 Perhaps, considering the fact that it is only in their 
 being attributes and units that the rudimentary words 
 of which the origin has just been investigated, agree 
 with the true abstracts of the logician, too much has 
 been written upon them. Still, the extent to which 
 extremes meet may have been worth the time spent 
 upon its elucidation. More than this. The opposite to 
 the abstract of the logician is concrete ; and, though the 
 former term is a word which is of no great use in the 
 infancy of a language, the latter is a very convenient 
 one. Having no ambition to introduce new words 
 before the things to which they are applied are familiar, 
 I have kept the one where it is not wanted for the sake 
 of its fellow whicli is. I may add that, according to a 
 doctrine exhibited by myself elsewhere, concrete is, in 
 respect to its probable etymology, a term of doubtful 
 propriety for its new use. I have, elsewhere, derived it 
 from cerno, and connected it with discrete. The present 
 use, however, goes upon the common notion that it 
 comes from cresco, and means grown together. Hence, 
 I use it because it is convenient, rather than because it 
 is unexceptionable. 
 
 Again — I shall use it in a wider sense than it has 
 hitherto been used in. 
 
 In logic, the term red in redness is the name of an 
 attribute taken by itself, i. e. as (as has been stated) a 
 term in the abstract — red in the abstract. 
 
 The same word as applied to one of the numerous 
 attributes of which the complexus give us the substan- 
 tive name rose, or blood, is red in the concrete. 
 
QUALITY AND RELATION. 785 
 
 In the eighteeenth century we take a substance and 
 by analysis, decomposition, or disintegration of its con- 
 cretions, pick out the abstract. 
 
 For (say) the year 1 of human speech, we attempt to 
 reverse the process, and beginning with a single attri- 
 bute, by a process of synthesis or construction, consider 
 the conditions under which it can be made to form a 
 concretion which shall constitute a substance. The sim- 
 ple reversal of the process tells us what to do. We have 
 to add to it just so many other attributes as, in a later 
 stage of language, we took away. The orange which we 
 made into no orange by subtraction, we make into an 
 orange by adding, to any oue of its attributes, the remain- 
 der or complement. Doing this, we get a long compound ; 
 as long, perhaps, as the long word in Aristophanes. Or, I 
 should rather say, that we should get this if we wasted 
 our time on the process : for a waste of time it most cer- 
 tainly would be. Substances, in the way of name, were 
 not built up by a mere reversal of the process by which 
 they can be pulled down. How were they ? Was there 
 a system of short-hand, by which every name of an at- 
 tribute had its most essential element taken out and 
 combined with a similar element from the attributes of 
 the complement ? There might have been this in Laputa 
 amongst a body of philosophers. Was there a long 
 series of names in the mind of the first speakers which 
 were given to the objects around them as occasion de- 
 manded ? Upon sufficient testimony we might believe 
 this ; but it is scarcely the doctrine at which we arrive 
 by inference. Were names given, as a man might put 
 a mark on a door, either drawing a figure haphazard, or 
 after mature deliberation as to which was the best suited 
 for the purpose ? Upon sufficient testimony, we might 
 believe this, as we believe upon sufficient testimony even 
 the most incredible statements (if we do not believe them 
 the testimony is insufficient) ; but we shall not get at it 
 by inference. We may safely pretermit all such supposi- 
 
736 QUALITY AND RELATION. 
 
 tions as these : adding, with unfeigned reverence, that 
 until inference has been exhausted we should not have 
 recourse to intervention from above ; or rather we should 
 say that if this cutting of the knot be our first step, 
 scientific inquiry is out of place, and the problem is 
 either no problem at all, or an historical, rather than an 
 inferential one. 
 
 Attributes are essentially simple, and the names of, at 
 least, the primary attributes are simple also. Substances 
 are essentially complex ; yet the names of them are fully 
 as simple as, and, in some cases, simpler than those of 
 the attributes. Both classes, as far as the names go, 
 equally give us the names of unities. 
 
 I submit, then, that in the name of a substance, the 
 denotation of its complex of attributes cannot, at one 
 and the same time, be simple and significant ; mean- 
 ing by significant, being in the category of those names 
 of attributes which will soon come under notice, i. e. 
 capable of being reduced to some intelligible connection 
 between the speaker and the environment. 
 
 If redness, which is a substantive, be a name, red, 
 which is an adjective, is not one. It suggests redness. 
 It applies to a red object But it is something different 
 from each. Like all adjectives (and every adjective has 
 either its real or its possible abstract) it is a word which 
 suggests a name, but which is, itself, no name. Mr. 
 Mill, with whom I again unwillingly differ, treats it as 
 a name. But, surely, name is a correlative word, and 
 wherever there is one, there is a thing named. But 
 there is no such thing as a red ; or, if there be one, the 
 fact of its existence makes red a substantive. I write, 
 however, again as a philologue. The question is one as 
 to the definition of the word name, and there is no ne- 
 cessity for its being the same in philology and logic. 
 
 In philology we must understand most distinctly that 
 adjectives are words suggestive of names rather than 
 names themselves, and that abstracts are the names of 
 
EARLIEST NOTION OF ATTRIBUTES. 737 
 
 substantives with a single attribute — if necessary we 
 may (fictionally and exceptionally) call them concretes 
 without conci*etion. 
 
 Whatever they are, they are mentioned at the present 
 time, not because they are made much of, but because 
 they are neglected, or even ignored. Tliey are noted as 
 exceptions, to be got rid of for the sake of clearing the 
 ground. They belong to the later stages of language, 
 and what is now under notice are the earlier ones. They 
 are all derivatives ; and what we are now considering 
 is roots. 
 
 You may get an actual building-stone by picking 
 one out of a ready-made castle : but you may also get a 
 building stone in jposse from the first quarry you meet 
 with. With this, as an illustration for the difference 
 between what may be got in the way of a simple 
 element from a thing constructed and a thing in the 
 process of construction, let us turn to the opposite end 
 of our inquiry, and ask how far an abstract can be got 
 from a language under a course of formation. 
 
 As far as it is attributive it can certainly be obtained. 
 Whether it can be got as the name of an attribute is 
 another question. The date of our inquiry is, perhaps, 
 too early for names. A child burnt by putting his 
 hands too near a stove in a dark room, or dazzled by 
 opening his awakening eyes to the burning sun, has 
 certain sensations, and these sensations are referable 
 to the attributes of heat and light. He has an im- 
 pression. His expression in the lowest form is a scream 
 or a whimper. If it go farther, and an attempt be 
 made to communicate his feelings to a second person, a 
 name is approached. Never mind how imperfectly ; it 
 is the attribute which has suggested it — the attribute 
 by which the feeling was created. Of the other attributes 
 connected with the cause he takes no cognizance : so 
 that the cause, though his elders know it to be substan- 
 tial, is simply attributive. In other words, his intellect 
 
 3b 
 
738 EARLIEST NOTION OF ATTRIBUTES. 
 
 has taken cognizance of nothing, and all that his senses 
 have perceived is an attribute. As he grows older he 
 knows that suns and fires do something else besides 
 burning and dazzling, and that other objects, besides 
 fires and suns, dazzle and burn. Hence, he separates 
 them, and understands why they have different names 
 accordingly. This, however, is knowing them as sub- 
 stances. So long as he knows nothing of them but 
 their respective heats and lights he knows nothing but 
 attributes. 
 
 Say that this attribute has a name — is that name an 
 abstraction ? It is, and it is not ! Etymologica,]ly, it 
 is not. Though pure and simple, it is got out of no 
 analysis, decomposition, or disintegration. It is got 
 neither by selection nor exhaustion. It belongs to the 
 rudiments instead of the climax of language ; to the 
 infancy rather than the manhood of the mind ; to the 
 senses rather than the intellect. It can only be called 
 an abstraction, for want of a better name, and a better 
 name will, doubtless, be got for it when needed. Never- 
 theless, it is attributive, and it is a unity ; and in this 
 way the extremes meet. 
 
 The notions of any one who writes upon cases like 
 this must, perforce, be obscure and vague. The simple 
 fact of his being able to write at all removes him from 
 that state of mind in which alone they approach dis- 
 tinctness. And in this state of mind no cognizance can 
 be taken of them. Savages, children, and the men and 
 women who lived when language was in its embryo, alone 
 felfc them ; though, feeling them, they could not think 
 upon them. Hard as it is for a Papuan to compass a 
 modern abstraction, it is nearly as hard for a German or 
 an Englishman to understand these rudimentary abstracts 
 of our nonage. What we know about them belongs 
 to that inferential kind of knowledge which we have 
 in all purely psychological inquiries ; inquiries in which 
 the subject examined is itself the conductor of the exa- 
 
EARLIEST NOTION OF ATTRIBUTES. 739 
 
 mination. Nay, it is harder. It should be com- 
 pared with the investigator scrutinizing himself as a 
 child. 
 
 Three facts, however, concerning what we may call 
 these representative abstractions, with all our ignorance, 
 we do know. 
 
 1st. — That they are simple. 
 
 2nd. — That they strike the senses and excite the 
 emotions rather than the intellect. 
 
 3rd. — That between impressions on the senses, and 
 the external expression of them, there is always a con- 
 ceivable, and often an intelligible, relation. 
 
 And these facts are of paramount importance. 
 
 Of the first two propositions no further notice will be 
 taken at present. Upon the third there is something to 
 be said. Between simple sensations and the emotions in 
 their extreme form there is a broad difference : little, 
 however, on the confines of the two. We must prepare, 
 then, for transitional phenomena, a debateable land, and 
 a doubtful boundary. I shall put down to the account 
 of simple sense all cases where the feeling is one of 
 neither pleasure nor pain, neither satisfaction nor dis- 
 satisfaction. Where there is an element of the latter it 
 will give an emotion : and anything that implies a 
 wish (either directly or indirectly conveyed) for change 
 will pass as emotional. This will be carried so far that 
 a man's pointing-out to something (whether he want it 
 or not) providing he does so with an indistinct feeling 
 that he is trying to make himself understood, will be 
 considered as a man desiring something — i. e. as a man 
 unsatisfied in some point. 
 
 The very simplest, even the n on -articulate utterances 
 in this way have characteristics enough to make them the 
 representatives of a class : for gi'oans and screams agree 
 in being independent of imitation and independent of 
 memory. A certain stimulus provokes a certain sound, 
 even when that sound has not been uttered before ; or, 
 
 3 B 2 
 
740 ANALOGY OF IMPRESSIONS. 
 
 if uttered, forgotten. That the emotions give us those 
 inarticulate sounds which are imperfect imitations of 
 articulate ones is clear. They also give us our inter- 
 jections. But this is little. I claim for them, however, 
 another class of words which is an important one. I 
 submit that when we point out anything with (say) the 
 finger, and at the same time utter a word, the word so 
 uttered is the result of a definite consensus between 
 the tongue and the hand. I can not only easily conceive 
 that, when the hand goes forward, the tongue does the 
 same, but I am sure, from examinations in the field of 
 actual language, that such is sometimes the case. 
 
 We now go to the next class : and begin with purely 
 imitative sounds. As long as these are inarticulate they 
 are unimportant. They grow into importance when 
 they become articulate and representative, or (as, availing 
 myself of the diflference of language which gives us the 
 distinction between a botanist and a florist, I shall call 
 them) wiimetic. Hum, buzz, whizz, fizz are the types 
 of this class ; some of them, as mew for the noise of a 
 cat, tictac for that of a watch, being nearly imitative. 
 Herein the word is a sound addressed to the organ of 
 hearing, and is the result of an impression made on the 
 same organ ; the expression and impression being homo- 
 geneous. But what if they be heterogeneous ? 
 
 There is a well-known statement, which has done some 
 service in its time, that Cheselden couched a man for a 
 cataract, who on seeing a piece of scarlet cloth said it 
 was like the sound of a trumpet. Whether he really 
 said what he thought, whether Cheselden said that he 
 said ■ so, whether the fact were true, are matters of in- 
 difference. All that is needed is the fact that every one 
 who meet 5 with the anecdote sees (to use a common ex- 
 pression) that there is something in it. We can under- 
 stand the man thinking so. We can fancy that we 
 might ourselves, in the same situation, have said the 
 same, and that we should not have said so of a puce- 
 
ANALOGY OF IMPRESSIONS. 741 
 
 coloured piece of silk ; any more than we should have 
 compared the blind man's piece of scarlet to the murmur 
 of a rivulet. One, to be sure, was a colour and the 
 other a sound. For all that there was an analogy. 
 
 Now, if this fact were the only one of the kind under 
 notice, it would explain something ; however little. It 
 would tell us how the man who had developed a v7ord 
 for the sound of a trumpet upon the principle that he 
 had called the sound from a bee-hive a hum would, tyiu- 
 tatis mutandis, use an equivalent expression upon seeing 
 something very bright and very red. 
 
 That biologists can carry this train of reasoning 
 further than it has been dreamt of being carried I 
 believe, and with them I leave the question — to return 
 to a distinction between attributes of quality and 
 attributes of relation, which is one of primary im- 
 portance. Attributes of quality, the moment they take 
 part in the formation of a substance, however simple 
 that substance may be, are always more than one in 
 number ; whereas attributes of relation, however com- 
 plex, heterogeneous, and numerous may be the elements 
 of which the substance which they help to build-up 
 consists, are, in number, one, and no more than one. 
 A stone considered as a stone has weight, or some other 
 quality, plus something else. A stone considered as this 
 or that has nothing but its thisness or thatness. 
 
 Yet this and that are its names. They may be its 
 names for a moment only, disappearing or changing 
 when the relations of the stone to the speaker are 
 altered ; but, for the time, they are names ; temporary 
 names, convertible names, variable names, non-essential 
 names, equivocal names if we like to call them so — 
 but still names. All relations, however, end (or begin) 
 with the speaker: so that in relational names there is 
 what we may call an egoist element ; i. e. every relational 
 name has either a direct or an indirect connection with 
 the person who uses it. With /, or me, this is plain ; 
 
742 THE SPEAKER THE BASIS OF ALL RELATIONS. 
 
 and with thou, and he, it is equally so. They are in the 
 relation of the object spoken to, or spoken of. This, is 
 nearer ; that, fiirther from the speaker. Even words Like 
 same and other, gravitate, so to say, to him : though the 
 connection is indirect. They denote something that is re- 
 lated to him by its relation to some third object, of which 
 he has already measured the relation borne by it to him- 
 self. If so, every word has two names, one taken from the 
 complex of its qualities, another taken from its relations 
 for the time being ; one permanent, one mutable. And 
 such is the fact, of which grammar has taken cognizance : 
 inasmuch as the relational names give the important, 
 though small, class of Pronouns ; the names based on the 
 complex of the permanent attributes the larger, but not 
 more important, class of Substantives. 
 
 From this it follows that all the difficulties alluded to 
 above, the difficulties connected with the conflict between 
 the simplicity of name and the complexity of attribute, 
 in the case of substantives, vanish when we come to 
 the pronouns ; so that if they were the only ones, the 
 philology of the pronouns would be easy. 
 
 Can substantives grow out of pronouns ? Can the 
 mystery connected with the antagonism between the 
 complexity of substances and the oneness of attributes 
 be explained by any of the attributes of relation ? 
 Definite and patent facts, sufficiently certain to be taken 
 as a basis for further trains of reasoning upon this 
 point, have yet to be found. 
 
 Can the converse take place ? Can pronouns grow out 
 of substantives ? or, changing the form of the question, 
 can substantive names, with all their complexity, become 
 simply attributive, their attribute being that of relation? 
 To this the history of the numerals says Yes — the 
 diiference between the cardinals and the ordinals being 
 the point which most demands attention. The car- 
 dinals as compared with the ordinals are certainly 
 abstract, and, as such, ought, at the first view, to be 
 
CARDINALS AND ORDINALS. 743 
 
 the newer terms. They ought also to be derivative. 
 Yet the converse is the case. The concrete ordinals 
 are derivative, the abstract cardinals simple. To under- 
 stand this let us notice a distinction. 
 
 Objects which are designated as this, that, yon, are 
 also objects which can be designated as first, second, 
 third. Of a series of objects submitted to the process 
 of numeration the first — this. The second is another 
 this. The first, however, has ceased to be this, and 
 is what it is through its relation to the second. In 
 this way each object is this for the time being. 
 With third the ideas of relation get complicated, there 
 being first the relation of third to second, and next 
 that of second to first. Third, however, is what it is 
 from being preceded by second. In other words, order 
 is necessary to our notions. 
 
 Let this mode of forming a series of numeration be 
 called the relational method ; the place of each number 
 in the sequence, series, or system being determined by its 
 relation to the ones by which it was preceded and 
 followed. It is clear that such a phenomenon as the 
 idea of a fifth before a third, a thii^d before a second, 
 is impossible. In this way, then, number is order, and 
 things numbered are objects to which ordinal numbers 
 are applied. 
 
 Again, except with arithmeticians and algebraists, 
 there is no number without an object to which it 
 applies ; just as there is no this or that without an 
 object characterized by what we call its this-ness or its 
 that-ness. But words like thisness or thatness are ab- 
 stracts which languages in their earlier stages may and 
 do dispense with. At any rate they originate out of 
 the concrete term, with its special, definite, and often 
 palpable, application. Now, there or thereabouts, ten, 
 nine, &c. are to tenth and ninth as this-ness and that- 
 ness, or near-ness and far-ness are to this and that. 
 Why, then, are the forms so simple ? 
 
744 CARDINALS AND ORDINALS. 
 
 Because they are really the older and more original 
 words ; and they are the older and more original words 
 because the otherwise natural evolution of numbers in 
 the way of ordeTy and as concrete ordinal terms, is 
 traversed by the existence of certain natural monads, 
 duads, triads, tetrads, pentads, the effect of which 
 has been to give us what may be called the representa- 
 tional method of numeration in addition to the rela- 
 tional. 
 
 The number for which we have the most natural 
 symbol is five — the symbol, or natural pentad, being the 
 hand (zz five fingers). If so, the following pheno- 
 menon, impossible with the relational, is possible with 
 the representational, method. There may have been 
 a name for five before there was one for four, three, or 
 two. Without asking how far this is a real fact or 
 imaginary illustration, let us deduce from it the infer* 
 ence that although the representational system of count- 
 ing may be more natural than the relational it is less 
 scientific. We may also add that though it may give 
 us numeration it gives us numeration of a very equi- 
 vocal kind, i. e. numeration without order, and (as such) 
 possibly no numeration at all. More natural than the 
 relational method it is ; inasmuch as investigation tells 
 us that language has adopted it to the total, or nearly 
 total, exclusion of the other. But it is natural only 
 from what we call the accident of the existence of 
 certain natural monads, pentads, fee. 
 
 Of all these monads, duads, triads, &c. (words for 
 which we want a general term, and for which I 
 suggest the word tosad) the most natural, as aforesaid, 
 is the hand with its five fingers. In other words, the 
 pentad is the most natural of the tosads ; but if the 
 number of our fingers had been variable, it might 
 never have existed. 
 
 Next to this, perhaps, is the duad. In certain of the 
 North-American tongues the names for a pair of shoes. 
 
CARDINALS AND ORDINALS. 745 
 
 a pair of snow skates := two. In our language we 
 have brace, pair, couple, synonyms for two; whilst, for 
 three, we have only the word leash, for four nothing. 
 
 The triad is less of a natural tosad than the duad, 
 and the tetrad less of one than the triad — the triad 
 being, generally, two + one, the tetrad two + two. In 
 other words, the natural tetrad is generally two duads. 
 
 Just as a tetrad is two duads, a decad is two pentads 
 — but as there is such an object as a pair of hands zz a 
 decad of fingers, the decad is one of the very natural 
 tosads. 
 
 An eikosad is also natural := the fingers and toes. 
 Amongst the Caribs one handzz^ye, tivo hands = ten, 
 a hand + a foot =. fifteen, a whole man (i. e. two hands 
 and two feet, or ten fingers and ten toes) ir twenty. 
 
 Now it is clear that a system of numeration may 
 consist of those numerals only for which there exist the 
 natural tosads for two, five, ten, fifteen, and twenty — 
 the others being wanting. It is equally clear that it is 
 only in the eyes of the savage that this is a system of 
 numeration at all. To the arithmetician it is only a 
 series of names for a few out of many collections of 
 units : and for the purposes of his science one which is 
 wholly useless, being deficient in the great element of 
 order. 
 
 The three classes of words which give the minimur)i 
 amount of complexity and the nearest solution of our 
 problem are (1) the verbs and adjectives, the latter 
 being connected with the former through the participle ; 
 (2) the pronouns. Both give unities ; the former the 
 unity suggested by a single permanent quality which, 
 when it is contemplated as an element of a substance in 
 a given state, is adjectival, but which when contemplated 
 as an element of a substance aflfecting the senses, or, 
 in motion, is verbal ; the verbal element being the 
 primary one, i. e. the one which most afiects tlie 
 observer. The attribute of relation gives us pronouns. 
 
746 CHANGES OF FORM AND MEANING. 
 
 Both are unities, and, by being this, they limit the 
 question to the simple consideration of their origin. 
 
 The substantives give the names for certain com- 
 plexes of attributes, superadding to the question of 
 origin, the second and more difficult one by which we try 
 to reconcile the complexity of constitution with the single- 
 ness of name. In other words, they give us concretes 
 with simple names — the main mystery in the question. 
 
 That pronouns may become substantives is possible ; 
 though unproven. That substantives become pronouns 
 is a fact verified by the history of the numerals. Still, 
 the evolution of substantive names out of pronominal 
 ones would (if proven) explain but little The only 
 hypothesis tliat covers much ground is the one which 
 holds that the name of some permanent attribute grew 
 into a representative of the whole complex: or concretion. 
 
 Being this, it would undergo changes, and that both 
 in form and meaning. 
 
 Word for word, eveque and bishop are the same, yet 
 they have not a single letter in common. 
 
 Idea for idea, a deal at cards is the same as deal = 
 plank of wood. 
 
 Where is the connection on either side ? 
 
 For the first, we have the Latin episcopuSj or the 
 Greek lirlaKOTros, with the intermediate evesque. 
 
 For the second a great deal ; where deal zzpart, the 
 German theil, the Danish del. 
 
 We here see then the links. The psychologists explain 
 the hiatus. Concept A may agree with concept B, 
 but B shall be linked with C, by some element not 
 common to it and A. The same apphes to sounds. 
 
 Hence, even if we knew the original phonetic ex- 
 pression of the primitive concepts, there are the phe- 
 nomena of transition to be explained. Induction helps 
 in both, and the further it goes the less mysterious 
 language becomes. 
 
 In the laws which regulate these changes superadded 
 
 rr^ 
 
THE TWO METHODS. 747 
 
 to the cognizance of the names of the primary 
 attributes, the application to the relations between 
 the organization of the speaker and its environment, 
 and the process by which they could be extended from 
 the representation of a unity to that of a concrete, lie 
 the problems of the Terra Incognita — a wide one, no 
 doubt, but not hopelessly beyond investigation. 
 
 As unities, the abstracts of the nineteenth century 
 agree with the primitive word out of which the substan- 
 tive concretes, by hypothesis, grew. These can scarcely 
 be called abstracts. At best they are abstracts before the 
 concretes, which are, etymologically, no abstracts at all. 
 Still, they are unities ; they give the key to the origin 
 of the chief elements in language. It is not easy to 
 realize their import. Still, they command our attention. 
 According to the present writer, the primary problems 
 of language are these or none. 
 
 If, out of the two methods exhibited above, the 
 synthetic only explain the origin of the words huTYiy 
 buzz, and the name of the cuckoo, it does something ; 
 and if the analytic only tell us that both bishop and 
 eveque come from lirlo-Koiros, it tells us what is worth 
 knowing. Each covers some ground. It may be a 
 small plot, a mere cabbage garden in a hemisphere. 
 Still, some ground at each end is covered ; and the only 
 question is, how much ? And common-sense tells the 
 looker-on thus much ; viz., that it is less than the 
 defender of his own domain claims and more than is 
 allowed him by the claimant at his antipodes. Let the 
 two, however, work and work until something like an 
 approximation, by which the vast terra incognita 
 which intervenes may be covered, is effected. When 
 the limit on either side is attained we shall probably 
 know that it is a limit, and vjhy it is one — ^just as we 
 know, not only that the circle has not been squared, 
 but that its quadrature is impossible. 
 
 I conclude with a few remarks upon the claim of Com- 
 
748 HOW FAR IS PHILOLOGY A SCIENCE? 
 
 parative Philology to be called a Science. It may and it 
 may not. At any rate it is an approximation to one. 
 To a certain extent, however, the answer depends upon 
 the country in which the question is put. It must do 
 so perforce ; inasmuch, as to a great extent, it is a matter 
 of definition. In England, where we pique ourselves 
 upon being a practical country, anything is Science 
 which is neither Art nor Literature : and, assuredly 
 Philology, in its higher branches, is neither the one 
 nor the other. 
 
 As a department of human knowledge, as a province 
 in a map, as an element in an organon, it is neither 
 more nor less than a branch of anthopology, or the 
 natural history of man as distinguished fi'om the lower 
 animals, with a special bearing on ethnology or the 
 histary of the varieties of man as a species. What 
 this is, and how it stands in its relations to de- 
 scriptive anatomy on its material, and to ontology on 
 its spiritual extremity, psyciiologists are the proper 
 persons to determine. As an art it is an adjunct to 
 the art of learning foreign languages, living or dead ; 
 and it is unsatisfactory to think that many admirable 
 linguists and accurate scholars know it in this aspect 
 only. As an applied science (to use a current term) it 
 is an instrument in what we may call prehistoric, ante- 
 documental, or ante-monumental, history ; especially in 
 ethnology. But this does not either make or unmake 
 it as a science. 
 
 That words apparently identical are distinct ; that 
 words without a letfer in common are only one ; and 
 that they can be shown to be so by irrefragable and 
 refutation-tight lines of argument, are facts of an un- 
 doubted scientific character. So is the fact that nothing 
 is arbitrary or accidental. But this is not enough. 
 Where is there accident ? If the absence of it sufiice, 
 everything is scientific. 
 
 More relevant are the facts that depend upon the 
 
HOW FAR IS PHILOLOGY A SCIENCE? 749 
 
 character of mind wliicli is required for the successful 
 pursuit of any given study. 
 
 The study of language is one thing, that of languages, 
 another. They are different ; and the intellectual 
 powers that they require and exercise are different also. 
 The greatest comparative philologists have, generally, been 
 but moderate linguists. A certain familiarity with differ- 
 ent languages they have, of course, had ; and, as compared 
 with that of the special scholar, their range has been a 
 wide one ; but it has rarely been of that vast compass 
 which is found in men after the fashion of Mezzofanti, &c. 
 — men who have spoken languages by the dozen, or the 
 score ; but who have left comparative philology as little 
 advanced as if their learning had been bounded by their 
 own mother-tongue. 
 
 In stating this, no opinion is given as to the com- 
 parative rank or dignity of the two studies ; no decision 
 upon the nobility or ignobility of the faculties involved 
 in the attainment of excellence in either. The illus- 
 tration of a difference is all that has been aimed at. 
 There is a difference between the two classes of subjects, 
 and a difference between the two kinds of mental 
 faculties. 
 
 Upon the intellectual differences, however, of the ex- 
 treme literaieur, and the extreme savant, it is needless to 
 enlarge. The one is strong in the history of opinions, 
 isolated facts, authorities and the like ; the other in prin- 
 ciples, concatenated phenomena, and forms : the model 
 mind, in which the two strengths are exactly balanced, 
 being 
 
 " The faultless monster that the world ne'er saw." 
 
 That Comparative Philology requires scientific rather 
 than literary aptitudes is certain : though in ordi- 
 nary scholarship, where language is the object of an 
 art, the exact reverse is the case. 
 
 Stronger still in favour of the application of the term 
 Science are the inferences from the method of philo- 
 
750 HOW FAR IS PHILOLOGY A SCIENCE? 
 
 logical investigation. In this respect, with its arguments 
 from effect to cause, from the later to the earlier, from 
 the known to the unknown, it has exactly the method 
 of Geology— that typically palseontological science. At 
 the same time, like geology, comparative philology is a 
 history. It is a record of events in sequence, just like 
 a common history of Kome or Greece. It covers more 
 ground, and it goes over a greater space : but this is a 
 question of degree rather than kind. It is a material 
 history rather than a moral one : but this also is only 
 a difference of degree. It is not, however. History in re- 
 spect to the way in which its facts are obtained : inas- 
 much as, whilst current history gets them from testimony, 
 and proceeds in its narrative from the earlier to the later, 
 palseontological history reverses the process, and, proceed- 
 ing from the later to the earlier, infers as it recedes. 
 Now for this method, scientific rather than literary apti- 
 tudes are required. 
 
 As little, however, as the absence of the accidental 
 and the arbitrary, will the existence of scientific apti- 
 tudes or the palseontological method make a science, in 
 the strict sense of the term ; although it may make 
 both an actual approximation to one, and a science in 
 posse. Neither will simple certainty. The knowledge 
 a man has of his own existence, whether material or 
 immaterial, subjective or objective, at the moment he is 
 thinking about it, is certain enough for anything, but 
 it is not a scientific certainty. The knowledge, of 
 another kind, that a logically-constructed syllogism gives 
 a logically-true inference, like the knowledge that two 
 and two make four, is equally certain: but the certainty 
 is formal rather than scientific ; and, if the word phi- 
 losophy were not at a discount in England, truths of 
 this kind might be conveniently treated as truths in 
 philosophy rather than as truths in science. 
 
 For Science, as a term, to be sufiiciently limited to be 
 usefril, it must (I submit) imply knowledge beforehand, 
 
HOW FAR IS PHILOLOGY A SCIENCE? 751 
 
 i. e. law and prevision, or rather prevision through law. 
 No mere record can become a law. A law looks for- 
 wards ; its essence being the anticipation of contingent 
 cases. 
 
 The question is, of course, one of definition, and I 
 think that both etymology and practice justify the sug- 
 gested limitations. 
 
 Let, then, the position of any given branch of human 
 knowledge, as a science, be determined by the number 
 and the generality of the laws which it exhibits — laws 
 whicli imply a force, and which, doing this, are notably 
 different from the mere forms and conditions of the 
 mathematician and logician ; from which they are to be 
 distinguished on the one side, just as they are to be dis- 
 tinguished from the method of the geologist on the 
 other. If this be the case, the physical sciences, properly 
 so-called, are the typical ones. From the standard 
 suggested by these, comparative philology is, without 
 doubt, far distant ; so that, just in proportion as these 
 are our measures, comparative philology is other than 
 scientific. On the other hand, so far as the methods of 
 the geologist, or the forms of the logician, are scientific, 
 comparative philology is scientific also. At any rate, 
 its method is that of the geologist. Add to this that 
 its results are those of the historian, and that its 
 application is in the domain of the psychologist. All 
 beyond is a matter of definition rather than fact. 
 
 In respect to its bearings upon other branches of 
 knowledge, over and above those general and indirect 
 ones which every study exerts over every other, com- 
 parative philology has several definite and special claims 
 to attention. In what we may call pre-historic history 
 it is of primary importance. Upon logic it bears 
 decidedly, and strongly. No logician has yet written 
 at all who would not have written better with even a 
 smattering of comparative philology. That language is 
 the instrument as well as vehicle of thought, is a state- 
 
52 now FAR IS PHILOLOGY A SCIENCE? 
 
 ment to be found in most logical works. Without a 
 single detail in the way of illustration, this is, at pre- 
 sent, little better than a platitude. Without the phe- 
 nomena of language, logic is a mere a priori symbolism. 
 Perhaps, in its properly-purified form, it is this. But 
 why talk about instruments when even the names of 
 the chief tools are unknown ? 
 
 As a disciplinal study we get its measure in the ex- 
 tent to which it finds a place in the English educational 
 curriculum; where, though denuded of principles and 
 with an eminently artificial grammar, it still predomi- 
 nates : asserting its intrinsic value in spite of inordinate 
 disadvantages. 
 
 In psychology, on one side, and in special scholar- 
 ship on the other, it finds its chief auxiliaries. Only, 
 however, will these become important when special 
 scholars and psychologists, each in their own depart- 
 nient, shall have combined, with their proper subjects, 
 the instructive study which gives generality to the one 
 and great masses of relevant facts to the other. 
 
ADDENDA AND COERIGENDA, 
 
 
 Page 131. 
 
 
 
 Motorian and 
 
 Koibal vocabularies ; 
 
 from the 
 
 Asia 
 
 Polyglotta. 
 
 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Motorian. 
 
 Koibal. 
 
 
 Head 
 
 namban 
 
 iilu 
 
 
 Mouth 
 
 agma 
 
 an 
 
 
 Hair 
 
 ipti 
 
 apte 
 
 
 Ear 
 
 kuma 
 
 ku 
 
 
 Eye 
 
 sime 
 
 sima 
 
 
 Tooth 
 
 tyme 
 
 tyme 
 
 
 Tongue 
 
 kashta 
 
 seka 
 
 
 Hand 
 
 udam 
 
 oda 
 
 
 Nose 
 
 eyem 
 
 piya 
 
 
 Blow 
 
 kern 
 
 kam 
 
 
 Foot 
 
 hoi 
 
 musta 
 
 
 Bone 
 
 le 
 
 le 
 
 
 Day 
 
 kain 
 
 dziala 
 
 
 Night 
 
 inde 
 
 po 
 
 
 Sky 
 
 num 
 
 num 
 
 
 Sun 
 
 kaye 
 
 kuya 
 
 
 Moon 
 
 kishtit 
 
 kuii 
 
 
 Star 
 
 kindzhekei 
 
 kynsygei 
 
 
 Fire 
 
 tuek 
 
 siii 
 
 
 Water 
 
 bu 
 
 bu 
 
 
 Tree 
 
 kha 
 
 pa 
 
 
 Hill 
 
 biya 
 
 myya 
 
 
 Earth 
 
 tshia 
 
 dzhia 
 
 
 Fish 
 
 kele 
 
 kola. 
 
 
 Page 160. 
 
 Since the notice of the Liefs was written an elaborate 
 posthumous monograph of Sjogren's, on the Lief lan- 
 guage, has been published in St. Petersburg, edited by 
 Weidemann. 
 
 3 C 
 
754 
 
 GEORGIAN. 
 
 
 
 Page 270. 
 
 
 Specimen 
 
 of the Georgian, from the Asia 
 
 Polyglottc 
 
 English. 
 
 Georgian. 
 
 
 English. 
 
 Georgian. 
 
 Man (homo 
 
 ) kazi ^ 
 
 
 Sun 
 
 mse 
 
 Man (vir) 
 
 kmari 
 
 
 Moon 
 
 mt'are 
 
 Head 
 
 t'awi 
 
 
 Star 
 
 warsk'lawi 
 
 Tooth 
 
 k'bili 
 
 
 Fire 
 
 zezkhli 
 
 Tongue 
 
 ena 
 
 
 Water 
 
 tzquali 
 
 Ear 
 
 quri 
 
 
 Wind 
 
 kari 
 
 Nose 
 
 zkhwiri 
 
 
 Rain 
 
 tzwima 
 
 Eye 
 
 tVali 
 
 
 Sand 
 
 kwisha 
 
 Moidh 
 
 piri 
 
 
 Earth 
 
 mitza 
 
 Beard 
 
 tzVeri 
 
 
 Hill 
 
 mta 
 
 Hair 
 
 tma 
 
 
 River 
 
 mdinare 
 
 Blood 
 
 sishkli 
 
 
 
 tzquali 
 
 Hand 
 
 kh'eli 
 
 
 Egg 
 
 kwerzkhi 
 
 Neck 
 
 geU 
 
 
 Fish 
 
 tewsi 
 
 Bmie 
 
 dzwali 
 
 
 Milk 
 
 rdze 
 
 Day 
 
 dge 
 
 
 Snow 
 
 t'owli 
 
 Night 
 
 g'ame 
 
 
 Stone 
 
 kwa 
 
 Shy 
 
 za 
 
 
 Bird 
 
 prinweli. 
 
 English. 
 
 Georgian. 
 
 Mingrelian. Suanic. 
 
 Lazic. 
 
 One 
 
 erthi 
 
 arthi es'gu 
 
 ar 
 
 Two 
 
 ori 
 
 shiri jeru 
 
 dzur 
 
 Three 
 
 sami 
 
 sumi semi 
 
 dshumi 
 
 Four 
 
 othchi 
 
 otchi wors'tcho 
 
 atch 
 
 Five 
 
 chuthi 
 
 chuthi wochus'i 
 
 chut 
 
 Six 
 
 ekhwssi 
 
 apchs'ui usgwa 
 
 as' 
 
 Seven 
 
 s'widi 
 
 'sqwithi is'gwit 
 
 s'kit 
 
 Eight 
 
 rwa 
 
 ruo ara 
 
 ovro 
 
 Nine 
 
 zehru 
 
 c 'chore c*chara 
 
 c^choro 
 
 Ten, 
 
 athi 
 
 wit 
 
 hi je'st 
 
 wit. 
 
 Page 427. 
 Specimen of the Heve or Eudeve, from a translation 
 by Buckingham Smith of a Spanish grammar in MS. 
 
 English. 
 
 Heve. 
 
 English. 
 
 Heve. 
 
 People 
 
 dohme 
 
 Face 
 
 vusva 
 
 Woman 
 
 haquis 
 
 Mouth 
 
 tenit 
 
 Head 
 
 zonit 
 
 Tooth 
 
 tanus 
 
 Heart 
 
 hibes 
 
 Nose 
 
 dacat 
 
 Eye 
 
 vusit 
 
 Blood 
 
 erat 
 
 Ewr 
 
 nacat 
 
 Beard 
 
 himsi 
 
EUDEVE, MEXICAN, AND AFRICAN LANGUAGES. 755 
 
 English. 
 
 Heve. 
 
 English. 
 
 Heve. 
 
 Belly 
 
 siquat 
 
 Fire 
 
 te 
 
 Arm 
 
 nocat 
 
 Water 
 
 bat 
 
 Finger 
 
 mamat 
 
 Rain 
 
 duqui 
 
 Hand 
 
 mamat 
 
 River 
 
 baquit 
 
 Leg 
 
 morica 
 
 Earth 
 
 tovat 
 
 Day 
 
 taui 
 
 Sand 
 
 sa 
 
 NigU 
 
 cliugoi 
 
 Stone 
 
 tet 
 
 Sky 
 
 teguica 
 
 Snow 
 
 sutepri 
 
 Sun 
 
 tuui 
 
 Tree 
 
 cut 
 
 Moon 
 
 metzat 
 
 Dog 
 
 chuchi 
 
 Star 
 
 sibora 
 
 Egg 
 
 aiavora. 
 
 Pages 480-434. 
 Mexican, Maya, and Otomi vocabularies. 
 
 English. 
 
 Huasteca. 
 
 Maya. 
 
 Mexican. 
 
 Otomi. 
 
 Man 
 
 tlacatl 
 
 inic 
 
 uinic 
 
 nxihi 
 
 Woman 
 
 cinatl 
 
 uxum 
 
 ixal 
 
 behhid, danxu 
 
 Head 
 
 totzontecon 
 
 oc 
 
 tool 
 
 nk, n^xmu 
 
 Hair 
 
 tomitt 
 
 jugul 
 
 tzotz 
 
 xi, xt^ 
 
 Eye 
 
 ixtololotli 
 
 gbual 
 
 nich 
 
 daa 
 
 Nose 
 
 yacatl 
 
 zam 
 
 ni 
 
 xlnt 
 
 Mouth 
 
 camatl 
 
 huy 
 
 cM 
 
 ne 
 
 Tooth 
 
 totlan 
 
 camablce 
 
 ca 
 
 tzi 
 
 Hand 
 
 maitl 
 
 cubac 
 
 cab 
 
 ye 
 
 Foot 
 
 iczitl 
 
 acan 
 
 uoc 
 
 gua 
 
 Blood 
 
 eztli 
 
 xihtz 
 
 kik 
 
 ghi 
 
 Sun 
 
 aquicha 
 
 kin 
 
 tonatuih 
 
 hiadi 
 
 Moon 
 
 aytz 
 
 
 citlali 
 
 zana 
 
 Fire 
 
 
 k'akk 
 
 tleti 
 
 dehe 
 
 Water 
 
 labtay^ 
 
 
 atl 
 
 dehe. 
 
 Page 598. 
 Additions and corrections for the languages of Africa. 
 
 English. 
 
 Ako. 
 
 Nufi. 
 
 Ashanti. 
 
 Man 
 
 okuri 
 
 bage 
 
 obaramba 
 
 Woman 
 
 obiri 
 
 isagi 
 
 owesia 
 
 Head 
 
 ori 
 
 eti 
 
 eti 
 
 Hair 
 
 eru 
 
 tinyi 
 
 ehui 
 
 Face 
 
 odsu 
 
 eye 
 
 enimu 
 
 Nose 
 
 imo 
 
 eye 
 
 ehui 
 
 Eye 
 
 odsu 
 
 eye 
 
 enyua 
 
 Ear 
 
 eti 
 
 tugba 
 
 aso 
 
 Mouth 
 
 eru 
 
 emi 
 
 aim 
 
 Tooth 
 
 eyi 
 
 ika 
 
 ese 
 
 3 c 2 
 
75t) 
 
 AFRICAN LANGUAGES. 
 
 EngHsh. 
 
 
 Ako. 
 
 Nufi. 
 
 
 Ashanti. 
 
 Tongue 
 
 
 iwo 
 
 dseritara 
 
 
 tekerema 
 
 Blood 
 
 
 osi 
 
 edsa 
 
 
 bogia 
 
 Sun 
 
 
 oru 
 
 eyi 
 
 
 eiwia 
 
 Fire 
 
 
 ino 
 
 ena 
 
 
 ogia 
 
 Water 
 
 
 omi 
 
 nua 
 
 
 insuo 
 
 Bay 
 
 
 oso 
 
 eyali 
 
 
 adeaki 
 
 NigU 
 
 
 oru 
 
 eyasi 
 
 
 adeaza. 
 
 English. 
 
 
 Timbuktu. 
 
 Hawsa. 
 
 
 Eula. 
 
 Man 
 
 
 har 
 
 namidsi 
 
 
 gorko 
 
 Woman 
 
 
 woi 
 
 madsi 
 
 
 debo 
 
 Head 
 
 
 bono 
 
 kai 
 
 
 here 
 
 Hair 
 
 
 hamber 
 
 gasi 
 
 
 dsukuli 
 
 Face 
 
 
 nigiiie 
 
 fusga 
 
 
 yeso 
 
 Nose 
 
 
 nine 
 
 handsi 
 
 
 kinal 
 
 Eye 
 
 
 mo 
 
 ido 
 
 
 yitere 
 
 Ear 
 
 
 hana 
 
 kunne 
 
 
 noru 
 
 Mouth 
 
 
 me 
 
 baki 
 
 
 Lunduko 
 
 Tooth 
 
 
 hinije 
 
 hakoli 
 
 
 nyire 
 
 Tongue 
 
 
 dene 
 
 halisi 
 
 
 dengal 
 
 Blood 
 
 
 kuri 
 
 dsini 
 
 
 gidsam 
 
 Sun 
 
 
 woina 
 
 ana 
 
 
 nange 
 
 Fire 
 
 
 nune 
 
 wuta 
 
 
 yite 
 
 Water 
 
 
 hari 
 
 lua 
 
 
 ndiyam 
 
 Day 
 
 
 dsari 
 
 lana 
 
 
 nyaloma 
 
 Night 
 
 
 kigi 
 
 dele 
 
 
 dsemma. 
 
 English, 
 
 man (people). 
 
 English, 
 
 eye. 
 
 
 Bangba, 
 
 dinga {man). 
 
 Bangbay 
 
 Tcamto. 
 
 
 hernea {people). 
 
 Bornli, sim. 
 
 
 
 
 Munio, Jcangoa= 
 
 man. 
 
 Kanem, 
 
 dsim. 
 
 
 Nguri, Jcangoa. 
 
 
 Bagherru 
 
 , Tcami 
 
 . 
 
 Kanyop, 
 
 nent. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pepel, nyient. 
 pi. haent. 
 
 
 English, 
 Bangbay 
 
 ear. 
 dudu 
 
 
 Sarar, nyient, 
 pi. hient. 
 
 
 Bamom, atot. 
 Balu, ntud. 
 
 
 Bola, nyendz. 
 
 
 Handing 
 
 0, tula 
 
 
 Gbandi, 
 
 siena. 
 
 
 Kanyika 
 
 didu. 
 
 
 Landoro, hinga. 
 Mendi, hindo. 
 
 
 Runda, 
 
 pi. matu. 
 didsh. 
 
 Toma, zunu. 
 
 
 madsh. 
 
 
 Whida, 
 
 sunu. 
 
 
 English, 
 
 water. 
 
 
 Dahomy 
 
 sunu. 
 
 
 Bangbay 
 
 inji. 
 
 
 English, 
 
 head. 
 
 
 
 man. 
 
 
 
 
 Bangbay, daigell 
 
 es. 
 
 Bulora, men. 
 
 
 Bornfi, &c., hala 
 
 . 
 
 Mumo, engi. 
 
 
AFRICAN LANGUAGES. 
 
 757 
 
 English, rain. 
 
 season. 
 
 
 
 Km, giro=.sun. 
 Yoruba, oru. 
 
 
 Bengbay, injiTcetar* :=rain 
 
 . 
 
 
 Ntere, tari. 
 
 bar 
 
 =rainy season. 
 
 
 English, moon. 
 
 Bulom, ipon= 
 
 zrain. 
 
 
 
 Bangbay, mai. 
 
 Munio, engie 
 
 %labi:^7'ain. 
 
 
 
 Udom, &c., me. 
 
 English, sun, 
 
 sky. 
 
 
 
 Boko, mo. 
 
 Bangbay, Tear 
 
 =sun. 
 
 
 
 Bute, mao pfonti=new moon.. 
 
 tar= 
 
 -sTcy. 
 
 
 
 
 English. 
 
 
 Pika. 
 
 Karekare. 
 
 Man 
 
 
 momosi 
 
 mezi 
 
 Woman 
 
 
 mondu 
 
 mendo 
 
 Head 
 
 
 ko 
 
 ka 
 
 Hair 
 
 
 sowo 
 
 sago 
 
 Nose 
 
 
 wunti 
 
 wunten 
 
 Eye 
 
 
 ido 
 
 idau 
 
 Ear 
 
 
 kumo 
 
 kuno 
 
 Tooth 
 
 
 udo 
 
 utu 
 
 Tongue 
 
 
 lisi 
 
 lusu 
 
 Sun 
 
 
 poti 
 
 pati 
 
 Fire 
 
 
 wozi 
 
 yasi 
 
 Water 
 
 
 ama 
 
 amTu. 
 
 English, 
 
 
 Ankaras. 
 
 Wun. 
 
 Man 
 
 
 ompen 
 
 • owude 
 
 Woman 
 
 
 okanto 
 
 okanto 
 
 Head 
 
 
 bu 
 
 bo 
 
 Hair 
 
 
 iwa 
 
 . iwa 
 
 Nose 
 
 
 nomo 
 
 nomo 
 
 Eye 
 
 
 ne 
 
 ne 
 
 Ear 
 
 
 kono 
 
 nano 
 
 Tooth 
 
 
 kanye 
 
 kanye 
 
 Tongue 
 
 
 nunume 
 
 numume 
 
 , Sun 
 
 
 ibande 
 
 yanyo 
 
 Fire 
 
 
 munturo 
 
 nutugo 
 
 Water 
 
 
 nyo 
 
 nyo. 
 
 1!his=Sky-water. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Abenaki vocabulary . 
 Abiponian vocabularies 
 Abor vocabulary 
 Absne ,, 
 Abstract and Concrete 
 Abstraction of two kinds 
 Accaway vocabulary 
 Accommodation . 
 Accrah vocabulary 
 Achagua , , 
 Acoma ,, 
 Adaiel ,, 
 AdaiM ,, 
 Adampi vocabularies 
 Adelaide ,, 
 Adige dialects . 
 ^thiopic, two varieties of 
 translation of the 
 
 PAGE 
 
 . 451 
 382, 506 
 . 29 
 . 280 
 . 732 
 . 732 
 . 491 
 . 717 
 . 670 
 . 489 
 . 446 
 . 536 
 . 469 
 670 
 358 
 280 
 633 
 
 669, 
 
 Scrip- 
 
 tures . . . 
 Afghan language 
 African languages in general 
 to be classified 
 
 by type 
 vocabularies of 
 
 ■- observations on 
 peculiar pro- 
 
 cesses in the . . . . 
 
 Afudu vocabulary 
 
 Agawmidr . . . . 
 
 Agawarea . . . . 
 
 Agawmidr vocabulary 
 
 Agglutination . . . . 
 
 Ahom vocabulary 
 
 Aaiawong ,, . . . 
 
 Aimauk ,, . . . 
 
 Aino dialects . . . . 
 
 of Kamtshatka vocabulary . 
 
 Aka tribes . . . . 
 
 Akush vocabulary 
 
 Albanian language, two main divi- 
 sions of .... 
 
 Albanian, list of words 
 
 Alemannic language 
 
 Aleutian forms of speech . 
 
 Algonkin languages 
 
 633 
 
 252 
 699 
 
 602 
 
 649 
 
 604 
 664 
 642 
 543 
 657 
 700 
 
 62 
 354 
 
 86 
 169 
 
 ih. 
 
 28 
 272 
 
 606 
 696 
 658 
 386 
 449 
 
 Algonkin vocabulary . 
 
 (Old) vocabulary . 
 
 Alikhulip vocabulary 
 
 Almam, &c. . , . . 
 
 Almeida vocabularies . . . 
 
 Alphabets, their multiplicity ex- 
 aggerates the differences of lan- 
 guages - . . _ . 
 observation on the Russian 
 
 PAGE 
 
 456 
 449 
 484 
 725 
 494 
 
 632 
 
 78 
 
 and Roman .... 
 Alpine dialect compared with French 
 
 and Italian .... 641 
 Amazig or Berber area . . 640 
 
 populations, divisions of the ih. 
 
 Amberlaki vocabulary . .332 
 
 Amazons, languages of the northern 
 
 bank of 485 
 
 America, general grammatical struc- 
 ture of its languages . .519 
 
 languages of North Western 384 
 
 (south) languages of .478 
 
 philology of, neglected . 479 
 
 (Portuguese,) languages of . 480 
 
 and Asia, dialects connecting 517 
 
 no Asiatic language spoken 
 
 American languages, general remarks 
 
 on the 
 Amharic area .... 
 
 vocabulary 
 
 Amur (middle), vocabulary 
 
 -Tungus of the, vocabulary of 
 
 517 
 533 
 636 
 76 
 76 
 387 
 713 
 
 Anadyr vocabulary 
 
 Analysis and synthesis 
 
 Anam or Ann am, the collective name 
 
 of Cochin-China and Tonkin . 61 
 Andaman islanders described by early 
 
 voyagers .... 68 
 
 ■' modern character of ib. 
 
 vocabulary . . .59 
 
 Andi 
 
 Anfue ,, 
 
 Angami , , 
 
 Anglo-Saxon 
 
 Annatom vocabularies 
 
 272 
 569 
 31 
 659 
 349 
 
INDEX. 
 
 759 
 
 Ansoes vocabulary 
 
 Antes ,, 
 
 Antonio (San) ,, 
 
 Antshukh , , 
 
 Apiaca , , 
 
 Apinages ,, 
 
 Apatsh ,, 
 
 Appa ,, 
 
 Ara (Arini), meaning of the word 
 
 Arabic Alphabet, the present, akin 
 
 to the Syriac . 
 
 vocabulary 
 
 Arago ,, 
 Aramaic language 
 
 Syrian . 
 
 Arapaho vocabularies . . 456 
 
 Araucanan vocabulary. 
 
 Arawak , , 
 
 Areas of languages, large, small 
 
 and medium ... 
 
 seven great 
 
 Arecuna vocabulary 
 
 Arfak ,, . . 
 
 Arini, or Ara, legend of the 
 
 vocabulary . 
 
 Arkiko vocabularies 
 Armenian literature 
 alphabet, one of the com 
 
 pletest in existence . 
 
 vocabulary . 
 
 Armorican language, vocabulary 
 
 Arnaut language . 
 
 Arniya vocabularies 
 
 Aro vocabulary . 
 
 Aropin , , 
 
 Artes of South American languages 
 
 Articles 
 
 Ashanti language 
 
 Asia and Europe one Continent for 
 
 ethnological purposes 
 and America, dialects con 
 
 necting . . . . 
 Aspirates, distinction between true 
 
 and false 
 Assam languages . 
 Assan, the .... 
 
 vocabulary . 
 
 -Assyrian, acceptation of the term 
 Astek .... 
 
 Athabaskan dialects divided into 
 
 sections . 
 Atna dialects 
 
 vocabulary . 
 
 Atoria , , 
 Atshin , , 
 Attakapa ,, 
 
 PAGE 
 
 333 
 516 
 416 
 
 272 
 509 
 512 
 394 
 588 
 94 
 
 535 
 539 
 331 
 
 529 
 530 
 , 458 
 483 
 492 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 491 
 
 332 
 
 92 
 
 94 
 
 536, 555 
 
 267 
 
 ib. 
 266 
 667 
 606 
 238, 250 
 567 
 
 332 
 
 478 
 726 
 571 
 
 517 
 
 618 
 
 28 
 
 91 
 
 94 
 
 530 
 
 430 
 
 ib. 
 491 
 288 
 476 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Attributes and Sub^ances . .728 
 ■- of Quality and of Rela- 
 tion 730 
 
 Australia, Western vocabulary . 354 
 Australian ,, .370 
 
 languages, fundamental 
 
 unity of the . . . . 357 
 
 — in general, 
 
 comparison of . . . . 358 
 group, Malay affinities of 
 
 the 
 
 350 
 
 numerals . . 351, 
 
 359 
 
 Avar vocabulary .... 
 
 272 
 
 Avekvom ..... 
 
 571 
 
 Aymara area .... 
 
 482 
 
 vocabulary 
 
 483 
 
 Baba vocabulary .... 
 
 303 
 
 Bagbalan ,, ... 
 
 584 
 
 Bagnon ,, . . 
 
 596 
 
 Bago ,, ... 
 
 595 
 
 Bagwan „ ... 
 
 245 
 
 Baikha ,, 
 
 139 
 
 Bakeli affinities, languages with . 
 
 564 
 
 vocabulary 
 
 561 
 
 Baladea ,, • 
 
 342 
 
 Bali „ . . . . 
 
 297 
 
 Banga ,,.... 
 
 228 
 
 Baniwa vocabularies . 
 
 486 
 
 Banjak Batta vocabulary 
 
 288 
 
 Baraba >> • 
 
 107 
 
 Barabinski, or Barama Turks 
 
 105 
 
 Baraki vocabulary 
 
 262 
 
 Barbara (Santa) vocabulary . 
 
 417 
 
 Barree • ,, . . 
 
 486 
 
 Basa Krama , , 
 
 296 
 
 BashI 
 
 314 
 
 Bask, Basque, or Biscayan lan- 
 
 
 guage 
 
 675 
 
 its isolation 
 
 677 
 
 Ugrian, Slavonic, African 
 
 
 affinities .... 
 
 678 
 
 geographical names signifi- 
 
 
 cant in it 
 
 680 
 
 its declension 
 
 681 
 
 dialects . .^ . 683 
 
 , 687 
 
 general view of its possible 
 
 
 relations .... 
 
 688 
 
 its relation as Iberic to the 
 
 
 Kelt 
 
 679 
 
 Bashkir vocabulary . . * . 
 
 112 
 
 Bashmuric dialect of Coptic 
 
 546 
 
 Bassa vocabulary 
 
 572 
 
 Bathurst ,, 
 
 352 
 
 Batta language. Dr. Barth's re- 
 
 
 marks on the . 
 
 589 
 
760 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Batta dialects, vocabularies of 
 
 Battas, the 
 
 Bauro vocabulary- 
 Bavarian language 
 
 Bayano vocabulary 
 
 Beak and Mef ur vocabulary 
 
 Begbarmi vocabulary . 
 
 Bengali ,, 
 
 Benin language . 
 
 Berber area 
 
 Bethuck, the native language of 
 Newfoundland 
 
 Bergamasco dialect of Italian, spe 
 cimen of . 
 
 Bishari vocabulary 
 
 Bhatui ,, 
 
 Bhot, or Bhotiya group of lan- 
 guages, philological boundaries of 
 the 
 
 Biafada vocabulary 
 
 Biajuk ,, 
 
 Biluch „ 
 
 Bima ,, 
 
 Bini 
 
 Blackfoot ,, 
 
 Blackmouths, curious origin of the 
 
 Blasan, blasennes, hlasenne . 
 
 Bode vocabulary 
 
 Bodo ,, 
 
 Bokhara ,, 
 
 Bolar , , 
 
 Bonny language 
 
 Boraiper vocabulary 
 
 Borgia (San) ,, 
 
 Boritsu ,, 
 
 Bormio, dialect of Italian, speci- 
 men of . 
 
 Borneo, language of . 
 
 Bornii, thirty different languages 
 spoken in . , , . 
 
 Bororo vocabulary 
 
 Borro ,, ... 
 
 Botocudo class of languages . 
 
 vocabulary . 
 
 Bowri ,, 
 
 Brahmins, the expositors of the 
 Sanskrit .... 
 
 Brahdi forms and their English 
 equivalents .... 
 
 ■ glossary .... 
 
 vocabulary 
 
 Brass Town language . 
 
 Bi~azil, languages of . 
 
 Brescian, dialect of Italian, speci- 
 men of 
 
 PAGE 
 
 288 
 287 
 337 
 658 
 437 
 332 
 577 
 227 
 567 
 540 
 
 453 
 
 640 
 649 
 246 
 
 12 
 
 694 
 306 
 259 
 298 
 567 
 313 
 448 
 488 
 722 
 679 
 26 
 259 
 595 
 567 
 354 
 424 
 565 
 
 640 
 305 
 
 578 
 515 
 
 26 
 509 
 
 ih. 
 247 
 
 618 
 
 211 
 214 
 20 
 567 
 507 
 
 640 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Breton language, specimen of the . 667 
 vocabulary . . .664 
 
 of Vannes, specimen of the 668 
 
 British branch of Keltic . . 664 
 Brown's tables of dialects . . 42 
 Anamitic, Siamese 
 
 and other languages . . 68 
 
 Buddhism, Pali the language of . 617 
 Budugur vocabulary . . . 208 
 Buduma ,, . . . 579 
 
 Bugis ,, . . .307 
 
 Bulanda ,, . . .595 
 
 BuUom ,, . . .596 
 
 Bultistan, Bhot of . . .12 
 Buriats Siberian rather than Chi- 
 nese ..... 83 
 Burmese group of languages 11, 36 
 
 Proper, a literary language 47 
 
 vocabulary . . .48 
 
 and Tibetan, affinity be- 
 tween ..... 68 
 
 Bushman vooabulary . 
 Btitan, Bhot of 
 Buton vocabulary 
 
 Caddo vocabulary 
 
 Cahuillo ,, . . 
 
 Caldani, the modern . 
 
 Caldwell's Dravirian grammar 
 
 California (Old) lang 
 
 Camacan vocabulary 
 
 Canarese ..... 
 
 vocabularies, new, old, and 
 
 literary ..... 
 
 Canary vocabulary 
 
 Canichana ,, ... 
 
 Canton dialect of China, vocabu- 
 lary of . 
 
 Caraho vocabulary 
 
 Caraja ,, ... 
 
 Carib group .... 
 
 vocabulary 
 
 Caribisi ,, 
 
 Carnicobar language . 
 
 vocabulary 
 
 Caroline Archipelago, languages of 
 the 
 
 Carpentarian vocabulary , 
 
 Cashmir ,, . . 
 
 Castelmagno dialect of Italian 
 
 Castren's researches, specimen of 89 
 
 Tungtis grammar . 
 
 Catalonian, specimen of 
 
 Catawba vocabulary 
 
 Caubul coins, language of the 
 
 Caucasus, languages of the . 
 
 598 
 
 13 
 
 310 
 
 475 
 
 443 
 531 
 207 
 422 
 611 
 204 
 
 209 
 541 
 601 
 
 613 
 512 
 490 
 
 492 
 
 491 
 
 67 
 
 284 
 
 321 
 359 
 230 
 642 
 128 
 
 72 
 646 
 465 
 614 
 
 36 
 
INDEX. 
 
 761 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Cayagan rocabulary . . .313 
 Cayowa ,, ... 609 
 
 Cayubaba language . . .515 
 Cayuga vocabulary . . .463 
 Cayus ,, ... 406 
 
 Cayuvava ,, . . .500 
 
 Celebese dialects . . . 307 
 
 Celtiberians of Spain . . .679 
 Ceram vocabulary . . .311 
 
 Ceylon, aboriginal language of . 232 
 Circassian, an Italian form of 
 
 Tsherkess . . . .279 
 Circumpolar forms of speech . 384 
 Chaco languages .... 505 
 
 Chaklee 531 
 
 'Kafji,a^a Xi^ig . . . .543 
 
 Chamorri vocabulary . . . 321 
 
 Cbandragupta said to be identified 
 
 witb Sandracottus . . . 615 
 
 Changlo vocabulary . . .16 
 Chanta ,, . . .136 
 
 Cbavante ,, . ■. .513 
 
 Chemmesyan .... 401 
 Chemuhuevi vocabulary . , 443 
 Chepang ,, . .21 
 
 Chepewyan ,, . .391 
 
 Chiquito Proper, a sort of Lingua 
 
 Franca . , . . 504 
 
 Cherente vocabulary . . .513 
 Cherokee spoken by more indivi- 
 duals than any other Indian lan- 
 guage , . . . . 467 
 
 alphabet invented by a 
 
 native . . . . . ih. 
 
 vocabulary . . . 468 
 
 Chetimacha ,, . . . 469 
 Chileno language . . . 478 
 
 Chimanos vocabulary . . .487 
 Chinese Proper, dialects of . .63 
 
 comparative vocabulary of 
 
 Sanskrit and . . . .622 
 Chiquitos, a Spanish name . . 504 
 
 languages . . . 502 
 
 plural in -ca . . 504 
 
 vocabulary . . . 502 
 
 Classification of languages, modes of 6 
 Clidc, the Hottentot . .' . 598 
 Cochetimi vocabulary . . .446 
 
 Cochimi of San Xavier, specimen 
 
 of 422 
 
 Cochin-China vocabulary . . 61 
 Cocomaricopa ,, . . 420 
 
 Cocos Island ,, . . 327 
 
 Coconoons ,, . .416 
 
 Cohistani language . . ,239 
 
 Comanch vocabulary . . . 443 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Concrete and Abstract , . 732 
 
 Copeh vocabulary . . .412 
 
 Coptic extinct as a true vernacular 646 
 
 three dialects of . . ih. 
 
 superseded by Arabic . 547 
 
 Coptic vocabulary * . . .679 
 Cora, specimen of . . . 429 
 Coretu vocabulary . . .489 
 
 Corio dialect of Italian . . 642 
 Cornish language, list of existing 
 specimens of . . . .672 
 
 vocabulary . . .664 
 
 Keltic, specimen of . ^Q5 
 
 Paternoster, old and 
 
 newer foiTQs .... QQQ 
 Coroato vocabulary . . . 614 
 Coropo ,, . . . ih. 
 
 Corsican, specimen of . . .644 
 Costano vocabulary . . .415 
 Chocktaw ,, . , . 468 
 
 Chuntaquiro „ , , ,513 
 
 Chutia Deoria „ ... 35 
 
 Creek ,, . . .468 
 
 Crow ,, ... 458 
 
 Cuchan vocabularies . . 405, 420 
 Cumanch language . . . 472 
 Cumanian dialect, Paternosters in 
 
 the 114 
 
 Cunacuna vocabulary . . . 438 
 Cuneiform inscription from the 
 
 tomb of Darius, and translation 614 
 Cuneo dialect of Italian . . 641 
 Curgi or Kodugu vocabulary . 205 
 Cypher, strictest test of a deci- 
 phered 646 
 
 Dahcota vocabulary . . . 460 
 Dahomey j, • • • • ^^9 
 
 Dalla ,, . . .556 
 
 Dairy mple (Port) vocabulary . 369 
 
 Danakil vocabulary . . . 555 
 Danish „ . . .662 
 
 Darahi „ ... 180 
 
 Dard group . . . .238 
 
 Darien vocabulary . . . 438 
 Darius, cuneiform inscription from 
 
 the tomb of . . . . 614 
 Dark-skinned tribes, theory re- 
 specting . . . .39 
 Dar-runga vocabulary . . 553 
 
 Dasen ,, . . . 332 
 
 Daurai ,, . . . 491 
 
 Dautgart ,, . . .354 
 
 Deer ,, . . .287 
 
 Definition, classification of languages 
 
 by 6 
 
762 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Denka Ostiaks, dialect of the 
 
 90 
 
 Estonian bards .... 
 
 157 
 
 vocabulary 
 
 551 
 
 vocabulary . 
 
 159 
 
 Denwar ,, 
 
 181 
 
 Etchemin .... 
 
 451 
 
 Deoria Chutia ,, 
 
 35 
 
 Euphony, vocalic, explained 
 
 586 
 
 De Peyster's Islands, dialect of 
 
 324 
 
 
 
 Deri, meaning of the term 
 
 257 
 
 Fan, numerals of the 
 
 564 
 
 Derivation of words . 
 
 732 
 
 Faslaha vocabulary 
 
 542 
 
 Dewoi vocabulary 
 
 572 
 
 Favorlang dictionary, Happast's . 
 
 315 
 
 Dhimal ,, . . 
 
 26 
 
 Fazoglo vocabulary 
 
 551 
 
 Dialects, how distinguished fron 
 
 
 Felup „ ... 
 
 596 
 
 languages 
 
 1 
 
 Fertit „ ... 
 
 551 
 
 Dido vocabularies 
 
 272 
 
 Fiji group, its relations to the Poly- 
 
 
 Dieguno ,, . .40 
 
 5, 420 
 
 nesian and the Papuan . 
 
 345 
 
 Dinni an Athabaskan termination 
 
 390 
 
 vocabulary 
 
 ih. 
 
 Dioscurian group of languages 
 
 
 Fin districts, proper 
 
 153 
 
 meaning of the term 
 
 268 
 
 - — languages, conjectures respect- 
 
 
 Dizzela vocabulary 
 
 556 
 
 ing the .... 
 
 155 
 
 Doalu Bukere's invention of th 
 
 
 language, earliest specimens of 
 
 
 Vei Alphabet . 
 
 576 
 
 the 
 
 156 
 
 Dodi vocabulary 
 
 579 
 
 mythology .... 
 
 il. 
 
 Dofla „ . 
 
 29 
 
 poem, the Kalevala 
 
 ib. 
 
 Dog-rib „ 
 
 390 
 
 vocabulary .... 
 
 159 
 
 Door, legend concerning the bot 
 
 
 and Samoyed, Castren's asso- 
 
 
 tomless pool of 
 
 241 
 
 ciation of ... . 
 
 120 
 
 Dor vocabulary 
 
 551 
 
 and Ugrian nearly synonymous 
 
 127 
 
 Dravirian language, Caldwell's 
 
 
 or Ugrian, hypothesis . 677 
 
 687 
 
 grammar of the 
 
 . 199 
 
 Flatbow area .... 
 
 395 
 
 Dsuku vocabulary 
 
 . 588 
 
 Flores or Ende dialects 
 
 299 
 
 Dumagat „ . 
 
 . 314 
 
 Fokien dialect .... 
 
 64 
 
 Duman ?> • 
 
 . 248 
 
 Formosa, Malay form spoken in . 
 
 314 
 
 Dzelana ,, . 
 
 . 585 
 
 Frank language .... 
 
 658 
 
 
 
 French, dialects of the 
 
 644 
 
 Eafen vocabulary 
 
 . 566 
 
 (northern), specimen of . 
 
 645 
 
 Ecuador, language of . 
 
 . 497 
 
 (south western) ,, 
 
 ih. 
 
 Ehnek vocabulary 
 
 . 409 
 
 patois .... 
 
 5 
 
 Egbele „ . . 
 
 . 567 
 
 Frisian transitional between Ger- 
 
 
 Egypt (Upper and Middle), Copti 
 
 
 man and Norse 
 
 660 
 
 dialects of 
 
 . 546 
 
 Fuego (Tierra del), languages of . 
 
 484 
 
 Ekamtulufu vocabuary 
 
 . 566 
 
 Fula language, its importance for 
 
 
 Eloikob proved to be the same wo 
 
 rd 
 
 religious and commercial pur- 
 
 
 as Kekuafi 
 
 . 645 
 
 poses 
 
 591 
 
 Emilian dialects, where spoken 
 
 638 
 
 Furian vocabulary 
 
 551 
 
 Ende vocabulary 
 
 . 300 
 
 
 
 Engadin, specimen of 
 
 . 647 
 
 Grabelentz on the Formosan lan- 
 
 
 Enganho vocabulary . 
 
 . 293 
 
 guages 
 
 315 
 
 English language 
 
 660 
 
 Gabun, languages of the 
 
 
 561 
 
 Eregba vocabulary 
 
 . 588 
 
 Gadaba vocabulary 
 
 
 ]86 
 
 Erromango ,, 
 
 . 340 
 
 Gadi 
 
 
 218 
 
 Erroob ,, 
 
 . 335 
 
 Gaelic branch of Keltic 
 
 
 QQQ 
 
 Erse branch of Keltic 
 
 . QQQ 
 
 Middle Scotch . 
 
 
 672 
 
 Eskimo languages 
 
 . 385 
 
 Gafat language . 
 
 
 533 
 
 the only langua 
 
 ?es 
 
 vocabularies 
 
 
 534 
 
 common to Asia and America 
 
 . 386 
 
 Galilean a dialect of Hebrew 
 
 521 
 
 Eslen vocabulary 
 
 . 416 
 
 Gall a, class, divisions of the 
 
 553 
 
 Estonian divided into two main 
 
 
 Proper, its vast extent 
 
 554 
 
 dialects 
 
 . 157 
 
 vocabulary 
 
 • 
 
 655 
 
INDEX. 
 
 763 
 
 Garnett, his doctrine concerning the 
 
 persons of verbs 
 Garo vocabulary .... 
 Gbe ,,.... 
 Georgian populations . 
 alphabet, completeness of 
 
 the ..... 
 
 Geral (Lingua), the current Indian 
 
 of the Brazilian Empire . 
 German languages 
 
 High and Low 
 
 modern literary 
 
 High, standard of . 
 
 dialects 
 
 Germans, in what sense Goths 
 
 Ghagar vocabulary 
 
 Gheez, the language of the ^thi- 
 opic translation of Scripture 
 
 its relation to the Tigre 
 
 Gheg dialects of the Albanian 
 
 Ghonds, the .... 
 
 Ghindzhar vocabulary . 
 
 Gipsies of Persia 
 
 Gipsy language, its primitive ele- 
 ment Indian .... 
 
 of Norway vocabulary 
 
 Gnurellean ,, 
 
 Gohuri ,, 
 
 Gold Coast dialects 
 
 Gonds, tradition respecting the 
 origin of the .... 
 
 Gonga vocabulary 
 
 Grebo ,, ... 
 
 Greek language, its origin . 
 
 dialects, remarks on the 
 
 (modern) or Romaic, dialects 
 
 of 
 
 of Corsica, only known spe- 
 cimen of .... 
 
 list of words 
 
 Grenada (New), languages of 
 
 Guachi vocabulary 
 
 Guadalcanar , , ... 
 
 Guaham ,, ... 
 
 Guajiquiro ,, ... 
 
 Guana ,, ... 
 
 of Castelnau . 
 
 Guanch language 
 
 Guaque vocabulary 
 
 Guarani, the current Indian of 
 Brazil 
 
 vocabulary 
 
 Guatimala, language of 
 
 Guato vocabulary 
 
 Gudang „ ... 
 
 PAGE 
 
 725 
 
 26 
 
 572 
 
 269 
 
 270 
 
 507 
 658 
 659 
 
 ib. 
 
 ih. 
 
 ib. 
 
 ib. 
 663 
 249 
 
 633 
 
 ib. 
 606 
 188 
 537 
 248 
 
 ib. 
 249 
 353 
 247 
 670 
 
 199 
 544 
 572 
 651 
 653 
 
 655 
 
 656 
 696 
 479 
 514 
 337 
 321 
 435 
 514 
 515 
 541 
 490 
 
 607 
 508 
 427 
 514 
 351 
 
 Guebe vocabulary 
 Guinau ,, 
 
 Gujerati interpreters, statement 
 of Sir E. Perry respecting 
 
 vocabulary 
 
 Gundi grammar 
 
 vocabulary 
 
 PAGE 
 
 330 
 490 
 
 225 
 ib. 
 192 
 190 
 
 specimens of, with translation 194 
 
 Gxmungtellu vocabulary . .308 
 Gursea ,, . . 585 
 
 Gurung ,, . . 19 
 
 Gyami ,, . . GQ 
 
 Gyarung ,, . . 16 
 
 Haggai, a locus standi for Hebrew 
 
 Haidah language 
 
 Hailtsa vocabulary 
 
 Hamitic language 
 
 Hatigor vocabulary 
 
 Hawsa, Schon's Grammar of 
 
 Hayu vocabulary 
 
 Head of Bight (Australia), 
 
 cabulary 
 Hebrew language, date of criticism 
 
 of the .... 
 
 of Judea 
 
 modern . 
 
 vocabulary 
 
 Helebi ,, . . 
 
 Hiaqui, specimen of . 
 Hieroglyphic inscriptions 
 Hillmen near Amsterdam and Mid 
 
 dleburg (New Guinea), vocabulary 
 of the ..... 
 Himyaritic inscriptions 
 Hindmarsh (Lake) vocabulary 
 Hindi, languages akin to the 
 
 vocabulary 
 
 Hindostanee, a mixed tongue 
 
 details of its accidence 
 
 History, what parts of a language 
 
 important for .... 
 Hodgson (Mr.) on the Kiranti 
 
 dialects 
 
 Honduras, dialects of . 
 
 Hoopah vocabulary 
 
 Hor or Horpa ,, . . . 
 
 Hottentot ,, 
 
 Hueco ,, 
 
 Humming-bird Indians 
 
 Hurur vocabulary 
 
 Hururgi language 
 
 Huzvaresh ,, ... 
 
 suggested alteration of the 
 
 628 
 401 
 
 ib. 
 601 
 
 32 
 680 
 
 21 
 
 354 
 
 527 
 ib. 
 539 
 540 
 249 
 428 
 546 
 
 332 
 535 
 353 
 216 
 218 
 223 
 ib. 
 
 Hyperborean class 
 
 24 
 435 
 395 
 
 17 
 598 
 475 
 487 
 536 
 624 
 256 
 
 262 
 118 
 
764 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Ibo language . . . .567 
 Icelandic, modem . . .662 
 Illinois vocabulary . . . 452 
 lUyrian or Slovenian language . 628 
 Illyrians, language of the . . 606 
 Ilmormo or Galla proper . . 555 
 Iloco vocabulary . . .313 
 
 Inbazk vocabulary in the Asia 
 
 Polyglotta .... 90 
 
 vocabulary . . .94 
 
 Incorrectness of grammar only 
 
 apparent . . . .705 
 
 India^ migratory populations of . 245 
 Indo-European languages . . 605 
 
 — character of the 600 
 
 , remarks on the 
 
 class so-called ; position in it of 
 the Sanskrit, Slavonic, Skipitar 
 and Keltic . . . .689 
 
 extension of it . 691 
 
 Infinitives and Participles, their 
 
 nature and inflection . . 720 
 
 Ingush vocabulary .. . .275 
 Insam „ ... 332 
 
 Inscriptions treated as Keltic, and 
 found on undoubted Keltic 
 
 ground 673 
 
 . treated as Keltic, 
 
 though found on doubtfully 
 Keltic ground . . . .674 
 
 Insular and Continental distribution 
 
 of languages .... 4 
 Intermediate forms of language, ob- 
 literation of .... 5 
 Intibuca vocabulary . . .435 
 Iquito ,, . . . 495 
 
 Irish language, materials for inves- 
 tigating the . . . .671 
 
 vocabulary . . , %QQ 
 
 Iron ,, . . . .264 
 
 Iroquois languages . . .463 
 Irular vocabulary . . .208 
 Isanna ,, ... 486 
 
 Isiele ,, ... 667 
 
 Islands, rule respecting languages of 294 
 Isle of Pines vocabulary . . * 343 
 Isoama ,, . . 667 
 
 Isomeric inflections . . .711 
 Isomorphic ,, . . .711 
 
 Isubu affinities, languages with . 564 
 Italian, dialects of the . . 641 
 — — jjatois .... 5 
 Italy, division of the dialects of 
 
 modem . . . .637 
 Itonama, number of the . . 503 
 vocabulary . . . 501 
 
 Jakon vocabulary 
 
 Jansen on the dialects of Menadu 
 
 Jaoi vocabulary . 
 
 Japanese ,, 
 
 Jakun ,, . . . 
 
 Java, Kawi the sacred language of 
 
 Javanese language 
 
 vocabulary . 
 
 Javita 
 
 Jecorilla ,, 
 
 Jervis's Bay vocabularies 351 
 
 Jewish Scriptures, Hebrew of the 
 
 Jhongworong vocabulaiy 
 
 Jili „ 
 
 Joboca ,, 
 
 Jower ,, 
 
 Jupuroca , , 
 
 Juru Samang 
 
 PAGE 
 
 407 
 309 
 492 
 167 
 287 
 621 
 295 
 296 
 486 
 395 
 358, 370 
 528 
 
 Juvencus, 
 found in 
 
 specimen 
 1 copy of 
 
 of Pictish 
 
 Ka vocabulary 
 
 Kadiak ,, 
 
 Kaffa ,, , . . 
 
 Kafirs, legends respecting the 
 
 tradition resi^ecting their 
 
 descent from Alexander the Great 
 Kaffir class of languages 
 languages, miscellaneous illus 
 
 trations of the 
 
 prefixes 
 
 alliteration 
 
 curious syntactic peculiarities 
 
 Kajunah vocabulary 
 Kakhyen ,, . 
 Kalka ,, . 
 
 Kalmuks of the Volga 
 Kamacintzi vocabulary 
 Kamas ,, 
 
 Kamassintzi ,, 
 Kambali , , 
 
 Kambojia ,, 
 
 Kami ,, 
 
 Kamilaroi , , 
 
 paradigms for the 
 
 Kamtshatkan of the Tigil . 
 
 vocabulary . 
 
 Kanaka, the language of the Sand 
 
 wich Islands .... 
 Kandokov vocabulary , 
 Kanem ,, 
 
 Kanuri grammar, contents of Nor 
 
 riss's .... 
 
 vocabulary 
 
 Kanyop ,, 
 Kapwi ,, 
 
 353 
 34 
 33 
 
 332 
 
 509 
 
 284 
 
 670 
 
 67 
 386 
 644 
 240 
 
 241 
 658 
 
 562 
 
 558 
 
 ih. 
 
 659 
 
 250 
 
 34 
 
 85 
 
 85 
 
 96 
 
 137 
 
 94 
 
 686 
 
 67 
 
 40 
 
 352 
 
 356 
 
 173 
 
 172 
 
 325 
 109 
 679 
 
 678 
 
 679 
 
 594 
 
 44 
 
INDEX. 
 
 765 
 
 
 PAGE 1 
 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Karaga vocabularies . .169, 170 | 
 
 Kolyma vocabulary 
 
 . 
 
 170 
 
 Karagas vocabulary 
 
 109 
 
 Kondin ,, 
 
 , 
 
 133 
 
 Karatsbai ,, ... 
 
 112 
 
 Konguan ,, 
 
 
 664 
 
 Karelians, the ... 
 
 152 
 
 Konkani, a dialect of the Marathi 
 
 227 
 
 Karelian vocabulary . 
 
 159 
 
 Kooch language 
 
 . 
 
 25 
 
 Karen tribes .... 
 
 45 
 
 vocabulary 
 
 . 
 
 182 
 
 Karon vocabulary 
 
 332 
 
 Koran, conservative influence ex- 
 
 
 Kiamba ,, ... 
 
 685 
 
 ercised by the 
 
 
 539 
 
 Kedah, Samang vocabulary 
 
 284 
 
 Korana vocabulary 
 
 
 698 
 
 Keh D^ulan ,, 
 
 303 
 
 Korawi ,, . . 
 
 
 246 
 
 Kekuafi, proof of the identity oi 
 
 
 Korean ,, . . 
 
 
 167 
 
 the word with Eloikob 
 
 545' 
 
 Koreng ,, . . 
 
 
 42 
 
 Kelenonesian class, meaning of 
 
 
 Koriak vocabularies . 
 
 117 
 
 169 
 
 the term 
 
 377 
 
 Koriak of the Tigil, vocabulary . 
 
 173 
 
 Keltic languages . : 
 
 664 
 
 Korinchi ,, 
 
 . 
 
 290 
 
 inscriptions from Gaul 
 
 673 
 
 Kot language still existing . 
 
 . 
 
 92 
 
 Italy 
 
 674 
 
 village, Castren's discovery of a 
 
 92 
 
 of the Britisl 
 
 
 vocabulary . 
 
 
 94 
 
 Isles, observation on tbe 
 
 167 
 
 Kouri area .... 
 
 
 581 
 
 nouns 
 
 669 
 
 dialects 
 
 
 584 
 
 Kenay language 
 
 389 
 
 Kowelitsk vocabulary . 
 
 
 399 
 
 vocabulary 
 
 390 
 
 Kowrarega ,, 
 
 
 351 
 
 Kashkari ,, . . 
 
 238 
 
 Kichai „ 
 
 
 475 
 
 Kasm ,, 
 
 584 
 
 Kij „ . . 
 
 
 419 
 
 Kassub language 
 
 629 
 
 King George's Sound, vocabu- 
 
 
 Katodi vocabulary 
 
 247 
 
 laries ... 35 
 
 5, 358 
 
 , 369 
 
 Katsha ,, . . 
 
 108' 
 
 Kioway vocabulary 
 
 
 444 
 
 Kaure ,, . . 
 
 585 
 
 Kirata, or Kiranti vocabular 
 
 Y 
 
 23 
 
 Kawi, the learned language of Jav£ 
 
 I 296 
 
 Kirghiz, area of the . 
 
 
 104 
 
 a sacred language 
 
 621 
 
 Kiriri vocabulary 
 
 
 513 
 
 vocabulary 
 
 621 
 
 Kisi 
 
 
 76 
 
 Kayan „ . . 
 
 307 
 
 Kissa vocabularies 
 
 . 303 
 
 , 304 
 
 Kazan ,, 
 
 . 112 
 
 Kitunaha area . 
 
 
 395 
 
 Kazinczy's labours on the Magyaj 
 
 
 Kiwomi vocabulary 
 
 
 446 
 
 language 
 
 143 
 
 Kliketat „ 
 
 
 440 
 
 Khamti vocabulary 
 
 . 52 
 
 Krepee ,, 
 
 
 570 
 
 Khari „ . . 
 
 . 32 
 
 Kru languages . 
 
 
 672 
 
 Kho of Kambojia 
 
 . 56 
 
 vocabulary . 
 
 
 ih. 
 
 Khoibu vocabulary 
 
 . 44 
 
 Kuki, origin of the 
 
 
 36 
 
 Khond „ . . 
 
 185 
 
 old and new 
 
 
 ih. 
 
 Khong „ . . 
 
 57 
 
 Kulanapo vocabulary . 
 
 
 411 
 
 Khonn ,, 
 
 84 
 
 Kumi ,, 
 
 
 40 
 
 Khotovzi ,, . . 
 
 96 
 
 Kumuk ,, 
 
 
 112 
 
 Khumia and Kuk, the 
 
 . 36 
 
 Kupuas , , 
 
 
 306 
 
 Khurbat vocabulary . 
 
 . 248 
 
 Kurd „ 
 
 
 260 
 
 Khwakhlamayu ,, 
 
 . 411 
 
 Kurilian or Aino vocabulary 
 
 
 168 
 
 Knistinaux „ 
 
 . 449 
 
 Kusi Kumuk vocabulary 
 
 
 272 
 
 Kodugu or Ctirgi vocabulary 
 
 . 205 
 
 Kuskutshewak ,, 
 
 
 386 
 
 Koama ,, 
 
 . 584 
 
 Kusunda ,, 
 
 
 21 
 
 Kohatar „ 
 
 . 208 
 
 Kuswar ,, 
 
 
 180 
 
 Koibal „ 
 
 108 
 
 Kutani area 
 
 
 395 
 
 Kol dialects 
 
 . 183 
 38 
 
 
 
 396 
 390 
 
 Koladyn river, tribes of the 
 
 Kutshin ,, 
 
 
 Koldagi vocabulary 
 
 549 
 
 Kuznetsk , , 
 
 
 107 
 
 Koligon ,, . . 
 
 354 
 
 Kuzzilbash ,, 
 
 
 112 
 
 Kolush of Sitka vocabulary 
 
 401 
 
 Kwaliokwa ,, 
 
 
 394 
 
766 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Labrador vocabulary . 
 Laconian or Tzakonian dialect, spe 
 
 cimen of the 
 Ladak, Bhot of 
 Ladrone languages " . 
 Lampong vocabulary . 
 Lamut ,, . . 
 Landoma ,, . . 
 Language, vocal, articulate . 
 its stages and develop 
 
 ment 
 
 its spontaneity . 
 its incorrectness 
 
 only 
 
 apparent 
 Languages, bow distinguished from 
 
 dialects . 
 — of Europe and 
 
 western division of . 
 
 of Europe and 
 
 northern and south-western 
 -^— — of Europe and 
 
 south-eastern . 
 Laos vocabulary . 
 Lap language, Ugrian character of 
 
 the .... 
 two primary divi 
 
 sions .... 
 
 : three main dialects 
 
 vocabulary . 
 
 dialects of Norwegian 
 
 Lapidary alphabet, meaning of the 
 
 term .... 
 Laps, Scandinavian 
 Lar vocabulary . 
 Latin, and the languages derived 
 
 from it ..... 
 enumeration of languages de 
 
 rived from 
 three questions relating to 
 
 those languages 
 great desideratum in the phi 
 
 lological history of . 
 Latin, list of words 
 A^yat = Lekhi . 
 Legba vocabulary 
 Lenca language . 
 Lepcha vocabulary 
 Lesgians, the 
 
 Lett language, where spoken 
 Lhopa vocabulary 
 Lief language 
 Lifu vocabulary . 
 Limbu ,, 
 
 Limestone Creek vocabulary 
 Lingua Urbana and Lingua Rustica 
 
 655 
 12 
 323 
 291 
 76 
 595 
 697 
 
 700 
 702 
 
 705 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 51 
 
 161 
 
 ib. 
 163 
 
 ib. 
 162 
 163 
 
 255 
 161 
 229 
 
 632 
 
 634 
 
 ib. 
 
 271 
 585 
 435 
 
 24 
 271 
 623 
 
 13 
 160 
 341 
 
 23 
 359 
 637 
 
 Linonian language . • 
 Literary influence. on language 
 engenders an ar- 
 tificial element in languages 
 Lithuanic division of the Sarma- 
 tian class . . . - . 
 distinguished from Li- 
 thuanian . . . . 
 
 its three branches 
 
 aflinities with Sanskrit, 
 
 Latin, 
 
 and Grreek 
 - list of words 
 
 Lobo vocabulary . 
 
 Logone 
 
 Lombard languages, divisions of 
 
 Loretto vocabulary 
 
 Louisiade Archipelago . 
 
 Low Latin . . 
 
 Loyalty Isles 
 
 Lubu vocabulary . 
 
 Luchti ,, 
 
 Lughman ,, 
 
 Luhuppa ,, 
 
 Luis Obispo (San) vocabulary 
 
 Lule vocabulary . 
 
 Lusatian language 
 
 Lutuami vocabulary . 
 
 Macassar vocabulary . 
 Maccabean coins . 
 Machakali vocabulary . 
 Maconi = ,, 
 Macijsi , , 
 
 Madagascar , , 
 Madura , , 
 
 Mag Readings,, 
 
 Magyar language and literature . 
 ■■ attempted sup- 
 pression of the 
 
 of Hungary intrusive 
 
 changes effected by Kazin- 
 
 lan- 
 
 czy . • . . 
 
 coinage of wdrds 
 
 Fin affinities of 
 
 and other Ugrian 
 
 guages, vocabulary of 
 
 literature, reaction in fa- 
 vour of . 
 
 Mahari vocabulary 
 
 Mahi ,, 
 
 Mahratta , , 
 
 Mainas paternoster 
 
 Mainot dialect of modern Greek 
 
 Maiongkong vocabulary 
 
 Maiptir vocabularies . 
 
 PAGE 
 
 629 
 
 257 
 
 539 
 
 623 
 
 ib. 
 ib. 
 
 623 
 691 
 334 
 580 
 639 
 424 
 335 
 649 
 341 
 292 
 167 
 239 
 43 
 417 
 506 
 627 
 407 
 
 307 
 527 
 511 
 
 ib. 
 491 
 294 
 297 
 412 
 
 20 
 142 
 
 143 
 
 176 
 
 144 
 ib. 
 145 
 
 ib. 
 
 143 
 537 
 569 
 226 
 483 
 656 
 490 
 489 
 
INDEX. 
 
 767 
 
 Mairassis vocabulary . . • 
 
 Malagas! (Madagascar) essentially 
 a Malay language . 
 
 . vocabulary . 
 
 Malali ,, . • • 
 
 Malay and its congeners 
 
 . a commercial language 
 
 grammar .... 
 
 affinities with the Kh6 and 
 
 Mon .... 
 
 vocabularies . 286 
 
 Malayalim vocabulary . 
 
 Maldive ,, 
 
 language, specimen of the 
 
 Mallicollo vocabulary . 
 
 Malo ,, 
 
 Manatoto ,, 
 
 Mandan ,, . . • 
 
 Mandara ,, 
 
 Mandarin, the classical language of 
 China ..... 
 
 . dialect of China, vocabu- 
 
 lary of . 
 
 Mandhar vocabulary . 
 
 Mandingo languages . 
 
 vocabulary . . . 
 
 Mang „ ; . • . 
 
 Mangalore, Grerman missionaries at 
 
 Mangarei vocabularies . . 300, 
 
 PAGE 
 
 334 
 
 294 
 295 
 512 
 
 283 
 287 
 285 
 
 304, 345 
 
 . 204 
 
 . 234 
 
 ib. 
 
 338 
 
 306 
 
 302 
 
 458 
 
 458 
 
 64 
 
 66 
 307 
 568 
 696 
 246 
 205 
 383 
 
 77 
 
 Manks ,, 
 
 Mantshu, original area of the 
 
 vocabularies. 
 
 Manyak vocabulary 
 
 Maori (New Zealand) vocabulary . 
 
 Maram ,, 
 
 Marathi, limits of the 
 
 Mare vocabulary . . . . 
 
 Marianne, or Ladrone Archipelago 
 
 Maring vocabulary 
 
 Maroa ,, 
 
 Marquesas islands, language of 
 
 Maruvi vocabulary 
 
 Massachusetts , , 
 Massied ,, 
 
 Mataguaya ,, 
 Matheo (St.) ,, 
 Mawakwa ,, 
 Maya languages 
 Mayorga vocabulary 
 Mayoruna vocabularies 
 Mbarike vocabulary 
 Mbaya vocabularies 
 Mbe vocabulary . 
 Mbofia ,, 
 
 , 175 
 75, 76 
 . 16 
 . 325 
 . 44 
 . 226 
 . 341 
 321 
 44 
 . 486 
 . 325 
 . 292 
 . 436 
 . 452 
 . 351 
 . 505 
 . 313 
 . 491 
 . 433 
 . 328 
 . 495 
 . 565 
 382, 506 
 . 564 
 . 667 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Mbofon vocabulary . . ,566 
 Mbokobi ,, . . .606 
 
 Mefur ,, . . .332 
 
 Melon ,, . . .565 
 
 Memphitic dialect of Coptic . 646 
 
 Menadu, dialects of . . . 309 
 
 vocabulary . . .308 
 
 Mendis=7aountain in Bask ; its 
 
 declension . . . .681 
 Menero Downs vocabulary . . 358 
 Menieng ,, . .512 
 
 Menomeni ,, . ,448 
 
 Meri ,, . .306 
 
 Meshtsheriak ,, . ,112 
 
 Mexican language (Proper) . . 430 
 Mfut vocabulary . . . .564 
 Miami ,, . . . . 452 
 
 Micmac >> • • • • 451 
 
 Miguel (St.) „ . . . .313 
 
 (San),, . . . .416 
 
 Mikronesia, meaning of the term . 320 
 Milchan, meaning of the word . 15 
 Millanow vocabulary . . .306 
 Mille „ . . .323 
 
 Mincopie, or Andaman . . 58 
 
 Minetari vocabulary . . .461 
 Minsi ,, ... 451 
 
 Mir Yusuf invents the Baraki 
 
 language .... 262 
 
 Miri vocabulary . . , .29 
 Miriam, a collective name . . 335 
 Mishmi, dialects of the . . 29 
 Missions, language of the South 
 
 American 
 Mithan vocabulary 
 Mixteca paternoster . 
 Mobba language . 
 vocabularies 
 
 Mobilian=Chocktah . 
 Moesogothic language . . .658 
 Mogul dynasty, Tshagatai . . 101 
 Mohave vocabulary . . . 421 
 Mohawk ,, . . .463 
 
 Mohikan ,, . . .451 
 
 Mokobi ,, . . .382 
 
 Molonglo ,, . . .353 
 
 Mon, its affinities with certain lan- 
 guages of India . . .71 
 
 with the Kol 
 
 group 183 
 
 vocabulary .... 57 
 
 Mongol class 
 
 language, original area of the 177 
 
 vocabulary , . .87 
 
 Mongoyos ,, . , .511 
 
 Monosyllabic languages, numerals of 184 
 
 . 499 
 . 33 
 . 433 
 . 552 
 553, 580 
 . 472 
 
768 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Monosyllabic applied to languages, 
 remark on the term 
 
 in what sense the Ame- 
 rican languages are 
 
 Moor vocabulary 
 
 Moquelumne group 
 
 Mordvin language 
 
 vocabulary 
 
 Moreton Bay vocabulary 
 Mose ,, 
 
 Movima, number of the 
 
 vocabulary 
 
 Moxa , , 
 
 Moxos languages 
 
 vocabulary 
 
 Mpongwe 
 
 Mrii 
 
 Msambara 
 
 Mucury 
 
 Mudji 
 
 Mugs, the . 
 
 Mundrucu vocabulary 
 
 Mundy (Lake) ,, 
 
 Munio ,, 
 
 Munipur gi-oup of dialects 
 
 words, percentage of in 
 
 several dialects 
 Mura vocabulary 
 Murmi ,, 
 
 Murundo ,, 
 Murung ,, 
 Muruya , , 
 Muskogulge ,, 
 
 Naga dialects 
 Naknanuk vocabulary 
 Nalu ,, 
 
 Samoan lan- 
 
 Nancowry ,, 
 Nanticok ,, 
 
 Narragansetts ,, 
 Natchez ,, 
 
 Natural groups of languages 
 Navaho vocabulary 
 Navigators' Islands, or 
 
 guages . 
 N^wer vocabulary 
 Ndob „ 
 
 Negrito element in the Indian 
 
 Archipelago 
 Negro (Rio) languages of the 
 Nepaul or Nepalese languages 
 Nertshinsk vocabulary 
 Nestorian Gospels 
 Netela vocabulary 
 Neu-chih translations from the Chinese 80 
 
 586 
 
 603 
 332 
 414 
 148 
 149 
 351 
 585 
 503 
 500 
 382 
 600 
 601 
 661 
 
 40 
 660 
 509 
 352 
 
 37 
 508 
 353 
 679 
 
 42 
 
 46 
 494 
 
 19 
 564 
 306 
 351 
 468 
 
 32 
 610 
 696 
 
 33 
 284 
 451 
 452 
 469 
 
 10 
 394 
 
 325 
 249 
 664 
 
 374 
 485 
 19 
 76 
 638 
 419 
 
 PAGB 
 
 Neu-chih inscriptions . . 80 
 
 New Caledonia . . .341, 844 
 
 Guinea dialects . . . 332 
 
 Hebrides vocabularies . .338 
 
 Ireland vocabulary . . 336 
 
 Zealand or Maori language . 825 
 
 Newar vocabulary . . .22 
 Newfoundland, native language of 463 
 Ngodzen vocabulary . . . 679 
 Ngoko language . . . .295 
 Nogoten vocabulary . . .565 
 Nguru ,, ... 579 
 
 Nhalemoe ,, . . .665 
 
 Nias ,, ... 292 
 
 Nicaragua, dialects of . .436 
 
 Nicobar Islands, language of the . 284 
 Nigritia, limits of the term . 576 
 
 Niznih IFda, vocabulary . . 84 
 Nkele „ . . 664 
 
 Nogay „ . . 112 
 
 Norse languages . . , 660 
 
 Norwegian dialects . . .661 
 
 Danish, the literary . 660 
 
 Nottoway vocabulary . . . 463 
 Nowgong ,, . . .32 
 
 Nsietshawus ,, . . . 402 
 
 Nso ,, ... 664 
 
 Nubian languages . . .646 
 
 class, divisions of the . 648 
 
 Proper, its three dialects . 648 
 
 vocabulary . . .549 
 
 Nufi class 687 
 
 vocabularies illustrating the . 688 
 
 affinities, languages with . 664 
 
 Nukahiva, the language of the Mar- 
 quesas ..... 325 
 Numerals, general rule respecting 25 
 Nut vocabulary . . . .246 
 Ndtka „ . . . .402 
 Nyamnam,, .... 652 
 Nyutshi records .... 80 
 
 Obi vocabulary . . . .134 
 
 Oceanic" languages in general . 372 
 
 Ojibwa vocabulary . . . 449 
 
 Okuloma ,, ... 667 
 
 Olomo ,, , . » ib. 
 
 Olonets „ ... 169 
 
 Olot, the „ . . .85 
 
 Olvasom, &c. . . . .725 
 
 magna vocabulary . . .608 
 
 Omaha ,, ... 461 
 
 Omar „ ... 332 
 
 Ombay, language of . . . 300 
 
 vocabulary . . .383 
 
 Oneida ,, ... 464 
 
INDEX. 
 
 69 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Onim vocabulaiy . . . 334 
 
 Onondago ,, . . . ih. 
 
 Opata, specimen of . . . 428 
 Opatoro vocabulary . . .435 
 Orang Laut, meaning of the ex- 
 pression . . . . ,305 
 Oregones vocabularies . . . 496 
 Ore Jones, a common rather than a 
 
 proper name .... ih. 
 Origin of inflections . . .716 
 middle voices, of pas- 
 sive voice, &c. . . .719 
 Orinoko, language of the , . 485 
 Orotshong tribes . . .73 
 Osage vocabulary . . . 460 
 Oscan known through the Bantine 
 
 inscriptions .... 633 
 Osmanli vocabulary . . .115 
 Osset or Iron ,, . . . 264 
 
 Ostiak Proper . . . .89 
 
 Castren's grammar of the . 138 
 
 vocabulary . . .134 
 
 Otam affinities, languages with . 564 
 Otomi language .... 430 
 Otshi, the language of the Gold 
 
 Coast 570 
 
 Ottawa vocabulary . . .449 
 Otuke „ ... 503 
 
 Oidoff, Dard's Grammaire . . 593 
 Oulx dialect, specimen of the . 643 
 
 Pacaguara vocabulary . . . 501 
 Padsade ,, . . .594 
 
 Paduca group .... 442 
 Pahri or Pahi vocabulary . , 22 
 Paioconeca ,, . . 5U2 
 
 Pakhya „ . .181 
 
 Pakpak Batta vocabulary . , 288 
 Palaik „ . .407 
 
 Palaong ,, . .53 
 
 Pali ,, . .621 
 
 the language of Buddhism . 617 
 
 Pampas, languages of the . . 484 
 Panos glosses and inflections . 516 
 
 Papel vocabulary . . .594 
 
 Papuan ,, . . . .331 
 Pamkalla ,, . . . .354 
 Paropamisan group of languages . 236 
 Parsi language . . . .256 
 
 Scriptures . . . .620 
 
 Participles and Infinitives, their 
 
 nature and inflection . .720 
 
 Pashai vocabulary . . . 239 
 Patacho ,, ... 511 
 
 Patau or Pukhtu vocabulary . 253 
 
 Paternosters in Turkish dialects . 113 
 
 Patois, graduating forms of 
 
 ambiguous . . , 
 
 Paumotu vocabulary . 
 
 Pauro-syllabic languages 
 
 Pawni vocabulary 
 
 Payagua „ . . . 
 
 Peba ,, . . , 
 
 Pedro (S.) vocabularies 
 
 Peel River vocabulary . -, 
 
 Pegu, Mon language of 
 
 Pehlevi language 
 
 Pelew vocabulary 
 
 Pelu „* . . . 
 
 Peninsular languages . , 
 
 Permian vocabulary 
 
 Persepolitan language . 
 
 Persian ,, 
 
 vocabulary 
 
 Pern, the general language of 
 Peruvian grammar and dictionary, 
 
 account of a . , , 
 Phenician alphabet . , 
 knowTi only from inscrip- 
 
 tions 
 
 inscriptions 
 
 far 
 
 PAGE 
 
 5 
 
 ih. 
 328 
 477 
 470 
 515 
 496 
 494 
 352 
 
 256 
 320 
 87 
 165 
 151 
 608 
 254 
 259 
 481 
 
 ih. 
 525 
 
 526 
 526 
 313 
 
 707 
 
 708 
 491 
 
 Philippine languages . 
 Physical conformation, how 
 coincident with language . 
 
 what affects 
 
 it, what affects language . 
 
 Pianoghotto vocabulary , 
 
 Pict language found in' a copy of 
 
 Juvencus, specimen of, with 
 
 translations by Nash and Williams 670 
 
 Piede (or Pa-uta) vocabulary . 443 
 
 Piedmontese Proper vocabulary 
 
 compared with French and 
 
 Italian 661 
 
 Pima vocabulary . . .427 
 
 Pinalero ,, . . .394 
 
 Pinegorine ,, ... 353 
 
 Pinoco language, subdivisions of 
 
 the 504 
 
 Pirinda, specimen of . . .432 
 Piskaws vocabulary . . .399 
 Plautus, specimen of Punic in .526 
 
 Plurals 726 
 
 Pcenulus of Plautus, the . . ib. 
 Poggi vocabulary . . . .292 
 Poignavi of Humboldt . . .486 
 Polish language .... 630 
 Polynesia Proper . . . 324 
 Polynesian languages, eminently vo- 
 calic 380 
 
 Polysynthetic languages . .430 
 import of the term . 519 
 
 3 B 
 
770 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Pome vocabulary 
 Port Dorey, language about . 
 Port Philip vocabulary 
 Port Praslin >i • 
 
 Portuguese, specimen of 
 Potowatami vocabulary 
 Pracrit, meaning of the term 
 Priyadasi inscriptions 
 
 PAGE 
 
 332 
 331 
 355 
 
 336 
 
 449 
 617 
 614 
 Pronouns, exclusive and inclusive 
 
 Oceanic ..... 379 
 Provengal, earliest specimen of . 644 
 ■ common to France and 
 
 Spain 645 
 
 Prussian, Old .... 624 
 Pueblo languages . . . 445 
 
 Pujuni vocabulary . . .412 
 Pukhtu ,, . . .252 
 
 Pumpokolsk vocabulary . . 94 
 Punic language in Plautus, speci- 
 men of . . . . . 526 
 Punjabi, its grammatical character 219 
 
 vocabulary . . .218 
 
 Puquina, paternoster . . . 483 
 Purus vocabulary . . .514 
 
 Pushtu „ ... 252 
 
 Pwo „ . . , 46 
 
 Quantity and Quotiety . . 731 
 
 Queen Charlotte (Cape), language 
 
 of 341 
 
 Quichua, the general language of 
 
 Pprn ..... 481 
 
 vocabulary . 
 
 Quinary numeration . 
 
 Bajmahali vocabulary . 
 
 Raphael (San) ,, 
 Eask's Lap grammar . 
 Redscar Bay vocabulary 
 Reindeer Tshuktshi ,, 
 
 Riccari ,, 
 
 Rodiya ,, . , 
 
 Romaic or Modern Greek, dialects 
 of 
 
 Roman alphabet, applications of the 
 
 llomance language, two main dia- 
 lects of 
 
 Romanese, specimen of 
 
 Ron vocabulary .... 
 
 Rossawn ,, . ." . 
 
 Rotti, language of . . . 
 
 vocabulary .... 
 
 Rotuma ,, . . . . 
 
 Rtiinga ,,.... 
 
 483 
 380 
 
 200 
 246 
 414 
 162 
 335 
 171 
 290 
 470 
 233 
 
 655 
 
 78 
 
 647 
 647 
 332 
 228 
 301 
 302 
 326 
 228 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Rukheng vocabulary ... 48 
 
 Rumanyo or Roumain vocabulary . 648 
 
 compared with Latin . ib. 
 
 Ruslen vocabulary . . .416 
 Russian alphabet, observations on 
 
 the 78 
 
 Rustica (Lingua). . . . 650 
 
 Sabuyah vocabulary . . .513 
 Sacramento (Upper) vocabulary . 412 
 Sahaptin group of languages . 440 
 
 Sapitic dialect of Coptic . . 546 
 Sak vocabulary .... 40 
 
 Saka:ran ,, 
 
 . 306 
 
 Salawatti ,, . 
 
 . 332 
 
 Salbin „ 
 
 . 109 
 
 Saldanha Bay vocabulary 
 
 . 598 
 
 Salivi vocabulary 
 
 . 493 
 
 Salt Lake dialects 
 
 . 439 
 
 Samaritan language . 
 
 . 627 
 
 alphabet older than the 
 
 Hebrew 526 
 
 Samoyed, to whom the name first 
 applied . . . . .130 
 
 dialects, recent investi- 
 gations of . . . 127, 129 
 
 ' and Yenisean, affinities 
 between ..... 119 
 
 Samucu language, dialects of the . 505 
 
 Sandracottus identified with Chan- 
 dragupta . . . .615 
 
 Sandwich Islands, language of * 325 
 
 Sangara (mouth of) vocabulary . 76 
 
 Sangouw vocabulary . . .306 
 
 Sanskrit, the old literary language 
 of India .... 608, 610 
 
 substantives and pro- 
 nouns, Latin illustrations of . ih. 
 
 substantives and pro- 
 nouns, Lithuanic illustrations of 609 
 
 verbs, Greek illustrations 
 
 of . . . . . .610 
 
 Lithuanic its nearest con- 
 gener . . . . , ib. 
 
 Slavono - Lithuanic in 
 
 phonesis . . . . . ib. 
 conjectures on the origin 
 
 of its connection with European 
 languages . . . .611 
 
 two divisions of the . 617 
 
 its true aspirates . . 618 
 
 Brahmins its expositors ib. 
 
 works in . . . ib. 
 
 vocabularies . . 243 
 
 comparative vocabula- 
 ries of Chinese and . 621, 622 
 
IKDKX. 
 
 771 
 
 Saparua vocabulary 
 
 Sapiboconi ,, 
 
 Sarar ,, 
 
 Saraveca ,, 
 
 Sardinian, specimens of North, 
 South, and Central . 
 
 Sarmatian languages sibilant 
 
 Sasak vocabulary 
 
 Sassanian memorials . 
 
 Satawal vocabulary 
 
 Sauki ,, ... 
 
 Savaneric ,, ... 
 
 Savara ,, ... 
 
 Savoy, patois of ... 
 
 Savu, vocabularies of 
 
 Scandinavian languages 
 
 peninsula originally 
 
 Lap 
 
 Schematic inflections . 
 
 Schleiermacher's prize essay on 
 Comparative Philology 
 
 Scotch Keltic vocabulary . , 
 
 SeleAga vocabulary 
 
 Semitic languages, character of the 
 
 initial and me- 
 dial changes in . . . 
 
 Serawulli or Seracolet language 
 
 vocabulary . 
 
 Seroci ,, 
 
 Serpa ,, ... 
 
 Servian, alphabet of the 
 
 Sekumne vocabulary . 
 
 Selish dialects .... 
 
 vocabulary 
 
 Seneca ,, ... 
 
 Sgau „ ... 
 
 Shabun ,, ... 
 
 Shan, Eastern and Western, voca- 
 bularies of ... . 
 
 Shangalla language 
 
 vocabulary . 
 
 Shankali ,, 
 
 Shasti ,, 
 
 Shawni ,, . . . 
 
 Shellu ,, 
 
 Shendu, Capt. Ticket's vocabulary 
 of the ..... 
 
 Shenvi Brahmins, mother tongue 
 of the 
 
 Sheshatapoosh vocabulary . 
 
 Shibboleth, Samaritan form of 
 
 Shilluk vocabulary 
 
 Shiho ,, ... 
 
 Shina vocabularies 
 
 Shoshoni ,, . 404, 
 
 PAGE 
 
 310 
 499 
 595 
 
 500 
 
 643 
 
 630 
 298 
 255 
 321 
 452 
 437 
 187 
 5 
 301 
 660 
 
 163 
 
 710 
 
 49 
 666 
 
 84 
 600 
 
 601 
 592 
 596 
 332 
 
 14 
 628 
 412 
 399 
 404 
 464 
 
 46 
 551 
 
 52 
 546 
 
 557 
 557 
 407 
 452 
 541 
 
 41 
 
 227 
 450 
 526 
 551 
 555 
 250 
 
 Shyenne language 
 
 237, 
 
 409, 442 
 . 455 
 
 Shyenne vocabulary . 
 Siah Posh ,, 
 Siam, population of 
 Siamese group . 
 
 poetry and music 
 
 vocabulary 
 
 Siberia, ethnology of . 
 
 Turkish of 
 
 Sibnow vocabulary 
 
 Sideia, vocabulary of a sub-dialect 
 
 of . 
 Sikkim languages 
 Silong vocabulary 
 Singalese ,, 
 Singkal Batta vocabulary 
 Singpho group of dialects 
 
 vocabulary 
 
 Siraiki , , 
 
 Sitka , , 
 
 Skipitar language 
 
 Skittegats vocabulary . 
 
 Skoffi „ 
 
 Skulls, artificially flattened 
 
 Skwali vocabulary 
 
 Slave , , 
 
 Slavonic division of the Sarmatian 
 
 class 
 
 list of words 
 
 Slovak, where spoken . 
 
 Slovenian or Ugrian language 
 
 Soana dialect of Italian 
 
 Sobo vocabulary . 
 
 Socrikong ,, 
 
 Sohili ,, 
 
 Soiony ,, 
 
 Sok or Sokpa vocabulary 
 
 Sokhalar, the 
 
 Sokko language . 
 
 Sokotran vocabulary . 
 
 Soledad ,, - 
 
 Solomon Isles , . 
 
 Solor vocabulary 
 
 Songpu „ 
 
 Sonora, language of 
 
 Sontal vocabulary 
 
 Sow ,, 
 
 Spanish, specimen of . 
 
 patois 
 
 Stages of languages 
 
 Sub- Semitic, application of the 
 
 term 
 
 meaning of 
 
 Substance and Attribute 
 Subtiabo vocabulary . 
 Sudania or Nigritia . 
 Sulu vocabulary 
 
772 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 
 PAGK 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Suiliatra, dialect of 
 
 . 287 
 
 Teleut 
 
 107 
 
 rliilrrt" nt \c'}nnAa nfF 905^ 1 
 
 Tengsa 
 
 Teressa 
 
 32 
 
 Sumbawa vocabulary . 
 
 . 298 
 
 284 
 
 Sumcbu , , 
 
 . 15 
 
 Ternati vocabulary 
 
 310 
 
 Sumenap ,, . 
 
 . 297 
 
 Terra incognita of Africa defined . 
 
 755 
 
 Sunda language . 
 
 . 295 
 
 Tesuque vocabulary 
 
 445 
 
 vocabulary 
 
 . 296 
 
 Texas, derivation of the word 
 
 472 
 
 Sunghai area 
 
 . 580 
 
 leading languages of 
 
 471 
 
 Suntah vocabulary 
 
 . 306 
 
 Texian Indians, list of 
 
 473 
 
 Sunwar , , 
 Swedish language 
 
 26 
 
 f-.4-^4-'i-.4-T rtrt /^-P 
 
 474 
 
 ! '. 662 
 
 
 475 
 
 
 
 Swiss German language 
 
 . 659 
 
 Thaksya language 
 
 15 
 
 Sydney vocabulary 
 
 . 351 
 
 Tharu vocabulary 
 
 181 
 
 Synthesis and analysis 
 
 . 713 
 
 Thay group .... 
 
 50 
 
 Syriac of Damascus, 
 
 Emesa, and 
 
 Thebaic dialect of Coptic 
 
 546 
 
 Edessa . 
 
 . 531 
 
 Theburskud dialect 
 
 15 
 
 vocabulary . 
 
 . 539 
 
 Thochu vocabulary 
 
 16 
 
 modern 
 
 .538 
 
 Thoung-lhti .... 
 
 46 
 
 
 
 Thug numerals .... 
 
 245 
 
 Tablung vocabulary 
 
 . 33 
 
 Tibbu language .... 
 
 692 
 
 Tagala 
 
 . 313 
 
 Tibetan language, written and spo- 
 
 
 Tahiti „ 
 
 . 325 
 
 ken, compared 
 
 13 
 
 Tahlewah ,, 
 
 . 409 
 
 vocabulary 
 
 17 
 
 Takeli „ 
 
 . 651 
 
 and Burmese, affinity be- 
 
 
 Takpa ,, 
 
 . 13 
 
 tween 
 
 68 
 
 Takulli 
 
 . 391 
 
 Ticino dialect of Italian, specimen 
 
 
 Takyul, language of 
 
 . 13 
 
 of the 
 
 639 
 
 Talatui vocabulary 
 
 . 414 
 
 Ticopia vocabulary 
 
 327 
 
 Talamenca , , 
 
 . 437 
 
 Ticuna poison .... 
 
 496 
 
 Talmud, language of t 
 
 fie . . 538 
 
 Indians .... 
 
 ib. 
 
 Tamanak vocabulary . 
 
 . 492 
 
 Ticunas vocabulary 
 
 497 
 
 Tamul vocabularies 
 
 . 200, 203 
 
 Tigre, its relation to the Grheez . 
 
 533 
 
 .Tana vocabulary . 
 
 . 338 
 
 vocabulary 
 
 536 
 
 Tandia ,, 
 
 . 332 
 
 Timbiras ,, . . . 
 
 512 
 
 Taneamu , , 
 
 . 337 
 
 Timbora vocabularies . . 299 
 
 , 383 
 
 Tanema , , 
 
 . ib. 
 
 Timmani vocabulary . 
 
 595 
 
 Tanguhti ,, 
 
 . 67 
 
 Timor language .... 
 
 299 
 
 Tankhul, north . 
 
 . 43 
 
 meaning of the term . 
 
 302 
 
 Tanna language, grami 
 
 aar of the . 329 
 
 Timur, memoirs and institutes of . 
 
 102 
 
 Tao, existing dialect of 
 
 the . . 504 
 
 Tirhai vocabulary 
 
 237 
 
 Tapua, or Nufi languag 
 
 e . .575 
 
 Tiverighotto .... 
 
 491 
 
 Tarahumara, specimen 
 
 of . . 429 
 
 Tiwi 
 
 565 
 
 Tarakai vocabulary 
 
 . 169 
 
 tl, a Mexican sound . 
 
 430 
 
 Taraska paternoster 
 
 . 432 
 
 Tlatskanai vocabulary . 
 
 394 
 
 Tarawan vocabulary 
 
 . 323 
 
 Toba paternoster 
 
 506 
 
 Tarerauki , , 
 
 . 245 
 
 Batta vocabulary 
 
 288 
 
 Taruma , , 
 
 . 493 
 
 Tobi vocabulary .... 
 
 320 
 
 Tasmanian spoken bj 
 
 ^ less than 
 
 Tobolsk „ . 
 
 107 
 
 fifty individuals 
 
 . 371 
 
 Tocantins ,, . . 
 
 613 
 
 ' its Papuan i 
 
 iffinities . 370 
 
 Toma ,,.... 
 
 486 
 
 
 abularies of 362 
 
 Tonga „ . 
 
 325 
 
 
 Tater vocabulary . 
 
 . 249 
 
 Tonkin ,,.... 
 
 61 
 
 Tavastrians, the . 
 
 . 152 
 
 TO (p^ovtiy, &C 
 
 722 
 
 Tawgi vocabulary 
 
 . 133 
 
 Tosk dialect of the Albanian 
 
 606 
 
 Tekeenika ,, 
 
 . 484 
 
 Totonaca, specimen of . . 
 
 432 
 
 Telegu or Telinga voca 
 
 bulary . 202 
 
 Trinal number (Oceanic) 
 
 379 
 
INDEX. 
 
 773 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Triton Bay vocabulary . . 334 
 
 Tsagatai blood, the Mogul dynasty 
 
 of 101 
 
 Tsamak vocabulary . . .412 
 Tshamba, different applications of 
 
 the word . . . .582 
 
 Tshapodzhir vocabulary . . 77 
 Tshari ,, . .272 
 
 Tshek, the native name for the 
 
 Bohemian . . . .629 
 Tsheremis vocabulary . . .115 
 Tsherimis ,, . . .149 
 
 Tshetsh ,, . . .275 
 
 Tshinuk language . . . 402 
 
 vocabulary . . .404 
 
 Tshokoyem ,, . . .415 
 
 Tshulim, tribes of the . .105 
 
 vocabulary . . . 107 
 
 Tshuvash „ ... 115 
 
 Tshampa ,, . . .283 
 
 Tsherkess division . . .279 
 
 vocabulary . . . 280 
 
 Tshetsh grammar . . .277 
 Tshuktshi Nos vocabulary . .387 
 Tubar, specimen of . . . 428 
 Tuda vocabulary . . . 207 
 T'uk'iu ,, . . . .100 
 Tulare ,, . . . .416 
 Tulu or Tulava vocabulary . . 205 
 Tumu vocabulary . . . 564 
 Tung Mru tribe . . . .39 
 Tungus languages . . .72 
 orthography, observations 
 
 on 79 
 
 grammar, Castren's . . 72 
 
 vocabulary . . .117 
 
 Tunguska „ . . .77 
 
 Tunkin ,, . . .84 
 
 Tupi vocabulary .... 608 
 Tvirrofjtivos and Tv^hti . . 723 
 
 Turanian class, general observations 
 
 on the 177 
 
 Turcomans, the . . . .103 
 
 Turin dialect of Italian . . 641 
 Turk, first appearance of the name 
 
 in history . . . .100 
 
 language, original area of the 177 
 
 wide signification of the word 98 
 
 area, its great extent . ib. 
 
 • language, displacements 
 
 effected by the ... 9 
 
 paternosters . . .113 
 
 Turks of Siberia . . .111 
 
 Turkish vocabulary . . .100 
 
 Tuscarora ,, ... 463 
 
 Tushi, grammatical structure of the 274 
 
 Tver, Fin of 
 Type, classification 
 according to 
 
 of languages 
 
 Uchee vocabulary 
 Udom ,,.... 
 Udso ,,.... 
 
 Uea=Wallis's Island . 
 
 vocabulary 
 
 Ugrian class of languages 
 
 chief languages of the 
 
 area, original 
 
 metres, analysis of 
 
 and Fin, nearly synonomous 
 
 Ugrians, territorial distribution of 
 the 
 
 aboriginal 
 
 Uighur Turks 
 Uigur vocabulary 
 Ukah ,, 
 Ukuafi ,, 
 Ulea ,, 
 
 Ulu 
 
 Ulut, the 
 
 Umiray vocabulary 
 Umkwa ,, 
 Unalaska , , 
 Undaza , , 
 
 Uraon ,, 
 
 Uriya ,, 
 
 Uta „ 
 
 Utatanata ,, 
 Uzbek dialect . 
 
 PAGB 
 153 
 
 6 
 
 469 
 666 
 567 
 343 
 344 
 125 
 126 
 176 
 158 
 127 
 
 127 
 154 
 100 
 
 17 
 173 
 545 
 321 
 292 
 
 85 
 113 
 394 
 386 
 664 
 201 
 229 
 443 
 334 
 103 
 
 Vaddab, language of the . . 232 
 Valdieri dialect compared with 
 
 French and Italian . , . 642 
 Valteline dialect of Italian, speci- 
 men of the .... 639 
 Van Diemen's Land, earliest voca- 
 bulary of . . . .362 
 
 vocabulary . 370 
 
 Vanikoro vocabulary . . .337 
 Vannes, specimen of the Breton of 668 
 Vaudois, specimen of . . . 644 
 Vayii vocabulary ... 21 
 
 Vedas, hypothesis repecting the . 620 
 Vei alphabet, history of its inven- 
 tion ..... 574 
 Veragua ..... 438 
 Vilela vocabulary . . ,506 
 
 Vincent (Gulf of St.) vocabu- 
 laries .... 358, 369 
 Viti (or Fiji) Archipelago . .345 
 Vocalic euphony explained . . 586 
 Vod dialect . . . .154 
 
774 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Vod vocabulary . . . 
 
 
 159 
 
 Wylie (Mr.) Translation from the 
 
 
 Vogul language . 
 
 
 
 146 
 
 Chinese by ... . 
 
 81 
 
 Volga Fins, the . 
 
 
 
 147 
 
 
 
 Votiak vocabulary 
 
 
 
 151 
 
 Xavier (San) vocabulary 
 
 Xumano ,, , . 
 
 424 
 495 
 
 Waag vocabulary 
 
 
 
 642 
 
 
 
 Wahitaho ,, 
 
 
 
 328 
 
 Yagua vocabulary 
 
 496 
 
 Waigifi ,, 
 
 
 
 330 
 
 Yakkumban ,, . . 
 
 354 
 
 WaikuT paternoster 
 
 
 
 425 
 
 Yakut vocabularies . . Ill 
 
 117 
 
 conjugation 
 
 . 
 
 
 ib. 
 
 Yakutsk vocabulary 
 
 76 
 
 vocabulary 
 
 
 
 424 
 
 Yangaro ,, ... 
 
 544 
 
 Waikna ,, 
 
 
 
 437 
 
 Yala „ ... 
 
 565 
 
 Waiyamera ,, 
 
 
 
 490 
 
 Yamea paternoster 
 
 497 
 
 Wakamba ,, 
 
 
 
 560 
 
 Yankton vocabulary . 
 
 460 
 
 Wakash class 
 
 
 
 403 
 
 Yap „ . 
 
 321 
 
 Wallawalla vocabulary 
 
 
 
 440 
 
 Yanesei ,, ... 
 
 77 
 
 WaUis's Island . 
 
 
 
 343 
 
 Yengen „ ... 
 
 343 
 
 Wandamin vocabulary 
 
 
 
 332 
 
 Yeniseian, import of the term 
 
 88 
 
 Wanika ,, 
 Wapisiana ,, 
 
 
 
 560 
 
 
 
 
 
 490 
 
 between the . 
 
 118 
 
 Warow ,, 
 
 
 
 493 
 
 vocabularies. . Ill 
 
 , 136 
 
 Watlaka „ 
 
 
 
 402 
 
 Yeniseians, Kot and Kem glosses to 
 
 
 Weitspek ,, 
 
 
 
 410 
 
 determine the area of the 
 
 95 
 
 Weiyot „ 
 
 
 
 405 
 
 Yerukali vocabulary . 
 
 m 
 
 Wellington , , 
 
 
 
 352 
 
 Yeso ,, ... 
 
 le 
 
 Welsh pronouns united with 
 
 verbs 
 
 669 
 
 York (Cape),, 
 
 351 
 
 language, list of wo 
 
 rks in 
 
 
 Yoruba area .... 
 
 685 
 
 the . 
 
 
 672 
 
 a monosyllabic language . 
 
 603 
 
 
 
 
 664 
 
 analysis of its prefixes 
 
 587 
 
 . ... vOCdiUUlclXjf 
 
 Widah ,, 
 
 
 569 
 
 i^*»/\T«r-l-'K/\-*»'n r»t»r» *v\ -rv^ rt ■*• i-v-P 
 
 
 
 
 Wihinasht,, 
 
 
 442 
 
 the 
 
 586 
 
 Willamet ,, 
 
 
 406 
 
 Yukahiri, remarks on the . 
 
 123 
 
 Winebago ,,' 
 
 
 460 
 
 compared with the Sa- 
 
 
 Wiradurei ,, 
 
 
 352 
 
 moyed and other dialects . 
 
 121 
 
 Wishosk „ 
 
 
 405 
 
 vocabulary . 
 
 117 
 
 Witouro ,, 
 
 
 352 
 
 Yula ,, . . . 
 
 684 
 
 Witshita ,, 
 
 
 475 
 
 Yuma dialects .... 
 
 420 
 
 Woccon language 
 
 
 465 
 
 Yunga paternoster 
 
 483 
 
 Woddowrong vocabulary 
 
 
 354 
 
 Yuracares vocabulary . 
 
 499 
 
 Wokan 
 
 
 303 
 
 Yurak ,, 
 
 132 
 
 Wolof or Jolof language, 
 
 Dard's 
 
 
 
 
 grammar of 
 
 
 593 
 
 Zamucu language, dialects of the . 
 
 505 
 
 vocabulary 
 
 
 596 
 
 vocabulary 
 
 502 
 
 tables of affinities 
 
 *. 592 
 
 , 597 
 
 Zapara ,, ... 
 
 497 
 
 Women tattooed to become u 
 
 giy . 
 
 38 
 
 Zaza ,, . . . 
 
 260 
 
 Woratta vocabulary 
 
 
 544 
 
 Zechariah a locus standi for He- 
 
 
 Woyawai ,, 
 
 
 490 
 
 brew 
 
 528 
 
 Written works create an ai 
 
 •tificial 
 
 
 Z«;^7/=Adige . . . . 
 
 278 
 
 element in language . 
 
 
 538 
 
 Zend the language of the Parsi 
 
 
 Wulwa vocabulary 
 
 
 437 
 
 Scriptures .... 
 
 620 
 
 Wyandot ,, 
 
 
 464 
 
 Zirianian vocabulary . 
 
 151 
 
 Printed by Woodfall and Kinder, Angel Court, Skinner Street, London. 
 
E E E A T A. 
 
 Page 154, line 1—for mulvvennet read muvvenn6t ; for ^igdavas read tJMavas. 
 
 2— for giat read gi'at ; for Muvvenet read Muvveunet ; for kivirufipahilla read 
 
 kivi-ru6ppahilla. 
 ?r—for muadda read niuSda. 
 4:— for raiiassa rea(/ muassa; for Paivazen reaci Paivazen ; for uurdimuot read 
 
 uurdimuot. 
 
 6 — comma after mutilla. 
 
 Page 643, line 22— /or accuntessin reoil accuntessiu. 
 
 2S—for Eun read E un. 
 
 26— for nascin read nasciu. 
 
 28— /or nascin read nasciu. 
 
 29 — insert comma after s'orienti, and/or ad'adorai read dd'adorai. 
 Dele (3) The Northern Sardinian. 
 
 In Matt. ii. 1, 3, dele (Logudore) ; substitnte comma for fnll-point at end of v. 1, 
 and dele inverted commas in verse 2. 
 Page 644, line \— Insert (3) Northern Sardinian. 
 
 lu the Tempiese version of Ruth I 1, for Alu read A. lu ; for giudiei (in two places) 
 read giudiei ; and for cuman daaui read cumandaani. 
 Matt. ii. 1,— /or regnanarra(i regnava; and substitnte comma for full-stop at end. 
 Verse 2 — comma hetween quellu and ch' ; for nalu read natu ; for Vistula read 
 vistu la ; and for setter read Stella. 
 Page 646, insert Galician at the head of the version of Matt. ii. 1-6. 
 
 Matt. ii. 1-6, verse \—for aque read aqui ; comma at end for full-point. 
 
 %—for Xiidios read xudios ; for su read sua ; for habernos read habemos ; for 
 
 chegadci read ehegado; and /or adorarlo read adoralo. 
 4^—for todas read todos ; for principes read priiicipes. 
 — co??t/Hrace Ao tal eles responderon: En lieien, &c. 
 Page 656, Corsican Greek, verse 12— /or airo avrous read ajro S'aurous. 
 Page 667, verse 1— /or traouennou read traouiennou. 
 '^—for a at end of first line read ar. 
 Page 668, verse 3— /or wezen read wezen ; for avalore read avalou ; for evel-se read evel-se ; 
 for genou read genou. 
 As— for karantez read kara?itez. 
 Vannetais. verse '2.— for e-'ma read e-ma. 
 
 3— /or que read gue ; for e read e in two places in first line ; in the second, 
 for Azeet read Azeet ; for quet read guet ; for vourradiqueah read vour- 
 radigueah ; in the third, /or h read e ; for freh read freh ; for ah read oe. 
 4t—for oe read oe ; for carante read CHrante. 
 Page 683, Ordinary Biscayan, No. 1—for izarrah read izarrak. 
 14— /or ediuTah read edurrak. 
 15— /or Gawak read Gauak. 
 Ochandian, No. 1— /or obea read obra ; for eisuku read eisube. 
 Marquenese, No. 1— /or alubau read alabau ; for guztige read guztijen. 
 Page 684, 2— /or Junnaren read Jaunaren . 
 
 '^—for ganian read gafiian ; for gustijak read guztijak. 
 8— /or guztijak read guztijak. 
 9 -for gustijak read guztijak. 
 13 and 14— /'or lyotza read Izotza. 
 Guipuscoan Central, No. 4— /or ganian read ganian. 
 
 9— for Jaungoiknaren read Jaungoikuaren. 
 Guipuscoan (2), No. 5— for guziok read guziak. 
 Page 685, Upper Navarre, No. 1— /or guziat read guziak ; for ganetik read gafietik. 
 4— for dirin read diren. 
 14— /or eturrah read elurrak. 
 
 15— /or Gavak read Gauak ; for eguanak read egunak. 
 Laburtanian, No. \—for gainetek read gainetik. 
 
 2— for Aingeruiak read Aingeruak. 
 3— /or Zeruah read Zeruak." 
 8 — dele and. 
 
 9— for iziritu read izpiritu. 
 10— for San read Sua. 
 12— /or Naintzak read Intzak. 
 14— /or elhurrah read elhurrak. 
 15— /or Ganak read Gauak. 
 Lower Navarre (Baig'orres), No. 1, line 1—for zazi. Zazi Yauna read zazi Yauua. 
 2— for zazi read zazi. 
 No. 6— /or Tuzkia read luzkia. 
 Page 686, Lower Navarre (Baigorrea), No. 7— /or izzarak read izarrak. 
 
 13— /or notza read hotza. 
 14— /or Khairoina read Kharoina. 
 15— /or Ganak read Gauak. 
 Lower Navarre (Mixe), No. 4— for un read ur. 
 
 9— for Yinkuain read Yinkuain. 
 15— /or Ganak read Gauak. 
 Soule (French), No. 4— /or gafiendiren read gafien direu. 
 6— for argizazia read argizagia. 
 7— for izaiTah read izarrak. 
 12— for Thitzak read Ihitzak ; for benedik read benedik'. 
 13— /or benedik read benedik'. 
 
 14 -/or eliiilrrah read elhiirrak ; /or benedik read benedik'. 
 15— for egiimak read egiinak. 
 Soule (Spanish), No. 1— /or guziah read guziak. 
 Page 687, „ 4— for danden read dau len, 
 
 12— /or arrosoda read arrosada. 
 13— /or lyotza rend Izotza. 
 14r—for eiurrah read elurrak. 
 
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